The Price of Liberty: African Americans and the Making of Liberia [pbk ed.] 0807855162, 9780807855164

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William Coppinger, July 20,

reprinted in Lynch, Selected Letters of

1871,

Edward

Wilmot Blyden, 84-85. 27.

Joseph Mechlin to R. R. Gurley, April 1832, reprinted in African Repository, July

1832, 135; “Letter

from Mr. Latrobe,” African Repository, September

means “mercy”

28. Misericordia

in

and 8);

both Spanish and Portuguese.

common

Montserrado would become more

1838, 9;

NCER.

Later, the spelling

than Mesurado. Richardson, Liberia’s Past

Present, 13-14; Johnston, Liberia, 1:40 (n. 9); Brooks, “A. A. Adee’s Journal,” 59 (n.

Stewart, Liberia,

17;

Morison,

"'^Old

Bruin,” 68;

ACS,

Pifth

Annual Report

(1823),

64-66. 29.

“Constitution” and “Digest of the Laws,” ACS, Eleventh Annual Report (1828),

November

54-61; Proceedings of the Board of Managers,

RAGS; “The Colony of Liberia Slandered,” African “Remarks,” African Repository, Society,” African Repository,

Ashmun

30. Jehudi

August

Annual Report

The

berich.

Political

Emphasis

32.

J.

May

11;

New Attack on

A

1833, 201-2;

the Colonization

1833, 181-82.

December

7,

1823, reprinted in

ACS, Tenth Annual Report

(1827), 44;

“Captain Kennedy’s

1830, reel 289,

Ashmun

1:393;

ACS, Four-

in Bennett

and

Letter,” 155;

Hu-

“Log of the Brig Gleaner, 1835-1836,” in Africa, 164;

ACS,

Proceedings of the Board

RACS.

quotes. Gurley, Life of Jehudi

Ashmun, 33-35,

History of Colonization, 220; “Latest from Liberia,” Raleigh

10, 1825, 2.

Mechlin

1832, 38;

1,

in original

128-30, 364; Alexander, Register,

66-68; “A

24, 1830, reel 289,

September

Repository,

and Legislative History of Liberia,

November

of Managers, 31.

(1831),

52;

New England Merchants

Brooks,

1833,

to Secretary of the Navy,

Seventh Annual Report (1824), teenth

May

and

8

Jr.

Ashmun,

to R. R. Gurley, January 1832, reprinted in African Repository, April

History of the American Colony in Liberia, 19-40; ACS, Eleventh

An-

nual Report {1828), 63-64. 33.

from

“Latest

Liberia,” African Repository,

Liberia,” African Repository, April 1830, 53;

cember 34.

1831,

“From

February 1827, 378; “Latest from

the Colony,” African Repository, De-

302-3.

Konneh,

Religion,

Commerce, and

the Integration of the

Corby, “Manding Traders and Clerics,” 47-48;

13, 18;

hardt, April 23, 1826, reprinted in African Repository,

J.

Mandingo, ix-x, 6-10,

Ashmun

November

to Rev. Dr.

Blum-

1827, 261; Holsoe,

Study of Relations,” 334-35; written inset on Liberian map, African Repository,

“A

May

1832, 89. 35.

Ashmun

November

to Rev. Dr.

1827, 261;

Blumhardt, April

23, 1826,

reprinted in African Repository,

Burrowes, “Economic Relations within Pre-Liberian Societies,”

81-83. 36.

286

Burrowes, “Economic Relations within Pre-Liberian Societies,”

NOTES TO PAGES 98-IO5

83.

37

Mechlin

J-

-

to R. R. Gurley, April 1832, reprinted in African Repository, July 1832,

Holsoe, “A Study of Relations,” 344-46.

130;

38.

Mechlin to R. R. Gurley, April

J.

130-31;

Ashmun,

Report (1828), 39.

J.

1832, reprinted in African Repository, July 1832,

History of the American Colony in Liberia,

11;

ACS, Eleventh Annual

41.

Mechlin to

R. R. Gurley, April 1832, reprinted in African Repository, July 1832,

130.

40. Ibid., 131-32; Joseph

Mechlin to R.

R. Gurley,

December

14, 1831,

reprinted in

African Repository, April 1832, 35; Proceedings of the Board of Managers, April reel 289,

9, 1832,

RAGS.

41.

NCER.

42.

J.

Mechlin

to R. R. Gurley, April 1832, reprinted in African Repository, July 1832,

132-35; Joseph Mechlin to Board of Managers of the ACS,

May

1,

1832, reprinted in

African Repository, September 1832, 195. 43.

“King Bromley,” Liberia Herald, February

Liberia Herald, August 26, 1847;

tember

3,

1847, 79; Holsoe,

“Expects to Be King,”

19, 1847, 35;

“The Meeting of the Dey Chiefs,” Liberia Herald, Sep-

“A Study of Relations,” 345-53.

CHAPTER FIVE Masur,

1.

1831,

3—21, 217 (n.

5);

Oates, The Fires of Jubilee;

“The Confession of Nat

Turner,” reprinted in Frazier, Afro-American History, 36-47. 2.

Oates, The Fires of Jubilee, 147-66;

3.

Emphasis

tember

in original

29, 1831, reel 12,

“The Confession of Nat Turner,” 39-40,

46.

Ehringhaus quote. John Ehringhaus to R. R. Gurley, Sep-

RAGS; Grimsted, American Mobbing, 136-41.

4.

Drew, The Refugee,

5.

Egerton,“ ‘Fly Across the River,’” 87-110; “United States Historical Census Data

332; Oates,

The

Fires of Jubilee, 110-43.

Browser,” ; Morris, “Panic and Reprisal,” 34-36.

Morris, Panic and Reprisal,” 35— 36;

6.

12;

Monfort Stokes

to

Elliott,

“The Nat Turner

James Hamilton, November

14, 1831,

Insurrection,” 4-5,

reprinted in Foner,

Nat

Turner, 65. 7.

Joseph Gray to R. R. Gurley, September

reel 12, 8.

John McPhail to R. R. Gurley, September 7, 1831;

to R. R. Gurley,

from

8, 1831, reel 12,

29,

and October

22, 1831,

R. Gurley,

October

December

1

and

24, 1831;

November

28, 1831, reel 12,

142-43; U.S. Senate, Roll of Emigrants, 210-20;

Perkins,” African Repository,

Caleb White to R. R. Gurley,

Thomas Hunt

RAGS.

Liberia,” African Repository,

John McPhail to R.

Jubilee,

22, 1831;

Miles White to R. R. Gurley, October

October

“Intelligence

10.

September

RAGS.

September

9.

7,

1831, 320;

1831, 267, 271.

RAGS; Oates, The Fires of

NCER; “Departure of the James

Bogger, Free Blacks in Norfolk,

41.

M. Lane, November 29, 1831, reel 12; Proceedings of the Board of Managers, December 8, 1831, reel 289; and John McPhail to R. R. Gurley, De11.

Seth Crowell to Louis

cember

7, 1831, reel 12,

Wilkeson, 1832, 94;

A

RAGS; “Marine News,” Norfolk Herald, December

9, 1831, 2;

Concise History, 47; “Departure of the Jupiter,” African Repository,

May

NCER.

NOTES TO PAGES 106-35

287

There

12.

a

discrepancy in the sources regarding the original

who boarded

grants left

is

the Julius Pringle {92)

for Liberia in the

American

abandoned the party

New

in

1832,

57;

missing emigrants could have

“North Carolina Quakers,

Jersey or Norfolk. Opper, All,

56-62; Hilty, By Land and by Sea, 58-62; Pro-

ceedings of the Board of Managers, June

Annual Report Wj),

and the number of North Carolinians who

(89). Possibly the three

56-57; Hilty, Toward Freedom for

number of emi-

6, 1832, reel 289,

RACS; NCER; ACS,

Fiftieth

“Colonization Society,” Greensborough Patriot, September

12,

2.

“I^eparture of the Brig American,” African Repository, July 1832,

13.

Annual Report

teenth

141-42; 14.

NCER; “Latest from

The

five

{December

and the

1832),

9, 1831),

(January

reprinted in the African

Quakers and Slavery

Greensborough Patriot, June

America, 126,

in

13,

1832,

2.

the Jupiter

{May

9, 1832),

the American (July

15,

4, 1833).

Owners of Slaves, 24, 26. Mechlin’s own moral character was called into question by

NCER; Woodson,

16. In 1835,

Liberia,”

letter,

Fif-

expeditions and their departure dates were the Griterion ( July 30, 1831 ),

the James Perkins

15.

