The Persian Book of Kings: An Epitome of the Shahnama of Firdawsi 0700716181, 9780700716180

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F R O N T I S P I E C E R ustam lassoing the King o f Sham (p.30)

(Leipzig, M useum fiir Kunsthandwerk)

The Persian Book of K in gs An Epitome o f The Shahnama o f Firdawsi

B.W. ROBINSON

Q Routledge Taylor & Francis Croup LONDON AND NEW YORK

First Published in 2002 by RoutledgeCurzon Published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0X14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY, 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2002 B.W. Robinson Typeset in Bembo by LaserScript Ltd, Mitcham, Surrey

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library o f Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

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ISBN 13: 978-0-700-71618-0 (hbk)

FOR M Y G R A N D C H IL D R E N H A R R IE T , EDW ARD, K A TH A R IN E & JESSICA

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CONTENTS

List o f Illustrations Preface

xiii xvii

Introduction: The Poet & the Poem

1

EPITOME OF THE SHAHNAMA Prologue

10

I

11 11 11 12 13 13 13 15 16 16 18 18 20 21 21

T H E PISHD AD IA N DYNASTY R E IG N OF G A Y U M A R T H R E I G N OF H U S H A N G R E I G N OF T A H M U R A T H R E I G N OF JA M SH ID

The Splendour o f Jamshid The Tyranny o f Zahhak The Coming o f Faridun R E I G N OF F A R I D U N

Faridun & his Three Sons R E IG N OF M IN U C H I H R

Zal & Rudaba Birth & Early Exploits of Rustam R E I G N S O F N A W D A R , ZAV & G A R S H A S P

War with Turan

V ll

viii T H E P E R S I A N B O O K OF K I N G S

II

T H E KAYANIAN DY NA STY R E I G N O F KAY Q U B A D

Rustam's Quest for Kay Qubad R E I G N O F KAY K A ’US

Disaster in Mazandaran R ustam ’s Seven Stages Wars of Kay K a ’us The Flying Machine R ustam ’s Raid Rustam & Suhrab The Tragedy of Siyawush Birth o f Kay Khusraw Revenge for Siyawush Finding of Kay Khusraw Abdication of Kay K a ’us R E I G N O F KAY K H U S R A W

Tragedy of Farud Persian Reverses Second Expedition: Continuing Reverses Rustam to the Rescue R ustam ’s Overthrow of Kamus, the Khaqan, and Others Successful Termination o f the Campaign Rustam & the Demon Akw an Bizhan & M anizha Battle of the Twelve Rukhs Afrasiyab’s Last Campaign Capture & Execution of Afrasiyab The Last Days of Kay Khusraw R E I G N OF L U H R A S P

Gushtasp in R um R E I G N OF GUSHTASP

The Prophet Zoroaster Vicissitudes of Isfandiyar Isfandiyar’s Seven Stages Rustam & Isfandiyar Death of Rustam R E I G N OF B A H M A N R E I G N OF Q U E E N HUMAY

23 23 23 24 24 26 30 31 32 32 36 40 41 41 43 43 43 45 46 47 48 50 51 53 57 60 63 65 65 65 68 68

69 70 74 76 78 78

C O N T E N T S ix

R E I G N OF DARAB

79

Birth o f Iskandar

79

R E I G N OF DARA R E I G N OF ISK AN DA R

Iskandar in India Iskandar & Queen Qaydafa Further Travels & Death of Iskandar

III T H E A SH K A N IA N DYNASTY R E I G N OF A R D A W A N

Rise o f Ardashir

IV T H E SASANIAN DYNASTY R E I G N OF A R D A S H IR I

The Worm of Kerman Birth of Shapur Shapur & the Daughter of Mihrak R E I G N OF S H A P U R I

79 79 79

81 83 87 88

88 91 91 91 93 94 94

R E I G N S O F H U R M U Z D I, B A H R A M I, B A H R A M II, B A H R A M III, N A R S I & H U R M U Z D II R E I G N O F S H A P U R II

War with the Arabs Shapur in R um Mani

95 96 96

96 97

R E I G N S O F A R D A S H I R II, S H A P U R III & B A H R A M IV R E I G N OF YA ZDA GIRD I

Arabian Education of Prince Bahram Mysterious Death of Yazdagird R E I G N OF B A H R A M V (BA HRA M G U R )

Bahram Wins the Crown Anecdotes of Bahram Gur 1 The Water-Carrier & the Jew 2 Ban on Wine-Drinking 3 The Deserted Village 4 The Miller’s Daughters 5 The Treasures of Jamshid

97 98 98 99

100 100 100 100 102 103 104 104

x TH E PER SIA N B O O K OF KINGS

6 The Unobliging Merchant 7 Bahram Gur changes his M ind 8 Bahram Gur adds Three to his Harem 9

Bahram Gur makes a Further Addition to his Harem 10 Bahram Gur & the Miser 11 A Great Hunting Expedition Victories of Bahram Gur Bahram Gur in India & his Return R E I G N S O F Y A Z D A G I R D II & H U R M U Z D III R E I G N OF P I R U Z

Crushing Defeat of Piruz R E I G N OF BALASH

Piruz Avenged F IR ST R E I G N OF Q U B A D

Rebellion R E I G N OF JAMASP

Temporary Absence of Qubad S E C O N D R E I G N OF Q U B A D

Prince Kisra & the Mazdakites R E I G N OF N U S H IR W A N

Insolence & Defeat of Caesar Revolt of N ushzad Buzurjmihr as Dream Interpreter The Misfortunes of Mahbud Nushirwan marries the K han’s Daughter Introduction of Chess The Book of Kalila wa Dimna obtained Buzurjmihr & the Locked Casket Nushirwan’s Last Campaign R E I G N O F H U R M U Z D IV

The Rise of Bahram Chubina Bahram Chubina & Parmuda Bahram Chubina proclaims himself King War between Khusraw & Bahram Chubina R E I G N O F K H U S R A W ( PARVI Z)

Caesar’s Talisman The War Renewed Bahram Chubina in Chin

105 106 108 109 110 111 111

113 116 116 116 117 117

118 118 118 118 119 119

119 119

120 121 122

123 124 125 126 127

127 127

130 130 131 132 133 134 135

C O N T E N T S xi

Murder of Bahram Chubina Activities of Gurdiya Birth of Shirwi Khusraw & Shirin Barbad the Minstrel Fall o f Khusraw R E I G N O F Q U B A D II ( S H I RW I )

Murder of Khusraw

137 137 139 140 140 140 142 142

R E I G N S O F A R D A S H I R III, G U R A Z , P U R A N D U K H T , AZARM IDUKHT & FARRUKHZAD

Period of Confusion R E I G N O F Y A Z D A G I R D III

The Arab Invasion Flight & Murder o f Yazdagird The Bitter End: Firdawsi signs off

Notes Table o f the Kings in the Shahnama Select Bibliography Index

143 143 144 144 144 145 147 153 155 157

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS he illustrations are taken from three MSS: Keir Collection III. 133/175 o f 1475; British Library, London, Add. 18188 o f 1486; and Bodleian Library, Oxford, Elliot 325 o f 1494. These are referred to as K, L and O, respectively in the following list. Grateful acknowledgem ent is offered to the M useum fur Kunsthandwerk (Leipzig), The British Library (London), the Bodleian Library (Oxford), and M r Edm und de U nger (Ham, R ichm ond), for their kind permission to reproduce the miniature paintings.

T

Frontispiece: R ustam lassoing the King o f Sham (Leipzig,

M useum fur Kunsthandwerk) 1 Firdawsi and the three poets (K f.6a)

3

2 Prince Baysunghur receiving his new recension o f the Shahnama (O f.7a)

6

3 Gayumarth the first king and his court (K f. 11a)

12

4 Jamshid teaching the crafts (K f,13b)

14

5 Faridun crossing the Arwand (K f,18b)

16

6 M ourning for the m urdered Iraj (L f.55b)

17

7 Zal w ooing R udaba (K f.39b)

19

8 R ustam and the mad elephant (K f.52a)

20

9 R ustam catches his horse Rakhsh (L f.85a)

24

10 Rustam lifts Afrasiyab from the saddle (K f.64a)

25

11 Sleeping R ustam and the lion (L f.90b)

26

12 Rustam and the W hite D em on (O f.90a)

29

xi v T H E P E R S I A N B O O K O F K I N G S

13

Kay Ka’us in his flying machine (L f.l8a)

31

14

Suhrab and Gurdafarid (O f.l06a)

34

15

Suhrab slain by Rustam (O f.ll5 b )

36

16

Fire ordeal o f Siyawush (L f.37b)

37

17

Siyawush displays his prowess (L f.98b)

39

18

M urder o f Siyawush (L f.l03b)

40

19 Kay Khusraw, his m other Firangis, and Giv fording the Jihun (O f.l60b)

42

20

Farud w ounded by Bizhan (L f.l28b)

44

21

R ustam and Ashkabus (L £150b)

48

22

R ustam lassoes the Khaqan o f C hin (L f.l60a)

49

23

R ustam carried through the air by the dem on Akwan (K f.194)

52

24

Bizhan rescued from the pit by R ustam (L f.l83a)

56

25

Piran slain by Gudarz (K f.233a)

59

26

Shida slain by Kay Khusraw (L f.219a)

61

27

Kay Khusraw crossing the sea (L f.232b)

62

28

Execution o f Afrasiyab (K f.255b)

64

29

Gushtasp and the dragon (K f.270b)

67

30

Isfandiyar kills the Simurgh (O f.337b)

72

31

R ustam kicks back the rock throw n by Bahman (L f.281a)

75

32 D eath o f Rustam (L f.298a)

77

33

80

Iskandar comforts the dying Dara (O f.379a)

34 Iskandar at the Ka‘ba (O f.388a)

82

35

83

Iskandar and the Brahmins (L f.323a)

36 Iskandar at the Well o f Life (O f.396b)

84

37 M ourning for Iskandar (L f.329a)

85

38 Ardashir and the W orm o f Kerm an (O f.411b)

92

39 Shapur’s troops take the city o f Ta’ir (K f.349b)

95

40 Bahram Gur hunting w ith Azada (K f.358b)

98

41 Bahram Gur at the house o f Lambak (L f.358a)

101

42 Bahram Gur finds the treasure o f Jamshid (O f.446b)

105

43 Bahram G ur at the house o f the Countrym an (L f.368b)

107

LI ST O F I L L U S T R A T I O N S xv

44

Bahram G ur and the R hinoceros (O f.463b)

114

45

Defeat and death o f Piruz (O f.471b)

117

46

Enthronem ent o f Nushirwan (L f.388b)

120

47

D eath o f Nushzad (L f.398a)

121

48

N ushirw an’s envoy and the Khan’s daughters (O f.503a)

123

49 Casket brought to H urm uzd containing N ushirw an’s prophecy (L f.431b)

128

50

Sawa Shah pursued by Bahram Chubina (L f.438b)

129

51

Khusraw consults a herm it o f R u m (L f.451a)

132

52

Bahram Chubina kills the Lion-ape (L f.465b)

136

53

Khusraw at Shirin’s palace (L f.476a)

139

54

Khusraw and Shirin listening to the music o f Barbad (O f.599a)

141

Suicide o f Shirin on the corpse o f Khusraw (O f.612a)

142

55

XV

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PREFACE

he Shahnama (‘Book o f Kings’) is the Persian national epic, and is generally accepted as one of the w orld’s literary classics. But the only full translation into English, by the brothers A.G. and E. W arner (on w hich this book is based), has been long out o f print, as have one or two other English versions o f selected passages. So it seemed that there was room for a book o f manageable proportions (the W arners’ translation occupies nine volumes) in which all the stories in the great epic can be found, abridged but, I hope, readable. T hroughout my abridgem ent I have concentrated on the narrative, and have excluded lengthy speeches, letters, etc., w hich occupy a considerable space in the poem. Basically it is aimed at the general reader, but the epic narrative and its characters, especially R ustam ‘the Persian Hercules’, will appeal particularly to lovers o f folklore and old romances, and to children (I was introduced to it before the age o f ten). Such a book may also be found useful by students o f Persian literature and history as an aide-memoire, and by lovers o f Persian painting as a help in identifying subjects. W ith these ends in view the book includes an introduction, a table o f the Persian Kings, a select bibliography, explanatory notes, and a full index. The illustrations come from three late 15th century manuscripts of the epic, and give a good idea o f how the Persians regarded and illustrated their traditional history. They are all in the same uncomplicated style, centred at Shiraz, which is found in countless poetical manuscripts throughout the second half o f the 15th century It may be thought that the illustrations should have been chosen from some o f the m ore famous royal manuscripts o f the Shahnama. But X V ll

xviii T H E P E R S I A N B O O K OF K I N G S

these differ so widely in date, size and style that in order to preserve continuity I thought it preferable to follow the style o f a Persian manuscript by presenting a hom ogeneous group o f illustrations to accompany the narrative, rather than a selection o f disparate masterpieces to divert the connoisseur. The only exception is the frontispiece, which is in the same basic style as the rest, and only slightly later in date, b u t is considerably larger and m ore sophisticated. I consider that it contains the finest representation of the national hero in the w hole o f Persian art and is probably an early w ork o f the great master Sultan M uham m ad.1 B.W. R obinson

X V lll

INTRODUCTION

THE POET & THE POEM he first draft o f the Shahnama (‘Book o f Kings’) was completed in the year 999, and the final version, dedicated to Sultan M ahm ud o f Ghazna, just over ten years later. The author was A bu’lQasim Hasan, generally know n by his professional name, Firdawsi. T he work occupied him for some thirty years and the poem covers the whole traditional history o f Persia from its rem ote and fabulous origins down to the fall o f the Sasanian dynasty before the invasion o f the M uslim Arabs in the middle o f the seventh century. It comprises some 60,000 rhyming couplets in the metre called mutaqarib (U- - /

T

u - - / u - - / U - ). Firdawsi was born near Tus in the north-eastern province o f Khurasan, probably about 935; his father was a yeoman (dihqan) o f good standing. Virtually nothing is know n o f his early life, but, as one o f the earliest, and arguably the greatest o f Persian poets, he soon attracted a mass o f fable and anecdote. H e died about 1020—1025. The most reliable sources for his life are, firstly, the poet himself, who introduced a num ber o f autobiographical details into the text o f the Shahnama ; secondly the Chahar Maqala (‘Four Discourses’) o f Nizami al-‘A rudi o f Samarqand, w ho visited the p oet’s grave at Nishapur w ithin a century o f the latter’s death; and thirdly the Lubab al-Albab (‘Pure M inds’) o f ‘Awfi, o f about a century later. This last is probably the earliest o f many collections o f poetical biographies, but its treatm ent o f Firdawsi is, as Browne says2 ‘very m eagre’. The best European accounts o f the poet and the Shahnama are Professor Theodore N oldeke’s Das iranische Nationalepos, 1898 and later editions (English translation by L. Bogdanov in the Journal o f the 1

2 TH E PER SIA N B O O K OF KINGS

K .R . Cama O riental Institute, N o .6, Bombay 1925) and E.G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia, Vol. II, pp. 129—147, London 1906. I have used these freely, and here hum bly acknowledge my indebtedness. According to Nizami al-‘Arudi, Firdawsi’s sole object in composing the Shahnama was to provide a dowry for his only daughter, hoping that his great poem would attract a liberal gift or pension from a princely patron. Firdawsi also had an only son whose tragic early death inspired a pathetic elegy which is included in the text o f the Shahnama. The com pleted epic, transcribed in seven volumes, was accordingly carried to Ghazna by Firdawsi and brought to the notice o f Sultan M ahm ud by the good offices o f his Minister, whose friendship the poet had gained. A favourite anecdote o f Firdawsi’s arrival at Ghazna is w orth repeating here, though it is related by neither N izam i al-‘A rudi nor ‘Awfi. However, it is included in the Baysunghuri Preface (see below) to the Shahnama , and is not infrequently illustrated by m iniatures in the m anuscripts. T hree o f Sultan M ahm ud’s court poets, ‘U nsuri, ‘Asjadi and Farrukhi, were diverting themselves in a garden, w hen a stranger approached, and asked if he m ight jo in them . ‘U nsuri, the senior o f the three, coldly inform ed him that they were the Sultan’s poets, and that none but a poet m ight enter their company; he therefore proposed a test by w hich each o f the three should in tu rn improvise a line o f verse, and that the stranger (who was, o f course, Firdawsi) should then com plete the quatrain by im provising the fourth line. For his rhym ing w ord ‘U nsuri chose one to w hich, so far as he knew, there were only tw o possible rhymes. H e was followed by ‘Asjadi and Farrukhi, w ho guessed his stratagem and used the other two rhym ing words. All three then tu rn ed to the stranger, w ho w ith o u t hesitation improvised the fourth line, using as a rhym e the name o f an obscure hero o f the Shahnama. Being asked for an explanation, Firdawsi showed such an im pressive know ledge o f the old legends that ‘U n su ri im m ediately recom m ended him to Sultan M ahm ud as the ideal successor to Daqiqi, a poet w ho had begun to w rite a Shahnama , b ut had recently been m urdered by one o f his slaves. This amusing anecdote seems to be irreconcilable w ith the earlier account o f N izam i al-‘A rudi, w ho makes Firdawsi com plete his Shahnama before his arrival at Ghazna. O n the other hand there is no doubt

THE POET & THE POEM 3

PLATE 1 Firdawsi and the three poets

that about a thousand couplets by Daqiqi are included in the Shahnama as we now have it; for this Firdawsi him self is our authority. D id he then discard his ow n verses on the same episode to accom m odate them? To return to the account o f Nizami al-‘Arudi: some court mischief-makers began to intrigue against the M inister and his poet friend, accusing the latter o f heresy, and in consequence he received only a trifling reward. After w riting a blistering satire on Sultan M ahm ud3, Firdawsi visited the bath, bought himself a cup o f beer (fuqa) and divided his paltry fee betw een the bath attendant and the beer seller. Anticipating the Sultan’s fury if a rum our o f this should reach him, Firdawsi managed to recover his manuscript from the royal librarian, and took refuge w ith the Ispahbud (Com m ander-inChief) o f Tabaristan on the south-east coast o f the Caspian. The Ispahbud was o f pure Persian blood, a descendant o f the Sasanian Kings; he naturally found the Shahnama , w ith its glorification o f the

