The Prophet Muhammad: Islam and the Divine Message 9781838606565, 9781838606572, 9781838606596

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The Prophet Muhammad

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The Prophet Muhammad Islam and the Divine Message Stephen Burge

In association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies LONDON

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I.B. TAURIS Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK 1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA In association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies Aga Khan Centre, 10 Handyside Street, London N1C 4DN www.iis.ac.uk BLOOMSBURY, I.B. TAURIS and the I.B. Tauris logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain 2020 Copyright © Islamic Publications Ltd, 2020 Stephen Burge has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work. For legal purposes the Acknowledgements on p.ix constitute an extension of this copyright page. Cover design: Ian Ross All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any third-party websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in this book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher regret any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have ceased to exist, but can accept no responsibility for any such changes. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN: PB: ePDF: eBook:

978-1-8386-0656-5 978-1-8386-0659-6 978-1-8386-0658-9

Series: World of Islam Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com and sign up for our newsletters.

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For Naushin Shariff, friend and colleague

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Contents Acknowledgements

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Note on the Text

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Introduction

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Chapter 1. Who is a Prophet?

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Chapter 2. Writing the Life of Muhammad

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Chapter 3. Prophetic Past, Prophetic Future

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Chapter 4. Divine Commission

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Chapter 5. Prophetic Mission

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Chapter 6. The Resilient Prophet

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Chapter 7. The Prophet’s Legacy

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Glossary

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Notes

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Further Reading

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List of Illustrations

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Index

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Acknowledgements

This book has taken a few years to come into fruition and there are many people who have helped me along the way. I would like to thank those who have read and given me feedback on different versions of this book, especially the anonymous peer reviewers, Rev’d Evelyn Sweerts, Megan Wainwright, Dr. Shainool Jiwa, and Tara Woolnough. Especial thanks go to my editor, Raeesah Akhtar, who provided much needed guidance and numerous suggestions as this project developed and came to completion. Thanks also go to Russell Harris for producing the map and to Raeesah Akhtar for sourcing the brilliant pictures included in this book. I would also like to thank the various places where I first presented some of the ideas featured in this book, most notably the Ismaili Centres in Lisbon and London, and the Jamatkhanas in Plano, Sugarland, North Houston and San Antonio, as well as the Ismaili students of the University of Texas, Austin. I was welcomed very warmly in every venue and received countless thought-provoking comments. My especial thanks go to Sham-Aviz Dhanji, Waheeda Kara and Noorudin Kara, along with many others, who looked after me so well on my trips to Texas and Portugal, as well as to Sarah Ismail for organising and planning these trips. ix

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Acknowledgements

Thanks also go to my colleagues, friends, and family who have supported and encouraged me during the writing of this book, especially Dr. Farhad Daftary, Dr. Omar Ali-de-Unzaga, Dr. Asma Hilali, Dr. Toby Mayer, Julia Kolb, Naushin Shariff, Daniel Caleb, Laurelin Burge, and my two sons, Christian and Peter.

Note on the Text

In the interest of readability, diacritics for transliterated words have been limited to the ayn (‘) and the hamza (’) where they occur in the middle of a word. All dates are Common Era, unless otherwise indicated. English quotations from the Qur’an are based on Tarif Khalidi’s translation, The Qur’an: A New Translation (London: Penguin Classics, 2009). For the purpose of the book, the translation has been adjusted to prose arrangement; any other necessary modifications to the translation are marked with an asterisk (*). Quotations from the Bible are based on the New Revised Standard Version Bible, Anglicized Edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). Supplementary material related to the content of the book is available on the IIS website: www.iis.ac.uk

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Introduction

Understanding the world around us is at the heart of our quest as humans. The way we perceive ourselves in relation to others and the rest of the world inevitably impacts our behaviour and beliefs. However, making sense of an often chaotic and capricious world can prove challenging. From rapid developments in technology and fluctuating geopolitical tensions, to the looming climate crisis and increasing global inequality, the unpredictable nature of the world means that we can never be fully prepared for, or certain of, the future. This can be fascinating and unsettling in equal measure. Most recently, we have been starkly reminded of this uncertainty with the Coronavirus pandemic, during which this book reached its completion. While the devastating pandemic has brought to light the harsh reality of the precariousness of our world, it has also highlighted our increasing reliance on one another and our immense capacity for good. Realizing this potential through togetherness and acts of compassion can teach us how to not only survive, but also thrive, in an age of uncertainty, both individually and collectively. 1

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For many, this potential arises from belief systems, be they secular or religious, which encourage the contemplation of one’s purpose and seek to establish a source of guidance, positivity, and order. In the case of religious communities, this source often manifests as a higher divine power, usually the creator of the world. In most religious systems, the divine and the human realms are not isolated, but rather connections are continually established between the two. Through meditation and prayer, worship and thanksgiving, humans seek peace and enlightenment from the Divine; and, conversely, the Divine communicates with and guides humanity through the sending of prophets. Prophets are sent to transmit messages to the mundane world, informing adherents how to live their lives according to God’s will. This may be a general, moral and ethical way of living, or may concern specific ritual and legal duties. In any case, the teachings of a prophet have offered individuals – throughout human history and across various cultures – hope for a better and just future. Prophecy in Islam, on which this book focuses, culminates with the Qur’an as God’s final message to humankind which was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad1 (ca. 570–632). In his role as God’s final messenger and ultimately the bringer of Islam, Muhammad holds a significant place for Muslims, continuing to function even now as a moral exemplar. His life and teachings inform the collective identity of the global Muslim community, in all its diversity, whether

Introduction

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in the way Muslims choose to engage with business and politics, or how they express popular devotional practices. Therefore, to understand Muhammad, and what his role as a prophet entailed both during his life and after, is to understand the numerous Muslim communities around the world. Being confronted with the beliefs of others causes us to consider and question our own way of thinking about the world. Indeed, studying Islam has challenged me to think much more deeply about my own beliefs. As a Christian priest, I am often asked why I study Islam and the Qur’an. The idea that I would be interested in a faith other than my own has bewildered many fellow Christians whom I have met over the years. Of course, there have also been many who have encouraged me, reminding me that in this contemporary age – where tensions between and within religious and non-religious groups continue to exist – understanding one another is an important and necessary tool in fostering a sense of unity, compassion, and openness within our society. It is true that there is a strong link between the message of the Qur’an and the Bible, and understanding the relationship between the faiths more broadly, as well as aspects of their shared theology and history, is increasingly important. The Qur’an gives a prominent place to Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, with many other biblical prophets playing a part in the Islamic tradition. The prophets’ collective proclamations of the

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oneness of God, the need for social justice, and the blessings of divine mercy are beliefs that are held in common among Jews, Christians, and Muslims. As such, the Qur’an refers to Jews and Christians as the ahl al-kitab (‘people of the Book’), meaning that the two communities had, in the Muslim conception, also received a scripture, a kitab, from God. Their designation as ‘people of the Book’ gave Jews and Christians an important and distinctive legal status in classical Muslim culture, whereby diverse communities could often live harmoniously together throughout the medieval period. Modern interfaith dialogue has generally rallied around this shared heritage, unifying Jews, Christians, and Muslims under the umbrella term of the ‘Abrahamic faiths’, so called for their common ancestor, Abraham. This shared history and theology contributes to the way in which both the Qur’an and later Muslim thought conceptualize prophets and prophecy; in light of this, our exploration of the Prophet Muhammad and prophecy in Islam will also look to similarities and differences with the Bible (used throughout the book to refer to both the Jewish Tanakh, or ‘Hebrew Bible’ and the Christian Bible), as well as with later Jewish and Christian literature more broadly. With this in mind, before looking at the life of Muhammad, we will begin by reflecting on prophets more generally, enabling us to place the Muslim understanding of prophecy in the broader religious context. We will then look at how others have written about the life of

Introduction

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Muhammad and the issues we need to be aware of when exploring the life of a religious figure. Moving on to the Islamic conception of prophecy more specifically, the book will approach Muhammad’s life thematically, looking at his experiences as a divinely inspired individual and as a man on a prophetic mission. By exploring how the Prophet’s message was received by those around him and how he was able to establish a Muslim community in the face of adversity, we will reflect on the significant impact of the Prophet’s legacy that has endured centuries. In doing so, we will see how Muhammad continues to play an active and meaningful role in the lives of Muslims around the world today. This book will raise questions about what it means to be a prophet and what prophets – as intermediaries of the divine and earthly worlds – mean to people of faith. For Muslims reading this book, there is, I hope, much to reflect on about the nature of prophethood and prophecy; for non-Muslims who are members of a faith community, I hope it presents an opportunity to explore the life of the Prophet Muhammad and to reflect on the similarities and differences between the Islamic tradition and their own; and for those professing no faith, I hope that this book provides a stimulating inquiry into Islam and the ways that Muslims relate to the figure of Muhammad, and also – more widely – how religions engage with prophets and the divine messages they bring.

Chapter 1 Who is a Prophet?

What do we mean when we speak of prophets? Do we think of a prophet as someone who predicts the future and the end of the world, or do we think a prophet is someone who speaks out against injustice and talks truth to power? Is a prophet a mediator between our world and the world beyond ordinary human experience, or is a prophet a hero, leading people to new lands, lives, and experiences? Prophets are often all of these things. However, the concept that characterizes a prophet is change: prophets challenge the status quo, denounce the ills of society, and, through their proclamations, exhort people to change their ways. In short, prophets appear in the world to warn people of the consequences of their inaction, and to offer hope for a better future. For the millions of Muslims around the world, Muhammad is first and foremost a prophet; he is the Messenger of God through whom God revealed His final word, the Qur’an. Before we can consider who Muhammad was, we must first have a firm handle on who a prophet is. Curiously enough, we will begin our journey through the life of Muhammad not in 7th-century Arabia, but by exploring the very idea of prophets and prophecy. Looking to wider 6

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conceptions of prophecy – in both popular and religious contexts – will provide the backdrop to understanding how and why prophecy has shaped communities and civilizations of the past and present, and, in turn, help us to understand the life of Muhammad more deeply. Prophecy in Popular Thought Depictions of prophecy in popular thought have captivated audiences for centuries. So much so that one of the most common tropes in literature centres on prophecy in the form of a prediction about someone’s future. In such stories, some figure who is connected to the otherworld – an oracle, a witch, or a shaman – sees a child and predicts that they will do great things. We witness a remarkably ordinary and unassuming character grow into the person they were destined to be, learning new things and gaining teachers and guidance along the way. The protagonist is often blown briefly off-course, they may suffer from a lack of confidence and doubt their future, or they may come up against an obstacle; but in the end they do whatever it is that they have been predicted to do and become the person they were destined to be. Stories like this are as old as literature and can be found throughout the world – today, they are a mainstay of our cinema screens wherever we may be. They have such wide appeal because they resonate with our human desire to be a hero, and through the story’s hero we can vicariously partake in this adventure. Consider,

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Figure 1. Poster for the Film Release of The Ten Commandments Epic dramas such as Cecil B. DeMille’s The Ten Commandments have widely influenced popular conceptions of prophets; released in 1956, the film dramatizes the biblical story of Moses (left) and his divine mission to free the Hebrews from the tyranny of the Pharaoh (right).

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for example, J. K. Rowling’s best-selling Harry Potter series. The plot centres on the prophecy that Harry Potter will defeat the main antagonist, Lord Voldemort. At the start of the series, Harry seems an unlikely character to be the hero: he is nervous, shy, and unconfident. But by the end of the series he has become a leader and figure of hope for all who want to defeat evil. One of the reasons why the Harry Potter series became such a worldwide phenomenon, as well as a hugely successful film franchise, is that the idea of journeying to greatness from an unlikely start is something that appeals to us all. This conception of prophecy may be compared with the motifs of fate and heroism that we find in Greek mythology. The Athenian tragedies of Sophocles, still popularized today, are particularly relevant if we consider the fate of the tragic hero Oedipus. When Oedipus is born, an oracle informs his parents, King Laius and Queen Jocasta of Thebes, of a prophecy that their child will kill his father and marry his mother. Horrified, they send the baby away to die. Unbeknownst to them, a shepherd finds Oedipus and gives him to the King and Queen of Corinth, who then raise him as their own son. When Oedipus grows up, he hears the prophecy of his future, and, thinking it is about his adoptive parents, flees to Thebes in hope of preventing the prophecy’s fulfilment. On his journey he fights and kills an older man, and when he arrives in Thebes, finds the city leaderless and in turmoil. King Laius, who was fleeing to Corinth,

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had been murdered on the way. Queen Jocasta asks Oedipus to marry her and rule Thebes in Laius’s stead. He does so, but soon afterwards discovers the truth: the man he had met on the road was his father, Laius, and Jocasta is his mother. All of Oedipus’s actions to avoid the fulfilment of the prophecy in fact brought about his inevitable fate. Sophocles makes his audience journey with Oedipus knowing full well that everything he does is bringing the prophecy into reality. Just like watching someone enter a dark forest or a rickety old house in a horror film, we know exactly what is going to happen. We pity our tragic hero all the more because we know that, in spite of his efforts, fate will prevail. Prophecy in both the stories of Harry Potter and Oedipus is about the inescapable future that awaits the principal character. For Harry, we know that he will grow into the figure who will defeat evil, and for Oedipus, we know that his attempts to avoid the prophecy are futile. The plots of these two stories follow a common set narrative structure: readers know how the story will end, but still enjoy the journey, rejoicing in Harry’s growth and triumphs, and pitying Oedipus as his tragic fate unravels.1 The charm and allure of these tales of prophecy are rooted in a certainty that remains utterly alien to our ways of being and living. Unlike these characters, we cannot know what victories we will gain or what tragedies we will face. In fact, we do not know what is going to happen tomorrow,

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let alone in ten years’ time or after death. In the absence of certainty, we find joy and comfort in the prospect of an ordered life – be it through these ideas and stories propagated in popular thought, or, as we will see later in the life of Muhammad, through messages of a divine nature. Another way of looking at the concept of prophecy in a contemporary context is through individuals who challenge society’s behaviour and urge people to change, warning them of the consequences of their actions. This type of social activism has its roots in religious prophecy, where a prophet was often called to speak truth to power. Social activism can take many different forms, from direct activism and campaigning to its articulation in art and literary works. Charles Dickens, for example, is particularly famous for this in his novels, which raised awareness of the plight of the poor in Victorian England. Similar ‘prophetic’ messages can be heard in environmentalism and the climate change movement today. Ecologists and environmental activists tell us what the world will look like if we continue to live our lives as we do. Yet, many people refuse to accept the validity of the warning and resist changing – indeed, climate change activists have often faced stubborn and ferocious opposition. The aim of both these types of social activism is to encourage people to change their behaviour, and to help present and future generations. When reading Harry Potter or watching a production of Oedipus we may be emotionally drawn into

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the narrative, but the experience is largely passive as we witness events unfold for our own entertainment. Social activism, however, elicits an active change that we are expected to effectuate. As we turn to prophecy in a religious context, it will become apparent that this paradigm of challenge, change, and response is a fundamental component of prophecy. While elements of popular and religious understandings of prophecy overlap – such as speaking out against the ills of society and predicting future catastrophes – prophecy in religion is distinguished by its relationship with the Divine. As may be expected, the idea that prophets impart a specifically divine message changes the central emphases and purposes of prophecy. The Role of Prophets in Religion Prophets in religion appear in many different forms: some are hero-like revolutionaries who change the world around them; some are teachers, offering their followers a new way of living their lives; some are mystics, opening the world of the unseen to their disciples; and some are outsiders, critiquing the world and the injustices that they see. What unites all these types of prophets is a mission to bring about positive change in people’s lives, their communities, and the world as a whole. Significantly, prophets in religion are divinely inspired and therefore have an important message to deliver to the people: the message of God. In their role as message-givers prophets are primarily teachers. Prophets are often enigmatic

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Figure 2. Mughal Portrait of a Prophet A painting from late 18th- to early 19th-century India that depicts a prophet identified as Lot. The portrait incorporates an illustrative halo to signify Lot’s prophetic status. While a common feature in religious art, the representation of a halo did not appear in Islamic art until the late classical period and typically took the form of a flame-halo, as opposed to a circular halo (pictured here) more common in Buddhist and Christian art. 13

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and captivating teachers who employ various methods to deliver their message, such as the use of parables. Religious teachings from spiritual guides similarly use allegorical tales to help people understand the nature of faith and spirituality. For example, in the Jatakas, an early Buddhist collection of stories and fables narrating the previous births of the Buddha, we see various parables employed to teach lessons. One such example is the parable concerning a mango tree where the Buddha advises a local king that his mangoes have lost their sweetness due to the tree’s proximity to bitter fruit.2 The moral of the story is that the people and things we surround ourselves with affect who we are; if we keep company with those who are miserly or rude, we may very well become miserly and rude ourselves. This brief example demonstrates how religious teachers incorporate philosophical meaning into seemingly simply parables, which is a recurring feature of prophetic teaching. A prophet wants people to change how they behave and to develop a deeper relationship with the Divine, or here, a deeper philosophical understanding of existence. In order for people to hear their message, prophets make their ethical framework as accessible as possible. They do not engage in deep theological or philosophical discussions on the nature of ethics, but instead they narrate stories. Traditionally, prophet-teachers may also introduce a code of conduct or law that their followers can live by. This law may be divinely instituted and specific,

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as we find in Judaism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism, or it may be a more general ethical code, as is the case in Buddhism and Christianity. Regardless of the extent of the codification of these rules, the prophet-teacher establishes the law and practice of the community and conducts that code in their own life. Both forms of teaching – establishing a law and conveying didactic stories – can be seen in the way prophets interact with their communities. However, the nature of the world sometimes requires a more direct approach in the form of a strong leader. The Bible includes a number of heroic prophets and leaders to this effect.3 There is Moses, who challenges the authority of the Pharaoh to set the Hebrews free, leading his people out of Egypt and defeating the Pharaoh and his army in the Red Sea. There is Samson, the strong muscular man who is seemingly invincible, but when his lover, Delilah, discovers that his strength is found in his hair, she cuts it and has him arrested. Yet, even in his weakest moment he sacrifices himself and pulls down the pagan temple walls on top of himself. Then there is Esther, one of the seven biblical women prophets in rabbinic Judaism, who risked her own life to save her community during their exile in Babylon. And finally, there is David, the young hero who defeats the mighty giant Goliath, and assumes his role as King of Israel. If we look to images of prophet-heroes in the secular world, feature films often depict these figures as all-conquering, powerful, and muscular action-heroes: Russell

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Crowe in Darren Aronofsky’s Noah (2014) and Amin Zendegani in Shahriar Bahrani’s The Kingdom of Solomon (2010) are two recent examples, but the prophet-hero in epic cinema is by no means a new phenomenon. Nor are such strong and formidable characters unique to the Bible or the Qur’an. Rather, they can be seen in figures like Gilgamesh, the ancient Mesopotamian hero-king and protagonist of the Epic of Gilgamesh, as well as Arjuna, one of the five Pandava princes in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Strong and formidable leaders play an important part in the formation of a community’s identity. In the case of prophets in religion, their strength and victories are understood as a sign of God’s support. The Prophet Muhammad is by no means an exception, and is often cast as the Muslim community’s hero, fighting for justice and defending the faith against external aggressors.4 The difficulty and hardship for prophets delivering a religious message is that, in its very nature, the role sets the prophet in opposition to local beliefs, powers, and ways of living. As someone who is upsetting the status quo, a prophet is often cast as an outsider or a troublemaker. As an example, both the Bible and later Muslim literature portray John the Baptist as a wild outsider, challenging the community in Jerusalem on their faith and their actions. In the Gospels, John is described as a stern man living in the desert, clothed in coarse garments made from camel’s hair and wearing a leather belt. He preaches violently and speaks harshly of the

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local ruler, Herod, who sees him as such a threat that he sends John to prison and ultimately has him put to death. While the role of a prophet came with challenges – often in the form of ostracization – their status as an outsider, without a vested interest in the status quo, meant that they could condemn the abuses they saw and urge people to change. Prophets in the Abrahamic Traditions All the elements of prophecy in religion that we have seen so far extend to the prophets in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, otherwise known as the Abrahamic faiths. For Jews, Christians, and Muslims, a prophet, as a messenger of the Divine, bridges the gap between the heavenly and earthly realms. In these traditions, it is not uncommon for a prophet to be transported to heaven to witness the great marvels it contains. In the Bible, for example, the prophets Ezekiel and Daniel, and the disciple John, are all associated with visions of the otherworldly. They see strange creatures with wings, they have prophetic dreams, and they converse with angels who guide them through heaven. In later Jewish and Christian traditions, a whole body of literature emerges around the figure of Enoch, who ascends to heaven and receives revelation from God. The role of the prophet-mystic is to impart knowledge of God to their followers, and to reveal the true nature of the Divine so that they may share in the revelation and mercy of God. Mysticism is often associated with the

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notion of unveiling; through contemplative and spiritual exercises, a mystic can gain knowledge of God. By unveiling the nature of the Divine to people, a prophet facilitates a deeper and closer relationship between God and humanity. As this book continues, we will see that this becomes an important aspect of Muhammad’s identity for the many Muslims around the world. Prophets in the Abrahamic faiths tend to assume their roles as a result of a sudden calling. While there are many accounts about the miracles surrounding a prophet’s birth, there is little interest in the way in which these prophets grow into their roles. For example, in the Gospels there is little about Jesus’s childhood. The Gospel accounts quickly move forward in time to the preaching of John the Baptist and the start of Jesus’s ministry. Similarly, this can be seen in the life of Muhammad who receives revelation at the age of 40 and becomes a prophet. Muslim sources do not detail much about Muhammad’s childhood and early life because Muhammad is not the main actor; rather, it is God and God’s calling of Muhammad that is of importance. The emphasis, then, is on Muhammad’s mission and the message from God that he preaches. Unlike the protagonists in the popular stories we saw earlier, prophecy in the Abrahamic context is largely concerned with communities. Although religious communities will tell stories about their founders, these are always told within the broader context of the message that they

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delivered, the community that they founded, and the code of life that the message brought about. For these communities, the crucial elements of a prophet’s legacy are the teachings they impart; it is, after all, the message that lives on after a prophet dies, and which continues to have a profound impact on faith communities today. For adherents of the Abrahamic faiths, the divine world is eternal and infinite, but the human realm is finite. Eschatology, the study of the ‘end times’, places human existence within temporal bounds. Jewish, Christian, and Muslim texts describe the end of the world as a moment of great cataclysm and turmoil. Before the ‘Last Day’ the world will be ravaged by war and disease, the earth will shake, mountains will fall to the ground, and the heavens will be ripped open as angels descend to earth in their thousands. In short, the end of the world is deeply traumatic. Just as we saw how climate change activists use imagery of the planet’s destruction to illustrate their cause, a similar technique is employed in religious descriptions of the end of time. The graphic scenes here demonstrate God’s sovereignty and power over the universe: just as God created the world, God can end it too. Following the catastrophic events of the Last Day, the important theological concept of resurrection and judgement comes into play. These two ideas underpin Abrahamic understandings of prophecy, distinguishing them from the secular

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ideas we saw earlier. The theory of divine judgement holds individuals personally accountable for their actions, which is supposed to transform the ways in which they act in this world. If we look at the way that environmentalist discourses frame the need for change, they often turn to arguments of equality among nations so that less developed countries are not adversely affected and argue that there is an ethical duty to preserve the environment for future generations. Muslims and Christians invoke these ideas too, however, there is arguably an additional sense of obligation in that God will hold each of them accountable for how they looked after the world.5 Here, moral duty is intertwined with personal accountability in a way that is not found in secular thought. The theme of judgement is prevalent in the Bible and the Qur’an and can inform the ways in which Jews, Christians, and Muslims behave in a positive manner. A Prophet in Arabia In Islam, the world of seventh-century Arabia plays an important part in the conception of prophecy and prophethood. The advent of Islam has often been associated with its desert surroundings – the rich, verdant visions of paradise in the Qur’an standing in stark contrast to the harshness of desert life. But more importantly, the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad within a specific social, religious, and political context. Like all prophets, Muhammad did not preach in a vacuum; he engaged directly with the

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world around him, challenging the theological beliefs of local people and speaking out against the corruption and inequalities of Arabian society. As we explore Muhammad’s prophethood, we will see the ways in which this context had a profound impact on the events in his life and the teachings he espoused. These, in turn, influenced the perception of Muhammad in his community, as well as the thousands of generations that followed.

Figure 3. Early 20th-Century Calligraphic Composition This calligraphic panel features Muhammad’s name repeated four times in gold ink. Produced in Iran, the piece uses the earliest form of Arabic script, Kufic, but in its geometric version, square Kufic, which was developed in the 12th century. The name of Muhammad circles a single dot at the centre of the piece, arguably representative of the one God.

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We have seen that the main function of a prophet is to bring about change – so what changes did the Qur’an and Muhammad’s prophethood introduce? The most important is the Qur’anic conception of tawhid, the oneness of God. The Qur’an rejected other gods, particularly those worshipped by the local Arabian tribes.6 According to the Qur’an, man-made idols contravened the worship of the one true God. Such strong concerns about the dangers of idol worship would later contribute to the development of a theological position in Islam, in which some groups believed that representations of living beings, most notably the Prophet Muhammad, were prohibited. The Qur’an also strongly condemned the corruption of Arabian society and the abuse of those outside of the tribal structures. Indeed, much of the Qur’an is devoted to the advocacy of a fairer and more just social and economic system. This message of social justice is framed within the notion of divine judgement. All people will, the Qur’an says, be held accountable and judged for their deeds on earth. Their treatment of others, especially those less fortunate than themselves, will not go unnoticed, for God is all-seeing and all-knowing. The idea of judgement was not prevalent in Arabia and came as something of a shock to most of the local communities. Another important change that Muhammad ushered in concerned aspects of worship and ritual. While some of these appear to have been adapted from pre-Islamic practices, many were new and would have presented a significant

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spiritual shift to local customs. It requires no stretch of the imagination to understand why Muhammad would encounter resistance and even physical hostility. Prophetic ideas, especially the abandonment of the worship of idols and social and economic corruption, are themes that both the Qur’anic and biblical prophets preach. While the Qur’an and the Bible hold several prophets in common, there are many prophets in the Bible who are not mentioned in the Qur’an. Isaiah, for example, is an extremely important prophet in the Bible who does not appear in the Qur’an, and only appears as a marginal figure in later Muslim literature. Conversely, there are three prophets who feature in the Qur’an who are not part of the biblical tradition, namely Hud, Salih, and Shu‘ayb, who are often referred to as the ‘Arabian prophets’.7 The inclusion of the Arabian prophets is important: not only does it tell us that prophets were sent to Arabia before Muhammad, but it establishes the Qur’anic prophetic tradition as similar, but not identical, to the biblical tradition. In the Qur’an, the Arabian prophet Shu‘ayb is sent to the people of Midian to speak out against the moral corruption of society. In his call to the Midianites, he says: ‘My people, worship God; you have no other god but He. A clear sign has come to you from your Lord, so be fair in weights and measures, and do not cheat people of their rights. Do not corrupt the land once it has been set right.