1834, 213-17; Drake,

September

Repository,

Jeremiah Hubbard’s

(1832), 50;

ACS,

155;

Free Negro

a Virginia

immigrant who accused the agent of becoming “criminally intimate” with his wife. In two letters to ACS secretary Gurley, the man charged Mechlin with a most hanious depredation on the peace of family,” which allegedly resulted in the birth of a mulatto

whom

child,

the agent

United States in

RACS;

ACS,

18.

NCER;

19.

ACS,

(1834),

Fiftieth

Annual Report

1831, 158;

i3>

i835>

•’eel i53>

Liberia,” African Repos-

Annual Report

Wilkeson,

A

Concise

FJis-

(1867), 57-

May

Proceedings of the Board of Managers,

Fiftieth

May

to the

298-99.

“Health of Liberia,” African Repository, July

tory, 51-53;

eties

1832,

NCER; “Latest from

for All, 58;

and returned

his office

Joseph Blake to R. R. Gurley, March 9 2nd

Toward Freedom

December

itory, 17.

Hilty,

1833.

abandoned when he resigned

(1867), 56-58;

14, 1832, reel

289,

RACS.

ACS, Seventeenth Annual Report

xvi— xvii; ACS, Twenty-Second Annual Report

(1838), 4;

To the Auxiliary Soci-

of the American Colonization Society,” African Repository, June 1834, 108-9;

ACS, Fourteenth Annual Report 20.

Friedman, Gregarious

nization,” 177-92;

(1831),

Saints;

35-41-

Mayer, All on

Fire,

Rosen, “Abolition and Colo-

Howard Temperley, “The Ideology of Antislavery,”

in

Goodheart

and Hugh Hawkins, The Abolitionists, 12-26. 21.

ACS, Eighteenth Annual Report

22.

ACS, Twenty- First Annual Report

(1835), 15-17-

(1837), 3;

ACS, Ninth Annual Report (1826),

6;

ACS, Tenth Annual Report (1827), 21-22; ACS, Third Annual Report (1820), 26-27; and Aptheker, 23.

A Documentary History, 1:159.

Campbell, Maryland

Roll of Emigrants, 235-40; beria,” 333;

in Africa, 18-53, 73>

Laughon, “Administrative Problems

“Census of Maryland

NCER; “United States

87-91, 124, and 145-46; U.S. Senate,

Historical

in Liberia,” African Repository,

Census Data Browser,”

in

Maryland

November

in Li-

1843, 341;

. 24.

ACS, Nineteenth Annual Report

(1835), 12, 26;

eth

288

(1835), 23-27;

ACS, Eighteenth Annual Report

Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 234-36; ACS, Twenti-

Annual Report

(1836), 14, 16; U.S. Senate, Roll of Emigrants, 255-58, 376.

NOTES TO PAGES I36-46

“United States Historical Census Data Browser” 267; Park, Black

and White American Methodist Missionaries,” 147;

Tom W.

Shick, “Rhetoric

in Early

Nineteenth-Century Liberia,

Movement, 52-55; Hoff,

and

A

Reality: Colonization

and Afro-American Missionaries

in Jacobs, Black Atfiericcins

and

the A/Itssiotiary

Short History of Liberia College, 49-50; U.S. Senate, Roll of

Emigrants, 405. 24.

Dunn, A History of

165-69;

NCER;

Officer, Western Africa, a Mission Eield, 42; Reichel,

North Carolina, bach,

A

the Episcopal Church, 81; Moses, Alexander

140; Africa,

Crummell,

The Moravians

in

Slaveholding in the Salem Community,” 271—307; Sens-

Separate Canaan.

Brown, Biography ofEinley, 301-3; Eox, A Memoir of the Rev. C. Colden Hoffman, 205-6; Alexander, A History of Colonization, 513; Lugenbeel, Sketches of Liberia, 25.

6;

Nesbit, Eour Months in Liberia, 12-13; lany. Official Report, 59,

McDonogh to

Cowan,

Liberia, as I

62-63; Liberia Herald, September

lohn McDonogh,

May 14, 1844, reprinted

“Intelligence,” African Repository, July 1856, 217; 1842, reel 172,

11,

SHP;

390,

NCER;

and

395;

derson to

Cecelski,

tory, 1:463,

May

13, 1853,

Cowan,

27.

The Waterman s Song,

M. Sherwood

J.

[?],

man, April

George

R. Ellis

No More, 133; B. Pinney, May

in Wiley, Slaves

Roberts to Rev.

J. ].

RACS; Minutes of the Liberian

18, 1850, 15;

Senate,

J.

December

26, 1851,

box

4,

“Black Builders,” 423-61.

Bishir,

26.

Found It, 38-41, 80-81; De-

to R. R. Gurley,

15, 1851, reel 155,

box

76.6,

Liberia, as I

42; U.S. Senate, Roll of Efnigrants, 375,

November

RACS; Richard Judkins

William Blount

Rodman

to

Papers,

and Hull An-

William Blount Rod-

NCSA.

Found It, 40-41; Huberich, The Political and Legislative His-

529-30; ACS, Eighteenth Annual Report

(notebook), box

26, 1858, reel 85;

(1835), 31;

“Monrovia Lot Histo-

SHP; “Constitution of the Republic of Liberia,” reprinted in ACS, Thirty-First Annual Report (1848), 52; Minutes of the Liberian Senate, Decemries”

ber

18, 1851,

box

4,

6,

SHP; Liberian Law

Reports, 320; U.S. Senate, Roll of Emigrants,

406-12. 28.

Given that the age distribution among North Carolina emigrants reveals un-

usually high incidences of ages evenly divisible by five and/or ten,

it is

very likely that

many older individuals did not know their exact age and thus offered estimates to ACS officials that were multiples of five or ten. Also, it is entirely possible that colonization agents

Age

29. Ibid.

made

their

own

statistics are

guesses about the ages of emigrants.

based on the

known

NCER.

ages of 2,003 North Carolina

emigrants. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid.;

(?),

Lavinia Nelson to William McLain, September 30, 1861; Martha Nelson to

October

reel 240,

Slaves

2,

1863, reel 160;

and William McLain

RACS; Susan Capart

No More,

to

to

Martha Nelson, October

John Kimberly, March

270-71; U.S. Senate, Roll of Emigrants,

1,

317;

24, 1861,

1857, reprinted in Wiley,

King, Stolen Childhood,

2.

McDaniel, Swing Low, Sweet Chariot, 84-87; Johnson, Ante-bellum North Carolina, 723-24; Larkin, The Reshaping of Everyday Life, 87-88; Kiple and King, Another 32.

Dimension

to the

Black Diaspora,

ments of the Antebellum South,”

Humphreys, Malaria, 8-9,

23;

reprinted in African Repository, 33.

15,

in

50, 52; K.

David Patterson, “Disease Environ-

Numbers and

Savitt, Science

and Medicine,

Daniel Rhodes to W. H. Starr, September

May 1854,

155;

19, 1853,

141.

Humphreys, Malaria, 9-10, Kiple and King, Another Dimension

NOTES TO PAGES 2l8-28

to the

Black Di-

297

Cowan,

aspora, 15-16;

Liberia, as I

Found

It,

171-73; Delany, Official Report, 50, 66; Lu-

genbeel. Sketches of Liberia, 28. 34. Kiple

and King, Another Dimension

of the Board of Managers,

May

to the

Black Diaspora,

14, 1832, reel 289,

16,

55— 57> Proceedings

RAGS; McDaniel, Swing Low, Sweet

Medicines,” April Chariot, 7 ^- 11 86, 89, 91-92; Delany, Ojficial Report, 50, 66; “List ot and “Medicines &c.,” lune 1, 1853, reel 239, RAGS; Lugenbeel, Sketches of Liberia, ^

1851;

29 —

Humphreys, Malaria,

^52;

19;

Shick, “A Quantitative Analysis, 45—59; Carlson,

African Fever, 44-48.

NGER;

35.

U.S. Senate, Roll of Emigrants, 152-306; Kiple

Environments of the Antebellum

sion to the Black Diaspora, 114; Patterson, “Disease

South,”

155.

NGER; Humphreys, Malaria, 9-10; Cowan,

36.

and King, Another Dimen-

King, Another Dimension

to the

Liberia, as I

Found It,

172;

Kiple and

Black Diaspora, 65; Williams, The Liberian Exodus,

41;

Close, Elderly Slaves, 67, 69. 37.

Tobacco was very popular

North Carolina.

