The Persistent Writer: How to Thrive in your College Writing Class [first ed.] 9781735484563

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Shirley Kahlert, Ph.D.

Shirley Kahlert, P h.D.

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First Edition E-book ISBN: 978-1-7354845-6-3

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Module 1: “Academic Language is No One’s Mother Tongue”: Finding Your Voice in College Writing 1.1 Why use academic discourse and style? We develop new linguistic skills as we study to become part of an academic discipline and eventually our profession.These communities use specific professional conventions in written work. 1.2 We all belong to several language communities. College writing classes help us enter the academic language community. We already belong to several linguistic communities which speak and write with varied degrees of formality.We are more comfortable in the most familiar communities.We join an academic language community by learning the writing conventions of that community. 1.2.1 Professional writers adjust their style to the demands of their audiences. Professional writers are also aware of when they adjust their writing to the language community of their audience. 1.2.2 The rhetorical triangle shows the relationship between the “I” of the writer, the “it” of the subject matter, and the “you of the audience. All writers must consider the relationship between their subject matter, their audience, and themselves. 1.3 Bilingual speakers have a linguistic advantage. Bilingual students have a linguistic advantage since they are likely to be more sensitive to their linguistic environment. Anyone can start to become bilingual by taking classes in foreign languages.

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1.4 Do you feel like a linguistic outsider? “Imposter syndrome” describes the feelings students and teachers experience when they don’t feel they have earned their achievement. It can limit their growth in their profession. Imposter syndrome can be controlled. 1.5 Developing a growth mindset is the key to improvement. Developing a growth mindset, the power of believing a person can improve, helps students engage more deeply in their education and their lives.

Module 2:Taking Control of Academic Time 2.1 Does procrastination create stress in your life? Although it is human nature to procrastinate, unchecked procrastination may have severe consequences for a college student.You can control procrastination by making a commitment to manage your time by planning your schedule before you register for classes.You can lay out a schedule by understanding your workload and using both high-tech (digital calendars and scheduling apps) and low-tech planners to manage your time. 2.2 Make a commitment to managing your time. Reduce your stress by taking control of how you manage your time. 2.3 Start planning your how you will use time as early as possible. Don’t wait. Start planning your time at the beginning of the semester, or better, before the semester begins. Every minute counts. 2.4 Complete a cost cost-benefits analysis to decide if college is the right choice for you. Many businesses routinely use cost cost-benefit analyses to make better decisions. In a costs-benefits analysis about your choice to go to college, you would weigh the costs—money, time, and loss of enjoyment against the benefits— the potential for better job opportunities, higher pay, and a more solid future.

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2.5 Understanding the Carnegie unit helps you understand your academic workload. Calculating Carnegie units, or the number of units you earn for each class, helps you better manage your schedule with a weekly plan. One Carnegie unit equals at least three hours of study/prep time, so to understand your workload multiply the number of units per class by three or more, depending on the class. 2.6 Go low tech: a paper planning calendar or a calendar whiteboard You may be more likely to pay attention to your schedule on a whiteboard in your bedroom or a calendar on the refrigerator, something that you will see every day. Keep your schedule where you will notice it. 2.7 Getting enough sleep is essential to college success. Getting enough sleep is essential to college success because students who sleep less usually earn lower grades and are more likely to drop out. 2.8 Set priorities: admit you are not a superhero. Establishing priorities can help you avoid conflicts about time so that you can work more efficiently. 2.9 Grit, hope, and 10,000 hours: maintain productive attitudes about time and achievement. Mastery requires lots of time. Developing positive attitudes like grit, a growth mindset, a sense of purpose, and interest in your subject matter can help motivate you when you don’t feel like working. 2.9.1 Grit is important. Develop your grit to help you reach your goals. 2.9.2 Grit is made from hope, purpose, interest. and practice. Cultivate your grit by developing a growth mindset, finding purpose, cultivating your interests, and making an effort to practice. 2.9.3 Mastery: practice is essential. Practice is essential to develop skills, including reading, writing, and thinking.

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2.10 Manage your time demands in writing courses. Writing courses often demand more time for each assignment than other classes. Getting started early gives you more time for reflecting on your subject. 2.11 Don’t let setbacks derail your progress. Car accident? Broken leg? Contact your professor and ask for help. 2.12 Contact your professor professionally and politely. When setbacks happen, know how and where to contact your professor. Do so professionally and politely. 2.13 Take control of stress. Develop courage and resilience in response to stress. Know where to find help, and don’t be afraid to ask for it. 2.14 Connect with others to find support. College is a great place to connect with other students and begin friendships, some of which may last for a lifetime. 2.15 Find support by hunting for treasure on your campus. Knowing how to find campus resources is the first step in getting help.

Module 3: Before you write: finding your frame of mind 3.1. What if? Find your growth mindset before you sit down to write Developing a growth mindset makes it easier to start writing because “mistakes” become information for revision. 3.2 Some thinking stops writing: assuming, overcomplicating, rushing, and self-doubt. Fixed A fixed mindsets can make it almost impossible to start writing a paper; overcoming a limiting mindset is the first step to writing well.

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3.3 Perfectionism may slam on the brakes in your writing process Perfectionism, a fixed mindset, often leads to writer’s block; allowing yourself to write a less- thanperfect first draft is the best way to get started. 3.4 Developing a growth mindset may change the way you think about your college writing assignments. Developing a growth mindset helps you understand the difference between feedback as information and feedback as criticism. 3.5 Understanding if/then thinking helps you make good time management choices. Making good choices about time management is the first step to writing well. 3.6 Delaying gratification helps you stay focused in an instant-gratification world, Finding strategies for staying focused on writing allows us to effectively progress effectively with a challenging assignment. 3.7 Discover the joy of writing by finding intrinsic motivation and moving toward a flow state Finding intrinsic motivation helps you move to a “flow state,” the best way of all. 3.8 Find motivation within. Looking for motivation outside systems of rewards and punishment systems helps you see your writing in the larger context of your life and career. 3.9 When you get stuck, find a way to persist. Anyone can get stuck on a writing assignment. Develop a strategy for persevering. 3.10 Understand the “why” of your college writing assignments. Colleges and universities have set forth strict standards for writing courses based on what they believe students need to know to be successful college writers. Understanding the standards set forthoutlined in student learning outcomes and student learning objectives helps you better understand why your professor made the assignment and what you may expect to learn from completing it.

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3.11 Write with a purpose. Each writing assignment has a specific purpose. Avoid assuming that all writing assignments are the same. Carefully read and review your writing assignment to be sure you understand the directions. 3.12 Understand the language of your assignment. Different assignments ask you to do different tasks so that you can develop a wide range of writing and critical thinking skills. Be sure you understand the purpose of your assignment before you begin to write. 3.13 Paper requirements may differ from academic discipline to discipline. Don’t panic if you get stuck on a writing assignment in a class other than English. Start by reviewing the concepts. Complete a research log on the assignment. . A, and don’t be afraid to ask your professor or a tutor for help. 3.14 Open-ended topics pose new challenges. Sometimes professors give unclear directions to test your critical thinking skills and determine your ability to organize your paper. Address this challenge by creating a clear research question. 3.15.Take this age-old advice: follow the directions. It may seem obvious, but many students create unnecessary work by not reading the directions carefully. Save time and frustration: read the directions. As and ask questions if you don’t understand them.

Module 4 Entering the academic writing community: a debut academic essay 4.1 Approach writing your first essay college essay with a clear strategy. Taking time to understand the directions is the first step to success. 4.2.The nuts and bolts of writing: type your paper into a word processing file. Although setting your work up correctly in a word processing program like Microsoft Word may bring some challenges, it is easily mastered.

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4.3 Why should we care about professional formatting styles? Presenting work in a professional formatting style reinforces your credibility as a college writer. Erving Goffman’s classic work,The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, provides a framework for understanding the “front-stage” behavior we need to present ourselves credibly in academic writing. 4.4 Correct paper formatting establishes your academic credibility. Correct formatting strengthens the rhetorical appeal of ethos, or credibility, in the reader’s first impression. Academic professional associations establish guidelines for professional publications so that the publications look consistent across their discipline.The Modern Language Association (MLA),The American Psychological Association (APA), the Council of Science Editors (CSE), and the University of Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago) are used most frequently in academic writing. 4.5 Good news: Most English classes only require MLA formatting. Formats established by the Modern Language Association (MLA) are used in most English classes. 4.6 How to set your paper up in correct MLA format. The procedure for setting your paper up in MLA format may depend on the brand and operating system of your computer and the software you use. Contact the Student Technical Help Desk for assistance and information. Microsoft Word Online is readily available. Access is often supplied by your institution. Contact the Student Technical Help Desk for assistance and information. 4.6.1 How to set up correct MLA format using the Microsoft Word Template. The easiest way to set up an MLA style document in Microsoft Word is to use the preformatted template. 4.6.2 How to set up correct MLA format on a blank page. Follow a series of simple steps to create the format 4.7 How to troubleshoot MLA Formatting issues. If you find a small problem with MLA while proofreading your paper, it is easy to correct.

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4.7.1 How do I fix an incorrect date? MLA format uses a particular date format: 10 June 2020. 4.7.2 How do I fix a problem with the header? Place your cursor at the top of the page and click.The header will open. Use Insert Page Number to add your last name. Change the font to Times New Roman 12 point. 4.7.3 What do I do when the spacing doesn’t look right? Look for the “three lines with the up and down arrows” on the toolbar. Select “all” your text by using CTRL+A.Then change the spacing to two.Your entire paper should be double-spaced. Be sure you’ve checked the “no space between paragraphs” box under paragraph. 4.7.4 How do I create a hanging indent? MLA format requires that works cited pages to be formatted using hanging indents. A hanging indent is an inverted paragraph, meaning the indent is on the second rather than the first line. 4.7.5 How do I create a block quotation? MLA format calls for block quotations for prose passages longer than four lines or for three or more lines of poetry. Setting up a block quotation is not difficult. It’s important to remember that the “block” takes the place of quotation marks, so no quotation marks are needed. 4.8 Revision: after you finish your first draft, “look again.” Revision means “to look again.” A first draft is only the first step. Professional writers agree that “all writing is rewriting.” Gather feedback from your peers, your tutor, and your professor before you rewrite. 4.8.1 Take time to understand the rubric. Rubrics or score sheets provide the standards your professor will use to evaluate your paper. Make your revision process easier by taking time to review the rubric.

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4.8.2 Participate in peer review with a growth mindset. Learning to respond to feedback is an essential part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your writing, you are taking an important step in this direction. Use information from your peer review to improve your paper. If you have questions about the validity of any peer comments, check with your professor before using the suggestions in your revision. 4.8.3 Edit after the Peer Review. Thoughtful peer review provides the writer with information on how others see the work. Keep a growth mindset and treat peer review as information rather than criticism. Don’t be afraid to ask questions about feedback. 4.8.4 Revise after the instructor review. Look again—and again—at your paper and the feedback you have received.Your paper doesn’t need to be perfect but turn in the final draft knowing you have tried to do your best.Your professor dedicates time and attention to review your paper. Be sure that you find and respond to comments. Contact your professor with any questions you may have before revising. 4.8.5 Edit again after the instructor review. After reading and verifying instructor and peer feedback, decide where you need to make changes in your paper. Start with the largest scale changes on the organization and paragraphing first, then move to editing and proofreading.

Module 5:The academic cycle of reading, writing, and responding: the summary response paper 5.Academic writing can be described as a cycle of reading, writing, and responding. Join the great academic conversation by reading about and responding to a reading on a specific topic. 5.1 Summary writing plays an important role in academic research. The ability to write accurate and correct summaries is an important research skill and allows you to enter fascinating research conversations. 11

5.2 Let’s start working on a summary response assignment Follow the directions carefully to write a strong summary response paper using academic conventions. Using specific strategies such as finding key words and writing a one-sentence summary offer a solid start. 5.3 Be sure you understand the assignment before you start the writing progress Invest time in thoroughly understanding your assignment. It will save you time in the long run. 5.4 Complete the assignments in the order they are presented. Your professor has created an order for the assignments that supports your learning. Avoid skipping steps and save time in the long run. 5.5 Separate the main idea and reasons from evidence Identifying the evidence—quotations, numbers, stories–helps you quickly focus on the main ideas so that you can communicate them to a reader who has not read the article. 5.6 Compare your research log with a sample. Examining a model assignment allows you to better understand its demands. 5.7 Develop metacognition by reviewing and revising your research log. Don’t put your research log away after you finish. Give it another look. 5.8 Create summary maps to verify you understand the main idea. Summary maps—keyword graphs, six-word summaries, one-sentence summaries—help you uncover the main idea. 5.8.1 Identify keywords to identify the main idea. Identifying keywords, or the words that appear most often, brings you closer to the main idea. 5.8.2 Create a six-word summary to catch the main idea in a short sentence. Use your keywords to create a six-word summary sentence that expresses the main idea.

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5.8.3 Create a one-sentence summary map to express the main idea more completely. Expand your six-word summary to express the main idea more completely: who/what does what to whom/or what? Where? When? How? 5.9 Use a summary organizer to identify the claim and reasons supporting the claim. Once you have identified the main idea, a summary organizer helps you find the structure of the reasoning. 5.10 Write a draft of the summary paying careful attention to academic conventions. As you write the draft of the summary using your organizer, be sure to pay attention to academic conventions: a conventional summary opening, academic language, signal phrases and parenthetical citations, and academic naming conventions. 5.11 Practice the conventions of academic writing. Become a stronger academic writer by using academic conventions in your draft. 5.11.1 Use a conventional summary opening A conventional summary opening establishes your credibility to an academic audience. 5.11.2 Use academic language Using academic rather than casual language increases your credibility. 5.11.3 Use signal phrases and parenthetical citations Using signal phrases and parenthetical citations demonstrates that you understand academic documentation. 5.11.4 Use academic naming conventions Help build your credibility by incorporating the credibility of reliable sources. 5.12 Evaluate your own work by comparing it a model summary and using a rubric. Comparing your paper to a model summary can help you identify revisions you may need to make. Using a rubric can help you better understand how your professor will evaluate your work.

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5.12.1 Use a rubric as a checklist to improve your draft A rubric is a handy checklist to help you improve your draft. 5.12.2 A peer review provides valuable information. A peer reviewer provides new eyes on your work; reviewing someone else’s work allows you to see another approach to the assignment. 5.13 Convert your summaries into an annotated bibliography If your professor requires an annotated bibliography, simply convert the format of your summaries. 5.14 Discover the power of metacognition by writing a response paper. Using your metacognitive skills will help you think more deeply about your response to the article and make your response more meaningful. 5.14.1 Preview Michael Martinez’s “What is Metacognition?” Previewing challenging reading sets the stage for understanding. 5.15 Put metacognition to work by writing an academic response paper. A carefully written response shows that you have thought carefully about the reading and can offer perceptive insights. 5.15.1 Evaluate your own work using a response paper rubric Using a rubric can help you better understand how your professor will evaluate your work. 5.15.2 A peer review provides valuable feedback. A peer reviewer provides new eyes on your work; reviewing someone else’s work allows you to see another approach to the assignment. 5.16 Seek help when you need it. A summary/response paper can pose challenges, so it’s important to be open to finding help from your professors, tutors, and peer mentors.

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5.16.1 Your professor wants to help you. Dropping in during an office hour or sending an email can provide quick clarification. 5.16.2 Email or call your professor with specific questions. Follow the rules of etiquette when emailing or calling your professor 5.16.3 Visit your student success center for additional help. Working with a peer mentor as you write your paper can speed up your progress. 15.16.3.a Prepare for your visit. Make a list of questions and concerns. 15.16.3.b Accept feedback gracefully. Keep a growth mindset as you listen to feedback. 15.16.3.c Use suggestions to revise your paper. Thoughtfully incorporate changes into your revision.

Module 6 Build a longer paper on the foundation of what you already know 6.1 Before your start, consider word count and paper length. Being aware of the length requirement is an important first step in understanding your assignment. 6.2 But don’t travel in the wrong direction by focusing on paper length. Thinking too much about paper length may put the brakes on your writing process. 6.3 Travel in a better direction by focusing on your ideas. Students who focus on the ideas in their paper tend to have less difficulty in writing longer papers than students who are fixated on the paper length. 15

6.4 When do I start my research? Shape the ongoing process of your research to fit the needs of your paper. 6.5 Find templates to structure your paper. Templates or prefabricated structures help you shape your paper for an academic audience. 6.6 Aristotle’s (385-422 BCE) simple argument structures are still relevant today. Aristotle’s template of a claim supported by reasons supported by evidence provides a useful template. 6.7 Think critically with an open mind. Allow for the possibility of changing your perspective on your topic.Think of an argument as an opportunity for exploring your stance on an issue. 6.8 What academic writing skills do you bring to the assignment? Carry the academic writing skills you have already learned to a new assignment. Assess what you need to review. 6.9 Write your paper by climbing the steps of the writing process. Breaking the writing process into ten steps makes it easier to complete a big project. •

Step 1 Verify that you understand the assignment by completing a research log.

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Step 2 Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know.

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Step 3 Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons in an argument organizer.

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Step 4 Consider what additional evidence you will need to support your reasons.

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Step 5 Build your body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing and explaining each quotation you have chosen for evidence.

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Step 6 Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?

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Step 7 Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative of view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction. 16

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Step 8 Write an effective introduction that engages your readers.

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Step 9 Create an effective title that previews your topic and hooks the attention of your readers.

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Step 10 Create a flow for your reader by adding transition words and argument indicator

6.10 Step 1 Understand the assignment. Taking time to understand the assignment saves time in the long run. 6.11 Step 2: Prewrite to uncover what you know. Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know. 6.12 Step 3: Develop your ideas using claims, reasons and evidence. You will spend most of your writing time supporting your claim with reasons and evidence. 6.13 Step 4: Start by creating a tentative thesis. Sketch out a tentative argument or based on the research you have completed. Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons. 6.14 Step 5: Build the body paragraphs with reasons supported by evidence. Start to build your body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing and explaining each quotation. 6.15 Effectively use quotations as evidence in your essay: introduce, quote, cite, and explain. Build solid paragraphs easily by carefully introducing, quoting, citing and explaining each quotation. 6.16 Use paraphrase and summary in the same way: introduce, paraphrase, cite and explain Paraphrase, or “in other words,” and summary are efficient ways of incorporating larger ideas in your paper. 6.16.1 Use paraphrase effectively. Provide the same documentation for paraphrase as you do for quotation.

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6.16.2 How does this actually work with paraphrase? Incorporate paraphrase in exactly the same way as quotations. 6.16.3 Review paraphrase, summary, and quotation conventions. Quotation, paraphrase and summary support your claims and reasons. Be sure you understand academic conventions for documentation in order to avoid plagiarism. 6.17 Choose signal phrases or parenthetical citations as a citation method. Choosing a signal phrase or a parenthetical citation depends on your purpose and focus. 6.18 Step 6 Write your conclusion. Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what? 6.19 Step 7 Find an alternative point of view. Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative point of view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction. 6.19.1 Use transition words for comparison and contrast to guide your reader. Using transition words for comparison contrast notify your reader of a change in point of view. 6.20 Step 8 Connect with your audience by creating an effective introduction. Write an effective introduction that engages your readers in the conversation. 6.21 Step 9: Connect with your audience by creating an effective academic title. A good tile hooks your audience while previewing and summarizing your paper. 6.22 Step 10: Use transition words to connect with your audience by creating a sense of flow in your paper. Transition words create a pathway for your reader.

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6.24 Revise after you finish your first draft. Learning to respond to feedback is an important part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your own, you are taking an important step in this direction. 6.24.1 Use a rubric to self-evaluate your work. Rubrics or score sheets provide the standards your professor will use to evaluate your paper. Make your revision process easier by taking time to review the rubric. 6.24.2 Peer review provides valuable feedback. Learning to respond to feedback is an important part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your own, you are taking an important step in this direction. 6.24.3 Edit carefully after the peer review. Carefully review your peer’s suggestions and determine what changes you want to make.Verify that your peer’s suggestions are appropriate 6.24.4 Editing carefully after the instructor review. Your professor provides valuable professional feedback. Make use of it.

Module 7: Presenting your work: just-in-time grammar and style 7.1 Details are important to your audience. Paying attention to details builds your credibility in the eyes of your audience. 7.2 Pay attention to details in your first revision. A first draft is only a first step. Professional writers agree that “all writing is rewriting.”

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7.3 “Standard English Grammar” is “No One’s Mother Tongue.” “Standard English Grammar” refers to the rules and conventions followed in academic writing. Few use this language community in everyday life. 7.4 What is “grammar”? Linguists use “grammar” to refer the unbreakable rules of a language, for example, what makes English English. 7.5 Distinguish between real rules, social rules, and invented rules of grammar. Real rules are the unbreakable rules of a language: what makes English English. Social rules come from social class conventions: “don’t use ain’t.” Invented rules attempt to control a linguistic practice: “don’t split an infinitive.” 7.6.“Real Rules” allows writers to create clarity. Following the “real rules” of a language help create clarity, for example, every sentence must have a subject and a verb. 7.7 We need to understand the reasons behind “social” and “invented” grammar rules. Understanding the reasons behind social and invented rules helps us understand when we can ignore them and when we need to follow them to create credibility. 7.8 Social and invented rules define academic writing conventions. The academic language community uses social and invented rules to create writing conventions. 7.8.1 I/you/he/she/it/they: What is “grammatical person?”: Most academic writing avoids the second person pronoun “you” and uses the third person, “he/she/ it/they.” In some cases, the first person “I” is appropriate. 7.8.2 Make statements rather than ask questions. Although questions may be effectively used to provide a focus for a paper, statements are more effective in moving your argument forward.

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7.8.3 Use academic naming conventions. Academic writing has long standing traditions about using the names of scholars and researchers: Use the full name at first mention, and add information about the author to emphasize credibility. After the first mention, use only the last name. 7.9 It’s simple to understand the basic structure of a clause and a sentence. A basic clause consists of a subject and a verb. A sentence is a clause with a capital letter and a period. 7.9.1 For a more sophisticated academic style, use compound and complex sentences effectively. Join clauses to create compound and complex sentences in order to vary your sentence lengths and patterns. 7.9.2 The three most common errors, sentence fragments, comma splices and run-on sentences, result from misunderstanding how to combine clauses. Three of the most common errors come from misunderstanding the rules for joining clauses. 7.10 Keep your verb tenses consistent. The most common verb tenses in academic writing are simple past, simple present, and past perfect. Be sure to keep your verb tenses consistent. 7.11 Create an effective personal academic style by paying attention to sentence patterns and word choice. Style refers to the writer’s choice of words and sentence structures. 7.11.1 Be concise: create the most meaning in the fewest words Make your style stronger by eliminating wasted words as you revise. 7.11.2 Be precise: use exactly the right word. Take time to be sure you have used the most accurate and effective words in your revision.

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7.11.3 Is metalanguage essential or unnecessary? Use effective metalanguage like transition words: “first . . . therefore . . . however.” Eliminate unnecessary and ineffective metalanguage: “in this paper I am going to show that.” 7.12 Correct punctuation matters. In academic writing punctuation rules must be followed carefully to polish a professional presentation. 7.12.1 Why is there so much talk about three tiny punctuation marks: apostrophes, semicolons, and Oxford commas? These three tiny punctuation marks are important in building a strong credibility because professional writers value their correct use. 7.12.2 Pay careful attention to the apostrophe and it’s/its. Apostrophes are used most frequently to show possession or to create contractions Be sure you understand the counterintuitive problem of “it’s” vs. “its.” In this one case,” it’s” is the contraction for “it is“ and “its” without the apostrophe is the possessive. 7.12.3 Semicolons are an effective way to join clauses. Although they are sometimes used to punctuate long elements in a series, the most common use is to separate two complete clauses, taking the place of a coordinating conjunction and a comma. 7.12.4 Is “The Oxford Comma” needed in a series? Clearly, some commas create greater clarity in the sentence. But are too many commas distracting to the reader? And how does a beginning student decided which style of punctuation to use? The most practical advice is to use the Oxford comma. 7.13 Look at the bigger picture: coherence and cohesion Coherence and cohesion describe how to make your work feel like a “whole” piece of writing.

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7.13.1 “Coherence” describes how all of the pieces of the puzzle fit together. Coherence refers to how all sentences in a passage begin. Using key words as subjects of sentences is the secret to coherence. 7.13.2 “Cohesion” describes how one puzzle piece fits into the next. Cohesion refers to how one sentence ends and the next begins. Repeating words or synonyms at the end of the first sentence and the beginning of the second is the key to cohesion. 7.13.3 Use the passive voice to create cohesion. Sometimes using the passive voice helps create stronger cohesion. 7.13.4 Create larger patterns of coherence and cohesion with parallel structure. Larger patterns of repetition like parallel structure help create coherence and cohesion on a bigger scale. 7.13.5 Create larger patterns of cohesion and coherence with transition words. Transition words help guide your reader through your ideas.

Module 8: Continuing the Research Conversation—Finding, Evaluating and Using Sources 8.1 Integrity in the research process is essential. Without honesty, the academic research process is meaningless. 8.2 The best way to avoid plagiarism is a carefully designed research process. Carefully keeping track of your sources helps writers avoid plagiarism. Save time by taking time to keep track of your sources. 8.3 Use credible evidence to support the structure of your reasoning. The purpose of research is to find credible evidence to support the structure of your reasoning.

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8.4. Understand the value of peer reviewed sources. Peer reviewed sources are considered the most reliable academic sources. 8.5 Understand the value of library resources. Use free library resources like a lib guide or a consultation with your librarian to help you find credible sources. 8.6 Choose the strongest evidence to support your reasoning. Use metacognition to find the most appropriate passages to support your reasoning. 8.7 Plagiarism is a serious issue. Plagiarism, either intentional or unintentional, has serious academic consequences. 8.8 Understand the documentation conventions of academic writing. Careful documentation and correctly cited quotations, summary, and paraphrasing help build your credibility as an academic writer. 8.8.1 All research must be documented Carefully documenting your sources keeps the research conversation clear. 8.8.2 Everyone knows that: what is ““common knowledge?”?” Cite even well-known borrowed material to demonstrate your academic integrity. 8.8.3 Avoid sloppy citations. Maintain your credibility by using correct and appropriate in-text citations. 8.8.4 Carefully chose a citation system: parenthetical citations vs signal phrases. Your choice of a parenthetical citation or a signal phrase affects the way your audience experiences your writing.

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8.8.5 Understand how plagiarism checkers work. Plagiarism checkers are reliable detectors of plagiarism, whether or not it is deliberate.

Module 9:Taking Stock: Where have you been? Where are you now? Where are you going? 9.1 Learning is messy. Learning doesn’t occur in a straight line. Give yourself time to consolidate what you know. 9.2 Assess what you know. Take the first step by assessing what you have learned in this class. 9.3 Where have I been? Collect information about your learning. Carefully examine the evidence for your learning. 9.4. Where am I now? Self-assessment provides a foundation for change. Assess what you know so that you can make changes in the future.

Module 10 The capstone paper: where are you going? 10.1 Where am I going? Approach your final project thoughtfully. Completing a final project on your own helps you understand what learning you have consolidated. 10.2 Go solo: write a capstone paper. A capstone paper provides an opportunity to demonstrate and consolidate learning. 10.3 Carefully choose a subject for your capstone paper. Choosing a topic for your capstone Paper allows you to engage your own intellectual interests

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10.4 Think for yourself. A capstone paper provides you with an opportunity to demonstrate original thinking. 10.5 Research is a never-ending process; selecting a topic is an act of research. Research is cyclical.What you find out may change your mind about your topic. 10.6 Use a research funnel to limit your topic so you can better manage your research time. Narrowing your topic helps you write your paper in a limited time frame. 10.7 Prewrite to identify the purpose of your research: I am studying ______ because ... Identifying your purpose to yourself helps you communicate that purpose to your audience. 10.8 Before you start: consolidate your learning. Following the writing process helps you more efficiently write in your limited time frame. Skipping steps can set you back. 10.9 Move from stating the problem to a tentative thesis statement. Understanding that learning is messy allows us to create a process to review and consolidate our learning. 10.10 Build support by gathering evidence. Build your credibility by finding solid, credible evidence. 10.11 View argument as dance by acknowledging an alternative point of view. Present alternative points of view accurately and empathetically. Keep an open mind. 10.12 Looking at the big picture helps you put it all together before you write. Taking time to assemble a template will save you time in the long run.

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10.13 Connect to your audience with a strong title, introduction, and conclusion and create a pathway for your readers by using transition words. Create a partnership with your reader as you present your ideas. 10.14 Get the job done: write the paper one word at a time. Stay focused as you fulfill the promise presented in your template. 10.15 Get the job done: present yourself at your best. You’ve worked hard. Be sure to present yourself professionally. 10.16 Last words: learning never stops Unless you let it, learning never stops.

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MODULE 1: “Academic Language is No One’s Mother Tongue”: f inding your voice in college writing

At the end of this module you should be able to: 1.

Characterize the role of language communities in our lives and education.

2.

Identify your membership in several language communities.

3.

Examine the importance of joining an academic language community.

4.

Identify barriers to joining that community.

5.

Create solutions to overcome barriers and successfully join that community.

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Module 1 Preview 1.1 Why use academic discourse and style? We develop new linguistic skills as we study to become part of an academic discipline and eventually our profession.These communities use specific professional conventions in written work. 1.2 Language Communities We already belong to several linguistic communities which speak and write with varying degrees of formality.We are more comfortable in the most familiar communities.We join an academic linguistic community by learning the writing conventions of that community. 1.2.1 Professional Writers and Language Communities Professional writers are also aware of when they adjust their writing to the language community of their audience. 1.2.2 The Rhetorical Triangle: Adjusting to your audience Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck wrote both passages. Just as Dweck does here, all writers must consider the relationship between their subject matter, their audience, and themselves. 1.3 The Bilingual Advantage Bilingual students have a linguistic advantage since they are likely to be more sensitive to their linguistic environment. Anyone can start to become bilingual by taking classes in foreign languages. 1.4 Feeling like a linguistic outsider? “Imposter syndrome” describes feelings students and teachers experience when they don’t feel they have earned their achievement. It can limit their growth in their profession. Imposter syndrome can be controlled. 1.5 Growth Mindset Developing a growth mindset, the power of believing a person can improve, helps students engage more deeply in their education and their lives. 29

1.1 Why use academic discourse and style? We develop new linguistic skills as we study to become part of an academic discipline and eventually our profession.These communities use specific professional conventions in written work. No one is born an expert. We become experts via our education. Most students approach college with a career in mind, or at least a career direction. They may know exactly what they want: medicine, teaching, or engineering. Or, for example, they may have a general idea or desire to help people, which may lead them in the direction of social sciences. On the other hand, they may know what they don’t want to be, such as a physicist or an accountant. Enrolling in college is the first step toward making that choice to become an expert. Each career brings with it its own language, style, and conventions. Conventions are particular ways of using language that marks us as insiders or outsiders in that career. As you enter your first college writing courses, you may be unaware that you are also entering a new language community that brings reading and writing assignments with unique and often unfamiliar demands. These demands may change what you say and how you say it to help your audience better understand your content. Finally, earning these conventions helps you establish your credibility as a member of your professional community. There is, of course, no reason why at the beginning of your college career you should be familiar with all of them, although you might have encountered some in high school. Nevertheless, as you enter the unfamiliar territory of college writing assignments, you will find out what conventions are needed and why you need to master them to succeed.

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Here is a partial list of standard conventions: •

Specialized formatting designed by a professional association such as the Modern Language Association (MLA), the Council of Science Editors, or the American Psychological Association (APA).

•

A heightened formality that avoids expressions found in speech, for example use of the second person “you.”

•

Careful attention to the sources of your reference or research material.

Let’s look at a few of these conventions in the presentation Academic Language is no One’s Mother Tongue. As you start your college career, there is no reason you should know and understand all of these practices. However, academic conventions are not arbitrary. They have developed over decades of academic writing and publication within a discipline. An academic discipline is a group of scholars or researchers concerned with the same general subject, STEM (Science, Technology Engineering and Math) or social sciences or literature. Learning to use the conventions within a discipline makes you part of what linguists call a “discourse community,” scholars and researchers in an academic discipline who use language in a similar way. Members of a discourse community or language community make assumptions that fellow members will speak and write in a certain way. In fact, you might think of the journey to your profession as a linguistic journey on which you will learn the vocabulary, genres, and conventions of your discipline. So, welcome to the academic language community. It’s a great place once you get to know it! You will share complicated ideas with people who understand them. But more importantly, in this journey, you will broaden your knowledge and learn to understand more about yourself and your world.

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1.2 Language Communities We already belong to several linguistic communities which speak and write with varying degrees of formality.We are more comfortable in the most familiar communities.We join an academic language community by learning the writing conventions of that community. Sometimes it seems that professors and students are speaking two separate languages. As you encounter college assignments, you may be confronted with new words and concepts and a different way of speaking.Your professor will likely use formal language from an academic speech community when introducing and discussing your assignments.You are likely to use ordinary language when you talk about it with your fellow students.

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Case History 1: Professor and Student Language Communities

During class, your professor uses language from an academic speech community.

“Okay, let’s go over this new assignment. State the facts about the case you are analyzing. Obviously, the place to do this is in the intro paragraph. Here you will provide the context for the Supreme Court decision you are studying.” “Can we pick any case?” “Yes, of course. Be sure that you provide the justices’ names and the name of the case correctly (Brown v. the Board of Education), the year of the decision, and a brief synopsis of the context. Be careful here to paraphrase completely and cite your sources. Do not use someone else’s synopsis.” “What’s a synopsis?”

Students use language from an everyday speech community when talking about the assignment.

“Hey, I just finished my rough draft.” “How ‘rough’ are we talking?” “It’s all there. Hopefully, it all makes sense. I hate writing essays, so I just threw this together as best I could. “Okay, let me see. All right. It actually looks okay.Your main idea is at the end of the first paragraph like she wants.” “Great.” “I think I understand everything else. Maybe rewrite your third paragraph. It kinda doesn’t go with the rest of the essay. But otherwise, it looks okay. I’m nowhere near done with my rough draft.

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“A short summary.” “Then create a thesis statement that makes an evaluative claim. Be sure to make a judgment about the case.Your evaluative claim should be worded so that it creates a demand for proof which your subsequent paragraphs will provide. For example, say something like “In his dissent in Plessy v Ferguson, Justice Harlan’s arguments were ethically superior to the opinions of the justices in the majority because . . .”

“What? It’s due tonight?” “Eh, I’ll get it done.” “Dude, I don’t know how you can do that. I would be so stressed! What if you don’t make the bare minimum? “I’ve got it.You just say something about the case and back it up with stuff from the reading. Make sure that you use quotes. Don’t copy from the internet. Easy.”

“Do I need to put the thesis statement in a particular place?” “Your thesis statement will be the last sentence of your first paragraph.”

Academic style may sometimes seem stuffy and uncomfortable. It may not seem familiar— “not me.” Our identities develop in the communities where we grow up, and writing or speaking differently may seem foreign or even pompous.You might feel like an outsider and possibly even a little pretentious as you make your way into this new linguistic community. That’s okay. Stay with it. You will become a valuable member of this community. Outside of your college or university, you are already part of several speech communities. Gender, age, ethnicity, region, and occupation each contribute to the way we communicate. Think about how the way you speak with your friends differs from how you speak at school or work. Think about the different ways you use language in your life. One student filled out a language awareness chart like this:

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Bilingual (yes/no/ sometimes)

Rank your level of comfort in this language community

Language Community

Sample phrase or saying

Family

Qué vas a cocinar mother? Are you going to fry plátano maduro?

Yes/Spanish

1

Hola señora! Encontró a su gato?

Sometimes

2

Amiga! I think we should work on our English discussion juntas. Trabajamos en tu casa or we can go to mine. La tarea de esta semana is harder than I thought.

Sometimes

2

Let’s look at the explication of Sor Juana’s sonnet again. How does it represent the Baroque?

English

3

Friends

Hola amiga! How are you? Vamos al gym together

Sometimes

1

Work

What kinds of problems are you having with your paper? I can see that you felt challenged by the template your professor assigned. How can I help you?

English

2

Community/ Church

Everyday college

College major/ course of study

Rank 5 for very comfortable to 1 not comfortable at all

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1.2.1 Professional Writers and Language Communities Professional writers are also aware of when they adjust their writing to the language community of their audience. Read the passages below. Try to identify the language community each writer is trying to reach. When you’ve read each of the passages, draw a picture of the author.

Passage 1

Passage 2

Often, when children stop working in school, parents deal with this by reassuring their children how smart they are. We can now see that this simply fans the flames. It confirms the fixed mindset and makes kids all the more certain that they don’t want to try something difficult—something that could lose them their parents’ high regard. How should we praise our students? How should we reassure them?

Past work has documented and described adaptive and maladaptive behavior patterns: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals.

By focusing them on the process they engaged in—their effort, their strategies, their concentration, their perseverance, or their improvement. “You really stuck to that until you got it. That’s wonderful!” “It was a hard project, but you did it one step at a time and it turned out great!”

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We then examine the model’s generality and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

1.2.2 The Rhetorical Triangle: Adjusting to your audience

Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck wrote both passages. Just as Dweck does here, all writers must consider the relationship between their subject matter, audience, and themselves. Dweck is clearly comfortable in both linguistic communities, and changes her language because she understands the needs of her audience. She makes changes in her word choice and sentence structure to meet the needs of her specific audience.

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1.3 The Bilingual Advantage Bilingual students have a linguistic advantage since they are likely to be more sensitive to their linguistic environment. Anyone can start to become bilingual by taking classes in foreign languages. Bilingual students come to college speaking two languages equally well. Bilingual students belong to multiple speech communities in both languages, of course. Being bilingual offers many linguistic advantages. For example, in “Why Bilinguals are Smarter,” New York Times commentator Yudhijit Bhattacharjee explains the several cognitive advantages of bilingual people. He cites Albert Costa, a researcher at the University of Pompeu Fabra in Spain: “Bilinguals have to switch languages quite often — you may talk to your father in one language and to your mother in another language.” According to Costa, “It requires keeping track of changes around you in the same way that we monitor our surroundings when driving.” As a result, bilingual students already know how to pay more attention to their linguistic world and bring a tremendous linguistic advantage as they enter the academic discourse community. In an interview with New York Times journalist Claudia Dreifus, cognitive neuroscientist, Ellen Bialystok explains “The Bilingual Advantage” further.

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There’s a system in your brain, the executive control system. It’s a general manager. Its job is to keep you focused on what is relevant while ignoring distractions. It’s what makes it possible for you to hold two different things in your mind at one time and switch between them. If you posses two languages and you use them regularly, the way the brain’s networks work is that every time you speak, both languages pop up, and the executive control system has to sort through everything and attend to what’s relevant the moment. Therefore, the bilinguals use that system more , and that regular use makes that system more efficient. In short, the bilingual brain works harder and more efficiently.

So if you are bilingual and regularly use both languages, you have developed enhanced perceptions about how language works.You may occasionally find certain expressions, words, and sentence structure challenging, but so do lifelong speakers. Persist. Do not give up and you will succeed.

Thriving in your writing class: how to get the most from your research logs Research logs are a double-columned note-taking organizer you will complete for each reading you complete and video you watch. Research logs encourage metacognition or thinking about your own thinking, which is an efficient way to learn. When you start to write your paper, you can easily review the ideas from your sources and recollect your responses. Research logs are usually shared only with your professor, although you may be asked to pair-share with a peer on some occasions. Before you begin your log, preview your article by skimming through and identifying key words and interesting ideas. Some students prefer to print the articles and annotate them; others work directly from the screen.

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Most students type directly into the downloadable organizers available on Canvas.You may also print out the research logs and write your comments directly in the box, which works well if you have small precise handwriting. If you have large handwriting, you may wish to use more than one log for your reading since you can’t develop your ideas fully in the small boxes. If you handwrite your logs, take a picture with your phone and upload it If you download the file, print the completed file.You can also create your own research logs by drawing lines on a piece of paper. Research logs allow you to participate in metacognition or thinking about your own thinking. The logs allow you to uncover and share your insights and allow you to explore ideas tentatively. They also help warm up your writing brain by previewing a topic and responding to it. Studies have shown that frequent ungraded writing assignments make you a better writer and thinker. Because they are ungraded, however, does not mean that they are unimportant. Use the following rubric to assess your reflection before you submit it.

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Rubric: A Checklist for Research Logs Length

All 12 boxes, six summary and six response, must be completed thoroughly.

Style

Your language may be informal or colloquial. Alternatively, you may choose to practice working in an academic language community.

Grammar

Grammar or punctuation errors are acceptable. However, you may want to use the logs as a chance to practice your academic style.

Documentation

Page numbers for print sources for all quotations/paraphrases must be recorded directly in the left column. Online articles do not need page numbers. Use timestamps for videos.You can find time stamps on the transcripts of TED talks.

MLA formatting

MLA formatting is not required as it is an organizer assignment. Be sure that you indicate the title of the article or video.

Thoroughness

Respond honestly, directly, and completely. Reflections that are exceptionally thoughtful or perceptive may receive extra credit. Reflections that show little thought or effort may have points deducted.

Self-score

You must honestly self-score your work using the following rubric at the end of the log to receive credit for the assignment. Highlight the box that best describes your efforts. Use page numbers if they appear on the source. However, most of our reading is online articles, so you will not need page numbers and will not lose points. Use timestamps for videos. If you look at the transcript page of TED talks, you will find printed transcriptions with the timestamps indicated.

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Type directly in the box and upload as an MS Word file, or print and handwrite your response. Use quotations, summary and paraphrase to Record your thoughts, feelings and questions catch the main ideas in the text. Record page here. Be generous in your response. numbers for print sources.

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Feel free to add more pages as needed for your reading assignment. Be sure to score yourself below before you turn it in. Logs which are not self-scored will not be graded until they are self-scored. If you forget, you can score yourself in a comments box attached to the log submission on Canvas.

Nobel Laureate 100%

Research Scientist 90%

Lab Technician 80%

Reading log is completed Reading log is completed Reading Log is turned in on time. on time. late.

Trainee 70% Reading Log is turned in late.

The left column contains plentiful essential information from each section of the text.

The left column contains The left column contains The left column contains most essential informa- some essential informa- little essential information from each section tion from each section tion from each section of the text. of the text. of the text.

Correct page numbers accompany each entry.

Correct page numbers Correct page numbers accompany most entries. accompany some entries.

Correct page numbers accompany few or no entries.

The right column contains reflections for most entries that show thoughtful reading.

The right column contains reflections for few entries that show thoughtful reading.

The right column contains reflections for each entry that clearly show thoughtful reading.

The right column contains reflections for some entries that show thoughtful reading.

Upgrades

No Credit

Students earning Trainee on a reading log are invited to redo reading log to meet Research Scientist content criteria for an upgrade to Lab Technician.

There are three ways to receive no credit. (1) Do not do the reading log. (2) Do not turn in your reading log. (3) Copy another student’s reading log entries and turn them in as your own

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Thriving in your writing class: how to get the most from your reflections Reflections are short responses to a reading or a module topic, shared only with your professor. Assigned reading, videos, or passages from the text precede each reflection. Be sure you have completed the reading or viewing before you complete the reflection. Reflections allow you to participate in metacognition, or thinking about your own thinking. They allow you to uncover and share your insights and allow you to explore ideas tentatively. They also help warm up your writing brain by previewing a topic and responding to it. Studies have shown that frequent ungraded writing assignments make you a better writer and thinker. Because they are ungraded, however, does not mean that they are unimportant. Use the following rubric to assess your reflection before you submit it.

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Rubric: A Checklist for Reflections Length

250 words, the equivalent of one double-spaced wordprocessed page Your language may be informal or colloquial.

Style

Grammar

Alternatively, you may choose to practice working in an academic language community. Grammar or punctuation errors are acceptable. However, you may want to use the reflections as a chance to practice your academic style.

Documentation

MLA documentation is not required, but you must cite sources informally. Place all quotations in quotation marks.

MLA formatting

MLA formatting is not required as you will type directly into a drop-down text box.

Thoroughness

Answer honestly, directly, and completely. Reflections that are exceptionally thoughtful or perceptive may receive extra credit. Reflections that show little thought or effort may have points deducted.

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1.4 Feeling like a linguistic outsider? Imposter syndrome can be controlled. “Imposter syndrome” describes the feelings students and teachers experience when they don’t feel they have earned their achievement. It can limit growth in their profession. Imposter syndrome can be controlled.

Imposter Syndrome Sometimes, our language patterns present more challenges than others. For example, when you get your first paper back with suggestions for revision, some students may feel like they don’t belong in college because they are unfamiliar with some academic conventions and practices. Perhaps you already feel uncomfortable because your feedback in previous classes pointed to serious issues in your writing. Perhaps you have always received good grades and positive feedback, and then suddenly you get comments with several suggestions for improvement. Some students may even feel overwhelmed by the feedback and decide they aren’t cut out for college. Others develop what some psychologists call “imposter syndrome.” They stay in college but never feel “good enough.” In “What is Imposter Syndrome and How to Improve It,” TED editorial producer Elizabeth Cox describes how even high achievers may feel like they “don’t belong.” She asks, “Why can’t so many of us shake feelings that we haven’t earned our accomplishments, or that our ideas and skills aren’t worthy of others’ attention?” To a person with imposter syndrome, any negative feedback may seem to be evidence that they really don’t belong in a university setting. In “Let’s Talk About Imposter Syndrome,” Maria Kiawe, president of Harvey Mudd College, describes it as follows: “As new students take on the challenges of their first semester at college, many will experience self-doubt. They may feel like they don’t belong in their new setting, wonder if they are as talented as the students around them, or worry that soon everyone will find out that they are actually a failure.” She encourages students who experience imposter syndrome to talk to others and seek help on campus. Most importantly, as Kiawe suggests, remember that you belong in college. 46

Case History 2: Imposter Syndrome: Damian Damian woke up at noon as his mom Barbara brought his two children through the door. “Daddy, daddy,” cried his three-year-old, Abbie.“I missed you.” The toddler, Simone, began to cry. “Sorry,” his mom said, “I’ve got to get to work.” “God, it’s hard to be a single working dad,” he grumbled to himself. “I can never get enough sleep.” He got out of bed and picked up the toddler. ”But it’s worth it,” he thought as she smiled. If he could get through English, he could move on in the RAD Tech program and get a decent job. That way, he could offer Simone and Abbie so much more. It would be tough. He had to keep his grades up and sometimes wondered if coming back to school at his age had been a mistake. His niece Ayesha texted that she wouldn’t be able to babysit until later that day, On top of that, his endof-the-semester paper had been troubling him. He turned on the TV and sat Abbie down in front of it with her toys, then picked up Simone and played with her as he opened his laptop.

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He looked again at the capstone assignment and read the student learning outcomes. “This essay should demonstrate that you have met the student learning outcomes for the semester: clear thesis and support. Credible Evidence. Careful documentation. MLA format.” Ten pages. That stopped him for a moment. “I have two weeks to do this,” he thought, and I’ve invested an entire semester in this online class.” “Wow. That’s a lot. Can we do this, Simone? he asked. “Yes you can, Daddy!” As Simone fell asleep, he put her down beside him and continued working on the paper on his laptop. Twenty minutes later, he was also asleep. Taking care of the kids and working the swing shift wore him out. The phone rang and woke him up. He answered and heard Ayesha crying. “My car won’t start, and I don’t know what to do. I don’t have the money to fix it.” Damian piled the kids into his car and drove to her house. Two hours later, the car was running, but he had done nothing on the end-of-semester-paper. And, he was due at work in an hour. Damian drove to work thinking about the paper. He liked the topic he had chosen because it made him think and he was discovering he liked to think. His ideas jumped around in his head as he started his shift at the factory. Damian wrote a couple of pages in his notebook on his break, then finished his shift and went home. The following week and a half passed in much the same way, and he’d actually managed to write eight pages. The paper wasn’t perfect, but he managed to submit it for peer review and meet the online deadline. His peer was encouraging, but she mentioned that he had a lot of small errors. Damian didn’t have enough time to submit the paper to the online tutor, so he called Ayesha. “Can you babysit for a couple of extra hours?” She agreed, and he was soon headed off to the Student Success Center. His peer mentor, Stephanie, told him how well he had done and helped him fix the MLA formatting, which he hated. She made a few suggestions about proofreading and showed him how to use block quotations correctly. He went home with pizza for his family and enjoyed some time with his daughters. The next morning, he gave the paper a final look, crossed his fingers, and submitted it before the deadline. The next week, he checked his grade. “B. A thoughtful and perceptive analysis, Damian. Take a little more time and care.” Damian felt disappointed. He expected an A after his uphill battle with so many problems. He met all the requirements and felt like he had done excellent work. Damian wondered if he should stay in college if he could not get all As. “What is wrong with me?” he thought.

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Case History 3: Imposter Syndrome: Alex Alex looked at the directions for her new essay assignment, a summary response paper. The directions seemed overly long and complex, so she skimmed through them. “Write a summary” grabbed her attention. She felt she knew how to do that. “Response just means to put down my own ideas.” Mr. Draper her high school English teacher, taught her to find the main idea by quickly skimming through the article, so she had done the same thing she did in high school. She clicked on the URL and previewed the article: “College Students Getting Enough Sleep is Vital to Academic Success.” “Easy,” she thought. “It’s about getting enough sleep. This won’t take me long.” Her mother came into the room and reminded her, in Spanish, that she promised to take her little sister to the park for an hour, so Alex closed her laptop and headed out. She met her fellow student Alonzo at the park. They had both had Mr. Draper in high school. “So we just write a summary? “she said. “Yeah. There’s a little more to it.You have to be sure to cite correctly.” He started to explain when Rosa, her sister, fell off the swing and started to cry. “Oh my God. I think she’s broken something.” Alex called her mom, who told her to go to the hospital, and Alonzo offered to drive them to the ER. The ER was crowded. Rosa whimpered and cried, “It hurts.” Three hours later, Rosa emerged with a cast and Alex forgot her summary entirely. The next morning, Alex woke up an hour before she had to leave for class. “Oh, no. The summary homework!” she remembered. “I can do it.” She opened a file on her laptop and started to type what she remembered of the article. “Students don’t get enough sleep, and they need to be more aware. The reasons are right here.” She typed furiously into the computer, then saved the file, uploaded it, and hit submit. Two days later, she received a notice that her paper had been graded. “Well, it won’t be an A,” she thought, “but I’m sure it was good enough for a C. C’s graduate.” She opened the assignment file and discovered a 0 and a stern reprimand for plagiarism. “Wow,” thought Alex, “if I can’t get a C on a dinky paper like that, I don’t belong in college.” 49

1.5 Growth Mindset Developing a growth mindset, the power of believing a person can improve, helps students engage more deeply in their education and their lives. In “The Power of Believing You Can Improve,” Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck describes growth mindset as “the power of ‘yet.’” She explains that children with a growth mindset understand “the idea that abilities can be developed. They engage deeply. Their brain is on fire with yet. They engage deeply. They process the error. They learn from it, and they correct it.”

Working on your growth mindset As you enter the academic discourse community and begin to learn the conventions required, you will find that you will need your growth mindset the most, what Dweck calls the “power of yet.” None of these conventions are hard to master. Setting up a paper in proper format may be a little tedious and annoying but you do many more difficult and complex things in the course of the day like managing your money, driving your car, or performing your job. Setting up a paper in the correct format simply means taking time and care to follow the directions. Developing a growth mindset means that you regard feedback as information rather than criticism.Your paper is not there “yet,” but there is no reason that with time and care, it cannot be there soon. When you interpret feedback as information, you feel confident in your own abilities and take further steps to join the academic discourse community. 50

Module 1 Review 1.1 Why use academic discourse and style? We develop new linguistic skills as we study to become part of an academic discipline and eventually our profession.These communities use specific professional conventions in written work. 1.2 Language Communities We already belong to several linguistic communities which speak and write with varying degrees of formality.We are more comfortable in the most familiar communities.We join an academic linguistic community by learning the writing conventions of that community. 1.2.1 Professional Writers and Language Communities Professional writers are also aware of when they adjust their writing to the language community of their audience. 1.2.2 The Rhetorical Triangle: Adjusting to your audience Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck wrote both passages. Just as Dweck does here, all writers must consider the relationship between their subject matter, their audience, and themselves 1.3 The Bilingual Advantage Bilingual students have a linguistic advantage since they are likely to be more sensitive to their linguistic environment. Anyone can start to become bilingual by taking classes in foreign languages. 1.4 Feeling like a linguistic outsider? “Imposter syndrome” describes the feelings students and teachers experience when they don’t feel they have earned their achievement. It can limit their growth in their profession. Imposter syndrome can be controlled. 1.5 Growth Mindset Developing a growth mindset, the power of believing a person can improve, helps students engage more deeply in their education and their lives.

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Glossary Academic discipline: a group of researchers and scholars who study similar subjects, for example, social science subjects like sociology and psychology, STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math), and humanities subjects like literature or philosophy. Disciplines change as the knowledge of the discipline develops. Many students enter interdisciplinary programs that cross disciplinary boundaries for example, cognitive science. Academic Discourse Community: a group of scholars or researchers who follow specific conventions of a particular disciplinary style in their writing. These conventions are set forth in handbooks published by organizations like MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychological Association), CSE (Council of Science Editors) and the University of Chicago Manual of Style, preferred by historians.

Bilingual person: a person who speaks, reads and writes two languages with equal fluency. Speech Community: a term drawn from linguistics applied to a group of people who use spoken language in a similar way.

Growth mindset: A term created by Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck referring to students who see failure as an opportunity for learning. She uses the terms “yet” and “not yet” to describe the process of learning.

Imposter Syndrome: a term used by psychologists to describe individuals who feel like they do not belong in an academic setting despite their achievements.

Metacognition: Sometimes defined as “thinking about thinking” or “big thinking,” metacognition refers to the self-aware process of reflecting on and evaluating your own thinking patterns. The process of metacognition allows us to uncover valuable strategies to help with our own learning.

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Works Cited Bhattacharjee, Yudhijit. “Why Bilinguals Are Smarter.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 17 Mar. 2012, www.nytimes.com/2012/03/18/opinion/sunday/the-benefits-of-bilingualism.html. Cox, Elizabeth. “What Is Imposter Syndrome and How Can You Combat It? ” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, August 2018, www.ted.com/talks/elizabeth_cox_what_is_imposter_syndrome_and_how_can_you_ combat_it. Dreifus, Claudia. “The Bilingual Advantage.” Interview with Ellen Bialystok. The New York Times, The New York Times, 30 May 2011, www.nytimes.com/2011/05/31/science/31conversation.html. Dweck, Carol. “Brainology.” NAIS, 2008, www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2008/ brainology/. Dweck, Carol. “The Power of Believing That You Can Improve.” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, November 2014, www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve? language=en.p[-08iu “Importance of Sleep & Effects of Sleep Deprivation on College Students.” American Academy of Sleep Medicine, Association for Sleep Clinicians and Researchers, 7 Jan. 2020, aasm.org/college-studentsgetting-enough-sleep-is-vital-to-academic-success/. Klawe, Maria. “Let’s Talk About Impostor Syndrome With Incoming Students.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 9 Oct. 2018, www.forbes.com/sites/mariaklawe/2018/10/08/lets-talk-about-impostor-syndrome/.

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MODULE 1 ASSIGNMENTS:  ACADEMIC LANGUAGE IS NO ONE’S MOTHER TONGUE 1.

Reading Assignment 

Reflect 1.1  2.

Where am I now and where am I going?

3.

Reading Assignment 

5.

Reading Assignment 

Student and professor language communities: Case History. 

Recognizing speech communities

Reflect 1.3 7.

1.2 Language communities

March 16

“Academic Language is No One’s Mother Tongue” Presentation

Reflect 1.2  6.

As you start this class, reflect on where you are now and where you want to go in the future. Write a letter to the self you want to be in five years. How will you get there? What strengths are you bringing? Where do you see the challenges? Respond fully in 250 words.

Presentation As you view the presentation “Academic Language is No One’s Mother Tongue,” fill out a research log. In the left column record the main ideas and short quotations; in the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions. Identify what aspects of academic language and conventions are new to you. What did you already know? 

Research Log 1.1 4.

1.1 Why use academic discourse and style?

Identify your speech communities. 

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In this dialogue, which of the professor’s words seem formal or technical? How do the students change those words? Which speech community seems more comfortable for you? Respond fully in 250 words. Fill out a language comfort rating organizer. Offer a few of your own words in each section as examples for each speech community. When you’ve completed the chart, discuss why you feel more comfortable in one community rather than another. When do you feel like an insider? When do you feel like an outsider? Respond fully in 250 words.