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This is better for you if you are true believers. Do not sit by every roadside and obstruct the way to God for those who believe in Him, seeking to turn that way crooked. Remember when you were few and God increased you in number.’ (Q. 7:85–86)

Here the prophet Shu‘ayb denounces the use of false weights and measures to defraud people in the markets, as well as those seeking personal financial gain at the expense of others. Their wrongdoing is not simply called out as ethically poor, but Shu‘ayb frames his arguments in the context of belief in the one God, reminding people of the things that God has done for them in the past. We saw earlier how social activists have long campaigned for fairness and equality, but here, as in other religious texts, social justice is intrinsic to faith and belief. Shu‘ayb goes on to remind his people that they will be held to account for what they do in this life (Q. 7:87). These ideas, even the quite specific idea of not defrauding others with false weights and measures, can be seen in the Bible too, particularly in the preaching of Micah.8 Although the Bible and the Qur’an can, at times, appear different and can include different prophets, it is important to remember that they share many common values. Significantly, the prophet Abraham comes to represent a shared tradition between the Bible and the Qur’an. In the Qur’an, Abraham makes a journey to Mecca with his son Ishmael to build and purify the Ka‘ba. Today, the Ka‘ba, often

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referred to as Bayt Allah (‘God’s house’), plays a central part in the Muslim experience: it is the direction toward which Muslims pray to God five times a day, and is the focal point of circumambulation during the annual pilgrimage, hajj. Located in Mecca, and with a long history of Arab worship associated with it, the Ka‘ba is quintessentially Arab – it is an Arab shrine in the heart of Arabia. However, the inextricable link between the Ka‘ba and Abraham establishes

Figure 4. Photographic View of the Ka‘ba, Mecca Pilgrims pictured in the late 19th century at the holy sanctuary in Mecca. Titled Prayers around the Ka‘ba, this is one of the earliest photographs of the Ka‘ba, taken by Abd al-Ghaffar, who is often credited as the first resident photographer to capture the holy site, in the 1880s.

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a shared heritage between Arabia, which came to be the focus of Muhammad’s mission, and the prophets of the Bible. The Qur’an tells its early Arab audience that although they may have forgotten God, God had not forgotten them, and has sent prophets to them, and every people, in the past. For the Qur’an, the prophetic tradition was as much a part of Arabian religious and spiritual history as it was for Jews and Christians. In a passage in Surat al-Baqara, the longest sura, or chapter, of the Qur’an, Abraham says a prayer as he and Ishmael build the Ka‘ba. His prayer encapsulates the idea of the prophet as a teacher and spiritual guide, and foreshadows the coming of Muhammad: ‘Our Lord, send them a messenger, of their number, Who shall recite to them Your verses, Teaching them the Book and the Wisdom, And who shall purify them. You are the Almighty, the All-Wise.’ (Q. 2:129)

This verse reveals an important theme in the Qur’an about the raising up of a prophet from among the community. God does not send messengers from elsewhere but calls one of their own people to speak out against their injustices. Muhammad was an Arab who was sent to the Arab people at a specific time and place, but with a message that was for all people and generations to come. Through Abraham’s prayer we are also reminded of the prophetic role as one of teaching and instruction, but also wisdom. What

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is meant by wisdom here is faith and religious practice, the knowledge of the love and mercy of God. The role of the prophet is to teach ethical practice and establish good conduct, but a prophet is also there to disclose the mysteries of God and to bring about change within individuals that is transformative and permanent. The core message of Islam is submission to God – indeed, that is what ‘islam’ literally means in Arabic. To submit oneself to God is not a simple task and is one that requires a teacher. For Muslims, Muhammad is the ultimate guide to embark on this journey with. One trend that will become quickly apparent as this book develops is the tension between two different poles in Muhammad’s prophethood. The first is rooted in the local Arabian context, inclusive of the specific cultural norms, values and expectations of its tribal communities. The revelation of the Qur’an challenged many of these, but it also operated within them too. The second pole is rooted in Jewish and Christian conceptions of prophethood and prophecy. The Qur’an tells us that Muhammad is the last prophet, the ‘seal of the prophets’, standing in a long line of prophets that God has sent to humanity throughout history. This means that Muhammad is explicitly linked to the Jewish and Christian traditions and understandings of prophecy. As we will see, the imagery used to describe Muhammad’s prophetic experience is held in common with Jewish and Christian thought.

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While the origins of prophecy in Arabia resided with the Arabian prophets and was therefore an ancient phenomenon, the message Muhammad brought was very much new, as it challenged contemporary beliefs and values. In a similar way, Muhammad’s prophethood is framed as being both a part of Arab culture and the biblical tradition. These aspects of Muhammad’s prophetic experience, the Arab and the biblical, are not in conflict with one another, but work in tandem to create a new, Muslim conception of prophecy and prophethood.

Chapter 2 Writing the Life of Muhammad

One of the many problems that historians of religion face is the question of sources. Generally, the leader of a new religion begins life on the margins of society, meaning that details of their life are recorded by later generations, once the religion has been established. This is certainly the case for the life of Jesus, where many of the accounts of his life – primarily, but not exclusively, the Gospels – emerged a generation after his ministry. To some extent, this is also the case for the life of Muhammad. This can create difficulties for a historian because the sources present the life of a founding figure in light of the established beliefs and practices of the faith community. The portrayals and descriptions of Muhammad are inextricably linked to the vision of Islam and the ideals that its communities have held and continue to hold. I use ‘communities’ intentionally here because Islam is not a homogenous entity, but rather it comprises diverse communities that can hold quite different beliefs. Even within some Muslim groups, opinions and ideas can change over time; the context and outlook of a Muslim community in the 10th century is vastly different to the same Muslim community of the 21st century. 29

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Born in the 6th century in the Hijaz region of western Arabia, Muhammad is rooted in a fixed time and space. However, the way Muslims engage with him as a spiritual figure remains dynamic, changing from one person to another and from one generation to the next. This might seem strange to some people, but understanding this fluidity is an important part of knowing who Muhammad was, and is, to Muslims around the world. It is possible to draw some similarities between this idea and the Qur’an. The text itself is fixed: it is historical in the sense that it was revealed in a specific time and place. But the tradition of interpreting the Qur’an, known as tafsir (or ta’wil in some Muslim communities), encompasses a whole range of ideas that are used to articulate and propose a spectrum of differing theological and legal beliefs. The text of the Qur’an may be static, but the interpretative tafsir tradition is fluid and can change from one age to the next. When exploring the life of Muhammad, it is necessary to hold this tension between the static historical Muhammad and his more dynamic reception among Muslim communities. Historical Biographies of the Prophet The brief biography of Muhammad that follows is based on the pre-eminent historical biography titled Sirat Rasul Allah (‘The Life of the Messenger of God’), commonly referred to as the Sira. This work provides a chronological account of Muhammad’s life from his birth until his

Figure 5. Ottoman Hilya of the Prophet Muhammad A hilya refers to both the Ottoman literary genre and calligraphic art form that describe the appearance and characteristics of the Prophet Muhammad. In its artistic form, a hilya followed a standard layout which could be framed and presented in houses as symbols of Muhammad’s presence that were believed to provide protection. The 19th-century hilya pictured here depicts a list of Muhammad’s qualities given by his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib (601–661), a prayer invoking the protection of the Prophet, as well as a view of the holy sanctuary at Mecca. 31

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death. It is based on accounts from those who knew the Prophet during his lifetime, which were then passed down orally to successive generations, who, in turn, transmitted these accounts to those who followed. These recorded traditions – known in Islam as hadith – formed the basis of this classical biography and were compiled by a Muslim historian and traditionist (that is, someone who collected, studied, and transmitted hadith) called Ibn Ishaq (d. 767). Ibn Ishaq’s Sira was supplemented by the work of another scholar called Ibn Hisham (d. 834) – it is only the latter edition that has survived. The observant will notice that these early scholars died around 100–200 years after Muhammad, resulting in a significant gap between the Prophet’s death and the first accounts of his life in writing. For more sceptical historians, the delay between the creation of a written biography and the actual life of the Prophet has proven problematic, with some questioning the reliability of this material. For the most part, and particularly among Muslims, the traditions that were passed down via chains of transmission are regarded as authentic descriptions and accounts of Muhammad’s life. In spite of the significant hiatus, Ibn Ishaq and Ibn Hisham’s Sira can still tell us much about Muhammad’s life, and, more importantly, how he was regarded and perceived by the nascent Muslim community. For the purpose of this book some key events have been omitted from the summary of Muhammad’s life that follows; other books that present

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chronological accounts of the Prophet’s life in more depth, and from different perspectives, are readily available.1 The Life of Muhammad The traditional biography of Muhammad begins in what was known as the ‘Year of the Elephant’. This was the year a Yemeni king, called Abraha, invaded Mecca with an army that included a cavalry of elephants. The precise date of this event is unknown, but it is usually dated to somewhere around 570. The event was significant in local Meccan memory, and it is the year in which Muslim tradition says Muhammad was born. According to legend, the Christian King Abraha sought to defeat Mecca, so marched on the city with his army that included a war-elephant named Mahmud. However, when the detachment reached Mecca, Mahmud refused to enter the city because of its sanctity, arguably because of Muhammad’s presence. As a result, Abraha returned to Yemen failing to defeat the Meccans. The fact that Muhammad was born amid such a miraculous event is often portrayed as a sign of the great figure that he was to become. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad’s parents were called Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (d. ca. 571) and Amina bint Wahb (d. 577). They both belonged to the Quraysh tribe, one of the dominant mercantile tribes in Mecca. Since his birth, Muhammad’s place in society was firmly within the local Meccan elite, so his later criticisms of Meccan society would be seen

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Figure 6. Depiction of King Abraha’s Attack on Mecca This miniature from al-Damiri’s (d. 1405) Hayat al-Hayawan (‘Lives of the Animals’) pictures the circle of elephants that formed a part of King Abraha’s cavalry during the attack on Mecca in around 570, the same year Muhammad is believed to have been born.

as personal attacks against his own family and tribe. Muhammad’s father, Abd Allah, died before Muhammad was born, and so Muhammad was raised within the household of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib (d. 578). Tragedy struck

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Muhammad soon after, with his mother dying when he was just six years old, followed by the death of his grandfather two years later. Muhammad was then fostered by his paternal uncle, Abu Talib (ca. 540–619) – a man who would become a central figure in Muhammad’s life in the years to come. The early years of Muhammad were ones of sorrow and hardship; he had a difficult childhood and suffered great losses. In Surat al-Duha of the Qur’an, God reminds Muhammad of his hardships during this period, assuring him that he was never left abandoned and was always under God’s protection: ‘Did He not find you an orphan, And sheltered you? And found you erring, And guided you? And found you dependent, And enriched you?’ (Q. 93:6–8). Beyond the relative hardship of his early childhood, we know very little about Muhammad’s early life. He grew up in Mecca and is said to have gained a reputation for his integrity, trustworthiness, and honourable character. Consequently, a local businesswoman, Khadija bint Khuwaylid (555–619), contracted Muhammad to work for her as a merchant: Muhammad would travel between Syria and Mecca selling and buying goods. On his expeditions to Syria, Muhammad encountered other peoples, races, and religions, and heard stories recounted about the prophets of the past and of God’s interaction with the world. After some years, Khadija proposed to Muhammad, and they married. While sources remain divided

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on the number of children they had, most noteworthy to mention is their daughter, Fatima (ca. 615–632), who would later become an important figure in the Islamic tradition as an exemplar for women and mother to the Prophet’s grandsons, Hasan (624–670) and Husayn (626–680). It was in 610 that Muhammad received his first revelation in an encounter on a mountain outside of Mecca, called Jabal al-Nur (‘the Mountain of Light’). The traditional Muslim accounts state that even before the revelation of the Qur’an, Muhammad was a pious man who used to seclude himself in a cave and devote himself to prayer. It was during one of these moments of seclusion in the cave of Hira that the angel Gabriel appeared to him and said, ‘Recite, in the name of your Lord!’ (Q. 96:1). Overwhelmed by the experience, Muhammad returned to Khadija, who comforted him. She took him to see her cousin, a Christian priest named Waraqa ibn Nawfal (d. ca. 610), who confirmed that Muhammad had seen an angel and had received a revelation from God. Although a few people close to Muhammad accepted his prophetic message and embraced Islam – most notably his wife Khadija, his cousin and future son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib (601–661), and his close friend Abu Bakr (573– 634) – Muhammad kept his experience of the revelation largely private. Three years later, in 613, Muhammad received a revelation to declare his message in public. The following period was one of great drama and challenge.

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Figure 7. Photographic View from Jabal al-Nur, near Mecca Today, pilgrims continue to gather on Jabal al-Nur, ‘the Mountain of Light’, so called because it is where Muhammad received the first revelation in the cave of Hira. In the Qur’an, light is often used to describe God and God’s revelation; most famously, the opening of the ‘Light Verse’ states, “God is the light of the heavens and the earth . . . “ (Q. 24:35).

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When Muhammad began to preach openly in Mecca, his message was not well received by all. For many, he was a nuisance and a troublemaker, challenging the old, established ways of the community. Muhammad was largely protected by his uncle Abu Talib, who prevented other Meccans from attacking him. However, the same protection was not afforded to all. Some early converts to Islam, especially those from less well-established and noble families, had to flee persecution and sought refuge in the Christian Kingdom of Aksum (present-day Eritrea and north Ethiopia). Muhammad preached against the corruption and abuses of outcasts in Meccan society and warned the community of the punishment that awaits those who did not worship the one God, Allah, the creator of the heavens and the earth. This continued until 619, known as the ‘Year of Sorrow’, when both Muhammad’s wife Khadija and his uncle Abu Talib died. With Abu Talib’s death, Muhammad lost the person who had provided him the protection that he needed, and his life was now endangered. With the death of Khadija, he lost the woman who had supported him throughout his life and encouraged him when he first received the revelation from God. Muhammad would later remarry the daughter of Abu Bakr, A’isha bint Abi Bakr (d. 678), who became particularly important as a transmitter of hadith. Over the course of the next three years, Muhammad sought refuge with other communities in the Hijaz, particularly the Arab community

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in Ta’if, east of Mecca. The hope was that Muhammad would be able to establish a community of Muslims elsewhere, free from persecution. However, negotiations with Ta’if fell through, and it was instead the Arab and Jewish communities of Yathrib, north of Mecca, that extended a welcome to Muhammad and his followers. The agricultural settlement of Yathrib, soon to be called Medina (meaning ‘city’ in Arabic), gave Muhammad and his followers the

Figure 8. Map of 7th-Century Arabia and the Hijaz Region

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peace and security that they needed. Eventually, in 622, Muhammad completed the emigration, or hijra, to Medina – it is from this year that the Islamic calendar begins. Once established in Medina, the Muslim community, or umma, began to take shape. Muhammad received revelations that provided guidance on how the community should behave and function. The Prophet created a document known as the ‘Constitution of Medina’, which explained how all the different groups living in Medina – the Muslims who had migrated from Mecca, those newly converted to Islam in Medina, and the existent Jewish tribes – should interact with each other. The new community was born. These two distinct periods in Muhammad’s life and prophethood – his time in Mecca and his time in Medina – are apparent in the revelation of the Qur’an itself. The passages revealed during his time in Mecca are short, very dramatic, and are highly critical of the Meccans’ corrupt ways, namely their mistreatment of the disadvantaged and their forgetfulness of God. In Mecca, the revelations of the Qur’an show a preacher engaging and challenging the community around him on matters of spiritual beliefs and ethical values. The revelations during Muhammad’s time in Medina are notably different: the suras are longer and they principally seek to teach and establish the codification of ethical principles. The Medinan suras contain passages detailing how the community should be governed, with rulings provided in the realms of civil, criminal, and

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ritual law. What we see in these Medinan suras are revelations that seek to build the emerging Muslim community by establishing its ethical values and communal rituals. In the ten-year period between the creation of the Muslim community in 622 and Muhammad’s death in 632, the Meccans and the Muslims were in a state of war. The Meccans intended to destroy the Muslim community and re-establish the old ways throughout the Arabian Peninsula. Skirmishes frequently broke out, with three key battles taking place: the Battle of Badr in 624 where the Muslims secured their first victory, the Battle of Uhud in 625 where the Muslims suffered a major defeat, and the Battle of the Trench in 627, in which the Muslims successfully defended Medina from a ferocious Meccan attack. These three battles were significant moments in a string of hostilities that were maintained throughout the period. In 630, Muhammad eventually conquered Mecca, and the Muslims were established as the political, as well as religious, leaders in the region. Muhammad then negotiated treaties with other Arabian tribes, who also converted to Islam and joined the community. The year 632 also marked Muhammad’s final pilgrimage, or hajj, to Mecca. The ‘Farewell Pilgrimage’, as it is known, was when Muhammad established the complex rites and rituals of the annual Muslim pilgrimage, which the Muslim community continued after his death. The Farewell Pilgrimage is also important for a series of sermons that Muhammad preached

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Figure 9. Painting of the Prophet’s Tomb at Medina A 19th-century painting from India of the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina, including the large courtyard in which worshippers would gather, and the green dome that houses the Prophet’s tomb.

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as he returned to his home in Medina. Notably, at an oasis called Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad took his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib by the hand and said, ‘To whoever I am a mawla, Ali is also their mawla.’ The term mawla can mean both ‘lord’ and ‘trusted friend’ – so was Muhammad designating Ali as his successor, or was this simply a sign of Ali’s senior status in the community? Following the Prophet Muhammad’s death a few months later, this matter generated a great deal of debate and contention among Muslims when determining who should lead the community as Muhammad’s successor, the caliph, or khalifa. Some believed that Muhammad had designated Ali as his spiritual and political successor at Ghadir Khumm by divine command, while others believed succession rested with one of the Prophet’s senior companions, Abu Bakr. Those that supported Ali, the shi‘at Ali (literally, ‘the party of Ali’) later became known as Shi‘is and believed in the succession of a chosen line of descendants from the Household of the Prophet, the ahl al-bayt. Meanwhile those who believed in the succession of the Prophet’s companions became known, in time, as Sunnis, so named for their belief in Muhammad’s established way of living, the sunna. On his death, according to the customs and rituals that Muhammad had established for his community, he was buried in the Holy Mosque in Medina – the very city where the Muslim community came into being and which remains frequented by millions of Muslims today.

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The Lives of Muhammad When dealing with the leader of a religious community like Muhammad, it is important to acknowledge that perceptions and accounts of their life are established in the context of a faith perspective. A story about a founder, religious or not, is usually told by someone who is part of the same, continuing story, whether they lived many centuries later or even if they are alive today. A religious leader also becomes the symbol and representative of the community. On the one hand, this has led to a deep reverence of Muhammad as the one who taught people how to form a meaningful relationship with God; on the other hand, it exposed Muhammad to vicious attacks from those outside of the community. Over the centuries, many non-Muslims wrote accounts of the Prophet and his life that were openly hostile to Islam and criticized Muhammad personally. They were often written by people who had a polemical objective to denigrate both Islam and its Prophet and who benefited from doing so.2 It is not uncommon to see a similar trend across some contemporary works and media outlets today. While writing or thinking about history is often believed to be a dispassionate enterprise, philosophers have shown that history is not simply a recounting of the past, but it is a product of our own worlds, our own problems, and our own ways of thinking.3 The way we look at the past is deeply affected by who we are, making it an undeniably personal

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experience. Kecia Ali, a prominent scholar in the field of Islamic studies and Islamic law, published a book in 2014 entitled The Lives of Muhammad. The book outlines the history of responses, both Muslim and non-Muslim, to the life of Muhammad. In her introduction, Ali notes that ‘[f]ar from being uniform or unchanging, both non-Muslim and Muslim views of Muhammad have been diverse, multifaceted, and subject to dramatic changes over the centuries.’4 Since writing or contemplating history is a personal experience, there are, as Ali rightly points out, many ‘lives’ of the Prophet, each viewing Muhammad’s life through the lenses of different beliefs and concerns. Recent biographies of the Prophet written by Muslim authors offer a range of different perspectives. For instance, Martin Lings (d. 2005), a convert to Islam in 1938, is the author of one of the most popular contemporary biographies of the Prophet, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources.5 Lings became a leading and well-respected Sufi teacher, or shaykh, among British Muslims, and when he came to write a biography of the Prophet he chose to create a narrative bringing together early Muslim sources: the Qur’an, early biographies of the Prophet (known collectively as the sira literature), as well as the wider hadith literature. Lings’s approach sought to root the Prophet’s biography in the traditions and voices of the early Muslim community. However, the life of Muhammad has also been presented in the development of new movements.

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In his Memories of Muhammad: Why the Prophet Matters, Omid Safi, one of the leading figures in the ‘progressive Islam’ movement, explores the way Muhammad’s life presents Muslims with a model for the development of a contemporary spiritual life.6 Safi begins by introducing the life of Muhammad in the context of the prevalent anti-Muslim discourses in the United States. Muslims do not live or worship in a vacuum, but rather have to sustain and develop their faith and spirituality in the midst of increased media attention and various political agendas. For Safi, the figure of Muhammad provides the means through which Muslims can negotiate this complex space between faith and life in an inherently antagonistic climate. These are just three of the vast number of books written about the life of Muhammad, yet they illustrate the range of approaches that different authors have taken, and how an author’s experiences and concerns inform how they engage with the life of Muhammad. The way contemporary biographers of the Prophet bring their own experiences into their writing is just as true of classical biographers. Therefore, when we read different accounts of Muhammad’s life, we need to bear in mind that these biographies and sources are influenced by both the theological and political circumstances of the time, together with the personal views of the author. Writing history, whether now or 1,000 years ago, is not a passive, neutral enterprise. Similarly, it is always worth reflecting on our own beliefs, ideologies, and emotions that we

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bring to a text when reading it. While we cannot abandon who we are, being aware of our ways of thinking can help us understand how we are engaging with a text in particular way, and it may even cause us to question why we do so. Two Types of History, Two Types of Prophet If accounts of Muhammad’s life are influenced by an author’s context and motivations, can we ever really know who Muhammad was? The simple answer is that we can only know who Muhammad was to the extent of what has been written about his life. However, this simple answer needs to be clarified by two, much more difficult, questions. First, how can we know that the sources about his life are reliable? (And what, even, do we mean by reliable?) Second, is knowing the way in which millions of Muslims regard Muhammad the same as knowing who Muhammad was? Because Muhammad is both a prophet of the past and someone whom the Muslim community believes received revelations from God, there is a need to explore his life from two very different angles: the historical and the theological. A purely historical approach is an attempt to understand the life of Muhammad through events such as his birth, in a neutral, factual way – what, in German, is called Weltgeschichte, or ‘world history’. Weltgeschichte is concerned with the realm of fact and determining what really happened. As we have seen, scholars face certain challenges when dealing with written sources of

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the past and have often questioned the degree to which we are able to know historic events and figures. Nevertheless, it is still possible to create a narrative by comparing, contrasting, and evaluating the different sources that are available. Typically, Weltgeschichte concerns itself with events on the ground: the worlds of politics, military action, and social life. Another way of exploring history, which is usually regarded as conflicting with Weltgeschichte, would be an exploration of the Prophet’s birth, or other such events, from a religious and spiritual perspective. There is a word for this in German too: Heilsgeschichte, meaning ‘holy history’, or more commonly in English, ‘sacred history’. This is based on a religious idea that all history is part of a movement in the direction towards a closer relationship with God, and that all things lead to this point. In this way, the prophets of the past are understood in Islam as forerunners of Muhammad, with Muhammad the culmination, or seal, of all the prophets who preceded him. A sacred historical approach also extends beyond the life of Muhammad to the life of the community itself. As its founder, the Prophet is intrinsically attached to the consciousness of the community. This is important because many of the Muslims who wrote accounts of Muhammad’s life wrote at the height of the Muslim Empire, when Islam had been victorious and had expanded into most of the known world, from Spain in the West to Iran and Central Asia in the East. Thus,

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Muslim power and culture were often portrayed through the lens of sacred history, in that Muslim advancements were a result of the inevitable and divinely ordained plan that began with the mission and preaching of Muhammad. When dealing with the history of a religion – whether a believing member of the community or not – it can be difficult to negotiate the tensions between Weltgeschichte and Heilsgeschichte, between the history of ‘fact’ and the history of ‘faith’. The general approach to the study of Islam in universities, especially by non-Muslims, but, indeed, many contemporary Muslims too, has been firmly within the realm of Weltgeschichte. There has been a tendency to eschew the spiritual side of early Islamic history, and focus on the military, social, and political aspects of Muhammad’s prophethood and life. However, to separate the spiritual and political facets from accounts of Muhammad’s life can be deeply problematic. The Canadian literary theorist and Christian minister, Northrop Frye, made a similar point when discussing history and the Bible. He argued that it is difficult to assess religious texts like the Bible from a world-historical, factual approach because historical texts and religious texts are trying to do two very different things.7 A historical account of an event or a person is trying to establish what happened or what someone was like; whereas a religious text does this within the frame of a divine plan and the context of a theological discourse, offering an

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account of history that articulates underlying dogmatic beliefs. So, as Frye argues, you cannot ask the same questions of these two different types of text. Asking historical questions about a scripture will not provide all the necessary answers, just as asking theological questions of a historical text may prove fruitless. In one account of the Battle of Badr, where the early Muslim community fought the Meccans, we can clearly see this tension between world history and sacred history. In some accounts, three principal archangels – Gabriel, Michael, and Israfil – are described as descending from heaven to assist in the battle.8 While the presence of angels at the Battle of Badr is impossible to defend historically, the accounts describe the angels as a sign of God’s presence and support of the Muslims as they fought their Meccan adversaries. The question then of whether angels really did come down is a matter of faith and belief and would not necessarily be of importance to a historian. However, from the perspective of sacred history, the appearance of the angels is a clear example of divine intervention and support. As we explore the life of the Prophet Muhammad, we need to be aware of the tensions between these two types of history. Reading with an awareness of the theological elements in a text does not necessarily mean that it has to be believed – such events and supernatural happenings are a matter of faith. Equally, these accounts cannot simply be dismissed. Discerning texts about religious figures through the lens of sacred

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history can help us appreciate nuances within the texts and the spiritual significance they may have. In the case of Muhammad, who is central to the Muslim experience of God, these theological subtleties will allow us to understand his relationship to the Muslim community that has survived centuries.