Its

usage

in Liberia

during the nineteenth century, as well as in

among immigrants, and Africans, probably caused or com-

hunger, plicated a variety of respiratory illnesses. However, tobacco did suppress

which may have contributed

to the

demand

for

it

among colonists. NCER; McDaniel,

Swing Low, Sweet Chariot, 83-88; Kiple and King, Another Dimension to the Black DiPatterson, aspora, 135-36, 140-41; Larkin, The Reshaping of Everyday Life, 79-80; “Disease Environments of the Antebellum South,” 155; Johnson, Ante-bellum North Carolina, 733; ical

Moshys Medical, Nursing, and Allied Health

Dictionary,

Stedmans Med-

Dictionary.

38.

Stedmans Medical Dictionary, Mosbys Medical, Nursing, and Allied Health Dic-

tionary, 39.

NCER;

Lugenbeel, Sketches of Liberia,

Lugenbeel, Sketches of Liberia,

35;

NCER;

32.

Larkin, The Reshaping of Everyday

Life,

80-81. 40.

NCER;

Johnson, Ante-bellum North Carolina, 732, 738; Larkin, The Reshaping of

Everyday Life, 77—78; Silvy Franklin (McKay) to William McLain, July

RAGS; McDaniel, Swing Low, Sweet 41.

NCER;

Chariot, 15-16.

16, 1840,

reprinted in Wiley, Slaves

Sion Harris to Samuel Wilkeson, April

More, 220-23;

Thomas Buchanan

can Repository, June 43.

i860, reel 159,

U.S. Senate, Roll of Emigrants, 167, 195, 3io, 343; Sion Harris to

Wilkeson, April 42.

11,

15,

to

16,

No More,

Samuel

220-23.

1840, reprinted in Wiley, Slaves

Samuel Wilkeson, April

6, 1840,

No

reprinted Afri-

1840, 179-82.

Inaugural Address ot Joseph

J.

Roberts, January

3>

1848, reprinted in

Guannu,

The Inaugural Addresses, 2-8. 44.

The ACS had long sought

Cape Mount. ual

C. Read,

annex contiguous lands between Cape Palmas and

In their 1842 annual report, colonization officials stated, “Every individ-

must be convinced

continuous

to

coast.”

that

we ought

to strain every nerve to gain possession of this

ACS, Twenty-Eifth Annual Report

December

14, 1846, reel 172,

{1S42), 8;

J.

J.

Roberts to George

RAGS; “Annual Message of President

African Repository, April 1854, 100-104; Williams, The Liberian Exodus,

55;

Roberts,”

Sawyer, The

Emergence of Autocracy. 45. In

298

an 1854

letter to

William McLain, George Seymour lamented that “some ot

NOTES TO PAGES 23O-42

most

the

immigrants

inteligant

in Bexley

had assimilated with indigenous people

the point that they were “living in violation of the laws ” George

McLain, July

28, 1854, reel 156,

November

African Repository,

RAGS;

The

15—38;

Political

Cowan,

46. Stepp, 46;

NCER;

and

“Dr. Hall’s Answers to Mr. Key’s Questions,”

Alexander,

41;

A

Liistory of Colonization, 320;

Legislative History, 2:1030; Martin,

Liberia, as I

to William

1842, 341-42; Lugenbeel, Sketches of Liberia, 29-32;

Williams, The Liberian Exodus, berich.

Seymour

to

Found

It,

“How to

Hu-

Build a Nation,”

143.

Interpreting a Forgotten Mission,” 104; Williams, The Liberian Exodus,

U.S. Senate, Roll of Emigrants, 376; John H.

Smyth

to

Mr. Evarts, April

26,

House, Executive Documents, 46th Cong., 713-17; Williams, Four Years in 38— 39> 59; Liberian Law Reports, 320; Sawyer, The Emergence Autocracy,

1879, in U.S. Liberia, 16,

of

185-89. 47.

riage

A published

1842 letter of Governor Joseph

between Africans and colonists

as

J.

Roberts characterizing intermar-

common

quite

given the abundance of contradictory evidence and his

has to be viewed as suspect,

”

own

political interest in

pub-

portraying African-immigrant relations as amicable and equitable. “Governor Roberts’ Letter to Dr. Hodgkin,” October 1842, reprinted in African Repository, No-

licly

vember

1843? 331—32;

Diana Skipwith

"Dear Master,” 91-92; Nesbit, Four Months

Miller,

of Colonization, 511;

Joseph

Johnston, Liberia,

May

to Louisa Clark,

20, 1839, reprinted in

in Liberia, 48;

Alexander,

A History

1:275.

Roberts served as colonial governor {1842-48) and president of Liberia (1848-54, 1872-76). James S. Payne served as president (1868-70, 1876-78). 48.

J.

John Day served as chief justice of the Liberian Supreme Court during the 1850s. Reginald A. Sherman was appointed secretary of navy and war during the late nineteenth century. Louis Sheridan, discussed earlier, was appointed superintendent of

commercial operations

in Bassa

Cove during the

colonial period. Richardson, Li-

and Present, 86-89; Dunn and Holsoe, Historical Dictionary of Liberia, 137, Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia, ii-iy, Edward W. Blyden to William Cop-

beria's Past

i47> 159;

pinger,

October

173—78;

19, 1874,

reprinted in Lynch, Selected Letters of Edward Wilmot Blyden,

Eulogy of Rev. Edward W. Blyden on the Rev. John Day,” African Repository,

May 1861,

154—58; Barfield,

odus, 57; “Liberian Judge at 87,

RAGS; NCER; “United

Thomas and John

Day,” 1—31; Williams, The Liberian Ex-

White Sulphur Springs,” Knoxville Whig, States Historical

Census Data Browser,”

[late 1859?], reel

; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Negro Population in the United States, 220.

49.

John H. Smyth to Mr. Evarts, April

26, 1879, in U.S.

ments, 46th Cong., 713—17; Huberich, The Political

Howard, American Niagara,

New York

Legislative History, 1:630—32;

Slavers, 52-53, 71, 138-39, 218-22, 248;

Times,

December

i860, U.S. State Department, Record

American Colonization

13,

1858, 2;

John Seys

Group No.

59,

16;

Cowan,

November

11,

25, 1846, reel 172,

11,

NACPM; Boyd, “The

and Incidents, 288-90; ACS,

Foimd

It,

166.

12, 1861, reel

RAGS; John Seys

i860, U.S. State Department, Record

Frigate

Lewis Cass, November

reel 2,

Liberia, as I

James Deputie to [William McLain?], February

Roberts to William McLain, June

“The Voyage of the

to

M169,

Society,” 166, 120; Brittan, Scenes

Forty-Fourth Annual Report (1861), 50.

and

House, Executive Docu-

Group No.

NOTES TO PAGES 243-46

59,

160;

and

J.

J.

to Lewis Cass,

M169,

reel 2,

299

NACPM; “The

Africans by the Pons,” African Repository, January 1847,

25;

“The

Six

Sawyer, The Emergence of AuDecades of Liberia,” African Repository, July 1881, 96-97; McLain, August 23, 1862, reel 160, RAGS. tocracy, 187-88; Lavinia Nelson to William

Lowenkopf,

51.

“Letter

from

a Colonist,” African Repository,

William Blount Rodman, April

NCSA; and Williams, The Johnston, Liberia,

52.

20-23;

Politics in Liberia,

Herman, and

Belcher,

13,

New

November

box

1853,

York Times,

December

1845, 337;

Richard Judkins to

William Blount

76.6,

29, i875> 4;

Rodman

Papers,

Liberian Exodus, 27.

1:354;

G.

S.

A Land and

Stockwell, The Republic of Liberia, 249; Holsoe,

Life

Remembered.

Repubof Liberia,” African Repository, October 1850, 300; “The “The Liberian Coasting of Liberia,” African Repository, April 1848, 100; Syfert,

“Some

53. lic

Statistics

Trade,” 218-28.

CHAPTER EIGHT NCER; “United

1.

States Historical

Census Data Browser,”

ginia.edu/census/>; Watson, Bertie County,

48-55, 78, 87-93, 107, 109, 116-19,

^7,

131;

Thomas, Divided Allegiance,

xiv, 13,

Many Excellent People, 35-36,

52-54,

12, 16;

Escott,

reel 119;

12,

26, 1870, reel 107,

Edward Sawyer

11.