Reflect 1.4 8.

How writers change their speech community  Reflect 1.5

9.

How we change our speech communities to communicate to different audiences

Read both passages in the module. and draw a picture of the author (great art not required). Describe each picture. What differences do you notice between the passages? Respond fully in 250 words. Have you ever explained something technical to your family like a computer, car, internet concept, etc.? How did you have to change your speech to accommodate both language communities to communicate properly? Give specific examples. Respond fully in 250 words. Write each of the following: A rant about bad service that you might text to a best friend.

Reflect 1.6 10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

How we adapt our language to others.

Reading Assignment

Research Log 1.2  “The Bilingual Advantage”

A rant and request for suggestions on a place for good service on Facebook where your mother and aunt are friends and can see it. An email to the manager of the establishment where bad service was received, but with the intent of refund. Respond fully to all three prompts in 250 words.  1.3 The bilingual advantage Read “The Bilingual Advantage” by Claudia Dreyfus, and fill out a research log. In the left column record the main ideas and short quotations; in the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions.

Research Log 1.3 “Why Bilinguals Are Smarter.”

Read “Why Bilinguals Are Smarter” by Yudhijit Bhattacharjee and fill out a research log. In the left column record the main ideas and short quotations; in the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions.

Reading Assignment

1.4 Feeling like a linguistic outsider? Imposter syndrome can be controlled.

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Reflect 1.7  15.

16.

17.

Reflect on your own language communities.

Imposter syndrome Case History 1: Damian

Reading Assignment 

Imposter syndrome Case History 2: Alex

“What is Imposter Syndrome and How Can you Combat it?” Research Log 1.5

19.

20.

“What is Imposter Syndrome and How Can you Combat it?” Reading Assignment Research Log 1.6

21.

If you are not bilingual, consider how you change language communities during the day. When do you change the way you speak? Are you planning to learn a second language as part of your college education? Why or why not? Respond fully in 250 words.

Reading Assignment

Research Log 1.4  18.

If you are bilingual, reflect on a typical linguistic day. How much of the day do you spend speaking in the language of your family and culture, and how much of the day speaking in English? Do you move gracefully between languages? If you experience challenges, describe them. Respond fully in 250 words.

“The Power of Believing you Can Improve”

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View “What is Imposter Syndrome and How Can you Combat it?” by Elizabeth Cox and fill out a research log. In the left column record the main ideas and short quotations; in the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions Read “Let’s Talk About Imposter Syndrome,” by Maria Kiawe, and fill out a research log. In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations; in the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions 1.5 Growth mindset View “The Power of Believing you Can Improve” by Carol Dweck and fill out a research log. In the left column record the main ideas and short quotations; in the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions

22.

Research Log 1.7  “Brainology”

Read “Brainology” by Carol Dweck and fill out a research log. In the left column record the main ideas and short quotations; in the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions

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How Writers Change Their Speech Communities Organizer Read the following two passages. Think about the language community that best describes the author. Often, when children stop working in school, parents deal with this by reassuring their children how smart they are. We can now see that this simply fans the flames.

It confirms the fixed mindset and makes kids all the more certain that they don’t want to try something difficult—something that could lose them their parents’ high regard. How should we praise our students? How should we reassure them? By focusing them on the process they engaged in—their effort, their strategies, their concentration, their perseverance, or their improvement. “You really stuck to that until you got it. That’s wonderful!” “It was a hard project, but you did it one step at a time and it turned out great!”

Draw a picture of the author. Describe or paste a copy of the picture here.

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Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals’ implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved) Draw a picture of the author. Describe or paste a copy of the picture here.

Description of the author’s speech or discourse community. What specific words/features belong to this community?

Description of the author’s speech or discourse community What specific words/features belong to this community?

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Language Comfort Rating Organizer Language Community Family Community/Church Everyday college College major/ course of study Friends Work

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Sample phrase or saying

Bilingual (yes/no/ sometimes)

Rank your level of comfort in this language community (Indicate 5 for very comfortable to 1 for very uncomfortable)

MODULE 2: Taking control of academic time

At the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. Explore the academic and personal cost of procrastination. 2. Make a personal commitment to more practical and effective academic time management. 3. Practice effective academic time management. 4. Examine what attitudes motivate good time management. 5. Explore campus connections for success.

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Module 2 Preview 2.1 Procrastination and you Although it is human nature to procrastinate, unchecked procrastination may have severe consequences for a college student.You can control procrastination by making a commitment to manage your time by planning your schedule before you register for classes.You can lay out a schedule by understanding your workload and using both high-tech (digital calendars and scheduling apps) and low-tech planners to manage your time. 2.2 Making a commitment to managing your time Reduce your stress by taking control of how you manage your time. 2.3 Start planning how you will use time as early as possible. Don’t wait. Start planning your time at the beginning of the semester, or better, before the semester begins. Every minute counts. 2.4 A cost-benefit analysis to decide if college is the right choice for you. Many businesses routinely use cost-benefit analyses to make better decisions. In a cost-benefit analysis about your choice to go to college, you would weigh the costs—money, time, and loss of enjoyment against the benefits— the potential for better job opportunities, higher pay, and a more solid future. 2.5 Understanding the Carnegie unit helps you understand your academic workload. Calculating Carnegie units, or the number of units you earn for each class, helps you better manage your schedule with a weekly plan. One Carnegie unit equals at least three hours of study/prep time, so to understand your workload multiply the number of units per class by three or more, depending on the class. 2.6 Go low tech: a paper planning calendar or a calendar whiteboard You may be more likely to pay attention to your schedule on a whiteboard in your bedroom or a calendar on the refrigerator, something that you will see every day. Keep your schedule where you will notice it.

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2.7 Getting enough sleep is essential to college success. Getting enough sleep is essential to college success because students who sleep less usually earn lower grades and are more likely to drop out. 2.8 Setting priorities: admit you are not a superhero Establishing priorities can help you avoid conflicts about time so that you can work more efficiently. 2.9 Grit, hope, and 10,000 Hours: maintaining productive attitudes about time and achievement Mastery requires lots of time. Developing positive attitudes like grit, a growth mindset, a sense of purpose, and interest in your subject matter can help motivate you when you don’t feel like working. 2.9.1 Why grit is important Develop grit to help you reach your goals. 2.9.2 Grit is made from hope, purpose, interest. and practice. Cultivate your grit by developing a growth mindset, finding purpose, cultivating your interests, and making an effort to practice. 2.9.3 Mastery: why practice is essential Practice is essential to develop skills, including reading, writing, and thinking. 2.10 Managing time demands in writing courses Writing courses often demand more time for each assignment than other classes. Getting started early gives you more time for reflecting on your subject. 2.11 Dealing with setbacks Car accident? Broken leg? Contact your professor and ask for help. 2.12 Contacting your professor When setbacks happen, know how and where to contact your professor. Do so professionally and politely.

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2.13 Taking control of stress Develop courage and resilience in response to stress. Know where to find help, and don’t be afraid to ask for it. 2.14 Connecting with others and finding support College is a great place to connect with other students and begin friendships, some of which may last for a lifetime. 2.15 A treasure hunt: finding support on your campus Your campus has abundant resources to help you persevere in college. Find help when you need it.

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2.1 Procrastination and you Although it is human nature to procrastinate, unchecked procrastination may have severe consequences for a college student.You can control procrastination by making a commitment to manage your time by planning your schedule before you register for classes.You can lay out a schedule by understanding your workload and using both high-tech (digital calendars and scheduling apps) and low-tech planners to manage your time. Somehow, we seem to experience academic time—the calendar set by the course syllabus—differently than ordinary day-to-day time. Sometimes a semester seems like it will never end, then suddenly, there’s so much to do and so little time left to do it. Colleges and universities adhere to strict time schedules based on the Carnegie unit. While the Carnegie unit—the number of credits your course is assigned—is of great value because it makes your classes count toward your degree, it creates a system with rigid and often stressful deadlines. Students respond to this stress differently. Some manage it by using planners and whiteboards to organize their time. However, many succumb to the tendency to put things off: procrastination. Students who don’t control their time often feel unhappy and pressured. In his TED talk “Inside the Mind of a Master Procrastinator,” blogger Tim Urban describes the stress procrastinators create for themselves in the dynamics between the “rational decision-maker,” “the procrastination monkey,” and “the panic monster.” Urban describes the response to his TED talk:

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I was amazed by the response. Literally, thousands of emails came in, from all different kinds of people from all over the world, doing all different kinds of things.These are people who were nurses, bankers, painters, engineers, and lots and lots of Ph.D. students. And they were all writing, saying the same thing: “I have this problem too.” As Urban suggests, the most common reason students fail writing classes has little to do with writing. Even when things are going well, academic writing is complex, and it takes time to follow through on the complexities of research and the academic presentation of your work. It takes time to learn new writing habits. Often, students – even good students – underestimate the amount of time it takes to complete reading and writing assignments, and put them off until the last minute. Nothing feels worse than the fear and frustration you feel when you lack the time to write a good paper. If you don’t allow enough time to write, you may find yourself making false judgments about your abilities and potential. Almost all students struggle with academic writing because it makes so many cognitive demands on the writer because you must analyze and synthesize what you know and present it in a professional format. Feeling challenged doesn’t mean you are not capable; it means that you are growing as a reader and writer. Stretch yourself. Grow. Bright, capable students sometimes procrastinate because they have been talented enough to pull off dragging their feet. Sometimes it’s an exciting challenge to see if it can be done last minute, an adrenaline rush in an otherwise dull academic world. It is not a good idea to get into the habit of procrastinating, not matter why you do it. Unfortunately, students who are backed into a corner because they do not manage their time well are most likely to plagiarize. It’s a bad idea that only gets worse. However, many persist in the behavior that causes them disappointment, stress, a feeling of inadequacy, and frustration. Embrace your “rational decision-maker.” Admit you are human, prone to procrastination, and take steps to change that behavior.

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2.2 Making a commitment to managing your time Reduce your stress by taking control of how you manage your time. Changing procrastination behaviors starts with a commitment to better time management. Success in your writing courses, and in all your college courses, depends on how well you manage your time. In and out of college, many people believe they have superhuman tendencies and take on more work than they can realistically complete. So it’s essential that you create a workable balance between the many demands your life makes on you.

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2.3 Start planning your time as early as possible Don’t wait. Start planning your time at the beginning of the semester, or better, before the semester begins. Every minute counts. When you decide to register, you are making several significant commitments about time resources. Think about the “big picture” of your life. Consider your day-to-day demands from work and family. Pay particular attention to things you may need to give up if you take the time necessary to do well in school. Are you willing to give them up? What would be the consequences if you do? How would you feel? First, sketch out a rough a weekly schedule for your work. What are your biggest time commitments to others? How much time do you need for yourself—recreation, self-care, personal or spiritual development? How important is work? Are you able to be flexible, or does your job demand a well-defined schedule? Alternatively, if you have already registered, sketch out the big picture for the current semester.

Monday Morning

Afternoon Evening

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Tuesday

Wednesday Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

2.4 Complete a cost cost-benefit analysis to decide if college is the right choice for you. Many businesses routinely use cost-benefit analyses to make better decisions. In a cost-benefit analysis about your choice to go to college, you would weigh the costs—money, time, and loss of enjoyment against the benefits— the potential for better job opportunities, higher pay, and a more solid future. Businesses often use a cost-benefit analysis to help them make strategic decisions. A cost-benefit analysis can also help individuals make important life decisions. One student filled out this cost-benefit analysis to help him decide whether or not to stay in college. The cost of going to school

•

Tuition, books, transportation, and childcare are expensive.

•

I have less time with my loved ones.

•

I will have less time for my hobbies and interests.

The cost of not going to school •

I may be stuck in my low-paying job for a long time.

•

My mind will stagnate if I don’t learn anything new.

•

I won’t develop skills to make me more employable or allow me to advance at work.

•

I may feel isolated.

The benefits of going to school •

I can find a satisfying profession.

•

I will make more money in the future.

•

I will grow intellectually.

•

I will be part of a vibrant community.

The benefits of not going to school •

I have free time to spend with loved ones or pursue my interests.

•

I have more time to myself.

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Case History 1: Setting priorities: Prabjot Prabjot had been feeling unhappy lately because she was having trouble keeping her life in balance. She wondered if going to college was worth it. As the mother of three very bright and active boys, she spent a lot of time driving to and from activities and keeping her household working efficiently. She worked as a part-time bookkeeper for a family business and tried to take business and accounting classes at the college whenever she could. She found herself fatigued and worn a lot of the time. Sometimes she struggles to find the money for tuition and books, and she often needs a babysitter so she can go to classes only offered during the day. She misses spending time with her family in the evening because she had to attend night classes or study. During the school year, the family rarely did anything together for the same reason. Also, she couldn’t remember the last time she bought something or did something just for herself. Her husband had a good income, but it wasn’t going to be enough to put three children through college. She valued education and wanted her sons to achieve more than their parents. Prabjot felt that going back to college, the extra effort and hard work would help her get a better job, and be a role model for her children, too. She had always been a good student and loved to study. And, as much as she loved her family, her routine often bored her. She loved her electives, especially history and psychology, and was an honors student in high school. Prabjot knew she was capable of becoming a Certified Public Accountant but didn’t know whether or not she had the stamina. Prabjot considered dropping out but thought she would feel like a failure and a bad role model for her sons if she quit. 70

2.5 Understanding the Carnegie unit helps you understand your academic workload. Calculating Carnegie units, or the number of units you earn for each class, helps you better manage your schedule with a weekly plan. “Academic time” is the workload in your courses. It is based on the “Carnegie Unit,” created in 1906 and named after philanthropist Andrew Carnegie who contributed to educational reform. All work in high school and college is measured in Carnegie units. Keep in mind that your college classes will demand more than attendance. Academic workload is based on transfer agreements with four-year colleges and universities. Together, academic institutions decide how much work will be required to make your high school or community college course transferable to a different institution. It is what gives your course academic value. Perhaps it’s comforting to know that every student in freshman English, nationwide, is required to do roughly the same amount of work. Most colleges define a “four-hour class” as a class requiring four one-hour sessions per week. Most freshman composition classes, although not all, are four-hour classes. Homework for a four Carnegie unit class is generally computed at two hours per classroom hour, or eight hours a week to complete a four Carnegie unit class. So the total time commitment for a four Carnegie unit class should be twelve hours a week, four hours for the actual class, and eight hours for the homework. It is important that you understand this so you can plan your weekly schedule effectively. Differently put, for every one hour of class, there are two hours of homework. So a fifteen-unit load would be fifteen class hours and thirty hours of homework for a hypothetical 45-hour commitment to your education which is slightly more than a full-time job. Of course, not every class is equally demanding, and some weeks demand more work than others.Your takeaway here is this – treat college as your primary job. Our chart would now look like this:

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Monday

Tuesday

Statistics

8 a.m.

Wednesday

Thursday

Statistics

(3 hours)

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Statistics

9 a.m English

10 a.m.

English

(4 hours)

11 a.m. 12 noon Psychology

1 p.m.

(3 hours) Biology and Lab

2 p.m.

(5 hours) Lab

3 p.m.

Psychology

Psychology

Biology

Biology

Lab

4 p.m. 5 p.m. 6 p.m. 7-10 p.m.

The chart we just looked at doesn’t appear challenging, but this chart represents only the actual time spent in class. Look at it again after adding the hypothetical thirty hours of study time.You probably won’t need to study this much every week, but it’s a good idea to plan for that time. Crunch weeks will happen. It’s always better to find that you have unplanned free time instead of scrambling last minute, panicked, to find the time you need to study or complete an assignment.

8 a.m.

Monday

Tuesday

Statistics (3 hours)

2 hours study time

4 hours study time

English

Wednesday

Thursday

Statistics

2 hours study time

Friday

Saturday

Statistics

5 hours study time

Sunday

9 a.m 10 a.m.

(4 hours)

3 hours study time

English (4 hours)

3 hours study time

11 a.m. 12 noon 1 p.m.

Psychology (3 hours)

2 hour study time

Psychology

2 p.m

Biology and Lab (5 hours)

Biology

3 p.m.

Lab

Lab

2 hour study time

Biology 5 hours study time

4 p.m. 5 p.m. 6 p.m. 7-10 p.m.

3 hours study time

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Psychology

3 hours study time

For many students, life is complicated, and those remaining hours are precious, dedicated to family and working at a job that makes college possible. Of course, not every week will be equally demanding. However, the middle of the semester and the end of the semester are notorious for adding extra stress and work, as are the weeks when papers are due.

Case History 2: Planning a study schedule: Anayeli Anayeli is taking fifteen units this semester, including history, math, English, and physics. She has history and math under control at two hours each week, but this week she has a physics midterm on Thursday from two to four. She also has a paper due online Sunday at midnight for her English composition class. She works twenty hours a week as a barista and spends at least ten hours a week helping her family with chores and childcare. She has been invited to a party on Saturday night, and her grandparents want to take her out for breakfast on Sunday when her paper is due. She has promised to drop her little brother off at school every morning at eight a.m. and wants to visit her seriously ill cousin in the hospital at least once a week. She didn’t do well on her last paper. Anayeli had trouble with formatting, and her professor insisted that she learn to avoid plagiarism on the following paper. She is not sure how to do that. Anayeli thinks she needs to meet with her professor or a peer mentor while she is writing her paper but is not sure that she has the time. The Student Success Center is open daily from nine a.m. to six p.m. but is closed on weekends. Her professor’s office hours are posted. What work schedule should she ask for? How should she arrange her family obligations? 73

Anayeli’s Week 1 7 a.m. 8 a.m.

Monday

9 a.m.

History class

History class

Math Class

Math class

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Saturday

Sunday

History Class

10 a.m. 11 a.m.

English professor’s office hours

12 noon

Math class English professor’s office hours

1 p.m. 2 p.m.

Physics class English class Physics class English class Physics class and lab and lab and lab

3 p.m. 4 p.m. 5 p.m. 6 p.m. 7-11:59 p.m. Anayeli’s Week 2 7 a.m. 8 a.m.

Monday

9 a.m

History class

History class

History class

10 a.m. 11 a.m.

Math class

Math class

Math class

Tuesday

English professor’s office hours

12 noon

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

English professor’s office hours

1 p.m. 2 p.m

Physics class English class Physics class English class and lab and lab

3 p.m. 4 p.m. 5 p.m. 6 p.m. 7-11:59 p.m.

Physics Midterm

English Paper Due

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2.6 Go low tech: a paper planning calendar or a calendar whiteboard You may be more likely to pay attention to your schedule on a whiteboard in your bedroom or a calendar on the refrigerator. Keep your schedule where you will notice it. A computer calendar version of your weekly schedule is always helpful, but sometimes low-tech works better.You might pay more attention to a whiteboard on your bedroom wall or a calendar on your refrigerator. Find a free or inexpensive calendar. Number the weeks in your semester and mark any holidays or breaks. Note all personal events you don’t want to miss, such as family vacations, birthdays, weddings, parties, and appointments. Using different colored pens, write down your most important due dates and exams — plan in advance for any conflict.

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2.7 Getting enough sleep is essential to college success. Getting enough sleep is essential to college success because students who sleep less usually earn lower grades and are more likely to drop out.

Balancing your schedule, including time to sleep, is essential to college success. Good time planning is critical to getting good grades. Maintaining a strong grade point average helps you achieve your career goals. In “When a C isn’t Good Enough,” Students with Cs are more likely to drop out, notes a University of Arizona study Students who don’t get enough sleep are more likely to get Cs, reports Association for Sleep Clinicians and Researchers in “College Students Getting Enough Sleep is Vital to Academic Success.” As you fill in your schedule, make time for self-care. It would be best if you got a good night’s sleep, your room needs to be cleaned, and your laundry needs to be done.You need to spend time with friends and family to maintain good mental health. If you neglect these aspects of your life, things start to fall apart.

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2.8 Setting priorities: admit you are not a superhero Establishing priorities can help you avoid conflicts about time so that you can work more efficiently. Establishing priorities can help you avoid conflicts about time. Most of us believe we are capable of great things, and we often are. However, sometimes it’s easier to take on more than we can do. As humans, we have a limited amount of time, energy, and attention, and it’s easy to become overloaded. So before we start planning a semester, it’s important to determine our strengths, priorities, and limitations to use our personal resources most efficiently. The key is to prioritize. Sometimes, priorities clash and we feel conflicted.You want to spend time with someone you love, but you have a paper due.You haven’t been sleeping well because of work demands, but you have a chapter to read. Look at your planning schedule and ask, “How can I possibly get all this done?” The answer is, what steps can you take to create a balance in your life?

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Case History 3: Managing the unexpected: Millie Millie wanted to be a nurse for as long as she could remember, but she really hadn’t been ready to buckle down and do the hard work in chemistry, anatomy, and physiology, so she became a Certified Nurse’s Assistant right out of high school. After Millie had been working a couple of years, she met Sean and fell in love. He had a great job, so after giving birth to Cierra, Millie felt like she didn’t need to work. However, Sean didn’t last. He moved out of state and married someone else, and Millie found herself, at age twenty-five, working in a doctor’s office and could hardly make ends meet. Millie concluded that she made a mistake not pursuing a nursing degree, and now with a two-year-old to raise, the nursing degree was more important than ever. She knew she needed to get an A in her English class to be accepted into the very competitive program. So far, so good. Millie turned in all her work on time, found help with revisions, and was holding steady at an A-. Not bad for a single mother working full time, she told herself. Not only that, she even had a new relationship starting with Javier, another student at her college. On Thursday, the day before her last paper was due, Cierra woke up with a terrible cough and a high fever. Millie called into work and took the day off; she knew there was something wrong. The doctor at Urgent Care sent her directly to the hospital ER, and she knew they would be there for hours. Millie was supposed to meet Javier for coffee and a study session for an hour right after work; he was going to peer review her paper then. Although her professor had been lenient with deadlines, this was the last possible day to turn in her paper. She could turn it in as is and probably get a C for the paper and a B for the class, but that would put her grades for getting into nursing school at risk. Millie could call her mother and ask her to wait with Cierra while she went home and worked on her paper, but “what kind of mom does that?” she thought. Millie decided not to turn the paper in, fail the class, and take it over again to get a good grade.

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2.9 Grit, hope, and 10,000 Hours: maintaining productive attitudes about time and achievement Mastery requires lots of time. Developing positive attitudes like grit, a growth mindset, a sense of purpose, and interest in your subject matter can help motivate you when you don’t feel like working.

Once you have made the commitment to a college schedule, established your priorities, and enrolled in classes, you will face a substantial issue: completing all of the work required and meeting deadlines. Without solid time management skills, you may feel a lot of stress as deadlines approach. To complete your work successfully, you will need the character trait called “grit.”

2.9.1 Grit is important. Develop grit to help you reach your goals. Psychologist Angela Lee Duckworth studies the role of self-discipline and perseverance as students work toward their goals in life. In her video: Grit: The Power and Passion of Perseverance Duckworth describes grit as

. . . passion and perseverance for very long-term goals. Grit is having stamina. Grit is sticking with your future, day in, day out, not just for the week, not just for the month, but for years, and working really hard to make that future a reality. Grit is living life like it’s a marathon, not a sprint. 79

Getting through a semester’s worth of work in several classes may feel like running a marathon even if you have efficiently managed your time, but the feeling of accomplishment when you finish is worth it.You are closer to reaching your professional goals. Duckworth created a “grit” scale quiz on her website where you can measure where you stand compared to the population at large. Honest answers to her questions will provide you with information about your ability to persevere and help you make the changes you need to thrive in college.

2.9.2 Grit is made from hope, purpose, interest. and practice. Cultivate your grit by developing a growth mindset, finding purpose, cultivating your interests, and making an effort to practice. Four distinct characteristics work together to create grit. In “The Power and Problem of Grit,” journalists Shakir Vendantam, Maggie Penman, and Max Nestea report that, according to Duckworth, grit is composed of “four key psychological assets: interest, practice, purpose, and hope.” Duckworth looks to Dweck’s “growth mindset” as “hope,” an important motivator. “Purpose,” knowing why you are doing the work, can help you find a direction, and finding your own interest in or passion for the work itself can also drive you forward. Last but not least, practice, the amount of time you spend on your learning, allows you to become an expert.

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2.9.3 Mastery: why practice is essential Practice is essential to develop skills, including reading, writing, and thinking. In his book Outliers, journalist Malcolm Gladwell emphasizes the role of practice. He argues that it takes 10,000 hours to achieve expertise in any field. He explains, citing the work of neurologist Daniel Levitin, that “the emerging picture from such studies is that ten thousand hours of practice is required to achieve the level of mastery associated with being a world c­ lass expert—in anything,”… It seems that it takes the brain this long to assimilate all that it needs to know to achieve true mastery.” For many, 10,000 hours or x years seems like a very long time. If you worked at something for twenty hours a week, about three to four hours a day, you would be able to achieve mastery in ten years. Think about people who are really good at their professions: doctors, lawyers, airline pilots, and professional athletes —especially surfers! Think about all of the years they trained or went to school and all the years they worked as an apprentice in their profession. All that time spent honing a skill adds up. This number may seem intimidating as you start this journey. Talent, of course, plays an important role too. However, a strong work ethic driven by hope, purpose, and interest creates the perseverance necessary to go the distance needed to approach mastery. Mastery, in the end, is not reachable because we can always learn something new. It is the journey, not the destination, that is important.

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2.10 Managing time demands in writing courses Writing courses often demand more time for each assignment than other classes. Getting started early gives you more time for reflecting on your subject. Writing poses unique problems for students. Few people feel comfortable writing on demand, as college courses require. Some feel like they must wait for inspiration, which may or may not arrive in time to meet a syllabus deadline. Others suffer from perfectionism and feel they need enough time to make the paper “perfect,” refraining from writing until they can find enough time, which like inspiration, may never occur. Still, others are afraid to write because they anticipate criticism from their peers and instructor due to a fixed rather than a growth mindset. Writing academic papers requires a growth mindset – your hope to be a better writer – in order to understand and use peer and instructor feedback to revise your papers.Your growth mindset will help you see comments as information rather than criticism.

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If you understand the purpose of a writing class in your journey toward a profession, you will engage more deeply with your writing assignments. Even though assignments may not directly relate to your future vocation, completing them gives you a chance to practice the essential critical thinking skills that every employer demands. They help you shape your work to an audience, another valuable workplace ability. They will sharpen your vocabulary and sentence structure, helping you to maintain credibility. It is much easier to put ten hours into a paper when you understand why you are writing it. In order to find ten hours to write and revise a paper, you need to take control of your time. Be realistic about due dates.Your teacher might provide you with a week-by-week schedule of due dates, and if they don’t, learning management systems such as Canvas allow you to see the semester-long demands of your course. Some professors are very strict about due dates, but others are more relaxed. Don’t assume that the policy is the same from professor to professor, or the same as you experienced in high school. Carefully read your professor’s policies on late work at the beginning of the semester and ask for clarification if you need it.Your professor will tell you clearly in the course syllabus. Be sure to meet the deadlines stated in the syllabus. Start taking control of your writing schedule by printing out the syllabus or use the schedule provided by your professor. Annotate it carefully. Understand the demands of the semester ahead of you. Pencil in any personal responsibilities or occasions that might interfere with your performance in the class, and if you need to make adjustments, contact your professor well in advance. Do this for your other classes as well. Looking at the semester-long picture, you might see “crunch weeks” when a biology midterm and an English paper are due in the same week. Adjust your schedule accordingly: study in small bursts, so your biology material goes into your long-term memory, and start your paper early. •

Starting is the hardest part. Don’t put off starting until you feel you have a considerable period of free time. Write the first sentence, the first paragraph, the first page, and let it “cook.” You will think about your project even though you are not actually writing.

•

Starting makes it easier to finish. Even if you have a wobbly start, you will likely think about your paper even if you are not working on it.

•

Put away perfectionism.You will never have time to write a perfect first draft. Accomplish what you can in the time that you have and come back to it.

•

Information goes into long-term memory when you study regularly rather than cramming at the end. Set up a plan to review material for short periods, ten to fifteen minutes, several times a week rather than a long cramming session at the end before exams.

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2.11 Don’t let setbacks derail your progress. Car accident? Broken leg? Contact your professor and ask for help. Life rarely goes the way we plan. We all hope that a predictable routine will set in when the semester starts, and all will go as carefully planned. Then the car breaks down, or a child gets sick. With luck, nothing worse happens, but it often does and we’re distracted by family or personal emergencies, which sap our energy and attention. Most professors and their institutions are empathetic when these situations arise, but you must understand absence and lateness policies before anything goes wrong. If things go wrong toward the end of the semester, remember that most colleges and universities offer incomplete grades. In a well-worded email, make your case for the incomplete: list the work you have finished, what you still need to do, and a time frame in which you will do it. Offer to provide documentation, a note from your doctor, for example, to confirm or substantiate the problem.

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2.12 Contacting your professor professionally and politely. When setbacks happen, know where to contact your professor. Do so professionally and politely. You should always feel free to email or call your professor when a problem arises. They usually include a contact page on the learning management system that includes a phone number, office locations, and hours they are available.You can also find this information on the People Finder web page for your college, or you can contact a department office. Email usually works best. When you email, be sure to follow the conventions of academic etiquette. One email will suffice. Wait politely for a response. Many professors mention how many days they will take to respond to an email on their syllabi, so look for that information before you send another email. Make sure you write the email in a professional tone. If you don’t get the answer you want, do not argue with the professor. If your problem is serious and cannot be resolved, you can usually make an appointment with the academic division’s dean and work toward a resolution with them involved. Be sure your message is clear in the emails you send.

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2.13 Take control of stress. Develop courage and resilience in response to stress. Know where to find help, and don’t be afraid to ask for it. Both professors and students can be sure that at some time in our college career, we will feel stressed, probably more often than we like. So we need to work on controlling our response to stress since it is impossible to avoid. It is hard for many of us to believe that stress can be positive. However, in her TED Talk, “How to Make Stress Your Friend,” health psychologist Kelly McGonigal explains two positive ways we can respond to stress. First, we can take the “pounding heart” as a sign that our body is ready for action and respond with courage. Second, we can use the hormone oxytocin, which the body releases to encourage us to bond with others by seeking or giving help. In McGonigal’s words,

. . . the harmful effects of stress on your health are not inevitable. How you think and how you act can transform your experience of stress. When you choose to view your stress response as helpful, you create the biology of courage. And when you choose to connect with others under stress, you can create resilience.

“Courage” and “resilience” are not easy to develop, but they can turn a negative experience into a positive one. How do you respond to stress? Do you experience the heart-pounding and related symptoms that McGonigal mentions? What do you do to control it?

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2.14 Connect with others and find support. College is a great place to connect with other students and begin friendships, some of which may last for a lifetime.

College is a great place to connect with other students and begin friendships, some of which may last for a lifetime.You will find many clubs, activities, and honor societies that fit your interests and professional goals—history club, pre-med club, journalism club, sports, and drama productions, to name a few.Your Associated Students office or Student Union can help you find a club, organization, or activity to suit you. Many students don’t realize how much support is available to them at their college. When things go wrong, you can usually find people to help you. Academic support can be found at the Student Success or Tutorial Center or a Math Lab. Many colleges offer personal and financial counseling and food banks. Disabled student services reaches out to students with special needs or learning disabilities. The Career and Transfer Center can help you find a job right now or structure a transfer agreement for the future. a

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2.15 Find support by hunting for treasure on your campus. Knowing how to find campus resources is the first step in getting help. Colleges invest in many student support services which are free for students. Take advantage of these services when challenges arrive. Help is there when you need it—you just need to ask. Using your college’s website, identify where you would find help for these challenges:

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Challenge

Resource

I am failing a lecture class

Tutorial Center or Student Success Center

I got a bad grade on my English paper.

Writing Center

A problem in a relationship is keeping me from studying

Personal Counseling

I don’t have enough money for food.

Food Pantry

I need a job.

Career Center

I want to go to a particular university when I transfer.

Transfer Center

My learning disability means I need extra time on tests.

Disabled Student Services

I need a flu shot, and I can’t afford it.

Nurse’s Office

I need financial help to stay in college next semester.

Financial Aid Office

I am not sure how to find a credible reference for my paper. And I don’t know how to cite it.

Library Reference Desk

On my Campus

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Module 2 Review 2.1 Procrastination and you Although it is human nature to procrastinate, unchecked procrastination may have severe consequences for a college student.You can control procrastination by making a commitment to manage your time by planning your schedule before you register for classes.You can lay out a schedule by understanding your workload and using both high-tech (digital calendars and scheduling apps) and low-tech planners to manage your time. 2.2 Making a commitment to managing your time Reduce your stress by taking control of how you manage your time. 2.3 Start planning how you will use time as early as possible. Don’t wait. Start planning your time at the beginning of the semester, or better, before the semester begins. Every minute counts. 2.4 A cost-benefit analysis to decide if college is the right choice for you. Many businesses routinely use cost-benefit analyses to make better decisions. In a cost-benefit analysis about your choice to go to college, you would weigh the costs—money, time, and loss of enjoyment against the benefits— the potential for better job opportunities, higher pay, and a more solid future. 2.5 Understanding the Carnegie unit helps you understand your academic workload. Calculating Carnegie units, or the number of units you earn for each class, helps you better manage your schedule with a weekly plan. One Carnegie unit equals at least three hours of study/prep time, so to understand your workload multiply the number of units per class by three or more, depending on the class. 2.6 Go low tech: a paper planning calendar or a calendar whiteboard You may be more likely to pay attention to your schedule on a whiteboard in your bedroom or a calendar on the refrigerator, something that you will see every day. Keep your schedule where you will notice it.

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2.7 Getting enough sleep is essential to college success. Getting enough sleep is essential to college success because students who sleep less usually earn lower grades and are more likely to drop out. 2.8 Setting priorities: admit you are not a superhero Establishing priorities can help you avoid conflicts about time so that you can work more efficiently. 2.9 Grit, hope, and 10,000 Hours: maintaining productive attitudes about time and achievement Mastery requires lots of time. Developing positive attitudes like grit, a growth mindset, a sense of purpose, and interest in your subject matter can help motivate you when you don’t feel like working. 2.9.1 Why grit is important Develop grit to help you reach your goals. 2.9.2 Grit is made from hope, purpose, interest. and practice. Cultivate your grit by developing a growth mindset, finding purpose, cultivating your interests, and making an effort to practice. 2.9.3 Mastery: why practice is essential Practice is essential to develop skills, including reading, writing, and thinking. 2.10 Managing time demands in writing courses Writing courses often demand more time for each assignment than other classes. Getting started early gives you more time for reflecting on your subject. 2.11 Dealing with setbacks Car accident? Broken leg? Contact your professor and ask for help. 2.12 Contacting your professor When setbacks happen, know how and where to contact your professor. Do so professionally and politely.

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2.13 Taking control of stress Develop courage and resilience in response to stress. Know where to find help, and don’t be afraid to ask for it. 2.14 Connecting with others and finding support College is a great place to connect with other students and begin friendships, some of which may last for a lifetime. 2.15 A treasure hunt: finding support on your campus Your campus has abundant resources to help you persevere in college. Find help when you need it.

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Glossary Academic time—Many colleges and universities measure academic time in semesters, or half an academic year, typically fifteen to eighteen weeks long. Others use quarters or ten to twelve-week sessions. The summer session is usually separate and can run from a few weeks to a full quarter. Carnegie unit—invented by Andrew Carnegie, the Carnegie unit measures the number of hours a student spends per week in a particular course. Most college courses are three to four-unit courses, meaning that the student spends three to four hours a week in the classroom. A student needs to spend a certain number of hours in class in order to graduate. Carnegie units measure this achievement. Carnegie units give classes transfer value, as the amount of work can be assumed to be the same at different institutions. Growth mindset—the knowledge that you can change your academic mindset for the better, points you toward the future, and provides hope. Grit—also called perseverance, describes your ability to stick to your practice and achieve your goals. Interest—or passion, an important ingredient of grit, is an essential intrinsic motivator. Mastery—describes a high level of expertise in a subject. Mastery can never be fully achieved, only approached. Practice—of course, means a repetitive system of learning, but it can also refer to the routines and protocols you use to achieve that goal. For example, you may follow the practice of writing a certain amount of time a day. Purpose—means setting goals and understanding why you want to achieve that goal. Understanding your purpose helps motivate you and supports the development of grit. Priorities—a system for evaluating your choice of actions. Priorities require making hard choices about your life. Transfer agreements—ensure that courses have equal value in all institutions of higher learning. A transfer agreement might determine the number of hours a course meets a week and the amount of work required, for example, a specific word count in writing classes. Syllabus, plural syllabi—the written outline of your course requirements and due dates. Some teachers use paper syllabi, and others present them entirely online in a course management system like Canvas.

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Works Cited Duckworth, Angela Lee. “Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance.” TED, Apr. 2013, www.ted.com/ talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_of_passion_and_perseverance? language=en. “Importance of Sleep & Effects of Sleep Deprivation on College Students.” American Academy of Sleep Medicine – Association for Sleep Clinicians and Researchers, 7 Jan. 2020, aasm.org/college-studentsgetting-enough-sleep-is-vital-to-academic-success/. Kovacs, Casia. “When a C Isn’t Good Enough .” Students Who Earn C’s in Gateway Courses Are Less Likely to Graduate, New Data Show, Inside Higher Ed, 23 Sept. 2016, www.insidehighered.com/ news/2016/09/23/students-who-earn-cs-gateway-courses-are-less-likely-graduate-new-data-show. McGonigal, Kelly. “How to Make Stress Your Friend.” TED, June 2013, www.ted.com/talks/kelly_mcgonigal_how_to_make_stress_your_friend. “‘The 10,000 Hour Rule.’” Outliers: Why Some People Succeed and Some Don’t, by Malcolm Gladwell, Little Brown & Co., 2008. Urban, Tim. “Inside the Mind of a Master Procrastinator.” TED, Feb. 2016, www.ted.com/talks/tim_urban_inside_the_mind_of_a_master_procrastinator. Vedantam, Shankar, et al. “The Power and Problem Of Grit.” The Power and Problem Of Grit | WBUR News, WBUR, 5 Apr. 2016, www.wbur.org/npr/472162167/the-power-and-problem-of-grit.

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MODULE 2 ASSIGNMENTS: TAKING CONTROL OF ACADEMIC TIME 1.

Reading Assignment Research Log 2.1

2.

3.

4.

5.

“Inside the Mind of a Master Procrastinator” Reading Assignment 

Reflect 2.1  How busy are you?

Reading Assignment 

Reflect 2.2 

2.1 Procrastination and you As you watch “Inside the Mind of a Master Procrastinator,” fill out a research log. In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions. 2.2 Making a commitment to managing your time Reflect on your time management this semester. How many activities do you have to juggle in your life, including school? How will you find the several hours a week necessary for success in this class? What will you do if you get behind? Most importantly, how will you avoid “the dark playground”? Respond fully in 250 words. 2.3 Start planning your time as early as possible What does your week look like? Sketch out a rough weekly schedule for your work. What are your biggest time commitments to others? How much time do you need for yourself— recreation, self-care, personal, or spiritual development? How important is work? Are you able to be flexible, or does your job demand a well-defined schedule? If you have already registered, sketch out the big picture for the current semester. 

6.

What does your week look like?

7.

Reading Assignment

2.4 A Cost-Benefit Analysis

8.

Reading Assignment 

2.5 The Carnegie Unit: Understanding your academic workload

9.

Reading Assignment

2.6 Go low tech: a paper planning calendar or a calendar whiteboard

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Reflect 2.3 10.

Create a cost-benefit analysis for Prabjot

Reflect 2.4 11.

Create a cost-benefit analysis for yourself.

Reflect 2.5 12.

Plot a two-week schedule for Anayeli

Reflect 2.6 13.

14.

Plot a one-week schedule for yourself

Reading Assignment Research Log 2.2

15.

16.

17.

“Getting Enough Sleep is Vital to Academic Success” Reading Assignment

Reflect 2.7 Reflect on Millie’s priorities.

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Fill out a cost-benefit analysis for Prabjot. What do you see as her alternatives? What advice would you give her, friend to friend? Respond fully in 250 words. Create a cost-benefit analysis for the advantages vs. disadvantages of going to college. Then reflect on whether the costs of going to school are worth the time and money you need to invest. What alternatives do you have? How acceptable do you consider them? Respond fully in 250 words. Download a schedule organizer. Plot out a two-week study schedule for Anayeli. What work schedule should she ask for? How should she arrange her family obligations? Respond fully in 250 words. Download a schedule organizer. Carefully plan your own workable schedule for a typical week in the semester. Start by entering your classes and all of your non-negotiable time commitments to work and family. What time do you have left to study? Do you have enough time to meet all of your academic commitments? Respond fully in 250 words. 2.7 Getting enough sleep As you view “Getting Enough Sleep is Vital to Academic Success,”  fill out a research log. In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, note your thoughts, feelings, and questions. 2.8 Setting priorities: admit you are not a superhero If you were Millie’s friend, what would you advise her to do? Can you think of any solutions that might not have occurred to her? If you were in the same situation, how would you arrange your priorities? Respond fully in 250 words.

18.

19.

Reflect 2.8 Identify your priorities.

Reading Assignment

20.

Research Log 2.3 “Grit: The Power and Passion of Perseverance”

21.

Research Log 2.4 “The Power and Problem of Grit”

22.

Reflect 2.9 Your grit scale

In no particular order, jot down your priorities in life on a piece of paper, then fill out a priorities organizer. Below the organizer, reflect on your priorities. Indicate where you can be flexible? What do you refuse to change? Respond fully in 250 words. 2.9 Grit, hope, and 10,000 Hours: maintaining productive attitudes about time and achievement As you view “Grit: The Power and Passion of Perseverance,” fill out a research log. In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions.  As you read “The Power and Problem of Grit,” fill out a research log. In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions. Find out where you rate on the “grit” scale on Angela Duckworth’s website and report your score. What insights did you gain from taking the quiz? Respond fully in 250 words. 

23.

Reading Assignment

2.9.1 Why grit is important

24.

Reading Assignment

2.9.2 What is grit made from? Hope. Purpose. Interest. Practice.

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Describe your hope for your future. Ideally, what would your life look like in 5 years? In ten? How will maintaining a growth mindset help you get there? Reflect 2.10 25.

Hope, Purpose, Interest, and Practice

What subjects or activities give you a sense of purpose? How do these subjects or activities make you feel like you know why you want to engage? What are your most compelling academic interests? What subjects make you want to know more? What interests inspire you to practice? What profession is worth your 10,000 hours? Respond fully in 250 words.

26.

Reading Assignment

Research log 2.5

27.

28.

Reflect 2.11  Reflect on achieving mastery.

2.4.3 Mastery: why practice is essential As you read “Outliers,” fill out a research log. In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions. In what subjects or activities do you feel like you have approached mastery? Describe what it took to get to that point? If you haven’t achieved mastery, in what subjects or activities would you like to try to achieve mastery? Describe a plan for doing so. Identify elements of your thinking that prevent you from approaching mastery. What can you do to stay on your path when distractions interfere? Respond fully in 250 words.

29.

Reading Assignment

Reflect 2.12 30.

Reflect on course demands and personal challenges

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2.10 Managing time demands in writing courses You are only a few weeks into your first college writing class. Perhaps these are also your first weeks of college. What challenges do this and other courses pose for you? Does any particular challenge seem insurmountable? Where can you go for help? Do you feel comfortable contacting your professor? Respond fully in 250 words.

31.

Reading Assignment

2.11 Dealing with setbacks

32.

Reading Assignment

2.12 Contacting your professor

33.

Reading Assignment

2.13 Taking control of stress

34.

Research Log 2.6 “How to Make Stress Your Friend”

35.

Reflect 2.13 How do you respond to stress?

36. 37.

38.

As you view “How to Make Stress Your Friend,” fill out a research log. In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions. How do you respond to stress? Do you experience the heart-pounding and related symptoms that McGonigal mentions? What do you do to control it? Respond fully in 250 words.

Reading Assignment

2.14 Connecting with others and finding support

Reflection 2.15

Complete a Campus Treasure Hunt Organizer.

Reflection 2.16 How well do you control your academic time? 

It is almost certain that you understand the importance of time management. How does your time management get out of control? How do you rationalize (give good reasons instead of real reasons) procrastination? Honestly analyze your time management skills. What patterns do you see emerging so far this semester? What patterns have helped you in the past? Which ones have interfered with your success either in a college class or outside college? Respond fully in 250 words.

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MODULE 3: Before you write: f inding your frame of mind

At the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. Examine how changing our mindset can have a positive effect on our writing. 2. Explore how changes to our self-regulation processes can improve how we manage our workload. 3. Identify intrinsic motivators in order to move toward flow in our creative processes. 4. Review student learning outcomes and objectives for an overview of context. 5. Develop strategies for better understanding the objectives of assignments.

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Module 3 Preview 3.1. What if? Find your growth mindset before you sit down to write. Developing a growth mindset makes it easier to start writing because “mistakes” become information for revision. 3.2 Some thinking stops writing: assuming, overcomplicating, rushing, and self-doubt. A fixed mindset can make it almost impossible to start writing a paper; overcoming a limiting mindset is the first step to writing well. 3.3 Perfectionism may slam on the brakes in your writing process. Perfectionism, a fixed mindset, often leads to writer’s block; allowing yourself to write a less-than-perfect first draft is the best way to get started. 3.4 Developing a growth mindset may change the way you think about your college writing assignments. Developing a growth mindset helps you understand the difference between feedback as information and feedback as criticism. 3.5 Understanding if/then thinking helps you make good time management choices. Making good choices about time management is the first step to writing well. 3.6 Delaying gratification helps you stay focused in an instant-gratification world. Finding strategies for staying focused on writing allows us to progress with a challenging assignment. 3.7 Discover the joy of writing by finding intrinsic motivation and moving toward a flow state. Finding intrinsic motivation helps you move to a “flow state,” the best way of all. 3.8 Finding motivation within. Looking for motivation outside reward and punishment systems helps you see your writing in the larger context of your life and career.

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3.9 When you get stuck, find a way to persist. Anyone can get stuck on a writing assignment. Develop a strategy for persevering. 3.10 Understand the “why” of your college writing assignments. Colleges and universities have set forth strict standards for writing courses based on what they believe students need to know to be successful college writers. Understanding the standards outlined in student learning outcomes and student learning objectives helps you better understand why your professor made the assignment and what you may expect to learn from completing it. 3.10.1 Student learning outcomes. 3.10.2 Student learning objectives. 3.11 Writing with a purpose Each writing assignment has a specific purpose. Avoid assuming that all writing assignments are the same. Carefully read and review your writing assignment in all of your classes to be sure you understand the directions. 3.12 Understanding the language of your assignment. Different assignments ask you to do different tasks so you can develop a wide range of writing and critical thinking skills. Be sure you understand the purpose of your assignment before you begin to write. 3.13 Paper requirements may differ from academic discipline to discipline. Don’t panic if you get stuck on a writing assignment in a class other than English. Start by reviewing the concepts. Complete a research log on the assignment, and don’t be afraid to ask your professor or a tutor for help. 3.14 Open-ended topics pose new challenges. Sometimes professors give unclear directions to test your critical thinking skills and determine your ability to organize your paper. Address this challenge by creating a clear research question. 3.15.Take this age-old advice: follow the directions. It may seem obvious, but many students create unnecessary work by not reading the directions carefully. Save time and frustration: read directions and ask questions if you don’t understand them.

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3.1 What if? Find your growth mindset before you sit down to write. Developing a growth mindset makes it easier to start writing because “mistakes” become information for revision. What if— •

I didn’t pay attention in High school.

•

It’s been years since I had an English class.

•

I never really did well in English.

•

I don’t get the assignments.

•

I’m not smart enough to be in college?

Begin by reminding yourself that what you’ve done in the past has little bearing on the present. As psychologist Carol Dweck explains in “The Power In Believing You Can Improve,” you are building neural networks in the here and now.You learn to read and write better by reading and writing, by identifying the “not yet” issues and persevering until you understand them. If you believe you can’t do the work, you won’t do the work.You can begin the work by making sure you understand the assignment, doing your best to follow the directions, identifying what you don’t understand, finding help when you don’t understand something, and believing that with effort, you will succeed. If you bring a fixed mindset, you may find it’s almost impossible to start an assignment. So before you begin to write, refresh your growth mindset.Your “not yet” can soon become your “yet.” Many college writing problems have little to do with a student’s ability to finish the assignment. Most college writing assignments are carefully designed to challenge students entering college, but most students bring more than enough capabilities to tackle these assignments successfully, although some students may need a little support. So why do many students experience difficulty when they start to write? 103

Many students bring with them mindsets and practices that they find difficult to change, for example, not allowing enough time to write, making assumptions about the professor or the assignment, or forgetting to take enough time and care to present the essay in the best light.

Case History 1:The Perils of Plagiarism: Esmeralda Esmeralda never liked English and never did well. She had already taken English twice and really needed to pass this time. She knew she could do the work but always rushed because she didn’t comprehend why the assignments were important. Esmeralda left her papers until the last minute because she hated to write and knew she would get the same comments: proofread, use MLA citations for quotes, take more time and care. She needed to learn those things that were her downfall, but there were too many annoying details involved, and the professors seemed very picky. Ideas came to her and she wrote good papers, so why were those little things so important? Esmeralda wasn’t sure she belonged in college, and since she grew up bilingual, she doubted her ability to write in English. Her parents thought she would be better off getting a job than going to school, but Esmeralda always wanted to be a kindergarten teacher. She loved working with children. She had a busy week and left only a couple of hours to write the paper. Esmeralda followed the directions as closely as she could because she wanted to give the assignment her best try, but she wasn’t sure what “paraphrase completely” meant. She looked up “paraphrase” in the dictionary: “put into your own words.” So she read the article and put as much of it into her own words as she could, remembering from the last time she took the class that she needed to cite. “I think I have the hang of it,” she thought, typed the required two paragraphs of summary, and submitted it. When she got the paper back, she had a 0 for plagiarism. “I just do not get this. I really don’t belong in college,” she thought. “I will start to look for a job in the morning.”

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Case History 2:The Problem with Assumptions: Jennifer Jennifer looked at the English assignment quickly and opened the article link about deaf people, which was very interesting. She wrote about sign language in her sophomore year in high school, and as a psychology major, Jennifer thought it would be interesting to work with the deaf someday. Her assignment was due at 11:59. “Easy peasy,” she thought. Grades were important to Jennifer and measured herself by the grades she earned. She had gotten As on every English assignment in high school without much effort, and this one would be no different. Jennifer put the homework aside and meet her friend Constanza for their monthly time together, getting their nails done and going out to lunch. Constanza helped her friend stay focused in college, always reminding Jennifer of her long-term goals. They had a lot of fun together, and Jennifer could not give up the monthly ritual! After lunch, she went to work at Kohls and was on her feet until her shift ended at eight o’clock. Tired and hungry, Jennifer headed home, ate dinner, and pulled out her laptop. “I got this,” She thought but didn’t review the assignment and went right to work. “I need a strong thesis, support, and evidence from the article. I can use my experience volunteering with deaf students.” Jennifer typed furiously for an hour, proofread her work for grammar mistakes, and uploaded the paper. “Easy A,” she thought as she crawled into bed. Two days later, she received a message telling her the paper was graded. Expecting praise, Jennifer opened the file to find a D. She was devastated! “Very well written,” was her professor’s comment, “but you did not follow directions for the summary response assignment. Please revise and re-submit.”

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3.2 Some thinking stops writing: assuming, overcomplicating, rushing, and self-doubt. A fixed mindset can make it almost impossible to start writing a paper; overcoming a limiting mindset is the first step to writing well. Esmeralda and Jennifer experienced negative beginnings. They had problems with their assignment because they made assumptions about the assignments and their knowledge. Often students new to college assignments think that there is only one way to write a paper, perhaps the way they learned from a teacher in high school. They assume that they can write an acceptable paper quickly, underestimating the time needed for proofreading, reference checking, and revising. Many students misunderstand assignments because they assume that college writing uses the same grading criteria as high school writing. Often, high school students are taught that there are a certain number of paragraphs in an essay or a certain number of sentences in a paragraph. A new trend in some high schools is to use Google Docs for assignments, and college students accustomed to using Google Docs sometimes find it more difficult to format a college paper correctly. Even if a student writes well, these assumptions can lead to unpleasant surprises regarding their grades. Mistakenly believing they were successful with high school writing projects, some students are confident they will have no issues. However, college assignments are more complex and differ within a discipline and from discipline to discipline. Each writing assignment brings its own challenges and its own opportunities to learn something about a subject and yourself. It is important to take the time and attention to understand each assignment before you begin to write. Other students make the assignment harder than it actually is. Their self-doubts lead them to believe it can’t be as easy as it looks and assume they must be missing an important point. These self-doubts may cause imposter syndrome. Still others, for reasons they may or may not be able to control, rush the assignment because they have not planned enough time, or they don’t think the assignment is important enough. Some students don’t ask for help on writing issues that are easily resolved in a short session with a writing teacher or tutor. Before you start to write, plan for setbacks when writing your drafts.You many need extra time to refresh yourself on some academic writing practices, and you may have to read the assignment a few times and contact your professor.You may need to write a partial draft and take it to a peer mentor for feedback. Writing an acceptable essay often takes more time than we think.

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3.3 Perfectionism may slam on the brakes in your writing process. Perfectionism,a fixed mindset, often leads to writer’s block; allowing yourself to write a less than perfect first draft is the best way to get started. Writers often suffer from “fear of the blank page.” What is the worst thing that could happen if you start typing right now? You know you’ve reviewed the assignment, discussed it with others, and asked questions about the assignment. Why wait? Put aside the perfectionism you may be feeling and keep a growth mindset.You can use information or feedback you receive from peers, your professor, and tutors to revise your draft. One thing that is sure to stop your writing process is the fear that you will be less than perfect. It is certainly an admirable goal to want to write well, but strangely enough, trying to write perfectly creates more harm than good. In “Bird by Bird,” writer Anne Lamott warns against perfectionism:

Perfectionism is the voice of the oppressor, the enemy of the people. It will keep you cramped and insane your whole life, and it is the main obstacle between you and a shitty first draft (qtd. in Popova).

When you try to write an early draft without making “mistakes,” your focus shifts from what you are writing about to how you are writing. In that first draft, allow yourself to make mistakes even though you may hear the voice of an English teacher admonishing you to put your commas in the right places. If you consider writing as a process, you will discover that it’s better to begin by trying to get your ideas into sentences. Just doing that is hard enough. A “shitty first draft,” Lamott argues, is a “perfect first draft” because you’ve created a text that can be improved.You will, of course, need to learn enough about grammar rules and conventions to become a good editor of your work, but if you are worried about sentence structure and commas as you write the draft, you will find it harder to jot down your best ideas. 107

3.4 Developing a growth mindset may change the way you think about your college writing assignments. Developing a growth mindset helps you understand the difference between feedback as information and feedback as criticism. The best way to become a better academic writer is to change the way you think about academic writing. If you approach writing with a fixed mindset, writing becomes a tedious and annoying chore. If you open yourself to a growth mindset, writing can be a fascinating journey into the exciting world of ideas. Begin by realizing that in giving you feedback, your professor is not passing judgment on you as a person or on your ability to succeed in college. Instead, think of this feedback as information to help you improve your writing. As you write your paper, try not to fear making “mistakes.” Instead, try to get your ideas down as clearly as possible, knowing that you can refine and revise in future drafts after evaluating feedback on your work.

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Case History 3:The Danger of Rushing: Chris It was 6 p.m. on Thursday, the day his assignment was due at midnight. Chris decided he had enough time to hang out with his friends for a while after work. He had skimmed the assignment page and figured he could complete the assignment in a couple of hours. Chris had listened carefully in class, and he thought he had the assignment figured out. When he opened the assignment page online, he couldn’t remember exactly what Professor Morales had said. Chris knew he had to write a summary and response based on his research log. He skimmed through the assignment and knew he needed to avoid plagiarism and use notes in parenthesis. It couldn’t be that hard, so he started to type the summary. The article was not that hard, and he could catch the main idea easily. By ten. Chris had finished the required two pages. He was about to shut down his computer and watch TV when he remembered he needed a works-cited entry. Chris typed in the author and title, pasted the URL, saved the file, then submitted it. “That should do it,” he thought. Two weeks later, he got the paper back with a 0 for plagiarism and a reprimand for not using MLA formatting. Chris was shocked. Then he looked at the comments carefully, and Professor Morales was right. He needed to take more time and care with his work, and he had rushed it.

