The Publishing Business: A guide to starting out and getting on 9781474249515, 9781474249546, 9781474249522

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The Publishing Business

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Bloomsbury Visual Arts An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK

1385 Broadway New York NY 10018 USA

www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First edition published by AVA Publishing SA, 2012 This second edition is published by Bloomsbury Visual Arts, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Copyright © Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2018 Kelvin Smith and Melanie Ramdarshan Bold have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the Authors of this work. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the authors. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN:

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978-1-474-24951-5 978-1-474-24952-2 978-1-474-24953-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Smith, Kelvin (Kelvin John), author. | Ramdarshan Bold, Melanie, author. Title: The publishing business : a guide to starting out and getting on / Kelvin Smith and Melanie Ramdarshan Bold. Description: Second edition. | London ; New York : Bloomsbury Visual Arts, [2018] | Revised edition of: The publishing business : from p-books to e-books / Kelvin Smith. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017005298| ISBN 9781474249515 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781474249539 (epub) | ISBN 9781474249522 (epdf) Subjects: LCSH: Publishers and publishing. | Publishers and publishing–Vocational guidance. | Publishers and publishing–Technological innovations. | Electronic publishing. Classification: LCC Z278 .S55 2018 | DDC 070.5–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017005298 Series: Creative Careers Cover design by Duncan Blachford, www.tempohaus.com To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com. Here you will find extracts, author interviews, details of forthcoming events and the option to sign up for our newsletters.

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The Publishing Business A guide to starting out and getting on Kelvin Smith and Melanie Ramdarshan Bold Second Edition

Bloomsbury Visual Arts An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

LON DON • OX FO R D • N E W YO R K • N E W D E L H I • SY DN EY

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6 Introduction

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

14 The fundamentals of publishing

46 The publishing ecosystem

74 Writers, readers and intermediaries

102 Editorial processes

126 Design and production

150 Print and digital publishing

172 Rights

194 Marketing, sales and distribution

8 11

People and publishing: who does what in book publishing? Chapter-by-chapter

15 26 28

A very short history of publishing Why finance matters The relationship between different parts of the industry

31 34 40

Preparing for a future in publishing The global and local fundamentals Case study: Bertelsmann and Penguin Random House

43

47

Varieties of publication – markets and audiences Print and e-books Journals, magazines and newspapers

67

Who adds value in the publishing process Case study: Amazon and EBSCO

72

Authors, illustrators, creators and their rights Agents and other gatekeepers Network and opinion formers

89 94 96

Channels to readers and buyers Case study: Frankfurt Book Fair Interview: Ashleigh Gardner, Head of Partnerships, Wattpad

99

Policy and planning: list building and market niches Commissioning: research, reputation and funds

113

Contractual matters: formats and co-editions Editorial work: from submission to publication Case study: A Guide for Dummies

122

59 63

75 79 84

103 107

70

73

115 120

127 138 142

151 160

44

Platforms and formats appropriate for the content Scheduling the publication process Controlling costs and establishing prices

144 146

Choosing from a variety of media and formats Legalities of publishing in a wired world

162

148

164

101

125

How different rights developed Range of rights Who is involved in selling rights Case study: The rights potential of children’s books

190

195 201

Marketing Communication through promotion and publicity Managing budgets and schedules Using feedback to monitor success Case study: Persephone Books

214

208 209 212

193

216

Interview: Maria Vassilopoulos, Business Development Manager, The Bookseller Summary

Interview: Caroline Walsh, Literary Agent, David Higham Associates Summary

Interview: Anne Meadows, Commissioning Editor, Granta and Portobello Books Summary

Case study: Horrible Histories Interview: Alex Bell, Production Programme Manager, Dorling Kindersley Summary Digital workflow and software standards Communication for print and e-publications

168 170 171

173 175 181 186

Interview: Cathy Wells, HR Director, Hachette Book Group Summary

Case study: Print and digital at the university presses Interview: Eric Huang, Development Director, Made in Me Summary

Interview: Jason Bartholomew, Rights Director, Hodder & Stoughton Summary

Interview: Ian Lamb, Head of Children’s Marketing and Publicity, Bloomsbury Publishing Summary

217 218 223 229 230 240

Conclusion Glossary Bibliography and resources The publishing year: book fairs and other major publishing events Index Picture credits and acknowledgements

6

Introduction The purpose of this book is to teach you something about the many elements that make up modern publishing practice. Publishing is one area where the impact of information technology was felt early on, but for some years, this was mainly confined to the ‘back office’ areas of origination and production of texts and illustrations. In recent years, the effects of the digital culture have swept rapidly through the industry all the way from writers to readers. The way in which publications are written, designed, produced, promoted, distributed and read has changed; and the financial models and legal structures that have been central to publishing for many decades have been challenged. For example, self-publishing is now a viable, and vibrant, route for authors and has become an important part of publishing industry discourse. We’ll explore both traditional and non-traditional publishing models in this book.

From writer to reader We explore the book-publishing process from writer to reader, passing through the essential publishing activities performed in editorial, rights, design, production and marketing departments. By laying out clearly the tasks and responsibilities at each stage of the publishing process, this book provides a sound basis on which to build. Case studies and interviews give examples of publishing practice in different parts of the industry, including children’s, academic and trade publishing. Charts and tables provide information on aspects of the industry in an international context. Discussion questions help you to evaluate what you have learned. They help to build your knowledge and skills in making decisions on content and form, and give you practise in formulating the plans, schedules and budgets needed during the book-publishing process. With a sound knowledge of these fundamentals, you will be well prepared to learn more about specialist areas of publishing, and to explore your own path into this challenging and rewarding career.

Preparing for change Michael Pietsch, CEO of the Hachette Book Group, believes that we are in a ‘golden age for books’: more interesting and complex than when Gutenberg introduced printing to Europe. Therefore, this is an exciting time to be starting a career in publishing and The Publishing Business introduces you to the profession at a hectic time in its development. The effects of the digital revolution are creating major advances in ways that affect everyone in publishing, whether they are writers, agents, editors, designers, marketers, booksellers, journalists, librarians or researchers. Therefore, you need to be prepared for change. You need flexibility and imagination, willingness and adaptability if you are to prosper in the publishing future. You also need to understand the context in which publishing has developed and from which it must move forward into a future that will continue to be subject to technological, economic, social and political developments. Technology is also changing the way that readers access and engage with content: understanding the reader, and building audiences, has never been more important.

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‘As the book world moves from “a browse-and-display model to one of online search and recommendation”, publishers must adapt to capture readers attention. The challenge isn’t digital: it is how do you tell people about the next great book.’ Tom Weldon, UK head of Penguin Random House

The Publishing Business provides you with ways to understand what book publishing is and what it might become. It encourages you to acquire the skills and knowledge that will be vital to you as you continue your life in publishing. The book aims to make sure that you have a sound foundation on which to base your further studies of editorial, rights, production, marketing, distribution or finance, in whichever specialist area of book publishing may beckon as your career develops. You will never stop learning about publishing. So now is the time to develop the habit of following up all links and references, grasp new technologies and new business models, read the trade press, blogs and specialist websites, follow publishers, publishing professionals, and authors on social media, set up your own book-related blog, vlog,

Instagram, Pinterest account etc., attend events hosted by organizations such as The Society of Young Publishers, Young to Publishing, BookMachine, Byte The Book etc. Never lose an opportunity to see what others are thinking, saying, writing and dreaming about publishing, and try to contribute to the conversation yourself. Throughout the book you should take the opportunity to stop and think about what you are learning, and to get used to the idea that there are sometimes no right or wrong answers. Good publishing often comes down to sound judgement, and you should make this your goal. Learning about publishing is an ongoing activity and you need to keep an open and agile mind to make sense of the changes that are taking place. This may sound challenging, but it will be worth it!

‘Always think of every part of the business, try and think of the whole picture. The best staff we have, they work across everything . . . Yes, I’m an editor, but I also look at marketing and I go to sales meetings.’ Guinness World Records editor-in-chief Craig Glenday

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Introduction

People and publishing: who does what in book publishing? Publishing is a ‘people business’, and to understand book publishing you need to know about who does what in the publishing process. Before you start reading Chapter 1, here is a brief introduction to some types of book publishing and some of the jobs that you will come across in the following chapters. However, job titles are not always used in the same way, and it’s often better to look at what people do rather than what they are called. Most people start their career in publishing as an assistant in one of the departments discussed in this section. In smaller companies, some of the roles may be undertaken by one person, and many jobs are outsourced to freelancers (proofreaders, indexers, picture researchers) and other service companies who can more cost-effectively fulfil specialist functions (software design, distribution, promotion).

Types of publishing To some extent, the jobs people do depends on the type of publishing they are engaged in. So it’s important to understand what these types of publishing are before we start.

Consumer, trade or general publishing Publishers of what are variously known as consumer, trade or general publishing books produce novels, biographies, cookery books and so on – books that we read for pleasure in our leisure time. These are primarily sold in bookshops (either physical or online), at airports and stations, and at supermarkets. We may also download books like these from online retailers, or direct from a publisher’s website. Many authors of trade, general or consumer books have an agent (or literary agent) who represents their business interests, helps them to develop a career, and negotiates on their behalf with publishers and others who wish to make use of their clients’ work. Some agents now also publish e-books (electronic books) for their clients. Some major international trade publishers are the Penguin Random House, and (in the UK) Hachette, HarperCollins and Pan Macmillan. The biggest trade publishers in the US are Penguin Random House (see p. 40) HarperCollins, Simon & Schuster, and Hachette. These companies

represent most of the imprints we are familiar with, apart from a few medium-sized independents such as Faber & Faber, Canongate, Chronicle Books and Workman Books. There are also a number of small presses, and digital start-ups, popping up regularly e.g. Made in Me – a creative design studio for children’s entertainment, including digital books, apps (see p. 170) and Unbound – a participatory publishing model, based on crowdfunding (see p. 110).

Educational and ELT publishing Educational publishers produce textbooks, supplementary reading materials, teachers’ notes, exercises, digital teaching materials, audiovisual materials, tests and a wealth of other teaching and assessment aids. The content of educational publishing is geared to the needs of the curriculum, educational structure, and linguistic and cultural norms of a particular national or state government. Educational publishers often publish ELT (English Language Teaching) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) publications as many of the same skills are required to develop materials. Oxford University Press, Cambridge University Press, McGraw-Hill and Macmillan are some of the major companies in this sector.

STM, academic, scholarly and reference publishers Some of the biggest international publishers are those that disseminate research conducted by people working in universities and research centres throughout the world. These publishers now publish primarily in digital form, although some work is still printed. Major STM (scientific, technical and medical) publishers include Elsevier, Springer Nature, John Wiley & Sons and Taylor & Francis. There are several large university presses in the UK and the United States that are major publishers in this sector (see case study in Chapter 6). The primary intended market for these companies are academic libraries, with the products being available through a subscription business model. This traditional model is undergoing a reform in the digital environment, in particular with the Open Access movement (see p. 54).

Introduction

Self-publishing Although self-publishing has increased in visibility over the last few years, it is not a new phenomenon. Writers have been self-publishing since the advent of the written word, and famous authors, such as Beatrix Potter, Mark Twain and Edgar Allan Poe began their careers by self-publishing. Additionally, authors such as Virginia Woolf and Dave Eggers have started small presses – Hogarth Press and McSweeney’s respectively – to publish their work and that of other writers. The stigma associated with self-publishing has, however, lessened in recent years. The advent of the internet, blogging services, and POD technology (see p. 25), the proliferation of self-publishing platforms (such as Lulu. com and CreateSpace), the rise of crowdfunding platforms (such as Indiegogo), the growth in e-book sales, and the success stories of a number of, high profile, self-published authors (such as Amanda Hocking) has meant that self-publishing is now firmly established as an important part of contemporary publishing. It is difficult to gauge the exact impact of self-publishing on the traditional publishing industry – the majority of self-publishing is through e-books – because Amazon do not disclose their sales data. However, Author Earnings, which analyses Amazon’s bestseller lists, estimates that self-published e-book sales rose from $510 million in 2014 to $600 million in 2015. In 2017, Author Earnings found that indie authors secured at least 20 per cent to 35 per cent of e-books sales across five major English-language markets (United States, UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand). Additionally Amazon launched a literary prize – The Kindle Storyteller Prize – for self-published e-books, which further integrates self-publishing into the publishing mainstream.

independent publisher your job might include both editorial and marketing aspects.

Editorial department The editorial department manages the acquisition or commissioning of new publications, liaises with authors and controls the development of a project into a finished book. ●

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Publishing departments All publishing companies have their own organizational structure, but the following gives a flavour of the way in which the departments might typically be set up, and the roles within them. All of these departments report to the Managing Director (UK); Publisher or Chief Executive Officer (CEO) are among the titles used in the United States. This person is ultimately responsible to the owners or shareholders for the continued success and profitability of the company. Not all publishing companies will include every job role and many publishers, particularly small companies, will have overlapping roles e.g. if you work for a small,

●

●

●

The Editorial Director or Publisher (often the same person) manages the editorial department and is responsible for the overall success of the list, and the financial viability of the publishing programme. Commissioning Editors (UK), Acquisitions Editors (United States) or Sponsoring Editors (North American educational publishing) are responsible for identifying authors and developing projects with them. They play a central role in defining the development of the publisher’s list, and negotiate the terms of the author–publisher contract with the author or the agent. Senior Editors in the tertiary and STM sector (also called Publishing Editors or Product Managers) manage publications in a particular subject area, such as journals, monographs and digital resources. They work with external Journal Editors, Series Editors and other Editorial Advisors, drawn from academic departments and research institutes. Managing Editors look after schedules and costs, and may also manage the work of other in-house editors, freelance copy editors and proofreaders. Development or Project Editors work closely with the author during the writing stage to ensure that the work is progressing to schedule, in the format agreed and to the required standard. Educational and ELT Editors often have teaching experience, and tend to have a hands-on approach to the development of the publishing projects under their control. Their knowledge of the curriculum and teaching practices is vital to success. Production Editors are responsible for taking the book through the design and production process, working closely with the Production Department (see below). Copy Editors prepare the text for production according to an agreed house style. Proofreaders check the work for errors and omissions. Picture Editors/Researchers (often freelance) source pictures for the work, and ensure that permissions are obtained and appropriate fees negotiated.

9

10

Introduction

Design and production departments The design and production departments look after the production of printed books (p-books) and e-books, and now also often have a vital role in digital file management and digital distribution. ●

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The Production Director is in charge of this department and is ultimately responsible for all issues of production quality, schedules and cost. Production Managers and Production Coordinators plan and control the production process, and liaise with internal and external suppliers. Their job is to make sure that every publication is produced on schedule, at the best price and at the quality required. Designers are responsible for the visual impact and the effective use of design features in any publication. This includes page layout, cover design, use of illustrations and other non-text elements. As well as being creative, designers must work to the house style and to a brief developed to fulfil editorial and marketing requirements. Production Editors in STM or scholarly publishing may have responsibility for digital workflow from author to publication.

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Sales department The sales department is responsible for ensuring the publications move profitably through the channels of distribution to the end user. ●

Marketing department The marketing department is responsible for the branding, packaging, publicity and promotion of the firm’s output, and has input into what a firm publishes. ●

●

The Marketing Director is in charge of this department and is responsible for developing and protecting brand value. Marketing Managers prepare and manage campaigns for imprints, series and individual titles. They work closely with editors preparing sales copy and

providing metadata (e.g. bibliographic data) to Nielsen BookData and retailers such as Amazon. Promotion Managers prepare physical and digital promotion materials, such as catalogues, brochures, websites, mail and email shots, and social media content through platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, Snapchat and Instagram. Publicity Managers deal with the press and other media, and arrange special publicity events and author appearances. SEO and Social Media Managers manage social content through the corporate social media accounts. They manage and develop social media campaigns, research keywords and link-build campaigns, and build online communities.

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The Sales Director runs this department and his or her detailed knowledge of what is selling through various channels – e.g. chain bookshops such as Waterstones or Barnes & Noble, supermarkets such as Tesco or Walmart, independent bookshops, online channels etc. – is vital to the commissioning process. Sales Representatives work with major trade customers, pushing new titles, negotiating special promotional deals and handling a wide range of customer service functions. Education, ELT and Academic (UK) or College (United States) Representatives visit appropriate institutions to discuss the adoption, i.e. the inclusion of the titles in the curriculum, of the company’s titles with teachers.

Introduction

Distribution and order fulfilment ●

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The Distribution Manager is responsible for managing the storage and distribution of the company’s publications. The Warehouse Manager and Stock Controller look after the warehouse and the company’s stock of publications. As more of the company’s ‘stock’ is in digital forms, this role is changing and is often more closely integrated with the production function. Order Processing or Fulfilment Managers handle all customer orders and make sure they are processed accurately and in a manner that leads to customer satisfaction. Customer Services Managers look after individual customer accounts, handle queries and complaints, and work closely with the finance department.

maximizes income, through rights sales, but it also increases visibility of the titles to different territories and audiences. ●

Finance department The finance department looks after the company’s economic affairs. It also includes the team that track sales and ensure that sales and rights income are collected when due, and that royalties to authors and commissions to sales agents are paid accurately and on time. ●

Rights department The rights department is responsible for fostering content across as many territories, formats, and languages as possible through selling rights such as translation, audio, and film and TV rights. This not only

The Rights Manager is in charge of the department and coordinates the whole process of selling rights to maximize the financial profit of a book, from initiating the sale of rights to negotiations over the contracts.

The Financial Director runs the finance department. He or she is a key member of the senior management team, and ensures that individual departments prepare and keep to budgets, and manages all payments and receipts.

‘Those who made predictions about the death of the book may have underestimated just how much people love paper.’ Stephen Lotinga, Chief Executive of The Publishers Association

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Introduction

Chapter-by-chapter Chapter 1: The fundamentals of publishing The turbulence created by the growth of digital culture, and changes in our view of originality and creativity, mean that we need to identify the core knowledge and transferable skills required for a successful career in publishing. The global and local implications of this are placed in context through a very short history of publishing, showing how publishing today carries the legacy of technological and social developments that date back to Gutenberg’s innovations in the fifteenth century.

Chapter 2: The publishing ecosystem Publications come in all shapes and sizes, ranging from educational and academic to the full range of children’s and adult trade books: the fiction and non-fiction books we read in our free time. These books cater for different needs and are aimed at diverse markets, and this chapter covers not only the different audiences for books and other publications, but also the different formats (print and electronic) that are now available to consumers. It also looks at how publishers apply different business models to these very different products and services.

Chapter 3: Writers, readers and intermediaries Publishing works by making a bridge between readers and the people who create interesting stories, provide useful information or have something to teach us either in our formal education or just for fun. The authors, illustrators and other people who create what we call ‘content’ have a legal and moral right to control and benefit from what they have created, but they usually find it advantageous to work with others to get this material into the hands of readers. There are many people who help in this process, and this chapter looks at how agents and other gatekeepers, various networks and opinion formers can all have an important role in making sure that there is a good channel to readers, buyers and other end users. Technological developments, however, have challenged the

traditional notion of gatekeeping. Alternative publishing models, such as self-publishing, give authors and readers more choices: this chapter will explore the developments in self-publishing and the rise of the ‘prosumer’.

Chapter 4: Editorial processes Publishers are all different and each has its own policy that defines how it decides what to publish. The publisher’s list is developed according to a plan, and this usually entails publishing with a specific market niche in mind. This chapter explores how publishers acquire publishing properties and commission authors to write new publications, how editors research the market and the importance of formal and informal networks. The publisher must make sure that its programme is good not only for the company’s reputation but also for its bottom line. The chapter also examines how the author–publisher contract is central to the publishing relationship. It also looks at the process of editing a book from submission to publication, and how editors deal with other people inside and outside their own publishing organization.

Chapter 5: Design and production Publishers have many decisions to make as there are so many formats and digital platforms for publications. Will a guidebook be better as a printed book or as an application (app) designed for iPhones, iPads or other mobile devices? How can e-books be designed for all the different e-readers on the market? What traditional print formats will be best for which markets? These are all things that require design and production skills, and the confidence and ability to project manage publications in a variety of formats for what might be widely different markets. In all this, publishers need to be constantly aware of the importance of quality in the content and form of what they are producing. They need to be able to develop and keep to realistic schedules, budget effectively and control costs, and establish pricing policies that lead to financial success. This chapter looks at how the design and production people in publishing contribute to this process.

Introduction

Chapter 6: Print and digital publishing At a time when there are many new business models for print and digital publishing, the market for e-books, apps, and mobile web content is growing rapidly; authors, agents, publishers and booksellers are choosing from a variety of media, formats and platforms. This process is being undertaken within a changing technical, legal and administrative framework. This chapter explores these changes and shows how digital workflows and software standards are developing to ensure the smooth rapid adoption of digital publishing in local and global markets. This chapter will also explore new developments in digital and social reading and writers, which are providing more opportunities for authors, publishers and readers.

Chapter 7: Rights Buying and selling rights is an important part of the publishing process, particularly as the opportunity to foster content across new formats and territories grows. This chapter focuses on the processes involved in buying and selling different types of rights – e.g. translation rights, US rights, audio, large print and television and film rights – and the importance of getting titles into as many different territories, formats and languages as possible so that authors continue to reach new readers, and publishers generate new revenue streams.

Chapter 8: Marketing, sales and distribution Building on the idea that all publishing is focused on satisfying a need in a target market, this chapter focuses on how all parts of the publishing organization must be aware of the eventual reader when they are acquiring, editing, designing and producing a publication. It covers sales and the supply chain to target markets, and the ways in which publishers (and authors, agents and other intermediaries) communicate through promotion, publicity and social media. These activities require publishers to be creative in developing, managing and monitoring the budgets and schedules required to put on effective marketing campaigns.

Conclusion This book covers the origins of publishing, and shows how the work done by the many people involved with this cultural industry is changing because of the impact of digitization and globalization. Within the global media landscape, publishing still fulfils a vital cultural role in spreading ideas, information and entertainment; some of which is in print and some of which is in a widening variety of digital forms.

Additional materials There is a wealth of material provided in appendices. Student resources include a glossary, bibliography, a list of web resources, blogs and newsletters, and details of book fairs and publishers’ associations.

‘A mass-produced printed book is organized very differently from a manuscript. Title pages, dedications, contents tables, indexes, running heads, footnotes and illustrations all affect the way in which we read. The modes of classification that were stabilized by printing-house convention paved the way for the encyclopaedic mentality of the Enlightenment.’ Jonathan Bate, ‘The first great age of the book’, New Statesman

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14

1

The fundamentals of publishing

Whether you are starting a publishing course, setting off on a career in publishing, or are just curious about what is going on in the publishing world, you cannot escape the fact that publishing is a cultural industry in a state of flux. The daily activities and responsibilities of everyone working in books, journals and magazines have changed significantly in the twenty-first century, and in recent years these changes have accelerated with each new technical and commercial consequence of the digital revolution. Whatever these shifts and changes may bring to book publishing in the next decades, certain fundamentals are likely to remain central to what it means to be a publisher. Understanding these fundamentals will be vital to your success as you develop your publishing career.

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A very short history of publishing

We can understand most things better if we know something about their historical context. How and why has publishing developed the way it has? What are some of the critical elements that run through all publishing and how might these help us to make sense of the changes taking place today? This book cannot provide a comprehensive history of publishing (although publishing history is a fascinating field in itself and you can find pointers to further information in the Resources section at the end of this book). There are, however, some important historical details to bear in mind as you learn about the profession and find out more about publishing. Some key events are also highlighted in Figure 1.1.

1.1 | Some key moments from book history 15

The fundamentals of publishing

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1.2 | Illuminated manuscript, c.1400 Illuminated manuscripts are considered to be among the first books. They were handwritten and heavily illustrated mainly by monastic scribes in Europe from the period after 1100. This illustration shows the baptism of Charles VI of France from Les Grandes Chroniques de St Denis.

1.3 | Gutenberg Bible, 1456 Printing from wood and bronze blocks had existed in Korea and China since the ninth century, but in the 1450s the Latin Bible produced by Johannes Gutenberg from Mainz in Germany was the first mass-produced printed book in Europe. Before that, each book had to be copied by hand. Several examples of the Gutenberg Bible survive.

Printing and publishing There were books before the invention of printing, but there was no publishing. Texts had been written and copied by hand for religious and secular purposes for several thousand years, but publishing (the mechanical and digital reproduction and distribution of identical copies of written or illustrated works), has a history of just over 550 years. Although wooden, clay and metal moveable type had previously been used in China and Korea, Johannes Gutenberg’s development of metal moveable type alongside the printing press and use of oil-based inks represents the beginning of modern publishing. From the 1450s onwards, first in Europe and

then spreading across the world, publishing developed as an important agent of cultural, political, religious and social change. The religious, philosophical and scientific movements that spread from Europe after the fifteenth century were to a large extent made possible because ideas could be written, reproduced and distributed in published works, whether they were books, journals, newspapers, pamphlets or simple broadsheets. Publishing increasingly meant the production and distribution of texts in the vernacular language (the language actually spoken by the people) rather than in the religious languages of Latin and Greek. William Caxton’s successful publication of Chaucer’s

Using images

Canterbury Tales in the 1470s is an early example of publishing in English. The book trade flourished between the mid-sixteenth and early eighteenth centuries. Although there were no more major technical changes in the production of books during this period, the trade moved towards the modern industry that we’re familiar with: the function of the ‘publisher’ shifted from the printer to the bookseller until it became a role in itself; the author gained more visibility and rights; literacy grew; and the trade expanded nationally and beyond.

Typesetting Gutenberg’s typesetting was not the first; the Chinese had produced printed books since the ninth century, but it was very difficult to typeset in Chinese because of the vast number of characters required to produce a printed text. On the other hand, moveable type could

more readily be used for Latin, Greek and Cyrillic alphabets, which have a smaller number of letters. Arabic fonts were developed in sixteenth-century Europe, but typesetting in the Arabic alphabet using moveable type was not fully developed until the nineteenth century.

Using images From an early date, printed publications also contained illustrations, and the use of both words and images to spread knowledge and ideas became a major element in cultural, social, economic and political discourse. The profound power of words and images to influence the way in which people interpret their lives and societies remains just as strong in our times, where digital technologies have now added to the range of ways we can create publications and reproduce and distribute text and images.

1.4 | Canterbury Tales, c.1476 Expert analysis of the paper and the type suggests that the first edition of The Canterbury Tales was from 1476. As this edition does not have a preface and does not mention noble sponsors, as the printer/publisher William Caxton often did, it is possible that this publication was a commercial enterprise rather than sponsored.

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The fundamentals of publishing

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Publishing and the history of control Just as sovereign states in the twenty-first century may monitor and try to control the transmission of ideas through digital communications, so the power of the printed word and image was soon recognized after the invention of printing. Then, as now, church and state sometimes sought to control the spread of ideas and to prevent publication of texts that were considered to be a threat to orthodoxy. For example, before the existence of copyright, the British monarchy granted exclusive printing privileges to The Stationers’ Company in order to monitor the output of printed works; however, these royal grants quickly expanded into the exclusive right to print specific works and control the work perpetually. Another early example of such control was the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, a list of publications prohibited by the Catholic Church, which lasted in various forms from 1559 until Pope Paul VI abolished it in 1966. This list was used against what were called immoral and heretical works, and also against the works of scientists such as Kepler and Galileo. Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir were two prominent

1.5 | Typesetting with moveable type Moveable type is stored in a compartmentalized wooden box. The typesetter selects letters and assembles them into words on a composing stick. These short sections are put together in a form or forme, and used for printing. The type in the stick is a mirror image of the text that will eventually appear on the printed page.

twentieth-century intellectuals whose books were proscribed by the Index. In the course of the sixteenth century, European governments (notably in Britain and France) also acted to try and control the spread of ideas through publishing, by using censorship and restricting the ownership of printing presses. In Europe and North America, freedom of expression was established as a cornerstone of publishing during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and enshrined in the American Bill of Rights. The First Amendment to the US Constitution states: ‘Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.’ There have, however, been many occasions since then when vibrant publishing cultures have been threatened by authoritarian legislation and repressive regimes. At the most extreme end of this suppression we have only to think of the Nazi book burnings, the suppression of writers and publishers under the Soviet regime, or the tight state control of publishing in many authoritarian countries that continues into the

Publishing and the history of control

twenty-first century. We should also not forget that even in the United States, book banning, usually influenced by extreme religious and political groups, still takes place in some states. In recent years, J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter titles have been charged with promoting witchcraft and banned in parts of the United States. LGBTQIA+ children’s books have, more recently, also caused some controversy across the world. This type of ban is at odds with recent calls to make publishing, particularly characters in children’s books, more diverse and representative of the overall population (see p. 53). Banned Books Week is an attempt to draw attention to books that have been banned and/or challenged, and to promote freedom in reading. This annual campaign, started in 1982 by the American Libraries Association, was initially held in the USA but is now international. PEN International, with its 140 centres in 101 countries, is involved with the promotion of literature, international campaigning on issues such as translation and freedom of expression, and improving access to

literature at international, regional and national levels. It works on human rights issues and campaigns for free expression and against the persecution of writers and publishers. Professional associations for publishers, booksellers and librarians (such as the American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression) are also active in combating such censorship. Digital publishing and the flow of information via the internet and other digital networks have created new challenges to freedom of speech. Modern communications technology makes it easier to distribute materials that challenge religious and secular authorities. However, at the same time, it gives great control to those who can influence the content of publications and limit access to materials with which they do not agree, or that they see as damaging to their political or commercial interests. While much publicity has been given to internet censorship in some countries considered to have repressive regimes, nearly all countries keep close surveillance on internet usage, ostensibly in the interests of national security.

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1.6 | Nazis burning books, 1933 ‘Every burned book or house enlightens the world; every suppressed or expunged word reverberates through the earth from side to side.’ Ralph Waldo Emerson, American poet, lecturer and essayist

The fundamentals of publishing

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1.7 | Penguin paperbacks Featuring what Allen Lane called the ‘dignified but flippant’ penguin symbol, the first Penguin paperbacks appeared in the summer of 1935 and included works by Ernest Hemingway, André Maurois and Agatha Christie. They were colour coded (green for crime, orange for fiction, etc.). These iconic paperbacks sparked a publishing revolution: ensuring that affordable, yet well-designed, books were accessible for a mass audience.

Top ten banned or challenged books for 2016 (according to the American Library Association) The majority of these publications were either banned or challenged in the United States, by a mixture of schools (often prompted by parent complaints), school libraries and public libraries. 1 2 3 4 5

This One Summer, by Mariko Tamaki Drama, by Raina Telgemeier George, by Alex Gino I Am Jazz, by Jessica Herthel and Jazz Jennings Two Boys Kissing, by David Levithan

6 Looking for Alaska, by John Green 7 Big Hard Sex Criminals, by Matt Fraction 8 Make Something Up: Stories You Can’t Unread, by Chuck Palahniuk 9 Little Bill (series), by Bill Cosby 10 Eleanor & Park, by Rainbow Rowell

How buying books has changed

How buying books has changed In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries developments in printing, paper and binding technology made it possible for publishers to vastly increase their output and the kind of publications that they could produce. Advances in education and literacy enlarged the market for published materials of all kinds. The development of urban societies, national and international transportation and communication infrastructures, and a cultural class increasingly centred on the literary culture, made publishing a central part of civil society. During this time many public and private libraries were opened, helped in many cases by funding from industrial empires like that of Andrew Carnegie, the Scottish-American steel magnate. It was also a period that saw the development of modern bookselling. The current debate about how books are to be bought and sold is just the most recent stage of a complex history. For many years books were mainly sold to

‘subscribers’ who put up money before publication in order that the publisher would have the finance necessary to produce the book (in the UK, selling new books into the book trade is still sometimes referred to as ‘subscription’). The publication of both fiction and non-fiction in serial and part-work form has a long history, and digital publication has led to increased interest in the idea of subscription services and to the publication of individual chapters (particularly those delivered via mobile devices). At times book publishers have also been booksellers, printers, magazine and newspaper publishers. The changing corporate ownership of publishers in recent decades is just the latest part of this history. The current shifts caused by the effect of digital culture are part of a constant development. The fact that digital distributors, such as Amazon, have now become publishers in their own right again raises issues of whether it is a good thing for companies to control all parts of the production and supply chain – what is called vertical integration.

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1.8 | El Ateneo bookstore, Buenos Aires Some bookstores, such as El Ateneo in Buenos Aires, Selexyz Dominicanen bookstore in Maastricht, McNally-Jackson in New York and Daunt Books in London are becoming ‘destination shops’, making the most of their stunning premises and their traditional focus on customer experience.

The fundamentals of publishing

Early booksellers

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‘We believed in the existence in this country of a vast reading public for intelligent books at a low price, and staked everything on it.’ Allen Lane, founder of Penguin Books

Early booksellers were often also printers and publishers, and bookselling as we know it today really stems from the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Foyles of London was founded in 1903, Barnes & Noble’s first bookshop was opened in New York in 1917 (although they had been publishing since 1873), and Gibert in Paris moved to retail premises in 1888 after two years as a bouquiniste, selling books from a stall on the side of the River Seine. Outside Europe, bookshops frequently developed as stationers, publishers of government and educational publications and sellers of religious texts. The long histories of companies such as Higginbothams of Madras (founded 1844) and Angus and Robertson of Sydney (founded 1884) point to the importance of the written culture in the Imperial Age, when European powers controlled much of the world. The development of railways led to a new sort of publishing and bookselling, with Penguin Books apocryphally being created after Allen Lane, after spending the weekend visiting Agatha Christie (or so

Powell’s Books Portland, Oregon-based, Powell’s Books is, according to their website, the largest chain of independent new and used bookstores in the world. Founded in 1971, Powell’s Books has thrived over the years while the independent bookselling sector has gone into decline. One of the main factors that contributes to their success is their decision to sell both new and used books, on the same shelves, in their stores. This business model was extended online in 1994, before Amazon was even established. Powell’s Books now have five bookstores spread across Portland. Their flagship store, Powell’s City of Books, is now tourist attractive and a ‘destination bookshop’, frequently

appearing on lists featuring the top ten bookstores in the world. With approximately 68,000 square feet (6,300 m2) of retail space, it is no wonder that Powell’s Books provide a map to navigate their City of Books. Powell’s has continued to innovate: their subscription book club, Indiespensable, was launched in 2008. Subscribers to Indiespensable receive a hardcover, signed first edition, curated by Powell’s staff, every six week alongside other surprise goodies. While previous books include popular works such as Donna Tartt’s The Goldfinch and Jonathan Franzen’s The Corrections, this service also promotes emerging authors and independent publishers.

Book-buying options

the story goes), found nothing good to read at the kiosk while waiting for a train at Exeter station in 1935. Station book kiosks prospered throughout Europe in the twentieth century, with Narvesen in Norway being an early example of a bookselling outlet publishing specific titles for the travelling public. The paperback market was greatly expanded after the Second World War (with a readership that had become familiar with reading paperback fiction in Special Armed Services Editions (United States) and the UK Books for the Forces programme), with the first WH Smith shop opening at Euston station in London in 1848. Post-1945 publishing in the United States saw the growth of companies such as Pocket Books, Dell, Avon and Harlequin. Also catering for the travelling masses, airport bookshops developed in the late twentieth century as a major outlet for trade publishers. Buying books at airport bookshops remains popular, with print sales in airport bookshops rising again from 2015.

Book-buying options The bookselling world has gone through a number of structural changes in recent decades. In the United States, there was the growth and then decline of the multi-chain mall bookshops. This was followed by the growth of other book chains, such as Borders (which went out of business in 2011). These chains brought lifestyle marketing (comfortable sofas and coffee shops) to the US retail book business, a trend that was soon followed in Europe and Asia. The entry of the major supermarket chains into bookselling (most notably Walmart in the United States, and Tesco in the UK) brought about further changes in buying habits, increasing demand for the type of titles that they stock. This affected trade publishers’ margins, as the supermarkets continued the trend the book chains had started, and pushed publishers to increase their discounts.

1.9 | Powell’s Books Powell’s Books continues to operate as a third-generation family-owned business with Emily Powell at the helm.

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The fundamentals of publishing

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The supermarkets sold books at low prices (often as loss leaders) to their customers, and altered the perception of some consumers about the value of books. This has left a legacy, with consumers expecting e-books to be free or very cheap. The dominance of online booksellers (also big discounters) has not yet led to the death of the traditional bookshop. Bricks-andmortar bookshops are finding ways (often in collaboration with book wholesalers) to compete on the sale of e-books, print-on-demand (POD) publications and independently published books. The issue of fixed prices for e-books is subject to recent decisions in several European countries, as is the lower zero-rate VAT (sales tax) that has been applied to print books but is not being applied to e-books in all cases. As is often the case, the law is having to catch up with the possibilities of technology as books move around the globe unencumbered by the territorial restrictions entailed in most publishing agreements. Large book chains and supermarkets both focus on bestselling books: something that benefits larger publishers. Smaller, independent publishers struggle to compete for shelf space in such retailers leaving them to depend on smaller, independent bookshops. However, the concentration of bookselling into the hands of a few large chains and supermarket retailers has resulted in a flux in independent bookselling. Despite the number of independent bookshops in the UK and Ireland falling to 894 in 2016 and to 867 in

2017 (from 1,535 in 2005), there was an increase in American Booksellers Association members. In 2017, 1,757 independent bookselling companies operated 2,321 stores, up from 1,712 companies running 2,227 stores in 2015 and 1,755 companies running 2,311 stores in 2016. This resurgence of the independent bookshop could be as a result of several factors, including: the closure of Borders in 2011 and the gap that created; the resilience of the printed book; the ‘buy local’ movement; and the backlash against Amazon. Amazon revolutionized book buying and selling in 1995 when it opened its online bookshop with one million titles. Two decades later, Amazon is selling more print and digital books than any other company, has become a self-publishing platform, and is a trusted place for book reviews, recommendations and research. It is both a customer and competitor to publishers, something that has created various hostilities, and legal disputes, over the years. Despite this, Amazon has introduced many innovations in bookselling since it began, not least: customer reviews, third-party selling and recommendations based on algorithms. In contrast to chain bookshops and supermarkets, Amazon offers consumers the ‘long tail’ of popular, niche and rare products (see p. 70 for more details).

‘Momentum is back on the high street and being led by very well established and very good booksellers who have had to learn the new skills to compete in the market place.’ Philip Jones, editor of The Bookseller

Book-buying options

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My Independent Bookshop Independent bookselling in the UK received support from Penguin Random House, in 2014, through the creation of My Independent Bookshop, a social network for bibliophiles. This reader recommendation website allowed readers to create their own virtual bookshop to recommend up to twelve books, share their recommendations on other social media, such as Facebook or Google +, browse other people’s reviews, discover new authors, and also buy books through e-commerce site Hive. Readers could nominate a bookshop to receive a percentage of the sales from every book

they buy: 5 per cent for print books and 8 per cent for e-books. Although Penguin Random House did not make any money from the website, the company benefited from the data generated from the reviews and sales. This social network also garnered the support and numerous authors with Terry Pratchett, Lisa Jewell, Alastair Campbell, Irvine Welsh and Tony Parsons registering before the site was officially launched. My Independent Bookshop closed in December 2015: over 20,000 books were listed on the network during its time in operation.

Print-on-demand (POD) POD technology uses digital files that make it possible for single copies of books to be produced in response to individual orders. Some new books and many backlist titles are now produced using POD, which has made it possible for more titles to be published and kept in print, so that they remain available to customers worldwide. Customers do not have to wait for reprints, and the costs of warehousing and distribution are reduced. POD has also made it easier for small publishers, and self-published authors, to start up as they do not have to invest capital in stocks of books. Additionally, out-of-print books can be brought

back into circulation with POD technology, which benefits both authors and consumers. Many bookshops, such as Powell’s (see p. 22), stock the Espresso Book Machine, which allows you to print a book in minutes (about the same time as it takes to buy an espresso coffee).The Espresso Book Machine reduces the carbon footprint of printing because it only prints in small runs to meet consumer demand. Consequently, there is less chance of overprinting and books being remaindered (sold at a reduced price) or, a worse fate, pulped. Pulping is when unsold books are destroyed (usually burned or recycled).

The fundamentals of publishing

Why finance matters

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Finance is an important part of any business, and the creative industries are not exempt. In the publishing industry, financial analysis is important in all stages of a book’s life cycle. Although finance may not be an integral part of your job, especially in the early stages of your career, it becomes increasingly important as your career progresses. You might need to understand different financial business models in order to complete a costing for a book or evaluate its financial success. Financial analysis is, increasingly, the basis for decisionmaking, is objective and comparable, is a key part of a project narrative, and is critical for stakeholder support. No matter what stage of career you’re at, or what your job within the company is, it’s important that you understand what your employer’s goals and strategies are. In a publishing company, the company’s performance, their market share and their portfolio usually mark these goals and strategies. However, profit is often the main marker of success, and the definition of what profit is can vary. Careful management of finances throughout the entire product life cycle is critical to success

Finance and the life cycle of a product As outlined above, finance plays a crucial role in all stages of the life cycle of a project: 1 2 3 4 5

Project initiation/acquisition Concept/title development Title launch Tracking results End of life review

At stage 1, market analysis, sales data, and consumer insight can help publishers spot a gap in the market and get a sense of how much to pay for an acquisition. At this stage, publishers will consider the life cycle of the project and potential revenue or profit. At stage 2, elements such as advances and royalty rates, rights, manufacturing costs and initial marketing costs will be considered. Project costings will be continuously reviewed and it is at this stage that different scenarios – i.e. if the project performs differently than anticipated – will be considered. At stage 3, sales and marketing becomes increasingly important and the budget for this can be revised. At stage 4, there will be sales data to compare to the initial estimates, and other information – for example, social media stats, industry reviews etc. – can be used to track the progress of the product. At stage 5, initial projections, and assumptions, can be compared to actual outcomes. Although a project might go to plan it is always important to examine your initial plan to see how you can improve planning for future projects.

Pricing All publications must be priced at a level that is acceptable to the purchaser, and provide the author,

publisher and bookseller with sufficient income to cover their expenses and produce a profit. You should be aware right from the beginning that pricing issues are a central concern in all parts of the industry. Pricing issues are often complicated because of national and international regulations, which developed to deal with trade in physical publications, before the cross-border trade in intangible digital goods was even imagined. Examples of this are fixed-price regulations in many countries, under which publishers establish a price that must be charged by all retailers, with discounts to customers allowed in very rare, specific circumstances. Such a system existed in the UK under the Net Book Agreement until the 1990s, and still exists in France under the Loi Lang.

Core financial reports There are several main financial reports that help provide financial understanding. The three key statements are: profit and loss (P&L) account, balance sheet and cashflow statement. 1 The P&L shows the operating performance of a publisher or title in a defined time period. This is typically reviewed monthly, quarterly and for the full year. 2 The balance sheet shows the financial position, the estimated value, of the publisher based on its assets against its liabilities. This is typically reviewed quarterly and the end of a financial year. 3 The cashflow statement will show monies coming in to and going out of the publisher in a defined time period. This is typically reviewed quarterly and the end of a financial year.

Core financial reports

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Table 1.1 Margin and markup

Margin is communicated as a percentage of revenue Sale price

£12

Cost of a product

£10

Margin

£2

Margin %

16.7%

Markup is expressed as a percentage of cost Cost of a product

£10

Markup

£2

Sale price

£12

Markup %

20%

Discussion questions 1 What do you think caused the rise in popularity in self-publishing? Who do you think this benefits? 2 Do you think publishing is a central part of a civilized society? 3 How did the changes in bookselling help to increase book-buying options? Do you think, ultimately, all book buying will happen online? Why do you think ‘My Independent Bookshop’ lasted less than two years?

4 What is POD? Do you think it will make a major impact on the future of the industry? Which kinds of publishing might benefit most from POD technology? 5 Do you think banning books could actually encourage more readers? 6 Look at the history of publishing: what similarities do you think exist today?

The fundamentals of publishing

The relationship between different parts of the industry

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Publishing firms, like most industries in the last fifty or so years, have changed through a process of conglomeration, acquisition, productive (and unproductive) mergers, internationalization and globalization, technical innovation, marketing revolutions and development of brand identities. The relationship of publishers to other actors in the publishing process (authors, agents, booksellers) has continued to develop, often through periods of conflict and disagreement, and publishers have had to understand and adapt to developments coming from other industries, other media and, most notably, the IT and communication sectors. In recent years, publishers have been working more closely with software developers to create more interactive books while the publishing and film industries have been working together for decades. For example, Made in Me (see p. 170) launched Me Books – a free reading app with a built-in app store – in 2011: since then over 1.3 million digital books have been downloaded. Additionally, app developers Touch Press have worked with a number of publishing companies to develop award-winning apps e.g. The Waste Land app, in collaboration with Faber & Faber.

Understanding the book chain Publishing corporations have grown and diversified, and at the same time new companies have emerged. These have produced innovations in either their approach to newly identified market niches and new sales and distribution channels, production techniques and innovative formats, or the emergence of new economic and business models. In particular, the period since 2000 has been a time of change due to the rise of new media platforms, social media, print-on-demand, self-publishing, and the interactive media and games industries. The publishing world is embracing the possibilities of these new technologies. The publisher’s role as intermediary between the creators and consumers of content has always meant that the relationships that a publisher has with other members of the book chain are central to the publisher’s success. It is important that the publisher is successful in marketing itself to both the creators and the consumers of its publications. As we will see in Chapter 3, there are many people involved in the networks that connect the various components of the publishing process; but before looking at this complexity in detail (and how it is changing) it’s a good idea to think about the fundamentals of these relationships. These relationships, between the different actors in the book chain, are changing. For example, consumers can now directly contact, and engage, with creators of content. Firstly, as you start to develop your publishing career, you should think about how you deal with other people at a professional level. It goes without saying that you should always treat people with respect and consideration: publishing can be a small community and the way you behave during an internship can influence the opportunities you get in the future. Be

prepared to learn from the experience of others and to pass on things you have learned to colleagues. While there have traditionally been many larger-than-life characters in publishing, most people take up a career in publishing because they have a feeling for words and images, believe in the power of communication, value the creativity of the human spirit and are generally curious about other people. Secondly, publishing relies on a belief that accuracy and integrity are important. Good publishers do not like sloppy editing or low production standards. Nor do they like authors who plagiarize, people who produce unauthorized pirated copies of copyright protected works, or publications that gratuitously offend human sensibilities or human rights. They do, however, realize that the expression of views that may go against established thinking is one of the purposes of publishing. Your relationships with others will be stronger if you understand this from the beginning. In addition, you will not be an effective publisher unless you have a good understanding of the roles of the people and organizations that you have to deal with on a regular basis. (There is a section on the different jobs people do on pp. 8–11.) Your publishing career will be greatly enhanced by developing a broad knowledge of all parts of the publishing process. Understanding who does what and how they do it will help you to do your job, and this includes all the major functions within a publishing company: from editorial to design; from typography to print production management; from publicity to sales and distribution. It also includes both physical and digital production methods; marketing through personal as well as digital networks; and business models that rely on a range of revenue sources. These vary from the sale of printed

Understanding the book chain

publications to subscription and pay-per-use, with advertising-based models used by many newspapers and magazines. As you progress through your publishing career you are likely to find that you specialize in at least one area of expertise. Your learning will never be over. The context of publishing, changes in global economic structures and relationships, the never-ending acceleration of technological change will require you to develop a personal lifelong learning strategy. In the digital environment, digital skills – such as having an understanding of markup languages, working with data, mastering workflow, and social media skills – are increasingly important.

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‘Publishing people are quirky, creative, unpredictable, exasperating, endearing, infuriating and gloriously diverse. . .’ Professor Iain Stevenson, Book Makers

Virago: A brand with a philosophy Virago is a publishing company that is dedicated to bringing the works of female writers to the fore. Established in 1973, the company prides itself on its work to reach a wider audience and not limit female authors to a solely female readership. This clear purpose gives their output a strong sense of consistency and allows them to market their brand effectively through various media. Where some publishing companies may struggle to define themselves, Virago is able to associate themselves clearly with the feminist movement and all those

seeking the equality of the sexes. The ability to tap into this movement has allowed Virago to build a solid community of followers. Virago’s philosophy is what distinguishes the company, and one of the reasons why it has survived and continues to flourish. It was born because of a genuine will to make a difference in the cultural panorama of the 1970s. Virago’s ethic has not changed, remaining its key strength and representing what has made the building of a powerful brand possible.

‘It’s a great time for new talent to emerge and doors are opening for people with less traditional publishing skills to enter the industry.’ Claire Law, MD publishing recruitment company Atwood Tate

The fundamentals of publishing

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1.10 | Kindle At the last stage of the book chain, when the finished publication ends up in a reader’s hands, e-books and p-books compete for market share, with the Kindle playing a major role.

Discussion questions 1 How has publishing changed in the past fifty years? How might it change in the next fifty years? 2 What makes an effective publisher? Does publishing attract a certain kind of person? If so, why might this be? How do you think publishing can be improved to reflect a more diverse society? 3 Why do publishers need to pay attention to detail? There are obvious reasons for editorial

staff, but which other roles need precision and meticulous planning? 4 Why is it important to understand what other people do in their jobs? Which departments need to work particularly closely, and why? 5 What other creative industries do publishers work with? Why is this important? 6 What can book publishers learn from the development of other creative industries (e.g. film, music, newspaper publishing) in the digital environment?

Preparing for a future in publishing As you are reading this book you may already work in publishing or have decided to explore the possibilities of publishing as a career. Your background, current skills and personal inclinations and ambitions will play a part as you make a choice to specialize in editorial or production work, rights sales and administration, marketing and promotion, sales and distribution or finance and business management. These will be covered as you work your way through The Publishing Business, but there are some things that are so important to all publishing that we will examine them now. In recent years, there have been a number of discussions about the lack of diversity in the publishing industry. The Bookseller published a report, in 2004, which highlighted the adverse effects of the underrepresentation of BAME (black, Asian and minority ethnic) employees and authors on the UK’s cultural expression. The report found that the publishing industry was predominantly ‘white and middle class’. The report also found that numerous barriers to employment were in place, which not only hindered diversity in the workforce, but also stemmed opportunities in the marketplace. By not diversifying, publishers are missing out on the potential £32 billion market of the disposable income of black minority and ethnic communities. An updated report, published in 2015 – and various articles published since the original Bookseller report in 2004 – show that not much has been done to remedy this issue and that the ‘old mono-culture still prevails’. Since then, there have been numerous initiatives to tackle this issue. For example, in 2016 HarperCollins launched a graduate scheme for BAME candidates, and a new network – BAME in Publishing – was launched in the UK for aspiring, emerging and established BAME publishers. One major problem, that inhibits inclusivity, is unpaid internships, especially in expensive cities like London and New York. Such unpaid internships exclude those who are unable to work for free. Although some publishers do offer paid internships, the discussions about how to open up opportunities are ongoing.

Attention to detail People have an expectation when they read or refer to any published work, whether this is a leather-bound tome or an app. We expect something that is ‘published’ to be accurate, consistent and reliable in a way that we may not expect of a casual conversation, a piece of printed propaganda, a website geared to selling us a particular product or service, or any other of the unattributed sources available in print, through multimedia channels or online. Publishers have a responsibility to make sure that writers have appropriate specialist knowledge and must check the truth of anything that is to be published as ‘fact’. Then the reader can feel confident that the information and views contained in the publication can be trusted. This is something that has become more difficult as the cultural balance has shifted towards celebrating democratic, open participation rather than honouring deep specialist knowledge and accuracy. Publishers also need to make sure that any published material is consistent in terms of the terminology it uses, the reading level required, the use of language, and the physical layout and organization of the text and illustrations. Publishers generally select writers because of their specialist knowledge and their ability to express themselves in an engaging and consistent way, but the ultimate responsibility for making sure the author’s work is useful and attractive to the reader will always lie with the publisher. This is much more than just checking spelling. It means that publishers must always pay attention to detail, and this applies not only in the work that editors do to ensure the reliability and accessibility of the text. It also applies to the designers and production staff, marketing and promotion teams and to the sales and distribution departments. Failure to do this can be costly for publishers: both financially and in terms of their reputation. For example, 4th Estate, an imprint of HarperCollins, had to recall, and subsequently pulp, over 8,000 copies of Jonathan Franzen’s Freedom after it was published with a number of typographic errors.

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The fundamentals of publishing

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Respect for the creator Just as attention to detail shows a respect for the readers’ needs and expectations, everyone in publishing needs to understand the rights and expectations of the authors, illustrators and other creators whose hard work and trust is essential to any successful publication. The formal relationship between the author and the publisher is determined by a contract or letter of agreement. The main purpose of the contract between the publisher and the author (the word ‘author’ is frequently used to mean anyone who creates a work) is to specify what rights the author is granting to the publisher. The rights granted will usually be ‘volume rights’ – the right to publish the text in book form in

any format in any language throughout the world. Subsidiary rights to publish in particular territories, particular languages or in particular formats (paperback, e-book, etc.) may then be sublicensed to other publishers. The contract determines how the economic benefits of publication will be shared between the author and the publisher. The contract is based on the copyright law of the country specified in the contract (we will explore these aspects of contract and copyright in later chapters), and the relationship between the author and the publisher must also take into account other, non-economic, matters that are also fundamental to publishing. These issues will be explored further in Chapter 7.

Moral rights and copyright The copyright laws of many countries now specifically cover what are known as ‘moral rights’, and in the European context these include the right of the author to be identified as the creator; the author’s right to have his or her work published properly, without unwarranted or sloppy editing or production qualities (the right of integrity); the author’s right to be identified as the creator of a work, not being falsely attributed to someone else (right of attribution); and certain privacy rights. Moral rights differ from the author’s property rights in that they protect the reputation of the author, and cannot be transferred, while property rights are used for trade and economic profit. This is particularly important in the current market where the author’s name, or the characters they create, can act as a brand or trademark. The brand of an author’s name is developed from the author’s reputation, and the quality of their work, therefore any work published by the author is usually associated with their previous work. This helps to create a relationship, and loyalty, between the author and their readers. Therefore, it is clear that protecting an author’s reputation is very important because they are answerable to the public for all works associated with their name. As well as these legal requirements, and possibly of equal

importance, is the need for publishers to develop good professional relationships with authors. This will entail the common human decencies, such as respect for cultural difference, zero tolerance of racism and sexism, and an acknowledgement that there is a common interest shared by author and publisher in producing publications that are useful and valuable to their readers. UK copyright is governed by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, which specifies that the length of copyright protection is seventy years from the end of the calendar year in which the last remaining author of the work dies. This is in line with European Union Copyright. US copyright protection also lasts for seventy years and is governed by Title 17 of the United States Code, including amendments. Copyright in other parts of the world is the responsibility of national governments, most of whom are also signatories to the Berne Convention, which requires its signatories to recognize the copyright of works of authors from other signatory countries (known as members of the Berne Union) in the same way as it recognizes the copyright of its own nationals. The World Intellectual Property Organization provides a useful guide to the complexities of international copyright law.

Awareness of audiences

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‘. . . what is missing more and more from today’s publishing environment is the demand for and insistence on quality editing.’ Thomas Woll, 2010, Publishing for Profit, 4th ed., Chicago: Chicago Review Press

Awareness of audiences Publishing is by its very definition intended to distribute an entertaining, informative or educational work to an audience that wants or needs what the publication contains. Authors, literary agents, scouts, commissioning editors, marketing managers, promotion and publicity experts, and many others working with publishers, authors and booksellers, have views on who wants what sort of book, and how much they expect to pay. While in some instances the role of a specialized market research department will be critical in determining the publishing direction of a particular publishing firm, everyone in the organization can have a valuable view of what might sell to a particular audience.

No publication will exist for long without readers, and you will need to work throughout your career to understand what people want to read, how they want to read, why they will want to read – and much more besides. However, it is also important to remember that sometimes books take many years to find an audience. For example Moby-Dick by Herman Melville was certainly not an instant success when it first published in 1851 – receiving mixed critical reviews, before becoming established as one of the great American novels. Another famous example is the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling: Rowling received twelve rejections before it was published by Bloomsbury in 1997. This partnership proved to be fruitful for both Rowling and Bloomsbury: over 400 million copies of the seven books in the series have been sold worldwide, catapulting them both into the global publishing arena.

Discussion questions 1 What is the main purpose of the contract between publisher and creator? 2 What are moral rights? Why do you think they are important? 3 What is the purpose of copyright in the digital age?

4 How might you start researching a new subject and market? What tools would you need? 5 How do you think the audience for books has changed over the years? 6 Why do you think a diverse workforce is important in the publishing industry?

The fundamentals of publishing

The global and local fundamentals

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At a global level, publishing companies serve readers with a wide variety of publications, across different formats. Some publishing enterprises are quite large and some are part of major media corporations. Their operations are governed by the need to provide shareholders with good returns on their investment. These companies frequently have a global reach, and they have acquired companies or formed joint ventures in many promising new markets. At the other end of the scale, some publishers are very small, often one individual or a small group, doing it more for the love than for the money. In between, there are medium-sized independent publishers such as Canongate, Faber & Faber and Workman Publishing. One of the most criticized repercussions of conglomeration is the homogenization of cultural output. The growing importance of profitability has led to the struggle between commercial gain and cultural quality.

Major corporations Internationally there were fifty-seven publishers that reported revenues of over €150 million, or US$200 million, in 2015. Of these, the top ten demonstrate the dominance of publishing groups with headquarters in the North Atlantic Region, although 2014 saw two new entries from China (the 2015 list includes: two from United States/Canada, five from Europe, one with a transatlantic (UK/US/NL) parent company, and two from China). In descending order, they are: Pearson/ Pearson plc (UK); Thomson Reuters/The Woodbridge Company Ltd (United States/Canada); RELX Group (Reed Elsevier plc & Reed Elsevier NV (UK/NL/US)); Wolters Kluwer (NL); Penguin Random House/ Bertelsmann (United States/Germany); Phoenix Publishing and Media Company (China); China South Publishing & Media Group (ZhongNan) (China); Hachette Livre/Lagardère; McGraw-Hill Education/ Apollo Global Management LLC (USA); and Holtzbrinck (Germany). These ten organizations represent different types of publishing and include many of the betterknown publishing brands and publishing imprints, as can be seen in the following five brief company profiles. These top ten publishers also account for over half (53 per cent) of industry revenues. ●

Pearson (40,876 employees in 2015; revenue: US$6,625 million in 2015) focuses on education through Prentice Hall, Addison-Wesley and Longmans, and Pearson Education is a major force in the US. In 2012, The Penguin Group, owned by Pearson, merged with Random House, owned by

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Bertelsmann: Pearson now controls 47 per cent of Penguin Random House. Penguin Random House and its many imprints are active publishers in English-speaking countries and China. Thomson Reuters/The Woodbridge Company Ltd (US/Canada) (53,000 employees in 2015; revenue: US$5,776 million in 2015) focuses on the business and professional market serving decision makers in the fields of financial and risk, legal, tax and accounting, intellectual property, and science and media. RELX Group was formerly known as Reed Elsevier (Reed Elsevier plc & Reed Elsevier NV (UK/NL/US)) (30,000 employees in 2015; revenue: US$5,209 million in 2015) focuses on the STM, risk and business information, legal, and exhibition markets; providing information solutions for professional customers across these industries. Wolters Kluwer (18,055 employees in 2015; revenue: US$4,592 million in 2015) provides information on finance, tax, law, business and health. It publishes for the professional market using a wide variety of media including online reference materials, journals, books, software and loose-leaf services. Lagardère (28,575 employees in 2015; revenue: US $2,407 million in 2015) is a French conglomerate that includes Hachette companies worldwide. Lagardère also publishes under imprints such as Larousse, Grasset, Éditions Dunod and Les Éditions Albert René.

