188 16 17MB
English Pages [431] Year 2019
The Philosopher Responds Volume Two
Library of Arabic Literature Editorial Board General Editor Philip F. Kennedy, New York University Executive Editors James E. Montgomery, University of Cambridge Shawkat M. Toorawa, Yale University Editors Sean Anthony, The Ohio State University Julia Bray, University of Oxford Michael Cooperson, University of California, Los Angeles Joseph E. Lowry, University of Pennsylvania Maurice A. Pomerantz, New York University Abu Dhabi Tahera Qutbuddin, University of Chicago Devin J. Stewart, Emory University Editorial Director Chip Rossetti Digital Production Manager Stuart Brown Assistant Editor Lucie Taylor Fellowship Program Coordinator Amani Al-Zoubi
Letter from the General Editor The Library of Arabic Literature makes available Arabic editions and English translations of significant works of Arabic literature, with an emphasis on the seventh to nineteenth centuries. The Library of Arabic Literature thus includes texts from the pre-Islamic era to the cusp of the modern period, and encompasses a wide range of genres, including poetry, poetics, fiction, religion, philosophy, law, science, travel writing, history, and historiography. Books in the series are edited and translated by internationally recognized scholars. They are published as hardcovers in parallel-text format with Arabic and English on facing pages, as English-only paperbacks, and as downloadable Arabic editions. For some texts, the series also publishes separate scholarly editions with full critical apparatus. The Library encourages scholars to produce authoritative Arabic editions, accompanied by modern, lucid English translations, with the ultimate goal of introducing Arabic’s rich literary heritage to a general audience of readers as well as to scholars and students. The Library of Arabic Literature is supported by a grant from the New York University Abu Dhabi Institute and is published by NYU Press. Philip F. Kennedy General Editor, Library of Arabic Literature
� � ش � ا �ل�ه� او ���م�ل � او ل�� �� او ���م�ل أ � ّ ا ن �ي � � ّ ���د ي� ا ن� ��و حي��� � ا �ل ��و� ي أ � ّ � او ن� ��و ���م�ل� �م��س��� �و���ه ي� ي ا��م �ّ � � ش ا � ن ن� ��مل�د ا �ل��� ل�ي�
The Philosopher Responds An Intellectual Correspondence from the Tenth Century Volume Two Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī Abū ʿAlī Miskawayh Edited by Bilal Orfali and Maurice A. Pomerantz Translated by Sophia Vasalou and James E. Montgomery Volume editor Devin J. Stewart
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS New York
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS New York Copyright © 2019 by New York University All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī, ʻAlī ibn Muḥammad, active 10th century, author. | Ibn Miskawayh, Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad, -1030 author. | Urfah'lī, Bilāl, editor. | Pomerantz, Maurice A., editor. | Vasalou, Sophia, translator. | Montgomery, James E. ( James Edward), 1962- translator. Title: The philosopher responds : an intellectual correspondence from the tenth century / Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī, Abū ʻAlī Miskawayh ; edited by Bilal Orfali and Maurice Pomerantz ; translated by Sophia Vasalou and James E. Montgomery. Other titles: Hawāmil wa-al-shawāmil. English Description: New York : New York University, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019012621 (print) | LCCN 2019017484 (ebook) | ISBN 9781479886999 (v. 1) | ISBN 9781479831203 (v. 1) | ISBN 9781479865444 (v. 2) | ISBN 9781479841196 (v. 2) | ISBN 9781479871483 (v. 1, hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781479834600 (v. 2, hardcover : alk. paper) Classification: LCC PJ7750.A26 (ebook) | LCC PJ7750.A26 H313 2019 (print) | DDC 181/.6--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019012621 New York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. Series design by Titus Nemeth. Typeset in Tasmeem, using DecoType Naskh and Emiri. Typesetting and digitization by Stuart Brown. Manufactured in the United States of America c 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Table of Contents Letter from the General Editor
iii
Map: Buyid and Neighbouring Lands
xii
The Philosopher Responds, Volume Two
1
On the influence of companions on a person’s character and on the 2
benefits of companionship On why people scorn certain forms of ostentatious demeanor and why individuals aren’t simply allowed to do as they please On what the soul seeks in this world and on the nature of human beings
4 6
On the nature and attributes of God
10
On why people experience fear in the absence of an apparent cause
10
On why people fly into a rage when they can’t open a lock
12
On why people with small heads have light brains
14
On certain beliefs concerning the relation between a person’s facial 16
hair and his character On why people racked by suffering find it easy to face death
18
On why people denigrate things they fail to attain and are hostile to things of which they are ignorant
20
On why it is easier to make enemies than friends
22
On why atheists act morally
24
On why some people willingly become the butt of other people’s jokes
26
On why people love to occupy positions of eminence
28
On why we honor people for the achievements of their ancestors but 32
not those of their progeny On why the progeny of illustrious people evince an elevated sense of entitlement and self-importance
32
On whether it would be more consistent with the true order of things if all people were honored equally
36 38
On different forms of divination On why some people dislike being addressed as “old man” while
42
others relish it On why people take comfort from knowing they are not alone in their
44
misfortune
vii
Table of Contents
On the virtues of different nations, such as the Arabs, Byzantines, 48
Persians, and Indians On why intelligent people are more susceptible to grief
50
On why intrinsic merit and worldly fortune do not coincide
54
On the meaning of coincidence
64
On the nature of compulsion and choice
66
On the reason for the wanderlust experienced by certain people
74
On why people desire knowledge, and on the benefits of knowledge
78
On why people and other animals respond so powerfully to certain kinds of sounds and musical effects
82
On why older people are more liable to hope; on the meaning of 86
“hope” and related terms On why women are more jealous than men; on the nature and moral
88
status of jealousy On why more people die young than die old
92
On why people seek likenesses
96
On why we find it easier to represent extreme ugliness in our imagination than exquisite beauty
98
On why sudden joy affects people so violently
102
On why we experience states of suffering more intensely than states of 104
well-being On why seeing someone laughing causes others to laugh
106
On why human beings are so attached to the world despite the misfortunes and suffering they experience in it
108
On why people say the world would fall to ruin if it weren’t for fools
110
On the anxiety experienced by people who have something to hide
116
On why we are more likely to heed a preacher who practices what he 116
preaches On why people regret their failure to honor and benefit from great
120
men during their lifetime On why Arabs and non-Arabs declare their pedigrees in times of war
120
On why people distinguish between different kinds of air, water, and earth, but not different kinds of fire
122
On why people feel happier when they unexpectedly obtain something they weren’t seeking than when they obtain what 126
they were seeking
viii
Table of Contents
On why fine edifices fall to ruin when left uninhabited
128
On why men of sublime character beget knaves
130
On why our longing for home grows more intense the nearer we come 130
to it On the meaning of the dictum that judgement sleeps while passion
134
keeps watch On a remark concerning logic made by the dialectical theologian Abū Hāshim to the philosopher Abū Bishr Mattā
136
On why some Arabic words are feminine and others masculine
138
On whether a human being could know everything
140
On why new incumbents are harsh toward the officials they replace
142
On why human beings are considered to be orphans after losing their 144
father rather than their mother
146
On why chess is so hard to master On why people dislike changing their name or patronymic, and why they have a sense of aversion toward certain names and titles
148
On the mannerisms of people whose mind is preoccupied, and on why people have so many different ways of behaving when they feel 150
anxious or unhappy On different ways of approaching God’s attributes
154
On why we find it easier to remember what is correct than what is 158
defective On why prosodists tend to produce flat poetry
160
On the meaning of the dictum that the learned live longer than the 164
ignorant On why it is harder to speak eloquently than to write eloquently
166
On the significance of the fact that human beings are the only animals 168
to stand upright On why certainty is less enduring than doubt
170
On why we laugh harder when a person keeps a straight face
172
On the meaning of the scholars’ proposition that a rare instance 172
attracts no ruling On the possibility of certain kinds of coincidences obtaining
176
On the role of analogical reasoning in the linguistic sciences
178
On whether God created the world for a cause
180
ix
Table of Contents
On why a life of comfort makes people feel oppressed and leads them 182
to behave wantonly On why some things are best when they’re new and others are best
184
when old On why people who display great piety are prone to arrogance
186
On why a warm manner is more pleasing than a cold benefaction
188
On why those closest to a king are less inclined to prattle about his person than those at the farthest remove from him
192
On Ibn Sālim al-Baṣrī’s claim that God perceived the world while it 194
was nonexistent On why the poets love to dwell on the apparitions that come to them
196
in their sleep On why people are reluctant to advertise their merits
198
On the relative merits of verse as against prose
200
On why people feel oppressed when things are prohibited to them
203
On why preachers are affected by stage fright when addressing large 204
audiences On the anxiety that affects onlookers when they see preachers affected
206
by stage fright On why we hate hearing the same thing twice
208
On whether the religious Law can conflict with human reason
210
On a remark made by Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb concerning the possibility of uttering something that is completely false versus 218
something completely true On why excellent souls find repose in the truth and find falsehood
220
repugnant On a question put by Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb concerning why animals are generated inside plants but plants are not generated
222
inside animals On the nature of alchemy and why people are so enamoured of it
224
On a question put by Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb concerning the difference between the words “indeterminable” and 230
“impenetrable”
230
On the disagreements between jurists On why people despise kings who are governed by pleasure and fear
238
kings governed by reason
x
Table of Contents
On the physical reactions people exhibit when listening to music
240
On why liars often tell the truth but not the reverse, and on whether 244
habits can change On certain popular sayings
246
On the distinction between different forms of divination
248
On why there are four categories for inquiry: whether, what, which, 250
and why On the nonexistent
254
On why a physician rejoices at the recovery of his patient
256
On why money is made of silver and gold and not other substances
258
On the specific time when the soul attaches itself to the body
264
On whether souls can recollect what they used to know after leaving 268
the body On why mountains exist
270
On why there are three souls
274
On why the sea is located on a particular side of the earth
276
On why seawater is salty
278
On how we can see things in our sleep without an organ of sense 278
perception On a puzzle concerning the possibility of seeking something we do
280
not know On why it does not snow in the summer
282
On the proof for the existence of angels
284
On what justifies the suffering of children and non-rational animals
286
On why it takes us longer to hear thunder than to see lightning
288
On the possibility that a person may abandon every belief he adopts 290
ad infinitum Notes
295
Glossary
299
Bibliography
304
Further Reading
308
Index
309
About the NYU Abu Dhabi Institute
318
About the Typefaces
319
Titles Published by the Library of Arabic Literature
320
About the Editor–Translators
324
xi
Tāhart
EGY PT
Alexandria Cairo
Damietta
Kufa
d Re Taif
Mecca
Sanaa
Isfahan
0
Se a
ar y
a Balkh
SIND
Kabul
Multan
Buyid territory
Dynasty/people
IRAQ
Region Design: Shawkat M. Toorawa and James E. Montgomery Cartography: Jennifer Schöneweiß, Martin Grosch
TURKS
Buyid and Neighboring Lands
Arabian Sea
MAKRAN
SAFFARIDS
SISTAN
KHURASAN
OM A N
Tus Nishapur
100 200 300 400 miles
FARS
Shiraz
KHUZISTAN
AL-JIBAL
ARABIA
Basra
GORGAN
uD
Bukhara
Samarkand
FARGHANAH
FARIGHUNIDS
Marw
Am
KHWARAZM
Aral Sea
TABARISTAN
Rayy Hamadhan
Qazvin
DAYLAM
Baghdad
IRAQ
Mosul
Medina
es at
AL-URDUNN
Jerusalem
Damascus
Euph r
Tig ri
Tabriz
AZERBAIJAN
s
ite r ran ean Sea
Constantinople
ck Sea
OGHUZ TURKS
Sea
Med
BYZANTINES
Bla
as n
Nil e
C
a pi
� � ش � ا �ل�ه� او ���م�ل � او ل�� �� او ���م�ل ا��م �ّ � � ش ا � ن �ن ���مل�د ا �ل��� ل�ي
The Philosopher Responds Volume Two
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ّش � ّ ن �ن ّ أ ��ص�� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن �م ن �ي �ل ن��ه ل��ن ن��� ه � ش��سّ ه � ك�� ا �ي ��ن� ���ا ر �ي ��و�ر ا �ل ش��س �ر ل��� ا �ل ��ي�ر ا ��س ���� �يل� ي ن أ � � ير ي� ي ر و ر و ر ر ي ي ع ّ �م ّ ا أ ش ��نل ّ ن � ن ي � ن � ي �م� �ي ��و�ر ا ��ي�ر ل��ي� ا �ل ش��سّر�ر �و�م�ا ��ا �أ��ده ا �لن ��ن���� ل��ي� ا�ام�ي��ا ر�ن�ه؟ ي
١،٦٦
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ � ي ش ّ � أ نّ ��ّ �� ��ه � ّٰ ن ا � � ي ن ن ي ن � � يي �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � �م��س��وي ر ح�م�ه ا لله ي�ل�� �ل ا � �ل�ري�� �م� � ير�ل��ه ا �ل� �ك��داء � او �ل�����نس�ه �و �كم� ا � ���ل ن و � � � ّ ي ن � ّ أ ن أ ّش أ ا ن � �آ ي � �أ ن ن ���ن �� � ��ا �� ا ��لن ���ن ا ش � ن �ممي� ا ن � � � � ا � ه � � � � ل ��يسعي��ه �ل� �ن��د ا � �ي ��و�ر ا � �� �وري�� �م� ا �ل����يس� ء ل ن ن ��د �م� �ي� ا �ل��ر � أد لمك ل أ ��� ن أ نّ ا �� �� هي � ي ش ّ هي ا � ن ن � �أنّ ا ش هي ن � ّ � �م ن �ش ا ن ا ��ل ش�� ء ا � � �ي ن ن � ��� �نل ���م�ل ا �ل ������ �و � �س� � ��ي� �ل� ��و� ������� �ن� �ل ������ �ل��ل��� ��سن��ي� �و� ا ك ا � ل�ن ��يس��� م�� ن أ ي ّ � ن ي �� � � ن � � �ن ��ل ّ � ل�ن ا ��ل��� ي أ ن ح�م ا � ن��� �ن �� ن ن ش �������ه �ن��د ا ��ه �كم ن��د � �لمك ل�ي� ا ��ا ر � او �لن��ا ر� ��يس���ه ا � ي�ي �ل �ل�� �ي� ن ع� أا ل�� � �ل���س�ه �وي� ن � �أ يأ � � ش ي � �أ ن �ن � ن � ن � ش � او ��ر ����� � او �لي��ا ��� �و �ل� ن�م� ��ا ��ي�ر ا�نم ��د��� ا �ل��س ار ��� ل�� ا �لن��د � �و���سن��ن��ه ��ا �ور ل��ي� ن�م�ا �وره � ل ن ن � ي ن ا �ش ّ � ا � ً ��ل ا � �أ ي ا� ّا��ا ن ي � ن ن ا �� ي ن ن ا � ي � ّ ن � �م�ّ�لن�ً�ا ���ا �عم� � او ��نل � ��ي�ر ي� � �ع�ون � �ن� �ل�� � �وي�ه� .و�م� ك�� ��� ا �ل ������ ��ي� ي�س� �عي ��و�ل��لي��ه ��� 1ر ا �ل��سر �ل��� �� ن ج أ ّ ً ّ ن ي ش � ن � ن � ي ن ن حي �� ي �ن ّ ني � �ي���م�ل�م�ا ن��ا �م�� ن ا ا ش ش ��ل��نس�ا �� ي ا �نل � و ن ح�� �م��� ��سر ا �لن����سر ا � �ل��� ن� �ن� ��ي�ر �� ���عي��ده �ولع���ي��ه ��م �لي����� �ي�� ي ي حيّ ناأ � ن ن ي ّ ن�ّ ن ا نًا � ً� ��ل ا � ي ا � ي � � ي ن� ي ا ن � ط �و�ل� ا�� �ل�ه � ��� ح��مل� �ل�� �م��ه ح ��رر ر�م� �� �� ��يسم�ل � ��ور��ه ��� �� � �ل��ه �و�ل�� �عو�ه � � م ع � � � � � ل و � � ي ً ي أ أن ن ن � �� ���هي �و��من� � ���س�ا �لي����ي�ر �مم�ل�� حيّ��هي ن�����د ا ن� ك� ا � �ل� ���ا ن�� ي� ��ا �ل�. ي ن اأ ّ ا � ش ّ ن ن ن � ن ن�ك��ه اأ ن ن ن �م�ّ ا ��لن��ن��� ���� �م��ا ���س�ا � ي ��سم� ح��ا ن� أا ��ل�� �ي���� ��ه �و� � ه � � � ح م �� �م� ا �ل��سر �م�ل ل � � � ل ل � � ل ي �ر و� � ن ي ي ن ن ل ي� �ي� ج أ � ش ّ � � نّ ي ي ّ ن ن ���ا �عم �����س�عي ا ن ا نّ ا ي ن ني � �م�ل�ّو �م ن ا ��نل �م�ل�و �م ن ا ��نل ��ي�ر � او ��نل ��ي�ر �ه�و ا �ل��سر �ل���ه ��د �لن��ي�� ل��ي� � �و��ر�ل� �ل�� ن ي � � ��� �أ� �ل��� � � ��نل � � ن � � �ي � ش ّ ش � ن ي ا أ� ي ا ا� ا � ش �� ن � ن ّ ي أ نّ � �من�� ح� ا �ل�مل��م�عي��ه ا ��ه �لي����� ا �ل��سر ن�����ي�ء �ل�ه �ع��ي� �� �م�ه ن�لم�ل �ه�و �ع�د �م ا��ي�ر �و�ل�د �لمك كي�م�ل أ أ � � � � � نا � ش ّ � ّ � � �� ��ل� �م���د ن� ا ��ل ش��س ّ � ��ن�� �� �ع�ه �ل���م� ن�م�ل�ّ ���ا �م ن ن� ح�مي�� ���ل ��ط ا �ل� ي �و� ر وي ن و ع ا �ل� ��ور �� �ل��سر ا �ل��و�ل ا �لن�� ي نل و � ّ �� ه ا � �أ ا � ا �� ي �ه �ي �ي �ن هي ا �� � ش ّ ي ّ�� ��و�ل��. �ه�و �ع�د �م �� �ي��ر�� ن� �و��سن�� ن� ي�رك�ن�� �ل��ع�د م ��ي� �ي� �م�� ر� �ن� ل� ي � م ّ أ ا� اأ � ي ن أ نّ ّ � ش � ن �� ���ل��� ���ط� �لم� أا ��ل�� ا ن� ا ��ل�� ند �� ي� ح��م�ل �لم�ك �م ن� ن�� �وا ن� ا�م��س� �ل�ه �كي��ه ا � ي �و��سرج ���د ا ا � � م ويل ا ��لن �ن� �ي���ي ش ّ�ه ��ا ��لن �ن� ا�ا�م�ي�ا �ن�هي �� �ا � �ي�ليعي��د � � �ا � ا ��ل ش��س ّ اأ ��س ا ��ل �ا �م ن ا ��ن ��� �ا�م�ا ن� ��� ل �ر�ن�ا ه �� � ي ر � ��� ���نس ن � ��� � ر ل�� و ي� نل�� و ر رع أ ي� أ 1الا�ص�ل :لا�هوة�ةّ���ة.
2
2
٢،٦٦
٣،٦٦
٤،٦٦
On the influence of companions on a person’s character and on the benefits of companionship How is a person affected in his good and evil qualities by his companion?
66.1
Why is it that an evil person is swifter to exert influence on a good person than a good person on an evil one? What benefit does the soul derive from companionship? Miskawayh’s response What we gain from a companion is the possibility of following his example
66.2
and imitating him. Two natural objects that are physically contiguous must inevitably influence one another. The same applies to the soul, for nature imitates the soul, being like a shadow to it. In nature, stronger elements tend to transmute weaker elements into themselves and assimilate them to their being, as we notice with things that are hot and cold and those that are moist and dry. Illnesses arise in the body on account of the influence exercised by one contiguous object on another, and it is through this means that they are treated by medications. The soul in us is material, so evil comes naturally to it, whereas good comes to it through effort and learning. We human beings thus need to toil at the good in order to acquire it and bring it into our possession. It is not enough for us to realize its form, but we must grow familiar with and habituated to it, and spend a long time reproducing the condition it has generated in us, before it can pass from being a transient condition to being a stable state and an ingrained trait. By contrast, we do not need to toil at evil to acquire it. All we need to do is
66.3
let our soul follow its bent and leave it to its nature; for it is lacking in good, and lack of good constitutes evil. As has been established by philosophical inquiries, evil is not something that has a subsisting essence, but rather consists in the privation of good. That is why it has been said that matter is the origin and wellspring of evil insofar as it lacks all forms. Simple primary evil consists in privation and then enters into compounds. What causes it to enter into compounds are the privations associated with matter. A full exposition of these points would take too long, but what you can retain for the purpose of answering your question is that the soul imitates and follows the example of the soul it keeps company with, and that evil comes to
3
3
66.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ أّ � ن � ي � �ن ّي أ � ن ن �ن ن ا ي ن ن ا � ن �ي � نّ ا ي ا � ي � � �و�ه�و ا � ا �ل ������ � ��ي� �ي�س� �هي� �عي ��و�ل��لي��ه � او ع��ي� �نل���د ا ا � �ل �عو�ل ا �ل��� �� ن�لمل�ه �لمل� ��ور �م� ا ���ع��م�ل ي �� � ن ن � � ن � ي � أن � ن � ي � � نّ ي ��ا �ام�ع� �عو�ل� ي� أا ��م�ا �ل���ي�ر �م�ع� �عو�ل� ي� �ل ن��ا أا � ا �ش�ن��ي� ي� ���ور���ا ل��ي� ا �لن��ن���� �و�ل��د �لم�ك ��ا �ل ا ��ل�� ��� ن� 1 أ أ �أ ن � ّ � � م��ا ن� ��لم�ل���ور � او ���مي�� ح��س ن ا ر��م ���ط�و �����ا ��ل�� ��� ٢د ا ا �ل��ي ش��سن��ي��ه �م ن� ا �ن�ل�� ���� ن � ٣ل���نّ�ه أا ن� ا �لن ��ن��� � � أ� � � � أ ن ن يّ ن � �أ ن ن � � ي ا ي� ن ي ي � أا ��ل�� ا�ام�سن�� ا ��ل�� ند �� ا را �ه ي�من�� ا ��س��� ره ح ���س�ه �أاو ي��م�ا ء ���ي�م� ح ن� �عم�ل�� ���د ا ا �ل���م�ل ا � �ل ��ول��� � ي ج أ � ��ه� � �م�ي��ا ن�لي�ه� � �ن �ليع�م� �ي�� ��ل ا ��ل ش ��ا ��ل��س�هي ا ��ل�� ش��س ا � � نم ا � ي �نم ��س�ا �عر [طوة�ل] رر و �� �ل�� � م و ر � م و ن ل و ِ�ع ن اٱ�اْ�ِْء �ِ � ِ� �سرِ �ل�
يِ ْ أِ �ْ ���س�ا �ل
ِ ِ أ ْ يِ ِ ُ نِ نِّ ٱ �ْيِ ِ ٱ ْ� ُ َ ِ ن ُ يْ ِ � ل �سْر ��قِر�ل ن��ه �فِأ�ا � ا � �ل��قِري� ن� �نِ�ا �ا���مي���ا ر ِ� � �معي� ِ�د � � او ن ِ ي
ن ن أ ن ناأ ن �ن � �أ � ش ا �� ا ن أ ش ّ � �أ ن �ن ن� ي ّ �ن � �وي���ن���ه� ا � �� ��د ا �ل�� ��دا � �و ل��ن��ي�� � �ن�ه ا ��س�د ا �ل���د ����د �سر ل�ي� �ي ن ّ� ن ���د ا ا�ام�سن��� �و�ي��أو���د ه � �وي���نّ��ه �عم�لي��ه.
أ ح�يّعي �م��س�ا ��ل�هي �م�ا ي� � �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي أ ��ّ� �ع ا �مي ه � � ش ا ن ي ي � نًا ّ ن �ن ���ه ���م� حي��ن� �م ن ا �����ا ��ل ن� �يلم�ل�ه �و��م� ����ا �و ن� ح��ه �و ن�� ر �م� �� و �ن ح��س� �ري�ل��ه �� ����� �و�عر��� � ّ �� ي ش ا يًا ا� شُ ن ّ ن �ن � ّ ح�س�ه �ي��� �ل ن ��ً�ا �و�م ش���� �مي���� ن����سً�ا �وي� � �ل�� �م����س� � �� �و� � ��س� ���د ا � �ون نل ����ي�ره �و�م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� ���سم � � � ن ن�ي ن ر أ جن أ م ي م ع ن أ � ا� ا� ُي ��ّ ن ن ن حي�س�ا ه � �ش��ه� �ي�ه � ا �لش��ا ه؟ � ��م ا ��� ي ���د ا � او �مش��ا �ل�ه؟ �و�م �م �ي��رك ���ل أا ���س�ا � �عم�ل�� را �ي�ه � او � ي ر و � و أو ر و �ل ن � ��� �ّ �ي � ي ن � �أ � � أ هي ن ن � ن ن � ّ ن ن �ن � ���ل��ء ا�امن��ّرر�و� �عم�ل�� ���را ���ه ���د ه ا �ل�� ��ور أا �ل� �ل��س ّر ن��ا �� �وحن�ي���� ا ���ع�ي��ل��ء ا�ام�م�ي�ر�و� � او � �ل� ن� �ن ي � �هي؟ ل��نم�ا ن� ��لم�ك ا ��ل��س ّ �و�م�ا �يلم�ل�ك ا ��ل حن�ي��أ��ه؟ ���ون��و ر
١،٦٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � ي ��ّ �ي� ّ ن ن أ نّ � ن �ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله �لن � ّ � �م ّ�م�ا ن� ��� �ر�ه ك�م�ل�ه ا �ل� � � � ه � � � �ا � ا م��س� � م � ع � � � � � �م� �ل� �و� ا ك ا � �م ن� ��ا �ل�� �عم� � ا ي� � � ل وي ر ي ر � ل ن و �ي� ي �مي� شّ ن نّ ن ح�سيمم ���أ � �ن�ه �م�ا ي ن� م�د ا �ع�ه� � �ي ن�ل� ّ� �م ن ����ن�ه� ��م�ا �ل��ا �لن ش ّ � �نا ح���سم�ه �ه�م ��م ا �ل وو ا �ل�� ��� ل��ي� ر�يل�ه�م �و� ن � م و ر � ن ي � م ن ي ن ي � أ أ أ أن أن ن ن 1ط :ا ��لا طو� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا ر��س��طوط�ا �ل��ة��س؛ ط :ا ر��س���ط�ط�ا �ل��ة��س ٣ .ط :ا ��لا طو�.
4
4
٢،٦٧
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ أّ � ن � ي � �ن ّي أ � ن ن �ن ن ا ي ن ن ا � ن �ي � نّ ا ي ا � ي � � �و�ه�و ا � ا �ل ������ � ��ي� �ي�س� �هي� �عي ��و�ل��لي��ه � او ع��ي� �نل���د ا ا � �ل �عو�ل ا �ل��� �� ن�لمل�ه �لمل� ��ور �م� ا ���ع��م�ل ي �� � ن ن � � ن � ي � أن � ن � ي � � نّ ي ��ا �ام�ع� �عو�ل� ي� أا ��م�ا �ل���ي�ر �م�ع� �عو�ل� ي� �ل ن��ا أا � ا �ش�ن��ي� ي� ���ور���ا ل��ي� ا �لن��ن���� �و�ل��د �لم�ك ��ا �ل ا ��ل�� ��� ن� 1 أ أ �أ ن � ّ � � م��ا ن� ��لم�ل���ور � او ���مي�� ح��س ن ا ر��م ���ط�و �����ا ��ل�� ��� ٢د ا ا �ل��ي ش��سن��ي��ه �م ن� ا �ن�ل�� ���� ن � ٣ل���نّ�ه أا ن� ا �لن ��ن��� � � أ� � � � أ ن ن يّ ن � �أ ن ن � � ي ا ي� ن ي ي � أا ��ل�� ا�ام�سن�� ا ��ل�� ند �� ا را �ه ي�من�� ا ��س��� ره ح ���س�ه �أاو ي��م�ا ء ���ي�م� ح ن� �عم�ل�� ���د ا ا �ل���م�ل ا � �ل ��ول��� � ي ج أ � ��ه� � �م�ي��ا ن�لي�ه� � �ن �ليع�م� �ي�� ��ل ا ��ل ش ��ا ��ل��س�هي ا ��ل�� ش��س ا � � نم ا � ي �نم ��س�ا �عر [طوة�ل] رر و �� �ل�� � م و ر � م و ن ل و ِ�ع ن اٱ�اْ�ِْء �ِ � ِ� �سرِ �ل�
يِ ْ أِ �ْ ���س�ا �ل
ِ ِ أ ْ يِ ِ ُ نِ نِّ ٱ �ْيِ ِ ٱ ْ� ُ َ ِ ن ُ يْ ِ � ل �سْر ��قِر�ل ن��ه �فِأ�ا � ا � �ل��قِري� ن� �نِ�ا �ا���مي���ا ر ِ� � �معي� ِ�د � � او ن ِ ي
ن ن أ ن ناأ ن �ن � �أ � ش ا �� ا ن أ ش ّ � �أ ن �ن ن� ي ّ �ن � �وي���ن���ه� ا � �� ��د ا �ل�� ��دا � �و ل��ن��ي�� � �ن�ه ا ��س�د ا �ل���د ����د �سر ل�ي� �ي ن ّ� ن ���د ا ا�ام�سن��� �و�ي��أو���د ه � �وي���نّ��ه �عم�لي��ه.
أ ح�يّعي �م��س�ا ��ل�هي �م�ا ي� � �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي أ ��ّ� �ع ا �مي ه � � ش ا ن ي ي � نًا ّ ن �ن ���ه ���م� حي��ن� �م ن ا �����ا ��ل ن� �يلم�ل�ه �و��م� ����ا �و ن� ح��ه �و ن�� ر �م� �� و �ن ح��س� �ري�ل��ه �� ����� �و�عر��� � ّ �� ي ش ا يًا ا� شُ ن ّ ن �ن � ّ ح�س�ه �ي��� �ل ن ��ً�ا �و�م ش���� �مي���� ن����سً�ا �وي� � �ل�� �م����س� � �� �و� � ��س� ���د ا � �ون نل ����ي�ره �و�م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� ���سم � � � ن ن�ي ن ر أ جن أ م ي م ع ن أ � ا� ا� ُي ��ّ ن ن ن حي�س�ا ه � �ش��ه� �ي�ه � ا �لش��ا ه؟ � ��م ا ��� ي ���د ا � او �مش��ا �ل�ه؟ �و�م �م �ي��رك ���ل أا ���س�ا � �عم�ل�� را �ي�ه � او � ي ر و � و أو ر و �ل ن � ��� �ّ �ي � ي ن � �أ � � أ هي ن ن � ن ن � ّ ن ن �ن � ���ل��ء ا�امن��ّرر�و� �عم�ل�� ���را ���ه ���د ه ا �ل�� ��ور أا �ل� �ل��س ّر ن��ا �� �وحن�ي���� ا ���ع�ي��ل��ء ا�ام�م�ي�ر�و� � او � �ل� ن� �ن ي � �هي؟ ل��نم�ا ن� ��لم�ك ا ��ل��س ّ �و�م�ا �يلم�ل�ك ا ��ل حن�ي��أ��ه؟ ���ون��و ر
١،٦٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � ي ��ّ �ي� ّ ن ن أ نّ � ن �ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله �لن � ّ � �م ّ�م�ا ن� ��� �ر�ه ك�م�ل�ه ا �ل� � � � ه � � � �ا � ا م��س� � م � ع � � � � � �م� �ل� �و� ا ك ا � �م ن� ��ا �ل�� �عم� � ا ي� � � ل وي ر ي ر � ل ن و �ي� ي �مي� شّ ن نّ ن ح�سيمم ���أ � �ن�ه �م�ا ي ن� م�د ا �ع�ه� � �ي ن�ل� ّ� �م ن ����ن�ه� ��م�ا �ل��ا �لن ش ّ � �نا ح���سم�ه �ه�م ��م ا �ل وو ا �ل�� ��� ل��ي� ر�يل�ه�م �و� ن � م و ر � ن ي � م ن ي ن ي � أ أ أ أن أن ن ن 1ط :ا ��لا طو� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا ر��س��طوط�ا �ل��ة��س؛ ط :ا ر��س���ط�ط�ا �ل��ة��س ٣ .ط :ا ��لا طو�.
4
4
٢،٦٧
On why people scorn certain forms of ostentatious demeanor
it more swiftly than good for the reasons we have mentioned—namely, that the soul that is in us is material. By this I mean that it receives forms from the intellect. Intelligibles become intelligibles for us once their forms are fixed within the soul. That is why Plato said that the soul is a place of forms. Aristotle admired this comparison of Plato’s because it is a fine figure of speech and an eloquent way of indicating the idea he had in mind.1 Therefore, on the basis of this principle, we ought to avoid associating with evil people, mingling with them, and cultivating their company, and we should listen to the words of the poet who said: 2 Ask not about a man, but consider his companion: we follow the example of those whose company we keep. We must also warn young people and children against that as forcefully as possible; as was established, confirmed, and highlighted in the discussion of an earlier question.
On why people scorn certain forms of ostentatious demeanor and why individuals aren’t simply allowed to do as they please Why do people scorn those who keep the lower end of their garment long
67.1
and drag it behind them; who wear their turbans very large, puff up their collars with cotton, and have their shirt openings very wide, swaggering about and belaboring their speech? What makes these people and their ilk repulsive? What renders them and their cognates unseemly? Why isn’t everyone left to his opinion and choice, his desire and predilection? Surely there must be a secret reason that unites men of reason and discrimination, and men of excellence and distinction, in deeming these things repugnant? So, what is this secret and reason? Miskawayh’s response It is affectation that renders these things objectionable. The only reason someone diverges from how people customarily dress and act, setting himself apart from them by behaving differently, and being prepared to shoulder the cost of his actions, is that he has a purpose that conflicts with their purposes and an aim that is different from their aims. If his goal is to acquire fame and
5
5
67.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ي ن � � ن �ّ � �� ن ن� � نم � ن � �أ ن ي ن� ���د � �ون�ه ن�أ�ا ن� ك� ���ا ن� ن�عم�ي�لي��ه ���د ��ن���ي�ر �م�ا �ي�ل�� �ل�ه� �و��� ��ا �ل�� �ل��ع ار ن� �ملي����� � �لمك �م��ه أا �ل� ���ر�� م أ ن � �أ أ ً ن ن أن نن �����ه �م�لي����� ي�����د �و 1ا ن� �ي ��و��ه �نل���ا ا �سرا �م ن� ���د ه ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ا � ي� ش����هر � �ل���س�ه � �وي���نّ��ه �عم�ل�� ���و ن� م � ا �ً� � � ����مي� يّ ا � �أنّ � ��ا ن ����مي�� يّ ا �� ن �� ي � ن ه ُ� �ن ي ه� �ل�� � � ح�يعي ��ي��هي ��ل�ه � �ول ����م�ل ن� �� �ل� �ل� ي � � � ل �هر� م�� �وعر � �ل� � � � ك � � ح � ي � � � ح� � ��� �ل���ه � و ي � � ي� شّ � ن ا� أ ن � ن � ن � ي ن ا ن ن �ّ ن ���ا ن� � �ن���� ًل�� � �سن �ّ ��ا ����� ًل�� �م ن� ن�ع�ي�ر ي� � �م� �ل� �و�ل� نح�� � �م �ل���د ه ا�م�و� ا ����ملي� ����ه �أ� � � �ه�و ك� ن و رور ن ّ � ي ً� ن ن � ي ا �� � � ن � ُ�مي�� ّ ن ا ي ا � ن � � � � �� ن ّ ��سم�ل ًا ن� � م�د ��� ا�م ح�� ل ا �ل�د ي� ي حرر �و�م� ����� ��ط�� � �لمك أا �ل� لي���ر يس�م� � ٢وي��دع �م��س��ر��س�ل� �و���د ا � ن ُ ن ن ما � ن ي � � ���ي�م ا ش ��ا �� �لن��هي � ا�� ن ��م���ه �م ن ���د � ��هي ا�� ن ���د ا ا ��ل� �م�ا ي ن� م �م ن��ه � �و�ي��ن��ا �ع�د �ع��ه و أ� � ن يل� �� � �ل��ه ��سن�� ن� ا �ل� ي��� ��� ي أ أ � �عم�ّل�هي ا ��لن ن�� �ع � ا ��م� ا�ا�م���ا � ا هي � .ا نّ��م�ا � �� ا ��ل ن��ا �� � ا ��م� ا �� ن�ل� ن��م� � � �� ��له� ا ��ل���أن����� ءا أو و ر� ل و ر � � م ني �و ل ور و ل ن � ن ن � ش أ ��لي � � ا� ن� ي هي ا ا� ن ا هي ن ش � ا � ن � ���ع�وه �ل�ه� �م ا �ل��س�� � او �ل��س ا ��� �� �عمل �ه� ا �ل��س�ل�� ن��م� �و� ��س� ��د � ن��ي�� � �ه�م ا�م� او ���� �و�م�� � ن م � � ر م � ي� م ع أ � ي � � � ي � ّ�ا ي � ا ��م ا�ا� ّ ي ي ش ا �� ن ��ن ا� ���را ي� � �ول� ي � � ح��م�ل �ل�ه� � ��وره ح� � و �ل � مو� ا � �لي�����س� ر �� او ل��ي� ا لي ا � ��ي� �هي� ��سن�� ن� م ن م ��ّ �ن ن � هي � �أ � ه ي ّ � � � ي ن � ي � ن � أ ّ �ن ��يسمل� �و�ل� ن�مل� �� ا �ل� ن ا �لي��ا ���د ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و ��سن�� ن� ���ل �� ح�سم�ا ل��ي� ا�ام�دي�ل ن��ه ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و ��سن�� ن� م � ن ��ل ا � �ن � ش � � ��سي ي ا ا �� � ا ي ��نل � ي ا�ع� � هي �ن � ن ا � ح��س� ا ح�� ه � او��ي را � ا�م���مل� �ون� ل�ي� ا �ل�د �لي��. �� �ل ل�ي� ا ����ي����� � او �ل� س�م��ع �ن� ل ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن � ا ا� ن ا� ا ن � ا � �ي ا �ي ن ي �ن ن ن ُ� ي ���� ���مل�سم��� ا �ل ������ ل��ي� ���د ا ا ����� �م �و��م�ل �ل��� ممل�سم��� � نو���عي��ه؟ �أاو � �و�س�م� �نل���د ه ا�م��� �ل�ي� أ � � ن � ّ ي � � ي ن� � � ي � ي � �أ نّ ن ح ي� �م ن ا ن� ي حن ��ا ن��هي � �و��د ء ا ��ن�ه ���د ا �ع ن�� او ن� ا ��ل � ن�ر ن� � ه ه � � ا � � � ل � � ا ه م ع �د � � ل د � � � � � � � ح ل � � � ل � � ر ر ر ن و ي ي � ر أن أ أ � ���� ��ل�� ا ن� ����يّ��م� ا ��لن� �����ا �ي� ��ل��س�ا ��ل ي� �م�ا �ن��س��ي���ا ا ��ل� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� � ��م� ��ل��ا ��ه �ي�� ا � ا � ��ل�ه �ل��ا و ل � ن وم و ن� ي وو ن � أ� أ أ ع ن ن أ ّ � ن ن ا ا �� ن� ن ا � ش ا � � ن ا ن ن ن ي � � ا � ��� ء � ��� او �م؟ �أاو � ك�� � ���د ا ����م�ل�� ا ي� �و ن��ه �ه�و؟ � او �و��م� م� ���د ل�� ��د��ي� �لأ����س� � ع أ ّ ش �ا ا ي � � ا ن� ن ا ل�ن ا ا� اأ � هي � ن � ن�أ�ا ن� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ي��د ا �ش�س � ح�� ح� �ي� ي� � ���ل �عم�لي��ه ا �لأ�����س�ا ن� ��ّ � �� �ي� � �لي����� �ل��� ع�� ء �ي� �م��س� �ل� أ م ن� نش ي ���سن��م� ��ا ن��ل �وا ن�. �� �مل�� ل ن أ �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ن و �ي� ا �� � ن ن �� ل ا �ل ������
١،٦٨
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
� ح ه ا ّٰ ه �� � � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� لل ��و�ل� آ ن ن ن� �ه�ور ا �ش�ا ر���ا ل��ي� ���د ا �و �� �
� � ن اأ نّ �� ن�ل ن � �����هي ا ��ل�� ���سيم�ا �� �ي�� �ّ�ه ن�ع�� ا�ا�م�سن�� ا �ل�م� حم� � ر � ل��ي� ي � و � ي نّ مي ن � � أ �ج أ � � � ي � ي � اا ��� �ك���ا �لم�ك �كم� ا ���طم� �ل���ا ي ���ا �ور� ح� � ي� ا ����� �م �ل� ���م�ل�ع �
1الاأ�ص� �� :ع�د ا ٢ .الاأ�ص� � :ة��س��ل�ا؛ �ص ا ��� ��� ن ا ���ه�ا � ش ���س. ل ة و ل ةم و و ن س �
6
6
٢،٦٨
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ي ن � � ن �ّ � �� ن ن� � نم � ن � �أ ن ي ن� ���د � �ون�ه ن�أ�ا ن� ك� ���ا ن� ن�عم�ي�لي��ه ���د ��ن���ي�ر �م�ا �ي�ل�� �ل�ه� �و��� ��ا �ل�� �ل��ع ار ن� �ملي����� � �لمك �م��ه أا �ل� ���ر�� م أ ن � �أ أ ً ن ن أن نن �����ه �م�لي����� ي�����د �و 1ا ن� �ي ��و��ه �نل���ا ا �سرا �م ن� ���د ه ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ا � ي� ش����هر � �ل���س�ه � �وي���نّ��ه �عم�ل�� ���و ن� م � ا �ً� � � ����مي� يّ ا � �أنّ � ��ا ن ����مي�� يّ ا �� ن �� ي � ن ه ُ� �ن ي ه� �ل�� � � ح�يعي ��ي��هي ��ل�ه � �ول ����م�ل ن� �� �ل� �ل� ي � � � ل �هر� م�� �وعر � �ل� � � � ك � � ح � ي � � � ح� � ��� �ل���ه � و ي � � ي� شّ � ن ا� أ ن � ن � ن � ي ن ا ن ن �ّ ن ���ا ن� � �ن���� ًل�� � �سن �ّ ��ا ����� ًل�� �م ن� ن�ع�ي�ر ي� � �م� �ل� �و�ل� نح�� � �م �ل���د ه ا�م�و� ا ����ملي� ����ه �أ� � � �ه�و ك� ن و رور ن ّ � ي ً� ن ن � ي ا �� � � ن � ُ�مي�� ّ ن ا ي ا � ن � � � � �� ن ّ ��سم�ل ًا ن� � م�د ��� ا�م ح�� ل ا �ل�د ي� ي حرر �و�م� ����� ��ط�� � �لمك أا �ل� لي���ر يس�م� � ٢وي��دع �م��س��ر��س�ل� �و���د ا � ن ُ ن ن ما � ن ي � � ���ي�م ا ش ��ا �� �لن��هي � ا�� ن ��م���ه �م ن ���د � ��هي ا�� ن ���د ا ا ��ل� �م�ا ي ن� م �م ن��ه � �و�ي��ن��ا �ع�د �ع��ه و أ� � ن يل� �� � �ل��ه ��سن�� ن� ا �ل� ي��� ��� ي أ أ � �عم�ّل�هي ا ��لن ن�� �ع � ا ��م� ا�ا�م���ا � ا هي � .ا نّ��م�ا � �� ا ��ل ن��ا �� � ا ��م� ا �� ن�ل� ن��م� � � �� ��له� ا ��ل���أن����� ءا أو و ر� ل و ر � � م ني �و ل ور و ل ن � ن ن � ش أ ��لي � � ا� ن� ي هي ا ا� ن ا هي ن ش � ا � ن � ���ع�وه �ل�ه� �م ا �ل��س�� � او �ل��س ا ��� �� �عمل �ه� ا �ل��س�ل�� ن��م� �و� ��س� ��د � ن��ي�� � �ه�م ا�م� او ���� �و�م�� � ن م � � ر م � ي� م ع أ � ي � � � ي � ّ�ا ي � ا ��م ا�ا� ّ ي ي ش ا �� ن ��ن ا� ���را ي� � �ول� ي � � ح��م�ل �ل�ه� � ��وره ح� � و �ل � مو� ا � �لي�����س� ر �� او ل��ي� ا لي ا � ��ي� �هي� ��سن�� ن� م ن م ��ّ �ن ن � هي � �أ � ه ي ّ � � � ي ن � ي � ن � أ ّ �ن ��يسمل� �و�ل� ن�مل� �� ا �ل� ن ا �لي��ا ���د ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و ��سن�� ن� ���ل �� ح�سم�ا ل��ي� ا�ام�دي�ل ن��ه ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و ��سن�� ن� م � ن ��ل ا � �ن � ش � � ��سي ي ا ا �� � ا ي ��نل � ي ا�ع� � هي �ن � ن ا � ح��س� ا ح�� ه � او��ي را � ا�م���مل� �ون� ل�ي� ا �ل�د �لي��. �� �ل ل�ي� ا ����ي����� � او �ل� س�م��ع �ن� ل ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن � ا ا� ن ا� ا ن � ا � �ي ا �ي ن ي �ن ن ن ُ� ي ���� ���مل�سم��� ا �ل ������ ل��ي� ���د ا ا ����� �م �و��م�ل �ل��� ممل�سم��� � نو���عي��ه؟ �أاو � �و�س�م� �نل���د ه ا�م��� �ل�ي� أ � � ن � ّ ي � � ي ن� � � ي � ي � �أ نّ ن ح ي� �م ن ا ن� ي حن ��ا ن��هي � �و��د ء ا ��ن�ه ���د ا �ع ن�� او ن� ا ��ل � ن�ر ن� � ه ه � � ا � � � ل � � ا ه م ع �د � � ل د � � � � � � � ح ل � � � ل � � ر ر ر ن و ي ي � ر أن أ أ � ���� ��ل�� ا ن� ����يّ��م� ا ��لن� �����ا �ي� ��ل��س�ا ��ل ي� �م�ا �ن��س��ي���ا ا ��ل� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� � ��م� ��ل��ا ��ه �ي�� ا � ا � ��ل�ه �ل��ا و ل � ن وم و ن� ي وو ن � أ� أ أ ع ن ن أ ّ � ن ن ا ا �� ن� ن ا � ش ا � � ن ا ن ن ن ي � � ا � ��� ء � ��� او �م؟ �أاو � ك�� � ���د ا ����م�ل�� ا ي� �و ن��ه �ه�و؟ � او �و��م� م� ���د ل�� ��د��ي� �لأ����س� � ع أ ّ ش �ا ا ي � � ا ن� ن ا ل�ن ا ا� اأ � هي � ن � ن�أ�ا ن� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ي��د ا �ش�س � ح�� ح� �ي� ي� � ���ل �عم�لي��ه ا �لأ�����س�ا ن� ��ّ � �� �ي� � �لي����� �ل��� ع�� ء �ي� �م��س� �ل� أ م ن� نش ي ���سن��م� ��ا ن��ل �وا ن�. �� �مل�� ل ن أ �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ن و �ي� ا �� � ن ن �� ل ا �ل ������
١،٦٨
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
� ح ه ا ّٰ ه �� � � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� لل ��و�ل� آ ن ن ن� �ه�ور ا �ش�ا ر���ا ل��ي� ���د ا �و �� �
� � ن اأ نّ �� ن�ل ن � �����هي ا ��ل�� ���سيم�ا �� �ي�� �ّ�ه ن�ع�� ا�ا�م�سن�� ا �ل�م� حم� � ر � ل��ي� ي � و � ي نّ مي ن � � أ �ج أ � � � ي � ي � اا ��� �ك���ا �لم�ك �كم� ا ���طم� �ل���ا ي ���ا �ور� ح� � ي� ا ����� �م �ل� ���م�ل�ع �
1الاأ�ص� �� :ع�د ا ٢ .الاأ�ص� � :ة��س��ل�ا؛ �ص ا ��� ��� ن ا ���ه�ا � ش ���س. ل ة و ل ةم و و ن س �
6
6
٢،٦٨
On what the soul seeks in this world and on the nature of human beings
call attention to himself, the only possibility is that he is seeking to create an impression ungrounded in reality and to demand a status he does not merit. For had he merited it, it would have been clear and manifest, and would have been acknowledged without any need for affectation or incurring such steep costs. He is thus in fact a lying counterfeiter, and his only reason for engaging in this is to deceive the good-natured and cozen the unwary—the characteristic behavior of impostors, whom we should guard against and keep our distance from. Additionally, our instinctive response to divergence is involved: Divergence causes alienation, excites repulsion, and generates animosity. What people and men of merit seek, and what prophets also seek through the norms and laws they have imposed on them, is to establish the concord and harmony that generate relations of love and affection, so that all may share in the good and acquire the unified form that is the cause of every virtue, for the sake of which people come together in polities, as it enables them to live well, enjoy life, and attain the goods desired in the mundane world.
On what the soul seeks in this world and on the nature of human beings What does the soul seek in this world? Does it have something it seeks and
68.1
desires? If these elements attach to it, it can no longer be thought to occupy a lofty rank and possess a momentous standing, for this is the hallmark of need and the first ingredient of powerlessness. But for the fact that it would widen the scope to excess, I would have asked: What is the soul’s relation to human beings? Does it subsist through them, or do they subsist through it? And if that is so, in what way is it so? A wider topic yet, a veritable ocean of discussion, is the subject of human beings. For man is a mystery to man. Then you adduced various quotations that contribute nothing to the question, so let us occupy ourselves with our response. Miskawayh’s response Were it not that the term “seeking” suggests the wrong idea regarding the condition of the soul and how its effects are manifested in this world, I would have applied it and permitted you to apply it, as others have. But I have seen
7
7
68.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ي � � نّ أ ي أ ا � � ّ � ن ن�� ّ ا � � ن � �م ّ ن ��ا ن �ن �� �ي ي ي ي ّ � ن ���و�م �و������ي� را ��ي� ا �ن� ن� � ��ع��ه ��د � ��ور �� � ��ي�� ن� �و�ع�ي ره �م� ك�� � ل�ي� � ن ط او ل��ي� ��ر ح�م�م�د ن�� ر��ر�ي� ا �ل�� ن � ّ أ � ي �� � ن �يّ �� ن �نن � �����هي � �م�ا اأ �ش ��������ا م�م�ا ا ���م�ل�عي��ه ا ل � ح�كم� ء �عم�ل�� ��سن��ي�مل� �م�د �� ن� ن���عي��د �م ن� ا �ل� �� ��سن��ن��ه ���د ه ا �لم�ل� و ن ي � ا ن ي � �أ� ن ا ن � ن ن ي ا ن ا� ا � ن � � ّي ا �ن �� � ��� ��� �لم ��ل��أ�م ا ��لن � � � ه � ل � � � � ا � � � ا ع ع � � ه � � �د � � � �� � م � � � �س ل � � � � � � � �� ل � � � ط � ل ل � � ن ر رور ي� ا �ل����س�ع ل�ي� ا م ن ل ل ي� � � �ن ا ن ي � أ � � نّ اأ ش � � � �� ا ن ن أ ن �ي� ي ي �ن ن ا� ���ه ا � ��ي� ا ���م�ل�ي �ع او �عم�ل ا ���� �م ���ا� .و������ي� ��س� ��س�ي ر �لمك أا ل�� �م� �ي���ن���ه� ا � �ع ����ده ل�ي� ���د ا ا �لن�� ن� ي� � أ�ّ ي ي � � � ن � ن � ين ���ا �أ�� أا ن� ا ا �م��ي نر ن� �سر�و ن� �رك� ���ا ي� ا � �ل�م�ل�ك � �و�ه�و ا � ا �ل�� �سر�و ن� ا �ل��م��را ن��ا ي� �نلن� ح ي� ن� ���د��ش ي� ن ع �أ � �ا �� ا �� ي �ي��ه � ا ا �� ��� هي �ي�ي � ن آش ا � ن ن � ا �� هي ن �سر�و ن� ا �ل���ور � او �ل���ش�س � ��يس��� �ولعن�م�ل م� ا �� ر ا �ل������ ن ��و��س� ��� ���ا ن� �م � �� ل ��ي� �ممل��� ل ن ي آ أ آ ّ ي � � نّ � � ا �� ��� ي ح�� �ي � ����س�ه �هر ا �ش�ا ر���ا ل��ن� �� ���ل �س نا ن� ن� �سر�و ن� ا �ل�� �ش�ا ر �ل��� ا �لن ��ن���� �ي نل �� ��يس���ه ن� � لن �� كن��و�ل�ه �و �مم�ل ر ن ي أ ي يج آ ّ ّ � � أ �ي ن � ي ي ن ن � ين � � �� � ي ���ل ا �ل�ه ��ن ّ � ���ا ل��� �� �� �ي � ���ل� 1م�ا ي� � �م��ن� ا � ���سه�مم�ل �كي��ه �و�ل � ���ه أا ل�� ا ����� ��يس�عي��ه نح�� ن �� �م�لء م � ي أ � � � ه � ن ا � ن� ن ي �ن ا ن �ي�ن��ي �م�� �م�ا � � ��يسم�ل�ه. �ه�� أا لي�� م� ل�� ي � � �ي � ي ن أ نّ ن � ن � ن ن � � � ن ن أ��ش ن ن � ن �ن ه ا ��ل ه ا ��ل �ي ن � ل�� � ل�� � �ور � �ور ح�م�ه �و� ا ك ا � �� � �و���د ا ا � �لع��م�ل �م� ا �ل ������ �ل� ����ر��� ا ���ر �م� �� � ح�م�ه �م� � آ � � � � � ن � ن ن آ ن ن ي ��ل � أ ّ أ ّ � أ � ح�� �� �ل� �ي��� � ���� �� ا � ��� �� ا � ل�� ا �ل ح� �م�هي �ل�� ن� ا ن�م�ل ا �ل�� �ن����ا ��ل �م�ا �ا يُ�ر� �ل ش�����ء ا ن�ر ن�لم�ل ��ل�� ند ا �ي�ه و ر� رو � ي ي م م أ آ أ أ ّ � � � ّ � � �ن �و �� ���ل �ن���م�ل ا ر���د ��ن���ا �ي�هي ا ن�ر�� �و�ل ش�����ء ا ن�ر �ن ن�د ��لم�ك ا �ل ش�����ء ا ن�م�ل �م ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا � ن�لع��م�ل� .و�ل�� ي� �� �م�� ي ي ي ا ا� ُ ن �� ش آ ن أ ن � ن ن � � ا ًّ � ن ا ي ن ا � ن ا ي � �أ ن ي � ن � �أ�ن ن ا � �ي���و� � �لمك �م� را �ن�ل� �ل��� �ي�ه �� ����� �ي�ه ا �ل���ي�ره � او � �لع��م�ل ا �ل����م�ل �م� �م �ي�لع��م�ل ل����ي�ء ا �ر ن�لم�ل � � ي � ن ن � �أ ي � ن � ن أ �ّ � � ن ي م�ن�م�ل�� �من� �ن �لن�م�ل��م�نعي��ه ���د ا�ا ي� �ه�و ن���ي��نس�ه ا ��ن���ا �ي�ه � او ����ر��� ا �ل� ������ �و�ل��د �لم�ك �ي���ن��ن�ه� ا �ل� � ٢ي���و� ��� ي ش ً آ ن ن �� �� � ن �ي ش أًا اآ ن� ن � ا �� �ن � �ن هي � � � أ ن ن ل ل � � ا ا ا ا أ � � � �م �م ا � ح ن� ا � �ي���و� �� ���د � �عم�ل ن ي�م�ل �سي���� ر �ع�ي ر ن ي�مل� ��سي���� ر �ع�ي ر ل�مل��م�� �و�ل� ي ن ي �� ً ن� � � ن ن ي �� � اأ �ع ن اأ�نّه � � � أ ن ُي ن ���د �ن�ه �لي�م�ل �من ��ع���ه �و�ل� ���م�ل ن� � ���ر �و�ل� ن�لم�ل�و ر�أ�ا ��س�ه �و�ل� �ش�سي��أ��ا ٣ ح ن� ا � �ي�ل�� ��ي� � �ل� ي ن ع � أ أ أ ّ � � �ن � ن � ّ ن � ي �� �م ن ا ���أ�ش �ا ء ن��� � ا ي ا ن �ل ��م�م� �ل���ن�ه ن� ح�مي�م� � .وي��د ا �ش�س�ا ر ا �ل ح��ي�� أا �ل�� ا � ا �لن ��ن���� � � � �ل ��يس عي ر � �كم�ل ل�ي� ي ل ل م أ � ن � � � � � ً � ي ين ن ي ���د ا ا �����ا ا� �ن �لينع ��و��ل���ا � ��ور ا�ام�ع�ي �عو�ل�� ي� �لي����ي�ر �ع�ي��ل�� �ن�ا � ن�لع��م�ل ن�����د ا ن� ك� ���ا ن�� ي� �ن�ا � �ل �عّوه �أ�ا � ا �ع��م�ل ي� م � ي ا ن � ن ش اأ ن ا ا� � �ي �� ا ��� ا �ي اأ ن � �ن ا �ش أًا � ا � � ًا � � �ن �ي ي ا � � ه � � � � � ا ���ع��م�ل ��� ر� �ي� ه�و أ � م� ��س� � مع �عول و ��� م�ل � ي �و� �سي���� و ��د �ل� ر� ن أ �ن ي � � ن� � � ن ّن � � آن ن � ن�����د ا �لن� ���را �ل��ط�و�لم�ل ل��ي� ا ن� ن ار ء ا � �ل�م�ل��م�ن��ه � او ���و���و�ل أا �ل�� ا �ر���ا. �ه�م�ا �و���د ا ي�لي��م� ن��ي�� � ي ج أ � � � ا� �ي ّ � � ن ن � � � � ن ن � � � ش ي ي ا ا ن � � � � � � ح�ي�� �م� ا � ���د��ي ش� ا �لأ����س� � ا �ل�د ي� ��س��و� ��ط�و�ل�ه �و�م� � �ن�ا �ّم�ا � ���ل��م ا�م� ر� � ا �ل�د ي� � � � ا أ ً�� ن ا � � ن � � ن ن أ ن �ي���سي � ه أ نّ ن �� � ن ن �� هي ن ي ا� �ي�لن��د ك ���� ��ل �� �ل�د ي� ي���ن���ه ا � �م�د �عملي�� �ه�و ا � ���د ه ا لم �ل���� � ��و�ع�ه �عم�ل� ا �ل ش�����ء � � � � و � � ي م ي أ أ أ أ أن ك�ل ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا � لا ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :ش��ة� ء. 1الا�ص�ل :ا م
8
8
٣،٦٨
٤،٦٨
On what the soul seeks in this world and on the nature of human beings
the physician al-Rāzī and others of his stripe become ensnared in a doctrine remote from the truth as a result of this and similar words that philosophers apply loosely—or rather on account of the contingent need for words, when the words are too narrow to encompass the subtle meanings to which they apply them. Yet I shall indicate the views you should follow on this topic. For when the elements enter into different kinds of mixtures through the celestial sphere’s different kinds of movements, they generate the different kinds of forms and shapes that nature fashions, and through the medium of nature receive different kinds of effects from the soul. For the soul manifests its effects in every mixture according to its receptivity; it puts every natural instrument, according to its suitability, to every use it can possibly be put to, and brings it to the utmost state of excellence possible for it. The soul performs that act for no other purpose than the manifestation of
68.3
wisdom. For the wise agent manifests wisdom for no other purpose beyond wisdom, since the grandest acts are those that are not desired for the sake of something else, but rather for their own sake. Whenever an act is desired for the sake of another end and another objective, that objective has a higher status than the act. This comparative chain cannot extend ad infinitum, and thus the last end and the most excellent act will not be the one that is performed for the sake of some other thing, but rather the one that itself constitutes the ultimate end and purpose. That is why someone who practices philosophy must have no other aim in practicing philosophy than philosophy itself, and why someone who does something fine must have no other aim than the fine. That is, he must not be looking to obtain a benefit, secure an honorable reputation, attain preeminence, or anything else besides doing the fine itself, simply because it is fine. The Philosopher has indicated that the soul is perfected in this world by receiving the forms of intelligibles in order to become an actual intellect after having been a potential intellect. It becomes identified with the intellect when it intellects it, for it is in the nature of that which is intellected and that which is intellecting to form a single indistinguishable thing. One grasps this clearly after one has spent a long time studying the different parts of philosophy and has come to its final part. On the topic of human beings whose breadth you lamented and on which you recounted faltering views that availed you nothing, what you need to take as your mainstay is that this term has been appointed to designate the entity composed of a rational soul and a natural body. For everything composed
9
9
68.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �أ نّ ّ ّ �ّ � أ أ ن ن ن ن ا � ي ي � �� ���ش � ي ا � ��� �م ن ����ل ����� ن ��س��ه ّ �ل�� �� ���ل �سر�� ا�ا�سر�� �� ن� �م� � �ل��� �� � ه � ح � � � �� ط � � � ن � ي� ا �و ا �� ر يح��جن و � أا �ل�� ن ن ي � ن � ي� � ي ّ ن � � ن � ي��م ي �ّ � �� ن ن � � ا � حسي � � � � ا ّ ي ي ي � ا � � � � ه م � س � � � � � ل � � نم��ر� ي����ن��ر �ع� ��� ا �ل� ر�ي� ن� وي��د ل �عمي�� �كم ��م�ل � �لمك ن� ل���وره ��� ن �م م م� � ه ا �� � ي م ي ع ع ن ً ن ح�سي � � هي ا ��ل � �م� � ا ّ هي ا ��لن ا �� ن�ل� ن�ّ ي ّ ن ا ي ًا � � � ح ش �ك� � ا ��س� ه � ا � ���ه ���س��مي� �� ��م� �و �كم� ن م ��ور ��سرير ع أم� � ��� ن� ي ���ّي ر م� ��سرير آو�عم�ل�� ع ح��س ا ن �����س� ّ ا ن أ � ا � �����س� ّ هي ن �ي �� �من ا �ش�� ء ا ن ح�سيم� ن� ن أ ن ��ً�ا �ُ ن�لع��م ا ن� ا ا ن� � ا ا ع ع � ح � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � س م � � � ���د ا ا �يل� ي �ل أ ن ي ي و ن م ن ي ي ر ن � ي� ر ُع �ن ّ ن ّ أ � ّ ن ��م ن� ً � نّ ن � ن �� ي ا � � �ي����س��مّ ��س�ن� ل � � � ا � � � � � ا ا ا � � � � ا م � ل ��� ع س م � حن�ي�� ن��ا 1 � م م ��س� � � �أ�ا �ن�ه ي���س��مّ� �ن�ا ���� �م��ر� �كم� �ي�ل �ل ن �ل أ ر ن� �ل و �ر � م ي أ أ � ع � � �أ ن ن هي � �أش هي �أ � �ش ي أ ن �كم� ����س�مّ ا �ن�� ا ا ��ل��� � �و�هي � او�من�ه � � �ون�ا ي� �م ن� ا �ل�� ن��ل�� ��ط ا � ك �����ي�ره � او ��� او ا �ل��ع�د �ي� � او �ل���س �ر� � �و � � و ي ن ع ع ي � ي ن ن ��ّ � ي ���د �من���ا ��ا ���� ن��ا ��ّ � ���� ا�ا��س ّك�� �ند ��لم�ك �ُ ن�لع��م� ��ا �ا�م�ا �ّ هي ا � ��ي ����مي� � � � ه �ل ا � � � حي�م�ل �م ن� ���وره � � � � � � ي �و ي لن � رن ر ل و � � ن م ً ّ ي ن ً ّ ي ين ًّ يّ� �� ي ي�� ّ � ّ � � � ن � � ن � �� �� �لن��د �ل أا ل�� ���وره ������ي�ر ا ����� ن� ا �ل�د ي� ي س��م� �ع���ي�را �سره �وح�س ار �سره �و��ل� �سره نح�� ن ي � � �نا � ي ي ن � � � ن ي � �آ� � ���د ن��ا �لأ�����س�ا ن� �ه�و ا �لن ��ن���� ا �ل�� �� � ��و ا � �� او � ط��ه أا � ا ا ���س�ه�مم�ل ي� ا �ل� �ل� ي� مو ن� � ا �ل� ��وره �عم�ل�� ا�ا � ع� ا �� ي ن ا � �أ�ن ا � ا ن��ل � ن ي ح��س�م ّ��هي ا �� ��ي �ي���سمّ ���د �نً�ا � س � � � ل � � ا ع � ح ���د � �� �مي��ير. � � �� � � � � ن � � ل ل ر � � ي ي� � ن ن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ٰ � ن ن أن �ّ � ي ّ � � ح��ا ��ا ي� ��� ن �����ا �ألم� �و�مي� � ح�� �ي� ي� ا �ي�ّ��د ك ا ّلله � � � �ل��� �و ا�م ي�ل ��و ن��ه أا �ل�� �م ���م�ل�و ن� �ي���ن���ه� ا � ن ل ي � ي ن ي �م أ ّ أ أ ّ � � � ��ل ن ا � � ا � ن � �� ا نن�م�� ش ن � ن ا ا � ي ن ا نا ي ي ي � ح� �ع��ه �ل� � ا�م����� �ل�ه �م� �ن� ن� ا �ل� س�م� ء � او �ل����� � �و��د ��م �م�� �عملي��ه ي�سم� م���� � � � ي ن� ن ن أ ن ي � ا ن �� �� �ًا �م� ي �ي ً � � ���ا ن�ك�ً�ا ي � � ��لي � ��ل م� �������� �ل� �و ن��ه �لأ��عم � ��ه كي���ن���هي� ا � ���ع�و� أا �ل�� �م� �م���� � �ول ���ملن��ه ن���ده ك� ي ي ّٰ ن��م�ع� �ون�ه ا لله.
ي � ن �ن ا ��ص� ن� ا ��س�� ش��م���ا ر ا �ل� �و�� ���� � ن ن �ي � ين ن �����ه �ي ��و���� �م��ه �عم�ل�� �����و�ل�ه �� ن
١،٦٩
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي � �� ي أ ن �م�ّ �د ا ��نل أ ن � �� ��من ن حي ���؟ �و�م�ا �و ن��ه ن� ل� ن�ل ��ا � �ل� � او�ام���ا ن� ��را ���ه ا � أ أ أ ّ ي ن ن ن� �ن ���ا �أ�ه ا �و �يم�ل�هي � � م��ا �لي��ه ا �و ����وء ن� نر�ع�ه ���د ا �م� ��ا � �ل ا �ع ن� ع
ن ����� ن� ن�� ن���ا. 1ط�� :س ك
10
10
١،٧٠
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �أ نّ ّ ّ �ّ � أ أ ن ن ن ن ا � ي ي � �� ���ش � ي ا � ��� �م ن ����ل ����� ن ��س��ه ّ �ل�� �� ���ل �سر�� ا�ا�سر�� �� ن� �م� � �ل��� �� � ه � ح � � � �� ط � � � ن � ي� ا �و ا �� ر يح��جن و � أا �ل�� ن ن ي � ن � ي� � ي ّ ن � � ن � ي��م ي �ّ � �� ن ن � � ا � حسي � � � � ا ّ ي ي ي � ا � � � � ه م � س � � � � � ل � � نم��ر� ي����ن��ر �ع� ��� ا �ل� ر�ي� ن� وي��د ل �عمي�� �كم ��م�ل � �لمك ن� ل���وره ��� ن �م م م� � ه ا �� � ي م ي ع ع ن ً ن ح�سي � � هي ا ��ل � �م� � ا ّ هي ا ��لن ا �� ن�ل� ن�ّ ي ّ ن ا ي ًا � � � ح ش �ك� � ا ��س� ه � ا � ���ه ���س��مي� �� ��م� �و �كم� ن م ��ور ��سرير ع أم� � ��� ن� ي ���ّي ر م� ��سرير آو�عم�ل�� ع ح��س ا ن �����س� ّ ا ن أ � ا � �����س� ّ هي ن �ي �� �من ا �ش�� ء ا ن ح�سيم� ن� ن أ ن ��ً�ا �ُ ن�لع��م ا ن� ا ا ن� � ا ا ع ع � ح � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � س م � � � ���د ا ا �يل� ي �ل أ ن ي ي و ن م ن ي ي ر ن � ي� ر ُع �ن ّ ن ّ أ � ّ ن ��م ن� ً � نّ ن � ن �� ي ا � � �ي����س��مّ ��س�ن� ل � � � ا � � � � � ا ا ا � � � � ا م � ل ��� ع س م � حن�ي�� ن��ا 1 � م م ��س� � � �أ�ا �ن�ه ي���س��مّ� �ن�ا ���� �م��ر� �كم� �ي�ل �ل ن �ل أ ر ن� �ل و �ر � م ي أ أ � ع � � �أ ن ن هي � �أش هي �أ � �ش ي أ ن �كم� ����س�مّ ا �ن�� ا ا ��ل��� � �و�هي � او�من�ه � � �ون�ا ي� �م ن� ا �ل�� ن��ل�� ��ط ا � ك �����ي�ره � او ��� او ا �ل��ع�د �ي� � او �ل���س �ر� � �و � � و ي ن ع ع ي � ي ن ن ��ّ � ي ���د �من���ا ��ا ���� ن��ا ��ّ � ���� ا�ا��س ّك�� �ند ��لم�ك �ُ ن�لع��م� ��ا �ا�م�ا �ّ هي ا � ��ي ����مي� � � � ه �ل ا � � � حي�م�ل �م ن� ���وره � � � � � � ي �و ي لن � رن ر ل و � � ن م ً ّ ي ن ً ّ ي ين ًّ يّ� �� ي ي�� ّ � ّ � � � ن � � ن � �� �� �لن��د �ل أا ل�� ���وره ������ي�ر ا ����� ن� ا �ل�د ي� ي س��م� �ع���ي�را �سره �وح�س ار �سره �و��ل� �سره نح�� ن ي � � �نا � ي ي ن � � � ن ي � �آ� � ���د ن��ا �لأ�����س�ا ن� �ه�و ا �لن ��ن���� ا �ل�� �� � ��و ا � �� او � ط��ه أا � ا ا ���س�ه�مم�ل ي� ا �ل� �ل� ي� مو ن� � ا �ل� ��وره �عم�ل�� ا�ا � ع� ا �� ي ن ا � �أ�ن ا � ا ن��ل � ن ي ح��س�م ّ��هي ا �� ��ي �ي���سمّ ���د �نً�ا � س � � � ل � � ا ع � ح ���د � �� �مي��ير. � � �� � � � � ن � � ل ل ر � � ي ي� � ن ن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ٰ � ن ن أن �ّ � ي ّ � � ح��ا ��ا ي� ��� ن �����ا �ألم� �و�مي� � ح�� �ي� ي� ا �ي�ّ��د ك ا ّلله � � � �ل��� �و ا�م ي�ل ��و ن��ه أا �ل�� �م ���م�ل�و ن� �ي���ن���ه� ا � ن ل ي � ي ن ي �م أ ّ أ أ ّ � � � ��ل ن ا � � ا � ن � �� ا نن�م�� ش ن � ن ا ا � ي ن ا نا ي ي ي � ح� �ع��ه �ل� � ا�م����� �ل�ه �م� �ن� ن� ا �ل� س�م� ء � او �ل����� � �و��د ��م �م�� �عملي��ه ي�سم� م���� � � � ي ن� ن ن أ ن ي � ا ن �� �� �ًا �م� ي �ي ً � � ���ا ن�ك�ً�ا ي � � ��لي � ��ل م� �������� �ل� �و ن��ه �لأ��عم � ��ه كي���ن���هي� ا � ���ع�و� أا �ل�� �م� �م���� � �ول ���ملن��ه ن���ده ك� ي ي ّٰ ن��م�ع� �ون�ه ا لله.
ي � ن �ن ا ��ص� ن� ا ��س�� ش��م���ا ر ا �ل� �و�� ���� � ن ن �ي � ين ن �����ه �ي ��و���� �م��ه �عم�ل�� �����و�ل�ه �� ن
١،٦٩
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي � �� ي أ ن �م�ّ �د ا ��نل أ ن � �� ��من ن حي ���؟ �و�م�ا �و ن��ه ن� ل� ن�ل ��ا � �ل� � او�ام���ا ن� ��را ���ه ا � أ أ أ ّ ي ن ن ن� �ن ���ا �أ�ه ا �و �يم�ل�هي � � م��ا �لي��ه ا �و ����وء ن� نر�ع�ه ���د ا �م� ��ا � �ل ا �ع ن� ع
ن ����� ن� ن�� ن���ا. 1ط�� :س ك
10
10
١،٧٠
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �أ نّ ّ ّ �ّ � أ أ ن ن ن ن ا � ي ي � �� ���ش � ي ا � ��� �م ن ����ل ����� ن ��س��ه ّ �ل�� �� ���ل �سر�� ا�ا�سر�� �� ن� �م� � �ل��� �� � ه � ح � � � �� ط � � � ن � ي� ا �و ا �� ر يح��جن و � أا �ل�� ن ن ي � ن � ي� � ي ّ ن � � ن � ي��م ي �ّ � �� ن ن � � ا � حسي � � � � ا ّ ي ي ي � ا � � � � ه م � س � � � � � ل � � نم��ر� ي����ن��ر �ع� ��� ا �ل� ر�ي� ن� وي��د ل �عمي�� �كم ��م�ل � �لمك ن� ل���وره ��� ن �م م م� � ه ا �� � ي م ي ع ع ن ً ن ح�سي � � هي ا ��ل � �م� � ا ّ هي ا ��لن ا �� ن�ل� ن�ّ ي ّ ن ا ي ًا � � � ح ش �ك� � ا ��س� ه � ا � ���ه ���س��مي� �� ��م� �و �كم� ن م ��ور ��سرير ع أم� � ��� ن� ي ���ّي ر م� ��سرير آو�عم�ل�� ع ح��س ا ن �����س� ّ ا ن أ � ا � �����س� ّ هي ن �ي �� �من ا �ش�� ء ا ن ح�سيم� ن� ن أ ن ��ً�ا �ُ ن�لع��م ا ن� ا ا ن� � ا ا ع ع � ح � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � س م � � � ���د ا ا �يل� ي �ل أ ن ي ي و ن م ن ي ي ر ن � ي� ر ُع �ن ّ ن ّ أ � ّ ن ��م ن� ً � نّ ن � ن �� ي ا � � �ي����س��مّ ��س�ن� ل � � � ا � � � � � ا ا ا � � � � ا م � ل ��� ع س م � حن�ي�� ن��ا 1 � م م ��س� � � �أ�ا �ن�ه ي���س��مّ� �ن�ا ���� �م��ر� �كم� �ي�ل �ل ن �ل أ ر ن� �ل و �ر � م ي أ أ � ع � � �أ ن ن هي � �أش هي �أ � �ش ي أ ن �كم� ����س�مّ ا �ن�� ا ا ��ل��� � �و�هي � او�من�ه � � �ون�ا ي� �م ن� ا �ل�� ن��ل�� ��ط ا � ك �����ي�ره � او ��� او ا �ل��ع�د �ي� � او �ل���س �ر� � �و � � و ي ن ع ع ي � ي ن ن ��ّ � ي ���د �من���ا ��ا ���� ن��ا ��ّ � ���� ا�ا��س ّك�� �ند ��لم�ك �ُ ن�لع��م� ��ا �ا�م�ا �ّ هي ا � ��ي ����مي� � � � ه �ل ا � � � حي�م�ل �م ن� ���وره � � � � � � ي �و ي لن � رن ر ل و � � ن م ً ّ ي ن ً ّ ي ين ًّ يّ� �� ي ي�� ّ � ّ � � � ن � � ن � �� �� �لن��د �ل أا ل�� ���وره ������ي�ر ا ����� ن� ا �ل�د ي� ي س��م� �ع���ي�را �سره �وح�س ار �سره �و��ل� �سره نح�� ن ي � � �نا � ي ي ن � � � ن ي � �آ� � ���د ن��ا �لأ�����س�ا ن� �ه�و ا �لن ��ن���� ا �ل�� �� � ��و ا � �� او � ط��ه أا � ا ا ���س�ه�مم�ل ي� ا �ل� �ل� ي� مو ن� � ا �ل� ��وره �عم�ل�� ا�ا � ع� ا �� ي ن ا � �أ�ن ا � ا ن��ل � ن ي ح��س�م ّ��هي ا �� ��ي �ي���سمّ ���د �نً�ا � س � � � ل � � ا ع � ح ���د � �� �مي��ير. � � �� � � � � ن � � ل ل ر � � ي ي� � ن ن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ٰ � ن ن أن �ّ � ي ّ � � ح��ا ��ا ي� ��� ن �����ا �ألم� �و�مي� � ح�� �ي� ي� ا �ي�ّ��د ك ا ّلله � � � �ل��� �و ا�م ي�ل ��و ن��ه أا �ل�� �م ���م�ل�و ن� �ي���ن���ه� ا � ن ل ي � ي ن ي �م أ ّ أ أ ّ � � � ��ل ن ا � � ا � ن � �� ا نن�م�� ش ن � ن ا ا � ي ن ا نا ي ي ي � ح� �ع��ه �ل� � ا�م����� �ل�ه �م� �ن� ن� ا �ل� س�م� ء � او �ل����� � �و��د ��م �م�� �عملي��ه ي�سم� م���� � � � ي ن� ن ن أ ن ي � ا ن �� �� �ًا �م� ي �ي ً � � ���ا ن�ك�ً�ا ي � � ��لي � ��ل م� �������� �ل� �و ن��ه �لأ��عم � ��ه كي���ن���هي� ا � ���ع�و� أا �ل�� �م� �م���� � �ول ���ملن��ه ن���ده ك� ي ي ّٰ ن��م�ع� �ون�ه ا لله.
ي � ن �ن ا ��ص� ن� ا ��س�� ش��م���ا ر ا �ل� �و�� ���� � ن ن �ي � ين ن �����ه �ي ��و���� �م��ه �عم�ل�� �����و�ل�ه �� ن
١،٦٩
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي � �� ي أ ن �م�ّ �د ا ��نل أ ن � �� ��من ن حي ���؟ �و�م�ا �و ن��ه ن� ل� ن�ل ��ا � �ل� � او�ام���ا ن� ��را ���ه ا � أ أ أ ّ ي ن ن ن� �ن ���ا �أ�ه ا �و �يم�ل�هي � � م��ا �لي��ه ا �و ����وء ن� نر�ع�ه ���د ا �م� ��ا � �ل ا �ع ن� ع
ن ����� ن� ن�� ن���ا. 1ط�� :س ك
10
10
١،٧٠
On why people experience fear in the absence of an apparent cause
of two or more simple elements requires a singular name that expresses and conveys the notion of composition, as happens when the form joined to the matter of silver is called a “ring,” and the form of a bed joined to the matter of wood assumes the name “bed.” Something similar happens when two or more natural bodies are joined and compose another thing that is designated with a singular name. This is what happens in the case of vinegar when it is compounded with honey or sugar and is then called “oxymel”; likewise with the way one designates the different types of medicine or electuaries that blend many ingredients and the different types of composite foods and drinks; each is designated using a specific name. The same thing happens when matter passes from one form to another, as in the case of inspissated grapes called “juice” at one time, “wine” at another, and “vinegar” at yet another, depending on the transformation the form has undergone within a single substrate. Man is thus the rational soul when it uses the corporeal instruments called a “body” to perform actions in accordance with discrimination.
On the nature and attributes of God Here—God grace you with His support—you quoted various exchanges
69.1
between a questioner and a dialectical theologian, but did not direct yourself to any topic we should make the subject of inquiry. For the question pertains to the names and attributes of God, and we discussed that topic thoroughly earlier so there is no need to rehearse it again. So you should go back to the earlier discussion and look it up, and, God willing, you will find it adequate to the purpose.
On why people experience fear in the absence of an apparent cause Why do people experience fear in the absence of anything fearful? Why do people thus frightened and affected feign hardiness to prevent others from discovering their base disposition, inadequate strength, and lowly anxiety, even as their limbs buckle, they cry out in commotion and are visibly changed, their heart pounds, and they exhibit the effects of what would be plain in the
11
11
70.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ي �ي أ ح� ي�م�ل��ه � ن ��� ه �ع� �� �م�ا ي �م�ا ا ن� ا اأ ا � ��� ّ � �ون��د ا �أ�ه �عم�ل� �م�ا �ن�ه � او ���م� ���ه ��ا �ل�ه ا �ع ار ن� ���ه �و�و ن�ي ن� ن و � � �ور ل � أ ر ي � أ ّ ي � ه أ �� ن� � ا ن ��� �ع�ن�� ه � اأ �� �ن ا ن ��� ��ل ا �ن ه � ا �ن �ل��� ا �ش��س ا �لمأ � ل ه ا ا � � ح�� و � ط ي ي�� و ل�� ط ��س� � و �ر ن� م� ل� ؟ �� � �هر �عم�ل�� ��سره و ن �
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ ن� ي ّ ش ن ن �� ن � �م� � � �ً�ا ��� ��ه ر� حم� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله ��سن�� ن� � �لم�ك � ��و�ي�� � � م��ر�وه ��ا � � �أ�ا � ك��ا � ا �ل��سن�� ن� ي و ي� ي ن�م ًا � ًّ ن ع ن ا� ي ًّا � � � � �ن �ن ��ن � � ��ا ن �م ن �� ء ن ��� نّ ���ا ن ا ��ن ا � ن ل � � � ��� �و� � او �ل�د � � � ه ل � ل � ا ا ل � � �� � � م � � � � � م � �� � � � � � � � � � � ك ك � � م د � ل � � � ك � � � � � ن و و و � ي ي ي و و و ل � � أ م � ي ي أ أ ن � ش ن � � ا� ن ا �ن� �ن � ن ن ّ ا ن � ح��س ن � � � � �ر�وه ي� � � � � ا ا ا � م� �� � �لمك ا� � �و���س� � � �ر � �ه�و �سر � و �سرنج � ��س�د م� �ل���م�ل� .م نح�� ن � أ أ � � حسي ا �� � � ن � �� ا ن�� � ن ه � ن �� � ن � � ن ا ن ا ي ا �ل��شم� ا هي � �هر م� ا �لأ����س� � ا �م� را � ن�� �ع� ا �ل��ن��ر �وي �ح�م��د ا �م� ل ا �ل�� � ا ���� ر � م�� �ويل� � ً أ ً أ أ أ ي ّي � � ّ أ ن � ن � ح ن ح ن��ا �ن�ا �و ن��ا �ش�س�ا � او � ا �و ا ن��ل ��� نن� � .او �ش�ن�� ي� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� ن� �����ه� �نل���ي�ره �ور� �وي�ه �ل� �ن��د ا � يل� �ل���رن� �ع ن��د م ي � ��ا ن ا أ ً� ن ا نّ أ �� � � � ا ��ل ا ش � ه ا �� �� ا � أ � ه � � ��سسّ ا ا ن � طو �����ا ��ل�� � 1ي�ل �عول� � � �� ا � م � � � � � � � ك ن� نر �و�ل ا�ا � م��ر�وه �� � � ن� ل��� ر� �عملي�� �ل� ي�م� أ � � ل أ � ر � � � �أ � � أ ي � ي ن ي � يي � � ن ن �� � ا ��نل�� �م ن� �ا ي ن� ح نر �م ن� �ي�من� حر �و�ه�و را كن���ه �و�م ن� ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ا �ل���ا �لم�ل�ه ا � ��ي� ���و�� ����ا ��ه ا �لأ����س�ا � م ع ن � �ش نج ا� �ن � � � ح ن�� ن � ك�� م��ا ح� �ن� �م �ي ��ا �ا��س ء �عم�ل � ح �� � �و �لي��ا ر��ه � .او ن��ل ���د ا ا�نم � � � � � ���س�ه ا � � ح م ه ح � � � � ل ي � � رع � ن ر �� ن �ه�و ن� و� و ي ر � ر ر نر ن ي ي أ ي � ا� ّي � ّ � ن نا ن � ن � � حنعي ��ن��ه ن��د �� ن� �عم�لي��ه ��ي� ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� � �ن����ه ا �و ن� � �و�م�ي��د ا ره �أ� � ك ���ا � ا�ا � م��ر�وه � او�مي��و��� م�م�ا �يل ��ي � ع أ ن ن �� ن � ن � هي ي ه� ان ن � ن ا� ي ا ���و��ل�� �عم�لي��ه ا ن��ل ح�� ا �سره � او � � � �و ن حرع �و�م ي��سم� ��سم�ك �ل�ه � � حن�� � ن�ر�وع �م�د � ��و�م �م� ���د ه ا نل � أ �ي ّ ا � ي � � � �ي ا ي ا ا ��ي ّ� � ا ي � ن � ن ن � ا �ي �و� � او �وه ا �ل��د ر ن� �ن� ح�سم�ا �ل ا �ل ش��س�د ا �أ��د �و�م�ل� � �ل��� �و ل���ن� ر �عمل� ي��� �و� ��و �����ي� ا �ل������ �ل��� كن�م�ل � ن ي ّ � ��ا ن ي ا �ل��شم� ا هي �ن ن � هي � � �ش ا ��لأ ّ�� ي� � �ل ه � ن � �ن �عن ن ��يسمل� ���ا �ع�ي�ر �م���س���د �ل���ا� .أاو � ا ك�� ��� ن�� �ع� �� ��د �ول��� ��ل ر� عمي�� � ٢و ه�و �عم م�ل � أ � ن � ي ن ي ن ��ا ن ن ّ ا �ن �ليع هي ن �م� هي ل�ن ن �� � ن � � � ّ � ا � ���س�� � �لع�� ي ��يسم�لي��ه �م� ��س�ه � �وي نل �� �هر �� ن� �وك�� � � ي ر � ي ���د ��� ي���� �ور�يلل� �م� ا ل�د ي� �ل� يح ن ع ّ ّ ن � ا �ي�ي ّ � � ن �ي �� ن ا �س ا ي ن �� ا �ن ا ن ���� ش ي ن ا �ي ه � ّ ن ن ح ن� � �ل���س�ه؟ ���� � � �وي ���� أا � ���ل أ ��س� � ي � م� ل��د م م� ��ول�� ي�م� � ن �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن ��ا ن ش ً� � �ن ي ي ن ً� ني ّ � � يّ ن ن ا ��� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �و�من�� حره أا � ا ك�� � �م��ل� يل�م� ���� � ن � �����ل� �ي�س����سر �عملي��ه ح�� ��ص� ن� �ع� ن أ ن ن ش ن � ج � ي ن �ن ن �و���� ن��ّ �عم�ل� ا � �ل � ع�م�ل �و�ي���ل�ر �و���د ا �عم� ر��� ��ا ��� ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا ���؟ ي � � أ أ أ 1الا�ص�ل :ا ر��س��طوط�ا �ل��ة��س ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ع�لة����ه�ا.
12
12
� نّ ي نح�
٢،٧٠
١،٧١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ي �ي أ ح� ي�م�ل��ه � ن ��� ه �ع� �� �م�ا ي �م�ا ا ن� ا اأ ا � ��� ّ � �ون��د ا �أ�ه �عم�ل� �م�ا �ن�ه � او ���م� ���ه ��ا �ل�ه ا �ع ار ن� ���ه �و�و ن�ي ن� ن و � � �ور ل � أ ر ي � أ ّ ي � ه أ �� ن� � ا ن ��� �ع�ن�� ه � اأ �� �ن ا ن ��� ��ل ا �ن ه � ا �ن �ل��� ا �ش��س ا �لمأ � ل ه ا ا � � ح�� و � ط ي ي�� و ل�� ط ��س� � و �ر ن� م� ل� ؟ �� � �هر �عم�ل�� ��سره و ن �
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ ن� ي ّ ش ن ن �� ن � �م� � � �ً�ا ��� ��ه ر� حم� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله ��سن�� ن� � �لم�ك � ��و�ي�� � � م��ر�وه ��ا � � �أ�ا � ك��ا � ا �ل��سن�� ن� ي و ي� ي ن�م ًا � ًّ ن ع ن ا� ي ًّا � � � � �ن �ن ��ن � � ��ا ن �م ن �� ء ن ��� نّ ���ا ن ا ��ن ا � ن ل � � � ��� �و� � او �ل�د � � � ه ل � ل � ا ا ل � � �� � � م � � � � � م � �� � � � � � � � � � � ك ك � � م د � ل � � � ك � � � � � ن و و و � ي ي ي و و و ل � � أ م � ي ي أ أ ن � ش ن � � ا� ن ا �ن� �ن � ن ن ّ ا ن � ح��س ن � � � � �ر�وه ي� � � � � ا ا ا � م� �� � �لمك ا� � �و���س� � � �ر � �ه�و �سر � و �سرنج � ��س�د م� �ل���م�ل� .م نح�� ن � أ أ � � حسي ا �� � � ن � �� ا ن�� � ن ه � ن �� � ن � � ن ا ن ا ي ا �ل��شم� ا هي � �هر م� ا �لأ����س� � ا �م� را � ن�� �ع� ا �ل��ن��ر �وي �ح�م��د ا �م� ل ا �ل�� � ا ���� ر � م�� �ويل� � ً أ ً أ أ أ ي ّي � � ّ أ ن � ن � ح ن ح ن��ا �ن�ا �و ن��ا �ش�س�ا � او � ا �و ا ن��ل ��� نن� � .او �ش�ن�� ي� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� ن� �����ه� �نل���ي�ره �ور� �وي�ه �ل� �ن��د ا � يل� �ل���رن� �ع ن��د م ي � ��ا ن ا أ ً� ن ا نّ أ �� � � � ا ��ل ا ش � ه ا �� �� ا � أ � ه � � ��سسّ ا ا ن � طو �����ا ��ل�� � 1ي�ل �عول� � � �� ا � م � � � � � � � ك ن� نر �و�ل ا�ا � م��ر�وه �� � � ن� ل��� ر� �عملي�� �ل� ي�م� أ � � ل أ � ر � � � �أ � � أ ي � ي ن ي � يي � � ن ن �� � ا ��نل�� �م ن� �ا ي ن� ح نر �م ن� �ي�من� حر �و�ه�و را كن���ه �و�م ن� ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ا �ل���ا �لم�ل�ه ا � ��ي� ���و�� ����ا ��ه ا �لأ����س�ا � م ع ن � �ش نج ا� �ن � � � ح ن�� ن � ك�� م��ا ح� �ن� �م �ي ��ا �ا��س ء �عم�ل � ح �� � �و �لي��ا ر��ه � .او ن��ل ���د ا ا�نم � � � � � ���س�ه ا � � ح م ه ح � � � � ل ي � � رع � ن ر �� ن �ه�و ن� و� و ي ر � ر ر نر ن ي ي أ ي � ا� ّي � ّ � ن نا ن � ن � � حنعي ��ن��ه ن��د �� ن� �عم�لي��ه ��ي� ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� � �ن����ه ا �و ن� � �و�م�ي��د ا ره �أ� � ك ���ا � ا�ا � م��ر�وه � او�مي��و��� م�م�ا �يل ��ي � ع أ ن ن �� ن � ن � هي ي ه� ان ن � ن ا� ي ا ���و��ل�� �عم�لي��ه ا ن��ل ح�� ا �سره � او � � � �و ن حرع �و�م ي��سم� ��سم�ك �ل�ه � � حن�� � ن�ر�وع �م�د � ��و�م �م� ���د ه ا نل � أ �ي ّ ا � ي � � � �ي ا ي ا ا ��ي ّ� � ا ي � ن � ن ن � ا �ي �و� � او �وه ا �ل��د ر ن� �ن� ح�سم�ا �ل ا �ل ش��س�د ا �أ��د �و�م�ل� � �ل��� �و ل���ن� ر �عمل� ي��� �و� ��و �����ي� ا �ل������ �ل��� كن�م�ل � ن ي ّ � ��ا ن ي ا �ل��شم� ا هي �ن ن � هي � � �ش ا ��لأ ّ�� ي� � �ل ه � ن � �ن �عن ن ��يسمل� ���ا �ع�ي�ر �م���س���د �ل���ا� .أاو � ا ك�� ��� ن�� �ع� �� ��د �ول��� ��ل ر� عمي�� � ٢و ه�و �عم م�ل � أ � ن � ي ن ي ن ��ا ن ن ّ ا �ن �ليع هي ن �م� هي ل�ن ن �� � ن � � � ّ � ا � ���س�� � �لع�� ي ��يسم�لي��ه �م� ��س�ه � �وي نل �� �هر �� ن� �وك�� � � ي ر � ي ���د ��� ي���� �ور�يلل� �م� ا ل�د ي� �ل� يح ن ع ّ ّ ن � ا �ي�ي ّ � � ن �ي �� ن ا �س ا ي ن �� ا �ن ا ن ���� ش ي ن ا �ي ه � ّ ن ن ح ن� � �ل���س�ه؟ ���� � � �وي ���� أا � ���ل أ ��س� � ي � م� ل��د م م� ��ول�� ي�م� � ن �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن ��ا ن ش ً� � �ن ي ي ن ً� ني ّ � � يّ ن ن ا ��� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �و�من�� حره أا � ا ك�� � �م��ل� يل�م� ���� � ن � �����ل� �ي�س����سر �عملي��ه ح�� ��ص� ن� �ع� ن أ ن ن ش ن � ج � ي ن �ن ن �و���� ن��ّ �عم�ل� ا � �ل � ع�م�ل �و�ي���ل�ر �و���د ا �عم� ر��� ��ا ��� ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا ���؟ ي � � أ أ أ 1الا�ص�ل :ا ر��س��طوط�ا �ل��ة��س ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ع�لة����ه�ا.
12
12
� نّ ي نح�
٢،٧٠
١،٧١
On why people fly into a rage when they can’t open a lock
expression of their face, the look in their eyes, the words on their tongue, and their disturbed behavior, even if they tried to conceal it? Miskawayh’s response The reason is the expectation of an untoward occurrence. The sense of fear is
70.2
appropriate if its cause is sound and its ground is clear. If it is not, and fear results from misjudgment and impaired thinking, it indicates a malady or a humoral mixture with original impairment. Depending on the nature of the unwelcome event, fortitude is proper, endurance of the harm it causes is praiseworthy, and human beings exhibit the effects of courage or cowardice. Even the most steadfast and self-possessed, the most perspicacious and keen-minded are unavoidably disturbed when something untoward suddenly happens to them, particularly something terrible. Aristotle says, “He who does not feel anxious at sea when faced with a raging storm and confronted with terrors that exceed the limits of human power is a madman.” 3 Many untoward occurrences follow this pattern and approximate to it. The anxiety a person experiences depends on the extent and measure of these occurrences. Even if the expected or the untoward event is such that it is within human power to repel or alleviate it, yet one becomes overwhelmed by anxiety and loses self-control, failing to face it with composure; prone to excessive anxiety, he is cowardly, and from this perspective merits blame. The remedy is to train oneself by confronting and undergoing hardships, by enduring them patiently, and by bracing the soul prior to their occurrence, so that they do not catch one unawares and off guard. If courage is a virtue and its contrary a deficiency and defect, given what was said earlier regarding the passionate sense of attachment people feel toward themselves and the love they have for their own soul, is there anybody who does not wish to conceal his deficiency and display his virtue?
On why people fly into a rage when they can’t open a lock Why do people get angry and annoyed if, for example, they are trying to open a lock but it won’t open, and then they fly into a rage and bite the lock and curse? This is a phenomenon that is widespread among people.4
13
13
71.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ح ه ا ّٰ ن ا ا ��� ا ن�� ش ه � ن اأ ي�م ا ن � � ن ا ن ا ّ � � ������ م� ن � � �م� ي����ر��� �ل� أل� ���س� � �و�ه�و �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر �م� لله ���د ��� �ر � �و� ن ج نّ ن� ن ن � أ نّ � ن �ي ح��س ن ا�م ن ا� �ل��م��ل ه ا ��نل � � ي ��ل � � �� ن� أا ��م�ا ي�لش��ور �ن�ه � �م ا � �ل�م�ل ن� ����و� �و� �لم�ك ا � ا ���� ن� �ع�ي ر م���د �ور أا � �م ي � �ن� مل�� ا � �� ن � �ن يي ا ن ا� �ّ �ن �ك� ��ن����ن � �عم� �م ن ��ن����ن � �عم� �م�ي��د ا �م�ا ��ن����ن ح��هي ا ��ل��ن�لي��ي��ا م � � � � ا ا ا ا �ل � � � � � ���د � � � � � � ل م � ه ه ه ل ل مو م أ م ي � ي ن �ي� و �� � ي ن � ن ر ي ن �ي� � و �� ين أ ي � � ن ن �ن ن � ّ � ن � ن ي � ي � ا ا ا ا ن أ � ��ي ��� �ن�ه أا � ا ك�� � �عم�ل� ا �ل���وره ا � ��� � �ه�و �م�د ���و� � ك ح��ي������ �� .م� ���� او �لمك �ع� ��سن�� ن� � � ي م ن� ي ن �� �يه اأ� ي �ع ن ه ا ن ا �ش ا ل�ن ن � ن � ه �ن ا ���ن�� ن ح� �عم� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ا ��ل ن��ا ���طي � � � ا �� ح � � � � �د � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� ع � � � � � ن ن � ل و ر ر و و � ي ر و � ن ن ن أ � ي � أ ّ ي �� ه � � � � ن � ن ا � ا ��ل��س هي نّ ا�ا� ّ� ن اأ ن ��س�هي ا ��ل���س� �ن�ا نّ� �م ن �ن��ه �و��ل�� ي����سن�ه � � ه � ك ك � � م م ��س� � � � � ن م � � � � � � ح ع � م � ل � ل � ي � � ن ل ي و م�م�ي ر و � ن ي ن ي عأ � ري �� ّج � ن� ي أ أ ّ � � ن ّ ي ن � ن � ّ ي ن ي ان ا �عم� �ن�ه ��ا ي ح� ي� ي �� ه � او �ل����ه ���سم�ل����ا � ا � � �و�ه � ��س����سر ن�����د � �لم�ك �ي�ل�� �كي��ه � � ل � � ح��د �م �يو�ل ��و��د �أ� ��ه � ي ن ن ري � ن ر � ا �� �� ي ا� ن � ن� أش ا �� ي ن ن ن �ا ن ن � � ن � ي ا ي �ن �هر كي��ه ا �ر س�مي��ي�ر �و� � م�� � ��يس���ه �و�م �يل �� � �و���س��ي�س�ه � او �لأ����س� � �م�د ���و�م �ن�ه أا � ا �ر���ه �و����و�م ل�ن ي ي ن�� ن ي �ّ ا ��� �ي �ا ا � �أ ن �� �ي � � ش � ي �ن ن ن عن�م� ن�����نس�ه �و� ن��ه � ع�م�ل� .و ن��ا �لي� ��و��� ��د � ��ر ل��ي� ل���� ن� �ل���ل � ح ن� �م� ن� � ��د��ي� ا � �ل � ل ي ح�م�ل �م� أ أ ّ ّ ّ � ن ن � � ا ن ا � ��ن ا ن�ل ّ هي � � ي �ي ن�لع��م� ن� ��لم�ك ا �و �ير�ن�� ا ���حل �م� ر � �ولم� ل�� � ا �لن�ن��م�ل �نأ�ا � ���د ا ا � ن�لع��م�ل �ي��د �ل �عم�ل� � �لأ� ��س� ي�� ي��س�ي ره ل� ل ي ّ � ًّ �� ي ن � يم أ ا �� ي ن ي � ي � ي ن ��س�ه ا �� � ن� � ن ّ � ل ا � � � � ا � � � س س � � ح��ه ن��د ا �و ن �ي�مي��ه �عم �لن��ه �عملي��ه ا ع��ي� ����وء �مي��ير �ومل�ه ا �م� ل ا � �ل� � ل��ي� ��� ن ��ر� .و�لي����� ن ن�� � ن ن ��� ا ��ل ن��ا �� � �عم� �ّمي�ه� �لم ا ��ل ش���ه� هي � ا ��ل ش ي �ش ���ده ���� ن�� ��ل ا أ� ���د ا �و� ي ر � ح �و � و � م ن �ل � و و ن ��� ��� �و��س� ر �ع� او ر � ا �ل ������ ّٰ ي أ �ن ��ي ا �� �� ي � ي ن ا ��لن���س�م ّ��هي � ا ���ن�� ن ��ن��يّ��هي أا ن� ا ���ا ن� �نل�ه� � او ن�ل��د ا ل�� �رك���ه ل� ��يس�عيّ��ه ا� ي����س�ه�مم�ل� او �كي��ه �م�ا �و�عن��ه ا لله � ن يي و م ج م � أن ي ّ أ ن أ � � ن ي � � ّ ي ي ّ �ّ�هي ا ��سي�م��� ن ن ش ��م�ل�ه� �ن�ه �و ن� ���م�ل�ه� �ل�ه ا ��ا ����� ا �ع��� ا �ر ا ���ع��م�ل ن� �����ا �ل�� �ل�ه� �و��� ح��س ن� ا �ر� �وي�ه �و�م� ي ير ي ي م م م ا ّٰ ه ا�ا�م ي ن � � ي ي �ّ � ���س���ا � �و�ل� ���ّوه أا �ل� �ن�ه. �و لل
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ن ن ن � � ا ن ا� � ���ا ن� ��ن���ي�ر ا �� ار ��� � ����ا ر �م ن� ك� ح�عي��� ا �ل�د �م� �و� �ام � ع م ن � ن رري� ن� ا �ل��د �م�ا ؟ ع
14
14
� ��ّ �ي � ��ن� ���ل
� ن ن� �م ن� ك���ا � �ع ���ي�� م
�أ ا � ار ���
٢،٧١
١،٧٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ح ه ا ّٰ ن ا ا ��� ا ن�� ش ه � ن اأ ي�م ا ن � � ن ا ن ا ّ � � ������ م� ن � � �م� ي����ر��� �ل� أل� ���س� � �و�ه�و �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر �م� لله ���د ��� �ر � �و� ن ج نّ ن� ن ن � أ نّ � ن �ي ح��س ن ا�م ن ا� �ل��م��ل ه ا ��نل � � ي ��ل � � �� ن� أا ��م�ا ي�لش��ور �ن�ه � �م ا � �ل�م�ل ن� ����و� �و� �لم�ك ا � ا ���� ن� �ع�ي ر م���د �ور أا � �م ي � �ن� مل�� ا � �� ن � �ن يي ا ن ا� �ّ �ن �ك� ��ن����ن � �عم� �م ن ��ن����ن � �عم� �م�ي��د ا �م�ا ��ن����ن ح��هي ا ��ل��ن�لي��ي��ا م � � � � ا ا ا ا �ل � � � � � ���د � � � � � � ل م � ه ه ه ل ل مو م أ م ي � ي ن �ي� و �� � ي ن � ن ر ي ن �ي� � و �� ين أ ي � � ن ن �ن ن � ّ � ن � ن ي � ي � ا ا ا ا ن أ � ��ي ��� �ن�ه أا � ا ك�� � �عم�ل� ا �ل���وره ا � ��� � �ه�و �م�د ���و� � ك ح��ي������ �� .م� ���� او �لمك �ع� ��سن�� ن� � � ي م ن� ي ن �� �يه اأ� ي �ع ن ه ا ن ا �ش ا ل�ن ن � ن � ه �ن ا ���ن�� ن ح� �عم� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ا ��ل ن��ا ���طي � � � ا �� ح � � � � �د � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� ع � � � � � ن ن � ل و ر ر و و � ي ر و � ن ن ن أ � ي � أ ّ ي �� ه � � � � ن � ن ا � ا ��ل��س هي نّ ا�ا� ّ� ن اأ ن ��س�هي ا ��ل���س� �ن�ا نّ� �م ن �ن��ه �و��ل�� ي����سن�ه � � ه � ك ك � � م م ��س� � � � � ن م � � � � � � ح ع � م � ل � ل � ي � � ن ل ي و م�م�ي ر و � ن ي ن ي عأ � ري �� ّج � ن� ي أ أ ّ � � ن ّ ي ن � ن � ّ ي ن ي ان ا �عم� �ن�ه ��ا ي ح� ي� ي �� ه � او �ل����ه ���سم�ل����ا � ا � � �و�ه � ��س����سر ن�����د � �لم�ك �ي�ل�� �كي��ه � � ل � � ح��د �م �يو�ل ��و��د �أ� ��ه � ي ن ن ري � ن ر � ا �� �� ي ا� ن � ن� أش ا �� ي ن ن ن �ا ن ن � � ن � ي ا ي �ن �هر كي��ه ا �ر س�مي��ي�ر �و� � م�� � ��يس���ه �و�م �يل �� � �و���س��ي�س�ه � او �لأ����س� � �م�د ���و�م �ن�ه أا � ا �ر���ه �و����و�م ل�ن ي ي ن�� ن ي �ّ ا ��� �ي �ا ا � �أ ن �� �ي � � ش � ي �ن ن ن عن�م� ن�����نس�ه �و� ن��ه � ع�م�ل� .و ن��ا �لي� ��و��� ��د � ��ر ل��ي� ل���� ن� �ل���ل � ح ن� �م� ن� � ��د��ي� ا � �ل � ل ي ح�م�ل �م� أ أ ّ ّ ّ � ن ن � � ا ن ا � ��ن ا ن�ل ّ هي � � ي �ي ن�لع��م� ن� ��لم�ك ا �و �ير�ن�� ا ���حل �م� ر � �ولم� ل�� � ا �لن�ن��م�ل �نأ�ا � ���د ا ا � ن�لع��م�ل �ي��د �ل �عم�ل� � �لأ� ��س� ي�� ي��س�ي ره ل� ل ي ّ � ًّ �� ي ن � يم أ ا �� ي ن ي � ي � ي ن ��س�ه ا �� � ن� � ن ّ � ل ا � � � � ا � � � س س � � ح��ه ن��د ا �و ن �ي�مي��ه �عم �لن��ه �عملي��ه ا ع��ي� ����وء �مي��ير �ومل�ه ا �م� ل ا � �ل� � ل��ي� ��� ن ��ر� .و�لي����� ن ن�� � ن ن ��� ا ��ل ن��ا �� � �عم� �ّمي�ه� �لم ا ��ل ش���ه� هي � ا ��ل ش ي �ش ���ده ���� ن�� ��ل ا أ� ���د ا �و� ي ر � ح �و � و � م ن �ل � و و ن ��� ��� �و��س� ر �ع� او ر � ا �ل ������ ّٰ ي أ �ن ��ي ا �� �� ي � ي ن ا ��لن���س�م ّ��هي � ا ���ن�� ن ��ن��يّ��هي أا ن� ا ���ا ن� �نل�ه� � او ن�ل��د ا ل�� �رك���ه ل� ��يس�عيّ��ه ا� ي����س�ه�مم�ل� او �كي��ه �م�ا �و�عن��ه ا لله � ن يي و م ج م � أن ي ّ أ ن أ � � ن ي � � ّ ي ي ّ �ّ�هي ا ��سي�م��� ن ن ش ��م�ل�ه� �ن�ه �و ن� ���م�ل�ه� �ل�ه ا ��ا ����� ا �ع��� ا �ر ا ���ع��م�ل ن� �����ا �ل�� �ل�ه� �و��� ح��س ن� ا �ر� �وي�ه �و�م� ي ير ي ي م م م ا ّٰ ه ا�ا�م ي ن � � ي ي �ّ � ���س���ا � �و�ل� ���ّوه أا �ل� �ن�ه. �و لل
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ن ن ن � � ا ن ا� � ���ا ن� ��ن���ي�ر ا �� ار ��� � ����ا ر �م ن� ك� ح�عي��� ا �ل�د �م� �و� �ام � ع م ن � ن رري� ن� ا �ل��د �م�ا ؟ ع
14
14
� ��ّ �ي � ��ن� ���ل
� ن ن� �م ن� ك���ا � �ع ���ي�� م
�أ ا � ار ���
٢،٧١
١،٧٢
On why people with small heads have light brains
Miskawayh’s response This phenomenon and its like are among the most repugnant things that affect
71.2
people, and they deserve blame if they do not rectify it by means of a good and praiseworthy character. For anger makes the blood of the heart swell, out of a desire for revenge, and this revenge is blameworthy if it is not carried out in the right manner, against the right people, and in the right measure. How much more, then, if it takes the form you have described. I have provided a response to your question about the cause of anger. Rational and discriminating human beings must subdue it when roused on the wrong occasion and not accelerate its progress; they must not behave like beasts, adopting the habits of wild animals. For those who aid it through thought, and, through the power of reflection, inflame it so that it burns and blazes, will later struggle to remedy and subdue it. Human beings deserve blame for it if they leave it to the biddings of nature and do not make the effect of discrimination and the power of reason manifest in it. In his book on ethics, Galen mentioned this very case regarding the lock, and he expressed his amazement at the ignorance of people who act like this, or who kick donkeys and punch mules. Such kinds of actions indicate that the individual in question has only a very small quotient of humanity and is dominated by beastliness, which is to say that he has poor discrimination and makes little use of thought. This is not the only phenomenon to affect the common people and the rabble. When appetite, lust, or any of the other expressions of the irascible and beastly soul flare up in them and commence their natural movement, they fail to use the resources with which God endowed them, by which He distinguished them, and on account of which He rendered them human—I mean the effect of reason through good reflection and sound discrimination. It is to God that we turn for help; strength comes from Him alone.
On why people with small heads have light brains Why do people with small heads have light brains? And why is it that not everyone with a large head has a weighty brain?
15
15
72.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ � ن � � ن �ّ ّ ي ن ن � ��نع ّ��هي � ا �� ل� ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ي� ي ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ � ح��ا ن� ا �ل��د �م�ا أا ��ل�� ا �عي��د ا �ل ل��� ا � ك م��س� ���مي��ه �أ�ا � ���ي ي و و ي ي� ي ج ع ��ّ ّ ً ن � ��ا ن � ه اأ � �ه ا �ا� � ن� ن � ن ا � �آ ن� �ن ا ن � ��� �و��ره ن� � �ي��نعيّ��هي �وك� � ���ا ن�� ي� ل��مي�يس�ه حيّ��د ا ل��� ا � ك � ح��م�ل �ل� ��د �م� م ي�ع�� ع� �ل� ر أ� � ك� � ن � ي ّ نا ي ي ن �� ّي ه ��ش ي ن � � �م � ي ً ن ي � ن �ه�و ��ل�� �م ��ا ��ل�هي ر� �ي� ء � او ن� ك� ���ا ن�� ي� ل��مي�س� ك ���ي�ره �م�لي����� �ه�و �ل� ��ا �ل�ه ر�ي�لأ��ا �����د �ي���و� �� �����ه � � أ ً شً ّ � ن � � ا �ّ � اأ�نّه � اأ ن ح ا رهي ا �� �لي�م�ل� ��يل�� ���و ن� �م ن��ا ���س�ا ��ل ����ي�را �و ن� ك� � ح��م�ل �ن�� ن� �نر� ���د ا � � حي��د ا ن�ل� � �و �ر أ �ل� � ي نح ن� ي ن �ر ن ي � � � ا�م ط �لي��ه � � ا هي ن� ��لم�ك � �ل �� � ي ح �ون� �� �� �� .و�م��ي � ��س�ه ا �ل�� �عي��د ا ��ل ا�م ح��م �عم ا ��نل � � �ور �� � نو و ر ر حن ��و ن� و يو ن و � �لأ �ل�� رج ّ أّ ن ن ح �ون� ���د ا ا ��ل�� �عي��د ا ��ل ي�لن����ه �م ن ا ��ر� ا ء هي �ي��م �����ه � �ونل����ن��ه أا ��ل�� ا ن� ا ��لي��ن��ا ن��م� ��� ن ا �ن�� او ا ��نل � � �م� ل ن ي� ي ع رج أ أ ن �ن �ش � � ن �� ��ش��ًا ن ا �أ��دًا �عم �ي�د ا ��ل ي ن �� ن � ّ ً � � � ��ا ن��ه ��ي�ر �م ن� ا � �ي���و� �م ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل ك���ي�ر �و�ل� � �ي��و� ن �ل�� ر حي��د ا �وك� ي ر ر ي �� ن ّ ي � ّ ّ ً نا ي ً ح��ه �م�عي�� ��ً�ا � ّ ي��ا ن ا ��� ��ع��ه � ا � ل� ��ا ن��هي ن��ا ن� ن� ���ا �ع ن ي��د ر ا ��ل ن� حي��د ا � �و� ��� ح�م� ر� ا ء ه ا � كي ي و ���مي��ه ك�� � ��� � ن و أ � ع ً ن� ��من ّ � � �� � �لم�ك. حن��ل� نح�� ن
٢،٧٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � ي � � اأ�نّه ن ن �� ي ��ن � ن � ي ا� ي ي � ش �ا ا �ع�ي�م�ي��د ا �ل�ن��ا ��� ل��ي� ا �����و��من� � حن�ي��� �و� ا �عي��ه �و���د �لم�ك ل��ي� ا � �ل����ي�ر �و�م ي���ع����د � او ا ���ع��مل� م ن ج��لم� ي ش � ح � � ّ هي ا� أ ن� نّ هي � ي � او ��ل ���ا ن� ���ط� �لم� ا �ل � ح��ه �� ح���ا �ن�هي ي�س�م ن ك� ���ي ��ن� ا �ل ش��م��ر�م�د �ي��د ا � �لي��ا �م�ه ن��مي�م�ل ا �لأ��م� �و� را � او � ح�� ي و ل � ي م � � ي ���� ن ي� �م ن� ا �ل��م���ا �ه ؟ ا �����ا ر ن�
١،٧٣
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
� ��ّ ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ ن ا� اأ � ي ن ا � ن ي ا� ا�م ن �� �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر ح�م�ه ا لله ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �م� �ن� ن� ا � �ل� ار ��س�ه � او�م�م�د �وج� ����و� �م� ���ل أ أ ن ً � أ ي � ّ � � ن � ن ن �ي �ن ا ن ا � � �عي ا �� ا �ع ن ا � ن � ا ي ا �سر �ي���ن�� �س ن ار ن��ا �م�ا �ه�و ا �ل�� �عي��د ا �ل �ن�ا �م�ا ا �ل���ر�ن�ا � ا �لم�ل��د ا � �ي������ � �ل� ��د ل ��� �ر� �ه ي ي ع ن �ن ا ن ا ن � ا ن ن ا ن ��ا ن �ن ا ��لم��ل ي � � ا ن �� ا ن ا ا �ن �ن ي ا �ه�م� �م�د ���و�م� � � � � او �ل ������ � � ح��ه �و ��ط�و�ل��� �و�ع��ق�م��� �و� ��� �نل��� ل�ي� م��ر�و��� � �أ� � ك�� � �و ��ور ي � � � ن� ا �� � ن � � ن ي ا � ن عن�م�ل�هي ن�كن��ا �� �� او ن� ح��ا ي� ا � ��و ن��ه � �لي�م�ل ا ��ل��س�ل���م�هي � او ��ن� � ح�مي�� ع ن� � ح ن� ��� ر ا ل���ر�� ا �ل�د �ي� �ي�ل�� ن�لمل�ه �م� � ن �� � �نّ هي � ا �� ن� ن هي � ا �� �لي�م�ّهي � ��ل�م ا ��لن ح� ش � ا ��ل��د���ا ء � �ه�م�ا ن� ً � ن ن ن ��نل ح�مي����ا ���ر��ا � ��ا ر ن��ا � �ع ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل و �ن � و ا ح�� و ل� رر 1و ل� ي �ل أ ة 1الا�ص�ل :وا �ل ن�� ن�ا ر�.
16
16
٢،٧٣
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ � ن � � ن �ّ ّ ي ن ن � ��نع ّ��هي � ا �� ل� ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ي� ي ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ � ح��ا ن� ا �ل��د �م�ا أا ��ل�� ا �عي��د ا �ل ل��� ا � ك م��س� ���مي��ه �أ�ا � ���ي ي و و ي ي� ي ج ع ��ّ ّ ً ن � ��ا ن � ه اأ � �ه ا �ا� � ن� ن � ن ا � �آ ن� �ن ا ن � ��� �و��ره ن� � �ي��نعيّ��هي �وك� � ���ا ن�� ي� ل��مي�يس�ه حيّ��د ا ل��� ا � ك � ح��م�ل �ل� ��د �م� م ي�ع�� ع� �ل� ر أ� � ك� � ن � ي ّ نا ي ي ن �� ّي ه ��ش ي ن � � �م � ي ً ن ي � ن �ه�و ��ل�� �م ��ا ��ل�هي ر� �ي� ء � او ن� ك� ���ا ن�� ي� ل��مي�س� ك ���ي�ره �م�لي����� �ه�و �ل� ��ا �ل�ه ر�ي�لأ��ا �����د �ي���و� �� �����ه � � أ ً شً ّ � ن � � ا �ّ � اأ�نّه � اأ ن ح ا رهي ا �� �لي�م�ل� ��يل�� ���و ن� �م ن��ا ���س�ا ��ل ����ي�را �و ن� ك� � ح��م�ل �ن�� ن� �نر� ���د ا � � حي��د ا ن�ل� � �و �ر أ �ل� � ي نح ن� ي ن �ر ن ي � � � ا�م ط �لي��ه � � ا هي ن� ��لم�ك � �ل �� � ي ح �ون� �� �� �� .و�م��ي � ��س�ه ا �ل�� �عي��د ا ��ل ا�م ح��م �عم ا ��نل � � �ور �� � نو و ر ر حن ��و ن� و يو ن و � �لأ �ل�� رج ّ أّ ن ن ح �ون� ���د ا ا ��ل�� �عي��د ا ��ل ي�لن����ه �م ن ا ��ر� ا ء هي �ي��م �����ه � �ونل����ن��ه أا ��ل�� ا ن� ا ��لي��ن��ا ن��م� ��� ن ا �ن�� او ا ��نل � � �م� ل ن ي� ي ع رج أ أ ن �ن �ش � � ن �� ��ش��ًا ن ا �أ��دًا �عم �ي�د ا ��ل ي ن �� ن � ّ ً � � � ��ا ن��ه ��ي�ر �م ن� ا � �ي���و� �م ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل ك���ي�ر �و�ل� � �ي��و� ن �ل�� ر حي��د ا �وك� ي ر ر ي �� ن ّ ي � ّ ّ ً نا ي ً ح��ه �م�عي�� ��ً�ا � ّ ي��ا ن ا ��� ��ع��ه � ا � ل� ��ا ن��هي ن��ا ن� ن� ���ا �ع ن ي��د ر ا ��ل ن� حي��د ا � �و� ��� ح�م� ر� ا ء ه ا � كي ي و ���مي��ه ك�� � ��� � ن و أ � ع ً ن� ��من ّ � � �� � �لم�ك. حن��ل� نح�� ن
٢،٧٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � ي � � اأ�نّه ن ن �� ي ��ن � ن � ي ا� ي ي � ش �ا ا �ع�ي�م�ي��د ا �ل�ن��ا ��� ل��ي� ا �����و��من� � حن�ي��� �و� ا �عي��ه �و���د �لم�ك ل��ي� ا � �ل����ي�ر �و�م ي���ع����د � او ا ���ع��مل� م ن ج��لم� ي ش � ح � � ّ هي ا� أ ن� نّ هي � ي � او ��ل ���ا ن� ���ط� �لم� ا �ل � ح��ه �� ح���ا �ن�هي ي�س�م ن ك� ���ي ��ن� ا �ل ش��م��ر�م�د �ي��د ا � �لي��ا �م�ه ن��مي�م�ل ا �لأ��م� �و� را � او � ح�� ي و ل � ي م � � ي ���� ن ي� �م ن� ا �ل��م���ا �ه ؟ ا �����ا ر ن�
١،٧٣
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
� ��ّ ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ ن ا� اأ � ي ن ا � ن ي ا� ا�م ن �� �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر ح�م�ه ا لله ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �م� �ن� ن� ا � �ل� ار ��س�ه � او�م�م�د �وج� ����و� �م� ���ل أ أ ن ً � أ ي � ّ � � ن � ن ن �ي �ن ا ن ا � � �عي ا �� ا �ع ن ا � ن � ا ي ا �سر �ي���ن�� �س ن ار ن��ا �م�ا �ه�و ا �ل�� �عي��د ا �ل �ن�ا �م�ا ا �ل���ر�ن�ا � ا �لم�ل��د ا � �ي������ � �ل� ��د ل ��� �ر� �ه ي ي ع ن �ن ا ن ا ن � ا ن ن ا ن ��ا ن �ن ا ��لم��ل ي � � ا ن �� ا ن ا ا �ن �ن ي ا �ه�م� �م�د ���و�م� � � � � او �ل ������ � � ح��ه �و ��ط�و�ل��� �و�ع��ق�م��� �و� ��� �نل��� ل�ي� م��ر�و��� � �أ� � ك�� � �و ��ور ي � � � ن� ا �� � ن � � ن ي ا � ن عن�م�ل�هي ن�كن��ا �� �� او ن� ح��ا ي� ا � ��و ن��ه � �لي�م�ل ا ��ل��س�ل���م�هي � او ��ن� � ح�مي�� ع ن� � ح ن� ��� ر ا ل���ر�� ا �ل�د �ي� �ي�ل�� ن�لمل�ه �م� � ن �� � �نّ هي � ا �� ن� ن هي � ا �� �لي�م�ّهي � ��ل�م ا ��لن ح� ش � ا ��ل��د���ا ء � �ه�م�ا ن� ً � ن ن ن ��نل ح�مي����ا ���ر��ا � ��ا ر ن��ا � �ع ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل و �ن � و ا ح�� و ل� رر 1و ل� ي �ل أ ة 1الا�ص�ل :وا �ل ن�� ن�ا ر�.
16
16
٢،٧٣
On certain beliefs concerning the relation between a person’s facial hair and his character
Miskawayh’s response The brain requires balance with respect to both quality and quantity, and real-
72.2
izing one does not render the other dispensable. If its substance is excellent in terms of its quality, but its quantity is deficient, it will necessarily be bad. If it is extensive in quantity, it will not necessarily be bad, for it may be extensive and have an excellent substance, yet it must also have a good relation to the heat of the heart, so that the coldness and moisture of the one and the heat and dryness of the other, taken together, may produce the praiseworthy, desirable balance. When it departs from this balance, it is attended by a corresponding share and portion of badness. Yet there are a number of unequal ways of departing from balance, and it is better that it should be excellent, extensive, and in excess of the amount required than that it should be excellent and fall short of the amount required. If it combines bad quality and bad quantity, the individual will accordingly be an idiotic imbecile.
On certain beliefs concerning the relation between a person’s facial hair and his character Why do people believe that men with no hair on the sides of their face, and
73.1
those who are short, are malicious and cunning, yet they do not believe that men with long beards and thick hair, a tall frame, and a handsome appearance have a good mind and sound judgment? Why do they deem a sparse beard felicitous?
Miskawayh’s response This question pertains to physiognomy. In all things, what is praiseworthy and commendable follows on a particular elemental mixture that constitutes the balanced state. By contrast, the two extremes that stand on either side of the balanced state—excess and deficiency—are blameworthy and repugnant. If an abundant, long, and large beard that grows all over the face is a sign of sound intentions and guilelessness, it necessarily follows that the light, sparse hair that represents the opposite extreme should be a sign of malice and cunning. Both of these are extremes that depart from the commendable
17
17
73.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�� أ أ نّ � � ن ي ا � ن ً� ن � � أ نّ � ن ن ا هي ��ا ن ن ا ّ م � � � ا ل � � �� � ا � � ا ا ا ا ا ا ا ء ح � � � � � � ح م�د � � � � � � � ��� �ع� � � � � �� ك م � � س � � و ر أ� �و و ل و لمك � ر ن �ل أ �� � لل ي ر �ي� ن أ � أ ن ن نّ � � �ي ح��هي �ن�ه� �ي�ا عن� �من���ا ��ا ���س ���أ � �ون�هي � ح�يّ ي� ا �لم��ل � � � ا � � م ع ح � ي ح��م�ل �عم�ل�� ا � �ل��د ر ا�ام�عي��د �ل � ل ر � � ي ني ر و � �� � ي �و� ��ل ا � ا� ن ّ ي ي ي ي ن � � ح��ا � ا أ��مً�ا اأ� ي� ���ه� � � م ا ا ا � � � � � � ��أس�ه ا ���و�ه � ر��ه أا �ي� ��� �عم�ل� ا�� �ل ا�م�د ���و�م�ه �م� ور ع �عن��ه �نل��� �أاو ���ل�� � � او �ل� ي � ي ّ � � ي ي ي� � ن ن اأ �ّ ا � ا ��لم��ل هي �ن حي ����سم ن �ل��� � � �ل�م� �عم� ���� ء ا ن�ي ا أا �ّ�ا ���ا � � ح�يس� ر �ور� اء ه �مي��ير �� م� �ع�د م ي � � �ول� رن ي ل ل�� و ي � ح�� �ملي����� ن ج ن ن ي ن � �ي ا ا ح��ه �عم�ل �ي � � هو �م���د �ور. �� ��� � � ح�مل�ه �كي� يل��د ر ��� ن ��
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن أ نّ � � � ا�ا� � نّ � � �عم�ل ه اأ نّ ا ���� � � � � ي ا� ������م�ل ا�ام�و ي� �عم�ل�� م��د ن� م ح��ا ه �م���ه �و�لي����� ن��م�ون�� �و� �كي��ه � او � ع �م� � ��د م �ل� ي م � �أن � ن ش ي ّ ن ا نّ ي ن ا �� � ا ي ا ��� ن � ن ي ن ي �ع�� أ � ن ًا أ نّ ا� � أ ن ل � ه � � ا ا ا � � م � � �د � � س � � � � �� � � ح�� ه ��رره ؟ ���د ا �و��د ل� ا يل� ل ��� ا � ا�م�ون � �و� ا ش��سر�� � � � أو أ �رو ن ي ن ي م أ � � ّ � � � ل� ا � � ن ا ا �ل ش ا ن ي ن ا � نّ � ش �ن � �ل ��� �م� ا�م���د �و�م � او ��ه �ل� ��سر� لم �م���د �و�م �م� ا �ل�د �ي� ي������م�ل �عملي��ه ا �����د �م �و�م� ����ي�ء ا�م�ل� ن ن � ي أ ن �ي� ���د ا ا �ل�� ن� حي�يس�ا ر �م ن��ه ن���ع��م�ل ا �و ���س�ا � �س نار ن�؟ � �ل�ملن��ه �و��م�ل ج
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ حم ً ح ه ا ّٰ ن ا�ا� اأ � هي ا ن � ���ا ن ا ���ن�� ن�� ن�ك���ا �م� � �ي� ��ا ن��ا �� � � ���ل��� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س��� �و�ه ر��م� لله ���د ه م��س� �ل� � ك � � و ي� � ر ي� ي أ أ م ً � ن � ن � �م��س��ّ ا ا� �ي ّ � ا ي ن � � أ نّ � � ن ا ن ن � ا ي ن ا � � � � � ا ا ا ا ا � م � � � � ل م � م� � ��د �د ل � م � � � � � � � � �� � م م �� ع �س س ل �ل���رن� ي ر � � و لمك � �لأ � أ � ي ��� ي م ر ن �ل م أ أ �ن ا نّ ا ن � � � هي � � � ن � �� ن ّ ن ّ ن ي �وا ��ره أ� �ل��� �ع�ي ر م��د �و�م� �و�ل� ي ن � ي�لن� ���م�ل �ع ن��ه ا �ع ار ��� �و�����د �م �ع ن��ه ك�ي��عي��ا ي� ��ا �م�ا ن�� � أور �عم�ل�� � أ نّ � � �� ن ّ � ّي � ّ ن أ � � ن ن ي ا ن��ل ���د �ل�ه �و�م ن� ا �ش��يس�ا ء �و��ر �ل� � �و��ر ا �����د �م ن�لي��ه �ام�ا ي�لن��ي� ن� ل��ي� ا ���و�ل ا � �ل�م�ل��م���ه �م ن� ا � ا ن�ل� �� أ ن ا ن ا ��ل � ن أن � � �ن ن �و��ر �ل�� �ي�ليعن�م�ل ا ������د � �م ن� � ��� �� .ن� ��� ا �ر �لي����� ���د ا ���و� حي� ش� �ه�و ن�� � �و��ر � او ن� ن ار ء ا �لأ����س�ا � � م � �أ ي ن � � اأ ن ����مي ن ا ي ي�من ّ � أ � أ ن � ح�م ا ��ل���ا ن��اأ �ّم�ا ن� � ا �ي � � أا � ا �م� � � ه � � � � ي � � � �م�ل أا �ل�� ا � ��و�ل���ا ا �ع��ي� ا ���ع ن��ا � �سرا �ل� نر��� و لمك ن � و ي �ل أ ي� أ أ أ أ ً � ن ا � ي ي ن� ي ي ّ ن نّ � ّ � � �ن � ّهي يي ن ّ ا ن��ل �و��ره ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�وا �لن��ن���� ا �ل�� ��ط���ه ����د �لن��ي�� ا ��ه ا �و�� �ر� �ي ��ا �ل� �ه�� �ن�ا �كي��ه ا �ن��د ا � او �م�ا ن�� �� �وا ��ر � � �� ن ن ي ي ن ن أ � يا أ ن ً � �أ � هي �ن ���ا. �م ن� �ع ن��ا � �ه�و أا � � � ا �� ا �لن ���� ء ا �يل� �سره ا �ل� نر���� � م �ّ � �ن � اأ �� ي � �مي ّ� هي ا ��ل ن ا ا�ا�م�س ن ا نّ� ا �ي� ا ���ن� � �� ل�ن اأ ن �ن � �ي ّ � ا ي ن � �و�ام�ا ا� ي� � � � ع ��� م��س� ل�مك ��و ن ح�� أ �� ���د ��� �أو �م� �و� �مل�ط �ي� ��د م��د م� � ي ر � م ع ن ي ن �ن � ش ّ ن � ا � �� حم� ي � ��� ن حّ ن � � أ ن ن ّ �م� � ا � � � � ا � ا �� ك � � � م � � � ع � � ع � �� ح ن� ا � �ن���ن��ه �عم�ل�� ���و� � � ل ��� ا ����م�ل��ط ��م �����د �ل ل ي م ي� ل�� ي ر رر و ن ��ه �أو ر ع 18
ن�ك���ا ي� ا نّ��م�ا أ
18
١،٧٤
٢،٧٤
٣،٧٤
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�� أ أ نّ � � ن ي ا � ن ً� ن � � أ نّ � ن ن ا هي ��ا ن ن ا ّ م � � � ا ل � � �� � ا � � ا ا ا ا ا ا ا ء ح � � � � � � ح م�د � � � � � � � ��� �ع� � � � � �� ك م � � س � � و ر أ� �و و ل و لمك � ر ن �ل أ �� � لل ي ر �ي� ن أ � أ ن ن نّ � � �ي ح��هي �ن�ه� �ي�ا عن� �من���ا ��ا ���س ���أ � �ون�هي � ح�يّ ي� ا �لم��ل � � � ا � � م ع ح � ي ح��م�ل �عم�ل�� ا � �ل��د ر ا�ام�عي��د �ل � ل ر � � ي ني ر و � �� � ي �و� ��ل ا � ا� ن ّ ي ي ي ي ن � � ح��ا � ا أ��مً�ا اأ� ي� ���ه� � � م ا ا ا � � � � � � ��أس�ه ا ���و�ه � ر��ه أا �ي� ��� �عم�ل� ا�� �ل ا�م�د ���و�م�ه �م� ور ع �عن��ه �نل��� �أاو ���ل�� � � او �ل� ي � ي ّ � � ي ي ي� � ن ن اأ �ّ ا � ا ��لم��ل هي �ن حي ����سم ن �ل��� � � �ل�م� �عم� ���� ء ا ن�ي ا أا �ّ�ا ���ا � � ح�يس� ر �ور� اء ه �مي��ير �� م� �ع�د م ي � � �ول� رن ي ل ل�� و ي � ح�� �ملي����� ن ج ن ن ي ن � �ي ا ا ح��ه �عم�ل �ي � � هو �م���د �ور. �� ��� � � ح�مل�ه �كي� يل��د ر ��� ن ��
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن أ نّ � � � ا�ا� � نّ � � �عم�ل ه اأ نّ ا ���� � � � � ي ا� ������م�ل ا�ام�و ي� �عم�ل�� م��د ن� م ح��ا ه �م���ه �و�لي����� ن��م�ون�� �و� �كي��ه � او � ع �م� � ��د م �ل� ي م � �أن � ن ش ي ّ ن ا نّ ي ن ا �� � ا ي ا ��� ن � ن ي ن ي �ع�� أ � ن ًا أ نّ ا� � أ ن ل � ه � � ا ا ا � � م � � �د � � س � � � � �� � � ح�� ه ��رره ؟ ���د ا �و��د ل� ا يل� ل ��� ا � ا�م�ون � �و� ا ش��سر�� � � � أو أ �رو ن ي ن ي م أ � � ّ � � � ل� ا � � ن ا ا �ل ش ا ن ي ن ا � نّ � ش �ن � �ل ��� �م� ا�م���د �و�م � او ��ه �ل� ��سر� لم �م���د �و�م �م� ا �ل�د �ي� ي������م�ل �عملي��ه ا �����د �م �و�م� ����ي�ء ا�م�ل� ن ن � ي أ ن �ي� ���د ا ا �ل�� ن� حي�يس�ا ر �م ن��ه ن���ع��م�ل ا �و ���س�ا � �س نار ن�؟ � �ل�ملن��ه �و��م�ل ج
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ حم ً ح ه ا ّٰ ن ا�ا� اأ � هي ا ن � ���ا ن ا ���ن�� ن�� ن�ك���ا �م� � �ي� ��ا ن��ا �� � � ���ل��� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س��� �و�ه ر��م� لله ���د ه م��س� �ل� � ك � � و ي� � ر ي� ي أ أ م ً � ن � ن � �م��س��ّ ا ا� �ي ّ � ا ي ن � � أ نّ � � ن ا ن ن � ا ي ن ا � � � � � ا ا ا ا ا � م � � � � ل م � م� � ��د �د ل � م � � � � � � � � �� � م م �� ع �س س ل �ل���رن� ي ر � � و لمك � �لأ � أ � ي ��� ي م ر ن �ل م أ أ �ن ا نّ ا ن � � � هي � � � ن � �� ن ّ ن ّ ن ي �وا ��ره أ� �ل��� �ع�ي ر م��د �و�م� �و�ل� ي ن � ي�لن� ���م�ل �ع ن��ه ا �ع ار ��� �و�����د �م �ع ن��ه ك�ي��عي��ا ي� ��ا �م�ا ن�� � أور �عم�ل�� � أ نّ � � �� ن ّ � ّي � ّ ن أ � � ن ن ي ا ن��ل ���د �ل�ه �و�م ن� ا �ش��يس�ا ء �و��ر �ل� � �و��ر ا �����د �م ن�لي��ه �ام�ا ي�لن��ي� ن� ل��ي� ا ���و�ل ا � �ل�م�ل��م���ه �م ن� ا � ا ن�ل� �� أ ن ا ن ا ��ل � ن أن � � �ن ن �و��ر �ل�� �ي�ليعن�م�ل ا ������د � �م ن� � ��� �� .ن� ��� ا �ر �لي����� ���د ا ���و� حي� ش� �ه�و ن�� � �و��ر � او ن� ن ار ء ا �لأ����س�ا � � م � �أ ي ن � � اأ ن ����مي ن ا ي ي�من ّ � أ � أ ن � ح�م ا ��ل���ا ن��اأ �ّم�ا ن� � ا �ي � � أا � ا �م� � � ه � � � � ي � � � �م�ل أا �ل�� ا � ��و�ل���ا ا �ع��ي� ا ���ع ن��ا � �سرا �ل� نر��� و لمك ن � و ي �ل أ ي� أ أ أ أ ً � ن ا � ي ي ن� ي ي ّ ن نّ � ّ � � �ن � ّهي يي ن ّ ا ن��ل �و��ره ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�وا �لن��ن���� ا �ل�� ��ط���ه ����د �لن��ي�� ا ��ه ا �و�� �ر� �ي ��ا �ل� �ه�� �ن�ا �كي��ه ا �ن��د ا � او �م�ا ن�� �� �وا ��ر � � �� ن ن ي ي ن ن أ � يا أ ن ً � �أ � هي �ن ���ا. �م ن� �ع ن��ا � �ه�و أا � � � ا �� ا �لن ���� ء ا �يل� �سره ا �ل� نر���� � م �ّ � �ن � اأ �� ي � �مي ّ� هي ا ��ل ن ا ا�ا�م�س ن ا نّ� ا �ي� ا ���ن� � �� ل�ن اأ ن �ن � �ي ّ � ا ي ن � �و�ام�ا ا� ي� � � � ع ��� م��س� ل�مك ��و ن ح�� أ �� ���د ��� �أو �م� �و� �مل�ط �ي� ��د م��د م� � ي ر � م ع ن ي ن �ن � ش ّ ن � ا � �� حم� ي � ��� ن حّ ن � � أ ن ن ّ �م� � ا � � � � ا � ا �� ك � � � م � � � ع � � ع � �� ح ن� ا � �ن���ن��ه �عم�ل�� ���و� � � ل ��� ا ����م�ل��ط ��م �����د �ل ل ي م ي� ل�� ي ر رر و ن ��ه �أو ر ع 18
ن�ك���ا ي� ا نّ��م�ا أ
18
١،٧٤
٢،٧٤
٣،٧٤
On why people racked by suffering find it easy to face death
balance. I reckon that poor choice also has a bearing on the matter. For a man who leaves his beard greatly untended is capable of trimming it down with a minimum of effort in order to arrive at the correct balance and praiseworthy appearance. Thus, leaving it in a blameworthy state even though it wears him out and he is always trying to fix it, or leaving it until it becomes unseemly and disheveled, is a sign of faulty choice and poor discrimination. The one who lacks a beard, by contrast, can do nothing about it, and is exempt from blame.
On why people racked by suffering find it easy to face death Why do people tormented by suffering find it easy to face death even though
74.1
they know that nonexistence means a lack of life and being, and that however acute the evil one suffers might be, it is conjoined to this cherished life? They also know, moreover, that existents are nobler than nonexistent things, and that nonexistent things have no dignity. So, what makes it easy for them to face nonexistence? What is it that comes over their heart? Does their choice come about through reason or a corrupt humoral mixture? Miskawayh’s response This question makes a valid point, though it is expressed in a confused manner
74.2
and contains premises that are not conceded, for when human beings die, they do not become nonexistent tout court. Certain of their contingent aspects are nullified, and certain of their qualities cease to exist, but their substances do not cease to exist. It is absolutely impossible for substance to cease to exist, in view of the fact that substance has no contrary and in view of other facts established within the fundamentals of philosophy that do not belong to the present context. Substance qua substance is not susceptible to nonexistence. When a person dies, his parts dissolve into their original components, that is, the four elements, which they do by changing into them. The four substances themselves endure in perpetuity. It has been established that the substance of human beings that consists in the rational soul is even worthier of substantiality than the four elements; therefore, it also endures eternally. Your question did not center on this issue, and there was a mistake in the use of unsound premises and the unguarded use of words, but it was necessary
19
19
74.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ّ ي �ّ ن � ��ا ن ي � ّ ي ح��ا هي ��ل���� ي �وا ن� ا ���ن�� ن��� �م ن ا�ا�م�����ا ��ل�هي ن�كن ��ي �عو��ل أا ن� ا ��ل � �� ن���� نر� نره أا �ل�� أا � ا ك�� ��� نحي��ده أا �ل�� ن�� ي ي � ر ي أ �آ � ا � �أ�ن ا �� ي ا ّ هي � ح��ا هي ا ن��ل � او �عن�� ��ا ��ل � حيّ��دهي �م�ا ��سم�ل�م ي� �م ن� ا �ل�� �ن�ا ي� � او�ا � ���د ر ي� � 1نل��� ا �ل����� ل �� �م� م��ا ره �و� �ي ي� ن ا� � ّ ي ا� �لم��لي � � ن ا ن ن� ا ا � � ن � � ن �ّ � ا �� ن ا ��� ن �� أ ش ا ��� �م� �ي � ��ر���ه م� ا �ل�د �ل ا �ل��س�د ���د �و ل� �سي�� ����ي�� � او�م��� �� ن� نحي��ده �و�م ي � �� ا �لأ������� � كي� ني � ي م � يم أ أ ّ ُ � � � ّ ن � � ن ن ن � ل��ن� ا ��ل����م� � او ���و�ل��د� .و� �لم�ك ا � ا �ل��������ا � ���و ن��ي�ر ��� ن ���د ه ا �ل ح��ا ه ا �ر�ي�لأ��ه � �ون��ي ن� ا�ام�و ي� �ي ل ن ي� أ ي� ّ أ ن أ ُ ن ا� ن �ّ ي ا� ن � ن ن ن � ي ن ّ � ي ا ا ي ن ا ن�ل حي��د ا �ع�� ا � �ي�لع�م� ل��� ا ن�ل � ح�� � ا �ل��د �ي� �ي��د ن� �ن�ه �ع� �ر��م�ه �و��م�س� �ن�ه �ع� ا�م�د �ل�ه � او� � م�� ره �� ي� ل ي ي ي ع أ � � ا ����ع�ي � ا ��ل ش �� هي ا ن �ن ي ا ا�ا� ي � ا �� �ليعي ل�ن ��م ا ي ا � ��ي� �و���نع ن��ا ���ا ����و ن� ح ن� ن� ل�� ح� �م�ل و ��سر��� � يح�� ر م�و� و �م�ل �ي� ن��� ���ده ي ن م أ يي ي � ن ن � ي ي� ّ ن � ي � ي ا ا ا ا � � ا � �م�يع��ن ن � � � ل � � � � � �م ن� ي�����و�م�ه � �لمك� .و���د ه �م��س� �ل�ه �د �� ن � ����� �ل��� �ل ����ي ره �و م �م�� �عمل��� ن � � � � ي� نن يو ن �ع � � �و�ه�و �ي��و��لم�ك �م�ا ��س��� ا ن��ل � �� أا �لي��ه ح نر �م ن� ا�ام�و ي� �و�م�ا ��سن�� ن� ا �ل����س��ير�����ا �ل أا �ل�� ا�ام�و ي� �م�ل��ر ن� ن ن ع ع ن ا نّه � ن ���ا ��. �أ� �� ك
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� يّ ا� ن ّ � � ن ا ن ا ا� ن � �ه ن ا ا� ح ن ه؟ �و�عم�ل� ن� ��لم�ك �عم� � �� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �م�ا ن� � � � � � ا �ل������� � ���� � ي�ل�مل�ه �و ن� ح�مل� او ح�� ح� �م� �م ي�ر أ � م ا م ن ن �� م ��ل ي �� �ي ن ا� ا� ّ � ي ي ا ا � ن � �� � � � � ا ل � � � � � ��� ر ���د ا �م� ا � ل�� ح�مل� او �كم كي�م�ل ل� �عم � � او؟ � ٢و� � يحن ��وه ح� ي ي�سم�ه �و �د �عم � � ا �ل�� ��� �م� ن� � م م �م م ّ � � � � � � ّ � ن � حي ي� ن � ا ��� ا ي � �ل ���م�ل ه � � ن� �ي ش � � � � � � ل � � � � ا � ا ح ك �ي� ا � �لي �عو�ل �ن�ا �لش�نس�ا ء � ل ه م � � � ��د � � م وي � ن ��و ويل ��س � ح � ي � ي ي م � � ل ل � و و �ل ر و ل ن و � �ه�وه � رو ع� � �ّ ���د �ي� ا ��نل �ي�؟ � �ويل� �ن��ر �ع ن� ا �ل�
١،٧٥
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � � ّٰ ن ن ي � ي � �أ ن ي ا ّ � ح � � � ه ه � � ا ا م��س� ه م � ���د � م � م � لل ع �م� � � � �م�ا ي������ر�ي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �م ن� ا �ل���ل�� �� �و�هو� � � ل وي ر � ني �� �ل ا ن و � � ي ا ج ا� ش � ن ي � ا� � ّ ا ح �� ا ��ل ا �م � ح��س�د �و ن� ا �� ن� ل��ن� ��� �ر�لي��ه� .و��� � ح ن� ا�م�م�ل ا �ل��د �ي� �ي�ل �عو�ل ا��سرء �ع�د �و �م� ن� � ح�م�ل ن�� ر ن�ر ي ي ش � � ن ل�ن ��م ّ هي ا نّ�� �ا اأ ن� ��ه � ن ح هي ���ن�ه �و� �م �كم� �يكي�م� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� ��من�� حرن� ا ��ل��د �ّ � او ��� ح�� �� � � ح��س�د � او �ل��سن�� ن� �ي� ن ن ي ل ر ن أ ي� أ م أر ن ً ج م ي أ أ � ا � ن�لّن ا � ن � � ا �نّه ا ن ا ا � ّ ا � � ن ا ن �ن �ن ه ا � ّ ا ��لن��ن��� ا �ّو ��ل�� ش��ّ ا ���ن��م�ل���ط ل��ن� � ��� و� �لمك � أ � ح ن� �لأ����س� � ل���س� ��يسم�ل م� ح� ح ن� ير � ي ي � � م ي � ه� �� ن � ن ��م ّ هي ي �ن �ن ه أ ن ن ن ا � ن ن ي ا �� � ح�� ���وره ل���س� ا � ي�لن������ �م� �لي����� �ل� ���ور�ل��� � او ��ل��م ���وره ا �ل ������ �وي��ر��� م� ن أ 1الا�ص�ل� :ص�د ر ٢ .ط :ع�ا د و�.
20
20
٢،٧٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ّ ي �ّ ن � ��ا ن ي � ّ ي ح��ا هي ��ل���� ي �وا ن� ا ���ن�� ن��� �م ن ا�ا�م�����ا ��ل�هي ن�كن ��ي �عو��ل أا ن� ا ��ل � �� ن���� نر� نره أا �ل�� أا � ا ك�� ��� نحي��ده أا �ل�� ن�� ي ي � ر ي أ �آ � ا � �أ�ن ا �� ي ا ّ هي � ح��ا هي ا ن��ل � او �عن�� ��ا ��ل � حيّ��دهي �م�ا ��سم�ل�م ي� �م ن� ا �ل�� �ن�ا ي� � او�ا � ���د ر ي� � 1نل��� ا �ل����� ل �� �م� م��ا ره �و� �ي ي� ن ا� � ّ ي ا� �لم��لي � � ن ا ن ن� ا ا � � ن � � ن �ّ � ا �� ن ا ��� ن �� أ ش ا ��� �م� �ي � ��ر���ه م� ا �ل�د �ل ا �ل��س�د ���د �و ل� �سي�� ����ي�� � او�م��� �� ن� نحي��ده �و�م ي � �� ا �لأ������� � كي� ني � ي م � يم أ أ ّ ُ � � � ّ ن � � ن ن ن � ل��ن� ا ��ل����م� � او ���و�ل��د� .و� �لم�ك ا � ا �ل��������ا � ���و ن��ي�ر ��� ن ���د ه ا �ل ح��ا ه ا �ر�ي�لأ��ه � �ون��ي ن� ا�ام�و ي� �ي ل ن ي� أ ي� ّ أ ن أ ُ ن ا� ن �ّ ي ا� ن � ن ن ن � ي ن ّ � ي ا ا ي ن ا ن�ل حي��د ا �ع�� ا � �ي�لع�م� ل��� ا ن�ل � ح�� � ا �ل��د �ي� �ي��د ن� �ن�ه �ع� �ر��م�ه �و��م�س� �ن�ه �ع� ا�م�د �ل�ه � او� � م�� ره �� ي� ل ي ي ي ع أ � � ا ����ع�ي � ا ��ل ش �� هي ا ن �ن ي ا ا�ا� ي � ا �� �ليعي ل�ن ��م ا ي ا � ��ي� �و���نع ن��ا ���ا ����و ن� ح ن� ن� ل�� ح� �م�ل و ��سر��� � يح�� ر م�و� و �م�ل �ي� ن��� ���ده ي ن م أ يي ي � ن ن � ي ي� ّ ن � ي � ي ا ا ا ا � � ا � �م�يع��ن ن � � � ل � � � � � �م ن� ي�����و�م�ه � �لمك� .و���د ه �م��س� �ل�ه �د �� ن � ����� �ل��� �ل ����ي ره �و م �م�� �عمل��� ن � � � � ي� نن يو ن �ع � � �و�ه�و �ي��و��لم�ك �م�ا ��س��� ا ن��ل � �� أا �لي��ه ح نر �م ن� ا�ام�و ي� �و�م�ا ��سن�� ن� ا �ل����س��ير�����ا �ل أا �ل�� ا�ام�و ي� �م�ل��ر ن� ن ن ع ع ن ا نّه � ن ���ا ��. �أ� �� ك
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� يّ ا� ن ّ � � ن ا ن ا ا� ن � �ه ن ا ا� ح ن ه؟ �و�عم�ل� ن� ��لم�ك �عم� � �� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �م�ا ن� � � � � � ا �ل������� � ���� � ي�ل�مل�ه �و ن� ح�مل� او ح�� ح� �م� �م ي�ر أ � م ا م ن ن �� م ��ل ي �� �ي ن ا� ا� ّ � ي ي ا ا � ن � �� � � � � ا ل � � � � � ��� ر ���د ا �م� ا � ل�� ح�مل� او �كم كي�م�ل ل� �عم � � او؟ � ٢و� � يحن ��وه ح� ي ي�سم�ه �و �د �عم � � ا �ل�� ��� �م� ن� � م م �م م ّ � � � � � � ّ � ن � حي ي� ن � ا ��� ا ي � �ل ���م�ل ه � � ن� �ي ش � � � � � � ل � � � � ا � ا ح ك �ي� ا � �لي �عو�ل �ن�ا �لش�نس�ا ء � ل ه م � � � ��د � � م وي � ن ��و ويل ��س � ح � ي � ي ي م � � ل ل � و و �ل ر و ل ن و � �ه�وه � رو ع� � �ّ ���د �ي� ا ��نل �ي�؟ � �ويل� �ن��ر �ع ن� ا �ل�
١،٧٥
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � � ّٰ ن ن ي � ي � �أ ن ي ا ّ � ح � � � ه ه � � ا ا م��س� ه م � ���د � م � م � لل ع �م� � � � �م�ا ي������ر�ي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �م ن� ا �ل���ل�� �� �و�هو� � � ل وي ر � ني �� �ل ا ن و � � ي ا ج ا� ش � ن ي � ا� � ّ ا ح �� ا ��ل ا �م � ح��س�د �و ن� ا �� ن� ل��ن� ��� �ر�لي��ه� .و��� � ح ن� ا�م�م�ل ا �ل��د �ي� �ي�ل �عو�ل ا��سرء �ع�د �و �م� ن� � ح�م�ل ن�� ر ن�ر ي ي ش � � ن ل�ن ��م ّ هي ا نّ�� �ا اأ ن� ��ه � ن ح هي ���ن�ه �و� �م �كم� �يكي�م� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� ��من�� حرن� ا ��ل��د �ّ � او ��� ح�� �� � � ح��س�د � او �ل��سن�� ن� �ي� ن ن ي ل ر ن أ ي� أ م أر ن ً ج م ي أ أ � ا � ن�لّن ا � ن � � ا �نّه ا ن ا ا � ّ ا � � ن ا ن �ن �ن ه ا � ّ ا ��لن��ن��� ا �ّو ��ل�� ش��ّ ا ���ن��م�ل���ط ل��ن� � ��� و� �لمك � أ � ح ن� �لأ����س� � ل���س� ��يسم�ل م� ح� ح ن� ير � ي ي � � م ي � ه� �� ن � ن ��م ّ هي ي �ن �ن ه أ ن ن ن ا � ن ن ي ا �� � ح�� ���وره ل���س� ا � ي�لن������ �م� �لي����� �ل� ���ور�ل��� � او ��ل��م ���وره ا �ل ������ �وي��ر��� م� ن أ 1الا�ص�ل� :ص�د ر ٢ .ط :ع�ا د و�.
20
20
٢،٧٥
On why people denigrate things they fail to attain
to call attention to the mistake before turning to address the point of the question. Life is only cherished if it is excellent, and by an excellent life I mean a life free from evils and adversities, in which the acts performed are complete and excellent, and in which a person is not afflicted by undesirable events such as extreme disgrace, grave injustice, or calamities affecting his family or children. For were a person to be given the choice between this bad life and an excellent death—that is, to be killed in battle while defending his womenfolk and resisting the humiliation and adversities we have described—both reason and the religious Law would mandate that he choose to die and be killed while doing battle against the people who inflict those things on him. A similar question came up earlier, and we provided an adequate reply thereto. That was the question you posed about “why we fear death but sometimes welcome it.” 5 So please consult that, for it meets the purpose.
On why people denigrate things they fail to attain and are hostile to things of which they are ignorant Why do people denigrate the things they fail to attain and disparage the things
75.1
they do not possess? In the same vein, people are hostile to things they do not know, so that “People are hostile to the things they do not know” has become a venerable adage. Why this hostility? Why don’t they love them and seek them out and try to comprehend them, so that the hostility may cease and so that honor may be established, beauty perfected, words of praise justly uttered, and statements of the truth veraciously made? Miskawayh’s response This is one of the repugnant traits of character that afflict people. It is akin to envy and tends in the same direction. The person who coined the proverb “Man is an enemy of what he does not know” meant to express blame and reproach, as with the saying “People are a tree that sprouts injustice and envy.” The reason for it is, first, the love of one’s own soul, and second, an erroneous approach to the acquisition of the things that serve to embellish it. For when a person loves his soul, he loves its form, and knowledge is the form of the soul. One of the consequences of loving the form of our soul is that we hate whatever we do not have as our form. So, if we possess a certain type of knowledge,
21
21
75.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ن ن � أن ح��م ��ل�ه �عل�� اأ� ّ � نّ �� ي ا ح��ه � او ن� ا ا�� ي� �نل� �� رهي ل��م��ي � ح��م�ل �ل�ه ا ن���� ن� � � ن ���ه � �وي��د �� ن� �عملي��ه ا � ا �سم� ��� و ل � أ م م أ أ أ ً � ّ � � ح�م � هي ي � ن ن ن � ي ن ي � ش ن ا ���ا ���وره ا �ر�� �ل�ه ن� ي�مل� ح�م�ل�ه �ن�ا �ام���م�ل ن� �أاو � ك���ا � �كي��ه �م��م���ه ا �و�ل�� �ن�ه �لي����ي�ر ا �يل� �م� ن� � ّ آ ّ � ّ � � ن� � ا � هي ا ��لي ن �� �ا� ن �لي���ل�� �م ن ه ��� � � � نّ � �ن ن ن �و����م�ل ا�ام�ا �ن�� �ل�ه �م ن� � �لم�ك ���ر �� ��د لم�ل م� ي � �� ن ��د ح���و�ل ا ����ر �ل�ه ل�ي� � ��وع ا �ر م ع �أ يأن � �ون��ي ن� ����ا � �لن��ه ا �ر��. ن اأ ّ ا ي � � �ن � ا� ّ �ن � حيّ �ل ���م�ل ه � � ن� �ي ح ا ���� ند � ��ن����ن اأ ن �ُ ن � � �� �م� ���و�لمك ل�� � ي� � � ا � ا ه ه ل ع ل � ع � � ل م � ه ه � � � � � � � � � � � � ه ي ي ن �ي� ي �ل حن و � ي ن و وي � و � و و ن ن م م � � ي � ّ � � ن �ل��م�� ن ا ي ا ن ا � ن� ن � هي �ه � ّ ا ي ي ا � ش � � � س ا ل � ه � � ا � �� � م � � � �ل � م ل � � ح س م � � �� � م ح � ي م � � �� �و�عملي�� . � � � ع � �� � � ل و � حن��� ���ا ن� �ل ن ن ي �ل�� ي ن� ن ن� ن أ ي � ي ّ أ أ � � � ّ � ��ل ا ا� ي هي نّه � ّ �لي����� ا �� ن هي � �ع ن �ي ا ن�� �م�ل�م ا�م ن���� ن��� ا ��م�ل ا ����ل��� ي� ل�� � �ل ا � ه ن ل ل ح�� � � � ن ي �ل م�ل �عم �ي� �سرن�� � �م �م ����د��س� �عم�ل�� م ي ��ي � � � ن ي ا � ن ي � ي � ا � � ن � �� � ي � �ن ي ي � ن �� ن���ر ا �ل��س� �� �ل ����مل� �ل�ه �م� ا �ل�د ي� ي �حملك �عم�ل�� � �لمك �و�ه�و �ي�ل��دج ل�ي� �سر�� ن���مك � �ويل ���مل�� أ � ا هي �� � � نّ � � � أ �� ي ا ��ل��س ن� ا �ل����نم� ح ��ط �م ن��ه �م� �عم�ل�ّو ا �ل��س ن� �و�� ن�� ���ا ء �عم�لي�م�ك � او ن�� ي� �ل� �ل� ���م�ل أا �ل�� كن���ي ر � ّ � شي ع ي � � ن ن� ي ا � ن � � ن ن � ���ا ء ��ل�� �ي ��و ن���د أا ��ل�� �م� ا �ل طو�لم�ل �و� ك� � ���دا ��ه � او �� � ���يعن��ا �ل ا ���ه�سر؟ ���� ل� ���د ا ا ����ل��� أا �ل�� ر�م�ا � �� � ي أم ن ن ً � ن � ع ي � �أ ن أ أ أ ي � ن �ن �ن ح��� ي� ا ن� ا �ي����ا ����� ها ���ا �ل��د ا ا ����ل��� � �ع�د ا � ه �ل���م�ل�ه ��ا � � � � � ل � �� ح م و و �وي�مك ا ������� م� ��ي� ن��� � نن أ أ أ � � �ن ي ا �م� ي ن ����أ� ّ ��ً�ا ح��ه � ��لأ�� ّل�� ا ��ن�� ن�� �عم�ل�مً�ا �ن�ا � � ���د ا �ه� ا �ل�� �لع�� � ل�ل � �يّ �و ن� ه � ا م � � � � � . م ع ل ح ّر �س ار ر�ي�ه �ر� � � و ي ل ن و ن � نو ي أ ن �� أ ع يش ي � ن ح�مم�ل��ا � ���ه ي��سم�ا �ه� ا ر � ن �ل��ا � او �ع� � �عم�ل ا � ���ه �لم�ل�ن�م����� �عم�ل�� �م�ا ي� � �عم�ل�� ��ل�� �وه ���س �ير�ه �ور�ي�ا ن� ��� �و � و ي� و ي� � ��ر نّ �عم�ل� �م�ا �يل��م��ل ح���ا �و�يل���د �نل���ا. �
٣،٧٥
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا� � ن � � ن ن ن أ أ ن يّ ن ن ّ أ ن ن ن ي � ك���ا � ا �ل�������ا � أا � ا ا را � ا � ي�م� ���دهي ي��د ر �عم�ل� � ��لم�ك � او � ا ���د �ع�د هي ا �ع�د ا ء ل��ي� ��س�ا �ع�ه � او � ّأ � أ م ي � �ّ ي � ا� ي ن � ا هي ن ن ي � ن ن ن ن ي ا ا ا ا ا � ي � � � � � � � � ا ا ا ا � � � � د د ه � � � � � ���د ���د ح ��ل � �� � م � ل ��� � �و ���� �ع� � � � � � � � � م � � � �� � و � ي�� و م ي ع أ �ل نر � و ن � أ ن ��ن � ح�م�� ا ��ل��أ��� اأ ��ل�� ي� �� اأ نّ� ا �� �لنعي�ي ���ّ ���ل�� � �م�ا ��� ��ل � �ن نل �����ا � �م ����م�ل� � ل��ن ن� � ر ر و � �و�عر�م؟ �و���د �لم�ك ��ل ي و ن ي ع و ج و � م أ ن �� �ن ا �� هي ا �� � اأ� �م ن ا �� ن ا ء ا �� �ليعي اأ ن� �ن ّ �م ن �� �ي �ل هي ا � � ل � � ا � م م م ا � � � � � ��د � ل �� ح � � � ح��ا ء؟ � ��س � � ح � ل � س � � ل � ل � � � � نر ي و أ ي ا �ل � ي و� م ي ر� ن و ل
22
22
١،٧٦
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ن ن � أن ح��م ��ل�ه �عل�� اأ� ّ � نّ �� ي ا ح��ه � او ن� ا ا�� ي� �نل� �� رهي ل��م��ي � ح��م�ل �ل�ه ا ن���� ن� � � ن ���ه � �وي��د �� ن� �عملي��ه ا � ا �سم� ��� و ل � أ م م أ أ أ ً � ّ � � ح�م � هي ي � ن ن ن � ي ن ي � ش ن ا ���ا ���وره ا �ر�� �ل�ه ن� ي�مل� ح�م�ل�ه �ن�ا �ام���م�ل ن� �أاو � ك���ا � �كي��ه �م��م���ه ا �و�ل�� �ن�ه �لي����ي�ر ا �يل� �م� ن� � ّ آ ّ � ّ � � ن� � ا � هي ا ��لي ن �� �ا� ن �لي���ل�� �م ن ه ��� � � � نّ � �ن ن ن �و����م�ل ا�ام�ا �ن�� �ل�ه �م ن� � �لم�ك ���ر �� ��د لم�ل م� ي � �� ن ��د ح���و�ل ا ����ر �ل�ه ل�ي� � ��وع ا �ر م ع �أ يأن � �ون��ي ن� ����ا � �لن��ه ا �ر��. ن اأ ّ ا ي � � �ن � ا� ّ �ن � حيّ �ل ���م�ل ه � � ن� �ي ح ا ���� ند � ��ن����ن اأ ن �ُ ن � � �� �م� ���و�لمك ل�� � ي� � � ا � ا ه ه ل ع ل � ع � � ل م � ه ه � � � � � � � � � � � � ه ي ي ن �ي� ي �ل حن و � ي ن و وي � و � و و ن ن م م � � ي � ّ � � ن �ل��م�� ن ا ي ا ن ا � ن� ن � هي �ه � ّ ا ي ي ا � ش � � � س ا ل � ه � � ا � �� � م � � � �ل � م ل � � ح س م � � �� � م ح � ي م � � �� �و�عملي�� . � � � ع � �� � � ل و � حن��� ���ا ن� �ل ن ن ي �ل�� ي ن� ن ن� ن أ ي � ي ّ أ أ � � � ّ � ��ل ا ا� ي هي نّه � ّ �لي����� ا �� ن هي � �ع ن �ي ا ن�� �م�ل�م ا�م ن���� ن��� ا ��م�ل ا ����ل��� ي� ل�� � �ل ا � ه ن ل ل ح�� � � � ن ي �ل م�ل �عم �ي� �سرن�� � �م �م ����د��س� �عم�ل�� م ي ��ي � � � ن ي ا � ن ي � ي � ا � � ن � �� � ي � �ن ي ي � ن �� ن���ر ا �ل��س� �� �ل ����مل� �ل�ه �م� ا �ل�د ي� ي �حملك �عم�ل�� � �لمك �و�ه�و �ي�ل��دج ل�ي� �سر�� ن���مك � �ويل ���مل�� أ � ا هي �� � � نّ � � � أ �� ي ا ��ل��س ن� ا �ل����نم� ح ��ط �م ن��ه �م� �عم�ل�ّو ا �ل��س ن� �و�� ن�� ���ا ء �عم�لي�م�ك � او ن�� ي� �ل� �ل� ���م�ل أا �ل�� كن���ي ر � ّ � شي ع ي � � ن ن� ي ا � ن � � ن ن � ���ا ء ��ل�� �ي ��و ن���د أا ��ل�� �م� ا �ل طو�لم�ل �و� ك� � ���دا ��ه � او �� � ���يعن��ا �ل ا ���ه�سر؟ ���� ل� ���د ا ا ����ل��� أا �ل�� ر�م�ا � �� � ي أم ن ن ً � ن � ع ي � �أ ن أ أ أ ي � ن �ن �ن ح��� ي� ا ن� ا �ي����ا ����� ها ���ا �ل��د ا ا ����ل��� � �ع�د ا � ه �ل���م�ل�ه ��ا � � � � � ل � �� ح م و و �وي�مك ا ������� م� ��ي� ن��� � نن أ أ أ � � �ن ي ا �م� ي ن ����أ� ّ ��ً�ا ح��ه � ��لأ�� ّل�� ا ��ن�� ن�� �عم�ل�مً�ا �ن�ا � � ���د ا �ه� ا �ل�� �لع�� � ل�ل � �يّ �و ن� ه � ا م � � � � � . م ع ل ح ّر �س ار ر�ي�ه �ر� � � و ي ل ن و ن � نو ي أ ن �� أ ع يش ي � ن ح�مم�ل��ا � ���ه ي��سم�ا �ه� ا ر � ن �ل��ا � او �ع� � �عم�ل ا � ���ه �لم�ل�ن�م����� �عم�ل�� �م�ا ي� � �عم�ل�� ��ل�� �وه ���س �ير�ه �ور�ي�ا ن� ��� �و � و ي� و ي� � ��ر نّ �عم�ل� �م�ا �يل��م��ل ح���ا �و�يل���د �نل���ا. �
٣،٧٥
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا� � ن � � ن ن ن أ أ ن يّ ن ن ّ أ ن ن ن ي � ك���ا � ا �ل�������ا � أا � ا ا را � ا � ي�م� ���دهي ي��د ر �عم�ل� � ��لم�ك � او � ا ���د �ع�د هي ا �ع�د ا ء ل��ي� ��س�ا �ع�ه � او � ّأ � أ م ي � �ّ ي � ا� ي ن � ا هي ن ن ي � ن ن ن ن ي ا ا ا ا ا � ي � � � � � � � � ا ا ا ا � � � � د د ه � � � � � ���د ���د ح ��ل � �� � م � ل ��� � �و ���� �ع� � � � � � � � � م � � � �� � و � ي�� و م ي ع أ �ل نر � و ن � أ ن ��ن � ح�م�� ا ��ل��أ��� اأ ��ل�� ي� �� اأ نّ� ا �� �لنعي�ي ���ّ ���ل�� � �م�ا ��� ��ل � �ن نل �����ا � �م ����م�ل� � ل��ن ن� � ر ر و � �و�عر�م؟ �و���د �لم�ك ��ل ي و ن ي ع و ج و � م أ ن �� �ن ا �� هي ا �� � اأ� �م ن ا �� ن ا ء ا �� �ليعي اأ ن� �ن ّ �م ن �� �ي �ل هي ا � � ل � � ا � م م م ا � � � � � ��د � ل �� ح � � � ح��ا ء؟ � ��س � � ح � ل � س � � ل � ل � � � � نر ي و أ ي ا �ل � ي و� م ي ر� ن و ل
22
22
١،٧٦
On why it is easier to make enemies than friends
we love it, and we hate it if we do not possess it. We fail to understand that it is better for us to solicit what we do not know through active pursuit, even if it entails effort, in order that this become another beautiful form we possess. Perhaps what prevents us from doing so is our aversion to humbling ourselves before a teacher once we have attained eminence in a different subject and among a different set of people. You ask: “Why don’t they love them and seek them out and try to compre-
75.3
hend them?” This is what one ought to do, and what the author of the proverb sought to encourage by calling attention to the fault, so that it might be avoided by doing what is better. I heard a scholar saying that an illustrious and high-ranking judge set out to learn geometry at an advanced age. He said: I asked him, “What is it that drives you to this, even though it detracts from your status and sets fools’ tongues wagging, and even though you will not attain a great share of it, given your age and given the fact that mastery of this knowledge requires a long time and a sharp mind that is only found during youth and the early part of life?” He replied, “Watch your words! I realized I nursed a sense of hatred for this knowledge and a sense of hostility toward its possessors, and I desired to pursue it in order to love it and not to hate a form of knowledge or be hostile to its possessors.” This is what it means to submit to the truth and swallow its bitterness, in keenness to taste the sweetness of its fruit and out of a desire to train the soul to endure what it finds repugnant when this redounds to its beauty and profit, compelling it to do those things that reform and refine it.
On why it is easier to make enemies than friends Why is it that if a person wanted to, he could make multiple enemies in the space of a single hour, whereas if he tried to make a friend and establish cordial relations with a single companion he could only achieve this over a long period of time and with great effort, much trouble, and financial loss? The same holds true for every good we hope for and every matter we desire, in all domains. Don’t you see that it is easier to rend than sew, simpler to destroy than build, less difficult to take life than to nurture and give it?
23
23
76.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ ن أ� ���د ه �من���ا� � .م�ا اأ �ش ا � ح��ا ��هي ��س�م�عي���ا ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله ن�� �وا ن� �م��س�ا �لي�م�ك � و � و �������� ن� � ي ن أ ي� أ أ ي أ �ع ن ا � � ��س � ّ � ن� ا ا �نّه �لم�لن�س ن� ا نّ �ي ا �أًا �ي ا �عم�ل ه [� ن � �ل� م�ه� و ك � ن �� � � ر� ر ي�� ����سر ] ح ي ي ِِ ِ ٱ �ْ �أِْا�ِ ُّ ٱ �ِّ� ن ِنُ � نُّ � ِ ٱ � نِّ � نِّ ���اأ نْ ي�ِ� ْ�د ِ اأ � �ِ ي�ِ� ْ�د ���ِفق�م��َ ف�ا � � ك � ر� و ِ � او �ل� � ِ م��هي� ا �ل�ِد �ي� �يل ���� �نِ�مك 1ا ل���� ِ ِ أ ا �ْ �أِ ا�ِْ ُّ ن� ي ا � ٱ �ِّ� ن � ِنُ � نُّ � ِ ٱ � نِّ � نِّ ِأ نْ ِي ْ ِ أ ِي ْ ِ ِ ن���ي��ا ��ل �ي�ا ا �ن�ا ��م�عي��د �م� ا �ل��م��ه ؟ ���� �ل ا �ل�ِد ي� �يل ��� �ن�مك ٢ا �ل��� ك� ���ا � ��د را �� �ِو��د ���سِم���ا. � � ِ � ِ ن اأ ن ا ي ا أ �ن ن ا� اأ � ي أ ن يًا نّ ا ا � � ن ا ن ي ا ً ا يّ ن� ا ن ا � �أ داء � هي ن �� �� �� �لم� ل�� ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه ا �يل� ا � � ا ا � � � � � � ع� � � م � ��س � � ع � ع � � � ع �ل ن ر و ير ل ��� أ �م� ��� ر �لأ� ��س� � ر �ل�� ي يّ ن ن � �أ ي �ّ أ ّ � ش ن ن ن � ي ن ن ن ن ي ي � � � ن � ي ي �ي ا �ي�ا � �عم� ا ��ا � ا �ل�� � ا � � �� ���د � ء أا �ل� ل�ي� ر�م� � ��ط�و�يلم�ل � نو��� ار �م�ه ك��ي ره �ل�� ���د ا ك ��� �و� ا ك ر� ��� ر ل�� ن ي ن ّ ن �و���د ا ���د � �و� ا ك ن�ل ن��ا ء �و����ي� �ن�ا ل��� �� �وا �ن�م�ك. ��ل���مم�ك �أ�ا �ن�ه ن�� ي م
٢،٧٦
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ �ن ن ي �� ّ ن أ � �أ ا ن ي ا ا ��ل � ي �ّ � �عم�ل� ا ��نل � � ا �� � ��ي�ر �أاوي�لش�� ر ن �مي�م�ل � او � ا ء ا �ل��م� ��ه �و� �� او ��م�ل�ه ا �لن��ر ���� ا �ل�د ي� �رك ا � �ر��دي��� � او �ل�د ��ر ي � �ي � ن ي � ّ ن� ن ش ي ا��مملمي � � �� � � ن � � ه ن ا � � � � �س ير �و�م� �ع �و�ه ن��� أ � أا �لي��ه � او �ل ش��س�ا ل�ي�� ن�ي� ي��دي� ؟ ���د و ه�و �ل� ح�م�ه ا�ا نم�يسم�ل�� �و�م�ع� �و�ه ا �ل� �ور ج آ أ أ ً ً � ً � � ن � � ن �� �ي � ش ن هي �و �ش�� او �ن�ا �و�ل�� �ي�ن��ي ن� ���� �م�ا �ن�ا �و�ل�� ي ن� ��ا �ن� � ح��س�ا �ن�ا .ا ي�ر�� ا �لن��ا �ع ش� �عم�ل�� ���د ه ا �ل���ل � ا �ل��س �ر�ل�� �يرن�� ر ي � � ي ن� ي ه ل�ن � ش � ي ّ أ ن � ي ن � � ا� ن � ن��ه �م ن ا ��ل� �ن ي ن � او ��نل ح���ا �ل م���و�ه رعن�س� �ي� ا �ل��س � ��ر � �و�ن�ر�وه �م� ا � �ل�ر�� �و��و � ي ����؟ ��د �ي�لع��م�ل ّ �أ ّ � � ن حنع ّ��هي ل�ن ا ��لن ��ن حي��ل��� ا ��ل ش � �م�ا ن� ا ك أا ��ل�� ��نل ���د ه ل��ن� ا �ل���وي��ا ي� �ل�� �ي نل ���� نّ �ن�ه ا ��لي��ول��ي� �و�ل�� ا ن� �� � � � ��س � �� � � ي ن ر � � ي ي ي ّٰ ّ ا ��� �ي �ي� ا �� ل�ن ن ا � �أ� � ا ش � �� ي ي ا � � ل ل ا � � � ه ا � � �و��سر�م ح��د لل �لن�� رك و��� ��؟ ع ع�م�ل و �م�ل �ي� ���د ه �ل� ��ور م� ي���س�ي ر أ �� ��و ي
١،٧٧
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ��ل�ل�� �ن��س�ا ن� ��م�ا �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ن و أ ي� ي ي �ن أ أ أ �ن � �ش �ور�و� ا �ل��سرع �و�ل�ه �ن��د ا �ي�ه ل�ي� را �ي�ه � او � او �لم�ل ل�ي� أ أ 1الا�ص�ل� :ل�ك ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :ل�ك.
24
ن ا ن أ �ن ا � �ه ��م� ش ي ��ا �ي�ا �و��سي�� �كن�مل� �ه�و أا ���س� � ا ���� �ل �و �سق�م �و ن م ّ ي �� ح��ا ن� ن�ك���ا ا ��ل� ا ��ل ش��س �لم� ا ن��م�ا �ع��م�ل�ه �ل� ي� يج ي� أ � رع ن ل أ
24
٢،٧٧
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ ن أ� ���د ه �من���ا� � .م�ا اأ �ش ا � ح��ا ��هي ��س�م�عي���ا ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله ن�� �وا ن� �م��س�ا �لي�م�ك � و � و �������� ن� � ي ن أ ي� أ أ ي أ �ع ن ا � � ��س � ّ � ن� ا ا �نّه �لم�لن�س ن� ا نّ �ي ا �أًا �ي ا �عم�ل ه [� ن � �ل� م�ه� و ك � ن �� � � ر� ر ي�� ����سر ] ح ي ي ِِ ِ ٱ �ْ �أِْا�ِ ُّ ٱ �ِّ� ن ِنُ � نُّ � ِ ٱ � نِّ � نِّ ���اأ نْ ي�ِ� ْ�د ِ اأ � �ِ ي�ِ� ْ�د ���ِفق�م��َ ف�ا � � ك � ر� و ِ � او �ل� � ِ م��هي� ا �ل�ِد �ي� �يل ���� �نِ�مك 1ا ل���� ِ ِ أ ا �ْ �أِ ا�ِْ ُّ ن� ي ا � ٱ �ِّ� ن � ِنُ � نُّ � ِ ٱ � نِّ � نِّ ِأ نْ ِي ْ ِ أ ِي ْ ِ ِ ن���ي��ا ��ل �ي�ا ا �ن�ا ��م�عي��د �م� ا �ل��م��ه ؟ ���� �ل ا �ل�ِد ي� �يل ��� �ن�مك ٢ا �ل��� ك� ���ا � ��د را �� �ِو��د ���سِم���ا. � � ِ � ِ ن اأ ن ا ي ا أ �ن ن ا� اأ � ي أ ن يًا نّ ا ا � � ن ا ن ي ا ً ا يّ ن� ا ن ا � �أ داء � هي ن �� �� �� �لم� ل�� ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه ا �يل� ا � � ا ا � � � � � � ع� � � م � ��س � � ع � ع � � � ع �ل ن ر و ير ل ��� أ �م� ��� ر �لأ� ��س� � ر �ل�� ي يّ ن ن � �أ ي �ّ أ ّ � ش ن ن ن � ي ن ن ن ن ي ي � � � ن � ي ي �ي ا �ي�ا � �عم� ا ��ا � ا �ل�� � ا � � �� ���د � ء أا �ل� ل�ي� ر�م� � ��ط�و�يلم�ل � نو��� ار �م�ه ك��ي ره �ل�� ���د ا ك ��� �و� ا ك ر� ��� ر ل�� ن ي ن ّ ن �و���د ا ���د � �و� ا ك ن�ل ن��ا ء �و����ي� �ن�ا ل��� �� �وا �ن�م�ك. ��ل���مم�ك �أ�ا �ن�ه ن�� ي م
٢،٧٦
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ �ن ن ي �� ّ ن أ � �أ ا ن ي ا ا ��ل � ي �ّ � �عم�ل� ا ��نل � � ا �� � ��ي�ر �أاوي�لش�� ر ن �مي�م�ل � او � ا ء ا �ل��م� ��ه �و� �� او ��م�ل�ه ا �لن��ر ���� ا �ل�د ي� �رك ا � �ر��دي��� � او �ل�د ��ر ي � �ي � ن ي � ّ ن� ن ش ي ا��مملمي � � �� � � ن � � ه ن ا � � � � �س ير �و�م� �ع �و�ه ن��� أ � أا �لي��ه � او �ل ش��س�ا ل�ي�� ن�ي� ي��دي� ؟ ���د و ه�و �ل� ح�م�ه ا�ا نم�يسم�ل�� �و�م�ع� �و�ه ا �ل� �ور ج آ أ أ ً ً � ً � � ن � � ن �� �ي � ش ن هي �و �ش�� او �ن�ا �و�ل�� �ي�ن��ي ن� ���� �م�ا �ن�ا �و�ل�� ي ن� ��ا �ن� � ح��س�ا �ن�ا .ا ي�ر�� ا �لن��ا �ع ش� �عم�ل�� ���د ه ا �ل���ل � ا �ل��س �ر�ل�� �يرن�� ر ي � � ي ن� ي ه ل�ن � ش � ي ّ أ ن � ي ن � � ا� ن � ن��ه �م ن ا ��ل� �ن ي ن � او ��نل ح���ا �ل م���و�ه رعن�س� �ي� ا �ل��س � ��ر � �و�ن�ر�وه �م� ا � �ل�ر�� �و��و � ي ����؟ ��د �ي�لع��م�ل ّ �أ ّ � � ن حنع ّ��هي ل�ن ا ��لن ��ن حي��ل��� ا ��ل ش � �م�ا ن� ا ك أا ��ل�� ��نل ���د ه ل��ن� ا �ل���وي��ا ي� �ل�� �ي نل ���� نّ �ن�ه ا ��لي��ول��ي� �و�ل�� ا ن� �� � � � ��س � �� � � ي ن ر � � ي ي ي ّٰ ّ ا ��� �ي �ي� ا �� ل�ن ن ا � �أ� � ا ش � �� ي ي ا � � ل ل ا � � � ه ا � � �و��سر�م ح��د لل �لن�� رك و��� ��؟ ع ع�م�ل و �م�ل �ي� ���د ه �ل� ��ور م� ي���س�ي ر أ �� ��و ي
١،٧٧
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ��ل�ل�� �ن��س�ا ن� ��م�ا �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ن و أ ي� ي ي �ن أ أ أ �ن � �ش �ور�و� ا �ل��سرع �و�ل�ه �ن��د ا �ي�ه ل�ي� را �ي�ه � او � او �لم�ل ل�ي� أ أ 1الا�ص�ل� :ل�ك ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :ل�ك.
24
ن ا ن أ �ن ا � �ه ��م� ش ي ��ا �ي�ا �و��سي�� �كن�مل� �ه�و أا ���س� � ا ���� �ل �و �سق�م �و ن م ّ ي �� ح��ا ن� ن�ك���ا ا ��ل� ا ��ل ش��س �لم� ا ن��م�ا �ع��م�ل�ه �ل� ي� يج ي� أ � رع ن ل أ
24
٢،٧٧
On why atheists act morally
Miskawayh’s response Your question answers itself. It reminds me of a story I heard about al-Aṣmaʿī.
76.2
I was told that a student read out the following verse to him: The canny man is suspicious of you, as if he has seen and heard things about you. The student asked, “Abū Saʿīd, what does ‘canny’ mean?” He responded, “Someone who is suspicious of you, as if he has seen and heard things about you.” I also say regarding this question: The reason people are able to make enemies quickly but can only make friends after a long time and at great cost is that the former involves rending, the latter mending; the former involves destroying, the latter building. Apply this to the rest of your question, and you have your answer.
On why atheists act morally What drives unbelievers and materialists 6 to do what is good and choose what
77.1
is fine, to return deposits given in trust, persist in kindness, take pity on the afflicted, help those who cry out, and assist those who seek refuge with them and place their grievances before them? They behave this way even though they anticipate no reward, expect no return, and fear no judgment in the next life. Would you say that what motivates these noble traits and praiseworthy characteristics is their desire to be thanked and spared repugnance, or their fear of the sword? Yet they may act this way at times when they cannot be supposed to be taking precautions or seeking to secure gratitude. This can only be for some secret reason that lies in the soul and some mystery that lies with reason. And do these things contain something that points to the unity of God? Miskawayh’s response There are certain acts, aims, natural attributes, and dispositions that human beings possess qua human beings prior to the advent of the religious Law. Their judgment contains certain rudiments and their reason contains certain basic principles for which they do not require a religious Law. Rather, the Law
25
25
77.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ أ � ن ن � �ي�ا ي�لي��ه ا ��ل ش��س �ر����هي ن�لي��ا ك� ���ا �م ن� ن�كي��ه �و� ��و� ��ي��د �م�ا �ع ن��ده � او �لي� ن��ن�يس�ه �عم�لي��ه ن�ي�شس�ي�ر �م�ا �ه�و ك� �و� ل��� �� ��� �ير�ه � ن ي ي أ �� � � ي �ن � ّ � ن � ه ن� � ن ي � ن ا ��� �ي �ي أ ن �ن ّٰ �ي ا ��ل � ه �� ّ ��� ن ن � ن ل � � � � ه ا � م ا ا � ك � ل م ه � � �د ا ��د ه لل ��� �� �عمي�� و �ره ي�� م� ن��د مل�� �ل م� ل� عريره م� ع�م�ل ن � �ن ن ي نن �هي ا ��ل ا �� ن� ن ا �أم � �ش �ي ا ��ل ا��م ا � ن � � ��ل ش��� ء اآ ن � � �ول��ي�� ن� �م ن� ا �لأ����س�ا �ليّ��ه ���عي��ه �ر���� أ �� ل�� ��� ل�ل و � ��و� أ �� �� �س� �ل� �ي� ر أ ���ش � ن ا �� ن� ن ا �أ ا��م ا � ن ا �� ي � �يعي ن ا ا ��� �ي �ي � � � ن ن ّ ي ن ي ي ن ن � � ل � م ع م م � � � � ح �س ل ل � � � � � � � � �� � � �� � � � ���ا ا �لأ����س�ا �لي��ه �أاو � ا ���ر� �ن��د �لم�ك � �ل و و ن ن � �ل و � ي� ي ي � ا ر � أ أ أ أ � ّ � � � � ن � � ن ��م ّ هي � ي ا ي ��م ّ هي � ش � � ن ن ا �ل�� ي � ي ا ح�� ح�� ا �ل��س � ��ر �و ���م�ل ن� س�م���ه � او �سم� ��� ا � ��ور ا �ر� .و ��و�ل� ا � ن ل��ي� ن������� ا �ل��و�� � ن ي أ �ن ن � ي ا� ا ن ن� � � � أ نّ ��نل � � � � ���د �ا�م�ا ��ً�ا ن� ��يسمل�ه �م� ر�ع ن� كي��ه �و���و�ل� ا � ا ��ا ���ي� �ي����ا �ل�� � او � ح�مي�م�ل �و�� ا �ل ش��س � ��ر �و�م�ا �ي���ن����ه ا �يل ن� أ � ي ا ي ن ���د �ا�م ن � �عم� ا ��ل���ا حن��ّ �عم� ���ا أا ن� ا ا�� ي ن� ���د ه ا ��ل ��ا ��ل �ن�ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �و�ل�� ا ���مين� � ��ا ن� ا � ل ���د � ���س� �و� أ و ي� ي� � � م ً ّ يًا ا ����ه � نّ ن أ ن�م� � � �ي � ا ّٰ �ي� ا �ل� ن نن ���د �� �نل��� �و �سر ي� أا � ���د ا ا � ل��ي� � �ل���س�ه �ش�س�ا ���د ا �ل���ا �و�م� و ح��د لله ��� �� � � �لي�م�ل �عم�ل�� ��و ي ج ن� ي ّ � ���ره � �و �لي��د ��� ا ��س�م�ه.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ُ أ ن ُن ����ا ا ��ل�� ند �� ي���ا � ل��ن �ن �نل��� ���� ن�� ا ��ل ن��ا �� � ح�يّ ���ا ر �م�� �م�ك �وي���م ن� ����هي؟ ا �عن��� �يل�م� � حر �م ن��ه ح� � ي � م ي� � ن � ي ُ ن ن ّ� ا ن ن ن� ّ� ا ن � � ن ن� ي ن ي أ أ � ا ا ا ا � م �و��� ن�� ش� �ن �ل � �� �ورن�م� ��ل� م� ا �ل�� �لم�ل �ورن�م� �ر ر ا �ل�� �لم�ل. ع�� ه �و�ه�و ل�ي� � ا ك ��� �نر ����� ن ي � �ّ ن ي ن � ا � ش ن ن ن ا�� ّ ن � �ن ُ ّ ن � ه � �أ ا �� �لي ن �؟ �و����مل�ه �م� ن����� ���� ��را �ل��سر�� �م�ي��� م � م � � ك �م�ل � .نو��مش�م�ل ���د ا ا ل � ��ي�� ه�و� �عمي�� �ل��سر ن ي � ي �ن ن أ �م نّشًا � ن� نّ ًاج�� ّ ا ًا ��ل آ ن ا �يكي ّ ا�ا�م�س ن� �ل� �� اآ ن� � ن ���د�� ش� ا �� �م� ا �ل��د �� � ش��س�ا ���ه �م ن � � ا ا � ا � � م � ح � � م � � � � � � ع م � س س � � � � � ل ن ي ن أ� ر �� ي �ي ر ر � ي ر ل ي �� �� ي ن م�د ���و�م�هي �و�ه�و �م ن� ن��ي�� ي� كن� ��ر� ��� � ����ي�ر. ي
١،٧٨
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ اأ � ي � ن ي أ نّ �� ّ ٰ ً ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله �س ّ ��ل ن��ا ل��ن� �م��س� �ل�ه ا � �ل� ا ��س�ه ا � � � ي��ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ � ����ل �س نار ن� ن�م�ل�ي��ا � 1ي�ي��ن����ه م��س� و ر ر ي ي� ي ج أ �ن ا � �ي �يم� � ا ��ل��� � هي ا�ا� ن ا � اأ نّ ا � � ن ا ن �ن ي ي ا � � م � � ا ا � � ل � او �لن������ �ل� �� لك ن ��يس�� و�سرنج و � �لأ����س� � ��� ��س� ر��سم�ل ���د ر ��� ل��� نح�� ن � ي �� � �� ي ن ي � �ي ّ ي � �ن ي � ن ن ن � يأ ن ن ��يس���ه � او � �ل��ا � �ل�ه� او ه �و ا�م ي����س�ه�مم�ل ا � �ل �عوه ا�ام�و�ه� �ون�ه �ل�ه ل��ي� ر��� � �لم�ك � �و�ا �ي�لن��ه � �ل���س�ه �نل���ا ك���ا � لمل�ن ع أ 1الا�ص�ل :ن���ل ة�.
26
26
٢،٧٨
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ أ � ن ن � �ي�ا ي�لي��ه ا ��ل ش��س �ر����هي ن�لي��ا ك� ���ا �م ن� ن�كي��ه �و� ��و� ��ي��د �م�ا �ع ن��ده � او �لي� ن��ن�يس�ه �عم�لي��ه ن�ي�شس�ي�ر �م�ا �ه�و ك� �و� ل��� �� ��� �ير�ه � ن ي ي أ �� � � ي �ن � ّ � ن � ه ن� � ن ي � ن ا ��� �ي �ي أ ن �ن ّٰ �ي ا ��ل � ه �� ّ ��� ن ن � ن ل � � � � ه ا � م ا ا � ك � ل م ه � � �د ا ��د ه لل ��� �� �عمي�� و �ره ي�� م� ن��د مل�� �ل م� ل� عريره م� ع�م�ل ن � �ن ن ي نن �هي ا ��ل ا �� ن� ن ا �أم � �ش �ي ا ��ل ا��م ا � ن � � ��ل ش��� ء اآ ن � � �ول��ي�� ن� �م ن� ا �لأ����س�ا �ليّ��ه ���عي��ه �ر���� أ �� ل�� ��� ل�ل و � ��و� أ �� �� �س� �ل� �ي� ر أ ���ش � ن ا �� ن� ن ا �أ ا��م ا � ن ا �� ي � �يعي ن ا ا ��� �ي �ي � � � ن ن ّ ي ن ي ي ن ن � � ل � م ع م م � � � � ح �س ل ل � � � � � � � � �� � � �� � � � ���ا ا �لأ����س�ا �لي��ه �أاو � ا ���ر� �ن��د �لم�ك � �ل و و ن ن � �ل و � ي� ي ي � ا ر � أ أ أ أ � ّ � � � � ن � � ن ��م ّ هي � ي ا ي ��م ّ هي � ش � � ن ن ا �ل�� ي � ي ا ح�� ح�� ا �ل��س � ��ر �و ���م�ل ن� س�م���ه � او �سم� ��� ا � ��ور ا �ر� .و ��و�ل� ا � ن ل��ي� ن������� ا �ل��و�� � ن ي أ �ن ن � ي ا� ا ن ن� � � � أ نّ ��نل � � � � ���د �ا�م�ا ��ً�ا ن� ��يسمل�ه �م� ر�ع ن� كي��ه �و���و�ل� ا � ا ��ا ���ي� �ي����ا �ل�� � او � ح�مي�م�ل �و�� ا �ل ش��س � ��ر �و�م�ا �ي���ن����ه ا �يل ن� أ � ي ا ي ن ���د �ا�م ن � �عم� ا ��ل���ا حن��ّ �عم� ���ا أا ن� ا ا�� ي ن� ���د ه ا ��ل ��ا ��ل �ن�ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �و�ل�� ا ���مين� � ��ا ن� ا � ل ���د � ���س� �و� أ و ي� ي� � � م ً ّ يًا ا ����ه � نّ ن أ ن�م� � � �ي � ا ّٰ �ي� ا �ل� ن نن ���د �� �نل��� �و �سر ي� أا � ���د ا ا � ل��ي� � �ل���س�ه �ش�س�ا ���د ا �ل���ا �و�م� و ح��د لله ��� �� � � �لي�م�ل �عم�ل�� ��و ي ج ن� ي ّ � ���ره � �و �لي��د ��� ا ��س�م�ه.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ُ أ ن ُن ����ا ا ��ل�� ند �� ي���ا � ل��ن �ن �نل��� ���� ن�� ا ��ل ن��ا �� � ح�يّ ���ا ر �م�� �م�ك �وي���م ن� ����هي؟ ا �عن��� �يل�م� � حر �م ن��ه ح� � ي � م ي� � ن � ي ُ ن ن ّ� ا ن ن ن� ّ� ا ن � � ن ن� ي ن ي أ أ � ا ا ا ا � م �و��� ن�� ش� �ن �ل � �� �ورن�م� ��ل� م� ا �ل�� �لم�ل �ورن�م� �ر ر ا �ل�� �لم�ل. ع�� ه �و�ه�و ل�ي� � ا ك ��� �نر ����� ن ي � �ّ ن ي ن � ا � ش ن ن ن ا�� ّ ن � �ن ُ ّ ن � ه � �أ ا �� �لي ن �؟ �و����مل�ه �م� ن����� ���� ��را �ل��سر�� �م�ي��� م � م � � ك �م�ل � .نو��مش�م�ل ���د ا ا ل � ��ي�� ه�و� �عمي�� �ل��سر ن ي � ي �ن ن أ �م نّشًا � ن� نّ ًاج�� ّ ا ًا ��ل آ ن ا �يكي ّ ا�ا�م�س ن� �ل� �� اآ ن� � ن ���د�� ش� ا �� �م� ا �ل��د �� � ش��س�ا ���ه �م ن � � ا ا � ا � � م � ح � � م � � � � � � ع م � س س � � � � � ل ن ي ن أ� ر �� ي �ي ر ر � ي ر ل ي �� �� ي ن م�د ���و�م�هي �و�ه�و �م ن� ن��ي�� ي� كن� ��ر� ��� � ����ي�ر. ي
١،٧٨
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ اأ � ي � ن ي أ نّ �� ّ ٰ ً ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله �س ّ ��ل ن��ا ل��ن� �م��س� �ل�ه ا � �ل� ا ��س�ه ا � � � ي��ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ � ����ل �س نار ن� ن�م�ل�ي��ا � 1ي�ي��ن����ه م��س� و ر ر ي ي� ي ج أ �ن ا � �ي �يم� � ا ��ل��� � هي ا�ا� ن ا � اأ نّ ا � � ن ا ن �ن ي ي ا � � م � � ا ا � � ل � او �لن������ �ل� �� لك ن ��يس�� و�سرنج و � �لأ����س� � ��� ��س� ر��سم�ل ���د ر ��� ل��� نح�� ن � ي �� � �� ي ن ي � �ي ّ ي � �ن ي � ن ن ن � يأ ن ن ��يس���ه � او � �ل��ا � �ل�ه� او ه �و ا�م ي����س�ه�مم�ل ا � �ل �عوه ا�ام�و�ه� �ون�ه �ل�ه ل��ي� ر��� � �لم�ك � �و�ا �ي�لن��ه � �ل���س�ه �نل���ا ك���ا � لمل�ن ع أ 1الا�ص�ل :ن���ل ة�.
26
26
٢،٧٨
On why some people willingly become the butt of other people’s jokes
comes in order to call attention to and confirm what they already possess, enlivening what is latent within them and present in their natural constitution, which God bound them to and inscribed within them from the beginning of creation. So everyone naturally endowed with reason and a share of humanity possesses a drive to acquire excellent traits and a longing for good qualities that is simply grounded in the excellent traits and good qualities necessitated by reason and mandated by humanity. Sometimes, to be sure, it may be conjoined with a desire to be thanked, to acquire a good name, or to obtain other things. The desire for gratitude and its concomitants would not have been commended, were it not a fine thing and an excellent quality. If the Creator were not one, this condition would not be universal among people, and no one would have responded to those who urged it and exhorted him to it, had he found nothing within himself to attest to it and corroborate it. Upon my life, this is the clearest proof of God’s unity.
On why some people willingly become the butt of other people’s jokes What comes over certain people so they become a laughingstock? People
78.1
laugh at them, ridicule them, and slap them about, and they submit to such treatment with patience and contentment, though they have little or nothing to gain. How do they acquiesce to this unseemly state of affairs without demur? Sometimes the person in question may even belong to a family of great eminence and lofty standing. Similarly, someone else may adopt effeminate manners or become involved in singing or games—and so on, to the end of the story he recounted regarding a man who grew up following a blameworthy path, though hailing from a great family. Miskawayh’s response As we mentioned earlier, in the question regarding physiognomy, every elemental mixture is attended by a specific character, and the acts of the soul issue in accordance with that nature and mixture. People are beasts in the guise of men when they abandon themselves to nature, yield to their blind desires, and fail to use the power they were endowed with in order to remedy this and discipline their soul. The character trait you mention in this question is one of the
27
27
78.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن �ن ي � ن ن ي ن ن � أ � ي أ أ ���د ا ��ل�� ن��ل�� �ي� ا ��لي��ا �����هي �ا��س ن ا ن� ل��ن� �م��س�ل�� ن� �نل�ي��سم�هي� .و���د ا ا �ل �م� �ل� ا �ل��د �ي� � �� �� �ر�ه ل��ي� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه ا � ن ر ي أج ج � ي ن� �� ي � ا ��ل��� � هي ن� ا ن� ن ا � � ن ا � � � ي �� ا �� ي �م ي ي� ا � � ن ا ن ح � � م ه � ل ا ك ا � ع ا ك ��يس�� � ي��� ح� ي�� أ �� ن � � �� رنج ع� �ل� ��د ل ��ي� ��� رك �لأ����س� � و����وم ن � ن ج ُ ن � ن ُ � ا اأ ن اأ اأ ��� � �ي هي ُ�يّ حي���د ل��ن �م�د ا � ا �يل��ا حي � � � ه � � ك م ��د � � م م � ���ا. � � ع ل � ل ل ي � � ي � �م�د �� ن� �و ����و �ريل�� �و � ل ل ن و� و � ن � ي� ي� �� �� � ن �ي� ن � �أ � � � ّ ي� ن ن � ّ ن � م��ا �ن�ه �ا�م�ا � �م�� ح��س ن ا �لي��ي�عو�� � او �لي��ا ���ي ن� �عم�لي��ه �ن �و���و�ل�� أا � � ���ي��د �ي�لي��د � ���و�ل ن��ا ل��ي� ���د ا ا �لن��ا ن� أا �ن�ه �م � � � م � آ يم � �� � � � � � ي ي � ن � � � ��ل � � � ن ّ ن� � � � ن ���س�ا ��س�ه �م ن� ا �ل��ن�ا ء � او�امم�ل�وك �و��� او �م ا�ام�د � �و�ل� ا �ح�م�د � او �ل�د �م كي��ه �و�ل� ا �رن�ر � او �ل�د �عم ء أا �لي��ه �و�ل� ا �ل ي ن ان � ا � ن �أ � ي ه ا �� �ي ا ي ا ا� ن� ن هي ���ا ن�� ي� �م���ا ن��ل ��ه� .و�م��ي �ا� ي����مني�� ح� أا ���س� � �ام��� ن�ل ��هي ���د ه ا �ل��� �واء ك� ��� ح�� �ن� ��ع �ع �ون� � � 1م�ر�و� ن ن � م � �أ ن � ن ن ّ ي � �أ ن �� أ � ا ن ّ ي ن� أ نّ �� ي ن ن ل ا ا ا ش ا ن ح ل �� � � � ا � � � � � � � او نحن��ه كي��ه� .و�م� ا ���نس�ه ا �ل��س ار �� ا �ل �����س� �لي��ه �ن� �ل��س ار �� ن س�م� �لي��ه �كم ا � �س � ٢نح���� � ير � ن� ن � م ح اأ ن �ُ�� ا ��ل ا � ي � � شا ح��ه ��ا ��ل�� ن�ي ا ا ي ا� ا ��ل �هر � او � �ل���سر � � ���د �لم�ك ح�يس� ر � او أ�ل�ي�ل�� ر �و ن� ن� � ي ��جن � �ن� � �ل � �م��� �م ي����� ن��ه ��� � ن ن أ ��ل ا �� � �ي � � ا ا �� اأ �� � ن ا �� �� � �ن� ن ن ن ن أ ن �س ن�� ا ��لن ��ن��� ا ��ل� ا ن� ��ن��ي �ه�� أا �� �� ل يلع� م ��� لي�� � م� ل��� ل ح���أ��د �ي���ن���ه� ا � ي � أ� � � ر� ي ي ع يج� ن � ي ي أ أ � ُ � ُ ي � ن ن ي ن ش ن ن �هر ا �ل�ر��� �م ن��ه �عم�ل� � �� �م�ا � ل�� ح�� ح� �كي��ه ا �ل��س �ير����ه ا �و ي� ارج� �م� � �ل���س�ه �وي���س��راج� �م��ه � �ول �� � ن � م � ا هي � ن ا ن ي ���س� ��س� ا � �ل�� � ��م�ل�ه. ا �ل ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ش ن ��نلُ ي أ ّ ش � � ن ا ن �ن �م ّ � ا ح��هي ا � �رأ�ا ��س�هي �و�م ن� اي� ن� �ور� ���د ا ا �م�ل�� � او �ي� ����ي� ء ر�س نر ي� ��ص� ن� ا �لأ����س� � ل�ي� � ن ���� � ن ا �� ��� ي � أن � حيّ ي � ّي � �أ نّ � ن ن �� ��س�هي ن�من�� ���ا ��� �لم ل�ل�� ا �ل�� حره �و� او ن��ه ا�ا�سر�ع���ا ي� ��يس���ه �ن�ه؟ �و ا�م ا �ر ��ط ن���� ن� �ل�ه�م ل��ي� ���ملن � لن أ �ّ ا � يا � ّ � � ا� ا ا � ا � ن ح�ي ن�ه �نل� حر�م� ا ن�م�ل��� ا ���و��س� � �و�و�ع ن���سن��ن � ��� ا �ر�� � �و ��ط�و�� ا�م��� �م�ه � او �لن��ل� �؟ �و��م�ل ���د ره �و � أ ا ن ن ��نل � ي ن ن � ن ن ن � ��ا ي �ي ن ي ن �ن ي ي ن ���د ا ا �مل��� ٣م� ن������ �م� ا �م������ ل�ي� � �ر�ي�� ن� ا ���ع�� او � أا � ا ��و�� ن� ا �و ك�� �� ن�؟ �و�م� � ا ك �م� ي ّ ن ي ّ � ن ن � � � ن� ��� �وي�لن��اي�ل ن�� او � ن�ولم�لن� �ع او ا�امن��ا ��ن� . ح�مي�� �م�ا � �لي��د �م؟ ���ي��د � ش��س�ا � ا �ل ن��ا ��� ل��ي� ���د ه ا�ام� او ن� ج ع ع ع
١،٧٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ح ه ّٰ ي ي ّ ن أ نّ ل�ن � ن ا �� ش �� ش �ي � � � ن ا �� ي هي ي ا �� اأ� ّ � � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� ا لله ��د �لن��ي�� ا � �ي� ا �ل�� � ��ل � ��و� �و �هي� ا �ل�� �ط��� �� ل ن ��و �عم�ل� ي ا ي � ا� ن ي � �أ � ن ن ا أ ي� � ��س�م ّ��هي � ا ��ن�� ن � ا ��ل ���� ّ��هي �ن�ه� ��ا ��ل ن��ا ���ط�ي �من���ا � ش���ي ��� �لم� ا � � � ه � � � ا ل � ا � ا � � � ا ن م � ل � � � � � � � س � � � � ل � � ي و و و و أ � � � ي ي ن ي و ن ل ي� ر ن � أ ن 1الاأ�ص� :الاأد ا ء �ا �ل�ع��ة�ه �ا ة � ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :مر�ة ن���س ٣ .ط :ا �نل�����س. ل و ن ون
28
28
٢،٧٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن �ن ي � ن ن ي ن ن � أ � ي أ أ ���د ا ��ل�� ن��ل�� �ي� ا ��لي��ا �����هي �ا��س ن ا ن� ل��ن� �م��س�ل�� ن� �نل�ي��سم�هي� .و���د ا ا �ل �م� �ل� ا �ل��د �ي� � �� �� �ر�ه ل��ي� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه ا � ن ر ي أج ج � ي ن� �� ي � ا ��ل��� � هي ن� ا ن� ن ا � � ن ا � � � ي �� ا �� ي �م ي ي� ا � � ن ا ن ح � � م ه � ل ا ك ا � ع ا ك ��يس�� � ي��� ح� ي�� أ �� ن � � �� رنج ع� �ل� ��د ل ��ي� ��� رك �لأ����س� � و����وم ن � ن ج ُ ن � ن ُ � ا اأ ن اأ اأ ��� � �ي هي ُ�يّ حي���د ل��ن �م�د ا � ا �يل��ا حي � � � ه � � ك م ��د � � م م � ���ا. � � ع ل � ل ل ي � � ي � �م�د �� ن� �و ����و �ريل�� �و � ل ل ن و� و � ن � ي� ي� �� �� � ن �ي� ن � �أ � � � ّ ي� ن ن � ّ ن � م��ا �ن�ه �ا�م�ا � �م�� ح��س ن ا �لي��ي�عو�� � او �لي��ا ���ي ن� �عم�لي��ه �ن �و���و�ل�� أا � � ���ي��د �ي�لي��د � ���و�ل ن��ا ل��ي� ���د ا ا �لن��ا ن� أا �ن�ه �م � � � م � آ يم � �� � � � � � ي ي � ن � � � ��ل � � � ن ّ ن� � � � ن ���س�ا ��س�ه �م ن� ا �ل��ن�ا ء � او�امم�ل�وك �و��� او �م ا�ام�د � �و�ل� ا �ح�م�د � او �ل�د �م كي��ه �و�ل� ا �رن�ر � او �ل�د �عم ء أا �لي��ه �و�ل� ا �ل ي ن ان � ا � ن �أ � ي ه ا �� �ي ا ي ا ا� ن� ن هي ���ا ن�� ي� �م���ا ن��ل ��ه� .و�م��ي �ا� ي����مني�� ح� أا ���س� � �ام��� ن�ل ��هي ���د ه ا �ل��� �واء ك� ��� ح�� �ن� ��ع �ع �ون� � � 1م�ر�و� ن ن � م � �أ ن � ن ن ّ ي � �أ ن �� أ � ا ن ّ ي ن� أ نّ �� ي ن ن ل ا ا ا ش ا ن ح ل �� � � � ا � � � � � � � او نحن��ه كي��ه� .و�م� ا ���نس�ه ا �ل��س ار �� ا �ل �����س� �لي��ه �ن� �ل��س ار �� ن س�م� �لي��ه �كم ا � �س � ٢نح���� � ير � ن� ن � م ح اأ ن �ُ�� ا ��ل ا � ي � � شا ح��ه ��ا ��ل�� ن�ي ا ا ي ا� ا ��ل �هر � او � �ل���سر � � ���د �لم�ك ح�يس� ر � او أ�ل�ي�ل�� ر �و ن� ن� � ي ��جن � �ن� � �ل � �م��� �م ي����� ن��ه ��� � ن ن أ ��ل ا �� � �ي � � ا ا �� اأ �� � ن ا �� �� � �ن� ن ن ن ن أ ن �س ن�� ا ��لن ��ن��� ا ��ل� ا ن� ��ن��ي �ه�� أا �� �� ل يلع� م ��� لي�� � م� ل��� ل ح���أ��د �ي���ن���ه� ا � ي � أ� � � ر� ي ي ع يج� ن � ي ي أ أ � ُ � ُ ي � ن ن ي ن ش ن ن �هر ا �ل�ر��� �م ن��ه �عم�ل� � �� �م�ا � ل�� ح�� ح� �كي��ه ا �ل��س �ير����ه ا �و ي� ارج� �م� � �ل���س�ه �وي���س��راج� �م��ه � �ول �� � ن � م � ا هي � ن ا ن ي ���س� ��س� ا � �ل�� � ��م�ل�ه. ا �ل ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ش ن ��نلُ ي أ ّ ش � � ن ا ن �ن �م ّ � ا ح��هي ا � �رأ�ا ��س�هي �و�م ن� اي� ن� �ور� ���د ا ا �م�ل�� � او �ي� ����ي� ء ر�س نر ي� ��ص� ن� ا �لأ����س� � ل�ي� � ن ���� � ن ا �� ��� ي � أن � حيّ ي � ّي � �أ نّ � ن ن �� ��س�هي ن�من�� ���ا ��� �لم ل�ل�� ا �ل�� حره �و� او ن��ه ا�ا�سر�ع���ا ي� ��يس���ه �ن�ه؟ �و ا�م ا �ر ��ط ن���� ن� �ل�ه�م ل��ي� ���ملن � لن أ �ّ ا � يا � ّ � � ا� ا ا � ا � ن ح�ي ن�ه �نل� حر�م� ا ن�م�ل��� ا ���و��س� � �و�و�ع ن���سن��ن � ��� ا �ر�� � �و ��ط�و�� ا�م��� �م�ه � او �لن��ل� �؟ �و��م�ل ���د ره �و � أ ا ن ن ��نل � ي ن ن � ن ن ن � ��ا ي �ي ن ي ن �ن ي ي ن ���د ا ا �مل��� ٣م� ن������ �م� ا �م������ ل�ي� � �ر�ي�� ن� ا ���ع�� او � أا � ا ��و�� ن� ا �و ك�� �� ن�؟ �و�م� � ا ك �م� ي ّ ن ي ّ � ن ن � � � ن� ��� �وي�لن��اي�ل ن�� او � ن�ولم�لن� �ع او ا�امن��ا ��ن� . ح�مي�� �م�ا � �لي��د �م؟ ���ي��د � ش��س�ا � ا �ل ن��ا ��� ل��ي� ���د ه ا�ام� او ن� ج ع ع ع
١،٧٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ح ه ّٰ ي ي ّ ن أ نّ ل�ن � ن ا �� ش �� ش �ي � � � ن ا �� ي هي ي ا �� اأ� ّ � � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� ا لله ��د �لن��ي�� ا � �ي� ا �ل�� � ��ل � ��و� �و �هي� ا �ل�� �ط��� �� ل ن ��و �عم�ل� ي ا ي � ا� ن ي � �أ � ن ن ا أ ي� � ��س�م ّ��هي � ا ��ن�� ن � ا ��ل ���� ّ��هي �ن�ه� ��ا ��ل ن��ا ���ط�ي �من���ا � ش���ي ��� �لم� ا � � � ه � � � ا ل � ا � ا � � � ا ن م � ل � � � � � � � س � � � � ل � � ي و و و و أ � � � ي ي ن ي و ن ل ي� ر ن � أ ن 1الاأ�ص� :الاأد ا ء �ا �ل�ع��ة�ه �ا ة � ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :مر�ة ن���س ٣ .ط :ا �نل�����س. ل و ن ون
28
28
٢،٧٩
On why people love to occupy positions of eminence
traits that attend an unbalanced mixture and that become unruly when people are left to the biddings of their nature, leading them to follow the foulest paths. It is imperative that those so afflicted strive to treat them, and that others strive for this on their behalf. Apropos this topic, we have already remarked that this is possible, and were it not possible, there would be no value in reforming and disciplining character, in praising people or blaming them for it, in restraining them from it and urging them to it, or in the exercise of governance by parents and rulers. Indeed, polities are founded on this basis. If someone fails to respond to treatment using such therapeutic means, it will be necessary to treat him through the imposition of punishments. The illnesses of the soul and the illnesses of the body are very similar to each other. A person must be treated through force and coercion when he fails to treat his bodily illness voluntarily and by his own preference. The same applies to the illness of the soul, until we reach a point when we despair of the person ever reforming; then he needs to be relieved of himself and others relieved of him, in order to purify the earth from his existence in accordance with the dictates of the religious Law and virtuous governance.
On why people love to occupy positions of eminence Why do people love to occupy positions of eminence? Whence was this trait
79.1
instilled into them? What did nature intend to signify through it? Why do some people take their quest for eminence to extremes, taking spear thrusts and sword strokes in their chests, spending sleepless nights, bidding rest adieu, and crossing sprawling desert wastes? Is this trait of a piece with the rancor a person feels about the way they are addressed when receiving or sending correspondence? And how does that relate to the preceding discussions? For people are extremely competitive over these points, severing relations with each other and taking things to the limit. Miskawayh’s response It has been demonstrated that people have three powers: the rational, the beastly, and the irascible. Through the rational power they long for knowledge, fine conduct, and the excellent traits that lead them to wisdom; its effect manifests itself from the brain. Through the beastly power they are driven
29
29
79.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن � ن � � ا ن ا ��ل��س ّ هي ن ا �مي��ّ ن� � �م�هي � � نل ��� أش �ي��أ �ّ ��ه ا ��ل� ا ��ل � ل�� ه او ي� �و ا �ل ش���� � ��� 1يحرك � ح� وي � و ي أ� �هر ا �ر ���د ه م� ا �ل�د �م�ع � �ون� ن �ي�مي�� �م � ا � ي ي ن ا � ا � � �نّ ي � ن ّ ي���ّ ا ن � أش ا ن �� ا �� ن� ن ّ ي ن ا �م�ي ّ ��ن��ي��ه �م���� ي� �هر ا �ر��� �م� ا � ك ���ن��د � �ون� ��� حرك ل�� � �ويل �� � � ��ي� �ي����� �و�ل �نل��� ا �لمل�د ا � ا �لن��د �لي��ه ك�م � � أ أ � � ّ هي � � ن ن هي �لم�لي � � � ي � ن � ا ي �ي� ن�� � ه ا �ل س أا �ل�� ���م�ل ن� ا � �رأ�ا ��س�ا ي� �وي� ش���يس�ا �� أا �ل�� ا � �� او ا � � ��� ار �م� � �و��ر � �ل� �مي�� � او �ل�� �ل�� �وي �م��� ع �� نّ� ا �ي�ي � ن �م�ل�م�ل�هي ا ������ا ��ل��هي � � نل ����ه اأش� ���ا �م ن ا �� �لي � نّ ا� ي ���دهي �م ن � � ه ا ا ك � � � � ل ل م ع � � � � . م � � � و ي و ن أو ا ����ر � او��س ار �� ن� ا نل ي � ي وي � ر ر � ن � �ي ّ ي ن � �أ� ن ا � ي �ي ّ � أ ّ ن �ي ���س�هي ل��ن ا ��ل��د ن�� .ن ّ��م�ا � �� �س ارنج ��وه ���د ه ا �ل�ع� ��� ء ا � ��ي� ��س��م� ا � �ر���ي ي ي� ن نر ���د ه ا � �ل �عو�� نح�� ن ن � � ن � � � ي �� ن� ا ��ل ا ن �� ن ا ي � � �ن � أ ��ل ن ا � ي � ي ن � ن � �رن ع� ا �ل�ع��د ا ل ك� ح��ه ا �لن������ا � � او �لي��� �رل ��ط ي��� أا �� ن�� �� ن� ا �ري� �ه � او �لأ� ار ��ط ا �و أا �� �� ي نج ي أ � � ن أ ن أ ن � ّ � ا ّ ا �� � � � ن � � � ي � ا� �� ه � � ن ي�من�� ���و ل� �و�ل� ح�����د ا � ي����د �ل��� �و�ير� ��� أا ل�� ا ���و��م ��ط ا ع��ي� ا �ل�ع��د ا �ل ا�م�و� ح ن� �عملي��ه ي ع أ ا� ا ن�� ن ا ن ا ن يُ�� ي ِ � ن نّ ن �ي ي � ي �ي ي ��ْ �ِم��ا ي���س��ر��سم�ل �ل���ا �ن��رك ا �لي�� �عوي�� � او �لي��ا ���ي ن� �أ�ا � ���د ه ا � �ل �عو�� �ل� ي�من� � �م� � ��ر�� ه �أ� � �ر��� �و� �و � ج ي ي ن ا �ي أ ا ن � ي � يّ � م ا � ا ا � �أ ي ا � يّ �� �� ي ا ح�� �� �ل� �ع��� �ل � او �لن�� ا ح ح���ا أا ���ل�� ه ل � � � � ا س �� � � ل � م � � � ع � � س � � ل � � � �يو�رك ��� � ن � ح��� �و�ع�ل� ن� � ن م ر و ن� � ع ٢ل ن ي � ا أ � ن أ ا نّ� ا ُ� � � أ ا ياأ ا ن �� �� � ش � � � �� ن � أا ل�� حي�� �ل� يل��ق�م� ن� ��� ل��ي� ح�� �و�ي��وي���� م� �نر�ل��� �أاو �م� ي�مملك ا �سر��� � �و� �ي�لن � ع ل��ي� �ع�ل� ن� � ج أ أ أ ي ���ّ ا ا �ع ن ا�ا� ّ� ن ي ا ��� ا �يم� هي ا �� ي ���س ّ ا �� �ي ّ ي �م��د ا ا ��ل���س ��ا ��لن ��ن��� ا ����ي ��ه �أ�����س�هي �عم�ل���ا � ل�� ��� م�م�ي ره ��� ل� ��� ��م� ل �عوه م ك ن ر ن � ي� ي� ر ي ي� � ي ي � ا �ي هي � � �� ّ هي ن ا نّ ن ا �� �ي ّ ي � ن ن أ ن ي ي ��ل ي� ن � ا � أ ا هي ����و�ي� �و����و� �ل��� ا � �ر� ��س� �عم�ل�� ا �لن�� كي�� . ��� �أ� � ���د ه ل �عوه ي���ن���ه� ا � � � ا �لأ� ل� ي ي �ن أ � ّ ي � � ن ا ن � � أ ا ي أ �� ّ � �� � ��� ن ل�ن �� ن ��� ن� �م�يع�ّ �م�هي ��لي ������ا ح� ا ن� ي ل� ن � � � ه ه ه � ا ا � � � � � � � � � �� � � � س �� ل �� م � � � ح� س � � � س �� � ل ل س � � ل � ي � � ه و ي� و � ر و و ر ن ي �ي� و � ن ن ن أ أ �أ ّ �كم� ��ن����نه ن��ا ن� ن ا � ي� اأ� �ن �لي�� ي ��� ل��ن� أا �ن��س�ا ن� �ل�� ن�م�ل �س نار ن� ا �و �عم� �هي ��سي��أ��هي �و ن� ح ن� �عم�لي��ه و �و � ي ن �ي� أ ر ي ج � اأ ن ��� ّ �� ا � ا ��لياأ ��� �لي�مي�� ّ �� ��ن�� �ن � � ا ��ن�� �ن � ل�ن ا �� �ي ي ا �� � ن � ��ن�� �ن � �ي �من � � � � ي ��د ل��� ن� �� ي ن� حرك �كم ي ن��هي� و�عم�ل�� م� ي ن��هي� و�ي� ��و � ل�د ي� ي ن��هي� و �د � ن � ن � ن ا �� �ي � آش ا ا ل�ن � ن � ه ا � أ ن ي �سر �نل���ا �ع ن��ا �عم�ل�� ���د ا ا�ام�ي��د ا ر. �م ن� � ���ر ���د ه ل �عو� � او �� ر��� �ي� ��و� ح ن� ا � �ي�لعي�� ���� �م� ي ن أ ن ي � نّ �� ن � ن � ن ا أ ن � ي � �أ نّ ي �من ��� ا �ه� او ��ل ا ��لن�� ّر � او ��نل�� � � � � � � ه � ح ح ر ر � �و �لع�و�ل أا ��ه �كم ي���ر��� �لن������ ا �ل�� ��� ا � �يلم ل�ل�� ا �ل����س�ه ن ر وي ن �� ي ي ّ ي � ن ن ا ��ل�� ّ ي ن ي�� �ي ن �ن �ش � ن �� ي � ���ا �ن � �� �ر���ه ���وه ا �ل ������ ن �يس�مي��ه �كي��ه �و�ر���ه ل�م� � ���د �لمك ي����ر��� �ل�يسم�ل ا �ل����ه� او � نح�� ن � � ن � ل�ن �ن ن�� �ي ّ ي �� ن ن ا ���ن� ن ي ن � أ ن �� � ��ن��يّ��ه �ك هو � ��وه ا ل ������ �� �ه� أا �ل�� �لي�م�ل ا � �رأ�ا ��س�ا ي� � او � � ��� ار �م�ا ي� ا � �ير�� ن� �ل�ه� �ي� ل� � �لن��� ن� ي� م م � �أ � ا ��� �ي � � ن ن � �أ �� ن � ا اأ ن � ي ا � � ن ا ن أ ا � � � ا � ا ا � ا � � � � � � ك ي��� .و م�د ر �ل��سر�عم�ل�� ع�م�ل ا ل�د ي� ه�و ر���ي��� �عمل� ���د ه ا �ل� ه�و ل � ���د �لأ����س� � ي��� و � ي نح � � ن يي ي ن � � ن �ه ا �� ن� ا ��ل هي ي�لي��ع ّ ا �� �ي ّ �ي ا ن ا ��ل ا �ي ي ا ن �� ا � يّ ي ن ل��ي� � �لع� �و�ه ���د ه ٣ا �لن ��ن���� �لي����و� �ي� ��� ن�� �و ن��د لع�و� � ن�� ي�س� � ل��� ح�� �ل� ���د را � ٤ع� ي أ ي�مي ن ا ي �ّ ن ا نّ ن � ن ي ���د ه ا �� �ليعّ هي �ه ا ���ي �ي��س ّ ا ��� ��ل ّ ي � ّ ي � ���هي � ��ل��ا ا ا ا � � ا �س ه �و�� ع� �ع��د �م� � حرك�� �٥م� �ر س�م�ه � �و �ل � ��د ه� .أ� � �و �ي� �ي� ��م� �لأ � ي و � ر أ أ أ أ ّ 1ط� :ا �ل ن���ا ط ة� �� ن�س��ه�ا ٢ .الا�ص� وط :وا ة�ن��ا ٣ .الا�ص� � :ه ن�د ا ٤ .الا�ص� وط� :ة���ص�د ر ٥ .الا �ص� وط :وة�ة� ح ّرك. ن ل ل ل ل ع
30
30
٣،٧٩
٤،٧٩
On why people love to occupy positions of eminence
toward the appetites by which they obtain all bodily pleasures; its effect manifests itself from the liver. Through the irascible power they are driven to seek positions of eminence, long for all kinds of honor, experience zeal and pride, and solicit power and illustrious status; its effect manifests itself from the heart. The relative strength of each of these powers depends on the mixture of these organs, designated as the principal organs of the body. This mixture may depart from the balanced state, either toward increase and excess or decrease and deficiency. In that case, they need to adjust them and lead them back to the mean—that is, to the balance appointed for it—and not give themselves up to them by abandoning their efforts to rectify and discipline, for these powers flare up for the reasons we have mentioned. If left to their own devices and no effort is made to reform them and treat them by imposing restraints, and nature is followed instead, conditions deteriorate and they gain the upper hand, growing so unruly that we despair of treating and curing them. We control them and are able to discipline them in the first instance through the soul that presides over all of them, that is to say, the discriminating power of reason that is called “divine.” It is this power that ought to be in command and to preside over the rest. So it is natural for human beings to love eminence, but this love must be
79.3
regulated in order to be appropriate and as it ought. If it runs to excess or to deficiency in someone as a result of a particular mixture or bad habit, he must rectify it through discipline, so that it may move in the right manner, under the right conditions, and at the right time. These powers and their effects have already been discussed at the relevant juncture, so we will confine ourselves to these remarks. Furthermore, just as some people, as a result of the movement of the power of the beastly soul within them and their failure to bridle it, take spear thrusts in their chest and confront terrors by land and sea in order to satisfy their appetites, so too other people confront these terrors when the power of the irascible soul goads them to attain honors and positions of eminence. Everything depends on reason, which presides over these powers, and on the effort a person makes to fortify this soul so that it may dominate and subjugate the other two powers, with the result that they proceed at its command, move in the directions it prescribes, and stop at the limits it sets. For this is the power that is called “divine,” and it has the insight to treat and reform them, and the capacity and an exclusive title to preside over them fully. But as Plato said,
31
31
79.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�أ ي �ي �� �� ا � أ ا هي � ي ا ّ هي ح��ا � او ���ل��� �ي��ّوهي �عم�ل� ر�أ�ا ��س�هي �يلم�ل�ك ا �ل�� ن�ر �و���د ا �ي�هي أا ��ل�� �ع�ل�� ن� ح���ا � او ������ل ل �ن� � �ر� ��س� ا �ل�� �م� � � أ �ي � � �ن �ي ّ ي �� � ا �� � نّ ا�� �ي ا � أ �ن � � ن �ن � ن � � ن � �د� � �� �� �ن ا ن ا � � حي��� �ا ل � � ل ل � � � ا � م ا � � � ل ك �عمل� ��� �كم � ل �ل��� �ي� ل�ي� ا ل�د �� ن� و لك �ي� ��وه �� ي��د ول� أل ��س� � �ل� ن � ي��� �و�� � ّ ٰ � � ن � ّ � ن ن � ّ � � ن ن ن � ا�ا�م�م� ا �ل� �ي��د �ل�م� ���د ه �لي�م�ل�ك ��ا �نل��ا � ي ��س�د �ل �وي�ل ��ي��ا � � او لله ا�ام���� ن �و�ه� � ح��سن�� ن��ا �و���ه� ا ���ولي�����ل. أ� و و يل أ� يل ي� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� �ش ا � ن ن � ن � أ أ ّ ن� ن ي ن طور أا �لي��ه � ك ��ص� ن� ل��ي� � ش��س �ري�ل� �م ن� ��سم�ل�� �ل�ه ا ن� ا �و ن���د �من� �� � م�� ��ور �عم�لي��ه ل��ي� �����ا �ل ���� ا �ل� ن ��ممّ � ��شم� ا ي � ن � ن � ��ن � أ ن �� ن ي ن ي ن ��س�ا ��س�ه � �و� � ش��س �ري�ل� �م ن� ك���ا � �ل�ه ان� ن� ���د �لم�ك؟ ا �ع��ي� ك�ي ��� ي���سر�ي� ا �ل ش��سر�� ن��د �و ن �� �ع�ه �و� ي أ أ ّ ّ ن ا� ي ا ن �ن ا� ي ّ � ن ا� ي ّ ن � م��ي��د � ل��� ا�امي��ا ن�ر �و�ل�� ي���سر�ي� �م� ا�م�� �ر ل�� ا� �م� ا� م��ي��د � ؟ 1 ي م ي م
١،٨٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
�أ �أ يا � أ ّ � � ٰ ّ � أ ّ � ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ا �ل�� ن� �عم�ل�هي ا ���و��ل��د �و�عري��ه ي���سر�� ن�كي��ه �ل���نّ�ه �م��م�ل�و��ل�ه �و�ل���نّ�ه �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر ي ن أ أ أ � � � ن ن ��� ن � ن ه ا �����م ن� هي � ه �ن ن� � � ي ن� ن �ّ ن ن ن هو �م ن ا ن�م� ن� ��لم�ك نك حرء م�� �و �� �ل� ���ي ر م��س��� � ��ر ا � �م���و� �م� �س ار ن��ه � نو�ر ره � � �� � ل ن � أ � ّي ن أ ن ن � ن �� ي ن ّ ي أن � ي � نأ ّ � �هر ا ش�ر ا ����م�ل�ه �كي��ه ا �و �ي���ي� ���ر�م ن��ه ن� نر �و ا ����ر�� ٢أا �لي��ه ��ا �م�ا �ع������ ���د ه ا �ل�� ��يس�ه �و�ه�و ا � �يل �� � ع أ ّ ًا � � � ي � ّ ي ًا ن ش ا ا � ي ي ّ � � ي �يل���ي�ر ا�ام��م�ل�و��ل ��سن��ن�� �لمل��مل�ه ح�ي� �ير ن� �� �م��م�ل� �ون� �����ي�ء �ي� �ن� ه ا ���ع��م�ل �و�ر� ه ا �لن��د �يل���ه �وي���س�ي�ر ن � أ � يع � أ ّ �ن ن �وا ن� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه. ا �لي��ا �مم�ل �ي�ل���� ل��ي� ن�� ي
٢،٨٠
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � أن ا� ن �� ن أ � � ن ن ن�� ً أ ن ن ن ح ن� ا � �و�م أا � ا ك��ا � ا ن� ��و ا �لأ����س�ا � �م�د ��ورا ن��م�ا ا ��سم�ل�ع ن��ا ���عي��ه � نو�����ي�ره �م ن� ا �ل��دي� ن� � او ���ور �و ن �ع � ن � � ن � �ن � ن ن � � ن ن ن ن ��و ن� �و��ل��ده �و�و��ل��د �و��ل��ده ي���م� �ي�� حن ��و� ا �ل�ديلم�ل �وي حي��ا ���و� ل��ي� ا ���� ����ا �� �و�ير� ر�و� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �و�ير�و� ن أ نّ ي ن � � � ن أن ن ي ن أ نّ ن ���هي �و ن� �ّو��� او ا�امم�ل�ك �و�ي��عي����د �و� ا � ���د �مي�م�ك �ل�ه� � �رل ن� �م ن� ا � �ل�����ه� ا �ل�ه� ��د �� ��ا �ي�م�ك �نل�هم� م ي م م أ أّ ّ ن ة 1الا�ص�ل :ا لمة��ة�ه�د �ة� ا لمة���ا نح �ر ٢ .ط :ا �ل�عر و�. م
32
32
١،٨١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�أ ي �ي �� �� ا � أ ا هي � ي ا ّ هي ح��ا � او ���ل��� �ي��ّوهي �عم�ل� ر�أ�ا ��س�هي �يلم�ل�ك ا �ل�� ن�ر �و���د ا �ي�هي أا ��ل�� �ع�ل�� ن� ح���ا � او ������ل ل �ن� � �ر� ��س� ا �ل�� �م� � � أ �ي � � �ن �ي ّ ي �� � ا �� � نّ ا�� �ي ا � أ �ن � � ن �ن � ن � � ن � �د� � �� �� �ن ا ن ا � � حي��� �ا ل � � ل ل � � � ا � م ا � � � ل ك �عمل� ��� �كم � ل �ل��� �ي� ل�ي� ا ل�د �� ن� و لك �ي� ��وه �� ي��د ول� أل ��س� � �ل� ن � ي��� �و�� � ّ ٰ � � ن � ّ � ن ن � ّ � � ن ن ن � ا�ا�م�م� ا �ل� �ي��د �ل�م� ���د ه �لي�م�ل�ك ��ا �نل��ا � ي ��س�د �ل �وي�ل ��ي��ا � � او لله ا�ام���� ن �و�ه� � ح��سن�� ن��ا �و���ه� ا ���ولي�����ل. أ� و و يل أ� يل ي� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� �ش ا � ن ن � ن � أ أ ّ ن� ن ي ن طور أا �لي��ه � ك ��ص� ن� ل��ي� � ش��س �ري�ل� �م ن� ��سم�ل�� �ل�ه ا ن� ا �و ن���د �من� �� � م�� ��ور �عم�لي��ه ل��ي� �����ا �ل ���� ا �ل� ن ��ممّ � ��شم� ا ي � ن � ن � ��ن � أ ن �� ن ي ن ي ن ��س�ا ��س�ه � �و� � ش��س �ري�ل� �م ن� ك���ا � �ل�ه ان� ن� ���د �لم�ك؟ ا �ع��ي� ك�ي ��� ي���سر�ي� ا �ل ش��سر�� ن��د �و ن �� �ع�ه �و� ي أ أ ّ ّ ن ا� ي ا ن �ن ا� ي ّ � ن ا� ي ّ ن � م��ي��د � ل��� ا�امي��ا ن�ر �و�ل�� ي���سر�ي� �م� ا�م�� �ر ل�� ا� �م� ا� م��ي��د � ؟ 1 ي م ي م
١،٨٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
�أ �أ يا � أ ّ � � ٰ ّ � أ ّ � ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ا �ل�� ن� �عم�ل�هي ا ���و��ل��د �و�عري��ه ي���سر�� ن�كي��ه �ل���نّ�ه �م��م�ل�و��ل�ه �و�ل���نّ�ه �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر ي ن أ أ أ � � � ن ن ��� ن � ن ه ا �����م ن� هي � ه �ن ن� � � ي ن� ن �ّ ن ن ن هو �م ن ا ن�م� ن� ��لم�ك نك حرء م�� �و �� �ل� ���ي ر م��س��� � ��ر ا � �م���و� �م� �س ار ن��ه � نو�ر ره � � �� � ل ن � أ � ّي ن أ ن ن � ن �� ي ن ّ ي أن � ي � نأ ّ � �هر ا ش�ر ا ����م�ل�ه �كي��ه ا �و �ي���ي� ���ر�م ن��ه ن� نر �و ا ����ر�� ٢أا �لي��ه ��ا �م�ا �ع������ ���د ه ا �ل�� ��يس�ه �و�ه�و ا � �يل �� � ع أ ّ ًا � � � ي � ّ ي ًا ن ش ا ا � ي ي ّ � � ي �يل���ي�ر ا�ام��م�ل�و��ل ��سن��ن�� �لمل��مل�ه ح�ي� �ير ن� �� �م��م�ل� �ون� �����ي�ء �ي� �ن� ه ا ���ع��م�ل �و�ر� ه ا �لن��د �يل���ه �وي���س�ي�ر ن � أ � يع � أ ّ �ن ن �وا ن� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه. ا �لي��ا �مم�ل �ي�ل���� ل��ي� ن�� ي
٢،٨٠
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � أن ا� ن �� ن أ � � ن ن ن�� ً أ ن ن ن ح ن� ا � �و�م أا � ا ك��ا � ا ن� ��و ا �لأ����س�ا � �م�د ��ورا ن��م�ا ا ��سم�ل�ع ن��ا ���عي��ه � نو�����ي�ره �م ن� ا �ل��دي� ن� � او ���ور �و ن �ع � ن � � ن � �ن � ن ن � � ن ن ن ن ��و ن� �و��ل��ده �و�و��ل��د �و��ل��ده ي���م� �ي�� حن ��و� ا �ل�ديلم�ل �وي حي��ا ���و� ل��ي� ا ���� ����ا �� �و�ير� ر�و� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �و�ير�و� ن أ نّ ي ن � � � ن أن ن ي ن أ نّ ن ���هي �و ن� �ّو��� او ا�امم�ل�ك �و�ي��عي����د �و� ا � ���د �مي�م�ك �ل�ه� � �رل ن� �م ن� ا � �ل�����ه� ا �ل�ه� ��د �� ��ا �ي�م�ك �نل�هم� م ي م م أ أّ ّ ن ة 1الا�ص�ل :ا لمة��ة�ه�د �ة� ا لمة���ا نح �ر ٢ .ط :ا �ل�عر و�. م
32
32
١،٨١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�أ ي �ي �� �� ا � أ ا هي � ي ا ّ هي ح��ا � او ���ل��� �ي��ّوهي �عم�ل� ر�أ�ا ��س�هي �يلم�ل�ك ا �ل�� ن�ر �و���د ا �ي�هي أا ��ل�� �ع�ل�� ن� ح���ا � او ������ل ل �ن� � �ر� ��س� ا �ل�� �م� � � أ �ي � � �ن �ي ّ ي �� � ا �� � نّ ا�� �ي ا � أ �ن � � ن �ن � ن � � ن � �د� � �� �� �ن ا ن ا � � حي��� �ا ل � � ل ل � � � ا � م ا � � � ل ك �عمل� ��� �كم � ل �ل��� �ي� ل�ي� ا ل�د �� ن� و لك �ي� ��وه �� ي��د ول� أل ��س� � �ل� ن � ي��� �و�� � ّ ٰ � � ن � ّ � ن ن � ّ � � ن ن ن � ا�ا�م�م� ا �ل� �ي��د �ل�م� ���د ه �لي�م�ل�ك ��ا �نل��ا � ي ��س�د �ل �وي�ل ��ي��ا � � او لله ا�ام���� ن �و�ه� � ح��سن�� ن��ا �و���ه� ا ���ولي�����ل. أ� و و يل أ� يل ي� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� �ش ا � ن ن � ن � أ أ ّ ن� ن ي ن طور أا �لي��ه � ك ��ص� ن� ل��ي� � ش��س �ري�ل� �م ن� ��سم�ل�� �ل�ه ا ن� ا �و ن���د �من� �� � م�� ��ور �عم�لي��ه ل��ي� �����ا �ل ���� ا �ل� ن ��ممّ � ��شم� ا ي � ن � ن � ��ن � أ ن �� ن ي ن ي ن ��س�ا ��س�ه � �و� � ش��س �ري�ل� �م ن� ك���ا � �ل�ه ان� ن� ���د �لم�ك؟ ا �ع��ي� ك�ي ��� ي���سر�ي� ا �ل ش��سر�� ن��د �و ن �� �ع�ه �و� ي أ أ ّ ّ ن ا� ي ا ن �ن ا� ي ّ � ن ا� ي ّ ن � م��ي��د � ل��� ا�امي��ا ن�ر �و�ل�� ي���سر�ي� �م� ا�م�� �ر ل�� ا� �م� ا� م��ي��د � ؟ 1 ي م ي م
١،٨٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
�أ �أ يا � أ ّ � � ٰ ّ � أ ّ � ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ا �ل�� ن� �عم�ل�هي ا ���و��ل��د �و�عري��ه ي���سر�� ن�كي��ه �ل���نّ�ه �م��م�ل�و��ل�ه �و�ل���نّ�ه �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر ي ن أ أ أ � � � ن ن ��� ن � ن ه ا �����م ن� هي � ه �ن ن� � � ي ن� ن �ّ ن ن ن هو �م ن ا ن�م� ن� ��لم�ك نك حرء م�� �و �� �ل� ���ي ر م��س��� � ��ر ا � �م���و� �م� �س ار ن��ه � نو�ر ره � � �� � ل ن � أ � ّي ن أ ن ن � ن �� ي ن ّ ي أن � ي � نأ ّ � �هر ا ش�ر ا ����م�ل�ه �كي��ه ا �و �ي���ي� ���ر�م ن��ه ن� نر �و ا ����ر�� ٢أا �لي��ه ��ا �م�ا �ع������ ���د ه ا �ل�� ��يس�ه �و�ه�و ا � �يل �� � ع أ ّ ًا � � � ي � ّ ي ًا ن ش ا ا � ي ي ّ � � ي �يل���ي�ر ا�ام��م�ل�و��ل ��سن��ن�� �لمل��مل�ه ح�ي� �ير ن� �� �م��م�ل� �ون� �����ي�ء �ي� �ن� ه ا ���ع��م�ل �و�ر� ه ا �لن��د �يل���ه �وي���س�ي�ر ن � أ � يع � أ ّ �ن ن �وا ن� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه. ا �لي��ا �مم�ل �ي�ل���� ل��ي� ن�� ي
٢،٨٠
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � أن ا� ن �� ن أ � � ن ن ن�� ً أ ن ن ن ح ن� ا � �و�م أا � ا ك��ا � ا ن� ��و ا �لأ����س�ا � �م�د ��ورا ن��م�ا ا ��سم�ل�ع ن��ا ���عي��ه � نو�����ي�ره �م ن� ا �ل��دي� ن� � او ���ور �و ن �ع � ن � � ن � �ن � ن ن � � ن ن ن ن ��و ن� �و��ل��ده �و�و��ل��د �و��ل��ده ي���م� �ي�� حن ��و� ا �ل�ديلم�ل �وي حي��ا ���و� ل��ي� ا ���� ����ا �� �و�ير� ر�و� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �و�ير�و� ن أ نّ ي ن � � � ن أن ن ي ن أ نّ ن ���هي �و ن� �ّو��� او ا�امم�ل�ك �و�ي��عي����د �و� ا � ���د �مي�م�ك �ل�ه� � �رل ن� �م ن� ا � �ل�����ه� ا �ل�ه� ��د �� ��ا �ي�م�ك �نل�هم� م ي م م أ أّ ّ ن ة 1الا�ص�ل :ا لمة��ة�ه�د �ة� ا لمة���ا نح �ر ٢ .ط :ا �ل�عر و�. م
32
32
١،٨١
On why the progeny of illustrious people evince an elevated sense of entitlement
the former is as pliant as gold, whereas the latter are as strong as iron, and human beings need to have the will and strive hard to subject them to it— for they will indeed be subjected and submit. God is our helper; He is sufficient for us, and an excellent guardian is He!
On why we honor people for the achievements of their ancestors but not those of their progeny Why does one honor people who have a father or grandfather who was highly
80.1
regarded, with many glorious deeds and acts of courage and leadership to his name, whereas one does not honor people who have such a son? I mean, why is it that honor flows from ancestors to descendants and does not flow from descendants to ancestors? Miskawayh’s response Fathers are the cause of their children’s existence, and their disposition flows
80.2
into them because the latter represent their causal effect and are constituted from their elemental mixture and their seed. For that reason, children are like parts or copies of their fathers, so it is not strange that the cause should manifest its effect in them or that they should be expected to incline toward the ancestral disposition. The opposite proposition—namely, that the effect should serve as grounds for the cause, reversing the process—is one not countenanced by reason and rejected by basic intuition. The merest reflection suffices to answer this question.