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3.5 Understanding if/then thinking helps you make good time management choices. Making good choices about time management is the first step to writing well. Sometimes we need to look more deeply into what is blocking the writing process. The way students think about their writing assignments definitely affects their ability to complete them. Esmeralda, Jennifer, and Chris are having trouble with if/then thinking, a part of what some psychologists call executive function. The three students mistakenly assumed that if they use a shortcut now, then they will be able to get more work done. They failed to understand the consequences of the shortcuts, which might range from doing the work over again to not getting credit at all. When students rush to save time, it usually takes more time in the end. The fastest approach is to understand the directions thoroughly, write the paper once, and have a plan for revision, which is more desirable than to misunderstand the assignment, write the paper, unravel the misunderstanding, and then re-do the entire thing.

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With better choices regarding how to use their time, the outcomes might have been different. Making choices depends on how we use the executive function in our brains. Executive function was once called “self-control,” the ability to take charge of our lives and make decisions to manage them. The famous Stanford Marshmallow test, conducted by psychologist Walter Mischel, shows that children whose strong sense of self-control let them wait for a second marshmallow achieved more later in life than those who could not wait. In his delightful TED Talk, ”Don’t Eat the Marshmallow,” psychologist Joachim de Posada tests to see if Columbian children respond the same way and finds that they do. Clearly, the ability to delay gratification affects success later in life. Your academic environment plays a significant role in your ability to self-regulate. In her TED talk, “How Your Brain’s Executive Function Works — and How to Improve It,” Cognitive scientist Sabrine Doebel also repeated the Marshmallow Test and found that children’s choices were influenced by context. In her words,

...success in real-world situations depends on things like how motivated you are and what your peers are doing. And it also depends on the strategies that you execute when you’re using executive function in a particular situation. So what I’m saying is that context really matters. Children who thought their peers were waiting to eat the marshmallow were more likely to wait as well.

She argues that we can “break bad habits” by being more keenly aware of the power of our executive function. Self-regulation still holds the key to academic success, but finding a community of supportive peers can go a long way to support our resolve.

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3.6 Delaying gratification helps you stay focused in an instant-gratification world. Finding strategies for staying focused on writing allows us to progress with a challenging assignment. Most of us live in a world with easily accessible distractions: text messages, social media, video games, YouTube videos. However, new research shows that children are actually getting better at delayed gratification despite distractions by technology and a rise in attention deficit disorder. In “The Surprising Thing the ‘Marshmallow Test’ Reveals about Kids in an Instant-gratification World,” Los Angeles Times journalist Melissa Healy reports that “It turns out that a generation of Americans now working their way through middle school, high school, and college are quite able to resist the prospect of an immediate reward in order to get a bigger one later.” This response was measured in a more recent study by University of Minnesota psychologist Stephanie M. Carlson which repeated the classic “marshmallow test.” In this study, children held out for at least ten minutes more.

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3.7 Discover the joy of writing by finding intrinsic motivation and moving toward a flow state. Finding intrinsic motivation helps you move to a “flow state,” the best way of all. All writers feel frustrated some of the time. Words elude us, sentences start out in one direction and shift to another, our mind jumps from point to point without apparent reason. We create gaps for the reader that need to be filled in for revision. So when writing goes badly—especially if you don’t write often—you may feel frustrated and even angry. Writing is rarely easy, and when it is, cherish the experience. When it is, you have reached what eminent psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi calls a “flow state”: your brain and your hands cooperate to produce clean, well-ordered sentences quickly. Before you can reach a flow state, however, you need to practice writing, and just as importantly, reading —a lot of reading. Reading and writing prime the neural networks for language in your brain. Keeping a growth mindset, the “power of believing you can succeed” (Dweck), allows you to persist as you stimulate these all-important centers for reading and writing. So if you are reluctant to start because you feel like you are a “bad writer,” put away that fixed mindset, and remember that it is practice that builds your neural networks. How to pronounce Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

In his TED talk, “Flow: “The Secret To Happiness,” Csikszentmihalyi first reminds us that before we achieve flow, we need to practice the activity for a long time, the “10,000-hour rule.” He offers seven conditions that seem to be present when a person is in flow.

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There’s this focus that, once it becomes intense, leads to a sense of ecstasy, a sense of clarity: you know exactly what you want to do from one moment to the other; you get immediate feedback.You know that what you need to do is possible to do, even though difficult, and sense of time disappears, you forget yourself, you feel part of something larger. And once the conditions are present, what you are doing becomes worth doing for its own sake. When we achieve this focus, we find intrinsic motivation within ourselves, rather than e two factors are present, we will be more comfortable in your writing process.

If you are a perfectionist, worried about being correct on every detail, take the time to practice the conventions of academic writing. The more you write, the better you will write. Putting off writing a paper because you perceive yourself as “not good at writing” actually prevents you from becoming a better writer. No one is born writing “A” quality academic papers.You get to a flow state in academic writing by writing, learning, revising, and learning some more. With a growth mindset, you will recognize that feedback on your paper offers an opportunity to improve.

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3.8 Finding motivation within Looking for motivation outside systems of rewards and punishment helps you see your writing in the larger context of your life and career. When you first read an assignment, do you immediately start worrying about your grade? If so, you may be motivated extrinsically and work because of what others think about your achievements. Our school system, educator David Ruenzel argues, is wrongly built on a system of rewards and punishment, extrinsic motivators that may do more harm than good. Worrying about your grade is a sign that you are attached to a system of rewards and punishment. It is better, he asserts, to teach students to find their own intrinsic motivators so that they can experience genuine learning. Although Ruenzel believes that rewards and punishments have a place, he explains their limitations. In Csikszentmihalyi’s words,

So all people—students and teachers alike—are motivated by rewards and fear of punishment. But if these things are their main concerns, then they—and the society of which they are part—are missing out.

Most students and professors will agree that grades play an important role, but working only for a grade can limit your motivation. How do the concepts you are learning contribute to your own “big picture” —your knowledge, career, and understanding of the world? You will engage more fully in your assignment if you can see it in a larger context.

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3.9 When you get stuck, find a way to persist. Anyone can get stuck on a writing assignment. Develop a strategy for persevering. If you are unable to start or focus, the problem may have little to do with your ability to write and more to do with your mindset. If you don’t see the point of your assignment, if you find it difficult to achieve a flow state, if you are working for a grade instead of mastering skills, you might find it difficult to get started on a new writing project. Try these methods to start moving:

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Think about the task Paraphrase, or put the assignment into your own words. Identify the phrasing that seems hard to understand. Reread it filling out a research log. Ask questions and identify problems in the right column. Bring the questions and issues you’ve identified to a peer mentor or professor. Stop and free write: “I am having trouble understanding this assignment because . . . “ Try to identify all of the issues you have about the paper, both in your understanding of the concept and material and your emotional reaction to the assignment. Complete as much as you can, and then ask someone else, a classmate, peer mentor, or professor, to read the draft and respond. Review how thoroughly you prepared for the assignment. Did you do the required reading? Did you understand it, or were there gaps? Think about your thinking “I don’t want to.” Do I think the assignment is “important”? Do I understand how it fits into the sequence of assignments in the class? Do I see value beyond a grade? Do you feel like your draft needs to be “perfect” the first time? Why? Ask, “Am I over complicating?” Do assignments feel harder than they really are? Have someone else read the assignment to see if they think it is as hard as you do. Go back to the research log and review what you don’t understand. Where can you find help? Are you being distracted by the “dark playground”? What behaviors can you change to re-focus on your work—put away your phone, limit video games? Does the assignment feel “too hard” or “over my head”? What are your emotional reactions to the assignment? Are you experiencing self-doubt? Do you feel like it’s above your level? Ask yourself, “Why don’t I feel like I can step up to the challenge? What frightens me? Am I experiencing “imposter syndrome”? Is this a realistic thought? Am I avoiding seeking help? Why?” Are life events overwhelming you at this time, making it impossible to concentrate? Take care of the life problems first. Contact your professor and explain. Can you reasonably expect to get caught up in a certain amount of time? Do you need to make alternative arrangements such as dropping the class or arranging for an incomplete? Where can you find help, both personal and academic?

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3.10 Understanding the “why” of your writing assignments Colleges and universities have set forth strict standards for writing courses based on what they believe students need to know to be successful college writers. Understanding the standards set forth in student learning outcomes and student learning objectives helps you better understand why your professor made the assignment and what you may expect to learn from completing it. Understand your writing assignments in the larger context of your education and your institution can also help you see the purpose your professor has in mind. College courses follow strict outlines, which are created after many discussions among professors at all levels of higher education; they come to a consensus on the most critical elements of writing you need to learn in your first college course.

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3.10.1 Student learning outcomes.

Student learning outcomes make your course transferable. Colleges and universities agree on the course content, so they are sure that no matter where a student attends college, he or she learns the same principles in a particular class. The student learning outcomes for a freshman writing class are very similar from institution to institution: 1. Apply a variety of rhetorical strategies to write unified, well-organized essays with arguable theses and persuasive support. 2. Analyze, interpret, and evaluate texts and sources (primary and secondary). 3. Integrate the ideas of others through paraphrasing, summarizing, and quoting in appropriate documentation format. 4. Demonstrate proofreading and editing techniques so that written work conforms to the conventions of standard, written, academic English.

3.10.2 Student learning objectives. Your professor will also provide you with student learning objectives for individual assignments. Based on the student learning outcomes, these objectives further explain what you are expected to learn by doing specific assignments. Review the student learning objectives so that you understand why your professor is making this particular assignment. What does she expect you to learn?

Student Learning Objectives •

The writer identifies the main idea and supporting reasons in the article.

•

The writer uses appropriate and correct documentation, avoiding plagiarism.

•

The writer uses academic language and style conventions.

•

The writer provides a thoughtful, focused response to the article.

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3.11 Writing with a purpose. Each writing assignment has a specific purpose. Avoid assuming that all writing assignments are the same. Carefully read and review your writing assignment in all of your classes to be sure you understand the directions. When a professor makes a specific writing assignment, she has a purpose: she wants you to learn a particular element of writing well. However, sometimes problems in writing arise because students may not fully understand the demands of the assignment. Before you begin to write, be sure to understand the purpose of your assignment. If your professor assigns a documented summary and you offer up a response or an evaluation, you are unlikely to meet the criteria for the assignment set forth in the rubric. Categories of writing assignments have been around for a long time, and each category brings with it expectations from the reader. So before you begin to write, be sure you carefully understand the language and purpose of your assignment.

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3.12 Understand the language of your assignment. Different assignments ask you to do different tasks to develop a wide range of writing and critical thinking skills. Be sure you understand the purpose of your assignment before you begin to write. Before you begin to write, it is important to understand the language your professor is using in the directions. Different assignments call for different patterns of organization common to many assignments. Your professor will use specific language to direct you toward a particular organization.

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Type of writing

What should I do?

Words you might encounter in the prompt

Narrative

Tell a story in chronological order

Tell a story, describe a time when, relate. Record a case history

Response

Relate your reactions to a piece of writing or events

Respond, react

Summary

Write a shortened version of the assigned article using the correct documentation. Capture the main idea and supporting reasons.

Summarize, sum up, outline

Paraphrase

Capture a passage in your own word, roughly the same length as the original.

Paraphrase, parse, put into your own words, in other words

Argue

Create a claim supported by reasons and evidence

Argue, propose, dispute, debate, take a stand

Define

Carefully consider the meaning of a word or concept

Define, create a definition, determine, specify

Explain

Offer an interpretation. Sometimes called “expository” writing.

Clarify, demonstrate, point out, explicate

Analyze

“Take apart” or divide into elements.

Consider, evaluate. Analyze, break down

Synthesize

“Put together” or combine

Integrate, incorporate

Classify

Break into categories

Arrange, organize, break down

Give examples

Offer specific instances or illustrations

Illustrate, give evidence for

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3.13 Paper requirements may differ from academic discipline to discipline. Don’t panic if you get stuck on a writing assignment in a class other than English. Start by reviewing the concepts. Complete a research log on the assignment. Don’t be afraid to ask your professor or a tutor for help. If you are writing for a class other than English—history, chemistry, psychology, anthropology—you may get stuck because you don’t understand the concepts on which the paper is based. So before you go back to writing the paper, review your textbook and your lecture notes and ask your professor or peer mentor if you have any questions. Or, do a little more research using reliable sources from library databases, not dot.com sources you may find on the internet. Using research logs can really help here, especially if you make ample comments in the right-hand column. Of course, it’s important to summarize and record quotations, but you can free yourself of writer’s block by responding freely in the right column and respond to the text. Ask questions, make connections, comment, agree, disagree even draw pictures. Each of these methods might lead you to an important insight that will help you jumpstart your writing process.

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3.14 Open-ended topics pose new challenges. Sometimes professors give unclear directions to test your critical thinking skills and determine your ability to organize your paper. Address this challenge by creating a clear research question. Sometimes your professor will make an open-ended assignment without much direction. This kind of assignment is designed to test your critical thinking skills and determine your ability to organize a coherent response. It may feel frustrating. Instead, try to think of it as an opportunity to grow as a writer and thinker by creating a research question, turning that question into a claim supported by reasons. Then support those reasons by finding and summarizing credible research sources. Eminent rhetorician Wayne Booth explains in The Craft of Research that finding your own topic is, in itself, a kind of research project. He recommends that you begin with a research question, something that you want to find out, and investigate reliable sources on that topic. Talking with a reference librarian can be a big help here as librarians will be able to point you to credible sources of research. As you read additional general sources, continue to narrow the topic until it is suitable for a shorter paper. It’s a great idea to discuss your topic with your professor before you actually start to write. He may have many valuable suggestions.

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3.15.Take this age-old advice: follow the directions. It may seem obvious, but many students create unnecessary work by not reading the directions carefully. Save time and frustration: read the directions. Ask questions if you don’t understand them. Telling students to “follow the directions carefully” seems a bit obvious. Most of us consider that we are capable of reading instructions and equally capable of carrying them out. But sometimes, students make an assumption about their assignments based on how they were taught previously. Indeed, we carry over lots of knowledge from high school to college and from one class to another. But since professors have different purposes and expectations for assignments, it is important that students respond to the assignment presented to them rather than assuming that the assignment will be identical to a previous assignment. There are many ways to write a paper.

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Module 3 Review 3.1. What if? Find your growth mindset before you sit down to write. Developing a growth mindset makes it easier to start writing because “mistakes” become information for revision. 3.2 Some thinking stops writing: assuming, overcomplicating, rushing, and self-doubt. A fixed mindset can make it almost impossible to start writing a paper; overcoming a limiting mindset is the first step to writing well. 3.3 Perfectionism may slam on the brakes in your writing process. Perfectionism, a fixed mindset, often leads to writer’s block; allowing yourself to write a less-than-perfect first draft is the best way to get started. 3.4 Developing a growth mindset may change the way you think about your college writing assignments. Developing a growth mindset helps you understand the difference between feedback as information and feedback as criticism. 3.5 Understanding if/then thinking helps you make good time management choices. Making good choices about time management is the first step to writing well. 3.6 Delaying gratification helps you stay focused in an instant-gratification world. Finding strategies for staying focused on writing allows us to progress with a challenging assignment. 3.7 Discover the joy of writing by finding intrinsic motivation and moving toward a flow state. Finding intrinsic motivation helps you move to a “flow state,” the best way of all. 3.8 Finding motivation within. Looking for motivation outside reward and punishment systems helps you see your writing in the larger context of your life and career. 126

3.9 When you get stuck, find a way to persist. Anyone can get stuck on a writing assignment. Develop a strategy for persevering. 3.10 Understand the “why” of your college writing assignments. Colleges and universities have set forth strict standards for writing courses based on what they believe students need to know to be successful college writers. Understanding the standards outlined in student learning outcomes and student learning objectives helps you better understand why your professor made the assignment and what you may expect to learn from completing it. 3.10.1 Student learning outcomes. 3.10.2 Student learning objectives. 3.11 Writing with a purpose Each writing assignment has a specific purpose. Avoid assuming that all writing assignments are the same. Carefully read and review your writing assignment in all of your classes to be sure you understand the directions. 3.12 Understanding the language of your assignment. Different assignments ask you to do different tasks so you can develop a wide range of writing and critical thinking skills. Be sure you understand the purpose of your assignment before you begin to write. 3.13 Paper requirements may differ from academic discipline to discipline. Don’t panic if you get stuck on a writing assignment in a class other than English. Start by reviewing the concepts. Complete a research log on the assignment, and don’t be afraid to ask your professor or a tutor for help. 3.14 Open-ended topics pose new challenges. Sometimes professors give unclear directions to test your critical thinking skills and determine your ability to organize your paper. Address this challenge by creating a clear research question. 3.15.Take this age-old advice: follow the directions. It may seem obvious, but many students create unnecessary work by not reading the directions carefully. Save time and frustration: read directions and ask questions if you don’t understand them.

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Glossary Executive function: A term that can be interpreted as self-control, self-regulation, delayed gratification. It is our ability to make conscious choices about our actions. Extrinsic motivation: a drive that comes from external sources: for example, systems of rewards and punishment such as parental and social demands or grades. Flow: a term used by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, describes the moment in the creative process when the creator loses him/herself in the process of creation. Growth mindset: a term created by psychologist Carol Dweck, refers to students who see failure as an opportunity for learning. She uses the terms “yet” and “not yet” to describe the process of learning. If/then thinking: a thought process where the person considers options and consequences for actions. It is related to executive function. Intrinsic motivation: a drive that comes from within, a personal desire for achievement or satisfaction.

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Works Cited Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. “Flow, the Secret to Happiness.’” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading Feb. 2004, www. ted.com/talks/mihaly_csikszentmihalyi_flow_the_secret_to_happiness/transcript? language=en. Booth, Wayne C., et al. The Craft of Research. The University of Chicago Press, 2016. Doebel, Sabine. “How Your Brain’s Executive Function Works — and How to Improve It.” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, Dec. 2018, www.ted.com/talks/sabine_doebel_how_your_brain_s_executive_function_works_and_how_to_improve_it. Dweck, Carol. “Brainology.” NAIS, 2008, www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2008/ brainology/. Dweck, Carol. “The Power of Believing That You Can Improve.” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, November 2014, www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve? language=en. Graff, Gerald, et al. “They Say/I Say”: the Moves That Matter in Academic Writing: with Readings. W. W. Norton Et Company, 2018. Healy, Melissa. “The Surprising Thing the ‘Marshmallow Test’ Reveals about Kids in an Instant-Gratification World.” Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles Times, June 26 2018, www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-marshmallow-test-kids-20180626-story.html. Popova, Maria. “Anne Lamott on Writing and Why Perfectionism Kills Creativity” Brain Pickings Blog November 22, 2013, https://www.brainpickings.org/2013/11/22/bird-by-bird-anne-lamott/ Posada, Joachim de. “Transcript of ‘Don’t Eat the Marshmallow!”.” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, Feb. 2009, www.ted.com/talks/joachim_de_posada_don_t_eat_the_marshmallow/transcript? language=en. Ruenzel, David. “Gold Star Junkies.” Education Week Teacher, Editorial Projects in Education, February 19, 2019, www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2000/02/01/05gold.h11.html.

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MODULE 3 ASSIGNMENTS: BEFORE YOUR WRITE: FINDING YOUR ACADEMIC FRAME OF MIND 1.

Reading Assignment

3.1. What if? Find your growth mindset before you sit down to write.

Reflect 3.1 Do you ever experience writer’s block? 

Do you ever experience writer’s block or the inability to start a paper? Explain what you are thinking at that time?

3.

Reading Assignment

3.2 Thinking that stops writing: assuming, overcomplicating, rushing, and self-doubt.

4.

Reading Assignment

3.3 How perfectionism slams on the brakes in your writing process

2.

Research Log 3.1

5.

“Bird by Bird”

Reflect 3.2 6.

Making changes in the way you think about your writing assignments

Read Maria Popova’s summary of “Bird by Bird” and complete a research log. In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions.

Review the three case histories in this module. How would you advise Esmeralda, Chris, and Jennifer to change their writing practice and how they think about college work?

7.

Reading Assignment

3.4 Thinking that Supports Effective Writing

8.

Reading Assignment

3.5 If/then thinking: the marshmallow test and making good choices about time.

9.

Research Log 3.2

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Complete a research log for the video “Don’t Eat the Marshmallow.” In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions.

10.

Research Log 3.3

Complete a research log for “The Surprising Thing the ‘Marshmallow Test’ Reveals about Kids in an Instant-gratification World,” In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions.

Reflect 3.3

Imagine you are five years old, and you are taking the marshmallow test. What do you think your response would be? Why? In your present life, are you able to delay gratification successfully? Which strategies work for you? When do you struggle?

12.

Reading Assignment

3.6 Delayed gratification: staying focused in an instant-gratification world

13.

Reading Assignment

3.7 The joy of writing: finding intrinsic motivation and moving toward a flow state

11.

Research log 3.4 14.

15.

16.

17.

“Flow: The Secret to Happiness”

Reflect 3.5

Reading Assignment

Research Log 3.6 “Gold Star Junkies”

Complete a research log for the video “Flow: The Secret to Happiness” by Csikszentmihalyi.  In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions. Place yourself on Csiksentmihayli’s graph: When you write a college paper, where do you fit between the points of anxiety, boredom, and apathy? Have you ever experienced a “flow” state? When and why? 3.8 Finding motivation within Read “Gold Star Junkies.” by David Ruenzel and fill out a research log. In the left column, record the main ideas and short quotations. In the right column, write down your thoughts, feelings, and questions.

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Do you rely on a system of rewards and punishment to motivate you to do your work in college? What do you think you are “missing out” on? 18.

Reflect 3.5

Describe your relationship with your grades. How does a bad grade make you feel? A good one? Describe your intrinsic motivation in your college courses. Distinguish between courses in your major and general ed courses.

19.

Reading Assignment

20.

Reflect 3.6

3.9 When you get stuck Review the list of ways that students get “stuck” when they try to complete college work. Have you found yourself in similar situations? Did you stay stuck? What were the consequences? Were you able to find a way out of the situation? What did you do? How did you change your thinking? 

21.

Reading Assignment

3.10 Understanding the “why” of your writing assignments

22.

Reading Assignment

3.10.1 Student learning outcomes

23.

Reading Assignment

3.10,2 Student learning objectives

24.

Reading Assignment

3.11 Writing with a purpose

25.

Reading Assignment

3.12 Understanding the language of your writing assignment 

26.

Reading Assignment

3.13 Writing across the disciplines

27.

Reading Assignment

3.14 Open-ended topics

28.

Reading Assignment

3.15 Age-old advice: follow the directions

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MODULE 4: Entering the academic writing community: a debut academic essay.

At the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. Develop an approach for better understanding a college writing assignment. 2. Compose a short essay based on assigned reading. 3. Create a structure using claims supported by reasons supported by evidence. 4. Distinguish between primary evidence from personal experience and secondary evidence from credible sources. 5. Use appropriate academic conventions in presenting that essay. 6. Investigate the reasons professional formatting styles are required. 7. Develop academic habits of mind: correctness, precision, and professional presentation. 8. Identify the features of professional formatting style. 9. Choose and apply appropriate professional formatting to your essays. 10. Appreciate the role of correct formatting in the presentation of your academic self. 11. Use peer and instructor feedback to improve your writing.

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Module 4 Preview 4.1 Approach writing your first essay college essay with a clear strategy. Taking time to understand the directions is the first step to success. 4.2.The nuts and bolts of writing: type your paper into a word processing file. Although setting your work up correctly in a word processing program like Microsoft Word may bring some challenges, it is easily mastered. 4.2.1 Fatigue and computer errors. 4.2.2 Saving your work. 4.3 Why should we care about professional formatting styles? Presenting work in a professional formatting style reinforces your credibility as a college writer. Erving Goffman’s classic work, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, provides a framework for understanding the “front-stage” behavior we need to present ourselves credibly in academic writing. 4.4 Correct paper formatting establishes your academic credibility. Correct formatting strengthens the rhetorical appeal of ethos, or credibility, in the reader’s first impression. Academic professional associations establish guidelines for professional publications so that the publications look consistent across their discipline.The Modern Language Association (MLA),The American Psychological Association (APA), the Council of Science Editors (CSE), and the University of Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago) are used most frequently in academic writing. 4.5 Good news: Most English classes only require MLA formatting. Formats established by the Modern Language Association (MLA) are used in most English classes. 4.6 How to set your paper up in MLA format. The procedure for setting up your paper in MLA format may depend on the brand and operating system of your computer and the software you use. Contact the Student Technical Help Desk for assistance and information. Microsoft Word Online is readily available. Access is often supplied by your institution. Contact the Student Technical Help Desk for assistance and information. 134

4.6.1 Setting up MLA format using the Microsoft Word Template. The easiest way to set up an MLA style document in Microsoft Word is to use the preformatted template. 4.6.2 How to set up correct MLA format on a blank page. Follow a series of simple steps to create the format. 4.7 How to troubleshoot MLA Formatting issues. If you find a small problem with MLA while proofreading your paper, it is easy to correct. 4.7.1 How do I fix an incorrect date? MLA format uses a particular date format: 10 June 2020. 4.7.2 How do I fix a problem with the header? Place your cursor at the top of the page and click.The header will open. Use Insert Page Number to add your last name. Change the font to Times New Roman 12 point. 4.7.3 What do I do when the spacing doesn’t look right? Look for the “three lines with the up and down arrows” on the toolbar. Select “all” your text by using CTRL+A.Then change the spacing to two.Your entire paper should be double-spaced. Be sure you’ve checked the “no space between paragraphs” box under paragraph. 4.7.4 How do I create a hanging indent? MLA format requires that works cited pages to be formatted using hanging indents. A hanging indent is an inverted paragraph, meaning the indent is on the second rather than the first line. 4.7.5 How do I create a block quotation? MLA format calls for block quotations for prose passages longer than four lines or for three or more lines of poetry. Setting up a block quotation is not difficult. It’s important to remember that the “block” takes the place of quotation marks, so no quotation marks are needed.

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4.8 Revision: after you finish your first draft, look again. Revision means “to look again.” A first draft is only the first step. Professional writers agree that “all writing is rewriting.” Gather feedback from your peers, your tutor, and your professor before you rewrite. 4.8.1 Take time to understand the rubric. Rubrics or score sheets provide the standards your professor will use to evaluate your paper. Make your revision process easier by making time to review the rubric. 4.8.2 Participate in peer review with a growth mindset. Learning to respond to feedback is an important part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your writing, you are taking an important step in this direction. Use information from your peer review to improve your paper. If you have questions about the validity of any peer comments, check with your professor before using the suggestions in your revision. 4.8.3 Editing after the Peer Review. Thoughtful peer review provides the writer with information on how others see the work. Keep a growth mindset and treat peer review as information rather than criticism. Don’t be afraid to ask questions about feedback. 4.8.4 Revise after the instructor review. Look again—and again—at your paper and the feedback you have received.Your paper doesn’t need to be perfect but turn in the final draft knowing you have tried to do your best.Your professor dedicates time and attention to review your paper. Be sure that you find and respond to comments. Contact your professor with any questions you may have before revising. 4.8.5 Edit again after the instructor review. After reading and verifying instructor and peer feedback, decide where you need to make changes in your paper. Start with the largest scale changes on the organization and paragraphing first, then move to editing and proofreading.

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Case History 1:The Problem with Overconfidence: Stephanie Stephanie had always excelled in her English classes, and even though this was her first semester in college, she had declared English as her major. Writing papers had always been fun. She played a game with her high school papers, waiting until the last minute to write the paper to see if she could still get an A. Stephanie glanced at the assignment: write a personal academic essay. “I know how to do this. I will just explain how being bilingual has always helped me with work.” She finished and hit submit at 11 p.m., an hour before the essay was due. A week later, she looked at her grade, a D+. Her professor had commented: “This is well written, and I enjoyed reading about your experiences at work. But you have ignored the academic structure and conventions asked for by the assignment. When you revise, be sure to create a clear claim and reasons and support your ideas with evidence drawn from your research logs.” She felt angry at herself for not reading the directions more carefully. Now she would need to spend more time revising.

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4.1 Approach writing your first essay college essay with a clear strategy. Taking time to understand the directions is the first step to success. It is time to use the material we’ve researched to write a college essay. The purpose of this assignment is to move comfortably into the academic language community. Academic writing usually takes the form of an argument: a claim supported by reasons supported by evidence. However, for every paper you are assigned, be sure that you carefully read the assignments because directions and expectations will differ from professor to professor. As you begin this paper, realize that it’s not essential to write a “perfect” paper, but always a good one. Recognize that “mistakes” provide good information for improvement.Your paper can be easily transformed through revision, especially if you seek help from a professor or peer mentor. Pay attention to thinking that stops your writing. Focus on the actual writing of your paper rather than on your grades or performance. When you have finished this assignment, you should begin to better understand these academic writing practices.

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1.

More effectively employ the conventions of academic writing.

2.

Create a strong structure for your paper with a clear claim and reasons.

3.

Provide quotations and personal experience as evidence for your reasons.

4.

Introduce quotes, cite, and explain your quotations.

5.

Use signal phrases to document incorporated quotations.

6.

Present your paper in correct MLA formatting using academic language and style.

7.

Analyze your performance and create a strategy for improving your revision and future papers.

In writing your first paper, follow these seven steps. Carefully following the directions saves a lot of revision time. Please note, you will not need to write an introduction for this paper. Before we can introduce our ideas to an academic audience, we need to have the ablity to build a clear structure and easily use academic conventions.

Step 1: Be sure you understand your assignment

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Before you start to write, complete a research log on your assignment. Read the assignment through a couple of times, then take notes. Record the directions step by step in the left boxes of the assignment. On the right, record your questions, concerns, and any difficulty you might have in understanding the assignment. Once you have identified parts of the assignment that may be confusing, do not hesitate to contact your professor or tutorial center for help in understanding them. Although writing assignments may have many similarities to the classes you have completed, do not assume that there is one way to write a paper. Save time by taking time and care to fully understand the assignment before you begin to write. For example, you have written an introduction for many writing assignments, but this assignment does not ask for one because we will add introductions once we have mastered the structure of the academic argument. So save time and effort here by following the directions.

Step 2: Clearly state your claim. Create a clear claim about one of the topics we have investigated. A claim is not a summary of the author’s idea but the presentation of your own idea on a subject. Students who don’t feel confident in their ideas may wish to present ideas from the reading instead. Students often ask if it’s okay to state their opinion. A claim is a kind of opinion, but it is an opinion supported by reasons and evidence. Certainly, you can present an idea from the reading that you agree with. For example, Dweck argues that it is important to develop a growth mindset to succeed in school. However, you would present that idea in your own words and apply it to a different situation, such as college rather than elementary school: Students who maintain a growth mindset are more likely to succeed in college. Here are a few more.

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•

Bilingual students have an advantage in work and school

•

Students can overcome imposter syndrome and successfully complete college

•

Systems of rewards and punishments are ineffective in motivating students.

•

Work invested in learning a craft helps people achieve a flow state.

Step 3: Support your claim with reasons. Support that claim with two reasons. Reasons answer the question “why”: because . . . . . Here are some reasons that support the student claim about growth mindset: Students who develop a growth mindset are more likely to succeed •

BECAUSE (Reason) Students with fixed mindsets link intelligence rather than effort to success.

•

BECAUSE (Reason) Students with growth mindsets link effort to their achievement.

•

BECAUSE (Reason) Praising intelligence increases fixed mindset in students.

•

BECAUSE (Reason) Praising effort increases growth mindset in students.

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Step 4 Support your reasons with evidence Support each of your reasons with two kinds of evidence. A less formal assignment, such as this paper, allows you to incorporate primary evidence from your own experience; a more formal paper would use only quotations and data from credible sources. Primary evidence, draw from your own experience. This may take the form of a story, a recollection, or an observation. When using primary evidence from your experience, you may use the pronoun “I.” In a more formal paper, you may also choose to use primary evidence from someone else’s experience, for example, a personal narrative. Data or statistics provide another source of primary evidence. Secondary evidence, or quotations, drawn from a research log you have completed. Avoid using random internet sources.You have already collected solid evidence from credible sources by completing your research logs. Introduce, quote, cite, and explain all evidence. Formal academic papers rely mainly on primary evidence from data and secondary evidence from quotations from credible sources.

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Step 5: Practice these academic conventions: •

Avoid using the pronoun “you.” Use words like “students” or “individuals” instead.

•

Use “I” only to present your personal experience. “For example, I had a fixed mindset until . . .” You don’t need phrases like “I think” or “I believe.” Your name is on your paper, so it is clear that your paper represents your ideas.

•

Introduce, quote, cite, and explain each quotation.

•

The first time you use an author’s name, use a specific identifying tag: Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck . . . . After that, use only the last name.

•

Use signal phrases to introduce your quotations: In the words of Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck . . .

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Step 6: Develop your ideas Develop the paper to three full pages. Students who start the writing process thinking about paper length often find the three pages troublesome. However, once you have created a solid structure or “skeleton” for your paper, it is easy to develop your ideas further. When you have correctly introduced, quoted, and explained each quotation in a body paragraph, return to the explanation and explain further. How does the quotation relate to the reason? Explain in more detail how this evidence connects to the reason. If you feel like your paragraph is solid and doesn’t need more development, consider adding another paragraph where you find a new piece of evidence that supports your reason.You can, of course, create more than one paragraph in support of each reason.

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Step 7: Add a correctly formatted works cited entry Add a works cited entry or entries on the fourth page.You can find a correct works cited entry for every article and video in this book on the works cited list at the end of each module. Be sure to correctly reformat your works cited entry in a hanging indent MLA format when you paste it at the end of your paper.

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4.2.The nuts and bolts of writing: type your paper into a word processing file. Although setting your work up correctly in a word processing program like Microsoft Word may bring some challenges, it is easily mastered. Write your first draft the way you feel most comfortable. Some writers work directly on their computer, while others prefer to handwrite a draft or a partial draft first and then type it. Be sure you have access to a laptop or desktop computer; avoid working on a Chrome Book as formatting is more difficult on those devices, or contact the help desk for support. Some colleges will provide loaner computers. Contact your help desk for details. Be sure that your computer has Microsoft Word installed; many colleges make Word available at no cost to their students. It is much easier to format correctly with MS Word than an alternative program like Google Docs.

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4.2.1 Fatigue and computer errors. If you have waited until the last minute to write your paper, and you feel tired and rushed, you are very likely to make minor errors, and a small imprecise action can have a large consequence if you lose hours of your work. Fortunately, your technical Help Desk experts can sometimes recover a lost file, but sometimes they cannot. Not everyone has the luxury of writing only when they feel well-rested, but if you are tired, take special care with your computer and word processing work.

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4.2.2 Saving your work. Computers make writing so much easier. They allow us to check our spelling and grammar, find a source in an instant, and collaborate with others. However, they demand our precise attention to detail as we work; skipping a step can result in hours of lost work. A distracted moment might cause hours of work in rewriting a paper. A college paper represents a large investment of your time and energy. Backing up your work is one of the most important steps you can take. If you are working in an online program like Google Docs or Word Online, the program will automatically save your work. If your work is only saved on a particular computer, for example, your personal laptop or a computer at the college lab, things are a little trickier. Follow these steps to avoid losing work: 1.

Save and name your file as soon as you start to work. That will help you find it again when you need to. Give it a name that clearly identifies it: chrissummary1.

2.

Back up your file in a second location. If you are working online, save to the computer. If you are working in a college lab, save it to a USB drive or e-mail the paper to yourself.

3.

Develop the habit of verifying that your work has been saved. Review the files on your computer from time to time.

4.

If you can’t find your work, it’s worth calling the technical Student Help Desk. Sometimes a file can be recovered. 148

Case History 2: Frustration with Formatting:Vince Vince had spent the evening working on his paper in Google Docs for the Introduction to College Reading and Writing Class. He could not afford Microsoft Word, and Google Docs had worked for all his papers so far.Vincent had finally figured out, he told himself, that he had to put the time into college work to be successful and had carefully balanced his work and family schedule so he could do so. He had started to really like writing, thinking about the ideas, coming to his own interpretations, and organizing them for an audience. Vince felt he understood the assignment to write a thesis-based essay, supported with reasons and credible evidence. As Vince finished up his works cited page, he felt confident he could get a good grade. For a second,Vince thought, maybe he should check the citation formatting, but it was late, and the day had been long. “I recorded a source for everything. I know I didn’t plagiarize.” He submitted the paper feeling good about college and himself. A week later, he received the paper back with an F. “Great job, but remember that MLA formatting is required on all work in this class.” He felt angry. All that work and he failed the paper because he forgot to indent a few spaces here and there, and his line spacing was uneven. “This is BS,” he thought. “If a tiny detail matters more than my hours of work, I’m not sure I can stay in college.”

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Case History 3: Understanding Formatting differences: Carolina Carolina understood that details are important. When she first arrived at her college, she took a class on using Microsoft Office and liked working with the programs. Carolina didn’t need to work hard to master MLA formatting in her Introduction to College Writing class and felt confident she could set her paper up correctly with a running header in Times New Roman 12-point font and hanging indents for her works cited page. She even remembered to check the “no space between paragraphs” box in MS Word so that her line spacing would be even. She was pleased with herself for her attention to detail, and now she could focus on the content of her papers which was much more interesting. Carolina submitted a perfectly formatted paper to Professor Alexander in her psychology class. A week later, she looked at her grade with dismay. “Good job, but our class requires APA formatting. F“ She was confused: what was APA, and why wasn’t it the same as MLA? And why would it matter?

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Case History 4: Using Appropriate Technology: Andrew Andrew did not really like English classes. He knew he had to pass his Introduction to College Writing class to graduate, but he had already failed it once. Andrew wanted to major in kinesiology and become a swimming coach, and had done well in his biology and science classes. He felt like English papers took up too much time because the teachers were just too picky. Andrew used Google Docs for all his papers; that seemed good enough for his high school teachers, but it took too much time to put on the header and fix the spacing, so sometimes he just started typing. Some teachers were okay with the default font, Arial, and others wanted Times New Roman, and he could never remember which. Andrew knew he could get a free copy of MS Word through the college, but he was unsure how, so he typed up a paper on Google Docs on the Chrome Book he had used in high school. Andrew thought he would get a C and submitted it but got it back with a note, “Good start, but please revise before I grade in correct MLA formatting.”

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4.3 Why should we care about professional formatting styles? Presenting work in a professional formatting style reinforces your credibility as a college writer. Erving Goffman’s classic work, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, provides a framework for understanding the “front-stage” behavior we need to present ourselves credibly in academic writing. Professional style allows us to formally keep track of the voices in the academic conversation we have entered. By requiring you to use a professional format, your professor sees you as a potential member of that profession who is on the journey to, someday, writing a published article. Right now, you might not see yourself as a potential author, but you are taking the first steps by enrolling in a college English course. By taking the time and care to present your work in a formal and professional way, you are establishing habits for your future career. Writing professionally sometimes seems overly troublesome or fussy, and in many ways, the practices are arbitrary.You can certainly understand a concept such as growth mindset without knowing how to write an MLA citation for Dweck. But the point is to become more precise in your thinking, researching, and writing. Writing your paper with professional formatting is a courtesy you pay your professors and your academic colleagues, the other students in your class. That is what makes it worth your time and care to work through the sometimes frustrating process of mastering the formatting.

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Learning to use professional styles such as MLA can also help you learn how to cope with doing something you don’t like to do, which gives you an opportunity to work on your growth mindset. It can help better understand the importance of precision in creating an initial impression with your professor and help you better understand how your writing class fits your professional goals. As you are learning a professional writing style such as MLA, you might find yourself annoyed at the attention you must pay to seemingly meaningless detail. In itself, a detail such as the way you write the date doesn’t seem to be important unless you see the bigger picture. Using a professional style allows us to formally keep track of the academic conversation we have entered. By requiring you to use a professional format, your professor sees you as a potential member of that profession, someone who is on the journey to writing a published article. Today more than ever, the ability to write well is an essential skill in just about every job sector, thanks to the internet’s omnipresence in our daily lives. Right now, you might not see yourself as a potential author, but you are taking the first steps by enrolling in a college English course. By taking the time and care to present your work in a formal and professional way, you are establishing habits for your career. Writing professionally sometimes seems overly troublesome or fussy, and in many ways, the practices are arbitrary.You can certainly understand a concept such as growth mindset without knowing how to write an MLA citation for Dweck. But the point is to become more precise in your thinking and writing. Writing your paper in professional formatting is a courtesy you pay your professors and your academic colleagues, the other students in your class. That is what makes it worth the time and care. Not only that, learning to adapt to and use MLA formatting will prepare you for the very real possibility that you will be required to learn new communication standards and unfamiliar formats for written material in your future job or career. However, few people like to work with details, and those who do have an enormous professional advantage because they are better able to present themselves to an audience, as sociologist Erving Goffman suggests in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. They have developed what he calls “front-stage behavior.” Most of us make mistakes and dislike taking the time to go back and correct them. Often, this results from ineffective time planning; if a student waits until the last minute to write a paper, little time is left to revise. So the best way to present your paper and yourself in the best light is to plan enough time for the revision cycle. Goffman provides us with an explanation for adhering to academic conventions in his insightful book. Goffman argues that we put on “masks” or take on roles as we interact with the various people in our life, and these roles determine how we will behave.You might think of learning to use an academic professional style as putting on a “mask” that helps you learn to become part of your profession. While you might disagree with Goffman on the issue of whether or not we have a “core self,” think of setting your paper up in the correct academic format as a critical element of the presentation of yourself, as important as wearing the right clothes for a job interview. This is an example of what Goffman calls “front stage behavior” because it describes how we act in front of an audience.

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4.4 Correct paper formatting establishes your academic credibility. An academic audience needs to know why they should take your work seriously. So, your professional credibility begins with the way your paper looks. Academic professional associations establish guidelines for professional publications so that the publications look consistent across their discipline. The rhetorical appeals, pathos, ethos, and logos are methods of persuading an audience to accept your argument. Pathos is the appeal to emotion, and logos is the appeal to logic or reason. These are fairly easy to figure out. Ethos is a little harder: to create a strong ethos, you need to convince your audience of your credibility. Certainly, a paper with strong ideas might be formatted incorrectly, and correct formatting can’t help a poorly written paper. However, first impressions count, and sloppy formatting can distract from your ethos. While there are many organizations that require a precise formatting style, these are the most common: English and Speech

MLA

Modern Language Association

Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology

APA

American Psychological Association

Science,Technology Engineering, Math

CSE

Council of Science Editors

History

Chicago

University of Chicago Manual of Style

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If you visit each of these sites, you will find that each organization wants you to pay to join, but the information about their citation system is available for free elsewhere. Many universities offer free information about citation systems as well. One of the most accessible is The Online Writing Laboratory at Purdue University or OWL at Purdue English and Speech

MLA

OWL

Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Business

APA

OWL

Science,Technology Engineering, Math

CSE

University of Wisconsin

History

Chicago

OWL

4.5 Good news: most English classes only require MLA formatting Formats established by the Modern Language Association (MLA) are used in most English classes.

MLA style is a system for documenting sources in scholarly writing. For over half a century, it has been widely adopted for classroom instruction and used throughout the world by scholars, journal publishers, and academic and commercial presses.

Developed over decades, the system allows students and scholars to keep track of the conversation about specific topics. A citation system like MLA involves much more than mechanically avoiding plagiarizing because it allows readers to trace the history of a concept or idea. This is its real purpose. Once you have learned the principles of citation in MLA formatting, it is easy to make the changes to a different system that may be required in another academic discipline. The principles are exactly the same: in the text of your paper, identify the source of the borrowed material, whether paraphrased or quoted and document that source with a works cited entry. Only the formatting is different between reference styles. 155

4.6 How to set your paper up in MLA format. The procedure for setting up your paper in MLA format may depend on the brand and operating system of your computer and the software you use. Contact the Student Technical Help Desk for assistance and information. Microsoft Word Online is readily available. Access is often supplied by your institution. Contact the Student Technical Help Desk for assistance and information.

4.6.1 Setting up MLA format using the Microsoft Word Template. The easiest way to set up an MLA style document in Microsoft Word is to use the preformatted template. By learning how to set your paper up in MLA format, you acknowledge that you are formally entering an academic discourse community. Indeed, a bad paper can be presented in meticulously correct formatting, and, of course, formatting does nothing to change the quality of the thought or the writing. Without a doubt, a good paper can be presented with sloppy formatting, and the formatting does not affect the quality of the thought. What the correct formatting tells the reader is that you are willing to take the time and care to present your work professionally. Accepting that you need to devote energy to the presentation is a step toward entering your chosen profession because you will need to learn to establish your professional credibility when you reach that stage in life. You complete many more difficult tasks in a day than setting up a paper correctly, for example driving a car, working at a job, taking care of children. Setting up your paper correctly involves following a specific set 156

of directions. It is important to complete each step in sequence. What makes the process slightly complex is that the directions vary slightly, depending on the brand of your computer and your operating system. The following directions work for Word Online. Most colleges give students no-cost access to Word Online. Contact your technical Student Help Desk for more information. When you open a MS WORD Online file, you can choose to pre-set MLA formatting. This allows you to skip the individual steps below.

You will see the following screen. Be sure to add your last name and the page number in the header.

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4.6.2 How to set up correct MLA format on a blank page. Follow a series of simple steps to create the format. 1. Create a Running Header Use the “add page number” function on your word processing program. The header should be placed in the upper right-hand corner of your page. Type your last name only in front of the page number. Use Times New Roman 12-point for your header. If you are using the pre-set formatting in Word Online, confirm that your name and page number are actually in the header. It won’t look the same on the screen. 2. Add your personal information. Double-space your name, your instructor’s name, the course, and the date. Use the same name as you use for college records. Avoid nicknames. Note the special formatting of the date: day, month, year without commas. 3. Center the Title Maintain double spacing. Remember to take off the “center” function before you type the body. If you have extra spaces, be sure that you have checked the “no spaces between paragraph” box in MS Word in the Home tab Paragraph section. 4. Type the body of your paper Maintain double spacing. Remember to take off the “center” function before you type the body. If you have extra spaces, be sure that you have checked the “no spaces between paragraph” box in MS Word in the Home tab Paragraph section.

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5. Add a works cited entry Every quotation and paraphrase in your essay must be documented with a correctly formatted works cited entry. Use signal phrases or correctly formatted MLA citations in the body of your paper to avoid plagiarism. Your works cited page must be presented using hanging indents. A hanging indent means that the second line is indented rather than the first line, as in an ordinary paragraph. To create a hanging indent, select the text, then go to Paragraph the paragraph header. Find “Special” and select “hanging.” Be sure you have set the paper at double spacing. Your completed summary should look like this: Mack 1 Cleatus Mack Professor Andrea Doria English 1A Reading and Composition Section 2315 3 February 2020 Summary of “Brainology” by Carol Dweck Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck argues that developing a growth mindset is essential to student success. She explains that students with fixed mindsets often believe that they fail to achieve because they are not intelligent enough; students with fixed mindsets make erroneous judgments about themselves, and these judgments interfere with their ability to find motivation. However, from this perspective, students with growth mindset link effort to the development of their intelligence. She attributes the development of fixed mindsets to the kind of praise that students are given, citing numerous studies in support of her claim. From her point of view, if students are praised for intelligence, not effort, they develop a fixed mindset; if they are praised for effort, not intelligence, they develop a growth mindset and become active learners. Work Cited Dweck, Carol. “Brainology.” NAIS, 2008, www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2008/ brainology/.

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4.7 How to troubleshoot MLA Formatting issues. If you find a small problem with MLA while proofreading your paper, it is easy to correct. No doubt, you will not be the first person to get angry at a computer. Almost everyone has experienced feelings of frustration while working with computer software. Consider how you respond. Do you see it as a mild inconvenience that can be resolved with a Google Search, a question to a friend, or talking to a teacher? Or do you see it as an insurmountable obstacle to finishing your work? Problems with MLA formatting can be distressing because it is hard to remember small details related to multiple programs. If you are used to doing something in a particular way on Google Docs, you may not remember the particular setting in MS Word Online. Here, as elsewhere, you need to maintain a growth mindset about temporary inconveniences.Your college offers help in multiple places: the technical Student Help Desk, the Student Success or Tutorial Center, an open computer lab, or your professor’s office hours. Respond to feedback, also known as error messages, about formatting by seeking help. A few minutes of your time should solve the problem.

4.7.1 How do I fix an incorrect date? MLA format uses a particular date format: 10 June 2020. Writing the date in MLA can be troublesome for American students because MLA uses the European format for dates: day, month, year. 29 February 2020 No punctuation is needed. Always write out the month. Never abbreviate.

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4.7.2 How do I fix a problem with the header? Place your cursor at the top of the page and click.The header will open. Use Insert Page Number to add your last name. Change the font to Times New Roman 12 point. Find the header tab at the upper right hand side of the page. Open it.

Select “Insert” on the upper left-hand side of the toolbar.

Find Page Numbers and open its drop-down box. Select the upper right-hand corner, third box in the first row.

Be sure you type your name in the header. Leave the symbols as in the example below, and MS Word will automatically add the page numbers correctly.

4.7.3 What do I do when the spacing doesn’t look right? Look for the “three lines with the up and down arrows” on the toolbar. Select “all” your text by using CTRL+A.Then change the spacing to two.Your entire paper should be double-spaced. Be sure you’ve checked the “no space between paragraphs” box under paragraph.

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If you familiarize yourself with MLA formatting, you will begin to notice visually when the formatting is incorrect. If you skip steps in the formatting process, you might leave extra spaces in the header, between paragraphs, and on the works cited page.

4.7.4 How do I create a hanging indent? MLA format requires that works cited pages to be formatted using hanging indents. A hanging indent is an inverted paragraph; the indent is placed on the second rather than the first line.

Pay careful attention so that you notice when your works cited page lacks the hanging indents. You may import correct citations that might not paste correctly, so it is worth your time to proofread this information carefully.

To fix the works cited entry, select it, then open the three dots on the spacing section of the toolbar.

Select “Special Indent” then “Hanging.”

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4.7.5 How do I create a block quotation? MLA format calls for block quotations for prose passages longer than four lines or for three or more lines of poetry. Setting up a block quotation is not difficult. It’s important to remember that the “block” takes the place of quotation marks, so no quotation marks are needed. Sometimes, if the evidence is particularly compelling, you may want to choose a longer passage. Include quotations longer than four lines as block quotations.

Notice a few things about block quotations. •

There are no quotation marks. The block itself takes the place of the quotation marks.

•

The entire quotation is double-spaced. There is no change in spacing from the paragraph to the quotation.

•

The entire quotation is indented by one tab. Use the block arrow key on MS Word to do this.

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4.8 Revision: after you finish your first draft, look again. Revision means “to look again.” A first draft is only the first step. Professional writers agree that “all writing is rewriting.” Gather feedback from your peers, your tutor, and your professor before you rewrite. As Anne Lamott says in “Bird by Bird,” a finished first draft is a perfect first draft. However, some students believe they are “done” with the paper is a first draft and turn the assignment in as-is, which is a mistake. Professional writers argue that “all writing is rewriting.” Rewriting gives you a chance to explain your ideas more precisely, communicate to your audience more clearly, and create a better professional first impression. Resist the temptation to turn in your first draft because you are “done.” If you have managed your time well, you will be able to put this “perfect” draft aside for a short time, perhaps overnight, and come back to it the following day with a bit of distance on your writing. Before you submit your paper for peer or tutorial review, analyze the draft against the rubric. Remember that “revision” literally means “to look again.” Take time for a second—and third—look at your work.

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4.8.1 Take time to understand the rubric. Rubrics or score sheets provide the standards your professor will use to evaluate your paper. Make your revision process easier by making time to review the rubric. A rubric is, simply put, a score sheet or checklist. Professors create rubrics to give you the criteria or standards by which your paper will be scored. Rubrics may differ from assignment to assignment. Most will set forth criteria on the organization of the paper, evidence and documentation, academic conventions, style, and grammar.

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Rubric: Checklist for Writing Assignment 1: Entering the Academic Writing Community

Possible points

1. Does the writer clearly state the claim? If students develop a growth mindset, they are more likely to succeed.

10

2. Does the writer provide at least three reasons? Because. . .

20

3. Does the writer provide at least one piece of evidence, paraphrased or quoted, in support f each reason? Is the evidence introduced, quoted, cited, and explained?

20

4. Does the writer appropriately and consistently use signal phrases and parenthetical citations to avoid plagiarism? Are the page numbers and timestamps (if needed) correct?

10

5. Does the writer effectively use academic language with few grammatical errors?

5

6. Does the writer provide a correctly formatted works cited page?

5

7. Does the writer reach a total word count of 750-100 words? (3 to 4 pages, double spaced, Times New Roman)?

Score and comments

10

When your paper is finished, review it against the rubric your professor provides and score it yourself before you send it to peer review. Although your professor will use the rubric to calculate your grade, you can also use it to improve your paper before turning it in. Think of a rubric as a checklist. It is easy to skip or neglect an element of a complex assignment, but the rubric allows you to be sure you’ve covered all the criteria. Make notes as you review your work against the rubric, then make changes based on those notes.

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4.8.2 Participate in peer review with a growth mindset. Learning to respond to feedback is an essential part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your writing, you are taking an important step in this direction. Use information from your peer review to improve your paper. If you have questions about the validity of any peer comments, check with your professor before using the suggestions in your revision. Learning to respond to feedback is a crucial aspect of developing a growth mindset. As it is for professional academic writers, peer review is an important part of the process for students of academic writing. Peer review sharpens your writing in two ways. It provides feedback for you from other writers grappling with the same assignment, and it allows you to see how others tackled the same problem. Few things are more challenging than finding the issues in your own work. Another writer looks at your paper with new eyes and can offer valuable information for your revision. A peer will review your paper using the same set of standards used by your professor.

4.8.3 Editing after the Peer Review. Thoughtful peer review provides the writer with information on how others see the work. Keep a growth mindset and treat peer review as information rather than criticism. Don’t be afraid to ask questions about feedback.

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Gather the rubric you used to score your paper, the rubric your peer used to review your assignment, the draft of your paper, and a copy of the assignment. Open them in tabs on your computer screen, or better yet, print them so you can move back and forth more quickly between them. Reread the assignment, your notes, and your peer’s notes. In a separate file or sheet of paper, make notes about the feedback. Did you and your peer agree on issues that needed work? Did your peer see similar problems you missed? Did the information your peer provided fit with what you already knew? Was your peer’s feedback was accurate, or did you feel the need to double-check their response? Remember, your peer is also a student, so he or she may or may not offer accurate feedback. Before you proceed on a revision, resolve questions you may have about your peer’s feedback. Don’t accept the peer’s suggestions as being valid if you have doubts. Get another opinion, double-check with your professor, a peer mentor, or an authoritative source before incorporating the feedback into your paper.

4.8.4 Revise after the instructor review. Look again—and again—at your paper and the feedback you have received.Your paper doesn’t need to be perfect but turn in the final draft knowing you have tried to do your best.Your professor dedicates time and attention to review your paper. Be sure that you find and respond to comments. Contact your professor with any questions you may have before revising.

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Many professors take significant time and care when commenting on student work, and their effort is wasted if students don’t read the comments and use them to improve their writing.Your professor may also ask you to sign up with a tutorial service like Smarthinking or suggest that you work with a tutor at the college’s tutorial center. It is important to keep a growth mindset on the subject of seeking extra help.Your professor is making suggestions designed to help you become a better writer. She is not judging your potential or trying to make you feel stupid. If you read the comments from your professor and hear a voice in your head saying you will never get this, tell it to be quiet.You are getting feedback from people, not criticism. Do yourself and those trying to help you a favor, try to maintain a growth mindset, and take pride in your efforts.Your writing skills will get stronger the more you use them, just like muscles do when you start exercising. Most professional writers seek feedback from others, and the more the person giving you feedback knows about writing, the more valuable the feedback. Even so, you do not need to accept comments from your instructor without questioning them. If you wrote a sentence in a particular way for a reason, open a dialogue with your professor. It will likely help you understand your own writing process better.

4.8.5 Edit again after the instructor review. After reading and verifying instructor and peer feedback, decide where you need to make changes in your paper. Start with the largest scale changes on the organization and paragraphing first, then move to editing and proofreading.