4 TH E PE RS IAN B O O K OF KINGS

pre-Islamic Persian monarchy, very m uch to his taste, and treated the fugitive poet w ith every kindness and generosity. M eanw hile Sultan M ahm ud himself, engaged in his Indian campaigns, had halted before the city o f a rebel chief, to w hom he had sent an envoy demanding surrender. As they waited for the envoy’s return, the Sultan and his M inister were discussing what sort o f reply they would receive. The M inister was already an admirer o f the Shahnama , and quoted a couplet: ‘And should the reply w ith my wish not accord, T hen Afrasiyab’s field, and the mace, and the sword.’ ‘W hose verse is that?’ asked the Sultan, ‘for he must have the heart o f a m an!’ The M inister told him that Firdawsi was the author, and ventured to rem ind him o f the shabby treatm ent the poet had received after his long years o f labour. Sultan M ahm ud was stung by remorse, and on his return to Ghazna com m anded that a rich present to the value o f 60,000 gold dinars - one for each couplet o f the Shahnama — should be sent to Firdawsi at Tus, his birthplace to w hich he had returned. But, as Nizami al-‘Arudi goes on to tell us, as the royal camels bearing the gift entered the city by the river gate, the corpse o f Firdawsi was carried out to burial by the Gate o f Razan. T he p o et’s daughter proudly refused the royal bounty, w hich was used instead to build a caravanserai on the road to Nishapur. Firdawsi’s sources were both literary and oral. In 928, shortly before the poet’s birth, as related in the ‘old’ preface to the Shahnama , a certain Abu M ansur A l-M a‘mari, a high official, commissioned a prose Shahnama for the governor o f Tus. This was to be translated and edited from the original Pahlavi sources by a team o f four Zoroastrian scholars (their names are given; all are pure Persian w ithout a single Muslim name among them ), and the result o f their labours, now unfortunately lost, must have been Firdawsi’s main source.4 Additional sources would probably have been other Persian or Arabic translations from the Pahlavi, such as al-M uqaffa’s translation o f a history o f Isfandiyar son o f Gushtasp, and an abridgem ent o f the Book o f Zarir (brother o f Gushtasp) w hich was included by Tabari in his m onum ental annals. N o doubt he also received oral inform ation and assistance from scholarly acquaintances

THE POET & THE POEM 5

w ho clung to the old religion and so were familiar w ith the Pahlavi language and traditions. The contents o f the Shahnama in its present form fall into four dynastic periods o f unequal length: (i) the Pishdadian, in w hich the early Kings (all, o f course, completely mythical) teach their subjects the arts and trades, and engage in wars w ith the demons (div), the sequence being broken by the long and bloody reign o f the Arabian usurper Zahhak; (ii) the Kayani, in w hich the national hero Rustam is the most prom inent character, and there is almost incessant warfare w ith the northern neighbour Turan and its king Afrasiyab;5 (iii) the Ashkanian (Parthian), a period o f nearly 500 years (BC249-A D 226), dispatched by Firdawsi in a mere twenty couplets, as no m ore than ‘Kings o f the Tribes’ (muluk al-tawa’if. cf Genesis xiv.I, ‘Tidal King o f N ations’); (iv) Sasanian (AD226-652), in w hich the treatm ent is broadly historical, though an occasional dragon puts in an appearance. The text varies somewhat in length in different copies, and portions o f later epics, w ritten in imitation o f Firdawsi, are often included in manuscripts o f the 16th century onwards. From its first appearance the Shahnama enjoyed im m ense popularity amongst the Persians, and hence the text, sometimes in a fairly corrupt form, has survived in innumerable m anuscript copies right down to the 1860s. The earliest surviving copy, in the National Library, Florence, is dated to 1217 —two centuries after the death o f Firdawsi —and we have to wait another century before we encounter a copy illustrated w ith miniature paintings. In 1425, under the cultured young T im urid Prince Baysunghur Mirza, a scholarly recension o f the text and a new preface were undertaken, and these are usually followed in subsequent copies. Baysunghur’s text and preface were first enshrined in a magnificent manuscript produced under the prince’s supervision and dated to 1430, w hich is now in the Gulistan Palace Library, Tehran. The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries produced an enorm ous range o f fine illustrated Shahnama manuscripts, after w hich their numbers gradually decreased, and faded out after the appearance o f the first Persian prin ted (lithographed) edition in 1850. As noted above, the Shahnama comprises the whole history of Persia, in its traditional form, down to the Arab conquest. It must be emphasised that, although most Persians accepted it till comparatively

6 TH E PER SIA N B O O K OF KINGS

PLATE 2 Prince Baysunghur receiving his new recension

o f the Shahnama

recent times as historical, and despite the misguided efforts o f W estern writers to equate Kay Khusraw w ith Cyrus, the earliest part o f the poem, down to the death o f Rustam , is wholly mythical, and that from then on, though the framework is basically historical, fabulous episodes and characters abound. If the epic is to be enjoyed, disbelief must also be suspended in matters o f geography, time and space, in envisaging the patriarchal length o f life enjoyed by some kings and heroes (Rustam ’s life covered nine reigns —over 600 years), the inexhaustible resources o f the royal treasury, the instant raising and rapid m ovem ent o f enorm ous armies, and many other pieces o f

THE POET & THE POEM 7

fantastic hyperbole, rem em bering that to the oriental m ind such concepts are far easier to digest than to the European. Even so, Firdawsi’s language, in comparison w ith other and later Persian poets, is quite simple. H e loves his heroes, and he is invariably sympathetic to the old religion, and to pre-Islamic Iran in general; no doubt it was this attitude that prom pted the accusations o f heresy levelled at him by Muslim bigots at the court o f Sultan M ahm ud. He never used an Arabic word or phrase where a Persian one was possible; indeed, some o f the Persian words he used were archaic or obsolete even in his own time, and many manuscripts o f the Shahnama incorporated a glossary o f such words. In short he was an ardent patriot as well as a great poet —a com bination that made him the ideal author for such a stupendous em bodim ent o f national pride, w hich helped to keep the flame o f independence burning through the long centuries o f Arab, Turkish, M ongol, and Tartar dom ination, till the final re-em ergence o f a sovereign Iranian state under the Safavid dynasty at the beginning o f the sixteenth century. To conclude this brief introduction it is w orth quoting the eloquent appreciation o f Firdawsi by the great English orientalist Professor Edward Cowell (1826-1903): ‘Augustus said that he found R om e o f brick, and left it marble; and Firdawsi found his country almost w ithout a literature, and has left her a poem that all succeeding poets could only imitate and never surpass, and w hich . . . perhaps, stands as alone in Asia as H om er’s epics in Europe. His versification is exquisitely melodious, and never interrupted by harsh forms o f construction; and the poem runs on from beginning to end, like a river, in an unbroken current o f harmony.’

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EPITOME OF THE SHAHNAMA

PROLOGUE

irdawsi devotes the first 230-odd couplets o f the Shahnama to a variety o f introductory matter: the praise o f God, o f his wisdom, and o f the making o f the world, o f Man, and o f the Sun and M oon; praise o f the Prophet M uham m ad and his Companions, an account o f the compilation o f the Shahnama ; an account o f the poet Daqiqi (a profligate w ho came to an early and tragic end), and o f how the Shahnama was begun; eulogies o f Abu M ansur b. M uham m ad (a fellow-citizen o f Tus and an early and generous patron o f Firdawsi), and o f Sultan M ahm ud o f Ghazna. After this the poem proper begins.

F

I

THE PISHDABIAN DYNASTY R E I G N OF G A Y U M A R T H

he first King was Gayumarth, w ho dwelt on a m ountain surrounded by his courtiers all clad in leopard skins. They lived in peace and tranquillity and on friendly terms w ith all the wild beasts. But this happy state o f affairs was soon disturbed by the envy o f Ahriman, the Evil Principle, w ho sent his son, the Black D em on, to invade Iran at the head o f a vast dem on host. Siyamak, the Kings gallant young son, led out an army against them , but was defeated and slain in single combat by the Black D em on. In due course Hushang, the son o f Siyamak, encouraged and accompanied by his grandfather, embarked on a war o f revenge, engaging the demons in battle, and, w ith the assistance o f a squadron o f angels and a troop o f lions, leopards, and tigers, inflicted on them a crushing defeat,6 killing the Black D em on in single combat. Shortly after this Gayumarth died, leaving the kingdom to his grandson.

R E I G N OF H U S H A N G

Hushang taught his subjects to mine and w ork iron and to use it to make tools and other metalwork. H e encouraged agriculture and irrigation, and certain animals were domesticated. O ne day as Hushang rode out w ith his followers, he encountered a loathsome dragon. The King seized a stone and hurled it at the monster, but he missed his aim, and the stone struck a rock. Sparks 11

12 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

PLATE 3 G ayum arth the first king and his court

flew, and a fire was started. Hushang and his m en were impressed by this phenom enon, and in due course discovered that fire can also be produced by striking stone w ith iron. Fire was welcom ed as a heavenly gift and became an object o f worship. The King instituted the Feast o f Sada in its honour, and died soon afterwards.

R E I G N OF T A H M U R A T H

Hushang was succeeded by his son Tahmurath, under whose rule m ore useful arts were discovered and developed: spinning and weaving, horse breeding, and the training o f cheetahs and falcons for the chase.

THE PISHDADIAN DYNASTY

13

In all this he was assisted by his wise counsellor Shidasp, and soon felt capable o f tackling the evil Ahrim an and his demons. H e bound Ahrim an w ith spells, and rode him about the world like a horse. Enraged by his hum iliation o f their leader, the demons once again came out to battle, but were quickly dispersed by Tahm urath and the royal troops. T he captive demons begged for quarter, promising to instruct the king in a new and fruitful art — the art o f writing. Tahm urath agreed and learnt to w rite in various scripts, but kept the demons in subjection, thus gaining the title o f Div-band, Binder o f the Demons.

R E I G N OF J A M S H I D

The Splendour o f Jamshid

Jamshid son o f Tahmurath succeeded his father, ushering in what was at first a golden age. H e excelled all his predecessors in wealth and magnificence. H e taught his subjects the arm ourers craft, how to make fine garments o f silk and brocade, and other luxuries. He divided them into four classes: priests, warriors, farmers, and artisans; building and architecture he left to the subject demons. H e also initiated the use o f perfumes and gems, and o f medicinal herbs. Finally he had a jewelled throne made, w hich the demons were employed in raising into the air, and from w hich he proclaimed the festival o f N ew Year (Nawruz). But after a while he became corrupted by his good fortune, ending up by imagining himself equal to the Almighty. It was then that the Royal Splendour (see note 19) departed from him, and after that his path ran steeply downhill.

The Tyranny of Zahhak

In Arabia at this time there ruled a good old king named Mirdas. But his son Zahhak was a young man o f evil tendencies, and in order to gain the throne and under the persuasion o f Iblis (the Devil)7 he m urdered his father by causing him to fall into a deep pit w hich he

14 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

PLATE 4 Jamshid teaching the crafts

had prepared. O nce on the throne he was visited by Iblis in the form o f a cook, w ho provided him w ith such delicious meals that Zahhak offered him whatever favour he m ight ask. Iblis simply requested the honour o f kissing the King’s shoulders. N o sooner had he done so than two w rithing serpents grew from Zahhak’s shoulders, and Iblis vanished. The serpents were cut off, but grew again immediately causing the king intense pain, and Iblis soon reappeared, this time in the guise o f a physician. H e counselled the w retched king that the only way to relieve the pain was to feed the serpents daily on hum an brains. Accordingly every day two youths were sacrificed to satisfy the serpents’ horrible appetite.

THE PISHDADIAN DYNASTY

15

The Coming of Faridun

M eanwhile in Iran Jamshid’s overbearing pride and tyranny were provoking open rebellion, and some o f the disaffected nobles sent a deputation to Zahhak, o f whose character they had unfortunately received a favourable account, inviting him to come to Iran and to take over the Kingdom. H e responded eagerly, drove out the illstarred Jamshid (who was eventually run down and sawn in two), seduced his two sisters, Shahrinaz and Arnawaz, and forced the Persians to pay the daily toll o f two young lives to feed his serpents. However the bloody toll was halved by the ingenuity o f two young Persian patriots, Irm a’il and Karm a’il. They contrived to secure positions as royal cooks, and w hen the two daily victims were brought to the kitchens, they killed only one o f them, turning the other free, and substituting for his brains those o f sheep and goats. In this way they saved the lives o f 200 young men, from w hom the Kurdish nation is said to have sprung. A certain smith named Kava lost seventeen sons in this way, and w hen the eighteenth was threatened he burst into Zahhak s presence, denounced him violently, and procured a reprieve for the boy. But w hen the king asked him to add his name to a statement (already signed by the abject court nobles) to the effect that his reign had been benevolent and just, Kava scornfully refused, storm ed out into the marketplace, m ounted his leather apron on a spear for a banner,8 and called on the crowd to follow him. They first sought out a young prince o f the old royal race, named Faridun, w ho Zahhak had been warned in a dream w ould bring about his downfall. Faridun’s father, Abtin, had been killed by Zahhak, and w hen his m other Faranak was in hiding w ith her child, they were sheltered and fed by a beautiful cow called Birmiya. In m em ory o f this cow (also slain by Zahhak), Faridun later ordered Kava to make him an iron mace w ith a cow ’s head. So far Faridun had evaded the tyrant’s efforts to find and destroy him, and now he saw his chance. A mighty host o f the exasperated Persians, led by Kava w ith his apron-banner, gathered round him, and boldly advanced on Zahhak’s palace, after swimming their horses across the river Arwand. There Faridun found Jamshid’s two dishonoured sisters, w hom he rescued and m arried, but there was no sign o f the tyrant himself. H e had been in India, learning

16 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

PLATE 5 Faridun crossing the Arwand

sorcery, but his minister, Kundrav, saw Faridun enthroned in the palace, and hastened to inform his master o f this reverse o f fortune. So after a while, mad w ith jealousy at Faridun s appropriation o f his mistresses, Z ahhak ventured back to the palace. T here he encountered Faridun, w ho struck him down w ith a mighty blow o f his cow-headed mace, and, on the advice o f the angel Surush, had him chained above a bottomless chasm on M ount Demavend, where he was left to die miserably.

R E I G N OF F A R I D U N Faridun & his Three Sons

Faridun now ascended the throne. His m other Faranak, as soon as the joyful news reached her in her hiding place, brought out the hoarded

THE PISHDADIAN DYNASTY

17

treasure she had amassed during her years o f seclusion, and distributed it lavishly amongst her son’s supporters, making a special gift to Faridun him self He had three sons by the sisters o f Jamshid, Salm and Tur by Shahrinaz, and Iraj by Arnawaz, and in due course as the result o f a successful embassy by Jandal, Faridun’s trusty minister, they were m arried to the three daughters o f Sarv, the King o f Yemen. O n their return journey after this triple wedding, the brothers were confronted by a dragon, before w hich Salm prudently retired, while Tur strung his bow and prepared to fight. But Iraj interposed, boldly confronting the m onster and conjured it to vanish in the name o f their father Faridun. The dragon accordingly vanished; it was, in fact, Faridun himself, w ho has assumed this shape in order to test his sons. So Faridun divided his realm betw een the three: to Salm he gave R u m (Rome) and the West; to Tur the N orth and East, comprising Turan (Turkestan) and C hin (China); and to Iraj the choicest lands of Iran and Arabia in the South. But before long the two elder brothers

PLATE 6 M ourning for the m urdered Iraj

18 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

became jealous o f Iraj, and began to plot against him. A m eeting was arranged to settle matters betw een them , in the course o f w hich Tur attacked Iraj, striking him down w ith a stool and finishing him off w ith his dagger. Faridun was prostrated w ith grief w hen he received the news in the form o f the severed head o f his youngest and favourite son. Iraj, however, had left a daughter w ho in due course was m arried to Faridun’s nephew, Pashang, and their son was M inuchihr. As soon as he was o f age his great grandfather urged him to execute vengeance upon his great-uncles. This he faithfully performed, first on Tur and then on Salm, both o f w hom he slew in single combat. Soon after this the aged Faridun died, leaving the throne and kingdom to M inuchihr.

R E I G N OF M I N U C H I H R

Zal & Rudaba

W ith the accession o f M inuchihr the scene o f action moves to the eastern frontier province o f Zabulistan, or Sistan, to the household o f the great paladin Sam. For long childless, he at length became the father o f a sturdy son, Zal; but the baby’s hair was pure w hite — thought to be a sure sign o f dem on blood —and he was accordingly exposed on a mountainside as a prey for the wild beasts. From this predicam ent the baby was rescued by the miraculous bird Simurgh, w ho carried him off to her nest, and brought him up w ith her own chicks. M eanwhile Sam was sternly reproved in a dream for what he had done, and was directed to seek out his son, w hom he eventually traced and received back from the Simurgh. Before their sad and affectionate parting, the great bird gave Zal a feather from her breast, and instructed him to burn it if he should ever be in dire need, and she would immediately fly to his assistance. So Zal was restored to his father Sam, and they returned home. Zal grew up a pattern o f beauty and chivalry, was given a part in his father’s government, and decided to pay a call on his neighbour Mihrab, King o f Kabul. W hile there, he fell in love w ith the K ing’s daughter, the fair Rudaba, and after a distant w ooing had his first

THE PISHDADIAN DYNASTY

19

m eeting w ith her, climbing up to her apartment in a high tower o f the palace w ith the aid o f his lasso.9 B ut there were difficulties and objections. M ihrab was a descendant o f the hated tyrant Zahhak, and his people were idolworshippers; they, on the other hand, taunted Zal w ith his w hite hair and unconventional upbringing. However, after a long process o f royal correspondence, threatened hostilities, and female intrigue, and not before Zal had undergone a kind o f third degree interrogation and given an impressive display o f his various military accomplish­ ments, the families were eventually reconciled and the marriage consummated.