On why the progeny of illustrious people evince an elevated sense of entitlement and self-importance And why is it that if someone’s father is known for the attributes we have mentioned or for other attributes such as being devout and God-fearing, his children and his grandchildren must swagger about, dragging the hems of their garments along the ground, comporting themselves haughtily and holding people in contempt, thinking that they have been granted the power to rule and presuming that you are obliged to serve them and your salvation
33
33
81.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ � ي �ّي ي ا ن ��ا ن ن ���د ه ا �� �نل�ي�نس�هي � ا ��ل��آن��هي � �م�ا 1ا ��م� ا م���م �ل��ه؟ �م� و و ل��؟ �و��م�ل ك�� � ل��ي� � أ � ن � � � ني ن �ن ّ �م ن� ا � نر�م�ا � �م ن� ا �ل� �م� ا�ام��ر�و��ه ���د ا ا � �لع� ن�؟ م
��س�ا ��ل�ن� ا ��ل��د �� � �ن�سم�ا ر وي
� ن م����
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ّ � � � ّٰ ي ن� ن � أ � ي � �أ � نّ ا �وا ن� �وا ن� ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه ا �ل��و�ل�� �م�ا �ي���ن��ه �عم�ل�� ن�� ح�م�ه ا لله ��د � ���ر�ن�ا ل��ي� ن�� �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� م��س��� �وي�ه ر ً ّ ّ ّ ّ ن � � ن ���د ه ا �لي��ا �لي��هي ن�أ�ا ن� ا�ا�م��م�ل�و��ل أا ن��م�ا ي� ش��سر�ن� ن� ش��سر�ن� �عم�لي��ه ن�أ�ا ن� ك� ���ا ن� � ��لم�ك ا ��ل ش��سر�ن� �ي�ل ن��ا �و�عم�لي��ه ّ ا �� ّ ي �� ن� � �� � � ح��م ��لم�ل�� �ي ا ��ل �ا � �م ن ا ��� �نمي ن ���ا ر ��ه �م�ا ��ل�� ي� �ن� أا �ل�� � �� ���د ح��م�ل ���ي ره �و � ���ه � � ٢ل ر� ��س ر ي� � �ل أ ل� ي ن أ أ أ ّ � ن ن ن � � ّ ن � ن ن � ّ ي ن ي ن اأ ي �كم� � ي ن �م��ر�و��� �و�م���د ا ر �م��م�ل�و�م ��ا �م�ا ا ����م�ل�و �كي��ه أا �ل�� ا � ي���ع ����د ا �ل�ه�م � �ه�و ����س� �ر �ه�م � � ح��ي�� �ع � أ ن ا ا ن� ا ي ي ّ � �ن � ا ي ا �ي ن ّ ا ي �� ��ا ن �ن ا � ن � � �ش� ا �لأ�� ار ���� � � ��ي� �ع�د� �� ��� ي�سم� � �ل��د �م � .او �م� ���و�لمك ��م�ل ك�� � ل�ي� ��س� �ل�� ا �ل�د ��أر ��ي� ء �م� ن ���ش ا هي ��ّ ن ا ن ا� ي� ن �� ا ��لن� ي � ي ��ا ن ن � � ن ��ّ أ ّ ي �� ن � ن نّ �م� � ��ا �ن�ه �عم�ل�� ا �ل� �� ر ��س� ر�ي� ���د ا ا � �لع�� له�سر�ي� � �ل��د ك�� � � �لمك ل��ي� ���ل ا �م�ه �و ���ل ر�م� � �و�م رل ن أ ّ حيّ ا نّ ا�ا�مم� � �ل ي ل�ن ا ��ل ي ا �� ا � �د ن � ا �نًا ��� � ً�� � � � �يلن ل��ن ا ��ل�� � �و�ل��� �و�مي�� �ي����هي ل��ن ا ����� �ي� � � � � �� � �� � ل � � � � م ط � � ك � � ل � � ل ل � � � ي ير ر أ � � ي� ن � ن و �ي ي ي� و ي ر � وي � � ي ن �ّ �ّ � �أ � � � ن ن � � � � ن ا ��ل ن��ا �� ا �ل� �له� � �ل� �لن ����ا � � � ا �ل� �له� � � �لم�ك ل�� ن� ح�م�� ا �ل� �م� �م ن ا � �ل� �� � ا � � � � ا �ل� ن ���د م � ر � و روم و � أ ن� م و ي و أ � م و ي �ي�أ ع أ � ن � �أ � � ن ي ن �� � � � ن ا أ ح ن��ا ��� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �و��� �و��س�ا أ�ر ا ن� ��د ��لم�ك ا ����ر�ي� ا �لم�لمي�� � او �ل���م�ل ا � �ل�� ��س�د ي�� نه ��� �نل�ه�م ا �ل��و�ل�� � �وي������ر أ ن ن � ن� ُ ن ّ ن يُ�مي�� نّ ن ا � مي � �� �من � ن� ن ��� ��ر ا ��ل��دي� ن� �و��ل�ه ه ه ه �ن �م��س�ا ��لي�م�ك �م�س ّ�م ن��هي � �� � � �ه�مآ ا �ل� ر�وع أا �لي�� كي��د � ��و� �ن� �و نح� ن� �� حي���ه�م �ل� � .و � � � �ن � ن ّ ي ن ن ا ا ي �ن � � ي ي ن ن ن ي ن ّ ن � � ش � ل�� ح� ا �ر �كم� ��د �عم�ل�م ي� �م ن� �عم�ل�و ا �ري�ل ن��ه �و��سر�� ا�ام��ر�ل�ه � او � �ا ي� � ��� ا �ل ن� ��وه � �ل������� ��س� ر�ي�ه ل�ي� أ م م � ن ا � ا ا �� �� ا ����� �ي � ���� �ه �مي� �ّي����هي ل��نم�ا �� ٣ي���� ا ��لن��ّ هي �م ن ا ��لي�� ن � ����� � ا ��ل��ي ش��س � �لن� � ن� ن �� � � ا � ��� � ل ل � � � � ٤ � � ل � ل � � � � ر ي و ري و و � � ن ن ر و ي� و ين نو � ع �ي أ ي ا يي � ع ي ا �� ي � � أ نم ا � ن � � اع ي � � ��س ّ ��ا ن ن � ا ا ��� �سر�لن��ه ا �لأ��م� �م�ه �و �سمملي�مك ا �سر�� ر ن �ع� � ل�� � او ��سم�ا ��� ا ��م�ل ن��ي�� ح� ا ����� �ه �و�ل� ي�سم� أا � ك�� � � ج نأ ن �ّ ن ا ش � هي ا �� ن� ن � هي � ي � � ي ي � � ا ن ً ن ا نّ م� � ��ا ن ن � ع � � � ا � �و�ه � او �ل�� � ا �� ح� � � �د ��د � � � �س � �ع�� ك ��س �رل ���� ل�� ك �م ��يسمل� � ��ون � � � �����ل� �ل �� � ر أ � ول ي ي ن �� ن هي ن ������ �ي ّ � � � � � � � � � ا �نل���د ه ا ل���� ل� و���د و ل��س�ل . م م
أ أ أ أ ن ن 1الا�ص�ل :و� �ا � �ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :ا ����هة��أ����ة ٣ .الا�ص�ل وط� :ة�ما ٤ .الا�ص�ل وط :ن�و . ع
34
34
٢،٨١
On why the progeny of illustrious people evince an elevated sense of entitlement
depends on them? What scourge, what bane is this, and what is its origin? Did such behavior exist in bygone times and among the peoples of earlier eras we know about?
Miskawayh’s response Our answer to the previous question indicates the answer to this. For the honor that attaches to a causal effect depends on the honor that attaches to its cause. So if that honor is due to religious devotion and its cause is divine, the descendants who issue from it feel a sense of pride in it that others do not, though within determinate limits and to a specific degree. To overdo this and to end up regarding themselves in the ways you report are of a piece with the other forms of excess we enumerated earlier. You ask, “Did anything of the kind exist in bygone times?” Upon my life, this has existed among every people and in every era. Noble descent is still for the most part passed on to children, and one expects to see it reflected in their dispositions, so that rulership remains within a single family for a long time, and people refuse to accept anyone else and will only submit to them. This is found among all peoples—Persians, Byzantines, Indians, and the other races. Similarly, children are reviled for their ignoble stock and corrupt origin, and are expected thus to incline; so they are disparaged and eschewed on its account. But your question includes a reference to religion, which, as you know, has a different status with respect to elevated rank and dignified standing, even if the capacity of prophethood itself does not, and is not expected to, flow into offspring. For the glory and honor that attend prophethood, the inclination that people naturally feel toward it, and the interest in serving as leaders and rulers taken by members of the family in which it appears depart from the customary order, particularly if there is an exclusive claim and the condition of excellence is met. Turning away from persons with such attributes will then constitute an injustice and a transgression. And that is all I have to say.
35
35
81.2
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ �� ن� ا ��ل � ن ا ن� ي ح��هي ا �ي�لن��ا ا ��ل ش��س �ن� � � ن� ي�ل��ا �لن �م�هي ل��ن �ي��س�ا � �� ا ��ل ن��ا �� �م ن � � ل ح� � � � � � �ه� ؟ ن ���م�ل ي ن��ور و ي� و ي � � � ر ع ر �و ن ي � م أ � ن� � ّا ن ي ���ا ن�� ي� ا ��ل �نا �ي ن ن � �ن ن � ن ا � ل�� ن�أ�ا �نّ�ه أا ن� ك� �هر �ل� � � ��ا ك �ل�هم� ح�م�ه ل��ي� � �لم�ك �ر�م ا � �ي���و� �م� �عم�لي��ه ا �ل�� ��� أا �م� �ع� � � أ حّ ي ه � ي أ �ع ن � ي ا � ل�ن ��ل ا � ن � ��ن ا � هي � ل�ن ا �� ن�ل �ي ح�م ��ل�� � �م ن��ه ا �و ن� �ه� �ن� �و�ل���� ا ��� ا �ل����س� �و ي� �ي� ا ��ه �عم�ل � � �� �ل �و ل��ي� ا ����ل�� ي� و�ي� ي� ن ل ع�ر � ي م � � �ي � � � � أّ ��ا ��هي ��ل��أ نّ� ن� ا ك �ي�د �ش����د ي� ��ل�ه ا �ل � ل�� ح�م�ه �ن�ا �ل��� او ن� �ل���ن�ه �ي�ا ن��� �ل����و��� ا �����ا �ا �و ن��ا ر �م� � او �ل ن � ً م نّ �ع� � � ي ّ � � ن ع ا ���� �ي ا نّ� ا �ع ن ي ي ا � ا �� ن ا �� � ن � هي ا �� ن ��� 1نأ�ا � ا �لي� ����ا �و�ل � او �ل����سم�ل��ط � او �ل��ر� راء �� �� ع�م�ل �أو �م� �ي��� ���س� �و ي� ل�� � م� ن � ح�� ل ن ا � ن ن ا ً أ ن ي �� ن ا � ن ي نش ا ن �م�هي �ي�اأ �ل� � ن ��د ا ا ��ل��س��� � ٢ا ��ل � ل�� ��� �م� �ي���و� ���س� � ا ا �و � ر�����ه أا ل�� ���س� � �و�ل���د ا � ح� ن� و ن ن و ��د ���س� �نل� ي ع ّ أ أ ّ ٰ ن ّ � ��س�� ا� � ي��ا �� ا ��نلم� ّ ��ا ن��ا � �م�ا �أ �ه� � ���م�ه ���د �ّمي � ��م�ل� ا لله �عملي��ه مأو�م ن��و ن� ي�ل�ي � ا � ل � �ه� ا � �ن�ا �ه� �و�ه� �ي��د � � و و و � � ن م ي � ل ن�ي � م م م م �عم�ل�� �م ن� ���� او ��ه . م
١،٨٢
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
آ ح ه ّٰ نّ� ا ُش ّ �ن � � ن ا ن ن �ن ه � ا � ن �� ن ي ا �� اأ� ّ � ن شا �هر �كي��ه �م� ا �� ر � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� ا لله أا �م� ي���سر� ا �لأ����س� � ن�ل����س� � نو�م� يل� � �� ل ن ��و �عم�ل� ي أ ّ ّ ي � ن ��� ا �س � أ ا ��ل ��نس�ا � ل�� ح��س ن �ي��و��ل ا �ل���م�ا � �عم�ل ّ �عم�لي��ه ا ��ل��س�ل��� �ي�سم�هي �� ح� �م�هي �و�م�ا ا � � �م�ا ي� ح��س ن� � او ��م�ا � ل � ح��ي ر أ � م ي� أ م ن ّ �ن ي ن � � أ أّ � � ��ا ن ي � ه ا ي هي �م�ا �ي�لي��د � �م ن� ��س �ر�ا ن� ا �لن���ا �ن�ه ل��ي� ا ����ر�ي� �ل�� ن�م�ل ا ن� ا �ل���ق�م� �ي�لي �عو�� �يس�م ن� ك�� ��� �ل� ��س� �نل��� م ي ّ ع ي ي �ن ي ن نن � ��ً�ا � ��ل�� � ّ ن � ن ��سم�ل�هي اأ ن �ي نل ��� ن أ ن �س�سم�ا أا � ك���ا �� ي� �عم�لي��ه � ير�لن��ه �م ن��ه� .وك�ي ��� �ي�����س�ا �و�� �هر �كي��ه ا �يل� و ي ل��ي� ��� ي � � �ّ ن � � ن ن � ا �ل ن��ا ��� ل��� ا ر�ي�لن��ا ا ��ل ش��سر�ن�؟ �و���و �ي��س�ا �و� او ن�كي��ه �ا�م�ا ك� ���ا ن� ش��سر�� �و�ل�� ا ر�ي�لن��ا � او �ل�� �ن���م�ل� �م�ا � ا ي � أ �ن � ش �ن ع ا� ن ا ن � ي ا ي �� ي ا ن �ن � � نع ا ن ّ هي ا � ي �ي��هّ ا ن � � � ل �� �� � ا ا �ل ل � �� � � � يري ن�لع� �وي���سر� � او�م�� ر�ل �م����س� � ��ه؟ � �� � � � � � � � � �� �� � ه �م س س � �ل وي � أ و � � أ � ي وو� ي� أأ ي أ �ي� � �م ع أ � ن � ن ���ا � �لي��ن��ا � �ي�� ن� ل��ن ا ��� ا ن� � ن ���د �ل��ا �ا ح� �و ل��� ا �ش��يس�ا ء �ي�ي��ن�� ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن�ليّ��هي �م ن� ا �ل��� �� �م � او �ل� �و� ع يو و و ي� ور ر يري ن � ي ع �ل�ه� �عم�ل�� ن���� ن���. ن���� ن� م
أ أ ن ��. �� ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :ا �ل����س�� ن 1الا�ص�ل وط :ا �ل��س�ن� ن
36
36
٢،٨٢
On whether it would be more consistent with the true order of things if all people were honored equally Could true wisdom possibly lie in people’s enjoying an equally high degree
82.1
of honor instead of occupying disparate levels within it? If that is where true wisdom lies, then what actually obtains among people must be the result either of a compulsive force they cannot elude or of ignorance that cannot be held against them. By “equality” I am not referring to people’s equality in terms of estate and adequacy of means, or poverty and need; the propriety of this has been certified by wisdom, as it follows the natural bent of the world and accords with reason. I am referring, rather, to people’s equality in pedigree, for this has led to widespread insolence, domineering manners, and contemptuous behavior. Wisdom rejects the imposition of anything that is evil or that leads to evil. That is why the Prophet said, “The lives of believers are valued alike; the least among them may make covenants in their name, and they will stand as a single man against other parties.” 7 Miskawayh’s response People command honor through their own account and through the effects of wisdom that manifest in them. How apt are the words of the Imam ʿAlī, peace be upon him: “A man’s worth lies in his proficiency.” Our earlier remark regarding the nobility that runs in one’s pedigree was based on the fact that there is a strong hope that people with a prior connection to excellence will also manifest it themselves, particularly if its cause is near to them. How could people command an equally elevated degree of honor? For were they equal in this regard, this would constitute neither honor nor an elevated degree of it. What would they be elevated and honored above, if all stations were equal? But with regard to the humanity that extends to all of them alike, and with regard to the principles and conditions that attend humanity, people are equal; they differ with regard to other elements, in which some are more endowed than others.
37
37
82.2
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� يأ � � ّ � أ� � أ � ��ش� � ن �� ن ا �� � ا � ن ���د �ه�م�ا ����ا ا �ل�يت ����ي�ر � او � �لن��ا �ل؟ �و ا� ا �و��� ك���ي ر م� ا ل�� � نل�ه�م�؟ �وك ��ي ��ن� � ل���ن� �ع ن� ا �ل ش��س �ر����ه ا � ي ي م ع � ُ نّ� ا � �آ ن� � � �� ا اأ � �ُ � � ا ��ل ه � � �ي�ن �� � � ه اأ � �ه ا ا � ا ن � ّ ي ورح��� �ل� ر؟ و �م�ل ل�ه�م� �م�ل ير ن� أ ي�� وي��و�� ل�دي� و �م� ن�� ري� � سره ع � ن ن �ن ّ ّ ٰ ح � ا � ���س��ي ش � ا � � ّ هي � ا � ��ّي�ن ا �ي � ا � � ن ا� ا �ل���� ا ر؟ � او �ل �ن��ر �ع� ا �لم � ��م�ل� ا ّلله �عم�لي��ه � � ن� �ن� �ل���ّ ن���� و �ل� ��م�� ر و سر ن� �ل�ل�� � و �ل� ر ي أ � � ن ا ش �ن ن � � ي � ً � �� ح ً�� �� � ا � ا ن � �ي �� � � ���د ا ا�ام�سن�� �و��ل���� ��� � �ل��ه �م ���د�ش�ا �لم�ل��ل��� �و�ل� �مي�نس�ه �ن�مي��ل لملر ي� أ � يل �عول �ل� �و��سل�� �� ��� ل�� � ر ي � م � � ي � ي ي ي ن � ني آ ن � ن م ّ � ن �أ ن � ي نّأ � � � � �ا ا �ل ��ا � � � ح��س ن � .ور�ع� ا �ر� او ه ا ��ه �ع�د �و�� �و�ل� ����ي ره � .و��دأ كي�م�لأ ل�ي� م�� � ا �ر ك� � يح ن� ا � �ل�� �ل ا � م أ ّ ي � � ن � ن � ا ا ا� ا ا � �ن ا ّ � ن ن ن � ا� ن ي ن ���ي� �ر�ل ا�م�دي�ل��ه �ع��د ان �ل�ي� ا �ي ��و ن� ا �ل��ل��� ر�ي� ��سم���ه �ي�ل �عو�ل �����ل� �م��ي� �ل�ه �ي� ��س� �م �ي� ي���س� ر ن � ّ �� ن � � �ن ن� ي ا � � �أ� � �ل ي � ن ا � � �ن �ن � ��ن ���د ا � �م�ا ���� � �لي � ه ل � ل ك � � � م � � � � � � ؟ . ��س � � م ���� �ل �ل�نل�ي� ن� � � ل � ك � ي ي� ��ر��سم �م� �ل�� ا �ل�د ا ر ل�ي� ي ر ي و ري و ل ر أ � � ن ش ي ن ي ي ّ ع� ا �ل ّ � �� ن ن � �� ي� ا �ل �� �يل �����ا�يره ا � �ي�لي � عن�؟ ��ّ � ح��ا �ي�ه �ع ن� ان� ن� ا ��س�م�ا �عي�م�ل ل��ي� ��� ح��ي� ي� ���ه ا �ر� �ر �ي� .و ح��ي م م أ ن ن �� � ش ا ن ي � ي ا أ ش اأ�ل ن ًا �ع ن ا � ن ا �� � �م ّ � �ي��و��ل�ه ا �� �لن��ا ��ل ��ل��س�ا ن� ا �� نر�م�ا ن� �و�ع �� او � ا ل � ��د�� � �و�مل� �م� ا �� ���ر �م�ا �ي�ليع� ي� ��� � ن � رو�ي � ع ّ ّ ّ � � ش ّ ن ن � ن ن ن � ُ ي � � ي ي ي ي � � � �م�ا ��ل� �لي�� ��� م ا ا ي ا � ح� أا � ا ��ا ر� � �لم�ك ����� ء ���ا ر ا ن�ه � � ح ن� يو ع �م� �م ي�ل����د �م كي��ه ���و�ل �و�ل� أا ر ن�� �� � ي � ا ��ل ش�� ا�ا�م ي ��� �ن ا ��ن�ه ��ا ن� �و ��ي�ء ���ل�ر�.
١،٨٣
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ��ا أ ا ي � �أ � ه � ّٰ � � ن ا ن ي � ّ � � ي ن �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ح�م�ه ا لله ا �لأ����س� � �م� ���م�ل� أا �ل�� ا ���و���و�� �عم�ل�� ك�� �ل ن�� � ا �ل����ور � �م��س��� �وي� ر ن و � ن نا ن ا � ن ع يي ّ ي ي �يي ا ن ّ ا �� �� ن ي ي ي � ّ ش ا ا ا ا � � � � �و�م�����عن��ل� �ل��� �و�م��ي�نس� �ل��� �كم �و���ع�� �م� � �� 1ل�ه �س � � �ل��د � �ه �� ل���� ������� ��� � � � � ٢ ي ّم أ م � �و ن نع ي �و � ويروم �ن ه ��ي ّ ��ل � ن ا � ��� هي �ي ن �م�� ن�كي���ا �عم� ي��د ا � ي ��ل �����ا �عي��ه �ون� �� ����ا �كي��ه �ر��م�ا ا � ك ح�� ��يس��� م���� ا ل ��و��م�ل أا �� ن���� ر � ل�� ر �ل��� نل ن ن ن نيي ن أ ا ي ي� ّ ن �ن � �أ � � � ن� ا �ن � ن � أ ا ا � ��د ��� ��� � �� �و���ل�� ل�� ا �ل�� ��ور �ل� �ي � �� � يح ��ط� أ � � �� او �����ه ل��ي� را � �� � � � � � �� � و ��� � � كي� هو ي ن � ي ّ أ أ ّ ن� �ن � ا �ي ن �ن ن ن ي ن ن � ش �ل���ا � ��لم�ك �ن�ي�ر�و� �م ن� ا �عم�ل�� � ر ن��ه ل��ي� ���د ا ا �لن��ا ن� � او �و� ��ي� ��سن�� ن� كي��ه ر�م� ����د ر ٣ل�ي� ن���� � م ن أ ���ا ي ا ���أ��شم ن ��ا �� ا �����م�ل� �ّ�هي � �وي�ا �ش��ر���ا ل��ن� ا ������ا ا�� ا ��ل��م�ن�م�ل ّ ا ��لي�� �ّ�م� أا ��لي��ه ���د ��ل�� �ألم� ا ��لنن�� � �و� �و�رك� � � ل � و ي � ن ل و ل ي �ي� ي م م أ أ ة ّ ن 1الا�ص�ل� :ه� نّس ٢ .ط :ة��ة ش��س ّو����ه�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل وط�� :ع�د د.
38
38
٢،٨٣
On different forms of divination What is the form of divination called “augury,” and that called “taking omens,”
83.1
all about? Why are so many people obsessed by them? And why was one of them excluded from the religious Law while the other was licensed? Do they rest on a foundation that we use as our reference point and depend upon? Or are they sometimes based on what people suspect and perceive, and at other times on chance and compulsion? The statement on the topic transmitted from the Prophet is well known, but is not framed in such a way as to produce certainty, and its text does not provide substance for a considered opinion. He says, “Let there be no transmitting of illness and no augury.” 8 But it was said on another occasion he was fond of good omens. Those who transmit reports about the Prophet have claimed that when he was staying in Medina at the house of Abū Ayyūb al-Anṣārī, Abū Ayyūb heard him calling two servants of his, saying, “O safety!” and “O prosperity!” They also report that he said to Abū Bakr, “May this house be safe for us and enjoy prosperity.” How can this be, and how is it to be understood? Does it confirm that he approved of augury, or does it stop short of that? Next, you quoted what Ibn Ismāʿīl said in connection with al-Zaʿfarānī’s story.9 You also quoted Ibn al-Rūmī’s words, “Omens are the tongue of time, and the sign of the accidents of fortune.” And you said: How often something occurs unexpectedly, without a statement or prediction to precede it, so that when a prediction accompanies it, it is held to be the greatest wonder and the most remarkable thing. Miskawayh’s response As we have already noted, human beings yearn to discover things that exist, things that will exist in the future, and things concealed from their view. They have a natural longing and desire to know about them, depending on their ability and according to their capacity. Occasionally they can attain knowledge of some of them through a suitable nature combined with sound judgment and accurate intuition, and they exercise divination with regard to certain matters such that they hardly ever get them wrong. They then are on the firmest footing in this domain and are practitioners of the highest rank. Occasionally for some matters this is not possible, and, through the medium of astral indications and the movements of the heavenly bodies and their influence on
39
39
83.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ � ن ن� ح�� ي ّي ن أ ن �ن � � � �أ ن ���د �ي� � ل�� ���ند ن� ن� ح� �م�ه ا �و �ي � � ح��ا ن�����د � �لم�ك� .و�ل���د ه � �ويل� �� ��� �و�ه ل��ي� ا ��د ا �ل�د �ل� �لم�ل �و�سر ن� � ن أ أ � أ ً ّ � ح ��� أ �� �م ن ن��� �ن ح �����ا ا� ن ا ��ل� ن م ���ش�ي�رهي ن���د ا �و �ن �و ن� ��س�ا �ع�هي ا ���و��ل ك� �� ا �ل�����و��ل �و ن� ح�� � ط�� لي����� � � ع� ر ن ع أ أ أ � � ن ا ي �� �ن �م ن ن ��س�ا �ع�هي اأ ��� ��ش �م ّ�م�ا ن�ك���ا عن� ا ��ل ن��ا ن ���� ن�ك���ا ا � ��ل���نّ�ه � � � �م ن ا ��ل� ن � � � �� � �� � ا ���و�ل ا �ل� ير ر ي� و ر ي� وم � ��س� �ع�ه �و � � ن أ ّ � � ن � � ن � ي�م �م� �عم�ل���ا ��ا �هي �عم� ا�ام� ن �� �من���ا � ��م�ا ن��ا ي�لي��ه ���د ه ا �ل�����س�ا � � �ن نل ����ا أ� ���ا �م ن ا �ل��د �ل�� �أ � ح م ل � � � �ل ن ن و ر � ل�� و وع � ورن ل ي� ري ا ��ل��� ي ��يس�عيّ��ه. ن أ أ ي � � � ً �و��ل���� �م ن� �ش�س�ا ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� ا ن� ���ه�مم�ل �ع�م�ل�� ن��ن���ي�ر � ا أا �لي��ه �و�ل�� ��سن�� ن� ��ل�ه ن�كي����ي�ر ك� ���ا ��� ن�� ش� ً أ ن ن ي ن� � أ ن ا� �� أ � �آ ن ع � � � ن ن �ّ ن ���د �ه�م�ا � �ل�ه ا �س ار � �و� �يرن� ح�هي ل��� ر �� ���د �ه�م�ا �عم�ل� ا �ل��ر ���مل ن� �ل�����س�ه ن� حا ��و ن� ا � � �أ�ا � ا ��سم� ي أ � م ج آ ج ن ن ي � ن أ ن �� � � ا ا �� ن ن ي ���ي�ق� ّ � �م ا �����م�ل ا ��ل��ع��دهي � �لي � �و ن� ا �ل���ر �ي����س�� ��س� ن� ل� �د � � � ن ���عي ����ه �وي � ل ل ي ن ر ر � ي ح�����د أا ل�� ا �ل�� ن ي ج ي ّ� أ � اأ ن �ن � �آ ن � يّ �ا ن�كأ � ن ل�ن �ن �ن � ���د ا �� اأ��� ن ا�ا�مي � �م�ا �ي��رن� ح ه ه ه � � ا �� � �� ا حا � ل ل � س � � � د � م م � � � � ل � � م � � � � � . � � � ع � �� � س � � ل � � ي� ي� ل� ر � ي �ل أ ي وي ن و ن ي �ل ري ي� � � ج ن � ن � نّ �ي � ح � ن ّ هي ن ي ن ا � � ن أ ن � ن اأ � ا �� �ن ا ن اأ ن � ن ا � � � � � ح�����د � .او � �ل�� ل� � ا ا �م � � � � ء ء ن � ا � م م � � ل � � � � ح � � � � � ل ل � س � � � � � � � ي �ل ي ي ل ي �ل � ي و� ��س� � �ويم ر ن ا �ر ن�م�ل أ أ أ � ي � ن ا ش � ن � ي ��ن ش ي �ن � � �ن ي ي �ن ا � � � ���ره �ن�ا �� � ��� ا �� ��ل ����ه �لي����� �ك� ���ل��م ا�ام���ه�و�م �و��د �ي���و� ��د �ي���و� �ن� ��� او � ن�� ي ي��� ا �ر ا ل��ط�� �و �� ي ي � ي أ ش �ا � � مي ن ي �� ّ ن � ن ن ي � � ن ا ن ي ا � �ن ّ ّ �� �ل م����� �نل���وره �م� نع��و�ل�ه � او ��س � ���ن� �م�� ���ق� ه ل� �م�ل ا � ح���س�ه �و� � � � � ا �لم � م� �ي� �� �لأ� ��س� � و � ل �ن�ي� �م�ل�� ً � ن � ي � ا ّٰ ه �عم�ل ه � ��سل�� ا ن ا اأ � �� ا �ل ّ ح��س ن ا �ل�� ���� � ���م�ل�وه � نر��د ا ن��ا ن� � �� ح��س� ا ���و ن��ه. � لل ي�� و �م أ � نر� م أ �ي ي م ن اأ �ّ ا اأ �م� ا ا �� ��� � هي ن�� ��أ�نّ اأ ن �د ا � � �أ�م� ا ا ��لن ّ ا ي ا ن ��ل ح��س ن ��مي�م�ل�هي � او ��ر ن��ا ء ا ��ل � �� م� �� ن� ل��ي ر لل�ه� � �� �ل� �� ن� �يس� � � أ أ أ أ م � �أ ش � � ي ي �ّ � �أ � ا ن� ن ا � �� ن � ��� � ا �ن �ن� ��� � �ي � � � ا ا �� � � � � م � م � ل � ع � � �رل ل ه � �ه� � � 1 م��ر�و���ه � �ول ����ي�ر�ه� �م ن� ا �ل� �ور ر و �و �ل � �م رر و ن ط و لمك � أ ي م م ع أ أ � � أ �ن �� ا ن �ن ن ن ا ن �� نّ �ن � ن �ن � ح�م � ا ن ا �ن ا ��ن �م�لي ن ا ن ل ل ل � ا � � ا � ل ل �� � � � ا ا � � � � � � �ل��� م� حي��ل � �ي� ل�� � او ل�د و ر �ي� ي �ل و � ا �ل�ه� ي� �د و� ن��� ��س� � �� م � � ي ا�� ي � ا ��ل�����س�ع ّ هي �� ن ا �م ن ا � �أ� ن هي ا�ا� ي ن ي � ي �ي �ن م��ر�و���ه ك� �ل��� � �ل� سر ن�� م�نس�ا �ره � ٢او �لمل�� ا� � ���ا �لن��و�م � او �ل���ا �م�ه � او ���ع��رن� ن ي ي�� � نو��� أ أ أ � ن � � � �ي ��م�� � ا ��� ا ي �����ي ا �ل � ا �� �لن��ا � �م�ا اأ �ش������ا � ���� ن�� �م ن ا �ل����� ا ي� ا�ا ���د���د � �م�ا ن � � ل � ك ا � ه م � � � � ي و و ر و ر � ي �� ي ر و و و ن �� و � � ني ن ن � ن أ ن� �أ ا � �أ ن ش ي يّ � � ي اأ �ش ن ا ا ا ا ا ن ��� ل��� ن������ ا �ل �ل��� �م� ا �ل� ��س�م� ء � او �ل� � �ل�� ن� أا � ا ا ��� �� �ع او �ل��� �م� �ي �� او � � ��������ا �و� � � � � � � حر�و�� ا �و � ن � ي ن � � ا ���ن�� ا � �م ن ا ���ن�� ��هي � ا ��ل��ا ن �م ن ا ��ل��� ن � ا ��ل ن�� � �ن�� � ا ���سي�س �م ن ا ��ل����د � �����ن � �ل��ا ا ن �� ّ ا � � � ل��ي� ك�م�ل��� ك� �م ر ن � نر و ن � � ن ي� و و� و� ر � ن نو � ن � ن ا ن ��ل��ا ي �� ��ا � �أ� �م ن ا ���س � ن � ا�ا�م�ي ن � ا اي ل � � � � � � � ا ا � ا م م ع � � � ��د � � ح � � � ك م � �ل ح��ا ي� � � � ن �م� ا ����� ��� � ك�� �ل�ع�ور � يم�ي� و و ن� � ر ل نو � � ر ي � �أ ��ا � ا ن � ا � ا� ّ� ا� ا أ � ن � � ا ��لن� ن ي ��� �ن � ن ن ا �� ك�� �ل��س� � � او �لن�� ر � او�م�ع�ون � او�م� �لم� �و ن ح�مي�� � �لم�ك �لن� ع� ا �ل ������ �و ��ي�ره � او ��س��ي��ل�ء ا �لي�� � ج ج ج ل ع أ ن نة 1ط���� :ر�ة��ة�هة�س��ه� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا لم ن���ا �ر�. م
40
40
٣،٨٣
٤،٨٣
On different forms of divination
the lower world, they judge rightly or wrongly depending on their ability to gather, and then to combine, indications. This craft contains a great number of general principles and subsidiary rules that stem from these principles. Errors are not due to any weakness in the principles of the craft, but rather to the weakness of the person inquiring into it, or to the fact that he wants more from this craft than it incorporates, so that he refers to it things that exceed its purview; and sometimes he may fail to grasp these grounds and other similar natural indicators. It is not in the nature of the soul to perform an action without motive or
83.3
grounds, pointlessly, as it were. Thus, if we are confronted with two possibilities, one of which does not preponderate over the other, we try to give our soul an argument for undertaking one course of action rather than the other. We then have recourse to weak grounds, and labor to find improbable causes that might enable one of the two equivalent views to acquire preponderance over the other within our soul, so that we can attain it and adopt it. It is the way of virtuous men to harbor good opinions, sound hopes, and fine intentions, and in such cases they tend to see things as good omens. Omens may be expressed through simple sounds with no trace of articulate language, but they are usually expressed through intelligible speech. They may be conveyed through pleasing images and agreeable shapes, but mostly they are conveyed through the physical features of human beings. The Prophet said, “If you send me a messenger, let him have a beautiful name and beautiful face.” 10 Those who engage in augury, by contrast, are the opposite of those who nourish fine intentions and good hopes, so their approach is repugnant; they generally tend to augur from things, and the sorts of indicators they use are simpler and more copious. Some they draw from people’s moles, from horses’ spots, and from different kinds of physical features. Others they draw from incongruous mixtures and repugnant creatures, such as owls, vermin, scorpions, rats, and the like. Yet others they draw from disagreeable sounds, such as the braying of donkeys, the grating of iron, and the like. Some they draw from names and nicknames, deriving words from them that share some or all of their letters; for example, deriving the term “raven” from the term for “estrangement,” the term “ben tree” from the term for “separation,” and the term “date pits” from “distance.” 11 Some they draw from physical defects, such as when a person is missing his right eye or has a crippled foot, and others from movements and directions, as when a bird passes from left to right or from
41
41
83.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ���د ه ا ������س��ي ش��م���ا ا ي� ي� ن ���د���ا ��� ء ا ��ل ا � ن �ن � ن � ا �� �ليع ن�� ���ط �عم�ل���ا ن ���ا �وك� � . ���ا ن�� ي� ل ر ر و �� �ل �م�ل�د �لم�ك �ل�ه�ي� �ع � ي� �و و و ين � � ي ي أ أ أ � � � � أ نّ ش ا � ي � ي ّ � ن ا ����رن� ��ا � ���ه �م ن� �ن�ي� ن� ا �ل� �م�م ا �ر��� �عم�ل�� ���د ه ا �ل��� �ري�ل��ه � او � نر�م �ل���ا �عم�ل�� ا � ��س� �عر �هم �ي�لع�و�ل أ ن �و�ي�د ا � ح��س ن� [وا �ر] يِ �ِ ِّ ِ �� ِ ًي �ن ِ ا ن ِا ُ ن � � ي��� ِري� � ح ن�سقر ِ�ي�سقره ِ�� أِ ِ ِ َ ��اأ نِّ ��ُ�ليْ ِ ا نِ ْ� نِ اَ ا �ي��ا �ِ ك�� � ��ق�م� � ن � ���� ً� م ِ ِ �يِ��ِ اِِّ اأ�نِّهُ ِا ِ ��� ْ قِ ا �ّ � �س�ل� � ل �ي�سر أِ �ل� م �ِ ِ �ش�ِ� ْ ءٌ �ُ ا �ن يُ �ِ�ْ نِ �ش�ِ� ْ � ًء نلم�ل�� �ي� ي ��و ِ��� ن����� ي�
��ليُ��نْ ِ ُ ِ َ ���ا �ن��ِ��ا ن�ِ ُ ِ ��ِن��ي�ر �فنِ��ره �و� ْ ِ ي� أِ ِ َ ِ � ُ ِ � ح ل� ي ُ ش ُ ا �ش�س�ا �ل�ه نِ ِ� ����ِ��ِه �م���ِف�ي�ر ر ِ ِ ُ ِي ِ � ِ�ّ ِ ُ ِ ٱ � شُّ ُ ُ ِ�عم�ل�� �م����ط�ي ًر �و�ه�و ا �ل��ن ��ور أ َ ً ِ ِ � ُُ ِ ���شف��ُ �ف�ا ��� ن ا ا � � ��� � �ون� ���ِطم�ل�ه ِ ي ر ا � ِي ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ن� ي ه ا ��لي �ي � ا � � �� �� � � � ن ي � ش ����ا ا �ل� � �عم�ل�� �و ن�� ��و�ي ر �و �لأ� ن��ل ل �و ه�و �ل� �ل�ه� أا � ا �كي�م�ل �ل�ه �ي�ا ��يسم ن� ��ص� ن� ل��ي� ���را ���ه ن���� ن� ن م ج ّ ��� � �م اأ ن�� ي ي� ن � ن ش � ن ��ش�م ن �ً�ا؟ �اآ ن� ي�سي�م ن�ّ اأ ن � �لي��ا �� ��ل�ه ن� ��لم�ك � �ه� �ش ا ل ؟ � � ���د � �لم�ك ل��ي� ��يسم ن� �س � � � ل ن �ي���و� ي� و ر �� � ي و و ن رير ن �ل � ي ي ي � ن � �ّ � أ نّ ن ّ ن � ي �� ّ � أ ن ن ش ّ ُ ش ّ �ي ن � ً ن ج �عم�ل ا �ل � �� �ره ��ره � �لم�ك أا �ل� ا � ���د ا �عم�لي��ه ����ا ��ره �و� � ���ن� ا �ل ش��س�ا � ل��ي� ��س�ا ن� ي���يسم ن� � ��� �ي�س�م�ا �كي� � ح�عي ����ه �ي � � ن ن� ج ش� ّ � � ُ ّ ن � � ّ ن ش ن � ي ي ش � �ي�م � �م�ل�� �و�����د ا �ل ش���س�ا � ��� ن� �� �و�و ن��ه ا �ل��سي�� ن� �م�� ��ل �� . �و��س�ا ن� �ل� ي���يسم ن� ع ن ن وع ج
١،٨٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ نّ حي � �ن ا �� ن ا �� ل�ن ن � � � ا ن � ن ن ن � � �أن ن ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله أا ��م�ا ي�ن �مل� ل�� � �ي� � �لمك ن� حي��ل�� �� �ل ���ر�ه� �ل�� �ل�����هم� و � ي م ي � � ن �� ي أ ن ن� � نم ا �� ن � � أ نّه ّ� ا أ� ّ � � ن ا ن أ ن �ي ن �� � � � � � ا ا ا ا ا ا � � � � ح � � ل ح � � � � م ه � � � � ع � � � � �� � ه �� ه س م ن ي � �م و لمك �� � ل ن� �لأ � � � ر � �م ر � �ونح�� ن رن أ �ن ن � ي ه ل�ن ي ن ا ن ه � ي �ي ا �� �ع �ن ا ن �يك � ه ا ش��سم ن � ّ ّ ي ُ ي ��يسمل�� �ي� ا ن�ل��د ا ء ر�م� �� � او ���عن�� ل �سره أ� � ا 1ي�م�ل �ل� �ي� ي � �� � ن ��� ن� ا �ن�ه ��د ��سم�ل ن� �لم�ل�ك ج أ ن 1الا�ص�ل :أا د ا.
42
42
٢،٨٤
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ���د ه ا ������س��ي ش��م���ا ا ي� ي� ن ���د���ا ��� ء ا ��ل ا � ن �ن � ن � ا �� �ليع ن�� ���ط �عم�ل���ا ن ���ا �وك� � . ���ا ن�� ي� ل ر ر و �� �ل �م�ل�د �لم�ك �ل�ه�ي� �ع � ي� �و و و ين � � ي ي أ أ أ � � � � أ نّ ش ا � ي � ي ّ � ن ا ����رن� ��ا � ���ه �م ن� �ن�ي� ن� ا �ل� �م�م ا �ر��� �عم�ل�� ���د ه ا �ل��� �ري�ل��ه � او � نر�م �ل���ا �عم�ل�� ا � ��س� �عر �هم �ي�لع�و�ل أ ن �و�ي�د ا � ح��س ن� [وا �ر] يِ �ِ ِّ ِ �� ِ ًي �ن ِ ا ن ِا ُ ن � � ي��� ِري� � ح ن�سقر ِ�ي�سقره ِ�� أِ ِ ِ َ ��اأ نِّ ��ُ�ليْ ِ ا نِ ْ� نِ اَ ا �ي��ا �ِ ك�� � ��ق�م� � ن � ���� ً� م ِ ِ �يِ��ِ اِِّ اأ�نِّهُ ِا ِ ��� ْ قِ ا �ّ � �س�ل� � ل �ي�سر أِ �ل� م �ِ ِ �ش�ِ� ْ ءٌ �ُ ا �ن يُ �ِ�ْ نِ �ش�ِ� ْ � ًء نلم�ل�� �ي� ي ��و ِ��� ن����� ي�
��ليُ��نْ ِ ُ ِ َ ���ا �ن��ِ��ا ن�ِ ُ ِ ��ِن��ي�ر �فنِ��ره �و� ْ ِ ي� أِ ِ َ ِ � ُ ِ � ح ل� ي ُ ش ُ ا �ش�س�ا �ل�ه نِ ِ� ����ِ��ِه �م���ِف�ي�ر ر ِ ِ ُ ِي ِ � ِ�ّ ِ ُ ِ ٱ � شُّ ُ ُ ِ�عم�ل�� �م����ط�ي ًر �و�ه�و ا �ل��ن ��ور أ َ ً ِ ِ � ُُ ِ ���شف��ُ �ف�ا ��� ن ا ا � � ��� � �ون� ���ِطم�ل�ه ِ ي ر ا � ِي ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ن� ي ه ا ��لي �ي � ا � � �� �� � � � ن ي � ش ����ا ا �ل� � �عم�ل�� �و ن�� ��و�ي ر �و �لأ� ن��ل ل �و ه�و �ل� �ل�ه� أا � ا �كي�م�ل �ل�ه �ي�ا ��يسم ن� ��ص� ن� ل��ي� ���را ���ه ن���� ن� ن م ج ّ ��� � �م اأ ن�� ي ي� ن � ن ش � ن ��ش�م ن �ً�ا؟ �اآ ن� ي�سي�م ن�ّ اأ ن � �لي��ا �� ��ل�ه ن� ��لم�ك � �ه� �ش ا ل ؟ � � ���د � �لم�ك ل��ي� ��يسم ن� �س � � � ل ن �ي���و� ي� و ر �� � ي و و ن رير ن �ل � ي ي ي � ن � �ّ � أ نّ ن ّ ن � ي �� ّ � أ ن ن ش ّ ُ ش ّ �ي ن � ً ن ج �عم�ل ا �ل � �� �ره ��ره � �لم�ك أا �ل� ا � ���د ا �عم�لي��ه ����ا ��ره �و� � ���ن� ا �ل ش��س�ا � ل��ي� ��س�ا ن� ي���يسم ن� � ��� �ي�س�م�ا �كي� � ح�عي ����ه �ي � � ن ن� ج ش� ّ � � ُ ّ ن � � ّ ن ش ن � ي ي ش � �ي�م � �م�ل�� �و�����د ا �ل ش���س�ا � ��� ن� �� �و�و ن��ه ا �ل��سي�� ن� �م�� ��ل �� . �و��س�ا ن� �ل� ي���يسم ن� ع ن ن وع ج
١،٨٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ نّ حي � �ن ا �� ن ا �� ل�ن ن � � � ا ن � ن ن ن � � �أن ن ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله أا ��م�ا ي�ن �مل� ل�� � �ي� � �لمك ن� حي��ل�� �� �ل ���ر�ه� �ل�� �ل�����هم� و � ي م ي � � ن �� ي أ ن ن� � نم ا �� ن � � أ نّه ّ� ا أ� ّ � � ن ا ن أ ن �ي ن �� � � � � � ا ا ا ا ا ا � � � � ح � � ل ح � � � � م ه � � � � ع � � � � �� � ه �� ه س م ن ي � �م و لمك �� � ل ن� �لأ � � � ر � �م ر � �ونح�� ن رن أ �ن ن � ي ه ل�ن ي ن ا ن ه � ي �ي ا �� �ع �ن ا ن �يك � ه ا ش��سم ن � ّ ّ ي ُ ي ��يسمل�� �ي� ا ن�ل��د ا ء ر�م� �� � او ���عن�� ل �سره أ� � ا 1ي�م�ل �ل� �ي� ي � �� � ن ��� ن� ا �ن�ه ��د ��سم�ل ن� �لم�ل�ك ج أ ن 1الا�ص�ل :أا د ا.
42
42
٢،٨٤
On why some people dislike being addressed as “old man” while others relish it
right to left, and when something is crooked or inclining. This is due to a weakness of the soul and the natural disposition, and to its succumbing to despair and despondency. These perceptions exacerbate its condition, and this is why they were forbidden. Of all the nations, the Arabs in particular were extremely keen on this method and clung to it very tenaciously. Yet their own poet put it well when he said:12 Ziyād asked his augurs to inform him about it, but no one could. He stayed behind as if someone had offered him a piece of Luqmān ibn ʿĀd’s wisdom. He learned that the only omen to be had from augury is the augur himself—he is destined for perdition. Indeed, things do coincide at times, but augury is rife with false predictions.
On why some people dislike being addressed as “old man” while others relish it Why do some people hate it when others address them as “old man” out of
84.1
respect and veneration even though they are not old, while others wish to be addressed that way even though they are in the flush of youth? Indeed, we encounter such reactions among people who are actually old and who hate that mode of address, though in this case the reason for their dislike is evident. Our question, however, is about young men who hate being addressed as “old man” when it is meant as an honorific, and about young men who are not addressed as “old man” but affect that status, even though the loss of youth is painful and gray hair is a heinous sight. Miskawayh’s response People differ in this regard as a result of the different ways in which they view themselves and the ways in which they perceive the aims of those addressing them. For a person may want to manifest his virtue at the beginning of his life, in his early years; so, if he is addressed as “old man,” he may think he has been deprived of that virtue and has been assimilated to those who acquired that
43
43
84.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ُ ّ � ن ن � ي أ �� ا ��لي� ي �� �ش �ي � ن � ّ �ي � � ا �� ن� ن � هي �ن � ن ا ن �� �� ل ا � �ل�� ه ا طو�لم�ل �و ن� ح �ر�ه ���ي�رهي �ور��م�ا �� ا ل ا م � ا ح ل ك � م ل � ��ره � �� س م � �� � � ل �م ل � � م � ل �ل ك ��ي أسمل� �و �� ن � ن ي �ي� ر � � ي ن ُ أ ي ي ن ��ً�ا ��ل�� � ��ل�ه ل��ن ا ��ل ش���س�ا � � �م�م ا ��ل� ا ��لم�ل��� � ا ��له� �� ا ��لم�ل��ند � ن ي�� � ��� ن�م���ا ن� �م ن ن �� ن ن و ي �ل أ � ي� � �لمك ا �يل� ر ن ن و �و � ي� ا ��ل ش م ن ن ا ن �ي � ا ش�� م ن أ � ن ���د ا ا ��لم�ل�ي ���ا �ا� �ا �ن�� ���ه � ا �� ن ا � � اأ نّ � ن ��ا ������ه�� 1ن��ي ن� ���� �م ن��ه �م�ا م � � ل ك � �أ� � ا كي�م�ل �ل�ه �ي� يس� ��يس� م � � را � � ن ور رو ن ي ر ن ع ج � ن ن� � ن ّ� ا �ن نل ��� ا � � ن ا ن �ل� ج �م ن ا�ا ش ا ن � ا ّ �� ن �ي���ي� ���ر � م��س�ي � �و�ل� ي�����د ره �عم�ل�� ر ��و ن� �م� �يل�ه�م �ن�ه �و�ي���ر�م �عم�لي��ه� .ورن�م� �ر �لأ����س� � أا �� ج �ن نّ � ي ح � ي �� ه �م ن ا �� ي ا ا �� � ن � � � ح��م ا �ّ � �م ن ا�ا� ش ا ن ا ش � � ل � � � ا ل � � �س د ي � � � ه � � ل � � س م��س ي و �و �ي� � ���ن ن� �سري�لن��ه � ��مل� ل� � �و ر ي� �ل �ل أ �ل � ج � أ ن ُ � ن ي � �ن � ن ن �� ح�ّ �ن �� ا � �و��س �ع�هي �لم�ل� ن�ع�ه �م�م�لن� ا�م ��� ن � او ��م� ا ��ل��د ر��هي �نم�� � � ا � �ني����س ّر �ن�ا �لأ�� �� ل � � ا � � ح ح � � �� � �� � ل ن و ر ل ن ي� ر ر ن ن م ع � ي�ن ي � ن � � ن ا ن � � � ��د ا ا ���� ���ن� � او �ل��م ن� ح ��ط �ل�ه. �وه ا �ر� ح�مل�� �و ن � ��� �نل� و
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ش ّ � ّي � � ن ن ّي � ���ا ن�� ي� ��م ����ا ���م�ل�هي ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� ل��� ��سم�ل� �وي�ه أا � ا ك� ��ا ره حن�يس�ه �عم� �م�ه �ل�ه �و��ن���ي�ره؟ �و�م�ا �عم�ل�ه ن� نر�ع�ه � او ���م ل�� ي ي ا� ن ن ّ ي ا� ا ي ا� هي � ا ّ �� ن �ن ل�ن ن � ي � �و� ح ّ��س ه أا � ا � � ح� ��س�ه ا�م��س� ء ه �و�م ����ده ا�م��ي��ن�� ؟ �و م� ��سر ا ل����� �ي� � �لمك؟ �و��م�ل �هو� ر � �ن ن أ � ن ن� ن ه ن ��نل ا ��� � � ا ��ل ه ��ل أ � ّ �ش�� � ّ � ا ن م��ر�وه؟ �أاو � ا ار �ن� ���د ا ا�� �ر ن � ي���� ن�� �أاو �� ا ي� �ي� ء ير� ه؟ �م���و� �م� ا �لأ����س� � ا �م � � م أ � ي نّ ��م ي أ ن �� � ا� �ي � ��ل ن � ��ا �ل ن��ا � � � ن �مش�� ًل�� م � � � ا � � � ؟ �و ا�م ي�س�م��� ن���سن�� ن� حن�س�ه ا � ي� ش��سر���ه ا �ل ن��ا ���؟ �و�م ي���س�ير أا �� لمك و ن ير وو� ج أ ا�ن ا ّ ن يي يي ن ��س�هي ي� ن� � �ل ح�مي��ه �م ن� ا ���ر�� ن�لي��د ره ا را � ا � ي���ر�� ن ي��د ر �ع�ي ره. �ن� � �ل�� ر� ي ر
١،٨٥
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ �� ح ّٰ �� � � ن � ا � �أ�� �ن ح ن ن �م ن �ع ا ن�� ا ��لن ��ن ا � ّ � ل ل � � � ه ه � ا ا ه � ا م��س� ه � � � � م � م � ح لل ع � � م � � �� � � ل � � � � � ل ن رع و وي ر � و ي� و ر � ور � �� �ل ا ن و � � ي ي ي � ي � � ح هي ا �� �لي� ي ح � ��س�ا أ� ا ����ع ا ن�� ا ���أ ن� ك� � ن � ن� �� ن� � او �ل ش����ه�وه � او ��ن���ي�ره � او �ر��م� �و ����وه ���ا ���� ن� حر�ي� ن�مر� ر �و ر � �ل ر �أ ن � �� ن � � ُ � ن ن ن �و��س�ا أ�ر ا �ل�� ن��ل�� �ي� ا � ��ي� ي �ح�م��د ا �لأ�����س�ا � �ك �� ي� �ل�ه �كم� �ي���ن��ن�ه� �ون���س�ا أ�ر ا �ل ش��سر�و ��ط ���ا أا � ا �عر ن� ي� ي ي نّ ُ نّ � ي أ� ن ا ا ً ��ش� ي ُ ن ّ ا ن � �� �ن �ي � � � ش �أ �� ن ي ن ي ا � � � � � � م � ا ا ا ا ا � ا � � ل ك ��� ن �ل � لك ل��سر ل�ط .أو �م� ل���د ن� ا � ��ي� ا ح��ي���� ��� �س ار ر ��ي ره وي��د م نل��� أ � عر� أ نّ 1الا�ص� :م ���ل��طة����. ل
44
44
٢،٨٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ُ ّ � ن ن � ي أ �� ا ��لي� ي �� �ش �ي � ن � ّ �ي � � ا �� ن� ن � هي �ن � ن ا ن �� �� ل ا � �ل�� ه ا طو�لم�ل �و ن� ح �ر�ه ���ي�رهي �ور��م�ا �� ا ل ا م � ا ح ل ك � م ل � ��ره � �� س م � �� � � ل �م ل � � م � ل �ل ك ��ي أسمل� �و �� ن � ن ي �ي� ر � � ي ن ُ أ ي ي ن ��ً�ا ��ل�� � ��ل�ه ل��ن ا ��ل ش���س�ا � � �م�م ا ��ل� ا ��لم�ل��� � ا ��له� �� ا ��لم�ل��ند � ن ي�� � ��� ن�م���ا ن� �م ن ن �� ن ن و ي �ل أ � ي� � �لمك ا �يل� ر ن ن و �و � ي� ا ��ل ش م ن ن ا ن �ي � ا ش�� م ن أ � ن ���د ا ا ��لم�ل�ي ���ا �ا� �ا �ن�� ���ه � ا �� ن ا � � اأ نّ � ن ��ا ������ه�� 1ن��ي ن� ���� �م ن��ه �م�ا م � � ل ك � �أ� � ا كي�م�ل �ل�ه �ي� يس� ��يس� م � � را � � ن ور رو ن ي ر ن ع ج � ن ن� � ن ّ� ا �ن نل ��� ا � � ن ا ن �ل� ج �م ن ا�ا ش ا ن � ا ّ �� ن �ي���ي� ���ر � م��س�ي � �و�ل� ي�����د ره �عم�ل�� ر ��و ن� �م� �يل�ه�م �ن�ه �و�ي���ر�م �عم�لي��ه� .ورن�م� �ر �لأ����س� � أا �� ج �ن نّ � ي ح � ي �� ه �م ن ا �� ي ا ا �� � ن � � � ح��م ا �ّ � �م ن ا�ا� ش ا ن ا ش � � ل � � � ا ل � � �س د ي � � � ه � � ل � � س م��س ي و �و �ي� � ���ن ن� �سري�لن��ه � ��مل� ل� � �و ر ي� �ل �ل أ �ل � ج � أ ن ُ � ن ي � �ن � ن ن �� ح�ّ �ن �� ا � �و��س �ع�هي �لم�ل� ن�ع�ه �م�م�لن� ا�م ��� ن � او ��م� ا ��ل��د ر��هي �نم�� � � ا � �ني����س ّر �ن�ا �لأ�� �� ل � � ا � � ح ح � � �� � �� � ل ن و ر ل ن ي� ر ر ن ن م ع � ي�ن ي � ن � � ن ا ن � � � ��د ا ا ���� ���ن� � او �ل��م ن� ح ��ط �ل�ه. �وه ا �ر� ح�مل�� �و ن � ��� �نل� و
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ش ّ � ّي � � ن ن ّي � ���ا ن�� ي� ��م ����ا ���م�ل�هي ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� ل��� ��سم�ل� �وي�ه أا � ا ك� ��ا ره حن�يس�ه �عم� �م�ه �ل�ه �و��ن���ي�ره؟ �و�م�ا �عم�ل�ه ن� نر�ع�ه � او ���م ل�� ي ي ا� ن ن ّ ي ا� ا ي ا� هي � ا ّ �� ن �ن ل�ن ن � ي � �و� ح ّ��س ه أا � ا � � ح� ��س�ه ا�م��س� ء ه �و�م ����ده ا�م��ي��ن�� ؟ �و م� ��سر ا ل����� �ي� � �لمك؟ �و��م�ل �هو� ر � �ن ن أ � ن ن� ن ه ن ��نل ا ��� � � ا ��ل ه ��ل أ � ّ �ش�� � ّ � ا ن م��ر�وه؟ �أاو � ا ار �ن� ���د ا ا�� �ر ن � ي���� ن�� �أاو �� ا ي� �ي� ء ير� ه؟ �م���و� �م� ا �لأ����س� � ا �م � � م أ � ي نّ ��م ي أ ن �� � ا� �ي � ��ل ن � ��ا �ل ن��ا � � � ن �مش�� ًل�� م � � � ا � � � ؟ �و ا�م ي�س�م��� ن���سن�� ن� حن�س�ه ا � ي� ش��سر���ه ا �ل ن��ا ���؟ �و�م ي���س�ير أا �� لمك و ن ير وو� ج أ ا�ن ا ّ ن يي يي ن ��س�هي ي� ن� � �ل ح�مي��ه �م ن� ا ���ر�� ن�لي��د ره ا را � ا � ي���ر�� ن ي��د ر �ع�ي ره. �ن� � �ل�� ر� ي ر
١،٨٥
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ �� ح ّٰ �� � � ن � ا � �أ�� �ن ح ن ن �م ن �ع ا ن�� ا ��لن ��ن ا � ّ � ل ل � � � ه ه � ا ا ه � ا م��س� ه � � � � م � م � ح لل ع � � م � � �� � � ل � � � � � ل ن رع و وي ر � و ي� و ر � ور � �� �ل ا ن و � � ي ي ي � ي � � ح هي ا �� �لي� ي ح � ��س�ا أ� ا ����ع ا ن�� ا ���أ ن� ك� � ن � ن� �� ن� � او �ل ش����ه�وه � او ��ن���ي�ره � او �ر��م� �و ����وه ���ا ���� ن� حر�ي� ن�مر� ر �و ر � �ل ر �أ ن � �� ن � � ُ � ن ن ن �و��س�ا أ�ر ا �ل�� ن��ل�� �ي� ا � ��ي� ي �ح�م��د ا �لأ�����س�ا � �ك �� ي� �ل�ه �كم� �ي���ن��ن�ه� �ون���س�ا أ�ر ا �ل ش��سر�و ��ط ���ا أا � ا �عر ن� ي� ي ي نّ ُ نّ � ي أ� ن ا ا ً ��ش� ي ُ ن ّ ا ن � �� �ن �ي � � � ش �أ �� ن ي ن ي ا � � � � � � م � ا ا ا ا ا � ا � � ل ك ��� ن �ل � لك ل��سر ل�ط .أو �م� ل���د ن� ا � ��ي� ا ح��ي���� ��� �س ار ر ��ي ره وي��د م نل��� أ � عر� أ نّ 1الا�ص� :م ���ل��طة����. ل
44
44
٢،٨٥
On why people take comfort from knowing they are not alone in their misfortune
virtue over a long period of time and after extensive experience. It may also be hateful because there may be a particular motive for wanting to be young or there may be a penchant for amusements and blind desires, which are deemed reprehensible in old people. So, if a person is addressed as “old man,” he views this appellation as a hindrance and restraint, and assumes that the individual uttering this form of address expects him to act the way he expects old people to act, and will not excuse him for venturing to do the things he has set his mind on. Sometimes a person may take into account the level of respect that has accrued to him, which only accrues to old people, whereas he is still young, and he may rejoice at the honor bestowed and the speed with which he has achieved the status of a seasoned and experienced man. So the pleasure or anger with which one responds to this qualification differs depending on the way one views matters.
On why people take comfort from knowing they are not alone in their misfortune What causes people to take solace when others share the troubles they are
85.1
experiencing? What causes them to feel anxious, oppressed, and disconsolate when misfortune singles them out and calamity is confined to them? What secret quality of the soul is expressed therein? Is it praiseworthy or reprehensible for people to respond that way? How should they treat this reaction if it carries them away, and to what should they impute it? Why do our troubles make us wish other people shared in them, and why do we find comfort in that? Our companions report a Persian saying that runs: “If your threshing floor has been burned, you want the threshing floor of others to burn.” Miskawayh’s response Anxiety, sorrow, and grief are among the contingent effects the soul is subject to, and they resemble other effects such as anger, appetite, jealousy, mercy, cruelty, and all the other ethical characteristics human beings are praised for adhering to in the right manner and in accordance with the other conditions we have enumerated many times, and blamed for adhering to in a way that conflicts with those conditions. The soul is refined through the acquisition of character traits so that these contingent effects affect it as they ought, under
45
45
85.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �أ ي � � ن ن � ن ي ن � ن � ن ن �ي ��� ا �لن ��ن���� �ن�ا �ل� ن��ل�� �� �لي����و� ���د ه ا ��� �ع او ر��� ����ر��� �ل�ه ل��ي� � �� او ن� ���ا �عم�ل�� �م�ا �ي���ن��ن�ه� ل��ي� ا � ��و� ي� � �ي �ن ن �ن � ن �ن ن �ي ���ا ن� ل��ن� �م����ن��هي �� 1ل ا ��ل�� ند �ي� �ي�ن��ن��ن�ه �ن�ا ��ل �كم� �ي�ن��ن��ن�ه �ه�و �م�ا ك� ح�� ي� ا �لأ����س�ا � �ل��د ن�� ن� ح نر� ا �ل��د �ي� ي����ر��� � ي ي � ي ي أي� � ن ّ � ن أ ن�ي ا � ّ أ � � ن ا �يّ�ن ا �ي ن� ّ ه ن ن � � ا � ا ن���ر��ه ا �و ���ه�مم�ل �ر ��ط �كي��ه ا �و ك�� � �ل�ه كي��ه ��سن�� ن� ا ح�يس� ر ي� ا �و �ل����وء ل�� � ح� ��� � �و� ن ن ا نّ ن � ن ن ا ن � ن ن � �أ � ن � � ن ن ن ���د ا ا ��ل ���ا � � �و� ا �ل��ّو�ل ��ا �لأ����س�ا � �م���د �ور �ن�ه. حر� �أو � ك ح�م�ل ��سن��ن��ه� .أ� � �ع�ي�ره �و�ه�و ي ن� � نأ ّ � ن ن ً أ ً ن � ي � �أ نّ ن �ش ً� � ّ� ن �سر�ور�ّ�ا ا �و � او ن� حن��ا ن�م�لي���� ي� ��ا �م�ا �م�ا ك���ا � � ح نر� �ل�ه �عم� �م�ل �ل�� �عر�و ن� ا �ل���سم��� �مش��ل� �ام�ا ك���ا � � ي ن ًّا ا� ن ن � أ � ن ��ا ن أ يًا ن ن ا ن ��ش ي ن ً � ّ أ � ن � ن ن �� ���ا ّرا ن� � � ا � � �سر�ور�� � ي� ل � ا � � م � � حر� �ل�ه ا � � د � �� � � ��د �أاو � ك�� � �عم� � �ل�� �ع� �م�� ��� ك���ي�ره �و� و ل ع ر � ي م ع ن ن �� ن ا �ل� � � � �ّ � � �ن ن � � ن � ا ��لي��س ّ �ن ل� �م ن��ا ��� ا �ل��د ن�ل��ا � ���� � � �ه � �و� ا �ل ش���يس�ا ء � او �لن��ر� �و�ور�و� ا ل� ي � ���� �ن� حر �ل� يحر� و � ر� �ي� ع يأ و دألمك ن � م ن ي ّ � � ي �ل�ه �عم� �م�ل ن�لم�ل ي����س���د �ل�ه � �وي�ا ن���د ا � ن��يس�ه. ن � أ ّ ّ � � � أ � ���د ��ل���أنّ�ه ن �س �ور� � � او ن��م�ا ي ن� ��يس��ه ّ ن�م�لي���� ي� ح نر ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� �م ن��ه � او �ّم�ا ا�ام�و ي� ا �ل�� ح نر� �ل�ه ا � � ن ر ي � � أ ي ن �ن ن � � ي ي � � ن ع � � � ��ا ن ��ن��ي ن ��� اأ � ن� � ا ��ل ا � هي ا��م ي هي �� � ن � � � � � � � ا �� � ه � � � � � � ح نر ا � �� او �ل��د د د � � � � � � ل ل � ���س � ل ك أا � ا �ور� ل�ي� �ع�ي ر ا � ��و�� ي� � ي ر و ن ي ر ن و لمك ي ن ع ي أّ � � ن ي ّ � أن � ي � �� � � �أ نّ �� � ن � ا � ي ���س�ه ا � ي��م�و ي� �ه�و �كن�م�ل�ه �ن�ا �م�ا ا ���و�ل��د �كي���م�ل ن� نر�ع�ه �عم�ل� � او �ل��ده �عم�ل�� ��و� ول�ده �ل� � ا ل�د ي� �� ن � � �أ نّ � �أ ����ا ن �ن ح ا � ه ا �ّ � اأ�نّه �ي�ي ّ � �مش ً�� � ن � ا ن � � اأ� �� ��ن�� �ن �ن اأ �ّ ا � ا ��� ��ن � �د � ل � � � � � � � � � � � � � م م م �� �� س س ك � ل م ل � � ه نر ن أ �ل�� ا �ل��سر �كم ك�� � ل�ي� ير� ي ي ر و يأ ن �ي� م أ ّ ُ � ن ن � ي ّ ن ن ح��ه ل� �م�ا �ل�ه ا � ن� ن ح��ه ن��م ن ح�� � �و� �م ن �يل�م� ��� ا ��نل�� �ل ا ن � � � ح��س�م�ه ن�أ�ا ��م�ا � ن �نر�ه حر ا � ي و � �ي� �ن � �لم �م��س� �ر �و� ار � ن � �ن� ُ ن ن أ ن � �� ي ن ا نّ ن � ن ��م � � � � ّي ن ا ي ي ��ل ن ح� هو�ل ا �ل��سن�� ن� �و�ل��د �لم�ك ي�����د ر �كي��ه ا � �ل�� �ل�� ��وء ا �ل�� �ل�� �� �ور� اء ه ا نح� �أ� � ���د ا ا �ل ��وع ن � ن أ ي � �ن ش ّ �ن �� � � � ّ ن ع�د ر � او �ّم�ا �م ن ي�س�م ن��ّ ���ن���ي�ره �م ن ا ��ل���� ء �مش�م� �م�ا ي� �س�سم�ا أا � ا � �����ه �ل� ي ح��م�ل �ل�ه ��ه�و ��سر ل�ي� � ن � و ل � � ي ن يأ ي أ ً � ن � ن � � اأ ش أا ا ��ه � ��ا � �ل��ه � ��د ا � ن ش ا ا�� ي� � ح���أ��د ي� ح��س ن� � �� نو�مي� و ي ن و ��د �عم�لي��ه ��سي���� �و�م ي�����د �ل�ه �نل ���� �لم�ل �و�ي م ن ح��س� ا �ل��س� �عر ل�ن �ي �� ه ن ن ن �ي� ��ول� [����هة���] ْ ��ُ ُ نِ ْ ُ ُ ��ُ �ِ ْ ِ يِاأ ُ � َا � ْ � � � � � ��و ٢ك�م �لو� �ع�يِري� ك�م �لوِم�ي� ��� ٤له �لي����� �� � � م نِ �ِ �م
أ أ أ أ ن 1الا�ص�ل�� :س���ص�ة�ن���ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ة�ا ��سوا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ك���م�. ة
46
46
َا َا ْ ِ َا ���� �نِل�ِه�م �و���� نِ�ل�ي� ���� نِ�ل�ي�
٣،٨٥
On why people take comfort from knowing they are not alone in their misfortune
the right conditions, and at the right time. The sorrow that affects a person in the right manner is the one that arises in response to a calamity that befalls him on account of a wrong he committed or an action he was remiss in or made some voluntary contribution to, or an unhappy chance that singled him out among other people and whose cause he does not know. Even though this kind of sorrow is inferior to the first, it is not held against people. By contrast, no reasonable person feels sorrow over things whose occurrence is necessary or inescapable. Nobody feels sorrow at the setting of the sun since it occurs necessarily, for example, even though it prevents the realization of many benefits, causes harm to everyone, and stops people from seeing and from pursuing their daily business. Similarly, no reasonable person feels sorrow when winter and cold set in or when the summer heat appears; instead, we gear up for it and make preparations. Nobody feels sorrow over natural death, because it is necessary. It is only when it appears at an unexpected time or takes an unanticipated form that people are aggrieved by it. Thus, parents are aggrieved by the deaths of their children, because they had anticipated that they would die before them. By contrast, children are not greatly aggrieved by the death of their parents, for matters follow the course they had anticipated, though it might occur slightly earlier, for example, or when it ought. In the case of the traveler or seafarer who happens to be the only one of his companions to suffer some hardship relating to his property or body, his sorrow is due to suffering misfortune and bad luck. The cause of this type of event is unknown, and one excuses him most readily on that account. Those who wish others to suffer the same kinds of evil that have afflicted them have a wicked nature, especially if this brings them no profit and avails them nothing; in that case, it is right to reprimand and discipline them. The poet put it well when he said: The wounds of another do not heal my wounds; let them have their sufferings, and me my own.13
47
47
85.3
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�� ا � ن ن ي � ا ي ن � �أ �ن ي � ن هي ن ح ن��ا �� ا ���ا ����� � � ا �� � � � ا �� ن�ل� �� � ا ��ل� ن �� ي � م � � � � ح ���� ا � �ل�� م � ل � � ك ���د؟ �ور�ع�م ي� ن رن و روم و ر � و ��مل�ه ا �ل��س� ر�ي�ه ل�ي� ا �ل� � ّ �أ � أّ أ ّ ن � ّ أّ ���د ن� ي� ا ��ل��يرك �ل�� ن� ا �ن�ا �ع�سشم�ا ن� �ل�� ي���عي��د �نل�ه� أا ��ل�� �م�ا ي�لي���م�ل �ن�ه �م ن� �� ��ل���مم�ك �م�م�ا ا� ا � ����ه ا �ن�م�ك � ح� م م � أ ن ن � أا � ك� ح� ���ا ن�� ي� ا�ام��س�ا ��ل�هي ��ه� ل��� ي��د ر �م�ا ن�رن� �م ن� � ��اي� ��ي�. ي ي ي ج
١،٨٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � �أ ّ � � ّٰ ا� ّا��ا ن ي ن ا� اأ � ي ي ّ ا ح��هي أا ��ل�� ن� � ح � � � ه ه ه � � ا � � ا م��س� ه � م � ه �� � ���د ح���ا �أل��� ا �ل� �م� � م � � م � � � � لل ع م�� ل ك � � س م � � � � � ل ن وي ر و � �� �ل ا ن و � � م ي أ � �� ي ن ن� � او �لين��ه حّ� � او �ي���ً�ا �م ّ�م�ا �ي ن�ل� ّ� ��ه �ي�� � � �و ن� �ي�� � ا �يكن�م�ل ي� �عم�ل ا ��نل�� � ح ش� �ع ن� � �لم�ك �وي�ر�� ي� �ل���د ��ي ن� و و � ن ر ن � م م أ � ن ا ن � ا� اأ � ي ن � � ا هي ح���ا ���سم�ل�ك �م��سم�ل�ك ا ��لن ���د ه ��س���م� ل��ن ��س�ا أ� ا�ا�م��س�ا �ألم� ��ل��أ نّ� ���ا � ح ���� �ن� ن ي ل�ي� ي� ر ا � �ل�� ��ط ا�م��س� �ل�ه �و ن� ي ل أ أ ي �� ن ن �ي ا�ا� ن �� ي ل�ن � �ي ي ا ا� ا � هي �ي �ن ي ا � نّ � ���ا �عم�ل�� ���ر���ه� . �و�ل� �ي��د �� ن� �م�د �� ن� ا ��م�ل م��ط�� �ي� حعي��� �م��س� �ل� �و ��و ي����� ح �� � م أ ّ ن ي ي ٰ � أ نّ � ���س�ه � �آ� � ي �� ن ّ هي �ن�ا �ي��و��ل � �و�ا ّلله ا �لي��ون�ك ��ي� �ي�د �ي�لي��د � ي��سم�ا �من���� �م ن� �� ��ل�� �م ن��ا ا � ا �لن ��ن���� � �مم�ل ا �ل� �ل�� ا لن��د �لي�� ي أم نأ ن � ا� ن ه � � ن � ن ن ا ا ا ا ا ا ن ن ي ن ن � � �� ا �سر ن� ��� �و� ��� ح ���د ر ا ����� �ل��� نح�� ح��ي�س� �ع� ن�� �لي� ��و��� �م�د �عن�� �و� �لمل�� �عم�ل�� ا�م�و� �كي�� � ن ع ن ن ا � ش ً� � ن ��ل ي �� ن ن ّ ي ن � ا ن �� � ن � �ُ���مين�� � � ن ه ن � ��ا ن ي ا ن ي � � � � ه ه � ا � � ا � ا ا ا م � � �ل م �سره �� ه � � � � � � � � � � � � � ح � �س � � � ك ع ل � � � ل � ر ر ريري و ي ر أ ا ل�د ي� ي حرنج م�� � �لمك و� نر �ن ي ي � ن � ن ا �� ي هي � يّ � ن � ن ن �ي ك��ي��� ����س�ه�مم�ل���ا ا �لن��ن���� ا �ل�� �ط��� ح�� ي����و� �كم� �ي���ن��ن�ه� �و�عم�ل�� �م ن� �ي���ن��ن�ه� �و ل��ي� ا ���و� ي� � ي ي ي � ن ن � � � ييّ ن نّ � �ن ن � ّ هي �ي � م � � � ���هي �و� ح��س ن� ا �لي����د�ير � او �ل�� �ر�ي�� ن� �و�ر�و� � �لمك ح�� �يل���ي ر نحي�� ا �ل��د �ي� �ي���ن��ن�ه� �أ�ا � 1ا � �ري�ا ن� م ي ي �ن � أ � ن ا ن ��ا ن ن ���د ا ا � �أ��م ��م ن ����هي �ه ا �� ن�ل� ن �م�ل�ي ا�م � ا � �ع ن � � ح� �ع ن ����ً�ا ل��نم�ا ا ���س ا ن��ل ل � � ه ا ا م س � �� � � � � � � � � � � ك ل � ل � � � �و�مم�ل� �ي� �ل و ي و � و أ ي ر ون � ن أ� �م��س�ا �لي�م�ك ���د ه.
أّ ً ن � �ّ أ ي � � ن �ن � ان �ن �و ن� ا ك ا ن� �� � ����ل ا �ّم�ه �س ن ار ن��ا �ه�و ا ��ن���ا �ل ن� �عم�ل �ه� �أو � ك ���ا � �ي ��و ن���د ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا � ر �و ل��ي� ا � �ل�ر ��ط ي� م ن � � �أ �ن � ن � ن � � � �ي � هي ا �� ا ا � �أ ن ن � هي ا�ا� ن ا � ا �� ي ا �� �� � ن � � � � � ء � �و� �لم�ك �ل� ن�م�ل ا �ل� رن� و ل�ه�و و �ل��ع�دي� و�سرنج ل�� ن� ل�د �لمك �م�ا �ه�و �م�ا �ل�� �ل��د �لم�ك ا�ا�س ن ار ن ج آ � � ي أن ي أ ن ً � � ع ن � ّ ن ّ ن � ���ا �م ن� ا �ش�ا ر ا � �لن�م�ل�ك � او ����� �� او �� �� ن� �نأ�ا ن� � ��لم�ك ا �����ا ا� �ه�و ا�ام�أو�شر ل��ي� ���د ا �و�ام�ا ���ر�ع��ه ا ��� ا �يل � م � �أي ّ � �أ��ش � ا ا� ا ��ل ي أ ّ أ ّ �ً� ن ي ن � ن �ل��ا �ع ن ���� ن�� ش��ّ ���س ن � ا � � ا ����� � �ن� ن �ح ا ا م � � � م ٢ ع � � � �م�ل�ه .ا �م�ا ا �و �ل� �ن�س�مي��ي�ر ا ���ع ن��ا � � � ل ل � ح�� ل�� �ل و ر �سر ن����� � � ن � م ن ر ن � م
أ نّ ن ع�� ص�� �ع� ن �� ن ع���س ل ة�مم نر ن� ���ه�ا؛ �صوا ن��� � � نس ط. 1ط :واأ� ٢ .والا�ص�ل :ن�� � س ن م
48
48
٢،٨٦
٣،٨٦
On the virtues of different nations, such as the Arabs, Byzantines, Persians, and Indians What is the virtue that runs in the different nations, such as the Arabs, the
86.1
Byzantines, the Persians, and the Indians? You then asserted that you omitted the Turks because Abū ʿUthmān al-Jāḥiẓ does not take them into consideration. You went on to make a number of related points that I have not quoted, because the question at hand is fully contained in what I have quoted.
Miskawayh’s response As this question addresses itself to the special characteristics of different peo-
86.2
ples, and as wonder is aroused by the characteristics a given group possesses to the exclusion of others, I have made this the subject of my inquiry, and have not sought to rectify the terms of the question. This has been my approach with all the other questions, because their author follows a rhetorical style, and does not proceed the way the logicians do in investigating a question and applying their methods fully to it. So I respond as follows—God grants success. In our earlier discussion, we explained that the soul uses bodily instruments and that its acts issue in accordance with their mixtures, reporting Galen’s view and indicating the location where that discussion can be traced. We illustrated this through the example of innate heat and other elements, explaining how, when they are present, the rational soul uses them such that they obtain in the right manner, for the right people, and at the right time. We also stated that virtue and praiseworthy character are realized through training and the correct determination and ordering of actions, and by persistence until it becomes an innate trait and stable state. If this principle has been retained, there could be nothing easier than to reply to this question. In every nation a mixture prevails, even if on rare and unusual occasions certain mixtures may be found that conflict with it. This is due to the type of soil, air, and foodstuffs, and the mixture attendant upon those aspects, and to those influences of the celestial sphere and the stars that you find so odious. For that world is what influences this one on a general level, first by distinguishing the elements from each other, then by mixing them in different proportions, and then by imparting forms and shapes to them. Your demand to be reprieved from the truth has no merit, and you have no means to grant
49
49
86.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�أ � � ش �� � �ّ ٌ �� �� ن �� ي ن أ ��ّ �ن�ا �ع �����ا �أل���ا ا �ل� ��ور � او �ل���ش�س � �ي� �و ن��ه �و�ل� �لأ� �ع���ا �أ�م�ك ��ا �ل �و�لي����� �ل����س�ع���ا ��م�ك �م ن� ا �ل� م أ � � � أ نّ اأ � ي � �ي ي ن ن � ن ّا � ن ه �� � ي �ن ا � �ي ن ه �ن ا نّ ���د ا ا�ا�م�س�ن � � ه � � � � � � ا ا � � � � م أا �ي� ك �� �ري��� � �ل� ر م� أ� � و نح ن� و��و�ل� � م��س� ل�مك و��� ع� �ع�ي ر �� ن أ ن� �أ � ن � ّ �ن ن � � ن ن � � ��ش ي ��� �ر ا �ل����م�ل � .او � ا ك� �ر ا � ن�ل�ر �م ن� � �� �نّ ���د ا ا ��م�ل �ل�ه ��ل� �ن��د ل�� � �� ���ا ن� ���د ا ��سن��م�ل ي� �ن�ه �و� � �ل� � ي أ أ ن ن � ش �� ي �� ن � ا � ن � �أ ن هي � شع ن هي أ �ع ن ل�ن � � � ن ا � ش ن هي �عم�ل ���د ا � ��� ء ا �ل��س �ر�ل�� حي�� ي�ع��د ل �س ارنج �م� م� ا �ل��سر ن�� ا �ل��س �ر�ل�� ا ��ي� �ي� ا �ل�ع� �� ي أي � � � � ا ن أ ن ن �� ن � � ا ن � �� �ن ا ه �م ن اأ ن �� �ي ن ��م��هي ا �ع�ن ن ي ا �و��هي� ا � �ل�م�ل ن� � او � ك ���ن��د � او �ل�د �م� � او � ��ي ��� أا ل�� � �لمك �م� � ��ر� � ��ل � �� � ل �ي� ع ا� ن � ي ن �ّ ا �� ن� � � ا � ا ن ا ��� ا ي ي� �ي ا � �أ�ن� ا �� ا �� ا ي ��د �ل���ا � �� ن � �م��ا ن�لي � ا � � ا � ح ��رر ٢لع�م�ل و � م� � ��� �ه ر�ي�� ن� �ل���� ل ل��� � ره �س 1 �� ل � � ن �� ن و و و ي � � � ن ر ن رج ي أ� ن ن � ن أ ّ ي أ شأ ن أ � ن ي ��ا ن ي ��سم ا �� ن�ل� ن ��سم�ل�ه ا �ل���ا � ه �عن � ن � ���ا �و���� او ء ا ك���ا � � �لم�ك ل��� ا �م�ه ا �و ��م�� ح � ���ا ك � ح��� ا �و ك�� � � �� ر � ي يل أي يأ أ أ ً ً ن ً � ن ن� ���و ن� ا�ا�س ن ار ن� �م��م���د ا � �لم�ك �ع ن� ا ن�لي��د ا ء ا ن��ل�� �ي� ش��س �ر�لن��ه ا �و �ي�ا ���ي ن� �ش�سي��أ��ا � ش��سي��أ��ا ن�����د ا � �ي� ج ي ي ن نأي ا ��ل ن� هي ي ا � � هي �� ا ي �م��سسي ّ ي ن ا نّ ا �� ن� ن ي ��يسم�ل�ه ��ا ��م�ل�ه �ع�ي�ر را �لم�ل�ه. �و ن�عي�� �� نلمل� � او ���� �ه ��سره �أ� � ل��
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�ش ي ن ّ � ن أ ي ي ّ ي ن ّ � ن أ ن � ن ����ا ���م�ّل�هي ���� ه �ع� �م ن ك���ا � ا �ع��م� � �م�ل�ه �ع� �م ن ك���ا � ا �و� ل��ي� � او � ���د ح�م�ل؟ �و���د ا �ن�ا ن� ���ون � � ن � لو م � ر م � ن �� ي ن أ �� � ن ن ا نّ� ي� � � ��ل ن ��ا � � ن ل ا � ���د ش��ّ ن� ���ده ل��ن� ا نل � او � ������ � او ن������ ك�� �ل����و� ا � �و �س ار � �أ� ��مك ن��د ا �ل����و� ا � ا ��رن� ي م أ أ أ أ � ّ ً ً ش ّ � ن � ي � ��� �ن ح�م � ا �ل � او ن� ��س ار ن� ا �ع�ي�م�ل � او �� � ار � او �ش�س�د ا ���سم�ا �م�ا��� .د ا � �و �لي��ا �ل أا ن� ا � ن�ل�ر� �م ن� ا �ل��د � �� � � � ر و ل ي م � ج �� ن أ أ أ � ن � آ � � ي � �� � اأ �ي �ا ل ���ش � �مً�ا � ا �ع�د ��ل �س ن ا �ً�ا � ا � ���د ��ل��أ���س�ا ا � � ا � � ا ��س ار � ا ل � ل � �د م � ع � � � � � � � ل � ل ر و و و و و ر و ن ن رن ن ن ر ر �� جن ن � ن أ أ أ ّ ً � ن ن ن ن � ا ��ل��د ن�لي��ا ن� � ���د �ه�م�ا �مه�� � ���ا ���د ا ا �����ا ر��� ل��ي� ر�كي ��ي���ي� �م�لي� �����ي� ا � ���ل �و ن��ه � او ن�� ي� ي�ر�� ا �يل ن� � �وم ا �� �� آ ن � ي ن ّ � � ����ه �ن�ا �ل�� �� ل� ��� � او �ر م ���� ��� . ن ع ن نع
١،٨٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ٰ � � �ه ا � ي � ح ي � ن ��من � حي�م�ل�نعي��� ن ا ّ � � ّ نّ ن ن � ي� أا � ح��ه ا � ن�ل� � ��دا �م� ن � �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ا ����هم ي����ر��� �م� ن ����ي� ��ر �أ ن ن �نّ ن ن � ن ن� ي � نأ ّ � � � ��ً�ا � او �ل�� ن�ر�� ن� �ر �نأ�ا �نّ�ه ي����ر��� �م��ه ا ����ه أا � ا ك� �� ���ا � ا�ا�سرء �ي���ي� ���ر �ن�ه � � ح��ه ا�ا�س نار ن� ��ا �م�ا ا � ن�ل� � م��رو � ج أ م � � �ي �ي �ن أ ّ ا ا� ن � �ن أ ن �من� �ن ن � � � �� � �ّ ه � � � �ن ي � حر� �س ار ن ا �ل�د � أا ل�� ا �ل���� او � ٣ا �و ا �ل��� را � ي�م � �ه�وا � ي� ���د ر �ن� ا �ر�وج ا �ل�د ي� � او �م� ا��س ارنج � ج م أ أ �ة � ّ ���س����؛ ط :ا �ل ن�ع�ا �مر�ة ون� ن ة � � ��ر ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل��سود. �� ٢ .ط :ة� ك ���س�� ن 1الا�ص�ل :ا �����ص�ا �مر� ون� ن
50
50
٢،٨٧
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�أ � � ش �� � �ّ ٌ �� �� ن �� ي ن أ ��ّ �ن�ا �ع �����ا �أل���ا ا �ل� ��ور � او �ل���ش�س � �ي� �و ن��ه �و�ل� �لأ� �ع���ا �أ�م�ك ��ا �ل �و�لي����� �ل����س�ع���ا ��م�ك �م ن� ا �ل� م أ � � � أ نّ اأ � ي � �ي ي ن ن � ن ّا � ن ه �� � ي �ن ا � �ي ن ه �ن ا نّ ���د ا ا�ا�م�س�ن � � ه � � � � � � ا ا � � � � م أا �ي� ك �� �ري��� � �ل� ر م� أ� � و نح ن� و��و�ل� � م��س� ل�مك و��� ع� �ع�ي ر �� ن أ ن� �أ � ن � ّ �ن ن � � ن ن � � ��ش ي ��� �ر ا �ل����م�ل � .او � ا ك� �ر ا � ن�ل�ر �م ن� � �� �نّ ���د ا ا ��م�ل �ل�ه ��ل� �ن��د ل�� � �� ���ا ن� ���د ا ��سن��م�ل ي� �ن�ه �و� � �ل� � ي أ أ ن ن � ش �� ي �� ن � ا � ن � �أ ن هي � شع ن هي أ �ع ن ل�ن � � � ن ا � ش ن هي �عم�ل ���د ا � ��� ء ا �ل��س �ر�ل�� حي�� ي�ع��د ل �س ارنج �م� م� ا �ل��سر ن�� ا �ل��س �ر�ل�� ا ��ي� �ي� ا �ل�ع� �� ي أي � � � � ا ن أ ن ن �� ن � � ا ن � �� �ن ا ه �م ن اأ ن �� �ي ن ��م��هي ا �ع�ن ن ي ا �و��هي� ا � �ل�م�ل ن� � او � ك ���ن��د � او �ل�د �م� � او � ��ي ��� أا ل�� � �لمك �م� � ��ر� � ��ل � �� � ل �ي� ع ا� ن � ي ن �ّ ا �� ن� � � ا � ا ن ا ��� ا ي ي� �ي ا � �أ�ن� ا �� ا �� ا ي ��د �ل���ا � �� ن � �م��ا ن�لي � ا � � ا � ح ��رر ٢لع�م�ل و � م� � ��� �ه ر�ي�� ن� �ل���� ل ل��� � ره �س 1 �� ل � � ن �� ن و و و ي � � � ن ر ن رج ي أ� ن ن � ن أ ّ ي أ شأ ن أ � ن ي ��ا ن ي ��سم ا �� ن�ل� ن ��سم�ل�ه ا �ل���ا � ه �عن � ن � ���ا �و���� او ء ا ك���ا � � �لم�ك ل��� ا �م�ه ا �و ��م�� ح � ���ا ك � ح��� ا �و ك�� � � �� ر � ي يل أي يأ أ أ ً ً ن ً � ن ن� ���و ن� ا�ا�س ن ار ن� �م��م���د ا � �لم�ك �ع ن� ا ن�لي��د ا ء ا ن��ل�� �ي� ش��س �ر�لن��ه ا �و �ي�ا ���ي ن� �ش�سي��أ��ا � ش��سي��أ��ا ن�����د ا � �ي� ج ي ي ن نأي ا ��ل ن� هي ي ا � � هي �� ا ي �م��سسي ّ ي ن ا نّ ا �� ن� ن ي ��يسم�ل�ه ��ا ��م�ل�ه �ع�ي�ر را �لم�ل�ه. �و ن�عي�� �� نلمل� � او ���� �ه ��سره �أ� � ل��
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�ش ي ن ّ � ن أ ي ي ّ ي ن ّ � ن أ ن � ن ����ا ���م�ّل�هي ���� ه �ع� �م ن ك���ا � ا �ع��م� � �م�ل�ه �ع� �م ن ك���ا � ا �و� ل��ي� � او � ���د ح�م�ل؟ �و���د ا �ن�ا ن� ���ون � � ن � لو م � ر م � ن �� ي ن أ �� � ن ن ا نّ� ي� � � ��ل ن ��ا � � ن ل ا � ���د ش��ّ ن� ���ده ل��ن� ا نل � او � ������ � او ن������ ك�� �ل����و� ا � �و �س ار � �أ� ��مك ن��د ا �ل����و� ا � ا ��رن� ي م أ أ أ أ � ّ ً ً ش ّ � ن � ي � ��� �ن ح�م � ا �ل � او ن� ��س ار ن� ا �ع�ي�م�ل � او �� � ار � او �ش�س�د ا ���سم�ا �م�ا��� .د ا � �و �لي��ا �ل أا ن� ا � ن�ل�ر� �م ن� ا �ل��د � �� � � � ر و ل ي م � ج �� ن أ أ أ � ن � آ � � ي � �� � اأ �ي �ا ل ���ش � �مً�ا � ا �ع�د ��ل �س ن ا �ً�ا � ا � ���د ��ل��أ���س�ا ا � � ا � � ا ��س ار � ا ل � ل � �د م � ع � � � � � � � ل � ل ر و و و و و ر و ن ن رن ن ن ر ر �� جن ن � ن أ أ أ ّ ً � ن ن ن ن � ا ��ل��د ن�لي��ا ن� � ���د �ه�م�ا �مه�� � ���ا ���د ا ا �����ا ر��� ل��ي� ر�كي ��ي���ي� �م�لي� �����ي� ا � ���ل �و ن��ه � او ن�� ي� ي�ر�� ا �يل ن� � �وم ا �� �� آ ن � ي ن ّ � � ����ه �ن�ا �ل�� �� ل� ��� � او �ر م ���� ��� . ن ع ن نع
١،٨٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ٰ � � �ه ا � ي � ح ي � ن ��من � حي�م�ل�نعي��� ن ا ّ � � ّ نّ ن ن � ي� أا � ح��ه ا � ن�ل� � ��دا �م� ن � �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ا ����هم ي����ر��� �م� ن ����ي� ��ر �أ ن ن �نّ ن ن � ن ن� ي � نأ ّ � � � ��ً�ا � او �ل�� ن�ر�� ن� �ر �نأ�ا �نّ�ه ي����ر��� �م��ه ا ����ه أا � ا ك� �� ���ا � ا�ا�سرء �ي���ي� ���ر �ن�ه � � ح��ه ا�ا�س نار ن� ��ا �م�ا ا � ن�ل� � م��رو � ج أ م � � �ي �ي �ن أ ّ ا ا� ن � �ن أ ن �من� �ن ن � � � �� � �ّ ه � � � �ن ي � حر� �س ار ن ا �ل�د � أا ل�� ا �ل���� او � ٣ا �و ا �ل��� را � ي�م � �ه�وا � ي� ���د ر �ن� ا �ر�وج ا �ل�د ي� � او �م� ا��س ارنج � ج م أ أ �ة � ّ ���س����؛ ط :ا �ل ن�ع�ا �مر�ة ون� ن ة � � ��ر ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل��سود. �� ٢ .ط :ة� ك ���س�� ن 1الا�ص�ل :ا �����ص�ا �مر� ون� ن
50
50
٢،٨٧
On why intelligent people are more susceptible to grief
yourself reprieve from it. So adhere to it, because it must be accepted. Were it not that your question concerns a different topic, I would have devoted my attention to this one; but this constitutes one of the principles on which it rests, so one must mention the principle in discussing its subsidiary. On this basis, when one of the noble mixtures is balanced—that is to say, in the noble organs: the heart, the liver, and the brain—and to this are added the virtuous traits of character we have mentioned, which means ordering the acts that issue in accordance with the relevant mixture, refining them, and adhering to them through repeated action and sustained habit—this leads to realizing the virtue that arises from them. Whether that is found in a nation or an individual, and whether it is due to noble character traits existing from the beginning or to gradual discipline once a felicitous mixture, a propitious aim, and a continued habit are in place, virtue is realized and does not disappear.
On why intelligent people are more susceptible to grief Why do people with greater intelligence experience much grief whereas those
87.1
who are more ignorant experience little grief? This phenomenon is encountered among different individuals and among different races, such as the blacks and the fair skinned. For black people are evidently merrier and more ignorant, whereas fair-skinned people are more intelligent and reflective, and more strongly given to worry. This is the case even though it is said that joy comes from the blood, and fair-skinned people have a greater amount of blood,14 more balanced humoral mixtures, readier access to what brings joy and is conducive to merriment, and greater mastery over worldly things in every respect. This phenomenon is also observable among intimate companions, one of whom is naturally prone to worry, while the other is a natural jester. Miskawayh’s response Grief arises from two different quarters: one is reflection, and the other is humoral mixture. Grief arises from reflection if a person expects some evil to happen. Grief arising from the humoral mixture occurs when the mixture of the blood deviates toward blackness or burning, roiling the spirit that is produced by the vapor of the blood in the passageways of the arteries. How clear the vapor is, how well it expands, and how swiftly it moves and courses in that
51
51
87.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن� � ن� ا � � �ن �م ا �ش ن � ���و ن� � ��ن��ا ء ن ن� �� ���ن��ا ء � �لم�ك ا �ل��د � �ي� ��ا ره ��سن��ن��ه ن�� ر ا �ل�د �م ل�ي� ن�� ر�ي� ا �ل��س ار �ي��ي� �ونح�� ن م ي ً ن � ن ���ي�ه �و ن� ��ا �ن�ه ل��ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا ��لن�� � او �ن�ن����س�ا �����ه �و��سر�ع�هي �رك� � �ول�ن� � .او � ا ك� ���ا ن� ��سن�� ن� ا ���ن�هّ �م��م�ل�و�م�ا ل��م�ي��ا ن�لم�ل�ه � ر ي أ ي ي � أ ن ًا ن ا � ا �ي � �أ � � � ن ن�م ش � �ن � �ن ����ر ا ن�لي ن� ����ا ره ��ره �ي� �و�ل�� � � ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و ��سن�� ن� ا � �ل�رج� � او �ل��سر�ور �م��مل�و�م ا �يل� ��� �� ����� م�ل �ل� ن�م�ل ن � � � ن ن� � � �ش � ه ��ن�ه ّ ه أ ّ ا ا� ن � ن � � � ً ن � � � �� �ره �و�ل� �ي���ي� ���ر� � م��ا ره ا �ل��د ن�لي��ا �و�م ن� �ل� �ي����ر �ن � � ا �ل��د �ي� م��ر�و���ا ��ل� ��سن�� ن� �ل� ي �م� � .او �م� ا��س ارجن أ أ أ أ أ ّ ّ � ن ن � ه ا � ن �� �م� ا ه ا أ� � �� ّ ّ �� �ن�ا ه ن���ي��د ا � ل�� ���ا ء �م�م ن� �ي�لي��د �م�ه ا �و �ي�ا ن�ر �ع ن��ه� .و���د ا ح�م� ن�� �لي� ��و � � او �� �ن� �و��س� ر ا �ل�� ن � ��ر شً أ � ً ن أ ن أ ن � ن � أً أ ً ن ا�ا� ن � � � �ي هي �ن ا ن � ن �ن ا ا ا ا ��يس�عيّ��ا ل��ي� ا ��م�ل ا �لمل�� أ� � ك ���ا � ��ا � �ش�ا ���هو� �س ار ن � �لي����� ي�م�ل�وا � �ي���و� ���� ر�� ا �و �� � �� ا �و ��ن ج أ أ أ أ ن ن ن ن ُ ا ��ل ي � �� ن � ��ا ن � ��ه ا ن ن � �ن ّ ي ا �� ي ��س�ا �� ا�ام�ا �ل� � ن��م�ا �����ا ن�ل ن � �سر��� � �وي���ن���هي� ا � ي����� ن �و�لي�� � 1او � �� اوع ا �ل��س ار ��� ا �ل����و� ا � �وي�ه ��ي� ج ج ن أ ً � � ح ار ن��ه أا ��ل�� ا �ل����و� ا ء � او ن� ك� ���ا ن���س�ا � ا ��ل��د � �ن�ا �ل�����يرا �ي� � او � ���ا ن� ا ��م�ليّ��ا �و ن�م�ل�ي��هي ن��ل�� �ع�ل�� ن� ��ل�ه ��سن��ن � أ م ج أ أ أ ن � ��أنّه � � ن�� ن ا � ا �� � ن ا �� ن ا �� ا �م ا ن � ي � � �ل� � �لي����� ن��سر � �� نحي�� ل ٢م� ل�� � � �س ح �ه� ����د �لم�ك. � و م رن � م � � ن ن ا نّ � ن ن � ن ا ّ � ن اأ �ّ ا � ا �� ���هي �ل�ه� ا � ن�ل�ر� � او ��ل ن�� ش��س�ا ���ط �و��سن��ن��ه �� م� م� ح��ي�يس�ه �ع ن� ا �ل�� ��و� ا � �أ� � ا � �ر ��ون �� � م ج ج أ أ أ ّ ي � ن� � ن ا �عي��د ا ��ل � � ا �� �لي�م�ل� ن�ك�ه� � ��ل���� �م�ا ن ���� ن� ن�� ي� ا ن� ا �س ن ن� ي �ه�م �ي�ا ن�����ه �ل���� او � ا ��� او �ل�ه�م �و� �لم�ك ح� ر نأ ي� م وي � م أ نّ � � ن ش ي ن � ن � ن ي ن ّ ا ا � � ن ل ا � � �� م � � � س � س � ا � ا ا ا � م �� �� �� � � س ه � ه � ل م�� � ��يل��� �مل��ل��� �عم�ل�� �م� � � � � � �ه�م �و��سر��� ل�ي� ح� � � � ن ن و و � م و رن أ ي � ن ن ن � ن ن ن ن � �ي � ن ش ش ن ي أ ���ا ا �ع��ي� ل��ي� ��م�ع�ور�ه�م ا �ل ���م�ل��م�ل ا �ل��د �ي� ه حر�� ن�م�ل�و� �ه�م �و��م�ع�ور�ه�م كي���ر��� �كي� �� ر�و�و����ه�م � � ي أ أّ ن�ا � ن ي ن ح ا هي �ي ي �ه� ��ا ��ل حيعي ��ي��هي �ي ش��س��ي� ���ط ٣ا ��ل ش��م�� � �و�ل�� ن�م� ا ن� ا ��ل �ه� ن� ����و��ل�� �عم�ل� ���� ��ره� � � �� ���د ن� � ر � ل و ن ر ر ي م ي� ي � � ا � �أ ّ � ي ��ش �ل� � � � ّ ي ي ن � ن �ا ي ي ي ي ن ن � ح ا ه ا ���� � �ر�ه �م ن ��ا �� ن ح���ه ا �ل ي��� �ل� � ا �ل ��ل ح ار ره ��مي�م�ل أا �ل�� ن� � � ح ار ره ��ل� ي���� ر ا حر ره ���ه� أا �ل� ا �ر ر ري ي � ن م أ ي � � ّي ن � � ا ���ن�� � ن �ّ�هي ل��ن �يم�ل� �له� ��ل�� ن�م� ن� ��لم�ك � ا ن� ا ا�� ي �ن ا ��ل �� � ح ار رهي ا ��ن��ر� ن �ر�ه ل��ي� ا � �لي�م�ل ن� �ي�� �وّ�ه ا� ي����ر ن��� �لم�ل��د � � � ريري ي� ون � م ل أو م � أ يي م ي م �ن ا � ن �ن � �ي ي هي أ ً ا ن� هي ��ل ا �� ن ا � ّي هي ي ي ي ا �ل��د �ي� �ع ن��ا ك ا ���را �� ن�لم�ل �ه�و أا �� ل����� ء � او �ر�� ا �رن� �و� �م� ء ا �ر ��ون ركي ���� ا �ن��د ا ��� كي�� ج � � ن � � �ي�ي ّ ا ��ل��شم� ا هي أ � ن ً ن ���ا �ك �ه� . �و�ل�د �لمك ل�م�ل ن�� �ع� ا يل� ي� م أ � ن ناأ���ش � �ن ن ا � ي ا ��ل ش ا � � � ن � ا ي � ي ي ا ��ل ش ن ا ّ ا ا ��ل ن ���ا ٤ ح��ه ���سم� �ل � او �لن�م�ل�د ا � ا �لن�� ر�ه ا � ��ي� �لن����د ���سم��� �ع � �� �م� �س ار � �� �� ره�م ل�ي� �� ي ��شي � � � � ي � ن ن ّي ن ي � �وي�لي�عو�� ا ��ل ���ا ء ح ار ره ا ����ر� �ري�ه ل��ي� �م�ل�و�نل�ه� �و�ل� ��س�سم�ا �ل ا �لن��ر� �عم�ل�� ن ����ا ��ر��ه ي�لن ل���ي� ن�م�ل�و� ��ه ن�لي� ن� ي م م ً م � �ن ن � �ً ي أ ن أ ن ي ش � ��س�ا ����ا �و���ع�و� � ار ر�ل�ه�م أا �ل�� � � او �م�ل ا �ن��د ا �ل�ه�م �� �نر�ا �م ن� ا �لن��ر� ا �ل��د �ي� ل��ي� �ه� او �ل�هم� �و��م�ع�وره�م � ن ا أ � �أ ن � � ��لُ�� ا ��ل ش��س �عن �ن �� � ن � � اأ ��شم�� � أ ي يي ن ��د � ٥م�� �ه �ه� ل�د �لمك ن� ع � او ���و�� � ار ره �م�ل�و ن� �و� �م� �و�ه�م �ل� ن�م�ل � �لم�ك أا �ل�� � � �م � م أ أ أ أ ة ّ كا ن�ة���ا ل ٣ .ط � :ش��س��ة�س��ط ٤ .الا�ص�ل وط� :ع ن�س��ه� ٥ .الا�ص�ل :ن�ن��ع�د. 1ط :ا لم�ا �ل��ة�� ن�و�لة���ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط� : م
52
52
٣،٨٧
٤،٨٧
On why intelligent people are more susceptible to grief
cavity all depend on the clarity of the blood. Once the cause of grief is known, its counterpart, the cause of joy and happiness, is also known. People of intelligence often expect worldly evils to happen because of how their thought roves, whereas those who do not reflect much and do not expect any evil to happen have no reason to feel grief. The type of humoral mixture we mentioned has been firmly established by Galen, his disciples, and other physicians who came before or after him. The humoral mixture in question will be either adventitious or contingent, on the one hand, or natural and original to one’s constitution, on the other. If it is contingent, it constitutes an illness, and must be treated through the means used to treat the various kinds of melancholy and the different sorts of atrabilious illnesses that are caused by the blood’s degeneration through burning and by its deviation toward black bile. If it is originally present and part of one’s constitution, then it cannot be treated, because it does not constitute an illness; one thus finds entire generations of people and nations whose humoral mixtures are like that. As for what you have said regarding the blacks, East Africans in particular
87.3
are characterized by joyfulness and animation; the reason for that is the balanced state of the blood of their heart. It is not the case, as you supposed, that their mixtures follow upon the blackness of their skin, for the blackness of their skin is caused by the sun’s proximity to them and by its passing vertically above their heads at the lowest point of its orbit, so that it burns their skin and hair, producing in it—their hair, that is—that frizzy quality which in fact signifies that their hair has been singed. As heat overwhelms their exterior, it draws the innate heat out of their interior toward itself; for heat inclines in the direction of heat. As a consequence, the innate heat in their heart does not become too great. If the innate heat in the heart is not strong, the blood found there is not exposed to burning, and instead it tends toward clarity and fineness. The blood of East Africans is always fine and pure, and that is why courage also is rarely found among them. Most fair-skinned people, by contrast, live in the northern climes and in the cold countries, where the sun is distant and the innate heat grows strong in their heart. Because their exterior is encompassed by the cold, their skins remain white and their hair lank, and their heat returns to the inside of their bodies in order to escape from the cold in the air around them as a result of the sun’s distance. That is why they are more courageous and why the heat of their heart is stronger; as a result, their blood tends toward turbidity, blackness,
53
53
87.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� أ � �ش � � �ن ن �� �� ���د �ورهي � او ��ل�� �� او � � او ��نل ا� � � �� � �ع ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل � .او ��م�ل ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل ا �ل��د �ي� ي�لن����د �و� �ع ن� ا �ل���سم�ا �ل حر�وجن � ن ن � � �ي � � �أ �� �ه أ ��س�� � ن ن � �آ�ن ا ي أ �م�ّ أ ي أ ي �و�ع ن ا ن��ل � ��س�� ��و� ا �لأ� ملي�� ا �ل� �و��م�ط � ا ل� م� ���د ه ا �ل� � � � ا حن ��و ن� �و� ك � ا �س نر ن��ه � او �رن� و � ي م م ج م �� � � � ي � أا ل�� ا �ل�ع��د ا �ل.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ ن ا أ � � �أ� ي � ا ��ل��شم� ا ن أ�ي ����هي ا�ا�م�����ا �ألم� � او ن��ل � ���دش� ن��� �ع ن� �م�����ا �ل�ه ��هي� �مم�ل� ��� ا �م�ي ر ا �ل� ن � �� �� ل��ي� �وا ن� �ع � � �ون�ه �و �هي� ن ل ي ��ل � ي � ي ن �ن � ن � ن ّ ي ن � �ن� � ي �ه � او ��ل����م�ّ ل��ن� ا ن��ل � ���ه ل��ي� ا �ل� ا �مل�� � او � �ل��د �� ل�ي� ا ������ي� � او ����� ح���� ���د ر � او ���و�ر �عم�ل�� ا �ل�� � ر ل ي نم � ن ���ّ �� ن �� � � ا �ه � ن ا ي �� ن ا �� � ه ن � او ��ل � � ح��سرهي ل��ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� �و���د ا ك�مل�ه �� ا ا �ل ك ل م � � � م � � � � � م � � � � � ���ا �و��هي� �ر�م�ا � � ل ن � ن ي� م � و ي� � ي � � ن �م � أ � � ّ ي � � ي ا � �لن��ا ن��م�ل � او � را ك ا �ل ن��ا ����� �و�ل���د ا ا�ام�سن��� ن�م�ل� ان� ن� ا � ار � �ون��د �ي� �رن �لي��ه ا �ل��دي� ن� �وي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و ��م�عي��د ن ن ن� أ ّ أ ا � ش ّ أ � � ن � ن ن � � �ع ي ا ن � ن ن �� � هي ل � ا ��ل � ��د ��ل� � ل��� ا �ل���س�ل� � � او ر�� � ��ل� � ل��� ا ح���ي�ر�� �� �ل��سم�ك � او �ل � � � ل ح� � � � � ل ا � � � � م � . � � ن و ي� ر ن �و ن ي أ ي ي م �� ه �� هي � � ن هي � ّي � ي ن ن ي ي أ ن ا ا ن ن � ل � � ا � � � � � � � ا ل �عي������� ا ���ورا �� أا �ل�� ن��ا � � ��د �رن م� � ر مي��� ن نح��� �� ن� ل�� � ن�ي� ي��دي� � نون �حم �ع� م ج ن ي أ� ي أ أ أ � ي � �ن � ا ��ل��ه �ن �ن�� ا �����ه ا ��ل� ا ��ل��س����ا ء � �ي�ا ��ل ا � ّ���د ك �لم�ل���ا � � ا �ل�� ن ����ه � او � �ع�و أا �لي�م�ك و و و �ر����� ��و ي ر ر أ� ن ع ّ ش أ أ �ّ ي أ �ّ � ن � ًا ا أ ًا ن ا أ ًا ش �س ي��ل ن�م�ك ن� � ���ل �ش����ا ���د � �و��� ن��هي ��ّ ا �م ش����� � ن��� ن���ن � او � �ل�ه � او �نل � �����د ا �عم ر�ي� ن�� ����� �� ����� �و�م�م�ل ر ن ي ي ن �� �أ ��ن � م �� ي ي �ّ �ن ��نل نّ � �ش ��ل ا ش هي � ن ا ش هي ي ا � ش ل � � ل ا � � � � ل ��� � � .و �ل�� ل� � � ا ا ا � ا � � ا ح �� د �� �� � � � � � � �� ل �� م � � م � � �� � � � ح � � � � � � � ���د ا ا �ل� �و ي ن� �ي� ر و �و ي� و م و � ي و � و ي ي م ن � ن � ن ّ ن ��ا ن ن ا نّ ��ل � ش �ن ن ���د ا ا ��ل��ا � ���ّ ن � او ��ل���� ن ���د ا ا �لأ���ن�����ا ن� �ه�و ان�� ا � ار � �و��د �ي� �و�م� ك�� � �أ� � ا � ����ا � ��د��ي� ل�ي� ن ن ن ي� أ ي � � ن� ه � � ا ��ل�� ش � ن ن � ّ � ن ّ � ح ن� �أ�ا �ن�ه �ن�ا ن� أا �ل�� ر �و� ا � �لي�م�ل ن� �و�����ل�� �م�ه ا �ل� كي�� �عم �ل �و نح� ع� ���د ا ا �ل��سر � او ن ���د ر ج ّ ن � ّ � � � �� � � � �م�ّ ي � ي ن � � � ين ن ��س�سم�ا �ي ��و ن� ���ا ا �ر ن� �و���و ا� �ي � ��ه ا ���ع��م�ل � � ��ن� �كي��ه أا �ل� ا �ل �� �ع �ويل��� � او �ل��ن��رح ن ور �و حن��ه ا �ل�د �لي�م�ل م ��ا ن ��ا ن اً �� ��� � ك�� �كي��. ا��ممن �اأ نّ ا�ا� ن ا ن ��� ا ا� �ي ا � � �ّ � ن �ّ ن � �ي �� ن ا نّ ا ��لش ا �م ن �م ن � �ي ا �لم� هي ا ��لش ا �لن �ن � � � � م م � � ل ل م �د � ع � � � � � � � � � ع � م م � � � � � � ل � �ي� � �و ن �و� ي �و �و� أ � � � ن ر و ن �ل أي ّ �ل � �ل�� أ ن � � ني ا ���� ا � هي � � ّ ش نّ ي � � ن ن � �كم� ا � ا �لن��ي����1 ���دش�ل ن��ا ��يسم ن� � �ع ن� ان� ن� ن�م�ا ���د ا ��ه ��ا �ل ا � �ل���م�ل �م���د �و� �م ن� ا �رر�� � ��د و .و ن ح � ي �ل� �ج ا ن �ي ا � �� ش��سم ن ّ ي �ع�� أ نّ ا �� �لي���س هي � � ي ا �� � ن ن � �أن هّ � �سره ا ل� ا � �م� �ع�د �ل � او � �ل�� �� م����� �ل��� �م���د �و� ل��ي� ن��ممل�ه ا حر�م� �� .و � �ل ل�ي� ي � م أ أ � �أ � ن ن ج � � ا نم � عي�م� ا �ع ���ط ���ا ا ن ا �� ا � ن ح�م�ك ا�ا�م�ا ��ل � او ن��ل ا �� ا� � � � � ��ا ه ن �ن�أ را ء �م� ا �ع��� ك م� ا �ل�� ن� �و ل���م�ل � او �لمل��س� � �و ل �� أ ن ���ن�ع ن��� ؛ �ص ا ��� ��� ن ا ���ه�ا � ش ���س. 1الا�ص�ل :ا �ل س و و ن س �
54
54
١،٨٨
٢،٨٨
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� أ � �ش � � �ن ن �� �� ���د �ورهي � او ��ل�� �� او � � او ��نل ا� � � �� � �ع ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل � .او ��م�ل ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل ا �ل��د �ي� ي�لن����د �و� �ع ن� ا �ل���سم�ا �ل حر�وجن � ن ن � � �ي � � �أ �� �ه أ ��س�� � ن ن � �آ�ن ا ي أ �م�ّ أ ي أ ي �و�ع ن ا ن��ل � ��س�� ��و� ا �لأ� ملي�� ا �ل� �و��م�ط � ا ل� م� ���د ه ا �ل� � � � ا حن ��و ن� �و� ك � ا �س نر ن��ه � او �رن� و � ي م م ج م �� � � � ي � أا ل�� ا �ل�ع��د ا �ل.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ ن ا أ � � �أ� ي � ا ��ل��شم� ا ن أ�ي ����هي ا�ا�م�����ا �ألم� � او ن��ل � ���دش� ن��� �ع ن� �م�����ا �ل�ه ��هي� �مم�ل� ��� ا �م�ي ر ا �ل� ن � �� �� ل��ي� �وا ن� �ع � � �ون�ه �و �هي� ن ل ي ��ل � ي � ي ن �ن � ن � ن ّ ي ن � �ن� � ي �ه � او ��ل����م�ّ ل��ن� ا ن��ل � ���ه ل��ي� ا �ل� ا �مل�� � او � �ل��د �� ل�ي� ا ������ي� � او ����� ح���� ���د ر � او ���و�ر �عم�ل�� ا �ل�� � ر ل ي نم � ن ���ّ �� ن �� � � ا �ه � ن ا ي �� ن ا �� � ه ن � او ��ل � � ح��سرهي ل��ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� �و���د ا ك�مل�ه �� ا ا �ل ك ل م � � � م � � � � � م � � � � � ���ا �و��هي� �ر�م�ا � � ل ن � ن ي� م � و ي� � ي � � ن �م � أ � � ّ ي � � ي ا � �لن��ا ن��م�ل � او � را ك ا �ل ن��ا ����� �و�ل���د ا ا�ام�سن��� ن�م�ل� ان� ن� ا � ار � �ون��د �ي� �رن �لي��ه ا �ل��دي� ن� �وي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و ��م�عي��د ن ن ن� أ ّ أ ا � ش ّ أ � � ن � ن ن � � �ع ي ا ن � ن ن �� � هي ل � ا ��ل � ��د ��ل� � ل��� ا �ل���س�ل� � � او ر�� � ��ل� � ل��� ا ح���ي�ر�� �� �ل��سم�ك � او �ل � � � ل ح� � � � � ل ا � � � � م � . � � ن و ي� ر ن �و ن ي أ ي ي م �� ه �� هي � � ن هي � ّي � ي ن ن ي ي أ ن ا ا ن ن � ل � � ا � � � � � � � ا ل �عي������� ا ���ورا �� أا �ل�� ن��ا � � ��د �رن م� � ر مي��� ن نح��� �� ن� ل�� � ن�ي� ي��دي� � نون �حم �ع� م ج ن ي أ� ي أ أ أ � ي � �ن � ا ��ل��ه �ن �ن�� ا �����ه ا ��ل� ا ��ل��س����ا ء � �ي�ا ��ل ا � ّ���د ك �لم�ل���ا � � ا �ل�� ن ����ه � او � �ع�و أا �لي�م�ك و و و �ر����� ��و ي ر ر أ� ن ع ّ ش أ أ �ّ ي أ �ّ � ن � ًا ا أ ًا ن ا أ ًا ش �س ي��ل ن�م�ك ن� � ���ل �ش����ا ���د � �و��� ن��هي ��ّ ا �م ش����� � ن��� ن���ن � او � �ل�ه � او �نل � �����د ا �عم ر�ي� ن�� ����� �� ����� �و�م�م�ل ر ن ي ي ن �� �أ ��ن � م �� ي ي �ّ �ن ��نل نّ � �ش ��ل ا ش هي � ن ا ش هي ي ا � ش ل � � ل ا � � � � ل ��� � � .و �ل�� ل� � � ا ا ا � ا � � ا ح �� د �� �� � � � � � � �� ل �� م � � م � � �� � � � ح � � � � � � � ���د ا ا �ل� �و ي ن� �ي� ر و �و ي� و م و � ي و � و ي ي م ن � ن � ن ّ ن ��ا ن ن ا نّ ��ل � ش �ن ن ���د ا ا ��ل��ا � ���ّ ن � او ��ل���� ن ���د ا ا �لأ���ن�����ا ن� �ه�و ان�� ا � ار � �و��د �ي� �و�م� ك�� � �أ� � ا � ����ا � ��د��ي� ل�ي� ن ن ن ي� أ ي � � ن� ه � � ا ��ل�� ش � ن ن � ّ � ن ّ � ح ن� �أ�ا �ن�ه �ن�ا ن� أا �ل�� ر �و� ا � �لي�م�ل ن� �و�����ل�� �م�ه ا �ل� كي�� �عم �ل �و نح� ع� ���د ا ا �ل��سر � او ن ���د ر ج ّ ن � ّ � � � �� � � � �م�ّ ي � ي ن � � � ين ن ��س�سم�ا �ي ��و ن� ���ا ا �ر ن� �و���و ا� �ي � ��ه ا ���ع��م�ل � � ��ن� �كي��ه أا �ل� ا �ل �� �ع �ويل��� � او �ل��ن��رح ن ور �و حن��ه ا �ل�د �لي�م�ل م ��ا ن ��ا ن اً �� ��� � ك�� �كي��. ا��ممن �اأ نّ ا�ا� ن ا ن ��� ا ا� �ي ا � � �ّ � ن �ّ ن � �ي �� ن ا نّ ا ��لش ا �م ن �م ن � �ي ا �لم� هي ا ��لش ا �لن �ن � � � � م م � � ل ل م �د � ع � � � � � � � � � ع � م م � � � � � � ل � �ي� � �و ن �و� ي �و �و� أ � � � ن ر و ن �ل أي ّ �ل � �ل�� أ ن � � ني ا ���� ا � هي � � ّ ش نّ ي � � ن ن � �كم� ا � ا �لن��ي����1 ���دش�ل ن��ا ��يسم ن� � �ع ن� ان� ن� ن�م�ا ���د ا ��ه ��ا �ل ا � �ل���م�ل �م���د �و� �م ن� ا �رر�� � ��د و .و ن ح � ي �ل� �ج ا ن �ي ا � �� ش��سم ن ّ ي �ع�� أ نّ ا �� �لي���س هي � � ي ا �� � ن ن � �أن هّ � �سره ا ل� ا � �م� �ع�د �ل � او � �ل�� �� م����� �ل��� �م���د �و� ل��ي� ن��ممل�ه ا حر�م� �� .و � �ل ل�ي� ي � م أ أ � �أ � ن ن ج � � ا نم � عي�م� ا �ع ���ط ���ا ا ن ا �� ا � ن ح�م�ك ا�ا�م�ا ��ل � او ن��ل ا �� ا� � � � � ��ا ه ن �ن�أ را ء �م� ا �ع��� ك م� ا �ل�� ن� �و ل���م�ل � او �لمل��س� � �و ل �� أ ن ���ن�ع ن��� ؛ �ص ا ��� ��� ن ا ���ه�ا � ش ���س. 1الا�ص�ل :ا �ل س و و ن س �
54
54
١،٨٨
٢،٨٨
On why intrinsic merit and worldly fortune do not coincide
and imbalance. The balanced people, who dwell in the intermediate climes, far from both the north and the south, are those freest from these flaws, who have the soundest mixtures and are closest to a balanced state.
On why intrinsic merit and worldly fortune do not coincide Speak to me about the queen of all questions whose answer is the prince of all
88.1
answers; a question that forms the lump in one’s throat and the mote in one’s eye, the morsel one chokes on and the dead weight on one’s back, the malady that wastes one’s body and the pained sigh one heaves, such is the immensity of the affliction and suffering it visits upon people. The question: Why are excellent men left deprived, while deficient men attain success? This is the reason why Ibn al-Rāwandī threw off the bonds of the faith, why Abū Saʿīd al-Ḥaṣīrī professed himself a skeptic, why some people disbelieved in Islam and others cast doubt on divine wisdom. When Abū ʿĪsā al-Warrāq saw a eunuch coming out of the residence of the caliph with horses driven before him and a throng of people running around him, he lifted his eyes to the heavens and said, “I proclaim your unity in many languages and tongues, I summon people to believe in you through many arguments and proofs, I buttress your religion through every kind of testimony and evidence, and then I walk about like this, naked, hungry, and thirsty, while a black man like that luxuriates in silk and embroidery, surrounded by servants and attendants, with his retinue and entourage.” Some say that this was Ibn al-Rāwandī. Whoever it might be, the account of this topic is clear, the chain of transmission reaches far back to bygone ages, and inquiry into this mystery is obligatory. For it is a gateway to securing a tranquil heart, a peaceful breast, and a sound mind, and to obtaining God’s approval. Were it to turn out that the only thing one can do in this connection is to entrust things to God and patiently endure according to what the proofs dictate, that would suffice. The astrologists say: The eighth mansion is in opposition to the second mansion; it seems that it indicates hostility when a mansion is counter and in opposition to another. An established scholar reported that Ibn Mujāhid said: Excellence is to be counted as part of the sustenance granted by God, and deficiency is to be counted as part of the deprivation inflicted by God.
55
55
88.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
��ن ي � ن ن ن � � �ن ي �� ��ن ا �ن �لي���س�م ي ����ن�� ش ّ ن ن � � � �� ن �كم� �� ا �ل ���ر أا �ل�� ا �لن��ل��ء ك�ي ��� � او �����ل��ا �ي�ه � او �لي����س�ا ر ��ا �ل ���ر أا �ل�� ا �ل��ه�م�ه ك�ي � � ني � م � ي أ �� أ نً أ � � ن ن ا �� ني � ا �� هي �ن ا ���� �� ا �ّ � ���ا ا �ن�ل�� ك �م� ا � ن�ل� ن��م� ��ا �ل ��ا ن��ه � او �ن�ل�� ه �م� ��م�ل ��د ل أ �ل� �كم� ا �يل� ا � �ل����� �عملي� � ح�� ل� � . ع ا ���س��� �ن� نل � لن ن من � ي � يّ �ّ � ع ن � ن� ي � ّ � نّ ن � ي � � ل��� ���د ه ا ������ره � او �ل �� أا �ل� �نل���د ه ا � �ل� � ��ره � �و��ه�سر�ي� أا � ���د ا ا�ام���د ا ر �ل� �يل���ي�ر �عم�لي��ه ا �ل��د ��ر�ي� �� ن ي � � � � ي ن ا ن ّ � � �ش ن ّ �� ّ ��ّ � ي أ ن ن ا �� � ن ي ي ا ن � � � ا ن ل � �و�ل� ا �ل�س� �م� ��� �و�ل� ا �ل� ��و ي� �و� � ���� �عم�ل�� ���ل �� �ل �كي��ه �لن�� �وا ن� �سره �م� �ه��م�� .و���و ��د ا �ر� �� ا ن�� ي ّٰ ّ � � � ن � � ��اك ل��ن ن� ��لم�ك �م ش ���ا ن� �لم�ل�م����ير ن��� � او�ام��ي ش��س � �ع ن� �م��س�ا �ألم�ل ���د ه ا �ر��س�ا ��ل�هي �� � ���س� �و�سر�و�� � او لله � ن ي ع ي شي � ن � ّي ن ا�ا�م���� ن ي� �عم�ل�� �م�ا ��د ا ��س�سمم�ل ا �ل��سم�ي�ر �عم�لي��ه � او ���ع�ي��د ي� ا �لن�يس�ه �ن�ه.
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ح ّٰ ن ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�اأ ��ل�هي� �� ي� � � ���ن� ي� �م ن ���ع� �لي���ا �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � � � ه � ا م��س� ه ح� � � م � م لل ع ك � م � ل و و � و ن نو ي � �� أ و �ي� ي ن أ أ �� � ن ن � � يّ � � ي � ن � � ���ل��� ل ي ا ا ا ا �ش � ن ا ن � � ا � � � � ل � ح� ا ح ��س� � ا ��م�ل ل���ر �� ��� ا � ��� �عم�ل�� ا � ا ���ر ا �ل�� ��� � او �ل�نس� ���� 1و ن��ه �م�ه كي� ر آ م � أ ي � ن� ا ش ًا ي ا أ ا �� ش � ن � � ن � ي ن ا ن ا �لن � �� �� � ا هي � �ه�م�ا ا �� � ������� �ن �ل�� �� ل��م ���رن� ا �ل�د ي� �ي����� ر�ع�ه ح�س�م�ا ن� أا ��ل�� ا ن� �ي�ل� ��ل ���ل ل � او �ل��س� �م� �� � كي� ��� �م ن م ج آ ً � ن ن ش ي ن� ا ن� ي ي � � ن �ي� ن � �نل��ا ي��ا أ��م�هي ��ّ ��� �ع � � ن� ن�ك���ا �م ا ��ا �ل���ا. ��� � او ����ه ن �م�ل��س� ن�����د ا �رك����و� � ��ور�ل�ه�م كي� �كي� ���ر��و � م ي و و ي� ن ��ن ي أ ّ أ أ ي ��ن �ع ن��د �م�ا �� �اأ �� ن ح�مم�ل�هي �م� ي ����ي����ا هي �يش � ا ن� ا �ن � ن�ك���ا �م�ي��ا ��ل�هي � ش��س�سيمم� �عم�ل ن� ���ن �وي��� �و���� ا � � � س ل ل � ي� � � ي� ر حن ي� ي� ل �� أ ّ � ا� ش ي � ّ � ن � ن � �ي ��ن �وا ن� � ��لم�ك �نأ�ا ن� ا �مش��ا �ل ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ألم�ل ا�امي��د ا �و�ل�ه �ن�� ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ا� ن���� ن��� ا �لأ��� م����ه�وره �ن�ا �ل ش��سم�ك ي � ن ن أ ن � �ي ن ن� ا اأ � ش ا �� ن � �أ� هي ا �� ي اأ � ي أ ن ي ن� ا � � � ا ن ��ل � ��ي�رهي �لي����� ي���ن���ه� ا � يلع�� ��� �ن� م�� ل ���د ه ا �ل� ن � ��� ا �لأ�ي ن�� ر � او � �ون� ��ي� ��س� �ل� ا ��� كي� ع كي� ي أ أ أ ن ا ا�� � اً ن � � � � ّ ن ن � ا ��ل ش � �س� ن ي ا �ن ا ن�ك ا � ا � ن� ي � �س�سم�ا � او �ن�ا �ل� ا �عر�� ل��ي� �م�ع�� ��� ��ل� �م� ��� ا �لأ�ي��م� ء أا �ل�� ا �ل���� �ل� � ي ��س�دي��د �و م�� � ي� أ أ أ �ًا � �أ �� ن نّ � ح�يّ ا ن� ا ا � �م�ا ي� ��ا �ام�سن�� أا ��ل��ه ا �م�ل ي� ��ا ��ل ش��س � �عم�ل��ه � ���� ���د �م ّ�م ن �ي�لي� ّ�د �من�� � م � �من������و ���� �ل� � و و أ ي ي ي� ن � ي� � � ن رج أ أ ّ � ��ا ن ي ّ � ن �� ا ا� ّا ن ي ��� ي� أا ��ل���ا ��ا ��لن ن� ���� ا�� ي� ن ن ن � ���ا �م ن� ن�� �� ر حر ا � ا �ملي� ي� ن ر م ن �وا ن� �م��و��م ��ط �ن�ي�� ا �لأ������� ن� � او �لأ�ي ن �م� ا �ل � ي أ ن � ��� هي ن�ك ا ن ن ّٰ ��سي ّ �ي ن� ي ��ي � ن ا حي ���د ل��ن� ن�ل��ا �نل���ا � او نرا ��ل�هي �م�ا ��ل � او �ن�ا �ن�م � �� ا �ل�� ��� �م� ا �لي ر ي� ي ��� �و�م� �ع��د ا لله ا س�م�د ا �ل ��وكي��� ي أ �� � ح��سن���. و ه�و ي 1الاأ�ص� :ا �لة��ا �� ؛ �ص ا ��� � � ن ا ���ه�ا � ش ���س. ل و م س و ون س �
56
56
٣،٨٨
On why intrinsic merit and worldly fortune do not coincide
An established scholar once told me: Be assured that the distribution of different lots in life is just, and that the Distributor acts fairly. He gave you erudition, excellence, eloquence, and discernment, and He gave your fellow wealth, high standing, sufficiency, and a life of comfort. So consider how the blessings were distributed between you, and then consider how the afflictions were also distributed between you. He granted you excellence, but afflicted you with poverty; He granted him plenty, but afflicted him with ignorance. Isn’t justice to be found in this reflection, and doesn’t the truth lie with this thought? Upon my life, a view of this kind would not command assent from materialists, believers in metempsychosis, or dualists,15 but in any case it replaces blindness with insight. Were we to devote separate responses to the questions of this epistle, it would sate the objector and slake the skeptic. God is our helper in carrying out what we have in mind and intend. Miskawayh’s response This question is just as you have stated and described in terms of how difficult most people find it and how inscrutable the underlying rationale has appeared to different kinds of inquirers, to the point that discussions of the topic have come to resemble a drawn game of chess. The players contest it until fatigue and weariness overtake them and they let it end in a draw; they then return to it on successive occasions, but from the outside everything always looks the same. I was keen to devote a separate treatise to this topic when asked to do so by a close friend—a treatise incorporating a general and thorough discussion that would fit the purpose and meet the need. For with these kinds of questions, which make the rounds among people and are notorious for the doubt and perplexity they provoke, one should not content oneself with these kinds of answers, which you asked to be delivered with the utmost conciseness and in which I have incorporated only allusions to subtler points—particularly as I do not know of any extensive account of the issue by earlier thinkers, so that I might have adumbrated the main points and referred to that work for a more detailed exposition. Yet, having made it the object of my inquiry, it is impermissible that I should leave it without a discussion midway between the dilatory and the succinct. I shall expend my utmost effort to set it forth clearly and dispel the perplexity it has produced in people. I draw my hope of success from God; God is my sufficiency.
57
57
88.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن اأ �ي �� نّ � ن � �أ �� ا �� ي � � � ن ا ن هي ن� ا � � �ّل هي � ن ن � �� �ي �� ا ��ل��سم�لس هي ��� �و �هي� م��سم �م� م� � �و ي� ا ��ع �عول ي�م� �� ��ول أا � م� ا �ل�� ��ول ��ي� �ل� م�� ر�ع� كي� أ نّ �� ّ ً ً ً ��ا ن أ ن ا �ع ّ ن � � هي �� � � ن� ن ا ن ا ّ � � ل��ن ا ������ا �ا� �����س�ه ّ ���ا �ُ ���د �م ن �� � � �� � ا � � � � � � � م � � � ع � ع � �� ك ��س ك � � � � ل � � � م � � و و و و ن � � ل � ن ي ي � ر اأ � �� ون أو ي أ م أي ي� أ أ ّ � � ي ّ ن �� � ن ن ن ��ا ن ي ي ّ ش ا ن ن نّ ن� ا � ا ن�مل�ه �ون���سن��ن��ه ا �ع��ي� ا ��ه أا �م� ا �و ن��د �يلم ��م �ن�ه � �لمك ا ����ر��� �أاو � ك�� � ��د ي� ��م �ن�ه ا ���يس� ء ا �ر � �ن ن � ن ن ن � � ن ن � �أ ن � ��ل��أ��� ��ل���� ي � � � �أ ن ي � � � �و� � �لم�ك ا ����ر��� ا �ل���ي�ر � او � � �� �م ن� ا ����ر��� ا �ل��د �ي� ��كم� �ل ا �ل���ي�ر �و��د يل��مل ُور ي يُ ّ أ � ن ش � ن � � � ي ن ّج نّ أ ّ � � � ���د �ن�ه � او ر�ي��د �ل�ه ل��ي� ����ي� ء �و�مش��ا �ل � �لم�ك ا�ام���ري��ه �أ�ا �نل���ا أا ��م�ا ا �ع�د ي� �لم�ل���ا �ن�� �يلمي��ّ �ل�ه �نل���ا �م�د ��� أ ن � � �ي � � �أ ن ُشعيّ م ا �يُ ي � � أي � � ���س ه ا ��ل�� ن� ���ا أا ��ل�� �ن�� او � ح��س�ا � أا �ل�� ا �� ����ا ر���ا �ون���م �� ي���ا �و��هي� �م� � �لمك ل��مل ح� ���� �نل��� �و �ممل� � �ل�� ي� � � ن �نأ ن ن م ا �ي ي ع نّ ا أُ ّج ��لم� ن ّ ا � �ُ �ن � � أ ن ًا ا� � � ي ن ي � ا � ش ���س ه � � ل � � � ��� ا�م�� ار �� أا �م� ا �ع�د حي�� ��ط �لي ��� ��ل ل��ي� ن������� �م� �� �ن�ه ا �ل ��و ن� �مم�ل كي��ه ا � �ل�� ��� �و��د �لمك ا �يل� ع ُ � �أ �ي � ي � � ن � ّ ن� ��ند ��لم�ك ا ��ل ا � ن ا أ ���� ن ي� �و��� � �ل�� ن� �يُ��ر�� �ن�ه ا � �ل�ل��� �وي���سه�مم�ل � � م��ا � ا �ل��س� �و�ه�و �م� � �لم�ك �يل��مل �� �ل ل��ي� ��س� �ر ن م ج � �آ� � يع �� ن ي ��س�ا �عيّ��ه. ا �ل� �ل�� ا ل� � �أ ا �� �� ّ ي ن ا نّ � �أ ن ا ن نّ� ا أُ ّ ع�د ي ��من حي�م�ل�ن��ا ي� ا ��ل��أ� �ن ���ا ���ند ا � ��ور ا �ل�� ��ور ل� �و � ��� ��يس�عي��ه �أ� � ا �ل����س� � أا �م� ا � � ن و ع أ أ أ � � � ي �� �ن �ا �� � � ن � ا ���أ�ش �كم� ��ل���يل��ا ا �عن�� ا ��ل�� ن�ع ا ن�� ا � ��ي ي� ي��ّ �ل��ا � ا ��ل�� �ن����ا ��ل ا � ��ي �ُ ���د ي� �م ن � � �س ح � � � � � ل و �ل � ل � ل و و ن � � � ي� م ن � ي� ي� ر آ أ ّ ّ � ي � � � ن � � � ي ّ ن ي ي � ن ي ا �م�ل��ا ��ا � �م�ي��ا � ��م��ا ��ا � ه ��ا �ل��أس�ه ا ��� �ل��م� ��ا �ل ل�� ا �ل��س���� ن � �م�ا ن��� ���ا ���ا � � ل � � � � � م ل � ل � ل � ل ك � ن ي� و ي ر ي� ي� � أ ن �ي ي �� ع � ن ّ �� ن ي ا� أي � ي ��اج��ل ا �� ل�ن ا � ا � ي�د ي ي ّ � ا اأ �ن� ا �� اأ�ن � ي ل ا � � � ن � � � �لملر��� �و � ح� ك�� �� ل �ي� �ر�� و� � �� نل��� ��� ل ر. ��س�ه ا ���ي� ل��مل �ع �رل� ���ه �ن� �ل� ي ي م ج أ ّ � � ��ن � � ��ل ا � �ن ن� �ي �لي� ا �� ا �� ن ا �� ا ن �� ا � � ي �من ا ن � � � � ه � � � � � ل � ا ا ا ا ل ل � ده � � � � � � ه� �د �د ل � � �� � � � � � � � � م م م � � ع � م � � � ير � � ي و ن �ل و �و���د لمك ل �ي� ي و ر ن �ل ي ط�� ُ أ أ ُ � � ن �م�ا ن�م�ل�ي� ي� ��ل�ه �و�ع�مم�ل ي� �م ن ا ن�م�ل�ه �عم�ل� ��سن��ي�م� ا ��ل ��ا ن��هي أا ��ل�� � ��لم�ك ا �و �عم�ل� ���ر� ��ي� ا �لي�ن��ر�� ن� �ن�ه ل � � � ي ي �ي � �� �نّ ن � �أ�ن ا � ن ا ن � �� ن �� ش ش ���د � ���ا � � م����� �عم�ل� �ي��ده �يو�لن� ������ �و�ي�� ن� �نر ن�مل�ه� .و � ل��م� ي ��� ���د ه ا �ل����� �ل �أاو � ��س�ع � رو � ي � ن ن ا � �آ� � ي ي�ّ � ا ن � � ا �� �� ا نُ� ّ � ا ن ا نّ ن � � � ن ا � ن ع� ���د ه �ل� �ل�� �و � نل��� �ع�ي ر م� �ه�و �كم ل��� �وح��� 1نل��� �أ� � � �لمك م � �� � م ع � � ل � ��� ي ��و � م ن � �ن �ي ا ن �ع ن ا � �آ� � ي ا �� ي ي ي ّ � ا اأ �ع ا �� ا ا ��نل ا ّ هي � ا ا ا� �� � � هي �من ا ا�ا� � ي �و�ه � ا� � ل � � � � � �� � � � � � � م � � م م � � � � � � م � ل� � نل� � ون � �ون � �ل��� ار ن� �ول���� � � �ل �ل � �ي� ��م نل� أ أ آ � ً � ش يّ ن �� ا �� ا �ل�� � ّ هي ن� ن ن� ح�م�� ا ��� ��� ي ا ��ل ن ا ّ ي � � � ن ��يسعي�� �م ن� ا ن�م�ل���ا� .أاو � ا ك���ا � � �لم�ك �م��س�س�س ار ٢ل��ي� ن� ي �ل �ل � � ��س� �عي��ه � او �ل� �م � � ن ع أ ���س� ًّا ��� � � � ن �� � ا ��ل ا �� ل�ن ا � �أ�ن ي ي ��م�ّل��ا �ن�ا �ن�ّم�ك ا ن� ا �ي�ا �ّمم�ل ي� �ن�� �عًم� �من � �ن � ا ك � ��كم� �ل� ي� � ���ا �و ن���د��ه �م ��د � ���د لمك �� ل �ي� �ل� وع � أ أ و � أ �أ ن � �أ ن ن نّ ن أ ن� ن�� ن ا ّ ي ���د �من حر�� ا �ل���سر ل��ن� ا ن� ���ا� .و � ���د ا ي ن� ��� ���د � او � ���ه ن� �� او � � او ع ار � �� � ح ن��ا ��� ���د ه ا �ل�� �� او �أ�ا � � ي ي ع أ أ � � � ن ا �� ي ن � ن ا � �له�م�ا ��� �له�م�ا � ا � � � ن ح� ا ن ��ل�� � ن ن � ن ن ن طي �م ن ا �ل �ي �و � ي ��� ي ن � ا �ل�� � � �ور ا � �ي���و� �عر� � و �كم � و ��د ا ع��ي� ط� �و�ع�ي�ر ا �ل�� �� �� � أ أ ّ ن كا � ����س��ة�����م ّرا. 1الا�ص�ل :و ن��ا �س ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :
58
58
٤،٨٨
٥،٨٨
On why intrinsic merit and worldly fortune do not coincide
I thus respond as follows. It is an incontrovertible principle acknowledged
88.4
by all right-minded people that every existent in the world, be it natural or artificial, has a proper end, perfection, and purpose for the sake of which and because of which it was brought into existence. That is to say, it was brought into existence in order to accomplish that purpose, even though it might be used to accomplish other things besides that ultimate purpose and ultimate perfection, and even though it might be good for things that have no relation to the purpose for which it was intended and willed. For example, a hammer is designed to be used by a craftsman for pounding and flattening physical objects in the directions required, yet at the same time it can serve to break things apart, thus being used for some of the functions for which an axe is used. Similarly, a pair of scissors is designed to be used by a tailor for cutting clothes, yet at the same time it can serve to sharpen reed pens, in place of a knife. The same applies to all other artificial implements. Natural entities follow a similar pattern. Thus, teeth were designed in different positions and with different forms because of their different perfections, that is to say, the different purposes they are used to accomplish and the different acts for the sake of which they exist. The front teeth are sharp and have the kind of shape that is good for cutting, as is the case with knives, whereas the rear teeth are broad and have the kind of shape that is good for crushing and grinding, as is the case with millstones. They can also be used to accomplish other acts. The same applies to the hands and the feet. For people may venture to put each of these to a use other than the one for which it was created and for the sake of which it was made, whether because they have a need for that or because they wish to provoke astonishment and admiration, the way some people walk on their hands or use their feet to knock people down or to write. Yet even though it is permissible for these acts to issue from these instruments and they are used to accomplish something other than what constitutes their perfection and what is proper to them, this will be marked by disorder and deficiency when compared with the instruments that are used to accomplish the works that are proper to them, that are required from them, and for the sake of which they exist. If that holds true for all artificial implements and individual entities of a natural kind, the same applies to all species. For when we contemplate any given species, we find that each species is disposed to perfections and purposes that are proper to it. It is similar with the genera of these species. For rational and nonrational animals cannot have the same
59
59
88.5
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ �ّ � ن ن ن � ن ُ ّ ن أ نّه � � � ن �� �ور ن� ��و ن��ه �و�ل� ��سن�� ن� ا �ل�� �ي���و� ��ل� أل�� ���س�ا � ا �ل��د �ي� �م�ي� نر �نل���د ه ا �� �ل� ي ن � أ ُ أ � ن � ّ � ي ن � ّ ي ن نّ � ي � ن � ���د ا ا �ل ش��س � ���ل � 1او �ع ��ط�ي� ا �س�مي��ي�ر � او �ر� �وي�ه �و����م�ل �ن�ا ���ع��م�ل ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�وا ن�مل� � ُن � �أ ن ن ن ّ ��من �كم� �ل �م�ل�ي� �ل� ن�م�ل�ه �و�ُو ن���د ن���سن��ن��ه. ح���و��� �ن�ه �عر��� ��ا ��� �و � ن ن ن �أ ّ � اأً ي ًّ ن � ي ا ��ل�م�ّ ي �ن ن ا ي � ن ي ي � � ّ ي � ا � � او � ا ك� ���ا � ���د ا ا �ل����م�ل ���و ���� �و�م�� ار � ٢ن�ه �وك�� � �عم�ل� �عم �ي�ه ��ه �و ل�ي� �ل��� �ي�ه ا � �ل �عوه �كم � ار ه � أ آ أ آ ن � � ش ً � � � � ن ّ ي ي �ن��ل�� ّ �ل ن ا ن�م�� ش � ش ا ا ن� �ع ن ه ا � � ي ا � ن ا �ع ّ ه ا � ��م ن� ا �� ا �ل����س�ع ّ ه ن ا �ن ا � � ا ي ��س� ي�� �و �ل� �� � ن ي ي�� �أ� � ن��د��� ��د �� ن �� نح� نح�� ر � ���د �ل� �ل�� ل� م ّ ّ � � � � � ي ش �ي ل�ن أ ش ا ي ي ا � ن ل�ن أ ش ا أ �ع ن أ ن ا�ا � ي هي ي ش ���� ن � ا �ل��� هي � ا�ام ن�� ش��س�ا ا � ا � � ل ا ا ا ا م ء ء ��س� � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ��س س س ��س رك ر ي� و أ نر و � رك �ي� ��ي و ن ي � �ي� ��ي �ي� � ر � ّ � � ي ش ّ ين ن ن ��ا �� ��� هي ��ل��ا ي��م�ّ� ن ���ا �م ن ن�ع�� ���ا �و ن�ع�ي�ر���ا ل��ن� ا ��ل���ورهي ا � ��ي ��ه� ا ��ل ��د�ي��ده ��م �ل���ر� ن � ور � ي ر � ي ر ي� ي ي ن � �� ن ن �أ �� ا� � ن ا ي � ا أ �ن ا �� ن ّ � � ن ي ن � ن ن ش ش ا ا ا ا ي � � � او �لأ�����س�ا � ي���س� رك ا �ل�نس� � � او �ل ��� �� ل�ي� �سم�و � او �ل� �ع��د اء � ٣و ل�ي� ا �ل� �ل��د ا � �ن� �م� ��ل � او�م��سرن� � ن م أن ن نن ن �ن ن � �ن ن �� ن �و��س�ا أ�ر را ��ا ي� ا ن��ل � � ��و�ل �ع ن��ه �ون� �ري��د ا � ����ل��� ��م�ل ���د ا ا �ل� ح��س�د � �و �ل���� ا � �ل�� � حي����ا ��� ا �ل��د �ي� م آ ���ّ � ا � �د �من ا ��ن� ن ه ا ��نل ا ��ّ � ه ��� �� ه ا�ا� ن �� م��ر�و ن��� ��ل�ه �ه�و ن��م�ا �ش�س�ا رك �ن�ه ن�ع�ي�ره ا �و ن��م�ا �ن�اي�ل ن��ه ��� �� � ن� و �كم ل� ��� ن �ر� � ��ل و �� � أ ن ي �ن ا ّ ي � ّ ن ي �ن�ه؟ �مني����ده ا ��ل���وره ا �ل ���ه �ن�ه ا � ��ي� �م�ي� نر�ي�ه �ع ن� �ع�ي�ره �و���ا ر �نل���ا �ه�و �م�ا �ه�و ا �عن��� ���وره �� � ي ي �نأ �ن اأ � ا �� ي � � ي � ن ا ّ ي �� � ن �ن � � ��ل ا � �ي � ن � ��س�ه �و �كم �ل�ه �و�عر� ا � �ل��ا ��� ا � ��ي� �نل���ا �ه�و � ��� �هي� ��ي� ن���مل� �ل�ه �� � ���ه �و��د �لمك ا�� �ل ن � ي ل��ي� ا �لن��ا �كي��ا ي�. ن ي ن ي � نّ � ن ن ش��ّ �نل���ي�ر أا ��ل�� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ا ��ل�� ند �� �ش�س�ا رك ا ��لن�س�ا ي� � او ��ل حي �� او � ل��ي� ���و� � ��و�عم� �ل���ا �كن ��ع�و�ل أا � ي ن أ م � ا أ �ن ن ن �ل� � ن ّ ي �� � ا أ � ن �ن ن ا� �ن ا ن ي ش ش ا ن � � � � ه � ع ا ل � ل � � � ا ا ا ا �ل � ل م ح � � � ح ح �د � � � � � � � � ع ه � � � � � � �س س ك �لأ���� � � ي � �و ي �و � رك ن � م �ي� ر � ي �و ي و �م ل� �ي� �ي� � ن � ّ ا �مي ّ ن ن �ّ � أ نّ � ن � نّ ي � ي �ي ي � �لي�م�ل ا �لم�ل��د ا � � او �ل ش����ه� او � � او ��سم�ا ��� ا � ار ��ا � �و ���م�ل ن� ا ���ع�و��� م�م� ي��م�ل�ل �م� �ن��د ��ه أا �ل� ا � ن �أ ��ل ي � ّ � ي ه ��نل ا ّ ي � ّ ن ي � ن �ي � ا� ���د ر ���د ه ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء �م ن��ه حي �� او ن�ليّ��ه �ام�ا ا� ي� � ���ه �ن�ه ا�ام�م�ي�ره �ل�ه �ع ن� �ع�ي�ره ا� �ل� ��ن� ���ور�� ا�� � م م أ أ أ أ ن ح �� ا �ن�ا ي� ي� ن ���د �عم�ل ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ل��ن ن� ���شر ا ��ل �وا ��ل���ا �و ن� ا ك ا �نّ�ا ن� �عم�ل� ا ي��ّ ا � � ���د ا �� ح�مي�� �م�ا �ع�د� �ن�ا ه � ر � و ي � أ ي ي � م ي ا � � ي � ا� ّ � �ي ن ّ ا ا� ��ا ن ي ع ي ه ��نل ا ّ هي �ي ن�ل� ن��م� ه ن�ك ا � ا � � �كي ا ي � ه � ا � � ا ا � � �ع � داء � � �� ا � � � � � م�د �د � � �د م � � ��� � � م � � � . � � � � � ع � � � � � ك � � م ل � �و � ل� ي� ن �ل ر �ل�� ري ون و ون �ل و � �ور أ � � ي ن �ن �ن�ه ا � ��ي �م�يّ� نر�ي�ه �ع ن ن�ع�ي�ره �ه�و ا ����ع�ي�م�ل �و ن� ح���ا �أل���ه �م ن� ا �س�مي��ي� نر � او ��ر� �وّ�هي �و ن� ح ن� ا � ي����و� � � ن �ن يأ أ ن ا ني ّ ن ن � �أ �ش �ش � ّ ن ��ا ن � نّ ن � ���ا ن اأ ��� � ا ا ش � ي ن � ل � � � ا � � أا ���س� ��ي����ه ل�ي� ���د ه ا �ل����يس� ء ���ل �م� ك�� � ح ����ه �م� ���د ه ح��� �ل��� ا �� ر ك� � ر ا ��ل�� هي � ُن�م�لي � م ع � ل � � �ور و �أ � � �ن ن ���و�ه�و ن� �ل�ه � او ���م�ل
أ 1ط�� :ه ن�د � ا �����ص �ة ٢ .الاأ�ص� ط���� :ة�ع ا؛ �ص ا ��� ��� ن ا ���ه�ا � ش ���س ٣ .الا�ص�ل وط :والا�عة���لا ل. ور ن� ل و و رور و و ن س �
60
60
٦،٨٨
٧،٨٨
On why intrinsic merit and worldly fortune do not coincide
purpose and perfection. That is to say, it is in no wise and by no means possible that human beings, who were distinguished through this form, created according to this pattern, endowed with discrimination and reflection, and rendered preeminent through reason—the most glorious gift given to them and the most excellent feature specifically granted to them—should not have a purpose proper to them and a perfection for the sake of which they were created and because of which they exist. If this principle has been set in place and secured assent—and it could not
88.6
be sounder or stronger, as you can see—we can now investigate these artificial implements and natural individuals from another direction. For we find that they converge in some aspects and diverge in others. Thus, a hammer has in common with a knife, a needle, and a saw the form of a tool made of iron, but it is then set apart through a form that is proper to it and distinguishes it from other tools. Human beings have in common with plants and beasts growth and nourishment, the pleasure taken in food and drink and all other bodily comforts, and the excretion of superfluous substances. What we wish to know is: Is each entity’s exclusive possession of a purpose that is proper to it and a perfection that is assigned to it due to the aspects it has in common with, or to the aspects where it diverges from, other entities? We find that this is due to the form that is proper to it and that distinguishes it from other entities, and through which it is what it is. That is to say, it is the form of an axe, which constitutes it as an axe, that determines its specific property, perfection, and purpose; and the same applies to all other entities. Next, we turn our attention to human beings, which share in the substrate of plants and animals, and we say as follows. Insofar as human beings are animals, they have in common with beasts the purpose and perfection of animality, that is, the pursuit of pleasures and appetites, the quest for physical comforts, and the drive to replace the parts of their body that dissolve. Yet, as animality is not the form that is proper to human beings and that distinguishes them from other beings, these things do not issue from them in the most complete manner. For we find that most animals outstrip human beings in all the features we enumerated and surpass human beings in their ability to locate them, devote themselves to them, and obtain greater amounts of them. As the form that is proper to human beings and distinguishes them from other beings consists in reason and its special attributes, discrimination and reflection, these are the features in which their humanity must be vested. So the person with a
61
61
88.7
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ي ��ن ا ّ ي أ��ش ���ّ ا��ا ن ن ا � نّ ن ا ن ّ ي�� أ نّ � �أش ا � ي نا ا ح �����ه �م ن � ��ور��ه ا ل ��� �� � ���ه �ن�ه ا ���ر أا ���س� �لي��ه �كم ا � ا �ل����يس� ء ا � ��ي� �ع�د� �� ��� ك�مل�م� ك�� � �م � � �ن ن ن ن أ �ا � أ ن � ��ا � ��م�ل�ه ل��� ا �ش�س � �هر. �� �ل�ه ا �� � ك� � �� ي أ نأ ي � � أ ن � � � �ي يّ ي ش��ّ �ن��ع�و� أا ��ل�� ش��س � �م��س�ا ��لي�م�ك � �نو���ّ�ن����ا ن� ح �� ���ا ��ا ���و�ل ���ه�سر�ي� �� ���د ه ا �ل����و�ل ا � ��ي�ُ ��د �م � ن ني رج �م �� ي ش �� � � � ن � أ ّ ��ا ن ن � ي � � ن ا ن ن ن ّ � � ُ � ن ��ا � � � � أا �ن�ه ���و ك�� � �عم �ي�ه ا �لأ����س� � �و�عر� ���ه ا �ل�د ي� �و ن��د ن���سن��ن��ه �و �كم �ل�ه ا �ل�د ي� ا �ع�د �ل�ه �ه�وا �ل� ��م ل�� ر � ي � ي ّ �آ �� ا� ا أ � � �نّ ي � ا ي � ح� اأ ن � ي ين ش ���� ن�ك���ا ا ي ااا � � � � ا ا � � ا ا � ا � � � م � د �� ل � � � � � س م��س ل� � � � � � � � �م ن� ا � �ل��يس�ه � او ��سم�� �ن� �م� ل و ر ن و ر ي وي� ور ون ن ع �ي ه ا ��نل ا ّ هي � ه �� � أ ن ي� ش ن � ن ن ي ���ّ ا �ن��س�ا ن� �من ا �نل� ��ور� �� � ��� ن� �و ��و ن ��� �عم�ل�� ��د ر ح ن� ا � �����ر �ع��ده �و�ي���و� �ل��ي�� ن� ��ل أ � أ أ أ � � � �ن ن �ن ن � �� � �ي��م �����ه �م ن ا ����ن��س�ا ن�ل ّ��هي � يّ � ن � � ن ن ح�� �ي���و� ا �ل� ����م�ل �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ه�و ا �ل����م�ل ل�ي� ���د ه ا �ل� � �وا �ل � �لأ ي � ن ا � ا أ نّ ّ � ن � � � ي ّ � ن ي � � ن � ي ن هي � � ��سسي ي ا ���ا ن�� ي� ���ور�ي�ه ا �ل ا � ���ن �ام�ا ك� ��ا � ���ه �ن�ه ��هي� ا � ��ي� � ��ر�� �عمل�م ن�� ا � م� ا � �ل��يس� � او �ل� �م��ع �نل��� �و �� �� أ � ا � هي � ن �ي ���د ��ه � ا ���ن�� ن�� ن�ك��ه �ه� �م�ا �� ���د �عن ���ا � 1وي��ّ �نل���ا ٢ك ا � �ل� ح�ي��ا � ��ي� ا ����م�ل�و� � او�ام���ا ر�� �أاو ن�� �ل� � � ر و � ي � و ن ر م م � � � ّي � هي ن�ك���ا ��ل���م �� ن�د ��لم�ك ا ��ل� �س ي�ل��هي ��ه اأ �مّ �م ن �س ي�ل��هي ا ��ل���ا أ�� � ��س�ا أ � ا �ر� �وي�ه �أاو �ع�م�ا �ل ا � ن�ل� � أ � رن ي� ن �ل � رن ن � م و ر ��ر ي� ي �ل ن أ � ن � �� ن � ن ي أن ن ��م�ّل��ا ن ا �كم� ا �نّ�ه ل��ن� �ن �نل���س�ه �ون� ح �� ا�ام�ون�� �و� ا ي� ل��ي� �عم� �ام ا �����و� � او � �ل���س�ا � � �� ���ور��ه ا ����م�ل �م���� ك� � ن ي �� ا � ن � ا � ّ هي � ن � � � ن�ي ا ��نل ا ّ ن � ي ن ا� ي ي � � ���� ي� �ن�ا ���ع��م�ل. ��� ن����ي ر �ر� �وي� � نو����ي ر ا �ل�ح�يس� ر ا�� � �و���د ه ا��سر�لن��ه �ل� �ي ��و��م�ل أا لي� ا ن ي ا �ي � ن ا نّ ن � ّ ي ن � � � ن أ ن ي ا � �ن ���د ا ا � � ن حي�س�ا ا نّ��م�ا ��ن����ن � ه ه � ا � � � ا ل ه ه م � � ���د م � � � �� � � � � م � � � � ل �و�ل� ي ن � � ه روي و �ور ا � �ي�ل�� �ل ل�ي� ر أ أ ي ر أ ي ن �ي� أ ّ أ ّ ّ � ش ن ن ن ن � � � ّ ن أن �� � ي ا �يلم� � ا�ا � ي � �ن ا ل�ن ا � � � ا ي � �ن ا ي�د ���� نّ ا ل� ���د ا ا�ا ن � � ل� � ا ن ن �و�ه �� و�ي� ��و � م�و� ا � �ي���و� �ي� لمل�د � �ل� � � ن ي �� � ��� ا �رك���ي ره � لك م�ون � � ي ع ع يأ ن أش �ّ هي � � �ع�ي ا نّ� ا �يش �ن ا � �ّ هي �ي�ي�� �ّ ن ش�� ي ��لم��ل ا �ن ا ي ا ��لن � ح��سي����س�ه ا �و�ر � او �� ���ر ن��ن���ي�ر ر�وي� �و�ل� �م�ل �و �م� ��سر� �ر�وي� �و ن��ي� �سره حي ��و � � أ ُ أ أ ي ن ا� � ي ا � ن أ � � � ي ن ن ن ن ن ���ا � � ا �� ا �لن��ي��ا ء �و� ا � �م� ك �و� ا ي� � او ����م�ل ا�م�ون � ا ���ع��م�ل أا � ا ا ���س�ه�مم�ل ل��ي� ا ����م�ل ا�ام�ون�� م � ش ا �� ن� ن ّ ن �� ن ن�ع��ر � ا ش�ر � ��ل�� �مي�س ّ�د ��ل �و ن�ع��ر ��م ي � �ن��د ا �ي�ه ح��ا ن� �و�ل� ���ي��ي�ر أا �ل�� ����ي� ء ن��ا ر ن� �ع ن��ه �لم � �س� ي ي و ن ن �ل ه�و �ي ج ج � ن � ن ن � � ا ي� � ن� نّ ��ل��ا �م ن��ا ن ��ل��ا � �لي��د �س ا ي�ل���ا � �عم� ي��د �يك �� ��ل��ا ا � ا � � ا �ل��د ي� �� �� �و�ه �عم�ل� نح�مي�� ن � ن و ر � ر � ن ر ر ن � و ل�� ر ن و � � ع ا�م�ون��و � ���مي�� ي ا ي ا ي ا ن ا � ّ هي � ي � � ن ا ن ّ هي � ي ا � � ن�ي ا ا نّ� ا ي�� ن � � � � �� ا � ا � � � �كم�ل �نل���ا � ��وره ٣ا �لأ����س� �لي�� � � . ��ره �و �ل�ح�يس� ر أ �م� � � ل � ح�� �� �ل��� روي و � �ونح�� ن ُ أ ي � ا ن� ا ا ���س�ه�مم�ل ي ل�ن ا ����� ا ��� ��ل ّ �ن ا ��لن� ���ط�ي �ل��ا ���هي ��ل�ي�ر �يل���ي �نل���ا أا ��ل�� �م ن��ا نر��ل ش��س �ر�لن��هي �ل�� ي� �� أ � ن� � �ي� �ل �ور �لأ � ي �م�� � ي ي � � ا � ��ش ا هي ا ��ل ا ا �ّ � �ا� ن � ��م ا ��ل ا � � �ن ا ��ل � ا � ش ا � �عل�� � �أ� ّ �ش�� ء � ��ن ��� أ �ل� م� و �ل أ ي� �و�ل� �لأ� �س� ر أ ي� ��� وعر� أ �� م� ي��س� ر و �م �ل� ي� �ي� عر � � � � � ني�ا �ن ��نل � ي � � �� ي ي � ا أ ش ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �م ن ا ��نل ��ي�را ي� ��ّ �ه�و �يل ���مل ن� ا �ل��ل� � �و أا ل�� �سر�لن��ه ا �ل ��� �� �� ��� ل�ي� ا�مل�� � او �رن � � ن � أ م م ع أ أ أ 1الا�ص�ل وط� :ع ن���� ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :ن��� ٣ .الا�ص�ل وط� :صور.
62
62
٨،٨٨
٩،٨٨
On why intrinsic merit and worldly fortune do not coincide
greater share of these attributes has a greater degree of humanity, just as, when a person has a greater share of the form proper to him as a result of the features we enumerated, his merit is in starker evidence in all its varieties. Now let us return to the specifics of the question you raised, to expound it
88.8
on the basis of the principles set out above. I therefore say as follows: Upon my life, were it the end of human beings, the purpose on account of which they exist, and the perfection to which they were disposed, to accumulate as many possessions as possible and to enjoy food and drink and all other pleasures and comforts, it would be necessary that they exact them fully through their proper form, that they acquire them in great quantities, and that each person’s portion of them be commensurate to his share of humanity, so that the most excellent human beings would be the ones who excel most with respect to possessions and their enjoyment. But, as the form proper to them is the one we have mentioned, we know that their aim and purpose is what issues from that form and is accomplished through it, such as to acquire true knowledge and learning, and to deliberate and reflect on them, so that through such means they may attain a rank loftier than that of the beasts and the other beings in the world of generation and corruption, reflecting the superiority they have over them intrinsically and on the basis of their form. This is a rank that they can only attain with the reflection and voluntary choice that pertain to reason. No one could possibly object to what we have stated by arguing that this reflection and choice must rather relate to pleasures, for we have shown at this juncture and many others that lowly animals possess the latter in greater abundance and larger quantities without reflection or reason. The dignity of reflection in fact emerges, and the benefit of reason stands out, when it is used in relation to the most excellent beings. The most excellent being is the one that has a permanent existence and does not cease to be or undergo change, and does not need or require anything external to it but is, rather, self-sufficient, diffusing its generosity over all beings and assigning them to their proper stations according to their rank and receptivity, and depending on their merit. Thus, the form of humanity is perfected by reflection, thought, and choice when they are used in relation to divine things, elevating one to noble stations that none can speak of or refer to save those who have reached them, who have grasped the object of reference, and who have come to know the blessings extended to human beings. If one then seeks to sink down in creation and return to the level of the beasts and of those that are ranked with them, who
63
63
88.9
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ّ ن ن ن � ي � ّٰ ي � يُ ْ نِّ ٱ �ْ �ن �نَ ا � نِ ٱ �ِّ� ن � نِ � ا ن امن� ا� ل � ا � د ��س � ل � �و�م� �ه�و ِل�ي� �ع�د ا ���� �م� ح��سر � �ل���س�ه �كم �� �ل ا لله ����� ل�� {�سم�ل أِا � ا � ِ ِري� ِ ي� نِ ُ أ نْ نُ ِ ُ ْ ن ن � ��ن ن ا� ن � ن ُ ن ّٰ أً ��د ا ���ه�س �� �ه� ا ل � � ح��س ار � ا�من��� � ي� ا �ل��د �ي� ي�لي��ع�ّو� �ن�ا لله �م ن��ه � ا ��م�ا. ح���ِ�قر� او ا � �ل���س���ق�م} � � ري و أ � � ش ي أ ّ ي �ع ّ ي � ش ا ن ا ن � � �� �لي��د اأ ن�ع � حنمن�� �ي��و�ل ا �سر� � ا � �لي�ي����� �م� و ع ��� �و�ه ا �ع ارن��ي����ه �ون��مي��ه �مم�ل����ه �و���نس� �ن�ه �و� ��� �ن�ه ل��ي� �ي ّ ً ً ً � ن � ن ن أ ن ن ن ي ن ن ���ر�ي� ا �ل ش��م��را ���� ك� ��س���ا �ن�ه �و���ا ��م�ا ل��ي� � ا ���ا � �مي�� و � �ي�ه �م��ه�م��س�ا ل��ي� �م���ا �لي��ه [وا �ر] ي ُ أِ ِ نِا ُ ن نِ � �ِ ْي نِ ْ ِ �ن�ْ�م��ِ ُ اٱ �� ِّ �� ِ ا ِ اٱ �� شِّ ِ ل ل � � � ا � � � � � و �فقر نِ� ل�ل ا را �� � ��وِ� � ��� ِم وِن� ���ر نِ ��ِ����ي� ِ���ل�ِم�غي� ن ً
١٠،٨٨
ا ن ن ن �� �� �لي�د اأ�ش ا ا ��ل �م�س ن� ��ل��� �ن �ي ن � ن ���د ا ا ��ل ���1 ���ا �م نّ��ا؟ �و�م� ل��م�ا ���د ا ا �لأ��يل ن� ح ��م �م� ا ����ي� ن�؟ � ُ�س� ر أ �� �� ي ع ن � هي أ � � ي ي � ِ �ن�ْ�م��ِ ُ اٱ �� ِّ �� ِ ا ِ اٱ � ّشِ ِ ��ا ي ا ّ �ي � هي � ��ّ �م ن �ن �ن � ع � ه � � � � � � � � ا ا ا � � � � � � ء � ل ه ح � ل ل � ل ل � � م ع � � � ��س � � � ح � � ع �� � س س � ك � � � ل � � ل ل ر ن و و و ي و ين و� ل � ِم ِن ر نِ م ير أ ّر نِ �� ن أ ّ � � ّ � ن ن ن ن ن ن ن ن � ي � ّ ح �ل��د � ن ��� .ي��د ي�ل��� ن ا � ا �ل����س�ا � ا � ا ا� ي ا �� ا�ا��س ا � �م ن��ا � ا�ام����� � ن�ل ن��ا �ع�� �ه�م�ا � ا ��م�ا �� م � ��ن � � � � ي ر أو و و ر ن � ي� ن ي� ي ر أ أ م � ن� ي ن ���د ه ا � �أ�ش ا ء ا ���ي �ي��س ّ�م ا ا ���� ا �ّ هي اأ ن ا يًا � ا�� ُ�ن �م�ل�ي ��ل��ا � ��ل�� ��ه � �مي���� � ا �ي�ه ��ا ��ل�� ند ا �ي �عمي�ل��ه ��� �� م� رر �� و م ي � � و ي� �ل� ��يس� �ي� ي� و ن أ أ ّ ي ي ��ا ن � ي ش ّ ي �ّ �م ّ ن ا �ي ن� �ي � ن ���ا �وي� ّ� ا ن � ن�م�ل���� �ي�ن��ن��ن�ه ��ل�ه ا ن� �يلم�ل�سم������ا � او ن� ي�ل ن��ه ح ن� �م� ل ع� ي� �ل�ه �أاو � ك�� � ي��� � ���و� � ن ح��� �ملي�� ّ��� ي � ي� ي أ ن ن ن ن ي ي حي� ش� �ه�و أا ���س�ا � �عم� �م�ل ن�لم�ل �ه�و �م ن� � ن� ��لم�ك �م ن� � حي �� او � �نل�ي��س�م ّ �و��د ا ر� حي� ش� �ه�و � ح� �عم�لي��ه ي � ي � �� ن � ي ا� �ُ نل ������ أ � �ن �س � �ّ�هي ا ���ي � ي�ّ �ل��ا �ع�� ش��س�ه � �ل�م�ّ �من���ا ��سم�ل� ���� ل��ن ا ��ل��أ�� ا ��لن ه ل ل ه ا �ل ا � � د ل � � �� � � م ع � � � � � � ي � ي� �ور روري ي� ي ن � ي و ي� � و أ � ي وم م يج ن أ ي ّ ً ن م ّٰ ���د ا ن�كي��ا �ّمم�ل�ه ن� ���ده ن��ي�� ن��ا أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ّ � ����ا ا �ل���ي�لن���ا �ي�؟ �و�م�ا ي�لي�م�ل�وه �م ن� ا �� � ���ل��� . م ن ا ا� اأ � هي � ا �عن ا �م� ي ���ي���� �عم� ش��س �ل �����هي ا ��ل�� ��ا ن � �����د���ا �ّرهي �و�ي�د �من��� ا ن��ل � � � � � � � م� � � � ل أ ي ن ر نو � ن � و ���د ه �م��س� �ل� ر � �� ري أ أ � اأ �� هي ا ��لي ن�ك ي �ي � ّ ي ا � ن ًا �نم� ُ� � � � � � ��هي ا�ا� ي�ي ّ ي ن �ه�م�ا. م��س� ل� ��وي��� �و �د سر� يل� �� أا �ل�� ا �ل� ن�ون� م���د �م�ه �ع � ��� ل� ر ن ي ع
أ ن 1الا�ص�ل وط :ا ����طة���.
64
64
١،٨٩
٢،٨٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ّ ن ن ن � ي � ّٰ ي � يُ ْ نِّ ٱ �ْ �ن �نَ ا � نِ ٱ �ِّ� ن � نِ � ا ن امن� ا� ل � ا � د ��س � ل � �و�م� �ه�و ِل�ي� �ع�د ا ���� �م� ح��سر � �ل���س�ه �كم �� �ل ا لله ����� ل�� {�سم�ل أِا � ا � ِ ِري� ِ ي� نِ ُ أ نْ نُ ِ ُ ْ ن ن � ��ن ن ا� ن � ن ُ ن ّٰ أً ��د ا ���ه�س �� �ه� ا ل � � ح��س ار � ا�من��� � ي� ا �ل��د �ي� ي�لي��ع�ّو� �ن�ا لله �م ن��ه � ا ��م�ا. ح���ِ�قر� او ا � �ل���س���ق�م} � � ري و أ � � ش ي أ ّ ي �ع ّ ي � ش ا ن ا ن � � �� �لي��د اأ ن�ع � حنمن�� �ي��و�ل ا �سر� � ا � �لي�ي����� �م� و ع ��� �و�ه ا �ع ارن��ي����ه �ون��مي��ه �مم�ل����ه �و���نس� �ن�ه �و� ��� �ن�ه ل��ي� �ي ّ ً ً ً � ن � ن ن أ ن ن ن ي ن ن ���ر�ي� ا �ل ش��م��را ���� ك� ��س���ا �ن�ه �و���ا ��م�ا ل��ي� � ا ���ا � �مي�� و � �ي�ه �م��ه�م��س�ا ل��ي� �م���ا �لي��ه [وا �ر] ي ُ أِ ِ نِا ُ ن نِ � �ِ ْي نِ ْ ِ �ن�ْ�م��ِ ُ اٱ �� ِّ �� ِ ا ِ اٱ �� شِّ ِ ل ل � � � ا � � � � � و �فقر نِ� ل�ل ا را �� � ��وِ� � ��� ِم وِن� ���ر نِ ��ِ����ي� ِ���ل�ِم�غي� ن ً
١٠،٨٨
ا ن ن ن �� �� �لي�د اأ�ش ا ا ��ل �م�س ن� ��ل��� �ن �ي ن � ن ���د ا ا ��ل ���1 ���ا �م نّ��ا؟ �و�م� ل��م�ا ���د ا ا �لأ��يل ن� ح ��م �م� ا ����ي� ن�؟ � ُ�س� ر أ �� �� ي ع ن � هي أ � � ي ي � ِ �ن�ْ�م��ِ ُ اٱ �� ِّ �� ِ ا ِ اٱ � ّشِ ِ ��ا ي ا ّ �ي � هي � ��ّ �م ن �ن �ن � ع � ه � � � � � � � � ا ا ا � � � � � � ء � ل ه ح � ل ل � ل ل � � م ع � � � ��س � � � ح � � ع �� � س س � ك � � � ل � � ل ل ر ن و و و ي و ين و� ل � ِم ِن ر نِ م ير أ ّر نِ �� ن أ ّ � � ّ � ن ن ن ن ن ن ن ن � ي � ّ ح �ل��د � ن ��� .ي��د ي�ل��� ن ا � ا �ل����س�ا � ا � ا ا� ي ا �� ا�ا��س ا � �م ن��ا � ا�ام����� � ن�ل ن��ا �ع�� �ه�م�ا � ا ��م�ا �� م � ��ن � � � � ي ر أو و و ر ن � ي� ن ي� ي ر أ أ م � ن� ي ن ���د ه ا � �أ�ش ا ء ا ���ي �ي��س ّ�م ا ا ���� ا �ّ هي اأ ن ا يًا � ا�� ُ�ن �م�ل�ي ��ل��ا � ��ل�� ��ه � �مي���� � ا �ي�ه ��ا ��ل�� ند ا �ي �عمي�ل��ه ��� �� م� رر �� و م ي � � و ي� �ل� ��يس� �ي� ي� و ن أ أ ّ ي ي ��ا ن � ي ش ّ ي �ّ �م ّ ن ا �ي ن� �ي � ن ���ا �وي� ّ� ا ن � ن�م�ل���� �ي�ن��ن��ن�ه ��ل�ه ا ن� �يلم�ل�سم������ا � او ن� ي�ل ن��ه ح ن� �م� ل ع� ي� �ل�ه �أاو � ك�� � ي��� � ���و� � ن ح��� �ملي�� ّ��� ي � ي� ي أ ن ن ن ن ي ي حي� ش� �ه�و أا ���س�ا � �عم� �م�ل ن�لم�ل �ه�و �م ن� � ن� ��لم�ك �م ن� � حي �� او � �نل�ي��س�م ّ �و��د ا ر� حي� ش� �ه�و � ح� �عم�لي��ه ي � ي � �� ن � ي ا� �ُ نل ������ أ � �ن �س � �ّ�هي ا ���ي � ي�ّ �ل��ا �ع�� ش��س�ه � �ل�م�ّ �من���ا ��سم�ل� ���� ل��ن ا ��ل��أ�� ا ��لن ه ل ل ه ا �ل ا � � د ل � � �� � � م ع � � � � � � ي � ي� �ور روري ي� ي ن � ي و ي� � و أ � ي وم م يج ن أ ي ّ ً ن م ّٰ ���د ا ن�كي��ا �ّمم�ل�ه ن� ���ده ن��ي�� ن��ا أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ّ � ����ا ا �ل���ي�لن���ا �ي�؟ �و�م�ا ي�لي�م�ل�وه �م ن� ا �� � ���ل��� . م ن ا ا� اأ � هي � ا �عن ا �م� ي ���ي���� �عم� ش��س �ل �����هي ا ��ل�� ��ا ن � �����د���ا �ّرهي �و�ي�د �من��� ا ن��ل � � � � � � � م� � � � ل أ ي ن ر نو � ن � و ���د ه �م��س� �ل� ر � �� ري أ أ � اأ �� هي ا ��لي ن�ك ي �ي � ّ ي ا � ن ًا �نم� ُ� � � � � � ��هي ا�ا� ي�ي ّ ي ن �ه�م�ا. م��س� ل� ��وي��� �و �د سر� يل� �� أا �ل�� ا �ل� ن�ون� م���د �م�ه �ع � ��� ل� ر ن ي ع
أ ن 1الا�ص�ل وط :ا ����طة���.
64
64
١،٨٩
٢،٨٩
On the meaning of coincidence
have lost themselves—as God said, «Surely the losers are they who lose themselves»16—upon my life, this is the manifest loss that one always asks God to preserve one from. I have been impressed by the words of Imruʾ al-Qays, for all the crudeness of
88.10
his Bedouin style, his foreign kingship and youth, and his pursuit of the poetic forms he cultivated and lost himself in, immersing himself in its notions: I see us hurrying toward an unknown fate, beguiled by food and drink. What is this hurry we are in? What is this unknown fate? He is making a subtle point, revealing a fine intelligence and remarkable gifts. Don’t you see that he says we are “beguiled by food and drink”? That is to say: What is willed and intended for us is something else, yet we are beguiled by them. So it has emerged clearly that, since those things the common people call “sustenance” do not constitute the end of human beings, the purpose for which they were created, or their intrinsic aim, they must not pursue them and marvel at those who happen to receive them, even if they long for them and desire them. For they do so not in their capacity as rational human beings but in their capacity as beastly animals. With regard to those necessities on which their life depends and which allow them to proceed toward their end, the impediments have been removed and nobody has been wronged. If you ponder these points, you will find them plain, God willing.
On the meaning of coincidence What does “coincidence” mean? And the remarks that follow. This question has already appeared, and it has received a thorough response that nonetheless fulfills the proviso of brevity.17 After that appears a question about the meaning of “granting a favorable outcome,” which has also come up before. So one may consult the answers provided to both questions earlier.
65
65
89.1 89.2
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ ن ين ا ��ن ��ن حي�س�ا � �م�ا �ن��س��ي�ه�م�ا ا ن��ل حي�س�ا ر ن�كي ��ي��ا ��ل �م�ا ا ن��ل ا � ي ��ل �� ن� �ن��ر �و�م� ا �ل�� ي ر و �وا ن� ا � � �ل��قر� �م��س� �ل�ه ا ن�ن��ر � او �ل�� ي � ي � �ن ا ن أ � ن ن� ن � � ا ا� �� ن ن ي ا ا ن ي ا أ ا أ ن �� ن �ه�م�ا؟ �و� �لم�ك �ه�م� ل��ي� ا �لي��ل� � � أا �ل�� ا ����� �م؟ �وك�ي��� ا ������س� �نل�ه�م� � او ��سم� �و�ه�م�؟ 1ا �ع��ي� ك�ي��� ا ح��ل� � � ّ ي أ نّ ي � ن ن � ���د �ه�م�ا ل�ن ا ������ا ا�� �م ن���ا �ن�� ن ا ��ل ا ��ل�� ند � ن ي ن� ���د �ه�م�ا �م ن ���ا �ن�� ن � عي�م� � او �ل �كم� ن� � � � � � � ا � � � م � � ع ح�� � � � � � � � ا ��مك ن و ن ي� ل ي� أ � ي � ي� � ي� م ن � ي � ّ أا ��ل�� ا ��ل�� ندي� ن ي�لن ن��� � �و ن� ��ا ��ل ح��� � �و� ا ���ع��م�ل. � ر ن
١،٩٠
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ن ��ا ي أ ن ا � ش � � � ه � ّٰ نّ � � ن ن ي �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���د ر �ع��ه �رك�� � � او ����� �ل ك� ����ي�رهي �ل�� ي� ش���نس�ه ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا �لأ����س�ا � �ل� � �م��س���وي� ر ن و � ين ً ن � أ � �� ن� �� ّ � ن ن ن ن ش ا ا ن ّ ن ن � ل � � � � � �� كي��ه ا ن �حم � �ل���ا ن����� ن���� ن� ��� �و� �لمك ا ��ه �يل �� � �هر �م��ه ���م�ل �م� حي�� �ه�و نح����م �ن ��يس��هي� ي�س� �� ن أ آ � ن �� � ن � ��� ّ ن ن ا ح� ش� �ه� �ن�ا � �م� نّ � �هر �م ن��ه �ن���م�ل ا ن�ر �م ن� � � �وي نل �� � ع ا ��ه نح�� �م ن و ي �� �ن��د �لمك ا � �لع��م�ل ��يس��هي� �ي�س� �� ن ًم آ �ن ا ي ن � ح ّ �ا �� ن� ن �ا �� �� ن�د �� � ا �� ن ح� ش �ه ن� � �ن �ن � �هر �م ن��ه �ن���م�ل ا ن�ر�م ن� � � � ل ع � م ل � س ��س � �� � � �� ن لمك و ا �ل�نس� � � �ويل �� � و ي �ل � ي ن � آ � ن � ���هي ح� ش� �ه� �ن�ا ���ط�ي ��مم�ّ� ن �ن�نس�ا ا ��ل���ا أ�� � � نل ����ه �م ن��ه �ن���م� ا ن� �م ن � �� �ن��د ��لم�ك ا � ن�لع��م�ل ا�ام�ل�� أ��� �� ر ي ن � م وي � ر ل ر� ي ي ن و � أ أ �� ّ � � � ش ن � � � ن ن ي ي � � ن ن � ���ا ي� ا �ل���ا � ه �ع ن ا �ل����س�ا ا � �� ا ك�� ���د �م ن ���د ه ا �ل� �����ا � ل �و� � � � � � � ا ا ���ا � �وا ا ل � ه � � � ح � � ك ل � ����ل و � و ر ر � أ � وع ي ر شأو ي� ع � �� ��ا اأ ���س�ا � �لُن ن� ���� اأ �ل ن��ً�ا ن�ك���ا �م ن � ��ا ي ��من حي�م�ل�ن��هي �و�ي���ر ن��� �ل���ا �ع� او �أ��ي ك� ����ي�رهي �و��� او �ن�� ح� ن ن� يو ر ي � ي� � ن � ول� � � � ن نع � ّ � ��من ي � ن هي � ن ا �� � ّ هي � ن ا ي ن ا �ي ّ هي � ن ا �ي ّ ي ن �ه �ر�ه� .و�م��ي� ا� �ي�ل���م�ل ا �ل ن��ا ن ���ر ل��ي� ���د ه �ل��� ا � �ل�� كي�� � نو���� ��يسعي�� � نو���� ح�مل��� ن���� �ل��� ن �ل��� � ي ّم أ ن � � ��� ا ن ا� اأ � ي ن � � ن ا � ن �ل��ا �م ن ���� ن�� � �ا� �لن ن� ���� ل��ن � ا ي ا ل�� ا حي�م�ل��� ي� �عم�لي��ه ���د ه ح�� �ل��� ك�م � ا�م��س� �ل�ه ���د ه ا �ل� ����� �ل ن����� � � ن � و م ي ر ي� ن � � ن ن � ن ا ن ن ي � �� ي �ش � � � ا ���� �� � ي � ��� �ل�ه ا ل ��ي�ره �و ����ر ي� �عم�لي��ه ا �ل ش���نس�ه � او �ل ش��س���وك ��� ����ر� �وه � او �ل�ن����� �عملي��ه �و ن��ه ا �ل� ���ر �كي� ون ن� ن ن ّ ن ن ��ل��ا ي ن� ّ ن ا ش ّ �ن ��ّ � ي ي ي ��ل � � � ن�ي ا ن ا نّ � �أ � ن أ ن � ي �ل � �وح �لن��ي�� ���د ه ا � ح�����د حرك�� � �و�م�ي�ر��� ��م ل��م �عم�ل�� ح�عي ����ه ا ن�ن� ر � او �ل�ح�يس� ر �أ� � ا �ل��سر ي � ٰ � ن � ًا � �ي � ه � �� ي ا �� �� ش أ هي ا ّ �ي� ا �ل� �ه�م� �و�ل� ي�ع�� � نم��سي���� لله ��� ��. ي������م�ل ن��د �ويل�رن� � � ي � �ن أ ن ه ي ا ن � ا ي ه � ي ا ن ن � ��ل أ � هي ن اأ �ي �� ا نّ ا �� ن� � � � ن �� ��ول أ � لع�م�ل م هوره أا �� ا نر���� �� ح�� �� يح��جن � ل��ي� �� � ع ا ح��ل� � ا � �� او �ع� �و�� ن���ي�� ن � أ أ � � � ن � ن �� � � ن ���د �ه�م�ا ا �� �لن��ا ا �ش�����ا �هر �م ن��ه � او ��لش��ا �ل�ن� ا�ا�م�ا �ّ هي ا � ��ي ي� � ا � ء � ا � � م ل ع � د ل ح��م�ل �ك� ي���ا � او �لش��ا �ل ش� � � � ي ي ل ي ي� ي ي �� ي ي ي ّ � � ا� � � ن � �ن ن ن ا ا � ا ��ن��ر ن��� ا �ل��د �ي� �ي� ن�������ا �ي� أا �لي��ه � او � ار ��� ع ا ل���وره ��ي� � �ل��د �م� ٢ع��د ا � �ل�� �عم�ل �و�ير�و�م �ن� � �لع��م�ل ن ّ 1ط :وا �لة��أ���ا ��م�ه��� �ا ٣ .ط :ة�ة�ة�ه�د . م
66
66
٢،٩٠
٣،٩٠
On the nature of compulsion and choice The answer to this question lies in devoting a separate discussion to the ques-
90.1
tion of compulsion and choice, to thus ask: What is compulsion, and what is choice? What is their relation to the world? How do they relate and fit together? That is, how do they diverge in their convergence? For you see them in the world attributed to those who combine reason and sense perception, yet you also see them attributed to those who possess sense perception but not reason. Miskawayh’s response There are many movements and acts that issue from human beings but that
90.2
do not resemble one another. For there are certain acts that they manifest insofar as they are natural bodies, and through which they exhibit an affinity to inanimate objects. There are other acts that, besides being natural bodies, they manifest insofar as they grow, and through which they have an affinity to plants. There are other acts that they manifest insofar as they have a sensitive soul, and through which they have an affinity to beasts. Then there are other acts that they manifest insofar as they are rational and discerning, and through which they have an affinity to the angels. Each of the above acts and movements that issue from human beings has many varieties and is grounded in different motives and causes. It can also be considered from different aspects, and it is affected by a large number of impediments and different hindrances, some of them natural, some of them a matter of chance, some of them coercive. When a person considering this topic fails to distinguish these acts from each other and to consider them from every aspect, he is confused by these facets and cannot discern the right way to consider them. As a result, he is overwhelmed by perplexity and his uncertainties and doubts proliferate. On our part, we shall set out these movements clearly and discriminate between them, and then we shall discuss the basic nature of compulsion and choice. The issue will then become much simpler and accessible to understanding, and it will not seem abstruse, with God’s will. I therefore say as follows. Whatever the different varieties and discrete aspects an act admits, it requires four elements in order to be manifested. The first is the agent who manifests it. The second is the matter in which it is
67
67
90.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
يّ ن ا ن ا ن ا� ا ّ ي ّ �� ن ه �ن ن � �أش ا � �أ � هي ���ا ن�� ي ا ��ل� هي �ه ا �� ن ا � � ا� � � � ه � ا ا ء � ه � � ل ��د � ع � � � � � � � � س م ك �� � س � م �� � ��� ل��ي� ا�م� � ه �ورن � �ل ��ي �ل �نر �ي� �ل ن ي � �ور �ي� آ ن� ��م�� هي ي ن�س � �ّ�هي ل�ن � � � ن ح��ا � ا ��ل ا ��� ��ل�هي � ا �� ن �م�ا ن � ا ��ل�ص�أس�هي ا �ل�م� ي �ي� � روري �ي� و ن � �و� ا � �لع��م�ل �و �� � �ه�وره �و��د ي� نج أ �� �ل و ر � و ن ي أ ّ ّ � � ن ن � � ن � ّ � ن ي � ن ّ ن � � �ن �ن ��ل���� ي �و� � �� �نلن� �سر�ور�ي�ه ل��ي� ���ل ����م�ل� .و�ام�ا ك���ا �� ي� �م�����ا �لي�م�ك �ع ن� ا � �لع��م�ل ا �لأ�������ا �ل�ي� ا �ل��د �ي� ���� ي أ ن ن ن�� أ ن ًا ش ّ نّ ّ � ��ّ � ا � � ن � �أش ا � ي ي�لي���م� �لي� �ن�ا �ل�� ن� حي�يس�ا ر �و ن� ح ن� ا � ���د ��ره 1ا �يل� ����� .م أا � ���ل و ��د �م� ا �ل����يس� ء ا � ��ي� ��هي� � ّي ن �لن �ي �ي��س � ن ن ي �ي أّ �ن �و� ا � ن�لع��م�ل ي ������ �م� ن� ي� ل��م ن��ه �ر�� ن� �و�م ن��ه ن���عي��د .ا �م�ا ا � �ل��ا �عم�ل ا � �ل�ر�� ن� �سر�ور�ي�ه ل��ي� �و ن�� ي ي ن ن ن � ي � �أ � نن �ي � ن �ن ن يّ ن ن � ي آ � � يم � �ن � ن��ق�م��ر�ل�ه ا �ل� ن��ي�ر ا �ل��د �ي� ي�لن���م�ل ا �ل�� ا �لن�نس�ا ء ل��ي� ا ��ا � ا �ل��د ا ر � او � �ل��ا �عم�ل ا �لن��عي��د ن��م��ر�ل�ه ا �ل��د �ي� � آ � �ي ا أ ّ ا � �ل��ن��د �� ا ��ل��د ا � ��اأ�س �ل��ا � �لي��ي� ّ�د � ن ن� �� ��ل� ا �� �لي� �ل��هي ن�س�م�ن� ن ��ل�هي ا ��لم�ل�� ن � ا � ا ا � � �م � ل � � . � � م � ل � ل � ن � � و و ر و ي� ي و� رن � ر ن� � ي ر ن � � ي � م � يع � �أ � أيّ ا ���� � � � � � ي � ن � ي ي أ ن ن ش ا ا ا � ن � ل � �� �ل ��ط � او � �لم�ل �سرا �ل��و�ل�� � .٢او �م� ا ح��� ن� �لملن�� ن� � او �ل ��و�ل�� ا � نل��م�عي��ده ن�م��ر�ل�ه ا ���ع�� � ��كم �ل ا � �ل�ر�� ن� � � � ي ي أ � ن ن ن � ي � �ن ن � � � �� �� ا ��ل��م�ع �� ن� ن �� هي � ن ح� ن � ���ط ا�ا�مي��ا �و� �ن�� ا ن� �� ا ��ل ح ّر � او �لن��ر� ��كم ل ن ي��د نم� رل� �ن �سم��ر�ل�ه ا �ل��س����� ل��ي� ا �ل��د ا ر � او � � ع ع أ ن� ا ش ���ه � �لم�ك. �و�م� ا ��� ن � �أ�ن ا � ا � ي ن �� ن ا ا �ن ا نّ� ا ن � اأ �ّ ا اأ�ن ح�� اأ�ن ا ا �� �ليع � ا �� �لن �ا �عم��هي ا ���ي حي�م�ل�ن� ي � � � � � � ا ا ا � � � � � � � � � � � � م� � � � � ل � � م ن � �� � ل � � � � ل � � ن وع و ي� ر أ ي� ن و� ن وع أ ّ ّ � � � � � ن � ّ ي ي ن ن � ي ن � ي ي ي ّ ل��� ا �ل�����س�ا � �و� �لم�ك ا � � � ����ل � او � ���ده �م ن� ا � �ل �عو�� ا �ل ش����ه� �و�ه � او � �ل �عو�� ا ���� ن� ��ن��ي��ه � او � �ل �عو�� ي أ أ ي �ّ � ن ا أ ّ ا � �نا � ي ي ن ا ّ ن � �� � ا �ع ن�ك � ن ا ا ��ل ش �ي � � ا ا �ل�� �� � ط��ه �� ��� ����م�ل �ل� �يل� �ل��� � ���� ن� � او ل�د �و �ي� ن��� ���و� ���د ر أا �ل� �ع � ��� � .او �م� ا �ل��� ن ّ أ أ � ً � � ن أي ي ن � �نن � �� �ن�ا ���ا ّا ��� ���د ه ا �ل ن� ا ّ ي ي يي � �ل���ا ا � ن�ل� � � او �ل��ر�و � ٣نو���� ن� ي ��� � .او �م� ا ��� �ع او � ��� ا � ��ي� � ��ر ��ر � او �ر� �وي�ه �و��د ���ر� ن ع ن�ك��� ن ا ا �يّ�ن ا �يك ّ هي � �� ن ا �ي �ّهي � �� ن ا ���������ع ّ هي �ن ا � ��ّي�ن ا �يك ّ هي � ن� ن �� هي �م ن ن� � �� ن � ا ي �ل��� ن ي ي�� � � .ل�ل�� ي�� ن�م� رل� � يحرن ر� ره ن � �هري� نو��� ��ض��� ل�� ي�� نو��� �ل��� � جأ ي � � ن � ن ن ي ي � ن ش ي ي ي ّ ���د � �لي��ه �ك�م�ل�ي��ا ه �ع�د �و ا� � �ل�� �ك � � ه � ن � ا � � � ه ل� ن ن �� ن�� �ل ��ا ن��ه �ك�����ر ا �و � �لع� � ي ي مي ���ده ي�ع�و� ع� أا �م� �م ��مل� �و�م� ي�ل � � ي أ ي��ع � ّ � � � ّ � ي ي � ن ل��ن ���أ � .ا � �لي ه � � ن ه � ن ش ه � � �ل � �ي � ن ش � ا ل� ن ي� ن ر و � �ه �ري� ن�م� ر�ل� م� ي������د �ي��د �ي� ا �لمل���و�� ي�ع�و ��وه ٤ع� ا �لن� ������ نل�ه�م� ا �و �م� �ا ن � ن ا �� �� ّ ي � ن ن � ي � ن ا ��ل � � � يّ � �يهي ن � ن ��يس�عي��ه ن�م��ر�ل�ه ا � �ل�� ن� � او �ل ك ��س���� �ي�لعي��ده ا �ل����م�ل���� � ي�سم����ه �م� ا �ل��م��هي� � او �ل�هر ن� �م��ه� .و ل�ن ج � �م�ا اأ �ش ������ه�م�ا. و ن ن ن أن ن نّ أ آ ���ا �ن نل ���� ا ن� ل��ن ا �� ن�لع��م� ������ه ا � �لي ��ه � �ه� ا �نّ�ا ّ��م�ا �ن نل����طق �ن�ا ل��ن ا �� ن�لع��م� ��ل�� �م ن �و��� ن � �د � � ر و � � ن ر � ي ل � ر و ن ي ر ر ي ل ي� أ ن � � ن � ّ ي ن ن� ن ن ن �ن �م ن � ش ا ن ن � ن � حي� ش� � ا �ي�ه �و� � ���ا �كي��ه أا �ل�� �ع�ي�ره �م�ش��ا �ل � �لم�ك ا �ن�ا ��د �لن� ���ر ل��ي� ����م�ل ر�ي��د ���� � حي�� أ � أ � ه ن ا � � � ن � هي ح� ش � ّ ح� ش� �ه� �����ا �ع�هي ���ن���� ه ا � �م��� ي ن ن ح�� ح��ه �ع�سر�و �و�ي � ير و ��ر��� �� �ل�د �و م� ن � ��س�ه �و�م� �ي � ي ن و ي �م� �ي أ أ أ أ أ ن ة ���ه�ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل :الا ّول ٣ .الا�ص�ل :وا �ل ن�� ن�ا ٤ .الا�ص�ل� :لة���عو���. 1الا�ص�ل وط :ن��د ك ع
68
68
٤،٩٠
٥،٩٠
On the nature of compulsion and choice
realized. The third is the purpose to which it is directed. The fourth is the form that exists in advance in the mind of the agent and that he seeks to produce in matter by acting; and sometimes the form may be the act itself. These four elements are necessary for an act to be realized and manifested. There may also be a need for an instrument, for time, and for a sound structure, but these are not necessary for every act. As your question concerns the type of human action that is connected to choice, we must also mention that. Furthermore, each of the above elements necessary for an act to be realized divides into two categories, proximate and remote. An example of a proximate agent is the wage laborer who wields the building tools when making a house. An example of a remote agent is the person who designs the house, who gives instructions to build it, and orders all of the required tools to be brought. An example of proximate matter is the bricks used for the walls and the wood used for the door. An example of remote matter is the primary elements. An example of proximate perfection is the inhabiting of a house. An example of remote perfection is the preservation of material goods and the deflection of the harmful effects of heat and cold and the like. As for the varieties of acts we mentioned, they differ according to the vari-
90.4
eties of active powers present in human beings. For the appetitive power, the irascible power, and the rational power each have a specific act that issues only from it. Some of the causes and motives consist in longing and desire, and others consist in thought and reflection; and these may form compounds. Some of the impediments we mentioned are a matter of chance, others are coercive, and still others are natural. An example of those due to chance is when a person goes out to visit a friend and comes across an adversary who had not been looking to find him, and who impedes him from completing his action, or when a person gets up to do something and stumbles or falls into a well. An example of the coercive is when thieves tie a person’s hands in order to prevent him from striking them, or when a person is shackled by the authorities to prevent him from running away and fleeing. Examples of natural impediments are semi-paralysis, apoplexy, and the like. There is a further way of considering acts that needs to be called to mind. For we may sometimes consider an act not as it is in itself, but under the aspect of its relation to another person. For example, we may consider Zayd’s action under the aspect of its constituting an act of obedience or disobedience toward another person, under the aspect of its being loved by ʿAmr and hated by
69
69
90.5
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّٰ ن ا ّ �� ن � ن ن � ن� � � ن ن ن �ن ���ا ن�كي��ه ��� ر �لن� � ��ر � �ون�ا ��� ���عن��د ا لله �و���د ا ا �لن� ���ر �لي����� �ي���و� ل��ي� � ا ي� ا � �لع��م�ل ن�لم�ل ل��ي� أا ن� �م�ا �ه�و� ع � ن أا �ل�� �ع�ي�ره. أ ن ه � اي ه ا � ي ن ن � � � � أ � ن ي ن ن � نا ن � ن �و�ه أا �ل�� ا �ل ش��س ار �ل ��ط �ه�وره �و�و ن � ح�� �� �و�� ن ح��ه ل��ي� �� � �أاو � ��د �ل ��� �ر� ل��ي� ا � �لع��م�ل � او � �� او �ع� �و ن � ّ ا �� ي ن ا ا ن ا نّا ن ا ن �� ن �ن � � ن�ي ا ا ن� ن ي � ن � � ن�ي ا ش ي ي ا ي � �� ��ي� �ع�د� �� ��� �أ� �� �� ��ر�و� ل�ي� ا �ل�ح�يس� ر �م� �ه�و .ك �� �عو�ل أا � ا �ل�ح�يس� ر ا ��� ���� ��ه نح�� ن ً � ا ��لم� ن� هي �م ن ا ��نل � � ا ن�كي� ا �� �م ن ه ا ن ا �يك ا ن ��اأ �نّ�ه ا ن�كي�� �م ن ا ��ن � ل � � حي��ا ر ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� �ش�سي��أ��ا �ن � � � �م�ل � ي ر ل�� � ��ي ر �و ه�و ��� ل �� � .أو � ي�م�ل أ ً � � � � �ي ي هي ن �ن ن���را ��ل�ه ��ا �ل ا �� �ن���م� �م�ا �ه� ن���ر ��ل�ه أا �ّم�ا �عم�ل ا ��ل ح�يعي ��ي��هي � او �ّم�ا ن� � ح �� ن ��� نّ��ه � او � ا� �ي � حعي ���� �� ��� ي ي و ي � ل ن ن � أ أ م �ي أ ن ن � � � ن نّ ن �ن ّي � ن ا ا ن ن � ه ه ه � � � � ا � � ا ا ا � � � � م ���د ر ع� � ��ا � �لع��م�ل ا �لأ����س�ا �ل�ي� ي�لي���م� �ل� �ن�ه �م� ���د ��و ن�� و ه�و م� � �ر �� أو ن�� ل� ر ي� أ ن � � أ نّ � � ن ا ن � � ن ّ � � ن �ي � �و�ل�� ي ن� حي�م�ل را �ي�ه ل��ي� ا �ل ش�����ء �كي��ه �لي ��ع� �م ن��ه �م�ا �ه�و ن��ي�ر �ل�ه� .و�م��مل�و�م ا � ا �لأ����س� � �ل� �ي�ل� � ��ر ي � ع � � ن � ش ا� ين نّ ا ن ّ أ �ن � ش ا� � �ن � �م�سن�� �ي�� ��ل ن��ا � ح� �و�ل� ل��� ا �ل���� ء ا�م�م�س� � � ا ل ا � � ه �� ل � � ح ا ء م � م�م� � � � � � ي � � �و � و ع �أاو �م� �ي�ل� �ر و ن ي �ل ر ي ي� ي� ي� ا ��� او ن� ن ي � � � ن ن ن� � ا � ن� � ن ه �م � ن �ن � م�م�� ا�ا � �ن� �ه�و ا �ل ش�����ء ا �ل��د �ي� �لي����� ن��م�مي�س� � او � ا �ر�� � �و�ه � ي���ر�� ع�� ��ا �ل. � ن و ي ع أ م ا� ّا��ا ن ي ن ��ل ي ن � ن � ا�ا� ي �ّي ي ا � � ن ي ا � ا � ي يُ ن ّ ا ن� ح��ه �م� ا � �لع��م�ل �ه� م���م �ل��ه �ن� �ل�� ح�يس� ر �و �ه� � ��� � �و�م� ك�� ��� ���د ه ا ن� � ح��� �ن� � �لع��م�ل ي ي �ي � أ � ي يّ �ن � ي � � ن نّ ���ا ن�� ي ��م ي�ا ��هي ل�ن ي�� �ا � � � � ن ا �لأ����س�ا �ل�ي� �وك� � ح� ن �ي� م م و ن � �و� ا � �لع��م�ل أا �ل�� �لم�ل�ك ا �ل ش��س ار �ل ��ط ا � ��ي� ��د �م ن��ا ���ا ك���ا � � ن ا ن �� ن� ا أ � ن �ن ن �� � �ي �ن ي � � �� � هي �� ن�� ��م� ن� � �� � �ا ي ا ���أ ن� ا ���ي ل ل � � ل ا ا ل م � ل ل م � � � ل ل � � ط1 � � � ح � ح � � ك � ل � � � و و وع ي� ن� ا �ل�� ��ر كي� ��� ا ع��ي� ل�ي� ���د ه ا ن � ي ر � ر ي� ّ ّ � � � ا ي ن� � ي ي ن ن ن � أ ا � ي �ي �ي ا � ا ن � ا � ن� � �� ن� � ح��ه �م� ن� � ح�� � ا � �لع��م�ل �لي������ م���م �ل��ه �ن� �لأ����س� � �و�ل� �من��د �و��� أا �لي��ه �ورن�م� ل��ر نح�� ن أ ّ � ي � � �� � � هي �ن � � ا ي � � ن ن� � ن � ل� �و ن�م�ل ا �لن ن� ���� ل��ن� ا ن��ل � � ن ا � نّ � ح� ح�� �� �لملك ا نل � ر ح�� � ا �ل��ر كي����و� �م�ه �عم�ل�� ا � �لع��م�ل ا �لأ����س� ل�ي� نح�� ن ي �� ي � � ا��من ي ّ ي � ّ � � � ن ن � � ي ن � ن ن ي ن ��و�ل�� � �و ن� ��لم�ك ن��م��ر�ل�ه �م ن� ي�لن� ���ر ل��� ا � �لع��م�ل �م ن� ن� �و�ه ح�� ���ه �ن�ه ا � ��ي� �ل� �ن��د �ل�ه ل��ي� �و ن�� ح���ه ا �ل� ي � ي ن ا �مي ن ّ ن �� ا ي � �أ ن � ي � أ ن ً ّ ي �ن � ��ا ���ا ن � ن � ي ا ا � �م � � � �م�ل� �ع ا نل ا ��� �ع�د �لم � �و�ه ك�� � ��� � ح�� � ا �ل��ر ��ي� �هي� ا �يل� ل�� �� ن� �سر�ور�ي�ه ل�ي� �و ن � �� ��� �وي � � ّ ن � أ ن ّ ن � ن � �ا ن � ن � نّ أ نّ � ن ���ا ��ي� �م ن ���د ه ا ن�ل � ح��هي ا �عن��� �ي����د ر ا �� � ن�أ�ا �ن�ه أا � ا �ن نل ���ر ل��� �ن���م�ل ا �� � � ��� �ع�د �عملي��ه ���� ا ��ه �عم ن�ر � ن ي ي ن �ي ن � ن � �أ � ا ن �ا ي ن ن ح��هي ا�� ي�لي���م�ّلي ش � ي� ن ن ���د ه ا ن��ل � � � ه � م ��� �ن�ه �م ه ح � ���د � � � � ل �ع� ا � ل�� ن � م �� ن � ي � ح��ه م�م ��وع �ع� ا � �لع��م�ل �ل� ن�م � و � � � أ ي ً ي �من � � � � � ي ن �ا ي ��ن � ي ��ا ��هي ا �ل�م� ���ا ��ي ن� �و� �ه�و ك� حم���ه ا �و � او � حي��ا ر �لم� ل�� ���د ا �م ن� �لم�ل�ك ي ل�� �ن�ه �و���د �لم�ك أا � �ع�د �م ا � �ل�ل��م � او ن�ل ر ن ّ � �أش ا ا� ش � ي �ن ن � ن ا ن �� ا �� �� �ن� ا �ن ا �لنّ � ح�ن��أ� ن�د �ل��ا � � � ل � � � � � ا ا � � ل � � ���د � � � م ل ح� � � � � ع � �� � م س � � � � � � � ل ن ا �ل����يس� ء ا�م��سر�و ����ه ل�ي� و و ل ل أ ي� ي ي ن ر ر ن م �� � � �ن ا ن ا � ��� � �� ن م�� �م ن� ا �ل�� ن� حي�يس�ا ر. ا �لأ����س� � �ن� ن�لن ر يو ع أ 1الا�ص�ل :ا �ل ن�ع��ل��ط.
70
70
٦،٩٠
٧،٩٠
On the nature of compulsion and choice
Khālid, and from the perspective of its being harmful for Bakr and beneficial for ʿAbd Allāh. This way of considering things does not pertain to the act itself, but rather to its relation to another person. Having considered acts, their different varieties and aspects, and the condi-
90.6
tions required for them to be manifested and realized, we may now consider the nature of choice. So we say as follows. The term “choice” linguistically and morphologically derives from the term “good.” When one says that a person chooses something, it is as though he does himself some good, that is, he does what is good for him, whether in fact or according to his opinion, even if it is not in fact good for him. So human action connects to it from this facet, and is what issues from a person as a result of thought and deliberation, in order that he should do what is good for him. We know that people do not think or deliberate about things that are necessary or impossible; they only think and deliberate about things that are possible. When we refer to what is “possible,” we mean that which is not impossible, and the postulation of whose existence entails no absurdity. This is the aspect of acts that is connected to choice and to which human action especially pertains, and it requires the conditions we have enumerated in order for an act to be fully realized. However, a person who considers this aspect is liable to lose his way and get tangled up in those other aspects that are not connected to human beings and do not have their origin in them. He might consider things based on one particular aspect of acts and fail to consider the other aspects, so that his judgment on human action would be based on that one aspect alone. That would be akin to a person’s considering an act from the aspect of the matter that specifically pertains to it and is necessary for its realization, while abandoning the other aspects also necessary for its realization. One might illustrate this with the example of paper used by a writer. Should one consider the writer’s action from this aspect—in circumstances when he is unable to get hold of paper, that is—one might suppose that he is incapable of writing from this aspect and that he is barred from acting on its account. Yet this aspect does not connect to him insofar as he is a writer and chooses to write. The same applies if he lacks a reed pen and a sound limb or any of those elements that are conditions for any human act to be realized. Someone who considers matters this way will then rush to the conclusion that the person is under compulsion and will deny his having a choice.
71
71
90.7
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ ن ن � ن ن ح� ش� �ه� ��من ��ن � � ي� ن ا � ن ن ن � �ن �ن � ن حي��ا ر ن�أ�ا �ن�ه أا � ا � نل ���ر ل��ي� ���د ه و �و���د �لمك ����و� �� �ل �م� ي�ل� ���ر ل�ي� ���مل�ه �م� �ي أ �� ي ي ن ّ ن �� ا ي � �أ ن � ي � أ ن ً ّي ن ا � �ه �ن�ا �نّ�ه ا �ل ن� ًا ا نل ح��ه �و�م�ل �ع ا نل ���ا ن� ح�� � ا �ل��را � ��ي� �هي� ا �يل� ��� ��سي��ن�� � ر �� �� �سر�ور�ي�ه ل��ي� �و ن��و أ ي �� � ّ أ ّ ّ ي ّ � �� �ن ُ� ن ن �� �ش� �ن ا � � أا ��ل�� ا ��ل م�� �م ن ا ن��ل � �ن��ر �و � � ل�� � �عم�لي��ه �ن�ا �ن�ه �ن�ا �عم�ل��س � ح� ��ل ��ط � �ع� ن�� ي �م��� �يو�ع � �����د ا �� �ل ��ل ��ي� ء �سر� ّن ن نّ � نم� ن ن � � ّ أ � ن �� ا نا � � � ا ��� أا ن� ا �ن نل ���� ن�ك��ه ن� � � ح �� �� ن� نرء �م ن� ا ن� ن ار �أ�ه ا �ل��د �ي� ي�ر�� ن� �م ن��ه �وي�رك ري ن �أ� � ا �ل�� ��ر ل�ي� � �لمك ا��سر ن أ � � � � يي �ش� هي �م ن اأ� نا �أ�ه ا ��ل �ا �يك��هي ا ���ي ي� ا ��لن ن� ��� ن�ك ا � ن ا ن� نار ء ه ا �لن��ا �كي��ه �ي���ر ن��� �ل�ه ا �ل ش��س� ���وك ا � ك �����ي ر � ن ر ن� ي �ي� رك �ر ي� ��� � او � �لع��م�ل ّ أ ن � ن� ا � � ن ا �لنّ ن ��ا ن ا ��س ه � ا � � ًا �ن � �ه �م��م�ّ�لي ��ا �ش��س�ا ���ش��رهي ��ل�� � ي��ّ أا ��ل�� �ل���ا ل��م��ي ��ل � � ك ء � � � او � ك�� � �م� و ��د � ح ��ط � � ي ي و و � ن ي ن � ن �لأ� ��س� �ي أ �م ً ً � � � � ي � ن ي � ي ن ���د ا �من���ا � ي� ك �م� ��� ن ا �ل ن��ا ���ر �كي��ه �ش�سي��أ��ا � او � �� ي� �ل�ه ا �ل ش��س���وك �م ن� �لم�ل�ك ح ����ه ا �لن��ا �كي��ا ي� �عر ن� � ور ل ا � �أ�ش ا ء ا ���ي اأ ن� �ن ل��ا. ع�م� � �ل� ��يس� �ي� ن ا� ن ا �� ن� � �� � ن �ن نل ��� ل�ن ا � � ا � � � ن ا ن ن م�د ��� ا ��ل�م � � م ح ل � � ا م م د د �� � � � ل م�د ع �� �� �� � �� ه � � م � � � � � �� � � � ن � ر ي� و و �ل أ � � ي و ن � او� ن ن ّ ّج � � ن ا نّ ن ي ا ً ّ � � �ن ا ن ��ل � ح�� �� ح�س� را ك� ���ل ن� ��مي�� �و� ح��هي �ن �لي���م ���ط �م ن� ا � ن�لع��م�ل �و ا� ي ن� ��م�ل�ه � ���م�ل ا � �لع��م�ل ا �لأ����س� ل�ي� ا � ي � م � �ع ً ���ّ � ن ��د ا �يك�م � � ن ا ّٰلله ��� ن ا ���ن� �لّ � ا ��لي��ي�� � � .ن�ا نّ �م ن ن �ع� اأ نّ ا ��لعن � �و�ل� ن�ن�� ه � � � ا � م ك � 1 ل ل ن ي� �م �و و ��ي ر أ � � ر م � �مل� � و ر � ي ي ل � ّ أ ً ي � � ن نّ � ن ن �ا � ن ��ي ّ ي � ن ا � هي ا � � ن�ي ا ن ن �ن ا �م�� م� ا �ل �عوه ا � �ل�� �عمل� �ن� �ل� ح��ه ��س ل ن�� ا �لأ����س�ا �ل�ي� �ي��ل��� ل��ي� �و ن�� ح�يس� ر � � �و�ه ا � �ي���و� ��� � ن �ه�و يش أ � �أ ا � � � ن ّ ي � �أ �ي ّ ي � أ ي � ي ّ ع�د � �يل��ا ا ش � ه ا ن�عم� ��ل �م ن� � � � ه ه � ا ا � � � � ا � ا ا ا �ل � ء � � � م � � � � م ل ل ع ه � � � � � � � � � � �� ��س س �� � � � � ل ل ل � � � � حي�� ا �ل ي � ي و ي و ن ن � ري و و �� ي� � ي ن أ نّ ن � ن ل�ن � أ ن ��ن � ن ّ � �ن �و�ه ا � ي� �ري ن�لع� �كن�م�ل �و���د ا �ي ��أو� �ي�ه أا �ل�� ا �لي�� �ع �ويلن���� .و���د �لم�ك ��ا �ل �م ن� ر�ع� ا � ����م�ل�ه �ي�ل���� �ي� �و ن � م ي �ع ي ح� �� ه ا � �أش ا ء ا �� � � ن�ل ّ هي �ن � �ي ّ �م ن � ش اأ �ه ا � �ي ّ ي ن � أ �سر � حي�� �مم�ل ل �عوه �ه�و م�� ���د ه ا ���ع� او � ��ي� �ع ن��ه �و� �م�ل ل� �ل����يس� ل� ي � ��و�ل� ي�� � ن ��ا ن ن ن �ّ ن ن ا �� �لن��ا �عم�ل�هي ��ا ��ل�� ن�ي ا ���د ا �عم�ل �م�ا �� ّ�� نّ��ا ه �و ��نل ���د ا �ي ��أو�ّ �ي�ه أا ��ل�� ا ن��ل ��س�ا ه ���ي��د ح� �ن��ر� .أاو � ا ك�� � ح�يس� ر �و ن �� ن ي أ � � � ن � � ن� ن ّ � حن ي ي ا ا ن � ي � � ل �وا ن� �م��س� �ل�مك �ع ا نل �ن��ر � او �ل���يس� ر. �� �و�كي��ه ن�� �هر ا�ام�د �� ن� ا �� �� � � ن �أ ن � �ُ����� �لًا ن�م�ً أ نّ � ن ن ن ن ن ��ا ا � ا �لأ�����س�ا � أا � ا ا �مي�س� �عم�لي��ه ����م�ل�ه �لن ��ي����ا � ن���� ن��� ���د ه ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء �وي ل�م �عم �م� � او ع أ أ أ ّ ّي ن ن � ن ّ هي ن� ه �ي ّ ي ي ن ا ي ّ ي ن ن ن � �ي ا � ��ي� ��هي� ن� هور ����م�ل�ه ا �و �عر� �� �� هو �م���� ��و ن� أا �ل�� ��يس� كي�� ا �و � �ه �ري�ه ا �و ا � �ل�� �كي��ه � � �سر�ور�ي�ه ل��ي� �� � ��ا ن � ين � ن ا �� ن� �� ن �ي ا ن ا �� ��ل أ أ � � �أ � هي � ي � ن � أّ ن �يلم�ل�ك ا ن��ل ��و�� ا �و ا � ��د ا �ل� نر���� ح���ه �مش��ا �ل � �لم�ك ا �ن�ه أا � ك�� � ا م�س� م� لع��م�ل ل����� � ل� ي � ن ّهي �ن � ن ن ينع � ا �أ ي �ي � ّ أ يّ ن ا �ي ّ �ن ي ا ��ل��أ�ش��س�ا ء ا ��لن � � ل � � � � ا ا ا ا � م � � � � � س � � ه � � � � م �س � ل � ع � � ه � � �ه�و �م���د �ور �م ن� �لم�ل�ك � � � � ن روري � و ر أو � � ر ي و ي� � ي ا ن اأ ّ ا عن � ن ي �ي ّ ي � ن ا � ي ا � �� � ي ي � ن ن ي ي ا ي ا � �س �ر�ه ا � �ل �عوه ا � �ل�� �عمل�ه �ن� �ل�� ������� �و�عم�ل�� �م���د ا ر���� �� .م� �م� ح� ح�يس� ر � او �ر �لع��� ا نل � ح��ه �ونح ن أ 1الا�ص�ل وط :ة���ن�هو�ة ن���ص�ا.
72
72
٨،٩٠
٩،٩٠
١٠،٩٠
On the nature of compulsion and choice
The same thing will happen if someone considers his action insofar as he
90.8
is endowed with choice. For if one considers this aspect and relinquishes the other aspects also necessary for his act to be realized, one will also rush to the conclusion that he is a capable agent and deny his being under compulsion. This is how it is with all things that are compounds formed out of simpler elements. For if a person considers that compound on the basis of only one of the parts that compose it and leaves out the other parts, he is assailed by numerous doubts concerning the parts he left out. Even though human action is designated by a single term, its realization is contingent on many things indispensable for its completion. So, when the person considering it only has regard for one of these elements and omits the others, he is assailed by doubts concerning the elements he has neglected. The right approach is that taken by those who give separate consideration
90.9
to each of these elements and refer action to all of them, who assign every aspect a share in the act, and who do not consider human acts to be entirely a matter of choice or entirely a matter of compulsion. That is why it has been said: God’s religion lies between excess and deficiency. For those who assert that all that is required for human action to be realized is that the agent possess the power to act through choice go too far and neglect the material elements, coercive causes, and impediments we enumerated earlier. This leads them to affirm the position of delegation. Likewise, those who assert that, for their acts to be realized, it suffices that these impediments be removed and that the material elements be vouchsafed them fall short to the extent that they neglect the power to act through choice. This leads them to affirm the position of compulsion. If our explanation and concise account of the matter stands, the correct view has emerged, and it provides a response to your question about compulsion and choice. It is plain knowledge that if a person is unable to act because of the absence of some of the elements necessary for his act to be manifested, accidental to it, coercive, or a matter of chance, this is referred to the relevant aspect. For example, if he fails to act because the matter or one of the other necessary four elements is lacking, he is judged to be powerless. If he fails to act because of a coercive or chance impediment, he is exempt from blame from that aspect and in accordance and proportion to it. By contrast, when a person possesses the power to act through choice; when those hindrances have been lifted from him and all relevant impediments removed from him; when, additionally,
73
73
90.10
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ � ي ��م�ّ �ا ش��ّ ���ا ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا �� ن�لع��م �م ّ�م�ا �لن ن� ���� ن�ك��ه �عم� ���� ��ي ح ي� �عم�ل�ل�ه ن� م او �ن�� �ع ن��ه � او نر� ���ا ك� � ك � ك ل �لم�ل�ك ا�ا � � � ي ل � ي� ي � ل ر ر � ي� ي م أ أ ن ي ا� ي ع ن � ن � ا ي ا� ي أ �� ح� �م�ع� ن�لي��ه ا � ن�ع�� ن� ��لم�ك �م ن ح� �����ا �عي��ه ا �و �م�ع� ��ه �م ن ���ا �ن�هي ا � �ي��� � ���� �ع�ه �م ن � � ا �لأ� ن� ن ن ر و و ي و � و � ن � ن ن � �أنّ ي ا ي ّ � � � � ن ا �ن ا ي � � ش ن �ن ه � ��س �م�� حن��هي ��ّ ا �مي�س� �م ن� ا � ن�لع��م�ل �ن� � ن � � ��� � � ا ��� ا �وه ا �لأ�� �و ن � �ه�و �ممل�و�مأ �ع�ي ر م���د �ور �ل��� � � ر �� �و ن م ع أ ي � � ن �ل� ن � �ن � هي ي ي ّ � ن ن ن نن ي � ��ل�� ن�م� � �لم�ك �لم��ل ي ن ح�� ح���ه ا �ل��د ا �م�ه �م� � �ل���س�ه � او ���ع� �ع �ون�ه �م� �ع�ي�ره ا �و ا ���ي�� ن� � او �ل�د �م� .و���د ه ا ن � و ل أ ا � ي ي�ن ي ّ � � ن ا ن � ن � ا ي �� ن ا�ا� ي ّ ي � � � ا ��ا ��ل�هي ا �� ا �� ا��م��س�مّ ��ا ��ل�� ن�ي ا م���م� �لي��ه �ن�ا � ن�ل� � ح�يس� ر ��ر أو ن ري � ��ي� ح���� ا �لأ����س� � م� نح��� � ا �لع��م�ل �� ن � ش� ي � ي ن�� ي�م�� ي � � � ن �� � ي � ��ا ن �� � � ي ن ي �و�ه �و� ا ���ع��م�ل ��ا �أ��ده ن�لم�ل �يل���ي�ر �و ن�� ح��ه �ام�ا ك�� � ��ون � �هي� ��سره ا ���ع��م�ل �و ي ن ح��ه �و���و�ل� ���د ه ا نل � أ أ أ ٰ ّ � شًا �� ن� ً ن� ي يّ نّ � ي �و� ا ي� � او ش��سر�ن� �م�ا �م نّ� ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� �ن�ه �و�و�عن��ه ح ن� �ن���ي ��ع� ن� ا � ا ���ع��م�ل ا ن�م�ل ا�ام�ون�� ع�س� �و� �ع او� .و �ن أ أ أ ّ ّ ً � � ن ش � � ن ّ ن ن ي � ن ي � ي � ي ���ا ا � ا ن� �ل� أل�� ���س�ا � � �نو���ي ��ع� ن� ا �يل ن� �و� ا ي� �م�ا �ل� ���سره �ل�ه �و�ل� ��ا �أ��ده ل��ي� �و ن�� ح��� ا�ام�ون�� �و�ه �و�ه�و ن ن ��ل� أ ن� ّ � � ن� ن � ي ا �� � ن �� ش ن ا ن ن أ ّ ا� مو� ه لم � ا � �و� ا ي� �عم�ل� ���د ا ا � ل�� �و� ا ي� ���د ا ح� �ه�و ا مون�� ح��� ا�ا � � � ن�م� ر�ل� 1ل �عو �و أ� ن��� �أ� � � ا ن�م�ل ا� ن � م � ن ي ني ن� � �ن � � � � ن � ن ن ي ���د ا ا ��ل � ل�� مل� �ل� ي � ���ه �ه�و ا �ل���ا � ��. ح� � �نل���ا � �� �كن ��عي� ن� �م��ن� ا � �ي���و� �م�لي���� � م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن ن � �� � يّ � �و�م��د ����ره أا ل�� ن���ره ح�� � ن ا ن هي ا �ل � ن �ّ � ي �و� �ل ا ��ن�� �ر�ه �و�م��� �� �� ��و�ل ن
� �� � ن ن � � ن � ن � ا� � ّ � ��ل�ه�و�لي��ه ط� �عو�لي��ه أا ��ل�� � ح ن� ن���� ن��� ا �ل�ن��ا ��� أا ل�� ا �ل��م��ر�م� �ل�د � �� � م ً � � نّ � يّ ن �� ن ش ��ا ن���ي��� ن شا ���يّ ا ��نل ي� ���ا � ا نر �عم�ل�� �و�ع�� ء ا �ل��م��ر أا ��ه ي�� �ع� ا � �� او �ل�دي�� �وي� �� نّ � حه� ��ل � �ه� ي����سم� �ي�� ��ل ا ��ل ش م�د ��ل�هي ا� نم ��س�ا �ع [ نم � �و� ح نر وء ا �ل ك� � ��ا � �ل] و � و ع و و ر نِّ ٱ �ْ نِ ِ ِ ْ شُ ِ ا ِ ِّ � يْ ِ ِ ��ا أ ُ ُ نِ � ُ � أِا � ا �����قر�� ن� نِ� � ه � ل �� � م � � � ف ك � �صي�� �م� �ت ���� ر ِ ِ ن� ِ ي �ل ٱْ ِ ي أ ِ ِ ٌ ً ِ ي ِ � َ ا نُ ُ ِ ��� ُ ِ ِ ُ �� نِ �ي � ا� � ه � � ا ا � � ق � �� ف � تِ� ����ي ره وِل���س� �ف� ن�ف�د كِملي�فمل� ر � �وي���د � ِ ي ن ِ ِ ِٱ � نَّ ا ُ ِنْ ُ ُ ِ ْ نُ ُ ْ ِ ْ ن ً ا ِ نِا ُ ُ ي � ُ ���� � �و� ِ� � او �ل��� ��� ي�ل�� �ل�ه� ن����� �سر ن����� ���قره ��ِملي�فم�ل م أ � آ ن ن ش اأ �ن ح��� ن حن��� ن ا �ّم�ه � �عم�ل �عم� �ي��ي ن ������أ ه � ��ل�� ��ن� ن ��ه � ن � ي� أا ��ل�� ن�لم�ل��د �و�ل�� ي��ن��م�لن��ه � ل ر ر و و � يع ن � �� � � او �ر ي�أ����س� �ي أ أ ّ هي � ح � ه ا � ا ي � �� ه �����م� � �ي�ي �� � ا ن �� � ح ���د ك� ���ا �نّ�ه ن�� �ش���و�ي� أا �ل�� ا � ��� ا ����� او ��� ن� �و� ر ن�� حر ن� ن�مل� �وح��� ه ن��د �ول� ؟ لك لع�ول ��و � ع أ 1الا�ص�ل :و ن�ود � ن�م ن�� ن� �ل��ة.
74
74
١،٩١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ � ي ��م�ّ �ا ش��ّ ���ا ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا �� ن�لع��م �م ّ�م�ا �لن ن� ���� ن�ك��ه �عم� ���� ��ي ح ي� �عم�ل�ل�ه ن� م او �ن�� �ع ن��ه � او نر� ���ا ك� � ك � ك ل �لم�ل�ك ا�ا � � � ي ل � ي� ي � ل ر ر � ي� ي م أ أ ن ي ا� ي ع ن � ن � ا ي ا� ي أ �� ح� �م�ع� ن�لي��ه ا � ن�ع�� ن� ��لم�ك �م ن ح� �����ا �عي��ه ا �و �م�ع� ��ه �م ن ���ا �ن�هي ا � �ي��� � ���� �ع�ه �م ن � � ا �لأ� ن� ن ن ر و و ي و � و � ن � ن ن � �أنّ ي ا ي ّ � � � � ن ا �ن ا ي � � ش ن �ن ه � ��س �م�� حن��هي ��ّ ا �مي�س� �م ن� ا � ن�لع��م�ل �ن� � ن � � ��� � � ا ��� ا �وه ا �لأ�� �و ن � �ه�و �ممل�و�مأ �ع�ي ر م���د �ور �ل��� � � ر �� �و ن م ع أ ي � � ن �ل� ن � �ن � هي ي ي ّ � ن ن ن نن ي � ��ل�� ن�م� � �لم�ك �لم��ل ي ن ح�� ح���ه ا �ل��د ا �م�ه �م� � �ل���س�ه � او ���ع� �ع �ون�ه �م� �ع�ي�ره ا �و ا ���ي�� ن� � او �ل�د �م� .و���د ه ا ن � و ل أ ا � ي ي�ن ي ّ � � ن ا ن � ن � ا ي �� ن ا�ا� ي ّ ي � � � ا ��ا ��ل�هي ا �� ا �� ا��م��س�مّ ��ا ��ل�� ن�ي ا م���م� �لي��ه �ن�ا � ن�ل� � ح�يس� ر ��ر أو ن ري � ��ي� ح���� ا �لأ����س� � م� نح��� � ا �لع��م�ل �� ن � ش� ي � ي ن�� ي�م�� ي � � � ن �� � ي � ��ا ن �� � � ي ن ي �و�ه �و� ا ���ع��م�ل ��ا �أ��ده ن�لم�ل �يل���ي�ر �و ن�� ح��ه �ام�ا ك�� � ��ون � �هي� ��سره ا ���ع��م�ل �و ي ن ح��ه �و���و�ل� ���د ه ا نل � أ أ أ ٰ ّ � شًا �� ن� ً ن� ي يّ نّ � ي �و� ا ي� � او ش��سر�ن� �م�ا �م نّ� ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� �ن�ه �و�و�عن��ه ح ن� �ن���ي ��ع� ن� ا � ا ���ع��م�ل ا ن�م�ل ا�ام�ون�� ع�س� �و� �ع او� .و �ن أ أ أ ّ ّ ً � � ن ش � � ن ّ ن ن ي � ن ي � ي � ي ���ا ا � ا ن� �ل� أل�� ���س�ا � � �نو���ي ��ع� ن� ا �يل ن� �و� ا ي� �م�ا �ل� ���سره �ل�ه �و�ل� ��ا �أ��ده ل��ي� �و ن�� ح��� ا�ام�ون�� �و�ه �و�ه�و ن ن ��ل� أ ن� ّ � � ن� ن � ي ا �� � ن �� ش ن ا ن ن أ ّ ا� مو� ه لم � ا � �و� ا ي� �عم�ل� ���د ا ا � ل�� �و� ا ي� ���د ا ح� �ه�و ا مون�� ح��� ا�ا � � � ن�م� ر�ل� 1ل �عو �و أ� ن��� �أ� � � ا ن�م�ل ا� ن � م � ن ي ني ن� � �ن � � � � ن � ن ن ي ���د ا ا ��ل � ل�� مل� �ل� ي � ���ه �ه�و ا �ل���ا � ��. ح� � �نل���ا � �� �كن ��عي� ن� �م��ن� ا � �ي���و� �م�لي���� � م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن ن � �� � يّ � �و�م��د ����ره أا ل�� ن���ره ح�� � ن ا ن هي ا �ل � ن �ّ � ي �و� �ل ا ��ن�� �ر�ه �و�م��� �� �� ��و�ل ن
� �� � ن ن � � ن � ن � ا� � ّ � ��ل�ه�و�لي��ه ط� �عو�لي��ه أا ��ل�� � ح ن� ن���� ن��� ا �ل�ن��ا ��� أا ل�� ا �ل��م��ر�م� �ل�د � �� � م ً � � نّ � يّ ن �� ن ش ��ا ن���ي��� ن شا ���يّ ا ��نل ي� ���ا � ا نر �عم�ل�� �و�ع�� ء ا �ل��م��ر أا ��ه ي�� �ع� ا � �� او �ل�دي�� �وي� �� نّ � حه� ��ل � �ه� ي����سم� �ي�� ��ل ا ��ل ش م�د ��ل�هي ا� نم ��س�ا �ع [ نم � �و� ح نر وء ا �ل ك� � ��ا � �ل] و � و ع و و ر نِّ ٱ �ْ نِ ِ ِ ْ شُ ِ ا ِ ِّ � يْ ِ ِ ��ا أ ُ ُ نِ � ُ � أِا � ا �����قر�� ن� نِ� � ه � ل �� � م � � � ف ك � �صي�� �م� �ت ���� ر ِ ِ ن� ِ ي �ل ٱْ ِ ي أ ِ ِ ٌ ً ِ ي ِ � َ ا نُ ُ ِ ��� ُ ِ ِ ُ �� نِ �ي � ا� � ه � � ا ا � � ق � �� ف � تِ� ����ي ره وِل���س� �ف� ن�ف�د كِملي�فمل� ر � �وي���د � ِ ي ن ِ ِ ِٱ � نَّ ا ُ ِنْ ُ ُ ِ ْ نُ ُ ْ ِ ْ ن ً ا ِ نِا ُ ُ ي � ُ ���� � �و� ِ� � او �ل��� ��� ي�ل�� �ل�ه� ن����� �سر ن����� ���قره ��ِملي�فم�ل م أ � آ ن ن ش اأ �ن ح��� ن حن��� ن ا �ّم�ه � �عم�ل �عم� �ي��ي ن ������أ ه � ��ل�� ��ن� ن ��ه � ن � ي� أا ��ل�� ن�لم�ل��د �و�ل�� ي��ن��م�لن��ه � ل ر ر و و � يع ن � �� � � او �ر ي�أ����س� �ي أ أ ّ هي � ح � ه ا � ا ي � �� ه �����م� � �ي�ي �� � ا ن �� � ح ���د ك� ���ا �نّ�ه ن�� �ش���و�ي� أا �ل�� ا � ��� ا ����� او ��� ن� �و� ر ن�� حر ن� ن�مل� �وح��� ه ن��د �ول� ؟ لك لع�ول ��و � ع أ 1الا�ص�ل :و ن�ود � ن�م ن�� ن� �ل��ة.
74
74
١،٩١
On the reason for the wanderlust experienced by certain people
the action at stake is of a kind that, considered from a relational perspective, represents an act of obedience to a person one is obligated to obey, an act of assistance to a person one is obligated to assist, or some other type of obligatory relational act; then if this person fails to act, he is subject to reproach and not given exemption, for he has the capacity and ability to act. That is why he experiences regret and receives punishment or is rebuked and blamed by others. This aspect, which, among the various aspects of action, pertains to human beings in particular and is connected to the kind of thinking and deliberation that is termed “choice,” constitutes the benefit and product of reason. But for this, there would be no profit in the existence of reason, and its existence would be pointless and senseless. We know for certain that reason is the most exalted entity and the noblest thing that God bestowed on human beings. We also know for certain that the lowliest entities are those whose existence brings no benefit and no profit and that have the status of pointless and senseless things. So, if we followed this proposition, the most glorious entity would be the lowliest. Yet that is an impossible contradiction. Thus, this proposition cannot be true, and its contrary is true.
On the reason for the wanderlust experienced by certain people Why do some people experience a hankering after travel from when they are children till they are fully grown men, from youth to old age, so much so that they disobey their parents and roam from one end of the world to the other, enduring the hardships of travel, the mortifications of living away from home, and the humiliations of being a nobody? After all, they know the words of the poet: The stranger is ill-regarded wherever his mounts set down. The stranger’s reach is short, his tongue ever dull. People give aid to each other, but he has few to aid him. Others grow up in their mothers’ arms and on their wet nurses’ shoulders, undisturbed by hankerings for other lands and unoppressed by a longing for
75
75
91.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ا �� �ن � � �يي ن ي � ه ن � �أ� � �ي ا �� � � ش � �س �ير�ه ��� �ل� ���د ه ا �ل� � ا � � � � م ع � � ل��ط�ا ��� �و��س ���ل ل�ملك ا ك�� � ل � �و ل و أ � ع أ آ ن � ن � �ي ن ه ا ��لن�� ي ن ا ن � � ��س�ا ن� ي����و� ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه �عم�لي�م�ك ل��ي� ا �ش�ا ر ���د ن � �و�م �و�آ��ور�ي������ ���د ه ا �ل�� ن � أ ��ّ ن �� � ن � ا ����ي ن ��� اأ �ش�س ّ�د � ي � ا � �عن ل � � ���ا ا ��� �د � او ن� � ا � � � م ل ���د. � � و ���� ��را ل ��م�ي ر � نو ن
ن � �أ �ن� ن ن ح���أ��د ���د ه ا �ل�� ��ور ي ن ا� � �عم�ل�� �م� �هي� �عملي��ه �م�
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� � أ ٰ ّ ا ن ي ا �� ّ ني ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� �ي��ّ هي ا ��ل�ن� نرا أا ��ل�� ا�م ��� ��ه ر� � �� � �ل���س� � ا ل � ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح����و��س�ا ي� ي�ل ����� �� � و �وا ��� و ن � ي م ي � ع �� أ نّ � ي ن ا�ا� ن � �ي�ي � ن� ه ا ّ �ن � ��� ن ه �ي�ي � ن�ك ه ا م ّ هي ا ��ل��س � �ن � � � ه ا ل � ا ك � � � � � � ل ل � �� � ع ع � � � � �� � � � � �س � �س �س �س � � م د لمك ن � ر نو � �و� ي �و �كم ا � ن����� رنج �و� ي ع أ ّ � ��ل ا � �ن �ي ّ ي � ن� ن � ّ هي ا � ي �ن �ي � � ��ل ا ّ هي � � نّ ا � ا ي يش ي ا �ي �� ي�� � � ا ّ هي �كم�ل ا �ل� ��س� ا �� �ل ل�ي� ا � �ل �عوه ا �ل� را عي�� � ��ي� ل�ي� لملك ا �� ��س� �ل��ل��� �هي� � ��ي� ����س� � أا ل�� � ن �� � أ نّ �� ّ �ي � ا ا �� ن� � �� اأ ن ���ا ن�� ي ��ا �� �ليعّ هي� � .م�س ن ��م�ّل��ا � ل � � � � � ا ا �� � � ه ا ا ا �� � ���د ��س�ي ر��� �ن� لع�م�ل ن���د ك � � ك � � � � ل � � � و � � ي� �ول� ي ن و و � م أ أ ّ ي ّ ا ن� � ن ن ��ا ن ن � �� اي ا نا � ا �� ��ا � �لي �عّ هي أا �ل�� ا � �ي��د رك ��م ���ا ���ا ر ي� �� �وا ��� �ن� � �لع��م�ل �أاو � ا ك�� � ح����و��س� �ل��� �أ� � ا ا � رك� � ��و � ن و أ أ ّ � ً � ن � ان � ا �� �ي �ّ ا � �لن��� �ن ���و ن� ���د ا ا�ام�سن�� ل��ن� ���� ن�� ا �ل ا ��ل���س �عم�ل �م�ا �و���نع ن��ا ن�م�ل���� ن� ن��ه � � ح �و � ��و� وي� � � ع� � ي ن � ي � ر ن � � ي � ي ش ي ا ي � �� �� � ن ن �� �ن ن ن �ن ن � �� ن ن ا ا ل ن � ا �� � � � � ا ك � � ل س � ل ل ل �� � � � � ا � � � � � ا ا ا �ل�ه� أ �� ��ر نو��� ل�ي� ن������� ي �و� ن����� ل�� � ي����س� � أ �� �م� نو��� �ل�ه�م أ �� م ع أ أ ا� ن �� ا�� ش �� م�د � �ي�ا ي� �م ن ا�ا�م�ا �� م���سم� �م�ا ي� � ا ���� ا ن ا �� � ا أ� � ���� ن م��س � � � ���� ن � ��ل � ا�ا� ش ل ل ا ا ه ه �ل �ل � � � � � � � � ا� و و و روج نو � م أ � � و و رو ن نو � م أ � و ّ � حسي �� � أ ن ش ي ا �ي ��ل ش ن ن � ن ا أ ش ��ش هي � ا�امم�لن ��و��س�ا ي� �م ن� ا �لش�يس�ا ن� �و ن�ع�ي�ر���ا �ورن��م�ا ا ن��م� �� او � ��� ا �و ��ل �� ��د ا � ي����س� � أا �� ا �ل���ي� م � ع أ � ا�� ّ ل��ا. ��� ك�م� � ا �و أا �لي� ي ن � أ �� ّ � �أ ن ا أ ��شم ن ��ا �� ��ل�� ا ي ن ��ش ي � � � ���� � ا � � ن ���د ه ا�م � �و� �ل و ح�� ��و��س� � ا � �� اوع ك���ي�ره �ل� ح���� �و �ل�� �� او �ع��� ا � � ن ��د �م� ا �� ن اي � ّ � ن� � � ا ا ��ل � �ّد � ا � � �ن ا � هي �� ه ���� ي � � ��ش ي ا �كم� �ل� ي� ح�� أ �� �� م� �ل� ل��� ي� ل� لي ���� � �ل��� �ي�ه �و��هي� �عم�ل�� ���ر�ل��� �و�ع�د���� ا ن ل�م و رو ن � ح ش � ا �ن ا ن � ا نّ� ا�� �� ه ا �� � ن � �سي ّ �ه ���ع�ي�م��ه اأ �ع ن �م ا �ن��س�ا �ن� ّ��ي��ه �ه ن��سم�ا ���د ���� � �ن ا ن ن � ل � � � ي �ل� أل� ���س� � �م� �ي�� ه�و أ ��س� � أو �م� �كم ل� ل�د ي� ي م أ ي و ي ر ن ي� ا ��ل�� أ ش ن �� ّ � � أ ش ن ا ا أ ّ � �� أ ش ن ا� � ا ي نّ� ا ا � �س �و س�م� ا ��س �� ا ل � �� ا ����مل�و�م � او ��سر� � �وا ��� ��� �م� ا � � أا ل�� ا ��سر� ا�م��مل�و�م� � �أاو �م� ��� ر ا �لن�� ر ع ر أ أ � ي � �أنّ ا أ ن ح��ّ ��ا �ا�م���ا �ن� � ا �ي � ا ��ل� ا �� ن�ل�ه� � ا �س�م��� ن � �له�م�ا �ي�ُ�د ك ا � ا �ألم� ا�ا�م���ا �ن� � �من���ا �ل��ل�ه�م� ا � � ن ر و رن أ � � م و ي ير ون � ر ول ر و � ن � ي � � ن ��نل ا ّ ي � � ��ا ن ي ��ل � ي ي ل�ن ا �� ش ي � ���ه �ن�ا �لن� ��ط�ي� � .او � ا ك�� ��� ا �ير � ل���ي� أا �ل�� ا ����م�ل�و�م ا �� � ��ا �ل�ه �عم�ل�� ���د ه ا �ل���وره �ي� ل � ���و�� أا �ل�� أ أ � يّ � ّ ن ح � ا � � ن ��ا ن ن � ن � ا ا� ي م����ا �ن� ا نّ� ���� ن�� ا ��ل ن��ا �� �و� ا �ل� �م�ا ي�س�م� �و ن�� ح�� أا �ل�� ا � �لع��م�ل �وك�� � �م� ا �ل���� ��را� ر �وا ��� �وي�ر ن � � ن � م 76
76
٢،٩١
٣،٩١
On the reason for the wanderlust experienced by certain people
anything, as though they were a stone ever fixed on its slope or a pebble immobile in the stream. Perhaps you will say: It is the positions of the astral bodies, the degree of the ascendant, and the configuration of the celestial sphere that imposed these conditions on them and wedded them to these characteristics. You will then be confronted with a more exacting question concerning the influence of these stars and their ability to dispose these causes despite their ostensible state of subjugation, and with the more pressing and vexing task of responding to it. Miskawayh’s response The power of desiring sensible objects divides into as many categories as there
91.2
are senses. Just as the sense of sight may be stronger in one humoral mixture and the sense of hearing stronger in another, so it is with the desiderative power that is present in that sense: It is this that longs for the sense to attain its perfection and to emerge from actuality into potentiality. This means that all senses are senses in potentia until they perceive their objects; once they perceive them they become senses in actuality. If matters stand as we have described, it is hardly surprising that this element should be stronger in some senses and weaker in others, so that some people long to hear things, others to see things; some long for the tastes of food and drink, others for smells and different scents, and yet others for things like clothes and such that can be worn. Sometimes a single person will long for two or three things or for all of them together. Each sensible object has countless species, and each species includes an infinite number of individuals. Despite their volume, vast quantity, and tendency toward an infinite number, they do not constitute perfections for human beings insofar as they are human beings; their perfection, that is, the perfection that completes their humanity, lies in what they perceive through reason—which is to say, in the various types of knowledge. The noblest are those that conduce to the noblest objects of knowledge. Their close association with learning and proximity to understanding and discernment is the reason why sight and hearing are the noblest senses. One grasps the first principles of the various forms of learning by means of them, and progress toward the forms of knowledge proper to rationality is made from them. Since this is how things stand concerning the longing for what completes the existence of
77
77
91.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ��ّ ش يّ ي أ ن � ّ أ ن � حسي ن � ش ي ا �ي ا ��ل �ن �من ا �يم �ن � ��ًا � � � � � � ه ه � � � ا � ك م ح�ي� ي�لن�م�لن� ا ر�ن�ه �كي��ه ا� �ي � � � � ��� ن��دي��� �و�ل� � � � � ��م م و � ��� م�ل ي � نل ي���س� � أ �� ��وع � م ن� ن ع آ ن ي�م�� ي � ًا اأ ن � ش ي ا �ي اآ ن� ا ��ل �ن ن�ع � ا ح�سمم�ل �مش�م�ل � �لم�ك �كي��ه. � � حن�� � ي���س� � ر أ �� وع ر ّ ن ���د ه �ع ن��� ي �ن� ن ���� ي� ��ل�ه ا ��س�مً�ا � ل��ن ���� ن ا ��ل�� اأ �نّ�ا � ���د�ن�ا ا ��لم�لن���هي ل��ن ���� ن �ل���ا �ا� �ي��ع� ن � � � � � � و و أ ن � � ي ي ن و م � ي ن� � ي � � أ أ أ � ن � ّ ن أ �ن �� ي �ي ّي ه � ن� ن � ّ هي � ي � �ن�ا �ه�مم�لي��ه � � �لم�ك ا �ن�ا ��د � ���د�ن�ا �ام ن � ش���يس�ا �� ا �ل� ا�ام�ا ��� �ل � ا�ا ش م��سر�و ن� أا � ا ا ر��� �� �و� ا �ل� را عي�� أ� و و و ون �ي � ا �ي ّ � ّ ن � ي � ن � ي � ي � ا ا ا ن أا ��لي� ا � � ح ح� ي���� ��� �ل�ه �م� � ��ر� �م ا ل � �ه�م� �و�م� 1ي س�مم�ل �م���ه �ه�م� � او �ل ��و��م�ل أا �لي� حر��� �عملي� � �ه�م� � ر ا� ن� � ا� ن � ن� ن �ن ن �ش ا� ش ا يّ � ًا �ن �س �و ن� ا �� � ��د �م ن� ي����ر��� �ل�ه � �لم�ك ل��ي� ��م�ل�� � او�م��س� �� ا �س�م� �و�ه�و ا �ل��سره � او �ل � �ه�م� .و�م ن �ر ًا أ ن � ّ ن � � �أ � � �أ نّ ا�� ش ���ش هي �م�ا �� ���د �م ن ن� ��لم� ا ��لن م���سم� � � او�م���سم� ا ��س�م� � او ��� ن � �لم� ع�نس�ه � � � �س � � � م � � � � � ل ل � ك ك � � ن و ر ن ي رن و و أل ي � � أ ن وم ا �ع ن � �آش ا � ي ا أ � �ن يش ّ �ي ن � ��ش ن� ي ن �� � �ش ا ن ا� � � �هر ا �ل��سن�� ن� ل�ي� � � ح��� �و�م� ي ن ملن��ه �م� ا �ل� �� �م � او � �لعن��ج ا �� ر���� .د � � ���و� ن������� ا �ل�� ��� � �أ أ نّ ي ّي � ن ن ّ ي � ي ي ن ي ّ ا � ي ّ � � ي ش � �ا �س � أا ��ل�� ا ��ن�� �ر�هي �و ن� �و�ل�� ن� ا �ل��ر ن��� �و�ه�و ا � ��� �و�ه ا �ل��را �عي��ه ا � ��� � ح ن� ا �ل����م ل�� � �� ر ح���� �ن� �لن�� ر ي ن ا� ن ي ي ا� حي ي �ي ي ن� �ي �ن ���د���د� �ا � � ٢نل ��� نّ اأ ن اأ ��شم ن � ا ���ش��ًا �م ن � � ي ا � � � س � ���س م ا ك � � � �س � � � � م � ه �م� ا�من�� � ن � ر� وي � � �س ار � �و ن ي ر� � �و أم�ل ي ر � أ ن ي � ن � ي ��ش ا� ش يّ ن � ن � � ن� ���د ا ا ��ل ن��و � .و��د ن��د �م� ي ا� م��س�ا �� ل��ي� ا ���و���و�ل أا �ل�� ا ر�ن�ه �م ن� أا � را ك ح�سمم�ل ا ���ر �م ن� � �لم�ك ع � ن أ ّ ��ل أ أ ي ا ي ��ن �� ي ش � ��ا �من حّ ك � �لي �عّ �ي�ه ا ��ل�ن� نرا �ع ّ��هي أا ��ل�� ��س�ا أ� ار�م � أا ن� ا � ���ا �كي��ا �مم�لا ن��مي�� � او �ع�د ح����و��س� � ا �ل��ر � او �ل����م ل�� ر � ي ن و ر ع ً ن ن� �يل��نّ ن أ ّ ا ي ا ي� � � �أ ن ���ا � او � ���د ا. �ل ���رك �و � ��د ا �ل��سر �كي� � ن�ر�لي�� �ل��� ن ج
٤،٩١
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ش�ّ � ا � �أ ي ����ا ���ص�� ر ن�ع��هي ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ل��ن� ا �����ل��� ؟ ش��ّ �م�ا �ن�ا �أ��دهي ا �����ل��� ؟ �م�ا ن�عم� �ألم�ل�هي ا ��ل � ح�م�ل؟ � م� �عم ��ده ن ن � ن� ّ م ن أ � ي م �م م � ن �ن ش ُ � � � ي �ن ا ن ي ش �ن ا �ن ي ي ن ن ي ّ ا � � � � � � � � ا ن��ل � � � � ل ل � � � � � � ا � � ح�م�ل ا �ل��د ي� �د �سمم�ل ا مل��؟ �و�م� ��سر ل� ا �ل�د ي� �د ��ن�� �عملي��ه ا مل��؟ أ� � ا ��س����م�� � � ن � �أ م � ش ن �عًا � ً حًّا ن ��ا ن ن� ا �ن ن ا �� ن� �� � ي� ن � � � ح� � ل ا ك � � � � �م � � ك ك ن � م ��م�� ش��س�ا �� ���د ه ا �ل����و�ل ي�ل��ي�را � �عمل�م� �و � � � أو ���د ه ل����ول � او ي� ي� أ أ � �� ّ � � ح ش� �عن ا ��نل�� ���ا �و���� ن�� ا � او �ألم� ل��ا � او � او ن�ر���ا �م ش��م�ي��هي �عم�ل� ا �لن ��ن��� � �وش�لي�م�ل �عم�ل� ا �� � ���ا ��م�ل� .و� ��و�ل� � � � ن � � � ن � ن ي ��نل ا � ي ن ��ا ن ي � ن �� ���د ه ا ��لي�نس�ا �أل�ن� ٣ا�ا�مم�ل�� ؟ �و�م ن� ك� ���ا ن� ي���سم�ل�ك ���د ه ا�ا�م���ا �م�ه م�ع� �و�ه ا �� ���� �م� ك�� � �ي�ل��ل� � ا� � ن ن ش ا� � ع ا�� ن � ّ ّٰ ي ا � � ّ ن ي ن �م�ل���� ن � �ن�ا م ا ��نل �س ا�م ي� ا � � � حر���؟ �و� � �سر���ي�. ������ي� �و�م��ي�� م���ل� � ���ن� ا لله ����� �ل�� �و�ل�ي� ي� و ر 1الاأ�ص� � � :ا ٢ .ط :ة��د ��د �ه�ا ٣ .الاأ�ص� :ا �ل ن�� ن�ه�ا ���ن�؛ �ص ا ��� ��� ن ا ���ه�ا � ش ���س. ة و ون س � و ة ل ل
78
78
١،٩٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ��ّ ش يّ ي أ ن � ّ أ ن � حسي ن � ش ي ا �ي ا ��ل �ن �من ا �يم �ن � ��ًا � � � � � � ه ه � � � ا � ك م ح�ي� ي�لن�م�لن� ا ر�ن�ه �كي��ه ا� �ي � � � � ��� ن��دي��� �و�ل� � � � � ��م م و � ��� م�ل ي � نل ي���س� � أ �� ��وع � م ن� ن ع آ ن ي�م�� ي � ًا اأ ن � ش ي ا �ي اآ ن� ا ��ل �ن ن�ع � ا ح�سمم�ل �مش�م�ل � �لم�ك �كي��ه. � � حن�� � ي���س� � ر أ �� وع ر ّ ن ���د ه �ع ن��� ي �ن� ن ���� ي� ��ل�ه ا ��س�مً�ا � ل��ن ���� ن ا ��ل�� اأ �نّ�ا � ���د�ن�ا ا ��لم�لن���هي ل��ن ���� ن �ل���ا �ا� �ي��ع� ن � � � � � � و و أ ن � � ي ي ن و م � ي ن� � ي � � أ أ أ � ن � ّ ن أ �ن �� ي �ي ّي ه � ن� ن � ّ هي � ي � �ن�ا �ه�مم�لي��ه � � �لم�ك ا �ن�ا ��د � ���د�ن�ا �ام ن � ش���يس�ا �� ا �ل� ا�ام�ا ��� �ل � ا�ا ش م��سر�و ن� أا � ا ا ر��� �� �و� ا �ل� را عي�� أ� و و و ون �ي � ا �ي ّ � ّ ن � ي � ن � ي � ي � ا ا ا ن أا ��لي� ا � � ح ح� ي���� ��� �ل�ه �م� � ��ر� �م ا ل � �ه�م� �و�م� 1ي س�مم�ل �م���ه �ه�م� � او �ل ��و��م�ل أا �لي� حر��� �عملي� � �ه�م� � ر ا� ن� � ا� ن � ن� ن �ن ن �ش ا� ش ا يّ � ًا �ن �س �و ن� ا �� � ��د �م ن� ي����ر��� �ل�ه � �لم�ك ل��ي� ��م�ل�� � او�م��س� �� ا �س�م� �و�ه�و ا �ل��سره � او �ل � �ه�م� .و�م ن �ر ًا أ ن � ّ ن � � �أ � � �أ نّ ا�� ش ���ش هي �م�ا �� ���د �م ن ن� ��لم� ا ��لن م���سم� � � او�م���سم� ا ��س�م� � او ��� ن � �لم� ع�نس�ه � � � �س � � � م � � � � � ل ل � ك ك � � ن و ر ن ي رن و و أل ي � � أ ن وم ا �ع ن � �آش ا � ي ا أ � �ن يش ّ �ي ن � ��ش ن� ي ن �� � �ش ا ن ا� � � �هر ا �ل��سن�� ن� ل�ي� � � ح��� �و�م� ي ن ملن��ه �م� ا �ل� �� �م � او � �لعن��ج ا �� ر���� .د � � ���و� ن������� ا �ل�� ��� � �أ أ نّ ي ّي � ن ن ّ ي � ي ي ن ي ّ ا � ي ّ � � ي ش � �ا �س � أا ��ل�� ا ��ن�� �ر�هي �و ن� �و�ل�� ن� ا �ل��ر ن��� �و�ه�و ا � ��� �و�ه ا �ل��را �عي��ه ا � ��� � ح ن� ا �ل����م ل�� � �� ر ح���� �ن� �لن�� ر ي ن ا� ن ي ي ا� حي ي �ي ي ن� �ي �ن ���د���د� �ا � � ٢نل ��� نّ اأ ن اأ ��شم ن � ا ���ش��ًا �م ن � � ي ا � � � س � ���س م ا ك � � � �س � � � � م � ه �م� ا�من�� � ن � ر� وي � � �س ار � �و ن ي ر� � �و أم�ل ي ر � أ ن ي � ن � ي ��ش ا� ش يّ ن � ن � � ن� ���د ا ا ��ل ن��و � .و��د ن��د �م� ي ا� م��س�ا �� ل��ي� ا ���و���و�ل أا �ل�� ا ر�ن�ه �م ن� أا � را ك ح�سمم�ل ا ���ر �م ن� � �لم�ك ع � ن أ ّ ��ل أ أ ي ا ي ��ن �� ي ش � ��ا �من حّ ك � �لي �عّ �ي�ه ا ��ل�ن� نرا �ع ّ��هي أا ��ل�� ��س�ا أ� ار�م � أا ن� ا � ���ا �كي��ا �مم�لا ن��مي�� � او �ع�د ح����و��س� � ا �ل��ر � او �ل����م ل�� ر � ي ن و ر ع ً ن ن� �يل��نّ ن أ ّ ا ي ا ي� � � �أ ن ���ا � او � ���د ا. �ل ���رك �و � ��د ا �ل��سر �كي� � ن�ر�لي�� �ل��� ن ج
٤،٩١
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ش�ّ � ا � �أ ي ����ا ���ص�� ر ن�ع��هي ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ل��ن� ا �����ل��� ؟ ش��ّ �م�ا �ن�ا �أ��دهي ا �����ل��� ؟ �م�ا ن�عم� �ألم�ل�هي ا ��ل � ح�م�ل؟ � م� �عم ��ده ن ن � ن� ّ م ن أ � ي م �م م � ن �ن ش ُ � � � ي �ن ا ن ي ش �ن ا �ن ي ي ن ن ي ّ ا � � � � � � � � ا ن��ل � � � � ل ل � � � � � � ا � � ح�م�ل ا �ل��د ي� �د �سمم�ل ا مل��؟ �و�م� ��سر ل� ا �ل�د ي� �د ��ن�� �عملي��ه ا مل��؟ أ� � ا ��س����م�� � � ن � �أ م � ش ن �عًا � ً حًّا ن ��ا ن ن� ا �ن ن ا �� ن� �� � ي� ن � � � ح� � ل ا ك � � � � �م � � ك ك ن � م ��م�� ش��س�ا �� ���د ه ا �ل����و�ل ي�ل��ي�را � �عمل�م� �و � � � أو ���د ه ل����ول � او ي� ي� أ أ � �� ّ � � ح ش� �عن ا ��نل�� ���ا �و���� ن�� ا � او �ألم� ل��ا � او � او ن�ر���ا �م ش��م�ي��هي �عم�ل� ا �لن ��ن��� � �وش�لي�م�ل �عم�ل� ا �� � ���ا ��م�ل� .و� ��و�ل� � � � ن � � � ن � ن ي ��نل ا � ي ن ��ا ن ي � ن �� ���د ه ا ��لي�نس�ا �أل�ن� ٣ا�ا�مم�ل�� ؟ �و�م ن� ك� ���ا ن� ي���سم�ل�ك ���د ه ا�ا�م���ا �م�ه م�ع� �و�ه ا �� ���� �م� ك�� � �ي�ل��ل� � ا� � ن ن ش ا� � ع ا�� ن � ّ ّٰ ي ا � � ّ ن ي ن �م�ل���� ن � �ن�ا م ا ��نل �س ا�م ي� ا � � � حر���؟ �و� � �سر���ي�. ������ي� �و�م��ي�� م���ل� � ���ن� ا لله ����� �ل�� �و�ل�ي� ي� و ر 1الاأ�ص� � � :ا ٢ .ط :ة��د ��د �ه�ا ٣ .الاأ�ص� :ا �ل ن�� ن�ه�ا ���ن�؛ �ص ا ��� ��� ن ا ���ه�ا � ش ���س. ة و ون س � و ة ل ل
78
78
١،٩٢
On why people desire knowledge, and on the benefits of knowledge
the senses and actualizes them, and since it is manifest and familiar that some people long for a certain species, enduring every hardship and trouble to fulfill their desire, then it is neither remarkable nor surprising that others should long for a different species and show a similar endurance. Yet we find that some of these cases have been considered in the Arabic
91.4
lexicon and assigned a name, whereas others have been neglected. So “greed” and “gluttony” are the words used when the power of desire in those who long for food and drink runs to such an excess that they experience the eagerness to obtain them that I described, one that entails all manner of strains and hardships. Yet there are no words for those who experience the same thing with respect to objects of smell or hearing. I believe that this is due to the prevalence of the former, the opprobrium that attaches to it, and the number of sins and wrongs it entails. It is now clear why some people long to leave their homes and roam the earth. For the desiderative power that specifically concerns sight loves to multiply and renew the objects of sight, and they think that individual objects of sight can be fully encompassed, so they endure many hardships in order to perceive that species. We may come across people of even greater endurance whose desiderative power drives them toward other kinds of sensible objects and the effort to multiply them. So ponder all of these together, review them afresh, and examine their particulars, and you will find that all conform to one and the same principle.