Chapter 3 Prophetic Past, Prophetic Future

In many religions, the life history of a founding figure is often incorporated into scripture. The Gospels, for example, provide an account not only of Jesus’s teaching but also of his life. This is not the case in the Qur’an, which includes very few explicit references to Muhammad’s life. Instead, the Qur’an – understood to be God’s word – addresses Muhammad, both directly and indirectly. With this, and the historical and social context in which the Qur’an was revealed, we are still able to learn much from the Qur’an about the Prophet’s life. In particular, we can witness his interaction with the believing and disbelieving communities of his time, the various obstacles he faced while preaching, and even how he felt during his mission. However, most of what we know about Muhammad’s role as a prophet is presented in the Qur’an through the accounts of the prophets of the past. The Muslim vision of Muhammad’s prophethood is entwined with the lives and proclamations of the prophets of old, and vice-versa. Before we can appreciate this relationship, we must first understand why, according to the Qur’an, God sends prophets in the first place. And perhaps 52

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more importantly, what does God want to communicate? The Qur’anic Worldview In both the Bible and the Qur’an, God is the creator of the heavens and the earth, and all that exists within and between these realms. As the opening chapter of the Qur’an tells us, God is ‘Lord of the Worlds’ (Q 1:2), and as such, is sovereign of all creation. For Jews, Christians, and Muslims, God created the world for humans. We learn this in the Bible and the Qur’an through the story of Adam and his wife Eve (who is unnamed in the Qur’an). Adam and Eve enjoy the beauties and wonders of a paradise created for them, the Garden of Eden, until they are tempted by promises of wisdom and honour from a sentient being: the serpent in the account in Genesis, and a creature named Iblis in the Qur’an. For choosing to promote themselves and following their desires, rather than obeying God, Adam and Eve are expelled from the Garden. In the Qur’an, God provides Adam and his descendants an opportunity to re-enter paradise, the Garden, after being tested during a mortal life. Unlike Christian theology, Islamic thought does not consider Adam’s sin to be passed on through the generations to every human, but instead every individual is given the opportunity to submit to God. This sense of personal moral and ethical responsibility in Islam can be seen in two key terms: the first is

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Figure 10. Gardens of the Great Mosque of Paris The Qur’an tells us that believers will be rewarded with ‘the Gardens of Eden, beneath which rivers flow’ (Q. 20:76). Such descriptions of paradise have inspired Islamic architecture and gardens that attempt to create a glimpse of heaven on earth, often incorporating water. The Islamic garden and courtyard pictured here, part of the Great Mosque of Paris, is a tranquil spot in the midst of the large urban city.

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taklif, a word that describes the moral responsibility humans have for their own actions; and the second is taqwa, (meaning ‘Godconsciousness’), which conveys the idea of humans being aware of God and what God wants from humanity. Combined, these concepts encourage individuals to respond to their moral obligations and to the message of God. As we will see, these two ideas are particularly important in the context of Muhammad’s preaching to the early Meccans, who he often accuses of acting in self-interest and dismissing the existence and judgement of God. In the Qur’an, Adam is described as a khalifa (meaning a ‘vicegerent’ or ‘successor’) which points to the universal responsibility that Adam, and all of humanity, inherit. As God’s vicegerents on earth, humans are given a chance to praise and worship God and to practise the ethical values that the Qur’an espouses. This will culminate with the Day of Judgement, when the created world will come to an end and all individuals will be held accountable for their deeds and actions. The Qur’an encapsulates the beliefs and practices that God calls for in humans, as follows: Virtue does not demand of you to turn your faces eastwards or westwards. Virtue rather is: He who believes in God, the Last Day, the angels, the Book and the prophets; Who dispenses money, though dear, to kinsmen, orphans, the needy, the traveller, beggars

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and for ransom; Who performs the prayer and pays the alms; Who fulfil their contracts when they contract; Who are steadfast in hardship, calamity and danger; These are the true believers. (Q. 2:177)

While those who God deems ‘true believers’ may be rewarded paradise for eternity, others who fail to follow God’s guidance may face severe punishment. For Muslims, then, God’s communication with humankind is a sign of God’s mercy, and consequently, so too are the prophets who bring God’s messages and scripture. Indeed, the Qur’an refers to itself – among many other names – as a guidance (huda), a mercy (rahma), a healing (shifa), and a criterion (furqan). The Qur’an, as a manifest sign of God’s mercy, guides people to what it frequently describes as the straight path (al-sirat al-mustaqim), the way of God. This idea of the straight path is central to the way Islam understands the world: all people are set on the path of God, a path which is straight, but individuals are often led astray by temptations or doubts along the way. By falling foul of temptation or doubting God, people falter from this straight path. After Adam and Eve’s expulsion from the Garden, Iblis, the creature that led them to disobey God, says to God: ‘Inasmuch as You have led me astray, I shall lie in wait for them along Your straight path. Then I shall assail them from their front and from their backs, from their right and from

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their left. Nor will You find most of them to be thankful.’ (Q. 7:16–17)

In the Qur’anic worldview, it is the role of the prophets, and especially the Prophet Muhammad, to bring God’s divine message to the people and to help them remain on the straight path. As we will see, the prophets in the Qur’an achieve this both in their delivery of the actual message, but also in the way they behaved and embodied the way of living according to God’s will. Prophets in the Qur’an In the Qur’an, there are two main words for a prophet: the first is nabi, which is simply the Arabic equivalent of the word ‘prophet’. A nabi bears witness to God within a community, encouraging people to return to the faith of God, to behave correctly, and to obey the divine law. There is another type of prophet called a rasul – ‘a messenger’. A rasul does not to simply bear witness to God and encourage good conduct, but a rasul is also the bringer of a scripture (kitab). This means that a rasul is always a nabi, but a nabi is not necessarily a rasul. Moses, David, Jesus, and Muhammad are rasuls, or messengers, because they respectively brought the Torah (Tawrat), the Psalms (Zabur), the Gospel (Injil), and the Qur’an to their communities. Prophets in the Qur’an are often couched within the notions of simultaneously bringing good news and a warning: ‘We send messengers only as heralds of glad tidings and warners.

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Figure 11. Depiction of the Biblical/Qur’anic Story of Joseph A 19th-century Qajar painting of a young Joseph with his father Jacob and 11 brothers. Both the Qur’an (Q. 12) and the Bible (Genesis 37–50) tell a similar story of the prophet Joseph who is abandoned by his jealous brothers and becomes a powerful man in Egypt before eventually reuniting with his family. The Qur’anic account is unique as the only chapter in the Qur’an which is devoted to the complete narrative of a prophet.

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Whoso believes and does good deeds, no fear shall fall upon them, nor shall they grieve’ (Q. 6:48). A prophet is both a nadhir, ‘a warner’, and a bashir, ‘a bringer of good news’: they announce God’s blessings and merciful nature while warning people of the consequences of ignoring these signs and failing to change their ways. In doing so, a prophet comes to embody God’s message and is an exemplar through whom people may be led to God. We learn as much, and more, about the purpose of prophecy in the Qur’an when God speaks to Muhammad in the opening of Surat Ibrahim: Behold this Book We have sent down upon you, that you may lead mankind from darkness to light, by leave of their Lord, and onto the path of the Almighty, All-Praiseworthy – God, to Whom belongs all that is in the heavens and on earth. Woe to the Unbelievers from a terrible torment! They who fondly embrace this present life in preference to the hereafter, Who obstruct the path to God, seeking to turn it crooked – These are plunged deep in error. We sent no Messenger except with the language of his people, that he may enlighten them. Then God leads astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills. He is Almighty, All-Wise. (Q 14:2–4)

This passage contrasts the darkness of disbelief to the light of God’s path, and presents the Qur’an as a guide for those seeking the latter.

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Therefore, the sending of a messenger, specifically in the language of their people, is so that they may assist in enlightening their communities, if God so wills. What becomes clear here is that many significant beliefs about God are expressed in the notions of prophecy and the prophets. The prophet is there to proclaim God as creator of the world, God as the judge of humanity, and God as a figure of mercy and compassion. The prophets also remind people of their relationship to God by warning them that they will be held accountable for their actions in the life to come; therefore, prophets preach to provoke a positive change from their people so that they may, instead, revel in God’s rewards. Prophets for All Ages The interplay between the past, the present, and the future is a common thread in the Qur’anic conception of prophets. Prophets do not simply engage with warnings and promises of the future, but rather they evoke God’s communication with humanity through the prophets who preceded them, applying these learnings to the present time in which they preach. The Arabian prophet Hud, for example, first berates his own people, the people of Ad, for their polytheism, saying: ‘ “My people, worship God. You have no other god besides Him. Will you not be pious?” ’ (Q. 7:65). Hud goes on to address the present situation with a concise invocation of the past: ‘ “Remember how He

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made you His deputies, following the people of Noah? How he increased you in physical strength? So remember the bounties of God; perhaps you will be saved” ’ (Q. 7:69). Here, when Hud addresses the people of Ad he places their present error in light of their own history, and specifically reminds them of God’s interactions with them in the past, as well as the favours God has bestowed upon them. Finally, Hud links both the past and the present to the future: ‘ “Decreed upon you is the torment and wrath of God. Do you dispute with me over names that you and your forefathers coined, and for which no sanction has come from God?” ’ (Q. 7:71). By referring to the names, presumably of idols that the people of Ad inherited from their ancestors, Hud speaks to their heritage as a way of highlighting the urgency and significance of the present and God’s message. Like other prophets in the Qur’an, Hud presents the current actions and beliefs of his community within the context of the past and what God has already done in the world, while also looking to the future and what the consequences of those actions will be. In this way, the stories in the Qur’an of past events and prophets were relevant to the issues that were facing Arabian society when the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad. This aspect of Qur’anic time is referred to by some scholars as meta-historical, meaning that the accounts of the past are not strictly limited to the past, but are related to the moment of revelation in Mecca and to the contemporary reader all at the same

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time. This is important for our exploration of prophecy since it creates a link between all of the prophets. Though sent to different peoples and at different times, each prophet – including Muhammad – belongs to a line of prophets who preach the same divine message and uphold an essential part of human history: God’s communication with humankind. The Seal of the Prophets In the way the Qur’an presents the history of the world, humanity has moved in and out of righteousness over the course of time, and God, as an act of mercy, continually guides humanity to the straight path. This oscillation between believing and disbelieving communities somewhat resembles a cycle, which is sustained by God’s sending of prophets in the past. The prophet cycle, as we will call it, begins with God recognizing a community digressing, which is most commonly linked to the sin of shirk. Shirk, often translated as ‘associationism’, is the act of associating something or someone with God, such as other deities or idols, thus denying the core Islamic belief of the oneness of God, tawhid. Since committing shirk would lead to punishment, which God does not wish for creation, God sends communities a prophet from among them, often the most pious and devout member, to warn them of the consequences of their digressions and to remind them of God’s bounties. Some in the community listen, while others rebuke and scorn the prophet, rejecting

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Figure 12. Representation of the Prophet’s Tomb in Medina This vivid piece of religious art is typical of popular devotional imagery associated with the Prophet. This particular print from 19th-century Tunisia includes an illustration of the Prophet’s tomb with a verse from the Qur’an on the wall: ‘O Prophet, We have sent you as a witness, a herald of glad tidings and a warner . . .’ (Q. 33:45).

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the divine message that the prophet brings. In many cases, the prophet warns his community that unless they repent, a terrible disaster will come their way, but this warning is usually unheeded. Traditionally, the prophet leaves with those who are faithful, and God destroys the city or the community, by a flood, a fire, or a great wind. What remains is a community of faithful believers until humanity strays from the straight path again, and God needs to send another prophet, and so the cycle continues. This idea of the prophet cycle can be seen most clearly in Surat al-Anbiya (Q. 21), which recounts God’s interaction with the world from the beginning of creation. Surat al-Anbiya includes the stories of numerous prophets and their interactions with their respective communities: namely, Moses (vv. 48–50), Abraham (vv. 51–75), Noah (vv. 76–77), David and Solomon (vv. 78–82), Job (vv. 83–84), Ishmael and Enoch (vv. 85–86), Jonah (vv. 87–88), Zachariah (vv. 89–90), and Mary (vv. 91–93), who is also regarded, by some, as a prophet.1 The prevailing message of the sura is that God is active in the world and it is through these prophets, who declare the same message, that God continually extends guidance to humans. However, this cycle is not one that continued forever. The sending of Muhammad as the ‘seal of the prophets’ (khatam al-nabiyyin) marks the end of the cycle. The Qur’an says, ‘Muhammad is not the father of any man among you, but he is the Prophet of God and the Seal of the Prophets. God has full knowledge of all things’

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(Q. 33:40). The late-Mamluk Sunni exegete Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 1459), writing in the 15th century, comments on this verse in the Tafsir al-Jalalayn2: [Muhammad] is the Messenger of God and the Seal of the Prophets, and so he will not have a son that is a [fully grown] man to be a prophet after him . . . And God has knowledge of all things, among these is the fact that there will be no prophet after him, and even when the lord Jesus descends [at the end of days] he will rule according to his [Muhammad’s] Law.3

In the prophetic past, each prophet was sent to their specific communities; Muhammad’s message, although directed at his own community in the Arabian Peninsula, is one that is universal in conception. For Muslims, the Qur’an advocates an ethical code for life. Its universal nature means that no more messengers or prophets are necessary since a message from God for all people has been revealed. In many respects, the Qur’an becomes a nadhir and a bashir itself, adopting the role of the prophet as a warner and bringer of good news. As the communicator of this universal message, and as the ‘seal of the prophets’ – the final and ultimate prophet sent to humanity – the place of Muhammad is deeply significant. Muhammad becomes an enduring figure within the Muslim community, and the one who brings the divine message to

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people of all eras; for Muslims, the prophet now and for future generations to come is the Prophet, Muhammad. The Prophet’s Call to Change The role of any prophet is to bring about change in an individual’s relationship with God. We saw earlier that in the Qur’anic account of Adam in the Garden, the concept of taklif, individual moral responsibility, was a key strand in the way the Qur’an and Muslims view the world. Muhammad, as a prophet and messenger of God, sought to make people aware that they were both responsible for their own actions and that they would be held accountable for them after death. In his preaching, Muhammad constantly reminded the early Arabian community of the importance of what they believed and how they behaved. To the dismay of many Meccans, Muhammad said that there would be repercussions for those who ignored the call to change, but likewise, a great reward for those who heeded his warnings and amended their lives. The way that Muhammad articulated this call to change, both in the revelation of the Qur’an and in his words and actions that were handed down through the hadith, has shaped the sacred history of Islam. As we see in Surat al-Anbiya (Q. 21), the prophets were sent by God time and time again to warn people that they were responsible for their own actions. The prophets, both in the Bible and the Qur’an,

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try to bring about transformational change in the people who listen to them. They do this by engaging their audience with the Divine, condemning immoral and unethical behaviour, and giving people the chance to respond. The Qur’an clearly states that ‘there is no compulsion in religion’ (Q. 2:256), giving people a choice, which they are free to make for themselves. During his life as a prophet, Muhammad conveyed these ideas and sought to bring about change in the people he encountered in Mecca and Medina; but in his capacity as the seal of the prophets with a universal message, Muhammad continues to call people to connect, or reconnect, with God through his legacy. The theme of the prophetic call to change is particularly strong and succinct in Surat Nuh (Q. 71). The Qur’an does not always include a narrative in its entirety, and what is found here are some elements of the famous story of Noah and the Flood. However, the emphasis in Surat Nuh is not on God commanding Noah to build an ark, but on the relationship and interactions between Noah and his people. In this sura we can see how people react to Noah, his message, and the choice that he gives them. One of the most striking parts of the Qur’anic account of Noah’s preaching is his frustration with his own people. In exasperation, Noah says to God, ‘ “My Lord, I call on my people, night and day, but my call only makes them flee further away” ’ (Q. 71:5) and he turns to his people and says:

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Figure 13. Miniature of Noah and the Ark In the Qur’an, the prophet Noah is commanded to ‘. . . load up on board two of every kind, and your family . . .’ (Q. 11:40); this vibrant Turkish miniature from the 18-19th century shows Noah sailing the ark with the animals aboard. 68

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‘Why are you not in awe of God’s majesty, though he created you at every stage? Do you not see how God created seven heavens, piled one upon another, setting the moon among them as an illumination and the sun a glowing lamp?’ (Q. 71:13–16)

For Noah, God’s existence is a clear and certain reality, and the signs of God in the natural world are further proof of this; yet his people still refuse to believe. From the accounts of Muhammad’s own life, he was similarly frustrated with the people of Mecca. In Noah’s despair about his people’s ways, we can also hear Muhammad’s frustration with his own. The sin that the people of Noah are committing, the sin of shirk, is not revealed until near the end of the sura, when the people say to each other ‘ “Do not abandon your gods. Do not abandon Wadd, nor Suwa, Yaghuth, Ya‘uq, nor Nasr” ’ (Q. 71:23). Here we see Noah’s people freely choosing, indeed encouraging each other, to reject the words of Noah. It would not have been hard for the Meccans, who worshipped their own gods, to hear the message of Surat Nuh being directed at them, and there is no doubt that they similarly encouraged their peers not to abandon their gods. In this respect, we see how Noah’s message in Surat Nuh sought to highlight the importance of personal moral responsibility among his community, which is entwined with knowing, and being aware of, God’s presence.

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Revealing God’s Signs Recognizing God’s presence in the world is encapsulated in the principle of taqwa, ‘God-consciousness’. In the way the Qur’an presents God, humans, and the world, the guidance that the Qur’an and God’s prophets bring is a sign of God’s mercy. This is reflected in the Arabic word ‘aya’ (meaning ‘sign’), which is used to denote a verse in the Qur’an, alluding to the fact that each aya of the Qur’an is a sign of God’s guidance and mercy in and of itself. More widely, the signs of God, the ayat Allah, also refer to the proofs of God’s presence in the created world. An important part of a prophet’s role is often to point to these ayat Allah in order to show people God’s sovereignty and command over the world, and to inspire a consciousness of God which ultimately leads individuals to the divine path. In this sense, the idea of knowing God is important: if God is to judge humanity in a fair and equitable manner, then humans need to be aware of God’s guidance, which is revealed to humanity through the prophets and in the Qur’an. This is what Muhammad did throughout his prophethood in Arabia, which is made clear in Surat al-Ra‘d when God instructs the Prophet: Say: ‘Who is the Lord of the heavens and the earth?’ Say: ‘God!’ Say, ‘So you have taken to yourselves protectors, instead than him, such as are powerless to benefit or harm themselves? Say: ‘Is the blind man the equal of one who sees? Or is the darkness the equal of light?

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Or have they fashioned partners to God who created something similar to His creation, and so creation became a matter that perplexed them?’ Say: ‘God is the Creator of all things; He is One, Over-powering. (Q. 13:16)

The next verse goes on to discuss God’s sending down of water from the skies which brings much needed nourishment for the plants and for human life. In fact, the name of the sura takes its title from the evocative imagery of thunder (al-ra‘d) and lightning as a sign of God’s destructive and awe-inspiring power: ‘He it is Who shows you the lightning, causing both fear and expectation . . .’ (Q. 13:12). Here, lightning is a sign of God’s ability to cause destruction, but also of God’s mercy which can shower human life with hope and sustenance. A prophet’s call for people to change their lives coincides with the way they point to these signs of God. While Muhammad’s call for individuals to change is rooted in the accountability of their actions, it is the signs of God that establish why individuals should believe the divine message he is preaching. By pointing to the signs of God in creation, Muhammad, like the prophets before him, is able to confirm the reality of the message that he is delivering and encourage individuals to contemplate their relationship with God. Throughout his prophetic mission, Muhammad spoke of the proofs of God’s existence in the natural world, and the way in which his community should respond to God in

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the hope of forming a close and purposeful relationship with their creator. Inspired by the Prophet’s message, Islamic thinkers and mystics would later attempt to articulate their own relationship with the Divine. A famous example is the early Sufi saint Rabi‘a al-Adawiya (d. 801), who expressed her nuanced understanding of worshipping God in relation to the reward and punishment in the Hereafter: O Lord, if I worship you out of fear of hell, burn me in hell. If I worship you in the hope of paradise, forbid it to me. And if I worship you for your own sake, do not deprive me of your eternal beauty.4

Rabi‘a’s words echo the emotions of fear and hope that we saw in Surat al-Ra‘d: she captures the importance of developing an intimate relationship with God that is not rooted in fear of punishment or desire for the luxury of heaven, but rather in awe of and for the sake of God.

*** It is important to reflect on the way the Qur’an uses the call to change given by prophets of the past, like Abraham and Noah, to engage with the present. In the Qur’an, prophetic stories of the past are not simply stories of a bygone age, but they are powerful examples of how people responded to God in the past, which speak to the actions

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of the people of Mecca who received Muhammad’s message, as well as those who adhere to the message today. Although the Qur’an seldom mentions Muhammad directly, it is through the history of God’s communication with humanity and their responses that we can learn more about the Prophet’s role and relationship to the Muslim community. For Muslims, Muhammad remains the seal of the prophets, sent by God to guide people to the divine path. Like all prophets, Muhammad could not force people to believe in God, nor could he make people abandon their gods. But Muhammad could present the reality of God’s existence and what was expected of them. Encouraging people to reflect on the presence of God and their individual and collective responsibilities were pivotal elements to his role as a prophet and a messenger, and which continue to define who he is to Muslims throughout the world today.

Chapter 4 Divine Commission

In our age of modernity, rationalism, and science, it might be easy for some to question the presence of the supernatural, such as the existence of angels and visions of the future; however, in the medieval world the supernatural was very much a part of everyday life and informed the way people engaged with religious experience and the world around them – whether they were Jewish, Christian, Muslim, or belonged to other belief systems. As the Islamic historian Stephen Humphreys commented: Things that appear fantastic or legendary to a modern consciousness would not have seemed so among the people of early Islamic times. For them, miraculous events were an integral and even indispensable element in the life and work of any prophet. For that reason we need to take such stories seriously and not dismiss them out of hand.1

Upon the advent of Islam, ideas pertaining to the supernatural were already deeply embedded in society – so much so that Muhammad’s prophethood would often be understood in these terms. 74

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In the accounts of Muhammad’s prophethood there are many occasions where the Arabian community demanded supernatural signs from Muhammad to prove the authenticity of his prophetic calling. The Qur’an records the Meccans saying, ‘“If only a miracle were sent down upon him from his Lord!”’ (Q 6:37), then they would believe. For them, supernatural events, like miraculous healings or wondrous sights, were the proofs of divine presence on earth. As exemplified by the early Meccans, the supernatural has forever captivated communities and, in turn, has contributed to the development of religious thought. Today we can observe a common reverence for the supernatural across various belief systems that co-exist with our contemporary world of science. For the purpose of our exploration, supernatural events may be described as moments where the divine world breaks into the natural order, often subverting it; they are moments where the ‘unseen’ becomes manifest in the world of the ‘seen’. The idea of the Unseen world (al-ghayb) – including, but not limited to, the belief in God, angels, and heaven – has been a source of deep and fruitful reflection in Islamic thought. For many Muslims, reflections on the Unseen and elements of the supernatural have helped shape different interpretations of thought, with some communities – such as Shi‘is and Sufis – lending themselves to these ideas more than others. Unsurprisingly, the life and prophethood of Muhammad are imbued with experiences and

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ideas associated with that which exists beyond the mundane world. Foretelling Muhammad’s Prophethood As divinely inspired individuals, a prophet’s ministry is often permeated with supernatural occurrences and interactions. In some instances, the miracles associated with a prophet begin long before their prophetic mission has even started – sometimes before they have even been born. In the case of Muhammad, traditions include numerous miracles associated with his birth that are steeped in the supernatural: namely, the marriage of his parents, Abd Allah and Amina, and his conception. In the biographical accounts of Muhammad, both his parents’ marriage and his conception foretell the role that he was going to play in the sacred history of the world. A great number of historians, encompassing both the Sunni and Shi‘i traditions, tell the following story, or one similar to it.2 While Abd Allah was accompanying his father, Abd al-Muttalib, on business in Mecca, he was approached by a Jewish woman, a Christian woman, and a pagan woman. Each of these women see a light or a great blaze (ghurra) emanating from Abd Allah’s face, and each woman offers him great riches so that he may marry them; however, Abd Allah rejects each of their proposals, stating that he cannot leave his father. Abd al-Muttalib and Abd Allah then meet Wahb ibn Abd Manaf and his daughter, Amina, who were from an important Meccan family

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with honourable ancestry. Abd Allah and Amina marry, the marriage is consummated, and Muhammad is conceived, which is marked by the divine light, or ghurra, passing to Amina. Later, when Abd Allah walks back through the city, he encounters each of the women he had met before, but they are no longer interested in him since the light that shone from his face is no longer present. This account reveals two dominant themes surrounding Muhammad’s conception that inspired various interpretations among early Muslim thinkers. The first is concerned with the Prophet’s ancestry. As we learn from the account, both Abd Allah and Amina descended from noble lineage, which was crucial in the tribal context of pre-Islamic Arabia where allegiances determined social and political status. The Prophet’s ancestry became an important discussion for early scholars and traditionists. One such example can be found in the work of 10th-century Shi‘i author, Ibn Babawayh (d. 991), titled I‘tiqadat al-Imamiyya (‘The Beliefs of the Imamiyya’). Here, Ibn Babawayh presents the righteousness of Muhammad’s lineage, emphasizing the fact that his parents were both believers in the one true God: Our belief concerning the ancestors of the Prophet is that they were believers from Adam down to Abd Allah, his father, and that Abu Talib and the Prophet’s mother, Amina bint Wahb were Muslims. And the Prophet said, ‘I am derived from the bonds of matri-

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mony and not from any unlawful union, from Adam downwards.’3

The significance of Muhammad’s noble ancestry is not limited to Shi‘i thought, but is also an important theme in the Sunni understanding of Muhammad’s genealogy. As the contemporary Sufi scholar Muhammad ibn Alawi (d. 2004) comments: Once you study his lineage and discover the purity of his birth, you will be certain that he is a descendant of noble forebears. He is the Prophet whose identity is of the Arabs, the Meccans, those of the Sanctuary, those of the Hashim, and those of the Quraysh; he is the finest of the chosen sons of Hashim, elected from the finest tribe of the Arabs and the noblest, purest, strongest, mightiest, most eloquent, most just, most pious, most honourable and most generous of them, on both his fathers and mother’s side, and he hailed from the dearest of lands to Allah.4

Like Ibn Babawayh, Muhammad ibn Alawi also goes on to trace Muhammad’s lineage back to Adam, the first of humanity and the first of the prophets. Although this idea does not directly allude to the supernatural, the descriptions of Muhammad’s lineage look beyond his physical existence, and instead create a link between the first and last prophets, which is, in many respects, deeply extraordinary.