PLATE 7 Zal w ooing R udaba

20 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

Birth & Early Exploits o f Rustam

R udaba’s pregnancy was difficult, and a portentous birth was indicated. Zal became so w orried that he burned the Simurgh’s feather. T he faithful bird imm ediately appeared, took in the situation, and counselled a caesarean operation, R udaba having been first made senseless w ith wine. This advice was followed successfully, the w ound healed by a preparation provided by the Simurgh, and the national hero Rustam was ushered into the world. At one day old he appeared like a child o f a year’s growth, and soon the services o f ten wet-nurses were required to satisfy his appetite. W hen still quite a small boy, Rustam used to join in drinking bouts w ith his father and friends, and while sleeping off the effects o f one o f these he was rudely awakened by an alarm that the royal white elephant had broken loose and was rampaging through the streets and

PLATE 8 R ustam and the mad elephant

T H E P I S H D A D I A N D Y N A S T Y 21

trampling the citizens. The boy seized his grandfather’s mace, knocked down a gate-keeper w ho attempted to stop him, smashed the gate open, confronted the elephant, and slew it w ith a single blow to the head. H e then returned calmly to bed. It was not long before Zal decided that it was time his son was blooded in war, so he sent him to avenge his greatgrandfather Narim an, w ho had been killed in an unsuccessful attack on the fortress o f Sipand. An attempt by Sam had also failed. Rustam , however, gained access to the impregnable stronghold w ith his m en disguised as salt merchants, made a great slaughter o f the inhabitants, and carried off an immense booty. Soon after this King M inuchihr died.

R E I G N S OF N A W D A R , Z A V & G A R S H A S P

War with Turan

M inuchihr was succeeded by his son Nawdar, an oppressive m onarch, under w hom the people revolted, and the country was invaded by Afrasiyab, the young son o f Pashang, King o f Iran’s northern neighbour Turan. H e defeated the Persian army and took Naw dar prisoner. Afrasiyab then sent an army under Shamasas and Khazarwan to invade Zabulistan, w here Zal was occupied w ith his father’s obsequies. Nevertheless he immediately led out his troops to m eet the threat and inflected a signal defeat on the invaders. Infuriated by this reverse, Afrasiyab beheaded Naw dar w ith his own hand, and ordered that all the Persian captives in Turanian hands should be massacred. Their lives were saved, however, by the intervention o f Afrasiyab’s brother Ighrirath, whose hum ane action Afrasiyab regarded as treachery, and cut him dow n w ithout hesitation. The war continued under Zav, w ho succeeded Nawdar, and the situation was exacerbated by drought and famine. Eventually a treaty was negotiated, rain fell, and Zav died. His son Garshasp succeeded him, and Afrasiyab renewed hostilities, being again checked by Zal, and Garshasp died.

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II

THE KAYANIAN DYNASTY R E I G N OF KA Y Q U B A D

R ustam ’s Quest for Kay Qubad

this juncture Zal decided to send Rustam to fetch Kay Qubad, a prince o f the line o f Faridun, from his secluded retreat on M ount Alburz. But first the young hero must have a steed. In Zal’s herd was a fierce mare w ith a fine young colt; she had killed several m en w ho had tried to secure her offspring, and w hen Rustam approached she attacked him furiously w ith hoofs and teeth. But Rustam felled her w ith a blow o f his fist, and turned his attention to the colt. It took him a long time and m uch patience to break him, but eventually he was subdued, and remained R ustam ’s faithful charger and com panion till they m et death together. His name was Rakhsh, Lightning. So they started together on their quest for Kay Qubad, Rustam carrying his grandfather’s mace. O n the slopes o f M ount Alburz he came upon a splendid palace and garden in which was a young man w ith a band o f retainers. O n hearing o f R ustam ’s errand, the young man revealed himself as Kay Qubad, saying that he had been warned in a dream o f the destiny that awaited him. All then m ounted and, led by Rustam , joined Zal and the Persian army w hich was confronting the host o f Afrasiyab. Rustam asked his father to point out Afrasiyab to him, but the latter declined to do so, saying that the Turanian prince was too strong an opponent for a youthful and untried w arrior to tackle. In the general engagement that followed, 23

24 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

PLATE 9 R ustam catches his horse R akhsh

however, Rustam made short work o f a Turanian outpost and its com m ander Q ulun, and soon identified the enemy leader. They fought fiercely till Rustam , w ith a mighty effort, seized Afrasiyab by the belt and lifted him bodily from his horse, intending to bring him captive before Kay Qubad. But the belt snapped, Afrasiyab fell to the ground, and was immediately surrounded and rescued by his own troops. Rustam went on to perform prodigies o f valour, and soon the Turanians broke and fled. T heir king Pashang sued for peace, and Kay Q ubad passed the remainder o f his life quietly at Istakhr (Persopolis) the capital.

R E I G N O F KA Y K A ’U S Disaster in M azandaran

Kay Q ubad was succeeded by his eldest son Kay Ka’us, a rather foolish, headstrong young man. Very soon after his accession he was persuaded by a dem on in the guise o f a minstrel, to invade the

T H E KA Y A N I AN D Y N A S T Y 25

PLATE 10 R ustam lifts Afrasiyab from the saddle

northern territory o f Mazandaran, which was described to him as a veritable earthly paradise. This was in spite o f the strongly worded advice o f Zal; he enlarged on the demons and wizards w ho infested the land, w hich m ight well prove a death trap. The expedition was a disaster. After some preliminary Persian successes, the King o f Mazandaran enlisted the help o f his formidable neighbour, the W hite Dem on. W ith his assistance the Persian army was overwhelm ed by aerial missiles, and the survivors captured, blinded, and im prisoned in caves. Nevertheless Kay Ka’us, w ho was included in the disaster, contrived to send a message to Zal, inform ing him o f the dreadful straits to which he and the army were reduced.

26 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

R u sta m ’s Seven Stages

Zal naturally decided to send R ustam to the rescue (feeling too old himself), and w hen the latter enquired o f the route, his father replied that there were two possible ways. The first, w hich had been taken by Kay Ka’us and his army, was safe and easy, but m ight take several m onths; the second was beset by dangers and obstacles o f all kinds, but m ight be covered in seven days. As befitted a national hero, R ustam unhesitatingly chose the second, saddled up, and bade his father farewell. As night fell after his first day’s journey, R ustam found himself in a dense forest where, sighting a herd o f wild asses, he quickly secured one o f them w ith his lasso, spitted and roasted it whole, and made a hearty meal. H e then found a comfortable spot under a large tree where he spread his blanket, leaving R akhsh to graze nearby, and was soon deeply asleep. After a while Rakhsh heard a rustling in the undergrow th, and a huge lion suddenly emerged and attacked the faithful steed. But Rakhsh fought hard w ith hoofs and teeth, and eventually trampled the lion underfoot and left it dead. The noise aroused the sleeping hero, w ho quickly realised what had happened, and sternly rebuked Rakhsh for not waking him, thus putting them

PLATE 11 Sleeping R ustam and the lion

T H E K A Y A N I AN D Y N A S T Y 27

both, and his vital errand, in danger. The remainder o f the night passed quietly. W hen they left the forest the following m orning they found themselves in a treeless desert under a blazing sun, and soon both man and horse were suffering terribly from thirst. After wandering hopelessly for some time in search o f water, Rustam fell exhausted on the burning sand, and prepared himself for death. But he also prayed earnestly to the Almighty to spare him so that he m ight rescue the King and his captive army, and suddenly a fat sheep appeared. Rustam staggered after it, and it led him to a spring, w here he and Rakhsh were able to quench their thirst and cleanse themselves. But w hen Rustam looked round for the sheep it had vanished, and he realised that his prayer had been answered by a miracle. Conditions improved on the following day, and as night came on Rustam , having slain, roasted and eaten another wild ass, lay down to sleep, emphatically repeating his warning to Rakhsh not to tackle any dangers w ithout waking him. At m idnight an enorm ous firebreathing dragon made its appearance, w hereupon Rakhsh furiously neighed and stamped by his master’s side, but w hen the hero awoke and looked about him, the m onster had disappeared. This happened a second and third time, so that Rustam became enraged and threatened the noble horse w ith death if he should again waken him unnecessarily. B ut suddenly the darkness lifted revealing the monstrous dragon close upon them. Rustam engaged it boldly, but would have been overwhelmed had not Rakhsh distracted the creature’s attention by biting its shoulders. This gave R ustam his chance, and he was able to cleave the dragon’s head w ith his sword. In the course o f the next day they entered Mazandaran, the land o f the magicians, a delightful country o f rich vegetation and purling streams. All at once R ustam came upon a charm ing spot by the waterside where a sumptuous meal was laid out. R ustam was ever a good trencherm an, so dispensing w ith ceremony he ate and drank his fill, though he suspected that he was being watched. H e noticed a lute on the ground nearby, so he took it up and sang to his own accom panim ent o f the joys and glory o f a w arrior’s life. At this, a beautiful wom an appeared and made herself pleasant, laughing and bantering w ith him, till Rustam pressed a cup o f wine on her, bidding her drink in gratitude to the Almighty for his bounty. But no

28 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

sooner had she heard the Divine N am e pronounced that she perforce resumed her natural repulsive shape, for she was one o f the magicians. The hero quickly caught her in his lasso, drew his sword, and cut her in two. They next passed through a land o f utter darkness, where Rustam dropped his reins on the neck o f R akhsh allowing the faithful horse to determ ine the way. He eventually brought them out into an extensive farmland, where Rustam lay down to sleep on a grassy bank, leaving Rakhsh to graze among the corn. The farm er soon appeared, and imprudently roused R ustam w ith foul words and blows o f his stick, w hereupon the hero, furious at this ill-m annered awakening, seized him by the ears and tore them from his head. The w retch fled to the local marchlord, Awlad, to make his complaint, and the latter rode swiftly w ith a body o f his guards to where Rustam was resting. They attacked him, but he made such havoc among them that they fled in confusion, Awlad himself being taken in R ustam ’s lasso. R ustam promised him his life and the kingship o f Mazandaran if he would act as his guide to the lair o f the W hite D em on, an offer which Awlad was relieved and delighted to accept. But first Rustam had to encounter the dem on host that had defeated and imprisoned Kay Ka’us and his arm y It was dark w hen he came in sight of their camp-fires, so he decided to settle down for the night, having secured Awlad and set Rakhsh on guard over him. At daybreak he rode forth shouting his challenge, and the com m ander of the dem on army, w ho was named Arzhang, came furiously to m eet him. R ustam simply seized him by the horns, tore his head from his body, and flung it among the other demons, w ho fled in all directions. He then rode on into the city, which he found deserted. Rakhsh was so delighted w ith their progress that he gave a loud neigh which reached the ears o f the captive king in his prison; but w hen he joyfully told his fellow captives, they thought he was mad, and it was not till the hero himself burst into the prison that they felt liberty was at hand. Kay Ka’us urged Rustam to lose no time in seeking out the W hite D em on, w ho would otherwise call up a host o f dem on reinforcements, and he added that blood from the m onster’s liver was the only sure cure for their blindness. So Rustam set forth, still guided by Awlad, on his last stage. Among the Seven Mountains he encountered the W hite D em on’s bodyguard,

T H E K A Y A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 29

w hom he fell upon w hen the sun was high and most o f them were asleep, and dispersed them w ithout difficulty. Soon he entered a deep m ountain cleft, at the end of which was a cave o f utter blackness, almost entirely filled by a monstrous sleeping figure. Rustam boldly advanced, shouting his war-cry, w hereupon the creature leaped up and hurled a huge millstone at him. Rustam dodged it, and, rushing to close quarters, lopped off a hand and foot from the demon. There ensued a terrible wrestling bout during which first Rustam and then the W hite D em on felt himself failing, but the hero put up a desperate prayer, and found himself endued with an access o f strength by which he was enabled to dash the W hite D em on to the ground and plunge a

PLATE 12 R ustam and the W hite D em on

30 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

dagger into his heart. W hen he had recovered his breath Rustam cut out the D em ons liver, w ith the blood o f which he anointed the eyes o f the King and his soldiers, w ho became quite delirious w ith joy at the restoration of sight and liberty.

Wars of Kay K a ’us

W hen he was fully recovered, Kay Ka’us wrote to the King o f Mazandaran demanding formal submission and tribute; this was haughtily refused, and R ustam was sent to arrange matters. H e first routed a ‘welcom ing’ party by uprooting a tree and hurling it among them , then discomfited a giant Mazandarani leader named Kalahur, w ho challenged him to shake hands, by crushing his hand in his grip. But the King o f Mazandaran was set on war. In the ensuing battle R ustam sought out the King who, being a sorcerer, tried to save himself by turning into a mass o f rock, but the hero forced him to resume his normal shape, and he was quickly hewn in pieces. Kay Ka’us then returned in trium ph to Iran, and R ustam to his father in Zabulistan. D uring a subsequent progress through his dominions, the king became involved in a war w ith the monarchs o f Barbaristan (Somalia), Hamavaran (Yemen), and Sham (Syria), and having defeated them, he m arried Sudaba the daughter o f the King o f Hamavaran. The latter, however, was furious at the loss o f his daughter, and planned revenge. H e therefore invited Kay Ka’us and a num ber o f Persian nobles to a great feast. Despite an urgent warning from Sudaba, the invitation was accepted, and all were treacherously seized and imprisoned in a m ountain fortress, where Sudaba was soon sent to jo in them. Afrasiyab, w ho had by now succeeded his father Pashang on the throne o f Turan, was not slow to take advantage o f this situation, and invaded Iran w ith a large army. R ustam was inevitably sent for, and decided to deal w ith the Hamavaran situation first, and then w ith Afrasiyab’s invasion. His ultim atum was rejected by the King o f Hamavaran, w ho sum m oned his form er allies to his aid. The battle was joined: R ustam lassoed the King o f Sham, the King o f Barbaristan was also captured, and their armies put to flight. In view o f this signal defeat, the King o f Hamavaran released all his prisoners and restored their looted

T H E K A Y A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 31

property. Afrasiyab was then tackled, and once m ore a rejected ultim atum was followed by a battle in w hich the invaders were put to flight.

The Flying Machine

The period o f peace and prosperity that followed these victories was interrupted by the curious episode o f Kay Ka’us and his flying machine. Iblis, the Devil, once m ore took hum an shape as an engaging youth, w ho pointed out to the King that though he was lord o f all the earth, he was not yet familiar w ith the heavens; should he not find means o f ascending thither? Kay Ka’us, as was his nature, eagerly seized on the idea, and devised a throne w ith a spear fixed upright at each corner; on the point o f each spear was suspended a leg o f m utton, and below, at each corner o f the throne, a trained eagle was secured. The King seated himself upon the throne, a cup o f wine before him, and gave the word. The eagles flew eagerly upward to get at the meat, and the whole contraption rose into the air. After a while the eagles tired, or perhaps gave up in despair, and the machine made a forced landing in a forest on the Caspian coast.

PLATE

13 Kay Ka’us in his flying m achine

32 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

Miraculously the King was unhurt, and prayed hum bly and earnestly for deliverance. In some unexplained m anner news o f his plight got through to R ustam w ho organised a body o f troops and eventually found and rescued him. H e berated the king soundly for his folly, and escorted him home, overcome w ith shame, in a litter.

R ustam ’s Raid

T here follows a short interlude in w hich Rustam and seven chosen warriors (with their followers) made a raid into Turan on the spur o f the m om ent after a day o f feasting and drinking. They made havoc am ong the game in Afrasiyab’s favourite hunting ground, and the latter soon appeared w ith an army. Rustam easily dispersed them at the first encounter, but at the second the Turanians fielded two champions, Pilsam and Alkus, w ho caused serious casualties among the Persians. However, as soon as R ustam took a hand, Pilsam fled, and Alkus fell a victim to the hero. In his subsequent flight Afrasiyab narrowly escaped capture.