Major corporations

35

1.11 | London Book Fair At book fairs, publishers discuss industry developments, and introduce new publishing projects. A number of seminars and discussions on translation will take place each year.

The most translated authors According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the world’s top five most translated authors, based on translations of individual books, are: Source: Index Translationum, UNESCO

1 2 3 4 5

Agatha Christie (7,233 translations) Jules Verne (4,751 translations) William Shakespeare (4,281 translations) Enid Blyton (3,921 translations) Barbara Cartland (3,648 translations)

The fundamentals of publishing

36

Territories

Language

For many years publishers have divided the world into different sales territories in which they have exclusive (where only the licensee is allowed to exploit the work) or non-exclusive rights (where multiple licensees can exploit the work) to sell their edition of a work. These sales territories are based on historical areas of influence, and political and cultural affinity. British publishers have tended to retain rights to sell their editions in the UK and the British Commonwealth, and the territorial rights of the American publisher to the same book would include the United States, Canada and other territories closely associated with the United States. Over time these traditional territorial rights have been challenged in the courts on the basis that they restrain trade. Other issues involve changes in global trading patterns, US and EU competition law (allowing for some elements of differential pricing from jurisdiction to jurisdiction), changes in copyright law (as in Australia where the rules on copyright protection for books imported from outside Australia have been subject to review), and the use of new publishing media (which may or may not be subject to sales taxes and custom tariffs at the same rate as physical publications). If the sale and distribution of a ‘book’, ‘magazine’ or ‘newspaper’ now means downloading or accessing a digital file, many of the controls that could be placed on the physical movement of goods are irrelevant. But this does not mean the end of regulation. New ways of limiting the sale of e-books in territories are being developed. The old regime of territorial rights is being adapted to the new market conditions, but it is now increasingly language rather than geography that determines the limits of a given market. Many more territories are now ‘open markets’, meaning that any edition can be sold into the market. For British and American publishers this means that different editions of the same title compete in world markets, and the sale and distribution of books via the internet (in both physical and digital forms) has made it far more difficult for publishers to monitor which editions of which publications get into the hands (or onto the e-reading devices) of which customers.

Publishing is both a local and an international business. The language of publication obviously determines the audience for any publication, and is related to other social and political factors that also define markets. Literary works and children’s books are vital to the healthy development of any language. Just as people speak and read many different languages, so publishing around the world reflects the diversity of human knowledge and expression. Books are usually written in one language for a specific market and may then be made available to readers in other markets in either the original language or in translated form. Some types of books, particularly popular fiction and children’s books, are widely translated. However, there is a disparity between the number of English-language titles translated into different languages and foreignlanguage titles translated into English. The level of translated-foreign fiction published in the AngloAmerican book scene is commonly referred to as the ‘3 per cent problem’, as this is understood to be the approximate proportion of translated-foreign fiction in the marketplace. There are now many presses, and imprints, dedicated to publishing works in translation such as Dalkey Archive Press (United States) and Peirene Press (UK). English is now the dominant language of science and business, and this is likely to remain the case. But this does not mean that the UK and United States will continue to dominate publishing in science and business. English is now the most widely studied second language. Consequently, there are now more English speakers in India than the United Kingdom, and more people studying English in China than the United States. This means that there are numerous opportunities for publishers, and authors, in those markets e.g. exporting English-language editions. China, India, Brazil, Iran, Tunisia and Turkey have a large impact in English-language science publications. Could Mandarin or Urdu become the major publishing languages of the future? Some think so, and point to the fact that Latin, French, German and English have all had their periods of dominance, related to the political outreach of the countries that used those languages. This is equally true of the languages used on the internet. While the World Wide Web was initially dominated by English, this is no longer the case, and Mandarin, Spanish, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Persian, Russian and Arabic are now all big online languages – and are growing. School textbooks are

International author brands

usually intended for a local market determined by the implementation of a national or regional curriculum. Professional accounting and legal publications have content that relates to a particular jurisdiction. Many publications that cover local history, customs, food, music and literature have a market restricted to a particular region (and tourists visiting that region). In many parts of the world, regional publishing, in languages such as Sami or Welsh, is part of a lively culture and is often supported by local governments and not-for-profit cultural bodies. However, many of the major companies in local markets are international corporations, which over the years have acquired specialist publishing imprints, and rights to globally recognized authors and characters, and they are often interwoven with other media companies that help in the promotion of publications and developments in other media.

‘So many books! So little time!’ It used to be relatively easy to track the number of books published in a given territory each year, and approximate totals are still published by publishing organizations. However, this has become a much more problematic task. It is no longer possible to count the number of new ISBNs (the unique identifier allocated to each edition of a book) to get a reasonably reliable annual estimate of the number of new publications. Additionally, the spate of self-published books, sometimes without ISBNs, adds to the mix of cultural output. The explosion of publishing in different formats, means that a single book might be assigned multiple ISBNs to cover all its different iterations. The picture is made even more confused as individual chapters and sections are available as downloads or apps, and publishers republish public domain works (those where the copyright period has expired) and out-of-print materials. In addition, a total count of publishing output might now also include blogs, social media pages and computer games that have many book-like features, and pamphlets printed by small organizations and self-publishing individuals.

International author brands The author of a book is one of its most distinguishing features, and some authors are international brands. In trade publishing we are familiar with the selling power of authors such as John Grisham and Dan Brown, and this is true in many mass-market genres such as romance (think of Catherine Cookson and Barbara Cartland), thrillers (Robert Ludlum and James Patterson), crime (Agatha Christie and Peter James), fantasy (George R.R. Martin), bodice rippers (Jackie Collins and Danielle Steel), or westerns (Zane Grey and Louis L’Amour). Authors, and their characters, are the biggest brands in publishing: most readers cannot identify publishing companies as brands. The brand of an author’s name is developed from the author’s reputation and the quality of their work, therefore any work published by the author is usually associated with their previous work. This helps to create a relationship, and loyalty, between the author and their readers. This is confirmed by a recent study, by Codex, which found that consumers were willing to pay 66 per cent more for a book, particularly in genre fiction, by a brand name author over an unknown author. Additionally, 43 per cent of genre fiction buyers bought their last book because of the author name. A recent example of this is The Cuckoo’s Calling by unknown author Robert Galbraith. When Sphere, an imprint of Little, Brown, first published the book, in the UK, in April 2013, it only sold 492 print copies in the first four months. When it was revealed, in July 2013, that the author was actually J.K. Rowling, the books sales multiplied: selling 68,009 print copies within a month Authors of literary fiction also have significant, and increasingly international, brand value. If you walk the halls of the London Book Fair or Book Expo in New York you can see the works (and photographs) of the same authors at the stands of publishers from around the world. Ian McEwan, Jonathan Franzen, Amélie Nothomb, Haruki Murakami, Wole Soyinka, Gabriel García Márquez are all global literary figures with strong ‘brand’ images and following. Children’s books and books for young adults (YA) sometimes have equally strong author brands, such as Maurice Sendak, Lemony Snicket, Jacqueline Wilson, Stephanie Meyer and John Green. For younger children it is often the characters that have the upper hand: Asterix and Postman Pat are instantly recognizable to children around the world, as are classic characters such as Ratty and Toad from Wind in the Willows, Moomintroll and Winnie-the-Pooh.

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The fundamentals of publishing

38

Branding in other areas can also be an important factor in creating customer loyalty and global readership. The creators of graphic novels, manga and comic books frequently develop reader loyalty through character branding (such as Lucky Luke and Tintin) but

readers are also attracted to specific authors and illustrators. Author branding is also significant in other types of publishing. We very often refer to the textbooks we use by the author’s name. Business students will read ‘Kotler’, and economists refer to ‘Lipsey’ or ‘Samuelson’, for example.

Discussion questions 1 How have global trading patterns changed? What has influenced this change? 2 Does technology help or hinder publication in different languages? 3 Why do you think the percentage of translations published into English is so low?

4 What is an ISBN? 5 Why is author branding important? And why do you think this matters more than publisher branding? 6 What impact will the emerging markets have on the global book trade?

International author brands

39

1.12a–b | Curious George The characters in children’s books often have international appeal. They also drive a worldwide industry that produces merchandise such as dolls, clothing, games, cards and other branded goods.

The fundamentals of publishing

Case study

40

Bertelsmann and Random House: before the Penguin Random House merger

Over the years, large media companies have bought many smaller publishing companies. The German multinational, mass-media corporation Bertelsmann acquired trade publisher Random House in 1998. In 2013, Random House and Penguin completed a £2.4 billion merger to become the biggest book publisher in the world: in which Bertelsmann owns 53 per cent and Pearson 47 per cent. This merger came at an important time for both companies, and for the publishing industry: a time where the industry was in flux and where new online players, such as Google and Amazon, were appropriating traditional markets. We can learn some interesting lessons about publishing by exploring both Bertelsmann and Random House (before it was Penguin Random House).

In 1835 Carl Bertelsmann founded the publishing house C. Bertelsmann Verlag in Gütersloh, Germany. During its first 100 years its main interest was theological publishing, and it was not until the 1920s that it began to publish fiction. By 1943 it was the country’s top publisher in terms of book production and unit sales, but, towards the end of the war, Bertelsmann came into conflict with the Nazi power structure and was closed down. The firm was re-established after 1945, and in 1950 Bertelsmann responded to the tough economic climate with direct-to-consumer sales that were to form the basis of a bookclub empire. It also expanded by acquiring a number of media companies, and took major steps to develop its international publishing business in the 1980s. With the acquisition of Random House in 1998, Bertelsmann became one of the world’s most powerful publishing businesses. Random House publishes some of the major writers of contemporary fiction. The merger with Penguin, in 2013, has made Penguin Random House the biggest global trade-publishing company. While Penguin has a history of courting controversy (see box), in recent years Random House has come into conflict with other parts of the publishing world; illustrating some of the ways in which e-book development has brought about the need for changes to business practice.

Courting controversy: the case of Lady Chatterley’s Lover Penguin has been in the limelight numerous times, in different periods of history, for publishing controversial books and authors. One of the most famous cases, in 1960, was the publication of D.H. Lawrence’s Lady Chatterley’s Lover and the subsequent charge under the Obscene Publications

Act. In a monumental court case, which was a defining moment in British censorship law, Penguin was acquitted of these charges. Penguin sold three million copies of the book in the three months after the acquittal, which shows the attempt to censor a book serves only to create publicity and demand.

The agency model

41

The role of literary agents

The agency model

In 2010 Random House had a well-publicized battle with prominent literary agent Andrew Wylie about whether or not he had the right to control e-book rights for the authors that he represented. The issue came to a head when Wylie claimed that Random House needed to negotiate (and pay) separately for the right to produce e-books of backlist titles for which they had bookpublishing contracts. The arrival of the new medium of e-books required a new legal arrangement and Random House and Wylie eventually agreed terms. This was an important milestone in setting up e-book rights as a new right, and it helped to establish industry standards in relation to the future development of the e-book market.

In 2011 Random House was the last major publisher to change to the agency model in pricing e-books for sale through e-booksellers. Under this model, publishers set the price and e-booksellers act as agents for them. The agency model also means that retailers such as Amazon are not able to offer publisher’s books at ‘loss-leader’ prices, something that they had used to promote the sale of their reading devices. Publishers set higher prices for e-books than those set by Amazon, which is good for the publishers, their authors and independent retailers (unless of course it pushes readers towards illegal editions). Random House’s decision consolidated a business practice and influenced Amazon and Kobo to become publishers in their own right, meaning they could set their own prices. For this reason, and possible legal challenges, the agency model is being reevaluated, although all of the ‘Big Five’ have recently signed up for new deals with Amazon.

Royalty payments, NSR and the agency model Royalties to authors are not usually paid as a percentage of the list price of a book, but on the basis of the publisher’s Net Sales Revenue or Receipts (NSR). This is the money received by the publisher after any discounts or commissions have been given to customers. Under the agency model

the e-bookseller usually takes 30 per cent commission on the sales price and passes the remaining 70 per cent to the publisher. Author royalties for e-book sales under the agency model are typically 25 per cent or more of the publisher’s NSR.

The fundamentals of publishing

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International Penguin Random House, as it is now known, is the world’s largest English-language general trade book publisher. Random House grew from the original American company to embrace Canada (1944), and the UK (1987) by acquiring Chatto, Virago, Bodley Head

and Jonathan Cape, Century Hutchinson (1989), and the trade division of Reed Books (1997). When Bertelsmann purchased Random House in 1998, the imprints included Doubleday, Bantam Books, Knopf, Vintage, Ballantine and Transworld. The company now has subsidiaries in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and India.

Table 1.2 Bertelsmann Divisions

TV and radio; media services; press; direct marketing; and book publishers. Bertelsmann AG operates in over fifty countries, has over 116,000 employees in 2016, and has Revenues of €17.0 billion in the 2016 financial year (approx. £12.5 billion/$20 billion), since 2016, the major divisions are: RTL Group, Penguin Random House, Gruner + Jahr, BMG, Arvato, Bertelsmann Printing Group, Bertelsmann Education Group, and Bertelsmann Investments. TV (Europe)

RTL

TV stations in 10 European countries.

Media and communications services

Arvato Services

Printing, finance and mobile services, in over 30 countries worldwide.

Newspapers and magazines

Gruner + Jahr

285 print titles in over 20 countries, and professional websites. Printing plants in Germany and the US.

Music rights management

BMG

Administers, manages, develops, markets and exploits copyrights globally. Develops new talent.

Publishing: Penguin Random House More than 15,000 new titles and 800 million print, audio, and e-books sold annually, makes Penguin Random House the largest general-interest book publisher. Authors include: Bill Bryson, J.M. Coetzee, Ildefonso Falcones, Al Gore, John Grisham, John Irving, Dean Koontz, Nigella Lawson, Cormac McCarthy, Ian McEwan, Julia Navarro, Orhan Pamuk, and John Updike. Publishing houses: Nearly 250 independent imprints in 19 countries, including Alfred A. Knopf (US); Transworld (UK); Plaza & Janés Editores S.A. (Spain); Editorial Sudamericana (Argentina) and Goldmann (Germany). Employees: 10,582 employees in 2015 Revenues: 3.7 billion euros in 2015 (approx. £1.5 billion/$2.5 billion)

Cathy Wells, HR Director, Hachette Book Group

Interview

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How have you seen the publishing industry change in the last five (to ten) years? The rate of change in the industry over the last ten years has been significant. The landscape in which we operate has been revolutionized: publishing houses have consolidated and the way we acquire and read books has been totally transformed. The use of technology within the business has been transformative – our processes – and our need to manage processes across functions – have become more complex as our need to respond faster, and coordinate our publishing globally, has increased. We are a global business, and the success of our books relies on the acquisition and sale of books and rights in other markets. If we don’t synchronize publishing across territories we risk losing sales. We are facing new areas of competition, through self-publishing, through increasing volume of free content online, and increasing reliance on immediate, short-form content accessed via smartphone. Publishers communicate directly with readers and the data we gather supports our decisions. Consumer insight is now at the heart of our business. The lines between our traditional, clearly defined roles – marketing, editorial, publicity – are blurring as the success of a book relies as much on driving word-of-mouth news as traditional book trade-based marketing activity. Social media sharing is immensely influential, and a word-of-mouth bestseller must be driven by everyone involved in the process. But much has stayed the same. We continue to publish the best books and sell them wherever readers wish to buy them in whatever format they wish to read them. Our focus, as ever, is on the quality of our publishing, care for our authors and our drive for commercial success.

Do you think the publishing workforce has changed in the last five to ten years and, if so, how? No – the skills we required five to ten years ago are fundamentally the same skills we require now. What skills do you think potential publishing professionals need nowadays? ●

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The ability to build and maintain constructive and positive relationships – it’s all about the author Creativity, curiosity and a breadth of cultural interests Commercial acumen Clarity of vision and ability to communicate it Project management and personal organization skills Problem-solving Flexibility Enthusiasm Financial understanding Market knowledge and the ability to analyse and interpret data

Do you have any tips for people entering the publishing workplace? ●

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Demonstrate your enthusiasm with action – build your own social media presence Do your research You’ll need to take some risks, and you’ll need to learn from your mistakes Markets and fashions change all the time, you’ll need to be prepared to keep up – you’ll be constantly learning Don’t underestimate the old-fashioned attributes – attention to detail, spelling and grammar are still a prerequisite.

Cathy Wells, HR Director, Hachette Book Group

The fundamentals of publishing

Summary

44

Key points The way in which large publishing companies react to changes in the competitive environment can be critical for both their own successful development and for the way in which the industry as a whole develops. The Random House case shows the following: ●

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Adaptability: Bertelsmann adapted and changed its business at several times in its history in response to political, economic, social and technology changes (the so-called PEST factors). These factors were taken into account when Bertelsmann acquired Random House, and when Random House and Penguin merged. ‘Oil tanker’ effect: larger established companies are not usually the first to react to change. The ‘oil tanker’ effect (a figure of speech referring to the time it takes to change direction in a very large vessel) meant that Random House took time to develop a strategy to deal with the new business relationships brought about by the rise of e-books. Impact of large companies: when Random House management did take a stand on its relationship with other parts of the publishing industry (in this case agents and e-booksellers) the effect was significant in consolidating changes to which others

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had already either adapted, or for which they had fought in vain. Agency model: by agreeing to follow the lead of the other major publishers, Random House’s decision to embrace the agency model consolidated a business practice that became well established. It also had a major influence in persuading e-book retailers such as Amazon and Kobo to become publishers in their own right – so that they could set their own prices. Internationalization: Random House was an international company, and was not generally identified as either German or American. Nowadays, Penguin Random House is thought of as a global, and not a German, American or British, company. It has, however, chosen to focus on its pre-eminence in publishing in the English language, although it does now have some local language publishing programmes, particularly in the larger emerging markets of Asia and Latin America. Penguin Random House’s international reach is important in securing global English-language rights to major authors’ work in a market environment where borders are increasingly porous for both printed books and those delivered through digital channels.

Further resources

Activity

Further resources

Research one of the other large publishing groups, for example, Pearson, Hachette, HarperCollins, Pan Macmillan, or Simon & Schuster.

Blake, C. (1999), From Pitch to Publication: Everything You Need to Know to Get Your Novel Published, London: Macmillan. Darnton, R. (2010), The Case for Books: Past, Present, and Future, New York: PublicAffairs. Feather, J. (2006), A History of British Publishing, 2nd edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Finkelstein, D. and McCleery, A. (2002), The Book History Reader, London: Routledge. Manguel, A. (1996), A History of Reading, London: HarperCollins. Woll, T. (2014), Publishing for Profit: Successful Bottom-Line Management for Book Publishers, 5th edn, Chicago: Chicago Review Press.

1 Investigate the corporate structure of your chosen publishing group and compare it with Bertelsmann. 2 How does your chosen publishing house compare with Bertelsmann in terms of its international companies? 3 What different imprints does your chosen publishing group have, and how have they evolved in recent years? 4 Has the company made any significant acquisitions? 5 Which international markets are particularly important for the company? 6 What significant innovations has the company made in terms of its digital publishing strategy?

LOGOS An academic journal that publishes peer-reviewed journals written about all aspects of the publishing industry.

The Bookseller An up-to-date source of news, jobs and events for the book trade in the UK, although it also presents international stories. The Bookseller also has a digital publishing news strand, FutureBook, which looks at innovations and disruptions in the book industry.

Publishers Weekly The American equivalent of The Bookseller, which has an international focus.

Publishing Research Quarterly An academic journal that publishes peer-reviewed journals written about all aspects of the publishing industry. This journal has an international focus.

Writers’ & Artists’ Yearbook An annual directory of book-publishing industry contacts.

Society of Young Publishers https://thesyp.org.uk A membership-based UK community for those in the early stages of their publishing careers.

Young to Publishing http://youngtopublishing.com A United States-based community for those in the early stages of their publishing careers.

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2

The publishing ecosystem

Publications come in all shapes and sizes, ranging from educational and academic to the full range of children’s and adult trade books: fiction and non-fiction. All books are published with the goal of satisfying some need, whether this is a desire to be entertained, a search for information, to pursue formal or informal education, for our hobbies and personal relationships, or for spiritual and moral guidance. Remember that two of the most widely read books in the world are the Bible and the Koran. This chapter examines how publishers produce books and other publications for different audiences and explores the various formats (print and electronic) that are used to make these publications available to diverse market sectors. It also takes a preliminary look at how the publishing business aims to make a profit.

Varieties of publication – markets and audiences

Varieties of publication – markets and audiences Traditional publishers have increased their output enormously in the decades after 2000: in the UK, for example, output of new titles increased from 63,807 in 2000 to 184,400 in 2013, and up to 200,330 in 2014. Some 61,300 of new titles in 2013 were digital (Publishers Association). Output in many other countries has also expanded, and throughout the world new entrants have added to an enormous blossoming of physical and digital publishing by organizations, special interest groups and self-publishers. How do publishers decide what to publish and how to publish? And how are business models changing to make sure that publishing remains a sustainable activity? Publishing seeks to satisfy the needs and expectations of a group of readers, the market that the author and publisher have identified in the course of developing the publishing project. Different publishing categories are one of the bases on which publishing is organized. Within each category there is a constant search for new market niches (groups of people with similar interests and needs) to which suitable publications can be directed.

Table 2.1 Some key statistics on book output, for a variety of markets, 2015

Country

Value

Volume sales (2015) Number of ISBNs (2015) Top title/unit sales

US

$27.78bn

652.6m

2,409,989

Go Set a Watchman by Harper Lee/ 1,565,056

UK

£1.49bn

187.4m

1,429,839

Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian Grey by E.L. James/ 1.1m

Brazil

R$ 1.6bn

44.9m

258,672

Jardim Secreto (Secret Garden) by Johanna Basford/ 741,902

Ireland

€115.8m

9.8m

303,064

The Girl On the Train by Paula Hawkins/ 60,000

South Africa

R1.5bn

10.5m

298,657

Official Best Selling K53 Learner’s & Driver’s Manual/ 75,617

Italy

€1.05bn

76.4m

438,146

La Ragazza Del Treno (The Girl On the Train) by Paula Hawkins/ 234,000

India

INR4bn

12.7m

423,078

Scion of Ikshvaku by Amish Tripathi/ 131,000

Australia

$961.2m

55.5m

551,473

The 65-Storey Treehouse by Andy Griffiths and Terry Denton/ 310,000

New Zealand

$117m

5.3m

139,395

Dan Carter: My Story by Dan Carter and Duncan Greive/ 40,426

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The publishing ecosystem

48

2.1a-c | Harry Potter The Harry Potter series of books has been produced in many different editions. Some, like these with the photos on the covers, were packaged especially for adult readers (photos by Michael Wildsmith). The covers for the Signature boxed set were created by the artist Clare Melinsky for Bloomsbury Publishing. Bloomsbury released, full-colour, illustrated editions in 2015, with artwork by Jim Kay, while Pottermore and Apple teamed up to sell the enhanced editions of Harry Potter through iBooks.

James Patterson James Patterson’s books are a regular feature on bestseller lists: in fact he is, according to Nielsen (US) BookData, the world’s bestselling author since January 2001. Patterson has over 130 novels to his name with over 300 million copies in print. He was also the first author to sell 1 million e-books. However, since 2002, Patterson has only written approximately 20 per cent of these novels. The other novels are written by a team of authors, hired by Patterson and credited in the books. The Alex Cross books, probably the best-known series, has seen many of the books on the New York Times bestseller list, and three feature films made. The James Patterson model, which operates as a book production factory, allows Patterson to extend and solidify his brand name.

Varieties of publication – markets and audiences

2.2 | Margaret Atwood An example of the placement and size of a front cover designed to reinforce the importance of the author’s brand. Her name is given more weight than the book’s title. This edition is published by Bloomsbury Publishing.

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Trade publishing Trade books are the fiction and non-fiction books that we read in our spare time and that are sold or distributed through bookshops, online retailers, libraries and wholesalers. They are also known as general or consumer books. Fiction includes novels and stories of all kinds, and non-fiction covers a wide variety of categories such as biography, popular history, cookery books and travel writing. We usually read these books for pleasure or to help us with other leisure activities. Other than children’s books, fiction titles usually contain just the text of the story, while nonfiction books often contain illustrations, charts, maps and photographs. Trade titles are most likely to be advertised on posters, television and in magazines. Because they are often impulse purchases, publishers generally use specific design elements to appeal to their target readers. The cover or dust-jacket design is used to attract customers, along with blurbs and recommendations printed on the front and back covers. An easy way to attract readers, particularly those that

may not have purchased the original version, is through a film or TV tie-in jacket, which is usually led by an image from the film or TV adaptation of the book. These tie-ins usually lead to a spike in sale. The authors of trade books may be celebrities, specialists or people well known to the public through their appearances in other media. Some books, aimed at the general consumer, sell in very large numbers, although such books are rare. Nevertheless, publishers make huge efforts to promote their books in the hope that they will become bestsellers, and are generally satisfied when sales reach the level required to cover costs and produce some profit. This requires a well-coordinated publicity and promotion campaign, as the window of opportunity to create a bestseller in an increasingly crowded media landscape is now weeks rather than months.

The publishing ecosystem

a

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b 2.3a-b | Paper Towns Originally written by John Green, Paper Towns was turned into a 2015 film starring up-and-coming actors Nat Wolff and Cara Delevingne. The book was consequently reprinted with a jacket design that featured the promotional poster image, increasing exposure and publicity of the book.

Children’s publishing The characters in children’s books can become world famous brands such as The Cat in a Hat, Paddington Bear, The Hungry Caterpillar, and Spot the Dog. In 1903, Peter Rabbit was the first literary character to be licensed: Beatrix Potter made the first Peter Rabbit doll herself and registered it with the patent office. Potter was a merchandising pioneer, earning income through exploiting her characters through board games, cards, artwork, tea sets and other products that she designed herself. Today, Beatrix Potter’s characters can be found in numerous forms, and formats, around the world. When new children’s books are adapted for films, TV series or computer games, sales of the books can increase still further and even the classics are given new life in this way. The Harry Potter novels, movies, games and merchandise, for example, have made millions for

the author, as well as for the original publisher and other publishers who produced translated editions in different languages throughout the world. Significant profits can come from granting licences to other companies to produce and sell merchandise (anything from pencil cases to nightwear) associated with characters (even classic ones like Winnie-thePooh), so it is important to create a character (human or animal) that will appeal to children in a particular age range. This is a particular challenge for books that are targeted at younger children. Here the character must also be acceptable to the parent or grandparent who will buy the book and read it to (or with) the child. The influence of parents and grandparents in buying children’s books is one reason why the books of authors such as Lewis Carroll, Beatrix Potter, Astrid Lindgren, C.S. Lewis and Antoine de Saint-Exupéry continue to sell with each new generation of children.

Varieties of publication – markets and audiences

2.4 | The Tale of Peter Rabbit A first edition of The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck by Beatrix Potter is displayed among other books at Dreweatts & Bloomsbury Auctions in 2016, demonstrating the enduring nature of Beatrix Potter’s books.

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Audiobooks Audiobooks were first produced in the 1930s as ‘talking books’ for people with blindness or other sight problems. They were usually available through specialist services or through schools and public libraries and they enjoyed some of the same tax and postal privileges as large-print books. Audiobooks have developed from the British Talking Books Service launched in 1935 with Agatha Christie’s The Murder of Roger Ackroyd on 78 rpm shellac records; to the 1980s audiobooks produced in larger numbers for the commercial market on 33 rpm LP vinyl records, audio cassette and CD-ROM; to digital formats such as MP3. It is now very easy to

download audiobooks, and literary podcasts, to mobile devices, which has resulted in a rise in popularity for audio literary products. According to the Publishers Association, sales of audiobooks have more than doubled, in the UK, within a five-year period: readers spent £10 million on audiobooks in 2014 as opposed to £4 million in 2010. In the USA, the Audio Publishers Association estimated that audiobooks sales yielded over $1.47 billion in 2014: an increase of 13.5 per cent from 2013. This rise in sales can be attributed to the ease and convenience of digital downloads coupled with the host of celebrities and well-known authors signing up to read the books. Some examples of this are the, very popular, Harry Potter audiobooks read by Stephen Fry; William Golding’s The Spire read by Benedict Cumberbatch; End of the Affair read by Colin Firth; Virginia Woolf’s To the Lighthouse read by Nicole Kidman; Bram Stoker’s Dracula read by Alan Cumming; and Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale read by Claire Danes.

2.5 | The Spire, read by Benedict Cumberbatch Jamie Byng of Canongate Books signed Benedict Cumberbatch to read William Golding’s 1964 novel. This trend of matching celebrity voices with the right books is an art form that audiobook publishers are employing strategically to draw attention to current and backlist titles and consequently boost sales.

The publishing ecosystem

Words and pictures

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The market for comic books, manga and BD (bandes dessinées) continues to grow. For example, Publishers Weekly reported that sales of graphic novel rose 22 per cent in 2015. These formats are attractive to a broad range of readers of widely different ages, tastes and opinions. These, and the expanding range of graphic novels, are also adaptable to other media and can be used as the basis of animation, games and a wide variety of digital and physical merchandise. The popularity of comic book and graphic novel film adaptations are on the rise: numerous English-language films, based on comic books were released in 2016 e.g. Deadpool. The Saga of Darren Shan is published by HarperCollins.

Other books for children and young adults (YA) Children’s publishing is currently undergoing a renaissance: sales of children’s and YA books in the UK, across all formats, reached £365 million in 2016 (an increase of 16 per cent from 2015); children’s books dominated the UK bestseller lists (J.K. Rowling, John Tiffany and Jack Thorne’s Harry Potter and the Cursed child topped the 2016 list); in the United States, sales of Children’s and YA books increased by 22.4 per cent from 2013 to 2014; and Frances Hardinge’s The Lie Tree won the 2015 Costa Book of the Year, making it the second children’s title to win this overall award. There are many types of books published for children, most obviously because children of different ages have varied interests, needs and reading abilities. Publishers are watching with great interest as a generation of true digital natives grows up – the generation that has never known a world without mobile phones and the internet. Now that very young children are familiar with the TV remote, the computer keyboard and a broad array of mobile communications and games devices, it is possible that these will become the major ways today’s young children will develop their ‘reading habit’. Nosy Crow, the multi-award-winning, UK-based, independent children’s publisher are particularly well known for their storybook apps, reimagining traditional stories for the digital age (see p. 165). Their products are published by Candlewick Press in the United States and distributed by Allen & Unwin in Australia. Whatever the channels for children’s reading, some of the fundamental elements of publishing for the young

are likely to remain. Authors and publishers must have a clear view of the age group and reading level of their target readers. The parents of many children may still want to expose them to a diet of more-or-less traditional stories. Younger children – those who cannot yet read or who are just learning – are attracted by vivid engaging illustrations and simple, often repetitive, verbal patterns (whether in text or on audio). However, there has been much debate about the issue of agebanding – putting recommended age ranges on book covers – over the years. Many authors, libraries, teachers, parents and others believe that age-banding is actually detrimental to the interests of young readers. Older age groups want to encounter strong narratives that bring to life the adventurous possibilities of the world, and show them how to withstand dangers and setbacks, while teenagers will surely always be rebellious and want to read about characters and plots that may worry their parents. This exploration of adolescent life, and the frequent coverage of personal issues that confront young people are at the basis of what publishers and booksellers call the young adult category. The popularity of young adult (YA) literature has grown since 2000, with authors such as John Green becoming global figures. However, it has become apparent that many consumers buying YA books are actually adults: in 2012, 55 per cent of sales were from over-18s and in 2014, this rose to 80 per cent (Publishers Weekly 2012 and 2015). The broad popularity of some children’s books like the Harry Potter series shows that adults are also attracted to some books originally written for children, and some types of children’s publication have readers of all ages. Additionally, the re-emergence of Ladybird books for adults (or ‘kidults’), which have sold over 1.74 million copies, and the launch of a new series of pastiches of Enid Blyton’s Famous Five show that there is a market for nostalgia products. Being a children’s or YA author is clearly an appealing career: even celebrities are cashing in on the popularity of children’s and YA books. Although it is not a new phenomenon – celebrities such as Madonna and Sarah ‘Fergie’ Ferguson have done it in the past – there has been an influx of celebrity children’s and YA books, and big book deals, in recent years. These include: a new series of picture books by Pharrell Williams, based on his popular song; a graphic novel by The Black Eyed Peas; a feminist picture book by Chelsea Clinton; and a YA novel by Cara Delevingne. Although many celebrity books will be written by ghostwriters, and are derided by professional children’s authors, one celebrity success story is British comedian David Walliams. After publishing his first book, The Boy in the Dress, in 2008, Walliams has gone on to become one of the bestselling authors in the UK.

Varieties of publication – markets and audiences

Educational publishing Diversity in books There have been numerous conversations, in recent years, about diverse voices, and faces, being under-represented and/or omitted from the publishing industry (see p. 31). A recent campaign, to help combat this problem, is the #WeNeedDiverseBooks [social media] campaign. The #WeNeedDiverseBooks campaign started in 2014 in response to the lack of diverse – covering POC (people of colour), LGBTQIA+, gender diversity, people with disabilities, and ethnic, cultural and religious minorities – children’s books. A 2014 study, by the Cooperative Children’s Book Center School of Education, University of Wisconsin–Madison, found that representations of ethnic diversity in children’s books had decreased from 1985 to 1995.

Working in trade and children’s publishing Editors working in trade fiction, non-fiction and children’s publishing need a good feeling for nuances of language and a specific awareness of the language levels required for their target readers. When working with highly illustrated books that rely heavily on the relationship between words and images (many children’s books and also books on subjects such as art, crafts and cooking), editors require a good understanding of how these elements support each other to deliver meaning to the reader. As many trade and children’s authors have literary agents, it is important to be a good negotiator and to have excellent personal communication skills. An international outlook and an awareness of other media trends are useful in exploiting the rights potential for adult trade and children’s titles.

Educational publishers produce books that are used in schools. They reflect the curriculum and educational structure of the market for which they are prepared, and are written for particular school levels. In the UK, where there is a national curriculum, educational publishing is mostly in the hands of a few large companies, and is divided according to the Four Key Stages (primary 1 and 2, secondary 3 and 4). In the United State, the twelve grades are divided into elementary school (1–4), middle school (5–8), and high school (9–12); the kindergarten class (K) is usually included when talking of the entire educational system (K–12). All countries have their own educational system, with different school years (for example, January to December, or October to June), trimesters, terms and semesters (two or three teaching periods per year), which determine the way in which educational publishing must develop material in order to deliver it at the appropriate time. Educational publishers need to understand the detailed requirements (and the procurement patterns) of the educational system in their country, state or province. Educational publishers also produce a range of supplementary materials: teacher support packages (in print and online); testing and assessment materials; student handouts; dedicated websites; and audio and video materials. Increasingly, such product extensions (including textbooks, apps, study guides, classroom activities, calculating and charting exercises, interactive learning games and whiteboard exercises) are now available through digital channels. The structure of the both the physical and digital supply chain is centrally important to understanding the dynamics of the educational market. In addition to understanding the mechanisms by which educational books, services and other materials are approved and purchased (centrally, by individual schools, or by parents), publishers also have to understand what educators prefer to receive in print and what they prefer to receive in digital forms. The needs and expectations of educational customers are changing rapidly and publishers are making great investments to secure their market share. This makes it very difficult for new companies to enter the educational publishing market except in highly specialized niche areas.

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The publishing ecosystem

Working in educational publishing

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Editors in educational publishing usually have responsibility for a particular subject discipline at a specific level. So in the UK, he or she may be the Secondary Geography Editor, and in the United States a title might be Editor of Elementary Math. These editors often work with educational or curriculum advisors to ensure that their publications fit the needs of a particular school system, and they also work very closely with illustrators and designers to ensure that all elements of any published work combine to reinforce the educational objectives. As multimedia packages are common in educational publishing, production coordinators need to have extensive knowledge of production in different media including audio and video. The marketing and sales departments of educational publishers employ promotion and publicity managers to produce marketing literature and to develop social media and web communities. Sales representatives visit schools and education departments to promote the use of their company’s products and services in individual schools and whole school systems. The goal of educational publishers is the adoption of a particular set of materials at either a school level or throughout an entire education system.

EFL/ELT publishing Over recent decades, the rise of English as the world language of business, education and popular culture has created a huge global market for English-language teaching and learning materials. This sector is variously known as EFL (English as a Foreign Language), ELT (English Language Teaching), or ESL (English as a Second Language) publishing. It is a highly competitive market, in which publishers such as Oxford University Press (OUP), Cambridge University Press (CUP) and Macmillan have been particularly successful. These firms invest heavily in keeping their brands at the forefront of the ELT market. Language learning increasingly uses video, audio, digital practise and online assessment. Today’s students often prefer digital reference materials (dictionaries and grammar guides) to traditional printed volumes. As learning English is now seen as a basic competence in many countries, local educational publishers are now much more active in producing textbooks and other teaching materials for their national markets.

Open access The internet and other technological developments have changed the way that we access and disseminate information. We’ve seen how collaborative writing, such as of encyclopaedias, and journalism have transitioned online, and are now freely available; however, so far, most academic research and writing have resisted this change. Commercial publishers control most of the scholarly knowledge produced by academics: they publish papers through subscription journals and often require the academic authors to transfer the

copyright to their work. However, the Open Access movement is trying to disrupt this model to ensure that peer-reviewed academic research is freely available, and publicly accessible, online. An increasing number of journals are now offering open access options, which transfer the cost of publishing from the publisher to the author/their institution. Open access journals are now estimated to account for 26 per cent to 29 per cent of all academic journals.

Varieties of publication – markets and audiences

Working in EFL publishing EFL editors often have experience of teaching English, and tend to specialize in publishing for a particular region, such as Southern Europe, Asia or Latin America. They, and the sales force, work closely with language schools, teachers and other media companies in countries around the world, often in joint ventures with local publishing partners to develop materials and marketing networks.

Academic publishing Academic publishing is closely related to the overall development of the tertiary (post-high school in the United States) education sector; to trends in course development and delivery; national and international expenditure on the sector as a whole; and policies and funding that favour or disfavour specific areas of research and teaching. The audience for such publications is composed almost exclusively of people and institutions in the academic world, so there is a symbiotic relationship between the authors, publishers and readers of academic publications. Publishing of this type includes textbooks for university and college courses, supplementary readings, academic monographs and other publications produced by academics in the course of their research.

College and university textbooks Some academic textbooks used in colleges and universities (such as Samuelson’s Economics and Jansen’s History of Art) are very successful. They sell in large quantities, year after year, and produce healthy profits for their authors and publishers. The texts are frequently updated and issued as new editions, and are published together with various product and service

extensions (such as case studies, presentations, resource websites and podcast lectures). They are expensive to develop and publishers spend a lot of time and resources to retain and increase market share in some highly competitive disciplines. However, many academic books are not written or published in the hope of achieving vast sales, but each book seeks to fill a niche, even if this involves courses that have relatively small numbers of students. For some years, many textbooks for degree-level courses have been supplemented with online study and reference materials. Now that students are increasingly using e-readers to read and make notes on course textbooks, many texts are available as e-books. Just as consumer e-books have been adopted by the general reading public more rapidly in the United States than elsewhere, so the use of e-textbooks has been greater in the United States, where the NACS (National Association of College Stores) conducts regular surveys to monitor the increased use of e-texts. Recent research (such as the Baron et al.’s survey of over 300 university students in the United States, Japan, Germany and Slovakia) indicates, however, that many students still prefer to use physical printed textbooks (92 per cent in Baron et al.’s study). It is also common for publishers to offer university teaching staff the opportunity to produce texts customized for their particular course requirements. Using these services, university teachers can select content from a wide range of online material to be made up into a textbook specifically tailored to their needs. They can also add material of their own, or material from other sources that might have particular relevance to their course. The compilation is published on demand, either as a short-run edition in the exact quantity required, as a POD book, or as an e-book. One example of such a custom textbook system is that offered by Wiley through their Wiley Custom Select service.

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The publishing ecosystem

Monographs

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Academic monographs (single subject book-length studies based on specialist research) were once a staple of academic and scholarly publishing. Such publications are now becoming less common, and PhD theses are no longer routinely transformed into book-length publications. Monographs have low sales (getting lower as academic library budgets decrease each year), and an academic monograph may not sell more than 100 copies. This means that prices for such printed books have become high, reducing sales still further in a vicious cycle of rising prices and diminishing sales, and leading to the e-publication of much monograph material. The main reason academic writers want to publish academic monographs is to further their career, as publication is a necessary part of proving academic standing when looking for employment, promotion or tenure. As with essays and papers in academic journals, the extent to which such serious academic work is cited by other academics is sometimes seen as a measure of success for the publication, for the individual academics and for the institutions to which they belong. Some academic monographs derive from PhD theses (dissertations) or from collections of papers presented at academic conferences. These special interest publications, highly valuable to a select group of researchers, are migrating to e-publication, which is ideal for the purpose of dissemination to a small well-networked specialist group of readers, often spread throughout the world. Monograph publications are also sometimes independently published by academic institutions or specialist centres. Those published by traditional publishers may be more likely to be distributed as part of a bundle of such works sold on subscription to libraries and other institutional information services. There are also, now, a number of dedicated open access presses and university presses that have an open access strand e.g. Ubiquity Press and UCL Press. A recent study found that open access publishing increases the discoverability and online usage of titles without impacting on sales.

STM publishing STM publishing (scientific, technical and medical) is a major industry sector and includes textbooks, monographs, reference works, journals and other print and online services for the scientific, technical and medical communities. The value of the market for STM publications is much larger than that for academic publications in the humanities and social sciences. STM publishers are some of the biggest employers in the publishing industry, with a global turnover estimated at more than $20 billion (£12.6 billion) (International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers).

Sales and marketing Sales and marketing in STM publishing uses the analysis of citations, trends and other metrics. You can learn more about this complex area from the website of the International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP). While the large commercial publishers, university presses and professional organizations (such as the Institute of Physics and the American Chemical Society) dominate this sector, there are many other smaller academic and scholarly publishing operations working across the academic spectrum. These smaller outfits often have close working relationships with the major companies who produce and market the publications, while the organization retains editorial control.

Varieties of publication – markets and audiences

Working in academic and STM publishing In the academic and STM sector, product managers, senior editors and publishing editors manage publications in a particular subject area, producing journals, monographs, digital resources and even workshops, seminars and conferences. They spend time networking with people involved in their special discipline, and work closely with external journal editors, series editors and other editorial advisors drawn from academic departments and research institutes. It is common for these editors and managers to have a background in the relevant specialism, particularly for very technical subjects such as engineering or medicine. Given the importance of digital workflow to STM and scholarly publishing, the person in charge is sometimes called a production editor, and this person is also likely to have a significant input into marketing, working with exhibitions managers and promotion executives. As digital publishing is the mainstream activity for most STM publishers, the idea of having a specific information system manager is declining and everyone is expected to work with digital publishing (although the physical production and distribution of books and journals is still important in some subjects).

a b

Reference publishing Reference publishing has some crossover with academic publishing as well as providing reference materials for a wide variety of professions, such as law and accountancy. Reference publishers produce resources such as encyclopaedias, dictionaries and directories. This was one of the first sectors in publishing to take advantage of digital technologies, as very large quantities of data can be gathered, manipulated, stored, updated and distributed far more effectively in this way than by traditional print methods.

2.6a-b | British Food Journal and Journal of Consumer Marketing STM journals are used by researchers throughout the world to disseminate the results of their work, and career success can depend on publication in the most prestigious journals. These journals are published by Emerald Group Publishing.

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The publishing ecosystem

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Reference publishing has also been affected by the growth of Wikipedia. This free, online reference website was founded in 2001 and has around 5 million articles in English and versions in 283 languages making a total of over 38 million articles, nearly 2 million images and over 30 million active users. It is put together on a volunteer basis by thousands of experts and users throughout the world. Wikipedia has radically altered the market for encyclopaedias, most notably that of the previous market leader, Encyclopædia Britannica, which in 2012 announced that it was ceasing publication of the thirty-two-volume printed edition.

Trade reference books Some reference books, like Guinness World Records, are really trade books (hence the label trade reference books). The Guinness World Records brand is an example of the kind of trade reference publishing that has been developed in recent years to include a wide variety of media manifestations including websites, video, games, and interactive media. Travel reference brands like Lonely Planet and Rough Guides are other examples of trade reference publishing that have moved to digital platforms.

2.7 | Writers’ & Artists’ Yearbook 2016 The Writers’ & Artists’ Yearbook is an annual publication that provides over 4,500 listings of publishers, making it a popular gift book for both aspiring and established writers.

Discussion questions 1 What are the differences between the authors of trade books and academic books? 2 What are the differences between working in educational publishing and STM publishing? 3 Which types of publishing were the first to adopt digital publishing formats? 4 Are the differences between different types of publishing becoming less or more important?

5 What are the implications of collaborative authorship on trade publishing? 6 How is open access affecting academic publishers? 7 Why do you think issues of representation are especially important in children’s books?

Print and e-books

Print and e-books The rapid growth of e-book publishing in the recent past sometimes makes it hard to remember and appreciate the radical changes to publishing that this has brought about, but it is also important to understand which basic elements of publishing have changed and which have remained the same.

Production systems Production systems are likely to remain flexible in publishing and, through the use of XML or other ways of creating and adapting content, publishers continue to be free to decide to produce publications in print or in digital formats from the same content files. The tools are becoming more sophisticated as new platforms are developed, and the way in which publishers turn an

author’s work into a published product continue to evolve. We will look at book design and production in more detail in Chapter 5, but the fundamental aspect to remember at this stage is that any design and production system must be adaptable to both current and new methods of production and distribution, whatever form of print or digital publication the ever-changing technology may make possible.

‘20 or 30 years from now there’s going to be some gizmo that kids carry around in their back pocket that has everything in it – including our books if they want.’ Michael S. Hart, 1998, Founder of Project Gutenberg.

2.8 | XML markup This piece of text has been marked up using XML. The style for , or can be specified at a later date depending on the format of the finished print or digital publication.

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The publishing ecosystem

Origins and future of e-books

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Electronic books have a longer history than you might think. Project Gutenberg, the oldest digital library of electronic texts, was started in 1971 in the very early days of the internet and now offers over 38,000 free e-books. Franklin Electronic Publishers launched the first commercially available handheld reader in 1986. Following the success of the Spelling Ace electronic spelling corrector, Franklin has produced many other titles including dictionaries, medical reference works and an extensive range of Franklin Electronic Bibles. Much of the development of electronic publications, mostly accessible through large computer networks, was originally focused on publications for the research, reference and educational markets. Many of the systems used to access research publications today date back to those early days of electronic publication on academic networks. Several e-readers had limited success around the turn of the century, including the SoftBook (launched 1998), the Rocket e-book (2000) and the Microsoft Reader (launched 2000 and phased out in August 2012). After the US launch of the Kindle in 2007, the e-reader started to become a mass consumer item and the e-book’s challenge to printed books became a reality in the marketplace. These changes continue and it is likely to be some years until the publishing market re-enters a period of relative stability. As with many technological developments, the development of e-books has seen a proliferation of different systems for the production of both the e-books themselves and of

the devices on which they can be read, and innovations in display that have come with the development of backlit screens and e-ink. At the hardware end, the Sony e-book reader, Kindle and Nook are just some of the devices that have been developed. The Amazon Kindle and the Apple iPad, in particular, have been influential in driving the development of the e-book market sector, using business models such as the ‘agency’ model (see p. 41). Reading e-books on mobile phones is on the increase, while e-reader ownership is declining, and there are a number of new initiatives to engage with this type of reader e.g. Google’s Editions at Play, which are books designed for the web and/or the mobile web. There has also been competition between the different software used to produce e-book files, although common standards are beginning to be adopted by most publishers and device manufacturers. The development of diverse hardware and software has reflected the different aspirations of global media companies as varied as Amazon and Apple, Sony and News International. Various legal battles concerning patents and proprietary software have been a feature of the jostling for market position. As the industry matures, there are concerted industry moves to establish standards that would apply over different platforms and publication types. EPUB®, a standard distribution format, developed by the International Digital Publishing Forum, is intended to enable the interoperability of digital books and other digital publications between different reading devices and applications, and you will find more about this in Chapter 6.

2.9 | Kindle Fire Kindle has developed from being a medium for text-only e-books, to a platform for illustrated books, magazines, children’s books and other media. The functions of the e-reader and multipurpose tablet are blending together as the market develops and consumers become more familiar with the use of such devices.

Print and e-books

Are e-books just another format? When it became clear that e-books were here to stay, publishers needed to start looking at the new formats that e-publishing offered. It’s worth looking at how some of these new formats affect readers. ●

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You need special equipment to read an e-book. But this equipment may be something you can use for other entertainment and communication purposes. The company selling the e-books often has access to the customer’s device, so is able to target future promotions on the basis of a customer profile created from information gathered. You usually buy an e-book online (although some traditional booksellers are now offering e-books for sale), and it will either be downloaded to your device and/or stored in a far-off server, in the cloud. Browsing an e-book shop is different because e-books do not have physical covers or standardlength blurbs. The ‘shop window’ of an e-bookshop can provide a wealth of information, including things like author interviews, reader reviews and ‘look inside’ functions. Graphics are used heavily in e-book sales and promotion, and blurbs have developed into extensive (often multimedia) promotional messages circulated via social networks, viral marketing tools and dedicated websites. Length, page size and, increasingly, typography, are no longer a barrier to either publisher or reader. Short books like Kindle Singles have proliferated as e-books. Page sizes and design features are determined by the capabilities of the software and hardware, not by the practicalities and economics of physical production. Readers of e-books may be able to choose type size, typeface and page layout. Audiobook publishers may increasingly offer a range of voices that will read the book out loud from the digital file. It is possible to borrow an e-book from a library but more difficult to borrow one from a friend.

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Self-publishing is much more viable with e-books, although it isn’t usually as easy as it looks! The e-book is not just another format to be added to the hardback, trade paperback and mass-market paperback. The pricing strategies that were used to exploit different sectors of the market for physical books are over time no longer workable. It is also possible to produce enhanced e-books, with embedded videos, pop-up graphics and animation.

In the life of a typical trade title, the original launch in hardback would be followed after some months by the publication of a large ‘B’ format ‘trade’ paperback edition (see p. 131), and eventually, if sales warranted, a mass-market paperback. This consecutive publishing model has now been disrupted, and the hardback edition (marketable at a higher price) has become a standard format for what publishers hope will be bestselling trade books – fiction and non-fiction – particularly in the United States. However, the previous ordered progression from one format to the next, as markets were progressively exploited with different distribution and pricing, has been superseded by a simultaneous publication of the p-book and e-book, usually in different formats of both. As detailed above, more and more people are reading on their mobile phones. In a similar and parallel development first seen in Asia, mobile technology has led to the development of books designed to be read on mobile phones (m-books, known as keitai shosetsu in Japan), and these ultra-short books are mirrored in some of the publications now being published for tablets and games devices. The application iBooks was developed by Apple; it enables the user of an iPad to download and read e-books. iBooks includes the iBookstore, and offers the facility to keep a personal collection of iBooks on the iCloud, so that they can be viewed on the iPad, iPhone or iPod touch. Additionally, social platforms such as Wattpad or Movellas (see p. 96), allow users to both create and read content on their tablets or mobile phones, making designing products for mobile phones even more important for publishers.

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The publishing ecosystem

‘I think publishers have been very focused on how to replicate the book in digital form, and very focused on the novel. But is that the right format? How does that fit into the world of gaming and social media where there are so many calls on the consumer’s time? Is it necessarily about 80,000 words now?’ Jonathan Williams, Boxfiction 62

‘The physical nature of books has appealed for centuries and is fundamental to their allure. Digital versions have some advantages but, due to their single function, not enough to significantly overturn this.’ Andre Breedt, a director at Nielsen Book Research

‘Books can seek to engage the next generation on their phones as well as in print. E-reader use is declining while phones offer countless new ways to construct narrative and read deeply. These are books that can compete for attention on your phone via incredible, dynamic literature.’ Tea Uglow, Creative Director of Google’s Creative Lab

E-book covers Can you tell an e-book by looking at its cover? It doesn’t physically have one, but, in spite of video and audio promotions for e-books, readers still like to have a static ‘image’, something that looks like

the traditional cover of a hardback or paperback book. Without such an image, the job of the marketer becomes much more difficult.

Discussion questions 1 What do you think are some of the most important digital innovations of the past thirty years, ten years, and twelve months? 2 How have these innovations changed the reader’s perception of the ‘book’? 3 How can readers customize e-books and other digital publications? 4 What are some of the major differences between p-books and e-books?

5 What do you think the future of the illustrated book – e.g. graphic novels, comic books, art books – is in the digital age? How well do you think these books will translate into e-format? 6 How do you think digital books can generate new audiences? 7 What has been the impact of technology throughout the history of publishing? 8 How do you think open access is disrupting the academic publishing industry?

Journals, magazines and newspapers

Journals, magazines and newspapers While book publishing is our primary concern, it cannot be seen in complete isolation from other longestablished parts of the larger publishing industry with which it has a close and symbiotic relationship. Other forms of publishing, such as magazines and newspapers, are also an established part of the global publishing environment and it’s worth considering some of the ways in which the book-publishing ecology is developing in relation to these types of publishing.

Journals Journal publishing was one of the first sectors to adopt digital publication and distribution. The new production and distribution models were ideal for managing a wide variety of content from many different sources, and for packaging and distributing this to a dispersed international readership easily. While there are still some journals that are available only in paper formats, many are published in both p- and e-versions, or exclusively as e-journals. Journals are most commonly used in university and research institutions, and ‘packages’ can be purchased from suppliers such as EBSCO (see the case study on p. 71) giving access to vast numbers of current and back issues of journals. The economies of digital production and distribution mean that even the smallest organizations now find it cost-effective to produce regular publications. STM journals are the primary way in which research is evaluated, validated and disseminated. Scholarly communications in the humanities and social sciences are also an essential part of the development and exchange of ideas. Many STM and scholarly journals are based around the membership of particular societies or special networks of people interested in an area of intellectual enquiry. Journal publishing is dominated by a small number of international publishers (such as Elsevier, Springer and Wiley) and is one area of publishing that has been most active in asserting the central importance of intellectual property ownership rights, DRM (digital rights management, see p. 163) and DOI standards in the face of open access and fair use movements.

2.10 | Saga Magazine The target readers of Saga Magazine would instantly recognize Joan Collins, a baby-boomer icon. Advertising in magazines like this reaches the over-fifty age group, which Saga says has ‘a collective pot of £175 billion of disposable income’, which is greater than any other age group.

DOI The Digital Object Identifier (DOI®) system is a way of identifying specific units of content, such as an electronic document. DOI names are assigned to any entity for use on digital networks. This name does not change even if the object to which it refers is moved to another server or owner. Using DOI names as identifiers is intended to make it easier to manage intellectual property and the income that maybe derived from it.

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The publishing ecosystem

Magazines

64

In spite of the need to adapt to digital publishing, print magazines have continued to prosper and many new magazines have been launched in the twenty-first century. Magazines make their money through newsstand sales, subscriptions and advertising revenues. Most consumer magazines rely heavily on the regular publication of a print version, often publishing different language and territory editions under a common brand name (Elle magazine, for example, has forty-three different international editions in more than sixty countries). Some consumer magazines (often those dealing with celebrities and media gossip) retain a mass appeal and sell through newsstands at a low cover price in large quantities. The pattern of consumer magazine distribution varies in different countries, with, for example, the US market being traditionally more reliant on regular subscriptions than the market in the UK. With a business model heavily based on advertising revenues, UK consumer magazines tend to have an online offer that mirrors and complements the advertising audience of the print version. As portable e-readers, tablets and mobile devices become more able to reproduce the vibrant colour illustrations and complex layouts that we are used to seeing in consumer magazines, this market sector is moving to include other digital formats and is increasing its output of video, audio and other dynamic content. An example of a magazine that really works to embrace the preferred reading vehicles of its purchasers/subscribers is WIRED, which is constantly adapting its online platforms/outputs to suit its tech savvy customers.

Special interest magazines Special interest magazines (covering anything from photography to computers, gardening to travel, antiques to cars) can often have quite large circulations. Some command high cover and subscription prices and remain successful in attracting advertisers to their print versions and websites, as they are major communication channels to niche markets for specialist goods and services. One area of circulation growth is magazines for the now ageing ‘baby boomers’: AARP Magazine (over 20 million subscribers) in the US and Saga Magazine in the UK (over 600,000 subscribers and nearly 1.5 million readers over the age of fifty each month) are among the highest circulation magazines – an indication of a growing market that is of importance to publishers and advertisers.

Independent magazines Bucking the trend seen by mainstream, glossy magazines, the market for print, indie and niche magazine seems to be growing. Stack, the independentmagazine subscription service, reported a revenue increase of 78 per cent and a subscriber increase of 76 per cent in 2014. These magazines tend to be beautifully designed, have high production values, and reflect the trends, and consumer demand, for ethical and artisan products. Popular indie magazines include The Gentlewoman, The Plant, Cat People, Pretty Nostalgic and Cherry Bombe.

Journals, magazines and newspapers

2.11 | The Gentlewoman The individuals featured on the cover of The Gentlewoman are carefully selected to appeal to their target readers who want to see ambitious, interesting women discuss their chosen professions. 65

‘We at The Spectator have never believed in a tension between print and digital. Our belief is that, if you get the journalism right, all else will follow. And if you produce journalism that is not just better but significantly better than what’s free on the web, people will pay for it. A business model based on subscriptions (rather than pageviews) is the surest guarantor of journalistic quality.’ Fraser Nelson, Editor of The Spectator

The publishing ecosystem

Trade magazines

66

Trade magazines represent another specialized media sector, produced for people who work in a specific industry. The Bookseller, Publishers Weekly, Printing News and American Printer (all available online) are examples of trade magazines for the publishing industry. Trade magazines in the publishing world span both p- and e-formats and they are still adapting to the changing reading habits and information requirements of people working in the sector. Those industries that are most involved in the move to a digital information environment are, by and large, the ones where e-publication has mostly taken over from print trade magazines, and this seems to be the case with the trade press that relates to the publishing industry. There are also a number of industry-specific blogs that have developed over the years. Popular e-magazines, and blogs, about the publishing industry include FutureBook, The Scholarly Kitchen, Digital Book World and Publishing Perspectives. Many trade magazines have what is known as a ‘controlled circulation’, meaning that free subscriptions are sent to members of a target market that belong to a particular trade or profession: a valuable target group for specialist advertisers. This is in contrast to the paid circulation recorded in the case of consumer magazines.