December

December

Elizabeth City (N.C.) Freedmen’s Emigrant Aid So-

May 1871, 152—55; Sherwood Capps to

i877> reel 116B;

1877, reel

flier,

Sherwood Capps

[William Coppinger?],

William Coppinger,

to

May 7, 1879, reel

James Hays to William Coppinger, October 3, 1874, reel 113; James O. Hayes to William Coppinger, February 27, 1878, reel 117; and Alexander Hays et al. to Officers 119;

and members of the collinazation 14.

Among the emigrants

societey,

October

of the Azor were Alfred

27, 1879, reel 164,

Hood

RACS.

of Charlotte, his wife, and

three children. Williams, The Liberian Exodus; Logan, The Negro in North Carolina, 121,

131—32;

July 1888,

C. Price to T.

J.

F.

Bayard,

5,

1888, reprinted in African Repository,

95-96; Tindall, “The Liberian Exodus of

i37~45; Crow, Escott, and Hatley, 15.

March

NCER;

A

History of African Americans, 104.

Isaac Skinner to William Coppinger,

D. Sawyer to William Coppinger, January 10

Coppinger

to

1878,” 133-45; Painter, Exodusters,

October

and February

William Mclain, November 1870,

Edmund

10, 1877, reel 116B;

23, 1878, reel 117;

reel 107; E. D.

Sawyer

William

to [William

Coppinger?], December 28, 1877; Charles W. Jones to William Coppinger, December 28, 1877, reel 116B;

J.

R. Etheridge to

RACS; Logan, The Negro Times, August 10, 1889, 16.

J.

C. Stevens to

J.

in

William Coppinger, January

North Carolina,

133;

18, 1878, reel 117,

New

York

1894, reprinted in Liberia,

No-

“Negroes Leaving

a State,”

5.

Ormond

Wilson, October

11,

notes TO PAGES 256-62

301

vember

1894,

2;

Thomas

S.

Malcom

William Coppinger, October

to

“Arthington, Liberia,” African Repository, al.

to

and August

4,

Alonzo Hoggard

14, 1871, reel 162;

and )une Moore

reel 162;

NCER; lohn

17.

to

May 19, 1870, reel

William Coppinger,

luly 16, 1870, reel 161;

to

to

60-61; 18.

1872, 367;

November

Liberia,

Alonzo Hoggard

1.

to

and April

9, 1872,

C. Stevens to

}.

6, 1871;

22, 1873, reel 162;

19,

April

reel 164,

Peter

21,

May

18, 1873,

RACS.

Mountain

Charles R. Branch to

H. W. Dennis to William Coppinger,

reel 167;

Affairs, African Repository,

Ormond Wilson, October

1,

1894, reprinted in

“Arthington Settlement,” African Repository,

2;

et

William Coppinger,

William Coppinger, March

RACS; Liberian

7, 1871, reel 162,

1894,

to

Alonzo Hoggard

William Coppinger, March

Roulhac to William Coppinger, October

B.

and November

December

1873, 337~38;

William Coppinger, December 20, 1880,

William Coppinger, December 20, 1886, 9

161;

Alonzo Hoggard

William Coppinger, August

May

November

1870, reel 107;

21,

May

1881,

Stevs^art, Liberia, 38.

H. W. Dennis

letter,

reprinted in African Repository, June 1870, 189; ACS, Fifty-

NCER; B. Munden to William Coppinger, April B. Munden to William Coppinger, January 26, 163;

Fourth Annual Report (1871), 14-15;

and August

22, 1874,

1880, reel 164;

25, 1876, reel

John

B.

Munden

J.

J.

to C. T. O. King, June 14, 1883, reel 165,

turned Emigrants,” African Repository, July 1883,

RACS; “Re-

91.

Holsoe, “A Portrait of a Black Midwestern Eamily,” 41-52; “The Eifth President Wilthe Republic of Liberia,” African Repository, April 1870, 121—23; John Seys to

19.

of

May

liam Seward,

11,

1867, in U.S.

House, Executive Documents, 40th Cong., 330;

Montserrado County, Court of Quarter Sessions and Common Pleas, November 1871— February 1872 (typescript copy in notebook), box 22, SHP; Henry W. Dennis to William Coppinger, reel 162,

6,

RACS; John Lewis

of State, Record

63-64;

May

J.

June

Group No.

to

J.

84,

3,

August

24,

December

Milton Turner, October

M170,

reel 2,

NACPM;

and May

23, 1871, in U.S.

16, 1872,

Department

Kremer, James Milton Turner,

Milton Turner to Hamilton Fish, October 30,

Foreign Relations of the United States (1873), 324-26;

14, 1871,

1871, in

Papers Relating

to

the

“Condemnation and Subsequent

(LonEscape, and Death by Drowning, of the Late President Roye,” African Times March don), May 23, 1872, 132; “The Late Ex-President Roye of Liberia,” African Times, 23, 1872;

Dunn and

W. Blyden

to

Holsoe, Historical Dictionary of Liberia, 149-50, 174-75; Edward

William Coppinger, October

19, 1874,

reprinted in Lynch, Selected Letters

Times, December 29, 1875, 4; John B. of Edward Wilrnot Blyden, 173-78; New York Munden to William Coppinger, January 31 and September 19, 1881, reel 164, RACS.

NCER;

20. al.

to Officers

S. S.

Hardy

to

tally

reel 163;

societey,

William Coppinger, February

The 1886 emigrant

in Liberia

H. Dennis, June 28, 1875,

and members of the collinazation

and Norfleet Brown 21.

et al. to

October

does not include the 5,722 recaptives

during the nineteenth century. Alonzo Hoggard

et

27, 1879, reel 164;

7, 1883, reel 165,

reprinted in African Repository, October 1870, 317-18; John B. 1871,

Alexander Hays

RACS.

who were

letter,

landed

July 18, 1870,

Munden letter, April

19,

reprinted in African Repository, July 1871, 218—19; ACS, Sixty-Ninth Annual Re-

port {\S 86 ), 24-25. 22.

NCER.

23.

West, Back

1877, in U.S.

to Africa,

J.

Milton Turner to William Evarts, September

3,

House, Executive Documents, 45th Cong., 370-75; Johnston, Liberia,

1:371-72, 444; “Liberia

302

253-54;

and the Native

Tribes,” African Repository, April 1884, 61-62;

NOTES TO PAGES 262-67

Huberich, The

February

Political

and

Legislative History, 2:1107;

House, Executive Documents, 47th Cong.,

22, 1881, in U.S.

to Build a Nation,” 15-42; Gershoni,

RACS;

William Coppinger, October

et al. to

1,

1:

1869,

“Assimilation,” A/r/cun Repository, April 1882, 63.

NCER; ACS,

24.

Martin, “How

733;

“The Formation of Liberia’s Boundaries, Part

Agreements,” 25-45; Edward W. Blyden reel 105,

John Smyth to William Evart,

Seventy-Seventh Annual Report (1894), 5-6; ACS, Seventy-Ninth

Annual Report (1896), 4-5; John Smyth

to

Mr. Frelinghuysen, January

17, 1883, in

Pa-

pers Relating to the Foreign Policy of the United States (18S4), 615; Padgett, “Ministers to Liberia,

73— 9i> African Repository, July

43-44? “Emigration,” Liberia, February 1893,

ACS,

25.

(1903),

13;

Eighty-First

Logan, The Negro

1888, 96;

Annual Report

in

North Carolina,

2.

(1898),

ACS, Eighty-Sixty Annual Report

5;

Seifman,“The Passing of the American Colonization

Society,” 7.

EPILOGUE Kenneth

1.

tember

New 2.

B.

Noble, “Liberia President Captured by Foes,” A9; Liebenow, Liberia,

10, 1990, Al,

Favor,” Washington Post,

December

85;

16,

Tim

New

York Times, Sep-

Sullivan, “Liberia’s

Old

2001, A33.

Inaugural Address of William R. Tolbert,

Jr.,

January

5,

1976, in

Guannu, The In-

augural Addresses, 409; Noble, “Liberia President Captured,” Ai,A9; Kenneth “Liberian President’s April 10,

8,

1990? 3 iA>

1990, 24A;

New Plane ‘An Immense Waste of Money,’”

Howard

1,

1990, 6A;

off Liberia in Case

Kenneth

Diplomats and Broadcasts Report,”

Jeffrey Bartholet,

“A Big

Man

in Africa,”

B.

Americans Must Evacuate,”

Noble, “Liberian Insurgents

New York

Newsweek,

“Leader of Liberian Revolt Bullish on Capitalism server,

June

3,

Times, September

May 14,

Times,

December

Sullivan,

7,

1990, 2A;

Liberia’s

She Left for US,

Lia Burns,

6,

in Africa,” 31;

Its

Despoiler

1990, 14A;

Human

Brennan, “Charles

Sits Pretty,”

New York

2000, A18.