Rustam & Suhrab

H ere ensues the best know n (in the West) episode o f the Shahnama : the tragic story o f Rustam and his son Suhrab. Once, on a solitary hunting expedition, Rustam awoke to find that his faithful steed R akhsh had, as he thought, been stolen during the night. H e therefore made his way on foot to the neighbouring city o f Samangan near the Turanian border. He was received there w ith great respect by the local ruler, w ho offered him entertainm ent and accom m odation whilst a search for Rakhsh was organised. After he had retired to bed in the ruler’s palace, Rustam was visited by his host’s beautiful only daughter, Tahmina. She averred that she had long been in love w ith him after hearing o f his prowess and adventures, and longed to bear his child. Rustam reciprocated her feelings, formally requested her hand from her father, and the marriage was solemnised and consummated. M eanwhile R akhsh had been found and restored to his master. It was not long before the

T H E K A Y A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 33

hero decided he must return home, but before he left he told Tahmina that if she bore a son, she must send him to his father to be trained as a warrior, but if a daughter, she might keep her at home; he also gave her a signet for the child. In due course Tahmina gave birth to a son, Suhrab - a baby almost as prodigious as Rustam had been. She prevented the news reaching Rustam , but Suhrab soon began to show curiosity about his father’s identity. Eventually his m other told him that he was the son o f the great hero Rustam , whose nobility, virtues, and heroic exploits she extolled at length. Suhrab impulsively decided to attack both Kay Ka’us and Afrasiyab, and to place his father on a united throne. But the crafty Afrasiyab had already heard o f this young w arrior and his superhum an strength and skill in arms, and sent two o f his chief paladins to enlist the youth’s co-operation in overthrowing Kay Ka’us, hoping at the same time to ensure that father and son should fight on opposite sides and so perhaps destroy one another. Suhrab began his crusade w ith an attack on the W hite Castle, a Persian stronghold. He first overcame and captured Hajjir, its deputy commander, but was then engaged by the fair amazon Gurdafarid, w ho fought him on equal terms till he snatched off her helmet, revealing luxuriant tresses and a girl’s face. She tricked him into allowing her to withdraw, unconquered, w ithin the fortress walls from which she shouted scorn and defiance. W hen Suhrab assaulted the castle on the following day, he found to his chagrin that Gurdafarid and the whole garrison had escaped during the night by a subterranean passage. News o f these proceedings duly reached Kay Ka’us who, as was his wont, sum m oned Rustam urgently from Zabulistan. The hero treated the summons lightly, and detained the envoys feasting and drinking for several days. W hen he eventually presented himself before the King, the latter was furious at the delay, and ordered the paladin Tus to seize Rustam. This ill-advised move resulted in Tus being unceremoniously knocked down by the hero. Rustam started off homewards in high dudgeon, but the King soon realised his mistake, and sent the paladin Gudarz after him w ith an abject apology. This the hero accepted graciously, and returned w ith Gudarz to court. His return was celebrated by a lavish banquet and drinking session, from w hich the paladins sought their beds somewhat unsteadily

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PLATE 14 Suhrab and Gurdafarid

The army marched the following day to encounter Suhrab’s forces and soon came up with them. In the evening Rustam volunteered to visit Suhrab’s camp in disguise in order to size up this formidable young man and his troops. W hilst he was observing Suhrab and his principal officers in high revel, a certain Zhanda Razm , Suhrab’s uncle, felt a need to leave the company temporarily, and stumbled on the disguised Rustam lurking just outside the tent entrance. He challenged the hero and Rustam felled him w ith a blow that broke his neck. Suhrab awaited his return in vain, and w hen inform ed o f his death, vowed vengeance. M eanwhile Rustam made his way back to the Persian camp, and reported all he had seen to the King. Suhrab, o f course was equally anxious to ascertain his foe’s

T H E K A Y A N I AN D Y N A S T Y 35

dispositions, and the following m orning he took w ith him his Persian captive Hajjir to the top o f an eminence which gave them a view o f the w hole Persian camp. H e particularly asked Hajjir to identify the positions o f the various Persian leaders, in the hope o f locating his father; but Hajjir refused to identify Rustam , fearing that he would be sought out and slain by Suhrab in the impending battle. Suhrab then led his army against the Persians, penetrating to w ithin striking distance o f the royal tent, where he called out a challenge to Kay Ka’us to send out a w arrior w orthy o f combat w ith him. There was no reply, but the King sent for Rustam , w ho was lying low in his tent. The hero arm ed and came forth, and so father and son faced one another for the first time, neither knowing w ho the other was. In a preliminary exchange, Suhrab expressed himself as unwilling to kill an old man, whilst Rustam , nettled at this, loudly regretted that such a fine young man should be rushing on his doom . Suhrab, however, felt an instinctive sympathy w ith his opponent, and asked him directly if he were Rustam. Rustam denied it, and they fell to combat till both were exhausted and their weapons broken. The next day they m et once more, but before the fight resumed, Suhrab again pressed his opponent to confess that he was indeed R ustam son o f Zal, but R ustam again dismissed any such suggestion. They then contended in wrestling, and suddenly Suhrab heaved up R ustam and flung him on the ground, where he sat astride him and drew his dagger for the fatal blow. R ustam ’s quick wit saved him; he pleaded that the customs o f battle differed betw een Iran and Turan, and that in the form er a victor in wrestling might only kill his opponent on the second throw. The chivalrous youth accepted this plea, and they parted once more. W hen they confronted one another on the third day, Suhrab felt unaccountably depressed, while R ustam sensed a revival o f his powers. In the struggle that followed he dashed his son to the ground and, not giving him the second chance he had successfully claimed himself, stabbed him fatally. ‘M y father Rustam will avenge m e!’ cried Suhrab. R ustam was deeply shocked to hear this, and demanded proof. His son bade him uncover his arm, and there he found, bound round it, the signet he had given to Tahmina. R ustam ’s desperate request to Kay Ka’us for an elixir to restore his son was turned down, and the youth expired. R ustam was almost distracted w ith grief, and returned to Zabulistan. The desolate

36 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

PLATE 15 Suhrab slain by Rustam

m other, w hen she heard the news, gave herself up to hopeless m ourning, feeling that by concealing the birth o f his son from Rustam , she was largely responsible for the tragedy

The Tragedy o f Siyawush

The tragedy o f Suhrab is followed by the misadventures o f another ill-starred young man, the prince Siyawush. In the course o f a hunting expedition the paladins Tus and Gudarz encountered a fair

T H E K A Y A N I AN D Y N A S T Y 37

maid in the forest; they quarrelled about whose she should be, and agreed to let the king decide. Kay Ka’us resolved the dispute by marrying her himself, and in due course she gave birth to prince Siyawush. The child showed such physical promise that the king entrusted his education to Rustam in Zabulistan. As a boy he was brought to court by the hero, and was given a sumptuous reception. Soon after this the m other o f Siyawush died, m uch to the grief o f her young son. As he grew up, Sudaba the Q ueen fell violently in love w ith her step-son, w ho had been urged by his father to visit her following his m other’s death. She finally attem pted to seduce him, but he rejected all her advances till, in the fury o f a wom an scorned, she tore her hair, disordered her dress, and accused Siyawush o f violating her. The King was unconvinced, so she later took dead twins, to w hich a palace wom an had just given birth, passed them off as her own, and loudly com plained that Siyawush was the father. Even after consulting astrologers and other wise men, Kay Ka’us was unable to make up his m ind on the affair, and decided to subject Siyawush to an ordeal by fire. Two huge fires were accordingly built, w ith a narrow passage betw een them, and the young prince, clad in white, rode unharm ed through the blaze. The people rejoiced and the King embraced him w ith relief. H e condem ned Sudaba to be hanged, but

PLATE 16 Fire ordeal o f Siyawush

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the chivalrous Siyawush begged his father to spare her life, and his request was granted. Nevertheless the Q ueen revived the King’s love for her by witchcraft, and continued to slander the prince to him. As this point news arrived o f another invasion by the restless Afrasiyab. Siyawush volunteered to lead the Persian troops, and Kay Ka’us agreed, but put him under the protection o f Rustam . The first engagement took place near Balkh, a city which the Persians occupied after three days o f fighting. Afrasiyab was infuriated, and that night he had a terrible dream that he was in the midst o f his slaughtered soldiers, while the Persians trium phed everywhere; one o f them dragged him before Kay Ka’us, and there Siyawush clove him in two w ith his sword. His wise m en warned him that this dream foretold disaster if he fought against Siyawush, and he therefore decided to make peace. His brother Garsiwaz was sent to negotiate. Lenient terms were arranged, including the surrender o f hostages by the Turanians, and Siyawush sent the news to his father by Rustam . Kay Ka’us was enraged at the peaceful outcom e o f the campaign; he thirsted for Turanian blood. Rustam was perem ptorily sent hom e to Zabulistan, and the King wrote a letter to Siyawush berating him for his mildness in the face o f the Turanian foe, and ordering the hostages to be sent to him to be hanged. There was a fruitless exchange o f correspondence and finally Siyawush decided that he could not act against the Divine Will by giving up the hostages, nor could he in honour return to his father. So, putting the army under the com m and o f his lieutenants Bahram and Zanga, he made up his m ind to seek refuge w ith Afrasiyab. O n the advice o f his wise minister Piran, Afrasiyab wrote to Siyawush, saying that he had heard o f his trouble, and offering hospitality, prom otion, and every luxury if he would join the court o f Turan. Afrasiyab did indeed give the prince the warmest o f welcomes, and before long invited him to display his skill in various knightly accomplishments - polo, archery, hunting - in all o f w hich Siyawush distinguished himself. Afrasiyab conceived a genuine affection for him, and Piran gave him his daughter Jarira in marriage. Shortly after this, on Piran’s advice, he requested and gained the hand of Afrasiyab’s daughter Firangis. By Jarira he had Farud, and by Firangis he had Kay Khusraw, destined to be one o f the greatest o f Persian kings. Amid the rejoicing at these happy events, only the face o f

T H E K A Y A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 39

PLATE 17 Siyawush displays his prowess

Garsiwaz was sour, boding ill for Siyawush, and his m ood was further darkened w hen Siyawush trounced him at polo, and carried out w ith considerable panache several m ore breath-taking feats o f arms. Afrasiyab bestowed a province on Siyawush, where the latter built a splendid castle called Gang-Dizh, and later the m onarch gave him a choice site where he built a city w hich he named Siyawushgird, and was visited there by Piran and Garsiwaz. But w hen they returned to Afrasiyab, Garsiwaz slandered Siyawush, accusing him o f intriguing with the neighbouring nations, and o f scheming to usurp the throne o f Turan, for w hich purpose, he said, the prince had assembled a large army. Afrasiyab was half inclined to believe these slanders, and sent Garsiwaz back w ith an invitation to Siyawush and Firangis to come to court. D uring his visit, Garsiwaz succeeded in sowing suspicions o f Afrasiyab s intentions towards him in the m ind o f

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PLATE 18 M urder o f Siyawush

Siyawush, and persuaded him to put off coming to court, and to w rite a letter instead, declining the invitation, and citing the indisposition o f Firangis as his excuse. Afrasiyab s anger at this imagined insult was further inflamed by the continuing slanders o f Garsiwaz, and he m arched on Siyawush w ith an army, slaughtered his guards, and, despite the impassioned pleading o f Firangis, ordered the prince to be beheaded. This cruel sentence was carried out by Gurwi, while Garsiwaz caught the blood in a basin.

Birth o f K ay Khusraw

This m urder o f an innocent and brilliant young prince struck horror into the hearts o f many Turanians, especially the wise counsellor Piran, w ho had been a good friend o f Siyawush ever since the

T H E K A Y A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 41

prince’s arrival in Turan. H e hurried to court, just in time to save the pregnant Firangis from sharing her husband’s fate, and persuaded Afrasiyab to let him take care o f her, promising to bring the child, if a boy, to court as soon as he was old enough. So Kay Khusraw was born peacefully, and placed for safety in the hands o f shepherds faithful to Piran. W hen at length Afrasiyab sum m oned him to bring the boy before him, Piran instructed Kay Khusraw to feign imbecility in answering the king’s questions, and gave out that he was half­ witted. The plan worked. Afrasiyab felt that he had no further reason to fear, and Piran settled the boy and his m other in his father’s palace at Siyawushgird, now alas, overgrown w ith brambles.

Revenge for Siyawush

W hen news o f the m urder o f Siyawush reached Iran, Kay Ka’us was prostrated w ith grief and remorse, whilst Rustam was almost mad w ith rage. H e hauled Sudaba from her palace by the hair and cut her down in the street. The army was immediately prepared for a war of revenge. The van was led by Faramurz, a young son o f Rustam , w ho defeated and slew Warazad, king o f the border state o f Sipanjab, whilst his father routed the main force o f the Turanians, led by Afrasiyab’s son Surkha. This prince was captured and beheaded in revenge for Siyawush. A final effort by Afrasiyab himself also ended in a rout, despite heroic deeds by the champion Pilsam, w ho was finally slain by Rustam . Afrasiyab fled, and despatched Kay Khusraw to the distant land o f Khutan to prevent his joining the victorious Persians. M eanwhile R ustam devastated the land o f Turan, and ruled over it for seven years.

Finding of Kay Khusraw

W arned in a dream, the paladin Gudarz sent his son Giv to find Kay Khusraw. The weary search took him seven years, and whenever he made enquiries he slew his inform ant to prevent his quest becom ing know n in Turan. But at length he came upon the prince and his mother, and identified him by a black birthm ark on his arm w hich he

42 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

shared w ith all the Kayanian race. They travelled to Siyawushgird, where Kay Khusraw found and appropriated his father’s faithful steed Bihzad, and Firangis supplied them w ith arm our and weapons from a secret store. T hen they started for home, but very soon their presence was detected, and one night w hen Kay Khusraw and his m other were asleep, exhausted, and Giv was on guard, a body o f Turanian troops appeared. N othing daunted, Giv engaged them single-handed w ith such fury that they fled back to Piran, their commander. Piran was very angry to hear o f this ignominious defeat, and himself led a

PLATE 19 Kay Khusraw, his m other Firangis, and Giv fording

the Jihun

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strong force in an attempt to prevent the fugitives from reaching Iran. Firangis was on watch w hen they appeared, and gave the alarm. Giv engaged Piran in single combat, and the latter was unhorsed and bound w ith Giv’s lasso, and his troops fled. Piran s life was saved by the intercession o f Firangis, and he was allowed to go home. O n the way he was m et by Afrasiyab w ith a fresh force, w ho cursed him for his failure and dismissed him. By this time the fugitives had reached the river Jihun (Oxus) which separated the realms o f Iran and Turan, and, w hen the ferryman refused to take them across, they boldly swam their horses across the stream and landed safely on the friendly shore, leaving Afrasiyab and his m en raging in frustration.

Abdication of Kay K a ’us

They were joyfully received by Kay Ka’us, w ho then swore to renounce the kingship to anyone w ho would subdue the infidel fortress o f Bahman. Fariburz son o f Kay Ka’us and Tus son o f N awdar both felt, in view o f their royal parentage, that they had a certain right to the crown, and jointly led an expedition against the fortress. But they found it surrounded by an area o f intolerable heat, and were forced back. Kay Khusraw was then called upon to try his luck. By invoking the name o f the Almighty, he was enabled to reach the fortress, the ramparts collapsed, and his troops made short work o f the dem on garrison. R eturning in trium ph he was warmly congratulated on all sides and especially by Fariburz and Tus, w ho acknowledged his prior right. In a formal ceremony Kay Ka’us vacated the throne, crowned Kay Khusraw, and handed over the kingdom.

R E I G N OF KAY K H U S R A W

Tragedy of Farud

From the beginning o f his reign Kay Khusraw was determ ined to exact a full revenge for the m urder o f his father, and having dispatched various formalities —receiving homage, making a progress

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through his kingdom, num bering the paladins, and so on —he first of all granted R ustam ’s request to pacify a troublesome province on the frontier w ith India, and thus adjacent to R ustam ’s own domain. H e then reviewed his army, w hich he placed under the com m and o f Tus, and sent them on a punitive expedition to Turan. But first he warned Tus that he must go by the desert route in order to avoid the castle o f his half-brother Farud, w ho was not to be molested or interfered w ith in any way. But w hen the time came, and despite the protests of Gudarz, Tus took the easier route past Farud’s castle. T he young Farud learned o f the approach o f Tus and his army, and took his counsellor Tukhar w ith him to the top o f a m ountain from w hich the whole Persian host could be viewed. Tukhar pointed out all the chiefs to him by their blazons. The appearance o f the two o f them on the m ountain enraged Tus, w ho thought they were hostile spies, and he sent Bahram to question them. W hen Bahram discovered w ho Farud was, he welcomed him, but, not trusting Tus, advised him to treat w ith no envoy but himself; he then returned to the camp and reported to Tus. But the general was still

PLATE

20 Farud w ounded by Bizhan

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peevish, and called for a w arrior to go up and bring him the head o f Farud. Two successive warriors w ho tried to obey this summons were shot by Farud, w ho sensed their hostile intent. Tus him self then sallied forth, but this time, on the advice o f Tukhar, Farud shot only the horse, leaving the general to make an inglorious return on foot. Giv followed w ith the same result. Finally Bizhan, Giv’s son, rode out, and again Farud shot the horse, but this time Bizhan continued his advance on foot, and Farud turned from him towards the castle gate. Bizhan severely w ounded Farud’s horse, but the rider escaped into his castle. N ext day the army o f Tus launched a general assault; most o f Farud’s m en were slaughtered, but he fought on alone. At last, mortally wounded, he managed to gain the castle interior and expired in his m other’s arms. His m other, Jarira daughter o f Piran, then slew herself on his corpse. The Persian warriors were overcome w ith grief and remorse w hen they viewed the corpses, and turned angrily on Tus, w ho endeavoured to palliate his guilt by giving Farud a splendid funeral.

Persian Reverses

Tus then pursued his errand o f vengeance into Turan, burning and pillaging as he went. A Turanian champion named Palashan was killed by Bizhan on the way, but soon the Persian army encountered a terrible blizzard which raged for eight days. They suffered badly from cold and starvation, and were reduced to eating their horses. The next Turanian champion they m et was Tazhav, a local marchlord and a renegade Iranian. H e led out his troops boldly, but in the fight that followed they were put to flight, and Tazhav himself narrowly escaped capture by Bizhan, w ho snatched from his head a splendid crown he had received as a gift from Afrasiyab. T he Persians looted his castle, and replaced from his herds the horses they had eaten. Tazhav himself got away to carry the news to Afrasiyab, w ho immediately sent out an army under Piran. Having driven off a num ber o f the Persians’ horses he launched a night attack on their camp, which took them by surprise, many o f them being drunk. The rout was complete, and the Turanians pursued the defeated rabble for some distance.

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News o f the disaster was o f necessity sent to Kay Khusraw. H e was outraged by the senseless killing o f his half-brother Farud, and by the subsequent collapse o f the army, and prom ptly w rote a furious letter recalling Tus, and appointing Fariburz to replace him as com m ander-in-chief. T he reception o f Tus by the king was rather less than cordial, and after a scarifying denunciation he was put in chains and dismissed the court. T he first act o f Fariburz as com m ander was to ask Piran for a m o n th ’s truce. This was generously granted and honourably kept, but w hen the m onth had expired, fighting again broke out, and the Persians suffered another reverse in the course o f w hich Bahram lost his riding-w hip, and insisted on returning to the battle-field to look for it. Turanian troops came about him, and after an heroic resistance he was m ortally w ounded by Tazhav. Giv, however, later found Tazhav alone, attacked and lassoed him, dragged him before the dying Bahram, and cut his head off. But the Persian army resolved to withdraw, leaving the victory to Piran.