Newspapers The newspaper industry has undergone rapid change in the digital environment, suffering a decline of advertising revenues, competition from free news services in other media and online, the growth of social networking and citizen journalism, and the extension of digital communication into all aspects of public and private life. Newspapers are experimenting with a variety of digital business models including various types of subscription schemes, pay-per-use systems and targeting advertising based on customer profiles. The connections between press media and the publishing of books, journals and magazines are historically rich and diverse. For example, HarperCollins, which publishes both p- and e-books, is owned by News Corporation which also publishes newspapers such as the Wall Street Journal and the Sunday Times. The Independent, a long-standing British newspaper, announced in early 2016 that it would be ceasing print editions after three decades, to focus solely on their online edition. The newspaper’s owner, Evgeny Lebedev, said, of the decision: ‘The newspaper industry is changing, and that change is being driven by readers . . . They’re showing us that the future is digital.’

Discussion questions 1 In addition to Amazon, Apple and Google, which non-publishing companies have become important to publishing since 2000? 2 Which models from other digital media (music, movies, games) might be applied to publishing in future? 3 Which e-readers existed before the Kindle? Why do you think the Kindle dominates the e-reader market?

4 What is STM publishing and how is it different from other forms of book publishing? 5 What do you think the future of print media is for (a) books, (b) newspapers, (c) magazines and (d) journals? 6 Why do you think some magazines are more popular in print format than digital format?

Who adds value in the publishing process?

Who adds value in the publishing process? Everyone in publishing is involved in one way or another in the ‘value chain’. At each stage, value is added by the performance of a specific function, an action or transaction. This added value is eventually realized when there is a transaction in which the goods or services satisfy the requirements of the end user.

How do publishers make money? All businesses require a favourable balancing of their income and expenditure. In the case of publishers, they need to generate a surplus to continue to acquire, develop, produce and distribute their publications. They keep track of their income and expenditure by the ‘profit and loss’ (or P&L) account. If you are serious about a career in publishing, you must never think that finance is ‘someone else’s job’, so don’t think of skipping over those sections in this book that cover finance! The levels of investments are different in different types of publishing. Educational publishing may require a high level of research, testing and compliance with curriculum requirements and educational quality assurance (QA) standards. The same will be true for publishers of teaching materials for major courses in higher levels of education and this must be taken into account when planning budgets for this kind of publication. Similarly, reference publications must be planned to incorporate the financial costs of collecting,

organizing and updating data on a regular, if not continuous, basis. The design and production costs of publishing trade and children’s books will vary greatly, but perception of quality remains equally important to buyers of p-books and to readers looking for enhanced user experience from e-books. Even if some of the costs of physical reproduction, mass production and stock (inventory) holding are reducing in the digital world, costs associated with product development, design, marketing and operability may well increase as publishers strive to satisfy the enhanced expectations of the market. There has been some controversy about the amount of tax being paid on e-books: some commentators believe this has led to the demise in e-books sales. A 2015 survey, by the International Publishers Association, found that, on average, e-books were taxed twice as much as p-books. Several European countries, such as the UK, Hungary and Sweden have waived tax for p-books and yet have a 20 per cent tax rate for e-books.

2.12 | The publishing value chain All of the value added by the author, publisher and distributor must be recouped from the eventual sale to the consumer.

Market research and editorial plan (content development)

Financing and publishing decisions (investment and risk management)

Product development and production (quality control – process management)

Marketing, sales and distribution (channel control)

Marketing and customer satisfaction (market communication)

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The publishing ecosystem

What income?

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Each sale of a printed book generates an income for the publisher related to the price the customer pays. For example, a book priced at £10 (or $/€10), if sold at full price, means that a customer will pay £10 (or $/€10) for the book, or maybe less if the bookseller is selling the book at a discount or on a special offer. If the book is bought from a bookseller, he or she pockets the sales income (£/$/€10 or less) and pays the publisher a price calculated with a percentage discount from the publisher’s price (usually between 45 per cent and 50 per cent, but anywhere up to 70 per cent in the case of supermarkets and e-booksellers) as a result of the demise of the net book agreement. So the publisher’s net income (Net Sales Revenue, NSR) is usually between 30 per cent and 55 per cent of a book’s list price. With this, the publisher has to pay for the costs of developing and producing the book, paying the author, promoting the book, paying the other overhead expenses of the business (salaries, office costs, utilities) and hopefully producing some profit.

In addition to revenue from sales, some publishers receive additional income from the subsidiary rights (such as translation, adaptation and serialization rights). These may be included in the publisher–author contract with income being split between them on an agreed percentage basis. In trade publishing many subsidiary rights (paperback, translation, film and other adaptation rights) now tend to be handled directly by the author’s agent.

Book publishers are now developing new sources of revenue, for example: ● ● ●

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Textbook e-book rental schemes Advertising ‘Slice and dice’ usage tracked by Digital Object Identifiers or watermarks Time-sensitive access Pay walls Individual and bundled subscription

The Net Book Agreement The Net Book Agreement (NBA) was an arrangement that allowed British publishers to set the retail price of their books and prevent booksellers from applying large discounts. The arrangement ran from for most of the twentieth century until the 1990s when Dillons, the large bookselling chain at the time, took legal action: this was followed by scrutiny from the Office of Fair Trading and the

withdrawal from the NBA by several major publishers. The NBA collapsed in 1995: hundreds of independent booksellers have gone out of business since because they cannot compete with the pricing, and discounts, of the major chains and online platforms. Other countries, such as Germany and France, still have fixed-price books and have a more diverse range of bookshops as a result.

Who adds value in the publishing process?

Table 2.2 How a publisher may get a 10 per cent profit!

Publisher’s cover price

10.00 7.99

Bookseller’s price (promotional price to customer) Bookseller pays publisher cover price less 45%

5.50

Publisher’s net income (Net Sales Revenue – NSR)

5.50

Less Author’s royalty (10% of NSR)

0.55

Production cost (approx. 20% of NSR)

1.10

Marketing, warehouse, distribution and unsold stock costs (approx. 30% of NSR)

1.65

Other overhead costs (i.e. salaries, office costs, insurance, etc.) (30% of NSR)

1.65

Publisher’s profit 5.50 – 0.55 – 1.10 – 1.65 – 1.65

0.55 (10% of NSR)

Discussion questions 1 What is the most important thing to take into account when deciding to publish a book? 2 Why do different types of publishing need to take the level of investment into account? 3 How do publishers ‘add value’?

4 What is Net Sales Revenue? 5 Do you think the NBA, or something similar, should be reintroduced to the UK/American publishing industries and why? 6 Do you think e-books should be taxed, and why?

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The publishing ecosystem

Case study

Amazon and EBSCO 70

A number of large enterprises have recently emerged in publishing distribution, and this case study looks at two of these: Amazon (a name that is probably familiar) and EBSCO (which may not be).

Amazon Amazon is one of the biggest and most recognizable brands in the world. The company works ceaselessly to consolidate its position as a major supplier of many kinds of consumer goods, including publications. Through its book-supply system it has a commanding market share of the supply of printed books, and by the launch of consecutive versions of the Kindle, it has been one of the most important companies in the development of the market sector for e-books. Amazon’s launched its first bricks-and-mortar bookstore in 2015; this came as a surprise to many people in the book industry since the introduction of cheap books, readily available on Amazon’s website, has had a negative impact on both chain and independent bookshops. Amazon’s dominance of book retailing, and its foray into [self] publishing, has left many authors, publishers, agents and booksellers disgruntled. For example, Amazon and the Hachette Book Group had an ongoing battle over e-book pricing: Amazon wanted to offer most e-books at the same low price, irrespective of author or publisher, while Hachette wanted control over the price of their e-titles. The companies settled their dispute in 2014: Hachette retained responsibility for setting their title prices. Amazon came under scrutiny, during the dispute, for its aggressive tactics, namely removing discounts, delaying delivery and deleting the pre-order facility for Hachette titles.

The Amazon online bookstore opened in 1995, stocking and selling physical books, first in the United States, and rapidly expanding to the UK, mainland Europe and Asia. When books started to be produced by print-on-demand, Amazon quickly linked their supply systems with a major POD supplier, and then came Amazon Kindle. ●

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By monitoring their online behaviour, Amazon profiles its customers in order to target promotions via email and during visits to the website. Amazon encourages users to write reviews and make recommendations. This adds to the information it holds on visitors to the site, and information that it gathers through the analysis of customer browsing patterns. Amazon has purchased a couple of social reading websites in the last few years – Shelfari and Goodreads (Shelfari was later subsumed into Goodreads in 2016) – showing that consumer data and behaviour is important to their business model. Amazon’s physical bookstore opened in Seattle in 2015. The titles, which are based on Amazon’s algorithms and Goodreads’ recommendations, are the same price as they are online. The Amazon website is user friendly, and through effective SEO (search engine optimization) Amazon ranks highly on searches for an author or book title. Amazon launched a publishing programme in 2009. Since then, Amazon Publishing has developed a number of imprints such as Amazon Crossing, launched in 2010, which focuses on translated books, Jet City Comics, launched in 2013, which focuses on comic books and graphic novels, and Kindle Worlds, launched in 2013, which focuses on fan fiction.

Case study

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Amazon is now becoming a significant publisher in its own right, particularly in genres such as romance, mystery and westerns. It has also developed self-publishing packages for the Kindle. Amazon is an international company with websites aimed at many major markets (Amazon.com, amazon.co.uk, amazon.de and amazon.cn among others). By 2017 it had more than 200 distribution centres in North America, Europe and Asia. Amazon has disrupted the book-publishing industry since it began trading discounted books online. Since then, it has launched a number of new initiatives (some outlined above) that are altering traditional publishing models. For example, Kindle Unlimited is an e-book subscription service for the Kindle; while it offers unlimited access to e-books it does not include titles by any of the Big Five publishers. Additionally Amazon’s KDP Select programme pays its authors royalties on a pay-perview model: this route is for authors who self-published via Kindle Direct Publishing platform and whose books are available through Kindle Unlimited. Amazon has also launched a free audiobook service, in addition to paid-for Audible, through Amazon Echo. Kindle Books by Alexa allows Amazon’s robotic voice, Alexa, to read any book from your e-book library aloud for you.

EBSCO EBSCO was established in 1944 and now bills itself as ‘the world’s leading information agent’. ●

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EBSCO subscription services are used by tens of thousands of institutions worldwide, in more than 100 counties, representing millions of end users. EBSCO services enable information creators and users to manage content, including print and e-journals, e-packages, research databases and e-books. Its services are used by university and research libraries to manage their collections and to provide integrated services to researchers and other library users. In 2016, EBSCO partnered with Penguin Random House to make all of their (21,000+) e-book titles available through EBSCO e-books. EBSCO provides support services to its users to ensure that software is compatible, language needs are met and training is given to librarians and users. EBSCO supplies e-books and audiobooks to libraries in three different ways: an ownership model based on the number of users that can access an e-book at any given time; a subscription model that offers large collections of titles in high-interest subject areas; and a lease model under which e-books can be made available through a library system for a limited period. The partnership with Penguin Random House means that EBSCO now has over 800,000 e-books in its collection. EBSCO is committed to energy conservation and other green measures, and also provides free universal access to GreenFILE, a research database focusing on the relationship between human beings and the environment. GreenFILE covers information on topics ranging from global warming to recycling to alternative fuel sources, and contains scholarly and general interest titles, as well as government documents and reports.

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The publishing ecosystem

Interview

72

Maria Vassilopoulos, Business Development Manager for The Bookseller

Describe your role I am Business Development Manager for The Bookseller and part of that is running The Bookseller Jobs, including online, email, print and social media. I have also created two new previews in the magazine, Craft, Home and Garden which I write and Non-Book Product which I commission. What do you like best about your role? I enjoy being in the industry, I like helping people on an individual level with CVs and interview technique as well as helping companies find candidates for their roles. I also enjoy connecting with people through different mediums both online and in print. Which new initiatives are you working on at the moment? My role is to keep The Bookseller Jobs the place to go for recruitment in the book industry. That means constantly evolving and working with new clients and associations. I especially enjoy working with the Publishers Association, Creative Access, The SYP (Society of Young Publishers) and STM Early Careers. I also work with all the universities that offer publishing qualifications and am part of a publishing HR forum. It’s part of the industry that is constantly changing.

What are the key skills that aspiring publishers need? There are many people of all ages that have the usual skills for the various jobs in publishing; however, I believe the route to get in is often reliant on experience and not skills. Unpaid internships mean that not everyone can afford to gain experience and I always recommend bookselling as an alternative if asked by my followers @Jobsinbooks. Publishing has few apprenticeships but there are graduate schemes and the industry is taking notice and moving in the right direction. For the day job you need to be proactive, adaptive and ideas driven and also willing to get involved. You also need to know your social media and a good way to research is to see where and what publishers are posting. There may be things they are not doing. A love of books is great but not all you need. What advice would you give to those looking to work in the industry? Read the job description. Write the cover letter answering what they are looking for, all the day-to-day tasks listed are what the hirer wants you to do. Save the ‘I love reading’ bit for the interview. Work in a bookshop or sell some books somewhere. Even if you want to be an editor remember publishing is a commercial-led business and sales is a crucial part. Research the publishers you are applying to – they are not all the same. Go for a job you want to do or you feel will give you skills for the dream job later on. Your career is ever-changing and evolving so follow your own path and don’t forget who you are along the way. And, obviously check the jobs site www.Jobs.thebookseller.com, @Jobsinbooks

Summary

Summary Key points

Activity

Amazon and EBSCO have developed supply-chain businesses that control supply to a large part of their respective markets. This gives them great influence with the following results.

Larger companies are increasingly dominating the distribution of all types of publication, from bestselling trade books, to STM and scholarly journals, and self-published POD (print on demand) and e-books. Some groups of smaller publishers, such as the Faber & Faber Independent Alliance, and groups of independent booksellers such as the American Booksellers Association IndieBound, have come together to act as a counterpoint to them.

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Publishers now develop their products and services with specific attention paid to the needs of these channels. Customers (and authors, agents, and publishers) increasingly have little choice but to deal with them. The financial terms of the relationship between publishers and the supply chain (discounts and/or commissions) are to some extent dictated by these companies. Other companies, such as independent booksellers and library suppliers, find it hard to compete and often go out of business, particularly in countries where there is no legal or customary fixed-price regime for publications. Global distribution of e-books and other digital publications has made it easier for these companies to conduct business successfully on an international basis. Issues of freight, customs and taxation are more easily reconciled for intangible products than they are for physical publications. Territorial rights are a major concern of these supply-chain giants. Their interests are advanced if global territorial market rights are established. Library usage of publications supplied by these companies (and use by non-authorized readers) is increasingly controlled by both specific licence agreements and security software. Sustainability and environment responsibility are important to some companies connected with publishing. The use of energy by the industry is a matter of concern for some, as firms such as Amazon and EBSCO utilize large server farms to store data and as a result, large amounts of energy are expended in operating and keeping cool the servers.

1 What can smaller distribution outlets offer to make them competitive in the market? 2 Is it possible for smaller firms to develop e-book distribution systems that are attractive to consumers? 3 Can book buyers be persuaded to pay higher prices for a more personal service? 4 Can you identify any similar schemes which encourage smaller publishing companies to develop alternative supply chains? 5 Can you identify other publishing-related companies that have shown a concrete commitment to the environment, similar to ESBCO’s GreenFILE? 6 Is publishing a cultural or commercial endeavour? 7 In light of technology developments: Do you think authors still need publishers?

Further resources Bhaskar, M. (2013,) The Content Machine: Towards a Theory of Publishing from the Printing Press to the Digital Network, London: Anthem. Campbell, R., Pentz, E. and Borthwick, I. (2012), Academic and Professional Publishing, London: Chandos. Clark, G. and Phillips, A. (2014), Inside Book Publishing, 5th edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Greco, A.N, Milliot, J. and Wharton, R.M. (2013), The Book Publishing Industry, 3rd edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Hall, F. (2013), The Business of Digital Publishing: An Introduction to the Digital Book and Journal Industries, Abingdon: Routledge. Lyons, R.E. and Rayner, S.J. (2016), The Academic Book of the Future, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Miller, L.J. (2006), Reluctant Capitalists: Bookselling and the Culture of Consumption, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Morris, S., Barnas, E., LaFrenier, D. and Reich, M. (2013), The Handbook of Journal Publishing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stam, D. and Scott, A. (2014), Inside Magazine Publishing, Abingdon: Routledge. Thompson, J.B. (2010), Merchants of Culture, Cambridge: Polity.

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3

Writers, readers and intermediaries

Publishers have, traditionally, connected readers with writers, and they do this by working with other people who have specialist skills. The people involved in this process of communication and dissemination are sometimes envisaged as a ‘book chain’, which contains several distinct groups, such as writers, publishers, printers, booksellers, libraries and readers: all linked together in a linear way to convey a message from the creator to the user of a published text. All the component links of this ‘book chain’ are seen as necessary to ensure the smooth functioning of the process. However, digital developments have meant that this consecutive linear process – from author to editor to designer to production to sales, marketing and distribution – has morphed into a more complex network, in which members work in a far more interrelated and interdependent way: new roles merge with old ones and new relationships are being formed. It is now even more important to understand the roles of the different intermediaries and how they interact, and while subsequent chapters will look at the editorial (Chapter 4), design and production (Chapter 5) and marketing (Chapter 8) functions, this chapter particularly focuses on how the authors role in the ‘book chain’ or ‘book network’ is affected by various intermediaries.

Authors, illustrators, creators and their rights

Authors, illustrators, creators and their rights From the point at which an author first envisages preparing a work for publication, he or she becomes involved in communicating with others about it. The first significant milestone in this communication is often the preparation of a publishing proposal. In trade publishing, publishers, particularly the larger ones, tend to deal with literary agents rather than receiving unsolicited manuscripts. Consequently, literary agents are now the key gatekeepers in the Anglo-American publishing industries since they are, often, the first point of call for authors.

Book proposal

What’s all this about ‘content’?

The relationship between author and publisher usually begins with the publishing proposal, a document that lays out the rationale for a particular book. Proposals for fiction might include a plot outline and details of the major characters and setting. Non-fiction proposals typically identify a working title and give a brief description of the work. This proposal will include a synopsis of the book; the reasons why the title is needed by the marketplace; its intended level and approach to the subject; and a list of the key features. In most cases the author also provides a detailed outline of the book, its proposed structure and chapter headings; and the estimated length of the work. The publisher will want to know the author’s views on primary and secondary markets for the proposed title, with key selling features and details of any competition. Details of the author’s experience and professional standing, and the titles (and sales history) of any previous publications will also be useful in evaluating the proposal.

On the basis of the publishing proposal, authors and publishers both hope to get some financial reward from the creation and publication of the work, which will entail developing specific content. By using the term ‘content’, publishers and other media industries denote the intangible intellectual property (IP), that can be ‘owned’, ‘controlled’, ‘exploited’, ‘managed’, ‘versioned’ and ‘delivered’ to customers, consumers and other users in various formats and on different digital platforms. Content can be seen in terms of being ‘a bundle of rights’ (not only the rights to produce a book-length publication, but also a variety of subsidiary rights). Everyone with an interest in these rights (authors, agents, publishers and other media companies) will seek to protect their entitlement to benefit from them. Fostering this content as widely as possible also increases the opportunity to increase both profit and visibility. Content management in the digital media environment is a complex task, and each day brings new challenges as original work is adapted for an array of media, such as games, apps and animations. It requires skills in editorial development, design, and physical and digital production to do this. Because of these complexities, publishers have extended their networks of collaboration to encompass skills from a broad range of IT professionals, game designers, brand architects and digital innovators. The value of the content of any work is thus a combination of the intrinsic value that results from the originality and expertise used to create a work; and the skill and sensitivity with which the material is adapted to appeal to a particular readership. Important, too, is the effective communication of the potential value of the work to an audience that may gain access to it through a variety of means: purchase, official loan, unofficial borrowing, sharing, communities, and even illegal copying. Both formal and informal networks play a part in this process.

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Writers, readers and intermediaries

Authorship

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Until recently, many writers and illustrators were resistant to adopting non-bookish methods of communication and distribution, and some authors still think of the book primarily in its physical printed manifestation, while accepting and even welcoming the possibility of publication in digital formats. Authors generally identify themselves as working in a particular genre or type of publishing (for example literary fiction, or guidebooks) but there is now a tendency for successful authors to extend their writing into new, often more lucrative, areas (such as cookery books or autobiography). Some illustrators, photographers and graphic artists, and a small but growing number of avant-garde authors, are at the forefront of exploring

new models such as non-consecutive text, multiple narratives and readers’ contributions. Most of this experimental publishing is done by smaller publishers or by the writers and artists themselves. For example, Unbound’s participatory model of publishing – which crowdfunds projects – has proved to be popular with readers and critics (see p. 110). However, major publishers and authors have also experimented with formats and models of participatory publishing. For example: Penguin Books and De Montfort University’s collaboration, in 2007, to create A Million Penguins, an experimental wikinovel; Margaret Atwood and Naomi Alderman serialized the novel The Happy Zombie Sunrise Home, which was published via Wattpad (see p. 96) in 2012.

New views of authenticity and ownership Authorship implies (and in the case of the author’s contractual relationship with a publisher, it requires a guarantee of) originality, but even this is under question in the digital publishing environment. In 2010 Helene Hegemann’s controversial novel Axolotl Roadkill, published by Ullstein, showed that some authors now see writing as being akin to the musical remix or software mash-up, in which other people’s writing is adapted without acknowledgement or permission. Hegemann maintains that what she called authenticity rather than originality is now the important thing about writing – you can, she maintains, use other authors’ works so long as you arrange it in an original way. In another example, Michel Houellebecq used some Wikipedia entries (including a description of how flies have sex) for

his 2010 novel La Carte et le Territoire without acknowledgement. If anyone can edit these words, the argument runs, why cannot anyone use them? The sometimes unclear status of works published on the internet, and the belief that not everything has to be subject to a strict regime of intellectual property (IP) ownership, has been accompanied by the development of Creative Commons (CC) licences, which ‘provide a free, public, and standardized infrastructure that creates a balance between the reality of the internet and the reality of copyright laws’. The standardized Creative Commons licences do not replace copyright, although they are based on it. They allow different kinds of reuse where no commercial compensation is sought by the copyright owner.

Authors, illustrators, creators and their rights

The craft of writing Authorship, as recognized by publishers, reviewers and readers, represents the exercise of a skill in communicating with an audience. A central part of the publishing process is the way in which agents and editors work with authors to develop their writing abilities; consolidate their awareness of how best to communicate with their readership; and provide a framework that nurtures successful authorship, effective publishing and satisfied readers. The process of working with a professional agent or editor is a major way in which writers have traditionally learned their craft.

These days there is a healthy debate about whether good writing can be taught, and many MA and MFA courses cover the craft of writing: from scientific and technical writing, to travel and food writing, to poetry and the amorphous field known as creative writing. These courses attempt to systematize the learning of authorship skills, and have been commercially successful for some. Many prominent literary authors have attended such courses, including Ian McEwan, Kazuo Ishiguro, Anne Enright and Tracy Chevalier, who have all emerged from the University of East Anglia Creative Writing Course in the UK since 1970. In the United States there are MFA courses at over 300 universities, such as those at NYU, University of Texas at Austin and University of California at Irvine.

3.1 | Kazuo Ishiguro Kazuo Ishiguro, Nobel prize-winning author of Never Let Me Go, Remains of the Day and The Buried Giant studied creative writing at the University of East Anglia in the UK, on the postgraduate course established by Malcolm Bradbury. Bradbury once said that when he proposed starting the course ‘it was then generally believed in Britain that creative writing was a dangerous American import, like the McDonald Hamburger, and no-one would ever eat it’.

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Author’s rights

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Authors, illustrators and anyone else who creates something that may be published all have rights in what they have created, whether it is published or not. While an idea (or indeed a book title) is not protected by copyright law, the moment the idea is expressed (written down, sketched or noted on an electronic device) it becomes the intellectual property of the creator and may not be used by anyone else without his or her agreement. As we have already seen in Chapter 1, these rights are protected by copyright laws enacted by the legislative bodies in most countries of the world, and are given international recognition through the Berne Convention. Creators grant a licence to publishers to exploit the rights that they have in their work in many different ways. The usual method of payment is by a percentage royalty on the publisher’s income. At the time of contract (or on publication) an advance may be paid against anticipated future

royalties. On many occasions work done by an author is considered ‘work for hire’ and the ownership rests with the person who has paid the author’s fee, usually the publisher. Chapter 4 explores the way in which the negotiation of the contract fits into the editorial process. Intellectual property management (IPM) is one of the fundamentals of commercial publishing. Without it, those who create content and who determine how the content is presented to readers (the ‘arrangement’) could not assert their legal right to benefit from its production and distribution. The digital culture has led publishers and authors to fear a rapid increase in unauthorized copying and file-sharing (otherwise known as piracy) similar to that experienced for recorded music, film and computer games. Developments in digital rights management have created complex structures to map and manage all sorts of content, from book-length publications to very short copyright elements, sometimes referred to as ‘granular’ content.

Discussion questions 1 What might be included in a publishing proposal? 2 Is digital publishing changing our views of what constitutes original publishing content? 3 Can authorship be learned? 4 Why is copyright important? Is adapting and incorporating someone else’s work without

acknowledgement becoming more acceptable? Do you see plagiarism becoming more or less important in the future of publishing? 5 Do you think copyright laws need to be changed to reflect contemporary practices? 6 What can traditional publishers learn from crowdfunding?

Agents and other gatekeepers

Agents and other gatekeepers The advent of literary agents changed the way in which the author was represented, giving them more control over their work. When literature became commercialized it established writing as a profession; this gave rise to the need for an intermediary between authors and publishers. The first literary agent of any significance, in the UK, was Alexander Patterson Watt (1875) who previously had a career in publishing and in bookselling: during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many literary agencies developed in the UK. The literary agent became a more important figure in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, mainly as a result of publishing companies increasingly becoming international, cross-media conglomerates. Editors were now moving from one publishing company to the next, leaving the author without an ally in a large company, and a range of new subsidiary rights were available to exploit. Consequently, the literary agent has become the author’s constant ally and negotiator. Although they now represent the interests of authors across the publishing landscape, literary agents play a more important role in trade and children’s publishing, to the extent that it is now very difficult to get published by many established trade publishing houses without the intercession of an agent. Gone are the days when a publishers reader would wade through the ‘slush pile’ of unsolicited manuscripts; although many small presses do accept unsolicited manuscripts. Even when works that have not been commissioned or not come to the publisher via an agent are financially successful, the authors are then often signed up by an agent. Although this may mean that publishers have to pay more, such arrangements are often to the advantage of the author, the publisher and – of course – the agent. The role of the literary agent is now multifaceted, and can include acting as the author’s editor, lawyer and accountant.

The author’s relationship with publishers and agents The editor is often a very important person in developing an author’s style and career, working with the author on the book proposal and on the work in progress; preparing manuscripts for publication; and acting as a friend and mentor throughout the author’s career. To some extent, though, the editor’s role has diminished in this century and been replaced by that of the author’s agent, in particular for authors writing fiction. This is as a result of the shift and change that happened in the publishing industry due to the conglomeration of the publishing industry, which resulted in fewer publishing houses and less in-house staff, with many editors being subcontracted. This put a strain on the author’s relationship with the publisher, and editor, and strengthened their relationship with the their agent. Agents seek to identify promising talent at an early stage, develop a publishing strategy, and negotiate the best deal on behalf of the author with publishers and other media outlets at home and abroad. A good agent will get more income for the author, add value to the author’s brand, and help to develop a credible media platform from which other activities can be pursued. Agents typically receive a percentage of the payments that they negotiate for an author’s work, usually around 15 per cent on home sales and 20 per cent on transatlantic and most other rights. There are specialist agents who handle big-money negotiations such as film rights. The author’s agent may now take on some of the editor’s responsibilities, such as providing editorial guidance and approving the final copy, influencing promotion and publicity campaigns, and developing other income possibilities. These may include personal appearances, product endorsements and lucrative media spin-offs, for example in TV and radio. Since the post-2010 explosion of the e-book as a format for the

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general reading public, some agents (such as Andrew Wylie and Ed Victor) have launched e-book services of their own. These agent-led e-book publishing activities

were intended to benefit authors who receive a much bigger share of the income (50 per cent) than they would from traditional publishing deals.

Table 3.1 Royalty payments

Royalties, fees and agents A publisher pays the author a royalty on sales according to a schedule agreed in the contract. While the range of royalties will vary, they will tend to be in the following ranges.

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Hardback

In the range of 5%–12% (of cover price) or 10%–15% (of net sales receipts – NSR)

Trade paperback

Usually less than the hardback royalty rate (in a range 5%–10% of NSR)

E-book

Growing from a base of 15%–25% to 40%–50% of digital net receipts

Translation rights

50% of publisher’s receipts (what is received from the publisher of the foreign language edition)

Other subsidiary rights

40%–60% of publisher’s receipts

Other potentially high-value rights, such as film and merchandising rights, are subject to negotiation. The way in which agents are now acting as publishers for their clients is another indication that the traditional linear functions implied by the book chain are taking on a new form in the current network environment.

UK or US publisher (volume rights)

Author

UK or US publisher (rights sale)

Other English language rights (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa)

Foreign publisher (translation rights)

Literary agent

Author and Publishers Authors, Agents and Publishers

Merchandising

Film rights

Other subsidiary rights

Agents and other gatekeepers

The publisher’s relationship with agents Publishers recognize that dealing with agents can make their life easier. Negotiations with agents may be tougher than they used to be with financially naive authors, but the two sides are, in general, speaking the same language. Every clause of the author–publisher contract doesn’t need to be explained afresh to each new author. Payments are made and reconciled with a smaller number of fellow professionals, and can be discussed in terms that all parties understand. On the other hand, agents may hold back some of the rights (including the more lucrative ones) that the publisher might otherwise have been able to persuade the author to give up. Payments (fees, royalties and advances) will almost certainly be higher, and publishers need to be more punctilious in their record-keeping and prompt in their payments. The relationship between the author and the publisher may suffer in all this, but the growing power and importance of the agent has added a new and revitalizing element to the publishing network. Agents have taken on additional intermediary roles such as e-publishing and the promotion of clients for speaking engagements, and they are likely to continue to expand into other sectors of the media industry.

Literary consultancies In addition to the fact that the authors of children’s, fiction and non-fiction books are unlikely to find a publisher without having the support of an agent, many agents prefer authors who have been recommended to them by a literary consultancy, a new type of

gatekeeper that has emerged in recent years. Literary consultancies charge fees for workshops and plot advice, supply critical reader’s reports and help with putting together publishing proposals. These consultancies also charge a commission (around 10 per cent) if they are successful in placing the author’s work with an agent, which means that the trawling that used to be done by publishers and then by literary agents is now sometimes being done by a third level of gatekeepers. This is at the budding author’s expense, but an increasing number accept that there are additional hurdles to jump and additional up-front costs to bear.

The effect of agents on publishing As other people (literary agents and consultancies) take on some of the tasks previously undertaken by editors in trade publishing, the publisher’s role is being redefined. The publisher or commissioning editor continues to be responsible for developing publishing projects that will fulfil the expectations of the company’s sales, marketing and finance departments. However, this is done not, as previously, solely by developing a publishing programme or stable of authors from scratch, but also by judiciously acquiring rights from other intermediaries. Consultants and agents, who are in touch with a wide range of potential publishers in major markets around the world, have often already cultivated these works. Some publishers hire literary scouts to seek out titles published in other countries and languages that may be suitable for them to publish in a local edition. Literary translators are also influential in recommending books to publishers.

‘Being involved in every stage of putting together a non-fiction book proposal, offering substantial editing on fiction manuscripts, and coming up with book ideas for authors looking for their next project is as much a part of our work as selling, negotiating contracts, and collecting monies for our clients. We follow a book from its inception through its sale to a publisher, its publication, and beyond. Our commitment to our writers does not, by any means, end when we have collected our commission.’ Dystel & Goderich Literary Management (now Dystel, Goderich & Bourret LLC), New York

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The author’s identity

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The process of mentoring an author, and the intervention of a number of different people in the development of a title, mean that the publication that is eventually offered for sale is not just the written work. The publication package includes the brand identity of the author – his or her future potential value as an income generator. This can make the risk of a high advance and a multi-book contract worth entering into. The author, whether a ‘celebrity’ or an ‘expert’ (hopefully articulate and good-looking enough for TV – or engagingly offensive), can be a major component of the marketing mix. Authors are encouraged to create personal brands, their own ‘platforms’, which enable them to develop other income-generating activities (personal appearances, magazine articles, TV and radio spots, merchandise, and training programmes). Publishing in the twenty-first century has become increasingly ‘celebrity’ and brand-name author driven. For example, celebrity memoirs feature regularly on the non-fiction bestseller lists and a spate of famous people have written, or have had ghostwritten, works of fiction, which has caused some controversy in the book world (see box). Potential bestselling authors, both

Ghostwriting is when a writer creates work, which is then credited to another person. Ghostwriting is especially prevalent in celebrity memoirs or works of fiction associated with the celebrity. For example, a recent publishing phenomenon is the crossover of YouTube ‘vloggers’ into print media. 2014 and 2015, in particular, saw many books by vloggers topping the charts. These, often young, vloggers build very large audiences online and this can translate into sales of printed works. An

brand name and celebrity, receive very large advances and marketing budgets while the advances for lesserknown authors are decreasing. Also, many authors are now celebrities in their own right and experience similar media coverage to their counterparts in the film, music and television industries. Readers develop a relationship with their favourite authors: it is this relationship that helps motivate them to buy different titles by that author because they trust the association with the author’s name. Consultancies, agents and publishers encourage authors to build up such a portfolio approach to self-promotion through the use of social media. This is not just true at a mass-market level: academic authors, politicians and other professionals find it difficult to get an enthusiastic and committed agent or publisher if they cannot first demonstrate that they have a status outside of their narrow specialist field, and are able to communicate this expertise and can come across engagingly in the wider media. The publication of a successful book (hopefully the beginning of a successful series of publications and adaptations in other media) also contributes to the professional standing of the authors, and pays back to the author, agent and publisher in terms of increased sales and profit.

example of this is Zoe Suggs, known as Zoella: her debut novel Girl Online, published by Penguin Random House, sold 78,109 copies in the first week, making it the UK’s fastest-selling book (since Nielsen’s started collecting data in 1998). However, it was revealed that Girl Online had actually been ghostwritten: the book and Zoella have since received backlash. Despite this, Zoella published the sequel to Girl Online in 2015, ostensibly without the help of a ghostwriter.

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3.2 | M Train by Patti Smith Patti Smith is a singer-songwriter who has successfully combined her music career with writing. In 2010, she won the National Book Award for her memoir, Just Kids. M Train was first published in 2015.

Discussion questions 1 Why do authors use agents? 2 How is the role of agents changing? 3 What is the difference between an author’s agent and a literary consultancy? 4 What is an author’s platform, and how has this developed over the years?

5 What does the popularity of ghostwritten books tell us about the reception and demand for cultural content? 6 What genres do you think branding, of authors, works particularly well with?

Writers, readers and intermediaries

Network and opinion formers Changes in the means and nature of communication, with an increasing number of channels available, means that there are now lots of new ways to disseminate information about publishing products and services. The communication and promotion to potential readers is part of a publishing communications network, using an ever-increasing variety of media and methods to create buzz and word-of-mouth recommendation.

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Publisher, catalogue, website

Word-of-mouth

Bookseller, catalogue, website

Email promotion

Merchandise

Social media, ‘likes’ and ‘shares’

Book promotion video

Posters and window displays

Print, web and media advertisements

Bestseller Adaptations and extensions (TV, games and films)

Newspaper and magazine reviews

Book prizes

Interviews in press and other media

TV and radio shows

Author appearances and readings

3.3 | How to make a bestseller

Network and opinion formers

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3.4 | John Green With a career that covers writing novels, vlogging, producing and acting, John Green is a good example of a writer who works across the media. His YouTube ventures, in particular, attract a broad fan base.

3.5 | Jacqueline Wilson Children’s authors have some of the most engaging websites. These young ‘digital natives’ are used to navigating quite complex sites, and children’s publisher and author websites need lots of activities to engage them – sticky content that keeps them on the site and returning for more.

Writers, readers and intermediaries

Word-of-mouth and self-promotion

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The concepts behind ‘word-of-mouth’ (WOM) are applicable to any professional and specialist network in which people talk to each other and make recommendations, and personal recommendation is often cited as the most important way to ensure success in publishing. We tend to trust messages from our friends and family (or a trusted brand), and recommendations from these trusted sources are more convincing than a promotion sent by someone we don’t know. WOM is not a new concept, in 1925 Little Brown announced, in Publishers Weekly, of one of its books that, ‘ “Word of Mouth” advertising has carried this fine novel into nation-wide popularity’. Self-promotion is managed through the judicious use of social media, which can give a direct, authentic, voice to the author. Most authors have their own websites, and many have blogs, and use social networking tools with which they seek to build an online identity. Some consultants and entrepreneurs have recognized that authors are often not adept at such self-promotion and have developed businesses to help authors in this demanding task. Creating publicity also entails author appearances, interviews (managed, of course, by the publicity department or agency), readings in bookshops, at festivals, on podcasts and in other digital media. Online recommendations, from websites and reading communities such as Amazon and Goodreads (owned by Amazon), Jellybooks, and My Independent Bookshop (see Chapter 1) have become increasingly important. Social media, particularly Twitter, is also influential for WOM promotion. For example, Stephen Fry tweeted his endorsement of David Eagleman’s Sum

in 2009: the sales of the book increased 6,000 per cent in one day.

Prizes Prizes play a significant role in book promotion. Big annual prizes include the Man Booker Prize in the UK, the Prix Goncourt in France, and the International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award. In the United States, winning a Pulitzer Prize can be a big boost to any writer’s career, and in Canada the Governor General’s Literary Awards attract national interest in both francophone and anglophone writing. There are many other prizes for writers, translators, illustrators and publishers, and while some carry significant prize money, the real value to the author and publisher is often in the increased sales that result from the publicity surrounding the winner of one of the big prizes. Prizes often cause controversy, which can also help sales. One example of such controversy was the award of the biennial Man Booker International Prize to Philip Roth in 2011. One of the judges, Carmen Callil, resigned from the panel and criticized the award of the prize to the famous American author saying: ‘He goes on and on and on about the same subject in almost every single book. It’s as though he’s sitting on your face and you can’t breathe.’ Needless to say the controversy led to extensive press, radio and TV coverage. Literary prizes act as a marker of cultural value: subsequently, once an author has won a prize, or even if they have been long- or shortlisted, the publisher often capitalizes on this by including this information on publicity material, including the front cover of the book.

‘The negotiation between marketplace, counting house and the literary and intellectual environment is perennial in the publishing industry and so, as an adjunct to the industry, literary prizes are subject to those negotiations too. Literary prizes frequently intend to reward literary value – to fulfil “the demands of excellence” – but can also have the effect of increasing sales and promoting business.’ Professor Claire Squires, writing in Javnost – The Public: Journal of the European Institute for Communication and Culture

Network and opinion formers

3.6 | The Man Booker Prize The Man Booker Prize is a literary prize awarded each year for the best original novel, written in the English language and published in the UK. From its inception, only Commonwealth, Irish and South African (later Zimbabwean) citizens were eligible to receive the prize; in 2014, however, this eligibility was widened to any English-language novel. Here, a stack of the shortlisted titles for 2016 can be seen.

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Traditional review media Reviews in newspapers, magazines and on radio and TV have always played an important role in helping potential readers to identify and evaluate new books that might be of interest to them. Publishers still go to great lengths to solicit good reviews, but the nature of these reviews is changing. Many daily and weekly titles no longer have a literary editor responsible just for book reviews, and reviews are often linked to what is called ‘off-the-page’ selling through newspaper e-commerce sites such as the Guardian Book Shop. More and more coverage of books is celebrity driven and

the interview or exposé is now the stock-in-trade of book coverage in the media. Literary editors, and the digital media gatekeepers (for example, vloggers, bloggers and tweeters with lots of followers) who are replacing them, are successful if they are trusted, and their recommendations become known, circulated and further recommended among a wider circle of readers. This is as true for educational, academic and STM publications as for trade fiction. Getting a positive review on a specialist blog, website or publication is a hugely valuable way of reaching a niche readership. However, the authority, reliability and impartiality of some reviews are now in question due to the

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predominance of advertorial comment (something that looks impartial but is actually paid for like advertising), as well as online reader reviews, and cross-media promotion orchestrated by a cultural elite. In 2015, a group of authors started a campaign to increase the number of children’s book reviews in traditional media. The authors argue that children’s books accounted for only 5 per cent of reviews, in the UK, despite having a 30 per cent share of the market. Reading clubs, both in the home and in the media, are a significant way in which books are promoted. Publishers promote their books for book-club readership and TV and radio media have played their part. Oprah in the United States and Richard and Judy in the UK were able to generate enough buzz for book recommendations made in their TV shows to create instant bestsellers. Online reading clubs have also grown in popularity over the years, especially ones created by celebrities. In 2016, Emma Watson launched a feminist book club, Our Shared Shelf, on Goodreads while Mark Zuckerberg created A Year In Books on Facebook. Social media is a popular way for celebrities to build reading communities: Reese Witherspoon runs her bookclub on Instagram while Kim Kardarshian and and Chrissy Teigen started theirs on Twitter.

Promotion buzz is not a new thing. ‘The publisher had hoped for this. Mr Jedwood was an energetic and sanguine man, who had entered upon his business with a determination to rival in a year or so the houses which had slowly risen into commanding stability. He had no great capital, but the stroke of fortune that had wedded him to a popular novelist enabled him to count on steady profit from one source, and boundless faith in his own judgement urged him to an initial outlay which made the prudent shake their heads. He talked much of “the new era”, foresaw revolutions in publishing and book-selling, planned every week a score of untried ventures which should appeal to the democratic generation just maturing; in the meantime, was ready to publish anything which seemed likely to get talked about.’ George Gissing, New Grub Street, 1891 (This is a fictional account of someone creating a buzz.)

Discussion questions 1 What are the best ways to generate word-ofmouth publicity? 2 Why are literary prizes important? 3 How have book reviews changed in the digital publishing world? 4 What factors can be important in creating a bestseller? 5 Who and what do literary prizes serve? 6 Do you think the influence of celebrity in the book world is a positive or negative thing and why?

Channels to readers and buyers

Channels to readers and buyers Producing the best book in the world is pointless if nobody reads it. You must have the ability to communicate with the people who want it and have a channel through which it can reach the customers at the right time, in the right quantity, and at a price that they find acceptable. The role of distributors and bookshops in this process is changing and there are many new kinds of supply services being developed that bring new types of business model to the greater publishing network.

Communication and supply channels Communication channels and supply channels have fundamentally changed in the digital culture. Communication and supply now take place at all hours of the day and night; they happen across time zones and national boundaries. Every transaction entails an evaluation by the customer of comparative cost, speed, convenience and the likelihood of satisfying personal expectations. People have needs that are increasingly time sensitive and are immediately validated (or not) by real and virtual social network pressures. Book buyers, like consumers of all kinds, have grown accustomed to being able to choose from a huge range of options. Their needs can often be met by any number of services providing possible solutions. The way publications are acquired has changed. In the decade after 2000, publishing waited for what was termed its ‘iPod moment’ similar to the revolution that happened in the music industry with the invention of iTunes. That moment came with the Kindle, the iPad and the Nook. These devices and the supply chains that provide them with content have brought the e-book into the mainstream. Publishers continue to look to the music industry for innovation models. For example, the idea of ‘playlists’ of texts is being developed as a new way of delivering customized selections of text; something that could be particularly useful for publications such as cookery books and travel guides.

3.7 | The Martian by Andy Weir The Martian is a debut science fiction novel by Andy Weir. Weir originally self-published the novel, in serial format, on his personal blog; however, soon received requests, from readers, to publish it on Amazon so they could read it in an e-book format. After releasing it for Kindle Direct’s lowest price of $0.99, the book sold 35,000 in three months. In 2013, Weir signed a traditional publishing deal with Crown, a subsidiary of Penguin Random House. The novel was adapted into a film in 2015.

Cloud-based streaming services have been launched to provide an e-book service offering publications at low or no cost in return for the reader’s acceptance that their reading will be interrupted by advertising messages. Rental services (for both trade books and textbooks) have also been developed. Library lending of physical books, already under threat in cash-strapped public sector libraries, is being replaced by e-lending (both through formal, library-like services, and on a more informal basis) as a feature of book supply. In the end, effective publishing distribution depends on two words: availability and display. The ways in which we get information on and obtain publications in the digital age may be different, but the fundamental principles remain the same.

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‘We have to prove ourselves as publishers, and it makes us better. Self-publishing gives writers the chance to be read, but readers also need guidance and orientation to find their next great read. Publishers offer a service portfolio. It is a creative partnership between the writer and the publisher, and we provide the momentum to get a book into the hands of readers.’ Markus Dohle, CEO, Penguin Random House

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Self-publishing Self-publishing has become a viable publishing option in recent years with a number of success stories raising its profile. However, self-publishing has a long history (as detailed in Chapter 1). Not only have commercial authors gone down the self-publishing route but it has also been an important outlet for non-traditional and alternative publishing outputs e.g. the feminist Riot Grrrl Zines movement in the 1990s. Publishing’s major activity is to manage the transformation of an author’s words and images in such a way that they fit the requirements of a market. Digital technology enables more people to develop new platforms for their work, and has given further encouragement to the idea that ‘everyone has a book inside them’. After decades when it became harder and harder for aspiring authors to find a publisher to take them on, there has been an explosive growth in the number of writers and artists publishing their own work using POD technology, or self-publishing online. The growth in such output accelerated in 2009 when over 750,000 self-published e-books appeared in the United States, and it continues at a rapid rate. There are two types of self-publishing services available to writers: single channel, where the work is sold and distributed through one channel or format (e.g. Amazon’s Kindle Direct Publishing); and multichannel, where the work is disseminated through multiple retailers and distributors (e.g. Smashwords). Conventionally, the latter type also offers help with the production of the book.

3.8 | Anna Todd’s After series After, the first novel in the series, has over 1.5 billion reads on Wattpad and was inspired by the music and fandom of boyband One Direction.

Channels to readers and buyers

For the vast majority, self-publishing might be a source of some personal fulfilment, but it is very different from mainstream commercial publishing. Many self-published authors have limited appreciation of the genre they are trying to write for, and often do not have the language and editing skills to produce marketable texts. They also rarely have, and find it difficult to create, the network connections that publishers have to publicize and promote their work. Only a small handful of authors, such as Amanda Hocking (author of the My Blood Approves series and the Trylle Trilogy), have achieved star quality publicity and spectacular sales. In 2011 Hocking signed a much-publicized, four-book deal with traditional publisher Pan Macmillan. That being said, a number of high-profile, traditionally published, authors are now experimenting with self-publishing: Cornelia Funke is due to self-publish the latest, English version, of her bestselling Mirrorworld series, while James Frey self-published The Final Testament of the Holy Bible, in both print and digital format, in 2011. Writing, and self-publishing, fan fiction through social platforms such as Wattpad (see p. 96) or Amazon’s Kindle Worlds is also increasing in popularity. While it has only recently become the focus of, mainstream, public attention, fan fiction is a long-standing practice and one that has a vast reach. However, the ease in which it can be disseminated, through digital and social technology, has caused concern with authors whose characters are being written about. Authors such as George R.R. Martin, Anne Rice and Ursula K. Le Guin have spoken out against fan fiction while other authors, such as Meg Cabot and Michael Chabon, support (non-commercial) fan fiction. There have been a number of instances where the popularity of a work of fan fiction has resulted in a publishing deal for the author. The most well-known being E.L. James’ Twilight fan fiction, which subsequently turned into Fifty Shades of Grey. A recent example is Anna Todd’s After series, published by Simon & Schuster (in a reported six-figure deal): it originated as One Direction fan fiction written on Wattpad.

Indie publishing The commercial need of big publishing companies to satisfy shareholder demands means that they are increasingly choosing to invest heavily in fewer titles, so, with an increased number of people trying to become published writers, many are unable to find either a publisher or an agent who will work on their behalf. Personal computers enable authors to design and produce publications themselves, and this combined with affordable POD and e-book distribution has created an explosion of self-publication. Developments in POD have caused costs to reduce and improved the availability of colour POD and different formats and bindings. Customers no longer perceive these books as inferior to books produced on litho presses. These factors encouraged the self-publishing of more physical books to develop alongside selfpublished e-books. The self-publishing phenomenon is increasingly known as independent publishing (or indie publishing); although independent publishing also includes traditional publishers that are not owned by big corporations. With services like Kindle Direct Publishing, you can self-publish books on the Amazon Kindle Store. Under the Kindle arrangements, the author of self-published books can get up to a 70 per cent royalty and the books are available for purchase on Kindle devices and Kindle apps for iPad, iPhone, iPod touch, PC, Mac, Blackberry and Android-based devices. Other companies that provide these types of service are Lulu, and NOOK Press (previously Barnes & Noble PubIt!). The degree to which indie publishers are successful is, as with all publishers, dependent on the extent to which they can develop their publishing networks, and market their wares through all the viral mechanisms available. Just as commercial publishers saw the publishing opportunities that arose from the blogosphere – repackaging blogs as both p- and e-books – the possibilities of exploiting the boom in self-publishing are not being overlooked; and commercial publishers look out for promising indie titles to repackage and publish for a wider market. There are also some modern-day vanity publishers, which act as facilitators for authors who want to self-publish – still charging a fee, of course.

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Self-publishing is also developing as a major publishing channel for academic and scholarly work, often through programmes in institutions. The eScholarship service at the University of California is one example of an institution providing a suite of open access scholarly publishing services and research tools. This enables departments, research units, publishing programmes and individual scholars associated with the University of California to have direct control over the creation and dissemination of their work. Small presses and independent publishers also play an important role in the publishing ecosystem. Large, global publishers dominate the publishing landscape and it is increasingly difficult for new and emerging authors to get published. Although self-publishing does offer new opportunities to the long tail of authors, it is not for everyone. Small presses and independent

publishers, therefore, act as important gatekeepers for debut authors entering the marketplace. Many small and independent presses still have slush piles and so authors don’t need to be represented by literary agents to be published. In particular, small and independent presses tend to focus on non-mainstream or niche titles, such as poetry or experimental literature, which are not particularly profitable. Small presses usually pride themselves on their relationship with their authors and their commitment to publishing culturally important works. There are many independent publishers that have received critical acclaim, and literary prizes, for the work they produce. Additionally, the Independent Alliance – a collection of small to medium-sized independent publishers – can compete for market share with the major publishers by combining their sales.

‘Traditional publishing gives me the street cred necessary to get my indie books in stores, to speak at conferences and workshops, and to get reviews and media attention I wouldn’t otherwise have access to. Self-publishing gives me an outlet for projects that are outside the mainstream and a more regular – though smaller – source of revenue as my selfpublished titles earn monthly royalties, whereas traditional publishers only pay twice a year.’ Jessica Lourey, author

Channels to readers and buyers

Kirkus Indie

Vanity publishing

Both the literary avant-garde and the mainstream now take self-publishing seriously. For over seventy years Kirkus Reviews has provided critical, descriptive and concise reviews of forthcoming books in a twice-monthly publication. Now Kirkus produces Kirkus Indie to review titles from indie publishers. The reviews normally appear two or three months prior to publication. A review in Kirkus is often the first review of a book to appear anywhere, and a good many books may receive no other notice than the one they get in Kirkus (or similar services such as BlueInk Review).

There have always been people who have paid for the production of publications that they have written or otherwise wanted to see published outside of the usual commercial publishing channels. Companies called vanity publishers (a term which arose in the United States in the 1920s), publish works for a fee. They prospered in the twentieth century by offering such services to aspiring authors who could not find a publisher to take them on. There are still companies that will publish books for a fee, and in some instances, such as when a family wants to publish a family history for their own use and enjoyment, they may have a legitimate place. However, some of the services these companies offer are inadequate, and, as a result, give limited satisfaction to their customers.

Discussion questions 1 What are some of the reasons for the growth in self-publishing? How is self-publishing used to publish different types of books? How do vanity publishing and self-publishing differ? 2 Why do some self-published books get taken on by traditional commercial publishers? 3 How has POD contributed to the growth of indie publishing?

4 How are vloggers changing the publishing industry? 5 What does the popularity of fan fiction tell us about (a) publishers, (b) authors and (c) readers? 6 Who are the gatekeepers and guardians of textual culture?

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Writers, readers and intermediaries

Case study

Frankfurt Book Fair

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The Frankfurt Book Fair began more than 500 years ago, shortly after Gutenberg established his press in nearby Mainz. After the seventeenth century, its importance was overtaken by the Book Fair in Leipzig, another important publishing city in Germany. It was not until 1949, with Leipzig behind the Iron Curtain in the German Democratic Republic, that the Frankfurt Book Fair was reestablished. Now, for nearly a week every year in October, the publishing community gathers at the Frankfurt Book Fair – the world’s most important marketplace for books, media, rights and licences in the world. Publishers, booksellers, agents, designers, film producers, authors and a host of industry organizations and independent consultants come together to learn what’s happening in the world of publishing. They meet clients, customers and publishing partners, and develop and nurture the networks that are essential to their work. Altogether there are more than 7,000 exhibitors from more than 100 countries, about 300,000 visitors and over 10,000 journalists. The exhibitors and visitors are not just from the various sectors of

the book industry, but also other related industries such as film, games, and information and communications technology. New areas of specialization – from digital publishing services and computer games production, to legal and financial consultants for cross-media products – are now found at the Book Fair. There are numerous international training and networking events, including major conferences, such as The Markets: Global Publishing Summit, organized in collaboration with Publishing Perspectives in 2015. Every year the Frankfurt Book Fair has a particular country focus. In recent years the Guests of Honour have been Brazil (2013), Finland (2014), Indonesia (2015), Netherlands and Flanders (2016) and Poland (2017). Frankfurt is very significant for the international rights and licences trade; it has a special Literary Agents and Scouts Centre (LitAg). In spite of the ease of modern telecommunication, teleconferencing and instantaneous data transfer, publishers still like to meet up and discuss books.

‘The more globalized the books business becomes, the greater is everyone’s need to meet in person at least once a year – and that, of course, is in Frankfurt. Conversations about people and books are indispensable.’ Professor Gottfried Honnefelder, past president of the Association of German Publishers and Booksellers

Case study

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3.9 | Frankfurt Book Fair Hundreds of thousands of people visit the Frankfurt Book Fair. In recent years the comic zone has been a popular draw for the German public, with many exhibitors and visitors wearing elaborate character costumes (cosplay).

Writers, readers and intermediaries

Interview

Ashleigh Gardner, Head of Writer and Publishing Partnerships at Wattpad 96

What is Wattpad and how does it work? Wattpad is a social media platform for people to write and discover stories. It’s a platform of over 45 million worldwide now. Anyone on Wattpad can begin to write a story. What’s so different is that everywhere else, in the traditional book-publishing industry, writers need to have a completed manuscript before they start but because Wattpad is serialized, people can post chapter by chapter: you don’t need to have your full draft, you just need to have the first part. Then people can begin to follow it and get push notifications every time writers update. A lot of people think Wattpad is about writers but about 90 per cent of our users are just coming to read: they see Wattpad as a form of entertainment. As far as what Wattpad is: we’re a community and a social media platform but we’re also an entertainment company. Our new division, Wattpad Studios, is really focused on finding the best stories on Wattpad and developing them for new mediums to bring Wattpad stories to the world. That can be a book but we’re also doing a lot in TV, films, videogames and new media, and trying to take the story into new spaces. What makes Wattpad unique? It’s unique in the publishing world because it’s a place that isn’t necessarily for aspiring writers: anyone that has a story, at all, can start writing it on Wattpad. I think compared to other places, where you can write online, there’s actually something quite elegant and different about Wattpad because most other places on the internet are in reverse chronological order – Twitter, blogs, any other site – you’re reading from the last post first. However, Wattpad lets readers start at the first chapter and write it in a chronological order: anyone that discovers that story later will always start at the first post/chapter. So, it’s better for narrative storytelling than any other platform on the internet.

Why should authors, publishers, and readers care about Wattpad? For readers, there are over 300 million stories that have been uploaded to Wattpad: we have something for everybody and it’s a new type of storytelling, it’s not just passive consumption. As a reader, you can talk to the authors of the stories that you’re reading, you can comment, you can talk to other readers and see how they are reacting. Rather than a digital book, it’s like a digital campfire because it is a really social experience and people are interacting and reacting in that way. For authors, and people that want to become professional authors, there are so many benefits for writing on Wattpad: you can discover new readers. With over 45 million people looking for something to read, authors are really the rock stars of our platform and I think they will find more fans of their writing on Wattpad than on other social media sites. To be able to see that live feedback to their writing, as they post chapters, is not something that writers usually get: it’s a great way to workshop things, in a way marketing and promoting yourself, or even as a first-time author, it’s a great way to find your voice. People who have never written before have been finding a lot of success on Wattpad. For publishers, there is so much talent on Wattpad since there are over 300 million stories; however, these aren’t manuscripts on a large slush pile. The level of data that we are able to collect on these stories – how many readers they have, where the readers are from etc. – mean that publishers can acquire manuscripts with a built-in audience from day one with a level of data and information that doesn’t exist anywhere else.

Interview

What is the global reach of Wattpad?

Can Wattpad sell books, and how?

Wattpad is in every country in the world except for China. We’ve always started as a mobile-first, neutral product that anyone can join. As far as languages, we’re in fifty different languages but people anywhere can read English anywhere on Wattpad. Out of our 45 million – and these are monthly users, not total registers users, so they are people that come back every month to visit Wattpad – the US is probably our biggest market but we’re also extremely popular in South East Asia. In fact, in the Philippines we have our own TV show, based on Wattpad stories, and our own book imprints: it’s our second biggest market. Our third biggest market is Turkey, which wasn’t in the top ten about a year ago. All of them may be outpaced by Mexico, in the next few years, which is growing at such a fast rate. We’re seeing so many of the options through South America and Central America right now: it’s exciting to see. It’s also really interesting to see how different communities write for themselves: it’s interesting to see what rises to the top when there are no gatekeepers, and no one deciding what these communities should be reading. In the Philippines, for example, a few years ago, most of their book market was English because that was the language of education: that was the language publishers though people wanted to read in. There was not a lot of publishing going on in Tagalog (otherwise known as Filipino: spoken as either a first or second language by the majority of the population) but if there was it was usually translations of popular English works rather than local writers. I think that’s why Wattpad flourished there so quickly because there was a desire there for people to read stories about, and by, themselves that were culturally relevant to that community, and wasn’t being supplied by the traditional publishing industry. We also see this in the stories that are being written in Mexico – where young people are reading stories by Mexican writers – or we see this happening in the US – where Wattpad really overindex in the Hispanic communities or African-American literature.