On why people desire knowledge, and on the benefits of knowledge Why do people desire knowledge? What is the benefit of knowledge? What is the danger of ignorance? What is the advantage of the kind of ignorance that all people share? And what is the secret behind the kind of knowledge people possess by nature? For to strive to uncover these principles and penetrate into these specifics is to evoke a wealth of knowledge and sound judgment, even if the inquiry into them and their antecedents and consequents is arduous to the soul and onerous on the shoulder. But for the Creator’s aid, who could cross these barren wastes and voiceless deserts? God protects the purehearted, supports the obedient, and helps those who cry out.
79
79
92.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ٰ ن � ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ � ح�م�ه ا ّلله �س ّر ��ل ن��ا ل��ن� �عر ن��� �� ��ل�� �م ن��ا �عم�ل� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ألم�ل �م�ا �ي�ن��نّ��ه م��س� � م ع � ل و � ي � � � ي ين ا� اأ � ي ��نّ � � ّ ن � ي �ش ن ن �ن �� ش �ن �� ش هي ن � هي � � � � � ه ه ه � � � ل ا ا � � � � ا ك � ل ������� � او را ل�� م � ء �وا ن� ���د ه م��س� ل� و���� �ل� ن��د م� أ �عم �ه �د ن�� �ي� �� يري�أ �يّ� ��م� ن أ أ ً � ّ � � نّ � �كم� ��ل ا �ل���ن��س�ا ن� �م ن� � حي� ش� �ه�و أا �ن��س�ا ن� �ل���نّ�ه أا ن��م�ا ���ا ر أا �ن��س�ا �ن�ا �نل���ور�ي�ه ا �ل ش��سم�ك �و�ه�و ا � ا ����ل��� � أ ن ا � ي ّ� ن ي ن ن �م أ � ن � ن ا ي �� �� � ا أ ���د ه ا ��ل��� هي ا ���ي �م�ّ� ن �ي�ه ��ل���� ي ل � � ا ل � � � � � ح � � �� م � � � ��ي� �م�ي ر��ه �ع�� 1ع�ي ره ا ع��ي� ا �ل�نس� � � او ن و ن � م و ور ي� ي ر ي أ ش �ن ي ن� ا � � ش � � ن � � ن � أ ّ ي ي � ن � ن �� ن ن ّ ي ن �ن �� ����ه �و��س � �م�ل�ه �و� �� �و�ه � او �ل��د �لي�م�ل �عم�ل�� � �لم�ك ا �ن�م�ك � �ل �عو�ل ��ل� � ا ���ر أا ���س�ا �لي��ه �م ن� ��ل� � ل�ي� �� ��ي أ أ أ ي � �� � � ّ � ن � ن � ن ش ي ن �� نّ ي ّ ن �ي ن �كم� ل�ن ا ��نل ي �ل ن � �و�ل�� ل��ي� ا �لم�ل�و� �و�ل�� ل��ي� ����ي� ء ��ل� ���س��ي� �ن�ه ا ��ه ا ��م ���وره �ن��د � �و�ل� ا � �ل �ي� �م�ل�� ا ح ��ي �� ��ط� ي � ش ّ ن � �أ ن �� � ن ا �� �لي اآ ن� ن��� �ي�ّ �ي�ه ا ��ل ن�ا ���ط�ي��هي ا ���ي �� �ّ� ن � �ا ��� ن ا ��ن � ل ل � � ل ا � � � � ا ا ل � � � � � ��س � ح � � ر عي ر �و � �م� � � ��س ل � � � و ني �ي� يمي ر نل�� ن ي� ي ر و ر ي� ور ون ي� ج ّ � � � ن ن � ن � �أ ن � ن ّ ي � ن � ن ّ � �ي � ا �ل ا � ل� ا � �عي�ي ا ا ي � ��� � � �ك�م ل� � �د ا �� ا ا �ن ه � ّ ن �� و ن�� ��م�ل �ي� �ل� ��� � � ول د لمك ي �ل �ي� �� �لأ� ��س� � أ � ل��ي� ا �ل� �����ا �ل � �ون��ي� ا �ل� ح�ي� � � � �ن�ا ���طي �م�ا ��أ ي ل��نم�ّ� ن ��ا ��لن� ���طي اأ �ع ن� ��ا ��سي�م��� ن ���� ن��ه � ��� ن ن�ع�� ه � � ن ي ن اأ �� �����ه �و�ش�س � �� � ي ر ن �� �ي� ن ي ير ن ي ون ي� ي ر و� �م�ل�ه �و��س� �ر ح ��ي أن ن � ���ه �و��� او � ح�ي��ه. ا �ع ار � ن ��ا ن ن � ً � � ّ ��ش ي ن ن ّ � ن ���د ا ا�ام�سن��� �م ن� ا �ل���ن��س�ا ن� �ه�و �م�ا �ن�ه ���ا ر أا �ن��س�ا �ن�ا �ن � �م�ل�م�ا ���ر� أا ���س�ا ��ي��ي��ه ك���ا � �أاو � ا ك�� � أ أ ّ أ ن ن ن ن � نّ �� � �ن � ا ا� ن � ���ا ن� �ن���م�ل�ه ا ��ل���ا � ر �ع ن��ه ن� � �� ���ور�ي�ه � ل � � ا ا ا � � ح � � � � � � �� � ك � � � � � ا ����م�ل ل��ي� � ��و�ع�ه �كم� ا ل ون و ي� م أ ن ا � ي ي�ن ّ ��ا ن �ن� � أ� ن نّ ن أ ن ن� ���ا ن �ن���م�ل�ه اأ� � ن أ ن ن � ��ي� ح� ن� ���ه ك�� � ��مل�ه ا ن � �و� ك���ا � ا ����م�ل � او ش��سر�� �مش�م�ل � �لم�ك �و� �أ�ا ��ه ٢أا � ا ك� � أ آ ّ ّ ي � � � � ن � ن ا �� ن�ل� ��� � او ��لن��ا نر�� �م ن ا �ل حي �� او ن� � او � �ل�ل��� � او � �لن��ا ��� �م ن ا �ل�� �ل�� ي� ن��ا ن� �� � ���د �م ن� ���د ه أا � ا ���ل � او � أ � ي � ر ي م� ً�� ن أ ّ ّ ن ي � ن ّ ن ��ن �� ن ن � ش ���د ر �ع ن��ه ����م�ل�ه ا �ل � ��ا ��� �نل���ور��ه ك���ا �م�ل� ك���ا � ا ��سر�� ل��ي� � ��و�ع�ه م�م ن� ��� �سر �ع ن��ه �و���د �لمك أ ّ ّ ي نا ّ ش � � ن � � � � ن ي ن � ن ��ا �ل ل��� ا �لن�س�ا ي� � او ن ��حل �م� � �أ�ا � � � ا �ل ���د �م ن� ا ��م� ����ل � او � �و� ا � �� ��� ���وره �يل� ��ا ��� ا�ام�ون�� ���د ر ي ن أ ش ن أ ن ّ ن ��ا ن ي ا ًّا أ ن ا ي ًا ن ا ّ ن ا أ ي أ ن � � ّ ا ّ � �ع ن��ه �ن���م�ل�ه �ون� ���س�ه ي���سر�� ا �و ي� ح � م�م� �ي � ح��� أا � ا ك�� � �� �م� ا �و �� ��� ��� �� �ي� �� ���ده ا �ع ��� �كم�ل ن � م �ي ّ ح ا �ن�ا ي ا ���ي �م �ن� � � � ���� ��� � ن ي � � يّ � ّ ن �� � ن ا ي �ل ن ��ل �و ن�� �و� ك �يوس �م �وعمك وي ي ��مك � ا ��مك ح�� ي�م�ي�رك �ع� ا ن �حم � � او �ل�نس� � � او �ي ��و � �ي� ي � أ ّ نأيأ ن ا� � أ� ي � � � نّ ّ ي ي ّ � ي نا � ي ي ي ّ ا �لي������ ن�ل�� ��ط���ه � �وي�ل� �نر�م�ك �م� ا�م�ل� �����ه � او �لأ� �ل�ه �عر �و ن�م�ل � �و �ل��د ��� �و����� �ل�� � او �ي� �عم� �لم�ل�ه ا � ��ه� أ ّ أ�� أ � ّ � ّ ّ ّ � أ ن� ن � ّ� � م� ل�ن ا ��نل ي � � او �سر � او ك�ل��� � او �� � �� م�م�ا ي�لن� �� � س �م�ل�� �و�ير� ك أا �ل�� ا ر� �ل �و ن�� �و� ك �وي ك ح ���م�ك �ع ن� ش��سر�� ي� م م ي �م�ي��ا �مم�ك أا ��ل�� ن� ح��س�ا ��س�ه �م�ي��ا �م�ا ي� �م�ا �ه�و � � �ون�م�ك؟ أ أ ة�ن ّ ن ّ ����ص�� ��أا ن���. 1الا�ص�ل � � :نس ٢ .الا�ص�ل:
80
80
٢،٩٢
٣،٩٢
On why people desire knowledge, and on the benefits of knowledge
Miskawayh’s response In the course of discussing these questions we have already pointed to the
92.2
response to this one, but, in order to dispel the present uncertainty and remove the present doubt even more fully, it is necessary to go over some of the discussion again. Knowledge represents the perfection of human beings qua human beings, for it is the form that renders them human beings and distinguishes them from other beings—that is, plants, inanimate objects, and beasts. The form that distinguishes them does not consist in their external lineaments, their shape, or their color. This is proved by the fact that when we say “So-and-so has a greater degree of humanity than so-and-so,” we do not mean that the person in question has a more complete bodily form or is more perfect with regard to his physical lineaments, his color, or anything else besides his rational power, through which he distinguishes between good and evil things, right and wrong actions, and true and false beliefs. This is why human beings have been defined as rational mortal animals. So it is not their lineaments, their shape, and all their other ends and adjuncts, but their rationality that distinguishes them—that is to say, distinguishes them from other beings. As this is the element of human beings that renders them human beings, the greater the degree of their humanity, the more excellent they are in their species. This also applies to every existent in the world: When its act issues in accordance with the form proper to it, its act is better, and the better its act, the more excellent and noble it is. For animals, we can take the goshawk and the horse as examples, and for tools, the reed pen and the axe. For when the act proper to its form issues perfectly from each, it is nobler in its species than those that fall short. Similarly with plants and inanimate objects. For every individual existent has a proper form from which its act issues and that renders it noble or base, depending on whether that act is complete or deficient. So is there anything that can yield greater benefit than that which perfects your existence, completes your species, and delivers your being, distinguishing you from inanimate objects, plants, and nonrational animals and bringing you close to the angels and God? Is there anything that can brook a danger more calamitous and vexatious, more injurious and disastrous, than that which pulls you lower down in creation, casts you back to the vilest level of your existence, and demotes you from your noble station to the base station of inferior entities?
81
81
92.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ً أ أن� ّ ين � � �م � ي ا ��ل اأ نّ ا ������� � أ ن ن � �� ا �نًا اأ � ا �ً� ��ا �ل�ه ن��ا ���ا ا �و ��سمل��� � �و م� �ل� ح ن� ا � �ي�لعي��د ك �ل� ا ��� ن�م�ك ���د �� ن� أ �� � ل�م ي ن يي ّ � نّ ن نّ � ن � � ��� � ن � � � ن �م�� �ن� �ن�ه �م ن� �ش���ه� او ي� �و�ل��د ا ي� �م�ل�ه�سر�ي� أا � ا ����ل��� �ي�د �ي ن�لع��م�ل � �لمك �و � �س � ���ن� �ن�ا ����ر��� �ل� �ن�ا �ل��د ا ي� م � � ّ � �� � � �ن ن � ن � �أ نّ ن � � هي ا ������� �� � ن � � �ي ا ��ل ه �� �ل� � �عم ي� ل� � او ل�د ي� ي����و� أ ي�� �وي � �كم�ل �ن�ه ا �لأ����س�ا � �لي����� �ه�و �عم� �ي�ا ي� ا �ل� �وا ��� �و�ل� �كم� �ل م � �أ ي � ي ش ��س�ه � ي �ن ن ن� � ا ��ل��د ن � ا ن � ن ي ّ ن � ن � ن � أو � ك �وا �ل �و�م��� ا �ممل��ه ل�ي� ���د ا ا �ل�و� ���ا � ��د ي� ي�� �ن�ه � �لم�ك ل��ي� ك����ي�ر �م ن� ا �ل��� ّ � أع يُ ن ا نّ ّ ��اأ نّ ي � ا ��ل م��س ّ هي � ن ا ي ّ هي � ��س�ه ل�ن اأ ن �� ا � �أش ا ء � � � � ن � � ه � ا م � � م � � م ��د � � � � ه � � �أ� ��ه �ي � ك س �ل � �كم�ل � ��ور��مك ن �ي�مي�� � او �ل�نس� �لي�� و �ل �ي� ر ل �ل ��ي و �و أ ُ ي ن ن ي����س�ه�مم�ل ل��ي� ا ش��سر�����ا.
٤،٩٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ا ن� � ا أ � � � ا ��لم� � � � �ن ّ ����ا ���ص�� �ل��� ع�� ا �لن � � ا � � � �ل �ل ح ن ا �ل��شم��� ّ � او ن��ل �؟ �و�م�ا ا ��� او ��م�ل �م ن��ه حر� ا �ل��د ي� ن ��� �م �و ل��أ�ي ر أا �� � ن ي� م � � � ن ن ن � ي ي �� � ّ � يّ ا �ي ن ا �ن � ن ي ن ن ا ا ا ا ن م � � ح � أا �ل�� ا �لأ����س� � ا ����� م�ل ح��م�ل �� �ي� ل�ي� �عم�ل�� � �ل���س�ه؟ �و���د ا ن�� ر ل�ي� ا ����� �ه �و م��ر�و� �ع��د ا�ا� ي ن � أ م��� ّر��ي� ن� �ل�ل�� ���ور.
١،٩٣
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
� أ أ ٰ ن � � �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ح�م�ه ا ّلله �ي�د �س ّر ��ل ن��ا ل��ن� ا�ام��س�ا ��ل�هي ا ��لش��ا �لش��هي �م ن� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ألم�ل �� ��ل�� � و أ ي ي� ي م �ي � � � ن ا ن ن � �ش ن ن �� ي ي � �ن ش � � ّ � ن ا ا � � ل ك����ي�ر ل��ي� ��سن�� ن� كن ��و�ل ا �لأ����س� � ن������� ا �ل� س�م� ء �و��را �عي��ه ن����� �ل��� � �و �ل�م�ل ن������� ا حر�و� � أ �ن ي � ن ي ا ��ل �ّ ي �� ن� نّ ي � ي ن ن� �� �ي ا ��لن ��ن��� �م ن ا ��ل����� ا ي� ا�م ح�مل���ه �ن� � �و � ح��ا ره �و�ع�ي�ر � �لم�ك. ح��ه ن���� ن� �ل���ا �و�م�ا يلم�ل� ��د ه � او نل � و � � � أ ن ّ � ن ن ح ن ن� ن ���د ل�ن ���د ا ا�ا�م ن��� �م�ا �لم�ل�ي � ن �و� نر�ا � �ي�م�ك ل��� ا�ام��س�ا ��ل�هي ن�كن ��ي �عو��ل أا ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� � او ن� ك� � � � ���ا ن�� ي� � � ر � ي ي و ي � ي ي � ي � أ ع � � �� �� ّ �ن ا نّ ا � � ن ّ هي �من ن� � � هي ي �ن ا � هي ش ش ن ن ل � � � � � � � � � � ه ه ع � � � �ل ح �ع ��يس �ه� 1أ� ل��� ي ��و�ل� ي�� �مل� م� حي�� �ي� ���وره � �عمل� م� حي�� �ي� �كم ل ن ����م ن ي أ آ �أ � ي ن �ن� ��ن ي �ي�ا ن�لم�ل�ه ر����و� ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء �و���ور���ا �و�ل��د �لم�ك ���ا ر �ل���ا ��سن��ن��ا � ا � ���د �ه�م�ا � ٢م�ا � ن�لع��م�ل �ن�ه � او �ل��ر٣ م ���ا ن�� ي ٤ي�لن ن��ع��م ��ه .ن��ا ��لن ��ن� �ي�ليع�م �ن�� ا ��� ي���ي ا �عم� ي ���� ن ا ��ل � ن �� �ي�ي ن ن �م�ا ك� � �� �ل ر � ن � �ل ن ّ ��� ن �ل ن �ل��� أا �� ن������ �كم لعن�م�ل � �ل���� � � ي ي � ي ن ي �� ي ن أ نّ أ ن � �أ ي ��م ا ن ن �� ن ا � �� ن��� �ل��� أا �ل�� ا �ل����را �عم � �م��ر�ه �سركن���ه �و� ا ك ا � ا � ار � ا �ل�� �� او � �ون � ��و�ع��� �ع�ي�ر ��� ن أ 1الا�ص�ل أ ٤الا�ص�ل
أ أ أ أ أ ن ّ �ر�� أا ل�؛ ط :والا نح � أا ل� د �ة� �ة���ا �ة ن�ا �ل��ة�ه ّو�ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :ا ��د �ه���ا أا ل� ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا نح �ر أا ل�. وط :ط����� نة عة ن كا �. وط� :
82
82
٢،٩٣
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ً أ أن� ّ ين � � �م � ي ا ��ل اأ نّ ا ������� � أ ن ن � �� ا �نًا اأ � ا �ً� ��ا �ل�ه ن��ا ���ا ا �و ��سمل��� � �و م� �ل� ح ن� ا � �ي�لعي��د ك �ل� ا ��� ن�م�ك ���د �� ن� أ �� � ل�م ي ن يي ّ � نّ ن نّ � ن � � ��� � ن � � � ن �م�� �ن� �ن�ه �م ن� �ش���ه� او ي� �و�ل��د ا ي� �م�ل�ه�سر�ي� أا � ا ����ل��� �ي�د �ي ن�لع��م�ل � �لمك �و � �س � ���ن� �ن�ا ����ر��� �ل� �ن�ا �ل��د ا ي� م � � ّ � �� � � �ن ن � ن � �أ نّ ن � � هي ا ������� �� � ن � � �ي ا ��ل ه �� �ل� � �عم ي� ل� � او ل�د ي� ي����و� أ ي�� �وي � �كم�ل �ن�ه ا �لأ����س�ا � �لي����� �ه�و �عم� �ي�ا ي� ا �ل� �وا ��� �و�ل� �كم� �ل م � �أ ي � ي ش ��س�ه � ي �ن ن ن� � ا ��ل��د ن � ا ن � ن ي ّ ن � ن � ن � أو � ك �وا �ل �و�م��� ا �ممل��ه ل�ي� ���د ا ا �ل�و� ���ا � ��د ي� ي�� �ن�ه � �لم�ك ل��ي� ك����ي�ر �م ن� ا �ل��� ّ � أع يُ ن ا نّ ّ ��اأ نّ ي � ا ��ل م��س ّ هي � ن ا ي ّ هي � ��س�ه ل�ن اأ ن �� ا � �أش ا ء � � � � ن � � ه � ا م � � م � � م ��د � � � � ه � � �أ� ��ه �ي � ك س �ل � �كم�ل � ��ور��مك ن �ي�مي�� � او �ل�نس� �لي�� و �ل �ي� ر ل �ل ��ي و �و أ ُ ي ن ن ي����س�ه�مم�ل ل��ي� ا ش��سر�����ا.
٤،٩٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ا ن� � ا أ � � � ا ��لم� � � � �ن ّ ����ا ���ص�� �ل��� ع�� ا �لن � � ا � � � �ل �ل ح ن ا �ل��شم��� ّ � او ن��ل �؟ �و�م�ا ا ��� او ��م�ل �م ن��ه حر� ا �ل��د ي� ن ��� �م �و ل��أ�ي ر أا �� � ن ي� م � � � ن ن ن � ي ي �� � ّ � يّ ا �ي ن ا �ن � ن ي ن ن ا ا ا ا ن م � � ح � أا �ل�� ا �لأ����س� � ا ����� م�ل ح��م�ل �� �ي� ل�ي� �عم�ل�� � �ل���س�ه؟ �و���د ا ن�� ر ل�ي� ا ����� �ه �و م��ر�و� �ع��د ا�ا� ي ن � أ م��� ّر��ي� ن� �ل�ل�� ���ور.
١،٩٣
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
� أ أ ٰ ن � � �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ح�م�ه ا ّلله �ي�د �س ّر ��ل ن��ا ل��ن� ا�ام��س�ا ��ل�هي ا ��لش��ا �لش��هي �م ن� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ألم�ل �� ��ل�� � و أ ي ي� ي م �ي � � � ن ا ن ن � �ش ن ن �� ي ي � �ن ش � � ّ � ن ا ا � � ل ك����ي�ر ل��ي� ��سن�� ن� كن ��و�ل ا �لأ����س� � ن������� ا �ل� س�م� ء �و��را �عي��ه ن����� �ل��� � �و �ل�م�ل ن������� ا حر�و� � أ �ن ي � ن ي ا ��ل �ّ ي �� ن� نّ ي � ي ن ن� �� �ي ا ��لن ��ن��� �م ن ا ��ل����� ا ي� ا�م ح�مل���ه �ن� � �و � ح��ا ره �و�ع�ي�ر � �لم�ك. ح��ه ن���� ن� �ل���ا �و�م�ا يلم�ل� ��د ه � او نل � و � � � أ ن ّ � ن ن ح ن ن� ن ���د ل�ن ���د ا ا�ا�م ن��� �م�ا �لم�ل�ي � ن �و� نر�ا � �ي�م�ك ل��� ا�ام��س�ا ��ل�هي ن�كن ��ي �عو��ل أا ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� � او ن� ك� � � � ���ا ن�� ي� � � ر � ي ي و ي � ي ي � ي � أ ع � � �� �� ّ �ن ا نّ ا � � ن ّ هي �من ن� � � هي ي �ن ا � هي ش ش ن ن ل � � � � � � � � � � ه ه ع � � � �ل ح �ع ��يس �ه� 1أ� ل��� ي ��و�ل� ي�� �مل� م� حي�� �ي� ���وره � �عمل� م� حي�� �ي� �كم ل ن ����م ن ي أ آ �أ � ي ن �ن� ��ن ي �ي�ا ن�لم�ل�ه ر����و� ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء �و���ور���ا �و�ل��د �لم�ك ���ا ر �ل���ا ��سن��ن��ا � ا � ���د �ه�م�ا � ٢م�ا � ن�لع��م�ل �ن�ه � او �ل��ر٣ م ���ا ن�� ي ٤ي�لن ن��ع��م ��ه .ن��ا ��لن ��ن� �ي�ليع�م �ن�� ا ��� ي���ي ا �عم� ي ���� ن ا ��ل � ن �� �ي�ي ن ن �م�ا ك� � �� �ل ر � ن � �ل ن ّ ��� ن �ل ن �ل��� أا �� ن������ �كم لعن�م�ل � �ل���� � � ي ي � ي ن ي �� ي ن أ نّ أ ن � �أ ي ��م ا ن ن �� ن ا � �� ن��� �ل��� أا �ل�� ا �ل����را �عم � �م��ر�ه �سركن���ه �و� ا ك ا � ا � ار � ا �ل�� �� او � �ون � ��و�ع��� �ع�ي�ر ��� ن أ 1الا�ص�ل أ ٤الا�ص�ل
أ أ أ أ أ ن ّ �ر�� أا ل�؛ ط :والا نح � أا ل� د �ة� �ة���ا �ة ن�ا �ل��ة�ه ّو�ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :ا ��د �ه���ا أا ل� ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا نح �ر أا ل�. وط :ط����� نة عة ن كا �. وط� :
82
82
٢،٩٣
On why certain people and animals repond so powerfully to sounds
I believe you take the view that knowledge ought necessarily to yield ben-
92.4
efits such as honor, power, or money, through which one might then obtain the objects of one’s appetites and different kinds of pleasures. Upon my life, knowledge may produce that result, but contingently and not essentially. For the end of knowledge, to which it drives and through which human beings are perfected, does not consist in the ends of the senses or the perfection of the body, even though it might achieve these in many circumstances. Used for that type of purpose, it serves to perfect one’s beastly and vegetative form, so that it is used for the vilest things when designed to be used for the noblest.
On why people and other animals respond so powerfully to certain kinds of sounds and musical effects Why do beasts and birds listen so intently to a heartrending melody and a reso-
93.1
nant voice? What element of this so impinges on people of intelligence and learning that it can even cause them to pass away? This occurrence is familiar and well-known to those with wide experience of the world.
Miskawayh’s response We already had much to say on the topic, in our response to the third question you posed in this book, about why human beings like some names and hate others, why they find some letters heavy and others light, and how the soul is affected by sounds that vary in sharpness, loudness, and other qualities. Here we will extend these points to the degree that your extension of the question requires. We respond as follows. Even though the soul is an active form insofar as it constitutes the perfection of a natural body, it is material and passive insofar as it receives the impressions and forms of things. That is why two kinds of causes pertain to it: those through which it acts, and those through which it is passively affected. The soul receives the proportional relations of the different impactions to one another, just as it receives the impactions themselves in single or compound forms. For both the individual sounds and their ensemble are not the same as their proportional relations to one another. Proportional relations are a form of relation, and the relational mode of consideration is not
83
83
93.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�� ن � �أ نّ ا ��ل ن�� هي �ه ا ن ا ن هي � ا � ا ��لن ن� ��� ا � � ن ا ن ّ ��� �� م� و �ر �لأ�� ���س� �ي� أ � ن����� �ل� � ��� ل��ي� ن أ أ ن ن ن �ي�ا �ش�ي�ر ���د ا �ع�ي�ر �ي�ا �ش�ي�ر � ا ك.
ن �ن ن � ن �ع�ي�ر ا �ل� ���ر ل��ي�
ن � �أ ��ن � � � او ي� ا �ل�� ��ور �و���د �لم�ك
ن �أ ��ش� ي ��من ي � �ن هي � ن ��ا ن ي ن ا �� ن � �ا�مّ�ا �سر�ورهي �م�ا ي ن� � ح ن� ل��ي� ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء ه �� �� ���د ل � �� ح ن� �ك� ك ي���ا ن� � �� ك���ي ره ح�مل�� �و ن و ن � �ّ أ أ أ آ ّ � � � � � � ش ن � � ن ن ن ن ي ي � ي ن ن ا�امي�����ره ا �ع��� ا � �ل���ا ���ر��ي� ن� 1ا � ���د �ه�م�ا ا � ن �ر�ا �ه � او �ل��ر ا �لن ������ا � �و�ل���ا �م ن� ���دي� ن� ا �ل���ر��ي� ن�٢ ي ي أ ي � ن ا ن ��ا ن ي � �أ � ن ��ش ي ن ا � � ي � � ي أ ن ً ��ش� ي � �ي ا �ل ا � ن � ا ي ن ا ن ��� ك���ي ره � او �ل ������ � ن�� �ر� �ه ا �ع��د ا �ل �أ� � ك�� ��� ا �ل� ��� ار �� ك���ي�ره �� �ل� �ع��د ا �ل�� ا �يل� ي أّ ي � �أ ن ي ن � ي � � ي� � او ��لن ��ي����ا ن� �و��مي�م�ل أا ��ل�� ا ��ل�� �عي��د ا ��ل �و ��ل�� ن� ��ل���ا �ي��و�� �ي نل ��� � � �� ا �ل��سر ن��ه �مل�ملك ا � �ل �عو�� �هر نح�� ن � أ �ن ي � ن هي ن ا �ن ا ي ��من ي � ن هي �� ن حي�م�ل�ن��هي � ا �عي��د ا ��� ي ��من ��من حي�م�ل�ن��هي � �ي�د ا ن� ي ا�م ���د ا �م� ل � � ا ح ح ا � م م � � ل ل � � � � �� � � �� � ��ا ن� �ل � � � �� و و أ أ ح� � ن ي ن � � � ي � � ي اأ ن � � � ا أ �مش � هي ن �ن ا�ا�م� � ل�ي �ن ي� ش � ��يسم�ل ���د ه ا �ل�ع��د ا �ل�� �ن� � ن���مل� او �ل��� ا �مل� �� �وح� و ي� ���� ل�ي� �م�يسم�ل ���د ه ا �ل���� ن ّ ي � ي �� ن أ أ � ن � ي � ّ ن ن � � ن � ا ا �يّ ��ل�� نّ� ا ��ل� ن ��س�ا �ع�هي ���أ �� �لن��هي �م ن ن � � �ل��� ن�م� �عو�ل�ه ا � ك� ل��ي� �م�ي �عو�ل�ه ا � ل�� �� �م� ا �����د� �أاو � ك�� � ن����� و � ��ي ��� ا �� ا ي ن ا� ي � ي من أ � ن ��ّ �� � ن �� �ن ��ّ � � ن ّ ��ل � �أ�ن ا ��� أ ي � � � � � � ��� ���ي� ا�م� �عو�ل���ي� ا ع��� ا � ل�� ك ���ا � �و�مش�م�ل�وا ا ا � � ا �� ا �� � � ا � � � د ��د� ل � �� ه � ل رن� أ �� �ل � �� � او ي � و � �م ي� �و �� ن ّ يي ا �� ّ ي ي ّ نًا �ن م��ي ً �ّمّ ي ش ّ ��لن ّ ي � � � ن � ن ا ا � م � � ل ل ل �� � � � � � � �م�ا ك� � ه � م ل ���ا ن� �م ن� ا � ك م ا ا � � �م ح � ��� ن �ده ن�ي���� �ي� ��ن��ه� . ���ي��عي��ه �ن� ي�� � ح���و �ل و ��ده ��ه�م� ي�� م م آ أ � ح �� � �م ن��ه � �م�ا � او ن� ا �ي�د �يم�ل ن��ا �م�ا ا ��ل�� ند �� �يل��م� أا ��ل�� ا ��لن��ن��� �م ن ا �ش�ا ر ا ��ل����� ا ي� �و�م�ا ا�م و �ن ون و ي ل � � أ � ي � ح ا � � ن �ي � ن� ي ي ّ ن أ نّ � � �ن � ن �� � � � ن � � � � ل � � �ر�وه �عم�ل� ��ر� ��� ا �لأ� ن �م� �ل م� ا � �ل �عو�ل ����د �لن��ي�� ا � ا �لأ� ار ��ط �م��ه � او � م�� حر�ون أا ل�� أا � ا�ا � ��د � � ّ ي ن ��ش ي أ نّ � ن ن ج � ن ��ّ ن �� ي ن ّ ن حي ا ن��ل ���� ن � ��أ �شر ن� �� � �لمك �و��د ك� ح �� ���ا � ي�لن��ي� ن� ل��ي� ��� او � ��� ك���ي�ره ا � ا �ل ������ � او �لن��د � ��ل� �� ي و ي� ن ��ش�ً ا ن � أش أع � �ه ا �ن � �آ ن ن ا نّ � �أ� � ا � �من ا ش ي ا � �آ ن �هر ا �ر ا � �و � ��د �م� ل�ي� ا �ل��ر �أ� � ا �ل� � �وا �ل ��د � �ه�م� �م��س��ن�م�ك �ن� �ل��ر �وك���ي را �م� �يل �� � ن ن ي شأ أ أ ً ا ��لن �ن ّ ���س�هي � ٣ي�ن���ّ� �س ن ا � ا ��ل��د ن � � ٤س ن ا � ا ��ل��د ن ا �ل ن���ا ��ن���ّ� ا � � � ن ا ي ر رنج ن � و رنج ن � ي � ي ي ر � �وا �ل ا �لن������ �أ� � ا ���و�ي� ا �ر �� ي ّ � � ح � �ع ن ا �عي�دا �� ه ا�� � �ليع�م اأش� ا ��لن �ن � � ��ن ن ي ن ان� ن ا �ن ن � ي ا ي �م� ل�ي� ا �ل ������ ح�� ي�ل ���� �و� �ن�ه ا��س ارنج �وي�رنج � � ل� م ي ن �ل ر ����� وعر � أ نّ � ي � �أ نّ � ي � ي � � �آ� � ي � ن ّ ي ي أ��ش ي � ن �م ن��ه ا�ام�و� �ل� � ا�ام�و� �لي����� �ن�ا ���ر �م ن� �رك ا �لن ������ ا ���س�ه�م�ا �ل ا �ل� �ل�� ا �لن��د �لي��ه �و��د �عم�ل�م ن��ا ا � أ��ش � ّ ن ن أ يّ ا � � ن � ي � ا ن ني ش ن � ن �ي ا � �م ا � �ل�م�ل ن� ا �ل��د �ي� �ل�ه ا �ع��د ا �ل �م� أا � ا ا ������سر ل��ي� ا �لن��د � �ور�� �ن� �ل��سر�ور ا ���ر م�م� �ي���ن���هي� ا �و �ن أ � � ن � ي أ ��ّ � � �ي ���دهي �م ن ا �ل ا ي ا ���شر �م ّ�م�ا �ي�ن��ن��ن�ه �ع ن��� �م ن �� � ا ح�سم� أا ��ل�� ا � �لي�م�ل ن� �ن�ا ����هّ ا � � �عم � � او ن � � �� �ل���ي� ا�م�و� ا �و و ل � � أي� ر ع م ّ أ أ أ أ ��ش � ا �ي أ�ش ا � �� ا �ن � � يّ ي � � � ح��س�ا � �ي�ا �ش��ًا �����س�ع ّ�ً�ا ا يا ا� ي � �� ���وه ا �ل��شر �و�م�ا ا �� ر م� ��ور �ل� ن ح��س� �م ل�ي� ا �ل� ن� م ي ر ن ي ي �م� �ي�ل�� ر ن� ا�م�و� نح�� ن أ أ �� ي ا ي � �ي � � �� ��هي �� ��ًا ��لي ا �ش � اآ ن ن��يس�ا �ّ �� ن� ��لم�ك ا ��ل��أ�ش ا ��ل� ا ��لن ��ن��� ن�ك��� ن�� ��ل��ا ل � � � � � � ه ا م � ل � � � ل � س ل � � � � ح � � � م � � � ك � ي ر � � ر و ير ر أ� ر ن ن ير ر ي
أ ن 1الاأ�ص� ��� � :ة�هة���� ن ٢ .الاأ�ص� :ا ����� ���ة�هة���� ن ةس ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل ن�� ن�ه��ة��س��ة ٤ .ط :ا �لن���د ا �. ل رة ةس ل رة
84
84
٣،٩٣
٤،٩٣
On why certain people and animals repond so powerfully to sounds
the same as the consideration of things themselves, just as the influence of the one is not the same as the influence of the other. As these proportional relations are many and varied, what necessarily
93.3
applies to them is what applies to all things characterized by multiplicity. That is to say, they have two extremes, one a state of excess and the other a state of deficiency, and they have a balanced state relative to these extremes. If the extremes are many, the balanced states are also many. The soul rejects deficiency and excess, and inclines to the balanced state. As it possesses powers whose manifestation depends on the various mixtures, those powers have different relationships to different proportional relations and different balanced states. The masters of music strove to represent these proportional relations and to study these balances by assigning to them representations from the category of quantity using numbers, even though the category of quality would seem more appropriate for some. For the craft is formed out of these two categories, that is, quantity and quality; but quantity—which consists in numbers—is easier to grasp, so they represented the aspects of quality by means of quantity, and then presented each of these summarily, as you will find expounded in their books. We have outlined in a general way what the effects of the different sounds that reach the soul are, and which are enjoyable and which odious, so it will be clear that any excess in this regard and deviation toward one of the two sides must affect people accordingly. It has been shown at many junctures that the soul and the body are closely intertwined, and that the one often manifests its effect on the other, for the states of the soul alter the humoral mixture of the body, and the humoral mixture of the body also alters the states of the soul. So, if a certain effect grows so strong in the soul that the humoral mixture is impaired and departs from its balanced state, it ceases to receive the effect of the soul and death ensues, for death consists in nothing more than the soul’s ceasing to use the bodily instruments. We know that if the blood of the heart, which possesses a particular balance, spreads through the body and becomes finer than it ought to be because of joy, or returns to concentrate in the heart more than it should because of grief, both situations result in death, or something just short of death, depending on the strength of the effect. It is very common for bodies to exercise a natural effect on bodies and for that effect to be conveyed to the soul, provoking a movement in the latter that becomes the cause of another effect in the body, which leaves it shaken and makes it
85
85
93.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن� ن � أ � � ن أّ ��� ن ��ه ا ن�لي��ن��ا ن ل��ن� ا ن��ل � ح���� �ي� ���ه � 1و ن�ر�و ن��ه �ع ن� ا �ل�� �عي��د ا �ل � او � ا �ي�ا �مم�ل ي� � �لم�ك ل��ي� ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء � � و ن ي أ ن أ ا� ن ن ي م ا��م ن ن ي ن ��ا ن ي �ي ّ ي ي ّ ن � � ن � � �ن ن ��ا �ن �ن ن ا� ن ي � � � � ه ه ه ل � � � � ا ا ا ا ا ا ا � � � � �ل �� ���د ك� � �ي� ���د �م�و� ح�ن��� ام�� ��نس� وحر� أ � ك� ��� ��وي� ن��ي� �لمك � �لمك � ع أو � ن ّٰ �ي � � � ّي ن ن ن نّ ي ن ���ي� �أ�ا �نل���ا � ش��م�عي�م�ك أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. ا �ل����س�ا �كي��ه ����م�لي�م�ك ن���� ن� ا�ام�و� ي ل�� ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا� ���ّل ا ش ا ا �� ن ش ّ ا � �أ� �ي ا �� اأ� �عسش ا ن ا ��لن � ّ �ي اأي ي ّ ي ش ن � �م�ا �أ�ه � �وش�ل�� � ��و� ٢ �م ك�م ���� ����� ن� لن��د � ��� ن� �ل� مم�ل؟ � ل ن ��و �م� � � ���د ي� �د ��� �عم�لي� �ّ � � �أ ن ا نّ أ ّ ن ي أن� ي �ّ ش ن ن ��ل � ���د �م�ا ك� ���ا ن�� .م�ا ��سن�� ن� ���د ه ا ��ا �ل؟ �و�عم�ل� �م�ا � ا ��ر� � ���ل ����ي� ء أا �ل� ا �ل��مم�ل �أ� ��ه ا � ���س�ه � او � � ي � ّ ا � �أ أ ّ � �ً ا � ا ش ا � ش اً ا � �أ ن ّ ي ش ا ن اً ن � ش��سي ن � � ن ���ا؟ �و�م� ا �ل��مم�ل ا �و �ل�؟ �و�م� ا �ل��م�يس�ه �� �لي��؟ �و�م� ا �ر ن�� ء �� �ل��؟ �و��م�ل س�مم�ل ���د ه �ي��د �ل ا �ر�سر �كي� � �أ ا ��ل � � �ي � � �أ ا ن � ي شي ي ن ي � ا �����ا ا� ؟ ن�أ�ا ن� ك� �� �سر ا �ل��مم�ل �و� ��ل �عم�ل�� �م��� ���ا ن�� ي� �م��س�سمم�ل�ه �ل��� � �� او ���� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ن �ل�� ع ا �ل��م� �ل�ي� م م ج ّ ٰ ٰ ن � ّ � � ّ � ن ّ ح ا ��� � ي � ي �سر�� ا �ر ن��ا ء أا �ل�� ل��ي� ا لله ي�لن��ا رك �و�ي����ا �ل�� � او �ل�� ا لله؟ �نأ�ا �ن�ه ��س�ا ي�ر ا ���ع�وره �ورا �� ��ن� ره � �ونل� أ م أ ّ ّ ن ن ي ا �ي ي ن � ن ��لن ���ل ا �مم� ل��ن� ن�ع�ي�ره ��ا ����م� �و �� ح ��� أ هي � � ���ل ر ن��ا ء ل��ي� ���� او ه را �ألم�ل؟ ن ل �و�� ن�لم�ل ا �ل �� �ون�ه �و�عم �را ي ��س� �و � ل ي
١،٩٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ن � � ن ني ن ي ا �� اأ� ّ � ح ه ا ّٰ ه ن ه ا�ا� اأ �� هي ي اأ ن �ند ن�ك ن ���ا ����م�ل �م ن� ا �����ا �ل ا �لن ������ ����ر� � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� لل ���د م��س� ل� ��د �� ي� �� ل ن ��و �عم�ل� ي أ � � � ن�لع� �م ن ا �ن���ا �� ا �ل��� ي ي ح���� ا ��ل��د ن� � ٣ا�ا��س نا ن� ا ��ل��د �ل�نّ ش��ّ � �ي��� ي� ا�ا�م�ي��ا ���س�هي ����ن�ه�م�ا ي ني � و رج ن ي� م و ن �م�ل � � ل ن ��يس���ه ا � ��ي� ن� ن ن � ي ن ن � ن ن حّ �من �ا � ن� �� � اأ نّ ا ���أ�مم � ا �� �ا ء � ا�ا�م�ن �و�ه�م�ا �ي�ي��ن��اي�ل ن��ا ن� ��ل�� ����ي ش��س�ا �ل���ا � �م�ل��د �لم�ك �ع ��� ا �ل ن��ه � ن� � ي ن �� و لمك � �ل �ل و ر ن� و �� ر �ي ّ ي � � ي ي ن أ �ن ي ا ن ا ي � � � ن ّ ي ن � ن ا �� �لعي ي ش � ا ا ا ن � � ح���ا �أل�� ا � �ل �عوه ا �ل�� ��ط���ه �� �م� ا �ل��سي��� � او �ل ������ �� � ا ��� ���� ��� �لملن��د � �و نع �م ن ن� حر �و� � ي� ر ن � ن أ � ّ ي ن آ � � ي ي� ّ ي � � � � ي ّ ا � ن� ا ن ي � ن ن ا ا ن � ��يس�عي��ه ل��� ا �ل�� � � ��� � ���ل �ن� �ل� ��س�ه�م� �ل � �ول� ع� �عم�ل�� �سر �رم� � ا �لي��ا ن�����ه �لم�ل�س ار ن � ���ه�ي� ا � ��ور ��ن ي ج أ ّ ا أ ن ا � � ن ن ا نّ ا ّ �ّ ي� � اأ� ��م ي� �ن�ا �نّل��ا �ي�لي�ع � � � ش���يس ّ�د اأش� ���ا �ن� ��ا ��لن �� ّ�د �م ن ��م�ل�م�ا ي � او �م� ا ����� �ل ا �لن����� �أ� �ل��� ك� � � � � � � ه ر ي و و ر � � � ي� ن � ر � ّ أ ُ و ي أ أ ا � � ن ش ا � ن � � نّ � ن ن � � ي ّ ��� ا � ي يّ ل�ن ا � ن � ا ن ي � ��س ه � � � � � � ا �� �ل ا �لن��د �� .م�� �ل � �لمك ا � ل���را ���ع��م�ل�� كمل�م� ا �مم�ل ��و ي� � او ح��د � او � رك � ٤ي� �رم� � ي أ أ أ ن ش ن �ة ��. 1ط :ا ن�ة�ة�ه�ا �ص�� ٢ .ط :و�م�ا ن�و� ٣ .الا�ص�ل وط :ا �لن���د � أا ل� ا ����ط ن��ة���ع��ة ٤ .الا�ص�ل :وا د رل�
86
86
٢،٩٤
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن� ن � أ � � ن أّ ��� ن ��ه ا ن�لي��ن��ا ن ل��ن� ا ن��ل � ح���� �ي� ���ه � 1و ن�ر�و ن��ه �ع ن� ا �ل�� �عي��د ا �ل � او � ا �ي�ا �مم�ل ي� � �لم�ك ل��ي� ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء � � و ن ي أ ن أ ا� ن ن ي م ا��م ن ن ي ن ��ا ن ي �ي ّ ي ي ّ ن � � ن � � �ن ن ��ا �ن �ن ن ا� ن ي � � � � ه ه ه ل � � � � ا ا ا ا ا ا ا � � � � �ل �� ���د ك� � �ي� ���د �م�و� ح�ن��� ام�� ��نس� وحر� أ � ك� ��� ��وي� ن��ي� �لمك � �لمك � ع أو � ن ّٰ �ي � � � ّي ن ن ن نّ ي ن ���ي� �أ�ا �نل���ا � ش��م�عي�م�ك أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. ا �ل����س�ا �كي��ه ����م�لي�م�ك ن���� ن� ا�ام�و� ي ل�� ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا� ���ّل ا ش ا ا �� ن ش ّ ا � �أ� �ي ا �� اأ� �عسش ا ن ا ��لن � ّ �ي اأي ي ّ ي ش ن � �م�ا �أ�ه � �وش�ل�� � ��و� ٢ �م ك�م ���� ����� ن� لن��د � ��� ن� �ل� مم�ل؟ � ل ن ��و �م� � � ���د ي� �د ��� �عم�لي� �ّ � � �أ ن ا نّ أ ّ ن ي أن� ي �ّ ش ن ن ��ل � ���د �م�ا ك� ���ا ن�� .م�ا ��سن�� ن� ���د ه ا ��ا �ل؟ �و�عم�ل� �م�ا � ا ��ر� � ���ل ����ي� ء أا �ل� ا �ل��مم�ل �أ� ��ه ا � ���س�ه � او � � ي � ّ ا � �أ أ ّ � �ً ا � ا ش ا � ش اً ا � �أ ن ّ ي ش ا ن اً ن � ش��سي ن � � ن ���ا؟ �و�م� ا �ل��مم�ل ا �و �ل�؟ �و�م� ا �ل��م�يس�ه �� �لي��؟ �و�م� ا �ر ن�� ء �� �ل��؟ �و��م�ل س�مم�ل ���د ه �ي��د �ل ا �ر�سر �كي� � �أ ا ��ل � � �ي � � �أ ا ن � ي شي ي ن ي � ا �����ا ا� ؟ ن�أ�ا ن� ك� �� �سر ا �ل��مم�ل �و� ��ل �عم�ل�� �م��� ���ا ن�� ي� �م��س�سمم�ل�ه �ل��� � �� او ���� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ن �ل�� ع ا �ل��م� �ل�ي� م م ج ّ ٰ ٰ ن � ّ � � ّ � ن ّ ح ا ��� � ي � ي �سر�� ا �ر ن��ا ء أا �ل�� ل��ي� ا لله ي�لن��ا رك �و�ي����ا �ل�� � او �ل�� ا لله؟ �نأ�ا �ن�ه ��س�ا ي�ر ا ���ع�وره �ورا �� ��ن� ره � �ونل� أ م أ ّ ّ ن ن ي ا �ي ي ن � ن ��لن ���ل ا �مم� ل��ن� ن�ع�ي�ره ��ا ����م� �و �� ح ��� أ هي � � ���ل ر ن��ا ء ل��ي� ���� او ه را �ألم�ل؟ ن ل �و�� ن�لم�ل ا �ل �� �ون�ه �و�عم �را ي ��س� �و � ل ي
١،٩٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ن � � ن ني ن ي ا �� اأ� ّ � ح ه ا ّٰ ه ن ه ا�ا� اأ �� هي ي اأ ن �ند ن�ك ن ���ا ����م�ل �م ن� ا �����ا �ل ا �لن ������ ����ر� � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� لل ���د م��س� ل� ��د �� ي� �� ل ن ��و �عم�ل� ي أ � � � ن�لع� �م ن ا �ن���ا �� ا �ل��� ي ي ح���� ا ��ل��د ن� � ٣ا�ا��س نا ن� ا ��ل��د �ل�نّ ش��ّ � �ي��� ي� ا�ا�م�ي��ا ���س�هي ����ن�ه�م�ا ي ني � و رج ن ي� م و ن �م�ل � � ل ن ��يس���ه ا � ��ي� ن� ن ن � ي ن ن � ن ن حّ �من �ا � ن� �� � اأ نّ ا ���أ�مم � ا �� �ا ء � ا�ا�م�ن �و�ه�م�ا �ي�ي��ن��اي�ل ن��ا ن� ��ل�� ����ي ش��س�ا �ل���ا � �م�ل��د �لم�ك �ع ��� ا �ل ن��ه � ن� � ي ن �� و لمك � �ل �ل و ر ن� و �� ر �ي ّ ي � � ي ي ن أ �ن ي ا ن ا ي � � � ن ّ ي ن � ن ا �� �لعي ي ش � ا ا ا ن � � ح���ا �أل�� ا � �ل �عوه ا �ل�� ��ط���ه �� �م� ا �ل��سي��� � او �ل ������ �� � ا ��� ���� ��� �لملن��د � �و نع �م ن ن� حر �و� � ي� ر ن � ن أ � ّ ي ن آ � � ي ي� ّ ي � � � � ي ّ ا � ن� ا ن ي � ن ن ا ا ن � ��يس�عي��ه ل��� ا �ل�� � � ��� � ���ل �ن� �ل� ��س�ه�م� �ل � �ول� ع� �عم�ل�� �سر �رم� � ا �لي��ا ن�����ه �لم�ل�س ار ن � ���ه�ي� ا � ��ور ��ن ي ج أ ّ ا أ ن ا � � ن ن ا نّ ا ّ �ّ ي� � اأ� ��م ي� �ن�ا �نّل��ا �ي�لي�ع � � � ش���يس ّ�د اأش� ���ا �ن� ��ا ��لن �� ّ�د �م ن ��م�ل�م�ا ي � او �م� ا ����� �ل ا �لن����� �أ� �ل��� ك� � � � � � � ه ر ي و و ر � � � ي� ن � ر � ّ أ ُ و ي أ أ ا � � ن ش ا � ن � � نّ � ن ن � � ي ّ ��� ا � ي يّ ل�ن ا � ن � ا ن ي � ��س ه � � � � � � ا �� �ل ا �لن��د �� .م�� �ل � �لمك ا � ل���را ���ع��م�ل�� كمل�م� ا �مم�ل ��و ي� � او ح��د � او � رك � ٤ي� �رم� � ي أ أ أ ن ش ن �ة ��. 1ط :ا ن�ة�ة�ه�ا �ص�� ٢ .ط :و�م�ا ن�و� ٣ .الا�ص�ل وط :ا �لن���د � أا ل� ا ����ط ن��ة���ع��ة ٤ .الا�ص�ل :وا د رل�
86
86
٢،٩٤
On why older people are more liable to hope; on the meaning of “hope” and related terms
depart from the balanced state. If you ponder this phenomenon in connection with the things that occasion anger or sadness in strong degrees, it will become plain to you. This suffices for this context; if you wish to explore the topic more fully, then turn to the books of music, for they will meet your need, God willing.
On why older people are more liable to hope; on the meaning of “hope” and related terms Why is it that the grayer one’s hair becomes, the brighter one’s hopes grow?
94.1
Abū ʿUthmān al-Nahdī said: I reached 130, and I abjured everything but hope, for that is keener than ever. What is the cause of this condition? And what hidden message does it contain? First, what is “hope”? Second, what is “wishing”? And third, what is “anticipation”? Do these phenomena promote worldly welfare? If they do, then why do people exhort each other to limit their hopes, to abandon their wishes, and to make God the sole object of their hope and anticipation? For He conceals sources of shame, takes pity on the shedding of tears, accepts repentance and forgives transgression, and all hope pinned elsewhere is vain, all anticipation ephemeral. Miskawayh’s response This question took an act of the soul and connected it with an act of nature, of the sort that depends on the body and the bodily mixture, and then a comparison was struck between the two, though they are distinct and do not resemble each other. This is why it provoked a sense of astonishment, for hope, anticipation, and wishes are qualities proper to the rational power; gray hair, the deficiencies that affect the body, and the failure of the powers subject to the humoral mixture are natural features arising in instruments that tire through exercise and weaken with the passage of time. By contrast, the acts of the soul grow stronger and their effect intensifies through repetition and continuous performance; this is the opposite of what applies to the body. For example, intellectual reflection becomes stronger and keener the more it is exercised, achieving in a short time what it had previously taken a long time to achieve and swiftly apprehending things that had previously seemed obscure. Sensory
87
87
94.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �أ ي � ن ن �� ا �� �ن � ن ا ن � � �ي ���ا ن� ن� �ن ًّا ن ط �لم� �و �ل �ي� ا �ل���سر ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ك� �� ا � �ل����ي�ر �م� �ي��د ر ��ُ�ه ل�ي� ا �ر�م� � ا �ل�� �ويل حعي�� �ع��ه ن���سر�ع�ه � او �ل���ر أ ��ل ّ ّ ّ ي أ ن ���ق� ّ ��ّ � ن ا� ��م�ل�م�ا ا ���س�ه�مم� �� ح���� ك� عن� � �ون �لي��� ا ش�ره أا ��ل�� ا ن� �يل� � ��� � �م�ل. � � و ل ل ي� � ن أ نّ � �أ � �أ � � � �أ ّ ي ن ن � ي ن نأ ّ � ن ي ��ا �م�ا ا � �ل�ر�� �ن�ي� ن� ا �ل��مم�ل � او �ر ن��ا ء � �ون��ي ن� ا �ل��من�يس�ه �� ����ا ��ر �و� ا ك ا � ا �ل��مم�ل � او �ر ن��ا ء ي����م�ل���ا � ا � �أ � � ن�ي ا ّ ي ا � �أش ا ا �� ي � ا ن ���د ا ا�ا�م�س ن� �ن اأ �ّ ا ا � �أ�من ّ هي ن���ي��د ي�لي���م�ّلي �� ا � � ا ن حي�س�ا � � � � � �ن� �ل����ور ا �ل�ح�يس� ر�ي�ه � �ون� �ل����يس� ء ��� �ل��� � � م س � م � � ل ل � � �ن ي ر ي � ا ن ي ي نّ � ا � � �أ ا � ي � � ي ن ن ا � � � ا � �أ ش � � � ّ ي ن ا نّ � � ن م�� �م� ��� �م ن ��م�� ا�م �� �ل � او �ل����يس� ء ا � ��ي� �ل� ��مي��ي�ر �كي� ��� �و�ل� �ل��� � او �ل��مم�ل �ل�ه �و�ل� ر� �وي�ه �أ� ��ه �لي����� ي�ع ع � ي� أ � � � ن ا ن ا� �� � ا �أ ّ � ي ي ��لن أن �ن ا ح��ّ ��ا �م � حي��ا ر � او �ر ن�� ء ك ���ا �ن�ه �م ش��س��رك �و��د �يرن�� ��� �و�لي����� �ي� �مم�ل ا� � ن �و ا �لأ����س� � ا�م��ر � او ح� ن �ّ ن �ّ ن ّ هي أ ّ ا ا�ا�م ن �ن ا �ّ � �م ن �� ه �ي ي �كم� �عم�ل�م ي� �ش�س�ا �أ�� ل��ن� ا �� � � � ا � � � � � � � م ه ����ل � ا �� ن� ����ل �م�د �� ن� � � � و و ور � � و ي أ �ل� � ل� �د ره أ ي أ �ًا أ � ع� ��ل ا �� �ن � � �ن ش ا أ� ه� � ن ي ي نّ � � ن ن ن � � �وا �ل� �����د ي�س�م��� ا �لأ����س�ا � ا � �يل ����ي�ر ا �و �يل���ي�ر ��ولن���� ا �و يل����د أا �� ل�ملك ي����س� ���د ا � ّ أ � � � � ن ا � � � اأ �مم� ه ش�ّ ي �و 1ا�ا�م���� �و��ل���� ��ا �مم� أا ��ل�� �م�ن� نر��ل ا � �لي� ���� �و�م ن�� ش���� أ � � �د � � �و�لي����� يرن � ر ي�ي ل � ر �و ���د �و�ل� ي� ل� �م يرن ن�م� ي ا �� ن� ش �ن ن ن ي ��ه. ���د ه �ر�و�� � او ��ي�� � � �أ �ّ ن ّٰ ن � �ي � � �أ ن � ي نأ ّ ي � � ي �سر�� ا �ر ن��ا ء أا �ل�� ل��ي� ا لله �سر ا �ل��مم�ل �و� ��ل �� ا �ل��م�ا �ل�ي� �و� ��ا �م�ا ���و�لم�ك ا�م � �� او ���� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ن �ل�� ي � ع ا��مسي نّ ا ي � ن ي �� ي � �ي� ا ��ل �ن اأ �ي �� � �أ نّ ا أ� ا � �أش ا ء ا�ا� اأ � �� هي � ا�ا� � ي �ّوه �و �م�� ه م����ل ����ه ا�ام�د� �مي�نس�ا �عي��ه ا �����د� ��� ��؟ � ��ول �ل� � ��س� ر �ل����يس� م� ��ول� و�سرن � � ش ي ن أ ن ن ا �م ن��س ّ � ش ش ا �� ا � � ي ي � �م�ل�هي ��ا �أ��دهي �ن�ا ��س�ده �ل� ����� ي� ���� ء �من ش��ّ ��ه� �مي��ل� ���س�ه ل��� ا � �ل������� م ���ا �عم�ل� �� ل �و ��ده ي� � ين ن ي ي م ي � � ا � ن �ن ي ن ا � �أ ش � ن ي � �ش� �ل ن��س ّ � ي � ن� ي ن � ��ل ��� �ل��و��سمك ا � ي�ل��ل� ��� �وي م ��� � ن�ولمل� ح ����ه � او � ع ل�ه�م��ه �م � ��ده �م�ل�و �و��م�ل ا ��� او ��م�ل أا �لي� �م�ل � ش �ل ن� ّ � �أ ن أ أ � ا أ ي� نّ ن اأ ّ ا ا يّ � ن� ��لم�ك ا �ل ش�����ء ل��ن� �ن �نل���س�ه ا �و ي�لي��ل� ����� �وي �سم �م�ل ا �ل��مم�ل كي��ه ا �و ر ن�� �وه �و�م�يس�ه �� �م� �م� ا �ل��م�ل ي ي ٰ ن ن ا ّٰ ي ا �� ن�� �ن أ ّ ن ن ي � � � �م ن��س ّ أ � �� �و�ل� م �م�ل ن�لم�ل ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� � ا �� ا � �لنعي�ن�� �ن�ه � � �ه�و ا �ن��د �ي� �ع�ي�ر �م����ل� ل � �م� ���د ه �ن� لله ��� �� � �ره � � م ع ّ أ � ّ �� � �م ن ه �ي� ا ��ل ا ��س ه �ي�ي ّ �� � � �ي ّ هي ا � � �س �ن�ا � ���ا � �ل ن��ا ح��س�� ن��ا � �م�ع�ن�� ن��ا � �ن�ا ل � ه � � � � � � �د � ل � � � � � � � � � � ه � � م � � � ل � ل � � � � و �و وأ ن و و ن و ي و رو ي ا �ن��د ي� ا ن و � � �س ار ��ط �م� ي � ���ي�ي�� . أا �ل�� � م
٣،٩٤
٤،٩٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا� أ ي ن ن � �أ��ش � أش ّ ن ن ي � � ا ي ن ي ا� أ ي ا�م � ���� ر�� ٢ع�ي�ره ا��س ار ه �عم�ل�� ا �ر ن�م�ل ا ��س�د �م� �ع�ي�ره ا �ر ن�م�ل �عم�ل�� ا��س ار ه ؟ ���د ا ل��ي� ا �ل� ���ر � �أي ّ �� ن � ن ن ن ن أ أ � ا� ش ّ ي أّ � �آ ن � ن�ّ �ن ���د �ه�م�ا � او� نم � او �ل� �م�ل �وك�ي��ه�م�ا ك���ا � ���عي��ه � حن��ا �و�ه�و ا� م��س�د � �عم�ل� ا � ح ع� �ع ن� ا �ل��ر� .و��د ا � ي� � أ أ 1الا�ص�ل�:ة� ن�وا ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :ص�ا ر.
88
88
١،٩٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �أ ي � ن ن �� ا �� �ن � ن ا ن � � �ي ���ا ن� ن� �ن ًّا ن ط �لم� �و �ل �ي� ا �ل���سر ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ك� �� ا � �ل����ي�ر �م� �ي��د ر ��ُ�ه ل�ي� ا �ر�م� � ا �ل�� �ويل حعي�� �ع��ه ن���سر�ع�ه � او �ل���ر أ ��ل ّ ّ ّ ي أ ن ���ق� ّ ��ّ � ن ا� ��م�ل�م�ا ا ���س�ه�مم� �� ح���� ك� عن� � �ون �لي��� ا ش�ره أا ��ل�� ا ن� �يل� � ��� � �م�ل. � � و ل ل ي� � ن أ نّ � �أ � �أ � � � �أ ّ ي ن ن � ي ن نأ ّ � ن ي ��ا �م�ا ا � �ل�ر�� �ن�ي� ن� ا �ل��مم�ل � او �ر ن��ا ء � �ون��ي ن� ا �ل��من�يس�ه �� ����ا ��ر �و� ا ك ا � ا �ل��مم�ل � او �ر ن��ا ء ي����م�ل���ا � ا � �أ � � ن�ي ا ّ ي ا � �أش ا ا �� ي � ا ن ���د ا ا�ا�م�س ن� �ن اأ �ّ ا ا � �أ�من ّ هي ن���ي��د ي�لي���م�ّلي �� ا � � ا ن حي�س�ا � � � � � �ن� �ل����ور ا �ل�ح�يس� ر�ي�ه � �ون� �ل����يس� ء ��� �ل��� � � م س � م � � ل ل � � �ن ي ر ي � ا ن ي ي نّ � ا � � �أ ا � ي � � ي ن ن ا � � � ا � �أ ش � � � ّ ي ن ا نّ � � ن م�� �م� ��� �م ن ��م�� ا�م �� �ل � او �ل����يس� ء ا � ��ي� �ل� ��مي��ي�ر �كي� ��� �و�ل� �ل��� � او �ل��مم�ل �ل�ه �و�ل� ر� �وي�ه �أ� ��ه �لي����� ي�ع ع � ي� أ � � � ن ا ن ا� �� � ا �أ ّ � ي ي ��لن أن �ن ا ح��ّ ��ا �م � حي��ا ر � او �ر ن�� ء ك ���ا �ن�ه �م ش��س��رك �و��د �يرن�� ��� �و�لي����� �ي� �مم�ل ا� � ن �و ا �لأ����س� � ا�م��ر � او ح� ن �ّ ن �ّ ن ّ هي أ ّ ا ا�ا�م ن �ن ا �ّ � �م ن �� ه �ي ي �كم� �عم�ل�م ي� �ش�س�ا �أ�� ل��ن� ا �� � � � ا � � � � � � � م ه ����ل � ا �� ن� ����ل �م�د �� ن� � � � و و ور � � و ي أ �ل� � ل� �د ره أ ي أ �ًا أ � ع� ��ل ا �� �ن � � �ن ش ا أ� ه� � ن ي ي نّ � � ن ن ن � � �وا �ل� �����د ي�س�م��� ا �لأ����س�ا � ا � �يل ����ي�ر ا �و �يل���ي�ر ��ولن���� ا �و يل����د أا �� ل�ملك ي����س� ���د ا � ّ أ � � � � ن ا � � � اأ �مم� ه ش�ّ ي �و 1ا�ا�م���� �و��ل���� ��ا �مم� أا ��ل�� �م�ن� نر��ل ا � �لي� ���� �و�م ن�� ش���� أ � � �د � � �و�لي����� يرن � ر ي�ي ل � ر �و ���د �و�ل� ي� ل� �م يرن ن�م� ي ا �� ن� ش �ن ن ن ي ��ه. ���د ه �ر�و�� � او ��ي�� � � �أ �ّ ن ّٰ ن � �ي � � �أ ن � ي نأ ّ ي � � ي �سر�� ا �ر ن��ا ء أا �ل�� ل��ي� ا لله �سر ا �ل��مم�ل �و� ��ل �� ا �ل��م�ا �ل�ي� �و� ��ا �م�ا ���و�لم�ك ا�م � �� او ���� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ن �ل�� ي � ع ا��مسي نّ ا ي � ن ي �� ي � �ي� ا ��ل �ن اأ �ي �� � �أ نّ ا أ� ا � �أش ا ء ا�ا� اأ � �� هي � ا�ا� � ي �ّوه �و �م�� ه م����ل ����ه ا�ام�د� �مي�نس�ا �عي��ه ا �����د� ��� ��؟ � ��ول �ل� � ��س� ر �ل����يس� م� ��ول� و�سرن � � ش ي ن أ ن ن ا �م ن��س ّ � ش ش ا �� ا � � ي ي � �م�ل�هي ��ا �أ��دهي �ن�ا ��س�ده �ل� ����� ي� ���� ء �من ش��ّ ��ه� �مي��ل� ���س�ه ل��� ا � �ل������� م ���ا �عم�ل� �� ل �و ��ده ي� � ين ن ي ي م ي � � ا � ن �ن ي ن ا � �أ ش � ن ي � �ش� �ل ن��س ّ � ي � ن� ي ن � ��ل ��� �ل��و��سمك ا � ي�ل��ل� ��� �وي م ��� � ن�ولمل� ح ����ه � او � ع ل�ه�م��ه �م � ��ده �م�ل�و �و��م�ل ا ��� او ��م�ل أا �لي� �م�ل � ش �ل ن� ّ � �أ ن أ أ � ا أ ي� نّ ن اأ ّ ا ا يّ � ن� ��لم�ك ا �ل ش�����ء ل��ن� �ن �نل���س�ه ا �و ي�لي��ل� ����� �وي �سم �م�ل ا �ل��مم�ل كي��ه ا �و ر ن�� �وه �و�م�يس�ه �� �م� �م� ا �ل��م�ل ي ي ٰ ن ن ا ّٰ ي ا �� ن�� �ن أ ّ ن ن ي � � � �م ن��س ّ أ � �� �و�ل� م �م�ل ن�لم�ل ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� � ا �� ا � �لنعي�ن�� �ن�ه � � �ه�و ا �ن��د �ي� �ع�ي�ر �م����ل� ل � �م� ���د ه �ن� لله ��� �� � �ره � � م ع ّ أ � ّ �� � �م ن ه �ي� ا ��ل ا ��س ه �ي�ي ّ �� � � �ي ّ هي ا � � �س �ن�ا � ���ا � �ل ن��ا ح��س�� ن��ا � �م�ع�ن�� ن��ا � �ن�ا ل � ه � � � � � � �د � ل � � � � � � � � � � ه � � م � � � ل � ل � � � � و �و وأ ن و و ن و ي و رو ي ا �ن��د ي� ا ن و � � �س ار ��ط �م� ي � ���ي�ي�� . أا �ل�� � م
٣،٩٤
٤،٩٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا� أ ي ن ن � �أ��ش � أش ّ ن ن ي � � ا ي ن ي ا� أ ي ا�م � ���� ر�� ٢ع�ي�ره ا��س ار ه �عم�ل�� ا �ر ن�م�ل ا ��س�د �م� �ع�ي�ره ا �ر ن�م�ل �عم�ل�� ا��س ار ه ؟ ���د ا ل��ي� ا �ل� ���ر � �أي ّ �� ن � ن ن ن ن أ أ � ا� ش ّ ي أّ � �آ ن � ن�ّ �ن ���د �ه�م�ا � او� نم � او �ل� �م�ل �وك�ي��ه�م�ا ك���ا � ���عي��ه � حن��ا �و�ه�و ا� م��س�د � �عم�ل� ا � ح ع� �ع ن� ا �ل��ر� .و��د ا � ي� � أ أ 1الا�ص�ل�:ة� ن�وا ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :ص�ا ر.
88
88
١،٩٥
On why women are more jealous than men; on the nature and moral status of jealousy
vision tires and grows weaker when exercised, and its effect decreases until it disappears. The distinction between the terms “hope,” “anticipation,” and “wishing” is
94.3
obvious. For hope and anticipation attach to voluntary matters, and to things that bear this aspect. Wishing, by contrast, may attach to things that are not the subject of voluntary choice or deliberation; for there is nothing to prevent us from wishing for the impossible and for things that involve no discrimination. Hope pertains more narrowly to subjects that have voluntary choice, whereas anticipation seems to carry both meanings. A person may anticipate rain and fertility, whereas hope can only attach to a person endowed with the capacity to act and deliberate. Wishes, as you know, are diffuse and tend in every direction. A person may wish he could fly, become a star, or ascend to the heavens and view his life from there, but he cannot anticipate it or hope for it. Furthermore, we might anticipate rain, but we can only put our hope in the one who brings down the rain and creates the downpour. These are clear distinctions. To your question “Why do people exhort each other to limit their hopes,
94.4
to abandon their wishes, and to make God the sole object of their hope and anticipation?” my response is as follows. All objects of hope, anticipation, and wishing are limited in duration and finite in number. They are evanescent in themselves and bound to succumb to corruption, fade away, and perish; none of them abides in the same state for a single moment. So, were someone to gratify his desire for them by attaining them, they would soon evanesce and fade away in themselves, or the hope, anticipation, and wish attached to them would soon evanesce and fade away. By contrast, the things that relate to God are everlasting and neither come to an end nor fade away; rather, God diffuses them eternally and is everlastingly generous with them. There is no strength but through Him; He is our sufficiency, our helper, our supporter, and our guide to the straight path.
On why women are more jealous than men; on the nature and moral status of jealousy Why are women more jealous over men than men are over women? The phenomenon is encountered in varying degrees, yet however that may be, there is a hidden force here that explains why its grip on one group is tighter and on the
89
89
95.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� � �أ � ن ش ّ ي ا ���ن����رهي ن� ح�م�ا �ع�هي أا ��ل�� �يلم�ل�ن� ا ��لن ن�� �عو��� � او ��ل�� نر� او ��ل ا �لن��ه� � او ��ل�� ا ن��ل ��ل��ء �ع ن� ا �ل��و ����ا �� �� .م�ل ي� ي أأ م ن � أ يمي أ �� ن أ ً � ن � � � ن � � ي ي ي � ّ ن ل��� ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه ا �لي��ا �لي��ه �ل���د ه �م�ا ا �����ي�ره ا �و �ل�؟ �و�م�ا � ح�عي��عي� ا � ك� � ا � � ا � ��� � ا � ي ���؟ و ي�� �مل��� و �م أل���؟ و�عم�ل�� � � � ي أ ن هي ا ن ��ّ ش ي ي ا �ي � م ا ا ا � م � � ح��� �م�د �و ا � �ممل�و� ؟ ���؟ �و��م�ل �هي� ���و�ه ا �و �م�د ���و�م� ؟ �و��م�ل ��� ن � �م� � ا �ي��د ل ا ��� ���� � ج م م � �ن أ أ ن أ نّ � ��ل � �أ� � �ي ن � � ا �ي� �ن ن�أ�ا � أا �ش�ا رهي ���د ا ا ن�لم�لن� ��� ��ر� ع �ن�م�ك أا �ل�� ا � �ل �ع او ���د � او ن�ر�� �م��مك أا �� ا �ل� م�د �ون ��و ��و�مك �عملي� �� ّ � � ن�ع�� ���ا �ي�مي ن ح ��ط�� أا �ل�� �م�ا �ع�د ا ���ا. ير و
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ن � ي �� ّ � ّ � � ن ا ن � أ ح ه ّٰ أ �ّ ا ا �� ن� � ي �ن � � ّ � � ه � � � � ا � � ا ا �ا � ا � م��س� ه ل ل � � ه م � � س �� � � � ���ا �� � م � م � � م � لل ع � م ع �� � � � س � ل � � � � ه � ل ه ل وي ر � ل ن و �ي� ي �ر أ � �ي� أ � ن ي �ي� م أ ّ و ن � م ش أ � ا أ � ن � �ي � ن ن ُ ن ن �م � ا ن ا � ن �����ه ��� ل��ي� ن��ا ��� ���و ن� �و�ه�و �م�د �و أ � ك ���ا � �عم�ل�� ��س ار �ل ��ط ��س� �ر ا �ل���ل� � ا ع��ي� أا � ا �و� ُ ج ع ن � ا� شا � ا ن � �ن ا� �مي� ا ن ح � ا� �لن �ي ي ن �� �ن�ا ه �ي�سم�ا �من��� �م ن � � ه ه � � � � � ا � � ا � ع � م ا �و� ي ن�� � � �د � � م د � م � � � � � � � ع م ل � � � � � ي �ل�� ل � ن و ر ور ي ر ي ن � � ن � م م أ أ ّ ُ ّ � ا أ � � ن � �ي ��ا � � ش ي نا ن ن ن ���د ه ا ن�� �� �ي ����س�ع ّ��هي � ا ن��م�ا ح� �د �من���ا �م�ا �ا� ن ن ح ن� � � � � � � � � ا � ا � ل���ه ه � ��س� � � ك� ���� ر �ل ل �أ أ � ن� و � �و أ � ّ ل � ن ي ي أو ي �م� � م ي رج � � � � ح ا هي ي ي ي �� ن ن ح�عي ��ي��ه ا ��ن���ي�ره ��ه� �من�� ا �ل �����ه ا �ل ��ا ��� �ن�ه� .و� � حر�� �و��م� �ي� �ع ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل ا �و ا ��ي�� ن� �ن�ه ���و� ي يم � �أ ن ّ ��ا ن ي ن � ي ه � �أ ن � �ع ش�ّ ا� �مي� ا ن حن � ن ا �ل � ���ط ا ��ل ن����سم� � او ��ل ن������ � � �و نرهي �ل�� ن�م�ل � ن� � � � �� ي ���ل �م� ك�� ��� �ع�ي ر�� �ل� ن�م�ل � �لمك �م �م ن ور ل ن ا ن ن � يّ � ا �ي ي � ا � � ي ن� ّ � � ��ل �� �ي هي �ني ���د �ي� �ن�ا � نل��� ن��و ن� ا �� � �م� �ي���ن���ه ح�� ي� ل�� ���ا � �ن�ه �و�لن��ا � ر أا �� ا ��ع �ع � � م � ع �ه�م�ه ا �لن�� ���مل�ه كي�� � ل ح� �ن� �ل � و � ي� ي ن � ن � ن مّ ن حيّ ي ن ا �ن � ن � � � �أ �� �م�� هي �ي � �� ي ا ن�� � ن �� أ هي � ��لم�ك �و�ا ي�لن��ي���� �ع�م�ا �ي���ن��ن�ه� ��� ي�ل���� م�ل ع� ا �ل�د �ل� �لم�ل ا �� او � � �و� رك ا �ل� م���� � م� ا ر�و�� ي ي م ي ��ل ا ن ��ا ن ًّ ن ن � � ن ���ا ن� �م�عي��د ��ل ا ��نل ح�ي��ا �وك� � او ��س�م� أا � ا ك�� � � �م�ل�ي� �ن�ي� ن� ���دي� ن� ا �ل���ر��ي� ن� ي��ن�� ن� �� ���� �ن � �� ن� �كم ي ن��هي� و�عم�ل�� ا ن نع �ن � ن �ه�و �م���و� �ع�ي�ر �مم�ل�و� . �م� �ي���ن���هي� � م ن ي ن اأ ّ ا ن ن � أ أ ن � �ن � ن ي �ن ��ا � ن ا ��ل�� �عي��د ا �� ل��ن ��س�ا أ � � � ه � �� �� �� �� س س م م � م � � ل ل ي� ر ن ي �ل � ن ور �� �م� �م� �ر ��ط ا �و ا �ر ��ط ل�ي� ا �����ي�ره ن ي أ أ أ ّ ّ � � ���ل ن�م� �لي ي�� نه ا ��ل�� ن��ل�� �ي� أا ��ل�� ا �� ن �ر�ا �هي ا �و ا ��لن ��ي����ا ن� ن���ي��د ن�� ّ�� نّ��ا ا ن� ا � ن �ر�ا �هي � او �لن ��ي����ا ن� ل��ن� �� �� � ي ي ي ي م � ّ أ ن � � ا ا� �ن ن � ي � � � ش ا ا ن � � � � � � ا � � � � � ا � ه � � ل ا ا ا � ا � � � � � � ح��ه �عم�ل�� ن� �سرو ن� م� ل��سر و ��وع م� ن��لي� وم�� ره وي �و� ���ل � �عم�ل�� م��د ر �نل��� � ن أ أ أ أ � هي ل�ن ا ��� ن�� �� �ي � .ن�ا �ّم�ا ن ��ا �هي � نّ � � � ن ش ن ��ا � �ي�ه ا � �ن �لي����ا �ن�ه �من���ا � �م ن ش��س ا �أل ��� � ن � ���ا ا�ام�د ��ور �ي� �ل ل � و � و� ر � ح ��ط ا �ل����� ري ري � �ن�� � ن � ن � ي أ � � ن �� ا � �أن� ش نم� � �� ن � ��� � �ي هي ا � � ي � � �ي � ي ا �عم�ل� ا �ل�د ��ر م� ا �����ي ره ا �و ا �ل�د ��ر�عم�ل� �ل� ��� �لي����� ن�ل ر �رل�� �و ��ده �و�ل� ن�� ر �عم�ل� �و�يره � � � � م ّي أ أ ّ ن ن ن ن ��ر���ا ن�كي��ه ��ر �عم�ل� ا ن�لش��ا ه ل��� ���د ا ا�ام�سن��� �ور��م�ا نرا � ي� ا ن� ��ش� �عم�ل� � �� ���دهي .ن�لم�ل ر��م�ا نرا � � �� � � او ن ن ي � �
90
90
٢،٩٥
٣،٩٥
On why women are more jealous than men; on the nature and moral status of jealousy
other is slacker. With some people, jealousy has led to the destruction of life, the loss of blessings, and the abandonment of their home. Then in the subsequent question you asked: What is jealousy in the first place? What is its basic reality? What is one to say about its principles and its specifics? What does its etymological derivation reveal? Is it commendable or is it blameworthy? Is the person who experiences it deserving of praise or censure? By bringing up these topics, you are more certain to arrive at instructive insights and reach the goal you desire, and by uncovering them you will also gain knowledge of other topics and pass on to topics beyond them. Miskawayh’s response Jealousy is a natural ethical trait that is present among both human beings and
95.2
beasts. It is praiseworthy if it conforms to the conditions that apply to all traits, that is, if it is put in its proper place and neither oversteps nor falls short of the requisite measure, after the pattern of all the ethical traits we mentioned earlier, such as anger and appetite. For these are natural ethical traits; the ones praised are those that do not depart from the balanced state and attain the place proper to them. The basic reality of jealousy consists in guarding one’s womenfolk and the protection of their chastity for the sake of preserving progeny and lineage. So the person who deserves to be commended and not censured is the one whose jealousy is directed to that end, and who neither oversteps what is right by ruling on the basis of groundless accusations and by giving credence to false suppositions and, on their basis, hastening to mete out punishment, nor falls short of what is right by overlooking clear indications and by failing to be roused to rancor by things seen and heard if these are true. He is the one who, with his ethical trait balanced between these extremes, feels anger in the right manner and for the right reasons. Those who are remiss or immoderate in jealousy are like those who, in all ethical traits, overstep the balance, be it to excess or deficiency. We have shown clearly that excess and deficiency in every ethical trait expose the person to many kinds of evils and all manner of adversities and woes; and one’s ruin is proportionate to the degree of excess or deficiency exhibited and to the conditions mentioned earlier in our discussion of ethics. There is no single pattern or principle for whether the female has a greater share of jealousy than the male, or the male a greater share than the female. Sometimes the male may
91
91
95.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ نّ � ن �أ ي ن �� اأ ��ل � ا ��م ا � ا ي �ك� ���� ن�� ��له�م�ا ن� ��لم�ك ل��ن �ي��ّ هي ا ���ن�� ن �� ن� �و�ع�ي�ره �م ن� ا �ل�� ن��ل�� �� �عم�ل� ا � ا �ل��د ��ر �و�� ن� �� م� ه � �م ي � � ي� ُو أ ّر ن �ن ي � �أّ ي �� ش �ي ن أ ي � ن � ن � ي ي � ن � ّ ن ن ح�� �نل���د ا ا �ل � او ن� �� ن� � او ل��من���ا �ع�ه �و���د ا ا �و�ل�� �ن�ا �ل��د ��ر �م ن��ه �م�ل�� �ل���ه ����س�ه�مم�ل �كي��ه ���وه ا ����� � �أ � �أ ي ن � ن� �ن�ا �ل�� ن� ��ش� � او ن� ك� ���ا ن�� ي� ا �ل� ن� ��ش� � ش��س�ا رك �كي��ه ا �ل��د ���ر. أ أ ّ � ا ن ا نّ �ش ً ّ � � ا �ي ن ن � نا ن �ي � � ا ��� �أ� � ك� ���ي�را �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �يل ن��م�ل �ع ن� �و ن��ه �و������ �مل�ه �ل� �ن� ��� �ن��د ��ر��� � او �ل���ن�يس�ه �عملي� أّ ّ � ���ا ن� ��س�����ا ا ��ل ش���ه� هي � � ّ � � يأ ش ا ن� ���ا �و��ه� ا ن� ا ���ن���ي�رهي أا ن� ا ���ا ن� ا� ح ي� �ي��و�يل���ا �وك� ح ن� ا �ل���س���س� ر �و و نن� أل��� او ن� كي� ي � � � ن ن ن �ن ي ّ � ن ا ن � ا � � ش ا �� ن ���ا ن�ع�ي�ره �وك� ���ا ن� ���د ا ا �����ا ر ن��� ��ل�ه ل��� ن�ع�ي�ر �ر�مي��ه � او � يح���� ا �لأ����س� � ن �� �ل �ل� ي���س� ر ���ه �كي� ي أ � � � � ن اأ � ن� ن �� ن ه ن ه �ن ا �ي�م ن ��ا ن�� ي �م ش ا �أ ��� ي ن� ���س� �ورر�ع� ��ه�و �سر ن ي � ���ا ا � ��ي� � ���ر ي� � �أاو � ك�� � ع�ل�� ��سر ل � �و�ل� م� ن�م�ل ح��ط � ن ن ج ي ن أ أ ّ ا ي � ن �ي ّ ي ن ي � ن ي ��م ي ن ي ن ���د ل��ن ���� ن ح��س ن ن� ح ه � � � � � � ه ه ه � � � � ا � � �م � ا � �� ه ه ح م � � � � �د ���د ل � ن � م � � ع ع � � � � � س � � م � � ط � � ي � �ه�و ا ر � ي ل و ن �� و و ن ي� ن � � � ن � ن ا ��نل ن� ن � �ُ ّ �ي �� ا ��ل � حي �� او ن� �م ن� �ل�� �ي���ر ن��� ��ل�ه ا ��ن���ي�رهي ك� ���ا �� � �� �ن�ه ا �لأ�����س�ا ن� أا � ا ��مل ن� � او �ل�ي����� �و�� رير� 1وي�� ن نُ ن � أ ن ًا ن ا ن ً � ا ً ن �ن� � �� � ان ��ا ��� ش ن � � ّ ا ا � � � ل � � م � � � � � ه ه س � � � ا � � � س ا ا � ع م م د ه �� � � � � � ح ل � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � ع ك � �� م � � � و ن ي� ن � ن ��� و ي ر � �ول ي �و � �ل� ي �ور ي � ر ن و �مي� ن أ �ن ُ � ن �� ا � � ن ا ن ا ن ا شُ ّ ه � ه � �ُ�س ّ � ا ��س ه �ن � ي ا � �ن � ه ا �� ّ �� ��ا ��لي � � � ل ه � � م � �د � � � � � � �� � ع ل�� �� � � س �� م �� س � �� � �� ل � � م و و أ ن � ن ن ي� ن ر يس�م�دج �ن� ر أ ن ن ي � ّ أ آ ا� ا �� ش � � ا� ا ن � � �لي ل�ن ا � �د �ه ا ن ا � � ن� �ن ن ا �� ا �� ن� � ي ن ن �ن ���د ه �� ل ���ي ره �هر �م� ���د ا ا �لم �� �ي� �� �م� � �و� �ل� ر� . � او�م�دج� �ن� ����ن����� أا �ل� �م� �يل �� � � �يع �ي ي ا � ا � أ ن ُ� � � ن أ ُ ن ّ ���ا ا �و �ي��د � . ��� �و م� ي نح ن� ا � ي�م�دج م � �وح ي�ع � م
٤،٩٥
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ ن أ�ش ا � �ن ن أ نّ � ن ن ي ن ي ن ��ص� ن� ل��ي� ا � ا �ل��دي� ن� ٢ي��م� �و ��و� �و��ه �ش��نس�ا � ا ����ر �م ن� ا �ل��دي� ن� ي��م� �و ��و� �و��ه �ش��ي ��و�؟ ���� ا �ل� ن مأ ج م � ّ ش أ ّ � � ن ن � � أ نّ� ي� � � � ����ر�و ن� �ل���نل�ه� ك� ���د ا �ل ش���ي ��و ن� ا �يم�ل �و���و�ل�� � ��لم�ك �� � ���ا �ن��وا ���ا �ن�� او �ي� ا �ل ش��س�ا ���د �عم�ل�� � �لمك ا ��م ك ن ج م �مي� ا ن ن � ش ي �� �� � ي �� � ي �� ا ��ل��ش�م ن�� ن ي ن �ل ّ ا ّ ��ل ن ن ه ل ا � � �و��ه �م �م� � ن� ا �ح ل ل ه � ي� � �م� �م ل��ي� � �و�ي� ي ن�� �ور�و� ا �ل��سن��ي�نس�ه أا ل�� ا ����ل�ه�و�ل�ه � او ����� و أ � � ّ � ا �� �ي �ل � ن ن ن � ي ّ ي ا ��ل ش���س�ا اأ ن�ك ن��ا �ه� � ي ن ح ��ط�� ل�مي�م�ل م � �و�ه�و �م�لي�م�ل. �ه� �كن�م�ل� �ع او ا �ل�� ش��يسم ن� ن ن� مو � م ج أ ��� ٢ .الاأ�ص� :ن� ا �ل ن�د � ن ش �لن ن ن ن ة ن ةس. ل ة� 1الا�ص�ل :وا ����ة�� ،رة�ا د � ���س ا ����ه�ا � س
92
92
١،٩٦
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ نّ � ن �أ ي ن �� اأ ��ل � ا ��م ا � ا ي �ك� ���� ن�� ��له�م�ا ن� ��لم�ك ل��ن �ي��ّ هي ا ���ن�� ن �� ن� �و�ع�ي�ره �م ن� ا �ل�� ن��ل�� �� �عم�ل� ا � ا �ل��د ��ر �و�� ن� �� م� ه � �م ي � � ي� ُو أ ّر ن �ن ي � �أّ ي �� ش �ي ن أ ي � ن � ن � ي ي � ن � ّ ن ن ح�� �نل���د ا ا �ل � او ن� �� ن� � او ل��من���ا �ع�ه �و���د ا ا �و�ل�� �ن�ا �ل��د ��ر �م ن��ه �م�ل�� �ل���ه ����س�ه�مم�ل �كي��ه ���وه ا ����� � �أ � �أ ي ن � ن� �ن�ا �ل�� ن� ��ش� � او ن� ك� ���ا ن�� ي� ا �ل� ن� ��ش� � ش��س�ا رك �كي��ه ا �ل��د ���ر. أ أ ّ � ا ن ا نّ �ش ً ّ � � ا �ي ن ن � نا ن �ي � � ا ��� �أ� � ك� ���ي�را �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �يل ن��م�ل �ع ن� �و ن��ه �و������ �مل�ه �ل� �ن� ��� �ن��د ��ر��� � او �ل���ن�يس�ه �عملي� أّ ّ � ���ا ن� ��س�����ا ا ��ل ش���ه� هي � � ّ � � يأ ش ا ن� ���ا �و��ه� ا ن� ا ���ن���ي�رهي أا ن� ا ���ا ن� ا� ح ي� �ي��و�يل���ا �وك� ح ن� ا �ل���س���س� ر �و و نن� أل��� او ن� كي� ي � � � ن ن ن �ن ي ّ � ن ا ن � ا � � ش ا �� ن ���ا ن�ع�ي�ره �وك� ���ا ن� ���د ا ا �����ا ر ن��� ��ل�ه ل��� ن�ع�ي�ر �ر�مي��ه � او � يح���� ا �لأ����س� � ن �� �ل �ل� ي���س� ر ���ه �كي� ي أ � � � � ن اأ � ن� ن �� ن ه ن ه �ن ا �ي�م ن ��ا ن�� ي �م ش ا �أ ��� ي ن� ���س� �ورر�ع� ��ه�و �سر ن ي � ���ا ا � ��ي� � ���ر ي� � �أاو � ك�� � ع�ل�� ��سر ل � �و�ل� م� ن�م�ل ح��ط � ن ن ج ي ن أ أ ّ ا ي � ن �ي ّ ي ن ي � ن ي ��م ي ن ي ن ���د ل��ن ���� ن ح��س ن ن� ح ه � � � � � � ه ه ه � � � � ا � � �م � ا � �� ه ه ح م � � � � �د ���د ل � ن � م � � ع ع � � � � � س � � م � � ط � � ي � �ه�و ا ر � ي ل و ن �� و و ن ي� ن � � � ن � ن ا ��نل ن� ن � �ُ ّ �ي �� ا ��ل � حي �� او ن� �م ن� �ل�� �ي���ر ن��� ��ل�ه ا ��ن���ي�رهي ك� ���ا �� � �� �ن�ه ا �لأ�����س�ا ن� أا � ا ��مل ن� � او �ل�ي����� �و�� رير� 1وي�� ن نُ ن � أ ن ًا ن ا ن ً � ا ً ن �ن� � �� � ان ��ا ��� ش ن � � ّ ا ا � � � ل � � م � � � � � ه ه س � � � ا � � � س ا ا � ع م م د ه �� � � � � � ح ل � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � ع ك � �� م � � � و ن ي� ن � ن ��� و ي ر � �ول ي �و � �ل� ي �ور ي � ر ن و �مي� ن أ �ن ُ � ن �� ا � � ن ا ن ا ن ا شُ ّ ه � ه � �ُ�س ّ � ا ��س ه �ن � ي ا � �ن � ه ا �� ّ �� ��ا ��لي � � � ل ه � � م � �د � � � � � � �� � ع ل�� �� � � س �� م �� س � �� � �� ل � � م و و أ ن � ن ن ي� ن ر يس�م�دج �ن� ر أ ن ن ي � ّ أ آ ا� ا �� ش � � ا� ا ن � � �لي ل�ن ا � �د �ه ا ن ا � � ن� �ن ن ا �� ا �� ن� � ي ن ن �ن ���د ه �� ل ���ي ره �هر �م� ���د ا ا �لم �� �ي� �� �م� � �و� �ل� ر� . � او�م�دج� �ن� ����ن����� أا �ل� �م� �يل �� � � �يع �ي ي ا � ا � أ ن ُ� � � ن أ ُ ن ّ ���ا ا �و �ي��د � . ��� �و م� ي نح ن� ا � ي�م�دج م � �وح ي�ع � م
٤،٩٥
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ ن أ�ش ا � �ن ن أ نّ � ن ن ي ن ي ن ��ص� ن� ل��ي� ا � ا �ل��دي� ن� ٢ي��م� �و ��و� �و��ه �ش��نس�ا � ا ����ر �م ن� ا �ل��دي� ن� ي��م� �و ��و� �و��ه �ش��ي ��و�؟ ���� ا �ل� ن مأ ج م � ّ ش أ ّ � � ن ن � � أ نّ� ي� � � � ����ر�و ن� �ل���نل�ه� ك� ���د ا �ل ش���ي ��و ن� ا �يم�ل �و���و�ل�� � ��لم�ك �� � ���ا �ن��وا ���ا �ن�� او �ي� ا �ل ش��س�ا ���د �عم�ل�� � �لمك ا ��م ك ن ج م �مي� ا ن ن � ش ي �� �� � ي �� � ي �� ا ��ل��ش�م ن�� ن ي ن �ل ّ ا ّ ��ل ن ن ه ل ا � � �و��ه �م �م� � ن� ا �ح ل ل ه � ي� � �م� �م ل��ي� � �و�ي� ي ن�� �ور�و� ا �ل��سن��ي�نس�ه أا ل�� ا ����ل�ه�و�ل�ه � او ����� و أ � � ّ � ا �� �ي �ل � ن ن ن � ي ّ ي ا ��ل ش���س�ا اأ ن�ك ن��ا �ه� � ي ن ح ��ط�� ل�مي�م�ل م � �و�ه�و �م�لي�م�ل. �ه� �كن�م�ل� �ع او ا �ل�� ش��يسم ن� ن ن� مو � م ج أ ��� ٢ .الاأ�ص� :ن� ا �ل ن�د � ن ش �لن ن ن ن ة ن ةس. ل ة� 1الا�ص�ل :وا ����ة�� ،رة�ا د � ���س ا ����ه�ا � س
92
92
١،٩٦
On why more people die young than die old
exceed his female partner in his response, while sometimes the female may exceed her male partner, as happens with the power of anger and other ethical traits. Yet protective action is more appropriate for males, and this trait is more specific to them, as it involves the exercise of the power of anger and courage; this is more appropriate to males than to females, though females also have a share. There is no harm in mentioning and highlighting a particular aspect here,
95.4
as many people err on this point. It is repugnant if the power of jealousy is excited and this is caused by appetite, by the desire for sole possession and for exclusive enjoyment of a condition shared by nobody else, and if this response concerns women who are not one’s own and is not directed to the preservation of one’s lineage and seed. It is a good and fine thing if it conforms to the conditions I have mentioned. The sudden onslaught of this power, however, is a repugnant defect. We find certain animals unaffected by jealousy, such as dogs, billy goats, and swine. The names of these animals serve as terms of abuse when used to describe human beings. We also find some that are prone to jealousy and protective behavior, such as rams and other stud animals, and these names serve as terms of praise when human beings are likened to them. I know of no other reason why “male goat” serves as a term of abuse and “ram” as a term of praise apart from the manifestation of this particular trait in one and not the other. These are the facts concerning jealousy, its basic reality, and which expressions of it are to be praised and which blamed.
On why more people die young than die old What is the reason there are more people who die young than die old? This is attested by the fact that we see fewer old people around us; otherwise there would be more of them, for they would pass from youth to middle age, and from middle age to old age. Death, prevalent among the young, depletes their ranks, and only a fraction pass from that stage to old age, so they are few and far between.
93
93
96.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ ��ل ي ي ي � ن ّ ن ن ن ن ن� ا � �م�ا ��ا ��� �ن�اأ ���س�ا � أا ���س�ا � �و� �لم�ك ح��ا ه ��ا ن�����ه �ا�س ن ارجن �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ا �ي أ � أّ ش � � �ي � � ن �ي � � ي ���د � او ��نل � ا�ا�س نار ن� �ل�ه ن��م�� نر�ل�ه ا �لن��ي� ����ه �م ن� ا �ل��د ا أ�رهي ا �عن��� ا �ن�ه ����ي� ء � او � حر�ون� �ع ن��ه أا �ل�� ا �لن��� ��ط ي ج ج أ � ي �� ّ ن � ن ا ي ن � أ نّ �� ّ � �ي ����ل أا �ن��س�ا ن� � �و�ا ن ��حلم�ل�ه � � �وا ��لي��ه �م ّ�م�ا �ي�لي� ن� �م ن��ه ا �و ي�لن����د �ع��ه �ن�ل� �ل��� ��ه �و� �لم�ك ا � � � ���ل� ا � ��ي� �� ي ر ن ن ي �ً� ن ا ًّ � � � ي � هي ن ا ن ن� ن ن ���ا ��ه ��� ن ا ��ل � � ح ار رهي � او �ر ��ط� �و�ه � او �لن��ر�و�هي � او �لين� ��و��س� �أ� � ا ا حي �� او � ا �ع��د ا �ل� �� � ن ن حر�� �ع� � ي ن ن أ أ أ ��� ش ّ نّ � �أ � ي ني � � � ن � � ا � � ي �� ��ل ا � ا � �� ا �ن � ن ���ه ا �و ���ل� ���ه �� .أا � ا �ل�� ��ور ا � ��� � حر ن��ه � �لمك �ل�ع��د ا ل أا �� � ��د �ل� �ر � ك ���ا � �سر� ي م أ أ � � �أ � ن ��ش� ي �م ن ا � � ن ن � هي � ا � � ش � هي � ا �� ا ء ا �� ا � ا ��ل ه � ا � �� ي ن ي ن ��س�� ش��س�ا �� �و�ع�ي�ره أا �ل�� ا �ل� ��� ار �� ك���ي ره � �ل��ع�دي� و �ل���سر� و ل�ه�و ��و �م�ل أ ي�� ن� �ل� ن ��ا ي ه ا ��ل��� � ّ هي ن � ا ��ل��� � ّ هي �م ّ ا ن� ه � ن ن � � � ي � �ش� هي � ا � �آ�ن ا ي ا � �أ�ن � � � ��يسعي�� �م� يحر ن�� ع� ���د ا ا �ل�ع��د ا �ل ك��ي ر و �ل� � � �ل� ر� ��يسعي�� �و�ع�ي ر ن �و�رك�� �� ن ُ ي � ّ ��ش� ي ن ��ا ن ي ا � �أ ا ا �� ي ن� � ا � � ن ا ن ا � ي �ي �� أ ن ن ا � �م ا � � ي ��س� ن� ��ي� يحرنج �لأ����س� � �� ك���ي ره � .أاو � ا ك�� ��� �ل�� ن ���ي� ل�� ار �م� �� رنج �م� �ل� ����� ن أ � � � ي � ��ن ّ � ���ش�ي�رهي �ن�ل�� �نل���ا �ي�هي � او ��ل�����س�ا ن� ا � ��ي �ي���ش� ي� �نل���ا �عم�ل� ا �ل� �ع��د ا �ل ا ل �نل���ا �ع ن� ا �ل�� �عي��د ا ��ل ك� ��ا ���� 1ن�ه ن ن � � ي ي ا� �ن ا ن�� ي �ع ًا ا ����ه � يّ ن ي ن ّ ي � � هي حن�� ن�لم�ل ن� � �� �م� � �� �ر�ه ن� ���د ه. ح ن� ���و ا � �ل �ع� � �ملي�مل� �وي���س�ي ره �م �ي �� � � � أ نّ � ي � ���ّه � � ن ا ن � ن ن ا ش ي �� �ي ا هي � ن ��م� هي � ن ح� ن � ���ط ا ��ل ��� ��س�د �ي��ده � او ��و � �ي� �و���و�ل� ا � ا ���ع ن��ا �ي�ه ا�ام�وك�ل� ن حي �� او � ك�مل� � او �لأ����س� � م� ن��ي�� � أ � �ن �� � ن ح�م�� �م�ا ن� ��� � ���� ن �م�ا ن� ن�كي��ا �ّمم� ن� � �ي�ه �م ن ��ل�ه �ي�ا �ّم�هي �ن�ا ��ن���هي �� � ���ا � �ل� �ي���و� �ن�ي� ن� �و ن�� �و�ه �و�ع�د �م�ه كن� ي ر ر ي ل ر � ن � � ن ن � ي �� ن ي أ آ ع ن ا ن هي � ن ا ّهي ��ا ر ن��هي �ع ن ���د � ا �ل����س�ا � �و� ك���ا �ل���ا ام � ا ��ل�� ن��ا ي� ا ��ل��د ا ن�م�ل�هي � او ��نل حي�م� �لن��ه ا �عن��� �م�� ر�ع� ا �ل�� ر�ي� ر ن � أ ي��ّ ا ن ي ا� ا أ ّ ي ن � �� ي � ن ش ّ ن � �� ي � ّ ���د �من�ه�م�ا ا � � � �كي��ه أا �ل�� �ر���ه ا ����م�ل�و �و�م ن�� ر�ع�ه ا�م� �لي��ه �م��ه أا �ل�� �ر���ه ا �ل��م��م�ل ��م �ر��� ���ل و ا � ي ش ّ ا�� ا ي � ي ي �ن ن ن � � � ي � ن ا � يّ �ل �����س�عي ه � ا ن�ك ن ا ء ا � �آ ن م � ح � � � ه ه � � � � � � ل � �� � � ا � ا ا ا ا ل � ع � ���ده � � ه� �د � � م ح � � � � � � � � � م � � ط � � ل � ل � � و ن � ن � ي و ي ن ن ي �� ع�ل��أ أ �� �ل� ر أ م آ ش � � � � � � ي ن ن � ي � � ن � ���د �ه�م�ا �عم�ل� ا �ل��ر �م� ����ره ا �ل ش����ه� او ي� � او�ام ن��ا ر�عم� ي� أا �ل�� �م�ا �ه�و �ل� �م �ل�� ي� ن �ري��د �ي��ّوهي ا � ��ا �ل�ه را �أ��د � �ن أ � �ه ا ن ا �ي � ن � �آ ن ي� �ع � �أ ��م ن ن �ًا � ن ا ي ش ي �� أ���ش �م ّ ا � � ن �ن ل��� �مش�م�ل�ه ل�ي� ا � ��د �م� �� ���� م� ا �ل��ر ن��د ا �ل��سرح� �عو ���� ن��ع�� �ي�ه ��س�د �ي��ده أا ل�� ا �� ر �م� ي � �م�� ي أ ّ � ش � ي � � ن� ن � � حي � ا �ل ��� ء �� � ّ � �م ن ا �ل � ��ط �� � � � ��س ح � �ل� ��سن��ي�م�ل أا �ل�� �م�ي��ا �و�مي��ه. � � ي ي� ي� ن ي �هي أ � ي � �مش�م� ن� ��لم�ك ��س ا ن� يُ� ن ن � ا � ن ي � ي � � ن ا م ا �ّ ن� أ ن ن ا � � ن � � ن ح�� ��ط �ن� � �ل��يسمل�ه � او �ل�د ��� � او� �و و ل حي�س�ه �م� �� رنج ا ع��ي� ا �ل�د ��� ر ج � ن ا أ � ن ا ���� ن �� ي � ��ش ن � ��ن � � � ا �� � ا � ا ��� ا �ن هي ا �� ي � � ي ا� ك �����ي�ر ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و ��سن�� ن� أا ��ط��� ��ه � او �ل�� ر ا �ي��سم�ه ا � ��ي� ��هي� ���د �لمك و ر� ��� ���� ��ي� �ل� يج �� ا �ي هي �� ه � ا � � ��س���م ا ��ل � ن ح� ن � �����ه �م� ا ن ا ن � ن � ح�م�� ن � � ّ ي � � ي ن � ّ ن ��� � ل� نل��� �و�ل� ن ي �ل أ �� � ��� �أ� � ا ��سل��م �م� ن ي ع � �لمك �م�د ه ��ط�ي�ولمل�ه ��ل� �ن��د �م� أ ّ 1الا�ص�ل :ن��ا �س.
94
94
٢،٩٦
٣،٩٦
٤،٩٦
On why more people die young than die old
Miskawayh’s response Life is contingent on the humoral mixture peculiar to each person. This mix-
96.2
ture is like a point within a circle; that is, it is a single thing and any departure from it toward the points that surround it, whether near or far, can extend ad infinitum. All people, and all animals generally, have a balance between heat, moisture, coldness, and dryness peculiar to them, and if they deviate from the balance to one of the extremes, they succumb to illness or death. Moreover, there are many things that displace them to the extremes, including, among other things, foods, drinks, and the air that reaches them through breathing. Many of their natural and nonnatural movements displace them from this balance, and many other unforeseeable impairments befall them from external sources. Given the plethora of innumerable causes that displace people from the balanced state, and given the paucity and sparsity of causes that keep them in that state, there is little to wonder at in the situation you described—but it would indeed be worthy of wonder if the opposite obtained. But for the enormous care directed to the preservation of all animals and
96.3
human beings in particular, and the consummate and extensive protection afforded to them, there would not be a great length of time between their existence and nonexistence. So let your thoughts dwell on all I have mentioned: on the impairments internal and external to the human body and their different movements, that is, the way the element of fire it incorporates inclines to an upward movement and the element of water it incorporates inclines to a downward movement; on the ardent desire to annihilate and transmute the other natural to each; on the struggle required to preserve the balance, so that the power of the one does not exceed that of the other, set against the existence of numerous appetites and inclinations toward things that are calculated to increase the one and decrease the other. You will then find that everything is preserved with enormous care to the greatest extent possible in such circumstances, until finally some natural element that cannot be withstood presents itself. One might compare this to a lamp preserved through a wick and oil while different material elements come to it from the outside—large quantities of oil and strong flames that cause it to be extinguished, and strong winds that it cannot resist and in the face of which it cannot possibly be preserved. If it survives all this for a long period of time, it unavoidably succumbs to natural exhaustion. That is, across the passage of time the heat inevitably depletes
95
95
96.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ن ا ا �� �� ّ أ � ن أ نّ ��ل ي �ي ي ن �ي � � �م � ي ن ن �� � � ن ن � ن ��يس��ه ا ع��� ا � ا � ا � �لع�� ء ل� ح ار ره ���س��ر� �ل� ��ا �ل�ه �م�ا ي���عي��د �ي� �ن�ه �عم�ل�� � � طو�ل ا � نر�م�ا � �كي����و� ن ي� أ ي ّ � ن � نا ن ن � ي ا �� ن� � ن ّهي �ن ���د ا �مش�م� �م� � � �م �����ا ن� ��ي �لم�ل�سق�مشّ�م� ��ه � او ن� ا �ي ن�لع�يّ��د ي� ا ��ل ح ار ره ��ر �ري� حم� ا � �لع ن��ا ء �ن�ه �و�م� ا ن�مل�ه �أ� � لن ل ي � أ ي � � ي � �أ ي ا� ّ ج �� ي ن ن ا � ي ا ا ��ل � ا � ن� ن � ي ن ي � ��ط ��� او ���ا �ن�ل�� ر�ي�ا �ه �و�ل� �ن �ل����ا � � او �ك ن��ا �أل���ا ا �ر ��ط� �و�ه ا �ل���م�ليّ��ه �م� ا�م� او � ��� أ �� م� يح �و�� نح � أ ن ّ � � ا اأ � ي نع ي نّ ّ � ي ا ���ي �ي�اأي�ل���ا �م ن ن��ا � � �ي� �يل��ا �عم ا �ل����ا �ل�ه � ن ��� نع����ا ا ���م�ل�� ي � ه � � �ل ع � � � ل م � �� � � � � ع � م س � � � � و � و ن ي� �ي� ي� � رنج و �و � �ل�� أ ل�� � �� � �م�ا ن �سر�� ي� �ن�ه ا�امش�م�ل. لمك � ن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
����ا ا ��ل���ص�� ل��ن ����م�ل� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ن��سم�ا ي����سم���ه � � �لي �ع ��ل�ه � � ن�لع��م�ل�ه � � ّ� �� ن�ك��ه ا ��ل��أ�مش��ا ��ل؟ � �م�ا ي و ويرو ي ي ن ن ي� ن وي و وي أ أ ن ي � ن ان ن ا نّ ل�ن ا�ا�ِش ا�ا� ش ا ا� ا �ش � هي ي ي أ ا ا ن ��ا �أ��ده ا�امش�م�ل؟ �و�م�ا �ع ن��ا �وه �م�� 1م� �� ه؟ �و�عم�ل�� �م� � ا � ار ره؟ �أ� � �ي� م�م�ل �و ِم�م�ل �و�م�م� لمل� ي ا ��سي ش � ً ً ن ي �و �م�يسم�ل � ��ل�� �م�ا را �أ�لي��ا �و�عم� �ي�ه ش��س �ر�لن��ه. ي
١،٩٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � �� � � ا ��ّ �م ّ�م�ا �ي��د ���� �س � ن��سم�ا ���� �ي��د ���� ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ ا ��ل��أ�مش��ا �� ا نّ��م�ا �يُلن ا � ّ ل � � � ه ا � �ه ه � م��س� � م � ع � � � ل � � � ل � ل ي ر وي ر أ أ ر و � رن �� �ل ا ن و � � ي أ � �� ّ � ن ن ا � ا ن ن أ ّ � �� ن ا � �أنّ ا ا أ � �عم�ل� �م ن��ا � �من���ا �ن ن � � ن ن ���س�ا ��ا ��ل �وا ��� �أاو � �لع�� �ل��� �م��د ا �و�ل ��و�ل��� �و�ل��ل��� �من�� � � و و � � او �ل��سن�� ن� ل�ي� � �لمك ا � ُ ن أ أ ُّ � ���ا ن� ن�ع �ل�ً�ا ن�ر �يل���ي أا ��ل�� ن�ع�ي�ر���ا � .او ن� ا ا ن�ن��ر ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ن��م�ا ا�� �ي��د ر ��� ��ه ا �و ���د ش� ن��م�ا ا� ي� ش��س�ا ���ده �وك� يرن أ ي� أ م ُم � � � ش ا �ً� ن �� �ن �� ه � � �� ن ه � � ّ �ن ا ن أ � � ن � � أ ن ل � � ه ه ه � � ا � ا � � � ا ا ا ل � � � �ع ن��ده ��مل ن� ل� م�� �ل� م� ح��� أ� � ع�ط�� � �لمك ���� ن� و � �س�� أ ي�� �لأ� ل�� ل� . ي � ا ي أ � ن ًا ن �� ا ن�� أ �ع ن أ نّ ن ا نًا �� ُ �ّ ش � ن ا �� ن ا هي �و�ي�د ���� ن�� ل��ن� ا�م � ح����و��س� � ا يل ��� ���د ا ا ���� ر � ا ��� ا � أا ���س� �� ��و ��د � ع� ل���� �م� � ير� ي ي ي أ �ن ني � ا �� ي ا � � � � أ ن ُ � � ّ ن ي ّ ي � � � �س ه �عملي��ه �ويح��م� ح� � ح��س�ه ا �و ا �ررا ��ه � او � �لعي�م�ل �و �سم��س� �ل���مل ن� ا � �يل���ور �ل�ه �لي ��ع� ل ع �نل� ر ن ج ّ ّ � � ّ ا ��ل��س � ّ � ���� � �ليعن�� � �سم�ا ���� � �لي ح��ّ ا ��ل��س�م� � � � �سر ن� ه ا ل � ح � ح�ي� �ير� ه أا �لي��ه ن���ي��نس�ه. � �� � � ل ن � ن ر ي� و ي ع ي ري � ع ي ن نّ ن نً � ُ ّ أ ّ ً � � ن � �أ �ن ا� مو�ه� �و�ا � �أ�ا � أا ���س�ا ��ا � ��و ك� ��م� �لن� ا ن� ي�لي��و��ه � �و � حي �� او �ن�ا ا� ي� ش��س�ا ���د �مش�م�ل�ه �����د ا ا �ل��سر ل�ي� ا� � ُن ّم م أ ّ نا ن ن � أ� ّ � � ن ن �� ن � ن ن ي ���د ا ا ��ل حي �� او � �ل��س�ا �ل �ع ن� �مش�م�ل�ه �وك�م�ل�� �منِ��ره ا � �يل���ور �ل�ه �مش�م�ل �عن����ا ء �م��رن� �أ� � أ 1الا�ص�ل :و�هو ��� نس.
96
96
٢،٩٧
٣،٩٧
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ن ا ا �� �� ّ أ � ن أ نّ ��ل ي �ي ي ن �ي � � �م � ي ن ن �� � � ن ن � ن ��يس��ه ا ع��� ا � ا � ا � �لع�� ء ل� ح ار ره ���س��ر� �ل� ��ا �ل�ه �م�ا ي���عي��د �ي� �ن�ه �عم�ل�� � � طو�ل ا � نر�م�ا � �كي����و� ن ي� أ ي ّ � ن � نا ن ن � ي ا �� ن� � ن ّهي �ن ���د ا �مش�م� �م� � � �م �����ا ن� ��ي �لم�ل�سق�مشّ�م� ��ه � او ن� ا �ي ن�لع�يّ��د ي� ا ��ل ح ار ره ��ر �ري� حم� ا � �لع ن��ا ء �ن�ه �و�م� ا ن�مل�ه �أ� � لن ل ي � أ ي � � ي � �أ ي ا� ّ ج �� ي ن ن ا � ي ا ا ��ل � ا � ن� ن � ي ن ي � ��ط ��� او ���ا �ن�ل�� ر�ي�ا �ه �و�ل� �ن �ل����ا � � او �ك ن��ا �أل���ا ا �ر ��ط� �و�ه ا �ل���م�ليّ��ه �م� ا�م� او � ��� أ �� م� يح �و�� نح � أ ن ّ � � ا اأ � ي نع ي نّ ّ � ي ا ���ي �ي�اأي�ل���ا �م ن ن��ا � � �ي� �يل��ا �عم ا �ل����ا �ل�ه � ن ��� نع����ا ا ���م�ل�� ي � ه � � �ل ع � � � ل م � �� � � � � ع � م س � � � � و � و ن ي� �ي� ي� � رنج و �و � �ل�� أ ل�� � �� � �م�ا ن �سر�� ي� �ن�ه ا�امش�م�ل. لمك � ن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
����ا ا ��ل���ص�� ل��ن ����م�ل� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ن��سم�ا ي����سم���ه � � �لي �ع ��ل�ه � � ن�لع��م�ل�ه � � ّ� �� ن�ك��ه ا ��ل��أ�مش��ا ��ل؟ � �م�ا ي و ويرو ي ي ن ن ي� ن وي و وي أ أ ن ي � ن ان ن ا نّ ل�ن ا�ا�ِش ا�ا� ش ا ا� ا �ش � هي ي ي أ ا ا ن ��ا �أ��ده ا�امش�م�ل؟ �و�م�ا �ع ن��ا �وه �م�� 1م� �� ه؟ �و�عم�ل�� �م� � ا � ار ره؟ �أ� � �ي� م�م�ل �و ِم�م�ل �و�م�م� لمل� ي ا ��سي ش � ً ً ن ي �و �م�يسم�ل � ��ل�� �م�ا را �أ�لي��ا �و�عم� �ي�ه ش��س �ر�لن��ه. ي
١،٩٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � �� � � ا ��ّ �م ّ�م�ا �ي��د ���� �س � ن��سم�ا ���� �ي��د ���� ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ ا ��ل��أ�مش��ا �� ا نّ��م�ا �يُلن ا � ّ ل � � � ه ا � �ه ه � م��س� � م � ع � � � ل � � � ل � ل ي ر وي ر أ أ ر و � رن �� �ل ا ن و � � ي أ � �� ّ � ن ن ا � ا ن ن أ ّ � �� ن ا � �أنّ ا ا أ � �عم�ل� �م ن��ا � �من���ا �ن ن � � ن ن ���س�ا ��ا ��ل �وا ��� �أاو � �لع�� �ل��� �م��د ا �و�ل ��و�ل��� �و�ل��ل��� �من�� � � و و � � او �ل��سن�� ن� ل�ي� � �لمك ا � ُ ن أ أ ُّ � ���ا ن� ن�ع �ل�ً�ا ن�ر �يل���ي أا ��ل�� ن�ع�ي�ر���ا � .او ن� ا ا ن�ن��ر ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ن��م�ا ا�� �ي��د ر ��� ��ه ا �و ���د ش� ن��م�ا ا� ي� ش��س�ا ���ده �وك� يرن أ ي� أ م ُم � � � ش ا �ً� ن �� �ن �� ه � � �� ن ه � � ّ �ن ا ن أ � � ن � � أ ن ل � � ه ه ه � � ا � ا � � � ا ا ا ل � � � �ع ن��ده ��مل ن� ل� م�� �ل� م� ح��� أ� � ع�ط�� � �لمك ���� ن� و � �س�� أ ي�� �لأ� ل�� ل� . ي � ا ي أ � ن ًا ن �� ا ن�� أ �ع ن أ نّ ن ا نًا �� ُ �ّ ش � ن ا �� ن ا هي �و�ي�د ���� ن�� ل��ن� ا�م � ح����و��س� � ا يل ��� ���د ا ا ���� ر � ا ��� ا � أا ���س� �� ��و ��د � ع� ل���� �م� � ير� ي ي ي أ �ن ني � ا �� ي ا � � � � أ ن ُ � � ّ ن ي ّ ي � � � �س ه �عملي��ه �ويح��م� ح� � ح��س�ه ا �و ا �ررا ��ه � او � �لعي�م�ل �و �سم��س� �ل���مل ن� ا � �يل���ور �ل�ه �لي ��ع� ل ع �نل� ر ن ج ّ ّ � � ّ ا ��ل��س � ّ � ���� � �ليعن�� � �سم�ا ���� � �لي ح��ّ ا ��ل��س�م� � � � �سر ن� ه ا ل � ح � ح�ي� �ير� ه أا �لي��ه ن���ي��نس�ه. � �� � � ل ن � ن ر ي� و ي ع ي ري � ع ي ن نّ ن نً � ُ ّ أ ّ ً � � ن � �أ �ن ا� مو�ه� �و�ا � �أ�ا � أا ���س�ا ��ا � ��و ك� ��م� �لن� ا ن� ي�لي��و��ه � �و � حي �� او �ن�ا ا� ي� ش��س�ا ���د �مش�م�ل�ه �����د ا ا �ل��سر ل�ي� ا� � ُن ّم م أ ّ نا ن ن � أ� ّ � � ن ن �� ن � ن ن ي ���د ا ا ��ل حي �� او � �ل��س�ا �ل �ع ن� �مش�م�ل�ه �وك�م�ل�� �منِ��ره ا � �يل���ور �ل�ه �مش�م�ل �عن����ا ء �م��رن� �أ� � أ 1الا�ص�ل :و�هو ��� نس.
96
96
٢،٩٧
٣،٩٧
On why people seek likenesses
what nourishes it, and exhaustion ensues accordingly. This is a sound comparison adequate to its target. If you examine the innate heat and its need for what preserves its powers without excess or deficiency, its complete consumption of the original moisture along with the different material elements that come to it from the outside, and its power or lack of power to exercise a transmuting effect, you will grasp the object of your inquiry and the basis of my comparison will become clear.
On why people seek likenesses Why do people seek likenesses in all they hear, say, do, and ponder? What
97.1
is the benefit of likenesses? How are they independent of their source, and where do they find their purchase? Likenesses and similitudes, the fact of being alike and the act of likening, are noble objects of concern, a subject for limpid words.
Miskawayh’s response Likenesses are struck for objects not perceived by the senses drawing on
97.2
objects perceived by the senses, because of the familiarity and intimate relationship we have with the senses from the beginning of their development, and because they form the foundations of our knowledge, from which we progress to other kinds of knowledge. So if we inform a person about something he has never perceived or speak to him about something foreign to him, something he has never personally witnessed before, he asks for a model derived from the senses. Once furnished with this, he feels a sense of ease and familiarity because of his intimate acquaintance with the object of comparison. This phenomenon may also arise among sensible objects. Thus, were we to speak to someone about ostriches, giraffes, elephants, and crocodiles, he would ask for visual representations so that he could see them with his own eyes and subsume them under his sense of sight. He would not be content to use the sense of hearing for something that is to be grasped through the sense of sight, and he would finally refer the object to that specific sense. The same applies to objects of imagination, for were a person tasked with imagining an animal the like of which he had never set eyes on, he would ask
97
97
97.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ ّ ّ � ّ أ ن ا� � � ي �و� ن��ل�� �ن��د �امي��و�ه�م�ه ا ن� ي�لي��و�ه�م�ه �نل� ��ورهي �سركن� ����هي �م ن� � � او � � �ي � حي �� او �ن�ا ي� ��د ��ن� �ل�ه �و ن�� أ م أ أ أ ن يي ي ي � ّ أ ا �ن ا ّ ا ا� ي � � ي �ن �ل ّ ا �� �� ن � ن ي � ا ا ن � ل � � � � � ا � � � � � ا � ا � ا ا � � � �ش�س�ا ���د��� � .م� مع �عو�ل�� م �م� ك� ��� ���ور��� ل�ط� م� � لع ح� ح��� و ن���د أ عأ ن أ ن ُي� شّ � ش ا � �� � ن ن� �ل هي ن � ّ ا �ّ � ح��هي ا ��لي��ي� ��� ���ا ي� ا � �� ا ن� ي ل � � � � � � � م � � ع ع � � ع � ح�� � ل � � ل ن و يرن ي ر ر �م� ا � �م�م�ل ن�م�� �ل ا � أ �� � ر ري ن أ أ � � ن ا� ً ي ن � ي ي ن �م�اأ ��� ن��هي � ا ��لن ��ن ح ش��س�ه ا ��ن�� ��ه ن��ا � ا ا � �لنعي���ا �ن ا ��ل� �م �ش �ن �مش��ل�� �لي��ا ��� ��ه �م ن � � � � ا � � ��س� � � � م � � � 1 � �� � �ن �و � ر أ � أ � ل أو م ي � �و و أ� ا ياأ ّ نأ ش ا � ا ّٰ ن �و�ي�� �� ي� �عم�ل �ي�ا �ّمم�ل��ا ������ ن �ع�ي�م�ل��ا �م ن ن�ع��ر �مش��ا ��ل �����م� �ي ن أ � ��� �� �مم�ل ا �م�� �ل��� � او لله ح�����د �عملي� � � ي ل � ن ي� وّي � �� � ن ا�ا�م �ن�ي ن �ل ي ��مي�� ا �ل ��ي�را �. �� و� ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ أ � � أي ��� ح ش�� ���ورهي � او �م�ي� ي� �ش�س � �ي��م�ن� �ي��و�� ا ����و�ه� �عم�ل� ا ن� ي�لن ��ي� ش�� ل��ن� �ن �نل��� ا �ل���ن��س�ا ن� ا �و� ���ل � او ن�م� � أ ي � � � ي � م ي أ � � ن ش � أ ي ن � � أ� � ي ج أ أ � � � ين ط� ��س � �� �� ���ط �و ا� �ي�لي �عو �عم�ل� ا ن� �يل� ��ّور ا � ح��س ن� � ��وره � او �ل�� � ح �� ���ل � او �مم�ل �� ��ط؟ ا �ل� �ر�� ح ��ي ي � م أ ج أ ���ّل ا �ي ن� �ن اأ نّ ا � � ن ا ن � ه ح ش�� �ش���� ء �ع �ي�ه �ش��سم�ا نر� نرهي �و�عم�لي��ه �ي ش��م�� �رهي �و ��ل � � � ح�ي��ه ه ل � ا ا � � م ك � � � � م � � �لأ����س� � م ع � � و و ر � � � ي ر ي ي ري � أ� ن �ل� ن � ن �ي�� �ّ � ه ا � � ن ا ن ي ن ي ن ن ي � ���د �و�� �ور�ع���ه � �ل �عور؟ �م�ل�و ���و�ي� ا ���و�ه�م �عم�ل�� �ل���و�ير ا ح��س� ا ح��س� �مل�ل ن� �لأ����س� � ن � ن ن � ن � ن � � ن ا ن � ن ن ن ن� ن � ن ��ي ��ن� ���د ا؟ �و�ل�� ن�ع �ع ن��د � ار �ن�ا �ل�ه �و ن�م�ل� �وي�ه .ل��م�ا ���د ا �وك� ح ن� �م � ل��د ا ا �لأ�أ���س� � م� ���د ه ا �ل ������ أ � � ي ع �� �� ّ ي� ّ � ن � ن ��س���هي ا � �� ر �ي��سي��ن ��ن��د ا � ن��ه ا � � ��ي�ر ا � �لي�م�ل ن� .ن�م�ل �م ن� ا �و� ���د ا ا � ��و�عم� ء ���د ه ح ن� و� و � او ���ع��م�ل �و ل ن ي ع أ ّ ن � ن ّ �ن ه � � ن � ن ن� ن ا ��ل��� ا �أل�ن ��د ه ا ���ن���ا ��ا ي� � ن ّ� ن ن �����ا ح ّ��س ن ��ا ��� ن � ه � � � � � ه � �� � ع ل � ���ه �و� �سر� ن�ي� ا م� �و � � �و�� و ور و � �ن أي ي� ر ر �ر ِ ش � ن ن � � � � ��ن ن ح ح�� �و ن�� �و�ع�د �ل �و�ي � حن��ه ل��ي� ا ����ر � �لم�ك �ع ن� ِا� �وك��ي �. م
أ 1الا�ص�ل :ا �ل ن�� ن�ه��س.
98
98
١،٩٨
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ ّ ّ � ّ أ ن ا� � � ي �و� ن��ل�� �ن��د �امي��و�ه�م�ه ا ن� ي�لي��و�ه�م�ه �نل� ��ورهي �سركن� ����هي �م ن� � � او � � �ي � حي �� او �ن�ا ي� ��د ��ن� �ل�ه �و ن�� أ م أ أ أ ن يي ي ي � ّ أ ا �ن ا ّ ا ا� ي � � ي �ن �ل ّ ا �� �� ن � ن ي � ا ا ن � ل � � � � � ا � � � � � ا � ا � ا ا � � � �ش�س�ا ���د��� � .م� مع �عو�ل�� م �م� ك� ��� ���ور��� ل�ط� م� � لع ح� ح��� و ن���د أ عأ ن أ ن ُي� شّ � ش ا � �� � ن ن� �ل هي ن � ّ ا �ّ � ح��هي ا ��لي��ي� ��� ���ا ي� ا � �� ا ن� ي ل � � � � � � � م � � ع ع � � ع � ح�� � ل � � ل ن و يرن ي ر ر �م� ا � �م�م�ل ن�م�� �ل ا � أ �� � ر ري ن أ أ � � ن ا� ً ي ن � ي ي ن �م�اأ ��� ن��هي � ا ��لن ��ن ح ش��س�ه ا ��ن�� ��ه ن��ا � ا ا � �لنعي���ا �ن ا ��ل� �م �ش �ن �مش��ل�� �لي��ا ��� ��ه �م ن � � � � ا � � ��س� � � � م � � � 1 � �� � �ن �و � ر أ � أ � ل أو م ي � �و و أ� ا ياأ ّ نأ ش ا � ا ّٰ ن �و�ي�� �� ي� �عم�ل �ي�ا �ّمم�ل��ا ������ ن �ع�ي�م�ل��ا �م ن ن�ع��ر �مش��ا ��ل �����م� �ي ن أ � ��� �� �مم�ل ا �م�� �ل��� � او لله ح�����د �عملي� � � ي ل � ن ي� وّي � �� � ن ا�ا�م �ن�ي ن �ل ي ��مي�� ا �ل ��ي�را �. �� و� ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ أ � � أي ��� ح ش�� ���ورهي � او �م�ي� ي� �ش�س � �ي��م�ن� �ي��و�� ا ����و�ه� �عم�ل� ا ن� ي�لن ��ي� ش�� ل��ن� �ن �نل��� ا �ل���ن��س�ا ن� ا �و� ���ل � او ن�م� � أ ي � � � ي � م ي أ � � ن ش � أ ي ن � � أ� � ي ج أ أ � � � ين ط� ��س � �� �� ���ط �و ا� �ي�لي �عو �عم�ل� ا ن� �يل� ��ّور ا � ح��س ن� � ��وره � او �ل�� � ح �� ���ل � او �مم�ل �� ��ط؟ ا �ل� �ر�� ح ��ي ي � م أ ج أ ���ّل ا �ي ن� �ن اأ نّ ا � � ن ا ن � ه ح ش�� �ش���� ء �ع �ي�ه �ش��سم�ا نر� نرهي �و�عم�لي��ه �ي ش��م�� �رهي �و ��ل � � � ح�ي��ه ه ل � ا ا � � م ك � � � � م � � �لأ����س� � م ع � � و و ر � � � ي ر ي ي ري � أ� ن �ل� ن � ن �ي�� �ّ � ه ا � � ن ا ن ي ن ي ن ن ي � ���د �و�� �ور�ع���ه � �ل �عور؟ �م�ل�و ���و�ي� ا ���و�ه�م �عم�ل�� �ل���و�ير ا ح��س� ا ح��س� �مل�ل ن� �لأ����س� � ن � ن ن � ن � ن � � ن ا ن � ن ن ن ن� ن � ن ��ي ��ن� ���د ا؟ �و�ل�� ن�ع �ع ن��د � ار �ن�ا �ل�ه �و ن�م�ل� �وي�ه .ل��م�ا ���د ا �وك� ح ن� �م � ل��د ا ا �لأ�أ���س� � م� ���د ه ا �ل ������ أ � � ي ع �� �� ّ ي� ّ � ن � ن ��س���هي ا � �� ر �ي��سي��ن ��ن��د ا � ن��ه ا � � ��ي�ر ا � �لي�م�ل ن� .ن�م�ل �م ن� ا �و� ���د ا ا � ��و�عم� ء ���د ه ح ن� و� و � او ���ع��م�ل �و ل ن ي ع أ ّ ن � ن ّ �ن ه � � ن � ن ن� ن ا ��ل��� ا �أل�ن ��د ه ا ���ن���ا ��ا ي� � ن ّ� ن ن �����ا ح ّ��س ن ��ا ��� ن � ه � � � � � ه � �� � ع ل � ���ه �و� �سر� ن�ي� ا م� �و � � �و�� و ور و � �ن أي ي� ر ر �ر ِ ش � ن ن � � � � ��ن ن ح ح�� �و ن�� �و�ع�د �ل �و�ي � حن��ه ل��ي� ا ����ر � �لم�ك �ع ن� ِا� �وك��ي �. م
أ 1الا�ص�ل :ا �ل ن�� ن�ه��س.
98
98
١،٩٨
On why we find it easier to represent extreme ugliness in our imagination
what it is like, and would demand that his informant represent it for him. Take the phoenix as an example; even though this animal does not exist, any attempt to imagine it must be based on a visual image composed out of animals that have actually been seen. It is all the more natural that the forms of intelligible things should be foreign and unfamiliar, for they are too subtle to become objects of sense perception and too remote to be provided with a sensible model except by way of approximation. The soul finds comfort in a likeness, even if it is not a true likeness, as it helps it alleviate the strangeness of the foreign. It becomes easier for it to contemplate their likes upon a more intimate acquaintance with intelligible things and an acquisition of the ability to contemplate them without a model through the eye of reason. Every good is attained through the grace of God.
On why we find it easier to represent extreme ugliness in our imagination than exquisite beauty How it is that the imagination has the power to depict the most repulsive images, the most odious forms, and the ugliest limnings in the human soul, yet it lacks the power to depict the most beauteous images, the finest forms, and the most pleasing limnings? Don’t you see that when a person’s imagination is exposed to the most repulsive things, he is filled with disgust, overcome by shuddering, gripped by aversion, and overtaken by revulsion? Indeed, if the imagination were capable of representing the highest beauty, a person would make that his occupation whenever he was on his own and free from care. So what is the meaning of this? And what is the reason for it? No wonder! For there are things about human beings and their relation to the soul, the intellect, and nature that carry us to the ends of wonder and plunge our hearts into perplexity. Glory be to Him who deposited these rarities into these vessels and made the attainment of these ends possible, who adorned their exterior and beautified their interior, who disposed them between security and fear, between justice and wrongdoing, and withheld from them the knowledge of the “why” and the “how” in most of those matters.
99
99
98.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ٰ ّ ي ي ا � هي � � � ي �� ن � �م�ّهي ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ا ��ل � ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح��س ن� �ه�و � ��وره �� ن���� �ل�ع��د ا ل �س ار ن � 1و �� و ي� ي ج ن ن � اأ � ن � �� ن � ن ا ا ي � ن ا � �أ� ن ا �� ن ا �� � ش ي ا أ � � � ا ل ��س � � � ل ل ا � � � � � ا ء ��س� � و���د ه ��س� � م� �ل�ع� ��� ن��� �ل��� أ �� ن����� �ي� م�� � ن �ل او �لمل�و� و��س� ر ل� ي أ � � ّ � � ّ ي ن ي � ي ي � ن � � ن ي ن � � � ا �ل����س� ه � �� ا ح�م�� ا � ن ا �أ ا ا� � ي ي � ا � ا �ل�م� ه � � � � � �� �ل �ل� ي�ل �� �ع� ا نح�سم�ع ن ي ع ن ر ل�أ��ّ �عم�ل��أ �� ول�د لمك �ل� ل �عو� أ ن ي أ�� ل ������ �عم�ل�� � � ا ن نّ � � ّي ن ي ن ا � ا ا ل�ن ا �� � �م� ��ل ��ل�� ن� ا ��ل��� ا � � ي ا ��ك أي ن�� ���� �ي� ل� ي � ��و�ل�� �عم�ل�� ا � � ��� ا �ع��ي� ا ��ه �ل� ي�ل �� �ع� ل��ي� ��س� ن� �ل� ���س� �ع�د �عملي� ن أ أ � � � ن � ي ا ��ل�م� يّ � �� �� � �أش � � ن يي ي � ي ي ��ول�� � او �ل���س � ��ا �ل � او �ل� ��وره � او�ا�س نار ن� ا � � �لعن�م�ل ا �ل� ��وره ا �ل� ن��ي�ره �عم�ل�� �عم �ي�ه ��ه. ا ل� ي � ج � ي � � ن ا ن ��ا ن ي � �� ن ا ن �� ي � ���د ه ا�ا�م ن��ا ���س�هي ا �ل�م� � ��هي ا � ��ي ��ي�������ا �ن ن حم ��س���هي ��ن�ه ا حر �ع� أاي ن�� � ���د ا ا �ل� �ع��د ا �ل �و ي� ي� ي ن � ن �أ� � ا ك�� ��� ل�ن ي أ ّ � � � �ّ ح��ّ �ي�ا ��� ��لم�ل�س ن ا ن� ح��ّ � او ��ل ا ��ل � ��ا ��ل ح ن �ع ن��ه؟ � او ن��م�ا ا ����و�ه� �ي�ا ��� �لم��ل ��و ن� ا ����و�ه� ا ن�ع � �ي�� � � � ح��س ن� ا �لي��ا �ّ �ن ل�� ح � ن ن ن ر ر ر ي � � أ م ع ج أ م آ � � ي م � ن � أ نّ � أ م � ع �ش� ي ا نّ� ا �ُ �� � � ا ��ش ي � ا�ا��س ن ا ن� �ي�ا ��� ش ن ش ا ��يس���ه �و�مش��ا �ل � �لم�ك ا � ا �ل��� �وي�ا ر ا � ك �����ي ره أ �م� يل��مل ن� نل��� �و�ن��� ره ع ا �ر �م� ا �� ر ا �ل��ن و رج ن ا�� ّ ا �ن ن ي ي � ي ي ا �� ن ن ي نّ ا أن ي ّ � ُ ن � ا ��ل��د��س�ا �ي�� ن ا ا ل ي � � ن ن ��� ك�م� ��� ا � � ��� ن ن �مي�� ل�� �ه�م�ه � �م نع ��و�ل�ه � �ولم�ل�ك �ه�م�ه أا ��م� ي�ل ��و��م�ل أا �ل ي� �عم�ل حرن� �م� ن��ي�� ي� � � ي� ج ع � � آ أ أ �ن ي ن ي ن ا �لن ن� ي ن ��ا ن ي ���دهي �ن�ا �نّل��ا ا ��ل�� ��ل�هي � او ن� ن ا �أل���ا �م ن ا ��ل�� � �وي�ا ر � او ��ل��د��س�ا �ي�� ن ��ا �� �لي� �عم� ي� ا�م ح�م�ل���ه �� �ه�م�ه �أاو � ك�� ��� � او � أ � ر � ي� ن ر ي ح�م � �يلم� � ا � �أ� ن ا ء �ن ا ن ا ن ا ن � ا � �د �من ا �ن ح ي� ا ��لن�ن�ه�م�هي ��� � �ل��هي ا �ّم�ا ���ع��دهي �م ن � ي� ي��ّ ن��م��س�ا �ع�ده ن� ي� ��� ر ن ع لك �ل� ن ر أ� � �� � و �� � ري� أ ن ي � م ي � � �أ ي حن ا �� �لينع ��و��ل � او �ّم�ا �ي �لن��هي �عم�ل� ��د ر نع � ا � �ل���ا. � � ل ��س�ا ن� �و�����ور ن���� ن� ن ر أ ير � أ � � ن � � ا �� ��ل ل�ن ا � ي � ��ش� ي �ن � ���ا أا �ل�� �س نار ن� �م�ا �ن�ي� ن� ا ��م ��ط�ي����ا ي� �و���ور ا ن�ر ٢ك���ي ره ���د �لمك ل� ي � ��و�� �ي� �� نح � ج � ا ي ّ حم� هي ي ح ن ا ��ل�� ند � �ه ا �عي��د ا �� �م�ا � �م ن��ا ���س�هي �م�ا �م� ��د هي �� �لينع ��و��ل � ��ور ا ��ل ��� �م���س� �ي�� ل و �ل���ي�ر ن ن �مي�� � � ��س� ي� �و ن � � ��� ن اأ �س ن ��هي � اأ �ع ن ��م�ّل��ا ��� � ا ��لم�ل� ن� � ن�ع�� ���ا �م ن ا ��ل��أ�� � � ي �م ا ���ا ء ل��ن� ا ��ل���أس�هي � او �ل ش��س � � ر و و ن ي� ر ن و ل �وا �ل ا � ��ي� ن����و�ع��� ك� � و ي ي � ي �ً �� ن ن ��ا ن أ ً ي ا � � ي �ن �مش ا ��لن�ن�ه هي ا �� ا � � ي ح��س ن � .او ل ��ل � � ح��س� � او � ك�� � ا �س ار � او � �ه�و �م�ل �م� ��و ��ده ��د ا �و���وره �و ��ده � �ه�و ا � أ ي ن � ���ش�� هي � �� ��من أا ي ن ن ح ّ�م�هي ��يل�� ا�ا�م�يع�� ��ل�هي ا ����ي � ي حي�م�ل�ن��هي ن� ���ا ���د ا ح��اجن � أا �ل�� �ي��س� � ك� ي ر و �ور ح��م�ل �م� ن��ي�� � ن و ي� � � � ن � � � �� ي ن اأ ّ ا �ن � ن ن � ه ّ ي � ن ا ا ي ن ا ��ل�� �عي��د ا ��ل ا�م� نع ��و�ل � .او � ��و�ه� ل��� �ر�و ن��ه �ع ا �ل� �ع��د ا �ل �����م� ا �ل � حر���ه �� �م� ل�� � ح� ���� أا �ي� ه ٣ ل � م ي ي أ ّ ن ي ّ ��ش� ي ���مين�� � � ي � ن ي ي ��م�ل�ه أا ��ل��ه �ن�ا �نّ�ه ي� ي ح��ا ن� أا ��ل�� �ي��� ن� �ش�س�د �ي��د � او ���د �م���د �م�ا � ك���ي ره � او ح ار ن ا ع��د ا ل� �و� ��و� ي أ أ ج ج ن ا � ن ��ل � ن ��ّ ا �عي�د ا �� �ن ا نّ � ن ح� ن � �����ه � او ��لش�س�ا ي� �عم�لي��ه ����� �ن�ا �ّم�ا ا ��نل ��� �و � � حر�ون� �ع ن��ه �����د ا ا ��ا �ل ل��ي� ���ل � ل أ� � ن��ي�� � ن ن ج أ أ ّ 1ط :ا لمم نرا ن ٢ .ط :ا نح �ر�� ٣ .الا�ص�ل :أا ة�ا �ه�ا. ح
100
100
٢،٩٨
٣،٩٨
On why we find it easier to represent extreme ugliness in our imagination
Miskawayh’s response Beauty is a form contingent on a balanced humoral mixture and on the exis-
98.2
tence of sound relations between the different parts of the body as regards shape, color, and other external features. It is rarely the case that all components of this state are brought together in a sound manner. That is why nature itself is not capable of producing it in matter in a perfect way, for the operative causes do not provide assistance; that is, it does not often come about that the matter, the shapes, the form, and the humoral mixture are such that the last form is received in the soundest possible manner. If nature is incapable of generating the balanced state and the sound relation that results in complete beauty, is it a surprise that the imagination should be incapable of it? For the imagination depends on the senses, the senses depend on the humoral mixture, and the humoral mixture depends on an effect of nature. For example, what one desires from many strings set on many frets is that a pleasing note should issue therefrom; and that note is achieved through the whole of the instrument and its parts—the strings, the frets, and the different strokes applied to them. So the note, even though it is a single thing, is produced through the cooperation of all parts. If one part falters, the note that issues is repulsive, its relative distance from a sound that is pleasing being commensurate with the extent of the powerlessness of the causes and the inadequacy of some of them. So it is with matter in its need for a particular mixture of elements and many other forms. All of these in combination prepare it to receive the forms of beauty, which consists in a particular balance and a particular sound relation between mixtures and bodily parts with regard to external aspect, shape, color, and other features that, taken jointly, constitute beauty. Even though beauty is a single thing and a single form, it resembles that single pleasing note which requires a large number of external features and an abundance of different forms in order for that pleasing balance to emerge. The imagination moves with facility when it is a matter of departing from the balanced state, whereas in order to attain and preserve that state, it must expend great effort and rely on many prerequisites that it must bring into balance. The same applies to every kind of balance; it is difficult to preserve and persist in, but it only takes
101
101
98.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ي ن أ ن � ي ن ن يّ ن أ ن � ن � ن � � � ن هو �ن�ا � �ل�� �ر����ه �أ�ا � ا � �ل �عي� ا � �ي���و� �ل��د �لم�ك ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل ��م�ا �م�ا ي� �م ن� ��ا ر ن� �و�م���ا � �ون�ا ي� �� �� ج ي � أ ّ � ن أ ��من ي � ن هي ���ا ن�� ي� ا �ل���ع� ��هي ل��ن� � � م� ا ���ور ح�مل��� ��سم�ل�ه ا �ش�س�د. ك ح� ي ون ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ ً � � ن �ه � أ أ ّ ّ ي � ي ���ا ن� �ي�ا �ش�ي�ره ا �ش�س�د �ورن��م�ا �كي�م�ل؟ �وي��د � ل�� �� ا �لش��ي��ه �م ن� �ي�ا �ش�ي�ره ا � ��ورا. ح� ����ا ر ا �ل��سر�ور أا � ا ن�� ك ا�م � ُ �ّ ي ن يي ن � ي ُن ّ ي � ي ن م � ا أ نّ ح ن� ي� � �م�ا ن ا ��ل ي� �ي�ن��ين����ن ا ن � � � ل ا ا ا �ل � � ه � � � س � � � � � �و� �ل��د �ن��ر� � او �ل��ده ن������� ا �ل ن�� ��� ا � ن � و�ي� أ ر ن ر � و ر و ر � � ي � يّ ا ي ي ي ا � �� ن ��نل ��ي�رهي ا � ��ي �لم��ل �م�لي�م� ا ��ل �ي� � او ن���د ا ����� ��ن� نر ��ه� �م ن� أا �ن ار ���ط �نر��ه � ح�� �م� ���� .و�� �ل ل�ي� ان�� ا ل ي� ي ��ي ن� ي ن �ش� ا أ � ي ن ّ ��ا ي � �ن � � ا ن ����ي �ع ��� ن ���ه �ع ن� ��سم�ا �ن�ه �م�ا �ن�ه �و�عملن��ه ��سر�وره �و�ل�د �لمك �م� ي�لن���ي� �عم�ل�� �سم� �لمل�ه �و���م �ن�ه �رك�� ��ه � � 1ويل� ي � � � ���س�ا � ي �ا ي� � ن � ا ن �ن � ن ّ � ّ � ن ا ن � ا�� � ّ ي ّ ا ُ � ن ��س�ه� .و�ل�� ي� � و ي �� � ن��د ���د ا ا ����� ر��� ل�ي� ا ����هم � او �ل�ه�م ا �ل�� ر�ل مل��م �و�م�ل �م� �و ن��د �م� آ ن ّ ن يّ ن ي ي ن ن � ن ي ن ي ي ي ي ا ا ا ا ي ��� ن�����س�ه � او � �م�ل� �م��� ��ده �و�م� ��س ه ن� م��ر�وه �ن��ر ��س� ء ه � �و� ء ه �و� � ا � ش��م��� �س ار ر��ه � او �ل ���� ي ر أ نا � نا ن ���ا ن �ن�ه� اأ �ل ن ح� � ا ��ل��س ّ نش ��ً�ا �يم�لي�م� � او ن� ��س�ا �و�� �عم� ر ن��� ا ��ل��س �ور �ن ن�د ا ك ا ن�ع � � و �ع���يس�ه � �و� �ل�ه �أ� � ك� � � و ي ر ر ن ل أ ن أن �كي��ه ا �عرن�.
١،٩٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي� ّ أ ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله �ي�د �س ّ �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي ل��ن� �ع ن��� �م�ا � � � � � �م�ل�م ن��ا �عم�لي��ه ا م��س� � � � ن ر ون ي ر ن و �� وي ا� ي � ن � ن أ ّ �ن ا� ا أ ي ا� ي ي ّ ي ي � ن ا نّ � ن ن ي أ ّش �ن ا� ن �كم� ا ن� ا�ا��س نا ن� � ل�� ا�م��س� �لم�ل ا� � م���د �م�ه �و�مل�� أا � ا �ل ������ � ��و�ر ل�ي� ا��س ارنج ا�م�ع��د �ل �ع� ا �لن��د � � رج يّ أ أ ّ ّ ّ � ن � ش ّ ن ح�م�� ن� ��لم� � �ن ا �س �ل ن��ا ��ل�ه ا �ل���مش��ا ��ل�� � .ل ن � ن ���س�ا �ن ش��سم�ك ا ن� ا ��ل��س � ي��س ّ �م��هن ن أ � و رور ر �ي ��و�ر ل�ي� ا �ل ������ � ن�و�ي���� ن يع ك و نر � ن � � � ن ن ن ن� � ن ن أ نّ �ن �ّ � � � ن ا ���و ن��ه � او � ا �ل� �و�� �يل���� ّر �م ن��ه �و�م�ا � ا ك أا �ل� �ل���ن����س�ا ��ط ا �ل��د �م �م ن� � ا ك ل��ي� ����ا ��ر ا �لن��د � ن أ أ ن � ن � �آ ن �� �ي � ن �� ح ا هي ا ���ي ل�ن ا �� �لي�م�ل �ه ا ���ي �ي ن ���د ا ا �عن�� ا �نّل��ا ل � � � ل ع م � � � � �و� � � � � عوره م� ا �ل��ر أا ل�� ���را �لن��د � � او ر ر ي� ي� ي� � ن ي� ي� ل ن ي�ل ن � ن �ُي �يّ � � ي ا ي ين ي ن ن�ي ن �ّ ن � ه أ ن � ي ن � � ��ل ا � � �ي �ن����م ��ط �� ر� ا �ل�د � �� ره �و�ل ��عن���� ك���مل���� ا �ر� � �وي���ن�� � �لمك ا�� �ل ا �ل��سر�ور �وي���ن�� ���د ه م ع ع أ كا ة���؛ ط :و� ن�ّ ن� 1الا�ص� :ة� ة� ن� كا ة���. حر � حر � ةم ل م
102
102
٢،٩٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ي ن أ ن � ي ن ن يّ ن أ ن � ن � ن � � � ن هو �ن�ا � �ل�� �ر����ه �أ�ا � ا � �ل �عي� ا � �ي���و� �ل��د �لم�ك ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل ��م�ا �م�ا ي� �م ن� ��ا ر ن� �و�م���ا � �ون�ا ي� �� �� ج ي � أ ّ � ن أ ��من ي � ن هي ���ا ن�� ي� ا �ل���ع� ��هي ل��ن� � � م� ا ���ور ح�مل��� ��سم�ل�ه ا �ش�س�د. ك ح� ي ون ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ ً � � ن �ه � أ أ ّ ّ ي � ي ���ا ن� �ي�ا �ش�ي�ره ا �ش�س�د �ورن��م�ا �كي�م�ل؟ �وي��د � ل�� �� ا �لش��ي��ه �م ن� �ي�ا �ش�ي�ره ا � ��ورا. ح� ����ا ر ا �ل��سر�ور أا � ا ن�� ك ا�م � ُ �ّ ي ن يي ن � ي ُن ّ ي � ي ن م � ا أ نّ ح ن� ي� � �م�ا ن ا ��ل ي� �ي�ن��ين����ن ا ن � � � ل ا ا ا �ل � � ه � � � س � � � � � �و� �ل��د �ن��ر� � او �ل��ده ن������� ا �ل ن�� ��� ا � ن � و�ي� أ ر ن ر � و ر و ر � � ي � يّ ا ي ي ي ا � �� ن ��نل ��ي�رهي ا � ��ي �لم��ل �م�لي�م� ا ��ل �ي� � او ن���د ا ����� ��ن� نر ��ه� �م ن� أا �ن ار ���ط �نر��ه � ح�� �م� ���� .و�� �ل ل�ي� ان�� ا ل ي� ي ��ي ن� ي ن �ش� ا أ � ي ن ّ ��ا ي � �ن � � ا ن ����ي �ع ��� ن ���ه �ع ن� ��سم�ا �ن�ه �م�ا �ن�ه �و�عملن��ه ��سر�وره �و�ل�د �لمك �م� ي�لن���ي� �عم�ل�� �سم� �لمل�ه �و���م �ن�ه �رك�� ��ه � � 1ويل� ي � � � ���س�ا � ي �ا ي� � ن � ا ن �ن � ن ّ � ّ � ن ا ن � ا�� � ّ ي ّ ا ُ � ن ��س�ه� .و�ل�� ي� � و ي �� � ن��د ���د ا ا ����� ر��� ل�ي� ا ����هم � او �ل�ه�م ا �ل�� ر�ل مل��م �و�م�ل �م� �و ن��د �م� آ ن ّ ن يّ ن ي ي ن ن � ن ي ن ي ي ي ي ا ا ا ا ي ��� ن�����س�ه � او � �م�ل� �م��� ��ده �و�م� ��س ه ن� م��ر�وه �ن��ر ��س� ء ه � �و� ء ه �و� � ا � ش��م��� �س ار ر��ه � او �ل ���� ي ر أ نا � نا ن ���ا ن �ن�ه� اأ �ل ن ح� � ا ��ل��س ّ نش ��ً�ا �يم�لي�م� � او ن� ��س�ا �و�� �عم� ر ن��� ا ��ل��س �ور �ن ن�د ا ك ا ن�ع � � و �ع���يس�ه � �و� �ل�ه �أ� � ك� � � و ي ر ر ن ل أ ن أن �كي��ه ا �عرن�.
١،٩٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي� ّ أ ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله �ي�د �س ّ �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي ل��ن� �ع ن��� �م�ا � � � � � �م�ل�م ن��ا �عم�لي��ه ا م��س� � � � ن ر ون ي ر ن و �� وي ا� ي � ن � ن أ ّ �ن ا� ا أ ي ا� ي ي ّ ي ي � ن ا نّ � ن ن ي أ ّش �ن ا� ن �كم� ا ن� ا�ا��س نا ن� � ل�� ا�م��س� �لم�ل ا� � م���د �م�ه �و�مل�� أا � ا �ل ������ � ��و�ر ل�ي� ا��س ارنج ا�م�ع��د �ل �ع� ا �لن��د � � رج يّ أ أ ّ ّ ّ � ن � ش ّ ن ح�م�� ن� ��لم� � �ن ا �س �ل ن��ا ��ل�ه ا �ل���مش��ا ��ل�� � .ل ن � ن ���س�ا �ن ش��سم�ك ا ن� ا ��ل��س � ي��س ّ �م��هن ن أ � و رور ر �ي ��و�ر ل�ي� ا �ل ������ � ن�و�ي���� ن يع ك و نر � ن � � � ن ن ن ن� � ن ن أ نّ �ن �ّ � � � ن ا ���و ن��ه � او � ا �ل� �و�� �يل���� ّر �م ن��ه �و�م�ا � ا ك أا �ل� �ل���ن����س�ا ��ط ا �ل��د �م �م ن� � ا ك ل��ي� ����ا ��ر ا �لن��د � ن أ أ ن � ن � �آ ن �� �ي � ن �� ح ا هي ا ���ي ل�ن ا �� �لي�م�ل �ه ا ���ي �ي ن ���د ا ا �عن�� ا �نّل��ا ل � � � ل ع م � � � � �و� � � � � عوره م� ا �ل��ر أا ل�� ���را �لن��د � � او ر ر ي� ي� ي� � ن ي� ي� ل ن ي�ل ن � ن �ُي �يّ � � ي ا ي ين ي ن ن�ي ن �ّ ن � ه أ ن � ي ن � � ��ل ا � � �ي �ن����م ��ط �� ر� ا �ل�د � �� ره �و�ل ��عن���� ك���مل���� ا �ر� � �وي���ن�� � �لمك ا�� �ل ا �ل��سر�ور �وي���ن�� ���د ه م ع ع أ كا ة���؛ ط :و� ن�ّ ن� 1الا�ص� :ة� ة� ن� كا ة���. حر � حر � ةم ل م
102
102
٢،٩٩
On why sudden joy affects people so violently
the merest movement to depart from it. The difficulty of realizing it becomes even greater, should this balance require external elements to complete it and a variety of things to assist it.
On why sudden joy affects people so violently Why does joy have such a violent effect when it assails one suddenly, so that
99.1
it can even kill? A variety of stories about its effects have been recounted on good authority. When the mother of a certain man was notified that her son had assumed the office of governor, her vision blurred, she keeled over, and she went into convulsions until she died. Ibn al-Khalīl said to me: The bewilderment that comes over a person who discovers a hidden treasure is due to the extreme happiness and overpowering joy he experiences. This is the reason for his public behavior and his movements, and the reason why he finds it difficult to keep what is happening to him a secret and maintain it under control. Yet we hardly encounter this phenomenon when grief and sorrow descend upon us and overwhelm us. We rarely find that someone’s gallbladder has ruptured, his physical constitution has become infirm, and his limbs have gone limp and sinews weakened because of a piece of news that vexed and oppressed him, or some evil that befell and overtook him. Though this does happen, it is rare. And when it has the same effect as joy, that is all the more astonishing and the secret behind it all the more remarkable. Miskawayh’s response We have already answered this question in the course of discussing the earlier ones.18 We said that the soul has an effect on the mixtural balance of the body, just as the humoral mixture has an effect on the soul, and we clarified all of that and provided examples. We know for a fact that joy causes the face to redden and that fear causes it to blanche—one causes the blood to expand over the exterior of the body, and the other to sink into the recesses of the body. The heat in the heart is responsible for this; at one time it expands and causes the blood to become fine, and at another time it contracts and causes it to thicken. Joy is attended by the former condition, grief by the latter. If it runs to excess in either direction, it results in a departure from the balanced state, and
103
103
99.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�ن أ ّ � � � � ن ���ا ن� ي�لن����ه ا ��نل � � ن �� ي � � � ا �ل���رن��� ن� ك� ا ���ن�هّ ن�أ�ا � ا ك� ���ا ن� نرا �أ��د ا�ام�ي��د ا ر ل�� ا � �� ي حر�ونج �ع� ا �ل� �ع��د ا �ل �ونح�� ن ي ي �م � ن ا� ي � � ّ أ ا� ن� � � �� ش ا �نل � ا � � � � ا ح � ا ا ا � حر�ون� �ع ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل �ي���و� �م�و� ��و �ي� و �سر � ل��س�دي��د. ج
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أّ أ ّ ا � ني �ن ح��س�ا ��� 1ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �ن�ا ا�� ي������ير��ه ا �ش�س�د �م ن� أا � ��ص�� ل��ن� ا ن� أا � ح��س�ا ��س�ه ن�����ا �كي��ه ي����و� ���� ا �ل� ن ن أ ي م ي أ ن� � ّ � � ان ي ن � ���د ��ل��ا � �ي���ً�ا � ا نّ��م�ا ّ ن �ا �ا ًا��ا ن ّا ًا ح�ي� � ��و �ش�س � كي��ه ٢ �� � ٣ي ��و�م� ك�� � ٤ا �ي� �م� �و�ه�و ي���سر ل��ي� �لن�� ��� ا ����� �كي��ه ��ل� ي ن� � و أو أ �ه �ن ن � ن ّ ن ��د ا �ي�ا ��ل ا ��ل ش ي�لي�ن��ي�نس�ه أا � ا �م ّ��س�ه �و ن� �� كا � �ل] ��س�ا �عر [ � ع ا �و � �م�ه رع �و�ل� ِ نِ ُ ٱ �ِّ ن أِْ َ ِ ِ ْ ِ ِ ِٱ ْ� �� ��ن �ِ�ا � �شِ�ا ُي �ِ ا نْ اأ ِ �ا �ِ� ِ �ُأْ�ُ� �َ�ا �ف ِ ن � �ن����سمُ�َ ف�ا ا � � � ك ا � ا �� � د � ل �� ه � � � او �ل ِ � أو � � ن�مك ن �و س� ف � �و ِ ي� ن� ك ي ِي � ِ �م ّ ا � يّ ي ن أ نّ� ي� � ش � � ا� ي أ��ش ن ش � � ن نّ ن � � ن �و�م� يح� �ع� ���د ا ا ��مك ن��د ��س���و� ا� نم�سم�ل�� ا ���ر �م� ��س � ��ر ا�ام���ا ل��� �أاو ��م�ا � �لم�ك ���و ن���دا � اأ� �د �ه ا � ا � � � � �آ ن ���ده ا �ل��ر. �� �م� م� �ل� ي ن
١،١٠٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � � ّٰ � ل�ن ن � � أ نّ �� ا ن� هي نّ� ا � ا �� �� أ� هي ن� ي هي ا ّ � � ه � � م��س� � م ح�م�ه ا لله ا �ل��سن�� ن� �ي� � �لمك ا � ا ���� كي�� أا �م� �هي� �� ل �م�ل �م� ��� او ���� � ع � � � � ل وي ر �� �ل ا ن و � � ي �� � ا � � � ّ ن ا� ن ا� ي � ا� ن � ن � � ن ا� � ي ا� ن ي ي � � ُ ح��ّ �له�م�ا لمل � ا�م�ع��د �ل ا�م�و� � ��يس��هي� �م� ا��س ار ن ��وع �ل��د �لم�ك ا �لن��د � � او�م�ل�ء �م�ه � او�م� او �����ه �ل� ي� � ن � �� �ل ا �ل��ن ج ّ أّ � ّ � ن ��لم� ش ل��� ء ا ��ل�����ا � أ ح��ّ ا نّ��م�ا � ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ��ل�� � �� او ن���ي��هي ن�كي��ه � او ��ل��س��� ل��ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا ن� ا ��ل � او ن��م�ا ا ��ل � � � � ح�� � � ر � �أ ي و � ن ن � أ ي أأ ي ّ� � ن ��ل�مي� ّ ن � ن � �آ�ن ا ي � � ا أ ي � ��ل � � ا �ع ���ط� ا ��ل حي �� او � ي � ��و ن� ا�ام�ه ن��م�ا �ِير� �عم�لي��ه �م�م�ا �ل�� �ي �� او ن���ي��ه حرر �ن�ه م� ا �ل� � � ا �ل���� ر��ه �عملي��ه �و�ي� � � نأ ن ش أ ي � ن � أ � ي أ ًاي � ن ن ن � � ي ي � � ي ا ا ا ن ي � � � � � � � ��سن��ن�� �ل��ل� كي��ه � �و��د ا ر ��ه كن�م�ل ا � ي�ل ���� �و� �س ار ن��ه �وي���سر ���ل� ��ه � ���س���� ٥ل�د �لمك ا �ع��� ن� ُ ع ُ ح ا ��ل ن �ن��م�� ي � ا ا � �أ� ن ا ا �� ي ي� ي ا � �� ح��س�ا ن � ا ن ن ّي ي ن � � ل �� ا ا ء ع � ح � ٨ � � ٧ � � ح� �� ل � � � � ل � �م� ا �ل��د �م�ع �و�ر�� ٦ل��ي� ن �مي�� ن��د � �و ن نج أ � أ ن� � ي� �ن �� ُ ّ ن ن � � ل�ن �� ي ش � ل�نع � ن ا �ن � �أ� ن ا �ن � ّ � ن � ن ا �� ن ن � ا ن � � ه � ل � ك � م � ع �د �� � � � � � �� ��� � ك ��� ء �ل �و� �كم �ن�ي�� � �لمك �ي� ا ل����سير �و�ي� م�� �� ا �ل�ع� ع � ن � ي � ن ّ ّ �ّ ج ن ن � ع ّ ن� ا� � � ن ه � � ا � � ا هي ه ��ل � ّ ن ��� ن��ل�� �م��ه ��ل� � � � � ا ا م ح��� كي��ه �و� ي م�ل �� أ �ل� م� �ل� �� ن�� ن� أ �� ح���. ح��� �و ����ل ���و ن� م ع أ أ أ أ أ أ أ نّ أن ن ة ن 1الا�ص�ل :ن�� أا � ة�ه�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ش��س�ا ك ٤ .الا�ص�ل :لا� ٥ .الا�ص�ل :وا � ش���أ� ٦ .الا�ص�ل :و�ر�. ���س�ا ��س ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :س� ة أ أ ن ن ٧الا�ص�ل :و���س��ن ٨ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل�د �ة�. �
104
104
٢،١٠٠
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�ن أ ّ � � � � ن ���ا ن� ي�لن����ه ا ��نل � � ن �� ي � � � ا �ل���رن��� ن� ك� ا ���ن�هّ ن�أ�ا � ا ك� ���ا ن� نرا �أ��د ا�ام�ي��د ا ر ل�� ا � �� ي حر�ونج �ع� ا �ل� �ع��د ا �ل �ونح�� ن ي ي �م � ن ا� ي � � ّ أ ا� ن� � � �� ش ا �نل � ا � � � � ا ح � ا ا ا � حر�ون� �ع ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل �ي���و� �م�و� ��و �ي� و �سر � ل��س�دي��د. ج
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أّ أ ّ ا � ني �ن ح��س�ا ��� 1ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �ن�ا ا�� ي������ير��ه ا �ش�س�د �م ن� أا � ��ص�� ل��ن� ا ن� أا � ح��س�ا ��س�ه ن�����ا �كي��ه ي����و� ���� ا �ل� ن ن أ ي م ي أ ن� � ّ � � ان ي ن � ���د ��ل��ا � �ي���ً�ا � ا نّ��م�ا ّ ن �ا �ا ًا��ا ن ّا ًا ح�ي� � ��و �ش�س � كي��ه ٢ �� � ٣ي ��و�م� ك�� � ٤ا �ي� �م� �و�ه�و ي���سر ل��ي� �لن�� ��� ا ����� �كي��ه ��ل� ي ن� � و أو أ �ه �ن ن � ن ّ ن ��د ا �ي�ا ��ل ا ��ل ش ي�لي�ن��ي�نس�ه أا � ا �م ّ��س�ه �و ن� �� كا � �ل] ��س�ا �عر [ � ع ا �و � �م�ه رع �و�ل� ِ نِ ُ ٱ �ِّ ن أِْ َ ِ ِ ْ ِ ِ ِٱ ْ� �� ��ن �ِ�ا � �شِ�ا ُي �ِ ا نْ اأ ِ �ا �ِ� ِ �ُأْ�ُ� �َ�ا �ف ِ ن � �ن����سمُ�َ ف�ا ا � � � ك ا � ا �� � د � ل �� ه � � � او �ل ِ � أو � � ن�مك ن �و س� ف � �و ِ ي� ن� ك ي ِي � ِ �م ّ ا � يّ ي ن أ نّ� ي� � ش � � ا� ي أ��ش ن ش � � ن نّ ن � � ن �و�م� يح� �ع� ���د ا ا ��مك ن��د ��س���و� ا� نم�سم�ل�� ا ���ر �م� ��س � ��ر ا�ام���ا ل��� �أاو ��م�ا � �لم�ك ���و ن���دا � اأ� �د �ه ا � ا � � � � �آ ن ���ده ا �ل��ر. �� �م� م� �ل� ي ن
١،١٠٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � � ّٰ � ل�ن ن � � أ نّ �� ا ن� هي نّ� ا � ا �� �� أ� هي ن� ي هي ا ّ � � ه � � م��س� � م ح�م�ه ا لله ا �ل��سن�� ن� �ي� � �لمك ا � ا ���� كي�� أا �م� �هي� �� ل �م�ل �م� ��� او ���� � ع � � � � ل وي ر �� �ل ا ن و � � ي �� � ا � � � ّ ن ا� ن ا� ي � ا� ن � ن � � ن ا� � ي ا� ن ي ي � � ُ ح��ّ �له�م�ا لمل � ا�م�ع��د �ل ا�م�و� � ��يس��هي� �م� ا��س ار ن ��وع �ل��د �لم�ك ا �لن��د � � او�م�ل�ء �م�ه � او�م� او �����ه �ل� ي� � ن � �� �ل ا �ل��ن ج ّ أّ � ّ � ن ��لم� ش ل��� ء ا ��ل�����ا � أ ح��ّ ا نّ��م�ا � ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ��ل�� � �� او ن���ي��هي ن�كي��ه � او ��ل��س��� ل��ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا ن� ا ��ل � او ن��م�ا ا ��ل � � � � ح�� � � ر � �أ ي و � ن ن � أ ي أأ ي ّ� � ن ��ل�مي� ّ ن � ن � �آ�ن ا ي � � ا أ ي � ��ل � � ا �ع ���ط� ا ��ل حي �� او � ي � ��و ن� ا�ام�ه ن��م�ا �ِير� �عم�لي��ه �م�م�ا �ل�� �ي �� او ن���ي��ه حرر �ن�ه م� ا �ل� � � ا �ل���� ر��ه �عملي��ه �و�ي� � � نأ ن ش أ ي � ن � أ � ي أ ًاي � ن ن ن � � ي ي � � ي ا ا ا ن ي � � � � � � � ��سن��ن�� �ل��ل� كي��ه � �و��د ا ر ��ه كن�م�ل ا � ي�ل ���� �و� �س ار ن��ه �وي���سر ���ل� ��ه � ���س���� ٥ل�د �لمك ا �ع��� ن� ُ ع ُ ح ا ��ل ن �ن��م�� ي � ا ا � �أ� ن ا ا �� ي ي� ي ا � �� ح��س�ا ن � ا ن ن ّي ي ن � � ل �� ا ا ء ع � ح � ٨ � � ٧ � � ح� �� ل � � � � ل � �م� ا �ل��د �م�ع �و�ر�� ٦ل��ي� ن �مي�� ن��د � �و ن نج أ � أ ن� � ي� �ن �� ُ ّ ن ن � � ل�ن �� ي ش � ل�نع � ن ا �ن � �أ� ن ا �ن � ّ � ن � ن ا �� ن ن � ا ن � � ه � ل � ك � م � ع �د �� � � � � � �� ��� � ك ��� ء �ل �و� �كم �ن�ي�� � �لمك �ي� ا ل����سير �و�ي� م�� �� ا �ل�ع� ع � ن � ي � ن ّ ّ �ّ ج ن ن � ع ّ ن� ا� � � ن ه � � ا � � ا هي ه ��ل � ّ ن ��� ن��ل�� �م��ه ��ل� � � � � ا ا م ح��� كي��ه �و� ي م�ل �� أ �ل� م� �ل� �� ن�� ن� أ �� ح���. ح��� �و ����ل ���و ن� م ع أ أ أ أ أ أ أ نّ أن ن ة ن 1الا�ص�ل :ن�� أا � ة�ه�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ش��س�ا ك ٤ .الا�ص�ل :لا� ٥ .الا�ص�ل :وا � ش���أ� ٦ .الا�ص�ل :و�ر�. ���س�ا ��س ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :س� ة أ أ ن ن ٧الا�ص�ل :و���س��ن ٨ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل�د �ة�. �
104
104
٢،١٠٠
On why we experience states of suffering more intensely than states of well-being
death or severe illness supervenes, depending on the extent of the departure from the balanced state.
On why we experience states of suffering more intensely than states of well-being Why do people feel the pain that befalls them more acutely than they feel the
100.1
state of well-being they are in? A single day’s suffering leads to a dozen days’ moaning, whereas going about cosseted in well-being makes no impression on them, and they only notice it when visited by some hurt or affected by some fear. This is why the poet said: Though the wheel of fate brings its miseries, the suffering teaches you the meaning of joy.19 This is corroborated by how we find the complaints of the afflicted outstripping the gratitude of the healthy; this must be because the former experience something the latter do not.
Miskawayh’s response This is because well-being is a state congruent with and in agreement with the 100.2 natural state that results from the balanced mixture set for that body. Congruence and agreement are not things that can be sensed; things that supervene and do not involve agreement are what is sensed. Sensation was granted to animals to use as protection against injuries that befall them, and so that the pain produced in them by things that happen but that do not agree with them should cause them to remedy and redress these things before their mixture becomes impaired and they quickly succumb to destruction. The science of anatomy and discussions of the benefits of the parts of the body have explained why nerves were generated from the brain, dispersed throughout the whole body, and woven into those parts of the body that require sensation.20 So wherever in the body there are nerves there is sensation, and those parts of the body that do not have them lack sensation; the only parts of the body that do not have them are those that have no need for sensation.
105
105
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ أن �� � ّ ً � � ن � ا نّ��م�ا � �ن ي� ا ��ل��أ�ع���ا � �عم� ا ��ل��أ�ع ن� ا � ش ن ي �ي ح��س�ا �و�لي����و� ن��م�ا �ير� ل أو و ��� ء ا �ل��س �ري�ل��ه �ل����ي�ر ا � ل��� ن � ر � � �آن ي أ ّ ً ن � �أ ا� ن � ي ن � � � � � ي���ا �م ن� ا �ل� ��ا � ا ��س أا � ح��س�ا ��س�ا �و ���ل � �لم�ك �لي�نس�ا � ر أا �ل�� أا را �ل�ه �م�ا ���ده �م ا � � �عم�ل� ر ي ن أ � �ل م ع � � � � � عن�م� �ع ن��ه ن�لي�� او ن� �و��ل�� ن�ع�ي�ره �و����و ن��ل�� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �م ن ا ��ل � �ن�ا �����ل�� ن� �و�ل�� ي��ن� � م��ا �ن�ه ح��ّ �و�م ن� ا �ل�� ا� �و� � ل � ً أ � م ��ا ن ج ��� ش ً �ا � ن � �آن ا ي �� �ش� ي اأ�ّ ا ا ��ل ا �� ا ا� �� أ� هي ن �� � ي ا � �� ح��س�ا � � � �� ل �� ا ا ا � ا ك م � ه �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � م م � � � ح� م � � � ل ي ل ل ل ير و نج أ � أ � ��� � ���ل� ���ه �و���يم � أ أ � ي � � ّ � � ن ّ ن ل�ن ا � ا �� ا ا �ل�� ّ ي ن ا � � ا �� ا �ل ح��ّ ��م�ا ��ل�� أ��م��ا �ل��ا ��� � 1د ه ��ا ��ل ن� ح�مي�� ا �ل ��م��� �ي� � �و ل��� ن ن� و ��يس�عي��ه � او �ل��� �ل� � � ن ي � ��و � ع ّ ي � ّ � ن ي ا � او ن��م�ا � ���ا. ح��� ن��م� �ل� �ي �� او ��� � أ أ أ ّ ّ ان ني ح��ّ ا ��لم�ل�م�� ا ��ل�� ند �� �ه� �م ش��س��ي ك ن ن��م�� � ن ن� ا ن �ي �� ن � � ي و ر ي ع ا �لن��د � أا �م� �ي��د رك �م� را � ا �و � �ل���� �ع� ا ��ول أا � � ّ ً ن � � ي � ا� ن ��و ��ل�ه �ن�ا ن� ا ��لن��د ن� ��ل�ه ا �عي��د ا ��ل �م ن ا ��ل � ح ار رهي �مش��ل�� �نأ�ا � ا �ل�� �ي�ا ه �م ن� � ار رهي ا �ل�ه� او ء ا �ع��دا �ل�ه ا�م�و� �ع أ � � � �ن � ن ن� �� � ا � �� أ�� ه � � ا ن���ي ه ا�� � ّ أ ً� ن ن ن م� ي�ل م� وي��و �� م ي � ا �ل�ه� او ء �ع ن� � �لم�ك ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل ا �ل��د �ي� �لم�لن��د � ح��� �ن�ه ا ���ل� �أ�ا � �رجن ن � �� هي ّ ا ��ل � أ ّ أ� ّ �� � � ��ل � ن � ن ح��� �ن�ه ن�كن��ا � ر أا ��ل�� �ي�ل�� �كي��ه � او ���ل����ه �و���د �لمك ا أا �م� أا �� نر� ا �و �ر ا ط �ون� ��ا �ل ل��ي� ا �لن��ر� � او �ر� � أ أ ّ ّ ّ � � � او ��ل� �� ��س�هي �ن�ا �ّم�ا ��س�ا أ�ر ا ��ل �وا ��� ن�م� � � ���د �من����ا ا �عي��د ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �ن�ه �ل�� ي� ل� ح��ّ ن��م�ا �ي�ل�� أ��م�ه ا � � � � � و ل ين و � نّ� ا � ّ � ا ن ا ّ ن � ن ي � ��ا � ن ن ا نّ ا � � ي� ّ ا � � ّ � ا � � �� ن � � � � �أاو �م� يح��� ن�م� �يل� ��� � ه �و�ي ي�رلمل�ه ع� ا �ع��دا �ل�ه ك�� ������ي� أ� �ل��� �ل� ح��� �ن� �ل�ه� او ء �و�ن ��ل م� �ل� ��و� � � ��� ن ّ ي ي ن ا ن ي � ا ��ن � � ا ��ل�� ا �ي �� ّ �ن ن ا �م� ي �ي ل�� �ع ا �ع��د ا �ل��� �و���د �لمك س�م� � �و� ل�� ا ل � �� �وا ��� �و���د ا �ن� ن� �������� ل�ي� �ل�ه �و�ل� كي ��عي��ه � ي�رلم� � � ع ني � ي ُ � � ���� ا �ل ن � ل�� ح�م�هي ن�م�ل�ي�ر ن� �� ���ا. � �� او ن� ع أا �لي� �����ه �م� �� ن
٣،١٠٠
٤،١٠٠
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � � ا ��� أ ن ي� ش ّ ن ن � � نا ن � ن ي ن � ن �ل ن�م �م�ك �م ن ن�ع ح ن� ير ه �وي س�م���ه ا �و يح ���ر�عم�ل�� �ملن��ه ��م ي�ل� ���ر أا �لي��ه �� ���ر�م� ���د ���قر� �م� ي � � ّ أ أ ن ن أن � ن � ن ن �ُ�� ن�ك� ن�م�� � ��لن�م��� ح����ه �م ن� �ع�ي�ر ا � �ي���و� ش��سر�ي����ه �ي�سم�ا �يل�م��م�ك �م ن� ا ن�م�ل�ه �ورن��م�ا ا رن �ل�� �م��م�ك ن ��د ي مك � أ ن ي م��هّ � � � � ن� � ن � �ّ � ن � ن ���ا �م�ك ا� ن� ���ا �م�ك ا �لش��ا �ل�ي�؟ ح ن� أا �ل�� ا �لن� ا �ل ن��ا ���ر�عم�ل���م��م�ك ا �ل� �و�ل ل��م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� ��سر�� �م ن� ا �لن�
أ 1الا�ص�ل :ن���.
106
106
١،١٠١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ أن �� � ّ ً � � ن � ا نّ��م�ا � �ن ي� ا ��ل��أ�ع���ا � �عم� ا ��ل��أ�ع ن� ا � ش ن ي �ي ح��س�ا �و�لي����و� ن��م�ا �ير� ل أو و ��� ء ا �ل��س �ري�ل��ه �ل����ي�ر ا � ل��� ن � ر � � �آن ي أ ّ ً ن � �أ ا� ن � ي ن � � � � � ي���ا �م ن� ا �ل� ��ا � ا ��س أا � ح��س�ا ��س�ا �و ���ل � �لم�ك �لي�نس�ا � ر أا �ل�� أا را �ل�ه �م�ا ���ده �م ا � � �عم�ل� ر ي ن أ � �ل م ع � � � � � عن�م� �ع ن��ه ن�لي�� او ن� �و��ل�� ن�ع�ي�ره �و����و ن��ل�� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �م ن ا ��ل � �ن�ا �����ل�� ن� �و�ل�� ي��ن� � م��ا �ن�ه ح��ّ �و�م ن� ا �ل�� ا� �و� � ل � ً أ � م ��ا ن ج ��� ش ً �ا � ن � �آن ا ي �� �ش� ي اأ�ّ ا ا ��ل ا �� ا ا� �� أ� هي ن �� � ي ا � �� ح��س�ا � � � �� ل �� ا ا ا � ا ك م � ه �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � م م � � � ح� م � � � ل ي ل ل ل ير و نج أ � أ � ��� � ���ل� ���ه �و���يم � أ أ � ي � � ّ � � ن ّ ن ل�ن ا � ا �� ا ا �ل�� ّ ي ن ا � � ا �� ا �ل ح��ّ ��م�ا ��ل�� أ��م��ا �ل��ا ��� � 1د ه ��ا ��ل ن� ح�مي�� ا �ل ��م��� �ي� � �و ل��� ن ن� و ��يس�عي��ه � او �ل��� �ل� � � ن ي � ��و � ع ّ ي � ّ � ن ي ا � او ن��م�ا � ���ا. ح��� ن��م� �ل� �ي �� او ��� � أ أ أ ّ ّ ان ني ح��ّ ا ��لم�ل�م�� ا ��ل�� ند �� �ه� �م ش��س��ي ك ن ن��م�� � ن ن� ا ن �ي �� ن � � ي و ر ي ع ا �لن��د � أا �م� �ي��د رك �م� را � ا �و � �ل���� �ع� ا ��ول أا � � ّ ً ن � � ي � ا� ن ��و ��ل�ه �ن�ا ن� ا ��لن��د ن� ��ل�ه ا �عي��د ا ��ل �م ن ا ��ل � ح ار رهي �مش��ل�� �نأ�ا � ا �ل�� �ي�ا ه �م ن� � ار رهي ا �ل�ه� او ء ا �ع��دا �ل�ه ا�م�و� �ع أ � � � �ن � ن ن� �� � ا � �� أ�� ه � � ا ن���ي ه ا�� � ّ أ ً� ن ن ن م� ي�ل م� وي��و �� م ي � ا �ل�ه� او ء �ع ن� � �لم�ك ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل ا �ل��د �ي� �لم�لن��د � ح��� �ن�ه ا ���ل� �أ�ا � �رجن ن � �� هي ّ ا ��ل � أ ّ أ� ّ �� � � ��ل � ن � ن ح��� �ن�ه ن�كن��ا � ر أا ��ل�� �ي�ل�� �كي��ه � او ���ل����ه �و���د �لمك ا أا �م� أا �� نر� ا �و �ر ا ط �ون� ��ا �ل ل��ي� ا �لن��ر� � او �ر� � أ أ ّ ّ ّ � � � او ��ل� �� ��س�هي �ن�ا �ّم�ا ��س�ا أ�ر ا ��ل �وا ��� ن�م� � � ���د �من����ا ا �عي��د ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �ن�ه �ل�� ي� ل� ح��ّ ن��م�ا �ي�ل�� أ��م�ه ا � � � � � و ل ين و � نّ� ا � ّ � ا ن ا ّ ن � ن ي � ��ا � ن ن ا نّ ا � � ي� ّ ا � � ّ � ا � � �� ن � � � � �أاو �م� يح��� ن�م� �يل� ��� � ه �و�ي ي�رلمل�ه ع� ا �ع��دا �ل�ه ك�� ������ي� أ� �ل��� �ل� ح��� �ن� �ل�ه� او ء �و�ن ��ل م� �ل� ��و� � � ��� ن ّ ي ي ن ا ن ي � ا ��ن � � ا ��ل�� ا �ي �� ّ �ن ن ا �م� ي �ي ل�� �ع ا �ع��د ا �ل��� �و���د �لمك س�م� � �و� ل�� ا ل � �� �وا ��� �و���د ا �ن� ن� �������� ل�ي� �ل�ه �و�ل� كي ��عي��ه � ي�رلم� � � ع ني � ي ُ � � ���� ا �ل ن � ل�� ح�م�هي ن�م�ل�ي�ر ن� �� ���ا. � �� او ن� ع أا �لي� �����ه �م� �� ن
٣،١٠٠
٤،١٠٠
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � � ا ��� أ ن ي� ش ّ ن ن � � نا ن � ن ي ن � ن �ل ن�م �م�ك �م ن ن�ع ح ن� ير ه �وي س�م���ه ا �و يح ���ر�عم�ل�� �ملن��ه ��م ي�ل� ���ر أا �لي��ه �� ���ر�م� ���د ���قر� �م� ي � � ّ أ أ ن ن أن � ن � ن ن �ُ�� ن�ك� ن�م�� � ��لن�م��� ح����ه �م ن� �ع�ي�ر ا � �ي���و� ش��سر�ي����ه �ي�سم�ا �يل�م��م�ك �م ن� ا ن�م�ل�ه �ورن��م�ا ا رن �ل�� �م��م�ك ن ��د ي مك � أ ن ي م��هّ � � � � ن� � ن � �ّ � ن � ن ���ا �م�ك ا� ن� ���ا �م�ك ا �لش��ا �ل�ي�؟ ح ن� أا �ل�� ا �لن� ا �ل ن��ا ���ر�عم�ل���م��م�ك ا �ل� �و�ل ل��م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� ��سر�� �م ن� ا �لن�
أ 1الا�ص�ل :ن���.
106
106
١،١٠١
On why seeing someone laughing causes others to laugh
The noble parts of the body were provided with nerves in order for them to
100.3
be able to sense things more acutely and to sense the injuries that come upon them more quickly. The purpose of this is to make us hasten to eliminate the pain we experience through treatment, and not neglect it through indolence or other factors. Were a person to be free from sensation and from pain and its locus, it would not be long before he succumbed to destruction through a multiplicity of injuries. Congruent states, by contrast, do not need to be sensed. This is how things stand with all of the five senses in their natural states; they do not sense the things that are congruent with them, but rather, sense the things that do not agree with them. The sense of touch, shared across the entire body, perceives that which
100.4
exceeds or falls short of the balance set for it. For example, the body has a particular balance with respect to heat, and it does not sense the temperature of the air that it encounters if it is congruent with it or agrees with it. By contrast, the body senses the air if it departs from the particular balance of the body, whether in the direction of cold or heat, and rushes to remedy or rectify it. The same applies to cold, moisture, and dryness. Each of the other senses has a balanced state proper to it; it does not sense that which is congruent with it, but rather only senses that which opposes it and displaces it from its balanced state. Take the eye: It does not sense the air or any of the objects that lack color and a modality that would displace it from its balanced state. The same applies to hearing and to the other senses. This topic is discussed thoroughly in the appropriate sections of the books of philosophy, so let these be consulted.
On why seeing someone laughing causes others to laugh We sometimes see a person laughing at some remarkable thing he sees or hears or thinks of, and then another person sees him and begins to laugh at his laughter without sharing in the object of his laughter. And sometimes the second person’s laughter makes the first person laugh even harder. What is it that passes from the person who’s laughing out of amazement to the second person laughing?
107
107
101.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� � ي� أ ٰ ّ أّ ح ّي ن �س � �ً�ا ا ح� ّ ي ي ي ا ش ن � ن ن ا �ل��شم ن� � � ّ ن � ن ن ا �ل��شم ن� ��س�ه � ر نو ��س�ه �ل�� �ر �م� ا �ل ������ � � ي �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا �ل ������ � ي ن ا � أ ي ي ّ � ن ا �� � ش ن ن � ي �م ن ا ��لي��اأ �ش�� ا ي� ���� ن ��س�ه �و��د �سر �ل�� ��ل�� ك� �ل��� �نل ي� � ����ي�ر ل��ي� ���د ا ا�ام�سن���. �ل���ا ��س �ر����ه � نو���� � � � ير ن م ي � ن ي � �ش� �م ن ا � ا ا ي �ن ا �نّه �ي ش ل�ن�م ن �ي�اأ �ش�� ا �يل��ا ا ��ل��س �����ه ���� ن �ل���ا ل��ي� ن���� ن��� ا �ل ن��و� � او �لي�س�ا �أو ن� �وك����ي ر � �ر �� � أ� � �د � � ير � ير ن م أ أ ن � ا أ نّ ن ا� � ن � � ي ن ن � ي ن ن ي ي ا ن ن ن � � ا �ش��ي��هر ل��� ا �ل�� ��� ا � �م� ������ ا �و �ل�� �ع�� �ع��د ا�م��س��ي ��� ��ط ا �ل�د ي� �ل� �ك ��ور �ن�ه ا ������س�ه � � ي � ن � � ن ن � � ل�ن ا �� ن ش �� ي �� ن�� ي � ش ا � أ ي ي ا ا ا ن �و�ن��ّو�م�ه �و��� ��د �لم�ك ا�م�س� �� ن� � او�م� � �� ��سم�ل �ع� �ع�مم�ل� .و��د ي��ر � �ر�� ن� م� � �لمك �ي� ل�����يل�ط ي � � ن �� ّ � �أّ � أ ن ش � أ ن ن � أ نّ أ ن ن � أ �ً� ش � �لم�ل�ه�مم�ل ا � �ي��� ش��م ��ط ا �ّو �ل� ��ّ ي�����د �ي� ا �لش��ا �ل�ي�� 1و� � ���ن� ا �ل� �و�ل ا ���م ��ط � او �ن�ي� ن� � او �ل��سن�� ن� ل��ي� � �لم�ك ا � م �� أ أ �ش� ي ا � �أ��شم ن� ا �� �ن �ن ن ن ��ا ن ي � ���دهي ل��ن ن� ا �يل��ا �نم�ل���� ن� ح� ا ن� �لي��ا �ّ �� �م ن ه � ي �� ا �ل ������ �أاو � ك�� ��� ك���ي ره �ن� �ل� �� � � � هي� � او � ي� � ي � ن ن � ن � �أ��شم ن� ا �� ��ل � ن آش ا �ن �ن ّ ���س�هي ��س �����هي �� �� ن �م�ا ن �ليّ��هي � ���� � .ي ا � ن ا� � ن ير ن ل ر � ن ولي��� ي ن������ ا �ل� �� � أا �� ن������ ا �� ر ل� ي ح��نج ���د ا ا�مس��� � � ن ح��س ّ هي ا � ي �ي�ي �� ن ن ن � ن ن � �� �ل أا ��ل�� �ش���� ء ���س �� �عم�ل ���� � ��ي ا ��لن ��ي�م�ل�هي � او ��ل حر����هي ا ن� �مي�� ��� ل��ل �� ل��ي� ر�م�ا � ن�لم�ل �ي�ل���� ل��ي� � �لم�ك ي ي ري � ر ن � �آ ن ي ي ع ن ن ن ن ي أ ن ُ ن ّ � ن نيّ� � أ أ اأ ن ي�لي�� ��� ن �� ش � ���د �ه�م�ا ل�� ا �ل�� � �لع� ��ل� �م�ا ������� � .ه ا � �لي ح ���ط ا ��لن��ن���س�ا ن� ��ا � ا �لي��ا ��� �م ن � ا � �د � � � ل و ر ر ي � ن � ي ي ر ر عن أ � ي ي ي� أ � � � � � � � ن ا نّ ن ن ن � ن � � ي ��ا ن ن � ن ن ن ن ل��� ���د ا ا�ام�س��� ا �لم�ل�� ي � ��� ا �ل��شر ا �ل��د �ي� �ي�لعن�م�ل�ه ا �ل ن��ا ���ر�م ن� ا�امن� �� � طور أا �لي��ه �أ� � ���د ا �أاو � ك�� � ي ن ا نّ � ن � ن ا ن يّ ي ن ي ي ي أ ن ي ي � نّ ا � ي �� � � � ن � �� � ا ن ل � ن� ��و��س� ����ه ا ن� � �أ� ��ه �ي���و� �ن�ل� ر�م� � ن�ل��ه �مل���� � �ل��د ر ا � � �ل �عو�ل أا � ا �ل�� ���ر أا �ل�� ��و�� ن� ح�� � م ن ي ن �� �� � ش ا ي ي � ن ن �م� ي ّ ن ن ع�نس�ه � �ون��ي ن� ر�أيو�لي��ه أا �ي�ا ه ر�م�ا �. �م� ا ����� او �� ن� ا �ل�� ن�ل��ه �ي���و� �ن�ي�� ��ه �ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
آ ا� ش ي ّ ش ي � � ن ا ن � ن � ا ا� � ّ � ���� ا �لأ������� � �ل���د ا ا ����� � ح�ي� �ل� ��ي� �ن�ه � او ش�ره �م ا ������د �ع � من � أ أ �ا ي ن ن ن ن ا � �وا � �ش�ه �ون� نل�� �م ن� � �سر�و��ه �و�� �� ��ه �و�ع�ي�ره �ور � او �ل�ه �ن� ��مل�ه؟ �و�م� اي�� � ن ا ����ر���؟ أ أ ن �� نس. 1الا�ص�ل :ا ّولا ���ل ك
108
108
��د � ن�ك��ه �م� �م�ا �و���ج ي ع ي ن � �ن ن ا �������ا � ا �لأ�������ا �
�ير�� ن ���د ا
٢،١٠١
١،١٠٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� � ي� أ ٰ ّ أّ ح ّي ن �س � �ً�ا ا ح� ّ ي ي ي ا ش ن � ن ن ا �ل��شم ن� � � ّ ن � ن ن ا �ل��شم ن� ��س�ه � ر نو ��س�ه �ل�� �ر �م� ا �ل ������ � � ي �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا �ل ������ � ي ن ا � أ ي ي ّ � ن ا �� � ش ن ن � ي �م ن ا ��لي��اأ �ش�� ا ي� ���� ن ��س�ه �و��د �سر �ل�� ��ل�� ك� �ل��� �نل ي� � ����ي�ر ل��ي� ���د ا ا�ام�سن���. �ل���ا ��س �ر����ه � نو���� � � � ير ن م ي � ن ي � �ش� �م ن ا � ا ا ي �ن ا �نّه �ي ش ل�ن�م ن �ي�اأ �ش�� ا �يل��ا ا ��ل��س �����ه ���� ن �ل���ا ل��ي� ن���� ن��� ا �ل ن��و� � او �لي�س�ا �أو ن� �وك����ي ر � �ر �� � أ� � �د � � ير � ير ن م أ أ ن � ا أ نّ ن ا� � ن � � ي ن ن � ي ن ن ي ي ا ن ن ن � � ا �ش��ي��هر ل��� ا �ل�� ��� ا � �م� ������ ا �و �ل�� �ع�� �ع��د ا�م��س��ي ��� ��ط ا �ل�د ي� �ل� �ك ��ور �ن�ه ا ������س�ه � � ي � ن � � ن ن � � ل�ن ا �� ن ش �� ي �� ن�� ي � ش ا � أ ي ي ا ا ا ن �و�ن��ّو�م�ه �و��� ��د �لم�ك ا�م�س� �� ن� � او�م� � �� ��سم�ل �ع� �ع�مم�ل� .و��د ي��ر � �ر�� ن� م� � �لمك �ي� ل�����يل�ط ي � � ن �� ّ � �أّ � أ ن ش � أ ن ن � أ نّ أ ن ن � أ �ً� ش � �لم�ل�ه�مم�ل ا � �ي��� ش��م ��ط ا �ّو �ل� ��ّ ي�����د �ي� ا �لش��ا �ل�ي�� 1و� � ���ن� ا �ل� �و�ل ا ���م ��ط � او �ن�ي� ن� � او �ل��سن�� ن� ل��ي� � �لم�ك ا � م �� أ أ �ش� ي ا � �أ��شم ن� ا �� �ن �ن ن ن ��ا ن ي � ���دهي ل��ن ن� ا �يل��ا �نم�ل���� ن� ح� ا ن� �لي��ا �ّ �� �م ن ه � ي �� ا �ل ������ �أاو � ك�� ��� ك���ي ره �ن� �ل� �� � � � هي� � او � ي� � ي � ن ن � ن � �أ��شم ن� ا �� ��ل � ن آش ا �ن �ن ّ ���س�هي ��س �����هي �� �� ن �م�ا ن �ليّ��هي � ���� � .ي ا � ن ا� � ن ير ن ل ر � ن ولي��� ي ن������ ا �ل� �� � أا �� ن������ ا �� ر ل� ي ح��نج ���د ا ا�مس��� � � ن ح��س ّ هي ا � ي �ي�ي �� ن ن ن � ن ن � �� �ل أا ��ل�� �ش���� ء ���س �� �عم�ل ���� � ��ي ا ��لن ��ي�م�ل�هي � او ��ل حر����هي ا ن� �مي�� ��� ل��ل �� ل��ي� ر�م�ا � ن�لم�ل �ي�ل���� ل��ي� � �لم�ك ي ي ري � ر ن � �آ ن ي ي ع ن ن ن ن ي أ ن ُ ن ّ � ن نيّ� � أ أ اأ ن ي�لي�� ��� ن �� ش � ���د �ه�م�ا ل�� ا �ل�� � �لع� ��ل� �م�ا ������� � .ه ا � �لي ح ���ط ا ��لن��ن���س�ا ن� ��ا � ا �لي��ا ��� �م ن � ا � �د � � � ل و ر ر ي � ن � ي ي ر ر عن أ � ي ي ي� أ � � � � � � � ن ا نّ ن ن ن � ن � � ي ��ا ن ن � ن ن ن ن ل��� ���د ا ا�ام�س��� ا �لم�ل�� ي � ��� ا �ل��شر ا �ل��د �ي� �ي�لعن�م�ل�ه ا �ل ن��ا ���ر�م ن� ا�امن� �� � طور أا �لي��ه �أ� � ���د ا �أاو � ك�� � ي ن ا نّ � ن � ن ا ن يّ ي ن ي ي ي أ ن ي ي � نّ ا � ي �� � � � ن � �� � ا ن ل � ن� ��و��س� ����ه ا ن� � �أ� ��ه �ي���و� �ن�ل� ر�م� � ن�ل��ه �مل���� � �ل��د ر ا � � �ل �عو�ل أا � ا �ل�� ���ر أا �ل�� ��و�� ن� ح�� � م ن ي ن �� �� � ش ا ي ي � ن ن �م� ي ّ ن ن ع�نس�ه � �ون��ي ن� ر�أيو�لي��ه أا �ي�ا ه ر�م�ا �. �م� ا ����� او �� ن� ا �ل�� ن�ل��ه �ي���و� �ن�ي�� ��ه �ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
آ ا� ش ي ّ ش ي � � ن ا ن � ن � ا ا� � ّ � ���� ا �لأ������� � �ل���د ا ا ����� � ح�ي� �ل� ��ي� �ن�ه � او ش�ره �م ا ������د �ع � من � أ أ �ا ي ن ن ن ن ا � �وا � �ش�ه �ون� نل�� �م ن� � �سر�و��ه �و�� �� ��ه �و�ع�ي�ره �ور � او �ل�ه �ن� ��مل�ه؟ �و�م� اي�� � ن ا ����ر���؟ أ أ ن �� نس. 1الا�ص�ل :ا ّولا ���ل ك
108
108
��د � ن�ك��ه �م� �م�ا �و���ج ي ع ي ن � �ن ن ا �������ا � ا �لأ�������ا �
�ير�� ن ���د ا
٢،١٠١
١،١٠٢
On why human beings are so attached to the world despite misfortunes and suffering
Miskawayh’s response One individual soul can have many kinds of effects on another individual soul,
101.2
some rapid and others tardy. We have already said much about this. The rapid effects they have on one another include sleeping, yawning, and other forms of relaxation. It is a well-known fact that when a person grows drowsy or feigns drowsiness in the presence of a person who is wide awake and feels no tiredness, he causes the latter to grow drowsy and sends him off to sleep. The same applies to people who yawn and shirk work. Something similar may happen with someone who sets to work energetically, so that his energy passes over to another person, though the first person remains more energetic and this quality is more evident in him. The reason for this is that the soul is one in its essence, even though it is characterized by multiplicity through the multiplicity of individuals. So it is hardly surprising that certain rapid effects of the soul should be conveyed from some individuals to others without any time lag. This process does not require that anything should “pass” through any physical transfer and motion that unfolds in time. It is enough for the two souls to see each other, for the effect the one exercises on the other occurs without any lapse of time. On this subtle point, one should recall the effect on the observer of the object of observation; for though accomplished by means of the body, it requires no lapse of time whatsoever. Thus we cannot say that, when a person observes a fixed star, there is a lapse of time between the moment he opens his eyes and the moment he sees it.
On why human beings are so attached to the world despite the misfortunes and suffering they experience in it Why are human beings so passionately attached to this world—clinging to it, cherishing it, and laboring after it—despite the vicissitudes, accidents, calamities, and other woes they see it contains, and despite the extinction to which its inhabitants are exposed? Whence did human beings acquire this attribute?
109
109
102.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ � �� ّ�د �ع ش��م�ي��ه ��لم�ل���ا ا�� � �ه� ���������ه ّ �� ��ن� ��ل�� � ش��� ي ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� � �و ن� نرء �ل�ه؟ ح�م�ه ا لله �وك�ي م و و ن ي ي� ي و ي� ي ن ش أ ن� ي �ّ� ن أ � �ن �� ن هي ن� ن ش اأ ن � أ ي ��� ء ا ��لن�س�ا �ي ش ا نّ��م�ا �م��د �أ ي ن � � ه ه ه � � � � � � ك ا ا � ك � � � � ع � م �� �� م � � ه ده ه ه ل �� � �د � ط � � � � � � � � � � ه � ل ��� � ��س � ل � � � � � ر و و و و ي ي أ ن ي و و و و ن ن أ أ أ � ي ي ّ ن ن ي ي � ّ � ي ّ ن ّ ي ي ي ���ي ��ي ا�ام�ا � ه ا �� � �ل��سم�ه �ك� �� ي ح� ا �م�ه ������ ي ا �عن�� ا �ن�ه ي� ��س � � � س ه � � � � � � اء ه � � �د �م�د � � ع � � � ل � � � م � ل � ه � ي ي نر ي� � �ي� �� ن رو و ْوً ِ م أ ي ي �� أ ن ش اأ ي ّٰ ش َ ي ن � ن ن ي ّ ي ن ِ ِ ا ا ا ا ا ل� ح �� ا �نً�ا ا ن� ��ه �م ن م � �ع �و�� ن�� � ��م� �ل�� ء ا � حر �أ� � ا �� �و��� ر {� �ر} � او ���س� ه ا لله ����� ل�� �ي و ر ن � ر م ا �ن ّ � � ن ن ن � ن ن � � ن ا �� ي � ن � ن ي ن ن ن ي ي ن ي أ ����� � �ول���ي�ر ل��� �س �لن��ه ا �ل �ع ن�� ك �ي ���ع � � � ه �� � ط� �و�ل� � ا ير �ل حي �� او � �ع�ي ر ا �ل�� � � ي ر ح����أ�د ي ��د ي� نله�م� �وي� أ� ي ً ً ن ا ن ا ش ّ ي ّ � �ن ن ا ن ّ ي � يّ ��ن � � �� ن ي ي � ن � ي ّ � � ن� ���د �لمك أا ل�� ا � �ي�لعن�م�ل ���وره ا �ل� ��ط�� ا �و �ل� كي����ي�ر أا ������ �� ��م ي�ل��د رنج ل�ي� أا ���س� ��ي����ه ح�� ��ل ن � هي ا � أ ّ � ه � ن ا�ا� ي ن� ا � ا ��ل ا �� ي�ل��هي ا ���أ ن��� هي ا ���ي ني ني � ه � هي� أ �� ر ن �ل ي ر �ي� ي� هي� أا �� �عم �ي� �م� ي ��و��م�ل �ل� م� �س ار �� ن� كي� ��� �و�لي����� �ي����ض� � �� �ي��� � � � � ي � ن ي �ّ � أن ن � �أن ي � � � � ن ي ���د ن�����د ا ��� او � ن�عم� �ي�ه ا �لأ��������ا ن�ليّ��ه أا �ل�� ا �ل��� ار � �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� � او ��� او � ���د ل��ي� ا �ل�ر�م ن��ه ا �ل��ط� او �ل � او � �ل���را ي� � �ش ي ا� ك �����ي�ره .
ي ن ن ن ن ن � ي ي ي ن ا ��ل�� ّ ي ن ي ن � ي � �عم� �ّم�هي ا ��نل ي ح�م � � ن ا �هم� و �م� �ل� �و ن� � هور ا �ل�� ��� � او ��� �عو� ل��ي� �م��ر�ل�ه � ير�لن��ه �م� ن �يس�مي��ه �و�عم� �ي�ه �ل ��ط� � ي� � ن �ه اأ ن � يّ ا �يم� � ا ��ل��س ّ هي ي� �ي ًا � ا ن� ه �ن ن �� ا � � �ي ّ اأ�ّ ا اأ ن � �ن ا �ي ا � � ا �ل� �و�مي��ير �م � ير�لن ��و للك ن �ي�مي�� ر�ي��ن�� م� كي�� ل��� م ع�م�ل�ي� �و م� � يل�� ر ��و��� �ويل���ي ر�و أا �� ي �ن � �� ن ا �� � هي � � ن ��� ا ��لي��ا �ّ ا ��ل ���ّد ا ��ل�� ند �� �����ا ��ل� ي� ��ه �ن�ل�� � ا نّ��م�ا � � � ل ا ��ل ل ح� � � � � ل ل ا � ا � �ع ا ل � � � ح� د � م � � ل � � ���� ك � � � � ي ي وي� أو ي ي ر أ � ي ن ن يم م ح�م � اأ� نا �أ ا �م�لًا �ع ً�� اأ ن� ّ �� ه �يلم� � ا�ا� ن� ن �� هي � ا � � �� ا � ا ��لي ن�ك ي ش�ّ � � � ّ �م ن ا�ا� ا ّ ي ن� ي� ن ر ل��� ع �م� �و �م�ل �و �ن�� ل� لك م� رل� ن� �لأ� ل��� �و ��و ��� � �ل� ن��د � م� � ه ي م� � ي م ا �� شع �ّهي ا �� ي اأ ن �ن ا � ن ن ا ا ��� ا ا� ا ن ي �� � ���ا ن� ��ل�� �ع ش � � � � لن����سر� ��� �ي� ��د ��� م� ���د ���ي� �و�ل� �ل� ��و�� �ش�س�د �ي��د �و�ل� أاي�لش��ا ر. � � ك م أو � � ن ي ي أ أ أ ن � ا اي � ا� ن �ي ���ش ن� � ا ��ل�� �� ن � ن ا ن �سّر� ح ي� �ن�ه ه ه � ا س � � �� � ا � � ا ا ا ا ا ل ك � � � � � �و���د ا ا�ام�س��� و ��م نحر�ط�ويلم�ل مي��د � �د � ر ي�� ل�� � وي�م� و م� � أ ي�� و� ع �ن ي � ��ل���ا �ي�ه � او �ل��س�ل��� . م
٢،١٠٢
٣،١٠٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا �ن � � � ي ح��ا هي ا ��ل �ا� ي���م ��� ��ل�� ا ��ل � ي �� ن ا �� ل���ي ��نل �� ل���ي� �م ن� ا � �لن��ا �أ��ده �عم�ل�� ا �ل��دي� ن� � او �ل��د ن�لي��ا؟ حرن��� ا �ل�د �لي��؟ �و�م� ل�ي� �ي م ي �ل �و � � � ن � �ي ا �� �يّ ��؟ �و��م�ل ا �ل�د ي� � ��وه �
110
110
١،١٠٣
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ � �� ّ�د �ع ش��م�ي��ه ��لم�ل���ا ا�� � �ه� ���������ه ّ �� ��ن� ��ل�� � ش��� ي ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� � �و ن� نرء �ل�ه؟ ح�م�ه ا لله �وك�ي م و و ن ي ي� ي و ي� ي ن ش أ ن� ي �ّ� ن أ � �ن �� ن هي ن� ن ش اأ ن � أ ي ��� ء ا ��لن�س�ا �ي ش ا نّ��م�ا �م��د �أ ي ن � � ه ه ه � � � � � � ك ا ا � ك � � � � ع � م �� �� م � � ه ده ه ه ل �� � �د � ط � � � � � � � � � � ه � ل ��� � ��س � ل � � � � � ر و و و و ي ي أ ن ي و و و و ن ن أ أ أ � ي ي ّ ن ن ي ي � ّ � ي ّ ن ّ ي ي ي ���ي ��ي ا�ام�ا � ه ا �� � �ل��سم�ه �ك� �� ي ح� ا �م�ه ������ ي ا �عن�� ا �ن�ه ي� ��س � � � س ه � � � � � � اء ه � � �د �م�د � � ع � � � ل � � � م � ل � ه � ي ي نر ي� � �ي� �� ن رو و ْوً ِ م أ ي ي �� أ ن ش اأ ي ّٰ ش َ ي ن � ن ن ي ّ ي ن ِ ِ ا ا ا ا ا ل� ح �� ا �نً�ا ا ن� ��ه �م ن م � �ع �و�� ن�� � ��م� �ل�� ء ا � حر �أ� � ا �� �و��� ر {� �ر} � او ���س� ه ا لله ����� ل�� �ي و ر ن � ر م ا �ن ّ � � ن ن ن � ن ن � � ن ا �� ي � ن � ن ي ن ن ن ي ي ن ي أ ����� � �ول���ي�ر ل��� �س �لن��ه ا �ل �ع ن�� ك �ي ���ع � � � ه �� � ط� �و�ل� � ا ير �ل حي �� او � �ع�ي ر ا �ل�� � � ي ر ح����أ�د ي ��د ي� نله�م� �وي� أ� ي ً ً ن ا ن ا ش ّ ي ّ � �ن ن ا ن ّ ي � يّ ��ن � � �� ن ي ي � ن � ي ّ � � ن� ���د �لمك أا ل�� ا � �ي�لعن�م�ل ���وره ا �ل� ��ط�� ا �و �ل� كي����ي�ر أا ������ �� ��م ي�ل��د رنج ل�ي� أا ���س� ��ي����ه ح�� ��ل ن � هي ا � أ ّ � ه � ن ا�ا� ي ن� ا � ا ��ل ا �� ي�ل��هي ا ���أ ن��� هي ا ���ي ني ني � ه � هي� أ �� ر ن �ل ي ر �ي� ي� هي� أا �� �عم �ي� �م� ي ��و��م�ل �ل� م� �س ار �� ن� كي� ��� �و�لي����� �ي����ض� � �� �ي��� � � � � ي � ن ي �ّ � أن ن � �أن ي � � � � ن ي ���د ن�����د ا ��� او � ن�عم� �ي�ه ا �لأ��������ا ن�ليّ��ه أا �ل�� ا �ل��� ار � �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� � او ��� او � ���د ل��ي� ا �ل�ر�م ن��ه ا �ل��ط� او �ل � او � �ل���را ي� � �ش ي ا� ك �����ي�ره .
ي ن ن ن ن ن � ي ي ي ن ا ��ل�� ّ ي ن ي ن � ي � �عم� �ّم�هي ا ��نل ي ح�م � � ن ا �هم� و �م� �ل� �و ن� � هور ا �ل�� ��� � او ��� �عو� ل��ي� �م��ر�ل�ه � ير�لن��ه �م� ن �يس�مي��ه �و�عم� �ي�ه �ل ��ط� � ي� � ن �ه اأ ن � يّ ا �يم� � ا ��ل��س ّ هي ي� �ي ًا � ا ن� ه �ن ن �� ا � � �ي ّ اأ�ّ ا اأ ن � �ن ا �ي ا � � ا �ل� �و�مي��ير �م � ير�لن ��و للك ن �ي�مي�� ر�ي��ن�� م� كي�� ل��� م ع�م�ل�ي� �و م� � يل�� ر ��و��� �ويل���ي ر�و أا �� ي �ن � �� ن ا �� � هي � � ن ��� ا ��لي��ا �ّ ا ��ل ���ّد ا ��ل�� ند �� �����ا ��ل� ي� ��ه �ن�ل�� � ا نّ��م�ا � � � ل ا ��ل ل ح� � � � � ل ل ا � ا � �ع ا ل � � � ح� د � م � � ل � � ���� ك � � � � ي ي وي� أو ي ي ر أ � ي ن ن يم م ح�م � اأ� نا �أ ا �م�لًا �ع ً�� اأ ن� ّ �� ه �يلم� � ا�ا� ن� ن �� هي � ا � � �� ا � ا ��لي ن�ك ي ش�ّ � � � ّ �م ن ا�ا� ا ّ ي ن� ي� ن ر ل��� ع �م� �و �م�ل �و �ن�� ل� لك م� رل� ن� �لأ� ل��� �و ��و ��� � �ل� ن��د � م� � ه ي م� � ي م ا �� شع �ّهي ا �� ي اأ ن �ن ا � ن ن ا ا ��� ا ا� ا ن ي �� � ���ا ن� ��ل�� �ع ش � � � � لن����سر� ��� �ي� ��د ��� م� ���د ���ي� �و�ل� �ل� ��و�� �ش�س�د �ي��د �و�ل� أاي�لش��ا ر. � � ك م أو � � ن ي ي أ أ أ ن � ا اي � ا� ن �ي ���ش ن� � ا ��ل�� �� ن � ن ا ن �سّر� ح ي� �ن�ه ه ه � ا س � � �� � ا � � ا ا ا ا ا ل ك � � � � � �و���د ا ا�ام�س��� و ��م نحر�ط�ويلم�ل مي��د � �د � ر ي�� ل�� � وي�م� و م� � أ ي�� و� ع �ن ي � ��ل���ا �ي�ه � او �ل��س�ل��� . م
٢،١٠٢
٣،١٠٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا �ن � � � ي ح��ا هي ا ��ل �ا� ي���م ��� ��ل�� ا ��ل � ي �� ن ا �� ل���ي ��نل �� ل���ي� �م ن� ا � �لن��ا �أ��ده �عم�ل�� ا �ل��دي� ن� � او �ل��د ن�لي��ا؟ حرن��� ا �ل�د �لي��؟ �و�م� ل�ي� �ي م ي �ل �و � � � ن � �ي ا �� �يّ ��؟ �و��م�ل ا �ل�د ي� � ��وه �
110
110
١،١٠٣
On why people say the world would fall to ruin if it weren’t for fools
Miskawayh’s response How could they not be passionately attached to the world when they are natu-
102.2
ral beings and form part of it? For they originate in it, develop in it, and are born out of it. Don’t you see how they begin as a drop of sperm and develop like plants, deriving their nourishment by means of roots connected to their mothers’ wombs, and drawing their sustenance the way a tree does? God transfers them from that location when they are completed and become «another creature»,21 and He molds them into animals; then they take nourishment through the mouth and breathe, and reach the rank of nonrational animals. They remain thus until they receive the form of rationality for the first time and become human beings. Then they progress in their humanity until they reach the ultimate ranks they are intended to attain—and only a few isolated individuals across many eons arrive at the final rank that constitutes the ultimate end of humanity. The vast majority of people occupy a station close to the beastly one, and
102.3
their rationality and discrimination do not go beyond imparting a certain order with a rational structure to this beastly nature. For them to abandon this nature and reach the point you demanded is out of the question. This is only attained by philosophers who achieve the fullness of philosophical wisdom and exhaust all of its parts through both knowledge and action, or by prophets, who occupy that station by means of divine inspiration and guidance. Even so, they need the material substance of human existence, which they derive from this world, though they do so without passionate attachment and without clinging to it greatly or cherishing it. This topic is inexhaustible and wide-ranging, and people have discussed it at length. What I have indicated and stated suffices. I have no more to say.
On why people say the world would fall to ruin if it weren’t for fools Why was it said: But for fools, the world would fall to ruin? What worldly or religious benefit do the lives of fools bring? Is what was said true?
111
111
103.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ًّ ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ ي ي ّ ن أ نّ � � ن ا ن � نّ ا � � أ ّ � ��� � او �ن�ه �ل�� ي����ي�� ش��� �مي��و���د ا �� �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ��د �لن��ي�� ا � ا �لأ����س� � �م�د ل�ي� �ن� �ل�� ن ع � أّ � ي � �ين ي ا ُن ي � ا ن � ا ش �كم� ي����ي�� ش�� ا ��ل�����ي�ر � او ����و� ح ش�� �ل�� ن� �يلم�ل�ك � ك � م����عي��ه ن��م� �م�ل�� �ل��� �م� ا � �ري� ��� � او �ل���د ا �ي�ه أا �ل�� � � �ّ أ � � � � � ح اي � ي ي ن � ن � ي ي � � � � � ي ح��ا � ا ��� ا �يل��ا � ا �ل����س�ا � �عم� �ل� ����ا ��ه �ل�ه � �ل� ���د ا ��ه ا �ل� ��� �ي�ه � �م��م��ل ي ا �ل ح��ه أا �ل� �ن�ا �ل� ن��سم� ي أ� و و ر و �م��� � � و و � و أ �ع �ي ا ن ن � �� ح�سيم�ا � ا ��لي����ا � ن� �ه� ا�ا�م�د ن�ل ّ��هي .ش��ّ ا نّ� ا�ا�م�د ن�ل ّ��هي ��ل��ا ��ا ��ل �ي��س�مّ �ع�م�ا هي � �ل��ا � او �ل���� �و� �و���د ا ا �ل� ن ع و و و ي م أ �� ر و � ي � ��ا �� �ي��س� ّ ��ا ��� ن ا ن ي � �أ � ن ًا ن اأ ّ ا ا � ا ي ا ن ا نّ ا ي ّ ����ش هي ا ��ل��أ� � ن ن ي ش ا ل �م� ن �لأ � ع او � � او ������س� ر ��� ��ه �ل�ل� �و�ل�� � ار �ن� � �� 1م� �� �ل �ع�م� ر�ل��� �أ� ��م� ي� �� ن�� ر ن ن� م أ ّ � � � ن � � ن ي ن ن ن ن أ ا ������د �� ����ن ي ّ �وا �ل�ه� �وي� ح�� ��ط �س ا ي�ل�ه � � ��� ا ��� �ع ا �لم �عن�ه � ا �� �ه�م �ن �ل �عوه ��سم�ل����ا �ل�ه�م ٢ا �ل��د �ي� ي�ل� ��� ل ني � ر ن � � �م ويرع و �ل � �م م م أ أ أ أ � � � ش ش � � ّ هي � ّ ن ن ي ي � � � � ي ي ����ره ا �ل��ع� او � �����ا �و� ا �ل��ي��د �ي� � او �لن�يس�ا ي� �ن�ا �ل� �ع�م�ا �ل ا � ك � او �عن��� ن�� �سر�ور�ي� �ل���ا ن� �����ي�ره ا � ��ي� ن���� ن� ي �ن �ي � ش � ن ا ن ا �ن هي �ن � ن �ل� ��ا �� ل��ن ا ������� ش�� � �����ن �ل��ا �ن�ا �ن����هي ل��ن ي� ن ��� ن ا ���������ش ل�ي� �� او �م ا ����ي����� � نو���� �ل��� �� ���� ل�ي� ح��س� ا ل ي� ي � نو � ي� ري ي� ي � أ � � ّ � ن ن ن ا نّ � ي ي ن ���دهي �م ن ���د ه ا �لش��ل�� ش� ن��ا �نل��ا ح�سم�ا ���د ه ��هي� ا ���ه�م�ا رهي .ن��ا �ّم�ا أا � ن��ا ي� ا�ام�د ن�ليّ��ه � او � �أ� � ا ن أ� � ع أ ً ح ا �ن ن� ن � ا �� �� ن ن هي � �ه� ن�عم� ��هي ل��ن� ا ��نل ن �ن ا ي ا ش ن ي ا ن �ع ن � ن ��ل � ح ار ن�� .و� �لم�ك أ� ار ن�أ �أاو � � �ل��� ا ������ � ا ��ي� ح��س� ا � ل � او ير�ل�� ن �مي���� � ي� ي ي نّ � � ش ا � ن �س � �ّ�هي ل��ن �ي�� ا � ا ������� ش�� ا نّ��م�ا ��ي���م�ّلن� �ل��ا ا �� ن ّ���ا � ا ��ل�� ند � ن ��ل�� ي���ه�س � ن� ا ��ل��د ن�ل��ا رو ي ا � ا �ل����يس� ء ا �ل� روري ي� و م ي � أ ي نع ن � ر ي� � ن � ّ �و�لي������ او ل��ي� �ع�د� ا ���ه�م�ا ر. أ �أ � � � � ي ش ّ ين ي ���ا �ل�� ن� �و�ع�م�ا رهي ا ��ل��د ن�لي��ا ا �لي��ا �ّم�هي �و�ي�� او �م���ا ن�لش��ل�� �ش�هي ا �ش��يس�ا ء ��ه� ك� ح ن��ا ��� ا �����ا �لي��ه ��م �ل ����� � � أا �ل�� ي � م� أ ن ��ش ي أ � � �أش ا � ش � ش ي ش ا ي � �أ ن ن � ي � ح���ا �ن�ا � نرر � او ��ن��ر��� � او � �ليعي��ا � ا � �� او ك���ي�ره � .او � ��د ا �ل����يس� ء ا �ل��ل� ��ه أا �� ره ا �ل�ر��� �و��ل�� � � م ع أ آ � ن ا � ن � � � � ي ا�م���مي ع � ا �ل��م��ل ا � ي ّ ا� � هي � ن ا� � ا ن ��ا � حا ي ل � ن ا � � � � � ع ا ا ا ا حر ن�� م� �م�� � � ك� ن � ره �عم�ل� ي���ا ن�م� ي ح��� �وي���س���د �م� ير � م���� ��ي� �ل� �ل�� � � � أ ا ي ي � � ن �� ن ح ش� � ا �ل �� � ���د���د ا�م���س�ه�مم�ل�هي ل��ن� أا �ش�ا رهي ا ��ل � او ��ل � � ح ن� �أاو ��س�ا ��ه ا�ام�ا ء �عم�ل�� �و ن��ه ا �ل�ر��� �م ن� ا ���عي ��و� �ر و ي ي آ أ �ُ � ن � �أ��سم�ل ي ا�ا� ي ي � � او ��ل���نل���ا ر � ٣او � �ليِ� ن� ّ � او ��ل��د � او ��ل�� �و ن�ع�ي�ر ن� ��لم�ك � .او ��لش��ا �ل�ن� ا ��ل�� ي� ا ن��ل ح��د � او �ل� ��ه م���س�ه�مم�ل�ه �ل�هم� ي� أ ي ي أ � ش ُي ا ن ن �له� �نس�م�ا ل��ن ن� ّ� ا ��ل���ع�داء �ع ن ا � ��لأ�م�ك ا ��ل�� ند � ن � � ��نع ن��ا �ه� ��لمي��ّ ن ���حل ي �ه�م ا ����ي����� � �وي�ل�� �م �عر� � م ي و و ي �م� �ع � � ن � � ي أم م ي� ي � � ن ي � � أ ً ّ �ل� � ن �ن ا �� ا ن هي ّ ن ن ���ا � ن ا نح�سم�ع� ا �ل�ه ��ا �ام���ا � �و�ه� .و�لنم�ل ��س�ا � او �م� ��� ��ا ن� ���ه� ي�����د �و� �ل�ه� ا حي�م�ل �ن� �ري� � ح ن��د ا �يل� و ن م م ع
أ أ أ أ ة ّ ن ن أن 1الا�ص�ل��� :س��م��ع���ا ر�ة والاول� ن�الأا ن�ص�ا ���ة أا ل� الاول� نح �را ن�ا ٢ .ط :ا �ل��س��ل��ط�ا � ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ن�الا���ه�ا ر.