Second Expedition: Continuing Reverses

Kay Khusraw was furious w hen the army returned, but eventually pardoned them, and, on R ustam ’s intercession, re-appointed Tus to the com m and, and sent him out once m ore against Turan. R eluctantly Piran came to m eet him and, pretending to accept Tus’s proposal that he should come over to the Persian side, succeeded in delaying matters till Afrasiyab could send him a fresh army. A huge force was duly set in m otion, and hostilities recom menced. O n the first day Tus slew Arzhang, a famous Turanian champion, and engaged Hum an, the Turanian com m ander under Piran, but approaching darkness stopped the fight. O n the following day, the Turanians employed a sorcerer named Bazur. H e was sent up to the top o f a m ountain by Piran, and there conjured up a terrible blizzard o f snow and ice to afflict the Persian army. Tus prayed for divine assistance, and the sorcerer was detected and slain, w hereupon the sun began once m ore to shine through. Nevertheless, despite the heroism o f their leaders, the Persian army fled to M ount Hamavan, where they were closely besieged by the

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enemy. The Turanians attempted a night attack; the fighting was fierce, but ended in a draw. News o f the continuing failure and perilous situation o f his army was brought to Kay Khusraw, and he sum m oned R ustam and other chieftains to a meeting. R ustam readily responded to the King’s appeal, and agreed to go to the rescue. Kay Khusraw ordered him to raise troops in Kabul and his native Zabulistan, and to send Fariburz ahead w ith such troops as were readily available. Before he departed Fariburz, by R ustam ’s mediation, requested the hand o f Firangis, his brother’s widow. She accepted him, and after a short honeym oon of four days the armies were on the move.

Rustam to the Rescue

The beleaguered Tus, meanwhile, was visited by Siyawush in a dream, giving encouragem ent and hinting at the approach o f Rustam , but still the Persians were hem m ed in. H um an and Piran discussed the situation, the form er counselling immediate attack, but the latter, w ith his customary caution, decided to continue the siege and to starve the Persians into surrender. H e received an encouraging message from Afrasiyab to the effect that further reinforcements were on the way including the Khaqan o f C hin (Emperor o f China) and the mighty w arrior Kamus. Soon after they had arrived, one o f the Persian watchm en cried out that a cloud o f dust was rising from the road to Iran; it was Fariburz leading the vanguard. T he Khaqan, as soon as he arrived w ith Kamus, carefully reconnoitred the Persian positions on M ount Hamavan, and discussed plans w ith Piran and Kamus. O nce m ore Piran advised a waiting game, but Kamus was all for an immediate attack. The armies faced each other once again, and Kamus stood forth w ith a haughty challenge. Giv came out to face him, but his arrows made no impression on the arm our o f Kamus, w ho w ounded him w ith his spear, and advanced to dispatch him. Tus rushed to his rescue, and they fought till darkness fell. That night R ustam arrived, incognito, w ith the army o f Zabulistan. W hen the armies faced each other on the following m orning, Ashkabus, a doughty Turanian champion, rode out calling loudly for

48 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

PLATE 21 Rustam and Ashkabus

a w orthy opponent. R uhham accepted the challenge, but was quickly knocked unconscious by a blow o f Ashkabus’s mace. Tus would have taken his place, but was prevented by Rustam , who strolled out on foot w ith his bow and a couple o f arrows stuck in his belt. After a heated verbal exchange in w hich Rustam declined to identify himself, Ashkabus vainly showered arrows upon him, but Rustam , w ith two quick shots, first brought down the horse and then slew the rider.

R u sta m ’s Overthroiv o f Kam us, the Khaqan, and others

In conference after this set-back, Piran and Kamus decided that the Persian champion on foot was not Rustam , and their allies, led by the Khaqan, resolved on an all-out assault. O n his side R ustam made a speech encouraging his troops, and appeared in full panoply, m ounted on Rakhsh. Kamus rode out w ith his usual challenge, and after some hesitation Aiwa, a com panion o f Rustam , came out to

T H E K A Y A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 49

face him. But Kamus made short work o f him, filling R ustam w ith rage and grief at the death o f his friend. So he immediately attacked Kamus, dragging him from his horse w ith his lasso, bound him, and cast him down before the Persian chieftains, w ho soon finished him off w ith their scimitars. But the Turanians were still uncertain o f R ustam ’s identity, and w hen the death o f Kamus was announced to the Khaqan he urged them to find out, by all possible means, the name and origin o f his vanquisher. O ne o f his warriors, Chingish, eager to avenge Kamus, volunteered to engage the unknow n Persian champion. However Rustam again refused to identify himself, and his formidable appearance was too m uch for Chingish, w ho turned tail and fled. But the hero spurred on Rakhsh and soon caught up w ith him, seized his horse by the tail, cast him to the ground, and struck off his head. The Khaqan then decided to send H um an in

PLATE

22 R ustam lassoes the Khaqan o f C hin

50 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

disguise to question the hero, but R ustam would only say that if the Turanians wanted peace they must deliver up all w ho had any part in the betrayal and m urder o f Siyawush, and he added that he fervently desired to m eet Piran. H um an was now convinced that they had R ustam to deal with, and told Piran so. Piran told the Khaqan, w ho sent him to Rustam. The hero received him kindly, and on learning his name revealed his own. Their converse was friendly, but Rustam still insisted that he was there to exact retribution for the m urder o f Siyawush, and no other solution was possible, so Piran sadly departed. Again the armies faced each other and a bloody fight ensued, during w hich Rustam successively overthrew the Indian King Shangul, w ho managed to escape alive, Sawa, a kinsman o f Kamus, w hom he demolished w ith his mace, and Gahar o f Gahan w hom he slew as he fled. Finally he encountered the Khaqan himself, and, being goaded by the latter’s shouted insults, lassoed him and dragged him from his w hite elephant to the ground, where he was quickly secured as a prisoner.

Successful Termination of the Campaign

News o f the disastrous defeat o f his powerful allies was duly carried to Afrasiyab, while the Persian army continued its advance into Turan. The vanguard came to a city o f cannibals, ruled by Kafur the M an-eater, w ho led out his troops against them and inflicted heavy casualties. But w hen R ustam came up he soon turned the tables, killing Kafur and sacking his city where the Persians took a rich booty o f slaves and treasure. Conscious o f R ustam s approach, Afrasiyab mustered the army o f Turan, and enlisted the help o f Puladwand, a king from am ong the m ountains o f China, and thought to be an invincible wrestler, w ho joined him w ith a large force. W hen the armies met, Puladwand overthrew Tus, Giv and R uhham in quick succession, so that the Persians were throw n tem porarily into confusion. W hen R ustam heard o f the havoc w rought by Puladwand he was m uch grieved, and rode out to challenge him. After an inconclusive combat on horseback, they agreed to dism ount and wrestle. But Afrasiyab, disdaining the rules o f wrestling, sent

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Puladwand orders to kill Rustam w ith his dagger if opportunity offered; however this message was overheard, and R ustam was forewarned. W hen they closed, R ustam grasped his adversary, lifted him above his head, and dashed him violently to the ground, then, thinking him dead, rode off in trium ph. But Puladwand recovered himself, and fled the field w ith his troops, to be quickly followed by Afrasiyab and the Turanians, w ith the Persians in pursuit. Afrasiyab s camp was looted, his palaces burnt, and the victors returned to a lavish welcome at the court o f Kay Khusraw, while R ustam made his way hom e to Zabulistan. [Here follow two detached episodes: the story o f R ustam and the D em on Akwan, and the story o f Bizhan and Manizha.]

Rustam and the Demon A kw an

O ne day, as Kay Khusraw was drinking w ith his paladins, a herdsman arrived at court complaining that a wild ass o f alarming size and appearance had been raiding the horse-herds and killing the horses. The king realised at once that this was no ordinary wild ass, but the dem on Akwan in disguise. N one o f the paladins present would volunteer to tackle the problem, so Rustam , as usual, was sent for. Kay Khusraw explained the situation to him w hen he arrived, and sent him forth to deal w ith the menace. Arrived at the place the herdsman had indicated, the hero searched in vain for three days, but on the fourth the astonishing creature suddenly appeared and rushed past him like the wind. Rustam pursued, but w hen he threw his noose the wild ass vanished, and the same thing happened when he attempted to shoot it w ith bow and arrows. After vainly following it for a day and a night, he was exhausted, and lay down to sleep by a spring. Seeing his chance, the dem on approached in his true form, dug up the earth all round the sleeping hero, and lifted it, Rustam and all, into the air. The unaccustomed m otion soon awoke the hero, and the dem on offered him a choice: should he cast him down on the m ountain, or should he hurl him into the sea? Even in this predicament, R ustam ’s w it did not desert him; he realised that whichever choice he made the demon

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PLATE 23 Rustam carried through the air by the demon Akwan

w ould carry out the other, so he asked to be cast on the m ountain, so that even in death his bones would remain to show what a mighty man he had been. True to form, Akwan replied that he wished no trace o f him to remain, and flung him into the sea. O n the way down R ustam contrived to draw his sword and, once in the water, used it effectively against the crocodiles by which he was attacked, swimming w ith his left arm, till at last he reached the shore, and offered up a heart-felt thanksgiving to the Almighty for his deliverance. H e made his way to the spring where he had slept, but Rakhsh was nowhere to be found. At last, however, he spied his faithful steed amongst a herd o f Afrasiyab’s horses, m ounted him, drove off the herd, and slew several herdsmen w ho attempted to interfere. A surviving herdsman brought the news to Afrasiyab, w ho went after R ustam w ith a body o f troops, including elephants, but w hen

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they encountered him the hero spread death and destruction in all directions, drove off the elephants and horses, and returned to his spring. There the dem on found him again, but this time R ustam was too quick for him, caught him in his lasso, and knocked him on the head. H e then returned in trium ph to the King’s court, driving the elephants and horses before him.

Bizhan & M anizha

O nce again Kay Khusraw was drinking w ith his paladins w hen a deputation from the land o f Irman, on the borders o f Turan, waited upon him, complaining o f a noxious plague o f wild boars, which were doing untold damage to crops, trees, and livestock. As before, the king called for volunteers, and this time young Bizhan stood forth and, despite the opposition o f his father Giv, was given the task o f clearing the land o f this plague. But in view o f his youth, he was to be accompanied by Gurgin, an older w arrior w ho had m ore experience and knew the country. From the beginning Gurgin was jealous o f Bizhan, and sought to thw art him at every turn. However the young w arrior successfully exterm inated the boars, taking their tusks as trophies for the King. They were now near the border o f Turan, and Gurgin suggested that they should visit a delightful spot he knew in the neighbourhood w here parties o f young Turanian girls, including Manizha, the daughter o f Afrasiyab, were in the habit o f disporting themselves. Bizhan needed little persuasion to fall in w ith this plan, and leaving Gurgin behind, soon came in sight o f M anizha’s pavilion. She observed him w ith approval as he stood in the shade o f a cypress tree, and sent her old nurse to bid him welcome. So they feasted and drank w ith her maids for three days and nights, but then it was time for Manizha to go home. She could not bear to be separated from Bizhan, so put a drug in his wine, and smuggled him, still unconscious into her apartment in the palace, where they continued their revels. But is was not long before his presence was detected by a chamberlain, w ho w ent and told Afrasiyab. The King was infuriated and sent Garsiwaz w ith a detachment o f soldiers to seize and bring before him any man found in the princess’s apartments. Guided by

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the sound o f revelry, Garsiwaz soon located the chamber, and found Bizhan within, w ith M anizha and a considerable num ber o f her maids. Bizhan drew a dagger he carried in his boot, but Garsiwaz tricked him into surrendering it, trussed him up, and brought him to Afrasiyab. The latter, not surprisingly, condem ned him to the gallows w ithout hesitation. However, by good fortune Piran happened to pass that way w hen m en were busy erecting the gibbet, and w hen they told him it was for Bizhan he bade them cease w ork whilst he sought an audience w ith the king. H e succeeded in having Bizhan’s sentence com m uted to imprisonm ent, and he was confined, heavily fettered, in a dark and noisome pit covered by a huge stone. As for M anizha, her apartments were sacked, she was deprived o f her fortune and status, and reduced to begging in the streets. She m anaged to make a small hole under the covering stone o f Bizhan’s dungeon, through w hich she was able to pass such scraps o f food as she could obtain. M eanwhile the w retched Gurgin became alarmed w hen Bizhan failed to return. H e found the young w arrior’s horse wandering by the riverside, and decided to return to Iran w ith a concocted story o f Bizhan’s fate. H e was first confronted by Bizhan’s father Giv, and told him a tale o f a dem on wild ass in pursuit o f w hich Bizhan had vanished. Giv was not convinced, and brought him before Kay Khusraw, to w hom he babbled his story in a most unconvincing manner. The king had him put in chains, sent search parties in all directions and, w hen they failed to trace the young man, called for his magic cup, in w hich he was able to see all that was happening in the Seven Chimates. By this means he soon descried Bizhan confined in the pit and Manizha attending him. So he sent a letter to R ustam by the hand o f Giv, im ploring his assistance. As usual, the hero readily assented, and, again as usual, invited Giv to jo in him in a three day feast and drinking bout. W hen they eventually came to court, Kay Khusraw welcomed them w ith another feast and drinking session, to which all the other paladins were invited. H earing o f R ustam ’s arrival, Gurgin besought him to plead his cause before the King, w hich Rustam did to such effect that Gurgin was freed from his chains. W hen the situation had been explained to Rustam , he decided to employ his old stratagem o f disguising himself and seven chosen

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companions as merchants, and drew on the royal treasury for an impressive stock o f costly merchandise. Thus equipped he set out w ith a strong force w hich he left on the frontier in case it should be needed, whilst himself advancing w ith his chosen seven till he came to Khutan, w here Piran ruled. Piran did not penetrate R ustam ’s disguise, and bade him and his party welcome. News soon spread that a caravan o f rich merchandise had arrived from Iran, and R ustam and his m en did a brisk trade. Poor Manizha also heard o f the arrivals from Iran, as she begged bread in the streets, and hastened to R ustam ’s lodging. At first he questioned her sharply, but quickly realised that she was speaking the truth, and gave her food to take to Bizhan, concealing his signet in a loaf o f bread. O n discovering the signet, Bizhan laughed aloud in the pit, so that M anizha, listening outside, was afraid he had gone mad. But he reassured her w ith the good news the signet implied, and sent her back to R ustam for instructions. She was told to light a fire after dark to guide the rescuers to Bizhan’s place o f confinement. Arrived there guided by M anizha’s fire, the warriors strove in vain to lift the great stone from the m outh o f the pit; but Rustam prayed for strength, lifted the stone, and hurled it into the neighbouring forest. H e then demanded o f Bizhan that he w ould freely forgive Gurgin, otherwise he would leave him w here he was. To this Bizhan had little choice but to agree, though unwilling at first, and Rustam drew him up from the pit with his lasso. H e was in a terrible state w ith sores and filth, so they made all haste back to R ustam ’s lodging, w here he was washed, tended, and given clean clothes. Rustam decided to enliven and round off his trip to Turan by sacking Afrasiyab’s palace, w hich he and his companions (now including Bizhan) effected in fine style, shouting abuse at Afrasiyab and carrying off rich booty. W hen they got near the frontier, they found themselves pursued by Afrasiyab w ith a considerable force, but they joined up w ith the reserve Rustam had left there, and the armies faced each other in the shadow o f the mighty rock o f Bistun (Behistun). But luck had deserted the Turanians; Afrasiyab and his army were put to flight and relentlessly pursued for two leagues. The spoil was loaded upon captured elephants, and the Persian army returned home. They were warmly welcomed by Kay Khusraw who marked the occasion, inevitably, with a great feast followed by a

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PLATE 24 Bizhan rescued from the pit by R ustam

drinking session, with fair slaves circulating the wine and girl musicians playing in the background. The following m orning R ustam requested the Kings leave to go home, w hich he did, loaded w ith gifts. Finally, Bizhan had a long interview w ith Kay Khusraw, telling him the full story o f his vicissitudes in Turan, and praising M anizha’s loyalty and courage, and the king entrusted him w ith a great load o f brocades, dresses, carpets, slave-girls, and purses o f gold as a present for his faithful lady.

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Battle of the Twelve Rukhs

However many and crushing his defeats, Afrasiyab showed an indomitable spirit, and in the frequent m ustering o f fresh armies he demonstrated the surprising resilience o f his subjects. So now, after a conference w ith his chiefs, he sent messengers far and wide to gather a fresh host. News o f this soon reached Kay Khusraw, w ho mustered his army and put the main body under the veteran Gudarz. Auxiliary detachments were sent under Rustam to the eastern frontier, and under Ashkash to the north. Gudarz began by sending his son Giv to offer terms to Piran, w ho was in com m and o f the Turanians. W hen these were rejected, there was eagerness for battle on both sides; the impetuous Bizhan chafed at the delay, whilst on the enemy side H um an asked Piran for permission to begin the battle. H e did so by challenging R uhham , w ho declined in view o f orders issued by Gudarz. Turning from him in scorn, H um an rode to the opposite wing and called out Fariburz, w ho declined for the same reason. Gudarz himself, w hen challenged by Hum an, said that single combats were not his intention; let there be a general engagement. H um an then rode back to his lines w ith a shout o f trium ph and derision. But w hen Bizhan heard o f this, though opposed by his father, he prevailed on Gudarz to let him m eet H um an wearing the arm our o f Siyawush. At first they simply exchanged insults, but on the following m orning they carefully chose an isolated desert spot for their duel. They both used all their weapons in turn, but w ithout effect, after which, agreeing on a short interval by a pool, they refreshed themselves. Bizhan took advantage o f this break to offer up a prayer for strength, and this was quickly answered, for, as they grappled once more, Bizhan grasped H um an and dashed him violently to the ground, and, drawing his dagger, cut off his head. Bizhan did not forget to offer his thanksgiving, and, as he had to pass through the Turanian lines on his return ride, he changed the arm our o f Siyawush w hich he was wearing for that o f the slain Hum an. He thus passed through amidst acclamations, the Turanians thinking that this was their victorious champion, whilst the Persians at first thought that Bizhan had m et w ith disaster. But soon the truth became know n to both sides producing strong but opposite effects.