Something that I hear a lot from publishers and authors is that discoverability – people being aware of the story – is a bigger problem than something like piracy. On Wattpad, being able to build a huge fanbase of your writing makes it easier to sell that work, or other works, to that fanbase. We definitely see that our users buy: it’s been clear by the fact we’ve had three New York Times bestsellers, within the last year, of stories that originated on Wattpad. Outside of the English-speaking world: on any given month, about ten of the top twenty books in the Philippines are stories that come from Wattpad. When you’re able to see that audience, you’re able to monetize it through selling books. A lot of other writers will use it as a promotional tool; for example, we see a lot of writers write stories, on Wattpad, that are prequels for short stories for a book that they have coming out, and available for sale, as a way to create excitement and awareness. Wattpad has a massive audience: 90 per cent of our audience is mobile and what’s really interesting is that their behaviour is different from the traditional e-book customer, which we tend to think of as a Kindle customer. Because Wattpad users are accessing through their mobile phones, so when they do buy e-books, they tend to buy them from different outlets. If they’re on an iPhone, then Apple iBooks is the easiest place to buy from because it’s one click and it’s quite seamless. For our younger audience, especially, they might not have credit cards but they have app store accounts, and an allowance for that, and because they’re so used to buying apps and digital products we see their behaviour and how they purchase digital products a little bit differently than the traditional e-book consumer.

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Writers, readers and intermediaries

Do you think Wattpad is disrupting the bookpublishing industry and why?

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Absolutely, I think it’s disrupting it in that for young people it’s giving them an outlet to tell their stories. When you look at the amount of time people are spending online consuming stories, it’s something that writers need to pay attention to. For publishers to see how many people are reading, interacting, and even choosing other paths. For example, we just launched Wattpad Futures, a new programme that is similar to pre-roll ads that you might see on YouTube or other places on the internet, within Wattpad stories, which allows top-tier authors to add these to their stories to make money from their writing on Wattpad. We have many authors that have made more money from ads, this year, than they have from an advance on their book. It’s creating this new career path for writers that didn’t exist before. We’re also not a publisher, we’re not a retailer, we’re not selling books: we’re adding something new to the industry, and are creating new opportunities for writers and publishers. There’s nothing in Wattpad Futures to say that publishers can’t work with writers to create Wattpad profiles and bring in additional income, together, from those readers. Publishers are aware of Wattpad and are very interested in how best to work with Wattpad: we’re very open to working with publishers.

What digital trends are most interesting to Wattpad? We’re always looking at emerging trends based on what our users are doing and what we’re seeing in other global, digital trends. We’re always looking to add new features for our users, even things from a support lens looking at things like chatbots: we had a very successful chatbot through Kick, the messaging app, that was a Harry Styles fan-fiction bot where readers could talk to it about certain moments and it could recommend certain fan fiction based on that. We’re always looking at new ways to delight and reward our readers. We just launched a new feature for our tenth anniversary, which is Wattpad Mad Libs: it lets you fill out Mad Libs and then create a story that readers can post on their profiles. Additionally, we allowed the ability to create reaction gifs within stories and that has been very popular. We’re always looking to our audience: where are they, what else are they doing, where do they want to share Wattpad stories? Some of our best ideas we get from our users.

Interview

Interview

Tell us about how you became a literary agent and what your role entails. What’s a typical work week like? I had spent twelve years working in editorial at a children’s publishers when the opportunity arose to apply to become a specialist children’s book agent, taking over a client list from an agent who was retiring. I work with my clients to hone their manuscripts ready for submission to publishers, maintain relationships with all the major children’s book editors, negotiate contracts, troubleshoot and arbitrate any problems that arise between authors and publishers, maintain close records of all sales activity on the books after publication and so on. We have a large backlist as our agency was founded in 1935 so there is a lot of careful record-keeping, rights reversions to initiate, permissions to grant and so on. I also work closely with our film/TV/theatre translation agents to assist them in exploiting other potential rights areas in my client’s books. A film adaptation or multiple foreign rights sales can make a huge difference to an author’s income. How has your experience as an editor informed your role as an agent? I think the most valuable aspect of having begun as an editor is that I know what it is like to be on the other side of the fence: how it can be challenging for an editor to gather the support needed in-house to ensure a book gets the attention it deserves, but also I have a sense of when the wool is being pulled over my eyes – certain coded phrases that publishers use, especially when they are delivering bad news or trying to force an author to accept something they’re not happy

with. I have a strong instinct for what it is they are really saying. Starting as an editor has also given me the skills needed to work sympathetically with an author to get their work into the best shape it can be prior to submission, which is increasingly important as editors have less time to spend working with new writers. How does new material find its way to you, and when it does, what makes you respond to it? How much material comes in to you in comparison to what you take on? We are a fairly big agency and so we receive a lot of submissions, most of which come via email and are logged and then read by our dedicated reader, who is herself an experience editor and children’s book author. When she finds something of particular interest she then brings it to the attention of one of the agents here. I might also receive material directly either as the result of a personal recommendation or because I’ve met someone at a writer’s conference or occasionally I approach someone whose work I admire and who is un-agented. Every agent will say this, I’m sure, but what makes me respond is a distinctive voice that comes through in the writing – that is true too for the author/ illustrators I represent. For me, the story telling comes first. Then, you have to have your commercial antennae working. It’s not enough just to love it. Is it something I can sell? Is the time right for it? I also work closely with a small US literary agency and represent a number of their authors, mostly writing for YA, for the UK and Commonwealth market. In return, they represent my clients in the US. I only take on one or two new clients a year.

Caroline Walsh, Literary Agent, David Higham

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Writers, readers and intermediaries

How has the role of a literary agent changed since you first became an agent?

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There are many more children’s book agents now then there was when I started twenty years ago, so it’s more directly competitive then it was. Talented new writers can receive multiple offers of representation. Emailing submissions means that you can reach many more editors in a fraction of the time that it used to take when manuscripts had to be parcelled up and posted. That means more editors see many more manuscripts, so there’s a frantic quality to things sometimes with quite a lot of anxiety about missing the next big thing. Open plan offices seem to have had the effect of closing down spoken communication rather than improving it: editors are reluctant to answer phones and have complicated conversations in full hearing of their colleagues, so email is the favoured medium. That’s a big change. When I started I spent a great deal of my time on the phone and my sense is that one got to know

editors better that way. I still have long phone conversations with my clients, though. Nowadays, when a client is very successful, they are going to be working across books, television, stage, perhaps licensing, and there will be foreign publishers in the mix too. Successful authors are extremely busy and have huge demands made on them, not just to deliver one or even two books a year, but also to promote their work at live events, on television and radio. They need huge personal and professional support and careful management of their intellectual property rights. What qualities do you need to be a literary agent? I think lots of different types of people can be successful literary agents but you need to be a good communicator, really care about the details and have a nose for what will hit the spot with a wide audience.

Summary

Summary

Key points The Frankfurt Book Fair is one of the most exciting and vibrant events in the publishing calendar. With such a vast gathering of diverse interests, it is impossible to describe everything that might happen, but most of the activities can be seen as helping publishing professionals to develop and reinforce their membership of and influence in networks that are important to their business and their career. ●

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Selling and buying rights is what Frankfurt is all about for many agents, publishers and an increasing array of other creative industry specialists. During the day, rights managers will have back-to-back meetings to introduce rights partners to new projects, check on the progress of current contracts, and keep up to date on what’s in demand in different world markets. Even though communication in the digital world is now constant and immediate, personal contact and after-hours schmoozing are still essential for the development of trust and business relationships. Sales people also have a full schedule, meeting booksellers and distributors from around the world – all under one roof. Frankfurt provides opportunities to talk about new books with your Indian representatives, negotiate discounts with a German importer, develop a promotional campaign with your Japanese sales agent, and track down customers who are being slow in settling their accounts. One trip to Frankfurt can avoid thousands of miles of costly and time-consuming travel, something that is also possible at other big book fairs like the London Book Fair and BookExpo America. Everyone responsible for business development, from web managers and publicity supremos to commissioning editors and logistic directors, are in Frankfurt picking up on the latest trends. Frankfurt has a very full programme of conferences, seminars and other events that cover key markets, publishing trends and new technology. Many book fairs do not admit members of the public, but there are special public opening hours at the Frankfurt Book Fair. This means that this is also a

major German cultural event with hundreds of thousands of non-professional visitors, great media interest and an opportunity for German publishers and authors to promote their books directly to the public.

Activity Imagine you are an editor, agent or rights manager going to this year’s Frankfurt Book Fair. Look at the Frankfurt website and make a list of the things that you would plan to do during the fair. 1 How would you use the event to find out about new authors and book titles that might be suitable for your own publishing programme? 2 What would you do to identify publishing trends that would help you to plan your company’s activities over the coming years? 3 What can you discover about digital publishing developments in other parts of the world that might be applicable to your own company’s activities? 4 Why is the Guest of Honour Programme an important part of the Frankfurt Book Fair?

Further resources Baverstock, A. (2011), The Naked Author: A Guide to SelfPublishing, London: Bloomsbury. Driscoll, B. (2014), The New Literary Middlebrow: Tastemakers and Reading in the Twenty-First Century, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. English, J.F. (2008), The Economy of Prestige: Prizes, Awards, and the Circulation of Cultural Value, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Laquintano, T. (2016), Mass Authorship and the Rise of Self-Publishing, Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Lessig, L. (2009), Remix: Making Art and Commerce Thrive in the Hybrid Economy, London: Bloomsbury Academic. Martens, M. (2016), Publishers, Readers, and Digital Engagement (New Directions in Book History), Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Phillips, A. (2014), Turning the Page: The Evolution of the Book, Abingdon: Routledge. Rose, M. (1995), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Editorial processes

This chapter examines how publishers decide what to publish; how they acquire publishing properties and commission authors to write new publications; and how editors research the market using formal tools and informal networks. It also looks at the process of editing a book from submission to publication, and how editors deal with other people inside and outside their own publishing organization. What the publisher decides to publish is called the publisher’s list, and this is usually developed according to a plan with a specific market niche in mind. While many publishers have what appear to be quite similar lists (for example, travel publishers such as Lonely Planet and Rough Guides), each has its own publishing policy and publishing plan that defines its identity to both potential authors and to the market. The publisher must make sure that its publishing programme is good not only for the publisher’s reputation but also for its bottom line, so we also look briefly at the basic economics of publishing.

Policy and planning: list building and market niches

Policy and planning: list building and market niches Publishing, like other creative industries, is based on discovering, nurturing and refining the talents of creative people, and then exposing them to a market audience in a way that ensures that both author and publisher get an adequate return on the time and money that they have invested.

The strategic purpose of the list When publishers look for authors and books to publish, they need a plan. No publisher would survive for long by publishing too many different types of book within one list or under one imprint. This is why larger publishers have several lists (with different imprints) to publish books for different markets, and they even preserve the brand identity of lists that they acquire (for example, Knopf, Virago and Churchill Livingstone). One publishing brand or imprint would find it hard to handle a cookery book one week, a treatise on nuclear energy the next and an illustrated children’s story about a polka-dot whale the week after. While each book may be excellent, the publisher would not have the skills and resources to develop, produce, promote and distribute such varied titles to diverse audiences in a way that would make economic sense. Publishers specialize in particular types of publishing (such as trade, educational, academic or children’s), but within these broad publishing areas they also build lists of titles that are targeted towards specific market niches. The non-fiction trade publisher might have a strong list of literary biographies; the educational publisher might focus on geography books for secondary students; the academic publisher might have a world-leading list of books on film or fashion; and a children’s publisher might be best known for illustrated books featuring inner-city life. Developing a new list represents a major commitment of resources (people,

time and financial investment), so the management of the publishing company need to be convinced not only that there is a market for the proposed list development, but also that the company is in a position to compete. Creating a list that is close to the existing publishing programme can build on current knowledge of the market. It represents a lower risk than developing a list in an area that is totally new to the publisher. A SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) may well form part of the new list research, in which the company’s capabilities, resources and experience in relation to the list (its strengths and weaknesses) are examined and evaluated, as well as the possibilities the development may represent (the opportunities) and possible risks (threats) to the success of the business. The decision to develop a new list is made by the senior management team. The senior managers must feel confident that the company has the skills and resources needed to make a success of publishing in a particular subject area, and that it will be profitable for the company to use these skills and resources in this way. Once the go-ahead decision is made, the development of the new list is the responsibility of an individual publisher or editorial director, and is managed throughout the publishing process by a commissioning (US: acquisitions, or sponsoring) editor. In some cases, the company will recruit a new editor with specific, relevant experience, and a demonstrable track record in managing a list in a new business area.

The changing role of the editor Editors have traditionally had an educational, social or cultural role to play within a publishing house. Their taste and judgement have guided cultural output and their relationships with their authors have been nurturing. However, there has been a shift in the role of the editor because the publishing industry becomes a more commercial arena. There is a concern that taste and judgement are being replaced by the application of successful, homogenized, formulas devised by committees, and

there is less risk-taking because book buying is dictated by large conglomerate bookshops and retailers. Additionally, larger companies have more overheads and thus editors have less time to spend with authors. This can put a strain on the author’s relationship with the publisher, and editor, and strengthen their relationship with their agent. Consequently, the agent has become the author’s constant ally (see p. 79).

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Editorial processes

‘It’s the kind of business where as soon as an author has a tipping point and becomes a big brand, then other forces come into play. Sales and marketing and publicity departments want that author’s next book as soon as possible, and it takes its place in budgets and forecasts.’ Peter Straus, Literary Agent/Managing Director, Rogers, Coleridge and White

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‘There are still some brilliant editors in publishing today. But it’s harder for them to have the autonomy that, say, Maxwell Perkins enjoyed when taking on Scott Fitzgerald, Hemingway and Thomas Wolfe, let alone to spend the acres of time he did improving typescripts. The rise of marketing departments is often blamed for this. But publishers need to sell books, and many an author has been helped by smart promotion. What has changed is that editors are no longer the people expected to identify and nurture a young talent. That role has passed to agents and, before them, to the creative writing tutors through whose MA programmes and residential courses the majority of today’s new writers emerge.’ Blake Morrison, writer and journalist 4.1 | Matrix grid before and after completion

Project Criterion

Growth market Competition Author reputation, reliability and platform Access to market Competitive position Design and production capabilities (print and digital) Investment and risk

Positives (+) and negatives (–) ++ (very positive)

+ (positive)

+/– (positive or negative)

– negative

–– (very negative)

Policy and planning: list building and market niches

‘I have considerable experience in making wrong decisions. It is a necessary rite of passage in the building of a great publishing house.’ Alan Hill, In Pursuit of Publishing, 1988 (former chairman and managing director of Heinemann Educational Books)

Decision matrix As an aid to making decisions on whether or not to publish, it is helpful to have certain criteria in mind. One way to structure the evaluation of a project is by using a decision matrix like this simple template on the right. A tool like this can help the publisher to identify early on if a given title will be suitable

for their publishing programme, and act as a counterbalance to a publisher’s enthusiasm and optimism. On the opposite page is a completed matrix with some information on a new fashion design list. Would you consider this a good list for the company to develop?

Project: New Fashion Design List Criterion

++

Growth market: Many new courses in UK and US

++

Competition: Major publisher in this field has big market share but has not kept list up to date

++

+

+/–

Access to market: Some overlap with current market, but need to develop promotional tools for fashion departments at art schools

+/–

Competitive position: Will be competing against a market leader

Investment and risk: Moderately high investment required, but possibility of taking over market leadership position in 3–5 years

+/–

+

Author reputation, reliability and platform: Younger lecturers looking for a publisher who is receptive to new approaches to subject

Design and production capabilities (print and digital): Can prepare list that is far more attractive to market in terms of design and production quality

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Positives (+) and negatives (–)

++

+

–

––

Editorial processes

Publishing lists, seasonal lists and mailing lists Building a list in the publishing sense means creating a coherent publishing programme (as in the Penguin Random House list) or a specific list within the overall programme of the publishing company. In developing a specific list (and titles within that list) the publisher also considers whether the books to be published will have a long sales life and become part of a backlist that will sustain the company for years to come, or whether they will only sell for a short time as new (front-list) titles. The

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possibility that a title may be a strong backlist title may influence the decision to invest in the project. Publishers may also refer to their seasonal list; these are the titles due for release in spring and autumn/ fall (or for the Christmas market) that are announced in a seasonal catalogue. This seasonal list often identifies projects that the publisher considers its lead titles; the ones for which it has high hopes and to which it may have allocated additional promotional resources.

Discussion questions 1 How important is it to plan a new list in terms of the income and profit a publisher expects to make? 2 What is a SWOT analysis used for? 3 Which departments are involved in the list development process? 4 What is a seasonal list? What kind of books do you think are specially developed for each season? 5 What do you think makes a good editor? 6 How important is the backlist?

4.2 | Christmas gift books Christmas is a major selling period for trade books. Many books are bought as gifts, and seasonal promotions are conducted by publishers and booksellers, such as Foyles in London. The ‘kidult’ nostalgia books, were a popular stocking-filler gift for Christmas 2015. Titles include: The Ladybird Book of Sheds, The Ladybird Book of The Hipster and The Ladybird Book of the Mid-Life Crisis.

Commissioning: research, reputation and funds

Commissioning: research, reputation and funds Acquisition, commissioning and list building are at the foundation of publishing. The decision to commit time and resources to a publishing programme is made on the basis of the best available knowledge and advice. However, no publishing project, and particularly the development of a whole range of titles for a particular audience, is risk-free. In order to manage this ‘risk-taking’ element of publishing, the commissioning/ acquisition must be undertaken with care, skill, confidence and impeccable attention to detail.

Acquisition and commissioning titles Deciding what to publish is best done on the basis of a structured publishing plan, for which particular books and authors are recruited. The first edition of The Publishing Business, for example, was planned as part of the Fairchild publishing list, and an author was then recruited to write a specific book for an identified market. Editors are the first to research the market for proposed publications. They do this using their own contacts, authors and editorial advisors, and by consulting on an informal and formal basis with the sales and marketing department. The research looks at the publisher’s own sales for books on similar subjects and at industry statistics available, including reports from Nielsen BookScan. Publishers try to quantify the size of the specific market, and assess the competition. Market knowledge, and the position the publisher

wishes to take in respect to the market, also determines the tone to be taken, and the viewpoint from which the book will be written. A publisher of sports biographies, for example, will have clear ideas about whether a new book should be a respectful and measured life history of a sporting legend, or a chatty fan-friendly promotion for a current sports personality.

Decisions: the publishing proposal As we saw briefly in Chapter 3, professionally managed publishing houses plan their publishing programme with more or less formal publishing proposals. Many publishers are quite specific about the sort of information that must be included in the publishing proposal if it is to be considered by their publishing company, some of the most common are listed in the ‘Reasons to publish’ box.

Reasons to publish At the development stage the editor will need to consider the following questions: 1 Why is there a need for the book and how will it be different from other books already available? 2 Are there reasons why this is a good time to publish a book of this type? 3 Who will want to read the book, and how will these people acquire or otherwise gain access to it?

4 How large is the market? 5 What will be in the book, and how will it be organized in various chapters? Will there be illustrations, other information and features? 6 Will the book be suitable for adaptation to other formats? 7 Why is the author the right person to write the book? Does he or she have a reputation and a network in the specialist area? Has the author already written successfully on this subject?

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Editorial processes

Sifting through the new slush pile Creating a brand for a series Fiction publishers like series of books that have a common main character. This is particularly true of crime fiction where the author and character brands are reinforced with each new title, sometimes building on the popularity of TV adaptations. To some extent, the works of popular crime fiction authors become sub-lists in their own right. The Inspector Zen series by Michael Dibdin has been so successful that some of the books have been adapted for TV. The cover stresses the brand of the series and the author. It reminds us of the central character and conjures up the atmosphere of its Rome location as seen on TV. It also discreetly shows the publisher’s logo.

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Publication dates Proposed publication dates for titles in the list must be planned, depending on the nature of the market. A university textbook needs to be published in time to be evaluated for adoption for next year’s courses; a guidebook must be available in time for the peak tourist season; and a Christmas gift book should be in the shops by October, to catch the seasonal selling period in November and December. The length of time for stock of printed books to reach the market must also be considered. When the time to receive inventory from the printer (very possibly in Asia), and ship them to retail customers is added to the schedule, the total time needed to get the books to market can be lengthened by at least several weeks, if not months.

As we’ve already seen, the possibilities offered by digital tools and the internet have created a publishing environment in which writers sometimes think that they can do the job themselves, and that there is no longer a need for the publisher. This may be true in some cases, but even the briefest look at many self-publications online proves that this is not usually so. The vast majority of tweets, blogs and self-published e-books remain unread by anyone but the author and a few close associates. This may be because it is often easy for readers to judge the quality of both content and form, and it is clear that quality comes from the effective use of expert skills and experience. Good publishers are the custodians of high quality in publishing, and the system functions more effectively when different parts of the process are undertaken by specialists. The publisher’s decisions on authorship, design and marketing create a publishing package that is in all respects suitable for the proposed readership, and is created with an eye to the whole marketing mix, and this remains true with digital publications. Therefore, when a successful writer of a blog or self-published title is recruited by professional publishers to produce a publication through more traditional channels, it enables the author to extend his or her ‘platform’ and readership. The publisher develops the idea as a marketable property for which a readership has already been identified, by a writer (such as Julie Powell), who has already proved able to communicate with that audience. This type of blog-book deal is popular in the non-fiction sector, particularly for food bloggers. For example, the debut cookbook by Ella Mills, who writes the popular food blog Deliciously Ella, has sold over 296,000 copies since it was published in January 2015. Her second cookbook, published in January 2016, has sold over 126,000 copies. Mills’ third cookbook was published in January 2017 and she has also been commissioned to publish a series of mini-books: this shows the power of building an audience.

4.3 | Deliciously Ella Ella Mills attends the launch of her third book, Deliciously Ella With Friends.

Commissioning: research, reputation and funds

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Editorial processes

Crowdfunding: a participatory publishing model

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Crowdfunding – a popular way to fund a wide range of projects – has extended into the publishing sphere. Kickstarter has seen over $70 million pledged to publishing projects since it launched in 2009. In fact the number of successfully funded, book-related projects increased from 735 in 2011 to 2,967 in 2015. This large number of projects puts the crowdfunding site in league with four of the biggest publishers, in terms of outputs: Penguin Random House, HarperCollins, Hachette and Simon & Schuster. The biggest, original, publishing project on Kickstarter – Rebel Girls – raised $1 million (£754,000) in the four months after it was launched, in 2016. However, contrary to popular belief, crowdfunding (or similar iterations of) is not a new phenomenon: many authors, particularly in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, had patrons to fund their writing, while Mark Twain sold his books on a subscription-only basis. While this model

provided opportunities for self-published authors, traditionally published authors, small presses and literary organizations are capitalizing on the possibilities of crowdfunding e.g. McSweeney’s have crowdfunded several new publications, through Kickstarter, in recent years. This model – which allows readers to participate in the publication of a book – helps to demystify the publishing process and gives readers more control. One company that bases its business model entirely on this crowdfunding model is UK-based Unbound. Since the company was founded in 2011, it has published over 140 books and including Man Booker Prize long-listed title The Wake by Paul Kingsnorth and bestselling Letters of Note by Shaun Usher (which has sold more than100,000 copies in the UK). Although they use the crowdfunding model, Unbound also follow traditional publishing structures e.g. they have editors that work with their authors.

‘A literary creation is thus not considered an intrinsic “work-in-progress”, never closed, never definitive, arrested at the moment of publication (“We publish to stop revising,” declared the Mexican writer Alfonso Reyes), but as a more-or-less all-rounded product initiated by the writer, finished off by an editor, and approved by various specialists in marketing and sales.’ Alberto Manguel, The City of Words

Commissioning: research, reputation and funds

Doing your homework and getting the right advice Publishers cannot rely just on authors and their agents to tell them how good a work is. Editors responsible for commissioning and acquisition need to be knowledgeable about the area in which they are working. They must attend specialist meetings, conferences and seminars to get information and to keep in touch with relevant networks. Sometimes an advisory board will be created to help keep the editor up to date with the field and to assist in planning the list, and editors often send out proposals and manuscripts for specialist ‘peer review’, feedback and recommendations. Publishers interested in developing publications programmes that include works translated from other languages will also keep in contact with trusted translators, who may be among the first to know about a promising writer working in another language. If the success of a particular list depends on knowledge of specific parts of the supply chain or collaboration with other media companies, then the editor will need to keep in touch with these while developing the list. He or she will also need an awareness of major events like the Olympic Games, museum exhibitions or national elections, if they are relevant to the marketability of a title.

Financial viability Before the decision to publish is made, it is the editor’s responsibility to show that the project is financially viable (this task may also be undertaken by others, such as the publisher). This requires pulling together a lot of information, making certain assumptions based on experience and expertise, and consulting widely within the company and with external experts. This is important because the publishing company pays for the cost of producing a publication up front. It may take more than a year from the start of commissioning a project before the publisher begins to get a return on the financial investment. By making comparisons with sales of similar titles, the editor estimates how many copies may be sold over what time period. It is important to consider the product life cycle of the publication, as this determines how quickly the project

generates income to pay its costs. There is a big difference, for example, between the short life of most new trade titles and the long-term possibilities of a successful college textbook, and this is important in judging the publishing risk. A preliminary price is set for each format – physical book (hardback and/or paperback) and e-book – and the price of any other materials that may accompany the publication. The optimum price must fit in with market expectations, the price of comparative titles, and the production values and quality of the publication. Pricing strategies may also include ‘bundles’; for example when a printed textbook or reference work may be ‘bundled’ and sold with online access to other resources. The income the publisher may receive is estimated. In order to do this effectively, the editor must understand how discounts to booksellers or commissions to sales agents reduce the amount the publisher actually gets for the sale of each book. The sum that remains is the Net Sales Revenue (NSR) or Net Receipts. The publisher uses this money to pay for the publishing costs and provide some profit for the owners or investors. The publisher (with input from the editor and the marketing and sales departments) also calculates the direct costs necessary to publish and promote the publication. This includes payments to the author, either as a royalty (with or without an advance payment) or as a fee. The editor also obtains an estimate of the production costs from the production department. Other direct costs of promotion and publicity are also included in the calculation. The total of these costs is deducted from the estimated income (NSR) to calculate whether the publication will make the required contribution to the firm’s overheads and satisfy profit requirements. Lastly, but often critically important to the overall viability of the publishing project, the editor will consult with the company’s rights department, other publishers within the publishing group, and other industry contacts to see if the publication has other rights income potential. This financial information is used by the editor (along with information about the proposed publication, its market and its importance to the company) to obtain the support of senior management, and to get approval to go ahead with the project.

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Editorial processes

Table 4.1 Profit and loss account At an early stage in a project’s development, a basic profit and loss account (P&L) is prepared to evaluate the financial viability of a title. Here is a simple example.

Unit in currency Title: Fashion Careers

% of RRP

% of NSR

£/$/€

P&L per copy Recommended Retail Price (RRP) (also called cover or list price) Average discount for bookseller

12.50

100%

6.25

50%

Net Sales Revenue (NSR) (receipts)

6.25

50%

100%

Unit production cost (the total estimated production costs of the print run divided by the number of units printed)

2.50

20%

40%

Author royalty

0.625

5%

10%

Gross profit/margin

3.13

25%

50%

P&L for print run 112

Income Sales of 4,200 @ NSR of 6.25 each

26.250

100%

Returns of 500 copies (10% of print run)(damaged/unsold copies)

0

0%

300 review, inspection, desk copies (6%)

0

0%

12,500

48%

2,625

10%

11,125

42%

Expenditure 5,000 copies printed @ 2.50 each Royalty on 4,200 copies Gross profit

Discussion questions 1 Why is it important to understand why people tend to buy certain types of book? 2 How can an editor get management approval for a new list or new title? 3 What should a publishing proposal include? 4 What is Net Sales Revenue (NSR)? 5 How is the commissioning process changing in the digital age? 6 What new avenues do you think editors could scout for new writing talent?

Contractual matters: formats and co-editions

Contractual matters: formats and co-editions The contract between the author and the publisher is at the core of publishing, as it sets out the detailed terms of their relationship. Publishers usually have their own standard contract into which the agreed terms are inserted, and the commissioning/ acquisitions editor is generally responsible for negotiating these. As the final contract is a legally binding agreement, it is signed by a publisher or company director on behalf of the publishing company. There may be cases where issues of potential libel or other legal issues may require the firm’s legal officers to approve the contract and, rarely, even the manuscript. While the specific terms may differ, all publishing contracts contain the following information: ●

●

●

●

●

Details of the parties to the agreement (publisher, author), the book’s working title (the final title is often chosen at a later date), the proposed length of the book, and the expected date that the author will deliver the full text to the publisher (and the digital and physical form in which it will be supplied). Details of the rights granted to the publisher by the author (including who holds copyright), and the territories and formats for which the publisher will have these rights. The author warrants the work will be original, and will not contain anything that is libellous, defamatory or illegal. The author may also agree not to write something similar for another publisher. The contract covers the payments to be made to the author, including any fees, royalties and advances, and payments for any subsidiary rights sold by the publisher. It also covers how and when payments will be made. Finally the contract will specify how long the contract will last for, and how any disputes will be handled.

Editors don’t need to be legal experts, but they do need to understand the importance of having a clear, well-constructed contract that covers the agreement that they are making with an author. And they need to be able to explain this clearly to the author, so that the editor–author relationship develops in an atmosphere of trust. A publisher’s contract with an author is a legally binding agreement that should be clearly expressed and cover all areas of possible future misunderstanding about respective responsibilities and benefits.

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Clark’s Publishing Agreements Most UK publishers use Clark’s Publishing Agreements as a guide when creating their contracts. This book is now in its tenth edition (2017), revised by Lynette Owen.

Editorial processes

An example of a publisher’s contract This sample contract shows some of the most important parts of a contract, although there are likely to be more clauses as required by the publisher, the author or the agent. AGREEMENT made this day of , between of (hereinafter called the Author); and of (hereinafter called the Publisher); GRANT In consideration of the payment hereafter described, the author hereby grants and assigns to the Publisher the sole and exclusive rights to publish the Work now entitled (hereinafter called the Work), in all forms including print, digital and electronic, in all territories of the world and in all languages.

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REPRESENTATIONS AND WARRANTIES The Author represents that he/she is the sole proprietor of the Work, that the Work is original, and to the best of his/her knowledge that the Work does not contain any libellous matter, does not violate the civil rights of any person or persons, does not infringe any existing copyright and has not heretofore been published in book form. DELIVERY The Author agrees to deliver to the publisher by , a complete typewritten script of between and as well as a complete electronic text of the Work in a format to be determined by the Publisher (hereinafter called the Manuscript). If the Manuscript shall not have been delivered within three (3) months after the date specified in this agreement the Publisher may, at its option, terminate this agreement by notice in writing posted or delivered to the Author. PUBLICATION The Publisher agrees to publish the Work in book form at its

LAW This agreement shall be construed in accordance with the laws of . INHERITANCE This agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the heirs, executors, administrators and assigns of the Author, and upon and to the successors and assigns of the Publisher. ALTERATION This agreement may not be modified, altered or changed except by an instrument in writing signed by the Author and the Publisher.

4.4 | An example of a publisher’s contract This sample contract shows some of the most important parts of a contract, although there are likely to be more clauses as required by the publisher, the author or the agent.

own expense not later than 12 months after the delivery of the completed Work. All decisions relating to the editing, design, production and marketing of the Work will be the sole responsibility of the Publisher. COPYRIGHT The Publisher agrees to copyright the Work in the name of the Author, and to take all necessary steps to protect the rights of the Author under national and international law. ROYALTIES AND LICENCES The Publisher shall pay to the Author or his duly authorized representatives, the following advances and royalties; (a) A royalty of –– per cent (––%) of the retail price NSR thereof on all copies of the Work sold less returns. (b) –– per cent (––%) of the proceeds of any licence granted to another Publisher to bring out a reprint edition of the Work. (c) No royalties shall be payable of copies furnished to the Author or on copies for review, sample, or other similar purposes, or on copies destroyed. AUTHOR’S COPIES The Author shall be permitted to purchase copies for his/ her personal use at a discount of –– percent (––%) of the retail price.

APPROVAL Notwithstanding anything to the contrary herein contained, the Publisher shall obtain the Author’s written advance approval of any jacket or cover design, including the text thereof, to be used in connection with the Work, and of any contracts with third parties for the publication of the Work; which approval shall not be unreasonably withheld. AUTHOR..................................................................... WITNESS FOR THE AUTHOR............................................. PUBLISHER................................................................. WITNESS FOR THE PUBLISHER........................................

Editorial work: from submission to publication

Editorial work: from submission to publication After the commissioning or acquisition work is done, and the publishing proposal is developed sufficiently to form the basis of the author–publisher contract, another sort of editorial work begins. An editor will work with the author as he or she prepares the manuscript, reading drafts to make suggestions on style and content, ensuring that house style is followed, checking facts where necessary and encouraging the author to persevere at producing a text that will be fit for publication.

Developmental editing Subject specialists and gifted writers benefit from working with knowledgeable and experienced editors, as do new writers and people used to writing in other media (such as newspapers, blogs and academic papers). If the editor stays in constructive (but not too intrusive) dialogue with the author throughout the writing of a book, the author is far more likely to deliver

a completed manuscript that fits the publisher’s needs and expectations and to deliver the work on time and in an acceptable form. This is especially crucial for illustrated works, texts being developed for specific curriculum needs, and books when a team of authors are working on one book or series of books. At various stages the manuscript may also be sent out to others in the company, or to outside experts, for review and comment.

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Workflow across publishing departments This chart shows how the different editorial stages relate to the work being undertaken in other departments in the publishing process.

Editorial

Design

List planning

Design concept

Title and author development

Revise and prepare content for design and production

Final sign off to production

New title launch

Design template

Finalize design for print and digital production

Design for promotion and publicity material in print and digital media

Ensure consistency of design in product extensions and adaptations

4.5 | Workflow across publishing departments This diagram shows how the different editorial stages relate to the work being undertaken in other departments in the publishing process.

Editorial processes

Coordinate print and digital production

Physical and digital publications delivered to supply channel

Production

Estimates

Supplier quotations

Project manage – schedule and cost control

Sales and Marketing

Market research

Brand development

Detailed promotion and publicity plan

Manage communication and supply chain

New title launch

Contracts and Rights

Resource and legal implications

Approve contractual details

Subsidiary rights contracts agreed

Provide subsidiary licence holders with necessary materials

Ensure contractual compliance of company and partners

Finance

Financial planning

Approve investment

Monitor costs

Review costs and revenue projections

Review actual against planned financial performance

Management

Approve list proposal

Approve contract and investment in title

Monitor changes in budget

Monitor performance against plan

Assess success or failure

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Editorial work: from submission to publication

The file and the manuscript: copy-editing When the digital file and/or physical copy of the manuscript are received, one of the first essential jobs to be done by the copy editor is to check that all the elements of the text and illustrations have been received and that these are all in the format agreed between the author and the publisher. The editor will also do a word count and estimate the extent of the finished book. The editor will check that the text is organized in a consistent way, and that spelling and other elements of style such as punctuation are consistent and conform to the publisher’s house style. (If there is a house style, then a guide to this will have been given to the author at the time the book was commissioned.) In addition to house style, standards like those in The Chicago Manual of Style (University of Chicago Press) and Butcher’s Copy-editing: The Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Copy-editors and Proofreaders (Cambridge University Press) may be used. The marketing department will view this version of the text to develop the marketing messages, explore opportunities for collaborations with other parts of the supply chain and to develop the initial promotion of the book through websites and social media. Any questions that other departments may have about the book will be fed back to the author via the commissioning or acquisitions editor.

Checking the detail The editorial work continues with a more detailed reading of the author’s work, and this covers matters of style, grammar and spelling, and checks for clarity and accuracy. The editor queries passages that might appear ambiguous or obscure, and checks any facts in the author’s text that might seem questionable. Some of the editor’s changes are made directly to the file submitted by the author, while in other cases (especially where the text is written by a specialist) the editor asks the author for confirmation and/or clarification of any statement that might appear to be inaccurate, contradictory, illogical or illegal.

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Employees and freelancers Some publishers have quite large editorial departments with a full complement of commissioning editors, copy editors, production editors, and various other editorial assistants, but others have fewer members of permanent staff and rely on freelance workers such as proofreaders and indexers. Giving an effective work brief to a freelancer is an important skill for the staff editor. All jobs must be accurately and fairly specified, and the time frame (the schedule and deadline for the work) and financial arrangements (the fee and when it is to be paid) agreed by both sides. The managing editor often oversees the work of outside contractors and freelancers.

Editorial processes

Working with design and production The editor marks up the manuscript with instructions for design and production. This ensures that the message of the book – and its appropriateness for the intended audience – is supported by the design and production values of the physical and digital product. It is important that the book’s content and its form are complementary. (Chapter 5 explores design and production in more detail.)

If the book is an illustrated work, the designer creates layouts, which are sent to the editor for checking. This is called the proofing stage. Usually three sets of proofs are checked over a period of time to ensure that all errors and changes are correctly dealt with. These proofs are read by the author, the editor and a proofreader. The editor collates the amendments and instructs the designer on how to proceed. The proof is annotated using standard proof marks (see boxout). In the UK, these are made to British Standard 5261C:2005.

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Proof marks Here are some examples of proof marks, which are used to indicate where errors appear in the text and how they should be corrected.

Insert a space

Close up

Run on

Insert comma

Insert word

Insert full stop

Transpose a character/word

,IWKHERRNLVDQLOOXVWUDWHGZRUNWKHGHVLJQHUFUHDWHVOD\RXWV ZKLFKDUHVHQWWRWKHFKHFNLQJIRUHGLWRU7KLVLVFDOOHGWKHVWDJH8VXDOO\WKUHHVHWVRISURRIVDUH FKHFNHGRYHUDSHULRGRIWLPHWRHQVXUHWKDWDOOHUURUVDQGFKDQJHVDUHFRUUHFWO\GHDOWZLWK7KHVH SURRIVDUHSURRIUHDGE\WKHDXWKRUWKHHGLWRUDQGDSURRIUHDGHU7KHHGLWRUFROODWHVWKH DPHQGPHQWVDQGLQVWUXFWVWKHGHVLJQHURQKRZWRSURFHHG7KHSURRILVDQQRWDWHGXVLQJVWDQGDUG SURRILQJPDUNV

Editorial work: from submission to publication

Working with marketing, publicity, sales and rights departments Once the author has delivered the work, the price and publication date can be more accurately planned and the editorial and marketing departments can decide how the finished book can be finely tuned for the intended readership. In the time since the project was first discussed, there may have been developments in the subject area covered by the book; other publications may have appeared that offer competition to your book; and the priorities of the company’s sales force and

major partners in the supply chain may also have changed. In the period running up to publication, editors keep in close communication with marketing, publicity and sales, as they agree on the cover design, promotional campaign, pricing and print runs, e-book platforms, transmedia content, author promotional appearances and social media activities. Editors also work closely with those selling other media and translation rights to ensure that they have suitable sample materials, author information and ‘handles’ to use when introducing the books to overseas publishers and other media producers.

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Discussion questions 1 How do editors work with other members of the publishing team? 2 What qualities does a good editor need? 3 What is house style and how would this differ across different types of publishing houses? 4 Who is involved in proofreading? 5 How has the relationship between the editorial department and the other publishing departments changed over the years and why? 6 How important is the editor in contemporary publishing?

Editorial processes

Case study

A Guide for Dummies

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The For Dummies® brand (note the trademark) is an excellent example of how a publishing list can be developed for a global market. The series is now published by John Wiley & Sons, which acquired Hungry Minds (the new name for IDG Books as of 2000) in early 2001, although the brand For Dummies is always more prominent than that of Wiley. The first title, DOS For Dummies, was published in November 1991 by IDG Books. The subsequent titles in the series built on the success of the first title, being geared to show ordinary computer users how to make the most of their PCs, get on the internet, and explore Windows. The editors in charge of the new list made an informed judgement that Windows would overtake DOS as the operating system of the masses. Windows For Dummies remains the bestselling computer book of all time. The editorial intention is to produce books that are detailed but light-hearted. Aiming to make difficult material interesting and easy to understand, the books include cartoons and helpful lists. The editors have kept on top of current trends, and recent titles have included Flipping Houses For Dummies, Manga For Dummies, eBay For Dummies, Blogging For Dummies and Food Allergies For Dummies. The

series has developed into a list with a combination of solid backlist titles (over 250 million For Dummies books were printed up to 2011), and the ability to launch titles on up-to-the-minute trends, for example 200,000 copies of GPS Navigation For Dummies have been sold. The brand goes beyond print to include software, videos and the internet community.

International markets There are more than 1,600 titles in English, and international editions are published in more than thirty languages worldwide including Arabic, Estonian, Greek, Russian and Vietnamese. In many markets the English word ‘dummies’ is used as the brand, although in France the series is called Pour Les Nuls. Amazingly 600,000 copies of L’Histoire de France Pour Les Nuls have been sold, making it the bestselling foreign-language title in the series. Local editorial programmes produce titles for specific national markets, and the series includes a vast range of topics from computers to cooking, gardening to golf, soccer to sex, finances to flower arranging, travel, exercise, nutrition and mental health.

‘In November 1991, DOS For Dummies by Dan Gookin was initially met with skepticism – most bookstore chains didn’t want to carry the book at all, claiming that the title insulted their customers and readers in general. But we responded to the critics by calling the title a “term of endearment” that readers would immediately relate to and identify with. After convincing the bookstores to give us a chance, consumers agreed.’ The For Dummies Success Story website.

Case study

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4.6 | For Dummies, French editions The For Dummies covers are distinctive and readily recognizable across a crowded bookshop. They encourage readers to accept that they need help to understand and master a new skill, and the public has learned that this series is a good way to get such help. The cover design is distinctive and readily recognizable, making it perfect for publication in a number of different countries.

Editorial processes

Interview

Anne Meadows, Commissioning Editor at Granta and Portobello Books

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What does your role entail? (touch on major responsibilities, department structures, departments you most closely work with, who you report to) I acquire between six and ten books a year for the Granta and Portobello lists and see these titles through the editorial and production processes, and on to publication. This can involve anything from reading and editing multiple drafts of a manuscript; to selecting a designer and briefing them on how the cover should look; to sending the book out for blurbs and working with the publicity team to organize events. As an editor, you’re responsible for making sure that the life of the book is as good as it can be.

How do you find your authors? My remit at Granta and Portobello encompasses literary fiction from the UK and beyond, translation, and upmarket nonfiction, which could be anything from memoir to travel writing to books about science and politics. For the most part, new authors come to me via agents or, in the case of translations, via publishers or translators working abroad. Translation makes up around 25 per cent of our list, which is a great deal more than the UK average of 3 per cent, and we’ve had great success with a number of titles recently (including Han Kang’s The Vegetarian, Hiromi Kawakami’s Strange Weather in Tokyo and Walter Kempowski’s All For Nothing). Over the past few years I have travelled to Taiwan, Poland, Bulgaria, Croatia, Latvia and Lithuania in search of new authors and new contacts to strengthen the translated portion of our list. What are the challenges you face in your role? Being an editor is an all-consuming job, and one of the main challenges is finding time to read all of the submissions, respond to emails and get the books published. It is definitely not a nine-to-five career.

Interview

How you decide what to publish? Deciding what I want to publish is probably the easiest bit of my job. If I read a manuscript and love it, I start to think about ways it could work, and by the time it comes to talking to my colleagues I have a draft plan for its publication. The process then becomes more complex as more people get involved. I work in a team of editors and we have to more or less agree on which books deserve a place on the list. We then pitch the titles to the wider team, who will also have a view. Finally, we have to look at the balance of the list and what has been working in recent years, and ask ourselves some tough questions (for example, if we’re already publishing three short-story collections in 2017, can we justify a fourth?). We’re a medium-sized, independent publisher and we have to be very careful with what we acquire and how much we spend. This means that acquiring British fiction, particularly, can be tricky, as the market is fiercely competitive and we sometimes find we’re losing out to corporate publishers with bigger cheque books. Conversely, we’ve won a number of auctions as the underbidder, and authors will sometimes choose us knowing that we’ll provide a level of dedication and verve they might not find at a bigger house.

Who decides print runs, how is this decision made? What’s your role in the process? When we acquire a book we ask ourselves a series of questions: what sort of readers do we expect to buy it, and how many? Where will it be reviewed? Will it get media attention? Does the author have a track record? These questions help our sales director to determine a print run. As an editor, your role is to answer these questions to the best of your ability, but you don’t control the numbers. It’s also worth noting that, certainly in the independent publishing sector, print runs have been getting smaller. This doesn’t mean we won’t go on to sell 30,000 copies, or that we won’t reprint frequently. We start small and then we build up.

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Editorial processes

What’s been the most difficult and/or best project you’ve work on and why? I am immensely proud of all of the books I’ve published, and each one has had its own set of joys and difficulties. Early on in my time at Granta and Portobello, I read a wonderful Japanese novel by a writer called Hiromi Kawakami. I loved it, and I spent weeks persuading the other editors to read it and fighting for the book’s publication. We ended up acquiring it, editing it and changing the title from The Briefcase to Strange Weather in Tokyo. It has since sold around 40,000 copies and

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been shortlisted for the biggest prize in translation, the Independent foreign fiction prize (now known as the Man Booker International). It was immensely gratifying to see readers fall in love with it, as I had. We’ve just published another of Kawakami’s novels, The Nakano Thrift Shop, and the sales have been ever stronger. Finding an author who you believe in, publishing them to critical acclaim and building their career – that’s what makes this job worthwhile. On good days, you feel like you’re making the cultural landscape richer.

Summary

Summary

Key points

Activity

Creating a successful publishing list, and a globally recognized publishing brand like For Dummies, requires a well-planned and -executed commissioning strategy.

There are other series of books that compete with For Dummies. The Teach Yourself series was launched in 1938 and grew rapidly in response to wartime needs. It now includes over 500 titles, from Arabic and beekeeping to yoga and Zulu. The Teach Yourself imprint is part of the Hodder Education Group. If you compare the For Dummies and Teach Yourself lists you may be able to identify evidence of different editorial approaches to what might appear to be very similar markets.

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When IDG first published DOS For Dummies, booksellers were reluctant to stock a book that appeared to denigrate the customer. The editorial judgement of the publisher proved to show a better understanding of the book buyer than that shown by the booksellers. The editorial approach, authorial tone and design elements formed the base of a memorable brand that is effective across very different subject areas. The yellow cover, the standardized typography and content design, and the consistent level of expert but accessible writing have all added to the trust that consumers have in the brand. While the design is a major visible clue to this approach to readers, it is the editorial style, and the editorial guidance given to authors, that determines the effectiveness of the way the information is presented. The first For Dummies titles were aimed at a new market group – people who needed a simple way to learn more about the software that was installed on their computers. Many other publishers jumped on the computer book bandwagon at the time, but For Dummies understood something important about their target market. The potential readers knew that they didn’t know what they needed to know, and, so long as they got the information in an accessible and entertaining way, they were prepared to be referred to as ‘dummies’. For Dummies have used the brand to provide other products and services. These include merchandising of musical instruments, which started with the Acoustic Guitar Starter Pack For Dummies in 2006 (which packaged a guitar with a For Dummies book) and today includes a complete line of For Dummies instrument packs. In other brand collaborations the publisher produces custom packages, such as when a For Dummies team worked closely with Google to produce a print and online guide on using Google AdWords.

1 What subject areas have each of the companies chosen to specialize in when commissioning new titles for the publishing list? 2 Can you detect a difference of editorial approach in terms of how the readers are presented with a particular authorial voice and design style? 3 What can you find out about the different ways the two lists have developed digital enhancements or e-publishing formats? 4 What shows that these two lists are developed for an international market?

Further resources Athill, D. (2002), Stet: An Editor’s Life, New York: Grove/ Atlantic. Bhaskar, M. (2016), Curation: The Power of Selection in a World of Excess, London: Piatkus. Butcher, J., Drake, C. and Leach, M. (2006), Butcher’s Copy-editing: The Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Copyeditors and Proofreaders, 4th edn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davies, G. and Balkwill, R (2011), The Professionals’ Guide to Publishing, London: Kogan Page. Greenberg, S.L. (2015), Editors Talk About Editing: Insights for Readers, Writers and Publishers, new York: Peter Lang. Gross, G. (1993), Editors on Editing: What Writers Need to Know About What Editors Do, New York: Grove. Saller, C.F. (2016), The Subversive Copy Editor, 2nd edn, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Taylor, D.J. (2016), The Prose Factory: Literary Life in England Since 1918, London: Vintage. Waddingham, A. (ed.) (2014), New Hart’s Rules: The Oxford Style Guide, 2nd edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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5 Design and production Now that there are so many formats and digital platforms for publications, publishers have lots of new decisions to make. Will a guidebook be better as a printed book or as an app? How can e-books be designed for all the different e-readers? What traditional print formats will be best for which markets? Can all the different versions be produced from the same data file? These are all things that require design and production skills, and the confidence and ability to manage publishing projects destined for a variety of formats for what might be widely different markets. In all this, publishers need to be constantly aware of the importance of quality in the content and form of what they are producing. They need to be able to develop and keep to realistic schedules, budget effectively and establish pricing policies that lead to financial success. This chapter looks at how the design and production people in publishing contribute to this process and gives pointers on how to manage this important publishing function.

Platforms and formats appropriate for the content

Platforms and formats appropriate for the content The proliferation of formats and platforms for both print and digital publications requires managing content in a standardized way, so that it is possible to adapt this content for delivery to various markets through an array of production and distribution channels. An academic publisher, for example, can use the same core data files to prepare printed and online journals, printed books of conference papers and on-demand copies of individual articles. A trade publisher can use one file to create a hardback printed book, an e-book, and editions customized for other English-language markets. These editions may require new typefaces, formats, and designs, and even different punctuation and spelling conventions. Content may be ‘sliced and diced’ into chapter length (or shorter) sections for delivery through mobile phones and other devices, allowing publishers, like other media companies, to become aggregators and editors of content from a wide variety of sources.

The foundation of published works Digital files have mostly replaced paper manuscripts at the core of publishing. These may be simple wordprocessed documents, more complicated files containing hyperlinks, audio and video content, or transmedia creations with an even richer content. In this context, creating one file (in a format such as XML) makes the content usable across a wide variety of platforms and formats, and it can be efficiently transferred between publisher, designer, printer and e-book distributor. Using a common file format makes it possible to allocate identifiers for digital rights management (DRM). The integrated development of metadata, including unique identifiers in addition to the ISBN, enables discrete parts of any publication (such as sections, chapters, illustrations and appendices) to be identified and their usage tracked. Each file or sub-file can be identified by its DOI, the ownership of which can be validated and transacted across the global publishing network where others can create ‘new’ publications constructed of aggregated content.

Design decisions reinforce brand and access to the market Designing even the simplest publication entails a number of critical decisions related to the format, typography, page layout, medium and packaging. These decisions involve a dialogue between the editor, designer and marketing manager, with regular reviews by senior management, to make sure that the content and presentation remain focused on the intended market. Whether the design is predetermined by the established style of an imprint or series, or whether it is a stand-alone, every decision affects the features and benefits that will influence readers (and everyone else in the publishing network) as they decide whether to buy, recommend or read the publication. Just as editors are usually guided and constrained by a ‘house style’, designers are likewise rarely given a blank canvas. Certain design and production features are dictated by industry norms such as standard book sizes (see p. 138), limitations of printing technology, and customary prices for books and other publications. Each publisher decides on the design features and production qualities that it wants for a particular list or series. The standard features may extend to the choice of formats, typefaces, papers, bindings and cover illustrations, so the challenge for the designer is to work within the constraints of the overall style to create readable, user-friendly and economical designs.

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A design brief 128

A design brief or memo for an individual title may include instructions on some of the following: ●

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The format of the book and overall page layout to be followed, including the body text area and the placing of different text elements such as running heads, page numbers, notes and tables. The designer will generally be provided with (or will develop) a grid to ensure that these elements are consistent. Is the book to be in colour or black and white only, can it include spot colour or halftones? These decisions are made with marketing in mind, by consideration of the use of illustrations in competing titles, and by calculating the economic implications of the added cost of colour reproduction. Which typefaces (and in what point sizes) are to be used for the various elements such as body text, captions, headings and page numbers? This will be a part of the house style, and may well be built into the on-screen design template used by the designer.

5.1 | Brand and design Design and production are now about much more than packaging one version of a publication. They are about brand, legacy, production integration and market penetration. Here, designer Olympia Le-Tan has used the iconic cover design for J.D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye on her clutch bags, extending the brand into an unexpected area of merchandising.

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What illustrations are to be included? Is the designer expected to prepare illustrations or adapt those provided by the author, editor or picture researcher? These decisions are made by the editor and the author, but it is the designer’s job to make sure that they are integrated appropriately into the overall publication as it will be experienced by the reader.

In the next chapter we’ll look in more detail at the choices that relate specifically to the print versus digital decision, but first let’s consider the publishing design decisions that confront publishers of print products.

Platforms and formats appropriate for the content

Using InDesign Adobe InDesign® is currently one of the most common software programs used by designers to produce files for books, magazines, newspapers, flyers, brochures and other printed publications. InDesign files include page formatting information, page content, linked files, styles and colours. InDesign produces. indd files that are then converted to PDF files for use by the printer. Printers may use a variety of PDF file formats, depending on the different resolution required. The PDF file format, familiar to consumers from a multitude of internet downloads, is also used for some e-books, although it does not offer all the functions available with other file formats.

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5.2 | Key design elements This example of a spread shows some of the key design elements used in this book.

Design and production

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5.3 | InDesign template When a designer uses a design package such as InDesign (shown here), the design template will be determined before any actual content is included. Images may appear as blank pages, and text will often be substituted using ‘lorem ipsum’, a sample Latin dummy text that has been in use since the 1500s.

Platforms and formats appropriate for the content

Physical format Printed books can come in all shapes and sizes, but the vast majority are produced in a small number of formats. Having standardized book formats means that printers can develop their production lines to offer cost savings, and production costs can also be controlled by using paper economically

Table 5.1 Book formats

UK sizes

Metric (h x w) approx. trim size

Paperback sizes A format

178 x 110 mm

V format

198 x 129 mm

C format

216 x 138 mm

Other popular sizes Demy quarto

276 x 219 mm

Crown quarto

246 x 189 mm

Royal octavo

234 x 156 mm

Demy octavo

216 x 138 mm

US sizes

Imperial (w x h) approx. trim size

Mass-market paperback 4¼ inches x 7 inches Paperback

5½ inches x 8½ inches

Common hardback sizes 6 inches x 9 inches 7 inches x 10 inches 8½ inches x 11 inches

Slightly different book sizes (also called trim sizes) are used in the UK and the United States (see below). Books produced in other parts of the world are printed on different sized paper, or are trimmed to formats that have a traditional place in their respective book markets. Most books are produced in a portrait orientation, although some are landscape and some are square. Book production has become more global, with much production in recent years being done in China, India and other expanding economies. In this globalized publishing world, book formats are gradually becoming more standardized. This has rationalized many aspects of production and made life much easier for other parts of the distribution chain, from packaging to shelf display.

Book formats Book formats developed from the names of the sheets of paper used, and were traditionally named after the number of times a piece of paper was folded to make the size of the book. Thus the paper size called Crown (16¼ʺ × 21ʺ, 413 mm × 533 mm) leads to book sizes such as Crown Royal, Crown Quarto and Crown Octavo depending on the number of times the sheet is folded, and other paper sizes make different quarto and octavo sizes. Modern book-size names are still based on these measurements, although the metric size is the standard in the UK and the rest of the world, except in the United States, where sizes are in inches, and expressed as width × height, rather than height × width.

‘Book design is seeing a resurgence. This statement is not based on the result of a poll. Its science emanates from the hefty postbags I receive every week, filled with books that are more beautiful, more inventive in design, than they used to be. Not just high-end books either, but those exquisitely designed flapped paperbacks (Pushkin Press) or smart commercial covers (Gone Girl), attractive “series” re-designs (Penguin English Library) and of course, the display-worthy hardbacks.’ Arifa Akbar, Literary Editor of The Independent

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Design and production

‘Because of e-books’ lack of . . . pleasing aesthetics, that provides an opening for traditional (hardcover and paperback books) publishing to give readers both the pleasure of reading a good book along with the additional pleasure of holding in one’s hands a beautiful physical object.’ Dennis Abrams, Contributing Editor for Publishing Perspectives

Page design

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The traditions and conventions of page design that have arisen over the years are based on the assumption that the design should make the text more legible; ensure that the organization of the work is clear to readers; and aid readers in navigating their way around the book. To help with navigation, a good design is internally consistent (according to house style), so that readers can quickly understand how the text and illustrations are organized. Designers use various software packages to create pages for publication. Adobe InDesign and QuarkXPress are used by the majority of book designers although other major software suppliers such as Microsoft and Corel have similar design programs and some designers prefer to use open-source free software such as Scribus. Designers need to have a good understanding of and training in issues of readability, the effect of design features on meaning, and how readers navigate around the physical page. Some e-books are unable to replicate all features of printed books when the content is moved into the e-book medium.

Typography Typography – the choice of typeface, size and text layout – is a major factor affecting the readability of any text. Different typefaces are thought to be more appropriate to different types of publication. Most novels, for instance, are produced using a serif face such as Baskerville, Palatino or Times New Roman: they create links between letters so that the eye sees whole words, making prolonged reading easier on the eye and brain. On the other hand, we have grown accustomed (through computer use and word-processed documents) to reading more factual work-related texts in typefaces such as Arial or Verdana. Scientists and academics used to PDF versions of documents, produced for publication in journals, are unlikely to experience anything other than a limited range of typefaces, while readers of fiction or poetry may be more used to the traditional

serif characters. The size of type is important. Large type is more easily read by children and those with limited eyesight. The point (pt) size determines how many characters there are in a line of printed text as it appears on the page or screen. The number of characters on a line of text can affect the readability, as can the kerning and tracking (spacing between letters), and the spacing (leading) inserted between lines. If our eyes have to move too often to the next line, or if they must move too far back to identify the start of the next line, reading is likely to be more tiring. Somewhere between forty and sixty characters per line is a good measure. This preferred measure is also true of texts that are intended to be read on screen, so fixed-width pages for e-books can be far more readable than e-books in which the number of characters per line changes when the content is zoomed. Different typefaces are used in the print culture of different countries, just as other design elements such as cover designs, formats, papers and bindings vary according to cultural traditions. The move to global digital publishing may have an effect on this creative diversity, as the tastes of publishers and readers become less bound by national and linguistic publishing traditions.

Illustrations Illustrations are selected by an author, editor or picture researcher and can be an important part of the overall book package. A copy of the illustration required (usually in digital form) is obtained, and the cost and copyright clearance agreed. Some illustrations may need to be drawn (or redrawn) by a designer or artist. Expectations regarding the graphic quality of illustrations are developing to include HD and 3D images, and the text component of some transmedia publications may be much smaller than the other components as graphic elements gain prominence. With some multiform digital publications, the designer will have to make more complex decisions on the graphics and sound files that may become part of the overall

Platforms and formats appropriate for the content

Typefaces used in this book – This book is set in: OfficinaSansITCStd 70 pt Black for chapter opener headings 17 pt Black for section headings 13 pt Bold for section introductions 10 pt Bold for subheadings

OfficinaSansITCStd Book, Bold and Black 9.5 pt for main text 8.5 pt Book and Bold for the captions Book and Book Italic 9.5 pt for boxouts and diagrams

Table 5.2 Typefaces

The development of computer-based typesetting led to a growth in typefaces designed specifically for the new media. Standard PC fonts

Some Macintosh fonts

Century Gothic

Avant Garde

Arial

Helvetica

Arial Narrow

Helvetica Narrow

Times New Roman

Times Roman

New Courier

Courier

Century Schoolbook

New Century Schoolbook

Bookman Old Style

ITC Bookman

Monotype Corsiva

Zapf Chancery

Typeface style Type styles and weight are used for emphasis and differentiation

Non-Latin typefaces Many non-Latin languages read top to bottom or right to left.