112
112
٢،١٠٣
٣،١٠٣
On why people say the world would fall to ruin if it weren’t for fools
Miskawayh’s response It has been established that human beings are political by nature and that they
103.2
do not live in isolation as the birds and wild beasts do. For the latter can satisfy their own needs, having been provided with plumage and with the ability to attain the things they need for their welfare and nourishment. Human beings, by contrast, are naked and powerless and lack the ability to attain the things they need for their welfare and nourishment without cooperating and forming communities; and this constitutes political association. Furthermore, political association can be characterized by a state designated as “flourishing,” and by another state designated, relative to the first, as “ruin.” This state of flourishing is realized when helpers abound and justice reigns through their power of political authority, which orders their affairs, preserves their stations, and relieves them from adversities. By an “abundance of helpers” I mean that people’s physical powers and intentions should work together to effect a plethora of actions, some of which are necessary for life to be sustained, others of which are conducive to living in a good condition, and yet others are conducive to the embellishment of life. Flourishing is the conjunction of all these aspects. If political association lacks any one of these three, it is in a state of ruin. If it lacks two— specifically, both the good condition and embellishment of life—then it is in an advanced state of ruin. For it is only ascetics who content themselves with just the things that are absolutely necessary to sustain life, and they do not cause the world to flourish, nor are they to be counted among those who can do so. The subsistence of the world, its complete flourishing, is accomplished through three things, which are like high-level genera that then subdivide into numerous species. The first consists in working and cultivating the land through planting and sowing, and tending to it with means that put it in good order and prepare it for the use desired of it. I refer here to using tools derived from mined materials such as stones and iron for tilling, grinding, and irrigating the land with water that comes from springs, rivers, canals, waterwheels, and the like. The second consists in the implements of soldiers and the weapons they use to protect the people we have described from enemies, so that the people can live as a group and fulfill the purpose they have come together to achieve through cooperation. Additionally, soldiers have craftsmen and attendants who train horses for them, and who fashion shields that serve for protection, as well as other weapons that serve for repelling and driving off the enemy. The third
113
113
103.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ي �ن ي �م�ل� � او ��ل ن�� � او ن��ل ��هي ��لم�ل��د �ن�� � او ��ل�� ند نّ� � .او ��لش��ا ��ل ش� ا ن��ل ��ن� ن ��لم�ل�وي��ا �ي�هي �و��س�ا أ�ر ا ��ل�� ��سم�ل ح��ي� نر ا �ل��د �ي� ي� ي��ّ ن�لن ���م�ل1 � � ن ع م أ أ ن � �أ � ن ل�ن � ا ��ل � ّ �م�ا ���� نّ ل��ن ا ن�� ا ��ل� ا ن�� � �م�ا � ا ��ل ا ��لش��ل�� ش� ن � ن � � ا � � � ه ���د . ح � � � � � ل � ن � نر ر و و ر ر أ أ � � � ي ر ي� ي و � � و ي� ي ر ح ا � ن �ن � ن أ� � ا � ا أ �م� ا �ن ي ّ ن � ن ن � ن أ �ي ا � �أ� � �و ن��م� �ل � � ��و� ن نحرء ن�رء م� ا ��س� �م ا �ل� � �وا �ل��� �و�ل��� ا �� ن� يح�� � يري��د ل�ي� ح��س� ا � �وا �ل � ي � ن� ا �لش��ل�� �ش�ه ا � ��ي� � ���ر�ن�ا ���ا. ي أ أ � ا � ن � ش ��ي � أ نّ ّ ي � � ن ن ن ن ح��س ن ا �ل �و�هي ا ����ي�� ش�� �و� � �وي���ن��ن�ه� ا � ����ل��� ا � ا ����ي�� ش��� �ع�ي�ر ن�� �� �ل ل��ي� ا ����ي����� ل���ل�� ا � � � ي م م ا ����ه ا هي �مي���م�ّ�ي هي � �هي ا ��� ش � ن ا �� ه ي � ن�ك ن ا اأ نّ ن ه ا � �أ� � � ي ي ّ ا �ّ � ل � � �و ��ي����� �وح��س� �� ل� �و��د عر �� � ���د �ل� ��ور �ل� � �� أ �ل� نن� �م� ر أ � � م ي نّ ّ م ا �� ي �� حسي ا �� ا ا� ش ا �ي ا ��لي� ّ ن�� �لم�ل� ن� ن �ش � ي ��ا �� ن �� � ا ��ل���ه� ا �� � ا � � � � � � ا � ��ا �و�� �و���و �لن�م�ل� � � ا ك ه �� � � � � � � � � م��س م � � ل ل � و و ور ر ي � ون و ن ر ر � ي � ع �� � �ن ن � � � ي ي ن � ن ّ ش ا ا ا ي ن � � م � � ع � � ��يس�ه ن� ا �ل�� ��� �نل� ��و�ل ا ����ي����� �و �ممل� او ن�م� يلع�� �وا �� � �سر�ورا �ل�ه� �و��ر � حر� ا ��ع��م�ل �ل��� ر� او م �� ّ ً ن � ّ � � � ن � ن ن � � � � � � ��د �لم�ك �لن� ���م� ���د ا ا �لن ن� ����ا � ا �ل ك�م� ���ا �ن�� او ��� له� نر���ا � ا �و���و ك� � ح��س ن� � او � نري� ن� ا �ل��د �ي� ٢ل��ي� ا �����ا ا�م �و�عم� �ش � � �� او ل م م أ أ ّ � � � � � ي ي ي� ي �س��ا ن ا �لن � � ���عي ��ن��هي ا � �لي�م�لي�م�ل�هي ا �����د� ا �و �� ���ي�� ش��س�هي � � �عي�� ش��س�ه � ش��م�ن��ه ����ي�� ش��س�ه ا ��م�ل ا � �لي�ر�� ا �لن� حي�� � نو�ل ��و ي� � م ي � � � ي ن � ن ن ا ��ل ش��م� � اأ ن ��� �� �� ا �� �ي ���د ه ��ه� ا �ل � � ��ا �ل ا ���ي� ����س�مّ� � ار ن� ا�ام�د �. ��� � و �ر و ��ل ل ل ن ي ي ن� نأ ّ ي � ح ي �ن اأ �ي �� ا �نّه � � � ن أ ن ّ �ي ي �ن �ور ا � ي���س�م� ��ا �م�ا ���و�لم�ك ��م�ل ي����س�مّ� ا � �ل �عّ او �م ن���ه�م�ا ره ا �ل��د �لي��ا �� ل����؟ � ��ول أ � �ل� ي ن � ي�ه�م �ن��د �لم�ك أ ن أ أ ��ّ أ أ ّ � ���د � ن� ��لم�ك ا نّ� ا ��ل�� ند � ن � ���ع ن��ا �س��ا ن� ا �� �لي� �� � ا ���� ا �ن� ا ��ل�� ن�� � ا ��ل�� ند � ن � ا ��له� �م ن � � � ا � � ي� و ���ل ا و ر � و ي� و�م � ر و ر ي ن � أ � �� ح��س�� ن �م�ل�و ن� ��ل�� ��د ا ا ��ل ن�ن�� نر �م ن ا ��ل�� ندي� ن ا ���مين�� �وا ن��� � عي �عو�ل�ه� �و� ��ن��ا ء �ك ي� �م���ا ي� ش����ه� �ه� ا �و�ل�� �نل �ل� �ي � حرن�� � � � م م م نّ � � ي � اأ ي � ن ا ن � ّي هي �ن ن �� � ن � ن ا � ي �� ن �ش� هي ا ن ��ل أن ن ا ا ن � � � ه � �م �� � � ا � ا ا � � ا ك ل م � �ده �� �م � � � �� � � � � � � م � � � � � � ع � � � ل ��س م ا � ���ا �ل�ه� �و� �� ل��ره� ���د ه ا �ل� � � أو ي � ن ر ي ي و م م ع ع ن� ��لم�ك �ا�م ن ا ّ ����م�ل� �عم�ل ن� ح�م�� ا �����م�ل� � � ا�ا�م���ا �ن� � �م�ّ� ن ���ا � ن� نّر��ل��ا �م ن��ا ن ��ل��ا �ن��ي ك �م�ا ي�رك �من���ا �ع ن وم و ر و ي ر و � ر � ر � � � � يع ن � آشع آ ّ ّ � ّ ن ي ن � ا ا ��لن ن� ��� ل�ن �ع ا ي ن � ي � ي ش � ن ا ا ا ا ل ن � � ا � � ح� � � ��� �عم�ل� ر� �وي�ه � نو����د �ي�ل���ي� .أ� � �كم ء أا �م� �ر ��و �ر �ي� �م� ره �ن��ر �و�عل��م � او �ر �م� ا �ر �م � � أ ا ��ل��د ن�ل��ا ��ل���أنّل��ا �عم� �أ��دهي ن���ه�م�ا هي ا ��ل���أ��د ا ن� � �ا�مّ�ا ا ّ ����م�ل�ع� ا �عم� ش��س �ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� �عم� ا ��ل��د ن� � ا � ا ��ل��ا و ور و � ي � � ل�� ن ر ن و ل�� ر �� أ ش يّ أ آ ا �ً ً � ن � � � � ي ي ا ا ا ا ا ا ن �عم� �ا�مً�ا ا ن� �و ن� ��� � او � ح�م� �ل� �يلم�لي ��� �ن��د �لم�ك ا ����� �م �و� ��س� �عم� � �و�عم�ل�و�م� �و�م��س� �لم�ك ر ��و�نل��� ا � � ر ع��سر �ن ن � � أ � أ��ش ن �� � ن � � حّي���ا � ا ��ل��د �أ � � ن�ك� ا ا ا �� �م�ا ��� ار ي� ا ��ل��د ن�لي��ا �و� نر�و� ن�م� �م� ر ��و ن� ي��� �ن� �ل� ���ر �و �ه�مم�ل ا ���� ن� � او ���ر ح � و وو ن م
أ أ ن 1الا�ص�ل :ة�ن�ة�ه��لو� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا �لة���. ة
114
114
٤،١٠٣
٥،١٠٣
On why people say the world would fall to ruin if it weren’t for fools
consists in procuring and supplying, which is accomplished by transporting to another place things rare in one place, and to the land things that are found in the sea. These three elements constitute an adornment and beautification that further ameliorate the condition of the world, and there are people specifically devoted to each of the subdivisions of the three elements we have mentioned. You must understand that to live is not the same as to live excellently or in a
103.4
good condition; you will then understand that flourishing is connected to how excellent life is. We know for a fact that these things can only be achieved by incurring many risks, exposing oneself to fear, enduring hardships, and confronting terror. People would all become ascetics were they to content themselves with necessities, cast aside the superfluities of life, and act purely on the basis of what reason demands. And were that to happen, the good and beautiful order present in the world would disappear, and they would lead the abstemious lives led by people who dwell in sparsely populated, defenseless villages, or led by people who live in tents, yurts, or reed huts. This is the state of polities designated as ruin. To your question “Are the people who cause the world to flourish to be called fools?” I respond: It is not permissible for everyone to call them that. For this derogatory appellation is more fittingly applied to the people we have described—those who dwell in villages and remote parts of the earth and who show themselves unequal to improving their living conditions—than to those who have used their intelligence, perspicacity, and acumen to develop this plethora of fine crafts that work to the advantage of people. That is only admissible for those who have acquainted themselves with, and distinguished between, all forms of knowledge and learning, assigning them to their proper stations, abstaining from those they abstain from out of experience and knowledge, and choosing those they choose based on reflection and secure conviction. The reason why philosophers have abstained from inquiring into the flourishing of the world is that it conduces to the flourishing of the body. They ascertained that the soul is superior to the body, and perceived that there is another world that belongs to it, with a beauty that befits it, and with its own crafts, forms of knowledge, and pathways. It is more taxing and arduous to venture on these paths than to venture on the hazards of the mundane world, and more demanding and toilsome to persist and persevere in these crafts and forms of knowledge through inquiry and action than to persevere and act in the mundane world. Therefore they chose contentment, and contented
115
115
103.5
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ �ي��ع�ً�ا �م ن ا ��ل��د �أ � � � ا ����ه�مم ل��ن ا ��ل��د ن�ل��ا اآش� � ا ا ��لي�سم�ّلن� � 1ي�ل�م�ّلن�ع ا ��ا �� �ليع ي� ا ��لن � �م ن ا ��ل��د ن�ل��ا �سر�ور� � م ع � � ل ي ن � وو ن و �ل ي� ي رو ن ع و ن �و ن �و � � ي � ّ � � � ّ أ نّ � � � ن ن �ع � �� أ � � أ � �� ن ا ي ا� � � ن � ي ا ا اا ا �كم�ل� ا ������ ���ا ا �ل�ه� �ه ا �ل�دي�� �ممل� او ل�ه�و�ل�ء ا ���و�ل ا ل� ��س� �عم� � � او�م�� ن� �و�ر ��و��هم �أاو �ي� ��� �م� �م �ي � و ي ر م م أ أ ا � �أ � � � �ن شّ ش ي ن � ش ن � � ن ا� � ن �� ا ���س��مل� او �و��م��مل� او م� ن�� �ل����ه� �ن� �ل��سر ا �ل��عم�ل�� ا �ل����م�ل. م م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ ����ا ا ��ل���ص�� ل��ن �يم�ل�ي �م ن �ي�ا �ّل ���ط ���� ا هي � ا � ي ح�يّ �يك�م� �م ن ح ش��س�هي؟ � ح�ن��� ن ر�لن��هي � او ��س��ي��س ّ �ن�ا � و ي ن و � ل � ن ن ي� � � ر � ي أ ن � ن � ن ش � ن أ ي ن ح��ه � ���سم�ا ا �م� �م�ا ���ا � ا�ا�س ��� � �ل �ع �ل ���د � �ل� � � .م�ا ���د ا ا �����ا �� ؟ � �م ن � � � ه � �ل م ل � � � �د م � � ع ك ل � ل ن ن و ي� و ل ي ن و �� و � و ري ن ي و ر� و� أ اأ � ّ �ش�� ن ه� اي� ن� �مش��ا ره؟ � �ون� ي� �ي� ء ر� او �ل� ؟
١،١٠٤
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ � ه � ّٰ ن � أ � ي نّ ي ي ن � � � ي ن� � � � ي ن �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ح�م�ه ا لله ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه أا ��م�ا ������ر��� ا �ل�ي ره ك� ي���ا �ام ن� �ل� ي������ر�� � �م��س��� �وي� ر ن و � أ نيّ ��ا ي � ن � � ن ي ا ّ ي�� ّ ا نّ �� ن � ��ا � �من���ا� .ن�اأ �ّم�ا �م ن �عل�� اأ نّ ا ��لن ���ن ا �ن ن ا ي � � � � � ل�� أا �م� ��و� نل� و � �ن� �ل ������ � او � �رك�� � ا �لن��د � ا �ل�ح�يس� ر�ي�ه كم � � �م � ��� � �ن ّ� � ن ن ا ا� ّ� ن ي �� ا ي � هي �ن ��ه ا�ا�م�د نّ�رهي ��ل��د ن� ا ��ل ّ � � � �س�سّم�ا ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ا�م حي��ا ر ا �ل��د �ي� �م�د ن ره ا �ل ������ �م�م�ي ره ا ���� �مل� ي� ن ��ي� �و�ل� ي أ ن ن ي ش أًا � ي ن � أ �ن ��ل � ي ه � ًا ن أ نّ � ن ��س�ه�مم�ل ي� �ن �� ّ�د �م�ا �لم�ل�ي ن ح��� .و� ا ك ا � ا �ل ������ أا � ا �عر�� ��سي���� � او ��ل� ا �عر� ��ي ر�� �و ن � ي ي �� ن � ا �لم�لي � ي � � ا� ن ي ��ل ي ا ن � � ن � ن ��ي ا � ن هي ��ُ �� ي � ي ��يس���هي أا � ا ك� ن�ل�ملك ا�م��ر��ه � ��قّر��� ي��سره ح����� �م� ا �ل�� ���ا ن�� ي� �رك����� ي�م�� �ل��� ار ن� �م� ي�� �� ا �ل��ن أ ا ي � ا ن ا نّ � � ن ي ّ ي ن يّ ي ا �ل���� ا � � نل ����ه �ع ن��ا ك �مش�م� �م�ا � نل ����ه ��� ن ���ا. ل ي �ر �ن �ل �عوه � �و� ���و�ل��� ا �و �م��س� � �وي�ه �ل��� �أ� � ا �ل�� ر ن ي � ر
٢،١٠٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ً ن � ن � � �يي ه ن� نّ ي � � ا هي ���ا ن ا �� ا � ن �� �� �م�ه � �ن ن�لع� � � ن ع ���ط ���ا � ي��ا ن� ع �����ه �و�����م�ل ا �ل�ك��داء �ن� �و � ح�� ا �ل���� �ع� ا� أا � ا ك� � �� �� ��ل و و و م ع ا� ن � ه � �أ ن �ن � ا �ي ا � ��ا ن � �� �ن ن � ع �ا� � أ �ّش ن �� �� �م�ه � ا ن ا �ي � ��ل�� �لن ن��ع� � � ن � � � ع �����ه ه � ا ا ا � � � � �ل� و �ل� �د ن�م� � ل� ؟ و م أ � ك� � ن �ل � � �لمك م ي ��ور �ل أو � ر � و ي و ع أ آ 1الا�ص�ل :ا ش�� وا ن��ل ن . �
116
116
١،١٠٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ �ي��ع�ً�ا �م ن ا ��ل��د �أ � � � ا ����ه�مم ل��ن ا ��ل��د ن�ل��ا اآش� � ا ا ��لي�سم�ّلن� � 1ي�ل�م�ّلن�ع ا ��ا �� �ليع ي� ا ��لن � �م ن ا ��ل��د ن�ل��ا �سر�ور� � م ع � � ل ي ن � وو ن و �ل ي� ي رو ن ع و ن �و ن �و � � ي � ّ � � � ّ أ نّ � � � ن ن �ع � �� أ � � أ � �� ن ا ي ا� � � ن � ي ا ا اا ا �كم�ل� ا ������ ���ا ا �ل�ه� �ه ا �ل�دي�� �ممل� او ل�ه�و�ل�ء ا ���و�ل ا ل� ��س� �عم� � � او�م�� ن� �و�ر ��و��هم �أاو �ي� ��� �م� �م �ي � و ي ر م م أ أ ا � �أ � � � �ن شّ ش ي ن � ش ن � � ن ا� � ن �� ا ���س��مل� او �و��م��مل� او م� ن�� �ل����ه� �ن� �ل��سر ا �ل��عم�ل�� ا �ل����م�ل. م م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ ����ا ا ��ل���ص�� ل��ن �يم�ل�ي �م ن �ي�ا �ّل ���ط ���� ا هي � ا � ي ح�يّ �يك�م� �م ن ح ش��س�هي؟ � ح�ن��� ن ر�لن��هي � او ��س��ي��س ّ �ن�ا � و ي ن و � ل � ن ن ي� � � ر � ي أ ن � ن � ن ش � ن أ ي ن ح��ه � ���سم�ا ا �م� �م�ا ���ا � ا�ا�س ��� � �ل �ع �ل ���د � �ل� � � .م�ا ���د ا ا �����ا �� ؟ � �م ن � � � ه � �ل م ل � � � �د م � � ع ك ل � ل ن ن و ي� و ل ي ن و �� و � و ري ن ي و ر� و� أ اأ � ّ �ش�� ن ه� اي� ن� �مش��ا ره؟ � �ون� ي� �ي� ء ر� او �ل� ؟
١،١٠٤
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ � ه � ّٰ ن � أ � ي نّ ي ي ن � � � ي ن� � � � ي ن �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ح�م�ه ا لله ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه أا ��م�ا ������ر��� ا �ل�ي ره ك� ي���ا �ام ن� �ل� ي������ر�� � �م��س��� �وي� ر ن و � أ نيّ ��ا ي � ن � � ن ي ا ّ ي�� ّ ا نّ �� ن � ��ا � �من���ا� .ن�اأ �ّم�ا �م ن �عل�� اأ نّ ا ��لن ���ن ا �ن ن ا ي � � � � � ل�� أا �م� ��و� نل� و � �ن� �ل ������ � او � �رك�� � ا �لن��د � ا �ل�ح�يس� ر�ي�ه كم � � �م � ��� � �ن ّ� � ن ن ا ا� ّ� ن ي �� ا ي � هي �ن ��ه ا�ا�م�د نّ�رهي ��ل��د ن� ا ��ل ّ � � � �س�سّم�ا ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ا�م حي��ا ر ا �ل��د �ي� �م�د ن ره ا �ل ������ �م�م�ي ره ا ���� �مل� ي� ن ��ي� �و�ل� ي أ ن ن ي ش أًا � ي ن � أ �ن ��ل � ي ه � ًا ن أ نّ � ن ��س�ه�مم�ل ي� �ن �� ّ�د �م�ا �لم�ل�ي ن ح��� .و� ا ك ا � ا �ل ������ أا � ا �عر�� ��سي���� � او ��ل� ا �عر� ��ي ر�� �و ن � ي ي �� ن � ا �لم�لي � ي � � ا� ن ي ��ل ي ا ن � � ن � ن ��ي ا � ن هي ��ُ �� ي � ي ��يس���هي أا � ا ك� ن�ل�ملك ا�م��ر��ه � ��قّر��� ي��سره ح����� �م� ا �ل�� ���ا ن�� ي� �رك����� ي�م�� �ل��� ار ن� �م� ي�� �� ا �ل��ن أ ا ي � ا ن ا نّ � � ن ي ّ ي ن يّ ي ا �ل���� ا � � نل ����ه �ع ن��ا ك �مش�م� �م�ا � نل ����ه ��� ن ���ا. ل ي �ر �ن �ل �عوه � �و� ���و�ل��� ا �و �م��س� � �وي�ه �ل��� �أ� � ا �ل�� ر ن ي � ر
٢،١٠٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ً ن � ن � � �يي ه ن� نّ ي � � ا هي ���ا ن ا �� ا � ن �� �� �م�ه � �ن ن�لع� � � ن ع ���ط ���ا � ي��ا ن� ع �����ه �و�����م�ل ا �ل�ك��داء �ن� �و � ح�� ا �ل���� �ع� ا� أا � ا ك� � �� �� ��ل و و و م ع ا� ن � ه � �أ ن �ن � ا �ي ا � ��ا ن � �� �ن ن � ع �ا� � أ �ّش ن �� �� �م�ه � ا ن ا �ي � ��ل�� �لن ن��ع� � � ن � � � ع �����ه ه � ا ا ا � � � � �ل� و �ل� �د ن�م� � ل� ؟ و م أ � ك� � ن �ل � � �لمك م ي ��ور �ل أو � ر � و ي و ع أ آ 1الا�ص�ل :ا ش�� وا ن��ل ن . �
116
116
١،١٠٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ �ي��ع�ً�ا �م ن ا ��ل��د �أ � � � ا ����ه�مم ل��ن ا ��ل��د ن�ل��ا اآش� � ا ا ��لي�سم�ّلن� � 1ي�ل�م�ّلن�ع ا ��ا �� �ليع ي� ا ��لن � �م ن ا ��ل��د ن�ل��ا �سر�ور� � م ع � � ل ي ن � وو ن و �ل ي� ي رو ن ع و ن �و ن �و � � ي � ّ � � � ّ أ نّ � � � ن ن �ع � �� أ � � أ � �� ن ا ي ا� � � ن � ي ا ا اا ا �كم�ل� ا ������ ���ا ا �ل�ه� �ه ا �ل�دي�� �ممل� او ل�ه�و�ل�ء ا ���و�ل ا ل� ��س� �عم� � � او�م�� ن� �و�ر ��و��هم �أاو �ي� ��� �م� �م �ي � و ي ر م م أ أ ا � �أ � � � �ن شّ ش ي ن � ش ن � � ن ا� � ن �� ا ���س��مل� او �و��م��مل� او م� ن�� �ل����ه� �ن� �ل��سر ا �ل��عم�ل�� ا �ل����م�ل. م م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ ����ا ا ��ل���ص�� ل��ن �يم�ل�ي �م ن �ي�ا �ّل ���ط ���� ا هي � ا � ي ح�يّ �يك�م� �م ن ح ش��س�هي؟ � ح�ن��� ن ر�لن��هي � او ��س��ي��س ّ �ن�ا � و ي ن و � ل � ن ن ي� � � ر � ي أ ن � ن � ن ش � ن أ ي ن ح��ه � ���سم�ا ا �م� �م�ا ���ا � ا�ا�س ��� � �ل �ع �ل ���د � �ل� � � .م�ا ���د ا ا �����ا �� ؟ � �م ن � � � ه � �ل م ل � � � �د م � � ع ك ل � ل ن ن و ي� و ل ي ن و �� و � و ري ن ي و ر� و� أ اأ � ّ �ش�� ن ه� اي� ن� �مش��ا ره؟ � �ون� ي� �ي� ء ر� او �ل� ؟
١،١٠٤
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ � ه � ّٰ ن � أ � ي نّ ي ي ن � � � ي ن� � � � ي ن �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ح�م�ه ا لله ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه أا ��م�ا ������ر��� ا �ل�ي ره ك� ي���ا �ام ن� �ل� ي������ر�� � �م��س��� �وي� ر ن و � أ نيّ ��ا ي � ن � � ن ي ا ّ ي�� ّ ا نّ �� ن � ��ا � �من���ا� .ن�اأ �ّم�ا �م ن �عل�� اأ نّ ا ��لن ���ن ا �ن ن ا ي � � � � � ل�� أا �م� ��و� نل� و � �ن� �ل ������ � او � �رك�� � ا �لن��د � ا �ل�ح�يس� ر�ي�ه كم � � �م � ��� � �ن ّ� � ن ن ا ا� ّ� ن ي �� ا ي � هي �ن ��ه ا�ا�م�د نّ�رهي ��ل��د ن� ا ��ل ّ � � � �س�سّم�ا ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ا�م حي��ا ر ا �ل��د �ي� �م�د ن ره ا �ل ������ �م�م�ي ره ا ���� �مل� ي� ن ��ي� �و�ل� ي أ ن ن ي ش أًا � ي ن � أ �ن ��ل � ي ه � ًا ن أ نّ � ن ��س�ه�مم�ل ي� �ن �� ّ�د �م�ا �لم�ل�ي ن ح��� .و� ا ك ا � ا �ل ������ أا � ا �عر�� ��سي���� � او ��ل� ا �عر� ��ي ر�� �و ن � ي ي �� ن � ا �لم�لي � ي � � ا� ن ي ��ل ي ا ن � � ن � ن ��ي ا � ن هي ��ُ �� ي � ي ��يس���هي أا � ا ك� ن�ل�ملك ا�م��ر��ه � ��قّر��� ي��سره ح����� �م� ا �ل�� ���ا ن�� ي� �رك����� ي�م�� �ل��� ار ن� �م� ي�� �� ا �ل��ن أ ا ي � ا ن ا نّ � � ن ي ّ ي ن يّ ي ا �ل���� ا � � نل ����ه �ع ن��ا ك �مش�م� �م�ا � نل ����ه ��� ن ���ا. ل ي �ر �ن �ل �عوه � �و� ���و�ل��� ا �و �م��س� � �وي�ه �ل��� �أ� � ا �ل�� ر ن ي � ر
٢،١٠٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ً ن � ن � � �يي ه ن� نّ ي � � ا هي ���ا ن ا �� ا � ن �� �� �م�ه � �ن ن�لع� � � ن ع ���ط ���ا � ي��ا ن� ع �����ه �و�����م�ل ا �ل�ك��داء �ن� �و � ح�� ا �ل���� �ع� ا� أا � ا ك� � �� �� ��ل و و و م ع ا� ن � ه � �أ ن �ن � ا �ي ا � ��ا ن � �� �ن ن � ع �ا� � أ �ّش ن �� �� �م�ه � ا ن ا �ي � ��ل�� �لن ن��ع� � � ن � � � ع �����ه ه � ا ا ا � � � � �ل� و �ل� �د ن�م� � ل� ؟ و م أ � ك� � ن �ل � � �لمك م ي ��ور �ل أو � ر � و ي و ع أ آ 1الا�ص�ل :ا ش�� وا ن��ل ن . �
116
116
١،١٠٥
On why we are more likely to heed a preacher who practices what he preaches
themselves with as much nourishment in the mundane world as is necessary. Yet it is they who created the foundations of the different crafts and trades for that other people, and who left them to that other people when they showed themselves unequal to any other tasks. Then the philosophers occupied themselves and their disciples with the loftier and more excellent matters.
On the anxiety experienced by people who have something to hide What is the reason for the anxiety experienced by the person who hides some-
104.1
thing shameful, harbors something dubious, and conceals some wicked deed? His face and behavior give him away such that people remark: The guilty person might as well declare, “Here I am, take me in.” What is this phenomenon all about? How is it provoked? And through what means can it cease?
Miskawayh’s response This question only provokes perplexity in people who do not acknowledge
104.2
the reality of the soul and the fact that all the voluntary movements of the body have their origin in it and are accomplished through it. I cannot see how anyone who knows that the soul governs the body of living beings, and particularly of human beings who are vested with voluntary choice and governed by the rational discriminating soul, could find any cause for perplexity. For when the soul is aware of something and it produces acts that are contrary to what befits that awareness, it experiences the kind of disturbance that nature experiences when its movement is to the right but it is moved to the left by a force inferior to or equal to its own force. Disturbance appears in the former, just as it appears in the latter.
On why we are more likely to heed a preacher who practices what he preaches Why is it that when a preacher is honest, his words have an effect, his preaching achieves results, and it is easy to follow his example, to obey him and adhere to what he has said? And why is it that if the opposite holds true of him, his words
117
117
105.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �ن ن � ن ه � ن � ي ي ي ا ي � � � �ي ي هي ا �� �ي �� �م ّ� ي � � � � ي ن � او � ن�لم�لن� ؟ �و�م� ل�ي� ا ���س�ل��� م ط ��ه ا �ل��د �ل� �ل�ه �و��م �� � ح�عي ����ه �م� �ي�ل �عو�ل �م� حعي ���� ل �عول �و و � �� ي أ ي نع ع أ �� ّ ي ع ال ����ن� ���ا �ن���م�ل�ه �م ش���ّس�دًا �� �لي �ع ��ل�ه � ن��ل�� �ن�ه ��� �ع ن�ً�ا ��ل��د ��ل�� ��لي��ه؟ اأ ��ل���� ا �ل � ل�� ح�م�ه �ي�ا ��م�ه ل��� � �� ك � و و ر ح�ه؟ و ي ن و ي ي ي � ّ � � � ن ن ن � ي ي ي ّ � ن ي ي ي ي ي حي���ا؟ � �ل��د ا �ك�م ا�ام� � ن �ن �نل�������ا �م������م�ل�ه �نل�م� ع ����ه أا � ا �ر ن� ح ي� �م ن� ا � �ل�م�ل ن� �و���� ي� ل��ي� ا � �ل�م�ل ن� � � و � ي �ل و ا ن ا ن � ي � ن � � ا ن ا� ي� ن � �آن ن ��ا �ور ا �ل�� ا �. �أو � �ر نح� م� ا �لمل��س� � �م ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ّٰ � �أ نّ � ن � نّ أ � أ أّ � أ ن ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا لله �ل� � ا ��� او � ع ��ط أا ��م�ا �ي�ا �سر ن��م�ا �ع ن��ده ا �ن�ه ا �ل�����و ن� ن�أ�ا � ا ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� و � ي ن ا �� ن �ن ن ي ه أ � ن � أ نّ ��ن � ن� شّ � ا نّ�� ا �ن �ع ن ا ���� ن�ل ا ��ليُ�ي �� ه � �ي نّ �عم�ل ه � ن ��� نّ � ه ه � ا ا ه � � � د �� � � � � � � � � � � ع ل � س ل � ع � � م �� ل�� �ل��� و م ي ر د ن� و ��� أو ل�ه�� أ� ي رك و �و ر ي و � ّ � ن � ن ي ي ه ي � � ن � ن � ي ه �ن ا ��لن ن �� نّه ن� ا � �ي ي � ن� � ن � ن �ع م� نحر ع� �ر�ن���� �و����م�� ��ط ع� ن�لمل�وع � ر نح�� ل�ي� ���را �� أا �م� يلع��د ر �عم�ل�� ا ���و�ع ��ط نح��س� ي � �يّ � ا� ّ ن ي ي ا ن� ن� يي �ي � �هر ن�لم�ل�����ا �ن�ه ���ا ر ا�م���وه ل��ي� ���وره ا �ل� �� �و���و ا �ع��م���د �م� �يل �� � ا �ك��د ا ره �عم�ل�� ا �ل�ملن�ي����� �أاو �� � � �ن ن ��د ا � اأ �ش�� �ا ���ه �ي��� ن�� ل�ن ي�م�ل ا��م��س�سي � �� � ن ع ���ط �م ن ��ل�� ي���ه�مم � �� � ن � � � ه ع �����ه ه ح � م م � � ن ���س �� � م � � � � � ن � و ن �ل ن و ع و ل � ر � ي� ن أ ن ن � ن ّ� ا��ا ن ��ش ن ي حيع ��ي��هي ن�ع�� �م���ي��مي��د �ا�م�ا � نل ����ه ه � ا نّ��م�ا ع ������ ن �ه� ��ا ��ل ي � ر أو � � ي ير ���د ا� .ورن�م� ك�� � ا ���ر �م� � ار ه �م� ا � �� او � ي� و ن ّ ن أ � أ � �أ أ �ي ي ّ � أ ا ي ا � ي � � ن أن �عم�ي�لي��ه ا � ي� ش��من��م�ل ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ع�م�ا ل��ي� ا �ي��د �يل�ه� ا �و �لم �� �ل�ه ر�� ��س�ه �ن� ن ح�سم�ا ا �ل ن��ا ��� أا �لي��ه ا �و �ل�ر ن� م ع أ نّ ن نم �ن ا� � ه � ن � � ن ا �ن اأ � ّ � ن ن ن � ش ي ي � � � ���و�ي�� �� � ���ل�� � �مش�م�ل ���د ا أا � ا �عر� ا�م�و�ع�و ��ط �عمي�ل��ه � او ��سر� �عم�ل� ��ي����ه �ل� م ا �ل�د �ل��� . � � ي أ ي ع ن م أ ّ � ن �ن ي �ع � ه �ل ه �ي ه� �� ���د ي�س�م ن �ع�مم� � ا ن� ي ���د � او ن�م�ل��� ��سّره �و� او ��� �ممل� �عم �م� �و ��و�ل� �و�م�د �عن��ه � .او �ل��سر �ن�ا �لن� � ل و ح� ش أ ن ً ّ � � � � �ن�ي��ي��ه ن�أ�ا �نّ�ه �يل���ي�ر أا �م�ا �م�ا �ي�ليعي��د �� �ن�ه �و�ُ��و�ش��ي� ن� � ����ر ا ي�لن��ا �ع�ه � او �ل ن��ا ن ���ر�و ن� �يس�م�ا ي�لن ن� ���ر ن�كي��ه ��ل�� �م�ه �و�ي� ي ا� ّ � ���د �ي�� ن� ن� ل�� ح�م�ه. � او�م� و
118
118
٢،١٠٥
On why we are more likely to heed a preacher who practices what he preaches
have no influence, be they ever so pure, and his preaching does no good, be it ever so eloquent? Why does it matter if he dissociates himself from the truth of his words when the words are true, the evidence sound, and the proof incontestable? How can his action fortify his words while its contrary can enervate his evidence? Doesn’t wisdom subsist in itself, and isn’t it the guarantor of its own soundness? That is why it has been said: When sermons come from the heart they enter the heart, and when they come from the tongue they go no further than the ears. Miskawayh’s response Preachers command people to do what they consider the most proper course of action. So, if they go against their own word, they give others the impression that they have lied and been deceitful, and that the reason why they exhort people against enjoying the mundane world is for it to be left to them and be available for their enjoyment. Observers who fall short of that rank and are unable to reach the same level of reflective examination form the notion that preachers derive their ability to preach from their heightened ability to fool people and to disguise falsehoods as truths, for if they believed the words they spoke, they would act on their basis. These are the kinds of things that occur to people’s minds when they hear a preacher who does not behave as he preaches. It may be that the majority of preachers one sees do not in fact subscribe to what they publicly express, and their goal is rather to distract people’s attention from what they possess, to gain a position of eminence by having people flock to them, or to satisfy some other worldly desire. So what impact can the words of such people have once the people they are preaching to have become cognizant of their designs and have discovered where they are tending? It is the opposite with those who do good works and strive for righteous behavior, whose heart is sincere, and whose deeds are in accord with their knowledge, their words, and their intentions. They become models whose example is emulated and whose words are trusted. They attract a great number of adherents, and many pursue the same reflective inquiry that they do and place credence in their judgment.
119
119
105.2
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�ي�� ن � ن� � هي ا �ي ّ ن � �ن ن � �ن ا ن ن � � ����سم�ه � ا �يي�س�ا �� ا ��ل � ل�� ح�م� ا�م �ع���طق�م �ن���د �م ا �لأ����س�ا � �عم�ل�� �م� �� �سر �كي��ه �م� أا ��را �م ا � �ل�� ��م�ل �و ي و ن � �ي ّ � � � ن � �ن ي � ا � ي ��ا ن ن ن ا� � ن ن ���ا � ي����ر ن��� �ل�ه ا � نر���د �كي��ه �م� ا �س � �م ن��ه ن�����د ���ي��ده؟ �و� ك �م��ن� �م��ه � او �ل�� �ل� ����ع أا �لي��ه �و��د ك�� � ل��ي� م ن ً أ يع � ي � �أ � أ ن ن ي ً أ ي ا � ��و� ي� ا �ل��ّو�ل ا �ر �م�لن��ا � او �و��م� �م�د �عن��ا � او �ن�ي� ن� ���ّوه ؟ 1 ع ع
١،١٠٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ�ي ي أ ي� أ ح ّٰ ن ن ن ي ّ �� ن � � � ���د ه �م��س�ا � ّ � � � � ه ه ه � � � ا ا �ا � ا م��س� ه � ع ح � �د � م � � م � لل ع � ل � � ���ا ي��سم�ا � �لي��د �م �و�ل� �م�س��� �لي� � � � � ن ل ��ر�ير وي ر ين � � ل ن و �ي� �� ن ا �� � ���ا. ���ل��م �كي�
٢،١٠٦
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� أ ّا � � �ن ي ا � � � ين �ا� ا �����ي نر ي� ا ������قر ن� � او �ن��ه �� ل��ن� ��� او �ي��ن� ا ��ل � ���اجن � � او �ل��ع��راء �ه�و ا �ل�������س� ن� أا �ل�� حرن� � او �ي� �م ا �ل� ي ي م� �آ ا � �أ ا � �ن � ّ أ � � ن ن �� أ ّا م ش ي أ �ن ا � ن ي � � � ا �ل��ن� ء � او �ل� ن��دا � � او ل�� ا �ي� � �م����ه�وره � او ���� �ل �م�د ��وره ؟ �و�م� ا �ل�د ي� �رك ا � ��د ه� �م� ���د ه أ م م ن أ � �أش ا � يّ ش ا ي ي ّ أ ن� �� � ن ي�مي� ّ� ا �� �ن � ي ي ن ن ي ا � ا �ل����يس� ء ح�� �� ر � �و �ل��د �م � �ون� رر � او ��د �م � او ح��ر � �ل���س�ه � او �� �ورن�م� س�م� ل�ي� � �لمك ا ���و�� ع ً أ نّ أ أ ن ا يّ م� ي ا� �� يا ي �� �مش�� ًل�� ا � ا �� �م ن � � �ن�ه ل��ن ا ��ل� ي ا� ن � � � � � � �د ل � � � �س م ��� � او ����ر�� � او� ر ن� و� ي ر ور ن��ي���� ا �و ���د ��ر � و ي� ن ي ص�� � او�م�� ن � ن� �ن �ي ا � ن� ن� ياأي ه � �أن ن هي ن�ي�ي اأ ن ن ه ��ل � ا ش ي � ي ن ه ا ن ا �� ن� أ ا� ش ش هي يلع��م�ل ��و� �م� يلع��م�ل ك�� �لي�� ا �ل�� �ل�� ك� �عو�ه �ن� � �ل�� أا �� من�� ��سره ح���� ؟ �م� ���د ه �� ار �� ن� ا� نم� �� �و� أ � ّ ن �� ي ن ن ���د ا ا ��نل ا ���ه ا أ ا� ن ن ي �ن ن ��نل �م�ل�ي�؟ ن�م�ل �م ن� ���د ا ن����م�ل�م�ه � �و�ا �سره �و�م ن� �ن���م�ل�ه �و ن�� �� ن� ا�م�د ��� �و�ه ل�ي� ���د ا ا مل�� �ع� ن � � �أ � ً ً �� ًا � اأ�ش ا ي ا ��ل ه �ي�� � ن ًا ي � �� �ن ن �س � ��ا. �و�ه�و ا �لأ� �ل�ه ا �ل��د �ي� ا � �لي��ا � ي� �ل�ه ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ��ط�و�عم� �و��ر��� و �س� ر� أ ي�� �رل� ��� � �ول� ير ي
١،١٠٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ��� ��ه � ّٰ � ن ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ �� ن� ح�م�ه ا لله ا ���� ن� � �م��س�وي ر ن و ي� ��ن � أ ي �ن أ ن ا � �لع��م�ل ا �سر �م�� ن� �� ن� �و���د �لم�ك ��س�ا �ر ���و�� ن 1ط��� :د �ه ن���ا.
120
أ � ن � ن ن � ���و ن� �ن�ا � �لي �عّوهي أا ��ل�� ا ن� ي ن� ل��ي� ا �لأ�����س�ا � �ي� حر ن��ه أا �ل�� ُ ا ��لن��ن��� � �م�ا ي ن ح ��ه ا ��ل� ا �� ن�لع��م �لن��ي����� �ي���سم�� ن � � ي ن أ � ل م ي� � و ر 120
٢،١٠٧
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�ي�� ن � ن� � هي ا �ي ّ ن � �ن ن � �ن ا ن ن � � ����سم�ه � ا �يي�س�ا �� ا ��ل � ل�� ح�م� ا�م �ع���طق�م �ن���د �م ا �لأ����س�ا � �عم�ل�� �م� �� �سر �كي��ه �م� أا ��را �م ا � �ل�� ��م�ل �و ي و ن � �ي ّ � � � ن � �ن ي � ا � ي ��ا ن ن ن ا� � ن ن ���ا � ي����ر ن��� �ل�ه ا � نر���د �كي��ه �م� ا �س � �م ن��ه ن�����د ���ي��ده؟ �و� ك �م��ن� �م��ه � او �ل�� �ل� ����ع أا �لي��ه �و��د ك�� � ل��ي� م ن ً أ يع � ي � �أ � أ ن ن ي ً أ ي ا � ��و� ي� ا �ل��ّو�ل ا �ر �م�لن��ا � او �و��م� �م�د �عن��ا � او �ن�ي� ن� ���ّوه ؟ 1 ع ع
١،١٠٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ�ي ي أ ي� أ ح ّٰ ن ن ن ي ّ �� ن � � � ���د ه �م��س�ا � ّ � � � � ه ه ه � � � ا ا �ا � ا م��س� ه � ع ح � �د � م � � م � لل ع � ل � � ���ا ي��سم�ا � �لي��د �م �و�ل� �م�س��� �لي� � � � � ن ل ��ر�ير وي ر ين � � ل ن و �ي� �� ن ا �� � ���ا. ���ل��م �كي�
٢،١٠٦
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� أ ّا � � �ن ي ا � � � ين �ا� ا �����ي نر ي� ا ������قر ن� � او �ن��ه �� ل��ن� ��� او �ي��ن� ا ��ل � ���اجن � � او �ل��ع��راء �ه�و ا �ل�������س� ن� أا �ل�� حرن� � او �ي� �م ا �ل� ي ي م� �آ ا � �أ ا � �ن � ّ أ � � ن ن �� أ ّا م ش ي أ �ن ا � ن ي � � � ا �ل��ن� ء � او �ل� ن��دا � � او ل�� ا �ي� � �م����ه�وره � او ���� �ل �م�د ��وره ؟ �و�م� ا �ل�د ي� �رك ا � ��د ه� �م� ���د ه أ م م ن أ � �أش ا � يّ ش ا ي ي ّ أ ن� �� � ن ي�مي� ّ� ا �� �ن � ي ي ن ن ي ا � ا �ل����يس� ء ح�� �� ر � �و �ل��د �م � �ون� رر � او ��د �م � او ح��ر � �ل���س�ه � او �� �ورن�م� س�م� ل�ي� � �لمك ا ���و�� ع ً أ نّ أ أ ن ا يّ م� ي ا� �� يا ي �� �مش�� ًل�� ا � ا �� �م ن � � �ن�ه ل��ن ا ��ل� ي ا� ن � � � � � � �د ل � � � �س م ��� � او ����ر�� � او� ر ن� و� ي ر ور ن��ي���� ا �و ���د ��ر � و ي� ن ي ص�� � او�م�� ن � ن� �ن �ي ا � ن� ن� ياأي ه � �أن ن هي ن�ي�ي اأ ن ن ه ��ل � ا ش ي � ي ن ه ا ن ا �� ن� أ ا� ش ش هي يلع��م�ل ��و� �م� يلع��م�ل ك�� �لي�� ا �ل�� �ل�� ك� �عو�ه �ن� � �ل�� أا �� من�� ��سره ح���� ؟ �م� ���د ه �� ار �� ن� ا� نم� �� �و� أ � ّ ن �� ي ن ن ���د ا ا ��نل ا ���ه ا أ ا� ن ن ي �ن ن ��نل �م�ل�ي�؟ ن�م�ل �م ن� ���د ا ن����م�ل�م�ه � �و�ا �سره �و�م ن� �ن���م�ل�ه �و ن�� �� ن� ا�م�د ��� �و�ه ل�ي� ���د ا ا مل�� �ع� ن � � �أ � ً ً �� ًا � اأ�ش ا ي ا ��ل ه �ي�� � ن ًا ي � �� �ن ن �س � ��ا. �و�ه�و ا �لأ� �ل�ه ا �ل��د �ي� ا � �لي��ا � ي� �ل�ه ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ��ط�و�عم� �و��ر��� و �س� ر� أ ي�� �رل� ��� � �ول� ير ي
١،١٠٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ��� ��ه � ّٰ � ن ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ �� ن� ح�م�ه ا لله ا ���� ن� � �م��س�وي ر ن و ي� ��ن � أ ي �ن أ ن ا � �لع��م�ل ا �سر �م�� ن� �� ن� �و���د �لم�ك ��س�ا �ر ���و�� ن 1ط��� :د �ه ن���ا.
120
أ � ن � ن ن � ���و ن� �ن�ا � �لي �عّوهي أا ��ل�� ا ن� ي ن� ل��ي� ا �لأ�����س�ا � �ي� حر ن��ه أا �ل�� ُ ا ��لن��ن��� � �م�ا ي ن ح ��ه ا ��ل� ا �� ن�لع��م �لن��ي����� �ي���سم�� ن � � ي ن أ � ل م ي� � و ر 120
٢،١٠٧
On why people regret their failure to honor and benefit from great men during their lifetime Why do people feel great regret at their failure to honor and acclaim men of
106.1
excellence and to acquire wisdom from them once they are gone? Why did they shun them when they had the chance to consult them and the opportunity to devote time to them, when they had fewer cares, were more open in their views, and clearly had more power?
Miskawayh’s response This question has already been answered, and there is no point in repeating
106.2
the discussion.22
On why Arabs and non-Arabs declare their pedigrees in times of war Why do Arabs and non-Arabs declare their pedigrees during times of war and
107.1
unrest? To declare one’s pedigree is to state who one’s fathers and forefathers are and to state one’s relation to famous events and notable deeds of the past. What is it that rouses them and makes them bristle and advance, enter the fray and boldly venture forth, risking their lives as they storm ahead? At that moment they may hear some verse, remember some proverb, or see someone of inferior family, station, stock, and origin conducting himself in a way that is superior to the way they are conducting themselves, and a sense of pride seizes them and drags them by the bit to their death. What are these curiosities and these wonders pertaining to this ethical constitution that lie widely dispersed and deeply buried in this physical constitution? Glory be to the One through whose knowledge, command, and action this is accomplished. He is God, to whom all things submit themselves, whether freely or grudgingly, and to whom all things point, whether covertly or overtly. Miskawayh’s response Anger exists as a potentiality in human beings until it is actualized by something that causes anger. The same principle applies to all powers of the soul.
121
121
107.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ن ن �ن � ن ّ ّ ن ن � ي شي ه �مش�م� ا ن�لي ���ا ك ا ��ل �� حر�م�ه �و��س�� � �أاو �م�ا �م ن� � ا �م�ل ��ا �ل��د �ي� �ي���و� �م ن� ��ا ر ن أا �م�ا �م ن� ��ا ر ن � �� � و ل ج ج م أ � �أ �ن ن� � ن � ن �م ن ا ن �ن ش ي ن ّ�� � ن ن ح�ي��ا � � ن� ح�مي�� ا ����ر��� �و�م�ا ا �ش��نس�ه � �لم�ك � او �ل��د �ي� �ي���و� � � �مل� �ه�و�م�م�ل ���د ��ر ا �ل��د � ��و ن� � او �ل�� و � ني �ي ع أ أ �أ � ن � ن ���ا ن�� ي� ��س�ا ك�� ا �ل��� �وا ��ل ا � ��ي� �م ن� �ش�س�ا �نل���ا �ي�د � ���د ه ا � �لي �عّوهي� .و�م ن� �ش�س�ا ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� أا � ا ك� ���ه � او ��س م�� � � � � � ن ا ن ن ي ً� ي ًّا ن ا ا� �يج مي � � �أ ن ا ّ ا � ي ن ن أ ن ن � ّ � ي � � � ��� � ���ن�� �ل���ر أا �ل�� � ا ����س� ����� � �� �� �م ح�����د �يل� ح ن� �ل�ه ا �ل� �ع� ح �ري�مك ��� ء �ع�م� يلمل�سم��� �ي �لأ � ل �وي � م أ ّ � ي ن� � ن � ن يّ ي ن � ن �ن ن ��� ي ح���� �يلم�ل�ك ا ��ل شا ي ا � حر���ه �م ن� ا �لن ������ ي����و� ���وه � �لم�ك ا � �لع��م�ل � او ن�� ي� �ي���ن��ي� ن� � �لم�ك ا �ل ������ �أاو �� ر�ل��� �ون ن ن ن ً أ ن ن � ن ن �� ن ي ي ن ن � أ ن ا� ن أ أن ن� ��و ن� ك�ي��� �م� ���ا �أوه ��ا � �ل ا �ع ن� ��نس�ا ا �و �ي�لع��م�ل ����م�ل ا ����� � �هر �ع� �م� ا�م��سر�ور أا � ا ا را � ا � �يل �� � أ نً ن أ أش �ي� ّ ن ّ أن � �ن �هر �عم�لي��ه ا �ر ا �ل� � �م�ك �م ن� �ن �نل���س�ه �و�م� �م� �لن� �نر��م�ا ا �م� � �وي نل �� �م�ك �ه�و ا �يل� ���ا ل��ي� ا �� � �م�ا ك���ا � �وجن � ن ي �ي ّ ي � ن ن ي ن ّ ن�م�� ي ا � ل�ن �يم� � ا ��ل � � �� اأ� �ل�م ّ ي ا ��ل� �ي��ّ هي ا ���ن�� ن ��ا �ل أا �ل�� أا �ش�ا ره ا � �ل �عوه ا ����� ��ن��يّ��ه ن�لي��د ��ر سر ي � ي ن� � �لم�ل�ك �� ن� يح�� ن �ي� للك � أ� و ج ج ّ ا �ن ن ي ن ا �� �لي �عّ هي � ���د ر ����م�ل�ه �عم�ل�� �م� ي���ن���ه�. ح�� �يل� و ي أ أ أّ � � ن ح � ا ن� ا ا�� ن ��ا ��ل �ي��� ن��� ل��ن� ا ��ل ���د ه ا ��ل ��ا ر ن� ا �س ���ا � او �عن�� �ن� ن�د ��لم�ك ا ن� ا�م ح��ّ ا�م � � ��ا ر ن� ي �و أ ن ي� ر ر ر � ي أ م أ أ أ � ّ � �� ي ن ن ن � ّ ي ن ي �� ن حن �س ا ��ل ر��م�ا � � ���ه ا �سر���ا ن�لم�ل �ام��س�ا �ع�ده �ع�ي�ره ا �و �ل� ن�ره �ي�ا ن���د ���ا �أ�ا � ا �ش�����د حرن� ا � ��ي� �ل� يح� � ر ن نّ � يأ ن ن �� � � �أ ش � ّ ي � �أن ن ي ن�م� ي ا � � ن أ ن �� � �� ي � ن ل � ي ��ا �عم� �ي ا ا ا � ل �وا ��ل ��من� � � � ا� ح�����د أا ل�� ا �ل��ع� را ء �و�ه�و ���د ��ر �ل� � حرن� �م �� ��د ه �مي��ه � او �ل�� �ل��ه يح��نج ي أ � � ً ً � ش � ن � � � ي ن � ّ �� ي نن ��ا �عي��ه �و��س��ن��ا �ل ���و� � �لم�ك ي��د ��ا �ل�ه � او �ش�ا رهي �ل��من� �هر ي� �ل���ّو�لي��ه� 1لي�� ن �� حر����هي ��� �و�ه �م ن� � �ل���س�ه. � ن أ ي ن ن ��ا ن � ش � ا � ش � ن ا ا � ي ي ي أ ن � ن هي ي ي � ا ش ي � �أ�ن ا � ن � ي ��عي ���� � �و �ل �عو�� ن�من�� ��سره ا �ل����� ل� ل�� م�م�ل ا �ل�� ر � ��� ��ن����د �� � �أ�ا � ا �ش�ا ر ي� ���د ه ا � �لي �عّوه ك�� � م�م � ي أ أ � � ا � ��م� ا ن ن�ك ا � يّ ي ي � � � ن ا � � ا ن ن � ي ا� ا ّ ي � ن ا ي ي ن ّ ا � ن ي � ي ي��� ون� �لأ� �� � � �� ن� ح�� �ل���ي�ر �لم�لك ا �ل� ����� �ل �ل��� ن��م��ر�ل�ه ا�م� � ه �لم�ل�� ر ���ر�ي��د �نل��� أا �ل�� ا � �لمل � ّ � � � ي ي ن � � � � � ي ي ي ي � ن ن ي ي ن ن � ��ا �ل ا � �� �يلم�ل�سم�����ا ��نل ��ط � او �س�مي��ي�ر �و��ه� ا �ل �و���س�� ش���يل ��ط � �ويل���ي�ر ن��م��ر�ل�ه ا �ل � ��س�� ار � ل��ي� �م�ل�ه ا �لن� � ي� ي � نن ا�م ��ا ر ن� �م ن� � �ل���س�ه.
ا � ن ��ص� ن� ل��ي� ���� ا �ل� ن أ ن ن� ا �ع�د ن� �م ن� � �لم�ك 1ط :لاأ ّ �ل�� ن ةس. و
٣،١٠٧
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن� � ي � ن ن � أ نّ � ن� � أ � ه او ء �و� �لم�ك ا�ام�ا ء �� ن� �م ن� � �لم�ك ا �ل� � ا � ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ي�ل �عو� ��و� ���د ا ا �ل� � ه او ء ا ��ي أ ي �ن � ��ن أ � � ن ي� هي �ا ن ��ند ا � ������ ن ��ند ا ا �ن��ه� �م ن � � � � م� �� �� ا�ام�ا ء �وي� �نر�ه ن�لم�ل��د ����د ا �و���د ا ا ��مل ن� م� �نر� � � و م � ي�
122
122
١،١٠٨
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ن ن �ن � ن ّ ّ ن ن � ي شي ه �مش�م� ا ن�لي ���ا ك ا ��ل �� حر�م�ه �و��س�� � �أاو �م�ا �م ن� � ا �م�ل ��ا �ل��د �ي� �ي���و� �م ن� ��ا ر ن أا �م�ا �م ن� ��ا ر ن � �� � و ل ج ج م أ � �أ �ن ن� � ن � ن �م ن ا ن �ن ش ي ن ّ�� � ن ن ح�ي��ا � � ن� ح�مي�� ا ����ر��� �و�م�ا ا �ش��نس�ه � �لم�ك � او �ل��د �ي� �ي���و� � � �مل� �ه�و�م�م�ل ���د ��ر ا �ل��د � ��و ن� � او �ل�� و � ني �ي ع أ أ �أ � ن � ن ���ا ن�� ي� ��س�ا ك�� ا �ل��� �وا ��ل ا � ��ي� �م ن� �ش�س�ا �نل���ا �ي�د � ���د ه ا � �لي �عّوهي� .و�م ن� �ش�س�ا ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� أا � ا ك� ���ه � او ��س م�� � � � � � ن ا ن ن ي ً� ي ًّا ن ا ا� �يج مي � � �أ ن ا ّ ا � ي ن ن أ ن ن � ّ � ي � � � ��� � ���ن�� �ل���ر أا �ل�� � ا ����س� ����� � �� �� �م ح�����د �يل� ح ن� �ل�ه ا �ل� �ع� ح �ري�مك ��� ء �ع�م� يلمل�سم��� �ي �لأ � ل �وي � م أ ّ � ي ن� � ن � ن يّ ي ن � ن �ن ن ��� ي ح���� �يلم�ل�ك ا ��ل شا ي ا � حر���ه �م ن� ا �لن ������ ي����و� ���وه � �لم�ك ا � �لع��م�ل � او ن�� ي� �ي���ن��ي� ن� � �لم�ك ا �ل ������ �أاو �� ر�ل��� �ون ن ن ن ً أ ن ن � ن ن �� ن ي ي ن ن � أ ن ا� ن أ أن ن� ��و ن� ك�ي��� �م� ���ا �أوه ��ا � �ل ا �ع ن� ��نس�ا ا �و �ي�لع��م�ل ����م�ل ا ����� � �هر �ع� �م� ا�م��سر�ور أا � ا ا را � ا � �يل �� � أ نً ن أ أش �ي� ّ ن ّ أن � �ن �هر �عم�لي��ه ا �ر ا �ل� � �م�ك �م ن� �ن �نل���س�ه �و�م� �م� �لن� �نر��م�ا ا �م� � �وي نل �� �م�ك �ه�و ا �يل� ���ا ل��ي� ا �� � �م�ا ك���ا � �وجن � ن ي �ي ّ ي � ن ن ي ن ّ ن�م�� ي ا � ل�ن �يم� � ا ��ل � � �� اأ� �ل�م ّ ي ا ��ل� �ي��ّ هي ا ���ن�� ن ��ا �ل أا �ل�� أا �ش�ا ره ا � �ل �عوه ا ����� ��ن��يّ��ه ن�لي��د ��ر سر ي � ي ن� � �لم�ل�ك �� ن� يح�� ن �ي� للك � أ� و ج ج ّ ا �ن ن ي ن ا �� �لي �عّ هي � ���د ر ����م�ل�ه �عم�ل�� �م� ي���ن���ه�. ح�� �يل� و ي أ أ أّ � � ن ح � ا ن� ا ا�� ن ��ا ��ل �ي��� ن��� ل��ن� ا ��ل ���د ه ا ��ل ��ا ر ن� ا �س ���ا � او �عن�� �ن� ن�د ��لم�ك ا ن� ا�م ح��ّ ا�م � � ��ا ر ن� ي �و أ ن ي� ر ر ر � ي أ م أ أ أ � ّ � �� ي ن ن ن � ّ ي ن ي �� ن حن �س ا ��ل ر��م�ا � � ���ه ا �سر���ا ن�لم�ل �ام��س�ا �ع�ده �ع�ي�ره ا �و �ل� ن�ره �ي�ا ن���د ���ا �أ�ا � ا �ش�����د حرن� ا � ��ي� �ل� يح� � ر ن نّ � يأ ن ن �� � � �أ ش � ّ ي � �أن ن ي ن�م� ي ا � � ن أ ن �� � �� ي � ن ل � ي ��ا �عم� �ي ا ا ا � ل �وا ��ل ��من� � � � ا� ح�����د أا ل�� ا �ل��ع� را ء �و�ه�و ���د ��ر �ل� � حرن� �م �� ��د ه �مي��ه � او �ل�� �ل��ه يح��نج ي أ � � ً ً � ش � ن � � � ي ن � ّ �� ي نن ��ا �عي��ه �و��س��ن��ا �ل ���و� � �لم�ك ي��د ��ا �ل�ه � او �ش�ا رهي �ل��من� �هر ي� �ل���ّو�لي��ه� 1لي�� ن �� حر����هي ��� �و�ه �م ن� � �ل���س�ه. � ن أ ي ن ن ��ا ن � ش � ا � ش � ن ا ا � ي ي ي أ ن � ن هي ي ي � ا ش ي � �أ�ن ا � ن � ي ��عي ���� � �و �ل �عو�� ن�من�� ��سره ا �ل����� ل� ل�� م�م�ل ا �ل�� ر � ��� ��ن����د �� � �أ�ا � ا �ش�ا ر ي� ���د ه ا � �لي �عّوه ك�� � م�م � ي أ أ � � ا � ��م� ا ن ن�ك ا � يّ ي ي � � � ن ا � � ا ن ن � ي ا� ا ّ ي � ن ا ي ي ن ّ ا � ن ي � ي ي��� ون� �لأ� �� � � �� ن� ح�� �ل���ي�ر �لم�لك ا �ل� ����� �ل �ل��� ن��م��ر�ل�ه ا�م� � ه �لم�ل�� ر ���ر�ي��د �نل��� أا �ل�� ا � �لمل � ّ � � � ي ي ن � � � � � ي ي ي ي � ن ن ي ي ن ن � ��ا �ل ا � �� �يلم�ل�سم�����ا ��نل ��ط � او �س�مي��ي�ر �و��ه� ا �ل �و���س�� ش���يل ��ط � �ويل���ي�ر ن��م��ر�ل�ه ا �ل � ��س�� ار � ل��ي� �م�ل�ه ا �لن� � ي� ي � نن ا�م ��ا ر ن� �م ن� � �ل���س�ه.
ا � ن ��ص� ن� ل��ي� ���� ا �ل� ن أ ن ن� ا �ع�د ن� �م ن� � �لم�ك 1ط :لاأ ّ �ل�� ن ةس. و
٣،١٠٧
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن� � ي � ن ن � أ نّ � ن� � أ � ه او ء �و� �لم�ك ا�ام�ا ء �� ن� �م ن� � �لم�ك ا �ل� � ا � ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ي�ل �عو� ��و� ���د ا ا �ل� � ه او ء ا ��ي أ ي �ن � ��ن أ � � ن ي� هي �ا ن ��ند ا � ������ ن ��ند ا ا �ن��ه� �م ن � � � � م� �� �� ا�ام�ا ء �وي� �نر�ه ن�لم�ل��د ����د ا �و���د ا ا ��مل ن� م� �نر� � � و م � ي�
122
122
١،١٠٨
On why people distinguish between different kinds of air, water, and earth
The things that actualize it are of two kinds: those that arise externally, and those that arise internally. Examples of things that arise externally include violations of honor, insults, and the like. Examples of things that arise internally include the remembrance of wrongs and grudges and all those states that tend to fuel this power. It is characteristic of the soul that, when it is at rest and a person seeks to elicit a powerful action from it, his bodily members do not comply with his desire. He is then forced to move and rouse the soul, and that movement of the soul determines the degree of powerfulness of that action. We perceive this clearly in people who are feeling happy: When they try to display anger or to behave in the way angry people do, their bodily members abandon them, and they exhibit signs of forced behavior. Sometimes they provoke others to laughter, and also laugh themselves, though they are in the most pressing need of the power of anger. In that situation, it is necessary for them to rouse their irascible power by remembering something that stirs up that power so their action can issue in the right manner. This situation arises in times of war if the war does not specifically concern
107.3
the person fighting in it—I mean that the fighter might be participating in a war that does not specifically concern him with the aim of helping others or of obtaining some financial reward. Confronted by the sight of war, he fails to be seized by a sense of zeal and pride, and then needs to declare his pedigree, which involves remembering acts of courage performed by his forbears, in the hope that this will stoke his passions, rouse his courage, and elicit a powerful movement from his soul. If roused, this power becomes like a fire, which begins feebly and then grows stronger as it engages in actions and applies itself to them with dedication. Those acts become like the material fed into a fire, which kindles it until it flares up and blazes fiercely, and he becomes like someone in a state of intoxication, so diminished is his self-control and his capacity for discrimination. This is the state the fighter seeks to produce in himself.
On why people distinguish between different kinds of air, water, and earth, but not different kinds of fire Why do people say, “This air is more agreeable than that,” “This water is fresher than that,” “The ground of such and such a region is firmer than that one,” and “The soil of such and such a place is softer, more putrid, or more briny than
123
123
108.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ أ أ أ ن �� ن � � � ������ ن ��ند ا � او �ع�نع� ن � او ��سم ن ح��س ن ��د ا �ن�ا ره ا ن� �و� � او � �؟ ش��ّ �ل�� �ي�لي �عو� ��و ن� ل��ن� �يكي��ا ��� ���د ا ن�لمل�د ��� م��ا ن� ��� ي� � � � � ن � � ي م أ ن أ أ ش ّ ًّ يًاج أ � ن �� �ن ن ن � ن ا ن ���د ه ا ��ل���ن��ا ي � ��ل��سً�ا ع � � � � � ا ا ا ا � � م ل � ل م � �س � ع � � � � حي��ل�� �� � � � ل و و � ي ن � او � ل���� ا �و ا ��س�د �ر أ ر م ي ن ل رو �� أ أ ن ن نً ا� ّ��اأ نّ ا �ن �� ح ��� ا ��ل ا � ا � � ن �� � �� ا �نًا � ل�ن ا �� �ي ��� ن ا�ا� ن ن� ش ل � ا�م� او � ك�� �ل��� ل�� ا م ل � � � م� �عو��� ا ��سر � �ل �عو� ا؟ � � � س � � � ل � �� � � و ي� ن ي ن � ن ي� � ي ع
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ نّ � �أ��ا ن � �أ ي ن ش ي�� ي �ن أ نّ ن أ ن �ل���ا �ي�ا ن���د �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا �ل�رك�� � ا �ل� نر�����ه �أاو � ا ��س��ر��� ل�ي� ا � ن����� ي ّ ي ن ي � �أي ّ � �أ��ش يّ � ن ن أ ن ن ن ا نّ �ن ن ن ي ��� ه ������ ��ا �ل� �م� � او �ل� ���ر � � � � ه ه � � ل � � � ح�� �ي���و� ن����� �ل���ا ا �مل��� �ي� ���ور� و ��و�ع� م� ن����� أ� � و ن �ن ل أ أ � ا ن ي ن � نّ � ن ا ن ن ا ن ا ّ ي أ �ي ّ �ي �ً� � ي � ن ا ن � �� هي ن ي ي ّ ا � م � ���ه ا م�ل كن ��و�ل� � �ل �عوه �ع�ي ر��� � او �ع��سر �م� ر ن��ه �و� �لمك ا � ���وره ا �ل�� ر �عم لن�� ��� �� � ا �ل�� ر �م� ن��ي�� � ي أ أ ّ ي � � ن � ي ن ي ن ن ي ن �عم�ل �م�ا �ّ �يل���ا� .و�ل��ا � ���د ا ا � ا �ل��ر ن�� � �لع�م� �م ن �م�م�ا ر ن��ه ا�ام�ا ء � او �ل�ه� ا ء �م�ا ����م�� و حي�م�ل �ن�ه �ع� � نل � ني �� حيّ ي � ن ا �ل� � ي ّ ن ي ��أهي � ا�ا�مم�ل � ن�س � ا ���أ�ش��س�ا ء ا ���ي ي�ن حي�م� �لن� �ل��ا ا ا ا � � ��ور�ل��� ا �ل �� � ن� ���ه �نل��� �� �ل���ي ر �م � ��� ا �حم و � و� رو ن� �ل ي �ي� ج أ ي � � � � �ن � ي ��ن � � ي �� ن ي ��ع � �سر�و ن� ا �ل��ل ا �ل��ر ن� �و���د �لم�ك ا�ام�ا ء �ي�لعن�م�ل �م ن� ا �ل�ر��� ا � ��ي� ن��ا �وره � او �ل�ه� او ء ا �ل��د �ي� �يلم�لي��ه ن� �وم � �أ � ن ا �� � ّ ي ��نل ا ّ ي ن ً ّ ً ن � ح�ي ي ن� � � م � � ا ا � �� ا ء � � �� ل � � � � � حرن� �م ن� ���ور��ه ا�� � د � ���ه �ن�ه �ر�و ن��ا ن��ي�� ن��ا �و���د ه ��ا �ل � او �ل�ر يي و آو ر أ� ج � ًا ا اً ً ّ � � � جن � � ي � حي � � ��� ن ن � � ن ��� � �وي� ن���س� ���ه �عم�لي ن� ����ا � نو���� ن� ا �ل�ه� او ء ل��ي� �كن ��و�ل ا �ل� �ش�ا ر �م ن� ا �ل�ر��� � او�ام�ا ء ��� يل���ي ر ن �� ���ه ر �� ن آ ن ا �ن ن � يّ ي ي ّ ن ��لم� ّ ا نًا ن � ا ً ن ن � � � ي �ً� ن�ي ن �� �ل��� ل�� ن������ ح� ����ن��� �ل �هر ل��� ���د ه ا �لش��ل�� �ش�هي ا �ش�ا ر ن� � � � �و مع��د �ل� .ك� � � � � � ي� ح��� ن�لي�� �� ���� �� ار ي ي آ ّ ن ا ن ن � يّ � ��� ا �ن��س�ا ن ن � ي�لن��ي��� ا �ش�ا ح � ��ه �ع ن ا �عي��دا ��ل�ه � ن� � ��ه �ع ن � ح � � � � � � � � � ع � � � ل ح� � � � � �ل � � ن � ي � � و و و ر أ ن ن ل � ن ر � � �ن � � ر و � � ا � �� ي ن ا ا �� �ّ ن ل�ن ام� ��أ ا ن �سر ر لن��ي� �ي� �ل�ن��د �. ا �عي��دا �ل�ه ��سن�� ن� �ل� ��ل� ن اأ ّ ا � ا ن ا نّ ي ا ��نل ا ّ ح�يّ ��ل�� �ي�ليع�م� �م ن ا�ا��س نا ن� �م�ا ���هي �ل��ا ن�عم� ��ل��هي �عم�ل �م�ا ّ� �يل��ا � 1 ا � � � � �� �م� ا �ل ن�� ر �أ� � � � ل � � � ور � ن� ن � � � � ن ل � رج ن � أ � نا ّ � �ن � ن �� ��لم��ل ّ ن ن ي ا ن أش ن � � ي � � ن ��ي���ا ل��ا ا �و ا �لن� � يل� � ��وء ا �ل�د �ي� �ه�و �� � � ح��� �م��ه � �ل���� � ا �ر �م� ا �لأ�� ار �� ا �ل�د �ي� �ه�و ����م � �هر أ أ أ ّ ً ً � � � ن � �نّ ه ا � ن ا ن ي � ���ا ي��د �ي�ليعن�م�ل �م ن ا�ا�س ن ا ن� �و �نم ��ا �ورهي �م�ا �يلم�لي��ه ا ش� ار �م�ا �و� ك ����� �ن� �لأ�� �و�عم�ل�� ا � ا �ل ن��ا ر ا �يل ن� ��� ��ه أا �ل�� � ر ج أ ّ � ن � � �أ ًّ � ن � أ نّ � � �آ � ا �ل�� �ش�ا ر ا � ��ي� �ي�ليعن�م�ل���ا ا ن� �وا �يل���ا ي���س�ي�ر ٢ن���د ا� .مش��ا �ل � �لم�ك ا � ا �ل ن��ا ر ا � ��ي� �م�ا � �يل���ا ا �لن��� ��ط ا �ل�����و� � ي ي ن ا ��ل ن ��ن ���� ي �� �ن � ن ا ن� � �ن � ن � ن ا ا �� ي ا ّ ي ا � ن ي � ا �ن � � �سر� ���و�ل��� ن��ل� � ���و� ا �ل�� ر ��ي� �م� � �ل��� ا �ر��ي� ا �ل��� ل�ي� �و� ��� ن ��من� � او ���ن� ر��ي� ا ل� � � �م� نج أّ � ن � � ّ � � � ن ن ا ل�ل ا ��ا ��ل�� ��ل�� ن� �يلم�ل�ك � ا ��نل ���ا ء �و� � ح�س ار ء �و���د ه ن�لي� ن� ���ن� ا � �لع��م�ل ا�م���م�ل�و ن� �م� ا �ل ن�� ر ن �م�ه�ور �ع�ي�ر � أ أ ّ ة 1الا�ص�ل وط� � :ا أ�ة�ة���ه�ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ة���س��ة��.
124
124
٢،١٠٨
٣،١٠٨
On why people distinguish between different kinds of air, water, and earth
the soil of that place,” yet they do not then say in analogy: “The fire of such and such a region is superior, better, and purer, or emits stronger heat, burns more strongly, and has a fiercer flame,” but instead they attribute these qualities to the differences between materials, saying for example that its power is plainer to see in dry timber and is faster to take hold in combed cotton?
Miskawayh’s response The four elements have in common the fact that each admits the power of
108.2
the other in smaller or larger degrees, so that some are purer in their form and species than others; yet fire in particular is less receptive to the power of the others and more resistant to entering into mixtures. That is because the form of fire dominates over its matter. To explain the point: Earth is receptive to forming mixtures with water and air that displace it from its proper form, resulting in the mud, salt, and the various aspects that account for the differences between soils. Similarly, water receives from the earth contiguous to it and the air surrounding it many kinds of tastes and smells, purities and impurities, such that it undergoes an evident departure from its proper form. The same holds true of air, insofar as it accepts different effects from the earth and water, with some of it becoming thick and some moist, dry, and balanced. So the effects of these three elements on one another are manifested in such a way that they are plainly perceived by the senses, and the effects of some relative to others become deficient in a such a way that every person can judge that they have departed from their balanced state. Their departure from their balanced state causes evident harm to bodies. With fire, by contrast, its proper form dominates over its matter, so that it is not receptive to forming mixtures that result in one of its effects—be it the effect of burning, which constitutes its act, or the effect of light, which constitutes its specific property—becoming deficient in a way that is plain to the senses. Fire may indeed also receive a certain effect through mixture and through contiguity with nearby objects, but it is extremely meager in comparison with the effects received by its counterparts. For example, the fire whose material consists in black naphtha and unmixed sulfur has a different color when compared with the fire whose material consists in clear oil and pure violet ointment; for the former is red, whereas the latter is white. But the act one wishes the fire to effect on this ensemble—that is, to burn and
125
125
108.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ا� ��هي م ا �ّ ن��ا نّ� �يلم�ل�ك ا ��ل ا � ن ���ا �م ش��س��ير��� �ن�ا �ي��� ا �عن��� ا ��ل��� ار �ي� � او ��لن� � ن ن ي � �� �ل �م � �� ا� �و أ ��وء �أاو � � �ل���� نح�� ن � ي أ أن أن � � ن � � ن ��م�ّل��ا ��ل�� ي ن ح��ّ ���� ن �ل���ا � �و ن� ���� ن�� � او ن� ا � � ح��م�ل �لم�ل ن��ا ��� ا �ع ار ن� � �ل�ه�م �م ن� ا �����ا �ل ل��ي� ا �لن�م�ل�د ا � ك� � �ن ن � أ ّ � ا� �لن ن ��� ل�ن ا� ّ ا �� ي ي�ن ّ ا �� � � ن � � ��سسّ ا ا� ّ � ا �ل ن��ا ر ي�لن�م�لن� �ع او �ن�ه أا �ل�� ��ا ن��ا �يل�ه� �و� ي ��ر� او �ي� ا�م� او � ��� ح��� لن�مل�د ا � �ل� ي�م� � او�م� او � ي أ م م � �ن ن �مّي��ن �ي هي ن� ���ا �و��ل���� � �وا ي� ا �ل ن��ا ر. �����د ا 1ا �� ع�� كي� ي �
ا� ن � � � ن ا ن ن �م ��قرج ا �لأ������� � ن����ي�م�ل � � �ي �ن��د رك �م�ا ���م�ل ن� �و �ل� �و�� أ � ن� ا � ��ن���ي�ر � �لم�ك؟ م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ا � ي ّي أ ش � ���ر �م ن� �نر��ه �م�ا �ل � او ���ا �ن�هي ن��ي�ر �م ن� ن�ع�ي�ر ا �����س� ن� �ل�ه �و� ��و��� ا �� ن أ� أ � أّ ن أ أ نّ � ع ش � � ن ن �م�ا را �و�ل؟ ا �ل���ن�ه ل��ي� ا � ���د ا �ل���ر��ي� ن� �ي���ن��ن�ه� ���م�ل ن� ����ي� ء �مي��ا �ر٢ ي
١،١٠٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ح��ّ �ن �نل���س�ه اأ� ن� � � ن ا ن �م ّ ا ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ن� ��� ��ه ر� ح�مي�� ا � � ح��س�م�ه ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� و أ و ع �م� يل��ي�� ن� ا �لأ������� �أ �م� ي � � ي � ن ن ي �� ه ي � ي ّ � ا ه ه ن ن ن �� هور ا ش�ره �عم�لي��ه � او � ا �و��م�ل أا �لي��ه � ا � � ا �ل ل ح � م � � �� �د �� ع � � � � � � س �� � س � ن و � �� ج �ل أ أا � ا �و��م�ل أ ي ن ير ن أ أ ن يي ن ي ش ح��� �ن�ا نّ ا ��ل��أ�س ا ن�� ا ���ي ن ح�����ا ��س�ه ��ه .ا �ّم�ا �مش��ا ��ل ن� ��لم�ك ل��ن� ا ن��ل ح ن� � ���ر أا � � �س �ر�ه �� ن���ع��ه �و� ي � � � � م أ ن ي ن ًر ّ ي� رج ّ ا �� ش ً � ا ا� ش ش �ل���ا �ع ن ا ��ل�� �عي��د ا ��ل �عم�ل �ي��د ري ن� �ن � ن � ج �ملي����� ي���م��ر �نل��� ٣أا �ل� ��م�ع�ورا ي������ي�را �ورن�م� �م ي���م��ر �� أ ن � ي � ياأ ّا� ن ا �ًّ ��ا ��ل ا � �ن � ا � ي ّ ن ن ن ا ا ا ي ش � � � ��� ���ه �نل��� ٤ا �لن�س�ه ��أ� � �رنج �نل��� �عم�ل�� �ع�ي ر ���د ير ن ج �� �م �م � ��� ٥ن��د ا ك�� �� �ل ل�ي� ا �ل�د �و� � ٦او ��� ن �أ � � � ن � �أ ي ّ � � �ن �� �م ن� ا �ل���س ار ن��� ن�أ�ا ن� ا �لأ���ن�����ا ن� ي ن� � �ع ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل �نل���ا أا �ل�� ا �ل���ر�� ا �ل� ������ ا �ل��د �ي� حرجن أ أ � ح �� ن ح��ّ ��ا �ا�م�ه ��ل���نّ�ه �عم�ل �ي��د ر ن� �و����و ن�رن� � �و ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا ��نل �س ��هي �لم��ل �يلم�لي��ه ا�ا�م�و ي� �ن�ل�� ي� � ح�ي��ه � ن و � ن رج نر � ي � ج ج � نّ ي � �أ نّ � نّ ي نّ � أ� � �ن � � ��ل � ن � � �ن ن �م ن� ا �ل�� ا� �م�ا �ل�� �ي�� او � �ل�ه �ن�ه� .و����د �لمك ا ��ا �ل ل��ي� ا �لم�ل��د ا � �ل�� ا �لم�ل��د ه أا ��م�ا ��هي� �ع�و� ا �لأ�������ا � م م ي ا ن �ن أ نّ ي � ن ي ن ا � � �نّ ي � �أ ا� ا � ي ن ن ن � ي � ا �� �و� � ل�� ا �ل�ه�م� �ير� ا � � �����ه �ن�ل� ���د ر ن� أا ��ل�� ا �ع��دا �ل�ه �س �ر�ه �� �لمل�د ه � او �ل� � �� �ل�� ي� ��� � � ي ي ن م يج أ أ أ أ أ أ ن ّ ة 1الا�ص�ل� :ه�د � ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط�� :ة���� ن�ة��� ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ن��� ٤ .الا�ص�ل :ن��� ٥ .الا�ص�ل �� :ن���� ٦ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل�د �.
126
126
٢،١٠٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ا� ��هي م ا �ّ ن��ا نّ� �يلم�ل�ك ا ��ل ا � ن ���ا �م ش��س��ير��� �ن�ا �ي��� ا �عن��� ا ��ل��� ار �ي� � او ��لن� � ن ن ي � �� �ل �م � �� ا� �و أ ��وء �أاو � � �ل���� نح�� ن � ي أ أن أن � � ن � � ن ��م�ّل��ا ��ل�� ي ن ح��ّ ���� ن �ل���ا � �و ن� ���� ن�� � او ن� ا � � ح��م�ل �لم�ل ن��ا ��� ا �ع ار ن� � �ل�ه�م �م ن� ا �����ا �ل ل��ي� ا �لن�م�ل�د ا � ك� � �ن ن � أ ّ � ا� �لن ن ��� ل�ن ا� ّ ا �� ي ي�ن ّ ا �� � � ن � � ��سسّ ا ا� ّ � ا �ل ن��ا ر ي�لن�م�لن� �ع او �ن�ه أا �ل�� ��ا ن��ا �يل�ه� �و� ي ��ر� او �ي� ا�م� او � ��� ح��� لن�مل�د ا � �ل� ي�م� � او�م� او � ي أ م م � �ن ن �مّي��ن �ي هي ن� ���ا �و��ل���� � �وا ي� ا �ل ن��ا ر. �����د ا 1ا �� ع�� كي� ي �
ا� ن � � � ن ا ن ن �م ��قرج ا �لأ������� � ن����ي�م�ل � � �ي �ن��د رك �م�ا ���م�ل ن� �و �ل� �و�� أ � ن� ا � ��ن���ي�ر � �لم�ك؟ م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ا � ي ّي أ ش � ���ر �م ن� �نر��ه �م�ا �ل � او ���ا �ن�هي ن��ي�ر �م ن� ن�ع�ي�ر ا �����س� ن� �ل�ه �و� ��و��� ا �� ن أ� أ � أّ ن أ أ نّ � ع ش � � ن ن �م�ا را �و�ل؟ ا �ل���ن�ه ل��ي� ا � ���د ا �ل���ر��ي� ن� �ي���ن��ن�ه� ���م�ل ن� ����ي� ء �مي��ا �ر٢ ي
١،١٠٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ح��ّ �ن �نل���س�ه اأ� ن� � � ن ا ن �م ّ ا ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ن� ��� ��ه ر� ح�مي�� ا � � ح��س�م�ه ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� و أ و ع �م� يل��ي�� ن� ا �لأ������� �أ �م� ي � � ي � ن ن ي �� ه ي � ي ّ � ا ه ه ن ن ن �� هور ا ش�ره �عم�لي��ه � او � ا �و��م�ل أا �لي��ه � ا � � ا �ل ل ح � م � � �� �د �� ع � � � � � � س �� � س � ن و � �� ج �ل أ أا � ا �و��م�ل أ ي ن ير ن أ أ ن يي ن ي ش ح��� �ن�ا نّ ا ��ل��أ�س ا ن�� ا ���ي ن ح�����ا ��س�ه ��ه .ا �ّم�ا �مش��ا ��ل ن� ��لم�ك ل��ن� ا ن��ل ح ن� � ���ر أا � � �س �ر�ه �� ن���ع��ه �و� ي � � � � م أ ن ي ن ًر ّ ي� رج ّ ا �� ش ً � ا ا� ش ش �ل���ا �ع ن ا ��ل�� �عي��د ا ��ل �عم�ل �ي��د ري ن� �ن � ن � ج �ملي����� ي���م��ر �نل��� ٣أا �ل� ��م�ع�ورا ي������ي�را �ورن�م� �م ي���م��ر �� أ ن � ي � ياأ ّا� ن ا �ًّ ��ا ��ل ا � �ن � ا � ي ّ ن ن ن ا ا ا ي ش � � � ��� ���ه �نل��� ٤ا �لن�س�ه ��أ� � �رنج �نل��� �عم�ل�� �ع�ي ر ���د ير ن ج �� �م �م � ��� ٥ن��د ا ك�� �� �ل ل�ي� ا �ل�د �و� � ٦او ��� ن �أ � � � ن � �أ ي ّ � � �ن �� �م ن� ا �ل���س ار ن��� ن�أ�ا ن� ا �لأ���ن�����ا ن� ي ن� � �ع ن� ا �ل� �عي��د ا �ل �نل���ا أا �ل�� ا �ل���ر�� ا �ل� ������ ا �ل��د �ي� حرجن أ أ � ح �� ن ح��ّ ��ا �ا�م�ه ��ل���نّ�ه �عم�ل �ي��د ر ن� �و����و ن�رن� � �و ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا ��نل �س ��هي �لم��ل �يلم�لي��ه ا�ا�م�و ي� �ن�ل�� ي� � ح�ي��ه � ن و � ن رج نر � ي � ج ج � نّ ي � �أ نّ � نّ ي نّ � أ� � �ن � � ��ل � ن � � �ن ن �م ن� ا �ل�� ا� �م�ا �ل�� �ي�� او � �ل�ه �ن�ه� .و����د �لمك ا ��ا �ل ل��ي� ا �لم�ل��د ا � �ل�� ا �لم�ل��د ه أا ��م�ا ��هي� �ع�و� ا �لأ�������ا � م م ي ا ن �ن أ نّ ي � ن ي ن ا � � �نّ ي � �أ ا� ا � ي ن ن ن � ي � ا �� �و� � ل�� ا �ل�ه�م� �ير� ا � � �����ه �ن�ل� ���د ر ن� أا ��ل�� ا �ع��دا �ل�ه �س �ر�ه �� �لمل�د ه � او �ل� � �� �ل�� ي� ��� � � ي ي ن م يج أ أ أ أ أ أ ن ّ ة 1الا�ص�ل� :ه�د � ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط�� :ة���� ن�ة��� ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ن��� ٤ .الا�ص�ل :ن��� ٥ .الا�ص�ل �� :ن���� ٦ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل�د �.
126
126
٢،١٠٩
On why people feel happier when they unexpectedly obtain something they weren’t seeking
emit light—does not suffer deficiency. Suffering deficiency as a result of the specific materials characterizes it in all geographical regions alike and is not exclusive to one as opposed to another. If people obtain what they want from the action of fire, they content themselves with meeting their needs, and give no consideration to the materials specific to given countries, particularly since the materials are common among them. This is not how things stand with the counterparts of fire.
On why people feel happier when they unexpectedly obtain something they weren’t seeking than when they obtain what they were seeking Why do people experience a greater sense of happiness when they come into
109.1
some money or realize some good when they’re not expecting or anticipating it than they do when they attain what they were seeking and achieve what they were pursuing? Is it because in the one case they must seek something deferred, or is there some other reason?
Miskawayh’s response Every occurrence that concerns a person’s soul and body and that reaches him in a gradual manner is felt without much acuteness and manifests a weak effect on him. When it reaches him suddenly and in one fell swoop, it is felt acutely. In the case of the body, this is exemplified by the fact that we take little notice of the illnesses that make us depart from the balanced state in a gradual manner, and sometimes we take no notice of them at all. By contrast, if they bring about this departure in a non-gradual manner, we experience a great amount of pain. This is how it is with consumption and similar illnesses; for they make us depart from the balanced state toward the farthermost extreme, right to death’s door, but we do not feel the pain because it occurs gradually. Were this to happen differently, all at once, we would be exposed to an amount of pain that would be difficult to bear. The same thing applies to pleasures, for pleasure in fact consists in a person’s return in one fell swoop to his balanced state. Pleasure and pain are similar conditions in that they appear all at once, in a non-gradual manner, and they are thus alike in the intensity with
127
127
109.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن � �ن ن ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�اأ ��ل�هي اأ� � �آش � ي ي �� ��ا ن� ل��ن ��ا � �ش�س ّ�د هي ا ��ل��� ا ن ي ���د ا �ل� ��ا ر ا � ��ي� �ر� �عم�ل�� ا �لأ����س�ا � ح��س� ���� .و �ي����� �وي ي� ن ن أ � � ّ ي �لي � � ّ ي � ن� � �ي � ن�كي � ا �� ا � � ن ا ن � ا �ا� � ي ���س�ه �و�ا ي�لي��د ّر ن� أا �لي��ه �� �سره ن ��د ير ن و�سره ن���ي ر ��د ير ن ���� �� ����س� �م� ي ر ل �لأ � ن م ي ن م ج ج ج � ي �م ّ ا ن ن ا � ش ا � ه ن�ك ��ش � ا ه ه ن �� ه ن هي ��ا �ا��س نا � ��ل�هي ��ا ��ل �م�ا � � � ل ا ا � � � �� �ل م ح ده � � � � � � �� �� � � � � � � � � � �س � �س � � س �� ل � � ه س �م � � � � ي ن و � ور نر و ن رو رأ ي ين نر أ � ا ش�ره �عملي��ه.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ا� ش ّ ن ا� � � ي �ن ن � �ي � �سر ا�م���يس�د أا � ا � ي� ك ����ا ر ا �لن���ي���ا � ا � � ���ر�� � 1او � �ل�� ��س��ن��ه ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ي��د ا �ع�� �ع ن� �رن� �ام � م ي م � �ّ أ ّ ن � أّ � ّ �ن ن ُ ن ّ ن �ن � � � حيُ�م�ل�ن� أا �لي��ه؟ ����م�ل�ك �ي نل ���� نّ ا ن� � ��لم�ك �ل�� ن� ا �ل � �����د ا �ه�و أا � ا ��س � ��س��ا � � ٢ير� ��و� ��ن� � او � ا �ي �ّ ي �� �ن ن ا ي � �ي ّ � �لي� ّ ن ه ا ��لي ��� هي ��� ن ن ا �ع�� أ نّ ن � �م� ا ��س� رم �يو�ل��ل ��و� �م� ���د ا ع�� �ول���د م �يو� � ���د � �و� �ن� �� �ري� � او �������أ� �� ل�م ا � ���د ا �لي����� � ّش ن ن � ن � � � ن � �أّ ي أ ّ ن� ي � ي � ااش اأ � يا �ل��د ا ك �ل� �ن�م�ك ����ل��� ا �نل�ه� �ي ��أو�ر�و� ل��ي� ا�ا � م��س��ن� �ن� �م����ي� � او �ل���س�� ن�� � � او ��د ا � �ل��ل� �ع�ه �و��س� �ر � ا� ّ �ن ي � ن مي ا من ا� ��ا ن ا ن أ ه ي ا � � ه ن� �ي � �ي ي ا ��� �ّهي ّ ن ن ���ا ي� ا�م ا ��ل � � حرك� � ه � � � � � � ا � � � � ��ع�� �عم�ل�� ر م�ه� و�م�ه� ك� � ن�أ ر � و م�� نلمل� ���د نل�ي�� �مل� ح�مل���ه �م� أا � � يل� م م م اأ ن � ي ي ن � � ا � �ع ن ن� ���ا ل��ن� �ع ن��� ا ن��ل �عم�ل� ���د ا �و��س����س�م� ���ا ن�. ح�مي�� �م��س� �لم�ل ���د ا ا � ل�� �� � ن و � ر ي � ع � �م�ا و �م ن��ه
١،١١٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ نّ � � ن �� � اآ �ن ا ي ا ��ل ن ا ن �� ن� �م ن �يش��م��� ش� ا ��ل��أ�م �����ا م � � � ح � ه ه � � ا ا �ا � ا � م��س� ه � �� � � � م � م � � � لل ع � � � � � � � � � � ل ر وي ر أ ني يو � ي � ل ن و �ي� م ي آ �م ا � ا� ا � ا � ّ � ن ن � ن ا � � ا ا� ا ا �� ي ي� ّ � او ���س�د ا � ن�� ر ي� ا�مي�� ه ن�م� ح� ��م�ل�ه ا � �ر�ا � ل��ي� �و ن��ه ا�ام�ا ر��ي ن� �و�م��س� �لمك �مي�� ه ��� ر� ي يج أ ن � ه � ا ��ي��ش���ّ � ن � ا �� ن ا ن �� � هي ا ح� �����ا ن� �م ن ن��ا ن� ا ��ل�ن ا�ا�مي��ا ه أا ��ل�� ا � ��و��ل ا ��ل � ل � ا ء م م � �� ه ل � � � � � ا � ���ر�م� � � � � � � ل س م نو ي � � و ن �و ن ي � � و ر ي � ن ج ي �ش م � ّ � � � �أ� �� ��ا ن ن� �ي ي � �آن �� ا ا � � �ل���ا ��ل � � � � ا ا � � � � ل �ن�ا �ل� ��ا ي� ا � ��ي� ����ّر ن� حرك���ا ي� ا �ل�ه� او ء و �ل� م��� ر او �لن� ر� و �مل�ونج ورن�م� ك� � ��سن�� ن� � �لمك ّ �أ � �ي هي أ ش � ن ي ن � � ن � ن � ن � ي� ا �ل��د �ي� �يل �����ي�ره ا �ل��ر� او � أا ��ل�� �م��سم�ل�ك ا�ام�ا ء �كي��� �� � ��س� ا �و ����سي�� م� ���ن� ا �ل����� طن� ا�ام�ا ء �� ن ّ أ ج م � ن � ّ �ن أ � �ل� ��� ه ن ا ّ ا ن �� ن � �� ا ن ن ن ا ��ل ن � � ي � � ن ا ح���� � أ �� �ع�ي ر ن � ح���ه كي����و� �ن�ه � ار ن� ا �لن���ي�� � ك�مل� �� �م� � � �ه�ور ا �ل�ه� او �م ٣ل�ي� ا ���و�ل ا ي � أ أ أ ن ن � ّ ي � ن� � �� ن ي ن �ّ ش ن �ل � او ���ع ن��ا �� ن� ل��ي� ��م� �عو��ه � او ���د ���ا �م ن� ا ن��مي�� �م�ا �ي���ن��ي� ن� ا ش�ره �عم�ل�� ا �ل� �ي�ا �م �����ي�ء ن ����ا ��ر �و� �لم�ك أ نّ ن � �ي�م � أع ًّ ن � � ن � ن ���د ا ا ��لن�س �م ن ا ��ن ل � ا � ا �ل���شر ن���د ا �ي� ن�� ��و ا �ل���ر�� �ع ن��ه �وي���س�م ح � � � � � �ن�ه ا �لن�نس�ا ء ا �ل ش��س �ريل�� ا� ن ي رن � ر ن ن ج ج أ أ أ ن ن 1الا�ص�ل :ا �ل ك� ��ة�م��ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل :الأا ���س�ا � ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا ����هوا ء.
128
128
٢،١١٠
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن � �ن ن ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�اأ ��ل�هي اأ� � �آش � ي ي �� ��ا ن� ل��ن ��ا � �ش�س ّ�د هي ا ��ل��� ا ن ي ���د ا �ل� ��ا ر ا � ��ي� �ر� �عم�ل�� ا �لأ����س�ا � ح��س� ���� .و �ي����� �وي ي� ن ن أ � � ّ ي �لي � � ّ ي � ن� � �ي � ن�كي � ا �� ا � � ن ا ن � ا �ا� � ي ���س�ه �و�ا ي�لي��د ّر ن� أا �لي��ه �� �سره ن ��د ير ن و�سره ن���ي ر ��د ير ن ���� �� ����س� �م� ي ر ل �لأ � ن م ي ن م ج ج ج � ي �م ّ ا ن ن ا � ش ا � ه ن�ك ��ش � ا ه ه ن �� ه ن هي ��ا �ا��س نا � ��ل�هي ��ا ��ل �م�ا � � � ل ا ا � � � �� �ل م ح ده � � � � � � �� �� � � � � � � � � � �س � �س � � س �� ل � � ه س �م � � � � ي ن و � ور نر و ن رو رأ ي ين نر أ � ا ش�ره �عملي��ه.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ا� ش ّ ن ا� � � ي �ن ن � �ي � �سر ا�م���يس�د أا � ا � ي� ك ����ا ر ا �لن���ي���ا � ا � � ���ر�� � 1او � �ل�� ��س��ن��ه ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ي��د ا �ع�� �ع ن� �رن� �ام � م ي م � �ّ أ ّ ن � أّ � ّ �ن ن ُ ن ّ ن �ن � � � حيُ�م�ل�ن� أا �لي��ه؟ ����م�ل�ك �ي نل ���� نّ ا ن� � ��لم�ك �ل�� ن� ا �ل � �����د ا �ه�و أا � ا ��س � ��س��ا � � ٢ير� ��و� ��ن� � او � ا �ي �ّ ي �� �ن ن ا ي � �ي ّ � �لي� ّ ن ه ا ��لي ��� هي ��� ن ن ا �ع�� أ نّ ن � �م� ا ��س� رم �يو�ل��ل ��و� �م� ���د ا ع�� �ول���د م �يو� � ���د � �و� �ن� �� �ري� � او �������أ� �� ل�م ا � ���د ا �لي����� � ّش ن ن � ن � � � ن � �أّ ي أ ّ ن� ي � ي � ااش اأ � يا �ل��د ا ك �ل� �ن�م�ك ����ل��� ا �نل�ه� �ي ��أو�ر�و� ل��ي� ا�ا � م��س��ن� �ن� �م����ي� � او �ل���س�� ن�� � � او ��د ا � �ل��ل� �ع�ه �و��س� �ر � ا� ّ �ن ي � ن مي ا من ا� ��ا ن ا ن أ ه ي ا � � ه ن� �ي � �ي ي ا ��� �ّهي ّ ن ن ���ا ي� ا�م ا ��ل � � حرك� � ه � � � � � � ا � � � � ��ع�� �عم�ل�� ر م�ه� و�م�ه� ك� � ن�أ ر � و م�� نلمل� ���د نل�ي�� �مل� ح�مل���ه �م� أا � � يل� م م م اأ ن � ي ي ن � � ا � �ع ن ن� ���ا ل��ن� �ع ن��� ا ن��ل �عم�ل� ���د ا �و��س����س�م� ���ا ن�. ح�مي�� �م��س� �لم�ل ���د ا ا � ل�� �� � ن و � ر ي � ع � �م�ا و �م ن��ه
١،١١٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ نّ � � ن �� � اآ �ن ا ي ا ��ل ن ا ن �� ن� �م ن �يش��م��� ش� ا ��ل��أ�م �����ا م � � � ح � ه ه � � ا ا �ا � ا � م��س� ه � �� � � � م � م � � � لل ع � � � � � � � � � � ل ر وي ر أ ني يو � ي � ل ن و �ي� م ي آ �م ا � ا� ا � ا � ّ � ن ن � ن ا � � ا ا� ا ا �� ي ي� ّ � او ���س�د ا � ن�� ر ي� ا�مي�� ه ن�م� ح� ��م�ل�ه ا � �ر�ا � ل��ي� �و ن��ه ا�ام�ا ر��ي ن� �و�م��س� �لمك �مي�� ه ��� ر� ي يج أ ن � ه � ا ��ي��ش���ّ � ن � ا �� ن ا ن �� � هي ا ح� �����ا ن� �م ن ن��ا ن� ا ��ل�ن ا�ا�مي��ا ه أا ��ل�� ا � ��و��ل ا ��ل � ل � ا ء م م � �� ه ل � � � � � ا � ���ر�م� � � � � � � ل س م نو ي � � و ن �و ن ي � � و ر ي � ن ج ي �ش م � ّ � � � �أ� �� ��ا ن ن� �ي ي � �آن �� ا ا � � �ل���ا ��ل � � � � ا ا � � � � ل �ن�ا �ل� ��ا ي� ا � ��ي� ����ّر ن� حرك���ا ي� ا �ل�ه� او ء و �ل� م��� ر او �لن� ر� و �مل�ونج ورن�م� ك� � ��سن�� ن� � �لمك ّ �أ � �ي هي أ ش � ن ي ن � � ن � ن � ن � ي� ا �ل��د �ي� �يل �����ي�ره ا �ل��ر� او � أا ��ل�� �م��سم�ل�ك ا�ام�ا ء �كي��� �� � ��س� ا �و ����سي�� م� ���ن� ا �ل����� طن� ا�ام�ا ء �� ن ّ أ ج م � ن � ّ �ن أ � �ل� ��� ه ن ا ّ ا ن �� ن � �� ا ن ن ن ا ��ل ن � � ي � � ن ا ح���� � أ �� �ع�ي ر ن � ح���ه كي����و� �ن�ه � ار ن� ا �لن���ي�� � ك�مل� �� �م� � � �ه�ور ا �ل�ه� او �م ٣ل�ي� ا ���و�ل ا ي � أ أ أ ن ن � ّ ي � ن� � �� ن ي ن �ّ ش ن �ل � او ���ع ن��ا �� ن� ل��ي� ��م� �عو��ه � او ���د ���ا �م ن� ا ن��مي�� �م�ا �ي���ن��ي� ن� ا ش�ره �عم�ل�� ا �ل� �ي�ا �م �����ي�ء ن ����ا ��ر �و� �لم�ك أ نّ ن � �ي�م � أع ًّ ن � � ن � ن ���د ا ا ��لن�س �م ن ا ��ن ل � ا � ا �ل���شر ن���د ا �ي� ن�� ��و ا �ل���ر�� �ع ن��ه �وي���س�م ح � � � � � �ن�ه ا �لن�نس�ا ء ا �ل ش��س �ريل�� ا� ن ي رن � ر ن ن ج ج أ أ أ ن ن 1الا�ص�ل :ا �ل ك� ��ة�م��ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل :الأا ���س�ا � ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا ����هوا ء.
128
128
٢،١١٠
On why fine edifices fall to ruin when left uninhabited
which they are felt. This question concerns an effect that sometimes comes to people in a gradual manner and sometimes in a non-gradual manner. The way a person responds to things he has not anticipated and has not arrived at gradually by pursuing them is similar to the way he responds to the examples we gave, which happen in one fell swoop; he thus feels them acutely, and their effect on him is strongly manifested.
On why fine edifices fall to ruin when left uninhabited Why is it that fine buildings and imposing mansions quickly become dilapi-
110.1
dated when uninhabited, but not when they are inhabited and frequented? You might suppose that this is because the inhabitants undertake repairs when necessary, restore them when they’re dilapidated and fallen to ruin, and care for them by replastering them and sweeping them clean. Yet rest assured that this is not the reason. For you know that they have an impact on the dwelling by walking on it, by causing it to support their weight, by wearing down layers of plaster and daub, and by all those other movements that have a similar tendency and effect, even if they do not weaken it in view of the repairs and restorations they undertake. So the question about the cause of this persists, and you will hear it in the course of responding to my questions in this book.23 Miskawayh’s response Most types of damage to buildings are either due to decay caused by rain and water, when the drains are blocked by objects swept by the wind into the pipes and watercourses, for this causes the water to back up and flood the foundations of the walls from outside and inside the building; or result from defective cracks that appear in the exterior of fine buildings, exposing them to the air, rain, cold, and snow. Sometimes the damage may be caused when the wind blows reeds or chaff from the chopped straw of the bricks into the watercourse, for this diverts the water in the wrong direction and causes the entire building to become dilapidated. The damage done by vermin springing up at the foundations and by spiders on the ceilings, effectively wearing away at all of the building’s features over time, is plain. Dilapidation of this type produces a very ugly effect that is repulsive to behold and renders a distinguished building unseemly. Sometimes the inhabitants of a building might neglect a room, be it
129
129
110.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ّ ّ أن ��س�ا ن ����يًا �م ن � ن�� ا ��ل ن ا ء ا �ّ ا � �لي����د � ا �ّ ا ��ن� � �ي� ن ن نُي �ور��م�ا ا � � � �ع ن��ه عن�م�ل ا �ل � ���د �أ�ا � ا �م� �� � ن ي �� � عر � ن�س� أ م� ن � أو م� ن ��ي ر � ن �نأ ي � ي ي يّن ج �� �� � ن� ه � ن آش ا � ّ ن ي ����ند ��لن��ن������ا ا ا ن ح ش��س ا � ا � �� �م � ل ل � ا � � ا � � � ا ا � ك � � � � � ح�� � و� �سرو ن� � �ي ��و ن �د ي�� 1م� � ر ا ل�دن�ي�� ن� م� ل�� ر و ي ي ي� ر أ أ ن ي ي ا ن ن �� ���هي � ا ���سنمم � �م�ا ن� ا ك�� ���ا ��ل��أ ن � ا ����عن �ن�ّ�هي ��ا ��لن ��ي�� � ا ��ل�نس�ا � �� ي� �وي� ار ل�� � � � � � � � � م � ه � ا ا � ك ء � م م � � م � � � � � � ك � ل � � � ر و لو نو ن ن ون � و� و� ن م � ن ي ش ا � ن ن ن � ن ن �� �� ن � �� ن �ي �� ج ا� ي �ن ي ّ ا ا �و�ل�ه ���د ا أا � سل� �م� ا ���و�ل�� �ول��ر�� ا�مي�� ه �و���د �م��� ٢ ا ����ن��ره �عم�ل�� ا �ل �� �عو��� �م� ي�م�� �م� � �� م ع نّ ه � ا ش�ي � ه � ن � ن ا ��ل �� �ا� ا �ي سم �عم�ل ه �م ن ا �أ ��� � �� �ي �ن ط � � �ي�لي����ن� �من���ا �ل � � �� م م � � � � � م � � ع � � �� � م � ل م م� ���ي �ل ي�� � �� لط و � ور� ن ي �وج و � � ي� � أ � ّ � ن ن ��ا ن ن� ا � �ا ن �من � ن � � ا ا ���� ��س هي ح�م�� ا ��لن ح ش���� � ا ��ل ن � ���س�ا � ا ي� � او ���ه � � � ا ل ا ا ا ا � � ك ��س� ه � ���د �م�د � ع ��س� ن� ي�م� � � � � � � ك � ل � � � و � ن و ي� ن ي و ن أ ع أ شّ �ً ا � � ن ا ن ي � �ن �ا ن � ن ا � ن �� ل��ن� ا ��نل � ���ا �ن � ح ار ن� �وك ���ا � �م�ا ي���م�عش�� �ون�ه ن�����د ���د ه ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ي���س�ي را �ن� �لأ�� �� � ا �لن�س� ء أا �ل�� ��� ��ه أا �لي� أ ي� ن أ � ي ن ن � ا ���ه�س ا � ا � ن� �و�م ا ل � ح ار ن� ا ن�����د. � ر ر
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ن ا ��� ا� ا � ��لن � � � � �أ � ا ي � � ن ���د ا �لم�ل��د ن� ا ك �عم� ي�ل��ا � ن �م�ا ���� ر ا � �ام � ���ري��م ا�م� ن��د ا ن���د �يلمل�د ا �لملمي��م ا �ل��س� �� ��ط ا ���و�ع�د؟ �و ي ل�� ن ي � ا � ن ا ل�ن أ � ا أ � �ي أ ن �� �ي ا � �ي ����ن�ه�م�ا ل�ن اأ ن�ع ا ن�� ا ��لن ��ن �� � � � ا ا ا ا � � � � ه� � م � � ���ا. � � � � ع م م � � � � � ل �� � � � ل � �و ي� و � و ر � ن ي � �ي� ر � � ع رن ني
١،١١١
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ � ن ن نّ ن�ني ي ً � ��� ��ه � ّٰ نّ أ ن � ي � ن ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � ا �لن��د � �أ�ا � ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا ��ل� �� ا �لن ������ �أاو � ك���ا ��� ��ا ن�����ا �ا�س ن ارجن � �م��س�وي ر ن و ي� أ ا ��لي��ا ���� � ا ��ل���س�ا ��س�هي �يل��م� ���ش��ًا � ّ��م�ا � �من���ا ا ���ل�� �ً�ا ���ا ن� �س ن ا ن� ا ��ل ن��� ن ن���ع��دًا �م ن �س ن ا ن� � � ك ل ك ور ر و أ � ي ي ي ي رج � ن ن � رج يأ ن ن ن � ن �ج ي �ن أ � �أ ي ���د �ه�م�ا ل��ن ا �� �نل���س� �ا ا ا ا � � � � ه � ل � � ا ا � ا اء ء � ه ��� � � � � � ل �� �� � � � � � � � � س �� ��س م � � ل � � � ك � ل و ي ن ور ا �ل� ن و ي� أ� ي وي �ي� ني حي � �ن ا ��ل ش��سس ي ا ن ا ا� ن ا ن �م��ن �مل� ي�م�� � �و�م�د �عن�� �.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ا� ن ���ا ن� ا ��ل���ن�����ا ن� ���ع��دًا �ع ن � ��� ن ���ه �و�م��م�ي� ���ط را ��س�ه � و ني �م أا � ا ك� أ ن أ ن � ن أ ن� ش يًا أ ي ّ � نن �و�م ���رن� � �ل���س�ه �و�م���د � ا ���س�ه �ي���و� ا ح�م�د � � ��و�� � او �م�ل أ أ ن 1الا�ص�ل � � :نس �ة���� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :و�ه�د ����.
130
130
� ن � � �مم�له �ع�نس�ه � م� �ل �� � �� ن� حن�نس�ه � و � �� ي و ن ي يًا أ � ن اأ ن ا أ ي أ ع ن ن اً �م�ل��� � او ��ط��� �� �ره � او ��سم�ل�� � �ل���س�
٢،١١١
١،١١٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ّ ّ أن ��س�ا ن ����يًا �م ن � ن�� ا ��ل ن ا ء ا �ّ ا � �لي����د � ا �ّ ا ��ن� � �ي� ن ن نُي �ور��م�ا ا � � � �ع ن��ه عن�م�ل ا �ل � ���د �أ�ا � ا �م� �� � ن ي �� � عر � ن�س� أ م� ن � أو م� ن ��ي ر � ن �نأ ي � ي ي يّن ج �� �� � ن� ه � ن آش ا � ّ ن ي ����ند ��لن��ن������ا ا ا ن ح ش��س ا � ا � �� �م � ل ل � ا � � ا � � � ا ا � ك � � � � � ح�� � و� �سرو ن� � �ي ��و ن �د ي�� 1م� � ر ا ل�دن�ي�� ن� م� ل�� ر و ي ي ي� ر أ أ ن ي ي ا ن ن �� ���هي � ا ���سنمم � �م�ا ن� ا ك�� ���ا ��ل��أ ن � ا ����عن �ن�ّ�هي ��ا ��لن ��ي�� � ا ��ل�نس�ا � �� ي� �وي� ار ل�� � � � � � � � � م � ه � ا ا � ك ء � م م � � م � � � � � � ك � ل � � � ر و لو نو ن ن ون � و� و� ن م � ن ي ش ا � ن ن ن � ن ن �� �� ن � �� ن �ي �� ج ا� ي �ن ي ّ ا ا �و�ل�ه ���د ا أا � سل� �م� ا ���و�ل�� �ول��ر�� ا�مي�� ه �و���د �م��� ٢ ا ����ن��ره �عم�ل�� ا �ل �� �عو��� �م� ي�م�� �م� � �� م ع نّ ه � ا ش�ي � ه � ن � ن ا ��ل �� �ا� ا �ي سم �عم�ل ه �م ن ا �أ ��� � �� �ي �ن ط � � �ي�لي����ن� �من���ا �ل � � �� م م � � � � � م � � ع � � �� � م � ل م م� ���ي �ل ي�� � �� لط و � ور� ن ي �وج و � � ي� � أ � ّ � ن ن ��ا ن ن� ا � �ا ن �من � ن � � ا ا ���� ��س هي ح�م�� ا ��لن ح ش���� � ا ��ل ن � ���س�ا � ا ي� � او ���ه � � � ا ل ا ا ا ا � � ك ��س� ه � ���د �م�د � ع ��س� ن� ي�م� � � � � � � ك � ل � � � و � ن و ي� ن ي و ن أ ع أ شّ �ً ا � � ن ا ن ي � �ن �ا ن � ن ا � ن �� ل��ن� ا ��نل � ���ا �ن � ح ار ن� �وك ���ا � �م�ا ي���م�عش�� �ون�ه ن�����د ���د ه ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ي���س�ي را �ن� �لأ�� �� � ا �لن�س� ء أا �ل�� ��� ��ه أا �لي� أ ي� ن أ � ي ن ن � ا ���ه�س ا � ا � ن� �و�م ا ل � ح ار ن� ا ن�����د. � ر ر
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ن ا ��� ا� ا � ��لن � � � � �أ � ا ي � � ن ���د ا �لم�ل��د ن� ا ك �عم� ي�ل��ا � ن �م�ا ���� ر ا � �ام � ���ري��م ا�م� ن��د ا ن���د �يلمل�د ا �لملمي��م ا �ل��س� �� ��ط ا ���و�ع�د؟ �و ي ل�� ن ي � ا � ن ا ل�ن أ � ا أ � �ي أ ن �� �ي ا � �ي ����ن�ه�م�ا ل�ن اأ ن�ع ا ن�� ا ��لن ��ن �� � � � ا ا ا ا � � � � ه� � م � � ���ا. � � � � ع م م � � � � � ل �� � � � ل � �و ي� و � و ر � ن ي � �ي� ر � � ع رن ني
١،١١١
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ � ن ن نّ ن�ني ي ً � ��� ��ه � ّٰ نّ أ ن � ي � ن ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � ا �لن��د � �أ�ا � ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا ��ل� �� ا �لن ������ �أاو � ك���ا ��� ��ا ن�����ا �ا�س ن ارجن � �م��س�وي ر ن و ي� أ ا ��لي��ا ���� � ا ��ل���س�ا ��س�هي �يل��م� ���ش��ًا � ّ��م�ا � �من���ا ا ���ل�� �ً�ا ���ا ن� �س ن ا ن� ا ��ل ن��� ن ن���ع��دًا �م ن �س ن ا ن� � � ك ل ك ور ر و أ � ي ي ي ي رج � ن ن � رج يأ ن ن ن � ن �ج ي �ن أ � �أ ي ���د �ه�م�ا ل��ن ا �� �نل���س� �ا ا ا ا � � � � ه � ل � � ا ا � ا اء ء � ه ��� � � � � � ل �� �� � � � � � � � � س �� ��س م � � ل � � � ك � ل و ي ن ور ا �ل� ن و ي� أ� ي وي �ي� ني حي � �ن ا ��ل ش��سس ي ا ن ا ا� ن ا ن �م��ن �مل� ي�م�� � �و�م�د �عن�� �.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ا� ن ���ا ن� ا ��ل���ن�����ا ن� ���ع��دًا �ع ن � ��� ن ���ه �و�م��م�ي� ���ط را ��س�ه � و ني �م أا � ا ك� أ ن أ ن � ن أ ن� ش يًا أ ي ّ � نن �و�م ���رن� � �ل���س�ه �و�م���د � ا ���س�ه �ي���و� ا ح�م�د � � ��و�� � او �م�ل أ أ ن 1الا�ص�ل � � :نس �ة���� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :و�ه�د ����.
130
130
� ن � � �مم�له �ع�نس�ه � م� �ل �� � �� ن� حن�نس�ه � و � �� ي و ن ي يًا أ � ن اأ ن ا أ ي أ ع ن ن اً �م�ل��� � او ��ط��� �� �ره � او ��سم�ل�� � �ل���س�
٢،١١١
١،١١٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ّ ّ أن ��س�ا ن ����يًا �م ن � ن�� ا ��ل ن ا ء ا �ّ ا � �لي����د � ا �ّ ا ��ن� � �ي� ن ن نُي �ور��م�ا ا � � � �ع ن��ه عن�م�ل ا �ل � ���د �أ�ا � ا �م� �� � ن ي �� � عر � ن�س� أ م� ن � أو م� ن ��ي ر � ن �نأ ي � ي ي يّن ج �� �� � ن� ه � ن آش ا � ّ ن ي ����ند ��لن��ن������ا ا ا ن ح ش��س ا � ا � �� �م � ل ل � ا � � ا � � � ا ا � ك � � � � � ح�� � و� �سرو ن� � �ي ��و ن �د ي�� 1م� � ر ا ل�دن�ي�� ن� م� ل�� ر و ي ي ي� ر أ أ ن ي ي ا ن ن �� ���هي � ا ���سنمم � �م�ا ن� ا ك�� ���ا ��ل��أ ن � ا ����عن �ن�ّ�هي ��ا ��لن ��ي�� � ا ��ل�نس�ا � �� ي� �وي� ار ل�� � � � � � � � � م � ه � ا ا � ك ء � م م � � م � � � � � � ك � ل � � � ر و لو نو ن ن ون � و� و� ن م � ن ي ش ا � ن ن ن � ن ن �� �� ن � �� ن �ي �� ج ا� ي �ن ي ّ ا ا �و�ل�ه ���د ا أا � سل� �م� ا ���و�ل�� �ول��ر�� ا�مي�� ه �و���د �م��� ٢ ا ����ن��ره �عم�ل�� ا �ل �� �عو��� �م� ي�م�� �م� � �� م ع نّ ه � ا ش�ي � ه � ن � ن ا ��ل �� �ا� ا �ي سم �عم�ل ه �م ن ا �أ ��� � �� �ي �ن ط � � �ي�لي����ن� �من���ا �ل � � �� م م � � � � � م � � ع � � �� � م � ل م م� ���ي �ل ي�� � �� لط و � ور� ن ي �وج و � � ي� � أ � ّ � ن ن ��ا ن ن� ا � �ا ن �من � ن � � ا ا ���� ��س هي ح�م�� ا ��لن ح ش���� � ا ��ل ن � ���س�ا � ا ي� � او ���ه � � � ا ل ا ا ا ا � � ك ��س� ه � ���د �م�د � ع ��س� ن� ي�م� � � � � � � ك � ل � � � و � ن و ي� ن ي و ن أ ع أ شّ �ً ا � � ن ا ن ي � �ن �ا ن � ن ا � ن �� ل��ن� ا ��نل � ���ا �ن � ح ار ن� �وك ���ا � �م�ا ي���م�عش�� �ون�ه ن�����د ���د ه ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ي���س�ي را �ن� �لأ�� �� � ا �لن�س� ء أا �ل�� ��� ��ه أا �لي� أ ي� ن أ � ي ن ن � ا ���ه�س ا � ا � ن� �و�م ا ل � ح ار ن� ا ن�����د. � ر ر
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ن ا ��� ا� ا � ��لن � � � � �أ � ا ي � � ن ���د ا �لم�ل��د ن� ا ك �عم� ي�ل��ا � ن �م�ا ���� ر ا � �ام � ���ري��م ا�م� ن��د ا ن���د �يلمل�د ا �لملمي��م ا �ل��س� �� ��ط ا ���و�ع�د؟ �و ي ل�� ن ي � ا � ن ا ل�ن أ � ا أ � �ي أ ن �� �ي ا � �ي ����ن�ه�م�ا ل�ن اأ ن�ع ا ن�� ا ��لن ��ن �� � � � ا ا ا ا � � � � ه� � م � � ���ا. � � � � ع م م � � � � � ل �� � � � ل � �و ي� و � و ر � ن ي � �ي� ر � � ع رن ني
١،١١١
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ � ن ن نّ ن�ني ي ً � ��� ��ه � ّٰ نّ أ ن � ي � ن ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � ا �لن��د � �أ�ا � ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا ��ل� �� ا �لن ������ �أاو � ك���ا ��� ��ا ن�����ا �ا�س ن ارجن � �م��س�وي ر ن و ي� أ ا ��لي��ا ���� � ا ��ل���س�ا ��س�هي �يل��م� ���ش��ًا � ّ��م�ا � �من���ا ا ���ل�� �ً�ا ���ا ن� �س ن ا ن� ا ��ل ن��� ن ن���ع��دًا �م ن �س ن ا ن� � � ك ل ك ور ر و أ � ي ي ي ي رج � ن ن � رج يأ ن ن ن � ن �ج ي �ن أ � �أ ي ���د �ه�م�ا ل��ن ا �� �نل���س� �ا ا ا ا � � � � ه � ل � � ا ا � ا اء ء � ه ��� � � � � � ل �� �� � � � � � � � � س �� ��س م � � ل � � � ك � ل و ي ن ور ا �ل� ن و ي� أ� ي وي �ي� ني حي � �ن ا ��ل ش��سس ي ا ن ا ا� ن ا ن �م��ن �مل� ي�م�� � �و�م�د �عن�� �.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ا� ن ���ا ن� ا ��ل���ن�����ا ن� ���ع��دًا �ع ن � ��� ن ���ه �و�م��م�ي� ���ط را ��س�ه � و ني �م أا � ا ك� أ ن أ ن � ن أ ن� ش يًا أ ي ّ � نن �و�م ���رن� � �ل���س�ه �و�م���د � ا ���س�ه �ي���و� ا ح�م�د � � ��و�� � او �م�ل أ أ ن 1الا�ص�ل � � :نس �ة���� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :و�ه�د ����.
130
130
� ن � � �مم�له �ع�نس�ه � م� �ل �� � �� ن� حن�نس�ه � و � �� ي و ن ي يًا أ � ن اأ ن ا أ ي أ ع ن ن اً �م�ل��� � او ��ط��� �� �ره � او ��سم�ل�� � �ل���س�
٢،١١١
١،١١٢
On why our longing for home grows more intense the nearer we come to it
intentionally or unintentionally, so when it is opened up it cannot be entered because of the activity of animals that creep along the ground (rats, snakes, and insects that build nests by boring holes, such as woodworms and ants), the food they collect, spiderwebs, and dust covering the ornaments. This assumes that it has been spared from seepage, and from water that destroys the walls and the ceilings over which it flows, causing them to crumble from the clay the water sweeps down from the roof and breaking all of the timber, supports, and stays. If the building is occupied, the inhabitants prevent these great causes of dilapidation from taking effect. The decay produced by inhabitants is negligible in comparison with these things, so the building is more likely to flourish and less likely to become dilapidated.
On why men of sublime character beget knaves Why do men of a noble, honorable, valiant nature beget ignoble, disreputable
111.1
scoundrels? The former beget the latter with all the disparity between their souls’ aims and traits and for all the propinquity between their origins and roots. Miskawayh’s response Discipline and governance have a large hand in reforming the character traits
111.2
of the soul, though they are contingent upon the humoral mixture of the body. Sometimes the humoral mixture of the son may be distant from the humoral mixture of the father, and this may be compounded by faulty discipline and bad governance, though even one of these is enough to produce corruption; so the two dispositions and comportments become different.
On why our longing for home grows more intense the nearer we come to it Why is it that when a person is far from his homeland and birthplace—where his eye takes its delight, his head finds its rest, his soul tastes its joy, and his spirit derives its warmth—his sense of longing is less fierce, his sense of disquiet
131
131
112.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ � �ن أ ً � يّ نِ ِ نِ ي ٱ � �ِّ ِا ُ نِ ٱ � �ِّ ِا �ي �� �� �ن �� � نن � � ن ل ح � ا � � ا � �د ل �� � ل � � � � � ن ر و ن� � ا �ل�د �ي� ر �ِم� ا �ل�د �ي� ِر �و ��و�ي� ا ل��ق�م� ل�ي� ا ن �و ر � او �ل�ه�� �� او � ا �� أِا � ا � �� ِ ع �ي ن ح�يّ �ي�ا ��ل ا ��ل ش � ��س�ا �عر [وا �ر] ا � �ل� ار ر �و �
ِ أِ ْ ِن � ُ ِ ا ِ ُ � نُ ٱ � شِّ ْ يُ ِْ ً نِ ِ نِ ي ٱ � �ِّ ِا ُ � نِ ٱ � �ِّ ِ ا ا � � � � او �ع �� � ا ا ا � � � � � ل م ا ا �� � � � د د � � � � � م ل ل ��� � � � ي �ر ِ � ي �ِر ��م �م� �ي و� �و� ي �و أِ ِ ّ ن � ّي � ّ ���د ا �م�س ن� ���هّ اأ� ن ح���؟ �و�م�ا �عم�لي��ه؟ �و��م�ل �ل�ه �عم�ل�ه؟ �� ي � و ي �و��م�ل م
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ح ّٰ ن ���د ا ا�ا�م�س ن � � ل��ن ا ��ل��أ�ش��س�ا ء ا ��ل�����س�ع ّ��هي اأ �ل ن ��ً�ا �م��س�سي�س ّ �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � � ه � ا م��س� ه � � � م � لل � � � � ن � ي و ن ي ي ي ر � ون و ي و �� ي ن ا ن ي أ نّ� � أ � ي � ً �ن �� � � ن � ح ك�� � ���ا ن ����ي��د � أ ��م�ّل�م�ا ن � ن� ح � ��ي�ه �وك� � ��� �و� ا ك ا ��مك ���و ا ر��سمل� ن� ��� ح ار �م� ���و� �كي� ر ع �عم �ل أا ل�� �سر��ره � � ين أ أ �أ ��نه ا � ي ح� ّ�د ي� ا ��ل ح ��� � �يرن� �م ن� �سر�� ��هي �و���ا ر ي� ا ��سر أا ��ل�� ا ن� �يل���ي�ر �ع ن��د �ي �ر�ه �م ن� ا �ل��ر ن�� � م ع � ل � ر � ر � ن ع أ ّ �ن أ �ّ ح أ ��ا ن ن ��ا ن ا�ا� ن��� ا ���� ن � ُ� ��سم �م ن ه ا ��ل ���د ا ا�ا�م�س ن � � � ا ا� � � م � � � ح ع ك ���د �م�ا ي����و� � او ��سر�ع�ه �وك��م�ل�م�ا ك�� � � ن ر �ل�� � مو� ل د ي� ير � ل �� ُ ع أ أ أ أ � ن � اي ي ن � ن ن� ن ي ن ن �ن�ي���ا �هر �و��� ��د ��لم�ك � ل�� ح� � ا �ل ن��ا ر � او ���ع ن��ا � �كي��ه ا �ن�ي�� � او �� � �سر ا �لن�� �كي��ه أا � ا ا ر��سم�ل� �م� �ع�ي�ر ا �م�� � م ن � ��نل ا ّ �ي ن ��م�ّل�م�ا �ي �� ي� �م ن �س ا ��� �ن���ا ا �ش��يس ّ�د ي� � ك�� ���هي �نل���ا �نأ�ا �نّل���ا ك� ��� ���ا �ون� ار �ع���ا �و�مش�م�ل ���د ه ا�ام� او ن� ا�� � � ر ر � ر ر أ أن �ع أ أ أ � ن ن � ن ّ ّ � ي ن ي ن ن � � �� ن �� ��ل�� �ُ��س�ا �ل �عن ���ا ا � �ن��� � ���ا ن��ال�ِ �ل���نل���ا ا � او �ألم�ل �� ��يس�عيّ��ه �و ن�عم� �ي��� ن��ا �ك ���ا � �و���ل��� ا �ل���ا ���د �لم�ك �و���د �لم�ك ��ا �ل ن � ي� � ر م � ي ن أ ّ ِِم أ أ ن � ن ن ي ن � ن نن � � �م�ّل�م�ا ن ن ن ي � � ��� ي� �م ن��ه ا �ش��يس ّ�د ن� ن ا �ع��ا ا ا ا ا ا ن ا ن ��� ك�� � � ار �ع��� ا ي���سر� � ر � ا �ل ������ ل��ي� ا �ل��� أا � ا ك�� ��� ن���عي��ده �م� �م� � �ل � ��ي ا � ي �ي ّ ش يً ��و��ا. �و�رك����� ا � ��ي� ���س�م� � � ّ ُ ُ أّ نّ ن � � نّ ي ح ش� �عن����ا �نل��� ��ل�� ن� �ا� أا ن��م�ا ين�م�� ��� ��ل�� ين�م�� �أاو ��م�ا �م�ل ي� أا � ���د ه ا�ام� او ن� ح ش� �نل���ا �ع ن� ���م�ل ن� م ن أع �ش م أ نّ � �أ أ أ ن �ّهي �ن � ن ن نن � � � ّي أ � ���د ه �م��ا � � أ ا � � � ا م � � �د � � ل��ي� ا � �ل�������ا �و�لي����� �ل���ا �عم�ل�ه ا ���ر �م ن� ا � ا �ل����ور ا � �ل������� ��د �لمك �عمل� و ن و ن أ أ � ��ن � � ��� �ّهي أ ن � ش ا � ن � � أ نّ � أ نّ ي ا أ ً� ي ا � � ا �ي� �من��ا � �أل���ا ��هي� ا �ن �نل�������ا �و ا� ي� � ��ن� ���د �لمك ��مل� ا �ر� �م�� �ل � �لمك ا � ���و ا � �� �� 1ل� �� �ل م ن ��د ه ا �� ��� �ي ا ي �م ن ا ���� � ن � ا�� ا ي ي� � ا ��ل ش ا�� ���ا ي� ا ������� ن � �� ء ح ي� ي�لن� � ل � � � ؟ � � �� �سر �نل �� � � ر� ر� �ي� ن � � �� و م ر � ن � ي� ن م ن ي ن ن يأ � � �ن ي ن ن ي ي � ن � ي � � � ا ن ن ي ي �ا ن �سر أا � ك���ا ��� كن���ي�ره � ك ���ا � �ون��ي ن� ا�من�� ��ن��ي�ره �أاو � ك�� ��� �����ي�ره �������ي�ره ا �و ا � ار � �وي�ه ا � ��ي� ن��ي�� � أ نّ 1ط� :لو ا �.
132
132
٢،١١٢
٣،١١٢
On why our longing for home grows more intense the nearer we come to it
more abated, his feelings less inflamed, his soul filled with greater cheer, and his heart filled with greater delight, yet as he approaches his home and his eagerness to set foot there increases, his patience gives out and his equanimity deserts him? The poet thus said:24 Longing burns fiercest on the day when the native returns Is this a phenomenon that has a general or a particular application? What is its cause? Does it have a cause?
Miskawayh’s response This phenomenon is encountered and attested among natural things as well,
112.2
for if you cast a stone from a height down to its resting position on the ground where it belongs, from the time it begins to move, the closer it gets to its resting position, the more vigorous the movement grows and the faster it becomes, and it attains its greatest velocity when close to the ground. The higher the point from which the stone is thrown, the starker and more manifest this phenomenon is. The same holds true of fire and the other elements when cast from a place that is not proper to them. The closer they get to their resting positions, the more intense their movement and inclination become. We do not ask “why” regarding such topics, for they form first principles of nature, and our only aim can be to become cognizant of them and to know that this is how they stand. The same applies to the soul, insofar as its inclination is weaker when it is far from the place it is accustomed to; the closer the soul draws to that place, the more intense both its inclination and the movement called “longing” become. The reason I have said that one does not inquire into these topics by asking “why” is that “why” is used in inquiry when one is searching for a cause or foundation. Yet these constitute foundations in themselves, and they have no other cause beyond the fact that this is how things stand in themselves. That is, they themselves constitute their own foundations, and they do not stand that way because of some other cause. For example, should a person inquire, “Why does the eye see by means of these specific ocular layers? And why does it see things according to the angle between itself and the object of vision—large if the object is large, and small if it is small?” or should he ask,
133
133
112.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�أ ي ن � � � أ � � ي ���د ا ا �ل ش��س � ��س�ا ��ل ا� ���ا ر ي� ا �ل�� ن� ن� � ح��ّ �ن�ا ي���را ا � ���ل ا� �يلم�ل نر� ه او ء � م ع ل � � ل � � � � م م م عا ي ا � ا� � �أش ا � ن�م� ي ا � ي � أ أ أنّ ي ّ ّ ا ا ه � � � ه ه ا � � ا ا ا ا � � � ء ا �ل����يس� ��و � ��� �ي� و لم�ل �لي�� ل��� �ي� مي�� ل���. ي
� �أ نّ ا ن��ل �� �وا ن� �ع ن��ه �ل��
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�أ � ن �ا� ي���م ا �� اأ � �ن�ا أ�� � ا ��له� � � �لي ن ���د ا �ع ن � �����ا ن� �و��ل�� ند ��لم�ك ن�عم� � � � � � � ا ا ا � ل ؟ ل ه � � � � � ير و � م ي �ل ر ي� م و � و� ي و ري � ن �أ أ ن ن � ي أ � ا أ ن� ن نُ � � � � ح�� �ي�� ا ����رن� �عم� �سر ن� ن� ا � نل���رن� .ا �لي����� ا � ار �ي� �م� �ر ن� ا ���ع��م�ل � او �و�لي�� ��ه؟ � ك � ��ي ��� �عم�ل ن� م أ آ � � � � ي ن � �����ه؟ � �م�ا �م�سن�� �ي�� �ل ا �ل�� ن� �م ن ا �ل��� ا �ألم ا ���ع��م � ي �م� �عم�ل�ّو � � م��ا �ن�ه �و ش��سر�� ���و ن� و � و �ل ر � و �ل ���د �ي��� ع ن ا �� ا ي هي � � ن ا ا ��� �ي �ي �م�ي� ���ط � ا ��له � �ع�د �ّ ي ا ا � � � ه � �� �� ل � �� �� ���د ���د ���د ع م س م س ع � � ؟ � ؟ � م م � � � �و� و ن ن� ن ن� � �و و � �و� و � ن وع ع ن ي ا أ ي ع� �أ � هي ي ي � �يلم� � ا ���� ا � ي ي ن ا ا ي � � � � � � � م � � ه ه � � � � ا � � � � � م م ا ا � � � س� � ل � �و��س� �و��س� لك ��د وه م لك م�� ن��� ؟ و �م�ل يري� ���د ح�� ��� �ل� ��ور ع ن � � � ّ � � ا ���� او ن� �نأ�ا ن� ا � نل�����ا ��ر ن��ا ر ن� �ع ن� � ل�� ح ن� ن��ا ر �عم�ل�� �ع�ي�ر ا �لن ن� ����ا � ا � ار��ي ن�. ح� م ج م
١،١١٣
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ ن �� � ن � �ن ن �ن ا ي ن ح �����ا ��هي ن��ا �ّم�ا ا �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ���د ا ��ل��م �رنج ل�ي� �م��ر��� ���� ��ه �و� ن أ �م�ع ن ا ه �ن اأ نّ ا �� � �ن ن ا �ي � ّ ���ّدًا � ا �� اأ � ن� ن ن � � نّا ش � ن ا �ه�و � ل�ه�و� ي�س� ��و ي� ن و ر ي� �� � ���عي��� �و��سن�� ن� � �لمك ا �� �م����سر ا �ل�� ��� �� ّ ن ا �� �� ي �ن ن ا أ ن � � ن ن �� �ي � �أنّا �ن � ا� ا �� �� ي �� �ي ن ��يس���ه ي�س� ا �عمل ن� م� ن�رء ا ��ع�م�ل �ل� �� ل�� �عم � ل� ��يس�عي ��و ن� �و ن�رء ل� ��يس���ه � او ��ع�م�ل �عر�� ن� �ن ن ن ي م � ي ن ن ا ن ن � �أش ن ن ا � ن � ن� ّ � �ّ ن ن ن � ن ���ل �ع ن��د ا �لن ن� ���� ل��ن� ا�ا�م�ع�ي �ع �و�ل�� ي� �و��ل�� ن� � ���عي ��� ا �ل��ر ��س� �و�ل��د �لم�ك � � �ع��د �� � ���ل �ع��د ا �ل� ���ر ل��ي� ي ر ي أ ّ � � ً � � ن � �� ي ن ���ا ن� ل��ن �ن �نل���س�ه ش��س � �لن��ا �عم� ��ل� ا � ي�ل��هي ن��ا ن� ا ش� ه �ع ن��د �ن�ا ��يس�عيّ��ا ي� � ��لم�ك ا �� � ري ي� ر ن أ ر ا �ل��ن ���ل� �ل � او ���ع��م�ل �أاو � ك� ي� � ا ��ل��� � هي ا ن ��ا ن ي ن��� �ن هي � ا � � ن ا �ن هي ��ل ا ��� �ي �ممن�� ّ ح �����هي ا �� ي�ل��هي �ن�ا �نّل��ا �ي�� �ّ�هي �ن�نس�ا � ا � ع ع �� � م � � � � � � � � � �� ك � � � � ل � � ��يس�� �أو أ � � ي���س�ي ر �و ن ي ل ر ن أ وي ي ّ ن أ أ أ ن ن ن ح ن ا � ن ا ء �من���ا � �س ك�� � �� ن� �م ن �ع ن��ا ��ل��أ�نّ�ا ل��ن �عم� �ا�م��ا �س ���ا �و�ن�نس�ا �ي�� ا ���ا ا ن� ���د ا � او �م� � � ح�م� و� � � ن ر ي و ي� � و � ر � و رن و � ج ع ن � ح��ا ن� ا ��ل� ا ��ل�� ��� ن ن � �م ي ���ا ن� ل��ي� ا �ل ش��سر�. �ع�ي ر � ج أ � أ ج
134
134
٢،١١٣
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�أ ي ن � � � أ � � ي ���د ا ا �ل ش��س � ��س�ا ��ل ا� ���ا ر ي� ا �ل�� ن� ن� � ح��ّ �ن�ا ي���را ا � ���ل ا� �يلم�ل نر� ه او ء � م ع ل � � ل � � � � م م م عا ي ا � ا� � �أش ا � ن�م� ي ا � ي � أ أ أنّ ي ّ ّ ا ا ه � � � ه ه ا � � ا ا ا ا � � � ء ا �ل����يس� ��و � ��� �ي� و لم�ل �لي�� ل��� �ي� مي�� ل���. ي
� �أ نّ ا ن��ل �� �وا ن� �ع ن��ه �ل��
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�أ � ن �ا� ي���م ا �� اأ � �ن�ا أ�� � ا ��له� � � �لي ن ���د ا �ع ن � �����ا ن� �و��ل�� ند ��لم�ك ن�عم� � � � � � � ا ا ا � ل ؟ ل ه � � � � � ير و � م ي �ل ر ي� م و � و� ي و ري � ن �أ أ ن ن � ي أ � ا أ ن� ن نُ � � � � ح�� �ي�� ا ����رن� �عم� �سر ن� ن� ا � نل���رن� .ا �لي����� ا � ار �ي� �م� �ر ن� ا ���ع��م�ل � او �و�لي�� ��ه؟ � ك � ��ي ��� �عم�ل ن� م أ آ � � � � ي ن � �����ه؟ � �م�ا �م�سن�� �ي�� �ل ا �ل�� ن� �م ن ا �ل��� ا �ألم ا ���ع��م � ي �م� �عم�ل�ّو � � م��ا �ن�ه �و ش��سر�� ���و ن� و � و �ل ر � و �ل ���د �ي��� ع ن ا �� ا ي هي � � ن ا ا ��� �ي �ي �م�ي� ���ط � ا ��له � �ع�د �ّ ي ا ا � � � ه � �� �� ل � �� �� ���د ���د ���د ع م س م س ع � � ؟ � ؟ � م م � � � �و� و ن ن� ن ن� � �و و � �و� و � ن وع ع ن ي ا أ ي ع� �أ � هي ي ي � �يلم� � ا ���� ا � ي ي ن ا ا ي � � � � � � � م � � ه ه � � � � ا � � � � � م م ا ا � � � س� � ل � �و��س� �و��س� لك ��د وه م لك م�� ن��� ؟ و �م�ل يري� ���د ح�� ��� �ل� ��ور ع ن � � � ّ � � ا ���� او ن� �نأ�ا ن� ا � نل�����ا ��ر ن��ا ر ن� �ع ن� � ل�� ح ن� ن��ا ر �عم�ل�� �ع�ي�ر ا �لن ن� ����ا � ا � ار��ي ن�. ح� م ج م
١،١١٣
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ ن �� � ن � �ن ن �ن ا ي ن ح �����ا ��هي ن��ا �ّم�ا ا �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ���د ا ��ل��م �رنج ل�ي� �م��ر��� ���� ��ه �و� ن أ �م�ع ن ا ه �ن اأ نّ ا �� � �ن ن ا �ي � ّ ���ّدًا � ا �� اأ � ن� ن ن � � نّا ش � ن ا �ه�و � ل�ه�و� ي�س� ��و ي� ن و ر ي� �� � ���عي��� �و��سن�� ن� � �لمك ا �� �م����سر ا �ل�� ��� �� ّ ن ا �� �� ي �ن ن ا أ ن � � ن ن �� �ي � �أنّا �ن � ا� ا �� �� ي �� �ي ن ��يس���ه ي�س� ا �عمل ن� م� ن�رء ا ��ع�م�ل �ل� �� ل�� �عم � ل� ��يس�عي ��و ن� �و ن�رء ل� ��يس���ه � او ��ع�م�ل �عر�� ن� �ن ن ن ي م � ي ن ن ا ن ن � �أش ن ن ا � ن � ن� ّ � �ّ ن ن ن � ن ���ل �ع ن��د ا �لن ن� ���� ل��ن� ا�ا�م�ع�ي �ع �و�ل�� ي� �و��ل�� ن� � ���عي ��� ا �ل��ر ��س� �و�ل��د �لم�ك � � �ع��د �� � ���ل �ع��د ا �ل� ���ر ل��ي� ي ر ي أ ّ � � ً � � ن � �� ي ن ���ا ن� ل��ن �ن �نل���س�ه ش��س � �لن��ا �عم� ��ل� ا � ي�ل��هي ن��ا ن� ا ش� ه �ع ن��د �ن�ا ��يس�عيّ��ا ي� � ��لم�ك ا �� � ري ي� ر ن أ ر ا �ل��ن ���ل� �ل � او ���ع��م�ل �أاو � ك� ي� � ا ��ل��� � هي ا ن ��ا ن ي ن��� �ن هي � ا � � ن ا �ن هي ��ل ا ��� �ي �ممن�� ّ ح �����هي ا �� ي�ل��هي �ن�ا �نّل��ا �ي�� �ّ�هي �ن�نس�ا � ا � ع ع �� � م � � � � � � � � � �� ك � � � � ل � � ��يس�� �أو أ � � ي���س�ي ر �و ن ي ل ر ن أ وي ي ّ ن أ أ أ ن ن ن ح ن ا � ن ا ء �من���ا � �س ك�� � �� ن� �م ن �ع ن��ا ��ل��أ�نّ�ا ل��ن �عم� �ا�م��ا �س ���ا �و�ن�نس�ا �ي�� ا ���ا ا ن� ���د ا � او �م� � � ح�م� و� � � ن ر ي و ي� � و � ر � و رن و � ج ع ن � ح��ا ن� ا ��ل� ا ��ل�� ��� ن ن � �م ي ���ا ن� ل��ي� ا �ل ش��سر�. �ع�ي ر � ج أ � أ ج
134
134
٢،١١٣
On the meaning of the dictum that judgement sleeps while passion keeps watch
“Why does the ear perceive things by means of an impaction of the air in this specific fashion?” it would not be necessary to respond, for with evident things that constitute first principles, the that is identical to the why.
On the meaning of the dictum that judgement sleeps while passion keeps watch Why was it said: Judgment sleeps while passion keeps watch—this is why
113.1
passion defeats judgment? This is a remark ascribed to the sage of the Arabs,
ʿĀmir ibn al-Ẓarib. Doesn’t judgment belong to the party of the intellect and its supporters? So how could it be defeated given its lofty status and noble position? And what is the meaning of the remark made by another early thinker: “The intellect is the friend we disavow; passion the enemy to whom we bow”? What is the cause of such friendship joined to such disobedience? And what is the cause of such enmity joined to such subordination? Does this show the reality of things to be reversed and subverted? For what is manifested deviates from what is mandated and conforms to an order that is infirm. Miskawayh’s response This point was framed for literary effect and in a rhetorical manner. In terms of content, the point is that passion is very strong in us, whereas judgment is weak; the reason is that we humans are natural beings and within us the element of nature dominates over the element of the intellect. For we live in the world of nature, and the intellect is foreign and has a weak effect upon us. That is why it fatigues us to inquire into intellectual matters, but it does not fatigue us as much to inquire into natural matters. The effect of the intellect on us is very limited, though it is noble in itself and occupies an exalted rank. And even though in comparison with the intellect nature is weak and occupies a lowly rank, it is strong in us because we live in its world, form part of it, are composed from its elements, and all of its powers are present within us. This is evident and needs no lengthy explanation.
135
135
113.2
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ش � ي�ّ أ ن أ ح� ش��س � ا�ا�من� ���طي � �ل��� �عم�أ�ل�ً�ا �م�ل��سً�ا ن���ي��ا ��ل ��ل�ه ا � �� ���ا ���ق ا � �� � ش��س �م��يّ ���ا � ا�م� � � � م � � � � م ن ح� ر ن و ن ر � ن رج � � ن ن ّ أأ ن و أ م ّ � � � ش ا�ا� ن �� � ن ن ن نّ ن طي�؟ �� طي� أا �ل�� ل��ي� �ور� � نم�ع��م�ل �م ن� ا �لن� �� طي� ��م�ل م�� �لم�ل�من� �� ���دش� ن��� ا ا �ل���ن� ا ن� ��و ���ا �� � � � � �م �و�ر أ ُ �ي ّ ��ليّ أ يش ّ ّ � � ن ّ ن ���د ا �م� م ���س� �وي��ا ��ل �م�ا �ل�� ي ن� �م�ل�ه �و�ش�س�د هي �ي��و�يكي��ه ل��� �م�ي��ا �لي��ه �و نر ا ن� ي���س�م� �م ن��ه ؟ � ا �� �� ا �م � ي ي ع ع ع أ ّ � ن ا �ي �ي نا ن � ا ن ن ن � ي � � ���� �ي� ا �ل �ا أ ن ���� � �م � ل�� ح�م�ه. �أ� � ا �لن�يس� � �ع� ���د ا ا � �ل��د ر �ي� ل�ي� �عم�ل�� ل ن��� �� ا �ل��م �و�ي��وج� ر
١،١١٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ش أ ي ن أ أ � � � ه � ّٰ أ ّ � نن ن � � ا �ّم�ا ا ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � �م��س���وي� ح�م�ه ا لله ا �م�ا �م ن� ���ر� ��ي� ا ���ور� ���ي��د � ���د �� �كي��ه ا ن� ��و ��� �� �م و ر ن و � ي � ن ��ا ن �ي � ن �� � ي ي � � ن ا �����ل�� ا �ّ � ن � � ن� �ي ن ����ل�� � ��أنّه � � � � � ا � ا اء � � � � � �د ���د � � � � � ع� ن� �عم�ل�� � أ �ل� � � �� ك م� ��ري��� ا �ل�ر ر و ي ن� أ � � � لمك �م �ل �ل ي � م أ � � ي ني � ح �����اأ ا�� ن ح ���ط أ ن � � ن ن م ح��هي ن� ح��هي ا ���سم�ه �و���و ك� ���ا �يلم�ل�ه ا ن� ��و ن� ش��سر� � م��ا �يلم�ل�ه �����ا �ل �ل�ه �و��مل� � �كي��ه �ل� �م� ن� � �م� ن� � � � ّ ّ � �� � � �ن ن ن ي ن ّ ن ��� � �يل��نّ ا أ � ن ي� نيا � ن ا�مي� � �ل�� أا �ل� ل�� �ور� �م ��ع��م�ل �م� ا � ���ل�� �و � ���ا � 1مش�م�ل ���د ا �و��ا �ل � ��س� �ر ا ����م�ل�و�م ����� �ل �كي� ي م م ن � � ا ��لي�ن �يّ ه ا �ّ � �ي ن� �ّ �م ن �ي � � ن� �ي ي ا ��ل ش�� ءج � ا ��لن�� ا �ّ � ���د ر �ي�� ��لم�ك � � �و ي� ا �ل ش�����ء م � � م � � � ل ع � � ع � � � � � � � م � م � � ل � � ل ل � � � ك � ي� و �ل و أ أ � و �ل � و �م�ل ي أ ي أ ً � ش � ّ ي � ي ن ي � ا �� � ���ر �م�ا ي���س��مّ ا �ل ش���� ء �م ن ا ����ل��� ن��م�ا �ل�� ����م�� ح�ي��ه �ري�ن��ي��ه ���ا ن� ���د ا �م��س�س�س ّار� .و�م�ا ا �� ���د �ي�ه �� � � � ي � � � ي ا أ���ش ا ��� ّ � ا � ّ � ن ي ي �ن � ن ن ن �ن ن � � ا ������� م� � ن ن ن ن � �س ّر ل��ي� ���د ا ا � �و�م� ا �� ر �م� ي �س�م� ن�م� يح ��ط �م� �ر�ن����ه �ل� � ا ك ي�ل��ع� ل�ي� � �لمك ل� و�ل� ���د يل� م �ن عّ ا �����ل��� � � .ي�د �ع �ن ي �ي� �مً�ا ��س ّ�م ا اأ�ن �نل����ه ا�ا�م�د ��� ح�يع ل��ي ّ �� ن � � �م ا �عم�ل� �مه� ا ��ل��� ا ك ا ��ل � � س ل � � ه � � � � �م ر ي� و و و � م أ ر ي�ي� و و ي� م و ر � �و �و أ أ أ أ � ي � ّ � ي ّ حي��� ن � او ��م� ا �ل حي��ا �أ��ي ا ��ل���س �وي��د ��س��مّ �ي��و� ا �ن �نل�����ه� ا�م���م� �ي� �و�م�ا ا �ش��نس�ه ن�عم� �ي�ه ا �لن����د �م ن� � � �� � � ي� ل ر � � � م ي أ شم ن � � ن� ن ن ّ ن � ً� ن ن �ي � ���د ا � ����م�� ّ � � �لمك � � �ي� ا ����ر �م ن� ���د ا ا � �ل �عو�ل. ��ا � �� او �كي��ه �م�د �ع��ي� �ن�ا ����ل� �و �ل� ي �
أ ن 1الا�ص�ل� :ة����.
136
136
٢،١١٤
On a remark concerning logic made by the dialectical theologian Abū Hāshim to the philosopher Abū Bishr Mattā Abū Bishr Mattā, the commentator on logic, once attended a learned gather-
114.1
ing and, as a reproach of logic, the dialectical theologian Abū Hāshim asked him:25 Isn’t “logic” simply a derivation from the term “speech”? So tell me: Was Abū Hāshim being fair? Did he hit upon the truth, or was he guilty of partisanship in saying something that he never should have, despite his status and extreme caution in how he expressed his doctrines? An exposition of this point would yield hidden caches of knowledge and illuminate the ways of wisdom. Miskawayh’s response Abū Hāshim was right about the morphological pattern, but was wrong in expressing disdain and reproach—if that was indeed his aim. For the only reason why some form of knowledge could be reproached is if someone has made a mistake, not because of its name. The same point would have applied had Abū Bishr responded in kind by asking, “Isn’t ‘dialectical theologian’ (mutakallim) simply derived morphologically from the term ‘talking’ (kalām)?” He could also have considered all other forms of knowledge and posed similar questions. “Doesn’t ‘legal knowledge’ simply derive from the expression ‘I understood something,’ adopting the morphological pattern?” and “Doesn’t ‘grammar’ simply derive from the expression ‘I headed toward something,’ that is, ‘I directed myself toward it’”? It often happens that a name is applied to a particular form of knowledge that is not merited by its station, and that a name is applied to it that demeans its station; the former does not benefit the knowledge in question, nor does the latter harm it. I know some people who called themselves the “discerners” and called their forms of knowledge “true discernment,” when this was a far cry from how things actually stood. Others called themselves “the deserving,” “the people of truth,” and suchlike, and in doing so made false claims. That is as much discussion as the topic deserves.
137
137
114.2
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � � ي نيا � � � ي ن ّ�� � ي اأ�� ي � ً� اأ � ��ش�م ن �ً�ا �م ن ا ��م� ا ��ل � ل�� ي أ نّ ش ا �ل ش�� ر ي� ر ن ���ل� ي���س� �ل ي� � ل ح�م�ه ����� �ل �ل�ه ا ����رن� � ��و��� �سم��� � �و��د ��ر ا � �له�سر أ � ّ ّ � ن ن ن ّ � ّ ي ن � ي � ن ن ن � ن � ل��نم�ا ا �����م�ل�هي ل�� � �لم�ك؟ � ا �� �م�س�� �ع ن ���ا ��؟ �أ�ا ��ه أا � ��ل� �م ن ا ����م�ل�ه ن�ر�� ن�م � � ا ا ا � ��د � ل � � ل � حر�� و � � ن ي � ون � أ ي ن ن � � ا ��ل ش م ن ش أًا � ن ا� أ �� ّ �ن ا نّ �ن ن �� � ن ي ن � � � � � � �ل����ل�� �عم�ل�� �ع�ي ر �عر�� �م�����و� ل� �ي ��ور� � �لمك ��يس� ا �ل�� � ��سي���� �و�ل���د ا �م ا س�م�ه أ� �ُ ل�ي� ج يم أ ج أ ً ً ي ن ن � � � ن ّ �ي � ��د ا ا ��� � ا ي � ���ا ��ه � � ي �ن ي ن ن ���ا ر ن�ع ح �� � �� ���د ��ره �م� أا ن �� ح���ي�را �ل ش��س�ا ��ه �و�م�ا ي����م���� نل� لي ��س�ي ر � ن حره ���� �ريل� ن و � ا ع ن� ن � �ش� ن� ي ا � � ا أ ن ا نّ ا��ممن��ّ ن ن ّ�� ن ا ��ل ش �� � أ نّش ن �� � � س � � � � � ا � ا �ل ك ا �� م ل � � ل � � � � ل � �د � م � � � . � � � � �� � � � � س ل �ل أ � ن ي� ي رو� م��� وي�و �و� �م� �يل��ي�� ن� كي��ه �م� ا � �و ن� ي ر ن أ ن ً ا��ممن ّ أ أ � ن � ن ا ا� ا � هي ا �� �ليه�س � ���د ا ا �ل� ا ن � ��م�� ن ا �يّ�لن��ا �ي� �ن�ا ��ا � ��� ن ���ا �و�ي�ا ��ل �م�ا �ي�ا ����وه �و�ا� �ي�ن�ه حر ع� �م��س� �ل� ن رو ي ن ��� �م� ن ي� م أ أ � ّ ي ا� ً � � ن � � ن ن � ا � �أ ن� � �� �ي � ن ن ن ���ن ا �س ��ا � � ���ا ن� � � �وا �ن�ا �ع ن� ا ��م�ل ا ����ر�ل��ه � .او�م�س��� �كي��ه ه � � ل ا ك � � � � � �ل� ر� ل � � � ح � � ع ط � � � � ل � ي ي� ني ر ن أ ي��ي ّ ن و � م أ � ن ي � ن ن � ّ ن ن ن ن ا �ن �� �م ن �ش ا ا�م��ق�م��م� � ن ل� ا ����ل�� �م �م ن �ش ا ا�م�م�� � ن �ك ه ا �نل أ ���� ن ي� ل��ي� �ع�م�ا ره ��ي� � 1ي� � نل�ل � �س� � نحر � ي�� ��ا �ل ن� �� � لي����� � �س� � � ي � م �� ّ ّ � �� ا �� ن� � ن ��ل ي ���ا ي� ن� ��لم�ك ا ����ل��� �ع�مي ��ي ا �نل�� � �� ا � �ن � � � � ���ل ي�م�ل� �و�عم� ء � � ا �ع ه � ا لن�� ���ي� أا �� � و ر ����ل ي� ر حر�عم ل�ي� ل�ملك �و�لي����� � ن � ا ن � ���ّ � ا ن ن ا � يًا � ّ � ن ن � م � ���ّ ن ا آي ًا � ّ ���ل � �ل� ��ط �و�ل� ���ل �� �عم� ا �لي�� ن� � ��س� � �و�ل� ���ل �ل��س� � �� ��ط��� ن� � ���ل �ع�مم�ل. ل ج
١،١١٥
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
ٰ أ أ ن �أ ّ ن ن أ نّ � �� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله ا �ّم�ا ا ��لن�� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� � �و ّ��و ن� �ن�ل�� ي����م�ل�ل�و ن� ���د ه ا �ل�����ور � �و��د �� ��ر�و� ا � ا �ل ش�����ء � و ي ي ّ � ي � نّ ي � ي ي ي ّ ن ّ �ي � � ا ��يل ي ي ي ّ� ا أنّش ي � ا� ن ل�ن ن ن � � أ نّ � �آ� هي � ش ا ا ا � أ ل � � م�د ���ر �ن� � � � ا� ح�عي ����ه رن�م� ا ������ه ا ���رن� � او�م�و��� �ن� ح�عي ����ه رن�م� � �� �ر�ه ا ���رن�� .م� � �لمك ا � ا �ل� �ل� ي نأ أ � ��ّ ا أ نّ ش � ن ّ�� ن � � أ ّ اآ�ي � ن ا ي ن اا ي � ا ش � �م� ا��س ار ه ن���ي������ � ��ي� �هي� ��سن�� ن� �� ��ي��� ��ل �م� �ي ��و��� �هي� �م�د ��ر�ع��د ا ����رن� � او �م� ا �ل�ه ا �ر ن�م�ل أ أ � ا ��ش ن � �أ� ا � ي أ � � �أش ا ا � ي ن�� ن�م� ا � ا أنّش ي ن ا ّ ا � ي ا ل�� ا �س�م� ء � ��و�ل��ه �� �م� ا ���ع��� ن� � او �ل ن�� ر �وك���ي�ر �م� ا �ل� �س�م� ء ا � ��ي� ��هي� ا �و�ل�� ا �ل����يس� ء �ن� �ل��د ��ي�ر � � أنّش ي أ ش ا � ا �ن�ش � �نّ ا ��ل ش���س ا ���ي �ي����د ا ��ل ا �أم �ي����د� ا ��� ن ا �ن ا �لنّ اأ ن ��� نّ ����ي�ر �و� �� �و �هي� ���و�ل��ه � او �م�� �ل��� ك ��� م��� �ي� � ��س� ل�ل � �� ن ي��أ���� أ� �ي� �� ن أ أ ّٰ � ن ن � ّ � � � ي ّ � ا �ل��سن�� ن� ل��� �ي�ا �ن�ي�� ش� ا ����رن� أا �ّي�ا ���ا ا �نل�ه� ك� �� ن� ا �ل ش��س �ر�لن��ه ا �نل���ا ن�ل ن��ا ي� ا لله ���ا �ن�� او ي���عي��ي��د �و� ل��ي� ا ����� او � ي ي م أ ٰ ًّ ً ي �� ّ � ش ���ّ �م�ا ���ا ن� �من ����ي�را �و �� �ي����ا ��ل�� ا ّلله �ع ن� ن� ��لم�ك �عم�ل� او كن� � ���ا ا ش��سر�ن� �ع ن��د �ه� �عن��د �وه �و��د س �م او ا �ل���س ك م�� � ل � � م 1الاأ�ص� :ا لم��س��ن�����س����� ن ةس. ن ل
138
138
٢،١١٥
On why some Arabic words are feminine and others masculine I once saw a man asking an established philosopher: The Arabs treat the noun
115.1
“sun” as feminine noun and the noun “moon” as masculine. What is the cause of that? And what was their object in agreeing on this practice? For if it lacks a cause, it is akin to a convention established to serve no particular aim. This scholar offered no response, and so I have not named him, for to mention his name while revealing the limits of his abilities is to expose him and impugn his dignity, and he does not deserve that his many successes in reaching the truth should be denied on account of this minor failure. The questioner then said: The astronomers treat the sun as masculine and treat the moon as feminine, and this also constitutes an agreement among astronomers. Here, the philosopher responded, providing an account of their views. The reason he was unable to deal with the other question was not inadequate erudition, but he could not recall any response given on the topic by the authorities on the Arabic language. The issue at stake is hidden from view, not merely of those who have skimmed the surface of knowledge, but indeed of experienced navigators, who have sailed its open seas, braved its waves, and plumbed its depths. Alas, the waters of this knowledge run deep, and the ship that sails on it floats high. It is not every heart that can compass every thought, not every person that can utter every word, and not every agent that can bring forth every deed. Miskawayh’s response The grammarians, on their part, do not assign causes to these things, and they point out that the Arabs may treat something that is in reality masculine as a feminine noun and treat something that is in reality feminine as a masculine noun. An example is the fact that women’s reproductive organs themselves, which are the ground for the feminineness of everything feminine, are treated as a masculine noun by the Arabs, and there are feminine terms used to refer to the reproductive organs of men. Examples abound of nouns like “eagle,” “fire,” and such, which really ought to be treated as masculine but are treated as feminine. Yet the question asked specifically about the sun, and I think the reason why the Arabs treat it as feminine is that they believed that the lofty stars were the daughters of God—may He be exalted far above such notions— and they worshipped whichever they deemed noblest. They referred to the
139
139
115.2
� �آ � ي ن نّ نا ّ ي �� � ���ه �ن�ا ����م ا �ل� �ل���ه �أ�ا � أ � � ي ي ا � نّ ا ن ي ن �و�ل� �ع���� � �هم ا �ل��� ن����� �م�
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �� ي ا ��� � ن اأ ��س ا �أ ا ن�م�� ن أ ن ا �ل�ل � � م� �م� ل��� ي ن � �ور ا � م � ن ا ي � أ ن �� ّ ن ن � � � ه ه ا ع � ا �لن�س� � ن�لم�ل �ي� ع�ق�م��� ��د � . م
� ن أّ � ن �� �ي���و� �� او ا ن�لش��و���ا �ل���د ا ا �ل� ���� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � ن � �ن ا ن أ ن ا �ني ن ا �ن ا � ��� �ي ا � ا ن � ن �ن ��م�ّ ا حي��ل�� �� ا �لم�ل���ا ي� ���م�ل ي ن � ��� و ل�� �عم�ل�� �س� ل��� و�ر � �ور �لأ������� � ا � ي����هي� ا ����م�ل�و�م ك� � �� ا ي ن ا �ن ا ن ��ا ن � ن ن ا ن � �ن � � ا ن � ن ��م�ل ي ن� ���ا � �ُو ن���د ��م�ل ي ��و ن��د؟ �أو � ك ���؟ أ� � ك�� � ي ن � ح ن�؟ �أو � �و نح ن� � �ور � � � او ��عن�� را � �ع � ي ا � ي ن ا نّ ن ُ ً ي ن ن ن ن ن ن ن ���ا � ي����م�� حي�م�ل ل��م�ا �و ن��ه ا ���م� ���ا � ن��ا أ� ن ار ل��م�ا �و ن��ه ن� �وا ره � او � ك� ��م�ل �عر�ن�؟ � او � ك� � �� �ل��ه؟ �أ� � �� أ أ ا نًا ن ن ن ّ ا ي � ا ا� �ن �ل� �وا ن� ن�لي�� �� �ع� � � حعي�� � ا ����� � . ل�ي� ا ن�� م
١،١١٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ّٰ أ أ �ي ُ ّ � ن ن ي أ نّ � �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���د ا ��ل � � � م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله ا � �و� ا ي� ���د �و� ا � ��ي� ���د ي� �نل���ا ا � �ل�م�ل��م���ه ا �ل���ا �عل��� ا�ام�ون�� ّ ن و �ي� وي م � ش أ � ا � ي ن�� ي ا �ن � � اأ �� ي � اأ �ع ن �ي � � ي �� � ن �و� ا � �و� � ل��ا ن��م�ا ��هي� ���ون�� ���� �لي����� �عم�ل�� ا �ل��س ار �ل ��ط � ��ي� � ��ر�ل��� ل�ي� �م��س� ل�مك ��ي� ��و�لمك ك�م� � ا ني ن ا �ن ا ��� �ي ا ا ن حي��ل�� �ن� ا ��لم�لن���ا ي� �ل��ا � ا ����ع��ا ا ي� �عن���ا ن��ا نّ� �عم�ل�مً�ا � ا � � ً ن ن � و ن� و ن ر ��� �و �عم�ل�� ��س� ل��� �و�ر � � أ ��د ا �م� �ن�ي�� أ ّ � �� ن ا هي ن � أ � ن � �ن ا ��� � � � � � ن اأ ن حي�� �� �عم�ل ن� � ح�مي�� ���د ه ا �ل ش��س ار �ل ��ط �كي��ه �ل�� ن� نر�لأيّ��ا ي� ا ����م�ل�و� �ن�ل �ل��� �ي� ��مل�وم �ل� ي ن � ي � �ور م و ي � � �� ع ّ ّ � � � � � ّ � ن ي � � � �و�م�ا ��ل�� �نل���ا �ي�هي �ل�ه �ل� ي ن� ���ن ا�ام���م�ل�و ن� �م ن� ����ل �عل��� �ه�و ا ���و���و�� �عم�ل� ك� ��م�ليّ��ا �ي�ه �و� �و� � � أا �ل�� ا ���ون�� حرجن � � م � ي يش ي ح�م�� اأ� ن ا �أ�ه ��ا �� �ليعّ هي �مش�ا �� ن� �� � اأ نّ ا ��ل���� ّ ا ن� ا �ي���م�ّل�م ي اأ � ���ه � �ي� ا �ن��� ن��ه ا ���ي ل � � � � ا � ��ي� ���س�سمم�ل �عم�ل�� ن� ي ن ر ن �و � ل لمك � � ن� أ ي� و وو ي ع أ أ أ ا �ُ���مي ح � �ن� ا�ا��س ن�� � �ن� ا ������ �� � ن���ي ن ��ن ن�ك��ه ن� ��لم�ك ن��ا �ّم�ا ا ن� �ُ��� �ن� �م ن��ه ن� � � � ح�مي�� ا ن� نار ء �د � �ل�� � ل�� ي ير ن � أ ي رنج �وع ر � و �وع يلنج � �أ � ّ ا ن ا نّ اعي ّ ي ن � �� ا� ن ن � � ن ن ن � � � ا � ��ن � � ��� ء �أ� �ل��� ����م�ل�مم�ك ا �ل��س ار ��� ��د �لمك �م� �ل� .و���د �لمك ن��د ��� ن� ن�� �لي� ��و��� �و�ع�ي�ره �م� ا �ل� �� ن أ أ �� � �أ ن�� ا ��� �� ا ي �ن ا ن ا ش ي �� ن ي ��س�ا �ع�ه �ور� �عم�لي�م�ك �م ن� ا ن� ن ار ء �سر ن��� � او � ���د ا ���ول ا �ل��س ار � �و ���ل ن�� � أ� � ا �ن� ��سر� ا ل� أ ا أ أ �ً � ن ��ا ن �� � �ن أا � �م�م�ك أا � �م�� �م�ا �ل�� ي� ل ن� ح��� �وه ا � ح���ا �أوه �يو�ل ل���ي� �م ن� ا ن� ن ار �أ�ه �م�ا �ل� ي� � � ��د ا ن�����د ك� .أاو � ا ك�� � � ن أ اأ � ي � � ن ي ّ ً ا ن �� �يه ن اأ �ّ ا ا ن � ي �� �ن ا ��ل��� �ي ن ا ��ل���س �عم�ل ن� ��لم�ك ن��ا ن��ل � � �وا ن� � � � � � ا ع � � � ع م ح ل � �د � � � م � � � � � � � � ع � م م � م�� س � م � � � ك � ل � ر� ل ي و ي ر � � � ر � �
140
140
٢،١١٦
� �آ � ي ن نّ نا ّ ي �� � ���ه �ن�ا ����م ا �ل� �ل���ه �أ�ا � أ � � ي ي ا � نّ ا ن ي ن �و�ل� �ع���� � �هم ا �ل��� ن����� �م�
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �� ي ا ��� � ن اأ ��س ا �أ ا ن�م�� ن أ ن ا �ل�ل � � م� �م� ل��� ي ن � �ور ا � م � ن ا ي � أ ن �� ّ ن ن � � � ه ه ا ع � ا �لن�س� � ن�لم�ل �ي� ع�ق�م��� ��د � . م
� ن أّ � ن �� �ي���و� �� او ا ن�لش��و���ا �ل���د ا ا �ل� ���� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � ن � �ن ا ن أ ن ا �ني ن ا �ن ا � ��� �ي ا � ا ن � ن �ن ��م�ّ ا حي��ل�� �� ا �لم�ل���ا ي� ���م�ل ي ن � ��� و ل�� �عم�ل�� �س� ل��� و�ر � �ور �لأ������� � ا � ي����هي� ا ����م�ل�و�م ك� � �� ا ي ن ا �ن ا ن ��ا ن � ن ن ا ن � �ن � � ا ن � ن ��م�ل ي ن� ���ا � �ُو ن���د ��م�ل ي ��و ن��د؟ �أو � ك ���؟ أ� � ك�� � ي ن � ح ن�؟ �أو � �و نح ن� � �ور � � � او ��عن�� را � �ع � ي ا � ي ن ا نّ ن ُ ً ي ن ن ن ن ن ن ن ���ا � ي����م�� حي�م�ل ل��م�ا �و ن��ه ا ���م� ���ا � ن��ا أ� ن ار ل��م�ا �و ن��ه ن� �وا ره � او � ك� ��م�ل �عر�ن�؟ � او � ك� � �� �ل��ه؟ �أ� � �� أ أ ا نًا ن ن ن ّ ا ي � ا ا� �ن �ل� �وا ن� ن�لي�� �� �ع� � � حعي�� � ا ����� � . ل�ي� ا ن�� م
١،١١٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ّٰ أ أ �ي ُ ّ � ن ن ي أ نّ � �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���د ا ��ل � � � م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله ا � �و� ا ي� ���د �و� ا � ��ي� ���د ي� �نل���ا ا � �ل�م�ل��م���ه ا �ل���ا �عل��� ا�ام�ون�� ّ ن و �ي� وي م � ش أ � ا � ي ن�� ي ا �ن � � اأ �� ي � اأ �ع ن �ي � � ي �� � ن �و� ا � �و� � ل��ا ن��م�ا ��هي� ���ون�� ���� �لي����� �عم�ل�� ا �ل��س ار �ل ��ط � ��ي� � ��ر�ل��� ل�ي� �م��س� ل�مك ��ي� ��و�لمك ك�م� � ا ني ن ا �ن ا ��� �ي ا ا ن حي��ل�� �ن� ا ��لم�لن���ا ي� �ل��ا � ا ����ع��ا ا ي� �عن���ا ن��ا نّ� �عم�ل�مً�ا � ا � � ً ن ن � و ن� و ن ر ��� �و �عم�ل�� ��س� ل��� �و�ر � � أ ��د ا �م� �ن�ي�� أ ّ � �� ن ا هي ن � أ � ن � �ن ا ��� � � � � � ن اأ ن حي�� �� �عم�ل ن� � ح�مي�� ���د ه ا �ل ش��س ار �ل ��ط �كي��ه �ل�� ن� نر�لأيّ��ا ي� ا ����م�ل�و� �ن�ل �ل��� �ي� ��مل�وم �ل� ي ن � ي � �ور م و ي � � �� ع ّ ّ � � � � � ّ � ن ي � � � �و�م�ا ��ل�� �نل���ا �ي�هي �ل�ه �ل� ي ن� ���ن ا�ام���م�ل�و ن� �م ن� ����ل �عل��� �ه�و ا ���و���و�� �عم�ل� ك� ��م�ليّ��ا �ي�ه �و� �و� � � أا �ل�� ا ���ون�� حرجن � � م � ي يش ي ح�م�� اأ� ن ا �أ�ه ��ا �� �ليعّ هي �مش�ا �� ن� �� � اأ نّ ا ��ل���� ّ ا ن� ا �ي���م�ّل�م ي اأ � ���ه � �ي� ا �ن��� ن��ه ا ���ي ل � � � � ا � ��ي� ���س�سمم�ل �عم�ل�� ن� ي ن ر ن �و � ل لمك � � ن� أ ي� و وو ي ع أ أ أ ا �ُ���مي ح � �ن� ا�ا��س ن�� � �ن� ا ������ �� � ن���ي ن ��ن ن�ك��ه ن� ��لم�ك ن��ا �ّم�ا ا ن� �ُ��� �ن� �م ن��ه ن� � � � ح�مي�� ا ن� نار ء �د � �ل�� � ل�� ي ير ن � أ ي رنج �وع ر � و �وع يلنج � �أ � ّ ا ن ا نّ اعي ّ ي ن � �� ا� ن ن � � ن ن ن � � � ا � ��ن � � ��� ء �أ� �ل��� ����م�ل�مم�ك ا �ل��س ار ��� ��د �لمك �م� �ل� .و���د �لمك ن��د ��� ن� ن�� �لي� ��و��� �و�ع�ي�ره �م� ا �ل� �� ن أ أ �� � �أ ن�� ا ��� �� ا ي �ن ا ن ا ش ي �� ن ي ��س�ا �ع�ه �ور� �عم�لي�م�ك �م ن� ا ن� ن ار ء �سر ن��� � او � ���د ا ���ول ا �ل��س ار � �و ���ل ن�� � أ� � ا �ن� ��سر� ا ل� أ ا أ أ �ً � ن ��ا ن �� � �ن أا � �م�م�ك أا � �م�� �م�ا �ل�� ي� ل ن� ح��� �وه ا � ح���ا �أوه �يو�ل ل���ي� �م ن� ا ن� ن ار �أ�ه �م�ا �ل� ي� � � ��د ا ن�����د ك� .أاو � ا ك�� � � ن أ اأ � ي � � ن ي ّ ً ا ن �� �يه ن اأ �ّ ا ا ن � ي �� �ن ا ��ل��� �ي ن ا ��ل���س �عم�ل ن� ��لم�ك ن��ا ن��ل � � �وا ن� � � � � � ا ع � � � ع م ح ل � �د � � � م � � � � � � � � ع � م م � م�� س � م � � � ك � ل � ر� ل ي و ي ر � � � ر � �
140
140
٢،١١٦
On whether a human being could know everything
sun in particular by the name of a goddess, for one of its names is “al-Lāt.” So it is possible that the reason they treat it as feminine is because of this name and because of their belief that it is one of God’s daughters—indeed, the greatest one in their view.
On whether a human being could know everything Is it possible for one human being to grasp all forms of knowledge, in all their
116.1
varieties and paths and in all their different languages and locutions? If it is possible, is it also obligatory? If it is obligatory, is it encountered in reality? And if it is encountered, is it known? If it is possible, what is the ground of its possibility? And if it is impossible, what is the ground of its impossibility? A response to this question would shed light on the hidden recesses of the world. Miskawayh’s response One of the ways in which philosophy has been defined is that it is the knowledge of all existents qua existents, but not according to the terms you set out in your question—that is, when you referred to “their varieties and paths and their different languages and locutions.” For it is not possible for a single form of knowledge to encompass the entirety of these terms, since its particulars are infinite in number, and what is infinite in number cannot enter existence. But the objective with every form of knowledge is to arrive at its universals, which contain all of its particulars in potentia. In medicine, for example, it is enough to learn the principles and ordinances through which the type of illness and type of treatment can be determined; to seek to know all the particular elements of the different illnesses would be impossible. This is how the books by Galen and other physicians are written: They instruct a person in the principles and treatments of the different illnesses. Once a physician begins practicing the craft, he comes across innumerable particular elements relating to a single illness, and the illness continues to harbor particular elements that no one who comes after him could ever enumerate. If this is how things stand, the response to your question is subject to the qualification I have mentioned. There is no point in seeking to learn the different paths and locutions, for one’s objective in pursuing the different kinds of knowledge is the knowledge itself,
141
141
116.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� أ ّ ا ����ع ا ا ي ن �� �م�س ن ��لي� ا ��� �م� ن�كي ن نّ � ي ن ي ���ا �أ�ا � ا�ام��� ��و� �م ن� ا ����م�ل�و�م ��هي� � � او �ل���ا �و�م ن� ا �ي� �و ن�� ر � ��ل ��� ��� ط�� �ر � � ا اأ ّ � ن يي ُ ّ ن ا��ا ن ��ا ن اً � ��� ك�� � ك�� �كي��. ���ر� ��ي� �ُو��م�ل أا �ل� ي��� � �ون� �ي� �����ه �عن��ر �ع � ي أ أ � أّ � أ أ نّ � � � او �ّم�ا �ي��و��لم�ك ��م�ل ي ن� ح ن� �ل�� ن� ا �لي��ن�م�ل�� �من� � او ن� ح ن� �ن�ا �ي��و��ل أا �نّ�ه � او ن� ح ن� �م ن� ا ن�م�ل ا ��ه �كم� �ل ن أ �ي � ن ي � ن � ن� � ي ��ّ ش � ن � � � ن نّ ن � � ا �لأ�����س�ا ن�ليّ��ه � ن�ولم�ل�و ا � ح � ���ا �و ���ل ����ي� ء ك���ا � �ل�ه �كم� �ل �أ�ا � �عم�ي�لي��ه ا �لن�م�ل�و أا �ل�� � �لم�ك � ن ر � � � � �أ ن �ي ّ ع � ا ��� � ع � ن � ن ا �� � ن � ن�� � � ��س�ا ن� � او ر�ي�لن��ا ا�ام� او �ن�� �ع ن��ه ه � � ا � �سر م� ا �ل�� � ع� ن�لمل�و �كم � � ح � م � � ل � ��كم� �ل �و�م� �� � ل � � ل و ن ع ع ع ع ن ن �ن ن هو �ع�ي�ر �م���د �ور �كي��ه. �� � � � ن ا نّه � � �أ نّ � ن ن ي أّ ي � ��س�ا �ع�هي ا ��ل� ن � �هي � ��ه � ن ��س�ا �عم� ي� � او �م�ا ���و�لم�ك ��م�ل ي ��و ن��د �أ� �� � ��ون � �و� �ل� � ا � �ل�م�ل��م���ه � ��ون��و و ي� ا ُ يّ �ش ن ن ا ن ا نّ ي ُ أ ن أ ن ي ي أ ن أ ن أ ا� يّ ي � �ل��ا �و�م� ر�� ن� ���ي� ء �م� ا ن� ار �ل��� �كم� �ر�ن��� ��هي� � �ل������� �أ� ��ه ��د �ن��د �� �م� ا � �ل�� � ر ن��ه �ي�ن����د � ن � ا�� ي� �ّ � أ �ي � ي هي � ن أ ن � ن ا � ن � أ � � �ل ح� ح�مي����ه ا ���و�ل �و ش��سر�و� �عم�ل� ن�عم� �ي�هي ا �لأ��� � � ��ا � � ا �ل ��� �و�ل���د ا 1ن م � � � ل � � � س � ي � � ي م��ل��م أا �ل�� ا � رن ن ور ن � ج � � ّ م ي �ه � � ن هي � � ي ن � �م ن � ن ا � � � ن ن ن ا � ن � �� � ن ���ا �و�كي��ه �م نّ��ه �لي���م�ل�م���ا. �و �ي� م�ر�و�� ��ون � ��� �و�ل� م� �� ��و� �نل��� �عم�ل�� م� يل��ملن � �و�ه �ع�ي ر �م ��وع م �
٣،١١٦
٤،١١٦
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي أ ّ يُ �ّ أ � � � ن ي ن ش اأ ن ن ن ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي � ��� �ل��ا ا �ن � � �سر�و�ن�؟ � � ل �����د ا ������س� � م � � �� ن� ا �ل���ا ر�� �عم�ل�� ا�ام� ����ا ��تن� � ك و� و ور � ي � � أ �ي ن ا � ن هي ن �ي ا ��ل � � ه أ � �يك � � ُ ن ني ّ ن ين �� ن� �عم�لي��ه ��� ء م�دي�ل�� �� ر� ن�مل�د � �ون� ا �م�ي ر ن�ملك � أا �سره ن�لمل�د ا �و �� �سر�� �ن�م�ك �ك��عن��� �ن�ه �و���� ن� آ أ �� ن ن ن � � �� �� �ي ا ء � � � ا ا ء ي ن �وي� � �كم ل�� و�ل� أ ��س� ه �م�ل ��نسم�ك �و�ل� ا � ا ك �و�لي����� ن��ي��� � ح��ه �و�ه�و �م�ا ٢ا �ع ن� ح�م�ك ل��ي� �و ن� � � �و ن� � � �ج ن �ن ن ا ��ل ّ�� �� ّ ن ح ا ن � �م ن ن ���د ا ا ���ن�� ن � �و�ل� أا ا ل � ع � � � ���س�ا ��. � �� � �� �� �� س �� � � � � ل � ن ن و ي ن و� ن �
١،١١٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ���ا ن ا ��ل� �ا �ن ���س��ي ش��م�� �م ن ا�ا�م ن أ ّ ن ��� ��ه � ّٰ ا� ّا ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���ه �سر�و�� ا �ن�ه ي�لن��� ن� ر� � � �م��س�وي ر ح�م�ه ا لله �م� ٣ك� � � ر� ي ن و ي� � ه � � ��م ا � هي ل�ن ا �� �� ا اأ ن � � � ن ن ن ن �� ��ر��� �ل� � �ل� � � ل� � �ره ا �لأ����س�ا � �م ن� �ي � ��� � �ي � �و�ي � �ر���ه �يو�لن�ن�� ن��� �م ن� ي�لن��� ن� ���ه �عر��� و ي� ن ع أ أ أ ة ّ ن ن 1الا�ص�ل :و�ه�د ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل���� :ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل�� :ا ل لم�ا.
142
142
٢،١١٧
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� أ ّ ا ����ع ا ا ي ن �� �م�س ن ��لي� ا ��� �م� ن�كي ن نّ � ي ن ي ���ا �أ�ا � ا�ام��� ��و� �م ن� ا ����م�ل�و�م ��هي� � � او �ل���ا �و�م ن� ا �ي� �و ن�� ر � ��ل ��� ��� ط�� �ر � � ا اأ ّ � ن يي ُ ّ ن ا��ا ن ��ا ن اً � ��� ك�� � ك�� �كي��. ���ر� ��ي� �ُو��م�ل أا �ل� ي��� � �ون� �ي� �����ه �عن��ر �ع � ي أ أ � أّ � أ أ نّ � � � او �ّم�ا �ي��و��لم�ك ��م�ل ي ن� ح ن� �ل�� ن� ا �لي��ن�م�ل�� �من� � او ن� ح ن� �ن�ا �ي��و��ل أا �نّ�ه � او ن� ح ن� �م ن� ا ن�م�ل ا ��ه �كم� �ل ن أ �ي � ن ي � ن � ن� � ي ��ّ ش � ن � � � ن نّ ن � � ا �لأ�����س�ا ن�ليّ��ه � ن�ولم�ل�و ا � ح � ���ا �و ���ل ����ي� ء ك���ا � �ل�ه �كم� �ل �أ�ا � �عم�ي�لي��ه ا �لن�م�ل�و أا �ل�� � �لم�ك � ن ر � � � � �أ ن �ي ّ ع � ا ��� � ع � ن � ن ا �� � ن � ن�� � � ��س�ا ن� � او ر�ي�لن��ا ا�ام� او �ن�� �ع ن��ه ه � � ا � �سر م� ا �ل�� � ع� ن�لمل�و �كم � � ح � م � � ل � ��كم� �ل �و�م� �� � ل � � ل و ن ع ع ع ع ن ن �ن ن هو �ع�ي�ر �م���د �ور �كي��ه. �� � � � ن ا نّه � � �أ نّ � ن ن ي أّ ي � ��س�ا �ع�هي ا ��ل� ن � �هي � ��ه � ن ��س�ا �عم� ي� � او �م�ا ���و�لم�ك ��م�ل ي ��و ن��د �أ� �� � ��ون � �و� �ل� � ا � �ل�م�ل��م���ه � ��ون��و و ي� ا ُ يّ �ش ن ن ا ن ا نّ ي ُ أ ن أ ن ي ي أ ن أ ن أ ا� يّ ي � �ل��ا �و�م� ر�� ن� ���ي� ء �م� ا ن� ار �ل��� �كم� �ر�ن��� ��هي� � �ل������� �أ� ��ه ��د �ن��د �� �م� ا � �ل�� � ر ن��ه �ي�ن����د � ن � ا�� ي� �ّ � أ �ي � ي هي � ن أ ن � ن ا � ن � أ � � �ل ح� ح�مي����ه ا ���و�ل �و ش��سر�و� �عم�ل� ن�عم� �ي�هي ا �لأ��� � � ��ا � � ا �ل ��� �و�ل���د ا 1ن م � � � ل � � � س � ي � � ي م��ل��م أا �ل�� ا � رن ن ور ن � ج � � ّ م ي �ه � � ن هي � � ي ن � �م ن � ن ا � � � ن ن ن ا � ن � �� � ن ���ا �و�كي��ه �م نّ��ه �لي���م�ل�م���ا. �و �ي� م�ر�و�� ��ون � ��� �و�ل� م� �� ��و� �نل��� �عم�ل�� م� يل��ملن � �و�ه �ع�ي ر �م ��وع م �
٣،١١٦
٤،١١٦
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي أ ّ يُ �ّ أ � � � ن ي ن ش اأ ن ن ن ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي � ��� �ل��ا ا �ن � � �سر�و�ن�؟ � � ل �����د ا ������س� � م � � �� ن� ا �ل���ا ر�� �عم�ل�� ا�ام� ����ا ��تن� � ك و� و ور � ي � � أ �ي ن ا � ن هي ن �ي ا ��ل � � ه أ � �يك � � ُ ن ني ّ ن ين �� ن� �عم�لي��ه ��� ء م�دي�ل�� �� ر� ن�مل�د � �ون� ا �م�ي ر ن�ملك � أا �سره ن�لمل�د ا �و �� �سر�� �ن�م�ك �ك��عن��� �ن�ه �و���� ن� آ أ �� ن ن ن � � �� �� �ي ا ء � � � ا ا ء ي ن �وي� � �كم ل�� و�ل� أ ��س� ه �م�ل ��نسم�ك �و�ل� ا � ا ك �و�لي����� ن��ي��� � ح��ه �و�ه�و �م�ا ٢ا �ع ن� ح�م�ك ل��ي� �و ن� � � �و ن� � � �ج ن �ن ن ا ��ل ّ�� �� ّ ن ح ا ن � �م ن ن ���د ا ا ���ن�� ن � �و�ل� أا ا ل � ع � � � ���س�ا ��. � �� � �� �� �� س �� � � � � ل � ن ن و ي ن و� ن �
١،١١٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ���ا ن ا ��ل� �ا �ن ���س��ي ش��م�� �م ن ا�ا�م ن أ ّ ن ��� ��ه � ّٰ ا� ّا ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���ه �سر�و�� ا �ن�ه ي�لن��� ن� ر� � � �م��س�وي ر ح�م�ه ا لله �م� ٣ك� � � ر� ي ن و ي� � ه � � ��م ا � هي ل�ن ا �� �� ا اأ ن � � � ن ن ن ن �� ��ر��� �ل� � �ل� � � ل� � �ره ا �لأ����س�ا � �م ن� �ي � ��� � �ي � �و�ي � �ر���ه �يو�لن�ن�� ن��� �م ن� ي�لن��� ن� ���ه �عر��� و ي� ن ع أ أ أ ة ّ ن ن 1الا�ص�ل :و�ه�د ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل���� :ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل�� :ا ل لم�ا.
142
142
٢،١١٧
On why new incumbents are harsh toward the officials they replace
and whatever the path used to reach it and whatever the language used to express it, knowledge would meet the purpose. To your question “Is this obligatory?” I respond: It is indeed obligatory,
116.3
because philosophical inquiry is obligatory inasmuch as it constitutes the perfection of humanity and the attainment of its ultimate degree. When an entity has a specific perfection, its end is to attain that perfection. People who fall short of attaining their perfection, even though they possess the means and the obstacles before it have been removed, are held to account. Regarding your question “Is it encountered in reality?” it is indeed so,
116.4
because philosophy is encountered, and it is the craft of all crafts, and none of its parts have been ordered as it has been ordered itself. For it starts from the lowest level at which the learner begins and reaches the highest grade possible for him to reach. All of this involves principles and explanations that enjoy the utmost firmness, and they are known and available. There is nothing to prevent us from reaching them, nor are they begrudged to those who seek them, and they are a grace to those who learn them.
On why new incumbents are harsh toward the officials they replace What is the meaning of the anger felt by the new incumbent of an office toward
117.1
the official he has replaced? This is how this question is articulated. For example, you are appointed governor of a particular province, or judge in a particular city. You arrive in the province and find the former governor whom you are to replace. You treat him harshly, get angry, and scowl openly at him. Yet he has done nothing to anger you, nor has he ever done you any harm. You have never met, and there has been no exchange of any kind, good or bad, between you. The anger experienced by public floggers and executioners belongs to the same class. Miskawayh’s response The new official intuits that the official he is replacing must hate and loathe him, and human beings are naturally disposed to loathe those who loathe them and to hate those who hate them. As a result, every newly appointed official experiences this reaction vis-à-vis the incumbent. Sometimes other elements may
143
143
117.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن � ا ن �� ّ ن ��ّ � � �ن � ّ�� ا ا �نل ن ا ن � ن � � أ ش ا أ ن ���د ا ا ����� ر��� � � ����ل ���ا ر�� �عم�ل�� ���ل م� �سرو� ورنم� � ��� �� أا �ل�� � �لمك ا ���يس� ء ا �ر أ ّ ن أ نّ � � ا ن ي � ي�ش ي ن ن �ن � ا ُ ن ن �ن �سر�و� رن�م� � ���ا ا � ا�ام� �� ن� ح ن��ا �ي�ه ك����ي�ره ي����ر��� ل��ي� �مش�م�ل���ا ا ���� ن� �سر�� �ع ن� حي�� ��ه ا �و ن �م � أ ّ� ا ن ن ن � ن � ن ُ � � ن �ي �ن�ا ���� او ن� �سر�و�ن� �و��� او �ي��نعي��ه ���ا �� أا �ل�� � �لم�ك ا � �ي ��أو�سرا �ل���ا ر�� �ن�ا � �لعن�ن��� �عم�ل�� ا�ام� ح ن� �ورن�م� ا �ل� ي نا ا� ن أ ش ا يش � ن ن �عم� � ن ا ا ي ��� � ي� ن ���د ل��ن �م�ا �ّ �ي�ه ��ل�� ��س�سّم�ا ل�� ن ي ح�� �ي� ��ه � او ���ل����� ء �م� �ل�ه �و���د ه ا ���يس� ء �ل��ي�ر ا ����� ن و ري ي� ن ن ا ��ّ ا نُ ن � � � � �ن � ن ا ه� ي ن ي ن ّ ن � � �ل �����س�ه � �وي��د ��� �ع � � �وي��د ا �� ع� �م� �ل� ��� ���ل �م� ��� �م� �سر�و�� يحمن� � او�ام� �� أا �لي��ه �م� ا � �ل�ن � ي ن � ع ن � � ا أ � نأ ج ن �ّ � ن ج � يع ي �ا ن ن �����ه �� ن� �ع ن� ���د ا ا�ا � ن�م� ا � ك ح�عي��ي��ه ���و ن� م��ن��ه ��اي� ن� �ي��د �� ن� ا ���� ن� م�� �؟ �و��م�ل �ه�و أا �ل� ل��ي� أ أ أ آ ّ نّ � ن ��نل ا �ّ ه �ن ا ّ ا ��ل ّ� � ّ ن ن ن نن ن ن ���س�ا �� �م�ل�ه�م�ا �و ن��ه ا �ر�م ن� ا �����د ر �و�ه�و ا �ل�ه�م�ا أا ��م�ا �ي�ا ���د ا � ا�� �� �ن� ؟ � �م� ا ن��ل� � � او �ل ي ن ا �عي ا ن ا� � ن�ّ ا ا � يّ ا ن� ش ا � � أ� هي � � ���مي ن�� ن ا �ن � اأ� ي � �ه�م� � او � � ي ��وكي�� ��� � ه � م � ع ��� ح���يس� ا �ل�ل� �م� � او �ل� ��س � � ل � ح� � ح�� � �و�لي����� نر � أ م ّ أ ّ � � � � � ن �ي � � ي ن � ن ا �ي ن� هي ن ا �عي ا � �ي ي � ي ن �� �يل��ا ي� ك �� ن� ���د ا �م� �ه�م� ���ا 1أا �ل� �ن�اأ �ش�ا ره ا ���� ن� �ه�م� ��وكي�� � ��س� � �م�� � ع ا ����مل�ه ا �ل��و�ل�� ا � ��ي� � ��ر � ح �عو� � ن � � ن ن �سر�و��. ل��ي� ا �ل���ا ر�� � او�ام�
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ي � �أّ ن ن � ن �� ن � ي �� ل��ن� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �م ن �يكن�م� ا ��ل�� ن� �و ل��ن� ��س�ا أ�ر ا ��ل حي �� او � �م ن� �كن�م�ل ا �ل��م؟ �أ�ا � ا�م ك���ا � ا � يل� � � ل ي ي � �أ ن ن ا م� ن ي ن نّ � �أ ن � �ن � ن ن ن ن� ن ي ���ا �م�ل�ه �أ�ا � ا �ل��سر ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ����د �لم�ك �و�كي��ه ��س ّر �ع�ي�ر ���د ا � �ول ���ر ���و��ه. ا �ل��ّ ������ ك م
ي � �أ نّ �م�ل ي� �ل��
١،١١٨
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ � ن ش ا �� ا أ ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �م ن � ش ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ��� ��م ل��ي� حي�� �ه�و حي �� او � �م��س� رك �لملن � و � أ أ � ي نّ ن ا�ا� �س ن ي ��م ي ا � ��ل ا � �لي�س ه � ن � �أ�ي ي ا �� ي ي� ن� ن �� ش ي ن � � � � ه ه � � ا ا ا � ل ا ���د ا م ��� ح��نج أ �� م� ي ي�م� م� �ل� ��و � ��ي� ح��ط �عمي�� حي ��و �ي���� و م� حي�� ن � ي � ن ا ن ش ا �� � �ن � � �ن ن � ّن ���د ا ا�ا�م�سن�� ي� ي ح��ا ن� أا �ل�� �م�ا ي�لن�م�ل���ه ���د ه ا �ل��د ر ن��ه �ن�ا �لي���م�لي�� �ه�و أا ���س� � �م��س� رك لمل�ملك ل�ي� � ج � �م �أ � �أ نّ � �أ � � ن � � ن يا ح �� �م ن ا �لن ��ن��� �ن�م ح �� ا � �لي �عو ي� �م ن ا �لن��د � � او �ل��د �ي� �ي�لي �عو� ��ا �ل � ا ��� � � � � � � � ل ل ي ��ا �ل � من � ن ن ري � � ر � او �ل�� ي ن �أ �ّ � �أ ��ل � � �أّ � � ن � � �ي � ه ا ��ل � � ي ��ا ن ي ��ل � ي � ن ي أ ن ��ا �ل ا �لش��ا ن�لي��ه �ه�و ا �ل�� ن�� .و�ام�ا ك�� ��� ا ا �ل��و�� �هي� ا �ل�� � او �ل�د ي� يل �عو� �ل� �ن� ��ا �ل�ه ا �لش��ا �لي��ه ا ش��سر�� م �م أ أ أ أ ً ن � ي �وا ��ل�ه �و��ه� ا � ��ي� �نل���ا � ٢يل���ي�ر �ه�و �م�ا �ه�و ا �عن��� ا ن� �يل���ي�ر أا �ن��س�ا �ن�ا �و ن� ا� ��و ن� ي��سم�ه ح ن� ا � �ي� � ي ي ي
أ أ ة 1الا�ص�ل��� :ة�هو����ه��� �ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ن���.
144
144
٢،١١٨
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن � ا ن �� ّ ن ��ّ � � �ن � ّ�� ا ا �نل ن ا ن � ن � � أ ش ا أ ن ���د ا ا ����� ر��� � � ����ل ���ا ر�� �عم�ل�� ���ل م� �سرو� ورنم� � ��� �� أا �ل�� � �لمك ا ���يس� ء ا �ر أ ّ ن أ نّ � � ا ن ي � ي�ش ي ن ن �ن � ا ُ ن ن �ن �سر�و� رن�م� � ���ا ا � ا�ام� �� ن� ح ن��ا �ي�ه ك����ي�ره ي����ر��� ل��ي� �مش�م�ل���ا ا ���� ن� �سر�� �ع ن� حي�� ��ه ا �و ن �م � أ ّ� ا ن ن ن � ن � ن ُ � � ن �ي �ن�ا ���� او ن� �سر�و�ن� �و��� او �ي��نعي��ه ���ا �� أا �ل�� � �لم�ك ا � �ي ��أو�سرا �ل���ا ر�� �ن�ا � �لعن�ن��� �عم�ل�� ا�ام� ح ن� �ورن�م� ا �ل� ي نا ا� ن أ ش ا يش � ن ن �عم� � ن ا ا ي ��� � ي� ن ���د ل��ن �م�ا �ّ �ي�ه ��ل�� ��س�سّم�ا ل�� ن ي ح�� �ي� ��ه � او ���ل����� ء �م� �ل�ه �و���د ه ا ���يس� ء �ل��ي�ر ا ����� ن و ري ي� ن ن ا ��ّ ا نُ ن � � � � �ن � ن ا ه� ي ن ي ن ّ ن � � �ل �����س�ه � �وي��د ��� �ع � � �وي��د ا �� ع� �م� �ل� ��� ���ل �م� ��� �م� �سر�و�� يحمن� � او�ام� �� أا �لي��ه �م� ا � �ل�ن � ي ن � ع ن � � ا أ � نأ ج ن �ّ � ن ج � يع ي �ا ن ن �����ه �� ن� �ع ن� ���د ا ا�ا � ن�م� ا � ك ح�عي��ي��ه ���و ن� م��ن��ه ��اي� ن� �ي��د �� ن� ا ���� ن� م�� �؟ �و��م�ل �ه�و أا �ل� ل��ي� أ أ أ آ ّ نّ � ن ��نل ا �ّ ه �ن ا ّ ا ��ل ّ� � ّ ن ن ن نن ن ن ���س�ا �� �م�ل�ه�م�ا �و ن��ه ا �ر�م ن� ا �����د ر �و�ه�و ا �ل�ه�م�ا أا ��م�ا �ي�ا ���د ا � ا�� �� �ن� ؟ � �م� ا ن��ل� � � او �ل ي ن ا �عي ا ن ا� � ن�ّ ا ا � يّ ا ن� ش ا � � أ� هي � � ���مي ن�� ن ا �ن � اأ� ي � �ه�م� � او � � ي ��وكي�� ��� � ه � م � ع ��� ح���يس� ا �ل�ل� �م� � او �ل� ��س � � ل � ح� � ح�� � �و�لي����� نر � أ م ّ أ ّ � � � � � ن �ي � � ي ن � ن ا �ي ن� هي ن ا �عي ا � �ي ي � ي ن �� �يل��ا ي� ك �� ن� ���د ا �م� �ه�م� ���ا 1أا �ل� �ن�اأ �ش�ا ره ا ���� ن� �ه�م� ��وكي�� � ��س� � �م�� � ع ا ����مل�ه ا �ل��و�ل�� ا � ��ي� � ��ر � ح �عو� � ن � � ن ن �سر�و��. ل��ي� ا �ل���ا ر�� � او�ام�
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ي � �أّ ن ن � ن �� ن � ي �� ل��ن� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �م ن �يكن�م� ا ��ل�� ن� �و ل��ن� ��س�ا أ�ر ا ��ل حي �� او � �م ن� �كن�م�ل ا �ل��م؟ �أ�ا � ا�م ك���ا � ا � يل� � � ل ي ي � �أ ن ن ا م� ن ي ن نّ � �أ ن � �ن � ن ن ن ن� ن ي ���ا �م�ل�ه �أ�ا � ا �ل��سر ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ����د �لم�ك �و�كي��ه ��س ّر �ع�ي�ر ���د ا � �ول ���ر ���و��ه. ا �ل��ّ ������ ك م
ي � �أ نّ �م�ل ي� �ل��
١،١١٨
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ � ن ش ا �� ا أ ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �م ن � ش ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ��� ��م ل��ي� حي�� �ه�و حي �� او � �م��س� رك �لملن � و � أ أ � ي نّ ن ا�ا� �س ن ي ��م ي ا � ��ل ا � �لي�س ه � ن � �أ�ي ي ا �� ي ي� ن� ن �� ش ي ن � � � � ه ه � � ا ا ا � ل ا ���د ا م ��� ح��نج أ �� م� ي ي�م� م� �ل� ��و � ��ي� ح��ط �عمي�� حي ��و �ي���� و م� حي�� ن � ي � ن ا ن ش ا �� � �ن � � �ن ن � ّن ���د ا ا�ا�م�سن�� ي� ي ح��ا ن� أا �ل�� �م�ا ي�لن�م�ل���ه ���د ه ا �ل��د ر ن��ه �ن�ا �لي���م�لي�� �ه�و أا ���س� � �م��س� رك لمل�ملك ل�ي� � ج � �م �أ � �أ نّ � �أ � � ن � � ن يا ح �� �م ن ا �لن ��ن��� �ن�م ح �� ا � �لي �عو ي� �م ن ا �لن��د � � او �ل��د �ي� �ي�لي �عو� ��ا �ل � ا ��� � � � � � � � ل ل ي ��ا �ل � من � ن ن ري � � ر � او �ل�� ي ن �أ �ّ � �أ ��ل � � �أّ � � ن � � �ي � ه ا ��ل � � ي ��ا ن ي ��ل � ي � ن ي أ ن ��ا �ل ا �لش��ا ن�لي��ه �ه�و ا �ل�� ن�� .و�ام�ا ك�� ��� ا ا �ل��و�� �هي� ا �ل�� � او �ل�د ي� يل �عو� �ل� �ن� ��ا �ل�ه ا �لش��ا �لي��ه ا ش��سر�� م �م أ أ أ أ ً ن � ي �وا ��ل�ه �و��ه� ا � ��ي� �نل���ا � ٢يل���ي�ر �ه�و �م�ا �ه�و ا �عن��� ا ن� �يل���ي�ر أا �ن��س�ا �ن�ا �و ن� ا� ��و ن� ي��سم�ه ح ن� ا � �ي� � ي ي ي
أ أ ة 1الا�ص�ل��� :ة�هو����ه��� �ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ن���.
144
144
٢،١١٨
On why human beings are considered to be orphans after losing their father
be added; for example, the official being replaced might have been deposed because of an act of great treachery or a great felony, such as rightly provoke anger. In addition to that, often the new appointee has been ordered to detain his predecessor, to take him to task for embezzlement of funds, and to liquidate his assets. These are things that provoke anger and enhance its material basis, particularly as the official being replaced will defend himself, deny every evil ascribed to him, and try to protect his assets to the best of his ability. So how could anger be excluded from this context? Doesn’t this in fact constitute its true and proper occasion? The behavior of floggers and executioners admits a different kind of justification, for they are recompensed for practicing their trade, and if they fail to execute it properly they will be exposed to censure and derision, and the only way for them to execute their trade properly is by rousing themselves to anger. This is supplementary to the first reason I mentioned regarding the new official and the incumbent being replaced.
On why human beings are considered to be orphans after losing their father rather than their mother Why is it that with human beings someone is deemed an orphan when he loses
118.1
his father, whereas among other animals this is based on the loss of the mother? If you say: The reason is that among the latter the mother is the provider, the same holds true of human beings. There must be another secret behind this, and the matter must admit further consideration. Miskawayh’s response Insofar as human beings are animals and via this aspect share kinship with the beasts, they need nourishment to sustain them and preserve their animal nature. Insofar as they are human beings and via this aspect share kinship with the celestial sphere, they need the things that enable them to attain this station through instruction and discipline, for discipline is to the soul what nourishment is to the body. The person who attends to the first condition is the mother, and the person who attends to the second is the father. As the second is their noblest condition and that through which they become what they are— human beings—it follows that their status as orphans must be based on the loss of their father. As the perfection of the animal nature of other animals consists
145
145
118.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ّ � ا ن ا ي �� � ا �ن ّي ا ل�ن ا �� �ي ي ا �� �لنّ � أ ن � ن ���ا ن� ��س�ا أ�ر ا ��ل �م ن� �يكن�م�ل ا ن�لي��ه �و�ا�م�ا ك� ح ن� ا � �ي���و� ��� �ي� ل �عو� 1لن��د �ي� �و ن حي ��و �� � �كم حي ��و �ي�� � �سي ا � ن �يك ا � �أ�ّ ��� ّ ا � � ن ا ن �يك اأ ن �ل � ن �ّ ا ��لي�����ّ � ن ا � �أ ل�ن ا �� ا � ي � ي �م��� م� ن�م�ل �ل� �و��م�ل �لأ����س� � ن�م�ل � ي ن�مل� � ��د ل�م م� �ل� ن� �و�ي� �� ل �� ن ح��ه أا �ل�� � ن ا ن ن ي م أ ّ ُ ّ ي ًا ي � �أ ع ا� � � �ي ن ن � ّ ي � � � ��� أا � ا �����د ا �م�ه ���س�م� �ي�ي��س�م� �م ن� �كن�م�ل ا �ل�� �و� ي�م�س� أا ����ل� � � �لمك �عملي��ه. ا� � ي ر ع م م ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ أ آ أ أ ّ أ � � ن ي���ا ��ل ا�ا����ا ��� ن� أا �ل�ن� ��ل�� ن�ع ح� �م ن ا �س �� ا � نّ�ر ا ن��ا �ي� ا ��ل��ر ن��� � او ن�ع � ح نر �ع ن� ر�ي����هي ي���سن��� ا �ل ش��م ���رن� � ن � ري و ي ي ج ن ن ا نّ نّ ن ن ن ن نا � � ن � � ا ا ا ���د ا �م�سن�� �ش�س�ا �أ�� ل��� ا �ل ن�� ��� ل��م� ا �ل��س��� �كي��ه؟ �� ��ه أا ��م� نع � ح ن� �م� � � ح�� ء ا �ل��سن�� ن�. �و أ � ن ن ع ي
١،١١٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ �ين ن� ا ا ������� ا�ا� ي�ي ّ ا ا� � �ن هي � ��س�ا �عم� ي� ��ل�� �ُ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا ��ل� ن � ّ � � � ه ك � � � �ا � ا م��س� ك � � م ��� �ن� ل� م���د � �و�م�ر� � ع � � � � � ل ل وي ر أ ي �� ي� � ل ن و �ي� م م ّ � � أ � � � ي �ش� ا � � ا� � � � ن ن حيّ �ُ ن ن � ن � ���ا �� أا �ل�� � �لم�ك ا ���ه�مم�ل ا �ل��د ا �� � او �ل��ري�لي��ا ن��� ا � ك �����ي ر �و �ل� � �ي � ا �ل��س�ا �ن �لي��ه �نل���ا ��� يل � ��ن� ا �لأ����س�ا � أ م ن ا ي ش ا � ن �م � ي � ��ا ن ��ا � هي ن ا نّ ا ��� ا ا� اأ �� ا ا ن ً � ن � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ك � �م�ا �� ار � او �ل���ا ��� �ه�و ا�ام�ا ��ر �نل� م ن �ول� أو � � ��س� �ع��ه �م�� �ل � �لم�ك ا � ل�� ن أ � ّ � ن ي ني � ع ا ا� � �ن هي ن أ ن �ن ا ������� ن��� ي� � �� ن�ك���ا � �ا� �لن ن��ع���ه ن� ح�مي�� �م�ا �ي�لي��د � ��س�ا ن� ��ي� ا ����ل��� �ع نر�ر �م�ر� أا � ا ا ��د ل� ل� � � ��ن� �ل�ه � ر�ن�ه ا � �ل� ��ل ي و ي� م م ي � � م م م ّ ي يع �ي ع �م ن �عم�ل�م�ه �ل��ا � ���� �ن ��� ش ��س�ا �ع�هي �م ن �ند ��لم�ك ��ا ���ّ � ن ح��ا �����هي � ا ��ل�نس�ا ء � ��ا ن ��حل � � � ل � ��عي��ا �هي ا ن�� يل ه ��يس�ه �� ا � � م ل � ل �� ل � ن� و ل ي � � و ن ون � ي ا � �أ � ي� ن ن� ا ا ��ل��شم ا ي � � ���� � � ن ّي ا � يّ ن � ن ي ح��م� ن�ك���ا � � � �و� �ل�� ء ا �ل�� ا � ل�� ا ل ��� ن� � �� �ع�ه �و�ل� ا �ل�� ن� ك ��ي ���ي����� ح�� ي ل ي� حر�و ن� �لي����� ��ل���ي� كي� ر ي م أ أ ن ن ّ � � � ن � ّ ن ��ا ن ا �ل ش�� � � � � ش ا ��ل ا هي ي ي � ا ا ن ا أ ا ��ل��ري�ل��ا ن��� � او ��لي��د ر ن� � ��س� �ع�ه� .و�م� ك�� � م��رن ا � ��د ا �ل����يس� ء ا ن�� ر�ي� ح�����د �ل���ي�ر � ي ي ي �أ � ي ج��لي�ن ّ � � � � � ن � � � ن ي ُ ح �� �م ن ا �ل� ن ن ا�م ح��س ن ا � ����� �كي��ه �ن�ا �لي��د �ن��ر �و�ل� � ��س�ا �عم� � �ا �ي ك حي�م�ل �و�ل� ن�� �و�ه ا � ار �ي� ���د ا ن�ر � � ي م ا ش ي � �أ � � ي ن� ن ا نّ �� � � ����ّ ن � ح�يّ ي�لن� ن� ا ن � ن � � �س ��هي ي�لي�ن���يّ�ر �نل���ا �ش�س � � � ه ه � ك � ا � � � د � � � � س ل � ��ل� � ��� �� أا �ل�� � �لمك �من�� ��سره ا �ل� ر و رن ي أ � ل نر ا ��ل ش��م ���� ن� ن ��ل�� ن��ه � يُ� ي ح��ا ن� �س ��هي �م ن ا ��ر���يسم� �م�ي��ا ن�لم�ل�هي ��ل���ا ٢أا �ّم�ا �عم�ل ن�عم� ��هي ا ��ل��� او ن� � او �ّم�ا ن ن� � رن و ي � ل � ر ّ� أ ج � نج � ن ن � ي ن ّ ي � �أ � ي ي ش � ن ن � � � ه �يل���ا � ن�ل���ا ا ا � ��نل ��ط نح�مي�� � �لم�ك �و� حي�م�ل �لم�ل�ك ا �ل���س � أا �ل�� � �س �نر�ه ن�����د � ل�� � ري � �� �ل ك�م� � �س �نر�ه �عم�ل�� �و ن��و ع ّ هي ا ن ي � �� � � ن � � � ولي����� ي � ���ه. �م��ن� � �لم�ك أا �ل� �م� � ر�ن� �ور�ي� � ع أ أ ن 1الا�ص�ل� :ة� ا �ل��ة�ه��لو ن� ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :ل��.
146
146
٢،١١٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ّ � ا ن ا ي �� � ا �ن ّي ا ل�ن ا �� �ي ي ا �� �لنّ � أ ن � ن ���ا ن� ��س�ا أ�ر ا ��ل �م ن� �يكن�م�ل ا ن�لي��ه �و�ا�م�ا ك� ح ن� ا � �ي���و� ��� �ي� ل �عو� 1لن��د �ي� �و ن حي ��و �� � �كم حي ��و �ي�� � �سي ا � ن �يك ا � �أ�ّ ��� ّ ا � � ن ا ن �يك اأ ن �ل � ن �ّ ا ��لي�����ّ � ن ا � �أ ل�ن ا �� ا � ي � ي �م��� م� ن�م�ل �ل� �و��م�ل �لأ����س� � ن�م�ل � ي ن�مل� � ��د ل�م م� �ل� ن� �و�ي� �� ل �� ن ح��ه أا �ل�� � ن ا ن ن ي م أ ّ ُ ّ ي ًا ي � �أ ع ا� � � �ي ن ن � ّ ي � � � ��� أا � ا �����د ا �م�ه ���س�م� �ي�ي��س�م� �م ن� �كن�م�ل ا �ل�� �و� ي�م�س� أا ����ل� � � �لمك �عملي��ه. ا� � ي ر ع م م ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ أ آ أ أ ّ أ � � ن ي���ا ��ل ا�ا����ا ��� ن� أا �ل�ن� ��ل�� ن�ع ح� �م ن ا �س �� ا � نّ�ر ا ن��ا �ي� ا ��ل��ر ن��� � او ن�ع � ح نر �ع ن� ر�ي����هي ي���سن��� ا �ل ش��م ���رن� � ن � ري و ي ي ج ن ن ا نّ نّ ن ن ن ن نا � � ن � � ا ا ا ���د ا �م�سن�� �ش�س�ا �أ�� ل��� ا �ل ن�� ��� ل��م� ا �ل��س��� �كي��ه؟ �� ��ه أا ��م� نع � ح ن� �م� � � ح�� ء ا �ل��سن�� ن�. �و أ � ن ن ع ي
١،١١٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ �ين ن� ا ا ������� ا�ا� ي�ي ّ ا ا� � �ن هي � ��س�ا �عم� ي� ��ل�� �ُ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا ��ل� ن � ّ � � � ه ك � � � �ا � ا م��س� ك � � م ��� �ن� ل� م���د � �و�م�ر� � ع � � � � � ل ل وي ر أ ي �� ي� � ل ن و �ي� م م ّ � � أ � � � ي �ش� ا � � ا� � � � ن ن حيّ �ُ ن ن � ن � ���ا �� أا �ل�� � �لم�ك ا ���ه�مم�ل ا �ل��د ا �� � او �ل��ري�لي��ا ن��� ا � ك �����ي ر �و �ل� � �ي � ا �ل��س�ا �ن �لي��ه �نل���ا ��� يل � ��ن� ا �لأ����س�ا � أ م ن ا ي ش ا � ن �م � ي � ��ا ن ��ا � هي ن ا نّ ا ��� ا ا� اأ �� ا ا ن ً � ن � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ك � �م�ا �� ار � او �ل���ا ��� �ه�و ا�ام�ا ��ر �نل� م ن �ول� أو � � ��س� �ع��ه �م�� �ل � �لم�ك ا � ل�� ن أ � ّ � ن ي ني � ع ا ا� � �ن هي ن أ ن �ن ا ������� ن��� ي� � �� ن�ك���ا � �ا� �لن ن��ع���ه ن� ح�مي�� �م�ا �ي�لي��د � ��س�ا ن� ��ي� ا ����ل��� �ع نر�ر �م�ر� أا � ا ا ��د ل� ل� � � ��ن� �ل�ه � ر�ن�ه ا � �ل� ��ل ي و ي� م م ي � � م م م ّ ي يع �ي ع �م ن �عم�ل�م�ه �ل��ا � ���� �ن ��� ش ��س�ا �ع�هي �م ن �ند ��لم�ك ��ا ���ّ � ن ح��ا �����هي � ا ��ل�نس�ا ء � ��ا ن ��حل � � � ل � ��عي��ا �هي ا ن�� يل ه ��يس�ه �� ا � � م ل � ل �� ل � ن� و ل ي � � و ن ون � ي ا � �أ � ي� ن ن� ا ا ��ل��شم ا ي � � ���� � � ن ّي ا � يّ ن � ن ي ح��م� ن�ك���ا � � � �و� �ل�� ء ا �ل�� ا � ل�� ا ل ��� ن� � �� �ع�ه �و�ل� ا �ل�� ن� ك ��ي ���ي����� ح�� ي ل ي� حر�و ن� �لي����� ��ل���ي� كي� ر ي م أ أ ن ن ّ � � � ن � ّ ن ��ا ن ا �ل ش�� � � � � ش ا ��ل ا هي ي ي � ا ا ن ا أ ا ��ل��ري�ل��ا ن��� � او ��لي��د ر ن� � ��س� �ع�ه� .و�م� ك�� � م��رن ا � ��د ا �ل����يس� ء ا ن�� ر�ي� ح�����د �ل���ي�ر � ي ي ي �أ � ي ج��لي�ن ّ � � � � � ن � � � ن ي ُ ح �� �م ن ا �ل� ن ن ا�م ح��س ن ا � ����� �كي��ه �ن�ا �لي��د �ن��ر �و�ل� � ��س�ا �عم� � �ا �ي ك حي�م�ل �و�ل� ن�� �و�ه ا � ار �ي� ���د ا ن�ر � � ي م ا ش ي � �أ � � ي ن� ن ا نّ �� � � ����ّ ن � ح�يّ ي�لن� ن� ا ن � ن � � �س ��هي ي�لي�ن���يّ�ر �نل���ا �ش�س � � � ه ه � ك � ا � � � د � � � � س ل � ��ل� � ��� �� أا �ل�� � �لمك �من�� ��سره ا �ل� ر و رن ي أ � ل نر ا ��ل ش��م ���� ن� ن ��ل�� ن��ه � يُ� ي ح��ا ن� �س ��هي �م ن ا ��ر���يسم� �م�ي��ا ن�لم�ل�هي ��ل���ا ٢أا �ّم�ا �عم�ل ن�عم� ��هي ا ��ل��� او ن� � او �ّم�ا ن ن� � رن و ي � ل � ر ّ� أ ج � نج � ن ن � ي ن ّ ي � �أ � ي ي ش � ن ن � � � ه �يل���ا � ن�ل���ا ا ا � ��نل ��ط نح�مي�� � �لم�ك �و� حي�م�ل �لم�ل�ك ا �ل���س � أا �ل�� � �س �نر�ه ن�����د � ل�� � ري � �� �ل ك�م� � �س �نر�ه �عم�ل�� �و ن��و ع ّ هي ا ن ي � �� � � ن � � � ولي����� ي � ���ه. �م��ن� � �لم�ك أا �ل� �م� � ر�ن� �ور�ي� � ع أ أ ن 1الا�ص�ل� :ة� ا �ل��ة�ه��لو ن� ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :ل��.
146
146
٢،١١٩
On why chess is so hard to master
in bodily nourishment, it follows that their orphanhood must be based on the loss of the mother. A person might lose his mother before he reaches the point of receiving instruction from the father and while in need of suckling. He is then called an orphan on account of the loss of his mother, and there is no objection to designating him as such.
On why chess is so hard to master Al-Maʾmūn said: “I wonder at myself. I have the ends of the earth under my
119.1
power, yet I cannot master a small square”—he was referring to chess. This is something commonly reported among people, so what is its cause? For his wonder was aroused by the obscurity of the cause. Miskawayh’s response Without the addition of constant application and regular training, acquired knowledge and prior learning do not suffice in crafts, for otherwise a person cannot become skillful. The craftsman is the person who is skilled in his craft. Take the scribal craft as an example; if the person who knows its principles acquires knowledge but lacks practice, then, despite any prior knowledge and assiduous learning, he comes to a standstill, and none of the knowledge he has previously acquired regarding it avails him. The same applies to sewing or building, and in general to every professional craft, such as leading an army and military combat. Neither courage nor knowledge of its modalities suffices without the acquisition of training and practice; this is when it becomes a craft. Since chess is a craft that conforms to this pattern, neither deliberative power nor good imagination nor excellent judgment suffices without the addition of active engagement and practice. For every move that changes the shape of the game is met by an opponent’s countermove, be it apt or inept. All this needs to be determined, and all potential patterns need to be represented in the imagination, move by move, in all their different configurations, and this can only be achieved through practice and training.
147
147
119.2
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ن ي �ن أ ً� ن ّ ��ن ا � ��ا ��ش� ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �م ن � �ل�م� ك� ��ص�� ل��ن� ا ���يي�م� ��ي��ي��ه ��ي��ي��ه ا �و ا ��س�م�ه؟ ن���ي��د را ��ي ي� ر ن��ل� �ع�ي�ر ك � ل ���� ا �ل� ن ن أ ي ن� ن ي ن ّ � ن ��م ني اأ � ا � ن � ن� اأ ��ا � ن �ن �س �ورهي ��ل � ي � ي ��ا ن � � ح�يعي��ه �و��ا �ل � �عي��ه � � ��ا � �ي���� � ح����� ��ا �� �� ن� ن ��د� � 1وي�ل�مل�� �وك�� � �ي��� ن ��ع��ر �ل� ر ً� ي ش ّ ن ِ ن ن � أّ ي �ن �� ن � هِ اأ ن ���� ن��ه ��اأ �ل � ن ا ���د ر ن��ل� �ي��� �وك ���س� � � ���ا � ��سن��ن��ه ل��ي� � �لم�ك ا �ن�ه ��� ح������ .وك�ي ��� ��� ر ��ِر � ي ر ن ن�ي� ي ع أ � �ن ن ن �ي �ن ن � ن ا � ي ي ا � ش � � �� ع�نس�ه ا �و �لم�ل�عن��ه � �و� ن�� �و��ره؟ �و�م�ا ا �لن�� �عور ا �ل��د �ي� ن������� ا �ل�� ��� ي�م��� ل����ي�ء �ل� �سم�ه � �و� �ي � � � � � � ن �ن � � ي���سر أا �ل�� ا �لن ��ن���� �م ن� ا �ل ن�ن�� نر � او �لم�ل�ي� ن�؟ �و�م�ا ا �ل��س���و� ا �ل��د �ي� �ير� �عم�ل�� ا �لن ��ن���� �م ن� ا �لن��� ي�؟ ع ن ن � ن ن � � �ّ � �و�م�ا �ه�م�ا أا �ل� �مي��ي��ا ر�ن�ا � ل��ي� ا � نل����ا ��ر�مي��د ا ن�لي��ا � ل��ي� ا ���و�ه� . م
١،١٢٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي� أ �� ن ا ي ّ ّ � � ّٰ نّ ا� ا � ن ي � ن ا � �أ�� ا ي ا ا ا �� �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا�م��� ل�ي� �لملر�م��� ا �ل� س�م� ء �و�ي��ع�� ���� ا ��م�ل ا �لمل��� � �عم�ل�� �سر � �أّا � يّ ي ��اأ نّ ا � � ّ ا��م�� ّ � ّ ن ن أ نّ � � ّ ي ن ح�ي� ي� ش��سم�ك ���و� ��ي� نر�ع� ��و� ا � ا �ل� ���� �ه�و س��م� � ح�ي� ر�ع� و ا �ل� �ي� �م ح�� �ل���ي�ر ك�� �ل��� �هي� �و م م م أ ّ ن �ي أ �ن ا ن أ نّ � �أ ا �م ا �� �� � ن ���ا �نّل�ه� �ي�لي �عو����و ن� أا ن� ا ��ل ���ا �يل���ي�ر أا ��ل�� �م �����ا �ن �لي��هي ا�ا�م���ا �ل�� ك� � ��و� ا � ��م�ل ا � ا �ل���س� �ي� �ن� ل حر�و�� ن أ أ ي م م ع أ �� � � ن� � � �ل��م� � ن � ا � ن �� ا �� ي ي أ ��ّ ن �ا� � ن �� �ي ا أ �� � �ن � � � ل � ل � � ��ي� � ��و �ل� مس��� ا لعي�� � ا �و ا ن�مل�و��� ا �و ا ���و� ن� ا �و ا �ل�ر�� �ل� ي ل � �����ي ر��� م� ا حر�و� م أ ن � ّ � �أ أن ي � �أ نّ ي � � ا � ن � � � ن ج �ل��د � � ا � ش ي ���س��من ي ا ا � ���س��مّ� �ن�ه �ل� � �لملك �ن� �ل�� ��� ��� ر� �ل�ه � .او � ن �ل���ر �ل� ن�م�ل ���د ه ا ع�و� � ي �ل ���ه أ ن أ � �ا � ن � ن ي � ن ا �ي ن ي ع ن �� ن ن ��ي� ل��ن� ن� ��لم�ك ن�م�لي���� ن ن� � ��� �� ح ن� ا � �ي�ا �ل�ن� أا ���س�ا � ا ���� ����ه� �و�و� نل���� ر ا � �ل��ل� ��م���ه ن�م�� �� � عا ن ي م م ن نّ ن ن � يّ ن نُ ّ ن � ّ أ نّ نّ ن ّ ن ن ن � �ل���س�ه ح�� أا � ا �ع�ي�ر ��� ن� ا ��ه أا ��م�ا ي�����ي�ر �ه�و �أاو � ا � �ع�ي� ن�����ي�ر ا ���سم�ه �أ�ا ��م�ا � �ع�ي� �ع�ي�ره ن�لم�ل �ير�� �أ نّ ُ ّ � ن ن ���ا ��م�ا �ن��د �ل �ن�ه � �ل���س�ه. ك � أ أ � ّ ��م� � ن ���س��ي ش � �������ًا ن ��ا �ن ن��سم�ا � ش � ��ل��ا � �� �لي��د ���سم�� ي� ���� ن�� ا�م ��وه ا �نّ�ه �ي�د ا ���ا ��ه ا�ا�م�ا ��نل � � ح � ��س � � � � � ل � ��س � � ي ي و ي� ي ي ر ن ي ن و ي ن وي ن أ� ن� ي � ي � ه ا � � ن � ي � ن �ن �ن � ي ا �� �ن ّ ��ل اأ نّ ��مم ن ي ي� ّ �� �ش�س ا �ً� �ش�س ا �ل� ن � ���مل� �ل� �و�م� ا �ل�د ي� ا � � ��ر� م� ل���سمك؟ �� ل يحي�م�ل �ي� � ي ي �ي� ��د � �ول �م� �ل� �و �م� �ي� أ ي � ّ � � ّ � ن ن � نًا � ي أ ّ ن ن ���ا ن ي��د ن �� ا �ش�سم�ك ل��� � ��لم�ك ن�م�ل ّ�م�ا ا �مي��د ن �ل�� ا �لن ن� ���ر ل��� �م��س�ا �لي��ه �و ن���د�ي�ه ك� حي�� ل��� ي�� يم�نس�ه ي� يم�س� �ل�� � ي ي مي ي ّ أ 1الا�ص�ل وط :ة�ن� ك� ��.
148
148
٢،١٢٠
٣،١٢٠
On why people dislike changing their name or patronymic, and why they have a sense of aversion toward certain names and titles Why are people averse to changing their patronymic or their name? I once
120.1
knew a man who, on account of a contingency that prompted him to do so, changed his patronymic, and he felt unhappy and ill at ease. His patronymic was “Abū Ḥafṣ” and he adopted the patronymic “Abū Jaʿfar.” His reason for doing so was that he asked a Shi ʿi for a favor and did not wish to be known as Abū Ḥafṣ.26 Why is it that some people hate certain things because of their name rather than their intrinsic nature, or their title rather than their inner substance? What is the meaning of the revulsion the soul is quick to feel when confronted with particular sobriquets and titles? What is the meaning of the tranquility that comes over the soul when it encounters particular appellations? And yet the two are similar in appearance and close in imagination. Miskawayh’s response Names bind themselves to meanings, and with the passage of time speakers of
120.2
a language grow so used to them that the two come to be virtually identified. This is what led a group of scholars to the controversial assertion that the name is identical with the thing it names, and what led a group of eminent learned men to assert that names correspond to particular meanings by nature.27 This seems to involve saying that only the letters that in fact combine to designate the meaning “standing” or “sitting,” “star” or “earth,” are fit to be used for referring to those meanings and no others, for those letters have come to belong to them by nature. This claim imposed upon the greatest philosophers the task of refutation and composing books on the topic. Therefore, it is little wonder that a person should grow so accustomed to his own name that he should think that he himself has undergone a change if it is changed, and if he is addressed with another name, he should think that someone else has been addressed, and that, indeed, it should seem to him as though his very self has thereby been altered. I heard an accomplished scholar consulting a doctor and expressing concern that his symptoms might mean that he had been stricken by melancholy. I asked him: What is it you find unusual in yourself? He replied: It seems to me as though my right side has become my left side, and my left side has become
149
149
120.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ ي �� � ي�ي ّ ��ل � ن � أ ا � ن أ ي ا أ ه ش�ّ ا� ّا ن ا ي ه ��ل ن� �يّ ن� ي ي � ي � ���د �� �� � �م� �� ر�� ��م�ره ا ل � �م�د ه لمل��رن� أا �� ن������ ا �ر�و��س� ء م� ا � ع�� �ل�ه أا �عم� �ه أا �ل�� م �� ّ ن � ن ن � ن� � ي ن � ن ن � ��ن ا ��لي ن �وا ن� حي�� ل��ي� ا �لي����س�ا ر ����ر��� �ل�ه �م ن� ا �لأ� �ل�� � او �����ا �ه ���د ا ا �����ا ر��� ��ا �عي�ن��ر �ن��د �لم�ك ي������م�ل ن�� أم ��� ي ا� ا �ن �� �� �م��س�ا ��لي�م�ك � �ي���ل��� �م�ا ل��ن ا ������ا �هي �م ن ا�ا� ش م��س�ا � ا ه ل � � م ك ل � ��� . � ل م � و م ي� � ي� نع أ � �ن�اأ �ّم�ا ��� � ا � �ع ن � ا � �ع ن��ه �ي ��� �م ن ا ن��ل � ا ���هي ا ��ل ن��ا ��� ا �ل ش���� ء ��ل�� ��س�م�ه ا �و ��لم�ل�يعن��ه � �ون�� نره �ن�ا ن��ل � � � � ون ر ن ري ن � و ن � ي� ن ا� اأ � ي ن � � أ نّ � �أ�� ا � �أ � ي ا أ ن ً � � ا هي � ا �ي ��ّ � �ل ه ��لم� � ا ي � ُ ا ي ���ر ��� 1م� ��د ل عمي�� ل�� �ه ��ره � � ��� � � ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �و� �لمك ا � ا �ل� س�م� ء � او �ل� � �ل�� ن� ا �يل� أ �أ ن آ ن ��ا ن ي نُ�� ا ����ن ن �ن � ���ا �ن��ور �ي�سم�ا ن���� ن�م�ك � �و��� ا �ر � � ا �ل���و ��ل�� ن�م�ل�و ا �ن�ّم�ك �ن �لي�م�ل ي� ا ���� ا ����� أا ��ل�� ا �� � ��� � �م��� � ��ر �� ي ني م ي ّ � ا� �� ن ه ا ن�لي�يم �نس ا � ن ه ن � ��ل �م�� ّ آ ن أ ن �� ّ �� أ� همي ا � س ا ا ا ا � � ا �� ن� ر � �ل���ور ا �ل���� او � �و�م يم�� ٰ�� �م� ��م�ل ي�م� ن�ي���� نو�ي���مك أ �� ��م� ر ن�لي���� �ي أ � ًا �ي�م�ًا �� �� ن � � � �أ ا ��� ا ي �� �ّ ّ ا �ّ � اأ ن �� ح � �ن ي� ��� �� ن ي ح � �ن� ا �ن �نل������ا ل ل � � � � � ا ا � � � � ن � � � � س � � � � � ي ر ر و رو رو �و� �لمك �ل� ن�م�ل ��� �ه ا لم � � ين له�م أ �ل� ي و ي ن ّ � ن ن � � ي ّ �ن ن ا� ا أ �م� ي �ي ح ن��هي ن��ا ن� ا ن��ل �م��سي ه ���د ر ���د ه ا�م��س� �لم�ل ��������. �وا ن� ع� � �لمك ��د �سر ل�ي� � �� س� ن� أ
٤،١٢٠
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي � أ ّ ح� ا ��له ّ � �م ن ن�عم�ل� �عم�ل��ه ا �� ن ح�ّ��ا ن� �ا� ���ا ���ا ا � ل��ن� �مل��� � �� ���� ن��م��ّ ��ل � � � حي�يس�ه � � � � ل � � � � � و ر � ي ن ي ��� �ل ا و ي م � ن ن ر ي م وع � م أ �ي �ن ي � �ن ��ل ا �� ل�ن ن � � � يّ ّ ّ� ا ن� ي � � ن ا ��س���ه � �ع� ش� ��ا ��ل � ح�� أا �ن�م�ك ح����؟ �و �د يح�مل� ا�� ل �ي� � �لمك �ورن�م� ���� ا �ل�ر��� �ن�أ � ن و ن ن ي � ّ � ي �� ن ن � ًا ن ا ًا � � ًا ن � ً ��لي� � ا � � ًا � ّ ���د �م�ه ا �ل�ه� �و���و�ع�ه ا ل ح � نح�م��� � �و� ��س� �و نم � ح�م�ا � � ير�ن� �مل��س� �سر� ح ن� �ع ن��د � ن��د �و ��د ي ر ي ً آ م ع ّ ن �� ين ً � � ّ ش � حش ��ا �وي ن� حن��ا � او ن�ر �ي ن�ل� ن أا ��ل�� ا ��نل �ن��د �لمك � �ل� � �م��ا ن� � ��و� �م�ل�وهي ��ّ �ل�� �ي�ليعن�� أا �ل�� ن� � ���د �ع ن��ده ن� � �� ر ير � م ع ع آ ّ � � � ش ن ي ح نّ ا ��ل � ي ا ن ا �� � � ��ن � ن ن ن ي �س ٢ن� ي �م�ل� ه �و� � ن أ � ��ي ��� �و ���ر�ي��� �عم� �م��� � او �ر �ي ��و�ر ا ل و ���� ي�� أ �� ن ���س� � �� ًل ورو � � �ونل� ر ي ً ا ش ّ �ن ي � ن �� ا � ن أ � � � ّ ي ي ن� ن ن ن ح�ي أا �ن�ّم�ك ��لن� ل ���د � او � ���د ا �ع ن��د �عم� �ش��يس�ه � �لم�ك �سر��ر �و�ل�هر ن�� ر ��م ح�مل�� ا�� �ل �ن�ي�� �ه�و�ل�ء � أ أ ن أّ أ أ ن ��� والا �ل��ة�ه�ا ن� �ل ك� 1الا�ص�ل :ود �ل�ك ا ن� الا���ما ء ا �ة ن���ص�ا ة�ُ ك� ��ا �ه��ة ٢ .ط :و� ش��س نر.
150
150
١،١٢١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ ي �� � ي�ي ّ ��ل � ن � أ ا � ن أ ي ا أ ه ش�ّ ا� ّا ن ا ي ه ��ل ن� �يّ ن� ي ي � ي � ���د �� �� � �م� �� ر�� ��م�ره ا ل � �م�د ه لمل��رن� أا �� ن������ ا �ر�و��س� ء م� ا � ع�� �ل�ه أا �عم� �ه أا �ل�� م �� ّ ن � ن ن � ن� � ي ن � ن ن � ��ن ا ��لي ن �وا ن� حي�� ل��ي� ا �لي����س�ا ر ����ر��� �ل�ه �م ن� ا �لأ� �ل�� � او �����ا �ه ���د ا ا �����ا ر��� ��ا �عي�ن��ر �ن��د �لم�ك ي������م�ل ن�� أم ��� ي ا� ا �ن �� �� �م��س�ا ��لي�م�ك � �ي���ل��� �م�ا ل��ن ا ������ا �هي �م ن ا�ا� ش م��س�ا � ا ه ل � � م ك ل � ��� . � ل م � و م ي� � ي� نع أ � �ن�اأ �ّم�ا ��� � ا � �ع ن � ا � �ع ن��ه �ي ��� �م ن ا ن��ل � ا ���هي ا ��ل ن��ا ��� ا �ل ش���� ء ��ل�� ��س�م�ه ا �و ��لم�ل�يعن��ه � �ون�� نره �ن�ا ن��ل � � � � ون ر ن ري ن � و ن � ي� ن ا� اأ � ي ن � � أ نّ � �أ�� ا � �أ � ي ا أ ن ً � � ا هي � ا �ي ��ّ � �ل ه ��لم� � ا ي � ُ ا ي ���ر ��� 1م� ��د ل عمي�� ل�� �ه ��ره � � ��� � � ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �و� �لمك ا � ا �ل� س�م� ء � او �ل� � �ل�� ن� ا �يل� أ �أ ن آ ن ��ا ن ي نُ�� ا ����ن ن �ن � ���ا �ن��ور �ي�سم�ا ن���� ن�م�ك � �و��� ا �ر � � ا �ل���و ��ل�� ن�م�ل�و ا �ن�ّم�ك �ن �لي�م�ل ي� ا ���� ا ����� أا ��ل�� ا �� � ��� � �م��� � ��ر �� ي ني م ي ّ � ا� �� ن ه ا ن�لي�يم �نس ا � ن ه ن � ��ل �م�� ّ آ ن أ ن �� ّ �� أ� همي ا � س ا ا ا ا � � ا �� ن� ر � �ل���ور ا �ل���� او � �و�م يم�� ٰ�� �م� ��م�ل ي�م� ن�ي���� نو�ي���مك أ �� ��م� ر ن�لي���� �ي أ � ًا �ي�م�ًا �� �� ن � � � �أ ا ��� ا ي �� �ّ ّ ا �ّ � اأ ن �� ح � �ن ي� ��� �� ن ي ح � �ن� ا �ن �نل������ا ل ل � � � � � ا ا � � � � ن � � � � س � � � � � ي ر ر و رو رو �و� �لمك �ل� ن�م�ل ��� �ه ا لم � � ين له�م أ �ل� ي و ي ن ّ � ن ن � � ي ّ �ن ن ا� ا أ �م� ي �ي ح ن��هي ن��ا ن� ا ن��ل �م��سي ه ���د ر ���د ه ا�م��س� �لم�ل ��������. �وا ن� ع� � �لمك ��د �سر ل�ي� � �� س� ن� أ
٤،١٢٠
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي � أ ّ ح� ا ��له ّ � �م ن ن�عم�ل� �عم�ل��ه ا �� ن ح�ّ��ا ن� �ا� ���ا ���ا ا � ل��ن� �مل��� � �� ���� ن��م��ّ ��ل � � � حي�يس�ه � � � � ل � � � � � و ر � ي ن ي ��� �ل ا و ي م � ن ن ر ي م وع � م أ �ي �ن ي � �ن ��ل ا �� ل�ن ن � � � يّ ّ ّ� ا ن� ي � � ن ا ��س���ه � �ع� ش� ��ا ��ل � ح�� أا �ن�م�ك ح����؟ �و �د يح�مل� ا�� ل �ي� � �لمك �ورن�م� ���� ا �ل�ر��� �ن�أ � ن و ن ن ي � ّ � ي �� ن ن � ًا ن ا ًا � � ًا ن � ً ��لي� � ا � � ًا � ّ ���د �م�ه ا �ل�ه� �و���و�ع�ه ا ل ح � نح�م��� � �و� ��س� �و نم � ح�م�ا � � ير�ن� �مل��س� �سر� ح ن� �ع ن��د � ن��د �و ��د ي ر ي ً آ م ع ّ ن �� ين ً � � ّ ش � حش ��ا �وي ن� حن��ا � او ن�ر �ي ن�ل� ن أا ��ل�� ا ��نل �ن��د �لمك � �ل� � �م��ا ن� � ��و� �م�ل�وهي ��ّ �ل�� �ي�ليعن�� أا �ل�� ن� � ���د �ع ن��ده ن� � �� ر ير � م ع ع آ ّ � � � ش ن ي ح نّ ا ��ل � ي ا ن ا �� � � ��ن � ن ن ن ي �س ٢ن� ي �م�ل� ه �و� � ن أ � ��ي ��� �و ���ر�ي��� �عم� �م��� � او �ر �ي ��و�ر ا ل و ���� ي�� أ �� ن ���س� � �� ًل ورو � � �ونل� ر ي ً ا ش ّ �ن ي � ن �� ا � ن أ � � � ّ ي ي ن� ن ن ن ح�ي أا �ن�ّم�ك ��لن� ل ���د � او � ���د ا �ع ن��د �عم� �ش��يس�ه � �لم�ك �سر��ر �و�ل�هر ن�� ر ��م ح�مل�� ا�� �ل �ن�ي�� �ه�و�ل�ء � أ أ ن أّ أ أ ن ��� والا �ل��ة�ه�ا ن� �ل ك� 1الا�ص�ل :ود �ل�ك ا ن� الا���ما ء ا �ة ن���ص�ا ة�ُ ك� ��ا �ه��ة ٢ .ط :و� ش��س نر.
150
150
١،١٢١
On the mannerisms of people whose mind is preoccupied
my right—I have no doubt about that. After questioning him extensively, I discovered that he had worn his ring on his right hand for a certain period of time in order to ingratiate himself with a powerful friend of his; when he left him, he happened to return his ring to his left hand, and he experienced this reaction as a result of custom and habit. If you consider this example, your question will become easy to answer, and you will grasp the similarity that joins habit and nature. The answer to your question about the revulsion people experience toward
120.4
something on account of its name, title, or sobriquet is closely related to the answer to this question. For names and titles also provoke revulsion on account of what they designate, because of prior habit. So, were a person to agree with another to reassign the name “coal” so that it designated camphor, whenever the word “coal” was mentioned, the image of something black would come to mind, and the fact that this had been reassigned to another object that is white and sweet-smelling would do nothing to prevent it. This is due to habit, unless of course the combination of the letters is repugnant and the letters themselves provoke distaste. The explanation of the latter phenomenon was discussed exhaustively in the earlier section of these questions.28
On the mannerisms of people whose mind is preoccupied, and on why people have so many different ways of behaving when they feel anxious or unhappy Al-Tawḥīdi asked: Why do people who feel anxious or who are preoccupied with ruminating about some contretemps love to touch their beard, tap the ground with their finger, or fidget with pebbles? People may vary in that respect, so that we find one person who, when anxiety attacks and grief bites, loves to be among large crowds, around people, and in packed social gatherings, endeavoring thereby to raise his spirits and experience a cheering effect. Another person, by contrast, seeks refuge in solitude and is only to be found in deserted places, confined spaces, or dark roads. Yet another likes solitude but longs for leafy gardens, blooming meadows, and flowing rivers. Furthermore, things vary among these people, so that we find one person who, faced with the adversity that overshadows his thought, exhibits a purer nature, a quicker heart, and a greater presence of mind, reciting rare poems and composing
151
151
121.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن� أ ن � ً أ �� ي � ًا أ ن ن ً حيّ � �ي �� � ي ا ن� هي � ن ا ي � ن ّ�ن � ا � هي �����ا � او ن� ل��� �ملن�� � او � ���� ا �ر��س� �ل� ا � �ل� � �سر� �ع ن��ا �و��� يل �عول ا � �ل�� كي�� ا �ل�� � ره �ويل� ح� ��را � ل���� �� ن آ أ ً ن ً ً ن �ن ن ي حيّ � ن ح� ن � ���ط �عم�ل�م�ا ن� ���يعن�م�ل ا �يّ�ا �م�ه �ل�م� ح ّ�م�ا �و�� ي � ��ا � او ن�ر �ي��د ��م�ل �و����م�ل�ه �و� نر �و��ل �ع ن��ه ا � �ل��ا �ره �و��� ي ي ي ي ُ � أ � �مي� ّ � حيّ ��� ���د � �م�ا ا �عي��د � � ��� اأ�س �ا�م�ا ن���ي��ه � ��� �ن � � ه� �ام�ا �ِ �ون�ه. ل � � � � � � ر ا � ار ي� �وي��ي � و ي وو ر ِ و و � �ي
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ّ أ � � �أ ٰ ّ �� � � � ن ن ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� ��ل�� �ي���ّ ����م� ا ن��ل ي��ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ � م��س� ��س�ا ن� و ل �وا رج أا �ل� �ع��د ا �ل ��و�م �ل�� ن � � ي ن ي ن ن�� ا � ي ���سي � ن � � ا � هي � � ّ � ن ي� � � �أ� ن ا ل�ن �� ي ن �� هي � ه س � � � ا � � � ا � � ا � � ل � � ء ا � ��� �ي� ي����� �لي����� ���د ا ���و� �� � �ر��� .و ع�م�ل ي � نح� لن���� ل� و�ل� ن��د م� ح �ر�مك �ل�ع� ي ع � نن ي ي ّ ّ ي ا ا هي � ن ي � �أ ن ن ي أا �م�ا �ن �ل�� ��س�ا �ع�ه �و �ل��ع ار ��� �م�����و�ه �أاو �م�ا ن��� ن�� ش� �و�ل�ه�و �و�ع ن��د �ع��م�ل�ه �و����هو� ���د �أو � ر �ونل� ُ � �أ ن � � ����أ�م ن� ��لم� �نل� ي� ا ��ل ش��س �����هي �ع ن ا ���ن� �ن � ي ن ����سم � اأ �س ا ��ل ن��ا �� � ����ّ �� ا ول ن �ل ك � ع�مل�ه �و�ل� � ه� ا �ل�� ن� �ع� ا ���� �ل و ر � و و � ير � أ � � � � ي � � � ن ي � � ي ي � � ا � ي ا ي � � ي نن ا�ام�د � �ن��رك ا ���� ���م�ل�ه � او �ش��سن���ا �ل ا �ل ن��ا ��� �نلن� �سر�و ن� ا �ل� ع�م� �ل �و� �لعن�� ��ه ا ���� ���مل�ه � �و �ل �عور ا ���ع��م�ل أ � � ن ا �ش ي ن� ا �� ن� ّ ن �م� � ا ��ل ش��م ��� ن � ن � ن ��ا ن�كي�ه�م�ا � ا ن���ند �ه�م�ا �م ن ا ���ه�س � ن� ���ا �له�م�ا � ر و ن� � � او �ل��ر� �عم�ل�� �م� � و ع���� ا ��س�م�ل ل� ارع نلل� ن� �رن ج أ أ ّ ي ش � � �ي ا ا �نا ��ا �� نر�م�ا ن� ل��ن� ن�ع�ي�ر �����ا �ألم�ل �نأ�ا ن� ا ن��ل �م�ل�و��� �ن�ل�� ��من��م�ل �و�ل� �ر����ه ن��ن���ي�ر ن� �سر�وره ا �سر �ي� �ن� ه ا �ل�� ��� ن ي ��ا نّ ي ا� ا ن � � ن ا ك�� ��ه �م� � ��ر�� ه. � �ن ن � أ �ن ا � �� ن� � ّ � � ي ّ � نّ ن أ ن ���� ح ن� ا �ل� � �وا ر��ه �أاو ��م�ا �ي���ن��ن�ه� ا � ي�لي��ع�ّو� ا �لأ����س�ا � �ن�ا �لي��ا ���ي ن� ��ر � او �ل�ه� �ل� ي�ل��� ���م�ل ن�� � م ُي أ ُ ً � �� ن � � � ن ا ن ��ا ي � ي ي � �نن ي ي �ن ُ �رك�� � ن ح�مي�م�ل�ه �مش�م�ل ا � �ل� ن� ��ي�� ن� ا �ل��د �ي� �و ن� ��� �لم�ل�مم�ل�وك �و��د ��ره � �لمك ا يل� �� أا �ل�� ا �ل��ر�� ��� �و��� ن ع أ � ن ُ ن ا� ن ���م ل��ن � ن���� ا ���� ���� ��ا ��نل ا ي ن ا ّ ا ّ � � ح��هي � �يم�ل� � نأ ن �ش � �� ��م �� �م� �م��� ا لم�لي و ع ا � �ر�ن�ر �م� ا �ل��و ن� ل�م���د �و� �م� ا��سر��� �و ن� �ل ي� ن � وع ن أ � ي ن � �من ي ن �� هي � � ا هي نّ �����أنّ�ه � ���� ��س�هي ا ��ل��أ� � �لم� �ه� �ع� ش� ���د ��ّل �عم� ا نّ� ���ا � ح��ه � ه � ق ل � � � � � � � م � � � م � ع � � ع � ل � ل ل ل ر ير ن ن نل و ن ي �� و ن ري �� حي � ّ � ي ي � ن ن � ن ي � ن � ����هي ي � ح�ي� �ع نرن� �ع�ي�م�ل�ه �و� �� ن� ��مي��ي� نره � �����ه �و�ل� �ي���ن��ن�ه� � �لم�ك �ام ن� �ل�ه ��مي��ي� نر � �ون�ه �م��س� ��د ا �سمم�ل ي ن ي� ن أن ن ��ا ن ي � �ي ه ن اأ �ّ ا ا ن نن حي��ل�� �ن� ا ��ل ا � �ن � ن ا � ا � �ي�لع��م�ل�ه ن�لم�ل �ي���نّ��ه �عم�لي��ه �م ن� � �ل���س�ه � �وي��ر����ه أا � ك�� ��� �عم � � �� .م� �� �ل ل�ي� ا �ل�� ��� أ ّ ن ن حسي ا � � ا ��ل ن ا �� اأ � � ّ �نس ن � ّ � ا ��ل�� ن� � ا ��نل ح�� ��ر ي� ا �ي��س�ا �م�ه �ي�يس�ه �و� �� �م�ل�وهي �و ن�ع�ي�ر � ��لم�ك �م�م�ا � ح � م � � � م ي و � ن ي�م يح ن ن نّ� ن � ي � ع ع ن أ ّ � ن� ن � ا ��ل ا � ّ � ّ ا ��نل � ي �أ�ا � � �لم�ك ��ا ن��� �لم�ل�س ن ار ن� �و� ا ك ا � ���ا � ��ر ����و� �و ي� يح ن� �مل�وه ح ن� ا �ل����و� ا ء � او � �ل� � ع ج
152
152
٢،١٢١
٣،١٢١
On the mannerisms of people whose mind is preoccupied
magnificent epistles, acquiring large bodies of knowledge and turning the experience he confronts into sound counsel, whereas another person is stunned and stupefied, his judgment takes flight and his mind is plunged in confusion, so that he would fail to accept guidance were he to be given it, he would fail to comprehend any order, and he would fail to take heed of any prohibition.
Miskawayh’s response The only time the soul puts the limbs out of operation is during sleep, though
121.2
this is not the right occasion to go into the reasons. Reason disapproves of inertia, and during wakefulness the bodily members must necessarily move, whether intentionally and voluntarily, in a skilled manner and for specific purposes, or by way of idle play and diversion and in a state of inattentiveness and distraction. This is why the religious Law prohibits inattentiveness, why the principles of good breeding forbid laziness, and why citizens and their rulers have been commanded to avoid inactivity and to occupy themselves with different kinds of work. Because inactivity is repugnant and reason is averse to it, people in their leisure time busy themselves with games of chess and backgammon despite their foolishness and despite the fact that they consume part of one’s life and fritter away time to no profit, for nobody wants to sit about without occupation and without moving unless it is an unavoidable necessity, for the reasons we mentioned above. The limbs of the person lost in thought or feeling anxious do not become inactive, but through discipline a person must habituate himself to performing seemly movements, the way staffs were appointed for the use of kings, which is also deemed reprehensible and viewed as a kind of frivolousness, being considered to belong to the same category as infatuation with rings. Touching the beard and plucking the fibers off a new garment are considered symptoms of illness, for they are a disordered type of movement that does not conform to the standards of good breeding; in fact, they are an idle type of movement which indicates that the person soldiered on until, in one fell swoop, he lost his reason and his discrimination. A person possessed of discrimination and intelligence will not engage in this; he must be made conscious of what he is doing and must desist from it if it is his wont. The variations between different people—such as those who like to associate with people and those who like solitude, and all the other things you recounted and whose subdivisions you listed—are contingent
153
153
121.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ��ي�ن ّ اأ ن ن � � أ ّ ا ا � � � ا ��ل��د � �� � ّ ن��ا �نّ�ه ي� ّ � � � �نا حي ا �� � او ل��ر� � �وي� ���� �ن��د �لمك � او �م� ��� �ر � او � ن�ل� � ح ن� ا � ن�ل� � ح ن� ا �ل� ن �سم�ع � او �ل�� ��� ��ر و ي� أ ّ آ �ن ي �ن ي �ورن��م�ا ا ش�ر ا �ل�� نر���ه � او � �ل�ر ن��ه. ن أ نّ �� ي �عّ�م ن �ل� ن ��س� ا ��ل ش ����ن ا �� ��س�ا ��ل�هي � � ش��من��م �ن �نل���س�ه ��ا �����م�ل� � ن� � ا �ّم�ا �م�ا � � � � ��مي�� � ��م ح� ل � � � � � و و و ي و ي ر ي ن ر ن ي ي ن�ل ّ ن م ع � ع ّ � � ن ن � ي ن ن ي ن ن �� � ا � � �ر �أ�ا � ك� ���ا � �كن�م�ل � �لم�ك �م�م ن� � �ي ا �� �� �� �عم� �ه �م ن� �يل ���ر��ه ا � ن�ل� � � �لمك أا �م� �ي��و� نح�� ن ير� � ن�لن������ � ن أ ن � �أش ا أ ��ش � ن� ن� ا ن ا نّ ��ا ن � ه �� �� �� ��ا ا ��ل� �م�ا ا � ل ل � ا � م � ع � ع � � � ك ���د ه ا �ل����يس� ء ا �و �ي��� ر ا � �ل� � � � � ي وي و أ � ��� �أ� ��ه ن�����د �ور�و� ا ����� ر��� يلنمل أ � ��ر كي� أ ن ّ � ن ن� � � ي ه ن ن ش ا أ� ي � ن ��� ّ ي ��ل � ن� ن ن �ن �س ا � ن ن � ن � ن �عم � �� ن�ل ������ �� ره م� ��ر �ي����د ي�م� ك ���ا � �كي��ه �و�ل� �ن��د ا � �يل���ي�ر � �لم�ك ا � ن�ل� � �ل�ره أا �� ا � �ل� � ��ر�م� نّ ن � � ي ن ن � ا� ن � ن � أ أ أ � ن� ن���� �م�ا � �ه�م�ه ا �عن��� ا �نّ�ه �ي�لي �عو��ل ا � �لي��ا ن�كي��هي � � ����� ا �ر��س�ا �ل�ه ل��� � �لم�ك ا�م�س��� ا �ل��د �ي� ��� ار �عم�لي��ه ل � و ي � ي ي � ��اأ ن �لي ّ �ن ل�ن �ش�م� اآ ن� �ن � ّ ا ��ل ا �� ّ ا �� � ن � � �ليم� �ي ه � ن � ي � ن ن ح�ّ� هن � �� ���ن� ي����س����ي� �عملي��ه �ن �ل� � ��ر ك�� � ي �� �سر� �ي� �ر ر �ي ر� ه أ �� ل�ه�م 1ل�د ي� ي�ل�� �وي ر ن � ش أ �ّ أ ن �م ّ ا ن أ ّ � ن ن �� �ّه �مي� ّ� �ن �ن �ه�و ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ا� �ي �� �يم��� ء �� ��د � او � ل��� �م� ك� ��ل�� �م�ه �و��م��ره ا � ���ا � � او �م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� �ي��د ��م�ل �وي��مل� �وي�� ر � ي ن �� � � م ي ي ن � � ا �� ش ن� � ه �م ّ ن � � � ي ا ن�� ا ��ل ش � � � ي� ّ � � � �ي ه اأ ن �لم�لاأ �� ل � ل ل ا � ��م �� م م � � � ع � � � س � � � � � �م � � � � م ٢ � � ��م � � ع م � ر و�ل ر �ل و�ل �كن�م�ل ورو لمك � ين أ �� �ل ي � �ل ير � ن� � ي � ح��ا � ن�ك��ه ا ��ل� �ن ���س�ه�مم�ل�ه ل��ن ا ���مين �ن ح��ا ��ا � او ��لم�ل�����ا �أل�ن� �ن�ا ن� ا ���� �ي�ه �عم� ر ن�� ي� ي ح ا ن� ا ��ل � � ��ره �وي � � � �� ن أ � � ي � ن أ ي ر ر ي ج رج أ ا� ن� ���ده � ا ���ا ��ه �م ن ا ���� ��ل�ه � ا ��ل��د� ش ���� �م�ا � ���ر ي�. �م ي ن� و ن � و و
٤،١٢١
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� أ أ � ا أ ً� اأ � ن� ي ا � ح��د ��� ن ��� � ن �ع ن ا ��ل��ا � أ ا �ّ�� �ل ن��ن ا ا ا ي م � � � � � � را ��ي ي� ����� ��ل� ����� �ل ���� � ا � ا � ل � � � م � � � � � ل ل � ل � ل ل � ن و ي ن ي ن رو � ن ر أ ن �ي� ّٰ ّ � ن ن � ّ � ا �ل���ن��ا ي�؟ ن���يعي�م�ل ��ل�ه �ن�� ن� �ي��و��لم�ك � او ن���م ���ط ن�كي��ه أا را � �ي�م�ك ي��ا �ل أا ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ل��� � �� ��ر���ن��ا ي� ا لله ي ي � ي ي ن ن � ا أ ن ي ي ي � � � ن ا ي � ��ا �� ���� � � �� ي � � ا ي � ا �� �ي ي ل �� ل � � ا � � ه ه ا س � � ل ا � � � � � � � � � � ح�� ه و ل��د ره �����ا �ل�� �عم�ل�� ��� �ر�لع���ي� ����� ل�� ل �عول �ل� ���� � ل� ك� �م و ل� و ن�� �سر و ي ي ع م أ ن �ن ن ن � � � ي � حّ ���د ه ا ��ل���ن��ا ي� ��� ��� �ن� ��ا �نّ�ه �� م�� �نل���ي�ر � س ��� � �ك � �ي�ا � ر �عم� ا� �و ����ا �أ�لن��ه �ي�ا �ل ي� ���د ه �نّ��ه �م� ل��� � ي و و ن ي � أ ع ي ع � اي � � ّ م � �ي ا ي � ا ا� �ن � �ن ا ي �ه ا ������� ا �� �ي ي ح�يع �ي ح�� ه � �ل� ���د �م ن � ل � � � � ا � ا ه ل � � � � �د � ل ل � � � ���ا. � ٣ � � � � � � � � � � � � � ل ي� م و ر و ي و ن � أ � و ي� ا �س�م� ء ا�م�و و ن أ أ أ 1الا�ص�ل وط :الا �هّ ٢ .ط :ن� ش��س�عر ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل�ع�ا ل . م م
154
154
١،١٢٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ��ي�ن ّ اأ ن ن � � أ ّ ا ا � � � ا ��ل��د � �� � ّ ن��ا �نّ�ه ي� ّ � � � �نا حي ا �� � او ل��ر� � �وي� ���� �ن��د �لمك � او �م� ��� �ر � او � ن�ل� � ح ن� ا � ن�ل� � ح ن� ا �ل� ن �سم�ع � او �ل�� ��� ��ر و ي� أ ّ آ �ن ي �ن ي �ورن��م�ا ا ش�ر ا �ل�� نر���ه � او � �ل�ر ن��ه. ن أ نّ �� ي �عّ�م ن �ل� ن ��س� ا ��ل ش ����ن ا �� ��س�ا ��ل�هي � � ش��من��م �ن �نل���س�ه ��ا �����م�ل� � ن� � ا �ّم�ا �م�ا � � � � ��مي�� � ��م ح� ل � � � � � و و و ي و ي ر ي ن ر ن ي ي ن�ل ّ ن م ع � ع ّ � � ن ن � ي ن ن ي ن ن �� � ا � � �ر �أ�ا � ك� ���ا � �كن�م�ل � �لم�ك �م�م ن� � �ي ا �� �� �� �عم� �ه �م ن� �يل ���ر��ه ا � ن�ل� � � �لمك أا �م� �ي��و� نح�� ن ير� � ن�لن������ � ن أ ن � �أش ا أ ��ش � ن� ن� ا ن ا نّ ��ا ن � ه �� �� �� ��ا ا ��ل� �م�ا ا � ل ل � ا � م � ع � ع � � � ك ���د ه ا �ل����يس� ء ا �و �ي��� ر ا � �ل� � � � � ي وي و أ � ��� �أ� ��ه ن�����د �ور�و� ا ����� ر��� يلنمل أ � ��ر كي� أ ن ّ � ن ن� � � ي ه ن ن ش ا أ� ي � ن ��� ّ ي ��ل � ن� ن ن �ن �س ا � ن ن � ن � ن �عم � �� ن�ل ������ �� ره م� ��ر �ي����د ي�م� ك ���ا � �كي��ه �و�ل� �ن��د ا � �يل���ي�ر � �لم�ك ا � ن�ل� � �ل�ره أا �� ا � �ل� � ��ر�م� نّ ن � � ي ن ن � ا� ن � ن � أ أ أ � ن� ن���� �م�ا � �ه�م�ه ا �عن��� ا �نّ�ه �ي�لي �عو��ل ا � �لي��ا ن�كي��هي � � ����� ا �ر��س�ا �ل�ه ل��� � �لم�ك ا�م�س��� ا �ل��د �ي� ��� ار �عم�لي��ه ل � و ي � ي ي � ��اأ ن �لي ّ �ن ل�ن �ش�م� اآ ن� �ن � ّ ا ��ل ا �� ّ ا �� � ن � � �ليم� �ي ه � ن � ي � ن ن ح�ّ� هن � �� ���ن� ي����س����ي� �عملي��ه �ن �ل� � ��ر ك�� � ي �� �سر� �ي� �ر ر �ي ر� ه أ �� ل�ه�م 1ل�د ي� ي�ل�� �وي ر ن � ش أ �ّ أ ن �م ّ ا ن أ ّ � ن ن �� �ّه �مي� ّ� �ن �ن �ه�و ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ا� �ي �� �يم��� ء �� ��د � او � ل��� �م� ك� ��ل�� �م�ه �و��م��ره ا � ���ا � � او �م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� �ي��د ��م�ل �وي��مل� �وي�� ر � ي ن �� � � م ي ي ن � � ا �� ش ن� � ه �م ّ ن � � � ي ا ن�� ا ��ل ش � � � ي� ّ � � � �ي ه اأ ن �لم�لاأ �� ل � ل ل ا � ��م �� م م � � � ع � � � س � � � � � �م � � � � م ٢ � � ��م � � ع م � ر و�ل ر �ل و�ل �كن�م�ل ورو لمك � ين أ �� �ل ي � �ل ير � ن� � ي � ح��ا � ن�ك��ه ا ��ل� �ن ���س�ه�مم�ل�ه ل��ن ا ���مين �ن ح��ا ��ا � او ��لم�ل�����ا �أل�ن� �ن�ا ن� ا ���� �ي�ه �عم� ر ن�� ي� ي ح ا ن� ا ��ل � � ��ره �وي � � � �� ن أ � � ي � ن أ ي ر ر ي ج رج أ ا� ن� ���ده � ا ���ا ��ه �م ن ا ���� ��ل�ه � ا ��ل��د� ش ���� �م�ا � ���ر ي�. �م ي ن� و ن � و و
٤،١٢١
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� أ أ � ا أ ً� اأ � ن� ي ا � ح��د ��� ن ��� � ن �ع ن ا ��ل��ا � أ ا �ّ�� �ل ن��ن ا ا ا ي م � � � � � � را ��ي ي� ����� ��ل� ����� �ل ���� � ا � ا � ل � � � م � � � � � ل ل � ل � ل ل � ن و ي ن ي ن رو � ن ر أ ن �ي� ّٰ ّ � ن ن � ّ � ا �ل���ن��ا ي�؟ ن���يعي�م�ل ��ل�ه �ن�� ن� �ي��و��لم�ك � او ن���م ���ط ن�كي��ه أا را � �ي�م�ك ي��ا �ل أا ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ل��� � �� ��ر���ن��ا ي� ا لله ي ي � ي ي ن ن � ا أ ن ي ي ي � � � ن ا ي � ��ا �� ���� � � �� ي � � ا ي � ا �� �ي ي ل �� ل � � ا � � ه ه ا س � � ل ا � � � � � � � � � � ح�� ه و ل��د ره �����ا �ل�� �عم�ل�� ��� �ر�لع���ي� ����� ل�� ل �عول �ل� ���� � ل� ك� �م و ل� و ن�� �سر و ي ي ع م أ ن �ن ن ن � � � ي � حّ ���د ه ا ��ل���ن��ا ي� ��� ��� �ن� ��ا �نّ�ه �� م�� �نل���ي�ر � س ��� � �ك � �ي�ا � ر �عم� ا� �و ����ا �أ�لن��ه �ي�ا �ل ي� ���د ه �نّ��ه �م� ل��� � ي و و ن ي � أ ع ي ع � اي � � ّ م � �ي ا ي � ا ا� �ن � �ن ا ي �ه ا ������� ا �� �ي ي ح�يع �ي ح�� ه � �ل� ���د �م ن � ل � � � � ا � ا ه ل � � � � �د � ل ل � � � ���ا. � ٣ � � � � � � � � � � � � � ل ي� م و ر و ي و ن � أ � و ي� ا �س�م� ء ا�م�و و ن أ أ أ 1الا�ص�ل وط :الا �هّ ٢ .ط :ن� ش��س�عر ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل�ع�ا ل . م م
154
154
١،١٢٢
On different ways of approaching God’s attributes
on the humoral mixture. People affected by black bile and by melancholy thought like to be solitary and apart, and find it congenial, whereas people affected by sanguine thought like to associate with and be around people, and are sometimes fond of excursions and entertaining spectacles. Let’s take the points you made about those who turn out poetry, compose
121.4
epistles, and busy themselves with different forms of knowledge—all of this depends on the habits of the people beset by thought and worry. If previously they had been the type of people who occupied themselves with them or devoted much thought to them, after the supervening incident, they resort to their former state and return to their habitual activity with a soul that has been roused and compelled to think, acquitting themselves with skill in their familiar activity. It is unavoidable that their thoughts be directed to the kind of thing that befell them—that is, that they compose poems and epistles relating to the matter that affected them, but with the assistance of thought—for example, by applying themselves to some other poetry and referring it back to the worries troubling and galvanizing them; then their words and their poetry come out keener and purer than before. People who are stunned and stupefied and whose mind is plunged into confusion, by contrast, are those who did not practice poetry or compose epistles before they were visited by the matter that preoccupies them, and who did not have a habit of resorting to thought and of using it to unearth hidden subtleties. So, when they are beset by an incident that requires them to think, they cannot find the means, and are struck by the kind of bewilderment and dazed condition you have described.