Old

Elite,”

A33;

NCER; and “One Day to

NEWS, December

PANA

Brennan, “Charles Taylor,” 5.

3,

— Not Democracy,” Charlotte Ob-

Man

Norimitsu Onishi,“In Ruined Liberia,

dents Threaten Suicide,” fore

1990, Ai, A4;

1990, 2A; Reno, “Reinvention of an African Patrimonial State,” 113-14;

Rights Watch, Easy Prey, 2-4; Bartholet, “A Big

4.

11,

Kill Pres-

2001, 28.

“Rebels Seize U.S. Rubber Plantations,” Charlotte Observer, June

Taylor,” 210;

Noble,

Charlotte Observer,

Rebels Advance on Liberian Capital,” Charlotte Observer, June

3-

B.

Liberia in Chaos, Decay,” Charlotte Observer, June

“Navy Ship on Standby

Charlotte Observer, June ident,

Witt,

Finds

Elite

Press,

18,

December

Graduation:

UL Stu-

2001; “Taylor Denies Beating Wife be26, 2001, ;

210.

Ambassador Diggs

Visit to

Winston-Salem,” Winston-Salem Journal,

Wonkeryor, Liberia Military Dictatorship, 18-22; Somini Sengupta, Peacekeeping Unit Arrives in Liberia,” New York Times, August 5, 2003, Ai, A4; Sen-

July

13,

gupta,

1999;

The Haves and Have-Nots Reside on Both

Sides of Liberian Capital,”

York Times, August 6, 2003, Ai, A8; Sengupta, “Vice President Prepares to Take trol,”

New

York Times, August 10, 2003,

6;

New

Con-

Sengupta, “Leader of Liberia Surrenders

New York Times, August 12, 2003, Ai, A8; Sengupta, “With Calls for Reconciliation, New Liberian Leader Takes Office,” New York Times, October Power and Enters

15,

Exile,”

2003, A8.

NOTES TO PAGES 268-74

303

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bibliography

INDEX

Abolitionism,

74

>

130.

4, 20, 26,

136 - 37

>

42-43, 70-72,

140, 141-42, 151, 158,

161, 174, 184, 188, 196,

Adams, John Quincy,

198

—

172-74

nization, 37-38, 74, 84, 103-11, 144-

47 207, 238-39, 267; interactions with ,

in Liberia; unfamiliarity v/ith condi-

tions,

immigrants,

77, 79,

78-79, 200, 203, 259; difficulties experienced by, 80-81, 86-88, 145,

99

155-56, 182-83, 185, 187, 199-200,

207, 242, 247;

203-4,

211,

221-22, 226-27, 245-46,

260-65; lands allotted 157, 203, 252;

migrant 140,

—

139, 151, 157, 158, 160, 167, 169, 180, 200,

Africans: resistance to Liberian colo-

African Americans, 1-7, 18-20, 30, 34,

to, 86, 89, 145,

and development of im-

identities,

96-98,

99, 110—11,

238-48, 261-62; literacy among,

17, 219, 237,

(n. 45);

242-44,

North Carolina:

as slaves, 9—10,

18-19, 47 54-55, 66, 152, 164-71, 176>

77 198, 244, 249-50; .

among Quakers,

10-17, 25, 40-41, 46-51, 55-56, 58,

60-61, 69, 74,

75,

135-37; free blacks,

18-19, 48, 52, i 3 i- 33 152-55, 162, 164, >

168. 198, 244;

and repression of free

blacks, 66, 72-73, i3i-33> i53-54> 173>

195-96; as slaveholders,

ward migration

of, 256,

138, 153;

west-

260, 268

and views of Africa and Africans: 59, 60,

94-98, 110-11,

143,

24,

183-84,

202, 238-44, 246-48, 257-59, 261-62

African Methodist Episcopal Zion

(AMEZ) denomination,

258, 259

214-

266-67, 298-

as laborers,

,

94-96,

219, 237,

pawning,

242-43, 247-48; and

95, 105, 242; sexual

encoun-

and intermarriage with immi-

ters

grants, 95-96, 237, 243-44, 266, 299

100; medicinal

in

210,

94 243; as apprentices of immigrants,

(n. 47);

263-64

261,

employed

244 - 45

246,

94-96,

trade with immigrants, 87,

205-6, 223-24; and color prejudices, >

61, 64, 92, 102, 134,

202, 209, 265

192

35 42, 58, 143, 148, 150,

African Repository,

and ACS renaming knowledge

practices,

of, 140, 232,

237, 242. See also Dei; Cola;

Grebo;

Krahn; Kru; Mandingo; Pessay; Vai African sleeping sickness, 79, 237 Aggrey, James, 258 Allen, Richard, 4, 35

American

(ship), 136-37, 138-39, 288

(n. 12)

American

War,

Civil

5,

142, 147,

200; in North Carolina,

196-97,

249-50

American Colonization Society (ACS), 2, 4 5 3 i- 34 59 64, >

132,

>

>

99-103,

139-52, 157-59, 186, 190-91, 200,

252-53; appeal

and Quakers, 5 i>

74, 89,

55 58, ,

of, 4,

27, 33,

33-34, 39,

55, 137;

38-39, 44, 50-

60-62, 64-65, 137-38,

158;

of,

blacks

34-35> 70,

to,

Bassa Cove (Liberia), 145, 146, 147. 154.

31-32; opposition of free

founding

71.

cal

37-38> 84, 101-3; as

of Haitian emigration,

vision of, 62, 82—84, 89, 96, 253; decline of,

Benezet, Anthony, 25

criti-

Bertie County, N.C., 9, 18, 54, 56, 85, 89,

colonial

51;

99— io3>

214,

naming

300

Bissell,

200,

in, 141, 151, i55>

lution of,

branches

Blah,

268-69

in, 32,

auxiliary

39-40.

42, 55,

60-

61, 65, 66, 76, 141. 151-52, 169. 174.

(n. 23);

support for colonization

39. 51. 65. 132. 151. 169. 171. 173;

140-41, 161-62,

in,

161-62, 166, 174-75. 177-78.

Moses

Z.,

192-

274

Blyden,

Edward W.,

Bopolu

(Liberia), 104, 202

Branch, John,

opposi-

98, 183,

263-64

32,

40

Brewer, Charles, 253 Brewerville (Liberia), 99, 258, 259, 26265

65-67, 191;

188,

Boyer, Jean Pierre, 44-46, 48, 58

in,

187, 193, 254,

259-60; emigrant agents

189, 190

Bowe, Matthias (N.C. emigrant), 88

282

tion to colonization in, 65, 66, 69, 70, 73. 75.

(n. 8)

94, 203, 207

186-87, 253; disso-

— and North Carolina:

206, 209-10;

Bladen County, N.C., 152-53.

173-200 passim, 252-53;

racial prejudice in,

296

of,

Mary,

155. 156,

Black Codes, 250-51

(n. 7); splintering of, 143-51. i55;

revival of,

249-65 passim, 273

Bexley (Liberia),

140-62, 196-97, 200,

255-56, 268-69; influence of northern auxiliaries

206-10, 242

Beaufort County, N.C., 173

161-62, 181-82, 200; land acquisitions in Africa by,

157. 159. 178. 184.

155-56,

74-75> 142,

Bridgestone Firestone, 273

de-

cline of organizational activity in, 76,

Brown, John, 196

140-43, 151-52, 161-62, 196-97;

Brumley, Kai Pa (Dei king), 105-12, 162

re-

Brumley, Peter (Dei king), 103-4. 105-6

vival of colonization activity in, 17479,

Brunswick County, N.C.,

182-200 passim

American Revolution,

Bryant, Charles G., 274

14, 19, 21, 22, 24,

Buchanan

26,29 Anasarca,

159, 233,

(Liberia), 99, 207-9;

grant mortality

236

Anasarca exanthem,

152

in,

immi-

208-9

Burgess, Ebenezer, 37, 89

233, 236

Anderson, Hull (N.C. emigrant), 219-20 Andres, William

Appeal

to the

S., 188,

189—90

Caldwell (Liberia),

57, 58, 64, 67, 103, 106,

107, 109, 134. 210-14, 235;

Colored Citizens of the

immigrant

mortality

in, 68, 139, 149, 211, 238;

Arthington (Liberia), 99. 260-62, 273

founding

of,

Arthington, Robert, 253-55

99;

World

(1829),

Ashmun,

70-73. 76.

lehudi, 63,

130, 153

81, 82, 84, 87, 88,

Azor

Eli,

North Carolinians

Caldwell, Elias

Camden County,

37

30-32,

85-89, 107

38, 85

22, 131, 165, 171, 174

Capehart, Susan (N.C. emigrant), 184,

Bacon, Samuel, 39

226

Banshee (ship), 208 Baptists, 14. 26, 33, 170, 206, 211, 214-15.