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The second theme that dominates the accounts of Muhammad’s birth is that of light. In the descriptions of Abd Allah’s marriage to Amina, his face glowed with a light that is understood to have held spiritual significance and is what attracted the women to court him and offer him their riches. As soon as this divine light passed on to Amina, the women were no longer interested. Ibn Ishaq’s Sira contains a hadith which emphasizes the power of this light: While Amina was carrying the child in her womb, she saw a light issue from her which illuminated even the castles of Bosra in Syria.5

By stressing the sheer distance that this light could emanate – which would amount to some 2,000 miles – this hadith informs us of the light’s miraculous and supernatural nature, revealing the importance of the child within Amina’s womb, and ultimately foreshadowing Muhammad’s prophetic mission. We see a similar idea in the Shi‘i collection of sermons and sayings of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet’s son-in-law, titled Nahj al-balagha (‘Path of Eloquence’): God has sent the Holy Prophet accompanied by Divine Light and selected him among his Apostles as His most chosen and favourite messenger. He wants to dispel through this Prophet disunity and confusion and to introduce unity and brotherhood among men.6

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Here, a connection is implicitly made between the divine light that Muhammad possesses and the message he was going to bring. This interlaced relationship between the divine light and Muhammad’s forthcoming prophetic mission is further consolidated in the accounts that detail the appearance of an angel to Amina who informs her of this news: You are pregnant with the prince of this nation. When he is born on this earth, you must say: ‘I place him under the protection of the only One, from wickedness of every envious person.’ And you must name him Muhammad.7

This encounter is remarkably similar to the proclamations about other prophets that we see in both the Bible and the Qur’an, whereby a child’s future ministry is predicted and there is an instruction to name the child in a particular way. Perhaps one of the most prominent examples is the angel Gabriel’s appearance to Mary (Luke 1:26–38). In the Qur’anic account of this, the angel says: ‘O Mary! God gives you glad tidings of a Word from Him. His name is the Christ Jesus son of Mary, greatly honoured in this world and the next, and among those drawn nearest to God.’ (Q. 3:45)

The accounts and traditions surrounding the birth of Muhammad point toward the significant

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Figure 14. Depiction of Mary and the Angel Gabriel A miniature from the Jami al-Tawarikh (‘Compendium of Chronicles’) by Rashid al-Din (d. 1318), which portrays the angel Gabriel announcing the birth of Jesus to Mary. Gabriel is represented in human form with no discernible angelic traits, while Mary appears to be holding a vessel, presumably about to draw water from a well.

role he would play in human history. This foretelling of prophecy is frequently tied to ideas of ancestry, light, and even angelic proclamation, which each engage with different ideas: the belief in the purity and honour of Muhammad’s lineage relates to the social expectations of pre-Islamic society, and provides a link between Muhammad and Adam, the archetype of humanity; the light that he inherits from his parents emphasizes the divine and primordial nature of Muhammad’s mission; and the angelic proclamation of his birth to Amina establishes a link between Muhammad

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and the biblical prophetic tradition. These three elements became important parts of the Muslim discourse about who Muhammad was. The Light of Muhammad In some traditions, the theme of light gained particular prominence in the development and articulation of doctrine. Most notably, in Shi‘i thought the divine light comes to represent the divine designation in which Muhammad’s succession passes to a direct line of descendants through his daughter Fatima. Therefore, the spiritual leadership of the community resided with divinely appointed successors, the Imams. This chain of authority moving from one generation of Imams to another is a central tenet of Shi‘i Islam known as the imamate. For some Shi‘is, the idea of this light passing from one Imam to the next became the basis of the theological link between the Imams and the Divine. The Shi‘i author Ibn Babawayh includes a hadith of Muhammad summarizing this idea of the divine light, which says: We were silhouettes of light until God wanted to create our form; He transformed us into a column of light and hurled us into Adam’s loins; then He caused us to be transmitted through the loins of fathers and the wombs of mothers . . . And when He had us reach the loins of Abd al-Muttalib, He divided the light in two and placed half in the loins of

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Abd Allah [the father of Muhammad] and the other half in the loins of Abu Talib [the father of Ali] . . . Then God had the column of light come to me and I begat Fatima, He made it go to Ali and he begat al-Hasan and al-Husayn . . . This light will be transmitted from imam to imam until the Day of Resurrection.8

This hadith reinforces the divinely appointed nature of the Imams whose spiritual authority is here intrinsically tied to the divine light of Muhammad. Today, the doctrine of the imamate remains important to all Shi‘i communities, including the Nizari Ismaili community, whose spiritual leadership has continuously resided in a living Imam. In the same way Shi‘i thought engaged with ideas around Muhammad’s light, so too did some Sunni authors, particularly those within the mystical tradition known as Sufism. For some Sufi scholars, the nur Muhammadi, literally the ‘light of Muhammad’, passed down through the prophets from Adam to Muhammad. On this, the early Sufi interpreter of the Qur’an, Sahl al-Tustari (d. 896), commented: In the beginning when God, Glorified and Exalted is He, created him [Muhammad] as a light within a column of light, a million years before creation, with the essential characteristics of faith, in a witnessing of the unseen within the unseen.9

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Figure 15. Decorative Print Featuring the Hand of Fatima This ornate print from 20th-century Pakistan features two large roundels with the names of God (Allah) and Muhammad. Smaller roundels in the decorated border include the names of Fatima, Ali, Hasan and Husayn who, along with Muhammad, form the panj tan (the five noble figures that Shi‘is believe establish the lineage of the leadership for the Muslim community). Central to this print is the Hand of Fatima, or khamsa, which has gained prominence as a popular symbol with talismanic significance for its association with the Prophet’s daughter, Fatima.

Al-Tustari argues that the light of Muhammad was created even before the creation of the world, which then manifested itself in the figure of Muhammad. This idea inspired Sufi mystics to articulate a devotional vision of Muhammad that emphasized his unique character, one that was rooted in the divine light from the very beginning of time. Veneration of the prophet

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often found expression in Sufi teachings, writings, and in particular, poetry. One such example can be seen in a work by Turkish poet Yunus Emre (d. 1321) who summarized the belief in Muhammad’s light. Emre invokes the name ‘Ahmad’, a variant form of Muhammad’s name, which is used in a passage in the Qur’an where the prophet Jesus predicts the coming of a prophet after him (Q. 61:6). In this poem, Emre powerfully imagines God’s own speech when creating Muhammad: I created him from My own light, And I love him yesterday and today! What would I do with the worlds without him? My, My Muhammad, My Ahmad of Light!10

The stories about the conception and birth of Muhammad are imbued with a great deal of religious and spiritual significance – so much so that any attempt to extract a ‘historical’ account of Muhammad’s early life is extremely difficult. These stories are bound up and inseparable from the history of Islam itself. Together, each of these motifs point towards the forthcoming mission of Muhammad and the revelation of the Qur’an. Muhammad’s Prophetic Experience If the narratives of Muhammad’s conception and birth foreshadow his prophetic mission, it is the accounts of the first revelation in the cave of

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Hira which turn that potential into a reality. The Muslim accounts of the event begin by stating that Muhammad retired to the mountain as part of his regular pattern of personal piety. The appearance of Gabriel, who commands him to recite in the name of God, is unexpected and dramatic – just like the appearance of angels announcing the births of prophets in both the Jewish and Christian traditions. In most of the accounts Muhammad is overwhelmed and scared. The short revelation, which is now Surat al-Alaq (Q. 96), is communicated and the experience ends, leaving Muhammad visibly shaken upon his return to his wife, Khadija. To add to the shock, on his way back he sees a vision of an angel in a huge anthropomorphic and terrifying form, sitting in the clouds. Muhammad seeks the counsel of Waraqa ibn Nawfal, the Christian priest who was a cousin of Khadija, who confirms his prophetic calling. As we saw in the narratives about the marriage of Abd Allah and Amina, the sources engaged with pre-Islamic practices, biblical beliefs, and aspects of deep spirituality. The same is seen in the accounts of the first revelation. Acts of piety, such as retreating to the cave of Hira, are associated with pre-Islamic practices, albeit ones which were in tune with later Muslim spirituality, while the appearance of Gabriel in a human form and delivering God’s messages resonated with the way Jews and Christians imagined angels descending on earth, as well as the experiences of prophets found in the Bible.

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In the accounts of the first revelation, when Muhammad returns to Khadija he asks to be wrapped in a blanket, exclaiming ‘Wrap me up!’ Muslim sources report that when Muhammad received revelations he sometimes became feverish and would sweat, even in cold weather. This reaction to the prophetic experience – becoming terrified, feverish, and ill – can be found in the biblical tradition too. For example, after witnessing a disturbing vision, the prophet Daniel says, ‘ “Thoughts greatly terrified me, and my face turned pale” ’ (Daniel 7:28). Likewise, the terrifying vision of the angel sitting among the clouds, where, although still in the form of a human, the angel Gabriel appears abnormally huge, is also common in later Jewish and Christian literature. Therefore, in many ways, those who heard the revelation of the Qur’an and Muhammad’s experiences and descriptions of Gabriel, would have understood the meaning of these prodigious encounters. The Night Journey In many respects, the account of Muhammad’s miraculous Night Journey to Jerusalem (isra) and Ascension to heaven (mi‘raj) is the culmination of Muhammad’s prophetic experience and the epitome of his engagement with the supernatural. The narratives of the isra and the mi‘raj combine a number of the elements of prophethood that we have already seen in the descriptions of the first revelation and Muhammad’s birth: it is a supernatural and miraculous event, it

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features prophets from the biblical past, and it engages with pre-Islamic concepts of virtue. There are many accounts of the isra and the mi‘raj, and some separate them into two different events at different times, whereas others combine the two into one continuous narrative.11 For simplicity’s sake, they will be treated here as separate events. In his biography of the Prophet, Ibn Ishaq narrates the night Muhammad went to bed after the evening prayers in the house of his cousin, Umm Hani Hind bint Abi Talib (d. after 661). In the morning, he told her that he had been transported to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem on a fantastic winged horse called Buraq. She advises him, ‘“Don’t talk to the people about it for they will give you the lie and insult you.”’12 Muhammad, however, decides to tell the Meccans who had been openly mocking him. He did tell them and they were amazed and asked what proof he had. He replied that he had passed the caravan of so-and-so in such-and-such a valley and the animal he bestrode scared them and a camel bolted . . . ‘I found the people asleep. They had a jar of water covered with something. I took the covering off and drank the water replacing the cover.’13

The caravan Muhammad speaks of soon returned to Mecca and recounted what had happened, confirming the details that Muhammad had

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Figure 16. Wooden Sculpture of Buraq An early to mid-20th-century sculpture from the Southern Philippines that features okir, a form of elaborate carving native to the region. This unique wooden figurine represents Buraq, the winged creature upon which Muhammad travels in the accounts of his Night Journey to Jerusalem and Ascension to heaven.

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told the people. While pivotal in Muhammad’s prophetic calling, the isra is only briefly mentioned in the Qur’an in Surat al-Isra, as follows: Glory be to Him Who carried His Servant by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque, whose precincts We have blessed, to show him Our Wonders! He it is Who is AllHearing, All-Seeing! (Q. 17:1)

In this short detail we learn that the miraculous Night Journey is a sign of God’s power and command over the created world, but also a sign of Muhammad’s prophethood. The Meccans had continually demanded a sign or a miracle to prove God’s message and His prophet – this was it. The mi‘raj, or the Ascension, is a much more elaborate narrative and includes a number of different events. There are many accounts which include or omit some of these details, and Muslim scholars spent much time debating these occurrences, with some differences of opinion in Sunni and Shi‘i sources. There was also a great debate among Muslim scholars who discussed whether the mi‘raj was an actual physical ascent or a purely spiritual encounter, which even today remains contested.14 Although not explicitly mentioned in the Qur’an, exegetes usually included accounts of the mi‘raj in their discussions on the aforementioned opening of Surat al-Isra (Q. 17:1) that references

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Figure 17. Mosaic of the Mi‘raj (2 images) This impressive 66-foot-tall mosaic, made of glass and ceramic tesserae, is a permanent artwork feature at Princeton University, New Jersey, by PakistaniAmerican multimedia artist Shahzia Sikander. Titled Ecstasy as Sublime, Heart as Vector, the piece includes a contemporary representation of the mi‘raj, with the Prophet mounted on Buraq in silhouette form. Here, Sikander takes inspiration from classical Indo-Persian miniature paintings and the trope of revelation, exploring motifs that resonate with Islamic spirituality and identity.

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the Night Journey, as well as Surat al-Najm (Q. 53:1–18), which refers to Muhammad’s Ascension. In addition to this, the vast body of hadith and sira literature tells us much about the details surrounding Muhammad’s mi‘raj. The account that follows is from the famous hadith collection compiled by Muslim ibn Hajjaj (d. 875), known as the Sahih, and which also appears in the Tafsir al-Jalalayn. It offers an insight into the typical narratives about the mi‘raj in early Muslim accounts: [The Prophet] said: ‘I was brought al-Buraq, a white animal, larger than a donkey but smaller than a mule; it was able to place its hoof [back] towards its extremity and so I mounted it. It set off carrying me until I reached the Holy House [of Jerusalem]. [There] I fastened the animal to the ring where the prophets fasten [their animals]. I then went in and prayed two units (rak‘as) inside it. As I came out, Gabriel came to me with a jug of wine and a jug of milk, and so I chose the milk. Gabriel said [to me], “You have made the right choice [by choosing] the primordial nature.” ’ He [the Prophet] continued [the narration], ‘We then ascended to the heaven of this world, whereat Gabriel asked to be let in. Someone asked,

Divine Commission

“Who are you?” He replied, “Gabriel.” “And who is with you?” “Muhammad,” he said. “Has he been sent for?” “Yes, he has been sent for.” Then it was opened for us, and lo! Adam stood before me; he greeted me and prayed for well-being for me.’ [Muhammad continues to ascend through the seven heavens. At the entrance to each heaven, Muhammad and Gabriel have the same conversation with someone hidden behind the entrance to the next heaven: John and Jesus are behind the entrance to the second heaven, Joseph the third heaven, Enoch the fourth heaven, Aaron the fifth heaven, and Moses the sixth heaven. Each prophet greets and blesses Muhammad. The account continues at the gate of the seventh heaven.] ‘We then ascended to the seventh heaven and Gabriel asked to be let in. Someone asked, “Who are you?” He replied, “Gabriel.” “And who is with you?” “Muhammad,” he said. “Has he been called forth?” it was asked. “Yes, he has been called forth,” he replied.

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And it was opened up for us, and lo! there before me was Abraham, leaning [seated] against the Frequented House (al-bayt alma‘mur), into which 70,000 angels enter every day never to return thereto. I was then taken to the Lote-Tree of the Boundary (sidrat al-muntaha), and lo! its leaves resemble the ears of elephants, its fruits like pitchers [in size]. When some command of God’s enveloped it, it changed, and lo! none of God’s creation could describe it for all its beauty.’ He [the Prophet] continued: ‘God then revealed to me what He revealed and prescribed for me fifty prayers each day and night. I then descended until I reached Moses and he said, “What has your Lord prescribed for your community?” I said, “Fifty prayers each day and night.” He said, “Go back to your Lord and ask Him for an alleviation, for your community will not have the capacity for it: I have tried the Children of Israel and have experience of them [not being up to the task].” I then went back to my Lord and said, “My Lord! Lighten that [prescription] for my community,” and so He reduced it for me by five.

Divine Commission

I went back to Moses who asked me, “What did you do?” I said to him, “He has reduced it for me by five,” to which he said, “Your community will not have the capacity for this; so go back to your Lord and ask Him for an alleviation for your community.” Thus I kept going back and forth between my Lord and Moses, with Him reducing it by five each time until He said, “O Muhammad! They shall be five prayers each day and night, every prayer will be worth [the reward of] ten [prayers]; that then makes fifty prayers. And whoever intends a good deed but does not perform it, I shall count it for him as one [done]; and if he performs it, I shall count it for him as ten; and whoever intends an evil deed, but does not perform it, it shall not be recorded against him; but if he performs it, it shall be recorded [only] as one evil deed.” I then descended until I reached Moses. I informed him and he said, “Go back to your Lord and ask Him for an alleviation for your community, because your community will not have the capacity for this”; and I said,

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“I have gone back to my Lord so many times that I am ashamed [to go again].” This [hadith] is reported by the two Shaykhs [al-Bukhari and Muslim]; but the wording [of this version] is that of [the report in the Sahih of] Muslim.15

Although relatively brief, the narrative contains many references to essential themes that reflect the Muslim conception of prophets; namely, their experience of the supernatural and angelic worlds, their association with prophets of the past, and their role as a bringer of law and an advocate of social justice. The very basic of idea of a mi‘raj – an ascent into the divine realm – is a supernatural event in and of itself. The account in the Sahih tells us that Muhammad saw the ‘great marvels of the Divine Realm’, and goes on to include some of the many wonders he encountered: Buraq, the winged creature on which Muhammad rides through the skies; the ‘frequented house’ in the seventh heaven, understood to be a building directly above the Ka‘ba, in which 70,000 angels worship; and the Lote-Tree, also mentioned in Surat al-Najm (Q. 53:14), here described as having leaves the size of elephants’ ears and fruit the size of pitchers. Yet even this evocative imagery fails to describe the miraculous visions Muhammad encounters – the hadith says as much when referring to the Lote-Tree, that ‘none of God’s creation could describe it for all its

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beauty’. Indeed, other accounts of the mi‘raj include some of the more wondrous spectacles. Notably, one common sight is the Cockerel (aldik), a huge angel in the form of a cockerel that stretches from the lowest earth to the highest heaven. This angel wakes all those in heaven and earth every morning so that the prayers can be made. Meanwhile, another angel, the Spirit (al-Ruh), is reported to have 70,000 faces, with each face having 70,000 mouths, each mouth, 70,000 lips, and each set of lips, 70,000 tongues. The accounts of these astonishing supernatural creatures signify Muhammad’s departure from the human world during the mi‘raj, and his access to the divine and spiritual world. It is during the mi‘raj that Muhammad meets Adam, John and Jesus, Joseph, Enoch, Aaron, Moses and Abraham as he journeys through the seven heavens. This link with the prophetic past is also seen in Muhammad’s Night Journey to Jerusalem where his mission in Mecca and Medina is connected to the broader history of God’s interaction with the world. When Muhammad arrives in Jerusalem, he says, ‘“I fastened the animal to the ring where the prophets fasten their animals.”’ Symbolically, Muhammad is doing as all the prophets before him have done. On his journey through heaven, Muhammad is honoured and greeted by each of the prophets he meets, who also pray for him as an indication of their deference to him. There is similarly a strong connection made between Muhammad and the prophetic messages that the prophets of the past delivered,

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such as the warnings they pronounced and the profession of faith in the one God. This becomes clear from Muhammad’s conversation with Moses about the five daily prayers where Moses tells him to ask God for an alleviation, since, from his experience, the people will not be able to manage it. Interestingly, this seems to be a glimpse into one prophet giving advice to another as Moses speaks from his own experience of bringing laws to humanity. In this respect, the account also includes explicit references to the role of a prophet as someone who brings law or scripture to people, and as someone who establishes ritual practices within a community. As we learn, Muhammad witnesses prayers being performed by the angels in the bayt al-ma‘mur, or the ‘frequented house’, which are then adapted for his own community. In other accounts of the mi‘raj, the rituals performed in the bayt al-ma‘mur are given in greater detail, such as the recital during the call to prayer, or adhan, proclaimed by an angel – with Sunni and Shi‘i accounts including their respective versions of the adhan. The point here is that the prayers performed on earth resonate with those performed in heaven. Muhammad’s appeal to God over the number of daily prayers that Muslims should perform not only establishes him as the bringer of God’s law, but also as the bridge between the divine and human worlds. Having discussed the supernatural events and narratives surrounding the life and prophethood of Muhammad, it becomes clear that the

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exploration of sacred history is as important as ever. From the miracles surrounding his conception and birth to his otherworldly experiences as a prophet, we are able to discern much about the significance of Muhammad’s calling through these supernatural elements. In fact, to divorce Muhammad’s life and prophetic mission from these elements would do an injustice to the ways in which he has inspired and informed Muslim thought and culture; it is these elements that have shaped the Muslim vision – not just of who Muhammad was, but also of what Islam is. They help articulate a vision of Islam that is a part of God’s wider interaction with humanity, from Adam to Muhammad and the prophets of the past, as well as one that is deeply rooted in the belief of the divine world. Sacred history is about this very idea: a history of a religion is not simply about historical truth but is an articulation of how a religion perceives itself as a faith and how it relates to its own history.