On different ways of approaching God’s attributes I saw someone pose the following question: Why is it that the only way the adherents of God’s unity describe the Creator is by denying Him any attributes? 29 He was told: Explain your point and clarify your intention. He said: People follow two approaches in discussing the attributes of God. One faction says: He possesses no attributes—such as hearing, knowledge, sight, life, and power—yet even though these attributes are to be denied, He is qualified as hearing, seeing, living, powerful, and knowing. Another faction says: These are names that belong to a subject qualified by attributes that consist in knowledge, power, and life, and these must be applied and affirmed. Both factions
155
155
122.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ نّ � ا� � ���ا � ا ا� ن ي ا � � � ش��ّ ا نّ� ���ا �ي�� ن ا ��ل�����ا �أ�لنعي��� ن ي� �يل �����ا �ن �ليعي��ا �عم�ل� ا ��ه �عم � �ل� ك�� ����� �م��ي� �و�� � ر �ل� ك� ���ا � �لي��ا � ر � ن� �و��س� م�� مأ ي ي� ي � ّ� م ع ي�ّ أ نّ � � اً � � ش � � ي � ا أ ّ � ن ي ي � � ي ي �م�ل�م�� ن ��ل�� ك���ا �ل��س�ا �م���� ن �و�م� � �ل��� �ل� ك���ا �م� � ي�� �� .عم� � � ا � �ل��ا �لم�ل�ه �ن�ا �ل�����ا � �عم�ل�� ا � �ل�ه �عمل�م� ي� م �� � ح ن يّ�اأ ي م ا �� ن ن �ن ��ا ن ي � � ا �أ�ن ي ا ن ل�ن ن � ا � أ � �مش ي هي � � � �ل� ك� ���ا ����م�ل�و� � او � � �� � �عم�ل�� ل ل���� ل�ي� ن �مي�� � �لمك� .وك�� ��� ا �ل���� لع�� � �ي� ���� ��را � ار ي� �ن���� م � ي آ ن �ّ أ ني ّ ع ن آن � أ � ن � ي نا ن ي � ا � �عن���ا ا ا �ل ���ه ا ن���د هي أا �ل�� ا � ي�لن��ي� ن� �م�ا � ن � � �� �كي��ه �م�� �� ي يري��د �عم�ل�� ���د ا��� .د ا ا �ر ا�م��س� �ل�ه � او ن��و ن � ا ن ن �ي م � ن � ��ا ن ن ا ن � ن ي �����ه ���ل ��ط �م� �رن��ا � �م� � أا �لي��ه ل��ي� � ��و ن� �ن� �� ر أا � ��س� �ع�د � � ع ا �لن�يس� � أا � ا ح ي ع ا �لأ�ي ن �ه�م � �و�ن�� ي ج ّٰ ن أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله .1
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ٰ أ � أ � ن ه ن ا ن � � � � ا ن �ن ي ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله ا �ّم�ا �ي�� ��لم�ك ا ن��ل � ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� �وا ن� ع�� �ر�� � م� ا �لأ�ي ن�� �ه�و �ر�� ن� � ر � و و ي� أ ّ ي ي � ّا ي ي ن �ن ي � ه � ن �� � ي هع� ا ن �ن ��ّ ن هي ن � � �م ن � � � � � � ه � �ل � � � ل ل � � م ل م � � � ع � � � ل ع � � � � � � � � � � � �� ه � س م�م� �م�ل� �و� ا ك ا � �ل و �و �و� يع ي و م يو �� ن � � �و ن �و � � ن ي � ّ � ن أن ن ّٰ ي ا � ّٰ ي � أ ي ا لله �����ا �ل�� �أاو �ن��د ا �ل�ه �و�م ن� �ِم ن��ه ا �م�� ن� �ن�ه �عم�ل�� �م�ل���ه �و�لي����� ي ن � �ور ا � �ي ��و���� ا لله ����� �ل�� ع �� ّ أ ن ن ني � � � نم � �ي � ه �ن ن � � � � ن � ن ا ا ا � � ��د ل م � � م � ل � � � ل ��ا ر ك���ا ��� .و�ل� �ن��د �م ن� ا � �ل�� ن���م ��ط � نو�لي��ا � �كن ��ع�و�ل � ن��م� �ه�و �من��دع �و و � ع أين ّ أ نّ � ا � أ � أ � � نّ � ن ���د �ه�و �ع نّر ا ��س�م�ه �مي��ي��د � ا ����و� � ا �ل���ّو�ل ا ��� او � أا � ا �لن��ر���ا � ي��د ي��ا � �عم�ل� ا � ا �ل � � م � � ع � � � ل ر ن و � ن � م ��ّ ي � � م � أ أ ّ � ش �ّهي �ي ي أ � م ح�� �� �� � او �نّ�ه ا �ّو��ل ��ا ��ل ح�عي ��ي��ه ا �ي� �لي����� �ل�ه ����ي� ء ي�لي��ي��د �م�ه �عم�ل�� ��سن��ي�م�ل �عمل� ���ل �م�ع� �عو�ل �و� و � ن أ أ ّ ً ً � ي يي ّ ن � ن �� ن �� �و�ه ا �ن��د ا �و�م�ا �و ن�� �و�ل� ��سن�� ن� �و�ل� �ع�ي�ر�ه�م�ا �و�م�ا �لي����� �ل�ه �عم�ل�ه ي�ل����د �م�ه ��� ٢ون�� �و�ه ا �ن��د ا �ّ��ه�و � �ن � � �ن � ن � � ّي ن � ن� ن ي�� ا��ا ن � � او ن� �ه�و ا�م �ير�ل �و�م�ا ا�م �ير�ل �م�لي����� �ل�ه �عم�ل�ه �م�لي����� ن��م��ر�� ن� ح ن� ا ���ون�� �و� �و�م� ك�� � ���د �لمك � ّ ّ ّ أ � أ �ً أ �ًا ��ا ن ي ي ي ّ � � �مي��ش � ��أنّه �� � ن ش أ ن ا ��ا ا �و ك� ���ا ن� �م��يرلن���� � � �و�ل� ���� ر �ل� � ��و ك ���ا � �سرل ن�� ��� � ��د � �ل��د �م�ه ����ي� ء ا �ع��ي� ن���س� �ل ����ه ا �و أ آ ّ�� � � ي� ّش � �أ ا ن ي� ّ � ش ي ي � ن ا نّ ّ � ا ي ي ا �� ن ا ن ن � � ا ا �� �ه� .و��د �مل�� أا ��ه ا �و�ل �م ي�ل ����د �م�ه ��ي� ء �أ� � � �لي����� ن��سر�� ن� �و�ل� �م�����ر � او �ل��و��� �� � ��ي� أ � ��ا ن ي �ي � هي � ن �ي � هي � ه أ ��م ي شي ا � ن شي ا � ي ن ن ن ي ���د�ش�ه ن�����ده �و���و ك�� ��� �دي�م� �ي���ن����� �ل�ه �م� �ي���ن����� �لي����� �م�ل�و �م� ا � ����و� �دي�م� م��� ا �و �ش ي �� ن ي � � � � ي ي ّ � ي آ � ي � ���ا ن ن ا �ش � ���ا ��� �ل� م ��ا �ل�ه �م��ركن� ��رهي �و���و ك� ��� � �ع�� ك �� ���ا ن�� ي� ����ره � � �و�ه � ���ه �م ن� ا ��ا � �و�ه ن� ��ون � �م���ه ���ون � أ أ ن ة 1الا�ص�ل :أا � ش��س�ا ء ٢ .الا�ص�ل��� :ه�د ����.
156
156
٢،١٢٢
On different ways of approaching God’s attributes
agree on the view that God is qualified as “knowing” in a way unlike the way other beings are qualified as “knowing,” qualified as “powerful” in a way unlike the way other beings are qualified as “powerful,” qualified as “hearing” in a way unlike the way other beings are qualified as “hearing,” and qualified as “speaking” in a way unlike the way other beings are qualified as “speaking.” Furthermore, the faction that affirms God’s attributes has resorted to the view that He has knowledge that is unlike the knowledge of other beings, and they have adopted a stance of negation with regard to all of it. Pending further clarification, it seems, on the face of it, that both factions affirm and deny, give and take. That is the end of the question. The response can be given in a few lines and, with the assistance of understanding, in brief, and by way of an expansive exposition if required in the relevant context, God willing. Miskawayh’s response Your remark, “The response to it can be given in a few lines and . . . in brief . . .” is close to what I have said. For every attribute and every subject of attributes that one’s imagination alights on and that one’s tongue pronounces is given by God’s generosity, originates with Him, and is a bounty He bestows on His creation; it is impermissible that God be qualified by means of things He has originated and created. That suffices as a brief response, but it is necessary to provide minimal clarification and exposition. We therefore say as follows. It has been demonstrated that the One, the First Creator, is prior in existence to all intelligible and sensible things and that He is first in reality, that is, there is nothing that precedes Him as a cause or ground or in any other way. A being that is not preceded by a cause exists eternally, and a being that exists eternally exists necessarily. A being that is such has always been, and a being that has always been has no cause, and is neither composite nor characterized by multiplicity. For were it composed or a composite, there would be something that preceded it—namely, its elements or parts. Yet we have said that He is first and has not been preceded by anything, so He cannot be composed or characterized by multiplicity. The attributes affirmed of Him by those who affirm them might either be eternal alongside Him or originated after Him. If they were eternal alongside Him and their existence were conjoined with His existence, there would be multiplicity, and if there were multiplicity, it would inevitably be a composite of parts. If the parts were prior, or if the unity—particularly the
157
157
122.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ �آ ّ يأ � � �� ي � �آ ا ����ش ي � ي�ي ّ هي ���دهي � ي ّ ا � ي ن �و� ��و ك� ���ا ن�� ي� ا �ل����ا � �مي��ي��د �م�ه ا �و ا � ��و� ���ا ي�ر�ن��� 1ا �ل��� � � او ���� ره م���د �م� �س�سم� ا � ��ي� �م � أ أ أ �ً �� ن ن � ً � � ن � ن� �ا �ي �� �ن ا �ّو �ل�� � ٢و�ي�د �يم�ل ن��ا أا �نّ�ه ا �ّو��ل �و���و ك� ���ا ن�� ي� ا �و���ا �ن�ه ن�����ده � � ���ا � ��ا �لي��ا �من����ا �ي�سم�ا �ام �ير�ل �� م ن� ي � � ���د ش� �ع ن ��س��� � �عم�ّل�هي �ي����ا ��ل� ا ّٰلله � �م�ّ �ع ّ�م�ا ���د ش� ��ل�ه �م�ا ���دهي � ا نّ��م�ا � � �و�مل� ن � ن ن و ��� �ل�ه ا ���و� أو � و ل ي � ا� � � ن ي ي � ن ا نّ �� � ه � � �ّهي �ي�ل �عو�ل ٣ا�من� ���مل�و� �و��د �مل�� أا ��ه �ل� ��سن�� ن� �ل� �و�ل� �عمل� .
أ � � أّ � ي ن � او �ّم�ا أا �����ل�� �كين��ا �م�ا �نل ����م�ل�ي��ه �عم�لي��ه �م ن ا ن��ل �و� � او � �لي��د رهي �و�����ا أ�ر ا �ل���ن��ا ي� ن��ل�� ن� ا ���ع��م�ل أا � ا �� � �ي أ أ � � ��ا ن� � او ��ل����م�ل� ا �و أا ��ل�� ا ��ل �ي���� ا �ل ش���� ء أا ��ل�� ا ��ل��ي ن� � ا �و أا ��ل�� ا �� ��و� �م � ح��س ن� � او � �ل� �و� � او �����د � � � ن ي � ن أ ن ي م ّ � �أ�ن ن � ن ا � �م أ ن ن ن �� �ن ��ّ ��� �ن � ن ن�ك ن ج ا ن� ل ن��� ��ا ��ل�� ��م�ا ��ل�هي �م ش��س�� � ن � ه �ل � م ل � ا ا � ل �� �ل����م�ل � �ه�م� أ ي�� أ ي ري � �و نح ن� ا � ي ��ر �ي� �ل �ر�ي� ي����� ن ً� أ أ آ � � ن � �ه ا ��� �ن ا ن �ن �د�ن ا ا � �د �ه ا �م�د ًا � ا � � ن ���ا �نّ�ا ���سم�ع ن��ا ��ا �� �لي��د هي � ا ���� ه أا �لي��ه ن� ��و���ن� �مش��ل� ك� � �� � � � � � � � � � � ح � م � م � � ل � � ن ر و نر و ر ون و ر ن ّ � � ن �ًّا �ن � أ ن ن ��ند ��لم�ك �ن ن�لع��م� ل��ن� ا ن��ل �� أا �لي��ه �م�ا �ه�و �م�د � �ع ن��د �ن�ا �و��� ح ن� ا � �ن����� �و� �و� ���د ه � او ����ل��� �� � م� ��و ن ل ن ي ج م ّ ّ أ أ ً � � � ن ن � ن ن� ن ن ��ا ن � � ن ا ن� هي ن ن �ن ي ���ا أا �ل� أا � ا ك�� � مع�� رح��� �و��ل�� ��ه �و�م� � �لم�ك �كي���ن��ن�ه� ا �ل� � �لي�ي����� �عم�ل�� ���د ا ا � �ل��د ر ا �يل� ي ع ّي أ � ي � ّ ل��ن ش��س �����هي اأ � ا �����ل�� �ي ل��ن ل��ي� ن ��ا ن� �م�ن� نر��ل �لأ��ل�� �ن�ن��ي��د ��ل�ه �م ن� �ع ن��د �ن�ا �م�ا �ا ن� � حر �ن�ه ������ه ا �و و أ � ي� ير ي م نع � �أ ن ن ��ّ ��ل �ن ن � � �أنّا ن�س نّ ا ي � � � ا � ي �ن ن � ي ���هي �و� ���د ر ���ل ا � � �رل ن� ��د ر �م� ا �لأ� ��د ا �م �عم�ل�� ���د ه ا �ل����ور� .و�ل� �� �م�� �رك ا �لأ� ���� �ل�ه ل�ي� ي ن �ن ن ن أ ّ � � ح أ� ي ن ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�ا �ألم� �نم�لن ��يعي � � � � ا �لأ�� �����ا ��ل�هي � او �لي��و�ّ�م� ن�كي��ه ه � � ا ا ا � �م ا م ل � � � ح �د ���د � م س � �س � ع � � � � ن يع ن و ر ل� ل ن و� ن � ن ع � ن أ ن � �ي أ � ن ن ه ��نل ا �ّ ه � ن ي� � ن ��ي ن � ن ا ا� ن ّ ن هي ��ا ن�ل ن��ا ا �ل��د �ي� ��سّ�مي�نس�ا ه ا � ن�ل �عور ا �و �م ن� ��� ن� �ع�ي ر�� ا�م� � ����� �ملي�� ار ه م� � ��و� ����� ا�� �� �ن� م� ل�� ن ن ا� ن ن ش ا ّٰ ل��ي� ���د ا ا�م�س��� أا � ��س� ء ا لله.
٣،١٢٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن ن � �ن � أ ا � � ن ا ن �ن ن ن � � أ ن ن أّ ح�� ��ط ا �ل � � ���ط ا �ل��� او ن� ا �ن �لن��د �م ن��ه ل��� � ���� ر ا �لأ����س� � ل�� � ح� ا�م � ح ����ا ؟ �ش�س�ا ���د ���د ا ا �ن�م�ك ي ي أ أ ن � ن ن� � ن أ � ُ ْ ي � نُ نْ أ ن ي ّ � �أ يا � �ا �ل � � ن �� � � ��و ��س�م� ا ��� � ع�م�ل ا � ي ��ل��م ا �ل�� ن� �و�ي��ع�� � ا �ل� �� او ن� ل�ي� ا �لم�ل�� ��ط ك�� � ا �ر�� �ن��د �لمك � او ن� ار � أ أ ن أ � � ي � ن �� ا ّ هي � �ا� �ي � � ا � �دًا �من أ ن ي ن ّ ن �عم�لي��ه �م ن� �ي�ا ��� ا �و �ع�د �ل ا �و ا ���ي ن� �عم ����و و �� �ه� ا � ي�م��م� �لي� ن مل�� ن������ ا ���� �م� � م م م ةّ أ أ أ ن ��� ة �� �� ن�س��ه�ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا ّول ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :ة��ة�هو�لو�. 1ط�� :ل�ن
158
158
١،١٢٣
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ �آ ّ يأ � � �� ي � �آ ا ����ش ي � ي�ي ّ هي ���دهي � ي ّ ا � ي ن �و� ��و ك� ���ا ن�� ي� ا �ل����ا � �مي��ي��د �م�ه ا �و ا � ��و� ���ا ي�ر�ن��� 1ا �ل��� � � او ���� ره م���د �م� �س�سم� ا � ��ي� �م � أ أ أ �ً �� ن ن � ً � � ن � ن� �ا �ي �� �ن ا �ّو �ل�� � ٢و�ي�د �يم�ل ن��ا أا �نّ�ه ا �ّو��ل �و���و ك� ���ا ن�� ي� ا �و���ا �ن�ه ن�����ده � � ���ا � ��ا �لي��ا �من����ا �ي�سم�ا �ام �ير�ل �� م ن� ي � � ���د ش� �ع ن ��س��� � �عم�ّل�هي �ي����ا ��ل� ا ّٰلله � �م�ّ �ع ّ�م�ا ���د ش� ��ل�ه �م�ا ���دهي � ا نّ��م�ا � � �و�مل� ن � ن ن و ��� �ل�ه ا ���و� أو � و ل ي � ا� � � ن ي ي � ن ا نّ �� � ه � � �ّهي �ي�ل �عو�ل ٣ا�من� ���مل�و� �و��د �مل�� أا ��ه �ل� ��سن�� ن� �ل� �و�ل� �عمل� .
أ � � أّ � ي ن � او �ّم�ا أا �����ل�� �كين��ا �م�ا �نل ����م�ل�ي��ه �عم�لي��ه �م ن ا ن��ل �و� � او � �لي��د رهي �و�����ا أ�ر ا �ل���ن��ا ي� ن��ل�� ن� ا ���ع��م�ل أا � ا �� � �ي أ أ � � ��ا ن� � او ��ل����م�ل� ا �و أا ��ل�� ا ��ل �ي���� ا �ل ش���� ء أا ��ل�� ا ��ل��ي ن� � ا �و أا ��ل�� ا �� ��و� �م � ح��س ن� � او � �ل� �و� � او �����د � � � ن ي � ن أ ن ي م ّ � �أ�ن ن � ن ا � �م أ ن ن ن �� �ن ��ّ ��� �ن � ن ن�ك ن ج ا ن� ل ن��� ��ا ��ل�� ��م�ا ��ل�هي �م ش��س�� � ن � ه �ل � م ل � ا ا � ل �� �ل����م�ل � �ه�م� أ ي�� أ ي ري � �و نح ن� ا � ي ��ر �ي� �ل �ر�ي� ي����� ن ً� أ أ آ � � ن � �ه ا ��� �ن ا ن �ن �د�ن ا ا � �د �ه ا �م�د ًا � ا � � ن ���ا �نّ�ا ���سم�ع ن��ا ��ا �� �لي��د هي � ا ���� ه أا �لي��ه ن� ��و���ن� �مش��ل� ك� � �� � � � � � � � � � � ح � م � م � � ل � � ن ر و نر و ر ون و ر ن ّ � � ن �ًّا �ن � أ ن ن ��ند ��لم�ك �ن ن�لع��م� ل��ن� ا ن��ل �� أا �لي��ه �م�ا �ه�و �م�د � �ع ن��د �ن�ا �و��� ح ن� ا � �ن����� �و� �و� ���د ه � او ����ل��� �� � م� ��و ن ل ن ي ج م ّ ّ أ أ ً � � � ن ن � ن ن� ن ن ��ا ن � � ن ا ن� هي ن ن �ن ي ���ا أا �ل� أا � ا ك�� � مع�� رح��� �و��ل�� ��ه �و�م� � �لم�ك �كي���ن��ن�ه� ا �ل� � �لي�ي����� �عم�ل�� ���د ا ا � �ل��د ر ا �يل� ي ع ّي أ � ي � ّ ل��ن ش��س �����هي اأ � ا �����ل�� �ي ل��ن ل��ي� ن ��ا ن� �م�ن� نر��ل �لأ��ل�� �ن�ن��ي��د ��ل�ه �م ن� �ع ن��د �ن�ا �م�ا �ا ن� � حر �ن�ه ������ه ا �و و أ � ي� ير ي م نع � �أ ن ن ��ّ ��ل �ن ن � � �أنّا ن�س نّ ا ي � � � ا � ي �ن ن � ي ���هي �و� ���د ر ���ل ا � � �رل ن� ��د ر �م� ا �لأ� ��د ا �م �عم�ل�� ���د ه ا �ل����ور� .و�ل� �� �م�� �رك ا �لأ� ���� �ل�ه ل�ي� ي ن �ن ن ن أ ّ � � ح أ� ي ن ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�ا �ألم� �نم�لن ��يعي � � � � ا �لأ�� �����ا ��ل�هي � او �لي��و�ّ�م� ن�كي��ه ه � � ا ا ا � �م ا م ل � � � ح �د ���د � م س � �س � ع � � � � ن يع ن و ر ل� ل ن و� ن � ن ع � ن أ ن � �ي أ � ن ن ه ��نل ا �ّ ه � ن ي� � ن ��ي ن � ن ا ا� ن ّ ن هي ��ا ن�ل ن��ا ا �ل��د �ي� ��سّ�مي�نس�ا ه ا � ن�ل �عور ا �و �م ن� ��� ن� �ع�ي ر�� ا�م� � ����� �ملي�� ار ه م� � ��و� ����� ا�� �� �ن� م� ل�� ن ن ا� ن ن ش ا ّٰ ل��ي� ���د ا ا�م�س��� أا � ��س� ء ا لله.
٣،١٢٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن ن � �ن � أ ا � � ن ا ن �ن ن ن � � أ ن ن أّ ح�� ��ط ا �ل � � ���ط ا �ل��� او ن� ا �ن �لن��د �م ن��ه ل��� � ���� ر ا �لأ����س� � ل�� � ح� ا�م � ح ����ا ؟ �ش�س�ا ���د ���د ا ا �ن�م�ك ي ي أ أ ن � ن ن� � ن أ � ُ ْ ي � نُ نْ أ ن ي ّ � �أ يا � �ا �ل � � ن �� � � ��و ��س�م� ا ��� � ع�م�ل ا � ي ��ل��م ا �ل�� ن� �و�ي��ع�� � ا �ل� �� او ن� ل�ي� ا �لم�ل�� ��ط ك�� � ا �ر�� �ن��د �لمك � او ن� ار � أ أ ن أ � � ي � ن �� ا ّ هي � �ا� �ي � � ا � �دًا �من أ ن ي ن ّ ن �عم�لي��ه �م ن� �ي�ا ��� ا �و �ع�د �ل ا �و ا ���ي ن� �عم ����و و �� �ه� ا � ي�م��م� �لي� ن مل�� ن������ ا ���� �م� � م م م ةّ أ أ أ ن ��� ة �� �� ن�س��ه�ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا ّول ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :ة��ة�هو�لو�. 1ط�� :ل�ن
158
158
١،١٢٣
On why we find it easier to remember what is correct than what is defective
one from which the parts were composed—and the multiplicity were prior,30 He would not have been first, yet we have said that He is first. Were His attributes posterior to Him, He would be free from them in the beginning of time and He would be truly characterized by unity, but what accrued to Him would have accrued to Him on account of a ground and a cause—may He be exalted and glorified far above what the purveyors of falsehoods claim—yet we have said that He has no ground or cause. The reason for our application of generosity, power, and all other attributes
122.3
to Him is that when reason divides something into affirmation and negation, right and wrong, existence and nonexistence, it is necessary that each of the opposing extremes be considered and that the best of the two be ascribed to Him, insofar as it is unavoidable that we refer to Him using an attribute at all. For example, having learned about power and impotence, which form opposing extremes, we find that one of these is praiseworthy, while the other is blameworthy, so it is necessary that we ascribe to Him what is praiseworthy for us. We do the same with regard to generosity and its contrary, and knowledge and its reverse. Nevertheless, we must not proceed analogically on this basis unless we have been given license by a religious Law and granted permission by a divinely revealed book, so that we do not ascribe to Him figments of our own devising unsanctioned by norm or ordinance, and we should be on the strongest possible guard against doing such a thing. But we have pledged to avoid going on at length in our answers to these questions, so let us confine ourselves to this modest amount. Those who wish to dwell on the topic at length and to expand on it may read about it in the relevant part of our book, which we have entitled The Book of Triumph, or in the books composed by others on this topic, God willing.31
On why we find it easier to remember what is correct than what is defective Why are people more successful at remembering what is correct than what is erroneous? This is attested by the fact that if we were to task a simpleminded person with acquiring literary culture and developing the habit of correct speech, he would be more adequate to that task and bolder in pursuing it than a learned judge, a trustworthy witness, or a man of letters whom we tasked
159
159
123.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ي� � ا أ هي ن ش ن � � �أ� ي� ّ ا ا ��ل� ي ّ أ � �ي ي � � � ن� ن �� ه ل�ن ن� � أ ن ���ر�ي� ح ����ا ��ه � 1و���س�ا �ه �و�ل���د ا ن��د �م� �� �ي�����س�د � �و�مك �ل�نل�ي� �م� �م �و ن ا �و يلع��د ي� نلمل���� �ي� أ �� ي � ي ن � � ّ �و�ل� ن���د �ش�ل�� �ش�ه �ي��� ش��س�د � �ون�م�ك �لم�ل���ر�م�ي� � اون �ل�ي� ا ����ن��ر.
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ � � ي ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا ��ل��� ا � �ش��� ء � ا � � � �� ي ش ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� و ن ي� و أ و ��د �و�ل�ه س�م� ي���س�ي�ر أا �لي��ه ا ���ع��م�ل �ن أ � ي ي ي ن ي�� ن � ي ي�� � ي ن ��ّ أ � ن اأ ّ ا � � ن ح ا �ن� �ع ن ن� ��لم�ك ا �ل��س�م ي� � او �ل � � ح �����ا ن�كي��ه ��يس�ه ا � �ل� ���ره ا ل��سميل�سم�ه �م� ���ل ا � � �و �لع�� � ��د �� �م� ا �ل� ر أ ّ ن �ن ن �� ه ا ن ا � �ن � ن ه �ممن�� ن ن ن � ن ن � �� ي� ن ن� �� �و�ع ن��ه �ن�ا �سر �ل� �نل���ا �ي�ه �ل�ه �م�ل��د �لم�ك �ل� ي� � ��نل��� � .أو � حر� ع�� �م��� � حر�� �أ�ا ��م�ا �ي���و� � �لم�ك ًّ �� � ن � ن ه�� ا �يّ ن� ي � � ا ش ا ي � ن �ن � ن� ن � ي � ��ط �مش�م�ل ���د ا �ع��س�ي�ر ن���د ا م�� ك �� ء � ا لع �ل� �� ��س� ه م �ه� �و�ل� � �لي�م�ل �م ن� �ع��م�ل� .وح � �م ن و ��ّ ن أ ّر � � م يي ن � ي أ � � ن ي ي ي ي � ن ن � ن ا ي ن�� ي ّ ا ���ا ن� ا ��ل أا � ك� ح�� ��ط أا ��م� �ه�و ���د ��ر �ل���وره �كي��د��� ا ���ع��م�ل � �ولم�ل�ك ا �ل���وره ��هي� �م�ع����� ا ���ع��م�ل ا �و نّ � � � � ن � ر���� �م ن� ر�� ��و� �ي��و�� ا ���ع�ي�م�ل ن��ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� �ُم���ا ن� �عم�ل� ���د ا ا �ر���� �ن�ا � ن�ل� ���رهي �و�م���ا ن� �عم�ل� �ي��د �� ��ره � م م ن ��ا � � � ن ي � ي م� أ ي � ي ي ��نً ن ا نّ أ ن ًا ا �� ن� �� ي �ن اأ ّ ا � � ّ ن ن � � �� ا � � � � � ه ه � � � � � � � ا � � � � � � ل � � س ا ا � � � � ع ا �يل� �ه�و ك� ���د ول ع� ل���� ا ل�د ره ��ي� ��م� �سر�ر أ� � ��� ن� �ره � .م� ���د ول �� � ً ّ � � � ي � ن ا � �ن ي �� هي � �ن ا ��ه ك�� �ن ي � ي ن � أ ي � ي � ي ��ش�ي�رهي �ن�ل�� �نل���ا ��هي � او ن��م�ا ا�م ��� �هي� �ل���� ا �ل ��� ����ه ل��ي� ا �ل��د ا �ره ا ���ي� �لي������ �سر��ر ي� ��د �و�ه م � ي أ أ � ح ��م � � ي � ���دهي ا �عن��� ا � ��ي� ن�����د���ا �م ن� ن��مي�� � او � ح� ��ط ا �ل��د ا أ�ره �ن�ا �ل���� او ء. ع ي ي ي
٢،١٢٣
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ� ُ � � � � � � ي ����ا ا ����� � ن�� ّ ��و �عم�ل� ن��ل�� ن��ه؟ ا ا� �ي�� نن� ا ����ر�و ن�� � ر� �ي� ء ا �ل ش��م��ر�م�لي�م�ل ا�ام�ا ء � او�ام�� ا� � م ع � � � � ل و ر ن � � ر � � ي م م ع أ ن ا ن ن ي ن ّ �ي � �� ا �� �� أ �� ي �ه � � ن ا ن ا �� �� ل�ن ا ا �� ا ي ن� ن ي � � ه � � ا �ل ا � ��� � � � � � � � � �� ؟ لي������ � م� ر � ل ل �و�؟ �د ري�ل�� ن����� م� ي ��د و� ول� �� �م� ن� ل��� � ن � ن نع ي� ن ن ي � ن ن نع ن �ع أ ً ن ن ن � ّ ن � ن ن � ح ��ط� أ �وي ن� ��يس�ا �ل�ه � �لم�ك �ل��� ك� ���ا � ���د ا �م� ي � �م ن� �ور� أا �ل�� �ور� �و�م�ا راي�ل ن��ا �عر�و ن� حرن ع ���د ا ا � �ل���م�ل � ج م أ ن ّ أي ا �ن �ل���� �م�م ن� �ه�و ا �� ن��م�ل �م ن��ه؟ 1ط :ن���ط�ا ن���.
160
160
١،١٢٤
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ي� � ا أ هي ن ش ن � � �أ� ي� ّ ا ا ��ل� ي ّ أ � �ي ي � � � ن� ن �� ه ل�ن ن� � أ ن ���ر�ي� ح ����ا ��ه � 1و���س�ا �ه �و�ل���د ا ن��د �م� �� �ي�����س�د � �و�مك �ل�نل�ي� �م� �م �و ن ا �و يلع��د ي� نلمل���� �ي� أ �� ي � ي ن � � ّ �و�ل� ن���د �ش�ل�� �ش�ه �ي��� ش��س�د � �ون�م�ك �لم�ل���ر�م�ي� � اون �ل�ي� ا ����ن��ر.
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ � � ي ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا ��ل��� ا � �ش��� ء � ا � � � �� ي ش ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� و ن ي� و أ و ��د �و�ل�ه س�م� ي���س�ي�ر أا �لي��ه ا ���ع��م�ل �ن أ � ي ي ي ن ي�� ن � ي ي�� � ي ن ��ّ أ � ن اأ ّ ا � � ن ح ا �ن� �ع ن ن� ��لم�ك ا �ل��س�م ي� � او �ل � � ح �����ا ن�كي��ه ��يس�ه ا � �ل� ���ره ا ل��سميل�سم�ه �م� ���ل ا � � �و �لع�� � ��د �� �م� ا �ل� ر أ ّ ن �ن ن �� ه ا ن ا � �ن � ن ه �ممن�� ن ن ن � ن ن � �� ي� ن ن� �� �و�ع ن��ه �ن�ا �سر �ل� �نل���ا �ي�ه �ل�ه �م�ل��د �لم�ك �ل� ي� � ��نل��� � .أو � حر� ع�� �م��� � حر�� �أ�ا ��م�ا �ي���و� � �لم�ك ًّ �� � ن � ن ه�� ا �يّ ن� ي � � ا ش ا ي � ن �ن � ن� ن � ي � ��ط �مش�م�ل ���د ا �ع��س�ي�ر ن���د ا م�� ك �� ء � ا لع �ل� �� ��س� ه م �ه� �و�ل� � �لي�م�ل �م ن� �ع��م�ل� .وح � �م ن و ��ّ ن أ ّر � � م يي ن � ي أ � � ن ي ي ي ي � ن ن � ن ا ي ن�� ي ّ ا ���ا ن� ا ��ل أا � ك� ح�� ��ط أا ��م� �ه�و ���د ��ر �ل���وره �كي��د��� ا ���ع��م�ل � �ولم�ل�ك ا �ل���وره ��هي� �م�ع����� ا ���ع��م�ل ا �و نّ � � � � ن � ر���� �م ن� ر�� ��و� �ي��و�� ا ���ع�ي�م�ل ن��ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� �ُم���ا ن� �عم�ل� ���د ا ا �ر���� �ن�ا � ن�ل� ���رهي �و�م���ا ن� �عم�ل� �ي��د �� ��ره � م م ن ��ا � � � ن ي � ي م� أ ي � ي ي ��نً ن ا نّ أ ن ًا ا �� ن� �� ي �ن اأ ّ ا � � ّ ن ن � � �� ا � � � � � ه ه � � � � � � � ا � � � � � � ل � � س ا ا � � � � ع ا �يل� �ه�و ك� ���د ول ع� ل���� ا ل�د ره ��ي� ��م� �سر�ر أ� � ��� ن� �ره � .م� ���د ول �� � ً ّ � � � ي � ن ا � �ن ي �� هي � �ن ا ��ه ك�� �ن ي � ي ن � أ ي � ي � ي ��ش�ي�رهي �ن�ل�� �نل���ا ��هي � او ن��م�ا ا�م ��� �هي� �ل���� ا �ل ��� ����ه ل��ي� ا �ل��د ا �ره ا ���ي� �لي������ �سر��ر ي� ��د �و�ه م � ي أ أ � ح ��م � � ي � ���دهي ا �عن��� ا � ��ي� ن�����د���ا �م ن� ن��مي�� � او � ح� ��ط ا �ل��د ا أ�ره �ن�ا �ل���� او ء. ع ي ي ي
٢،١٢٣
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ� ُ � � � � � � ي ����ا ا ����� � ن�� ّ ��و �عم�ل� ن��ل�� ن��ه؟ ا ا� �ي�� نن� ا ����ر�و ن�� � ر� �ي� ء ا �ل ش��م��ر�م�لي�م�ل ا�ام�ا ء � او�ام�� ا� � م ع � � � � ل و ر ن � � ر � � ي م م ع أ ن ا ن ن ي ن ّ �ي � �� ا �� �� أ �� ي �ه � � ن ا ن ا �� �� ل�ن ا ا �� ا ي ن� ن ي � � ه � � ا �ل ا � ��� � � � � � � � � �� ؟ لي������ � م� ر � ل ل �و�؟ �د ري�ل�� ن����� م� ي ��د و� ول� �� �م� ن� ل��� � ن � ن نع ي� ن ن ي � ن ن نع ن �ع أ ً ن ن ن � ّ ن � ن ن � ح ��ط� أ �وي ن� ��يس�ا �ل�ه � �لم�ك �ل��� ك� ���ا � ���د ا �م� ي � �م ن� �ور� أا �ل�� �ور� �و�م�ا راي�ل ن��ا �عر�و ن� حرن ع ���د ا ا � �ل���م�ل � ج م أ ن ّ أي ا �ن �ل���� �م�م ن� �ه�و ا �� ن��م�ل �م ن��ه؟ 1ط :ن���ط�ا ن���.
160
160
١،١٢٤
On why prosodists tend to produce flat poetry
with acquiring the disposition of a commoner or emulating his erroneous and corrupt speech. That is why we find a hundred people who can recite to us Abū Tammām and al-Buḥturī, yet we cannot find three who can recite to us al-Ṭarmī and Abū l-ʿIbar. Miskawayh’s response What is correct is a single thing and follows a course indicated by reason and
123.2
demanded from everyone by our sound natural constitution. By contrast, deviations from the course, errors committed in it and against it, are infinite in number, hence their insusceptibility to precise determination. If a person deviates from it, he does so in a haphazard and contingent way, not on the basis of an indication provided by the understanding or a proof on the part of reason. The retention of something of this kind is extremely difficult, for retention consists in the recollection of a form bound by reason, and that form represents a demand of reason or a prescription on the part of one of the powers of reason. Human beings are assisted by their natural constitution in responding to this prescription, and they are also assisted by their natural constitution in recollecting it. Veering from it, by contrast, is like veering from the central point of a circle. For there are an infinite number of points of a circle that do not constitute the center but there is only a single point that is uniquely determined, which is the one equidistant from the entire circumference of the circle.
On why prosodists tend to produce flat poetry Why do versifiers and prosodists produce bad poetry and their works lack luster and élan, whereas the reverse is true for naturally gifted poets? Isn’t prosody founded on nature? Doesn’t it constitute the measure of nature? Why then does it betray one’s expectations? We have seen people possessed of taste and a natural gift for poetry committing mistakes by slipping from one meter to another, and we have not seen this happen to any versifiers or prosodists. So why are they, despite such excellence, more deficient than those they excel over?
161
161
124.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� �ّ � � نن � ي ا � أ ّ � � � ّٰ نّ � � �� �م ن ا�ا ح ن� ���د �و�ل�� ي ن� ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا�ام�� مو�ل��دي� ن� �يلم�ل نر� ا � ��ور� ا � �� او � � � �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� م��س��� �وي�ه ر ن و � ر م ج ع ّ �� ا � ّ ن ا� ي ي ّ ن أ ن ن اً � � �ن ر��م�ا ��س�م�ع ن��ا ��لم�ل ش��م�� ا ء ا نل ��� ن� ��لم�ك �و�� �� �ع ن��ه �م�ا � ا � �� �����ه �يل �� �� ��ملي���ي� ا�م����د �م��ي� ا �ورا �� ن ي ر ��� ن � � ي ي ا �م ا ا � � ي ع ن ل�ن ن �ي ن ا �ه � ن �ه � �ي � هي � ن �ن هي ���سسي ّ ن ا �ل� � �لع�م�ل�� �� ن � �كم� � ��� � ��� �ع�� �و�ل� ح��س� �ي� � �وك�� �و �ي� ع��د �م م نع ��و�ل� ��ور�و� ي ��سر�و� �عملي� ن � ن ي ّ ن ن ن ا��ي � ا� يّ ش ن ع �ل ا��س ��� [ نم ���سس ل� � �� � حر وء ا �ل�ن���س��ة�س��ط] ي ��سر�و� �ي� �ع�ي ر��� ل �و ر � � �ٱْ نِ هي ِ�ل� ن�����ِ
ِ � ْ ِ�� نِ اٱ �� ِّ �� �ن ِّ ُ ُ �ْ ِا� ْ �لِيِ��ِ ن�ِّ �ْ نِ � ع � � � � م � ل � � � � �� ط � � � � � � ل � ي ن ي� نِ ر وم م
ِٱ �ْ ِ ْ ُ يِ ْ � او ����ض����د � ِ�د �ي�فق�م
� �ي ي ��من ي ا ي ل�ن ا�ا� ن� ن ّ �ل ا ي � �� ا اأ ن� ا ي � � اأ� ّ � ا � ��ا � ا ����ا � �يل ���ط� �لم� ا ن��ل ��س�ده ح�� ره �ي� م�� ��مي�� � ول��� � ��و ن ن أير �و �هي� �� ي ويل �و � �ل� ح ن ��ا ن ي � �ي � هي ا �� ن ن ل�ن �� ا اأ �� أ � ا �� �ي � �ه �ن ا �ن ي � ن �� ا � ن ا �ن ن �� نّ � ي ���ا �م�������وره ��� ع�� ل�� � ���ع �ول�مك ل �عوم �و �ي� � ره ع� � ن ك�� ��� م نع ��و�ل� ��ور� �ي� � ن أ � ��ن � � ي � ي � ي � ن � � ن ن ن ن ���س�ه � ن ن � ن ا � � � اي ي ��� � �ع ن��د ا�ام�� � ن ��ل �� ا ا ن ��ن���� �م� �ي�و �و���د �لمك ��د ي �ممل�و� �م� ا �ر�� � ل�ي� ا �ل��ورا � � ��ي� �� ي ��و�ع��ي� ّ � ً ح ن � � أ نّ �ي ��ا ن � ن ن ن حم� ي � ن �م� � ��ه � .او �ل��سن�� ن� ل��ي� ن��مي�� �ن��ر�و� ن�ل��ه�م�ا ي� �م ن��ا �م����� ��ورا �و��هي� ي ع � �لمك ا � ا � �ل �عو�م ك�� � �� او ي ن ي �ن ن ���س�ه � �ن ا � ا ن � �م ن ا ��ل ش��م� � ي � � ا ا �� ن ن � � �أن�لّن ا ن� � � ن ن ي ����و ي� نل��� ��ور� و�ل� �� ي� �ممل�ول��� ��و � ح ن� �ل� ����ر�� �لم�ل�ك ا �ل��ه�م�ا ي� �� � �ر ي � ن أ ن ش ن ا � ش ع � � ي ا� � ن �ن � ا ن ا � � � ن � � أ نّا ن ن� ن ا �ن أا � ا ا ���س�د �� ا �ل��م��ر�عم�ل� ا �ل��س�ل��م�ه � يح��س ل�� �� ن �ع � ا � � ل � ل ا ا ا � ك م � � � � � م � � ع ع � م � ل � ك � ل أ ر ي� � ي ��� �� وي ل�د ي ل �� �� م � ن ن ن �� � � ي � ي ن ش ا ا ا ا ن ن ن � ن���� ن�� ا �ل ش��م��ر�يلم�ل�ك ا �لن��ه�م�ه � عو�ل ا �ل��س� �عر [���د ة��د] ح��س� �ع��د �� �و ���� ن� ل�ي� � �و�ك�� ��ل � �
نِّ اٱ � شِّ ْ ٱ �ِّ ن ُ نِ ِ ْ �ِ يِ ي ً� ِ ُ ُ ِ ا ُ ِ � ُّ أِا � �ن� �ل��م��� ا �ل��ِد �ي� � �و� ��سم�ل� � � ق�يس�ل� � ��س�ه ��س� �يل���طم�ل نِ ع ل� ِ ِ ً �ا � �أ ن � ن ن ي � ي ي ن ا نّ ن � ن ن ن أُ ن ش ن ّ ن ن �ن � ّ � ن � ا ل � � ه ا � ه � � ���ه ����ا ن� ل��ي� ا �ل��د �و�ي� � او � ا ا ا � � ء �أ� � ���د ا ا ���ور� أا � ا ا ���س�د �م�� �ك �ل� ن ر ن� �م� ��ي� ح� أ � ُ ن �ن �ّ ن � ن �ن أُ ن � � �كم� �ي� ن�� ش��س�د ��س�ا أ�ر ا �ل ش��م��ر ا� �يل ��� ن� 1ل�ي� � ���ل � �و�ي�� .و���د ه ��سن��ي�م�ل ا � نر��ا �� ا �ل��د �ي� �ي�ليع� ا � ش��س�د � م ن نع � �ن ن �ي ن ا � � � أ نّ ا� ���ي ل��ن ا ��ل ش��م�� �م ّ�م�ا �ل ������ ل��ن ن� � �ي� ا ����� � � �لن �� رهي ل��� � � � ل � ا ا ك � � � � � � � � س � ��س � م � � � � ل � � � ل � ي� ر ي ي ن ي� و رن يو ر ي� و و و و ي �� رو ي ��ً�ا �عم� ا ��ل��� �لي��ا �م� �ل��ا �����ن ا ��ل������ا � � ن ن ا ��لن��نه � �م�ي��ا �لم�ل�هي �����ن ح �� �� � ٢عم�ل��ه ا ��لن ��ن��� �ا�م�ا �ي��س�ا �ع�د �ي ل�� أ ي ع ن ن ول ي ن ع وور� �م و ن ن � ن � � � � � �ي � � � ي ن ي ي �ن ن ي � ي ح ك���ا � ا�ام�ع �� �ل�ه ��ه ا �ل������ ا � �� �ل ���م�ل���ا ��م�ّل��ا ���ا ي� ٣ن�����ن����ا � �ولم�ل�ك ا �ل � � � � ك � م ع ك � � � ل ل ن و ي� ن ي� ي ن � ن ا �ل�� �عو��� ك� � �� و ر ي ر أ أ ا�ا�م� � ل�ي ّ ن � ���ا را �ي�ه � او ��م�ل�ه. ���ي� � �وي�ن����ي�� ٤عملي� و ي� أ 1ال أ ص� :ممّ�ا �ط�� ٢ .ط �� :ن ص�� �� ن ص�ا م ة � � ة أن � ٤ .الا�ص� � :ن��أ ن�. �� ن ع��� ن ع��� ن كا � ا حر ���نو�ل�� ٣ .ط :حر ا� ل ة�� ة ن ل وة
162
162
٢،١٢٤
On why prosodists tend to produce flat poetry
Miskawayh’s response Naturally gifted poets who are not of pure Arab descent32 stick to a single meter, and do not abandon it so long as their nature acquiesces to it. But we sometimes hear the early poets of pre-Islamic times using meters disagreeable to our nature and displeasing to our taste, which find them agreeable and wellmeasured and use them as regularly as they use others. An example is the line by al-Muraqqish: Traces of Bint ʿAjlān in al-Ṭaff not yet effaced, though a long time has passed.33 This is a poem included in al-Mufaḍḍal’s Anthology—and there are others like it that I do not wish to prolong this response by citing—whose meter was agreeable to the nature of those people, yet it is repugnant to our own nature, and we regard it as rhythmically unacceptable. Similarly, they might sometimes employ variations 34 in the meters they approve of that the naturally gifted poets of our own time consider rhythmically unacceptable, though they are correct. The reason is that those people would redress things by voicing particular sounds at various points in the poem that would make the meter come out right. We have no knowledge of those sounds, so when we recite the poetry properly it is not pleasing to our nature. This is proved by the fact that when we do know these sounds in certain pieces of poetry, we find them pleasing and to our taste. An example is the line of the poet:35 In the mountain pass with no cleft lies a slain hero whose blood will be avenged. If this meter is recited in a segmented fashion using the sounds proper to it, it is to our taste, whereas if it is recited the way other poetry is recited, it is not to everyone’s taste. This is how things stand with those metrical variations in poetry that the taste of the Arabs approves of but our own taste regards as rhythmically unacceptable. Were music not embedded in people’s natures and were the measures of different sounds and their relationships to one another in rhythmic patterns not naturally ingrained in the soul, different souls would diverge about which specific open syllables they found agreeable; agreeable open syllables are the proportional relations musicians seek and on which they ground their judgment and principles.
163
163
124.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� � ن �ي ن ��ّ ي ن�م�� ّ ا ��� ن� ّ نّ ي � ���د ه ا ��ل حرك� � � 1أا ��م�ا �ي���ن�� � �� � � ل��ا �ن�ا �����د� ��س��ا ي� ا � ��ي� ل��ي� ���ل ن��ي��� يح� ���ا ي� � او �ل ل ن�� ��م� � أو رو �ي ع أ أ أ ّ ن ا � � ن ا� ي ي ا � ي ا� ي ن ن ي ن ا ن ن ي ن ن �� ن ا� ��ن ٢ا �و �ممي�� حّرك �نأ�ا ��م�ا ي ن�ن��ره � �ون� �ل� ن� ار ء ا�م���� ن�لمل�ه ا�م �� او ر��ه �أ� � � �ل���� ن�رء �م� ا �ل� ن� ار ء ا ��س� �� ا� ن ش ا ��لن�ن�ه ي � ّ � ن ن � � ا� � ي ن ن ن ن ����ي�ه ل��� � �و�ي�ه �و ا� ي���س�ا �ع�د �عم�لي��ه ا�م����س�د �ن� �م�ه ح�ي� ي�لي��ل�� �ن�ا ه ل��م��ي� � �� ن� �ع��ه � �لمك � ي� م ي م ّ م أ � � ن ن ن ن ن ن � � � � ��������ه .ن��ا �ّم�ا �م ن �ن �لي��� � � ي��ه ل�� ا ���� � ن�� ن��ا ��م�ا � �لم�ك �لم�لن��م�ل��ط ا �ل��د �� � �ليع� �ل�ه ل�� ���� ن � � ن � � و ي� رو � أ ي يع ي� ن � � ن ا ن ا ي ا � ي � � ن ا �� ن� � ن � ن ا ��� ن� ي �� ا � � � ن �ي � � ن ا �ر�� �� � � ��ي� ي ن��ي ر��� ا ���ر�و�� �و�ل�ه �م�د �� ن� ع��د ��رن� كي ��ع� ل��� ح ن� ا �ل�د �و� ا �ل�د �ي� ن ع � أ � ���ّ �� ن ���ا ��� ن�كي�ن��م�ل���ط �م ن ��� ن ��ل�� ي���� �ن� �يلم�ل�ك ا �لن�ن�ه�م�هي ا � ��ي �ي�لي�ع � �� ن�د ��لم�ك ا �� ن ��ا �ن� ا �نّ�ه ن��ا أ� نر ل�� � � � � � ل ر ي� و ن � ر ي وع ّي أ ن ًا � � يّ ن �م نّ أ نّ ا� � �م ن ا ��ل ش��م� اأ �ل ن ًا � ل�ن �م�س ن� ا�ا� ن ا � �ن ن � ا � ح � � �ل �ر ي � �ه� ا �يل� ��� ه�و �ي� �� �سر ح� ��� � ن �����ه �� �يل ���� ا � م����سر � يوأ � م آ ن � � � � � ن ن ن ن ّ � ن ن � ن ��د �لم�ك �ل�� �� ي �كم� ا� �� ي م�س� ا ن � �� �م ن ا ن�ل ح �� �ع ن��ده �ن�م �وا ر ��� �ن �� � م�س� ح ار ه �� ي � او ��ه � م ي ع ا��سر��و � ع ���د ا ا �لأ��ر ا �ل�د ي� ي ن ر ي ُ ن ن ا � ه ن� ه ا �ّ ا ا ن � ن ن ي � ن ���د ا ن�عم�ل���ط ي��د �عر�ن� �و ن� ح��ه �و�م�د �� ن� ��� ح�� كي�� � .و م� �و � ��� ا ����ر�و��� �����د ك���ا � �و � ن ع ي ا� ن ي � ن � نن ح ن� � ن � ّ ي ���سسي ّ ا� ن ��س�ا �ع�هي �م ن ا ��ل��� ا ا ��ل ��� ن ا ���مين� � ا �عل��� �ن�ا ���ور� �و��� ح ن� � �و�� �و �� ن � ن ع �� �ر ���ع نحي��ده ��سر �م� ج م �ن � � ��ل ا � �ن � ي � ه ��� هي ح ّ�دهي ل�ن ا �� � ن � �ي ��ل�سي ّ ��س�ا �ع�هي �يلم�ل� ا ��لن��يع����هي���� � . �م� ��ا ��ل� ن � ل � � ا � س �� � � د � � � � � �لي���� ل � ل م د � � ك ل �� ك ل � ي ن ي و ي ي� و ي� م ن ني � � ن � � ي ي ي � � ��س�ا �ع�ه ا �ل��� �لن ح ا ���ا �م ن ا �ل� ن �ن ح ����ا ��ه �و�م�ا ي ن� � �م حر�� ���ا � � ��س�ا �أ�� ا ����م�ل ّ ه ح ن� �و � او � ن حر ي� ن�ر � ع �مي�� �و�لي����� ي ن ي � � � � أ ���ا ن� �م�ا ��ًا ل��ن � ن ا ��ل� ن ��� ا ن��ل ��س�ا �عي��ه �ن�م ��س�ا �ع�هي � او ن� ك� حر�� ا �ل�� حيّ��د ا � �لن��ا � ��ي�. � ن ر ي أ ع
٣،١٢٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ً ً �ش� ن � ن أ ي ����ا ���م�سن�� �ي��و��ل ن���� ن�� ا �� �لي��د �م�ا ء ا ������ا �ا� ا ���ط�و��ل �ع�س ا �م ن ا ن��ل �سر�ع�سرا ��ا ��م�ل ن� ك ����ي ر �أاو � ك ���ا � ا ��� ر � � � م � ن ه ا ن � � ش ا ي � � �ن ن هي �ن ا نّ ن � ا ا � ن ا �ي ن هي ��� ؟ ع�� ؟ �م� ���د ه ا �لأ���س� ره � او �ل�د ي�س� أ� � ���� ��ر��� م�� ��
١،١٢٥
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ح ّٰ ي ي ّ ن ن ا � ش � ن � ن ي أ نّ �� ي ا �� اأ� ّ � � اي ن ن � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م�ه ا لله ��د �لن��ي�� �م� �من�� ح� ا � �ل�مل��م���ه ا � ا ل ي �� ل ن ��و �عم�ل� ح�� ه �عم�ل�� � ��و�ع��ي� ي أ ّ � � ��� ا � ا ي �ن �ن ّ ي �ا ن ح �� ا �ن�ا ي ��س�م ّ��هي ا � ��ي �ي ش��س�ا ل ن��� ح��ا هي ���د ن�ل ّ��هي � ��ه ا �ل ���د �ه�م�ا ي���ا ا ��ل � � � � ا � � ك � ن � ه ل م ك � � � � ح� ل � � ي و ر و ���س�ه �و��هي� � � ي ي ي ي يو ن ي ي� ي أ ن � نس. 1الا�ص�ل :وا �ل�عرو�س ٢ .ط�� :س�ا ��
164
164
٢،١٢٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� � ن �ي ن ��ّ ي ن�م�� ّ ا ��� ن� ّ نّ ي � ���د ه ا ��ل حرك� � � 1أا ��م�ا �ي���ن�� � �� � � ل��ا �ن�ا �����د� ��س��ا ي� ا � ��ي� ل��ي� ���ل ن��ي��� يح� ���ا ي� � او �ل ل ن�� ��م� � أو رو �ي ع أ أ أ ّ ن ا � � ن ا� ي ي ا � ي ا� ي ن ن ي ن ا ن ن ي ن ن �� ن ا� ��ن ٢ا �و �ممي�� حّرك �نأ�ا ��م�ا ي ن�ن��ره � �ون� �ل� ن� ار ء ا�م���� ن�لمل�ه ا�م �� او ر��ه �أ� � � �ل���� ن�رء �م� ا �ل� ن� ار ء ا ��س� �� ا� ن ش ا ��لن�ن�ه ي � ّ � ن ن � � ا� � ي ن ن ن ن ����ي�ه ل��� � �و�ي�ه �و ا� ي���س�ا �ع�د �عم�لي��ه ا�م����س�د �ن� �م�ه ح�ي� ي�لي��ل�� �ن�ا ه ل��م��ي� � �� ن� �ع��ه � �لمك � ي� م ي م ّ م أ � � ن ن ن ن ن ن � � � � ��������ه .ن��ا �ّم�ا �م ن �ن �لي��� � � ي��ه ل�� ا ���� � ن�� ن��ا ��م�ا � �لم�ك �لم�لن��م�ل��ط ا �ل��د �� � �ليع� �ل�ه ل�� ���� ن � � ن � � و ي� رو � أ ي يع ي� ن � � ن ا ن ا ي ا � ي � � ن ا �� ن� � ن � ن ا ��� ن� ي �� ا � � � ن �ي � � ن ا �ر�� �� � � ��ي� ي ن��ي ر��� ا ���ر�و�� �و�ل�ه �م�د �� ن� ع��د ��رن� كي ��ع� ل��� ح ن� ا �ل�د �و� ا �ل�د �ي� ن ع � أ � ���ّ �� ن ���ا ��� ن�كي�ن��م�ل���ط �م ن ��� ن ��ل�� ي���� �ن� �يلم�ل�ك ا �لن�ن�ه�م�هي ا � ��ي �ي�لي�ع � �� ن�د ��لم�ك ا �� ن ��ا �ن� ا �نّ�ه ن��ا أ� نر ل�� � � � � � ل ر ي� و ن � ر ي وع ّي أ ن ًا � � يّ ن �م نّ أ نّ ا� � �م ن ا ��ل ش��م� اأ �ل ن ًا � ل�ن �م�س ن� ا�ا� ن ا � �ن ن � ا � ح � � �ل �ر ي � �ه� ا �يل� ��� ه�و �ي� �� �سر ح� ��� � ن �����ه �� �يل ���� ا � م����سر � يوأ � م آ ن � � � � � ن ن ن ن ّ � ن ن � ن ��د �لم�ك �ل�� �� ي �كم� ا� �� ي م�س� ا ن � �� �م ن ا ن�ل ح �� �ع ن��ده �ن�م �وا ر ��� �ن �� � م�س� ح ار ه �� ي � او ��ه � م ي ع ا��سر��و � ع ���د ا ا �لأ��ر ا �ل�د ي� ي ن ر ي ُ ن ن ا � ه ن� ه ا �ّ ا ا ن � ن ن ي � ن ���د ا ن�عم�ل���ط ي��د �عر�ن� �و ن� ح��ه �و�م�د �� ن� ��� ح�� كي�� � .و م� �و � ��� ا ����ر�و��� �����د ك���ا � �و � ن ع ي ا� ن ي � ن � نن ح ن� � ن � ّ ي ���سسي ّ ا� ن ��س�ا �ع�هي �م ن ا ��ل��� ا ا ��ل ��� ن ا ���مين� � ا �عل��� �ن�ا ���ور� �و��� ح ن� � �و�� �و �� ن � ن ع �� �ر ���ع نحي��ده ��سر �م� ج م �ن � � ��ل ا � �ن � ي � ه ��� هي ح ّ�دهي ل�ن ا �� � ن � �ي ��ل�سي ّ ��س�ا �ع�هي �يلم�ل� ا ��لن��يع����هي���� � . �م� ��ا ��ل� ن � ل � � ا � س �� � � د � � � � � �لي���� ل � ل م د � � ك ل �� ك ل � ي ن ي و ي ي� و ي� م ن ني � � ن � � ي ي ي � � ��س�ا �ع�ه ا �ل��� �لن ح ا ���ا �م ن ا �ل� ن �ن ح ����ا ��ه �و�م�ا ي ن� � �م حر�� ���ا � � ��س�ا �أ�� ا ����م�ل ّ ه ح ن� �و � او � ن حر ي� ن�ر � ع �مي�� �و�لي����� ي ن ي � � � � أ ���ا ن� �م�ا ��ًا ل��ن � ن ا ��ل� ن ��� ا ن��ل ��س�ا �عي��ه �ن�م ��س�ا �ع�هي � او ن� ك� حر�� ا �ل�� حيّ��د ا � �لن��ا � ��ي�. � ن ر ي أ ع
٣،١٢٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ً ً �ش� ن � ن أ ي ����ا ���م�سن�� �ي��و��ل ن���� ن�� ا �� �لي��د �م�ا ء ا ������ا �ا� ا ���ط�و��ل �ع�س ا �م ن ا ن��ل �سر�ع�سرا ��ا ��م�ل ن� ك ����ي ر �أاو � ك ���ا � ا ��� ر � � � م � ن ه ا ن � � ش ا ي � � �ن ن هي �ن ا نّ ن � ا ا � ن ا �ي ن هي ��� ؟ ع�� ؟ �م� ���د ه ا �لأ���س� ره � او �ل�د ي�س� أ� � ���� ��ر��� م�� ��
١،١٢٥
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ح ّٰ ي ي ّ ن ن ا � ش � ن � ن ي أ نّ �� ي ا �� اأ� ّ � � اي ن ن � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م�ه ا لله ��د �لن��ي�� �م� �من�� ح� ا � �ل�مل��م���ه ا � ا ل ي �� ل ن ��و �عم�ل� ح�� ه �عم�ل�� � ��و�ع��ي� ي أ ّ � � ��� ا � ا ي �ن �ن ّ ي �ا ن ح �� ا �ن�ا ي ��س�م ّ��هي ا � ��ي �ي ش��س�ا ل ن��� ح��ا هي ���د ن�ل ّ��هي � ��ه ا �ل ���د �ه�م�ا ي���ا ا ��ل � � � � ا � � ك � ن � ه ل م ك � � � � ح� ل � � ي و ر و ���س�ه �و��هي� � � ي ي ي ي يو ن ي ي� ي أ ن � نس. 1الا�ص�ل :وا �ل�عرو�س ٢ .ط�� :س�ا ��
164
164
٢،١٢٥
On the meaning of the dictum that the learned live longer than the ignorant
Prosodists and versifiers track the open and closed syllables found in every
124.3
verse, and study them in terms of their number and in comparison with the elements that are facing and parallel to them. If one element is lacking, whether an open or closed syllable, the reciter redresses this by voicing a certain sound so as to remedy the problem. Whenever that is not possible, his taste finds it awry and his nature does not go along with it. People’s taste falls short in prosody because they are mistaken about some of the metrical variations permitted by prosody. The Arabs have a specific approach to this. People guided by taste but unaware of the sound through which that metrical variation is accomplished form the notion that it is permissible in every context, and accordingly fall into error. They also impugn their nature, so that they come to believe that poetry with metrical defects is of the same order as poetry that contains metrical variations, and that just as poetry that contains metrical variation is allowable, the former—which they think belongs to the same class—is also allowable. The basis of this error and the way people are led to commit it have been identified. For his part, the person who invented prosody understood meter and possessed taste and natural gifts, and he developed a craft based on his outstanding natural disposition that can also serve those who lack an outstanding natural disposition with regard to taste, allowing them to use the craft to make up for their deficiency. This also applies to the crafts of grammar, rhetoric, and other scientific crafts of the same class. However skilled practitioners of a craft may be, they are not in the same class as people of superlative, outstanding natural dispositions.
On the meaning of the dictum that the learned live longer than the ignorant What did an ancient thinker mean when he said, “Even if they live shorter
125.1
lives, the learned live longer than the ignorant”? What does this indicate, and what is the secret it harbors? For on the surface it implies a contradiction. Miskawayh’s response Philosophical inquiries have established that life is of two kinds: the life of the body, which is the beastly life that all animals share with us, and the life of the soul, which is the human life realized through the attainment of various
165
165
125.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ا ��� � � ا� � ا �ن ح��ا هي ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن�ل ّ��هي ا �� ��ي ي ح��ا هي ا �� ��ي ي� ي ��� ن� ن�مي�� ���د ه ��ه� ا ��ل ا ��ل � ا � � � ح م � � � ���د ل س �� � م م � � � � � � ي� ن و ر و ح� و و ي ي �ي ي ل � أ ي ي م � �أ�ن ا ن � ن � ن ا �ن ي� � ا �ن ا � � أ ن ُ ن � نّ ا �� � � ن � � ا � ا ي ن ّ هي ا ل � � ل � � � ا ا � �ل � � ح�� ه ن��د ي�� ح�� ي ��سمل��� � ��و نح ن� � يل��� ن� ن � �م�ل ا ل�د ي� ي ي ا �ل� � ��م�ل م� ا �ل�� ��� �ي� ح� ي أ أ أ أ � ن ُي � أ نّه � حِ � ّ ن�ليّ��هي ا �عن�� ا �نّ�ه ��ل���� ��ا �ن��س�ا ن� �و��ل�� ِ� ح��ا �ي�ه �ن�ا �ّم�ا ا ������ا ا� �ن�ا ���� او ن� � � �� ل �� ح ن� ا � �ي�ل��ا �ل � ن ِي ي� ي ا �� �ي � �ي� ي� يأ ّ� ن أ م ّ � � ن� نّ ي ن � ن �ي ي �� ّ ��ا �ل � �كم� ا � �ع�ي�ره �ه�و ا�ايم� ي�. ح�عي ����ه � كي��ه أا ��ه �ه�و ا لي� ن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ آ أ ا� ����ا ي��� 1ل�� ن�ع�هي ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ا �ع��س �م ن ��ل�� ن�ع�هي ا �� �لي�ل��� ؟ � �م�ا ا �� �لي�ل��� � ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ا ��ل�� ا ��لي��ا ن� � �م�ا و م و م و أ ر � ن �م � ر ن ن � �ي ن � ي �ي ا �ه ا ا �ّ � ا � �د ن���ِ ي� � � ش ي ح��د � ن� � �لن�م�لن� �ع ن� � �ش�ل�� �ش�هي �من � � �ه� أا � ا �نل ��ط�ي �عوا � � � � � ي � � ن م������ �م� أ �ل� �و �� ِل�م ر� ع��سره ي ن و و ي و يو و و �م � � � ح��د � ن� � ��ل�� ي�ل�م�لن� �ع ن�؟ � ا ��ل�� ند �� ���د ��لّم�ك �عم� ي�م�ّل�هي ��ل�� ن�ع�هي ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ا ل��� �ل�� ي ن� ��ا ر ا �ل ن��ا ��� ا �لن�م�لي�ن� ل ن و و أ و ي ن ي و ن � ي � ع أ �ي � ���ش �م ن ا ل��� �ن�ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ا �� ��ا ر�ه� ا �لن�م�لي�ن� �ن�ا � �ل�ل��� . ر أ ن � م ع م
١،١٢٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ّي � � ه � ّٰ ن � � �أ نّ � ن ي � ي � ن � ي � ن �ي ّ � � � �ا � ا م��س� ��ره � م � ع � � ح�م�ه ا لله � �لم�ك �ل� � ا �لن��ل���ع�ه ا � ��ي� ي����و� �ن�ا � �ل�ل��� ي����و� �م� ر� �وي�ه �و�ن � � � ل وي ر � ل ن و �يّ� م ع ي � ���ل هي ن � ��ّ� � ا ��لن �س ن� � او ��ل�� ��ل ور�م�ا ن� �م��ي��م� ��ل�ل�� ن�لي��ي��ا � � او ��ل ن� ��م�ل�م�هي �ن�ا �� � ��ا �ي� � او ن��ا ��ل�هي ا ��ر� �وّ�هي �ل���ن��د ا ��ل ا �� � � �م �م� � و ر ي ر ي أ أ أ ع � � ي ي � ّ � ي � � نن � �����ه � �م�ع ن��ا ه �مي�� ا ن�ك��� ن �ع ن�� ��ل�ه ا �لي�س�عي�� � ا �ل�نم�ل �و�م ن� ي�لن��ا �ه �ن�ا �� � ��ن� ���ل��� �م��ي� ا� �ي � �نم�ل � �و��من� و ��ن� � �ل و ي � و ي� ر م م ع أ ن ع ج ن � ّ � � � ه ا�ا�م ي ��هي �� ���س���ا ن� �م ن��ه� .ن�ا �ّم�ا ا ��ل�م�ل�ن� �ن�ه� ��ا �س ا ��ل�� ند �� ن� ��س ��� �ر��� ا �� � � ا�ا � � ���ل��م �و���د ا �ه�و ا ����ه م��رو � ن ي و ر ر ي ي ّع ع أ ّ ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ��ا ��ل��أ�� �لن��ا ن ���ط ا �� ��ي ��ل�� � �ليعي �س �من���ا ا ن� ي�ل�م�لن� �م�ا ل��ن �ن �نل���س�ه �م ن ا�ا�م�س ن�� � ح�ي� ي�لين��� ّر ن ��ل�ه � � ي� ن ي� ي ر � ن � � ع � اع ي ي ي ا ا ن�ي ا � �أ ن ن ا � �أ ن ن � �ي �� ي ن � � ي ش ن ا ن � ��ل ����ه �م� � �لمك ا �ر�م� � ا �ل��س �ري�� أا �ل�� � ��و��يسم� ��� �ن� ح�يس� ر ا �ل��ع�د ن� �� �ل��ع�د ن� � �عن�� ر��ه �و� �ر�ي��ن � ع ج � ُ ش ش � � �� � �م ّ ا � ي ن ن � � � � � � ����م�ل� ا�ا ش م��س�ا ك� ��م�ل�هي � ا�ا�م ا ن �ن�هي � ا �ل��م� � ح��ا ن� ل��ي� �مش�م�ل�ه أا �ل�� ا � نر�م�ا � ا � ك �� � ك��� �م� �����ي�ر � او � ن�ل� � ��ر و ن و �و ر و نع و ي ر ي ج � � ا �ل��ط�و�لم�ل. ي
أ 1الا�ص�ل� :ص�ا ر.
166
166
٢،١٢٦
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ا ��� � � ا� � ا �ن ح��ا هي ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن�ل ّ��هي ا �� ��ي ي ح��ا هي ا �� ��ي ي� ي ��� ن� ن�مي�� ���د ه ��ه� ا ��ل ا ��ل � ا � � � ح م � � � ���د ل س �� � م م � � � � � � ي� ن و ر و ح� و و ي ي �ي ي ل � أ ي ي م � �أ�ن ا ن � ن � ن ا �ن ي� � ا �ن ا � � أ ن ُ ن � نّ ا �� � � ن � � ا � ا ي ن ّ هي ا ل � � ل � � � ا ا � �ل � � ح�� ه ن��د ي�� ح�� ي ��سمل��� � ��و نح ن� � يل��� ن� ن � �م�ل ا ل�د ي� ي ي ا �ل� � ��م�ل م� ا �ل�� ��� �ي� ح� ي أ أ أ أ � ن ُي � أ نّه � حِ � ّ ن�ليّ��هي ا �عن�� ا �نّ�ه ��ل���� ��ا �ن��س�ا ن� �و��ل�� ِ� ح��ا �ي�ه �ن�ا �ّم�ا ا ������ا ا� �ن�ا ���� او ن� � � �� ل �� ح ن� ا � �ي�ل��ا �ل � ن ِي ي� ي ا �� �ي � �ي� ي� يأ ّ� ن أ م ّ � � ن� نّ ي ن � ن �ي ي �� ّ ��ا �ل � �كم� ا � �ع�ي�ره �ه�و ا�ايم� ي�. ح�عي ����ه � كي��ه أا ��ه �ه�و ا لي� ن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ آ أ ا� ����ا ي��� 1ل�� ن�ع�هي ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ا �ع��س �م ن ��ل�� ن�ع�هي ا �� �لي�ل��� ؟ � �م�ا ا �� �لي�ل��� � ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ا ��ل�� ا ��لي��ا ن� � �م�ا و م و م و أ ر � ن �م � ر ن ن � �ي ن � ي �ي ا �ه ا ا �ّ � ا � �د ن���ِ ي� � � ش ي ح��د � ن� � �لن�م�لن� �ع ن� � �ش�ل�� �ش�هي �من � � �ه� أا � ا �نل ��ط�ي �عوا � � � � � ي � � ن م������ �م� أ �ل� �و �� ِل�م ر� ع��سره ي ن و و ي و يو و و �م � � � ح��د � ن� � ��ل�� ي�ل�م�لن� �ع ن�؟ � ا ��ل�� ند �� ���د ��لّم�ك �عم� ي�م�ّل�هي ��ل�� ن�ع�هي ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ا ل��� �ل�� ي ن� ��ا ر ا �ل ن��ا ��� ا �لن�م�لي�ن� ل ن و و أ و ي ن ي و ن � ي � ع أ �ي � ���ش �م ن ا ل��� �ن�ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ا �� ��ا ر�ه� ا �لن�م�لي�ن� �ن�ا � �ل�ل��� . ر أ ن � م ع م
١،١٢٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ّي � � ه � ّٰ ن � � �أ نّ � ن ي � ي � ن � ي � ن �ي ّ � � � �ا � ا م��س� ��ره � م � ع � � ح�م�ه ا لله � �لم�ك �ل� � ا �لن��ل���ع�ه ا � ��ي� ي����و� �ن�ا � �ل�ل��� ي����و� �م� ر� �وي�ه �و�ن � � � ل وي ر � ل ن و �يّ� م ع ي � ���ل هي ن � ��ّ� � ا ��لن �س ن� � او ��ل�� ��ل ور�م�ا ن� �م��ي��م� ��ل�ل�� ن�لي��ي��ا � � او ��ل ن� ��م�ل�م�هي �ن�ا �� � ��ا �ي� � او ن��ا ��ل�هي ا ��ر� �وّ�هي �ل���ن��د ا ��ل ا �� � � �م �م� � و ر ي ر ي أ أ أ ع � � ي ي � ّ � ي � � نن � �����ه � �م�ع ن��ا ه �مي�� ا ن�ك��� ن �ع ن�� ��ل�ه ا �لي�س�عي�� � ا �ل�نم�ل �و�م ن� ي�لن��ا �ه �ن�ا �� � ��ن� ���ل��� �م��ي� ا� �ي � �نم�ل � �و��من� و ��ن� � �ل و ي � و ي� ر م م ع أ ن ع ج ن � ّ � � � ه ا�ا�م ي ��هي �� ���س���ا ن� �م ن��ه� .ن�ا �ّم�ا ا ��ل�م�ل�ن� �ن�ه� ��ا �س ا ��ل�� ند �� ن� ��س ��� �ر��� ا �� � � ا�ا � � ���ل��م �و���د ا �ه�و ا ����ه م��رو � ن ي و ر ر ي ي ّع ع أ ّ ا ��لم�ل��س�ا ن� ��ا ��ل��أ�� �لن��ا ن ���ط ا �� ��ي ��ل�� � �ليعي �س �من���ا ا ن� ي�ل�م�لن� �م�ا ل��ن �ن �نل���س�ه �م ن ا�ا�م�س ن�� � ح�ي� ي�لين��� ّر ن ��ل�ه � � ي� ن ي� ي ر � ن � � ع � اع ي ي ي ا ا ن�ي ا � �أ ن ن ا � �أ ن ن � �ي �� ي ن � � ي ش ن ا ن � ��ل ����ه �م� � �لمك ا �ر�م� � ا �ل��س �ري�� أا �ل�� � ��و��يسم� ��� �ن� ح�يس� ر ا �ل��ع�د ن� �� �ل��ع�د ن� � �عن�� ر��ه �و� �ر�ي��ن � ع ج � ُ ش ش � � �� � �م ّ ا � ي ن ن � � � � � � ����م�ل� ا�ا ش م��س�ا ك� ��م�ل�هي � ا�ا�م ا ن �ن�هي � ا �ل��م� � ح��ا ن� ل��ي� �مش�م�ل�ه أا �ل�� ا � نر�م�ا � ا � ك �� � ك��� �م� �����ي�ر � او � ن�ل� � ��ر و ن و �و ر و نع و ي ر ي ج � � ا �ل��ط�و�لم�ل. ي
أ 1الا�ص�ل� :ص�ا ر.
166
166
٢،١٢٦
On why it is harder to speak eloquently than to write eloquently
kinds of knowledge and learning. This is the life that excellent people strive to attain. So, ignorant people who live a bodily life must be viewed as not living at all, meaning that they are not human beings and do not live human lives. The learned must be said to be those who are really alive, whereas the others are dead.
On why it is harder to speak eloquently than to write eloquently Why is eloquence with the tongue harder than eloquence with the pen? The
126.1
tongue and the pen are only tools, and draw from a single source, so why is it that for every ten people who write excellently and express themselves eloquently, there are three who, when speaking, fail to acquit themselves well and express themselves eloquently? One of the indications of how rare eloquence with the tongue is is the greater esteem shown by people for those who are eloquent with the tongue than for those who are eloquent with the pen. Miskawayh’s response The reason for this is that the eloquence achieved through the pen is achieved with reflection and thought, and with enough time for critical judgment, choices, erasing and adding things, and deliberation about replacing one word with another. If people extemporize when their words and meanings are incompletely formed they succumb to stammering, stuttering, and slurred speech—precisely the repugnant inarticulacy we seek to guard against. Eloquent people, for their part, are endowed with presence of mind, and words flow from their tongue so rapidly that they do not confine themselves just to expressing the ideas inside their mind but have some time left over to embellish their phrases, to arrange them by deploying the most agreeable ones in turn, to look for affinities, balance, and rhyme—in short, to achieve things that ordinarily require much time and prolonged thought.
167
167
126.2
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� أ � ا ن �ّ ن ي ا ي ا ي � � ن ا ن ن ن ن �ّ ���د ا ا ��ل � حي �� او ن�؟ ن���ي��د �ي�ا �ل ا ن� ��و نر���د ا �ل ن�م�ن�ل ���م�ل�� ���� � ا �ي��د �ل ا �ل���� ن� �� �م�ه ا �لأ����س� � �م� �ن�ي�� ي ي� ً أ � � ا � �لن�م�ل�� ل���ن ّ �� ��ل�� �م�ا ��س�ا � ك ح��ي��ه. ي�
١،١٢٧
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ � � ٰ ن � � ن ن ن ���ا ن� �ي ��و ن���د ��ل�ه �� �� �ري�ه أا � ا ك� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س��� �و�ه ح�م�ه ا ّلله ���د ا ا �ر ن�م�ل ا � �لن��ا ن��م�ل ا ��ل��د �ي� � �� ��ل�� � ر � ي أ أم �ن ن ا�ي � ن ن ا � �أ �� ن ا أ ن ن ن � ن ��ن ي ن � � � �ن ن ا �ن ا � � ��ل ا ن ن ي � � � � � � � ل�� ���د ا ا�مس��� � �ل��ول�� ن�ل�� ا � ����س�ع�عي�مك ا � ���ل��م كي��ه �أاو � ا ��� �ع�ي ر مع�ي�س� � �ل��و�� � ي ن�ين ا � � ا � ا� ن � � � ا � ي ن� ن ي � نّ ��ل ي ن ��ا ن ي ا ّ ي ا �� �� ن هي أ ي هي ن �� ل��� �ن� �لأ�ي��م� ء أا �ل�� ا�م�س��� � �و� ا �لأ� ���� �ل�ه .ك �� �عو�ل أا � ا � �ك ح ار ره أا � ا ك�� ��� �م� � �ل��� ل� ي � ���� ��� او �لي�� ي� أ ّ � ّ � � � ي � ح ي ا �ن � �ن ي ي ي ل��ن� ا � ��� � ي � ���م ��ا ��هي أا ��ل�� ا �ل���مي��د ا � �ن�ه ي��م�د ا ن�ل � ح����م ا �ل�د �ي� ����م� �ل�� �ن�ه أا �ل�� ن� � � �� ي ر ط �ون�ه � او �ل� ن� ن ���� ا ع��ي� � ي ّ ً ً ّ ي ي � ن � ن �ا � ا�ا�م�م ا ��ل � هي ا � �أ ن�� ��ل ش��س��أ � ن ا �ّ ا ��لن��� �ن � ن ا � ّ �م� � ا ح�� �ل�ر � ي ��ي� أ م� � ع� ا ����م�ل�و�م�د ا ���ي�س�م�� .أاو ��م� ي����ر��� ا �ل�� نل��� ن� و ي �ل أ �� ن � �� ي ّ ا � ي �ّ ي ���مي ا ي ا� ا ّ ي � ي ي ّي ي ا أ ن ي ي ي ّ ن ن � � ي ياأ ّ � �ن � �أ��ش ��ا م ل � ح ا ره � او �م� � �ل�مل�ه ا ن� �� �ن�ه ا�م� � ه ا ���ي� ����م� �ل�� �نل��� � .او ��� ����ن��ي�� � �لمك �و�ل�� �ممل�ه ل�ي� ا �ل� ن ر ا �ر أ ح نّ هي ن� � �أ ن�� � ن ا �م ي ّ ي � هي � � ي ي ا هي �ي �ل���ا �ي���ي ش��م�ّ� ن� ن� ش��م�� ن� �سرن�� ح�� ا �ل�� � ����� �م� ح�� � �و ا �ل�ر � � نو���� ا ���ي� ن���� ن� �ل��� �م��د ه �عم�ل�� ن � ّ ي ي � ّ ي � �أ نّ �� ي � ش � ّ�� � ن � ني ����هي ا ��ل �� ي � � � �ل���ا �سركن� أا �ل�� ���و�� � نو���� ن� �� �م���ا �و�م�ه ا�ام�ا � ه �ل� � �ر���ه ا �ل����ي�ء ا�ا�سر�� ن� ي����و� حر��ه نح�� ن أ ً ّ ن ��ا ن �م ن ا ��ل��شم�� � ا ��لن ا ي �م�مي� ّ�دًا �م � ه ا � �أ ن�� ن� � �من�ي ����هي � � 1م�ا ا �ل ن� ا � � ك ل � � ح � � ع � � ع ك س � � � � ل ��� ���هو� � � ل ر ر و و و ن ي ن ن ي � � � ر ن ��� �سر ن � أ أ ن �� � ّ ش � � � ش � � ي ن ّ ن ي ي � � � ن ّ ا �ل ���ا � �م ن ا ل��من�� ح ا ره �ع ن �م�د ه �� � ��� � ��يس�ه �كي��ه �و�لن� ������ره ا �ل� ن� ن ار ء ا �ل�ر ن� �و ا ����مل�و �و�م� ك� � ع� ا �ر � حر �من ي ًا � ي �يش��م�ّ ي �م ن ه �ش � ٌ ن� � �أ ن � نًا �ش� ا �ً� ن �أ نّ �� ي � ن ا � �أ ن ��س� و��د �ن�� �� �م� ن� � �و ا �ل�ر��� �يو� يم�س� �و �سم� �ل� ��ل� � �ر����ي� ا �ل�� ر � او �ل�ر��� �ل�ّ ن ّ � � � ا ن ا��ا ن �� ن � ش � � ن � ���يس�ا �� ش ن حن �ه�م�ا ���د ا ا �ل ش��س � ح�� � �و�م� ك�� � ا ل��من�� ���ل ا�ا�سر�� ي��د ي�ر�ن� �� ن� �ن�� ن� ا �ل��ن�لي����ا ن� � او �ل�رن� ���د � �م � حر ي � ي ًّ ��ا � ا أ ش ه �ن ��أ نّ أ ن � �أ ن ّ هي �� �� هي ا� ا أ ّ هي ا ��ل �ن �ي ���ا �� �لي� ن � � � � ا ا � � � ل �� م�م��د �� ��يس� � او ر�ط� �ون� ا�م� �لي�� � ��س � � م ك ك � � � ������ �ل � ا ن� ار ء ه ا �ل�ر� � � و و أ � و ر ين ن أ � � � � ا ا �� ن ا ا ن ا �ي ا �ّ � ي �يّ ح ���� ���ي�س�م�هي ا ���ي ي� ّ � ح ا هي �ي�� �ّ�هي ن�ل��� �� ي �هي ا�م� ي � م�نس� ن ��ل ��ن��هي � او ��ل ن�كي��ه �ل�� ي � حر�ل��� ل�� ر �أو � � ممل� � �ر ر وي م ي ي �ي� ع �م� ا �ر �� ّٰ ن � ن ن ا �� ياأ �ّ ���د ه ا ���أ�مش�م�ل�هي ا�� ������س �عم�ل � �ن �لي ل��ا أا ��ل�� ا ��ل � م م م � حي �� او � أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. م � � ل ك � مي ر ي ل�� �ل ّ ��. 1ط :ا لممرل� �ن
168
168
٢،١٢٧
On the significance of the fact that human beings are the only animals to stand upright What is the significance of the fact that among all animals, human beings are
127.1
the only ones that stand upright? Abū Zayd al-Balkhī the philosopher has pronounced some remarks on the topic that I will recount.
Miskawayh’s response If that excellent man you mention has pronounced some remarks on this topic, it is appropriate for us to ask you to exempt us from delivering any of our own. If you do not grant us this exemption, it is appropriate that we content ourselves with an allusive rather than an elaborate discussion of the point. We therefore reply: When the material substrate of heat is soft and well-disposed in terms of moisture and susceptibility to extension, heat causes the body to which it attaches to extend in its direction—that is, upward—in a straight manner. Things bend and incline toward the earth for two reasons: either because the heat is weak, or because the material substrate to which it attaches has limited susceptibility. One can perceive and contemplate that phenomenon in relation to trees, some of which grow branches that dangle toward the earth, while others extend upward in a straight manner, and yet others grow in a composite way, depending on the resistance of their matter, for the movement of composite entities is also composite. Trees and plants that grow on the ground and do not stand erect do so because of the large number of earthly parts they contain and because the heat is too weak to make them extend upward. Trees that stand erect and sprout branches that spread right and left and incline toward the earth do so because the movements of the fire and the earth have formed a composite, producing a composite shape that combines standing erect and downward inclination. Trees that, like rods, extend upward, such as cypresses and the like, do so because the earthly parts and aqueous moisture they contain are soft, and the heat is strong, so there is nothing to hinder the straight movement that fire produces. If you ponder these examples with due attention, it will not be difficult for you to transfer the principle to animals, God willing.
169
169
127.2
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن أ � ا � ي ن ن � ش �� أ � � ش ي � � ي �ي ّ � ش ّ ن ��د � �و�� ار �ل� �ي���ن�� �و�ل� ي�� ���� ر ا � يل��م����ي� أا � ا � ا�م � ����ر � او �ل��سم�ك أا � ا �عر��� ا ر����� ّ � ّ ّ ن أّ � �ي ن ن ي �ور�لن�� ؟ ���د ��لم� ���د ا ا ن� ا�ا�م�و�يك� ن� �ن�ا �ل ش�����ء �م��ي� �ش�س�� �ك � م ع ����ه ن� ار ���أ او �ه �و�م�ل�ي� �ن�ه � او �ل ش��س�ا ك � ك ل � ن � ي � ي أ �ش ي أ ح ًا � � ي� � �م ن ه ا �ّ � � هي ا ��ل ه � � � ن ا ا �ّ � نّ ي � ي ل � � � ا ل ح� �م��ي� �ُو���� ي� �ن�ه � او ر��س�د ��ه � او ���د��ي� �م� أ ي�� �ل� ير� � أ �ل� ن ���و�� �و�ل� ر� �� أ �ل� ً نن ً �عي��ّ او � �و �ل �عورا.
١،١٢٨
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
ح ه ّٰ أ ن �� نّ � ا أ � ن �� ي ن ا� �� �ن � �ي �ي ي ه ن �� نّ أ نّ �� ن ن �� هي �ي ا �� اأ� ّ � � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� ا لله ا ��� ا �ل��س� �لم�ل ع� ا لي�����ي� � ي��ر� حعي�ع�� �و��� ا � �ل���� � ل �� �عم�ل م � ن و �ي أ أ ّ � � � � � � �ن � � �ن ا نّ ي هي ي ي � ي ن � � ا �ل ��ي��� ن ي� �ي��د �ل �عم�ل�� ا�ام��ر��ه ا�ا�سر��سم�ل�ه ا �و �عم�ل�� ا �لأ� �ك ن��ا ا �لي����س�ي�ر �و�لي����� ا �ل��سر ����د �لمك أ� � �سر�لن�� ي ع أ أ أ �ي ن أ ي هي ي� ن ل�ن ا ������� � � ن ا ن� �ل ���� ا �عم�ل��ه �ش�سم� ّك �����د ا ن� ���ا � �لي��نسً�ا � ا �لي �����ي� ا �عم�ل�� �سر�لن�� ����و� �ي� ل�م �و�لي����� ي ن �ور ي ر ي ن ر يي أّ ا� ن� أّ ن أن ش �ّ ح ي �ن ن� ي ن ح هي � ش ن � ن ن � ن ن� ش ع��سر�و� �لي����� ي ن�� �ور ا � ي���سمك ح�م��س�ه ��م��س� �و �و�م�� �ل � �لم�ك ا � �م� �عل��م ا � �م��س�ه ل�ي� أ أ ّ ّ � ن� �ن ي ي ن ّ ن ا هي �� ي ا أ� ي ن � كي��ه ل�� �و�� �و��� �و نر ا ن� ي� ش��سم�ك ن�كي��ه ��د ��لم�ك �م ن� �عل��� ا ن� ر � او �ي�ا ا�امش�م�ل ش� �م��س� � �و� �ل�� �م��� ي� �لي����� ي ن�� ي ي م أ ُ أ ّ ن ���د ه ��س���م ا �����م�ل� � ا�ا� ي م� ��يع ن��هي ��ا ��ل�� ا ���� ن � ��ا ��ل��� ا �ألم ا �� ��ي �ل��ا �ي���ل��� ا ��ل�� ا ���� ن �ن�ا �ّم�ا �م�ا � � ن� ا ��ل ��ي��� ن �و و ي ي� ن ي �ل وم ي ن ن ر ي� ون و �ل ي� ن � م ن ر ي� ّ ي � � ش ّ � ن � ُ ي ن ي �ن ي �� ي ��ا � ا�امن� �� ي ش � ي ن �� ي ا ن � � ح���� �م�� ن �لي���ا � ط� � او �ل��س���وك ������ر��� ���ل �سر�لن��ه ن� ن ر � ل�س ار �لن��ه ك���ي�ره �عم�ل�� �م� �ن�ي�� ل�ي� ل�� ن أ أ ن � � �ين ا ا� ي يّ ن ً ش � ّ ن ن ن ن أ ن ��ا ن � � ��ن � � ن � ي� �م� ا �لأ�ك��ع �أاو � ا ك�� � ا �ل��سر ���د �لمك �ملي����� �ير� �مل ن� 1ا�م�ي ��ع�� ا �ن��د ا ��سمك �ي��ر�و �م��ه ��� او �ه ن�لم�ل � ي ّي � � �ه�و �ي�ا ّر � او � �ل�� � حّرك �م ن��ه ا �ل ش��س���وك ٢ن�لي��ه. ع �ّ ًا ن ا نّ ن اأ ّ ا ا ن�� ي ن أ نّ � ش ا ّ ن أُ ش أ ي � �ل� � � ي � � ن �� �م� �م� � �� ��ه �م ا � ا �ل��س� ك أا � ا ا ر��س�د � او ���د��� �ل�ه ا � ل�� ح�م�ه �ل� �ير� ا � أا �ل� ن� ح���و�� �أ� � ي ر � � � � ي نّ أ ي ن � �أ ّ � ّ ّ � ن� � ���د �ش�س��أ��� ن ا �ّم�ا ��ل��أ نّ� ا�ا��س �ش�س�د ا�� �لي��ا ي� �لم� ش ل��س�ا ك � ا� ���د ��ه ا �ل� ا �ل ح�م�ه �ح�مل�ه� � ل�� � � �لم�ك ي������ر��� �ل� ي ي� أ وم ي ر ن أ � ر مي أ ّ ا � �أ نّ �� � ّ � ا �� �� � ي �م�ا ��� �لن �ل����م�ل� ��ه � او �م� �ل� � ا ل � ��� ا ل� ه� �ع ن� ا �ش��يس�ا ء ي��مي�م�ل أا �ل ��� �ن�ا �ل�ه�و�� �و��د � ح��ي�� رن��م�ا �نل ي� ن � � ن �ل ي ع ن أ ع م أ أ أ ّ ّ � � ي ن ن ي ننا ن ي ن ي ّّ يي �عم�ل�م ي� ن��م�ا ن��ي�� ن��ا ه �يس�م�ا � �ل��د �م ا � ���و�� ا �ل� � هو�� ا �عم�ل ن� � او ���و�� �ي�س� �م� ���و�� ا ���ع��م�ل �كي����ي�ر ���ع �ن � ا � �آ ن� �ي � ّ � � ��م ا �� هي ����مي�� � أ ي ا �� ه ا �� �م ن � �ند � ه � �� ن اأ� � ا ن حي� ن� �ل�ل�� ���و�� ح��ل � ��د �ه�م� � ي�� و �ل� ر ��و ي� �ل� � ل� ي ن �� ل� �� ل � ي ن � ن� ن 1ط :ع��ل ة��ل�� ٢ .الاأ�ص� �� :ن���� ا � ش �وك �� ن����. ل��س ك � ن ل
170
170
٢،١٢٨
٣،١٢٨
On why certainty is less enduring than doubt Why is it that when certainty obtains, it does not last long enough to take root,
128.1
whereas when doubt assails, it drops anchor and stays put? This is demonstrated by the fact that when a person who is certain of something is given reasons to doubt it, his spirit is jolted and he is filled with unease, whereas when you take a person who harbors doubt by the hand, give him guidance, and offer wise insight, you only make him more recalcitrant, and all you get is insolence and repugnance. Miskawayh’s response I believe that the person who posed this question about certainty was unaware
128.2
of its real meaning, and fancied that the term “certainty” refers to some loose notion of learning or light conviction. This is not how things stand; for certainty constitutes the highest possible rank that knowledge can reach, and doubt cannot possibly assail a person after certainty has been formed. For example, once someone has come to know that five times five makes twentyfive, doubt is not possible at any point in time. Similarly, once someone has come to know that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to the sum of two right angles, doubt is not possible. This is how it is with the kinds of knowledge that are established with certainty by means of demonstrative proofs and by means of the first principles through which demonstrative proofs are known. The kinds of belief that fall below certainty admit of many ranks, as explained in the Book on Logic,36 and each rank is vulnerable to doubt depending on the degree of conviction it involves. Given this, the heart of the person who has attained certainty never succumbs to a doubt that “jolts” his spirit; he is tranquil and at ease and utterly immune to being moved by doubt. You mentioned that if one offers guidance and wise insight to the doubter, this only makes him more recalcitrant. This happens for one of two reasons: either because the person offering guidance does not approach the doubter gently and does not introduce him to wise insight in a gradual way, instead burdening him with more than he can bear; or because the wise person might sometimes forbid things that nature inclines to through blind desire. Through our earlier exposition, you know that the forces of blind desire are dominant, and stronger than the forces of reason. The doubter thus becomes like a
171
171
128.3
أ ي � أّ أا ��ل�� ا ن� �ي�ل �عو�� �ع نر��مي��ه �عم�ل� ا �ل�� �ي�ا � � م ي � �أ �و ش��سر�ع�ه ا �ل��ن�ن��ي��ا ء.
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن� ن ن �ي ّ ��� � كي�� ع� ا � �ل �عو�ي�
أ � � �لي � ا ��لن� ن �كم� ا �ش�س�ا ��ه ا ��ل �م� ء ح�ك �� ���عي ��� � وي �عو� رن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ا � ن ا �ل ن�م�� ن ن ا ��ل��م ن ي ا��من�م � ن ا� �ل ن�م � أ ش � ح���و� �م � ���� ر ا �ل��� ��� ي � ���ر �م ن �م�� �مك أا � ا � ي � حره � 1و � � �ل�ه� �م ن��ه �مك ا �� ح�� ا� � � � م م ن ّ �م ن أ� ا ن ا ن�م�� � � ن ا � ن �و� ل��� �� � � � � ���د � � ���ل �م ن� ا �ل���ا ك �و ا� �يل�م��م�ك. � م ؟ ع مك و أ ر � �ون � ي م
١،١٢٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ّ أ أ ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ نّ ن ش اأ ن ا��من ا �م�ك ا ن� �لي� ����م�ل� ا ��� ًا �م���د � ��ل�هي �ع ن م � � � ح � � ه ه � � ا ا م��س� ه م � � � م � م � � لل ع � �س � � � � � ل ي ن ور وي ر �� �ل ا ن و � و � أ � � ي ّ ّ ي ن � ن ح��ا �يل��ا ��ل�� ي حّ� ا ��ل��س�ا �م� �و�م�� ���س�د �ع�� �� ن�د ��لم�ك � ن��ه � ����ه � او ن� ا ا� �يل�م� �م�ك �ه�و أا ن��م�ا �ي��د ��ل �م ن� �ن �نل���س�ه ح� ن� � � ي ن ن ي أ أأ م ع ن ن ه �ل�م� � ن ي ن ا ّ ��ل � أّ ي ن ����ير ش� ��لم�ل��س��� ا ��ل�� ند �� �م ن �ش�س�ا �ن�ه ا ن� �ي ن��ه � ��� � ا ا �ن�ه ���سم�ا ��سم�ك �ع�ي�ر �م� ح ن� �م�� �وي �مك �ي�ل� ��ا �ل ي � ن ن � ن � �أ � � ا � ا �ّ ي ن � � �� �ل��س� �م� ح�ي� �ي�لي���ر� أا �ل�� ا �ل��سن�� ن� ا �ل� �ّو�ل ا �ل��سن�� ن� ا �لش��ا �ل�ي�. ن ع
٢،١٢٩
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � � ��ّ ا ��لن�� ّ � � ي� � ن ا ي� � ا �� ن�ل �ي � ��ل�ه � ��ي��ا �يل�ه� ا �ل ن��ا � ر �ل�� � ل�� ����ا ���م�سن��� �ي��و�ل ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء �عم�ل� �� ن � �����د ن��د ح� ععي��ه � او�م� �ل�� �و � �و�ي� � م ّم � ن � نّ ن ن ا �ل ه �ّي ه ا� ن ن م ن � � ن �� � � ا ن� ا �ش�س ن�د �ع �� �م ن ل � � � ا � ا ا � ل م م � � ع م � � ع � � �د � ل � � � � م ح� ؟ � ل��م�ا ��س ّر ���د ا؟ �و�م� � � ا � �ل�مل�� ل�� ر ل � � أو و وم أ ري � �و �ي م ا �لي���م�لي�م�ل؟
١،١٣٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي� أ � �أ ّ � � ّٰ � ا ا ن � ن ن ي ن نّ � ح�م�� ا ��ل��� �ي ا ي ن �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله �لي����� ا �ل��سر�عم�ل�� �م� ��������ه �م� ا � ن يع ن ���� � �م� ���س� ن ن � ن ن � ي نّ ا � ي ي � ��ا ن ������يعي ه ل�ن ا ��� � � ا�ا� اأ ن� ن ي ���س�ه�مم�ل��ا �من �و� ه ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء ي� ه�مم�ل�و� ���د ه ا �لم�ل�� ����ه �أاو ��م� ي �ه� �م ن� ك�� � ن �� �ي� ��مل�وم م� � � � م أ ا ل نح ة �ر�. 1الا�ص�ل :م��س��
172
172
٢،١٣٠
أ ي � أّ أا ��ل�� ا ن� �ي�ل �عو�� �ع نر��مي��ه �عم�ل� ا �ل�� �ي�ا � � م ي � �أ �و ش��سر�ع�ه ا �ل��ن�ن��ي��ا ء.
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن� ن ن �ي ّ ��� � كي�� ع� ا � �ل �عو�ي�
أ � � �لي � ا ��لن� ن �كم� ا �ش�س�ا ��ه ا ��ل �م� ء ح�ك �� ���عي ��� � وي �عو� رن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ا � ن ا �ل ن�م�� ن ن ا ��ل��م ن ي ا��من�م � ن ا� �ل ن�م � أ ش � ح���و� �م � ���� ر ا �ل��� ��� ي � ���ر �م ن �م�� �مك أا � ا � ي � حره � 1و � � �ل�ه� �م ن��ه �مك ا �� ح�� ا� � � � م م ن ّ �م ن أ� ا ن ا ن�م�� � � ن ا � ن �و� ل��� �� � � � � ���د � � ���ل �م ن� ا �ل���ا ك �و ا� �يل�م��م�ك. � م ؟ ع مك و أ ر � �ون � ي م
١،١٢٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ّ أ أ ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ نّ ن ش اأ ن ا��من ا �م�ك ا ن� �لي� ����م�ل� ا ��� ًا �م���د � ��ل�هي �ع ن م � � � ح � � ه ه � � ا ا م��س� ه م � � � م � م � � لل ع � �س � � � � � ل ي ن ور وي ر �� �ل ا ن و � و � أ � � ي ّ ّ ي ن � ن ح��ا �يل��ا ��ل�� ي حّ� ا ��ل��س�ا �م� �و�م�� ���س�د �ع�� �� ن�د ��لم�ك � ن��ه � ����ه � او ن� ا ا� �يل�م� �م�ك �ه�و أا ن��م�ا �ي��د ��ل �م ن� �ن �نل���س�ه ح� ن� � � ي ن ن ي أ أأ م ع ن ن ه �ل�م� � ن ي ن ا ّ ��ل � أّ ي ن ����ير ش� ��لم�ل��س��� ا ��ل�� ند �� �م ن �ش�س�ا �ن�ه ا ن� �ي ن��ه � ��� � ا ا �ن�ه ���سم�ا ��سم�ك �ع�ي�ر �م� ح ن� �م�� �وي �مك �ي�ل� ��ا �ل ي � ن ن � ن � �أ � � ا � ا �ّ ي ن � � �� �ل��س� �م� ح�ي� �ي�لي���ر� أا �ل�� ا �ل��سن�� ن� ا �ل� �ّو�ل ا �ل��سن�� ن� ا �لش��ا �ل�ي�. ن ع
٢،١٢٩
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � � ��ّ ا ��لن�� ّ � � ي� � ن ا ي� � ا �� ن�ل �ي � ��ل�ه � ��ي��ا �يل�ه� ا �ل ن��ا � ر �ل�� � ل�� ����ا ���م�سن��� �ي��و�ل ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء �عم�ل� �� ن � �����د ن��د ح� ععي��ه � او�م� �ل�� �و � �و�ي� � م ّم � ن � نّ ن ن ا �ل ه �ّي ه ا� ن ن م ن � � ن �� � � ا ن� ا �ش�س ن�د �ع �� �م ن ل � � � ا � ا ا � ل م م � � ع م � � ع � � �د � ل � � � � م ح� ؟ � ل��م�ا ��س ّر ���د ا؟ �و�م� � � ا � �ل�مل�� ل�� ر ل � � أو و وم أ ري � �و �ي م ا �لي���م�لي�م�ل؟
١،١٣٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي� أ � �أ ّ � � ّٰ � ا ا ن � ن ن ي ن نّ � ح�م�� ا ��ل��� �ي ا ي ن �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله �لي����� ا �ل��سر�عم�ل�� �م� ��������ه �م� ا � ن يع ن ���� � �م� ���س� ن ن � ن ن � ي نّ ا � ي ي � ��ا ن ������يعي ه ل�ن ا ��� � � ا�ا� اأ ن� ن ي ���س�ه�مم�ل��ا �من �و� ه ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء ي� ه�مم�ل�و� ���د ه ا �لم�ل�� ����ه �أاو ��م� ي �ه� �م ن� ك�� � ن �� �ي� ��مل�وم م� � � � م أ ا ل نح ة �ر�. 1الا�ص�ل :م��س��
172
172
٢،١٣٠
أ ي � أّ أا ��ل�� ا ن� �ي�ل �عو�� �ع نر��مي��ه �عم�ل� ا �ل�� �ي�ا � � م ي � �أ �و ش��سر�ع�ه ا �ل��ن�ن��ي��ا ء.
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن� ن ن �ي ّ ��� � كي�� ع� ا � �ل �عو�ي�
أ � � �لي � ا ��لن� ن �كم� ا �ش�س�ا ��ه ا ��ل �م� ء ح�ك �� ���عي ��� � وي �عو� رن
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ا � ن ا �ل ن�م�� ن ن ا ��ل��م ن ي ا��من�م � ن ا� �ل ن�م � أ ش � ح���و� �م � ���� ر ا �ل��� ��� ي � ���ر �م ن �م�� �مك أا � ا � ي � حره � 1و � � �ل�ه� �م ن��ه �مك ا �� ح�� ا� � � � م م ن ّ �م ن أ� ا ن ا ن�م�� � � ن ا � ن �و� ل��� �� � � � � ���د � � ���ل �م ن� ا �ل���ا ك �و ا� �يل�م��م�ك. � م ؟ ع مك و أ ر � �ون � ي م
١،١٢٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ّ أ أ ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ نّ ن ش اأ ن ا��من ا �م�ك ا ن� �لي� ����م�ل� ا ��� ًا �م���د � ��ل�هي �ع ن م � � � ح � � ه ه � � ا ا م��س� ه م � � � م � م � � لل ع � �س � � � � � ل ي ن ور وي ر �� �ل ا ن و � و � أ � � ي ّ ّ ي ن � ن ح��ا �يل��ا ��ل�� ي حّ� ا ��ل��س�ا �م� �و�م�� ���س�د �ع�� �� ن�د ��لم�ك � ن��ه � ����ه � او ن� ا ا� �يل�م� �م�ك �ه�و أا ن��م�ا �ي��د ��ل �م ن� �ن �نل���س�ه ح� ن� � � ي ن ن ي أ أأ م ع ن ن ه �ل�م� � ن ي ن ا ّ ��ل � أّ ي ن ����ير ش� ��لم�ل��س��� ا ��ل�� ند �� �م ن �ش�س�ا �ن�ه ا ن� �ي ن��ه � ��� � ا ا �ن�ه ���سم�ا ��سم�ك �ع�ي�ر �م� ح ن� �م�� �وي �مك �ي�ل� ��ا �ل ي � ن ن � ن � �أ � � ا � ا �ّ ي ن � � �� �ل��س� �م� ح�ي� �ي�لي���ر� أا �ل�� ا �ل��سن�� ن� ا �ل� �ّو�ل ا �ل��سن�� ن� ا �لش��ا �ل�ي�. ن ع
٢،١٢٩
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � � ��ّ ا ��لن�� ّ � � ي� � ن ا ي� � ا �� ن�ل �ي � ��ل�ه � ��ي��ا �يل�ه� ا �ل ن��ا � ر �ل�� � ل�� ����ا ���م�سن��� �ي��و�ل ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء �عم�ل� �� ن � �����د ن��د ح� ععي��ه � او�م� �ل�� �و � �و�ي� � م ّم � ن � نّ ن ن ا �ل ه �ّي ه ا� ن ن م ن � � ن �� � � ا ن� ا �ش�س ن�د �ع �� �م ن ل � � � ا � ا ا � ل م م � � ع م � � ع � � �د � ل � � � � م ح� ؟ � ل��م�ا ��س ّر ���د ا؟ �و�م� � � ا � �ل�مل�� ل�� ر ل � � أو و وم أ ري � �و �ي م ا �لي���م�لي�م�ل؟
١،١٣٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي� أ � �أ ّ � � ّٰ � ا ا ن � ن ن ي ن نّ � ح�م�� ا ��ل��� �ي ا ي ن �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله �لي����� ا �ل��سر�عم�ل�� �م� ��������ه �م� ا � ن يع ن ���� � �م� ���س� ن ن � ن ن � ي نّ ا � ي ي � ��ا ن ������يعي ه ل�ن ا ��� � � ا�ا� اأ ن� ن ي ���س�ه�مم�ل��ا �من �و� ه ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء ي� ه�مم�ل�و� ���د ه ا �لم�ل�� ����ه �أاو ��م� ي �ه� �م ن� ك�� � ن �� �ي� ��مل�وم م� � � � م أ ا ل نح ة �ر�. 1الا�ص�ل :م��س��
172
172
٢،١٣٠
On the meaning of the scholars’ proposition that a rare instance attracts no ruling
person pulled in different directions by two ropes, one weak, the other strong. He inevitably submits to the stronger one, until with the passage of time his resolve is strengthened and the strong part grows weak and the weak strong, in accordance with what the philosophers have indicated and the prophets have legislated.
On why we laugh harder when a person keeps a straight face Why do people laugh harder at a ridiculous person who makes them laugh
129.1
when he does not laugh himself than they do when he laughs? This phenomenon arises whenever someone amuses you but does not laugh.
Miskawayh’s response The person who provokes laughter typically goes after things distorted from
129.2
their proper place in order to amaze his listener and make him laugh. By not laughing, he shows himself to be composed and indifferent to the cause that should naturally induce amazement and laughter; this conflicts with the state of the listener, so a second cause is joined to the first.
On the meaning of the scholars’ proposition that a rare instance attracts no ruling What is the meaning of the statement we hear from scholars of all persuasions:
130.1
“The rare instance attracts no ruling”? We hear jurists, dialectical theologians, grammarians, and philosophers saying this. So what is its secret? What is the truth behind it, and what is its cause? Why is it that a rarity carries no ruling, and an anomaly admits no explanation? Miskawayh’s response It is not the case, as you suppose, that scholars of all persuasions use this expression. It is used by those who belong to the kind whose knowledge derives from incidental observation and from widespread views, for according to some people these constitute first principles of the sciences they cultivate. By “first
173
173
130.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ّ ن ا ��ي ن أ � ن ي �� أ أ �ّ � ا ��ل��آ اء ا�ا� ش م���� � ي ن ا ن ن أ ن ي �ن � �م� ل���� و ر هوره �أ� � ���د ه ا � او �لم�ل �ع��د ���و�م ل�ي� �عمل�و�م�ه�م � .او ع��ي� �ن �ل �عول�ي� ا � او �لم�ل � ّ � ي اأ � اأ�نّلهج � ن ا ا أ �ّ ي ن ن � ي � �أش ا � ن �س � �ّ�هي �م ن �م��ا � � أ � ا ��ل ح��� � او ���ع��مًل� ي� � �م ي ن ���م�ل�و�ل��� �من�� � �� �م��سمل�م�ه ن��م��ر�ل�ه ا �ل����يس� ء ا �ل� روري � ن أ ا ن ا � ن أ � ن�م ن ن ا ً ش ا نّ � ن ن � ن �� �ل�� ا ���و�ل�ه� ي ن�� �ه� �م� ي� �نأ�ا ن� ا �ن���م�ل� او � �لم�ك ا� ي� ���م�ل� �و�ه �� � را �و��س� � ا �م�ل �م ن� ا � �ير� �عم�ل ي� م م م أ ًا �ن � ن ي � � � ش ا �� ن � � أ�نّه �يل��ن �ّ ن�م� �من �� ��و� ا �ل��سن�� ي� �م ن� ك� ���ا �ن��و ن� ا �نّ�ه ي ن�� ء ن�كي��ه ه � ل � � ا ك ل � م�� ل � �لمك ا � � م � � ���س ه � � � � ر ل � م ي و ي� � ي م أ ج ن � ي نُ ّ ُ ّ � � ن ن �ن ُ � ن � ن� ن ن ي ا ا� � �م ���ر �ون� ل���ي� 1أا �ل�� � �لم�ك ���س�ي� � � �ن�ا � ���د � ح ن� �ل� �ن��د �م ن��ه �أ�ا � ا ن�لي��� ن��� �عم�لي��ه � �لم�ك ر�ع� حل � � ن و ّي أ م م � أ نّ ش ن �ن � اّ� ��ن � � ����ي ش ا ء � �اآ ن ن ّ ش ا ن ي � � � � ل �كم� �ي ن�لع��م�ل�ه ا � ن�ل�ر��� �ن� �ول� � � � ا � � �ل �ل ا ��ه ��س�ا � � � ر .و��د �لمك م� ي �ن� رك ني ��وم �ي� ل����هر وي ��س� م ن� ر � ا��م�� ّ ا ن � ن ن ا نّ � � ن � ُ�� اأ نّ ن � � �م ن �ش �ه ا��م��س ّ � � ن � �اآ ن � ه � � � � � � س ا ا � � � ا � � ���د م ل � � ح� � � ع � � � � � ل � � ل � ي � م � ل ير ي ��وم � ���هر �م ��م� �رسر ون� ر ي وم �� ن ي ر أ من �� نّ ن � ي ن ن ي ي� ن ���د ه ا ��� �وي�ي�ره � ٢أ�ا � ا ن�لي��� ن��� ��ا ��� او ���د ا �ش�س�ا � � �ون�ا � ر. ا� ّ �ّهي ن ا �نّه ن � � اأ ن � ن� �م ن اأ� ا �ألم ن�ع�� �����س�ع ّ��هي � ن�ع�� ن ��ند ��لم�ك �� �ل �� � � �و��� � ن� ل�� ���ل �م ن� � ٣ل�� � � � � � �س ح� � � ع � � ح� م� و � و �ل ي ر ن ي ي و ي ر روري أ ي ر م م أ أ أ أ � � � ي � ا� ن ي ا� ا ن � ن� هي ا �ل��� ا �ألم �م ن ا �ل��� �� ا �لن� ّ ي ن ي �م��سي ّ � ��س �سر�ور�ي�ه � او �� ي� �ر�� و �ل � ور �س�سر �ل�ه ا �س�س ار ر ا ����م�ل�و�م ا�من��ر�ع��ه ا�م� ��و نّ أ أ أ ن � ن� ��لم�ك �ع��ا �نً�ا �م ّ�م ن ��ل�� ���� �ن� �عم�ل� ا ��ل���ش��س�ا ء �و��ل�� ا ���س�ا �ل��ا �م ن ن� ���د ��ه أا � ا ح�م�ه�ور ا �ل ن��ا ��� �نأ�ا � ا � ل � ي ن ن � ي � ير ّم أ أ آ أ أ� أ ً � ن ن ن ن حن ���د ش� �ع ن �� ر ا �س ا � ����س�ه أا �لي��ه �م ن �ع�ي�ر ا � ين�م�� � ح ش� ��م�ل �ه�و �عم�لي��ه ا � ا � �د � � � و ر ر ن � را � ا �سر م أ أ ن ن أ نّ ً � ن ي ّ ن � � ا ��ل ا �� ن � ن ا ن ��ل�� �و ن� ��لم�ك ا �ن�ه أا � ا را �� ��ا �ل�� ���سّ ه �ع ن��د � ح ن� � ��ور ر�ي��د ر�ع�م ا � ��سن�� ن� � �لمك �� ل ري��د �أ� � ر � أ أ ّ ّ � ّ � ن ي ي ن ي ّ ن حن ي ي ي ا ا ن ا �ي ن�ل �عي � ع�� �ل�ه �� �ل ا �ر�� ��س� ره ���و�ي� �����ه �ورا � � �نل���ي�ر��ه ��ور نر���د �سّرهي ا ن�ر�� � او �ي ن�ل � � � � ن ن يّ ن ي ش � ي يي � �� ��ن � � ن � � ن أ��ش أ ن ���د ا ا ��ل ن ����ن� �م ن ا ��ل ن��ا ح���� � .د �لم�ك ي���� � ا �ل ا �� ا �ل �� � �أ�ا � ا � �ل �ع� ��ا �لش��ه �� ��ل � �� �ل ل��ي� ا ���ر ا ��ور � ل�� و و � � ع م ّ أ أ أ � أ نّه � ي ن يي ن � � ن�ع نّه ش ا ن � ن �� ��ا �� �ع ن�� ك�� ��ش�� � ن� ��لم�ك ا �نّ�ه ّ��م�ا ل �ل�� ن�ر� ا �� م��� ا �ل ������ ا �ل��سر ر ��� او ا �� ��س� � �و�ل���د ه ا ل ر � ير و رن م � ��ن � �أنّ ��ن � يّ ن ي ن حم� هي�� ُ�� ن � ش ي ا أ نّ �م�ا ن � اأ ���س�ا �ً�ا �م� �ي�� �كم ي ل�� رن ح� ل��ي� ا �ل���س� ء ا ��ه ي ن��ي�ء �م ���ر �ي ��و�م ���د ا �ل���ه ���د �لم�ك ا � �ل �ع� ل��ي� � ج � ن ن ن ن أ نّ � ي م ّ ّ ً ا� �� ش ن � � � ي ي � ن � � � ي ي ا ا ا ش ي ا ا �����ا � ا�م� ��� ��ل� � ا � �� �� ���س� ء ر��م� ا � �ل �ع � �لم�ك �س ا را ك����ره �و� � ن ر ي و ي� ���� �لي����� ��سن�� ن� ا�م��ر ن � م أ أ ّ ن �� � � ن ن ي ن ن ي ا � ه ه � � � � � � ا ا ا ا ا ك � ل � ��س� ن� ر أو � ل �ع� ي�� . � �لمك ي ��وم نلم�ل ل� � ن أ أنن ّ نأ ّ � � ا �� �لن � ن ّ ن ّ ن ي ّ ي ��� ��ا �م�ا ا �ر ن�م�ل �مل�� ل��� � �أ�ا �ن�ه أا � ا � ش���نس�ه ن��ن���ي�ره ا �و ا ���د �م�ي��د �م�ا �ي�ه �م ن� �مش�م�ل �لم�ل�ك ا�ام� او ن� ع أ ن ي ن ن � � �أ ن ا ن � ا �ن ن � � � �م ا � ي ا ي ن � ن � � ن ���ا ن� �من���ا ا � � ل � � � �عر��� �ل�ه �ل� �� �ل�ه �م� �عر��� �����ي ره �و�ل�د �لمك �و نح ن� ا � �� ر�ل ا �ل����ور �م�� ر�ل��� �م� ك� � ن ّ � ّ ن � ّ � ن ن� ن ن ن ن ن ن ���د �عم�لي��ه �و�ل�� �ش�سم�ك ن�كي��ه � او � ا ك� � ا �نر���ا � ا� ي�لي�ن���ي�ر �و ا� �ي���ي� ���ر �ور�و� ���ا � �ع�ي�ر � �ي� �نر���ا � ٤ � أ م م
أ أ أ ن ن ن ن ة كا � د و ا �ل��ن��ه�ا �. 1الا�ص�ل :و�ل ة� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ع��ل� ا �لوة���ة�� ٣ .ط�� :ا ل � � نس ٤ .الا�ص�ل :واأد ا �
174
174
٣،١٣٠
٤،١٣٠
On the meaning of the scholars’ proposition that a rare instance attracts no ruling
principles” I mean that they assign them the status of accepted foundations on a par with necessary foundations such as those provided by the senses and by reason. Having done so, they inevitably come across things that conflict with their assumptions, so they classify them as “rare” or “anomalous.” For example, a person of this type happens to observe that it rains on a particular day of the year—on a Saturday in December,37 say—and continues to do so for years. He therefore rules that this forms an ineluctable necessity; any event that contravenes this rule is declared anomalous and rare. The same applies to people who consider a particular day of the month blessed and another ill-starred, as the Persians do with the first day of the month, which they call “Hurmuz,” and the last day of the month, which they call “Anīrān.” Thus there persists the ruling that things follow this specific pattern, and any contravention of the pattern is said to be anomalous and rare. The same applies to all of those who base their rulings on principles that are
130.3
not natural or necessary, for they are not as consistent as forms of knowledge established through demonstration, whose principles are based on necessary matters. We see this firsthand among the ordinary people who do not know the causes or grounds of things. For if one of them sees one thing take place upon the appearance of some other thing, he attributes the former to the latter without inquiring into whether or not it was its cause. Thus, if he sees some delightful circumstance the moment Zayd appears, he asserts that Zayd was its cause. If Zayd happens to appear at some other time and another delightful circumstance happens, his opinion is reinforced, and his sense of insight increases. If it happens a third time, he pronounces his ruling with categorical certainty. This applies to most things that concern this category of people. It is little wonder then that they claim it is an anomaly when the pattern is contravened. There are many instances of this phenomenon; the reason is that sometimes true causes may be involved, as when one rules in wintertime that rain will fall on such and such a day because that is what happened in the previous year. Since it is winter, this may happen a great number of times, but the cause of the rain is not that specific day; there are other causes, even if rain happens to fall on that day. If people who engage in philosophical inquiry follow others’ examples or draw their premises from such sources, they will inevitably fall prey to the same thing others do. This is why it is imperative to assign things to their proper places. Things that rest on demonstrative proof do not undergo change,
175
175
130.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� حم�ًا ُ ا �ّ�� اأ نّ ��ل�ه � ��ل�� ً�� �م��س�سي�سًّا �م� � �� �ن أا �لي��ه � �س � � � يل أ �ل � ي ر � أ ُ � � � ن ُ ن ي � ش � � ا ��لن ن ن ��س��ن ا �ل��ه � �ل� � �� ��ي ���عي����ه � ك � ا � �� � � � � � � ل ه � أ و ي ن � ي ي ي و� � ي� � � ا� � ين ي � � ن ي ا � � � �و� ي� ��� � �عملي��ه. م�س� �م ن� ا �ل ش��س��وك � او �ل��ع� را � م ع
ُ �ش ي � ه ن اأ �ّ ا � ا �من�� ّ � � � � ي �و�و ��� 1ن� �� م� م� ي ح ��ط أا �ل�� ا �لأ� �ك ن��ا �عم� ي� ن ن� أ ن ي ���ه �ش��� ء �����ا � أ � �عم�لي��ه �ن�ه � او �لي� ���ر ا � ي�لن��� ن� ر ي�
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
��ّل ن �ي �ل ن ا ي نًا أ نّ � � � ن أ ن ّي ن ي أ ن � ّ أ ��م �ّ ي ��ل ا � �ن �ي��ا �� ���� ن�� ا�ا�� ي �� � �م �م��ي� �د �عم �م�� �ي�ل�ي�س� ا ��ه �ل� ي ن � �ور ا � ي�ل �� �ع� ا � ي�م��� ا ��م�ل مل�ه �� ه�م ل�ي� لن � ن أ ن ّي ن ي ن أ ن ن ن � ن ن ا هي ا � � ي ��� ا � �د ا � ا � � ي ا � ��م�ل ي ن�� ��ده �أاو � ن�� ر ���د ا � � ��س� �ع� �و ��ده �و �م�ل �و �� �و�� ل �و �ور ا � ي�ل �� �ع� ل�ي� ا ��م�ل ن ��ا ن � � ن أ ن ّي ن ي ن � ان ن �ن � ا ا� ي ن ان ن � ن ل��ن ن� �ور ا � ي�ل �� �ع� ���د ا ل�م� ح�مي�� �م� ل�ي� ا ����� �م؟ �أاو � ك�� � �ل� ي ن�� ن�لم�ل��ده ؟ �أاو � ن�� ر � � ��م�ل ي ن��ور � ي � أع ّ ن نّ � ي�ّ ي � نّ � ن ن�� � ي ن � �عم�لي��ه؟ ��ا � ا�م� � �ل��� ��س�� � ي� �ع ن��د ا �ل���و ��ل�� ���ي� � ��ر ا �لي����� �سر�وره � �و��ه�سر�ي� أا � ا ��ن�� ش��س�ا ء٢ ي� � او �لن� أ م يّ �� ّ � ّ ن ش ا ّٰ � �ي ي ي �ن � ن ي ي ي ن � ّ ش ا ا � � �س � ن � � س � ا � �� �و� � ��� ��مل�ه �ن� كي��ه� .و ي��سر ن�لي�� � � �لمك �عم�ل�� حعي ��ع��ه ٣ل�ي� ا �ل���� او �مم�ل أا � ��س� ء ا لله. ��
١،١٣١
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ٰ ّ ا� ين ا� �ن �ي�د ا � ي � �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ���ل��� �عم�ل� ا ���� او ن� م�م�� ح ن� � او�م�م�س� � او� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ا �� � ����ي����ا ه � و � م � � ي أ �م� ا اي ا� ن �� ي � ن ا � ا ا� ن �� ي ن� � ن ا ي � � ن � � ي ع ن ا� أ ن يا � ن ا �� ن� �م��ط�� � ن�ولمل� ��� ح ن� �م��ط�� كي��ه ا ����� �ي�ه � .او �ل�د ي� �يلملي ��� �نل���د ا ا�م�و� ��� �ه�وا � �ي�ل�� �ل ع �أ ّ �ن ن ع � � أ ً ن � � �ن � ���د �ي� ن�كي��ه ا ��ل��ي ن� أا ن� ا ���� او ن� � ��ا ن� �و� � � ���د ن� �كي��ه ا �ل��سمل ن� ا �ن��د ا � � ا ل � د � ه ل � � � � ح ن� �م� ا �ل� ور و ي ي أ ي � أً � ي ن � � ���ند ن� ن�كي��ه ا ��ل��ي ن� � او�ام�مي�نس� �م�ا �ي � ���د �ي� ن�كي��ه � ���د �� �كي��ه ا �ل��سم�ل ن� ا �ن��د ا � او�ا � م�م��ن� �م�ا �يل� ��ا ن� � �ويل� أ ي ن أ ً � � ا ع أ ا نًا � ن ن أ ا نًا � ن ن � � أ ً �ه � ح�� �� �و� � � ح��ا �ن�ا. ح��ا �ن�ا � �ويل� ���د �� �كي��ه ا �ي ���د ن� �كي��ه ا �ل��سمل ن� ا �ي ا �لأ�ي ن�� ن� ا �ي ح�� �� �و�ي���د ن� كي�� ا ي ي أ أ ن ن �� ي ا� � ن ن ُ ن ا ن ��ا ن ي � ا أ ن ���د ه ا ��ل����� ر ��من ي ن ي �ن ا � ي � �ّو نر ن�كي��ه ��� ��� ��يس���ه ا� � م�م��ن� �أ�ا � ن�� ح�م�ل���ه ل�م��س� �ل�مك ���د ه �م� �ن �أ� � ا ك�� ��� �� ن و ع � ي ُ ّ ن �� ن أن � ن � � ن �م � � ��س���هي ا ���� او ن� ح ن� �و���د ا ح�مي�� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ي ن�لع��م�ل� �ون�ه ل��ي� ��ا �ل � او � ا � �ي���و� ن ��ا �ل. ��ده � ���ي�ر �م� �ن ي ع � أ أ ّ ش � ّ ّ � � �� ّ هي ل�ن ا� ا ّ ي ا�ا � ي ن � اأ �ل ن��ً�ا ن��ا ن ا ��م ���ط �����ا ��ل�� ي��د ��� ن ٤ا ن ا�ا �ي ا ي ا �ل��م ن ك ��س� �ي� ا�م� � ه م�م��ن��ه � او � نر�م�ا � و ي � أ � ر �و ي ��� ن ي� � م��د �م� � ح� ي ًا � � ي ي ي � �ي �� ا�ا� ي �ي � � ي �ي ًا � � ي� ن � ن � ش ا �� ن � � ن ���د � � او � ���د � �م��� �و�ل� � � ����د ن� م�� ل � �لمك ر�ي��د ���د ن� �م��� �و�ل� � �ل������� ا �ل� م����عن�م�ل �ل� �ل� م أ أ ن ن ّ ش ��� ا �ة� الا�ص�ل ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ع��ل� ���ة�هة��ة�ه��ة ٤ .ط :ة�ن�ة�� نس. 1ط :و� ة� ٢ .ك
176
176
٢،١٣١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� حم�ًا ُ ا �ّ�� اأ نّ ��ل�ه � ��ل�� ً�� �م��س�سي�سًّا �م� � �� �ن أا �لي��ه � �س � � � يل أ �ل � ي ر � أ ُ � � � ن ُ ن ي � ش � � ا ��لن ن ن ��س��ن ا �ل��ه � �ل� � �� ��ي ���عي����ه � ك � ا � �� � � � � � � ل ه � أ و ي ن � ي ي ي و� � ي� � � ا� � ين ي � � ن ي ا � � � �و� ي� ��� � �عملي��ه. م�س� �م ن� ا �ل ش��س��وك � او �ل��ع� را � م ع
ُ �ش ي � ه ن اأ �ّ ا � ا �من�� ّ � � � � ي �و�و ��� 1ن� �� م� م� ي ح ��ط أا �ل�� ا �لأ� �ك ن��ا �عم� ي� ن ن� أ ن ي ���ه �ش��� ء �����ا � أ � �عم�لي��ه �ن�ه � او �لي� ���ر ا � ي�لن��� ن� ر ي�
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
��ّل ن �ي �ل ن ا ي نًا أ نّ � � � ن أ ن ّي ن ي أ ن � ّ أ ��م �ّ ي ��ل ا � �ن �ي��ا �� ���� ن�� ا�ا�� ي �� � �م �م��ي� �د �عم �م�� �ي�ل�ي�س� ا ��ه �ل� ي ن � �ور ا � ي�ل �� �ع� ا � ي�م��� ا ��م�ل مل�ه �� ه�م ل�ي� لن � ن أ ن ّي ن ي ن أ ن ن ن � ن ن ا هي ا � � ي ��� ا � �د ا � ا � � ي ا � ��م�ل ي ن�� ��ده �أاو � ن�� ر ���د ا � � ��س� �ع� �و ��ده �و �م�ل �و �� �و�� ل �و �ور ا � ي�ل �� �ع� ل�ي� ا ��م�ل ن ��ا ن � � ن أ ن ّي ن ي ن � ان ن �ن � ا ا� ي ن ان ن � ن ل��ن ن� �ور ا � ي�ل �� �ع� ���د ا ل�م� ح�مي�� �م� ل�ي� ا ����� �م؟ �أاو � ك�� � �ل� ي ن�� ن�لم�ل��ده ؟ �أاو � ن�� ر � � ��م�ل ي ن��ور � ي � أع ّ ن نّ � ي�ّ ي � نّ � ن ن�� � ي ن � �عم�لي��ه؟ ��ا � ا�م� � �ل��� ��س�� � ي� �ع ن��د ا �ل���و ��ل�� ���ي� � ��ر ا �لي����� �سر�وره � �و��ه�سر�ي� أا � ا ��ن�� ش��س�ا ء٢ ي� � او �لن� أ م يّ �� ّ � ّ ن ش ا ّٰ � �ي ي ي �ن � ن ي ي ي ن � ّ ش ا ا � � �س � ن � � س � ا � �� �و� � ��� ��مل�ه �ن� كي��ه� .و ي��سر ن�لي�� � � �لمك �عم�ل�� حعي ��ع��ه ٣ل�ي� ا �ل���� او �مم�ل أا � ��س� ء ا لله. ��
١،١٣١
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ٰ ّ ا� ين ا� �ن �ي�د ا � ي � �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ���ل��� �عم�ل� ا ���� او ن� م�م�� ح ن� � او�م�م�س� � او� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ا �� � ����ي����ا ه � و � م � � ي أ �م� ا اي ا� ن �� ي � ن ا � ا ا� ن �� ي ن� � ن ا ي � � ن � � ي ع ن ا� أ ن يا � ن ا �� ن� �م��ط�� � ن�ولمل� ��� ح ن� �م��ط�� كي��ه ا ����� �ي�ه � .او �ل�د ي� �يلملي ��� �نل���د ا ا�م�و� ��� �ه�وا � �ي�ل�� �ل ع �أ ّ �ن ن ع � � أ ً ن � � �ن � ���د �ي� ن�كي��ه ا ��ل��ي ن� أا ن� ا ���� او ن� � ��ا ن� �و� � � ���د ن� �كي��ه ا �ل��سمل ن� ا �ن��د ا � � ا ل � د � ه ل � � � � ح ن� �م� ا �ل� ور و ي ي أ ي � أً � ي ن � � ���ند ن� ن�كي��ه ا ��ل��ي ن� � او�ام�مي�نس� �م�ا �ي � ���د �ي� ن�كي��ه � ���د �� �كي��ه ا �ل��سم�ل ن� ا �ن��د ا � او�ا � م�م��ن� �م�ا �يل� ��ا ن� � �ويل� أ ي ن أ ً � � ا ع أ ا نًا � ن ن أ ا نًا � ن ن � � أ ً �ه � ح�� �� �و� � � ح��ا �ن�ا. ح��ا �ن�ا � �ويل� ���د �� �كي��ه ا �ي ���د ن� �كي��ه ا �ل��سمل ن� ا �ي ا �لأ�ي ن�� ن� ا �ي ح�� �� �و�ي���د ن� كي�� ا ي ي أ أ ن ن �� ي ا� � ن ن ُ ن ا ن ��ا ن ي � ا أ ن ���د ه ا ��ل����� ر ��من ي ن ي �ن ا � ي � �ّو نر ن�كي��ه ��� ��� ��يس���ه ا� � م�م��ن� �أ�ا � ن�� ح�م�ل���ه ل�م��س� �ل�مك ���د ه �م� �ن �أ� � ا ك�� ��� �� ن و ع � ي ُ ّ ن �� ن أن � ن � � ن �م � � ��س���هي ا ���� او ن� ح ن� �و���د ا ح�مي�� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ي ن�لع��م�ل� �ون�ه ل��ي� ��ا �ل � او � ا � �ي���و� ن ��ا �ل. ��ده � ���ي�ر �م� �ن ي ع � أ أ ّ ش � ّ ّ � � �� ّ هي ل�ن ا� ا ّ ي ا�ا � ي ن � اأ �ل ن��ً�ا ن��ا ن ا ��م ���ط �����ا ��ل�� ي��د ��� ن ٤ا ن ا�ا �ي ا ي ا �ل��م ن ك ��س� �ي� ا�م� � ه م�م��ن��ه � او � نر�م�ا � و ي � أ � ر �و ي ��� ن ي� � م��د �م� � ح� ي ًا � � ي ي ي � �ي �� ا�ا� ي �ي � � ي �ي ًا � � ي� ن � ن � ش ا �� ن � � ن ���د � � او � ���د � �م��� �و�ل� � � ����د ن� م�� ل � �لمك ر�ي��د ���د ن� �م��� �و�ل� � �ل������� ا �ل� م����عن�م�ل �ل� �ل� م أ أ ن ن ّ ش ��� ا �ة� الا�ص�ل ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ع��ل� ���ة�هة��ة�ه��ة ٤ .ط :ة�ن�ة�� نس. 1ط :و� ة� ٢ .ك
176
176
٢،١٣١
On the possibility of certain kinds of coincidences obtaining
and one should not anticipate that anything will arise that opposes them or casts them in doubt. If they do not rest on demonstrative proof but involve a proof that is consistent and sound, one may place one’s assurance and trust in them. The ones that do not rise above the level of weak convictions must not command assurance or trust; one should anticipate that something will arise to overturn them, and they are not immune to doubt or objection.
On the possibility of certain kinds of coincidences obtaining A certain dialectical theologian said: We know for certain that it is impossible
131.1
that all the inhabitants of a particular quarter should, by coincidence, touch their beards at a particular hour, in a particular season, and in a particular situation. If this is possible, is it possible that all the people living in a town should happen by coincidence to do so? If this is possible, is it possible that everyone in the world should happen by coincidence to do so? And if it is not possible that this should happen by coincidence, what is the cause? The theologian mentioned certainty and necessity, then did not go beyond the first question. Upon my life, the fact stands but the question of the cause remains. The truth of the matter will be fully expounded in your book of responses, God willing.38 Miskawayh’s response The logicians have probed the notions of the necessary, the impossible, and the possible in depth, and Aristotle, the author of the books on logic, has provided a consummate discussion of the topic. The appropriate position to take in this context is the following: The “necessary” is that whose affirmation is always true and whose negation always false. The “impossible” is that whose affirmation is always false and whose negation always true. The “possible” is that whose affirmation is sometimes true and sometimes false, and whose negation is sometimes false and sometimes true. These things have different natures, and your question concerns the nature of the possible. If it were allowed that all people should do that at one particular moment, it would be assigned the nature of the necessary, and that is incoherent. Moreover, Aristotle has explained that individual propositions which concern what is possible and are in the future tense cannot both be true or both be false, and cannot distribute truth and falsehood.39 An example is the proposition “Zayd will
177
177
131.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
����مي�� ّ ن ً ن ن ا نّ ا ي ن ا� �ي ّ � ي ن � ي ً � � ن أن ي ���د ي��ا �م��ً�ا ��لأ�� ّل�� ي�����م���ّ ن�ع�د ا �و�لي����� 1ي � �ع�د ا ر���د� .أ� � ��� ���ي� ا�م��د م��� �ور ا � �ل� ي� �لي����� ي ن � ي � � ن أ ن ي� ن ا ًا � أ ّ� � ن ش � ن م�ش�� ء � ا � � �� ن هم � � ًا � ن � � � �ور ا � � � � ���د �ن� � ٢م��� �ل��ل� �ي� ��و� ����ي� ء � �و� و�ل� ي ن � �و� و�ع�ي ر ��ون � �ي���و� �ي� و ��د ن� ي��س� ��ون � أ ي � � ً ن � � � � � �نن ا ن ن ي � نّ ا �ي�ل���ي�� ا ن �� �ي ��� ن ���د � � او � � او � �و� �و�ل� ي�م���س� ا � � �ل �عو�ل أا �ل�ه�م� س�م� � ٣ا ل� ����د ن� �و� ا �و�ع�ي ر ���ون � ��د ���ون � � � ّ ن �ي � �م ّ ن � �ن � � أ � � ن أ � � ا � ن� � ن ن �� ن ُ � م�م�� �ن�� .و���د ا ��و�ل ��ي�ر �مل�د �لمك ا �ل�� � �لأ��ل�� ي�ر�ن�� �ن��د �لم�ك ا�ا � ط� ا ر��م ��ط�و ���� �ل��� كي��ه ا �ل���ر ع ن ي ا� � نّ �ي � ه � � � ا أ � ن� �ي ا �� ا نّ ا ��ل ش ا ن � � � ا � � � � �� � ا ا ا ل ا ء � ح م�م� ل م � � � � ع ���د � ل � م ل����م � � ��يسم�ل. � � ع � � � ع م ن� �ل�� ي ر � � أ ي � � ي �لأ ي ن ن� و ��� ل أ � �ي� ي أ ن نّأ � � ا�ا ين � ا ��ل ش ���د �ي� �عم� ي�ه�م�ا ا ��ل��ي ن��ا ن� � او ��ل����م�ل� �عم�ل � � � ��يسم�ل ا �ع��� ا ��ه ل � �� ا ا � � م�م ء � ح ل � ح س � � � � � � � ن و و ي ن �� ي نّ ي� ي و � ن ي �ع � ي ّ ي ا� أ� ي أ �� ي ا � ن �ا ن ّ هي ن � � ي ي ����د � ا�ام���د �م�ا � ا� ك ن ا � ��� ا �لأ�� � م�� �لي�� . أا ��م�ا �ي�ل������� ا �ل� م�م����ه �ن� � � ��و ن��د �عم�ل�� �ن ��يس�ع � ���د �� � او � � ن ن ن اأ ّ ا � ن م ّ ي ن ا نّ ا ي ي ي � �ي �� ّي ن ���ند � �عم اأ�نّل��ا ن ��ل�� � �ن��ّ ن � او �م� � � � ه ���د � � ا � �� ا � � ���د � � �س � ا �ل� � �� �م� ا �ل� � �سر�ور�ي�ه �أ� �ل��� � �ل����� � و أ ن أ ل�� � روري ن و � نم ي� ج م أ � ن ا� ن ي ا ن�� ا �ا ن �� ي �ل ا ن هي � ن � ّ ن �� ي �ي �����ه ����ه �م�لي����د أا �لي��ه ل��ي� � �� او ن� ط� ا � �� ر�ي� � �م� ا ر�� � �ن� م�� � ��� �و م� ا ح ن� ا � ي ����� ي نً ي ن���ده �ش����ا �كي��ا.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ن � ا ا �� ن ن � ُ أ � � ا ��لم�لن���هي ن���يع�م� ��ل�ه ا ي���س�سي�س ّ ا �� �ليع��ا �� ل��ن ن� ح�مي�� �م�ا �ي�ُ�د �� ن� أا �لي��ه �����م�ل ن������� ا �����م�ل�م� ء �ن� ل���و و � � ي ي ل ر ي ع �أ � � ن ح ن � � ن ي ا � � � ن� ي ل��ن� ا �ل�� �� �لن��ا ن ���ط؟ ن���ي��ا ��ل �ل�� .ن���ي��ا ��ل ا ��ل��س�ا �ألم�ل ن�ي�نم�� ���سر ا � �ليعي��ا ��� ل��ي� ن��مي�� ع � �لمك؟ ����� �ل �ل��� .عي�م�ل ي ني � � � أ � ل�ن ا � �ُ ن� ن ن �ن �نّ �� ي ا �ُ ن� ن � �ن �� ن ا � � ه ه ه � � ا � � ل ل �� � � � ا � ا ا ل � � � م ل �ل� �م� ��سن�� ن�؟ ��� ل �ل� � ر ي� و � �� ��� لعي�� � يل�ر أ ي�� �ي� ��و� ع ويل�رع �� �ي� ع أ أ ن ي ن � � � ا �ً�ا ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي �عم� ن�ك�م�ل���� �ن� �ن�ا �ن�ا � ��ا ��ل�ه ��ل ���م�ل� �عم�لي�م�ك �م� أا �ش�س � � � ���و ن� ��� ��� � .و�عر� � ل ن ي ي و و � ن � ع ع ع ّٰ ن أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله.
١،١٣٢
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ن ًّ ّهي ح ه ّٰ أ �ّ ا �ي ا �� ا ��لن�� ّ ن �ي ا �� اأ� ّ � �سر�ور�ي� � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� ا لله ا م� كي�� � �وي�� ن� �م�لي����� �من���ي��ا �عم�ل�� ا � او �ألم�ل ن� � � ل �� �عم�ل � � ي ن ن �و �ي أ ّ ن � � � ي � ن ن ن � ّ ي �نم�ل��د ��لم�ك �ل�� ي���س�س�س ّ � ا ��م�ا ا ��ا � ���د ا ا � �م ا �����ا ا� ��ا �ل��� � ن ا � � ا �� � � �ن ح�� � ن ��س�ا �عي��ه ر أو ن ن ر ن �ل م ن �وع� لعي�� � ا �ل�د ي� ي � ا� � ن �ّ � ن � � ن اأ ّ ا �� ن � �ن ن� ي ا ا ي ���ّ ا �م��سي ّ ي � � ن� ن ا �ش� � � ��س اّ ��� ��ي� ء �ل� يس�م� ل�� �س�سره �ل� ي�ل�����سر�م � �و�م �يلملر�م�ه أا �ل� � �لمك �� �م� ا �لعي�مل����و� ��عي�� ��س� ��ه ك�م � أ أ أ أن ّن �ون�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :أا ���ه�ا �ة��ة�ه��ة��� . 1الا�ص�ل� :ل��ة��س ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا � ة� ك م
178
178
٢،١٣٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
����مي�� ّ ن ً ن ن ا نّ ا ي ن ا� �ي ّ � ي ن � ي ً � � ن أن ي ���د ي��ا �م��ً�ا ��لأ�� ّل�� ي�����م���ّ ن�ع�د ا �و�لي����� 1ي � �ع�د ا ر���د� .أ� � ��� ���ي� ا�م��د م��� �ور ا � �ل� ي� �لي����� ي ن � ي � � ن أ ن ي� ن ا ًا � أ ّ� � ن ش � ن م�ش�� ء � ا � � �� ن هم � � ًا � ن � � � �ور ا � � � � ���د �ن� � ٢م��� �ل��ل� �ي� ��و� ����ي� ء � �و� و�ل� ي ن � �و� و�ع�ي ر ��ون � �ي���و� �ي� و ��د ن� ي��س� ��ون � أ ي � � ً ن � � � � � �نن ا ن ن ي � نّ ا �ي�ل���ي�� ا ن �� �ي ��� ن ���د � � او � � او � �و� �و�ل� ي�م���س� ا � � �ل �عو�ل أا �ل�ه�م� س�م� � ٣ا ل� ����د ن� �و� ا �و�ع�ي ر ���ون � ��د ���ون � � � ّ ن �ي � �م ّ ن � �ن � � أ � � ن أ � � ا � ن� � ن ن �� ن ُ � م�م�� �ن�� .و���د ا ��و�ل ��ي�ر �مل�د �لمك ا �ل�� � �لأ��ل�� ي�ر�ن�� �ن��د �لم�ك ا�ا � ط� ا ر��م ��ط�و ���� �ل��� كي��ه ا �ل���ر ع ن ي ا� � نّ �ي � ه � � � ا أ � ن� �ي ا �� ا نّ ا ��ل ش ا ن � � � ا � � � � �� � ا ا ا ل ا ء � ح م�م� ل م � � � � ع ���د � ل � م ل����م � � ��يسم�ل. � � ع � � � ع م ن� �ل�� ي ر � � أ ي � � ي �لأ ي ن ن� و ��� ل أ � �ي� ي أ ن نّأ � � ا�ا ين � ا ��ل ش ���د �ي� �عم� ي�ه�م�ا ا ��ل��ي ن��ا ن� � او ��ل����م�ل� �عم�ل � � � ��يسم�ل ا �ع��� ا ��ه ل � �� ا ا � � م�م ء � ح ل � ح س � � � � � � � ن و و ي ن �� ي نّ ي� ي و � ن ي �ع � ي ّ ي ا� أ� ي أ �� ي ا � ن �ا ن ّ هي ن � � ي ي ����د � ا�ام���د �م�ا � ا� ك ن ا � ��� ا �لأ�� � م�� �لي�� . أا ��م�ا �ي�ل������� ا �ل� م�م����ه �ن� � � ��و ن��د �عم�ل�� �ن ��يس�ع � ���د �� � او � � ن ن ن اأ ّ ا � ن م ّ ي ن ا نّ ا ي ي ي � �ي �� ّي ن ���ند � �عم اأ�نّل��ا ن ��ل�� � �ن��ّ ن � او �م� � � � ه ���د � � ا � �� ا � � ���د � � �س � ا �ل� � �� �م� ا �ل� � �سر�ور�ي�ه �أ� �ل��� � �ل����� � و أ ن أ ل�� � روري ن و � نم ي� ج م أ � ن ا� ن ي ا ن�� ا �ا ن �� ي �ل ا ن هي � ن � ّ ن �� ي �ي �����ه ����ه �م�لي����د أا �لي��ه ل��ي� � �� او ن� ط� ا � �� ر�ي� � �م� ا ر�� � �ن� م�� � ��� �و م� ا ح ن� ا � ي ����� ي نً ي ن���ده �ش����ا �كي��ا.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ن � ا ا �� ن ن � ُ أ � � ا ��لم�لن���هي ن���يع�م� ��ل�ه ا ي���س�سي�س ّ ا �� �ليع��ا �� ل��ن ن� ح�مي�� �م�ا �ي�ُ�د �� ن� أا �لي��ه �����م�ل ن������� ا �����م�ل�م� ء �ن� ل���و و � � ي ي ل ر ي ع �أ � � ن ح ن � � ن ي ا � � � ن� ي ل��ن� ا �ل�� �� �لن��ا ن ���ط؟ ن���ي��ا ��ل �ل�� .ن���ي��ا ��ل ا ��ل��س�ا �ألم�ل ن�ي�نم�� ���سر ا � �ليعي��ا ��� ل��ي� ن��مي�� ع � �لمك؟ ����� �ل �ل��� .عي�م�ل ي ني � � � أ � ل�ن ا � �ُ ن� ن ن �ن �نّ �� ي ا �ُ ن� ن � �ن �� ن ا � � ه ه ه � � ا � � ل ل �� � � � ا � ا ا ل � � � م ل �ل� �م� ��سن�� ن�؟ ��� ل �ل� � ر ي� و � �� ��� لعي�� � يل�ر أ ي�� �ي� ��و� ع ويل�رع �� �ي� ع أ أ ن ي ن � � � ا �ً�ا ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي �عم� ن�ك�م�ل���� �ن� �ن�ا �ن�ا � ��ا ��ل�ه ��ل ���م�ل� �عم�لي�م�ك �م� أا �ش�س � � � ���و ن� ��� ��� � .و�عر� � ل ن ي ي و و � ن � ع ع ع ّٰ ن أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله.
١،١٣٢
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ن ًّ ّهي ح ه ّٰ أ �ّ ا �ي ا �� ا ��لن�� ّ ن �ي ا �� اأ� ّ � �سر�ور�ي� � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� ا لله ا م� كي�� � �وي�� ن� �م�لي����� �من���ي��ا �عم�ل�� ا � او �ألم�ل ن� � � ل �� �عم�ل � � ي ن ن �و �ي أ ّ ن � � � ي � ن ن ن � ّ ي �نم�ل��د ��لم�ك �ل�� ي���س�س�س ّ � ا ��م�ا ا ��ا � ���د ا ا � �م ا �����ا ا� ��ا �ل��� � ن ا � � ا �� � � �ن ح�� � ن ��س�ا �عي��ه ر أو ن ن ر ن �ل م ن �وع� لعي�� � ا �ل�د ي� ي � ا� � ن �ّ � ن � � ن اأ ّ ا �� ن � �ن ن� ي ا ا ي ���ّ ا �م��سي ّ ي � � ن� ن ا �ش� � � ��س اّ ��� ��ي� ء �ل� يس�م� ل�� �س�سره �ل� ي�ل�����سر�م � �و�م �يلملر�م�ه أا �ل� � �لمك �� �م� ا �لعي�مل����و� ��عي�� ��س� ��ه ك�م � أ أ أ أن ّن �ون�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :أا ���ه�ا �ة��ة�ه��ة��� . 1الا�ص�ل� :ل��ة��س ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا � ة� ك م
178
178
٢،١٣٢
On the role of analogical reasoning in the linguistic sciences
bathe tomorrow” and “Zayd will not bathe tomorrow.” These propositions cannot both be true. Otherwise, the very same thing would both exist and not exist. Nor can they both be false; otherwise, the same thing would both exist and not exist. And we cannot say that they distribute truth and falsehood, as this would nullify possibility. This view is liable to provoke perplexity, so Aristotle nuanced his account further, with the following explanation. With regard to possible things, affirmation and negation are true indefinitely. With regard to necessary and impossible things, affirmation and negation are true definitely. That is to say, possible propositions distribute truth and falsehood by virtue of their nature qua possible. Necessary propositions distribute truth and falsehood on the basis that they are necessary. These remarks are clear and plain to those with the slightest training in logic. Those who wish to probe them in depth may consult the proper sources, where they will find satisfaction.
On the role of analogical reasoning in the linguistic sciences A scholar of grammar and lexicography was asked: Is analogical reason-
132.1
ing consistently maintained across all phenomena that relate to words? He replied: No. The questioner asked: Is analogical reasoning violated across all of them? He replied: No. He was then asked: What is the reason? He replied: I don’t know, but one has recourse to analogical reasoning in one context and one avoids it in another. I posed this question to a philosopher and he offered an answer that, despite its difficulties, will be presented before you, God willing.
Miskawayh’s response The analogical reasoning of the grammarians is not grounded in necessary first principles, and this is why it is not consistently maintained. The reply given by this grammarian concerned the analogical reasoning that pertains to his craft, and that was what was required of him. By contrast, all the forms of reasoning used by philosophers are consistently maintained, especially the kind of syllogistic reasoning termed a “demonstration,” and none are subject to violation.
179
179
132.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� � � ا نًا ي ي ي ّ �ن ا� اأ � ي ا� ي ّ ي أ ّ � � ��ل�ه �سرن� �م ن� ا � �ليعي��ا ��� �و�ه�وا�م��س��مّ �نر��� �� �و��د � �ل��د � ل�� ا�م��س� �ل�ه ا� � م�ي��د �م�ه ا ن� ا �ل ن��ا � ر �ل�� � ل�� ح� ن� ي � م م أ ّٰ ن ن � ن ��ل��� �يل��م�ل ن ا �� ���ا �م�لي����د أا �لي��ه أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. � ا � ي ن�� ن� �ن�ه ��� م ج
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ٰ �ّ ي ن ا ن ن � ّ ي ن � � � ّ أ � �����ا ��ل �����ا �ألم�ل ��م�ل ن�م�ل�ي� ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� ا �����ا ا� ����م�ل�هي ا �و ��ن���ي�ر �عمل�ه؟ �أ� � ك� ���ا � ����م�ل�ه ل��م�ا ��هي�؟ أ � يم ن ش ��ش ي � أ ن حّ هي �� � � هي � ن ��ا ن ���ن� � �عم�ّهي ل�ن ا ا ��ل � ���د ه �م��س�ا �ل�ه �ك���ا ��م��� ك���� ه � �ل��ا ا ا � م � ل � � ���د � � ؟ � �� ل ط ل �� � � و و ر و � ي� �أاو � ك�� � ��ي ر ل� �م� ن ي ن و ن ي ي� � ّ � � ن ا �� � ي���ا �ن�ا �ل���ي� ن� ا �ل�����م�ل. ���ل��� �ك� م
١،١٣٣
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ن أ ُ � ّ ّٰ ٰ � � � ّي � ّ ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله ��ل���� ي ن� �ور ا ن� �ي�لي��ا �ل أا ن� ا لله ن�م�ل�ي� ا �����ا ا� ����م�ل�ه �ام�ا �ي�لي��د � ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� � و ي � ي� ي م م ��ا ن ي ا ���� �ّهي اأ � ن ًا � � � � هي � ن � اأ ن ي� ن � ن �ي �� ن ا ا نّ ا ���� �ّهي ا � �ي هي ��لم�ل � � �� ا �� �� ن ا ن � � � � � � � � م م � � �� ل م م ل ل ل � � �� ل �� � � � � � � � � � � م م � � � ل �� ك ل ل س � � � ي� ول ن ن أ � � و رم � و� م� ��ول�� أ � ن ع � ا �ّ ي ييي ّ ا ن �ّ � �ه �ن�ا ن� ن� ��ل�� �� ّ�د �م ن ���د ا �م�ا ّر ��ن���ي�ر �نل���ا ��هي �و�م�ا ��ل�� �نل���ا ��هي ��ل�ه ��ل�� � � م ل � � � � ي ن و �ل��� �عمل�ه �ل����د �م��� �و ن و أ ي ي ن � ج ّ ّ ّ أ ن ي ا � أ � ش أ ن ّ نّ � ي � � ي � ّ نّ � � � � ي � ن ن ي � أ ��د ��سي����� ا � �ي�ل�� �ل ا � ي� أا �م�ا أا � ا ����م�ل�ه �ل� �عم�ل�ه �ل���ا �أاو �م�ا أا � ا �����ا ا�م �ل� �عم�ل�ه �ل�ه �ع�ي�ر � ا � ا �لن��ا ر�� ّ ّ ّ ّ ّ � � � � ن ن � � ي ي ي ي ن ن ن � ��ه .ن��ا �ك�م ا �لم�ل���ا ا� �عم�ل�ه ن�ع�� � ا ي� ا �ل��ا � أ � �ي����ا �ل� ن��ا � �يلم�ل�ك ا ����م�ل�ه �ل�� �عم�ل�ه �ل��ا �ي����ا ��ل�� � �� � � � نر ير أ � ي ر � أ أ ل م ن ن ن � � أ ن ي� ن �� �ّ ي أ ن � ّ ي � �أنّ ا � ي � ن � ن ي � ��ند ��لم�ك �� ن � ن�ك���ا ا ي�من�� � � � ه ه ه � � ا ا ا ا ا � ل �� ح � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � ك ل � � ح ن� �م� � �لمك ا � ����و� ا ���م ر ي �ل ل� و ن ن �ون �و أو رم ي� ن ن ي � أ ي � � � ن ��ن � أ ّ �ً� � ن � ي ي ن � أ ن� ح�مي�� �م�ا ��سل��� ل��ي� � ا � ا �لن��ا ر�� �����ا �ل�� �و���و ك���ا � ���د �لم�ك ا �و �ل� �ام �ير�ل� .و��د �م�ل ن��ا ل��ي� ا �لن��ا ر�� م ع أ أ � ن ي ا �� ن � � ا � � ن � ي ّ � �ي � � �و نر ا ن� �ي�� ����� ل�� � �لمك �ن� �لن� را ���� ��و ن� �ش�سي��أ��ا ن� �ل�ه�م�ا ���د ا ي� ا � ��ي� �ي�ا � ي� أا �ل�� ا � �ل �عو�ل �ن�ه �و�لي����� ي ن�� � ن أ ن أ نّ ��ّ � � ن ا أ ّ � ا� ن � ن � � أ نّ � � ّ أ ن ّي ن ي ا �ن ��ش ع�� ل�� ��� ء �ن�ه ه � �� ا ���و� ��� ا �ع��� ا � ���ل � او � ��د م � �ه�م� أا �ول �م يرل �و� �لمك ا �� �ل� �ن��د ا � ي�ل �� � ي ي ّ ي ا ��ّ � ن ا نً � ش ن �ن ي � ن ا �ن � � ن ا أّ � ا ن � � � � � � ه � � م م ل � � � � �ه�م� �ع�ي�را ا ا ا � ء ح � � � د د م � � � � ه� � �� �� � � � ٢ 1 � � ل م � � ���ا ر ����ل � او � � ول م يرل و � ي � ر �ل و �ي� ي� ن �� ا � ه ن � � ا ��ل ش�� � � ن � ش �ي ��ا ن� ه � � ن � ي ا ن ا � ه � � � ّ اأ ن �� ن� �ن���� ًل�� �م�ي �عّ �مً�ا � � ك � � � � �ل �ل ا � د �د � � � � � � � ح�� �و� �لمك ��ي�ء ا �ل�د ي� ا ��س� � ل � � ك � ل � � و ر ي ي و ي ل��� ن ن و ي ن ن أ أ ّ ً � ن ن ا �� ن ي ي ّ � � ن � ن ي ن ي � ن ن ن ح�ع ��ي ا � �م�ي� ّ��س�م�ا �ك����� �له�م�ا � ل ل � � ه � � � � � ا ا ل م ه � � � �د ���د م � � � � ع � �� �� � �� � � � � � �� �� �� � ل � � � � ل � ي ير و ن � وو ي أ ن �أ و ّو ن � م �� ع �ن ا� اّ� � ع ن ن ي �ن ن � � ن ّ � � � � ي � ّ ن ن ن � � � � ��� ا �ل ��وع �ن� �ل�� ن ع � او �ل ��وع ا �ل�د ي� �يلملر�م�ه ���م�ل � �م �عو�م �لي����� �ن� �و�ل �ل���ه �سر�� ن� �م� � ا � �و���م�ل
أ أ ن ن 1ط :ا ّول ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :أا �.
180
180
٢،١٣٣
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� � � ا نًا ي ي ي ّ �ن ا� اأ � ي ا� ي ّ ي أ ّ � � ��ل�ه �سرن� �م ن� ا � �ليعي��ا ��� �و�ه�وا�م��س��مّ �نر��� �� �و��د � �ل��د � ل�� ا�م��س� �ل�ه ا� � م�ي��د �م�ه ا ن� ا �ل ن��ا � ر �ل�� � ل�� ح� ن� ي � م م أ ّٰ ن ن � ن ��ل��� �يل��م�ل ن ا �� ���ا �م�لي����د أا �لي��ه أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. � ا � ي ن�� ن� �ن�ه ��� م ج
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ٰ �ّ ي ن ا ن ن � ّ ي ن � � � ّ أ � �����ا ��ل �����ا �ألم�ل ��م�ل ن�م�ل�ي� ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� ا �����ا ا� ����م�ل�هي ا �و ��ن���ي�ر �عمل�ه؟ �أ� � ك� ���ا � ����م�ل�ه ل��م�ا ��هي�؟ أ � يم ن ش ��ش ي � أ ن حّ هي �� � � هي � ن ��ا ن ���ن� � �عم�ّهي ل�ن ا ا ��ل � ���د ه �م��س�ا �ل�ه �ك���ا ��م��� ك���� ه � �ل��ا ا ا � م � ل � � ���د � � ؟ � �� ل ط ل �� � � و و ر و � ي� �أاو � ك�� � ��ي ر ل� �م� ن ي ن و ن ي ي� � ّ � � ن ا �� � ي���ا �ن�ا �ل���ي� ن� ا �ل�����م�ل. ���ل��� �ك� م
١،١٣٣
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ن أ ُ � ّ ّٰ ٰ � � � ّي � ّ ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله ��ل���� ي ن� �ور ا ن� �ي�لي��ا �ل أا ن� ا لله ن�م�ل�ي� ا �����ا ا� ����م�ل�ه �ام�ا �ي�لي��د � ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� � و ي � ي� ي م م ��ا ن ي ا ���� �ّهي اأ � ن ًا � � � � هي � ن � اأ ن ي� ن � ن �ي �� ن ا ا نّ ا ���� �ّهي ا � �ي هي ��لم�ل � � �� ا �� �� ن ا ن � � � � � � � � م م � � �� ل م م ل ل ل � � �� ل �� � � � � � � � � � � م م � � � ل �� ك ل ل س � � � ي� ول ن ن أ � � و رم � و� م� ��ول�� أ � ن ع � ا �ّ ي ييي ّ ا ن �ّ � �ه �ن�ا ن� ن� ��ل�� �� ّ�د �م ن ���د ا �م�ا ّر ��ن���ي�ر �نل���ا ��هي �و�م�ا ��ل�� �نل���ا ��هي ��ل�ه ��ل�� � � م ل � � � � ي ن و �ل��� �عمل�ه �ل����د �م��� �و ن و أ ي ي ن � ج ّ ّ ّ أ ن ي ا � أ � ش أ ن ّ نّ � ي � � ي � ّ نّ � � � � ي � ن ن ي � أ ��د ��سي����� ا � �ي�ل�� �ل ا � ي� أا �م�ا أا � ا ����م�ل�ه �ل� �عم�ل�ه �ل���ا �أاو �م�ا أا � ا �����ا ا�م �ل� �عم�ل�ه �ل�ه �ع�ي�ر � ا � ا �لن��ا ر�� ّ ّ ّ ّ ّ � � � � ن ن � � ي ي ي ي ن ن ن � ��ه .ن��ا �ك�م ا �لم�ل���ا ا� �عم�ل�ه ن�ع�� � ا ي� ا �ل��ا � أ � �ي����ا �ل� ن��ا � �يلم�ل�ك ا ����م�ل�ه �ل�� �عم�ل�ه �ل��ا �ي����ا ��ل�� � �� � � � نر ير أ � ي ر � أ أ ل م ن ن ن � � أ ن ي� ن �� �ّ ي أ ن � ّ ي � �أنّ ا � ي � ن � ن ي � ��ند ��لم�ك �� ن � ن�ك���ا ا ي�من�� � � � ه ه ه � � ا ا ا ا ا � ل �� ح � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � ك ل � � ح ن� �م� � �لمك ا � ����و� ا ���م ر ي �ل ل� و ن ن �ون �و أو رم ي� ن ن ي � أ ي � � � ن ��ن � أ ّ �ً� � ن � ي ي ن � أ ن� ح�مي�� �م�ا ��سل��� ل��ي� � ا � ا �لن��ا ر�� �����ا �ل�� �و���و ك���ا � ���د �لم�ك ا �و �ل� �ام �ير�ل� .و��د �م�ل ن��ا ل��ي� ا �لن��ا ر�� م ع أ أ � ن ي ا �� ن � � ا � � ن � ي ّ � �ي � � �و نر ا ن� �ي�� ����� ل�� � �لمك �ن� �لن� را ���� ��و ن� �ش�سي��أ��ا ن� �ل�ه�م�ا ���د ا ي� ا � ��ي� �ي�ا � ي� أا �ل�� ا � �ل �عو�ل �ن�ه �و�لي����� ي ن�� � ن أ ن أ نّ ��ّ � � ن ا أ ّ � ا� ن � ن � � أ نّ � � ّ أ ن ّي ن ي ا �ن ��ش ع�� ل�� ��� ء �ن�ه ه � �� ا ���و� ��� ا �ع��� ا � ���ل � او � ��د م � �ه�م� أا �ول �م يرل �و� �لمك ا �� �ل� �ن��د ا � ي�ل �� � ي ي ّ ي ا ��ّ � ن ا نً � ش ن �ن ي � ن ا �ن � � ن ا أّ � ا ن � � � � � � ه � � م م ل � � � � �ه�م� �ع�ي�را ا ا ا � ء ح � � � د د م � � � � ه� � �� �� � � � ٢ 1 � � ل م � � ���ا ر ����ل � او � � ول م يرل و � ي � ر �ل و �ي� ي� ن �� ا � ه ن � � ا ��ل ش�� � � ن � ش �ي ��ا ن� ه � � ن � ي ا ن ا � ه � � � ّ اأ ن �� ن� �ن���� ًل�� �م�ي �عّ �مً�ا � � ك � � � � �ل �ل ا � د �د � � � � � � � ح�� �و� �لمك ��ي�ء ا �ل�د ي� ا ��س� � ل � � ك � ل � � و ر ي ي و ي ل��� ن ن و ي ن ن أ أ ّ ً � ن ن ا �� ن ي ي ّ � � ن � ن ي ن ي � ن ن ن ح�ع ��ي ا � �م�ي� ّ��س�م�ا �ك����� �له�م�ا � ل ل � � ه � � � � � ا ا ل م ه � � � �د ���د م � � � � ع � �� �� � �� � � � � � �� �� �� � ل � � � � ل � ي ير و ن � وو ي أ ن �أ و ّو ن � م �� ع �ن ا� اّ� � ع ن ن ي �ن ن � � ن ّ � � � � ي � ّ ن ن ن � � � � ��� ا �ل ��وع �ن� �ل�� ن ع � او �ل ��وع ا �ل�د ي� �يلملر�م�ه ���م�ل � �م �عو�م �لي����� �ن� �و�ل �ل���ه �سر�� ن� �م� � ا � �و���م�ل
أ أ ن ن 1ط :ا ّول ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :أا �.
180
180
٢،١٣٣
On whether God created the world for a cause
Some of my remarks to the previous query—regarding the claim that the rare instance attracts no ruling—could serve as a response to this, so you can refer back to it, God willing.
On whether God created the world for a cause A person asked: Did God create the world for a cause or for no cause? If for
133.1
a cause, what was that cause? If for no cause, what is the argument for that? This is a complex question with many ins and outs, and it is no easy task to discuss it.
Miskawayh’s response It is not possible to say that God created the world for a cause because of the point we made before—namely, that a cause naturally precedes its effect. If the cause is also caused, it must have a cause that precedes it. This would continue ad infinitum, and that which is infinite cannot exist. Thus, it is only possible to say one of two things: Either the cause has no cause, or the world has no cause other than the Creator’s essence. If we said that the world has a cause other than the Creator’s essence, that cause would have no cause and would have to exist from eternity, as it would exist necessarily. If that were the case, everything conceded regarding the Creator’s essence would have to apply to it. And if that were the case, it would have to be first and to have always existed. This is something we predicated of the Creator based on demonstrative proofs that concluded in its predication. Yet it is impossible that there should be two entities to which this qualification applies, that is, that both of them should be first and have always existed. For these two entities must agree in one feature— one that renders both of them first and such that they have always existed—and must differ in another feature—one that renders each distinct from the other. The feature they have in common and the feature that distinguishes them must be a constitutive or divisive difference, so that they acquire a genus and a species, for this is the basic reality of “genus” and “species.” The genus is naturally prior to the species. The species, which requires a constitutive difference, is not first, for it is composed of an essence and a constitutive difference, and
181
181
133.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ �ّ �� � ن ه �ن ن أ� � ي ��� �مي��اأ نّ� �ع ن �� � � ن ي ��ً�ا يّ ا � �ل���ا ن���� ن� ���د ه ا � �وا �ل ي�ل ن��ا �� ن��� ن���� ن� ��ل ����ه ا �ل��د �ي� �ر�� ن� م�� � ر �ن ي �م� �عو�م � او��سر� ن أ ن ش ن أ نّ ��ّ ش � ن � ن ا أ ّ � ا� ن � �� ���د ا ا�ا�م�س ن �ّ �م�����ا ا ن� �� ّ�د �ع�� ل��� ��س��أ��� ا � �� � � � � � ا ا � � � � م د � �� ��س . � � � �و�ل� �يل�م� � ل ل � ير و و و ل � ي � ي ي ي� م رج ي � ن �ا� ج �ن � أ �� ن � ن ن � � ن � ّ ي � �ن � � ّ � ��هي ا ن��ل �� � ل���ن �ن�ه ن� �و ا � �لي� � ك ل � د ���ا ء ا �لي��ا � . حي��ده � او �ل�د ك � �أاو � ���� �ل � ير �ه�و �عم ���د أا �� ���د ا ا �ل�نس�د ا �ل� ي ي ي� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � ن ��د ا ا ��لن ���ي ��ي ا ��ل���ن�����ا ن� ل��ن ا �� ا ��هي ا ن� ا �ي�� ا ��ل ي� �عم�ل��ه � ل��ن ا �لن��ه�م�هي ا ن� ا ��ا �� �لنعي ه � � �ا �يل ن� � � ؟ ل � � و أ � ي و ي� ي� ر أ و �� ي �� أ ي� ن م �ي ّ � يّ �ن ن � � � � � � � �ا ا � ش ّ ا �� ي ّ ي ن� �ن�عي��ا ن� � او ��ل�� ا �ل�� � حرن� أا �ل�� ا�ا�سر� � او �ل�� نر� او � � او �ل�� ا �لن� ���ر � او �ل��ل ح��ك �ن� �ل��سر �و �س�سر��� �ن�ه ح�� أ أ ج ج أ ن ّ أ ي ن ّ ن ً ش ���ل �م�ه�و�� ن���عي��د �و ل��� �� �ي�لع� ل��� �� ���ل ا �سر �ش����د �ي��د ��ّ ي���� ن��ّ �عم�ل� ا �ن�ا �مم�ل�ه �عي ن� �����ا �عم�ل� �ن �نل���س�ه � ي ع ي � م ن � ي�� �م � أ أ ً � ي ن ن ن � � ن ي ا ا ا ا ا � ل ي ���د �م ن ��� �م� � ��م� ن �م� م � ن��� ��وء ا � ع �م� ي ن � ح�يس� ره � او ����م��� �عم�ل�� �ر��ه � ��و� ا � ار �ي� �و ن�� ��ن����ه ي��ه ا �ل�� ي� � � �أ � ن ن � � ن �ش� ا ي هي � ش ا ي ن ن � � نن �ن� ي � ���د ره م� �سم� �� ا �ل����� �م��� ا �ل� �ا ل��ي� � ي� .ل��م�ا ا �ل��س ّر ا�ام��ر�ي� � او�ام�س��� ا�ام�و��ش ن�؟ �و�ل��د �لم�ك ��ا �ل ي� م أ � ي ��ن ي أ � ن �� �� ن ي أ � أ �� � ن ن ن ن � ي ن ي � � ا ا ا ش ي � � � � ���� ه ا �ل����ن��� � او نل�� �ر�ه ا �����ل�� �ي�ه � او �رك��ه ا ����رن� ل�ي� � �� او � ر ��ل� �م��� �ر� �ن�ه ا لن�����ه ا ي� ا �ل أ �ن ي ّ � أ ن � ن ع� ي � ني � ن ا �ل��ه�م�ه � ح�ي� �نل ���ر � او ش��سر � او � �ل���رن� � او ���� ش��سر� .و�م ن� ا ن�م�ل � �لم�ك ��ا �ل ن���� ن��� ا �ل����م�ل�� ّ ا �� ا ��ل � ا ن ي � � ن �ن ّ ��ل�� �ل���� �عم�ل���ا ا ��ل�� � ��ل� ّ �مم� أ ن ّ ن �نا ل��� � ا ����� �كي��ه �مملك �ل��ي� ي ن ر ي� أ و ي� � له�م ا �و �ن��ي� �سر����م�ل��� .د ا � او �ل�� ��� ج � ّ ن �� ا ن حي��ل�� �ن��ه� ي� ّ ن � ا ن� ي � � م��م�ل�و ن� أا ��ل�� ا � ار ��هي �و���ع�و� �و ن� �م ن� ا ��ل ش��س ّر �و�م�م�ا �ي ��ور ش� �م ن��ه م حن ��و� ا ����� كي��ه �يو� ي ي م ع ُ ي ي �وي��������ع�� ن� �ع ن��ه.
١،١٣٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ � ��� ن� �ع ن �ي���� �ي�لي� ّ�د �م��ا �ن ن � � نّ � ي نّ� ا ي � �� �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ا �ل��سن�� ن� ل�ي� � �لمك ا � ا � ار ��ه أا �م� ��و � ن � ح � � �نّ ي ن � ن� أ نّ �ي ن � ن � ي نّ � ن آ� � ي �ل�� ��م�ا �ل�ه �و ن��مي�� �هر ك� ي���ا ا �ل���ا را ��ا � �م ن� ا �ل��م� .أاو � ا ك���ا �� ي� ا � ار ��ه أا ��م�ا ي����و� ع ا �لمل�د ا � �يل �� � ن ن يّ ���سم� �نّد � �ي� ي ����ا �� �ا �ع�هي ُ�مي ن �م�ّل�� �م ن ا ��ل ش��� ء ا�ا� ي �ع ن �ي���� �ن�ه ا نّ��م�ا �يُ ي � س ��ل ل� � � م��� ن�� .أ�ا � ا ا �ل��م�ل ي� ي � و � ن � �� أ ن � � ي� � ي ن ي أ ا� � ا� ي�ن � ي ي � �هي �لم� �ل ����م�ل ي� � �ل ����م� �م�ع ن��ا ���ا � �م� �ل �����ل�� �نل��ا ا � ار ��ه �و� �� ن� ا� ا �ل��� ن� � � � � وع ن ��� ا � ار ��ه ���ون��و ن ل ن ون ل ّ م � � نم � �نّ ي ن � � � ن ا ن ن � ش ي � � �نّ ي ي� � �ن � ني � � � � ا � � � � � � � ل ل � � ا � � ا � ا ل ا ا � � ه ه م م � � � � ع م م ح د د م � ل ل ل ل � � ��� �� � س ل� ل� �نل ����ل� � ا �لم�ل��د ه �و� ن ل � ط �لأ � �ي� �و� أ �� �ي� ي ن � �ل ع
182
182
٢،١٣٤
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ �ّ �� � ن ه �ن ن أ� � ي ��� �مي��اأ نّ� �ع ن �� � � ن ي ��ً�ا يّ ا � �ل���ا ن���� ن� ���د ه ا � �وا �ل ي�ل ن��ا �� ن��� ن���� ن� ��ل ����ه ا �ل��د �ي� �ر�� ن� م�� � ر �ن ي �م� �عو�م � او��سر� ن أ ن ش ن أ نّ ��ّ ش � ن � ن ا أ ّ � ا� ن � �� ���د ا ا�ا�م�س ن �ّ �م�����ا ا ن� �� ّ�د �ع�� ل��� ��س��أ��� ا � �� � � � � � ا ا � � � � م د � �� ��س . � � � �و�ل� �يل�م� � ل ل � ير و و و ل � ي � ي ي ي� م رج ي � ن �ا� ج �ن � أ �� ن � ن ن � � ن � ّ ي � �ن � � ّ � ��هي ا ن��ل �� � ل���ن �ن�ه ن� �و ا � �لي� � ك ل � د ���ا ء ا �لي��ا � . حي��ده � او �ل�د ك � �أاو � ���� �ل � ير �ه�و �عم ���د أا �� ���د ا ا �ل�نس�د ا �ل� ي ي ي� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � ن ��د ا ا ��لن ���ي ��ي ا ��ل���ن�����ا ن� ل��ن ا �� ا ��هي ا ن� ا �ي�� ا ��ل ي� �عم�ل��ه � ل��ن ا �لن��ه�م�هي ا ن� ا ��ا �� �لنعي ه � � �ا �يل ن� � � ؟ ل � � و أ � ي و ي� ي� ر أ و �� ي �� أ ي� ن م �ي ّ � يّ �ن ن � � � � � � � �ا ا � ش ّ ا �� ي ّ ي ن� �ن�عي��ا ن� � او ��ل�� ا �ل�� � حرن� أا �ل�� ا�ا�سر� � او �ل�� نر� او � � او �ل�� ا �لن� ���ر � او �ل��ل ح��ك �ن� �ل��سر �و �س�سر��� �ن�ه ح�� أ أ ج ج أ ن ّ أ ي ن ّ ن ً ش ���ل �م�ه�و�� ن���عي��د �و ل��� �� �ي�لع� ل��� �� ���ل ا �سر �ش����د �ي��د ��ّ ي���� ن��ّ �عم�ل� ا �ن�ا �مم�ل�ه �عي ن� �����ا �عم�ل� �ن �نل���س�ه � ي ع ي � م ن � ي�� �م � أ أ ً � ي ن ن ن � � ن ي ا ا ا ا ا � ل ي ���د �م ن ��� �م� � ��م� ن �م� م � ن��� ��وء ا � ع �م� ي ن � ح�يس� ره � او ����م��� �عم�ل�� �ر��ه � ��و� ا � ار �ي� �و ن�� ��ن����ه ي��ه ا �ل�� ي� � � �أ � ن ن � � ن �ش� ا ي هي � ش ا ي ن ن � � نن �ن� ي � ���د ره م� �سم� �� ا �ل����� �م��� ا �ل� �ا ل��ي� � ي� .ل��م�ا ا �ل��س ّر ا�ام��ر�ي� � او�ام�س��� ا�ام�و��ش ن�؟ �و�ل��د �لم�ك ��ا �ل ي� م أ � ي ��ن ي أ � ن �� �� ن ي أ � أ �� � ن ن ن ن � ي ن ي � � ا ا ا ش ي � � � � ���� ه ا �ل����ن��� � او نل�� �ر�ه ا �����ل�� �ي�ه � او �رك��ه ا ����رن� ل�ي� � �� او � ر ��ل� �م��� �ر� �ن�ه ا لن�����ه ا ي� ا �ل أ �ن ي ّ � أ ن � ن ع� ي � ني � ن ا �ل��ه�م�ه � ح�ي� �نل ���ر � او ش��سر � او � �ل���رن� � او ���� ش��سر� .و�م ن� ا ن�م�ل � �لم�ك ��ا �ل ن���� ن��� ا �ل����م�ل�� ّ ا �� ا ��ل � ا ن ي � � ن �ن ّ ��ل�� �ل���� �عم�ل���ا ا ��ل�� � ��ل� ّ �مم� أ ن ّ ن �نا ل��� � ا ����� �كي��ه �مملك �ل��ي� ي ن ر ي� أ و ي� � له�م ا �و �ن��ي� �سر����م�ل��� .د ا � او �ل�� ��� ج � ّ ن �� ا ن حي��ل�� �ن��ه� ي� ّ ن � ا ن� ي � � م��م�ل�و ن� أا ��ل�� ا � ار ��هي �و���ع�و� �و ن� �م ن� ا ��ل ش��س ّر �و�م�م�ا �ي ��ور ش� �م ن��ه م حن ��و� ا ����� كي��ه �يو� ي ي م ع ُ ي ي �وي��������ع�� ن� �ع ن��ه.
١،١٣٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ � ��� ن� �ع ن �ي���� �ي�لي� ّ�د �م��ا �ن ن � � نّ � ي نّ� ا ي � �� �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ا �ل��سن�� ن� ل�ي� � �لمك ا � ا � ار ��ه أا �م� ��و � ن � ح � � �نّ ي ن � ن� أ نّ �ي ن � ن � ي نّ � ن آ� � ي �ل�� ��م�ا �ل�ه �و ن��مي�� �هر ك� ي���ا ا �ل���ا را ��ا � �م ن� ا �ل��م� .أاو � ا ك���ا �� ي� ا � ار ��ه أا ��م�ا ي����و� ع ا �لمل�د ا � �يل �� � ن ن يّ ���سم� �نّد � �ي� ي ����ا �� �ا �ع�هي ُ�مي ن �م�ّل�� �م ن ا ��ل ش��� ء ا�ا� ي �ع ن �ي���� �ن�ه ا نّ��م�ا �يُ ي � س ��ل ل� � � م��� ن�� .أ�ا � ا ا �ل��م�ل ي� ي � و � ن � �� أ ن � � ي� � ي ن ي أ ا� � ا� ي�ن � ي ي � �هي �لم� �ل ����م�ل ي� � �ل ����م� �م�ع ن��ا ���ا � �م� �ل �����ل�� �نل��ا ا � ار ��ه �و� �� ن� ا� ا �ل��� ن� � � � � وع ن ��� ا � ار ��ه ���ون��و ن ل ن ون ل ّ م � � نم � �نّ ي ن � � � ن ا ن ن � ش ي � � �نّ ي ي� � �ن � ني � � � � ا � � � � � � � ل ل � � ا � � ا � ا ل ا ا � � ه ه م م � � � � ع م م ح د د م � ل ل ل ل � � ��� �� � س ل� ل� �نل ����ل� � ا �لم�ل��د ه �و� ن ل � ط �لأ � �ي� �و� أ �� �ي� ي ن � �ل ع
182
182
٢،١٣٤
On why a life of comfort makes people feel oppressed and leads them to behave wantonly
a composite entity is posterior to the element from which it was composed. These are mutually contradictory facts, and they make it inadmissible to claim that the two entities are both first and have always been. Even the lengthiest explanations of this issue come down to this core point, which is sufficient for people endowed with an excellent mind and developed intelligence.
On why a life of comfort makes people feel oppressed and leads them to behave wantonly Why do people feel oppressed when surrounded by constant comforts and
134.1
attendant blessings? This sense of oppression encourages exuberant and impetuous, wanton and unrestrained behavior, and gets them mixed up in evil, so that they end up in awful situations and get into ghastly scrapes. Then they grind their teeth in anger at their bad choices and in regret at abandoning sound judgment and at turning their back on those who offered them wellintentioned counsel, in addition to the pain caused by the malicious pleasure of the ill-intentioned. What is the secret reason for the impetuosity and the element that makes one act fitfully? This is why we have one of the exceptional sayings of the Arabs: “Repletion gave him impetus”; that is, a full belly made him unrestrained, abundance made him wanton, and luxury provoked him, agitated and swollen with lust, to willful arrogance. That is why one of our pious forefathers said, “Well-being is a secret possession that only inspired saints and prophets sent by God can endure.” This is so even though everyone without exception loves well-being and inclines to comfort, and seeks protection against evil and its corollaries and consequences. Miskawayh’s response Comfort must follow prior discomfort. Pleasure clearly constitutes a relief from pain. Since comfort follows discomfort, it is experienced as pleasant and delightful when we are delivered from the cause of discomfort. If comfort continues uninterrupted and the pain of discomfort departs, then comfort is not realized but is rather nullified, as is its meaning; and with its nullification comes the nullification of pleasure. As pleasure is nullified, people err in longing for pleasure, whose true reality they are ignorant of. That is to say, they long for pleasure, but are ignorant of the fact that it is simply relief from pain.
183
183
134.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �ي ي ي ا أ � ن أ نّ ش ي ا �ي �� � � ن � � �نّ ي � أ نّ أ� ن ي � �ن ن ح�م�ل ا �ل���ا را ��ه �م ن� ا ا�م �����ا ر ا �لأ����س�ا � ��� ا ع��ي� ا ��ه ي����س� � أا ل�� مس��� ا �لمل�د ه �وي ن � حعي ��ع � � ن ��اأ �نّه � ش ي ا �ي ا ��ل �ي� �� �ي � ���ع�ي ���د ا ا�ام�سن�� ا ن� ا ��ل��� ��لم�ل���ا �ا� ��ه � �ي��� ّ�نس�ه �ا� � ش���ي�ي ه � ع � � . � و و أ ك�� � ي���س� � أ �� �� ن� لي����س�يرج ن ن � م ن ني م ي � ج آ ّ � ش � � نّأ أ ّ ن ا� �� ا ��ل� ا ��لم�ل��ند هي �ليّ��هي � ���ا �ي����ا � ا ن� ���د ا � �و�ه ��ا ��ل��د � او ء ا ��ل�� ند �� ي� ل �� � � ه ا ا ل ا س ا ا ا � ه � � ���س� �ل� ا ��ه 1 م � � م ن و ر ر أ أ� ي �� ن نو ي ي ن � نّ � � � �نّ ي ش أً عا ًا � ن ن � � أ نّ ا � �أّ ��ع �� � ن � ي ي ي ن ن ي ا ا ا � � � �ي�ل�� ���د ا �لمل�د ه � �ل������� ن�لم�ل �ير� ا �لمل�د ه ��سي���� �� ن����� ����ر� ���ه �ل� ٢ا �ل��� �م�����و�ه �ل��ول �ول�د �لمك � � ن � �أ ييّ � � ن ّ ي أ ن � ن ّي � ّ ي �ن ن ي ن �وا ��� �و���س��مّ� �ل��د �ي��د ه . �ير���د ا �����ا ا�م ل��ي� ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ا �لن��د �لي��ه ا �ع��ي� ا �ل��د �لي �� �وي�ه �و��هي� �م�ا �ل���م�ل �ن�ا �ل� ن ن �ن اأ ّ ا ��ل ا �ن �أ نّ �ي ن� � ا ن �� �ن�ا ه ��ا ��لن �س �ورهي ���ا ر � �ليع� ن�ك��ه � ا أ��مً�ا �يم�� � ح��م�ل ل��ي� �ه���و� � � � ي ي � �م� ا ن�� ��م�ل �ل� ��ه ي����� ر�� �ل�ه �م� ر ن ر م � أع آ � � أ ن � � ن ا ي � � �ي ي � ن � � � ن � او �ل�� � او �س ار ��� �ل� �ل��� �ي�ه �ل�ه �و�عم ك��ه ن ح�مي�� � �لم�ك ا �ل ن��د � � او �ل��� �م�. م م ن ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� �أ � ي � ن �ن ن ًّا ��� ًّا � � �ُ���مي�� ن � � ي � أن ��� � �ر� �و�ل� ي ح��س� �و�ل� ي�� ��ل ����ا ن� ����ا ر ن���� ن��� ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ��م�ا �م�ه ا � �ي���و� ع� ا�م � ي ن � �أش ا � � �ن ي ا � � �ُ���مي� ن �ّ � ن ��ن � ا �ّ � ع� ��ي�ً�ا ي��د ��مً�ا ي��د �س ّ ���ا ن� � ي � � � � � � ا ا ا ا ء � � � � ح � � �� � � � � ؟ ح � � � أ �ل� ك � س � �� م د � � ل ي � � � ل ل ��س ل ل ك ي �أ أ رو ي ي ي ر نو � أ ّ � � � � ا � ن ن ��م�ل��ا �عم� � ��ه � ا � � ن � ن ا � �ش ا �عم�لي��ه ا � نر�م�ا �؟ �و ا� ٣ا� ي� � ��ن� ا �ل����يس� ء ك� � ل�� و ن و ��د �ع��د ا �ل�� ���؟ �و�م� ا �ل��سن�� ن� ل��ي� م م ن ن � � ن ن� �ن ه ّ ن � ني ا ا �هر؟ ٤ ��ل �� � ا � �ل���س� �م��� �عم�ل�� ���دي�� ا ���و ن � ح���ي� �عي�� ��سر � ي
١،١٣٥
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ � ّ ���ا ن�� ي �ك� ��� ي ا ���أ�ش س�ا ء ��من حي�م�ل�ن��هي اأ �ع ن� اأ نّ ���� ن ��ا ي� ي ّ ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله �ام�ا ك� � �م �ل � �ل �� �ل� �� �ي� � ن � و ي ي� ي ن � م ي ه �ن ن ا ن �� �� �ي�ه ا ���ي �ه �ك� ��ل�ه ل�ن ن �م�ا ن �ي����� � ���� ن ��ا ي� ي ّ ���ا � ا ن�لي ن� ����ا � ل � � � � م � ل � � م ك ط � �ور �ي� �ي� �م �ي� ر � ي ر نو � ر �ل� ��م �ور �ي� ر � �وي�ل ا� اّ �ل� ��ا ن ا ��ل ش�� � ي � أ � � ين �� �� �من���ا � �ي ن�ل� ن ��سم�ل�ه ٥ا �ّ�ا ���ا ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ��لم� � ل� ح ن � ك م � ل و أ ���س�ه� .و�م� ك�� � ��ي�ء ي�ن����د � وي�����ه�ي� أا �� � ي ن ي أ أ� ن أ ن ن أ ���� � ش ّ �من�� ّ � � يّ ي � �ش � � ا ��ل�ه � �ي ي� ا ن�لي���ا ��هأ � ا ا ن � � � � �� � ح ا �كم �ل ��م يح ��ط �� ي�ل��ل� ��� �وي��ع�و� أا ل�� �م� �م��ه �ن��د ا ك�� � ا ���م�ل ا �و و � � � �� �� ن اأ �ّ ا � ن ��� ا �� ه اأ ا ن� �� ا �� ه � ن ه �ن ا � � ن ن ا �ي ا ن ا ن ��ا ن ي ا � �أ �ل� � �� � � � ك � � � ل أا �ل�� ا � � � ��كم ل �� م� ��ي� ع�و�ه أ لي�� �و ح��� ��� ع�� �� �ل�� �� ���� � �أو و� ن أ � ن � ش ا ن ي ا� ّا��ا ن ي ن �ي ن ّ ي �م��سي ّ ي �ن ا ن ن � أن ��يس�ه �س�سره ي�سم� ك� ���ا � ل��ي� �عم� �ام ن��ا ���د ا ا �عن��� �عم� ا� ا �� ن��م�ل �م� ا �ل�� �لي��ه� .و�م� ك�� ��� ���د ه ٦ا � �ل� � ي م ّ أّ أ أ أ أ أ ّ ن ّ 1الا�ص�ل :أا لا ا ن��� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :أا لا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :و�لو ٤ .ط�� :سر ٥ .الا�ص�ل :وة���ن�ع�ن����ة����ل��ه� ٦ .الا�ص�ل :و�ه�د �. م
184
184
٢،١٣٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �ي ي ي ا أ � ن أ نّ ش ي ا �ي �� � � ن � � �نّ ي � أ نّ أ� ن ي � �ن ن ح�م�ل ا �ل���ا را ��ه �م ن� ا ا�م �����ا ر ا �لأ����س�ا � ��� ا ع��ي� ا ��ه ي����س� � أا ل�� مس��� ا �لمل�د ه �وي ن � حعي ��ع � � ن ��اأ �نّه � ش ي ا �ي ا ��ل �ي� �� �ي � ���ع�ي ���د ا ا�ام�سن�� ا ن� ا ��ل��� ��لم�ل���ا �ا� ��ه � �ي��� ّ�نس�ه �ا� � ش���ي�ي ه � ع � � . � و و أ ك�� � ي���س� � أ �� �� ن� لي����س�يرج ن ن � م ن ني م ي � ج آ ّ � ش � � نّأ أ ّ ن ا� �� ا ��ل� ا ��لم�ل��ند هي �ليّ��هي � ���ا �ي����ا � ا ن� ���د ا � �و�ه ��ا ��ل��د � او ء ا ��ل�� ند �� ي� ل �� � � ه ا ا ل ا س ا ا ا � ه � � ���س� �ل� ا ��ه 1 م � � م ن و ر ر أ أ� ي �� ن نو ي ي ن � نّ � � � �نّ ي ش أً عا ًا � ن ن � � أ نّ ا � �أّ ��ع �� � ن � ي ي ي ن ن ي ا ا ا � � � �ي�ل�� ���د ا �لمل�د ه � �ل������� ن�لم�ل �ير� ا �لمل�د ه ��سي���� �� ن����� ����ر� ���ه �ل� ٢ا �ل��� �م�����و�ه �ل��ول �ول�د �لمك � � ن � �أ ييّ � � ن ّ ي أ ن � ن ّي � ّ ي �ن ن ي ن �وا ��� �و���س��مّ� �ل��د �ي��د ه . �ير���د ا �����ا ا�م ل��ي� ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ا �لن��د �لي��ه ا �ع��ي� ا �ل��د �لي �� �وي�ه �و��هي� �م�ا �ل���م�ل �ن�ا �ل� ن ن �ن اأ ّ ا ��ل ا �ن �أ نّ �ي ن� � ا ن �� �ن�ا ه ��ا ��لن �س �ورهي ���ا ر � �ليع� ن�ك��ه � ا أ��مً�ا �يم�� � ح��م�ل ل��ي� �ه���و� � � � ي ي � �م� ا ن�� ��م�ل �ل� ��ه ي����� ر�� �ل�ه �م� ر ن ر م � أع آ � � أ ن � � ن ا ي � � �ي ي � ن � � � ن � او �ل�� � او �س ار ��� �ل� �ل��� �ي�ه �ل�ه �و�عم ك��ه ن ح�مي�� � �لم�ك ا �ل ن��د � � او �ل��� �م�. م م ن ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� �أ � ي � ن �ن ن ًّا ��� ًّا � � �ُ���مي�� ن � � ي � أن ��� � �ر� �و�ل� ي ح��س� �و�ل� ي�� ��ل ����ا ن� ����ا ر ن���� ن��� ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ��م�ا �م�ه ا � �ي���و� ع� ا�م � ي ن � �أش ا � � �ن ي ا � � �ُ���مي� ن �ّ � ن ��ن � ا �ّ � ع� ��ي�ً�ا ي��د ��مً�ا ي��د �س ّ ���ا ن� � ي � � � � � � ا ا ا ا ء � � � � ح � � �� � � � � ؟ ح � � � أ �ل� ك � س � �� م د � � ل ي � � � ل ل ��س ل ل ك ي �أ أ رو ي ي ي ر نو � أ ّ � � � � ا � ن ن ��م�ل��ا �عم� � ��ه � ا � � ن � ن ا � �ش ا �عم�لي��ه ا � نر�م�ا �؟ �و ا� ٣ا� ي� � ��ن� ا �ل����يس� ء ك� � ل�� و ن و ��د �ع��د ا �ل�� ���؟ �و�م� ا �ل��سن�� ن� ل��ي� م م ن ن � � ن ن� �ن ه ّ ن � ني ا ا �هر؟ ٤ ��ل �� � ا � �ل���س� �م��� �عم�ل�� ���دي�� ا ���و ن � ح���ي� �عي�� ��سر � ي
١،١٣٥
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ � ّ ���ا ن�� ي �ك� ��� ي ا ���أ�ش س�ا ء ��من حي�م�ل�ن��هي اأ �ع ن� اأ نّ ���� ن ��ا ي� ي ّ ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله �ام�ا ك� � �م �ل � �ل �� �ل� �� �ي� � ن � و ي ي� ي ن � م ي ه �ن ن ا ن �� �� �ي�ه ا ���ي �ه �ك� ��ل�ه ل�ن ن �م�ا ن �ي����� � ���� ن ��ا ي� ي ّ ���ا � ا ن�لي ن� ����ا � ل � � � � م � ل � � م ك ط � �ور �ي� �ي� �م �ي� ر � ي ر نو � ر �ل� ��م �ور �ي� ر � �وي�ل ا� اّ �ل� ��ا ن ا ��ل ش�� � ي � أ � � ين �� �� �من���ا � �ي ن�ل� ن ��سم�ل�ه ٥ا �ّ�ا ���ا ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� ��لم� � ل� ح ن � ك م � ل و أ ���س�ه� .و�م� ك�� � ��ي�ء ي�ن����د � وي�����ه�ي� أا �� � ي ن ي أ أ� ن أ ن ن أ ���� � ش ّ �من�� ّ � � يّ ي � �ش � � ا ��ل�ه � �ي ي� ا ن�لي���ا ��هأ � ا ا ن � � � � �� � ح ا �كم �ل ��م يح ��ط �� ي�ل��ل� ��� �وي��ع�و� أا ل�� �م� �م��ه �ن��د ا ك�� � ا ���م�ل ا �و و � � � �� �� ن اأ �ّ ا � ن ��� ا �� ه اأ ا ن� �� ا �� ه � ن ه �ن ا � � ن ن ا �ي ا ن ا ن ��ا ن ي ا � �أ �ل� � �� � � � ك � � � ل أا �ل�� ا � � � ��كم ل �� م� ��ي� ع�و�ه أ لي�� �و ح��� ��� ع�� �� �ل�� �� ���� � �أو و� ن أ � ن � ش ا ن ي ا� ّا��ا ن ي ن �ي ن ّ ي �م��سي ّ ي �ن ا ن ن � أن ��يس�ه �س�سره ي�سم� ك� ���ا � ل��ي� �عم� �ام ن��ا ���د ا ا �عن��� �عم� ا� ا �� ن��م�ل �م� ا �ل�� �لي��ه� .و�م� ك�� ��� ���د ه ٦ا � �ل� � ي م ّ أّ أ أ أ أ أ ّ ن ّ 1الا�ص�ل :أا لا ا ن��� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :أا لا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :و�لو ٤ .ط�� :سر ٥ .الا�ص�ل :وة���ن�ع�ن����ة����ل��ه� ٦ .الا�ص�ل :و�ه�د �. م
184
184
٢،١٣٥
On why some things are best when they’re new and others are best when old
So people essentially long for discomfort in order to experience subsequent comfort. Once a person grasps this and perceives it clearly, he stops longing for pleasure, and when he feels the pain of hunger he attends to its treatment through the remedy called satiation, without aiming at pleasure itself, instead seeing pleasure as a concomitant of his purpose rather than as his primary end. That is why people who are cognizant of this fact limit their desire for corporeal things, that is to say worldly things, those which are connected to the senses and are termed “pleasurable.” Ignorant people, however, cannot avoid being affected by what we have described, so they perpetually succumb to it, and become embroiled in innumerable troubles, pains, and maladies. The outcome is remorse and regret.
On why some things are best when they’re new and others are best when old Why is it that some things achieve their consummate form when they are fresh
135.1
and tender, and are only commended and judged to be good when in that state, whereas other things are only chosen and commended when aged and old, marked by the passage of time? Why don’t people regard everything from a single perspective? Why are things divided according to these two perspectives? Is there a secret behind this that can be revealed?
Miskawayh’s response The perfection of things varies; for some the form that constitutes their perfection is completed in a short period of time, while for others the form is completed over a long period of time. Therefore, the length of time people must wait for their perfection, and the preference they show toward them, vary accordingly. Every entity begins, reaches perfection, and then enters decline, until it is eventually annihilated and returns to the point from which it began, so its optimal state is when it has attained perfection. Its progression to that point and its decline are deficient states, though the former is better than the latter. As this rule applies consistently to things that form part of this world of ours—that is, the world of generation and corruption—it follows that people’s
185
185
135.2
�� ن ا �����و� ا ��� � � ��كم� �ل
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� � ن� أن ي ��� ن ا � ي ��ل �����ا ��هي ا ��ل ن��ا ��� � او ���مي�� � او � �نل���س�ا � �و ن� ح ن� �م ن� � �لم�ك ا � ي�� ح��س�ا �نل�ه� �ل� ��وره � و ن م � �أ ا ا�� ن ن ي أ ن ًا � ن ً � �أ ن� ل��ن � ا � � ���د �م ن ا �ل��ش��س� ء م ��� �م � حي�م�ل�ن��ا �ل� ن�م�ل �م�ا � ���ر�ن�ا ه. حي�م�ل���ه ا �يل� ي� و ي ��د � او � �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � � �ن ن ن ّ� ّ ن ا �أ ًا ا �� ن�ل ن�� ا�ا� ش �ي ن�ك ه � ّي ن ا� ����ا ر ا �لأ�������ا � أا � ا ���ا � ا �و ��م�ل�� ر ��د �عم�ل�� �ر � م��س� رك ي�� ح��ر�ع�ي�ره � او �ش��يل ��ط � م م � ي � ن ي ن أ ن ن يّ أ �م�ل�� �ه � � ���د ا ��ن �عم�ل��ه � ا �ي ن�لع� �عم� � ��ن� نر� او �ن�هي ل��ن �ن �نل���س�ه �و ����ا ر� ا �ل��� ه ل�� ا � �ل��ه � م ل ح�� ك� ���ا �نّ�ه س ي ور وو ن ر ي� ي� ل�� ن ع � أ � ش ي ا ا� ن ن ي ا� ن ن ا �ل� � ح نّ هي � � � � ن �� � ����ل�� اأ نّ ا ����ه� م �م� ّ ��ن ���ا � ح ن� ا ���وح�ي� ا �و ا ��� او � ��� �ن� �م�ع��ره � او�م���ر� �ن� ن� �� ؟ و ه�و م ع � لمك ي �م � م�ل �ر � ِ ا � � ن ي ا � ّٰ ي ا �� ِ يِ ْ نَ ا �� ِ ا َ �ُ نْ �� ��آ �ن ا ي � � ا � � ش ل�ل � � ونل��� ي ن ح� ��ط � �� او ن� ��� ن ح��ه �و�ل���د ا �� �ل ا لله ����� ل�� {�و�� ِ�د �م��� أِا ل�� �م� ���قِ�مم �ل او �ِم� ِ ِ �نِ ِ ِ ْ نَ ا ُ ِ ِ ا ً ِ نْ شُ ً ا� ا � ن � ن ن � ا ن �ّ ي ني � ش ن �ن ���ق�مم�ل ن� ��م��م�ل��� ه �عن�� ء �م����و� ار} �و�م� ي���ر��� �ل�ه �م� ���د ا ا ����� ر��� �عمل�ه ��س����� � ��م� ل�ي� ً أ أ أ ن � ن ا� ا � ي ��ا ن ن �م� ا ن ا �ل�م� � ن ا ي �ن يا � ّ ا ا �ن � �� � س � � ه � � ل � ا � � � � ا ا � ل �ل �ل � � ه ل م � � ���د � � � � � � � � � � . � � � م�� � � ك ل ل ه س �وا ن� ن�� �ل ل � ي � �و ي� ن ي مك ن ر �ي� أ و � ن ��� آ ن ن ي � م ن ّأ آ ّ ً ن ي �ن ا � � يّ أ ن نا ش ي ن ن ن ��� �عم� ا � ���ع�م� �ل�ه �م�ا ���د ا ا �ل��ا ح�� ن� ي� �سرن� ���و� �� �و��س ��م ا �ر �و�ع� ن ل�� ر ي ل �ع�د ا ه �ي ��و�م ل�م� ا م����� � ن� �ي ا �� ن� ن � � ا ش ا �� �لي ّ ا ء �ن ن ا � ّ ي ���د ه . ا �ر ن�م�ل؟ ��� ل ح� م�� ��سر �ر ي�س�
١،١٣٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ّٰ ني ن ��ّ � ن ا ��س��ي ش � ل�ن �ن �ن ه �ن ن ي � ن �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله ���ل م� ��م�ر �ي� ل���س� �� ��يسم�ل�ه �وك���ا � �ع ن��ا ك � �ل����ا � و نو � يآ� ن ن يش أ ن � ي �يلم� � ا �� ن�ل� ن سم� هي اأ� � � ��� �ن ا ن � ه �م ن ه � ن�� �� ه � ��ن ي ن � �م ن� �و ن��ه ا �ر �وح����ي� ا � �ل��� �� لك � ��ي ل� و �ل� ي �ر � ��� �ع�ي ر �� عر � ل� �عم ر � نم أ � أ نّ ا � ه �لم�لسي � ن ن � أ ن ن � ن � �� � �أ نّ ن �� ي � � �ل ه م � ل � ل ح�� ي �م��� م� �ع�ي ره ا � �ي��د ع� � ن ك ا ����ن��ر �ل� � �م�س��� ا ����ن��ر �ه�و ���د ا ا ي� ا � ��� ن ن ا � ن ا ن ا� ن ا ي �� ي ا ا� ن �� ي � ن ا �� ن� ن � ي ��د ا � ي � ي أ حّ ك ن �س �و ن� ا ��ل � � حر���ه �م� ل�� � ���د �� ا � �ل��ا �لمل� �ل�� �نر�ه �و�ل� ��� �ل�ه �أ� � ا �م ي����ر� � ��يسمل�ه �و�ي���ر� � ��� ر ر �ّ أ ّ ّ ّ � ن ن ن � ن � ي ي اأ ن � ن ن � ن � ���د أا �ل� �ع ن � �ل�ه ي ن� �م�ا ي���ن��ر ا � ���د���ا ل��ي� � �ل���س�ه� .أاو ��م�ا ا �ل��س�ل��م�ه �م ن� ���د ا ا �����ا ر��� �ه�و � � أ � � ن ا ن � ن ن ي � ن � � � ش آ ن �ش ي أن ن ن ��� ًل�� �يلم�ل�سم��� ا �لأ����س� � ا � �ل�� ��يسم�ل�ه �لن �����س�ه �ل� �ل����ي�ء ا �ر ا ����ر �م ن� ا � �يل���ي�ر �ه�و ن�لن �����س�ه ��ا ن� ن � � � �أ ن �ُ�� �ن ن �� � �م ن ه اأ� ُ� � �أ ن ن يّ ن � أ ن ُ ن ن ش �����ه ��و ل��ي� � ��و ن� �ل� �ل�� ي �ر� � لمك �� و �ي � ��ر�م �ل� ن�م�ل�ه �أ�ا � ا � �ل �عي� �ل�ه ا � ي����ر�� �����ي�ء � ��و ن� � ع أ ّ � ي � ُ � � � ن ن ي � ن ا ن �ي ا ���ير ش� ن��ل � او ن� �ا ي����ر�ن� ��ل�ه ن� ��لم�ك �ا �يلم�ل�����سم�ه �م ن� ن�ع�ي�ره �و�ا �ي�� ح��م�ل �ع�ي�ره �ن�ه �����د �عمل�م�� ا � ا �سم� ��� م م أ م �� هي ��م ّي ا ن � � هي � �أ ��م ّ هي � � ا � هي �ي�� ّ ن�� �ي � ��لم�ل�مي ا ��ل�ن � � ن�� �� �لي � ا ��ل��م�ل�ن ع ���ر م� �ر � ��و �� ع ح�� ا � � ا� � � ��� ار �م� �وحن����� ر�يلمل� � .و�ل� ن�م�ل ن � و ر � �وم م 186
186
٢،١٣٦
�� ن ا �����و� ا ��� � � ��كم� �ل
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� � ن� أن ي ��� ن ا � ي ��ل �����ا ��هي ا ��ل ن��ا ��� � او ���مي�� � او � �نل���س�ا � �و ن� ح ن� �م ن� � �لم�ك ا � ي�� ح��س�ا �نل�ه� �ل� ��وره � و ن م � �أ ا ا�� ن ن ي أ ن ًا � ن ً � �أ ن� ل��ن � ا � � ���د �م ن ا �ل��ش��س� ء م ��� �م � حي�م�ل�ن��ا �ل� ن�م�ل �م�ا � ���ر�ن�ا ه. حي�م�ل���ه ا �يل� ي� و ي ��د � او � �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � � �ن ن ن ّ� ّ ن ا �أ ًا ا �� ن�ل ن�� ا�ا� ش �ي ن�ك ه � ّي ن ا� ����ا ر ا �لأ�������ا � أا � ا ���ا � ا �و ��م�ل�� ر ��د �عم�ل�� �ر � م��س� رك ي�� ح��ر�ع�ي�ره � او �ش��يل ��ط � م م � ي � ن ي ن أ ن ن يّ أ �م�ل�� �ه � � ���د ا ��ن �عم�ل��ه � ا �ي ن�لع� �عم� � ��ن� نر� او �ن�هي ل��ن �ن �نل���س�ه �و ����ا ر� ا �ل��� ه ل�� ا � �ل��ه � م ل ح�� ك� ���ا �نّ�ه س ي ور وو ن ر ي� ي� ل�� ن ع � أ � ش ي ا ا� ن ن ي ا� ن ن ا �ل� � ح نّ هي � � � � ن �� � ����ل�� اأ نّ ا ����ه� م �م� ّ ��ن ���ا � ح ن� ا ���وح�ي� ا �و ا ��� او � ��� �ن� �م�ع��ره � او�م���ر� �ن� ن� �� ؟ و ه�و م ع � لمك ي �م � م�ل �ر � ِ ا � � ن ي ا � ّٰ ي ا �� ِ يِ ْ نَ ا �� ِ ا َ �ُ نْ �� ��آ �ن ا ي � � ا � � ش ل�ل � � ونل��� ي ن ح� ��ط � �� او ن� ��� ن ح��ه �و�ل���د ا �� �ل ا لله ����� ل�� {�و�� ِ�د �م��� أِا ل�� �م� ���قِ�مم �ل او �ِم� ِ ِ �نِ ِ ِ ْ نَ ا ُ ِ ِ ا ً ِ نْ شُ ً ا� ا � ن � ن ن � ا ن �ّ ي ني � ش ن �ن ���ق�مم�ل ن� ��م��م�ل��� ه �عن�� ء �م����و� ار} �و�م� ي���ر��� �ل�ه �م� ���د ا ا ����� ر��� �عمل�ه ��س����� � ��م� ل�ي� ً أ أ أ ن � ن ا� ا � ي ��ا ن ن �م� ا ن ا �ل�م� � ن ا ي �ن يا � ّ ا ا �ن � �� � س � � ه � � ل � ا � � � � ا ا � ل �ل �ل � � ه ل م � � ���د � � � � � � � � � � . � � � م�� � � ك ل ل ه س �وا ن� ن�� �ل ل � ي � �و ي� ن ي مك ن ر �ي� أ و � ن ��� آ ن ن ي � م ن ّأ آ ّ ً ن ي �ن ا � � يّ أ ن نا ش ي ن ن ن ��� �عم� ا � ���ع�م� �ل�ه �م�ا ���د ا ا �ل��ا ح�� ن� ي� �سرن� ���و� �� �و��س ��م ا �ر �و�ع� ن ل�� ر ي ل �ع�د ا ه �ي ��و�م ل�م� ا م����� � ن� �ي ا �� ن� ن � � ا ش ا �� �لي ّ ا ء �ن ن ا � ّ ي ���د ه . ا �ر ن�م�ل؟ ��� ل ح� م�� ��سر �ر ي�س�
١،١٣٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ّٰ ني ن ��ّ � ن ا ��س��ي ش � ل�ن �ن �ن ه �ن ن ي � ن �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله ���ل م� ��م�ر �ي� ل���س� �� ��يسم�ل�ه �وك���ا � �ع ن��ا ك � �ل����ا � و نو � يآ� ن ن يش أ ن � ي �يلم� � ا �� ن�ل� ن سم� هي اأ� � � ��� �ن ا ن � ه �م ن ه � ن�� �� ه � ��ن ي ن � �م ن� �و ن��ه ا �ر �وح����ي� ا � �ل��� �� لك � ��ي ل� و �ل� ي �ر � ��� �ع�ي ر �� عر � ل� �عم ر � نم أ � أ نّ ا � ه �لم�لسي � ن ن � أ ن ن � ن � �� � �أ نّ ن �� ي � � �ل ه م � ل � ل ح�� ي �م��� م� �ع�ي ره ا � �ي��د ع� � ن ك ا ����ن��ر �ل� � �م�س��� ا ����ن��ر �ه�و ���د ا ا ي� ا � ��� ن ن ا � ن ا ن ا� ن ا ي �� ي ا ا� ن �� ي � ن ا �� ن� ن � ي ��د ا � ي � ي أ حّ ك ن �س �و ن� ا ��ل � � حر���ه �م� ل�� � ���د �� ا � �ل��ا �لمل� �ل�� �نر�ه �و�ل� ��� �ل�ه �أ� � ا �م ي����ر� � ��يسمل�ه �و�ي���ر� � ��� ر ر �ّ أ ّ ّ ّ � ن ن ن � ن � ي ي اأ ن � ن ن � ن � ���د أا �ل� �ع ن � �ل�ه ي ن� �م�ا ي���ن��ر ا � ���د���ا ل��ي� � �ل���س�ه� .أاو ��م�ا ا �ل��س�ل��م�ه �م ن� ���د ا ا �����ا ر��� �ه�و � � أ � � ن ا ن � ن ن ي � ن � � � ش آ ن �ش ي أن ن ن ��� ًل�� �يلم�ل�سم��� ا �لأ����س� � ا � �ل�� ��يسم�ل�ه �لن �����س�ه �ل� �ل����ي�ء ا �ر ا ����ر �م ن� ا � �يل���ي�ر �ه�و ن�لن �����س�ه ��ا ن� ن � � � �أ ن �ُ�� �ن ن �� � �م ن ه اأ� ُ� � �أ ن ن يّ ن � أ ن ُ ن ن ش �����ه ��و ل��ي� � ��و ن� �ل� �ل�� ي �ر� � لمك �� و �ي � ��ر�م �ل� ن�م�ل�ه �أ�ا � ا � �ل �عي� �ل�ه ا � ي����ر�� �����ي�ء � ��و ن� � ع أ ّ � ي � ُ � � � ن ن ي � ن ا ن �ي ا ���ير ش� ن��ل � او ن� �ا ي����ر�ن� ��ل�ه ن� ��لم�ك �ا �يلم�ل�����سم�ه �م ن� ن�ع�ي�ره �و�ا �ي�� ح��م�ل �ع�ي�ره �ن�ه �����د �عمل�م�� ا � ا �سم� ��� م م أ م �� هي ��م ّي ا ن � � هي � �أ ��م ّ هي � � ا � هي �ي�� ّ ن�� �ي � ��لم�ل�مي ا ��ل�ن � � ن�� �� �لي � ا ��ل��م�ل�ن ع ���ر م� �ر � ��و �� ع ح�� ا � � ا� � � ��� ار �م� �وحن����� ر�يلمل� � .و�ل� ن�م�ل ن � و ر � �وم م 186
186
٢،١٣٦
On why people who display great piety are prone to arrogance
judgments regarding the form of perfection that is good and commendable in each of these various things must also vary for the reasons we mentioned.
On why people who display great piety are prone to arrogance Why is it that if a person fasts or prays beyond the stipulated amount common
136.1
to all, he conceives a scorn for others, treats them peremptorily, and puffs himself up in social gatherings, swollen with pride and stung by some gadfly as though he were the recipient of divine afflatus, was assured of forgiveness, and had exclusive rights to Paradise? Yet he knows that action is susceptible to different kinds of impairment, through which the reward of the agent may be undone. This is why God said: «We shall advance upon what work they have done, and make it a scattered dust.»40 The phenomenon that affects him must have a cause, which will be revealed in the response to the question. One of our companions used to laugh at an anecdote on this topic. He said: One day a Jew converted to Islam in the early morning, and before evening he had struck a muezzin, cursed a second, and unleashed his anger on yet a third. “What kind of behavior is this?” people asked him. “We religious devotees are a sharptempered lot!” he rejoined. Miskawayh’s response Arrogance affects everyone who knows that he possesses a certain virtue but who also suffers a deficiency from another perspective, and who fears that that virtue might remain hidden or that nobody else might know he possesses it. For this is the meaning of arrogance; that is, the person affected tries to get another to concede and acknowledge that he possesses that virtue; if the other fails to acknowledge it, he succumbs to all manner of disturbed movements. That person spoke truly who said that the reason for the display of arrogance is some baseness discerned in the self. The way to avoid being affected by this phenomenon is for a person to seek to possess virtue for no other reason than that he should become virtuous in himself, and not in order that this should receive acknowledgment or honor for it. It is right and proper if it happens to be acknowledged, but if it is not, he should not seek this from others and should be unconcerned about the fact that others do not know about it, for we
187
187
136.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�آ � � ن � � اي � م��ا ره � .او ��ل�� ند �ي� ي ن� �و�ل�� ن�ر� ن� ا �ل�هر ن� �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� أا ��ل�� ن�ع�ي�ر � ��لم�ك �م ن� ا�ا � ح ن� �عم�ل�� ا ����� ُ�م�ل �ه�و ي ي ن ني أ أ � ن اأ ن �يلم�ل�سيم�� ا �� ن�ل��ن ��ر��م�هي �م�م�د �و��ه ل��� � ا �ل���ا 1ا �� ���ا �ألم�ل ل��� �ن �نل���س�ه �لي����ي�ر �نل���ا �عم�ل� �ي��أس�هي �� ��ر� ا � � � ي ي � ي م م � � � ش ا � ه ل�ن ن � � ا ��ل�م ّ� هي �ن ا نّ ا ��ل�م�ّ هي �يُ � �� ا� ُ� � ُ� �ن ن � � � ه أ� ا� �ُ� �ن � ��ر �وعر� � �لمك �ل� ا � ي��ر�� .وي ن��م�ل م�� �ل� �ي� � �لمك �� أ� � �� ل��مل ن�٢ م �ي � م م م ُ � ً � � � � � ن ن ن � م � � ي �� � ح �� ا�ا�س ء �عم�ل ا �� ي ا � � حم� ا � ���ا. �� �ل� �لي��عي����د �كي��ه � �لم�ك �و�ل� �لي�ُ � ��ر�م �عملي� �ل�د ا �ل��� �وي�ر � ر ي� ��� �لي����ي�ر ي�� ح�� ن ��ن � � ن ُ� � � ي � ه �م�ّ هي � ن ن � �� ا �� ن� ن ا أ � � ن ن أ ن � ن �نا �و���د �لمك أا � ا ن��مل� �ل� �� ا �ل ������ نح� ��ول ل�� ��� �لم�ل �ل� �ي���ن���هي� ا � �يل ���م�ل ن� �م� ا �ل�� ��� ن � ّي ي ن اأ ن � � ه �� ا � � � اأ ن ���عي�ي�د � ا ن�ك ه ن� �� � � �م�ي ن ا ��ل�ن � ا � ه ���د � � � � � � � � � � � � � ل م � � ��س�ه �و��� ل��ي� ن� ل �سر�و ن� ل � � � � ك � � � و و و ي � ي ي رو � و ي ع � � � ي �ي أ � ا �ي � � � ن ي ي ا � � � � �م ن ا ن�ل ا ا ل � � ح��ا �ل�� ��� ا � ��د��� ا ���ن� ر � او�� �ل�ه ��� �و�����. �� � ي ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أّ �� ��ن ��ا ��م� �م� � ن ن ن ��ا �ي� ا�ا�م� ��م�ل ّ � ن���� ن�� ا �م� ���ا ن�ل ن��ا ا ن� ا ��ر�ش��يس�د ي��ا ��ل ��ل�� ��م� � � ل�� � ك�ي � ل ك و ي� ع ا � �ل���م�ل ن�� أ ح�� � � � �ّ ن ن نّ � � أ � ن ّأ ني � أ ح� � ن� ن ن � � ح��؟ �����ا �ل �ي�ا ا �م�ي�ر ا�ا �أ �م ن � ا � ا � ��ع� ا �ل ا ��م ا �ل ه ا ي ي� و ��ع��ر ن�� ي ي مو ��ي� م� ن �ر �أ� �ي� �ل� �ل أ ي�� أ �ل� �عم�ل�ّ� � ن � � ي ن ي �� ّ � ن شّ ن ن ن � يّ � �نل ���ر�ن� �و�ل�� ي�لن��ه� ��ل�� ن� �ع��سر �أ�ا � ا �و��م�ل ي� أا �لي��ه �كن�م�ل ي� �ي��ده ��ل� �يلمل���� أا ل� حر�� ��م أا �ل�ي� ي ي ي أم أ أ أ ي ح�ن��ه �ي�د � ن � ا ���ي�ر أا ��ل�� �م�ن� نر ��ل�� �ن�ا ن���د ��م�لي��ه �و�ّره �و���د ا ��ا ه �و� ����يمن�� �ن�ا ن� ل���ي ��ي�را ن� �م ن� �ش�س�ا �ن�ه ي ي ن �ّ ن يّ � أ أ ّ ا � ن ن ن ا نّ ا أ ن ّ ّ ن � � ش ي �سن�� � ���س�ا �� ن�� �ع ن � �يك�ي ش ا ا ي � � � � � ع � ح �� � او �م� ا ل���م�ل �أ� ل�ي� �م� ا ����� �ن� �ن�ه أا �ل� �يو�ل�مل��� ل�ي� �و�يل����� ّل�ي� �وي � ي� وي ي� � ي �� ّي ي �ن�ن�ه ي ا ��ن�ه � ن ���ه ن � ن اأ �س �� � �م�ل�م�ل�ه � �يل�م� � ح��ه � �ويل��م�ل�ل�ه �ور��ه �م��ه �م� ي �سرل�� �وي ن� حم ن�� �م ن� ن� ش��سره �و �����ل�� ي��هي �و ن� حرل�ي� ن � ي ري و ن ي أو ن ي أ ً � ن ن ن � � � � � ن ن � ي � ي � ح�ل� ل��� ا �س ه �و�ل���� �ع�ي�ر � �لم�ك����� .ا �ل ا �ر�ش��يس�د �ع ن��د ���د ا ا �ل � �ع ن� ا �ل ش��س � ���د��ي ش� ��ر � او ن� ل���� ن� ي ر ي � أ آ أ أّ أّ � ن � �ي�ا ا �ن�ا أا ��م� ��ا �ي� �ن�ا �يل�ه�م�ا �ع ن��د ك ا ش�ر �و�ن���م�ل ٣ا �يل�ه�م�ا �م ن� �ن �نل���سم�ك ا �و�ي�� ؟ ن���ي��ا �ل �ن���م�ل ا � ن�ل� ن��م�ل ���د ا ع آ �ي ا ن� ا ��ل �� ح��ا �ي�ه. ر أ � ��� ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي �من ���ا �م�ا ا ��ل��س��� ل��ن� �يش��س � �لن� أا ��م� ��ا �ي� �ن���م�ل ا � ن�ل� ن��م�ل � �و ن� �ن���م�ل ن� �� ن� ع�ر؟ �و���و ن� � ن ن ي ري ع ا �� ن� ن � ن � ه � ن�� � � ي ا � ه � � � ن ن� هي ه � ن �� � � ن� � � ه ي ا ��ل ا هي �و��ر �ل� �ن �ل�� ء � او�� ن�� �و ل���م�ل من��د �و�ل� عر � �ل� �ن �ل�� ء �ل� �و�ل� م�ع��� �ن� �و من��د �ول ن�ع�ر ن � أ ي ن� ّ � ي � � � ن �آ � � � أا �لي��ه �م�ا � ّ�س�هي � او �ر�عن��ا ي� �ن�ه �م ن��و �����هي � او �ل���م�ا �ل أا �لي��ه � �سر�و�ن�ه .ا �ل��د �لي�م�ل �عم�ل� � �لم�ك ا �ن�م�ك �ل�� ن���د م � � أ أ أ ةُ ن ن نة �� ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :ة� ���ع�ل. 1الا�ص�ل وط :د ا ��� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :لا ���ط�ل ن
188
188
١،١٣٧
٢،١٣٧
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�آ � � ن � � اي � م��ا ره � .او ��ل�� ند �ي� ي ن� �و�ل�� ن�ر� ن� ا �ل�هر ن� �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� أا ��ل�� ن�ع�ي�ر � ��لم�ك �م ن� ا�ا � ح ن� �عم�ل�� ا ����� ُ�م�ل �ه�و ي ي ن ني أ أ � ن اأ ن �يلم�ل�سيم�� ا �� ن�ل��ن ��ر��م�هي �م�م�د �و��ه ل��� � ا �ل���ا 1ا �� ���ا �ألم�ل ل��� �ن �نل���س�ه �لي����ي�ر �نل���ا �عم�ل� �ي��أس�هي �� ��ر� ا � � � ي ي � ي م م � � � ش ا � ه ل�ن ن � � ا ��ل�م ّ� هي �ن ا نّ ا ��ل�م�ّ هي �يُ � �� ا� ُ� � ُ� �ن ن � � � ه أ� ا� �ُ� �ن � ��ر �وعر� � �لمك �ل� ا � ي��ر�� .وي ن��م�ل م�� �ل� �ي� � �لمك �� أ� � �� ل��مل ن�٢ م �ي � م م م ُ � ً � � � � � ن ن ن � م � � ي �� � ح �� ا�ا�س ء �عم�ل ا �� ي ا � � حم� ا � ���ا. �� �ل� �لي��عي����د �كي��ه � �لم�ك �و�ل� �لي�ُ � ��ر�م �عملي� �ل�د ا �ل��� �وي�ر � ر ي� ��� �لي����ي�ر ي�� ح�� ن ��ن � � ن ُ� � � ي � ه �م�ّ هي � ن ن � �� ا �� ن� ن ا أ � � ن ن أ ن � ن �نا �و���د �لمك أا � ا ن��مل� �ل� �� ا �ل ������ نح� ��ول ل�� ��� �لم�ل �ل� �ي���ن���هي� ا � �يل ���م�ل ن� �م� ا �ل�� ��� ن � ّي ي ن اأ ن � � ه �� ا � � � اأ ن ���عي�ي�د � ا ن�ك ه ن� �� � � �م�ي ن ا ��ل�ن � ا � ه ���د � � � � � � � � � � � � � ل م � � ��س�ه �و��� ل��ي� ن� ل �سر�و ن� ل � � � � ك � � � و و و ي � ي ي رو � و ي ع � � � ي �ي أ � ا �ي � � � ن ي ي ا � � � � �م ن ا ن�ل ا ا ل � � ح��ا �ل�� ��� ا � ��د��� ا ���ن� ر � او�� �ل�ه ��� �و�����. �� � ي ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أّ �� ��ن ��ا ��م� �م� � ن ن ن ��ا �ي� ا�ا�م� ��م�ل ّ � ن���� ن�� ا �م� ���ا ن�ل ن��ا ا ن� ا ��ر�ش��يس�د ي��ا ��ل ��ل�� ��م� � � ل�� � ك�ي � ل ك و ي� ع ا � �ل���م�ل ن�� أ ح�� � � � �ّ ن ن نّ � � أ � ن ّأ ني � أ ح� � ن� ن ن � � ح��؟ �����ا �ل �ي�ا ا �م�ي�ر ا�ا �أ �م ن � ا � ا � ��ع� ا �ل ا ��م ا �ل ه ا ي ي� و ��ع��ر ن�� ي ي مو ��ي� م� ن �ر �أ� �ي� �ل� �ل أ ي�� أ �ل� �عم�ل�ّ� � ن � � ي ن ي �� ّ � ن شّ ن ن ن � يّ � �نل ���ر�ن� �و�ل�� ي�لن��ه� ��ل�� ن� �ع��سر �أ�ا � ا �و��م�ل ي� أا �لي��ه �كن�م�ل ي� �ي��ده ��ل� �يلمل���� أا ل� حر�� ��م أا �ل�ي� ي ي ي أم أ أ أ ي ح�ن��ه �ي�د � ن � ا ���ي�ر أا ��ل�� �م�ن� نر ��ل�� �ن�ا ن���د ��م�لي��ه �و�ّره �و���د ا ��ا ه �و� ����يمن�� �ن�ا ن� ل���ي ��ي�را ن� �م ن� �ش�س�ا �ن�ه ي ي ن �ّ ن يّ � أ أ ّ ا � ن ن ن ا نّ ا أ ن ّ ّ ن � � ش ي �سن�� � ���س�ا �� ن�� �ع ن � �يك�ي ش ا ا ي � � � � � ع � ح �� � او �م� ا ل���م�ل �أ� ل�ي� �م� ا ����� �ن� �ن�ه أا �ل� �يو�ل�مل��� ل�ي� �و�يل����� ّل�ي� �وي � ي� وي ي� � ي �� ّي ي �ن�ن�ه ي ا ��ن�ه � ن ���ه ن � ن اأ �س �� � �م�ل�م�ل�ه � �يل�م� � ح��ه � �ويل��م�ل�ل�ه �ور��ه �م��ه �م� ي �سرل�� �وي ن� حم ن�� �م ن� ن� ش��سره �و �����ل�� ي��هي �و ن� حرل�ي� ن � ي ري و ن ي أو ن ي أ ً � ن ن ن � � � � � ن ن � ي � ي � ح�ل� ل��� ا �س ه �و�ل���� �ع�ي�ر � �لم�ك����� .ا �ل ا �ر�ش��يس�د �ع ن��د ���د ا ا �ل � �ع ن� ا �ل ش��س � ���د��ي ش� ��ر � او ن� ل���� ن� ي ر ي � أ آ أ أّ أّ � ن � �ي�ا ا �ن�ا أا ��م� ��ا �ي� �ن�ا �يل�ه�م�ا �ع ن��د ك ا ش�ر �و�ن���م�ل ٣ا �يل�ه�م�ا �م ن� �ن �نل���سم�ك ا �و�ي�� ؟ ن���ي��ا �ل �ن���م�ل ا � ن�ل� ن��م�ل ���د ا ع آ �ي ا ن� ا ��ل �� ح��ا �ي�ه. ر أ � ��� ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي �من ���ا �م�ا ا ��ل��س��� ل��ن� �يش��س � �لن� أا ��م� ��ا �ي� �ن���م�ل ا � ن�ل� ن��م�ل � �و ن� �ن���م�ل ن� �� ن� ع�ر؟ �و���و ن� � ن ن ي ري ع ا �� ن� ن � ن � ه � ن�� � � ي ا � ه � � � ن ن� هي ه � ن �� � � ن� � � ه ي ا ��ل ا هي �و��ر �ل� �ن �ل�� ء � او�� ن�� �و ل���م�ل من��د �و�ل� عر � �ل� �ن �ل�� ء �ل� �و�ل� م�ع��� �ن� �و من��د �ول ن�ع�ر ن � أ ي ن� ّ � ي � � � ن �آ � � � أا �لي��ه �م�ا � ّ�س�هي � او �ر�عن��ا ي� �ن�ه �م ن��و �����هي � او �ل���م�ا �ل أا �لي��ه � �سر�و�ن�ه .ا �ل��د �لي�م�ل �عم�ل� � �لم�ك ا �ن�م�ك �ل�� ن���د م � � أ أ أ ةُ ن ن نة �� ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :ة� ���ع�ل. 1الا�ص�ل وط :د ا ��� ٢ .الا�ص�ل :لا ���ط�ل ن
188
188
١،١٣٧
٢،١٣٧
On why a warm manner is more pleasing than a cold benefaction
know that it is a defect to love and seek honor. Some people have been ruined by the love of honor, some have been affected by pomposity, and others have fled human society, and other such odious things. What the person endowed with reason should do is to seek to possess the virtues so as to acquire a disposition honorable and praiseworthy in itself, regardless of whether he is honored or not, and whether it is acknowledged or not. In this it resembles health, for health is desired for its own sake, and the reason a person is keen to possess it is simply in order to be healthy, not in order that he should be thought to be so, nor in order to be honored for it. Similarly, if it is given to one to achieve the health of the soul by realizing the virtues, one must not demand honor for it or acknowledgment of one’s achievement. Whenever this guiding principle is contravened, one falls prey to all sorts of ignorant behavior, among them arrogance and the condition described.
On why a warm manner is more pleasing than a cold benefaction One of our companions reported that Hārūn al-Rashīd asked Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī,
137.1
“How are your relations with al-Faḍl ibn Yaḥyā and Jaʿfar ibn Yaḥyā?”41 He said, “Sire, I only gain an audience with Jaʿfar with difficulty, and when I reach him I kiss his hand, but he doesn’t glance at me or grace me with a single word. Then I go home and I find his tokens of kindness and charity and his gifts and presents waiting for me, and I am at a loss what to make of him. No sooner is my hand on the door knocker than al-Faḍl has received me, and he treats me amiably and gives me special attention, asking about all of my affairs high and low and vivifying me with his cheerful mien, beaming countenance, joyful air, and gentle tone. This overwhelms me and makes me feel I could never thank him enough, and I am left nursing a sense of bashfulness toward him. This is how things stand.” When he heard this, al-Rashīd said, “Abū Isḥāq, which of the two are you fonder of, and whose actions have the strongest effect on you?” “Al-Faḍl’s,” he replied. This is the end of the report. My question is: Why did Isḥāq esteem al-Faḍl’s action more highly than Jaʿfar’s? What al-Faḍl expends is contingent: It does not endure and yields no profit, whereas what Jaʿfar expends is a substance that endures and is an object of pressing need on which desires are fastened and hopes pinned. The proof of this is that no one on the face of the earth sets out to obtain a man’s cheerful
189
189
137.2
� ا � ًا �ن � � ن ا � ش ���� �لن�� ل�ي� ا �ل�د �لي�� �لن����سر ر ن�م�ل ا ��ل�� �ي ن ن��م ن�مي� � � � ح �م� �ع�� � ���ه� ا�ام�ا �ل و ن ر ر ي� ن ي
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ��ل�� ن� ا ًا ن � �أ ن � ش ا ش ي ن ا ن أ ن ي ي �ّ ��� ر�ن� ل��ي� ا �ل�ر��� �ل����س� ��س�ه أا ���س� � � او ��� �ر�� ا �لن��ر و أ ن ا � أ � ن � � �آ ا � � ن � ا � � او ن�ل�� ء ا �ل���� او �ل �و��د � ا �ل��م� �ل ع��د ا �ر ن�� �ل. م
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ٰ أ � أ � ��ا ي ن اأ ن �� نّ ي ي ن � أ نّ � ن ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله ا �ّم�ا ا �ل � ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ���ا �م��م�ل� �ون�ه �و� �لم�ك ا � ا�ام�و���و�� ح�� �ي�ه �� �� � و ي� ي ا � � ش �ن �ن � � ا أ ّ ا � ن� �ن ا� �ن ا �� �� �� ي هي �ن ا �� ن � � ل � ا � � � ا ا ا � ء � � ل � ع � م � � � � ح � � مو� ��و� �ن� ل���ل �� � � � ��س � � ه م � � ه ن� ر� �ي� � و ن ر � �و � �ن� ����ن��ر �ه�وا � �ل �ل و �و � � � ي ي ن ��ا ن ن � �أ��ش � ش �ّ � أ نّ ا� ّي ن ي � أ نّ ��م� ن ّ ��ا �ي� �� ن��م�ل ���ا � � او �لن����سر أا �ل� ا � ا�م�� �ع� �عملي��ه ا � أا ح ن� ا �ل����ل� ��ه �أاو � ك�� � ل��ي� ا �ل� ���ر � � � �ّ ي ن ا � ًا ن ّ ا ح� ا ��لن�� ّر � او ����� �����ا ء ا ن��ل �� � ا �لي ه � ا �ل ن ا �� � ن �م �ا ا � �ن ه � ا ��� �� �لي�� �م� �نره �عم�ل�� ��� � ن حريل�ل م� ر� ن� �ن� رأ ّو �يس� �و �� � �عم�ل�� ين ا ي ن� ن � � ّ ��م� �ش ي ��� ا ��ل�� ند � ��س�اأ ��ل ي� �ع ن��ه � �ي�� حّ� ي� �م ن��ه � .ن� ��لم�ك ا ن� �من ه �ه� ا�م � � �ل�� �و� � ح ن� لل� ر�وه ع ���ي�� ل��ي� ا�ام�و ن� � ن و و � ي ن م ع م أ � �ّ � � ا � هي ا ��ل ا ن ا �ّ ا ��م ّ � �ش ي ن� �ي � ّ ا ��ل � � ا ن �ن �ه� ا�م � ار �م�هي �و�� �� ��� ��ا ه � او � � ح ن� �لم� � � او �لي����س� ر �و�م � ل��ر م� �و ن�� ه �� .م� ح ن� ا �ل� ر�وه ���د يح ن� ن ��� م ّ ا� ا � � ش ي � � � �ي �ي � ا �� � ا � ا �ً� � اأ �ّ ا ��م ّ � ا ن��ل �ن �لي��� �لي��� � ار �م�هي ن���ي��د ي� � � � � � ا � � � � � � �� ه ه �� �� � ل ا ه� ح ح ا � � � � � �� �� � � م م م �� م ل � � �� � �� ل ل � و و ر و و و ن ن ن ن ن � ي ن � � أن ن ي ن أ � ي ��ّ �� ّ أ نّ � ّ ي � أ ن � ن ا ا ا ا ا ا ًا ن ي ن � � � � ح��ه ن�� ��� �يو�ل�� �ل ��را �م�ه� .و ��ل ���� � �ل��ه �م� ��� ���ي� ا �ل���� � �لع���ي� �رع�م ا ��ه �ه�و ا ���ي����� � او � ��� ن أ ا ��ل�م� ن ن � أ نّ ��ّ ا � �من ا ن ا ن ��ل اأ ��� ّ ن �ه� ا ���ن���ا ن�م� ا ��ل���لم�ل�ه� 1.و � � � ا � �ل � � د � ه� �� � �أاو � ٢ س � � م � حم� � � � ��يس��يه � �م� � �لم�ك ا ل و و ل ن � ي رع أ � ر ن ي � ن ي � � ن ج ً � � � ن � ن أ نّ � � ن ن أ ُ ن � � ن ا ا ا � ا ي ك���ا � ��د �م�ا �ل ا �ل��سر�� �نل�ه�م� نح�مي���� أا �ل�� ا �لأ�� ار ��ط �و� ا ك ا � ا�م� �ل �ي���ن���ه ا � ي���ع��د �ل ل��� ���م�لن��ه ي � �ي ن ل�ن ي �ي ّ �ن أ � ن ي � � ن � شّ ُن ن � ه ���ا ش��س ��ً�ا ُ� � � ا �سر ل�ي� ا � ح��ه �� ي�لن�� �عي� ل��ي� ���و� �����ه �م��� �� �� م� �و ن � ��د ���د ه ��ون �و ر ر �و�ي����� ن م أ ّ � ن ل�ن � � ن ا ن �ن ن � هي ن� ً�� ا ش�ًا اأ �ّ ا �� � ي ن ن أ ن �� � او �ور ش� ن� ��ل�هي �و�� ��يسمل� �� � ار �م�ه �كي���ن��ن�ه� ا � ي����و� �ي� ا �لأ����س� � �� �� �� ن��ل �أو �م�� .و م� ا � ن �� ي ا � ن ي أ ا �� � � ن � ن �م ن ا ن� ا ي ي ّ ����مي�يّ ا أ ن ُ� � � أ ن يُ � � ��� ار �م�ه �ن� ������ �م� ا �و �ن� ����ن��ر ا �ل�د ي� � �م�� ه ي�سم� � �ل��د � ��ر�م �ل� ا � �ل ���مل ن� ا � � �� �نل��� ا � �ي � ي �� م آ أ ً � � ��ا ن ي �� هي ي ا � هي � � ن� ن � هي ن ا �� هي �م ن ا�ا� ا �أ ا �ن �ن ا ن ا ن ا � ن � ن� ��� ار �م� ��� ار �م� �� ن���� لمل�� � م��س� لم�ل ل��� .أ� � ك ��يسمل� �� � � ���ا � ا �ل��سر�عم�ل�� �م�ا � ���ر�ن�ا ه �وك�� ��� ا � � ّ � � ي أ ن � ني ا ش��سر�� �م ن� ا�ام�ا �ل �ي���ن������ا ٣ا �لم�ل��د ه . � �آ آ�ي ا ��حل ي ن نّ � � � � � �أ ش ن �ن ي � �ون� ن � �م�ل�ه �أ�ا � ا�ام�ا �ل �لي����� ن��م���م�ل�و ن� �ل��د ا ��ه ن�لم�ل �ه�و ا �ل�ه �ي ��و��م�ل �ن�ه أا �ل�� ا�ام�ا ر ن� � او �ل� ��من���ا � أ أ أ � ُ ّ ن � �ش� ي ا ن� ا � ّ � ��ل���نّ�ه ��ا ن ا ء ن� ح�مي�� ا�ا�م����م�ل� �و�ا ي� ا �� ��ه ي�لُي�� �ّ�م� أا ��ل�� ا�م � حن �� �و�ا ي� �ن�ا �ّم�ا ل��� �ن �نل���س�ه ا� ك �����ي ره �و �م� يح نأر ي ن و ل ن أ ي ن أ ن ح � ن ن � ع ن نُ ن ي ن ن ن � � هي �� � ي ن ا ّ ا �� هي ���د ه ا ��نل �ه�و ن�� حر �ل�� �نر�ي� ن���� ن��ه � �و��� �ع�ي ره أا � ا �ر�ع� �ع��ه ح��مل� ا �� او � ��� ار �م� ��ده � �� .م� ا � � �� ي ين أ أ أ نّ ّ ن ن ن أ ّن ة ���ة��س��ة وا � �ص�ا � ن��ة�س��ه�ا �هة� ا �ل ن�ع�ا ��ل��ة ا �لن����ل��ه�ا ء ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :أا � ٣ .الا�ص�ل وط :ة��ن��ع��. 1ط :ا ���ه�ا �هة� ا �ل �ك
190
190
٣،١٣٧
٤،١٣٧
On why a warm manner is more pleasing than a cold benefaction
mien or wanders the earth in search of a friendly face. Yet both land and sea are replete with people seeking wealth, begging, and servicing hopes at others’ doorsteps.