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The Turanian reaction was to launch a night attack under Nastihan, but Gudarz received timely warning o f it, and sent Bizhan forward w ith troops to turn the enemy back. The young w arrior soon picked out Nastihan and, having shot his horse, brained him w ith his mace. The night attack thus ended in disaster, and after a day o f indecisive fighting, Gudarz sent to Kay Khusraw for reinforce­ ments. The king promised to lead an army in person to his assistance, and gave him news o f the successes o f Rustam , Ashkash, and Luhrasp in their auxiliary advances. M eanwhile Piran sent a letter to Gudarz by the hand o f his son R u ’in offering to give up various territories, but Gudarz was able to reply that they were already in the hands o f the Persians. Piran then applied to Afrasiyab for m ore troops, and a stubborn battle was fought. Piran, standing his ground alone, was attacked by Giv, but the latter s horse suddenly jibbed, and Bizhan took the opportunity to rem ind his father that Gudarz was destined to be the slayer o f Piran, so they allowed him to retire. Piran next urged two Turanian champions, his brothers Lahhak and Farshidward, to engage the Persians. They furiously attacked Giv, and others from both sides joined in, but darkness fell, and the issue remained undecided. Gudarz and Piran then decided betw een them to settle the issue by a series o f single combats, betw een eleven pairs o f champions (rukh ) chosen from either side.10 All o f these duels ended in victory for the Persian, and in every case the Turanian was killed except in one. Giv was pitted against Gurwi, whose hand had cut the throat o f Siyawush, and was determ ined to take him alive and send him to Kay Khusraw. This he accomplished, having first stunned him w ith a blow o f his mace. T h e last o f these fateful com bats was betw een the tw o com m anders-in-chief, Gudarz and Piran. Both were old warriors, skilful and experienced in war, and each had instinctively a high regard for the other. They tried and exhausted all their combative skills till, w hen it came to bows and arrows, Gudarz pierced the arm our o f Piran’s steed w hich fell, rolling upon him and badly damaging his right hand. The old w arrior recovered himself, and fled up a hill, while Gudarz dism ounted and pursued him. As they faced one another, Piran hurled a dart w ith his left hand, which w ounded Gudarz in the arm. But Gudarz, w ith a surer aim, sent a dart through

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59

PLATE 25 Piran slain by Gudarz

Piran s body from breast to liver. Finding him dead, Gudarz drank o f his blood and smeared his face w ith it in m em ory o f the m urder o f Siyawush, but refrained from taking his head. As the bodies were brought in to burial the watchm en on both sides saw the approaching host o f Kay Khusraw, whilst a host sent by Afrasiyab to the aid o f Piran was m et by the melancholy news that the old w arrior was dead. Thereupon Lahhak and Farshidward, rem em bering the instruc­ tions o f Piran in the event o f defeat, fled towards Turan. Gudarz sent Gustaham in pursuit, and Bizhan obtained permission to follow him and aid him at need, though not before his father, ever anxious o f his safety, had once m ore tried to prevent him. Gustaham had a tough fight with the two brothers, but eventually slew them both, though

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grievously w ounded himself. Bizhan found him, having recognised his wandering horse, very near to death. His earnest wish was that Bizhan should convey him to Kay Khusraw, together w ith the bodies and spoils o f his two vanquished foes, and this Bizhan successfully accomplished, w ith the help o f a Turanian prisoner. Gustaham was healed by a talisman carried by Kay Khusraw, and eventually recovered. The king gave honourable burial to Piran and the other slain Turanian champions, but the captive m urderer Gurwi was summarily beheaded. At the same time rich rewards were distributed am ong the victorious Persians. Kay Khusraw received a deputation from the Turanian army pleading for quarter; this was willingly granted, and the petitioners were given liberty either to remain under Kay Khusraw’s protection, or to return to Turan, having first surrendered their arms.

Afrasiyab’s Last Campaign

But before long, incredible as it may seem, both monarchs were eager to resume the conflict, Kay Khusraw in his firm intention to destroy Afrasiyab, and Afrasiyab in a desperate attempt to reverse his fortunes and to avenge Piran. After a fruitless exchange o f embassies the armies once again faced one another. The gallant Prince Shida, son o f Afrasiyab, was in com m and o f the Turanians, and he rode out w ith a direct challenge to Kay Khusraw to m eet him in single combat. Despite the loud protests o f his paladins, the king insisted on accepting this challenge. At first they fought on horseback, w ith advantage to neither side, but then Shida proposed that they should dism ount and wrestle, and it was not long before he was dashed to the ground and slain. The ensuing battle was long and bloody, and the rival monarchs almost achieved a personal confrontation, but in the end Afrasiyab was forced to retire, still shouting defiance. D uring the night the Turanians abandoned their camp, w hich was looted by the Persians in the m orning, and took refuge, together w ith Afrasiyab himself, in the great fortress o f Gang Bihisht. Kay Khusraw returned hom e and reported his trium ph to his grandfather, the retired King Kay Ka’us. But at Gang Bihisht, Afrasiyab was gathering his armies and sum m oning allies from far and wide. W hen

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news o f this reached Kay Khusraw he led his troops north; the Turanians m arched out o f Gang Bihisht to m eet him, and the battle was joined. It was as hotly contested as ever; Kay Khusraw prayed for divine succour, and a fierce w ind arose, blowing sand and dust in the eyes o f the Turanians. W hen darkness fell, both armies withdrew. Then came news o f the approach o f Rustam , bringing exultation to one side and despair to the other; Afrasiyab w ithdrew all his forces w ithin the walls o f Gang Bihisht, while great joy reigned in the Persian camp. Kay Khusraw moved quickly against the fortress, which was besieged, assaulted, and sacked, Afrasiyab himself escaping through a subterranean passage.

PLATE

26 Shida slain by Kay Khusraw

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T he w om en and children o f Afrasiyab s court were among the captives, and Kay Khusraw took them under his protection. But Afrasiyab himself was at large, and persuaded the Faghfur, a powerful Chinese potentate, to jo in him, and they advanced together. Afrasiyab again challenged Kay Khusraw to single combat, to settle the feud once and for all, and the latter was keen to accept, but was dissuaded by Rustam. After a daylight battle o f uncertain outcom e, Afrasiyab attempted a night attack, but Kay Khusraw divined his purpose, and it failed completely. The Faghfur now felt that he had made a serious mistake in attaching himself to Afrasiyab, and opened negotiations with the Persians w hich led to his withdrawal w ith all his troops. The w retched Afrasiyab, thus deserted, decided to cross the sea to his distant stronghold o f Gang Dizh. W hen Kay Khusraw announced his determ ination to sail in pursuit, almost all the paladins dem urred, as all Persians have a horror o f the sea, but Rustam

PLATE

27 Kay Khusraw crossing the sea

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supported the king. This was decisive, and the expedition sailed, conducting en route a m inor (and, o f course, victorious) campaign against the King o f M akran. The outstanding feature o f the voyage was the incredible num ber and variety o f the sea-m onsters encountered and observed. Eventually the expedition reached Gang Dizh, and the Persians marched in unopposed, for Afrasiyab s heart had failed him at last, and he fled alone. But Kay Khusraw stayed a year at Gang Dizh, enjoying the amenities o f the balmy climate, till his soldiers rem inded him o f duties at home. O n the return journey he was warmly welcom ed by one and all, especially at Makran, and Rustam rejoined him halfway. At last they reached Iran, and the aged Kay Ka’us came out joyfully to m eet his grandson. Lavish festivities naturally followed.

Capture & Execution of Afrasiyab

The lonely fugitive Afrasiyab found himself a solitary cave on a rem ote m ountain-side, where he hoped to spend his remaining days undisturbed. However, a certain H um , a holy man o f the race of Faridun, lived in a hermitage in the vicinity, and was in the habit of using the m ountain for his devotions and austerities. O ne day he was surprised to hear a sound o f lam entation issuing from the cave; this, o f course, was Afrasiyab bewailing his fate. H um recognised the dirge as Turanian, and w ith singular discernment decided that the voice must be that o f Afrasiyab, o f whose solitary flight he had presumably received news. He therefore entered the cave, and after a short struggle secured the aged recluse w ith his girdle. However Afrasiyab with piteous pleas induced H um to loosen his bonds, and, suddenly freeing himself, plunged into an adjacent lake and disappeared under the water. It so happened that Gudarz, w ith a body o f retainers on an urgent mission to Kay Khusraw, was passing that way, w hen they saw H um , obviously in a state o f perplexity, wandering up and down the lake shore. He told them what had happened, and the king was, o f course, inform ed immediately, and hastened to the lake accompanied by Kay Ka’us. H um repeated his story, adding the helpful suggestion that Afrasiyab’s brother Garsiwaz, now in captivity, m ight be used as a

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PLATE 28 Execution o f Afrasiyab

bait. This seemed a good idea; the unfortunate Garsiwaz was brought to the place and sewn up in an ox-hide which, as it dried, shrank, causing him intense agony. His cries o f pain —a brother’s voice —had the desired effect, and Afrasiyab came to the surface. He was quickly lassoed by H um , and delivered to Kay Khusraw. The two brothers, heavily fettered, were brought before the king, and after prolonged m utual recriminations, in which Afrasiyab, in the face o f im m inent death, showed the dignity o f resignation, Kay Khusraw beheaded him w ith his own hand. Garsiwaz was consigned to an executioner, w ho cut him in two at the waist.

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The Last Days of Kay Khusraw

Soon after the death o f Afrasiyab, the aged Kay Ka’us died, and an uncanny change came over Kay Khusraw. He w ithdrew himself, spending m uch time in solitude and prayer, and closed the court, m uch to the discomfort o f the paladins and courtiers. Zal and Rustam came from Zabulistan to see what they could do to help. But the angel Surush had visited the king in a dream and warned him that his end was near. He gave a last charge to his subjects, patents to his paladins, and a fond farewell to his wom en. H e appointed Luhrasp to succeed him, and began a last journey up a m ountain, crowds following him. At a certain point he ordered all to leave him. The crowd dispersed, and Zal, Rustam , and Gudarz, w ho had always obeyed him implicitly, went w ith them. But five o f the paladins Tus, Giv, Fariburz, Bizhan, and Gustaham - could not bring them ­ selves to part from their King, and they accompanied Kay Khusraw to a spring where, entering the water, he vanished from their sight. They remained long by the spring, talking o f old times, but at length sleep overcame them . W hile they slept a terrible snowstorm descended on the m ountain, and they were never seen again.

R E I G N OF L U H R A S P

Gushtasp in R um

Kay Khusraw was what is sometimes called ‘a hard act to follow’, and Luhrasp, his successor, appears somewhat colourless and insignificant, by comparison. Luhrasp had two sons, Gushtasp and Zarir, and Gushtasp, the elder, was angry that his father refused to name him as his heir, so left the court to take refuge in Hindustan. Luhrasp sent Zarir to bring him back, but on his return he found that his father’s plans for the succession were still vague, so departed in disgust for R um , the realm o f Caesar, w here Luhrasp’s attempts to trace him failed. Arrived in R um , Gushtasp tried to get w ork as a secretary, a herdsman, or a camel-driver, but was turned down every time. H e was finally taken on as an assistant to a blacksmith, but w hen entrusted w ith the heavy hammer, he smashed at one blow the mass

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o f red-hot metal and the anvil under it, and was not surprisingly shown the door im m ediately At length a compassionate village headman, a descendant o f Faridun, took him in. It was Caesar’s custom, w hen one o f his daughters reached marriageable age, to allow her to choose a husband from among the assembled nobles and grandees. It was now the turn o f his eldest daughter Kitayun; she saw nobody she fancied at first, so Caesar invited candidates to present themselves from every part o f his empire. Gushtasp’s host urged him to jo in the throng, and, o f course, Kitayun chose him. As he was a foreigner, Caesar gave only grudging consent, and denied the couple residence in the capital, so they repaired to the hospitable village headman, who gave them quarters in his village, where they were able to raise sufficient m oney on Kitayun’s jewellery to maintain themselves. After a while a noble R om an named M irin requested the hand of Caesar’s younger daughter, Dilanjam, in marriage. But her father decided to impose stiff conditions on this occasion, and told M irin that he must first slay the monstrous rhinoceros11 o f Faskun. M irin at first dem urred, saying that he was only prepared to take on hum an foes. But by means o f astrology he discovered Gushtasp o f w hom mighty deeds in R u m were foretold, and asked for his assistance. Gushtasp readily agreed, borrow ed steed and arm our from M irin, and tracked the monster down. The rhinoceros killed his horse, but Gushtasp split its skull. The grisly carcass was shown to Caesar, w ho congratulated M irin as its slayer, and bestowed on him his daughter. There was another young R om an named Ahran, w ho aspired to the hand o f Caesar’s third daughter, and Caesar decided once m ore to change the old custom, inform ing Ahran that he must first rid the land o f the dreadful dragon o f M ount Saqila. Ahran did not at all fancy tackling the dragon himself, and consulted M irin. The latter, having put him under a strong oath o f secrecy, told him how he had procured Gushtasp to slay the rhinoceros o f Faskun on his behalf. In short, Gushtasp was again persuaded to undertake the task, w hich he rapidly dispatched, thrusting his sword into the dragons maw, and then cleaving its head. Ahran duly received Caesar’s congratulations, and the marriage ceremony was perform ed by the bishop. It was the practice o f M irin, Ahran, and other R om an youths to engage in equestrian and military exercises on Caesar’s riding-

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PLATE 29 Gushtasp and the dragon

ground, and one day, w hen Gushtasp and his wife were watching them, Kitayun persuaded him to jo in in. His skill at archery and polo was such that Caesar, w ho was also watching, sent for him, and asked w ho he was and w here he came from. Gushtasp replied by rem inding him o f the harsh treatm ent he and his wife had received, being banished from court, and proceeded to relate how he had slain the rhinoceros and the dragon. Caesar apologised, prom oted him, and also apologised to his daughter Kitayun, privately requesting her to find out from her husband his true name and country o f origin, w hich he had so far concealed. Caesar also sternly rebuked M irin and Ahran for their double-dealing. At this time Caesar was concerned to levy tribute from his neighbours the Khazars, and sent a perem ptory letter to that effect to Ilyas their king, threatening an invasion under Farrukhzad (the name

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Gushtasp had adopted in R um ). Ilyas sent a scornful reply deriding Caesar’s new ally. M irin and Ahran also, w rithing in jealously, poured scorn on Gushtasp. Nevertheless, Caesar confirm ed him in com m and o f the army, and w hen the hosts met, Gushtasp sought out Ilyas and slew him. Elated by his success, Caesar now presumed to send a demand for tribute to Luhrasp in Iran. W hile firmly rejecting any possibility o f tribute, Luhrasp questioned the envoy about Caesar’s sudden access o f aggressive confidence. The envoy described the exploits o f ‘Farrukhzad’ in Caesar’s service, at the same time noticing his strong physical resemblance to Zarir, w ho was standing beside the king. Luhrasp also put two and two together, dismissed the envoy, and sent Zarir on a mission to R um . He was to identify Gushtasp, present him w ith the emblems o f sovereignty, and if possible bring him back. All this he accomplished, Gushtasp having volunteered to put Caesar’s case before the Persian court. He was warmly welcomed by his father, w ho crowned him after abdicating in his favour. Caesar gracefully accepted the situation, and all was peace and friendship betw een R u m and Iran.

R E I G N OF G U S H T A S P

The Prophet Zoroaster

T he beginning o f Gushtasp’s reign saw the coming o f the great prophet Zardusht (Zoroaster). His preaching converted the king, and the religion spread rapidly; he advised Gushtasp that no tribute should be paid by Iran to Turan (though the possibility o f such a tribute is not made clear). Turan was now ruled by Aqasp who, filled w ith contem pt for the new religion, and with fury at Gushtasp’s refusal to pay the tribute, after a fruitless exchange o f envoys and correspon­ dence, decided that the ancient struggle between the two nations must be resumed. Gushtasp’s wise counsellor Jamasp reluctantly w arned the king that great misfortune and the death o f many Persian champions would be the result. So indeed it happened. Five o f Iran’s best warriors fell in quick succession as soon as hostilities began, and the king’s brother Zarir was slain in single combat by the Turanian champion Bidarafsh. The situation was reversed, however, by the

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intervention o f Isfandiyar, Gushtasp s eldest son by Kitayun, w ho joined up w ith Nastur the son o f Zarir; together they laid Bidarafsh low, and Aijasp and his army fled the field. A massacre o f the defeated Turanians was halted by Isfandiyar as soon as he heard their cries for quarter, and he then inspected the battle-field and gave a fitting funeral to Zarir and the other illustrious dead.

Vicissitudes of Isfandiyar

Gushtasp m arried his son Isfandiyar, on his return, to his daughter H um ay12 and put Nastur in comm and o f the army, w ith orders to invade Turan. Caesar, on hearing o f the defeat o f Arjasp, sent an embassy to Gushtasp, bearing rich gifts, as did several neighbouring monarchs. Isfandiyar himself was sent on a tour o f the provinces to spread the new faith. But Gurazm, an old w arrior w ith a grudge against the prince, poisoned the m ind o f Gushtasp against his son, and the king sent him to Isfandiyar with an urgent summons to court. Isfandiyar suspected trouble ahead, but Jamasp counselled him to obey. The prince’s suspicion was justified, and despite his fervent protestations o f innocence he was removed to a m ountain fortress, and closely confined in fetters. Gushtasp then paid a visit to Zabulistan. H e was received with protracted hospitality by Zal and Rustam , w ho readily accepted the new religion. But, taking advantage o f the situation in Iran, w ith the king absent and Isfandiyar in confinement, Arjasp and his allies once m ore gathered a vast army and attacked the north-eastern city o f Balkh, which was defended by the retired king Luhrasp. The old man led out such forces as he had, and was overwhelmed by numbers after a brave resistance. Balkh was taken and burnt, the sacred scriptures destroyed, the prophet Zardusht and his priests massacred, and the two sisters o f Isfandiyar, Hum ay and Bih-Afrid, led into captivity. This dreadful news was conveyed to Gushtasp in Zabulistan by one o f his wives w ho had escaped by a daring ride. The king hastily gathered an army, but in the ensuring battle Arjasp put him ignominiously to flight. Jamasp then implored Gushtasp to release Isfandiyar to lead the troops, and was sent to the prince’s place o f confinem ent to persuade him.