224, 243, 252, 258-59, 265;

N.C., 56, 58, 85, 88, 213,

236, 257

(ship), 259, 301 (n. 14)

Canada,

Southern

Capehart, Tristram, 169

Cape Palmas colony

Baptist Convention, 214

324

B.,

in,

of, 85,

Caldwell, Joseph, 40

102-3 Ayres,

84-89; naming

INDEX

(Liberia):

in, 97,

Maryland

144-45, 147.

i59. 217

Capps, Sherwood (N.C. emigrant), 258-

Cresson,

59> 263

Elliott, 145, 154

Criterion (ship), 91

Carey, Lott, 39, 87, 88, 89, 285 (n. 17)

Croom, Mingo,

Careysburg (Liberia), 100, 209, 226

Crozer, Samuel, 37

Andrew

Cartwright,

(N.C. emigrant),

Crummell, Alexander,

258

98, 217

Cuffe, Paul, 22-25, 35> 37

Charleston, S.C.,

9, 18,

Chowan County,

N.C.,

70

Cumberland County, N.C.,

53, 85, 88, 188,

222

152,

176-77,

211

Christophe, Henri, 44 Civil

167

Currituck County, N.C., 256, 258, 265,

War, U.S. See American Civil

War

295 (n. 42)

Clarkson, Thomas, 44 Clay, Henry, 30-35, 64, 143, 149-50, 181

37> 82, 84, 85, 88, 89, 94, 100, 103-12;

Clay-Ashland (Liberia), 99 Coffin, Aaron, 43, 45-47

and

conflict with settlers, 103, 105-12,

162; slavery

among, 105-6

Coffin, Levi, 42, 43

Delany, Martin

Collins, Josiah, 40

Demery, Bennett (N.C. emigrant),

Colonization, 2—7, 291 (n.

4); as

remedy

movement

in

181-83 88,

237-38

for racial conflict, 3, 20-21, 24, 33, 200,

252-53;

R., 4,

Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, 22

North Carolina,

Dickinson,

4-6; early proposals for, 21-22, 25;

165-68,

Andrew

171, 217,

(N.C. emigrant),

291 (n. 5)

early black interest in, 22-25; black

Dimrey, John, 42

reaction

Diseases, 195; in Liberia, 88-90, 159-60,

to,

24-25, 34-36; as encour-

aging abolition of slavery,

25, 30, 32,

227-37, 264, 298

(n. 37); in

North Car-

34> 38, 61, 141-42, i44> 149. 188, 198; as

olina, 227, 233. See n/so African sleep-

civilizing Africa, 30, 33, 39, 96, 102,

ing sickness; Anasarca; Anasara exan-

217,

as

239-43, 261-62, 269, 277

making

slavery

36, 71, 144, 173; as free blacks, 148,

(n. 22);

secure, 30, 34,

means of removing

30-32,

149-50,

more

111,

75, 133, 144, 146,

173, 175. 180, 188, 191; as

reform movement, 32-33,

them; Malaria; Pleurisy; Tuberculosis Doe, Samuel, 271-72, 274 Doris (ship), 63-65, 67, 68, 70, 74, 213 Douglass, Frederick, 4, 174, 181

Dred

Scott case (1857), 172, 174, i95, 196

Duplin 175- County, N.C.,

39, 100,

173

142, 145

—federal support

—

state

support

of, 36, 37, 75, 149, 197

of;

Virginia, 21, 32, 147-

48; Connecticut, 32;

144-45;

Maryland,

New Jersey, 32;

Ohio,

nessee, 32, 150; Kentucky,

The

Ten-

149-50

Edina (Liberia), 99, 155-56

Ehringhaus, John, 60, 130-31 176Elizabeth City, N.C., 53-54> 65, 74, 164,

and Destiny of the Colored People of Consumption. See Tuberculosis

76, 184, 256, 258

Elizabethtown, N.C., Elvira

>

Coppinger, William, 252-64 passim Cornish, Samuel, 70, 159 Council of Liberia, 147

Craven County, N.C.,

18, 72, 138, 140,

12, 13

Elizabeth (ship), 37, 42, 57, 69, 147, 197

Cofidition, Elevation, Enjigration

the United States (1852), 181-82

N.C., 17

Edmundson, William,

32,

32;

Edgecombe County,

Owen

152, 153, 155

(ship), 195

Enfield, N.C., 132, 258

Episcopalians, 166, 217, 224

Fayetteville, N.C., 18, 65, 69, 132, 152,

163-68, 265

79,209,215

INDEX

325

Finley, Robert, 39,

99. 225

146-47

Hood, James W., 259

Fletcher, Diver (N.C. emigrant), 213

Hooper, Emily (N.C. emigrant), 177—79.

Forten, lames, 35

Four Mouths Four Years

187-88

in Liberia (1855), 182

in Liberia (1857),

Hooper, Marshall (N.C. emigrant),

182-83

177-79. 187-88, 248, 293 (n. 21)

Franklin County, N.C., 189

Freedom’s Journal, 70,

movement,

Free Soil

(N.C. emigrant),

Ogon

Hollister, Sally

Fillmore, Millard, 171

Hopkins, Moses

145, 153

Hunter

34, i7i» 196, i97. 253

268

A.,

(ship), 1-3, 51-52, 57. 67. 192

Hunter, Charity (N.C. emigrant), 1-3,

Fugitive Slave Law' {1850), 171—74, i95

Fundamental Constitutions of the Car-

51.

57

olinas, 10 lie

Gales, Joseph, 40, 61, 70,

a’Vache, 197

Indiana, 42, 44, 47. 58, 137.

151, i54> i55> i58>

i5i. 174.

256,

281 (n. 10)

289 (n. 29) Garrison, William

Indian Chief {ship), 56-58, 60, 62, 67,

L., 130, 137, 158, i74>

107, 238

181

Iredell,

Gola, 106 — 9> 202, 216, 272

Golconda (ship),

252,

Iredell

254-55

James, 65, 66, 283 (n. 38)

County, N.C.,

17

Gotorah, 238-39 Jackson, Andrew,

Grand Bassa County (Liberia). See Bassa Cove; Bexley; Buchanan

31,

149

James, Frederick (N.C. emigrant), 214

Gray, Joseph, 132-33

James, Jonathan (N.C. emigrant), 89

Great Dismal Swamp, 53-55. 9i

James Perkins

Grebo,

Jamestown, N.C.,

144. 147. 217. 267

Greensboro, N.C.,

8,

first earl

8

Jamesville, N.C., 254, 257, 262

40, 161

Jefferson,

Greenville (Liberia), 146-47 Guilford,

(ship), 134-35. 138

Thomas,

3,

21-22, 33, 147

Johnson, Prince, 272

of (Lord Francis

Joseph Maxwell (ship), 179, 209

North), 7

Julius Pringle (ship), 135-36, 288 (n. 12)

Guilford County, N.C., 7-17. 42—43. 48.

Jupiter {ship), 135

69,75,144, 227, 279 (n. 28) Gurley, Ralph R., 39, 60, 61, 63, 66, 67,

Kennedy, John, 63

161 69. 70, 73. 74. 107, 132-34.

Kennedy, William

55, 58,

197

138.

9. 18. 54.

Kru,

S., 31

7

(Liberia), 238, 18,

83. 104. 112. 146, 165. 246,

Klan, 251

247—48

40. 61.

168—70

Hoggard, Alonzo (N.C. emigrant), 249-54, 260-62

77-79.

Ku Klux

258-59,264

Hertford County, N.C.,

52,

247. 267

Hayes, James O. (N.C. emigrant),

326

149-50

Krahn, 271

(Liberia), 99. i44

Heddington

(Liberia),

Key a u wee,

i3i-35.

164

Harper

Kentucky

Key, Francis

Halifax, N.C., 131-32

Halifax County, N.C.,

(N.C. emigrant),

215-16

Haiti, 22, 44-51. 59. 71. 75. 135. 184. 197

Haitian emigration, 22, 44-51.

P.