Miskawayh’s response I believe the story has been reported the wrong way around. It was al-Faḍl who
137.3
was described as being arrogant, and he was the one who showed honor by bestowing gifts, and it was Jaʿfar who was described as having a bright, cheerful manner. What is undisputed is that Isḥāq preferred the person with the beaming countenance, even if he rarely received tokens of generosity from him, to the person who was lavish and acted kindly, because of the pride and hauteur the latter conjoined to these acts. There are enormous variations between people with regard to the point you are asking about and find surprising. For there are those who love riches and material comfort, and there are those who love honor and high standing. Those who love riches might love high standing and honor, but only as a means for acquiring wealth. Those who love high standing and honor may love wealth and riches, but only as a means for acquiring high standing and honor. Each of these factions alleges that it is truly astute and that the other faction is ignorant and foolish. The truth of the matter is that each is driven toward something natural, but extravagance has led both to excess. For wealth must be sought in moderation and acquired in the proper way, and then spent under the appropriate circumstances. When a person falls short in any of these respects, he becomes greedy, is gripped by baseness, and falls into avarice and wrongdoing. A person must possess a form of excellence that makes him deserving of honor, and honor should not be sought out without a just claim or in the arrogant manner censured in one of the previous questions. Honor is nobler than wealth, and is attended by pleasure, if things are as we described and honor attends excellence. In general, money is not desired for its own sake, but rather serves as an instrument for attaining a plethora of wishes and wants. The reason it is loved is because it is equivalent to all objects of desire, that is, because lovely objects may be obtained by its means. Taken on its own, and abstracted from this one characteristic, it is simply a stone with nothing to distinguish it from other objects. Honor, however, may be desired for its own sake if a person desires it
191
191
137.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن� ي يُ � � � � ن ي ا ن � ن � � � � ح��هي ا ��� ���مي�� ي ا ي ا � ن ن ��سم�ل�هي � ن� ��لم�ك �ا�م�ا ����د �ل ���مل ن� �ل�د ا �ل��� أا � ا ك ���ا � ا �ل����ا �ل ن� �ل���ا �م ن� ن� � �ل ح��� �� �ن� � �ل�� ي و ي ن � � � ي ن ن � ا نّ � ��ا ن ي � ن � هي ن � ن ن ا نّ � �ن ن � ح�� ح��م�ل �عملي��ه ا �ل������ �م� ا �ل� �ل��د ا � ا �ر�و�� �ل�ي� � او �ل��سر�ور ا �ل�����س� �ل�ي�� .أاو � ك�� ��� م� ن � ن � ن ا � ي ي ن ا نّ ا ن ي � ن ن ا ��ل�� ّ ي ا �� ي ا ��لن ��ن� ا ���ن�� ن� ّ ي ن ا نّ ن � ن ن ن ��ا ن ي ��ن��ي��ه �أ� � ���د ه ا �ل ������ �أاو � ك�� ��� � �و� ا �ل�� ��ط���ه �أ� �ل��� ���و�� ا �ل ������ ن �يس�مي��ه ��ي� ّ��� ّ � � � � ن ي ي � ن �يلم�لي� ن�د ا ��لم� �د ا ي ا �ل��د ن�ل ّ��ه ا ��ي � ش �ا �ك ا ن ا ي �لن ح��س���� � 1م ن ا �ل � حي �� او �ن�ا ي�. ل� � ن ي �ي� ��س رك ي� ��� ا �ل�نس� � � او � ي � � ن اأ ّ ا ي � � نّ� ي � ��م ّ ا� ا � أ��ش ن ��م ّ �� ي ن� ن � أ ن � ن � �أ نّ أ��ش �� �م� ���و�لمك أا ��مك ن� ��� ار �م�ه � � ح�ي� ا � � ح�ي� ا�م� �ل ا ���ر �م� ن ��د ن ���د ا ي نح ن� ا � �ي���و� �ل�� ا ���ر أ ّ ّ � � � ّ ّ � أ ن ان ن أ ن � ن ا � � �ن ن ش ه ن� ا �ل ا �� ن ا�مي ن ن ن ا ي ن ي� �ه� �ن� � �ل�� ���ا �لم�ل� � . ��� ��م �أاو ��م� ٢ي��سم�ي�ر ا � �ل�ملي�م�ل �م � ����� �و ن � �كم ا � �سم�ي�ري�� ا �ل�� ��� ه�م ا �ل�دي�� ي� ن م � ن ا � ي ي أ ي ّ ن � ي � ن� ن � � ا��مي ّ ن ن ن ن ا أ � ن ن � ن ن ّ ي أ ي ّ ن ���ا �ألم�ل ا ��لن��ن��� ا �ل�� ��ط���ه ا �م�ل �م� ا � �ل�ملي�م�ل � � ��� �لم�ل ا �ل������ ا ����� ���د �لمك �سم�ي�ر�و� �ن �ل�� �ن �ل� ن� ��ن��ي��ه ا �م�ل � �م ن ا ن ��ل ��م�ه�ور. �
٥،١٣٧
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � ن ا ا �� ن� ا ّ ���هي ا�ا�مم�ل�ك � ا ��ل��د ا �ن�� ن �� ٣ا�ا�مم�ل� ي� �م ن��ه � او�ام�ي� ّ�ر�� ن� أا �لي��ه �ل�� ي ن� حر�� �م ن� � �� � م ع ���� �ن� ل ��� � ك � ل و ر � ي � أ ني أ أ � � �� ّهي � ا هي ا ��ل�� ن ي � � ا ��ل��سن��ي���ق� �مش�م� �م�ا � � � م ����ه ا �ل��ن�ا �ع�د �م ن��ه �مش�م�ل ا �لن ��ّ او �ن�ي� ن� � او �ل ش�����ا �� �ر� � او �ل����� ��س� ح ع � ي � ل � ن م ل ر ي �� ي ي � ن � ي �ي ش ّ ن � ن ا ي � � � �ن � � ش ا ي � ا ��لي� ّن � � �نأ�ا �ن�ّم�ك ن� ���د �ه�أو�ل�ء �عم�ل� �عم �ي�ه ا �ل������ي��� �ن��د ��ره �و�ل��� �ي�ه ا �ل�د �ع�و� ل�� ا �لأ������ ره أا �لي��ه �و � � ���د ن� ي � ع �عم�لي��ه.
١،١٣٨
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
ن أ أ � � ّٰ � � � � ّ ن أ نّ � �أي �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س��� �و�ه ح�م�ه ا لله �ل��سن��ن��� ي� ا � ���د �ه�م�ا ا � ا �ل� � �نر��ي ن� أا �ل�� ا�امم�ل�وك ��هم ا�ام�أو� ن� ��و� ر � ي ي� ي ي � �آ �� ي أُ ن �ن � ا ا� � � �ن ا نّ �ن ا ي ن �ن � ا�م���ل��م��ل ن ن � � ي � � � ل ح ا � �ه�م �و ل�ي� ن �ممل�ه ا �ل�� ا ن� ��ي� ا ��د � او �نل��� �رك � ��ر �مملك أ� � ل�ي� �و� ��د �م � أ آ أ ً � ً ً � � ن ن � � � � ي ن ح �مي��ه .ن��ا �ّم�ا ا � �لأ�م� ا �ل�� �ي �� �ه� ا �ّ�ا ه ا �لي��د ا �ل�� �ل�ه � ا ن�لي ا��ا �ا �ل ��ن��ي��ه �و�عي� � ����ه �م�ل����وء ا � ا �نل�هم� � ��ر م أ ي ن ��� ك�� �ل� ي و � و ك ن �� �ر � أ � ّ � ن �� يه �ن ح � ن� �عم� ������ا �عه� ا ������ا �ّم�هي ا ��ل�ل�� �أ�لي��هي �له� ل��ن ا ��ل�� �نمي ن� ا �ه� ي ن� �ل�� ي��م�ي� نر�و ن� �و�ل�� �ي�ا � هو ن� �ام�ا � �� � � ل � ل �� ر و ن � م ي� � � � ن ر ن � ر � أ ا � � ي مي ي � � ن � ّ� أ نّ م ا � ن ن � �� ي � ًّ � ح�ع����ه �ل�ه � �ل��� ن ن ن��م�ا �ل�� ا ��م�ل ��ل�ه � او �ّ �عم� ء �م� �ل� � � � ع �ه� ا �ل�ه� ي�ل ن�� ���و� �ن��د �لم�ك ��را �م�ه �و�م�ل ��د و � ي م م أ أ آ ن �ن �ن ا ش هي ا�ا� م� � � ن � �ي �لي ه �ن ا نّ ا�ا� م� � �� ا �ي ا �مش��ا ��ل�ه� � .او �ّم�ا ا ��ل��س��� ا ��ل�� ن� � م م م � � � ع م ع ل ل � � � � � � � ع س � � �� ك ك � � � � � � ل ر و � نو أ ي ن ن ي ن �� م ن نّ أ أ ن 1الاأ ص� :ا �لن ���س��ة��س��ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :أا �م�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل ��� :نس د �ل�ك. �ل
192
192
٢،١٣٨
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن� ي يُ � � � � ن ي ا ن � ن � � � � ح��هي ا ��� ���مي�� ي ا ي ا � ن ن ��سم�ل�هي � ن� ��لم�ك �ا�م�ا ����د �ل ���مل ن� �ل�د ا �ل��� أا � ا ك ���ا � ا �ل����ا �ل ن� �ل���ا �م ن� ن� � �ل ح��� �� �ن� � �ل�� ي و ي ن � � � ي ن ن � ا نّ � ��ا ن ي � ن � هي ن � ن ن ا نّ � �ن ن � ح�� ح��م�ل �عملي��ه ا �ل������ �م� ا �ل� �ل��د ا � ا �ر�و�� �ل�ي� � او �ل��سر�ور ا �ل�����س� �ل�ي�� .أاو � ك�� ��� م� ن � ن � ن ا � ي ي ن ا نّ ا ن ي � ن ن ا ��ل�� ّ ي ا �� ي ا ��لن ��ن� ا ���ن�� ن� ّ ي ن ا نّ ن � ن ن ن ��ا ن ي ��ن��ي��ه �أ� � ���د ه ا �ل ������ �أاو � ك�� ��� � �و� ا �ل�� ��ط���ه �أ� �ل��� ���و�� ا �ل ������ ن �يس�مي��ه ��ي� ّ��� ّ � � � � ن ي ي � ن �يلم�لي� ن�د ا ��لم� �د ا ي ا �ل��د ن�ل ّ��ه ا ��ي � ش �ا �ك ا ن ا ي �لن ح��س���� � 1م ن ا �ل � حي �� او �ن�ا ي�. ل� � ن ي �ي� ��س رك ي� ��� ا �ل�نس� � � او � ي � � ن اأ ّ ا ي � � نّ� ي � ��م ّ ا� ا � أ��ش ن ��م ّ �� ي ن� ن � أ ن � ن � �أ نّ أ��ش �� �م� ���و�لمك أا ��مك ن� ��� ار �م�ه � � ح�ي� ا � � ح�ي� ا�م� �ل ا ���ر �م� ن ��د ن ���د ا ي نح ن� ا � �ي���و� �ل�� ا ���ر أ ّ ّ � � � ّ ّ � أ ن ان ن أ ن � ن ا � � �ن ن ش ه ن� ا �ل ا �� ن ا�مي ن ن ن ا ي ن ي� �ه� �ن� � �ل�� ���ا �لم�ل� � . ��� ��م �أاو ��م� ٢ي��سم�ي�ر ا � �ل�ملي�م�ل �م � ����� �و ن � �كم ا � �سم�ي�ري�� ا �ل�� ��� ه�م ا �ل�دي�� ي� ن م � ن ا � ي ي أ ي ّ ن � ي � ن� ن � � ا��مي ّ ن ن ن ن ا أ � ن ن � ن ن ّ ي أ ي ّ ن ���ا �ألم�ل ا ��لن��ن��� ا �ل�� ��ط���ه ا �م�ل �م� ا � �ل�ملي�م�ل � � ��� �لم�ل ا �ل������ ا ����� ���د �لمك �سم�ي�ر�و� �ن �ل�� �ن �ل� ن� ��ن��ي��ه ا �م�ل � �م ن ا ن ��ل ��م�ه�ور. �
٥،١٣٧
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � ن ا ا �� ن� ا ّ ���هي ا�ا�مم�ل�ك � ا ��ل��د ا �ن�� ن �� ٣ا�ا�مم�ل� ي� �م ن��ه � او�ام�ي� ّ�ر�� ن� أا �لي��ه �ل�� ي ن� حر�� �م ن� � �� � م ع ���� �ن� ل ��� � ك � ل و ر � ي � أ ني أ أ � � �� ّهي � ا هي ا ��ل�� ن ي � � ا ��ل��سن��ي���ق� �مش�م� �م�ا � � � م ����ه ا �ل��ن�ا �ع�د �م ن��ه �مش�م�ل ا �لن ��ّ او �ن�ي� ن� � او �ل ش�����ا �� �ر� � او �ل����� ��س� ح ع � ي � ل � ن م ل ر ي �� ي ي � ن � ي �ي ش ّ ن � ن ا ي � � � �ن � � ش ا ي � ا ��لي� ّن � � �نأ�ا �ن�ّم�ك ن� ���د �ه�أو�ل�ء �عم�ل� �عم �ي�ه ا �ل������ي��� �ن��د ��ره �و�ل��� �ي�ه ا �ل�د �ع�و� ل�� ا �لأ������ ره أا �لي��ه �و � � ���د ن� ي � ع �عم�لي��ه.
١،١٣٨
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
ن أ أ � � ّٰ � � � � ّ ن أ نّ � �أي �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س��� �و�ه ح�م�ه ا لله �ل��سن��ن��� ي� ا � ���د �ه�م�ا ا � ا �ل� � �نر��ي ن� أا �ل�� ا�امم�ل�وك ��هم ا�ام�أو� ن� ��و� ر � ي ي� ي ي � �آ �� ي أُ ن �ن � ا ا� � � �ن ا نّ �ن ا ي ن �ن � ا�م���ل��م��ل ن ن � � ي � � � ل ح ا � �ه�م �و ل�ي� ن �ممل�ه ا �ل�� ا ن� ��ي� ا ��د � او �نل��� �رك � ��ر �مملك أ� � ل�ي� �و� ��د �م � أ آ أ ً � ً ً � � ن ن � � � � ي ن ح �مي��ه .ن��ا �ّم�ا ا � �لأ�م� ا �ل�� �ي �� �ه� ا �ّ�ا ه ا �لي��د ا �ل�� �ل�ه � ا ن�لي ا��ا �ا �ل ��ن��ي��ه �و�عي� � ����ه �م�ل����وء ا � ا �نل�هم� � ��ر م أ ي ن ��� ك�� �ل� ي و � و ك ن �� �ر � أ � ّ � ن �� يه �ن ح � ن� �عم� ������ا �عه� ا ������ا �ّم�هي ا ��ل�ل�� �أ�لي��هي �له� ل��ن ا ��ل�� �نمي ن� ا �ه� ي ن� �ل�� ي��م�ي� نر�و ن� �و�ل�� �ي�ا � هو ن� �ام�ا � �� � � ل � ل �� ر و ن � م ي� � � � ن ر ن � ر � أ ا � � ي مي ي � � ن � ّ� أ نّ م ا � ن ن � �� ي � ًّ � ح�ع����ه �ل�ه � �ل��� ن ن ن��م�ا �ل�� ا ��م�ل ��ل�ه � او �ّ �عم� ء �م� �ل� � � � ع �ه� ا �ل�ه� ي�ل ن�� ���و� �ن��د �لم�ك ��را �م�ه �و�م�ل ��د و � ي م م أ أ آ ن �ن �ن ا ش هي ا�ا� م� � � ن � �ي �لي ه �ن ا نّ ا�ا� م� � �� ا �ي ا �مش��ا ��ل�ه� � .او �ّم�ا ا ��ل��س��� ا ��ل�� ن� � م م م � � � ع م ع ل ل � � � � � � � ع س � � �� ك ك � � � � � � ل ر و � نو أ ي ن ن ي ن �� م ن نّ أ أ ن 1الاأ ص� :ا �لن ���س��ة��س��ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :أا �م�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل ��� :نس د �ل�ك. �ل
192
192
٢،١٣٨
On why those closest to a king are less inclined to prattle about his person
on account of merit grounded in virtue, and this is due to the spiritual pleasure and psychological joy he derives, for even though it arises from the irascible soul and this soul is inferior to the rational one, it is superior to the beastly soul, which delights in bodily pleasures that it shares with plants and lowly animals. You remark that one sees more people who love wealth than people who
137.5
love honor—this is as it should be. For the people who resemble the beasts represent the majority, while only a small number distinguish themselves through the virtues. Just as those who distinguish themselves through the virtues of the rational soul are few in number, those who distinguish themselves through the virtues of the irascible soul are fewer than the multitude.
On why those closest to a king are less inclined to prattle about his person than those at the farthest remove from him Why is it that the elite members of the king’s circle, those who are his close
138.1
intimates, do not speak about the king the way those who are distant from him—such as doormen, soldiers, and stablemen—do? For we find the latter displaying a lusty appetite for speaking about the king, taking their claims about him to an extreme and spinning yarns about him.
Miskawayh’s response There are two reasons for this. One is that those close to the king have refined manners and have been judged fit to serve him, and among the manners they have been held to is that they refrain from speaking about the king. For speaking about him involves demeaning him, violating his dignity, and impugning his venerability. By contrast, the latter class of people, because of their bad manners, fail to discern and pay heed to any of the things I mentioned, and, as is natural and befitting to commoners, they make groundless boasts and untrue claims, out of a belief that by doing so they may gain honor and standing among their peers. The other reason is the fear of punishment among members of the king’s entourage, for the king metes out punishment for this
193
193
138.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ���د ا ا ��ل�� ند ن��� � � ا ه ���س�ا ��س�هي ��ل�ه ��لأ�� ّل�� ن وير ي �� ن ن �ل� �ي���ن��ن�ه� أا � ار ن��ه. ي
�لي� ّ � ن � � ن ��ر�وه أا �ل�� أا � ش��س�ا ء ��س ّر � او ن� ار ن� � ي ���د � � ا � ���د��ي ش� أ ج
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن أ نّ ّ ن � � � � ا ا ��ل ش��� هي ا �� ي � ن � � �سر�ي� �ي�سم�ا �ي ن�ل� ّر� �ن�ه �م ن� �م�ي��ا �لي��ه ��� ��� �� ي� �ل ن�� ن� ��س�ا �ام ا �لن�� ���� ��ي� عر� ي� ر�ع�م ا � ن� ً ً ً � � � � � � � ن ���ا �� ��ا � �ه �م���د � �م�هي �ن�ا نّ �ش�من�ع��ه � �ش�م��ن ن ا أا ا ي ا ا ن نا و أ � ن و ن� ����� �ل�� �م �ير�ل �� ��� ار أا �ل�� ا �ل��د �لي�� را �لي�� �ل��� �م�د رك� ل� و �ي� أ �م ي ��ش ن � ن � � ن �� ن ي أ � �يّ نا �س ��ه � او � ��ا �ن�ه ��د ���ر �ن�ي�� ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء ل��م�ا �و ن��ه �ن�ا ���م�ل�ه أا � ك��ا � ��د ا �نل ���م�ل؟ �و�م�ا �و ن��ه ا �ل� �� � ر �� ي ن ��ا ن ي يّ أا � ك�� � ��د � ح� �عي�؟ ّٰ ا لله
١،١٣٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ن � ي �ي ن ّ� ن أ أ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله اأ �ّم�ا �ش �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � ح ن� ���د ه ا�ام���ا �ل�ه ل��سركن� ������هي ���ا � � ���هي �و� ��لم�ك ا �نّ�ه م��س� ن ن و �ي� وي ن أ آ � ن �ن ّ ح ّ���� ّ � ا ��ل ا ���د �ه�م�ا �ع�ي�م�ل ّ � ا ��ل�� ن� � � ح ّ���� ّ �م ن��ه � �ه�م ّ ن ّ � ن ��ل ح ���ط أا � را ك ا �ل ��� �م�� ���و ن��ده ن�ل ��و�ع��ي� ا � �ي� و ر ي� و ي� و �ي� ّ ن ا نّ ّ ن اأي ّ ا �� ا� �ّّ � اآ � هي ن ي �� �� ي ي ط ��ا �ي ل ا ا ن �س ��� �� .م� ا � ا ح � � ا � �� ل � م � ا � � � � � � � � � � �د � � � �س � � �س � �� � � ل م �ي� ن � ر ي� أ ي رك ن � ر ن �و�م��ه �نل� ر ي � ّ ن � ور �ون ي � آ ح��ا � ا ��ل � � �م��س��ي ش �ن �� ن� ���� ن��ه � ��� ن �ّ �ن�هي ا ي�ل��هي � ٢م ن �ل ���� ن ا ��ل��د �م�ا ن � ي� ي م � � � ��م � � ن ن و أ � و ي و ن ي ن ��س�ه 1ن��و �و�ع� ن ي ن ي� � � ج أ ّ رم ع � � ني �ي � � � ن � �� ��وء �م�عي��د �ل �و�م��س�ا ��ه �م�عي��د �ل�ه � او �ل� �ي���و� ن��ي��ن��ه�م�ا ��ا ن� نر �و�ل� �م�ا �ن�� . ا �لن�� �سر �أاو �ل�� ن� � � ّ عأ أ أ أ ّ أ � ن � ّ ن �و نر ا ن� ي�لُي��و�ه� �م�ا ��ل�� ��ُ�د رك ا �ل ��ر�ن�ا �م ن ا �س ه ا �نّ�ه �ي�ي��ن�� ا ��ل � � او �ّم�ا ا ���و�ه� ن���ي��د � �� ح��� ا و� ح��� ��ل�� ي ن�� ي � ر م ي ا � � �ش م ن �� ّ ُ ��م� � �ي ا ��� �يعّ ن �� ه �ن ن �� � اأ �ّ ا ا � � � ل � � � � � � ا ل �� � ل ا ا ا ل ء م ع م � م م � � � � ل ع � م � � � � . � � �� � ل م ح� ل �ي��د رك ل� �ي ر و �لأ ر ك �ل �ل�ي� ي ��� ي نج أ �� ي� � �و � ن �ل �أ ن � � ن أ� � � طن� � اأ �نع�من �ن �نل���س�ه �ي��ّوهي � ا ي�ليّ��هي �نل���ا �ي��د رك ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء ا�ام�ع�ي �عو��ل�هي � او �� � ���ل��� �عم�ل� ���د ا ا �لأ��� را ك ا �ل�� � � � و � م � ن �� ح ّ��� ّ ���ل��� ل��ن ا ��ل��� ا ك ا ��ل � �. �م� ا � � م ي� أ ر �ي ا� اأ � ي ن � � ��ا ي � أ ن � ا � أ �ّ ي ن � ا� ّا ن ح� ا�م��س� �ل�ه ���د ه ا �ل�� را ك�� � �و�عل�� ا � ا �لن�� ر� ن�مل� � � حي�م�ل���� ي� �عم�ل� ���ا � ع ���ق�مي��ه �و�م� ا ن أ � م أ ً � � � ن � �ا � � ن ا �� �ه ّ هي ي � ن � ���ا أ�ل ن��ه ��س��مّ ���د ا ا ����ل��� أا � را ك� �عم� ا� �ن�ا �ل�����ور ا � � ���ا �ون ��� نّ��ه �م ن� ن������ أا � را ل ن���� �و�عمل�و م�� ا ��و �مي�� � م ي م أ ن ة 1ط :و������ ن����ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :د ا ة�ةّ���ة.
194
194
٢،١٣٩
٣،١٣٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ���د ا ا ��ل�� ند ن��� � � ا ه ���س�ا ��س�هي ��ل�ه ��لأ�� ّل�� ن وير ي �� ن ن �ل� �ي���ن��ن�ه� أا � ار ن��ه. ي
�لي� ّ � ن � � ن ��ر�وه أا �ل�� أا � ش��س�ا ء ��س ّر � او ن� ار ن� � ي ���د � � ا � ���د��ي ش� أ ج
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن أ نّ ّ ن � � � � ا ا ��ل ش��� هي ا �� ي � ن � � �سر�ي� �ي�سم�ا �ي ن�ل� ّر� �ن�ه �م ن� �م�ي��ا �لي��ه ��� ��� �� ي� �ل ن�� ن� ��س�ا �ام ا �لن�� ���� ��ي� عر� ي� ر�ع�م ا � ن� ً ً ً � � � � � � � ن ���ا �� ��ا � �ه �م���د � �م�هي �ن�ا نّ �ش�من�ع��ه � �ش�م��ن ن ا أا ا ي ا ا ن نا و أ � ن و ن� ����� �ل�� �م �ير�ل �� ��� ار أا �ل�� ا �ل��د �لي�� را �لي�� �ل��� �م�د رك� ل� و �ي� أ �م ي ��ش ن � ن � � ن �� ن ي أ � �يّ نا �س ��ه � او � ��ا �ن�ه ��د ���ر �ن�ي�� ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء ل��م�ا �و ن��ه �ن�ا ���م�ل�ه أا � ك��ا � ��د ا �نل ���م�ل؟ �و�م�ا �و ن��ه ا �ل� �� � ر �� ي ن ��ا ن ي يّ أا � ك�� � ��د � ح� �عي�؟ ّٰ ا لله
١،١٣٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ن � ي �ي ن ّ� ن أ أ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله اأ �ّم�ا �ش �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � ح ن� ���د ه ا�ام���ا �ل�ه ل��سركن� ������هي ���ا � � ���هي �و� ��لم�ك ا �نّ�ه م��س� ن ن و �ي� وي ن أ آ � ن �ن ّ ح ّ���� ّ � ا ��ل ا ���د �ه�م�ا �ع�ي�م�ل ّ � ا ��ل�� ن� � � ح ّ���� ّ �م ن��ه � �ه�م ّ ن ّ � ن ��ل ح ���ط أا � را ك ا �ل ��� �م�� ���و ن��ده ن�ل ��و�ع��ي� ا � �ي� و ر ي� و ي� و �ي� ّ ن ا نّ ّ ن اأي ّ ا �� ا� �ّّ � اآ � هي ن ي �� �� ي ي ط ��ا �ي ل ا ا ن �س ��� �� .م� ا � ا ح � � ا � �� ل � م � ا � � � � � � � � � � �د � � � �س � � �س � �� � � ل م �ي� ن � ر ي� أ ي رك ن � ر ن �و�م��ه �نل� ر ي � ّ ن � ور �ون ي � آ ح��ا � ا ��ل � � �م��س��ي ش �ن �� ن� ���� ن��ه � ��� ن �ّ �ن�هي ا ي�ل��هي � ٢م ن �ل ���� ن ا ��ل��د �م�ا ن � ي� ي م � � � ��م � � ن ن و أ � و ي و ن ي ن ��س�ه 1ن��و �و�ع� ن ي ن ي� � � ج أ ّ رم ع � � ني �ي � � � ن � �� ��وء �م�عي��د �ل �و�م��س�ا ��ه �م�عي��د �ل�ه � او �ل� �ي���و� ن��ي��ن��ه�م�ا ��ا ن� نر �و�ل� �م�ا �ن�� . ا �لن�� �سر �أاو �ل�� ن� � � ّ عأ أ أ أ ّ أ � ن � ّ ن �و نر ا ن� ي�لُي��و�ه� �م�ا ��ل�� ��ُ�د رك ا �ل ��ر�ن�ا �م ن ا �س ه ا �نّ�ه �ي�ي��ن�� ا ��ل � � او �ّم�ا ا ���و�ه� ن���ي��د � �� ح��� ا و� ح��� ��ل�� ي ن�� ي � ر م ي ا � � �ش م ن �� ّ ُ ��م� � �ي ا ��� �يعّ ن �� ه �ن ن �� � اأ �ّ ا ا � � � ل � � � � � � ا ل �� � ل ا ا ا ل ء م ع م � م م � � � � ل ع � م � � � � . � � �� � ل م ح� ل �ي��د رك ل� �ي ر و �لأ ر ك �ل �ل�ي� ي ��� ي نج أ �� ي� � �و � ن �ل �أ ن � � ن أ� � � طن� � اأ �نع�من �ن �نل���س�ه �ي��ّوهي � ا ي�ليّ��هي �نل���ا �ي��د رك ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء ا�ام�ع�ي �عو��ل�هي � او �� � ���ل��� �عم�ل� ���د ا ا �لأ��� را ك ا �ل�� � � � و � م � ن �� ح ّ��� ّ ���ل��� ل��ن ا ��ل��� ا ك ا ��ل � �. �م� ا � � م ي� أ ر �ي ا� اأ � ي ن � � ��ا ي � أ ن � ا � أ �ّ ي ن � ا� ّا ن ح� ا�م��س� �ل�ه ���د ه ا �ل�� را ك�� � �و�عل�� ا � ا �لن�� ر� ن�مل� � � حي�م�ل���� ي� �عم�ل� ���ا � ع ���ق�مي��ه �و�م� ا ن أ � م أ ً � � � ن � �ا � � ن ا �� �ه ّ هي ي � ن � ���ا أ�ل ن��ه ��س��مّ ���د ا ا ����ل��� أا � را ك� �عم� ا� �ن�ا �ل�����ور ا � � ���ا �ون ��� نّ��ه �م ن� ن������ أا � را ل ن���� �و�عمل�و م�� ا ��و �مي�� � م ي م أ ن ة 1ط :و������ ن����ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :د ا ة�ةّ���ة.
194
194
٢،١٣٩
٣،١٣٩
On Ibn Sālim al-Baṣrī’s claim that God perceived the world while it was nonexistent
offense and views this as a principle of good government, lest those who speak about him end up divulging a secret or making public words that should not be made public.
On Ibn Sālim al-Baṣrī’s claim that God perceived the world while it was nonexistent What was the confusion that Ibn Sālim al-Baṣrī 42 succumbed to when he
139.1
voiced his unique position, claiming that from pre-eternity God looked at the world, viewed it, and perceived it, during the entire time it was nonexistent? For he and his supporters have created a widespread ruckus among the learned. If his claim is false, in what respect is it false? If it is true, in what respect is it true?
Miskawayh’s response The confusion the author of this position succumbed to is compound. For
139.2
he considered the way in which living beings like us perceive things, and he found that there are two types of perception, one intellectual and the other sensory, with the sensory subdividing into the imaginary and the visual. In the visual sensory type, the visual object is perceived through an organ possessed of layers, moistures, and a hollowed nerve leading out from the ventricle of the brain. It requires a transparent medium that lies between it and the visual object, as well as balanced, moderate light; moderate distance; and the absence of any intervening barrier or obstacle. We have said that the imagination is contingent on sense perception, so it is not possible to imagine something that cannot be perceived, or something the like of which cannot be perceived. Intellectual perception, by contrast, does not require any of the senses; rather, reason itself has an intrinsic power through which it perceives intelligible things. The discussion of the latter type of perception harbors a greater amount of subtlety and obscurity than the discussion of sensory perception. The person addressing the point at issue mixed up these types of perception, and knowing that the Creator knows everything that is, he called this knowledge “perception” and assumed that it is of the same kind as our perception and our imaginary knowledge. So his confusion was a compound formed
195
195
139.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ي ّ�� ي � ش ي � ن ن � ن � ن ن ��ا ن ي ي ي ي ن � � ��ا ي ي� ن ا � يّ � � �������ه �ل�ه �م� ���د ه 1ا �ل��� ��و� ا � � ��� � �ن�ه �وح�عي ��� ���د ه ا �لأ�� را ك�� � �و�مي��ي�ر��� ح�� ���ر�ن�� ا �ل ن � ّ �ن � ن �ُ����� � ا �ن ي ّ � ه �� ��ا �ي ه �� ��أ� ا�ا� � ي �� ّ �م نّ��ا ن� �و ا ����ع�ي�م� � او ��ل ل �و�ه ح��� �وك��ي��� ي����و� أا � را ك�� � ل�ل ��ور م�ون � ل ي ل�م م� يح���� ن� ا ي� ن � ن ي ن �� ّ ّ ن ن � � ي أ � ن �ا ح�م�� ا ن � ينن � ا أ ّ � ل��ا �م ن��ا ا � �لع���ا � ا �ع� ا ����م�ل � ��� أا � ك�� ��� ���د ه ك�م� � � �و��ر�ي�ه ا �لن�� ر�� ن�م�ل ا �س�م�ه �ع� ن ي � ً �ل � �ي� أ ّ � ٰوم ا� ا ن �� ّ ا أ نّ � � � ن أ ن �ن�� � ش أًا ��م ً � � � ن ّ ح����و��س�ا �و�ل�� �م�ع�ي �عو�ل�� ن��ن���ي�ر ا �ن ن�لع���ا �ل � او � ا لله �ور ا � �ل�� ��سي���� ل�� � او ��ه �ل� ي ن � � او�م��� ر�� ك�م� � ّم أ ن �ّ ن أ أ أ ّ � ن ن � �ي�لي��د ��� �و�ي����ا ��ل�� � �� ��ره ��لي���� ن�� ن ن� م�ع��م�ل �أاو ��م�ا ي����ل��� ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ن�ل ن��و ا �عم�ل�� � او ر��� م�م�ا ����م�ل�م�ه ا �سر���� ن� � ي ا � ن� �� ي ي ي � ��ش ي �ن ا نم�� ن ا ��ن ا ي �ن ع ن ا � ع ش ي � ن � � � ي� ه ه ه � � � س � � ل ا � � � ا ا � � � ك ح��نج كي��ه أا ل�� � �ل��د �م�ه �عمل�وم ��ي ره وي�م� � �ر� ه ل�� ي� �ي� أ يل� ������ ل���د ر ن�م�ل ���ج و ن�� � ن � ن ن ي��سم�ا � �� ن� أا �لي��ه.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ي ن � ن ي� � أ ن ن �� ّ�دش� ن� �ع ن � ���� ا ��ل ش��س�ا �ع ��ا ��ل��� ن ي ش ��ره �و � ���ا ره �ن��د �� �����د ا ن �د ا � ��س�ا �� ���� �و���سن��ي�نس�ه �ن�ه � او ����� رن ي � �ي� � و و ع أ ن � �ي ي ه � �ّي هي �� ن ي ن ه � هي �ا ���د ا �م�� �و�ن� �ع ن��د �م ن �عن���ش ي� ��ه ا ��ل� ا ي ��ل ع�س� �ملي�� ا �ل ن�� ��� �و ن ��س� �ن�ه �وحع�� ا �ر� � او �ل�� �ي ن � ر ��س�ه � �عم�لي �ن�أ ا �ه �ه ا ه � � ّ ��شم ن ��ا � ن �� ح�� �و �م ح��ه. �و و ن و �� �و �
١،١٤٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ي �� ح ّٰ �� �� ن � ّ � ��م�لي��ه ا ��لن ��ن ا ��ن� �ه� ا ���� ��ل��� ه ا � ّ م � � � ا ه ه � � � ا ا ا ح � م��س� ه ل ح � � � م � م � لل ع � � � � � �� � � � � ل وي ر و م ور ن و ن أ ي �� �ل ا ن و � � � ي � ّ ي �ن ي ّ ي ا ا�ممي��ن ّ � ي � يّ ي� ن ي � � � ين ��ا ه �و�ه�م�ه ك� ع�نس�ه �و ن� � ��م�ل�م�ا ن��ل�� ن�لن ��ن���س�ه ��� �ي ل�ي� ��و�ل��� حي�مل�ه ٢ح�� ����و� �لملك ا �ل���وره �ل� ن � ي ّ ّ ي � � ي ي ن ن ن يّ ا � ي ��� ّ ا�مم��ن ّ � هي ش ن ن ���د ه ��ا ��ل �لم��ل �ي �� ���ل �م ن� ��� نه � ن�����ي�ء �أ�ا � � ��ور�ي�ه ي�ر����� ل��ي� ��� �وي�ه ���د ه ��� س��م� حي�مل� � �و � ي م ج � � ن � ن � � ا ن ا� ي ّ ن ا ن ي�ّ ي ن ن ا �� �ي ّ ي ���د ه ا ��ل��� رهي �عم�ل ا�م � حن ��و ن� �عم�ل� ���د ه ل �عوه �وي����و� ن�لن� ���� ا �ل�د �م� ا�م���د �م� .أ� � ا � � ��رر� � و �� ع أ ا ن�لي��ي� ش ي ن�ك �ا � �� ن �مي �ا �ن�ا ن� ا �ن�ا � ا � ��ن �ا ن ا � ا ��سي�� ��ي ن � ��� ا�� ي ن �م� �م ن �يك��ا � �يلم�ل�ك ا ��ل��� هي ن�ك���ا � � �� � س ط � ل � ور ي� �� و ر � ���� ي� � أ م أ وأ ّ ي ُ م ل أ� ي م ّ ي ّ � � � � � ّ ن ن ي ن ّ ن ن ن ي ا ن � ن �م�ن ح�م� �ك��ه ا �ش��س�ا ء �م�م�ا ل�� �ن �نل���س�ه � ��م�ا ���د ا�ام ش���يس�ا �� ل��ي� ا �ل ن��و�م ن��ا � ي� �وي ن ���ه أا ���س� ��ه �ل� � ا �ل ��و�م ي�ي ل ي ي نر أ ّ 1ط ��� :نس ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا لم�� ن�ة���ل��ة.
196
196
٢،١٤٠
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ي ّ�� ي � ش ي � ن ن � ن � ن ن ��ا ن ي ي ي ي ن � � ��ا ي ي� ن ا � يّ � � �������ه �ل�ه �م� ���د ه 1ا �ل��� ��و� ا � � ��� � �ن�ه �وح�عي ��� ���د ه ا �لأ�� را ك�� � �و�مي��ي�ر��� ح�� ���ر�ن�� ا �ل ن � ّ �ن � ن �ُ����� � ا �ن ي ّ � ه �� ��ا �ي ه �� ��أ� ا�ا� � ي �� ّ �م نّ��ا ن� �و ا ����ع�ي�م� � او ��ل ل �و�ه ح��� �وك��ي��� ي����و� أا � را ك�� � ل�ل ��ور م�ون � ل ي ل�م م� يح���� ن� ا ي� ن � ن ي ن �� ّ ّ ن ن � � ي أ � ن �ا ح�م�� ا ن � ينن � ا أ ّ � ل��ا �م ن��ا ا � �لع���ا � ا �ع� ا ����م�ل � ��� أا � ك�� ��� ���د ه ك�م� � � �و��ر�ي�ه ا �لن�� ر�� ن�م�ل ا �س�م�ه �ع� ن ي � ً �ل � �ي� أ ّ � ٰوم ا� ا ن �� ّ ا أ نّ � � � ن أ ن �ن�� � ش أًا ��م ً � � � ن ّ ح����و��س�ا �و�ل�� �م�ع�ي �عو�ل�� ن��ن���ي�ر ا �ن ن�لع���ا �ل � او � ا لله �ور ا � �ل�� ��سي���� ل�� � او ��ه �ل� ي ن � � او�م��� ر�� ك�م� � ّم أ ن �ّ ن أ أ أ ّ � ن ن � �ي�لي��د ��� �و�ي����ا ��ل�� � �� ��ره ��لي���� ن�� ن ن� م�ع��م�ل �أاو ��م�ا ي����ل��� ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ن�ل ن��و ا �عم�ل�� � او ر��� م�م�ا ����م�ل�م�ه ا �سر���� ن� � ي ا � ن� �� ي ي ي � ��ش ي �ن ا نم�� ن ا ��ن ا ي �ن ع ن ا � ع ش ي � ن � � � ي� ه ه ه � � � س � � ل ا � � � ا ا � � � ك ح��نج كي��ه أا ل�� � �ل��د �م�ه �عمل�وم ��ي ره وي�م� � �ر� ه ل�� ي� �ي� أ يل� ������ ل���د ر ن�م�ل ���ج و ن�� � ن � ن ن ي��سم�ا � �� ن� أا �لي��ه.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ي ن � ن ي� � أ ن ن �� ّ�دش� ن� �ع ن � ���� ا ��ل ش��س�ا �ع ��ا ��ل��� ن ي ش ��ره �و � ���ا ره �ن��د �� �����د ا ن �د ا � ��س�ا �� ���� �و���سن��ي�نس�ه �ن�ه � او ����� رن ي � �ي� � و و ع أ ن � �ي ي ه � �ّي هي �� ن ي ن ه � هي �ا ���د ا �م�� �و�ن� �ع ن��د �م ن �عن���ش ي� ��ه ا ��ل� ا ي ��ل ع�س� �ملي�� ا �ل ن�� ��� �و ن ��س� �ن�ه �وحع�� ا �ر� � او �ل�� �ي ن � ر ��س�ه � �عم�لي �ن�أ ا �ه �ه ا ه � � ّ ��شم ن ��ا � ن �� ح�� �و �م ح��ه. �و و ن و �� �و �
١،١٤٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ي �� ح ّٰ �� �� ن � ّ � ��م�لي��ه ا ��لن ��ن ا ��ن� �ه� ا ���� ��ل��� ه ا � ّ م � � � ا ه ه � � � ا ا ا ح � م��س� ه ل ح � � � م � م � لل ع � � � � � �� � � � � ل وي ر و م ور ن و ن أ ي �� �ل ا ن و � � � ي � ّ ي �ن ي ّ ي ا ا�ممي��ن ّ � ي � يّ ي� ن ي � � � ين ��ا ه �و�ه�م�ه ك� ع�نس�ه �و ن� � ��م�ل�م�ا ن��ل�� ن�لن ��ن���س�ه ��� �ي ل�ي� ��و�ل��� حي�مل�ه ٢ح�� ����و� �لملك ا �ل���وره �ل� ن � ي ّ ّ ي � � ي ي ن ن ن يّ ا � ي ��� ّ ا�مم��ن ّ � هي ش ن ن ���د ه ��ا ��ل �لم��ل �ي �� ���ل �م ن� ��� نه � ن�����ي�ء �أ�ا � � ��ور�ي�ه ي�ر����� ل��ي� ��� �وي�ه ���د ه ��� س��م� حي�مل� � �و � ي م ج � � ن � ن � � ا ن ا� ي ّ ن ا ن ي�ّ ي ن ن ا �� �ي ّ ي ���د ه ا ��ل��� رهي �عم�ل ا�م � حن ��و ن� �عم�ل� ���د ه ل �عوه �وي����و� ن�لن� ���� ا �ل�د �م� ا�م���د �م� .أ� � ا � � ��رر� � و �� ع أ ا ن�لي��ي� ش ي ن�ك �ا � �� ن �مي �ا �ن�ا ن� ا �ن�ا � ا � ��ن �ا ن ا � ا ��سي�� ��ي ن � ��� ا�� ي ن �م� �م ن �يك��ا � �يلم�ل�ك ا ��ل��� هي ن�ك���ا � � �� � س ط � ل � ور ي� �� و ر � ���� ي� � أ م أ وأ ّ ي ُ م ل أ� ي م ّ ي ّ � � � � � ّ ن ن ي ن ّ ن ن ن ي ا ن � ن �م�ن ح�م� �ك��ه ا �ش��س�ا ء �م�م�ا ل�� �ن �نل���س�ه � ��م�ا ���د ا�ام ش���يس�ا �� ل��ي� ا �ل ن��و�م ن��ا � ي� �وي ن ���ه أا ���س� ��ه �ل� � ا �ل ��و�م ي�ي ل ي ي نر أ ّ 1ط ��� :نس ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا لم�� ن�ة���ل��ة.
196
196
٢،١٤٠
On why the poets love to dwell on the apparitions that come to them in their sleep
out of these false assumptions. It is an arduous task, and one that presupposes many kinds of knowledge, to investigate and distinguish these types of perception so as to determine what pertains to living beings possessed of reason and sense perception like ourselves and how such beings perceive existent things, and then to establish that the Creator transcends them all. For in our case, all of these—that is to say, all kinds of knowledge and learning—are forms of passive affection, as it is impossible for us to know anything of a sensible or intelligible kind without being passively affected. Yet God cannot be passively affected. Rather, He knows things in a higher and loftier manner than we do. What we have said provides sufficient clarification of the reason for the confusion this man suffered in assuming his particular position.
On why the poets love to dwell on the apparitions that come to them in their sleep Tell me about the infatuation of poets with apparitions that visit them while
140.1
they are sleeping, about their passion for evoking them, and their presence in erotic verse. We encounter this among all stripes of people, and it is a familiar phenomenon among those who, overcome by tender feeling, have become the plaything of ardent love, whose eyes have grown fond of the form and beauties of a particular individual, and whose heart has become attached to this person in desire and love. Miskawayh’s response The term “apparition” refers to the form of the beloved when acquired within the imaginative power of the soul, so that this form stands before one’s eyes and in front of one’s fancy whenever one is alone. This is a condition that affects everyone who has a passion for a particular thing, for its form imprints itself on this power called the imagination, located in the anterior ventricle of the brain. If this power is repeatedly exposed to the form of the beloved, the latter engraves itself in it and remains there; so whenever a person goes to sleep or wakes up, that form invariably arises within it. It is especially in sleep that we find the person we long for, for in sleep we see images based on things contained in our soul. Thus, we might see in our sleep that we have gained access to the other in accordance with our desire. This results in
197
197
140.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� � � �ن أ ن � أ نّ ي را �� ل��ي� ا �ل ن��و�م ا ��ه ��د �و��م�ل أا �لي��ه ا � ��و� ��و�ل ا �ل��د �ي� ي ن ن ا� ا ّ ي ا � ي ي ّ�� � � ��� �ي � ا ��ل�� ن� ح�سيم�ا � او ������ ار ا�م� � ه � ��� � حر���ه أا �ل�� ا �ل ش �و� و ع ع ي ًا � ي ا ّ ن � ن ا � � ا �����ا ر��� � �ويل���ي�ر ��سن��ن�� �لن��رء �� � ي�سم� ن����د. م
�ل � ن� � ن ن ي� ه او ه كي����و� �م� �� �ن � ن � �م� ام � حن ��و ن� �ي ر�و�ل ع
ن� ��لم�ك ا ��ل��� ي ح��ل��� م أ��ش ن � �ع ن��ه ا ���ر � �لم�ك
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن � � �ن ن ّن � � ن ن ن نن ����ا ا �ل� ��ص� ن� ل��ي� ي�ر��� ا �لأ����س�ا � �ع ن� ا �لي���ن�يس�ه �عم�ل�� � �ل���س�ه �ن��� ش��سر�� ن� ��م�ل�ه �و�عر��� ��ا �ل�ه �أاو ش�لن��ا ي� ن ن ّ ��س ه ش ا هي �ن� ي هع � ��� �� �ع�د � �م�ا � �ه ا ��ل ا ��لن �ي ���� ��ل � ا ��نل ���د ا ا ��ل�� ا ش�ل��ا ي� ا ��نل � � � ��د � �� � ل � � �� � � � ل و و أ أ أ � ن ن و و و � ا �م� �أاو �أ�س� �ع� �ع�� ؟ �و�ي � م � � � ي ا أ ن ا� ا � � نّ ��نل ا �م � ا�م � ن ي ن ا� ن ��يا حه�و�ل � �لعي���� ا�م���د �و�م �و�ل� �لن�� ر�� ل��ي� ا�م���د �و�م �و�ل� ��م� ر�ي� ل��ي� حه�و�ل �و ن� � �م� �ه�و �ل� � ا�� �مم�ل ن� � أ ن ش ا ن ن ا ي� ً ا� � ��ا ن ن ش اأ ن ا� ا � ي ن ا � ن ���د ا � � ن ���ا �عر ن��� ن������ �م��س�ي� ��ا �ن�ا ��ل�ه � � ح�� ل�� ا�م�ون � �و�� .وك�� � �م����س� ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �ع� �� �ل و � � أ ن ن � � نّ � ن ن� ���ن��ه �عم�ل�نس�ا �ل��� � � ن�� ��ر ا ��س�م�ه �م ن� �و ن��ه �هره �ي�ا �لي ��ن� ن��ل�� ن� �و�ل�� �يل��ن��ي ��ن��ه �و�ل�� � �� ��ده � ��ر�عم�ل�� �� � � � ي م ن ا ا� � � ن� ي � ن ا � ا ن حم ن ��ل ّ ن�ك ه ش�ّ اأ ن� � ن ا��يًا ي ���د ا ا �� اأ ��؟ ن���ي��ا ��ل �ه� �ش��� ء �ي ن��ه ���ي���ا �مملك ���مل�� �ل�ه �م� �ن �ي� ��سر ي�� �م رجن و ي� � �ل�� ���نس� ��د ��ن � ري أ أ ي� ن ّ � � � شي ن ل��ن� ا ��ل ���ا ا ��س�م�ه �و��ا �ل ���د ا ا ش�ر ا �ي�ا � ا �لن ��ي����. ��دا ��ه �كي� ي م
١،١٤١
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا �� ن�ل� ن��م ��ن�� ّ��ه �عم� �ن �نل���س�ه � ��ل���� ي �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � �� ��ا ن��هي أا ��ل�� �ي� ن��ن�يس�ه م��س� � ل و أ و ن ي ن ل ي �� و �ي� ي ن أ نّ � ن ن ا أ ا �� ي � ا �� � �ن ن � �يع �ي هي �ن ن ا �أ �يش �ي ا ش ا �ي ن ن ن ل ��� �لم�ل ��ي� �هي� �ن� ح ي��� �� ا �لأ����س�ا � �عم�لي��ه �م� � �ل���س�ه� .و� ا ك ا � ا � �ل�� ��� لم�ل ��سر� أ ��سر � ُ أ أ � � � ا� ن �ش ح���ا � ��لم�ك � او �ّم�ا ا �ل ش�����ء ا ��ل�� ند �ي� �ي نل ���� نّ ا �نّ�ه حن��ا �أل���ا ���و را � ا �ل���سم��� �و�ل�� ��سن��ي�م�ل أا ��ل�� أا ن� � � � � � ن � ي م ��ن � � �ن �ن� ن �ن .ن��ا ن� ا �ي����ا ���ط ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �م�د � �ن �نل���س�ه � ا ن ������ا هو ا ��ل�� ند �� ي ن� ��يسم�ل�هي �و��ل���� ��� � � � � م د ل � ك ل أو � ر � � � ي أ أ � � ج �ي � �ي نّ ن ح ي� ا ����ع�يع �� � �ع ا ه ن�ك��ا ن �ع ا ه � ن ����ه ا�ا�م �ن ��سم�لي��ه ��ا �ل��د �ع� �� ل��� � ��� ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ي��ن��م�ل���ط ن�كي��ه �� ن� �ول �و ن � �و ر و � ر � ي و و ن ّ أ ّ �ن ن ع ّ ً ن ي �ّ ن ��يسم�ل�هي �نأ�ا ن��م�ا �ي��د ��ل ن�لي� � �م ن� �ن �نل���س�ه �نأ�ا ن� ا �ي ن�ل �عي ا ن� �ي�� ��و ن� ���ا � �ي�ا �وك� ���ا ن�� ي� �كي��ه �لم�ل�ك ا � �ل�� �م� �ل� أ نّ ن� ش آ �يل��نّ أ � � �نّ ��يي�م��ّ ن �� � ��ن�ن ش ي ا � ن � ���ا ر���ا �عم�ل� ا ��ه �ع�ي�ر � او � ��ي �ن�ا را ء ا �ل�� ��� �و � أا حه� ا �و �ه�و � او � ��� �و� ك � �����ه نن� ح �عملي� � � �ه�م �ويحر � � م أ ج أ ً � � � � ن ن ن � � ا �� ن ا �� � � ن ن ��� �ن��ي�ر ا �ل�هّ�م�هي ن�أ�ا �نّ�ه ��و� �ش�سي��أ��ا �م ن� ���د ه ا �ل�� ن��ل�� �ي� �ل��د �ن�ا ء �يل���ا .ن��ا �ّم�ا ا �لأ�����س�ا � ا � ك �و ل�� � �ل� ير� �
198
198
٢،١٤١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� � � �ن أ ن � أ نّ ي را �� ل��ي� ا �ل ن��و�م ا ��ه ��د �و��م�ل أا �لي��ه ا � ��و� ��و�ل ا �ل��د �ي� ي ن ن ا� ا ّ ي ا � ي ي ّ�� � � ��� �ي � ا ��ل�� ن� ح�سيم�ا � او ������ ار ا�م� � ه � ��� � حر���ه أا �ل�� ا �ل ش �و� و ع ع ي ًا � ي ا ّ ن � ن ا � � ا �����ا ر��� � �ويل���ي�ر ��سن��ن�� �لن��رء �� � ي�سم� ن����د. م
�ل � ن� � ن ن ي� ه او ه كي����و� �م� �� �ن � ن � �م� ام � حن ��و ن� �ي ر�و�ل ع
ن� ��لم�ك ا ��ل��� ي ح��ل��� م أ��ش ن � �ع ن��ه ا ���ر � �لم�ك
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ن � � �ن ن ّن � � ن ن ن نن ����ا ا �ل� ��ص� ن� ل��ي� ي�ر��� ا �لأ����س�ا � �ع ن� ا �لي���ن�يس�ه �عم�ل�� � �ل���س�ه �ن��� ش��سر�� ن� ��م�ل�ه �و�عر��� ��ا �ل�ه �أاو ش�لن��ا ي� ن ن ّ ��س ه ش ا هي �ن� ي هع � ��� �� �ع�د � �م�ا � �ه ا ��ل ا ��لن �ي ���� ��ل � ا ��نل ���د ا ا ��ل�� ا ش�ل��ا ي� ا ��نل � � � ��د � �� � ل � � �� � � � ل و و أ أ أ � ن ن و و و � ا �م� �أاو �أ�س� �ع� �ع�� ؟ �و�ي � م � � � ي ا أ ن ا� ا � � نّ ��نل ا �م � ا�م � ن ي ن ا� ن ��يا حه�و�ل � �لعي���� ا�م���د �و�م �و�ل� �لن�� ر�� ل��ي� ا�م���د �و�م �و�ل� ��م� ر�ي� ل��ي� حه�و�ل �و ن� � �م� �ه�و �ل� � ا�� �مم�ل ن� � أ ن ش ا ن ن ا ي� ً ا� � ��ا ن ن ش اأ ن ا� ا � ي ن ا � ن ���د ا � � ن ���ا �عر ن��� ن������ �م��س�ي� ��ا �ن�ا ��ل�ه � � ح�� ل�� ا�م�ون � �و�� .وك�� � �م����س� ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �ع� �� �ل و � � أ ن ن � � نّ � ن ن� ���ن��ه �عم�ل�نس�ا �ل��� � � ن�� ��ر ا ��س�م�ه �م ن� �و ن��ه �هره �ي�ا �لي ��ن� ن��ل�� ن� �و�ل�� �يل��ن��ي ��ن��ه �و�ل�� � �� ��ده � ��ر�عم�ل�� �� � � � ي م ن ا ا� � � ن� ي � ن ا � ا ن حم ن ��ل ّ ن�ك ه ش�ّ اأ ن� � ن ا��يًا ي ���د ا ا �� اأ ��؟ ن���ي��ا ��ل �ه� �ش��� ء �ي ن��ه ���ي���ا �مملك ���مل�� �ل�ه �م� �ن �ي� ��سر ي�� �م رجن و ي� � �ل�� ���نس� ��د ��ن � ري أ أ ي� ن ّ � � � شي ن ل��ن� ا ��ل ���ا ا ��س�م�ه �و��ا �ل ���د ا ا ش�ر ا �ي�ا � ا �لن ��ي����. ��دا ��ه �كي� ي م
١،١٤١
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا �� ن�ل� ن��م ��ن�� ّ��ه �عم� �ن �نل���س�ه � ��ل���� ي �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � �� ��ا ن��هي أا ��ل�� �ي� ن��ن�يس�ه م��س� � ل و أ و ن ي ن ل ي �� و �ي� ي ن أ نّ � ن ن ا أ ا �� ي � ا �� � �ن ن � �يع �ي هي �ن ن ا �أ �يش �ي ا ش ا �ي ن ن ن ل ��� �لم�ل ��ي� �هي� �ن� ح ي��� �� ا �لأ����س�ا � �عم�لي��ه �م� � �ل���س�ه� .و� ا ك ا � ا � �ل�� ��� لم�ل ��سر� أ ��سر � ُ أ أ � � � ا� ن �ش ح���ا � ��لم�ك � او �ّم�ا ا �ل ش�����ء ا ��ل�� ند �ي� �ي نل ���� نّ ا �نّ�ه حن��ا �أل���ا ���و را � ا �ل���سم��� �و�ل�� ��سن��ي�م�ل أا ��ل�� أا ن� � � � � � ن � ي م ��ن � � �ن �ن� ن �ن .ن��ا ن� ا �ي����ا ���ط ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن� �م�د � �ن �نل���س�ه � ا ن ������ا هو ا ��ل�� ند �� ي ن� ��يسم�ل�هي �و��ل���� ��� � � � � م د ل � ك ل أو � ر � � � ي أ أ � � ج �ي � �ي نّ ن ح ي� ا ����ع�يع �� � �ع ا ه ن�ك��ا ن �ع ا ه � ن ����ه ا�ا�م �ن ��سم�لي��ه ��ا �ل��د �ع� �� ل��� � ��� ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ي��ن��م�ل���ط ن�كي��ه �� ن� �ول �و ن � �و ر و � ر � ي و و ن ّ أ ّ �ن ن ع ّ ً ن ي �ّ ن ��يسم�ل�هي �نأ�ا ن��م�ا �ي��د ��ل ن�لي� � �م ن� �ن �نل���س�ه �نأ�ا ن� ا �ي ن�ل �عي ا ن� �ي�� ��و ن� ���ا � �ي�ا �وك� ���ا ن�� ي� �كي��ه �لم�ل�ك ا � �ل�� �م� �ل� أ نّ ن� ش آ �يل��نّ أ � � �نّ ��يي�م��ّ ن �� � ��ن�ن ش ي ا � ن � ���ا ر���ا �عم�ل� ا ��ه �ع�ي�ر � او � ��ي �ن�ا را ء ا �ل�� ��� �و � أا حه� ا �و �ه�و � او � ��� �و� ك � �����ه نن� ح �عملي� � � �ه�م �ويحر � � م أ ج أ ً � � � � ن ن ن � � ا �� ن ا �� � � ن ن ��� �ن��ي�ر ا �ل�هّ�م�هي ن�أ�ا �نّ�ه ��و� �ش�سي��أ��ا �م ن� ���د ه ا �ل�� ن��ل�� �ي� �ل��د �ن�ا ء �يل���ا .ن��ا �ّم�ا ا �لأ�����س�ا � ا � ك �و ل�� � �ل� ير� �
198
198
٢،١٤١
On why people are reluctant to advertise their merits
dreams about sexual intercourse, and in the discharge of the substance that prompts our longing and drives us to be united with our beloved. The greater part of that effect passes away, and this subsequently leads to a complete recovery.
On why people are reluctant to advertise their merits What makes people reluctant to call attention to themselves by advertising
141.1
their merits, displaying their qualities, establishing their name, and publicizing their attributes? This simply results in obscurity, and obscurity is a form of nonexistence and has a familiar relationship to deficiency. For what is obscure is unknown, and the unknown is the contrary of the nonexistent;43 and there is no debating the nonexistent and no disputing the existent. This question originated in the following circumstances. One of our masters showed us a book he had composed, and we discovered that he had not noted on the outside “Written or composed by so-and-so,” nor had he even noted that he was the owner of the book. We asked him, “What is your reasoning?” He answered, “There are secret reasons that make it attractive to me.” Then he brought out several books written during his youth and containing his name, and he said, “These are the relics of my days of deficiency.” Miskawayh’s response Merit calls attention to itself, and does not need people to call attention to it themselves. For the virtues that are truly virtues shine out like the sun, and cannot be hidden, even if their possessor wished it. Those that can be hidden are deemed virtues but are not. People employ reason to scrutinize the claims of anyone who sets about praising himself and making claims in order to draw attention to his virtue, so his imperfections become apparent and the points on which he is deceived about himself become manifest. If he happens to be speaking truthfully, and he indeed possesses the virtue in question, he reveals, by taking such pains to manifest it, that he is not confident in people’s judgments and their powers of scrutiny; or he may be confident, but is boastful and proud. People do not like any of these character traits because they are base. The great-spirited person, by contrast, belittles the virtues he possesses
199
199
141.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�� ي �ي ّ � ن �� ن ن�ك��ه �م ن ا �� ن�ل� ن �ا �ألم ��ل��س� ّ �� ا أ��ش ن � �أ نّ ا� ي ي ا � ي ����م�ل �لن �����س�ه �م�ا �ي��و� ي � � �� �ل � ي موه أا ل�� �م� �ه�و ا ���ر �م��ه �و �ل� � ا��سر�لن��ه � ��ي� ي � � � ي ي ن ن ن ن � ن ن � � ن � ن ن ن ي ا ح��م� �ل�ل�� ���س�ا � �م ن ا � �ل���م� � ا � ك���ا ��� �عم� �ل��ه ��ه � ن ���س�� ��ا �ل�� ا � ل أو ��� ��ه أا �ل�� �م� �ه�و � ي � �ي� ر ر ي ي ر ن أ أ ل أ ّ ّ ي ّ ن � � ا � �ن ا ن ن � � ن ا � ن � �ش � ن ا� ��� �ل ��� ي � ش م����ه ا ��ن�ه ا �� ��� ا �لأ����س� � �من��د �و�ل �ل�ه � او ��م� ي� ��ر �م ن��ه �و�ه�و �م���ر��� �ل�� حر ا�م�و ��ل ن ن ن ��يس���ه ا �لن����سر أ ن أي ع أ � � � ي ي ي ي يأ ي ي شن ن �ع ن� ا ��س��ي����ا �ن�ه � ن�ولم�ل�و ا �����ا ه ا �و ي���م��م�ل�ه �ع ن��ه 1ن�لن ����ا �ل��� ���ع�و��ه �ع ن� ا ��سم�ا ��� ا �����ا �ي�ه ا � �ل����و�� � عّ ي �ن ���ا �ألم�ل ا �لن�� ش��س �ر�ه. �م ن� ا � �ل� ن� ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ي��ّ ا أ ن ا ��لن ن �� � � ن ا ن ّ ي أ � �ه ا ن ي ن اأ � � � ا ��ل ن���ش � �ع ن � � � ه ه م ����� � � � � ���س�ه ���د ا ا ا � �ل � � � ع � � � د د م � � � ه� � ل �� �� � � � � � س � س � م م �� � � ل � � � و ن ل � م و ر و � رن ل ّو أ ش و� ري حمي ّ � � � ن � ن � � ش ن ن ني ي ن � ��� ا ��ل� ���د ا � �ع ن �� �ي ا ي ا �وا � �عم�ل�� ا �ل ن���ر �و ا�م ي ن��� �ه�م�ا ����� ٢د ��د �م ا �ل� ���ر�و� ا �ل� ��� ���� � ا �ل ن�� ��� �كي� أ� و� ن �ي � أ ا ن ن ن ّ ا ي �ل� ن � � �ي �ي هي ن�مه ي ّ � � �أي�ّ ن ا �� ن �ش � ن ن ا ا ن�كي��ه �نل ���� ��را � �ل �عو�ل � او �� � � او �م� � �لم�ك �ن�ه �و ن�� �لن �� او � � حعي�� � ا حعي��� كي�� �و��د م ا �ل��م �لو� ل�� ر ع �� ن � ا � �� ا ا ��ل ح�ا ن� �كي��ه. �� � و و �و ن ج
١،١٤٢
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ نّ � ن ن � � ش ن ن ي ي � � � � ا �ل ن��� � �� �عم� � � ��� ��ه ر� ��س�سم�ا ن� � ���ل��� � او �� � ح ي� ا �� � ���ل��� ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا �ل� �� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� � ي ر و و و ي� ّ ي م م �ي ي � ن � م ن � ن ي �� ��� �لن �ي� ا ��ل ا�ا�من ن �� � ن � ا�ا�من ن �� � ن � � ّ � � ل ا �� � � � � م ه س ل ا � ��� ا � � � � � � �� � � �� � � � � � � ع ع م ط ط � د ن������ �ل�ه�م�ا �أاو ��م�ا � � �وم و ي ر �وم و ي ر لم ي �� أ �� � �ج � ن� � � � � � ن ا �� �لنم��ي حيّ � ن ي ا ��ل اآ ن ��ند ��لم�ك � � �و ن�ع�ي�ر ا�م��من� ط � ي�لن��ي����� أا ��ل�� ا�م��من� � � � � �� �� �� � � � � � � � ل � � ا�امن� �� � ل ه � � ي ير و أ � � � ر و و و � ي ي� م ع ع أن ي � � م م أ � ح �� �ن�م ���ل��� ن��م�ا �ه�و ن� ن���� ي ن� ا �ن�� او �ع�ه� .و�مش��ا ��ل ن� ��لم�ك �م ّ�م�ا ن�ر ي� �ن�ه �عم� � �ي�م�ك ا � �ي�ل �عو�ل ا � � حر�� � ري م �ي � � ��ل ّ �ن� أ نّ � � ّ �لن ��ي� ا ��ل ا ��ل ن ا ��� ي ن � ا ��ل ن ا ��� ي ش�ّ ا نّ ن � ا ��ل ن ا ��� ي �لن ���ي � ��و�لمك ا ��ي� � ط� ي �� � �كم� ا � ا �ل�ي� ي �� � ط� �م أ � �ع�ي ر �� � ط� �و�ع�ي ر �� � � أ �� �� � �ّ ن � � م م أ آ ي ي ّ ّ � ���ا � ا �ل ن��ا �� ي حي ي ن ي ��ل �� �� ا أ� ن � �� �� ا أ� � ي� ن �� � �ل���س ه � �ه� أا ��ل�� ا ن�ر ا �ن�� او �ع�ه� .و�ام�ا ك� � ط� أا �� ا ل��� ر �و�ع�ي ر ا ل��� ر �و�ل� ار ل �م� �� ���� � ي� ��ا ن �ن ��ل ّ � � ن � � ي ن � ا ش ّ نن � ن ا � ي ن � � اأ ن ن � او �ل����ا أ�ر ي� ش��س��رك�� � ل�ي� ا ��ي� ا �ل�د �ي� �ه�و ن������ �ل�ه�م� ��م ي�ل�����م�ل ا �ل�� ��ط�� �ع� ا �ل���� �ر �ن �ل���م�ل � � � ن � ي �ن� ن � � ا ��لن�ن �� � � ش ن � �ن ���ا ن� ل��� ا �� � �� � او �ل ن���شر ي� ش��س��يرك� ا �ل� ��ط�� � ���ل��� ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و ن� ن����� �ل�ه�م�ا ��ّ ي�لن ن�����م�ل ا �لن�ن �� ���د �لمك � �� ي م � م ي ن يم �م ّ ً � � � ن � � � ن ن ن ن ن ن �ع ن� ا �ل ن���شر �ن �ل� ن��م�ل ا ���ور� ا �ل��د �ي� �ن�ه ���ا ر ا�امن ن� ��ط�و� �من ن� ��ط�و�م�ا� .و�ام�ا ك� ���ا � ا ���ور� �م�لي��ه را �أ��ده م
أ أ ن ة�ه�ا. 1الا�ص�ل� :ع� نس ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :س�
200
200
٢،١٤٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�� ي �ي ّ � ن �� ن ن�ك��ه �م ن ا �� ن�ل� ن �ا �ألم ��ل��س� ّ �� ا أ��ش ن � �أ نّ ا� ي ي ا � ي ����م�ل �لن �����س�ه �م�ا �ي��و� ي � � �� �ل � ي موه أا ل�� �م� �ه�و ا ���ر �م��ه �و �ل� � ا��سر�لن��ه � ��ي� ي � � � ي ي ن ن ن ن � ن ن � � ن � ن ن ن ي ا ح��م� �ل�ل�� ���س�ا � �م ن ا � �ل���م� � ا � ك���ا ��� �عم� �ل��ه ��ه � ن ���س�� ��ا �ل�� ا � ل أو ��� ��ه أا �ل�� �م� �ه�و � ي � �ي� ر ر ي ي ر ن أ أ ل أ ّ ّ ي ّ ن � � ا � �ن ا ن ن � � ن ا � ن � �ش � ن ا� ��� �ل ��� ي � ش م����ه ا ��ن�ه ا �� ��� ا �لأ����س� � �من��د �و�ل �ل�ه � او ��م� ي� ��ر �م ن��ه �و�ه�و �م���ر��� �ل�� حر ا�م�و ��ل ن ن ن ��يس���ه ا �لن����سر أ ن أي ع أ � � � ي ي ي ي يأ ي ي شن ن �ع ن� ا ��س��ي����ا �ن�ه � ن�ولم�ل�و ا �����ا ه ا �و ي���م��م�ل�ه �ع ن��ه 1ن�لن ����ا �ل��� ���ع�و��ه �ع ن� ا ��سم�ا ��� ا �����ا �ي�ه ا � �ل����و�� � عّ ي �ن ���ا �ألم�ل ا �لن�� ش��س �ر�ه. �م ن� ا � �ل� ن� ي
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي ي��ّ ا أ ن ا ��لن ن �� � � ن ا ن ّ ي أ � �ه ا ن ي ن اأ � � � ا ��ل ن���ش � �ع ن � � � ه ه م ����� � � � � ���س�ه ���د ا ا ا � �ل � � � ع � � � د د م � � � ه� � ل �� �� � � � � � س � س � م م �� � � ل � � � و ن ل � م و ر و � رن ل ّو أ ش و� ري حمي ّ � � � ن � ن � � ش ن ن ني ي ن � ��� ا ��ل� ���د ا � �ع ن �� �ي ا ي ا �وا � �عم�ل�� ا �ل ن���ر �و ا�م ي ن��� �ه�م�ا ����� ٢د ��د �م ا �ل� ���ر�و� ا �ل� ��� ���� � ا �ل ن�� ��� �كي� أ� و� ن �ي � أ ا ن ن ن ّ ا ي �ل� ن � � �ي �ي هي ن�مه ي ّ � � �أي�ّ ن ا �� ن �ش � ن ن ا ا ن�كي��ه �نل ���� ��را � �ل �عو�ل � او �� � � او �م� � �لم�ك �ن�ه �و ن�� �لن �� او � � حعي�� � ا حعي��� كي�� �و��د م ا �ل��م �لو� ل�� ر ع �� ن � ا � �� ا ا ��ل ح�ا ن� �كي��ه. �� � و و �و ن ج
١،١٤٢
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ نّ � ن ن � � ش ن ن ي ي � � � � ا �ل ن��� � �� �عم� � � ��� ��ه ر� ��س�سم�ا ن� � ���ل��� � او �� � ح ي� ا �� � ���ل��� ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا �ل� �� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� � ي ر و و و ي� ّ ي م م �ي ي � ن � م ن � ن ي �� ��� �لن �ي� ا ��ل ا�ا�من ن �� � ن � ا�ا�من ن �� � ن � � ّ � � ل ا �� � � � � م ه س ل ا � ��� ا � � � � � � �� � � �� � � � � � � ع ع م ط ط � د ن������ �ل�ه�م�ا �أاو ��م�ا � � �وم و ي ر �وم و ي ر لم ي �� أ �� � �ج � ن� � � � � � ن ا �� �لنم��ي حيّ � ن ي ا ��ل اآ ن ��ند ��لم�ك � � �و ن�ع�ي�ر ا�م��من� ط � ي�لن��ي����� أا ��ل�� ا�م��من� � � � � �� �� �� � � � � � � � ل � � ا�امن� �� � ل ه � � ي ير و أ � � � ر و و و � ي ي� م ع ع أن ي � � م م أ � ح �� �ن�م ���ل��� ن��م�ا �ه�و ن� ن���� ي ن� ا �ن�� او �ع�ه� .و�مش��ا ��ل ن� ��لم�ك �م ّ�م�ا ن�ر ي� �ن�ه �عم� � �ي�م�ك ا � �ي�ل �عو�ل ا � � حر�� � ري م �ي � � ��ل ّ �ن� أ نّ � � ّ �لن ��ي� ا ��ل ا ��ل ن ا ��� ي ن � ا ��ل ن ا ��� ي ش�ّ ا نّ ن � ا ��ل ن ا ��� ي �لن ���ي � ��و�لمك ا ��ي� � ط� ي �� � �كم� ا � ا �ل�ي� ي �� � ط� �م أ � �ع�ي ر �� � ط� �و�ع�ي ر �� � � أ �� �� � �ّ ن � � م م أ آ ي ي ّ ّ � ���ا � ا �ل ن��ا �� ي حي ي ن ي ��ل �� �� ا أ� ن � �� �� ا أ� � ي� ن �� � �ل���س ه � �ه� أا ��ل�� ا ن�ر ا �ن�� او �ع�ه� .و�ام�ا ك� � ط� أا �� ا ل��� ر �و�ع�ي ر ا ل��� ر �و�ل� ار ل �م� �� ���� � ي� ��ا ن �ن ��ل ّ � � ن � � ي ن � ا ش ّ نن � ن ا � ي ن � � اأ ن ن � او �ل����ا أ�ر ي� ش��س��رك�� � ل�ي� ا ��ي� ا �ل�د �ي� �ه�و ن������ �ل�ه�م� ��م ي�ل�����م�ل ا �ل�� ��ط�� �ع� ا �ل���� �ر �ن �ل���م�ل � � � ن � ي �ن� ن � � ا ��لن�ن �� � � ش ن � �ن ���ا ن� ل��� ا �� � �� � او �ل ن���شر ي� ش��س��يرك� ا �ل� ��ط�� � ���ل��� ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و ن� ن����� �ل�ه�م�ا ��ّ ي�لن ن�����م�ل ا �لن�ن �� ���د �لمك � �� ي م � م ي ن يم �م ّ ً � � � ن � � � ن ن ن ن ن ن �ع ن� ا �ل ن���شر �ن �ل� ن��م�ل ا ���ور� ا �ل��د �ي� �ن�ه ���ا ر ا�امن ن� ��ط�و� �من ن� ��ط�و�م�ا� .و�ام�ا ك� ���ا � ا ���ور� �م�لي��ه را �أ��ده م
أ أ ن ة�ه�ا. 1الا�ص�ل� :ع� نس ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :س�
200
200
٢،١٤٢
On the relative merits of verse as against prose
because he aspires to more; for however high the degree of merit a person acquires, it is nugatory compared with that which surpasses it. He is subject to the natural disposition of human beings and under its control, and the limitations vested in human nature prevent him from acquiring it fully and attaining its utmost degree, or he is distracted by deficiencies that hinder him from seeking the highest level of human virtue.
On the relative merits of verse as against prose Someone posed a question about the ranks of verse and prose, their respective
142.1
merits, the relation of one to the other, and the classes people occupy with regard to them. Most people place verse higher than prose, without offering a clear argument in support of their view; even so, they make that claim and avoid delving into the hidden aspects of the truth involved. A small minority place prose higher, and attempt to argue their case.
Miskawayh’s response Verse and prose are species that form subdivisions of speech; speech constitutes their genus. The correct mode of division is as follows: Speech divides into that which is arranged in verse and that which is not arranged in verse. That which is not arranged in verse divides into that which employs rhyme and that which does not employ rhyme. The process of division continues until the final species is reached. Let us illustrate this with an example familiar to you: Insofar as it is a genus, speech follows the same principle as the term “living being.” For living beings divide into the rational and the nonrational, nonrational beings divide into those that can fly and those that cannot fly, and one continues the process of division until one reaches the final species. Rational beings and beings that can fly have in common the fact that they are living beings, which is their genus, and rational beings and beings that can fly are then differentiated by virtue of rationality. Similarly, verse and prose have in common the fact that they are forms of speech, which is their genus, and verse is then differentiated from prose by virtue of meter, through which verse
201
201
142.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
��م� هي �م ا ��ل ن �ش � ا ا ��ل ش��م� اأ �ن� ن��م �م ن ا ��ل ن �ش �م ن � ي � ن ن ن ن ُ ي نا ن ح��ه ا � ��ور�� .أ�ا � ا �عي�ن��ر ي� �و� ��وره �� � ل� ع�ل�� �� ر �� ر �ر �ل � �� ر � ن � ن � ي ي ّن أ ا� ا ن ��ا ن ي ا� ا ن ش ي�� ي ن ا ��لن ن �� ���د �ه�م�ا �م ن ح��ه � � � او ��ل ن���شر �و��ل���� �م ن ���د ه ا ن�ل ا�م��� �ل�� ك�� ��� ا�م��� �ل�� �م��س��ر���ه �ن��� � � � � ا � � � م � ر � ي � ي� � ي آي ي م أ � ن ��ّ حم ًا ّ ي ��م�ي� ً �ن ً يً � شا � م ي ي � ن � � � ّ ّ ن ا ا ا ا � � � � � � � � ا �ل�� ن�ر ن�لم�ل �ي��و� ��ل � او � �ه�م� � ���د � �سره �و��د �ن� �سره �و ي�� �سره �و يس�م� ا �ر�� .و�م�� �ل ��د م � � ن � ن ن � �ن� أ نّ ا ��م� � ي � � � � ي ن ا �أ ي � �كم� ا � ل�ل ���ل��� �مش��ا ��ل ا �لم��ل � �م ن� ا �� � ح ن� �ي��������� �م ن��ه ا �لن�ن �� ح ن� �م� ا �ل� �� ا �لن�ن �� � ��� 1وره ر ��ده � م ع � � � � � � ل � � ي م م �ي ن ي ا ��لن ن �� ��ام ن � ��ن � هي ن ا �أ�دهيم � ا � ن � ي � � � � � ا ��ل�� ند �ي� �ي��������� �م ن��ه ا �� � ه ه � � � ���ا � �ل�ه �و��د � �� � � � � ���ل��� � ��ور ر � �عم�ل�� م� ك ل �م�ا ك�� � � د لمك � ي م أ �ن م أ ي� ّ ا � ن ن نم ي � � ا ن� ��و �م� � ع� ���د ا ��� كا � �ل] ا ��� ي� ��ا �ل [ � م ج ِ ِ ُ ِ ِ� ْ �ِ ٌ نِ شْ ٌ نِ ا نْ أ ��ّ�نْ يِ هُ اٱ �� نِّنْ �� ِ ِ ا ِ يِ ِ�� أ ً ِ ُ� �ُ ِ عي �عو� ا �و ��قر ����قر ��ِأ� � ا ل���� �نِ� ل���ق�م � �ه�و ن � ��� ر ���ل �ِ��د ا �و
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � أ � ّ �� ن � ا� � � ن� � ي �ن ����ا ا ��ل �ند ا ا ��ل���س أا ن� ا �ور� ا ن���ند ��ا �م ح ���ر ي�لش��ي�م�ل �عم�ل� ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن�؟ �و��� � �و��د ح ن��ي� �و��س�د ا ����ل �� �م � ر ن ر � م أ ّ آ أ أ �عم�ل�م ي� ا نّ� �ن نل �����ا � ا ������ا ا�� �ي�ليعي�ن��� ا ��ل���س � ا ��لن�ه � ��ل�� ي�سي�مّ�ا ن� ا ��ل�� ��ا �س � �ن�ا ه � �م�ا ��� � �من�ه ّ ي� ر و � �ي� و أ ن ر و و ور و � �ي� ن أ��ا ن م أ م �� نّ � � � ن ا ن ن�ك � �ن �ي � هي ا � � ش �ن ا ا ا ن � � � � � ا ا � � ك ك �و���د ه ا رك�� � �و� �عم� �� �و� ك ل �ع � م� � م ع م � م � � � ��س � ٢ � � � � � �� � � � � � � س �و ن �لأ ر � ي� ي �ل �لأ � ي ر� ��� � �ي ّ م ا�ا�مم�لي��� �م ن ا�مم ن ��م�ل���. ن ��� �
١،١٤٣
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ أ أ أ � ن � نّ ا ي ا ن ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا ��ل���س ا ��ل�� ند �� ا � �م�ا ي� أا ��ل��ه � ا ��ل �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ي و ر ي و أ ح ���ر أا ��م� �ي�لع��� � ل��ي� و � ي ي ن � ش ي ي ا �� ي ن�� ا � � ن ا ن ��ل ا �� �ي ا أ� � ن � � �أ�ع ا �� ا �� ي ن� ا � ش �يّ هي �ي أ ّ � ن������ ا �ل����ه� او � ��ي� � ��� م��م�� �و ��و� ي� � �ن� �لأ����س� � أا �� لعن��ج � ن�ولملر�وم ا �ل� �م� ل ��ي� كي� ج أ ّ ي � �� ا� ا ��ل ا� ّا ن � � � ن � ن ن � ��� أا �ل�� ��ن�ه أا ل�� ا�م��� �� .و�م� ك� �م�ل ا �ل ش����ه� او ي� ن�ع�ي�ر �ن�ا ن ���ر ل��ي� ا � � ���ا � ا �لأ�����س�ا � �مي�م�ل�ه �ن�ا �ل�� عي��ا ن� ن ج ع � � � ا هي �� �� � � �ش�ي � � ه ��ل ا �� � ن ا ا هي ل�ن � ا � � ن � ا � � � ا � ل ا ل � � م � � � � � � � � � د � � � � � م � ��� � م ل ع م ل � ط � ه �ول �� ر ر �ل ي ��و م� �أاو �� � �يو �� و ر �ي� ن �ل ي �وم و� ي ن � �ن� � �أ � ن ن ا �� � � ن هي ّي � �أ � � ي ن �عملي��ه ي���ا �م ش��م�ي��ه� .و���د ه �� ل �ل�ر�م� ح ���ر�ش���ه� او �ي�ه � او �ل��سر ا �ل��د �ي� �ير� �عم�لي��ه �ن�ا �ل� �ع�م�ا �ل ا � ��ي� �ك� أ أ �� نس �ه�ا �ه ن���ا. 1الا�ص�ل �� :ن���� ا لم ن�س��ط ة� ا �ل ن�� ن��ط� ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :و�ل ك م
202
202
٢،١٤٣
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
��م� هي �م ا ��ل ن �ش � ا ا ��ل ش��م� اأ �ن� ن��م �م ن ا ��ل ن �ش �م ن � ي � ن ن ن ن ُ ي نا ن ح��ه ا � ��ور�� .أ�ا � ا �عي�ن��ر ي� �و� ��وره �� � ل� ع�ل�� �� ر �� ر �ر �ل � �� ر � ن � ن � ي ي ّن أ ا� ا ن ��ا ن ي ا� ا ن ش ي�� ي ن ا ��لن ن �� ���د �ه�م�ا �م ن ح��ه � � � او ��ل ن���شر �و��ل���� �م ن ���د ه ا ن�ل ا�م��� �ل�� ك�� ��� ا�م��� �ل�� �م��س��ر���ه �ن��� � � � � ا � � � م � ر � ي � ي� � ي آي ي م أ � ن ��ّ حم ًا ّ ي ��م�ي� ً �ن ً يً � شا � م ي ي � ن � � � ّ ّ ن ا ا ا ا � � � � � � � � ا �ل�� ن�ر ن�لم�ل �ي��و� ��ل � او � �ه�م� � ���د � �سره �و��د �ن� �سره �و ي�� �سره �و يس�م� ا �ر�� .و�م�� �ل ��د م � � ن � ن ن � �ن� أ نّ ا ��م� � ي � � � � ي ن ا �أ ي � �كم� ا � ل�ل ���ل��� �مش��ا ��ل ا �لم��ل � �م ن� ا �� � ح ن� �ي��������� �م ن��ه ا �لن�ن �� ح ن� �م� ا �ل� �� ا �لن�ن �� � ��� 1وره ر ��ده � م ع � � � � � � ل � � ي م م �ي ن ي ا ��لن ن �� ��ام ن � ��ن � هي ن ا �أ�دهيم � ا � ن � ي � � � � � ا ��ل�� ند �ي� �ي��������� �م ن��ه ا �� � ه ه � � � ���ا � �ل�ه �و��د � �� � � � � ���ل��� � ��ور ر � �عم�ل�� م� ك ل �م�ا ك�� � � د لمك � ي م أ �ن م أ ي� ّ ا � ن ن نم ي � � ا ن� ��و �م� � ع� ���د ا ��� كا � �ل] ا ��� ي� ��ا �ل [ � م ج ِ ِ ُ ِ ِ� ْ �ِ ٌ نِ شْ ٌ نِ ا نْ أ ��ّ�نْ يِ هُ اٱ �� نِّنْ �� ِ ِ ا ِ يِ ِ�� أ ً ِ ُ� �ُ ِ عي �عو� ا �و ��قر ����قر ��ِأ� � ا ل���� �نِ� ل���ق�م � �ه�و ن � ��� ر ���ل �ِ��د ا �و
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � أ � ّ �� ن � ا� � � ن� � ي �ن ����ا ا ��ل �ند ا ا ��ل���س أا ن� ا �ور� ا ن���ند ��ا �م ح ���ر ي�لش��ي�م�ل �عم�ل� ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن�؟ �و��� � �و��د ح ن��ي� �و��س�د ا ����ل �� �م � ر ن ر � م أ ّ آ أ أ �عم�ل�م ي� ا نّ� �ن نل �����ا � ا ������ا ا�� �ي�ليعي�ن��� ا ��ل���س � ا ��لن�ه � ��ل�� ي�سي�مّ�ا ن� ا ��ل�� ��ا �س � �ن�ا ه � �م�ا ��� � �من�ه ّ ي� ر و � �ي� و أ ن ر و و ور و � �ي� ن أ��ا ن م أ م �� نّ � � � ن ا ن ن�ك � �ن �ي � هي ا � � ش �ن ا ا ا ن � � � � � ا ا � � ك ك �و���د ه ا رك�� � �و� �عم� �� �و� ك ل �ع � م� � م ع م � م � � � ��س � ٢ � � � � � �� � � � � � � س �و ن �لأ ر � ي� ي �ل �لأ � ي ر� ��� � �ي ّ م ا�ا�مم�لي��� �م ن ا�مم ن ��م�ل���. ن ��� �
١،١٤٣
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ أ أ أ � ن � نّ ا ي ا ن ن ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا ��ل���س ا ��ل�� ند �� ا � �م�ا ي� أا ��ل��ه � ا ��ل �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ي و ر ي و أ ح ���ر أا ��م� �ي�لع��� � ل��ي� و � ي ي ن � ش ي ي ا �� ي ن�� ا � � ن ا ن ��ل ا �� �ي ا أ� � ن � � �أ�ع ا �� ا �� ي ن� ا � ش �يّ هي �ي أ ّ � ن������ ا �ل����ه� او � ��ي� � ��� م��م�� �و ��و� ي� � �ن� �لأ����س� � أا �� لعن��ج � ن�ولملر�وم ا �ل� �م� ل ��ي� كي� ج أ ّ ي � �� ا� ا ��ل ا� ّا ن � � � ن � ن ن � ��� أا �ل�� ��ن�ه أا ل�� ا�م��� �� .و�م� ك� �م�ل ا �ل ش����ه� او ي� ن�ع�ي�ر �ن�ا ن ���ر ل��ي� ا � � ���ا � ا �لأ�����س�ا � �مي�م�ل�ه �ن�ا �ل�� عي��ا ن� ن ج ع � � � ا هي �� �� � � �ش�ي � � ه ��ل ا �� � ن ا ا هي ل�ن � ا � � ن � ا � � � ا � ل ا ل � � م � � � � � � � � � د � � � � � م � ��� � م ل ع م ل � ط � ه �ول �� ر ر �ل ي ��و م� �أاو �� � �يو �� و ر �ي� ن �ل ي �وم و� ي ن � �ن� � �أ � ن ن ا �� � � ن هي ّي � �أ � � ي ن �عملي��ه ي���ا �م ش��م�ي��ه� .و���د ه �� ل �ل�ر�م� ح ���ر�ش���ه� او �ي�ه � او �ل��سر ا �ل��د �ي� �ير� �عم�لي��ه �ن�ا �ل� �ع�م�ا �ل ا � ��ي� �ك� أ أ �� نس �ه�ا �ه ن���ا. 1الا�ص�ل �� :ن���� ا لم ن�س��ط ة� ا �ل ن�� ن��ط� ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :و�ل ك م
202
202
٢،١٤٣
On why people feel oppressed when things are prohibited to them
is constituted as verse. Since meter is an additional quality and a surplus form relative to prose, poetry excels over prose on account of its meter. Verse and prose have meanings in common, so it is not through this aspect that the one is distinguished from the other; rather, each of them may be sometimes true and sometimes false, sometimes sound and sometimes defective. The relation of verse to speech is like the relation of melody to verse. Just as melody imparts to verse a form that is additional to the one it had previously possessed, similarly, the quality of versified arrangement imparts to speech a form additional to the one it had previously possessed. Abū Tammām put the point eloquently when he said: They are jewels strewn about, but if you unite them in verse they become necklaces and strings of pearls.
On why people feel oppressed when things are prohibited to them Why do human beings find interdiction oppressive? Similarly, when a com-
143.1
mand is issued, it seizes us by the throat and stifles our very breath. And yet we know that the order of the world requires commands and prohibitions, and this can only be achieved through someone who commands and prohibits, and through something that is commanded and prohibited. These are basic elements and principles, but their meaning is withheld from us here, and by gaining an overview human beings may be perfected and distinguish what is obscure from what is clearly distilled. Miskawayh’s response The commands and prohibitions you refer to arise in connection with those appetites that wantonly drive human beings to evil actions, and concern the necessitation of actions that involve hardship but lead to our good. Human beings naturally incline to immediate gratification of their appetites without regard for consequence, and to a preference for ease and repose here and now over what will bring repose throughout the time to come. Thus they find it oppressive when their appetites are forbidden and when commanded to perform acts involving hardship. This is a condition that cleaves to human beings
203
203
143.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ّ أ �أ أ ن �ن �� �� �ن ا ن �م ن� ن�د ا ��ل��� ن ط� �عو��ل�هي ن�أ�ا ن� ا �ش�لي�م�ل ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء �عم�لي��ه �من�� � او ��ل��د �ي�ه � 1م�ا ر��ه � او ن���د �ه�م�ا أا �ّي�ا ه ن� � �م�ل�� ل� أل ��س� � ن ع أ ن � � � ه � �ل��م�� ه ل�ن ا�ا�م ش ي � �أ ا � � ن ا ن ي ش ّ ن �� ا شي � ن ا ���وره ��ي��ن��ه �و�م���ا ن�ل� و ي � �ي� � ا �ل� �ع�م� �ل ا �ل�� �����ه ��م أا � ا �كم�ل ��� ر ا � �ل�م�ل ا �ل�� ��� �عم�لي��ه �� ن ن ا �� � � �� ا �ن ه ا �� � ن � � اأ ن �ن � ن ا �ن ي ��ش ا ��ل ن��ا �� ا�ا� ن �ي ���د ه ��ا �� اأ ��� ل ه ه � � � � � � م � � . � � � � م���ا �ي� ن� �ل ش����ه� او �ل�هم� ل و �و��سمل��� � ل�د ي� ي� ��د ه ن�م�� و ر � � ا� يّ ن � أ � � � � ّ ي �ي � ّ � ن � ي ن � اأ �ي � ن ح ّ��د ا �ل����� ا �ل�م� �ه� ا ن�ل � م�س���� ي� �ل���ه� او �أل�ه� � .وي��د �ي�ليع� �ك حم� � ا �ر� �وي�ه ا � �ل �عو ي� ا ���� ير�م�ه ��ل� �ي� ل�ي� ي� ا� ن ن ي ي عً م �ّ أم ع ّ ج أ ي � � ً ن � � � �� �ش�ي أ ن هي ن � � ا� ا ���ي ن � � ن � ن � ا �ي هي � ن � ح�مم� ي � � ه او ه مم �ح�م�ل ل�م�ل � ��و� �و� � �لمك �م� ي� ���ره م� ح��س� ا ���� كن�� ل��ا ��ا �م���ا �ل� � �م� ا �ل�� ��ور أا �ل� ا ن � أ � أ ا � ّ �ن � ا ا � �أ ح ا ا �ش ن ���د ا �يم�ل�م� �لم� ا �يم�ّ �م ن ا �� �لي�م�ل�م� �و��ل���� ا �ل� ا �مش�� �ل�ه � �� ن��ه ا � � ل � � � � � س � � � ح � � � ل أ � ي ي و �أاو �م� ����� .و م�م�ل ن ن ر ي ل نل ل � ُ ل ي � أ � � �أ � � � ّ ا نُ� ن � ن � ن � او ��لن �ّو�� �ن�ا ���و�ع�د � او ���و�عي��د � او �ن��د ر ا �����د ا ن� ا �ل� �ي�� . � ه� �و�ل� أا �ي� ه � � � ي م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ن ن ا ��ل�� ا � ن �ن � � ا ا� ن ��نل ح�ن�م� ي��سم�ا ������ير��ه �م ن ا ��ل ا�م � ح� ��ص� ن� ٢ا ح ��ي ���� � ن �� ن� �عم�ل�� ا�م�ن��ر � �ون��ي� س�م� �����ي� �و ل�ي� �ي ��و�م � ل ي ي � �سر نن أ �ن ح ل�ن �ش�� ء ي � ا ��لي�يس�عي�� � ا ��نل � ح ن ن ي أ أي � �����ه � او �ي�ليع ن��ه �و�و�ش��ي ن� � � �د � ح � م � � ���س�ه � �و �ل��ا ��ه؟ ا � ار ه �م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� � � � ل � و ع ون ي ي أ ي ّ � � ن ي ش � يّ ن ّ ن ن ��س�ه �ل��س�ا ��ه �وي�م���ي�ر �ن�ا �ل�ه �يو��مم�ل�ك �عم�لي��ه ا �سره. ي���س����م��رح�� �يل��م�ل � �ع��ه �و�ي���� ي
١،١٤٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ا �� ن�� �� ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ ا �نل ن � ن ��� ��ه ر� ح��هي �م ن ا ن��ل ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� �س ار �� ا �لن ������ �ن� ل� � أ� � ح��ا ي� �� و ��ر أا ل�� ن� � � � ي � �ي ن ي ��ي ّ �ن �ن ن � ا ن �� � ن � ن� �ن � ا ي � � ن � � � � � �ي اأ � اأ ن � ل � ي ل ل ل ا � � � � � � � � ا � ح�� � ول�د �لمك �ل� يل��د ر ��د � ن �م ن�ي� ل� � ي��ع�و�ه �ع� ا �� �ر �ي� �سر� �ي� �ع�ي ر��� م� ن � ع آ أ أ أ أ ّ ن ّي ش ّي � � �ي �ن ا � �د �م ن �ي � � ا � ن�ل � ّ � ا ن � اأ �� هي �ع ن�د� ّ هي � ا ن � � س � ه ه � � � � � ا � �م� �م � � م � ي ل � �� �د � � س � � � � � � � ل � � � � � � ن ير ر ي و ي و ر م��س� ل� � ي ��س� و ر وي و ري ن ل � ّ � ن � � ن �� ّ ا � ن ًا � ن ا � ن � ا ن ا ن � � اأ ن� � ّ ل�ن ا � ا � ي ن ي �� � � ���ل �و � ���ده �و�م ن� �ي����ا ��ط�� � �لم�ك �أ�ا ��م�ا �ي�ل� ��ل ��د ن�رء م� �رم� � �أو � ر�و ي� �ي� �� ل �و ع أ ن أ نّ ة �� �ة� ا �. 1الا�ص�ل :ولاد ��� ٢ .ط�� :س�ن� ن
204
204
٢،١٤٤
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ّ أ �أ أ ن �ن �� �� �ن ا ن �م ن� ن�د ا ��ل��� ن ط� �عو��ل�هي ن�أ�ا ن� ا �ش�لي�م�ل ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء �عم�لي��ه �من�� � او ��ل��د �ي�ه � 1م�ا ر��ه � او ن���د �ه�م�ا أا �ّي�ا ه ن� � �م�ل�� ل� أل ��س� � ن ع أ ن � � � ه � �ل��م�� ه ل�ن ا�ا�م ش ي � �أ ا � � ن ا ن ي ش ّ ن �� ا شي � ن ا ���وره ��ي��ن��ه �و�م���ا ن�ل� و ي � �ي� � ا �ل� �ع�م� �ل ا �ل�� �����ه ��م أا � ا �كم�ل ��� ر ا � �ل�م�ل ا �ل�� ��� �عم�لي��ه �� ن ن ا �� � � �� ا �ن ه ا �� � ن � � اأ ن �ن � ن ا �ن ي ��ش ا ��ل ن��ا �� ا�ا� ن �ي ���د ه ��ا �� اأ ��� ل ه ه � � � � � � م � � . � � � � م���ا �ي� ن� �ل ش����ه� او �ل�هم� ل و �و��سمل��� � ل�د ي� ي� ��د ه ن�م�� و ر � � ا� يّ ن � أ � � � � ّ ي �ي � ّ � ن � ي ن � اأ �ي � ن ح ّ��د ا �ل����� ا �ل�م� �ه� ا ن�ل � م�س���� ي� �ل���ه� او �أل�ه� � .وي��د �ي�ليع� �ك حم� � ا �ر� �وي�ه ا � �ل �عو ي� ا ���� ير�م�ه ��ل� �ي� ل�ي� ي� ا� ن ن ي ي عً م �ّ أم ع ّ ج أ ي � � ً ن � � � �� �ش�ي أ ن هي ن � � ا� ا ���ي ن � � ن � ن � ا �ي هي � ن � ح�مم� ي � � ه او ه مم �ح�م�ل ل�م�ل � ��و� �و� � �لمك �م� ي� ���ره م� ح��س� ا ���� كن�� ل��ا ��ا �م���ا �ل� � �م� ا �ل�� ��ور أا �ل� ا ن � أ � أ ا � ّ �ن � ا ا � �أ ح ا ا �ش ن ���د ا �يم�ل�م� �لم� ا �يم�ّ �م ن ا �� �لي�م�ل�م� �و��ل���� ا �ل� ا �مش�� �ل�ه � �� ن��ه ا � � ل � � � � � س � � � ح � � � ل أ � ي ي و �أاو �م� ����� .و م�م�ل ن ن ر ي ل نل ل � ُ ل ي � أ � � �أ � � � ّ ا نُ� ن � ن � ن � او ��لن �ّو�� �ن�ا ���و�ع�د � او ���و�عي��د � او �ن��د ر ا �����د ا ن� ا �ل� �ي�� . � ه� �و�ل� أا �ي� ه � � � ي م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ن ن ا ��ل�� ا � ن �ن � � ا ا� ن ��نل ح�ن�م� ي��سم�ا ������ير��ه �م ن ا ��ل ا�م � ح� ��ص� ن� ٢ا ح ��ي ���� � ن �� ن� �عم�ل�� ا�م�ن��ر � �ون��ي� س�م� �����ي� �و ل�ي� �ي ��و�م � ل ي ي � �سر نن أ �ن ح ل�ن �ش�� ء ي � ا ��لي�يس�عي�� � ا ��نل � ح ن ن ي أ أي � �����ه � او �ي�ليع ن��ه �و�و�ش��ي ن� � � �د � ح � م � � ���س�ه � �و �ل��ا ��ه؟ ا � ار ه �م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� � � � ل � و ع ون ي ي أ ي ّ � � ن ي ش � يّ ن ّ ن ن ��س�ه �ل��س�ا ��ه �وي�م���ي�ر �ن�ا �ل�ه �يو��مم�ل�ك �عم�لي��ه ا �سره. ي���س����م��رح�� �يل��م�ل � �ع��ه �و�ي���� ي
١،١٤٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ا �� ن�� �� ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ ا �نل ن � ن ��� ��ه ر� ح��هي �م ن ا ن��ل ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� �س ار �� ا �لن ������ �ن� ل� � أ� � ح��ا ي� �� و ��ر أا ل�� ن� � � � ي � �ي ن ي ��ي ّ �ن �ن ن � ا ن �� � ن � ن� �ن � ا ي � � ن � � � � � �ي اأ � اأ ن � ل � ي ل ل ل ا � � � � � � � � ا � ح�� � ول�د �لمك �ل� يل��د ر ��د � ن �م ن�ي� ل� � ي��ع�و�ه �ع� ا �� �ر �ي� �سر� �ي� �ع�ي ر��� م� ن � ع آ أ أ أ أ ّ ن ّي ش ّي � � �ي �ن ا � �د �م ن �ي � � ا � ن�ل � ّ � ا ن � اأ �� هي �ع ن�د� ّ هي � ا ن � � س � ه ه � � � � � ا � �م� �م � � م � ي ل � �� �د � � س � � � � � � � ل � � � � � � ن ير ر ي و ي و ر م��س� ل� � ي ��س� و ر وي و ري ن ل � ّ � ن � � ن �� ّ ا � ن ًا � ن ا � ن � ا ن ا ن � � اأ ن� � ّ ل�ن ا � ا � ي ن ي �� � � ���ل �و � ���ده �و�م ن� �ي����ا ��ط�� � �لم�ك �أ�ا ��م�ا �ي�ل� ��ل ��د ن�رء م� �رم� � �أو � ر�و ي� �ي� �� ل �و ع أ ن أ نّ ة �� �ة� ا �. 1الا�ص�ل :ولاد ��� ٢ .ط�� :س�ن� ن
204
204
٢،١٤٤
On why preachers are affected by stage fright when addressing large audiences
from childhood. For what they find most onerous is their parents’ denial of their wishes and admonitions to do things that are difficult yet beneficial. When they grow to adulthood, the people they find most oppressive are their physicians and healers, those who dispense counsel to them in deliberative matters, and those who rule over them and impose upon them what benefits them and serves their welfare. This is the condition of most people, who are governed by their appetites and follow their blind desires. Yet one may also encounter among them people of outstanding natural disposition, sound judgment, and firm resolve, who only do what is finest and suppress their blind desires, enduring the toilsome burden of doing so on account of the excellent and meritorious outcome they anticipate. Such people are few and far between, indeed a rare exception; commands and prohibitions are not addressed to people such as these—they have no need of being galvanized by promises and threats, or warnings of painful retribution in the life to come.
On why preachers are affected by stage fright when addressing large audiences Why are preachers overcome by inarticulacy, stuttering, and embarrassment
144.1
when they stand in the pulpit among large numbers of people on days of assembly, even though they have memorized and mastered what they want to say and are confident of its excellent quality? What is it that they experience, one wonders, that makes their minds stray from the track, makes their tongues defy their orders, plunges their thoughts into confusion, and takes complete possession of them? Miskawayh’s response When the soul applies thought in one particular direction, its application in other directions is hindered. This is why no one is able to think simultaneously about a question of geometry and a question of grammar or poetry. In fact, we are incapable of attending at the same time to a mundane and otherworldly matter. People who do so apportion a separate segment of time, however small, to each matter, but there is no way for the time occupied by the one and by the other to coincide exactly. This happens to us because we human beings are enmeshed with matter, and because the soul employs material
205
205
144.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ن ا ن ن ن � نّ ا ن � ن ا ن ي ّ ن اأ ّ ا أ ن � ن ن ا ن ا ش �نا �م�ل �� �م� ا � �ي���و� ر�م� ��ه � 1ه�و ن���ي��س�ه ر�م� � ���د ا ��ل� �أاو ��م� �عر��� �ل�� ���د ا �م��� ��سر ا �ل�� ��� � �أ �ي ا ن ا ا � � � ي � ���ّ ن ��س�ه�م�ا ��ل ا ��لن��ن��� ��لم�ل�م�ا �ّ هي � ا ��ل��آ��ل�هي � ا ��ل��أ�س ل��ن ن� ��لم�ك � ا ن�م � � � ل ا � � � � ا ل ل � � � م � �� ��س س � � � � ن � و و و و � � ن يو �ل� ل ن ج ن ي� � ري ّ ً � � � � � � ن ن ن � ي ن نا ن � � �� � ا �ل � �سر�وره � .و�ام�ا ك� ���ا � ا � ن�ل� � �سر��ا أا �ل�� �م�ا ي�لن�� ح��م�ل �من�� �م ش��س�ا ���د �ن�ا �لن� ��ر ي و �سر�� أا �لي��ه ا �ل�� ��� �م� م ن �� ا � أ ن �ن ��ل �ن ن � يي � ن � ن ن � ي � � ن ن ين �ّو�ن� ���د ه ا ل �� �ل � او ��د ا � ط او ا �ش��سن��م�ل ا �لأ����س�ا � ن�م��� ح�� �� � ع� ن� أا � �و ن��د � او � �و �ل����ي ر أا � ��د ر �ي أ ي � ً � � � � ن ن � ن �ا ن � ن �ن ن � � أ ي ا � ن � �ن ا �� ا � ي ن ح��ّ � ��لم�ك ٢ا�ا � � نه ن � م��ا ن� �و���د ا ا �ل�� ن� �� �ل� ار ن� م� ا �لأ������ م�� ��� � ���د ا �عم � �لآ�� ع� ا �ل����� ل ��ي� � � � � � ي ن � ي يّ ي حي�م�ل�ن��هي �عم ن��� �ن ن ����ا � ا �ع ن ���ا ي ��من ���د ش� ن�ك���ا � � �ه�وا ��ل�� ند �ي� ي ن� � � ���م�ل ا �ل� �ل�� �م� � ل ع ك � � � � ل ر ي� ي ر � م ي� �ل��� �نر�ه ح�� � ن � أ نّ ي ���س�ه � �آ� هي ن ن �� ي�ل ه ن �� آ �� ي ه � � �م � ي ا ��لي�يس�عي�� � �م�ا اأ �ش �ل��رن� ن���� ا � ������ه �و� �لم�ك ا � �م �مم�ل ا �ل� �ل� أا � ا ا � ��ا �ل�ه. �ل�� ار ن� ا ل�� �ل� و ن ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا � ح ا �� ن ا ن ��� ا �� ه � ا ا �� ا �ي�ن � ه ن ا ّ هي ا ن ا � ن �ن ن� ��� أ � ٣ك ح�� ء ��و �� �عملي�� �� � ���ا � �م ن��ه ن���سن�� ن� ��ص� ن� ل�ي� ن�م�ل ل�� �ر أ لي�� �و ي �و���� ا �ل� ن ي ن � � ن� ن� ّ ا ن ي � � �ن ����ا أا �ل�� ��ا �ل ن��ا �م���ه �و�م�د �� ن� �م ش��س��رك �و�م�ا ا � �ل��ا ��م�ل� ٤م ن� ا�امن� �� � �� �ور ن طور �و س�م�ه�م� ��� ن � ي�ّ ّ � � �نا ن� ا � حيّ ��ن� ن �� �ن ه � � �ل��� ا ��ل� ا ��ل��س�ا �م� � ن � � � � � ح��ا �ل�ه �وي���س�د � � � � ي أا �لي��ه أا �ل�� ا �ل�� ���ر؟ �و�م� ا ��� او ��م�ل� ٥م� ام� �م أ � ي� ر ي ع � نّ ا � اأ ي ا� اأ � ي ا � ش ي � �أ نّ ن أن ���د ا �ش���� ء ي��د �ش�س�ا ���د �ي�ه ن�لم� ي��د �ُ �ن��� ي� أا ��لي��ه � .او ��م� ا �لي�� �م� ا�م��س� �ل�ه �� �ل ا � �ن�ه ؟ ��ا � ��ه �ل�� ل ن ي أ ��لي�� ّ ي ّ � � �أ �� ن ا � ��ل ا � � �� ي � ن � أ ن ُي ن ا نه � � � ا ا ا ا ل � � � ح ن� � � � � �� ل ل �� س � س � � � � �م��ن� � او �ل����ل ��� ار �� �ش�ن�� ي� أا �ل�� ا � �و� ��� �عم�ل�� ن ن� ن ن� و �ل ر ن� ن ا ��� �ّهي ش ي �� � ش ا �ن �� ن � ا ن �ي �� � �� � ���� ا�ا�م� ي �ش � � ��ا ن �م���ا ن� �م ن ��من� ��� ل � � � � � � ا � �ه�ور ��مل� �ي���ن�� ا �ل ء � ��م � �و�ع ن��د ن �� � � � � � � ل ل � � ح� � ��س � � � ن ي و و � و � ن � ن � � � ا أ ن ا� � ّ ي م ن � ّي ع � ي � ع ��ّ ي � �أن ن � ن�ّ ي �ن ���د ه ا ��ل حن�ي��أ��ا ي� ا�امم�ل� �وي�ه �ع ن� ا ���ع� �عو�ل ا � نرك��ي��ه � او �ل�� ���ا � ا �ل��د ك��ي��ه. �ل�ه ���د ه ا �لمل���� � �ل� ا�م��ط� �وي�ه �و
١،١٤٥
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ �ن �� ح ّٰ ن ن أ ن �ن� ن�� � ح ن � �ا ء � ا ��نل � ��ًا ن� �ح�مم� ًل�� �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ل � � ه � � � � ل ا � � ا ا ا � ع م��س� ه ل �� � �� �د �� � � � � � س � � � م لل م ح� � � � ه � و � ن ن � و ي ن ي ي ل ر ر ن ن ي ي� و �� ي ن � ا ن ا نّ ن� ن ي � نّ ي �� ن� نًا ن �ي م ن ا ن ��ا ن ن � ن � ي � ا ا ن م ل � ل ل ل � � � � � � � �� �� ا �ل ������� ٦ ح�� ء أ� � ح�� ء �ه�و ا ح��� ر ي � �و � �م� ن ي � أ� � ا ك�� � ���د ا �ه�و ا ي ك �� �عو�ل أا � ا ي ّ ج � � � � � ّ ن ���ّ � �أن هّ ي ن �م ا �لم��ل ي� ن �ي ن ن �� ���ا � ��� ٧س��� �م ن ا�مي� � ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� أا � ا ك� �ي� ا�م� �ل� �ل��� �� � �ل���س�ه �م ن� ا �����ا ر��� �ر��ي ن� �م� ي � �ل�� �ل� ن � ن ن م م
أ أ أ ن ن ن ة ة ن ن �� أا د ا ٤ .الا�ص�ل :و� �ا ا �ل��ن�ه�ا ن�ص�ل و� �ا ا �ل��ن�ه�ا ن�ص�ل. 1الا�ص�ل� :ه�د ا نر� �ا � �هو؛ ط :نر� �ا ن��� �ه�د ا ٢ .ط� :ه�د ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :و��ل أ أ أ ن ن ن كا ن� ة ��. ٥الا�ص�ل :و� �ا ا �لو�ص�ل ٦ .الا�ص�ل وط :ا �ل ن���ا ��س ٧ .الا�ص�ل�� :أا � ا �ل ن�� ن�ه��س أا د ا �
206
206
٢،١٤٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ن ا ن ن ن � نّ ا ن � ن ا ن ي ّ ن اأ ّ ا أ ن � ن ن ا ن ا ش �نا �م�ل �� �م� ا � �ي���و� ر�م� ��ه � 1ه�و ن���ي��س�ه ر�م� � ���د ا ��ل� �أاو ��م� �عر��� �ل�� ���د ا �م��� ��سر ا �ل�� ��� � �أ �ي ا ن ا ا � � � ي � ���ّ ن ��س�ه�م�ا ��ل ا ��لن��ن��� ��لم�ل�م�ا �ّ هي � ا ��ل��آ��ل�هي � ا ��ل��أ�س ل��ن ن� ��لم�ك � ا ن�م � � � ل ا � � � � ا ل ل � � � م � �� ��س س � � � � ن � و و و و � � ن يو �ل� ل ن ج ن ي� � ري ّ ً � � � � � � ن ن ن � ي ن نا ن � � �� � ا �ل � �سر�وره � .و�ام�ا ك� ���ا � ا � ن�ل� � �سر��ا أا �ل�� �م�ا ي�لن�� ح��م�ل �من�� �م ش��س�ا ���د �ن�ا �لن� ��ر ي و �سر�� أا �لي��ه ا �ل�� ��� �م� م ن �� ا � أ ن �ن ��ل �ن ن � يي � ن � ن ن � ي � � ن ن ين �ّو�ن� ���د ه ا ل �� �ل � او ��د ا � ط او ا �ش��سن��م�ل ا �لأ����س�ا � ن�م��� ح�� �� � ع� ن� أا � �و ن��د � او � �و �ل����ي ر أا � ��د ر �ي أ ي � ً � � � � ن ن � ن �ا ن � ن �ن ن � � أ ي ا � ن � �ن ا �� ا � ي ن ح��ّ � ��لم�ك ٢ا�ا � � نه ن � م��ا ن� �و���د ا ا �ل�� ن� �� �ل� ار ن� م� ا �لأ������ م�� ��� � ���د ا �عم � �لآ�� ع� ا �ل����� ل ��ي� � � � � � ي ن � ي يّ ي حي�م�ل�ن��هي �عم ن��� �ن ن ����ا � ا �ع ن ���ا ي ��من ���د ش� ن�ك���ا � � �ه�وا ��ل�� ند �ي� ي ن� � � ���م�ل ا �ل� �ل�� �م� � ل ع ك � � � � ل ر ي� ي ر � م ي� �ل��� �نر�ه ح�� � ن � أ نّ ي ���س�ه � �آ� هي ن ن �� ي�ل ه ن �� آ �� ي ه � � �م � ي ا ��لي�يس�عي�� � �م�ا اأ �ش �ل��رن� ن���� ا � ������ه �و� �لم�ك ا � �م �مم�ل ا �ل� �ل� أا � ا ا � ��ا �ل�ه. �ل�� ار ن� ا ل�� �ل� و ن ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا � ح ا �� ن ا ن ��� ا �� ه � ا ا �� ا �ي�ن � ه ن ا ّ هي ا ن ا � ن �ن ن� ��� أ � ٣ك ح�� ء ��و �� �عملي�� �� � ���ا � �م ن��ه ن���سن�� ن� ��ص� ن� ل�ي� ن�م�ل ل�� �ر أ لي�� �و ي �و���� ا �ل� ن ي ن � � ن� ن� ّ ا ن ي � � �ن ����ا أا �ل�� ��ا �ل ن��ا �م���ه �و�م�د �� ن� �م ش��س��رك �و�م�ا ا � �ل��ا ��م�ل� ٤م ن� ا�امن� �� � �� �ور ن طور �و س�م�ه�م� ��� ن � ي�ّ ّ � � �نا ن� ا � حيّ ��ن� ن �� �ن ه � � �ل��� ا ��ل� ا ��ل��س�ا �م� � ن � � � � � ح��ا �ل�ه �وي���س�د � � � � ي أا �لي��ه أا �ل�� ا �ل�� ���ر؟ �و�م� ا ��� او ��م�ل� ٥م� ام� �م أ � ي� ر ي ع � نّ ا � اأ ي ا� اأ � ي ا � ش ي � �أ نّ ن أن ���د ا �ش���� ء ي��د �ش�س�ا ���د �ي�ه ن�لم� ي��د �ُ �ن��� ي� أا ��لي��ه � .او ��م� ا �لي�� �م� ا�م��س� �ل�ه �� �ل ا � �ن�ه ؟ ��ا � ��ه �ل�� ل ن ي أ ��لي�� ّ ي ّ � � �أ �� ن ا � ��ل ا � � �� ي � ن � أ ن ُي ن ا نه � � � ا ا ا ا ل � � � ح ن� � � � � �� ل ل �� س � س � � � � �م��ن� � او �ل����ل ��� ار �� �ش�ن�� ي� أا �ل�� ا � �و� ��� �عم�ل�� ن ن� ن ن� و �ل ر ن� ن ا ��� �ّهي ش ي �� � ش ا �ن �� ن � ا ن �ي �� � �� � ���� ا�ا�م� ي �ش � � ��ا ن �م���ا ن� �م ن ��من� ��� ل � � � � � � ا � �ه�ور ��مل� �ي���ن�� ا �ل ء � ��م � �و�ع ن��د ن �� � � � � � � ل ل � � ح� � ��س � � � ن ي و و � و � ن � ن � � � ا أ ن ا� � ّ ي م ن � ّي ع � ي � ع ��ّ ي � �أن ن � ن�ّ ي �ن ���د ه ا ��ل حن�ي��أ��ا ي� ا�امم�ل� �وي�ه �ع ن� ا ���ع� �عو�ل ا � نرك��ي��ه � او �ل�� ���ا � ا �ل��د ك��ي��ه. �ل�ه ���د ه ا �لمل���� � �ل� ا�م��ط� �وي�ه �و
١،١٤٥
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ �ن �� ح ّٰ ن ن أ ن �ن� ن�� � ح ن � �ا ء � ا ��نل � ��ًا ن� �ح�مم� ًل�� �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ل � � ه � � � � ل ا � � ا ا ا � ع م��س� ه ل �� � �� �د �� � � � � � س � � � م لل م ح� � � � ه � و � ن ن � و ي ن ي ي ل ر ر ن ن ي ي� و �� ي ن � ا ن ا نّ ن� ن ي � نّ ي �� ن� نًا ن �ي م ن ا ن ��ا ن ن � ن � ي � ا ا ن م ل � ل ل ل � � � � � � � �� �� ا �ل ������� ٦ ح�� ء أ� � ح�� ء �ه�و ا ح��� ر ي � �و � �م� ن ي � أ� � ا ك�� � ���د ا �ه�و ا ي ك �� �عو�ل أا � ا ي ّ ج � � � � � ّ ن ���ّ � �أن هّ ي ن �م ا �لم��ل ي� ن �ي ن ن �� ���ا � ��� ٧س��� �م ن ا�مي� � ا �لأ���ن��س�ا ن� أا � ا ك� �ي� ا�م� �ل� �ل��� �� � �ل���س�ه �م ن� ا �����ا ر��� �ر��ي ن� �م� ي � �ل�� �ل� ن � ن ن م م
أ أ أ ن ن ن ة ة ن ن �� أا د ا ٤ .الا�ص�ل :و� �ا ا �ل��ن�ه�ا ن�ص�ل و� �ا ا �ل��ن�ه�ا ن�ص�ل. 1الا�ص�ل� :ه�د ا نر� �ا � �هو؛ ط :نر� �ا ن��� �ه�د ا ٢ .ط� :ه�د ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :و��ل أ أ أ ن ن ن كا ن� ة ��. ٥الا�ص�ل :و� �ا ا �لو�ص�ل ٦ .الا�ص�ل وط :ا �ل ن���ا ��س ٧ .الا�ص�ل�� :أا � ا �ل ن�� ن�ه��س أا د ا �
206
206
٢،١٤٥
On the anxiety that affects onlookers when they see preachers affected by stage fright
substance and instruments. This is clear and plain and immediately evident to all. On days of congregation, our thoughts become absorbed by the things that absorb people’s attention—the faults they might find or the deficiencies they might be mindful of—so we consume ourselves with fearful anticipations of the prospect and with the need to guard against it; and this impedes the acts proper to the occasion. This disorder within the soul is what brings its instruments into disorder, producing in them a variety of disjointed movements, such as stuttering and the like. For when the user of an instrument is in disarray, his instrument inevitably follows suit.
On the anxiety that affects onlookers when they see preachers affected by stage fright Why does someone who looks at and attends to someone else feel embar-
145.1
rassed and ashamed, particularly if there is a relation between them, if they are joined by a bond of kinship or are united by a common characteristic or shared doctrine? What is it that separates the one who is looking from the one who is being looked at? And what is it that connects the speaker to the listener and makes him shut his eyes and seal his ears as he faces him? This is something I have seen with my own eyes—indeed, something I have been driven to myself. This second question annexes itself to the first because wonder takes hold of us and curiosity stands firm until such time as the underlying cause and the prevailing facts have been brought to light. When the cause becomes evident, the ruling is established, and once the veil is cast aside, the ardor of those who try to peer through it abates. Praise be to God, who controls those wellguarded subtleties and secrets withheld from pure intellects and sharp minds. Miskawayh’s response It is necessary to rehearse here in summary form our account of the causes of shame and embarrassment. Shame is a contraction that affects the soul as a result of a fear of doing wrong. Since this is what shame is, the soul of a person, when he is related to the speaker, is beset by a disturbance similar to the one that besets the speaker because he fears he will do something wrong or say something he will be criticized for, just as the speaker is afraid. We had
207
207
145.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ي�ّ ي ّ أ أ أ ن ي أ ي �ن ش �� �� � �ُ���ا �عم�ل��ه �مش�م � �ا ن � ح ش��س�ا ه ا�م� �� ��ا ا � �م�ا �ن�ا � �م� � �م ن��ه ا �و ��ل م ي � ن� ي �ل م ي �ل��م� .و��د ل ن�� و يح����� �م� �و���وع ا �سر �ن ي � أ نّ � ج ي نّ ا يي� ّش ا � ّ � � � ن � � ا ن � أ �ن�سم�ا ���ده � او ��م� �ل�����ر �ن� �ام� او � �و���و�ل� � �لم�ك �ام� ك� ���ا � �ل��� ���ي� أا �ل�� ا � 1ا �لن��ن���� � او � � ���د ��سن��ي�مل� � ي ن أ أ �ن ا ي � �أ نّ ن ن � ن ن ن ي ن � � � ن ن � ن ن ن ن � ن ا ا ���ا �م �وي��سم�ا �س ّر �م ن� � �لم�ك ي��سم�ا �م���� ��ل�� �ي�ه �ل�� أا �ل�� ا � ي�ل ���م�ل �م� ل��ي� � �ل���س�ه أا �ل�� � �ل���� �ع�ي�ره �ن� �لأ� � � أ ُ � ���ا �ه اأ ن � نل ����ه اأ نّ ا �� �لي��م� ا ��ل�� ند � �ن ي ّ ن نر��د ����هّ �ع�سًا ا �ل ن� ًا ن �م�ا ي� ي � أا �لي��ه ��� ن �و � ي � ر � ن ي� ي� ي ح��اجن ح���� � �ي ي م ر ي ��� �م� ج ن ً أ ن ن � ن ن ن� ّ ّ ا � ح��هي � او ن� ك� ���ا ن� �ع�سر�و �عر�لن��ا �م ن� ر�ي��د �ن ك ��؟ ��ي ��� أا � ا س�م�ه �أاو �ي� ه ��سن�� ن� ا �و ��� ن ن� أ ي آ أ ن ا� ن ن � � � يا أ ن ن ن ط ا ��ل� ا ��ل ن��ا ن ���� �ش��� ء ��ل��أ نّ� ا �ن����ا ��ل ا ��لن ��ن��� � ا �ش�ا ���ا �و�لي����� يح�� ن �و ر ر ي� � ا � ي�ل �����م�ل �م� ا�م� �� �ور أ � ج ي ش ا ��ّ ن � � ي� ن ح ّ ّ هي � ا ن��ل � ���د �م ن ح��س�م ّ��هي ��ل�� � ���د ه ا ��ل���� � �لي��هي ا ��ل �س�سّم�ا � او ��س����م��� ر �� � ا � � � س ��� � ي و و ل ي �ل� ����و� �عم�ل� ي � ر � ي � ي�ّ � �أ ّ ن � �ن ي ن� ّ �ن ا �� �ي م �� �ل��� � ا ��ل��س�ا �م� ا ��س��ي ش��م���ا ���ند ر �م ن ا �� ن ��لم� � او ��نل ل � � ل ل � ا ح ����ا �نأ�ا ن� ���د ا ا � د � � �� � � � � � � ني و ا�م� �م و ر و ي� و � رل ع � أ نّ � ي�ّ ج � �ا ء � ا �نل � �كم� ي�م�ل ن��ا �و�م��ي ن�عم�ل� �عم�ل ن ���� نّ ا ��ل��س�ا �م� ا � ا�م� � ا ��ل����س��ي ش��م���ا ر ي���� ن��� �م ن��ه ا ��ل ح م ح� � �ل��� � � و ن ي � ل � ر ن � � ّم � ع ن ي ًأ � ً ن � � � ن ن ن ن ح�ي ن ي ش ن ا ا ا ا ا ن � � ن � � � �و��ه �و� ي�����ي�ء �و�ي �ير�ن� ���ا ر �� ��� �ن� �لي �����ي� ��� ��� ��د ره �ي�ل�ي�س� ا �و ��سن��ي� �م ا ����� ر��� �ل�ه �م� ا ل ي ح�� ء � نع � � ي�ّ أ �� ي ا� ن � �ل��� ا ن� ا �ا� �لش��ي ن�لن��ن���س�ه ا � �ا� ي �ن ��ند ��لم�ك ��ا �ل ا�م� � ��ر ي� �م ن ا ��ل �يلم��ل �� �ل��� �ر�هي �و��� حر���ه ا� � � م � � � � ح�ي��ه �م�ا � ي و أ � م � م � ن م �� ��� ن�ك ه �ن ا نّ � �ند � ش ي ّ � ا ء ��ش � ن � ا ي � � ي ا � ي ن �ن ن � � ا� ي ا �� ح�� ه �ي��� ر � نو ري� �ه �ل�ه �عم �ه �ن� ���و���و�� ل�ي� � �لمك ا�م��� �م � او � ��لم ي�� أ� � �� ره يي���س�د �و ي ّ ��ل ا ن � � ن � �ي � � ��ه ا ��لن ��ن��� �ع ن��د �ي�� �ن �ي��ّ �يل��ا � � � � ن � ���س م�نس� ا � �لي��د ر �م ن� ا �� � �ل��� ار ن� �و� ح�� ء �ير� ا � ا �ل�� ور و � ا �ي ���ل��م ا �ل�د ي� �م ن � ي �ن أ ع ج � ا ن� ح�سيم�ا �ن�ا ��ل���ا �و��س���و� ن��ا �ش�����ا �و���د �وء �رك� ���ا �يل���ا. و ع
٣،١٤٥
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا �ّهي ���د�� ش �عم ا�ا�م ي ���د��ي ش� ا�ا�م���ا �؟ �و�م�ا ��س��� �ش�لي�م� أا �عم� �هي ا ��ل ��را �عي��هي ا ��لن��ن��� ا ��ل � � � � ���� ���مل� ���س���ا �؟ � � ل ي ن ن ل � �� ّ أ ن ��ا ��ل ا ��لش��ا ن�ل��هي ا ��ل�� �م�ا ن�ك��ه ل��ن ا ��ل ا � ي � � � ن ا ن ��ا ن ن ا ي ن �و��ل���� ن�كي��ه ل��ن� ا ��ل �ه�م�ا ل��م�ا �ه�و؟ �� �ل�ه ا �ل��و�ل�� �أ� � ك�� � �� ر�� ن��ي�� � ي أ ي ي� ي ي�
١،١٤٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ا� ي � ن ي � �أ ي ا �� اأ� ّ � ح ه ا ّٰ ه ا نّ ا ��لن �ن �ياأ ن �ند �م ن ا � �أ ن � � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� لل أ � ����� � �� � �ل� حن��ا ر ا�م���ل ���ر��ه � او �ل���ا ���ي ش� �� ل ن ��و �عم�ل� ي أ أ ً � � ن �ي ي ه ا � ّ � ن �ن ا ���ن�� �ل��هي �ع ن��د���ا �ش�س�����ا ن��م�ا ��ا ن���ند ه ا ن��ل ح���� م� ا �� او �� �و�م� ح� ��م�لي��ه ا �لن������ �م ن� ا�ام���ا ر�� ن ي� يرن ي م أ أن 1الا�ص�ل�� :س���� ةن� ا �.
208
208
٢،١٤٦
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ي�ّ ي ّ أ أ أ ن ي أ ي �ن ش �� �� � �ُ���ا �عم�ل��ه �مش�م � �ا ن � ح ش��س�ا ه ا�م� �� ��ا ا � �م�ا �ن�ا � �م� � �م ن��ه ا �و ��ل م ي � ن� ي �ل م ي �ل��م� .و��د ل ن�� و يح����� �م� �و���وع ا �سر �ن ي � أ نّ � ج ي نّ ا يي� ّش ا � ّ � � � ن � � ا ن � أ �ن�سم�ا ���ده � او ��م� �ل�����ر �ن� �ام� او � �و���و�ل� � �لم�ك �ام� ك� ���ا � �ل��� ���ي� أا �ل�� ا � 1ا �لن��ن���� � او � � ���د ��سن��ي�مل� � ي ن أ أ �ن ا ي � �أ نّ ن ن � ن ن ن ي ن � � � ن ن � ن ن ن ن � ن ا ا ���ا �م �وي��سم�ا �س ّر �م ن� � �لم�ك ي��سم�ا �م���� ��ل�� �ي�ه �ل�� أا �ل�� ا � ي�ل ���م�ل �م� ل��ي� � �ل���س�ه أا �ل�� � �ل���� �ع�ي�ره �ن� �لأ� � � أ ُ � ���ا �ه اأ ن � نل ����ه اأ نّ ا �� �لي��م� ا ��ل�� ند � �ن ي ّ ن نر��د ����هّ �ع�سًا ا �ل ن� ًا ن �م�ا ي� ي � أا �لي��ه ��� ن �و � ي � ر � ن ي� ي� ي ح��اجن ح���� � �ي ي م ر ي ��� �م� ج ن ً أ ن ن � ن ن ن� ّ ّ ا � ح��هي � او ن� ك� ���ا ن� �ع�سر�و �عر�لن��ا �م ن� ر�ي��د �ن ك ��؟ ��ي ��� أا � ا س�م�ه �أاو �ي� ه ��سن�� ن� ا �و ��� ن ن� أ ي آ أ ن ا� ن ن � � � يا أ ن ن ن ط ا ��ل� ا ��ل ن��ا ن ���� �ش��� ء ��ل��أ نّ� ا �ن����ا ��ل ا ��لن ��ن��� � ا �ش�ا ���ا �و�لي����� يح�� ن �و ر ر ي� � ا � ي�ل �����م�ل �م� ا�م� �� �ور أ � ج ي ش ا ��ّ ن � � ي� ن ح ّ ّ هي � ا ن��ل � ���د �م ن ح��س�م ّ��هي ��ل�� � ���د ه ا ��ل���� � �لي��هي ا ��ل �س�سّم�ا � او ��س����م��� ر �� � ا � � � س ��� � ي و و ل ي �ل� ����و� �عم�ل� ي � ر � ي � ي�ّ � �أ ّ ن � �ن ي ن� ّ �ن ا �� �ي م �� �ل��� � ا ��ل��س�ا �م� ا ��س��ي ش��م���ا ���ند ر �م ن ا �� ن ��لم� � او ��نل ل � � ل ل � ا ح ����ا �نأ�ا ن� ���د ا ا � د � � �� � � � � � � ني و ا�م� �م و ر و ي� و � رل ع � أ نّ � ي�ّ ج � �ا ء � ا �نل � �كم� ي�م�ل ن��ا �و�م��ي ن�عم�ل� �عم�ل ن ���� نّ ا ��ل��س�ا �م� ا � ا�م� � ا ��ل����س��ي ش��م���ا ر ي���� ن��� �م ن��ه ا ��ل ح م ح� � �ل��� � � و ن ي � ل � ر ن � � ّم � ع ن ي ًأ � ً ن � � � ن ن ن ن ح�ي ن ي ش ن ا ا ا ا ا ن � � ن � � � �و��ه �و� ي�����ي�ء �و�ي �ير�ن� ���ا ر �� ��� �ن� �لي �����ي� ��� ��� ��د ره �ي�ل�ي�س� ا �و ��سن��ي� �م ا ����� ر��� �ل�ه �م� ا ل ي ح�� ء � نع � � ي�ّ أ �� ي ا� ن � �ل��� ا ن� ا �ا� �لش��ي ن�لن��ن���س�ه ا � �ا� ي �ن ��ند ��لم�ك ��ا �ل ا�م� � ��ر ي� �م ن ا ��ل �يلم��ل �� �ل��� �ر�هي �و��� حر���ه ا� � � م � � � � ح�ي��ه �م�ا � ي و أ � م � م � ن م �� ��� ن�ك ه �ن ا نّ � �ند � ش ي ّ � ا ء ��ش � ن � ا ي � � ي ا � ي ن �ن ن � � ا� ي ا �� ح�� ه �ي��� ر � نو ري� �ه �ل�ه �عم �ه �ن� ���و���و�� ل�ي� � �لمك ا�م��� �م � او � ��لم ي�� أ� � �� ره يي���س�د �و ي ّ ��ل ا ن � � ن � �ي � � ��ه ا ��لن ��ن��� �ع ن��د �ي�� �ن �ي��ّ �يل��ا � � � � ن � ���س م�نس� ا � �لي��د ر �م ن� ا �� � �ل��� ار ن� �و� ح�� ء �ير� ا � ا �ل�� ور و � ا �ي ���ل��م ا �ل�د ي� �م ن � ي �ن أ ع ج � ا ن� ح�سيم�ا �ن�ا ��ل���ا �و��س���و� ن��ا �ش�����ا �و���د �وء �رك� ���ا �يل���ا. و ع
٣،١٤٥
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ا �ّهي ���د�� ش �عم ا�ا�م ي ���د��ي ش� ا�ا�م���ا �؟ �و�م�ا ��س��� �ش�لي�م� أا �عم� �هي ا ��ل ��را �عي��هي ا ��لن��ن��� ا ��ل � � � � ���� ���مل� ���س���ا �؟ � � ل ي ن ن ل � �� ّ أ ن ��ا ��ل ا ��لش��ا ن�ل��هي ا ��ل�� �م�ا ن�ك��ه ل��ن ا ��ل ا � ي � � � ن ا ن ��ا ن ن ا ي ن �و��ل���� ن�كي��ه ل��ن� ا ��ل �ه�م�ا ل��م�ا �ه�و؟ �� �ل�ه ا �ل��و�ل�� �أ� � ك�� � �� ر�� ن��ي�� � ي أ ي ي� ي ي�
١،١٤٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ا� ي � ن ي � �أ ي ا �� اأ� ّ � ح ه ا ّٰ ه ا نّ ا ��لن �ن �ياأ ن �ند �م ن ا � �أ ن � � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� لل أ � ����� � �� � �ل� حن��ا ر ا�م���ل ���ر��ه � او �ل���ا ���ي ش� �� ل ن ��و �عم�ل� ي أ أ ً � � ن �ي ي ه ا � ّ � ن �ن ا ���ن�� �ل��هي �ع ن��د���ا �ش�س�����ا ن��م�ا ��ا ن���ند ه ا ن��ل ح���� م� ا �� او �� �و�م� ح� ��م�لي��ه ا �لن������ �م ن� ا�ام���ا ر�� ن ي� يرن ي م أ أن 1الا�ص�ل�� :س���� ةن� ا �.
208
208
٢،١٤٦
On why we hate hearing the same thing twice
occasion to point out earlier that the soul is one, and multiplicity only enters it through the multiplicity of material substrates.44 Otherwise, it would be impossible for anyone to convey what is in his soul to the soul of another and make himself understood. What has already been said about this topic suffices for the purpose, for what is required at this juncture is to bring out that what Zayd does badly also concerns ʿAmr from another perspective, even if ʿAmr is a stranger. How much more so when the two are united by some relation or a bond of kinship? It is not necessary for something to separate the one looking from the one
145.3
being looked at, for the acts and effects of the soul are not of this sensible, bodily order, especially given that both the speaker and the listener are experiencing one and the same thing—a fear of doing wrong, and an apprehensiveness about slipping up and making mistakes. For this is the state of mind, as we said, from which shame and embarrassment stem. When the listener is convinced that the speaker will perform badly and miss the mark, his fear and apprehension turn into certainty or into something not far removed from that, so the shame that affects him intensifies and he succumbs to the disordered kind of movements you spoke of. The same thing happens to the speaker if he lacks self-confidence or if he isn’t used to standing up and speaking in such a context. His apprehension mounts and his shame increases, and with the increase of shame comes an increase of disorder, and it becomes impossible to speak as freely as the soul permits when its power is full, it is in a state of composure and equanimity, and its movements are calm.
On why we hate hearing the same thing twice Why do we hate hearing the same thing twice? Why does the person who hears
146.1
the same thing twice find it oppressive, even though the second time is no different from the first? If there is a difference between the two, then what is it? Miskawayh’s response From uncommon reports and unfamiliar discourses the soul derives a nourishment similar to that which the body derives from its aliments. To offer to the soul for a second time information and knowledge it has already assimilated is like offering to the body for a second time food it has already eaten its fill
209
209
146.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن أ ي نن � او �����م�ل� � ن��ا �عم� � �ي�ه �عم�ل���ا ن��م�ن� نر��ل�هي ا ���ن�� ن�د ا ء �م ن ا ن��ل ح���� ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ا ك� � �� ل���ن� �م ن��ه ن�أ�ا � ا ا �عي��د �عم�لي��ه �ع�د ا ء ي� وم أ � �م �أ ن ن أ ن ي أ ن �ن ن ن � � ي ي ن � ن ش � ن ن �ه�و ا �ل�� �ّو��ل � �ل�م�ل �عم�لي��ه � او ���س� ل��ع �م ن��ه � � ���د �لم�ك ��ا �ل ا �لن������ ل��ي� ا�ام���ا ر��� � .وي���ن���ه� ا � � ��و��د ي ن � �أ ش ي � ي أ ُ ا � � �أ ا �� � أ ن �نً �� �� ا� ا ح��م� �م��هن ل ��ن�ً�ا ��ل�� ي� � �ه ا� � ور� ��� �م ن� ا �ل� نح��س� � �عم�ل� �م� �لي����� �ن� نح���� ا ��د ا ل� ي � ل ���د ه ا �ل� م�مل� ��ي� ا � ِ � م م ن � ّ ن ي � �أ � � ن ا ن ي�ن ّ ن ن ن ًا ن � ني ن ن ���م�ل ل��ي� �لم�ل�ك ا �ل����ور ا �ل ش��س �ري�ل��ه �كي �����س�د �عم�ل�� ا �لأ����س� � حي�م�ل�ه � �وي��د �� ن� �و�ه�م�ه �م��ه �م�د �عن�� �ع�ي�ر ّ ّ أ � أ أ ن � ن � ن ا ن � �ن ا� ا أ ا ّ � ���د � �ي�ه ن�أ�ا �ل�ن� أا ن��م�ا ا ن� �ل�� �أ��ي �ن�ا �ام�سن��� ا�ا�م�ي�� ��و� � .او رن� �و ا � �ي�ل��� ا �ل�� ���ر ل�� ا � � � � م ل � � م م�� س حن� ي� � � ل � ي ي � ي ّ اي ن ن ا� ن ا� ن � �ي �ن ن � �ن �� ه ن ه ا �� ي�ل هي اأ ن � �ي ا ن�� اأ �ّ �ً� ي � � � ه � � ل � � � � � ا � � � � � � �م� ل� � 1د �ي� ���د ه ��مل�و وحر نل��� .وي���ن��ه� م� � � �� ل� ���د ر ن�� � ير� � و �ل� ن � م ي ا ن ًا ّم ش ّ من ن � ن ني � �أ م ي ن ش ا ّٰ ��� ن� � �ون�ه أا � ��س� ء ا لله. �نل���د ه ا ����م�ل�و�م ا ر�لي�� � حي��د ا �� ي�ل� ���ر ل��ي� ���د ه ا �ل� ن�� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن� � أ ني � أ � ي � ن أ ن ي � ي ي ّٰ ي � أ� ن ��ا � �لن��ه �����ا � ��ي� �����ا �لم�ل �����ا �ل ��م�ل ي ن � �ور ا � �ر� ا �ل ش��س �ير����ه �م ن� �كن�م�ل ا لله �����ا �ل�� ن��م�ا �ي�ا �ن�ا ه ا ���ع��م�ل �وي � �� ا �ي � هي �ي � ّ ن ي ا ا� اأ � هي � ي � ن ا ي ��ا ا ��ندن� ا ��ل �ر���ه �و�ل�� ي ن��ي� نره ��� �� حهر� �م��س� �ل� �و�ي � حي �� او �� � �وك�أ�ي ن�� ن� ا �ل��د �ي�ه �عم�ل�� ا ���� مل� ؟ �و �د ن � ج أ أ ن ّ �ّ � � �ي � ن�� ن� ا ��ل � ا � �عن � ل�� ح� ي� ا �مم�ل ل��ن� ا ن��ل أا ��لي�م�ك �و�و ن� �وك � او ن�� ي� ا�ام�د ن�ر��ن��ر�� ن� ا ����ل��� �و� ك ح�م�ه. ���ا �� �� � � ن م�� و و � ي � ي م � ي ن ا ن �ي ن� ن ّ � ا � � ا �ّ�ل�� �ع ن �� ي� �عم�ل�م�ك �م�ا ي�م�ل ي� ��لم�ل��س�ا �ألم � � �� ي� �م�ا � ا ����ن�� � ��� ن ��م�ل ي� ��ا ن�ل �أ� � ل�� � ��و ن أو ي ن ر ن ي ي� ون ي� ر �ل وروي ن ً ً � � ا � ّ ن�كي ن ه ا ن ��ا ن ا��م ا �� ن ا ن ��ا ن ن �ي حم ن� ن�ك��ه ن��ا ����ل��� ���ع��د ا ��ل��س�ا �م �ع�م�ي ���ع ��ن��ا �ل�م� � � �� � � � ��س�د �د � � � � ن�� � ل �أ� � ع ك ك � � � � � � و ن ي ي ي ي ي ي ل � ر � أ ي م ٰ � � � �� ن ن � ّ � � ���ع �ن �ا� ا �ُ �ي�ن ���د ا ا ��نل �م�لي ا �لن� ا ��ن� �عور �ش�س�د �ي��د ا�ام�ون� �و���و�ل� �� ن��م ا ه ا ��� ن �� �� � ي�� م� أو�� �عم�ل�� �ل لل ��ي��م �عم�ل�� ج ش � نُ � ن ش � �نّ ه ��ل��� �ن أ ن ي �أ ا � ��ا �لن��ه�م�هي �يكن�م� ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي � �و�ا ��نل ����ي� ء �و�ل�� � نل ���ر ل��ي� ����ي� ء � ك ��ي�ر ����� ي ل ��� ن���عن�� �ه ر�و�و�� �ي�ن����د ن ن ي � ّ ن �كن�م�ل ا �لي���ر���.
١،١٤٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ّٰ ي � ي ي ا �� أ� ّ � � ه � ّٰ � � ن أن � �ور ا � ي�ر� ا �ل ش��س �ر����ه �م ن� �كن�م�ل ا لله �ي����ا �ل�� ن��م�ا �ي�ا �ن�ا ه ح�م�ه ا لله �لي����� ي ن � �� ل ا ن ��و �عم�ل�ي� م��س��� �وي� ر ي ّ ا اأ ا ن أ ً � � ن ن ن� ا � ن ه ��� ّ � ا� ن � ن ش أ � ي � ي هو ا �ن��د ا ��� ا ���ع��م�ل �وي�� � �ل�� �و � م او � �� ���ن� ا �ل ش��س�ا ك ل��ي� ���د ه ا� � ع �ل� ي����ر�� ��س ار �ل ��ط ا ���ع��م�ل �و�م� �ي� �ن� ه � � ن �م�ل����ه ��ا �����ا � ا ي � � نل ��� نّ اأ نّ �ي�اأ �لّ ا ��ل��� �ا �م ن �ش��� ء �ه � ن �م�ا �� �لن��هي ا ����ع�ي�م � �ي�د ���سم�� ي ���ش��ًا �م ن � ك � � ر و ي ي � ن � � وي �� � ن�ي� ن ��ع � ي� �و ل �
1الاأ�ص� :اأ ��� ة �� �ل��. ل نن
210
210
٢،١٤٧
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن أ ي نن � او �����م�ل� � ن��ا �عم� � �ي�ه �عم�ل���ا ن��م�ن� نر��ل�هي ا ���ن�� ن�د ا ء �م ن ا ن��ل ح���� ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ا ك� � �� ل���ن� �م ن��ه ن�أ�ا � ا ا �عي��د �عم�لي��ه �ع�د ا ء ي� وم أ � �م �أ ن ن أ ن ي أ ن �ن ن ن � � ي ي ن � ن ش � ن ن �ه�و ا �ل�� �ّو��ل � �ل�م�ل �عم�لي��ه � او ���س� ل��ع �م ن��ه � � ���د �لم�ك ��ا �ل ا �لن������ ل��ي� ا�ام���ا ر��� � .وي���ن���ه� ا � � ��و��د ي ن � �أ ش ي � ي أ ُ ا � � �أ ا �� � أ ن �نً �� �� ا� ا ح��م� �م��هن ل ��ن�ً�ا ��ل�� ي� � �ه ا� � ور� ��� �م ن� ا �ل� نح��س� � �عم�ل� �م� �لي����� �ن� نح���� ا ��د ا ل� ي � ل ���د ه ا �ل� م�مل� ��ي� ا � ِ � م م ن � ّ ن ي � �أ � � ن ا ن ي�ن ّ ن ن ن ًا ن � ني ن ن ���م�ل ل��ي� �لم�ل�ك ا �ل����ور ا �ل ش��س �ري�ل��ه �كي �����س�د �عم�ل�� ا �لأ����س� � حي�م�ل�ه � �وي��د �� ن� �و�ه�م�ه �م��ه �م�د �عن�� �ع�ي�ر ّ ّ أ � أ أ ن � ن � ن ا ن � �ن ا� ا أ ا ّ � ���د � �ي�ه ن�أ�ا �ل�ن� أا ن��م�ا ا ن� �ل�� �أ��ي �ن�ا �ام�سن��� ا�ا�م�ي�� ��و� � .او رن� �و ا � �ي�ل��� ا �ل�� ���ر ل�� ا � � � � م ل � � م م�� س حن� ي� � � ل � ي ي � ي ّ اي ن ن ا� ن ا� ن � �ي �ن ن � �ن �� ه ن ه ا �� ي�ل هي اأ ن � �ي ا ن�� اأ �ّ �ً� ي � � � ه � � ل � � � � � ا � � � � � � �م� ل� � 1د �ي� ���د ه ��مل�و وحر نل��� .وي���ن��ه� م� � � �� ل� ���د ر ن�� � ير� � و �ل� ن � م ي ا ن ًا ّم ش ّ من ن � ن ني � �أ م ي ن ش ا ّٰ ��� ن� � �ون�ه أا � ��س� ء ا لله. �نل���د ه ا ����م�ل�و�م ا ر�لي�� � حي��د ا �� ي�ل� ���ر ل��ي� ���د ه ا �ل� ن�� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن� � أ ني � أ � ي � ن أ ن ي � ي ي ّٰ ي � أ� ن ��ا � �لن��ه �����ا � ��ي� �����ا �لم�ل �����ا �ل ��م�ل ي ن � �ور ا � �ر� ا �ل ش��س �ير����ه �م ن� �كن�م�ل ا لله �����ا �ل�� ن��م�ا �ي�ا �ن�ا ه ا ���ع��م�ل �وي � �� ا �ي � هي �ي � ّ ن ي ا ا� اأ � هي � ي � ن ا ي ��ا ا ��ندن� ا ��ل �ر���ه �و�ل�� ي ن��ي� نره ��� �� حهر� �م��س� �ل� �و�ي � حي �� او �� � �وك�أ�ي ن�� ن� ا �ل��د �ي�ه �عم�ل�� ا ���� مل� ؟ �و �د ن � ج أ أ ن ّ �ّ � � �ي � ن�� ن� ا ��ل � ا � �عن � ل�� ح� ي� ا �مم�ل ل��ن� ا ن��ل أا ��لي�م�ك �و�و ن� �وك � او ن�� ي� ا�ام�د ن�ر��ن��ر�� ن� ا ����ل��� �و� ك ح�م�ه. ���ا �� �� � � ن م�� و و � ي � ي م � ي ن ا ن �ي ن� ن ّ � ا � � ا �ّ�ل�� �ع ن �� ي� �عم�ل�م�ك �م�ا ي�م�ل ي� ��لم�ل��س�ا �ألم � � �� ي� �م�ا � ا ����ن�� � ��� ن ��م�ل ي� ��ا ن�ل �أ� � ل�� � ��و ن أو ي ن ر ن ي ي� ون ي� ر �ل وروي ن ً ً � � ا � ّ ن�كي ن ه ا ن ��ا ن ا��م ا �� ن ا ن ��ا ن ن �ي حم ن� ن�ك��ه ن��ا ����ل��� ���ع��د ا ��ل��س�ا �م �ع�م�ي ���ع ��ن��ا �ل�م� � � �� � � � ��س�د �د � � � � ن�� � ل �أ� � ع ك ك � � � � � � و ن ي ي ي ي ي ي ل � ر � أ ي م ٰ � � � �� ن ن � ّ � � ���ع �ن �ا� ا �ُ �ي�ن ���د ا ا ��نل �م�لي ا �لن� ا ��ن� �عور �ش�س�د �ي��د ا�ام�ون� �و���و�ل� �� ن��م ا ه ا ��� ن �� �� � ي�� م� أو�� �عم�ل�� �ل لل ��ي��م �عم�ل�� ج ش � نُ � ن ش � �نّ ه ��ل��� �ن أ ن ي �أ ا � ��ا �لن��ه�م�هي �يكن�م� ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي � �و�ا ��نل ����ي� ء �و�ل�� � نل ���ر ل��ي� ����ي� ء � ك ��ي�ر ����� ي ل ��� ن���عن�� �ه ر�و�و�� �ي�ن����د ن ن ي � ّ ن �كن�م�ل ا �لي���ر���.
١،١٤٧
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ّٰ ي � ي ي ا �� أ� ّ � � ه � ّٰ � � ن أن � �ور ا � ي�ر� ا �ل ش��س �ر����ه �م ن� �كن�م�ل ا لله �ي����ا �ل�� ن��م�ا �ي�ا �ن�ا ه ح�م�ه ا لله �لي����� ي ن � �� ل ا ن ��و �عم�ل�ي� م��س��� �وي� ر ي ّ ا اأ ا ن أ ً � � ن ن ن� ا � ن ه ��� ّ � ا� ن � ن ش أ � ي � ي هو ا �ن��د ا ��� ا ���ع��م�ل �وي�� � �ل�� �و � م او � �� ���ن� ا �ل ش��س�ا ك ل��ي� ���د ه ا� � ع �ل� ي����ر�� ��س ار �ل ��ط ا ���ع��م�ل �و�م� �ي� �ن� ه � � ن �م�ل����ه ��ا �����ا � ا ي � � نل ��� نّ اأ نّ �ي�اأ �لّ ا ��ل��� �ا �م ن �ش��� ء �ه � ن �م�ا �� �لن��هي ا ����ع�ي�م � �ي�د ���سم�� ي ���ش��ًا �م ن � ك � � ر و ي ي � ن � � وي �� � ن�ي� ن ��ع � ي� �و ل �
1الاأ�ص� :اأ ��� ة �� �ل��. ل نن
210
210
٢،١٤٧
On whether the religious Law can conflict with human reason
of. Given the same food twice, the body finds it oppressive and turns away from it. It is likewise with the soul’s relationship to knowledge. The analogies I have drawn here between bodies and non-bodily things have to be taken with discrimination, so as not to tarnish these exalted matters in ways that corrupt one’s imagination and lead one’s fancy down roads that comport ill with the intended meaning. I pray that the statements to which I have confined myself will suffice for those perusing the present questions; for I have been addressing my answers to a reader who already has a purchase on these subjects and so commands respect. Whoever is not at this level must school himself well in these subjects first, and only then, God willing, peruse these answers.
On whether the religious Law can conflict with human reason Someone put the following question to me: Is it possible that the Law handed
147.1
down by God should contain things that reason rejects—that it opposes, declares repugnant, and rules impermissible—such as the sacrifice of animals or the imposition of blood money on the clan of an offender? I earmarked this question for you and have fixed my hopes on seeing it answered by you, for you are a storehouse of arcane learning and recondite wisdom. Kindly answer it; otherwise, I will convey to you the answer I gave to this question, and give you an account of what took place between me and this disputant; if you find it sound, you can tell me so, whereas if you find it weak, you can give me the benefit of your judicious counsel. For the shores of knowledge lie distant, its depths are unfathomed, and its waves tower and crash. But for God’s great bounty toward creatures as infirm as us, we would be unable to inquire into anything or to reach any conclusion. Yet God is kind and gracious toward His servants, providing beneficence before it has been solicited, and good before it has been sought. Miskawayh’s response It is not possible that the Law handed down by God should contain things that reason rejects and opposes—those who raise such doubts are ignorant of the provisions of reason and of what it rejects. For they always confound it with acquired customs, and they suppose that if people’s natural disposition recoils from something, this amounts to an opposition on the part of reason. I have
211
211
147.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ي ّ � ن ّ �� ن ن ن ح�ن ��د ه ا ��ل ش ش �نا �س ي� ن� ���وك �و� � �� �ري�ه ح� ��و�م�ا �يل�ه� �و ن���دا �ل�ه� �ل��� ي�لي����د � او �م�ا � �� � � � � ��س � ل � ا �ل�� ��� �ي�����س و� ن � ر م م م أ � ��ن����ن اأ ن �ن�� ّ ��� أ ��لم� ��ل��� ن�ل���ّ ن ن�ك��ه ا �� ن�ل� �ي� ��� ن �م�ا ��ا ��ا ه ا ����ع�ي�م� � ��� ن �م�ا � ا � �ي�� ��� أ ���هي �م ن ل � � � � و ي ن وي ن �هي� � وط�� ن و ن و ر ن ي� ي ن ل ن ي� � م ي� اأ ا ا �� �� ي�ّ ه � � ن ا ن ا �� ا ي ن� ن �ي �� نّ ا ��� �ي ن أ �ل ش أًا �ن أ � ّ � � ا ه� �ه�و ا �ن��د ي� ا �لأ��ن� ء �ل� ��� �يو�ل� � ��ر��� ا �لأ����س� � �ن� ���� �ه ك� �عول أا � �ع�م�ل أا � ا ان�� ��سي���� � �ي� �ن� ه ل� ن ع أ ي � ّ ن ن � � ن ي �� ح ن ���د ا ن� ح�مي�� �م�ا ي����م�� �و نر ا � ي�لي�ن���ي�ر ل��� �و� ي� �و�ل�� �يل���ي�ر ن��ن���ي�ر �يلم�ل�ك ا �ل ��ا �ل �و � ���س�ه ��� �ل� ي ن�� ي يع أ أ يي � ا �� ا � � ي ح�م�� �ي� ن ��ه � ��ا ن ���حل �م�ل�هي ن��ا نّ� ن� ا ����ع�ي�م� ا �و ي������ ن�م� ���ا �ي�ا ا ���ع�ي�م�ل ��ه� ا �ن��د �يّ�هي � او ن� حن��ه �عم�ل� �� ل �و ��ده � و ي أ ل ن ّ ن ي ن � � ش � � ن نأ ّ أ ع أ أ � ّ ن � أ ن �� ّ هي ن ن � ن � ا � �لي����� �ع ن ��ا �ل�ه � ���د ا ا �س �م��سل��� �ع�� �م�د ��� � �ل� �م��س��� ك �ك��ه�� .ا �م�ا � ا � ا رلي�� س � � ل � ي ي ر و ر ر و ن و ي ي ي و و � ر ر م ع أ أ أ ن ي � ا ��ل��� � � ا ي ن ي ي ن ّ ي ن ّ � � �ن ا ن � ا ي � ا ��ل � ا ��ل��� ا �� ��س� ن� � او �ر�م� � � او ����� � ا � � او �ع��ي� �ن �ل �عو�ل�ي� ن ع � او ����� �ه �����د ي�ل����ي�ر ن�ل����ي�ر ا �ل���و و ن �� � � �ل� � ن � � ن ا ن � � ا ��ل��� � هي ا�ا� �� � �ي هي � �أ ��ل ن أ نّ ��� ا ��ل��� � هي ش �ي ��� ��يس�� �م��س� رك ��� �� ن ا ل�� ن ��يس�� م��مل�� ا �ل��و�� �و� ا ك ا � ا �م ن ع ا حي �� او � � او �لأ����س� � �ل� ن ن� ي عّ نّ ا ا أ ن ا ا �� �� ����د ن��ي���� �م� ا ر� �� �� ل� ��� . ن نع � �أ ي � �أ ّ ن ن ن � ًّ � � ن مي� ّ �ل���ا ن��ا �نّ�ا �ن�� �ع � ن�كن ��ي �ع ��ل أا ن� ن�ن� ا ��ل �وا ��ل ا�ا � � او � ا ك� ���ا � � �لم�ك ن��ي�� ن��ا �م ن� ا �ل��مش�م�ل�ه � او �ل��� حي �� او � و و ن أ ر أ ج أ أ أ آ أ � � � � � � ن � � ش ا ا � ي ا ا ا ا ��� �ي ن �� ا � � � � �ر���ا 1ن�لم�ل �ه�و�م ن� ا � �لي�ن�يسم�ل ا �ل�� ن�را �عن��� �م ن� ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء �ل ء �لي����� م� �ل����يس� ��ي� ي� ن� ��� ع�م�ل يو� � أ ً ي أ � � � � ّ ن ا �� ي اأ ا ا ن �� �� ّ � ي ن ن ي � � ���ا �ن�ا �����ا �هي �و���و ك� ���ا � �م�م�ا �ي�ا �ن�ا ه ا ���ع��م�ل � � � �� �� �� ��� ������ ا ل ���ا � ا �ن��د �ي�ا �ل� �ير ن� ���ا ه ل��ي� �و� ي� � ي� أي ن ن � � أ ن �ع أ أ ن ي ّ � � � ي ن ن ن ي �و�ل�� ��ا �س ��ه �و�ل�� ��ا �ن�� �ل�ه� .و� ح ن � ش��س�ا ���د �م ن ��ان �ل�� �كي�م� ا �ل � حي �� او � �ل��� �عم� � �ي�ه ا� ن� ي رن ل ي حر �ن�ه �و�م��� � � ي � أ مأ ا أ � �أ � ن ن ن ن � ي ي ي ا ا ا ن � � � � م ح �� ��س� �ر ا �ل� ����� �ل �ع��د ا �م� �� �ن�ه � او ��� ن�ر� �ن�ه �عم � ��ه ��� � �عملي��ه �و�����م�ل ���مل�ه �و ن�ر�� ن�ر ن ن ي� �� ا �� �لي��ّ ا ح نّا ر ن�لم� �م ش��س�ا ���د �ي� ا ��ل ��ل � ي�ه� �م�ا �يل���� ن� �عم�ل�� �ع�ي�ر��ه . حر�و ن� �يل�ه�و� �عم�ل� ر ��� ن� � او ن�ر ل م م أ أ ّ ُ ً � � � � ن ن � ن ن ن ي � ن ن ن � ش � اأ �ل ن ���ا ��ا � ا �ل � حي �� او � ا �ل��د �ي� �ي�ا ا� ن���سر��� �ل� ي����ر�� �ع�ل�� ن��ه أا � ا ا ��م�ع�ي� �عم�لي��ه ا �����ا �م�ل �و���ره � وي أ أ م ي ا ا ي ه ا� ا � � � � ه� ن � ه ��ل � ن ن �� ه ل�ن ا� ي �� � ّ أ ن �ي � ا ��� �ي ا �م��� ��س� �� �م� �ل� �ع�ل�نج �ل� �ي� �سر �ن��د ن�� ي����و� ��ل ��� �ي� ا�م�و� ا ��وح�� .ا �� ر� �ع�م�ل � �أ ي ّ � أ � أ � ن � ي �ي ً � أ أ ا ح��س ن �م�ا ك���ا � م�����م� ا ي ن ّ �ن � ��ه ي����مي�� ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ا �س �ن� ن�د ن� � ن�� �ل�ه؟ ا �م �����ي�ر ���مل�ه ا �ل��ن��د �ي� �نل ���� ر�� �� ار ر � �ي ن� ن ا اأ نّ �� �ي � � ن ش اأ ن ه ن � � � �أنّه � أ ّ � � ا � � � � � � ا � � � �و��ا � ش� � �و �ره �و �ر ن��د ي� و ن � ���د ش�؟ �م� ا �ع� را ك�� ن� � ع�م�ل �لي����� م� ��س� � � �لمك �ل� � ن � � ه � �ن � � ع أ � ّ �ه� � ل�� � ا ��ل � ل�� �. ح� و ح�م� �و�ل�د �لمك �ه�و ا �ن��د ي م
أ 1الا�ص�ل :ولا ة�ن� ك� ���ه�ا.
212
212
٣،١٤٧
On whether the religious Law can conflict with human reason
heard many people giving voice to these misgivings, and I have attended their verbal jousts and disputations, but they never go beyond what I have said. We must preface our response with a few remarks that help clarify the distinction between what is rejected by reason and what is rejected by the natural disposition and found repugnant by human beings as a result of acquired custom. So we respond as follows: When reason rejects something, its rejection holds forever; it can never change at any point in time, and its position can never be other than what it is. The same thing applies to everything reason judges to be good or bad. In general, all of the judgments of reason are valid forever. They have held necessarily from the beginning of time, and there can be no change in this status. This is something that is widely accepted as true and that cannot be gainsaid or doubted. Matters of natural disposition and custom, on the other hand, may change with shifting circumstances, causes, times, and customs. In talking about what is “natural,” I am referring to the natural disposition of animals and human beings, not to primary nature in the absolute sense. For “nature” is an equivocal term; but we have clarified what we mean by “natural disposition.” If that is clear from examples and facts that muster general assent, then we can return to our question and say: The sacrifice of animals is not something reason rejects and denounces, but rather belongs to the second category, that is, to those things which some people’s natural dispositions reject because of acquired custom. For were it one of the things that reason rejects, it would always be so, and reason would never approve of it, dictate it, or feel at ease with it. Yet we see people who reject the sacrifice of animals because it has not been part of their custom; and then, once they become accustomed to it, they find it easy and have no trouble performing it, and it becomes just like any other act they perform. And we observe how butchers and slaughterers—indeed, even those who have taken part in wars—find it easy to countenance things that others find hard. Similarly, when an animal is in agony because of an incurable illness, any rational person who takes pity on it and is loath to watch it suffer from something incurable would order that it be slaughtered so that it might find reprieve in a speedy death. So one must ask: Is reason, in ordering it to be slaughtered, now declaring good something it had formerly judged to be evil? Or has its eternally enduring act undergone a change due to a sudden contingency or newly arisen factor? Yet we acknowledge that it is not in the nature of reason for this to happen, and that is because it is an eternal substance, and its substance consists in its rulings. Thus, its rulings have eternal duration.
213
213
147.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ � � أ � �� ن ي ا أ � � ن ا �� ��� ّ ي ي ن ّ � � ي ن�أ�ا ن�ل ن��ا �ل�� �ن نل ��� نّ� �ن�ا ن� � ل�� ح� ا ���ع��م�ل �عم�ل�� ا �����د� � او ل����د��س�ه �و��س� �ر ا �لن� را ����ي� ل ن ��يس�عي��ه �����ي�ر ن � ن ا ن أ أ��ش أ أ ي ّ ّ ��ا ن � ه � ن ن � ش م آ � ن ن ي أ ين ّ � ع��سرهي ا �ل�� �� � �ع�م�ا ك�� � �عملي�� م��د ��س�ه ا �و ي�ل����ي�ر أا �ل�� �مش�م�ل ���د ا ا �ر�م� � ا �و ا ���ر ا �و ا �مل� يُ ن ش ي اأ نّ أ ً ي ي � ي ن اأ ّ ا � �أ ا �� ي �يُ� ي �ي �ن ��ا ن ح��س ن � �سّ هي �و����مي�� � � � ��� � م � � � ا ا � ا � � � ده ه � � � � � �� م ن�لم�ل �ل ��� �ن� ��ه ا �ن��د � � � . � ع � � م ك � � � ل � � � � � ل وي و �� و ير و ور ي� ن ر � أ ج أ أ أ ُ ّ � ّ ي ّ � � � ن ي ي ي ن ح ّ� ن��ا ا ن� �� � ي�لي��ا �ل�ّ �ي�ا هي � ي�ل ��ع�م� �ش�ا ن�ل��ه ن��ا ��م�ا �ل��ا ا ���س�ا � ا ن� ن�ع�� ا ���ع��م� ا� م � � ا ل ���س�ا ��س�ا ي� � ر و ن� ر و ن ل ي أ � ن ن ر ير ل ن ر أ ي ���ّ ا أ ً ّ ن ي � � ي ن ّ أ ً � �ي ن�� ن� ا ن � أ ن � �أ ن � �أ ن � �أ ّ ي ل�� ا �ن��د ا �م��ر� ���ه �لمل����ي�ر ��� � �لم�ك � او �س ار ��� ا �ل��ن��د ا � � او �ل�� ��ور �ع�ي�ر ا �ل��ن��د �ي�ه 1ك�م � ا �ن��د ا ي���� ر � كي� أ أ أ ً �ن � �ن � ين ّ ا � � � ن ا ن� ي�ل ل��ي ��ل�� ن �م�هي ن��ا ��ل � ا � � ي � � نّ ا �و�لي�ن���يّ�ر ا ��ل � ل�� ���س�ل� � و ح� ن�ل����ي�ر��� ن�لم�ل �ل� ي ن��ور ن �� ر ��ده �ل��ل��� ا �ن��د ا ل�ي� ا �ل ي ي � ي ن ن ا � ي ن ّ � �أش ا ا��ممي �ي ن � ي ّ ا ا �� � � ش � � نم �� ���ّ ا �مي ن� ّ� ي � � � ّ ل ل � � � � � � حر��ه � �ل������� �ه� �����ي ر ا �ل����يس� ء � حر��ه أا �ي� ��� � او � � او �ل�د � ��ور �لملر�و� ا � ل�� ���ي ره . حر��ه أا � ٢كم � ي م ّ ن ّ ّ ن ي ن ن ن ي � ن � ي ي ن ن � ي � ا ا ا ن ��د ��لم�ك ا �� نر�م�ا � �و�م� ����م�ل�� �ن�ه �ه�و �����ي�ر ن�ل����ي�ره� .و�م� ي����ر��� �ل�ل� ���س� � �م� ��را �عي��ه �ن� �و��� أ أّ ج ّ � ي � � � � ح ا ن�ل ّ هي � ن ح �� ا ن� ٣ا ن��م�ا �ه� �ا ش � ن ا � ا �ل�� ي ن ش � ����ه أا �ّ�ا ه ل��ن� ا �ل ا ��ل م��س�ا رك� � �ي ��و ي�� وي ح ���ر ن�لن��ا �ل�ه �ع ن��د � � أ و و ي م��ر�وه ي�ل�� �ل ن �يس�م�ه ا � �م�م�ل ي ي ن ن ��نل ا �� ��ي ّ ا �ن ��ل ن ّ ي �نم� � ش � ن � ن� � ن � � ه ��س�� ن��ا ��ل�ه �ا� ش ن � � � ه � ه � � ا � ل � ا ا ا ا ل � �ل ع � م��س�ا رك���ه أا ي� ه �ي� حي ��و ي�� ي��د � ل� م� � �عور ��د ���د � �ر٤ � �لم�ك ا�ا � م��رو ي ن � ن� ���ّ � ن ن ي � ا � � ش �� � � ً�ا � يّ ن أ ن ن � � ن م��رو�� حي �� او � أا � ا �ل���ّور � � ح�� أا � ا ا ���� �ن��د �لم�ك ا � �لع��م�ل را �ل �ع ن��ه � �لم�ك م� ي ��د � � ��ل ن � ي � � � ن ي � ح ي ا �لن �ن ح �� �ع ن��ده �ن�م � � � او �لي�����ي�� ن� ي ن� ا �لن �� �عور �و���ا ر ا �ل��دن� � او �ل��سم�نل ح ش��� ن� حر�� �نر�ي� ا � �ل�ل��� �و� � ر ي م ج ج �� ح � � � اأ�ن�� �ل��ا �ع ن��د ا ����� ا ء ا�ا�م ي ��ند ��لم�ك ��ا �� �م ن �ش ا ح ش�� �من ل � �و��� � ا ���د ���ا. � �س ���� �و � � رو ن و � ن � ل � ر أّ ن ا ا � أ ن أ ن � ّا ن �� �ي�ه �و�ه� ا ن� ا ����ع�ي�م� ي��د � ّ ن ن � � ن ا ن ن � �و������ �� �ل ا �ر�� ا �ن�ي�� م�م� � ��ر و ح��س� �ع��د ا �لأ����س� � أا � ا ح��م�ل ل ن أ �� � ي أن ن � � ل�ن � ن ن � � �أ �� �ي� � � ��ي� �م ش��س�ا ���د ��ه ا � ي�لن��د �ل م��ر�وه �عم�لي� ��ط �م ن� ا �ل��ع�د ا ء ل��م ن� �ير�� ل��ي� ا ��م�ل�ه �و�و�ل��ده �م�ا �ل� �يل ��ي � �� � �ل� � � ا ي ا �� �لي��م� هي ن ا � ن� هي � ن ا ��� �ي ي ل �ن �نل���س�ه �لم�ل�عي�م� �وي�ن ي ا ا ي ا� ح�� ر ا�م�و� ن �مي�م�ل �عم�ل�� ا ي ح�� ه ن ي�� �و���د ه � ٥رح��� م� �ع�م�ل ل ��ّ ا � � �ي ا � � ن ا ن أ ن ش ن� ا أ � ن أ ن ن ي ا ا� ي � ا ن ا �� ي ن ل ��� ا ع��� ا � ي� �م��س�س�سّرهي ل��� ���ل �� �ل يلن�م � �ن� �لأ����س� � ا � ي����ي����� ك � �وا ن� ��� �� .ن�� ح�� ر ا�م�و� �عملي� ي� ي ي نً ن أ ش ا � ن ا� ج ا أ أ ن ي ا � نّ � ي � � ����مي� ن � � �� ي �ي � �ش�س��أ�ً�ا �من���ا ��� � م � � � ح � أا � ا �ع� ا �م�� �ل ���د ه ا�م��س� �لم�ل ا � �ي�ل�� �ل أا � ا ���ع��م�ل �ل� ي ��س� و�ل ي ن ي � �ّ � أ أ ّ � ي أج � ن � � ���ده �ن�ل�� ي�لي��ا �ن�ا ه �و�ل�� ي�لي��عنّ�م�ل�ه ا �عن��� �ل�� ي� ل�� أا �ل�� �ن �لي� ارأ� ن� �و ش��س ار �أل ��ط �ن�ا �ّم�ا ���د ا ا � ن�لع��م�ل ن���ي��نس�ه �و� ح� ي م أ � أ ّ أ ّ � ّ ��اأ � � ح ��� ن ح��ا �م�ه ا � ��ي �ع ن�ك ن��ا ���ا � او � ح� ا �ن��د �ي� ا �و�ل�� ك�� � � ن�كي��ه ٦ن� ل�� ���ا �نل���ا. ي� ر ي م
أ أ أ أ أ أ أ ّ ن ن ن ن ة�ه�ا. 1الا�ص�ل :والا��ور الان��د ة���ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل :أا د ا ٣ .ط :ا �ل���ةو� ٤ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل��ا ن�سر ٥ .الا�ص�ل :و�ه�د ا ٦ .الا�ص�ل�� :س�
214
214
٤،١٤٧
٥،١٤٧
On whether the religious Law can conflict with human reason
We do not suppose that the rulings of reason on questions of arithmetic or
147.4
geometry or other types of natural proof have changed in the last ten thousand years, or will change over the next ten thousand years, or over shorter or longer spans. We are confident that they have always been and always will be the same. Those things, by contrast, which are disapproved of at one time and approved of at another, that are rejected on one occasion and accepted the next, have their origins elsewhere than pure reason. Matters relating to political governance always involve such things. Likewise, bodily illnesses45 and impermanent things on the whole are always exposed to change, and the relevant rulings change as they do. Indeed, it is impossible for them to adhere to a single state, for insofar as motion necessarily adheres to them, they are always passing from one state to another or passing into nothing. Motion itself consists in the change of moving things, for they are all changing. Similarly with time and what it attaches to; it changes as it changes. But the sense of repugnance people feel about slaughtering animals is due to the fact that they share in their animal nature. For when something bad happens to a beast, it crosses their mind that something similar will happen to them because they share animality with it. This thought produces in them the kind of revulsion that is produced in all animals whenever they envisage the occurrence of something bad. Yet once they grow familiar with this act, their sense of revulsion falls away, and slaughter and butchery come to seem no different to them than sharpening a pencil or carving wood. It is the same with those who take part in wars, and come to see them as normal even in the midst of fearsome carnage. There is another case in this context that is even clearer than those I have mentioned. When a person is confronted with an abominable evil at the hands of enemies—as when one sees one’s wife and children undergoing things one cannot bear to witness—reason deems it permissible for one to give up one’s life and opt for a noble death instead of an ignominious life. The license granted herein by reason—the license to choose death, that is—extends to all cases in which it is ignoble for a person to continue living. Questions of this kind should therefore be addressed as follows: When reason judges any of these things to be good or bad, it does so on the basis of contextual factors and conditions. It neither rejects nor accepts a given act taken by itself and in isolation; that is, it does not pronounce a timelessly valid, primary ruling like those we know and are well acquainted with.
215
215
147.5
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ أ نّ � ُ � ش ّ ن ا نّ ��ش ً ن �� �ّ � ��ا ��ل ل��ن� ا ��ل���ش��س�ا ء ا � ��ي �ي��� �ن� ��ا ��نل ���ند ا ا ��ل �و � ��� ح��ا �ل ي���عي��ي��د ا � 1 ��ي�ر � او �ل��سر �أ� � ك���ي�را �م� ا نل � ي ي� ر ن ي أ ّ ّ ّ ي � ي ن � ��� ا �من �����س هي ��ل ن � ن � ا � � � ن � �ن �م ن ا ��ل��د ن�ل��ا ا ��ل��أ�ش�� ا ��د �لم�ك� .نأ�ا � ا �لي�������ا ر � او �س � �م� أا �� ���دي � �و�لي����� �ل��سر �� ل�� ��� ء ك�م � �م��� � ي ي ي ي ّ � � ن ن ُ ا ه� ن � ن ن ن ي شّ� ن ا ا ����س�ه � ��لي���� ن� ح��ه �أ�ا � ا �������ه�مم�ل ي������ا ره �و�م� �ل� ��ي�ر �و�ل� ��سر ح�� ي�ل� ���ر ل��ي� �م� � ا ي �ممل�ه ��� � ن � ��س� ن � ش ّ ن ش ّ ��ن � ��ّ ن ن ا نّ ن � ي ن � �أش ا � ي ن ا � � ه � � ل��ي� ا �ل����يس� ء ا � ��ي� �هي� ��ي�ر �أ� � ي���س� ره ��ي�ر �أاو � ا �ممل�ه ل�ي� ا �ل��سر � � �ه�و ��سر �و���د �لمك ���ل أ � � �أ � أ ن �ش�� � ن ا ��لً � ش �� ّ�د ه ن�م�ل���� �ُل ����م� �لي �عم�ل��ه ا �نّ�ه � ا � ن ���ا � ��� �ي� ء ك ��ا �لم�ل����ي�ء �و�لن� �ه�م�ا ن�لم�ل ا �ل��و�ل�� ا � ���د �م � و ي �ي � ي ُ آ آ ّ � ً ي ا � نّ � � � ح�م � ا � � � � � ُن ن ن � �� � � � ي ن ���ا �ل� �ل� ي� ا � ��يي� �يل��م�ل �ي�ل�� �ل أا ��ه يل��مل � �ل�ه�م�ا ن� ي��� ك � �نل���ا � �وي�ل���س�د ��أ�ا � ا �ل� �ل� ي� �ل� � ��و���� ّ ي ج أ أ ي ي اأ نّ ا �م��م� يج� � ن ي � � ن ً � ن �� �ن ل ���ا ���س��مّ� �ن�ا �ل���ل�� � � او � �ل������ا � أا �ل� ن�����د ا � ��������ه�مم�ل. �ن� �ل��� ��ه �و�ل� �م����س�ده �و�ل� ا �يل� ج ُ ُ �ي ي أ ي يي ن أ أ ن ي ا � ن � �أ ن ي ن � � � � ح� ا � �ي�ل�� �ل ل��� ا �ل����ور ا � �� ����م� � � � ح��س ن� ا �و ������ن�م� �� � ل��ي� ا �� �� ي� �وا �ل �ونح�� ن ����د ا ي ن ن ي ح ن هي � ن ا ��� �ي � � �ي�م� ي � � � �ي ج � يّ ُي ّ ن ن ي نّ � ي ������ا �عم� � ا � أا �ل���ا �لي������ ������� ع��د �ع�م�ل �و�ل� ن ي ��ه �عم�ل�� ا �لأ� ����ل� �� ح�� �ي��� ن���ي�� � او � � ن � ّ � ن � �م����ي���ه � ا ن ا ن ا أ� � �� ���د ا ا �ل�� �� ح��س ن �ام�ا ن�كي��ه �وا �ل���ا �نأ�ا ن� ا � �لي����ا ��� أا � ا �و�ي�� � ٢عم�لي��ه � �ممل��� �ور�م� �ل��� � او � �و � م ع ي ً ح��ا هي ا ��ل ن��ا �� � ا ن� ا � �ي�� � � � ي ي ن ن �� ي ن ن ع�س�ا ر � ا ��م� ا ا� ا ن� � أو و �م� �ي ع �عملي��ه ا ���م ا � �لع�م�ل ن�����ي�ر ���د ا ا �ل� � ن ���� ر ن ي�� �م� كي��ه �م� � ن �يلم�ل�ن� ا ��ل حي �� او �. ي ن ن �ي � ي ن � ن ن � أ�ي ��ا � ن � � ن � حي����ا ر � او �لأ��ي��م�ا ء �� ن� م� ا �ل� ح ي� ل��ي� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه �ع ن� �عم� � �ل�ي� ل��ي� ���د ا ا � ل�� �و��د �ر ن ني أ ن � يأ أ ش �� ا �� ن � � ا حّ��ا ��ل ا�ا�م�ا �ن�� �ّ�هي � �م ن ا �ع�� ّ ��ا �مش�م�لي ����رهي �م�ا ا ��س�م���ه �م ن� ن� أا ل�� ل�� � ي� ��� �ه� �ون�م� لهم� ر و � أا �ل�� ا �� �ي�ولم� � � � و ن � ي م ج أ ن � ّ ���د �يً�ا ��ا ��ن ح�يّ �ع�د ���� ا �له� �ع ن ���د �����هي ا � ��ي ن�م�ل��� ا �ل��ا ا ��ل� �يم�ل� � ا ��ل�� �ع�م�ا ر �م ن ا ��ل ن��ا �� � ل أ � � � و � ي ن ون �م� �ن � ون م � � ي� أ � ي � أ نّ �� أ � ن ا �� �لي ا ��ل ش��س ا �أ�� ا �ل�م� ح��س ن �م ����م�ل�ي�ً�ا ا � �م�يع ّ��دًا �ا�م�ا ���دًا �من ل حم� م � � ا � ا ��ه �و���و ا � � ع م � � س �� � � ه � � � ي � ل � ني و و � و ي ر � ن ع �ّ � � ن � � م أ نّ � � ين ��ّج ن أ ي � ح �� ا �نً�ا ي ن � � � �عر��ه أا �ل� �عم�ل� ��سن��ي�م�ل ا �ل�� ح��ل� ��ط �عم�ل� ا ��ه �ل� ي�م�س� ع ���ل �عم �م�ل �م � �ه�م أا � ا را � �ي و � � أ أ � � ن � � �� �� ن ا أ ل�ن ي � ن ا هي ه �ي �لن ي أ � ن � أ ه � ي ي� ّ � � � � ا ا ا � م ه ه � يل� � � � � �د � � � � � � � � � � � �� م � م � ه ط � �ل���رن� �ويل �ول و �ي� روج ر ن ن و �و ن� ي ��� � نر و � �و ر � ج أ ّ ي ً � ّ ن ن� ن ي� ّ ن ن � � ن� ن ا�� م��ا ه �لم��لي ك� ي���ا �ك�����سر�من����ا ا � ي� ش��س�ي�ر �ن��د ن��ه �أاو � �ام ي�لي��و�ل � �لم�ك ن�لن�����س�ه �و����م�ل ن� �سر� �ون�ا �م ن� ا� � ر � �� ن ا ا ا� ي � � ّ � � ن ن �ا� ن ا ن� � نا ن � � ي ا ��ل � ���و �ن� ���� ن ��ل�ه � حي �� او � أا � ا ���� �ل �ع�سره �لي������ �ن��د �و� �م� � ��ر�� ه ��ل� ���ه �م � � ��� �ن� �م�و� ا ��وح�ي � �أ �ن � � ي �� ي ن نّ � � �ّ � ن ن �أاو ��م�ا �ل� ي�لي��و�ل�� ا �ل��دن� ن�لن �����س�ه �وي� ش��س�ي�ر �عم�ل�� �ع�ي�ره �ن�ه �ل� ن�م�ل ا �����ا �ه � او �ل���س�� ش��م���ا ر ا �ل��د �ي� � نر�م�ه. ج أ أ أ ة 1الا�ص�ل �ة��ن�ه�ع�ل ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ا ��د و�� . �
216
216
٦،١٤٧
٧،١٤٧
On whether the religious Law can conflict with human reason
This is how matters stand with regard to things known as good and evil.
147.6
Many ignorant people believe that everything falls into either of these categories. Yet this is not the case. For material prosperity and worldly power are neither good nor evil, and one must first consider the uses to which their owners put them. If they put their prosperity and wealth to good use, then their prosperity is good; if they use it for evil, it is evil. Similarly, anything that can serve two contrary ends should not be identified with one or the other; it is more appropriate to say that it can serve for both without distinction, like tools that can be put to a good or a bad use. For tools are not described as beneficial or harmful, nor can the notions of “benefit” or “harm” be applied to them until they have been put to use. Thus, one must say that things judged good or bad under particular circumstances and on the basis of particular customs are, from the viewpoint of reason, neither good nor bad absolutely, and one must first examine those who produce them and put them to service, as well as the time and circumstances in which they occur. For if an act is called “retaliation,” it is good because it involves the preservation of human life, while if, on the basis of a different consideration, it is called “murder,” it is bad because of the destruction of life it involves. In this question, I deviated from the practice adopted throughout this book, of writing concisely and restricting myself to the key points. This is because of the sheer amount of verbiage I hear from ignorant Manichaeans and those who, duped into following their example, have gone over to their views, falling for the deceit through which they have gained access to the hearts of simple people and turned them away from the true laws. Yet were you to ask any of them about the distinction between taking “bad” and “good” in an absolute as against a restricted sense, they would only be able to give you a confused account. For all that, it is not impossible that any rational person among them who saw an animal covered in open ulcers, suffering from a colic recognized as untreatable, or lying with its limbs broken after falling into a ditch, tossing and turning in the throes of a prolonged death—that such a person would give the signal for it to be killed, even if he did not take on the task himself. Other kinds of evils may afflict an animal that lives a long life, commensurate with those we mentioned, from which the only redemption, if one is judicious enough to discern it, lies in a speedy death. Yet such a person would not take on the task of killing it himself, and would ask another to do it, on account of custom and of the way his feelings are fixed. And were a rational person such as this to have the
217
217
147.7
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ا ن نّ ن ً أ ن اأ �ي � أ نّ ن �ن �ن ه ل�ن ن � ا ن ا ���د ا ا ������ا ي�م� �من ه �ه� ن�ُلم�ل� ن���سم�ل���� � ي�����د �ن�ه � ل � � ا ا � � � � ل � ع�د م �د � � � � � � ع �� م س � � �ي� ر � � �و� ��و ا � ل ير � � � ن ل ي ن ي ي أ� م ي� أ أ أ � � ن ي � ن � ي �ّ ��س�ا �ع�هي ا �و ��س�ا ��ل ا ن� يُ� ار � ��د ا � ��ل��ا � ا ��ل� ا ��ل ��ط� �لم �ل��د � �ل��ه ا ��� � ل� � ��م�ا ��ا ��ا ه �ك�م � ي�ل ن��ا � � �� � ح� ج وي�ل ي ي ن ن � نُ ر أ � أ �م ن ي ن ن �ل و �ول م ن �� � � ي � ي �� � ه �ن ن �ن � حي��ا ر ا�ام�و ي� �عم�ل� ر�أو�لي��ه �ن ك ��ر��� �ل� ح��ا ه � .و����د �لم�ك ���و ����م�ل ن� ��و�ل��ده ا �و �ع��ر�ي�ه � 1م�ا �ي � ��ي ��� �م� ا ل ي � ي � ن ا�� � ن ي ا ً �م ًا ا�ا� ي �ي �م���مي ح نًا �م ن � ي � ي � � � ن� م�� �وه �م ح�� را � ح��ه ا ���ع��م�ل ���و�ل� �م�ا � ���ر�ن�ا ه؟ حن �� �ون� �وم����ن�م� � �� ���س� � ن � �ي���و� ا� �ر ج ن ا� اأ � ي ي ّ ن أ نّ ّ ني ن� ن ي ��ا ن �ي�م�ً ن ي �هر ا ن��ل �وا ن� �ع ن ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �و�لن��� ٢ا � �� ���ل �م�ا ك�� � ين ��ا ل��ي� �و� ي� � �و� �و� ي� �� �����د �� � � ي� �� � ي ا��م ّ �� أ �ا � �أّ � ّ ي � �أن � ّ ي � � ي ا � ن نّ ي � � � ن أ ن ُن �� أا ل�� ا ���ع��م�ل ن� ح� حر� � او ل�� ا � �ور ا � �ي��� �� �م� � �ل� ي ن � �� �م�ه ا �ل��و�لي��ه ا �ل�ر�لي��ه ن�لم�ل �ل� �ي�ل�� �ل �كي��ه أا ��ه �ن ي ن أ ج ّ � ا ي ش ّ يا � ي �� ح�� �� ح��س ن �عم� ا ��ل�� �����ل�� �ي� � ا ن��م�ا ��ُ ن������ ا ��ل� ا ��ل��� ا � ن� �م� �� �ي�� ي� ���ع � او ����� � ا � ��م �ي�ل�� �ل �ن ي أو ي ن أ � ن �و�ل� � � ل� ن أ � � ً � ج �ن�اأ �ّم�ا ا ��ل��د ��هي ا ���ي ���ند ا � ���� حّ �ند ا �م�يعيّ��د ا ن�ع�ي�ر �م ����م�ل�ي �و��ل�� �م ن������و ن� أا ��ل�� ا ����ع�ي�م� ا�نم � ��� ي� �و� ح��س ن � � � �. � �� و � ي ي� ل ر �و�ي � أ ��ّ � ن ا �ن � ه � ن ا ّ ن � � ��سسّ ا ا ا� ا � هي ي � ا ي� ي ن ي ي � ���س�ا ��س�ه �نل���ا �و�و ن�� ح������� �ن�ي�� �ل� ي�م� �و�م��س� �ل� �عم�ل�� ا ����� �مل�ه �����د ��ل��م ا �ل�� ��� ل�ي� �و ن��ه ا �ل ي � ا� ي ي ّ ي ي أ ن�م� ي ّ ن أ � � ا� � ح���ا � ن�و�ي��ن� ي� �و ن��ه ا �ل� �� او ن� ل��ي� ا �مش��ا �ل���ا �م ن� ا �ل ش���نس�ه. م���د �م�ه ��د ا �و � �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � ّ ن أ �ل �عسش ا ن ��ل ا � ن � ي���ا ��ل ا � �وا ن� ان�ي� �م� � ا ن�� ح ��ط ح����د ن� ن� �عن��د ا � ��و���ا ن� ل��ي� ن�� ي أ � أ ن �ن ��ن �ًا � � ���د �ي� ن�ك��ه �م ن ح��هي �م ن ا ن��ل � � � ��د ا � �ي � �ي�ل��د ر ا � �� � � � د د ح���ا ي� � � ل ن � ي ��� ن ن � � � يًا � � � ن ح��هي �م ن ا ن��ل �ن ن� ح��ا ي�. �� ���د �� �ل� ���د ن� كي��ه �م� ن� � �
�ع ن �� �ي �ل � ا ��لي � � � � ا ل� نر ي� �و ��د �وير �ل� ع أن ي �و�ه�و� ٣ي�لي��د ر ا � �يل� ���د ��
٨،١٤٧
١،١٤٨
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ٰ ن � � � ن نّ� ا � �ي ا ن ل�ن ��نل � ن ا ّ هي ��� ��ه ر� ���د �ي� � او � � ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ٤ك� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ��� ���ا � ا �ل� ����د ن� أا �م� يلع��� � �ي� ا�ن� ر �� � و � ي � � �� �ن � ن ن أيي ا �� � � ن � ���س ّ ه ا�ا�من �� �ي ّ ن ا �� �ي �� ��ل ن ن ل � � � ا � � � � ا ا ��ا ر� �و�ه�و ا �ل��د �ي� �ي�ليع� � �� � � ع �ل و ن� ر ه�و ا ل�د ي� ي �مي�� �ط � لع م� �ن�ي�� ٥ا ���س� ي �و� �ول ن م م م ع أ أ أ أ أ
ن 1الا�ص� � :عنّة��� ٢ .الا�ص� �� :ة�ّ�� ن ٣ .الا�ص� :ن����� �ه ٤ .الا�ص� :ا �ل� ا � ا ن� ٥ .الا�ص� � � :ن ��� ن ةس د و�. ل ة وو ل ر ل وة ن ةس ل سن ل نو ن أ
218
218
٢،١٤٨
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ا ن نّ ن ً أ ن اأ �ي � أ نّ ن �ن �ن ه ل�ن ن � ا ن ا ���د ا ا ������ا ي�م� �من ه �ه� ن�ُلم�ل� ن���سم�ل���� � ي�����د �ن�ه � ل � � ا ا � � � � ل � ع�د م �د � � � � � � ع �� م س � � �ي� ر � � �و� ��و ا � ل ير � � � ن ل ي ن ي ي أ� م ي� أ أ أ � � ن ي � ن � ي �ّ ��س�ا �ع�هي ا �و ��س�ا ��ل ا ن� يُ� ار � ��د ا � ��ل��ا � ا ��ل� ا ��ل ��ط� �لم �ل��د � �ل��ه ا ��� � ل� � ��م�ا ��ا ��ا ه �ك�م � ي�ل ن��ا � � �� � ح� ج وي�ل ي ي ن ن � نُ ر أ � أ �م ن ي ن ن �ل و �ول م ن �� � � ي � ي �� � ه �ن ن �ن � حي��ا ر ا�ام�و ي� �عم�ل� ر�أو�لي��ه �ن ك ��ر��� �ل� ح��ا ه � .و����د �لم�ك ���و ����م�ل ن� ��و�ل��ده ا �و �ع��ر�ي�ه � 1م�ا �ي � ��ي ��� �م� ا ل ي � ي � ن ا�� � ن ي ا ً �م ًا ا�ا� ي �ي �م���مي ح نًا �م ن � ي � ي � � � ن� م�� �وه �م ح�� را � ح��ه ا ���ع��م�ل ���و�ل� �م�ا � ���ر�ن�ا ه؟ حن �� �ون� �وم����ن�م� � �� ���س� � ن � �ي���و� ا� �ر ج ن ا� اأ � ي ي ّ ن أ نّ ّ ني ن� ن ي ��ا ن �ي�م�ً ن ي �هر ا ن��ل �وا ن� �ع ن ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �و�لن��� ٢ا � �� ���ل �م�ا ك�� � ين ��ا ل��ي� �و� ي� � �و� �و� ي� �� �����د �� � � ي� �� � ي ا��م ّ �� أ �ا � �أّ � ّ ي � �أن � ّ ي � � ي ا � ن نّ ي � � � ن أ ن ُن �� أا ل�� ا ���ع��م�ل ن� ح� حر� � او ل�� ا � �ور ا � �ي��� �� �م� � �ل� ي ن � �� �م�ه ا �ل��و�لي��ه ا �ل�ر�لي��ه ن�لم�ل �ل� �ي�ل�� �ل �كي��ه أا ��ه �ن ي ن أ ج ّ � ا ي ش ّ يا � ي �� ح�� �� ح��س ن �عم� ا ��ل�� �����ل�� �ي� � ا ن��م�ا ��ُ ن������ ا ��ل� ا ��ل��� ا � ن� �م� �� �ي�� ي� ���ع � او ����� � ا � ��م �ي�ل�� �ل �ن ي أو ي ن أ � ن �و�ل� � � ل� ن أ � � ً � ج �ن�اأ �ّم�ا ا ��ل��د ��هي ا ���ي ���ند ا � ���� حّ �ند ا �م�يعيّ��د ا ن�ع�ي�ر �م ����م�ل�ي �و��ل�� �م ن������و ن� أا ��ل�� ا ����ع�ي�م� ا�نم � ��� ي� �و� ح��س ن � � � �. � �� و � ي ي� ل ر �و�ي � أ ��ّ � ن ا �ن � ه � ن ا ّ ن � � ��سسّ ا ا ا� ا � هي ي � ا ي� ي ن ي ي � ���س�ا ��س�ه �نل���ا �و�و ن�� ح������� �ن�ي�� �ل� ي�م� �و�م��س� �ل� �عم�ل�� ا ����� �مل�ه �����د ��ل��م ا �ل�� ��� ل�ي� �و ن��ه ا �ل ي � ا� ي ي ّ ي ي أ ن�م� ي ّ ن أ � � ا� � ح���ا � ن�و�ي��ن� ي� �و ن��ه ا �ل� �� او ن� ل��ي� ا �مش��ا �ل���ا �م ن� ا �ل ش���نس�ه. م���د �م�ه ��د ا �و � �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � ّ ن أ �ل �عسش ا ن ��ل ا � ن � ي���ا ��ل ا � �وا ن� ان�ي� �م� � ا ن�� ح ��ط ح����د ن� ن� �عن��د ا � ��و���ا ن� ل��ي� ن�� ي أ � أ ن �ن ��ن �ًا � � ���د �ي� ن�ك��ه �م ن ح��هي �م ن ا ن��ل � � � ��د ا � �ي � �ي�ل��د ر ا � �� � � � د د ح���ا ي� � � ل ن � ي ��� ن ن � � � يًا � � � ن ح��هي �م ن ا ن��ل �ن ن� ح��ا ي�. �� ���د �� �ل� ���د ن� كي��ه �م� ن� � �
�ع ن �� �ي �ل � ا ��لي � � � � ا ل� نر ي� �و ��د �وير �ل� ع أن ي �و�ه�و� ٣ي�لي��د ر ا � �يل� ���د ��
٨،١٤٧
١،١٤٨
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ٰ ن � � � ن نّ� ا � �ي ا ن ل�ن ��نل � ن ا ّ هي ��� ��ه ر� ���د �ي� � او � � ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ٤ك� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ��� ���ا � ا �ل� ����د ن� أا �م� يلع��� � �ي� ا�ن� ر �� � و � ي � � �� �ن � ن ن أيي ا �� � � ن � ���س ّ ه ا�ا�من �� �ي ّ ن ا �� �ي �� ��ل ن ن ل � � � ا � � � � ا ا ��ا ر� �و�ه�و ا �ل��د �ي� �ي�ليع� � �� � � ع �ل و ن� ر ه�و ا ل�د ي� ي �مي�� �ط � لع م� �ن�ي�� ٥ا ���س� ي �و� �ول ن م م م ع أ أ أ أ أ
ن 1الا�ص� � :عنّة��� ٢ .الا�ص� �� :ة�ّ�� ن ٣ .الا�ص� :ن����� �ه ٤ .الا�ص� :ا �ل� ا � ا ن� ٥ .الا�ص� � � :ن ��� ن ةس د و�. ل ة وو ل ر ل وة ن ةس ل سن ل نو ن أ
218
218
٢،١٤٨
On a remark made by Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb
misfortune of being subjected to torture by a ruler who wished to bring about a slow death, in order to make him suffer woefully from the torture, he would be quick to rule that he should do that which he had previously rejected, and take a fast-acting poison or ask to be relieved of his life. Similarly, if his children and family were subjected to something he found abhorrent, he would prefer to die rather than to see it happen. So how else could something loathsome come to be readily chosen as desirable, and something deemed bad be deemed good from the perspective of reason, unless things are as we have described? The answer to this question has thus emerged clearly, and it has been made
147.8
plain that all those things that are bad at one time but not at another cannot be attributed to pure reason and to its timelessly valid primary judgments, and indeed that the terms “bad” or “good” cannot be predicated of them absolutely. Rather, they must be ascribed to natural dispositions and acquired customs, and one may then say: x is bad under such-and-such conditions, or good given such-and-such factors, in a restricted, not in an absolute, manner, and without attributing this to pure reason. People have discussed the reason why communities should be governed by the principle of levying blood money on the clan of an offender. The reasons why it is good are evident, particularly as the foregoing question has elucidated them and has clarified the right view to take on similar points of confusion.
On a remark made by Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb concerning the possibility of uttering something that is completely false versus something completely true Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb said in response to Abū ʿUthmān al-Jāḥiẓ’s work,
148.1
The Square and the Round: Nobody can say something false that contains no truth of any kind, whereas one can say something true that contains no falsehood of any kind. Miskawayh’s response If truth and falsehood pertain to that specific type of the divisions of speech designated “statements,” and statements are what logicians call “declarative” utterances—that is, utterances that convey information—and if those divisions are as discussed by practitioners of that craft, statements can indeed be purely
219
219
148.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�ي ي ّ أ أ � ن ا �� ن ا هي ن ا نّ ا ��نل ي � ن �� � ���ا ن�� ي� ا �ي��س�ا �م�ه ��ه� ا � �� � � ن�كي��ه ا � ن�ل �ع او �أ��د �وك� ���ا ا ��م�ل ���د ه ل� �ن��ر ��د �ي���و� ��س� �ع� �أ� � �ل��م �عملي� ي ي� أ �يًا ��م ن ًا ن ن ن �ن ح � ن �ع ا �� ّ ا ل�ن ا �� ي حن ��ً�ا ��ند �ً�ا ��م �كم� �ي�� ��� � .او � ك� ���د � ح � ���ا � � �� ن� ا ��م�د ن � ن��د ��و��� ن� �ي� ل� � � � � � ���د �� و ��� ن أ ن نّ ن � ّ � � � ي�ّ ّ � � � �م�ل��� ا �عم�ل��ه ��ا �ل� �ع��ر �م ح��م� �ل�ه �و�ل� �م� � ���ند ن� أا ��ل�� ن�ع�ي�ر �م�ا �عر�ن�ه �ه�أو�ل��ء ا �� �لي �عو� �وي� � � او � � �� �ل��� �عم�لي��ه. � ي ي و أ ل ي م م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�ًا ّ أ ن ً اأ � ي ن ن ً ي� �� ي ل�ن ن ا ا� اأ � هي �� ���ا اأ� �� ن ���د ا ��ل�م�ن �ل ّ ه � � � � � � � ��ر� �ي� ���د ه �م��س� �ل� � م�� ل س � ��ا لي���� �و�سر ا �يل� ���ا ن ن�� �وا �نل���ا را � �وي�ا ��ا �ل ر ن و ري ن ي� � أ ن ا �� �ن � ن ّ ا ��ل�م�ن ّ ي � � ن ا �� ن �ن ا �� �ن ا ن � هي ا ��ل ا �� ي � �كي�م�ل �لن��� ن��� ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء �م�ا �م�سن��� ��س���و� ل����� ل�� � ��مل� أ �� ل� ���د �� ا ن� ��و ر�ي��د ل�مل�� ل���ي� ن�ل� ي ّ ن ن ا ن ��� ن ن � � ي ن ن� � � � �و �ل �عور��� �ع� ا � ����د ن�؟ ���ي��ا �ل ا ����م�ل�ه ل��ي� � �لم�ك �ي��� ي� �و��ي�� ي�.
١،١٤٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ نّ ي �ن �� ن �ن ا �� �ن ا ن ي � ��ا ن �م ن ا ��نل � �م�يع �ً� ح�م�ه ا لله أا ��م�ا � � ��س��� ا ل����� ل�� � ��م�ل�ه أا �ل�� �م�ا ك�� � � �ن� ر ن ��و�ل� �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر أ ّ ن � � �ي ن ا �ي ّ ان �� � � ن ا ن � ن ن ّا � � �م ّ�م�ا ا �يكي� ن� ا � � ن � � 1و�م�ا ا� �ي �� �ن � أا �م� ن� ��ون��و ن ��� ه � لي�م�ل م� �نر��� � اأ�و أا ك��ع ��و�ي �� أ��د �لمك �أ� � ا �ل ������ م � � ي نّ أ أ أ � ن � � ي� ن �ل�� ��م�ا ��ل�هي ي�ر�ّ ه � �وي�ا �ن�ا ه � او ن ���� نّ ���ا � ح ن� ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه أا ��م�ا ا را � �م ن� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه ك��ي��� ���ا ر ي� � نّ� ا ي�مي ي � �ي ا ��نل ا ّ هي نّ � ن ن حّ ك � ك�� �ن �� ��ل �يّ ��ا �� �لي �ع ��ل ا�ا��س ��سم� � .ن�ا ن��ل � � ا �لن ��ن���� � � ��� ��� ا�� � �� �وا ن� أا � ا �ل ������ أا �م� ر ر � ��س��� أا ل�� ا ��� ن و ر ل ��ي ا ن � ا اأ �ع ن ا ا �� هي ا � �ّ هي �� �لًا ��لم��ليّ ��لي�� �� ه �� � � �� �ل ا �ا� ا ي�ّ�� ي � � � ���د ه �ا�م�ا ��� ��� م� نل��� ��ي� أ ن�� ل� �ر�وي� ��م ن�� � حر��� �و���و�ل� �رك� � �� �ي ن�� �و��و�ل� ��م ن � ً � ن �� ي � � أ� هي � � ن ي ّ هي � ّ ي ���ا ن�� ي � ّ ح��� اأ�ل ن ح��هي �ي�لنع��د ا ن��ل ���ا ا �ل � ح��ا هي .ن��ا ��لن ��ن��� �نل���د ه ا ��ل � � � � ي ي حر���ه ا �ل�د ا �م� ا �ل�د ا �لي�� ي ك� � ي ي ح��ه ن�لم�ل � م أ ً �� ن � اي ��� ي ن � ن ن � ن ي ّ ي � ا�� ي � ن ا ن ي ي ن ن � � ي ا ن ���د ه ا ��ل ح�� ه ��هي� ا لي حر���ه �م� ا �ل������ �و �هي� � ا �لي��ه �ل��� �كم �مل�� � .او ��� ����ر�� � �لمك � ير�لن�� �م� أ نّ� � � ي ي أ ن ي ّ � � ا ن � ّ ي � ن� �� � ي � �أنّ ا أ ً ّ ا ّ ي ا أ � ي �ن � ن �� هي ل ه ه � ل � � � ا ا ا ا � � م � ده ل � � � �� �د � � � � س � � ح � � م � � ل � ل ل�� �م� ا �ر� �وي�ه � او � �ل� � � � ل و ي� � ن أ روي ن ا ��مك �ل� � �ل��د ر ا � ���� ���م � ��ر � ّي أ ي ن � ي � � ني أ أ ن ا� � ا ا�م ً ��ن � � � أ� ي ��ل � � ح ��� ��هي �و���د ه ح����و��� ٢ا �و �سر� �وي�ه ن�� �لمل�ه ل�ي� ا�م�ع� �عو�ل �ن�ل� ك ��ور ا �ن��د ا� .و���د �لمك �هي� � ا �م�ه ا �ر أ أ أ ّ ن � ن ��هي أا ن��م�ا ��ه� �يلم�ل�ي��ا ء ا �س �م�ا ا �عن�� ��ه أا ���ا ��هي ا ��ل ��ل ح ��� � �يّ ن�أ�ا ن� ا ا ���ا ن�لي��ه ��س�� �� ي� �م ن� � ��لم�ك ا � ��و ن��ه � ن ن � ر ا �ر � ي ي ن أ �و��ل�� ي� ن ار ��ل ي�مي�� ّ � � ه ا �� ��ي ي� ح�يّ �يل����� ا ��ل ��يّ � ن � � �م�� �ن أا ���ا ن�لي��ه �من����ا �نأ�ا � ا ا ���ا ن�لي��ه � حرك � ي ن �� م� ا ���ون �و ي� � أ ن ن أ ّ ن ��� ا �ة� الا�ص�ل ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ن��ا �لة����ة �ة� �ل��ل���وا ��س. 1ك
220
220
٢،١٤٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�ي ي ّ أ أ � ن ا �� ن ا هي ن ا نّ ا ��نل ي � ن �� � ���ا ن�� ي� ا �ي��س�ا �م�ه ��ه� ا � �� � � ن�كي��ه ا � ن�ل �ع او �أ��د �وك� ���ا ا ��م�ل ���د ه ل� �ن��ر ��د �ي���و� ��س� �ع� �أ� � �ل��م �عملي� ي ي� أ �يًا ��م ن ًا ن ن ن �ن ح � ن �ع ا �� ّ ا ل�ن ا �� ي حن ��ً�ا ��ند �ً�ا ��م �كم� �ي�� ��� � .او � ك� ���د � ح � ���ا � � �� ن� ا ��م�د ن � ن��د ��و��� ن� �ي� ل� � � � � � ���د �� و ��� ن أ ن نّ ن � ّ � � � ي�ّ ّ � � � �م�ل��� ا �عم�ل��ه ��ا �ل� �ع��ر �م ح��م� �ل�ه �و�ل� �م� � ���ند ن� أا ��ل�� ن�ع�ي�ر �م�ا �عر�ن�ه �ه�أو�ل��ء ا �� �لي �عو� �وي� � � او � � �� �ل��� �عم�لي��ه. � ي ي و أ ل ي م م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�ًا ّ أ ن ً اأ � ي ن ن ً ي� �� ي ل�ن ن ا ا� اأ � هي �� ���ا اأ� �� ن ���د ا ��ل�م�ن �ل ّ ه � � � � � � � ��ر� �ي� ���د ه �م��س� �ل� � م�� ل س � ��ا لي���� �و�سر ا �يل� ���ا ن ن�� �وا �نل���ا را � �وي�ا ��ا �ل ر ن و ري ن ي� � أ ن ا �� �ن � ن ّ ا ��ل�م�ن ّ ي � � ن ا �� ن �ن ا �� �ن ا ن � هي ا ��ل ا �� ي � �كي�م�ل �لن��� ن��� ا ����م�ل�م�ا ء �م�ا �م�سن��� ��س���و� ل����� ل�� � ��مل� أ �� ل� ���د �� ا ن� ��و ر�ي��د ل�مل�� ل���ي� ن�ل� ي ّ ن ن ا ن ��� ن ن � � ي ن ن� � � � �و �ل �عور��� �ع� ا � ����د ن�؟ ���ي��ا �ل ا ����م�ل�ه ل��ي� � �لم�ك �ي��� ي� �و��ي�� ي�.
١،١٤٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ نّ ي �ن �� ن �ن ا �� �ن ا ن ي � ��ا ن �م ن ا ��نل � �م�يع �ً� ح�م�ه ا لله أا ��م�ا � � ��س��� ا ل����� ل�� � ��م�ل�ه أا �ل�� �م�ا ك�� � � �ن� ر ن ��و�ل� �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر أ ّ ن � � �ي ن ا �ي ّ ان �� � � ن ا ن � ن ن ّا � � �م ّ�م�ا ا �يكي� ن� ا � � ن � � 1و�م�ا ا� �ي �� �ن � أا �م� ن� ��ون��و ن ��� ه � لي�م�ل م� �نر��� � اأ�و أا ك��ع ��و�ي �� أ��د �لمك �أ� � ا �ل ������ م � � ي نّ أ أ أ � ن � � ي� ن �ل�� ��م�ا ��ل�هي ي�ر�ّ ه � �وي�ا �ن�ا ه � او ن ���� نّ ���ا � ح ن� ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه أا ��م�ا ا را � �م ن� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه ك��ي��� ���ا ر ي� � نّ� ا ي�مي ي � �ي ا ��نل ا ّ هي نّ � ن ن حّ ك � ك�� �ن �� ��ل �يّ ��ا �� �لي �ع ��ل ا�ا��س ��سم� � .ن�ا ن��ل � � ا �لن ��ن���� � � ��� ��� ا�� � �� �وا ن� أا � ا �ل ������ أا �م� ر ر � ��س��� أا ل�� ا ��� ن و ر ل ��ي ا ن � ا اأ �ع ن ا ا �� هي ا � �ّ هي �� �لًا ��لم��ليّ ��لي�� �� ه �� � � �� �ل ا �ا� ا ي�ّ�� ي � � � ���د ه �ا�م�ا ��� ��� م� نل��� ��ي� أ ن�� ل� �ر�وي� ��م ن�� � حر��� �و���و�ل� �رك� � �� �ي ن�� �و��و�ل� ��م ن � ً � ن �� ي � � أ� هي � � ن ي ّ هي � ّ ي ���ا ن�� ي � ّ ح��� اأ�ل ن ح��هي �ي�لنع��د ا ن��ل ���ا ا �ل � ح��ا هي .ن��ا ��لن ��ن��� �نل���د ه ا ��ل � � � � ي ي حر���ه ا �ل�د ا �م� ا �ل�د ا �لي�� ي ك� � ي ي ح��ه ن�لم�ل � م أ ً �� ن � اي ��� ي ن � ن ن � ن ي ّ ي � ا�� ي � ن ا ن ي ي ن ن � � ي ا ن ���د ه ا ��ل ح�� ه ��هي� ا لي حر���ه �م� ا �ل������ �و �هي� � ا �لي��ه �ل��� �كم �مل�� � .او ��� ����ر�� � �لمك � ير�لن�� �م� أ نّ� � � ي ي أ ن ي ّ � � ا ن � ّ ي � ن� �� � ي � �أنّ ا أ ً ّ ا ّ ي ا أ � ي �ن � ن �� هي ل ه ه � ل � � � ا ا ا ا � � م � ده ل � � � �� �د � � � � س � � ح � � م � � ل � ل ل�� �م� ا �ر� �وي�ه � او � �ل� � � � ل و ي� � ن أ روي ن ا ��مك �ل� � �ل��د ر ا � ���� ���م � ��ر � ّي أ ي ن � ي � � ني أ أ ن ا� � ا ا�م ً ��ن � � � أ� ي ��ل � � ح ��� ��هي �و���د ه ح����و��� ٢ا �و �سر� �وي�ه ن�� �لمل�ه ل�ي� ا�م�ع� �عو�ل �ن�ل� ك ��ور ا �ن��د ا� .و���د �لمك �هي� � ا �م�ه ا �ر أ أ أ ّ ن � ن ��هي أا ن��م�ا ��ه� �يلم�ل�ي��ا ء ا �س �م�ا ا �عن�� ��ه أا ���ا ��هي ا ��ل ��ل ح ��� � �يّ ن�أ�ا ن� ا ا ���ا ن�لي��ه ��س�� �� ي� �م ن� � ��لم�ك ا � ��و ن��ه � ن ن � ر ا �ر � ي ي ن أ �و��ل�� ي� ن ار ��ل ي�مي�� ّ � � ه ا �� ��ي ي� ح�يّ �يل����� ا ��ل ��يّ � ن � � �م�� �ن أا ���ا ن�لي��ه �من����ا �نأ�ا � ا ا ���ا ن�لي��ه � حرك � ي ن �� م� ا ���ون �و ي� � أ ن ن أ ّ ن ��� ا �ة� الا�ص�ل ٢ .الا�ص�ل :ن��ا �لة����ة �ة� �ل��ل���وا ��س. 1ك
220
220
٢،١٤٩
On why excellent souls find repose in the truth and find falsehood repugnant
false just as they can be purely true. If Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb takes a view of truth and falsehood that is different from what these people are familiar with and have spoken about, then I know nothing of the matter and cannot speak about it.
On why excellent souls find repose in the truth and find falsehood repugnant In this question you mentioned a question quoted by Abū Zayd al-Balkhī, the
149.1
answer to which he also reported. Abū Zayd al-Balkhī the philosopher said: A philosopher was asked, Why do excellent souls find rest in the truth and find falsehood repugnant? He said: The reason for that is as follows . . .
Miskawayh’s response Excellent souls find rest in statements that are acceptable, either as a result of a powerful conviction or necessarily as entailed by a demonstrative proof. Anything that does not fall into this class inevitably meets with rejection and refusal in the soul. I believe that the person who posed this question meant to ask the unqualified question: How does the soul find rest in the truth? The answer is as follows. The soul carries out its proper motion—that is, the roving of reflection—so as to attain the truth it pursues. But for its pursuit, it would not move, and but for the motion it carries out, it would not be alive and impart life to the body. The soul is alive through this perpetual, essential motion. We are immediately made aware of this by the fact that we are incapable of making it halt reflection and thought for a single moment. For it is always either reflecting on and roving over sensory things, or reflecting on and roving over intelligible things, without ever ceasing. It is thus perpetually in motion, and this motion is directed toward a certain object, that is, the attainment of the truth. Once it attains it, it finds rest from that aspect. It never ceases moving until it has attained the truth from all the aspects from which it is possible to attain it. Once it attains it, it finds rest; for the end of every moving thing is to come to rest once it has reached the end it was
221
221
149.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�ن ي � �أ نّ ن ي ��ّ �ممي�� أ ن �ن �ع ن�د � �ل ن� ه ا ���ن� ا � هي ا ���ي ي� ّ ا ��ل ا � �����م�ّ � �ي�ي �ن حّرك ا � ي� � ��� .و لك ل ع� ��س���� �ل� � �عم� �ي�ه ���ل ��س��� � نلم �وع� �� ي� �ي� حرك أ ي� ً ًّ أ � ن ّٰ ي � ن �� عور ن���عي��د ا ن���د ا ا �عم� �ن�م�ك ا لله �����ا �ل�� �عم�لي��ه ن�لم�ل��ط�ن��ه. �م ن� ���د ا ا �لأ�ي��م�ا ء �عم�ل�� � �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � ن �ّ ن � ��ا � ن �ي��ا ��ل ا � ح ���ط �ا� ���ا ر ا ��ل ح����د ن� ن �عن��د ا ����و ّ���ا ن� ل��ن� �م���ا ��ا هي ا ن��ل حي �� او � ي�لي��و�ل��د ل��ي� ا �لن�نس�ا ي� ي � ي م � � ي �ّ� � ن ا ي �ن �� � ا ن اأ � �ي يي �ّ� � � ي ل�ن ا ��ل��شم�� ي � � �ي ن ي ��شم�� ي ل�ن � ا ن ل �و�ل� ي�ل ��و�ل�د ا �ل�نس� � ل�ي� ا حي ��و �؟ ي� �د �ل ��و�ل�د ا �ل�د �و�ه �ي� نحره �و�ل� ���ن�� نحره �ي� حي ��و � �نل��� ا�� ي ن� ح ن�؟ م م
١،١٥٠
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ٰ ّ � � ن � ي ا � ل�ن � ��ل � � �� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ا ��ل �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� �و� ا �لن�نس�ا ي� � او �لن�نس�ا ي� �و�ه أا �� �و ن � حي �� او � يح��نج �ي� �و ن � و � ي �ن ن � � أ نّ �� � � ي ا �ي �ن � �� � �� � ن ��ش ي� ��� ح� ا ن اأ ��� ��سً�ا �م ن ل ل � � �ل� ي� �و�ه أا ل�� �و ن � ح��نج ل�ي� �و ن � �و� ا حي �� او � � .او �ل��سن�� ن� ل�ي� � �لمك ا � ا ي �و � ر رين � ّ أ أ أ � ن � ي �ن� � ن ا ي � � نّ �� ن ن ���و ن� ا ��ل � ا �� 1ا ن� ا �عن�� ا ��لن ��ن��� ا ��ل حي �� او ن�ليّ��ه �و�ل��د �لم�ك �ي� حي �� او � ا �ل�نس� � �ل���ه �سر�� ن� �م��ه �و�م� ن��و ر ر ي� � ي ن أ � � ا ن � � أش � ن ن � � ن ن ���ّ �ون�ه ن�ل��ا �يً�ا ش��ّ � ��هي ا ��ل ح��م�ل �م ن� ن�����د �ر��� ل��ي� ا �ّو�ل ي�� ح� ��و�ل ا �ر ا �لن ������ ل��ي� ا �لأ����س�ا � حي ��و �� .و ن أ ن مي ي ي ّ �ن � �ن ن � ن ��سي ي � نّ � ن ي ن ا ا ن � � س ه � � ا ح � ا ا ا � � � ء � أا ��م�ا �ي���و� ن�����د ا � ���س�� �� ل�ي� ا �ر � ���وره ا ل�نس� � وي �و� �م�د �ه ���د ن� �ع�� ك م � أ نً ي �� حيّ ن ي �� �ي �مّي � هي � � أ ّ ه م ش ي � � ان ي ي ن ا ا � � � ��م ل � ���ه ن����ر�و� ا �ل�نس� � �� أا � ا ا �كم�ل ا �يل� ��� ���وره ا حي ��و � ن��ر�و� ���مل� نرح�م ا �م� ��سن��ي� أ � � � ي � ّ ن � � � ي ي ��� ي� �يلم�ل�ك ا ���� �و�ي� �و�ه� ا �ل���م�ل�ي ا �ل��د �� �يلم��ل �ي ا �ل���ّ �وي� ح��م�ل ي� ��ل�ه ا ��لن ��ن��� ا ��ل �و� حي �� او ن�ليّ��ه � �ل� ��ل ح ّرك � و ي � ر � � م ّ � ن � ن ن � ن ن �مي ل� ه � ي � ه � � ن �� ي�� ن ي ن ن ن ا ��� ��ل��د �لم� ن نن �ل � �م� � او ع��د � �ن� �و�ل� ا �كم�ل �كي��ه � ��وره ير ل � ه او ء � � �وي�ل ������ ل��ي� ا �ل� � �� .أ�ا � ا �رجن حر�وجن �و ج � ن � أن ي أ ش � � � ي � � ا � � ا ن ا نًا � �ي ي ا ّٰ �ي� ا �ل� ّ ن ي ش ا �ل � حي �� او � أا �ل�� ا � �ي�لعن�م�ل ا �ر ا �لن������ ا �ل ن��ا ��ط���ه �� �ي � �كم�ل نل��� �ويل���ي ر أ ���س� �� نل��د ره لله ��� �� م ّ � � � طن� � ل� �و�ل�� � ح��مي��ه ن�م�ل ا ��س�م�ه. ً � ن أ � ن أ نّ � � � ي ا ن � �ن ا اأ ��� �� اأ �ي ن ا � ن ا ي �� ن � � � ا �م ن ا ��ل � � �و�ه � �د � ل��ي� �و ن�� � حي �� او � ا ع��ي� ا ��ه �ل� يح��جن ن �� �ل�نس� � �كم � ��ر� ن م�ط �و م و و � أ � � ن ن � �ين � ا ّي ن � �أ ن ح ا هي ا �� ��ي �ي�ا ي�ل��ه �م ن � � ا ��ل ا� ا ��ل �ه�و �ي ك� حي �� او � � � أا �ل�� �و ن��و � ل���ي� ن�م� � ��ه �م� ا �ل�ر��� � او �ل�ه� او ء � او�م� ء � او �ر ر ي� ي � أ 1الا�ص�ل :ن�و�عر.
222
222
٢،١٥٠
٣،١٥٠
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�ن ي � �أ نّ ن ي ��ّ �ممي�� أ ن �ن �ع ن�د � �ل ن� ه ا ���ن� ا � هي ا ���ي ي� ّ ا ��ل ا � �����م�ّ � �ي�ي �ن حّرك ا � ي� � ��� .و لك ل ع� ��س���� �ل� � �عم� �ي�ه ���ل ��س��� � نلم �وع� �� ي� �ي� حرك أ ي� ً ًّ أ � ن ّٰ ي � ن �� عور ن���عي��د ا ن���د ا ا �عم� �ن�م�ك ا لله �����ا �ل�� �عم�لي��ه ن�لم�ل��ط�ن��ه. �م ن� ���د ا ا �لأ�ي��م�ا ء �عم�ل�� � �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � ن �ّ ن � ��ا � ن �ي��ا ��ل ا � ح ���ط �ا� ���ا ر ا ��ل ح����د ن� ن �عن��د ا ����و ّ���ا ن� ل��ن� �م���ا ��ا هي ا ن��ل حي �� او � ي�لي��و�ل��د ل��ي� ا �لن�نس�ا ي� ي � ي م � � ي �ّ� � ن ا ي �ن �� � ا ن اأ � �ي يي �ّ� � � ي ل�ن ا ��ل��شم�� ي � � �ي ن ي ��شم�� ي ل�ن � ا ن ل �و�ل� ي�ل ��و�ل�د ا �ل�نس� � ل�ي� ا حي ��و �؟ ي� �د �ل ��و�ل�د ا �ل�د �و�ه �ي� نحره �و�ل� ���ن�� نحره �ي� حي ��و � �نل��� ا�� ي ن� ح ن�؟ م م
١،١٥٠
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ٰ ّ � � ن � ي ا � ل�ن � ��ل � � �� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� ا ��ل �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� �و� ا �لن�نس�ا ي� � او �لن�نس�ا ي� �و�ه أا �� �و ن � حي �� او � يح��نج �ي� �و ن � و � ي �ن ن � � أ نّ �� � � ي ا �ي �ن � �� � �� � ن ��ش ي� ��� ح� ا ن اأ ��� ��سً�ا �م ن ل ل � � �ل� ي� �و�ه أا ل�� �و ن � ح��نج ل�ي� �و ن � �و� ا حي �� او � � .او �ل��سن�� ن� ل�ي� � �لمك ا � ا ي �و � ر رين � ّ أ أ أ � ن � ي �ن� � ن ا ي � � نّ �� ن ن ���و ن� ا ��ل � ا �� 1ا ن� ا �عن�� ا ��لن ��ن��� ا ��ل حي �� او ن�ليّ��ه �و�ل��د �لم�ك �ي� حي �� او � ا �ل�نس� � �ل���ه �سر�� ن� �م��ه �و�م� ن��و ر ر ي� � ي ن أ � � ا ن � � أش � ن ن � � ن ن ���ّ �ون�ه ن�ل��ا �يً�ا ش��ّ � ��هي ا ��ل ح��م�ل �م ن� ن�����د �ر��� ل��ي� ا �ّو�ل ي�� ح� ��و�ل ا �ر ا �لن ������ ل��ي� ا �لأ����س�ا � حي ��و �� .و ن أ ن مي ي ي ّ �ن � �ن ن � ن ��سي ي � نّ � ن ي ن ا ا ن � � س ه � � ا ح � ا ا ا � � � ء � أا ��م�ا �ي���و� ن�����د ا � ���س�� �� ل�ي� ا �ر � ���وره ا ل�نس� � وي �و� �م�د �ه ���د ن� �ع�� ك م � أ نً ي �� حيّ ن ي �� �ي �مّي � هي � � أ ّ ه م ش ي � � ان ي ي ن ا ا � � � ��م ل � ���ه ن����ر�و� ا �ل�نس� � �� أا � ا ا �كم�ل ا �يل� ��� ���وره ا حي ��و � ن��ر�و� ���مل� نرح�م ا �م� ��سن��ي� أ � � � ي � ّ ن � � � ي ي ��� ي� �يلم�ل�ك ا ���� �و�ي� �و�ه� ا �ل���م�ل�ي ا �ل��د �� �يلم��ل �ي ا �ل���ّ �وي� ح��م�ل ي� ��ل�ه ا ��لن ��ن��� ا ��ل �و� حي �� او ن�ليّ��ه � �ل� ��ل ح ّرك � و ي � ر � � م ّ � ن � ن ن � ن ن �مي ل� ه � ي � ه � � ن �� ي�� ن ي ن ن ن ا ��� ��ل��د �لم� ن نن �ل � �م� � او ع��د � �ن� �و�ل� ا �كم�ل �كي��ه � ��وره ير ل � ه او ء � � �وي�ل ������ ل��ي� ا �ل� � �� .أ�ا � ا �رجن حر�وجن �و ج � ن � أن ي أ ش � � � ي � � ا � � ا ن ا نًا � �ي ي ا ّٰ �ي� ا �ل� ّ ن ي ش ا �ل � حي �� او � أا �ل�� ا � �ي�لعن�م�ل ا �ر ا �لن������ ا �ل ن��ا ��ط���ه �� �ي � �كم�ل نل��� �ويل���ي ر أ ���س� �� نل��د ره لله ��� �� م ّ � � � طن� � ل� �و�ل�� � ح��مي��ه ن�م�ل ا ��س�م�ه. ً � ن أ � ن أ نّ � � � ي ا ن � �ن ا اأ ��� �� اأ �ي ن ا � ن ا ي �� ن � � � ا �م ن ا ��ل � � �و�ه � �د � ل��ي� �و ن�� � حي �� او � ا ع��ي� ا ��ه �ل� يح��جن ن �� �ل�نس� � �كم � ��ر� ن م�ط �و م و و � أ � � ن ن � �ين � ا ّي ن � �أ ن ح ا هي ا �� ��ي �ي�ا ي�ل��ه �م ن � � ا ��ل ا� ا ��ل �ه�و �ي ك� حي �� او � � � أا �ل�� �و ن��و � ل���ي� ن�م� � ��ه �م� ا �ل�ر��� � او �ل�ه� او ء � او�م� ء � او �ر ر ي� ي � أ 1الا�ص�ل :ن�و�عر.
222
222
٢،١٥٠
٣،١٥٠
On a question put by Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb concerning animals
moving toward. These allusive remarks may open up a very wide vista to you. May God help you in this through His grace.
On a question put by Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb concerning why animals are generated inside plants but plants are not generated inside animals Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb confronted al-Jāḥiẓ with the following abstruse
150.1
question:46 Why are animals generated inside plants, whereas plants are not generated inside animals? That is, a worm might be generated inside a tree, whereas no tree grows inside an animal. Why did he not reply?
Miskawayh’s response Animals need plants for their existence, whereas plants do not need animals
150.2
for their existence. The reason is that animals are more composite than plants, because they are composed from the latter and from other substances, that is, the animal soul. This is why at the first stage of their formation animals are plants, the movement of animals emerging at a subsequent stage. The effect of the soul emerges in human beings after the vegetative form has been completed within the womb. While they are there, they draw their nourishment by means of roots that are connected to the womb of their mother and that resemble the roots of plants. Once the animal form is perfected as well and the animal soul emerges in them, those roots are sundered, which is what produces the labor pains that the mother experiences and that move the child out of the womb. Once the child emerges from the womb and breathes in the open air, he opens his mouth and receives nourishment through it. The animal form continues to be perfected within him until he receives the effect of the rational soul, and then he is perfected through it and he becomes a human being through the power of God and through the grace of His wisdom. As we have mentioned, plants are simpler than animals and prior to them in existence; that is, they do not need animals for their existence. The earth, the air, the water, and the heat they receive from the sun are all the material substance they need in order to be completed and to enter existence. For animals,
223
223
150.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �أ ن اأ ّ ا �� ن ن � �ي حيّ ي�لن ن ن ا ��ل ش���سم�� � ح�يّ ي� ي��ّ �وي� � �ه� �� .م� ا ل � حي �� او � ��ل� �ي ك �� ل���ن� ن�لي�م�ل�ك ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ��� �� ح��م�ل �و ن�� ���ا �� و � � ي أ � ا ا ّ ي أ ن م ين ن ن ��ا ن � � �يل��ن ��ا ��ل����س�ا �أل ���ط �م ن ا�ا�م�ا ء � ا ��ل�� ن�� � ا ��له� ا ء � ي� ي ح��ا ن� � � � ك � � � � � ا ا � أا �ل� ي��� �م� � ه ر� ���د وه أ � ك� � �ل� ي �ي� ن ن � و ر � و �و و ج ّ � �ن ا ي � ّ ن � ن� ن �� � ه �ي ا � ه �ن ا ن ا � ن �� �و�ه �و�ي�� او �م�ه ح�ي� ي��ن���د �وه �وي � �و�ه �ويح��ط �عملي�� ��و م� أ� � ك أا �ل�� ا �ل�نس� � ���ا � �و ن�� �كم�ل �و ن�� أ � � �ّ ّ ّ � � ا ��لن�س�ا ي� � ي��ّ ��ن����ره � ��ل�� ي� ي ���ا ن� �و ن� �ن�ا ��لن�نس�ا ي� ن��ا نر ا ن� ي�لي��و��ل��د ن�كي��ه� .و�ا�م�ا ك� ح��ا ن� أا �لي��ه ا� ي�لي��و�ل��د � و ي ي ن و ن م ج ّ أ نّ � � نم ن � � � ي ا � �� ه ا �� ��� هي � ن ن�كي��ه �و�� �� �ي�� ��ل��د ن�كي��ه ا ��لن�س�ا ي� ل��ن� ا ��ل ا ل ل حي �� او �� 1.م� ه � � �د � � ��يس��� � � � ح� ع ا ��ه �ل� ي���� و و�ل ي نج أ ي و ن و و ن ي ن ني أ أ ً ً � � � ً �ل� � ن ن � ن � ان ن ّ � � ن � ��ل�� �ي ن�لع��م� �ش�س��أ��ا ��ا ����ل� �و�ل� ��� �ع ا �ل����س�د ا �ل � حي �� او � �و���س�د �ه�و ل��ي� � ا ��ه .ا �م�ا أا ���س�ا �ه ا حي ��و � و ل ي ن �ي ا �� ي � ي ّ ا ا ّي ا �� ي ي� ن ن � � ن ن ن ن�م�ل ا � � ي ن ّ ي ّ � � � ���ه �سر� كي��ه �عر�و�ه ��ي� ي�م���� �نل��� �م� � ��ه ��ي� ح�� ��ط �عملي��ه � ا ��ه �و��ع�و� حي��ه أا �ل�� �م�ا �يل� �� ن ّ ي ن �ل� ي �ن � ن �ي ن� ّ �ي يّ ا � ه �ن �ي ن� ّ �ي يّ ا � ي �م ّ�م�ا ي�م� �م�ل�ل �م ن��ه �و�م��� ن� �سرن� �عر�و��ه ل�ي� �ن��د � ا حي �� او � ل�ر� ا �ل��� �ل� �و ل�ي� ل�ر� ا �ل��� �ل ��ه ل�ن �ن �ن� ه � ن� ا �ه ن ��أ �نّه � � � �د ا�ا� ا ء ا ��ل�� � � �أ ن ���د ن ا ��ل ّ ��� أ ّ ا � ن � ���ل ��ط � او �ل�ر��� ��ي� ���ل� ���ه � .او �م� ���ل� ��� �ي� ل ��س� و ��س� ��ل � �ل� ي ن�� م� ن ي � ا ّي ن ا نّ �ل� � ن � � ن � � �ي � ن� ه ن � ا �أ �� ي � ي ���ل ����ه � او �ل�ه� او ء ا �ل��د �ي� �م ن��ه ��� او �م�ه �و�م� � ��ه �أ� � ا حي �� او � �ل� ��و ن��د كي�� ���د ه ا �لن����س� ل�ط ا �لن�� ي ن � ن ن ن � أ�ي �ن ���ا �� ل��ي� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه. �ن�ا � �لع��م�ل �و���د ا ك
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�� � ا � يّ نّ� ��لي� � ا �� ن� ن ّ ن ن � ّ � ����ا ���ص�� �ي��س�ا � �� ا ��ل ن��ا �� ٢ل��ن ����م�ل� ا ���س�مي�� ء ح�� أا ��مك ن��د �س�� � ل��ي� �ع ن��ا ه � او�امي��و��م ��ط ي � ي� ن ن ن وي أ ً ي ل�ن �ي ّ �� ه ا �� ن� �ي � ل�ن � �ن �ش�سس هي ا � � ي � ا � ا ّ � � � �� ه � �يع �ي هي � �ين ي �ي� ��و��م��� �و لع��ي ر �ي� ��ره �عم�ل�� ي�م� �و ��ده ؟ �و م� ه�و �و �ل�؟ �و �م�ل ل� ح ي��� ؟ ���د �ن � أ �� � ا � ن� ن� ��نل ا أ ن ن ن� ���ش � � ح ����ا ��ل �يّ � او ��لن��ا ����م� � او �ل � � ��ل�� � ا �ل ن��ا ��� �عم�لي��ه � او � �و�� ا�� �ل���� ك��ه � �� � ���� �ل � ل �ل��رع ا �� � ي� ي أوّ ر م ّ ي � � �ن ا��ن � ن ن � ��ا ن� ا ��ل�� ند �� ����ش�يس�ه ن�ع�� �مم�� ي ي � او �ل� �� او ن� � او �لأ����ا ��ل�هي ن�كي��ه� .ن � ي ي ن ير ح� �ع� �ن�ه � او �ل��د �ي� �ي��د �����ه �ع�ي�ر ��س� ��� أا �ل�� ن ن � � � ي ن ���د ا �و�ي�د ي�ّ�م ي� �م ن� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �ن�ه � حي�م�ل �عم�ل� ا �ل ن��ا ���� .و�م��ي� �و���ن� ي� �عم�ل� ���د ه � �����ه �أاو �نل ����ا �ل�ه. � � ا� اأ � ي �ي ن ي � ن �� � �ي ا �أ ي �م ن�ع ش � �لن � �م�س ن� ��ل��� �ن ا ن � ا ل ا�م��س� �ل�ه �و���� م� ا ��س � ع � � � ح � � � � � ل ���� .و��م�ل �م� ي����ر�� أا �ل�� ن�� �نر � �� ي ن ري و � ي أ ن ن � � � ا�ن � ّ �يّ � �ا�م�ا � ن ���س�د � ٣نل ح��ا ن� � ��ا �ل��د ن� ن� � ن � �� يري��د ا ��م�ل؟ �و��م�ل ي���سل��� �مش�م�ل ���د ا ل��ي� ا�ام�و ن� � � و ن� ي ي و � م ع أ أ أ ن� ا �ل ا ن � � ن ّ ن �� ا �ل ن���ا ��س ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ولم�ا ة�� ش��س�د. 1الا�ص�ل :ة� ���ةو � ل ك ��ا � ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :س�ن� ن
224
224
١،١٥١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� �أ ن اأ ّ ا �� ن ن � �ي حيّ ي�لن ن ن ا ��ل ش���سم�� � ح�يّ ي� ي��ّ �وي� � �ه� �� .م� ا ل � حي �� او � ��ل� �ي ك �� ل���ن� ن�لي�م�ل�ك ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ��� �� ح��م�ل �و ن�� ���ا �� و � � ي أ � ا ا ّ ي أ ن م ين ن ن ��ا ن � � �يل��ن ��ا ��ل����س�ا �أل ���ط �م ن ا�ا�م�ا ء � ا ��ل�� ن�� � ا ��له� ا ء � ي� ي ح��ا ن� � � � ك � � � � � ا ا � أا �ل� ي��� �م� � ه ر� ���د وه أ � ك� � �ل� ي �ي� ن ن � و ر � و �و و ج ّ � �ن ا ي � ّ ن � ن� ن �� � ه �ي ا � ه �ن ا ن ا � ن �� �و�ه �و�ي�� او �م�ه ح�ي� ي��ن���د �وه �وي � �و�ه �ويح��ط �عملي�� ��و م� أ� � ك أا �ل�� ا �ل�نس� � ���ا � �و ن�� �كم�ل �و ن�� أ � � �ّ ّ ّ � � ا ��لن�س�ا ي� � ي��ّ ��ن����ره � ��ل�� ي� ي ���ا ن� �و ن� �ن�ا ��لن�نس�ا ي� ن��ا نر ا ن� ي�لي��و��ل��د ن�كي��ه� .و�ا�م�ا ك� ح��ا ن� أا �لي��ه ا� ي�لي��و�ل��د � و ي ي ن و ن م ج ّ أ نّ � � نم ن � � � ي ا � �� ه ا �� ��� هي � ن ن�كي��ه �و�� �� �ي�� ��ل��د ن�كي��ه ا ��لن�س�ا ي� ل��ن� ا ��ل ا ل ل حي �� او �� 1.م� ه � � �د � � ��يس��� � � � ح� ع ا ��ه �ل� ي���� و و�ل ي نج أ ي و ن و و ن ي ن ني أ أ ً ً � � � ً �ل� � ن ن � ن � ان ن ّ � � ن � ��ل�� �ي ن�لع��م� �ش�س��أ��ا ��ا ����ل� �و�ل� ��� �ع ا �ل����س�د ا �ل � حي �� او � �و���س�د �ه�و ل��ي� � ا ��ه .ا �م�ا أا ���س�ا �ه ا حي ��و � و ل ي ن �ي ا �� ي � ي ّ ا ا ّي ا �� ي ي� ن ن � � ن ن ن ن�م�ل ا � � ي ن ّ ي ّ � � � ���ه �سر� كي��ه �عر�و�ه ��ي� ي�م���� �نل��� �م� � ��ه ��ي� ح�� ��ط �عملي��ه � ا ��ه �و��ع�و� حي��ه أا �ل�� �م�ا �يل� �� ن ّ ي ن �ل� ي �ن � ن �ي ن� ّ �ي يّ ا � ه �ن �ي ن� ّ �ي يّ ا � ي �م ّ�م�ا ي�م� �م�ل�ل �م ن��ه �و�م��� ن� �سرن� �عر�و��ه ل�ي� �ن��د � ا حي �� او � ل�ر� ا �ل��� �ل� �و ل�ي� ل�ر� ا �ل��� �ل ��ه ل�ن �ن �ن� ه � ن� ا �ه ن ��أ �نّه � � � �د ا�ا� ا ء ا ��ل�� � � �أ ن ���د ن ا ��ل ّ ��� أ ّ ا � ن � ���ل ��ط � او �ل�ر��� ��ي� ���ل� ���ه � .او �م� ���ل� ��� �ي� ل ��س� و ��س� ��ل � �ل� ي ن�� م� ن ي � ا ّي ن ا نّ �ل� � ن � � ن � � �ي � ن� ه ن � ا �أ �� ي � ي ���ل ����ه � او �ل�ه� او ء ا �ل��د �ي� �م ن��ه ��� او �م�ه �و�م� � ��ه �أ� � ا حي �� او � �ل� ��و ن��د كي�� ���د ه ا �لن����س� ل�ط ا �لن�� ي ن � ن ن ن � أ�ي �ن ���ا �� ل��ي� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه. �ن�ا � �لع��م�ل �و���د ا ك
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�� � ا � يّ نّ� ��لي� � ا �� ن� ن ّ ن ن � ّ � ����ا ���ص�� �ي��س�ا � �� ا ��ل ن��ا �� ٢ل��ن ����م�ل� ا ���س�مي�� ء ح�� أا ��مك ن��د �س�� � ل��ي� �ع ن��ا ه � او�امي��و��م ��ط ي � ي� ن ن ن وي أ ً ي ل�ن �ي ّ �� ه ا �� ن� �ي � ل�ن � �ن �ش�سس هي ا � � ي � ا � ا ّ � � � �� ه � �يع �ي هي � �ين ي �ي� ��و��م��� �و لع��ي ر �ي� ��ره �عم�ل�� ي�م� �و ��ده ؟ �و م� ه�و �و �ل�؟ �و �م�ل ل� ح ي��� ؟ ���د �ن � أ �� � ا � ن� ن� ��نل ا أ ن ن ن� ���ش � � ح ����ا ��ل �يّ � او ��لن��ا ����م� � او �ل � � ��ل�� � ا �ل ن��ا ��� �عم�لي��ه � او � �و�� ا�� �ل���� ك��ه � �� � ���� �ل � ل �ل��رع ا �� � ي� ي أوّ ر م ّ ي � � �ن ا��ن � ن ن � ��ا ن� ا ��ل�� ند �� ����ش�يس�ه ن�ع�� �مم�� ي ي � او �ل� �� او ن� � او �لأ����ا ��ل�هي ن�كي��ه� .ن � ي ي ن ير ح� �ع� �ن�ه � او �ل��د �ي� �ي��د �����ه �ع�ي�ر ��س� ��� أا �ل�� ن ن � � � ي ن ���د ا �و�ي�د ي�ّ�م ي� �م ن� ا ��ل ن��ا ��� �ن�ه � حي�م�ل �عم�ل� ا �ل ن��ا ���� .و�م��ي� �و���ن� ي� �عم�ل� ���د ه � �����ه �أاو �نل ����ا �ل�ه. � � ا� اأ � ي �ي ن ي � ن �� � �ي ا �أ ي �م ن�ع ش � �لن � �م�س ن� ��ل��� �ن ا ن � ا ل ا�م��س� �ل�ه �و���� م� ا ��س � ع � � � ح � � � � � ل ���� .و��م�ل �م� ي����ر�� أا �ل�� ن�� �نر � �� ي ن ري و � ي أ ن ن � � � ا�ن � ّ �يّ � �ا�م�ا � ن ���س�د � ٣نل ح��ا ن� � ��ا �ل��د ن� ن� � ن � �� يري��د ا ��م�ل؟ �و��م�ل ي���سل��� �مش�م�ل ���د ا ل��ي� ا�ام�و ن� � � و ن� ي ي و � م ع أ أ أ ن� ا �ل ا ن � � ن ّ ن �� ا �ل ن���ا ��س ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ولم�ا ة�� ش��س�د. 1الا�ص�ل :ة� ���ةو � ل ك ��ا � ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :س�ن� ن
224
224
١،١٥١
On the nature of alchemy and why people are so enamoured of it
by contrast, those elements are not enough unless they are supplemented by another type of material substance that serves to nourish them. For the simple elements—water, earth, and air—are not enough, and they need plants to nourish them, to perfect their existence, and to preserve them in their proper state. Since they depend on plants in order to exist and be sustained, it is possible for them to be generated inside them; and since plants achieve their existence through other means and do not need them, they are not generated inside them. Were plants to be generated inside animals—even though they are not nourished by the latter and do not need them, and even though nature does nothing in vain or in error—this would expose animals to destruction, and they themselves would be destroyed in their own being. It would expose animals to destruction because of the need plants have for a base in which they may distribute their roots, through which they absorb the material substance that preserves them in their being and that replaces those of their parts that dissolve. Were they to strike their roots inside the bodies of animals, the latter would disintegrate, and when the body of a living being disintegrates, it perishes. The plants themselves would also perish because they would not find the simple water, earth, and air that sustain them and provide them with their material substance. For these simple elements are not actually to be found within animals. This amount of discussion suffices for the present question.