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Module 4 Review 4.1 Approach writing your first essay college essay with a clear strategy. Taking time to understand the directions is the first step to success. 4.2.The nuts and bolts of writing: type your paper into a word processing file. Although setting your work up correctly in a word processing program like Microsoft Word may bring some challenges, it is easily mastered. 4.2.1 Fatigue and computer errors. 4.2.2 Saving your work. 4.3 Why should we care about professional formatting styles? Presenting work in a professional formatting style reinforces your credibility as a college writer. Erving Goffman’s classic work, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, provides a framework for understanding the “front-stage” behavior we need to present ourselves credibly in academic writing. 4.4 Correct paper formatting establishes your academic credibility. Correct formatting strengthens the rhetorical appeal of ethos, or credibility, in the reader’s first impression. Academic professional associations establish guidelines for professional publications so that the publications look consistent across their discipline.The Modern Language Association (MLA),The American Psychological Association (APA), the Council of Science Editors (CSE), and the University of Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago) are used most frequently in academic writing. 4.5 Good news: Most English classes only require MLA formatting. Formats established by the Modern Language Association (MLA) are used in most English classes. 4.6 How to set your paper up in MLA format. The procedure for setting up your paper in MLA format may depend on the brand and operating system of your computer and the software you use. Contact the Student Technical Help Desk for assistance and information. Microsoft Word Online is readily available. Access is often supplied by your institution. Contact the Student Technical Help Desk for assistance and information. 170

4.6.1 Setting up MLA format using the Microsoft Word Template. The easiest way to set up an MLA style document in Microsoft Word is to use the preformatted template. 4.6.2 How to set up correct MLA format on a blank page. Follow a series of simple steps to create the format. 4.7 How to troubleshoot MLA Formatting issues. If you find a small problem with MLA while proofreading your paper, it is easy to correct. 4.7.1 How do I fix an incorrect date? MLA format uses a particular date format: 10 June 2020. 4.7.2 How do I fix a problem with the header? Place your cursor at the top of the page and click.The header will open. Use Insert Page Number to add your last name. Change the font to Times New Roman 12 point. 4.7.3 What do I do when the spacing doesn’t look right? Look for the “three lines with the up and down arrows” on the toolbar. Select “all” your text by using CTRL+A.Then change the spacing to two.Your entire paper should be double-spaced. Be sure you’ve checked the “no space between paragraphs” box under paragraph. 4.7.4 How do I create a hanging indent? MLA format requires that works cited pages to be formatted using hanging indents. A hanging indent is an inverted paragraph, meaning the indent is on the second rather than the first line. 4.7.5 How do I create a block quotation? MLA format calls for block quotations for prose passages longer than four lines or for three or more lines of poetry. Setting up a block quotation is not difficult. It’s important to remember that the “block” takes the place of quotation marks, so no quotation marks are needed.

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4.8 Revision: after you finish your first draft, look again. Revision means “to look again.” A first draft is only the first step. Professional writers agree that “all writing is rewriting.” Gather feedback from your peers, your tutor, and your professor before you rewrite. 4.8.1 Take time to understand the rubric. Rubrics or score sheets provide the standards your professor will use to evaluate your paper. Make your revision process easier by making time to review the rubric. 4.8.2 Participate in peer review with a growth mindset. Learning to respond to feedback is an important part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your writing, you are taking an important step in this direction. Use information from your peer review to improve your paper. If you have questions about the validity of any peer comments, check with your professor before using the suggestions in your revision. 4.8.3 Editing after the Peer Review. Thoughtful peer review provides the writer with information on how others see the work. Keep a growth mindset and treat peer review as information rather than criticism. Don’t be afraid to ask questions about feedback. 4.8.4 Revise after the instructor review. Look again—and again—at your paper and the feedback you have received.Your paper doesn’t need to be perfect but turn in the final draft knowing you have tried to do your best.Your professor dedicates time and attention to review your paper. Be sure that you find and respond to comments. Contact your professor with any questions you may have before revising. 4.8.5 Edit again after the instructor review. After reading and verifying instructor and peer feedback, decide where you need to make changes in your paper. Start with the largest scale changes on the organization and paragraphing first, then move to editing and proofreading.

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Glossary Academic conventions Academic conventions are practices or habits that writers use only in academic writing, like using only an author’s last name after the first mention. American Psychological Association is a professional organization of psychologists. It established the APA style for academic papers in most social sciences. Audience refers to the intended readers or listeners of a piece of writing or speech. An academic audience is composed of students and professors. Front stage behavior is a term used by sociologist Erving Goffman in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. It refers to public rather than private behavior. Chicago Style is an academic formatting style established by the University of Chicago Press. It is used primarily by historians. Council of Science Editors establishes the formatting style for papers in STEM, science, math, and technology. Credibility or ethos Credible writers establish the belief that their writing is trustworthy. They create a strong ethos, an important rhetorical appeal. Edit means to review a piece of writing in order to make changes to prepare it for submission. Editorial changes at the sentence level are called copy editing. Proofreading is another term for identifying minor errors. Ethos or credibility Credible writers establish the belief that their writing is trustworthy. They create a strong ethos, an important rhetorical appeal. Logos is the rhetorical appeal to logic or reason. Pathos is the rhetorical appeal to feeling or emotion. Peer review allows your fellow students to examine your paper before you turn it in to your professor. Peer review allows you to look at the work of others in your class and practice using a rubric to evaluate your paper. Peer review is also used to describe the submission process to academic journals where other members of an academic discipline evaluate an article before it is published. Peer reviewed articles are considered to be very reliable sources. “Presentation of self ” is a term from sociologist Erving Goffman which describes how we interact with others in public contexts.

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Primary evidence/secondary evidence: Evidence supports reasons. Primary evidence is evidence that is closest to experience. It may be an observation, an original story, or a description of an artifact. Secondary evidence is drawn from what others have written on a subject. Proofreading means to carefully review a text for small errors in grammar, capitalization, and punctuation. Professional formatting refers to a manuscript submission style required by professional organizations like the Modern Language Association (MLA), the American Psychological Association (APA), the Council of Science Editors (CSE), and The University of Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago). Reason A reason is a statement that supports a claim. It answers the question “why”: claim BECAUSE reason. Thesis statement or thesis Revision/revise Revision means to “look again” at a piece of writing and rewrite it to better communicate with an audience. Quote, quotation “Quote” is a short informal way of describing the direct words of others; quotation is a more formal way. In writing a paper, avoid using the word quotation. Instead, chose words like “statement” or “In the words of.” Rhetorical appeals: pathos, ethos, logos The rhetorical appeals describe how a writer tries to persuade an audience, using emotion, credibility, or reasoning. Signal phrase A signal phrase is a phrase that marks words or paraphrases taken from another writer, for example, “in her words,” or “he explains.” Style refers to a writer’s choice of words and sentence structures. Strong academic styles are clear, precise, concise, coherent, and cohesive. Thesis statement Your thesis statement sets forth the main idea of your paper and provides a focus for the reader. It should be stated early in your paper. It should contain both a claim supported by at least one reason. In academic papers, the thesis statement also restates the conclusion so that the reader can preview your argument. Transition Word A word that indicates a logical connection between ideas and helps establish coherence in an essay: first, therefore, however, moreover, for example.

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Works Cited Little, William, Introduction to Sociology, Victoria: BC Campus, 2016 Modern Language Association. The MLA Style Center. 2020. Purdue Writing Lab. “MLA Style Introduction Purdue Writing Lab.” Purdue Writing Lab.  Warburton, Nigel, and Stephen Fry. “A History of Ideas, Philosopher Jules Evans on Jung and the Mind, Erving Goffman and The Performed Self.” BBC Radio 4, BBC. 13 Apr. 2015.

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MODULE 4 ASSIGNMENTS: ENTERING THE ACADEMIC WRITING COMMUNITY: A DEBUT ACADEMIC ESSAY 1.

Reading Assignment  Reflection 4.1

2.

3.

How do you feel about writing a college paper?

Research log 4.1 Understanding the directions

4.1 Entering the academic writing community: how to approach your first college essay How do you feel as you start your first paper? Do you feel like you want to put off starting for a while? Or are you ready to start working? Can you maintain a growth mindset and see feedback as information rather than criticism? Complete a research log for the directions for Writing Assignment 1 A Debut Academic Essay. In the left boxes, summarize each of the steps in the directions. In the right boxes, record your questions, concerns, and any points of confusion. Can you identify campus, course, and personal resources for help?  Complete an organizer for Writing Assignment 1. After

Organizer for Writing

4.

Assignment 1 

reading the assignment and completing a log, select a topic for your first paper. Choose only from the topics for which you have completed research logs. Avoid using any outside sources. Be sure to use quotation marks for all quotations you take from the articles. 

5.

Reading Assignment

4.2. The nuts and bolts of writing: typing your paper into a word processing file

6.

Reading Assignment

4.3 Why should we care about professional formatting styles?

Research log 4.2

Actor Steven Fry presents Erving Goffman’s theory of front and back-stage behavior in this short video. Complete a research log for the video. 

7.

Front-stage and back-stage behavior

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Read part of this excerpt from a sociology text.  IntroResearch log 4.3 8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

The presentation of self in everyday life

duction to Sociology by Canadian professor William Little. Scroll down on this page until you find two sections, “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life” and “Front Stage and Back Stage Behavior.” Then read these two sections? 

Reflection 4,2

Think about a time in college when you engaged in “frontstage behavior.” Describe how that felt. Think about a time when you engaged in “back-stage behavior.” What was the difference?

Reflection 4.3

Think deeply here. Do you think we have a core self that doesn’t change, or do we create our sense of self in the series of interactions we have with others?

Reflection 4.4

Report on the right-column comments in your research log. Was the text hard or easy to read? How do you feel about reading the texts for your classes? Do you listen to lectures only and ignore the text?

Reflection 4.5

Apply Goffman’s ideas about the presentation of self to the presentation of your college papers. Do you care about the impression you make? Do you spend a lot of time on the details of the presentation? If you don’t, what would convince you to take them more seriously?

13.

Reading Assignment

4.4 Professional credibility and correct paper formatting 

14.

Reading Assignment

4.5 Good news: Most English classes only require MLA formatting

15.

Reading Assignment

4.6 How to set your paper up in MLA format

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16.

17.

18.

Reflection 4.6 How comfortable do you feeling writing a paper on a computer? 

Reflection 4.7 Your thoughts on formatting 

Reflect 4.8 Practicing MLA formatting 

Reflect 4.9 19.

How hard was it for you to set your paper up in correct MLA format? 

20.

Reading Assignment

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Does using a computer make the writing process harder or easier? Have you ever lost work and had to redo it because you forgot to save it? Do you know how to find help when you have a computer issue? What are your first thoughts when learning your paper must be set up in a particular format? Do you feel like you understand formatting, so it’s not a big concern? Or do you feel stressed at having to manage the details? Explain. The purpose of this exercise is to learn how to open and use a preformatted Word MLA. Follow the directions in 4.6. Open a Word file, then choose the MLA template. Customize it with your own information. Create a title and center it. Type or paste one paragraph of your essay into the body section. Submit this file as a .doc file.  After making your first attempt at setting your paper up in MLA format, explain how you felt. Were you annoyed? Frustrated? Impatient? Or were you able to follow the directions quickly and efficiently?  4.7 Troubleshooting MLA Formatting

Copy organizer 1 and paste it in a new MLA template file. When you paste, be sure to use the “merge formatting” function that appears in the box at the bottom.

21.

Writing Assignment 1: A Debut College paper: preparing your paper for submission

Compare it to the sample file on the assignment page. Use this checklist to evaluate your effort. At the end of your paper, reflect on how close you came to the model? What do you still need to know about MLA formatting? Times New Roman 12-point font including running header Running header with last name and page number Double spaced with no extra spaces between paragraphs (Did you check the no space box under “paragraph” in MS Word?)  Correctly formatted MLA works cited page using hanging indent with no extra spaces between the paragraphs. When you have formatted your draft correctly, review your work. Have you met the required length requirement? Can you add another reason supported by more evidence which you introduce, quote, cite, and explain?

22.

23.

24.

25.

Reflection 4.10 How do your respond to formatting setbacks?  Reading Assignment

If you have ever received a low grade for incorrect formatting, how did you respond? (Or imagine you did.) Were you angry at the teacher? Yourself? The system that requires formatting? Explain. 4.8 Revision: after you finish your first draft 

Reflection 4.11

How do you feel when you get feedback from your peers? From your tutor? From your professor? Are you willing to see feedback as information rather than criticism? 

Reflection 4.12

How do you feel about the process of revision? Do you find it difficult to go back to something you feel like you have “finished,” or do you welcome the opportunity to improve your work? 

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26.

Reflection 4.13

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After you have completed the first submission and revision cycle, make a list of elements of academic writing that challenged you. Explain your strategy for overcoming these challenges in another revision and in your next paper. 

MODULE 5: The academic cycle of reading, writing, and responding: the summary response paper

By the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. Explore the power of metacognition. 2. Investigate more effective methods for analyzing reading more precisely. 3. Determine effective strategies for organizing summaries. 4. Develop insights into reading by thoughtful response. 5. Apply the conventions of academic discourse to summary writing. 6. Maintain a growth mindset and find help on your campus.

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Module 5 Preview 5.Academic writing can be described as a cycle of reading, writing, and responding. Join the great academic conversation by reading about and responding to a reading on a specific topic. 5.1 Summary writing plays an important role in academic research. The ability to write accurate and correct summaries is an important research skill and allows you to enter fascinating research conversations. 5.2 Let’s start working on a summary response assignment. Follow the directions carefully to write a summary response paper using academic conventions. Using specific strategies such as finding key words and writing a one-sentence summary offer a solid start. 5.3 Be sure you understand the assignment before you start the writing process. Invest time in thoroughly understanding your assignment. It will save you time in the long run. 5.4 Complete the assignments in the order they are presented. Your professor has created an order to the assignments that support your learning.Avoid skipping steps and save time in the long run. 5.5 Separate the main idea and reasons from evidence. Identifying the evidence—quotations, numbers, stories–helps you quickly focus on the main ideas so that you can communicate them to a reader who has not read the article. 5.6 Compare your research log with a sample. Examining a model assignment allows you to better understand its demands. 5.7 Develop metacognition by reviewing and revising your research log. Don’t put your research log away after you finish. Give it another look.

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5.8 Create summary maps to verify you understand the main idea. Summary maps—keyword graphs, six-word summaries, one-sentence summaries—help you uncover the main idea. 5.8.1 Identify keywords to identify the main idea. Identifying keywords, or the words that appear most often, brings you closer to the main idea. 5.8.2 Create a six-word summary to catch the main idea in a short sentence. Use your keywords to create a six-word summary sentence that expresses the main idea. 5.8.3 Create a one-sentence summary map to express the main idea more completely. Expand your six-word summary to express the main idea more completely: who/what does what to whom/or what? Where? When? How? 5.9 Use a summary organizer to identify the claim and reasons supporting the claim. Once you have identified the main idea, a summary organizer helps you find the structure of the reasoning. 5.10 Write a draft of the summary paying careful attention to academic conventions. As you write the draft of the summary using your organizer, be sure to pay attention to academic conventions: a conventional summary opening, academic language, signal phrases and parenthetical citations, and academic naming conventions. 5.11 Practicing the conventions of academic writing. Become a stronger academic writer by using academic conventions in your draft. 5.11.1 Using a conventional summary opening. A conventional summary opening establishes your credibility to an academic audience. 5.11.2 Use Academic Language. Using academic rather than casual language increases your credibility.

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5.11.3 Using signal phrases and parenthetical citations. Using signal phrases and parenthetical citations demonstrates that you understand academic documentation. 5.11.4 Using academic naming conventions. Help build your credibility by incorporating the credibility of reliable sources 5.12 Evaluate your own work by comparing it a model summary and using a rubric. Comparing your paper to a model summary can help you identify revisions you may need to make. Using a rubric can help you better understand how your professor will evaluate your work. 5.12.1 Using a rubric as a checklist to improve your draft. A rubric is a handy checklist to help you improve your draft. 5.12.2 A peer review provides valuable information. A peer reviewer provides new eyes on your work; reviewing someone else’s work allows you to see another approach to the assignment. 5.13 Converting your summaries into an annotated bibliography. If your professor requires an annotated bibliography, simply convert the format of your summaries. 5.14 Discover the power of metacognition by writing a response paper. Using your metacognitive skills will help you think more deeply about your response to the article and makes your response more meaningful. 5.14.1 Previewing Michael Martinez’s “What is Metacognition?” Previewing challenging reading sets the stage for understanding. 5.15 Put metacognition to work by writing an academic response paper. A carefully written response shows that you have thought carefully about the reading and can offer perceptive insights.

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5.15.1 Evaluating your own work: a response paper rubric. Using a rubric can help you better understand how your professor will evaluate your work. 5.15.2 A peer review provides valuable feedback. A peer reviewer provides new eyes on your work; reviewing someone else’s work allows you to see another approach to the assignment. 5.16 Seek help when you need it. A summary/response paper can pose challenges, so it’s important to be open to finding help from your professors, tutors, and peer mentors. 5.16.1 Your professor wants to help you. Dropping in during an office hour or sending an email can provide quick clarification. 5.16.2 Email or call your professor with specific questions. Follow the rules of etiquette when emailing or calling your professor. 5.16.3 Visit your student success center for additional help. Working with a peer mentor as you write your paper can speed up your progress. 15.16.3.a Prepare for your visit. Make a list of questions and concerns. 15.16.3.b Accept feedback gracefully. Keep a growth mindset as you listen to feedback. 15.16.3.c Use suggestions to revise your paper. Thoughtfully incorporate changes into your revision.

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Case History 1: Understanding the assignment: Payton Payton opened the refrigerator to see what she could find. It had been a long day at work, and she didn’t feel like cooking after working in the after-school program for four hours. A piece of cold pizza caught her eye, and she popped it in the microwave. “I’ve got to get my paper done.” She sat down at the kitchen table and opened her laptop. She found the assignment on Canvas and then reviewed the work she had done. Payton was trying hard to work on her growth mindset, and she was succeeding. With this changed behavior, she stayed on top of her work. Payton wanted to be a first-grade teacher, and everything was lining up. The problem was, Payton always had trouble finding the main idea in her reading. She really liked the Ruenzel article because it related to her major. Payton felt that the school where she worked put too much emphasis on grades and testing, so she was interested when finding out that others thought the same way. However, there was so much to get through in that article: this study, that study, and all the details. The main ideas, she thought, were right there in bold on the side of the article. “The research is in: Rewards seem to undermine thoughtful, creative classroom practice.” That was not true in her classroom. The kids loved it when they got pizza for reading, and they could earn $1 for reading a book. She started to write, and all of her feelings came out. The kids studying for tests were not interested in learning. The spark she noticed in them was when they worked on projects. Payton felt like she would found a flow state. After finishing the paragraph, Payton realized that she had been writing for an hour and still had psychology homework to do, so she saved the file and uploaded it to the assignment.“That is the best thing I have ever written,” she thought, “and I am not a gold-star junkie, and I don’t care what grade I’ve received.” She re-read what she wrote and concluded, “But I don’t think I am thinking about this in the right way.”She felt confident in her reflection but was not sure about how to write a summary, so she made an appointment with her professor to review the assignment. 186

5.Academic writing can be described as a cycle of reading, writing, and responding. Join the great academic conversation by reading about and responding to a reading on a specific topic. Think of academic writing as your opportunity to participate in a great conversation. Much of academic work is based on the cycle of reading, summarizing, and responding. Before we start a new research project, we read credible sources, summarize them, and then respond. When we become interested in a topic in any discipline, we begin by researching reliable sources, articles, and books on that topic. We then join the conversation by processing that reading: annotating, completing research logs, and discussing it with another, either face to face or online. Finally, we join the more formal version of that conversation by writing a paper that addresses the academic community, a hypothetical audience of students and experts who would be interested in that topic.

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5.1 Summary writing plays an important role in academic research. The ability to write accurate and correct summaries is an important research skill and allows you to enter fascinating research conversations. Payton has made an important discovery: her academic interests in child development and her early professional experience are connected. Research began to give her insights into her experiences in the elementary school classroom. Payton also discovered that she felt comfortable asking her professor for help because she did not feel obliged to get “the right answer” the first time she tacked an assignment. It is easy to initially ignore the importance of summary writing, as Payton did in her thoughtful response because it is rarely easy. We must work hard to extract the main ideas from complex research. However, we feel much more intellectually engaged when responding to what others have written and comparing it with our own reading and experiences. And that is a great thing. Summary writing is the price we pay for engaging in fascinating research. Try to think of the research process as a conversation you are entering as you join your profession. To be a valuable contributor to the process, you need to understand what others are saying. To use their words and ideas in your own part of the conversation, you need to politely and respectfully acknowledge their contribution with correct documentation.

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5.2 Let’s start working on a summary response assignment. Follow the directions carefully to write a summary response paper using academic conventions. Using specific strategies such as finding key words and writing a one-sentence summary offer a solid start. A summary/response paper does not sound too complicated, but there may be more to it than you realize. In writing the summary, you will demonstrate that you have carefully read the article, understand the main ideas and the structure of the reasoning, and can restate the main ideas and reasons in your own words without plagiarizing. In writing your response, you will show that you have thought deeply about the ideas in the article by offering your thoughts, perceptions, and insights into its meaning. Let’s step through the process with an actual assignment, a summary response paper based on educator David Ruenzel’s “Gold Star Junkies.”Before you read the article and complete a research log, watch the two assignment videos, Summary Response Assignment 1 and Summary Response Assignment 2.You can review these on the They Say/I Say presentation without a voice-over explanation.

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5.3 Be sure you understand the assignment before you start the writing progress. Invest time in thoroughly understanding your assignment. It will save you time in the long run. You will understand your assignments better if you read them as you would a text and complete a research log for the class. Try it yourself on the following summary/response assignment. Before you start this assignment, fill out a reading log. What questions do you have? •

Do you understand the purpose of the paper?

•

What words give the most important directions? What words may not be clear to you?

•

How long is the paper? How do you feel about reaching that length?

•

How does it fit into student learning outcomes—what are you expected to learn from the assignment?

•

Do you understand how to choose quotations? Do you know how to use signal phrases? Do you understand what plagiarism is? How does the thought of plagiarizing make you feel?

•

Do you understand how to submit the paper online?

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5.4 Complete the assignments in the order they are presented. Your professor has created an order to the assignments that support your learning. Avoid skipping steps and save time in the long run. Follow the process step by step. Don’t skip steps or assume you will remember to complete a task later. And of course, allow yourself enough time.You may need to break the writing process into Read the article carefully and fill out a research log. Be sure to summarize in the left box and record your comments and reactions in the right box.

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Step 1: Complete a research log for the essay assigned to summarize “Gold Star Junkies.” Use a research log to pick out the main ideas and supporting reasons in “Gold Star Junkies.”Taking time to understand the reading will make your work on the summary go more smoothly. Spend time on the reading to save time on the writing. Students sometimes have difficulty finding the generalizations, so be sure that you have identified the “skeleton” or the outline of the argument in the left column. Be sure to jot down your questions and moments of confusion in the right column.

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Step 2: Complete a research log on the assignment directions. The assignment may seem fairly straightforward, and you may be tempted to skip this step. First read through the assignment a couple of times

Write a one-paragraph (250 words) fully documented summary of “Gold Star Junkies” and a 500-word response to the ideas in the article. Use at least two short, correctly documented quotations to support the interpretation in your response. Be sure that you have introduced, quoted, cited, and explained each quotation. Write for an academic audience using the standard conventions: MLA formatting, signal phrases, academic naming conventions, a correct works cited page. Be sure that you use signal phrases to introduce each quotation to avoid plagiarism. Papers that contain plagiarism will receive a grade of 0.

However, when students turn in this paper, it is clear that many may have misunderstood the assignment. The assignment has two parts, a short summary and a response twice the length of the summary. Some students might turn in a two-page summary that includes many of the specific details, or they may miss the generalization that catches the main idea. Others fail to use signal phrases and plagiarize inadvertently. Since all ideas in a summary come from a source, every sentence must be documented to avoid plagiarism. They may also forget to add a works cited entry which is another kind of plagiarism. So before you start to write, take time to review the video assignment as well as the directions. The video version of the assignment, “They Say, I Say,”provides additional clarification about using academic conventions. It provides a sample of a conventional academic opening and clarifies how to find the main idea and supporting reasons.

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Step 3: Review your research log to separate your ideas from the ideas of your source. Base your summary on the left column of your research log. The left column addresses the “they say” part of the assignment; the right column will become a prewriting for your response, or the “I say” part of the assignment: what the author said about the topic. Include only the ideas from the article in your summary and save your own reactions for the response: this is what I have to say about the topic.

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Step 4: Complete a Summary Organizer for “Gold Star Junkies” Use a summary organizer to extract the main ideas from your research log and summary maps for your summary. Remember to state your reasons as generalizations rather than specific detail.You may have to infer the generalizations if they are not stated explicitly. There are no set number of reasons, but be careful to find as many as you can, even if you need to infer them. Remember that quotations, numbers, or data, are always evidence, never reasons. Use a signal phrase to introduce your choice of quotation.

Main idea/claim/thesis

BECAUSE Reason 1 (Generalization)

Evidence for Reason 1 (Specific detail)

BECAUSE Reason 2 (Generalization)

Evidence for Reason 2 (Specific detail)

BECAUSE Reason 3 (Generalization) (add

Evidence for Reason 3 (Specific detail)

rows as needed)

THEREFORE Main idea/claim/thesis/conclusion

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Step 5: Present your summary in correct MLA format Familiarize yourself with MLA formatting conventions before you revise your summary. Look carefully at the visual formatting conventions: what do you notice about paragraphing, indentations, and spacing? Follow the directions for setting your paper up in MLA format presented in Module 4. When you finish this assignment, you should be able to: 1.

Identify the structure of the author’s reasoning to an audience who hasn’t read the article.

2.

Clearly and concisely state the author’s primary claim in the first sentence of the summary.

3.

Clearly state the reasons that support the claim.

4.

Focus on generalizations rather than specific detail

5.

Present those ideas using academic conventions including signal phrases and a conventional summary opening: “In “Gold Start Junkies,” educator David Ruenzel argues that . . .” “From his point of view. . .”

6.

Document each sentence of the summary since each sentence comes from a secondary source.

7.

Present your paper in correct MLA formatting using academic language and style.

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5.5 Separate the main idea and reasons from evidence. Identifying the evidence—quotations, numbers, stories—helps you quickly focus on the main ideas so that you can communicate them to a reader who hasn’t read the article. Imagine that you are writing your summary for a reader who has not read the essay. That reader wants to understand what the article is “about” quickly. Details of the research, no matter how fascinating,are less important than the “big idea.” Summary assignments ask you to find the main idea and the structure of the reasoning in an article so that you can provide that reader with the author’s main argument. For that reason, it is important to figure out the structure of an essay before summarizing it in order to separate the main ideas from the evidence. Evidence supports the reasoning of the argument; it is not the argument itself. Ruenzel uses two kinds of evidence in his essay, secondary evidence or quotations, and primary evidence, or narrative and storytelling. This primary evidence connects his research with his experience. When you summarize, be sure that you summarize what Ruenzel thinks about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation rather than simply retelling the stories or repeating the quotations he uses to support his points. Look for his “big ideas” and report them. Your assignment asks you to choose two short quotations. Be sure you choose them from Ruenzel’s words, not the words of the authors he cites. Your summary should contain little or no narrative or storytelling because narrative is used as evidence to support the ideas in the article. Before you start the research log, be sure you can tell them apart. 197

Narrative or storytelling = evidence

Ideas or exposition = explaining

Here Ruenzel tells a story to support his idea that rewards and punishments do not work.

Here Ruenzel sets forth his own ideas that are backed by research.

“Compelled to attend, young Bethany generally looked quite dyspeptic while we adults formulated a plan to get her back to work. In retrospect,

“Rewards and punishments are not only ineffective at motivating students—and adults, for that matter—but are in fact counterproductive. Students punished for misbehavior—say, made to stand in a corner for hitting another child—are likely to become covertly disobedient. Students rewarded for good work—say, given candy or gold stars for a clever science project—are more likely to lose interest in the very activity for which they were rewarded.”

I think our best approach would have been to schedule more meetings for the poor student. A teenager might become a National Merit Scholar to avoid such a fate. Instead, we agreed to the usual solutions: Bethany would study at least two hours each night in a clean, well-lighted room, undisturbed by phone calls or the television.”

5.6 Compare your research log with a sample. Examining a model assignment allows you to better understand its demands. Compare your research log with Payton’s log? Did you cover similar points? Where did you disagree? Your professor may ask that you share your logs with a classmate. Use the opportunity to discuss differences in interpretation you may have had about the article.

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What the writer says

My thoughts, feelings, and questions

“The behaviorist theory—that people I have always thought this. In the class I work in, we learn only when rewards and punishments are handing out tokens and pizza coupons, and it really reinforce ’good’ and ‘bad’ behavior—seems to doesn’t seem to make any difference.The kids behave be plain wrong.” the same. Current testing practices make it very difficult for teachers to use alternatives to rewards and punishment.

The kids in our class don’t see the point of the tests. I think there is a better way to help them learn, and I want to find out what it is.

Cites Deci’s study showing rewards and punishments do not work, because as Deci says, “we initiate children’s behavior on one hand and tell them they are incompetent on the other.”

That makes complete sense to me.The kids look so sad when their test scores come back low, and they feel better than their friends when they get high scores. How does that help develop Dweck’s growth mindset?

“As Deci explained it, children and adults alike are likely to lose interest in activities imposed on them.”

Yes. I wonder if the people who make up the curriculum understand what it’s like to try to work with kids who just have no interest in what we are doing in our classroom.

“In America, accepting the premise that extrinsic motivation does not work is the equivalent of treason.”

I’m a lowly classroom aide. I don’t even think I could suggest this. But I think Ruenzel is right here.We just can’t say it.

“So in the final analysis, how should teachers motivate students? Perhaps that is altogether the wrong question, says psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Perhaps teachers should instead focus on how to motivate themselves to become more deeply interested in—or remain deeply interested in—the subjects they teach.”

Wow, that is a weird name. I will have to see if I can find out how to say it. But MC is right: I really like to study bugs and butterflies, and when I’m talking about bugs and butterflies, I’m really excited, and they get really. But I’d have to teach math as an elementary school teacher too, and that doesn’t seem as exciting. I wonder if this applies to all subjects? How do you teach a subject you don’t like?

“But if the makers of educational policies worried half as much about making what is taught interesting and relevant as making it count, our children would be happier as well as productive.”

Isn’t that what we should all be aiming for? A lot of the time, our teachers seem to be there, but they don’t want to be.They do not get to make decisions about what they teach.That affects our students. Everyone needs to be happier.That would be a good thing.

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5.7 Develop metacognition by reviewing and revising your research log. Don’t put your research log away after you finish. Give it another look. While reviewing the research log with her professor, Payton was told that she had done a great job picking out key quotations and responding to them.“But how can you finish a summary,” the professor asked, “if you have not summarized most of the material? Why don’t you go back to the left column and write one sentence of summary for the ones you skipped? Payton revised her log before she started to write.

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What the writer says

My thoughts, feelings, and questions

“The behaviorist theory—that people learn only when rewards and punishments reinforce ’good’ and ‘bad’ behavior—seems to be plain wrong.”

I’ve always thought this. I didn’t know it was called “behavioralist.”I remember hearing that word in psychology. In the class I work in, we are handing out tokens and pizza Rewarding good behavior and pun- coupons, and it really doesn’t seem to make any difference.The kids behave the same. ishing bad behavior doesn’t work. Current testing practices make it very difficult for teachers to uses alternatives to rewards and punishments. If teachers are forced to give tests, then they must use a system of rewards and punishments.

The kids in our class don’t see the point of the tests. I think there is a better way to help them learn, and I want to find out what it is. I get it now.They can’t escape the system. Are we doomed?

That makes complete sense to me.The kids look so sad when their test scores come back low, and they feel better than their Cites Deci’s study showing rewards friends when they get high scores. How does and punishments don’t work, because as that help develop Dweck’s growth mindset? Deci says, “we initiate children’s behavThis one is really hard to figure out. I’m ior on one hand and tell them they’re not sure what “imitate children’s behavior” incompetent on the other.” means? Tell them what to do? I’m having trouble summarizing here. I know that we can’t tell kids that they are not able to do the work and expect them to do it. “As Deci explained it, children and Yes. I wonder if the people who make up adults alike are likely to lose interest the curriculum understand what it’s like to try in activities imposed on them.” to work with kids who just have no interest in what we are doing in our classroom. I When we make people do things, they are less likely to enjoy wonder who Deci is. It sounds like he’s important, and I should know more. them.

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“In America, accepting the premise I’m a lowly classroom aide. I don’t even that extrinsic motivation does not work think I could suggest this. But I think Ruenzel is the equivalent of treason.” is right here.We just can’t say it. But why American schools will not can’t we? What makes the “system” feel accept the idea that rewards and this is so important? punishments don’t work. “So in the final analysis, how should teachers motivate students? Perhaps that is altogether the wrong question, says psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Perhaps teachers should instead focus on how to motivate

Wow that is a weird name. I will have to see if I can find out how to say it. But MC is right: I really like to study bugs and butterflies and when I’m talking about bugs and butthemselves to become more deep- terflies, I’m really excited and they get really. ly interested in—or remain deeply But I’d have to teach math as an elementary interested in—the subjects they school teacher too, and that doesn’t seem as teach.” exciting. I wonder if this applies to all subjects? How do you teach a subject you don’t like? If teachers find their subject matters fascinating, so will their students. “But if the makers of educational policies worried half as much about Isn’t that we should all be aiming for? A making what is taught interesting and lot of the time, our teachers seem to be there, relevant as making it count, our children but they don’t want to be.They don’t get to would be happier as well as productive.” make decisions about what they teach.That affects our students. Everyone needs to be Making education more inhappier.That would be a good thing. teresting would also be a way of making education more effective.

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5.8 Create summary maps to verify you understand the main idea. Summary maps—keyword graphs, six-word summaries, one-sentence summaries—help you uncover the main idea. Before you can successfully summarize the article, you need to separate the main idea from the evidence, then clearly state the main idea.

5.8.1 Identify keywords to identify the main idea. Identifying keywords, or the words that appear most often, brings you closer to the main idea. Keywords are the most important words in a piece of writing. They are often the subjects of sentences and are repeated frequently. Keywords reveal the author’s focus and emphasis. Understanding the meaning of keywords is vital to understanding the meaning of the essay. While it is useful to look up all words you might not understand, looking up keywords is essential even if you think you already know what they mean. Keywords become important research tools because you will use them to search library databases for further information.

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An interesting way to find your keywords is to create a word clouds online. When you have finished a draft of your summary, paste the text in to wordclouds.com. Generate the word cloud, then select the “word” tab. Delete all of the words you have used once unless you have a reason for keeping them. Shorten your list to ten to fifteen words, then create the word cloud. The words that appear to be the largest in the word cloud are the words you have used the most often and are likely to be your keywords. The word cloud above was made from the summary column of Payton’s research log.She can draw on them as she writes her summary.

5.8.2 Create a six-word summary to catch the main idea in a short sentence. Use your keywords to create a six-word summary sentence that expresses the main idea.

After you have generated the keywords, reorganize them into a very short sentence. A word more or less doesn’t matter, and you can add words like “a” and “in” to make it all make sense.You may not use all of the keywords, just the most important ones. List the most important keywords in Carol Dweck’s TED Talk, “The Power of Believing You Can Improve.” Students, growth mindset, fixed mindset, develop, succeed, yet, not yet Catch the main idea in just six words. Students

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need

a growth

mindset

to

succeed.

5.8.3 Create a one-sentence summary map to express the main idea more completely. Expand your six-word summary to express the main idea more completely: who/what does what to whom/or what? Where? When? How? The one-sentence summary exercise, developed by professors of Education Thomas Angelo and Patricia Cross in Classroom Assessment Techniques, is designed to help you state the main idea more precisely. The exercise lets your professor know how well you understand your reading and how well you can incorporate the ideas in your own writing. As you write the one-sentence summary, notice how the basic rules of grammar, subject, verb, and direct object, help you achieve clarity. Every English sentence should answer the question “who or what does what to whom or what? ” Readers expect the answer in the subject, verb, and direct object of the sentence. Additionally, the one-sentence summary allows you to expand by asking the questions where or when. Sometimes the answer is simple: in contemporary culture, it is sometimes more specific: “in California in 2019.” The question “how” is more complex. Use the phrase “by means of” to work the answer into the sentence. The question “why” provides you with the reasons.You may, of course, have more than one answer to this question. Before you can write an accurate summary, you need to be able to identify the claim and the supporting reason or reasons clearly. When you actually write your summary, you might break your one-sentence summary down into multiple sentences, but by completing this exercise, you will have a better understanding of the ideas in your article. If you are unsure of the main idea, write several one-sentence summaries to see which one best captures what you see as the most important idea in the article.

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Answer these questions to pull out the main idea in Carol Dweck’s TED Talk, “The Power of Believing You Can Improve.” Who

subject

students

Does what

verb

develop

To whom or what?

direct object

a growth mindset

Where?

in school

When

at any time in their education

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How?

by means of

by saying “not yet” rather than “a failure”

Why?

because

failure provides information they need to succeed.

5.9 Use a summary organizer to identify the claim and reasons supporting the claim. Once you have identified the main idea, a summary organizer helps you find the structure of the reasoning. After identifying keywords and attempting to capture the main idea, we can move to filling out a summary organizer. Almost all academic writing follows the basic form of an argument: the writer presents a claim and supports it with reasons which are in turn supported with evidence. As we write a summary of an academic article, we need to identify the structure of the reasoning. The language we use to identify the main idea is sometimes confusing. The main idea of an academic book or article is the same as its conclusion. When that conclusion is stated at the beginning of the article, it is sometimes called a claim or a thesis sentence. It is easy to find the conclusion/claim/thesis/main idea using the therefore test. Each reason contributes to the development of the argument by answering the question “why?”— “because.” So if you think of an argument as setting out a series of WHY/BECAUSE statements, you can uncover the conclusion/claim/ thesis/main by stating THEREFORE and recording the conclusion. 207

A Summary Organizer for “Brainology” by Carol Dweck Main idea/claim/thesis/conclusion Developing a growth mindset is essential to student achievement. BECAUSE Reason: Students with fixed mindsets link intelligence to success.

Evidence for Reason 1

BECAUSE Reason 2: Students with growth mindset link effort to their achievement.

Evidence for Reason 2

BECAUSE Reason 3:Praising intelligence increases fixed mindset in students.

Evidence for Reason 3

BECAUSE Reason 4:Praising effort increases growth mindset in students

Evidence for Reason 4

THEREFORE Main idea/claim/thesis/conclusion Students need to be praised for effort rather than intelligence in order to develop a growth mindset because a growth mindset is essential to their academic achievement.

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5.10 Write a draft of the summary paying careful attention to academic conventions. As you write the draft of the summary using your organizer, be sure to pay attention to academic conventions: a conventional summary opening, academic language, signal phrases and parenthetical citations, and academic naming conventions. When you have completed the research log, summary maps, and summary organizer as part of your prewriting process, you are ready to write.You may want to start by writing a quick rough draft of the main ideas and supporting reasons, but you will need to rewrite that draft to follow the conventions of academic discourse.

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5.11 Practicing the conventions of academic writing. Become a stronger academic writer by using academic conventions in your draft. Summary writing gives you a chance to practice the conventions of academic writing because if you are writing a summary correctly, you are using the most important conventions. Before you revise your research log into a more formal summary and response paper, be sure to review the conventions. If you are new to college writing, you may not be accustomed to using academic conventions, and they may feel artificial and uncomfortable. This class is designed to help you become more familiar and comfortable with an academic writing style.

5.11.1. Using a conventional summary opening. A conventional summary opening establishes your credibility to an academic audience. In “Gold Star Junkies,” educator David Ruenzel argues that . . .

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Most summaries start with a conventional opening: the article name, a tag identifying the credibility of the author, and the author’s full name. This allows the audience to know exactly what is coming: the ideas of an author presented as objectively as possible. You don’t need extra words here. In the article, “Gold Star Junkies,” the author David Reunzel argues that David Ruenzel wrote an article Gold Star Junkies.In the article he says Less is more. Common signal phrases for summary openings argues, asserts, claims, explains, maintains, holds, reasons, advances the argument that A summary is not an essay, so you don’t need to follow a conventional essay format with an introduction, body, and conclusion. Remember it’s essential you write to the assignment as it has been presented without assuming that it will be the same as other assignments you have written.

5.11.2 Use Academic Language. Using academic rather than casual language increases your credibility. Language used in the academic discourse community is more formal than ordinary language.You should comment freely in your research log in whatever language feels comfortable to you because it will help you better understand the article. As you shift from the log to the summary and response paper, revise using more formal words: “children” instead of “kids,” “significant” instead of “good,” or “ineffective” instead of “bad.” Review the online lecture: “Academic Language is No One’s Mother Tongue.”

5.11.3 Using signal phrases and parenthetical citations. Using signal phrases and parenthetical citations demonstrates that you understand academic documentation. Using correct documentation establishes your credibility as an academic writer. If you include basic documentation, you have avoided the pitfall of plagiarism, but taking care to create correct documentation demonstrates your professionalism. Academic writing generally uses two methods of documenting: signal phrases and parenthetical citations. Review the online lectures, Using Signal Phrases Effectively,and Signal Phrase or Parenthetical Citation?

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5.11.4 Using Academic Naming Conventions. Help build your credibility by incorporating the credibility of reliable sources. Academic writing calls for a conventional use of names. The first time you mention an author, you use the writer’s full name: •

David Ruenzel.

You also need to identify the writer’s credentials because this provides the audience with information about his or her credibility;establishing the author’s credibility re-inforces your own credibility: •

educator David Ruenzel

Of course, you would never use only his first name, “David.” Review the online Lecture: “Academic Naming Conventions.”

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5.12 Evaluate your own work by comparing it a model summary and using a rubric. Comparing your paper to a model summary can help you identify revisions you may need to make. Using a rubric can help you better understand how your professor will evaluate your work. The following sample summary uses all of these conventions correctly. Review your paper against this sample. Summary of “Brainology” by Carol Dweck Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck argues that developing a growth mindset is essential to student success. She explains that students with fixed mindsets often believe that they fail to achieve because they are not intelligent enough; students with fixed mindsets make erroneous judgements about themselves and these judgements interfere with their ability to find motivation. However, from this perspective, students with growth mindset link effort to the development of their intelligence. She attributes the development of fixed mindsets to the kind of praise that students are given, citing numerous studies in support of her claim. From her point of view, if students are praised for intelligence not effort, they develop a fixed mindset; if they are praised for effort, not intelligence, they develop a growth mindset and become active learners. Work Cited Dweck, Carol. “Brainology.” NAIS, 2008, www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2008/ brainology/.

5.12.1 Using a rubric as a checklist to improve your draft. A rubric is a handy checklist to help you improve your draft. Your professor will provide you with a rubric explaining how she will score your work. Use this rubric as a checklist to see if you have addressed the main demands of the assignment. Score yourself fairly.

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Rubric: A Checklist for Writing Assignment 2 An Academic Summary

Possible points

Does the writer clearly restate the main idea/claim of the author? The thesis/claim is the central generalization of the original article.

20

Does the writer identify the reasons that support that main idea? Reasons answer the question “because?”

20

Does the writer omit most specific details and focus on only the claim and the reasons?

10

Does the writer carefully follow the model of the sample summary using a conventional opening (Psychologist Carol Dweck argues that . . .) Are the author’s ideas clearly identified with signal phrases.?

10

MLA formatting is entirely correct.

10

Does the writer maintain language appropriate to academic discourse, avoiding words drawn from spoken language, for example, “you” or “kids?” Generally, academic language uses third person

10

(he/she/it/they). Does the writer make a strong effort to communicate with clear, well-written sentences which answer the question “who/what does what to whom/what?” Does each sentence contain a subject and a verb, and clauses joined correctly, avoiding comma splices and run-on sentences?

10

Does the writer meet the 250-word limit or only slightly exceed it?

10

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Score and comments

5.12.2 A peer review provides valuable information. A peer reviewer provides new eyes on your work; reviewing someone else’s work allows you to see another approach to the assignment. Learning to respond to feedback is an essential aspect of developing a growth mindset. As it is for professional academic writers, peer review is an important part of the process for students of academic writing.Your peer will review with the same rubric your professor provided. Peer review sharpens your writing in two ways. It provides you feedback from other writers grappling with the same assignment and allows you to see how others tackled the same problem. Few things are harder than finding the issues in your own work. Another writer looks at your paper with new eyes and can offer you valuable information for revision. Remember that your peer reviewer is a student just as you are, so be sure to verify that the comments are correct by asking your professor or peer mentor.

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5.13 Converting your summaries into an annotated bibliography If your professor requires an annotated bibliography, simply convert the format of your summaries. Some professors assign a unique form of summary writing and annotated bibliography as part of a larger research project. An annotated bibliography is a correctly formatted bibliographical entry followed by a brief summary of the book or article. Since longer research projects with multiple sources can be confusing, an annotated bibliography offers an excellent opportunity for organization at the beginning of the project. The length and depth of your entry depends on your purpose for writing the annotated bibliography. If you are writing to contribute to a research group, you might need only the summary, allowing time for reflection and evaluation in your group discussion. If you are writing it for use in your own research project, you will want to be more thorough in your responses in order to judge how valuable the source is in your own research paper. Or you could add a summary and evaluation after your group discussion.

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Summary only

Focus on the content of the article. Clearly state the main idea and reasons with a brief description of supporting research/evidence.

Summary and evaluation

Focus on the content of the article. Clearly state the main idea and reasons with a brief description of supporting research/evidence. Make a judgement about the usefulness of the article and quality of the research.

Summary and reflection

Focus on the content of the article. Clearly state the main idea and reasons with a brief description of supporting research/evidence. Provide more personal responses examining the significance of the work in the context of your own research.

Summary, evaluation, and reflection

Focus on the content of the article. Clearly state the main idea and reasons with a brief description of supporting research/evidence. Make a judgement about the usefulness of the article and quality of the research.

If you are submitting an annotated bibliography for a grade, you should follow the style format required in your class. An MLA bibliography would be double spaced with extra spaces between the entry and annotation. The entry itself would be indented five spaces. Dweck, Carol. “Brainology.” NAIS, 2008, www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2008/ brainology/. Psychologist Carol Dweck argues that developing a growth mindset is essential to student success. She explains that students with fixed mindsets often believe that they fail to achieve because they are not intelligent enough while students with growth mindset link effort to the development of their intelligence. According to Dweck, students with fixed mindsets make erroneous judgements about themselves and these judgements interfere with their ability to find motivation and learn. She attributes the development of fixed mindsets to the kind of praise that students are given, citing numerous studies in support of her claim. From her point of view, if students are praised for intelligence not effort, they develop a fixed mindset; if they are praised for effort, not intelligence, they develop a growth mindset and become active learners.

Be aware of your purpose in writing an annotated bibliography and choose an appropriate format. Are you using it as a tool to synthesize research for your own work, or will you share it as a resource with others? 217

5.14 Discover the power of metacognition by writing a response paper. Using your metacognitive skills will help you think more deeply about your response to the article and make your response more meaningful. Once you write the summary, put it away for a while. Be sure you’ve planned enough time to meet class deadlines, but “work” on this paper whenever you have free time to concentrate. Think about the ideas you’ve uncovered. How do they relate to your experiences? Other reading? Other classes you have taken? What questions do you still have? What words or concepts still pose challenges? Have you looked them up? Begin to engage in the process called “metacognition.” Since your professor is asking you to respond freely to a piece of writing, it is easy to think that any effort is acceptable. Certainly, you need to feel free to follow your thoughts, making connections with your experience and your reading. However, this assignment offers you the opportunity to think more thoroughly using your metacognition. Metacognition means “big thinking” or “thinking about thinking.” Metacognitive responses help us understand how we are thinking as well as what we are thinking about. To think metacognitively, you need to think about how you are learning, as well as what you are learning. To do so successfully, it is very important to keep a growth mindset, accepting that you may not know the “right answer” or that there may not even be one. Many students see learning as a process of memorizing for tests in order to get the correct answers and a high score. They are motivated extrinsically. However, by shifting to a growth mindset, you can move to a deeper kind of learning, one in which you connect to your education. Students with a growth mindset use metacognition to expand their knowledge and understanding of a concept or a subject; they understand that learning is a continuous, life-long process. Developing metacognitive habits helps ensure that they stay engaged in their learning. They become motivated intrinsically. 218

5.14.1 Previewing Michael Martinez “What is Metacognition?” Previewing challenging reading sets the stage for understanding. As you become a more confident student, you will feel more comfortable taking on longer and more difficult articles, such as Michael Martinez’s “What is Metacognition?” Although written for teachers and professors, it can provide students valuable insights into their own learning processes. Before you fill out a research log, fill out a reading preview for the article. As you skim the article, jot down short quotations that help you understand the definition of terms or the importance of the authors mentioned. Take as much as you can from the article before going to sources outside the article for clarification. If you use outside sources for definitions, such as online dictionaries, keep track of them.

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metacognition Wittgenstein metamemory metacomprehension problem solving critical thinking Self-interrogation automaticity working memory “the illusion of knowing” Vygotsky Socrates/Socratic method apprenticeship persistence

When you finish your preview, complete a research log. Focus on your own metacognition in the right column. How are you thinking about your thinking here?

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5.15 Put metacognition to work by writing an academic response paper. A carefully written summary demonstrates several skills. It shows that you have read and understood the content, and you can easily extract the main idea and supporting reasons. It shows that you can present these ideas in formal academic language and format, setting up your summary in correct MLA format and including a works cited page. A carefully written response shows that you have thought carefully about the reading and can offer perceptive insights. It shows that you can shape these ideas into well-written and well-organized paragraphs, and like the summary, you can present them in formal academic language and format. It shows that you can support your interpretation of the reading with carefully chosen quotations.

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When you finish this assignment, you should be able to: 1.

Identify and explain your own responses to the reading.

2.

Organize those responses effectively.

3.

Provide quotations from research logs and personal experience as evidence for those responses.

4.

Present those ideas using academic conventions.

5.

Use signal phrases to document incorporated quotations.

6.

Present your paper in correct MLA formatting using academic language and style.

Writing a strong response paper depends on the deep reading techniques we have explored in this module. A response paper is not a repetition of your summary because your summary faithfully reproduces the author’s ideas. A response paper presents your own point of view, one that you have carefully come to after a thorough reading of the article. Some students ask, “Is this about my opinion?” The answer is yes, but it is your opinion, carefully supported with evidence from the article. It is up to you to agree or disagree. However, agreement or disagreement is not an all-or-nothing stance. It may be more complex.You may agree with parts of the author’s thinking, but not others. Here is where careful metacognition comes in. You will need to create a clear claim based on your response to the reading. Do you agree, as Ruenzel argues, that systems of rewards and punishments are ineffective?  Then explain why you think this, stating at least two reasons, and find quotations in “Gold Star Junkies” or other research logs to support your point of view. Do you disagree with Ruenzel? If you disagree with Ruenzel, you might look at Washington University School of Medicine’s May 6, 2015 study evaluating systems of rewards and punishments effectiveness in “Carrot or stick? Punishments may guide behavior more effectively than rewards.” You can also draw evidence from your other reading logs as well.You may also use personal experience as evidence in this essay.  Be sure you develop a structure of reasoning with a clear claim supported by at least two reasons. Support each reason with evidence that you introduce, quote, cite, and explain.  Just as you draw from the left column of your research log to write the summary, you will draw from the right column of your research log to write the response. Begin by choosing a couple of quotations, then find your two most interesting responses. Decide what you want to say about how well systems of rewards and punishments work; you may want to take a moment to write down your thoughts informally before you start.

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Step 1: Begin by filling out a prewriting organizer for your response paper. From the left column of your research log, select two quotations from David Ruenzel’s “Gold Star Junkies” and paste them below. 1. 2.

From the right column of your research log, select the two most important responses you made and paste them below 1. 2.

Step 2: Shape these prewritings by pushing them into the format of the argument. Make a claim. What is the most important thing you want to say about Ruenzel’s idea that systems of rewards and punishments do not work? Why? (150 words)

Why do you say that? (Reason 1)

Why do to say that? (Reason 2)

Select a quotation to support that reason. Introduce the quotation. State the quotation using a signal phrase. Explain how the quotation supports the reason. (150 words) Optionally, you may add a personal experience using “I.” Select a quotation to support that reason. Explain how the quotation supports the reason. (150 words) State the quotation using a signal phrase. Optionally, you may add a personal experience using “I.”

What do you conclude about how well systems of rewards and punishments work? (150 words)

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Step 3:Convert your organizer into paragraphs. Shape that information into paragraphs, using appropriate academic conventions.Your completed paper should be between two and a half and three pages, between 600 and 700 hundred words. Be sure you use academic language and conventions.

1. Use academic language Language used in the academic discourse community is more formal than ordinary language.You should comment freely in your research log in whatever language feels comfortable to you because it will help you better understand the article. As you shift from the log to the summary and response paper, revise using more formal words: “children” instead of “kids,” “significant” instead of “good,” or “ineffective” instead of “bad.”

2. Use signal phrases and parenthetical citations appropriately Using correct documentation establishes your credibility as an academic writer. If you include basic documentation, you have avoided the pitfall of plagiarism, but taking care to create correct documentation demonstrates your professionalism. Academic writing generally uses two methods of documenting: signal phrases and parenthetical citations.

3. Use academic naming conventions Academic writing calls for a conventional use of names. The first time you mention an author, use the writer’s full name: •

David Ruenzel.

You also need to identify the writer’s credentials because this provides the audience with information about his or her credibility; establishing the author’s credibility re-inforces your own credibility: •

educator David Ruenzel

Of course, you would never use only his first name, “David.” After the first mention, only use his last name: •

Ruenzel

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5.15.1 A Evaluating your own work: a response paper rubric. Using a rubric can help you better understand how your professor will evaluate your work. Your professor will provide you with a rubric explaining how she will score your work. Use this rubric as a checklist to see if you have addressed the main demands of the assignment. Score yourself fairly. Rubric Checklist for Writing Assignment 3 An Academic Response

Possible points

Does the writer directly respond to main claim of the author? (Systems of rewards and punishment are effective/ineffective in motivating students.)

20

Does the writer provide reasons that support that claim? (BECAUSE)

20

Does the writer provide quotations that support that claim? (Does the writer provide optional evidence from experience? )

10

Does the writer introduce, quote, cite using a signal phrase, and explain each quotation?

10

MLA formatting is entirely correct.

10

Does the writer maintain language appropriate to academic discourse, avoiding words drawn from spoken language, for example, “you” or “kids?” Generally academic language uses third person (he/ she/it/they).

10

Does the writer make a strong effort to communicate with clear, well-written sentences that answer the question “who/what does what to whom/what?” Does each sentence contain a subject and verb, and are clauses joined correctly, avoiding comma splices and run-on sentences?

10

Does the writer meet or exceed the 500-word requirement? (There is no maximum word limit.)

10

Score and comments

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5.15.2 A peer review provides valuable feedback. A peer reviewer provides new eyes on your work; reviewing someone else’s work allows you to see another approach to the assignment. Learning to respond to feedback is an important aspect of developing a growth mindset. As it is for professional academic writers, peer review is an important part of the process for students of academic writing.Your peer will review with the same rubric your professor provided. Peer review sharpens your writing in two ways. It provides you feedback from other writers grappling with the same assignment, and it allows you to see how others tackled the same problem. Few things are harder than finding the issues in your own work. Another writer looks at your paper with new eyes and can offer you valuable information for revision. Remember that your peer reviewer is a student just as you are, so be sure to verify that the comments are correct by asking your professor or peer mentor.

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5.16 Seek help when you need it. A summary/response paper can pose challenges, so it’s important to be open to finding help from your professors, tutors, and peer mentors. Everyone faces challenges in their college classes. Keeping a growth mindset means that you are able to ask for help when you need it because you are not there “yet.”Maintaining a fixed mindset can impair your chances of graduating from college because you might not seek help when you need it. In a recent study,“Preparing Students for College Challenges Reduces Inequality,” psychology professors David Yeager and Greg Walton and others revealed that first-generation students navigate college challenges more successfully when they are provided with strategies as they are starting college. Those strategies include joining clubs, attending office hours, and using tutorial or success center services.

It helps to know in advance that it’s normal to struggle in college. It doesn’t mean you’re dumb or that people like you don’t belong in college,” said Walton. “When you know that struggles are normal, it’s easier to take a chance on making friends even when you feel different or isolated, join a student group, or go to your professor’s office hours.

If you maintain a growth mindset, you will believe that whatever problem you’re facing is a temporary setback that can be overcome with information, study, and support. 227

5.16.1 Your professors want to help you. Dropping in during an office hour or sending an email can provide quick clarification. Professors keep weekly office hours where they are available to answer student questions and solve student problems. Students who attend office hours are more likely to graduate successfully. Attending office hours has several benefits •

You can get immediate and direct feedback for your questions.

•

You can work through a problem with a knowledgeable professional.