Ladies Liberia School Association, 82 Latrobe, John H.

B., 144,

200, 253

Liberator, 130, 157, 158, 181

INDEX

Liberia, 1-5, 50, 58-59, 71, 74, 132, 140,

80-96 passim, 139-40,

159-60; and meanings of freedom, 5-6, 82, 99-102,

247-48, 261,

158, 162,

269-70; need and

37-38; geography 201, 207, 218;

of living

and

of, 52, 77,

naming

of, 52;

87-88, 203,

in, 74,

flora, 79, 84,

227, 248, 269; beliefs

of,

vivax, 91;

high cost

gin, 91-92;

fauna

218-19; climate,

and

digest of laws (1824),

101; failure to halt slave 2, 156;

independence

trade

79-

228;

101-

159-60,

181, 217,

of, 229,

& Colonization Society

name changed,

230-37, 265;

43, 278 (n. 14);

of,

76

Marshall (Liberia), 99

1980 coup, 271-72;

Martin County, N.C.,

Liberia 256- Herald, 166, 174, 182

Mary

Liberian emigration: as encouraging diasporic consciousness,

6,

183-84,

59,

300

(n. 4);

Caroline Stevens (ship), 194—95,

Maryland

173-79. 251-52,

and immigrant

State Colonization Society

McLain, William, 174-79.

208-9,

227-37; as dispossessing Africans of

39, 161, 166-71,

183. 187,

McMorine, Richard (N.C. emigrant), 184-85

202, 238-41, 247-48, 269, 291 (n. 4);

McPhail, John,

romantic views

Meade, William, 40

59;

183-84,

215, 241,

and black manhood, 184-85,

63, 67, 74, 133, 134

Mechlin, Joseph, 103-4, 106-10,

258

Abraham,

171,

Mecklenburg County, N.C.,

189

3, 34, 196,

Meeting

197

Linda Stewart (ship), 209

for Sufferings, 48, 48,

Mendenhall, Nathan,

65, 67,

Louisiana Colonization Society, 146

Mendenhall, Richard,

38, 51

Lugenbeel,

Mercer, Charles E, 34

Livingstone College, 258, 259, 301 (n.

J.

12)

W., 176, 178-79

Lundy, Benjamin, 48, 70

Methodists, 211,

Madison, James, 147 6, 37, 58, 60,

Mills,

63-64, 68-69,

74.

280

265

(n. 34)

69

14, 26, 33, 39, 166,

202, 206,

215-17, 224, 258, 265

Samuel

J.,

25, 37,

89

Millsburg (Liberia), 67,

INDEX

17,

60

Mendenhall, George,

Malaria,

134, 135,

138-39. 288 (n. 16)

Liberian Packet (ship), Lincoln,

192-94, 199, 203-6,

208, 209, 226, 254, 293 (n. 21)

lands, 98, 102-3, 106, 108, 162, 180,

of,

203, 294

(n.36)

mortality, 63-64, 68-69, 74. 139-40, 146, 149, 155, 160, 171, 180-81,

254

(MSCS), 144-45 McKay, James L, 153, 192-94,

interest in, 47, 50, 55, 58-59, 61, 65, 154. 166,

17,

204

246-47, 257-59; African American

73-74. 140, 257-

and

Haitian emigration, 45-48; decline

197;

wars, 272-74

38,

40, 41; dissension within, 43, 64-65;

national constitution (1847), 222; civil

232

of North Carolina (MCS), 26-27,

Constitu-

recognized by U.S. government,

prevention

of, 228;

104, 202

Manumission

tion (1839), 147, 157; colonial census (1843),

symptoms

Mandingo,

of, 110, 161, 173,

Commonwealth

Plasmodium falciparum,

Mallett, Sarah, 177-79, 188

180, 240; national identity of, 110-12,

239-48;

and emigrant place of ori-

and treatment

100-

in,

Plasmodium

91—92. 227—28; Plasmodium malariae,

80, 88; coastal trade, 83, 207; constitu-

tion

about transmis-

sion of, 91, 160, 227—28;

79-81, 84,

221;

215,

58, 68, 79, 85, 90, 91, 112, 139, 181, 211,

238-43,

258-59, 261-62; founding

180-81, 203, 209,

2^7—33. 262; and Anopheles mosquito,

efforts to Chris-

tianize, 33, 183, 210, 214-17, 253,

155. 160, 170,

144, 146, 149,

91, 107, 134, 146,

327

211-14;

immigrant mortality

91-92,

139;

naming

Northampton County, N.C.,

in, 68,

found-

of, 89, 99;

61, 67,

18, 163;

47

North Carolina

54

naming

of, 52, 99;

68-69,

mortality

in,

founding

of, 81;

Northwest Ordinance,

H9;

134^ 139>

development

Orange County, N.C.,

of,

Overman,

83-84

in,

Owen,

Moravians, 26, 218

Morgan Dix

15

Nourse, James, 65-67

immigrant

81-82; North Carolinians

State Colonization So-

ciety, 65, 151-52, 160, 175

58, 63, 64, 67, 78, 80, 83, 94,

107, 135, 140> 144> 147> 177> 218-21, 260,

263;

joins Confederacy, 196

Aid Society, 258

Missouri Compromise, 36 21, 32, 36, 51,

economic

North Carolina Freedmen’s Emigration

Mississippi in Africa, 146-47

Monroe, lames,

132, 188,

conditions, 9-10, 17-18; geography,

Mississippi Colonization Society, 146-

Monrovia,

268;

North Carolina, 1-7,

89-92, 184

89-91.

243

213, 226, 239,

ing of, 89-92; North Carolinians in,

85, 88,

73-74>

9, 18, 54> 55>

Isaac,

161

40

John, 71-72, i53

(ship), 208

Mountain, Peter (N.C. emigrant),

Panic of 1837,

257,

141, 161

Parker, James (N.C. emigrant), 213-14

262 Mullatoes, 70,

153, 180,

Pasquotank County, N.C.,

244-45, 246, 263-

B.

40,

107, 130-35, 138, 144, 175, 207, 212, 222,

(N.C. emigrant), 262-

founding and geog-

235, 237, 258, 265;

64

raphy

Murfreesboro, N.C., 63, 68, 168, 184, 215

of,

53-55; slavery

Quaker influence

in,

54-55;

in, 55

Native American removal, 149

Peele,

Sandy (N.C. emigrant), 74

Nautilus (ship), 67-69, 135

Peele,

Venus (N.C. emigrant),

Nelson, Lavinia (N.C. emigrant), 226,

Peobles, Lucy, 188, 190

Perquimans County, N.C.,

246

Bern, N.C.,

18, 53. 65, 99>

171, 191, 215, 217,

53-58,

Pessay, 98, 210

226, 257

Peter (Dei king), 37, 103, 104

Philadelphia, Pa.,

214,

12, 14, 47, 59, 61,

135-

36, 137, 139, 142, 143, 153

285 (n. 22)

New Hanover County, N.C., 9, 152 New Orleans, La., 2 New Virginia (Liberia), 148, 171, 177> i84>

Pitt

County, N.C.,

New York City Colonization

Society, 145

17

Pleurisy, 63, 233, 235

Plymouth, N.C., Polk,

187, 214

James

65, 260,

264

K., 192

Port Cresson (Liberia), 145-46

Preliminary Emancipation Proclama-

Nixon, Jerry (N.C. emigrant), 107-8,

tion, 197

111-12

Presbyterians, 26, 39, 174, 224

Norfolk (ship), 92, 93, 99 9> 18,

53~54>

57>

61-63,

Price,

67> i34-35» i7i> 196, 254

328

8, 15,

Person County, N.C., 183

163-68,

New Garden, N.C., 8, 38, 42-44 New Georgia (Liberia), 93-94> i39>

Norfolk, Va., 1-3,

213

67, 85, 133, 135, 138, 190, 213

Nesbit, William, 182

New

51,

56, 57, 61, 67, 69, 72, 73, 75, 85, 88, 93,

64, 288 (n. 16)

Munden, John

8, 15,

INDEX

Joseph C., 259

Quakers,

4,

7-17, 23, 25-27, 58-59, 75-

Rosedale, N.C., 258, 260

76, 135, 138, 139, 140, 142, 162, 175, 213,

Rowan County,

218, 244, 274,

Roye, Edward

— and

276

(n. 2)

antislavery: origins, 12-14; at-

tempts to manumit N.C.

slaves,

— and

St.