Light

Helvetica Neue 45

Chinese

Roman

Helvetica Neue 55

Italic

Helvetica Neue 56

Condensed

Helvetica Neue 57

Extended

Helvetica Neue 63 い/イ き/キ し/シ ち/チ に/ニ ひ/ヒ み/ミ り/リ ゐ/ヰ う/ウ Helvetica Neue 75 く/ク つ/ツ ぬ/ヌ ふ/フ む/ム

Bold Black

Helvetica Neue 95

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transmedia package. When the content is ‘reflowed’ into the digital medium, images and text need to be linked together so that they appear in a useful juxtaposition.

Paper

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Except for a very few books that are printed on plastics, fabrics or other exotic materials, most p-books are printed on paper, and their covers are printed on a paper board of some kind. The choice of what paper to use is often quite simple, as all printers keep a stock that is suitable for the kind of books that they produce and it is usually sensible (and more cost-effective) to use the paper the printer has in stock. As the printer buys a lot of this paper, it should be reasonably priced, and of a quality already tried and tested on the machines to be used. The publisher only needs to buy the exact amount needed to print the required quantity, and the same stock is also likely to be available for any subsequent reprint. Most books are printed on slightly off-white (to reduce the glare) or white paper. Book papers are lightweight (between 70 GSM and 100 GSM) and can have a range of bulk (thickness or calliper). In the United States, paper weight is calculated in pounds per ream (500 sheets). It is the bulk of the paper rather than the weight that determines how thick it is. Customers often compare the thickness of a book with its price, so the bulk can often be particularly important for the marketing of books with fewer pages. The opacity of the paper is also important, and publishers are always concerned not to put off readers by using a paper that has too much show-through, particularly with pages that contain a mix of text and illustration. Bibles, however, are usually printed on ‘Bible paper’, which has low opacity, low weight and little bulk. Knowledge of paper is like knowledge of fine wine; the connoisseur can describe many subtleties in glowing terms, while many others will just know what they like. Most publishers will play safe and choose a paper because it is available from their printer, it works with similar books and it is available at a reasonable cost. Paper production is resource intensive and can cause pollution. It requires large volumes of water, energy and some chemicals as well as wood pulp. It is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, being the third greatest industrial greenhouse gas emitter in the OECD (OECD Environmental Outlook). The Green Press Initiative and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) are just three of the programmes that the publishing industry has adopted to improve on its the environmental impact.

Publishers with ‘FSC Chain of Custody’ certification include HarperCollins, Bloomsbury and Penguin, which produce most publications on FSC paper. SFI-certified sourcing labels show that the fibre used to produce paper is from a legal and responsible source.

Bindings and covers Printed books come in a variety of bindings and covers. The choice of binding depends on the type of book and the market for which it is intended. Casebound or hardback books are usually produced for the top end of the market. Despite an increasingly uncertain market (according to the Association of American Publishers, US hardback sales dropped by 1.8 per cent from 2013 to 2014), they are back in fashion for trade books (both fiction and non-fiction), as publishers seek to differentiate print books from e-books by stressing their tangible and collectible qualities. The pages of hardback books are often sewn in sections, as are those of some paperback books. Most paperback books, though, are assembled using burst binding (perfect binding), in which the signatures (pages in multiples of 4, 8, 16 or 32) are held together by glue. Hardback and paperback books usually have an illustrated jacket or cover printed with an image, typographic design, basic metadata (title, author, ISBN, barcode) and promotional material. This includes the promotional blurb, review quotes, endorsements and biographical information about the author, the major characters and any other important facts, such as series or film adaptations. Cover designs attract attention, define genre and create brand identity for imprints, authors and series. For thrillers like the French série noire, romances like Mills & Boon/Harlequin, children’s books like Ladybird, and the many Penguin sub-lists (Pelican, Modern Classics, Puffin), covers have long been a major component of book marketing. The design of the cover is thus of great importance to the publisher, the bookseller and the reader and represents an important part of the contribution designers make to publishing. Most websites selling e-books feature a graphic identical or similar to the printed cover. For books published only as e-books, publishers recognize that there should be some visual clues about the genre and information on the text and the author. Given the nature of e-book purchases, this may include video material, interviews, readings, messaging services and interactive reviews. For the digital native generation, e-books sit comfortably alongside social network apps, SMS correspondence and multiplayer games.

Platforms and formats appropriate for the content

5.5 | Duotone photographs Generally, duotone photographs are used for heightened visual effect, and printed in black and one other colour.

5.4 | Colour photographs Colour photographs are reproduced using techniques that apply different inks (usually magenta, yellow, cyan and black) to produce a full palette.

5.6 | Black-and-white photographs Black-and-white halftone photographs are sometimes used for their dramatic effect. They are also usually cheaper to print as they use only one colour of ink.

5.7 | Line drawings Line drawings have no variation of ink coverage, but rely on the variation of thickness of the lines for effect.

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Judging a book by its cover Book-cover design is one of the most important aspects of marketing: readers really do judge a book by its cover. This is increasingly apparent as self-publishing becomes more mainstream, and with it comes an abundance of amateur book design. Consequently, many companies have sprung up that offer professional book design services to independent authors. While book-cover design, particularly highly illustrated covers, is today important for author and publishing branding, and increasing the visibility of a book, it is a relatively new phenomenon. The illustrated covers that we know today did not become popular until the end of the nineteenth century, when there was more demand for cheaper books. Before this, book covers were generally ornate, leather bindings: a reflection of their owner’s status and wealth. Since then, there

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‘We are very much in the digital world, providing e-books for much of our list. But there’s something about the physical beauty of a book, finely executed inside and out, that readers find deeply satisfying. We bring much work and thought into the production of our books, from authoritative texts, interior design, to cutting-edge book design, and we have built a strong reputation for this distinction.’ Elda Rotor, vice president and publisher of Penguin Classics at the Penguin Random House in New York

5.8 | On the Side The book cover for On the Side is attention-grabbing and distinctive, with its bold use of colour and quirky typographic design. This makes it perfect for use in e-book format, where the cover thumbnail is usually displayed quite small on the screen.

have been many experiments and progressions in book-cover design from Aubrey Beardsley’s The Yellow Book to Penguin’s radical approach to design (Jan Tschichold in the 1940s, Germano Facetti in the 1960s, and many others since) to Canongate’s partnership with design studio Pentagram to rebrand the Bible with its Pocket Canons collection. While all publishers cannot be expected to revolutionize book-cover design, and self-published authors cannot be expected to work with awardwinning design companies to create their covers, it is clear that good cover design can add value to a book: whether that means extending its brand identity, making it easier for readers to identify a genre, increasing visibility in an online or a physical bookshop, or acting as a deciding factor to whether a consumer will buy a book or not.

Platforms and formats appropriate for the content

Portability One feature of the book remains constant: the e-reader or smartphone fits, like the paperback book has done for many years, neatly in a bag or pocket. The fundamental portability of the book remains one of its most valued qualities; only now, as an e-reader, it can carry whole libraries.

Printing basics The first printing presses made direct impressions onto paper or other media from inked blocks that carried raised type or pictogram characters. Printing by direct impression (letterpress) continued into the twentieth century, becoming increasingly automated and fitted to the requirements of mass production. The development of automated hot-metal typesetting (to replace the hand assembly of cold type) during the 1880s (linotype) and 1890s (monotype), massively increased production capacity and improved the quality of reproduction. These innovations in typesetting, combined with the adoption of lithographic printing during the same period, provided the basis for the expansion of print publishing during the twentieth century. Central to this growth was offset lithography, in which the inked image is transferred (or ‘offset’) from a plate on a plate cylinder to a rubber blanket cylinder, from where it passes to the impression cylinder and then to the paper. Because there is no direct contact between the plate and the printing surface, this printing method produces a consistently high image quality and the plates have a longer printing life. Modern offset presses can use paper in sheets (on a sheet-fed press) or in rolls (on a web-fed press). The efficiencies of continuous web printing make this

especially useful for long runs such as those for newspapers, magazines and mass-market paperback books. The modern printing press makes plates directly from data files. Digital technology allows the settings of the machine to be done automatically, which ensures accurate imposition and the correct flow of ink and paper for an individual job. Offset litho is still the cheapest method to produce high-quality printing in commercial quantities. Improvements in automated set-up now also make it appropriate for quite small print runs (in the low hundreds). Digital printing is appropriate for small print runs of colour illustrated books. It is also employed by book printers who use POD and short-run printing for other types of books. On-demand copies of publications can also be produced on a local basis – sometimes within a conventional bookshop using, for instance, the Espresso Book Machine. The number of pages in a book are multiples of the pages in a signature, for example a book composed of eight signatures each comprising 16 pages will have 128 pages. A signature is an individual section of a book made from a single sheet of paper folded in half, quarters, eighths and so on and then cut. A signature will usually consist of 8, 16 or 32 pages, although some presses can go as high as 64 or 128 pages printed on a single sheet. Each book is designed in such a way that there is a minimum of blank pages on each signature, as this represents an unnecessary paper cost. The signatures are folded and gathered together to form a book block, which is then bound together, covered and packaged. The first copies to come off the production line are inspected by the printer and the publisher’s production department before being released into the supply chain.

‘It’s a daunting landscape, far more savage and hostile to the author than any we’ve seen before. But one thing hasn’t changed, which is the ignored, unacknowledged, but complete dependence of those great interests on us and on our talents and on the work we do in the quiet of our solitude. They have enormous financial and political power, but no creative power whatsoever. Whether we’re poets, historians, writers of cookery books, novelists, travel writers, that comes from us alone. We originate the material they exploit.’ Philip Pullman, author of the His Dark Materials series

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Scheduling the publication process One of the major determinants of the publishing production process is the time it takes to develop the final physical or digital product or service, so that it can be brought to market on a planned date. Production departments construct the production schedule backwards from the publication date decided by the publisher, taking all the various milestones into account. The design and production schedule dovetails with the editorial schedule, and runs concurrently with the marketing, promotion, sales and distribution schedule. All the elements must work together to give the publication its best chance in the market.

5.9 | POD books from a Xerox machine Print-on-demand books like these can be made in a variety of formats, and can be trimmed to smaller sizes as required by the publisher.

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Discussion questions 1 How is digital publishing affecting cover design? 2 What advantages are there to using standardized book formats? 3 When you read a novel, which typeface and type size do you prefer to read? Is this the same type style that you use on a computer screen? 4 What is the difference between sewn and perfect binding? 5 What is the future of illustrated books in the digital age? 6 Why do you think there is still a demand for books with high production values?

Scheduling the publication process

Time It is the production controller’s job to oversee the design and production activities undertaken both within the company and by external freelancers and commercial suppliers. The production controller needs to ensure that everyone keeps to the schedule, so that finished books are available for distribution in time for the publication date. At the same time, maintaining the schedule must not have a negative effect on quality. It is important to follow the schedule while keeping costs within agreed budgets and according to agreements with suppliers. An effective workflow procedure means that spinoffs, repurposed versions, rapid revisions and adaptations to new platforms can be done in a costefficient way. Many publishers now use software technology to help with their workflow procedures, for example XML might be used to mark up text for e-publication. Many of the tasks done by copy editors, proofreaders, designers and web developers are now part of a common workflow that can ensure the simultaneous release of print, e-book, enhanced e-book or app. The use of XML means that the same content can be adapted for all these formats.

Scheduling tools As mentioned earlier, production schedules are generally created backwards from a date when copies are needed for distribution and launch into the market. Although computer-based scheduling has mostly replaced the use of wallcharts, a good production coordinator will still need an instinctive feel for a likely

Project management The fundamentals of production management remain as they were before the digital era: controlling the three variables of time, cost and quality. In other words, publishing on schedule, to budget and to the required specifications.

Digital workflow The development of a digital workflow is seen by some as reflecting a fundamental shift in the publishing business model and the need for new publishing skills. Perhaps the most significant development is the need for a much closer working relationship between editorial and production, and this often entails a more integrated approach to new title development.

delay before it happens and will quickly change his or her focus to react to possible critical points. All schedules are likely to be revised at points throughout the publication process, and the possibility of delays (known as ‘slippage’) must be built into any schedule. Anyone buying production services from outside suppliers must be aware of the seasonal demand for these services. Getting a book printed in time for Christmas would need an October publication date and may be more costly and require tighter scheduling than at other times. Conversely, if publishers can print a publication at a time when there is not much other work on offer, they may be able to get a good price and very flexible service from printers.

The importance of quality For most users, a well-produced book simply means accurate and entertaining content that is well written, well edited and well produced. It must be easily navigable, with good quality production, so that the e-books work and the p-books don’t fall apart. The layout, typeface and any graphics must work within an overall publishing concept like the For Dummies series (see the case study in Chapter 4, p. 120). In the case of e-publications, the book must work at least on all the most popular devices from day one – something that may involve extensive trialling if there is a multimedia element to the overall product design. The design must be appropriate to the reader’s expectations and needs, but not overly sophisticated, unless enhanced features really add something to the user experience. The quality of e-books is about more than technical compatibility and marketability of e-books on different devices; and

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fundamental design qualities need as much care as with a p-book. Readers may excuse some spelling and grammar mistakes on emails and tweets, but they don’t expect them in a book or an e-book. Copy-editing and proofreading remain a fundamental part of publishing in the digital age.

Proofs

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The production process is punctuated by the different proof stages a book reaches in the process of typesetting, page layout and preparation for printing. Typeset material was traditionally first looked at in long galley proofs (unpaged impressions taken from the metal type put together by the typesetter), then in page proofs. First proofs are still corrected by the editor, author and designer, and changes made by each are incorporated into the finished work under the editor’s control. When the page layout is finalized and images prepared for reproduction, proofs of illustrations show up any loss of clarity or colour definition, particularly in halftone and colour illustrations. Further proofs are taken from the press before the final print-run, to check that imposition and colour values on the actual paper stock used in the printing are of the required quality. Now that designers make up finished pages on screen, there are far fewer occasions when proofs are printed, and pages are often checked on screen with corrections

made directly onto the digital file. This change to production methods does not mean that there is less need for meticulous attention to detail, and many editors and proofreaders still prefer to work with hard-copy proofs that more directly mirror the physical book that will eventually be produced. All of this proof checking is vital because the cost of paper and printing (the time the job takes on the printing press) are the most expensive parts of the production process for print publications. Because errors cannot be corrected once printing starts, proofs are often approved and signed off by senior staff. The quality of the pre-press work is monitored using a proof that is either a soft (on screen) or hard copy (on paper) of what the final product will look like when it comes off the press. Hard-copy proofing usually involves a high-quality one-off copy of the production artwork, while soft proofing usually involves high resolution computer images. Digital production systems ensure that the text and images are produced accurately and consistently and can embed any coding necessary for the efficient delivery of the text in other formats and on other platforms. Thus the file used for storage, reproduction and distribution is provided with the metadata needed for it to be located, identified and retrieved so that ownership, licensing, payment and attribution requirements are built into the structure of the publicly available (published) item.

5.10 | The Cuckoo’s Calling is reprinted after overnight success When it was revealed that this book was penned by J.K. Rowling, sales of the book soared and the printers of the book, Clays, had to start reprinting the book in large numbers. The speed, efficiency and precision of the printing were crucial in a scenario such as this.

Scheduling the publication process

What kind of reader? Design is integral to the market expectations and aspirations that the publisher has for a particular publication, and the production department is involved from a very early stage in developing the product strategy. The published package is designed and produced with specific readers in mind, and takes into account the way in which these readers will use and enjoy it. There is no doubt that reading habits are

changing. Users of computers and mobile devices have become less used to deep or immersive reading (concentrated linear reading of one text at a time), and the ways in which content is presented (shorter texts, more graphics, stickier content) are changing to reflect this. Publishers are reacting to these developments in consumer behaviour in the same way that they have always paid attention to issues of readability and accessibility.

Discussion questions 1 Why is it important to construct the production schedule backwards rather than forwards? 2 Which is the most important element to control in the production process – quality, time or cost?

3 How might another department (not production) adversely affect the publications schedule? 4 What checks are made to ensure quality in the final published product?

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Controlling costs and establishing prices Whatever technology is used in the design and production of a publication, the responsibilities of the people who manage this part of the publishing process include the accurate estimation of costs prior to ‘greenlight’ approval of the project; obtaining competitive estimates from appropriate outside suppliers; purchasing services from the suppliers offering the best value and schedule for the service required; and the monitoring and control of costs throughout. This is done by maintaining good internal communications; working closely to understand the capabilities and limitations of suppliers; and having an effective system to plan and monitor expenditure.

Selecting suppliers Production managers need to keep in close touch with their suppliers to maintain a good understanding of their capabilities. They must understand which printers are best for particular jobs, and also how to balance the requirements for quality with the need to get jobs done at an acceptable price and according to schedule. Developing mutual trust is important. Printers and other suppliers will make better deals with publishers who keep to deadlines, and provide all the required files and/or other materials in agreed formats. Likewise, publishers prefer to deal with suppliers who keep to the schedule, follow the job specifications, and are transparent about how their charges are calculated. Most larger companies have lists of approved suppliers, which are subject to regular monitoring.

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Estimates, quotations, contingencies and final costs As we saw in Chapter 4, the production department provides a production estimate to the editor so that he or she can calculate the financial viability of the project in the form of a profit and loss (P&L) projection for approval by the management team. This estimate is made on the basis of their knowledge and experience, but when the publication is submitted by the author, the editor has better information about the details of the book (for example, its extent, the number and kind of illustrations, any other special requirements) and the production department can obtain more precise quotations directly from suppliers. The production department may allow a certain percentage cost overrun for contingencies, but if changes are made to the specifications, revised quotations will be requested. As the book progresses through the design, pre-press and production stages, the production controller will monitor progress and liaise with the editor and other departments to ensure that the schedule, quality and costs are in line with expectations. The production scenario may include a variety of outputs being launched simultaneously. This may require the coordination of the print and web design, the litho printing and digital file preparation, testing online and e-book delivery. In some companies the production department has responsibility for processing and storing all the elements of the publication, so that they can be deconstructed and reconstructed in any way required by the complex supply and communications network that connects the publisher with its readers. Every production job is examined on completion to see if any cost, quality or scheduling elements might be improved through better management.

Controlling costs and establishing prices

Pre-press and manufacturing costs Publishing, like all manufacturing industries, has two major kinds of costs associated with producing the goods it sells. First, there are the costs of developing a project. These costs include paying for the creation of intellectual property (the text and illustrations), developing the design prototype (the production file), and the tools necessary to mass-produce the product (printing plates). These one-off pre-press costs (sometimes called fixed costs or plant costs) are all incurred before the printing and binding, and are the same whether one copy or 10,000 copies are produced. The costs of manufacturing, on the other hand, are related to the number of copies being produced once the press is rolling. While there are some economies of scale as more copies are produced (and the initial cost of setting up the machine is absorbed over more copies), the manufacturing costs (machine time, paper, ink, folding, binding and covering) are generally in proportion to the number of copies being produced. A

lot of production, both pre-press and manufacturing, is done in emerging market countries, so freight costs, quality control via the internet, and currency exchange rate variations must be taken into account and managed. With digital production, the economic model of pre-press and manufacturing costs no longer applies. This is because when an item is delivered through digital platforms, the only production costs are really the product development costs and equivalent to pre-press costs for p-books. However, because of the technology involved and specialist skills required, these can be much higher than for a printed book. There are also additional costs involved in distributing and marketing e-books, such as the need to ensure proper adherence to EPUB® standards. The commonly held idea (by a broad group from writers to book buyers) that e-books are cheap to make is an illusion that has been reinforced by the loss-leader promotions that some device manufacturers have made in order to increase profitable sales of e-reading devices.

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Discussion questions 1 Why do the economics of physical publishing production favour larger print runs? 2 What is included in pre-press costs?

3 Why might one printer be better than another for a specific job? 4 Why do publishers prefer some suppliers over others?

‘Either the book will continue to be the medium for reading, or its replacement will resemble what the book has always been, even before the invention of the printing press.’ Umberto Eco

Design and production

Case study

Horrible Histories

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Horrible Histories show how content can be designed and packaged for specific audiences: beginning as a book series, Horrible Histories is now an entertainment franchise. There is a series of books, published by Scholastic in the UK, a series of magazines, a TV series and game show, theatre adaptations, and numerous games and toys. Terry Deary, who writes the books, is one of the UK’s bestknown authors of children’s books. The books are designed to interest younger children in history by concentrating on unusual and gory historical tales. Since the publication of the first titles (The Terrible Tudors and The Awesome Egyptians) in 1993, there are now over sixty titles, which have sold more than 25 million copies in thirty languages. With the TV series, computer games and other franchised spin-offs, Horrible Histories is now a major publishing brand. The books are vividly designed, and include page layouts and typography that are more associated with comic books, newspapers and other printed ephemera than traditional history books. They also have a considerable online presence and a range of audiobooks and e-books. In 2011, Scholastic announced a number of significant developments to the Horrible Histories brand, in particular by developing internet portals that can enable visitors to explore all aspects of the series, and participate in quizzes and games. ●

The Gory Games World internet portal was launched in 2012 in time for the Olympic Games in the UK. The company has tied it in with a TV programme, ‘Horrible Histories: Gory Games’, co-hosted by Rattus Rattus, in which three horrible historians test their knowledge of the beastly bits of history with quirky quizzes, gory games and grisly prizes.

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It has developed an internet portal for Horrible Science. The Horrible Science series has partnered with Galt Toys to offer Horrible Science experiment kits, that encourage children to concoct slimy materials, construct rockets and make model eyeballs. The Horrible Histories books are available as e-books for Kindle. The website HorribleHistoriesWorld.com is being developed as a revenue earner, with subscriptions and virtual world purchases, using online currency ‘groats’, as well as click-through advertising. Subscribers will get a ‘room that they can customize’, such as an Egyptian tomb or a pirate cabin, and will also be able to use virtual currency, and access games, quizzes and quests. At the time of the launch, Steve Richards, head of the firm developing the website, said: ‘Any brand moving in the virtual world needs to be distinctive and to be spread across a number of areas such as television, books and film or sport.’ People placing orders with Scholastic in the UK (the publishers of Horrible Histories) can nominate a school or charity to receive twenty pence for every pound that is spent. This is good for business, and good for the reputation of the publisher. In 2013, a number of the books were reissued to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the series.

Case study

5.11 | Horrible Histories website The website connects viewers to the wonderful world of Horrible Histories, a virtual world that can be explored, where books can be bought and much more. 145

5.12 | Groovy Greeks cover One of the things that appeals to the young readers of Horrible Histories is the mix of humour and the macabre reflected in this cover.

Design and production

Interview

Alex Bell, Production Programme Manager, Dorling Kindersley

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What exactly does a production programme manager do? (i.e. tell us what your role entails. What are your responsibilities on a day-to-day basis? What’s a typical work week like?) As Production Programme Manager for the Life and Travel list at DK (Dorling Kindersley), I manage a team of six Print Producers, three Pre-producers, and one Production Assistant, overseeing their pastoral care and that day-to-day workloads are evenly spread, and they have my support when dealing with any major issues or problems. I sometimes act as a bridge between the team and senior management, making sure any relevant information is escalated down to the Producers, and vice versa. I help to manage the important relationships between the production team and other parts of the business, such as Creative and Sales, and with external print suppliers. I also work on projects to improve our processes as a department – for example, at the moment I am working to make sure we have complete and consistent colour management on our printings in the Far East, by having Producers scan running sheets and record results; and having our print suppliers send us their own colour reports. The job varies and my day often depends on what pops up on the spur of the moment. One day, I might have a couple of meetings with other Production managers or a catch up with one of my team, spending the rest quietly doing project work. The next, we might have a problem with a supplier or a printer, and it will be all hands on deck to communicate to the business and get it fixed as best we can.

Typically, how does a project go from start to finish? (e.g. what other departments do you work closely with and how do you manage these interactions?) Speaking for the Producers who work on individual book projects – there are lots of stages involved. Initially, an idea for a book will emerge from Creative and/or Sales, often with the involvement of Production (we often highlight new trends/technologies/suggest new title ideas). If the book is one which needs special development, for example it has special finishes or novelty elements, then Creative will liaise with us to make sure the idea can become a physical reality. Production will gather costs based on estimated quantities to ensure the project is viable, and may gather dummies, proofs or samples for Creative and Sales to approve. It’s Production’s job to work hard with our print suppliers to get the best possible product, but also to manage expectations and let people know if something cannot be achieved at the cost or with the high quality we need. After a project is signed off, Pre-production will work with Creative to help them set up files correctly for the book, ironing out any issues before they reach the printer. Production will set up a schedule with the printer for proofing, plotter checking and final production, and with the shipper for final delivery to all of our markets worldwide. They will then oversee this process, making sure any issues or delays are communicated to other areas of the business where they have an impact. We manage relationships with our suppliers, including payment (passing invoices).

Interview

What changes, since you’ve worked in publishing, have you noticed that impact on production and the ability to design? (e.g. how have the technological developments changed what you do) All of the changes that I have noticed have been positive ones. The ongoing improvement of systems and technologies in and out of house helps us to work more efficiently and work with fewer errors. Printer capabilities are also developing, and we are continually seeing existing finishes become more efficient, cheaper and better quality, as we see new finishes and products emerging. This means we can think much more creatively.

Have you noticed rising demand for beautifully made books? (i.e. do you think the value of design and production has increased over the last few years, and do you think publishers are using this to their advantage?) It’s hard to say, as DK has always specialized in quality illustrated books, so this is what we were producing anyway. We are always looking for ways to make our books unique and eye-catching. Recent years have also seen the special sales market grow, and we find that customers in the UK and US are increasingly asking for customized products, to make their particular offering unique – often involving special innovative packaging and presentation.

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Summary

Key points

Activity

The design for a series like Horrible Histories is developed with an eye to the publisher’s perception of the target market, so it is worth testing design elements with potential readers. The design must also be adaptable for different print and digital formats and be usable for co-editions and international editions.

Find out about the international publishers involved in the Horrible Histories series and compare their titles, design elements and promotional messages. Compare these with other children’s publishing.

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Designing for an age group: Horrible Histories are not produced for the school curriculum, so there are no constraints to design for a particular age group. Children from six to sixteen can enjoy them, as do many adults. Design elements for e-books: as the design style is such a strong feature of the brand, Scholastic decided not to do an early launch of Horrible Histories as e-books, preferring to wait until issues related to copy flow and illustration were resolved. International production: like DK titles in a previous decade, Horrible Histories are ideal for copublication and adaptation for different market editions. In addition to rights licences for particular titles, overseas publishers have been encouraged to use the format concept to develop their own titles in the Horrible Histories style. This is a business model similar to TV franchising of popular show formats. Transatlantic: Scholastic publishes the Horrible Histories series in the United States, and also publishes another similar series called You Wouldn’t Want to Be . . . such as You Wouldn’t Want to Be a Chicago Gangster! Some Dangerous Characters You’d Better Avoid. This is an example of branding and associated design elements being adapted to local markets. Brand protection: Horrible Histories® is a registered trademark. While titles and series titles are not protected by copyright law, some are protected by the much stronger designation of trademarks. In another famous example, Frederick Warne & Co. owns the trademark rights of the Beatrix Potter characters. Social network: the Horrible Histories portal is being launched on subscription. Could this be a model for future publisher websites, emulating some of the web developments in newspaper and magazine publishing?

1 What are the common design and production elements in the different editions? 2 To what extent is Horrible Histories designed as a global brand? 3 To what extent has the Horrible Histories publishing formula been applied differently in response to local market conditions by publishers around the world? How does the design of the original series help to facilitate the production of international adaptations? 4 Look at the websites of a variety of children’s publishers and compare the designs used. What other membership, subscription or social network models can you identify? 5 Do you think it is right to treat a potentially serious subject like history in such a light-hearted way and to use such bright and playful design elements?

Summary

Further resources Baines, P. (2005), Penguin by Design: A Cover Story 1935–2005, London: Allen Lane. Bullock, A. (2012), Book Production: A Manual of Project and Production Management in Book Publishing, Abingdon: Routledge. Davies, G. (2004), Book Commissioning and Acquisition, 2nd edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Garfield, S. (2010), Just My Type: A Book About Fonts, London: Profile.

Hand, D. and Middleditch, S. (2013), Design for Media: A Handbook for Students and Professionals in Journalism. PR and Advertising, Abingdon: Routledge. Hitchcock, F.H. (2009), The Building of a Book, [Charleston, SC:] BiblioBazaar. Mitchell, M. and Wightman, S. (2005), Book Typography: A Designer’s Manual, Marlborough: Libanus Press. Woll, T. (2014), Publishing for Profit: Successful Bottom-Line Management for Book Publishers, 5th edn, Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Zeegan, L. (2015), Ladybird by Design, London: Ladybird.

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As the market for e-books continues to grow, authors, agents, publishers and booksellers make choices between a variety of media, formats and platforms. Within a technical, legal and administrative framework that sometimes struggles to keep up, new business models for both print and electronic publishing have been proposed. This chapter looks at some of the ways digital workflow and software standards are easing the smooth adoption of digital publishing for many types of publishing in local and global markets. Business models for print and digital publishing now reflect change in the marketing communication and supply chains, and make increased use of sales and distribution models that include a variety of new media channels.

‘While the e-book market on its own has matured, the transformation and remaking of publishing companies has not stopped at all, as digital innovations and efficiencies touch every aspect of the publishing process and define the market.’ Michael Cader (@PublishersLunch), founder of Publishers Lunch and PublishersMarketplace.com

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Print and digital publishing

Choosing from a variety of media and formats

Choosing from a variety of media and formats Readers have long been accustomed to the idea that books come in a variety of formats and bindings, with varying production qualities in terms of design, typography, printing techniques and paper. When publishers first started to make texts available in digital formats the digital rights were seen as a further subsidiary right and the printed book remained the basis of ‘volume rights’, that is the rights to publish the book in printed form. With the rapid growth of e-books and an increasing array of tablets and other digital delivery devices, publishers now have many more ways to publish, and the printed work no longer has an unrivalled position in publishing.

Moving from print to digital A growing number of consumers now expect a variety of delivery mechanisms and increased media convergence, and publishers must understand how their publishing programmes will be consumed in different formats by different audiences. Some types of publishing, particularly reference and journal publishing, have moved almost exclusively to digital publication. For other types of publishing, the shift is much more gradual.

Moving through different formats Publishing media have developed in the last decade with the introduction of new formats that can be read on tablets, e-readers and mobile phones.

6.1 | Tablet Many readers have become used to having a large number of titles in their portable library of e-books, available by a simple touch of the screen.

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‘Tech firms are a huge opportunity for publishers, they provide us with the opportunity to reach even more readers, and the book consumer base is growing by 25 million people a year, and so we need each other, and the relationship between tech firms and publishers should not be confrontational but collaborative.’ Markus Dohle CEO Penguin Random House

Changing reading habits

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The act of reading is changing. It is becoming both more private (we buy and consume e-books in a more anonymous way than we do with a physical book), and more public (we engage with other readers through reading groups, literary festivals, social media, and publisher and author forums). Our digital libraries are not on display to visitors, but stored on our personal device or in our personal cloud space. Advances in e-book technology aim to make the e-book reading experience (including the hypertextuality that often leads us away from the central text through our ability to click on live links) the preferred way of absorbing text. Readers can annotate e-books (just as they can use a pencil to make marginal notes in a paper edition), and use hypertext links to read more than the book. The success of Faber’s digital The Waste Land (the iPad app covered its costs in just six weeks according to the Guardian, 8 August 2011), Amazon’s bestselling author of 2015 Millie Marotta’s Colouring Adventures app created by Touch Press (according to the company it was downloaded over 150,000 times in ten days after its release), and other digital products show that there is a public appetite for such digitally enhanced texts, even of quite esoteric kinds. The development of e-ink, backlit screens and other ways of making the screen an acceptable replacement for paper are likely to ensure

that e-readers become a major way in which much fiction and popular non-fiction is read over the next five to ten years. Other text-related features like search and annotation make the e-reader not only suitable for simpler narrative and instructional texts, but also for educational and academic materials. Some elements of illustrated book design are more difficult to replicate in the digital environment, due to the reflowing of text and images (meaning that the original layout is lost). As technology develops to enable enhanced illustrations in e-books, richer graphic content is adding to the reading experience. A further significant e-book technological development is in the realm of interactivity, intermedia, hyperlinking and embedding of audio, video and other non-text materials. Digital publishing developments also lead to the possibility of new forms of literary texts – poetry, stories and other narratives that are created in digital forms rather than being produced from static texts adapted for digital delivery. An early example of such a development was Papercut, an enhanced reading experience for iPad that included three short stories by Richard Beard, Nadifa Mohamed and Laura Dockrill, and provided what was described as ‘an interactive, multi-sensory reading experience, automatically triggering relevant video, animation, image sequences and sound content’. Many other such publications have appeared in recent years.

Choosing from a variety of media and formats

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6.2a–b | The Waste Land In adapting The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot as an app, Faber and Faber were able to add on other elements. These included interactive notes, a filmed performance, and audio readings of the poem. For example, world-renowned Irish poet Seamus Heaney (pictured) offers perspectives on the poem.

Print and digital publishing

‘Our world is constantly being shaped by the big technology companies, so a primary focus at the Digital Book World Conference + Expo will be how those tech companies are shaping the new ecosystem of the book business. And that doesn’t just mean looking to the obvious tech company, Amazon, which is almost every book publisher’s biggest trading partner. It means Facebook and Google, which have become perhaps the industry’s primary marketing mechanisms. And, of course, it also means Apple, which has become the second-leading ebook provider to Amazon.’ Mike Shatzkin (@MikeShatzkin), DBW conference chair and founder of The Idea Logical Company

Romance and erotica in the age of digital privacy Despite the global success of the Fifty Shades of Grey trilogy, there is still a stigma attached to the romance and erotica genres. However, readers of these genres, particularly romance, are some of the most loyal and voracious. In 2013, it was estimated that 13 per cent of all adult fiction sales in the United States were romantic novels ($1.08 billion worth of sales): outselling both literary fiction and science fiction. In the UK, between 2010 and 2015, romance and erotic fiction sold 39.8 million physical books worth £178.09 million. While these figures show a healthy market for physical books,

sales of e-books, within these genres, are soaring (e.g. two out of the ten top-selling authors, of all time, on Kindle were romance or erotica writers): this is, in part, as a result of the anonymity afforded by digital formats. According to Jellybooks, a reader analytics company, readers of the romance genre are twice more likely than literary or nonfiction readers to read on their smartphones. Dedicated e-book readers, tablets and smartphones allow readers of these stigmatized genres to read whatever they like in public without being judged by their covers.

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‘For about a decade or more publishers have been berated, criticised, taunted for their ability to get it. “It” being the future . . . Yet books and ideas have proved resilient to the disruptive technologies that have swept aside other industries. We should all be feeling a bit of a spring in our step. We really should . . . In the main, the book industry has evolved pretty successfully over the past decade. We’ve also been proved right about a good deal, and made good judgements, and have arrived here in a recognisable, possible world. I don’t think that’s complacence: I think that’s an honest judgement . . . The urgency now is not about survival, but about how we continue deliberate evolution.’ Stephen Page, CEO of Faber & Faber

Choosing from a variety of media and formats

‘The reality is that we are printing more books today than ever before in the history of civilization – and digital books are in addition to that . . . Books are thriving now in different ways than they were 30 years ago. We need to think about how to revitalize our communications, rather than defend models that belong to the past. Print culture has undergone many such crises over its history. It’s time for rethinking and for growing. The scholarly book was overdue for redesign.’ Professor Jeffrey Schnapp, Founder/Faculty Director of MetaLab and Professor of Romance Literatures and Comparative Literature, Harvard University

Textbook formats Textbook publishers produce supplementary materials to accompany their publications, including teachers’ notes, self-test questions and revision guides. These add-on learning materials (and the core text) are now often published in digital form, usually accessed online, sometimes free and sometimes for a price. They can include reference guides and glossaries, case studies, data spreadsheets, podcast audio and video lectures, and laboratory demonstrations. Publishers have moved quickly to adopt a variety of digital delivery channels for such material; from distribution via central university computer systems, to downloading to personal computers, tablets and other mobile devices. Textbook databases also enable course tutors to customize text packages to include not only content from the original publisher, but also the tutor’s own notes, presentations and lectures. They can also include material from other content providers like news media, specific company case studies, local regulations and other educational material. Digital publication also makes it easier to update texts, and to adapt content for local market conditions. Another possible consequence of the ability of educational institutions or individual tutors to mix and match the content of a textbook is that the content can be changed to conform to an ideological, political or religious viewpoint. Digital texts – for example, books about history and evolution – could be more easily manipulated to put forward a particular point of view. Enhancing texts with ancillary material has been one reason for an increase in the price of many core text packages. Publishers can charge high prices when they have a relatively captive market, and try to recoup

losses suffered because overall sales have dropped due to the increased use of second-hand texts. Publishers need to be aware that special features required in some disciplines (mathematical notations, chemical symbols, alphabets) may need special tools. The software used for digital works must also ensure that the copy flow keeps illustrations and tables close to relevant text.

Trade book formats In some trade categories (particularly in the United States) e-books overtook print books (both hardback and paperback) in terms of unit sales; however, e-books sales have seen a decline since 2015. The Association of American Publishers found that sales of trade e-books in the United States fell 14 per cent in 2015 compared to 2014 while the Publishers Association found that, in the UK, e-book sales fell by 1.6 per cent to £554 million in 2015, and declined a further 4 per cent in 2016. Many of the print sales and e-book sales go through the same channel (Amazon) and this has caused some concern about the future diversity of distribution channels. In non-English language markets, countries where fixed book prices are enforced, and other markets with a strong independent bookselling tradition, e-book uptake has not been so rapid, but it is accelerating. In poorer countries it will obviously be some time before the e-reading devices become affordable to a wide public, but the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China) are moving to adopt mass usage of e-books, as are other markets in Asia, Latin America and Africa. The developments are rapid and are likely to continue to be so, making it difficult to predict or anticipate new shift. However, it is clear that the scope, scale and momentum of digital developments will vary for

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different types of publishing. While fiction and nonillustrated non-fiction have made very rapid progression to e-book, other genres are proving more problematic. One book category that initially presented difficulties in transforming from print to e-book was the illustrated cookery book, and not only because people didn’t want to spill soup on their iPads. For example, when the first attempts were made to convert Julia Child’s classic Mastering the Art of French Cooking, there were issues about how to present lists of ingredients on the e-reader screen, how to preserve the two-column format already familiar to readers of this kitchen

classic, and how to present the well-known illustrations. The imprint, Knopf (part of Penguin Random House), therefore waited until 2011 to publish the e-book version. This required its production staff to retype the whole book by hand, redesign the book from scratch, and add useful links. Even then some features, such as its distinctive typeface, which was familiar to the p-book readers, have been lost. Publishers and readers may keep a preference for printed cookery books, art books and other highly illustrated and annotated books for some years yet.

‘I think overall, the digital market has certainly gone up, if you include smaller publishers and self-published books and digital-only publishers But I don’t think that changes the overall picture of the ebook marketplace, which has slowed down from 2012 to 2014, and which will, I think, continue to slow as readers migrate from dedicated e-ink reading devices to tablets and mobile phones.’ Philip Jones, Editor of The Bookseller

6.3 | Julia Child Mastering the Art of French Cooking (published by Random House) is a classic cookery book that is now available in e-book format. Cookery books remain a mainstay of the gift book market and most users continue to be loyal to the printed text when using a recipe book in the kitchen.

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How long is a book? Recent years have seen an increased consumer taste for shorter publications as both p-books and e-books, fiction and non-fiction (Kindle Singles, Workman Shorts, TED books – Technology, Entertainment, Design). The short story, the essay and other short forms of writing have been given new life by the growth of commercial e-publishing. After many years when it was very difficult for a fiction writer to persuade a publisher to produce a collection of short stories, the technology of e-publishing has made it possible for individuals and small groups to publish and market these kinds of fiction titles themselves. In response, some reviewing media such as Kirkus (discussed in Chapter 3, on p. 93) are focusing on the many new writings emerging in this form. The publication of short issue-based publications (what might previously have been thought of as pamphlets) has grown since 2010 with the success of such collections as TED books (tied into the global TED conference and podcast phenomenon) and books

published by the Huffington Post and other newspapers. Many of these short books are compilations of press articles. Fortune magazine published such a compiled e-book about Apple’s Steve Jobs after his death. One of the publishing phenomena of 2010–11 was the global success of 93-year-old Stéphane Hessel’s short political essay, Indignez-Vous! (Time for Outrage!), which became a bestseller across Europe. Published by a small French publisher Indigène éditions, it sold over a million copies and was published in more than twenty countries. Another, more high-profile, example is, Nigerian author, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s 52-page book-length essay We Should All Be Feminists, published in 2014 and based on Adichie’s 2012 TEDx talk of the same name. The book was a bestseller, received very positive reviews, and will be distributed to every sixteen-year-old student in Sweden as part of an initiative by Swedish publisher Albert Bonniers Förlag and the Swedish Women’s Lobby. Many other publishers are engaging in short-story projects, as we can see from Puffin’s partnership with the Dr Who brand.

Puffin’s Dr Who e-shorts In 2013, Puffin published a series of novellas – known as ‘e-shorts’ – to commemorate Dr Who’s fiftieth anniversary. Eleven authors – Eoin Colfer, Michael Scott, Marcus Sedgwick, Philip Reeve, Patrick Ness, Richelle Mead, Malorie Blackman, Alex Scarrow, Charlie Higson, Derek Landy and Neil

Gaiman – were commissioned to write the short e-books, each based on a different incarnation of Dr Who. Holly Black was commissioned to write a twelfth title in 2014, to celebrate the arrival of the twelfth doctor. A paperback series, with attractive, minimalist covers, was published at the end of 2014.

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Publishing without restraint Digital backlist programmes such as E-Reads are making a vast supply of e-content available for sale (mostly reissuing publications that would otherwise be unavailable or out of print). Other publishers, such as Bloomsbury, have acquired rights of previously out-of-print titles or taken advantage of titles in the public domain to publish new collections of ‘classic titles’ as e-books, just as they have previously done for printed volumes. This echoes the way that music companies produced boxed sets of remastered recordings on CD, and the movie industry repackaged and enhanced its wares. Outside the major English-language markets, the first international expansion of e-readers and e-books concentrated on making English-language books and branded readers available to consumers in non-English language territories. During 2011 – ‘the year of the e-book’ as predicted by Nigel Newton of Bloomsbury

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– this expansion took on different forms. Kobo launched an e-book service in Germany with an initial 80,000 titles in the German language out of a total of 2.4 million e-books. It also developed free Germanlanguage apps for iPhone, iPad, iPod touch, Android and PlayBook. The Kobo German launch was followed by e-book stores in Spain, France, Italy and the Netherlands. In the UK, Kobo partnered with WH Smith. Other major companies also played their part in promoting e-reading. Amazon launched in Europe and also in China in partnership with China International Publishing Group (CIPG). Apple initially focused its iBookstore strategy in more than thirty countries in North America and Europe. Barnes & Noble made Nook alliances with independent bookshop chains in other countries. In some countries, local publishers and booksellers have launched other devices (such as the Hugendubel e-book in Germany) to cater to the needs of the non-English-language market.

‘E-book sales are not declining because people don’t like digital things. They are declining because there is less discounting in the market. So that is the main reason why e-book sales are lower this year. In fact e-books are so similar to print books that they barely count as digital objects. What people are really looking for with the digital world is more interactivity. So communicating with each other on social networks and playing games, you’re not just looking at something, you’re directly involved.’ Tim Hely Hutchinson, CEO of Hachette

Choosing from a variety of media and formats

‘There was a definite moment when we all went shooting out after the shiny app thing and spent money on that and invested probably unwisely in products that we thought could in some way enhance the book. We somehow lost confidence in the power of the word on the page, which was a bad moment.’ Joanne Prior, Managing Director, Penguin General and former president of Publishers Association

Discussion questions 1 Which types of publishing have benefited most from the growth of digital publishing? 2 Should publishers make a distinction between print and digital publishing in the way that they organize their companies? Is the term digital publishing even necessary anymore? 3 Is digital publishing altering the way in which writers write and readers read?

4 Why might digital publishing be increasing the output of short texts? 5 Do you think the trend for digital products will continue? 6 Are there particular genres that suit digital formats?

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Legalities of publishing in a wired world As an industry that derives its income from the ability to control rights to intellectual property, publishing is rightly concerned when changes in the market environment threaten the established business models. The development of the digital economy has led to a review of international conventions and agreements, redrafting of national legislation, establishment of industry codes of practice and a great amount of soulsearching, debate and discussion in an attempt to maintain stability in the market during this period of flux.

Contractual implications As we have seen earlier, publishing contracts specify what rights are being granted to the publisher by the creator of a work. They must cover all present and future possibilities including printed editions, digital and photographic processes used to produce paper editions (including print-on-demand), online and digital formats. Contracts must cover the entire work and parts of the work that may be reproduced separately – on paper, on digital storage, on screen or as printable downloads. In addition to the traditional plethora of subsidiary rights, the contract also covers use by library networks, by teachers and coursework pack producers, print and online media extracts, and any other photographic or digital reproduction of the whole work, part of the work, or a new arrangement of the work. Contracts are certainly not getting any simpler. The rights are summarized on the copyright page of the publication, in the terms and conditions of any online or downloadable version, and are now often managed and monitored by the DRM and DOI built into the publisher’s content management software.

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Copyright notice This copyright notice appears at the front of this book, and clearly sets out the rights of the publisher. Copyright © Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers.

Regulation in a borderless publishing environment In spite of the efforts of multinational corporations and national governments to exercise territorial exclusivity, this is more difficult to regulate in the digital world, and there is a general move towards global rights and a reduction in the number of territorially restricted editions. When it comes to language rights, however, local publication is likely to remain the rule. For local off-line printing, it may become more difficult to regulate local POD facilities without greater network security, and local printing of PDF files has created a consumer expectation of being able to print files downloaded directly from the internet. The legal frameworks under which library systems operate will tend to be compliant with any DRM-based (digital rights management) monitoring system that is developed, and lessons about controlling access to digital resources learned in academic libraries are being applied to the broader library world. Cloud computing may also make the control of file transfer more difficult, and raises issues of accountability. The cloud accentuates issues about privacy and surveillance in the digital world.

Legalities of publishing in a wired world

Other legal considerations As with all publications, digital communications and e-books run the risk of censorship. Views of obscenity and acceptable sexual behaviour can be enforced in the digital world, and political opinion can be monitored and taken out of circulation. Texts can also be subverted. It is far easier to alter a digital text than a physical one (particularly one held in the cloud rather than as a personal downloaded copy), and there are many examples of governments around the world blocking access to websites that they do not like. While the underground printing press always stood the risk of being discovered, we should remember that printed

samizdat publications (copies of banned or dissident literature) were still able to circulate in even the most repressive states. Will the same be true of digital messages now that governments have seen the power of social networks in spreading anti-government messages? The author–publisher contract is always bound by the laws of a particular country, and the country of physical publication is significant in determining legal responsibilities; however, e-publications are generally available across national boundaries. In some instances (such as libel) this might mean that publishers may be liable under the laws of other countries. This is another example of the way in which digital culture has international implications.

Discussion questions 1 Which parts of the author–publisher contract have changed as a result of digital publishing? 2 How have traditional ideas about territorial rights been altered by the increase in digital publishing?

3 Does digital publishing lead to more freedom of expression and less censorship? 4 Should digital publishing be controlled by governments?

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Digital workflow and software standards The detailed process that transforms a creator’s vision and textual output into a published work has increased in complexity now that the publisher must work with both print and digital media and distribution channels. The publisher may be required to develop a wide variety of products and services derived from the author’s work, and a one-size-fits-all publication is no longer enough. In order to ensure a cost-effective process, most publishing now relies on the idea of having one reliable and adaptable core data file that can be used to generate any and all manifestations of a given publication – physical, digital, complete or fragmentary – that may be required.

Managing digital assets with. doc, .docx, XML and XHTML files Most authors supply their text as a Microsoft Word (.doc or. docx) file to the publisher, with images, tables and other ancillary material supplied in the appropriate file formats, usually a TIFF, EPS or JPEG image file. The publisher may convert the file to XML or XHTML – these are markup file languages that allow publishers to tag the various features in a book (such as images, captions, headings, and body text), making the designer’s/typesetter’s job easier and ensuring that they can be used for print and digital output. XML files are readily used to store, transmit and output content for publication in many media and on different platforms. XML workflow enables the publisher, book designer, printer, website and e-book designer to adapt the file into the necessary formats.

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EPUB3 and HTML5 for e-publishing New methods of creating digital content mean that publishers need to switch their mindset from thinking first of print-based formats and tools. Increasingly, workflow management will enable them to develop their products and services across the whole range of media outputs. Markup languages, such as XML and XHTML can be used to produce varied enhanced e-publications in formats that conform to the specifications of EPUB3 standards. EPUB3 (released in 2011) supports a wide range of publication requirements, including complex layouts, rich media, interactivity, and global typography features. The specification was updated to EPUB 3.0 in 2014. It is utilized for a broad range of digital content, including books, comic books, magazines and educational, professional and scientific publications. HTML5, a development of the HTML markup language that has been at the core of most web pages since the 1990s, has numerous new features designed to make it easy to include and handle multimedia and graphical content on the web. It does this without using proprietary software. An internet search for HTML5 will help you to find the latest specification, open-source templates and give you tips on how to use HTML5.

Digital workflow and software standards

‘In terms of DRM in publishing, the major impact we just saw, which is with Hachette, is that it makes it much more expensive for readers to defect from Amazon if Amazon and a publisher fall out. People used to say it’s unthinkable: The Big Five are not going to fall out with Amazon. Of course the Big Five are going to fall out with Amazon. Amazon is a publisher: Amazon competes directly with them.’ Cory Doctorow

Digital rights management Digital rights management (DRM) technology allows publishers to embed code in an e-publication that can restrict the use of digital content to those who have purchased the right to use it, or have been authorized by the publisher in some other way. Fears of copyright infringement in the digital marketplace led some

publishers to think that DRM was vital to the continued protection of copyright materials, and it continues to be demanded by publishers who are wary of piracy. However, there are now fears that DRM has had unexpected consequences in the battle for market share for e-books. DRM may have a limited life, or will at least require rethinking. Cory Doctorow, an advocate of copyright reform, explains this viewpoint in the quote.

Discussion questions 1 How is the workflow for digital production different from a purely physical production process? 2 Why are standard such as EPUB3 important?

3 How might DRM be hindering publishers and alienating readers? 4 How can DRM help publishers?

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Communication for print and e-publications The methods used for the physical supply of books from publishers (via distributors, wholesalers, booksellers, libraries and other intermediaries to the end user) cannot be replicated for digital products. A virtual rather than a physical publication must be sent electronically to the computer, mobile device or e-reader from a server, either by copying a file to the local memory, reading it from its location in the cloud, or streaming it in a way similar to that done with music files. The communication and supply services coalesce, and we might say that this is a manifestation of the ‘medium’ becoming the ‘message’.

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Promotion of content or device?

Google

Browsing the internet is not the same as browsing in a bookshop. Different design elements can be appropriate for the p-version and e-version of the same title – and the online marketing message can contain far more title and author information than could ever have been printed on a physical book jacket or paperback cover. Just as physical covers have always been adapted for different geographic and language markets, e-commerce book displays can use cookies and other profiling devices to target specific market segments, or even individual readers. When e-books were first produced, the objective of much of the marketing communication was to persuade customers to acquire a proprietary e-reader. In the promotions for Kindle, Nook, iPad and other devices, the marketing message promoted purchase of the devices themselves rather than the content that they might display. The growth in sales of popular fiction and non-fiction in e-book format is following on from the development of an owner base (much of it the result of gifts). After this initial growth in the number of e-readers in consumers’ hands, the message now focuses on the different functionality available from different devices, the range of titles available through the dedicated e-bookstores, and the price. In all of this, brand (Amazon, Kindle, Apple, iPad, Nook) plays an important role. Publishers in the meantime continued to promote individual authors, titles, genres and series, with the added message that the books were available in the formats that matched the readers’ choice of branded device.

Another giant of the digital revolution, Google, has been engaged with publishing-related activities throughout this century. Since its launch in 2004, what is now known as Google Books has scanned and digitized over 15 million books and aims to have over 100 million titles in its databases by 2020. Google’s aim is to make out-of-copyright works available free of charge, and to make extracts of copyright protected works available (and more specifically searchable) online under an interpretation of ‘fair use’. Google Books has developed through collaboration with major libraries throughout the world, but has been subject to litigation from various bodies representing publishers, authors and other rights holders. The activity of Google Books has also been resisted in the European Union. Google won the decade-long legal case in 2016 when the Supreme Court rejected a challenge by The Authors Guild. Google also sell e-books of copyright works through the Google e-book store.

Children’s e-books Some of the first digital books (produced on CD-ROM in the 1990s) were adaptations of children’s books. Developing the children’s market for e-books with high graphic content (similar in many ways to the games that are already familiar to children) is of benefit to publishers and other content providers, but it has caused debate. Some child psychologists and educationalists including the renowned neuroscientist Susan Greenfield have courted controversy by suggesting that this might be having an effect on children’s attention span and the development of cognitive and social skills (New Scientist, 3 August

Communication for print and e-publications

2011). A recent report by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) supported this by asserting that the interactive enhancements of e-books might decrease a child’s understanding of the content or the verbal, reading interactions from their parent(s), if some of the audiovisual elements are too distracting. However, the report also stated that educational apps could improve cognitive, literacy and social outcomes for three- to five year olds. A number of small and large publishers are developing, or looking to invest in the development of, innovative digital books for children. London-based independent children’s publisher Nosy Crow have won several awards for their storybook apps while Hachette acquired mobile game company Neon Play in 2016, which will focus on the gamification of their children’s books.

Royalties, advances and fees for digital publishing As we saw in Chapter 4, the contract between the author and the publisher determines the payments to be made for the rights to publish. The development of e-books is bringing about changes in the way that authors are paid. There is a tendency for more authors to be paid on a fee basis, and, when royalties are paid on digital editions, for them to be higher than they are for print books. Authors and their agents also sometimes retain e-book rights and publish in their own right, hoping to take what would have been the publisher’s share for themselves.

The development and success of Nosy Crow ‘Nosy Crow announced its existence on 22 February 2010 – four months before the launch of the iPad. But within a month of announcing our existence, we’d taken a very early prototype of our first app on an iPod touch. From the beginning, we intended to develop innovative, interactive digital reading experiences at the same time as we developed print books. We released our first app, The Three Little Pigs, at roughly the same time as we released our first book. Key to Nosy Crow’s success has been the end-to-end in-house creation of an excellent product, combining an understanding of how children read with an understanding of video games (and, now, an understanding of the specifics of apps). By and large, we don’t add bells and whistles to existing books. Instead, we create reading experiences that use the functionality of the touchscreen device to tell stories for that particular medium. I think most of our publishing competitors began with IP in book form that they wanted to “translate” into an app. Because we were “free” of a backlist, we had to start from scratch, and this turned out to be an advantage. Indeed, we quite often reverse a book out of an app: books are less “content-hungry” than apps are. We are determined that reading won’t be the most boring thing a child

can do on a touchscreen device. We want some of children’s ever-increasing screen time to be reading time. Books with illustrations – so pretty much every book for a younger child – are already multimedia experiences, in that they combine art and text, and adding music, voice audio and interactivity feels like a particularly natural extension. Also, children are willing to try pretty much anything on an iPad. We find that adults who aren’t familiar with touchscreens are a bit more constrained, tentative and conservative in what they try to do, which children will try different sorts of movements (tapping, swiping etc.) just to see what happens. Perfect examples of apps that combine reading with a really engaging interactive experience would be Little Red Riding Hood, where the child decides which way Little Red Riding Hood should go at various forks in the path through the forest, and those decisions affect the outcome of the story; and Goldilocks and Little Bear, where, if you hold the iPad one way up you get Goldilocks’s story, but if you flip it round, you get Little Bear’s parallel story, as he ends up in Goldilocks’s house. We are really proud of those!’ Kate Wilson, Managing Director, Nosy Crow

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E-book comics Comic book apps often appear on the e-book bestseller lists. The combination of striking graphics and short text seem ideal for the medium. Other big sellers are kid’s and adult’s activity books – adult colouring books were particularly popular in 2015. The trend has elevated the quality of colouring products in the children’s market: there has been a rise in augmented reality (AR) colouring book apps with companies such as Disney leading the way. There are some similarities in both presentation and market between manga, bandes dessinées, comic books, graphic novels and the computer games industry, and this kind of e-book is also being adapted for mobile reading.

6.4 | Marvel Comics Marvel started in 1939 as Timely Publications, and by the early 1950s had generally become known as Atlas Comics. Marvel’s modern incarnation dates from 1961, the year that the company launched The Fantastic Four and other superhero titles created by Stan Lee, Jack Kirby, Steve Ditko and many others.

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Special comic viewers have been developed to ensure proper screen display of the graphics. These include Jomic, FFView and Simple Comic. Comic content lends itself to the integration of text, image, video and interactive games software, and this is developed by both the big media conglomerates and independent graphics houses: they watch each other closely as they manoeuvre to occupy or defend a market share in this growth sector of the digital culture market. Social networking and blogging sites can also be used to generate and manipulate e-book comics.

Communication for print and e-publications

P-book pricing vs e-book pricing Some customers have become used to the idea that e-books are cheap, as companies such as Amazon sold them as ‘loss leaders’ to push the sales of e-readers. Unfortunately, in much the same way as the ‘buy one, get one free’ and ‘three-for-two offers’ that did such harm to bricks-and-mortar bookshops, low e-book pricing may affect publishers’ financial viability. Pricing of e-books (and the split of revenues between author, e-book distributor and publisher) has been a major issue from the beginning. It soon became clear that readers of e-books were not willing to spend as much on an e-book as they were on a p-book. Some of the early e-book ‘bestsellers’ were free downloads, and this helped to boost the idea that lots of e-books were being acquired by consumers. Having already bought an e-book reading device, consumers wanted cheaper books, recognizing that publishers were saving on printing, warehousing and fulfilment costs. What they didn’t recognize, and what publishers were slow to articulate, is that publishers are not just printers and distributors; they fulfil many other functions that continue to cost money in the digital age: most notably the development of authors and their projects, packaging and brand, marketing and promotion, and long-term customer relationships.

6.5 | Espresso Book Machine The American Book Center in Amsterdam (Netherlands) uses the Espresso Book Machine to produce POD books for its customers.