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At first Isfandiyar refused, but finally agreed w hen told o f the situation o f his brother Farshidward, w ho had fought bravely, and been sorely w ounded in the battle. H e finally died in Isfandiyar arms. The prince’s m eeting w ith his father was naturally strained at first, but in the end they were reconciled. Isfandiyar then marshalled the host, advanced, and m opped up Arjasp’s outposts; w hen the armies m et, he encountered Gurgsar the enemy comm ander, lassoed him, and sent him bound to Gushtasp. At this the king o f Turan decided to w ithdraw to the Brazen H old, carrying w ith him the spoils o f Balkh and the two princesses..

Isfandiyar’s Seven Stages

Isfandiyar’s main task now was the rescue o f his sisters (one o f them his wife), w ho were confined in the Brazen Hold. T he captive Gurgsar was enlisted as guide, and he gave Isfandiyar an account o f three possible routes, which would take him three months, one m onth and seven days respectively, graphically describing the dangers involved, especially on the third route. It need hardly be added that, like the great Rustam on his journey to Mazandaran, Isfandiyar chose the third, and set forth w ith his army. The first stage o f their journey, Gurgsar w arned him, involved an encounter w ith a pair o f rhinoceroses13 each as large as an elephant. They started at daybreak, but as they approached the place o f danger Isfandiyar placed his m en under the comm and o f the veteran Bishutan and rode forward alone. As soon as the monsters appeared, he rained arrows on them, by w hich they were both disabled and became easy prey to the prince’s sword. W hen the army came up w ith him they found Isfandiyar offering a prayer o f thanksgiving, and the two monstrous corpses lying by. This first victory was celebrated w ith a feast. In the evening Isfandiyar ascertained from Gurgsar that the next peril to be m et was a pair o f savage lions before w hich the mightiest wild beasts quailed. N othing daunted, he led his troops in a night march, and w hen day dawned he once m ore rode forward, leaving Bishutan in charge o f the troops. He soon encountered the lions, and they made the fatal mistake o f attacking the prince separately. First

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came the lion, w hich Isfandiyar clove from head to belly; then the lioness, though appalled at the slaughter o f her mate, rushed at him desperately, but in a m om ent her severed head was rolling on the ground. So they encamped for the night, and this time Gurgsar warned the prince o f an enorm ous fire-breathing dragon w hich he must m eet on the morrow. In view o f the fearsome size and deadly attributes o f this m onster, Isfandiyar kept his engineers busy till nightfall in constructing a strongly built arm oured chariot bristling w ith blades, in the midst o f w hich was a reinforced com partm ent in w hich Isfandiyar himself would ride. The night was m oonlit as the army resumed its march, and in the m orning Isfandiyar entered his arm oured vehicle and drove on ahead. The dragon soon heard the rum bling o f its wheels and confronted it w ith a roar and cavern-like open jaws breathing flames. The prince drove his horses straight at it, and the dragon swallowed them, chariot and all. But w hen the blades w hich covered the vehicle began to do their work, the dragon became weak through loss o f blood, so that Isfandiyar managed to cut himself loose aha brained the monster. But the foul emanations from its flowing blood and mutilated corpse tem porarily over­ powered him so that he fell unconscious till revived by Bishutan with a liberal splash o f rose-water. Gurgsar next warned him o f a powerful witch, by whose spells he was sure to be made defenceless. So after the usual night march he took his goblet, w ith wine and a lute, and settled himself by a spring, passing the time by singing to himself. M eanwhile the w rinkled and hideous w itch changed her shape into that o f a beautiful girl, and joined Isfandiyar in his solitary revel. But he saw through her disguise, encircled her w ith a steel chain he had received from the prophet Zardusht, and slew her w ith his sword. W hen they had pitched camp, Gurgsar was, as usual, interrogated on what was to be expected on the following day. A beetling m ountain, he replied, on which dwells a monstrous bird, the Simurgh14 and her twin offspring. She can carry off an elephant or a crocodile w ith no effort, and is always ready for battle. O n thinking over this prospect, Isfandiyar decided to have recourse once m ore to the arm oured chariot in w hich he had tackled the dragon. The Simurgh observed from her m ountain eyrie the advance o f the

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PLATE 30 Isfandiyar kills the Simurgh

strange vehicle ahead o f the troops, and swept down upon it in an attem pt to carry it off. But the trusty blades again did their work, and before long the mighty bird sank down bleeding from a hundred wounds, so that Isfandiyar was able to leap out o f his secure cabin and hew her in pieces. The orphaned chicks flew away screaming.

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Gurgsar w arned Isfandiyar that the sixth stage w ould be m ore testing, consisting o f a dreadful blizzard producing a snowfall o f a spear’s length in depth, and the seventh stage, the approach to the Brazen Hold, would be an arid wilderness o f dust and sand and blistering heat forty leagues wide. Dismayed by this prospect, his troops implored Isfandiyar to turn back; however he restored their confidence by a vigorous harangue. The blizzard lasted three days and nights, and the soldiers suffered terribly, but in the end their fervent prayers caused a gentle breeze to arise w hich dispersed the clouds, and the sun shone once more. Gurgsar’s advice had been over-pessimistic; he had persistently striven to dissuade Isfandiyar from his quest, and the prince suspected him o f treacherous intentions. These suspicions were confirm ed w hen Gurgsar endeavoured once again to divert him from his purpose by asserting that only brackish or poisonous water was available from that point onwards. But Isfandiyar disregarded him, and pressed on till he reached a great river o f sweet water, w hich the army successfully forded. W hen the Brazen H old was still ten leagues away, Isfandiyar halted his troops and sum m oned Gurgsar, taunting him by describing how he would deal w ith his master Arjasp and his paladins. Gurgsar made a spirited and insulting retort, upon w hich the prince drew his sword and cut him down. As they approached the Brazen Hold, Isfandiyar reconnoitred the ground and fortifications, and found the place apparently impreg­ nable, an opinion confirm ed by two captured locals. Again following R ustam ’s example, he therefore decided to gain access to the fortress w ith a party disguised as merchants, leaving his main body in concealment. The unsuspecting Arjasp received the ‘m erchants’ kindly and a busy market was set up. The sisters o f Isfandiyar, as they passed by, recognised him, but kept mum. Isfandiyar then prepared a great feast to w hich he invited Arjasp and all his principal warriors, made them helplessly drunk, and then lit a fire on the ramparts as a signal to Bishutan and the main body to launch an assault. H e himself released the trusty warriors he had brought in concealed in bales o f merchandise. They quickly penetrated the palace o f Arjasp, slaying all the drunken noblem en they encountered. Arjasp himself put up a stout fight, but Isfandiyar soon overcame him and cut off his head. News o f the night’s doings at length reached the main body of

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Turanian troops under Arjasp’s son Kuhram. As they approached the fortress they were greeted by the severed head o f Arjasp flung over the battlements, and in the battle that followed they were put to flight. Isfandiyar ordered a general massacre in which the w ounded were included. Kuhram and his brother Andariman were hanged head downwards, after w hich the army made a trium phal return to Iran.

Rustam & Isfandiyar

Isfandiyar (like his father before him) now considered that the time had come for Gushtasp to abdicate in his favour. H e told his m other so, but she tried vainly to dissuade him from such a treacherous purpose, and he answered her roughly. Gushtasp suspected some­ thing o f the sort, and enquired o f the astrologers what fate awaited the prince. They replied through the counsellor Jamasp that Isfandiyar was fated to die by the hand o f Rustam. So w hen the prince appeared before his father and openly dem anded the kingdom , the latter replied that he must first bring R ustam before him in chains, as recently (he alleged) the old hero had not shown him all the respect and loyalty he demanded. Isfandiyar agreed, though very reluctantly, and in spite o f his m other’s protests, and so set out for Zabulistan w ith a company o f followers. At the borders o f Zabulistan he sent on his son Bahm an15 w ith the king’s message; Zal received him, but Rustam was out hunting. Bahman was therefore given a guide to help him to locate the hero, and w hen he spied Rustam in a valley below him, he determ ined to put him to the test. He dislodged a large boulder from the hilltop and sent it thundering down on Rustam , w ho was just engaged in cooking his usual supper, a wild ass roasted whole. The hero was unperturbed, and as the boulder reached him he simply kicked it out o f the way. M uch impressed by R ustam ’s strength and sang-froid, Bahman gave him and his party a hearty welcome to the meeting, and was even m ore impressed w hen at the ensuing feast R ustam demolished another complete roasted wild ass. Bahman delivered Gushtasp’s message, to w hich R ustam replied politely but firmly: he could never consent to appear in chains before

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PLATE 31 R ustam kicks back the rock throw n by Bahman

the king. W h en he finally m et Isfandiyar face-to-face, the conversation on both sides soon degenerated into boastful vaunting o f lineage and prowess, tempers became frayed, and a fight became inevitable. W hen they had decided on a suitable ground, R ustam stationed his brother Zawara and son Faramurz on an adjacent hill, whilst he and Isfandiyar confronted one another, and their first encounter was indecisive. M eanwhile a quarrel arose betw een Zawara and Faramurz and the brothers Nush-Azar and M ihr-i-N ush, sons o f Isfandiyar, in w hich the latter were slain. Isfandiyar was naturally outraged at this, loudly accusing R ustam o f treachery. At their second encounter he showered the hero w ith arrows, sorely w ounding both him and his faithful steed. R ustam managed to

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withdraw up a hill, and Isfandiyar did not pursue him. Surveying his wounds that evening his old father Zal judged the occasion to be serious enough for burning one o f the Simurgh’s feathers. The great bird immediately appeared, drew out eight arrow-heads from the hero’s body and six from that o f Rakhsh, and healed the wounds by stroking them w ith her feathers. She then instructed Rustam to make a forked arrow o f tamarisk wood, and to aim it at the eyes of Isfandiyar, but she gave warning at the same time that an evil fate awaited the slayer o f the young prince. W hen the two confronted each other on the following day, Rustam made a last, and ineffectual, appeal to Isfandiyar to call off their conflict and disregard his father’s comm and, and the last tragic stage o f the duel began. R ustam used the forked arrow as instructed by the Simurgh, striking Isfandiyar full in the eyes, blinding and mortally w ounding him. In his dying words to Rustam , Isfandiyar acknowledged that the blame for his death lay on his father King Gushtasp, and im plored the hero to train and take care o f his son Bahman in Zabulistan. To this R ustam willingly agreed, though his brother Zawara spoke against it. T he coffin o f Isfandiyar was conveyed to his father, whose courtiers openly reproached him, and the prince was bitterly m ourned by his m other Kitayun and her wom en. Rustam faithfully discharged his promise to the dying Isfandiyar, and Bahman grew up a stalwart w arrior under his tutelage, till he was sum m oned hom e by his grandfather.

Death of Rustam

N ow old Zal had a younger son named Shaghad, by a slave-girl. The astrologers predicted gloomily that the child would prove the destroyer o f the house o f Sam, but his father favoured him, and w hen he grew up, sent him to live for a while w ith his neighbour the King o f Kabul. The king hoped that, being entrusted w ith the care o f R ustam ’s half-brother, he would be excused the annual tribute he paid to the hero. But the tribute was collected as usual, and the king began to plot w ith Shaghad, w ho was madly jealous and resentful of Rustam . They resolved to stage a quarrel, as a result o f w hich Shaghad would go and complain to Rustam . The hero would then

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come to Kabul to remonstrate w ith the king, w ho w ould then mollify him w ith a hunting party, in the course o f w hich they hoped to achieve their ultimate purpose. The plot succeeded, and while Shaghad was absent, the king had pits dug in the hunting-ground, planting in them spears and swords w ith points upperm ost, and covering and concealing them w ith brushw ood and grass. W hen they reached the first pit, Rakhsh smelt the freshly turned earth and jibbed; Rustam touched him lightly w ith his whip, and ever obedient, the old horse plunged forward, the brushw ood gave way, and both were impaled. Rustam read guilt in the face o f Shaghad, and bitterly reproached him and his fellow-conspirator the King o f Kabul. In the end he requested that his bow and arrows m ight be placed near him before he died to scare off marauding wild beasts, and he grasped the bow so eagerly that the w retched Shaghad

PLATE

32 D eath o f Rustam

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took refuge behind a large plane tree. The dying hero, summ oning all his remaining strength for a supreme effort, draw the bow to his ear and sent his last arrow straight through the tree and through the body o f his treacherous half-brother. Zawara, who had accompanied his brother, died in another o f the pits. As soon as the terrible news reached Zal, he sent an army under Faramurz against Kabul. Faramurz recovered the bodies, prepared them for burial, and sent them hom e to Zabulistan; the body o f R akhsh was carried on an elephant. H e then routed the Kabuli army, captured the king and threw him into one o f the pits, burned forty of his relatives, throwing the corpse o f Shaghad on the pyre. R ustam ’s old m other R udaba was so distraught at her son’s death that she lost her reason.

R E I G N OF B A H M A N

Soon after this Gushtasp died, having given up the kingdom to his grandson Bahman. The new king lost no time in m ounting an expedition against Zabulistan to avenge his father Isfandiyar on R ustam ’s family. The aged Zal was made prisoner but pardoned, Faramurz however, was hanged head downwards and shot to death w ith arrows. Bahman then m arried his own daughter16 Humay, w ho succeeded him w hen he died, despite the claims o f his son Sasan. Sasan retired to Nishapur in the north-east, and his descendants became royal herdsmen; from them the Sasanian dynasty traced its origin.

R E I G N OF Q U E E N H U M A Y

In order to keep the throne to herself Humay, who was pregnant w hen her father/husband died, set her baby son adrift in a casket on the river Farat (Euphrates). H e was rescued by a washerman and his wife, w ho named the child Darab, and brought him up. W hen o f age, he joined the army and distinguished himself in a war against R um . At length he was recognised and acknowledged by his m other, w ho then resigned the crown to him.

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R E I G N OF D A R A B

Birth of Iskandar

Darab, builder o f the city ofD arabjird, first defeated a large Arab host under Shu‘ib, and then routed the army o f Failakus (Philip o f M acedon). From the latter he demanded a heavy tribute and the hand o f his beautiful daughter Nahid. But in a very short time he was disgusted to find that his bride suffered badly from halitosis, and so sent her back to her father. She was however, already pregnant, and her son was Iskandar (Alexander the Great), so that w hen Darab died, leaving the crown to his younger son Dara, Iskandar, as the elder, felt himself cheated o f his inheritance.

R E I G N OF D A R A

In due course Failakus died, and Iskandar succeeded him on the throne o f R um . Dara sent to demand tribute from him, and Iskandar replied by invading Iran to regain his rightful inheritance. H e defeated Dara in three great battles, and after the last one found him lying m ortally w ounded by tw o treacherous m inisters. T he murderers were prom ptly executed, and Iskandar sorrowfully received his half-brother’s dying wish, w hich was that Iskandar should m arry his daughter Rushanak (Roxana). H e was then universally acclaimed as Dara’s successor.

R E I G N OF I S K A N D A R

Iskandar in India

Iskandar began his reign by arranging his marriage w ith Rushanak, after w hich he turned his attention towards H ind (India). Kaid, King o f H ind had had a series o f very puzzling dreams, w hich were interpreted to him by the sage M ihran. The sum o f his interpretation was: do not fight w ith Iskandar, but put your trust in your Four Treasures, namely, your daughter, your privy counsellor, your

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PLATE 33 Iskandar comforts the dying Dara

physician, and your magic cup. This was timely advice, for Iskandar was already marching against Kaid (for no ostensible reason), sending him a high-handed ultim atum in advance. Kaid remained calm, and returned a conciliatory reply offering to make Iskandar a present o f his Four Treasures. Iskandar’s bellicose m ood was thus changed into one o f greed and curiosity, and after suitable negotiations, these remarkable gifts arrived, accompanied by a profusion o f m ore conventional offerings. O f the Four Treasures it was Kaid’s beautiful daughter that at first m onopolised Iskandar s attention; indeed, before

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he had even inspected the others he formally m arried her (so soon after Rushanak?). H e then subjected the other three Treasures to various ingenious tests, all o f w hich were passed w ith flying colours, so that Iskandar expressed himself as completely satisfied, and Kaid was left in peace. The great conqueror’s vaulting ambition was next directed at Fur (Porus), king o f the neighbouring Kanauj. His customary blustering call to surrender produced a dignified and reproachful reply from Fur. But it was not long before the armies were face-to-face. By the advice o f his sages, Iskandar had caused a large num ber o f hollow iron horsem en on wheels to be constructed, and these were filled w ith naphtha, to be ignited and set in m otion as the battle began. These fire-breathing machines caused dismay and confusion among Fur’s elephants, and to prevent further slaughter, Iskandar challenged Fur to single combat, and the challenge was eagerly accepted. But a sudden clamour from the troops behind him distracted the Indian king’s attention, and Iskandar seized the opportunity to deal him a quick death-blow.