38> 55>

port

facilitate,

38-39, 44,

55,

Settra

136,

58-59,

Kru

184, 207,

135-37 in

(ship), 48-51, 58

slavery, 9-17;

to legislature,

and

state

15, 16, 41,

Shaw

and petitions

208-10

66; hostility of

40-41,

43,

258-59

McKay

(N.C. emi-

grant), 204-6, 209, 222, 248

governments toward,

local

University,

Sheridan, Diana

Sheridan, Louis (N.C. emigrant),

15-16, 55, 66; racial attitudes of, 1617, 25,

(N.C. emigrant),

L.

Seys, John, 157, 245

North Carolina: mode of worship,

8-9; and

N.C., 130, 152

(Liberia), 78

Seymour, George racial prejudice, 16-17,

See also Haiti

Saura, 7

167

— and

Ann

15, 25.

Sampson County,

26-27,

60-61, 64,

Domingue,

Sally

60—61, 135—38; financial sup-

of,

B., 145

15—

colonization: early interest in, 25;

organized elforts to

273

J.,

Russwurm, John

26-27, 46-47, i44> 188

17,

N.C., 174

153-58, 162, 174, 178, 192, 198, 206, 207,

47-48, 58-59

209, 244, 268, 290 (n. 35), 299 (n. 48) Sierra Leone, 22, 24-25, 38, 105, 37,

Raleigh,

N.C,

65-67, 88,

18,

151, 161, 176,

Slavery, 2-7, 18-20, 57, 105-6, 141-42,

189, 258, 259

Randolph, John,

—

30, 36

Randolph County, N.C., Rankin,

Jesse,

5,

36, 37, 57,

174-75

92-94,

152, 168, 171,

195-96, 243

North Carolina: origin

in

of, 9;

and

economic conditions, 9-10, 13, 54, 72, 188; growth of, 9-10, 18-19, 152, 167-

43, 138, 140

Recaptives (or recaptured Africans),

159

and

68, 293 (n. 30);

4,

105, 106, 180, 199,

and manumission

legal system, 10;

laws, 10,

15, 16, 57,

229, 245-46, 248, 263, 269, 302 (n. 21);

66

cultural adaptation of, 93-94, 98-99;

slave treatment in, 42, 54, 130-33,

employed

as laborers, 94, 245-46;

used to protect immigrant ments, 94, 107-9,

111;

— and

settle-

as “Congoes,”

teenth century,

Revolutionary War. Sec American

54-55, 165, 281

171, 254,

Rex, John, 189, 190

202-6, 209

Rondout

(ship), 154

13;

in nine-

129-36,

2, 12, 19, 134, 165,

293 (n. 30); transatlantic,

American

23,

efforts to

78, 88, 104, 105, 156, 210; British efforts

148, 171, 1^0, 206,

240-41, 244, 263, 299 (nn. 47, 48) Robertsport (Liberia), 100, 195, 199,

New York

suppress, 36, 92, 98, 159, 245; in Africa,

(ship), 138, 140 J.,

250

(n. 10)

98, 101, 184, 202;

Rex, Malinda (N.C. emigrant), 88

Roberts, Joseph

of,

16, 19, 21, 70,

Slave trade: domestic,

Revolution

Roanoke

(n. 19);

147-48; N.C. runaway slaves, 42,

250-51, 256

5,

slave resistance: in

City, 13; in Stono, S.C.,

98-99

Reconstruction,

190-93, 196, 279

73, 138,

164-65, 176-77; abolition

98, 245; intermarriage with Africans in Liberia,

y

to suppress, 101, 159, 202; immigraiit

participation in, 101-2, 202

Smith, Ezekiel Smith,

Owen

E.,

L.

268

W., 268

Society of Eriends. See Quakers

INDEX

329

Sofia

Walker

[ship),

Denmark, 70

Vesey,

186-87

Southampton County, Va., 129-36,

Virginia Colonization Society, 148

142,

147-48, 168 Starr,

Wake County,

William, 186, 193

N.C.,

18,

207, 211

Walker, David, 70-73, DO, i37

Stevens, lulius (N.C. emigrant), 267-68,

Warner, Daniel

269

B.,

97

Warren County, N.C.,

Stockton, Robert, 37

9

Washington, Bushrod,

Stokes, Monfort, 132

31,

278 (n. 4)

Washington, N.C., 219

Stokes County, N.C., 218

Swaim, George, 135-36

Washington County, N.C., 265

Swain, George, 48-49

Wayne County,

N.C., 67, 89-91, 212, 216,

219

Swain, Moses, 26

Wheeler, Samuel (N.C. emigrant), 64

Tappan, Lewis,

153,

White, Matilda (N.C. emigrant), 222,

156-57, 158

Taylor, Charles G., 272-74; as descen-

237

White,

dant of N.C. emigrants, 273

(N.C. emigrant), 57

Williams, Daniel (N.C. emigrant), 185

Taylor, John, 31

Williams, John (N.C. emigrant), 51-52

Taylor, Milly (N.C. emigrant), 56 Taylor,

Priscilla

Sampson (N.C. emigrant),

Williams, Samuel, 182-83

56

Wilmington, N.C.,

Tennessee Colonization Society, 150

152-64 passim,

Tennessee Manumission Society, 43

Thoughts on African Colonization (1832),

Tolbert, William,

192, 194, 204,

Windsor, N.C., 249, 253-54,

Women,

158

70, 71-72, 130, 133,

260

1-3, 56-57, 59-60, 99, 108,

131,

204-5,

213, 217,

221-22, 226-27, 230,

234-35, 243, 246, 262

233-34, 238 Turner, Nat, 129-36,

137> 142, 144, i47>

Underground Railroad, 42-43,

Union County, N.C.,

Worrell,

Moore

T.

(N.C. emigrant), 268,

273

149, 161, 162, 163, 168, 174, 188

172

17

Young Men’s Colonization Society of Pennsylvania, 145, 154

Vai, 201-2, 243 i59, 283 (n. 36)

mBwmi

330

257,

222-27; experiences in Liberia, 88,

274

Tuberculosis (or consumption), 159,

Valador (ship), 74,

268

the Library

INDEX

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

3 9999 05368 146 4

BPL-l

39999053681464 Clegg, Claude Andrew. The price of liberty African Americans and the :

“[Clegg’s] narrative has a

ment

deep

human

quality, depicting the real predica-

There

that the option of colonization posed for black people

lot that

Liberians can learn from this

reconciliation

and reconstruction.”

work that should provide

a context for

— Amos Sawyer, Interim President of

and author of The Emergence of Autocracy

Liberia (1990-94)

a

is

“Combining remarkably thorough research with graceful

in Liberia

prose, Clegg

5

has produced the best study ever written about this complex resettlement venture.”

— Lawrence

Community

J.

Friedman, author of Gregarious

'

Saints: Self and

American Abolitionism

in

“Outstanding scholarship that richly captures the meaning, the hopes, and the tragedy of the colonization

movement both

in the

United States and

Liberia.”

— David S. Cecelski, author of The Watermans Song: Slavery and

Freedom

in

^

Maritime North Carolina

,

In nineteenth-century America, the belief that blacks social

'

4

harmony and

political equality in the

Americans

to relocate African

to Liberia, a

and whites could not live

same country led

to a

in

movement

West African colony established

by the United States government and the American Colonization Society in 1822. In

blacks

The Price of Liberty, Claude Clegg accounts

who left the state and took up residence in

By examining both the American and African

for 2,030

North Carolina

Liberia betw^een 1825

and

1893.

sides of this experience, Clegg

produces a textured account of an important chapter in the historical evolution of the Atlantic world.

For almost a century, Liberian emigration connected African Americans to the broader cultures, commerce, communication networks, cal patterns of the Afro-Atlantic region.

a Pan-African utopia in Liberia

But for

many

and epidemiologi-

individuals,

dreams of

were tempered by complicated relationships

with the Africans,

whom

politically unstable

mix of newcomers, indigenous

they dispossessed of land. Liberia soon became a peoples,

and “recaptured”

Africans from westbound slave ships. Ultimately, Clegg argues, in the process of forging the world’s second black-ruled republic, the emigrants constructed a settler society teristics

marred by many of the same exclusionary, oppressive charac-

common to modern

Claude A. Clegg Bloomington.

colonial regimes.

III is associate

He

is

professor of history at Indiana University at

author of An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah

Muhammad.

The University of North Carolina Press Post Office Box 2288, Chapel Hill, NC 27515-2288 www.uncpress.unc.edu

ISBN o-aava-ssib-B

l^rinted in U.S.A.

78 08 07 855 1 64

{