Are customers aware of changes in production technology? The technology that has changed book production (POD, digital printing and content processing) has not had an effect on the way most consumers view the printed book. To many book buyers, the quality of POD books is indistinguishable from those produced by letterpress. Short-run digital printing can enable short print runs to be produced for sale through traditional channels, and it is likely to remain as the main production method for illustrated publications in print runs of less than 500. Inventions like the Espresso Book Machine® (EBM), which makes a paperback book in minutes, have a capacity to produce POD copies on a local basis at point of need, but, in spite of a few machines in large bookshops and at institutions like the World Bank, this technology has not yet become familiar to most consumers.

Discussion questions 1 How have Amazon, Apple and Google had an effect on e-book development? 2 Do bookshops have any future? 3 Is the difference between various e-readers based on technology, networking, consumer communication or brand? 4 Do you think that there is a future for dedicated e-readers? 5 What has caused sales of e-books to decline and do you think this trend will continue? 6 How might e-books be particularly suitable for comic books?

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Case study

Print and digital at the university presses

University presses may not be the first publishers to come to mind when thinking about publishing innovation, but this sector has long been at the forefront when it comes to developing progressive digital publishing strategies. University presses have three things many commercial publishers do not: extensive and often profitable backlists; a mandate to disseminate research and scholarship not wholly dependent on the profit motive; and human and physical resources of large, stable, technologically advanced institutions. Oxford University Press and Cambridge University Press in the UK, and MIT Press and University of California Press in the United States, all have long-established programmes publishing e-journals, books and other materials online.

Oxford University Press

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Oxford University Press was a pioneer in some major digital projects in the 1990s, most notably the Oxford English Dictionary and the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Using its digital expertise and ability to finance long-term investment in digital projects, OUP now publishes a wide range of dictionaries and bibliographies online, ELT courses and support materials, and e-versions of major reference materials such as the Grove Music Online and Grove Art Online. In 2011 OUP launched University Press Scholarship Online. Starting with more than 7,000 titles in twenty-one subject areas, from six leading university presses, this service is fully cross-searchable on a single online platform, through the UPSO search engine. But this does not mean that OUP is going a totally digital route. Nigel Portwood, OUP’s CEO, commented in 2015 that: It’s hard to tell how this will evolve eventually but the digital format certainly complements the paper format. It’s just another format to represent content. It not only allows us to reach many more people for less money but it also allows us

to do more with our content as we can make it interactive, add services and make it more valuable. We can link pieces of content in a way we couldn’t in the past. Also it’s easier to walk around with instead of carrying around a large number of books. But we still print around 110 million-plus books and the number keeps increasing every year. It’s hard for me to imagine a world where there is no print.

Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press also has a well-established programme of publishing collections of e-books, and like OUP it launched a new integrated e-book and digital content platform for other academic publishers in October 2011, called University Publishing Online. University Publishing Online provided libraries with e-books and related database products from a variety of academic publishers worldwide, and was available to institutions and offers multi-user concurrent access and minimal digital rights management (DRM): customers were able to buy content once and then own continuing access, or subscribe annually with a subscribeto-buy facility. This service, along with others such as Cambridge Journals Online and Cambridge Books Online, was replaced by Cambridge Core, a single location for users to access all CUP content, in 2016. Jenny Mathias, Global Marketing Director for Academic at Cambridge University Press said: ‘Cambridge Core has been designed and developed to facilitate an enhanced user journey, one that is quick, easy, and positive. The result is a platform that is intuitive and visually appealing, and we hope that it makes a significant difference to the experience of our users, customers and authors.’

Case study

The University of California Press The University of California Press offers a full range of print and digital publications, working in partnership with numerous external and internal research bodies. It is also a part of the e-scholarship programme at UC, creating a world-class institution-wide resource. For UCP the expertise of the UC library system has proved invaluable in producing an e-publishing platform that covers all sort of texts, including ephemera and grey literature (materials that originate outside of the traditional publishing arena, such as technical reports produced by government agencies), and the library brings with it a culture that understands and values rich metadata. Working with the California Digital Library, it publishes high-quality, certified, UC-sourced scholarship in emerging digital research publication genres. Together, they have launched a collaborative publishing venture, UC Publishing Services, which offers a suite of open access digital and print publication services to University of California centres, institutes and departments that produce scholarly books. The University of California Press is not only using technology to publish in the digital environment, but

also enabling others to do so. In 2015, they launched two new open access programmes – Collabra (for journals) and Luminos (for monographs). Alison Mudditt, former director, University of California Press, said of the initiatives, ‘Both initiatives are a core part of UC Press in all ways: financially, strategically, and as a core way of fulfilling our mission to add visibility and impact to transformational scholarship. UC Open Press is not a separate entity or even an imprint – it is simply an umbrella under which we can gather these and any future OA programs.’

The MIT Press The MIT Press offers digital books and journals in a variety of formats. They do this themselves through their own e-book store, a journals supply system, electronic collections and searchable online library collections. They also work with some of the leading e-booksellers and content aggregators. MIT has been a pioneer in making some of its course materials available free online through MIT OpenCourseWare (OCW), which has over 2,300 courses available, but this has not been done in collaboration with the MIT Press.

6.6 | University presses online University press websites reflect their academic nature. These presses have often been at the forefront of digital publishing developments.

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Interview

Eric Huang, Development Director, Made in Me

What can the success of Made in Me/Me Book be attributed to? It’s been all about changing our business model when something works to focus on what’s delivering revenue. We started Me Books, the app we’re known for, to be a digital children’s book shop. We now make almost all of our money from b2b deals rather than from selling digital books to consumers, which was the original business model. Typically, what is Made in Me/Me Book’s workflow from story to app, and is this unique to the company? It’s quite straightforward, actually. Most of our Me Books are pdfs with audio. What makes Me Books different from standard books is the ‘hot spots’ where you can record your own audio over blocks of words or details in the illustrations. Do you think content for children is particularly compatible for a more immersive, interactive and digital reading experience, and why? I think the simpler the app, the better the reading experience. Animation and games interrupt the mindset of reading. Playing a game is a lean-forward experience, reading is lean-back. Asking someone to do both in one setting is very difficult.

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What can publishers learn from innovations in children’s digital publishing, particularly the contributions Made in Me/Me Books is making? That the consumer market for digital picture books (4-colour) is tiny. Revenue really comes from b2b deals: doing deals with literacy organizations, government, and family brands like Nestle, McDonald’s, etc. Do you have a particular app that you’re especially proud of, in terms of digital innovation? Me Books is the app that pays the bills. But I’m personally most proud of Sneak, which is an app that encourages physical play.

Summary

Summary

Key points

Activity

University press publishing can provide some general lessons about how publishing can develop digital publishing alongside the more traditional print formats.

There are numerous university presses, both large and small, in many countries in the world. Conduct an internet search and look closely at three or four in different countries. For each one, consider the following questions.

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Investment and scale: Some university presses are able to undertake large projects that require high levels of investment and a long development cycle because they are less constrained by short-term demands for profit. Partnerships and collaborations: The networks to which these presses belong, both within their own institutions and in the broader academic and scholarly community, enable them to develop long-term collaborations that can focus on joint ambitions for excellence rather than narrow competitive advantage. There is often a wide range of technical expertise available internally, while even larger commercial publishers are frequently reliant on contracting expertise from the external market. Searchability and access: The ethos of universities and academic libraries helps to focus the publisher on issues of searchability and access, driven not by commercial imperatives but more closely tied to the needs of the user rather than his or her potential value as a target for other marketing messages. Global reach: The e-publications of university presses are mostly not subject to territorial market restrictions, so digital distribution to world markets can be easier than in some other areas of publishing. Global reach can also be of importance in developing e-book distribution and aggregation systems that other presses from around the world can take advantage of. In areas such as English-language teaching (ELT), the digital expertise allows university presses to adapt material to specific markets.

1 What evidence is there that the press has a coherent digital strategy? 2 Does the press have collaborations with other departments within the university? 3 Does the press have collaborations with other institutions? 4 Which subject areas appear to be the focus of the e-publishing programme? 5 Why do some subject areas seem particularly suited to the university press e-publishing business model?

Further resources Doctorow, C. (2015), Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free: Laws for the Internet Age, San Francisco: McSweeney’s. Emerson, L. (2014), Reading Writing Interfaces: From the Digital to the Bookbound, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Hall, F. (2013), The Business of Digital Publishing: An Introduction to the Digital Book and Journal Industries, Abingdon: Routledge. Kirschenbaum, M.G. (2016), Track Changes: A Literary History of Word Processing, Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Rubery, M. (2016), The Untold Story of the Talking Book, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Thompson, J.B. (2005), Books in the Digital Age, Cambridge: Polity.

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The primary economic impact of book publishing is the money gained through book sales. However, there is an increasing, and notable, secondary economic impact – rights sales – where the book is developed into a film, television programme, computer game, app etc. This can result in spin-off merchandising, which is particularly lucrative in children’s publishing (see case study, p. 186). In addition to the economic benefits, selling rights can increase visibility of authors, secure the publishers reputation as an international company, and help build relationships with publishers in different countries. Buying rights is also a good way for publishers to introduce new authors to the marketplace, access specialized content and build their lists. The range of rights on offer now usually depends on the author’s agent, who can restrict the number of rights available to the publisher by selling them directly to third parties. This chapter will explore developments in selling and buying rights, and the factors that have influenced this.

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How different rights developed

How different rights developed The development and expansion of the media in the twentieth century provided authors with multifarious new avenues to exploit their literary work for financial gain: resulting in the development of subsidiary rights, now regarded as the author’s principal source of income. This period also saw the development of technology and communication, which resulted in a better understanding and recognition of cultures around the world. Additionally, the prospect of translation rights sales increased after the end of the Second World War, when international trade recommenced and the paper restrictions were lifted. The end of the War also saw the recommencement of international trade, and a successful author could benefit from this by selling numerous translation and paperback rights. Other rights possibilities included film, television, audiocassette and serial rights. These developments were particularly advantageous for writers who had gained popularity in one country and could therefore strive to appeal to readers in other countries. At this point, the Berne Convention made it possible for rights sales to be profitable, because there was a basic, universal, copyright system. The rise of the mass-market paperbacks, when Allen Lane published the Penguin paperbacks in 1935, played an important role in developing paperback and imprint

rights. The paperback revolution meant that some publishers, such as Penguin, Pan and Corgi, were keen to retain the paperback rights for as long as possible. Paperbacks were becoming increasingly profitable, due to consumer demand, and publishers wanted to take advantage of this phenomenon. As a result, hardback publishers began to require paperback imprints, and vice versa. This gave rise to vertical publishing where the same company published both hardbacks and paperbacks. The most significant evolution in rights sales is the proliferation of the different types of rights available. Publications can now be disseminated in a variety of new ways, which opens up new avenues for rights trade. While these new methods of dissemination have expanded the market for books, they have also complicated the system of rights exploitation and protection. Nowadays, the potential of rights sales is paramount in deciding whether a book/project will be feasible. Publishing companies are increasingly developing products that yield opportunities through different platforms, and thus can be available for sale, worldwide, in conjunction with one another. Additionally, rights sales are important because they can generate additional income through, often small, initial direct costs.

7.1 | Sir Allen Lane The founder and chairman of Penguin Books Ltd, stands with a variety of Penguin paperbacks. The books were sold through Woolworths and other high-street stores for sixpence, bringing high-quality paperback fiction and non-fiction to the mass market.

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Why rights matter In trade publishing, the probability of rights sales can play an important role in determining whether a project is achievable, particularly for books with high production values. This can be because of the high risk involved in many trade-publishing projects, such as high initial investment or production costs. To offset these high initial costs, publishers often make arrangements for various rights deals such as serial rights, foreign-language rights, book-club rights etc. The rights department is often asked to measure the predicted profit generated from the various licences, which plays an important role in promoting the project and thus securing investment.

How digital markets change the author–publisher relationship Books are published in hardback, trade and massmarket paperback editions; they are issued in special editions for international and special sales. Books are translated, issued as audiobooks, adapted for different media, and used as the basis for plays, films, games and other merchandise. In its early days, the e-book was seen as just another format, a new subcategory that had to be added to the list of subsidiary rights covered by the contract. However, it soon became clear to agents, authors and publishers that the supply of intangible digital copies of a work (in the traditional volume form or as shorter parts) was going to involve the development of new contractual models and financial arrangements. There was a shift in the relationships between creators, publishers, supply-chain members (including booksellers, libraries and computer companies involved in publishing), digital end users and traditional readers.

World rights

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World rights entitle publishers to publish the book in any language, anywhere in the world. Practically, this means that the publisher will try to sub-right the sales (e.g. by selling the French-language rights to a French or French-Canadian publisher). Corporate publishers often push for world rights to be included in the publishing agreement so that their profits and losses are aggregated across multiple territories and activities, therefore

spreading the risk. Consequently, they can offer financial incentives that are difficult for authors, and their agents, to refuse; however, these deals are not always in the interest of the author (e.g. the corporate company might offer the rights to a sister company in another country first and not get the highest royalty deal, or they might not be the best company to deal with the particular topic/author).

Range of rights

Range of rights Primary/volume rights The range of rights available for exploitation has multiplied in conjunction to the development of technology. Traditionally, volume rights are the rights included in the original deal with the publisher, which they could exploit themselves or sublicence to other companies. The volume rights include the right to publish the work in either hardback or paperback form, typically both nowadays (as discussed earlier), and as e-books. Additionally, other rights, such as anthology and quotation rights, can be included within volume rights for an additional fee. However, the differences between volume rights and subsidiary rights are becoming difficult to differentiate.

Subsidiary rights Subsidiary are the additional rights that can be granted, although literary agents are, increasingly, holding on to these to license on to third parties (e.g. film and TV rights). Key subsidiary rights include, but are not limited to: English-language territorial, translation, digital, dramatic, merchandising, co-editions, and first and second serial.

Territorial rights Territorial rights are the exclusive rights licensed to publishers in the specified territory, which allows them to exploit the copyrighted work. The emphasis is on the exclusive nature of the licence: without it the publisher does not have an incentive to invest in a work that could be published elsewhere and sold for a lesser price. Territories can be determined by geographical location or language: Spanish-language rights can actually be licensed up to four times (in Spain, Argentina, Mexico and the United States) and French-language rights can

be sold to France and Canada. If a publisher is granted world rights in their language then they are able to license the work in most places that speak that language. Territorial rights have always been a point of negotiation between publishers and literary agents and, as such, are usually outlined in the head contract. For the most part, literary agents and authors favour exclusive territorial rights licences because it makes the royalty payments a more straightforward process. The global nature of bookselling on the internet, particularly through popular channels such as Amazon, has disrupted the trade in territorial rights and is a growing concern for publishers.

English language English-language territorial rights determine which English-language territories the rights can be sold in. For British publishers these can include important territories such as the United States, Canada, Australasia and South Africa. For example, if a British publisher wanted to sell rights to an American publisher they could do it through a reprint licence or co-edition. There is a decrease in the number of publishers creating these licensing agreements with key English-language territories as a result of the unabating amalgamation of publishing, and other media, companies into larger multinational conglomerates. Instead, the larger multinational companies can use their various imprints or affiliated companies to distribute one English edition worldwide. This means there would only be one contract, instead of different licences. This can be convenient for the author because there is just one advance and royalties to be negotiated. However, this is not always the case because such inter-company deals do not always benefit the author fully: for example, the associate company, within the conglomerate’s bracket, might not specialize in the type of book the author has written, so it would be of more benefit to the author to license the rights externally.

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Foreign rights Publishing is both a local business that caters to the needs of national and regional audiences who have a common culture and language, and a global business, where publications are exported around the world in their original form, in new editions and through adaptations and translations aimed at specific international readers. Foreign rights, often referred to as translation rights, are the right to translate the works into a different language in agreed territories. Translation rights can also include the right to sublicense other volume and subsidiary rights in that language (e.g. serial rights, audiobooks etc.). Translation rights can be licensed in the same way as ELT rights (i.e. through co-edition or reprint licences), the only difference being that a translator is involved. In either case, the licensee is usually responsible for finding, and providing funds for, a suitable translator

Digital The development of technology and the convergence of media companies have caused publishers to react in different ways. Digital rights are complex and many challenges have arisen since their emergence. These challenges include piracy issues, rights disputes, distribution models and the change in copyright legislation. Digital rights can include several different rights, for instance apps, web or enhanced e-books. Publishers are often keen to keep print, electronic and digital rights as digital publishing becomes more commonplace; however, not all publishers have the capabilities to exploit their books digitally. Additionally, licensing these rights, with a nonexclusive licence, can also bring welcome extra income for all types of publishers.

The battle between English-language territories

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Until well into the twentieth century American publishers did not really sell their editions outside the United States (except for a few mass-market big-name authors) while British publishers traded with Commonwealth countries. Traditionally, British publishers had control of the UK market and other Commonwealth territories, as chartered in 1947. This left American publishers with control of the whole of the United States, its dependants and the Philippines. The rest of the world was considered to be an open market for all publishers to compete. This restriction of territories can result in important

books not being published. If a British publisher does not obtain a title then it might not be published in certain territories because the American publishers have restrictions and cannot sell directly. However, legal action was taken against both American and British publishers in 1976 for holding an inimical monopoly of the international book trade, which resulted in no exclusive territories for either country. Consequently, exclusive licences can now only be granted title-by-title instead of automatic assignment.

Range of rights

Dramatic

Merchandising

Dramatic rights licences cover the works being dramatized on the radio, television, film and the stage. New platforms of dissemination, such as smartphones, and web-based streaming and downloading services, have extended the range of licences being offered. Although dramatic (particularly cinematographic film and television rights) are very lucrative, publishers are usually inexperienced in selling these rights. As such, external companies have been established to exploit the author’s work through film and television. However, the percentage of books beings exploited in this manner is very low and even if a book is optioned it is not always made into a ‘big screen’ project.

Merchandising is the exploitation of a character, design or personality from one medium to another through direct reproduction and/or being created into another product, such as toys or clothing. Entertainment publishing is a growing phenomenon, which is increasingly popular with young readers. It is tied across all media, so it can be particularly lucrative, and it shows that book publishing is just one section of a larger entertainment business. Book publishing can act as the source for further, more lucrative, projects especially if the characters are well developed. Exploiting the works through other media, such as television, can draw in new audiences and also result in increased sales of the original work (see case study).

7.2a-b | Jonathan Strange and Mr Norrell An example of an original book jacket alongside the TV tie-in cover, with an image from the dramatization leading the overall design and appealing to viewers of the programme.

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First and second serial

The subsidiary rights to publish translations, samelanguage reprints for particular territories, adaptations, digests and other special editions are often controlled by the same publisher and included in the author– publisher contract. In these cases, it is the job of the rights department to grant licences to other publishers and others who wish to exploit the work. The income is split according to an agreed percentage between the publisher and the author. When an arrangement is made with other publishers to produce a variety of editions (most common with illustrated books for which economies of scale can be enjoyed in printing colour plates in one long run) the contracts for these co-editions are agreed prior to publication. In the digital environment, even the smallest publisher can have a global outreach, and a small Irish publisher can, in principle, reach an Irish market in the United States almost as easily as a Boston publisher.

Serial rights are the rights to publish excerpts, digests, extracts etc. of the book in newspapers, magazines or other periodicals. First serial rights are licences for before the book has been published and second serial rights are for after. First serial rights, in particular, can be important when publishing a topical or controversial fiction – usually non-fiction, often autobiographies – because it can create publicity around the book before it has been released.

‘In the five years I was a serial buyer for a national newspaper I was able to witness firsthand the impact a good serialisation could have on book sales. Strong, positive coverage in a newspaper can do wonders for a book. Retailers can massively increase their stock orders ahead of publication and, on the occasions when we ran post-publication extracts, we could watch as the title shot up the Amazon charts. It was often said that a reader needed three prompters to buy a book – for example from a good review, word of mouth recommendation, or a good marketing campaign. I often felt a newspaper serial was worth at least two of those prompters. By running extracts, the newspaper was giving its own endorsement to the book, the serial allowed readers to sample a large chunk of material to showcase the author’s “voice” and often a strong headline or lead story created a buzz around the book.’ Doug Wight, former News of the World Books Editor

Range of rights

Other rights

Contracts

Other subsidiary rights include:

The basis of the book contract, or the publisher’s agreement, was outlined on pp. 113–114. In addition to other legal issues, the book contract is where the author assigns the right to publish his or her work to the publisher. The contract also outlines what subsidiary rights the publisher will be allowed to sublicense, for various formats and adaptations, in addition to the primary format, and also the percentage of the fees that the publisher will receive from third-party licensors that the author will receive. Among issues that publishers must now consider are how digital rights are handled in existing contracts for p-books, and what additional agreements need to be made for existing works. Will the publisher have exclusive e-rights or will these be shared with, or wholly remain with the author? What are the royalty rates for e-books? Since the development of digital publishing and e-books, many of the contract’s terms have changed quite radically. Publishing contracts must now cover a variety of e-book and enhanced e-book rights, including extensions and adaptations in the form of games, merchandise and other applications for mobile phones and tablets.

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reprint, which is the right to reprint the work, for example a small publisher in a developing country acquiring a licence to reprint a low-cost edition of an educational textbook or a specialist publisher acquiring a licence to reprint a work that is now out of print; audiobook, which is the right to publish the work in an abridged, unabridged, single-voice reading or dramatized audio format; book club, which is the right to distribute the work under a book club organization umbrella, at a discounted price to its members, by reprint or copies manufactured by the publisher; and single-voice reading, which is the right to read the work on the television or radio in an undramatized format.

7.3a-c | Co-editions Publishers of highly illustrated books often produce editions to sell in their own country, and then hope to sell co-edition rights to foreign publishers. Here we can see Spanish and French editions of Bloomsbury Visual Arts titles.

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Discussion questions 1 What different editions might be covered by a publishing contract? 2 What commitments do publishers make in the contract? 3 What commitments do authors make in the contract? 4 What subsidiary rights might be sold by a publisher’s rights department?

‘A continuing problem with the internet is that there is often no way to establish the original source of the material and no hierarchy of knowledge, making it difficult to assess the accuracy of much of the material available. Everyone with access to the internet can become a “publisher” and, in the words if a famous early internet cartoon in the New Yorker magazine showing a dog logging on online, “On the internet, nobody knows you’re a dog”.’ Lynette Owen, Selling Rights

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Who is involved in selling rights

Who is involved in selling rights Large and medium-sized publishers nowadays usually have a specialized rights department, with at least one member of staff trained in selling rights; however, smaller companies tend to use existing staff, such as editors and sales staff, to deal with rights. Nevertheless, in trade publishing, industrious and efficient rights activity can, ostensibly, result in the increased productivity of a company. This is particularly the case with rights deals on works, which do not involve production costs; however, the costs of employing rights staff must be considered. Lynette Owen contends that an organized and dynamic rights operation can contribute significantly to the financial growth and stability of a publishing company. Furthermore, Owen asserts that linchpin of any rights operation is a comprehensive and organized system, such as a computerized rights database, which records all relevant information and transactions. The use of a more complex, tailored, database shows that selling rights is an important part of this business model. Not only does it keep an organized record of all transactions but it also allows the company to monitor and analyse all the data logged. Staff involved in rights sales are particularly busy after the various rights-focused book fairs: so having this system in place helps to keep various rights deals organized. Publishers often use subagents to sell their rights overseas. Subagents can be very important, particularly in overseas markets, such as China and Japan, where they have a more detailed knowledge of that market.

Rights trading: online and face-to-face Conventionally, rights deals are instigated at book fairs. These book fairs provide people in the book trade with the opportunity to network, engage in market research, reach an agreement with pending deals and consider collaborations on future projects. However, book fairs can be expensive to attend, especially for smaller

publishers, and non-attendance can lead to missing important rights deals. Additionally, much paperwork and other administration work can mount in response to book-fair attendance and can leave smaller publishers with extra work to attend to if they do not have specialized staff to deal with it. The advancement, and development, of technology has had a huge impact on all aspects of the publishing industry. Lines of communication between publishers in all different parts of the world are now faster and more efficient, consequently so is the process of selling rights. Key fairs for selling rights are: Frankfurt, London and BookExpo America, and Bologna is essential for children’s publishers. Beyond these major trade fairs are more regional and locally focused fairs in cities such as Cairo, Cape Town, Moscow, Beijing, Abu Dhabi, Warsaw, Jerusalem, Madrid, New Delhi and Prague. Publishers are increasingly using their websites as a tool for selling rights by displaying the contents of their catalogues, and featuring upcoming titles, online. Literary agencies are also using their websites to promote and sell rights. If the company has an extensive range of international rights, they might have a separate rights department website covering all the important information. There are now several established intermediary companies who enable sellers and potential buyers to correspond with each other and search through the extensive range of rights available. The Frankfurt Book Fair has also developed an online rights catalogue that can be used all year. This type of service is particularly useful for small publishers who might not have a specific rights department, or the opportunities to visit the many book fairs. Additionally, the London Book Fair has a rights promotional service through its website packages. These online tools and methods of communication are an important way of keeping in touch, and up to date; however, they do not prevail over face-to-face selling, which allows sellers to evaluate if a potential buyer is interested, and can help forge relationships between buyers and sellers.

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7.4 | Bologna Book Fair Visitors attend the 2017 International Children’s Book Fair.

Film adaptations

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The start of the twentieth century saw the advent of the Hollywood film industry, and film industries elsewhere. The film industry developed the reputation of being narrator. As a result those involved in the film industry exploited the completed narratives in literature as the frameworks for their films. This type of book-to-film adaptation remains a popular option today because they are usually a relatively safe venture. This is because target audiences may already be familiar with the original works, and thus marketing the film becomes easier. The results of the Academy Awards are keenly anticipated by people in both the film and publishing industries. This is because several of the nominated films are usually literary adaptations, an occurrence that is increasingly frequent (e.g. in 2016, five of the eight films nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture were based on books). Overall, from the first Oscars ceremony in 1929 to 2016: 528 films were nominated for Best Picture and 281 (53 per cent) of

these were based on books. Furthermore 53 per cent of the Best Picture winners were based on books: 47 films out of 88 (between 1929 and 2016). The attention surrounding the Oscars can generate increased sales for the original books, and most publishers capitalize on this with tie-in book covers. Even if the film is not nominated for an Oscar, a book adaptation can still act as a promotion, generate extra sales and bring in new readers to the original work. Although commercially large and successful films generate more attention and sales for an original work, it is clear that smaller, art-house, or less commercially successful, films can also help in increasing sales. It is important for the publishing and film industries to work together when creating film adaptations of a book. Film companies and publishers have dissimilar timetables and agendas, so communication is crucial when organizing promotional material and images. Although cross-promotion between industries is advocated by

Who is involved in selling rights

film companies when high-profile authors, such as Ian McEwan, are involved this is not always the case for lesser-known authors. Even so, it is beneficial for publishers to work in conjunction with film companies because they usually have very high marketing budgets, much higher than the average book marketing budget, so publishers can enjoy more attention and coverage than they normally would. Nowadays it is more likely that the author’s agent will keep possession of the more lucrative dramatization and documentary rights, which include stage, radio, television and film rights. However, many publishers might own the dramatization and documentary rights for older books in their backlist, where the author may not have negotiated to keep such rights. Oscar-winning films based on books: 1 All Quiet on the Western Front 2 Cimarron 3 Grand Hotel 4 It Happened One Night 5 Mutiny on the Bounty 6 The Life of Emile Zola 7 Gone with the Wind 8 Rebecca 9 How Green Was My Valley 10 Mrs. Miniver 11 The Lost Weekend 12 The Best Years of Our Lives 13 Gentleman’s Agreement 14 All the King’s Men 15 All About Eve

16 From Here to Eternity 17 Around the World in 80 Days 18 The Bridge on the River Kwai 19 Gigi 20 Ben-Hur 21 Tom Jones 22 The Sound of Music 23 In the Heat of the Night 24 Oliver! 25 Midnight Cowboy 26 Patton 27 The French Connection 28 The Godfather 29 The Godfather Part II 30 One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest 31 Kramer vs. Kramer 32 Ordinary People 33 Terms of Endearment 34 Out of Africa 35 The Last Emperor 36 Dances with Wolves 37 The Silence of the Lambs 38 Schindler’s List 39 Braveheart 40 The English Patient 41 A Beautiful Mind 42 The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King 43 Million Dollar Baby 44 No Country for Old Men 45 Slumdog Millionaire 46 Argo 47 12 Years a Slave

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7.5a-b | One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest Originally published by Viking Press and Signet books in 1962, One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest was later adapted into the well-known 1975 film, starring Jack Nicholson. Here, the book jacket and original promotional poster can be seen.

Harry Potter and the case of the copyright infringement

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The popularity of a character or series can be very lucrative for the author and publisher. However, there have been numerous cases where companies, who were not originally involved with the work, have exploited this popularity to their own advantage. One author who has been involved in numerous copyright infringement cases is J.K. Rowling. The most high-profile Harry Potter-related legal dispute was Warner Bros. v. RDR Books. RDR Books were planning to publish an unofficial reference book, The Harry Potter Lexicon, written by Steve Vander Ark and based on his Harry Potter fan website. This case raised issues that are of particular importance to authors whose characters generate a large fan base, and subsequent fan sites, and those who create and operate those fan sites. J.K. Rowling publicly spoke out against the unofficial encyclopaedia, and the publisher

and author that sought to profit financially from it, saying it would violate her IPR. However, RDR insisted that they were not violating Rowling’s IPR because it was a commentary and therefore ‘fair use’. In the United States ‘fair use’ can be used as a defence if the work is reproduced for purposes such as commentary, criticism, research, news reporting etc., and is similar to the British rule of fair dealing. Therefore, the court must examine several factors when determining whether the use of the content is actually fair. These factors include: the objective of the use, whether the use is commercial or non-commercial, the nature of the copyrighted work, the amount of copyrighted work used in proportion to the copyrighted work as a whole, and the effect the use has on the value of the copyrighted work, or on the potential market. In this instance, J.K. Rowling won her

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copyright case against RDR, with the judge deciding that the lexicon would cause Rowling irrevocable damage as an author, particularly since Rowling has also published companion books to the Harry Potter series, such as Quidditch

Through the Ages and Fantastic Beasts & Where to Find Them. Although this case was particularly high profile it is not isolated. Whenever a book or character becomes popular it becomes a target for unofficial spin-offs.

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Case study

The rights potential of children’s books

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The children’s book market is booming: according to Kiera O’Brien, The Bookseller Charts Editor, the market value has increased by 44 per cent, – by £120 million – over the last ten years. Consequently, there are many opportunities for children’s publishers and authors to capitalize on the popularity and growth of this sector. The popularity of Harry Potter spin-off books, such as Harry Potter and the Cursed Child and Fantastic Beasts & Where to Find Them, extended in 2016 into the theatre and cinema in addition to boosting sales for both Little, Brown and Bloomsbury. That year also saw a resurgence in classic books being revamped for a new generation of readers. Children’s literature is often exploited after the death of an author, due to popularity established while the author was alive. The following examples will highlight how valuable rights exploitation can be in the children’s book sector, particularly for much-loved characters and authors.

Moomins Adventures in Licenceland Finnish author-illustrator, Tove Jansson’s The Moomins first found international success when the books were translated from Swedish, and sold in the UK, in 1950. The books have since been translated into forty-nine languages. This initial burst of popularity in the UK led to the Evening News newspaper commissioning Jansson to create a comics series, which ran from 1954 to 1975 and was syndicated worldwide, sparking a global love for The Moomins. Consequently, a number of film and TV adaptations were shown in countries across world, including the UK, Germany and Japan. The popularity of The Moomins in Japan has grown from strength to strength since the 1990s when a 104-part animation series was produced there. Gross global sales from Moomin-related products and licensing now exceed €500 million (US$558 million), with almost 40 per cent from Japan. This ‘Moomin Boom’, in the 1990s, accelerated the growth of Moomin merchandising worldwide and generated new adaptations and the opening of the Moomin World theme park in Finland. Plans for a Tokyo-based, Moomin theme park, due to open in 2018, are in place. Additionally, recent adaptations of book – including the 2010 film Moomins and the Comet Chase – and plans to develop a new TV series, will bring The Moomins to a new generation of children. Sophia Jansson, Tove Jansson’s niece, now has artistic control over the licensing of The Moomins, and in an attempt to stop the crude Disneyfication of the characters, a fate that has befallen a number of other beloved characters such as Winnie-the-Pooh, has declined a number of offers from the Walt Disney Company. Overall, the Moomins brand has increased its sales by 566 per cent in the past ten years, with now over 500 licensees worldwide.

Case study

‘We’re so proud that the themes of love, tolerance and adventure explored in Tove’s work continue to resonate across the world and to be embraced by new countries and cultures, and are very excited for what the coming year has to bring.’ Roleff Krakstrom, MD of Moomin Characters

Roald Dahl’s Marvellous Legacy During his lifetime, Roald Dahl did not embrace the brand extensions that came with his popular works, such as Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. For example, Dahl was unhappy with, and distanced himself from, the 1971 film Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. However, after his death in 1990, Dahl’s literary estate capitalized on the legacy of the popular author, whose books have been translated into fifty-nine languages with an estimated 200 million+ have been sold worldwide. All of Roald Dahl’s copyrights and trademarks are managed by The Roald Dahl Literary Estate LLP, who work with publishers, film-makers, theatre producers, merchandisers and other licensees worldwide to foster the works as widely as possible from the award-winning Matilda the Musical to artisan chocolate bars. Penguin

Random House publish Dahl’s literary work and have, over the years, in partnership with Dahl’s estate, brought out various new editions of Dahl’s work – such as the two Twits apps released in 2015 and the partnership with McDonald’s to give out free copies of Roald Dahl’s stories with their Happy Meals. The centenary of Roald Dahl’s birth, 2016, came with a swashboggling number of new publishing and merchandising launches. The Roald Dahl brand, which received a makeover in 2015, is stronger than ever with the anniversary celebrations, the film adaptation of The BFG, and lots of future plans for brand expansion. Over 295 new Roald Dahl products were sold at retail in 2016, including a limited-edition children’s range of clothing in partnership with Boden.

7.6 | Matilda the Musical Matilda has received widespread critical acclaim and box-office popularity, winning seven 2012 Olivier Awards, including Best New Musical. In 2017, the show was running in London’s West End, and touring Australia, New Zealand, the United States and Canada. It is due to tour the UK and Ireland and will open in South Korea in 2018. 187

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‘With publishing shifting a lot, there is still, I think, a huge desire to bring his kind of vivid and mischievous world into other mediums. We are really transferring from being a literary estate to being more of a story company, and that is a bit of a scary thing for some people. That doesn’t mean that we’re not still going to think about the books as our guiding light. It just means that we’re also thinking: ‘How do we get these amazing words and stories into kids’ bedrooms, and into their minds and imaginations, in many ways?’ Luke Kelly, Managing Director of the Roald Dahl Literary Estate

Harry Potter and the Mega Entertainment Franchise Few books have caught the imagination of children and adults alike than the Harry Potter series, first published in 1997: the popularity of the books has spawned a vast array of licensing opportunities making it, arguably, the most lucrative book franchise in publishing history. J.K. Rowling has been notoriously protective of the Harry Potter brand and there have been a number of lawsuits against individuals and companies that infringed Rowling’s moral and economic rights. The popularity of the series has translated into huge financial success for Rowling, her publishers and other Harry Potter rights holders. The books, which have been translated into more than sixty-seven languages and sold over 450 million copies worldwide, were turned in to commercially successful films, produced by Warner Bros., which in turn generated a number of video

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games, a theme park, and the licensing of more than 400 new Harry Potter products. In 2016, two Harry Potter spin-off stories – Harry Potter and the Cursed Child and Fantastic Beasts & Where to Find Them – were turned into a two-part, sold-out stage production and a film, respectively. Perhaps the most interesting rights story, associated with Harry Potter/J.K. Rowling, is Rowling’s decision to keep hold of her digital and audio rights for the series and sell her digital products directly to her fans through Pottermore, thus bypassing the traditional publishing model/cutting out the middle-man; however, Rowling, and her Pottermore team, decided to expand their reach by selling through other retailing outlets such Blackwell’s and Barnes & Noble. The Harry Potter brand is now thought to be worth over $25 billion.

‘Now we’re having a very broad cut of our audience not only read books on their phones but also listen to audiobooks on their phones and become engaged with different parts of the wizarding world and community on their phones. It’s really changed the way we’ve had to consider our product and the manner in which we actually bring it to market.’ Susan Jurevics, former CEO of Pottermore

Case study

Enid Blyton: Five Go to Hachette! The enduringly popular author Enid Blyton and her publishers have experimented with licensing since the 1940s when various games and jigsaw puzzles, featuring key characters such as Noddy, were created. A number of stage, film and TV adaptations have also been developed since the 1950s. Chorion, an entertainment content company, owned the full rights for Enid Blyton’s works from 1996 until 2012. In 2012, Hachette acquired Enid Blyton’s estate from Chorion. Hachette plan to take advantage of the author’s continuing popularity, which will include publishing seventy-fifth anniversary editions of Blyton’s Famous Five series. The content of the books will be adapted to suit a more modern audience and Hachette is also looking to exploit the

works through other media to ‘enhance and go beyond the literary legacy’. This is all part of the process of creating an internationally recognizable brand name. In addition to the Famous Five, Hachette will publish a new series of Noddy books, including sticker books, activity books and TV tie-ins, and will then bring the Malory Towers, the Secret Seven and The Naughtiest Girl series to a new generation of readers. This is a good example of publishers taking advantage of new technology and a more modern audience to exploit their literary property fully, and across all media. By doing this, Hachette will be able to mix classic and modern publishing and bring well-loved stories and characters into the twenty-first century. Sales of Blyton’s books have exceeded 500 million units worldwide, so this venture will surely certify financial success for the company.

‘We need to publish for today’s readers, conveying all the charm, friendliness and magic of these stories to children whose lives are very different from the ones Enid Blyton wrote for originally. But it is no longer simply about the publishing activity of a literary legacy. There is so much scope for Enid Blyton across the whole media landscape.’ Hilary Murray Hill, CEO Hachette Children’s Group

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Interview

Jason Bartholomew, Rights Director, Hodder & Stoughton

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Tell us about how you became a rights director. Which are the qualities [skills/ abilities] or studies [background/ education] that prepare one for this kind of job? I fell into my career path by pure chance. After university, I moved to New York City with the plans of being a playwright. I wrote plays, and did odd jobs across myriad of other productions, at a theatre called La MaMa E.T.C. After two years without much success, it was evident I needed a 9-to-5 job. A friend I worked with at La MaMa had a job at Little, Brown and Company as a jacket designer. Without knowing what I was doing, or what direction I wanted to take in publishing, this friend helped me land a job as an assistant in the subrights department. From an educational perspective, I don’t think there is any one thing that helped me land a job in subrights. I was interested in writing, reading, and I liked to travel. So the fact that anyone hired me at that time felt like a stroke of luck! Over the next ten years, I worked across Little, Brown, Warner Books, Grand Central Press, Bulfinch Press, and John Wiley & Sons. I sold every conceivable type of right from book club to translation deals. In 2008, I decided to move to London and I accepted the role of Rights Director for Hodder & Stoughton. My current role is Rights Director for four separate UK publishing units: Hodder & Stoughton, John Murray Press, Headline Publishing Group, and Quercus Books. After working in subrights for over seventeen years, I have learned that success in subrights can be boiled down to two key components: 1 skills at negotiation and salesmanship 2 the ability to build relationships with people from around the globe. Of course, there is much more to any one job than a glossy overview. For subrights, it does help to know and understand how to read a

contract. It helps to be able to present. It’s worthwhile to have an interest in foreign countries and languages. I always believe subrights falls into the nexus of the two sides of publishing. On one side you have the editors who are the hunters and gatherers. They are out there trying to find books that will sell in the UK and globally. On the other side of publishing you have everyone else. Once the book is bought everyone in the business then works on the book to contract it, produce it, design it, publicize it, market it, and sell it. What is unique about rights is the ability to straddle both sides of the coin. In subrights we need a strong editorial view to read a proposition quickly to then determine if we can sell that book across the globe, and in how many territories, and for what price? Once the book is acquired, we need to rely on the two points listed above to ensure we sell the book as well as we can. What does your role entail? What is the most challenging part of your role as Rights Director? What’s a typical work week like? My typical work week is frantic and varied. I manage a team of eight and, as mentioned above, we sell rights across four different publishing units. All of these publishers are a part of Hachette UK, of course, but they have separate profit centres and they do compete against each other. So, the most challenging part of my role is to treat each division equally, and to retain confidentiality. Because of the four publishers we report to, the typical work week can be overwhelmed with meetings. Each of the four publishers have their own set of meetings ranging from acquisitions to editorial to sales meetings, and we are expected to attend all of them. I divide the meetings between myself and my senior staff, and we have weekly subrights department meetings to keep on top of the information.

Interview

The challenge with our specific department set-up is that all information must be kept confidential. If Headline wants to buy a book and is offering £30,000 for World rights, it is possible that Hodder is also bidding for that book. However, my department will also know that Hodder is bidding £40,000 for World rights. In this situation, an editor will ask us the subrights contribution is. What this means is our team has read the proposal, and offers an estimate for what we think we can earn in subrights sales. Because we work equally across all of the publishers, we must be equal in our bidding. In the above scenario, if we told Headline we could earn £15,000 in future subrights deals, we then must give the same amount to Hodder. Both divisions then factor in our estimate, alongside UK sales estimates, to decide how much they ultimately want to bid. As a Rights Director, I am also a salesperson in the department. Rights Directors tend to sell first serial, US rights, and often film deals. My team then handles translation and domestic rights. A typical week will include sending out material for sales; following up on material previously sent; negotiating deals; reading manuscripts at speed to determine if we should support an editor’s pursuit of a project; board meetings; acquisition meetings; lots of meetings (!); lunches with key stakeholders in the business; budgeting and forecasting; travelling to foreign territories; and so on. Are there big differences among the territories you work with? If so, what are they? Yes, every territory is unique. The job of a good rights person is to know and understand their market. Each person on my team who sells will take two or three trips a year to their territories. We plan our travel budget each year to ensure we are targeting the territories where we need to strengthen relationships with foreign editors, or build new ones. When one of our UK editors wants to acquire a book, and we give them an estimate of future rights income we can earn, we need to be certain of where that money is coming from. These estimates we give come from first-hand knowledge and experience of each market. We must know, for instance, that a certain type of psychological suspense book will sell very well in Germany and Italy, but that specific genre does not do well in Asia.

Key territories in rights sales are often broken down into Europe, Eastern Europe, Asia, South America, and the United States. In this instance, one could argue that some very universal books with international appeal – for instance the memoir of a global celebrity – should sell across each of these territories. However, a specific crime book that sells well in France does not mean it will sell in Italy. Likewise, if a crime novel sells across all of Europe, it does not mean it will sell at all in Asia. My team’s job is to know the editors across the key publishing houses in the foreign territories; travel to the individual countries for face-to-face meetings (I am a big believer in spending time in someone else’s country to understand it thoroughly); follow the bestseller lists for each key territory; so we can then make our best educated guess for a UK editor when making their World rights bid. Do you know from the beginning that a book would be successful in many countries? What are the signs? Is there any book that had a huge international success that took you by surprise? There is a phrase all rights departments want to be part of, and that is owning and selling the ‘book of the fair’. In the publishing world there are two major book fairs where most publishers assemble for meetings and sales: Frankfurt and the London Book Fair. Of course, there are dozens of other very reputable and worthy fairs outside of these two, but Frankfurt and LBF are the two current stalwarts. Before each fair, LBF in the spring and Frankfurt is in the autumn, literary agents send out a flurry of new manuscripts that editors scramble to buy. Literary agents will often withhold their most exciting books for around these two book fairs to try and drum up enthusiasm and a sales frenzy. In the lead up to these fairs, when reading submissions from literary agents, there are times you just know that a certain book will sell across the globe. A respectable rights sale for any one book is selling to five territories. Ten territories is considered very good for rights sales, fifteen is excellent, and twenty and more is ‘book of the fair’ status. Sometimes we will just know what will work: a certain non-fiction genre that is topical and international; a global celebrity who finally wrote that long-awaited

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memoir; or a work of fiction that just transcends borders. The fiction option, of course, is the most subjective. Sometimes, however, the editor/agent/ rights person can just tell when a project has that momentum. This comes from experience and understanding what the global markets wants. One year at Hodder & Stoughton we managed to sell a debut work of fiction that had only thirty-five pages written to over twenty five-countries. Despite our excitement for the book, when the editor acquired it one year pre-London Book Fair, the immediate success did take us by surprise. At the time we thought we had an exciting project, but we debated whether we should even send the material out across the globe until more was written. You always need to be careful when sending material to a foreign editor, as you get one shot to grab their attention to try and sell it, and thirty-five pages was a small sample size. Ultimately, we took the risk and it paid off with what became a ‘beloved book of the fair’ for Hodder. If only rights sales were always that easy. How has selling/buying rights changed since you started your career? So much has changed since I have been in the rights world. The big shift comes from the dissolution of once guaranteed revenue streams within rights. When I started in New York publishing, it was conceivable that a book club would pay $1 million for one book of an A-list author. Now the book-club business is virtually non-existent. In New York, we used to sell audio and large-print rights to third-party companies. New York publishers, to some extent, then stopped selling those rights and started producing their own audio and large-print editions. In London publishing, however, we still sell to third-party

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publishers for large print and audio. Reprint rights (paperback publishing) were often negotiated for huge sums of money from the subrights departments. So if Little, Brown published a hardcover book to great success, rather than print the paperback edition themselves the subrights team could negotiate a deal with HarperCollins to pay Little, Brown an advance for the rights to the paperback. Nowadays, in the global race of competitive global publishers to retain talent internally at all costs, it seems archaic to hand over the paperback rights for a hit book to your competitor. The global synergy of corporate publishing wasn’t around when I first started. All corporate publishers will now try to ensure that they retain talent globally. If HarperCollins has a wildly successful debut fiction book in the US that is selling well, their rights team will try to do what they can to ensure HarperCollins UK, Germany, etc. also publish that book. Of course, agents and authors need to approve and be happy with Harper Germany publishing their book over a leading German publishers, but this global corporate synergy has been a major shift since I started my career. The last shift is all publishers and literary agents nowadays fully understand the value of translation rights. As some rights erode from a publishers profit line, as mentioned above, the secure money for a publisher (outside of their home sales) is in spreading the risk globally. If UK sales stagnate, then a UK publisher would much rather be able to own world rights and recoup their investment with an author advance by selling that book to countries around the world. If the publisher doesn’t own world rights, then the fate of the book is solely reliant on UK sales. As such, in today’s publishing world, the importance and value of world rights is very much a part of every publishers day-to-day acquisition process.

Summary

Summary

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Cross-media activity is particularly important for spin-off licensing and merchandising activities. Licensed character merchandising typically adds value to a product, making it the key reason the consumer chooses to buy it. Customer loyalty towards characters and authors presents many opportunities for publishers and author estates. Revamping covers and formats for the digital age is a good way to reach new audiences. Owning the various rights for a particular book/ character can prove lucrative to a publisher, even well after the author’s death. Many authors and their estates are fiercely protective of their brands and aim to have artistic control over spin-off products and adaptations.

Further resources Gunelius, S. (2008), Harry Potter: The Story of a Global Business Phenomenon, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Jones, H. and Benson, C. (2016), Publishing Law, 5th edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Murray, S. (2012), The Adaptation Industry: The Cultural Economy of Contemporary Literary Adaptation, Abingdon: Routledge. Owen, L. (2015), Selling Rights, 7th edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Owen, L. (2017), Clark’s Publishing Agreements: A Book of Precedents, 10th edn, London: Bloomsbury Professional.

Activity Character merchandising is not exclusively aimed at children. While adults are the primary purchasers of products for children, there is also a rise in literary merchandising aimed at adults. Publishers, therefore, must think of suitable partnerships to extend popular adult brands across formats in order to further the reach of the original work. Search online and/or in bookshops or other retailers to identify what bookrelated merchandise is being aimed at an adult market. Find out about their licensing activities and consider the following questions. 1 What characters and books have the most merchandising-related products? 2 What types of products seem to be most popular with adults? 3 How does nostalgia feed into the creation of products? 4 Who owns the rights to create these products: the publisher, a literary estate or a third party? 5 If publishers own the rights, who are they partnering with to create these products? 193

Building on the idea that all publishing should satisfy a need in a target market, this chapter focuses on how all parts of the publishing organization must be aware of the eventual reader or user when they are acquiring, editing, designing and producing a publication. It explores how marketing and the supply chain are interlinked and work together to reach readers and the ways in which publishers (and authors, agents and other intermediaries) communicate through promotion, publicity and social media. These activities require publishers to be creative in developing, managing and monitoring the budgets and schedules required to put on effective marketing campaigns. This chapter also looks at collecting and analysing marketing information and using the feedback to market publications successfully.

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8

Marketing, sales and distribution

Marketing

Marketing In its broadest sense, marketing is at the core of publishing: it is about the process of telling retailers and readers about the publications that have been developed and ensuring that they are attractive to their target markets. Even the most beautifully written, designed and produced publication has not fulfilled its role if it does not reach its intended audience. So while publications must appeal to an audience and be appropriately priced, delivering them into the hands of readers is vital. This is dependent on two things: communicating effectively with potential buyers and readers (both directly and through a wide variety of intermediaries), and managing the physical or digital supply chain that gets the publication in front of the reader.

The marketing mix The traditional ‘four Ps’ of marketing – product, price, place and promotion – are incorporated in the idea of the marketing mix, a tool that can help publishers to understand the different elements that make it possible to satisfy the consumers’ needs, and make enough profit to stay in business.

Product The product (or service) that is provided must be produced with the qualities and features that the consumer is looking for. Another way of looking at this is in terms of the benefits that the user gets from the product. Does, for example, the book entertain, instruct or otherwise give the reader something that is useful or pleasurable? What does the publication look like? What will the customers think about the format and design? What is the user experience? How the product is made (both physically and digitally) often determines how it is received by the market.

Price When a price is set for the publication, it must be right for the target market – neither too high nor too low. Customers have an expectation about what they want to pay for a particular product or service and it’s important to get it just right: a high price can mean prestige or rip-off, and a low price may indicate cheap and nasty – or a terrific bargain and value for money. Publishers and booksellers are used to selling separate editions (hardback, paperback and e-book) at different prices, and they are now experimenting with differential

pricing for a variety of market segments, and diverse distribution channels. Pricing is also vital to determining the income that is derived from each sale, and the levels of trade discounts and agency payments must be taken into account. The income must be sufficient to cover all the publisher’s costs.

Place The best place to sell the product must also be considered. How is the physical or digital publication going to be distributed? Do customers have preferences as to where and how they spend their money? Is it necessary to think about different supply channels for distinct market segments? The same book, for example, may sell to different types of reader in a bookshop, a supermarket or through an online retailer.

Promotion The promotion strategy may include digital and viral marketing, social media, print and poster advertising, public relations, sales promotion, events and reviews. All of this is geared to communicating successfully with identified target markets, other parts of the supply chain and relevant gatekeepers. These gatekeepers are people or organizations that make critical decisions about buying books for the trade, promoting them to their customers and dealing with other people who influence publicity and promotion in other parts of the chain. At various times you are certain to see other ‘Ps’ mentioned as part of the marketing mix – including people, profit and packaging. These are discussed throughout this book.

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Supply chain In recent years the supply chain for both physical and digital publications has developed and changed, and looks set continuing to do so. The main purpose of the supply chain remains that of ensuring a timely and cost-efficient supply from the publisher to the reader. The smooth operation of this supply chain requires not just robust systems to handle the storage and delivery of physical and digital publications, but also a secure system for handling the financial transactions involved in the commerce of book supply. At all points in the supply chain there are opportunities to develop marketing strengths through publicity, promotion, social networks, communities and more nuanced articulation of brand identities. In this way, the supply chain and the communication chain are intimately and intricately interlinked.

The publisher’s warehouse and distribution system When the printer has completed the production process and the job has been approved by the production controller and the editor, the bulk of the printed stock is sent to the publisher’s warehouse, or to the warehouse of the distributor who stocks and distributes the books on the publisher’s behalf. The publisher’s order-processing system has a record of all advance orders placed for the book prior to publication (variously called advance orders, pre-publication orders, subscription orders or ‘dues’), and these advance orders are shipped to the retail booksellers, bookshop chains and book wholesalers in time for them to be offered for sale on the official publication date.

8.1 | Amazon distribution The Amazon warehouse at Milton Keynes, one of a growing number of distribution centres in the UK, has huge capacity and distributes thousands of books each day.

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Distributors and wholesalers Distributors warehouse books and act on behalf of the publisher to supply bookshops and wholesalers on terms set by the publisher. They produce sales invoices and collect payment on the publisher’s behalf, remitting funds to the publisher on a regular cycle after deducting an agreed service charge, which is usually based on a percentage of the publisher’s net sales revenue. Wholesalers buy books from publishers and sell them on to retail outlets on terms that they agree with these retailers. Many distributors now also offer POD facilities so that publisher’s titles are printed out and dispatched by the same companies. Both wholesalers and distributors can undertake additional sales and marketing activities for publishers (usually geared specifically to promotion to the trade) and publishers pay for these services. They also provide promotional materials and subsidies for special promotions. Some firms like Gardners Books (UK) and Ingram Book Company (United States) offer a variety of these services, from which publishers can choose. Booksellers find it more cost-effective to use wholesalers as they can then get all their orders from one place in one delivery (often next day). There is just one invoice, and returns of unsold stock can be made to one location with one credit note. Nearly all of the business between publisher, distributor, wholesalers and booksellers is done using web-based communication systems.

Where and how books are sold Most publishers do not sell printed books directly to their end users (although an increasing number of publishers now actively pursue sales of e-books directly from their own websites); they deal with booksellers, supermarkets, online retailers, special offers and clubs by selling to them at a discount or by paying an agency commission. Publishers, their sales managers and sales representatives have the job of making sure that their company’s titles are stocked and displayed prominently in the retail outlets, and that they are part of any

in-store promotions organized through the trade. The sales team are in touch with all those who stock and sell physical books: independent bookshops, bookshop chains, supermarkets selling books, and special outlets such as shops at university campuses, tourist locations, museums and art galleries. Likewise, for online bookselling, publishers make sure that the relevant websites have the necessary information about the publication (see the section on ‘metadata and cataloguing’ on p. 206). They may negotiate appropriate promotion and publicity deals with the internet retailer, and these deals may entail the publisher granting a higher discount or providing a subsidy payment.

Retail bookselling The retail book market has undergone radical changes this century, widely seen as resulting from the increase in digital publishing, the growth of sales through non-traditional outlets (supermarkets, online retailers), more direct purchasing by some large retailers, and, in the case of the UK, the end of the system of fixed prices under the Net Book Agreement in the 1990s (see p. 68). Major bookshop chains have ceased trading (Borders) or changed ownership (Waterstones), and many independent booksellers have gone out of business. In spite of this, publishers still rely on retail booksellers to stock and promote their new titles. Bookshops provide a place where customers can examine the physical books at leisure, and also make unexpected discoveries when browsing the shelves. Buying habits have changed (particularly for the most popular titles), but some independent bookshops are putting up a good fight; and their share of the overall book market is not declining as rapidly as it was. The most creative bookshops offer something the online retailer cannot, so there has been a big increase in author appearances, book-club meetings, local book fairs, readings for children and other special events in bookshops, in order to stress the role of the bookshop in the community as a place where you can meet other people who love reading and know about books.

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The role of the professional bookseller in knowing the individual taste of customers, recommending or ‘hand selling’ (as it is known in the United States) books, is being emphasized as the great marketing advantage that bricks-and-mortar bookshops still have over sites like Amazon. The challenging market conditions have led to some independent booksellers evolving cooperative ventures between groups of independent booksellers in order to compete with the big chains.

To protect their sales, some booksellers are increasing their stock of remainders (publishers’ unsold stocks) and promotional books (specially produced cheap editions), and the market for second-hand and collectible books has grown in recent years. In the UK, charity shops, like the Oxfam Book Shops, have captured a large part of the high-street second-hand market, and this has been identified as another reason for the decline in sales of new books at independent bookshops.

‘People love buying books. It’s a physical pleasure that cannot be replicated online. If we keep creating shops that do that, it doesn’t matter what goes on online or in the digital space. But if we fail, the rules change and the obverse will happen. If we do it well, continue to invest in our shops and hire good booksellers then we’ll be fine. High streets and shops are part of the heart of the community. People will always want to go to shops. I don’t think we have the ability to respond wholly effectively to Amazon. The investment needed to match the logistics and pricing would be enormous; the idea that as an online retailer idea we can match Amazon is complete fantasy. There’s absolutely no future in that, but as physical bookseller, with a decent and credible online offering, could we offer an alternative that customers can logically and emotionally choose? Yes.’ James Daunt, Managing Director, Waterstones

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8.2 | Daunt Books Daunt Books’ chain of eight bookshops has been a big success in competing with the book chains. So much so, that in 2011 its owner, James Daunt, was appointed managing director of Waterstones by the company’s new owner, Alexander Mamut. Of the move to Waterstones, Daunt said ‘Obviously, from that position I knew what was going on in the trade and this unfolding tragedy of Waterstones. So this business which I had sneered at for many, many years you suddenly think: “Oh sugar, if it disappears this is going to be really, really not good for anyone”.’ Daunt Books also started a publishing venture in 2010 with the intention of publishing literary fiction and non-fiction.

Marketing

Discoverability and choice

Discounts

Browsing in a bookshop; reading reviews in the press and online; and recommendations by friends and family have long been important ways that have influenced readers as to which publications to buy, borrow and read. At the same time, a large proportion of books and magazines are bought on impulse. Marketing can be seen as guiding the potential customer through the labyrinth of potential purchases, so understanding how people behave in their role as consumers is very important. In planning a publicity and promotion campaign, marketers need to understand which recommendations have the voice of authority; how readers’ purchasing decisions are influenced by the image they have of themselves and their social group; and how people may change their buying behaviour in different situations (think of the various ways we buy books for work, gifts or when travelling). Since Chris Anderson publicized the idea of ‘the long tail’ in WIRED in 2004, there has been a lot of discussion about the nature of the ‘choice’ offered by online retailers (like Amazon), book digitization projects (like Google Books) and the proliferation of book bloggers and vloggers, tweeters and self-publishers. It is now possible to identify and ‘find’ a much larger amount of published writing than was possible at the beginning of the twenty-first century. However, it is still true that a relatively small number of publications represent a high proportion of the overall sales volume by both units and monetary value. For every million-selling author, there are hundreds of thousands of other writers and journalists with few readers. Discoverability is becoming increasingly important to publishers as consumers become overwhelmed by choice. Publishers are not only looking to improve metadata descriptions, to help retailers and readers, but there have been a number of apps and websites, such as Penguin Random House’s Penguin Flipper book recommendation tool, that have appeared in the last few years.