On the nature of alchemy and why people are so enamoured of it Why does everyone converge on the pursuit of alchemy? We that find the rich, the poor, and those neither rich nor poor share the same disposition irrespective of their level of material comfort. What is alchemy in the first place? Does it have any real substance? Long have inquiries into the topic been pursued, and people have said much about it; it is a battleground for truth and falsehood, errors, sound views, and incoherencies. Those who affirm it seem to lack conviction, and those who reject it seem unassured of their dismissal. What’s more, it has been used to deceive. To lay this question bare is to lay bare truths about a noble domain hidden from view and a topic subtle to grasp. Is there truth in what is ascribed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, and is there a basis for what is attributed to Khālid ibn Yazīd? Can such a thing be conceded with respect to something fabricated and contrived, concocted and wrought
225
225
151.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ي � �أ ن ن � ن � مي ي حي�م�لي � ا�ا�م�نعي�� ا�� ن ا��من ��ي ��ن� ن� ���د ا ا �ل���ش�سي��ن��ا ه ك� �م�ل��� أا �ل�� �م�ا �ير�ن�� ���ر��؟ �أاو � ا ا �ش�س��ن��ه ا �ل��س � �� و �م� ل ر ّع أ ّ � ي ن ني أ ن � � ��ل � ً ن حي�م�ل�ن� ي �له اأ� � ي ي ��ا �ل �و� ��أ �و��د ا �لي����� ا �ر�� ن� �و� ��و�م� ا �وا �ل � �و �ل�م�لن� ي� ي�؟ �����د را ��ي ي� �وراي�ل ن��ا �ن�ا ��س�ا ا � � ن � � � ي ي ي ي م أ ج أ أ ي ن �عم�ل�ه� ا ��� ن�لي ���د ا ا ��ل��ا � � ي ���ندي�لن��ه � .او ���� �ن� �م�ا ا ر�� ن�كي��ه ��ل�� �وهي ا ��ل � � � � � � ���د � � ���د��ي ش� � ن ن و ي� م ور ر ي� � � يّ نّ ا� ن � ي ا��ممي� �ّ ش ن�� � � ن ���ّند � ��ل ن��� ن ��ل�ه �� 1ا ��ل�ه � �ل���ن اأ ن� ��هن ن � م ا � � �� ا � ه ح ا� � �ه � �و��ل �ن� ��د � �ن��د �ره أ�و ي�م�ل ل� �عو � أ لأي�� �� أا � م� ن ي رع ن وي �هي� ن� ن ن ه � ن ن � ا ن � � �� ا �أ ا � � حن ��ط�� ن�ل ن��ا �ألم�ل. �وي�م�ل�� � �ع�� م� �ع�ي ر � ي�م�ل�� نل��� لم�ل �و ي ي
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
�� ي� أ ّ أ نّ � � �س ا �ن ن � � � ه � ّٰ أ ّ ا ّ � � � م��س� ����مي�� ء � م � ع � � � � � ����ا ��ر �ن�ي� ن� �و�ه�و ا �ل�هم� ح�م�ه ا لله ا �م�ا ��سن�� ن� ���م�ل ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ا ي ل وي ر �� �ل ا ن و � � ي أ � ا� � �نن ا �ي ح�م�� ا�ا� ي ��� � ا�ا� ش �ن ي ن ي ن ا� ا � �ل��� ن� �عم�ل ن� م�� � او ��ل ش����ه� ا ي� ا�م �� م��سرن� � او�من� ك ح�م�ل���ه ل��ي� ا�م� ��ل و ي و � � او �ل��ره � ��ي� ي يري و ��� ّع ع �� ش � � � � � ّج ن ا �ش� �ن ي ي � � � ا �� � ��م ّ � ي ل ا � ن � �لي������� ��� ن ا �ل �ه� �عم�ل� ا ن �م� ح��ه ا �ل����م ل�� ع � او �ل�� �� ر ��ي� ء ل�ي� �� ر � او �ل���س��ن��د ا � � او �ل � ��و � و ن م ن ي� � م ن � �ّ �آ أ ّ � � ن � ي ن ّ � � ن � � ن ن ���ه �ل��له�م�ا ��ا ا ء ن� ا ��ل�����س���هي� � .ل���� � �� ��م� ا �ل� ن� ح�مي�� � �لم�ك أا �ل� �ن�ا �ل��د �� ن� � او � �ل�� ح�مي�� ا�ام�ا ر ن� � نأر ن ي وي � ي و ل أ � ع ع أ أ ً ّ ّ ّ � ي �� �ن ن ن ي ���ّ ا �ن��س�ا ن ����ل��� ا �ن ��م�له�م�ا ح��م� ن� � ���د ا �من��ه�م�ا ���ي��د � � ه ح م ا ا ح�مي�� � � � � � � �عم�ل�� ا ح��ل � ���ا �و ��ل أ � ي � وو � ل � �أ ع �آ م أ ن � � �ن ّ ن نً � � �ي ���ش �يل��ا �م��ي �ه�ّ �ل��ا � ا ا ����ا اا � � � � � � � م م ع � م �ه�و ي�����د ���ا � � ار ���و�ل��ده �و �ل��و��ا ي� � ل � ك و ا�م� ر ن ل�� ر � � م ن � و ر � ع ش ّ ي ا � ي �يلم�ل ي ن �ن ا أ � � ن ا ��م ن ا ن� ن ن ��د � ن ا ��ل ح � ن �لي�� �ّ�م� ا ��ل� ن� ح ��س�د ��ه � ��� � �� ح�مي�� �م�ا � �� ح���ه �م� ن�� ��� ��ر�ن�ا ه � ي ي أ � ح��� .كن � ع ا �ل�د �لي�� �و � ن و ل � � ر ي ي ع أ � ً � � �نا � ا �ن ن ح � ن ن ّ � ش �له� �عم�ل�ه�م�ا ا ا ا ن م � � � � �� � � � � ا ا ا ا � � � � �وي��د ��� ن��مي� ل��سر وح� يل� ���د ��سن�� ن� ��مل ن� ل�� � ل�ه�م� و ر� � م ي� ��� نل�ه�م� � ع ع م � � � � �أ �� ي� شّ � �أ�ع ا �� ا ��ل� � هي � ���� � ��م ا ��ل�ه�م�ا ا �ّ�� ��ا �� ن �ش ي � ��ا ��� ار ي� ا � ك � ا �ل� �م� ل �عن�� � ل �����ي�ره �ور ��و ن� ا �ل��ه� او ل �و نح�� � � أ ي� ولي��� ي ��و ل أ ن ّ ن ن � �آ ن ي ا� ي ّ � ن أ � ش �هم ا ن ن �ل� � هي ا � ن�ع�� ن� ��لم�ك ش��ّ �ه�م�ا �م�� � ا ح�� و ير ��� � �ل�ل� �� � � او�م����سم�ل�����ي� � او ��م�ل ا ���ي��� �و �م� �م� ���د ه ا ن � ر أ ن �م�ّ ي أ م ��ش ن أا � � ح� ا �����م�ل ��ي� ء � او �ه� �و�ه. ن اأ �ّ ا �ي � � � ا � � �� ه � م�يع �ي هي ن ا نّ ا ��ل�� ش ا�ا�م� ي �ي أ ن ن أ أ ّ �ً� �� م� ��و�لمك م� ه�و �و �م�ل ل� �� ي��� �أ� � نح� ����ي��م ا � �لن��د ا ا �و �ل� �نل��م�ل �ه�و أ ن � ً�� � ي ن � حش�نس�ا �ع ن ��م �ه� � ���د�ن�ا ا ��ل��أ�س ن�ك��ه � ش ش��ّ ن��م�ا �ه�و � او ن� ا ن� م��س � ح��ا ن� �كي��ه أا �ل�� ا ن���د �� ي ل � �ل و و ن ر ي أ ج ّي ن ن أ �ش ي �� مي ّ ي ن ن ش ّ � ي �� ك ا ��ل ن��ا �� ل��ن �يلم�ل�ك ا�ا�م�ي� ّ�د �م�ا �ي ا ا ن � � � � � �غ�يسعي��ه �و� �م���د �م� � ك��ي ره ن � ي� ��س� �عي��ه� � .وي���ن���هي� ا � � ��ور� ��س�و أ ن ّ ش � ش ن ن ي � ��� � � �ّ ن �ن ��ا ن� � ٢م ن� �ير�و� �م� � او �مين� ل��ا �م ن� �مش�ن����ي� ا �ل� ن ا ه ن� ي � � ��س� �ع� ����د ا � ر� او ل�ي� � �لمك �م �ر�و�م ح� ي م ج أ أ 1الا�ص�ل :ن��� ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :ا �ة��ة���ا ن . ح
226
226
٢،١٥١
٣،١٥١
On the nature of alchemy and why people are so enamoured of it
by guile? And if matters are so ambiguous, how can we arrive at a position that removes doubt and guarantees certainty? I have known, as have we both, people who have changed and shifted their position as to whether they give or deny credence to this field. Its most curious aspect, it seems to me, is how sweet it is to speak about, how much it captivates speakers to touch upon, and how strongly people’s souls incline to it, so that even those who deny its credibility give it their undivided attention, lend a listening ear, and devote their minds to it, with no hope of benefit or profit.
Miskawayh’s response The reason why people pursue alchemy is manifest and clear—namely, that
151.2
they have a keen desire for all the various pleasures and appetites to do with food, drink, sexual relations, and other sensual amusements. The love of obtaining ever larger amounts and of having exclusive possession of things and the insatiable desire to amass and hoard are rooted in nature. Silver and gold are the only means to do this, for they are equivalent to any of the various objects of desire. Every person knows that when he acquires both, or one of them, he can acquire any of the countless possible objects of desire whenever he has a mind or will to do so. At the same time, he views them as provisions laid up for his children and for times of hardship when he is visited by the misfortunes and trials of the world. By means of these precious metals one gains access to all we have mentioned, and one repels every evil and tribulation. This is the reason why people seek and desire them keenly. One can only obtain them by facing many hazards, venturing on frightful undertakings, and braving arduous deeds, among other things—and even then, they are vulnerable to damage and to the brute force and depredations of others. By contrast, obtaining them in this way, through alchemy—supposing it stands up to scrutiny—would be the simplest and easiest thing in the world. The proper way to inquire into your questions “What is it?” and “Does it have a real substance?” is, first, to begin by asking whether something exists, and only afterward to ask what it is. If we inquire into whether it exists, we find that the matter is riddled with obscurities and requires one to draw on a large number of premises related both to nature and to craft. Therefore, before we proceed to examine them ourselves, we must adduce the doubts directed by detractors against those premises and the arguments offered by
227
227
151.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا� أ نّ ن آ ا ��لن ن ��� ن� ا ي ن يا ن ن حي�م�ل�ن� ي� ا�ا� ي�ي ّ ن ن � ن � ن ي �ن ن � � � ��� �و��د ا ��ر كي� م���د � ��و� �م� ا � �ل��ل� ��م���ه ل�ي� � �لمك � او�م�� �ر�و� � .او �ر �م� � أ � ن ن ��م� ا �ي ��� ّ ي� �ل��ّ �عم� �ل ����� �� ن ا � ���س�مي��ا ء � او �نل �����ا ��ل � �عم� �و�� ا �م� ��ا �نل���ا �ي ��و�� �م� ن�� أا �� � ا ك ���ن��د �ي� 1 � �� ل�� ن ل � ي ي أ يم ن� ّ � ن ّ ي �ا أ ن ً ّ ن ن ن� ّ � ���ا � ٢م��ر�و��. �ول����ا �ن�ه �م ش���ض�ه�ور ل��ي� � �لم�ك �ور� �عم�لي��ه �ح�م�م��د ن� ن� ر���ر�ي�ا ا � ار ر�ي� �ول���� �ن�ه ا �يل� ن أ � ح ا هي � ش ي ن ن ا �� ن ي � �أ�ش ن شّ ي ��س�ا �ع�ه � او �ل� ����ر�و� ٣ي�لن� ���م�ل�و�نل���ا. �� ��د �ش�س�ا ���د �ن�ا ل��ي� ا ��م�ل �ع� �س �نر�ا ن��م� �ع� ي���ن� ��و� ن ���د ه ل� ل�� ن اأم ّ ا ا� ن ن أ نّ � ا � ا � �أنّ ��ّل ن � ي ا ي � ن أ ن ا �ن � �� � ن � ي ا ن � �� �م� ا� � ع م � � � � �� � � � � � � � ا ا ا ا م ل م م � � � ن م � � � ع � � � � � � � ع � �� � � ل � ه ه ��س ل ل �و� و ن � �م � � � � �و� �ل�� أ ن � ل� �ل � �م ير �و� � أ أ ٰ ّ �� ن ن� ن �� ن ي ل��ن� ن� ��لم�ك أا �نل �����ا ��ل �من�ه � ح ن ار ي� ا �ل��ن�ن��ي��ا ء ��م�ل� او ي� ا لله �عم�ل� ي�ه�م أا � ك���ا � �م�ا �ي��د �ع� �و�ه �م�ل ن� ا �ل� �عي��ا � ي �ّ � � � � ا نّ ا ّٰ ه � نّ � ّ � ا �� �ي ا � �ي ن ّ ّ ن � � � � �و�ه�و �ل� يل�م� �� أو � لل عر و ن�م�ل ه�و ل�� � ر عم�ل�� مل ن� � �ع��د ه�م أا �ل� �عم�ل�� �ي��د ��ن�ي� ح�� ن ج أ ي ا ��ل�� �عي��ا ن� � �و ن� � نم �م�ل�و�كي��ه. ���ًّ � �� ح � ��سن��ن ن� ���� ن�ك���ا �ن نل ����ًا �ش�س�ا ن�ك�ً�ا � �ن� � اأ ي��ا � �لم ا ن ��ل � ح ���و ن� ن� حش�نس�ا �ع ن ن� ��لم�ك ن� � � � �م � � � ح ش� � � �و� ��ل ن ن و � ر ي� ر ي و ور � وي�ل يع وي ن ي جي ّ ن �� يّ ن �� ش ي ا� ّ ي ن ا �� ن نّ ن ن ي ين ن ���ده ���� �� ا ل �م� ��� �� � �و� ا �س�سره ا��سرن�� ���س�مي��ا ء �أ�ا � ���د ا �ه�و �عم� �ي�ه �م ن� ي�ل ���م�ل�� �م� �وه �م� ي �� ر أ ل�ن �ن نل ��� � ش � � ن � ن� �ّ ا � � ���م ��لأ�� ّ�� �ي��د �ع �ن�ا ��م ّ حّي��ه � ��ا �أ �ن�ا ح��هي �م� �ي� �ره �ون ح��ه �و�ل� �لن��ا �ل�ي� ن�����د � �لم�ك �م� م نل��ل ل � ور ن و �و ن أ ج �� ي ا ��� ّ هي �ن ن ا �� ن ن �� � � � � ي ن ن ن نن ا ��ل� ا ش�ل��ا �ي�ه ن� � له�و�� ا �و � �لعي��ه �عم�ل�� ��ر�ي��� ����ن��ي�� � .و ل�ي� ���د ا ل���ر ��ط�و�ل ��دي�����ه ا �ل ������ �لم� � أ� أ ن ن �ي � � � ي� ي � � �ن � ن ن� � ه ي ا � هي ن ن � � ش �كم� �ن���م�ل ن��ا ا ا ا ا ن ن � ��� ن� �م� �م� ��س ����� �كي��ه �م ا �ل�ي ن� �� ر �و� � �ل� ح�سممل�ه ���د ا ا � ل�� ���� ����ر� �ل� �م��� �ل� � ر � أ اأ � ي � � ا� اّ ع � ا � �� � ن ا أ ن � � ن ن � ن ا ن ن ا� ي ا � ي ي� ن ن � ا � ��لم�ك ل��� �م��س� �ل�ه ا �����د �ل �م� ���� �ل ا � � ��� ا � �ل�� �� � ���ل��م �كي� طو�ل �أاو � ا ����مل�� ���د ا ل�ي� ا�م��� �ل�ه � ��ي� ي � ن ن � ن � أ ّ ي ن � � �أّ � � �ّ ي � ّ ّ أي �و�ع�د �ن�ا �ل���ا �ن نل ���� �ن�ا �ن�ا ن� �م� ح� �ل ن��ا ��م�لي�يس�ه ا �لن��ع ن��ا ���ا �ن�ا �ل� ���ر ل��ي� ا�ام�ا �لي��ه �أاو � �نل ���م�ل ا �ل� �و�ل �نل ���مل� ن ر أ � ش ا �لن � � �م ا � هي ا �ل�� �ي� �ل� �� �ل� .
أ ن ن أ أش ة ����ة� نس. ��� ا �ة� الا�ص�ل ٢ .ط :و�� كا ن��� ٣ .الا�ص�ل :والا ك 1ك
228
228
٤،١٥١
On the nature of alchemy and why people are so enamoured of it
supporters of the craft who have sought to counter them—for they have had much to say on the subject. Ancient and modern philosophers have differed over this topic. Al-Kindī was the most recent scholar to have spoken against the validity of alchemy and refuted the claims of its practitioners; his book on the subject is familiar to all. Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī countered him, and his book is also well-known.47 Among the people of our times, we have observed a number of people affirming the soundness of this craft, whereas the majority deny its validity. The dialectical theologians, for all the different types who belong to their classes, are unanimous in denying its validity, alleging that this would nullify the miracles of the prophets, given that what the alchemists claim to be doing is changing one specific object into another. This is something that they believe can only be accomplished by a prophet; and it is God and not His creatures who has the exclusive power to change one specific object into another. Each party has arguments in support of its case, and we will provide a satisfactory examination of them and adduce the views of all parties. We will approach our inquiry into the topic with the aim to discover the truth rather than to reap the benefit one hopes alchemy will provide. That is the end pursued by those who philosophize when they examine and inquire; beyond that we care not whether it proves valid or invalid, so that we do not let the soul be deceived by blind desire and thus are led to affirm it by our wish and hope that it be valid or deny it for partisan reasons. This kind of examination would be lengthy, and, given the principle of concision we stipulated, the present book cannot accommodate it, but we shall devote a separate treatise to the topic as we did with the topic of justice when the discussion grew somewhat lengthy.48 Once we have carried out this task in the treatise we have promised, we may then go on to consider the question further. If the question of whether it exists has been answered affirmatively, we will continue by examining the question of what its nature is. If the first question is declared null, the second will inevitably be declared null as well.
229
229
151.4
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � ّ ن �� ي � � �أ�ل �عسش ا ن ��ل ا � ن � �ي �ن ي ي���ا ��ل ا � �وا ن� ا �ل�� نر�لي�� � او ل��د �وير �ل�ن�ي� �م� � ا ن�� ح����د ن� ن� �عن��د ا � ��و���ا ن� ل��ي� ن�� ح ��ط �م�ا ا � �ل�ر�� ن ّ � � ي ن �� � � ع �� نّ ي ا� ي ن ي �ن�ي� ن� ا�ام��س�� ���ا ����ي� ي� �و��ي�� ي�. �ه� � او�م���س��م�ل��؟ �و���د ا �ن�ي� ن� ا ن�ل� �وا ن� �و������ي� ��م�عي��ه ��� ن� م
١،١٥٢
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� �أ ا� ي ن ي �ّ ي ا �� أ� ّ � � ه � ّٰ ا� ي ي ن ي �ه�م �م ن� ا �ل����ور �سري�لن��ه را �أ��ده �عم�ل�� ا�م���س��م�ل�� �ي��د �لم�ك �� ل ا ن ��و �عم�ل�ي� م��س��� �وي� ر ح�م�ه ا لله ا�م��س��ن � أ ّ ّ ّ � � � ن أ ن � � ا � � ش ي �ي ا �ي ن ا ن ا � ش ي �ي ا �ي � �� � �لم�ل � ا �ل � ا �ن ي �� ا � ن ا � ه ا ن� ا � ش ي يّ �عم�ل�� � �لمك �ل������� � �أ� � �ل������� � م�ل �م �م�� �ي� ��و ��� ل��� �ل� � ��� ن ح�� أ �م� ي��� ��� �� ّ ّ � � �ن ي � � � �م ا � ي �ّ � ا� � � ن ن� �� �ن �ل���ش��ي��ي��ا �ي�ه �م�سن��� �و�ل�� �لي� � �� ����ل �م�سن��� �م ن� ا �� � ��� او ���� 1ل�ه �ل� �� �ل�ه � ا � � � � � � ل �م�ل���ه � �لم�ك و ي أ م � م ّ ن � ّ ُ� � � �ن � ا ن � ن ي � ّ � ن � ن ي ن � ن �ن�ا �أ��دهي� .و�لي����� �ي نل ��� نّ� ���د ا �ن�ا �ام�م�ي� نر �م نّ��ا �ن ك ��ي�� ن ��و � ��� ا �لم�ل���ه� .و�ام�ا ك���ا � ا ����م�ل�� أا ��م�ا �ي���و� ُ أ � ُّ � ا أ ن � ي � ن ه ُ� � ن�مي� �ن � � ن � ع ُ ّ � ح �لم�لن��ا ن� �و�م� ا م ل � م ��ه ����د �لم�ك �ي���و� ��ا �ل �م�ا �ش��نس�ه �ل�ه � او �ش��ي ��ي� �ل�ه ا ���� �م ن��ه ا و� ع � � � � ن ي ر � � م أّ � ي ن �� � �ي ا �� ل�ن ا �� ا اأ �ل ي ه ا �ّ � ا ن ا ي� ا ن ي �ّ ا �� ن� � ي �� ي ل ا � �ه� ��ل يل�� ل �ي� لن�� ن� ن �ه�م�� أ �ل� أ � ن�� �ور� � ل �س �ر�لن� � .او �م�ا ا�ام��س�� م � �ل� ��د �� أ �� � ن ي م � ّ ا � � ��م �ن ا �� �� ن� ه أ �ي ّ �ن ن ا �� ا ا� ا أ � �أ ا�ا�م ي ن� � ي هي ا�ا� ي�� هي ا �ل��س�د �و�م� ي نحر ي� نح ار ه � ل��ق�م� �ه�م� ���د ه �� ل �م��س� �لم�ل � او �ل����ور ���س�مل��� م��س ن � ع كي�� ا م�ل � ي ش ً � �أ �ي ن � ن ا أ� � �وا �ل���ا. ���ا �ن�ا �ل�ن��� او ن� ا ���ي� � ���ر�� ا � ���سن��ي�
٢،١٥٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ن ي � ً ن � �نمي ّ ّ � �م�ل��س�ا ��لن��� ن�� ا ��ر�أو��س�ا ء ن�كي��د ا �ن�� ا ��ل ���د��ي ش� ��ا ��م�ل�ه �عم�ل� ن���د ه �و�� �ل�ه �� ���قر� نم � ح� ���د �� ن���� ن� �ل�هم� ن ر � أ� ع أ ٰ ن ي � ا � �ن ن ن ّ ن � ني ��ا ن� ن ي ا � ّ ا ا ��ل �ل�ه� ل��ي� �رن� � او � ���د ���ا ء ا � �ي�ل �عو�ل ن���� ن� �سري�� �و�� �ل � او لله �م� ا � ر�ي� �م� ا �ل�د �ي� ����وع �لم�ل�ع� � ج م ي � � �آ ن ن �� �� ا �� ن� ن �ن � �ن � � � � ن � � � �و���د �لم�ك ا�ام�ا �ل �م�ا �ل ���ه� �و���د �لم�ك � �رجن �ه�و � ار �م � �وي�ل �عو�ل ا �ل��ر �كي��ه ن���ي��نس�ه �ه�و ��ل ل �و ل�رجن ن �� � ن � ي ا � ه �� ن � ن �يكي � ه م�ن ن ن ن �ن ح ن�� ٢كي�م�ل ���د ا �و��� ح�� يم�� م� �مل� � .وي حي�م�ل� �عو� ل��ي� ا �لن ������ �و�م�ا ن�����د���ا ��ل� �م ���د ا �ي ��و ن ن ع أ أ نة ��. 1الا�ص�ل :وا �� ٢ .الا�ص�ل� � :ا �ةو ن� ن
230
230
١،١٥٣
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � ّ ن �� ي � � �أ�ل �عسش ا ن ��ل ا � ن � �ي �ن ي ي���ا ��ل ا � �وا ن� ا �ل�� نر�لي�� � او ل��د �وير �ل�ن�ي� �م� � ا ن�� ح����د ن� ن� �عن��د ا � ��و���ا ن� ل��ي� ن�� ح ��ط �م�ا ا � �ل�ر�� ن ّ � � ي ن �� � � ع �� نّ ي ا� ي ن ي �ن�ي� ن� ا�ام��س�� ���ا ����ي� ي� �و��ي�� ي�. �ه� � او�م���س��م�ل��؟ �و���د ا �ن�ي� ن� ا ن�ل� �وا ن� �و������ي� ��م�عي��ه ��� ن� م
١،١٥٢
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� �أ ا� ي ن ي �ّ ي ا �� أ� ّ � � ه � ّٰ ا� ي ي ن ي �ه�م �م ن� ا �ل����ور �سري�لن��ه را �أ��ده �عم�ل�� ا�م���س��م�ل�� �ي��د �لم�ك �� ل ا ن ��و �عم�ل�ي� م��س��� �وي� ر ح�م�ه ا لله ا�م��س��ن � أ ّ ّ ّ � � � ن أ ن � � ا � � ش ي �ي ا �ي ن ا ن ا � ش ي �ي ا �ي � �� � �لم�ل � ا �ل � ا �ن ي �� ا � ن ا � ه ا ن� ا � ش ي يّ �عم�ل�� � �لمك �ل������� � �أ� � �ل������� � م�ل �م �م�� �ي� ��و ��� ل��� �ل� � ��� ن ح�� أ �م� ي��� ��� �� ّ ّ � � �ن ي � � � �م ا � ي �ّ � ا� � � ن ن� �� �ن �ل���ش��ي��ي��ا �ي�ه �م�سن��� �و�ل�� �لي� � �� ����ل �م�سن��� �م ن� ا �� � ��� او ���� 1ل�ه �ل� �� �ل�ه � ا � � � � � � ل �م�ل���ه � �لم�ك و ي أ م � م ّ ن � ّ ُ� � � �ن � ا ن � ن ي � ّ � ن � ن ي ن � ن �ن�ا �أ��دهي� .و�لي����� �ي نل ��� نّ� ���د ا �ن�ا �ام�م�ي� نر �م نّ��ا �ن ك ��ي�� ن ��و � ��� ا �لم�ل���ه� .و�ام�ا ك���ا � ا ����م�ل�� أا ��م�ا �ي���و� ُ أ � ُّ � ا أ ن � ي � ن ه ُ� � ن�مي� �ن � � ن � ع ُ ّ � ح �لم�لن��ا ن� �و�م� ا م ل � م ��ه ����د �لم�ك �ي���و� ��ا �ل �م�ا �ش��نس�ه �ل�ه � او �ش��ي ��ي� �ل�ه ا ���� �م ن��ه ا و� ع � � � � ن ي ر � � م أّ � ي ن �� � �ي ا �� ل�ن ا �� ا اأ �ل ي ه ا �ّ � ا ن ا ي� ا ن ي �ّ ا �� ن� � ي �� ي ل ا � �ه� ��ل يل�� ل �ي� لن�� ن� ن �ه�م�� أ �ل� أ � ن�� �ور� � ل �س �ر�لن� � .او �م�ا ا�ام��س�� م � �ل� ��د �� أ �� � ن ي م � ّ ا � � ��م �ن ا �� �� ن� ه أ �ي ّ �ن ن ا �� ا ا� ا أ � �أ ا�ا�م ي ن� � ي هي ا�ا� ي�� هي ا �ل��س�د �و�م� ي نحر ي� نح ار ه � ل��ق�م� �ه�م� ���د ه �� ل �م��س� �لم�ل � او �ل����ور ���س�مل��� م��س ن � ع كي�� ا م�ل � ي ش ً � �أ �ي ن � ن ا أ� � �وا �ل���ا. ���ا �ن�ا �ل�ن��� او ن� ا ���ي� � ���ر�� ا � ���سن��ي�
٢،١٥٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ن ي � ً ن � �نمي ّ ّ � �م�ل��س�ا ��لن��� ن�� ا ��ر�أو��س�ا ء ن�كي��د ا �ن�� ا ��ل ���د��ي ش� ��ا ��م�ل�ه �عم�ل� ن���د ه �و�� �ل�ه �� ���قر� نم � ح� ���د �� ن���� ن� �ل�هم� ن ر � أ� ع أ ٰ ن ي � ا � �ن ن ن ّ ن � ني ��ا ن� ن ي ا � ّ ا ا ��ل �ل�ه� ل��ي� �رن� � او � ���د ���ا ء ا � �ي�ل �عو�ل ن���� ن� �سري�� �و�� �ل � او لله �م� ا � ر�ي� �م� ا �ل�د �ي� ����وع �لم�ل�ع� � ج م ي � � �آ ن ن �� �� ا �� ن� ن �ن � �ن � � � � ن � � � �و���د �لم�ك ا�ام�ا �ل �م�ا �ل ���ه� �و���د �لم�ك � �رجن �ه�و � ار �م � �وي�ل �عو�ل ا �ل��ر �كي��ه ن���ي��نس�ه �ه�و ��ل ل �و ل�رجن ن �� � ن � ي ا � ه �� ن � ن �يكي � ه م�ن ن ن ن �ن ح ن�� ٢كي�م�ل ���د ا �و��� ح�� يم�� م� �مل� � .وي حي�م�ل� �عو� ل��ي� ا �لن ������ �و�م�ا ن�����د���ا ��ل� �م ���د ا �ي ��و ن ن ع أ أ نة ��. 1الا�ص�ل :وا �� ٢ .الا�ص�ل� � :ا �ةو ن� ن
230
230
١،١٥٣
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � ّ ن �� ي � � �أ�ل �عسش ا ن ��ل ا � ن � �ي �ن ي ي���ا ��ل ا � �وا ن� ا �ل�� نر�لي�� � او ل��د �وير �ل�ن�ي� �م� � ا ن�� ح����د ن� ن� �عن��د ا � ��و���ا ن� ل��ي� ن�� ح ��ط �م�ا ا � �ل�ر�� ن ّ � � ي ن �� � � ع �� نّ ي ا� ي ن ي �ن�ي� ن� ا�ام��س�� ���ا ����ي� ي� �و��ي�� ي�. �ه� � او�م���س��م�ل��؟ �و���د ا �ن�ي� ن� ا ن�ل� �وا ن� �و������ي� ��م�عي��ه ��� ن� م
١،١٥٢
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� �أ ا� ي ن ي �ّ ي ا �� أ� ّ � � ه � ّٰ ا� ي ي ن ي �ه�م �م ن� ا �ل����ور �سري�لن��ه را �أ��ده �عم�ل�� ا�م���س��م�ل�� �ي��د �لم�ك �� ل ا ن ��و �عم�ل�ي� م��س��� �وي� ر ح�م�ه ا لله ا�م��س��ن � أ ّ ّ ّ � � � ن أ ن � � ا � � ش ي �ي ا �ي ن ا ن ا � ش ي �ي ا �ي � �� � �لم�ل � ا �ل � ا �ن ي �� ا � ن ا � ه ا ن� ا � ش ي يّ �عم�ل�� � �لمك �ل������� � �أ� � �ل������� � م�ل �م �م�� �ي� ��و ��� ل��� �ل� � ��� ن ح�� أ �م� ي��� ��� �� ّ ّ � � �ن ي � � � �م ا � ي �ّ � ا� � � ن ن� �� �ن �ل���ش��ي��ي��ا �ي�ه �م�سن��� �و�ل�� �لي� � �� ����ل �م�سن��� �م ن� ا �� � ��� او ���� 1ل�ه �ل� �� �ل�ه � ا � � � � � � ل �م�ل���ه � �لم�ك و ي أ م � م ّ ن � ّ ُ� � � �ن � ا ن � ن ي � ّ � ن � ن ي ن � ن �ن�ا �أ��دهي� .و�لي����� �ي نل ��� نّ� ���د ا �ن�ا �ام�م�ي� نر �م نّ��ا �ن ك ��ي�� ن ��و � ��� ا �لم�ل���ه� .و�ام�ا ك���ا � ا ����م�ل�� أا ��م�ا �ي���و� ُ أ � ُّ � ا أ ن � ي � ن ه ُ� � ن�مي� �ن � � ن � ع ُ ّ � ح �لم�لن��ا ن� �و�م� ا م ل � م ��ه ����د �لم�ك �ي���و� ��ا �ل �م�ا �ش��نس�ه �ل�ه � او �ش��ي ��ي� �ل�ه ا ���� �م ن��ه ا و� ع � � � � ن ي ر � � م أّ � ي ن �� � �ي ا �� ل�ن ا �� ا اأ �ل ي ه ا �ّ � ا ن ا ي� ا ن ي �ّ ا �� ن� � ي �� ي ل ا � �ه� ��ل يل�� ل �ي� لن�� ن� ن �ه�م�� أ �ل� أ � ن�� �ور� � ل �س �ر�لن� � .او �م�ا ا�ام��س�� م � �ل� ��د �� أ �� � ن ي م � ّ ا � � ��م �ن ا �� �� ن� ه أ �ي ّ �ن ن ا �� ا ا� ا أ � �أ ا�ا�م ي ن� � ي هي ا�ا� ي�� هي ا �ل��س�د �و�م� ي نحر ي� نح ار ه � ل��ق�م� �ه�م� ���د ه �� ل �م��س� �لم�ل � او �ل����ور ���س�مل��� م��س ن � ع كي�� ا م�ل � ي ش ً � �أ �ي ن � ن ا أ� � �وا �ل���ا. ���ا �ن�ا �ل�ن��� او ن� ا ���ي� � ���ر�� ا � ���سن��ي�
٢،١٥٢
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ ن ي � ً ن � �نمي ّ ّ � �م�ل��س�ا ��لن��� ن�� ا ��ر�أو��س�ا ء ن�كي��د ا �ن�� ا ��ل ���د��ي ش� ��ا ��م�ل�ه �عم�ل� ن���د ه �و�� �ل�ه �� ���قر� نم � ح� ���د �� ن���� ن� �ل�هم� ن ر � أ� ع أ ٰ ن ي � ا � �ن ن ن ّ ن � ني ��ا ن� ن ي ا � ّ ا ا ��ل �ل�ه� ل��ي� �رن� � او � ���د ���ا ء ا � �ي�ل �عو�ل ن���� ن� �سري�� �و�� �ل � او لله �م� ا � ر�ي� �م� ا �ل�د �ي� ����وع �لم�ل�ع� � ج م ي � � �آ ن ن �� �� ا �� ن� ن �ن � �ن � � � � ن � � � �و���د �لم�ك ا�ام�ا �ل �م�ا �ل ���ه� �و���د �لم�ك � �رجن �ه�و � ار �م � �وي�ل �عو�ل ا �ل��ر �كي��ه ن���ي��نس�ه �ه�و ��ل ل �و ل�رجن ن �� � ن � ي ا � ه �� ن � ن �يكي � ه م�ن ن ن ن �ن ح ن�� ٢كي�م�ل ���د ا �و��� ح�� يم�� م� �مل� � .وي حي�م�ل� �عو� ل��ي� ا �لن ������ �و�م�ا ن�����د���ا ��ل� �م ���د ا �ي ��و ن ن ع أ أ نة ��. 1الا�ص�ل :وا �� ٢ .الا�ص�ل� � :ا �ةو ن� ن
230
230
١،١٥٣
On a question put by Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb concerning the difference between the words “indeterminable” and “impenetrable” Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb said in response to Abū ʿUthmān al-Jāḥiẓ’s book
152.1
The Square and the Round: What is the difference between the term “indeterminable” and the term “impenetrable”? The answer to this is plain, but I have adduced it here for such and such a reason. Miskawayh’s response Things that are termed “indeterminable” are one level above those that are
152.2
termed “impenetrable.” 49 This is shown by their etymological derivations. Etymological derivation occurs in a way conformable with meanings, for the one who performs it derives a word for every meaning from a term that necessarily agrees with it; otherwise, there would be no point in performing the derivation and no benefit in taking this trouble. We would not impute pointless activity like this to discerning adults, let alone to the institutor of language. Since the root term refers to the closing of a door, and since one may hope that a door that is closed can be opened, the same thing will apply to that which has been compared to it and has had its name or inflection derived from it. As for “indeterminable,” the root verb is only used to say that one has closed the door if one has not merely closed it but blocked it and the like, so the prospects are dimmer. This is how things stand with regard to questions and matters referred to as “impenetrable” and “indeterminable” by comparison with doors.
On the disagreements between jurists I once attended a social gathering of some eminent figures. The conversation raged back and forth over topics alternately grave and jovial, and then the attendees were challenged with the question: By God, it is beyond me how it is possible for one jurist to state that a particular pudendum is unlawful while another states that the selfsame pudendum is lawful. Yet a pudendum is a pudendum, just as money is money. Likewise with the taking of life and the topics that follow; one person says things that make it out to be obligatory to put a given person to death, whereas his colleague prohibits it. They
231
231
153.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ي ّ � ن �ي ّ � ن � � ا �� �لي��م ��يّ���� ن ا �� � �� ش ي ����يّ � ن ن ا ا� � ن �م � � ل � ا ح� مو� � � ا ل ��م ه � � � � ل ع ع ح� � ���د �ل� ��� ل � ه ه حي��ل�� �� ا�ا � ح ش��� �وي�� ل �و� � ن ي� وي ن �و� � �و� و � �و وي �و� م أ ج أ �� ن � � � ن ن �ي ن � ي � ن ن ن �ن � ي � ي ا ل�ي� ���ر�ي��� ا �ل�� �و�يلم�ل �و�لي����� ���د ا �م� ����م�ل ا �ل�دي�� � او ���ورع �و�ل� �م� ا ��ل� �� � �و�ي� ا ���ع��م�ل � �أ ن ن أ نّ ّٰ ي ا � ي ّ ن � �أ ي ن أن �ا � � �ن � � او ��ل�� ���د ا �و�ه� �ير�ع���و� ا � ا لله ����� �ل� � � � ح ل ��� ا �ل��ع�ل�� � � او �ر� � ��يسم�ل. ح� � � �د �ن�ي�� ا �ل� م و ن م م ّ �ا � ه ن�س ن ن� � ��ا ��ّ �م ن ا ������ا �ّ � ا�� ���ي ك �����ً�ا � ��ل�� ��ا ���سً�ا ا ��ل�� اأ� � ل��ي� ��نل � �م � ح ����ا �ن�ه. � ا � � م و م ي ر ر ن و ي ن أ وع ن و � � أ ن � ن �ا ن ا �ن ن ن اأ � هي � ���د ه ا �� �� �ا ���هي � ��أنّ �ا ي� � �م ا �� ن� �ي � � ل ا � � � ���ا ء م� ح � � � ع � �� ل ع � � ل س � ل ل ل �� � � � ل � ي � � � ي� � ر ل�� � يو ر �و���د ه �م��س� �ل� �ي � ن ن أ �ّ � ن � � ن �� نّ أ ي أ ن � ن ن ن � ي ��ّل ن � � ا �و �عم�ل� ا�امي� � �م �م�� ح�ن��� ا � �ي���و� ل��ي� ���د ا ا � ل�� ي� ا �ل ن��ا � ���ا ن� ن���� ن��� �م�ا �ي��د �ل �سري�� �لم�ل�دي�� ������ي� ا � ن � ��ا ن ّ ا ن� ه ن� ن ً� � ن ا �� ��� هي اأ ن� نً � ن � هي اأ �� �� ش �� هي ا ن � � ل � � � ا ك ا � � � ل �و� م� �عمي�� ��يس�� و م� � �عم�ل�� ���ول ل��س ير��� أو � ك� � ن�م�ل م� ي�� م� رو�عم م� ن ن � ن � ن ي أ ش ا ن� ا ��لي� ي ن ّٰ �ي ا �� � ن ي �ن �ّ ن ا � �ل��ل� ��م���ه � ا ���س� � ح �ر�ه �و� �و�ي� ا � �ل� ن��م�ل �م ن� ����ل ن������ �و�م�ل�ه �و�عم�ل�� ا لله ���� ل�� ن�لملو� و يج ن ن ع � � � � ي ��ع� ن ا �ل � ي � � هي � ن � ح��س�ده . ا �لأ�را �ه � او �ل��س�ل��م� م� �ل �
٢،١٥٣
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ّٰ أ ّ ا ي � � ن ي ا نّ ّٰ ي ا � ّ ن � �أ �ا � � �ن � �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � � ح � ه � � ل � � � � � � � � � ا ا ا ا ا ا م��س� ه ه ء ح � ل � � � م � � لل � � � لل � م ل ع � � � � � ��� � ل � ل � و أ � � و ن و ن ي� ن أ و �ي� ي م � � � ًا � � ا ًا ِّ �ن َ ي � �� � ل�ن ن � � هي ا �� �ي � ن � � ُ ن ا ي � � � ا �ل���ع�ل�� � �و ا� �ي� رك ر �� ��� �و�ل� �ي� ن���س� {أِالا ل�ي� ِ���� � �م نِ����ي�} ��ل م �ي� �عم ي� ل� ���د � ن ن ً ِ م م ً أ �� ن � � � ن ��ن � � أ ن ي � � ي ي أ ن ياأ �ي ن ا هي ا ��ل�م�ّ هي � ��ل�� ا ��م� ��ل�ه �م ن � � � � ل � � � ك ا ا � � � �� � � � �د � � ل �� ل � � �و�ل��� �ي� ح� � . � � � � م د � � ل � � ل ل � ك ن � � ي� � ر و وي يو ل � م أ أ � آ � � ش ي � ّ � ن� �� �عم�لي��ه ��ّ �ل�� ي ن� ا � �لي� ار ن� �م ن� �ي�ا �و�لم�ل �ير ن� �م�ل�و �م� � �لم�ك �م ن� أا ن�لن��ا ء �� أا �لي��ه ا �و �نل��� ن ����ا ��ر �ي�ل� ��ل ي م ع � ع ع � � ��ن� � ا ن � حن��ا ر�ع ّ�م�ا ��سم�ل�ن� �م ن� ا � �لي�ر�و ن� �و�مش�م�ل �ام�ا �ن��و�ع�د �ن�ه � او �ش�س�ا رهي أا ��ل�� �م�ا ن�لن��ي�م�ل ن� أا �لي��ه � �وي� ن��ن�يس�ه ن �ي� ن� أو أ ن ا ي ن ا �م��م�ل ي آ ن ي ن اأ ّ ا � � ن � ّ ن � � ن ي ا أ ن ي � ن ا ���ه ��س� ��س�ه � �لي�� �و ��ه ا �ره � �� .م� ا �ل�د ي� ����و �لمل� � ع� ��� ء ا � �ي�ل �عو��� او �عم�ل�� �م� �مم�ل �ن�ه �م� � ي ع ن ش ن �أ نّ ن � � ش يُ �� � نّ � ي ا � ن ا �� ن� ه ��م��م�ل هي ل��ي� ����ي� ء � او � �� ��� � ا �ل�� � كي�� ��د أا ��ه ��ل� �ل �و� ار �م ��ل� � � �لم�ك ا �ل����ي�ء �رك � او نح � ن �أ ن ا ا �� ه � ا ��ل ن ا �� ن ا اأ نّ ا � �� ي ا � � اأ ن� � ي�لي���م�ّلي � ��ا � �م��ي��س�ا � �ً�ا ح� ���و ن� ل��� ا �ل��� � � � � ���د ح � � م � � � � � ع � � � � � � ك � � ل ل � � ر� � � ل ن و و ن ي � � و � � ن ي ي م أ ن أ نّ � � ّ� � أ � � ن ن � ن ن � �أ �ا � ن � �أ �� � هي ح� ���د � ��� � � � ل� �ع�� ا �� ا �ع� ا ��ه � ��أ � � ا �ل ا �س � ا � �� � م� ا �ل����ور ا �� او نحن�� . �ي� �ل ي �و ي� أ �� ر و �كم ي �و� لمك �ي� ي ر �ل م ا ن ن أ نّ ّ ا ي �� ّ ن أ نّ ّٰ ن � � ��� �م ن حي����د ل��ن� أا ��� ��ه ا ل � � � ���د �� ��� �ر�لي��ه ا �ي� ل��ي� ا � ا لله �ي����ا �ل�� � او � � ن ل ن � نو�لي�� � ���د ا ا � � � ّ ي ي � ّ � � � �م ا � ي � ن ن � � ح�يّ��ه �ن�ا ن� �ع�د ��ل �ع ن ا ��لن ن� ���� ا �ل�م� � ا�� � ���ده أا � ا �و ل��� ا �لن ن� ���ر� � ن��م�ل � �وي�ا ه �و ا� حم� و ��د �و�ه�و �ل� �� �ل�ه ي ن أ ي � ر أ م ���مي�يّ � � ش ا أ � ي ي ن � ن � ��ن � � � � يجا �ن � � � � ح�� �ا � � � � � ا �لأ�ر��س� � ا �و ا ���ع� �ع �و�ه أا � �عم ���د � ��� ��� � .ا �� ح��� � ل ا �� � ي ن��د �م ���مل� �ون�ه � او �� ن ولي��� د لمك �ل ن � �ي� �ل م 232
232
٣،١٥٣
٤،١٥٣
On the disagreements between jurists
are divided by such troubling differences and pass rulings with odious willfulness, following their blind desires and appetites and wandering far and wide in their interpretations. This is not the way devout and God-fearing people should behave, nor is this the character one expects of people endowed with intelligence and learning. This is how they carry on, even as they assert that God made the rulings manifest, set up their indications, separated the particular from the general, and left “not a thing, fresh or withered” 50 that He failed to deposit in His book and incorporate into His address of mankind. This epistle is not the proper place for this question, as it directs itself to
153.2
the jurists or the dialectical theologians who defend our religion. But it was my wish that this book should contain something that points to the principles of the religious Law, even if the bulk of it is taken from nature and draws on philosophers of distinction, masters of empirical knowledge, and people of excellence of every type and creed. It is for God to bring what we will to fruition and to preserve us from envious backstabbing. Miskawayh’s response The jurists speak with the utmost truth and the greatest soundness when
153.3
they say that God made the rulings manifest, set up their indications, and left not a thing, fresh or withered, «but in a Book manifest». How could it be otherwise? For we are incapable of coming up with a single ruling that has no basis in the Qurʾan, whether by recourse to interpretation or by the categorical affirmation of an evident text; the Qurʾan also informs us about the transcendent realm, apprises us of events that took place centuries ago, offers us similitudes regarding the future life we have been promised, indicates the outcome awaiting us, and alerts us to the way we should act, whether in administering the present world or achieving our welfare in the next. It is possible for jurists to say that a single thing is both lawful and unlawful because this issue was left to the interpretive effort of human beings, in order to realize another advantage that accrues to human beings thereby, for interpretive efforts to determine the rulings are never alike, that is, they never lead to a single result, as is the case with other rulings that relate to necessary matters. To explain the point: In the interpretive effort to arrive at the truth concerning God, there is only one route for the interpreter to follow, and he will inevitably find it if he gives rational inquiry its due. If he veers from sound inquiry,
233
233
153.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�أ � أّ � ح���� ا ������ا �هي � �عم� ي��د �م���ا ��ل � ن ا ح���� ا �� نر�م�ا ن� �ون� ��ا � ي�لي�ن���يّ�ر ن� ح� �ل�� ن� ن���� ن�� ا �ل��� ل ر و � ا �ل�� ��� � ن ن أ أ� م � � � ن شج ّ ً ي � � نّ ا � � �� �ع�هي �عم ا ������د �� ا ��� �ن � ن ا ����ه ّ �ور��م�ا ك� � � � � ���ا ن�� ي� ا�م��م��ل�ه ا �لي ��و� ل��ي� ����ي� ء �و ن�ع�د ا � ح � � � � � � � ل ل �و ي� ن �ل� � �ل� آ م و و �� م أ ّ � ن ش ن � ي ن ي � ن ن ��ا ن ي � ن � � ��ه � ���ه�س � �م����س�ده � � .عم�ل ا � ا �ل� ن� ي ���ا � ا �ل��د �ي� ي ن� حر�ي� ل��ي� ����ي� ء ا �ر �وك�� ��� � �ري��د م��مل و رو ح� و� � أ � � � ي ن � ن ن � � � ا ن ن � � ن � �أ ح �� ا ��لي��ع ّ��د � ا ن�ي ا � � ا ي �� ا� ��ه ل�� ا �ل� ��� � ا �ل� ن� ي � �م ح�يس� ر ا �ل���� �ع�ه ا �و �ه���و�م م��مل ي� ر و ن و ح� ��� � � �ل���س�ه �ل� ل�ي� ا �ل��سر ن�ر ن ّ ن �ن أ أ � ن � أ نّ � � ح �����ا �����د ا ن� � �ليع� ن�ك��ه ا ��ل�� ن� ي �س �كي��ه ا �ل ا� � � ���ا � � ��و�ي����ه� .مش��ا �ل � �لم�ك ا � ا�ا�س ار � ح� يع ي � ن ا�م���مل�و ن� �لي����� �يل� ر �� ي ا � � � �� أ � �ي ��هي �نم�ل���� �لن ّ أ ن ن ��ا ن ا نّ��م�ا �ه� ا �� ��ا ن ���هي ��ا ��ل � ���ره � ا� � �سرن� ا � � � حر��� ي � ي � �م ن� ن� ���ره �ن� �ل���و ن�ل � أ �سر ا � يح�ط� و ر ن ي أ ن �� ن � ِِ � � ا ي � �أ نّ ن ن ��ا ن �ن � �ي�د اأ �س ��ا ��لن � ��ل�� �لن ن��ع� ا ن� �ل�������ا � ا � ك��ا � ل � ه ه � ل � � ا � ا � � ل � �� � � � �س � ع ح � � ك � � � � � � � ل ل � � � � ي ي ن � أو و ي ي� ر ن رن و أ ن ر يم ن � �ع�أ �� ي � � ��ن � � ن �ن ن � �ن ّ ّهي ن نًا ي ا � � ن ن ن ا ا ن � � � �لم�ك ا �ل��س � �ل��� ا ل � ح��ي�� ل�ي� � � ���ه� .و���د �لمك أا � � ك�� � حر���ه � او � �ري� � نري� � �ي�س� �و�� �ل �لمل�� ��� ر م � ن ��ن � ن ن ن ن ن � أ ن ن � � ن ن ي � ا ا ا ي � ���ه ل��� � �لم�ك ا � ي ن� ا ���م�لن ��وه ل��م ن� �و ن��ده �م�ل�ه ���د ا �وك�� � � ع � ���د ا �ل ن�� ��� �كي���ر�� �م��� ��ير ح� ر ي ي ا � � � �أ ًا �� �� ن ن� � هي اأ ن� � ن � � ا ��ل��د �ن�� ن �ن�ا �نّ�ه ��ل�� �لن �س ّ ��و ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا ��ل����م� ح���� � �ه � � � � ل ا ن� � � � ع م� ل � � �د � م � � � ع ع ه ل � � � � � ن ن ي و ر � ي ي ر و ي� أ ر ن م م أ أ ّ ن �ن ي ن � � � � �� أ � � �ن � ن � � ن ن اأ �ل ن��ً�ا ل�ن ن� ��م� ا ن ن ح�ط�� ا �ل�د � ي � �ي� ل ك � ي ي� �و�ل� ي�لن ��ع� ا � �يل��ي��ن��ه �أاو ��م�ا ا � �ل��ا �أ��ده ل��ي� ا �ل��م��ه� � او �ل���م�ل ن� ي � نع أ ً � ن � ح��م�ل ي� ��لم�ل�����ا �أ�لنعي��� ن ن� �وي��د � ح�مي����ا ا �عن�� ا �ل��دي� ن �و ن���د �وه � او �ل��دي� ن ا� ي ن� ���د �وه. � � � ي� ي م أ ن � � � � ا� ن ��س�ا �ن� ا ��ل�� ن� ي � � ��ش ي �ن ن ن � � ��ش ن ���د ا ا�نم ���ا � ا ي� � او �لن ن� ���ر ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ي ن� حر�ي� و ح� حر� ك���ي�ره ل�م� � �لمك ك���ي�ر �م� ن ن �� � � � ي � �� ء ن�ك ا � � ا ���ن� ��ن أ ن أ ي ا ل ا ن ��� و ن � مو� � �م��س�ا �لم�ل ا �����د� � او �ل����د��س�ه �و��س� �ر ا� � ��و�عم� � �لي����� �عر��� ا � � ح�كم ي� �و� �ر � ا � ن ن � يي ّ � أ ن ي ي ا ن �ن ن ا ���أ �ي��� �م ن ا ���مي��ن ��ق ا ن ش ي ا نّ ا � ���س �رل��� �أاو ��م� �س ار � ��هم ا � � �ر� ��� ا �ل������ �ن� �ل� ���ر �و�ل��ع�و� ا �ل��ن��ر ر �ل �� � ج � ن ن � � � ي � ّي ي � ن � � ا � ا ن� ��ا �عم�ل �من���ا ن� �م� � حم� � �و�لي����ي�ر ا �لن ������ � ا ي� �مم�ل����هي �و� ن�يس�ه �لم� نل�� � �عم�ل�� ا �ر� �وي�ه � او � ن�ل� � ��ر أ ري �� � ج ي ��ر ��ل ج أ ن � ن � ا ��ّ � ا ��ل����� ا ن� ا ��ل���ط� �لم� �و�م�ن��ا ري��هي ا ��ل ح����ق�ميّ��هي ن��ا ن� ا � ح��م�ل ي� ���د ه ا � �لن��ا �أ��دهي ��م�ي��د �ُو ن���د ��و � و ور أ ويل ي ً ن � ن ن � �ن � ن ن � �أ �ي � ��ا ن � � ّ ن �ن ن � � ش ا ا ه �م�ا ن� �� �م��هن ن ا ����ر��� ا �ل� ����� �م� ا �ل� ���ر ل�م� ك�� � �م� ا �ل��سرع �م��ر�وك�� �ع�ي ر من��ي�� � ر � �و � ن �� ح �� ا ��لن ن� ��� � ا � � ح���� ش��ّ �م�ا ���ا ن� ا ���ن�� ن�� ن�ك��ه � ا�م��م��ل�هي �م ن حي ا م � ���ا � � � � � ه � � � � � ح � � ك � � ل � ل � ن و و و � ن ي � و ر ر ���د ا ر ن� م أ ّ ّ �ّ �ن ن اأ ّ � ا ��ل ه ا � � ن ��م�ل�ه � ل�� �م�هي� 1.و��ل���� �ي�ن��ن��ن�ه ا ن� ي�لين��ه ��م�ل�ه ��� او ن� �وك� حي��ل�� �ن� ك� ح� � � � أ ي�� �ل� ح ن� ا �لأ�������ا � ي � ي� أ ً � ً � � � � ن ن ن �ن نل ��� � ا �� ح�� � ن � ش ا ن ّ ا� ���و� ��ل�� �ل�� ن� ���د ا � �ي� �م ن� ا �ل ش�����ء ا ��� او � �� �ر م� �لمك �� ل��ر ا �ل����� ����هي� �و� ار �م� نح�� ن ن ي ن � �أ �ا � �أ �� أ � � ن ن هي ن ا نّ ��ل � � �� ش � ّ هي � ح� � � ل م � � � � � ل � � � ا � � � ا � ا ا ا ا ع ل � � ح � � � � � � � ح ��س � � ح � � � �� � � � � � اون ل�ي� ح ي أ � ل ل و ر م �ي� �ل م و �ل �ور ر ي لي ��� ي ن ر ي� ن ر� أّ � ن ّ ن أ ا� ي ن ا ي ن ن ن � �أ �� �� ح ا ���ا ��ل�� ن� �يلم�ل�ك ��ل�� ي�����مي�� ا� � ��يس�عيّ��هي �و�م�ا ن�ر�� �ن�م � ����ي� ل��� ا �ل����ور ا ل ا �ل� � حي�مل� ن ر ���دي � ا �و م���� �� ي أ ّ ّ 1الا�ص�ل :ك�ل�� �صوا ن�ا وك�ل��ك��ص��ة.
234
234
٥،١٥٣
On the disagreements between jurists
he goes astray and loses his way, failing to find what he is looking for, and, if he stubbornly clings to his error, he merits instruction or punishment. This is not how things stand with the interpretive effort that relates to rulings, because some rulings change depending on the time, the custom, or considerations of human welfare. For rulings are posited on the basis of conventional justice, and welfare may be vested in one thing one day and in another the next, or something may serve the welfare of Zayd but undermine the welfare of ʿAmr. Yet insofar as interpretive effort has the status of a devotional exercise and is an act of obedience, or insofar as general welfare is served by inquiry and interpretive effort itself as against the object of pursuit, there is no harm if mistakes are made once the interpretive effort has been properly carried out. By way of analogy, the aim in hitting a ball in polo is to exercise by moving, and there is no harm done if one misses the ball, and there is nothing gained if one hits it, even if the umpire’s orders are to hit the ball, for the purpose in engaging in the activity is exercise through movement. Similarly, suppose a sage were to bury a treasure in the desert and say to people, “Search for it. He who finds it will get such and such a reward,” the purpose being that people should make an effort and that he should observe how much effort they expend, in order that this search, and not the discovery of the treasure, should benefit them. In that case, likewise, no harm would be done if the treasure were not found, and no gain if found. The benefit lies in the effort of searching, and both parties would realize that—that is, both those who found it and those who did not. Many kinds of interpretive efforts and inquiry follow this principle. This includes questions of arithmetic, geometry, and many other subjects. The philosophers’ purpose in pursuing these is not to achieve the utmost results. Their intention, rather, is that the soul should be trained through inquiry and should become accustomed to persevering in properly conducted deliberation and thought, so that it acquire a disposition and settled aptitude for prolonged thought and for separating itself from the senses and from corporeal things. The ultimate purpose of inquiry has been achieved if this benefit is realized. Those aspects of the Law left undetermined and not fully elucidated answer to the same principle; the purpose they achieve and the welfare they serve lie in the inquiry and interpretive effort alone. Beyond that, every conclusion that the disagreements of jurists lead to is correct and judicious. People should not be amazed that one and the same thing could be deemed lawful by al-Shāfiʿī and unlawful by Mālik and Abū Ḥanīfah. For “lawful” and “unlawful,” as these
235
235
153.5
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� أن � ن �ش ���د �من���ا ��ل�� ��لً�� � � ا �مً�ا ا � �ي���و� ا �ل����ي�ء ا � �� او � � ور � � �� ي ا � ��ل ن �سرن� ا � � �س نر�ل ن��ا �ل�ه ا�امش�م�ل �م ن� ن� ن� ��ا � ���ره �ن� �ل���و ن ا �ي ي �ل� ن ��س�ا ه. ���
أ ��ا ��ل�� ن اأ� ��شم ن ح���� ن ا � �عم� �م�ا �� � ل و �� ي� و � ي� نح�� ن � � �ن �� �و� � �ن�� ن ا ��ل ح��ي�� �عم�ل�� ا ���و ن��ه ا �ل��د �ي� �و�و ن�� ي� م
�أ ن �ن � � ن� ن ن � � ا �ي ن �ن ن �� �ن �ش� � ن أ � � �ن � او � ا ك� ح� ���ا ن� ا �ل���سر ����د �لمك كي���ن���ه �لمل��� م�ل أا � ا ل��ر ل�� ��� ء م� ا � ��ا �م ا �ل ش��سر �وك���ا � ي ي � أ ع �ً � ي آ ن أ � أ ن ن ن �ي أ ن أ ّ ن � �ا � ه � ا � �أ�ن � ن ح��ا ا ا ا ا ي � ���ا � ح ن� ا ن� ��� � �ل�ه ا � ي�ل� ���ر ا �ع��� ا ��ه �ي���و� �عم �م� �ن� � �ل� ار � � او � ح �� م� �ون� �ل� ن ر ح� ي � � حم� هي اأ ن حم� هي ا ��ل ن� ن ا�ا� �ّهي ا � � حي���د ل�ن ا ��لن ن� ��� ش��ّ ح�سيم�ا �عم� ي ا �ل�م� ا �ل�م� � � � � � � ه � � ح � ن م � � � م � �� � � � �س �� � � س � � � �� ي و � روي و �ل ي � ي ن � �ي� ر م ي �ل ن أ � ن ي ّ ن ن ن � ي حي���ا �ه ن� ��لم�ك��� � .ن���� ه ا ن� ا ك���ا � ل�� �مش�م� �س ����ي��ه �م ن ا�ام�� ��ه ا � ي� ي ���د � �وي��ه�مم�ل ن��م�ا �ي ��أو� �ي�ه ن و ير أ ح� ا ن� � ي� ل ر ن � ر أ � � �� ��ا �� �لن�ً�ا ��ل�ل��أ�ّ ��ل � ا �ش�لي�ً�ا ��ا نّ� ا ن� ي أا ��ل��ه ا ن� ي ���ا ن� � نم ���ا �ه � او ن� ك� ���ا �ه �ه�و ا�ام���م�ل�و ن� �م ن��ه �و�ل� ن� �سرر ح� ح� ي و و ن أ ن �ن � ن � ّٰ ّ �ّ � أ ن � ن ن � � �أ � ن � � �ن � ن ن ن ن ا ن ن � � � ل��� ا ل طور �كي��ه �م� �ع�ي�ر ���د ا ا �ل� له� أا �ل� ا � �ي���و� � �لمك ا �ل��سر ا�م� �� � �سرن� ا �ل�د ي� ��ل� �� ا �لم� � ي م � ن ا ن ن ا � � �أ ش ا � ش � �أ � � ي ن � ي � ا ي �ل� � ن �يّ � � �ن ن ن ا � ح��ي�س� ه �و� ��� �ه�و أا ��� �ن�ه ا � �� �ل� �ع�ي ر �س نر�ل�� �ل�ه ا �ل��م�� �ل �م�م�ل ا �ل�� ��و�ل ا � ��ي� �عم �ي�ه ا �ل� ���ر �كي� أ أ آ ّ ّ ن � ه �ن ن �� � � ّ ن � أ ّ � �� ه �� ن �� ا ن ي � � ي ن ن ن � �أ�ا � ���د ا �م ���م�ل ن� ا �ر �و�ل� ل��ر �ل� �ن��د ا � ي ��و� ي� أا لي�� � .و �كم ا � ا �ري� � ���ه ا�ام���م�ل� �ون�ه �نلن� �سرن� ا ي �� ي نّ � ��ا ن ي � �أ ا ��ل�م�ّ هي ش�ّ ا� � ن ّ �� � �� � ا ن هي ��ل ن ��� ��ا � �أاو ��� �ن�ه ا � � �سر ن���د ح���ول ا � �ري� � ���ره أا ��م�ا ك�� ��� �ل� ن�م�ل �� � �م يل� ا �ل��� ن و أ أن أ � �أ ن � م أ ا � ي � � ي ا ا ��ل�م�ّ �ن � ��هي ك� �رهي ا ��ن�� ن��ا ���ا ا � ا � ح �����ا �ن�ا ���ا �ن � ��ي ��ن� ن�ر�� ا �ل��سر ل��ي� ا � ��� ���د �لم�ك1 ���� ح��مل� �نل��� � ي م أ آ ّ ّ � � � �� �يّ ن�ك��ه �����نس�ه ن��ا ن� �مش�م�ل�ه �م �ش ��ا ��ل ل��ن� ا �� �� ن��ه ا �ل�� ن� ا �عن�� ا ��ل�� ند �� �ل�� ���د �م ن أا ���ا ��هي ا � �ل � م � ال ي و ر ي� ي ن � ي ني أ ل ن � � �ن � � ّ ن � �ّ هي �م ن ا ا �لي ه ��� ن ه � ا ن� ا � ا �� � � � ن ن � � � � �ن ���د ا �ل��د �ي� �ل� �ن��د ل��ي� ���م�ل ن� ا �ل�م�� � أ ��� ن �� ن ي��س� و ر ن ل�د � و� �ع�ي ره و�ل� ا � �ل�� أ جأ م ش ن � ّ ي ن ن ن ���د � ن ا ��ل���� � �لي��� ن �م ن ا ��لن ن� ���� � ا �ع �����ي�ه�م�ا �ي��م ����ه�م�ا ي�لن ��ع� �م ن��ه ����ي� ء �ع�ي�ره� .أاو � ا ح� � ��م�ل� ي � ري ي� � ر و ي � ع ن ن � � � �� اأ � � �م ن ا ��سي�م��� ن ا�� ���� ن�� ��لم�ك ا ���� � ا � �عن���ا ا ي ن ي � � ل ه � � � � ه ا س � � � م � ح� ل � � ح � � � � س م�� � س م م م � ل � � ك ك ن ن ي � � ي ير م ي ر � نو ن ي � و رنج ّٰ حم�ً ن �م� � ��ا أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. ي
أ ن ��� �ل�ك. 1الا�ص�ل :وك
236
236
٦،١٥٣
On the disagreements between jurists
pertain to rulings and legal matters, do not have the status of contraries or contradictories as when they pertain to natural matters and the like. It is not impossible that one and the same thing belonging to the former class should be lawful or unlawful depending on the circumstances or the persons involved, or in the way we illustrated through the examples of hitting a ball with a stick or of discovering the sage’s buried treasure. If this is correct, then when an intelligent person examines any of the rulings of the Law—assuming that he is capable of making an interpretive effort and has the competence to conduct such examination, which is to say that he has knowledge of the Qurʾan and its rulings, and of sound hadith, of transmitted prophetic practices, and correct instances of scholarly consensus— he must make an effort to examine matters and then act on the basis of that interpretive effort. Other people with a similar level of learning can make an interpretive effort and act on the basis of whatever conclusion their interpretive effort leads them to, even if this conflicts with the conclusion of the first party, in the confident knowledge that interpretive effort is what is required of them and that there is no harm in disagreement. The only possible exception is if the matter under examination does not fall in the class we mentioned and illustrated through different examples—for instance, when it concerns principles with regard to which the end of examination is to arrive at the truth and nothing else, for that forms a different object and involves a kind of examination which must necessarily lead to it. Just as the exercise of swinging the stick and hitting the ball is done for the sake of our health, and, once healthinducing exercise has been carried out, it does not matter what happens to the ball—whether one hits it or whether one misses it—so it is with this second aspect, that is, the one in which it is necessary specifically to arrive at the truth itself. It resembles bloodletting, which one must specifically get right and let the blood, as opposed to any other treatment, if health is to be achieved, and bloodletting alone can help. Once you have grasped these two modes of examination and discriminated between them appropriately, you will no longer be amazed by what you reported in your question, and you will perceive the soundness of my response, God willing.
237
237
153.6
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
�ي ا � �ن ا ��ل ش ي � ا�� ا ن� ا �ع �ن ي ا ������ا �ّم�هي ��ا �� ا�ا�مم�ل�ك ل��ن ا �لش��ا ا ��لم�ل��نّد هي � ا �نله�م�ا ���� ه ل ه ا � ه � � م �� �� � � ع � ��� ل ه س س � م أ ر� � � ل ل و� �� � و و ر ي� أي ر ي� ً ً ً � ّ ن �ً � � � � ي ن ن �ه� �� ا ��لن ��ن��� ا � ي ���ا � ��م�ن��ا ك� ������ا ن�� ي� �ن�ه � او � ك� ���ا �لم�ل��د �م�ا ء �كيّ��ا �ل�� �لم�لن ن�� �عو��� ن ���م�ل�و�م�ا �لم�ل ن��ا ��� �س �ر�ل� و � أ ي � ��ل �ّ ن ني ن � ي ن ح�م� ي اأ ��� ا �ن ا �م ن ه � ا ش ا ي ن �� ن ا � ي ��� �� ؟ م� ������ �ه �لمل��ه�م �أاو � ا �عر�� �م��ه ا ���ع��م�ل � او � �ل���م�ل � او ن��د ��� ن�ل��ه �و ن �� �ر � � � ن ن � أ ّ ً ن ي ي � أ�ي ا �ل ا ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا ��ل�هي �نأ�ا ن� ن� �وا �نل���ا ي� ش��سر� �عم�ل�م�ا ���و�� ��د ر ا�ام��س�ا �ل�ه؟ � �� �ل ل��ي� ج
١،١٥٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا نّ� ا�ا�مم�ل�ك ��ه � ن ا ي ي ّ ي � � ن ّ ي ا � ي � � ن ا ��� ��ه ر� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� أ ي� و ��س� �ع�ه �م� �عو�م�ه �لمل�م�د �لي��ه �� �ممل�ه �لمل�� ��� ي� ي � ا ا �ي � ا � ��لش ا � ا � � � �م ن ش ا �أ �� ا ه � ��ا �ن ن � �����هي �ا��س ا ��ي� ا ��ل ن��ا ا ��ل � �� � � � � � �� � � � � � ��س � � � � ه ه ه س ��س ح ل � �م ن أ�ل ي ر ون �لأ ر و � �عم�ل�� �م��� � �م � ر � �م و ي ر ن أ أ ي ا ش ��لي ن ��ا ن ي ن � ن ا ي ن ح �� �عم�ل ا �ن� ن��م� �م�ا ي� �م�� �ن ا ن� ن� � حر�ي� �عم�لي��ه� .أاو � ا ك�� ��� ���د ه ا �ل� ��س� �ع�ه ل��ي� �و�م��� ي�����ه�م ن��ر ي � ل � � ن ا � ي هي � ن ا ��� � ّ ن�ك ن ن اأ ن ح���ا �م�يعي�ن���ً�ا ��لم� نل�� ن���ا �أ �� ن� ���ا ��م�ّل��ا ل��ن �ن �نل���س�ه �ن�ا نّ� �م ن � � � � � م ل ك � � � ل � ي� ن� ���د ه �ر�ل ن�� م� ��مل�و ي���ن���هي� ي ّو ي أ ّ� � �ن ن أ � أ � � �ن أ ن ن ني ن ن ��د � ل��� �ن �نل���س�ه ن� ا � �ي ّ �ن �ن ه ا � �ي ّ ن � ���ا �لم�ل �ل�ه ا � � م��� ا � �يل���د ن� ح���و�ل ا � �ل�� �م يل �عو�م ل���س� �م يل �عو�م �ع�ي ره �أاو � �ل� ن أي � � �ن ن ا أ � ن ن � ن ّ �ً� ا � نّ ي ا � ي � ي ي �ي ّ ي � ش ّ ي � يّ ن �ع�ي�ره� .وح� ��و�ل �� ��� �لم�ل ا �ل ������ �ي���و� ا �و �ل� �ن� ���ع���ه � ��ي� �هي� � �ل �عوي�� ا � �ل �عوه ا �ل���� � ه �وي�ه ح�� م � � ي ي � � ح� �و�عم�ل� ا �ل � ي ن ا ن �� ا � ن ن ي � ��ا ��ل ا � ��ي� ن� � ن �� ا �� ا � �� � ح ن�. �ل� �ل�� رع أا ل�� �م� �ل� �ي���ن���هي� �و���و� �رك����� أا ل�� �م� ي نح ن� �و �كم ي ن ن � ي �ي ا �ن�� ي حيّ �ي� ي � ن ش ا ن ًا �ي�ي � ا �� �ي ّ ي ا ���ن� ن ّ ي ���س�ه�مم�ل��ا�ك� ��ن����ن ��ً�ا ل��ن � ك�� ���د ه ا �� �لي �عّ هي اأ �ل ن ي � �و� �لي�� ل �عو � ل �عوه �� � � � � م � ��ن��ي��ه ��� �ع��د �ل ه و ي ي� ر � � ي نأ �ي� يم � ّ � ن ن ن � � � ي � ن ن ي � � حس ا � ا � ي � ن ن ي � ا ا � � � � � �و�عم�ل� �م ن �ي���ن���ه �و ل�� ا ل �� �ل ا � ��ي� ����ن���ه� �و�ي����د �ل��� ل�ي� ���مل ن� ا � � ��� ار �م�ه � او �م� ل �ل�� � � � ي� ي ي � � � � �ن � � ن ي � ن � ن � ن ي � ن � او �ل��ن��ر �عم�ل� ا � ه او � ن� ��و ن��ه �و ن��ه � او �ل��را أا �ل�� ا � ��� ار �م�ه �عم�ل� ا � �ل��د ر ا �ل�د ي� ي���ن���ه� � � م ع ل � � � ل و � � ي � � � ع � ش أ � ا � ي ُ ن ي �ن ��ي ا � �أ ن �� �ي ا ن ا ا � ي � ي ا ي ا ن ا �� �ي ي ا ن ل�ن ا � � ن ا ن � ل � � � � � ع � � ا �ل��س ار �ل ��ط � ��ي� و���� �ي� �� ن� �ل� �ل � .أو � ��د ل� ��� � � ل �عو� � �ي� �لأ����س� � �ي ا � � � ي � هي � ن ن � �ن � � � �ي�ي � � � ي � ه ا ��� � هي � �ن � ��ا ن�� ي� �رك����ه�م�ا �عم�ل�� �م� ي نح ن� مع��د �ل� م� �ع�ي ر أا ار ��ط �و�ل� ل����ي ر ح��مل� �ل� ���دا �ل� ي ا ���ي ��ه ش���س هي ا �� ن�ل� ن ا أ ��م�ّ ا � � ن � ن ن ���ا �ألم �ي�لي�ع �� ا ��لن ��ن��� ا ��ل ن��ا ���ط�ي��هي � ���س�سي�س ّ �ي� ي� ر � ��� �لم�ل ك� � ل��� .ونح���و�ل ���د ه ا � �ل�� �ل و و ر أ� أ � ي � ن ن � � � ني �� � ّ هي ا � ي ����م��يّ ا ن � ن ا أ ي ّ �� ي �ل� أل�� ���س�ا � ا �ل� ��وره ا � � ��كم لي�� ��ي� ي � �� �نل��� ا � �ي���و� ��س� ���� �م�دي�ل��ه ا �و �م�د ن�ر ن�لمل�د �و�م��� ي ًّ ً ّ � نأ ّ ش أ ي ن � ن ن أن � ن ي �ا� � ح��م�ل ���د ه �ل�ه �كي���ن��ن�ه� ا � �ي���و� �م����و��س�ا ن��ن���ي�ره �م�د ن� ار ن��م ن� �ي�ل �عّو�م�ه �و�ي����د �ل�ه ��ا �ي� ����ي� ء ا ن�م� � م ي ج
238
238
٢،١٥٤
On why people despise kings who are governed by pleasure and fear kings governed by reason Why is it that if the common people know the king to be fond of pleasures,
154.1
engrossed in his appetites, and given over to the caprices of his soul, they make light of him, even if he is a murderer, a killer, a wrongdoer, and a ravager, whereas if they know him to be a man of reason, merit, and gravity, they stand in awe of him and take care not to cross him? What evidence do present circumstances give on this question? For to answer it is to elucidate a piece of knowledge that far exceeds the measure of the question. Miskawayh’s response Kingship is a craft that effects political order; induces people, by choice or force, to conform to the religious laws and governing policies that serve their welfare; and preserves people’s stations and livelihoods so that they might follow the best possible course. Since this craft occupies such a lofty rank, it is necessary that its practitioner have acquired all of the excellences within himself. For he who has not put himself in order cannot put others in order, but it is possible for him to refine others, if he himself has been refined through the realization of the excellences. The way the soul realizes the excellences is, first, by realizing temperance, which consists in putting the appetitive power in order so that it not incline to the wrong objects and that it move toward the things it ought, in the manner it ought, and under the circumstances it ought. Second, it does this by putting the irascible power in order, so that the movement of this power might also be balanced, and that it be exercised in the right manner, toward the right people, and under the right circumstances, and so that it be adjusted properly in seeking honor, tolerating harm, and enduring disdain as the case requires, and in desiring honor in the right measure and according to the conditions described in books of ethics. That person has realized the quality of justice, the fruit of all of the excellences, if these two powers come into balance within him, and their movement is balanced as it ought to be, neither running to excess nor falling short. Through the realization of these excellences, the rational soul is fortified and a person comes to stably possess the perfected form that makes him fit to be the governor of a city or the ruler of a region. A person who has not realized these excellences needs
239
239
154.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ي أ � ن � � ع ن��ا ن� ���د ه ا ��ل ��ا ��ل � او ن� ار �أل���ا �عم�ل� ن�ع�ي�ر �و ن� ���ا ا �لأ�����س�ا ن�ليّ��ه �ي�ان �ل�� ا �ل�� � ح����ا؟ �و �� �م ن� �ع����� � � ن و � � أ ج ع أ ن �أ � ي �ا � �ش ا ن �� �ي��ن� ا �ل�� ن�ل�ي � ل��ي� ا �ل�����ور �ن ك ح��ا �يل���ا؟ �� ��� �و�م�ل ن� ا �ل����يس� ء �ع� ن� � ن ��ش ن اأ ّ ا ي � ن ن ��ا ن ا� � � ن � ش ش �� ا ني ���ا ك �� �م� ���و�لم�ك �أاو � ك�� � ا�مملك � ا �نل ������ ��س�د �ي��د �و�ع�� �م� ك���ي�ر ن���م��م�ك ا �ل�د �م� ء � او �ل � أ ��ل �ن ن ��د ه ��ا ��ل ي�لن ��ي����ه �م ن ش��س � ���ط ا�ا�مم�ل�ك � ��ل�� ي� ن ���د ن�ك��ه � �ه� ��ا ن� ���م�ي� ���ط �م ن �ع�� ن ا� � � رو حر�م � و ري ي و و ن ي � ي� أ أ أ ي � ّ � ن ن ن ي � ي ن ���ا ن�� ي� ش��س �ل ����ه ا�امم�ل�ك ا � ي����س�ه�مم� ���د ه ا �ل���ش��س�ا ء �عم�ل �م�ا ������نه � �عم�ل ن� ع�يس�ه ا �رن� أا � ك� ح�م�� و ل ر�ي ر ي ّ أيّ �� ي ن �ي� ���أ ي�ع ّ � ّ � � ن � ا ��ل ش��س ا �أل ���ط ا ��ي ي��د �م ي��� � .م ���د ا ا �ل�� �مش�م ������� ���د �ع� ا �ن�ه ��� � أ � �م ن ن� ح�مي�� ا �ل��ع�ل�� �ل �ل ن ي ن ي ي� ي نر أ و �ل � �ي� ر ن �ن أ أ � ع ن �ن ن �� ي � �ي ا ش ي � ّ ن � ن ّ ن � ح�� �� ا حي ا ن � ي�لي� ن�س�م ن ���س�ل� �م�ه ا �ل����د ا � �عم�ل ا � ي ��� �و� � ح��ل� �� ا �سر ن� � ن و �ن ���يُ�عم�ل��ّ ا �ع��د ا �ل��ل��� ��م أا � ا ل��ر �� ن ّ ً � � � � � ن � ن � �� ن���د �م��م�ي��ا �م�ا �م حي�م�ل�� ا�ا�س ن ا ن� ����� ء ا �لي��د ���ر� .و�ام�ا ���أسم� �ول��� � ح ي� ��ا �ل�ه �و ن���د �م ن� ����وء رج ن و يو ل ني � � ن ن � ش � � ن ي ن �� � ن ي � �ن � � ��� ��ن ن ن � ا ن ي ن � � ا �لن����ي�ره �و���س� � ا �ل��د �ن�ي�ر �ل �����س�ه نحي�� �ل� �ي������ر�م��ه أا ���ل� �س ار ن �ن��د ��ه � ك ��ي�� �ل� ي �ر � ج ج ن �� ن �� ّ ن � � �� � � ي ن �� ن � � ي ن ن ش � ع � � ل �� �� � �د � � �م� �م�م�ل ���د ا ا ل�م��م�ك � او �ل������هراء �وك�ي ��� �ل� ي���������ي� �ن�ه �م� �لي����� ن ن ي ن� و�ل ي �ي� ّ ن ا ي ا �� ح�م�م�ل�هي ل��ن ���د �ن ��هي ��لن��ن���س�ه؟ �ن�ا ن� ا �يّ ن�لعي ��س�ا �ع�هي ا ��ل�� اأ�نّ�ه �عم� ��س�� هي ن� ���د ه ا ��ل� ن ل ه ه � � � �� � � � � س � ��س � ل و ر أ ي � ي أ ي ن � ي � � أ � ن �ّ أ � ّ �ن م�د �ع� ا ن� �لي�ن��م�لّ� � ����ي��سم�ّل���ط � � ي ا ���س�د �ع�ي� �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ا ن� ي�لي��د ن�ر� او ن�لي��د �ن�ي�ره �ن ك ��ي ��� ي �ل���د ا ا� ي� وي ن وي ن ا ��لن�م� � ن �ن ن ن �ن ن حم� � �� ا � ي ��لم�ل�سق�مشّ ه ن�ك ن ن � � ن �نا ��د ا �مش�م� �م� � � �ل� �ير� ا � ا �ل�� ��� �م� ا �ل �� �عور �ع��ه �و �مك �م��ه؟ � ل ي � م��� ن ��� �م�ل �ن� ي���ن���هي� ج ّٰ أ ن ُن ن � ن ن ا نّ ن ن أ� ن ا � ي�ل� ���ر �كي��ه �أ� ��ه ك� ���ا �� �ي�سم�ا ��س�ا �ل ي� �ع ن��ه أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله.
٣،١٥٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ أ ا ن � � ن ن ا ي ا � ��ل�� ا � ّ � ا �� �ي ه ّ� ا ي ا � ا� � � � � �� س � ���� ر م� يل��رن� �ع�� ء �وي �ر�ج �م�ع ي�م�د �ي��ده �ويحرك را ��س� �ورن�م� �� �م �و ن�� ل �ور���� م ن� ّ ا� � � ن ا �م ن ن� ا �ن ن ا �نّه � �لي� ش � ّ �لي�ي ّ �ن ن ا � � � � � ��� ا ا � � ��م ع � � � � � � � � ع�د � � �� � � � � � ؟ � � �س � �� � � � � م و م ولي��� د � ي � أ ي ر يو ن��� وي�و ر ي� �و ر و� ر ورن ج أ يّ ح���ه � ��ن�� ّ� ا ش� ه � ن� ن ��شم ن �� ح�� ن��� ��� �وي�ه � �وي�ل�م�ل � ��� يد�لش��ه. وي ي ن� ر يو
240
240
١،١٥٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ي أ � ن � � ع ن��ا ن� ���د ه ا ��ل ��ا ��ل � او ن� ار �أل���ا �عم�ل� ن�ع�ي�ر �و ن� ���ا ا �لأ�����س�ا ن�ليّ��ه �ي�ان �ل�� ا �ل�� � ح����ا؟ �و �� �م ن� �ع����� � � ن و � � أ ج ع أ ن �أ � ي �ا � �ش ا ن �� �ي��ن� ا �ل�� ن�ل�ي � ل��ي� ا �ل�����ور �ن ك ح��ا �يل���ا؟ �� ��� �و�م�ل ن� ا �ل����يس� ء �ع� ن� � ن ��ش ن اأ ّ ا ي � ن ن ��ا ن ا� � � ن � ش ش �� ا ني ���ا ك �� �م� ���و�لم�ك �أاو � ك�� � ا�مملك � ا �نل ������ ��س�د �ي��د �و�ع�� �م� ك���ي�ر ن���م��م�ك ا �ل�د �م� ء � او �ل � أ ��ل �ن ن ��د ه ��ا ��ل ي�لن ��ي����ه �م ن ش��س � ���ط ا�ا�مم�ل�ك � ��ل�� ي� ن ���د ن�ك��ه � �ه� ��ا ن� ���م�ي� ���ط �م ن �ع�� ن ا� � � رو حر�م � و ري ي و و ن ي � ي� أ أ أ ي � ّ � ن ن ن ي � ي ن ���ا ن�� ي� ش��س �ل ����ه ا�امم�ل�ك ا � ي����س�ه�مم� ���د ه ا �ل���ش��س�ا ء �عم�ل �م�ا ������نه � �عم�ل ن� ع�يس�ه ا �رن� أا � ك� ح�م�� و ل ر�ي ر ي ّ أيّ �� ي ن �ي� ���أ ي�ع ّ � ّ � � ن � ا ��ل ش��س ا �أل ���ط ا ��ي ي��د �م ي��� � .م ���د ا ا �ل�� �مش�م ������� ���د �ع� ا �ن�ه ��� � أ � �م ن ن� ح�مي�� ا �ل��ع�ل�� �ل �ل ن ي ن ي ي� ي نر أ و �ل � �ي� ر ن �ن أ أ � ع ن �ن ن �� ي � �ي ا ش ي � ّ ن � ن ّ ن � ح�� �� ا حي ا ن � ي�لي� ن�س�م ن ���س�ل� �م�ه ا �ل����د ا � �عم�ل ا � ي ��� �و� � ح��ل� �� ا �سر ن� � ن و �ن ���يُ�عم�ل��ّ ا �ع��د ا �ل��ل��� ��م أا � ا ل��ر �� ن ّ ً � � � � � ن � ن � �� ن���د �م��م�ي��ا �م�ا �م حي�م�ل�� ا�ا�س ن ا ن� ����� ء ا �لي��د ���ر� .و�ام�ا ���أسم� �ول��� � ح ي� ��ا �ل�ه �و ن���د �م ن� ����وء رج ن و يو ل ني � � ن ن � ش � � ن ي ن �� � ن ي � �ن � � ��� ��ن ن ن � ا ن ي ن � � ا �لن����ي�ره �و���س� � ا �ل��د �ن�ي�ر �ل �����س�ه نحي�� �ل� �ي������ر�م��ه أا ���ل� �س ار ن �ن��د ��ه � ك ��ي�� �ل� ي �ر � ج ج ن �� ن �� ّ ن � � �� � � ي ن �� ن � � ي ن ن ش � ع � � ل �� �� � �د � � �م� �م�م�ل ���د ا ا ل�م��م�ك � او �ل������هراء �وك�ي ��� �ل� ي���������ي� �ن�ه �م� �لي����� ن ن ي ن� و�ل ي �ي� ّ ن ا ي ا �� ح�م�م�ل�هي ل��ن ���د �ن ��هي ��لن��ن���س�ه؟ �ن�ا ن� ا �يّ ن�لعي ��س�ا �ع�هي ا ��ل�� اأ�نّ�ه �عم� ��س�� هي ن� ���د ه ا ��ل� ن ل ه ه � � � �� � � � � س � ��س � ل و ر أ ي � ي أ ي ن � ي � � أ � ن �ّ أ � ّ �ن م�د �ع� ا ن� �لي�ن��م�لّ� � ����ي��سم�ّل���ط � � ي ا ���س�د �ع�ي� �م ن� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ا ن� ي�لي��د ن�ر� او ن�لي��د �ن�ي�ره �ن ك ��ي ��� ي �ل���د ا ا� ي� وي ن وي ن ا ��لن�م� � ن �ن ن ن �ن ن حم� � �� ا � ي ��لم�ل�سق�مشّ ه ن�ك ن ن � � ن �نا ��د ا �مش�م� �م� � � �ل� �ير� ا � ا �ل�� ��� �م� ا �ل �� �عور �ع��ه �و �مك �م��ه؟ � ل ي � م��� ن ��� �م�ل �ن� ي���ن���هي� ج ّٰ أ ن ُن ن � ن ن ا نّ ن ن أ� ن ا � ي�ل� ���ر �كي��ه �أ� ��ه ك� ���ا �� �ي�سم�ا ��س�ا �ل ي� �ع ن��ه أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله.
٣،١٥٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ أ ا ن � � ن ن ا ي ا � ��ل�� ا � ّ � ا �� �ي ه ّ� ا ي ا � ا� � � � � �� س � ���� ر م� يل��رن� �ع�� ء �وي �ر�ج �م�ع ي�م�د �ي��ده �ويحرك را ��س� �ورن�م� �� �م �و ن�� ل �ور���� م ن� ّ ا� � � ن ا �م ن ن� ا �ن ن ا �نّه � �لي� ش � ّ �لي�ي ّ �ن ن ا � � � � � ��� ا ا � � ��م ع � � � � � � � � ع�د � � �� � � � � � ؟ � � �س � �� � � � � م و م ولي��� د � ي � أ ي ر يو ن��� وي�و ر ي� �و ر و� ر ورن ج أ يّ ح���ه � ��ن�� ّ� ا ش� ه � ن� ن ��شم ن �� ح�� ن��� ��� �وي�ه � �وي�ل�م�ل � ��� يد�لش��ه. وي ي ن� ر يو
240
240
١،١٥٥
On the physical reactions people exhibit when listening to music
to be governed by others and to be ruled by people who put him to order and set him straight. So could there be anything worse than for this situation to be inverted and to pursue the wrong course? Human nature loathes crookedness, so how could it fare otherwise when things are turned upside down and transposed from their proper places? You remark that this is so even if the king acts with extreme oppression and
154.3
much tyranny, shedding blood and profaning things that ought to be inviolable. This is something that detracts from, rather than adding to, the conditions of kingship, and such a king is more likely to fall in his subjects’ regard, for it is a condition of kingship that these things be applied in the right manner and according to all the conditions we mentioned earlier. Isn’t this like the case of a doctor who claims he can cure people of all ailments, and who pledges to sustain the health of bodies and preserve their balanced states whatever their various humoral mixtures, yet who, upon inquiry, is found to be prone to illness and to have an irregular humoral mixture as a result of his bad regime? When he is questioned and his condition is probed, he is found to have such poor insight and to be so defective in self-management that he could not be expected to rectify the humoral mixture of his own body. How could such a person avoid ridicule and mockery, and not be disdained by people who are not doctors and who do not pretend to be practitioners of this craft, yet who follow a fine bodily regime and govern themselves well? If this pretender should happen to gain ascendancy and power and demand that people submit to his regime, how could people not find him all the more repugnant and ridicule him all the more? This is a sound comparison adequate to its target, so it should be considered carefully, for it meets the purpose of your question, God willing.
On the physical reactions people exhibit when listening to music Why do people in a transport at singing and delighted by a musical performance stretch out their hands, move their heads, and sometimes get up and drift about—dancing, making impassioned sounds, crying out, and sometimes even running and wandering here and there distractedly—whereas people who are afraid do not act like this; rather, they shudder and shrink, conceal their presence and obliterate their traces, lower their voices and say as little as possible?
241
241
155.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ � أ ح ّٰ ن ن ا ن �� � ن ا ن ���د ه ا�ا�م��س�ا ��ل�هي ي��د �ي�لي� ّ�د � ا ن��ل ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ��� �و�ه ر��م�ه ا لله �� ��� �ع��د ��ل� �م�� ل��ي� �وا ن� �ع � ي� ي م ا ���ن ّ � ش �ي � ن ا نّ � ن ن � ن � � �ي��� �� � � � ل�ن ا ��� �ي �� ل � � � � ا ا � � � � � ع � ا ا �� ��سن�� ن� ا �ل��سرور و �ه حي�� مل�� أ � ل����� ��د ل��سرور ن م�ط ا ل�د م �ي� �رو� أ �� م � ي ن � ي � � ن � ن ح���ا ر ا ��ل ن �����ا �� ا ��لن��د ن� � او �نّل���ا �ع ن��د ا ���ن�هّ � �س ه � �و�ا � ح ح ار ره أا �ل�� �ع���ي� ا �لن��د � �أاو �ل�� �م�� ش���أ����ا 1 � ر ر ن أ �م � ن ّ �ّ � ن ش � � ن ي � ّ ن ن ي ي ي ن ّ ش ا ا ا ا ا ا � ن � ل � �م ن� ا �� �ل�مل� �م� �ي����ر �ع�� ك ا ن � �� ر ا �ل�د �� �ل�ي� � �وي�ن�ر� �� ���� ٢را �لن��د � � .او ��� ���� �� ا ����م ا ����ه �ي��د �ل ن م ا � �أ نّ �لم� ي ا �لم� ي � � ��ل ا ّ ن ن� ّ �نس ن ن � � �ل� ش ي ح ا هي �م ن ا ��ل���ن���ي ش��س�ا ا � � � �ل � ه � �ل �� ا �ل�����ء ا�� ر أا � ا ع� ي�م�� �م�ع ن ه ر ع � �لمك ا �ر ر � �عم�ل�� �� �ل�� ل�مل ن� يح�� م� ي � ي م ّ ّ � ً ً ً � �ش � �ن� � ا هي � ن ن ��ل ��م �� � ن � ن � ي � ا �لن��د � �و�ل��د �لم�ك �ي���ن��ن���� ا �لأ�����س�ا � �ع ن��د ا ���ن�هّ ي�لن��ن���س�ا �ش�س�د �ي��د ا ك ����ي�را �ل� ن�� �ه�ور أا �� � � او �ل�� � م ج ح � �ع ن��ه ا �� ن�ل� ن ا �� �لي�م�ل� ا ��ل� �ه� ا ء ن ��م�ل�هي ا ��ل��د ن��ا ن�ل ّ��هي ا ���ي ن�ك��ه � �م�ل� ��ل�ه �ه� ا ء اآ ن� ���ا ن�ك�ً�ا ي��سن ّ � � ي � م ن ي ي� ي و ن ن ر و ر ي �ي� ن أ� و ي ج � ن � � ا ��ل ���ا ��ل ح��ا ك� ح ار رهي �و�ر�ّو� � ��ا �ل ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا ر ا � ��ي� �م ن� ن��ا ر ن�. � ي ي ج أ � ن � ّ � ن �� ي ن ن � ���ا �ي�ا ن ا ��ل ا � ي ا ن ي � ن ي ا ن أ ن ن � ي � ن و � �� �ل�� � �م��ل� ر�م�� � ا �ع��ي� �س ارنج ا � �ل�م�ل ن� �و�ر���ه ا �ل ������ �و� �لمك ا ��ه �عر��� أ ّ � � � ي� ن ��لم�لن ��ن��� ا �ن �ليعن��ا ن��� ن�عم� ر ي� ا ��ل � ح ار رهي �م ن� ا �� ����ا ر ا �لن��د ن� أا ��ل�� �ع�م�ي��ه � .او ن� ا �ي ن�ل �عي �ا�س ن ا � ا �لن��د � � أ � رنج � أ نّ أ � ي ن � ن ح��هي ا �� �لي�م�ل� ا �ن �ليع��ن ن� �أ ح���ا ا ��ل� �ن�ا ن � ل � � � � ���د �ه�م�ا �م�ل�� ر� ا ا ا � �� ي� ا �لن��ن���� �ل��� ا � عو�ور م� حر ره و ن ر أ� ي ن م أ آ أّ � �آ ن ي ا � � ن ��د ا ن ���� نّ �ي�� � ا ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� �س نا ن� �م�ا �ون ���� نّ ا ن� �و ن� ا �نّل���ا ��ا ��ل �ي�ا �����هي �ا��س ن ا ن� �ل�ل��ر �� ن��� ع �ل�ه �و�ل� ن ر و ر ر � � � م ج أج أ � � ن � � � � � ي ي � ي ن � ن ا �ل ط����ا ح ا ���ا �م ن ا �ل�� ش��س ��ه � او �ل��� � �و�ه ا � ��ي �ي�ن����م ��ط ا �ل ��س �و�م�ا ي ن� � �م ح ار ره ن�لم�ل�� � ي ي� � نر حر ي� ن�ر ا �لن��د �� .و ر � � ي�سنّ ا ي ن ش ا �� ن � ا � ن � ن� ن � � �أ ي � ي ي � ن ���ا ا �ل��سر�ور � او �ل���رن� � او �ل�� � �وي�ه ا � ��ي� � ن�� ّر� ا �لن��د � ��� � �و�����سر��� أا ل�� ���� ��را �لن��د � ي���ر�� �م � �و�مي� أ ً � � ي ي ن ��ل ي � ن� ن ا ن ّ ن ّ ّ ا ���ن ّ ا ا� ن � � �و �لعن��� ا � ���د � ��لم�ك � او�ا�س نار ن� ا �ل����و� ا �و�ي� �م���ه ا �ن��د ا � ٣ه � ��س ا ��� � � ا �ل��د ���و�ي� ح ار ره ي���ر�� �م � � �م و رنج أج أ أ أً �� نّ � � ي � � ن ن ي � ن ن ا � � ن � ن � � ي ن ي ا � � ل ��� �لم �س ار ن ���د ا ا ����� ر�� � �و���ن����ه �م���ه ا �ن��د ا ا �ل��سر�ور� .و �كم ا � ا �ل�� � �وي�ه � او �ل��ع�د �ي�ه ي���ر�� �م � ج أ ي � � � � ش � �أ � ��ا ن � �� ي ا ���آ��� ي �م ن ا ��� �ي�ا � ا�ا�س ن ا �م�� � ّ ���ند ��لم�ك ا ��ل �� ��هي ا ��لن ��ن��� �ن � � حرك ��د��ي� � او �ل� �ل � و �و� �ل �ل � � �ل و ر و ر ي ر �ر� أ � أ ً ّ ّ � � � � �ن ن �� ن �ن ا � ن ي ي ن � �ن ��هي �س نا � ا �ل��د ن ���يل���ا �� ا�ا�س نا � ن ا ل����� يل� � �ن�ا �لن ������ �و�ل��ل�ه�م�ا �مي��ل� ر�م�ا � ���ا � �و���ن�� � �لم�ك �ر��� ر ن ج ن � �ل آل رنج ع أ ّش أ آ ن � ي ن ��ن ���د �ه�م�ا ل��ي� ا �ل�� ن�ر � �وي���ن�� �ن���م�ل ا � �ي ��أو�ر ا � ���د �ه�م�ا ����م�ل ا �ل��ر. ع
أ ّ 1الاأ ص� � � :ن� ش��س�اأ � ٢ .ط ��� :ن �ر ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل��سود ا و �ة� ا ن��د ا. �ل وةن
242
242
٢،١٥٥
٣،١٥٥
On the physical reactions people exhibit when listening to music
Miskawayh’s response We answered this question in our earlier discussion of the causes of joy and
155.2
grief, where we said that when the soul experiences joy it expands the blood in the veins toward the exterior of the body, and when it experiences grief it constricts it. The constriction of the heat into the interior of the body and into its point of origin in the heart makes the smoky vapor increase and cools the exterior of the body. The meaning of “grief ” (ghamm) is revealed in its etymological derivation, for what happens to the heart is what happens to something hot when it is “covered” (ghumma), preventing the heat from spreading and reaching the surface of the body. That is why people breathe very heavily when they are aggrieved, on account of the heart’s need for air to expel the smoky excess it contains and allow in pure air to increase and aerate the heat, as is the case with fire in the external world. These two aspects—the mixture of the heart and the movement of the soul—are inseparably linked, for if the soul experiences a contraction, the heat sinks from the various regions of the body toward its interior; and if in the mixture of the body the heat happens to sink and constrict itself in the area of the heart, the soul undergoes contraction, because the one is inseparably linked to, and follows upon, the other. This is why some people have thought that the soul consists in a particular mixture, and why others have thought that it is a state that depends upon the mixture of the body. Wine and similar drinks, and medicines that expand the body’s heat through their fine qualities, increasing it and spreading it toward the body’s exterior, produce joy and delight, whereas medicines that make the body cold and contract the heat produce the opposite. A melancholic mixture is always accompanied by grief, whereas a sanguine mixture is always accompanied by joy. Just as medicines and foods produce this kind of effect in the mixture, which is followed by a movement of the soul, so too words, melodies, and the sound of instruments, such as strings and woodwinds, move the soul, and that is followed by a movement in the mixture of the body, since the mixture is connected to the soul. As the two are inseparably linked, one has an impact on the other, and the action of one is followed by the action of the other.
243
243
155.3
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ي �ش ً � ا ��� ّن � ن �ن ا ًا � ��ن��ي�ي ا �� �ن ا �� ي ���د �� ك� ���ي�را � او �ل���ا � �ي� �ي � ���� ر ا � ���د ن� � � ر ؟ �و �م�ل ي ��م�ل أ ل� ل� ����د ا ن� �يل� ا�م � ���د �� �مي� � � � � ن ��ل ا �� �ي اأ� ����مي�� ن � ���ند ن�؟ �و��م�ل ي� �ّو��ل أا �ل�ن� ا � � أا ��ل�� ا � � �� ����د ن� أا �� ل ���د � ي حي�م�ل � �لم�ك؟ � � م
١،١٥٦
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ � ح ّٰ نّ �� �ي ��� ن �ّهي �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ح ��ا ن� �م ن ا ��لن��ن��� �ن�م � � � � ه ا ا �� ا ا � م��س� ه ل ���د � �� حر�� ا �ل�م�� � م لل � د � ي � � و أ ن و ن ن ري � � و �� ي ا� ن � �يأ نّ � �ي � ا �م�ّ ي ا �� ���ن �س ن�� �م�ا � .اأ �ل ن ً�ا �ن�ا نّ ا ��ل���د �ي �م ن ا ����ن ل � � ���د � �ل��� ��ه �م� � او � � او��سر��� �ل� � ا ل� وي � �� أ � � � � ن ر ��د ن� ر � أ � ��ش � �م � ا� ن �ن�� أ نّ ا ��ل�م�ّ � �م � ا ��ل�م�ّ ي �� ن ��هي �م ن ا ن��ل حر� ��ه � او � حر� ن� ���د ن� �م ن��ه ي ن� حر� ن� � �� حر� ا��سر���� . �كم ا � ح�� � � ا ���ر � ي ين ي م أ أ أ ّ ّ � � ّ � � ن ش � ش ي ن� � � ا �ل�م� ي ن ن ن �ن ن ن �ن ��و� ن� ا �و ��ل� ��ه � � ��و ا �و �ع ن� � �م ن� ا�ا�سر��� �ل� � ا�ا�سر��� أا ��م�ا �ي���و� ل��ي� �ع ن� � ���د �لمك ��ه ل��ي� ي أ �� ن� �من���ا ل��ن �ي��ّ هي اأ � �ي��ّ �ي�� ن � ل��ن ُن�م�ل�ي اأ � ن�م�ل�ي��� ن � ن ن ��ش ن ا� ن � �أ نّ ا� ن نّ ا ي�. ا �ل������ ا ���ر �م� ا��سر��� �ل� � ا��سر��� أا ��م� �ي��و � ي� و و و ي� و ي� � و � �ش أ ن أ ن أّ أ � ي � أ ن �ش ي �م� ا ن� ا ن��ل � ���و �م ن��ه �ك ���ا �أ�ه ا �و ���و ��� او �ل ي� ا �س ار ��� ك����ي�ره �عم�ل�� �ع ن� ح���� ���و ����ر ي� ا �س ار ��� ا �ع ن� �� م � أ ن� ن � � ن � ش أ أ �أ أ � ي ��ش� ي �ل���نل ����م�لي��ه � او �ع�د �مي��ه � � ���د �لم�ك ا �لن ����� ���و �� ���ر ي� ا �س ار ن��� ��� او ���ا ا �و ���و �ي�� او �ل ي� ا �س ار ن��� ك���ي ره � ي ّ ي � ي � �أ �ي ا نّ ا � � ي � ا� ن �� ّ �ن ن ���د �م ن ا ن��ل � مو� � � � ��ده �ل���م� ك �عم�ل� ���وه � او � ���� .أاو ��م� ا �ل� �ع��د ا �ل ا� � ل�� � ح����م � او �ل ������ �ه�و ��وع ����ل � او � � � أ ً � ن ا ن �ن ن � � � � ّ �� � ن � � ن� ن �� �ل ه � � �ن ا ن ��� �ي � � � ح�ي� ي ن� حر ن��ه � م ل �وا ل� � � ا ا ا � � �ه�م� �سر � �ي� ن����� �ل� � ا ل�د ي� يح��ط �عمي�� و ن � �و�ه أ� � �ر� و ��د � ن ي � ن ا نّ ا � ن ن � � �ن ن ن � �أ ن ي ّ ي ن �ي � ش ّ � ن ن � � ن ا ن اً �ع� ا �ع��دا �ل�ه �أ� ��م� �ي���و� � �لمك ل�ي� ن�رء �م� ا �ل� ن� ار ء �و���وه �م� ا � �ل �عو� �� �ي���و� � �لمك ر�م� �� م � �ًا � � � � ��� ن �� � ا ��ل ا � � �عي ا �� ا�ا� ن �� ه ن اأ �ّ ا ا ن �ي �ّه �مي �ّه اأ نّ ا � �أ� ا ن � � � �� � س ��و ل� �� .م� � � � ل � ي��س�ي ر وير ن� ن ��د � لمك أ �� �ل� ��د ل م� � � � ر � أ � أو م و م ّ �و ع ع أ ش � �� � ي ي ي ح�م�� اأ �ع�ن ���� ��ل� �عم�ل ن� ح�ي �ل�� ي�ل ل��ي �م ن��ه ن� نء �م� � ح���� � ���ا ء ا ن��ل � � ا �و ي�لي�� او �ل�� ا �س ار ن��� ك���ي ره حم� � � � ي م � ن� و � ر ي � ي � ن ن ن � عّ � �ن ا نّ ن � � � ا �ج � �أنّه �� �م�ّ � � ��و � او � ��د أ� � � �لمك �و �ه �ن� ���م�ل �ل��� �و� ل��ي� ر�م�ا � ��ط�و�يلم�ل �مي���م�ل �عم�ل�� �ع ن� � � �و�ه�م�ه �لن� ���مل� أ م ن � أ نّ � ي ج ا� ّ � � � أ ن � � �� ن � ن ّ ن ن � � ا ا ن� ��لم�ك ا ن��ل ��و ا �ل��د �ي� �ي��و��ه �كي��ه � .او �ل��د �لي�م�ل �عم�ل� � �لم�ك ا � ا � �ل�م�ل ن� �م� ك�� � �من��د ا ح���� ا �و � �لمك ا ���� � � ح م � ن ا �م ن ن �ًا ن � ي �� ��ل ا ي � � ن �م ن ي � �� � ن� ن �� �م ن ا � �أ� ا ن ح��ا هي ل��ن ن� ل ل � � � ه � ا � � ا � � ل � �م � �د � � � � ح � ح ع � � س م � � � ع � � ط � ل � � ح�� ه ا �ل�د ي� �م��ه ���سر ي� ا ي ي� يع ن � ر � ا �ي ر و ي أ أ ً � � � ��ل���نّ�ه � �� �ع ن�� ��ل�ه �س ن�� ��ل��س �� ن� ��لم�ك ا�ا�س ن�� ل��ن ن� ح�مي�� ا ن� ن ار ء ا �لن��د ن� ��س �ر����ا �و�عر ن��� �م ن��ه � � � � و ر ر ر ر ي ي ع ا ��لي�م�ل�ن ا ��ل ��� � ا�ا� ي ا �� � ّ ح�ي�. � ��سريع وم�و� ��و
244
244
٢،١٥٦
On why liars often tell the truth but not the reverse, and on whether habits can change Why do liars often speak the truth, whereas truth tellers rarely lie? Can a habit
156.1
of telling the truth change to a habit of lying? Can a habit of lying transform into a habit of telling the truth, or is that impossible?
Miskawayh’s response Telling the truth and lying are as health and illness to the soul, for telling the truth represents a form of health for the soul, whereas lying represents a form of illness. Furthermore, telling the truth relates to informative statements as to their state of health, and lying relates to them as representations of their illness. Just as health outweighs illness in the body—illness being confined to one or two or three bodily members—similarly, health outweighs illness in the soul, illness being confined to one or two powers or one or two character traits. And just as the body would be annihilated if the illnesses affecting its members became numerous or if a certain member was affected by numerous, successive illnesses, similarly the soul would perish if the illnesses affecting its powers became numerous or if a single power was affected by numerous, successive illnesses. The balanced state appointed for the body and the soul is that which preserves the existence of each. If in certain circumstances one of these is struck by an illness and dislodged from its balanced state, this is confined to one particular part and one particular power, and moreover it only lasts for a short amount of time, after which it returns to the balanced state appointed for it. The supposition that illnesses might take control over all members of the body so that not a single part remained healthy, or that a large number of successive illnesses might affect a single member without interruption over a long period of time, would be false, for were it true, the body in question or the member that formed the subject of the supposition would be destroyed. This is demonstrated by the fact that the heart, as the source of life from which life flows out to the entire body, enjoys the utmost degree of protection against illness, for were it to be affected by illness, that illness would quickly extend to all parts of the body, and this would soon lead to a speedy death.
245
245
156.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ا ا� ّا��ا ن ��� ن ن ن � � ي ش ّ هي � �ن �ل���� .و�م� ك�� � ا � ���و��� ����ا � ��وره �م � �و���د ه ��ا �ل ا �لن ������ ل��ي� ا �عي��د ا �ل���ا �و�سر� ����د ن� ي���� ��ي� أ ن ن � � � � �ن� ي �ش ���� ن ا �ي� ���وره ا �ل����ي�ء �عم�ل�� ��ل�� �� �م�ا �ه�و �ن�ه ���ا ر ا�ام�� ��ط�� � او�ام�� ��ط�� �س �رل ن� ي� �ن�ه �و�ل��د �لم�ك ي � � ي� ّ ن أ ي يأ � �أنّ ن � نّ ن � � �� � ن أ ن هّ ���د ن� ��لم� � ��ل�� ي�لي��ه ّ�م�ده ا �ّ�ل�� ��لن �ل� ي�ل� � �سر�ورهي � ا �عي��ه ا �و �ل���ه �يل ��� �ن��د �لمك ا � �م� �ل� ا � ����د ن� ا �� � ك أ و � ن � � �ن ن � �أ� � ��مي�� شّ ن �ن�ا �ن�� ��ل�ه اأ �ل ن ��ً�ا ���د ه ا ��ل��س�م�ا ��هي �عم� ا � ي �ّ ا ن��ل �� �كم� ي�لن ن��ع� ا �ل � ل�ي� ن������� ا �وا �ل ي نح ح � ار ه �� �� �� � ��م � � � � ل � � � � � ل ن ع ي � � ّ ع م �ّ �ممن ه ن � � م �ن ا � ي نن �كم� �يل���� ��س�ا أ� ا �� �ليع��ا أ� اأ ن��ل�� ي�ً�ا � �عم� � ا �ي ا �م ن� � �ل���س�ه �ورن��م� ي� � ��رر �� � �لمك ���� ر �عم �ه � و ير ر ن ج �آ ّ أ ن ًا ن ا نّ ا� ي ا � � ن � ي �� ا ��لن ّ ي ي ّ ي �ي ��� �أ� � ا�م�ع�� � �لم � ���د ن� أا ن��م�ا ي� ي��ّ ��ل�ه ل� ���ا ره �عم� �ه ��سي��أ��ه � �ل �عو�م � .او �يل� �كم� �ل���ي�ر ا�ام�ا ���ل � و� ن ن � ا � ي ن �ُ� أ ن ًا ن � ي �ّ � ا� ي ّ � �� ن أم ن اً � ن � ���د �� � او �ل� � ي��� �ل�ه ا � � ا� � ���د �� � او � ا �سم� ا �يل ��� ��� �م��ه ا �ل� ����د ن� أا � ا �م�ل����ه �ن� �ل� ����د ن� ا �يل� � أ أ ع م م ّ أّ �ّ ��ل�� ن� ا ��ل��ا ����م� ��ل�� �ي�� ا � ��ل�ه أا ��ل�� أا ن� ا ا �م��ي نر ن� ��ا �� �ل �ي�. ن و ل جن م ن ي ا �� �ي �� ��� ن أ ن أ � ن ��� ن ن ي �ل� ن��اأ �ّم�ا �ي� ��لم� ��م ����ي � � � � � � ا � ا ا ا � ل �� �� ا ا ا ا م م ع � م ل ل � � ���د � �� �� � � � د د � � � � � ن أ� � أ� ن و � �و ك �ل ي �ل � � ن � � � � � أ نّ ن � ا �� ي � ���� ي� ا �ل��س�ن� ن� �و�ل�� �ي��ّو� ���د ��؟ ن�م�ل�و�ل� ا � � �لم�ك �م � �م��ن� �و�م ش��س�ا ���د ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ام�ا �و ن� ل� أ م أ أ أ أ �أ ً � � ن � � � � ��� �ن� ���د ه ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء ���د ا � ���دا ش� �و�ل�� �عن��� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ن�لي��ا ���ي ن� ا �و�ل��� ��ه �و�ل�� �عم� ��ي ن� ا � ا �ل��� ���د ا �و� � ي ي ُ ّ ن ن � م ن ��ي � �أ ن � ي ن ن أ ي ن � ن � ي ي ي ن ي ا ا ا � � � � � � � �ه� �و �د �ن��� � �لمك ل�� �� ن� ا �ل���ل� � أ� � ا ر� � ا � � �ش�س�ا �أ����ه ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ���� ��ره ك ������� ء ه ي� ي ي ٰم �نن ن ّ ن ���د ه �م ن� �ع ن��ا ك أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله.
٣،١٥٦
٤،١٥٦
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّٰ ا أ � � �ي���مي�� ّ � � ن� أ ّ � ا �م ن اآ ا ء ا ��� ا �ّ هي � � � � ي � ���ر ي� ا �ي��د ك ا لله �م��س� �لم�ل �ل� �ي� ا ن�ل� ح��ا �ل� ي� �و���� ي� �ل�هم� � �و ن� � ر ��� م� و ن � أ ي ن� � ي ي� ي ن � نّ � ن ن � �ن �مش�م�ل �ي��و�ل�ه� أا � ا � ن�م�ل ا �ل��د �ن�ا ن� ل��ي� ش�لي��ا ن� ا � ���د �ه� ي���سر ن��� �و�ي��و�ل�ه� � �ي�ه �ممل�ه ��سره � او � ا �� �� ي� أ أ أ م ُي ّ نّ م ن أ ن ُ ن أ ن � م أ نن ي� � � ا �� ا � ���د �ه� ��ا ��� او �ي��� ي� �و��ي�� ي�� .و���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ألم�ل � او �ش��نس�ا �����ا أا ��م�ا �ي���ن��ن�ه� ا � �يل�هرا �نل���ا �يو��سمم�ل � م ي ن� نج ��� � ي �� ن ا ي ن اأ ّ ا أ ن �ي �� � �� ا أ� هي ل�ن ا أ ن �� نّ � ي ً�� �� �ي �ن ا ا ا � � � � ك ا ا ا ا � � � ل ه � � � ل � � � م � � � ل � � م � � � � � � � � م م � ع � � � � � � � � ل ي ر� نل� ي � � ر �ن�أ�ي ار ���� �عم�ل�� ري�� ن� ل� ن �ون ن ّٰ ن � ن� حي� ن� �عن����ا؟ � او لله ي��ن�ع��ر �لم�ك � �ويل��م��لم�ك.
246
246
١،١٥٧
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ا ا� ّا��ا ن ��� ن ن ن � � ي ش ّ هي � �ن �ل���� .و�م� ك�� � ا � ���و��� ����ا � ��وره �م � �و���د ه ��ا �ل ا �لن ������ ل��ي� ا �عي��د ا �ل���ا �و�سر� ����د ن� ي���� ��ي� أ ن ن � � � � �ن� ي �ش ���� ن ا �ي� ���وره ا �ل����ي�ء �عم�ل�� ��ل�� �� �م�ا �ه�و �ن�ه ���ا ر ا�ام�� ��ط�� � او�ام�� ��ط�� �س �رل ن� ي� �ن�ه �و�ل��د �لم�ك ي � � ي� ّ ن أ ي يأ � �أنّ ن � نّ ن � � �� � ن أ ن هّ ���د ن� ��لم� � ��ل�� ي�لي��ه ّ�م�ده ا �ّ�ل�� ��لن �ل� ي�ل� � �سر�ورهي � ا �عي��ه ا �و �ل���ه �يل ��� �ن��د �لمك ا � �م� �ل� ا � ����د ن� ا �� � ك أ و � ن � � �ن ن � �أ� � ��مي�� شّ ن �ن�ا �ن�� ��ل�ه اأ �ل ن ��ً�ا ���د ه ا ��ل��س�م�ا ��هي �عم� ا � ي �ّ ا ن��ل �� �كم� ي�لن ن��ع� ا �ل � ل�ي� ن������� ا �وا �ل ي نح ح � ار ه �� �� �� � ��م � � � � ل � � � � � ل ن ع ي � � ّ ع م �ّ �ممن ه ن � � م �ن ا � ي نن �كم� �يل���� ��س�ا أ� ا �� �ليع��ا أ� اأ ن��ل�� ي�ً�ا � �عم� � ا �ي ا �م ن� � �ل���س�ه �ورن��م� ي� � ��رر �� � �لمك ���� ر �عم �ه � و ير ر ن ج �آ ّ أ ن ًا ن ا نّ ا� ي ا � � ن � ي �� ا ��لن ّ ي ي ّ ي �ي ��� �أ� � ا�م�ع�� � �لم � ���د ن� أا ن��م�ا ي� ي��ّ ��ل�ه ل� ���ا ره �عم� �ه ��سي��أ��ه � �ل �عو�م � .او �يل� �كم� �ل���ي�ر ا�ام�ا ���ل � و� ن ن � ا � ي ن �ُ� أ ن ًا ن � ي �ّ � ا� ي ّ � �� ن أم ن اً � ن � ���د �� � او �ل� � ي��� �ل�ه ا � � ا� � ���د �� � او � ا �سم� ا �يل ��� ��� �م��ه ا �ل� ����د ن� أا � ا �م�ل����ه �ن� �ل� ����د ن� ا �يل� � أ أ ع م م ّ أّ �ّ ��ل�� ن� ا ��ل��ا ����م� ��ل�� �ي�� ا � ��ل�ه أا ��ل�� أا ن� ا ا �م��ي نر ن� ��ا �� �ل �ي�. ن و ل جن م ن ي ا �� �ي �� ��� ن أ ن أ � ن ��� ن ن ي �ل� ن��اأ �ّم�ا �ي� ��لم� ��م ����ي � � � � � � ا � ا ا ا � ل �� �� ا ا ا ا م م ع � م ل ل � � ���د � �� �� � � � د د � � � � � ن أ� � أ� ن و � �و ك �ل ي �ل � � ن � � � � � أ نّ ن � ا �� ي � ���� ي� ا �ل��س�ن� ن� �و�ل�� �ي��ّو� ���د ��؟ ن�م�ل�و�ل� ا � � �لم�ك �م � �م��ن� �و�م ش��س�ا ���د ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� �ام�ا �و ن� ل� أ م أ أ أ أ �أ ً � � ن � � � � ��� �ن� ���د ه ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء ���د ا � ���دا ش� �و�ل�� �عن��� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ن�لي��ا ���ي ن� ا �و�ل��� ��ه �و�ل�� �عم� ��ي ن� ا � ا �ل��� ���د ا �و� � ي ي ُ ّ ن ن � م ن ��ي � �أ ن � ي ن ن أ ي ن � ن � ي ي ي ن ي ا ا ا � � � � � � � �ه� �و �د �ن��� � �لمك ل�� �� ن� ا �ل���ل� � أ� � ا ر� � ا � � �ش�س�ا �أ����ه ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ���� ��ره ك ������� ء ه ي� ي ي ٰم �نن ن ّ ن ���د ه �م ن� �ع ن��ا ك أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله.
٣،١٥٦
٤،١٥٦
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّٰ ا أ � � �ي���مي�� ّ � � ن� أ ّ � ا �م ن اآ ا ء ا ��� ا �ّ هي � � � � ي � ���ر ي� ا �ي��د ك ا لله �م��س� �لم�ل �ل� �ي� ا ن�ل� ح��ا �ل� ي� �و���� ي� �ل�هم� � �و ن� � ر ��� م� و ن � أ ي ن� � ي ي� ي ن � نّ � ن ن � �ن �مش�م�ل �ي��و�ل�ه� أا � ا � ن�م�ل ا �ل��د �ن�ا ن� ل��ي� ش�لي��ا ن� ا � ���د �ه� ي���سر ن��� �و�ي��و�ل�ه� � �ي�ه �ممل�ه ��سره � او � ا �� �� ي� أ أ أ م ُي ّ نّ م ن أ ن ُ ن أ ن � م أ نن ي� � � ا �� ا � ���د �ه� ��ا ��� او �ي��� ي� �و��ي�� ي�� .و���د ه ا�ام��س�ا �ألم�ل � او �ش��نس�ا �����ا أا ��م�ا �ي���ن��ن�ه� ا � �يل�هرا �نل���ا �يو��سمم�ل � م ي ن� نج ��� � ي �� ن ا ي ن اأ ّ ا أ ن �ي �� � �� ا أ� هي ل�ن ا أ ن �� نّ � ي ً�� �� �ي �ن ا ا ا � � � � ك ا ا ا ا � � � ل ه � � � ل � � � م � � � ل � � م � � � � � � � � م م � ع � � � � � � � � ل ي ر� نل� ي � � ر �ن�أ�ي ار ���� �عم�ل�� ري�� ن� ل� ن �ون ن ّٰ ن � ن� حي� ن� �عن����ا؟ � او لله ي��ن�ع��ر �لم�ك � �ويل��م��لم�ك.
246
246
١،١٥٧
On certain popular sayings
This is how things stand with the soul as regards its balanced state or its
156.3
illness. Since lying imparts a disfigured form to the soul—that is to say, a form of the object that conflicts with the way it really is—the one who imparts it and the one to whom it is imparted fall ill on its account. That is why nobody undertakes to lie or intentionally pursues lying unless he is driven by some necessity or unless he believes that act of lying is beneficial to him, the way poison might be beneficial to the body in certain circumstances, so that he brings himself to engage in this distasteful action despite the repugnance he feels toward it. He might do this a number of times, and it might then become a habit, the way all other foul deeds become traits of character and habits, and the way harmful foods become a bad habit for some people. Furthermore, the person who habitually lies can only lie with success if he mingles his lies with a bit of truth and if he is also heard to be telling the truth on other occasions. Otherwise, he would not be able to lie successfully, for falsehood can only stand if mixed with the truth. You ask, can a person who habitually tells the truth change into a liar, or can
156.4
a person accustomed to lying change into a teller of the truth. Were this not possible and attested among people, there would not be norms of behavior, the young would not be corrected, the education of children would not be a matter for concern, and there would be no censure. Yet these things are widespread and manifest among people. This matter has been clarified in books of ethics, so if you wish to probe it in depth you can consult such works, God willing.
On certain popular sayings Here you mentioned—God grace you with His support—questions that merit no reply, questions that derive from opinions of the common people and from ignorant notions they have conceived, such as their saying, “When a fly enters a person’s clothing he falls ill,” “The blood money of an ant is a fruit,” and “If a person’s ears buzz, people are gossiping about him.” These questions and their like should be viewed with derision and only brought up facetiously and in jest. But to solicit replies to them—I believe there is hardly an intelligent person who accepts them, so how could we possibly reply to them? May God grant you forgiveness and guide you to goodness.
247
247
157.1
ا �ن ي ن ���� ا � �ل�ر�� �ن�ي�� � ن ن ا ����رن� ل��ي� ���د ه
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � � ي � ني � � ي ي �ل���ا �ن�هي � او �لي�منن�� ا ���� ار ن��ه � او ����� حي�� � او �ل���ر�� � او ���عي��ا ��ه � او � نرن�ر؟ � 1و��م�ل � ش��س�ا رك � �أ أ ّ ي أ ن أ �م� ا �ل��ش��يس�ا ء ا �م�ه ا �ر�� ا � �ل�؟ م
١،١٥٨
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ أ ّ ا � ن ي ن � ن ي �� ا ن ي ن أ ّ � ا �ه�و ا ن� ا ���� ّا �ن� ي ن� �ن��ر �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ا �م� ا � �ل�ر�� �ن�ي�� ا ���� ار ��ه � او ����ل��� ��ه � � ر � �أ � �ا ن ن� � ا � �أ ا�ا�م� ي �ي ي ن � أ نّ � ن ي ن ي � �آش ا ��يس�هي � او �� � �ع ن� ا �ل�� ��ور ا�ام�ا ن� ���عن�م�ل�ه �و� �لم�ك ا � ا ���� ار ��ه �م��ر��ه ا �ل� �� ر ��� ��� ي�ن� ر �ن� �ل�� ��ور ي ّ ي ن � ن ي � � � �أ �� أ ي ي ن ّ � أ�ّش ا �� � ا ��ل��� ي ��م�ل���ا ��س�د ��ل�� ��ل �من ا �ل��ا �ن�هي ��ه ��� ه ل�� ا �لن����� �ل ����ا ��� ا �ل���� ا � �ا ن �م � �� ور ��� �عم�ل�� ��ور��� � او و � � ��� �ل��ه ن ي� � � و � ي ي � ن ي ي ي� ّ ا ن �ي ّ � � ي �اع ن ا � � ن � ��سّ ن ا ا �� ن� ن � ا �� �و�س �ي���ي���ا �عم� �ل��ه �عم�ل ا ���� ا ��ه �و��د � �� ن ا � ن �ل ��� ل��ي� ل��� ن�ل�� ا �ل�د ي� �مي�س� ه ل �عور �مل�م�� �عملي� �ع� ا ��و � ر ن � ي �� ر � �� ن ّ ي ن � � �نن ن ن ن�� ن ا � ن �ي ن ا ��ن ّ � ن ّ � ���و ن� �نل���ا ا ����و� � � او�امي� ن����� � او � �لي �عّوهي ٢ا � ��ي� �ي� ���د ه �ع��د � �� �� ا � �ل� ��� لم� ح�ي� �وك�ي ��عي��ه � �لمك ي ي ر ر� ن ي� ن�ي �م ن� �ع ن��ا ك. أّ � �ي ن ن ي يي ّ ن أّ �ن ي ح � ا �� �لن��اأ �� �ن ن ح� � �م�ا � � � �����ا �� ��ل�� ن� ا �لي�منن�� حي�� � ��س�ا �ع�ه �ل���ر�� � او �م�ا ا � �ل�ر�� �ن�ي� ن� ا �ل�من��ي� و ي حر�ي� ن�مر� ل ن ر م� � ي أ �� ا �� ا �� �ن � ّ هي � م ن ا هي ��� � ّ هي ن � �أ ش ن � �أ ش ن � ��يسعي�� �نل���ا �رك���ا ي� ا �ل� ��م���ا ��� ا �����ا �لي��ه � �وي�ا �ش�ي�ر���ا ل��ي� ا �ل� ��م � � ل��م�ملي�� �و �هي� � ��س� �ع� ن ن ��ا ن ي ُ �ش ن � ا �يي أ ن أ نّ � ن ّ ّ ي ن ّ � ّ ح�ّمم �عم�ل���ا اأ ��� � � � � ك م � � � ���ا ا �ع��ي� ا � ا�ممن��� رن��م�ا �ل�س�م ن� ا ����ل��� �م ن� ن� نر�لأي��ا ي� � � �أاو � ك�� � ��د ل ي� ر � ي ن ن م �� ي م � ي ي ي شأ � �أ � ن ي ا �أ�ي ا ا � � ا ��� ��ا � �ا أ ا ��د ه ا ��ل� ن ا �م ��� �ل ن�� � �عم�ل�� ��� �ري�ل��ه �� ��ي�ر ��� �م� �ل� �ي ��و��م�ل أا �لي��ه �نل� ا �ل����ور �و� �� ل � ��س� �ع�ه ي�ن ر ن أ أ ن أّ � � ن ي ّ�� ي ن ن ي ���دهي �م ن ا � � ا ���ا ا ش�ّ ي� ن�ك���ا ا �ل ش�����ء ل��� �مش�م�ل�ه �و� ��لم�ك ا ن� ا �ل ش���سم�� أا � ا � حر��� ل��ي� � �وره � او � � و ر ر ي� � ي ي أ � اأش ن ن � ا ا� ��ن � ��ّ ي �س � �ً�ا ن ي � � � ��� �م ن� ا ����� �� او �� ��و�� حرك� � � � �� ن� ��ل�ه ا ش�ر ن� � ����ه �و� �ور�ي�ه � ل � � � ا ا ا � � � ل م � � ���د �� � � � � � م د � ن� � ل � ك و ر و � ل ي � ر ن ي ن م ي �� � ا� ن ا ن �ن ���س�هي ا ��ل��آي�ل��هي ن� حس�يم� ن�ك���ا ���د ا� .ن�ا ��ممن���ّ ا نّ��م�ا � �لي �ع ��ل �مش�� ًل�� ا نّ� ا ��ل ن �و�ش�م���ا �ع�ه ا �ل��د �ي� �يل��م�ل أا ل�� �عم �م�� أ ي ع ي� ن م أ يّ و �ًا ن �� ن�ي أ ّش �ن � ا� ن ا ن �� �ش ن ��ي� ن ن ي� ن ���د ا اأش�ًا �س ل��� � ��يس�س��ي ���ا �ي�� ن ا ��ل � � م حرك��� � � �ل� �ألم�ل ا �ل���سم��� �ور�م�ل ك ��و�ر ل�ي� �عم �م�� ي� �ك����و� ر ر ن � ن ي� ي� �أ ّ ا� � � ن � ��ن � � ا �� � �� ي �ي ّ ���ا ن� ا ��ل ��� ي� �و�� ه او ء �ي� ��� ي� �و��� ���ا ي� ا �ل��ر��� � .و�ا�م�ا ك� �� �ل ا � ا � � ��� � � � ل م د حي �� او � � او �لن�نس�ا ي� � ل � ل � ك ل � ي أ ن � ن ّ أ ّ ن نع � ّش أ ً ن � ّ ّ ن � � اأ � �� ا ش ����� ن ���ا �أ�� �و ن� �سركن� ي� �م ن� ���د ه ا �ل�� ���ا ل��ي� ا�ا�سرل ن����ا ي� ���ا �ي ��أو�ر ا �يل ن� ح ن� ا � �ي���و� ���ل �م� ا �ر ل��ي� ن���س� �ل �� � ن ع ن ا ن ياأش ا ��لن � � ل�ن �م� �ا�م ن�ا �ي�اأ �ش�� �����س� ّ � ا��ممن��ّ ن ���ا �يل��ا ح���� �م�ا ح���� �م ن � � � � � � � � � � ع ك � ن ي � � ه � ي نر و ر ���� .ك�� ��ي�ر ن وم ي� ن � ر � �م � ن ي ن ي �ي� ن م أ أ ن 1الا�ص�ل :وا ن�ل� ح نر و ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط :و �ة�.
248
248
٢،١٥٨
٣،١٥٨
On the distinction between different forms of divination What is the distinction between the types of divination referred to as ʿirāfah
158.1
and kihānah, divination by means of the stars, divination by means of pebbles, and the two types of divination by means of birds? Do the Arabs share these practices with any other nation or not? Miskawayh’s response The distinction between the forms of divination termed ʿirāfah and kihānah
158.2
consists in the fact that the practitioner of ʿirāfah gives information about things that lie in the past, whereas the practitioner of kihānah gives information about things that lie in the future. ʿIrāfah consists in the knowledge of physical traces and in their use for determining their cause, but kihānah is a power of the soul that, by abandoning the senses, discloses things that will be in the future. It occupies a higher rank than ʿirāfah. We discussed this in our book The Triumph, when considering the distinction between a prophet and someone who claims to be a prophet, the power through which inspiration is achieved, and how that happens, so you can consult that work for this purpose.51 The distinction between divination on the basis of the stars and that which resembles divination on the basis of random occurrence is plain. Astrology is a craft by means of which one acquires knowledge of the movements of the higher bodies and their effects on the lower bodies. It is a natural craft, even though more has been referred to it than it can accommodate; that is, astrologists sometimes claim to have knowledge of particulars and minutiae that cannot be gained through this craft. Astrologists thus give information about future events based on the effect something has on its like. When the sun carries out one of its rotations, it exercises a variety of effects on this world, as does every planet through its movement, its rotation, and the rays it emits, which reach the world we live in. What the astrologist might say, for example, is that in the coming year, the indicators of the sun and of Saturn will both be present, and they will have an effect on our world that will be a composite of the natures of these movements, so the condition of the air will be such and such, and likewise with the condition of the four elements. Since animals and plants are composed from these natures, everything that has an effect on their basic elements must also have an effect on the things composed from them.
249
249
158.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ً � �� ً � ن ا آش ا ا � ً ّي ن � � ���ا ن� ي��ن��م�ل���ط ا �ي ا ن ا � ح�كم� � ��يس�عيّ��ا � او ن� ك� �� � ي��ه � نل ���ره �و�ش�م���ا �عم� �يل���ا ا � �� او ��م�ل أا �لي�س� ا �� ر� � � � ن ح�� �� نح�� ن � ي يأ � �أ �� حي � ن ي � � ���ا ي ا� ن ا � ��� � �يك �� ��ل �م�ا � �ليع�م� �م ن ن � ���شرهي ا ��ل ح � � � � ه �و �� س � ا ا ا � �� � � ��س�ا ي� ا � ��ي� ن �م حرك�� � � او�م�� � ن ع م� ن ممل� �ل� �ل ك و �و � ن و ن و ي ن ل � آ أ ن � ا� �� � ي �� �ن � ن ا �� �ن ا �يلم� � ا � � �ش ا � � ا ن � �� ح � � � ل م � � � ل ���ا. � � � �� س � ك � ل ل � ر و ا ن� ار ء �عم �م ا و و � ع أ أ نأ ّ أ ن � ن نّ ن � ن ��ا � ا �� �لن��ا ��ل � ن � ا ��ل������ � ���� �ي� ا ��ل � م � � ��ا �م�ا ا ح���� �و�م�ا ا �ش��نس�ه � �لم�ك �أ�ا �ل���ا ��� ن��و� ن ن ور ر ي ر و ر � � �ّ ي ن � � ا �� �ي ن� نّ � ن � ي�� ن ا ��ل اأ � � � ���ا أا ��م�ا �ي���و� �عم�ل�� ���ر� ��ي� ا �ل��ي�لن��ا �� �و ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا � ر �و�لي����� ي��س ��د أ �� �م�ل �و�ل� �و ل� ���د � كي� �ي أ ّ � � � � � ّ � �ليع � �عم�ل���ا � �ل�م ���ن ��ا ��ل���� ي ����س�ع ّ��هي � �� �ن �نل���س�ا ن�ل ّ��هي � �� ا �ل ّ ���هي � او ن��م�ا ��ه� ا ن� ي �وم ي� ي �ل �ل ل� ي �� ن ي ي و�ل حي�يس�ا را ي� ي و�ل أ � ي ي أ � �أ ا �� ن � ن ن � ي� ن ���ش��ًا � �يل���د �ي �يم�ل�� ً���ك� ���� ن�� ن� ��م� �ا�م ن اأ ���ن � �� ا �ل� �و��� � � او ل��� ��و� �و �ه� � � ���د ن� ك� ي ر و � � ي ل �م ي ر � ل ك � ن ر نح�� ن ي م ّ أ أ أ أ نّ ن ً ا� �� � ��� ا ��ل���م��ر ��ن����ر � ��ل�م� �و��ل�� أا �يك ن��ا ن�لم� ي� � �ل��� �ن� ن�د ��لم�ك � او ر��سم� ا ��ل � ا � �ن�ه � � � � � ل�� ا ا م ء � � ا � �ع�د ح� � � ي ير �ً ن ن�يّ� ّر و نأ � ي ن ي� ييل ن � أ شع ل م � �أل ي م � � ن ن � �ي �� � �و � او ���ي ا � �ل ����ا ن� ��ي ا �ل أا ر��س�ا �ل�� � ��م�ا �م� ح�عي ��ي��ه �و ل��ي� ا �ل� ����ر ي�لن� ���م�ل �و�ل� �يل�م� �ّ � او �ل� �م� � ش��س�ا رك � ي نر � م �ن ن ج � �أش ا �ّ � أ نّ � � ي ن ي ّ � ن �� ن ي � ن ن �ج� � اأ���ش �م ّ ا �ن ا ����رن� ل�� ���د ه ا �ل����يس� ء أا �ل� ا � ا ����رن� � ح���� م� ا ��� ار ��ه �و م� ر ن�ر ا �ل����ي ر �ن� �� ر �م� ل�ي� ي ا � �أ�م ا � �أ ن � �ل� � �ل� ر. م
أ ��ّ ا� ����ا ي� 1ا � �� ا � ا ��نل�� ش ن ح� �ع� ���ل �م � ر ن و ن �ِ أ ّ � ا �ي� � او � ارن��� ِا� ؟ ع م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ش � ن � أ ي � � �و� ا نر�����ه �و��هي� ��م�ل � او �لش��ا �ل�ي� �م�ا � او �لش��ا �ل ش� ����ي� ء ���ون �
٤،١٥٨
١،١٥٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ّٰ � أ نّ ن � أ ي � أ ا �أ � � �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله �ل��� ���د ه ا �ل�� نر�����ه ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء �� ٢هي� �من�� � � ن �و� ا ي� ح�مي�� ا�ام�ون�� ن و �� وي ع ن � ش �ّ � � ا � �يأ �� � ش � نّ� ا ي ن �ن ن ن ا ن أ � ا ا� � ي � ح� ��ط �نل��� �م ي�لن ��� �و ن��ه �ل�د �� �و�ل ��سمك �و�عمل � ل�� ا �ل��ول�� � او �ل��س���وك أا �م� ����ر��� ل�ي� ���د ه �أ� � ا ا �ي أ أ أ 1الا�ص�ل� :ص�ا ر ٢ .ط :الا ش��س��ة���ا ء الار ن��ع��ة.
250
250
٢،١٥٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ً � �� ً � ن ا آش ا ا � ً ّي ن � � ���ا ن� ي��ن��م�ل���ط ا �ي ا ن ا � ح�كم� � ��يس�عيّ��ا � او ن� ك� �� � ي��ه � نل ���ره �و�ش�م���ا �عم� �يل���ا ا � �� او ��م�ل أا �لي�س� ا �� ر� � � � ن ح�� �� نح�� ن � ي يأ � �أ �� حي � ن ي � � ���ا ي ا� ن ا � ��� � �يك �� ��ل �م�ا � �ليع�م� �م ن ن � ���شرهي ا ��ل ح � � � � ه �و �� س � ا ا ا � �� � � ��س�ا ي� ا � ��ي� ن �م حرك�� � � او�م�� � ن ع م� ن ممل� �ل� �ل ك و �و � ن و ن و ي ن ل � آ أ ن � ا� �� � ي �� �ن � ن ا �� �ن ا �يلم� � ا � � �ش ا � � ا ن � �� ح � � � ل م � � � ل ���ا. � � � �� س � ك � ل ل � ر و ا ن� ار ء �عم �م ا و و � ع أ أ نأ ّ أ ن � ن نّ ن � ن ��ا � ا �� �لن��ا ��ل � ن � ا ��ل������ � ���� �ي� ا ��ل � م � � ��ا �م�ا ا ح���� �و�م�ا ا �ش��نس�ه � �لم�ك �أ�ا �ل���ا ��� ن��و� ن ن ور ر ي ر و ر � � �ّ ي ن � � ا �� �ي ن� نّ � ن � ي�� ن ا ��ل اأ � � � ���ا أا ��م�ا �ي���و� �عم�ل�� ���ر� ��ي� ا �ل��ي�لن��ا �� �و ل��ي� ا �ل ن��ا � ر �و�لي����� ي��س ��د أ �� �م�ل �و�ل� �و ل� ���د � كي� �ي أ ّ � � � � � ّ � �ليع � �عم�ل���ا � �ل�م ���ن ��ا ��ل���� ي ����س�ع ّ��هي � �� �ن �نل���س�ا ن�ل ّ��هي � �� ا �ل ّ ���هي � او ن��م�ا ��ه� ا ن� ي �وم ي� ي �ل �ل ل� ي �� ن ي ي و�ل حي�يس�ا را ي� ي و�ل أ � ي ي أ � �أ ا �� ن � ن ن � ي� ن ���ش��ًا � �يل���د �ي �يم�ل�� ً���ك� ���� ن�� ن� ��م� �ا�م ن اأ ���ن � �� ا �ل� �و��� � � او ل��� ��و� �و �ه� � � ���د ن� ك� ي ر و � � ي ل �م ي ر � ل ك � ن ر نح�� ن ي م ّ أ أ أ أ نّ ن ً ا� �� � ��� ا ��ل���م��ر ��ن����ر � ��ل�م� �و��ل�� أا �يك ن��ا ن�لم� ي� � �ل��� �ن� ن�د ��لم�ك � او ر��سم� ا ��ل � ا � �ن�ه � � � � � ل�� ا ا م ء � � ا � �ع�د ح� � � ي ير �ً ن ن�يّ� ّر و نأ � ي ن ي� ييل ن � أ شع ل م � �أل ي م � � ن ن � �ي �� � �و � او ���ي ا � �ل ����ا ن� ��ي ا �ل أا ر��س�ا �ل�� � ��م�ا �م� ح�عي ��ي��ه �و ل��ي� ا �ل� ����ر ي�لن� ���م�ل �و�ل� �يل�م� �ّ � او �ل� �م� � ش��س�ا رك � ي نر � م �ن ن ج � �أش ا �ّ � أ نّ � � ي ن ي ّ � ن �� ن ي � ن ن �ج� � اأ���ش �م ّ ا �ن ا ����رن� ل�� ���د ه ا �ل����يس� ء أا �ل� ا � ا ����رن� � ح���� م� ا ��� ار ��ه �و م� ر ن�ر ا �ل����ي ر �ن� �� ر �م� ل�ي� ي ا � �أ�م ا � �أ ن � �ل� � �ل� ر. م
أ ��ّ ا� ����ا ي� 1ا � �� ا � ا ��نل�� ش ن ح� �ع� ���ل �م � ر ن و ن �ِ أ ّ � ا �ي� � او � ارن��� ِا� ؟ ع م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ش � ن � أ ي � � �و� ا نر�����ه �و��هي� ��م�ل � او �لش��ا �ل�ي� �م�ا � او �لش��ا �ل ش� ����ي� ء ���ون �
٤،١٥٨
١،١٥٩
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ّٰ � أ نّ ن � أ ي � أ ا �أ � � �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � م��س� ح�م�ه ا لله �ل��� ���د ه ا �ل�� نر�����ه ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء �� ٢هي� �من�� � � ن �و� ا ي� ح�مي�� ا�ام�ون�� ن و �� وي ع ن � ش �ّ � � ا � �يأ �� � ش � نّ� ا ي ن �ن ن ن ا ن أ � ا ا� � ي � ح� ��ط �نل��� �م ي�لن ��� �و ن��ه �ل�د �� �و�ل ��سمك �و�عمل � ل�� ا �ل��ول�� � او �ل��س���وك أا �م� ����ر��� ل�ي� ���د ه �أ� � ا ا �ي أ أ أ 1الا�ص�ل� :ص�ا ر ٢ .ط :الا ش��س��ة���ا ء الار ن��ع��ة.
250
250
٢،١٥٩
On why there are four categories for inquiry: whether, what, which, and why
Thus, the effect the stars have on our world is a natural one. Astrologists give information based on the calculations they make concerning their movements and their rays, whose effects reach us through natural force, though astrologists might sometimes make mistakes, depending on how accurate their examination is, how large the aggregate of movements and relations yielded by the ensemble of celestial bodies and planets is, and how receptive the parts of the world of generation and corruption that receive those various effects are. The practices of augury by means of animals, birds, pebbles, and the like
158.4
are all groundless speculations. They only happen to come true fortuitously and on rare occasions. They do not rest on any foundation, nor can any proof be given to support them, for they are neither natural, nor derived from the soul, nor divine. They are, rather, willful choices based on fancies and groundless speculations, and they often turn out to be false and seldom come true, as happens when someone without any proof or persuasive grounds for his claim states that tomorrow it will rain or the emir will ride out. He simply produces his statement and makes free with his judgment; occasionally it turns out to be correct and correspond with the truth, but most often it proves to be invalid and incorrect. Other nations share these practices with the Arabs, but, compared with other nations, Arabs have a greater number of forms of the kind of divination known as ʿirāfah and of bird augury exclusive to them.
On why there are four categories for inquiry: whether, what, which, and why Why do the categories for inquiring about any existing object come down to
159.1
four—namely, whether, what, which, and why?
Miskawayh’s response These four aspects form the principles and first causes of all existents, and any doubts that arise direct themselves to these; so once they have been fully grasped, all occasions for doubt have been removed. For the first principle regarding the existence of a given thing is that its being should be established— that is to say, the fact that it is, which we inquire about using the interrogative
251
251
159.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ � ُ � ن � � أ نّ ا� أ � �أّ � �ن ح ش� �عن���ا � � ا �ل ش���� ء �ه� ش�لن��ا ي� ن� ا �ي�ه ا �عن�� �ه� �لّي��ه ا � ��ي ين�م�� � ي� يو �و� �لمك ا � ا�من��د ا ا �ل��و�ل ل�ي� �و ن��و ي� و ي� آ ّ ي ا ��ل ش أ �ن ّ ن ن ن ن ن ح ش� �ع ن �ش��� ء ا ن� �م ن � � ن� ا �ي�ه �ا� ين�م�� � � �نل��م�ل �أ�ا � ا �ش�سم�ك أا ���س�ا � ل��ي� �ه� �وي�ه ����ي�ء ا �ي� ل� � ن و � � و ر� � ي ي م أ أ أ �ن ا ن ن � ن � ش � ّ �ن � �ه � او �ش��� ي� ��ل�ه ن� ا �يً�ا �و�ه� �ّ�هي ن��ا نر ن�����د ن� ��لم�ك ا ن� ين�م�� � � ح ش� � ن ا �سره أ� � ا را �ل �ع��ه ا �ل��سمك ل�ي� و و ن وي أ � أ � ن ن � ي ن ن � � يّ ا ا �ع ن� ا�امن��د ا ا �لش��ا �ل�ي� �م ن� �و ن�� �و�ه �و�ه�و ���ور��ه ا �ع��ي� � ��و�ع�ه ا �ل�د ي� ���و�م�ه� 1و��� ر �ن�ه �ه�و �م� �ه�و � أّ � � ن ي ا ا� �ي ّ � هي ن ا ن ا � ّ � � ن ن ���د ا �ه� ا ��نل�� ح ش� ن��م�ا �ل�� ن� �م�ا ��ه� ن� ح ش� �ع ن� ا �ل ن��و � او �ل� ��وره �م �عو م� �أ� � ح��م�ل ا �لأ����س�ا � �و و ي �� ع أ � � � ن ن ن �ه ا � ل�ن ا �ل ش�� ام � � ا ��ل�� �ّ ��ل � ا ��له� �ّ�هي ا � ��ي ن� ش ن �� �و� ���ا �نل��م�ل � او ���ون�� ح� �ي� ��ي�ء ن ح� �ع � �و ن� �ع��ه ���دي��� ٢و �م� ا ���ون��و و و � وي ي� أ أ ُ � ا ��لش��ا �ل�ن � �ه� ا ��ل ن�� �ع ّ��هي ا �ع ن�� ا ��ل��� هي ا�ا�م�ي �عّ �م�هي ا ����ي ن� ش ن ���ا ن��م�ا ن��ا نر ا ن� ين�م�� ح ش� �ع ن� ا �ل ش�����ء ح� �ع � ي� و و و ي ور و � ي� ي ن ي ا� أ � ا � ش � �أ نّ � �ن � � ّ ن ن ن أ ن � ّ ن � ن ن ن ن ش � � � ا �ل�د ي� ي�م�ي�ره �م� �ع�ي�ره ا �ع��ي� ا � �ل���م�ل �و���د ا �ه�و ا�من��د ا ا �ل�� �ل� �ل�� ا �ل�د ي� ي�م�ي�ره �م� �ع�ي�ره �ه�و أ ّ أ � ن يّ � �ن ا ��ل�� ند �� ين�م�� ح ش� �ع ن��ه �ن�ا �ي� ا �عن��� ا � �ل���م�ل ا �ل��د ا �ل�ي� �ل�ه. ي ي ن أ ن ا �� ش ا��مم� ش ن ن ا� ا أ � ي � ي ن��ا ن� ا � ���ه �و� �ع��ه ���د ه ا�من�� � � � ا �لش��ل�� �ش�ه ا� ي�لن ��ي� ل��ي� ا �سره �م�ا ي������ر ن� ح��م�ل �م� ل����ي�ء ن�� أ م �ّ أ � � ن � ن � � ّ � ش ���د ه ا �����م�ّ�هي ا ���أ ن��� هي ا ���ي � ا � ن �ش�سم� ّك � �م� � � ا ����ل��م �ن�ه أا �ل� �� �ل �كم� �ل�ه � او �ل����ي�ء ا �ل��د �ي� �م� ا ن�م�ل�ه �و ن��د �و و ل �ل ي ر �ي� ج أ أ أ � ي � �ي�� ّ �� � � ي � ن � ن ّ ّ ّ �� �ل��ه � ��ه ا ش��س � ا ����م�ل� � ا ��م ��ط� ����ا �ل�� �ه� ا � � �م ن �ل��ه �عم�ل���ا � ا ���م ن ح��ا � �� � � ح ك م � � ل ن ل و ر و � و و � ن ي� و ر � س��م� ا ي و ي� ر أ أ أ ّ ّ ّ ّ � � ّ � ن ن ي ��� ا ن ن أ نّ � � � ش � ش ��م�ل��ا ا ��م�ا � ن ي ��ا ن ا � ا �� � ا � ا ��س� ن� �ل���د ه ا ����م�ل�ه ا �ل���ي�ره �وك�� �ل��� ك� � أ �و� ا ك ا � ا ����مل�ل ا �ل��ل� � ��هي� ك�م � ل�� ��و م و ن أ ن � ح ش �عن���ا �ل�� ن��ا ن� ا �ع �ن ا�� � ���د � �م�ا ن�ع ن � �أ ن ���د ه ا � ��ي ين�م� �و ن���د ي� ��ل���ا � �و�ل�� ن�م� ل��ا � ٣ �� � ن� أ ر� و ن و ر� ���ه ا �ل���ي�ر و � � ي م ��� � � ي ا ّم ا � أ ن � � ن ُ � ن أ � ن ي � �� ن �ي � � ش ش ش ل � � ا � � � ل � � � ا � ا � ل �� � � ا � � � � ح � ��س ء � ا �ع��� ا �ل�د �ي� �و ن��د �م� ا ن�مل�ه ا � �ل��ل �وك � نح� و ��م�ل ل� ل�� م ن� ��ي� ورا ل� م ع �� ّي ن أ أ ا� ي ه �ي ي ش ّ �ي ه � ا � ّ هي ن� ه � ش �ي ��ل � � ن� ي ه � � نّ � � ا �� هي ن ن ���و� أا �� م�رك�� �ل�� ا �لأ��� ��� ���و� ا �ل ������ �ن� �ر� �وي� كي�� � او �ل � ل��ا ل��ي� ا �سره �و�م ي�لن ��� �و ن�� ��� � ك�م� � � ا أ ي ي ا � ي � �� ش ّ � ي � ن ن� ن ن��مي�� �عم�ل�ل�ه �و�من�� � ��ه � او �����ه �� ��مل�ه �و�لي����� �لم �و ش� ل��سم�ك �و ن��ه ي�لي� ��� ّر�� أا �لي��ه �م�ل��د �لم�ك ���ا ر ي� ا �نل��� أ عي � � أ ي ّ � � أ�ش ا نر�����ه �ل� ا �م�ل �و�ل� ا ����ر.
أ أ أ أ ة ن ن 1الا�ص�لّ � :و ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :ه�د ا � ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :ل�� ولا ن��ل��. م
252
252
٣،١٥٩
On why there are four categories for inquiry: whether, what, which, and why
“whether.” If a person has doubts about the fact that something is—that is, that its being exists—he makes no further inquiries about it. Once his doubts about its existence have been eliminated and he has established that it has being and that it is, he may then inquire about the second principle of its existence, which is its form—that is, its species, which constitutes it and makes it what it is. This is the inquiry that uses the interrogative “what”; for “what” poses a question about the entity’s species and its constitutive form. Once a person has determined these two aspects about the thing that is unclear to him—namely, the first existence, the fact that it is, which we inquire with the interrogative “whether”; and the second existence, which is its species, that is, its constitutive form, which we inquire about with the interrogative “what”—he may inquire about the aspect that distinguishes it from other entities, that is to say, its specific difference. That is the third principle; for what distinguishes it from other entities is what we inquire with the interrogative “which,” that is to say, the specific difference essential to it. Once these three principles have been determined regarding the object of inquiry, there is nothing left to arouse doubt, and sound knowledge of the object has been obtained except as regards the state that constitutes its perfection and that for the sake of which it exists. This is the final cause that is designated as “perfectional,” the noblest of the causes. Aristotle was the first to call attention to it and expound upon it. For all the other three causes are subservient to and conducive to this final cause; it is as though they all existed on its account and for its sake. This is the cause that we inquire about using the interrogative “why.” Inquiry comes to an end, once why the thing exists and what its final purpose is—that is, that for the sake of which it exists—have been understood: Complete knowledge of it has been achieved, every doubt eliminated, and no aspect remains that the soul yearns to attain through reflection and longs to know, for its causes and principles have been grasped fully and in their entirety, and there is no aspect to which doubt can adhere. This is why there are four forms of inquiry, no more and no less.
253
253
159.3
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ح ش� �ع ن��ه؟ � �م�ا ��ي ��ن� ا ��نل�� ����ا ا�ا���م���د �و� ؟ �وك� و م � ��ّل ن ��� � �ن ا � ن � ا�امي� � � � � ه س ل � � ا م �� � � � �م ���و� ا �لم �ي� �م� و ع�� ه؟ و �مل� ي ّ ن � نن � � �م��ن� �م ن� � �ل�������ا �ع�ي�ر���ا.
�ن أ � � � ن ن ن ا �أ ي ا � � ن �� ��ده �ل� حي��ل�� �� �كي��ه؟ �و�م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� ا ����ا �ل أ أ ّ �ي � ح �� �ن ا �لن � ا ا �� ي � ا �� هي � � � �ل �عو�ل�ه� �� 1م ���ول؟ أ� �ي� م� ر ي� م��س� ل� �ل� م
١،١٦٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ ّ � � ّٰ نّ � �ن ��ّل ن ن ا ّ ي � ا� � ا ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا�ام���د �و�م ا �ل��د �ي� ي� ش��س�ي�ر أا �لي��ه ا�مي� �م � ��و� �� � �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه ر ���ه �ه�و � ن � أ نّ � � ن � � �م� � � � �� �وه �و�ل�د �لمك � حّ ي� ا �لأ���ش�س�ا رهي أا �لي��ه � او �� � �و� ن� ��و ن��ه �م ن� ا ���ون�� ���ون�� ���ل��م �عم�لي��ه �و�مش��ا �ل � �لم�ك ا � ّ ّ ّ � � � نر���دًا أا ن� ا �يُ�� ��ه �م���د �و�مً�ا �ن�ا ن� ��� ر�ي�ه �ي�ا أ��م�هي ل��ن� �و�ه� ا�مي� � �ل��� �عم�ل� �ع�د �م�ه � �ويلم�ل�ك ا �ل���ورهي ��ل�ه و أ ي � ي � وم � ّ م ّ م ً ن ن � � � ح اأ� � ��ن � � � ن ا ا ا ا ي ن � � � ل��ي� ا ���و�ه� ��هي�� ٢و ن�� �و� �م� �ل�ه �و���د �لمك �� �ل ���ل �م� ي�ل ��وه��� �و�ه �م���د �و�م� �م� ن �� � �م و عر � م �مم�ل � ي � � أ ا �� � � � � هي ن � � اأ �نّا � � ن�لي �ّه �ش ��أًا �م� �ًا ا �ّ � � � � م م � ��د ل � م ٣ �ون ����ه � او �ل��د �لي�م�ل �عم�ل�� � �لمك � � ٤ل� ��و � �سي �� ��د �و م� أ �ل� � ا �و �� ل �ل و ن �ل � م أ ً ي ي � يا أ ي ن � ن ا � ن�لي����ّ ��ل�ه ��ا ��ل�� �ي�د �ُ ���د ن�ك���ا ا � � �� ���د ن�ك� ا و ور و ن ي� و ي و ن ي��� �و���ور��ه �لم�لك �� ��م�ه ل��ي� �وه�م�� �و��هي� أ ش � � � � ن � � ي ن � � ّ � � ن ن � � �م�ا�� .ا �م�ا ا�ام���د � � ا�ام���م�لي ا �ل��د � �ل� ���س�� ن��د ا �ل� ��م ن �� ح�� �م�ا �و�ل� أا �ل�� �عر��� �كي��ه و أ� �� ي� ي �و ن��و � م أ � � ُي�ّ �ي أ � � نّ �� ُ � أّ � ش �� ي ��ل ���ط ن� �� �ه� �و�ل� ي�ل� � ���د �ع ن��ه �ل���ن�ه �ل�� ����ي� ء �ّ �م��س�ا �ل�ه ا � �ل��� �عم�لي��ه �و�ل� �ل�م� �و��ا �ل �ل�ه �أ�ا �ن�ه �ل� �يلن� و ن م م ن ي ن أ ا � � �� �� �ي ا نّ� ا �يل�م ّ ا�ا� اأ �� هي �ع ن �ش�� ء �ي�� ن��ج �� ه اأ� ا �� ا �ّ ا ا �سره �كي��ه ا و� � � � � � � ٥ � � م � م�� ل ل س �عم�ل�� �لأ����ل �� .أو �م� � � � �و ل أ � ي� ر � ج أ أ ّ � ّ ني ن � ي � � �ن � � ن � أ ش ّ � ش ش �� ن ن � ن ���ر ا�امي� � �م�ل ���ره �ل�ه �و�ل�د �لمك رع� ا �� �مل�م�� �ل�ه� ا �ن�ه �ل�� ����ي� ء ي� ا � ا�ام���د �و�م �ه�و ����ي� ء �ور�ع� ن���� ن� م م م أ ّ ن ن� ا ن� � أ �ع ن أ نّ � � ���س ّ ش ���د ا ا ��ن �ن �م �ن ��ل�� �ن� ��ل�� نّ� �من ح �����ه �م ن �ه� �م ن ��ل ل � ه �� � � � ا ء � � � � � . ع ه م ل ا ��ي� ا �ل�ه� �ل� ي � � � ن � �م � و ي� أو ر � � م م أ ً ن � � � ن � � ّ �ن �ن ح� ش ح ����ه ل�� � �ه�م�ه ا �ش���ي��ه �ش�س��أ��ا � �م ن ح ����ه �م ن ح� ش� ا ���� �ه� � �من�ه� �م ن � � � � ن ل ل ل � ل � ا �م ح�� � ي� و � ي �ي ي و� و و � � ن � � ��ل ن � ن م ّ ا� م ش ي ش أ اً ح ����ه �م � � ح��س�ه � �ي���ن�س�ه ��سي����. � م � � أّ � ن ن ��ا ��ل ا �� ��ي � ���نع ن��ا ���ا ��ر�ن�ا ه �و�عم�ل� ا ��ل � او ��ل��د �لي�م�ل �عم�ل� ا ن� ا�ام���د �و� ا ��ل��د �ي� ي� ش��س�ي�ر�و ن� أا �لي��ه �ه�و�م�ا � �� ي� و � � م اأ � ن �� اأ � ي ا� اأ نّ ا �� �ليع � ا ن� ا �ي ا � �� ل��ن ا ������د � ؟ � �ع ن ل � � � ه ا � � � ا � � ا ا � � � � � � � � ع م � � ��د م �� � � � � � � ه م�� � ل � س س � � � � � ن و و و ور � �وم أ � ن م � م و � ور ل و ور يأ أ ّ ن � ن ن هي � � � ا ��ل���� ا � ��م� �ه� ���� ا � ل�� ا �����د � ؟ � ����د �لم�ك ن� ح�م�� ا �مش�م�لي �ه� أا ��م�ا ��ه� �م ن ا ��� ر �م ح����و��س� م و و ل و و ي� � ي ي � و م ع أّ أ أ أ أ أ 1الا�ص�ل� :ل��ة�هوا �ه ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :هو ٣ .الا�ص�ل :أا ل� ٤ .الا�ص�ل :ع��ل� ا ن�ا ٥ .الا�ص�ل وط� :ش��ة� ء ش�ّ. م م
254
254
٢،١٦٠
٣،١٦٠
On the nonexistent What is the nonexistent, and how can it be investigated? What is the benefit
160.1
of disputing about it? What has occupied the dialectical theologians to such an extent that they have gone on debating its name and meaning at length? Do their views deliver anything of value? It is the only question I have ever seen that grants the inquirer no leverage over itself.
Miskawayh’s response The nonexistent specifically referred to by dialectical theologians possesses
160.2
existence of some kind; this is why it is possible to refer to it and speak about it. For example, if Zayd is imagined to be nonexistent, his form obtains in the imagination of the person speaking about his nonexistence, and this form found in the imagination constitutes a kind of existence for him. The same applies to everything else they imagine to be nonexistent, be it body, accident, or state: its state is not nonexistent; rather, it is an object of consideration. The proof of this is that whenever we imagine a nonexistent thing, we envisage a state in which it existed or in which it exists. That envisaged form obtains in our imagination, and constitutes a kind of existence. The imagination cannot grasp the absolute nonexistent—the one that cannot be referred to any individual entity, to any accident that inheres in it, or to any state that pertains to it—it cannot be discussed, and no one can possibly ask about it, for it is nothing in the absolute sense. We can only ask questions about things on which certain states either supervene at present or are expected to supervene. That is why the majority of dialectical theologians asserted that the nonexistent is a thing, whereas some asserted that it is not a thing, that is, that they do not designate it as a “thing.” The reason they fell into this dispute is that some of them considered it from the perspective of the imagination, whereas others considered it from the perspective of the senses. Those who considered it with regard to the imagination affirmed it to be a thing, whereas those who considered it from the perspective of the senses did not affirm it to be a thing. The proof that the nonexistent they refer to is what we have mentioned and as we have described is that when these people make their successive forays on the topic of the nonexistent, they ask, “Is an atom an atom when it is nonexistent?” and “Is black black when it is nonexistent?” In the same vein, all of their
255
255
160.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ي �� �ن ي� ن اأ� � ش ّ � ن ن ن� ا ُي ّ أا ن� ا ���ا ر ي� ن�ع��ر ��م �وا �ل���ا؟ �� �ي���و� ن�� ح�� ��و��س�ه ك�ي�� ����و� � �وا �نل�ه�م �ع� � �لم�ك ن��م� ي�ل�� ��ور ي م ي ي أ نّ أ � � � � ن ن ن ن � ن ن ي ي ن � نن ش ح�ع��عي��ه 1ا ��ه ا �ر ل�� ا �ل�� ن ي� ن �م��ه �لم�ل������ � �وي�ل �عو�م ل��ي� ا ���و��هم �كي�� �عو���و� ل��ي� ا �ل���� او � ا �ل��د �ي� � ي �سر �م� ا� �ن � ���اأ �نّ �لي ّ�ه�� ن اأ�نّ�ه � ن ��أ�ّش ���� ن�� �م ن��ه ا �� �ليع�ن�� ا �نّ�ه ل�ن ا ������د � اأ �ل ن��ً�ا ���� � � � � ل � � � � ل ع �س � م ك ه � � ل م د � ل م ي� � � � ك � � ن � أ �ي� �ور ي ر � � ميو و ي لنن ر نّ� ا ن� � ن ا �� �ه � �أ نّ ا �� �ي ّ ي ا �� ي ي� � يي ن �� � �و�ه�و �م���د �و�م �م�ا �ي�لع��م�ل�ه �و�ه�و ���ون�� �و� �أاو �م� عر أ� لي�ه�م ���د ا ��و �م �ل�� ل �عوه ��ي� ر ل���ي� � � � � � ا ��ّ �ي�ليع �ش ًا ا � �آش ا � ي ي ي ي ��م ّ ي �م ن ا�ا� ا ّ ي ل��ا ا �� � ح��م�ل �ل���ا ا �ل� ��وره نحر�ه � م� � ه ���ا ا �ل� �و � ن�م�ل �سن��ي� أا �لي� ��� �ن� �ل� �� ر ا � ��ي� � �لعن�م� � ي � ��ل ّ ّ � أ ي ي ّ ي ن ن ا �ي� ّ ن ا� ���د ا �ه� ا ����ل��� ا � �م� � ن�ه� أا ش�ل��ا ي� ��� ره �ع��م� � � ا ����ع�ي�م�ل ّ ي��� � ل � � � ل � ه � � � ا ح�������� .وا ا � ل ك ع � م� ل � م � � � � ع م � � � � � ل و �و � ي ن و و و �� ون و �ي� ي م م أ أ أ أ ن ًا ن � � � � � � ن ن � � ��ل ن ن ا� � ي ُش ا � او�ام���د �و� ا ���ع�ي�م�ل� ّ �و���و ا � ك ��ا ر ا � ي���س�ا ��� او ا �يل� ��� �ع� ا �����د �م ا�م���م�ل�� ��م�ل ي���س� ر م�� � �ه�م � �لمك ن � م أ � أ � � ُ ش اي � نّ� ا اأ � ي ن ن �ن ن �� ���د ه ٢ا ��ل����� ن�عم� �� ي� �عن � � ه ه � ا ا ل �ع � ع �� � � � م�د � ل �� � � � � ٣ ؟ � ه س م � �هم� � � م أو ن� ور ن � أا �لي�� ا �م أ�ل� ي���س� ر أا �ي و � � � � � ش أ ي ّٰ � � �و�ع ّ�م�ا ���س�ا � �� ن� �ع ن��ه �وي��د ن� ن� ا ن�ل �وا ن� �و�ل� � �لم�ك ن�م��سي����ه ا لله. �� ي و ج رج
��س ي �ش���م ن�ًا � ن � �أ �� ّ ي � ���ا ء �ي�ل �عو�ل ���م��� ي�� م� ا �ل�� ن ي � ن ي ن ّي ن � ي � �م�ل ي� �ل�ه ل��م�ا ����ر�� �عم�ل�ه � �لم�ك؟ ��ا �ل
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أن ا �ن�ا ا �ر� �ن�ن�رء ج � ن ��ر ي� ��ل�ه �ل�� ن��د ��
أ ًّ � ن ا ����م�لي�م�ل �عم�ل� �ي��د �ن�ي�ر�ي� � او ��س ّر �ن��د ��لم�ك ن���د ا � ّٰ ن �م�ا ي���س ّ ��م�ك ل��ن� ا ن�� �ل � �وا ن� أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. رن ي
١،١٦١
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � � ّٰ نّ� ا �ن � �� �� ّ ن ن ن �ن ه �م�ّ ي ا ّ � ا ح � ه ه � � � ��ه �عم�ل�م�ه �و� ا ك أا �ن�ه أا � ا ا ا م��س� ه ل ��ي�� ن� ن�ل����س� و� � � � م � م � � لل ع � م � � � ل وي ر ن �� �ل ا ن و � أ ر � ج ي أ أ ً ّ � ح�يع ��ي��هي ن��ا ن� ا �عم�ل�م��ا �ش�س�ا ���د �عم�ل�� ًل�� ا � ي ح��ا ن� ا ن� ي�لي��� ّ �ن� ا �ّو ��ل�� �عم�لي��ه � ح�يّ ي����م�ل�م���ا �عم�ل ا �ل�م�ّ ي ��ل � ي ��ه � او � ي أ � � ر � ي ا ا ن ّ ا ج � �أ ي � �أ ن ًا � �� � ن ا �� �� � نأ ن ن ن ي ن � ن � ن � � ح�����د ل�� �نل� ��ي�� ن� ي �� ن�لم� � ���د ��� �م� ا �ل�� � �وي�ه � او �ل��ع�د �ي�ه كي����و� � �لمك ��سن��ن�� �لن��رء ا ���ملي�م�ل �� ل� ن أ ّ �ن ا �ن � � �ن هي ا ��� � هي ش�ّ �ن ي ا � ي � ن ّ ا ن � � ا هي �ن ي ���د ��� �و���د ه ا �لأ���� �ن� ���ا �ن�ا �ل��د � او ء ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و� �ي���و� ��د ا ��� ن� ل�ي� م�ر� ��مل� �م ل�ي� �م��� ن�لمل � ا� ن ي � ��ل � � ي � ي ش أن � � � ن ن ّ � او�م��ر��ه �هي� ا ��ا �ل ا � ��ي� �يلمل�سم������ا ن����م�ل�م�ه �وي���م��هي� �ل���ا ��ط�و�ل ر�م�ا � � ر��س�ه �ور�يو�لي��ه �و�م ن� ��س�ا � أ أ أ ن ن ن 1الا�ص�ل��� :ة�هة��ة�ه��ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :ه�د � �ه�د � ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ع�ا ة�ة���ه� �ع ن�س��ه� . م م
256
256
٢،١٦١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ي �� �ن ي� ن اأ� � ش ّ � ن ن ن� ا ُي ّ أا ن� ا ���ا ر ي� ن�ع��ر ��م �وا �ل���ا؟ �� �ي���و� ن�� ح�� ��و��س�ه ك�ي�� ����و� � �وا �نل�ه�م �ع� � �لم�ك ن��م� ي�ل�� ��ور ي م ي ي أ نّ أ � � � � ن ن ن ن � ن ن ي ي ن � نن ش ح�ع��عي��ه 1ا ��ه ا �ر ل�� ا �ل�� ن ي� ن �م��ه �لم�ل������ � �وي�ل �عو�م ل��ي� ا ���و��هم �كي�� �عو���و� ل��ي� ا �ل���� او � ا �ل��د �ي� � ي �سر �م� ا� �ن � ���اأ �نّ �لي ّ�ه�� ن اأ�نّ�ه � ن ��أ�ّش ���� ن�� �م ن��ه ا �� �ليع�ن�� ا �نّ�ه ل�ن ا ������د � اأ �ل ن��ً�ا ���� � � � � ل � � � � ل ع �س � م ك ه � � ل م د � ل م ي� � � � ك � � ن � أ �ي� �ور ي ر � � ميو و ي لنن ر نّ� ا ن� � ن ا �� �ه � �أ نّ ا �� �ي ّ ي ا �� ي ي� � يي ن �� � �و�ه�و �م���د �و�م �م�ا �ي�لع��م�ل�ه �و�ه�و ���ون�� �و� �أاو �م� عر أ� لي�ه�م ���د ا ��و �م �ل�� ل �عوه ��ي� ر ل���ي� � � � � � ا ��ّ �ي�ليع �ش ًا ا � �آش ا � ي ي ي ي ��م ّ ي �م ن ا�ا� ا ّ ي ل��ا ا �� � ح��م�ل �ل���ا ا �ل� ��وره نحر�ه � م� � ه ���ا ا �ل� �و � ن�م�ل �سن��ي� أا �لي� ��� �ن� �ل� �� ر ا � ��ي� � �لعن�م� � ي � ��ل ّ ّ � أ ي ي ّ ي ن ن ا �ي� ّ ن ا� ���د ا �ه� ا ����ل��� ا � �م� � ن�ه� أا ش�ل��ا ي� ��� ره �ع��م� � � ا ����ع�ي�م�ل ّ ي��� � ل � � � ل � ه � � � ا ح�������� .وا ا � ل ك ع � م� ل � م � � � � ع م � � � � � ل و �و � ي ن و و و �� ون و �ي� ي م م أ أ أ أ ن ًا ن � � � � � � ن ن � � ��ل ن ن ا� � ي ُش ا � او�ام���د �و� ا ���ع�ي�م�ل� ّ �و���و ا � ك ��ا ر ا � ي���س�ا ��� او ا �يل� ��� �ع� ا �����د �م ا�م���م�ل�� ��م�ل ي���س� ر م�� � �ه�م � �لمك ن � م أ � أ � � ُ ش اي � نّ� ا اأ � ي ن ن �ن ن �� ���د ه ٢ا ��ل����� ن�عم� �� ي� �عن � � ه ه � ا ا ل �ع � ع �� � � � م�د � ل �� � � � � ٣ ؟ � ه س م � �هم� � � م أو ن� ور ن � أا �لي�� ا �م أ�ل� ي���س� ر أا �ي و � � � � � ش أ ي ّٰ � � �و�ع ّ�م�ا ���س�ا � �� ن� �ع ن��ه �وي��د ن� ن� ا ن�ل �وا ن� �و�ل� � �لم�ك ن�م��سي����ه ا لله. �� ي و ج رج
��س ي �ش���م ن�ًا � ن � �أ �� ّ ي � ���ا ء �ي�ل �عو�ل ���م��� ي�� م� ا �ل�� ن ي � ن ي ن ّي ن � ي � �م�ل ي� �ل�ه ل��م�ا ����ر�� �عم�ل�ه � �لم�ك؟ ��ا �ل
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أن ا �ن�ا ا �ر� �ن�ن�رء ج � ن ��ر ي� ��ل�ه �ل�� ن��د ��
أ ًّ � ن ا ����م�لي�م�ل �عم�ل� �ي��د �ن�ي�ر�ي� � او ��س ّر �ن��د ��لم�ك ن���د ا � ّٰ ن �م�ا ي���س ّ ��م�ك ل��ن� ا ن�� �ل � �وا ن� أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. رن ي
١،١٦١
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ � � ّٰ نّ� ا �ن � �� �� ّ ن ن ن �ن ه �م�ّ ي ا ّ � ا ح � ه ه � � � ��ه �عم�ل�م�ه �و� ا ك أا �ن�ه أا � ا ا ا م��س� ه ل ��ي�� ن� ن�ل����س� و� � � � م � م � � لل ع � م � � � ل وي ر ن �� �ل ا ن و � أ ر � ج ي أ أ ً ّ � ح�يع ��ي��هي ن��ا ن� ا �عم�ل�م��ا �ش�س�ا ���د �عم�ل�� ًل�� ا � ي ح��ا ن� ا ن� ي�لي��� ّ �ن� ا �ّو ��ل�� �عم�لي��ه � ح�يّ ي����م�ل�م���ا �عم�ل ا �ل�م�ّ ي ��ل � ي ��ه � او � ي أ � � ر � ي ا ا ن ّ ا ج � �أ ي � �أ ن ًا � �� � ن ا �� �� � نأ ن ن ن ي ن � ن � ن � � ح�����د ل�� �نل� ��ي�� ن� ي �� ن�لم� � ���د ��� �م� ا �ل�� � �وي�ه � او �ل��ع�د �ي�ه كي����و� � �لمك ��سن��ن�� �لن��رء ا ���ملي�م�ل �� ل� ن أ ّ �ن ا �ن � � �ن هي ا ��� � هي ش�ّ �ن ي ا � ي � ن ّ ا ن � � ا هي �ن ي ���د ��� �و���د ه ا �لأ���� �ن� ���ا �ن�ا �ل��د � او ء ا �ل��د �ي� �ه�و� �ي���و� ��د ا ��� ن� ل�ي� م�ر� ��مل� �م ل�ي� �م��� ن�لمل � ا� ن ي � ��ل � � ي � ي ش أن � � � ن ن ّ � او�م��ر��ه �هي� ا ��ا �ل ا � ��ي� �يلمل�سم������ا ن����م�ل�م�ه �وي���م��هي� �ل���ا ��ط�و�ل ر�م�ا � � ر��س�ه �ور�يو�لي��ه �و�م ن� ��س�ا � أ أ أ ن ن ن 1الا�ص�ل��� :ة�هة��ة�ه��ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل� :ه�د � �ه�د � ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ع�ا ة�ة���ه� �ع ن�س��ه� . م م
256
256
٢،١٦١
On why a physician rejoices at the recovery of his patient
examples are drawn from sense-perceptible things, and the question asked is: What happens to them if they cease to be perceived by the senses? The answer they give to that question is then based on what can be envisaged by the soul and obtain in the imagination. Thus, they say about the color black—whose basic reality is that it is an effect produced on the visual sense by an object that creates a contraction—that it is the same when it is nonexistent. It is as though they imagined it to be acting upon vision when nonexistent in the same way it acted upon it while existent. The reason they were affected by this imaginary idea is that the power which the senses feed into receives effects that are similar to those of the senses; that is, the form occurs in it denuded of matter, which is what constitutes sensory knowledge. Had they been able to affirm and deny an intelligible form, they would have spoken about intelligible existents and intelligible nonexistents. And had they been able to do that, it would have been possible for them to also ask about the absolute nonexistent, “Can it be referred to, or can it not be referred to?” But these matters escaped their notice. However, you asked about their approaches and the questions they pose, and my answer has emerged and become plain, God willing.
On why a physician rejoices at the recovery of his patient I heard an accomplished physician say: I rejoice when a sick person recovers
161.1
under my stewardship; it makes me very happy. I asked him: Don’t you know the cause of that? He replied: No. I shall mention to him what you say in reply, God willing. Miskawayh’s response What the physician rejoices in is his soul and his sound understanding. When he sees a sick person, he first needs to ascertain the cause of his sickness and to gain a sound and correct understanding of it. Once he has gained an understanding of it, he addresses it using medicines and foods that oppose it, which brings about the sick person’s recovery. When this happens, the physician has been successful in determining the cause and then addressing it using the medicine that opposes it. This success and right determination are what he seeks to achieve through his knowledge and what he strives for during the entire time he spends studying and reflecting. When the soul moves with vigor and ardent
257
257
161.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ي �� ي �ي ّهي �� ي ن� � حّر�� ا ��لن ��ن��� أا � ا � �و �م ���م�ل�و ن� �ر���ه �� �و� � � � ي �ن � ي � ه �� � ي ا �ن ا �� � ع ل � � ا � � � � ��� �ن����س� �ط و��سرور نحي� ن�. رح� ل� وح �
ش � ن ن ن � ���و�ي� �ش�س�د �ي��د ��ّ ن �� ن� ط�ر ي� �ن�ه طو�يلم�ل ن� ش � ل��ي� ر�م�ا � �� � م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ن � � � ّن � أّ ّٰ ُ � ي � ي ّي �ش��ق�م ��م�ل ي� ا �ي��د ك ا لله ���أسم�ل ان� ن� ا ���ه�مي��د �ام �ام ي�لي�� �عي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ل��ي� ا �لي����ا �مم�ل �عم�ل�� ا�امش��ا �م ن��ه �ن�ا �لي��ا ���و ي� � أ � �ن ي ن �� ن ن ّ ي � ن �ل ��ا ��� � او ��ل �و�� ا �و �ن�ا ��لن� � �سر�ه� ���د�ي��د � او �ر���ا ��� � �و� ا �ل�� ���ه � او �ل��د �� ن�؟ �و�م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� ��� � او ن�� ر م �ا ن ن � �ه ا أ ن � �ي � يا ا � حر�� �ن�م �ه�م�ا �م� � � ح ار �ه�م�ا؟ �عملي� ع أا م�� � �ع�ي ر �م� ا � يل �عو�م �م��� �م��� �وي ن ي
١،١٦٢
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ ي ي ّ ن أ نّ � � ن ا ن � � ي ي ّ � �� � ا ي ا �ي ن ّ � �ا � ي � ح�� ه �ن� �ل���ر� �ل� ن ح��ه أا �ل�� �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ��د �لن��ي�� ا � ا �لأ����س� � �ل� � ��م �ل�ه ا ل ي ا� ا ن ا ي �� � ي �م ّ ن ّ � � �أ ن ن ي ا� ن� ي ي � �أ ي �� � ي ا� ن� ن � �� �نّ ن � � � � ا ا ا�م��� � �و� � ا � ك �� � �� ه � � � � ��� � � � � ع م � ل ���ن��ي ره �م� ي�����د �ل�ه ا �ل��ع�د �ي�ه ا�م� او ����ه � او �ل�� � �وي�ه � او و و ر و ِ � و ي ر ن� ��لم� �م ن ��س�ا أ� ا ��ل��أ���س�ا � ا ���ي ���� ن ا ن �س � �ّ�هي ل��ن ا�ا�م���� ش��س�هي � ���� ن� ا ن ا ن ي �ن ي� ن ن ن �ي� ن � ك � ر نو �ل��� � روري ي� ي �ل��� �� �����ه ل�ي� ح��س��ي� أ أ ً ّ � ً ً ن � ش �ي ن� ن � ه � ي � ن � ن ح �� ن ا ن � � ح �� ا �ل���ن��س�ا ن� �ن�م ��يسمل� ا ����ي����� �ول�� ح�� �ي���و� �ل��د �ي��د ا ا �و ن��مي��ل ا �و �� � حر�� ���ل�� .و�لي����� ي ن�ر ي أ أ ّ ن � � � ن ��س�ا أ�ر ا ��ل حي �� او �ن�ا ي� ا � ��ي� ا نر� � �سر�ورا ي� �عي�� ش������ا �و� �سم�ا �ي�لي�عو� �ن�ه � ��� ح��ا �يل���ا �ن�ا �ل�� ح ي� �عم�لي����ا ل��ي� ن� ن ي ي ي ي م � ن � أُ ّ � ي أ ع ���ا ��ل���عي��داء 1ا ��ل� ا ���ن�� ن�د ا ء � ا �� ��ا ��ش � ن�ع�� �ه�م�ا �م ن ��ا ��ا ي� ���د �ن�ه � �ل��د �لم�ك ا �م�د ��ا ���ع��م � ا �ع�� ن ك� ي� �ن�ه ن �ل و و ري � و ي ر � ن ن و أ� ّ � ن � ��ّ أ ّ ش ي ��ل�����م ن ���د � ��ه �� ���ل ����� ء �و�لي��و��م�ل ن� � �م��ا ��ه أا �ل�� ���ل ا ر ن�. ي � من ي ي ّ ً � � � �ش� �� ً ن ي � �� ي � ���د �و ن� ���ا ن� ا �لي����ا �و ن� � او ن� �و�ا�م�ا ك� ح�سم�ا ا � ك ���ي���عيّ��ا ل��ي� �ن �لي��ا ء ا ��� او � �سر�وره � او �ل� ن حن��ا �ن�ا �لن� ح ن� �����ي ر � ن ع ن � � �ن � � أ ن �ي ّ حس�يم�ع ا � �لي� نّ�ع ا ا ���أ�ع�م�ا �� � ا�ا� � ن ��لمي ّ �م ن ا ن ��ل �م�د ن ا ��ل ن��ا �� اأ � ي ن� �ل�د �لمك ا � ي س ��مي�� ���د ا ا �ل ش�����ء م � � ل � � � ل � � � و ر و � � و و و ي � ي � أي ي ع م أ أ ّ ّ ن �ن ا� ا �ن ن ن ا ن � � � ي � ي ا�ا�م����م�ل�و ن� ا �عن�� ا ��لن��ي��ا ء � او ��ل ح�سم�ا �ي�د �و�ي�� ��س� ا � ا �ل� ن ح��ا ه �عم�ل� ا �� ن��م�ل �م�ا ي� � �م��� �و�م� ر� ي ي� � ّ � ّ ع � ّع ن أ نّ ��لن ّ ا � � ن � ي � �� � ن ي ن � ش أ � � � م � ل ل � ل ل � � ا � ا ��د ا � � او � ص�س�ه � �� ��د ا � � او �لي����ا �و� ��د ح��م�ل �عر�� ا � ن�� ر ا �ل�د ي� �ي�ل� ��ل ع ح��� ن� �و�يل�� ي أ ن 1الا�ص�ل وط�� :الا�هة���د ا ء.
258
258
٢،١٦٢
٣،١٦٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن ي �� ي �ي ّهي �� ي ن� � حّر�� ا ��لن ��ن��� أا � ا � �و �م ���م�ل�و ن� �ر���ه �� �و� � � � ي �ن � ي � ه �� � ي ا �ن ا �� � ع ل � � ا � � � � ��� �ن����س� �ط و��سرور نحي� ن�. رح� ل� وح �
ش � ن ن ن � ���و�ي� �ش�س�د �ي��د ��ّ ن �� ن� ط�ر ي� �ن�ه طو�يلم�ل ن� ش � ل��ي� ر�م�ا � �� � م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ن � � � ّن � أّ ّٰ ُ � ي � ي ّي �ش��ق�م ��م�ل ي� ا �ي��د ك ا لله ���أسم�ل ان� ن� ا ���ه�مي��د �ام �ام ي�لي�� �عي� ا �ل ن��ا ��� ل��ي� ا �لي����ا �مم�ل �عم�ل�� ا�امش��ا �م ن��ه �ن�ا �لي��ا ���و ي� � أ � �ن ي ن �� ن ن ّ ي � ن �ل ��ا ��� � او ��ل �و�� ا �و �ن�ا ��لن� � �سر�ه� ���د�ي��د � او �ر���ا ��� � �و� ا �ل�� ���ه � او �ل��د �� ن�؟ �و�م�ا ا �ل��د �ي� ��� � او ن�� ر م �ا ن ن � �ه ا أ ن � �ي � يا ا � حر�� �ن�م �ه�م�ا �م� � � ح ار �ه�م�ا؟ �عملي� ع أا م�� � �ع�ي ر �م� ا � يل �عو�م �م��� �م��� �وي ن ي
١،١٦٢
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
ي ا � أ ّ � � ّٰ ي ي ّ ن أ نّ � � ن ا ن � � ي ي ّ � �� � ا ي ا �ي ن ّ � �ا � ي � ح�� ه �ن� �ل���ر� �ل� ن ح��ه أا �ل�� �� �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل�ي� �م��س��� �وي�ه رح�م�ه ا لله ��د �لن��ي�� ا � ا �لأ����س� � �ل� � ��م �ل�ه ا ل ي ا� ا ن ا ي �� � ي �م ّ ن ّ � � �أ ن ن ي ا� ن� ي ي � �أ ي �� � ي ا� ن� ن � �� �نّ ن � � � � ا ا ا�م��� � �و� � ا � ك �� � �� ه � � � � ��� � � � � ع م � ل ���ن��ي ره �م� ي�����د �ل�ه ا �ل��ع�د �ي�ه ا�م� او ����ه � او �ل�� � �وي�ه � او و و ر و ِ � و ي ر ن� ��لم� �م ن ��س�ا أ� ا ��ل��أ���س�ا � ا ���ي ���� ن ا ن �س � �ّ�هي ل��ن ا�ا�م���� ش��س�هي � ���� ن� ا ن ا ن ي �ن ي� ن ن ن �ي� ن � ك � ر نو �ل��� � روري ي� ي �ل��� �� �����ه ل�ي� ح��س��ي� أ أ ً ّ � ً ً ن � ش �ي ن� ن � ه � ي � ن � ن ح �� ن ا ن � � ح �� ا �ل���ن��س�ا ن� �ن�م ��يسمل� ا ����ي����� �ول�� ح�� �ي���و� �ل��د �ي��د ا ا �و ن��مي��ل ا �و �� � حر�� ���ل�� .و�لي����� ي ن�ر ي أ أ ّ ن � � � ن ��س�ا أ�ر ا ��ل حي �� او �ن�ا ي� ا � ��ي� ا نر� � �سر�ورا ي� �عي�� ش������ا �و� �سم�ا �ي�لي�عو� �ن�ه � ��� ح��ا �يل���ا �ن�ا �ل�� ح ي� �عم�لي����ا ل��ي� ن� ن ي ي ي ي م � ن � أُ ّ � ي أ ع ���ا ��ل���عي��داء 1ا ��ل� ا ���ن�� ن�د ا ء � ا �� ��ا ��ش � ن�ع�� �ه�م�ا �م ن ��ا ��ا ي� ���د �ن�ه � �ل��د �لم�ك ا �م�د ��ا ���ع��م � ا �ع�� ن ك� ي� �ن�ه ن �ل و و ري � و ي ر � ن ن و أ� ّ � ن � ��ّ أ ّ ش ي ��ل�����م ن ���د � ��ه �� ���ل ����� ء �و�لي��و��م�ل ن� � �م��ا ��ه أا �ل�� ���ل ا ر ن�. ي � من ي ي ّ ً � � � �ش� �� ً ن ي � �� ي � ���د �و ن� ���ا ن� ا �لي����ا �و ن� � او ن� �و�ا�م�ا ك� ح�سم�ا ا � ك ���ي���عيّ��ا ل��ي� �ن �لي��ا ء ا ��� او � �سر�وره � او �ل� ن حن��ا �ن�ا �لن� ح ن� �����ي ر � ن ع ن � � �ن � � أ ن �ي ّ حس�يم�ع ا � �لي� نّ�ع ا ا ���أ�ع�م�ا �� � ا�ا� � ن ��لمي ّ �م ن ا ن ��ل �م�د ن ا ��ل ن��ا �� اأ � ي ن� �ل�د �لمك ا � ي س ��مي�� ���د ا ا �ل ش�����ء م � � ل � � � ل � � � و ر و � � و و و ي � ي � أي ي ع م أ أ ّ ّ ن �ن ا� ا �ن ن ن ا ن � � � ي � ي ا�ا�م����م�ل�و ن� ا �عن�� ا ��لن��ي��ا ء � او ��ل ح�سم�ا �ي�د �و�ي�� ��س� ا � ا �ل� ن ح��ا ه �عم�ل� ا �� ن��م�ل �م�ا ي� � �م��� �و�م� ر� ي ي� � ّ � ّ ع � ّع ن أ نّ ��لن ّ ا � � ن � ي � �� � ن ي ن � ش أ � � � م � ل ل � ل ل � � ا � ا ��د ا � � او � ص�س�ه � �� ��د ا � � او �لي����ا �و� ��د ح��م�ل �عر�� ا � ن�� ر ا �ل�د ي� �ي�ل� ��ل ع ح��� ن� �و�يل�� ي أ ن 1الا�ص�ل وط�� :الا�هة���د ا ء.
258
258
٢،١٦٢
٣،١٦٢
On why money is made of silver and gold and not other substances
desire toward a particular end over a long period of time and then obtains it, it rejoices in it and experiences an extraordinary feeling of happiness and delight.
On why money is made of silver and gold and not other substances Then you said, may God grace you with His support: Ibn al-ʿAmīd was asked,
162.1
Why didn’t people agree to use sapphires and jewels, or copper, iron, and lead, instead of silver and gold, as the basis of value for their transactions? What made them restrict themselves to these two, even though it was possible to replace them with others to serve the same role?
Miskawayh’s response It has been shown that human beings are not capable of living in isolation
162.2
owing to their need for great amounts of assistance from people who supply them with agreeable foods, medicines, clothing, housing and shelter, and other items, some of which are necessary for people to live, while others are beneficial for improving and enhancing life, so that it may be pleasant, fine, or excellent. Human beings are not like other animals, whose impediments were removed regarding what they need to live and what naturally sustains their life, such as being able to procure food, being protected by their bodily coverings, and other corporeal needs. That is why they were equipped with reason and provided with its assistance, so as to put everything to their service and attain every desire through its power. Since cooperation constitutes an unavoidable necessity and since it is natural for large groups to be formed in order for single individuals to survive, people must necessarily enter into a civic state; that is, they must form groups and distribute the different kinds of labor and occupations among themselves so that everyone may achieve the desired end—namely, to survive and live in the most excellent way possible. Once people have formed groups and cooperation has been established, the following situation arises: The carpenter who cuts the wood and prepares it for the blacksmith, the blacksmith who shapes the iron and prepares it for the plowman, or any other person in the group
259
259
162.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�ن ي � ��ّ ا � � ن ا ن ا ا � ي ا � � � �د� � ّ أ ه ��لم��لّ ا ش � ن � ا �� ��ل ح��ه ��د م ��د �لم�ك ���ل �و � �ه� أ � ص�س� حر � �و�� ا �ل��د �ي� �ي�ل� ��ل � ح���نج أا �ل�� ��� � ن ع ا�� ي��د �ويل�� ي م ّ ا ا ��ل�� ند �� �عم� � �ن�ه �ي�د � �ليع� ي ن ن ا ���ّد ا � أا ن� ا ا � ي ح��ا ن� ح��ه �ع ن��ه ل��ن� ن� ��لم�ك ا ����و�ي ي� �ن�ا ن� ا ��ل � ي و ع ا ���س����� ء ��� � ن ي أ ي ج � � ن ا ي �ل� ي � �ّ ا �ي�ن ا ��لي� ا ن � ن � � ا �ي ا ا ��ل� � ن ا ح� ا �لش�� � �ع��ر ��م ي � � أا �ل�� � ��س� �ع�ه ا��د � �و�� ��� �و� ح��اجن أ� ح�� ���ه �و��� � ن و ن ي ��س� �ع�ه ا ل ي ��ّ � �ع � � � ن � � � � � � � ن� ا � ن �� ّ � � ي ي ا ا � � � �ل��ر أا �لي��ه �و ا� ���د ر ا�م��� �ممل�ه �وح��م�ل ���ل � او � ��د �عم�ل� �ممل�ه ا �ل�د ي� �ل� ي ن��د ي� �عملي��ه ي�سم� يل� � م � ن ا ا ي � �ن ه ا �� ي � ن اأ � ا �ي ا ��لي� ا ن � حي�م� ��ل�� ند �� � ا ��ل �ي ّ ��لم� �� �ع�هي � � ل���� � ل ا � � م � � � � � م � �د � � � � � � � ح � � � � ل �ي� � ن � و و� و ي ن� لمك أ �� ي��م ن �م ووي ل م� ن � ن ع أ أ أ ج � ي �ل� �م ش��س �ن� �عم�ل ا �ع�م�ا ��له� � �م� ن ��ه� ��� �ش�� �ي� ��ا �م�ا ن�لي��ه �و�ع�د ا ��لي��ه �لي ��ع�م� ا ن� ��ق�مي�� ا �سره � �ويل���ي�ر �م و � ن و و ل ن ر �� م ّ أ ع أ أ � ا أنً أ ن ا ن نً ً ّ ن ن � ي م � ي � ن ن � ي � � ا ا ا � � ي ن م � ح � ل�� � � � � � ����ول�� �عملي��ه ا � �ل ه �م � ا � � ه �ل ح�م�ه ن�� � ار � او �سره �� �د ا �م� ���د � �و م� �� ي�� ي�� ��د � �ل ��د �ّوي � ي ن ّ � ن� ي��د � ا � � � ن � ه � ���� ��� ه �م ن �م� ا � �ن هي ن� � ه � �لي���� ��� ه �م ن ن� � � �ن ح�� �أاو ��م�ا ي� ي�� �ل�ه � �لم�ك ��� � �� و� ع�ي ر ن ت�� � ع�ي ر ي ر م� عم و� ن� وي ي م أ آ ّ � ش ح ّ � ه �ّ ��� ��� ه � �ي ي �ن ���د �من � � ن � ��ا ن� �ي�لي �عّو� �ع�مم� �� ���ل � او � ��� ن� �ه� �وي� � � ��مل� �م ي � ي م��د ا ر ���عن��ه �وع�ممل�ه �م� ع�مم�ل ا �ل��ر ل ن م م ن � ن ي ا �ل��د �ي� �يلم�ل��ق�م��� �م���ا �و�لي��ه. ن � ن أ ن ً � � ي ّ � ن � ي ّ ا� ي أ �ّ � اأ ن اأي ّ � ���د ا ا � �لع��م� ا �ل� ا ��� �م ن ����ول��ن� ا �ع�م�ا ��ل ا ��ل ن��ا ��� أا �ل� �� � �� �لي��ه �� � ا ا � � ا� و ل ل ي ن ي � ��� �ل� ي� ��م أل���د ل�ي��م م � ي أ ن ً ن ي � ن � ن ل�ن ���ده �م�ي ن ���ه �عم�لي��ه � �و�ا ���د �م ن��ه �ع�ل�� �م�ه �م ن� ����ا ن��� �ع�مم�ل ���ق�م�ل�� �كي���ر ن� ع ا �و �ع�ي�ره �ي���و� �ي� ي �� ي أ ن ُ ُ �ّ��هي � �ع� ا ه � ا �ع ���ط ��ه �م ن �ي���� ن�ع�� ه ��م�ي��د ا .ش��ّ �ا�مّ�ا ���ه �يكن�م� �و ا�� �� ن���� �و�ع ن� ي�� 1م� � �عر� ن ر ر و � ي و ن ي ل � ر ن � � م م ُ أ أ � ن � ن ن � �ن � � ي ق ا ن �ن نل ��� ل�ن ���د ا ا �ل ش ن ��� ن� �ل���د ه ا �ل���ن��هي ��ل��� ي� �م�� �ن ا ن� ي ن� �� � � � ء ح� ا � � � � � ي د م م ل � � � � �ر �ي� ي و ن ي ل ���م�ل �م� � م � ي أ ّ ً ّ � �أ ش ا ا� ين ا � �� ح� ّ ��� ���م�ل�ه �م ن م�د ا ��لي��د أا ��لي��ه ��لأ�� ّل�� ي� �و�هي � ا أ��م�ا �و�م ّ�م�ا �ي�لي��د ر �� � ه � ا � � � � �ل د � م � � ع م ل � � � � � ل و و ل ا �ل���� ي � ��� ء ا� ون �� أ � ً �ّ ّ ي ن ّ � ن ن �ّ ن � � ��ل�� ي���ه�مم �ع�م� ًل�� � ��ل�� ������ ن ��د ا ن� � ي� ا � ���د ه �يو�لي��و��م�ل �ن�ه أا �ل�� ���د �ع�ي�ره �و���عن��ه �كي ��أو� �ي� أا �ل�� ��ل�� �� و ي �ل أ � � � � ن � ي � ن ن ن � ن �م�ا � نّ�ر �ل�� ي��م�ا � ا�ام�د ن�ليّ��ه � او �لي����ا �و� �ن��و ن� �و� �و��ر �ع نر�ر ا ���ون�� ح ن� ا � �ي���و� ���د ا ا �ل����ا ن��� �م ن� ن�� أ م ي �� �ن ن ن � � � ي ا � � � ع � � � ي ّ �� �م���مي� يّ �ّ � � ن � ي ن � س � ح���ه ح�� ����ه � او �ل�� �م�� � ح��ه � �لمك ا � �ل�ي�� أا ل�� �ص�يس� ��ط �عملي��ه �و�ل� �يل��م�ل أا �ل� م� ن � ي �� م أ ّ � ن ن� � ن � � � نّ ي � � ن ��د ه �و�و ن� ا ��ل�� ند �ي� ي����ر ن��� �ع�مم�ل�ه �و��� �و�ه �ع�ي�ر �ي�ا ن�لم�ل �لم�ل�ن���س�ا � ح ن� �م� � �لم�ك ا � �ي���و� م عره و ن � ن ع ن � � �ن � ا� ن ا عن ن ا نّ ي ��ا ن ش أًا � ّ ا ي ّ � � � �ن �و �م�ا ي� � �م ن� ا�ام�ا ء � او �ل ن��ا ر � او �ل�ه� او ء ن�م��� �م��� � �لمك ل�ي� �عم �م�� ���د ا �أ� ��ه �م��� ك�� � ��سي���� م�م� �ي�ن���م�ل �أ � أ أ أ � ���ي �ي� ��ا ��ل ن��ا ا � �يُ�نل������د ��� �ي�ه ���� ن�� ا ����ع ن��ا �ن�ا �ا�م�ا ء ا �و ي� �سرا �ل��ر��� ا� �ي�ا �م ن� ���ا � � ح ن� ا �لي��� ن� ر و ر ر و ن ن ن � ع م أ ن 1الا�ص�ل وط :و�عر��.
260
260
٤،١٦٢
On why money is made of silver and gold and not other substances
may need something from his fellow to whom he provides help, yet his fellow may not need anything from him at that particular time. If the blacksmith has a need for the craft of weaving yet the person who makes garments has no need for the blacksmith’s craft, cooperation comes to a standstill, exchange has ceased to flow, and every person can only obtain the product of his own labor, which is of no use to him for his bodily necessities, for the sake of which cooperation was established. That is why someone was needed to serve as a custodian for the group and as trustee capable of supervising their different kinds of labor and occupations—a person known for his honesty and fairness, so that his command might be accepted by everyone, his judgment stand, his orders be effective and enjoy credibility, and his trustworthiness be sound. His task was to exact in full and receive from every person the value of the help he has provided, and to give him his fair share of others’ help. The way he was to accomplish this was by appraising and mustering the labor of every person, and then by giving him an amount of the labor of the other person whose help he seeks that corresponds to the amount of his own effort and labor. Furthermore, the only way this action could be accomplished by the custodian who exacts the different kinds of labor carried out by people is by having everyone who has carried out some labor come to him, show it to him, and receive a mark from him, such as a stamp or some other such thing. The laborer would then hold on to this, and whenever he showed it to another, it would be accepted and its purport not forgotten, so his claim would be recognized as sound, and he would receive a corresponding amount of another person’s effort in return. Upon consideration of the object that could satisfy this description, it was clear that the kind of objects that are always available and that anyone could get hold of could not be selected, for they could be acquired by people who do not carry out any labor or help anyone through their hard work, and they might then use them to gain access to the hard work and effort of others; thus, a measure designed to further political association and cooperation would have an effect contrary to that intended. Hence, it was necessary that the stamp in question be drawn from a rare and precious substance, so that it might be possible to preserve and protect it, and so that those who had a rightful claim to it and who could demonstrate their labor and effort should only be able to receive it from the custodian. At the same time, it was necessary that, in addition to being rare, it should not be susceptible to the kind of damage through water, fire, or air that is possible in our world. For were
261
261
162.4
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�� ُ ّ ن أ ّ ن ���ش أ ن ح ّ شّ ن ���د �ي� �ي�سم�ا ا �عم� ن� �ن�ه �و��� ��د ن�كي��ه ا ك �����ي�ر ا � ي� � ���م�ل�ه �� �ي�ل���س�ده �ع ن��ده �كي� ن� ��س� �ع�مم�ل�ه �و�ل� �يل� ي م ع أ � أ ً ً ن ن �ن ن � ل���ط�ا ��� ��ا �ن ن ��م�نع��ن� ا�م � � �����ا ��ل���ور�ي�ه ن� �ن��و ن� ��ق�مم�ل �م� � ��لم�ك �م�ا ��� �ون�ا �عم�لي��ه ح ن� ا � �ي���و� ���د ا ا � � ي ن ع ��ا �� � ن ا ّ ي � � هي � ن �� � عأ � �أ � ن �� ن ا � � ن � ���هي اأ �ل ن ��ً�ا �� ن� ��ا �ا�م� ن � � � � ط��ا ��� ا �ل� نر��� � � ل�� �� ا � �ل���س� � �م�د ه ��ط� �ولمل� م� ا � د ��س � ك � � ي ن ع �و م� ا �ل���س� � ا �ل� ي ي و ن ر ي ع � نّ ن � او �ر��� �و�ع�ي�ر�ه�م�ا. ا� ّا �يُل��ن ي ا� � �ش �ّ ي ا� ن �� ن� ن ا أ �ّ � � �أ ش ا ا� � ن ّ هي � � � � � ي � ا � ا ا ا � ا � ء � � د ه م � �� ح ���د ل ل � م � � ��� ء ا�م��د �لي�� � � � �و�م� � � � م �� � ن � � � � � ل ل � � � �ل أ م ي و ن ي� ي ون و ن ن � �أ ش ا ا� ن ّ ي �ل� � ا � ي ي ن ع ا � ن ا ي� ّ ا � ن ن ن ه او ء �و�م� �ن�ي�� ���د ه �وا ��ر � ��ي� ���د �و ن� �ن� �ل�� ر �و ن��ق�م�د �ن� �ل� � ��� ء ا�م���د �لي��ه ا ن � �و�م� �ن�ي�� ا �ل���� ي أ أ أ أ ن ن� � � � � �ن ���ده �نأ�ا �نّ�ه ا �ن �لي��ا ���ا � او �ع نّر���ا � او � ���ا �ل���ور�ي�ه � او ��سم�ل�م���ا �عم�ل� ا �ل ن��ا ر � او �ل�ه� او ء � او�ام�ا ء ا �ل��د �� ن� �و� ح�� �� � � �ي � � نّ �ن ن� �� � �أ ن ي نن � او �ل�ر��� �و�ه�و �م� � �لم�ك ��سم�لي�� �عم�ل�� ا ������سر � او � �ل� ��ل �� � او �ر��� ي���عي��د ���وره � �ل������ه �ن�ا �ل��د �و ن� ع ن م � ن ا ن ا نًا � عً� �ًّ �ن � ن ن� �� هي ���م� �م�ي �عّ �مً�ا ��لم�ل� ن ���ا �م ن ن� � � � � � ا � � � � � ا ا � � د � � ل � � � ����ا �أ�� �و�ع�ل �م� � � � � م م �� ع م� ط س � �وي � � ل ر ح� ي و ر وي ن ��م�� �� � ن � و ل � ع أ � ا ي ��ّ ن � ن نًا ي ّ ع � � شأ � � ن � ش يّ ّ حي�ل ��� �عم�ل��ه ��ا ن �� ن ��ا ي��م�ه � �ع�ل� �م� ��ه ��� � �لم�ك �� ن �ل���د ا ا � �ل�ي�� ��م ا � ي ط ي ن � �و�� �م� � ��و��م�ل ا �ل���س ار ر ��� ن� و ل ن �ع م ّ ن � � � �ن أا �لي��ه �م ّ�م ن � � يري ن�لع�ي� �م ن� �ع�مم�ل ن�ع�ي�ره �و�ل�� �ير �ن��ي� ن�ع�ي�ره �نأ�ا ن� ���د ا ا � ن�لع��م�ل �ه�و ا � نل�����ال� ا �ل��د �ي� � � يري ن�لع� � نع ش م �ّ � � ه � �� ي � � � � ن ح�سم�ا � او �لي����ا ي� ش���� ّ�� .ام�ا �و ن���د ���د ا �ن�ه ا �ل�ي�م���ا �و� �و�ي نر�و�ل �م���ه ا �لن ن� ����ا � �يو�لن� ���م�ل ن���سن��ن�� ا �ل� ن م م ع ن �� ن� ن ا أ � � ا � ��ي ا �� � ن اأ ن �� � �� ا ��ل�� ند �� ن� ا ن��ل � ل ل ا � م م � ح � � � س � � حي�يل ��ط �عم�لي��ه ن� �سر�و ن� � ح�م� ��� 1د ه ا ل�� ط ل �� � ��� �لم�ل � او � ي �ل أ � و ي ي ر ع � ن � ن ا � ا ن ي ����مي أ نّ � � ن ن � �م����مي�� �يّ ه � ن�� ن�ك ه � ن�� اآ ن �يّ �ل��ا � � ه � �� � � � ا ا ا � � ل ا � � � � � � � � د � � � � م � م ٢ م ه ل ع ع � � ي� و� �ع�ي ر ح�� عر � ي ر � ر و �و � �ن و �� ن � أ � � � � � يي ي �� ي ي � ي �ش��ص�أسً�ا �م ن��ه رّ��م�ا ا � ي ح��ا ن� أا �ل�� �م���ا � �ون�ه ي������ي�ره �ل� ������ا �و�ي� ���عن��ه ا �ل� �ّو�ل �و�ل� � �ل�رن� �م ن��ه. ي ن ج ا ن أ ّا ًا �� � هي � ن هي ��� ن هي �� ن � �ع � � � أ ن هي � ش ا �� أ ن ه ّ� ا �ي� � � ن ل � � � � � ل ح� م�� ل ا �� رن�م� �� ن� ا �لأ����س� � ا �ي� �م� يح��م�ل ����ي ره �مم�ل ا �رح�� ن�م�و� �و� �وكمل��� �و �م� ن�لم يل��م��� � ي أ ن �� أ نا ن أ � ن ن ن � �� يي�س�م�هي �ع�مم�ل�ه ش��ّ ا � ي ���د ا ا ن��ل �� ح��اجن � أا �ل�� �ن �ل�م�ل ا �و ��ل� �ل ا �و �عر��� ي������ي�ر و �أ� � ا ا �ع ��ط�ي� �م� ر � م أ أ ّ ً � � ّ � � � ي � أن � ���ه �ش�� أ ا ن �ل �و�� ا ��ل�� ند �ي� �ع ن��ده �و�ل�� ا ي�م� ا � �لي�م�لي�م� �م ن��ه �ل�� ن� ا ن��ل � �ل� ي����ل���طي��� ح نرء ع ا � ي���� �� ي ل ل ي ص�س� �م� ا ن�� ر أ � ي ً ّ ي �ن � �ش ي ح�ي�م � ن � � ن ن ا �لي�������ي�ر ن���د ا �م ن��ه ا ����ر �ي�سم�ه �م ن� ا ���ه�مم�ل ا �ل��د �ي� �يلم�ل�سم��س�ه �م ن� �ع�ي�ره ��ا � ي ن� � �ل��د �لم�ك أا �ل�� ن�� �و��ر ن �ن ��ل � ن � �ن هي � ه ���ه �ع � هج ا ن � ن آن � ن �ن ن أ أ ي ���ا �لم�ل�ه ا �ن �ل���� �م ن� ا �ل��د �� ن� ي����ي ر �م يل��م�� �ل� ي �مم�ل �ممل� �أو � ك ���ا � � � �ون�ه ��ل��� ا �ري����و� �� م ن � ن ن ّ ي نُ ش ن �ن ��ق� � �يلم� � ا �� ن�ل ن ا �أم ا ���ي �� ���ه ن� � ���م�ل ي�٤ ح��ي�نس�ا ���ا ل��ي� ا �ل��د �� ن� ����ي� ء � ٣ع�ي�ر ا � �ل�� �ي ��و ن���د �م�ا ي ن� م لك �� ��� ل�ل �ي� ع أ ن 1الاأ�ص� :ا �ل� �ع ن��� ٢ .الاأ�ص� � :ه ٣ .الاأ ص� � :ش ل����ء ٤ .الا�ص�ل :ن����ع�ل ن�ا أ�ن��ا. ل وو �ل ة ل نو ر �
262
262
٥،١٦٢
On why money is made of silver and gold and not other substances
it the type of thing that could be soaked in water or burnt by fire or whose form could be damaged by one of the four elements, the person who had toiled greatly would not be insured against the possibility that, having acquired it, it might subsequently be damaged while in his possession; this would result in the loss of his labor and there would be no means of verifying the help he had provided and the hard work he had contributed. Thus, it was necessary that this stamp be capable of preserving its form, be light enough to carry, and remain impervious to damage by the four elements as well as to damage from handling, such as by being broken, crushed, and so on. When the different kinds of existents were inspected, the only objects found to unite these excellences were minerals, and among minerals only precious substances that melt in fire and solidify in air, and of these gold alone. For it is the most durable and rarest mineral, the most capable of retaining its form, and the most immune to the impact of fire, air, water, and earth. At the same time, it is impervious to breaking, cutting, and crushing, and can recover its form through smelting, preserving it from damage for a very long time. So it was chosen as a measure for the appraisal of crafts and as a distinguishing mark of the custodian, and was subsequently protected by having his seal and marks stamped upon it. All of this was done for fear that it might be obtained by evildoers, who help themselves to others’ labor yet offer no help to others, for that is the type of injustice that nullifies cooperation, destroys order, and brings communal life and coexistence to ruin. Then, once the precious substance that combined all these excellences had been located and protected in a variety of ways against the prospect of falling into the hands of people with no rightful claim over it, another contingency arose—namely, that someone who had provided help to people and thereby acquired a rightful claim to a certain amount of it might happen to need some light help that was not equal to his original effort and did not come near its level. For example, a person might put in several days’ effort in order to operate, with toil and hard work and considerable skill, a mill for another person. If he was given an amount of this precious substance equivalent to his labor and he subsequently needed a few herbs or a pin or some other minor commodity, he would not be able to exchange any of the precious substance in his possession for it, not even the smallest fraction, as even the smallest fraction of it would be worth more than the labor he was soliciting from another. That is why another precious substance was needed, one with fewer excellent qualities than gold, which despite its inferiority could
263
263
162.5
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ ش ي أ ن ا ن ن � ن ن ّ ي � �أ نّ ن اأ ي ن ش ّ ُ �ن ���م� �� ���ل � او � ���د �م ن� ا �ل��د �� ن� ي������ا �و�ي� �ع��سره ا � ����� ��ه �م� ا � �ل�� ���ه �ل�� �� �لن��ه �ع��ه ��م ن� ل أ أ � ن �ي ي � ا ���� ش ي �ن ا � هي ا � �آ ا �ن � �� � ش ح� ��ل�� ند ��لم�ك ا ن� ي ���د �م ن ن� ��لم�ك ا ن��ل � � � ع��سرهي ا �مش��ا ��ل�ه ه س � ا ا � � � � � � م � � � � � � ن ي و و � ور ���سره ل��� ي� �ل��� � و ن ن ن ���د ا ا ن��ل �و��ر. �� �م�
أ أ � � ن � أن �ن�ا �ّم�ا ا ��لي��ن��ا � ي� ا ��ل�� ند �� � �ي�� ��� ن �سر�� ا �ل��دي�ل ن��ا ر � او �ل��د ر�ه� ا �عن��� ا � ���ا ر �م ن��ه ا ��� او � ���د � و ي وع ن ي� ا ي ا � يم � ن ي ا� اأ � ي ن ا نّ ا ن � � �أ ًا ن ا� اأ � ي � ي ن ن��م��س�هي � ش ا ي � � � � � � �و��� �و �ه� ا�م��س� �ل�ه ا � ��� ن� ع��سر� ر ه�م� � � و ���مل � ��� �� �لي��ه �ل���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �أ� �م� � �لمك �ل� ن�م�ل ي ش ّ ي� �أ � ن شّ � ن � ن ن أ ا � �أ �ي ن ا ي �ن �� ن ن ن ا� ش � � � � ه ا �ل ���� �و� ل�ي� ا ��ور� �ن��� ا� � ا م�ي��ا �ل � او �ل��د ر�ه� �� �ل� ن�م�ل ا ������� ا �ل��د �ي� �ي���و� ل��ي� ا � � د � �� � س � � م و �ل ر ي م م ّ ش ي � ن �ن نّ ن ن � � �ن أ نّ � � � ن � � ن ان ��م ن ن � ��د� ���ا ن� �� ���هي أا � ا ك� � � ا � � ا ا ا ا � � ء ���ل � او � � ح� �عو ��ط �م� � �لمك ل�ي� � ��و ��د م� ا ل�د �� ن� ن�أ ر ع��سره م� ل�� نع � � � �من�� ش ش ن ���و ن� و�ل� ���و���. � �ه�م�ا �ع�ي�ر �م ش � �م �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي يّ ي ي � ن أن ا� ن �ن ن ������ ي�ل�� ���م�ل ا �ل ������ �ن� �لن��د �؟ �و�م��� � ��و ن��د �كي��ه؟ ا ل��ي� ن�����د���ا؟
ح ن��� ن�ً�ا ا� ا � ن � �� �ل �م� �ي���و� ن ي
أ ي أ ا � �ك�م� ل��ا ا � م ن � م
٦،١٦٢
١،١٦٣
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ن أ� � ّ � ن ��� ��ه � ّٰ نّ يّ � � ن ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ �و����ا �كي��ه ا � �لن��ا ن ��ط �م��ي��م� ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا �ل���ا �ل ا �لن ������ �ن�ا �لن��د � �و�و ن�� � �م��س�وي ر ن و � � ن ي � ّع ن� ا � �أ ي�� أ ن ُ ي ا � ن �� اأش� ا ��لن �ن ل�ن ا ��ل �د ن � ي�د ا � ي ��س���د ا � ا �لن��د � �و�كن ��و�ل�ه أا �ي�ا ه � � م � ع � ه � � ��� � او �ل��ول�� ا � �ي�ل�� �ل � �ور ر ��� �ي� ن � �ل�� ر كي� أ أ أ أ ّ ي ّ ً ً ً ن حّ ن �ن�ا �م ن �يلم�ل� ا ��� �� �لن �ا ن ��� ����نّ �ا �ي ��ه ا ن �� �ا ا �يّل� �ا ��� �ع ن ّ ا ن� ح�� ّ ا �� � ن ن �أاو ��م�ا �رر � ك �ل � ط �ل ل�� ��و � ل�� � �ل ر� ��يس� ا �و س�مي�� �و ��ل� ���دي�� م ن ّ� ن ا ن ن ���د ا ا�ا�م�س ن� اأ ن �ن �ليع �� ا نّ ا ��لن ��ن ن�ع�� �م ����م�ل�ي �عم� ا ��لن ��ن��� � ا ��ل��أ�ش � � ه � ا ا � ع � � � � � � � � س ع �� �� � � ل � � � ن و أ � � و ن أ نر � � ور ي ر � ل�� أ ن � � �شأ أ ً ّ � � � ي ن �ن ي ش ��ا ن � � ��ل ���ط أا ن� ا � حن� �� �سر �س ن ارجن � �م���س���د �ل�� �ي�لعن�م�ل �ل�ه ا � ار ك�� � �� � ن�� ي �ه�ور � �لمك ا �ل��ر �عم�ل�� ح�� ن أ أ ّ � � ن � ن ن �� � ا �� ي ��س���د ا � �ل����سل��� �ل��د ه ا ���ع��ا هي �م ن ن ���� نّ �ِم ن ن �ع� ا ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� ي�لي��ي�م�ل� � �ي ن�لع��م� ا �ن����ا ��ل��ا � لمك �ل� ن ر ِ� � � ر م ن� � ن و ل � م أ أ أ ّ ن ن ن �ي حي ا ا �ع ن� ا �نّ ا �ي ن�ل � ل�ن ا �� � ي�� ن ن ن ��ن �عم�ل�� ��سن��ي�م�ل ا � �ل�� م�� ل��ي� ا �ر�� �أ�ا � ���د ا ي ن�م�ل ن� ���د � او �ل���يس� ر �ي� ل��� ع�م�ل �ي� �� ل و أ �ع �ش ً � � ن �� ا ���ي ��� �يلم�ل�ي ن ن � �� ن �ش � � ح���ا �أل��� ا �لن ��ن���� � او �����ا �ل���ا. ك��ي را �م� ا ل��س�وك �ي� �ل ي ��
264
264
٢،١٦٣
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ ش ي أ ن ا ن ن � ن ن ّ ي � �أ نّ ن اأ ي ن ش ّ ُ �ن ���م� �� ���ل � او � ���د �م ن� ا �ل��د �� ن� ي������ا �و�ي� �ع��سره ا � ����� ��ه �م� ا � �ل�� ���ه �ل�� �� �لن��ه �ع��ه ��م ن� ل أ أ � ن �ي ي � ا ���� ش ي �ن ا � هي ا � �آ ا �ن � �� � ش ح� ��ل�� ند ��لم�ك ا ن� ي ���د �م ن ن� ��لم�ك ا ن��ل � � � ع��سرهي ا �مش��ا ��ل�ه ه س � ا ا � � � � � � م � � � � � � ن ي و و � ور ���سره ل��� ي� �ل��� � و ن ن ن ���د ا ا ن��ل �و��ر. �� �م�
أ أ � � ن � أن �ن�ا �ّم�ا ا ��لي��ن��ا � ي� ا ��ل�� ند �� � �ي�� ��� ن �سر�� ا �ل��دي�ل ن��ا ر � او �ل��د ر�ه� ا �عن��� ا � ���ا ر �م ن��ه ا ��� او � ���د � و ي وع ن ي� ا ي ا � يم � ن ي ا� اأ � ي ن ا نّ ا ن � � �أ ًا ن ا� اأ � ي � ي ن ن��م��س�هي � ش ا ي � � � � � � �و��� �و �ه� ا�م��س� �ل�ه ا � ��� ن� ع��سر� ر ه�م� � � و ���مل � ��� �� �لي��ه �ل���د ه ا�م��س� �ل�ه �أ� �م� � �لمك �ل� ن�م�ل ي ش ّ ي� �أ � ن شّ � ن � ن ن أ ا � �أ �ي ن ا ي �ن �� ن ن ن ا� ش � � � � ه ا �ل ���� �و� ل�ي� ا ��ور� �ن��� ا� � ا م�ي��ا �ل � او �ل��د ر�ه� �� �ل� ن�م�ل ا ������� ا �ل��د �ي� �ي���و� ل��ي� ا � � د � �� � س � � م و �ل ر ي م م ّ ش ي � ن �ن نّ ن ن � � �ن أ نّ � � � ن � � ن ان ��م ن ن � ��د� ���ا ن� �� ���هي أا � ا ك� � � ا � � ا ا ا ا � � ء ���ل � او � � ح� �عو ��ط �م� � �لمك ل�ي� � ��و ��د م� ا ل�د �� ن� ن�أ ر ع��سره م� ل�� نع � � � �من�� ش ش ن ���و ن� و�ل� ���و���. � �ه�م�ا �ع�ي�ر �م ش � �م �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ي يّ ي ي � ن أن ا� ن �ن ن ������ ي�ل�� ���م�ل ا �ل ������ �ن� �لن��د �؟ �و�م��� � ��و ن��د �كي��ه؟ ا ل��ي� ن�����د���ا؟
ح ن��� ن�ً�ا ا� ا � ن � �� �ل �م� �ي���و� ن ي
أ ي أ ا � �ك�م� ل��ا ا � م ن � م
٦،١٦٢
١،١٦٣
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ ن أ� � ّ � ن ��� ��ه � ّٰ نّ يّ � � ن ي��ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ �و����ا �كي��ه ا � �لن��ا ن ��ط �م��ي��م� ح�م�ه ا لله أا � ا �ل���ا �ل ا �لن ������ �ن�ا �لن��د � �و�و ن�� � �م��س�وي ر ن و � � ن ي � ّع ن� ا � �أ ي�� أ ن ُ ي ا � ن �� اأش� ا ��لن �ن ل�ن ا ��ل �د ن � ي�د ا � ي ��س���د ا � ا �لن��د � �و�كن ��و�ل�ه أا �ي�ا ه � � م � ع � ه � � ��� � او �ل��ول�� ا � �ي�ل�� �ل � �ور ر ��� �ي� ن � �ل�� ر كي� أ أ أ أ ّ ي ّ ً ً ً ن حّ ن �ن�ا �م ن �يلم�ل� ا ��� �� �لن �ا ن ��� ����نّ �ا �ي ��ه ا ن �� �ا ا �يّل� �ا ��� �ع ن ّ ا ن� ح�� ّ ا �� � ن ن �أاو ��م�ا �رر � ك �ل � ط �ل ل�� ��و � ل�� � �ل ر� ��يس� ا �و س�مي�� �و ��ل� ���دي�� م ن ّ� ن ا ن ن ���د ا ا�ا�م�س ن� اأ ن �ن �ليع �� ا نّ ا ��لن ��ن ن�ع�� �م ����م�ل�ي �عم� ا ��لن ��ن��� � ا ��ل��أ�ش � � ه � ا ا � ع � � � � � � � � س ع �� �� � � ل � � � ن و أ � � و ن أ نر � � ور ي ر � ل�� أ ن � � �شأ أ ً ّ � � � ي ن �ن ي ش ��ا ن � � ��ل ���ط أا ن� ا � حن� �� �سر �س ن ارجن � �م���س���د �ل�� �ي�لعن�م�ل �ل�ه ا � ار ك�� � �� � ن�� ي �ه�ور � �لمك ا �ل��ر �عم�ل�� ح�� ن أ أ ّ � � ن � ن ن �� � ا �� ي ��س���د ا � �ل����سل��� �ل��د ه ا ���ع��ا هي �م ن ن ���� نّ �ِم ن ن �ع� ا ن� ا ��لن ��ن��� ي�لي��ي�م�ل� � �ي ن�لع��م� ا �ن����ا ��ل��ا � لمك �ل� ن ر ِ� � � ر م ن� � ن و ل � م أ أ أ ّ ن ن ن �ي حي ا ا �ع ن� ا �نّ ا �ي ن�ل � ل�ن ا �� � ي�� ن ن ن ��ن �عم�ل�� ��سن��ي�م�ل ا � �ل�� م�� ل��ي� ا �ر�� �أ�ا � ���د ا ي ن�م�ل ن� ���د � او �ل���يس� ر �ي� ل��� ع�م�ل �ي� �� ل و أ �ع �ش ً � � ن �� ا ���ي ��� �يلم�ل�ي ن ن � �� ن �ش � � ح���ا �أل��� ا �لن ��ن���� � او �����ا �ل���ا. ك��ي را �م� ا ل��س�وك �ي� �ل ي ��
264
264
٢،١٦٣
On the specific time when the soul attaches itself to the body
act as its deputy and perform its function. Silver was the only object found to unite the excellences that we have said gold possesses, so it was appointed as its representative, and one part of gold was assigned the value of ten parts of silver. Single units stop at ten, and therefore it was necessary that one part of the former precious substance be valued at ten similar parts of the latter. As for the disparity between the conversion rate of gold dinars and silver
162.6
dirhams—that is, the fact that one dinar is equivalent to fifteen or so dirhams, which was the question you next posed—this is due to the disparity between the weight of dinars and dirhams and also due to the debasement undergone by one of the two. Nevertheless, the principle is preserved insofar as one part of gold is equal to ten parts of silver, so long as neither has been subjected to adulteration or debasement.
On the specific time when the soul attaches itself to the body When does the soul attach itself to the body, and when does it come to be pres-
163.1
ent in it? Is it when the body is a fetus, or before or after that?
Miskawayh’s response To talk of the soul as “attaching” itself to the body and “becoming present” in it involves a loose usage of words. It is preferable to say: The effect of the soul is manifested in the body in accordance with its preparedness for and receptivity to it. The reason we are wary of those words is that they give the impression that the soul has an accidental or physical attachment, and neither of these notions can be unqualifiedly predicated of the soul. If we wish to convey this meaning, it is more appropriate to say: The soul is a simple substance such that, when a certain humoral mixture arises that is prepared to receive a certain effect from it, that effect is manifested in the measure of that preparedness. This expression may preserve us from the notion of those who have claimed that the soul changes and performs its acts intentionally and by choice—that is, that it acts at one time and restrains at another, for this gives rise to a great number of doubts unbefitting to the characteristics and actions of the soul.
265
265
163.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ني ي ّ ن � نّ � � ي � ن � ���و ن� �من � ا ��ل ح ن��� ن أا ن� ا � � او � ��د � ح�ي � عي� ي� ���د ه ا ���عن��ا رهي �كن ��ي �عو�ل أا � ا �لن� ��ط�ن��ه ا � ��ي� �ي� ح��م�ل ي� ��� ا ن� ي� أ أ �ي أ أ ن � �ن � ��ا ن ّ � ا � ن �� ن� ه � ن ش ا � ��� هي ا � ن �� ح ا ا� ا �ن ي � � � � � � ل � � ا ا ك � �هر �مش�م�ل�ه ل��ي� ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء ��يس�� م� يل� � ل�ي� ا ر �م �م�و ��� ك� � ول م� يل� � �هر ي�� م� ر ن ي ا� ن ّ ي أ ن أ نّ �� ي � � ن ي ي�لن� ن � ن �ي� �� ن � ��ه � �� ن م م � ا�م���د �لي��ه ا �ع�� ا � ا ل � � ���ه أا � ا ا �م��ي نر ن� �ن�ا �ام�ا ء ا ��ل�� ند �ي� �ي �� او ن���ي��ه ه ح ار ره ا �لم�ل�� ي � � � � ح � � �� � ����ه ن و و ي � ج ّ ن ش ي ي� �أ ي �� ي�� � ن ن � � ن � � ن ن ُ ن ا � �أ � ��ن ��هي اأ �ع ن� اأ�نّ�ه �مش ن ش ن � حن � �� �م ن� ����ه�وه ا �ل�� ��� ���وره �سركن���ه �كم �ي���و� � �لمك ل�ي� ا �لمل��ن� أا � ا �سرن �ن� �ل� �ي� ي � ج ً � ن� ش ش ّ �ي � ّ � ��ل ي � ّ � ي ن�ك � � ن ن� هي ش�ّ � ي � ّ �� ن � � � �عملي��ه ا � ���س � ح ار ره � ��د ��د � � � ح�ي� �يل���ي�ر �مم�ل�ّ �ون�ا �ن�ا �ل�سره ي����ي ر م� � �وي���ر �� لمل لمك �� م ي ن ي أ أ � ي � أشم آ � ّ ّ ا ي �� ي ا �ل��ش ج ن �ع ن ن ا�ا� ن ن هي ���سسي ّ ا �� ن� ن ي�لي ح � ا ��لن�س�ا �ي م � � � � � � � � � ا ا ا � � � � � ء م � �ل نع ��و�ل ا �ر ا ر ��� � � ���� �م�د ���د و ��م�ل نل��� عرو� �رو� ن ر و ن ي أ أ � ن اأ ن �ن ن � أ ّ ي � � � ي ا ي ا ن �ن ي ا �ل��ش ح �م ن ي� �لي��ه ن�ك ن� ����ه ن�ك��ه ا ش� ا ��لن ���ن م � � � � � �ل � � ه ا� � كي�� ��د مأ� رح�م ا �م� ن �ملك ��ر�و� �م� �� ��أد ه عر�و� ن ر � نر أ ي � ر ي ر ��� ن � ي � يش � ي � � ني � � ّا � يّ � ا �ل ن��ا �مي��ه ا �عن��� ا �لن�نس�ا ي�ليّ��ه ��ّ �ي�لي �عو�� ���د ا ا �ل���شر ن�كي��ه �و�ي���م�� ل�� �� ح� �عم�ل�� ا �ل� �ي� �م ح�� �ي �كم�ل � �وي��� � هي� ي أ مأ � ن � � �� أ ن ي ّم � ي ن � ن حرك� ن�����د � �لمك أا ل�� ا � ي� ���س���د � �لينع ��و��ل ا ��ن���د ا ء ن��ن���ي�ر ا ����ر�و�ي� ا �عن��� ا �نّ�ه �ي�ن��ي��ي�م�ل ن� ����ه ��لي�نس�ا �و��ل ن�ع�د ا �أ�ه ي أ �� ي � ن ن ن� ي ���د ا ا ���أ�ش �ن�ا �ي �� �ن � ن أ ّ �ً� أ ّ �ً� ن ن �� �هر ن�كي��ه ا ش�ر ا ��ل � �����ه � ع �ل ر ر� و� حي �� او � ا �و �ل� ا �و �ل� �أ�ا � ا �كم�ل ا ���س���د ا �ه ل ن ��ول �كي� �� � ��ل ن ّ ي ش ّ � � ن � �ن ي ي � ا أ ن �� � ا ن ��ل اأ ن � �يك�م اأش� ا ��لن ��ن ل � � � ه ه � � � � ا ا ل � � ا ا �ل ا �ل ا ل م � ل ح ح � � � � � � � � س � � � � � � � � �� � � � ل � � ل � � ير و ن �ل ر ي� رن ن � م � ي و أ � ي ي ر � يو ي � ي � أش � ن � يم أ ن � ي ن � ّ ي ن � ن أ ن ن � ن� أش � ي ش ّ �� ن�ك ه ا � ي ط ا �ع�� ا �س�م���ر � او � � �و�ه � ��س���د ا � � �ل نع ��و�ل ا �ر ا �ل� �� ح�����د �يل �� ي�� �هر كي��ه ا �ر ا ���ع��م�ل �� �ل� � � ي ي ر ي � � ي ي م أ ّ � ن ي � �ش ن ي ي � نا � ي ح�ي ي�ل�م�لن� �نل��ا ��هي � ن� ي �� � ن ير �ل �ي�ل �عو�� ���د ا ا �ل��ر �كي��ه �عم�ل�� ��د ر ا ���س���د ا �ه �و�كن ��و�ل�ه �� ن � ي ر ح��ه �و �كم �ل�ه �م� ي � �ن ا ن ن ي ّ ع �� ي � أش ا ا� � � �ن� ن ن � � ن ان ّي ش ا ن � ي � ي ي ح���أ��د ا �لأ����س� �لي��ه �وي���س� ر�� ا �ل��د ر ن��ه ا � ��ي� ����م�ل�و � ر ن��ه ا �لأ����س� � �ي�����س���د �ل نع ��و�ل ا �ر �مملك ي � أ ن � ن ش اأ � ن ش اأ ي � �آ ن ي � ا �� أ �ي � � ن ��ل ا � هي � �أ ��ل ا�ا� ي� ّ ي م�ي��د �م�ه. ي نح ن� ا � ي�����س� ا �ل����س� ه ا �ل��ره ن�� ل ا ��و� م� ا�� �ل� ا �ل��و�� ي ي ن أ ن ي � ن ي ييّ ن �� � ين ن ش أ ن �ي أ �و���د ا ا �� � ���ل��م �لي����� �ي�لع����ي� ا � �ي�ل��ا �ل �كي��ه �م��� �ل���م�ل �و�ل�����م�ل ن�لم�ل �م ن� ��س�ا � ا � �ل��ا �لمل� أ � أ ن يا � ن ي ي ّ ��د � � �ليع�م � اأ �ّ ا ا ��لن �ن �ن �م�� ��� ي ا � ن ي �� ����ّ � 1م�ا �يك�م� ا ش� ِ���ا ه ���ه �ن� �ل��د ا � � �ل نِ ل ر � ي� �ل�ه ا � �ي�ل�� �ل �كي��ه �م��� ي����س� وي ن �ل و م� ����� � ي � ً �ي � �ي ّأ ه ي ي ّ ن أ نّ ا �ي� � �� ن أ� �ً� ��من ي ي � حي�م� �لن��ه �و� ��ورا �وا �ل� ��س� �و��د �لن��ي�� ا �ل��� �� ��ط�� ا لن��د � ا � �� كن ��و�ل�ه � او ���س���د ا �ه �ول� ي نح�� ن ي أ أ أ ً � ي � ي � �ن ي � ن �� ش� � ن ن ��و ن� ن� �مي�نس�اي�ل ن��هي � ٢يكن�م�ل ا ن� �ي�� ح ن�ي�� ن��ا � نو�����د ا � ي� ي��ّ ا �ل���وره ا �لأ����س�ا ن�ليّ��ه �لي����� ٣ي�لن��� ��ل ع ا ر ا �ل������ م أ أ ��ل ن � هي � ن � ّي � ا ��ل�ه ا ��ل� اأ ن ���د � ن �س �و� ا � � او ره � �و�ن��ي � ه� أا �� �عم �ي� � � �م ن� ا �لن��د � ا �لن�يس�ه �عم�ل�� ن� � � ي � ي� �سر�و ن� ا و أ � ي ور ر ن �� �� ه � � � ��ن����ن اأ ن � �ي ا �� ا �نّه ن� �ل �من ا ل�ن ا �� �م ن اأ� ا �� ه � ا نّ�� ا � �لي � ا � �أ�ش � �لن��� �ن �و ل� أو م� يع�و� �ل� ر وي� ��� �ي� �� ل � � ع� �كم ل� و�ل� ي ن �هي� � يل�� ل أ � ي�م �و � ي � � � �� �كن ��و�ل�ه � او �ل��س�ل��� . نح�� ن م أ أ أ ن ة ّ ة كل � �ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل�� :ة�� ن���ا ��س��ن����ة ٣ .الا�ص�ل � :ن���ل �ل��ة��س. 1الا�ص�ل وط� :ل�ل�د ا � �
266
266
٣،١٦٣
٤،١٦٣
On the specific time when the soul attaches itself to the body
Having established the correct expression, we may now respond as follows:
163.3
When the drop of semen from which the fetus is produced arrives in a suitable womb, the first effect of nature to manifest itself in it is of the kind manifested in mineral objects. That is, the delicate heat ripens and agitates it, and if it is mixed with suitable water produced by the female’s desire, it gives it a composite form such as one sees in milk when mixed with rennet. That is to say, it curdles and coagulates, and then the heat persists with it so that it acquires a reddish tinge and becomes a lump of flesh. After that it prepares to receive another effect, which is when the embryo draws nourishment, developing roots like the roots of trees and plants by means of which it derives nourishment from its mother’s womb, just as tree roots get this from soil. The growing—that is, the vegetative—soul manifests its effect in it, and this effect grows stronger in it and takes firm hold until it is perfected over time. The next step is that it prepares itself to receive nourishment without the roots, which means reaching for its nourishment through its own movement, and the animal effect manifests itself in it little by little. Once it has fully prepared itself to receive this effect, it leaves its location and receives the effect of the animal soul. It remains at the level of beasts until it develops the preparedness to receive the effect of rationality, that is, discrimination and reflection. At that point, the effect of the intellect manifests itself within us, and this effect continues to grow strong within us in the measure of our preparedness and receptivity, until we reach the highest grade and perfection possible for us with regard to humanity. We then come within view of the grade above the grade of human beings, and we prepare to receive the effect of the angels. At that point, we must rise up in the next realm in a stronger state than the earlier preceding state. This form of words does not allow for the question, “When does the soul attach or detach itself?” The person who holds to that view should rather ask, “When is there preparedness and receptivity?” The soul essentially gives to everything that receives its effect in accordance with its receptivity, preparedness, and readiness. It has been established that it imparts a variety of states and disparate forms to the body before it becomes an embryo. Once the human form is complete, the soul never wholly ceases to exercise its effect on the body throughout its manifold states until it completes its manifold cycles and reaches its ultimate perfection. It must not be said that it is ever without it in any of its states; rather, the effect grows stronger and weaker depending on its receptivity. That is all there is to say.
267
267
163.4
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ أ أ ين � � �م ن �عم�ل� �م��ا �ش�س��أ�ً�ا ا � ��ل��؟ �ن�ا ��ا � ��ا �نّل��ا ن ن ا �ي ي � ن ن ا ��ل � ����أ�م�ل ن���� ن� ن ن ن � �ل�ه�م أا � ا �� ر � ا �ل ������ نح��س�د ��م�ل ���د ��ر � و � ي م � ن أ ي ن�� ا� ي � ّ ن �ن ن ن � ا أ � ا ن �� � � ��� � � ي ن�� ا�م � � ���س�ا � ا �ي� ���د ��ر ا�م�ع� �عو�ل كمل�ه �و�ل� ���د ��ر ح����و��� � ار � ا �ل��س� �لم�ل ن�م� ي����ر��� لمل��ملي�م�ل �م� ا �ل�� ي ً ّ � � ن � ن ن ن ي � ن ن ي �� ن ي ن�� � ن � ي �� ش ك�ي ��� ���د ��ر ا �لن ������ �م�ع� �عو�ل���ا أا � ا ��ا ر� ي� ا �لن��د � �و��هي� �ل� ���د ��ر ��سي��أ��ا �م ن��ه أا � ا ا �عي�م�ل ا �لن��د � أ أ أ ا ا � ���� ن�� ا �ع ن� ا � ن ن ا ا �س�س�س ّر �ن�م�ك. ��� ء ا �لن��د �؟ �� ن�� ن� ن��م� � ي و ن �
١،١٦٤
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ � أ ٰ ّ ي � ن ��� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن��م�ا �ي نل����ظ�ه ا ش�ر ا ��لن ��ن��� ل��ن� ا ��ل��د ن� ن� ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ح�� �� ��ا ن��ه ا �لن��د � و � ي ن ر ن ي� ي ا � �ي ن � ي يّ ا � � ا � � ن ّ�� نّ � ا ا ا يا ن ي ن ن � � � � � � � � ه � � ل ل ل � � ا � � � ا ل � ا م م � ه ح� ا � �د � � � � � � � � � � � ه � م � � � س م � � �ل �ي� ل ر �ي� � ل أ �� ل و ر أ �و�عم�ل�� �كي�� ��� �و ي � �ن ا � ن ح�م���ً�ا ا ي ا ن �ي ّي ا ن � ���ا ر ��� ر ا�م ��ر أا ��ل�� �ي��ّوهي ا ��ل � أا � ح����و�����ا ي� �م ن� �ي��ّوهي ا ��ل��د �� ح ن� حي�� �ل� .1و��� �� � ا � �ل �ع �و� � ن ي و � ي أ أ ا ي ن �� � ّ ّ �ً� �ن نّ� ا � ّ ���ل�� ن ��� ٢ا� م ل � ل��ا � ٣م ن ا ��ل�� ن� � � � ا ل � �� ح�����ا � ا ا ا ح م � � م م �� � � � � � �� أا �م� ح� � � � � ل � � � � ور و � و � و ي� و � � م ي � � ً ش ن ن � ّ � ن ّ ي يي ا ���ل�� �نل��ا ���� ا ح����ق�م ّ ا �ل���ن ّ ي ّ � � ن�لم�ل ل��ي� ���ّوه ا �لن ��ن���� ا�ام����ق�م�ا ه ٤ �� ���� ل��ي� �ع�ي�ر �� �مم�ل ن� ي� ��يس�عي��ه ��م ح� � ن ي ن � �أ ّ � � � ن ��ًا � .او ن��م�ا ا � ���د ه ا � �لي �عّوهي �ل�� ن�ع ار ن��� ا ��لن��د ن� �و��ا ن� ح�يي�م � �� � أا ��ل حي��ه أا �ل�� ا �ل ش�����ء ن�����د ا �ل ش�����ء � � � جن أ ي ي ر أ ن ا ن ����مي� ا � � ن ن � ي ��ل ي � � � ا ��ّ ��� م�ي� ��� ي ا ��ل ي � � ن� ��ً�ا �أ� � ا ا �� �ل ا �لن��د � �ورا �ل� ا ��ا ن��ه أا �ل�� ا �ل��د ���ر ا �يل ن� �و � � �� ��ا ن��ه أا �ل�� ا �ل� أ أ � ي � ن ا �� ي ي ّ ي ا ي �ن ن أ ���سن��ن�س�هي �� ن�د ا �يل��ا � �م�ا ن�ك ا ن �و��� ر� ا �ل ������ �م ي ن � و ي� ��� �م� ���ور ا ���ع��م�ل ا ع��ي� ��ي� �����ق��م� ا � او �لم�ل ّي � � � � �أ نّ �يم� � �ه ن ا ي ا ��� �ي ن � ��م ي ي � ح�� �ي ���د � � أ � ن � ��و ن ن ��ون � ح��ا ن��ه أا �ل�� �م�ا � ه �و�ل� أا �ل�� ن� � �ل� � للك �ي� � � �ع�م�ل �ع�ي ر �و�ه ا ع��ي� م أ آ أ نّ � �أ � ن � � ا� � ي �ن �� ي � � ي � ا ي � ّ ا � ن أ � ي ن مون � ا � ا �ل�� ��ور ا� � ��� ا �ل�� ا � او �لم�ل �و�لي������ ل��ي� �و�ه ل�ي� ا ��ع��م�ل �هي� ا ��ع��م�ل �و �هي� � ��ي� ����ق�مي� ح ّ ي ن نّ � � ا ّ ي � � � ��م ي ا هي ا ��ل ا � � ي � ن � ي ي ّ � ن آ� � ي � م� � ه �ل� ح�� ن�� أ ��� .و ن ح�مي�� ���و�� ا �لن������ ا � ��ي� ي� �� �ن�ا �لن��د � � �ون�ا �ل�� ن ��س�مي��ه �أ�ا �ل���ا ي�لن� ���مل� � نو � ن أ يي� ي ن ع م ّ � ن � ن � �� ����ل ��ط � او ��م�ا ا � ي ح��ا ن� ن�لن� ����ل�� � ا �لن��د � ا �ي� ����س�س ن��� �عن � ا ا �لن �ن �� ا �ه � �ن � � ح ي� ��� ����� نم� ��ي� ل���� و ن �و ر ن ي أ ي � � �أ ا ا ي � ن ا� ش ا � � ن ن ا�م��سي ّ ن ا � ي ا ا� � أ � ا ن ���ا ن� ن�ل��ا �يً�ا أا �لي��ه �ل� ن�م�ل �� ن�� � ا �لن��د � ا�م����� رك �لمل ������ س�م�د �م � ��� ا �لن ���� ء ا�م�ل� ��م �ل��� أا � ا ك� ن أ ًأ ن ً ا �و � حي �� او �ن�ا ا �و أا ���س�ا �ن�ا. أ أ أ أ أ ّ ن ن ن ����ا ل ٢ .الا�ص� :ا ن���ه�ا و � 1الا�ص� :ا �لح � ����ص�لا � ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ا ولا أا � �ة� �وا � ��ل��ه�ا ٤ .الا�ص�ل :ا �ل������س��م�. ة لأ ل
268
268
٢،١٦٤
On whether souls can recollect what they used to know after leaving the body A thinker was asked: When the soul leaves the body, does it recollect any of
164.1
the things it used to know, or not? He answered that it recollects all intelligible but not sensible things. The questioner followed up by pointing to the forgetfulness that ill people are prone to. That is, how can the soul recollect intelligible things when it leaves the body, when it does not recollect any of them when the body, or some parts of the body, fall ill? He gave the reply that you shall see. Miskawayh’s response The effect of the soul manifests itself in the body in accordance with the body’s need and relative to its progression from one state to the next, as we have explained above. Recollection consists in summoning the forms of sensible objects from the power of memory to the power of imagination. Both these powers first acquire the forms of sensible objects from the senses out of the natural bodies that bear them, and then acquire them simply, not in a corporeal carrier but in the power of the soul that is called memory. This power is needed because of the purposes of the body and its successive needs for different things. When the body is transformed and the need for the senses is eliminated, the need for memory also falls away, and the soul comes to require nothing outside itself and outside the forms of the intellect it contains, that is, outside those that are termed first principles. For those constitute the intellect itself and in order to exist do not need any matter or any body. That is, the things found in the intellect are what the intellect consists in, and they are the ones we now term first principles, which are not found in matter nor need it. All of the powers of the soul that are realized through the body and physical organs cease with the cessation of the body, that is, the soul ceases to require them insofar as it is a soul and simple substance. It needed them on account of the needs of the body that was partnered to the soul and that used them to derive the continued existence that was suitable to it, depending on whether it was plant, animal, or human.