Chapter 5 Prophetic Mission

While Muhammad’s personal experience of revelation was often private, his bringing of the message to the world was very much a public affair. His prophetic mission remained fixed in a specific time and place, which informed the types of messages that he preached. If those around him were to accept God’s word, Muhammad’s delivery of the message had to resonate with their local contexts while also being distinguished as something entirely new. This was initially met with resistance, but ultimately Muhammad was able bring about change in people’s lives and beliefs, establishing a new community and a new way of living – so how exactly did he do this, and what message did he bring? Although not a great deal is known about Arabia before the coming of Islam, we do know that poets played an important part in pre-Islamic Arab culture, particularly as transmitters of local history and identity, but also as people who conveyed spiritual ideas and beliefs. Later Muslim sources describe the way in which seven famous odes composed by pre-Islamic poets were hung around the Ka‘ba, which was a sacred building to Arabs even before Islam. These poems, the 100

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Mu‘allaqat (the ‘hanging ones’), represent the epitome of ancient Arabian poetry: they describe a world of tribal loyalties, of love and passion, and convey something of the spiritual world before the coming of Islam. When poets declaimed their odes in preIslamic Arabian culture, they were believed to be possessed by spirits known as jinn who led them into an ecstatic, otherworldly state. It is no surprise that those who witnessed Muhammad’s preaching in the markets of Mecca accused him of being a poet. The Qur’an explicitly addresses these claims in Surat al-Haqqa: Yes Indeed! I swear by what you see and what you do not see: This is the speech of a noble Messenger. It is not the speech of a poet – little do you believe! Nor the speech of a soothsayer – little do you remember! It is a Revelation from the Lord of Worlds. (Q. 69:38–43)

The Qur’an asserts that Muhammad is not a poet, a sha‘ir, or a soothsayer, a kahin. In Arabian society, like a poet, a soothsayer would enter a trance-like state, but would also predict the future by casting lots. However, the Qur’an distinguishes itself from the poetry of pre-Islamic Arabia through the presence of the Divine; neither a poet nor a soothsayer could convey a revelation from the ‘Lord of Worlds’, as Muhammad was doing. If this were the case, how then was Muhammad able to appeal to

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Arabian society and affirm that he was not a poet or a soothsayer? The Proofs of Prophecy One of the ways in which Muhammad’s prophethood was acknowledged and validated was through descriptions of his physical experience of prophecy, which he recounted to his companions and which were related by those who witnessed revelation. In the Muslim tradition, there are a number of different signs of prophecy, with some more common than others in the descriptions of Muhammad’s experience of revelation in particular. These include the suddenness of revelation; revelation emerging through something like a trance or the ringing of a bell; the appearance of Gabriel in the form of a man to deliver revelation; and, the physical reactions to revelation, which often manifested in a sweat or fever. The Truth came to him while he was in the cave of Hira. The angel came to him and said, ‘Recite!’ The Prophet replied, ‘I do not know what to read.’ The Prophet added, ‘The angel grabbed me and pressed me hard that it caused me great pain. Then he let me go and said, ‘Recite!’1

This hadith describes the shock of Gabriel’s entry into the cave. In a sense, the cave in which Muhammad is performing his private devotions transforms into something much larger and

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more significant when Gabriel, a creature of the divine world, bursts into Muhammad’s world. The incident is also highly physical, with Gabriel holding Muhammad until he cannot bear it. For Muhammad, it is clear that the experience is bewildering – he does not understand what Gabriel means when he tells him to recite. This is an encounter with the unseen, the unknown, and for Muhammad at the time, the unknowable. The sudden appearance of an angel with a message is similarly seen as deeply shocking and terrifying in the Bible. When Gabriel appears to Mary to inform her that she will become pregnant with Jesus, the angel’s opening words are ‘ “Do not fear!” ’ (Luke 1:30); and the prophet Daniel is also explicitly told not to be frightened when he encounters a terrifying figure dressed in white (Daniel 10:12). Significantly, Muhammad’s reaction to his commissioning shares much in common with the way God called some of the biblical prophets. In the Bible, the prophet Jeremiah proclaimed the word of God at a difficult time, since the kings of Israel had begun to worship idols and were under threat from attack by the Babylonians. The book of Jeremiah narrates Jeremiah’s pleas to those in authority to discard their idols and turn to worshipping God. When God commissions Jeremiah, he, like Muhammad, is daunted by the task he faces and wonders why God has chosen him. He says, ‘“Ah, Lord God! Truly I do not know how to speak, for I am only a boy”’ (Jeremiah 1:6). Jeremiah and Muhammad both

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experience fear and confusion. Just as Muhammad does not know what to recite, Jeremiah does not know what he is supposed to preach, or why he has been chosen to speak for God. Some of these stories concerning biblical prophets are not unfamiliar to the Muslim tradition. In fact, they frequently entered Muslim literature through the literary genre called Qisas al-anbiya (‘Stories of the Prophets’). One of the most famous works in this genre is al-Tha‘labi’s (d. 1036) Stories of the Prophets, which includes a passage about Jeremiah that draws on the aforementioned biblical material. According to al-Tha‘labi, after Jeremiah is commissioned, he says: ‘I am weak if You do not give me strength; powerless if you do not help me.’ God responded: ‘I shall inspire you.’ So Jeremiah arose among them preaching, but he did not know what to say. But God inspired him instantly with a long eloquent sermon in which he made clear to them the reward of obedience and the recompense of disobedience.2

Across the Muslim and biblical tradition, we can observe the common motif of a prophet uncertain of their ability to proclaim the message of God. Often, these prophets think the task at hand is too great for them to fulfil and that they do not have the strength or the wisdom to carry it out. To this, Muhammad is no exception: he experiences the same surprise and uncertainty

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about his own commissioning, placing his experience of prophecy in a shared understanding with Jews and Christians. In the Muslim accounts of Muhammad’s first revelation, the most poignant moments are when he is comforted and encouraged by his wife Khadija, and then later by Waraqa. Muhammad was not alone in prophethood, he was supported by God, but also by those around him. A prophet’s humanness and vulnerability is theologically important since it accentuates and authenticates the divine origin of their commission: the prophet is doing something that is greater than their ability, and it is through their steadfastness and submission to the Divine that they are able to deliver God’s message. A prophet’s own sense of uncertainty also highlights the contrast between their human understanding of themselves and the divine plan that God has intended for them. This idea is similarly reflected in the descriptions of Muhammad as illiterate and unlearned, which makes the revelation of the Qur’an, in all its eloquence, even more miraculous. In Surat al-Duha, an early Meccan sura, Muhammad’s initial uncertainties about his mission are laid bare as God reassures him, saying: By prime of morning, and night when it settles! Your Lord has not abandoned you, nor disdains! The Last is better for you than the First. Your Lord shall give you, and you shall be content. Did He not find you an orphan, And sheltered

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you? And found you erring, And guided you? And found you dependent, And enriched you? The orphan you must not aggrieve, And the beggar you must not revile, And your Lord’s blessings proclaim. (Q. 93)

A genre in later Muslim scholarship called asbab al-nuzul, or ‘the occasions of the revelation’, brought together hadith which gave details about the occasions in which verses were revealed. An important work in this genre, simply called Kitab Asbab al-Nuzul (‘The Book on the Occasions of the Revelation’) was compiled by the 11th-century scholar and philologist Ali ibn Ahmad al-Wahidi (d. 1076), who tells us that these verses were revealed to Muhammad after he had suffered an intense period of persecution from local Meccans and had not received a revelation for some time. Thus, these verses were then sent to console Muhammad, reminding him of God’s support and protection in the past.3 In the same way the Prophet’s doubts point towards his humanness, his physical experience of revelation and interactions with Gabriel provide an insight into his intermediary role between the divine and earthly worlds. In one hadith Muhammad described the experience of revelation as follows: ‘Sometimes it comes to me like the ringing of a bell, this is the hardest for me; then it passes from me, and I become aware of what he has

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Figure 18. Depiction of the Angel Israfil A manuscript page from al-Qazwini’s (d. 1283) Aja’ib al-makhluqat (‘The Wonders of Creation’) depicting the archangel Israfil. The detail on the previous page (not visible here) refers to Israfil blowing the trumpet on the Day of Judgement when the world will end. Traditions narrate that angels usually appear in a human-like form, but are winged and vast in size, with the tips of their wings stretching from the east to the west. As in this miniature, angels also appear dressed in fine, embellished garments.

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said. Sometimes the Angel comes to me as a man and talks to me and I remember what he says.’ A’isha added: ‘I saw the Prophet when inspiration came down to him on a very cold day, when it had finished, sweat was dropping from his forehead.’4

Other hadith provide accounts of eyewitnesses who describe Muhammad becoming absent from the world around him, absorbed in something that others could not see. While Muhammad’s interactions with Gabriel were intensely private, his physical reactions were clearly visible to those around him at the time. This juxtaposition of the worldly and otherworldly is even apparent in Muhammad’s descriptions of Gabriel. In some hadith Muhammad is reported to have said that Gabriel appeared to him in human form. This is not an unusual idea: angels take a human form in the Bible, as well as other religious traditions. In one hadith Muhammad even states that the angel Gabriel resembled Dihya al-Kalbi (d. ca. 670), a companion of the Prophet who was known for his exceptional beauty. The point here is that Gabriel’s human form was so compelling that he could easily be mistaken for someone in Muhammad’s close community. This strong human form is often coupled with an otherworldly vision: When the Prophet ascended into heaven, he saw Gabriel in his true form: his wings strung with diamonds, pearls, and rubies.

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Muhammad said: ‘It seemed to me that the space between his eyes filled the horizon, but I used to see him before that in a different form, and more often I used to see him in the form of Dihya al-Kalbi. Sometimes I would see him, just as a man would see his friend if he looked at him through a sieve.’5

Muhammad’s ability to see both Gabriel’s earthly and heavenly forms places him at the confluence of both worlds. As God’s messenger, he is inherently engaged with the Divine, the supernatural, and the otherworldly; but at the same time, his mission remained firmly rooted in the human, ordinary realm. Collectively, the various descriptions of Muhammad’s experience of prophecy signify the divine origin of the message and distinguish him from the poets and soothsayers of pre-Islamic Arabian society. Nevertheless, the success of his mission relied on his ability to establish his prophetic credentials in the human world in order to bring this divine message to not only the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, but ultimately to the world. The Prophet’s Message Communicating any kind of message relies on a set of social expectations of how that message should be sent and received. Modern society, for example, has established conventions for what an email should look like and how it should be written; it is through these social conventions

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that we may determine whether a message is genuine or fraudulent. It might seem surprising but the same is the case for divine messages. Prophets delivering God’s messages did not emerge in a vacuum, but they lived within a social context that had particular ideas about the qualities of a prophet, the sorts of proclamations they would make, and how they would interact with society. Therefore, prophecy was as much about a conversation with a community as it was an announcement. While Muhammad’s message was deeply critical of Meccan society and would have seemed radical at the time, he still acted within his community’s social conventions and expectations. So what did Muhammad’s message actually contain? And what issues did Muhammad address in the proclamation of the Qur’an? As we know, the Qur’an was revealed during two distinct phases in the Prophet’s life: the first was in Mecca when Muhammad was preaching to a generally hostile audience, therefore issues of theology and social justice were addressed; and the second was in Medina once he had established the Muslim community and so the Qur’an discussed matters around the needs and governance of the community. Looking at these two stages can tell us much about Muhammad’s prophetic mission. A Call for Social Justice One of the most important themes of a prophetic mission is the declaration of what we would now

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call social justice. The Qur’an strongly advocates a message of social justice that would have resonated with those who were disenfranchised in pre-Islamic society. When discussing who the righteous among humanity are, the Qur’an says they are those who ‘dispensed food, though held dear, to the poor, the orphan and the prisoner, saying: “We are feeding you only for the sake of God. From you we seek neither reward nor thanks”’ (Q. 76:8–9). The Qur’an promotes a world in which each individual seeks to look after one another within the community, regardless of their own needs. This would have come as a significant shock to early Meccan society which was based on a patriarchal tribal system where male kinship and headship determined one’s protection and prosperity. In this environment, women – especially those who were widowed – and orphans were particularly vulnerable and often had little protection and liberties in the social system. In this way, Muhammad’s message was one of social reform, with the Qur’an providing clear provisions for those who were at risk in the tribal structures of pre-Islamic Arabia. However, social justice for those who were unprotected in society also meant speaking out against the powerful, which is an important part of the prophetic voice. The Bible has a strong sense of denouncing authority, with figures such as the prophet Elijah condemning Ahab, the King of Israel, for stealing another man’s land (1 Kings 21). The prophet Jeremiah challenged the

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people and kingdom of Israel more generally, railing against their deviation from the faith and reminding them of the punishment that awaits should they fail to repent. Jesus also heavily criticizes the Jewish authorities in Jerusalem, frequently rebuking their actions and attacking the social status quo. In one famous episode, Jesus denounces the priests in the Temple, turning the tables of the money lenders and chasing them out with whips (Matthew 21:12). According to the Gospels, Jesus saw the religious leaders in the community placing too great an emphasis on religious law, with laws being used to control and belittle others while failing to care for those in need. The theme of condemning social injustice, unrighteousness, and tyranny is important in the Bible, and is closely identified with the prophetic mission. Much of the Qur’an has a similarly strong tone in its condemnation of Arabian social practices, including those who accumulated wealth and acted unjustly. In Surat al-Mutaffifin there is a strong attack against those who commit fraud, especially in giving short-change when trading. The sura begins: Woe to those who shortchange! They who, when they measure from others, obtain their full measure, But when they measure out or balance to others, they defraud. Do they not imagine that they shall be resurrected, on a mighty Day? A Day when mankind shall stand before the Lord of the Worlds? (Q 83:1–6)

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In another passage in Surat al-Fajr, the Qur’an contrasts what individuals think about how God has treated them, with their own treatment of others: And as for man, If his Lord tries him, Honours him, and prospers him, He will say: ‘My Lord has honoured me.’ But if He tries him, And constricts his livelihood, He will say: ‘My Lord has demeaned me.’ No indeed! You do not honour the orphan, Nor urge one another to feed the poor. You consume an inheritance to the last mouthful, And you love your wealth with a love inordinate. (Q. 89:15–20)

This passage exposes the hypocrisy of the early Meccan community. The Qur’an addresses the fickle behaviour of those who deem themselves blessed one day and then oppressed the next, depending on what God has granted them and the wealth they have been able to accrue. Instead, God asserts that the wealth people gain during their lifetime is not a sign of being blessed or oppressed, and that they should be more concerned about how they distribute their wealth to those less fortunate. For Muslims, the Qur’an warns against the love of money, for wealth is of no use in the afterlife. To uphold these important messages of the Qur’an, Muhammad was required to continually speak truth to power and expose the injustices around him. The famous traditionist al-Bukhari (d. 870) provides an account which says that a

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verse from Surat al-Fath (‘We have sent you as a witness, a bearer of glad tidings and a warner’ [Q. 48:8]) was one that also appeared in the Bible. This tradition captures the call to speak truth to power in Muhammad’s prophetic mission, and it says of Muhammad: You are neither coarse, nor harsh, nor one who shouts in the markets, nor one who repays evil with evil, but you are excusing and forgiving. God will never take him [Muhammad] until He has straightened the crooked nation through him, by which they will say, ‘There is no god but God.’ And so He will open blind eyes, deaf ears, and hardened hearts.6

This hadith describes Muhammad’s capacity as a reformer, attempting to rectify and ‘put straight’ the corrupt and ‘crooked’ society. This tradition directly takes up a metaphor seen in the words of Isaiah: ‘“In the wilderness prepare the way of the Lord, make straight in the desert a highway for our God!”’ (Isaiah 40:3). Both Isaiah and Muhammad see the need for society to be reformed, corrected, and brought back to the straight and righteous path that society should be following. But how exactly did this manifest in the career of Muhammad? It would be impossible to detail all the many examples in which Muhammad set out to uproot social injustices, but the hadith literature provides a glimpse into some of the specific

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Figure 19. Curtain for the Tomb of the Prophet This decorative curtain, or sitara, was gifted by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) to cover the Prophet’s Tomb, a practice that had begun during the 10th century. The Sultan’s stylized signature (tughra) can be seen at the bottom of the sitara, while the calligraphic representation of a lamp pictured in the upper-central part of the textile describes Muhammad as the ‘Opener of the Gate’, an allusion to his role as a prophet leading people to God’s message.

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matters which the Prophet spoke out against in the early Meccan society. For example, on the importance of safeguarding widows and orphans, a companion of the Prophet, Sahl ibn Sa‘d (d. 8th century) is reported to have said that the Prophet crossed his index and middle finger and said: ‘ “I and the one who provides for an orphan are like this.” ’7 In pre-Islamic Arabia, an orphan’s property could be confiscated and appropriated by those they were under the care of. In many cases, these individuals acted unscrupulously and sought only to care for orphans for their own financial gain. To combat this the Qur’an explicitly says that the wealth of orphans must not be consumed (Q. 4:2), therefore, Muhammad’s statement reinforces the duties of those looking after orphans and essentially advocates a society which is more caring for those in need. During his prophetic mission in Mecca, Muhammad spoke out and challenged the various customs that were common at the time. This caused much friction between him and the Meccans, in particular the local elite who were often benefitting financially from these practices. As such, local authorities deemed Muhammad a threat to their economic prosperity and status. He faced intense persecution and hostility in Mecca until he was able to establish the Muslim community in Medina. From here onwards, Muhammad’s prophetic mission began to look more towards what a specifically Muslim society should look like.

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Establishing God’s Law The bringing of law is an important moment for any religion and is often brought by a key figure. In the Bible, Moses is the one who receives the law on Mount Sinai in the form of the Ten Commandments, which outline the fundamentals on the relationship between God and humans, and between humans themselves. Alongside the Ten Commandments are laws concerning the priestly community in the book of Leviticus – which cover the ways in which God should be worshipped and the rituals associated with the sacrifices given to God – as well as the laws for the whole community given in the book of Deuteronomy. For Christians, Jesus did not replace the law, but ushered in a new relationship between God and humanity, one that did not require the offering of sacrifices. In the Qur’an, Moses is an important figure as a bringer of law, and is the prophet who is mentioned the most frequently. While there is a strong link between Moses and Muhammad as givers of law and prophets who established new communities, Muhammad significantly did not just bring a law to his own community, the Arabs, but he brought it to the whole world. It is important to note, however, that the Qur’an is not principally a book of law. In fact, most of the text articulates beliefs and doctrines about God, tells stories about the prophets of the past, and describes visions of the Hereafter. However, during his time in Medina, where Muhammad was establishing the Muslim

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Figure 20. Pictorial Rug of the Prophet Moses A Jewish silk rug depicting the prophet Moses on the peaks of Mount Sinai with the Ten Commandments in his hand. Dated to 1936, this unique textile is from the Central Persian region of Kashan that was historically home to a Jewish community. The rug is titled, in Hebrew, ‘The master of all prophets, father to the wise, Moses our teacher’.

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community, or umma, the giving of law and the regulation of society formed a necessary and central part of his prophetic mission. In this regard, the Qur’an contains guidance on certain aspects of law, some of which are specific, such as the laws of inheritance (e.g. Q. 4:11–13), dietary laws (e.g. Q. 5:1–6), and how to conduct business (e.g. Q. 2:282); but, more generally, the Qur’an is concerned with ethical and moral principles about how people should behave. Since the Qur’an does not include specific laws on all aspects of life, early Muslim jurists also looked to the sunna, which referred to the life, words, and behaviour of the Prophet that were transmitted in the hadith literature. Combined, the Qur’an and the sunna became the sources from which Muslims conceptualized a way of life in accordance to God’s will, understood to be the shari‘a, or God’s law. For Shi‘is, the statements and actions of the Imams are also taken into account in their formulation of law, and for those Muslim communities with a living Imam or guide, such as the Ismailis, the Imam continues to provide guidance on legal, theological, and social issues. It should be remembered, however, that in Islam the giving of law and legislation is always seen as a form of guidance, or huda, on how to live in conformity with God’s will. It is not intended to be a burden, but rather it is meant to aid human life by enabling a better relationship with God and a better relationship

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with one another. In the Qur’anic account of Moses receiving the Ten Commandments, the Qur’an says: Then We revealed the Book to Moses, to complete Our blessings on one who was righteous, to make clear all things, and as a guidance and a mercy; perhaps they would believe in the encounter with their Lord. (Q. 6:154)

Given that God will hold humans accountable for their behaviour, the giving of law is perceived as an act of mercy; it is through knowing and following the law that humans are able to be rewarded in the next life. As the person who first brought the law to the new Muslim community in Medina, Muhammad gains authority, honour, and respect. However, Muhammad becomes more than just a transmitter of a legal code, but becomes the embodiment of the law itself. The way he behaved, the things that he said, and the things he did formed a model for the early Muslim community to follow, and indeed for people today. To understand Muhammad as a person, it is important that we appreciate the impact that being a prophet had on his identity. He was not simply a link in a chain between God and the world, and he was not just the person who proclaimed the Qur’an, but he lived the Qur’an and the shari‘a in his daily life. This is why Muhammad is central to Muslim thought and practice: he is the embodiment of how to live according to God’s will and universal message.

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The life and practice of Muhammad inspired those around him in Medina and the generations that followed. The shari‘a was not seen simply as a checklist of things that needed to be done to gain access to heaven, but it was seen as enhancing and developing people’s spiritual lives. The Shi‘i Imam and great-grandson of the Prophet, Zayn al-Abidin (d. ca. 713), captured this sentiment in one of the prayers in the collection that is attributed to him, titled al-Sahifa al-sajjidiyya (‘The Book of the Constant Prostrator’): O God, bless Muhammad and his household and give us success in this day of ours, this night of ours, and in all our days. to employ the good, stay away from evil, give thanks for favours, follow the Sunna’s norms, avoid innovations, enjoin good behaviour, forbid the disapproved, defend Islam, diminish the falsehood and abase it, help the truth and exalt it, guide the misguided, assist the weak, and reach out to the troubled!8

This prayer exemplifies what living according to the shari‘a is all about: it is not simply following

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rules and regulations, but instead, it is about embodying what it is that God desires for the world. In doing so, the supplication looks towards a future of success in which humans are rewarded for fulfilling God’s will. Zayn al-Abidin here articulates the way in which following God’s

Figure 21. Ceramic Tile of the Ka‘ba in Mecca An interior detail of a tiled panel found at the Sabil-Kuttab (a public fountain and Qur’an school) of Katkhuda, a famous construction in Cairo named after its patron and architect, Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda (d. 1776). The tile features a view of the holy sanctuary in Mecca, as well as its surrounding mountains, such as Jabal al-Nur (‘the Mountain of Light’) where the Prophet received his first revelation.

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path on earth, in the human world, remains intimately related to the divine world. To get to the heart of the divine message that Muhammad brought, it is important to reflect on what Arabia was like before and after the message was proclaimed. As we have seen, Muhammad’s message engaged with the contexts in which it was revealed. After its proclamation – and especially after the formation of the Muslim community in Medina – the ethical and religious worldview of the Qur’an became a social and political reality. Muhammad’s role as a prophet and a messenger was pivotal in the establishment of a community that radically altered their existing beliefs and social structures.

*** Muhammad’s prophetic career was rooted in both the ancient and the new. The characteristics and manifestations of his prophetic mission were closely aligned with the experiences of the prophets of the past. As the Qur’an asserts, Muhammad’s experiences were not those of a poet or soothsayer, but they were a sign that he had received a divine message from God, like those before him. What the communities in Mecca and Medina were witnessing was not necessarily a new phenomenon; Muhammad’s calling was representative of God’s communication with humanity throughout the history of the world. However, it was the scripture that Muhammad brought to the people that established something

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entirely new: a living social and political community. The new umma administered its own laws based on the revelations Muhammad received, established new social customs and interactions, advocated a deeper sense of social justice, and even adopted new regulations in business and commerce. As a prophet, Muhammad ushered in a revolution that transformed how a community behaved and related to one another. Muhammad came to embody the new way of living that God instructed the umma, and indeed all people, to follow.

Chapter 6 The Resilient Prophet

The new community that Muhammad founded challenged the established ways of Arabian life. For the Meccans, it was not just Muhammad’s advocacy of social change and the protection of the weak that caused alarm, but many of the Qur’an’s theological beliefs were also revolutionary and deeply shocking. With this in mind, it is no surprise that he was met with opposition from those in power within the local community. Indeed many, if not most, Meccans initially rejected his message outright and clung onto the traditional beliefs and customs of Arabia. The local Meccan population wanted to preserve their ancient ways of thinking and doing, and rejected the new ideas seen in Muhammad’s preaching. This meant that the Prophet would face various challenges throughout his prophethood that required him to practise resilience in order to succeed in his divine mission. A Rejected Prophet In the Qur’an, prophets like Muhammad are raised up from within their communities to preach to their own people. With the exception of the people of Jonah, who listen to their 125

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prophet’s preaching and repent, communities roundly and routinely reject their own prophets. This is partly because they do not expect God’s message to come from one of their own – why would God call on an ordinary human being to deliver such an important message? In most cases, the community expects the message to come in the form of an otherworldly being like an angel, or with a great sign like an earthquake. When faced with his own community rejecting him, Muhammad receives reassurance from God who tells him: ‘They find it strange that a warner has come to them, of their own number’ (Q. 38:4). The Meccans, like the communities that came before them, do not want a mere human challenging their ways; instead, they want a miracle. Their response to Muhammad came in the form of ridicule, derision, and rejection. The Qur’anic conception of the rejected prophet is not a new phenomenon. In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is turned away by his own community in Nazareth, and retorts: ‘ “Prophets are not without honour except in their own country and in their own house” ’ (Matthew 13:57). Of all the prophets in the Bible, it is arguably Jeremiah who is listened to the least and rejected the most harshly. His preaching is set against a backdrop of decline in the religious and ethical practices of the Kingdom of Judah, where the community had begun to worship idols and enemies were threatening to overrun Jerusalem. The elites refused to listen to Jeremiah, preferring the sycophantic musings

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of false prophets. For speaking out, Jeremiah suffered great hardship and abuse, and was even thrown into prison. In the Book of Lamentations, Jeremiah asks, ‘ “Is it nothing to you, all you who pass by? Look and see if there is any sorrow like my sorrow . . .” ’ (Lamentations 1:12). The sheer despair he experienced as a rejected and vulnerable prophet is a common thread in the history of the Bible and can also be seen in Muhammad’s prophethood. Although we may often associate Muhammad’s mission with his preaching in Mecca and his subsequent successes in forming a new religious community in Medina, much of his prophetic career was characterized by struggle and perseverance in the face of abuse and ostracization. While a full discussion on jihad cannot be discussed at length here, it is important to mention in the context of Muhammad’s persecution. The term jihad, often translated as ‘holy war’, is a core principle in Islamic theology, but the word itself means ‘to strive’ or ‘to struggle’, rather than to wage war. Jihad is often coupled with the term sabr, meaning patience or perseverance, with the two concepts theologically intertwined. These principles are applied in the context of difficult situations in which a Muslim may have to struggle. Importantly, jihad emerged within a broader context of rejection and persecution, where the Prophet required a certain spiritual tenacity to fulfil his role as messenger accordingly to serve God’s purpose.

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Similarly, for members of the early Meccan community who converted to Islam, there was a need for both jihad and sabr. The Qur’an even talks about members of the community having to perform jihad against their parents (Q. 29:8); this does not mean they ‘waged war’ on their parents, but rather it meant that a Muslim with non-Muslim parents may have struggled with their faith amid familial pressures to return to the old religious ways. This idea developed in later Muslim thought as the jihad al-nafs, the jihad against the self, signifying the human struggle to do what God wants and what is right. Jihad and sabr, as we will see, became defining factors in the Prophet’s resilience toward the severe persecution he faced. Challenging Meccan Society At the very heart of the Qur’anic accounts of prophecy is the challenge that a prophet poses a community, and the way in which the community responds to the message. Arguably the most significant challenge that Muhammad brought to the Arabian community was the theological rejection of the deities they worshipped. The Qur’anic discourse against shirk is central in the accounts of Muhammad’s life and preaching because it presented such a direct challenge to the spiritual world of Arabia. In one passage, the Qur’an refers to three goddesses known as the Banat Allah (the ‘daughters of God’), named al-Lat, al-Uzza and Manat (also known as Manah). These three goddesses are known elsewhere

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in the Near East and appear in the worship of the Nabatean community of Palmyra in Syria. Although the people of pre-Islamic Arabia believed in a pantheon of gods and goddesses, local tribes each had strong affiliation, devotion, and loyalty to each of the Banat Allah: the Thaqif in Ta’if with al-Lat, the Quraysh in Mecca with al-Uzza, and the Aws and Khazraj in Yathrib with Manat. In a work that describes the worship of idols before the coming of Islam, Ibn al-Kalbi (d. 819) describes the cult of the goddess Manat: All the Arabs used to venerate her and sacrifice before her. In particular the Aws and Khazraj, as well as the inhabitants of Medina and Mecca and their vicinities, used to venerate Manah, sacrifice before her, and bring unto her their offerings.1

The Quraysh, the Aws, the Khazraj, and the Thaqif were the dominant tribal powers in the Hijaz throughout the 6th and 7th centuries, so when Muhammad proclaimed the Qur’an’s denunciation of these goddesses, these tribes’ religious identities were called into question. The Qur’an is explicit in its denunciation of the worship of these three goddesses: Have you considered al-Lat and al-Uzza? And Manat, the third, the other? To you belong males and to Him females? What a crooked way of sharing! They are but names that you and your forefathers coined: Regarding them

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Figure 22. Stone Relief Featuring al-Lat At the centre of this carved stone relief from Hatra (present-day Iraq) is al-Lat, one of the goddesses who was worshipped in pre-Islamic Mecca. Standing above a lion, she is flanked by two other women, possibly the goddesses al-Uzza and Manat.