When they sell to the retail trade, publishers receive less than the price that is printed on the cover of the book or advertised on a website, because the retailers buy the books from the publisher at a discount. This can range from 25 per cent to 55 per cent on different types of books (less for academic and school books and more for mass-market paperbacks). For books sold to Amazon, Walmart (United States) or Tesco (UK), the discount will be up to 70 per cent, meaning the publisher may get no more than 30 per cent of the ‘publisher’s price’. These high discounts can still leave a profit for the publishers of bestselling consumer books, because of the increase in the numbers of copies sold; but for less popular books and those from publishers with small sales, the greatly increased discounts can make it very difficult to see any profit at all. In many countries booksellers have the right to send back unsold copies of books to the publisher and receive a full credit; and the issue of ‘returns’, as they are known, has proved to be another thing that has affected the profitability of publishers. Innovation in alternative marketing is therefore vital for smaller publishers, and those with titles that sell in small quantities. The economics of trade publishing have changed significantly since the 1990s. When books carried a fixed price, and most sales were through the established book trade or through library suppliers (specialist wholesalers that provide libraries with books), the publisher could expect (after book trade discounts of 20 per cent to 40 per cent then prevalent) to receive no less than 60 per cent of the list price of the sale from each book sold. The author would usually have got a fixed percentage of the list price of the book (often between 10 per cent and 15 per cent), or a similar percentage of the publisher’s net receipts (the money they actually got from the trade). Even if many books were not as successful as the publisher had hoped, the overall return was usually enough to cover costs and to provide a modest profit. Now that the retailers demand discounts of up to 70 per cent on the list price, and successful authors command high advances, trade books must sell in very high numbers of units to provide the financial return needed for profitability.

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Disintermediation In recent years, changes in the publishing supply and value chain have led to ‘disintermediation’, in which the creator and consumer are brought closer together by the more direct connections between individuals (with file-sharing and other peer-to-peer channels known as P2P); and transactions between publishers and readers can take place without intermediaries (known as business-to-consumer or B2C). This is made possible by the use of digital technologies for content creation, production and distribution. Some formerly important links in the book chain have become less important, while other new intermediaries have entered the publishing ecosystem. Publishing networks of writers, readers and a wide variety of intermediaries act in collaborative and competitive ways that imply we are not so much in a period of ‘disintermediation’ but one that is ‘differently intermediated’. In some cases, authors are brought into closer direct communication with readers through personal appearances and online communications, other intermediaries such as bloggers, vloggers, special sales promotion agents and non-traditional book retailers have become more important parts of the book-supply network. The term ‘diffintermediation’ was suggested for this development by Kent Anderson in September 2009 on the website http:// scholarlykitchen.sspnet.org. The opportunity for diversity presented by digital publishing is accompanied by a battle to control and influence the internet as a commercial supply chain, with fierce competition between some major global brands, such as Google, Amazon, Apple and Facebook. Other media companies, including some of the major newspaper publishers, such as the Huffington Post and the Los Angeles Times, now produce and distribute e-books. These companies have increasingly sophisticated communication and supply systems, which allow them greater control of the product. Their power can now rival that of the publisher, and much of the marketing activity undertaken by publishers is now centred on working with them, often in ways that have much in common with the business models developed for music streaming, movie rental and multiplayer games.

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The case of John Locke In 2011 American writer John Locke was the first self-published author to sell a million Kindle e-books. Locke subsequently signed a deal with Simon & Schuster to print and distribute physical copies of his books, while keeping control over his e-book publishing. There are now a number of authors who have achieved million-plus sales of Kindle editions. This has spawned the rise of the Kindlepreneur: bestselling, self-published authors on Amazon.

Discussion questions 1 Draw a diagram of the supply chain used to get this book from the publisher to you, the reader. 2 What strategies can smaller publishers use to keep some control over the supply chain? 3 How is the rapid growth in e-book use changing the way books are bought and sold? 4 How can bricks-and-mortar booksellers compete in the current book market? 5 Do you think availability leads to improved discoverability, and why?

Communication through promotion and publicity

Communication through promotion and publicity In order for an audience to discover any publication, there must be effective marketing communication with the potential customers: gatekeepers and networks need to be influenced, and appropriate media must be used for the communications. This brief overview of some of the many types of promotion undertaken by publishers represents a part of the large and varied menu of possibilities.

Publicity and promotion Promotion and publicity are two types of marketing communication. Publicity is sometimes seen as a ‘free’ activity, and is generated when other communicators, such as print media, TV, radio reviewers, commentators and bloggers/vloggers, are persuaded to tell their audiences about a book, an author or some publishing development. Promotional activities, on the other hand, are those things that have a direct cost, such as space advertising, posters, catalogues, websites, internet ‘features’ and banners, TV and radio advertisements. Both publicity and promotion are important in the communication process, and the distinction between paid and unpaid marketing activities is not always clear. All marketing activity entails cost (direct or indirect), including publicity activities such as book launches, publicity photographs, and author tours. The distinction is blurred further because booksellers and the media often require payment to select a title to be featured as a ‘pick’ or ‘hot tip’, and, as a result, the impartiality of reviews on book-related websites and blogs has been questioned. Some reviews are paid for, and others are planted with what is sometimes called ‘AstroTurf’ marketing, that is endorsements and positive reviews that are artificially ‘planted’ when they appear to be authentic ‘grassroots’ comments. They all form part of marketing.

A marketing toolbox In planning a marketing campaign for a given publication, some or all of the following might be considered as important ways to communicate with the target audience. Some of these activities are aimed at

the audience itself, enticing them to try and buy a particular publication (what is called pull marketing). Some may be geared to increasing the supply and visibility of a publication in the supply chain (called push marketing). By pushing stock and promotional messages through the supply channel, and giving customers reasons to pull the title off the shelves and into their shopping baskets, push and pull work together to create sales.

Marketing by the product itself The book as an object (the product itself) carries numerous marketing messages. The cover illustration and design must be chosen with care to reflect both the content and the expectations of the target readers. This includes aspects of design such as the page format, typography, layout and illustrations. Dust jacket and paperback covers may contain information on the content, the author and comparisons to other similar books, favourable comments from other authors, industry experts or media reviews, and a host of other metadata required for the commercial transaction of book supply (ISBN, barcode and price). As more book sales are made via the internet, covers must be attractive and legible as thumbnails, and promotional copy must be readable on screen. The cover may be the most important thing that encourages readers to pick a book off the bookshop shelves or click on a link on a website. Hyperlinks to sample chapters, author interviews, media tie-ins and author signing schedules that appear on a website promotion must add value to the browsing experience without creating too much distraction from the ultimate objective – to secure a sale.

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Promotional materials

Point-of-sales promotion

Advance information (AI) sheets for new books are produced in both print and digital form for use by sales people, trade intermediaries and other members of the book network. This AI represents the basis of the book’s metadata. Catalogues, brochures and flyers (in print, as internet databases and as downloads) are produced to promote a wide variety of publications. They are particularly important in specialist markets where direct communication with known customers, or prime prospects, remains a central part of the overall strategy to saturate core markets with communication about publications. This is true of any publishing (such as academic, hobby or professional) that is aimed at a specific subject group or a limited geographic market. Online catalogues can be used both for reference, and to promote selected new titles, make seasonal offers (such as Christmas, and Mothers’ Day) or offer special promotional reduced price sales. Advertising in the print media promotes awareness of new titles (often in connection with reviews in the same media). Print advertising is a useful way of reinforcing brand awareness for a mass-market title. It can be used to reach specialist markets for niche publications. It also plays a role in recruiting authors from among the readers of these journals and magazines. Direct-mail promotion to potential customers is still a major way in which specialist publishers announce their new publications to the market. Much of this direct promotion and selling is now done via email promotion lists, which reduces costs and can make it easier to gather more valuable information on potential customers. Video and audio promotions are widely used because of the availability of sites like YouTube, and the possibility of making low-cost podcasts and webcasts. These methods are an extension of the type of publicity that can be gained through personal appearances and readings. The possibility of forwarding links to entertaining or informative videos opens up the possibilities for the viral spread of the promotional message.

In-store promotions include window and point-of-sale (POS) displays in bookshops and other retail outlets. The publisher may subsidize this promotion, often related to an author signing, a reading or a media launch. The way in which a book is displayed in the bookshop also makes a difference. Promoted books are often exhibited on tables (often as part of special pricing promotions), or face-out, so that the cover design has full effect. These expensive POS items are less prevalent with the rise of online book sales channels. Special promotions are also arranged with internet and e-book suppliers on a paid basis. Web banners and other online advertising is paid for on the basis of how many people view or click through a particular link or page; these form an important part of the promotional mix.

8.3 | James Bond When James Bond leapt from the pages of Ian Fleming’s novels to the big screen, the success of the cinema adaptation was used to re-promote the books. This is now a wellestablished practice, with film tie-in film covers now having a huge influence on reaching new markets. Here, an original version of the French cover can be seen following the film’s release.

Communication through promotion and publicity

Physical posters (especially in high traffic areas such as train stations) and display ads in the print media (especially for celebrity and media tie-in books) are still important in reaching some mass audiences, and these can often be downloaded from publisher websites, used as digital wallpaper, or posted on social media. Posters can be particularly important in promoting new titles from established writers, as well as for brand authors who have a regular readership, or books that have TV and movie tie-ins.

Events Author appearances, live interviews and signings at book festivals, in bookshops and at other events are increasingly important as authors develop as selfpromoters and performers. Popular writers must be accessible to their audiences in person as well as online and in the media. While this is not an entirely new phenomenon (Mark Twain and Charles Dickens both undertook punishing author tours across

YouTube’s influence on the publishing industry An interesting recent trend is the crossover between traditional print culture and the more modern YouTube community. Many publishers have used YouTube as a scouting ground for new talent and have successfully adapted YouTube content into book form. Bestselling books by vloggers include Girl Online by Zoella/Zoe Suggs, which was the fastest-selling book of 2014 and sold 78,109 copies in its first week, and The Pointless Book by Alfie Deyes, which topped the Amazon and Sunday Times charts and sold 15,330 copies in its first week. However, publishers are not only using YouTube to snap up potential authors: it was first, and continues to be, used as a platform to publicize their front-list titles and reignite interest in their backlists. This is particularly useful for reaching a younger – YA – audience. For example, some of the Big Five publishers now have dedicated YA YouTube channels, which feature interviews with authors, book trailers, competitions etc.: HarperCollins’ Epic Reads has more than 130,000 subscribers; Scholastic’s This Is Teen has over 3,000 subscribers; and Macmillan’s Fierce Reads has over 2,500 subscribers. Authors are also using YouTube to connect directly to their readers. The most successful is, YA author, John Green who, alongside

his brother Hank, has developed eleven YouTube series, which include Vlogbrothers (more than 3 million subscribers) and the educational CrashCourse (over 6 million subscribers). YouTube has also introduced another new, key influence in the publishing industry: the BookTuber. BookTubers are vloggers that share their love of books, particularly through book reviews, on YouTube. The BookTubing community can be seen as an evolution of the traditional book club and an extension of social reading activities. The growing BookTubing community often interacts with each other, setting up activities such as readathons and themed reviewing: it’s a word-of-mouth phenomenon that is changing marketing activities. Publishers have capitalized on the growing influence of BookTubers, with their large lists of followers: Bloomsbury partnered YA authors with BookTubers to create a new YA anthology You Love to Hate Me while other publishers have worked with some of the most influential BookTubers to help promote their books on their vlogs. With almost 5 billion videos being watched on YouTube each day, the opportunity for collaboration between publishers and the YouTube community, and between print and video, are vast.

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nineteenth-century America), air travel and modern media pressures have made the promotional tour both more gruelling and more effective in reaching a mass audience. These author appearances are important in getting publicity in local media for new titles by established and upcoming authors, and help to establish the all-important ‘platform’ that is a foundation of any author’s brand identity. Exhibitions at conferences, trade shows and professional events provide important promotional and publicity opportunities to professional, academic and STM publishers. Hobby publishers also have exhibitions and sales counters at specialist events like food fairs, motor rallies and boat shows. These events represent an effective way of joining a specialist community, and this is good not only for sales, but also to keep ahead of trends and to recruit new authors. Book fairs such as BookExpo in the United States and the Guadalajara International Book Fair in Mexico are used for selling books to booksellers and rights to other publishers, and to link with companies providing other services, such as IT systems, shipping and logistics, and printing. Other book events, such as literary festivals, are intended for the general public and to generate publicity for authors. The Hay Festival, which started in Hay-on-Wye in the UK, is now a global organization hosting literary events in place such as Kerala in India and Xalapa in Mexico.

Media publicity Reviews and author features in the press remain a major form of book publicity. In some cases, the book pages of daily and weekly newspapers have been downgraded (with shorter reviews of a less varied selection of books) and supplemented by blogs, podcasts and social media feeds. Serialization, readings and adaptations of books in newspapers, magazines and on the radio are another valuable means of promoting books (mostly fiction and popular non-fiction). This is not just an integral part of the marketing mix, but also a source of additional revenue for the publisher and the author. Sample chapters and free e-books have joined the promotional toolkit, and free e-books are sometimes offered in the press and through book websites. Chapters of forthcoming books are also made available online and at the back of paperback editions of popular fiction.

Communities, viral marketing and ‘free’ publicity Online promotion can be used to generate an email list, to develop a social network community, or to support promotional activities such as personal appearances and media events. Publishers’ websites and social media are in stiff competition for the attention of the browser,

8.4 | Kolkata Book Fair Publishing companies at book fairs promote their books to the general public and to the book trade.

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so the purpose of a publisher’s internet activity must be well planned (but flexible). It should be aimed at achieving specific goals, and be checked to see if these goals are achieved. Publishers’ digital promotion activities include techniques that go beyond the features available in print brochures, posters and point-of-sale handouts. Digital marketing can engage potential customers by getting them to ‘play’ on the site (referred to as ‘gamification’) and by encouraging them to enter competitions, answer quizzes, watch promotional videos or download sample chapters, share content via email or social networking sites, and add comments or reviews. Customers may be persuaded to register for alerts, which can give the publisher information about the users if they complete a profile. An item that is tweeted, forwarded or otherwise recommended to others can spread like a virus (which is why it’s called viral marketing). Whatever the online marketing strategy, it is vitally important to monitor usage and analyse data on a regular basis. By using tools such as Google

Analytics you can see if you are reaching your target audience effectively and also discover if any groups you had not previously considered are finding your site interesting. Remember that the number of visitors to a site or page is not nearly as important as who they are, how often they visit, how long they stay and what they do while on your site. Authors also actively promote themselves and their works on the internet. They may encourage other sites to review, promote and provide what appears to be disinterested word-of-mouth recommendations to appropriate market segments. Many other parts of the book chain (agent, publisher and media) may contribute to the digital marketing campaign. This is important in specialist markets where the academic, professional, hobby or enthusiast websites and social media may be the most effective way of reaching the audience. In the mass market, instant trending can result from a skilful spread of a Twitter hashtag or viral video.

Marketing brands Brand is increasingly important to publishers. Elsevier, Mills & Boon, Scholastic and Virago are all examples of successful publisher branding. Each represents a certain style of publishing, a mark of quality, a reason for the book buyer to trust that a publication bearing one of these imprints will deliver according to expectations. Trusted brands reduce the feeling of risk inherent in every purchase. A publisher’s trademark is only one of the important brand elements: authors and characters are also important, for example, the author Lee Child and his character Jack Reacher (published by Penguin Random House), Ian Fleming and his hero James Bond, and Julia Donaldson’s Gruffalo. Imprints and series are also brands, for example, Teach Yourself books and Horrible Histories. In these cases, publishers consciously develop the brand identity and use it to communicate with loyal readers and to develop new audiences. ‘Buy this

book about this character written by this author in this series published by this publisher and you won’t be disappointed,’ the marketing message might run. Brands are about building trust, loyalty and repeat purchase. They encourage word-ofmouth promotion, which is so important to sales growth, and encourage a sense of community that comes from brand loyalty. As parts of the supply network focus on blockbusting bestsellers, and employ marketing techniques to maximize revenue, ‘brand’ authors are expected to play their part, often undertaking gruelling schedules of interviews, personal appearances and media performances. Those authors from whom lower sales are anticipated are largely expected to do a lot of promotion themselves, manage their own websites, engage with readers on social media, and arrange local readings and signing sessions.

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Metadata and cataloguing Metadata is the information that enables a published item to be identified, located and accessed from among the mass of other published items available in an ever more varied choice of formats. It’s often described as ‘data about data’. An extension of the kind of information that might be found in a library catalogue for a given publication, metadata includes a wealth of other information for which a common terminology and format is essential if there is to be effective communication between the different data systems that connect parts of the publishing network. The management of metadata is now seen as a central function of publishing. It includes the more obvious details such as the author, title, publisher, place of publication, information on print and digital formats, unique identifiers such as the ISBN, ISSN and DOI, and can include the markers needed for DRM. Good metadata is an aid to effective online searching for traditional catalogue information such as the title, author, ISBN, price, publication date and blurb, and for tags and keywords that promote discoverability and improve the success of the SEO (search engine optimization) strategy. Many parts of the publishing

organization are now involved in making sure that the ‘data about data’ is accurate and organized in a way that helps readers to discover the publication through whatever search and retrieval method they employ.

Industry information Nielsen BookData stresses that digital books need product metadata as much as physical books do to fulfil these objectives: ●

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Enable the discovery of each separately traded product. Persuade and inform the customer showing clearly details of characteristics of the work identified. Enable unambiguous selection and sale of the chosen product. Enable the supply chain to understand what has been sold and when.

For more information, you can consult the websites of Nielsen BookData and the Book Industry Study Group, which produces a comprehensive ‘Roadmap of Organizational Relationships’ and a ‘Roadmap of Identifiers’.

Digital product placement

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The idea of digital product placement was promoted so that different products could ‘appear’ on-screen in TV programmes, depending on the audience or market. So, for example, brands of breakfast cereal on sale in different countries can be substituted on the breakfast table in a TV drama. This technique is now being suggested for e-books. So a product might be inserted into the digital text according to the location where the book is being read, the preferences of the reader or a promotion in an online or neighbouring store – all will provide payments for the publisher and author. At a flick of the digital publisher’s switch, James Bond’s car could change from an Aston Martin to a Ferrari to a Bentley, and Paddington Bear could eat peanut butter instead of marmalade.

Some types of metadata The DOI – Digital Object Identifier – is used to identify a component such as text, an image, or other media. The ISBN – International Standard Book Number – identifies a particular manifestation or edition of a book. ISSN – International Standard Serial Number – identifies a journal. Metadata also includes ways of identifying a particular part of the distribution channel such as the SAN – Standard Address Number. Other basic metadata includes: Book title, Author, Publisher, BIC code/Book Category, Page count, Number of illustrations and Publication date.

Communication through promotion and publicity

An expert’s view of serendipity ‘Serendipity is the great unsung hero of publishing. We can never be sure of the precise value of all those sales arising from chance encounters in bookshops, the flash of a good jacket catching the reader’s eye, igniting the purchase instinct so that before they know it they’ve bought another book. We’ve all been there; we’ve casually browsed, and probably found many of our favourite books this way – by chance, in bookshops, passing time, scanning idly. We will never have a precise figure for what this is worth, but it is likely to be very large indeed. How about in digital environments? Well, there has been a great attempt at not just replicating the mechanisms of the physical world but surpassing them, and a good deal of web innovation has centred around recommendation engines, affiliate networks, filtering systems, automatic suggestions and the prediction of taste, a world where our literary preferences are served up to us, where we always find what we want. To some this is a world where abundant culture becomes easily discoverable, where we can find what we like and structure our experience in a totally customized way; to others it is what Eli Pariser has called the “filter bubble”, an egotistical echo chamber where we are never challenged by newness or difference aside from our pre-existing predilections. Regardless of the rights or the wrongs, one thing is clear: that in an environment where chance is lost, where algorithms replace luck and the keyword search term is king, metadata is the fulcrum of discovery. Metadata, in short, decides whether your book is found, and by extension whether your book is bought. Metadata influences search, it influences territoriality and categorization – metadata is the advert, the sales pitch, the sell and the advance promotion; metadata is the random book left on the table, the fervent recommendation of a friend, the arresting blurb, the good review, serving the random browser and the determined buyer alike. Bad metadata

means your book is invisible and un-purchasable. Yet compared with too many industries either totally or increasingly focused on digital commerce, publishing lags in its understanding of SEO practices, metadata standards implementation, data collection and analysis and systems investment. Yes, most publishers have started all the above. But this is only the beginning. We still haven’t fully figured out how to replace the experience of shopping in a bricks-and-mortar store, that sense of surprise, fun, the unexpected – and we haven’t worked out how we can create and capture those impulse buys. We are going to need to, and the answer will be found in a revolution of what metadata we supply, and how we supply it.’ Michael Bhaskar, then Digital Publishing Director, Profile Books, now Publishing Director, Canelo; on Frankfurt Book Fair Blog

Discussion questions 1 What promotion and publicity techniques would be most suitable for a celebrity cookery book? 2 Why do publishers go to conferences and exhibitions? 3 What is metadata and why is it important? 4 What makes good descriptive metadata? 5 What other information could be included in the metadata? 6 Why is ‘discoverability’ important?

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Managing budgets and schedules Sales projections for new titles start with the editor’s initial evaluation of the market potential and are developed in consultation with sales, marketing and finance departments. They gradually become more detailed as publication day approaches. The sales expectations (in units, in monetary value and in terms of the period over which they are made) both determine and are determined by the promotional plan and the budget that is available. The schedule and budget relate to the potential for sales and profit, and other factors such as the project’s overall importance to the company, support from media and parts of the supply chain, and the possibility of significant income from subsidiary rights and export sales.

General and specific costs

Marketing schedule

Developing and managing a sales and marketing budget and schedule is a vital part of the marketing department’s activities; and this is done in the light of the company’s expectation of the percentage of its sales revenue that is allocated to this activity. This can range from 5 per cent to 15 per cent of overall sales revenues depending on the type of publishing and the competitive nature of the particular market. Some marketing expenses, such as the catalogue, the company’s website and attendance at major book fairs (for example, London, Frankfurt and Beijing), are undertaken at some level by most publishers. In the planning process, these activities and their costs are often hotly debated; and, as they are central to the company’s business, they are planned with great attention to detail. Other costs, associated with the promotion of particular titles or series, can be broken down and the costs allocated directly to those titles and/or series that are covered. The priorities given to publications in terms of anticipated sales and financial returns, as well as competitive pressures, decide the promotional expenditure.

Promotional and publicity activities are carefully scheduled, generally in relation to the publication date, a critical sales period (such as Christmas or the beginning of term or semester), or another significant event. The detailed schedule is planned at the later stages of the development of the publishing project and, as all promotion and publicity events take time to organize, this planning stage is very important. When the title goes into production, the plan is further refined and expenditure is approved. The expected costs of all activities must be based on real estimates, and from suppliers, such as designers and printers of promotional materials, travel and costs for author events and exhibitions Sales staff may have special requirements for promotional materials (such as price lists and display cards), and these are discussed at sales conferences. Overseas agents may want promotional materials, and the international sales team needs time to contact agents and booksellers worldwide. Rights managers also require material to send to other publishers. Attention to detail is vital, and any metadata (such as ISBNs) and pricing information must be checked carefully. All of this takes time, so a structured schedule is important to ensure that the process goes smoothly and that materials for new titles are prepared well before the publication date.

Marketing budget

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The marketing and promotion budget is allocated (see the table opposite which is an example of an imaginary publishing company’s marketing budget) in relation to the company’s projected sales revenue (A). A proportion of the total marketing budget (B) is allocated to central promotion costs (C), promoting all the company’s new and backlist lists. Each division also has a marketing budget (D), which is allocated to the marketing of individual titles, series and lists depending on the publishing programme. Some titles (stars) get a larger proportion of the overall spend (E), while other new titles have much less money spent on individual promotion (F).

Discussion questions 1 Who within the company may have a need for promotional materials? 2 What different activities are covered by the promotional budget? 3 When is a promotional schedule prepared? 4 Will a publisher spend an equal amount on promotion of all titles?

Using feedback to monitor success

Using feedback to monitor success Now frequently known as metrics, the data sources that publishers need to monitor their business performance have vastly improved from the 1990s onwards. As the supply chain becomes integrated using web-based systems, this information is likely to become even more comprehensive and analytical.

Nielsen BookScan Nielsen BookData was mentioned earlier in this chapter; another part of the same corporation called Nielsen BookScan collects retail sales information directly from point-of-sale systems in more than 35,500 bookshops around the world. Subscribers can access the data online, and produce a wide variety of reports on such things as market size and share of different book

categories, unit sales and revenue for individual publishers, specific imprints, authors and price points. The system gathers information from the supply chain and covers different parts of the market including specialized categories and small imprints, as well as larger companies. BookScan’s main focus is on the UK, United States, Australia and New Zealand, but data is available from some other countries.

Table 8.1 Marketing schedule

Company

Breakdown of expenditure

Revenue projected £/$/€

Marketing budget £/$/€

Company budget Marketing budget is 5% of the total sales revenue.

Company revenue (A) 10,000,000

Company marketing budget (B) 500,000 (5% of projected revenue)

Central promotion costs Includes catalogues, trade fairs, website and backlist promotion.

10,000,000 is the total of the company’s projected revenue from the sale of new and backlist titles.

Company-wide marketing (C) 250,000 (2.5% of projected revenue)

Division

Division (5 divisions in company) Divisional revenue plan Includes exhibitions in major areas 2,000,000 (×5) of publishing (e.g. STM, art), brochures, ads and inserts in specialist media.

Divisional marketing budget (D) 50,000 per division (×5)

Title

Star titles (3 titles per division) Includes launch party, author tour, ads and posters.

Revenue projections Each ‘star’ title: 200,000 Division: 600,000 Company: 3,000,000

‘Star’ title marketing budget (E) Each ‘star’ title: 10,000 Division: 30,000 Company: 150,000

Other titles (20 new titles per division) Includes flyers, readings at bookstores, exhibits at specialist events.

Revenue projections Each other title: 50,000 Division: 1,000,000 Company: 5,000,000

Other title marketing budget (F) Each other title: 1,000 Division: 20,000 Company: 100,000 209

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Keeping an eye on major book buyers Market research into publishing and bookselling has shown that a quite small core of heavy book buyers (those buying more than twelve books per year) is critical to the health of the business. It has become clear that these buyers were also among the heaviest buyers of e-books, and that e-books were particularly attractive to the over-fifties (especially women readers). The baby-boomer generation were a major factor in the growth of the trade paperback, the chain bookshop and the growth of reading groups; they may also be at the forefront of the move from p-books to e-books. This insight into the way in which a major

customer group has changed its buying habits is a good example of the need for publishers and booksellers to watch the way people discover, buy, read and evaluate books. The book market is rarely static and is prone to periods of rapid development when disrupted by economic, social, political or technological changes. The global economy has an effect on publishing as it does on everything else; and technological developments continue to revolutionize all communications, bringing great changes to the currently evolving hybrid print/digital culture.

Nielsen activities The various Nielsen activities that provide data and other services for publishers. Nielsen Registration Agency identifying publishers and books

Nielsen BookScan measuring and analysing book sales

Book Supply Chain

Nielsen BookNet ordering books

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8.5 | Nielsen activities

Nielsen BookData searching and discovering books

Using feedback to monitor success

Bestseller lists Publishers of trade fiction, children’s books and non-fiction titles benefit when their books appear in bestseller lists. The very word ‘bestseller’ is often used in advertising and promotion materials, and publishers use the buzz created by the ‘bestseller’ tag to promote authors and books through the press and other media. This ensures the continued prominent display of the ‘bestselling’ book in bookshops and online bookselling sites. Bestseller lists appear in the press, but there is no standard way of determining this status. In some countries, the bestseller lists are based on sales records taken from quite a small sample of publishers or booksellers. Nielsen BookScan bestseller lists, based on a wide sample of books sold in a given period, can be far more reliable than a more restricted sampling of bookshops and online retailers. Bookshop displays often include what are referred to as ‘bestsellers’, although the evidence for the bestseller status is sometimes obscure. The rise of e-books has further complicated the way in which bestseller charts are created, but the media now publish lists of e-book bestsellers and some have integrated e-books into the overall bestseller lists.

Discussion questions 1 How does Nielsen BookScan collect data? Why might publishers be willing to pay for the market information that Nielsen gathers? 2 How does Nielsen BookScan influence commissioning processes, and what are the implications of this? 3 Why is the ‘bestseller’ label important? 4 Are older people interested in e-books? Why might this group be particularly important to publishers, and how could they tailor their products to meet the needs of the ‘baby-boomer’ generation? 5 Do e-books appear on bestseller lists? 6 Why do you think the growth of e-books has plateaued?

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Case study

Persephone Books

Persephone Books – a small publisher with traditional publishing values – shows the importance of keeping control over the communication and supply channels. Persephone, founded by Nicola Beauman in 1998, publishes novels, short stories, diaries and cookery books. It has developed a reputation for high-quality publishing (in both the content and form), while developing innovative design and marketing. The books are much praised for their clear typographic design, stylishly understated dove-grey jackets, fabric-patterned endpapers and bookmarks, and their entertaining and informative introductions. It has approximately 122 titles currently in print. The company says its titles are ‘are chosen to appeal to busy people wanting titles that are neither too literary nor too commercial’, and the company is thriving in its niche market.

The feminist publishing context Persephone occupies a position within a tradition of women’s publishing that came to prominence in the late twentieth century. In the 1970s a number of women’s presses were established, reflecting developments in the feminist movement and an increase in academic and media interest in writings by and for women. In the UK, the most famous of these is Virago, founded as an independent publisher in 1973 and now an imprint of Little, Brown Book Group. Virago publish some of the major feminist thinkers including Kate Millett, Adrienne Rich, Eva Figes, Angela Carter, Juliet Mitchell, Lynne Segal, Sheila Rowbotham and Elaine Showalter. The Virago Modern Classics list is dedicated to the rediscovery and reprinting of the works of women writers. It has published such diverse authors as George Eliot, Grace Paley, Elizabeth von Arnim, Pat Barker, Edith Wharton, Mae

8.5 | Persephone cover Persephone is admired not just for its editorial integrity, but also for its stylish covers, tasteful typesetting, individual endpapers, bookmarks and quality paper.

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West, Willa Cather and Molly Keane. It has some 200 titles in print. Virago Travellers is another highly successful series: it has reprinted the stories of the greatest women travellers including Gertrude Bell, Emily Eden, Lucie Duff Gordon and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. In recent years, Virago Vs was launched to cater for a new generation (broadly aimed at twenty- to thirty-five year olds). The first title was Sarah Waters’s tale of Victorian lesbian London, Tipping the Velvet. Other publishers, such as The Women’s Press in the UK and the independent US non-profit The Feminist Press, began by rescuing lost and forgotten works by women writers from diverse ethnic, racial and class backgrounds. Some feminist publishers have also been active in publishing books classified as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, and asexual (LGBTQIA+).

‘There are cute books, there are beautiful books and then there are Persephone books.’ The Irish Times

8.6 | Virago For many years, Virago books used distinctive covers with a green band that were instantly recognized by their core readers, but the company now uses a wider variety of designs and images as the books compete in a broader market.

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Interview

Ian Lamb, Head of Children’s Marketing and Publicity, Bloomsbury Publishing

Tell us about how you became Head of Children’s Marketing and Publicity at Bloomsbury (i.e. what has been your career path, what other publishing jobs have you had, what have been your career highlights etc.) After university I worked as a bookseller for three years and then managed to get an assistant role at a vanity publishers in London. It was a good introduction to working with people who are passionate about getting their work published. From there I moved to A&C Black to work in the publicity department. I worked across all the imprints including sailing, pottery and theatre books. However, it was the children’s list that really caught my attention and it was then I decided to focus on that part of the market. I was lucky enough to get a publicity job at Puffin after that and worked there for three years. I eventually moved to Bloomsbury and have been working here for just under twelve years now. Structural changes and promotions have led me to becoming Head of Children’s Marketing and Publicity where I now focus on the Harry Potter novels and manage a team of eight. There have been many career highlights. Chatting with Elmore Leonard on the phone, being at the Natural History Museum for the midnight reading of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, working on a sold-out 2,500 seater event for Neil Gaiman’s Fortunately, the Milk, discussing wrestling injuries with John Irving. One of my biggest highlights though is getting to meet Paul Jennings. He had a huge impact on my reading as a young person and to meet him and say thanks was absolutely brilliant.

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What does your role entail? (i.e. what is the most challenging part of your role? What’s a typical work week like?) The beauty of marketing and publicity is that it is such a varied department to work in. One day you might be heading off to a school event with an author, and the next you are at the BBC watching Blue Peter being filmed. It’s quite hard to pin down exactly what is done week by week as the team are involved in so many different elements. We create marketing materials, adverts and proofs as well as organize author events and pitch for media interviews. Each book has its own unique strengths and the marketing and publicity will always need to adapt to that. I think the most challenging aspect of the role is understanding that a lot of people will have opinions on what they think is best for a book. Sales may want to focus on getting the book in to key stores while editorial may see it as a book that needs to get on award shortlists. The challenge is to put all these requirements in to the mix to create the best plan for the book, while retaining the marketing and publicity knowledge that an experienced team can bring to a campaign. What are some of the biggest changes, in the industry and in marketing, you’ve experienced during your career? What predications do you have for the future of marketing? I’m a publicist at heart and I think one of the biggest changes in the industry is the drastic reduction of review space for children’s books in the national press. It seems that everyone is keen to make sure that young people become readers but the space for people to find out about great new children’s books has shrunk consistently over the fifteen years I’ve worked in the industry.

Interview

This leads to another change and that is the way that young people are interacting with the world. Marketing campaigns need to be on top of the various ways that young people (and those who are buying books for them) are finding information. Social media has become hugely important whether it be speaking to parents via Twitter or Facebook, or talking directly to children on PopJam. It is heartening to see that children still love meeting authors and I think this has remained as important as ever. The difference in a child after meeting an author can be amazing. Getting authors out and about to schools and festivals is still incredibly important, particularly to areas that may not have the access to author visits. What role has social media and digital played in attracting more people to reading and to careers in publishing? (and why has it been so effective? How has the focus shifted towards the ‘audience’?) I think social media gives people a voice. Clever use of social media can mean your thoughts, opinions and reviews are read and absorbed by millions of people across the world. It also means that people can be in touch and create communities that they may not have had access to before. It’s always brilliant to see groups of people being passionate about the books they love and supporting each other through social and digital media. We, as publicists and marketeers, have the ability to talk directly to readers now. We can gain a better understanding of what people like or dislike about books and adapt campaigns accordingly. As for attracting more people to reading and careers in publishing, I would say that social media means that people have access to more information. It’s now possible to interact with a favourite author, get an insight to how a publisher works, or find out about books that may not be in the bestseller charts. I would suggest that this closeness to the industry, and the fact that publishing has understood that social and digital elements are essential to a book’s success, makes it more appealing as a career.

What would your advice be to someone interested in a career in marketing? (e.g. in terms of attending literary and publishing events, which are the qualities (skills/abilities) or studies (background/ education) that prepare one for this kind of job?) My advice would be to be passionate about the books you love. If you are a fan of children’s books then be sure to champion them in any way you can – the same if you are passionate about graphic novels, fantasy fiction or cookery books. It is that passion that will often be recognized in interviews and can lead to the start of a career. Attending literary and publishing events gives you an insight to the world and can always help. Internships at publishers means you spend time in an office. You may not get involved with key campaigns but being in a marketing department and listening to the activity around you is great for an understanding of the industry – and always ask questions! You don’t need to be a master at social media but having an understanding of the basics will always put you in good stead. Blogging, having an active Twitter account or using Instagram to show your love for books adds many strings to your bow. As for skills/abilities I would say that a good marketeer or publicist needs to be creative, have the ability to think laterally and quickly, and be able to deal with many different types of people. Having original ideas is great but being able to allow other people to deconstruct, change or reject those ideas with calmness and respect is even stronger.

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Summary

Key points Women buy more books than men (Nielsen’s 2015 UK books and consumers survey/2016 Book Reading survey), and the sales of books written by and for women has grown into a significant part of the overall publishing market. Smaller companies publishing for these readers have had to adopt innovative approaches in order to secure sales. ●

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Persephone is in a market niche where one publisher, Virago, has a commanding visibility and brand strength. In order to compete, Persephone has developed a strong distinctive image of its own, and has successfully used design and direct communication with customers to stress its distinctive identity. Marketing, sales and distribution remain firmly under Persephone’s direct control. The mail-order strategy is central to Persephone’s sales. A regular printed catalogue is distributed, there is a fortnightly newsletter and the company has subscribers who sign up to receive a new book every month for six or twelve months. The website acts as the hub for the Persephone audience and is geared to developing a real community of readers. Some booksellers do not consider that the tastefully understated Persephone cover designs are suitable for display and promotion through the trade, so the company has issued a small selection of Persephone Classics in illustrated covers for distribution through bookshops. This has been done carefully, making sure not to offend the core market’s passion for the classic Persephone design. Audiobooks (as both CD and MP3 download) are available through the Persephone website, and thirty e-books are available through different platforms, including some free titles. As with all its innovations, this is being implemented gradually and with constant review and evaluation.

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The Persephone shop is in the same building as the company’s office, and harks back to the days when all London publishers had a trade counter, to make sure books were available to customers at all times, even though (due to book trade conventions at the time) publishers did not then sell directly to the public. All of this shows how important it is for a publisher to keep a constant eye on quality, stay in close touch with readers, and retain control of the supply chain. As Nicola Beauman says: ‘The most important thing for us is resuscitating forgotten women writers and having a mail order niche has been a good way to do this.’

Activity Small publishers often have to be more creative about their marketing than their larger competitors. They must find a memorable way to communicate in the crowded marketplace, make the most of limited budgets and develop a brand in their niche market. Search online, on bookshop shelves or through your own book collection to identify some small publishers. Find out about their current marketing activities and consider the following questions. 1 What niche market does the publisher target with its promotion? 2 Does the publisher have a brand identity and how is this presented to potential readers and customers? 3 Does the company employ any innovative or special promotional techniques? 4 What is the company’s online marketing strategy? 5 How does the company make use of other media in its promotional activities?

Summary

Conclusion The second decade of the twenty-first century is an exciting time to develop a career in publishing. In this book, we have explored how publishing is adapting to the digital culture and the frenetic pace of change that has recently engulfed the industry. When choosing a career in publishing, it is important to develop professional skills and industry knowledge, and to retain a strong desire to learn about what is happening in the world of books. It is also vital to keep abreast of the industries with which publishing works, and to be aware of the technological developments that may have an impact in the near and mid-term. Developing your career will mean continuing to explore, to analyse and to learn. Important though technology is, people are at the core of publishing. Without the creative talents of authors, illustrators and designers, there will be no new, thought-provoking and innovative ideas expressed through words and images – the content of successful publishing. The agents and editors who provide the vision, support, sensitivity and attention to detail necessary to transform the creative content for the reader need a professionalism that is founded on a deep and sensitive knowledge of human nature. The same goes for all aspects of the publisher’s communication with readers, booksellers, reviewers and all the many parts of the network that needs to function efficiently for publishing to be successful. At the technical level of information processing, production and the logistics of storage and supply, personal relationships, clear and unambiguous communication, and a trustworthy business ethic are required. Production methods in publishing (as in any industry that converts raw materials into saleable goods) can have very negative environmental effects. Some publishers are now much more aware of their responsibility and are applying sustainability criteria when purchasing paper, printing, transportation and server farm facilities. High ethical standards are unlikely to be sustained in any enterprise without leadership from senior management, who take responsibility for a transparent and equitable financial regime. The roles and responsibilities of people in

publishing will adapt and change, but they will still be doing what humans can do best – exploring, adapting, interacting, cooperating and taking joint responsibility for their actions. The importance of publishing, whatever the medium or technology employed, remains rooted in the importance of communication in our personal, social, cultural and economic lives. The digital culture has given more people the opportunity to express themselves in public, to use social media and to contribute to an explosion of visual and textual material available on the internet. Where publishers make a difference is in the choices that they make about what to publish and promote, how they engender debate and analysis of important issues, and suggest structures in the way that knowledge and understanding are presented. With so many more words and images available to the reader and viewer, this publishing role becomes even more vital. However, if publishers are to undertake this role in the future, they must retain and constantly reinforce their commitment to another of the pillars of good publishing. They must check facts rigorously to ensure the accuracy of any information presented; monitor the use of language and design elements for clarity of expression and meaning; and focus on delivering a publication to readers that satisfies (and even raises) their expectations. Publishers are a vital part of society. They are often among the first to speak out for human rights and social justice, to insist that information is not suppressed and that a wide variety of opinion is heard. This responsibility is one that remains important in a world affected by political and social upheaval, climate change and ecological crisis. It is vital that publishers continue and enhance this role, while balancing the tension that sometimes exists between protecting human rights and preserving the right to freedom of expression. No one knows what publishing will be like by 2050, but it will still be there in some form. What it looks like and how it contributes to the human experience will largely depend on the people who are now just starting their careers in publishing.

‘Books will evolve online and off, and the definition of what counts as one will expand; the sense of the book as a fundamental channel of culture, flowing from past to future, will endure. People may no longer try to pass on wisdom to their sons and daughters through slave-written scrolls, as Cicero did in de Officiis, or even in print. It may even be that Voltaire was right, and that none of them will ever write anything more wise than what was set down 2,000 years ago. But it will not be for want effort, or of opportunity, or of an audience of future readers ready to seek out wisdom in the books that they leave behind.’ Essay: The Future of the Book, The Economist

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Glossary

Glossary of publishing terms AA: author’s alterations When an author checks proofs they may make alterations to the text. Publishers do not expect authors to make many changes at this stage in the production process, and if the author insists on making significant changes, the contract may lead to some of the cost of changes being charged to the author. Advertorial Published material that is paid for such as advertising, but which may appear to be unbiased editorial content. Agency model Under the agency model, e-book prices are set by publishers, with the e-booksellers acting as agents for the publishers. The e-bookseller typically takes 30 per cent commission on the sales price and passes the remaining 70 per cent to the publisher. Author royalties for e-book sales under the agency model are typically 25 per cent of the publisher’s NSR. App (application) Personal computers, tablets and other mobile devices use application software that enables them to be used as e-readers. The application (which may be proprietorial or open source) means that e-books can be downloaded and read. Applications such as Apple’s iBookstore also act as ‘bookshops’ that sell access to e-books. Back list The part of a publisher’s list (as opposed to the new or front-list titles) that is composed of previously published books, some of which may still be good sellers. BD (bandes dessinées) A type of comic-strip book originating in France and Belgium. The major annual event of BD is the Festival International de la Bande Dessinée d’Angoulême. Book block An unfinished stage of book making where the printed pages of the book have been folded, gathered and sewn-in before being bound. Book chain A way of envisioning a business model in which several distinct groups (such as writers, publishers, printers, booksellers, libraries and readers) work together as consecutive links of a chain to ensure that books get from author to editor to designer to production to sales, marketing and distribution. Bouquiniste Dating from the sixteenth century, the bouquinistes of Paris are booksellers of used and antiquarian books who have stalls along the banks of the River Seine. 218

Bulk The bulk of a paper stock is a relative measure of the thickness as related to the basic weight of a sheet. Lower bulk reduces opacity. Higher bulk increases the overall thickness of a book. See also: calliper.

Bundle A collection of digital, or print and digital, content that is sold outright or as a subscription at a total price for the package. Calliper The thickness of paper when measured with a micrometer. Calliper (US: caliper) is measured in micrometres (one-thousandth of a mm), or in the United States also in mils (one-thousandth of an inch). CC: Creative Commons This organization provides tools for creators of intellectual property to keep their copyright while allowing certain uses of their work. CC licences help creators to retain copyright while allowing others to copy, distribute and make some uses of their work – at least non-commercially. CIF: carriage, insurance and freight If sales are made CIF, then the purchaser pays for all shipping costs from the moment the shipment leaves the shipping point, which may be the printer or distributor’s warehouse. CIP: cataloguing in publication In most countries the national library, such as the British Library, Library of Congress or Bibliothèque Nationale, has the responsibility for cataloguing every new publication in that country, and publishers are required to submit information on new publications to the national library. This cataloguing information, known as cataloguing in publication, is issued prior to publication so that it can be included on the copyright page in the publication. Cloud Cloud computing refers to the storage of data and software in the internet cloud in server farms, rather than on the user’s own computer or on a specified, known or static server. Google, Amazon and other publishing-related companies have developed the idea of cloud computing to enable customers to keep their personal libraries of e-books in the cloud. They can then access every title from various devices at any time without the need to transfer data between them. CMYK: cyan, magenta, yellow, black These are the four process colours that are used to reproduce colour illustrations in colour printing. These colours are called subtractive colours and can be combined to make the primary colours, red, green and blue (also referred to as RGB). Black is referred to by the letter K as black is the ‘key’ to which the other colours are aligned (and it avoids confusion with blue). CTP: computer to plate A process whereby images (text and illustrations) are placed directly on the printing plate with no need for the intermediary process of making a photographic film. This process reduces costs and produces a sharper image.

Glossary

Digital native Someone who was born after the general spread of digital communications and information technology (such as personal computers and mobile phones) into everyday life. Digital natives have used such technology throughout their lives, and so find less difficulty in adapting to further rapid technological changes. DOI®: digital object identifier The DOI system is a way of identifying specific units of content and DOI names are assigned to any entity for use on digital networks. This name will not change even if the object to which it refers is moved to, say, another server or owner. DPI: dots per inch A measure used to indicate the resolution of a printed image, the quality for the reproduced image being higher the more dots per inch. The term DPI is still used by many printers, although the actual measurement in digital printing is usually in pixels per inch (PPI). DRM: digital rights management Any technology that publishers use to restrict the use of digital content to those who have purchased the right to use the content or have been authorized by the publisher in some other way. DRM is considered by some to be central to the continued protection of copyright materials and other IP in the digital world. DTP: desktop publishing The term desktop publishing was introduced in the late twentieth century when typesetting and design software such as QuarkXPress and InDesign became commonly used by publishers. Most publications are now produced using such software. E-book An increasingly popular format for publications in which they are produced as digital files that can be downloaded from the internet or stored in the cloud and be read on a variety of e-readers, tablets, mobile devices or personal computers. EFL: English as a foreign language EFL publishing is a major business for UK publishers, who sell and license EFL programmes in many countries of the world. ELT: English language teaching ELT is a term generally used interchangeably with EFL. EPS: encapsulated PostScript An electronic file format (an extension of Adobe® PostScript® 3™) used for storing graphics and for transmission of graphics files to the printer. EPS files can be made from TIFF or JPEG files and the advantage of EPS graphics is that they can be scaled to any size without loss of detail. EPUB EPUB3, released in September 2011, is the latest version of EPUB, the most common standard used when formatting e-books. EPUB3 increases the support for a wider range of publication requirements, including complex layouts, rich media, interactivity and global

typographic features. EPUB3 is used for a broad range of digital content, including books, magazines and educational, professional and scientific publications. E-publishing Digital publication is also known as e-publishing, particularly when used in reference to books and magazines published for distribution through commercial channels such as Kindle, Apple iBooks and Kobo. E-reader The devices used to read e-books and other digital publications. Some of these are dedicated e-readers such as the Kindle and the Nook, while other devices such as the iPad and personal computers can also be used as e-readers. E-reading Reading text (and images) on a computer, tablet, e-reader or other portable reading device. Extent The number of pages contained in a publication. Fair dealing/fair use The principle that a certain limited amount of copyright material can be reproduced in another publication without the need to obtain the copyright holder’s permission. Principles of fair use (US) and fair dealing (UK) differ from country to country. Folded and gathered: F&G During the production process, most books are printed on sheets containing sixteen or thirty-two pages. These sheets are then folded and gathered into F&G signatures or sections which will then be sewn or glued together to form the complete book block. FOB: free on board When a shipment is made FOB, the shipper pays for all shipping costs up to the point when it is loaded onto the ship or aeroplane, and more generally (particularly in the United States) determines any point where responsibility for the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer. FSC: Forest Stewardship Council The FSC certifies paper that has been sourced from well managed and sustainable forests. Many publishers now have a policy of using FSC certified paper whenever possible. Graphic novel Fictional stories published in comic-strip format. This is a popular format, with bestsellers like Art Spiegelman’s Maus: A Survivor’s Tale. Grid Designers use a grid in both physical and computer design to organize text and images. GSM: grams per square metre GSM (sometimes gm) is used as a measure of the weight (or substance) of paper. Most books are printed on papers between 75 gsm and 115 gsm. Halftone A reprographic technique that uses dots of various sizes to reproduce images. The term is also used for images produced by this process.

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Glossary

House style Publishers usually establish a house style for language use (such as spelling and punctuation) in order to ensure consistency, and for design (such as formats, page layouts) to support marketing and reinforce brand identity.

ISO: International Organization for Standardization The ISO (not IOS as the title of the organization would imply) is a non-governmental organization that develops and publishes international standards. Several of these standards are of particular relevance to publishers.

HTML: hypertext markup language HTML is the most common markup language used for web pages. It is written using tags like , or (always in angle brackets), within the web page content. You can look at the source code of most web pages by clicking on ‘view source code’.

ISSN: international standard serial number An eightdigit number that identifies a periodical publication in print or digital formats. A new standard, the ISSN-L, has been developed that will identify a group of the different media versions of a continuing resource, and there will now be only one ISSN-L regardless of how many different medium versions of a continuing resource exist.

HTML5 A development of the HTML markup language that has numerous new features designed to make it easy to include and handle multimedia and graphical content on the web. Imposition The arrangement of individual pages on the printing plate used to print the sheet, that is then folded and gathered to form a section or signature of a publication. The pages must be ‘imposed’ so that they appear in the correct order when the sheet is folded. There are a variety of different types of imposition patterns that can achieve this goal, depending on the way in which the sheet is folded. Imprint A list of books that form part of a publisher’s overall output, usually identified by a particular style and logo. Large publishing companies may publish under a wide variety of imprints. Indie publishing Very small publishers (often publishing their own work – self-publishers) now able to use the technology of short-run, print-on-demand (see POD) and e-book publishing to produce books independently from mainstream publishing. IP: intellectual property The concept of intellectual property lies at the basis of much commercial activity. Laws on intellectual property give owners of various intangible assets exclusive rights to exploit these assets. While IP covers a wide variety of property, including musical and artistic works, designs, trademarks and inventions (through patent law), in publishing it is enforced through copyright law. In the digital culture, principles of IP and copyright have come under question in recent years and piracy, file-sharing, and illegal digital copying have been seen as threats to authors and publishers. The development of Open Access (OA) and Creative Commons (CC) are ways in which the producers and users of intellectual property have sought to address some of these issues. IPR: intellectual property rights The rights covered by IP. 220

ISBN: international standard book number An ISBN is a unique number (formerly made up of ten digits and, since January 2007, 13 digits) that identifies a particular edition of a book.

Jobbers Another name for wholesale distributors more commonly used in the United States (particularly ‘library jobbers’). JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group A digital file format for images with complex pixel gradations. When JPEGs are compressed they lose some of the image quality so are not always suitable for use in publications. lc: lower case A standard abbreviation for lower case (small as opposed to capital letters) used in copy-editing and proofreading. Loss leaders A kind of sales promotion when a book is sold at a low price (often at or below cost) to encourage other more profitable sales. Both physical and online booksellers use loss-leader promotions to stimulate sales. Manga A type of comic that originated in Japan (representing about 40 per cent of the total book market), and now read and published around the world. Manga are read by people of all ages. Some contain violent and sexually explicit stories and images. They are often adapted to animated films and games, and are now available in e-book formats. Mash-up A work created by combining extracts from other works. Some authors have maintained that the mash-up provides an authentic transformation of the original content, and is therefore not an infringement of copyright. Metadata An extension of the sort of information about publications that can be found in a library catalogue (for example, ISBN). Metadata now includes a wide variety of information that identifies and describes a given publication. Digital technology both enables more metadata to be collected and disseminated, and it is seen as increasingly important in enabling potential readers of both p-books and e-books to discover and obtain publications. Metrics Quantitative data that is organized in a structured way and used to measure and compare market performance of different products, services and companies. .mobi file A domain name suffix used when mobile devices access the World Wide Web, including access to e-books.

Glossary

Mobile app An application that makes files that are readable on a mobile device. m-book An e-book that is formatted for reading on a smartphone or mobile device. manuscript (ms) Originally the handwritten text produced by the author, the term continued to be used for works in typescript, and is still used even when texts are submitted to publishers in electronic form, whether on a CD or USB stick, or via email. Net Book Agreement (NBA) From 1900 until its abolition in 1997, the Net Book Agreement in the UK and Ireland required booksellers to sell at a fixed retail price established by the publisher. Once the NBA was abolished, booksellers were able to compete on price and major bookshop chains, supermarkets and online booksellers were gradually able to command a greater share of the book market, and many independent booksellers went out of business. Nielsen BookData This information service provides publishing data services in more than 100 countries worldwide. Nielsen BookScan Collects retail sales information from point-of-sale systems in more than 35,500 bookshops around the world and uses this to provide market information to all parts of the book world. NSR: net sales revenue (or receipts) This is the money received by the publisher after any discounts or commissions have been given to customers. Royalties to authors are now usually paid on a percentage basis of the publisher’s NSR, rather than on the list price of the book. OA: open access Open access is unrestricted online access to articles in journals, book chapters or other e-publications. OCR: optical character recognition The method of scanning physical images of text to produce machineencoded text. It is widely used to convert books and documents into electronic files. Opacity The quality of paper that determines showthrough. High opacity is needed to prevent show-through of images and solid print areas on the opposite side of the sheet. Out of print (OP) When a publisher runs out of stock and decides not to reprint a book, it is declared out of print. Now that single copies of books can be printed using POD and many titles are available as e-books, far fewer books go OP than was the case in the past. Part-work A publication on a particular subject, which is produced in regular instalments and is collectible. It does not normally carry advertising. It is sold mainly through subscription.

P-book: printed or physical book This term is used to distinguish physical or printed books from the digital e-book. PDF: portable data format A file format used during the production process. Printers can use PDF files to process all the components of the book, including text and graphics, and produce a printing plate directly from the PDF file. PE: printer’s error When marking up proofs of a new book, it is important to distinguish those errors that have been introduced during the production process. By marking a correction with ‘PE’ the proofreader is indicating that the error should be corrected at the printer’s expense. Pica A unit traditionally used to measure type size, equivalent in size to the body of a 12-point em or 4.23 mm (approximately? of an inch). In order for pages of type to be readable, typesetters formerly agreed that a line of 12-point type should be between 17 and 33 pica in width, with similar limits suggested for smaller and larger type sizes. Piracy In publishing this is the unauthorized reproduction of copyright works. Plagiarism When an author deliberately copies someone else’s work, using the same words and phrases, the work is said to be plagiarized. If such work is published, both the author and publisher may be liable to pay damages that result from the plagiarism. PLR: public lending right PLR provides payment to authors in respect of loans of their books made through libraries, and it has been particularly successful in providing middle-ranking authors with additional income. Starting in Denmark in 1946, PLR had spread to twentynine countries by 2011. Following UK legislation in 1979, the first payments were made in 1984. The income authors receive from PLR is under threat from governments seeking to reduce expenditure and from the increased use of e-books. POD: print (or publication) on demand Using digital files to make single copies of books to be produced in response to individual orders. POS: point of sale Materials are used in bookshops and other retail environments to attract customers to new books, special offers or other promotional offers. POS materials include posters, display units and counter packs. Product life cycle (PLC) A marketing concept used to analyse the stages a new book goes through (launch, growth, maturity, saturation and decline). These stages are different for various types of book. Promotion Publishers and booksellers actively promote sales of books through paid print, TV and radio advertisements, catalogues and flyers, direct mail, posters,

221

Glossary

web advertising and a wide variety of other methods. In general, promotion entails an expense and is done according to an agreed budget, often in collaboration with other parts of the supply chain.

search engines. SEO seeks to increase the number of visitors to a website by such means as increasing hyperlinks, and adding key words. SEO is evaluated by monitoring the number and type of visitors to a website.

PSD: Photoshop document Photoshop remains the dominant software that publishers use to create layered images. Basic Photoshop documents are saved with the suffix. psd.

Serif A small, decorative, line added to the vertical and horizontal strokes of some letters. An example of a serif font is Times New Roman.

Publicity Publishers work with a wide variety of other companies to ensure that new books, authors, media tie-ins, TV and movies adaptations get publicity through other media channels. Publicity in the media or through personal appearances is important in creating a buzz around the new publication, and in building brand awareness, viral marketing and word-of-mouth recommendations. It also reinforces cult authors and the celebrity status of media personalities. Publisher’s list The list of books in a publisher’s catalogue or seasonal offering that reflects the acquisition and commissioning policy of the firm and the market it is addressing with its publications. Revenue The income (receipts) that a business receives from its business activities. If a publishing company is to survive, its revenue must be sufficient to cover its costs. RGB: red, green, blue The primary colours; see CMYK. Rights In publishing, rights refer to the ownership of, or permission to use a work for a specific purpose. The central right to publish a book (volume rights) is at the core of the author–publisher contract and there are numerous subsidiary rights such as translation rights. RSS: Really Simple Syndication A way to publish frequently updated works, such as blog posts, or news, in a standardized format, which means that publishers can syndicate content automatically. Running head The text that appears at the top of the page of a printed book, used as an aid to navigating the printed work. Samizdat A type of clandestine self-publishing that originated in the Soviet Union in the twentieth century, now sometimes used to describe other sorts of dissident publishing. Sans serif A word that describes typefaces (like Univers and Ariel) in which the letters do not have ‘ornaments’. San serif typefaces are commonly used for texts intended to be read on screen. 222

Self-publishing When an author or organization publishes without a publisher. SEO: search engine optimization The practice of improving the ranking position of a website on internet

SGML: standard generalized markup language SGML began in 1986 to provide a standard language in which documents could be shared between systems. It developed and formed the basis of HTML and XML. Signature A sheet of paper printed with four (or a multiple of four) pages, folded to form a section of a book. Most books are made up of a number of signatures that are folded and gathered to form what is known as a book block, which is then glued or sewn together, bound and trimmed to form the finished book. Stet Latin for ‘let it stand’, indicating that something that has been marked for correction should remain as it is. The action to remain unchanged is indicated by a row of dashes under the text. Sticky content Components of a website intended to motivate a user to return to that particular website or to spend longer periods of time on it. Can include features such as chat rooms, surveys and games. STEM Science, technology, engineering and mathematics. A publishing grouping similar to STM. STM: scientific, technical, medical Scientific, technical and medical publishing encompasses a wide variety of books, journals and digital publications. STM publishing is one of the largest and most profitable sectors of publishing, and it operates on a global level with a small number of large companies dominating the market. Territorial restrictions Conditions imposed on publishers and/or booksellers that restrict the sale of a book in specified geographical markets. For example, a UK edition of a book may not be sold in the US and a US edition may not be sold in the UK market. Tertiary The third level of education that takes place in universities and colleges (after primary/elementary, secondary/high school levels of education). TIFF: tagged image file format A flexible way of storing halftone and colour bitmap images that gives better quality than a JPEG file. Transmedia The term used to describe e-publications that use a wide variety of media (video, audio). Typo A typographical error or misspelling. It is the job of the editor or proofreader to spot and correct typos before the publication goes into production.