•

You will realize that challenges are not impossible if you ask for help.

•

You can start to build a relationship with your professors, which has many benefits, including establishing connections for future references.

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5.16.2 Email or call your professor with specific questions. Follow the rules of etiquette when emailing or calling your professor. You should always feel free to email or call your professor when a problem arises.Your professor will usually include a contact page on your learning management system with their phone number, office locations, and hours.You can also find this information on the People Finder web page for your college, or you can contact a department office. You are most likely to reach your professor by phone if you call during office hours. Email usually works best because you are not limited by a specific time. When you email, be sure to follow the conventions of academic etiquette. One email will suffice. Wait politely for a response. Many professors mention on their syllabi how many days they will take to respond to an email. An email is the best choice when you have a specific question. If you are confused about a larger aspect of the assignment, it would be better to make an office hour appointment so you have ample time to discuss the issues. Make sure you write your email in a professional tone. If you are emailing from your phone, be sure to maintain a professional tone and avoid texting conventions like “u” for “you.” Be sure your message is clearly stated, and you provide your class and section number. Use your college rather than your personal email so your name is immediately apparent to the professor and the email correlates with your college record. 229

Hi Professor Jeffries I don’t quite understand the directions for the summary response paper. I’m not sure how to upload the two parts. There is only one place to submit. Do you want me to combine the files into one? Thanks for your help Ines Fernandez English 1A Section 2615 If, for some reason, you don’t get the answer you want, avoid arguing with the professor. If a serious problem cannot be resolved, you can usually make an appointment with the academic division dean to work toward a resolution.

5.16.3 Visit your student success center for additional help. Working with a peer mentor as you write your paper can speed up your progress. Sometimes it is easier for students to ask questions of another student rather than of a professor. The most reliable students to contact are tutors and peer mentors working in your student success center. Peer mentors and tutors are also education professionals, and you may feel more comfortable interacting with them. They recently experienced similar challenges, doubts, and frustrations as you are now and are in a position to give you good advice. Peer mentors are traveling the same road as you are, but they are just a little in front of you on the journey. 230

5.16.3.a Prepare for your visit. Make a list of questions and concerns.

Carefully review the feedback your peers and your professor have provided. Do you have questions about your peer feedback? Do you think a comment or suggestion is inaccurate? Do you understand all of your professor’s suggestions? Write down a list of questions you have.

5.16.3.b Accept feedback gracefully. Keep a growth mindset as you listen to feedback.

Ask for specific answers. Listen carefully to feedback and write it down if possible. Ask questions when needed. Feel free to ask questions no matter how trivial you think they may be. However, don’t expect your peer mentor or tutor to “correct” your errors. It is their job to help you understand your challenges, not revise your paper for a higher grade. Keep a list of their suggestions to make your revision easier. Note any challenges or difficulties you have in understanding concepts and principles, so that you can clarify them later with your professor.

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5.16.3.Use suggestions to revise your paper. Thoughtfully incorporate changes into your revision. Review the comments on your draft and the notes from your office hour or peer mentor visit. Make the changes. If your peer mentor made a suggestion that contradicts something your professor told you, check with the professor before you make the changes. If not, revise and resubmit your paper.

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Module 5 Review 5.Academic writing can be described as a cycle of reading, writing, and responding. Join the great academic conversation by reading about and responding to a reading on a specific topic. 5.1 Summary writing plays an important role in academic research. The ability to write accurate and correct summaries is an important research skill and allows you to enter fascinating research conversations. 5.2 Let’s start working on a summary response assignment. Follow the directions carefully to write a summary response paper using academic conventions. Using specific strategies such as finding key words and writing a one-sentence summary offer a solid start. 5.3 Be sure you understand the assignment before you start the writing process. Invest time in thoroughly understanding your assignment. It will save you time in the long run. 5.4 Complete the assignments in the order they are presented. Your professor has created an order to the assignments that support your learning.Avoid skipping steps and save time in the long run. 5.5 Separate the main idea and reasons from evidence. Identifying the evidence—quotations, numbers, stories–helps you quickly focus on the main ideas so that you can communicate them to a reader who has not read the article. 5.6 Compare your research log with a sample. Examining a model assignment allows you to better understand its demands. 5.7 Develop metacognition by reviewing and revising your research log. Don’t put your research log away after you finish. Give it another look.

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5.8 Create summary maps to verify you understand the main idea. Summary maps—keyword graphs, six-word summaries, one-sentence summaries—help you uncover the main idea. 5.8.1 Identify keywords to identify the main idea. Identifying keywords, or the words that appear most often, brings you closer to the main idea. 5.8.2 Create a six-word summary to catch the main idea in a short sentence. Use your keywords to create a six-word summary sentence that expresses the main idea. 5.8.3 Create a one-sentence summary map to express the main idea more completely. Expand your six-word summary to express the main idea more completely: who/what does what to whom/or what? Where? When? How? 5.9 Use a summary organizer to identify the claim and reasons supporting the claim. Once you have identified the main idea, a summary organizer helps you find the structure of the reasoning. 5.10 Write a draft of the summary paying careful attention to academic conventions. As you write the draft of the summary using your organizer, be sure to pay attention to academic conventions: a conventional summary opening, academic language, signal phrases and parenthetical citations, and academic naming conventions. 5.11 Practicing the conventions of academic writing. Become a stronger academic writer by using academic conventions in your draft. 5.11.1 Using a conventional summary opening. A conventional summary opening establishes your credibility to an academic audience. 5.11.2 Use Academic Language. Using academic rather than casual language increases your credibility.

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5.11.3 Using signal phrases and parenthetical citations. Using signal phrases and parenthetical citations demonstrates that you understand academic documentation. 5.11.4 Using academic naming conventions. Help build your credibility by incorporating the credibility of reliable sources 5.12 Evaluate your own work by comparing it a model summary and using a rubric. Comparing your paper to a model summary can help you identify revisions you may need to make. Using a rubric can help you better understand how your professor will evaluate your work. 5.12.1 Using a rubric as a checklist to improve your draft. A rubric is a handy checklist to help you improve your draft. 5.12.2 A peer review provides valuable information. A peer reviewer provides new eyes on your work; reviewing someone else’s work allows you to see another approach to the assignment. 5.13 Converting your summaries into an annotated bibliography. If your professor requires an annotated bibliography, simply convert the format of your summaries. 5.14 Discover the power of metacognition by writing a response paper. Using your metacognitive skills will help you think more deeply about your response to the article and makes your response more meaningful. 5.14.1 Previewing Michael Martinez’s “What is Metacognition?” Previewing challenging reading sets the stage for understanding. 5.15 Put metacognition to work by writing an academic response paper. A carefully written response shows that you have thought carefully about the reading and can offer perceptive insights.

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5.15.1 Evaluating your own work: a response paper rubric. Using a rubric can help you better understand how your professor will evaluate your work. 5.15.2 A peer review provides valuable feedback. A peer reviewer provides new eyes on your work; reviewing someone else’s work allows you to see another approach to the assignment. 5.16 Seek help when you need it. A summary/response paper can pose challenges, so it’s important to be open to finding help from your professors, tutors, and peer mentors. 5.16.1 Your professor wants to help you. Dropping in during an office hour or sending an email can provide quick clarification. 5.16.2 Email or call your professor with specific questions. Follow the rules of etiquette when emailing or calling your professor. 5.16.3 Visit your student success center for additional help. Working with a peer mentor as you write your paper can speed up your progress. 15.16.3.a Prepare for your visit. Make a list of questions and concerns. 15.16.3.b Accept feedback gracefully. Keep a growth mindset as you listen to feedback. 15.16.3.c Use suggestions to revise your paper. Thoughtfully incorporate changes into your revision.

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Glossary A bibliography is a collection of research titles on a particular topic. In an annotated bibliography, the citation is followed by a brief summary of the book or article. Cite/citation “To cite” means to provide a quotation from a documented source. A citation refers to the in-text reference to your source. In MLA, it is enclosed in parenthesis (Dweck 22) and is therefore called a “parenthetical citation.” Claim A sentence containing the main assertion in your paper, the point of your argument. The claim is also the conclusion. A claim is always a generalization. When a claim is combined with a reason, it becomes a thesis. Conclusion The conclusion is the primary assertion of your paper, or the claim. When it is stated at the beginning of the paper, it is called the claim or thesis. When it is stated at the end, it is referred to as the conclusion. Credibility, also called ethos, refers to your trustworthiness as a writer or your ability to inspire confidence in your reader in your writing. Credible evidence comes from reliable sources such as library databases. Documentation gives the source of the evidence you provide. Documentation takes the form of intext citations, and a works cited list. Correct documentation allows your reader to trace your sources and builds your credibility. Writing which lacks documentation is considered plagiarized. Evidence refers to material drawn from sources that you use to support your claims and reasons. Evidence may be either primary, first-hand materials, or secondary, material written about the topic. Extrinsic/intrinsic motivation refers to the reason that causes someone to act. Motivation that comes from within a person is called intrinsic. Motivation that is imposed from outside is called extrinsic. Generalization refers to the process of coming to a conclusion based on specific evidence. A generalization is never found in a number, data, or quotation. Instead, we generalize from these specifics. Metacognition is sometimes defined as “thinking about thinking” or “big thinking,” metacognition refers to the self-aware process of reflecting on and evaluating your own thinking patterns. Paraphrase means putting someone else’s writing into your own words in order to incorporate their ideas into your paper. Be sure to paraphrase completely or quote exactly. All paraphrasing must be docu-

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mented in exactly the same way as quotations. In a partial paraphrase, the writer combines paraphrase and quotation and documents both. Parenthetical citation (Dweck 15) is used in MLA formatting to document a quotation or a paraphrase. It includes the author’s last name and a page number. Online sources do not need page numbers. (Dweck) Plagiarism means to take someone else’s ideas and use them as your own. Plagiarism is the theft of intellectual property. Plagiarism may be the open theft of a passage from an author, or it can simply be the failure to cite correctly. Prewriting means to write informally before you begin writing a formal paper. Your professor may assign a prewriting exercise, or you may create your own. Summary, freewriting, response writings, and research logs help your brain warm up to the assignment. Primary evidence/secondary evidence Primary evidence is evidence that is closest to experience. It may be an observation, an original story, or a description of an artifact. Secondary evidence is drawn from what others have written on a subject. Quote, quotation “Quote” is a short informal way of describing the direct words of others. Quotation is a more formal way. In writing a paper, avoid using the word quotation. Prefer words like “statement” or “In the words of instead.” Reason A reason is a statement that supports a claim. It answers the question “why”: claim BECAUSE reason.

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Works Cited Angelo, Thomas A., and K. Patricia. Cross. Classroom Assessment Techniques: a Handbook for College Teachers. Jossey-Bass, 2008. Dweck, Carol. “Brainology.” NAIS, 2008, www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2008/ brainology/. Dweck, Carol. “The Power of Believing That You Can Improve.” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, November 2014, www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve?language=en. Graff, Gerald, Cathy Birkenstein. “They Say/I Say”: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing: with Readings. W. W. Norton and Company, 2018. Martinez, Michael. “‘What Is Metacognition?” Phi Delta Kappan , May 2006, erlc.ca › documents › what_ is_metacognition_2014-05-26. Ruenzel, David. “Gold Star Junkies.” Education Week Teacher, Editorial Projects in Education, 19 Feb. 2019, www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2000/02/01/05gold.h11.html. Washington University School of Medicine. “Carrot or stick? Punishments may guide behavior more effectively than rewards.” ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 6 May 2015. . Yeager, David, and Greg Walton. “Preparing Students for College Challenges Reduces Inequality.” ScienceDaily, ScienceDaily, 1 June 2016, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/06/160601132312.htm.

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MODULE 5 ASSIGNMENTS: ENTERING THE RESEARCH CONVERSATION: WRITING A SUMMARY RESPONSE PAPER Reading Assignment

5.1 The importance of summary writing in the research conversation

Reading Assignment

5.2 Let’s start: A summary response assignment

Reading Assignment

5.3 Be sure you understand the assignment before you start to write

Research Log 5.1 for your summary assignment

Complete a research log on your summary assignment. Review the research logs and summary maps you created for David Ruenzel’s “Gold Star Junkies.” Rewrite your notes into a one-paragraph summary, about 250 words or one double spaced page. Be sure you have clearly stated the main idea and outlined the structure of the reasoning. Leave out evidence, for example, quotations from other authors or data or numbers. Focus on the main idea and reasons only.

Research log 5.2 for “They Say, I Say” video Part 1

Research Log 5.1 Watch Part 1 of the assignment video “They Say, I Say,” and complete a research log.

Research log 5.3 for “They Say, I Say” video Part 2

Research Log 5.2 Watch Part 2 of the assignment video “They Say, I Say and complete a research log.

Reflect 5.1 What do you need to know to complete this assignment?

Reflect on the comments you made on the right column of your research log. Review the assignment once more. What do you still need to ask your professor?

Reading Assignment

5.3 When you are sure you understand the assignment, start the reading and writing process

Reading Assignment

5.4 Complete the parts of the assignment in the order they are presented

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Reading Assignment Reflect 5.2 What is the difference between narrative and explanation?

5.5 Separate the main idea and reasons from evidence

Reflect on the difference between narrative and explanation: List the characteristics of narrative or storytelling in the left passage, and then list the characteristics of the explanation in the right passage.

Reading Assignment

5.6 Compare your research log with a sample

Reading Assignment

5.7 Developing metacognition: reviewing and revising your research log

Research Log 5.4 Revising your “Gold Star Junkies” research log.

After reviewing the changes that Payton made on her reading log, review your reading log and revise it. Use a different color font to show your additions. Remember to score yourself.

Reflect 5.3 What changes did you make in your revision to your “Gold Star Junkies” research log?

What changes did you make in your revision? Did you notice more the second time you looked at the article and the log?

Reading Assignment

5.8 Creating summary maps

Reading Assignment

5.8.1 Keywords

Reading Assignment

5.8.2 Creating a six-word summary map

Reflect.5.4 Word cloud project.

When you have finished your research log revision, copy the left column, paste the text into wordclouds.com. Generate the word cloud, and then select the “word” tab. Delete all of the words you have used once unless you have a reason for keeping them. Shorten your list to 10–15 words, and then create the word cloud. Upload your completed Word Cloud here

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Reflect 5.5 The Six-Word Summary Map

Six-word summary map Download the keyword and six-word summary organizer. In the first part, list the five most important keywords. Reflect directly on the organizer. Do you understand what all the words mean in the context of the article? Do they contain the main idea? What other information do you need? In the second part, arrange the words into a six-word sentence. Be sure to identify the subject and verb by changing the text color to red for the subject and green for the verb.

Reflect 5.6 The One-Sentence Summary Map

Download a summary map and identify it completely. Be sure to the subject and verb by changing the text color to red for the subject and green for the verb. Complete the second practice map for extra credit.

Reading Assignment

5.9 Summary Organizers

Reflection 5.7 Separating evidence (specific detail) from reasons (generalizations).7

Add quotations as evidence for the summary organizer of Carol Dweck’s Ted Talk, “The Power of Believing You Can Improve.” Add evidence for the reasons stated. Be sure to use a signal phrase to introduce each quotation. Use the transcript of the TED talk for quotations and time stamps.

Complete Summary Organizer 1

Download Summary Organizer 1. Separate the evidence (specific detail) from the main idea and reasons (generalizations). In the left column, list the reasons (generalization) that support the claim (Reasons answer the question “why”? BECAUSE). In the right column, provide a quotation that supports the reason (EVIDENCE). Use a signal phrase to introduce the quotation, and be sure that you use quotation marks.

Complete Summary Organizer 2

Download the organizer form. Create Summary Organizer 2 by copying the left column only from your first summary organizer and paste it directly onto the blank page. Attach a signal phrase to each reason. Review the presentation Effectively Using Signal Phrases.Your summary should contain only generalizations. Omit specific details.

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5.10 Writing the summary

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5.11 Practicing the conventions of academic writing

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5.11.1 Using a conventional summary opening

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5.11.2 Using academic language

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5.11.3 Using signal phrases and parenthetical citations

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5.11.4 Using academic naming conventions

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5.12 Evaluating your own work: a model summary and a rubric Copy writing Assignment 2, an Academic Summary, paste it in a new MLA template file. Compare it to the sample file. Use this checklist to evaluate your effort. At the end of your paper, reflect on how close you came to the model? What do you still need to know about MLA formatting?

From summary organizer to correct MLA format

Times New Roman 12-point font including running header Running header with last name and page number Double spaced with no extra spaces between paragraphs (Did you check the no space box under paragraph in MS Word?) Correctly formatted MLA works cited page using hanging indent with no extra spaces between the paragraphs.

Reading Assignment

5.13 Converting your summaries into an annotated bibliography

Reading Assignment

5.14 Discovering the power of metacognition: writing a response

Reading Assignment

5.14.1 Previewing Michael Martinez’s “What is Metacognition?”

Reflect: Preview for “What is Metacognition?” Research log 5.5. for “What is Metacognition?”

Fill out the organizer for Michael Martinez’s “What is Metacognition?” If you look words up in a dictionary, note the dictionary on the organizer.

Research log 5.14 for “What is Metacognition?” Complete a research log for Michael Martinez, “What is Metacognition”?

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Reflect 5.9 Thoughts on “What is Metacognition?”

Did “What is Metacognition” seem more difficult for you? Were you able to keep a growth mindset? What emotions did you experience? What strategies did you use to adapt to the increased difficulty?

Reflect 5.10 Illusion of knowing

Have you ever experienced what Martinez calls “the illusion of knowing” or “believing one knows when, in fact, one does not?” How did you find out that you “didn’t know” something? How did you react?

Research log 5.15 “Carrot or Stick? Punishments may guide behavior more effectively than rewards.”

Complete a research log on Washington University School of Medicine’s study evaluating systems of rewards and punishments effectiveness in “ Carrot or stick? Punishments may guide behavior more effectively than rewards.”  In your response column, consider how they agree/disagree with David Ruenzel’s ideas in “Gold Star Junkies.” As you do so, decide on your own stance on the issue.

Reading Assignment

5.14.2 Using a research log to understand your response assignment

Reading Assignment

5.14.3 A Evaluating your own work: a response paper rubric

Reading Assignment

5.14.4 Peer Review

Organizer for your response paper

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Complete an organizer for your response paper.Your claim should be a statement of whether or not you agree with the ideas of the author. Be sure that you have clearly stated your own ideas about the article rather than those of the author. Use quotations from and summaries of the author’s ideas as evidence to support your reasons.

From response organizer to correct MLA format

Copy Writing Assignment 2, an Academic Response, and paste it in a new MLA template file. Compare it to the sample file. Use this checklist to evaluate your effort. At the end of your paper, reflect on how close you came to the model? What do you still need to know about MLA formatting? Times New Roman 12-point font including running header Running header with last name and page number Double spaced with no extra spaces between paragraphs (Did you check the no space box under paragraph in MS Word?) Correctly formatted MLA works cited page using hanging indent with no extra spaces between the paragraphs.

Reading Assignment

5.15 Why it is important to find help when you need it

Research Log 5.15 “Preparing Students for College Challenges Reduces Inequality”

Complete a research log for “Preparing Students for College Challenges Reduces Inequality.”

Reflect 5.11 Can you ask for help?

How easy is it for you to ask for help? Do you feel like you may not belong in college when you don’t get the correct answer the first time? If you don’t like to ask for help, explain what stops you.

Reflect 5.12 How do you respond to challenges?

When you face a challenge, are you able to go back to the assignment and think about your thinking? Can you describe how you think when a project is going well? When you are facing challenges?

Reading Assignment

5.15.1 Your professors want to help you

Reading Assignment

5.15.2 Emailing and calling your professor

Reflect 5.13. A sample email to your professor

Write a sample email based on the model asking a question about your summary and/or response paper.

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Reading Assignment

Reflect 5.14

5.15.3 Finding help at your student success center After reviewing your peer, instructor, and tutor review comments, make a list of questions you might ask before you revise your summary and response papers.

Reading Assignment

5.15.3 a Befor545543, d e your visit.

Reading Assignment

5.15.3 b During your visit

Reading Assignment

5.15.3 c After your visit

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MODULE 6: Building a longer paper on the foundation of what you already know

By the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. Assess what you’ve learned about writing for the academic language community. 2. Engage in an effective process for writing a longer academic paper. 3. Employ the structure of a basic Aristotelian argument to organize your paper. 4. Create an effective title and introduction to your argument. 5. Create a clear thesis consisting of a claim supported by three reasons. 6. Support your reasons with evidence that you correctly introduce, quote, cite and explain. 7. Create an effective conclusion that provides closure for your argument. 8. Apply the conventions of academic discourse to your argument. 9. Maintain a growth mindset and find help on your campus.

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Module 6 Preview 6.1 Before your start, consider word count and paper length. Being aware of the length requirement is an important first step in understanding your assignment. 6.2 But don’t travel in the wrong direction by focusing on paper length. Thinking about paper length too much may put the brakes on your writing process. 6.3 Travel in a better direction by focusing on your ideas. Students who focus on the ideas in their paper tend to have less difficulty writing longer papers than students who are fixated on the paper length. 6.4 When do I start my research? Shape the ongoing process of your research to fit the needs of your paper. 6.5 Find templates to structure your paper. Templates or prefabricated structures help you shape your paper for an academic audience. 6.6 Aristotle’s (385-422 BCE) simple argument structures are still relevant today. Aristotle’s template of a claim supported by reasons supported by evidence provides a useful template. 6.7 Think critically with an open mind. Allow for the possibility of changing perspective on your topic.Think of an argument as an opportunity for exploring your stance on an issue. 6.8 What academic writing skills do you bring to the assignment? Carry the academic writing skills you have already learned to a new assignment. Assess what you need to review. 6.9 Write your paper by climbing the steps of the writing process. Breaking the writing process into ten steps makes it easier to complete a big project. 248

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Step 1 Verify that you understand the assignment by completing a research log.

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Step 2 Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know.

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Step 3 Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons in an argument organizer.

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Step 4 Consider what additional evidence you will need to support your reasons.

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Step 5 Build your body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing, and explaining each quotation you have chosen for evidence.

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Step 6 Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?”

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Step 7 Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative of view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction.

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Step 8 Write an effective introduction that engages your readers.

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Step 9 Create an effective title that previews your topic and hooks the attention of your readers.

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Step 10 Create a flow for your reader by adding transition words and argument indicators.

6.10 Step 1: Understanding the assignment. Taking time to understand the assignment saves time in the long run. 6.11 Step 2: Prewrite to uncover what you know. Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know. 6.12 Step 3: Developing your ideas using claims, reasons, and evidence. You will spend most of your writing time supporting your claim with reasons and evidence. 6.13 Step 4: Start by creating a tentative thesis. Sketch out a tentative argument or based on the research you have completed. Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons. 6.14 Step 5: Build the body paragraphs with reasons supported by evidence. Start to build the body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing, and explaining each quotation.

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6.15 Effectively use quotations as evidence in your essay: introduce, quote, cite, and explain. Build solid paragraphs easily by carefully introducing, quoting, citing, and explaining each quotation. 6.16 Use paraphrase and summary in the same way: introduce, paraphrase, cite and explain. Paraphrase and summary are efficient ways of incorporating larger ideas in your paper. 6.16.1 Using paraphrase effectively. Provide the same documentation for paraphrase as you do for quotation. 6.16.2 How does this actually work with paraphrase? Incorporate paraphrase in exactly the same way as quotations. 6.16.3 Review paraphrase, summary, and quotation conventions. Quotation, paraphrase, and summary support your claims and reasons. Be sure you understand academic conventions for documentation in order to avoid plagiarism. 6.17 Choosing signal phrases or parenthetical citations as a citation method. Choosing a signal phrase or a parenthetical citation depends on your purpose and focus. 6.18 Step 6:Write your conclusion. Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?” 6.19 Step 7: Finding an alternative point of view. Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative point of view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction. 6.19.1 Use transition words for comparison and contrast to guide your reader. Using transition words for comparison contrast notify your reader of a change in point of view

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6.20 Step 8: Connect with your audience by creating an effective introduction. Write an effective introduction that engages your readers in the conversation. 6.21 Step 9: Connecting with your audience by creating an effective academic title. An effective tile hooks your audience while previewing and summarizing your paper. 6.22 Step 10: Use transition words to connect with your audience by creating a sense of flow in your paper. Transition words create a pathway for your reader. 6.23 Revise after you finish your first draft. Learning to respond to feedback is an important part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your own, you are taking an important step in this direction. 6.23.1 Use a rubric to self-evaluate your work. Rubrics or score sheets provide the standards your professor will use to evaluate your paper. Make your revision process easier by taking time to review the rubric. 6.23.2 Peer review provides valuable feedback. Learning to respond to feedback is an integral part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your own, you are taking an important step in this direction. 6.23.3 Edit carefully after the peer review. Carefully review your peer’s suggestions and determine what changes you want to make.Verify that your peer’s suggestions are appropriate 6.23.4 Editing carefully after the instructor review. Your professor provides valuable professional feedback. Make use of it.

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Case History 1: Paper Length: Roberto After he finished dinner, Roberto looked at the assignment: write a five-page essay on growth mindset. The words “five pages” jumped out at him. He hated to write. Every page was pure pain. Math suited him more: you could record your idea in an algorithm. That made sense. He really didn’t know what to say to fill up five pages. He guessed he could just look up stuff on the internet and find enough material. He worried that if he used too much online material, he might plagiarize. But the thought of filling five full pages filled him with dread. How could anyone possibly have that much to say?

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Case History 2:Too much of the wrong kind of research:Viviana Viviana loved to learn. She Googled everything.Viviana loved everything she learned in college, especially writing a research paper because she got to read widely on subjects she liked. When she was assigned a paper on motivation, she began to Google the topic on her phone during her breaks at work.Viviana found out that rewarding people did not always motivate them. She put off doing the required reading for her class because she was exhausted when she came home from working at the drive-through window. But when her supervisor asked her to work an extra shift, she couldn’t say no. The extra money would mean Viviana could buy a few things she’d been wanting. The paper deadline loomed, and she decided to pull an all-nighter when she got home from work at nine. Even though Viviana had skipped the required reading, she dove into writing her paper as soon as she got home. This was interesting stuff. She could get to five pages in no time.

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6.1 Before your start, consider word count and paper length. Being aware of the length requirement is an important first step in understanding your assignment. An English paper, to restate a famous saying, is just one darn word after another. In psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s ideal flow state, words would turn into sentences, sentences into paragraphs, and paragraphs into an essay. For most writers, it is not that easy. Students often look at the page or word count requirement for a paper to get a sense of how much time to plan. There is no particular length or number of paragraphs required; these will be determined by your instructor, another reason to read your assignment carefully. Some instructors provide a page count, others a word count. Academic papers are always doubled spaced, and the preferred font is often Times New Roman, although requirements may again vary from academic style to academic style and professor to professor. If you use the template from a word processing program, such as Microsoft Word online, the font will automatically appear as Times New Roman.

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In Times New Roman, the approximate words per page count is as follows: 250 words

1 word processed page

500 words

2 word processed pages

750 words

3 word processed pages

1000 words

4 word processed pages

1250 words

5 word processed pages

Undergraduate academic papers are typically five pages long, but as with everything, word count depends on the requirements set by the professor. Length may differ dependent on the font chosen, but only a few fonts meet the requirements of academic associations like MLA or APA. MLA allows for Times New Roman, a “serif” font, meaning that the letters have small lines or serifs attached. It also allows Arial, a “sans serif” font, meaning that the letters lack these small lines. Both fonts run about 250 words per page. Check with your professor to see which she prefers, as your choice of font may affect the readability of your paper, and professors have many papers to read. T, t

Times New Roman

Serif font

T, t

Arial

Sans serif font

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6.2 But don’t travel in the wrong direction by focusing on paper length. Thinking too much about paper length may put the brakes on your writing process. Once you have an estimate of how long the paper should be, put it aside and focus instead on the ideas you wish to communicate. Avoid the long and painful experience of grinding out a paper word by word by becoming engaged in the ideas and concepts your professor is asking you to explore. Look at the paper in the context of previous assignments: what assignments have prepared you for this paper? How does this paper prepare you for writing future assignments? More importantly, learn to employ a strategy for building a solid paper. Academic papers use the form of an argument, a claim supported by reasons supported by evidence because professors want their students to enter the academic writing community by developing their critical thinking. Rather than simply trying to dump as many words as possible, simply design a solid argument structure and develop it by expanding the separate parts. Be sure to plan enough time to write this paper, as this process can be time-consuming.

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6.3 Travel in a better direction by focusing on your ideas. Students who focus on the ideas in their paper tend to have less difficulty with writing longer papers than students who are fixated on the paper length. Open-ended assignments provide little direction for students regarding the process of constructing an argument. Consider the following prompt for an academic argument assignment:

Does extrinsic motivation, for example, systems of rewards and punishments, help students succeed in college more successfully than systems of intrinsic motivation. Choose a stance and write a well-organized argument supporting your point of view. Be sure to include an opposing viewpoint. Use academic language and conventions. Be sure to use correct MLA formatting.

A student starting this paper may face several challenges. Someone who has not spent time on the research logs may not fully understand the question. That person may also come up short with evidence for the argument. Others may start to write what’s in their heads without a clear sense of the argumentative structure. Still others may find that they don’t feel they have enough to say. Students who do not like to spend time on details may be annoyed at formatting requirements. Using the writing process approach and employing an academic argument template provide a better path to successfully completing this assignment. 257

6.4 When do I start my research? Shape the ongoing process of your research to fit the needs of your paper. All academic papers are based on research, either primary research based on data and evidence or secondary research based on reading credible articles. The word “research” actually means “to look or search again,” so it is a good idea to think of research as an ongoing process for writing your paper. Research comes into play at several important points. First, as rhetorician Wayne Booth suggests in The Craft of Research, finding a topic is an act of research in itself because we have to read widely to find a focus. In this class, we have participated in research by completing research logs for the articles we have read and the videos we have watched. In order to formulate a clear academic thesis with claims and reasons, it is important to engage in this preliminary research before you begin to write. Once you have created a structure for your paper, you may need to engage in the research process repeatedly to support your claims and reasons. At any point in the process, you should feel free to change your mind about a claim if additional credible research provides compelling evidence to the contrary. So there isn’t a simple beginning and ending to the research process. As with writing the paper, we build on what we know. Be sure that you use credible sources for your research, for example, sources from library databases. If your professor has asked you to use particular books or articles for your paper, be sure that you use them. Above all, resist the temptation to use dot.com sources that you find on the internet because those sources weaken your credibility as an academic writer. Maintaining your notes in the form of research logs helps you make this process more efficient You can consider all your class work—lectures, readings, and prewriting assignments as preliminary research steps. Your task then is to find a focus and create a structure of reasoning: a claim supported by reasons which are in turn supported by evidence. A key element in research is to fit what you find out with what you already know, both in your reading and your experience. What connects you to this research topic? An idea drawn from your reading? An ob258

servation from your experience? The more you can connect your topic to your thoughts and perceptions, the more meaningful it will be for you. Starting the paper may be the hardest step to take, but we’ve already laid the groundwork. Let’s start by reviewing the work we have already done—the research logs for the articles you have previously completed. Review the logs carefully and make new notes, perhaps in a different color. Reflect on your original thinking. What problems in reading have you resolved? What ideas look interesting to you? Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. “Flow, the Secret to Happiness.’” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading Feb. 2004, www. ted.com/talks/mihaly_csikszentmihalyi_flow_the_secret_to_happiness/transcript?language=en. Doebel, Sabine. “How Your Brain’s Executive Function Works — and How to Improve It.” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, Dec. 2018, www.ted.com/talks/sabine_doebel_how_your_brain_s_executive_function_works_and_how_to_improve_it. Dweck, Carol. “Brainology.” NAIS, 2008, www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2008/brainology/. Dweck, Carol. “The Power of Believing That You Can Improve.” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, November 2014, www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve?language=en. Healy, Melissa. “The Surprising Thing the ‘Marshmallow Test’ Reveals about Kids in an Instant-Gratification World.” Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles Times, 26 June 2018, www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-marshmallow-test-kids-20180626-story.html. Posada, Joachim de. “Transcript of ‘Don’t Eat the Marshmallow!”.” TED: Ideas Worth Spreading, Feb. 2009, www.ted.com/talks/joachim_de_posada_don_t_eat_the_marshmallow/transcript?language=en. Ruenzel, David. “Gold Star Junkies.” Education Week Teacher, Editorial Projects in Education, 19 Feb. 2019, www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2000/02/01/05gold.h11.html. Most of these articles have something to say about success and motivation, especially Ruenzel’s “Gold Star Junkies,” but the others also talk about success, and that relates to motivation. Start, then, by reviewing the research logs you have already completed. Notice the quotations that you selected and pay attention to your responses in the right column. Review your reactions, especially to the Ruenzel article. Did you agree or disagree? Did you partially agree or partially disagree? Can you make connections to the other articles and videos? Finally, consider your summary and response paper as prewritings or explanations for this paper.You have written a total of 2 ½ to 3 pages on the subject in an informal academic format with two sources, Ruenzel’s “Gold Star Junkies” and Washington University School of Medicine’s “Carrot or stick? Punishments may guide behavior more effectively than rewards.”

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6.5 Find templates to structure your paper. Templates or prefabricated structures help you shape your paper for an academic audience. Once you have explored your topic in a prewriting or freewriting, it’s time to decide on a shape or structure for your ideas by choosing an appropriate template. Many students new to college assume there is only one way to write a paper and that they already know how to do it. This is a false assumption. Professors assign papers for a variety of purposes, so it is important to read your assignment and review the rubric carefully before you begin to write. If you are unsure of the purpose of an assignment, be sure to review it with your professor and a peer mentor. Writing assignments with different structures allow you to develop a variety of skills you will need for future writing assignments. A popular textbook for freshman writing classes, Everything’s An Argument by Andrea Lunsford, John Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters, teaches multiple strategies for persuading an audience. A textbook such as this is often referred to as a rhetoric or a collection of common templates used in writing arguments. •

Analysis

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Definition

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Cause and Effect`

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Evaluation

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Proposal

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Aristotelean Argument

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Rogerian Argument

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Toulmin Argument

Again, because the requirements for an assignment may differ from your perception of it, it is very important to read the assignment carefully and fill out a research log, recording your questions and concerns in the right column. Then ask for clarification from your professor in class, during office hours, on a discussion board, or in an email.

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6.6 Aristotle’s (385-422 BCE) simple argument structures are still relevant today. Aristotle’s template of a claim supported by reasons supported by evidence provides a useful template. Most papers in a first-year writing course call for a simple Aristotelian argument format: a claim supported by a reason supported by evidence. Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 322 B.C.E., is famous for many achievements in the history of thought and culture. He wrote a rhetoric, or a manual on how to persuade others using techniques for argument. The structures we use for creating argument today are all based on his original book. They continue to be effective templates for modern writers. Newer types of argument, like Toulmin arguments and Rogerian arguments, build on this Aristotelian structure. In this context, “argument” refers to the structure that the writer employs to make a case.

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6.7 Think critically with an open mind. Allow for the possibility of changing your perspective on your topic.Think of an argument as an opportunity for exploring your stance on an issue. Many people perceive an argument as a fight. However, philosopher Daniel Cohen provides alternatives to the model of “argument as war” in his TED talk, “For Argument’s Sake.” Cohen argues that there are three kinds of argument, argument as war, argument as proof, and argument a performance. He suggests we search for a new kind of argument, a form based on the roles that we play as arguers.

So try this:Think of all the roles that people play in arguments.There is the proponent and the opponent in an adversarial, dialectical argument.There is the audience in rhetorical arguments.There is the reasoner in arguments as proofs. All these different roles. Now, can you imagine an argument in which you are the arguer, but you’re also in the audience, watching yourself argue? Can you imagine yourself watching yourself argue, losing the argument, and yet still, at the end of the argument, saying, “Wow, that was a good argument!” Can you do that? I think you can, and I think if you can imagine that kind of argument, where the loser says to the winner and the audience and the jury can say, “Yeah, that was a good argument,” then you have imagined a good argument. And more than that, I think you’ve imagined a good arguer, an arguer that’s worthy of the kind of arguer you should try to be.

Some students express concerns about changing their minds as they write their argument paper. For example, they may begin by asserting that systems of rewards and punishments are effective in motivating students, but after completing research logs on Ruenzel’s “Gold Star Junkies” and Washington University School of Medicine’s “Carrot or stick? Punishments may guide behavior more effectively than rewards.” shift their point of view. A student who is thinking critically might change her mind because new evidence from new reading sheds a different light on the topic. Be that kind of arguer.

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6.8 What academic writing skills do you bring to the assignment? Carry the academic writing skills you have already learned to a new assignment. Assess what you need to review. Look again at the new assignment: Does extrinsic motivation, such as rewards and punishments, work better for students than intrinsic motivation? Choose a stance and write a well-organized five-page argument supporting your point of view. Be sure to include an opposing viewpoint. Use academic language and conventions. Be sure to set your paper up in correct MLA formatting.

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Jot down your initial responses to this assignment. Do you feel confident or anxious? Identify what worries you have and remember you’ve already had experience with several conventions of academic writing.You have already developed several skills needed to successfully complete this assignment in Writing Assignments 1 and 3, A Debut Academic Paper, and An Academic Response paper; we have also learned to use summary as evidence in Writing Assignment 2, where we have practiced these basic elements of argument. Even if you don’t feel like you’ve learned these skills “perfectly,” you have experience trying them out, and you have received feedback from your professor and tutors. Review this inventory of skills we attempted to develop in Assignments 1, 2, and 3: 1.

Create an original thesis consisting of a clear claim supported by at least three reasons.

2.

Present each reason in its own section of the paper and support it with evidence that you introduce quote, cite, and explain.

3.

Use evidence only from credible sources for which you have completed a research log.

4.

Use academic conventions to present those ideas, including a conventional academic summary opening (In “Gold Star Junkies,” educator David Runezel argues that . . . ) and signal phrases (From his point of view . . .).

5.

Use academic conventions, such as signal phrases, naming conventions, and academic language effectively.

6.

Present your paper in correct MLA formatting using academic language and style.

7.

Add a correctly formatted MLA works cited page for the article summarized.

Take a few moments to assess your skills. Based on the feedback you have received from your professor and peer mentor or tutor, which skills need to be refined? Are you able to keep a growth mindset and see this feedback as information rather than criticism? Are you willing to find the answers you need to make changes in your writing? Do you know where to go for help?

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Case History 3: How to get unstuck: Roberto The paper was due on Sunday night, and Roberto was worried he wouldn’t finish on time, so he took his paper to Carlie, a peer mentor at the student success center. Carlie attended his writing class and he felt comfortable talking to her. She could explain ideas in a way that he could follow. He felt uncomfortable asking his professor because he thought his questions were too simple. But Roberto knew Carlie would be supportive. “I’m blocked. Carlie. I just don’t know how to write five pages on growth mindset. I mean, it’s a great idea, but five pages.” Carlie smiled and said, “What is your claim?” “My what?” “What do you want to say about growth mindset? Is it a good idea? Is it hard to develop a growth mindset? Why would you want to?”

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“I think it’s hard because so many students come to college with fixed mindsets. “So, can you say why?” “We only think about grades. That’s what our parents and teachers have drummed into us.” “So, restate that as a thesis.” “Students come to college with fixed mindsets because parents and teachers think grades are too important.” “Hey, you are getting there. Can you make it sound better? Choose different words, like ‘overemphasize.’” “Because parents and teachers have overemphasized grades.” “I think we’ve got this.” “So, how does that get me to five pages?” “Okay, what evidence can you find that parents and teachers have overemphasized grades?” “Didn’t Ruenzel say something about that in “Gold Star Junkies?” “Yes, he did.” “So, you are on the right track. Add your evidence from Ruenzel. Don’t forget to introduce, quote, cite, and explain. And you’ve got a nice fat paragraph. “That’s it?” “Pretty much. Don’t forget you can use a lengthier block quotation, but remember to spend a long time explaining it. “I can do that?” “Yes. Problem solved. Then do it over again for another reason. It’s like a big accordion.You just add reasons and evidence and introduce, quote, cite, and explain until you have enough paragraphs. Write a conclusion, and you are done.”

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6.9 Write your paper by climbing the steps of the writing process. Breaking the writing process into ten steps makes it easier to complete a big project. Following a writing process allows you to sequence your efforts and use your time more efficiently. It also allows you to revise as you proceed, allowing new thoughtful insights and percepts to emerge as you write. Because you are focusing on the process rather than producing a finished product, you may find it less stressful, and you’ll discover a much better finished product when you are done.

Step 1 Verify that you understand the assignment by completing a research log.

Step 2 Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know.

Step 3 Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons in an argument organizer.

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Step 4 Consider what additional evidence you will need to support your reasons. Continue your research to find additional evidence from credible sources. Allow the possibility that additional evidence may change your thinking about your claims and reasons. Draw your evidence from research logs you have completed on credible articles.

Step 5 Build your body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing, and explaining each quotation you have chosen for evidence. Consider using more than one paragraph of evidence with a quote in each paragraph.

Step 6 Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?

Step 7 Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative of view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction.

Step 8 Write an effective introduction that engages your readers.

Step 9 Create an effective title that previews your topic and hooks the attention of your readers.

Step 10 Create a flow for your reader by adding transition words and argument indicators. While many students may find it useful to work through the steps in the order they are presented here, and others may not, they skip a step or jump to a different part of the process. Although the first time you write a paper, you may want to work through the steps in this order, you may find that your ideas come into your mind in unexpected ways. Write them down as they come to you and fit them into the description of the process where they best fit. There is no single way to compose a paper, and part of becoming a professional in your field is to uncover and pay attention to the way your own mind works.

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6.10 Step 1 Understanding the assignment. Taking time to understand the assignment saves time in the long run.

Nothing is more frustrating to both professor and student than an excellent paper that goes off in the wrong direction because the student failed to understand the directions in the assignment. If the assignment asks the student to write a fully developed argument, and the student submits a summary/reflection paper, no matter how well written, both the student and professor are disappointed. Every assignment meets specific student learning outcomes and objectives set by the course description.Your professor must make sure students meet these outcomes in order for your course to have transferability. If you submit a paper that ignores or writes around these outcomes, it is difficult for your professor to evaluate whether or not you have met them, no matter how well written the paper. So, if like most students, time is precious to you, the easiest way to save time is to spend time understanding the presentation of the assignment and its objectives. Be sure you complete all of the required reading which supports the assignment. This may include reading about how to write the assignment in a rhetoric like Everything’s An Argument and reading as part of your research for the assignment like “Brainology” by Carol Dweck. Start by completing a research log on the assignment itself. In the left column, write down the steps listed in the directions, and in the right column, list your questions and concerns. Are there terms you don’t understand? Be sure to look them up in your text or a dictionary. Is part of the assignment puzzling to you? Are you afraid you will not do well if you don’t understand this part? What did you learn from earlier assignments or readings that might help you with this one? Look again at the assignment and the objectives:

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Assignment Does extrinsic motivation, for example, systems of rewards and punishments, help students succeed in college more successfully than systems of intrinsic motivation. Choose a stance and write a well-organized argument supporting your point of view. Be sure to include an opposing viewpoint. Use academic language and conventions. Be sure to set your paper up in correct MLA formatting.

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Objectives: When you finish this assignment, you should be able to: 1. Create an original thesis consisting of a clear claim supported by at least three reasons. 2. Present each reason in its own section of the paper and support it with evidence that you introduce quote, cite and explain. 3. Use evidence only from credible sources for which you have completed a research log. 4. Make connections to different ideas by adding new sources to your previous research. 5.

Effectively incorporate an alternative point of view.

6.

Add an academic introduction that hooks the academic audience.

7.

Create an attention-grabbing academic title for your paper.

8.

Use academic conventions to present those ideas, including a conventional academic summary opening (In “Gold Star Junkies,” educator David Runezel argues that . . . ) and signal phrases (From his point of view. . .).

9.

Use transition words to create a flow for the reader.

10. Use academic conventions, such as signal phrases, naming conventions, and academic language effectively. 11. Present your paper in correct MLA formatting using academic language and style. 12. Add a correctly formatted MLA works cited page for the article summarized. Notice the elements that are new to this paper. Although Writing Assignments 1, 2, and 3 allowed you to practice using some important academic conventions, they were not completely academic papers because they were missing a few elements. For example, in our first three papers, we focused on a single piece of research. We didn’t incorporate a second or third point of view from different articles. We skipped writing an introduction so we could focus on mastering the demands of structuring an argument on claims and reasons. In the next assignment, we will add these elements:

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4.

Make connections to different ideas by adding new sources to your previous research.

5.

Effectively incorporate an alternative point of view.

6.

Add an academic introduction that hooks the academic audience.

7.

Create an attention-grabbing academic title for your paper.

9.

Use transition words to create a flow for the reader.

Additionally, you will draw your evidence only from credible assigned sources for which you have completed research logs. This will help you practice metacognition as you prepare to write your papers. As you complete the research log for this assignment, pay special attention to elements that feel unfamiliar in the right column. Take note of the skills that you feel like you have mastered, and write down any questions about areas that give you concern. Before you start to write your paper, discuss those areas with your peer mentor or professor. Remember, we do not learn everything all at once, so keep a growth mindset about feedback. Learning is messy. In The Learning Sciences, educational psychologists Clark A. Chinn and Bruce Sherrin explain that learning takes place “continuously, and in small steps, with every moment of thought. Further, mastery of significant knowledge often requires a very long period of time.” They further argue that ”learning does not occur in a straight line, from lesser to greater understanding; it occurs in parallel on multiple fronts. For this reason, learning can sometimes lead, in the short term, to worse performance.” It is time to take an inventory of your writing skills. Think about your progress as an academic writer since you started this class. If at midsemester some concepts and practices still seem challenging, persevere. Find help. Give your brain time to incorporate the complex process behind writing an academic paper. Push away the feeling that you might be an imposter. Persist.You belong in college.

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6.11 Step 2: Prewrite to uncover what you know. Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know. Your professor may have provided prewriting assignments to help you approach writing your paper. For example, in the Summary Response assignment, we completed the research log for the article and the research log for the assignment video, and the reflections that help you better understand your own strengths, shortcomings, and anxieties that may hold you back. These prewritings, including the metacognitive activities, help our brains warm up as we approach the complexities of college writing assignments. A good way to begin would be to collect all of the research logs and reflections on the articles and videos you think would be most useful in writing this paper. Review them carefully, making more notes as you did with the revision of the Ruenzel research log. Then just start writing, letting your thoughts and perceptions emerge freely. Although the actual assignment must be carefully structured, energetic freewriting can warm up your brain and literally start your synapses firing.You may be surprised at the connections you uncover. Also, consider the first three papers we have written as a warm-up for this paper.

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6.12 Step 3: Developing your ideas using claims, reasons, and evidence. You will spend most of your writing time supporting your claim with reasons and evidence. Building a simple argument is a fairly straightforward task: a writer presents a claim or generalization and then supports it with reasons and evidence. Students sometimes feel confused with terminology here, and rightly so. Some teachers might call the claim the “main idea,” and others might refer to it as “the thesis.” Scientists may refer to it as the hypothesis. We will call the combination of claim and reason a thesis. Although these are sometimes helpful distinctions, the claim, as we will refer to it, is simply put, a generalization that provides a focus for the paper. When you are writing a summary, your first goal is to identify that generalization; when you are writing a paper, your first goal is to create that generalization. The claim is also the conclusion of your paper and this, too, might create confusion. Since we tend to think of conclusions as endings, you may ask, “How can the ending of my paper also be the beginning?” One useful tool for understanding this is what logician Alec Fischer calls the “therefore test.” Does the statement make sense when you use the word “therefore” in front of it? You then need to support the generalization with a reason or reasons. Reasons answer the question “why?” In a Toulmin argument, reasons are called “grounds,” and it may help to think of them as the “ground” that supports the argument you are building. Reasons are often marked with the words “because” or “for these reasons.” Evidence is the specific information you use to support your reasons. Evidence may be primary, or first-hand information, or secondary, what others have said about the topic. Evidence may take the form of quotations, numbers, data, statistics, personal observations, or descriptions of objects. It is helpful to remember that a quotation or a number is always evidence, never a claim or a reason. 274

6.13 Step 4: Start by creating a tentative thesis. Sketch out a tentative argument based on the research you have completed. Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons. Start by making a tentative outline of your claims and reasons.You are free to change your mind as you continue your research, but clearly state what you think at the moment you start your paper. Be sure that your claim and reasons are generalizations. Although your reading may have inspired you, your claims and reasons should represent your original thought. So if you are drawing from your reading, save it for evidence. A quotation from a source cannot be a reason or claim, although you may infer your reasons from your evidence. Be sure that your wording is clear and precise.Your reader can’t understand your idea if he or she can’t find the answer to the question Who/what does what to whom or what?

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At this stage, your paper should contain these elements: Main idea/claim/thesis BECAUSE Reason 1 (Generalization) BECAUSE Reason 2 (Generalization) BECAUSE Reason 3 (Generalization)

Look at this sample argument. Notice how the conclusion and the claim are the same. Main idea/claim/thesis Intrinsic systems of motivation are more effective than extrinsic systems such as rewards and punishments. BECAUSE Reason 1 (Generalization) Rewards may cause students to disengage from their work. BECAUSE Reason 2 (Generalization) Rewards may prevent students from developing a growth mindset. BECAUSE Reason 3 (Generalization) Rewards may prevent students from entering a flow state THEREFORE Main idea/claim/thesis/conclusion Intrinsic systems of motivation are more effective than extrinsic systems such as rewards and punishments.

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6.14 Step 5: Build the body paragraphs with reasons supported by evidence. Start to build your body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing, and explaining each quotation. Step 5 is the most complicated step in writing your paper, and it comprises the bulk of the work you will do. Building your body paragraphs is much easier if you only draw from articles for which you have completed research logs since you can easily identify the source of the evidence.Your own metacognition, drawn from the right column of your log, can jumpstart your introduction and explanation of your evidence. Let’s see how this process works in an actual argument. In her TED talk “The Power of Believing You Can Improve,” psychologist Carol Dweck effectively employs the Aristotelean structure of a simple argument to argue that helping students develop growth mindsets improves their academic success. We can outline the structure of her argument as follows:

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Claim

Reason

Evidence

A claim is a generalization that states the main idea of the essay. It is also called a thesis.

Reasons answer the question “because/why?” They support the claim.

Evidence supports the reason. Evidence must always be documented.

Developing a growth mindset BECAUSE they understand that In “The Power of Believing You opens up possibilities for achieve- failure provides an opportunity Can Improve,” psychologist Carol Dweck defines growth mindset as ment for many students for learning. “the power of ‘yet.’” She explains that children with a growth mindset understand “the idea that abilities can be developed. They engage deeply. Their brain is on fire with yet. They engage deeply. They process the error. They learn from it and they correct it.” We can verify that this is a solid argument by applying Fisher’s “therefore test.” Reason

Claim

Reasons answer the question A claim is a generalization that “because/why?” They support the states the main idea of the essay. claim. It is also called a thesis. Because they understand that failure provides an opportunity for learning,

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THEREFORE, developing a growth mindset opens possibilities for achievement for many students

Evidence Evidence supports the reason. Evidence must always be documented. In “The Power of Believing You Can Improve,” Psychologist Carol Dweck defines growth mindset as “the power of ‘yet.’” She explains that children with a growth mindset understand “the idea that abilities can be developed. They engage deeply. Their brain is on fire with yet. They engage deeply. They process the error. They learn from it and they correct it.”

By combining the claim and reason into a single sentence, you create a thesis or a generalization that provides a focus for the ideas in your paper.

Developing a growth mindset opens up possibilities for achievement for many students

BECAUSE they understand that failure provides an opportunity for learning,

BECAUSE students understand that failure provides an opportunity for learning,

THEREFORE, developing a growth mindset opens possibilities for achievement.

This simple structure of an argument provides us with a template or model for presenting our ideas in a way the audience can best understand them. Some students feel uneasy using templates because they feel like using someone else’s structure is a kind of plagiarism or theft. However, it is not. Because these structures have been used effectively for thousands of years, they help the audience understand your points. The template for your Aristotelean argument paper will look a lot like your Summary Organizer, except you will play the role of the writer rather than the reader.You will generate a claim, support it with reasons and support the reasons with evidence.

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6.15 Effectively use quotations as evidence in your essay: introduce, quote, cite, and explain. Build solid paragraphs easily by carefully introducing, quoting, citing, and explaining each quotation. Consider each paragraph in your essay as a supporting unit in your structure. To use quotations effectively, develop each paragraph in five steps. Each of these steps is essential.You need to introduced the quotation to connect the author’s words to your reason and claim.You must take care to quote the quotation exactly in the author’s words, and cite it using a signal phrase or a parenthetical citation. Finally, the hardest part is to carefully show how the evidence supports your claim and reason.

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1. Introduce the quotation.

Introduce the quotation to create a link between your claim, reason, and evidence. How does this particular evidence support your claim and reason? Provide your reader with a context for your interpretation of the quotation.

2. Quote the quotation using quotation marks.

Quote the quotation exactly. It is your duty to present the writer’s words exactly as they appear in the original work, although you can make small changes using additional academic punctuation conventions.

3. Cite the quotation with a parenthetical citation or a signal phrase:

If you fail to cite the quotation, you are guilty of plagia-

•

Dweck explains

•

(Dweck)

rism, or the theft of someone else’s words. This can bring severe penalties, so be careful to cite your sources.

4. Explain the quotation fully. Don’t leave it hanging.

Here is the chance to develop your ideas. Think long and hard about how and why the quotation supports your claim, and write down your explanation here.

5. Make sure to add an entry on your works cited page.

Failing to cite the author again on the works cited page is also plagiarism.You must cite both in the text and on the works cited page.

A strange convention of academic style: Avoid using the words “quote” or “quotation” in your essay. While we use the words “quote” and “quotation” in talking about how to write, we avoid it when we are actually writing. Instead, use a signal phrase: •

In Dweck’s words,

•

According to Dweck,

•

Here,

•

This statement suggests. . .

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6.16 Use paraphrase and summary in the same way: introduce, paraphrase, cite and explain Paraphrase and summary are efficient ways of incorporating larger ideas in your paper. Paraphrase and summary allow you to add large-scale ideas as evidence. Both paraphrase and summary allow you to rephrase the ideas of your source in your own words. However, if you choose to put the ideas of your source into your own words, you must paraphrase completely. Use the skills you learned in your summary assignment. Avoid copying the words or sentence structures of the original.

6.16.1 Using paraphrase effectively. Provide the same documentation for paraphrase as you do for quotation. Many students believe that if they change source material into their own words, they can use it without fear of plagiarizing. This is a dangerous assumption because an academic writer is responsible for giving credit for borrowed ideas as well as borrowed words. So to avoid plagiarism, treat paraphrased evidence with the same care as quoted evidence.

1. Introduce the paraphrase.

Introduce the paraphrase to create a link between your claim, reason, and evidence. How does this particular evidence support your claim and reason? Provide your reader with a context for your interpretation of the quotation.

2. Incorporate the paraphrase.

Be sure you have carefully recast the passage entirely in your own words. If you use a keyword or phrase from the original, you need to place it in quotation marks.You must paraphrase completely. If you just replace words in the original sentences, you are still plagiarizing.

3. Cite the paraphrase with a parenthetical citation or a signal phrase: •

Dweck explains

•

(Dweck)

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If you fail to cite the paraphrase, you are guilty of plagiarism, or the theft of someone else’s words. This can bring severe penalties, so be careful to cite your sources.

4. Explain the paraphrase fully. Don’t leave it hanging.

Here is your chance to develop your ideas. Think long and hard about how and why the quotation supports your claim, and write down your explanation here.

5. Make sure to add an entry on your works cited page.

Failing to cite the author again on the works cited page is also plagiarism.You must cite both in the text and on the works cited page.

6.16.2 How does this actually work with paraphrase? Incorporate paraphrase in exactly the same way as quotations. All the rules for quotations apply to paraphrase as well.You need to provide a context for the paraphrase just as you do with a quotation.You need to present the author’s ideas fairly in your own words. To avoid plagiarism, you need to cite paraphrase just as you did with quotations, and both paraphrase and quotation must be fully explained so that the reader can connect your evidence to your claim and reasons. 1. Introduce the paraphrase. Set up the paraphrase and give it a context.

Students who maintain a growth mindset are more likely to succeed in college because

2. State the paraphrase without quotation marks. Be sure that you paraphrase completely.

...they will start to think more positively about the challenges they face.