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God sent down no authority. They merely follow conjecture, and what their souls hanker for, Even though Guidance has come down to them from their Lord. (Q 53:19–23)

With the concept of tawhid, the worship of one God, at the core of Muhammad’s message, it is no wonder the Qur’an strongly criticized local idol worship, and similarly, that the Meccans would respond vociferously to the Prophet’s preaching. In response to Muhammad’s proclamation of one God, the early Meccans were often aggressively dismissive and unwilling to engage with him. In his Occasions of the Revelation, al-Wahidi presents the context of verses in Surat Sad that were revealed to comfort the Prophet during the hostility he was experiencing. From this, we gain an insight into the type of engagements Muhammad had with the local Meccan elite – in this case with his uncle, Abu Jahl (d. 624), a leading figure of the Quraysh tribe and one of Muhammad’s harshest critics: The Prophet asked: ‘What do they want from me?’ They said: ‘Cease mentioning our deities and we will leave you alone with your God.’ The Prophet said to them: ‘Will you grant me one word by means of which you will rule over the Arabs and subjugate the non-Arabs?’ Abu Jahl said: ‘We will surely grant it and grant you ten like it!’ The Prophet said: ‘Say: there is no deity except Allah!’ The Quraysh

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were repelled and left, saying: ‘Does he make the gods One God? [Q. 38:5] How can One God be sufficient for the whole creation?’2

With their inability and resistance to comprehend the existence of one God, the Meccans rejected Muhammad’s proclamation of tawhid. Despite the fierce opposition, Muhammad’s steadfastness in his belief and mission prevailed. However, the Meccans’ rejection of God was not simply taken on theological grounds, but Muhammad’s attacks on Arabian religion also had a profound effect on the local economy. Muslim sources describe an annual market held in Mecca that was deeply entwined with local cultic practices, where people from across the Arabian Peninsula would come to worship local deities and engage in trade. Hence Muhammad’s denouncement of the Banat Allah was not only perceived as a threat to local theological beliefs, but also to the financial interests of many of the dominant families who were associated with the Ka‘ba and other local shrines. The Qur’anic denigration of the Banat Allah was the censure of a way of life, with personal and financial interests at stake, illustrating how religion is not simply concerned with theology, but also social enterprise; when theological beliefs shift, ways of being and cultural practices inevitably change too. It can be hard to grasp just how revolutionary the theology of the Qur’an and the social values it espoused were to those in 7th-century Mecca. But it is important to remember that

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Muhammad preached a vision of the world that was radically different to anything that they would have heard or seen before. For many Meccans, this proved too great a challenge and meant that resisting Muhammad’s message was the only way forward. Resistance to Muhammad’s Message To bring the divine message to early Arabian society was by no means an easy task. The biographies of the Prophet frequently depict how Muhammad was scornfully mocked and rejected by the Meccans, but by remaining steadfast in his resolve he continued to preach God’s message: When the Quraysh became distressed by the trouble caused by the enmity between them and the apostle and those of their people who accepted his teaching, they stirred up foolish men who called him a liar, insulted him, and accused him of being a poet, a sorcerer, a diviner, and of being possessed. However, the apostle continued to proclaim what God had ordered him to proclaim, concealing nothing, and exciting their dislike by condemning their religion, forsaking their idols, and leaving them to their unbelief.3

The rejection Muhammad experienced from his own community weighed heavily on him. At the time, the Quraysh tribe dominated Mecca and were associated with the management of the

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Ka‘ba. Abu Jahl and his family were the most powerful figures in the desert city and had the most to lose – both in prestige and in wealth – from Muhammad’s rejection of the old ways. As such, Abu Jahl became a staunch opponent of Muhammad and his message, preventing the Prophet from preaching and gaining new followers at every turn. For his severe animosity toward the Prophet, Abu Jahl became a wellknown figure in the Islamic tradition who symbolized the opposition to Muhammad’s message. He is also the only member of the pre-Islamic community to be mentioned in the Qur’an. Referred to as ‘Abu Lahab’ (meaning ‘Father of the Flame’), Surat al-Masad includes a fierce condemnation of both Abu Jahl and his wife, and their hostility to Muhammad: Perish the hands of Abu Lahab – and perish he! His wealth shall not avail him Nor what he earned; He shall be scorched by a fire, ablaze, As too his wife, the carrier of the firewood*; Around her neck is a rope of fibre. (Q. 111)

This short sura asserts that although Abu Jahl may be rich and has significant authority, his wealth will be of no use in the world to come. This revelation would have provided comfort to Muhammad and his early followers, reassuring them that Abu Jahl’s tyranny would not last. While Muhammad was protected from any physical violence by other members of his

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family – namely his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, his uncle Abu Talib, and his wife Khadija – his followers were not always granted the same protection. One of the most famous members of Muhammad’s early community was a former Abyssinian slave named Bilal ibn Rabah (d. ca. 640). Ibn Ishaq includes an account of a Meccan named Umayya who took Bilal to the desert during the hottest part of the day and placed a boulder on top of his chest, demanding that he deny Muhammad’s message and return to the worship of the Banat Allah.4 In a different account, retold by another traditionist named Ibn Kathir (d. 1373), the seven people who chose to follow Muhammad soon after his public proclamation of the Qur’an were later tortured by the Meccans. Ibn Kathir writes: Now the Messenger of God was protected by God through his uncle, and Abu Bakr was protected by God through his tribe. But the rest of them were taken away by the idol worshippers, who mounted chains on them and roasted them in the sun. All except Bilal gave way under this treatment; he, however, attached no importance in suffering in God’s cause.5

Bilal’s steadfastness and resolve to remain true to his faith even during such torture has inspired many Muslims throughout history – most recently, the story of his life was depicted in a feature-length animation film titled Bilal: A New

Figure 23. Illustration of Bilal Performing the Call to Prayer From Siyer-i Nebi, the 14th-century Turkish epic about the life of Muhammad, this miniature depicts one of the Prophet’s closest companions, Bilal, performing the call to prayer from the top of the Ka‘ba after the Conquest of Mecca in 630. 136

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Breed of Hero (2015). Bilal became an important member of Muhammad’s community, known for his role as the first prayer-crier, as well as for his significant responsibilities in Medina as one of Muhammad’s trusted companions.6 The Migration to Abyssinia The persecution of the early Muslim community in Mecca was an orchestrated campaign. Alongside physical intimidation there was a market boycott against the early adherents. The financial power of the Quraysh was an effective tool in weakening the resolve of its early converts, to the extent that a small group of Muhammad’s early followers were forced to escape Mecca and seek sanctuary in the Christian Kingdom of Aksum. In the accounts of these events, Muhammad expresses deep concern for his followers, telling them that they should seek sanctuary in another land. Of course, part of his role as a prophet and the leader of a fledgling community was to ensure that its members were safe. When the Muslims increased in number and the faith became manifest, the Pagan from the infidel Quraysh began to deliberate on the matter of what to do with the members of their own tribes who believed, torturing them and even imprisoning them, for they desired to force them to abandon their religion. He said, ‘We were told that the Messenger of God said to those who had faith in him’:

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“Seek out another land,” but they asked, “O Messenger of God! Where shall we go?” “There,” he said, and with his hand pointed towards Abyssinia. It was the land that the Messenger of God preferred above all others for their emigration. People thus emigrated in great numbers, some emigrating with their families and others by themselves, and they eventually arrived in Abyssinia.7

Ibn Ishaq records 83 men taking part in this exodus, many taking their families with them too.8 The migration to Abyssinia was a drastic, but necessary, measure. The Meccans even dispatched some of their most formidable members, namely Amr ibn al-As (d. 664) and Umara ibn al-Walid, to retrieve those who had fled to Abyssinia. However, the Abyssinian King, otherwise known as the Negus, welcomed the early community and provided them refuge. The biographies of the Prophet recount a noteworthy conversation between the Negus, the Meccans, and a man named Ja‘far ibn Abi Talib who represented the Muslims who had fled to Abyssinia: When the exiles came before them, they greeted him [the King] by saying, ‘Peace be upon you’, but they did not bow down before him. He addressed them,

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Figure 24. Scene at the Court of the Negus A miniature from Rashid al-Din’s Compendium of Chronicles depicting two Meccan delegates requesting the Negus to hand over the Muslims who were seeking refuge in his kingdom. Despite the Meccans’ efforts, the Negus refused their demands, vowing to protect the Muslims from persecution.

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‘Will you not tell me why you do not greet me in the same manner as others of your people who have come to me? And tell me what it is you say about Jesus and what your religion is. Are you Christians?’ ‘No,’ they replied. ‘Are you Jews then?’ ‘No.’ ‘Do you worship in your people’s religion?’ ‘No.’ ‘What is your religion?’ ‘It is Islam.’ ‘What is Islam?’ ‘We worship God,’ they replied, ‘and we associate no other god with Him.’ ‘And who has brought you this faith?’ ‘A man from among ourselves, whose face and genealogy we know. God sent him to us as He sent messengers to those who came before us. He ordered us to behave with kindness, honesty, trustworthiness, and good faith. He forbad us to worship idols and ordered us to worship God alone who has no associate . . . [but] our people behaved with enmity towards us and towards our truthful Prophet; they disbelieved in him and wanted to kill him. They wanted us to worship idols, and so we fled to you, bringing our faith and our blood to you away from our own people.’ . . . ‘And regarding our greeting,’ Ja‘far explained, ‘the Messenger of God told us that the people of paradise greet one another with a wish for peace

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and he ordered us to do the same. We greeted you the same way as we greet one another.’ ‘And regarding Jesus, son of Mary, he was the servant and messenger of God, His word that He cast to Mary and also His Spirit. He was the son of the chaste virgin.’ The king then picked up a stick and said, ‘By God, Mary’s son did not add to this the weight of this stick more!’9

In this intriguing encounter between the Christian King and the early Muslim community fleeing persecution, we observe the Negus agreeing to protect the Muslim community in Abyssinia. By his last statement, the Negus declares that he does not see the Muslim view of Jesus as that much different to his own. For the Muslim communities who heard this account in later generations, this short passage depicted the considerable relief that the early believers received from their neighbouring rulers, contrasted with the open hostility shown to them by their own people. The Hijra In response to the persecution that Muhammad and his followers were forced to endure, Muhammad sought to proclaim his message to tribes beyond Mecca. After the death of Abu Talib and Khadija in 619, Muhammad had little protection in Mecca and needed to seek support elsewhere in the region. He preached first to the Thaqif in Ta’if, south-east of Mecca, but with little success. One of the tribal leaders bluntly

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rebuked Muhammad, saying: ‘Could not God have found someone better than you to send?’10 He was hounded out of Ta’if and returned to Mecca dejected. Muhammad was clearly shaken by the experience, and was reported to have prayed to God, saying: ‘O God, to Thee I complain of my weakness, little resource and lowliness before men, O Most Merciful, Thou art the Lord of the weak, and Thou are my Lord. To whom wilt Thou confide me? To one afar who will misuse me? Or to an enemy to who Thou hast given power over me? If Thou are not in the light of Thy countenance by which the darkness is illumined, and the things of this world and the next are rightly ordered, lest Thy anger descend upon me or Thy wrath light upon me. It is for Thee to be satisfied until Thou art well pleased. There is no power and no might save in Thee.’11

This heartfelt plea expresses the desolation that Muhammad faced – an immensely human response to the abuse and rejection he suffered from members of his own community and from those across Arabia. Over the course of the next few years, help came from an unlikely source. Two tribes, the Aws and the Khazraj from Yathrib, were involved in a long-running dispute and sought Muhammad’s help to adjudicate the matter, since he had gained a reputation for fairness. Some

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Figure 25. Certificate Commemorating a Visit to the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina Issued in Egypt in the 1930s, this elaborate certificate was given to pilgrims who had visited the Prophet’s tomb in Medina. Pictured on the right is Muhammad’s pulpit (minbar), and beneath the green dome is a hadith of the Prophet, which reads: ‘Between my house and my minbar lies one of the gardens of Paradise.’

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people from Yathrib had already converted to Islam and pledged their allegiance to Muhammad, promising to protect him, even by force if necessary. After continued persecution, some of Muhammad’s followers in Mecca took the decision to emigrate to Yathrib, supported there by the Ansar (the ‘Helpers’) who had converted to Islam and were loyal supporters of Muhammad’s message. Muhammad, however, remained in Mecca until he had received a revelation from God to emigrate, which finally came in 622. The emigration to Medina (hijra) was a significant moment. It marked the point at which Islam became a political and social community, rather than a group of people of different tribes who followed Muhammad. It was here that Muhammad was able to create the Muslim community (umma) that was not based on tribal affiliation or status, but on equality and submission to God. However, not everyone in Medina had accepted Muhammad’s message, and so the ‘Constitution of Medina’ was drawn up to outline the expectations and treatment of all those within the new community. Part of the Constitution stated that the Jewish communities resident in Medina were part of the umma, and that they all had a common goal in protecting the community from attack: Each must help one another against any who fight those who adopt this document. They must give one another advice and consultation and do good and avoid evil.12

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The Constitution created a space for those who were Muslim and those who were not, allowing everyone to live under the banner of the Muslim umma. This unity was especially important because the Quraysh in Mecca, as well as many other tribes, remained hostile to Muhammad and his followers. Unity among the community was a strong concern during Muhammad’s time in Medina, as there were tensions with some who doubted his leadership. The Qur’an and the biographies of the Prophet often refer to the munafiqun (the ‘hypocrites’), people who had pledged their allegiance to Muhammad but later rejected him, either doubting his message or because they had concerns about money or family (Q. 63:9). Added to this, Muhammad’s message continued to threaten Meccan power in the region. It is in this period that jihad, the struggle, became a militarized one, as the community in Medina came under physical attack from the Quraysh and other tribes in Mecca. For those living in the new community in Medina, threats from the Quraysh and other tribes in Mecca remained a harsh reality. Muhammad, the Man The fierce resistance and rejection that Muhammad faced was not simply intellectual and theological, rather it manifested in different ways: from the physical abuse of his followers and the ridicule he had to endure, to the state of war and hostilities that emerged between the Meccans and the nascent Muslim community

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in Medina. For later Muslims writing when the Islamic Empire had spread from the remote confines of the Hijaz to much of the known world, the ultimate victory of Islam may have seemed inevitable; but for those early Muslims, despite their conviction in Muhammad’s message, the danger posed by the community’s adversaries loomed large. Muhammad’s prophethood was characterized by struggle and perseverance, jihad and sabr. These principles come to define Muhammad’s response to the criticism and abuse that he received and became a model for Muslims to endure similar hardships. Throughout the hostilities he faced – be it the opposition from close figures in the Meccan elite like his uncle Abu Jahl, or his unsuccessful attempts to appeal to the people of Ta’if – Muhammad was reminded by God of the prophets who had been similarly treated throughout the history of the world. In one verse, God instructs Muhammad to bear the rejection and abuse ‘in seemly patience’ (Q. 70:5). The importance of steadfastness and patience is a common theme in the Qur’an, and one that is associated with righteousness. It is of no surprise, then, that these were the very ideals that Muhammad lived by during his persecution at the hands of the Meccans. The eminent theologian and mystic Muhammad al-Ghazali (d. 1111) believed that the Qur’anic concept of sabr, steadfastness and patience, was intricately linked to the concept of shukr, thankfulness. There is a hadith

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Figure 26. Late 19th- or Early 20th-century Finial Ornate steel standards seen during Shi‘i Muharram processions are known as alams and are crowned with finials, such as the one pictured here, detailing the names of the ahl al-bayt (Muhammad, Fatima, Ali, Hasan and Husayn). For Shi‘is, Husayn’s death at the Battle of Karbala (680) became a symbol of sacrifice and perseverance in the struggle for justice and is commemorated on the 10th day of the Islamic month of Muharram, known as the Day of Ashura.

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that states: ‘Whenever the Prophet came across something that brought him happiness, or delighted him, he would fall down and prostrate himself in thanks to God.’13 This sense of joy and thankfulness can be seen in the accounts of the Conquest of Mecca in 630, the moment when Muhammad’s mission from God to create a believing community in Arabia had been fulfilled and the threat of the Meccans had been defeated. The first act that Muhammad performed on entering Mecca was to purify and then pray at the Ka‘ba, giving thanks to God for the victory over the Meccans. The second was to speak to the Meccans who had fought him, but instead of acting in vengeance for the way they had treated him and fought him, he offered a hand of peace: Thus the apostle let them go though God had given him power over their lives and they were his spoil . . . Then the populace gathered together in Mecca to do homage to the apostle in Islam.14

From this moment, the Muslim community became firmly established as both a political and spiritual power in the region: in its confrontation with polytheism, Islam had won. For Muhammad to get to that moment in Mecca he had had to endure a great many hardships, which also extended to the struggles in his personal life. It can be easy to forget the familial relations that the Prophet upheld

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throughout his monumental prophetic career, and the losses he suffered. While we have little information about his children, all of whom he outlived apart from Fatima, we do have accounts of Muhammad’s tender and loving nature towards them. In one tradition featured in Muhammad Haykal’s (d. 1956) biography, Muhammad is depicted playing with his last son, Ibrahim, son of his Coptic wife, Mariya al-Qibtiyya (d. 637): [Ibrahim was] a source of constant joy. Whenever he finished with the day’s official engagements and receptions, and satisfied himself that his duties to God, family, and friends were fulfilled, he would sit with his son, playing with him.15

Ibrahim died in his infancy; hadith accounts describe the highly emotional scenes of the Prophet in tears of grief. As with the stories of Muhammad playing with his own children, there are many hadith that describe the joy that his two grandchildren, Hasan and Husayn, brought him, with happy images of the Prophet embracing and playing with them both. In the accounts of the Prophet’s death, the sources bring Muhammad’s humanity and mortality to the fore. The traditionist al-Suyuti (d. 911) included an account of Muhammad’s death in his Book of Angels, which is a hadith that was first told by Husayn:

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Gabriel came down to the Prophet on the day of his death and said, ‘How are you?’ He said, ‘I am distressed and scared, Gabriel.’ The Angel of Death sought permission to enter from the door, and Gabriel said, ‘Muhammad, this is the Angel of Death, who is seeking permission to enter your house. He has not sought permission from me to come to a human before you, and he will not seek permission from me to come to a human after you.’ Muhammad said, ‘Give him permission.’ So Gabriel let him in. The Angel of Death approached until he stood before Muhammad and said, ‘God has sent me to you and has commanded me to obey you, if you command me to take your soul, then I will take it; if you do not want me to take your soul, then I will leave.’ Muhammad said, ‘Do it, Angel of Death.’ The Angel of Death said, ‘Yes, as you command.’ Gabriel said to Muhammad, ‘God indeed desires to meet you.’ Then the Messenger of God said, ‘Carry out, what you have been commanded to do by God.’16

While Muhammad is clearly held in special esteem by the divine world, as the Angel of Death seeks his permission to enter his home – something that had never been done before – we also observe Muhammad’s distress about the coming of death. In spite of the great miracles he experienced as a messenger of God, Muhammad is still an ordinary human, suffering the same

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fears and worries as every other person as he approaches death. Ultimately, he expresses his enduring submission to God, asking the Angel of Death to do what God has commanded. In many ways, the Prophet’s final moments epitomize the unwavering faith with which he undertook the mammoth task of bringing Islam to Arabia. Through resilience and perseverance in both his personal and public struggles, Muhammad’s success in uniting the tribes of Arabia would soon result in the spread of his message across the Near East, Asia, Africa and Europe.

Chapter 7 The Prophet’s Legacy

The Muslim community inevitably felt a great loss with the Prophet’s death. There were immediate practical concerns regarding the governance of the community: Who would lead the newly founded umma? How would the community be governed? And how would new matters of law and doctrine be addressed? These questions generated great debate among the early community. Equally, the emotional impact of the loss of the Prophet as the community’s spiritual leader, moral guide, and, for many, a companion, sent shock waves across Arabia. The early poet and companion of the Prophet, Hassan ibn Thabit (d. 674) captured this sense of loss in a devotional poem about Muhammad after his death. Invoking the name ‘Tayba’ (meaning ‘the sweet smelling’), a name that Muhammad gave the city of Medina, Hassan writes: At Tayba lies a trace of the Messenger And a place thronged and luminous, While other traces lie barren and effaced. The signs are not erased from that inviolate abode

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In which stands the minbar that the Guide would mount. Its signs yet clear, its waymarks standing still And his quarter where his mosque and prayer-place stood.1

Pre-Islamic poets often reflected on the inevitable passing of time, comparing the way human life fades away into obscurity to the marks of an encampment that has long-since moved on. In contrast, Hassan ibn Thabit says that the places where the Prophet lived and preached remain touched by his presence, ‘thronged and luminous’. For him, the marks of the Prophet will never fade away. Indeed, the traces left by the Prophet, in the form of his life and achievements, would continue to influence the political, spiritual, and moral outlook of the new community in Arabia, and more significantly, all Muslim communities in the future. The subsequent centuries after Muhammad’s death were characterized by the rapid expansion of Islam. Stretching from Central Asia to Spain, empires and dynasties sought to follow in the way of the Prophet and God’s cause, each contributing to the vast developments and achievements in law, theology, sciences and the arts. Some 1,400 years later, Muhammad continues to impact the contemporary Muslim world today. In many ways, the diverse communities that make up the Muslim world are expressions of the differing religious and cultural experiences of the Prophet, which manifest in distinct

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Figure 27. Reverse Glass Painting of the Prophet’s Mosque A 19th-century glass window hanging from India featuring an abstract painting of the Prophet’s Mosque and tomb in Medina. Such objects would have hung in private homes and served as a focus of devotion to the Prophet in everyday life; they are an example of how the sacred is brought into ordinary spaces.

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theologies, rituals, and practices: they are the visible traces of Muhammad’s legacy. Muhammad, the Exemplar Throughout this book we have seen numerous hadith extracts that contributed to a body of accepted beliefs and customs based on the actions and sayings of the Prophet, otherwise known as the sunna. We know that the sunna along with the Qur’an that was revealed to Muhammad are the two authoritative sources with which God’s law (the shari‘a) is interpreted. As the Muslim community grew and expanded into new territories, the promulgation of the Prophet’s message and God’s law was increasingly important. Thus the shari‘a came to symbolize the Muslim community’s collective effort to understand how to live according to God’s will. It is the Prophet Muhammad who is pivotal to this unifying endeavour, which significantly represents his legacy as the one who first united Arabia under the banner of Islam, and all consequent generations. More widely, for those who revered the Prophet as their living guide and wanted to preserve his memory, Muhammad became an exemplar and model for moral human behaviour. His life and teachings became the focus of numerous early works in the Muslim tradition, which provided examples of his piety, wisdom, leadership, and etiquette for people to follow and emulate. Early works were written to help people embody Muhammad’s ethical way of

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Figure 28. Amulet Featuring a Hilya from the 19th Century This two-sided amulet, from India or Ottoman Turkey, displays descriptions of the Prophet’s qualities and characteristics, reminding its bearer of the qualities he or she should emulate.

being, such as the Book of Noble Qualities of Character compiled by Ibn Abi al-Dunya (d. 894), which states: If a man of understanding in the matter of these qualities falls short of possessing

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them all, he should not struggle for some of them; rather he should cling to the sound ones which have been bestowed on him; for the Prophet said: If God loves a servant He bestows on him one of these qualities.2

According to Ibn Abi al-Dunya, it is unlikely that anyone would be able to achieve all the elevated qualities of Muhammad; nevertheless, they should strive to be as much like Muhammad as they can. Above all, the accounts of Muhammad’s life and the descriptions of his virtues challenge people to change the way they live their lives. Whether it is making a tough decision or struggling in the face of injustice, the characteristics and qualities of Muhammad serve as a guide for humanity in practically every aspect of life. In his famous and monumental work, Ihya Ulum al-Din (‘The Revival of the Religious Sciences’), al-Ghazali wrote about Muhammad’s attributes: They said he was the most smiling and agreeable of men except when a revelation [i.e. the Qur’an] was revealed to him, when he mentioned the hour of Resurrection, and when he preached a sermon. When he rejoiced and was pleased, he was the most pleased of men. If he preached, he preached vigorously; if he were angered, being angered only for the sake of God, nothing could withstand his anger. Thus he was in all his affairs.3

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Al-Ghazali’s description of Muhammad is one that encapsulates a tension seen across the prophets in the Abrahamic faiths: on the one hand, the Prophet is a peaceable and friendly man who advocates ethical behaviour, shares in people’s joys, and comforts them in their sorrows, but on the other hand, he is a man outraged by injustice and the abuses of power, and someone who was willing to speak out against these, even at the expense of his own welfare. Muhammad’s prophetic call for people to lead better lives, for all its nuances, is one that has echoed throughout the history of Muslim civilization and is one that continues to be heard. It is important to remember that at the time of the Prophet’s death, the early Muslim community was still very much in its nascent stages. The new community had the tremendous task of establishing a unified system of practices that articulated Islam across the rapidly increasing umma. Fortunately, Muhammad had already established certain rituals during his prophethood, many of which were communal by nature and contributed to the formation of a collective identity. These included fasting during the month of Ramadan, the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), and the prescribed daily prayers (salat) – all of which continue to be practised, to different extents, by Muslims across the world today. In the case of salat, the Prophet is said to have practised and established the ritual prayers, which include the recital of portions of the Qur’an and additional invocations. While different

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schools of Islamic law, or madhhabs, over time had slight varying opinions on the ritual prayer, the salat remains a core expression of piety for the majority of Muslims today, as inherited from the Prophet himself. In addition to the salat, there is a body of supplications, or du‘as, that Muhammad taught his followers, which were transmitted in the hadith and are performed by Muslims as additional personal prayers. Over the centuries these were collected into prayer manuals that were passed down to generations to assist Muslims in their private devotions. For some Shi‘i communities, particular forms of invocation prayer form an important part of daily devotional life and are invoked on special occasions, such as the birth or death of an Imam or members of the Prophet’s family. In all, through daily invocations and the practice of the salat, Muhammad remains an integral and active part of the Muslim devotional experience and consciousness. This may be best summarized in the common supplication known as the ‘prayer of need’, the salat al-haja, which many Muslims invoke: Do not leave any one of my sins without forgiving it, or any worry without removing it, or any need amongst the needs of this world and the Hereafter that is pleasing to You without decreeing it [to be bestowed], O Most Merciful of the merciful. O God, I beseech You and turn towards You by means of Your Prophet Muhammad, the prophet of mercy. O Muhammad, truly I turn to my

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Lord by means of you in my need of this to be decreed for me. O God, allow him to intercede on my behalf.4

In this prayer God is the source of mercy and blessing, the one who can provide aid and assistance, but Muhammad is the one who guides the believer to God, through his words, his actions, and through his proclaiming of God’s word in the Qur’an. The intimate spiritual relationship between the Prophet and the believers is apparent. Muhammad is not simply someone that Muslims can turn to in times of need, but he is the archetype of what true submission to God looks like. Celebrating the Prophet Muhammad has also been the subject of fervent popular devotion among various Muslim communities. As the final messenger of God, he remains a venerated figure for Muslims, many of whom wish to gain proximity to God through their love and devotion to the Prophet. The Islamic calendar, which begins from Muhammad’s hijra, is punctuated by significant occasions that relate to the Prophet’s life and are celebrated today. Some examples include: the Night of Power (Laylat al-Qadr) that marks the first revelation of the Qur’an that Muhammad received during Ramadan; the Day of Arafa during the annual pilgrimage, which commemorates the Prophet’s final sermon delivered on Mount Arafat, otherwise known as Jabal

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Figure 29. Mawlid Celebrations in Yemen A man spray-paints his van with the name of Muhammad and a prayer. The bottom of the stencil reads, ‘Remembering the birth of the noble Prophet, 1440 AH [2018]’. The commemoration of the Prophet’s birthday permeates all sorts of everyday spaces, highlighting the importance of the Prophet in the daily lives of Muslims around the world.