Bibliography and resources

uc: upper case A standard abbreviation for upper case (capital letters) used in copy-editing and proofreading. User experience (UX) The UX looks at positive or negative aspects of the way a user experiences a website. The quality of the UX will determine the user’s attitude to the content, whether they will buy or recommend what is on offer, and determine whether the user will return to the website. USP: unique selling proposition When you are marketing any publication, you need to be clear what it is that makes it particularly useful and desirable to your target audience. Identifying the USP and communicating this to the people you think should be your customers is an essential component of marketing and promotion. Vertical integration When a company owns or controls different functions or processes in the entire publishing, printing and bookselling chain, such as a publisher owning a printer and/or bookseller, or an online retailer manufacturing and selling a device on which publishers’ e-books can be read.

Women in Publishing (WIP) An association of women working in publishing in the UK. While a majority of the people working in publishing are women, there are far fewer women in senior management positions (in spite of a small number of female CEOs). There are similar organizations in several other countries. Work in progress (WIP) A piece of work that is not yet finished. Most writers have at least one project like this, and some remain ‘works in progress’ for a long time, which can be very frustrating for their editors. XHTML: Extensible Hypertext Markup Language It is a part of the XML markup languages that are extensions and versions of the widely used Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), which is used to write web pages. XML: Extensible Markup Language XML established a way of encoding documents in machine-readable form that is now at the basis of much of the software used by publishers in preparing text for publication.

Bibliography and resources Books about publishing Ambrose, G. and Harris, P. (2010), The Visual Dictionary of Pre-Press & Production, Lausanne: AVA. Anderson, C. (2006), The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling Less of More, New York: Random House. Athill, D. (2002), Stet: An Editor’s Life, New York: Grove/ Atlantic. Baines, P. (2005), Penguin by Design: A Cover Story 1935–2005, London: Allen Lane. Bann, D. (2011), The All New Print Production Handbook, Hove: RotoVision. Baverstock, A. (2011), The Naked Author: A Guide to Self-Publishing, London: Bloomsbury. Baverstock, A. (2015), How to Market Books, 5th edn, London: Routledge. Baverstock, A., Carey, S. and Bowen, S. (2008), How to Get a Job in Publishing: A Really Practical Guide to Careers in Books and Magazines, London: A & C Black. Bhaskar, M. (2013), The Content Machine: Towards a Theory of Publishing from the Printing Press to the Digital Network, London: Anthem. Bhaskar, M. (2016), Curation: The Power of Selection in a World of Excess, London: Piatkus. Blake, C. (1999), From Pitch to Publication: Everything You Need to Know to Get Your Novel Published, London: Macmillan.

Bullock, A. (2012), Book Production: A Manual of Project and Production Management in Book Publishing, Abingdon: Routledge. Butcher, J., Drake, C. and Leach, M. (2006), Butcher’s Copy-editing: The Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Copyeditors and Proofreaders, 4th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Campbell, R., Pentz, E. and Borthwick, I. (2012), Academic and Professional Publishing, London: Chandos. Clark, G. and Phillips, A. (2014), Inside Book Publishing, 5th edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Darnton, R. (2010), The Case for Books: Past, Present, and Future, New York: PublicAffairs. Davies, G. (2004), Book Commissioning and Acquisition, 2nd edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Davies, G. and Balkwill, R (2011), The Professionals’ Guide to Publishing, London: Kogan Page. Doctorow, C. (2015), Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free: Laws for the Internet Age, San Francisco: McSweeney’s. Driscoll, B. (2014), The New Literary Middlebrow: Tastemakers and Reading in the Twenty-First Century, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Emerson, L. (2014), Reading Writing Interfaces: From the Digital to the Bookbound, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. English, J.F. (2008), The Economy of Prestige: Prizes, Awards, and the Circulation of Cultural Value, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Feather, J. (2006), A History of British Publishing, 2nd edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Finkelstein, D. and McCleery, A. (2002), The Book History Reader, London: Routledge. Finkelstein, D. and McCleery, A. (2013), An Introduction to Book History, 2nd edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Garfield, S. (2010), Just My Type: A Book About Fonts, London: Profile. Greco, A.N, Milliot, J. and Wharton, R.M. (2013), The Book Publishing Industry, 3rd edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Greenberg, S.L. (2015), Editors Talk About Editing: Insights for Readers, Writers and Publishers, New York: Peter Lang. Gross, G. (1993), Editors on Editing: What Writers Need to Know About What Editors Do, New York: Grove. Gunelius, S. (2008), Harry Potter: The Story of a Global Business Phenomenon, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Hall, F. (2013), The Business of Digital Publishing: An Introduction to the Digital Book and Journal Industries, Abingdon: Routledge. Hand, D. and Middleditch, S. (2013), Design for Media: A Handbook for Students and Professionals in Journalism. PR and Advertising, Abingdon: Routledge. Hitchcock, F.H. (2009), The Building of a Book, [Charleston, SC:] BiblioBazaar. Jones, H. and Benson, C. (2016), Publishing Law, 5th edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Kirschenbaum, M.G. (2016), Track Changes: A Literary History of Word Processing, Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Lanier, J (2010), You Are Not a Gadget: A Manifesto, London: Allen Lane. Laquintano, T. (2016), Mass Authorship and the Rise of Self-Publishing, Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Lessig, L. (2009), Remix: Making Art and Commerce Thrive in the Hybrid Economy, London: Bloomsbury Academic. Levine, M. (2014), The Fine Print of Self-Publishing, 5th edn, Minneapolis, MN: Bascom Hill. Levine, R. (2011), Free Ride: How the Internet Is Destroying the Culture Business and How the Culture Business Can Fight Back, London: Bodley Head. Lyons, R.E. and Rayner, S.J. (2016), The Academic Book of the Future, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Manguel, A. (1996), A History of Reading, London: HarperCollins. Manguel, A. (2008), The City of Words, New York: Continuum. Martens, M. (2016), Publishers, Readers, and Digital Engagement (New Directions in Book History), Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Miller, L.J. (2006), Reluctant Capitalists: Bookselling and the Culture of Consumption, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mitchell, M. and Wightman, S. (2005), Book Typography: A Designer’s Manual, Marlborough: Libanus Press. Morris, S., Barnas, E., LaFrenier, D. and Reich, M. (2013), The Handbook of Journal Publishing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Murray, S. (2012), The Adaptation Industry: The Cultural Economy of Contemporary Literary Adaptation, Abingdon: Routledge. Owen, L. (2015), Selling Rights, 7th edn, Abingdon: Routledge. Owen, L. (2017), Clark’s Publishing Agreements: A Book of Precedents, 10th edn, London: Bloomsbury Professional. Phillips, A. (2014), Turning the Page: The Evolution of the Book, Abingdon: Routledge. Powers, A. (2001), Front Cover: Great Book Jackets and Cover Design, London: Mitchell Beazley. Richardson, P. and Taylor, G. (2016), A Guide to the UK Publishing Industry, London: The Publishers Association. Rose, M. (1995), Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Rubery, M. (2016), The Untold Story of the Talking Book, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Saller, C.F. (2016), The Subversive Copy Editor, 2nd edn, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Stam, D. and Scott, A. (2014), Inside Magazine Publishing, Abingdon: Routledge. Taylor, D.J. (2016), The Prose Factory: Literary Life in England Since 1918, London: Vintage. Thompson, J.B. (2005), Books in the Digital Age, Cambridge: Polity. Thompson, J.B. (2010), Merchants of Culture, Cambridge: Polity. University of Chicago Press (2017), The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors and Publishers, 17th edn, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Waddingham, A. (ed.) (2014), New Hart’s Rules: The Oxford Style Guide, 2nd edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wischenbart, R. (2017), Global eBook Update 2017: A Report on Market Trends and Developments, Vienna: Rüdiger Wischenbart Content and Consulting. Woll, T. (2014), Publishing for Profit: Successful BottomLine Management for Book Publishers, 5th edn, Chicago: Chicago Review Press. World Intellectual Property Organization (2008), Managing Intellectual Property in the Book Publishing Industry, Geneva: WIPO. Zeegan, L. (2015), Ladybird by Design, London: Ladybird.

Bibliography and resources

SHARP – The Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing – is a global network for book historians working in a broad range of scholarly disciplines. SHARP has more than 1,000 members in over 20 countries. Members conduct research on the composition, mediation, reception, survival, and transformation of written communication in material forms including marks on stone, script on parchment, printed books and periodicals, and new media. www.sharpweb.org

United Kingdom: The Bookseller www.thebookseller.com

Book trade journals

Internet newsletters

Australia: Books+Publishing www.booksandpublishing.com.au Canada: Quill and Quire www.quillandquire.com

There are many book blogs and publishing websites that send out regular posts to subscribers. It can be easy to be overwhelmed. Here are some newsletters that you may like to subscribe to.

China: China Book International www.chinabookinternational.org/en/

Mediabistro www.mediabistro.com

Denmark: BogMarkedet www.bogmarkedet.dk

Publishing Perspectives http://publishingperspectives.com

France: Livres Hébdo www.livreshebdo.fr

The Shatzkin Files www.idealog.com

Germany: Buchreport www.buchreport.de India: Association of Publishers in India www.publishers.org.in Italy: Giornale della Librería www.giornaledellalibreria.it/ Netherlands: Boekblad www.boekblad.nl Norway: BOK365 (formerly Bok & Samfunn) https://bok365.no South Africa: Books Live www.bookslive.co.za Spain: Delibros www.revistadelibros.com

United Kingdom: Printing News www.printingnews.com/ United States: Publishers Weekly www.publishersweekly.com United States: American Printer http://americanprinter.com

Some major prizes The Man Booker Prize www.themanbookerprize.com Le Prix Goncourt www.academie-goncourt.fr International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award www.impacdublinaward.ie The Pulitzer Prize www.pulitzer.org Governor General’s Literary Awards http://ggbooks.ca/

Sweden: Svensk Bokhandel www.svb.se

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Bibliography and resources

Online resources Thousands of publishers, publishers’ associations and other organizations provide information on the internet. Here are just a few.

United States of America: National Association of College Stores www.nacs.org

National organizations

International organizations

There are national publishing organizations in most countries, most of which can be found through the IPA. Here are a few of the biggest. (You should note that some information on the websites is password protected and only available to members of the association.)

Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) www.alpsp.org

Argentina: Cámara Argentina del Libro www.editores.org.ar

Creative Commons http://creativecommons.org

Australia: Australian Publishers Association www.publishers.asn.au

DOI (Digital Object Identifier) www.doi.org

Brazil: Câmara Brasileira do Livro www.cbl.org.br

International Association of Scientific, Technical & Medical Publishers www.stm-assoc.org

China: General Administration of Press and Publication www.gapp.gov.cn France: Syndicat national de l’édition www.sne.fr Germany: Börsenverein des Deutschen Buchhandels www.boersenverein.de

International Publishers Association www.internationalpublishers.org International ISBN Agency (International Standard Book Number) www.isbn-international.org

India: Association of Publishers in India www.publishers.org.in

ISSN International Centre (International Standard Serial Number) www.issn.org

New Zealand: Publishers Association of New Zealand www.publishers.org.nz/

Nielsen SAN Agency (Standard Address Number) www.san.nielsenbook.co.uk

United Kingdom: The Publishers Association www.publishers.org.uk

PEN International www.internationalpen.org.uk

United Kingdom: Independent Publishers Guild www.ipg.uk.com

World Intellectual Property Organization www.wipo.int

United Kingdom: The Society of Authors www.societyofauthors.org

The International Publishers Association (IPA) maintains a website that provides many useful links to international information on publishing.

United States of America: Association of American Publishers www.publishers.org

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Berne Convention Website www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne

Bibliography and resources

Regional organizations Africa: African Publishers Network (APNET) www.african-publishers.net Caribbean and Latin America: Centro Regional para el Fomento del Libro en América Latina y el Caribe (CERLALC) www.cerlalc.org

Copy-editing, proofreading and indexing Australia: The Institute of Professional Editors Limited http://iped-editors.org Australia and New Zealand: Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers www.anzsi.org

South East Asia: ASEAN Book Publishers Association (ABPA) https://sites.google.com/site/ aseanbookpublishersassociation/

Canada: Editors Canada www.editors.ca

Sources of industry data

Ireland: Association of Freelance Editors, Proofreaders and Indexers of Ireland www.afepi.ie

American Booksellers Alliance IndieBound www.bookweb.org/indiebound American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression http://www.bookweb.org/abfe American Library Association www.ala.org Audio Publishers Association www.audiopub.org Book Industry Study Group http://bisg.org/ Department for Education School Curriculum (UK) www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-curriculum Digital Book World www.digitalbookworld.com

Canada: Indexers Canada http://indexers.ca

Northern Ireland: Editors’ and Proofreaders’ Alliance of Northern Ireland www.epani.org.uk UK: Society for Editors and Proofreaders (SfEP) www.sfep.org The SfEP also produces a range of guides on editing fiction, developing a house style and other topics www.sfep.org.uk/resources/guides UK: Society of Indexers www.indexers.org.uk United States: ACES, the Society for Editing https://aceseditors.org United States: American Society for Indexing www.asindexing.org

International Digital Publishing Forum http://idpf.org Nielsen BookData www.nielsenbookdata.co.uk

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Bibliography and resources

Useful websites AARP Magazine www.aarp.org/magazine Amazon www.amazon.com and www.amazon.co.uk BBC/Horrible Histories www.bbc.co.uk/cbbc/shows/horrible-histories British Library www.bl.uk California Digital Library www.cdlib.org Cambridge Core www.cambridge.org/core Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org EBSCO www.ebsco.com Elle TV www.elleuk.com/elleTV e-scholarship programme at UC www.escholarship.org Faber & Faber Independent Alliance https://www.faber.co.uk/independent-alliance The Feminist Press www.feministpress.org For Dummies www.dummies.com Fortune Magazine www.fortune.magazine.co.uk Grove Music Online www.oxfordmusiconline.com Grove Art Online www.oxfordartonline.com The Guardian www.guardian.co.uk

228

Horrible Histories www.horrible-histories.co.uk Huffington Post www.huffingtonpost.com The Independent www.independent.co.uk MIT Open Courseware http://ocw.mit.edu/courses The MIT Press http://mitpress.mit.edu Oxford Dictionary of National Biography www.oxforddnb.com Oxford English Dictionary www.oed.com Oxford University Press http://global.oup.com Persephone Books www.persephonebooks.co.uk Project Gutenberg www.gutenberg.org Saga Magazine http://www.saga.co.uk/magazine TED www.ted.com UC Publishing Services www.ucpress.edu/partners.php University of California Press www.ucpress.edu University Press Scholarship Online www.universitypressscholarship.com Virago Books www.viragobooks.net The Waste Land http://thewasteland.touchpress.com The Women’s Press www.the-womens-press.com

Bibliography and resources

The publishing year: book fairs and other major publishing events During the year there are many established events in the publishing calendar. Some of these have grown from book-publishing events to encompass all aspects of digital publishing. In addition to these publishing events, there are many conventions, conferences and seminars that attract librarians, booksellers, publishing software designers, printers, designers and just about everyone who is involved with the publishing business.

Here are just some of the important events that an agent, publisher or firm involved in book distribution might attend in a given year. In spite of all the possibilities for electronic communication (phone, email, instant messaging, conference calls, and video messaging, Skyping, podcasting and live streaming), publishers still like to meet up to discuss business with their colleagues face-to-face.

Month

Event

January

Digital Book World (New York, USA) www.digitalbookworld.com Festival Internationale de la Bande Dessinée (Angoulême, France) www.bdangouleme.com

February

International Kolkata Book Fair (Kolkata, India) www.kolkatabookfair.net

March

Abu Dhabi International Book Fair (Abu Dhabi) www.adbookfair.com Salon du livre (Paris, France) www.salondulivreparis.com Bologna Children’s Book Fair (Bologna, Italy) www.bookfair.bolognafi ere.it

April

The London Book Fair (London, UK) www.londonbookfair.co.uk

June

BookExpo America (New York, USA) www.bookexpoamerica.com Special Library Association Annual Conference (various cities, USA) www.sla.org American Library Association Annual Conference (various cities, USA) www.alaannual.org

July

Tokyo International Book Fair (Tokyo, Japan) www.bookfair.jp Hong Kong Book Fair (Hong Kong, China) www.hkbookfair.com

August

Beijing International Book Fair (Beijing, China) www.bibf.net

September

Göteborg International Book Fair (Göteborg, Sweden) www.bok-bibliotek.se

October

Frankfurt Book Fair (Frankfurt, Germany) www.frankfurt-book-fair.com

November

Guadalajara International Book Fair (Guadalajara, Mexico) www.fi l.com.mx

229

Index

Index

230

AARP Magazine 64 Abrams, Dennis 132 academic monographs 56 academic publishing 8, 55–6 Academic Representatives 10 Academy Awards 182 acquisition 107 Acquisitions Editors 9, 113 activity books 166 Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi 157 Adobe InDesign® 129, 130, 132 advance information (AI) sheets 202 advertising 64, 66, 202 advertorial 88, 218 After 90, 91 age-banding, children’s literature 52 agency model 41, 44, 60, 218 agents. See literary agents airport bookshops 23 Akbar, Arifa 131 Albert Bonniers Förlag 157 Alderman, Naomi 76 Allen & Unwin 52 Amazon 9, 21, 24, 41, 70–1, 152, 158, 196 Amazon Echo 71 American Booksellers Association 24 American Libraries Association 19, 20 Anderson, Chris 199 Anderson, Kent 200 Angus and Robertson of Sydney 22 Apple 61, 154, 158 Apple iPad 60, 89, 165 apps (applications) 28, 52, 152, 165, 166, 218, 221 Arabic language, and typesetting 17 Association of American Publishers 155 Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) 56 ‘AstroTurf’ marketing 201 attribution, right of 32 Atwood, Margaret 49, 76 audiences (see also readers) awareness of 33 for various publications 47–58 younger audiences (YA) 203 audio promotions 202 Audio Publishers Association 51 audiobooks 51, 179, 216 augmented reality (AR) colouring book apps 166 authenticity, new views of 76 Author Earnings 9 authors author appearances 203–4

author–publisher contracts 9, 32, 68, 81, 113–14, 160, 161, 165, 178, 179 author’s alterations (AA) 218 authorship 76, 77 branding of 32, 37–8, 49, 82, 204 celebrity 82 female 29 finding them 122 identity of 82, 86 income-generating activities of 82 income of 173 (see also royalty payments) international author brands 37–8 and marketing 82, 205 meeting young readers 215 mentoring of 82 new career paths for 98 relationship with publishers/agents 79–80, 174 relationships with editors and agents 77 relationships with readers 82 reputation of 32 respect for the 32 rights of 75–8 (see also rights) royalty payments 41, 71, 78, 80, 91, 92, 113, 165 self-promotion by 205 suppression of 18–19 Axolotl Roadkill 76 backlist titles 25, 158, 218 balance sheets 26 BAME in Publishing 31 Banned Books Week 19 banned or challenged books 18, 19, 20 Barnes & Noble, New York 22 Baron et al. 55 Bartholomew, Jason 190–2 Bate, Jonathan 13 BD (bandes dessinées ) 52, 218 Beauman, Nicola 212, 216 Bell, Alex 146–7 Berne Convention 32, 78, 173 Bertelsmann 40, 42, 44 Bertelsmann, Carl 40 bestseller lists 211 bestsellers how to make a 84 New York Times bestseller list 48, 97 Bhaskar, Michael 207 Bible paper 134 bindings 134

blogs blog-book deals 108 blogging services and selfpublishing 9 industry-specific 66 reviews on 201 Bloomsbury Publishing 33, 48, 49, 158, 179, 203, 214–15 Blyton, Enid 52, 189 Bologna Book Fair 182 book blocks 137, 218 book burnings, Nazi 19 book-buying options 23–5 book chains 23, 24, 28–9, 30, 74, 218 book-clubs 88, 179, 192 book contracts. See contracts book fairs Bologna Book Fair 182 Frankfurt Book Fair 94–5, 101, 181, 191 Guadalajara International Book Fair 204 Kolkata Book Fair 204 London Book Fair 35, 181, 191 and marketing 204 rights-focused 181 book formats 131, 151–9 Book Industry Study Group 206 book market. See markets ‘book of the fair’ 191, 192 book output, for a variety of markets 47 book proposals 75 book-supply network 200 (see also supply chains) book-to-film adaptation. See film adaptations book trade 16 BookExpo 204 books (see also e-books; p-books) changes in buying patterns 21 (see also sales) length of 157 portability of 137 Books for the Forces programme (U.K.) 23 Bookseller, The 31, 45, 72, 156, 186 booksellers/bookselling airport bookshops 23 Amazon’s bookshops 70 bookshop chains 197 bookshops 197 bookstores as destination shops 21 bouquinistes 22 bouquinistes 218 e-booksellers 41, 61

Index

early 22–3 independent 24–5, 68, 197 online 24 station book kiosks 22–3 of supermarkets 23–4, 199 traditional bookshops 24 BookTubers 203 Borders 23, 24 bouquinistes 22, 218 Boy in the Dress, The 52 Bradbury, Malcolm 77 branding of authors 32, 37–8, 49, 82, 204 brand identity of lists 103 character branding 37–9, 184, 193 and children’s publishing 50 and covers of books 49, 108, 125 creating a brand for a series 108 and design 127, 128 Dr Who brand 157 For Dummies® brand 120–1, 125 Guinness World Records brand 58 Harry Potter series 50, 188 Horrible Histories 144, 148 international author brands 37–8 marketing brands 205 publisher 205 Roald Dahl brand 187 role of Marketing Director 10 travel reference brands 58 Virago 29 Breedt, Andre 62 British Food Journal 57 budget management 208 bulk 22, 134 bundles 56, 111, 218 Business Development Manager, role of 43, 72 buyers, channels to 89–92 (see also audiences; readers) C. Bertelsmann Verlag 40 Cader, Michael 150 calliper 134, 218 Cambridge Core 168 Cambridge University Press (CUP) 8, 54, 168 Candlewick Press 52 Canterbury Tales 16, 17 careers in academic and STM publishing 57 Business Development Manager 43, 72 Commissioning Editor 9, 81, 113, 122–4 Development Director 170

graduate schemes 72 Head of Children’s Marketing and Publicity 214–15 internships 31, 72, 215 literary agents 99–100 (see also literary agents) in marketing 215 new career paths for writers 98 Production Programme Manager 146–7 in publishing 31–3, 72, 217 Rights Director 190–2 skills needed by publishing professionals 43 who does what in publishing? 8–11 working in educational publishing 54 working in EFL publishing 55 working in trade and children’s publishing 53 Carte et le Territoire, La 76 cashflow statements 26 cataloguing 206 Catholic Church, prohibited publications 18 Caxton, William 16, 17 celebrity authors 82 censorship 18, 19, 161 change(s) in competitive environment 44 cultural, political, religious and social 16 in publishing 43, 147 character branding 37–9, 184, 193 chatbots 98 Chaucer, Geoffrey 16 Chief Executive Officer (CEO) 9 Child, Julia 156 Children’s Book Fair, Bologna 182 children’s books/literature 165 age-banding 52 banning of 19 character branding 37, 39 children and e-books 164–5 reviews of 214 rights potential of 186–9 children’s publishing 50–2, 53, 79 Chinese language, and typesetting 17 Chorion 189 Christmas gift books 106, 108 church, and control 18 CIF: carriage, insurance and freight 218 CIP: cataloguing in publication 218 City of Words, The 110 Clark’s Publishing Agreements 113 cloud-based streaming services 89 cloud computing 160, 218

cloud storage 61 CMYK: cyan, magenta, yellow, black 218 co-editions 175, 178, 179 Codex 37 Collabra 169 collectible books 198 College Representatives 10 college textbooks 55 Colouring Adventures app 152 comic books 52, 166 commissioning 107–12 Commissioning Editors 9, 81, 113, 122–4 communication communicating with an audience 77 communication channels and supply channels 89 communications technology 19 for print and e-publications 164–6 publishing communications networks 84–8 and rights 75 through promotion and publicity 201–7 communities, social media/specialist 204–5 competition, and the publishing industry 43 competition law 36 competitive environment, changes in 44 consecutive publishing model 61 Constitution of the United States 18 consultancies, literary 81 consumers consumer behaviour 141 consumer insight 43 consumer loyalty 205 consumer magazines 64 consumer publishing 8 and marketing 199 content, as a bundle of rights 75 content management 75 contracts in the digital world 160 and editorial processes 113–14 publisher–author contract 9, 32, 68, 81, 113–14, 160, 161, 165, 178, 179 control, history of 18–20 controlled circulation 66 controversy, and publicity 86 cookery books 156 copy editing 117, 140 Copy Editors 9 copyright and the Berne Convention 173 and contract 32

231

Index

copyright infringement 184 copyright notice 160 in the digital marketplace 163 laws 32, 36, 76, 78 and moral rights 32 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (U.K.) 32 corporations, major publishing 34 (see also global publishing companies; multinational companies) costs controlling 142–3 general and specific 208 covers of books and branding 49, 108, 125 design decisions 134, 136 e-books 62 Groovy Greeks 145 Harry Potter series 48 and marketing 49, 50, 201, 202 Paper Towns 50 Persephone covers 212 revamping 193 and TV tie-ins 177 Virago 213 CrashCourse 203 Creative Commons (CC) licences 76, 218, 220 creative writing courses 77 creators (see also authors) respect for the 32 rights of 75–8 crime fiction 108 cross-media promotion 88 crowdfunding 8, 9, 76, 110 CTP: computer to plate 218 Cuckoo’s Calling, The 37, 140 cultural value, and literary prizes 86 culture cultural change 16 digital 76, 161 literary 21 and regional publishing 37 written 22 Cumberbatch, Benedict 51 Curious George 39 customer loyalty 193 Customer Services Managers 11 customers, and production technology developments 167 customization, of textbooks 55, 155 232

Dahl, Roald 187–8 data sources, and monitoring performance 209

Daunt Books 198 Daunt, James 198 De Montfort University 76 Deary, Terry 144 decision-making decision matrix 104, 105 design. See design decisions and financial analysis 26 what to publish 123 Deliciously Ella 108–9 design and production departments 10, 118 design briefs 128 design decisions bindings and covers 134–6 and branding/market access 127, 128 illustrations 132, 134 key design elements 129 key points 148 page design 132 paper 134 printing 137 typography 132, 133 Designers 10 destination shops, bookstores as 21 Development Directors 170 Development Editors 9, 115 Deyes, Alfie 203 Dibdin, Michael 108 diffintermediation 200 digital age, and copy editing/ proofreading 140 digital assets, management of 162 digital backlist programmes 158 digital culture international implications of 161 and piracy 78 digital distribution 10 digital files 10, 117, 127 digital formats, and anonymity 154 digital libraries 152 digital marketing 205 digital markets 174 digital natives 52, 85, 134, 219 digital newspapers 66 Digital Object Identifier (DOI®) system 63, 127, 206, 219 digital printing 137 digital privacy 154 digital product placement 206 digital production, costs 143 digital publishing 19, 57, 152, 165 digital reference materials 54 digital rights management (DRM) 63, 78, 127, 151, 163, 168, 176, 179, 206, 219

digital skills 29 digital texts, manipulation of 155 digital workflow 162–3 Dillons 68 direct-mail promotion 202 discounts, sales 199 discoverability 199 disintermediation 200 distribution 10, 11, 73, 89, 155, 196, 197 Distribution Managers 11 diversity, in books/publishing 19, 31, 53 DK (Dorling Kindersley) 146–7 Doctorow, Cory 163 Dohle, Markus 90, 152 DOI (Digital Object Identifiers). See Digital Object Identifier (DOI®) system DOS For Dummies 120, 125 DPI: dots per inch 219 Dr Who brand 157 dramatization and documentary rights 177, 183 DTP: desktop publishing 219 Dystel & Goderich Literary Management 81 e-books (electronic books) agent-led e-book publishing 80 bestsellers 211 and the book chain 30 children’s 164–5 comics 166 defined 219 design elements 148 e-booksellers 41, 61 (see also Amazon) e-lending 89 e-shorts 157 e-textbooks 55 free 204 and genres 156 global distribution 73 illustrations in 152 marketing of 62, 164 origins and future of 60 portable libraries of 151 and pricing 24, 41, 167 and print 59–62 quality of 139–40 reading experience 67, 152 and rights 41, 174 sales 61, 155, 158 and self-publishing 9, 61, 90, 200 and tax 24, 67

Index

textbooks 55 thumbnails 136, 201 trade books 155 typography 134 user experience 67, 152 e-journals 63 e-magazines 66 e-publishing defined 219 EPUB3 and HTML5 for 162 of monograph material 56 trade magazines 66 e-readers 60, 62, 152, 164, 219 e-reading 158, 219 E-Reads 158 e-rights 179 (see also digital rights) EBSCO 63, 71 Eco, Umberto 143 Economist, The 217 editorial departments 9 Editorial Directors 9 editorial processes commissioning 107–12 contractual matters 113–14 editorial work: from submission to publication 115–19 policy and planning 103–6 editors in academic and STM publishing 57 Acquisitions Editors 9, 113 and agents 79, 99 changing role of 103–4 Commissioning Editors 9, 81, 113, 122–4 and contracts 113 Copy Editors 9, 117, 140 and costs/pricing 142 developing authors 77 Development Editors 9, 115 Educational Editors 9 in educational publishing 54 EFL 55 ELT 9 Managing Editors 9, 117 need to do homework/keep in touch 111 Picture Editors 9 Production Editors 9, 10, 57 Publishing Editors 9 Senior Editors, tertiary and STM sector 9 Sponsoring Editors 9 work of 115–19 working in trade and children’s publishing 53 Education Representatives 10

educational apps 165 Educational Editors 9 educational publishing 8, 53–4, 67 EFL (English as a Foreign Language) publishing 8, 54–5, 219 El Ateneo bookstore, Buenos Aires 21 Eliot, T.S. 153 Elsevier 8 ELT (English Language Teaching) Editors 9 ELT (English Language Teaching) publishing 8, 10, 54, 219 email promotion lists 202 Emerald Group Publishing 57 encyclopaedias, decline of 58 English, as dominant language of science and business 36 English-language territorial rights 175, 176 entertainment publishing 177 environment impact, of paper production 134 environment responsibility 73 Epic Reads 203 EPS: encapsulated PostScript 219 EPUB® standards 60, 143, 162, 219 erotica genre 154 eScholarship service, University of California 92 Espresso Book Machine® (EBM) 25, 167 estimates, production 142 ethical standards 217 ethnic diversity, in books 53 (see also diversity) European governments, and control 18 European Union, copyright 32 experimental publishing 76 extent of books 117, 219 Faber and Faber 153 Facebook 154 fair use/fair dealing 63, 164, 184, 219 Famous Five series 189 Famous Five show 52 fan fiction 91, 98 feedback, use of 209–11 feminist movement, and Virago 29 Feminist Press, The 213 feminist publishing 212 Fierce Reads 203 Fifty Shades of Grey 91 film adaptations 52, 182–4 film industry 182 film tie-ins 49 Final Testament of the Holy Bible, The 91

finance core financial reports 26–7 finance departments 11 financial analysis 26 financial viability of projects 111 importance of 26–7 and publishing 67 Financial Directors 11 Fleming, Ian 202 FOB: free on board 219 folded and gathered: F&G 219 For Dummies® brand 120–1, 125 foreign rights 176 (see also translation rights) Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) 134, 219 formats, appropriate for the content 127–37 formats of books 131, 151–9 Fortune magazine 157 ‘four Ps’ of marketing 195 4th Estate 31 Foyles of London 22 Frankfurt Book Fair 94–5, 101, 181, 191 Franklin Electronic Publishers 60 freedom of expression 18 freedom of speech 19 freelance workers 9, 117 Frey, James 91 ‘FSC Chain of Custody’ certification 134 FSC: Forest Stewardship Council 134, 219 Fulfilment Managers 11 Funke, Cornelia 91 Future of the Book, The 217 Galbraith, Robert 37 Gardner, Ashleigh 96–8 gatekeepers 79–83 general publishing 8 genres, and e-books 156 Gentlewoman, The 64–5 ghostwriting 82 Gibert of Paris 22 Girl Online 82, 203 Gissing, George 88 Glenday, Craig 7 global distribution, e-books 73 global economy, and publishing 210 global publishing companies 34, 192 (see also corporations; multinational companies) global reach, of university presses 171 global trading patterns 36 globalisation, and the publishing industry 43 Goldilocks and Little Bear app 165

233

Index

Golding, William 51 Goodreads 70, 88 Google 154 Google Analytics 205 Google Books 164 Gookin, Dan 120 Governor General’s Literary Awards 86 graduate schemes 72 Grandes Chroniques de St Denis, Les 15 grandparents, influence of 50 Granta and Portobello 122–4 graphic novels 52, 219 Green, Hank 203 Green, John 50, 52, 85, 203 Green Press Initiative 134 Greenfield, Susan 164 GreenFILE 71 greenhouse gas emissions, and paper production 134 grey literature 169 grid 219 Groovy Greeks 145 GSM: grams per square metre 219 Guadalajara International Book Fair 204 Guinness World Records brand 58 Gutenberg Bible, 1456 16 Gutenberg, Johannes 15, 16

234

Hachette 8, 34, 70, 165, 189, 190 halftone 219 ‘hand selling’ 198 Happy Zombie Sunrise Home, The 76 hardback books 134 HarperCollins 8, 31, 66, 203 Harry Potter Lexicon, The 184–5 Harry Potter series 19, 33, 48, 50, 52, 184–5, 186, 188 Hart, Michael S. 59 Hay-on-Wye literary festival 204 Heaney, Seamus 153 Hegemann, Helene 76 Hessel, Stéphane 157 Higginbothams of Madras 22 Higham, David 99–100 Hill, Alan 105 Hill, Hilary Murray 189 hobby publishers 204 Hocking, Amanda 91 Hodder & Stoughton 190–2 Honnefelder, Gottfried 94 Horrible Histories 144–5, 148 Houellebecq, Michel 76 house style 9, 10, 117, 127, 220 HTML: hypertext markup language 220 HTML5 162, 220

Huang, Eric 170 Huffington Post 200 Hungry Minds 120 Hutchinson, Tim Hely 158 iBooks 61 identity, of authors 82, 86 illuminated manuscripts 15 illustrated book design, and the digital environment 152 illustrations 132, 134, 152 illustrators, rights of 75–8 images, history of the use of 17 Imperial Age 22 imposition 137, 140, 220 imprint rights 173 imprints 220 income-generating activities, of authors 82 income, of publishers 68 Independent Alliance 92 independent bookshops 24–5, 168, 197 Independent foreign fiction prize 124 independent magazines 64 independent presses 92 InDesign 129, 130, 132 Index Librorum Prohibitorum 18 indie publishing 91–2, 220 Indigène éditions 157 Indignez-Vous! (Time for Outrage! ) 157 industry information 206 Inspector Zen series 108 integrity, right of 32 intellectual property (IP) 75, 76, 78, 220 intellectual property rights (IPR) 63, 100, 160, 184, 220 International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers 56 international copyright law 32 (see also copyright) International Digital Publishing Forum 60 International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award 86 international implications, of the digital culture 161 international markets, For Dummies® brand 120 International Publishers Association 67 internationalization 44 internet 9, 19 internships 31, 72, 215 iPad 60, 89, 165 ISBN (International Standard Book Number) 37, 206, 220

Ishiguro, Kazuo 77 ISO: International Organization for Standardization 220 ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) 206, 220 jacket design 48, 49, 50 (see also covers of books) James Bond 202 James, E.L. 91 Jansson, Sophia 186 Jansson, Tove 186 Jellybooks 154 Jennings, Paul 214 jobbers 220 John Wiley & Sons 8, 120 Jonathan Strange and Mr Norrell 177 Jones, Philip 24, 156 Journal of Consumer Marketing 57 journals journal publishing 63 open access 54 STM journals 57 JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group 220 Jurevics, Susan 188 Kawakami, Hiromi 124 KDP Select 71 Kelly, Luke 188 Kick 98 Kickstarter 110 kidults 52, 106 Kindle 30, 60, 89 Kindle Direct Publishing 91 Kindle Storyteller Prize 9 Kindle Unlimited 71 Kindle Worlds 91 Kindlepreneurs 200 Kingsnorth, Paul 110 Kirkus Indie 93 Knopf 156 Kobo 41, 158 Kolkata Book Fair 204 Krakstrom, Roleff 187 Lady Chatterley’s Lover 40 Ladybird books 52, 106 Lagarde?re 34 Lamb, Ian 214–15 Lane, Allen 22–3, 173 language of publication 36–7 language rights 160 Law, Claire 29 Lawrence, D.H. 40

Index

laws competition law 36 copyright 32, 36, 76, 78 lc: lower case 220 Le-Tan, Olympia 128 Lebedev, Evgeny 66 legal issues, in the digital world 161 lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, and asexual (LGBTQIA+) books 19, 213 letterpress 137 Letters of Note 110 libraries 21, 89, 152 licences (see also rights) Creative Commons (CC) licences 76, 218, 220 dramatic rights 177 reprint 175, 176 serial rights 178 line drawings 135 linotype 137 list building 103–6, 123, 125 (see also publisher’s list) literary agencies, and rights sales 181 literary agents developing authors 77 and editors 79, 99 as gatekeepers 75 interview with 99–100 and rights 183 role of 8, 41, 75, 79–83, 104 and subsidary rights 68 and trade and children’s authors 53 Literary Agents and Scouts Centre (LitAg) 94 literary consultancies 81 literary festivals 204 literary scouts 81 literary translators 81 Little, Brown Book Group 212 Little Red Riding Hood app 165 Locke, John 200 LOGOS 45 Loi Lang , France 26 London Book Fair 35, 181, 191 Los Angeles Times 200 loss leaders 24, 41, 220 Lourey, Jessica 92 Luminos 169 m-books 61, 221 M Train 83 Macmillan 8, 54 Macmillan’s Fierce Reads 203

Made in Me/Me Books 8, 28, 170 magazine publishing 64–6 (see also names of magazines) mailing lists 106 Mamut, Alexander 198 Man Booker Prize 86, 87, 124 Managing Directors 9 Managing Editors 9, 117 manga 52, 220 Manguel, Alberto 110 manufacturing costs 143 manuscript, copy editing of 117 manuscript (ms) 221 margins 27 marketing (see also promotion; publicity) ‘AstroTurf’ marketing 201 and authors 82, 205 and book covers 134 and book fairs 204 of books 117, 119 of brands 205 careers in 215 children’s marketing and publicity 214–15 communication through promotion and publicity 201–7 and covers of books 49, 50, 201, 202 design decisions and market access 127 digital 205 discounts 199 discoverability and choice 199 disintermediation 200 distributors and wholesalers 197 of e-books 62, 164 ‘four Ps’ of marketing 195 managing budgets and schedules 208 market research 107, 210 marketing department 10 Marketing Directors 10 marketing expenses 208 Marketing Managers 10 marketing mix 195–6 marketing schedule 208, 209 marketing toolbox 201 in newspapers 204 online 164, 204–5 by the product itself 201 promotional materials 202 publisher’s warehouse/distribution system 196 retail bookselling 197–8 and serendipity 207

and social media 204–5, 215 in STM publishing 56 supply chains 196 viral marketing 204–5 and Wattpad 96 and young people 215 markets for books 21 digital 174 e-books 61 educational 53 and indie publishing 91 major book buyers 210 market potential 208 market value of children’s books 186 niche markets 103–6, 212, 216 paperback market 23 retail book market 23, 197–8 for various publications 47–58 markup 27 Marotta, Millie 152 Martian, The 89 Marvel Comics 166 mash-up 76, 220 Mastering the Art of French Cooking 156 Mathias, Jenny 168 Matilda the Musical 187 McGraw-Hill 8 McSweeney 110 Me Books. See Made in Me/Me Books Meadows, Anne 122–4 media choice of 151–9 media publicity 204 and self-promotion by authors 82 Melville, Herman 33 mentoring, of authors 82 merchandising 177, 186, 193 mergers, of publishing houses 40, 42, 44 metadata 10, 127, 202, 206, 207, 220 metrics 209, 220 Million Penguins, A 76 Mills, Ella 108–9 minority groups, in the publishing industry 31 Mirrorworld series 91 MIT OpenCourseWare (OCW) 169 MIT Press 169 .mobi files 220 mobile app 221 mobile phones, reading on 61, 62 Moby-Dick 33 monographs, academic 56 monotype 137

235

Index

Moomins, The 186–7 moral rights, and copyright 32 Morrison, Blake 104 Mudditt, Alison 169 multi-chain mall bookshops 23 multichannel self-publishing 90 multimedia packages, in educational publishing 54 multinational companies 175 (see also corporations; global publishing companies) My Blood Approves series 91 My Independent Bookshop 25 NACS (National Association of College Stores) 55 Nakano Thrift Shop, The 124 Narvesen in Norway 23 Nazi book burnings 19 Nelson, Fraser 65 Neon Play 165 Net Book Agreement (NBA) 26, 68, 197, 221 Net Sales Revenue or Receipts (NSR) 41, 68, 111, 221 networks and academic/STM professionals 57 and book fairs 94 book-supply network 200 and editors 111 and indie publishing 91 publishing communications networks 84–8 and self-publishing 91 social networks 25, 86, 161 and university presses 171 New Grub Street 88 New York Times bestseller list 48, 97 News Corporation 66 newspaper serials 178 newspapers 66, 204 Newton, Nigel 158 niche markets 103–6, 212, 216 Nielsen activities 210 Nielsen BookData 10, 48, 206, 221 Nielsen BookScan 107, 209, 211, 221 non-English-language markets 158 Nook 89 nostalgia books 106 Nosy Crow 52, 165 novels, graphic novels 52, 219 236

O’Brien, Kiera 186 OCR: optical character recognition 221 offset lithography 137

‘oil tanker’ effect 44 on-demand printing 137 On the Side 136 One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest 184 online booksellers 24 online catalogues 202 online communities 10 online marketing 164, 204–5 online newspapers 66 online reading clubs 88 online recommendations 86 online rights trading 181 (see also rights) online self-publishing 90 (see also self-publishing) opacity 221 open access (OA) 8, 54, 56, 220, 221 opinion formers 84–8 order fulfilment 11 Order Processing Managers 11 order-processing systems 196 Oscar-winning films based on books 183 Oscars 182 out-of-copyright works 164 out of print (OP) 221 out-of-print titles 25, 158 output, publishing 37 Owen, Lynette 113, 180, 181 ownership, new views of 76 Oxfam Book Shops 198 Oxford University Press (OUP) 8, 54, 168 p-books (print books) and the book chain 30 defined 221 pricing issues 167 and quality/tax 67 packaging 10 page design 132 Page, Stephen 154 Pan Macmillan 8, 91 paper 134 Paper Towns 50 paperbacks bindings 134 mass-market 173 paperback market 23 paperback rights 173, 192 Penguin 20, 173 Papercut 152 parents, influence of 50 Pariser, Eli 207 part-work form 21, 221 Patterson, Alexander Watt 79

Patterson, James 48 PDF: portable data format 129, 221 PE: printer’s error 221 Pearson 34, 40 PEN International 19 Penguin Books 22–3, 76 Penguin Flipper book recommendation tool 199 Penguin paperbacks 20, 173 Penguin Random House 8, 25, 34, 40–1, 42, 44, 71, 82, 187, 199 performance monitoring 209 persecution, of writers and publishers 19 Persephone Books 212–13, 216 Peter Rabbit 50 PhD theses 56 photographs 135 pica 221 Picture Editors/Researchers 9 piracy 78, 163, 221 plagiarization 28, 221 platforms, appropriate for the content 127–37 playlists, of texts 89 PLR: public lending right 221 POD technology 9, 90, 91, 197, 221 print-on-demand (POD) publications 24, 25, 70, 138, 167 Pointless Book, The 203 policy and planning, editorial processes 103–6 political change 16 portability, of books 137 portable libraries 151 Portwood, Nigel 168 POS: point of sale 221 posters 203 Potter, Beatrix 50, 51 Pottermore 188 Pour Les Nuls 120 Powell’s Books 23, 25 pre-press costs 143 pricing (see also Loi Lang; Net Book Agreement (NBA)) and e-books 24, 41 and editors 142 loss leaders 24, 41, 220 p-books/e-books 167 pricing issues 26 pricing strategies 111, 195, 199 primary/volume rights 32, 151, 175 print (see also p-books) and e-books 59–62 moving to digital 151

Index

printing basics 137 history of 16 print-on-demand (POD) publications 24, 25, 70, 137, 138, 167 (see also POD technology) print runs 123 Prior, Joanne 159 privacy, digital 154 Prix Goncourt 86 prizes, literary 86 (see also names of individual prizes) product extensions 53 product life cycle (PLC) 26, 221 Product Managers 9, 57 product placement, digital 206 Production Controllers 139, 142 Production Coordinators 10 production costs 143 production departments 10, 118, 138, 142, 146 Production Directors 10 Production Editors 9, 10, 57 production, estimates 142 Production Managers 10, 142 production process, proof stages 140 Production Programme Managers 146–7 production systems, e-books 59 profit and loss accounts (P&L) 26, 67, 112, 142 profitability, and cultural quality 34 Project Editors 9 Project Gutenberg 59, 60 project management 139 projects, and finance 26 promotion (see also marketing; publicity) audio promotions 202 of books 117 communication through 201–7 cross-media promotion 88 defined 221–2 expenditure 208 of output 10, 88 Promotion Managers 10 promotion strategy 195 promotional books 198 promotional tours 204 self-promotion 82, 86, 96, 203, 205 proof marks 118 proofing stage 118, 140 proofreaders 9 proofreading, and the digital age 140 property rights, of authors 32 proposals, publishing 75, 107

PSD: Photoshop document 222 publication process controlling costs and pricing 142–3 publication dates 108 and quality 139–40 scheduling of 138–41 publications acquisition of 89 markets and audiences 47–58 special interest publications 56, 64 publicity (see also marketing; promotion) communication through 201–7 and controversy 86 creating 86 defined 222 free 204–5 and the marketing department 10 media 204 Publicity Managers 10 serialisation 178 publisher–author contract 9, 32, 68, 81, 113–14, 160, 161, 165, 178, 179 publishers and agents 81 Amazon 70–1 (see also Amazon) income of 68 independent 92 publisher branding 205 publisher’s list 12, 222 (see also list building) Publishers (or Chief Executive Officer (CEO)) 9 revenue of 68 role of 217 specialization of 103 suppression of 18–19 top ten 34 Publishers Association 51, 155 Publishers Weekly 45, 52 publishing careers in 31–3, 72, 217 changes in 43, 147 history of 15–25 legalities of in a wired world 160–1 major/global/multinational publishing corporations 34, 175, 192 publishing departments 9, 115–16 publishing lists. See list building publishing process 67–9 publishing proposals 75, 107 what to publish 107 who does what? 8–11

Publishing Research Quarterly 45 Puffin, Dr Who e-shorts 157 Pulitzer Prize 86 Pullman, Philip 137 purchasing decisions, of readers 199 quality cultural 34 importance of 139–40, 217 journalistic 65 quality assurance (QA) standards 67 QuarkXPress 132 railways, station book kiosks 22–3 Random House 40, 41, 44 RDR Books 184–5 readers (see also audiences) adults reading children’s/YA literature 16 channels to 89–92 purchasing decisions of 199 relationships with authors 82 types of 141 reading changing habits in 152–3 e-reading 67, 152, 158, 219 on mobile phones 61, 62 reading clubs 88 Rebel Girls 110 recommendations, online 86 Reed Elsevier 34 reference publishing 8, 57–8, 67 regional publishing 37 regulation(s) in the digital world 160 financial 26 and sales territories 36 and social networks 161 relationships (see also networks) between authors and readers 82 and publishing 28, 32, 77, 79–80, 174 relationship management 146 religious change 16 RELX Group 34 remainders 198 rental services 89 reprint licences 175, 176 (see also licences) reprint rights 179, 192 reputation, of authors 32 research, market 107, 210 retail book market 23, 197–8 returns 199 revenue 68, 222

237

Index

238

reviews of children’s books 214 traditional review media 87–8 on websites/blogs 201 on YouTube 203 RGB: red, green, blue 222 Richards, Steve 144 rights audiobook rights 179 of authors, illustrators, creators 75–8 book club rights 179, 192 and children’s books 186–9 defined 222 development of 173–4 digital rights management (DRM) 63, 78, 127, 151, 163, 168, 176, 179, 206, 219 dramatization and documentary rights 177, 183 and e-books 41, 174, 179 English-language territorial rights 175, 176 foreign rights. See translation rights granted to the publisher by the author 113 and Harry Potter/J.K. Rowling 188 importance of 174 imprint rights 173 intellectual property rights (IPR) 63, 100, 160, 184, 220 language rights 160 merchandising 177 moral rights and copyright 32 paperback rights 173, 192 primary/volume rights 32, 151, 175 property rights of authors 32 reprint rights 179, 192 right of attribution 32 right of integrity 32 rights departments 11, 119, 178, 181 Rights Director, role of 190–2 rights granted 32 Rights Managers 11, 101 rights sales 101, 173–4, 181–5, 190–1 serial rights 178 single-voice reading rights 179 subsidiary rights 32, 68, 151, 173, 174, 175, 178, 179, 190 territorial rights 36, 73, 175, 176 and trade publishing 174, 181 translation rights 173, 176, 192 world rights 174, 175, 192

risk management 107 roles, blurring of 43 romance genre 154 Roth, Philip 86 Rotor, Elda 136 Rowling, J.K. 19, 33, 37, 140, 184–5, 188 royalty payments 41, 71, 78, 80, 91, 92, 113, 165 RSS: Really Simple Syndication 222 running head 222 Saga Magazine 63, 64 sales audiobooks 51 and book fairs 101 changes in buying patterns 21 children’s and YA books 52, 186–9 discounts 199 e-books 61, 155, 158 in educational publishing 54 and film adaptations 182 hardback books 134 and independent magazines 64 rights sales 101, 173–4, 181–5, 190–1 sales departments 10, 119 Sales Directors 10 sales projections 208 Sales Representatives 10 sales territories 36 in STM publishing 56 translation rights sales 173 for a variety of markets 47 where and how books are sold 197–8 and women 210, 216 samizdat publications 161, 222 sample chapters 204 sans serif 222 schedule, marketing 208, 209 scheduling tools 139 Schnapp, Jeffrey 155 scholarly books 155 scholarly publishers 8 Scholastic 144, 148, 203 seasonal lists 106 second-hand book market 198 self-promotion 82, 86, 96, 203, 205 self-publishing 9, 24, 37, 61, 90–1, 200, 222 Senior Editors, tertiary and STM sector 9 SEO: search engine optimization 10, 206, 222 serial form 21, 96 serial rights 178 serialisation 178, 204

serif 222 SGML: standard generalized markup language 222 Shared Shelf 88 Shatzkin, Mike 154 Shelfari 70 short forms of writing 157 short issue-based publications 157 signatures 137, 222 Simon & Schuster 8 single channel self-publishing 90 single-voice reading rights 179 Smith, Patti 83 social change 16 social media and marketing 204–5, 215 and self-promotion 82, 86 Social Media Managers 10 Wattpad platform 96–8 and WOM promotion 86 social networks 25, 86, 161 social platforms 61 Society of Young Publishers 45 software standards 162–3 Special Armed Services Editions (U.S.) 23 special interest publications 56, 64 specialist communities 204 Spectator, The 65 Sphere 37 spin-off books 186 Spire, The 51 Sponsoring Editors 9 Springer Nature 8 Squires, Claire 86 state, and control 18 Stationers’ Company, The 18 STEM 222 stet 222 Stevenson, Iain 29 sticky content 85, 222 STM (scientific, technical and medical) publishing 8, 56–7, 63, 222 Stock Controllers 11 storybook apps 52 Strange Weather in Tokyo 124 Straus, Peter 104 streaming services 89 subagents 181 subscription services 21, 65, 66, 71 subsidiary rights 32, 68, 151, 173, 174, 175, 178, 179, 190 subvertion, of texts 161 Suggs, Zoe (Zoella) 82, 203 supermarkets, bookselling of 23–4, 199 suppliers, selection of 142

Index

supply chains 53, 73, 89, 196 suppression, of writers and publishers 18–19 sustainability 73, 217 Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) 134 (see also Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)) SWOT analysis 103 tablets 151 Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck, The 51 Tale of Peter Rabbit, The 50 ‘talking books’. See audiobooks tax, and e-books 24, 67 Taylor & Francis 8 tech companies 154 technology, and the publishing industry 43 TED books 157 television tie-ins 49, 177 territorial restrictions, and bookselling 24, 222 territorial rights 36, 73, 175, 176 tertiary 222 textbooks 55, 155 texts, subvertion of 161 This Is Teen 203 Thomson Reuters/The Woodbridge Company Ltd 34 thumbnails 136, 201 tie-ins 49, 177, 203 TIFF: tagged image file format 222 time management, publication process 139 Todd, Anna 90, 91 Touch Press 28, 152 trade books 58, 134, 155–6 trade magazines 66 trade publishing 8, 49, 53, 68, 75, 79, 174, 181, 199 trademarks 148 trading patterns, global 36 translations Granta and Portobello 122 and languages 36 most translated authors 35 translated-foreign fiction 36 translation rights 173, 176, 192 transmedia 222 travel reference brands 58 trust 142, 205 Trylle Trilogy 91 Twitter, and WOM promotion 86 typesetting 17, 18, 137 typo 222 typography 132, 133, 134

UC Publishing Services 169 uc: upper case 223 Uglow, Tea 62 Ullstein 76 Unbound 8, 76, 110 United States book banning 19 Constitution of the United States 18 copyright 32 e-books 55 United States Code: Title 17 32 university presses Cambridge University Press (CUP) 8, 54, 168 Oxford University Press (OUP) 8, 54, 168 print and digital at 168–9, 171 University of California Press, The 92, 169 University Press Scholarship Online 168 University Publishing Online 168 university textbooks 55 user experience, e-books 67, 152 user experience (UX) 223 Usher, Shaun 110 USP: unique selling proposition 223 value chain, publishing 67 Vander Ark, Steve 184 vanity publishing 91, 93 Vassilopoulos, Maria 72 VAT (sales tax), and e-books 24 vertical integration 21, 173, 223 Victor, Ed 80 video promotions 202 Virago 29, 212–13, 216 Virago Modern Classics list 212 Virago Travellers 213 Virago Vs 213 viral marketing 204–5 Vlogbrothers 203 vloggers 82, 203 volume/primary rights 32, 151, 175 Wake, The 110 Walliams, David 52 Walsh, Caroline 99–100 Warehouse Managers 11 warehouses, of publishers 196 Warner Bros. 184 Waste Land app. 28 Waste Land, The 152, 153 Waterstones 198 Watson, Emma 88

Wattpad 76, 91, 96–8 Wattpad Futures 98 We Should All Be Feminists 157 websites 86, 181, 201 Weir, Andy 89 Weldon, Tom 7 Wells, Cathy 43 WH Smith 23 wholesalers 197 Wight, Doug 178 Wikipedia 58 Wiley Custom Select service 55 Williams, Jonathan 62 Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory 187 Wilson, Jacqueline 85 Wilson, Kate 165 WIRED 64, 199 Woll, Thomas 33 Wolters Kluwer 34 women book buying of 210, 216 Women in Publishing (WIP) 223 women’s publishing 212 writers 29 Women’s Press, The 213 word-of-mouth (WOM) bestsellers 43 word-of-mouth’ (WOM) promotion 86 work in progress (WIP) 79, 223 workflow management 162 workflow procedures 139 World Intellectual Property Organization 32 world rights 174, 175, 192 World Wide Web, and language 36 writers. See authors Writers’ & Artists’ Yearbook, The 45, 58 writing the craft of 77 short forms of 157 Wylie, Andrew 41, 80 Xerox machines 138 XHTML files 162, 223 XML files 59, 139, 162, 223 Year In Books, A 88 You Love to Hate Me 203 young adults (YA) publishing 50–2 young people, and marketing 215 Young to Publishing 45 younger audiences (YA) 203 YouTube 85, 203 239

Zoella/Zoe Suggs 82, 203 Zuckerberg, Mark 88

Picture credits and acknowledgements

Picture credits and acknowledgements 1.2

JHU Sheridan Libraries/Gado / Contributor/ Getty Images 1.3 Print Collector / Contributor/ Getty Images 1.4 Culture Club / Contributor/ Getty Images 1.5 Justin Sullivan / Staff/ Getty Images 1.6 Universal History Archive / Contributor/ Getty Images 1.7 Bloomberg / Contributor/ Getty Images 1.8 Photo courtesy of longhorndave, Wikimedia 1.9 Photo courtesy of Cacophony, Wikimedia 1.10 Stephen Brashear / Stringer/ Getty Images 1.11 David Levenson / Contributor/ Getty Images 1.12a Spencer Platt / Staff/ Getty Images 1.12b Boston Globe / Contributor/ Getty Images 2.1a-c Copyright of Bloomsbury Publishing 2.2 Copyright of Bloomsbury Publishing 2.3a-b Copyright of Bloomsbury Publishing 2.4 Carl Court / Staff/ Getty Images 2.5 Copyright of Canongate Books 2.6a-b Copyright of Emerald Publishing Limited 2.7 Copyright of Bloomsbury Publishing 2.8 Copyright of Bloomsbury Publishing 2.9 Ted Soqui / Contributor/ Getty Images 2.10 Copyright of Saga Magazine 2.11 Copyright of The Gentlewoman 3.1 David Levenson / Contributor/ Getty Images 3.2 Copyright of Bloomsbury Publishing 3.4 Taylor Hill / Stringer/ Getty Images 3.5 Copyright of Penguin Random House UK 3.6 Gareth Cattermole / Staff/ Getty Images 3.7 Copyright of Penguin Random House USA 3.8 Rosdiana Ciaravolo / Contributor/ Getty Images 3.9 Thomas Lohnes / Stringer/ Getty Images

4.2 4.3 4.6 5.1 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 6.1 6.2a-b 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 7.1 7.2a-b 7.3a-c 7.4 7.5a 7.5b 7.6 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.6 8.7

Chris Jackson / Staff David M. Benett / Contributor/ Getty Images Jacques Demarthon / Staff/ Getty Images Jeff Kravitz / Contributor Photo courtesy of Ales Krivec, Unsplash Photo courtesy ajschroetlin, Flickr Photo courtesy Erico Marcelino, Unsplash shuoshu/Getty Images Copyright of Bloomsbury Publishing Leon Neal / Staff/ Getty Images Jordan Mansfield / Stringer/ Getty Images Copyright of Scholastic Copyright of Scholastic Tap Magazine / Contributor/ Getty Images Copyright of Faber & Faber Cyrus McCrimmon / Contributor/ Getty Images Bloomberg / Contributor/ Getty Images Leon Neal / Staff/ Getty Images Copyright of Yale University Press Central Press / Stringer/ Getty Images Copyright of Bloomsbury Publishing Copyright of Bloomsbury Publishing Miguel Medina / Staff/ Getty Images Glenn Koenig / Contributor / Getty Images Movie Poster Image Art / Contributor/ Getty Images James D. Morgan / Contributor/ Getty Images Bloomberg / Contributor/ Getty Images Courtesy of Daunt Books Apic / Contributor/ Getty Images Deshakalyan Chowdhury / Stringer/ Getty Images Copyright of Persephone Books Copyright of Virago

Special thanks to all the interviewees and the Publishing MA team at UCL.

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