3. Cite the paraphrase with a parenthetical citation or a signal phrase: Failing to cite a paraphrase is plagiarism even though you did not use the exact words of the source. When you use a parenthetical citation, add a page number if you took the material from a print source. (Dweck 201) Add a parenthetical citation with a page number at the end of the paraphrase when using a signal phrase (201).

•

Because, according to Dweck, they will start to think more positively about the challenges they face.

•

They will start to think more positively about the challenges they face (Dweck).

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4. Explain the paraphrase fully. Don’t leave it hanging or unexplained. Here is your chance to fully develop the ideas in your paper.

Dweck argues that when students view feedback as information rather than criticism, their attitudes toward learning change because the way their brains work also changes. She . . . .

5. Make sure to add an entry on your works cited page for the ideas you took from the article, even though you didn’t use the exact words. Failing to cite the author again on the works cited page is also plagiarism.You must cite both in the text and on the works cited page.

Dweck, Carol. “The Power of Believing That You Can Improve.” TED, TEDxNorrkoping , Nov. 2014, www.ted.com/talks/ carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_ that_you_can_improve/discussion?language=en.

6.16.3 Review paraphrase, summary, and quotation conventions. Quotation, paraphrase and summary support your claims and reasons. Be sure you understand academic conventions for documentation in order to avoid plagiarism. Use quotation, partial paraphrase, and quotations to add evidence to your paper. Direct quotation allows you to give your reader a sense of the “flavor” of the original writer. It’s a good place to use the most memorable quotations from your reading. Partial paraphrase allows you to do the same thing with a shorter selection. Full paraphrase allows you to include a complete idea from an author, but by rephrasing the language, you may interpret or simplify the original for your audience. Summary allows you to include a more extensive idea than you can fit in a sentence or two.

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Direct Quotation

Partial Paraphrase

•

Dweck explains that “the meaning of effort and difficult is transformed.”

•

“The meaning of effort and difficulty is transformed” (Dweck).

•

according to Dweck, they will start to think more positively about “effort and difficulty.”

•

They will start to think more positively about “effort and difficulty” (Dweck).

Complete paraphrase

•

because, according to Dweck, they will start to think more positively about the challenges they face.

•

They will start to think more positively about the challenges they face (Dweck).

•

they will start to think more positively about the challenges they face.

•

the meaning of effort and difficult is transformed.

Plagiarism

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6.17 Choosing signal phrases or parenthetical citations as a citation method. Choosing a signal phrase or a parenthetical citation depends on your purpose and focus. Review these two presentations on the conventions of using academic documentation. Signal Phrases Both parenthetical citations and signal phrases help establish your credibility and determine how seriously your audience takes you as an academic writer, so it is important to take a little time to make sure that you are using them effectively. Your choice of signal phrases or parenthetical citations will affect how the reader will experience reading your paper. It is a good idea to decide on your citation style before you start to write the paper. Once you choose a style, you should consistently apply that style to the entire paper. Before you turn your paper in, proofread to make sure that you have not mixed your citation styles and that you have punctuated your quotations and citations correctly. Some writers used both systems together because they are afraid of plagiarizing. Using more citations than you need unnecessarily interrupts the flow of your writing for the reader and marks your writing as inexperienced.You don’t, for example, need to repeat an author’s name in a parenthetical citation if you have already used a signal phrase. The only reason for a parenthetical citation would be that you have taken the material from a print source and need to add a page number to the signal phrase.

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6.18 Step 6: Write your conclusion. Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?” Your argument may be complete, but you still need to provide closure for your audience, a feeling that the essay is complete.Your readers shouldn’t feel like the writer has just run out of time and stopped. The best way to do this is to echo the beginning of your essay. It may seem confusing that your thesis and your conclusion present the same idea. Think of the presentation of your thesis at the beginning of your essay as your initial attempt to engage your readers with this idea, and think of your conclusion as your last opportunity to convince them of your idea’s importance. Your conclusion should provide closure for your essay by answering the question suggested by rhetorician Joseph Williams, “so what?” Why should the reader care about this idea? Why is it worth writing about? Williams suggests you go a little further and answer the question, “now what?” If we accept this idea, where does it take us? What is the next step?

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6.19 Step 7: Finding an alternative point of view. Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative point of view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction. If a writer presents only a single point of view, we lack a context for discussion of the issue. Rhetoricians George Graf and Cathy Birkenstein describe academic writing as a conversation where we present ideas in a “they say/I say format.” By continuing our research, we can find a point at which to enter the conversation. Since we are writing an academic argument, the source for the alternative point of view needs to be credible as well. So we need to test the credentials of the authors of the alternative point of view. It would be too easy to dismiss an uniformed point of view. We need to show that we understand the complexities of the issue.

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The tone we use in presenting that point of view needs to be respectful and thoughtful. Even though some interpret the idea of argument as a “fight,” we are looking at it as persuasion. We are asking our audience to reconsider their ideas in the light of a new evidence-based point of view.

6.19.1 Use transition words for comparison and contrast to guide your reader. Using transition words for comparison contrast notify your reader of a change in point of view Transition words for contrast signal your reader that you are about to change the point of view in your argument.

However

On the one hand on the other hand Although

But

Ruenzel argues that systems of reward and punishment are often ineffective. However, according to Washington University researchers. . .

On the one hand, Ruenzel argues that systems of reward and punishment are often ineffective; on the other hand, according to Washington University researchers . . .

Although Ruenzel argues that systems of reward and punishment are often ineffective, according to Washington University researchers… Ruenzel argues that systems of reward and punishment are often ineffective, but according to Washington University researchers…

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6.20 Step 8: Connect with your audience by creating an effective introduction Write an effective introduction that engages your readers in the conversation. It may seem a little strange to wait until you are finished with the argument to create an introduction; after all, it comes first in the paper, but it’s a good idea to write your introduction last. First, you may not have a clear idea of what you want to say on the topic until after you have finished the paper, so it may help to let your ideas play out. More importantly, you can create a strategy for better engaging your audience, hooking their attention, and drawing them into your paper. After your title, the introduction is your audience’s first experience with your ideas, and it needs to be carefully set up to draw their attention.Your goal is to invite your reader to engage in the ideas you wish to present. In terms of your audience, your essay’s two most important moments are the conclusion and the introduction. The audience is most likely to remember your conclusion because, obviously, it’s the last part of your paper they read, and they are next likely to remember your introduction because it was their first experience of your essay. While all parts of your essay are equally important, the introduction and the conclusion will benefit from extra attention because, in these two sections, you are most closely engaged with your reader. Professor Sean Epstein Corburn encourages students to use the introduction to introduce the reader to their particular argument, not to the topic in general. So, rather than write an introduction to why motivation is important for college students, you might instead focus on how building a growth mindset helps college students succeed.Your goal is to engage your readers, to convince them why they should care about your topic. Professors also have preferences about what constitutes an effective introduction, and here again, it is important that you clearly understand the directions for a paper. Some professors offer a clear template to follow; others assume that you will understand how to create a strong introduction with a thesis statement, a supporting body, and an effective conclusion.

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Some prefer a statement of an alternative point of view as a hook. At the end of the introduction, the writer pivots on a “however” statement shifting the discussion to the writer’s point of view. The specific details of narrative or case history also work well to draw readers in and point them to the generalization that is the heart of the argument. Others prefer the presentation of a compelling quotation or a statistic to draw the reader’s attention. Fewer recommend posing a question. Again, check with your professor to see if there is a preference. Dictionary definitions, especially one like “Webster’s online dictionary defines . . .” are likely to fail as introductions, as are exaggerated claims, clichés, and overgeneralizations: “there has always been poverty in the world,” “life is not a bed of roses,” and “history repeats itself.” Like your title, your opening sentence should be fresh and original. The best introductions accurately summarize the central problem you wish to present in your essay in a way that the idea intrigues the reader that establishes your authority on the subject. It is effective to draw the reader into the essay by means of the power of your claim, so be sure to use clear and professional language appropriate to the academic discipline. State your best idea as clearly as you can manage, then revise after getting feedback from peers and your professor. Many academic essays list keywords or search terms at the beginning of an article. Even if you don’t actually list them, it’s a good idea to include as many as possible in your title and opening paragraph, often as the subjects of your sentences. Start by trying to connect the readers with what they already know. Create a context for the work as you establish your credibility and engage the reader with your reasoning.

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This is an exciting time for our brains. More and more research is showing that our brains constantly change with learning and experience and that this takes place throughout our lives.

Does this have implications for students’ motivation and learning? It certainly does. In my research in collaboration with my graduate students, we have shown that what students believe about their brains — whether they see their intelligence as something that’s fixed or something that can grow and change — has profound effects on their motivation, learning, and school achievement (Dweck, 2006). These different beliefs, or mindsets, create different psychological worlds: one in which students are afraid of challenges and devastated by setbacks, and one in which students relish challenges and are resilient in the face of setbacks (generalization)

Context and question

Carol Dweck “Brainology” When I taught English at a small Wisconsin high school, the principal arranged a summit every month or so between the teachers and parents of a struggling student. Compelled to attend, young Bethany generally looked quite dyspeptic while we adults formulated a plan to get her back to work. In retrospect, I think our best approach would have been to schedule more meetings for the poor student. A teenager might become a National Merit Scholar to avoid such a fate. Instead, we agreed to the usual solutions: Bethany would study at least two hours each night in a clean, well-lighted room, undisturbed by phone calls or the television. Invariably, we also developed a check and double-check system—parent and teacher signatures were required—to verify that assignments were completed each and every day. (Specific narrative) Regardless of the precise mechanics of these schemes, they were usually predicated upon rewards and punishments. (Generalization)

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Narrative example that illustrates a generalization.

6.21 Step 9: Connecting with your audience by creating an effective academic title. Review this presentation: Creating an effective academic title Academic titles, sometimes ridiculed by academics themselves, often follow a convention, asking for two statements separated by a colon. A good title allows the writer to pinpoint the focus and catch the reader’s attention. Praise Effort, not Intelligence: Leading Students to a Growth Mindset The process of creating also helps you find a focus for your paper.You may start with a working title, something like “Growth Mindset Essay,” but that doesn’t help you move forward. The process of creating a title helps you discover what your paper is “about.” Let your title emerge as you engage in the process of writing your paper. Most writers don’t have a clear idea of what to say before they start to write; if you do, then just follow that line of thinking. Although you will draw evidence from sources, you need to frame the idea in your mind before you start to write, and this may take some time. Choosing a topic, advises eminent rhetorician Wayne Booth, is in itself an act of research. 293

Titles depend on keywords. In fact, professional journals often list keywords that can be used as potential online search terms at the beginning of the article. When you get a working rough draft of your paper, three to four pages, create a word cloud, an innovative way of uncovering your keywords. To create a word cloud, go to the free online site, wordclouds.com. •

Select and copy your entire draft.You can use the shortcut keys, Control A, then Control C.

•

Find and open the file dropdown box. Select Paste/Type Text, and a dropdown box will appear. Paste your text in the dropdown box. (Control V).

•

Select “Apply,” and wordclouds.com will generate your word cloud.

•

Select “Word List.” Delete all words that you have used only once or twice. If you think they are important, keep them.

•

You can change the color and shape of your word cloud by using the tool bar at the top.

•

The words which appear the largest in your word cloud are the words you have used the most often. They are likely to be the keywords in your paper.

Of course, not all academic titles have to have a colon, but they do need to preview the ideas you will present in your essay and convince the reader to start reading.

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6.22 Step 10: Use transition words to connect with your audience by creating a sense of flow in your paper. Transition words create a pathway for your reader. When we write, we make connections in our head as we go, and these connections seem obvious to us. But the reader can’t read our minds. When you provide markers for the structure of your paper, you make it easier for the reader to follow and accept your reasoning. The final step in writing your paper is to continue developing your relationship with your reader by adding words that help distinguish your claim, reasons, and evidence. Go back to the text you and your reader have marked up. “Flow” describes the experience of your reader. A paper is cohesive if one sentence flows easily into the next. It is coherent if all of the sentences make sense together.You can enhance the coherence and cohesiveness by adding transition words or argument indicators to your paper to give your readers clues about the structure of your paper. The easiest way to see if you have created a sense of flow in your paper is to ask someone to read it and tell you where they followed your train of thought and where you lost them. Another good technique is to read your paper out loud. For both activities, mark the places where you lost them on your text. Do you need to add words, phrases, or sentences? Remember, the reader can’t read your mind. When you have finished reading your paper aloud and getting feedback from another reader, add transition words. Another name for transition words are conclusion and reason indicators, as they point to the conclusion and reasons that support your claim. A transition word is always followed by a comma. 295

Introduction

Evidence markers: For example In this case

Alternative point of view (may be part of introduction or placed strategically)

Argument markers:

Evidence markers:

However

For example

On the other hand,

In this case

On the contrary,

Claim and thesis

Claim markers: Therefore Thus So Reason markers: Because Since For these reasons

BECAUSE Reason 1 (Generalization) May be restated in other words.

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Reason markers:

Evidence markers:

First

For example

Firstly

In this case

BECAUSE Reason 2 (Generalization) May be restated in other words.

Reason markers:

Evidence markers:

Second

For example,

Secondly

In this case

Next Furthermore Moreover In addition

BECAUSE Reason 3

Reason markers:

Evidence markers:

(Generalization) May be restated in other words.

Finally

For example In this case

THEREFORE Main idea/ claim/thesis/conclusion

Thesis/claim/conclusion markers: Therefore So Consequently

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6.23 Revise after you finish your first draft. Learning to respond to feedback is an important part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your own, you are taking an important step in this direction. As Ann Lamott says in “Bird by Bird,” a finished first draft is a perfect first draft. However, some students believe that they are “done” with the paper and turn the assignment in as-is. This is a mistake. Professional writers argue that “all writing is rewriting.” Rewriting gives you a chance to explain your ideas more precisely, communicate more clearly to your audience, and create a better professional first impression. Resist the temptation to turn in your first draft because you are “done.” If you have managed your time well, you will be able to put this “perfect” draft aside for a short time, perhaps overnight, and come back to it anew the following day with a little distance on your writing. Before you submit your paper for peer review or tutorial review, review the draft against the rubric. Remember that “revision” literally means “to look again.” Take time for a second—and third—look at your work.

6.23.1 Use a rubric to self-evaluate your work. Rubrics or score sheets provide the standards your professor will use to evaluate your paper. Make your revision process easier by taking time to review the rubric. A rubric is, simply put, a score sheet or checklist. Professors create rubrics in order to give you the criteria or standards by which your paper will be scored. Rubrics may differ from assignment to assignment. Most will set forth criteria on the organization of the paper, evidence and documentation, academic conventions, style, and grammar.

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Rubric: Checklist for Writing Assignment An Academic Essay

Possible points

1. Does the writer clearly state the claim?

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2. Does the writer provide at least three reasons? because . . .

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3. Does the writer provide at least one piece of credible evidence drawn from a research log, paraphrased or quoted, in support of each reason?

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4. Is the evidence effectively introduced, quoted, cited, and explained? Do the explanations connect the evidence to the reason it supports?

10

5. Does the writer appropriately and consistently use signal phrases and parenthetical citations to avoid plagiarism? Are the page numbers and time stamps (if needed) correct?

10

6. Does the writer present an effective conclusion that answers the questions “now what?” and “so what”?

10

7. Does the writer create an effective funnel format introduction that engages the reader?

10

8. Does the writer create an effective two-part title that summarizes the argument and engages the reader?

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9. Does the writer effectively use academic language and transition words with few grammatical errors?

5

10. Does the writer provide a correctly formatted works cited page?

5

11. Does the writer reach a total word count of 1250 words? (5 pages, double spaced, Times New Roman)?

5

Score and comments

When your paper is finished, review it against the rubric your professor provides and score it yourself before you send it to peer review. Although your professor will use the rubric to calculate your grade, you can get also use it to improve your paper before you turn it in. Think of a rubric as a checklist. It’s easy to skip or neglect an element of a complex assignment, but the rubric allows you to be sure you have covered all the criteria. Make your own notes as you go, then make changes based on those notes.

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6.23.2 Peer review provides valuable feedback. Learning to respond to feedback is an integral part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your own, you are taking an important step in this direction. Learning to respond to feedback is an important aspect of developing a growth mindset. As it is for professional academic writers, peer review is an important part of the process for students of academic writing. Peer review sharpens your writing in two ways. It provides you feedback from other writers grappling with the same assignment, and it allows you to see how others tackled the same problem. Few things are harder than finding the issues in your own work. Another writer looks at your paper with new eyes and can offer you valuable information for revision.Your peer will review your paper using the same set of standards used by your professor.

6.23.3 Edit carefully after the peer review. Carefully review your peer’s suggestions and determine what changes you want to make.Verify that your peer’s suggestions are appropriate.

Gather together the rubric on which you scored your paper, the rubric your peer used to score your assignment, the draft of your paper, and a copy of the assignment. Open them in tabs on your screen, or better yet, print them out so you can move more quickly back and forth between them. Reread the assignment, your notes, and your peer’s notes.

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On a separate file or sheet of paper, make notes about the feedback. Did you and your peer agree on issues that needed work? Did your peer see problems you missed? Did the information your peer provided fit with what you already knew? Did you feel like the feedback was accurate, or did you need to double-check the response? Remember, since your peer is also a student, he or she may or may not offer accurate feedback. Before you proceed to a revision, resolve questions you may have about your peer’s feedback. Don’t accept the peer’s suggestions as valid. Double-check with your professor, a peer mentor, or an authoritative source before you incorporate them into your paper.

6.23.4 Editing carefully after the instructor review. Your professor provides valuable professional feedback. Make use of it. Many professors take significant time and care in commenting on student work, and their work is wasted if students don’t read the comments and use them to improve their writing.Your professor may also ask you to submit to a tutorial service like Smarthinking or work with a tutor at your college’s tutorial center. It is important to keep a growth mindset on the subject of seeking extra help.Your professor is making suggestions designed to help you become a better writer. She is not judging your potential or trying to make you feel stupid.You are getting feedback from people, not criticism. Do yourself and those trying to help you a favor, try to maintain a growth mindset, and take pride in your efforts.Your writing skills will get stronger the more you use them, just like muscles do when you start exercising. Most professional writers seek feedback from others, and the more the person giving you feedback knows about writing, the more valuable the feedback. Even so, you do not need to accept comments from your instructor without questioning them. If you wrote a sentence in a particular way for a reason, open a dialogue with your professor. It will likely help you understand your own writing process better.

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Module 6 Review 6.1 Before your start, consider word count and paper length. Being aware of the length requirement is an important first step in understanding your assignment. 6.2 But don’t travel in the wrong direction by focusing on paper length. Thinking about paper length too much may put the brakes on your writing process. 6.3 Travel in a better direction by focusing on your ideas. Students who focus on the ideas in their paper tend to have less difficulty writing longer papers than students who are fixated on the paper length. 6.4 When do I start my research? Shape the ongoing process of your research to fit the needs of your paper. 6.5 Find templates to structure your paper. Templates or prefabricated structures help you shape your paper for an academic audience. 6.6 Aristotle’s (385-422 BCE) simple argument structures are still relevant today. Aristotle’s template of a claim supported by reasons supported by evidence provides a useful template. 6.7 Think critically with an open mind. Allow for the possibility of changing perspective on your topic.Think of an argument as an opportunity for exploring your stance on an issue. 6.8 What academic writing skills do you bring to the assignment? Carry the academic writing skills you have already learned to a new assignment. Assess what you need to review. 6.9 Write your paper by climbing the steps of the writing process. Breaking the writing process into ten steps makes it easier to complete a big project. 302

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Step 1 Verify that you understand the assignment by completing a research log.

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Step 2 Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know.

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Step 3 Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons in an argument organizer.

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Step 4 Consider what additional evidence you will need to support your reasons.

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Step 5 Build your body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing, and explaining each quotation you have chosen for evidence.

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Step 6 Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?”

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Step 7 Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative of view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction.

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Step 8 Write an effective introduction that engages your readers.

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Step 9 Create an effective title that previews your topic and hooks the attention of your readers.

•

Step 10 Create a flow for your reader by adding transition words and argument indicators.

6.10 Step 1 Understanding the assignment. Taking time to understand the assignment saves time in the long run. 6.11 Step 2: Prewrite to uncover what you know. Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know. 6.12 Step 3: Developing your ideas using claims, reasons, and evidence. You will spend most of your writing time supporting your claim with reasons and evidence. 6.13 Step 4: Start by creating a tentative thesis. Sketch out a tentative argument or based on the research you have completed. Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons. 6.14 Step 5: Build the body paragraphs with reasons supported by evidence. Start to build the body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing, and explaining each quotation.

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6.15 Effectively use quotations as evidence in your essay: introduce, quote, cite, and explain. Build solid paragraphs easily by carefully introducing, quoting, citing, and explaining each quotation. 6.16 Use paraphrase and summary in the same way: introduce, paraphrase, cite and explain. Paraphrase and summary are efficient ways of incorporating larger ideas in your paper. 6.16.1 Using paraphrase effectively. Provide the same documentation for paraphrase as you do for quotation. 6.16.2 How does this actually work with paraphrase? Incorporate paraphrase in exactly the same way as quotations. 6.16.3 Review paraphrase, summary, and quotation conventions. Quotation, paraphrase, and summary support your claims and reasons. Be sure you understand academic conventions for documentation in order to avoid plagiarism. 6.17 Choosing signal phrases or parenthetical citations as a citation method. Choosing a signal phrase or a parenthetical citation depends on your purpose and focus. 6.18 Step 6:Write your conclusion. Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?” 6.19 Step 7: Finding an alternative point of view. Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative point of view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction. 6.19.1 Use transition words for comparison and contrast to guide your reader. Using transition words for comparison contrast notify your reader of a change in point of view

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6.20 Step 8: Connect with your audience by creating an effective introduction. Write an effective introduction that engages your readers in the conversation. 6.21 Step 9: Connecting with your audience by creating an effective academic title. An effective tile hooks your audience while previewing and summarizing your paper. 6.22 Step 10: Use transition words to connect with your audience by creating a sense of flow in your paper. Transition words create a pathway for your reader. 6.23 Revise after you finish your first draft. Learning to respond to feedback is an important part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your own, you are taking an important step in this direction. 6.23.1 Use a rubric to self-evaluate your work. Rubrics or score sheets provide the standards your professor will use to evaluate your paper. Make your revision process easier by taking time to review the rubric. 6.23.2 Peer review provides valuable feedback. Learning to respond to feedback is an integral part of developing a growth mindset. By peer reviewing someone else’s paper and listening to feedback on your own, you are taking an important step in this direction. 6.23.3 Edit carefully after the peer review. Carefully review your peer’s suggestions and determine what changes you want to make.Verify that your peer’s suggestions are appropriate 6.23.4 Editing carefully after the instructor review. Your professor provides valuable professional feedback. Make use of it.

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Glossary Cite/citation “to cite” means to provide a quotation from a documented source. A citation refers to the in-text reference to your source. In MLA, it is enclosed in parenthesis (Dweck 22), and is therefore called a “parenthetical citation.” Claim A sentence containing the main assertion in your paper, the point of your argument. The claim is also the conclusion. Common knowledge what you would expect non-experts to know. However, what experts might know could need documentation for non-experts, so it is a better idea to document all of your information. The conclusion is the main assertion of your paper, or the claim. When it is stated at the beginning of the paper, it is called the claim or thesis. When it is stated at the end, it is referred to as the conclusion. See therefore test. Credibility, also called ethos, refers to your trustworthiness as a writer or your ability to inspire confidence in your reader in your writing. Documentation refers to the evidence you provide. Documentation takes the form of in-text citations, and a works cited list. Correct documentation allows your reader to trace your sources and builds your credibility. Writing which lacks documentation is considered plagiarized. Evidence refers to material drawn from sources that you use to support your claims and reasons. Evidence may be either primary, first-hand materials, or secondary, material written about the topic. Extrinsic/intrinsic motivation Motivation refers to the reason that causes someone to act. Motivation that comes from within a person is called intrinsic. Motivation that is imposed from outside is called extrinsic. Generalization/generalize refers to the process of coming to a conclusion based on specific evidence. A generalization is never found in a number, data, or a quotation. Instead, we generalize from these specifics. Freewriting is a creative way to generate ideas and break writer’s block. Rather than trying to meet the demands of the prompt, write down whatever comes to mind.You can also write about why you may be blocked. Write for a specific period of time, one to five minutes, without worrying about grammar, correctness, or spelling. Intellectual property When creators create something new, they own the rights to that creation, for 306

example, books, music, or software. Intellectual property refers to that right. In college writing, we acknowledge intellectual property with careful documentation of sources. Library Guide or Lib Guide A web page created by a college librarian to help you with a specific aspect of your research.You may access general lib guides via the library web page. Lib guides specific to your class may be embedded in your learning platform or listed in a special place on the library website. Prewriting means to write informally before you begin writing a formal paper. A prewriting exercise may be assigned by your professor, or you may create your own. Summary, freewriting, response writings help your brain warm-up to the assignment. Paraphrase means putting someone else’s writing into your own words in order to incorporate their ideas into your paper. Be sure to paraphrase completely or quote exactly. All paraphrasing must be documented in exactly the same way as quotations. In a partial paraphrase, the writer combines paraphrase and quotation, and documents both. Parenthetical citation A parenthetical citation (Dweck 15) is used in MLA formatting to document a quotation or a paraphrase. It includes the author’s last name and a page number. Online sources do not need page numbers. (Dweck) Plagiarism means to take someone else’s ideas and use them as your own. Plagiarism is the theft of intellectual property. Plagiarism may be the open theft of a passage from an author, or it can simply be the failure to cite correctly. Plagiarism checker Plagiarism checkers like Turnitin.com check a submitted paper against all internet sites and everything ever submitted to the site. Plagiarism checkers detect similarity rather than plagiarism. A quoted passage may be highlighted as similar, but it is not plagiarized if the writer uses quotation marks and citations. Primary evidence/secondary evidence Primary evidence is evidence that is closest to experience. It may be an observation, an original story, or a description of an artifact. Secondary evidence is drawn from what others have written on a subject. Quote, quotation “Quote” is a short informal way of describing the direct words of others; quotation is a more formal way. In writing a paper, avoid using the word quotation. Prefer instead words like “statement” or “In the words of.” Reason A reason is a statement that supports a claim. It answers the question “why”: the claim BECAUSE reason. Rhetoric refers to a methodology for persuasion designed by Aristotle, including structures of argument with claims, reason, and evidence.

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Sloppy citation occurs when writers do not take care to incorporate the necessary conventions for quotation and paraphrase. They may leave out an author’s name, source, or page number, or omit a works cited entry or page. Source refers to the material you used to find evidence to support your point of view. Template A template is a pattern of organization that helps you structure your paper. An outline is the simplest form of a template, but your instructor may assign a more complicated template such as a Rogerian argument or an argument of definition. Don’t assume there is only one template for an assignment. The therefore test is a good method to verify whether or not you have written a conclusion/thesis for your paper. Read your paper through, then write “therefore” in front of the statement you believe to be your thesis. If this conclusion makes sense, then your statement has passed the therefore test. Thesis statement or thesis sets forth the main idea of your paper and provides a focus for the reader. In academic papers, the thesis statement also restates the conclusion so that the reader can preview your argument. Systems of reward and punishment This concept refers to how rewards and punishments work together to influence behavior. It is distinct from the idea of reward or punishment as separate ideas

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Works Cited Davis, Lindsey. “LibGuides: Library Research: General: Evaluating Sources.” Evaluating Sources – Library Research: General – LibGuides at Merced College, https://libguides.mccd.edu/c. php?g=594889&p=7125247 Dweck, Carol. “Brainology.” NAIS, 2008, www.nais.org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2008/ brainology/. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–273, 1988 https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256 Graff, Gerald, Cathy Birkenstein. “They Say/I Say”: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing: with Readings. W. W. Norton and Company, 2018. Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruskiewicz. Everything’s an Argument. Bedford/St Martin’s, 2019. Ruenzel, David. “Gold Star Junkies.” Education Week Teacher, Editorial Projects in Education, 19 Feb. 2019, www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2000/02/01/05gold.h11.html. Shields, Christopher. “Aristotle.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 29 July 2015, plato.stanford.edu/entries/ristotle/#RheArt. Washington University School of Medicine. “Carrot or stick? Punishments may guide behavior more effectively than rewards.” Science Daily. ScienceDaily, 6 May 2015. .

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MODULE 6ASSIGNMENTS: BUILDING A LONGER PAPER ON THE FOUNDATION OF WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW 

Reflect 6.1 1.

What is the point of student learning outcomes and objectives? 

Now that you are halfway through your first college writing class, do you feel like you better understand why you are in this class at this point in your education? Review the course descriptions, student learning outcomes, and student learning objectives pasted below and in No One’s Mother Tongue. Why do you think colleges and universities require that their students master these skills in order to get a degree?  Assess what you’ve learned so far in this class. What

Reflect 6.2  2.

What have you learned so far in this class? 

Reflect 6.3  3.

How do you feel about writing a longer paper? 

elements of academic writing are you most comfortable using? Make a list. What elements still feel challenging. Make another list. Did you have any difficulty meeting the length requirements for Writing Assignments 1, 2, and 3? Jot down a few strategies for responding to these challenges.  How do you feel about writing a longer, five-page paper? What strategies will you employ? Describe the skills you are bringing with you from the experience of writing your first three papers? What challenges do you still face? Where can you go for help? 

4.

Reading Assignment

6.1 Word count and paper length

5.

Reading Assignment 

6.2 Travelling in the wrong direction: thinking about paper length

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6.

Reflect 6.4 What if I am having writer’s block?

“But I’m blocked, really blocked, and can’t get started.” Start freewriting immediately. “I can’t get started writing this paper because . . . “Be completely honest with yourself.You don’t need to share this freewriting with anyone.You hate the class.You aren’t inspired by the teacher.You’re thinking about a family or relationship issue, and it’s filling up your mind. You feel like the paper is too hard. Is imposter syndrome creeping in? Write as much as you can. Then write about the consequences of not completing the assignment. Are they worth it? Would talking to someone help? If you feel comfortable, share your freewriting here. Otherwise, offer solutions to the issues you raised. 

7.

Reading Assignment

6.3 Travelling in a better direction: focus on presenting your ideas

8.

Reading Assignment

6.4 When do I start my research?

9.

Reading Assignment

6.5 Finding templates: structuring your paper

10.

Reading Assignment

6.6 Still relevant today: Aristotle’s (385-422 BCE) simple argument structures 

11.

Reading Assignment

6.7 Thinking critically with an open mind

12.

Reading Assignment

6.8 What academic writing skills do you bring to the assignment?

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Reading Assignment

6.9 Climbing the steps of the writing process 

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Reading Assignment

6.10 Step 1 Understanding the assignment 

Research log 6.1 15.

Your academic argument assignment 

Complete a research log for Assignment 4, An Academic Argument Review, on the directions for the assignment and the rubric. Keep track of the directions and criteria in the left column and your concerns and questions on the right.

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What do you already know, and what do you need to Reflect 6.5  16.

17.

What do you already know, and what do you need to know? 

Reading Assignment

Reflect 6.6 18.

Prewriting: Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: What’s on your mind? 

learn to complete the assignment? Where can you find the answers to your questions? Your text? Comments on your previous papers? Do you need to contact your professor or a tutor? Then explain how you feel about the assignment. Can you follow the directions without bringing an “illusion of knowing” from a previous class? 6.11 Step 2: Prewrite to uncover what you know Complete a 250-word (or more) freewriting as a prewriting. Write for at least ten minutes without stopping. A freewriting doesn’t need any organizing principle. Just write down everything you are thinking about the assignment. Write quickly.You don’t need to think about quotations, MLA, or grammar. Just get down what you are thinking about your stance on your topic. If you have doubts or questions, express them.  What do I already know from my reading and experience? How does this research connect with other classes I am taking? What do I want to find out? What if you just can’t get started? Refocus your freewriting on what is blocking you? Does the assignment make you anxious? Are you having trouble with time management or setting priorities? 

19.

Reading Assignment

6.12 Step 3: Developing your ideas using claims, reasons, and evidence

20.

Reading Assignment

6.13 Step 4: Create a tentative thesis

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Complete the assigned reading 5.3.3 Creating a tentative claim and reasons in No One’s Mother Tongue. Then fill out an organizer with your tentative claims and reasons and submit it. Be sure your claim and reasons are stated as generalizations in a single sentence as in this sample: CLAIM: Students learn more when they are encouraged to find intrinsic motivation. 21.

Organizer 1: Identify and clearly state your claim and reasons.

REASON 1 They find it easier to maintain a growth mindset. REASON 2 They are less likely to cheat as they might under as in systems of rewards and punishments. REASON 3 They are more likely to experience a flow state. You may of course, change your claim and reasons, or better, make them more concise, precise and academic as your work on the paper progresses. Before you create a tentative structure, review your research logs for all articles and videos you might incorporate into your paper. Look again at your freewriting. 

22.

23.

24.

Reading Assignment

Organizer 2: Support your claim with reasons supported by evidence 

Reading Assignment

6.14 Step 5: Build the body paragraphs: reasons supported by evidence Fill out an organizer with your revised claim and reasons supported by evidence and submit it here. Be sure that you use a signal phrase to introduce each piece of evidence.You may, of course, change your claim and reasons, or better, make them more concise, precise and academic as your work on the paper progresses. As you revise your structure, review your research logs for all articles and videos you might incorporate into your paper. Look again at your freewriting. 6.15 How to effectively use quotations as evidence in your essay: introduce quote cite and explain

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25.

Reading Assignment 

6.16 Using paraphrase and summary: “In other words”

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Reading Assignment 

6.16.1 Using paraphrase effectively

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Reading Assignment 

6.16.2 How does this actually work with paraphrase? 

28.

Reading Assignment 

6.16.3 Summary of paraphrase, summary, and quotation conventions

29.

Reading Assignment 

6.17 Choosing signal phrases or parenthetical citations

30.

Organizer 3: Introduce, quote, cite, and explain your evidence

6.18 Step 6 Writing your conclusion 

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Organizer 4: Add a conclusion.

32.

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Develop the last column of the organizer by adding a sentence or two before your quotation that introduces your evidence. Use a signal phrase) to introduce the quotation you selected. Add three or for sentences that explain the quotation that supports each reason. 

Reading Assignment

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Copy organizer 3 and add a conclusion box. Rename it organizer 4. Or download Organizer 4 with a conclusion box and copy and paste the claim and reasons into the appropriate boxes. In the conclusion, be sure that you go beyond restating the claim in the same words. Answer the question, “so what”? Why is this conclusion important? Then answer the questions “now what?” What ideas should we investigate next, and why are they important.  6.19 Step 7 Finding an alternative point of view.

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40.

Organizer 5: Add an alternative point of view

Reading Assignment Organizer 6: Connect with your audience by creating an effective introduction. 

Reflect 6.7 Word Cloud

Reading Assignment

Copy organizer 4 and add an alternative point of view box to your existing organizer. Be sure you have identified a point of view that disagrees with your claim. For example, students who are encouraged to find intrinsic motivation are more likely to be successful than those who depend on extrinsic motivation, then you need to find a quotation that fairly presents the idea that extrinsic motivation works well. Be fair in your presentation of the opposing viewpoint. Mark the alternative point of view with a comparison-contrast indicator like “however.”  6.20 Step 8 Connecting with your audience by creating an effective introduction Copy Organizer 6 and add an introduction box to your existing organizer. Review the models in section 6.20. Create a funnel introduction to your paper based on one of the models. Review the presentation Hook and Predict: Creating an Academic Title. Follow the directions in the presentation to complete a word cloud to identify keywords for your title as directed there. Upload the word cloud. Explain why these keywords represent your ideas in your paper.  6.21 Step 9: Connecting with your audience by creating an effective academic title

Organizer 7: Connect with your audience by creating an effective title.

Add a title box to your work in progress organizer and paste the title there. Be sure to create a two-part title and subtitle separated by a colon.

Reading Assignment

6.22 Step 10: Use transition words to connect with your audience by creating a sense of flow in your paper

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41.

42.

Reading Assignment

Organizer 8: Create cohesion by adding transition words

5.10 Connecting with your audience by creating a sense of flow in your paper  Review the transition word template, then read your paper carefully and add transition words to aid your reader in experiencing the flow of your ideas. If possible, have someone read your paper. Ask them where they can follow you and where they lose you. Use this information to add additional transition words to aid them. From organizer to professional MLA presentation. Follow these directions to transform your final organizer to an MLA formatted draft.  Open a Word MLA template file by selecting templates and choosing MLA.

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Writing Assignment 4: An Academic Essay  Preparing your paper for submission

Open Organizer 8. Select the “grab” button at the edge of the table template to select your table, or highlight the table by dragging the cursor, or use Control A to select it all. Return to the MLA template file and use Control V to paste the text. Notice the small button that appears at the bottom right corner of the pasted text. Ctrl. Select the second icon, Merge Formatting. Your text should appear in Times New Roman 12 point double spaced. Make the minor adjustments needed to correct the MLA formatting. Be sure each paragraph is indented with a tab. Eliminate extra spaces and delete all extra material. Compare your result with a sample MLA paper. 

44.

Reading Assignment

6.24 Revision: after you finish your first draft 

45.

Reading Assignment

6.24.1 Using a rubric

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46.

Reading Assignment

6.24.2 Peer review

47.

Reading Assignment

6.24.3 Editing after the peer review

48.

Reading Assignment

6.24.4 Editing after the instructor review

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MODULE 7: Presenting your work: just-in-time grammar and style

At the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. Recognize the importance of using academic language in the academic community. 2. Identify and use important features of academic English or academic language. 3. Identify and use conventions of academic style. 4. Investigate the role that rules and convention of grammar and style play in the presentation of your academic self.

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Module 7 Preview 7.1 Details are important to your audience. Paying attention to details builds your credibility in the eyes of your audience. 7.2 Pay attention to details in your first revision. A first draft is only a first step. Professional writers agree that “all writing is rewriting.” 7.3 “Standard English Grammar” is “No One’s Mother Tongue.” “Standard English Grammar” refers to the rules and conventions followed in academic writing. Few use this language community in everyday life. 7.4 What is “grammar”? Linguists use “grammar” to refer the unbreakable rules of a language, for example, what makes English English. 7.5 Distinguish between real rules, social rules, and invented rules of grammar. Real rules are the unbreakable rules of a language: what makes English English. Social rules come from social class conventions: “don’t use ain’t.” Invented rules attempt to control a linguistic practice: “don’t split an infinitive.” 7.6.“Real Rules” allows writers to create clarity. Following the “real rules” of a language help create clarity, for example, every sentence must have a subject and a verb. 7.7 We need to understand the reasons behind “social” and “invented” grammar rules. Understanding the reasons behind social and invented rules helps us understand when we can ignore them and when we need to follow them to create credibility.

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7.8 Social and invented rules define academic writing conventions. The academic language community uses social and invented rules to create writing conventions. 7.8.1 I/you/he/she/it/they: What is “grammatical person?”: Most academic writing avoids the second person pronoun “you” and uses the third person, “he/she/ it/they.” In some cases, the first person “I” is appropriate. 7.8.2 Make statements rather than ask questions. Although questions may be effectively used to provide a focus for a paper, statements are more effective in moving your argument forward. 7.8.3 Use academic naming conventions. Academic writing has long standing traditions about using the names of scholars and researchers: Use the full name at first mention, and add information about the author to emphasize credibility. After the first mention, use only the last name. 7.9 It’s simple to understand the basic structure of a clause and a sentence. A basic clause consists of a subject and a verb. A sentence is a clause with a capital letter and a period. 7.9.1 For a more sophisticated academic style, use compound and complex sentences effectively. Join clauses to create compound and complex sentences in order to vary your sentence lengths and patterns. 7.9.2 The three most common errors, sentence fragments, comma splices and run-on sentences, result from misunderstanding how to combine clauses. Three of the most common errors come from misunderstanding the rules for joining clauses. 7.10 Keep your verb tenses consistent. The most common verb tenses in academic writing are simple past, simple present, and past perfect. Be sure to keep your verb tenses consistent.

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7.11 Create an effective personal academic style by paying attention to sentence patterns and word choice. Style refers to the writer’s choice of words and sentence structures. 7.11.1 Be concise: create the most meaning in the fewest words Make your style stronger by eliminating wasted words as you revise. 7.11.2 Be precise: use exactly the right word. Take time to be sure you have used the most accurate and effective words in your revision. 7.11.3 Is metalanguage essential or unnecessary? Use effective metalanguage like transition words: “first . . . therefore . . . however.” Eliminate unnecessary and ineffective metalanguage: “in this paper I am going to show that.” 7.12 Correct punctuation matters. In academic writing punctuation rules must be followed carefully to polish a professional presentation. 7.12.1 Why is there so much talk about three tiny punctuation marks: apostrophes, semicolons, and Oxford commas? These three tiny punctuation marks are important in building a strong credibility because professional writers value their correct use. 7.12.2 Pay careful attention to the apostrophe and it’s/its. Apostrophes are used most frequently to show possession or to create contractions Be sure you understand the counterintuitive problem of “it’s” vs. “its.” In this one case,” it’s” is the contraction for “it is“ and “its” without the apostrophe is the possessive. 7.12.3 Semicolons are an effective way to join clauses. Although they are sometimes used to punctuate long elements in a series, the most common use is to separate two complete clauses, taking the place of a coordinating conjunction and a comma.

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7.12.4 Is “The Oxford Comma” needed in a series? Clearly, some commas create greater clarity in the sentence. But are too many commas distracting to the reader? And how does a beginning student decided which style of punctuation to use? The most practical advice is to use the Oxford comma. 7.13 Look at the bigger picture: coherence and cohesion Coherence and cohesion describe how to make your work feel like a “whole” piece of writing. 7.13.1 “Coherence” describes how all of the pieces of the puzzle fit together. Coherence refers to how all sentences in a passage begin. Using key words as subjects of sentences is the secret to coherence. 7.13.2 “Cohesion” describes how one puzzle piece fits into the next. Cohesion refers to how one sentence ends and the next begins. Repeating words or synonyms at the end of the first sentence and the beginning of the second is the key to cohesion. 7.13.3 Use the passive voice to create cohesion. Sometimes using the passive voice helps create stronger cohesion. 7.13.4 Create larger patterns of coherence and cohesion with parallel structure. Larger patterns of repetition like parallel structure help create coherence and cohesion on a bigger scale. 7.13.5 Create larger patterns of cohesion and coherence with transition words. Transition words help guide your reader through your ideas.

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Case History 1: Why the details are important: Marco Marco hated to write, but he faced up to the fact that he had to pass English to graduate and transfer to work on his engineering degree. He had a solid GPA and looked forward to transferring to UC, but he had put off English until the last semester. Marco had diligently completed all of his assignments and completed a five-page draft of his paper. His peers had given him positive feedback in their reviews but had all mentioned he had a lot of little grammar errors. Marco had to admit, he really liked the topic, motivation, and the research had been interesting, but he resented being judged on details like comma splices and capital letters. Knowing he could graduate if he just got a C, Marco had engineering homework to finish, so he made a few changes and hit submit. He knew he should care more, but he was tired right now and really didn’t.

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7.1 Details are important to your audience. Paying attention to details builds your credibility in the eyes of your audience. Few people like to work with details, and those who do have a big professional advantage because they are better able to present themselves to an audience, as sociologist Erving Goffman suggests in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. They have developed what he calls “front stage behavior.” Most of us make mistakes and dislike taking the time to go back and correct them. Often this results from ineffective time planning; if a student waits until the last minute to write a paper, little time is left to revise. So the best way to present your paper and yourself in the best light is to plan enough time for the revision cycle.

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7.2 Pay attention to details in your first revision. A first draft is only a first step. Professional writers agree that “all writing is rewriting.” In our pre-writings, we pay more attention to the “it” or subject matter, and as we write our papers, we run the material through the “I” of our own minds. In revision, we must shift our attention to the audience, the “receiver’ to our “sender.” The audience cannot read the writer’s mind, so if you understand a connection between two thoughts, you must make it explicit to your audience, carefully explaining, for example, why a particular quotation supports your claim and reason. It may take you more than one draft to understand the connection yourself. Professional writers will confirm that all writing is rewriting. When writers finish a draft, their work is just starting. Finishing a draft is, in fact, a major achievement, but it is only a stop on the road. Revision literally means “to look again” to re-see and re-think the work you have done. Once you have reviewed it, you may see it in a different light. The first revision you attempt should focus on the overall organization of the paper and how well you addressed the assignment. Solve the most obvious problems first.You may notice some smaller issues as you do so, and it’s fine to stop and correct them, but try to separate the process into at least two parts. In the second part of the revision process, look at the flow of the paper carefully. Find a reader to read the paper for the sole purpose of telling you where she could follow your ideas and where you lost her. Finally, work on the details, or editing the paper. Enlist the help of a specialist if you need it. Even professional writers have difficulty finding their own errors. Work with a peer mentor, or use an online tutoring service like Smart Thinking, that your college may offer.

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7.3 “Standard English Grammar” is “No One’s Mother Tongue.” “Standard English Grammar” refers to the rules and conventions followed in academic writing. Few use this language community in everyday life. The term “Standard English Grammar” is used to describe the speech and writing used in the English-speaking academic language community. Since few use this language in everyday life, it has been described as “no one’s mother tongue,” by French sociologists Jean Claude Passeron Pierre Bordieu and Monique de Saint Martin. If you have mastery over Standard English grammar, you may have little to do in the way of proofreading for simple mistakes and can devote your revision to creating more powerful sentences. If you feel challenged by the conventions of Standard English, it may take you a little more time to brush up on the rules of sentence structure and usage. Unless you see this review as part of developing your personal and professional writing style, you may feel resentful about learning the details.

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All of us carry an English teacher in our minds, a made-up ensemble of all that we have remembered or misremembered from all the language classes we have ever taken, and sometimes that fictional teacher is a stern taskmaster. As good students, we feel compelled to use the rules we have learned or think we’ve learned. However, sometimes misremembered rules and practices prevent us from using an effective sentence structure. Many new writers, for example, believe that you can’t start a sentence with “because,” but no rule exists. Because we misunderstand the rule, we may eliminate an effective sentence pattern from our toolbox. So, it is very important to review the rules and conventions from time to time to avoid misunderstanding them. If you don’t fully understand them, ask your professor or work with a peer mentor on a review.

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7.4 What is “grammar”? Linguists use “grammar” to refer to the unbreakable rules of a language, for example, what makes English English. In Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace, rhetoricians Joseph Williams and William Bizrup remind us that “grammar” is simply a word that describes the structure of language. In “Does Grammar Matter,” linguist Andreea S. Calude describes grammar as “a set of patterns for how words are put together to form phrases or clauses whether spoken or in writing “(00:36). In short, the word “grammar” describes the structures we use that make language make sense. In most languages, a sentence makes sense if it has a subject, a verb, and on many occasions, a direct object: The student turned the page. These words describe an action in the real world. The pattern of this sentence stands for this action in the real world. The student

turned

the page.

Subject

Verb

Direct Object

Noun

Verb

Noun

Actor

Action

Thing acted upon.

Who?

Does what?

To whom or what?

An English sentence needs to clearly and concisely answer the question “who/what does what to whom/what?”

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7.5. Distinguish between real rules, social rules, and invented rules of grammar Real rules are the unbreakable rules of a language: what makes English English. Social rules come from social class conventions: “don’t use ain’t.” Invented rules attempt to control a linguistic practice: “don’t split an infinitive.” Williams and Bizrup define three categories of grammar rules. Real Rules Real rules define what makes English English: ARTICLES must precede nouns: the book, not book the. Speakers born into English don’t think about these rules at all when they write, and violate them only when they are tired or distracted. Social Rules Social rules distinguish Standard English from nonstandard: He doesn’t have any money versus He don’t have no money. Schooled writers observe these rules as naturally as they observe the Real Rules and think about them only when they notice others violating them. The only writers who self-consciously try to follow them are those not born into Standard English and striving to rise into the educated class. Invented Rules Finally, some grammarians have invented a handful of rules that they think we all should observe. These are the rules that the grammar police enforce and that too many educated writers obsess over. Most date from the last half of the eighteenth century: Don’t split infinitives, as in to quietly leave. Don’t end a sentence with a PREPOSITION. A few date from the twentieth century: Don’t use hopefully for I hope, as in Hopefully, it won’t rain. Don’t use which for that, as in a car which I sold. In her TEDEd talk, Colude describes the difference between “prescriptivism” and “descriptivism” in linguistics. In prescriptivism, “consistent rules” are applied to create a “standard format” for language. “Descriptivism” focuses on how people actually use language in real life. Descriptivism is most often applied to spoken language and prescriptivism to written language.

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7.6 “Real Rules” allows writers to create clarity. Following the “real rules” of a language help create clarity, for example, every sentence must have a subject and a verb. As Williams points out, when we use the word grammar to describe a language, there are some rules we can’t violate. He calls these the “real” rules of English grammar. For example, it would not make sense in English to say Turned student page the the The sentence does not make sense because a person who speaks English wouldn’t understand it. So we can safely say that the sentence is ungrammatical: it literally doesn’t make sense.

For speakers of languages other than English: Although most languages, like English, expect the subject to come first and the verb second, many languages use different sentence patterns from English. As you are taking on the challenging and admirable task of learning another language, remember to follow English sentence patterns rather than translate word for word. Even better, try to think in English sentence patterns.

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7.7 We need to understand the reasons behind “social” and “invented” grammar rules. Understanding the reasons behind social and invented rules helps us understand when we can ignore them and when we need to follow them to create credibility. Many times, we apply rules that aren’t really rules because we don’t recognize our ability to shift discourse communities. We know what this sentence means: “And that don’t mean nothin’ no how.” “It means it doesn’t mean a thing.” It belongs to a colloquial language community, and everyone in that community understands what it means. In an academic language community, it violates the language convention of the “double negative” where you can’t use multiple forms of negation in the same sentence, “don’t,” “nothing,” and ‘no how.” But in the colloquial community, this double negative serves as an effective kind of emphasis. So, what works in one language community doesn’t work in another. It’s important to recognize and respect the differences between language communities and recognize when it is appropriate to use each. Can you use “hopefully” in a sentence? Certainly, it is basically grammatical because we all know what it means. But many people feel that it is inappropriate. Williams and Bizup call invented rules like these “grammar police rules” because some teachers rigidly enforce them. If you are uncertain whether or not a professor will object to a certain expression, like “hopefully,” it’s better to avoid that expression as a way of adapting your writing to your audience rather than as blindly following a made-up rule.

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7.8 Social and invented rules define academic writing conventions. The academic language community uses social and invented rules to create writing conventions. As we transition from our community to a professional career, we will encounter many rules and conventions, and most do not apply in all situations. Some guidelines tell writers to avoid the passive voice, for example, and others promote its use. As a developing academic writer, you will need to learn the conventions so that you can make good decisions about when to use them. When deliberately encouraged, “social rules” and ‘invented rules” help create the conventions of academic discourse or language communities. These conventions are learned as students read and write extensively in their field, but we can shorten the time it takes to learn them by examining them more closely. When we follow “rules” because they are long-established conventions of a professional writing community, we become initiated into that community as part of our own professional journey. Academic conventions become habits to writers who have written many papers in their discipline, but they may seem alien to you when you are writing your first academic paper. It takes experience to turn them into habits automatically using the words and phrases of your discipline. So it’s important to pay careful attention to the details of the conventions as you learn to use them so that after your second or third, or fourth paper, they start to become automatic. Sometimes your first draft emerges more easily if you allow yourself to use a conversational tone; it feels more like your own voice. This is perfectly acceptable. Then, as you revise, be sure to create a more professional tone by shifting to more academic language.

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7.8.1 I/you/he/she/it/they: What is “grammatical person?” Most academic writing avoids the second-person pronoun “you” and uses the third-person, “he/she/they” in some cases, the first person “I” is appropriate. Many first drafts of first papers are peppered with the second person pronoun “you.” This is not a grammar error: the sentence makes sense to the reader. Consider the following example: You will avoid procrastination if you find intrinsic motivation. The language is sophisticated and academic, using the words “procrastination,” “intrinsic,” and “motivation.” However, the “you” doesn’t fit for two reasons. First, the writer is addressing the audience directly when academic writing is focused on the subject matter, not the reader. Second, the “you” brings the informal feeling of a conversation rather than the more formal discussion required for academic work. It goes without saying that the very informal conventions of texting, for example using the letter “you” for “you” should always be avoided. So then sentences can be revised to the more academic version: Students are more likely to avoid procrastination if they find intrinsic motivation. The more formal third person, “they,” shifts the focus back to the subject, “how can students achieve success,” and away from the audience. Many students have been told they cannot use first-person, or “I” in their writing because it is “subjective” or too personal a point of view. Avoiding “I” became a hallmark of academic “objective” style. This is a made-up rule, as other scientists and scholars believe that the “I” presents the honest reality of an observation that can only be subjective. So, before you use “I” in a paper, be sure you know where your professor stands in this discussion, and if you don’t know, avoid using I. However, many professors welcome and encourage you to use personal experience, especially when writing about topics like growth mindset and motivation.You should always avoid first-person to call attention to your ideas: “as I mentioned on the first page.” Your name is at the top of the paper, and every idea in it belongs to you.

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Grammatical Person: I/you/he/she/it/they

✅ Students are more likely to avoid

procrastination if they find intrinsic motivation.

❎ You will avoid procrastination if you find intrinsic motivation. ✅ For example, I learned that if I worked harder, I felt better about myself. ❎ In my opinion, I don’t think that growth

Avoid using “you” in academic writing. Use the third person: “he/she/it/they.” The audience is rarely addressed in academic writing. Using the third person puts emphasis on the subject matter.

mindset works for everyone.

Consider using “I” or other forms of the first person carefully. Does the assignment ask you to include personal experience? Do you want to emphasize a personal observation as evidence?

A note on “one.” Americans rarely use this British expression and it can feel overly formal and artificial. So, substituting “one” to eliminate ‘you” in your paper rarely creates a pleasing style.

7.8.2 Make statements rather than ask questions. Although questions may be effectively used to provide a focus for a paper, statements are more effective in moving your argument forward. Clearly stating your research question can help you focus your paper for your audience, and questions can be adeptly used as part of a strong introduction: Does developing a growth mindset help students succeed in college”? But like using “you,” questions can create a more informal, interview like tone, especially when the question contains “you.”

Can you avoid procrastination if you find intrinsic motivation?

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The question combined with “you” makes this sound informal and conversational. Using questions

✅ Does developing a growth mindset help students succeed in college?

❎ Can you do better in college by developing a growth mindset?

The question is posed as a research question. It can be answered by giving reasons explaining “why”: Developing a growth mindset helps students succeed in college because . . . However, consider the statement as a more effective thesis statement than the question. The question is informal and addressed to the audience rather than stating a central claim in the paper.

7.8.3 Use academic naming conventions. Academic writing has long-standing traditions about using the names of scholars and researchers: Use the full name at first mention, and add information about the author to emphasize credibility. After the first mention, use only the last name. Review presentation: Academic naming conventions Academic writing has a long-establish tradition for incorporating names. The first time an author’s name is used, we use the full name and a title that establishes the author’s credibility. By establishing the author’s credibility, we help establish our own. Using the name and title at the first mention helps the reader understand the context of the academic conversation we are entering. However, after the first mention, we use the last name only and never the first name by itself. Academic writers rarely use titles like Mr. or Dr. Academic Naming Conventions Stanford psychologist Carol Dweck argues that At the first mention, the writer uses the augrowth mindset helps students succeed. thor’s full name and title to establish credibility. In Dweck’s words, “in our society, we seem to At second and subsequent mentions, only the worship talent.” last name is used.

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7.9 It’s simple to understand the basic structure of a clause and a sentence. A basic clause consists of a subject and a verb. A sentence is a clause with a capital letter and a period. Review presentation: Joining Clauses Everyone remembers the rule from elementary school: a sentence must have a subject and a verb. It must answer the question who or what does what, a doer and an action. A clause is the combination of a subject and a verb. It helps to think of the clause as the prototype of the sentence, not the sentence itself, because a sentence may contain multiple clauses. The simplest clause consists of only a subject and a verb. she studies A clause becomes a sentence once it is written down and punctuated. She studies. This simple rule is the source of one of the most common proofreading issues. Writers rush drafts for many reasons—they haven’t left enough time to write and review or are caught up in their ideas. Of course, they know the simple rule—everyone does. But rushing generates careless errors, which diminish the presentation of self. Sentences without capital letters or periods damage your credibility. Following punctuation rules correctly is essential for the professional presentation of your work. While a misplaced comma or an error in capitalization in itself is insignificant, an accumulation of errors reveals a writer who doesn’t care about the presentation of her work. The reader may conclude that if the writer doesn’t care about details, the content of the paper may be less than trustworthy. So paying attention to details builds your credibility in the eyes of the reader.