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al-Rahma (‘the Mountain of Mercy’); as well as the celebration of the Prophet’s birth, or mawlid, which offers a particularly profound insight into the legacy of Muhammad. Although celebrations of his birth did not begin immediately after his death, there are early examples of Muslims celebrating the Prophet’s birthday. In the classical period the festival became popular among the Fatimids in Egypt and the Turks in Anatolia. The commemoration, although not accepted by all, quickly spread and has become a feature of many Muslim communities. The late-Mamluk scholar Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti, following another prominent scholar, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d. 1449), deemed the festival to be an innovation, or bid‘a, but specifically one that is praiseworthy and should be encouraged. For al-Suyuti, the celebration of the Prophet’s birthday helps to create a close bond between Muslims and the Prophet Muhammad.5 Today, the Prophet’s birthday remains a major cultural and religious festival and is a public holiday for many Muslim-majority countries, such as Indonesia, Turkey, and Pakistan. During these festivities, it is common for long poems to be recited about Muhammad’s life. Importantly, they are not simply about his birth and conception, but they celebrate his whole life, from birth to death. In a poem written about Muhammad’s life and often recited during the Mawlid festival, the Turkish poet Suleyman Çelebi (d. 1411), ends with a series of praises and honorific titles for Muhammad:

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Welcome, O high prince, we welcome you! Welcome, O mine of wisdom, we welcome you! Welcome, O secret of the Book, we welcome you! Welcome, O medicine for pain, we welcome you! Welcome, O sunlight and moonlight of God! Welcome, O you not separated from God! Welcome, O nightingale of the Garden of Beauty! Welcome, O friend of the Lord of Power! Welcome, O refuge of your community! Welcome, O helper of the poor and destitute! Welcome, O eternal soul, we welcome you! Welcome, O cupbearer of the lovers, we welcome you! Welcome, O darling of the Beloved! Welcome, O much beloved of the Lord! Welcome, O Mercy for the worlds! Welcome, O intercessor for the sinner! Only for you were Time and Space created . . .6

These praises capture the multifaceted nature of Muhammad’s prophetic role: he is the community’s refuge, the leader of the people, the helper of the poor, and the bringer of divine wisdom all at the same time. Çelebi’s outpouring of affection tells us that it is from the moment of Muhammad’s birth that all of this became a reality, highlighting the spiritual significance of celebrating the Prophet’s birth. In these celebrations Muhammad is not simply a figure of the

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past, but is drawn into the worship of the community, as they rejoice in the gift of revelation that Muslims have received through him. Devotional literature, from private intimate poems to corporate songs of praise, are not restricted to celebrations of the Prophet’s birth. In the Islamic arts, there is a long tradition of devotional poetry and songs – particularly in the Sufi tradition – that seek to deepen the relationship between individuals and the Prophet. In one such poem, the Persian jurist and Sufi saint, Khwaja Abdallah Ansari (d. 1088), describes a growing relationship between the believing community and Muhammad. In doing so, he includes this verse about his own relationship with Muhammad: O God, In this world the disobedience we do Makes your beloved Muhammad sad And your enemy Iblis happy. If you torment us at the Resurrection, Again your beloved will be sad and your enemy happy. O God, Don’t give your enemy two occasions for happiness And your beloved two occasions for sorrow.7

Ansari encapsulates the love and compassion that Muhammad has towards his believers, illustrating the close bond between Muslims and the Prophet. In many respects, Muhammad becomes

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the gateway to the divine world. As in the salat al-haja, while it is God who forgives and abounds in mercy, Muhammad is the one who taught people how to live and how to develop meaningful relationships with God and with one another. The significant role poetry has played in its expression of love and devotion for the Prophet has continued into the modern world in similar forms. For example, in the Indian subcontinent we find qawwali, a type of devotional singing that was first practised in Sufi shrines and later popularized worldwide. Derived from the Arabic word ‘qawl’, meaning speech or utterance, the words sung during traditionally intimate qawwali performances are usually taken from Sufi poetry. Like other forms of devotional practices in the Sufi tradition, qawwali’s rhythmic and repetitive recitations often invoke the Prophet in a bid to gain proximity to God. One such example is a famous qawwali titled Bhar do jholi, ‘Fill my lap’, written by Purnam Allahabadi (d. 2009) and popularized by the prominent Sabri brothers, Ghulam Farid Sabri (d. 1994) and Maqbool Ahmed Sabri (d. 2011). In the poem, Allahabadi imagines himself as a pauper seeking the charity of the Prophet Muhammad, but not simply in the material sense; rather he yearns for spiritual sustenance, turning to the Prophet to help him in his hour of need. While we cannot necessarily appreciate the impassioned experience of this qawwali here, we are able to recognize the intensely personal relationship that some Muslim groups

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Figure 30. Goma Dance Performance during Mawlid Festivities in Kenya Young boys are pictured here performing the goma dance, a formalized line dance that incorporates a sequence of movements with a cane, on the island of Lamu in Kenya, which is noted for its celebrations of the Prophet’s birthday. Ibn Battuta (d. 1369), the famous explorer from Tangier, visited the region and remarked on the exuberance of the mawlid festivities in the Swahili communities of East Africa.

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maintain with the figure of Muhammad. In the contemporary world with recordings of qawwalis and other such devotional material readily available on the internet, many Muslims are now able to bring these acts of devotion more easily into their homes and into their lived experience of the Prophet. Why Prophecy Matters Of all the distinct theologies, practices, and rituals that we may observe in the Muslim world of the past and present, each have found their articulation on account of the life and prophecy of Muhammad. Muhammad’s meeting with Gabriel in the cave of Hira is the pivotal moment in his life – the moment he becomes a prophet and God’s messenger. From that point onwards he experienced a great many wonders: be it his encounters with the divine world through Gabriel and his miraculous ascension to heaven, or his receiving of God’s law in the form of the Qur’an. These significant events compelled the Prophet to speak out against the oppression of the poor and disadvantaged in Mecca, which culminated in the establishment of the new community in Medina. All of these momentous occasions contribute to the Prophet’s legacy that has inspired a diversity of interpretation among Muslim communities throughout history. Muhammad’s encounter with God is decisive, after which there is no going back: he is changed by the experience and must take on a new life as a prophet. The Qur’an, delivered to

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the world by Muhammad, is similarly decisive – its verses proclaimed by the Prophet continue to warn and announce the good news, initiating change in individuals so that they may acknowledge the Divine and live accordingly. As the Qur’an tells us, this is very much a personal response: ‘God alters not what is in a people unless they alter what is in themselves’ (Q. 13:11). For Muslims, living a life of faith and following the example of the Prophet is, at its most basic, about an individual deciding to change, altering something within themselves and making a commitment to God. This very idea of submitting to God is at the core of the message of Islam and is best exemplified in the Qur’an through the prophets: Remember when his Lord said to him: ‘Surrender!’ and he said: ‘I surrender to the Lord of the Worlds.’ Abraham entrusted his children with this commandment, as did Jacob: ‘My children, God has chosen the pure religion for you. Depart from this life except as those who surrender.’ Or were you witnesses when death came to Jacob? When he said to his sons: ‘Whom will you worship when I am gone?’ They said, ‘We shall worship your Lord, and the Lord of your fathers Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac: One God. To Him we surrender.’ (Q. 2:131–33)

This short but weighty passage about Abraham, Jacob, and his sons brings together many

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important ideas we have explored. It shows the shared heritage of the Qur’anic and biblical prophets; it illustrates how individuals and successive generations are brought to faith through the teaching of a prophet; and it conveys the theological idea of faith as an act of submission or surrender to God. For Muslims, Muhammad is the perfect example of someone who submits and surrenders themselves to God. He is the seal of the prophets, the last in a long line of prophecy going back through the history of the world, and he is the one who teaches and instructs people in the faith – something that his legacy continues to do. Prophecy and prophethood are where the faith begins. Throughout this book we have seen the way in which the Muslim view of Muhammad, and of prophecy in general, looks to both Arab and biblical religious and cultural ideas. We also see in the Qur’an a constant juxtaposition between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’, between continuity with the past and the need for change. The Qur’anic view of prophecy pulls us in all these different directions. One might expect that these different directions – the Abrahamic tradition, Arab culture, the ancient faith and the new community – would create a sense of tension and conflict, but instead they flow in and out each other, creating a new, unique understanding of prophecy. At the confluence of all these different strands is Muhammad: God’s final messenger ushering in a new way of life.

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While the Muslim vision of prophecy looks back to its Abrahamic past, it also sees its fulfilment in the Muslim civilizations that follow. The life of Muhammad creates a Muslim future with a new order, and ultimately a new power within a global context. The Muslim civilizations that emerged from Arabia brought many towering achievements in science, technology, art, philosophy and literature, all of which began from an encounter in a small cave near Mecca. The fact that Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have a shared prophetic history undoubtedly offers an opportunity for interfaith discussion and dialogue; but, a reflection on prophets and prophecy can be of value to those who adhere to other belief systems too. The moral and ethical vision espoused by the prophets of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam raise many poignant questions for our contemporary world. Regardless of whether we are of faith or of none, to what extent are we willing to stand up against those who oppress others, at home, at work, or in our communities? Are we willing to risk ourselves for the sake others? Are we willing to be rejected for holding the ideals that we proclaim? And are those ideals for the betterment of only ourselves and our loved ones, or for all? An exploration of prophecy and prophethood may not provide us with all the answers to these questions, but it can certainly challenge us to think more deeply about our place in our local communities and more broadly in society. Understanding one another requires us to recognize the values upon

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which our beliefs are built, which, more often than not, leads to the discovery of the many commonalities we share. For Muslims, core values and beliefs stem from God’s interaction with humanity through prophets, and ultimately the Prophet Muhammad. This is why prophecy, prophets, and prophethood matter. Without understanding prophecy and prophethood and how faiths like Islam conceive them, we fail to grasp the faith itself. Prophecy and prophethood are at the very heart of what Islam is and how it envisions itself. In an age where Islam is so frequently discussed, both among the faith and beyond, there is a great need to understand more deeply what prophecy and prophethood are all about. To attempt to appreciate Islam or the life of Muhammad without understanding Muhammad’s role as the Messenger of God can only hinder any fruitful engagement with Islam in the contemporary world. For his followers, the Prophet Muhammad is a focus of honour and devotion. As the one called by God to receive and deliver a message not just to his own community and time but to the whole world and for future generations, he holds a special and revered place. As a prophet, he is a teacher who establishes new ways of living and engaging with God; he is a leader who brings the community success; he is a critic of abuse and corruption; the one who can reveal secrets of the divine world; and he is the one who enables Muslims to keep to the straight

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path through his teaching and wisdom, which continue to instruct Muslims in matters of faith and ethics today. Muhammad’s prophetic legacy is the umma itself in all its diversity. For the millions of Muslims around the world, Muhammad is and will always be the Prophet.

Glossary

Abu Talib

ahl al-bayt

Ansar

Asbab al-nuzul

aya pl. ayat

Uncle and guardian of the Prophet. A leading figure of the Quraysh tribe, Abu Talib (540–619) protected Muhammad during the early years of his preaching. Lit. ‘people of the house’, meaning the Prophet Muhammad and members of his household, including his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, his daughter Fatima, and his grandsons Hasan and Husayn, as well as their progeny. Lit. ‘the Helpers’. Members of Medina’s tribes who converted to Islam. They provided the Prophet and his early followers refuge in Medina, which helped the establishment of the first Muslim community. The occasions of revelation; the literary and exegetical genre that relates the Prophet’s circumstances when particular verses of the Qur’an were revealed. The most notable work in this field is the Asbab alNuzul of Ali ibn Ahmad al-Wahidi (d. 1076). Lit. ‘sign’. Used to denote a verse of the Qur’an. 173

174

Banat Allah

bashir

du‘a

hadith pl. ahadith

hajj

Glossary

The three pre-Islamic goddesses alLat, al-Uzza and Manat known as the Banat Allah, the ‘daughters of God’, who are mentioned in the Qur’an (Q. 53: 18–19). Lit. ‘bringer of good news’. A common title or descriptor for prophets in the Qur’an, referring to the good news they bring in the form of God’s message and mercy. This is contrasted with a prophet’s role as a ‘warner’ (see nadhir). ‘Invocation’ or ‘supplication’. Supplementary personal prayers that a Muslim may perform in addition to the daily ritual prayers (see salat). For Sufi and Shi‘i communities, du‘as are of particular importance in liturgical and ritual activity. Documented traditions of the Prophet Muhammad, which include sayings and actions of the Prophet that were transmitted orally and later formed a body of literature. The most famous collections of hadith include the Sahih of al-Bukhari (d. 870) and the Sahih of Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (d. 875). For Shi‘i communities, the traditions of the Imams are also included, such as the collection of statements and sermons of Ali ibn Abi Talib (601–661), the Nahj al-balagha. The annual Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca.

Glossary

Heilsgeschichte

Hijaz hijra

Imam

imamate

isra

jihad

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A German term used by historians to denote ‘sacred history’. Concerned with the religious significance of historical events. It is often contrasted with Weltgeschichte (see Weltgeschichte). The north-western region of the Arabian Peninsula and home to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The ‘emigration’ from Mecca to Medina as led by the Prophet Muhammad in the year 622. The Muslim calendar starts from this year and is therefore anno hegirae (AH). Generally used to signify a leader, whether a prayer-leader or caliph. In Shi‘i Islam, it refers to the designated Imams from the ahl al-bayt (see ahl al-bayt). The institution of authoritative political and religious leadership, which in Shi‘i Islam refers to the designated Imams from the Household of the Prophet. Muhammad’s miraculous ‘Night Journey’ to Jerusalem on the winged horse Buraq. The episode is alluded to in the Qur’an (Q. 17:1) and is recounted in the sira literature (see sira). Lit. ‘struggle’ or ‘effort’. A term in the Qur’an and Islamic theology which primarily refers to an internal effort to live righteously and according to God’s will. The term

176

Glossary

is also used in the context of a military war waged in the cause of religion. Ka‘ba The cube-shaped shrine in the holy city of Mecca often referred to as Bayt Allah (‘the house of God’). Muslims around the world face the Ka‘ba during their daily obligatory prayers. kahin A soothsayer in pre-Islamic Arabia; pl. kuhhan believed to be possessed by spirits (jinn) as they predicted the future, casting lots. Khadija The first wife of the Prophet Muhammad and one of the earliest converts to Islam. As the first person with whom the Prophet shared his revelations, Khadija (ca. 555–619) became Muhammad’s moral support during his early preaching and persecution. khalifa Usually translated as ‘caliph’; the pl. khulafa leader of the Muslim community and successor of the Prophet Muhammad. In the Qur’an, the prophet Adam is described as God’s ‘khalifa’ on earth (Q. 2:30), meaning ‘vicegerent’. khatam Lit. ‘seal of the prophets’. The term al-nabiyyin appears in the Qur’an (Q. 33:40) to refer to Muhammad as the culmination of a line of prophets beginning with Adam. kitab pl. kutub A book; used in the Qur’an to describe a revelation or scripture that was sent down to humankind

Glossary

mawlid

mi‘raj

Mu‘allaqat

nabi pl. anbiya

nadhir

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and proclaimed by a messenger. Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians are referred to as ‘ahl al-kitab’ (‘people of the Book’) and are given a special legal status in Islam. Lit. ‘birth’. Most commonly used to refer to the commemoration of the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, which is marked by festivities and devotional acts across the Muslim world. Muhammad’s miraculous Ascension to heaven. Historical accounts state that he ascended through the seven heavens accompanied by the angel Gabriel and was greeted by prophets from the past along the way, including Moses and Abraham. The mi‘raj is widely associated with the isra (see isra). Lit. ‘the hanging ones’. The seven odes that were suspended on the walls of the pre-Islamic Ka‘ba which are considered the most eminent examples of ancient Arabian poetry. A prophet; an individual who is sent by God to communicate a divine message through their life and teachings, as opposed to delivering a specific message in the form of scripture (see rasul). Lit. ‘warner’. A common title or descriptor of prophets in the Qur’an, referring to the prophet’s role to

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Negus

Qisas al-anbiya

Quraysh

rasul pl. rusul

sabr

salat pl. salawat

Glossary

warn people of the consequences of neglecting God. This is contrasted with a prophet’s role as a ‘bringer of good news’ (see bashir). The Amharic word for ‘king’, used as a title of the sovereign of Ethiopia. The Negus of Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia) provided refuge for the early Muslim community who fled persecution in Mecca. An Arabic literary genre which recounts the stories of the prophets mentioned in the Qur’an. In many places, authors refer to Jewish and Christian traditions. One of the most important collections was written by al-Tha‘labi (d. 1036). The powerful mercantile tribe of Mecca during Muhammad’s ministry. The Prophet himself belonged to the Hashemite clan of the Quraysh. A messenger; a prophet who has received scripture from God to deliver to humanity. Muhammad is referred to as both rasul Allah (‘messenger of God’), and a prophet (see nabi). ‘Perseverance’. An important virtue in Islam that is referred to in the Qur’an; it is used to denote the steadfastness which believers should practice during times of hardship and is closely related to the notion of struggle (see jihad). A Qur’anic term referring to prayer in general, which later came to be

Glossary

sha‘ir pl. shu‘ara

shari‘a

shirk

sira

Sufi; Sufism

sunna

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used more specifically for the daily ritual prayer. A poet. In pre-Islamic Arabia poets were believed to be inspired by spirits (jinn) as they declaimed their poetry and were particularly important in the formation of local cultural and tribal identities. The term used to refer to God’s law, i.e. how to live according to God’s will. The body of laws are derived from two primary sources: the Qur’an and the sunna (see sunna). Theological principle that refers to the association of someone or something with God, which goes against the core Islamic doctrine of the oneness of God (see tawhid). The term sira refers to the body of biographical literature concerning the Prophet Muhammad. The preeminent work in this genre is the Sirat Rasul Allah compiled by Ibn Ishaq (d. 767) and redacted by Ibn Hisham (d. 834). A Sufi is someone who practices the mystical tradition in Islam, known as Sufism. A Sufi seeks personal engagement with God through meditation and spiritual exercises. The established practice of the Prophet Muhammad based on his actions and sayings. The sunna provides a model for Muslim

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sura

tafsir ta’wil taklif

taqwa tawhid umma

Glossary

conduct and a primary source to interpret God’s law (see shari‘a). The Arabic term for a chapter of the Qur’an. There are 114 suras in the Qur’an, each titled distinctly and divided into ayas (see aya). Qur’anic exegesis; the science of interpreting and elucidating the message of the Qur’an. Qur’anic exegesis that focuses on the hidden, esoteric meaning of the text. The term taklif denotes the responsibilities and obligations which God has imposed on humankind. God consciousness; to be cognisant of God’s presence and what God expects from humanity. The oneness of God or belief in Divine Unity, one of the fundamental tenets of Islam. A community; people who are followers of a particular religion or prophet. It refers in particular to Muslims as a global religious community. The umma came to fruition following the hijra to Medina, which established a community in which all Muslims were equal, regardless of heritage or family, and also included nonMuslims who were living in Medina at the time.

Glossary

181

Weltgeschichte A German term used by historians to denote ‘world history’. Weltgeschichte is concerned with social and political history and is often contrasted with Heilsgeschichte (see Heilsgeschichte).

Notes

Introduction 1 Traditionally, Muslims are recommended to utter the formula ‘Salla Allahu alayhi wa sallam’ (May God’s peace and blessings be upon him) following the mention of the Prophet Muhammad’s name. In light of the general readership of this book, the expression has been omitted in the text; Muslim readers are invited to formulate this prayer at their own discretion.

Chapter 1. Who is a Prophet? 1 Umberto Eco, The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (Indiana, 1979), pp. 107–124, 144–173. 2 The Jataka; or, Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births, trans. W.H.D. Rouse (Cambridge, 1895), vol. 2, no. 186, pp. 101–106. 3 Elliott Rabin, The Biblical Hero: Portraits in Nobility and Fallibility (Nebraska, 2020). 4 Tarif Khalidi, Images of Muhammad: The Evolution of Portrayals of the Prophet across the Centuries (New York, 2009), pp. 241–279. 5 Arthur Saniotis, ‘Muslims and Ecology: Fostering Islamic Environmental Ethics,’ Contemporary Islam 6 (2012), pp. 155–171; and Michael S. Northcott, ‘Climate Change and Christian Ethics,’ in The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Religion and Ecology, ed. John Hart (Oxford, 2017), pp. 286–300. 182

Notes

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6 Stephen R. Burge, ‘Doctrine and Dogma in the Qur’an,’ in The Oxford Handbook of Qur’anic Studies, ed. Mustafa Shah and M. A. S. Abdel Haleem (Oxford, 2020), pp. 430–444. 7 Roberto Tottoli, Biblical Prophets in the Qur’an and Muslim Literature, trans. Michael Robertson (London, 2002). 8 E.g. Micah 10:6–11.

Chapter 2. Writing the Life of Muhammad 1 See Further Reading at the end of this book. 2 John V. Tolan, ‘European Accounts of Muhammad’s Life,’ in The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, ed. Jonathan Brockopp (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 226–250. 3 Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, trans. Joel Weinsheimer and Donald G. Marshall (reprinted London, 2004). 4 Kecia Ali, The Lives of Muhammad (Cambridge, MA, 2014), p. 2. 5 Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (New York, 1983). 6 Omid Safi, Memories of Muhammad: Why the Prophet Matters (New York, 2009). 7 Northrop Frye, The Great Code: The Bible and Literature (reprinted New York, 1982). 8 al-Suyuti, Kitab al-Haba’ik fi akhbar al-mala’ik; S. R. Burge, Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti’s al-Haba’ik fi akhbar al-mala’ik (London, 2012), p. 204 (§529).

Chapter 3. Prophetic Past, Prophetic Future 1 Loren D. Lybarger, ‘Gender and Prophetic Authority in the Qur’anic Story of Maryam: A Literary Approach,’ Journal of Religion 80 (2000), pp. 240–270.

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Notes

2 The Tafsir al-Jalalayn was started by Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli and completed by his student Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti. Al-Mahalli commented on Q. 1, and 18–114, and al-Suyuti provided the commentary for Q. 2–17. 3 Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli and Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti, Tafsir al-Jalalayn, trans. Feras Hamza (Amman, 2007), p. 428. 4 Michael Sells, Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qur’an, Mi‘raj, Poetic and Theological Writings (New York, 1996), p. 169.

Chapter 4. Divine Commission 1 R. Stephen Humphreys, ‘The Authenticity of Sacred Texts’, in The Construction of Belief: Reflections on the Thought of Mohammad Arkoun, ed. Abdou Filali-Ansary and Aziz Esmail (London, 2012), p. 55. 2 E.g. al-Tabari, Ta’rikh al-rusul wa’l-muluk, trans. W. Montgomery Watt and M. V. MacDonald, The History of al-Tabari: Muhammad at Mecca (Albany, 1988), vol. 6, pp. 5–6; Ibn Kathir, al-Sira al-nabawiyya, trans. Trevor Le Gassick, The Life of the Prophet Muhammad (Reading, 2000), vol. 1, pp. 127–129; and al-Majlisi, Hayat al-qulub, trans. James L. Merrick, The Life and Religion of Muhammad: Hayat al-Qulub (reprinted San Antonio, 1982), vol. 2, pp. 30–32. 3 Ibn Babawayh, I‘tiqadat al-Imamiyya, trans. Asaf A. A. Fyzee, A Shi‘ite Creed: A translation of I‘tiqadutu ’l-Imamiyyah (The Beliefs of the Imamiyyah) of Abu Ja‘far, Muhammad ibn ‘Ali ibn al-Husayn, Ibn Babawayh al-Qummi, known as ash-Shaykh as-Saduq (306/919–381/991) (Tehran, 1982), §40, p. 99. 4 Muhammad ibn Alawi al-Maliki al-Hasani, Muhammad al-Insan al-Kamil, trans. Khalid

Notes

5

6

7 8

9 10 11

12 13 14 15

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Williams, Muhammad: The Perfect Man (Great Britain, 2013), p. 10. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, trans. Alfred Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah (Karachi, 1967), p. 69. Ali ibn Abi Talib, Nahj al-Balagha, trans. Syed Mohammed Askari Jafery, Nahjul Balagha: Sermons, Letters and Sayings of Hazrath Ali (Karachi, 1971), p. 395. Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, p. 69. Ibn Babawayh, Ilal al-shara’i wa’l-ahkam; cited in Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi, The Divine Guide in Early Shi‘ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam, trans. David Streight (Albany, 1994), p. 40. Sahl al-Tustari, Tafsir al-Tustari, trans. Annabel Keeler and Ali Keeler (Louisville, 2011), p. 213. Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety (Chapel Hill, 1985), p. 128. R. P. Buckley, The Night Journey and Ascension in Islam: The Reception of Religious Narrative in Sunni, Shi‘i and Western Culture (London, 2013), pp. 1–58. Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, p. 184. Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, p. 184. Buckley, The Night Journey and Ascension in Islam, pp. 59–127. al-Mahalli and al-Suyuti, Tafsir al-Jalalayn, pp. 273–274.