269
269
164.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ن �م ي ي � ش ح��س ّ هي ن � �آ� � ��ل نأ ّ � ن ��ل ��ط �����ي�ر � �و��ر ن�� ح��ا ن��ه أا �ل�� ����ي� ء �م ن� ���د ه ا �ل� �ل� ي� ا ن� �مي�� ��ا �م�ا ا �لن ������ ن��م�ا ��هي� ن�� ي ّ أ ن �� � ا نّ��م�ا �ع ن ��� هي ��ل��أ�ن�ّم�ك ��س�ا ��ل ي� �ع ن اأ�س ����ل ���ط �م� �ي�� ّ�ه�مم�ك ا �ّ�ا ه �س ل��� ��ًا �� ي� ��لم� ل ا ه ���د � ك ر و أ ي ن � ر ي ع و يّ نر ن أ � �ر ّ أ أ آ ّ ّ ً � � � � � ي ي � ن � ن � � � ن ن � ّ ي �� ا ا ا ل��ا ��هي� ا �يل ن� ���ا �سركن����ه �� ���ل ��ط ا �ع��ي� أا � ا �ل� �ل�� ا �لن��د �لي��ه ك�م� � �و �و�� �ل ا��سر�� ن� �ع�ي�ر �� �ل ا �لن�� ي ّ � أ ً � ا ��ّ ا ��نل ��م�� � ا �� �ليع� �� ا ����ي 1ي�ل ن��ا � ا ن ي� ا ا ي � ا �ل�� ��� � .او ��ل �م�ل �ل���ا ا �يل ن� ا �ش� � ��و � �م� �م� � �ل��� ي �ك ن ������ �م� ��� ��ّي� ء �سر� ن � و و ي� ّ ن ا ��لي�ن ّ � � � ن� � � ي ي ّ � � اآ � � ي أ ن ي ن ا ي ي ي ّ ا أ �ن ا � � ي ن � ����ه .ن�أ�ا � ا حي�م�ل � او � ��وه� � او � �ل� � ��س�ه � ��م �نل��� ا ���� �ل �سركن ��ر �ل� � ��م أا �ل� �ن� �ل�� � او �ّسر ن��ه �م�� � ن م ّ أ آ ً � اأ � � � �ن �� ا �ل ن ا � � ن � � � � ي ا� �� ي � ي ن� ن �عم� � ي� ا ن��ل ���ا �نل ���م�ل ا � �لع��م�ل ا�ا�سر�� ن� ي � �� �وا ��ر أا �ل�� ن���س� �ل �� � ��� ن�لن� ����ل� � ا �ل� �ل�� ا��سركن���ه � او ��سس��� � � � أ ن � ن �ي ي ّ ا ن ا ن��ل �و��ر ا �لن�� ���ل ��ط ا � �لي��ا �� �ن��د ا �ي�ه �ع ن� ��ا ن��ا ي� ا �لن��د � �و ن� �سر�ورا �ي�ه ا � ��ي� �� �و ن�� �� ي �و�ه �نل��� �م� م ّ �أ م �� � � ش ل��ا. حي�� �ه�و �سر�� ن� �ل� ن�م� �
� ي ن �� ن ����أ�م� �ع ن ا ��ل � ل�� ح�م�ه ل��ي� ��و� ل �
� � ا ن��ل حن��ا �ل.
٣،١٦٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل� ١،١٦٥
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ � �أ ٰ ّ ��ش� ي ح��ا �� � � ن ������ا �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� �م ن��ا �ن�� ا ن��ل � � � � م��س� � ��ل ��ط ا �ل��ر ن��� ك���ي ره � م ع � � ل ل و و � و ن ن ن �� ي و �ي� ي ع � �� ا � �أ ن�� ن � � اأ ن �ًّا �� � � �ه � ا ُ � ن ا ي � � � ا ن � �و� ��ل�ط �ل�ر � �و� �لمك � ��سن�� ن� �و ن � ن��د �و��و�ل� �ي� ٢م� �و ن��د �لن�� � �و�ل� حي ��و � �عم�ل�� ن � ي أ أ � � � ن ا ا� � � ن ا ��لن�س�ا ي� � او ��ل حي �� او � � �ون�لي��ا �أل�ه�م�ا ن�����د �ه�و ا�ام�ا ء ا �����د ن� ا �ل��س�ا � �عم�ل� �و ن��ه ا �ل��ر ن���� .و��سن�� ن� ا�م� ء ن � ج � ن ي � ن ن �ّ أ ��ن أ ن � � ن ن � ح���ا ا ا ا ا ا ن �� ر ل��� ا ن�ل �و ا �ع��� ا ل��م� ا ������د ن� ا �ل��س� � �ه�و ا ���ع��� � ا �نل� � � �� ن� �و�م� ي����ر��� �ل�ه �م� ا �ل� � ر ي ي ا � � يّ ج ن ّ ا � �� ّ ا �ش � ّ ا ِ ِ � أ نّ� ي ّ�ه ي �� ح��ا ��ل �س �ي ن�لع���هي �ع ن ل � م ل � � � ا � � � ا ا ا � � � �ن� �لن��ر� ح�� ي���ع�و� �م��ه أا �م� م�ر أو م� نل � أو م� ن ر� .و��و ��مك ��و �م� ن ن � ر ن� ا ��ا ن ��ل ن� � � ي ج ي � ي � � ني � � ن ح ّ�م�ل ي� ا ��ل��أ ن�� ��� � ��ه ا ��ل��أ ن�� � ي�ن ��� � � � � ��ا ر ا�ا�س �ري ن�لع� �ل ء ك م ه ه �د � � ���س ٣ � ع � � ل � ل � � ��� � ا ن ير ون و و ور ي� ر�و ي ر� ر ن ن �� ي � � ن ي �ن �� ّ � � �من � ن ا ن عي ن ن � � � ا � � ل �و �و�ل� ي� �سر �و�ل� ي���ع�و� �م��ه �م� ء �ع�د ن� ن�لم�ل ك�� � �عم �ي�ه ���ره �ل� ي�ل�� � �م� ���د ه ا � � ح� ع��د ل�ي� ا ن�� أ ن� � ن أ ّ أ ي ي � �ا ي � ن ي ن يّ ن ا �م�ل�ل �وي����م�� ��ا ر ا ن� ي�م� � �لم�ك ا �نل� حي�م�ل �ه� او ء �كن�م�ل ا � ي� ��م �م��ه �م� �ه�و ��سن�� ن� ع�م� ره �و ن��ه ا �ل�ر��� أ أ أ أ أ ّ ن �� ا � ي� ن � ن� �� � ��� ا ن ا ��ل ن ���ا ر ا�ا��س �ي ن�لع� �م ن ا ��ل��ر ن��� ي� ع او ر ا ��ل��ر ن��� � �و�� ا نل � ا ح��م�ل �ن�ي� ن� ا � � و لمك �ل ن�م�ل � ن حن�� �ل � ��ي� رع � ن ي� أ أ ن �لحن 1الا�ص�ل :ا �����س ا �لة��� ٢ .ط :و�لولا �ه�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :عوور. ة
270
270
٢،١٦٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ن �م ي ي � ش ح��س ّ هي ن � �آ� � ��ل نأ ّ � ن ��ل ��ط �����ي�ر � �و��ر ن�� ح��ا ن��ه أا �ل�� ����ي� ء �م ن� ���د ه ا �ل� �ل� ي� ا ن� �مي�� ��ا �م�ا ا �لن ������ ن��م�ا ��هي� ن�� ي ّ أ ن �� � ا نّ��م�ا �ع ن ��� هي ��ل��أ�ن�ّم�ك ��س�ا ��ل ي� �ع ن اأ�س ����ل ���ط �م� �ي�� ّ�ه�مم�ك ا �ّ�ا ه �س ل��� ��ًا �� ي� ��لم� ل ا ه ���د � ك ر و أ ي ن � ر ي ع و يّ نر ن أ � �ر ّ أ أ آ ّ ّ ً � � � � � ي ي � ن � ن � � � ن ن � ّ ي �� ا ا ا ل��ا ��هي� ا �يل ن� ���ا �سركن����ه �� ���ل ��ط ا �ع��ي� أا � ا �ل� �ل�� ا �لن��د �لي��ه ك�م� � �و �و�� �ل ا��سر�� ن� �ع�ي�ر �� �ل ا �لن�� ي ّ � أ ً � ا ��ّ ا ��نل ��م�� � ا �� �ليع� �� ا ����ي 1ي�ل ن��ا � ا ن ي� ا ا ي � ا �ل�� ��� � .او ��ل �م�ل �ل���ا ا �يل ن� ا �ش� � ��و � �م� �م� � �ل��� ي �ك ن ������ �م� ��� ��ّي� ء �سر� ن � و و ي� ّ ن ا ��لي�ن ّ � � � ن� � � ي ي ّ � � اآ � � ي أ ن ي ن ا ي ي ي ّ ا أ �ن ا � � ي ن � ����ه .ن�أ�ا � ا حي�م�ل � او � ��وه� � او � �ل� � ��س�ه � ��م �نل��� ا ���� �ل �سركن ��ر �ل� � ��م أا �ل� �ن� �ل�� � او �ّسر ن��ه �م�� � ن م ّ أ آ ً � اأ � � � �ن �� ا �ل ن ا � � ن � � � � ي ا� �� ي � ي ن� ن �عم� � ي� ا ن��ل ���ا �نل ���م�ل ا � �لع��م�ل ا�ا�سر�� ن� ي � �� �وا ��ر أا �ل�� ن���س� �ل �� � ��� ن�لن� ����ل� � ا �ل� �ل�� ا��سركن���ه � او ��سس��� � � � أ ن � ن �ي ي ّ ا ن ا ن��ل �و��ر ا �لن�� ���ل ��ط ا � �لي��ا �� �ن��د ا �ي�ه �ع ن� ��ا ن��ا ي� ا �لن��د � �و ن� �سر�ورا �ي�ه ا � ��ي� �� �و ن�� �� ي �و�ه �نل��� �م� م ّ �أ م �� � � ش ل��ا. حي�� �ه�و �سر�� ن� �ل� ن�م� �
� ي ن �� ن ����أ�م� �ع ن ا ��ل � ل�� ح�م�ه ل��ي� ��و� ل �
� � ا ن��ل حن��ا �ل.
٣،١٦٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل� ١،١٦٥
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ � �أ ٰ ّ ��ش� ي ح��ا �� � � ن ������ا �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن� �م ن��ا �ن�� ا ن��ل � � � � م��س� � ��ل ��ط ا �ل��ر ن��� ك���ي ره � م ع � � ل ل و و � و ن ن ن �� ي و �ي� ي ع � �� ا � �أ ن�� ن � � اأ ن �ًّا �� � � �ه � ا ُ � ن ا ي � � � ا ن � �و� ��ل�ط �ل�ر � �و� �لمك � ��سن�� ن� �و ن � ن��د �و��و�ل� �ي� ٢م� �و ن��د �لن�� � �و�ل� حي ��و � �عم�ل�� ن � ي أ أ � � � ن ا ا� � � ن ا ��لن�س�ا ي� � او ��ل حي �� او � � �ون�لي��ا �أل�ه�م�ا ن�����د �ه�و ا�ام�ا ء ا �����د ن� ا �ل��س�ا � �عم�ل� �و ن��ه ا �ل��ر ن���� .و��سن�� ن� ا�م� ء ن � ج � ن ي � ن ن �ّ أ ��ن أ ن � � ن ن � ح���ا ا ا ا ا ا ن �� ر ل��� ا ن�ل �و ا �ع��� ا ل��م� ا ������د ن� ا �ل��س� � �ه�و ا ���ع��� � ا �نل� � � �� ن� �و�م� ي����ر��� �ل�ه �م� ا �ل� � ر ي ي ا � � يّ ج ن ّ ا � �� ّ ا �ش � ّ ا ِ ِ � أ نّ� ي ّ�ه ي �� ح��ا ��ل �س �ي ن�لع���هي �ع ن ل � م ل � � � ا � � � ا ا ا � � � �ن� �لن��ر� ح�� ي���ع�و� �م��ه أا �م� م�ر أو م� نل � أو م� ن ر� .و��و ��مك ��و �م� ن ن � ر ن� ا ��ا ن ��ل ن� � � ي ج ي � ي � � ني � � ن ح ّ�م�ل ي� ا ��ل��أ ن�� ��� � ��ه ا ��ل��أ ن�� � ي�ن ��� � � � � ��ا ر ا�ا�س �ري ن�لع� �ل ء ك م ه ه �د � � ���س ٣ � ع � � ل � ل � � ��� � ا ن ير ون و و ور ي� ر�و ي ر� ر ن ن �� ي � � ن ي �ن �� ّ � � �من � ن ا ن عي ن ن � � � ا � � ل �و �و�ل� ي� �سر �و�ل� ي���ع�و� �م��ه �م� ء �ع�د ن� ن�لم�ل ك�� � �عم �ي�ه ���ره �ل� ي�ل�� � �م� ���د ه ا � � ح� ع��د ل�ي� ا ن�� أ ن� � ن أ ّ أ ي ي � �ا ي � ن ي ن يّ ن ا �م�ل�ل �وي����م�� ��ا ر ا ن� ي�م� � �لم�ك ا �نل� حي�م�ل �ه� او ء �كن�م�ل ا � ي� ��م �م��ه �م� �ه�و ��سن�� ن� ع�م� ره �و ن��ه ا �ل�ر��� أ أ أ أ أ ّ ن �� ا � ي� ن � ن� �� � ��� ا ن ا ��ل ن ���ا ر ا�ا��س �ي ن�لع� �م ن ا ��ل��ر ن��� ي� ع او ر ا ��ل��ر ن��� � �و�� ا نل � ا ح��م�ل �ن�ي� ن� ا � � و لمك �ل ن�م�ل � ن حن�� �ل � ��ي� رع � ن ي� أ أ ن �لحن 1الا�ص�ل :ا �����س ا �لة��� ٢ .ط :و�لولا �ه�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :عوور. ة
270
270
٢،١٦٥
On why mountains exist
Insofar as it is a simple substance, by contrast, the soul needs none of
164.3
these physical organs. The reason you succumbed to this confusion was that you inquired about a simple entity while fancying it to be composite, and composite entities do not have the same qualities as simple ones. That is, all bodily organs also have a composite character oriented to particular ends, in order that something composite be in turn perfected through them. The five senses and the powers that fall in with them—such as imagination, fancy, and thought—are realized through appropriate organs and humoral mixtures, through which composite acts are accomplished. When substances revert to their simple elements, the composite acts also cease to exist with the cessation of the composite organs, and the self-subsisting simple substance dispenses with the needs and necessities of the body, through which its existence was realized insofar as it was composite on account of them.
On why mountains exist Here a question was posed about the purpose served by the existence of
165.1
mountains.
Miskawayh’s response There are very many benefits to mountains and to their presence on the surface of the earth. Were it not for mountains, there would be no plants or animals on the surface of the earth. For what enables plants and animals to come into existence and to continue in existence thereafter is the fresh water that flows over the face of the earth. Fresh, running water is caused by the thickening of vapor in the air—I am referring to clouds and to the compression they undergo through cold, producing rain, snow, or hail. Were we to suppose that mountains were removed from the face of the earth and to imagine the earth as a round sphere with no protuberances or cavities, the vapor that rises from this sphere would not thicken in the air or become compressed, nor would fresh water be produced by it. All that would come of the vapor is that it would dissolve and turn into air before it had the chance to bring about that which causes the face of the earth to be filled with life. The vapor that rises from the earth accumulates in the cavities of the earth and among the mountains,
271
271
165.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ � �� ي � ي�� ن � ه �� �� ن � �� ا هي �� � ن أ� ن �ي ��هي ا � �ل�م�ل�ك � او � ���س�ل � �و م��� �و�ع� �ر� ��س�ا ن� ا �ري� 1ا � ��ي� ��هي� �ر���ه ا �ل� � م��� ا ل ي ن ه او ء ا ع��ي� ج أ ي � � أ نّ �ي � �� � يي ن ن ن � ا �� ا ��ل ش ا � �ي هي � ن ح� ن ��� ي ي ح���ا � ���ط ا ��له� ا ء ا� ل ع او ر���ا �م ن ا ��ل م � � � � ا ح � ع � ع � � � � � ��س ح� � ل ا � مل�ل ا ن � حر���ه ا � ��ي� �ي ��و ن� ن � ن و � � يي� ّ أ �� �� ن� ا ش ا � ي ا ا� أش ي ا� � ّ � ن ي ا �� ي ي � � � �ن ن � ا � � � ا ه ه � � � � ا � � ا ا � � ا �� � ل م ك � � � م ه ه � � ل � ح � ط �م � � ���س�ل�� �. ٢ � م � � ��س � م ع � � � ل � � � ل � � � � � ن ر ا � �ل�م�ل�ك �ن� ر و و ن ي� و � و ي ي� و ن ن �� ا � ��ن � � ��ا ن ��ل ن ا ا� ي ن ن أ ن ًا � ن �ً � ّ ن��ا ن� ا � ��� �م ح��م� ا ��ل�ه� او ء ��� ا نل حن�� �ل ���د �لمك ك�� � ا ن � � ح� �عون ����ا �م ن� ا �لي�نس�د � �� ر ا��س �ر�لع� �كي��ه ا �يل� ن أ ل � ي � ع � � ي � ن � � � ا �� ا ���ي ي� �ن ن ّ ي � حن ي � �����ه ل��ن ن �م�ا ن� ا ��ل ش���يس� ءا ا ن � ل �ل �ل ح ���ه ن�م�� � ���د ا ا �نل� � حرك ا �ل� � ي� ر �� ر �م� �نر� ا نحن�� ل �ي� � او �ر ه او ء �و �� أ أ ي ً ن ّ ّ نن ي شّ ح �� �ن�م �سره �كي��ع�و� �م�ا ء �م���م��ي � ن � �م ا � ح ار ه. �عم�ل�� ا � �ل�������ا �م�ا ينح��م��ده �و�ي��ع���ده �� ي����� ح��ل� ا �و �ع�ي ره �م� ي ن ر ي م � ي ن � ن � � ن � � � �و����و��ل�� ا ن��ل ��ر�ن�ا ه �ل�� ن� حر�� �عم�ل� �و ن��ه ���ا ن�� ي� ���د ه ا�امي��ا ه ا�ام�د نّ�رهي �نل���د ا ا �لي��د �ن��ر �م� �م�ا � �� حن��ا �ل �� � ي أ ي � ن ع � � ش ّ �أ �أ �ّ ش ن� ن � ن � ن � ا �ل��ر ن��� أا �ل�� ر��سم�ا �يل�� ����م�ل ٣ا�ام���ر��ّ �ي� ن�� ش��م�ن��ه ا �ل��ر ن��� �ن � ��ا � ي����ر��� �م ن� � �لم�ك ا � �ي���و� ا �لن�نس�ا ي� ي � م ن �� ا ي � ش ي � �ن ي ا أ ا � يّ ن ��ا ن ن � � � او ��ل ���� �و�ع��د ا ل � حي �� او ن� ي�����د �م�ه ل�� س�مي�� ا �ل� ي � �� ن��ه ا �ل��س�د �ي��ده أا �لي��ه ل�ي� �ن �ل�� �ل�ه�م� ٤ح�� ك�� � ي � �ّ � م �ن � ا ��ل � ي ن �� �� ح��ا ��ل اأ �ع ن� ��ا � ي �� ح�ن��ا ا ��ل���آ�ا ل � � � � ل ا � ا � ا ع ل م � �ده م � � � � ر نر �ل� �ي ��و��م�ل أا �لي��ه أا �ل� �كم �ي ��و �ل �ي� ن �و ي� ن ي � نن �ي� ن � ن ن ن أ ّ � �آ ن ا �� ��ي �ل�م�لن� �ع�م�ي���ا �م�ا �أ�هي � �م�ا أ�لي��� ن � ا � ن ا نّ � �أ � ا �و� ا ن��ل ي� �م ن� ا �ل��د ر�عم� ��� .ا �م�ا ا �ل�� �م� �و ن�� حن�� �ل �أ� � ا �ل��م ���� ر و ي� ي ن � ا �� ش � �عي�ل ي � ا �ن ا ن ا �ن ش �ن ي ا ل�ن ا �� �ي ي اأ �� ن � ا نع ن ش اأ ي � ن اأ ا �ن � ا ا ���� ن ل�� عي ��و� ��� �ي� ��و � �و ن���د ر م� � ���س� � م� ��س� م � ��� أ� � ��مع � �و ل�مل�ونج ن ل���� �عملي� أ � ه � �أ ن�� � ن ّ هي ��ل ا ��ل� ا ا هي ي � ��س�ا ��ل ي� �من���ا ا ��ل��أ�نل��ا � ا �ل��� � ��ه � ��س�ا � ي ��س� أا �� ن�� ر ن�� ر�ي� � ر و وي و و � ح� �عم�ل�� �و ن�� ا �ل�ر � م�� ن ن ا ن ن ن ا ي ن ا ي ن � �أ � ا �ن � ن �ل� ن ا ��ل ش�� ا � �� �ل� � �ي ي ا �ن هي ن �م� �سم� �ل أا ل�� ا ن� ����� � ��ه �م� ا �ل��م ���� ر ل�� ا �ل� ي � ح ��و ن� �أ� � ا ��� �م� ا � � ��� �� �ون� ���� حع � ي ي � ش ي ا � �أ � ا �ن ا ي ��ل � ا �ل���س� ء � او �ل��م ���� ر ���� � � ا ��ا �ل.
أ � �أ ي�� ّ � ا � أ نّ� � � ي يي �ن ن � ا ��ل��د ��ل�م� �عم� ا نّ� ا ����ع �� ن� � ا ��ل��أ�نل��ا ل��ا �م ن ا ن��ل � � ه � ا � � م ك � � � � ل و و ر و � � حن�� �ل ا ��مك �ل� �ر � ل���ي� ل�ي� �ل�هر يو ي � و ي ّل أ ل�� ن ن اأ ّ ا � ن ن ا نّ ا � � ي � �ّ � ا � � ن �ل� � ا �� � يّ هي � ي �و�ل�� � او � أا ��ل�� ا �� ن���� ��م�ك أا �ل�� ن� حن�م�ل �� �م� ا ���عي ��و� �أ� �ل��� �ل� � ��و ن��د أا �ل� �ن� � �ل�رن� �م� ا نحن�� ل ا �لن�س� ن ي � ُ ن � �أ ن ن ا هي ح ا ���ا .ن��ا ن��ل ح �� �ن�م �و��� � حن��ا ��ل ن� ��د ��لم�ك �م�ا ي���س��ين�نل ���ط �م ن� ا � �لي�ن�� �و�م�ا ي ن� حر�ي� �م ن� ا �ل�ر��� ل��ي� أا ��س� �� ر ر ي ن أ أ ن ي ً ً ّ � ش ن ش � ّي � ��هي ا �و � �� ن��هي ي�لُ�م� ��ا �ا�م�ا ء �م �ح� ���ا �م ن ا �ل���م �����ا ر �ن�م ح �� أا ��م��من� ��� ا�ام�ا ء �عم�ل �م�ل �م ن��ه �ش�سي��أ��ا ك����ي�را �� � ��و ن� ي� ن و ل ن � ر م �ع � ي ً� ي ً� يّ ن نّ ي أ ّ ي � م��ا ن� ����سم� �م ن��ه ا�ام�ا ء �م�ل��ل� �م�ل��ل� � ح�� أا � ا ن� ي���ا �م ن� ا�ام�ا ء ل��ا �و��م�ع� ح��� ا �عي��د ن�لم� � ي ي �عم�ل�� � � ي ي ل ً � �أ � � ن � ��لي��د � � ا �� ���ط� ��هي ا ��ل��س�ا �ألم�ل�هي �من ���ا �عم�ل� �و ن��ه ا �ل��ر ن��� � �ويل���ي�ر ���د ا ا �لي��د �ن�ي�ر ��سن��ن��ا ���ه�م�ا رهي ا �����ا ا� � � وم ر ون م ��لم� ا � ن ا ن ��ش ي �ّ � أ نّ ا ن�� ن ا ن أ � ن �� � ن ن ي � �م ن��ا �ن�����ا � � � ا ��لن�س�ا � � او ل حي �� او � �كي��ه� .و ن�ل � حن�� �ل �م�� ��� ك���ي�ره أا �ل� ا � �م� � ��ر�� ه �م� ا ع�� � �و�و ن��و ن ع م أ أ أ أ أ ّ ة�ه�د ا ٤ .الا�ص�ل :ن���ة�ه�ا أ���. 1الا�ص�ل :ا لك�ة���ة؛ ط :ا لك� ن���ة ٢ .الا�ص�ل وط���� :ه�ا ٣ .الا�ص�ل وط�� :
272
272
٣،١٦٥
٤،١٦٥
On why mountains exist
which prevent it from drifting and from submitting to the movement of the celestial sphere and to the factors that produce the wind, which constitutes the movement of the air. That is, the high summits of mountains preserve the air that has concentrated itself among their cavities from the movement necessarily caused in it by the whole of the celestial sphere, along with its stars and their effective, emollient rays, which necessarily cause it to drift. If the air finds itself among the mountains, likewise, the vapor that rises in it is also preserved against dispersion and against movement produced by the motion of the air; the cold of the mountains the vapor is exposed to—retained during wintertime—causes it to freeze and thicken and then be pressed out, transformed into water or suchlike. Were it not for mountains, the water produced in this manner with the
165.3
characteristics we have mentioned would only run on the face of the earth while rains are falling, and the earth would absorb it. The result would be that plants and animals would not have access to it at the height of summer and at times when they urgently need it to survive, so that access to it would only be gained as happens in desert areas located far from mountains, that is, by digging wells that run one hundred or two hundred cubits deep. Under current circumstances, by contrast—with mountains in existence—the rains and the snow remain there, and if they absorb them straightaway or after some time, springs of water well up at the feet of the mountains and streams and rivers gush forth and run over the face of the earth in the direction of the seas, from north to south. When the rains they have collected are depleted in the course of the summer, the next bout of wintry weather and rainfall comes along and restores things to their former state. The proof that springs of water, streams, and rivers all stem from mountains is that when we follow a stream or a river to its source, it always leads us to a mountain. Springs of water are only ever found close to mountains. The same applies to the water canals we come upon and the like. Thus, in causing water to flow over the earth, mountains relate to the earth like sponges or pieces of wool that are soaked in water and take in a large amount of it, and are then placed in a position where the water can seep out of them bit by bit. When dry, they are soaked and filled with water anew, so that the moisture may continue to seep out of them over the face of the earth. This arrangement makes it possible for life to flourish in the world and for plants and animals to exist in it. Mountains provide many benefits, but what we have mentioned is one of their
273
273
165.4
�ش ا ي ي ا � ي ن ن ُي �م�لي ��عي�� �سر�عم�لي��ه �و�ل�� ن��� �م��� �ل�ه ل��ي� ّٰ � �ي ن ي �م ن� �لم�ل�ك ا�ام�ي��ا �ل�ه أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. � ا ي � �أن ن ش �شًا ن ا�م � ���� ر� ا �ل�� �ل���� ��ل� �� 1ل��ي� أن � ن أ ً ا � ي����و� ا نر�����ا؟
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
يأ ن � � ا � � ن أ� ّ أ ن �� ي �ي �م ن��ا �ن�� ا ن��ل حن�� �ل م� ا ح ن� ا �������� ���د ا ا �لن��ا ن� � ار ه � ي ي ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � � ن أن ���و ن� ا �ش�ن��ي��� ن ؟ ا �و ��م� ي����مي�� �ور ا � ي�� ا �����د�؟ �و��م�ل ي ن � حي�م�ل ل ي�
١،١٦٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ �ن �� � �ي ي هي � ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا ��لن ��ن ���دهي � ا نّ��م�ا � نل ��� أش �كم� �يم�ل ن��ا ا � ّ ل � � ا ه � ل � � ا م��س� � ع ح � � م � � � � ع � � � �� � � � �هر ا �ر���ا � ل ي و وي ر أو ي � � ي� �� �ل ا ن و � � ي أ نّ ي نّ ش ش � �أ نّ ن ن �ن ش ن �ش ح�� ي � � ي ���ا ي��سم�ا �ي�لي� ّ�د � ن� �� �كن ��و�ل ا � �ل��ا ن�لم�ل �أاو ��م�ا �كي�م�ل أا �ل���ا ��ل�� �� ٢ل�� �م ن� ��س�ا � ا �ل����ي�ء ا �ل��د �ي� �كي� ن م أ أ أ أ أ ً � � � ش ّ � ي ي ن ي ي ي ن ي ن � �ل��د ا ا ش� ه ن� ن ّ ي ���عي ����ا �� �ي�ل �عو�� �عم� �ي�ه ا � �ل �عّوه ا � ي�لن ������� �ش�ل�� �ش�ه ٣ا ���س�ا �م ا �ع��ي� ا �ل�ن�لي��داء � او �لي��و��م ��ط ر ين � ي � ّ� ن م أ أ �ن � ن ا ي م أ � ن أ نّ ن � ن� � � ن � �ي � ن ن � ن ش ا ا �ا � ا �لن ا ن �هر كي��ه مس��� يلعن�م�ل ا �����د ا ء ��� �ي�ه� .و�م� ك�� � �من��د ا ا �ر ا �ل������ ل�ي� ا �ل�نس� � ا ع��ي� ا ��ه �يل �� � و � أ ا� �ن ي ن ن ن ا �� ن� ن � ي ا � � �ن ي � ن� ن �� ي ه ا � ن �� ّ ن ا �� �� �ن � � ّ � ا�م� او ��� �يو�ل ������ ل�� ��مل�ه �و�م� �لي����� ن�م� او ��� �ويح��ط ���ور�� �ن� �ل ��و س��م� ���د ا ل��ر� ا �ل��و�ل � ّ ع ي أ ّ ّ � ن ن � ن ا ي ه� � ي ن ا ����ي�� ا�ا ين � �ي ن ن ًا ن ا ي ّ ي ش ّ ا� ا ي � م� ��ن���� �لي�نس�ا �و�ل �ع�د ا �أ�ه �و��� ر� �ل� � �ل���س� �لن�� �لي��ه�� .م �م� ���و ي� ���د ا ا �ل��سرح�� ��� ر ي �م�ل ّ ن � �أش � يّ ي �ُ�سّ ي ن � ن ّ ي ا� ّا ي ا ���د ه ا�ا��س ي�لن��هي ا�ا�مي�� ّ��م �����هي � او ��ل �وا ��� �أاو را �ه �مي�� �� حي �� او �لي��ه� .و�م� ���و�ي� ���د ا ا �ل��ر ح�� ��� ر و ر أ ّ � ي ّ أ ي ن � �� � أ �ر �و�ي���س�ه�مم�ل ا �س�مي��ي� نر ن�لي��ي��دي�� ا�ا�م�ي��د �م�ا ي� � او ��س��ين�يس�ا ن� ا ��لن�يس�ا ن� �� �وا �ل �يري� ��ي� � �وين�ل� � �م� ���د ه ا �ل� � ج م ج ع أ أ � ً يً ن� ش��ّ ي���ه�مم� ا �ع�م�ا ��ل�ه ن� ح �������ا ��س��مّ� �ن�ا ��ط�ي��ا �و�عم� ��ل�� �و�م�ا ا �ش��نس�ه � �لم�ك. م ل ن ي ُ ّ ي أ أ ّ ّ �ش ي � � نّ � � � ن �� ي � ���� � ا � � ي ن ن ا� ي � � ّ ي ��� �م�ا �و� �ل و ��ده �م� ���د ه ا��س ار �� ن� ���و ��س�م� �س ار �� ن� ك���ي�ره أا �ل� ا � ا �ل��و�ل�� ل��ي� ��ل ن � � � ي ن نّ � � اأ ن �ُ�لي��� ا ��ل ا�ا�م��د اأ � ا �� ��م ��� � ا ��لن ا ي�� ُن ن � � ي ���د ا ا�نم ن�ر�� ��يس���ه �أ�ا � حر� � ي � �م أ �� ن و ��و ط و � ��� �ي�ه �كم ����م�ل � �لمك �ن �ل �عو�� ا �ل��ن نّ ي ي � � � أ ن �� ا ��ل ح ا رهي � او ��لن��ر�و�هي �و�م�ا ن�ر�� �ن�م � ح ار ���ا أا ��م�ا � �ل����� أا �ل�� �ش�ل�� ش�� ٤س ار��ي ن� ا �ع��ي� ا �ل�ن�لي��داء � او � ��و��م ��ط ر م � ا ي ن ��ا ن ي ��ّ � ن ن ���د ه ا�ا� ا ��ي ي�لن��ي��� اأ �ل ن ًا � ا ن� ا � ا �ياأ �ّمم�ل ي ن� �ي ن � ا � � م د �� ��� �ي�ه �أاو � ك�� ��� ��� �سر ن� �� ي � ��� أو م� � � ح�مي�� ا � �ل �عو�� و ل � او �ل � � ع م أ أ 1الاأ�ص� :ش��ل ش���ا ٢ .الاأ�ص� :ش��ل ش �� ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ش��ل ش���ل��ة ٤ .الا�ص�ل :ش�لا ش���ة. ل ل
274
274
٢،١٦٦
٣،١٦٦
�ش ا ي ي ا � ي ن ن ُي �م�لي ��عي�� �سر�عم�لي��ه �و�ل�� ن��� �م��� �ل�ه ل��ي� ّٰ � �ي ن ي �م ن� �لم�ل�ك ا�ام�ي��ا �ل�ه أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. � ا ي � �أن ن ش �شًا ن ا�م � ���� ر� ا �ل�� �ل���� ��ل� �� 1ل��ي� أن � ن أ ً ا � ي����و� ا نر�����ا؟
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
يأ ن � � ا � � ن أ� ّ أ ن �� ي �ي �م ن��ا �ن�� ا ن��ل حن�� �ل م� ا ح ن� ا �������� ���د ا ا �لن��ا ن� � ار ه � ي ي ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � � ن أن ���و ن� ا �ش�ن��ي��� ن ؟ ا �و ��م� ي����مي�� �ور ا � ي�� ا �����د�؟ �و��م�ل ي ن � حي�م�ل ل ي�
١،١٦٦
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
ي� أ �ن �� � �ي ي هي � ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا ��لن ��ن ���دهي � ا نّ��م�ا � نل ��� أش �كم� �يم�ل ن��ا ا � ّ ل � � ا ه � ل � � ا م��س� � ع ح � � م � � � � ع � � � �� � � � �هر ا �ر���ا � ل ي و وي ر أو ي � � ي� �� �ل ا ن و � � ي أ نّ ي نّ ش ش � �أ نّ ن ن �ن ش ن �ش ح�� ي � � ي ���ا ي��سم�ا �ي�لي� ّ�د � ن� �� �كن ��و�ل ا � �ل��ا ن�لم�ل �أاو ��م�ا �كي�م�ل أا �ل���ا ��ل�� �� ٢ل�� �م ن� ��س�ا � ا �ل����ي�ء ا �ل��د �ي� �كي� ن م أ أ أ أ أ ً � � � ش ّ � ي ي ن ي ي ي ن ي ن � �ل��د ا ا ش� ه ن� ن ّ ي ���عي ����ا �� �ي�ل �عو�� �عم� �ي�ه ا � �ل �عّوه ا � ي�لن ������� �ش�ل�� �ش�ه ٣ا ���س�ا �م ا �ع��ي� ا �ل�ن�لي��داء � او �لي��و��م ��ط ر ين � ي � ّ� ن م أ أ �ن � ن ا ي م أ � ن أ نّ ن � ن� � � ن � �ي � ن ن � ن ش ا ا �ا � ا �لن ا ن �هر كي��ه مس��� يلعن�م�ل ا �����د ا ء ��� �ي�ه� .و�م� ك�� � �من��د ا ا �ر ا �ل������ ل�ي� ا �ل�نس� � ا ع��ي� ا ��ه �يل �� � و � أ ا� �ن ي ن ن ن ا �� ن� ن � ي ا � � �ن ي � ن� ن �� ي ه ا � ن �� ّ ن ا �� �� �ن � � ّ � ا�م� او ��� �يو�ل ������ ل�� ��مل�ه �و�م� �لي����� ن�م� او ��� �ويح��ط ���ور�� �ن� �ل ��و س��م� ���د ا ل��ر� ا �ل��و�ل � ّ ع ي أ ّ ّ � ن ن � ن ا ي ه� � ي ن ا ����ي�� ا�ا ين � �ي ن ن ًا ن ا ي ّ ي ش ّ ا� ا ي � م� ��ن���� �لي�نس�ا �و�ل �ع�د ا �أ�ه �و��� ر� �ل� � �ل���س� �لن�� �لي��ه�� .م �م� ���و ي� ���د ا ا �ل��سرح�� ��� ر ي �م�ل ّ ن � �أش � يّ ي �ُ�سّ ي ن � ن ّ ي ا� ّا ي ا ���د ه ا�ا��س ي�لن��هي ا�ا�مي�� ّ��م �����هي � او ��ل �وا ��� �أاو را �ه �مي�� �� حي �� او �لي��ه� .و�م� ���و�ي� ���د ا ا �ل��ر ح�� ��� ر و ر أ ّ � ي ّ أ ي ن � �� � أ �ر �و�ي���س�ه�مم�ل ا �س�مي��ي� نر ن�لي��ي��دي�� ا�ا�م�ي��د �م�ا ي� � او ��س��ين�يس�ا ن� ا ��لن�يس�ا ن� �� �وا �ل �يري� ��ي� � �وين�ل� � �م� ���د ه ا �ل� � ج م ج ع أ أ � ً يً ن� ش��ّ ي���ه�مم� ا �ع�م�ا ��ل�ه ن� ح �������ا ��س��مّ� �ن�ا ��ط�ي��ا �و�عم� ��ل�� �و�م�ا ا �ش��نس�ه � �لم�ك. م ل ن ي ُ ّ ي أ أ ّ ّ �ش ي � � نّ � � � ن �� ي � ���� � ا � � ي ن ن ا� ي � � ّ ي ��� �م�ا �و� �ل و ��ده �م� ���د ه ا��س ار �� ن� ���و ��س�م� �س ار �� ن� ك���ي�ره أا �ل� ا � ا �ل��و�ل�� ل��ي� ��ل ن � � � ي ن نّ � � اأ ن �ُ�لي��� ا ��ل ا�ا�م��د اأ � ا �� ��م ��� � ا ��لن ا ي�� ُن ن � � ي ���د ا ا�نم ن�ر�� ��يس���ه �أ�ا � حر� � ي � �م أ �� ن و ��و ط و � ��� �ي�ه �كم ����م�ل � �لمك �ن �ل �عو�� ا �ل��ن نّ ي ي � � � أ ن �� ا ��ل ح ا رهي � او ��لن��ر�و�هي �و�م�ا ن�ر�� �ن�م � ح ار ���ا أا ��م�ا � �ل����� أا �ل�� �ش�ل�� ش�� ٤س ار��ي ن� ا �ع��ي� ا �ل�ن�لي��داء � او � ��و��م ��ط ر م � ا ي ن ��ا ن ي ��ّ � ن ن ���د ه ا�ا� ا ��ي ي�لن��ي��� اأ �ل ن ًا � ا ن� ا � ا �ياأ �ّمم�ل ي ن� �ي ن � ا � � م د �� ��� �ي�ه �أاو � ك�� ��� ��� �سر ن� �� ي � ��� أو م� � � ح�مي�� ا � �ل �عو�� و ل � او �ل � � ع م أ أ 1الاأ�ص� :ش��ل ش���ا ٢ .الاأ�ص� :ش��ل ش �� ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ش��ل ش���ل��ة ٤ .الا�ص�ل :ش�لا ش���ة. ل ل
274
274
٢،١٦٦
٣،١٦٦
On why there are three souls
greatest benefits, so that is enough. Thābit52 wrote a treatise about the benefits of mountains, and whoever wishes to probe this topic in depth may read about it there, God willing.
On why there are three souls Why are the souls three in number? Is it possible that they be two? Or is it
166.1
impossible that they be four?
Miskawayh’s response In reality the soul is one, but as we said earlier, its effect is manifested accord-
166.2
ing to the receptivity of that which receives it. The reason it has been described as threefold is that it is natural for something whose effect is initially weak and then reaches its fullest strength to divide into three parts—namely, beginning, middle, and end. As the effect of the soul first arises in plants—which is to say that a certain element manifests itself in them that accepts suitable nourishment, expels what is superfluous and unsuitable, and preserves the form of their species—this first stage was called the vegetative soul. When this aspect grew stronger and the ensouled being began to move in order to take its nourishment and acquired senses and a will, this level was called the intermediate or the animal soul. When this effect grew stronger, and along with these conditions it began to judge, think, and exercise discrimination by laying down premises and deriving conclusions and then acting on the basis of the latter, it was called rational, intelligent, and the like. Each of these levels could be divided into a large number of further levels, yet the most proper approach with everything of this sort is to divide it into beginning, middle, and end, as has been done with the powers of nature. For heat, cold, and the like are divided into three levels—namely, beginning, middle, and end, even though each of these levels is in turn subject to further division. If you dwell on all of the different powers, you will find that they answer to the same pattern. You ask, “Is it possible that they be two?”
275
275
166.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ أ � ي � �أ ن ا ا ًا ن � ��� ن� ا �ش� ن��ي��� ن �ن�ه ا نّ��م�ا ح �� .ن��ا �ّم�ا �ي�� ��لم�ك ��م� ي�� ن ن ي ���د ا ا�نم ��� ن�� ر�ي� ي� � �ي� أ ل ن �و ن��د � ا �ل��سر �كي� �ور ا � ��و و �ر ُ ي ً ُ ً ن ��م� ن � ي أ ّ � � ش�ّ ش ن ي ن ش ّ ي ي� ن ي ��ده ا �و �ل� � ا ������� �� ��و� � او � �كم�ل �كي����ي�ر �ش�ل�� �ش�ا �و��د ش��سر� ���د ا. ي� �� �� � ج م م � ا� م
ا ا ��ل� ن ���� ر ن� � حر ل��ي�
� �أ ن ن��ا ن�� ن� �م ن� ا �ل�ر���؟
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
١،١٦٧
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ٰ �ي ن ع ��� ي �يي ن ي أ ن �من�� � �� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله ���� ��ل�� � ل�� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � ح��سر ا�ام�ا ء �ع ن� �و ن��ه م��س� ��� ا � ي ح�م�ه � ي�سم�ه ا ك�� و ن و أ و �ي� ي � �أ ن أ أ ن � ن ا� ا � � ً ح � يّ � �ا ن � �أ �� �� ا ّ � � ا � ح � ا �ل��ر ن��� �� � ��� � ا �ل��سر ل�ن ��يس��هي� �ي ��و نح ن� ا � �ي��و� ا�م� ء �ل�ن���س� �و ن��ه ا �ل�ر�� ا ن �م���ه �� � � �أ ن ن ا� ا � � ا ش ً � �� ه ش هي �� � ي ���ا �ن�ا �لن�يس�ا ن��� � او �ل�ه� او ء ��� 1نم �ّ ا �لن�يلن��� � او�م� ء � �ل���ي�ر ا �ل�ر��� ل��ي� �و��م��� ��سن��ي� �و�ل��� ��سن��ي� ��م � � ا � � � � �آ ن ج��ل ن��ا ��م � ي ا ��ل ��م�� � � ن � �أش ي � �أ � ا ا� �� ن ح� ��ط �نل�ه�م�ا �عم�ل�� م� ه�و ��ون � ح� ����ه �ن� ن ي ي �و� ا �ل�� � او ر ي ع �لي����و� ا �ل� � �ل�م�ل ا �ل��و�ل��� ٢ن� ��سر��ر � �أ ��نل ا ّ ن ا� ن �� ن � �م�ل ه ا�ا� ا ء ا �� � ن � � اأ ن� �ن ّ �م ن ا � �أ ��ن ن ن �و�ه�و ا �ل�ر��� ل��ي� ���و� �����ه ا �� ��� �م� ا��سر��ر يول ي�� م� ل�د ي� ه�و ح� � �ل�ر � أ أ ن � �� � ا �ش�لي�م� �م ن ا ��له� ا ء � �لم�ل��ه ا ��له� ا ء ش��ّ ا ��ل ن��ا �عم� ���� � ا ��ل������ا �ن ����ويُ�ر�� ��� �� ي� ���د ه ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء � � . ل و ل � � و يو ي � و م ر �� وم ن ع و � ا �� � ّ � � ح �� ا ن � � ش��س � �نل���سم�هي � �����ا �أ � �أ ن ا ي ن ا ي � ��� �م�� ا ل����س� � ا� ي� � ��ن� �عم�ل�� �و ن��ه ا �ل�ر��� �ع�م� ره �م ن� �لن�� � �و�ي و � ون ر و ي و ر و �و � ن ي �هي � م � � أ � �� ي ن ش ���د ه ا �ل � ل�� �م�هي ا � ن��ه ح�س�هي � او ��لن ن� �����ا � ا ��ل � ح� ح��س ن ن��ل�� ن�م�ل ن� ��لم�ك ن� � �و�ل�ن� �ن�� ن� �سر�� �� نر ا �ل���س م�� � �ونل ���مل� � ن ي مأ � � ي أ � �� ن � ا ن ا ّ � ن ا ي ا �ل ش �� ن ا � �لن�م�ل� ا � ��عم ن�ي�س� ن � ن ي �و�سر��ر ك �ل� �ل�� ن ع ���د ا ا � �لع��م�ل ٣ا � ��� ر� ���سم��� ���د �ور �عم�ل�� �سر��ر �ل��� �� ��� أ ن � �أ ن أ أ نّ �ن �� ن �نل���ا �ع�ي�ر ا �ل�ر��� ا �ع ن��� ا � �سر���ر���ا ن��ا ر ن� �م ن� ا �ل�ر���. ي ج أ أ �ن ا �ي ي � ن ن ا � ي �� ن ن � ي ا� ّا ح��ه �م ن� ا �ل�ر��� � ٤نو�����د ي� �م ن� ا �ر�� �و���ا ر ي� �و�م� � ا ر� �عم�ل�� �سر��ر��� ر��ن� م� �� ي ي ا ن ش اأ ن ا� ا ن � أ ن �من �ن �� �� � ��هي ا ���ي ح��هي ا �� ��ي �ي�لي� � �من ا �نا � ل � � ا ل ح ا ا ا � ا ا ء م � د � � � � � � � � � ح �س م ل � � � � ي � � � �يم أ ا �ل�� �ي ي� رن � ن ن أ � ن � ي� ��� �م� ن � و � � ن ن ن � ن ��ل ن ا ا ن� � ن ه ا � �أ ن�� � � ن � � �ي ا � � ه � ن ا ��ل ش يّ ��ا ر � او � ا ا ن� ���ا �ن�ا ��نل ن� ���د ن� أا �� �ع�� ك ح��سرع� �و ن�� �ل�ر � ا �ل�د ي� يل�� نلمل� م� � ي���م� �كي� ���� أ ن ن � �� ي ح �ع ن � ه ا � �أ ن ���دهي اأ �ع ن ���د ش �م ن ا ن ��ل � ا ��ل�� ند �� ي�لن����د �ع ن��ه ا �ل ش�� � � � س � ا ا ا ا � � �م � � � ه � � � � � � ٥ ��س � � م�� � � ل � و ر و و ن ي � ر ي ي� � ر� � أ ن ع � �أ �� ن ا� ا � �أ ن �ّ � أ نّ ش يّ �� ي �� ش ن � �ا ن ن ي ّ ن ن ل ا � �� � ل � � � � � � ���ره ا نح ��ول�� ا �ل�د ي� ي�ل�رن� �سم�� كي��ه �م� ا �ل�ر�� � � ��� ا � � م�� � �م� ا�م� ء � او �ل�ر�� أا �ل� ا � � � � ني أ أ أ أ أ ن 1الا�ص� :ش��س�ن�ة���ه�ا ٢ .ط :الا ّول ٣ .ط :ن�ة�� ن�� �ه ن�د ا ٤ .الا�ص� :ن�ا �ة����ة الار ن�س ٥ .الا�ص� :ا � � ���سر و ن���. ل ل ل �
276
276
٢،١٦٧
٣،١٦٧
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ أ � ي � �أ ن ا ا ًا ن � ��� ن� ا �ش� ن��ي��� ن �ن�ه ا نّ��م�ا ح �� .ن��ا �ّم�ا �ي�� ��لم�ك ��م� ي�� ن ن ي ���د ا ا�نم ��� ن�� ر�ي� ي� � �ي� أ ل ن �و ن��د � ا �ل��سر �كي� �ور ا � ��و و �ر ُ ي ً ُ ً ن ��م� ن � ي أ ّ � � ش�ّ ش ن ي ن ش ّ ي ي� ن ي ��ده ا �و �ل� � ا ������� �� ��و� � او � �كم�ل �كي����ي�ر �ش�ل�� �ش�ا �و��د ش��سر� ���د ا. ي� �� �� � ج م م � ا� م
ا ا ��ل� ن ���� ر ن� � حر ل��ي�
� �أ ن ن��ا ن�� ن� �م ن� ا �ل�ر���؟
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
١،١٦٧
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ٰ �ي ن ع ��� ي �يي ن ي أ ن �من�� � �� ��ه ر� ح�م�ه ا ّلله ���� ��ل�� � ل�� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � ح��سر ا�ام�ا ء �ع ن� �و ن��ه م��س� ��� ا � ي ح�م�ه � ي�سم�ه ا ك�� و ن و أ و �ي� ي � �أ ن أ أ ن � ن ا� ا � � ً ح � يّ � �ا ن � �أ �� �� ا ّ � � ا � ح � ا �ل��ر ن��� �� � ��� � ا �ل��سر ل�ن ��يس��هي� �ي ��و نح ن� ا � �ي��و� ا�م� ء �ل�ن���س� �و ن��ه ا �ل�ر�� ا ن �م���ه �� � � �أ ن ن ا� ا � � ا ش ً � �� ه ش هي �� � ي ���ا �ن�ا �لن�يس�ا ن��� � او �ل�ه� او ء ��� 1نم �ّ ا �لن�يلن��� � او�م� ء � �ل���ي�ر ا �ل�ر��� ل��ي� �و��م��� ��سن��ي� �و�ل��� ��سن��ي� ��م � � ا � � � � �آ ن ج��ل ن��ا ��م � ي ا ��ل ��م�� � � ن � �أش ي � �أ � ا ا� �� ن ح� ��ط �نل�ه�م�ا �عم�ل�� م� ه�و ��ون � ح� ����ه �ن� ن ي ي �و� ا �ل�� � او ر ي ع �لي����و� ا �ل� � �ل�م�ل ا �ل��و�ل��� ٢ن� ��سر��ر � �أ ��نل ا ّ ن ا� ن �� ن � �م�ل ه ا�ا� ا ء ا �� � ن � � اأ ن� �ن ّ �م ن ا � �أ ��ن ن ن �و�ه�و ا �ل�ر��� ل��ي� ���و� �����ه ا �� ��� �م� ا��سر��ر يول ي�� م� ل�د ي� ه�و ح� � �ل�ر � أ أ ن � �� � ا �ش�لي�م� �م ن ا ��له� ا ء � �لم�ل��ه ا ��له� ا ء ش��ّ ا ��ل ن��ا �عم� ���� � ا ��ل������ا �ن ����ويُ�ر�� ��� �� ي� ���د ه ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء � � . ل و ل � � و يو ي � و م ر �� وم ن ع و � ا �� � ّ � � ح �� ا ن � � ش��س � �نل���سم�هي � �����ا �أ � �أ ن ا ي ن ا ي � ��� �م�� ا ل����س� � ا� ي� � ��ن� �عم�ل�� �و ن��ه ا �ل�ر��� �ع�م� ره �م ن� �لن�� � �و�ي و � ون ر و ي و ر و �و � ن ي �هي � م � � أ � �� ي ن ش ���د ه ا �ل � ل�� �م�هي ا � ن��ه ح�س�هي � او ��لن ن� �����ا � ا ��ل � ح� ح��س ن ن��ل�� ن�م�ل ن� ��لم�ك ن� � �و�ل�ن� �ن�� ن� �سر�� �� نر ا �ل���س م�� � �ونل ���مل� � ن ي مأ � � ي أ � �� ن � ا ن ا ّ � ن ا ي ا �ل ش �� ن ا � �لن�م�ل� ا � ��عم ن�ي�س� ن � ن ي �و�سر��ر ك �ل� �ل�� ن ع ���د ا ا � �لع��م�ل ٣ا � ��� ر� ���سم��� ���د �ور �عم�ل�� �سر��ر �ل��� �� ��� أ ن � �أ ن أ أ نّ �ن �� ن �نل���ا �ع�ي�ر ا �ل�ر��� ا �ع ن��� ا � �سر���ر���ا ن��ا ر ن� �م ن� ا �ل�ر���. ي ج أ أ �ن ا �ي ي � ن ن ا � ي �� ن ن � ي ا� ّا ح��ه �م ن� ا �ل�ر��� � ٤نو�����د ي� �م ن� ا �ر�� �و���ا ر ي� �و�م� � ا ر� �عم�ل�� �سر��ر��� ر��ن� م� �� ي ي ا ن ش اأ ن ا� ا ن � أ ن �من �ن �� �� � ��هي ا ���ي ح��هي ا �� ��ي �ي�لي� � �من ا �نا � ل � � ا ل ح ا ا ا � ا ا ء م � د � � � � � � � � � ح �س م ل � � � � ي � � � �يم أ ا �ل�� �ي ي� رن � ن ن أ � ن � ي� ��� �م� ن � و � � ن ن ن � ن ��ل ن ا ا ن� � ن ه ا � �أ ن�� � � ن � � �ي ا � � ه � ن ا ��ل ش يّ ��ا ر � او � ا ا ن� ���ا �ن�ا ��نل ن� ���د ن� أا �� �ع�� ك ح��سرع� �و ن�� �ل�ر � ا �ل�د ي� يل�� نلمل� م� � ي���م� �كي� ���� أ ن ن � �� ي ح �ع ن � ه ا � �أ ن ���دهي اأ �ع ن ���د ش �م ن ا ن ��ل � ا ��ل�� ند �� ي�لن����د �ع ن��ه ا �ل ش�� � � � س � ا ا ا ا � � �م � � � ه � � � � � � ٥ ��س � � م�� � � ل � و ر و و ن ي � ر ي ي� � ر� � أ ن ع � �أ �� ن ا� ا � �أ ن �ّ � أ نّ ش يّ �� ي �� ش ن � �ا ن ن ي ّ ن ن ل ا � �� � ل � � � � � � ���ره ا نح ��ول�� ا �ل�د ي� ي�ل�رن� �سم�� كي��ه �م� ا �ل�ر�� � � ��� ا � � م�� � �م� ا�م� ء � او �ل�ر�� أا �ل� ا � � � � ني أ أ أ أ أ ن 1الا�ص� :ش��س�ن�ة���ه�ا ٢ .ط :الا ّول ٣ .ط :ن�ة�� ن�� �ه ن�د ا ٤ .الا�ص� :ن�ا �ة����ة الار ن�س ٥ .الا�ص� :ا � � ���سر و ن���. ل ل ل �
276
276
٢،١٦٧
٣،١٦٧
On why the sea is located on a particular side of the earth
It is first one, then two, and then it is perfected and becomes three; this has been explained.
On why the sea is located on a particular side of the earth Why is the sea located on one particular side of the earth? 53
167.1
Miskawayh’s response Were it not for the momentous wisdom that demanded water be withdrawn
167.2
from the face of the earth, the natural course of things would necessarily be that water cover the entire face of the earth, such that the earth would stand in the middle like the yolk of an egg, water would encircle it like the white of an egg, air would surround the two as it does now, and fire would surround the whole ensemble. The heaviest object, which is the one closest to the center— namely, the earth—would thus stand at its proper place relative to the center, followed by water, which is lighter than earth and heavier than air, followed by air and then by fire, according to the natural inclination of the elements. Yet, had these things been left to their natural inclinations, no life would have flourished on the face of the earth, such as plants, animals, human beings, beasts, and birds, and this wonderful wisdom and good order would have been thwarted. That is the reason why the center of the sun’s orbit and the center of the highest celestial sphere were made to diverge. As a consequence, the sun rotates around a distinctive orbital center of its own other than the earth. In other words, the center of its orbit lies outside the earth. When the sun follows its orbit, it approaches closer to one side of the earth and draws farther away from the other, and as a consequence the side it is near to becomes heated. When water is heated, it tends to be drawn in the direction in which it is being heated by vapor. When drawn up, it withdraws from the surface of the opposite end of the earth, the half from which the sun is distant. When withdrawn from the surface of the earth, the two combined—that is, the water and the earth—form a single sphere, yet the southern part of the sphere, the one close to the sun, is where water is located—that is, the sea—whereas
277
277
167.3
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ��ل ش ا ��ل�� ش يّ �� ي ��ل ش ا � ّ � ن ن � �أ ن ا ي ن � ��� ا � � ا�ام�ا ء �و�ه�و نحر �و� � ���ره ا ���سم� �ل�ي� ا �ل��د �ي� ي�لن����د �ع��ه ا ���سم��� �م� ا �ل�ر��� �ي� ن���� �ل �� � �هر أ � ي ��ن��ي ن �� أ � ا ا� ن�ك��ه ا � �أ ن�� ش��ّ ح��ا �� ��ل��ي� ي ����ي� �� ا ��ل ح� �����د ن� ��لم�ك ا ن� ي�لن ��� �عم� � ل�� ي���ا ا ن��ل � � � ا �سرا ����� � ح�م�ه �وي �� � ل � �ل� � � ل � ن و ن ن ن ن م ي ر�م م يم � ّ ّ � ن ن � ّ ي أال يا ��م�� ش أ ن ا ن �� �عم�ل�� �م�ا �ه�و �ن�ه ���ون�� �و�� .عر �من��د �� ن ي ع �و�م�����س�ه � �و� ���ق�م�ه �و�م���د ره �و�لن�� رك ا س�م�ه �و ن�م�ل � � ي ي ّ ي أ �� ا أ ي ا � � ّ ا ي � � ن � ا ا� ن ًّ ً ن��ل� �ل�ه � �و �ل��د ���� ا س�م� �وه �و����� �ل�� ع�م� �ي�ل �عو�ل ا �ل���� �م�و� �عم�ل� او كن� ����ي�را.
� ا� م
ا ي ا ��ل �مم�ً ا� ح ل ��ا؟ � ���� ر� �مي�� ه ن�ر
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل� ١،١٦٨
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
� � ي ّ أ أ ٰ ّ � � ن���ا �م ن �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � ا�ام�ا ء �و� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن��م�ا ن� ��لم�ك ��ل�� ن�م� �ي � ا �ل ش���سم�� �م ن ��م � � � � � م��س� ك �م� � � و ن ل رن � � � � و �� ي ني �� ي ا� ا ن أ ��لّ ي � ��ل ي ا �� �� ن أ ن �مي� �ّ � � ج ��ل ا ��ل ن� ا � �لعي ن � �م ن� � � � � ��يس���ه ا�م� ء أا � ا ا ح� �عملي��ه ا � � ا � ي مل�ل ل�� ي � ح ار ره �ن� ل ن�م� �ن ��ه �و�م� �ن ����ه أا �� ن�� ر �وي ن�م�ل ج أً ن� � ا� � هي � ي ا ��لن��ا ل��ي� ا ش� ار �م ن ا�ا�مم�ل�و��هي ن��ا ن� نرا � ي� ا ��ل ح ار ره �و� ا �م ي� ���ا ر � �لم�ك ا�ام�ا ء �ش�س�د �ي��د ا�ممل�و�� أ � ي ش��ّ ا ن�لي ل�ن اآ ن� ا � �أ� ا ��ل ا�ا� ا هي � اأ �م� ا ا ��ل� ن ��س���هي ���د ّ� � ن �م�ا ء ��له� ��ا ��ل ن��ا � ���د ّ� � ��هن �ه�� �ي� ر �ل� سر أ �� �سر ر .و �� ن� ي ن رو� � م ن ر وي ن رو م � ً � يّ ن ش � � ن ّ ّ � ا ��ل ا�ا� ا ي � ن ي �سرن� أ �� �سر ره . ح�� �ي����ر �ر� �ه �عم�ل�� ا �ل ن��ا ر �كي����ي�ر �ن��د �لم�ك ا�ام�ا ء ��ا را �يل� ن � ن � أّ � � ُ ا �ّ � ���ا � ا�ا�سر�ل�ي� �ل� �ي��د رك أ �ل� أا � ا ك � ّ ح�� � �ل�� ا �ن���ش��ا ش� �ش�م���ا ن � �ع�ي�ر � و ن ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
آ � ّ ن ي � ن � أ أ� ��ا ��ل�هي � �ويلم�ل�ك ��ه� ا �ل � ح��� ل��م�ا �ي�لع�و�ل ي��سم�ا � ا ير ه ا �ل ن��ا �� ؟ ا ا� ن ي م م � � �ع ا �� آ � هي �و�ل� أا �م� ل ا �ل� ؟
���د ���� �ه ي ر
ن �م�
٢،١٦٨
١،١٦٩
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ّ أ أ �� ��ه � ّٰ ي � ��ا �� ّ�� نّ��ا ل��ن �م��س�ا ��ل�هي ا �� �أ ��ا � �م�ا ا ن� ن ا ن �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���ا �م�ا ن�كي��ه روي و � �م��س��وي ر ح�م�ه ا لله ��د ل ن�� ن ي ي� حن�س� �ن�ه �ع � ن ن و �ي ن � أ�ي � ّ أ نّ �� ّ ��ّ ن �� �ا ن ن ي � ن � ��م�ّل��ا ي� �يل��ي ا ا � ن � ل ل � ح � � � � ن ��� ���د ��ر ن �ممل�ه �و�ه�و ا � ا � �� �وا ن� �ع� ���د ه ا�م����� �ل�ه �و ل�� �ع��� �ع ن� ي��م �ل� ا ن � �وا � ك � ر �ي� 278
278
٢،١٦٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ��ل ش ا ��ل�� ش يّ �� ي ��ل ش ا � ّ � ن ن � �أ ن ا ي ن � ��� ا � � ا�ام�ا ء �و�ه�و نحر �و� � ���ره ا ���سم� �ل�ي� ا �ل��د �ي� ي�لن����د �ع��ه ا ���سم��� �م� ا �ل�ر��� �ي� ن���� �ل �� � �هر أ � ي ��ن��ي ن �� أ � ا ا� ن�ك��ه ا � �أ ن�� ش��ّ ح��ا �� ��ل��ي� ي ����ي� �� ا ��ل ح� �����د ن� ��لم�ك ا ن� ي�لن ��� �عم� � ل�� ي���ا ا ن��ل � � � ا �سرا ����� � ح�م�ه �وي �� � ل � �ل� � � ل � ن و ن ن ن ن م ي ر�م م يم � ّ ّ � ن ن � ّ ي أال يا ��م�� ش أ ن ا ن �� �عم�ل�� �م�ا �ه�و �ن�ه ���ون�� �و�� .عر �من��د �� ن ي ع �و�م�����س�ه � �و� ���ق�م�ه �و�م���د ره �و�لن�� رك ا س�م�ه �و ن�م�ل � � ي ي ّ ي أ �� ا أ ي ا � � ّ ا ي � � ن � ا ا� ن ًّ ً ن��ل� �ل�ه � �و �ل��د ���� ا س�م� �وه �و����� �ل�� ع�م� �ي�ل �عو�ل ا �ل���� �م�و� �عم�ل� او كن� ����ي�را.
� ا� م
ا ي ا ��ل �مم�ً ا� ح ل ��ا؟ � ���� ر� �مي�� ه ن�ر
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل� ١،١٦٨
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
� � ي ّ أ أ ٰ ّ � � ن���ا �م ن �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � ا�ام�ا ء �و� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن��م�ا ن� ��لم�ك ��ل�� ن�م� �ي � ا �ل ش���سم�� �م ن ��م � � � � � م��س� ك �م� � � و ن ل رن � � � � و �� ي ني �� ي ا� ا ن أ ��لّ ي � ��ل ي ا �� �� ن أ ن �مي� �ّ � � ج ��ل ا ��ل ن� ا � �لعي ن � �م ن� � � � � ��يس���ه ا�م� ء أا � ا ا ح� �عملي��ه ا � � ا � ي مل�ل ل�� ي � ح ار ره �ن� ل ن�م� �ن ��ه �و�م� �ن ����ه أا �� ن�� ر �وي ن�م�ل ج أً ن� � ا� � هي � ي ا ��لن��ا ل��ي� ا ش� ار �م ن ا�ا�مم�ل�و��هي ن��ا ن� نرا � ي� ا ��ل ح ار ره �و� ا �م ي� ���ا ر � �لم�ك ا�ام�ا ء �ش�س�د �ي��د ا�ممل�و�� أ � ي ش��ّ ا ن�لي ل�ن اآ ن� ا � �أ� ا ��ل ا�ا� ا هي � اأ �م� ا ا ��ل� ن ��س���هي ���د ّ� � ن �م�ا ء ��له� ��ا ��ل ن��ا � ���د ّ� � ��هن �ه�� �ي� ر �ل� سر أ �� �سر ر .و �� ن� ي ن رو� � م ن ر وي ن رو م � ً � يّ ن ش � � ن ّ ّ � ا ��ل ا�ا� ا ي � ن ي �سرن� أ �� �سر ره . ح�� �ي����ر �ر� �ه �عم�ل�� ا �ل ن��ا ر �كي����ي�ر �ن��د �لم�ك ا�ام�ا ء ��ا را �يل� ن � ن � أّ � � ُ ا �ّ � ���ا � ا�ا�سر�ل�ي� �ل� �ي��د رك أ �ل� أا � ا ك � ّ ح�� � �ل�� ا �ن���ش��ا ش� �ش�م���ا ن � �ع�ي�ر � و ن ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
آ � ّ ن ي � ن � أ أ� ��ا ��ل�هي � �ويلم�ل�ك ��ه� ا �ل � ح��� ل��م�ا �ي�لع�و�ل ي��سم�ا � ا ير ه ا �ل ن��ا �� ؟ ا ا� ن ي م م � � �ع ا �� آ � هي �و�ل� أا �م� ل ا �ل� ؟
���د ���� �ه ي ر
ن �م�
٢،١٦٨
١،١٦٩
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ّ أ أ �� ��ه � ّٰ ي � ��ا �� ّ�� نّ��ا ل��ن �م��س�ا ��ل�هي ا �� �أ ��ا � �م�ا ا ن� ن ا ن �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���ا �م�ا ن�كي��ه روي و � �م��س��وي ر ح�م�ه ا لله ��د ل ن�� ن ي ي� حن�س� �ن�ه �ع � ن ن و �ي ن � أ�ي � ّ أ نّ �� ّ ��ّ ن �� �ا ن ن ي � ن � ��م�ّل��ا ي� �يل��ي ا ا � ن � ل ل � ح � � � � ن ��� ���د ��ر ن �ممل�ه �و�ه�و ا � ا � �� �وا ن� �ع� ���د ه ا�م����� �ل�ه �و ل�� �ع��� �ع ن� ي��م �ل� ا ن � �وا � ك � ر �ي� 278
278
٢،١٦٩
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
� ن ��ل ش ا ��ل�� ش يّ �� ي ��ل ش ا � ّ � ن ن � �أ ن ا ي ن � ��� ا � � ا�ام�ا ء �و�ه�و نحر �و� � ���ره ا ���سم� �ل�ي� ا �ل��د �ي� ي�لن����د �ع��ه ا ���سم��� �م� ا �ل�ر��� �ي� ن���� �ل �� � �هر أ � ي ��ن��ي ن �� أ � ا ا� ن�ك��ه ا � �أ ن�� ش��ّ ح��ا �� ��ل��ي� ي ����ي� �� ا ��ل ح� �����د ن� ��لم�ك ا ن� ي�لن ��� �عم� � ل�� ي���ا ا ن��ل � � � ا �سرا ����� � ح�م�ه �وي �� � ل � �ل� � � ل � ن و ن ن ن ن م ي ر�م م يم � ّ ّ � ن ن � ّ ي أال يا ��م�� ش أ ن ا ن �� �عم�ل�� �م�ا �ه�و �ن�ه ���ون�� �و�� .عر �من��د �� ن ي ع �و�م�����س�ه � �و� ���ق�م�ه �و�م���د ره �و�لن�� رك ا س�م�ه �و ن�م�ل � � ي ي ّ ي أ �� ا أ ي ا � � ّ ا ي � � ن � ا ا� ن ًّ ً ن��ل� �ل�ه � �و �ل��د ���� ا س�م� �وه �و����� �ل�� ع�م� �ي�ل �عو�ل ا �ل���� �م�و� �عم�ل� او كن� ����ي�را.
� ا� م
ا ي ا ��ل �مم�ً ا� ح ل ��ا؟ � ���� ر� �مي�� ه ن�ر
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل� ١،١٦٨
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
� � ي ّ أ أ ٰ ّ � � ن���ا �م ن �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � ا�ام�ا ء �و� ح�م�ه ا ّلله أا ن��م�ا ن� ��لم�ك ��ل�� ن�م� �ي � ا �ل ش���سم�� �م ن ��م � � � � � م��س� ك �م� � � و ن ل رن � � � � و �� ي ني �� ي ا� ا ن أ ��لّ ي � ��ل ي ا �� �� ن أ ن �مي� �ّ � � ج ��ل ا ��ل ن� ا � �لعي ن � �م ن� � � � � ��يس���ه ا�م� ء أا � ا ا ح� �عملي��ه ا � � ا � ي مل�ل ل�� ي � ح ار ره �ن� ل ن�م� �ن ��ه �و�م� �ن ����ه أا �� ن�� ر �وي ن�م�ل ج أً ن� � ا� � هي � ي ا ��لن��ا ل��ي� ا ش� ار �م ن ا�ا�مم�ل�و��هي ن��ا ن� نرا � ي� ا ��ل ح ار ره �و� ا �م ي� ���ا ر � �لم�ك ا�ام�ا ء �ش�س�د �ي��د ا�ممل�و�� أ � ي ش��ّ ا ن�لي ل�ن اآ ن� ا � �أ� ا ��ل ا�ا� ا هي � اأ �م� ا ا ��ل� ن ��س���هي ���د ّ� � ن �م�ا ء ��له� ��ا ��ل ن��ا � ���د ّ� � ��هن �ه�� �ي� ر �ل� سر أ �� �سر ر .و �� ن� ي ن رو� � م ن ر وي ن رو م � ً � يّ ن ش � � ن ّ ّ � ا ��ل ا�ا� ا ي � ن ي �سرن� أ �� �سر ره . ح�� �ي����ر �ر� �ه �عم�ل�� ا �ل ن��ا ر �كي����ي�ر �ن��د �لم�ك ا�ام�ا ء ��ا را �يل� ن � ن � أّ � � ُ ا �ّ � ���ا � ا�ا�سر�ل�ي� �ل� �ي��د رك أ �ل� أا � ا ك � ّ ح�� � �ل�� ا �ن���ش��ا ش� �ش�م���ا ن � �ع�ي�ر � و ن ع
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
آ � ّ ن ي � ن � أ أ� ��ا ��ل�هي � �ويلم�ل�ك ��ه� ا �ل � ح��� ل��م�ا �ي�لع�و�ل ي��سم�ا � ا ير ه ا �ل ن��ا �� ؟ ا ا� ن ي م م � � �ع ا �� آ � هي �و�ل� أا �م� ل ا �ل� ؟
���د ���� �ه ي ر
ن �م�
٢،١٦٨
١،١٦٩
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ّ أ أ �� ��ه � ّٰ ي � ��ا �� ّ�� نّ��ا ل��ن �م��س�ا ��ل�هي ا �� �أ ��ا � �م�ا ا ن� ن ا ن �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ ���ا �م�ا ن�كي��ه روي و � �م��س��وي ر ح�م�ه ا لله ��د ل ن�� ن ي ي� حن�س� �ن�ه �ع � ن ن و �ي ن � أ�ي � ّ أ نّ �� ّ ��ّ ن �� �ا ن ن ي � ن � ��م�ّل��ا ي� �يل��ي ا ا � ن � ل ل � ح � � � � ن ��� ���د ��ر ن �ممل�ه �و�ه�و ا � ا � �� �وا ن� �ع� ���د ه ا�م����� �ل�ه �و ل�� �ع��� �ع ن� ي��م �ل� ا ن � �وا � ك � ر �ي� 278
278
٢،١٦٩
On how we can see things in our sleep without an organ of sense perception
the northern half of the sphere, the one distant from the sun, is dry, and land is visible. Then it was necessary that mountains be erected, so that the wise purpose should be properly executed and the state of the world be ordered as its existence requires. Mighty is the one who originated and created all of this, who ordered and determined it. May His name be blessed, His glory extolled, and His names be sanctified, and may He be exalted far above the claims of the iniquitous.
On why seawater is salty Why is seawater salty?
168.1
Miskawayh’s response This is because the sun, being close to the surface of the water, is able to cook
168.2
it. The nature of water is such that, when heat is applied to it through cooking, its finer parts dissolve into vapor and the remainder receives an effect of saltiness. If the heat increases and is sustained for a long time, the water becomes extremely salty, and eventually turns bitter. Alchemists prepare with fire a particular sort of water they use, repeatedly exposing it to fire, so that the water becomes hot and salty with a touch of bitterness.
On how we can see things in our sleep without an organ of sense perception If the only way to perceive objects of sight is by means of an organ, and it—that
169.1
is, the eye—is the relevant sense, then what can one say about what we see in our sleep? Do we perceive this without employing a sense, without the emission of rays, and without the use of an organ? Miskawayh’s response The exposition we provided to the question about dreams and the response there make it unnecessary for us to undertake a response to this question,
279
279
169.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن �� ّ ي � �آش ا ن �� ّ � ّ ا� ش ي ن ح� ن� ������ا �عم�ل���ا ح�� �ي�لعن�م� ا �ل� �� ر �م ا ل ل أا ��ل�� �ي��ّوهي �ي�لي��ا ��ل ��ل���ا ا ��ل �� �وا ��� �وي� � ي� ح��� ا�م��س��رك �و���د ا ا � � ل � � أ ي ن� ن �ي ّ ي ل��ن� ا �� �لي �عّ هي ا �� ��ي �يُ��� �ن� ��ا ���� ��ه �ن�ا ن� ا ن�عم� � ا�م � ح����و��� ا � حن� �سر ي� ���د ه ا � �ل �عوه ���وره � �لم�ك ن ي و ي� ر ن و م أ � � أ أ ن � ح���� �����ا �ي ���ا ن� �س أ�ل ّ�ً�ا ا �و �م����ق��� �عًم� ا �و ن�ع��ر�ه�م�ا �م ن ا ��ل��� ر ا�م ا�م � � � � � � �� ا ه ا ء ح م �� �� � � � ك � � � � ي و و و و� � وم و � ري ّ أ أ �ن ن � ���د ه ا �� �لي �عّ هي �ش��� ء �م ن ا ��ل��� ا ��ل�� �م�ا �يك�م�لي��ه � 1ا ن���ند �ي�ه �م ن �ن ا ن� ي� �م�� �و�لي����� ي� � و ور أ ح��م�ل ل�ي� ن � و ي� � � �� ّ �� � �ن ّ ن ن أن � ��� ��� ل��ن ا�ا�م ن ال ��ر�ن�ا �ن�ه �م� ي � ���ي����� �م� ا � � �وا ��� �وي��د �س ّر ���د ا ا �� � ��� ا ��ل��د �ي� ا � �� ���ل�� ل�ي� � ���د � � �� ل � و م ي م ع ع ّ � أ ي ا�ا�سر�ل�ي� �و�م�ا �ي��� ن��م���ه.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ ن � � ش أن ��ل�� �ن ��� ن� ي��د �عم�ل�م ن��ا ن� ��لم�ك ا�ا�م����م�ل� � اأ� ا�� �ن���م�ل�م�ه ن��ا ن� ل ن��� ��ا ��م�ل�و ل��ي� ���م�لن�نس�ا ����ل��� ����ي� ء �م ن� ا � �ي� ي و و و ن أ م أ ن ّ � �م � � أ ن �ا � � �ن���م�ل ه ل��ن� ا �� اأ ن �ن �� � � ا � � ي � � ا ا � ن ن ��د �عمل�م ن�� ه ��ل� �و ن��ه �ل���م�لن�س� �ل�ه � او �ل��د ا ن� �م� �ورا ��ه �أاو � ل ن��� �ل� �م� �� ل � ل��مل ن� م� �ل� � �ن أ � أ ن ن �� ن ����م�ل�م�ه �و�عم� � ا �س �نر�ا �كي��ه �مش�م�ل ا �ل��د �ي� ا ن� ��ي� �ل�ه �عن��د �ل� ي����ر��ه �و�ه�و �يل ���م�لن��ه.
١،١٧٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ � ��ا ن � ن ا � � ش نّ � ن ��� ��ه ر� ���د �و� ��لم�ك ا ���و ن��ه ح�م�ه ا لله ���وك�� � ���م�لن�س� �لم ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ل�����ء أا ��م�ا �ه�و�م ن� �و ن��ه � او � و ي� أي ن�� ي � ّ �ا ي ي ي ّ اي ي ن ش ا أ نّ ��ّ � �� �ن اأ ن ��ا ن ا � � � ح � � �� ا ن ن � � � � � ن � � � � � � �� � ك � � ا � م � ل �م� � م � � �د �د ل � ل � � � م � � ��س � � � س ع م � م م ح� � � � ر� ن �ل ر � �ل � و ن� ي � � ن�م � هو�ل � �� � �ل ر �ل� � أ ي � � أ أ أّّ ن شّ شّ أ ّ شّ ���د ا ا ��نل�� ين�م�� ���د �ه�م�ا ا �ن�ي��ي��ه � ح ش� �م ن� ا �سره �ع ن� ا نر�����ه �م ����ا �ل ن� ا � ح ش� �نل��م�ل �� ن��م�ا �� �ن�ا �ي� �� �نل��� و م م� أ م م أ ّ ُ ن � � ���د���ا ح��ا ي� �� � ح��هي ن� ����ل �م ����م�ل�و ن� �نأ�ا ن� ا �عر�ن ي� ن� �و���د ه ن� ح�م�ل ي� ا ن�ر�� �و�لي����� ي��ن�س ن��� ا ����ل��� �ن�ا � � � � ي أ أ � � م ّ ن � �ن �ع ن ا ��ل�� ن� �� �مش��ا ��ل ن� ��لم�ك ا �ن�ّم�ك أا ن� ن� �و� ن�ي�نس�ي� ن� ���د ا حش� ي� �ع ن� ن�ر�م ا � �ل�م�ل�ك ا �لي��ا ��م� ��م�ل �ل�ه �و ن � ر � ع � �أ ي ي � ي � �أ ي ي � ّ ن ي ن ي ي ن ا ا�ا�م���م�ل� �ن �ل��� ا ن�ل ح�م�ل� ح��ه ��م�ل �و ن� � ح��ه �م� �ه�و �ل� ��م�ك ��د �عر�� ن� � ح��ه ا �ل��ر�� �و��هي� ن� � �� ن ي ي ا ن ا ن �ن ي ن ��ل ي ي ي �ل� � ي � ش ا � ش ي � � ي أ ّ �ي ش ن ا ن ح���ه �م� �أ� � ا �عر � ���د ه ا ن� ن� ح���ه �ن �ل�ي�� ا نح���ه ا �ل�� �ل��ه �و �ه� نح���ه ا �ي�� .و �د ��سر� ح�� ���د ه ي أ ّ ح��ا ي� ن��سم�ا �من��� �ن�ا ن� ا � ي ن ي ي ح��هي ا �����م�ل�هي ا �� �لي���� �� ا �عن�� ا�� �و��ه� ا ��نل�� ا ن��ل ح ش� �� ي ح��م�ل� ���د ه �ن �ل�ي�� ن� � و � أ ي� م ي أ � � ن � �ن �ن ي ن ن �ع ن� ا �ل ش�����ء ا �ل��د �ي� �م ن� ا ن�م�ل�ه �ُو ن���د �عم�ل� �م�ا �ُو ن���د �عم�لي��ه �م ن� ا�ام�ا أ�ليّ��هي � او � ك ���ي ��عيّ��ه ن�أ�ا � ا �عر� ي� ���د ه ي � أ ة 1الا�ص�ل � :ن���ل��.
280
280
٢،١٧٠
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ن �� ّ ي � �آش ا ن �� ّ � ّ ا� ش ي ن ح� ن� ������ا �عم�ل���ا ح�� �ي�لعن�م� ا �ل� �� ر �م ا ل ل أا ��ل�� �ي��ّوهي �ي�لي��ا ��ل ��ل���ا ا ��ل �� �وا ��� �وي� � ي� ح��� ا�م��س��رك �و���د ا ا � � ل � � أ ي ن� ن �ي ّ ي ل��ن� ا �� �لي �عّ هي ا �� ��ي �يُ��� �ن� ��ا ���� ��ه �ن�ا ن� ا ن�عم� � ا�م � ح����و��� ا � حن� �سر ي� ���د ه ا � �ل �عوه ���وره � �لم�ك ن ي و ي� ر ن و م أ � � أ أ ن � ح���� �����ا �ي ���ا ن� �س أ�ل ّ�ً�ا ا �و �م����ق��� �عًم� ا �و ن�ع��ر�ه�م�ا �م ن ا ��ل��� ر ا�م ا�م � � � � � � �� ا ه ا ء ح م �� �� � � � ك � � � � ي و و و و� � وم و � ري ّ أ أ �ن ن � ���د ه ا �� �لي �عّ هي �ش��� ء �م ن ا ��ل��� ا ��ل�� �م�ا �يك�م�لي��ه � 1ا ن���ند �ي�ه �م ن �ن ا ن� ي� �م�� �و�لي����� ي� � و ور أ ح��م�ل ل�ي� ن � و ي� � � �� ّ �� � �ن ّ ن ن أن � ��� ��� ل��ن ا�ا�م ن ال ��ر�ن�ا �ن�ه �م� ي � ���ي����� �م� ا � � �وا ��� �وي��د �س ّر ���د ا ا �� � ��� ا ��ل��د �ي� ا � �� ���ل�� ل�ي� � ���د � � �� ل � و م ي م ع ع ّ � أ ي ا�ا�سر�ل�ي� �و�م�ا �ي��� ن��م���ه.
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ّ ن � � ش أن ��ل�� �ن ��� ن� ي��د �عم�ل�م ن��ا ن� ��لم�ك ا�ا�م����م�ل� � اأ� ا�� �ن���م�ل�م�ه ن��ا ن� ل ن��� ��ا ��م�ل�و ل��ي� ���م�لن�نس�ا ����ل��� ����ي� ء �م ن� ا � �ي� ي و و و ن أ م أ ن ّ � �م � � أ ن �ا � � �ن���م�ل ه ل��ن� ا �� اأ ن �ن �� � � ا � � ي � � ا ا � ن ن ��د �عمل�م ن�� ه ��ل� �و ن��ه �ل���م�لن�س� �ل�ه � او �ل��د ا ن� �م� �ورا ��ه �أاو � ل ن��� �ل� �م� �� ل � ل��مل ن� م� �ل� � �ن أ � أ ن ن �� ن ����م�ل�م�ه �و�عم� � ا �س �نر�ا �كي��ه �مش�م�ل ا �ل��د �ي� ا ن� ��ي� �ل�ه �عن��د �ل� ي����ر��ه �و�ه�و �يل ���م�لن��ه.
١،١٧٠
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ّٰ � ��ا ن � ن ا � � ش نّ � ن ��� ��ه ر� ���د �و� ��لم�ك ا ���و ن��ه ح�م�ه ا لله ���وك�� � ���م�لن�س� �لم ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س� ل�����ء أا ��م�ا �ه�و�م ن� �و ن��ه � او � و ي� أي ن�� ي � ّ �ا ي ي ي ّ اي ي ن ش ا أ نّ ��ّ � �� �ن اأ ن ��ا ن ا � � � ح � � �� ا ن ن � � � � � ن � � � � � � �� � ك � � ا � م � ل �م� � م � � �د �د ل � ل � � � م � � ��س � � � س ع م � م م ح� � � � ر� ن �ل ر � �ل � و ن� ي � � ن�م � هو�ل � �� � �ل ر �ل� � أ ي � � أ أ أّّ ن شّ شّ أ ّ شّ ���د ا ا ��نل�� ين�م�� ���د �ه�م�ا ا �ن�ي��ي��ه � ح ش� �م ن� ا �سره �ع ن� ا نر�����ه �م ����ا �ل ن� ا � ح ش� �نل��م�ل �� ن��م�ا �� �ن�ا �ي� �� �نل��� و م م� أ م م أ ّ ُ ن � � ���د���ا ح��ا ي� �� � ح��هي ن� ����ل �م ����م�ل�و ن� �نأ�ا ن� ا �عر�ن ي� ن� �و���د ه ن� ح�م�ل ي� ا ن�ر�� �و�لي����� ي��ن�س ن��� ا ����ل��� �ن�ا � � � � ي أ أ � � م ّ ن � �ن �ع ن ا ��ل�� ن� �� �مش��ا ��ل ن� ��لم�ك ا �ن�ّم�ك أا ن� ن� �و� ن�ي�نس�ي� ن� ���د ا حش� ي� �ع ن� ن�ر�م ا � �ل�م�ل�ك ا �لي��ا ��م� ��م�ل �ل�ه �و ن � ر � ع � �أ ي ي � ي � �أ ي ي � ّ ن ي ن ي ي ن ا ا�ا�م���م�ل� �ن �ل��� ا ن�ل ح�م�ل� ح��ه ��م�ل �و ن� � ح��ه �م� �ه�و �ل� ��م�ك ��د �عر�� ن� � ح��ه ا �ل��ر�� �و��هي� ن� � �� ن ي ي ا ن ا ن �ن ي ن ��ل ي ي ي �ل� � ي � ش ا � ش ي � � ي أ ّ �ي ش ن ا ن ح���ه �م� �أ� � ا �عر � ���د ه ا ن� ن� ح���ه �ن �ل�ي�� ا نح���ه ا �ل�� �ل��ه �و �ه� نح���ه ا �ي�� .و �د ��سر� ح�� ���د ه ي أ ّ ح��ا ي� ن��سم�ا �من��� �ن�ا ن� ا � ي ن ي ي ح��هي ا �����م�ل�هي ا �� �لي���� �� ا �عن�� ا�� �و��ه� ا ��نل�� ا ن��ل ح ش� �� ي ح��م�ل� ���د ه �ن �ل�ي�� ن� � و � أ ي� م ي أ � � ن � �ن �ن ي ن ن �ع ن� ا �ل ش�����ء ا �ل��د �ي� �م ن� ا ن�م�ل�ه �ُو ن���د �عم�ل� �م�ا �ُو ن���د �عم�لي��ه �م ن� ا�ام�ا أ�ليّ��هي � او � ك ���ي ��عيّ��ه ن�أ�ا � ا �عر� ي� ���د ه ي � أ ة 1الا�ص�ل � :ن���ل��.
280
280
٢،١٧٠
On a puzzle concerning the possibility of seeking something we do not know
yet we will outline some general points.54 All of the senses feed into a power called the common sense, which receives different effects from the senses and preserves them in the power known as the imagination. If the sensible object is absent, this power produces the form of that object from the imagination, regardless of whether it is an object of sight or hearing or some other sensible form. No forms can arise in this power unless it has received them and taken them from the senses. These matters were discussed in detail in the place we mentioned, along with a definition of the objects of sight and subsidiary topics.
On a puzzle concerning the possibility of seeking something we do not know When we seek to know something, one of two possibilities obtain: either we
170.1
know the object we seek, or we do not. If we know it, there is no reason for us to seek it and to apply ourselves to pursuing it. If we do not know it, it is impossible to seek something we do not know. In that case we resemble a person looking for a runaway slave whom he does not know.
Miskawayh’s response Matters would be as you describe if we only ever sought something from a single aspect and that aspect was unknown, yet we have already explained that one can inquire into any given object under four concerns: first, its existence—that is, the inquiry conducted through the interrogative “whether,” then through “what,” then through “which,” and then through “why.” 55 These considerations pertain to every object. One may be familiar with one consideration but ignorant of another, and knowledge of one does not relieve us of the need to know another. For example, if we inquire whether the existence of the body of the ninth celestial sphere exists and reach a clear view on this topic, the other consideration persists, namely, what it is; for we have established “whether,” yet remain ignorant of “what.” If we establish this consideration, the third persists, namely, “which.” These considerations were explained earlier in the discussion. Once this has been secured, the consideration of the ultimate cause remains open, namely, “why”: this involves inquiring why it exists in its specific nature and modality. If we establish this consideration,
281
281
170.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ أ ُ أ � ه ��ل أا ��ل�� ن� ن�لأ ّ��ا ي� ا ��ل��� �� ر ا � ��ي ��ل�� �نل���ا ��هي ��ل���ا �و��ل���� ين�م�� ا ن��ل ح��هي ا�� ي�ل ��ي �م ن ا �س ه �ش���� ء �ن�م � ح ح ش� � � � ر و و ي � � ن ر م � ي ي أ ي �ي أ ي أ ّ ح��ا �ع ن �يلم�ل�ك �� �لي�م�ل�هي ا �� �لن��ا �أ��دهي ن�ك���ا ا �عن�� ا ن� �يل ����م�ل� �م��س�ا � ي ح���ا �و�م�م�لن� �ع�د� ا ��ل�� ن� نا ء ا �� ��ي ��م��م � � ن ر ي� � � ي� ي� � ن أ ن ي��ّ ن ن ا� ع � ا � � � ش � �� � � ن ن ن ش ا � � � � � ���س�ه ��ل ن�رء أا ل�� �ع�ي ره �و�و� �����ه �و�م� ا ���نس�ه � �لمك �و���د ه ا�م���� �ل ن� �هي� نح� م��مل ن� �و� ن � ي � � ي ن نأ ا أ ��شم ن� ا ا ن � ن ي ��ل ن �� ا ��ل ا� �ي � �� ن �� ن �ل��� �أاو � ا عر�� ا ن������ ا ���� �ي� �م ل��مل ن� ك�ي ��� �و�ع�ي�ره �م ن� ا�ام� �عو�ل�� ل��ي� ا � �� او �ع��� � او �� � أ ��ل ي ا��م � ي � � �� � هي � هي ا ��� � ا ن� �ي �م�ّ أ نّ ا� � نّ ا ا ن� ن ا ء ه ��ل ح� �� ��ل ا ن��ل � ح�� ��ملي�� ���د ح�� ح� ح��ه ن� � هو�ل�ه �ل� ا نل � � ا � ا�م���م�ل�و ن� أا ��م� �ه�و ا ن� � � ر و ُ ج ي ُ ا�ا� � � � هي � اأ نّ ا ��ل ش�� ء ا �� ا � ي ح��هي اأ ن� � � ن ا �� �� �ن ن ن � � � � ه ��� م ر� ور ل و� ح�� �وي ن � ح��ل م� ن ���د ��د ي����ل���م �م� ن � � م�مل�و م� و � ��ي� ��و ع ّٰ � ّ ن ا �ل ش��سم�ك أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. � � �� ا� �ل� ي ن���ء ا �لش�نم�ل � م ي ج
ن ل��ي�
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � ن ي ا ��ل �ن �كم� ��د ي ن���ء ا�ام���ر �كي��ه؟ ���� � �ي ي
١،١٧١
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا �� ن�ل� �ي ��� ن �ا ��ل ا ��لش�م�ل � ا�ا�م���� اأ نّ ا ��ل ن ���ا ا ن� ا ا �ي ن�لع� �م ن �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � م��س� � � � � � ن ر ر و أ � و ن ع � ر ر ن ي� ي ن أ و �ي� ي ن ً أ ن ًّ ن ج�� ن � حن ّ �م� ا ��ل ن ي ح نء ا ��ل��أ ن�� ّ �م�ا �ن ��ا ا ا ��ل��ر ن�� � � ل � � ح�مم�ل �م���ه ن�رء ا ا ر� ��يس� �و�ي��و� �م���د ا ر ���د ا ا ن�ر ر �ي� ي � ن ر � ع أ � �مي��ّ ���ا ��ل����ا ء هي ا �� ��ي ي� ار ���ا ا ���دًا ل��ن ا ��له� ا ء ن��ا نّ� ن� ��لم�ك ا �� �لي��د �م ن و حرك �م���ه � �ويل�����د �نل���ع�و�ه ك� ن ن ي� � و أ ر � ي� أي ن � �أ ن �ن نّ ن ا ا� ا ن ا ن يّ ي � ي � ن ي � ّ ي ي � ي ا ا ا �� ل ه او ء � �ول�����د �م� ن� � �ع ه �م�� � ��ه ا � �� ر ا�م� ء �أ� � ا ا � �ل �ع� �و�� ��� �عو� ن�ر ء �ل�ر أ� ح �� يحرك نحر� ل� � ي ع أ �ن � ن ��ل ن ا ن ش ح نءُ ا ��ل�� ن��� ّ � �ش�لي�م� ��م�ا � ح�يّ ي �ح�م��د ن� ح�م�د �م���ه ا ن��ل �ر ر ي� و ل ن ���د ا ا ن��� ر ا � �يل��ي��ن��ه ل�ي� ا �ل�ه� او ء �نر� ��س�د �ي��د � ن أ �ي ن ن � � ا ن� ا �يّ ن�لعي ح نّ ا ��ل� ا ��م�ن�م� � �ه� ا ��لش�م� ���س�ه �م ن� ا �ل��سم�ا � ا ��لن��� ن�� أا ��ل�� ا ��لن��� ن�� �ن�ا ��لن��ر� �ن�ا رن�� ل � ل و و ن أو ح� أ � �ي���� ن � � � م ً ننج � أن أن ّ ً �� ��� ن ا ��ل�� � ا ��ل�� ند � �لم��ل ي �س ا ��نل ن� �س ار �� ا � �ي� حرن� �م ن��ه ا�ام�ا ء ��ا ر �ع� ح���ه ي���س�ي�را �ل� ي�لن�م�لن� ا � ينح��م��ده �ع� � � ي ر و ن ي ر ع � نج ن � ا �� � ن � � �لي� ��� � � ا�ا�م��� � ا �� � ��ل�م � اأ نّ ل�ن ا ��لش�م� � نءًا اأ ن ًّ � ي ��يس�ا ا � �لعن�ن��� ا �ل��د �ي� �كي��ه ا �لش�نم��ل ل ل�د ي� ي �ر و ه�و �ر .و ل�د ي �ل عم�ل�� � �ي� ن� ن ر ر� ج � نج أ � � ��س�ل�� �م�هي ا�ا�م���� �م ن��ه � اأ�ل ن �� �م�ا ءً ��ا ��ل�هي ا ���ي ��ل���� ي ��ً�ا �ن�ا نّ� ل��ن ا ��لش�م� � ن� � ا �نل ���ا ر ن�����نس�ه ا �ع ن�� ا ��ل ل � و � ر وي ي� ي ي ي� أ ي ن ج رم أ � � � � � � � ن � � ي ي ي ن ّ ّ ن � ي ن ن ن ن �و�ل� �ه� ا ءً ��ا � ا ن� ��ا �ل�ه ر� ي� ��ن ا �ل� ا ا ا ا � � � � ح�م�د ي� �لم�ل�ك ا �ل ��س���ه �لمنلم� ��ا ر �كي��ه و أ ��يس���ه ن�� ر �� �م� ا�م��ر �ل� �ن ي آ ن � � �� ا ��لش�م� �م ن ا ��ل ن�نن ا � �أ� ا ا ��� ا ن هي �م ن ا ��ل ن� ا � ا � � ن � � ��� � ن�� ر م� �ل� � � � �و�ه�و �م�ا ء ن���ي��س�ه �و�ل�د �لمك �يل��ي�� ن� ا ���ل نل ��س� ن� ��� ر� � �و �ل� ن ج ج 282
282
٢،١٧١
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ أ ُ أ � ه ��ل أا ��ل�� ن� ن�لأ ّ��ا ي� ا ��ل��� �� ر ا � ��ي ��ل�� �نل���ا ��هي ��ل���ا �و��ل���� ين�م�� ا ن��ل ح��هي ا�� ي�ل ��ي �م ن ا �س ه �ش���� ء �ن�م � ح ح ش� � � � ر و و ي � � ن ر م � ي ي أ ي �ي أ ي أ ّ ح��ا �ع ن �يلم�ل�ك �� �لي�م�ل�هي ا �� �لن��ا �أ��دهي ن�ك���ا ا �عن�� ا ن� �يل ����م�ل� �م��س�ا � ي ح���ا �و�م�م�لن� �ع�د� ا ��ل�� ن� نا ء ا �� ��ي ��م��م � � ن ر ي� � � ي� ي� � ن أ ن ي��ّ ن ن ا� ع � ا � � � ش � �� � � ن ن ن ش ا � � � � � ���س�ه ��ل ن�رء أا ل�� �ع�ي ره �و�و� �����ه �و�م� ا ���نس�ه � �لمك �و���د ه ا�م���� �ل ن� �هي� نح� م��مل ن� �و� ن � ي � � ي ن نأ ا أ ��شم ن� ا ا ن � ن ي ��ل ن �� ا ��ل ا� �ي � �� ن �� ن �ل��� �أاو � ا عر�� ا ن������ ا ���� �ي� �م ل��مل ن� ك�ي ��� �و�ع�ي�ره �م ن� ا�ام� �عو�ل�� ل��ي� ا � �� او �ع��� � او �� � أ ��ل ي ا��م � ي � � �� � هي � هي ا ��� � ا ن� �ي �م�ّ أ نّ ا� � نّ ا ا ن� ن ا ء ه ��ل ح� �� ��ل ا ن��ل � ح�� ��ملي�� ���د ح�� ح� ح��ه ن� � هو�ل�ه �ل� ا نل � � ا � ا�م���م�ل�و ن� أا ��م� �ه�و ا ن� � � ر و ُ ج ي ُ ا�ا� � � � هي � اأ نّ ا ��ل ش�� ء ا �� ا � ي ح��هي اأ ن� � � ن ا �� �� �ن ن ن � � � � ه ��� م ر� ور ل و� ح�� �وي ن � ح��ل م� ن ���د ��د ي����ل���م �م� ن � � م�مل�و م� و � ��ي� ��و ع ّٰ � ّ ن ا �ل ش��سم�ك أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. � � �� ا� �ل� ي ن���ء ا �لش�نم�ل � م ي ج
ن ل��ي�
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� � ن ي ا ��ل �ن �كم� ��د ي ن���ء ا�ام���ر �كي��ه؟ ���� � �ي ي
١،١٧١
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ ح�م�ه ا ّٰلله ا �� ن�ل� �ي ��� ن �ا ��ل ا ��لش�م�ل � ا�ا�م���� اأ نّ ا ��ل ن ���ا ا ن� ا ا �ي ن�لع� �م ن �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا � �� �عم�ل ّ � � م��س� � � � � � ن ر ر و أ � و ن ع � ر ر ن ي� ي ن أ و �ي� ي ن ً أ ن ًّ ن ج�� ن � حن ّ �م� ا ��ل ن ي ح نء ا ��ل��أ ن�� ّ �م�ا �ن ��ا ا ا ��ل��ر ن�� � � ل � � ح�مم�ل �م���ه ن�رء ا ا ر� ��يس� �و�ي��و� �م���د ا ر ���د ا ا ن�ر ر �ي� ي � ن ر � ع أ � �مي��ّ ���ا ��ل����ا ء هي ا �� ��ي ي� ار ���ا ا ���دًا ل��ن ا ��له� ا ء ن��ا نّ� ن� ��لم�ك ا �� �لي��د �م ن و حرك �م���ه � �ويل�����د �نل���ع�و�ه ك� ن ن ي� � و أ ر � ي� أي ن � �أ ن �ن نّ ن ا ا� ا ن ا ن يّ ي � ي � ن ي � ّ ي ي � ي ا ا ا �� ل ه او ء � �ول�����د �م� ن� � �ع ه �م�� � ��ه ا � �� ر ا�م� ء �أ� � ا ا � �ل �ع� �و�� ��� �عو� ن�ر ء �ل�ر أ� ح �� يحرك نحر� ل� � ي ع أ �ن � ن ��ل ن ا ن ش ح نءُ ا ��ل�� ن��� ّ � �ش�لي�م� ��م�ا � ح�يّ ي �ح�م��د ن� ح�م�د �م���ه ا ن��ل �ر ر ي� و ل ن ���د ا ا ن��� ر ا � �يل��ي��ن��ه ل�ي� ا �ل�ه� او ء �نر� ��س�د �ي��د � ن أ �ي ن ن � � ا ن� ا �يّ ن�لعي ح نّ ا ��ل� ا ��م�ن�م� � �ه� ا ��لش�م� ���س�ه �م ن� ا �ل��سم�ا � ا ��لن��� ن�� أا ��ل�� ا ��لن��� ن�� �ن�ا ��لن��ر� �ن�ا رن�� ل � ل و و ن أو ح� أ � �ي���� ن � � � م ً ننج � أن أن ّ ً �� ��� ن ا ��ل�� � ا ��ل�� ند � �لم��ل ي �س ا ��نل ن� �س ار �� ا � �ي� حرن� �م ن��ه ا�ام�ا ء ��ا ر �ع� ح���ه ي���س�ي�را �ل� ي�لن�م�لن� ا � ينح��م��ده �ع� � � ي ر و ن ي ر ع � نج ن � ا �� � ن � � �لي� ��� � � ا�ا�م��� � ا �� � ��ل�م � اأ نّ ل�ن ا ��لش�م� � نءًا اأ ن ًّ � ي ��يس�ا ا � �لعن�ن��� ا �ل��د �ي� �كي��ه ا �لش�نم��ل ل ل�د ي� ي �ر و ه�و �ر .و ل�د ي �ل عم�ل�� � �ي� ن� ن ر ر� ج � نج أ � � ��س�ل�� �م�هي ا�ا�م���� �م ن��ه � اأ�ل ن �� �م�ا ءً ��ا ��ل�هي ا ���ي ��ل���� ي ��ً�ا �ن�ا نّ� ل��ن ا ��لش�م� � ن� � ا �نل ���ا ر ن�����نس�ه ا �ع ن�� ا ��ل ل � و � ر وي ي� ي ي ي� أ ي ن ج رم أ � � � � � � � ن � � ي ي ي ن ّ ّ ن � ي ن ن ن ن �و�ل� �ه� ا ءً ��ا � ا ن� ��ا �ل�ه ر� ي� ��ن ا �ل� ا ا ا ا � � � � ح�م�د ي� �لم�ل�ك ا �ل ��س���ه �لمنلم� ��ا ر �كي��ه و أ ��يس���ه ن�� ر �� �م� ا�م��ر �ل� �ن ي آ ن � � �� ا ��لش�م� �م ن ا ��ل ن�نن ا � �أ� ا ا ��� ا ن هي �م ن ا ��ل ن� ا � ا � � ن � � ��� � ن�� ر م� �ل� � � � �و�ه�و �م�ا ء ن���ي��س�ه �و�ل�د �لمك �يل��ي�� ن� ا ���ل نل ��س� ن� ��� ر� � �و �ل� ن ج ج 282
282
٢،١٧١
On why it does not snow in the summer
the only thing about the object that we are ignorant of is the particulars, which are infinite in number. These yield little advantage, so we do not inquire into them, that is, by seeking to know their extent, the total number of parts they extend over, the relation of each part to every other part, its position, and the like. These concerns constitute the inquiry into “how” and other categories pertaining to their species and individuals. If we have established the highlevel genus, then we do not seek its parts, for we have secured the highest consideration. Thus, it has been established that what we seek is not the known but the unknown consideration, and that a single thing may both be known from one consideration and unknown from another; so the point of doubt has been removed, God willing.
On why it does not snow in the summer Why doesn’t snow come during summer, as rain sometimes does?
171.1
Miskawayh’s response The difference between snow and rain is as follows. When vapor rises from the earth, it carries an earthly part with it. The quantity of this earthly part is such that it grows light with the vapor, moves with it, and ascends along with it, like the motes we always see in the air, for it is so light that it moves with the air and ascends with the water’s vapor. If it so happens that while this vapor is ascending, it is exposed in the air to severe cold so that it freezes, the earthly part freezes along with it and becomes heavier because of how the different elements aggregate together through the cold, and it inclines downward. This is snow. If it happens that the cold is slight and not severe enough to freeze it, the vapor is pressed out and water comes out in drops. This is rain. The fact that we are able to hold snow in our hands proves that it contains an earthly part, whereas rain is not amenable to that. Moreover, snow contains the body of vapor itself, that is, the condition that is neither water nor air. If this condition freezes, the nature of vapor is established. Rain, by contrast, does not contain any of the nature of vapor, and it is water itself. This is why a person who eats snow experiences bloating and the kinds of effects produced
283
283
171.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ني ن � � � �� ن� �ي ن ا ا� �� ا ��لشم� ن ّ ن ي � ن �يل��ي�� ن� �ش�س�ا ر ن� �م�ا ء ا�ام���ر� .أاو � ��د �و�م� ا ل�ر� �ن�ي�� �م��ر �و �نل �وا ن� � �أ�ا �ن�ا � �ل �عو�ل ل��ي� ن�� � ج � يّ � � �� اأ � ي � نّ � ش ي ا ش ي ّ ن �� ا ا �� جا � ا ��ل ه �م ن ا � �أ ن ن ل � � �م��س� �ل�مك أا � ا �ل���س� ء ي����س�د �كي��ه �نر� ا �ل�ه� او ء ح�� ين �حم�د ا ن � ر ل��� ع�د أ ي�� � �ل�ر � � � � ن ن ّ ن �ن � ّ �شلم�لًا �ن اأ �ّ ا ا �� � ن � ���ن� �م�لي����� ي� ش���يس�د �كي��ه �نر� ا �ل�ه� او ء �و� � ���ن� �ن �لي��د ر �م�ا �عر��� �كي��ه �م ن� ا �لن��ر� �ي ر� ن�� � م� ل� ي �ن ن � �� �لن��ع�ي��د 1ا ��ل ن� ش ّ �سر يمن����ء �م��ه م��ر. ��ا ر �� ي�لن���� ي ن م ي
� � �� � � �و� ا�ام�ل�� أ�����هي؟ ����ا ا �ل��د �لي�م�ل �عم�ل�� و ن �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
١،١٧٢
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ أ ّٰ أ ّ ا � ي � نّ ي �ن ���هي � ا �نّل��ا �ا ن ن ن�� ا� � أ �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ح�م�ه ا لله ا �م� ا � ل�� ��� ن� � او �ل���س�ه ل�سق�مم�ل�وء ا � �م� � ��ر ا�م�ل� ��� و � و � ي ن � ي ش � ني ّ �ي ا �� � ا ي ي ن ا ن � هي �ن اأ ّ ا ا ��� �ي �ن ا ن هّ � ����ا � ٢م ن � � �مل�� ��سر�ل� لله ���� ل�� �و�ل��� �س ار �� ن� �م ���� � ��مل� � � .م� �ع�م�ل أ� �� �ي ��و نح ن� �و ن �و � ي �� � ي أ نّ ا ��� �ي ن �ي ش أًا ُ � � � �م ا � هي �ّ � أ ن � ن � ن ه �م ا �� ن � � أ نّ �ي��س هي ا ا � ع م � �� � � ��سي���� �و ن��د �ل� �� �ل� أا �ل� ا � ي�م�� م�� �� ل �و� �لمك ا � �م� ��ري��� ا � � �ل أ ع م أ � � � � � � � ّ ن �ن � ي � � ا �ل���ّو��ل � او �ل �يّ ا�م � ا ���ع�ي�م�ل ��ه� ا � ��و� � ���ه �م�ا �ن�� �و�ل�� �ي�� �عو�ي� �ع ن��ه �م�ا � هي ن�أ�ا � ا حن��� ا �ل��د �ي� �ل� ي������ر ن� � � و � ي ن ن � � ي ع � � � ن ن ا � نّ � � �� � ي ّ ن يُ ن ي � � ه � � � � � � � ل �ل � � ا ا ا ا ا � ا ل ا ا ا � ح � � � �و� �و� ����س� �ي� و ��ون � �و� ن��� ��ون � �و� �ع�م�ل�� أو � ��م�ل ���د �� ٣ون � ����� �����د و ن �د ��ون � ا �� ��م ّ � �أ نّ ن ن ي ش ّ ي ا ن ا �� ي �ي ي ا ن ي ا ا ن � ن � ي ّ �س � ن � ��ل�� � ا ن�ل��� ن ل�ن ������� � �ن� ��ع��م�ل �مع��د �ي� � �ن�ه �� ن����� � �ل�ه �ع�ي ر �م��� ري� و و ي ي� ��يس��هي� �ل�� ���دي�� �م�� ن ي � � � �� ي ي� ن ن � ا � ن � � � ا � ي ا ّ � � ن � � �ي ي ّ ي � ��س���ه � ي ا � � �ن ا � � � �ي � �و� � ح��نج ل�ي� ���د ا ا �ل�ك��داء أا ل�� �ر���ه � �ل����ور��� ع� ا �لأ�ي ن�� � ا �ل�� �م �و�ل�د �لمك كي�م�ل ���� ل�ن ي أ �ن ّ � � � أّ � �� �� ّ ن � �� ّ ي عي�م� أا ن� ا �ي���� ا ن��ل ��س���هي أا �نّل���ا �من��د ا �ر��� � ��هي �و�ل�� ن� ا ��� � �� �و�ع�ي ر ا ل �و��ر أا ل�� ا ل ���د ا �ل�� � ل�ي� � � � ����� � ن ل ي ي� �ني م م ا ��ل ّ ن �� � ن ا � ي ن � ن ا � ي ي � ن ا � ي ن �� ا� ا أ ي ن ا� ا أ ي م�� ��ي� �م��ه أا ل�� ا �ل�� ��ط�� �و�ع�ي�ر ا �ل�� ��ط�� �و�����م ا �ل�� ��ط�� �م��ه أا ل�� ا�م� ��� �و�ع�ي�ر ا�م� ��� يح��م�ل � ن ا �� �لي���س هي أ � هي ح ّ �ن ا ��� ي ن ح� ّ ن�ع�� �ن�ا ���طي ن�ع�� �م�ا ��أ ي ح� ّ �ن�ا ���طي �م�ا ��أ ي � � � � � ه � � � � � � ط ع � � � � � � � و ي� � ي ر و ي� ي ر � ي ر م� �م� ا نر���� و ي� ي� � اأ ي � ّ ن ن � طي� �م�ا ��أ ي�. ح�ي� �ع�ي�ر ��ا �� � �م� ��� �و أ أ أ ن ن ن ن �� نس ن�م�ا �عر�س �ة���� � � نس ا �ل��ن�د ن���ة�ه�د ر � �ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل :و ن�ود � ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :ة� �ه�د ا. 1الا�ص�ل وط :و�ل ك
284
284
٢،١٧٢
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ني ن � � � �� ن� �ي ن ا ا� �� ا ��لشم� ن ّ ن ي � ن �يل��ي�� ن� �ش�س�ا ر ن� �م�ا ء ا�ام���ر� .أاو � ��د �و�م� ا ل�ر� �ن�ي�� �م��ر �و �نل �وا ن� � �أ�ا �ن�ا � �ل �عو�ل ل��ي� ن�� � ج � يّ � � �� اأ � ي � نّ � ش ي ا ش ي ّ ن �� ا ا �� جا � ا ��ل ه �م ن ا � �أ ن ن ل � � �م��س� �ل�مك أا � ا �ل���س� ء ي����س�د �كي��ه �نر� ا �ل�ه� او ء ح�� ين �حم�د ا ن � ر ل��� ع�د أ ي�� � �ل�ر � � � � ن ن ّ ن �ن � ّ �شلم�لًا �ن اأ �ّ ا ا �� � ن � ���ن� �م�لي����� ي� ش���يس�د �كي��ه �نر� ا �ل�ه� او ء �و� � ���ن� �ن �لي��د ر �م�ا �عر��� �كي��ه �م ن� ا �لن��ر� �ي ر� ن�� � م� ل� ي �ن ن � �� �لن��ع�ي��د 1ا ��ل ن� ش ّ �سر يمن����ء �م��ه م��ر. ��ا ر �� ي�لن���� ي ن م ي
� � �� � � �و� ا�ام�ل�� أ�����هي؟ ����ا ا �ل��د �لي�م�ل �عم�ل�� و ن �
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
١،١٧٢
ا �نل � � ا � � � و ن
أ أ ّٰ أ ّ ا � ي � نّ ي �ن ���هي � ا �نّل��ا �ا ن ن ن�� ا� � أ �� ��ه ر� �ي�ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� ّ �م��س�� ح�م�ه ا لله ا �م� ا � ل�� ��� ن� � او �ل���س�ه ل�سق�مم�ل�وء ا � �م� � ��ر ا�م�ل� ��� و � و � ي ن � ي ش � ني ّ �ي ا �� � ا ي ي ن ا ن � هي �ن اأ ّ ا ا ��� �ي �ن ا ن هّ � ����ا � ٢م ن � � �مل�� ��سر�ل� لله ���� ل�� �و�ل��� �س ار �� ن� �م ���� � ��مل� � � .م� �ع�م�ل أ� �� �ي ��و نح ن� �و ن �و � ي �� � ي أ نّ ا ��� �ي ن �ي ش أًا ُ � � � �م ا � هي �ّ � أ ن � ن � ن ه �م ا �� ن � � أ نّ �ي��س هي ا ا � ع م � �� � � ��سي���� �و ن��د �ل� �� �ل� أا �ل� ا � ي�م�� م�� �� ل �و� �لمك ا � �م� ��ري��� ا � � �ل أ ع م أ � � � � � � � ّ ن �ن � ي � � ا �ل���ّو��ل � او �ل �يّ ا�م � ا ���ع�ي�م�ل ��ه� ا � ��و� � ���ه �م�ا �ن�� �و�ل�� �ي�� �عو�ي� �ع ن��ه �م�ا � هي ن�أ�ا � ا حن��� ا �ل��د �ي� �ل� ي������ر ن� � � و � ي ن ن � � ي ع � � � ن ن ا � نّ � � �� � ي ّ ن يُ ن ي � � ه � � � � � � � ل �ل � � ا ا ا ا ا � ا ل ا ا ا � ح � � � �و� �و� ����س� �ي� و ��ون � �و� ن��� ��ون � �و� �ع�م�ل�� أو � ��م�ل ���د �� ٣ون � ����� �����د و ن �د ��ون � ا �� ��م ّ � �أ نّ ن ن ي ش ّ ي ا ن ا �� ي �ي ي ا ن ي ا ا ن � ن � ي ّ �س � ن � ��ل�� � ا ن�ل��� ن ل�ن ������� � �ن� ��ع��م�ل �مع��د �ي� � �ن�ه �� ن����� � �ل�ه �ع�ي ر �م��� ري� و و ي ي� ��يس��هي� �ل�� ���دي�� �م�� ن ي � � � �� ي ي� ن ن � ا � ن � � � ا � ي ا ّ � � ن � � �ي ي ّ ي � ��س���ه � ي ا � � �ن ا � � � �ي � �و� � ح��نج ل�ي� ���د ا ا �ل�ك��داء أا ل�� �ر���ه � �ل����ور��� ع� ا �لأ�ي ن�� � ا �ل�� �م �و�ل�د �لمك كي�م�ل ���� ل�ن ي أ �ن ّ � � � أّ � �� �� ّ ن � �� ّ ي عي�م� أا ن� ا �ي���� ا ن��ل ��س���هي أا �نّل���ا �من��د ا �ر��� � ��هي �و�ل�� ن� ا ��� � �� �و�ع�ي ر ا ل �و��ر أا ل�� ا ل ���د ا �ل�� � ل�ي� � � � ����� � ن ل ي ي� �ني م م ا ��ل ّ ن �� � ن ا � ي ن � ن ا � ي ي � ن ا � ي ن �� ا� ا أ ي ن ا� ا أ ي م�� ��ي� �م��ه أا ل�� ا �ل�� ��ط�� �و�ع�ي�ر ا �ل�� ��ط�� �و�����م ا �ل�� ��ط�� �م��ه أا ل�� ا�م� ��� �و�ع�ي�ر ا�م� ��� يح��م�ل � ن ا �� �لي���س هي أ � هي ح ّ �ن ا ��� ي ن ح� ّ ن�ع�� �ن�ا ���طي ن�ع�� �م�ا ��أ ي ح� ّ �ن�ا ���طي �م�ا ��أ ي � � � � � ه � � � � � � ط ع � � � � � � � و ي� � ي ر و ي� ي ر � ي ر م� �م� ا نر���� و ي� ي� � اأ ي � ّ ن ن � طي� �م�ا ��أ ي�. ح�ي� �ع�ي�ر ��ا �� � �م� ��� �و أ أ أ ن ن ن ن �� نس ن�م�ا �عر�س �ة���� � � نس ا �ل��ن�د ن���ة�ه�د ر � �ا ٢ .الا�ص�ل :و ن�ود � ٣ .الا�ص�ل� :ة� �ه�د ا. 1الا�ص�ل وط :و�ل ك
284
284
٢،١٧٢
On the proof for the existence of angels
by vapor, but a person who drinks rainwater does not. Now that the difference between rain and snow has become clear, we respond to your question as follows. During winter, the coldness of the air intensifies, with the result that the vapor ascending to it from the earth freezes and turns into snow. In summer, by contrast, the coldness of the air does not intensify, but, depending on the amount of cold that affects it, the vapor thickens and is then pressed out, and rain is produced from it.
On the proof for the existence of angels What is the proof that angels exist?
172.1
Miskawayh’s response The Qurʾan and prophetic practice are filled with references to the angels, noting that they are noble beings created by God and occupy ranks of varying excellence. Reason also judges their existence to be necessary, based on the fact that when the intellect produces a division in something, that thing must necessarily exist unless something renders it impossible. For the divisions produced by the intellect represent the first existence and the pure truth, which is not affected by any impediments or thwarted by matter. So, if the intellect produces a division, it possesses an intelligible existence, and if this existence is realized, it is followed by existence in the soul and by natural existence; for these two emulate the intellect, imitate it, and follow it, without wearying or falling short. Yet nature needs movement for this imitation owing to its inability to effect existence completely. That is why nature has been defined as the principle of movement. When the intellect divides substance into living and nonliving, subdividing the living into rational and nonrational and subdividing the rational into mortal and non-mortal, the result of this division is fourfold: living, rational, mortal; living, nonrational, non-mortal; living, rational, nonmortal; and living, nonrational, mortal.
285
285
172.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�� ي �ن أ نّ ا ن � ا أ ي ي ي ن ا ن ي ن ي ا �� �ي ا �� ش ا � ش �ه ا��م��س ّ ن � �و ل����� ل�� �ل� � �مو� �م�ل�� أ�����هي �و��هي� �م ش��س��ر���ه ل�ي� ا �ل��� �ع�ي ر �م� �ل��ه �و�م ���� � � ��م�ل�ه ل��ي� م أ أ ن ًا ن ا ن ٰ �ن � ي م ن ��د ا ا ��لي��ن��ا ن��م ���ا ���� ن حن �س �ر� � �ل���ا ا �يرن� أا ��ل�� ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� �م ن� ن���� ن�� � �و�ه ا � ل � �� � � � � ر ا �ل� ��ط�� �و�نل� ي ن ل � أ� ن ٰ � ا ش � ش ين ا ن � ن ن � � ي� ل��� ا �لي��ي� ّرن� أا ��ل�� ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� � او �لن����د �م ن��ه �و�ل�� ن�م�ل�ه �يكي�م�ل �ن�ل�� ن� �ش�سن��ي��ه �م��� ��سر ا �لن����سر�م ���� � ��مل�� ي ّ ّٰ ي ن � ن � ّ ّٰ ي � ن ن ن ن��مم�ل�ك �ون��ل�� � �ش�سن��ي��ه ن� ش���يل ����ا � �ون���سن��ن��ه �كي�م�ل ن��ل�� � �ع�د �و ا لله �ون���سن��ن��ه �كي�م�ل ��ل� � �و�ل�ي� ا لله ل�ن � ّ ي ا � ��ّ ّٰ ن �نًا ��� ن ه ي ّ ّٰ ن �نًا أ ن ا ي � � أ ن ش �� �ي�ل�� �ل ن���د ا لله ��ل� �� �و�ع�� �و�رن� ا لله ��ل� �� � او � �� ه� .و��د ي � �و� �م��ن� ا � �ي���ن� ي� �و ن�� �و�ي� ا �ل�� ن أ آ ّ � ن ن� � ن��ّ �ا�م�ا ا �مني� ا� � أ� ي ن � ي ش ا ا ن ا � ا � ن � ا ي �ن ن � ا ا� �� � ح ي� ل��ي� � �لم�ك ا�م�ل� �����ه �م� ���ر�ي��� ا �� ر��� � او ����� �ل��� ا �ل���� ��ره ل�ي� ���د ا ا ����� �م �و�� ي� � �� أ �� ي ّ ا ي �ش ن � ش � � � ن � ش �� ي ن أ � ن أا ل�� �م���د �م� � ك� ���ي�رهي �و���م ��ط �لم� � ل��ل�� � ا ن�رن� �ن�ه �ع� ا �ل��سر ��ط ا �ل�د ي� ��سر� ���ه ل��ي� ا �ّو�ل ���د ه ن م ج ّٰ � ي ن� ي �ن ن ���ا �� أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. �سر ي� �عم�ل�� �م�ا � ��� �ر�ه �و�ه�و ك ا�ام��س�ا �ألم�ل ا �كي��
أ� أ ّٰ �و�����ا �ل ي� ا �ي�ّ��د ك ا لله �ي ن ا ��ل � ل�� ح�م�ه �كي��ه.
آ� �ع ن� ا �ل��� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � ن ا ��ل������طم�ن��ا ��ل �و�م ن ��ل�� ���م�ي��م� ��ل�ه �م ن ا ��ل حي �� او � ل � �
���ه �و�ع ن� �و ن�
٣،١٧٢
١،١٧٣
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ح ه ّٰ أ ّ ا ن ا� اأ � هي ن ا نّ ا يي ّ ه �� � ن أش ي � � �أ ن � � ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س��� �و�ه ر��م� ا لله ا �م� ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل� �أ� �ل��� �ل ��و ن�� أا ل�� م� ا ��ن��� ن ح�مي�� ا �ل� �����ا �ل � ي � يي� � ا ي ن ي � ّٰ ي ا � ا� ي ن اأ ن ا � � � ي � أ �ع � أ �ن ��يس���ه �و�ل�� �ن�ا �ن����ا �ل ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء ا � ��ي� �لي������ �لمل�� ��� �م������ �ون�ه أا �ل�� ا لله ����� �ل�� �و�م ي������ر�� �ن� �� ���� �ل ا �ل��ن أ ّ ّ � ّ ٰ � � ي �� ي �� ن ��ا �م ��م���� ن �عم�ل ا ن� ا ��ل ا � ��ي� ��ه� �و��س�ا �أل ���ط ن����ن�نس�ا � �و�� ن ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� �نأ�ا ن� ا�امي� � ح ار ره � او �لأ�� ار �� �مل�م��ي� ك�� ن ي� � ي ن ي� ي � ي ن ا أ� اأ �ن� ا �� ا �� �� ا �أ� ا ن ن ح ن ا ��ل� ا ���� ��س�ا �أل ���ط ا ����ي �ن��ّ ن�� ا ّٰلله ا ��ل���ا �ي��د ��� �عم� �ا�م ن��ا � ��� � ي� و � أ ي� ن ير �و��س� ر ��� ل ل� ن ���س�ه � أ � و ع �و�م� ���� ن ّ أ ٰ ّ � ن ن �ي �� �� ي � ا ي ��م� ا ن ا � ّ ي ا � � ن � �أن � ل�� ا ����� �ل ا لله ����� �ل�� �ن�ل� � او ��م ����ه ن�لم�ل �ه�و ي�ل ��و�ل���� �ن��د ا ��ه� .و ل��ي� �م� ا �ل���ل� ك � او ����� او �� ن� ك� � ن نأ ّ � ن ا �ي ن هي � أ � �ء ا �� �ي � �� �� �ن ا ن اأ� ي اأ ن اأ �ن �� ه � �ي ا �� هي اأ � �ي� ً ن ��ا �ن�ا ����م�ل ي��� .ا �م�ا �م ن� ر�ع� ح�ن��� � ر� ل� م�� ل� و ل� م�� �� ��� ه�و�ل� ل �عوم� 1ط�ول أ� � ن م أ أ أ ّ ن � � ن ن � � � � ن ن � حن�يس�ه � ����د �لم�ك ���� �عن ا نّ� ا ��ل ن��ا ا � ا ��ا � ي� ا �لن ��� ��ط ا �ل��يس�ه � ا � ا ��ا � ي� ا�ام�ا ء ا ��م � � � �س � و � ن أو ن ور ر أ ن ور ل ر أ ة 1الا�ص�ل �� :ن���ا � ن���ص��ة ا �ل��ة�هو . م
286
286
٢،١٧٣
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
�� ي �ن أ نّ ا ن � ا أ ي ي ي ن ا ن ي ن ي ا �� �ي ا �� ش ا � ش �ه ا��م��س ّ ن � �و ل����� ل�� �ل� � �مو� �م�ل�� أ�����هي �و��هي� �م ش��س��ر���ه ل�ي� ا �ل��� �ع�ي ر �م� �ل��ه �و�م ���� � � ��م�ل�ه ل��ي� م أ أ ن ًا ن ا ن ٰ �ن � ي م ن ��د ا ا ��لي��ن��ا ن��م ���ا ���� ن حن �س �ر� � �ل���ا ا �يرن� أا ��ل�� ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� �م ن� ن���� ن�� � �و�ه ا � ل � �� � � � � ر ا �ل� ��ط�� �و�نل� ي ن ل � أ� ن ٰ � ا ش � ش ين ا ن � ن ن � � ي� ل��� ا �لي��ي� ّرن� أا ��ل�� ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� � او �لن����د �م ن��ه �و�ل�� ن�م�ل�ه �يكي�م�ل �ن�ل�� ن� �ش�سن��ي��ه �م��� ��سر ا �لن����سر�م ���� � ��مل�� ي ّ ّٰ ي ن � ن � ّ ّٰ ي � ن ن ن ن��مم�ل�ك �ون��ل�� � �ش�سن��ي��ه ن� ش���يل ����ا � �ون���سن��ن��ه �كي�م�ل ن��ل�� � �ع�د �و ا لله �ون���سن��ن��ه �كي�م�ل ��ل� � �و�ل�ي� ا لله ل�ن � ّ ي ا � ��ّ ّٰ ن �نًا ��� ن ه ي ّ ّٰ ن �نًا أ ن ا ي � � أ ن ش �� �ي�ل�� �ل ن���د ا لله ��ل� �� �و�ع�� �و�رن� ا لله ��ل� �� � او � �� ه� .و��د ي � �و� �م��ن� ا � �ي���ن� ي� �و ن�� �و�ي� ا �ل�� ن أ آ ّ � ن ن� � ن��ّ �ا�م�ا ا �مني� ا� � أ� ي ن � ي ش ا ا ن ا � ا � ن � ا ي �ن ن � ا ا� �� � ح ي� ل��ي� � �لم�ك ا�م�ل� �����ه �م� ���ر�ي��� ا �� ر��� � او ����� �ل��� ا �ل���� ��ره ل�ي� ���د ا ا ����� �م �و�� ي� � �� أ �� ي ّ ا ي �ش ن � ش � � � ن � ش �� ي ن أ � ن أا ل�� �م���د �م� � ك� ���ي�رهي �و���م ��ط �لم� � ل��ل�� � ا ن�رن� �ن�ه �ع� ا �ل��سر ��ط ا �ل�د ي� ��سر� ���ه ل��ي� ا �ّو�ل ���د ه ن م ج ّٰ � ي ن� ي �ن ن ���ا �� أا � �ش�س�ا ء ا لله. �سر ي� �عم�ل�� �م�ا � ��� �ر�ه �و�ه�و ك ا�ام��س�ا �ألم�ل ا �كي��
أ� أ ّٰ �و�����ا �ل ي� ا �ي�ّ��د ك ا لله �ي ن ا ��ل � ل�� ح�م�ه �كي��ه.
آ� �ع ن� ا �ل��� م
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
أ � ن ا ��ل������طم�ن��ا ��ل �و�م ن ��ل�� ���م�ي��م� ��ل�ه �م ن ا ��ل حي �� او � ل � �
���ه �و�ع ن� �و ن�
٣،١٧٢
١،١٧٣
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� أ ح ه ّٰ أ ّ ا ن ا� اأ � هي ن ا نّ ا يي ّ ه �� � ن أش ي � � �أ ن � � ي��ا �ل ا ن� ��و�عم�ل� ّ �م��س��� �و�ه ر��م� ا لله ا �م� ���د ه ا�م��س� �ل� �أ� �ل��� �ل ��و ن�� أا ل�� م� ا ��ن��� ن ح�مي�� ا �ل� �����ا �ل � ي � يي� � ا ي ن ي � ّٰ ي ا � ا� ي ن اأ ن ا � � � ي � أ �ع � أ �ن ��يس���ه �و�ل�� �ن�ا �ن����ا �ل ا �ل���ش��يس�ا ء ا � ��ي� �لي������ �لمل�� ��� �م������ �ون�ه أا �ل�� ا لله ����� �ل�� �و�م ي������ر�� �ن� �� ���� �ل ا �ل��ن أ ّ ّ � ّ ٰ � � ي �� ي �� ن ��ا �م ��م���� ن �عم�ل ا ن� ا ��ل ا � ��ي� ��ه� �و��س�ا �أل ���ط ن����ن�نس�ا � �و�� ن ا ّلله �ي����ا ��ل�� �نأ�ا ن� ا�امي� � ح ار ره � او �لأ�� ار �� �مل�م��ي� ك�� ن ي� � ي ن ي� ي � ي ن ا أ� اأ �ن� ا �� ا �� �� ا �أ� ا ن ن ح ن ا ��ل� ا ���� ��س�ا �أل ���ط ا ����ي �ن��ّ ن�� ا ّٰلله ا ��ل���ا �ي��د ��� �عم� �ا�م ن��ا � ��� � ي� و � أ ي� ن ير �و��س� ر ��� ل ل� ن ���س�ه � أ � و ع �و�م� ���� ن ّ أ ٰ ّ � ن ن �ي �� �� ي � ا ي ��م� ا ن ا � ّ ي ا � � ن � �أن � ل�� ا ����� �ل ا لله ����� �ل�� �ن�ل� � او ��م ����ه ن�لم�ل �ه�و ي�ل ��و�ل���� �ن��د ا ��ه� .و ل��ي� �م� ا �ل���ل� ك � او ����� او �� ن� ك� � ن نأ ّ � ن ا �ي ن هي � أ � �ء ا �� �ي � �� �� �ن ا ن اأ� ي اأ ن اأ �ن �� ه � �ي ا �� هي اأ � �ي� ً ن ��ا �ن�ا ����م�ل ي��� .ا �م�ا �م ن� ر�ع� ح�ن��� � ر� ل� م�� ل� و ل� م�� �� ��� ه�و�ل� ل �عوم� 1ط�ول أ� � ن م أ أ أ ّ ن � � ن ن � � � � ن ن � حن�يس�ه � ����د �لم�ك ���� �عن ا نّ� ا ��ل ن��ا ا � ا ��ا � ي� ا �لن ��� ��ط ا �ل��يس�ه � ا � ا ��ا � ي� ا�ام�ا ء ا ��م � � � �س � و � ن أو ن ور ر أ ن ور ل ر أ ة 1الا�ص�ل �� :ن���ا � ن���ص��ة ا �ل��ة�هو . م
286
286
٢،١٧٣
On what justifies the suffering of children and non-rational animals
The third subdivision represents the beings designated as angels, which
172.3
have in common the fact that they are not mortal and have varying degrees of excellence with regard to rationality. This variance is what makes some of them closer to God than others, and also what makes us human beings vary with respect to how close we come to God and how distant we are from Him. This is why we say, “He’s like an angel” and “He’s like a devil,” and also, “He’s an enemy of God” and “He’s a friend of God.” As abuse we say, “May God drive him far away and damn him,” and then there’s “May God draw him close and bring him near.” We could also establish the existence of angels on the basis of the acts and effects they manifest in this world, but in order to do that I would need to lay down a number of premises and to expand on the topic in such a way that I would breach the terms you set at the start of your questions, so I have restricted myself to these points. That is sufficient, God willing.
On what justifies the suffering of children and non-rational animals You asked—may God grace you with his support—about the pains suffered by
173.1
children and animals lacking reason, and about the wise purpose behind this.
Miskawayh’s response This question addresses itself to those who affirm that all acts not performed by people are to be ascribed to God, and who do not acknowledge the acts of nature or the acts of the things that serve as intermediaries between us and God. For dialectical theologians appear to be united in believing that heat and burning and all the other acts of the elements and the things that we ourselves ascribe to the intermediaries to which God has delegated the governance of our world—such as the celestial spheres and the stars—are all acts of God, which He performs without intermediary and undertakes in His own person. Refuting these people is a lengthy task; if you wish me to devote a separate treatise or book to the topic I will be happy to do so. Now, there are those who have asserted that when fire approaches naphtha it makes it burst into flame, and when it approaches water it heats it, and similarly with every element
287
287
173.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ أ أ آ ً ���ّ �ش�م���ا � ا ش� �م�مي� ّ�د �م ن ا �����م�ل�ّ ا ��ل� ا ��م�ن�م� ن��ا �نّ�ه � ��أ �ش ل��ن ن� ��ن ح�مي�� �م�ا �ي�لي��ا ن�لم�ل�ه ا �ش�ا را ر ر �ور��� �و ��ل ع و أ � � و ي و أ ل � ي ّ ن � أع � � � ي �� �ن ا �� ن� ا � ا �ّ ا � � ن ��من ن ي ّ � � ن � حي��ل�� �ن� ا � �لي �ع او ن�لم�ل �نأ�ا ن� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا ��ل�هي ن�ع�ي�ر �ل�� نر�م�هي ��ل�ه حي�م�ل���ه أا �م�ا �ل�ح��ل � ل �عو �عم�ل أو م� �ل� أ أ ��ّ ن � ه �ي ن �� � ا نّ��م�ا ��ن����ن اأ ن� �ُ��س�ا ��ل �م ن � ��ه اآ ن� ا�� �ي��س�ا ��ل �ع ن��ه �نم�ل��ند ��لم�ك ا�� اأي � � � � � ا م � � �د ل ه � � � � � ن � ون ون و � ر أو ي ن �هي� ي ٰ م رم أ أ � اأ � ي � ن ش ا ّ ي �وا ن� �م��س� �ل�مك أا � ��س� ء ا لله. �م ن� �م���د ا ر �م�ا ا �و�م�ا ي� أا �لي��ه ن��
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ��ل آ ن ن ن ا أ � اأ أ �� � ن أ هي �ا� � ن ���ا � � ��و ي� ا �ر�ع�د أا �� ا � ا �ل�� ا �نل ���� � او ن���د م� ر � �وي� ك م
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� ي � أ ا �لن��ر�� أا �ل�� ا �نل���ا ر�ن�ا؟
ح ه ا ّٰ اأ�ّ ا � � �ي ن ا �نّه � ن ا ���مي� ا � هي ا �� ا ��ل ا � � ن ي � ّ� ن ي ا �� اأ� ّ � � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� لله م� ا �لن� ر� �أ� � م� �� �ل� ل�ه�و ء أا �� �لأ�� ���ا ء ه �و�ام�ا ك���ا � �� ل ن ��و�عم�ل� ي أ ّ � � � ن ن ن � ش ن ا �� ا ء �� ا � �يع �� � � ن ء � �� ي ��لن����ء ل��ي� ن�ع�ي�ر ر�م�ا ن� �و� ا ك ا ن� ا �ل���سم��� ��� ي� �يل ���م�ل� هو ��سر� ل ن ��ول لمل� � ل� � ��و نلم�ل ي ي ي �ع ع ّ � ن � ن ا� ش ي ن ��ند ��لم�ك ا ��ل ا � ن �� ن ��ا ا ���ا ا �ل�ه� او ء ل��ن� ا�امن��رن� �ن�ل�� نر�م�ا ن� �و��� �� �ل ل��ي� ���ل �م���ي�ء ك�� �ل ن�� ر �م� ا�م��سر�� �يل���ي�ء �م � ي أ � ا اأ ش ا ا ن ا �ي ا � ا �� ا �يك � ن ه ا � � ن ا ي � �� ن � ا ن ���ا ن� ا ��له� ا ء �مّي���� ًل�� ��ا �ل���ا �ن�ا � � ك �������� أ � � نلم�ل ل�ه�و ء ن�م�ل م�� � 1لأ�� � نن ر ��� ء ه ن�ل ر م� و �و �و م� � ن أ أ ن ا أ ن اً ً � ن � � ي ن � ن ن ن � � � �ل�� � او ��م ����ه ن����ن�نس�ا � �و��� ن��ه �و ن� ��� ���ا �ن�ل�� ر�م�ا � �و�ل��د �لم�ك � �س �ر� ا �يل� ح ن� ا � �ي���و� أا � را ل ن����ا �ل�ه ٢ا �يل ن� أي ن ي �� � ش ا ي ي ا ا� ن أ ي ن ا� ي ن ن ن �� ي نني � ا �نل���ا ر�ن�ا �ن��د رك ر�م�ل �و��س�ا أ�ر ا ����� او �� ن� ا �ل�� ن�ل��ه �م� ��س�ا �ع�ه � �ل�م� ��ي����ه أا � ا �م ي������ر��� ل��ي� ن اأ ّ ا � �ن � ّ ا��ا ن أش �ن � � �� ي �� ا �� ا ء �ج ن�� � �ي اأ � ي� � ��هي � او ���سيم�ّ ن� ح ل � � � ل � � � � � � ل � � ا ا ا � ل ا ا ء م ه � ح ع�د � ح � � � � . � � �م م ك ل ه � � � � � ر ن � � ر و ري� ر ل�ه�و �عم ر � ي��س� ر و ن ن أ ي وج أ � �يه ل�ن � هي ن ن � � ��ل�� �نل ���� ���ي ٣ا ��ل�� ���مي� � �� ا ن ا � � ��ا ��ل�هي �و ن� �� �رك���� �ي� ا �ل��سر�ع� ح ن� ا � �ي��و� �و���و�ل�ه أا ل�� ا س�م� �ع�� نح�� ن ر� � � � اي ن أ نّ � ن � � ن ن ي � ي ّ ي ا � � �كم� ي��م�ّ ن� � � � � � او �لأ��نل ���� ء �و� ا ك ا � ا �ل���و� ا �ل�د ي� �ه�و ا ���را ل�ي� ا �ل�ه� او ء ي�م�ون �م� �يلملي��ه �م� ا �ل�ه� او ء � و ج ن ا� ا ن � ّ شعّ ي ن � � أ نج ّ� أ ن ًا ن ا� ا ن اً � �ن ا ��ل ح ا ن��ل ح �� ��� ��� ن������� ا�م� ء ن����� مونج ا �يل� ح نرء ا �ل��د �ي� �يلم�لي��ه �م� ا�م� ء أا � ا ��مك �ن�ه �� �ي���ن�� � �لمك ا � ي�� � ن ر م ن اً � �� ي ا� �ن ي ن � �أع ن ن ��ا ن ي �مّي � هي ��� �عم�ل�� ��ر� ��� ا�م�د ا ����ه �ن�ي�� ا �ل� ن� ار ء أا � ا ك�� ��� ���مل� . � نو���� ن��� ا �ل�ه� او ء ن����� ي أ أ ن كا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ن�لا �ر�ةة�. 1الا�ص�ل :ا ����هوا ء �� ن���� ٢ .ط :أا د را ��
288
288
١،١٧٤
٢،١٧٤
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ّ أ أ آ ً ���ّ �ش�م���ا � ا ش� �م�مي� ّ�د �م ن ا �����م�ل�ّ ا ��ل� ا ��م�ن�م� ن��ا �نّ�ه � ��أ �ش ل��ن ن� ��ن ح�مي�� �م�ا �ي�لي��ا ن�لم�ل�ه ا �ش�ا را ر ر �ور��� �و ��ل ع و أ � � و ي و أ ل � ي ّ ن � أع � � � ي �� �ن ا �� ن� ا � ا �ّ ا � � ن ��من ن ي ّ � � ن � حي��ل�� �ن� ا � �لي �ع او ن�لم�ل �نأ�ا ن� ���د ه ا�ام��س�ا ��ل�هي ن�ع�ي�ر �ل�� نر�م�هي ��ل�ه حي�م�ل���ه أا �م�ا �ل�ح��ل � ل �عو �عم�ل أو م� �ل� أ أ ��ّ ن � ه �ي ن �� � ا نّ��م�ا ��ن����ن اأ ن� �ُ��س�ا ��ل �م ن � ��ه اآ ن� ا�� �ي��س�ا ��ل �ع ن��ه �نم�ل��ند ��لم�ك ا�� اأي � � � � � ا م � � �د ل ه � � � � � ن � ون ون و � ر أو ي ن �هي� ي ٰ م رم أ أ � اأ � ي � ن ش ا ّ ي �وا ن� �م��س� �ل�مك أا � ��س� ء ا لله. �م ن� �م���د ا ر �م�ا ا �و�م�ا ي� أا �لي��ه ن��
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
� ��ل آ ن ن ن ا أ � اأ أ �� � ن أ هي �ا� � ن ���ا � � ��و ي� ا �ر�ع�د أا �� ا � ا �ل�� ا �نل ���� � او ن���د م� ر � �وي� ك م
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
� ي � أ ا �لن��ر�� أا �ل�� ا �نل���ا ر�ن�ا؟
ح ه ا ّٰ اأ�ّ ا � � �ي ن ا �نّه � ن ا ���مي� ا � هي ا �� ا ��ل ا � � ن ي � ّ� ن ي ا �� اأ� ّ � � �م��س��� �وي�ه ر��م� لله م� ا �لن� ر� �أ� � م� �� �ل� ل�ه�و ء أا �� �لأ�� ���ا ء ه �و�ام�ا ك���ا � �� ل ن ��و�عم�ل� ي أ ّ � � � ن ن ن � ش ن ا �� ا ء �� ا � �يع �� � � ن ء � �� ي ��لن����ء ل��ي� ن�ع�ي�ر ر�م�ا ن� �و� ا ك ا ن� ا �ل���سم��� ��� ي� �يل ���م�ل� هو ��سر� ل ن ��ول لمل� � ل� � ��و نلم�ل ي ي ي �ع ع ّ � ن � ن ا� ش ي ن ��ند ��لم�ك ا ��ل ا � ن �� ن ��ا ا ���ا ا �ل�ه� او ء ل��ن� ا�امن��رن� �ن�ل�� نر�م�ا ن� �و��� �� �ل ل��ي� ���ل �م���ي�ء ك�� �ل ن�� ر �م� ا�م��سر�� �يل���ي�ء �م � ي أ � ا اأ ش ا ا ن ا �ي ا � ا �� ا �يك � ن ه ا � � ن ا ي � �� ن � ا ن ���ا ن� ا ��له� ا ء �مّي���� ًل�� ��ا �ل���ا �ن�ا � � ك �������� أ � � نلم�ل ل�ه�و ء ن�م�ل م�� � 1لأ�� � نن ر ��� ء ه ن�ل ر م� و �و �و م� � ن أ أ ن ا أ ن اً ً � ن � � ي ن � ن ن ن � � � �ل�� � او ��م ����ه ن����ن�نس�ا � �و��� ن��ه �و ن� ��� ���ا �ن�ل�� ر�م�ا � �و�ل��د �لم�ك � �س �ر� ا �يل� ح ن� ا � �ي���و� أا � را ل ن����ا �ل�ه ٢ا �يل ن� أي ن ي �� � ش ا ي ي ا ا� ن أ ي ن ا� ي ن ن ن �� ي نني � ا �نل���ا ر�ن�ا �ن��د رك ر�م�ل �و��س�ا أ�ر ا ����� او �� ن� ا �ل�� ن�ل��ه �م� ��س�ا �ع�ه � �ل�م� ��ي����ه أا � ا �م ي������ر��� ل��ي� ن اأ ّ ا � �ن � ّ ا��ا ن أش �ن � � �� ي �� ا �� ا ء �ج ن�� � �ي اأ � ي� � ��هي � او ���سيم�ّ ن� ح ل � � � ل � � � � � � ل � � ا ا ا � ل ا ا ء م ه � ح ع�د � ح � � � � . � � �م م ك ل ه � � � � � ر ن � � ر و ري� ر ل�ه�و �عم ر � ي��س� ر و ن ن أ ي وج أ � �يه ل�ن � هي ن ن � � ��ل�� �نل ���� ���ي ٣ا ��ل�� ���مي� � �� ا ن ا � � ��ا ��ل�هي �و ن� �� �رك���� �ي� ا �ل��سر�ع� ح ن� ا � �ي��و� �و���و�ل�ه أا ل�� ا س�م� �ع�� نح�� ن ر� � � � اي ن أ نّ � ن � � ن ن ي � ي ّ ي ا � � �كم� ي��م�ّ ن� � � � � � او �لأ��نل ���� ء �و� ا ك ا � ا �ل���و� ا �ل�د ي� �ه�و ا ���را ل�ي� ا �ل�ه� او ء ي�م�ون �م� �يلملي��ه �م� ا �ل�ه� او ء � و ج ن ا� ا ن � ّ شعّ ي ن � � أ نج ّ� أ ن ًا ن ا� ا ن اً � �ن ا ��ل ح ا ن��ل ح �� ��� ��� ن������� ا�م� ء ن����� مونج ا �يل� ح نرء ا �ل��د �ي� �يلم�لي��ه �م� ا�م� ء أا � ا ��مك �ن�ه �� �ي���ن�� � �لمك ا � ي�� � ن ر م ن اً � �� ي ا� �ن ي ن � �أع ن ن ��ا ن ي �مّي � هي ��� �عم�ل�� ��ر� ��� ا�م�د ا ����ه �ن�ي�� ا �ل� ن� ار ء أا � ا ك�� ��� ���مل� . � نو���� ن��� ا �ل�ه� او ء ن����� ي أ أ ن كا ٣ .الا�ص�ل :ن�لا �ر�ةة�. 1الا�ص�ل :ا ����هوا ء �� ن���� ٢ .ط :أا د را ��
288
288
١،١٧٤
٢،١٧٤
On why it takes us longer to hear thunder than to see lightning
and principle and every ray and effect extending from the higher to the lower region—for it produces different effects in everything it encounters, either because of differences in the acting elements or because of differences in the receiving elements—however, these topics are not necessarily connected to the question you have asked. The question would have had to be posed under a different aspect, which you did not inquire about, so I have not gone to the trouble of responding to it. The indications I have provided make the response to your question clear, God willing.
On why it takes us longer to hear thunder than to see lightning Why does it take longer for us to hear the sound of thunder than to see light-
174.1
ning, and why is it farther away? Miskawayh’s response Lightning arises when air changes into a state of luminance. Air is quick to receive light—indeed, it becomes illuminated in no time, for when the sun rises in the east, the air in the west is illuminated in no time. The same applies to everything that illuminates, such as fire and the like; when it meets air it receives illumination in no time. Moreover, air is connected to our eyes with no intermediary. Consequently, our perception of it must also happen in no time. This is also why the moment we open our eyes we perceive Saturn and the rest of the luminous fixed stars, so long as there is nothing in the air to screen or conceal them. The effect of thunder on the air, by contrast, occurs through motion and undulation rather than through a change of state, so how it reaches our ears must depend on the speed or slowness with which it moves. For sound, which consists in an impaction in the air, causes the air adjoining it to undulate, just as a stone causes that part of the water adjoining it to undulate if it strikes it. This results in different parts of the water and different parts of the air causing each other to undulate, by way of mutual propulsion among the parts if connected.
289
289
174.2
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ن أّ مّ ن� �ّ ك �م�ا �لم�ل��ه ل��ن نر�م�ا ن� ش��ّ �م�ا �لم�ل �م�ا �لم�ل��ه ا ��ل� ا ن� ��ن��ي �م� ا ن� ن��ا ن��� ا ���ن���د�ير أا ن� ا ي� � �ك � � �� ه أ � � � � ي ي ي ي ر و ي � ي ن ي ي� م ي� ج أ ّ � ي ا ��م � � ّي ن ن ي ح�يّ �يل���� ����ن ��ا ن��� ا ��ل�� �ي���� �م ن��ه � أا ��ل�� ا ن��ل � ا�ام�ا ء �ه�م�ا �م�د ه �ور�م�ا � �عم�ل�� ��د ر ا ���س� �� � ر ن ي � � ن ي �ع ج � ���ند ��لم�ك ��ا ��ل ا ��ل�ه� ا ء أا ن� ا ا �ي��ير ن�ك��ه ا ن��ل � �ن � ح���� ا �ل��م�ل ن� �ّرك �م�ا �يلم�لي��ه �م ن� ا �ل�ه� او ء �وي��م�ّون� �ن�ه � ي و آج ع ن �� �� � ن � ا � � ه ل�ن ن � ا ن �� م ن � ا ن حيّ � ن ش��ّ �ّ ح نء ا ��ل�� ند �� �لم� ا ن� ا ن�ل ن��ا ي � ل ���د ا ا ن��ل � ل ا حرء م� يلمل ا � ��د �� � � � � � م م ك � � � ه � � � ل ر ر أ � � � ن � ي ن ر ي ي � ي � ر ي � ي� م � ي ح ن �نمن�� ّ � ه �� � ن � ح � ا ��ل ا � ي � �ي� ا ��ل �� � � حّ � ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن � ن � م � � � � � � � � � � ه � ا ا ع ل � م م م � � � �د � � د � م � � � ح ح � ع � ل � � ح��� ن و لمك ر �و� و ن ر �ل� ن ر أ أ � ر � ن ي ي �ل ي عّ ��ن �� � نج أ � أ � ��� �ن ّ ن ن ي أا �ل�� ا ���سم�ا �ع ن��ا ن�����د ر�م�ا � �م ن� ر �أ �وي��� ن��ا أا �ي�ا ه �و���د �لم�ك ��ا �ل ن��ا أا � ا راي�ل ن��ا ا � �ل�� ���ا ر �م ن� ن���عي��د �عم�ل�� �ر� � � ي أن ن ن� � ا � �ن�ا �نّ�ا ن� � � ���� ح��ه ��ا ��لش� � ��� ن �ن����ه � ن �هي ���ده � ا ��ل��� ي ح �س �ر�ه ا �نل� � � حر �كن�م�ل ا � ���س�م� ���و ي� � �لم�ك و ر و ن و أ ر� ر و ي ن ي� أ ن ع أ � ّ ّ � � ن � � �ي ن ا ن �ن � ن ن � ���ه ن�لن��� ن�� ��ن ��ي��د � ���د ه ن�����ن����ا ��ا �ل ا �لن��ر�ي� � او �ر�ع�د �ل��� ا �ل��م� ��ا ن� �يل �ل���م�ك ن���� ن� � ا ���و�� �نر�م� � � ي ي � ع ّ � ّ �ا ي ّ ي ش ي ن � أ نجاً � ح�� ن ن �م ن ن � � ا � � �� ن� ���ا ك �م�ا �لن ��ي � ن � � � � � � س � � � � � � � ا ا ا ا � � � � م �� �ل �ل �ده ه � ح � � ل �د �د ل � � � � ع � � �س ��� � � � م ي وي رنج ي � � لمك �ل ي ج � �ل ي� أ ن �و ح ًا أ � ن � �ي � � ي ن � � ش ا ن ًا �ن ا � ي �م ن� ن��ي��ن��ه�م�ا ���و� �و�ه�م�ا ن��مي���� ا ع��� ا �لن��ر� � او �ر�ع�د ي��د�� � �م��� ل�ي� �� �ل � او � ��ده أا � ي � ي �� ح�م���ً�ا ا ��ل��م� ّ � ا �� �لي� اأ �ع ن� � ���ه� ح��� ا ��ل��م�ل� � �ي ����� 1ن ���ه �ل�����ن ���ا ن� ��س���ه�م�ا ن� ل � ا ك� ك و ر �ي� ر ن � نن� ي ن و رع ن نن � ع �� ���اا �� ا ا� �ي هي ا ل�� ح ا �ّ � اأ نّ � � �ي �لن� � ن ه ا �� ا ام� � ���مي� ا � هي ا �� ي ي� ن � �� ن � ا ن ك � ح� ل �م��د �� �و نحر أ �ل� � ا �لن� ر� ي ��ي�ء م�� ل�ه�و ء �ن� �ل� �� �ل� ��ي� ����و� ن�ل ر م� � أ ن ن � ّ � � � ش ن ا �ل��م� ا ا� � � ّ � ي ��ي �ن مّ ن� �من�� �ل���مك �� ي �س ح ّ��س�ه ل��� ا � ��و�ي ي� .ن��ا �ّم�ا ا �ر�ع�د ي �س مّون� �م ن��ه ا �ل ه او ء ا �ل��د �ي� �يلم�ل�� �� ن� ا�م � � � � � و ي أم ج ج ي أ �� �ن �� اأ �ل ن ح نء ا ��ل� ا ن� ��ن��ي�ه ا ��ل� ا ��له� ا ء ا ��ل�� ند �� �لم� ا ���سم�ا �ع ن��ا ��ً�ا �م�ا ن � ل ل � � � ه � � ل ا ا � � ل � ء � م ��د ل � � ح ��س � � � ل و أ أ � � � � � ي ن ن � ي ن ي و ر ي ري ي ر ي ي� ي ي �ي� �ن ن ا ن ن�من� ّ � ن أ ن ل�� ر�م� � � ح�����د. ح��� �ن�ه ي ي
٣،١٧٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ا� ن ن � �� اأ �لي ّن ه ل�ن ا ي ن� أ ن ا نا � ن � ن ن م�د ا ��� ش��ّ ��ن��ي��ي�م �ع ن��ه ��لن ���ا � ا �لأ�����س�ا � �عم�ل� �م�د �� ن� �م� ا� أ� ك ح��� ي �ن��ي�س� �م� �ل� � ��ر ا � ن م ي �ل � أ � يّ � ي ن � � ن ن ن � � � ن يي � � ّ ش ن يي ا شا ح�م�� ا ن ا � ن ���س ّ � �ي��� ���م�ل �ع� ا�م�د �� ن� ا �ل�� �ل�ي� �م�م�ل ا �ل ���� �ل�ه �ع� ا �ل��و�ل �وي �س�سر � �لمك �ن�ه ن ي ع ا�م�د ا �� ن� ح�� � ن � � �لّي�ن�م � ه � ّ �� �ي�؟ �ّ �ل�ه �م�د �� ن� �و�ل� ي � �ل� �يل�م� �� ٢ل� � ج ج أ ة �� �ر ٢ .ط� :ة ن���ص�� . 1ال ص� :ا � ص�ل ا� ل ���� ن ع �
290
290
١،١٧٥
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
أ ن أّ مّ ن� �ّ ك �م�ا �لم�ل��ه ل��ن نر�م�ا ن� ش��ّ �م�ا �لم�ل �م�ا �لم�ل��ه ا ��ل� ا ن� ��ن��ي �م� ا ن� ن��ا ن��� ا ���ن���د�ير أا ن� ا ي� � �ك � � �� ه أ � � � � ي ي ي ي ر و ي � ي ن ي ي� م ي� ج أ ّ � ي ا ��م � � ّي ن ن ي ح�يّ �يل���� ����ن ��ا ن��� ا ��ل�� �ي���� �م ن��ه � أا ��ل�� ا ن��ل � ا�ام�ا ء �ه�م�ا �م�د ه �ور�م�ا � �عم�ل�� ��د ر ا ���س� �� � ر ن ي � � ن ي �ع ج � ���ند ��لم�ك ��ا ��ل ا ��ل�ه� ا ء أا ن� ا ا �ي��ير ن�ك��ه ا ن��ل � �ن � ح���� ا �ل��م�ل ن� �ّرك �م�ا �يلم�لي��ه �م ن� ا �ل�ه� او ء �وي��م�ّون� �ن�ه � ي و آج ع ن �� �� � ن � ا � � ه ل�ن ن � ا ن �� م ن � ا ن حيّ � ن ش��ّ �ّ ح نء ا ��ل�� ند �� �لم� ا ن� ا ن�ل ن��ا ي � ل ���د ا ا ن��ل � ل ا حرء م� يلمل ا � ��د �� � � � � � م م ك � � � ه � � � ل ر ر أ � � � ن � ي ن ر ي ي � ي � ر ي � ي� م � ي ح ن �نمن�� ّ � ه �� � ن � ح � ا ��ل ا � ي � �ي� ا ��ل �� � � حّ � ا ��ل���ن��س�ا ن � ن � م � � � � � � � � � � ه � ا ا ع ل � م م م � � � �د � � د � م � � � ح ح � ع � ل � � ح��� ن و لمك ر �و� و ن ر �ل� ن ر أ أ � ر � ن ي ي �ل ي عّ ��ن �� � نج أ � أ � ��� �ن ّ ن ن ي أا �ل�� ا ���سم�ا �ع ن��ا ن�����د ر�م�ا � �م ن� ر �أ �وي��� ن��ا أا �ي�ا ه �و���د �لم�ك ��ا �ل ن��ا أا � ا راي�ل ن��ا ا � �ل�� ���ا ر �م ن� ن���عي��د �عم�ل�� �ر� � � ي أن ن ن� � ا � �ن�ا �نّ�ا ن� � � ���� ح��ه ��ا ��لش� � ��� ن �ن����ه � ن �هي ���ده � ا ��ل��� ي ح �س �ر�ه ا �نل� � � حر �كن�م�ل ا � ���س�م� ���و ي� � �لم�ك و ر و ن و أ ر� ر و ي ن ي� أ ن ع أ � ّ ّ � � ن � � �ي ن ا ن �ن � ن ن � ���ه ن�لن��� ن�� ��ن ��ي��د � ���د ه ن�����ن����ا ��ا �ل ا �لن��ر�ي� � او �ر�ع�د �ل��� ا �ل��م� ��ا ن� �يل �ل���م�ك ن���� ن� � ا ���و�� �نر�م� � � ي ي � ع ّ � ّ �ا ي ّ ي ش ي ن � أ نجاً � ح�� ن ن �م ن ن � � ا � � �� ن� ���ا ك �م�ا �لن ��ي � ن � � � � � � س � � � � � � � ا ا ا ا � � � � م �� �ل �ل �ده ه � ح � � ل �د �د ل � � � � ع � � �س ��� � � � م ي وي رنج ي � � لمك �ل ي ج � �ل ي� أ ن �و ح ًا أ � ن � �ي � � ي ن � � ش ا ن ًا �ن ا � ي �م ن� ن��ي��ن��ه�م�ا ���و� �و�ه�م�ا ن��مي���� ا ع��� ا �لن��ر� � او �ر�ع�د ي��د�� � �م��� ل�ي� �� �ل � او � ��ده أا � ي � ي �� ح�م���ً�ا ا ��ل��م� ّ � ا �� �لي� اأ �ع ن� � ���ه� ح��� ا ��ل��م�ل� � �ي ����� 1ن ���ه �ل�����ن ���ا ن� ��س���ه�م�ا ن� ل � ا ك� ك و ر �ي� ر ن � نن� ي ن و رع ن نن � ع �� ���اا �� ا ا� �ي هي ا ل�� ح ا �ّ � اأ نّ � � �ي �لن� � ن ه ا �� ا ام� � ���مي� ا � هي ا �� ي ي� ن � �� ن � ا ن ك � ح� ل �م��د �� �و نحر أ �ل� � ا �لن� ر� ي ��ي�ء م�� ل�ه�و ء �ن� �ل� �� �ل� ��ي� ����و� ن�ل ر م� � أ ن ن � ّ � � � ش ن ا �ل��م� ا ا� � � ّ � ي ��ي �ن مّ ن� �من�� �ل���مك �� ي �س ح ّ��س�ه ل��� ا � ��و�ي ي� .ن��ا �ّم�ا ا �ر�ع�د ي �س مّون� �م ن��ه ا �ل ه او ء ا �ل��د �ي� �يلم�ل�� �� ن� ا�م � � � � � و ي أم ج ج ي أ �� �ن �� اأ �ل ن ح نء ا ��ل� ا ن� ��ن��ي�ه ا ��ل� ا ��له� ا ء ا ��ل�� ند �� �لم� ا ���سم�ا �ع ن��ا ��ً�ا �م�ا ن � ل ل � � � ه � � ل ا ا � � ل � ء � م ��د ل � � ح ��س � � � ل و أ أ � � � � � ي ن ن � ي ن ي و ر ي ري ي ر ي ي� ي ي �ي� �ن ن ا ن ن�من� ّ � ن أ ن ل�� ر�م� � � ح�����د. ح��� �ن�ه ي ي
٣،١٧٤
اأ � هي �م���س� �ل�
ن ا� ن ن � �� اأ �لي ّن ه ل�ن ا ي ن� أ ن ا نا � ن � ن ن م�د ا ��� ش��ّ ��ن��ي��ي�م �ع ن��ه ��لن ���ا � ا �لأ�����س�ا � �عم�ل� �م�د �� ن� �م� ا� أ� ك ح��� ي �ن��ي�س� �م� �ل� � ��ر ا � ن م ي �ل � أ � يّ � ي ن � � ن ن ن � � � ن يي � � ّ ش ن يي ا شا ح�م�� ا ن ا � ن ���س ّ � �ي��� ���م�ل �ع� ا�م�د �� ن� ا �ل�� �ل�ي� �م�م�ل ا �ل ���� �ل�ه �ع� ا �ل��و�ل �وي �س�سر � �لمك �ن�ه ن ي ع ا�م�د ا �� ن� ح�� � ن � � �لّي�ن�م � ه � ّ �� �ي�؟ �ّ �ل�ه �م�د �� ن� �و�ل� ي � �ل� �يل�م� �� ٢ل� � ج ج أ ة �� �ر ٢ .ط� :ة ن���ص�� . 1ال ص� :ا � ص�ل ا� ل ���� ن ع �
290
290
١،١٧٥
On the possibility that a person may abandon every belief he adopts ad infinitum
When one side of a pond undulates, it moves the part next to it within a
174.3
certain interval of time, then the next part moves the part next to it, until it finally reaches the far side; the two sides are separated by an amount and interval of time commensurate to the extent of the water’s surface. It is similar with air; when a firm body is impacted in it, it moves the adjoining air and causes it to undulate, and this part then moves the air that adjoins it over successive moments in time, until it finally reaches the part that adjoins our ears and we sense it. This is why the sound of a stone falling on another stone, when we glimpse the agent producing this movement from a distance, reaches our ears some time after our seeing it. Something similar happens when we see a clothes washer on a riverbank from a distance, for we see the movement of his hand and the way he waves the garment about as he raises it and beats it against the stone some time before we hear the sound of the blow. This is exactly what happens with lightning and thunder; for clouds clash against each other, and the clashing sparks off the same thing that is sparked off whenever two bodies clash against each other with great force, and sound also emerges from them. Both of these—I mean lightning and thunder—occur together at a single time, as the cause of both is clashing and striking, that is, the movement of the firm body and the way part of it strikes against the other, as happens with a fire steel and flint. Air is illuminated by lightning through a change of state, which occurs in no time and which we thus sense immediately. Thunder, by contrast, causes the air that adjoins the cloud where the clashing happens to undulate, and then the air adjoining it undulates, and this moves from one part to the next until over a certain interval of time it reaches the air that adjoins our ears, and only then do we sense it.
On the possibility that a person may abandon every belief he adopts ad infinitum If a person adheres to a certain doctrine and then abandons it after noticing that it contains an error, can you deny the possibility that he might abandon the second doctrine as he did the first and do the same with all doctrines, so that he ends up considering no doctrine to be sound and reaching no conclusions about what is true?
291
291
175.1
ا��م ّ � � ث ا ن � � ا �ل�ه� او ����ل � او �ل ث � ���ل�د ا �ل�� �ي� ��� او ����ل -ن
ا �نل � �� �وا � ن
أ �آ ّ � � ٰ � ���ا ن�� ي� ا ��ل�� �كين��ا �عم� ي� � �س ا ي�ل���ا �م��ي��س�ا � ��هي ل��ن ن� ح�م�ه ا ّلله � ��و ك� ي��ا ��ل ا ن� ��و �عم�ل� �م��س��� �و�ه ح�مي�� ا �ل��را ء و و ر � � ن ر أ � ي ي ي ع ا� ا أن� ي ي ا ن�� ي �� � ن��ّ � ���د ي� �س ا ��ي� ا ��ل��أ� ��لّ�هي � ا ��ل�� �كين��ا �عم� ي� ن�ك���ا �مي��ن��ا � �ي�هي ل�ن�من���ا �م�ا � ه � �� � � � �م� ا � � ��ر� م� � �ر� و ي� و ن و � ي� ر ن وأ ً ً ً ي ّ ا ي ن �� �ي ا ي���س��مّ �ي�لي��نس�ا �و�من � ا ا ��� ّ � ً� �ي ا ا �ي ن ا ّ ا � �� �م���د �م� � � �لمك ا � �لعي�� ��� � ي ��� �م� ي س��م� � �لي��ل� �وكي�� ��س� أا ك�� �عي�� نح�� ن ن � ن أ� ي أ أ � �أ � ن � �آ ن ا ا ��� ّ ن � نًّا ي�ن ّ ً ي ن ي � ا ش ا ن � � � �وا �ل ل�ي� ا �ل�را ء ��� �م� ي س��م� ����� �وحي��ل� �و�م� ا ���نس�ه � �لمك �� � � ����و ي� ا �ل��� ��ر� ا � � � �و�م � أ ّ ا ن ّ اً ن � � ن ��ا ن �م� �ي�لن��ا � ي� ا � �ليع��ا ��س�ا ي� ا�ا� � ن �� �ع�هي ن�ك ا � ن ن � � ن ي ا و مو� �و ي� ي ��� .ل�م� � �لمك ا � ا � �لعي�� ��� أا � ا ك�� � �نر��� �لي�� �و�ه�و أ نع � ن ي ّ ي أ أ ن ّ حم��ًا � ش ي � ن ه ن�� ي�م�� هي ي ن �� ا �م ي ن � ن � � ي �سر�ور�ي�ه �وك���ا � �ر��ي�ن���� ي � � ��د��� م�� ي ن � �و� ه �م ن� ا ���ور � ا � ي����و� �م���د �م�ا ��ه �م�ا �� أ أ � �ليع ن ّ هي � � �� �ي ن ا ش � ّ � � � ن ا ن ��ن��ي�ي � ن ه � � � ن ن�ك ه ن� � �ن � �ور � ي ��م�ل ع�� �و�ل� ي����و ي�� ح ����ا � .و����د �لم�ك .... �ل��� ��سمك �و�ل� ي ن � ي ي���ي�� �ل� ي��� ر� ً � شع أ أ � � ن ن � � ّ ن � ن���ع �ن ا ��� ي ا�ا ا ي � �ي ا �مي ن ي � ي ا ا ���ي ا �مي� ّ�د ي� �نل���ا ن��ا ش�ر ا �ل ���ا �أ�ا � ا ���و��ي ي� ح ار ره ل��ي� ا�من��د ا �ي���و� � ي��� ���� ره م� � ه �و م�� �و � ي� أ � ن أ أ ���ا �نّ�ه ��� �ع � � ��ا �ل � ش��س�ا ني � ي ا �ي ا ��ل ���ا ن� نر�م�ا ن� ا ��ل ش���نس�ا ن� �وك� �� ي� أا ��ل�� ن�عم� �ي�هي ا �سر���ا ك� و و � � او �ل � ح ار ره �ن� �ل��د يرجن ��ا ي ا ��ل��� � ّ هي ش�ّ �من�� ّ � حيّ ن ي ش�ّ ي �ن ي ن ي ن ن �كم� ���� ن�� ل��ن ن� ح�مي�� ا ��ل � ��� �ي�����ه�� � �ي�ل ��يسعي�� � ي ع� �و�����ه � ح ��ط �و�ه�و ر�م�ا � حرك�� � ن � ي � ر ي م ع � �ي� ّ ن ي � من � � ن ي ا ن � يّ � ن� ن ن ن ا �� ًّ ن ا ن ا �ل��ش�م ن�� ن هي ن � ا ا ن � ا �ل���ل��م�ل ��ل� � ا �و�� ��يس�عي�� �كم �و���ع�� �و�ه�و ر�م� � ي � ير �ل أا �ل�� � �ل���� � ح�� يل��� �ك�� ء �ن � � ن حيّ �ا � ن ه ن � أ ّ � او �ل�هر� �وي��د ك� ح� ���ا ن� ل��� نر�م�ا ن� ن��ا ��لي�ن ��و��� �م ن� ن ���� نّ� �م�ا ن ��� ن�ن��ي��ه ��� � ��ر ا �ن�ه ن� �� ه ع�� � � � م ل � ل و � ي ي� م � ن � أن ن ��ا ن � ن� ن � ن��سر��� �� � طو�لم�ل ا �م��م�ك �م ن��ه �م ن� ك�� � ح � ��ط �عم�لي��ه �م�د �عن��ه. ي � � ن ا اآ ن� � ا اأ �� ي ل�ن ا �� ا � م � �ي � ا � �ع ن ن� � ي� ل��ن� ا ن��ل � � � ل� �� م س �د ح�مي������ا ا�ام��سم�ل�ك � ���د ر ��� ����� ل� �ي� ل�ه�و م�ل .و ي ون � � �� ا � ن� � � ن � ن �ي �ي ه �ي �ي � ي ه � ن � � ن � ي ا � � ا � هي ن�س ا � ي ا � �ل� �ي ا ا �ل�د ي� ا �� ر� � او � رح�� م� ا �ل� ح���� ر � او �لأ�ي�م� ء أا �ل�� ا �ل���� �و �لأ��� �ل� ي�م� يح��نج أا �� ّ ٰ � ش � �� ن � ا نّ ن �� ي � � ّ ن ��سر أا ل�� �م ���� ��ه �م� ا ��� �� ن� �ن ن�لع��م�ك ا لله �نل���ا �و�عم�ل�مم�ك �م�ا �كي��ه ن��ي�ر ا �ل��د ا ر � ن� ن��م نّ��ه �و�ل��ط�ن��ه ي �ج أ آ ا �ل ح�م��ف�� ن �����د ّٰلله ّ� ا ������ا �ا�م�� ن � ��م�ل� ا �ي�ه �عم�ل �� �� ��ل�ه �ح�مّ�م��د � ا ��ل�ه ا ن� ي�. و رن ي� و و �� ر و
292
292
٢،١٧٥
١،١٧٦
On the possibility that a person may abandon every belief he adopts ad infinitum
Miskawayh’s response If the different forms and levels of persuasion involved in all views were equal,
175.2
I would not deny the possibility that what you mention should happen. Yet I have found the levels of proofs and persuasions involved to be subject to variation. They include that which is termed certainty, that which is termed a persuasive proof and syllogism in accordance with the premises of that syllogism, that which is termed supposition and imagination, and the like. Thus, I deny the possibility that different views should be equal despite the variation in the syllogisms used to support them. For example, if a syllogism is demonstrative—which means that its premises derive from necessary matters and are soundly combined—it produces a conclusion that is insusceptible to doubt, impossible to abandon, and impervious to error. Likewise . . . .56 through which it is extended, so heat has a weak effect in the beginning because there is an abundance of matter that presents resistance. When the heat grows progressively stronger and reaches its highest level, this is the time of youth. It is as though it were an ascent and a state that develops until it reaches its end point, upon which it pauses—as happens with all natural movements—and then enters decline, this being the time of middle age. It continues to diminish until it naturally succumbs to destruction, as we have described; this is the time of old age and decrepitude. There was a person in Galen’s time who entertained the same notion as you and whose view Galen reported, mentioning that he was afflicted with a long illness that provoked laughter among those who remembered his view.
This was the last question you posed in your “Wandering Herd.” In responding to them, I have followed the course chosen and recommended by you, keeping my exposition concise and allusively indicating subtler points, and, for anything that requires explanation, referring to the books where proper discussions can be found. May God make you profit from them and may He, through His bounty and grace, teach you that in which is vested the happiness of both abodes. Praise be to God, Lord of all being, and His blessings be upon His messenger Muḥammad and all his family.
293
293
176.1
Notes 1
Miskawayh has in mind Aristotle’s remarks in De Anima Book III.4, 429a27–29.
2
The verse is by the sixth-century Christian Arab poet ʿAdī ibn Zayd. See Dīwān ʿAdī ibn Zayd, 106, using variant wording.
3
This is a loose reference to Aristotle’s remarks in Nicomachean Ethics 1115b7–9.
4
This example is discussed by Galen, as Miskawayh goes on to mention. See Galen, “The Diagnosis and Treatment of the Affections and Errors Peculiar to Each Person’s Soul,” in Psychological Writings, 252, 257. Miskawayh brings it up again in Tahdhīb, 203.
5
Miskawayh is referring here to §24.1.
6
The term “materialists” refers loosely to different groups with irreligious views, including the denial of a future life. They often featured in theological discussions about the nature of ethical value and moral motivation, and in arguments against the dependence of ethical value on revealed scripture.
7
Abū Dāwūd, Sunan Abī Dāwūd, 6:586 (#4530); Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, Musnad al-Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, 2:286 (#993).
8
Abū Dāwūd, Sunan Abī Dāwūd, 6:59 (#3916); Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, Musnad al-Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, 8:392–93 (#4775).
9
Miskawayh is evidently omitting part of the text of al-Tawḥīdī’s original question here. It is unclear what story this is a reference to.
10
This hadith doesn’t appear in the main collections, but see for example Ibn Abī Shaybah, al-Muṣannaf, 17:521 (#33679).
11
The Arab terms are respectively: ghurāb, ghurbah, bān, bayn, nawan (“date pits” and
12
The verse is by the pre-Islamic poet Zabbān ibn Sayyār al-Fazārī, who was related by
“distance”), and buʿd. marriage to the renowned poet al-Nābighah al-Dhubyānī—the poem’s “Ziyād.” 13
The verse is by Ibn al-Rūmī: see Dīwān Ibn al-Rūmī, 1:335 (#237).
14
The term translated as “fair skinned” is aḥmar, which also means “red,” giving an extra lexicographical context for this point.
15
A broad reference to a constellation of heterodox religious groups, which most notably included the Manicheans. They featured prominently in theological polemics as challengers of key tenets of the Muslim faith.
16
Q Zumar 39:15.
17
See §§33.1–34.17, especially the response at §§34.11–15.
18
Miskawayh touches on both these points at various stages of his responses: see, e.g., §§63.1–11, especially §63.8; §§71.1–2; and §§93.1–4, especially §93.4.
295
295
Notes 19
The verse is by the poet and anthologist Abū Tammām (d. 231/845 or 232/846).
20
Miskawayh no doubt has Galen’s work in mind here, particularly his immensely influen-
21
A reference to Q Muʾminūn 23:14: «. . . then We created of the drop a clot then We
tial De usu partium (Fī manāfiʿ al-aʿḍāʾ ). created of the clot a tissue then We created of the tissue bones then We garmented the bones in flesh; thereafter We produced him as another creature.» 22
It is not completely clear which response Miskawayh refers to here. Perhaps he means §22.2 in Volume 1?
23
It is difficult to determine who is speaking here because the comment seems opaque: How could al-Tawḥīdī be telling Miskawayh “you will hear your own response”? Some odd editing hand seems to have been at work in the text at this point.
24
The poet is Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī (d. 235/850).
25
Abū Bishr Mattā was at the heart of a culturally important controversy regarding the claims of philosophical logic, which found its best-known expression in an exchange between him and the grammarian Abū Saʿīd al-Sīrāfī reported by al-Tawḥīdī in his Imtāʿ (1:107–28). The question posed is: “Isn’t manṭiq, ‘logic,’ simply a derivation from the term ‘speech,’ nuṭq, on the morphological pattern maf ʿil?”
26
“Abū Ḥafṣ” was the patronymic of the second caliph, ʿUmar, whom Shi ʿah have historically regarded with animosity for having undermined the claims of ʿAlī and the House of the Prophet.
27
The former view had been expressed by several Ash ʿarite theologians, among others, and fiercely opposed by Muʿtazilite thinkers. The latter view found a number of expressions in the Greek philosophical tradition, notably in Plato’s Cratylus, as contrasted with Aristotle’s conventionalist approach to language. In Islamic theological circles it is perhaps most strongly associated with the Muʿtazilite ʿAbbād ibn Sulaymān (d. 250/864).
28 29
See, e.g., §§3.1–7 and §§93.1–4. The reference is to the Muʿtazilites, and to the distinctive doctrine about God’s attributes that divided them from Ash ʿarites and other theologians, as outlined in the continuation.
30
The text is clearly corrupt.
31
The discussion of God’s existence and attributes takes up the entire first question in the Fawz. See Fawz, 3–32, and especially the programmatic remarks at 25–27.
32
The term muwalladūn is a loose category that can indicate more broadly poets who belong to the post-Umayyad, early Abbasid era.
33
The translation of these lines draws in part on Jones, Early Arabic Poetry, 2:114. See Mufaḍḍaliyyāt, 247 (#57), with slightly altered wording.
296
296
Notes 34
That is, effecting changes in the syllables, e.g., by reducing a long syllable to a short one, or two short syllables to one. For further detail, see Stoetzer, “Ziḥāf.”
35
This line has been attributed to different poets, including al-Shanfarā and Taʾabbaṭa Sharran. See Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-ʿarab, 8:161 (s.v. s-l-ʿ ).
36
The distinction between types of argument—demonstrative, dialectical, rhetorical, sophistical, and poetic—carrying different epistemic credentials is key to Aristotle’s Organon as a whole. See al-Fārābī, “Kitāb al-Burhān,” in Al-Manṭiq ʿinda al-Fārābī, 20–22, for a discussion that provides some context for Miskawayh’s remarks.
37
The term Kānūn could strictly refer to either December (Kānūn I) or January (Kānūn II).
38
Al-Tawḥīdī’s term here is al-shawāmil, which is the second half of the book’s title.
39
Miskawayh has in mind Aristotle’s discussion of future contingents in De Interpretatione Chapter 9, though his ensuing remarks also draw on ideas developed by later commentators in both the ancient and Arabic tradition. See Adamson, “The Arabic Sea Battle,” for some helpful context. Miskawayh’s remarks echo the terminology used by al-Fārābī in his related discussion in “Kitāb Bārī Armīniyās ay al-ʿIbārah,” Al-Manṭiq ʿinda al-Fārābī, 1:160–162; cf. at greater length, Al-Fārābī’s Commentary, trans. Zimmermann, 76–96.
40
Q Furqān 25:23.
41
The reference is to the fifth caliph, Hārūn al-Rashīd (d. 193/809) and to the two brothers, al-Faḍl (d. 193/808) and Jaʿfar (d. 190/805), members of the influential Barmakid family.
42
The reference is probably to ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Sālim al-Baṣrī (d. 297/909), the disciple of the Sufi Sahl al-Tustarī.
43
Our translation of this obscure passage is tentative. One would have expected the opposite: “what is unknown is as good as nonexistent/might as well not exist.”
44
Miskawayh makes this point in the course of his response to question §101.1: see §101.2.
45
Peter Adamson, in a private communication, suggests that aʿrāḍ (accidents) should be read for amrāḍ (illnesses).
46
As mentioned in the Introduction, Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb was the addressee of al-Jāḥiẓ’s Kitāb al-Tarbī ʿ wa-l-tadwīr, whose objective was partly to lampoon him and expose his ignorance through a fusillade of challenging questions. The phrasing of both the present question and Question 152 seems to suggest that al-Jāḥiẓ’s victim responded in kind by issuing his own counter-fusillade of questions (in this regard, responding to al-Jāḥiẓ’s apparent invitation in Tarbī ʿ, 88, §166). Yet, perplexingly, the topic of Question 152 is brought up by al-Jāḥiẓ himself on p. 38, §67.
297
297
Notes 47
Al-Kindī’s works included an Epistle on the Deceptions of the Alchemists (Risāla fī-l-tanbīh
ʿalā khudaʿ al-kīmiyāʾiyyīn) according to Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist, 320. Al-Rāzī’s response is mentioned by al-Masʿūdī, Murūj al-dhahab, 5:159–60 (#3312). Neither work has survived. Note that in the Arabic Miskawayh gives al-Kindī’s name as Yūsuf ibn Isḥāq rather than Abū Yūsuf ibn Isḥāq. 48
It is unclear whether Miskawayh went on to compose the promised epistle, though a broad reference in the overview of his output in the Muntakhab Ṣīwān al-ḥikmah allows us to speculate that he may have: al-Sijistānī, Muntakhab Ṣīwān al-ḥikmah, 347. In any case, no such work has come down to us.
49
The Arabic terms are mustabham and mustaghlaq, respectively. As Miskawayh goes on to explain, the latter term derives from ghalaqa, meaning “to close a door,” and the former from abhama, to close a door in such a way as “to block” it.
50
A reference to Q Anʿām 6:59.
51
The discussion of prophecy, which touches on the themes just mentioned, takes up the whole of the third question in the Fawz: see Fawz, 85–120.
52
The reference must be to a treatise titled Kitāb fī sabab kawn al-jibāl, which is men-
53
This may be a reference to the common assumption that the inhabitable landmass was
tioned by the biographer Ibn Abī Uṣaybi ʿah, ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ, 1:218. encompassed on all sides by an “Encircling Sea” (al-baḥr al-muḥīṭ). 54
See §§48.1–5.
55
See §§159.1–3.
56
Here there is a lacuna in the manuscript, and when the text resumes it is clear that Miskawayh has moved on to a new question. It seems difficult to speculate about the exact question al-Tawḥīdī had posed.
298
298
Glossary Abū Ayyūb al-Anṣārī (d. ca. 52/672) companion of the Prophet and participant in many of the military operations of the early Islamic period. Abū Bakr
(r. 11–13/632–34) the first caliph and Muḥammad’s father-in-law.
Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī
(d. ca. 313/925 or 323/935) promi-
nent philosopher, physician, and alchemist. His best-known philosophical works include Spiritual Medicine (Kitāb al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī) and The Philosophical Life (Kitāb al-Sīrah al-falsafiyyah). Abū Bishr Mattā ibn Yūnus (d. 328/940) Nestorian Christian who translated and commented on Aristotle’s works and played an important role in the translation of Peripatetic philosophy from Syriac into Arabic. Abū l-Fatḥ ibn al-ʿAmīd
(d. 366/976) son of Abū l-Faḍl ibn al-ʿAmīd and one-
time vizier of the Buyid emir Rukn al-Dawlah. Abū Ḥanīfah (d. 150/767) theologian and jurist who founded an eponymous school of law. Abū Hāshim al-Jubbāʾī (d. 321/933) theologian who was one of the foundational figures of the school of Baṣran Muʿtazilites, best known for his theory of modes or aḥwāl. Abū l-ʿIbar
(d. 252/866) a poet and relative of the Abbasid caliphs who was
known for composing humorous and frivolous verse. Abū ʿĪsā l-Warrāq
independent Shi ʿi thinker and religious skeptic of the third/
ninth century, said to have been Ibn al-Rāwandī’s teacher, author of wellinformed reports and refutations of non-Muslim religions, including Christianity. Abū Saʿīd al-Ḥaṣīrī
Sufi theologian and heresiographer with skeptic ten-
dencies, also referred to in other sources as al-Ḥuṣrī, al-Ḥaḍrī, or even al-Ḥaḍramī. Abū Tammām
(d. 231/845 or 232/846) poet and anthologist who achieved
fame during the rule of the caliph al-Muʿtaṣim. Abū ʿUthmān al-Jāḥiẓ
(d. 255/868–69) eminent Muʿtazilite theologian and bel-
letrist from Baṣra whose works inspired many generations of prose writers, including al-Tawḥīdī. Abū ʿUthmān al-Nahdī
(d. ca. 95/714) first-century transmitter of prophetic
traditions.
299
299
Glossary
Abū Yūsuf al-Kindī
(d. after 256/870) philosopher and scholar who played a
paramount role in the reception, translation, and dissemination of Greek philosophical thought and authored multiple works across a broad range of philosophical sciences. Abū Zayd al-Balkhī (d. 322/934) prolific author of philosophical, scientific, and religious works in the Kindian tradition, possibly a teacher of the philosopher Abū Bakr al-Rāzī.
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (d. 41/661) the Prophet’s son-in-law and fourth caliph, and the first Imam of the Shi ʿah. Allāt
the name of a pre-Islamic goddess, given to many goddesses worshipped in the ancient Near East.
ʿAlwah name given to the beloved in many poems by al-Buḥturī. ʿĀmir ibn al-Ẓarib sage of the pre-Islamic era. Aristotle
(d. 322) Greek philosopher who authored an influential series of
works on logic, ethics, metaphysics, and scientific and other subjects. Many of these works, including the Organon and the Nicomachean Ethics to which Miskawayh refers in this book, were translated into Arabic during the Abbasid era. Reflecting his stature, many writers refer to him simply as “the Philosopher.” Baghdad capital city of the Abbasid caliphate, founded along the Tigris river in 762 by the second Abbasid caliph, al-Manṣūr. In Tawḥīdī and Miskawayh’s day, the capital of the Buyid principality of Iraq, with Rayy (now a suburb of present-day Tehran) being the capital of the principality of the Jibal and Shiraz the capital of Fars. Bāqil
a figure proverbial for a lack of eloquence, often mentioned in the same breath as Saḥbān Wāʾil.
Bashshār ibn Burd (d. ca. 167/783) renowned poet of Persian origin of the late Umayyad and early Abbasid period. Bryson (fl. before the second century CE) obscure neo-Pythagorean philosopher who authored the treatise Management of the Estate, which was highly influential for Arabic approaches to economics. al-Buḥturī
(d. 284/897) prominent court poet of the Abbasid era.
Daʾd woman’s name, given to the beloved in some Arabic poems. al-Faḍl ibn Yaḥyā
(d. 193/808) member of the powerful Barmakid family and
eldest son of Yaḥyā ibn Khālid al-Barmakī. He served as vizier to Hārūn al-Rashīd.
300
300
Glossary
Farghānah
valley in present-day eastern Uzbekistan and parts of Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan, surrounded on three sides by the Tianshan Mountains and traversed by the Syr Darya river, which flows out of the western end of the valley to the Aral Sea. In the third/tenth century, it represented a remote eastern outpost of the Muslim world. Fartanā
woman’s name, given to the beloved in some Arabic poems.
Galen (d. ca. ad 216) medical writer and physician from Pergamon whose translated works played a critical role for the development of the medical tradition in the Islamic world. Though more limited in extent, his ethical writings (notably the Peri Ethon) were also highly influential. Hārūn al-Rashīd
(d. 193/809) fifth ʿAbbasid caliph, whose rule was enmeshed
with the Barmakid family and whose court formed a lodestone of poets, scholars, and entertainers. Hind
woman’s name, given to the beloved in many Arabic poems.
Ibn al-Khalīl
unidentified individual.
Ibn Mujāhid
(d. 324/936) religious scholar best known for his role in establish-
ing the seven canonical variants or readings of the Qurʾan. prominent heterodox figure of the third/ninth century, noto-
Ibn al-Rāwandī
rious for his polemics against religious (including Muslim) belief, and his attacks on prophecy, the credibility of miracles, and the compatibility of religious claims with reason. Ibn Sālim al-Baṣrī, ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad
(d. 297/909) Sufi thinker who was a
disciple and companion of Sahl al-Tustarī. Imruʾ al-Qays
(fl. sixth century) renowned pre-Islamic poet who was the
author of one of the most famous of the pre-Islamic poems known as the Suspended Odes (al-Muʿallaqāt). Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī (d. 235/850) musician, poet, and composer associated with the court of several Abbasid caliphs. Jābir ibn Ḥayyān
(d. ca. 193/812) linchpin figure in the early development of
alchemy in the Islamic world and putative (though disputed) author of a vast corpus of alchemical writings. Jaʿfar ibn Yaḥyā (d. 190/805) member of the powerful Barmakid family and youngest son of Yaḥyā ibn Khālid al-Barmakī, vizier to Hārūn al-Rashīd. Khālid ibn Yazīd (d. ca. 85/704) Umayyad prince who, according to a disputed tradition, commissioned translations that first introduced alchemy into Arabic culture.
301
301
Glossary
al-Khalīl (d. ca. 175/791) celebrated Baṣran grammarian and lexicographer who laid the foundations for Arabic phonetics and prosody. Kharijites
hardline Islamic sect that arose in the first Islamic century in con-
nection with a dispute about the caliphate and that remained a source of political and theological unrest during the Umayyad period. Khurasan
region comprising present-day northeastern Iran, Afghanistan, and
parts of Central Asia. Luqmān ibn ʿĀd
a figure from pre-Islamic times, proverbial for his wisdom.
Mālik ibn Anas
(d. 179/796) Medinan jurist who founded an eponymous
school of law. al-Maʾmūn
(d. 218/833) seventh Abbasid caliph, whose rule was punctuated
by theological upheavals but also by a flowering of intellectual activity, including the large-scale translation of Greek philosophical and scientific texts. Maʿrūf al-Karkhī (d. 200/815–16) prominent early ascetic and mystic of the Baghdad school. al-Muraqqish al-aṣghar
(fl. sixth century CE) poet from the predominantly
Christian town of Hīrah in southwestern Iraq. al-Mutanabbī
(d. 354/965) renowned poet and panegyrist who flourished
under the patronage of the ruler of Syria, Sayf al-Dawlah. Muʿtazilites theological school that emerged in the second/eighth century, distinguished by its rationalistic methods and austere emphasis on theological tenets relating to divine unity and justice. al-Nābighah
(fl. sixth century CE) celebrated poet of the pre-Islamic era
famous for his panegyrics of the rulers of the predominantly Christian town of Hīrah in southwestern Iraq. The Philosopher See Aristotle. Plato
(d. 347) Greek thinker who played a seminal role in the development of ancient philosophy and whose ethical and metaphysical views, especially in their Neoplatonic reworkings, were highly influential in the Islamic world.
Polemon of Laodicea
(d. ca. ad 144) politician and intellectual who authored
an influential treatise on physiognomy, the science of discerning character from external appearance. The work was translated into Arabic in Abbasid times.
302
302
Glossary
al-Rūdakī
(d. ca. 329/940–41) prominent Persian poet who flourished in the
first half of the fourth/tenth century. Saḥbān Wāʾil
a figure of proverbial eloquence, often mentioned in the same
breath as Bāqil. Salmā
woman’s name, given to the beloved in many Arabic poems.
al-Shāfiʿī
(d. 204/820) jurist and legal theoretician who founded an epony-
mous school of law. Tāhart city in northwest Algeria founded by the Rustamid dynasty in the late second/eighth century. al-Ṭarmī
an obscure poet about whom little is known.
Thābit ibn Qurrah
(d. 288/901) eminent mathematician and scientist known
both for his original scientific work and his translations of Greek texts.
303
303
Bibliography Abū Dāwūd Sulaymān ibn al-Ash ʿath. Sunan Abī Dāwūd. Edited by Shuʿayb al-Arnaʾūṭ et al. 7 vols. Damascus: Dār al-Risālah al-ʿĀlamiyyah, 2009. Adamson, Peter. “The Arabic Sea Battle: Al-Fārābī on the Problem of Future Contingents.” Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie, 88 (2006): 163–88. . Al-Kindī. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
ʿAdī ibn Zayd. Dīwān ʿAdī ibn Zayd al-ʿIbādī. Edited by Muhạmmad Jabbār al-Muʿaybid. Baghdad: Sharikat Dār al-Jumhūriyyah li-l-Nashr wa-l-Ṭab ʿ, 1965. Amīn, Aḥmad. Fajr al-Islām. 3 vols. Cairo: Lajnat al-Taʾlīf wa-l-Tarjamah wa-l-Nashr, 1928. . Ḍuḥā al-Islām. 3 vols. Cairo: Lajnat al-Taʾlīf wa-l-Tarjamah wa-l-Nashr, 1936. . Ẓuhr al-Islām. 4 vols. Cairo: Lajnat al-Taʾlīf wa-l-Tarjamah wa-l-Nashr, 1955. Aristotle. Manṭiq Arisṭū. Edited by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Badawī. 3 vols. Kuwait: Wakālat al-Maṭbūʿāt; Beirut: Dār al-Qalam, 1980. . Aristotle’s Ars Rhetorica: The Arabic Version. Edited by M. C. Lyons. Cambridge: Pembroke Arabic Texts, 1982. Arkoun, Mohammed. “Deux épîtres de Miskawayh (mort en 421/1030).” Bulletin d'études orientales, 17 (1961–62): 7–74. . “L’humanisme arabe au IVe/Xe siècle, d’après le Kitâb al-Hawâmil wal-Šawâmil.” Studia Islamica, 14 (1961): 73–108, and 15 (1961): 63–87. . L’humanisme arabe au IVe/Xe siècle: Miskawayh, philosophe et historien. Paris: Vrin, 1982. Daiber, Hans. “Masāʾil wa-Adjwiba.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill Online. El-Bizri, Nader. “Time, Concepts of.” In Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, vol. 2, edited by Josef W. Meri, 810–12. New York: Routledge, 2006. Al-Fārābī, Abū Naṣr. Kitāb al-Mūsīqā al-kabīr. Edited by Ghaṭṭās ʿAbd al-Malik Khashabah. Cairo: Dār al-Kātib al-ʿArabī li-l-Ṭibāʿah wa-l-Nashr, 1967. . Al-Fārābī’s Commentary and Short Treatise on Aristotle’s De Interpretatione. Translated by Franz W. Zimmermann. London: Published for the British Academy by Oxford University Press, 1981. . Al-Manṭiq ʿinda al-Fārābī. Edited by Rafīq al-ʿAjam. 3 vols. Beirut: Dār al-Mashriq, 1985–87. . Al-Manṭiq ʿinda al-Fārābī. Edited by Mājid Fakhrī. Beirut: Dār al-Mashriq, 1987. . Kitāb al-Ḥurūf. Edited by Muḥsin Mahdī. 2nd ed. Beirut: Dār al-Mashriq, 1990.
304
304
Bibliography Filius, Lou S. “The Genre Problemata in Arabic: Its Motions and Changes.” In Aristotle’s Problemata in Different Times and Tongues, edited by Pieter De Leemans and Michèle Goyens, 33–54. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2006. . La tradition orientale des Problemata Physica. In Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques, Supplément, edited by Richard Goulet with Jean-Marie Flamand and Maroun Aouad, 593–98. Paris: CNRS, 2003. Galen. Psychological Writings. Edited by P. N. Singer and translated by Vivian Nutton, Daniel Davies, and P. N. Singer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Ghersetti, Antonella. “The Semiotic Paradigm: Physiognomy and Medicine in Islamic Culture.” In Seeing the Face, Seeing the Soul: Polemon’s Physiognomy from Classical Antiquity to Medieval Islam, edited by Simon Swain, 281–308. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Gutas, Dimitri. Greek Wisdom Literature in Arabic Translation. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1975. Hoyland, Robert. “The Islamic Background to Polemon’s Treatise.” In Seeing the Face, Seeing the Soul: Polemon’s Physiognomy from Classical Antiquity to Medieval Islam, edited by Simon Swain, 227–80. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Ibn Abī Shaybah, ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad. Al-Muṣannaf. Edited by Muḥammad
ʿAwwāmah. 26 vols. Jeddah: Dār al-Qiblah li-l-Thaqāfah al-Islāmiyyah; Damascus: Muʾassasat ʿUlūm al-Qurʾān, 2006. Ibn Abī Uṣaybi ʿah, Aḥmad ibn Qāsim. ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ fī ṭabaqāt al-aṭibbāʾ. Edited by August Müller. 2 vols. Frankfurt: Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University. Reprint of 1882 Cairo edition. Ibn Ḥanbal, Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad. Musnad al-Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal. Edited by Shuʿayb al-Arnaʾūṭ et al. 50 vols. Beirut: Muʾassasat al-Risālah, 1993–2001. Ibn Manẓūr, Muḥammad ibn Mukarram. Lisān al-ʿarab. 15 vols. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1997. Ibn al-Nadīm, Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq. Al-Fihrist. Edited by Riḍā Tajaddud. Tehran: Maṭbaʿat Dānishgāh, 1971. Ibn al-Rūmī, Abū-l-Ḥusayn ʿAlī. Dīwān Ibn al-Rūmī. Edited by Ḥusayn Naṣṣār. 6 vols. 3rd ed. Cairo: Maṭbaʿat Dār al-Kutub wa-l-Wathāʾiq al-Qawmiyyah, 2003. Irwin, Robert. The Penguin Anthology of Classical Arabic Literature. London: Penguin, 2006. Al-Iṣfahānī, Abū l-Faraj. Maqātil al-ṭālibiyyīn. Edited by Aḥmad Ṣaqr. Cairo: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Kutub al-ʿArabiyyah, 1949. . Kitāb al-Aghānī. Edited by Iḥsān ʿAbbās, Ibrāhīm al-Saʿāfīn, and Bakr ʿAbbās. 25 vols. 3rd ed. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 2008. Al-Jāḥiẓ, Abū ʿUthmān. Al-Tarbī ʿ wa-l-tadwīr. Edited by Charles Pellat. Damascus: Institut Français de Damas, 1955.
305
305
Bibliography Jarīr ibn ʿAṭiyyah. Dīwān Jarīr. Edited by Nuʿmān Muḥammad Amīn Ṭāhā. 2 vols. Cairo: Dār al-Maʿārif, 1969–71. Jones, Alan. Early Arabic Poetry. 2 vols. Reading: Ithaca Press, 1992–96. Al-Kindi, Abū Isḥāq. Risālat al-Kindī fī l-luḥūn wa-l-nagham. Edited by Zakariyyā Yūsuf. Baghdad: Maṭbaʿat Shafīq, 1965. Kraemer, Joel L. Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam: The Cultural Revival during the Buyid Age. Leiden: Brill, 1992. Al-Masʿūdī, Abū-l-Ḥasan. Murūj al-dhahab wa-maʿādin al-jawhar. Edited by Charles Pellat. 7 vols. Beirut: al-Jāmi ʿah al-Lubnāniyyah, 1966–79. Al-Maydānī, Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad. Majmaʿ al-amthāl. Edited by Muḥammad Muḥyī l-Dīn
ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd. 2 vols. Cairo: Maṭbaʿat al-Sunnah al-Muḥammadiyyah, 1955. Mez, Adam. Die Renaissance des Islams. Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1922. Miskawayh, Abū ʿAlī. Tahdhīb al-akhlāq. Edited by Constantine Zurayk. Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1966. . Al-Fawz al-aṣghar. Beirut: n.p., 1319 AH [1901]. . An Unpublished Treatise of Miskawaih on Justice. Edited by M. S. Khan. Leiden: Brill, 1964. Montgomery, James E. “Al-Ǧāḥiẓ and Hellenizing Philosophy.” In The Libraries of the Neoplatonists, edited by Cristina d’Ancona, 443–56. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Mufadḍạl ibn Muḥammad. Al-Mufaḍḍaliyyāt. Edited by Aḥmad Muḥammad Shākir and
ʿAbd al-Salām Muḥammad Hārūn. 6th ed. Cairo: Dār al-Maʿārif, 1979. Muhanna, Elias. “The Scattered and the Gathered: Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī’s Infrequently Asked Questions.” In Essays in Islamic Philology, History, and Philosophy, edited by Alireza Korangy, Wheeler M. Thackston, Roy P. Mottahedeh, and William Granara, 248–80. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2016. Al-Mutanabbī, Abū l-Ṭayyib. Dīwān al-Mutanabbī. Beirut: Dār Bayrūt, 1983. Naaman, Erez. Literature and the Islamic Court: Cultural Life under al-Ṣāḥib Ibn ʿAbbād. London; New York: Routledge, 2016. Pines, Shlomo. “A Tenth Century Philosophical Correspondence.” Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, 24 (1955): 103–36. Pomerantz, Maurice A. “An Epic Hero in the Maqāmāt?: Popular and Elite Literature in the 8th/14th Century,” Annales Islamologiques 49 (2015): 99–114. Al-Rāzī, Abū Bakr. Rasāʾil falsafiyya. Edited by Paul Kraus. Cairo: Jāmi ʿat Fuʾād al-Awwal, Kullīyyat al-Ādāb, 1939. Al-Ṣafadī, Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn ibn Aybak. Al-Wāfī bi-l-wafayāt. 30 vols. Beirut; Wiesbaden; Berlin: Franz Steiner; Klaus Schwarz, 1931–2010. Ṣaqr, Sayyid Aḥmad. Sharḥ dīwān ʿAlqamat al-faḥl. Cairo: al-Maṭbaʿah al-Maḥmūdiyyah, 1935.
306
306
Bibliography Sayyid, Ayman Fuʾād. “Les marques de possession sur les manuscrits et la reconstitution des anciens fonds de manuscrits arabes.” Manuscripta Orientalia 9 (2003): 14–23. Al-Sijistānī, Abū Sulaymān. Muntakhab Ṣīwān al-ḥikmah wa-thalāth rasāʾil. Edited by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Badawī. Tehran: Bunyād-i Farhang-i Īrān, 1974. Simplicius. On Aristotle Categories 1–4. Translated by Michael Chase. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003. Stoetzer, W. “Ziḥāf.” In Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs. Brill Online. Al-Suyūṭī, Jalāl al-Dīn. Al-Muzhir fī ʿulūm al-lughah wa-anwāʿihā. Edited by Muḥammad Aḥmad Jād al-Mawlā, Muḥammad Abū l-Faḍl Ibrāhīm, and ʿAlī Muḥammad al-Bajāwī. 2 vols. Saida: al-Maktabah al-ʿAṣrīyyah, 1986. Swain, Simon, ed. Seeing the Face, Seeing the Soul: Polemon’s Physiognomy from Classical Antiquity to Medieval Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Swain, Simon. Economy, Family, and Society from Rome to Islam: A Critical Edition, English Translation, and Study of Bryson’s Management of the Estate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Swanton, Christine. Virtue Ethics: A Pluralistic View. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Talib, Adam. “Caricature and Obscenity in Mujūn Poetry and African-American Women’s Hip Hop.” In The Rude, the Bad and the Bawdy : Essays in Honour of Professor Geert Jan van Gelder. Edited by Adam Talib, Marlé Hammond, and Arie Schippers, 276–98. Cambridge: E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Trust, 2014. Al-Tawḥīdī, Abū Ḥāyyan. Al-Imtāʿ wa-l-muʾānasah. Edited by Aḥmad Amīn and Aḥmad al-Zayn. 3 vols. Cairo: Lajnat al-Taʾlīf wa-l-Tarjamah wa-l-Nashr, 1939–44. . Al-Baṣāʾir wa-l-dhakhāʾir. Edited by Wadād al-Qāḍī. 10 vols. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1988. Al-Tawḥīdī, Abū Ḥāyyan, and Abū ʿAlī Miskawayh. Al-Hawāmil wa-l-shawāmil. Edited by Aḥmad Amīn and al-Sayyid Aḥmad Ṣaqr. Cairo: Lajnat al-Taʾlīf wa-l-Tarjamah wa-lNashr, 1951. . Il libro dei cammelli errabondi e di quelli che li radunano. Translated by Lidia Bettini. Venice: Ca’ Foscari, 2017. Wakelnig, Elvira, ed. and trans. A Philosophy Reader from the Circle of Miskawayh. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Yāqūt ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḥamawī. Muʿjam al-udabāʾ: Irshād al-arīb ilā maʿrifat al-adīb. Edited by Iḥsān ʿAbbās. 7 vols. Beirut: Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī, 1993.
307
307
Further Reading ʿAbbās, Iḥsān. Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī. Beirut: Dār Bayrūt, 1956. Bergé, Marc. Pour un humanisme vécu: Essai sur la personnalité morale et intellectuelle d ʾAbū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī. Damascus: Institut francais de Damas, 1979. . “Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī.” In ʿAbbāsid Belles-Lettres, edited by Julia Ashtiany, T. M. Johnstone, J. D. Latham, R. B. Serjeant, and G. Rex Smith, 112–24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Endress, Gerhard. “The Integration of Philosophical Traditions in Islamic Society in the 4th/10th Century: Tawḥīdī and al-Siğistānī.” In Philosophy in the Islamic World, Vol. 1: 8th–10th Centuries, translated by Rotraud Hansberger, edited by Ulrich Rudolph, Rotraud Hansberger, and Peter Adamson, 272–304. Leiden: Brill, 2017. . “Ancient Ethical Traditions for Islamic Society: Abū ʿAlī Miskawayh.” In Philosophy in the Islamic World, Vol. 1: 8th–10th Centuries, translated by Rotraud Hansberger, edited by Ulrich Rudolph, Rotraud Hansberger, and Peter Adamson, 304–44. Leiden: Brill, 2017. Fakhry, Majid. “Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad Miskawayh (d. 1030), Chief Moral Philosopher of Islam.” In Ethical Theories in Islam. 2nd ed. Leiden: Brill, 1994. Al-Kīlānī, Ibrāhīm. Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī. Cairo: Dār al-Maʿārif, 1957. Kraemer, Joel L. Philosophy in the Renaissance of Islam. Leiden: Brill, 1986. Leaman, Oliver. “Islamic Humanism in the Fourth/Tenth Century.” In History of Islamic Philosophy, edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman, 155–61. London: Routledge, 1996. . “Ibn Miskawayh.” In History of Islamic Philosophy, edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman, 252–57. London: Routledge, 1996. Rowson, Everett K. “The Philosopher as Litterateur: Al-Tawḥīdī and His Predecessors.” Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften, 6 (1990): 50–92. Stern, Samuel M. “Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill Online.
ʿUmar, Fāʾiz Ṭāhā. Al-Ẓamaʾ: Dirāsah fī asʾilat al-Tawḥīdī, al-Ḥawāmil. Baghdad: Dār al-Shuʾūn al-Thaqāfiyyah al-ʿĀmmah, 2007.
308
308
Index ʿAbbād ibn Sulaymān, 296n27
anxiety, §§70.1–2, §85.2; reason why people
Abū ʿAlī Miskawayh. See Miskawayh
with shameful secrets experience,
Abū Ayyūb al-Anṣārī, §83.1
§104.1; reason why people respond
Abū Bakr, §83.1
differently to, §121.1
Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā
apparition (ṭayf), §§140.1–2
al-Rāzī. See Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī
appetite(s) (shahwah), §71.2, §79.2, §79.4, §85.2, §88.7, §92.4, §95.2, §95.4, §96.3,
Abū Bishr Mattā ibn Yūnus, §114.1, 296n25 Abū Ḥanīfah, §153.5
§138.1, §143.2, §151.2, §153.1, §154.1 Arabs, §83.4, §86.1, §107.1, §113.1, §§115.1–2,
Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī, §121.1, 295n8, 296n23, 296n25, 297n38, 298n56
§§124.2–3, §134.1, §158.1, §158.4 Aristotle, §66.4, §70.2, §131.2, §159.3, 295n1,
Abū l-ʿIbar, §123.1
295n3, 296n27, 297n36, 297n39
Abū ʿĪsā al-Warrāq, §88.1
arithmetic, §147.4, §153.5
Abū Saʿīd al-Ḥaṣīrī, §88.1
arrogance, §134.1; why the devout are
Abū Sulaymān al-Sijistānī, 298n48
susceptible to, §136.2
Abū Tammām, §123.2, §142.2, 296n19
ascetics, §103.2, §103.4
Abū ʿUthmān al-Jāḥiẓ. See al-Jāḥiẓ
astrology, §158.3
Abū ʿUthmān al-Nahdī, §94.1
augury, §83.1, §83.4, §158.4
Abū Yūsuf al-Kindī. See al-Kindī
avarice, §137.3
Abū Zayd al-Balkhī, §127.1, §149.1
ʿādah. See custom, habit
beauty, §75.1, §75.3, §103.5; reason why
affectation, §67.2
the imagination cannot represent the
age, §75.3, §91.1, §96.1, §135.1, §175.2
highest, §§98.1–3
Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, §§148.1–2, §150.1, §152.1, 297n46
black bile (sawdāʾ ), §87.2, §121.3 black people, §87.1
alchemy, §§151.1–3
blind desire(s), §78.2, §84.2, §128.3, §143.2,
ʿĀmir ibn al-Ẓarib, §113.1
§151.4, §153.1
anatomy, §100.2
brain, §§72.1–2, §79.2, §86.3, §100.2, §139.2,
angels, §90.2, §92.3, §163.3; proof of
§140.2
existence, §§172.1–3
al-Buḥturī, §123.1
anger (ghaḍab), §71.2, §84.2, §85.2, §93.4, §§95.2–3, §107.2, §§117.1–2, §134.1, §136.1
buildings, reason why they fall to ruin when uninhabited, §§110.1–2 Byzantines, §81.2, §86.1
309
309
Index cause, §67.2, §70.2, §71.2, §80.2, §81.2,
craft(s) (ṣināʿah), §83.2, §93.3, §103.5,
§82.2, §83.3, §§85.2–3, §87.2, §90.2,
§116.2, §116.4, §119.2, §124.3, §132.2,
§90.4, §90.9, §91.1, §93.2, §93.4,
§148.2, §151.3, §§154.2–3, §158.3, §162.3,
§94.1, §96.2, §98.2, §104.2, §§110.1–2,
§162.5
§112.1, §112.3, §113.1, §§115.1–2, §119.1,
custom (ʿādah), §67.2, §81.2, §120.3,
§129.2, §130.1, §130.3, §131.1, §134.2,
§§147.2–3, §§147.6–8, §153.4
§136.1, §§145.1–2, §147.2, §155.2, §158.2, §§159.2–3, §§161.1–2, §165.2, §170.2,
death, §74.1, §74.3, §85.3, §93.4, §§96.1–2,
§§174.2–3; whether God created the
§99.2, §107.1, §109.2, §147.3, §147.5,
world for a, §122.2, §§133.1–2
§147.7, §153.1, §156.2
celestial sphere (falak), §68.2, §86.3, §91.1, §118.2, §158.3, §165.2, §167.2, §170.2, §173.2
declarations of pedigree, purpose of, §107.1, §107.3 defect(s) (radhīlah), §70.2, §83.4, §95.4,
certainty, §83.1, §§128.1–2, §130.3, §131.1, §145.3, §151.1, §175.2
§124.3, §136.2 definition (ḥadd), §169.2
character trait(s) (khuluq), §78.2, §85.2, §86.3, §111.2, §141.2, §156.2, §78.2
delegation (divine) (tafwīḍ), §90.9 deliberation (rawiyyah), §90.6, §90.10,
character, §71.2, §75.2, §78.2, §§86.2–3,
§94.3, §126.2, §153.5
§153.1, §156.3, §164.3; influence of
demonstration (burhān), §130.3, §132.2
companions on, §66.1–4
description (rasm), §162.4
chess, §88.3, §§119.1–2, §121.2
dialectical theologian, §69.1, §§114.1–2,
choice (ikhtiyār), §67.1, §73.2, §74.1, §74.3, §§88.8–9, §§90.1–3, §§90.6–10, §94.3, §104.2, §126.2, §134.1, §154.2, §158.4, §163.2
§130.1, §131.1, §151.3, §153.2, §§160.1–2, §173.2 disposition (hayʾah), §70.1, §77.2, §80.2, §81.2, §83.4, §111.2, §123.1, §124.3, §136.2,
coincidence, §89.1; and the concept of possibility, §131.1
§141.2, §143.2, §§147.2–3, §147.8, §151.1, §153.5
common sense (al-ḥiss al-mushtarak), §169.2
divination, §§83.1–2, §§158.1–4 dreams, §140.2, §169.2
compulsion (jabr), §83.1, §§90.1–2, §§90.7–9
East Africans, §87.3
constitutive difference (faṣl muqawwim), §133.2
elemental mixture (mīzāj), §73.2, §78.2, §80.2
courage, §70.2, §80.1, §§87.3–4, §95.3, §107.3, §119.2
elements, natural (arkān, ʿanāṣir, uṣṭuqusāt), §66.2, §§68.1–2, §68.4,
cowardice, §70.2
§74.2, §82.2, §§86.2–3, §90.3, §§90.7– 10, §91.2, §92.3, §93.1, §§96.3–4, §98.3,
310
310
Index elements, natural (cont.), §103.3, §108.2,
forms (cont.), §90.8, §91.3, §§92.2–4,
§112.2, §113.2, §116.2, §117.2, §122.2,
§93.2, §97.3, §§98.1–3, §101.2, §102.2,
§124.3, §133.2, §134.1, §143.1, §150.3,
§103.5, §§108.2–3, §114.2, §§116.1–2,
§158.3, §162.4, §164.3, §166.2, §167.2,
§121.4, §123.2, §124.3, §§130.2–3, §132.2,
§171.2, §173.2
§§135.1–2, §137.3, §139.3, §§140.1–2,
eloquence, §88.2, §§126.1–2
§141.1, §142.2, §145.2, §150.2, §154.2,
embarrassment, §144.1, §§145.2–3
§§156.2–3, §158.2, §158.4, §§159.2–3,
eminence, §75.2, §78.1, §105.2; reason for
§§162.4–5, §§163.3–4, §164.2, §166.2,
human love of, §§79.1–4
§169.2, §175.2; to acquire a (taṣawwara),
envy, §75.2
§67.2, §§160.2–3
ethical trait or characteristic (khuluq), §85.2, §§95.2–3, §107.1
friend(s), §74.3, §88.3, §90.4, §113.1, §120.3, §172.3; reason for difficulty of forming,
ethically good, 295n6; nature of and
§§76.1–2
relation to religious Law, §§147.1–3,
friendship, §113.1
§§147.5–8; reason for unbelievers’
future, §83.2, §153.3, §§158.2–3, 295n6,
performance of what is, §§77.1–2;
297n39; truth value of statements
reason why people heed preachers
concerning the, §131.2
acting so, §105.2 excellence (faḍīlah), §67.1, §68.2, §81.2, §82.2, §88.2, §106.1, §124.1, §137.3,
Galen, §71.2, §86.2, §87.2, §116.2, §175.2, 295n4, 296n20
§153.2, §154.2, §162.5, §§172.2–3. See also
generosity, §88.9, §§122.2–3, §137.3
virtue
genus (jins), §133.2, §142.2, §170.2 geometry, §75.3, §144.2, §147.4, §153.5
facial hair, as an indication of character, §§73.1–2
gluttony, §91.4 God, §71.2, §§77.1–2, §§88.1–2, §88.9,
al-Faḍl ibn Yaḥyā, §137.1
§§90.9–10, §92.3, §94.1, §94.4,
fame, §67.2
§102.2, §115.2, §134.1, §136.1, §150.2,
familiarity, §97.2
§151.3, §153.1, §§153.3–4, §§172.2–3,
fancy (wahm), §140.2, §146.2, §164.3
§173.2; application of attributes and
fear, §77.1, §98.1, §99.2, §100.0, §103.4,
linguistic terms to, §§122.1–3, 296n29,
§136.2, §138.2, §144.2, §§145.2–3, §162.5;
296n31; God-fearing, §81.1, §153.1; law
of death, §74.3; why it is experienced
handed down by, §§147.1–2; names
in the absence of anything fearful,
and attributes of, §69.1; whether He
§§70.1–2
perceived the world during its non-
form(s) (ṣūrah), §§66.2–4, §§68.2–4, §71.2,
existence, §139.1, §139.3; whether He
§§75.2–3, §81.2, §83.1, §84.2, §85.3,
created the world for a cause, §122.2,
§86.3, §88.1, §§88.5–10, §§90.3–4,
§§133.1–2
311
311
Index grammar, §124.3, §144.2; analogical
human being(s), nature of (cont.), §141.2,
reasoning and, §114.2, §132.1
§§143.1–2, §144.2, §147.2, §162.2;
great-spirited, §141.2
reasons for upright posture of, §127.1;
greed, §91.4; greedy, §137.3
specific perfection of, §§88.5–10, §91.3,
grief, §85.2, §93.4, §§99.1–2, §121.1,
§§92.2–4, §150.2
§§155.2–3; reason why intelligent people experience greater, §§87.1–2
humoral mixture (mīzāj), §70.2, §74.1, §§87.1–2, §91.2, §93.4, §94.2, §96.2, §98.2, §99.2, §111.2, §121.3, §154.3,
habit (ʿādah), §71.2, §79.3, §86.3, §§120.3–
§163.2, §164.3
4, §121.4, §123.1, §156.1, §156.3 Hārūn al-Rashīd. See al-Rashīd
Ibn al-ʿAmīd, §162.1
heart, §70.1, §71.2, §72.2, §74.1, §79.2,
Ibn al-Khalīl, §99.1
§86.3, §§87.3–4, §88.1, §93.4, §98.1,
Ibn Mujāhid, §88.2
§99.2, §§105.1–2, §112.1, §115.1, §121.1,
Ibn al-Rāwandī, §88.1
§128.2, §140.1, §147.7, §§155.2–3, §156.2,
Ibn Sālim al-Baṣrī, ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad,
296n25
§139.1, 297n42
home(s), §91.1, §91.4, §95.1 §137.1; reason for intensification of longing for upon approach of, §112.1
Ibn Sīnā. See Avicenna imagination (khayāl, wahm), §97.3, §§98.1–3, §119.2, §120.1, §122.2, §139.2,
honor, §75.1, §79.2, §79.4, §81.2, §84.2, §92.4, §106.1, §107.2, §137.3, §138.2,
§140.2, §146.2, §§160.2–3, §§164.2–3, §169.2, §175.2
§154.2; love of, §136.2, §§137.3–5; reason
Imruʾ al-Qays, §88.10
why all people do not command the
Indians, §81.2, §86.1
same degree of, §§82.1–2; reason why
injustice, §74.3, §75.2, §81.2, §162.5
it derives from forebears rather than
innate heat (ḥarārah gharīziyyah), §86.2,
offspring, §80.1; why some people
§§87.3–4, §96.4 intellect(s) (ʿaql), §66.4, §68.3, §98.1,
eschew, §§141.1–2 hope, §76.1, §82.2, §§83.3–4, §88.3, §107.3, §137.2, §147.1, §151.1, §151.4; relation to wishing and anticipation, §§94.1–4 human beings, §66.2, §70.2, §71.2, §74.2, §85.2, §90.2, §90.4, §90.7, §90.10,
§§113.1–2, §139.2, §145.1, §163.3, §164.2, §172.2 intermediaries, §173.2 interpretive effort (ijtihād), §§153.3–6 Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī, §§137.1–3, 296n24
§93.2, §95.4, §96.3, §98.1, §104.2, §116.1, §§118.1–2, §125.2, §150.2, §153.3,
Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, §151.1
§163.3, §167.2, §172.3; nature of, §68.1,
Jaʿfar ibn Yaḥyā, §§137.1–3, 297n41
§68.4, §77.2, §§79.3–4, §§83.2–3, §95.2,
al-Jāḥiẓ, §86.1, §148.1, §150.1, §152.1, 297n46
§§102.1–2, §103.2, §107.2, §117.2, §123.2,
jealousy, §85.2, §§95.1–4
312
312
Index joy, §§87.1–2, §93.4, §100.1, §112.1, §137.4, §§155.2–3; reason for violent effect of sudden, §§99.1–2
likenesses, reason for human love of, §§97.1–3 liver, §79.2, §86.3
jurists, §130.1; reason for disagreements among, §§153.1–3, §153.5
logic, §114.1, §131.2, §131.2, 296n25; Book on, §128.2
justice, §88.2, §98.1, §103.2, §151.4, §153.4,
luck, §85.3 Luqmān ibn ʿĀd, §83.4
§154.2
lying, §67.2, §147.7, §§156.1–4 Khālid ibn Yazīd, §151.1 al-Kindī, Abū Yūsuf, §151.3, 298n47
Mālik ibn Anas, §153.5
king(s), §121.3, §§138.1–2; reason why people respond to moral character of, §154.1, §154.3
al-Maʾmūn, §119.1 matter, prime (hayūlā, māddah), §§66.2–4, §68.4, §90.3, §90.7, §90.9, §93.2,
knowledge, §§75.2–3, §79.2, §83.2, §88.8,
§§98.2–3, §§102.2–3, §107.3, §§108.2–3,
§90.10, §91.3, §95.1, §97.2, §98.1, §102.3,
§113.2, §127.2, §131.2, §140.2, §144.2,
§103.5, §105.2, §107.1, §§114.1–2, §115.1,
§146.2, §150.3, §160.3, §164.2, §170.2,
§119.2, §121.1, §121.4, §122.1, §122.3, §124.2, §125.2, §128.2, §§130.2–3, §139.3, §146.2, §147.1, §153.2, §153.6, §154.1,
§172.2, §175.2 medicine, §68.4, §116.2, §155.3, §161.2, §162.2
§§158.2–3, §160.3, §161.2; benefit
melancholy (mīlākhūliyyā), §87.2, §120.3
of and reason for human desire of,
memory (dhikr, tadhakkur), §164.2
§§92.1–2, §92.4; four aspects of, §159.3,
merit, §67.2, §88.7, §88.9, §137.4, §§141.1–2,
§170.2; possibility of human beings encompassing all forms of, §§116.1–3
§154.1. See also virtue meter (poetic), §§124.1–3, §142.2 misfortune, §147.7, §151.2; reason for
language, §83.3, §88.1, §115.1, §§116.1–2, §120.2, §152.2, 296n27
comforting effect of others’ sharing in one’s, §85.1, §85.3
laughter, §107.2, §175.2, §136.1; reason for
Miskawayh, Abū ʿAlī, 295n1, 295n4, 295n9,
contagiousness of, §101.1; reason for
296n20, 296n23, 297n36, 297n39,
intensity when not exhibited by the one
298n47, 298n48, 298n49, 298n56
who provokes it, §§129.1–2; reason why
mixture (mīzāj), §68.2, §78.2, §§79.2–3,
some people become a standing object
§83.4, §§86.2–3, §§87.3–4, §93.3, §94.2,
of, §78.1
§96.2, §98.3, §100.2, §§108.2–3, §155.3;
letters of the alphabet, §83.4, §93.2, §120.2, §120.4
melancholy (sawdāwī), §87.2, §155.3; sanguine (damawī), §87.2, §155.3.
lightning, §§174.1–3
See also elemental mixture; humoral mixture
313
313
Index mīzāj. See elemental mixture, humoral mixture, mixture
nature (cont.), §172.2, §173.2, 295n5 nerves, §§100.2–3, §139.2
money, §92.4, §109.1, §137.4, §153.1; blood money, §147.1, §147.8, §157.1; evolution
nonexistent, §§74.1–2, §139.1, §141.1, §§160.1–3, 297n43
of, §§162.1–6 mountains, §124.2, §167.3; purpose of, §§165.1–4
old, §96.1; why some things are better when they are, §135.1
Muḥammad, §82.1, §83.1, §83.3, §176.1, 296n26
old people, §91.1, §96.1, §175.2; reason for greater propensity to hope, §§94.1–2,
Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī, §68.2, §151.3, 298n47
§94.4; reason for people’s varying reactions when addressed as, §§84.1–2
al-Muraqqish al-aṣghar, §124.2
orphan, role of fathers versus mothers in
music, §§93.3–4, §124.2; reason for human
becoming an, §§118.1–2
response to, §155.1 Muʿtazilites, 296n29
pain, §84.1, §109.2, §§134.1–2, §141.2, §143.2, §150.2; justification of children’s
al-Nābighah al-Dhubyānī, 295n12
and animals’, §173.1; reason why well-
names, §68.4, §69.1, §§83.3–4, §91.4, §95.4,
being is experienced less acutely than,
§114.2, §§115.1–2, §122.1, §141.1, §152.2, §160.1, §167.3; reason for people’s attachment to their own, §§120.1–2,
§§100.1–3 passion (infiʿāl), §70.2, §§102.1–3, §107.3, §§113.1–2, §§140.1–2
§120.4; reason why people like some
passive effect (infiʿāl), §93.2, §139.3
and hate other, §93.2
past, §107.1, §158.2
nations, §83.4, §87.2, §158.4; relative
patronymics, 296n26; reason for people’s
excellence of different, §86.1, §86.3
attachment to their own, §120.1
natural constitution (fiṭrah), §77.2, §123.2
perception, §83.4, §90.1, §97.3, §169.1,
natural disposition (ṭabʿ ), §82.1, §83.4, §124.3, §141.2, §143.2, §§147.2–3, §148.2
§174.2; intellectual versus sensory, §§139.2–3
natural elements (ṭabāʾiʿ ), §96.3
Persians, §81.2, §86.1, §130.2
nature (ṭabī ʿah), §§66.2–3, §§68.2–3, §70.2,
philosophy, §68.3, §74.2, §100.4, §116.2,
§71.2, §78.2, §§79.1–2, §§83.2–3, §85.3,
§116.4
§90.2, §90.6, §92.1, §94.2, §§98.1–2,
physiognomy, §73.2, §78.2
§102.3, §103.2, §104.2, §111.1, §112.2,
place, §66.4, §112.2, §129.2, §167.2
§113.2, §118.2, §§120.1–3, §121.1, §§124.1–
pleasure, §79.2, §84.2, §§88.6–9, §92.4,
3, §128.3, §131.2, §141.2, §§147.2–4,
§109.2, §§137.3–4, §151.2, §154.1;
§150.3, §§151.2–4, §153.2, §154.2, §158.3,
malicious, §134.1; nature of, §134.2
§163.3, §166.3, §168.2, §170.2, §171.2,
314
314
Index plants, §§88.6–7, §90.2, §§92.2–3, §102.2, §127.2, §137.4, §158.3, §163.3, §§165.2–4, §166.2, §167.2; reason why they are not generated inside animals, §§150.1–3 Plato, §66.4, §79.4, 296n27
pride, §79.2, §81.2, §107.1, §107.3, §136.1, §137.3 prohibitions, §121.1; reason for oppressiveness of, §§143.1–2 prophet(s), prophecy, §67.2, §81.2, §102.3,
poetry, §121.4, §§124.1–3, §142.2, §144.2; Early Arabic, 296n33
§128.3, §134.1, §151.3, §158.2 proportional relation (nisbah), §§93.2–3,
political association (madaniyyah), §103.2, §162.4
§124.2 prose, merit compared with poetry,
power (quwwah), §70.2, §71.2, §78.2, §79.3, §81.1, §90.4, §§90.9–10, §92.4,
§§142.1–2 prosody (ʿarūḍ), §124.1, §124.3
§93.3, §§96.3–4, §103.2, §106.1, §107.2, §108.2, §113.2, §119.1, §122.1,
Qurʾan, §153.3, §153.6, §172.2
§122.3, §141.2, §145.3, §147.6, §150.2, §151.3, §154.3, §156.2, §158.2, §160.3,
al-Rashīd, Hārūn, §137.1, 297n41
§164.3, §166.3, §169.2; appetitive
reason (ʿaql), §71.2, §74.1, §74.3, §79.4,
(quwwah shahwiyyah), §90.4,
§80.2, §82.1, §88.5, §§88.7–9, §90.1,
§95.4, §154.2; beastly, §79.2, §79.4;
§90.10, §91.3, §97.3, §103.4, §§121.2–3,
deliberative, §119.2; desiderative
§122.3, §123.2, §128.3, §130.2, §139.2,
(quwwah nizāʿiyyah), §91.2, §91.4;
§141.2, §172.2, §173.1; ethical principles
“divine,” §79.2, §79.4, §123.2, §139.2,
and content of, §§77.1–2, §§147.1–8;
§162.2; of imagination, imaginative
people possessed of, §67.1, §136.2,
(quwwat al-khayāl, al-quwwah
§139.3, §154.1, §162.2. See also power,
al-mutakhayyilah), §98.1, §140.2,
“divine”
§§164.2–3, §169.2; irascible (quwwah
religious Law, §74.3, §78.2, §83.1, §121.2,
ghaḍabiyyah), §79.2, §79.4, §90.4,
§122.3, §153.2, §154.2; possibility of
§95.3, §§107.2–3, §154.2; of memory
conflicting with reason, §§147.1–8;
(quwwat al-dhikr, al-quwwah
relation to natural disposition, §77.2;
al-dhākirah), §164.2; rational (quwwa
relation of reason-based moral
nāṭiqah), §79.2, §90.4, §92.2, §94.2
principles to religious commands,
praise, §75.1, §95.1, §95.4
§§77.1–2
preachers, reason why we are more likely to heed those who practice what they preach, §§105.1–2; reason why they become tongue-tied, §144.1; reason
reticence, reason for prevalence in king’s entourage, §§138.1–2 rhetoric, §124.3; rhetorical, §86.2, §113.2, 297n36
why one shares their embarrassment, §§145.1–3
315
315
Index ruling, §95.2, §145.1, §§147.3–5; whether
soul (cont.), nature of, §§66.2–4, §§83.3–4,
rare instances attract a, §§130.1–3,
§86.2, §§93.2–4, §94.2, §97.3, §99.2,
§132.2; reason for conflicts between
§104.2, §§107.2–3, §111.2, §118.2,
legal rulings, §153.1, §§153.3–6
§144.2, §145.3, §146.2, §154.2, §155.2, §172.2; objective of, §§68.1–4, §111.1,
sea, §70.2, §79.4, §103.3, §115.1, §137.2,
§159.3, §161.2; rational (nafs nāṭiqah),
§165.3, 297n39; reason for its location,
§68.4, §74.2, §79.2, §86.2, §104.2,
§167.1, §167.3, 298n53; reason for
§§137.4–5, §150.2, §154.2; recollection
saltiness of its water, §168.1
of knowledge after disembodiment,
secret(s), §67.1, §77.1, §85.1, §92.1, §99.1,
§§164.1–3; reason for distinction
§118.1, §125.1, §130.1, §134.1, §135.1,
between three souls, §§166.1–3; time
§141.1, §145.1; divulgence of, §138.2
of attachment to body, §§163.1–4;
self-love, §75.2
vegetative (nafs nabātiyyah), §163.3,
sensory perception, visual versus
§166.2 species (nawʿ ), §88.5, §§91.3–4, §92.3,
imaginary, §139.2 shame, §94.1, §104.1, §§145.1–3
§103.3, §108.2, §133.2, §142.2, §159.2,
al-Shāfiʿī, §153.5
§166.2, §170.2
short people, character of, §73.1
speech, §66.4, §67.1, §83.3, §114.1, §123.1,
singing, §78.1, §155.1
§126.2, §142.2, §148.2, 296n25
sleep, §101.2, §121.2, §§140.1–2, §169.1
stable state (malakah), §66.2, §86.2
small-headed people, §72.1
substance (jawhar), §72.2, §74.2, §83.1,
snow, §110.2, §§165.2–3; why it does not come in summer, §§171.1–2
§88.6, §102.3, §120.1, §137.2, §140.2, §144.2, §147.3, §§150.2–3, §151.1, §151.3,
soul (nafs), §§66.1–2, §77.1, §78.2, §§85.1–2,
§§162.4–5, §163.2, §§164.2–3, §172.2
§92.1, §93.2, §94.2, §98.1, §103.5, §109.2,
Sufi, 297n42
§§112.1–2, §120.1, §121.2, §121.4, §124.2,
suicide, §74.3
§125.2, §136.2, §140.2, §145.2, §149.1, §151.2, §151.4, §153.5, §154.1, §§156.2–3,
tall people, character of, §73.1
§158.2, §158.4, §160.3, §161.2, 295n4;
al-Ṭarmī, §123.1
animal, §150.2, §163.3, §166.2; beastly
al-Tawḥīdī. See Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī
(nafs bahīmiyyah), §71.2, §79.4, §90.2,
temperance, §154.2
§137.4; essential motion of, § 149.2,
Thābit ibn Qurrah, §165.4, 298n52
§155.3; essential oneness of, §101.2,
thunder, §§174.1–3
§145.2, §166.2; growing (nafs nāmiyah),
time, §90.3, §101.2, §121.2, §122.2, §144.2,
§163.3; irascible (nafs ghaḍabiyyah),
§147.2, §147.4, §147.6, §153.4, §§174.2–3,
§79.4, §137.4; love of one’s own, §70.2,
§175.2
§§75.2–3;
316
316
Index travel, reason for people’s differential longing for, §91.1
world (cont.), §105.2, §113.2, §116.1, §131.1, §§133.1–2, §135.2, §139.1, §143.1,
treachery, §117.2
§151.2, §153.3, §155.2, §158.3, §162.4,
Turks, §86.1
§165.4, §167.3, §172.3, §173.2; causes of flourishing or ruin of the, §§103.1–5;
virtue, §67.2, §70.2, §84.2, §§86.1–3, §131.2,
reason for human love of the, §§102.1–3
§136.2, §§137.4–5, §141.2, §142.2. See also
worldly goods, §87.1, §105.2, §134.2, §147.6;
excellence
reason why merit does not coincide
well-being, reason why it is oppressive, §134.1; reason why we do not sense it as
with, §§88.1–10 wounds, §85.3
acutely as pain, §§100.1–2 wisdom, §68.3, §79.2, §§82.1–2, §83.4,
young people, §66.4, §§84.1–2, §156.4;
§88.1, §102.3, §105.1, §106.1, §114.1,
reason why their rate of death is higher
§147.1, §150.2, §167.2
than old people, §96.1
wonder, §83.1, §86.2, §96.2, §98.1, §107.1, §119.1, §145.1
volatility of temper, §136.1
world, §67.2, §§68.1–3, §82.1, §83.2, §86.3, §88.4, §88.8, §90.1, §91.1, §92.3, §93.1,
317
317
About the NYU Abu Dhabi Institute
The Library of Arabic Literature is supported by a grant from the NYU Abu Dhabi Institute, a major hub of intellectual and creative activity and advanced research. The Institute hosts academic conferences, workshops, lectures, film series, performances, and other public programs directed both to audiences within the UAE and to the worldwide academic and research community. It is a center of the scholarly community for Abu Dhabi, bringing together faculty and researchers from institutions of higher learning throughout the region. NYU Abu Dhabi, through the NYU Abu Dhabi Institute, is a world-class center of cutting-edge research, scholarship, and cultural activity. The Institute creates singular opportunities for leading researchers from across the arts, humanities, social sciences, sciences, engineering, and the professions to carry out creative scholarship and conduct research on issues of major disciplinary, multidisciplinary, and global significance.
318
318
About the Typefaces The Arabic body text is set in DecoType Naskh, designed by Thomas Milo and Mirjam Somers, based on an analysis of five centuries of Ottoman manuscript practice. The exceptionally legible result is the first and only typeface in a style that fully implements the principles of script grammar (qawāʿid al-khaṭṭ). The Arabic footnote text is set in DecoType Emiri, drawn by Mirjam Somers, based on the metal typeface in the naskh style that was cut for the 1924 Cairo edition of the Qurʾan. Both Arabic typefaces in this series are controlled by a dedicated font layout engine. ACE, the Arabic Calligraphic Engine, invented by Peter Somers, Thomas Milo, and Mirjam Somers of DecoType, first operational in 1985, pioneered the principle followed by later smart font layout technologies such as OpenType, which is used for all other typefaces in this series. The Arabic text was set with WinSoft Tasmeem, a sophisticated user interface for DecoType ACE inside Adobe InDesign. Tasmeem was conceived and created by Thomas Milo (DecoType) and Pascal Rubini (WinSoft) in 2005. The English text is set in Adobe Text, a new and versatile text typeface family designed by Robert Slimbach for Western (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) typesetting. Its workhorse qualities make it perfect for a wide variety of applications, especially for longer passages of text where legibility and economy are important. Adobe Text bridges the gap between calligraphic Renaissance types of the 15th and 16th centuries and high-contrast Modern styles of the 18th century, taking many of its design cues from early post-Renaissance Baroque transitional types cut by designers such as Christoffel van Dijck, Nicolaus Kis, and William Caslon. While grounded in classical form, Adobe Text is also a statement of contemporary utilitarian design, well suited to a wide variety of print and on-screen applications.
319
319
Titles Published by the Library of Arabic Literature For more details on individual titles, visit www.libraryofarabicliterature.org Classical Arabic Literature: A Library of Arabic Literature Anthology Selected and translated by Geert Jan van Gelder (2012) A Treasury of Virtues: Sayings, Sermons, and Teachings of ʿAlī, by al-Qāḍī al-Quḍāʿī, with the One Hundred Proverbs attributed to al-Jāḥiẓ Edited and translated by Tahera Qutbuddin (2013) The Epistle on Legal Theory, by al-Shāfiʿī Edited and translated by Joseph E. Lowry (2013) Leg over Leg, by Aḥmad Fāris al-Shidyāq Edited and translated by Humphrey Davies (4 volumes; 2013–14) Virtues of the Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, by Ibn al-Jawzī Edited and translated by Michael Cooperson (2 volumes; 2013–15) The Epistle of Forgiveness, by Abū l-ʿAlāʾ al-Maʿarrī Edited and translated by Geert Jan van Gelder and Gregor Schoeler (2 volumes; 2013–14) The Principles of Sufism, by ʿĀʾishah al-Bāʿūniyyah Edited and translated by Th. Emil Homerin (2014) The Expeditions: An Early Biography of Muḥammad, by Maʿmar ibn Rāshid Edited and translated by Sean W. Anthony (2014) Two Arabic Travel Books Accounts of China and India, by Abū Zayd al-Sīrāfī Edited and translated by Tim Mackintosh-Smith (2014) Mission to the Volga, by Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān Edited and translated by James Montgomery (2014) Disagreements of the Jurists: A Manual of Islamic Legal Theory, by al-Qāḍī al-Nuʿmān Edited and translated by Devin J. Stewart (2015)
320
320
Titles Published by the Library of Arabic Literature
Consorts of the Caliphs: Women and the Court of Baghdad, by Ibn al-Sāʿī Edited by Shawkat M. Toorawa and translated by the Editors of the Library of Arabic Literature (2015) What ʿĪsā ibn Hishām Told Us, by Muḥammad al-Muwayliḥī Edited and translated by Roger Allen (2 volumes; 2015) The Life and Times of Abū Tammām, by Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā al-Ṣūlī Edited and translated by Beatrice Gruendler (2015) The Sword of Ambition: Bureaucratic Rivalry in Medieval Egypt, by ʿUthmān ibn Ibrāhīm al-Nābulusī Edited and translated by Luke Yarbrough (2016) Brains Confounded by the Ode of Abū Shādūf Expounded, by Yūsuf al-Shirbīnī Edited and translated by Humphrey Davies (2 volumes; 2016) Light in the Heavens: Sayings of the Prophet Muḥammad, by al-Qāḍī al-Quḍāʿī Edited and translated by Tahera Qutbuddin (2016) Risible Rhymes, by Muḥammad ibn Maḥfūẓ al-Sanhūrī Edited and translated by Humphrey Davies (2016) A Hundred and One Nights Edited and translated by Bruce Fudge (2016) The Excellence of the Arabs, by Ibn Qutaybah Edited by James E. Montgomery and Peter Webb Translated by Sarah Bowen Savant and Peter Webb (2017) Scents and Flavors: A Syrian Cookbook Edited and translated by Charles Perry (2017) Arabian Satire: Poetry from 18th-Century Najd, by Ḥmēdān al-Shwēʿir Edited and translated by Marcel Kurpershoek (2017) In Darfur: An Account of the Sultanate and Its People, by Muḥammad ibn
ʿUmar al-Tūnisī Edited and translated by Humphrey Davies (2 volumes; 2018)
321
321
Titles Published by the Library of Arabic Literature
War Songs, by ʿAntarah ibn Shaddād Edited by James E. Montgomery Translated by James E. Montgomery with Richard Sieburth (2018) Arabian Romantic: Poems on Bedouin Life and Love, by ʿAbdallah ibn Sbayyil Edited and translated by Marcel Kurpershoek (2018) Dīwān ʿAntarah ibn Shaddād: A Literary-Historical Study By James E. Montgomery (2018) Stories of Piety and Prayer: Deliverance Follows Adversity, by Muḥassin ibn
ʿAlī al-Tanūkhī Edited and translated by Julia Bray (2019) Tajrīd sayf al-himmah li-strikhrāj mā fī dhimmat al-dhimmah: A Scholarly Edition of ʿUthmān ibn Ibrāhīm al-Nābulusī’s Text by Luke Yarbrough (2019) The Philosopher Responds: An Intellectual Correspondence from the Tenth Century, by Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī and Abū ʿAlī Miskawayh Edited by Bilal Orfali and Maurice A. Pomerantz Translated by Sophia Vasalou and James E. Montgomery (2 volumes; 2019) The Discourses: Reflections on History, Sufism, Theology, and Literature— Volume One, by al-Ḥasan al-Yūsī Edited and translated by Justin Stearns (2020)
English-only Paperbacks Leg over Leg, by Aḥmad Fāris al-Shidyāq (2 volumes; 2015) The Expeditions: An Early Biography of Muḥammad, by Maʿmar ibn Rāshid (2015) The Epistle on Legal Theory: A Translation of al-Shāfiʿī’s Risālah, by al-Shāfiʿī (2015) The Epistle of Forgiveness, by Abū l-ʿAlāʾ al-Maʿarrī (2016) The Principles of Sufism, by ʿĀʾishah al-Bāʿūniyyah (2016) A Treasury of Virtues: Sayings, Sermons, and Teachings of ʿAlī, by al-Qāḍī al-Quḍāʿī with the One Hundred Proverbs, attributed to al-Jāḥiẓ (2016) The Life of Ibn Ḥanbal, by Ibn al-Jawzī (2016)
322
322
Titles Published by the Library of Arabic Literature
Mission to the Volga, by Ibn Faḍlān (2017) Accounts of China and India, by Abū Zayd al-Sīrāfī (2017) A Hundred and One Nights (2017) Disagreements of the Jurists: A Manual of Islamic Legal Theory, by al-Qāḍī al-Nuʿmān (2017) What ʿĪsā ibn Hishām Told Us, by Muḥammad al-Muwayliḥī (2018) War Songs, by ʿAntarah ibn Shaddād (2018) The Life and Times of Abū Tammām, by Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā al-Ṣūlī (2018) The Sword of Ambition, by ʿUthmān ibn Ibrāhīm al-Nābulusī (2019) Brains Confounded by the Ode of Abū Shādūf Expounded: Volume One, by Yūsuf al-Shirbīnī (2019) Brains Confounded by the Ode of Abū Shādūf Expounded: Volume Two, by Yūsuf al-Shirbīnī and Risible Rhymes, by Muḥammad ibn Maḥfūẓ al-Sanhūrī (2019) The Excellence of the Arabs, by Ibn Qutaybah (2019) Light in the Heavens: Sayings of the Prophet Muḥammad, by al-Qāḍī al-Quḍāʿī (2019)
323
323
About the Editor–Translators Bilal Orfali is Associate Professor of Arabic Studies at the American University of Beirut. He co-edits al-Abhath Journal and Brill’s series Texts and Studies on the Qurʿan, and he is the author and editor of more than twenty books on Arabic Studies. His recent publications include The Anthologist’s Art, The Book of Noble Character, The Comfort of the Mystics, In the Shadow of Arabic, and Sufism, Black and White. Maurice A. Pomerantz is Associate Professor of Literature at New York University Abu Dhabi. He is the author of Licit Magic: The Life and Letters of al-Ṣāḥib b. ʿAbbād. Sophia Vasalou is Senior Lecturer and Birmingham Fellow in Philosophical Theology at the University of Birmingham. Her books include Moral Agents and their Deserts: The Character of Mu'tazilite Ethics, Wonder: A Grammar, and Ibn Taymiyya’s Theological Ethics. James E. Montgomery is Sir Thomas Adams’s Professor of Arabic, Fellow of Trinity Hall at the University of Cambridge, and an Executive Editor of the Library of Arabic Literature. His latest publications are Loss Sings, a collaboration with the celebrated Scottish artist Alison Watt, and Dīwān ʿAntarah ibn Shaddād: A Literary-Historical Study. He is preparing a translation of poems by al-Mutanabbī for Archipelago Books.
324
324