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7.9.1 For a more sophisticated academic style, use compound and complex sentences effectively. Join clauses to create compound and complex sentences in order to vary your sentence lengths and patterns. If a writer used only simple sentences with subjects and verbs, his style would be boring indeed. So it’s important to understand how to correctly join clauses in order to vary sentence lengths and patterns, the hallmark of a sophisticated academic style. Establishing logical connections between your clauses shows that you can think clearly. This means you need to know how to use coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions adeptly, and transition words to establish these logical relationships between your clauses.

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These coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and transition words help create the structure of your argument in your entire paper. As long as you are joining complete sentences, you may choose whatever conjunctions or transition words you think are most effective.

Students who develop a growth mindset are more likely to become successful; they see failure as information.

Use a semi-colon to join two clauses if the reader can easily connect the first clause to the second.

Students who develop a growth mindset are more likely to become successful, for they see failure as information.

Use a coordinating conjunction to loosely connect the two clauses. A comma always precedes a coordinating conjunction.

Students who develop a growth mindset are more likely to become successful; consequently, they see failure as information.

Use a transition word to emphasize logical connection between the two clauses. The semi-colon joints the two clauses, the transition word shows the logical relationship. The transition word is always followed by a comma.

Students who develop a growth mindset are more likely to become successful because they see failure as information.

The subordinating conjunction because establishes a logical relationship. Whenever a subordinating conjunction like “because” is in the middle of the sentence, you do not need to use a comma.

Because they see failure as information, students who develop a growth mindset are more likely to become successful.

The subordinating conjunction because establishes a logical relationship. Whenever a subordinating conjunction like” is at the beginning of the sentence, you need to use a comma at the end of the clause to show it is an introductory element. .

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7.9.2 The three most common errors, sentence fragments, comma splices and run-on sentences, result from misunderstanding how to combine clauses. Three of the most common errors come from misunderstanding the rules for joining clauses. Sentence fragments, comma splices, and run-on sentences are three of the most common sentence errors, and three of the most often misunderstood. Inexperienced writers make these errors because they misunderstand the rules for joining clauses. If a sentence doesn’t have a subject and a verb, it is called a fragment because it is not a complete sentence. If a writer uses a comma to join two clauses, he creates a comma splice rather than a sold connection, so it is in danger of breaking like a badly spliced rope. Some writers use the term “run-on sentence” to describe any long, out of control sentence, but it has a more exact meaning. When a writer fails to use any punctuation to join two clauses, she creates a “run-on” where one clause runs into the next.

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Sentence Issue

Sentence Fragment

Example

❎ Developing growth mind creating success.

❎ Developing a growth mindset Comma Splice

Run-on Sentence

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helps students become successful, they see failure as information.

❎ Developing a growth mindset helps students become successful, they see failure as information.

Revision and Rule

✅ Developing a growth mindset

contributes to student success.

A complete sentence must contain a subject and a verb.

✅ Developing a growth mindset

helps students become successful; they see failure as information. (semi-colon)

Two clauses with subjects and verbs must be joined by a conjunction or a semi-colon.

✅ Developing a growth mindset

helps students become successful because they see failure as information. (subordinating conjunction)

Two clauses with subjects and verbs must be joined by a conjunction or a semi-colon.

7.10 Keep your verb tenses consistent. The most common verb tenses in academic writing are simple past, simple present, and past perfect. Be sure to keep your verb tenses consistent. Most academic papers are written in the present tense with occasional shifts to past or past perfect. Use the simple present with signal phrases and sentences which advance your own argument. Use the simple past or the past perfect to report research and other evidence. If you are writing a paper about literature, use the present tense, as MLA guidelines suggest. Verb Tense Simple Present Simple Present

Csikszentmihalyi explains that a flow state heightens creativity.

Use Signal phrase to introduce a quotation.

Growth mindset may have limitations, especially A sentence which advances your when other factors such as poverty are considered. own argument.

Simple Past

Researchers at Washington University reported that punishments motivate more effectively than rewards.

Completed research reported as evidence.

Past Perfect

Some studies have shown that children who develop a growth mindset become smarter (Dweck).

Completed research reported as evidence.

When you are proofreading your paper, be sure to check to see that the verb tenses are consistent. One problem occurs because when we speak, we don’t always hear the -ed of the past tense ending. Our ears sometimes hear “I walk” for “I walked. So it’s easy to drop the ending without noticing. Some languages don’t use tenses, and if you are a bilingual, you may not see the notice the verb tense inflection. It helps to read the paper aloud when you proofread to make sure all of the verbs are in the same tense.

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7.11 Create an effective personal academic style by paying attention to sentence patterns and word choice. Style refers to the writer’s choice of words and sentence structures.

To understand style in writing, first think about style in fashion. The clothes we wear are part of our “presentation of self in everyday life”—they express who we are. The words and sentence structures we choose in our writing do the same thing. In fact, the style created by the choice of words and sentence structures is so individual that it can be used in court testimony.Your style has its roots in your family, your community, your languages and dialects, your education, including everything you have ever read. We adjust our style to the audience we want to address. Just as you wouldn’t wear trendy jeans and a tee-shirt to most job interviews, you will need to adjust your style to the demands of an academic audience. Academic writing calls for a clear, direct, plain style. The objective is to communicate information about the subject matter clearly, precisely, and concisely. Diving Deeper: Elements of style

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7.11.1 Concision

The most meaning in the fewest words

7.11.2 Precision

Choosing the exact word

7.11.3 Metalanguage

Language that explains the writer’s actions

7.11.1 Be concise: create the most meaning in the fewest words. Make your style stronger by eliminating wasted words as you revise. Concision The best writing has the most meaning in the fewest words. An important part of the revision process is eliminating wasted words or words that don’t carry their weight. Sometimes, when you are struggling to meet a page requirement, it may seem painful to cut out extra words, but eliminating any words that aren’t essential to your meaning makes your writing clear, crisp, and clean. Most importantly, it makes your writing accessible to your reader. There is a stereotype that the millennial generation is lazy. In this ten-word sentence, “there is” are wasted words. The word “stereotype” contains a buried verb, as “stereotype” can be used as a noun or a verb. If we ask the question “who does what to whom or what,” we can find a subject, “some.” It’s obvious that “millennials” are a generation, so we can omit “generation” as well. Some stereotype millennials as lazy. This five-word sentence is clearer, as the reader immediately can identify the subject or the “who.” Using two words when one will do also wastes words. For example, doubling words for emphasis also wastes words as does using a meaningless adjective:

❎ First and foremost ❎ A terrible tragedy

In the first example, one word, “first” will suffice.” In the second, we can eliminate “terrible” since a tragedy is always “terrible” by definition. Writers new to college writing often use extra words as they are trying to learn academic naming conventions and signal phrases. Academic naming conventions are time-worn phrases that use the fewest words possible to accomplish the task:

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✅ In “Gold Star Junkies,” educator Theodore Ruezel argues that . . . This convention needs no extra words.

❎ In the article “Gold Star Junkies” the author educator Theodore Ruezel states

Quotation marks rather than italics tell us that the title is an article rather than a book, and “author” is imprecise as a tag. Again, less is more.

7.11.2 Be concise: create the most meaning in the fewest words. Take time to be sure you have used the most accurate and effective words in your revision.

The best writing also uses the most exact words the writer can think of. For apprentice writers, this is often a two-part process. Reading widely and using metacognitive strategies builds vocabulary, and taking the time to consider the precise meaning of words adds depth to your meaning. “Precise” means that you choose exactly the right word to communicate your ideas. It’s important to understand the connotations of words, what they suggest, imply or evoke in order to choose the right word. Some warnings: When you are writing a draft, considering the precise meaning of each word can create a block. Write the draft out quickly so that you can catch the flow of your ideas. If you can’t think of the precise word, use a dash or xxxx to substitute for it. As you revise, review your research and texts to find a more precise vocabulary. Your word processing program has a built-in thesaurus or synonym finder. This can be a useful tool to review a possible word choice. But again, remember the importance of connotations because words simply can’t be plugged in as substitutes. The meaning must fit the idea and the sentence.

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7.11.3 Is metalanguage essential or unnecessary? Use effective metalanguage like transition words: “first… therefore… however.” Eliminate unnecessary and ineffective metalanguage: “In this paper, I am going to show that.” Metalanguage is language that explicitly explains the structure of an essay to the reader. It is always aimed at the audience. Some metalanguage is essential to create a cohesive experience for your audience. For example, argument indicators, sometimes called transition words, like first, second, moreover, consequently give the reader important cues about the relationship between the ideas in your paper. However, other metalanguage serves no purpose:

❎ In this paper, I am going to tell you . . . ❎ This is the subject I am writing about ❎ As I previously said

These are wasted words, words that have no purpose in your paper. They may be words an inexperienced writer needs to get ideas started in a freewriting: “in my paper, I’m going to talk about the importance of time management skills to control procrastination.” In a freewriting, you can mumble all you want. That’s the point of a freewriting. The idea is to relax and let the words come out any way they can, so you can review your thoughts. But as you revise, be sure to eliminate metalanguage that doesn’t carry its weight. Your goal is to put the most meaning into the fewest words so your reader can follow your thoughts easily. When introducing quotations, be sure to use signal phrases to smoothly introduce quotations and avoid metalanguage Signal Phrases

✅ In “Gold Star Junkies,” educator Theodore Ruezel argues that “rewards seem to undermine thoughtful, creative classroom practice.” ✅ In Ruenzel’s words, “rewards seem to undermine thoughtful, creative classroom practice.”

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Strangely enough, we avoid using the word “quotation” or quote in academic writing. Avoid expressions like

❎ In this quotation Ruezel says ❎ Now let’s discuss Ruezel’s words ❎ This quote explains that

While these writers are documenting their quotation, they miss the academic tone needed to present the paper professionally. Each needs to be revised using an appropriate signal phrase.

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7.12 Correct punctuation matters. In academic writing punctuation rules must be followed carefully to polish a professional presentation. “Let’s eat kids. Let’s eat, kids. Punctuation saves lives.” Most of us have seen this meme demonstrating that punctuation must be correctly used to create clarity of meaning. Few things are more misunderstood than correct punctuation in academic writing, where rules must be followed carefully to polish a professional presentation. Many students overcomplicate the rules for punctuation. Deciding on the correct punctuation may also be confusing because not all writers feel compelled to follow the “rules” in the same way. In more informal speech communities, such as those used in fiction or personal essays, writers may deliberately violate rules for effect. The most important rules and the most misunderstood involve the punctuation of clauses.

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7.12.1 Why is there so much talk about three tiny punctuation marks: apostrophes, semicolons, and Oxford commas? These three tiny punctuation marks are important in building strong credibility because professional writers value their correct use. Building your ethos as you present yourself on paper (or a computer screen) sometimes comes down to the tiniest details. A misplaced apostrophe makes some readers unconsciously judge your abilities as a writer and thinker. However, a masterfully placed semi-colon joining two coordinate clauses may bring admiration, and using the Oxford comma correctly draws attention to your precision. Certainly, these details won’t distract from a paper that is well-constructed and well-thought out, but they are important in building a strong credibility because professional writers value their correct use.

7.12.2 Pay careful attention to the apostrophe and it’s/its. Apostrophes are used most frequently to show possession or to create contractions. Be sure you understand the counterintuitive problem of “it’s” vs. “its.” In this one case, “It’s” is the contraction for “it is,” and “its” without the apostrophe is possessive. The rules for apostrophes can be annoying. Apostrophes are used most frequently to show possession or to create contractions. However, contractions are discouraged in most formal academic writing. Educator Laura McClure explains the annoying apostrophe in her TEDEd lesson, “When to Use Apostrophes,” especially the counterintuitive problem of “it’s” vs. “its.” In this one case,” it’s” is the contraction for “it is“and “its” without the apostrophe is the possessive. This is worth memorizing.

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7.12.3 Semicolons are an effective way to join clauses. Although they are sometimes used to punctuate long elements in a series, the most common use is to separate two complete clauses, taking the place of a coordinating conjunction and a comma. Review the presentation Joining Clauses for a review of how to combine clauses with a semi-colon. Kurt Vonnegut said of the semi-colon, “All they do is show you’ve been to college”(qtd. In Mohr). However, many college writers are afraid of semi-colons, but mastering them is easy. Although they are sometimes used to punctuate long elements in a series, the most common use is to separate two complete clauses, taking the place of a coordinating conjunction and a comma.

7.12.4 “The Oxford Comma” needed in a series? Clearly, some commas create greater clarity in the sentence. But are too many commas distracting to the reader? And how does a beginning student decide which style of punctuation to use? The most practical advice is to use the Oxford comma. “Bob, a DJ and a clown” or “Bob, a DJ, and a clown” are coming to a party—the second example uses an Oxford comma, or an extra comma to show the relationship between the items in a series, according to educators Jessica Ruby and Alex Gendler in their TEDEd lesson, “Grammar’s Great Divide: The Oxford 349

Comma.” The Oxford comma is a great demonstration that experts disagree about conventions of punctuation. Those on one side argue that the meaning is clear without the extra comma, and three separate people are coming to a party; the other side insists, that Bob may be both a DJ and a clown, and only one person is coming to the party. In “Ending the Oxford Comma Debate: It’s time to accept that the Oxford comma is more modern and uniformly helpful,” science writer Kent Anderson defends the use of the Oxford comma because it provides the reader with more clarity. This situation provides us with a great example of social and invented rules. Clearly, some commas create greater clarity in the sentence. But are too many commas distracting to the reader? And how does a beginning student decided which style of punctuation to use? The most practical advice is to use the Oxford comma unless you are writing in a less formal situation. As always, check with your professors to see where they stand on the great debate over a tiny punctuation mark.

7.13 Look at the bigger picture: coherence and cohesion Coherence and cohesion describe how to make your work feel like a “whole” piece of writing.

Review this online lecture on Coherence and Cohesion/Active Passive Voice. “Coherence” and “Cohesion,” two words that sound similar, refer to two slightly different concepts. Let’s break the words down. We all know that “adhesive” tape sticks to something, and it comes from the Latin ad- for “to” and -hesive for “stick.” Adhesive tape sticks to something. We know the prefix co- from 350

words like “co-worker,” or someone we work “with.” So both cohesion and coherence mean “to stick together with itself.” In writing, they mean that our essay feels like a whole rather than a collection of parts. It makes sense to the reader.

7.13.1 1 “Coherence” describes how all of the pieces of the puzzle fit together. Coherence refers to how all sentences in a passage begin. Using key words as subjects of sentences is the secret to coherence. Often the most useful information a peer reviewer can provide is a sense of how well the sentences of the paper flow together to create a whole. “I can follow you here. Good. I got this. Wait.You lost me here when you jumped to a new topic.” The reviewer doesn’t need any particular training in grammar and style; she can simply describe his experience as a reader. This lets the writer know that perhaps he has left a sentence out. Since the writer was familiar with the topic, he may have made connections that a reader unfamiliar with the topic could not follow. We use the word coherence to describe the “flow” in a piece of writing. The audience first notices coherence or the flow of the writing because a reader can only make sense of writing that is clear and coherent. Readers can’t guess what is in the writer’s mind: writers must work hard to ensure that readers can follow their ideas. Coherence depends on topic strings, as Williams and Bizup point out. James Jeans, a British physicist, originally wrote this piece, “Why the Sky is Blue” for a public radio show. He creates coherence by repeating the key word, “wave,” throughout the paragraph.

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Imagine that we stand on an ordinary seaside pier and watch the waves rolling in and striking against the iron columns of the pier. Large waves pay very little attention to the columns—they divide right and left and reunite after passing each column, much as a regiment of soldiers would if a tree stood in their road; it is almost as though the column had not been there. But the short waves and ripples find the columns of the pier a much formidable obstacle. When the short waves impinge on the columns, they are reflected back and spread as new ripples in all directions. To use the technical term, they are ‘scattered.’ The obstacle provided by the iron columns hardly affects the long waves at all, but scatters the short ripples.

Here, Jeans makes complex idea, how light waves work, seem simple and accessible because he uses the same word, “waves” frequently in the paragraph, often as the subject of each clause:

We watch … the waves rolling in . . . large waves pay very little attention to the columns— they divide right and left and reunite after passing each column But the short waves and ripples find the columns of the pier a much formidable obstacle. When the short waves impinge on the columns, they are reflected back and spread as new ripples in all directions. To use the technical term, they are ‘scattered.’ The obstacle provided by the iron columns hardly affects the long waves at all, but scatters the short ripples.

Key words and coherence Williams and Bizrup recommend that before you start to write an essay or a paragraph, that you identify the most important key word or words and repeat them strategically throughout your paragraph. This will create a strong sense of coherence.

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7.13.2 2 “Cohesion” describes how one puzzle piece fits into the next. Sometimes using the passive voice helps create stronger cohesion. Cohesion is the sense of flow in a piece of writing. We look at how one sentence ends and the next begins to determine whether or not a paragraph is cohesive. Cohesion describes how your reader experiences the essay. Does it jump from point to point, from sentence to sentence without apparent reason, or does one sentence move smoothly into the next, creating a sense of flow for the reader? As with coherence, It’s easy to test cohesion by enlisting a peer to give you feedback: “I can follow you until this point, but you lost me here.” A peer can find the places where your mind skipped a connection, either because you thought the connection was too obvious, or you hadn’t made it yourself.You can then add a sentence to bridge the gap. As in creating coherence, specific sentence structures can help you create a smoother flow in the paper. One such sentence structure is the passive voice. Passive voice is frequently misunderstood. In his classic essay, “Politics and the English Language,” George Orwell instructs us “never use the passive when the active will do, and in general, that is good advice. But there are moments when the active won’t do, and one of those moments is in creating cohesion.

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Active

She turned the page.

The subject and the agent of the action are the same.

Passive

The page was turned (by her.)

The subject of the original active voice sentence is placed in a prepositional phrase, “by her.” “Was” is added to the verb.

The page was turned.

“Was” is added to the verb. The prepositional phrase and the agent are omitted.

Agentless Passive

7.13.3 Using the passive voice to create cohesion Grammatical voice—active voice and passive voice—can be a confusion concept, but it is easier to understand if you think of it in terms of agent and actor.

In The Pale Blue Dot, astronomer Carl Sagan uses the repetition of key words and the passive voice to create cohesion between his sentence. Notice how he uses synonyms, “point of pale light,” “our planet,” as part of this pattern of repetition. 354

Our posturing, our imagined self-importance, the delusion that we have some privileged position in the Universe, are challenged by this point of pale light. Our planet is a lonely speck in the great enveloping cosmic dark. In our obscurity, in all this vastness, there is no hint that help will come from elsewhere to save us from ourselves

Notice that “this point of pale blue light,” meaning “Earth,” is the last word in the first sentence, and a synonym, “Our planet,” is the first word in the second sentence. This is the “glue” that creates the cohesion between the two sentences.

7.13.4 Create larger patterns of coherence and cohesion with parallel structure. Larger patterns of repetition like parallel structure help create coherence and cohesion on a bigger scale. Any of the logical patterns used for clauses can help create coherence throughout the essay. Planned repetition of any sort helps your paper “stick together with itself” by creating cohesion and coherence. For example, echoing a sentence from the first paragraph in the last paragraph gives the reader closure, a sense that the essay is complete. Patterns of repetition in sentences create parallel structure, as Lincoln did in The Gettysburg Address

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But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate — we can not consecrate — we can not hallow — this ground.The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract.The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

As you listen to the spoken Gettysburg Address, notice the effect of the patterns of repetition.

7.13.5 Create larger patterns of cohesion and coherence with transition words. Transition words help guide your reader through your ideas. Transition words used as metalanguage can guide your reader through the development of your ideas. Transition words leave a trail of breadcrumbs to guide the reader through the development of your ideas. Don’t ask your reader to guess what’s in your mind. Instead, signal your intentions: I am going to add an idea: furthermore or moreover. I am going to change ideas: however or on the other hand. I am going to give an example: for example or in this case. 356

Title Introduction

EVIDENCE For example, In this case

Alternative point of view (may be part of introduction or placed strategically)

Argument markers:

EVIDENCE

However,

For example,

On the other hand,

In this case

On the contrary, Thesis/claim markers: Therefore So Reason markers Because Since For these reasons

BECAUSE Reason 1 (Generalization) May be restated in other words.

Reason markers:

EVIDENCE

First,

For example,

Firstly,

In this case

BECAUSE Reason 2 (Generalization) May be restated in other words.

Reason markers: Second,

EVIDENCE

Secondly Furthermore,

For example, In this case

Moreover, In addition,

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BECAUSE Reason 3 (Generalization) May be restated in other words.

Reason markers:

EVIDENCE

Finally,

For example,

THEREFORE Main idea/ claim/thesis/conclusion

Conclusion markers: Therefore, thus, hence, consequently, so

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In this case

Module 7 Review 7.1 Details are important to your audience. Paying attention to details builds your credibility in the eyes of your audience. 7.2 Pay attention to details in your first revision. A first draft is only a first step. Professional writers agree that “all writing is rewriting.” 7.3 “Standard English Grammar” is “No One’s Mother Tongue.” “Standard English Grammar” refers to the rules and conventions followed in academic writing. Few use this language community in everyday life. 7.4 What is “grammar”? Linguists use “grammar” to refer the unbreakable rules of a language, for example, what makes English English. 7.5 Distinguish between real rules, social rules, and invented rules of grammar. Real rules are the unbreakable rules of a language: what makes English English. Social rules come from social class conventions: “don’t use ain’t.” Invented rules attempt to control a linguistic practice: “don’t split an infinitive.” 7.6.“Real Rules” allows writers to create clarity. Following the “real rules” of a language help create clarity, for example, every sentence must have a subject and a verb. 7.7 We need to understand the reasons behind “social” and “invented” grammar rules. Understanding the reasons behind social and invented rules helps us understand when we can ignore them and when we need to follow them to create credibility.

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7.8 Social and invented rules define academic writing conventions. The academic language community uses social and invented rules to create writing conventions. 7.8.1 I/you/he/she/it/they: What is “grammatical person?”: Most academic writing avoids the second person pronoun “you” and uses the third person, “he/she/ it/they.” In some cases, the first person “I” is appropriate. 7.8.2 Make statements rather than ask questions. Although questions may be effectively used to provide a focus for a paper, statements are more effective in moving your argument forward. 7.8.3 Use academic naming conventions. Academic writing has long standing traditions about using the names of scholars and researchers: Use the full name at first mention, and add information about the author to emphasize credibility. After the first mention, use only the last name. 7.9 It’s simple to understand the basic structure of a clause and a sentence. A basic clause consists of a subject and a verb. A sentence is a clause with a capital letter and a period. 7.9.1 For a more sophisticated academic style, use compound and complex sentences effectively. Join clauses to create compound and complex sentences in order to vary your sentence lengths and patterns. 7.9.2 The three most common errors, sentence fragments, comma splices and run-on sentences, result from misunderstanding how to combine clauses. Three of the most common errors come from misunderstanding the rules for joining clauses. 7.10 Keep your verb tenses consistent. The most common verb tenses in academic writing are simple past, simple present, and past perfect. Be sure to keep your verb tenses consistent.

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7.11 Create an effective personal academic style by paying attention to sentence patterns and word choice. Style refers to the writer’s choice of words and sentence structures. 7.11.1 Be concise: create the most meaning in the fewest words Make your style stronger by eliminating wasted words as you revise. 7.11.2 Be precise: use exactly the right word. Take time to be sure you have used the most accurate and effective words in your revision. 7.11.3 Is metalanguage essential or unnecessary? Use effective metalanguage like transition words: “first . . . therefore . . . however.” Eliminate unnecessary and ineffective metalanguage: “in this paper I am going to show that.” 7.12 Correct punctuation matters. In academic writing punctuation rules must be followed carefully to polish a professional presentation. 7.12.1 Why is there so much talk about three tiny punctuation marks: apostrophes, semicolons, and Oxford commas? These three tiny punctuation marks are important in building a strong credibility because professional writers value their correct use. 7.12.2 Pay careful attention to the apostrophe and it’s/its. Apostrophes are used most frequently to show possession or to create contractions Be sure you understand the counterintuitive problem of “it’s” vs. “its.” In this one case,” it’s” is the contraction for “it is“ and “its” without the apostrophe is the possessive. 7.12.3 Semicolons are an effective way to join clauses. Although they are sometimes used to punctuate long elements in a series, the most common use is to separate two complete clauses, taking the place of a coordinating conjunction and a comma.

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7.12.4 Is “The Oxford Comma” needed in a series? Clearly, some commas create greater clarity in the sentence. But are too many commas distracting to the reader? And how does a beginning student decided which style of punctuation to use? The most practical advice is to use the Oxford comma. 7.13 Look at the bigger picture: coherence and cohesion Coherence and cohesion describe how to make your work feel like a “whole” piece of writing. 7.13.1 “Coherence” describes how all of the pieces of the puzzle fit together. Coherence refers to how all sentences in a passage begin. Using key words as subjects of sentences is the secret to coherence. 7.13.2 “Cohesion” describes how one puzzle piece fits into the next. Cohesion refers to how one sentence ends and the next begins. Repeating words or synonyms at the end of the first sentence and the beginning of the second is the key to cohesion. 7.13.3 Use the passive voice to create cohesion. Sometimes using the passive voice helps create stronger cohesion. 7.13.4 Create larger patterns of coherence and cohesion with parallel structure. Larger patterns of repetition like parallel structure help create coherence and cohesion on a bigger scale. 7.13.5 Create larger patterns of cohesion and coherence with transition words. Transition words help guide your reader through your ideas.

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Glossary Academic conventions are practices or habits that writers use only in academic writing, like using only an author’s last name after first mention. Active voice/passive voice Voice refers to whether the subject of the sentence is an actor or is acted upon, for example, “She turned the page” is active voice. “The page was turned (by her) is passive voice. Audience refers to the intended readers or listeners of a piece of writing or speech. Front stage behavior is a term used by sociologist Erving Goffman in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. It refers to public rather than private behavior. Clause A clause is comprised of a subject and a verb or a subject, a verb and a direct object: she turned the page. It becomes a sentence when a capital letter and a period are added. Coherence A coherent paper makes sense as a whole. A good way to create coherence in a paragraph is to use key words as the subjects of many sentences. Cohesion depends on how one sentence ends and how the next begins. Repeating a word or synonym at the end of one sentence and the beginning of the next creates cohesion. Comma splice is created when a comma rather than a coordinating conjunction, subordinating conjunction, or a semi-colon is used to join sentences. Concision Being concise means to eliminate words that don’t carry their weight in a sentence. The best writing has the most meaning in the fewest words. Coordinating Conjunction, or the FANBOYS conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, yet and so. Credibility or ethos Credible writers establish the belief that their writing is trustworthy. They create a strong ethos, an important rhetorical appeal. Direct object receives the action in a sentence or clause: she turned the page Edit means to review a piece of writing in order to make changes to prepare it for submission. Editorial changes at the sentence level are called copy editing. Proofreading is another term for marking small errors. Ethos or credibility Credible writers establish the belief that their writing is trustworthy. They create a strong ethos, an important rhetorical appeal. Grammar According to linguists, grammar is the set of rules which govern the structure of a language. English grammar is the set of rules that defines the way the English language works. 363

Grammatical person (pronouns) First person, I. Second person, you. Third person, he, she, it. Plural: first person, we. Second person, you, third person, they. Invented rules of grammar Rhetorician Joseph Williams calls rules that do not define English structure “invented rules,” like the prohibition against using “hopefully.” Metalanguage is language which guides the reader through an essay. Some metalanguage, words like, first, finally, therefore, however, is needed; other metalanguage can be edited out: “I am going to tell you about . . .” Objective (subjective) In most cases, the first-person pronoun I is thought to be subjective and the third person pronouns, he, she, it, and they objective. Some scientists and social scientists argue that the first person is the only truly objective pronoun since it is used to report direct observation. Parallel Structure describes a pattern of repetition of grammatical structures that create coherence in an essay: “of the people, by the people, for the people.” Precision refers to choosing the best word for a sentence after considering its denotations and connotations. “Presentation of self ” is a term from sociologist Erving Goffman which describes the how we interact with others in public contexts. Proofreading means to carefully review a text in order to correct small errors in grammar, capitalization, and punctuation. Professional formatting refers to a manuscript submission style required by professional organizations like the Modern Language Association (MLA), the American Psychological Association (APA), the Council of Science Editors (CSE), and The University of Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago). Punctuation Marks like periods, semi-colons and commas used to separate elements of sentences and clarify meaning. Real rules of grammar According to rhetorician Joseph Williams, “real rules” are the set of rules which govern the structure of a language Revision/revise Revision means to “look again” at a piece of writing and rewrite it to better communicate with an audience. Rhetorical appeals: pathos, ethos, logos The rhetorical appeals describe how a writer tries to persuade an audience, using emotion, credibility or reasoning. Sentence Like a clause, a complete sentence must have a subject and a verb. A clause becomes a sentence by adding a capital letter and a period.

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Sentence fragment. A fragment is an incomplete sentence that is missing a subject or a verb. Signal phrase A signal phrase is a phrase which marks words or paraphrase taken from another writer, for example, “in her words,” or “he explains.” Simple past tense The form of a verb that designates the action occurred in the past: “She turned the page.” Simple present tense The form of a verb that designates the action occurred in the present: “She turns the page.” Social rules of grammar According to rhetorician Joseph Williams, the social rules of grammar are rules which describe language according to social class, for example, the use of “ain’t.” Standard English Grammar is a phrase often applied to the most formal English language community. It demands that the conventional rules of English set forth in academic handbooks should be followed closely. It is the grammar used in academic language communities. Style refers to a writer’s choice of words and sentence structures. Strong academic styles are clear, precise, concise, coherent, and cohesive. Subjective (objective) In most cases, the first-person pronoun I is thought to be subjective and the third person pronouns, he, she, it, and they objective. Some scientists and social scientists argue that the first person is the only truly objective pronoun since it is used to report direct observation. Subject The part of a clause or sentence that shows the agent of the action: she turned the page. Transition Word A word which indicates a logical connection between ideas and helps establish coherence in an essay: first, therefore, however, moreover, for example. Verb The part of a clause or sentence that shows the action: she turned the page.

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Works Cited Anderson, Kent. “Ending the Oxford Comma Debate: It’s Time to Accept that the Oxford Comma is More Modern and Uniformly Helpful.” The Geyser - Hot Takes & Deep Thinking on the Info Economy. June 15, 2020. https://thegeyser.substack.com/p/ lets-end-the-oxford-comma-debate?token=eyJ1c2VyX2lkIjoxMTA0NDgzLCJwb3N0X2lkIjo1NTQyMzgsIl8iOiJFSHZmNSIsImlhdCI6MTU5MjMyMzExMSwiZXhwIjoxNTkyMzI2NzExLCJpc3MiOiJwdWItMzM0NCIsInN1YiI6InBvc3QtcmVhY3Rpb24ifQ. LUyEPdwNnYKXwBA2lF1lv37YzrmBAtlHJLriWh9zXs&fbclid=IwAR18s0JFwVYu6v38DFTHiE2K5HWvdMcQUAEeU3pIxIU6PyaY386zlXFT6Mw Bordieu, Pierre, Jean-Claude Passeron, and Monique de Saint-Martin, Academic Discourse, Stanford UP, 1994. Calude, Andreea S. “Does Grammar Matter?” TEDEd Animation. N.D. Accessed 21 June 2020 https:// ed.ted.com/lessons/does-grammar-matter-andreea-s-calude#watch Dweck, Carol. “The Power of Believing That You Can Improve.” TED, TEDxNorrkoping , Nov. 2014, www.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve/discussion?language=en. “Chapter 22 ‘Social Interaction.’” Introduction to Sociology, by William Little, BC Campus, 2016, opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology2ndedition/chapter/chapter-22-social-interaction/. Modern Language Association. The MLA Style Center, 2020, style.mla.org/?_ ga=2.203449872.1241027230.1592512417-1961650065.1591543505. Mohr, Melissa. “Getting the Skinny on the Semi-colon.” The Christian Science Monitor. September 12, 2019. June 22, 2020. https://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/In-a-Word/2019/0912/Getting-the-skinny-on-the-semicolon Mohr, Melissa. “Semi-colons Part 2: When to Use Them .” The Christian Science Monitor. September 19, 2019. June 22, 2020. https://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/In-a-Word/2019/0919/Semicolons-Part2-When-to-use-them Neel, Marlee. “The Case against Good and Bad.” TEDEd Animation. N.D. Accessed 21 June 2020 https:// ed.ted.com/lessons/the-case-against-good-and-bad Purdue Writing Lab. “MLA Style Introduction // Purdue Writing Lab.” Purdue Writing Lab, owl.purdue.edu/ owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_style_introduction.html.MLA Ruby, Jessica and Alex Gendler. “Grammar’s Great Divide: The Oxford Comma.” TEDEd Animation. N.D.

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Accessed 21 June 2020. https://ed.ted.com/lessons/grammar-s-great-divide-the-oxford-comma-ted-ed “The Gettysburg Address” The Civil War. PBS April 03, 2011. https://www.pbs.org/video/the-civil-war-thecivil-war-the-gettysburg-address/ “A Pale Blue Dot.” The Planetary Society Blog/ N.D. Accessed 21 June 2020. www.planetary.org/explore/ space-topics/earth/pale-blue-dot.html. Warburton., Nigel, and Stephen Fry. “A History of Ideas, Philosopher Jules Evans on Jung and the Mind, Erving Goffman and The Performed Self.” BBC Radio 4, BBC, 13 Apr. 2015, www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p02p1sqt. Williams, Joseph M., and Joseph Bizup. Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace. Pearson, 2017.

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MODULE 7 ASSIGNMENTS: BUILD A LONGER PAPER ON THE FOUNDATION OF WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW 1.

Reading Assignment

7.7 We need to understand the reasons behind “social” and “invented” grammar rules

2.

Reading Assignment

7.8 Social and invented rules define academic writing conventions.

3.

Reading Assignment

7.8.1 I/you/he/she/it/they: What is “grammatical person?”:

4.

Reading Assignment

7.8.2 Make statements rather than ask questions.

5.

Reading Assignment

6.

Reading Assignment

7.

Research Log 7.2

7.8.3 The correct use of academic naming conventions increases your credibility. 7.9 It’s simple to understand the basics of a clause and a sentence. Complete a research log on the presentation Joining Clauses. Record any questions you have in the right column. Note where you could find answers to these questions: reliable websites, the student success center, a tutor, or professor. How much of the information about joining clauses do you remember

8.

Reflect 7.3

Reading Assignment

9.

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from previous classes? As you worked through the presentation, were you unsure of any of the rules or were they obvious to you? Do you feel confident in your ability to punctuate clauses correctly? 7.9.1 For a more sophisticated academic style, use compound and complex sentences effectively.

10.

Reflect 7.4

11.

Reading Assignment

In writing academic papers, students need to demonstrate the ability to think logically. To do so, you need to understand how to use subordinate conjunctions and clauses. The subordinating conjunction because is especially important because it connects reasons to claims. After reviewing the Joining Clauses presentation, note any questions and concerns you may have about using subordinate clauses. 7.9.2 The three most common errors, sentence fragments, comma splices and run-on sentences, result from misunderstanding how to combine clauses. Review the comments from your online-tutor and your professor. Do any of these common errors appear? Reflect on whether you made the errors because you rushed writing your paper or because you felt challenged by the punctuation rules. How would you resolve the issue?

12.

Reflect 7.5

13.

Reading Assignment

7.10 Keep your verb tenses consistent.

14.

Reading Assignment

7.11 Create an effective personal academic style by paying attention to sentence patterns and word choice.

15.

Reading Assignment

7.11.1 Be concise: create the most meaning in the fewest words

16.

Reading Assignment

7.11.2 Be precise: use exactly the right word.

17.

Reading Assignment

7.11.3 Is metalanguage essential or unnecessary?

18.

Research Log 7.3

Watch Marlee Neel’s lighthearted video, The Case Against “Good” and “Bad” and fill out three rows of boxes of a research log.

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Consider words that describe motivation you might have used in one of your reflections and paper. 19.

Reflect 7.6

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Inner Internal Intrinsic

•

Outer External Extrinsic

Brief explain the difference between the words on each row. What would make you choose one synonym over the other? 20.

Reading Assignment

21.

Reading Assignment

22.

Reading Assignment

7.12.2 Pay careful attention to the apostrophe and it’s/its.

23.

Reading Assignment

7.12.3 Semicolons are an effective way to join clauses.

24.

Research Log 7.4

25.

Research Log 7.5

26.

Reflect 7.7

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7.12 Correct punctuation matters. 7.12.1 Why is there so much talk about three tiny punctuation marks: apostrophes, semicolons, and Oxford commas?

Complete a research log as you explore the uses of the semicolon in educator Emma Bryce’s TEDEd lesson, “How to Use a Semicolon” Complete a research log on scholar Melissa Mohr’s two-part series, “Getting the Skinny on the Semicolon” and “When to Use Them.” Mohr discusses how the popularity of the semicolon waxes and wanes, and she gives clear instructions on their use. After reviewing the presentation Joining Clauses and viewing the presentations by Bryce and Mohr, do you have any questions on the use of the semicolon? Do you agree with Kurt Vonnegut’s statement about the semicolon: “All they do is show you’ve been to college.” Do you see places in your writing where a semicolon might have been useful? Give an example.

27.

28.

29.

30.

Reading Assignment

7.12.4 Is “The Oxford Comma” needed in a series?

Research Log 7.6

In “Ending the Oxford Comma Debate: It’s time to accept that the Oxford comma is more modern and uniformly helpful,” science writer Kent Anderson defends the use of the Oxford comma. Educators Jessica Ruby and Alex Gendler continue the discussion in a TEDEd talk, “Grammar’s Great Divide: The Oxford Comma.” Complete a research log on both pieces and see where you stand.

Reflect 7.8

Most professors support the use of the Oxford comma since it more precisely creates clarity for the reader. Do you support the use of the Oxford comma? Can you think of an exception?

Reflect 7.9

Do you feel like you have mastered the details of the apostrophe, the semicolon, and the Oxford comma? How do you feel about paying attention to these details? Is it easy or do you feel annoyed or confused?

31.

Reading Assignment

7.13 Look at the bigger picture: coherence and cohesion.

32.

Reading Assignment

7.13.1 “Coherence” describes how all of the pieces of the puzzle fit together. 

33.

Reading Assignment

7.13.2 “Cohesion” describes how one puzzle piece fits into the next. 

34.

Reading Assignment

7.13.3 Use the passive voice to create cohesion.

35.

Reading Assignment

7.13.4 Create larger patterns of coherence and cohesion with parallel structure.

36.

Reflect 7.10

Listen to this spoken version of the Gettysburg Address. What do you notice about the repetition when you hear the speech spoken aloud? How would you describe the effect of the parallel structure?

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37.

38.

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Reading Assignment

7.13.5 Create larger patterns of cohesion and coherence with transition words.

Reflect 7.11

Have the assignments in this module changed the way you feel about making grammatical “mistakes”? Are you learning to accept “corrections” on your work as feedback rather than as criticism?

MODULE 8: Continuing the Research Conversation: Finding, Evaluating and Using Sources

By the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. To find and choose credible sources. 2. To distinguish between sources written for a lay audience and peer reviewed sources. 3. To identify and avoid plagiarism. 4. To incorporate source material without plagiarizing.

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Module 8 Preview 8.1 Integrity in the research process is essential. Without honesty, the academic research process is meaningless. 8.2 The best way to avoid plagiarism is a carefully designed research process. Carefully keeping track of your sources helps writers avoid plagiarism. Save time by taking time to keep track of your sources. 8.3 Use credible evidence to support the structure of your reasoning. The purpose of research is to find credible evidence to support the structure of your reasoning. 8.4. Understand the value of peer reviewed sources. Peer reviewed sources are considered the most reliable academic sources. 8.5 Understand the value of library resources. Use free library resources like a lib guide or a consultation with your librarian to help you find credible sources. 8.6 Choose the strongest evidence to support your reasoning. Use metacognition to find the most appropriate passages to support your reasoning. 8.7 Plagiarism is a serious issue. Plagiarism, either intentional or unintentional, has serious academic consequences. 8.8 Understand the documentation conventions of academic writing. Careful documentation and correctly cited quotations, summary, and paraphrasing help build your credibility as an academic writer. 8.8.1 All research must be documented. Carefully documenting your sources keeps the research conversation clear.

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8.8.2 Everyone knows that: what is “common knowledge?” Cite even well-known borrowed material to demonstrate your academic integrity. 8.8.3 Avoid sloppy citations. Maintain your credibility by using correct and appropriate in-text citations. 8.8.4 Carefully chose a citation system: parenthetical citations vs signal phrases. Your choice of a parenthetical citation or a signal phrase affects the way your audience experiences your writing. 8.8.5 Understand how plagiarism checkers work. Plagiarism checkers are reliable detectors of plagiarism, whether or not it is deliberate.

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8.1 Integrity in the research process is essential. Without honesty, the academic research process is meaningless. Few assignments are as misunderstood as academic research papers. College students often bring bits of knowledge about how to write research to college, but sometimes that partial knowledge has gaps that interfere with the research writing process. Many students believe they are writing a report of research rather than using research to support their point of view in an academic argument. While both approaches are valuable, it’s important to understand which one your professor wants you to use. A review of conventions and guidelines can prevent unexpected problems that arise from misunderstanding the research process. All academic papers are based on research, scholarly or scientific work that creates a body of knowledge in an academic discipline. Credibility and integrity are of the utmost importance in establishing this reliable body of knowledge, so the guidelines you will follow in writing your research paper are essential because they help you move toward becoming a professional in your chosen academic field.

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8.2 The best way to avoid plagiarism is a carefully designed research process. Carefully keeping track of your sources helps writers avoid plagiarism. Save time by taking time to keep track of your sources. 1. Carefully choose credible sources. 2. Complete a research log for each source you use. Keep track of page numbers and time stamps. 3. Complete a CRAAP Test checklist for each source. 4. Build a solid framework to support your evidence. 5. Introduce, quote/paraphrase, cite and explain each piece of evidence you choose 6. Document all material you take from a source even if you do not use the author’s exact words. 7.

Include a correctly formatted works cited entry for all material, paraphrased or quoted, that you take from a source.

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8.3 Use credible evidence to support the structure of your reasoning. The purpose of research is to find credible evidence to support the structure of your reasoning.

Research is always ongoing. In one sense, you can think of everything you have ever read on your topic as research. As rhetorical Wayne Booth reminds us, choosing a topic is an act of research as we define and narrow our research question, and as we continue to research our topic, we may change our stance on it. Once you have framed your ideas with a template outline, it’s time to do the hard work of supporting the structure with evidence. It’s time to review your earlier, broader inquiries into your topic and select specific passages to quote, paraphrase, or summarize in your paper. Evidence will account for most of your page count, and the quality of your argument depends on the quality of evidence you choose. Of course, not all papers demand that you do outside research. Read the assignment carefully and ask your professor to see if outside sources are required. Some professors might ask you to focus only on assigned reading, lectures, and personal observation. Be sure you understand the objectives of the assignment before you start to write. Use a research log for your assignment page. In the left column, put the directions in your own words. Record any questions you may have in the right column, no matter how trivial you think they may be. Go over your questions with a peer mentor or your professor during office hours. Be sure you have resolved the issues before you begin to write. It saves time in the long run.

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8.4. Understand the value of peer reviewed sources. Peer reviewed sources are considered the most reliable academic sources. Your credibility as a writer, what rhetoricians call your ethos, depends on several factors, including the way you present your paper. Most importantly, you are as credible as the sources you choose. Academic research is based on a concept called “peer review.” In the peer review process, scholars and scientists read and evaluate each other’s papers before they are published to establish the value of the research. If enough agree, the paper is published and enters into the knowledge of the discipline. Because they are written for experts, peer reviewed articles are often difficult to understand because they require a reader to understand the terminology and principles of the discipline. While most lower-division courses (freshman and sophomore) do not require that you use peer researched articles for your papers, they do require that you use credible sources. We will use the process of peer review in our class as well. By comparing another student’s paper against the rubric, you learn to better understand criteria in the class and notice how the student approached the assignment.You receive feedback from another student on how well you did the same. Class peer review helps you better understand this important academic practice as we collectively work at presenting and sharing our knowledge. Let’s go back to the exercise we did in Module 1 to re-examine the difference between articles written for a lay audience and peer reviewed articles. Carol Dweck wrote the article “Brainology” for an audience of teachers and parents, but it was based on research reported in the peer reviewed article. 379

Lay audience

Often, when children stop working in school, parents deal with this by reassuring their children how smart they are. We can now see that this simply fans the flames. It confirms the fixed mindset and makes kids all the more certain that they don’t want to try something difficult—something that could lose them their parents’ high regard. How should we praise our students? How should we reassure them? By focusing them on the process, they engaged in—their effort, their strategies, their concentration, their perseverance, or their improvement. “You really stuck to that until you got it. That’s wonderful!” “It was a hard project, but you did it one step at a time and it turned out great!”

Dweck, Carol. “Brainology.” NAIS, 2008, www.nais. org/magazine/independent-school/winter-2008/ brainology/.

Peer reviewed article Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals’ implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved) Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–273, 1988 https:// doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256

When writers address a lay audience, their intent is to communicate the essential elements simply and clearly so that the audience can understand and apply them. When the same writer addresses an audience of academic peers, her intent shifts. The goal is to communicate the significance of the research and explain how the evidence or data supports the conclusion, or to put it simply, why the research should be taken as a serious contribution to knowledge. The writer chooses the style which best shapes the ideas for the audience. These styles are shaped by the nature of the research and the demands of the academic discipline and can vary widely. In between the two, we find a more formal academic style that may not follow the extreme conventions of writing in a particular discipline. 380

Case History 2: Finding Help from A Librarian: Harpreet Harpreet looked at the prompt for her essay and frowned. It didn’t tell her a lot. She remembered the terms from the last chapter, but it had been a while since she read the essays. She opened her research logs on the computer and began to review them. “Intrinsic” means “inside” she thought, and “extrinsic” means “outside,” so Professor Swift wants me to write about whether our motivation is inner or outer. She thought about her own life. She liked to think she had inner drive and a growth mindset, but in the end, the due date and the threat of a grade were more likely to get her to sit down at the computer and work. Who was the person with the long funny name? He had said something about “flow,” getting into the grove. She liked when that happened, and the more she wrote papers, the more often she got into a flow state. So how to decide? She thought about the structure. She was pretty sure she understood the structure, but this was her first real college paper, and she was nervous. What if she plagiarized because she didn’t know the rules well? What if she got the structure wrong or forgot a part? She went to the library database to find a source, but the articles were hard to read. Where would she find an opposing viewpoint? Since she took the class online, she didn’t have time to go into campus and ask the reference librarian for help. She went on the library web page and saw that she could call or text a librarian. Since she did not understand the assignment, she decided to call. Dee, the reference librarian, answered and listened to her explanation. “Let me show you the library databases. Are you on the library website? Good. Do you see Databases? Yes. Select that . . .”

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8.5 Understand the value of library resources. Use free library resources like a lib guide or a consultation with your librarian to help you find credible sources. Your college librarian can help to evaluate sources for their credibility.You can often find information about sources and credibility on a LibGuide or library guide published online. College library websites use lib guides to help you find and evaluate research sources quickly and effectively.Your class may even have specialized lib guides for its subject matter. Merced College librarian Lindsey Davis created this lib guide to present a “CRAAP” test for determining the reliability of sources:

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•

Currency: The timeliness of the information.

•

Relevance: The importance of the information for your needs.

•

Authority: The source of the information.

•

Accuracy: The reliability, truthfulness, and correctness of the informational content.

•

Purpose: The reason the information exists.

Western University explains the CRAAP test more fully in their brief video, Evaluating Sources. Your librarian can help you find reliable sources in library databases, extensive collections of credible material purchased by the library for student use. Library databases pre-select sources that are appropriate for college writing. Some will contain more advanced peer-reviewed articles, but many offer information accessible to the student research. Online sources found in internet searches are problematic because they are often the hardest to evaluate. As a general guideline, avoid dot.com sources, although some, like Science Daily, may be considered reliable because they provide summaries of peer reviewed articles. Many dot.org sources may also be reliable, but keep in mind that they present the distinct point of view of a particular organization. They can be useful if you want to emphasize that point of view. Sources created by educational institutions use dot.edu, and can generally be considered reliable. Use all online sources you find using a search engine with caution. A URL, or in the language of computer programmers, a Universal Resource Locator, is commonly called a web address. The URL directs your computer to a particular site and allows search engines, like Google, to find a useful website among millions of possibilities. URLs give us helpful information about the makers of that site, and hence its credibility.

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Evaluating URLs

,com

.net

.org

.gov

.edu

.mil

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Commercial or for-profit site

Money making businesses.

Approach carefully by examining authorship and bias. Look for and verify similar information in a reliable source.

Network

Applies to any network; evaluate carefully

Demands careful evaluation of authorship and bias.

Non-profit organizations

Often reliable, but with a particular point of view.

May provide evidence for particular points of view; evaluate carefully for misinformation.

Government

Generally reliable. Good source of primary evidence.

Census statistics, Supreme Court rulings, transcripts of Congressional hearings.

Educational institution

Considered generally reliable but may include less reliable student work.

Publications/information from research centers.

Military

Considered generally reliable.

Information about branches of the Armed Forces

Case History 1:The Importance of Reliable Sources: Prabjot Prabjot knew she needed reliable sources and was pretty sure she shouldn’t use dot.com sources. She had a free hour, so Prajot stopped by during Professor Alexander’s office hours. “We didn’t cover an opposing viewpoint in class or our reading.” “No, we did not. Actually, I want you to do your own research here. Can you find a reliable source?” “Not one that I can understand. Everything I look up on the databases is very hard to read and full of big words. I don’t want to include quotations I really can’t understand.” “That’s probably a good idea. Let me make a suggestion.You can use Science Daily. It is a dot.com source, but it’s based on peer reviewed articles summarized for non-scientists. So you get reliable information without the pain of reading a difficult professional article.” “It’s okay to use a dot.com?” “I’m glad you’re thinking about this. In this case, yes. Later in your education, you will go directly to the source in the journal because you will be able to understand the language and academic conventions. But for now, this will give you quality research you can use in your paper.”

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8.6 Choose the strongest evidence to support your reasoning. Use metacognition to find the most appropriate passages to support your reasoning. The hardest part of writing a paper is often not the actual writing but reading and organizing the research. Research writing is compressed thought, advised eminent rhetorician Richard Lanham. When a professor reads your paper in a few minutes, in reality, she is looking at hours of your work and study reduced to five pages. Be sure to choose your evidence carefully. Research logs are a time-saving tool.You will find an entrance to your paper much more quickly If you have completed a research log for each piece of evidence you’ve read, including page numbers. After you have created a structure for your paper, review your research logs to see what words of the author caught your attention. Which words and phrases speak to you? You may want to choose quotations that support your point of view, but you may also want to include quotations that set forth an alternative point of view. Many instructors assign a “They Say/I Say” paper format where you might start by stating and documenting an opposing point of view. Shorter quotations work best, especially when they capture the key ideas of the author: “the meaning of difficulty and effort is transformed” (Dweck). Work them directly into a sentence. The sentence must have a subject and a verb, or the quotation must have a subject and a verb. Signal phrases work best for incorporating quotations and partial paraphrases gracefully. Direct quotation According to Dweck, “the meaning of difficulty and effort is transformed.”

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Partial paraphrase and quotation Dweck argues that students change their attitude toward “difficulty and effort.”

Sometimes, if the evidence is particularly compelling, you may want to choose a longer passage. Work in quotations longer than four lines as block quotations.

Notice a few things about block quotations. •

There are no quotation marks. The block itself takes the place of the quotation marks.

•

The entire quotation is double-spaced. There is no change in spacing from the paragraph to the quotation.

•

The entire quotation is indented by one tab. Use the block arrow key on MS Word to do this.

Here is a hint for making your paper longer. If your paper is too short, avoid padding by adding extra words or paraphrasing passages from the internet. Add more evidence which you introduce, quote, cite, and explain. Each addition of evidence should result in another paragraph

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8.7 Plagiarism is a serious issue. Plagiarism, either intentional or unintentional, has serious academic consequences. When you fail to keep track of your sources, when the “who” is missing, you may be guilty of plagiarizing. Academic communities take plagiarism seriously as this fundamental act of dishonesty undermines the credibility and reliability of knowledge. As you enter into an academic discussion, it may seem almost obsessive to document everything you take from a source, but it is a necessary obsession in order to keep the integrity of the research process intact. The history of the word plagiarism reveals its dark nature. The Oxford English Dictionary identifies its origins in the classical Latin word plagiārius, a “person who abducts the child or slave of another, kidnapper, seducer, also a literary thief.” An earlier ancestor is plaga, or “snare” or “net,” implying a poacher who illegally traps game (“plagium” OED). In other words, plagiarism comes from words that imply serious crimes, and it’s important to remember that that seriousness remains in our modern usage, to “kidnap” the words and ideas of another author.

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Some cultures value the memorization and use of the exact words of an author, believing it to be a way of honoring the original. But in the modern world, a world that generates and values intellectual property, most if not all, look upon the unauthorized use of another’s words as a form of theft. Before copyright laws existed, writers were free to take words and ideas from other sources, but in 17th century Europe, writers began to look at this practice with scorn. In fact, the American Constitution establishes the right to copyright, a declaration of the formal ownership of ideas and words. In the Constitution, Congress is empowered “to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.” So, when you write a paper, you own your ideas and words. No one else can use them without your permission except if they meet the standards of “fair use.” “Fair use” means that there are some occasions when another writer can use words or ideas without direct permission. The U.S. Copyright Office explains:

Fair use is a legal doctrine that promotes freedom of expression by permitting the unlicensed use of copyright-protected works in certain circumstances. Section 107 of the Copyright Act provides the statutory framework for determining whether something is a fair use and identifies certain types of uses—such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research—as examples of activities that may qualify as fair use.

So, it is “fair use” for you to use a quotation from a film in a movie review you are writing or a short passage from a novel or article in a paper as long as you give full credit to the author.

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Case History 3: Procrastination, Plagiarism and the Dangers of Paraphrase: Sara It was midterm. Sara’s English paper on superheroes was due tomorrow, and so were her biology labs and her history homework. Her sociology midterm was on Friday, and the math midterm the following Monday. Sara knew she had taken on too much this semester and thought she could handle the seventeen units, but now she wasn’t quite so sure. Sara thought she was decent at English, but this was a five-page research-based paper, and she needed at least three outside sources on the death of expertise. No time for the library. No time for dinner. She started to search the internet. She needed something quick. A guy named Bob Proehl on a site called Literary Hub seemed to explain it well: “Why Superheroes are bigger than their story.” Sara clicked on the story and read a bit. She found a quotation she really liked.

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There is a Captain America that exists outside of or above the stories written about him. He’s a moral guidepost. He stands apart from the political fray: a version of an America that could be. He’s better than all that. He’s super.

So she wrote,

Captain American is bigger than all of the stories written about him. He is a moral character that stands outside political battles because he is “super.”

If she put most of the material in her own words, it wouldn’t be plagiarism, she thought, and teachers don’t really read your work anyway. She was running out of time, so Sara skipped the citations and didn’t add an entry on her works cited page. She already had three, and that met the requirement. She pulled it all together by midnight and finished her biology lab homework before going to bed at 1 a.m. Her 6 a.m. alarm would be a shock, but Sara had to get to work on time. The 0 for plagiarism grade came as a bigger shock. Sara didn’t think her professor would have noticed, but apparently, he found the site in a simple search online. His zero-tolerance for plagiarism policy meant she couldn’t make up the work, and she would not pass the class.

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Case History 2:Time Management and Plagiarism: Casey Casey was late. She needed to pick up her kids, cook dinner, and study for her chemistry midterm. She had about an hour left to work in the library. The reference librarian suggested a book on her topic, the death penalty, checked it out, and took a few more notes. Casey felt like her argument against the death penalty was strong but needed more evidence to explain the opposing point of view. She read for a while, and took notes, then realized that she was running late. Casey gathered her things and left. When the kids finished dinner, she settled back down to study for the midterm, then realized she still had some work to do on the paper, which was due at midnight. Casey reached for the book in her backpack, but it wasn’t there. She must have left it at the library. “Okay,” she told herself, “I can remember what I read.” Panicked, she wrote the last few paragraphs. Casey left out the sources because she couldn’t remember the author of the chapter. She submitted the paper and went to bed. The following week, Casey opened her comments. The 0 for plagiarism jumped in her face. “Sloppy citations. A big section of your paper is undocumented.”