Chapter 5. Prophetic Mission 1 al-Bukhari, Sahih (many editions), Book of the Beginning of the Revelation, Chapter 3 [my own translation]. 2 al-Tha‘labi, Ara’is al-majalis fi qisas al-anbiya or “Lives of the Prophets” as recounted by Abu

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3 4 5 6 7 8

Notes

Ishaq Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Tha‘labi, trans. William M. Brinner (Leiden, 2002) p. 558. al-Wahidi, Asbab al-nuzul, trans. Mokrane Guezzou, Al-Wahidi’s Asbab al-Nuzul (Lousiville, 2009), p. 252. al-Bukhari, Sahih (many editions), Book of the Beginning of the Revelation, Chapter 2 [my own translation]. al-Suyuti, Kitab al-Haba’ik; in Burge, Angels in Islam, p. 121. al-Bukhari, Sahih (many editions), Book of the Prophetic Commentary on the Qur’an, Chapter on Surat al-Fath (Q. 48) [my own translation]. al-Bukhari, Sahih (many editions), Book of Manners, Chapter 24: The superiority of the one who looks after an orphan [my own translation]. Ali ibn al-Husayn (Zayn al-Abidin), al-Sahifa al-Sajjadiyya, trans. William C. Chittick, The Book of the Constant Prostrator, excerpts reproduced in The Norton Anthology of World Religions: Islam, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe (New York, 2015), pp. 383–388, p. 385.

Chapter 6. The Resilient Prophet 1 Ibn al-Kalbi, Kitab al-Asnam, trans. Nabih Amin Faris, The Book of Idols, excerpts reproduced in The Norton Anthology of World Religions: Islam, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe (New York, 2015), pp. 326–331, p. 327. 2 al-Wahidi, Asbab al-nuzul, on Q. 38:5, p. 155. 3 Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, p. 131. 4 Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, pp. 143–144. 5 Ibn Kathir, The Life of the Prophet Muhammad, vol. 1, p. 316. 6 Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, pp. 236, 517, 681, 731, 774; and al-Bukhari, Sahih (many

Notes

7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

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editions), Book of the Virtues and Merits of the Prophet and his Companions, Chapter 23: The description of the Prophet. Ma‘mar ibn Rashid, Kitab al-Maghazi, ed. and trans. Sean W. Anthony, The Expeditions: An Early Biography of Muhammad by Ma‘mar ibn Rashid according to the recension of Abd al-Razzaq al-San‘ani (New York, 2014), p. 113. Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, p. 148. Ibn Kathir, The Life of the Prophet Muhammad, vol. 2, p. 11. Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, p. 192. Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, p. 193. Ibn Kathir, The Life of the Prophet Muhammad, vol. 2, pp. 213–214. Ibn Kathir is citing Ibn Ishaq here. Ibn Abi Dawud, Sunan (many editions), Book of Jihad, Chapter 174. Regarding prostration out of gratitude [my translation]. Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, p. 553. Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Hayat Muhammad, trans. Isma‘il Raji al-Faruqi, The Life of Muhammad (Philadelphia, 1976), p. 436. al-Suyuti, Kitab al-Haba’ik; in Burge, Angels in Islam, p. 144.

Chapter 7. The Prophet’s Legacy 1 Hassan b. Thabit, ‘At Tayba lies a trace’; translation taken from Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych, ‘From Text to Talisman: Al-Busiri’s “Qasidat al-Burdah” (Mantle Ode) and the Supplicatory Ode,’ Journal of Arabic Literature 37 (2006): pp. 145–189, p. 163. 2 Ibn Abi al-Dunya, Kitab Makarim al-akhlaq, trans. in James A. Bellamy, The Noble Qualities

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3

4

5

6

7

Notes

of Character by Ibn Abi d-Dunya (Wiesbaden, 1973), p. 3. al-Ghazali, Ihya ulum al-din, trans. L. Zolodnek, The Revival of the Religious Sciences, excerpts reproduced in The Norton Anthology of World Religions: Islam, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe (New York, 2015), pp. 240–244, p. 244. Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti, The Work of Day and Night: Suyuti’s Collection of Prophetic Practices and Prayers, trans. Rashad Jameer (Cambridge, 2016), pp. 54–56. N. J. G. Kaptein, Muhammad’s Birthday Festival: Early History in the Central Muslim Lands and Development in the Muslim West until the 10th /16th Century (Leiden, 1993), pp. 44–75; and Marion Holmes Katz, The Birth of the Prophet Muhammad: Devotional Piety in Sunni Islam (London, 2007). Suleyman Çelebi, Mevlûd-i S ¸erif, trans. in Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety (Chapel Hill, 1985), p. 191. Khwaja Abdallah Ansari, trans. Wheeler M. Thackston, ‘Intimate Conversations’ in Victor Danner and Wheeler M. Thackston, Ibn ‘Ata’allah, The Book of Wisdom and Khwaja Abdullah Ansari: Introduction, Translation and Notes (New York, 1978), pp. 202–214, p. 206.

Further Reading

The sheer volume of literature available on the life of Muhammad would be impossible to mention here. The following list includes some of the various works consulted in this book, as well as a range of other significant contributions to the broader field of study that are readily accessible. These works have been categorized according to their subject matter, along with a brief survey.

*** Classical Works Many of the Arabic primary sources cited in this book are also available in English translation. While the classical Arabic literary style can be challenging for those unfamiliar with such works, engaging with texts written by the Muslim community in its early history can prove rewarding. Some works that include the translation of prominent primary sources are: Ibn Ishaq-Ibn Hisham. Sirat Rasul Allah. Translated by Alfred Guillaume as The Life of the Messenger of God: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah. London, 1955 (still in print). Lings, Martin. Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. London, 1983. McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. The Norton Anthology of World Religions: Islam. New York, 2015. al-Tirmidhi. al-Shama’il al-Muhammadiyya. Translated by Muhtar Holland as A Portrait 189

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Further Reading

of the Prophet: As Seen by His Contemporaries. Louisville, KY, 2014.

Contemporary Biographies William Montgomery Watt’s comprehensive biographies of Muhammad in the 1950s and 1960s are considered to be classics in the field. Since then, countless biographies of the Prophet have been written from a whole range of perspectives, by both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars alike. Some notable examples include: Ali, Kecia. The Lives of Muhammad. Cambridge, MA , 2014. Armstrong, Karen. Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. London, 2001. Brown, Jonathan A. C. Muhammad: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, 2011. Cook, Michael. Muhammad. Oxford, 1983. Hazleton, Lesley. The First Muslim: The Story of Muhammad. New York, 2013. Khalidi, Tarif. Images of Muhammad: Narratives of the Prophet in Islam Across the Centuries. New York, 2009. Ramadan, Tariq. In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad. Oxford, 2007. Safi, Omid. Memories of Muhammad: Why the Prophet Matters. New York, 2009. Watt, William Montgomery. Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford, 1960. ____. Muhammad at Medina. Oxford, 1956. ____. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford, 1961. See also The Message (1976), directed by Moustapha Akkad, for a cinematic experience of Muhammad’s life.

Further Reading

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Prophets and Prophecy Interest in exploring the way in which the Bible and the Qur’an narrate the lives of the prophets is growing, and there are number of interesting books available – some focusing on prophets in general, and others looking at specific figures. In the case of Muhammad, aspects of his prophetic experience have also been written about more specifically, such as the miracles associated with his prophethood, and the study of his life as a devotional figure, which has to date received less attention in the scholarly community. Buckley, R. P. The Night Journey and Ascension in Islam: The Reception of Religious Narrative in Sunni, Shi‘i and Western Culture. London, 2013. Hoffman, Valerie J. Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt. Columbia, 2009. Katz, Marion Holmes. The Birth of the Prophet Muhammad: Devotional Piety in Sunni Islam. London, 2017. Ogunnaike, Oludamini. Poetry in Praise of Prophetic Perfection: A Study of West African Arabic Madih Poetry and its Precedents. Cambridge, 2020. Peters, F. E. Jesus and Muhammad: Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives. Oxford, 2017. Schielke, Samuli. The Perils of Joy: Contesting Mulid Festivals in Contemporary Egypt. Syracuse, NY, 2012. Schimmel, Annemarie. And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety. Chapel Hill, NC , 1985. Smith, Margaret. Muslim Women Mystics: The Life and Work of Rabi‘a and Other Women Mystics in Islam. Oxford, 2002. Tottoli, Roberto. Biblical Prophets in the Qur’an and Muslim Literature, trans. Michael Robertson. London, 2002. Williams, Rebecca. Muhammad and the Supernatural: Medieval Arab Views. London, 2013.

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Further Reading

Hadith The hadith literature has played an important part in this book, but many of the issues surrounding hadith and their compilation have not been explored at length here. For a comprehensive introduction to the hadith literature and some further reading on hadith studies, see: Brown, Jonathan A. C. Hadith: Muhammad’s Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. Oxford, 2017. Musa, Aisha Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of the Prophetic Traditions in Islam. London, 2008. Siddiqi, Muhammad Zubayr. Hadith Literature: Its Origin, Development, Special Features and Criticism. Revised edition, Cambridge, 1993.

The Abrahamic Faiths The shared prophetic heritage of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam offers much scope for interfaith discussion, with a number of noteworthy books available to this effect. The list below also includes some Muslim theologians’ engagements with liberation theology and social justice. Bakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Cambridge, MA, 2014. Barlas, Asma. “Believing Women” in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur’an. (Revised edition) Austin, 2019. Dabashi, Hamid. Islamic Liberation Theology: Resisting the Empire. Abingdon, 2008. Esack, Farid. Qur’an, Liberation and Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective of Interreligious Solidarity Against Oppression. Oxford, 1997. Goddard, Hugh. A History of Muslim-Christian Relations. (Second edition) Edinburgh, 2020.

Further Reading

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Khalil, Mohammed Hassan. Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others. Oxford, 2013. Rahemtulla, Shadaab. Qur’an of the Oppressed: Liberation Theology and Gender Justice in Islam. Oxford, 2017. Said, Yazid, and Lejla Demiri, ed. The Future of Interfaith Dialogue: Muslim-Christian Encounters Through A Common Word. Cambridge, 2018. Shah-Kazemi, Reza. The Other in the Light of the One: The Universality of the Qur’an and Interfaith Dialogue. Cambridge, 2006. Siddiqui, Mona. Christians, Muslims and Jesus. New Haven, CT, 2013. Zebiri, Kate. Muslims and Christians Face to Face. Oxford, 1997.

Illustrations

Figure 1. Poster for the Film Release of The Ten Commandments Image used in the public domain.

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Figure 2. Mughal Portrait of a Prophet Image courtesy of Vollmer Collection, © Sotheby’s, 2020.

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Figure 3. Early 20th-Century Calligraphic Composition Image courtesy of the Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum, Singapore; Accession No. 1995-00284.

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25 Figure 4. Photographic View of the Ka‘ba, Mecca Image courtesy of the Khalili Collections, Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage (700–2000); Accession No. ARC.pp 253, © Khalili Family Trust.

Figure 5. Ottoman Hilya of the Prophet Muhammad Image courtesy of the Khalili Collections, Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage (700–2000); Accession No. CAL 483, © Khalili Family Trust.

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Figure 6. Depiction of King Abraha’s Attack on Mecca Image courtesy of the University of St Andrews Library; Ref. Ms 32 (o).

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Figure 7. Photographic View from Jabal al-Nur, near Mecca Image courtesy of Anadolu Agency / Getty Images ID 456244198.

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Illustrations

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Figure 8. Map of 7th-Century Arabia and the Hijaz Region

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Figure 9. Painting of the Prophet’s Tomb at Medina Image courtesy of Freer Gallery of Art, Gift of Charles Lang Freer in 1920; Accession No. F1907.222.

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Figure 10. Gardens of the Great Mosque of Paris Image courtesy of Hemis / Alamy Stock Photo ID BAJE85.

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Figure 11. Depiction of the Biblical/Qur’anic Story of Joseph Image courtesy of © Sotheby’s, 2020.

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Figure 12. Representation of the Prophet’s Tomb in Medina Image courtesy of Bridgeman Images © Leonard de Selva.

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Figure 13. Miniature of Noah and the Ark Image courtesy of Bridgeman Images.

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Figure 14. Depiction of Mary and the Angel Gabriel Image courtesy of the University of Edinburgh Library, Ref. Or.Ms.20, f.22r.

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Figure 15. Decorative Print Featuring the Hand of Fatima Image courtesy of Bridgeman Images © Luca Tettoni.

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Figure 16. Wooden Sculpture of Buraq Image courtesy of the Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum, Singapore; Accession No. 2010-00780.

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91 Figure 17. Mosaic of the Mi‘raj (2 images) Ecstasy as Sublime, Heart as Vector, 2016. Permanent SiteSpecific Commission at the Julis Romo Rabinowitz and Louis

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Illustrations

A. Simpson International Building, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey. Photography: Ricardo Barros, courtesy of Princeton University. Artwork © Shahzia Sikander. Figure 18. Depiction of the Angel Israfil Image courtesy of © The Trustees of the British Museum.

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Figure 19. Curtain for the Tomb of the Prophet Image courtesy of the Khalili Collections, Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage (700–2000); Accession No.TXT 255, © Khalili Family Trust.

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Figure 20. Pictorial Rug of the Prophet Moses Image courtesy of © Sotheby’s, 2020.

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Figure 21. Ceramic Tile of the Ka‘ba in Mecca Image courtesy of Russell Harris, Institute of Ismaili Studies, London.

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Figure 22. Stone Relief featuring al-Lat Image courtesy of Bridgeman Images.

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136 Figure 23. Illustration of Bilal Performing the Call to Prayer Image courtesy of Bridgeman Images / Bildarchiv Steffens.

Figure 24. Scene at the Court of the Negus Image courtesy of University of Edinburgh Library, Ref. Or.Ms.20, f.52r.

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Figure 25. Certificate Commemorating a Visit to the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina Image courtesy of the Khalili Collections, Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage (700–2000); Accession No. ARC.ct 10, © Khalili Family Trust.

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Illustrations

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Figure 26. Late 19th- or early 20th-century Finial Image courtesy of the Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum, Singapore; Accession No. 2001-03836.

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Figure 27. Reverse Glass Painting of the Prophet’s Mosque Image courtesy of the Collection of Asian Civilisations Museum, Singapore; Accession No. 2006-01995.

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Figure 28. Amulet featuring a Hilya from the 19th Century Image courtesy of the Khalili Collections, Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage (700–2000); Accession No. TLS 1903, © Khalili Family Trust.

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Figure 29. Mawlid Celebrations in Yemen Image courtesy of Mohammed Huwais / Getty images ID 1063632240.

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Figure 30. Goma Dance Performance during Mawlid Festivities in Kenya Image courtesy of Bridgeman Images © Eric Lafforgue.

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Care has been taken to trace the ownership of all copyright material used in this book. Any information to rectify references or credits is welcome for subsequent editions.

Index

Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (father of the Prophet Muhammad), 33–4, 76–7, 79, 83 Abraham, 3–4, 24–6, 64, 72, 94, 97, 168 Abrahamic faiths, 4, 17–19, 158 Abu Bakr, 36, 38, 43, 135 Abu Jahl, 131, 134, 146 Abu Talib, 35, 38, 77, 83, 135, 141 Abyssinia 135, 137–8, 141 Adam (first man), 53, 55–6, 66, 77–8, 81–3, 93, 97, 99 ahl al-bayt (Household of the Prophet), 43, 147 see also panj tan ahl al-kitab (People of the Book), 4 A’isha bint Abi Bakr (wife of the Prophet Muhammad), 38, 108 Aksum, 38, 136 Allahabadi, Purnam, 165 Ali ibn Abi Talib, 31, 36, 43, 79, 83, 84 Nahj al-balagha, 79 Ali, Kecia, 45 Amina bint Wahb (mother of the Prophet 198

Muhammad), 33, 76–7, 79–81 angels, 17, 19, 50, 55, 74–5, 81, 86, 94, 96–8, 107, 108, 149–50 Ansar (the Helpers), 144 Ansari, Khawaja Abdallah, 164 Arabian prophets, 23, 28 Ashura, 147 Aws (tribe), 129, 142 Banat Allah (pre-Islamic goddesses), 128–9, 130, 132, 135 Badr, Battle of, 41, 50 Bible Abraham, 24–6 Adam and Eve, 53 angels, 86, 103, 108 denouncing authority, 111–12, 114 Gabriel, 86, 103, 108 heroic leaders/prophets, 15–17, 23–4, 66–7, 80, 126 history and, 49 Jeremiah, 126–7 judgement theme, 20 Qur’an and, 3–4, 23–6 story of Joseph, 58

Index

Ten Commandments, 117 Bilal ibn Rabah, 135–7, 136 Buddhism, 15 al-Bukhari, 96, 113 Buraq, 88, 89, 91, 92, 96 Çelebi, Suleyman, 162–3 Christianity, 15, 17, 170 companions (of the Prophet Muhammad), 43, 102, 136, 137 Constitution of Medina, 40, 144 Daniel, 17, 87, 103 David, 15, 57, 64 Day of Judgement, 55, 107 see also Last Day Dihya al-Kalbi, 108–9 du‘as (additional supplications), 159 Elijah, 111 Emre, Yunus, 85 environmentalism, 11 eschatology, 19 Ezekiel, 17 Fatima (daughter of the Prophet Muhammad), 36, 82–3, 84, 147, 149 Frye, Northrop, 49–50 Gabriel (angel), 36, 50, 80, 81, 86–7, 92–3, 102–3, 106, 108–9, 150, 167

199

Ghadir Khumm, 43 al-Ghazali, Muhammad, 146, 157–8 Gospels, 16, 18, 29, 52, 112 hadith, 32, 38, 45, 66, 79, 82–3, 92, 96, 102, 106, 108, 114, 119, 143, 146, 149, 155, 159 hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), 25, 41, 158 Harry Potter, 9–10, 11 Hasan (grandson of the Prophet Muhammad), 36, 83, 84, 147, 149 Hassan ibn Thabit, 152–3 Heilsgeschichte 48–9 Hijaz, 30, 38, 39, 129, 146 hijra (emigration from Mecca to Medina), 40, 141, 144, 160 hilya, 131, 156 Hira, cave of, 36, 37, 86, 102, 122, 167 Hud, 23, 60–1 Husayn (grandson of the Prophet Muhammad), 36, 83, 84, 147, 149 Iblis, 53, 56, 164 Ibn Abi al-Dunya, 156–7 Ibn Babawayh, 77–8, 82 Ibn Hisham, 32 Ibn Ishaq, 32, 79, 88, 135, 138 Ibn Kathir, 135 Imams (in Shi‘i Islam), 82–3, 119, 121, 159 imamate, 82–3

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Index

Isaiah, 23, 114 Ishmael, 24, 26, 64, 168 islam (submission), 27, 105, 144, 151, 160, 169 Ismailis, 83, 119 isra (Night Journey), 87–8, 89, 90, 92, 97 Israfil (angel), 50, 107 Jabal al-Nur (the Mountain of Light), 36, 37, 122 Jacob, 58, 168 Jatakas, 14 Jeremiah, 103–4, 111, 126–7 Jesus, 3, 18, 29, 52, 57, 65, 80, 81, 85, 93, 97, 103, 112, 117, 126, 140–1 Jewish tribes, 40 jihad, 127–8, 145–6 jinn, 101 John (the Baptist), 16–17, 18, 93, 97 Jonah, 64, 125 Judaism, 15, 17, 170 Ka‘ba, 24–6, 96, 100, 122, 132, 134, 136, 148 kahin (soothsayer), 101–2, 109, 123 Karbala, 147 Khadija bint Khuwaylid (wife of the Prophet Muhammad), 35–6, 38, 86–7, 105, 135, 141 khalifa, 43, 55

Khazraj (tribe), 129, 142 Last Day, 19, 55 see also Day of Judgement al-Lat (goddess), 128–9, 130 Lings, Martin, 45 Luke, 80, 103 al-Mahalli, Jalal al-Din, 65 Manat (goddess), 128–9, 130 Mary, 64, 80, 81, 103, 141 mawlid, 161, 162, 166 Mecca Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, 76 Abraham, 24–5 attack of King Abraha, 33, 34 Conquest of, 136, 148 economy, 132 ‘Farewell Pilgrimage’, 41 hijra 141–2 isra (Night Journey), 88, 97 Muhammad, 33–5, 38, 40, 41, 67, 69, 101, 116, 127, 131–3, 144–5, 148, 167 Muslim civilizations, 170 pilgrimage to, 158 prophets, 123 Qur’an and, 40, 61, 73, 110, 125 Quraysh tribe, 129, 131–2, 133–4, 137, 145

Index

shirk, 129 tawhid, 131–2 war, 41 Medina, 167 Bilal ibn Rabah, 137 Constitution of, 144–5 hijra, 40, 141, 144 Manat (goddess), 129 Muhammad, 39–43, 67, 97, 116, 120–1, 127, 144–5, 152, 167 Muslim community in, 39–43, 116, 120, 123, 127, 144–6, 167 Muslim law, 120 pilgrimage, 143 Prophet’s Mosque/Tomb in, 42, 63, 143, 154 Qur’an and, 40–1, 110, 117 war, 145–6 see also Yathrib Micah, 24 mi‘raj (Ascension), 87–8, 90–2, 91, 96–8 Moses, 3, 8, 15, 57, 64, 93–5, 97–8, 117, 118, 120 Mount Arafat, 160 Mu‘allaqat (the hanging poems), 101 Muhammad ibn Alawi, 78 Muharram, 147 Muslim ibn Hajjaj, 92 nabi (prophet), 57 Negus, 138, 139, 141 Night Journey see isra Noah, 16, 61, 64, 67–9, 68, 72

201

Oedipus, 9–11 orphans, 55, 111, 116 panj tan, 84 see also ahl al-bayt poets, 100–1, 109, 153 Psalms, 57 Qur’an, 2–4, 20, 30, 52–68, 70–1, 72–3, 168 Abu Jahl, 134 Adam and Eve, 53–5, 57 Arabian context, 27 as authoritative source of God’s law, 155 ayas, 70 Bible and, 3–4, 23–6 as book of laws, 117, 119–20 heroic leaders/prophets, 16, 23–4, 26–7, 57–66, 72, 80, 125–6, 168–9 idol worship, 128–31 isra (Night Journey), 90 jihad, 128 judgement theme, 20, 22 Mecca, 40, 61, 73, 110, 125 Medina, 40–1, 110, 117 Muhammad and, 2, 6, 20, 26–7, 40–1, 52, 59, 64–6, 85, 101, 120, 123, 135, 160, 167–8 Moses, 117, 120 munafiqun (the hypocrites), 145 poetry, 101

202

prophecy, 2, 4, 27, 59, 62, 128, 167–8, 169 rejected prophets, 126 religious choice, 67 revelation, 61, 87, 105, 110, 157, 160 salat, 158 shirk, 128 social justice, 22, 23–4, 110–13, 116, 132 sabr (perseverance), 146 story of Joseph, 58 miracles, 75 tafsir, 30 taqwa, 70 tawhid, 22 worldview of, 53–7, 123 Quraysh (tribe), 33, 78, 129, 131, 133, 137, 145 Qisas al-anbiya (literary genre, Stories of the Prophets), 104

Index

shari‘a, 119–21, 155 Shi‘is, 43, 75, 82–3, 84, 119 shirk, 62, 69, 128 Shu‘ayb, 23–4 sira (biography of the Prophet Muhammad), 30, 32, 45, 79, 92 Solomon, 16, 64 Sophocles, 9–10 Sufism, 75, 83–5, 164–5 sunna, 43, 119, 121, 155 Sunnis, 43 al-Suyuti, Jalal al-Din, 149, 162

Rabi‘a al-Adawiya, 72 Ramadan, 158, 160 rasul (messenger), 57

Ta’if, 39, 129, 141–2, 146 taklif, 55, 66 ta’wil, 30 tafsir, 30, 65, 92 taqwa, 55, 70 tawhid (oneness of God), 22, 62, 131–2 al-Tha‘labi, 104 Thaqif, 129, 141 Torah, 57 Trench, Battle of the, 41 al-Tustari, Sahl, 83–4

sabr (perseverance), 127–8, 146 Safi, Omid, 46 salat (prayer), 158–9, 165 Salih, 23 seal of the prophets, 27, 62, 64–5, 67, 73, 169 sha‘ir see poets

Uhud, Battle of, 41 umma, 40, 119, 124, 144–5, 152, 158–9, 172 Umm Hani Hind bint Abi Talib (cousin of the Prophet Muhammad), 88 al-Uzza (goddess), 128–9, 130

Index

al-Wahidi, Ali ibn Ahmad, 106, 131 Waraqa ibn Nawfal, 36, 86, 105 Weltgeschichte, 47–9 Yathrib, 39, 129, 142, 144 see also Medina Year of Sorrow, 38

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Year of the Elephant, 33 Yemen, 33, 161 Zayn al-Abidin (greatgrandson of the Prophet Muhammad), 121–2 Zoroastrianism, 15

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