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8.8 Understanding the documentation conventions of academic writing. Careful documentation and correctly cited quotations, summary, and paraphrasing help build your credibility as an academic writer. Academic documentation can be mystifying unless you think of academic writing as a grand conversation about knowledge.You may be entering into a small side conversation at a big party. It helps to think of documentation as a way to keep the speakers in a conversation clear: who said what about what? Documentation, which means to prove or support your point using written evidence, plays a prominent role in creating your credibility as an academic writer. A writer who draws solid evidence from credible sources is also perceived as credible. Evidence from unreliable sources, on the other hand, will weaken your credibility.

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8.8.1 All research must be documented. Carefully documenting your sources keeps the research conversation clear. As you write your paper, try to keep the reasons for correct citations in mind: if your readers are interested in a point you make, they can learn more about it by going to the original source. They may want to determine whether or not you made valid use of the evidence, or they may just be interested in tracing the research conversation. A correct citation, either a signal phrase or a parenthetical citation, helps point them in the right direction. By carefully following the academic convention of documenting borrowed material, summary, paraphrase, or quotation, you also help build your own credibility as a member of the academic writing community.

8.8.2 Everyone knows that: what is “common knowledge?” Cite even well-known borrowed material to demonstrate your academic integrity. Academics generally agree that “common knowledge does not need to be cited. Deciding whether or not something is common knowledge, however, is complex. Everyone knows “Washington was the first president of the United States,” but fewer understand that that does not include John Hancock, who was president of the first Continental Congress in 1776. Deciding whether or not something is “common knowledge” often depends on the context and the level of expertise. Scholars often contest “facts” and their sources. Instead of risking an accusation of plagiarism, document what you believe to be common knowledge with a citation for your text, your professor’s lecture, or a credible and reliable source.

8.8.3 Avoid sloppy citation. Maintain your credibility by using correct and appropriate in-text citations. The most common instance of plagiarism is sloppy citation. Rushed, or unsure of the process, a student omits the citations needed to avoid plagiarism. Likely, the student does not intend to deceive, but for whatever reason, doesn’t take the time and care necessary to cite correctly. This sort of plagiarism is easily fixed in a revision by making it clear who said what about what. Make sure your citations match a correct MLA model and include the author and page number from a print source, whether you use a signal phrase or a parenthetical citation. 394

8.8.4 Carefully chose a citation system: parenthetical citations vs signal phrases. Your choice of a parenthetical citation or a signal phrase affects the way your audience experiences your writing. Review the presentation Signal Phrases Both parenthetical citations and signal phrases help establish your credibility, how seriously your audience takes you as an academic writer. So it is important to take a little time to make sure that you are using them effectively. Your choice of signal phrases or parenthetical citations will affect how the reader will experience reading your paper. It’s a good idea to decide on your citation style before you start to write the paper. Once you choose a style, you should consistently apply that style to the entire paper. Before you turn your paper in, proofread to make sure that you have not mixed your citation styles and that you have punctuated your quotations and citations correctly.

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Some writers use both systems together because they are afraid of plagiarizing. Using more citations than you need unnecessarily interrupts the flow of your writing for the reader.You don’t, for example, need to repeat an author’s name in a parenthetical citation if you have already used a signal phrase. The only reason for a parenthetical citation would be that you have taken the material from a print source and need to add a page number to the signal phrase. Most English papers call for Modern Language Association citations. MLA offers two main ways to cite or document, by using a parenthetical citation or a signal phrase. Signal phrases help you with the flow of your ideas, the cohesion and coherence of your paper, while keeping the ownership of ideas in the conversation clear. Parenthetical citations interrupt the flow of the text, but in some ways, are more economical: you can use multiple sources in a citation. In general, writers in the humanities prefer signal phrases, and writers in the social sciences and STEM prefer parenthetical citations, but there is no hard and fast rule. However, when whole passages or sentences are used without attribution when the theft of intellectual property is conscious and deliberate, the situation becomes more serious. All colleges and universities have strict plagiarism policies, which can result in strong punishment, up to and including expulsion. Some students may find it tempting to risk copying long passages from the internet and pasting them directly in their papers without attribution, but the likelihood of getting caught is high with modern technology.

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8.8.5 Understand how plagiarism checkers work. Plagiarism checkers are reliable detectors of plagiarism, whether or not it is deliberate. Plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty like cheating on a test or submitting another student’s work as your own. Unfortunately, colleges don’t distinguish between intentional copying of someone else’s work, whether from a source or another student, and plagiarism caused by sloppiness, rushing, or misunderstanding the citation conventions. All forms of cheating, including plagiarism, bring with them very serious academic consequences, including expulsion from college. Plagiarism checkers such as Turnitin.com have made it very difficult for students to plagiarize without consequence. A plagiarism checker checks a paper against all papers already turned in, at this point millions, and everything on the internet. Only a naïve student will believe that an act of plagiarism can go undetected. Experienced teachers can identify small shifts in style and word choice as well. Perhaps the most naïve students believe that they can submit a paper someone else wrote, an extreme form of academic dishonesty, but these too can be detected by a plagiarism checker. So the best way to avoid plagiarism is to learn how to correctly and carefully document your work in an approved academic style. Plagiarism checkers detect similarity rather than plagiarism, and the number you see is a similarity index. If it is high, it does not necessarily mean that you’ve plagiarized. A quoted passage may be highlighted as similar, but it is not plagiarized if the writer uses quotation marks and citations or signal phrases. Since the consequences for plagiarism are severe, sometimes the fear of plagiarizing can create writer’s block. However, be confident that a good understanding of the conventions for using signal phrases and parenthetical citations as your academic discipline demands will prevent you from plagiarizing. Take the time and care to learn the citation conventions of the discipline. Planning your time effectively and using research logs to record quotations, page numbers/sources will also help you avoid plagiarizing. So will developing confidence in your own abilities and shedding any imposter syndrome you might experience.Your words and thoughts have value.Your sources are used to support your ideas, not replace them.

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Module 8 Review 8.1 Integrity in the research process is essential. Without honesty, the academic research process is meaningless. 8.2 The best way to avoid plagiarism is a carefully designed research process. Carefully keeping track of your sources helps writers avoid plagiarism. Save time by taking time to keep track of your sources. 8.3 Use credible evidence to support the structure of your reasoning. The purpose of research is to find credible evidence to support the structure of your reasoning. 8.4. Understand the value of peer reviewed sources. Peer reviewed sources are considered the most reliable academic sources. 8.5 Understand the value of library resources. Use free library resources like a lib guide or a consultation with your librarian to help you find credible sources. 8.6 Choose the strongest evidence to support your reasoning. Use metacognition to find the most appropriate passages to support your reasoning. 8.7 Plagiarism is a serious issue. Plagiarism, either intentional or unintentional, has serious academic consequences. 8.8 Understand the documentation conventions of academic writing. Careful documentation and correctly cited quotations, summary, and paraphrasing help build your credibility as an academic writer. 8.8.1 All research must be documented. Carefully documenting your sources keeps the research conversation clear.

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8.8.2 Everyone knows that: what is “common knowledge?” Cite even well-known borrowed material to demonstrate your academic integrity. 8.8.3 Avoid sloppy citations. Maintain your credibility by using correct and appropriate in-text citations. 8.8.4 Carefully chose a citation system: parenthetical citations vs signal phrases. Your choice of a parenthetical citation or a signal phrase affects the way your audience experiences your writing. 8.8.5 Understand how plagiarism checkers work. Plagiarism checkers are reliable detectors of plagiarism, whether or not it is deliberate.

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Glossary Cite/citation “To cite” means to provide a quotation from a documented source. A citation refers to the in-text reference to your source. In MLA, it is enclosed in parenthesis (Dweck 22), and is therefore called a “parenthetical citation.” Common knowledge What you would expect non-experts to know. However, what experts might know could need documentation for non-experts, so it is a better idea to document all of your information. Credibility also called ethos, refers to your trustworthiness as a writer, or the ability to inspire confidence in your reader about your writing. Credible evidence comes from reliable sources such as library databases. Documentation refers to the evidence you provide. Documentation takes the form of in-text citations, and a works cited list. Correct documentation allows the reader to trace your sources and builds your credibility. Writing which lacks documentation is considered plagiarized. Evidence refers to material drawn from sources that you use to support your claims and reasons. Evidence may be either primary, first-hand materials or secondary, material written about the topic. Intellectual property When creators create something new, they own the rights to that creation, for example, books, music, or software. Intellectual property refers to that right. In college writing, we acknowledge intellectual property with careful documentation of sources. Library Guide or LibGuide A web page created by a college librarian to help you with a specific aspect of your research.You may access general lib guides via the library web page. Lib guides specific to your class may be embedded in your learning platform or listed in a special place on the library website. Paraphrase Paraphrase means putting someone else’s writing into your own words in order to incorporate their ideas into your paper. Be sure to paraphrase completely or quote exactly. All paraphrasing must be documented in exactly the same way as quotations. In a partial paraphrase, the writer combines paraphrase and quotation and documents both. Parenthetical citation A parenthetical citation (Dweck 15) is used in MLA formatting to document a quotation or a paraphrase. It includes the author’s last name and a page number. Online sources do not need page numbers. (Dweck) Peer reviewed sources Articles accepted into peer review journals are reviewed by other experts in the field before publication. This makes them especially reliable. Because they are written by and for

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experts, they can be challenging to read. Plagiarism Plagiarism means to take someone else’s ideas and use them as your own. Plagiarism is the theft of intellectual property. Plagiarism may be the open theft of a passage from an author, or it can simply be the failure to cite correctly. Plagiarism checker Plagiarism checkers like Turnitin.com check a submitted paper against all internet sites and everything ever submitted to the site. Plagiarism checkers detect similarity rather than plagiarism. A quoted passage may be highlighted as similar, but it is not plagiarized if the writer uses quotation marks and citations. Primary evidence/secondary evidence Primary evidence is evidence that is closest to experience. It may be an observation, an original story, or a description of an artifact. Secondary evidence is drawn from what others have written on a subject. Quote, quotation “Quote” is a short informal way of describing the direct words of others; quotation is a more formal way. In writing a paper, avoid using the word quotation. Prefer words like “statement” or “In the words of.” Rhetoric Rhetoric refers to a methodology for persuasion designed by Aristotle, including structures of argument with claims, reason, and evidence. Sloppy citation Sloppy citations occur when writers do not take care to incorporate the necessary conventions for quotation and paraphrase. They may leave out an author’s name, source or page number, or omit a works cited entry or page. Source Source refers to the material you used to find evidence to support your point of view.

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MODULE 8 ASSIGNMENTS: CONTINUING THE RESEARCH CONVERSATION: FINDING AND USING SOURCES  5.

Reading Assignment

8.1 Why integrity in the research process is essential

6.

Reading Assignment 

7.

Reading Assignment 

8.3 Evidence: supporting the structure.

8.

Reading Assignment 

8.4. Peer Reviewed Sources 

8.2 The best way to avoid plagiarism: a carefully designed research process. 

Read “Carrot or stick? Punishments may guide behavior more effectively than rewards” based on peer reviewed research by medical researchers at the Washington University School of Medicine, Jan Kubanek, Lawrence H. Snyder, Richard A. Abrams. Based on this entry, does the source pass the CRAAP test? Complete a reliability organizer.  9.

Reflect 8.1

Currency: The timeliness of the information. Relevance: The importance of the information for your needs. Authority: The source of the information. Accuracy: The reliability, truthfulness, and correctness of the informational content. Purpose: The reason the information exists.

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The original article, “Reward and punishment act as distinct factors in guiding behavior,” was published by the peer reviewed journal Cognition in 2015. Read the original article and determine if it also passes the CRAAP test by filling out a reliability organizer.  Currency: The timeliness of the information. 10.

Reflect 8.2

Relevance: The importance of the information for your needs. Authority: The source of the information. Accuracy: The reliability, truthfulness, and correctness of the informational content. Purpose: The reason the information exists.

11.

Reflect 8.3

Review the two passages written by Carol Dweck, one for a lay audience one for a peer audience. List the differences you notice between the two versions. What characteristics identify peer reviewed writing?  Both of these quizzes involve shifts in academic discourse. Daum

12.

Reflect 8.4

writes the article, “Kaavya’s So Not Happy Ending” in in slang discourse or “Valley Girl.’ Dweck uses informal language, “kids” in contrast to the more formal language of her academic writing (Link to Chapter 1 example). What challenges do these shifts pose as you use the material in a paper intended for an academic audience? Complete the plagiarism quizzes as assigned by your professor. Re-

13.

Reflect 8.5

view your scores and assess how well you believe you understand what constitutes plagiarism. What questions do you have? 

14.

Reading Assignment

8.5 Using Library Resources 

15.

Reading Assignment

8.6 Choosing the best evidence

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Reading Assignment

8.7 Plagiarism

17.

Research Log 8.1

Complete a research log for the video Evaluating Sources. 

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18.

Reading Assignment

8.8.1 All research must be documented

19.

Reading Assignment

8.8.2 Everyone knows that: what is “common knowledge?”

20.

Reading Assignment

8.8.3 Sloppy citation

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Reading Assignment

8.8.4 Parenthetical citations vs signal phrases

22.

Reading Assignment

8.8.5 Plagiarism checkers 

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Reflect 8.6

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Do you understand why plagiarism, intentional or unintentional, is a kind of cheating? How do you feel about students cheating in college classes? Do you think it is widespread? What would you tell a student who was considering cheating? 

MODULE 9: Taking Stock: Where have you been? Where are you now? Where are you going?

By the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. assess and consolidate your learning to date. 2. identify areas where challenges remain. 3. resolve challenges by reviewing course material and seeking help.

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Module 9 Preview 9.1 Learning is messy. Learning doesn’t occur in a straight line. Give yourself time to consolidate what you know. 9.2 Assess what you know. Take the first step by assessing what you have learned in this class. 9.3 Where have I been? Collect information about your learning. Carefully examine the evidence for your learning. 9.4 Where am I now? Self-assessment provides a foundation for change. Assess what you know so that you can make changes in the future.

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Case History 1: What happens in the next class? Michael Michael reviewed the first writing assignment in his sophomore level critical thinking class, write an argument on a topic of his choice. He couldn’t get started. He remembered some of the elements that went into writing a good paper, but his first college writing class had been two years ago, and he really did the work to get a grade. He got a B which was good enough to keep his GPA high enough to transfer. But he really couldn’t recollect more than the basics. He knew he had to document his work in MLA format, avoid plagiarizing, and knew he couldn’t use dot.com internet sources. Michael felt intimidated by the whole process of writing a five-page paper at the beginning of the semester. He felt paralyzed. How could he start?

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Case History 2: Bringing what you know: Monique Monique looked at Professor Clinton’s paper assignment in Abnormal Psychology: evaluate the psychopathology in a case study of a patient exhibiting narcissistic personality disorder. “I’ve got this,” she thought. Monique was feeling good about school. This semester, she was balancing four classes plus work and pulling As in all of her classes. She worked through the assignment on a research log. Monique thought she understood most of it but didn’t get what Professor Clinton meant by narcissistic personality disorder and sent her an email. Once she clarified the issue, it would be easy to create a thesis and draft the paper. Monique thought about how much her time planning skills had improved. A year ago, when she started college, she would have waited until the last minute to work on the paper, but she had two weeks and felt confident she could do a great job and keep her A in the class. Monique had really worked hard to learn how to write a paper in her college writing class. Even though Professor Clinton asked for APA instead of MLA, she understood the basics of documentation and would just deal with the changes. The topic was really interesting—she thought she might even change her major to psychology. If she understood this much about personality theory, Monique believed she might really be able to help people.

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9.1 Learning is messy. Learning doesn’t occur in a straight line. Give yourself time to consolidate what you know. Many students do well in their college writing class, but lose much of what they learned because they skip a semester or two before they are asked to write a paper again.You will need what you’ve learned in this class at many future points in your education, so it’s essential to find a way to remember what you’ve learned. It would be great if our brains could import, store, and access, like a computer, what we’ve learned and then retrieve it when we wanted to use the information. Knowledge, and more importantly, thinking about knowledge, doesn’t work that way because we learn imperfectly and at different rates of time. There is no “normal” rate of learning. Some students may bring more to the class than others, but many others develop growth mindsets and take more away. Some learn efficiently. Others may struggle for a while, but then move quickly toward mastery. Learning is messy.

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In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Learning Sciences, Clark A. Chinn and Bruce Sherrin describe learning as follows: •

First, in the learning sciences, learning is not typically understood to be a rare and dramatic event, one that happens only in moments of insight. Instead, it occurs continuously and in small steps, with every moment of thought. Further, mastery of significant knowledge often requires a very long period of time.

•

Second, learning does not occur in a straight line from lesser to greater understanding; it occurs in parallel on multiple fronts. For this reason, learning can sometimes lead, in the short term, to worse performance.

Chinn and Sherrin point out that as long as we are engaged in our education, learning continues with every activity. More importantly, our performance may not always reflect our learning. In fact, we may learn more from a paper that received a low grade as long as we maintain a growth mindset. Sometimes in college, as in life, our biggest mistakes are our greatest teachers.

9.2 Assessing what you know. Take the first step by assessing what you have learned in this class. This is the most important module in Becoming A Persistent Writer because it offers you the opportunity to self-evaluate your learning.You will need to draw on what you learned in this class every time you have a writing assignment in college and graduate school, so it is important to understand how much you will bring with you. In terms of a growth mindset, consider the “yet” and the “not yet.” If you identify the “not yet” elements of your learning, you can take steps to better control them in the future. Remember, it’s not an all-or-nothing system: since learning is imperfect, you will learn to write better academic papers over your entire college career rather than a single class.

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9.3 Where have I been? Collecting information about your learning. Carefully examine the evidence for your learning. The first step in self-assessment is to gather information about your learning so that you can reflect on it and create a strategy for change. Review the papers, reflections, and research logs you have completed. Note missing work, if any, so you can see how much your time management issues may have affected your learning. Then organize the evidence on this organizer and explain how it affected your learning this semester.You may be tempted to rush through this self-assessment, but take your time. These reflections will help you consolidate your learning.

Objectives

How did you meet these objectives? List evidence.

Explain why your choice of evidence supports your learning. List the challenges you face.

Module 1 Objectives 1. Characterize the role of language communities in our lives and education. 2. Identify our membership in several language communities. 3. Examine the importance of joining an academic language community. 4. Identify barriers to joining that community. 5. Create solutions to overcome barriers and successfully join that community.

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Module 2 Objectives 1. Make a personal commitment to more practical and effective academic time management. 2. Practice effective academic time management. 3. Examine what attitudes motivate good time management. 4. Explore campus connections for success. Module 3 Objectives 1. Examine how changing our mindset can have a positive effect on our writing. 2. Explore how changes to our self-regulation processes can improve how we manage our workload. 3. Identify intrinsic motivators in order to move toward flow in our creative processes. 4. Review student learning outcomes and objectives for an overview of context. 5. Develop strategies for better understanding the objectives of assignments. Module 4 Objectives Explore the power of metacognition. Investigate more effective methods for analyzing reading more precisely. Determine effective strategies for organizing summaries.  Develop insights into reading by thoughtful response. Apply the conventions of academic discourse to summary writing.  Maintain a growth mindset and find help on your campus.

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Module 5 Objectives Verify that you understand the assignment. Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know. Sketch out a tentative argument based on the research you have completed. Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons. Consider what additional evidence you will need. Continue your research to find additional evidence. Allow the possibility that additional evidence may change your thinking about your claims and reasons. Build body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing, and explaining each quotation. Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?” Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction. Write an effective introduction that engages your readers Create an effective title that previews your topic and hooks the attention of your readers. Create a flow for your reader by adding transition words and argument indicators. Module 6 Objectives To find and choose credible sources. To distinguish between sources written for a lay audience and peer reviewed sources. To distinguish between primary and secondary evidence. To identify and avoid plagiarism. To incorporate source material without plagiarizing.

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Module 7 1. To understand the importance of professional presentation in academic work. 2. To recognize the effectiveness of feedback in peer and instructor review. 3. To use peer and instructor feedback to improve your writing. 4. To develop academic habits of mind: correctness, precision, and professional presentation. 5. To investigate the reasons professional formatting styles are required. 6. To identify the features of various professional formatting styles. 7. To choose and apply appropriate professional formatting to your own essays. 8. To understand the role of formatting in the presentation of your academic self. 9. To recognize the importance of using academic discourse. 10. To identify and use important features of Standard Written English. 11. To identify and use conventions of academic style. 12. To understand the role of conventions of grammar and style in the presentation of your academic self.

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9.4 Where am I now? Self-assessment provides a foundation for change. Assess what you know so that you can make changes in the future. Once you have collected your evidence for learning, begin to reflect on it so that you can describe your growth and address your remaining challenges. If you can do this, you can continue to grow as a learner, reader, writer, and thinker. Start by reviewing feedback on papers and assignments. Be sure to interpret the feedback as information your peers and professors are offering with the goal of helping you improve rather than as criticism. Sort through the feedback to find the most useful comments. If you are uncertain that feedback is valid, check with a professor or peer mentor. Then read through your reflections for the module to see how your thinking about learning has changed over the semester. Then complete this organizer. Take plenty of time to reflect.

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Self Assessment Objectives

Reflection

Module 1 Objectives

Module 1 Reflection (250words)

1. Characterize the role of language communities in our lives and education. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Review the reflections you wrote at the beginning of the class for Module 1. Briefly summarize your thoughts and feelings Identify our membership in several about academic language at the beginning language communities. of the semester, then comment on any Examine the importance of joining an changes you have experienced. Do you academic language community. feel more comfortable in the academic Identify barriers to joining that community. language community than you did at the Create solutions to overcome barriers and beginning of the semester? What barriers successfully join that community. did you experience, and how did you overcome them? Do you still experience any barriers? What solutions do you see? Module 2 Objectives

1. Make a personal commitment to more practical and effective academic time management. 2. Practice effective academic time management. 3. Examine what attitudes motivate good time management. 4. Explore campus connections for success.

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Module 2 Reflection: (250 words) Evaluate your attitudes toward time management at the end of the semester. How successful were you in managing your time this semester? Did you ever fall behind? How did you catch up? How stressful was the experience? Or did you stay on schedule throughout the course? How did that feel? Explore the academic and personal cost of procrastination. Did you seek and find help when you needed it?

Actions needed

Module 3 Objectives

Module 3 Reflection: (250 words)

1. Examine how changing our mindset can have a positive effect on our writing.

How motivated did you feel at the beginning of the semester? Did that change 2. Explore how changes to our self-regulation for the better or worse as the semester progressed? Why? Were you able to processes can improve how we manage develop a growth mindset? Did the way our workload. you responded to feedback change? Did 3. Identify intrinsic motivators in order you ever move closer to a flow state? to move toward flow in our creative processes. 4. Review student learning outcomes and objectives for an overview of context. 5. Develop strategies for better understanding the objectives of assignments. Module 4 Objectives 1. Explore the power of metacognition. 2. Investigate more effective methods for analyzing reading more precisely. 3. Determine effective strategies for organizing summaries.

Module 4 Reflection: (250 words) Do you feel that you are more aware of your reading and writing processes at the end of the semester? Do you feel like you are a stronger reader and writer? Do you

feel more comfortable with the conventions of academic discourse? Why or why 4. Develop insights into reading by thoughtful not? Did you look for and find help when response. you needed it? Why or why not? 5. Apply the conventions of academic discourse to summary writing. 6. Maintain a growth mindset and find help on your campus

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Module 5 Objectives 1. Verify that you understand the assignment. 2. Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know. 3. Sketch out a tentative argument or based on the research you have completed. 4. Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons. 5. Consider what additional evidence you will need. Continue your research to find additional evidence. Allow the possibility that additional evidence may change your thinking about your claims and reasons. 6. Build your body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing, and explaining each quotation. 7. Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?” 8. Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction. 9. Write an effective introduction that engages your readers 10. Create an effective title that previews your topic and hooks the attention of your readers. 11. Create a flow for your reader by adding transition words and argument indicators.

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Module 5 Reflection: (250 words) What did you learn by writing the argument paper? What challenges did you face? How did you overcome them? What, if any, challenges still remain?

Module 6 Objectives

Module 6 Reflection: (250 words)

1. To find and choose credible sources.

What questions remain about finding and 2. To distinguish between sources written for using primary and secondary sources? a lay audience and peer reviewed sources. Do you feel comfortable in your ability to incorporate sources without plagiarizing? 3. To distinguish between primary and Why or why not? secondary evidence. 4. To identify and avoid plagiarism. 5. To incorporate source material without plagiarizing.

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Module 7 1. To understand the importance of professional presentation in academic work. 2. To recognize the effectiveness of feedback in peer and instructor review. 3. To use peer and instructor feedback to improve your writing. 4. To develop academic habits of mind: correctness, precision, and professional presentation 5. To investigate the reasons professional formatting styles are required. 6. To identify the features of various professional formatting styles 7. To choose and apply appropriate professional formatting to your own essays. 8. To understand the role of formatting in the presentation of your academic self. 9. To recognize the importance of using academic discourse. 10. To identify and use important features of Standard Written English. 11. To identify and use conventions of academic style. 12. To understand the role of conventions of grammar and style in the presentation of your academic self.

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Module 7 Reflection: (250 words) Do you feel more comfortable presenting your work professionally in MLA format? Do you still have questions about specific grammar issues? Do you feel capable of presenting an almost error-free paper? Do you feel differently about paying attention to the details than you did at the beginning of the semester? Explain what if anything changed.

Module 9 Review 9.1 Learning is messy. Learning doesn’t occur in a straight line. Give yourself time to consolidate what you know. 9.2 Assess what you know. Take the first step by assessing what you have learned in this class. 9.3 Where have I been? Collect information about your learning. Carefully examine the evidence for your learning. 9.4. Where am I now? Self-assessment provides a foundation for change. Assess what you know so that you can make changes in the future.

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Works Cited Chinn, Clark A. and Bruce Sherrin. “Microgenetic Methods.” Cambidge Encyclopedia of the Learning Sciences. Cambridge UP 2014

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MODULE 9 ASSIGNMENTS: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Reading Assignment Reading Assignment 

Reading Assignment 

Reading Assignment 

Organizer 9.1 5.

 Skills inventory organizer Organizer 9.2

6.

Self-assessment organizer

7.

Reflection 9.1 What academic writing skills do you think you will need in future classes? 

8.

Reflection 9.2 Make a list of changes you want to make in your writing, reading, and thinking processes. 

9.1 Learning is messy.

9.2 Assessing what you know.

9.3 Where have I been? Collecting information about your learning

9.4. Where am I now? Self-Assessment

Download and complete the skills inventory organizer. Be sure to write at least 250 words in each box. 

Download and complete the self-assessment organizer. Be sure to write at least 250 words in each box.

What academic writing skills do you think you will need in future classes? What role do you think academic writing will play as you move toward your degree?

Make a list of changes you want to make in your writing, reading, and thinking processes. Then prioritize the list. Which changes are needed the most? Note where you can get help in making the changes. How committed are you to making these changes? 

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MODULE 10: The capstone paper: where are you going?

At the end of this module, you should be able to: 1. demonstrate independent learning by successfully completing a capstone project. 2. reflect on the value of consolidated learning.

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Module 10 Preview 10.1 Where am I going? Approach your final project thoughtfully. Completing a final project on your own helps you understand what learning you have consolidated. 10.2 Go solo: write a capstone paper. A capstone paper provides an opportunity to demonstrate and consolidate learning. 10.3 Carefully choose a subject for your capstone paper. Choosing a topic for your capstone Paper allows you to engage your own intellectual interests 10.4 Think for yourself. A capstone paper provides you with an opportunity to demonstrate original thinking. 10.5 Research is a never-ending process; selecting a topic is an act of research. Research is cyclical.What you find out may change your mind about your topic. 10.6 Use a research funnel to limit your topic so you can better manage your research time. Narrowing your topic helps you write your paper in a limited time frame. 10.7 Prewrite to identify the purpose of your research: I am studying ______ because ... Identifying your purpose to yourself helps you communicate that purpose to your audience. 10.8 Before you start: consolidate your learning. Following the writing process helps you more efficiently write in your limited time frame. Skipping steps can set you back. 10.9 Move from stating the problem to a tentative thesis statement. Understanding that learning is messy allows us to create a process to review and consolidate our

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learning. 10.10 Build support by gathering evidence. Build your credibility by finding solid, credible evidence. 10.11 View argument as dance by acknowledging an alternative point of view. Present alternative points of view accurately and empathetically. Keep an open mind. 10.12 Looking at the big picture helps you put it all together before you write. Taking time to assemble a template will save you time in the long run. 10.13 Connect to your audience with a strong title, introduction, and conclusion and create a pathway for your readers by using transition words. Create a partnership with your reader as you present your ideas. 10.14 Get the job done: write the paper one word at a time. Stay focused as you fulfill the promise presented in your template. 10.15 Get the job done: present yourself at your best. You’ve worked hard. Be sure to present yourself professionally. 10.16 Last words: learning never stops Unless you let it, learning never stops.

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Case History 1:The Perils of Procrastination Revisited: Adrian Adrian had been a chronic procrastinator all semester, but he had started to change his behavior at mid-semester and turn work in on time. He had three classes, and they all turned out to require more work than he thought. Adrian wasn’t sure that he could be successful in college but had surprised himself. He was in line to pass all of his classes. But, he felt really scared about writing the final paper for history. It was a five-page assignment, and he’d never written more than a three-page paper before, and that was in this class. He had to balance this paper with a paper in psychology and three other finals. Adrian knew he didn’t want to take the class over again; after all, he had put almost an entire semester into this one, and his grade was hovering at a high C. Since he felt like he could not afford to fail, Adrian knew he had to work out a strategy to finish. He felt like he should have more control over his work at this point in college, but he didn’t. Adrian sat down to work feeling anxious.

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Case History 2: Research Master: Esmeralda Esmeralda felt proud of how her first semester was ending. She felt in control of all of her classes and had maintained Bs in all of them, with the potential for an A in biology. She was beginning to feel like she belonged in college and her goal of becoming a nurse was in her reach. Esmeralda knew she had to have an A in English, so she needed to do well on her final paper. The length scared her. She had earned an A on the previous three-page paper but couldn’t find a topic for the final paper. Esmeralda wanted to be a pediatric nurse, so she thought writing about neo-natal care would be a good idea. When she did her research, she found the articles hard to get through because of the technical language. So she printed a stack of research logs and went to work; it took more time than she’d envisioned, so Esmeralda skipped going to the gym for the last two weeks of school to make room for the extra work and stayed up a little too late a couple of times. As she looked at the stack of research logs, she thought, “I got this.” Esmeralda followed the templates and finished with seven pages plus her works cited page. “Nursing program,” she thought, “here I come.”

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Case History 3: Finding your own interests: Caleb Caleb had made it through high school on Google research. He had never used a library database until he took the freshman writing class. Caleb felt like he should look things up and put them into his own words so he couldn’t be accused of plagiarism, but he had never thought through an idea on his own. Caleb was sure that college meant that he learned what his professors had to say by memorizing it. Caleb didn’t feel confident thinking on his own and felt insecure when he was asked to find a topic of his own. So he chose video games. This assignment seemed very difficult because it asked him to construct his own thesis and support it with reasons and evidence. Professor Fry’s comments on his organizer said that Caleb was confusing reasons and evidence, and he had to make a better effort to come up with his own generalizations. She told Caleb he had to do more than summarize the sources he found on the internet; he had to find credible sources to support his point of view. Caleb wasn’t sure that he had a point of view at this point. He liked to play video games, especially when he was angry. “Do you think video games make people more or less violent?” Professor Fry had asked. No, he thought, he felt better after playing Grand Theft Auto and felt less violent, not more. He took Fry’s advice and went to the EBSCO Host database on the library page. On his first search, he found an article, “Do Violent Games Lead to Aggression?” which argued, “no, they did not.” Caleb agreed with this point of view. But as he read the article, he found the idea that video games could have a positive influence as well. “There’s the topic for my paper,” he thought as he continued scrolling through the search results. Suddenly, the paper did not seem so frightening. He had something to say.

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10.1 Where am I going? Approach your final project thoughtfully. Completing a final project on your own helps you understand what learning you have consolidated. At the end of a class, most students are concerned about their grades, and rightly so, because solid grades are the key to an effective transfer, scholarships, community approval, and self-esteem. To a large extent, grades measure your grit. However, it’s also important to remind yourself that your writing classes, and, in fact, all the classes you have completed this semester, are only steps in your longer journey to a profession, and we hope, a life-long engagement in the learning process. To consolidate your learning in this class, you will complete a final capstone paper project where you can demonstrate and evaluate what you’ve learned this semester.You will be free to choose the topic and apply the skills you’ve learned throughout the class. Put aside any idea of perfectionism, but embrace the opportunity to show what you have learned. It is also a final opportunity in the course to identify any challenges and overcome them before you move on to more advanced classes with more demanding writing assignments. Remember that learning is imperfect and that this paper will offer new challenges. Approach them with a growth mindset.Your goal is to finish this class with the confidence that you can successfully complete papers in classes other than English by applying the time management and academic writing skills you have acquired in this class.

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10.2 Go solo: write a capstone paper. A capstone paper provides an exciting opportunity to demonstrate and consolidate learning. The capstone is the stone on the top of the arch. The capstone is the last stone set, and it holds the arch together.Your capstone paper is designed to consolidate your learning as a reader and writer in your first college writing class. It is likely that you will have writing assignments in many of your future college classes, and this course provides you with an introduction to the skills you need to thrive throughout college, although no single course can give you all of the skills you will need. However, the more you read and write, the better you will read and write, so in another sense, your entire college education develops the skills you have acquired in this class. As you choose a major which leads to a profession, your skillset will become more and more specialized. At some point, these skills will become habits, and you will be able to shift your attention fully to the subject matter you are studying. And of course, even though you may feel like you are traveling by yourself, you are never really alone; professors and tutors are there to help you when you need it.

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10.3 Carefully chose a subject for your capstone paper. Choosing a topic for your capstone paper allows you to engage your own intellectual interests. To demonstrate that you have control of your college writing skills and identify any remaining challenges, you will write a paper on a topic of your own choosing. This is both exhilarating and terrifying at the same time. It is exciting to follow an idea that develops from a passion but terrifying once you start to research and realize just how much information you can uncover. If you are interested in a subject, you are more likely to write a paper that generates interest in your reader.Your enthusiasm will shine through. Finding an Area of Interest for your Capstone Paper Module 1 and 3: growth mindset, imposter syndrome Start with what you have already researched. If one of the subjects we have explored this semester drives you to further investigation, you have the advantage of completed research logs to make more efficient use of your time.

Module 2 grit/dealing with stress/, making choices  Module 3 flow/executive function Module 4/6 systems of reward and punishment Module 7 Goffman’s presentation of self/ dramaturgy theory.

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Explore an area of interest that is central in your choice of major or a potential career.You will spend several years developing your major into a profession. Find out more about the hot topics in your area of interest. Or explore key ideas in your chosen field.

mental illness in America American political systems patient care in the hospital self-driving cars history of Mexican-Americans African-American literature

Explore a topic that arises from your experience: clubs, hobbies, family, or outside interests. Perhaps you belong to a club outside your major, for example, anthropology club, or you have an interest in video games. These areas have potential as research

Native-American rock carvings in California

topics.

student rights on campus

Explore an idea or issue from current events. These topics may correlate with your interest or major, or they may arise from your belief system. For example, an interest in medicine might lead you to write about the COVID 19 pandemic, or a belief in equality might draw you to the Black Lives Matter movement.

universal guaranteed income

video games dairy management in the Central Valley social treatment of transgender individuals

universal health care social justice for African Americans immigration issues global warming and environmental issues

civil rights and civil liberties the history of slavery income equality Investigate a subject that interested you in another course.

globalization evolution toxic chemicals why the dinosaurs died out themes in Chicano literature

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10.4 Think for yourself. A capstone paper provides you with an opportunity to demonstrate original thinking. When we write a paper for a class, we often have a perception that we are writing what a particular professor “wants.” In some cases, it may be true that a professor has a pre-ordained idea of the “right” paper, but most often, professors want you to think for yourself, demonstrating that you can use the information and logical structures you have learned in the course. It’s not useful to think that there is a “perfect” paper for a particular professor. It is a great idea to make use of email or office hours to work with your professor in choosing a topic and developing your ideas. Professors can provide valuable inspiration. This can prevent you from wasting time by moving in the wrong direction, and it can help you clarify and refine your ideas. However, avoid assuming that you must write exactly what you think your professor wants to hear. Think for yourself. Be confident that your ideas have value.

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10.5 Research is a never-ending process; selecting a topic is an act of research. Research is cyclical.What you find out may change your mind about your topic. As rhetorician Wayne Booth suggests, choosing a topic is in itself an act of research. Starting is always difficult. If you do not fully understand the nuances of the topic, you might not be able to get control of it until you research it more. Start by reviewing your text and lecture notes to be sure you understand the basics. Review Module 6 to be sure you are aware of all the resources available to you: library databases, research librarians, and credible online sources. The more you use these resources, the more efficiently you will make use of your research time. It is good to think of the research process as continual since each new book or article may change your perspective on the topic. In fact, research is open-ended and infinite. The word “science” means “knowledge” in Latin, and as our knowledge increases, we should be open to changing our views of the subject we are researching. However, we are also limited by the time we have to complete the research. In most 435

college classes, that amounts to a few weeks at most. When you are assigned a research project, try to start as soon as you can. “Starting” may mean reading a few articles, but committing to the project allows you to think about the topic over a longer period of time. Making a commitment to start a project also guarantees that you will finish it. If you put off thinking about the large project, chances are you will find it easier to avoid writing. Look what happened to Tim Urban’s senior thesis in “Inside the Mind of A Master Procrastinator.” The bigger the project, the sooner you need to start. It’s also important to realize that this big project won’t be perfect even though you’ve poured your energy into it.You, of course, will engage your best thinking, reading, and writing skills and present your work in the most professional manner. However, no paper can be perfect. It can only represent your best effort at the time you wrote it. And that is good enough. So don’t waste time and energy on perfectionism; focus instead on engaging your writing skills and identifying your challenges. When you have completed the project, it might not feel finished. This is a good thing because it means you are open to pursuing this research interest in the future. It might mean you’ve discovered a career pathway to follow. Identify what is compelling about the topic. Why does it spark your interest? What holds you there? You may be on to something important.

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10.6 Use a research funnel to limit your topic so you can better manage your research time. Narrowing your topic helps you write your paper in a limited time frame. Limiting your topic can help you control the amount of research you need to do. Time constraints limit all research, so it’s really important not to overreach. Even if your topic may be big enough for a potential doctoral dissertation, you can gain control of your time by narrowing your fact-finding to one tiny piece of a larger puzzle. In The Craft of Research, rhetorician Wayne Booth offers a process to narrow a topic in order to make it manageable in a short paper. First, identify the general area of interest, then add elements to narrow it until you finally create a research question in a short paper. Essentially, you create a funnel in order to manage your topic in the time that you have.

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Research Funnel Areas of interest Broad topic Focused topic Research question/ problem

Student success Growth mindset and student success in college Growth mindset: the role of failure in student success in college Does developing a growth mindset in an introductory chemistry class lead to student success?

Fill out a research funnel for your own topic.You may want to make more than one attempt as you work to make your thinking more precise. Expect some frustration here, and allow yourself some time to process your ideas.You may find a focus when you least expect it. Research Funnel Areas of interest Broad topic Focused topic Research question/problem

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10.7 Prewrite to identify the purpose of your research: I am studying ______ because ... Identifying your purpose to yourself helps you communicate that purpose to your audience. Booth also suggests you prewrite to identify your purposes in writing your paper; if you know why you are writing it, you will be able to share your motives with your audience. It’s much easier to write a paper when you see the purpose of doing so. What do you want to accomplish by writing this paper? What do you think your audience will gain when they read your paper?

I am studying

growth mindset

because I want to find out how developing a growth mindset helps college students succeed in order to understand so

the reasons why students succeed or drop out of college I can recommend effective approaches to help students complete their degrees.

I am studying Because I want to find out in order to understand so

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10.8 Before you start: consolidate your learning. Following the writing process helps you more efficiently write in your limited time frame. Skipping steps can set you back. Before you start writing your paper, take a moment to review the paper writing process we worked through in Module 6. Fill out a research log on the assignment itself and bring your questions to your professor and peer mentor. Look at the prewriting we completed just now, and freewrite a bit on your own. What pitfalls do you see? Where do you think you can soar? What fears can you identify? We are often tempted to skip steps in the process, especially when we are pressed for time. Most research projects are due at the end of a semester when demands on a student’s time are high, but sometimes we need to slow down to save time. Since there is little time for revision at the end of the semester, you may not be able to recover from a skipped step. Instead, work steadily and efficiently toward your goal.

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Breaking the writing process into ten steps makes it easier to complete a big project. •

Step 1 Verify that you understand the assignment by completing a research log.

•

Step 2 Use prewriting exercises to discover what you already know and investigate what you want to know.

•

Step 3 Create a thesis by clearly stating your tentative claim and supporting reasons in an argument organizer.

•

Step 4 Consider what additional evidence you will need to support your reasons.

•

Step 5 Build your body paragraphs by stating your reason, then introducing, quoting or paraphrasing, citing, and explaining each quotation you have chosen for evidence.

•

Step 6 Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?”

•

Step 7 Incorporate and acknowledge an alternative of view as a separate paragraph or part of your introduction.

•

Step 8 Write an effective introduction that engages your readers.

•

Step 9 Create an effective title that previews your topic and hooks the attention of your readers.

•

Step 10 Create a flow for your reader by adding transition words and argument indicators.

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10.9 Move from stating the problem to a tentative thesis statement. Understanding that learning is messy allows us to create a process to review and consolidate our learning. Take the plunge. Write out a tentative thesis and reasons for your paper. It’s not written in stone at this point.You may want to change or refine these as you work through the process.You may find additional evidence to solidify your point of view but feel free to change your reasoning if the evidence you are finding does not support it. But right now, in the process of writing your paper, what do you think? Here would be a great place to pause and ask peers, peer mentors, or your professor for feedback. Are the reasons generalizations? Be sure that you haven’t confused facts or specific details from your evidence with a reason. Do the reasons support the conclusion? Use the therefore test to check.

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Creating a Tentative Thesis Statement Since students often drop out of college because they have a fixed mindset, developing a growth mindset helps students complete college successfully for these reasons.

Claim Reason 1

First, they see failure as information they need to change their behavior.

Reason 2

Second, they judge themselves by their effort rather than their intelligence.

Reason 3

Finally, by understanding that effort helps increase intelligence, they will start to develop more engaged minds

The Therefore Test: Therefore, developing a growth mindset helps students complete college.

Fill out an argument organizer. (Downloadable fillable form) Main idea/claim/thesis

BECAUSE Reason 1 (Generalization)

BECAUSE Reason 2 (Generalization)

BECAUSE Reason 3 (Generalization)

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10.10 Build support by gathering evidence. Building your credibility by finding solid, credible evidence. Return to Module 8 Finding and Using Sources, to review the process of research. Take an inventory. What do you already know about your topic? What evidence do you need to develop your paper? Where can you find a credible opposing viewpoint? Since you have a limited amount of time, remember that you can’t read everything ever written on this topic. Limit yourself to credible sources easily accessible on library databases and ask the reference librarian for help if you need it. Using an efficient search method can help you save time. Complete a research log for each piece of evidence that you use. Spending time completing your research logs saves you time in the long run, especially if you are careful to note your sources, including page numbers and video timestamps. Carefully recording your metacognitive responses in the right column can lead you to insights more quickly. Remember, this is an ongoing process, and your claim and reasons are not fixed until you find the evidence to support them.Your conclusions are valid for the time period you are spending writing your paper; if you find new evidence once you have completed the paper, you, of course, can change your interpretation.

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Then structure your reasoning on an argument organizer. Main idea/claim/thesis

BECAUSE Reason 1 (Generalization)

Evidence for Reason 1 (Specific detail)

BECAUSE Reason 2 (Generalization)

Evidence for Reason 2 (Specific detail)

BECAUSE Reason 3 (Generalization) (add rows as needed)

Evidence for Reason 3 (Specific detail)

THEREFORE Main idea/claim/thesis/conclusion

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10.11 View argument as dance by acknowledging an alternative point of view. Present alternative points of view accurately and empathetically. Keep an open mind. It is tempting to feel a little self-satisfied if you have put together a convincing argument on a topic you care about. That’s probably a good thing.You have done your thinking and put together a convincing argument, and you deserve a self-congratulatory moment.

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However, if we think of an argument as a great conversation, our voice can’t be the only voice. Think of academic knowledge as a great party in a room full of people, living and dead; we enter the room for a while and join a conversation or two. That conversation may add a tiny bit to the knowledge in the room, and every perspective, no matter how small, has its own importance. In “Concepts We Live By,” linguists George Lakoff and Mark Johnson explain that it is important to avoid thinking of arguments as war even though many metaphors we use would lead us to believe so: “Your claims are indefensible.” Or “He attacked every weak point in my argument.” Like Lakoff and Johnson, psychologist Carl Rogers sees the weakness in this form of argumentation and suggests, instead, that we use the opportunity to find a common ground in what has come to be known as the Rogerian Argument. By finding common ground, we avoid the urge to win and move in the direction of workable solutions to our problems. In his TED talk, “For Argument’s Sake,” philosopher Daniel Cohen explores this concept further. He explains that we hit “dead ends” when we consider argument as war because we may learn from losing arguments. In his words,

. . . finally — this is really the worst thing — arguments don’t seem to get us anywhere; they’re dead anywhere. And one more thing. And as an educator, this is the one that really bothers me: If argument is war, then there’s an implicit equation of learning with losing. 

So even though you’ve built a strong argument in support of your point of view, in your summary of an alternative point of view, treat the ideas with empathy and present them with respect. What can you learn from the alternative point of view? If you find yourself changing your mind, then review your own argument; perhaps you are less sure of your own reasoning than you think. Allow the possibility that new evidence may influence your point of view. This is what it means to have an open mind.

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10.12 Looking at the big picture helps you put it all together before you write. Taking time to assemble a template will save you time in the long run. You’ve completed the research and prewritings and created a tentative thesis.You’ve looked at opposing points of view and adjusted your point of view accordingly. The next step: sketch out the entire paper on an organizer. Leave the introduction until last so that you know what ideas you wish to emphasize. Does it make sense to you? Do the reasons support the conclusion? Are you satisfied with the evidence you have chosen, or do you need to read a little more until you find more appropriate quotations or data? Remember that you can’t read everything about this topic in the time you have, but you need to read enough to make your claims and reasons credible. It’s a difficult balancing act. Try to make it work on the organizer where you can quickly change and rearrange the parts rather than being faced with revising an entire paper.

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Introduction

EVIDENCE

Alternative point of view (may be part of introduction or placed strategically)

EVIDENCE

Main idea/claim/thesis State the claims and reasons 1, 2, and 3 here (All generalizations)

BECAUSE Reason 1 (Generalization) May be restated in other words.

EVIDENCE

BECAUSE Reason 2 (Generalization) May be restated in other words.

EVIDENCE

BECAUSE Reason 3 (Generalization) May be restated in other words.

EVIDENCE

THEREFORE Main idea/claim/thesis/conclusion

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10.13 Connect to your audience with a strong title, introduction, and conclusion and create a pathway for your readers by using transition words. Create a partnership with your reader as you present your ideas. While it’s tempting to write the introduction first, we often don’t know what we have to say until we finish the paper. Remember the “therefore test”: when you can add “therefore” to your sentence, you have identified your thesis, which is also your conclusion. Once you’ve identified your conclusion, you can write an effective introduction and title to hook your audience.

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Consolidate your learning by reviewing these sections in Module 6: 6.18 Step 6 Writing your conclusion Write a conclusion that restates and expands your thesis. Answer the questions “so what” and “now what?” 6.20 Step 8 Connecting with your audience by creating an effective introduction Write an effective introduction that engages your readers in the conversation.  6.21 Step 9: Connecting with your audience by creating an effective academic title A good n effective tile hooks your audience while previewing and summarizing your paper.  6.22 Step 10: Use transition words to connect with your audience by creating a sense of flow in your paper Transition words create a pathway for your reader. 

Sometimes when we are deeply involved in our research project, we forget the reader. It’s easy to get involved in the excitement of the ideas generated by the research, so take time to connect with your reader by creating a strong introduction and title to draw the reader into your argument. Base your introduction and title on key words. Provide closure for your reader by creating a conclusion that answers the questions “so what?” and “now what?” Why are these ideas important, and how do we leap to the next idea? Finally, create a pathway for your reader by using transition words and argument indicators like first, next, finally, thus, therefore. It’s often helpful to use a trial reader who can offer feedback.

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10.14 Get the job done: write the paper one word at a time. Stay focused as you fulfill the promise presented in your template. By this time, you understand that good writing takes time. It takes less time if you’ve built a solid foundation of careful research and thoughtful prewriting, as we have done in this chapter and throughout the book. So the next step is to pull the paper together into words, sentences, and paragraphs. If you are working from an organizer, this should be a straightforward process. Strive to reach a flow state: if you feel confident in your skills and research, writing can be almost enjoyable. If you are still feeling challenges, try to write the draft through and then go back and identify the challenges. Review the reflections you wrote for Module 8. Be kind to yourself and ask for help when you need it.

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10.15 Get the job done: present yourself at your best. You’ve worked hard. Be sure to present yourself professionally. Even the most carefully composed paper needs review. If you stop to correct every small mistake as you write, you might find yourself blocked, so chances are a few have crept into your otherwise sound work. By the end of the semester, it is likely that you have developed some strong academic habits: keeping track of page numbers, citing your sources correctly, using signal phrases effectively, and following academic naming conventions. Check your changes against the information in Module 7, Presenting your work: just in time academic formatting and editing. If you’ve made a mistake, it’s not a huge issue, but before turning your final draft in, give the paper a careful proofreading. Make sure that you have addressed the challenges that have been mentioned in instructor feedback. Let the quality of your work be reflected in the quality of your presentation. Be credible. Then hit submit and turn it in. The semester is over!

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10.16 Last words: learning never stops. Unless you let it, learning never stops. By the end of the semester, you’ve learned that trying out shortcuts in the writing process usually doesn’t work, that writing is a long, complex, and ultimately rewarding task. The bad news is that writing will continue to present you with challenges throughout your lifetime; the good news is that writing will continue to present you with challenges throughout your lifetime. That’s the point. Struggling with challenges allows us to better understand ourselves and our world. Without them, we would remain static and immobile in our lives and in society. The good news is unless you let it, learning never stops.

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One last reflection! You’ve hit submit.You’re done. That’s a great feeling. As you add your paper to the portfolio of work you’ve completed this semester, think about what you’ve achieved in the semester. What changes have you experienced? Do you feel comfortable moving to the next level? Do you feel like you have accomplished more than earning a good grade? How did successfully completing your research project make you feel about your ability to accomplish your college goals and enter a profession? What challenges still remain, and how will you address them? What will you take with you on your educational journey?

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Module 10 Review 10.1 Where am I going? Approach your final project thoughtfully. Completing a final project on your own helps you understand what learning you have consolidated. 10.2 Go Solo: write a capstone paper. A capstone paper provides an opportunity to demonstrate and consolidate learning. 10.3 Carefully chose a subject for your capstone paper. Choosing a topic for your capstone Paper allows you engage your own intellectual interests 10.4 Think for yourself. A capstone paper provides you with an opportunity to demonstrate original thinking. 10.5 Research is a never-ending process; selecting a topic is an act of research Research is cyclical.What you find out may change your mind about your topic. 10.6 Use a research funnel to limit your topic so you can better manage your research time. Narrowing your topic helps you write your paper in a limited time frame. 10.7 Prewrite to identify the purpose of your research: I am studying ______ because ... Identifying your purpose to yourself helps you communicate that purpose to your audience. 10.8 Before you start: consolidate your learning Following the writing process helps you more efficiently write in your limited time frame. Skipping steps can set you back. 10.9 Move from stating the problem to a tentative thesis statement. Understanding that learning is messy allows us to create a process to review and consolidate our learning. 456

10.10 Build support by gathering evidence. Building your credibility by finding solid credible evidence. 10.11 View argument as dance by acknowledging an alternative point of view. Present alternative points of view accurately and empathetically. Keep an open mind. 10.12 Looking at the big picture helps you put it all together before you write. Taking time to assemble a template will save you time in the long run. 10.13 Connect to your audience with a strong title, introduction and conclusion and create a pathway for your readers by using transition words. Create a partnership with your reader as you present your ideas. 10.14 Get the job done: write the paper one word at a time. Stay focused as you fulfill the promise presented in your template. 10.15 Get the job done: present yourself at your best. You’ve worked hard. Be sure to present yourself professionally. 10.16 Last words: learning never stops Unless you let it, learning never stops.

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Works Cited

Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams, The Craft of Research. University of Chicago Press, 2016. Chinn, Clark A. and Bruce Sherrin. “Chapter 9: Microgenetic Methods.” Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Learning Sciences. Cambridge UP 2014.Cohen, Daniel. “For argument’s sake.” TED, Feb. 2013, https://www.ted.com/talks/daniel_h_cohen_for_argument_s_sake Fisher, Alec. Critical Thinking: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, 2006. Purdue Writing Lab. “Rogerian Argument // Purdue Writing Lab.” Purdue Writing Lab, owl.purdue.edu/ owl/general_writing/academic_writing/historical_perspectives_on_argumentation/rogerian_argument. html.

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MODULE 10 ASSIGNMENTS: WHERE ARE YOU GOING? 3.

Reading Assignment

10.1 Where am I going? Approach your final project thoughtfully.

4.

Reading Assignment

10.2 Go solo: write a capstone paper.

5.

Reading Assignment

10.3 Carefully chose a subject for your capstone paper.

6.

Reading Assignment

10.4 Think for yourself.

7.

Reading Assignment

10.5 Research is a never-ending process; selecting a topic is an act of research 

8.

Reading Assignment

10.6 Use a research funnel to limit your topic so you can better manage your research time.

9.

Reading Assignment

10.7 Prewrite to identify the purpose of your research: I am studying ______ because ...

10.

Purpose Organizer 

Complete a purpose organizer to create a clear focus before you start to write. 

11.

Reading Assignment

10.8 Before you start: consolidate your learning

12.

Reading Assignment

10.9 Move from stating the problem to a tentative thesis statement.

Organizer 1: Identify and clearly state your claim nd reasons.

Create a clear structure for your paper by completing a argument organizer. 

13.

14.

Reading Assignment

10.10 Build support by gathering evidence.

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15.

Organizer 2 Support your claim with reasons supported by evidence 

16.

Organizer 3 Introduce, quote, cite, and explain your evidence

Introduce, quote, cite, and explain each piece of credible evidence. 

Reading Assignment

10.11 View argument as dance by acknowledging an alternative point of view.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Organizer 5: Add an alternative point of view

Support your reasons with carefully selected credible evidence in an evidence organizer. Choose key quotations to support each reason. 

State an alternative point of view as the “they say” part of your paper. Be sure to support the alternative point of view with a quotation that you introduce, quote, cite and explain. 

Reading Assignment

10.12 Looking at the big picture helps you put it all together before you write.

Reading Assignment

10.13 Connect to your audience with a strong title, introduction and conclusion and create a pathway for your readers by using transition words.

21.

Organizer 4: Add a conclusion.

Provide closure for your reader by creating a conclusion that answers the questions “so what?” and “now what?” 

22.

Organizer 6: Connect with your audience by creating an effective introduction. 

Connect with your audience by providing an introduction and a hook that draws your readers into your ideas. 

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23.

Reflect Word Cloud

24.

Organizer 7: Connect with your audience by creating an effective title.

25.

Organizer 8: Create cohesion by adding transition words

26.

One last reflection! 

Review the presentation Hook and Predict: Creating an Academic Title. Follow the directions in the presentation to complete a word cloud to identify key words for your title for your title as directed there. Upload the word cloud. Explain why these key words represent your ideas in your paper. 

Use your word cloud to create an effective academic title and subtitle with a colon. 

Create a sense flow for your readers by adding transition words as appropriate. 

You’ve hit submit.You’re done. That’s a great feeling. As you add your paper to the portfolio of work you’ve completed this semester, think about what you’ve achieved in the semester. What changes have you experienced? Do you feel comfortable moving to the next level? Do you feel like you have accomplished more than earning a good grade? How did successfully completing your research project make you feel about your ability to accomplish your college goals and enter a profession? What challenges still remain and how will you address them? What will you take with you on your educational journey? 

.

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