Iskandar & Queen Qaydafa

From India, Iskandar proceeded to Mecca to visit the Ka‘ba,17 and then settled for a time in Misr (Egypt) to rest his troops. Qaydafa, Q ueen o f Andalus (Spain), heard o f his great reputation, and sent an envoy, w ho was also a painter, to his court to gain as m uch inform ation as he could, and to take a likeness o f Iskandar himself. The envoy was successful in this, and w hen the portrait was shown to Q ueen Qaydafa she recognised in it the features o f a w orldconqueror. M eanwhile Iskandar was making enquiries about her from Kabtun, King o f Misr, as a result o f w hich he sent her one o f his haughty letters demanding tribute, to which she returned a defiant answer. In his subsequent advance Iskandar captured a border town, and w ith it Kaidrush, a son o f the Q ueen, and his wife. By a ruse he concealed his identity from this young man, appearing as one w ho had saved him from execution, and thus contrived to accompany him back to Andalus masquerading as an envoy to the Q ueen. At his audience w ith her Iskandar was overwhelmed by her magnificence

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PLATE 34 Iskandar at the Ka‘ba

and royal dignity. She on her part sent privately for the portrait she had commissioned, by w hich she was able to recognise him, but gave no sign o f it, whilst he, still pretending to be an envoy, repeated his threatening message. She then dismissed her courtiers and w hen they were alone addressed him as Iskandar, showing him the portrait, and reproaching him for his ill-m annered presumption. She added that her son Tainush was the late King Fur’s son-in-law, and was eager to avenge him. At his farewell audience Iskandar at first made bold to repeat his threats o f war and destruction if tribute were not paid. Tainush was furious, and Iskandar felt it advisable to climb down, and

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they were reconciled; in fact he departed in friendship, having made a strong pact w ith the Queen.

Further Travels & Death o f Iskandar

Iskandar then visited the land o f the Brahmins and partook o f their wisdom. N ext he travelled to the W estern sea, where he beheld great marvels, and after that waged war on the Habash (Ethiopians) and the Narm pai, both o f w hom he subdued. In the land o f the Narm pai he slew a monstrous dragon by the astute use o f naphtha. H e then climbed a great m ountain, on the summit o f w hich was a gorgeously attired corpse seated on a throne. W hen he approached it Iskandar heard a voice proclaiming that his end was near; this was the first o f four such warnings he received in the course o f his travels. His next call was at Harum , the city o f w om en — true amazons w ith a

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35 Iskandar and the Brahmins

84 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

PLATE 36 Iskandar at the Well o f Life

mighty army - to w hom Iskandar prudently announced purely peaceable intentions, and stayed w ith them for a m onth before m arching to the Land o f Gloom in search o f the Water o f Life. But here he became separated from his guide, the sage Khizr. In his subsequent wanderings he found himself climbing another m ountain near the summit o f w hich were four great birds nesting on four pillars o f aloes wood. They urged him to climb higher, and w hen he did so he encountered Israfil, the Angel o f the Last Judgem ent w ith his trum pet, w ho gave him his second warning o f im pending death. D eparting eastwards from there, he delivered a city from its evil fate by building a mighty wall o f iron, blocking the passes o f the Caucasus

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85

and so keeping out the savage people o f Yajuj and Majuj (Gog and Magog) w ho had made a misery o f the citizens’ lives. Still pursuing his restless course, Iskandar came to a m ountain w here a boar-headed hum an corpse was lying on a throne by a fountain, and once again heard a disembodied voice predicting his early demise - the third warning. The local inhabitants then guided him to the W orld’s End, w here grew a great tree w ith twin trunks, male and female, w hich gave tongue, one at midday and the other at m idnight. B oth trunks gave Iskandar his fourth warning o f im m inent death in a foreign land. But this did nothing to curb Iskandar’s wanderlust, and he made his way from the W orld’s End across the desert to China and eventually reached the sea. Presumably as a m atter o f habit, he wrote an arrogant letter to the Faghfur (Emperor o f China), w ho replied w ith restraint

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37 M ourning for Iskandar

86 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

and dignity, that he was prepared nether to fight nor to flee. By this Iskandar seems to have been somewhat non-plussed, and made thoroughly ashamed o f his boorish behaviour. So he turned back, passing through India, defeating the m en o f Sind, and crossing to Yemen. O n the way from there to Babylon the army, exhausted by scaling a m ountain barrier, descended to a plain adjoining the sea. T here they m et a hairy savage w ith enorm ous ears whose name was Gushbistar. H e guided them to a strange city built entirely o f bones, w here the elders showed him the treasure-house o f Kay Khusraw, o f w hich they were the custodians. Iskandar did not hesitate to remove the contents, and m arched on to Babylon, increasingly conscious o f his im pending fate. This state o f m ind gave rise to a mad scheme to massacre the whole royal family, but this was scotched just in time by the intervention o f his tutor, Aristotle. Arrived at Babylon, Iskandar found that a monstrous birth has just occurred; the child was born dead, but had the head o f a lion, hoofs, and the tail o f an ox. This was the last straw, and after w riting a farewell letter to his m other, containing detailed instructions for his obsequies and the disposal o f his treasures, Iskandar died in the presence o f his troops, and was m ourned throughout the w orld.18

Ill

THE ASHKANIAN DYNASTY he five centuries betw een the death o f Iskandar in B C 323 and the foundation o f the Sasanian dynasty by Ardashir in AD 226 are dismissed by Firdawsi in a mere 20 couplets, and he reduces their duration from 500 to 200 years. There are two reasons: as he himself admits, the poet had virtually no material to go on, and only mentions a few scattered names; and in Persian tradition the Parthians were not considered as true Persian Kings. Firdawsi calls them ‘Kings o f the Tribes’, and describes their kingdom as a loose confederation o f tribal rulers. Only the last Parthian sovereign, Ardawan (Artabanus IV) is treated in some detail, to provide background for the rise o f Ardashir. The dynasty takes its name from its legendary founder, Ashk, or Arash (Arsaces), said to have been a younger son o f Kay Qubad. It is not unlikely that some stories in the earlier part o f the epic have their origin in Parthian tradition, and were transferred to the Kayanians because the Parthians were not recognised as true Persians; the names o f Ashkanians m entioned in passing by Firdawsi include Gudarz and Bizhan. Furtherm ore, the Rustam cycle, located in the eastern province o f Zabulistan or Sistan, may have been introduced by the Sacae (from w hom the name o f Sistan is derived), a warlike people w ho successfully invaded Iran from the East as early as the reign o f the Parthian Phraates II (late 2nd century BC). The origins o f this cycle may thus antedate the other legends in the early part o f the Shahnama , as noted by Professor Noldeke.

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88 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

R E I G N OF A R D A W A N

Rise of Ardashir

Sasan, w ho gave his name to the Sasanian dynasty, is here named as a son o f Dara, though he is elsewhere (p. 78 above) said to have been the son o f Dara’s great-grandfather Bahman. His descendants were shepherds and camel-drivers, all bearing the name o f Sasan. The last in the series became head shepherd to Papak, governor o f Shiraz and Isfahan, and Papak had a dream foretelling future glory for him and his line. H e therefore questioned Sasan about his ancestry, and w hen he learned that he was o f royal descent, he prom oted him and gave him his daughter in marriage. T heir son was Ardashir, a boy so fair and strong that news o f his accom plishments reached Ardawan the King, and Papak was persuaded to send the youth to court. There he was graciously received and basked some time in the King’s favour, till a quarrel broke out betw een him and one o f Ardawan’s sons, as a result o f w hich Ardawan reduced his rank to stable-master. In his now hum ble abode, Ardashir one day caught the eye o f Gulnar, the beautiful and favourite slave-girl o f Ardawan; the attraction was strong and mutual, and she began to visit him regularly. In her privileged position she happened to overhear Ardawan in council w ith his wise m en w hen they warned him that one o f his servants w ould flee the court and becom e a mighty monarch. W hen she passed this on to Ardashir, he realised his danger and they laid their plans. Gulnar helped herself liberally from the treasury, to w hich she had official access, and the couple fled on two o f Ardawan’s best horses. O n learning o f this audacious elopem ent, Ardawan and a body o f his m en rode off in pursuit. He enquired at the first village he came to w hether two riders had passed that way, and a villager told him ‘Yes, and behind them ran a fine m ountain ram.’ Ardawan then questioned his minister on the significance o f the ram; ‘It is the Royal Splendour (farr),]9 he replied, ‘and if it catches up w ith them , your pursuit is in vain’. R epeating his enquiry at the next town, Ardawan was told that the riders had indeed passed, weary and travelstained, and that on the crupper behind one o f them was riding a

T H E A S H K A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 89

m ountain ram. Ardawan turned homewards in despair; the Royal Splendour had never been his, and it was now w ith Ardashir. News o f the young man soon spread throughout Iran, rekindling old national loyalties, and eventually he had a considerable army at his command. H e m et and defeated successively Bahman son o f Ardawan, and Ardawan himself, the latter in a great battle lasting forty days and accompanied by a fearful storm. Ardawan was captured and executed, but was given an honourable funeral. Ardashir m arried his daughter (we hear no m ore o f Gulnar) and assumed the Kingship.

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IV

THE SASANIAN DYNASTY R E I G N OF A R D A S H I R I

The Worm of Kerman

o begin with, a war w ith the Kurds, at first unsuccessful, was won in the end by a night attack. The king then turned his attention to the south-eastern city o f Kujaran, where a chieftain, Haftwad, enjoyed m uch power and unfailing good fortune. The source o f his prosperity was a little w orm found in an apple by his daughter. She kept the w orm as a pet, and just like our own Lambton W orm, it . . .

T

.. . grow ’d and grow ’d an awfu’ size w ith a great big gob and great big teeth and great big goggly eyes. but, unlike its Lambton cousin, it was a vegetarian and consistently brought good fortune to Haftwad and his family o f seven sons. At length he felt himself powerful enough to get rid o f the governor and to take over the city, w hich he successfully accomplished, and built a stronghold nearby as a residence for the W orm, naming it Kerman (Persian, kerm = a worm ). Ardashir marched on Kerman, but was defeated by Haftwad. M eanwhile, during his absence, his palace was sacked by a certain Mihrak. However his chiefs bade him not to despair, and two mysterious youths joined the party, giving him valuable advice on how to deal w ith the W orm , w hich they said must be destroyed before he could gain any advantage. But first he overcame M ihrak, and beheaded him w ith his own hand. 91

92 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

T hen he marched against Kerman once more, and adopted tactics exactly corresponding with those o f his ancestor Isfandiyar at the Brazen Hold. The only difference - a vital one - was that in addition to the rich merchandise he took w ith him, he packed two boxes full o f lead and solder and also took a brazen cauldron. Having ingratiated himself and his seven ‘merchants’ (all, o f course, in disguise), w ith the custodians o f the W orm, he requested the honour o f feeding the m onster for them, and supplied them liberally with liquor. W hen this

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38 Ardashir and the W orm o f Kerman

T H E S A S A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 93

had the desired effect, he melted the lead in the cauldron; the W orm lifted its head to receive its customary meal o f rice pudding and honey, but instead the m olten metal was poured down its throat. There was a roar like thunder, and the W orm expired. Ardashir raised a smoke signal to summon his general, Shahrgir, waiting w ith the main body o f troops, and the latter advanced on the city. They were m et by Haftwad and his men, but easily dispersed them, and Haftwad was taken prisoner. H e and his son Shahwi were hanged and shot to death w ith arrows, and Ardashir quickly brought the rest o f Ardawan’s kingdom under his control.

Birth of Shapur

Ardashir’s formal coronation took place at Babylon. Shortly after it his wife, Ardawan’s daughter, attem pted to poison him at the instigation o f her two brothers living in exile in India. But as Ardashir raised the poisoned liquor, com pounded w ith meal, to his lips, the cup slipped from his hand and shattered on the floor. His w ife’s ill-concealed agitation at this aroused his suspicions, and he had four fowls brought in, w hich ate the meal off the floor, and expired forthwith. Ardashir immediately ordered his minister to arrange the execution o f his wife; but she pleaded that she was w ith child, and the minister kept her concealed in his palace. In due course a son, Shapur, was born, w hom his m other and the minister brought up till he was seven years old. It was then that Ardashir complained to the minister that he had no son to follow him. The minister reckoned that the time had come to speak, and, on the king’s promise to spare his life, told the w hole story o f Shapur’s birth, including particulars of a painful and delicate operation he had perform ed on himself at the time, o f w hich he produced dated evidence so that no suspicion was possible as to the child’s paternity. Ardashir was delighted, warmly com m ending his m inister’s devotion, and ordering him to arrange a game o f polo in w hich the young Shapur and a hundred o f his contemporaries should take part. H e had no difficulty in picking out his son from the others by the skill and boldness o f his play. Ardashir received his son w ith joy, richly rewarded his minister, and was reconciled w ith his wife.

94 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

Shapur & the Daughter of Mihrak

Finding the cares o f monarchy weighing heavily upon him, Ardashir sent an embassy to the wise and experienced King Kaid o f H ind, asking him to divine what the future held for him. Kaid’s reply was that if he wished for peace and success he must join his family to that o f M ihrak, w hom he had beheaded on his way to kill the W orm. Ardashir angrily rejected any such idea, threatening to burn M ihrak’s daughter - his only surviving descendent - so that she hid herself in the house o f a friendly village headman. N ow on a hunting expedition it happened that prince Shapur passed through the village in question, and saw a handsome young wom an drawing water at a well. She offered to water Shapur’s horse, so he told his groom to draw up the bucket. But the groom found it too heavy to raise, and even Shapur, w hen he tried it, found that it taxed him to the full, yet the girl had been drawing it up w ithout difficulty. She had recognised him, and he, fascinated, made her confess that she was M ihrak’s daughter. H e did not allow that to stand in the way, but got the headman to m arry them on the spot. In due course she gave birth to a fine son named H urm uzd, but his existence was kept secret from Ardashir till by chance the boy attracted his grandfather’s attention, just as his father had done, by his boldness among his peers on the playground. W hen Ardashir demanded his name and parentage, the boy fearlessly announced that he was the son o f prince Shapur and M ihrnush, daughter o f M ihrak. Ardashir embraced him warmly, apologising for his disregard o f the wise counsel o f Kaid.

R E I G N OF S H A P U R I

Almost as soon as he succeeded to the throne on his father’s death, Shapur found himself at war w ith Caesar, whose general, Bazanush, was captured in the first battle.20 Shapur treated him well, and entrusted him with the building o f a great bridge, a thousand cubits long, at Shushtar. As soon as it was finished Bazanush escaped and made his way home. W hen he had completed thirty years and two m onths on the throne Shapur died, having entrusted the kingdom to his son H urm uzd.

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R E I G N S O F H U R M U Z D I, B A H R A M I, B A H R A M II, B A H R A M III, N A R S I & H U R M U Z D II

The reigns o f these monarchs are summarily treated in the Shahnam a , and nothing o f interest is recorded o f them. H urm uzd II died before an heir was born to him, but one o f his wives was pregnant at the time, and the wise m en confidently predicted that the child would prove a male, so the coronation was held w ith the crown suspended over the lady’s belly. Shapur II was born four months later.

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39 Shapur’s troops take the city o f Ta’ir

96 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

R E I G N OF S H A P U R II

War with the Arabs

Early in this reign the Arab chieftain Ta’ir invaded southern Iran and carried off Nusha, the daughter o f Narsi and Shapur’s aunt, and by her Ta’ir had a daughter named Malika. W hen Shapur was tw entysix he made a punitive expedition against Ta’ir, and besieged him in his stronghold. Malika saw him from the ramparts, fell in love w ith him at first sight, and sent a message to him by her nurse offering to deliver up the stronghold to him if he would make her his wife, to w hich Shapur returned an enthusiastic affirmative. Malika then caused her father and his chief warriors to be made drunk, and opened the gates to the Persians. Ta’ir was captured, brought before Shapur, and beheaded. All the Arab prisoners had their shoulderblades removed, and Shapur thus earned the sobriquet o f Z u ’l-aktaf,‘ or ‘Lord o f the shoulders’).21

Shapur in Rum

After a while Shapur felt a desire to visit R um , to acquaint himself w ith its resources and constitution, w hich he did in the guise o f a religious merchant. But he was betrayed by a renegade Persian at Caesar’s court, and flung into a dungeon sewn up in an ass’s hide. T he key o f the dungeon was entrusted by Caesar to his wife, and by her to her confidante, a girl o f Persian descent. M eanwhile Caesar took advantage o f the situation to invade and ravage Iran, whose forces, deprived o f their King and leader, collapsed before him. The Persian girl, not realising at first w ho he was, was sympathetic to Shapur’s plight, and eased the torm ent o f the ass’s skin by soaking it w ith warm milk. W hen he told her w ho he was, she promised to effect his release. She fixed a day w hen the whole city was busy attending a festival; during the day she secured two horses, arms, and provisions from Caesar’s stables and stores, and at night she freed Shapur, and they rode away as fast as they could. The next night they spent w ith a hospitable gardener and his wife on the border, and they told Shapur of the miseries and massacres of

T H E S A S A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 97

Caesar’s invasion. Shapur then sent the gardener, w ith an impression o f his royal seal, to the local high priest. The latter, realising that this signified that the King had returned, inform ed the com m ander-inchief, and before long a large army was assembled. Caesar had established his headquarters at Taisafun (Ctesiphon), passing the time in idle dissipation, and Shapur took him by surprise by a night attack. T he camp was sacked, 12,000 Rom ans slain, and Caesar captured. In a subsequent interview Shapur berated him for his cruelties (being particularly riled by memories o f the ass’s skin), and demanded reparation for the ravaging o f Iran. Finally, Caesar’s ears were cropped, a ring was put in his nose, and he died in captivity. Shapur, in his turn, carried fire and sword into the border provinces o f R um , and was m et by an army under Caesar’s brother Yanus (Julian); Shapur was victorious and an immense booty taken. The Rom ans then placed Bazanush on the throne, and his first act was to w rite a letter to Shapur, the contents o f w hich virtually am ounted to a cry for mercy. In his reply, Shapur could not resist making a further reference to the ass’s skin, but professed peaceful intentions, and sum m oned Bazanush to a conference to discuss terms. M ost im portant o f these were a huge tribute, and the ceding o f Nisibin (Nisibis), a strategic border fortress. The inhabitants at first rose in opposition to being put under Persian rule, but the revolt was quickly stamped out.

Mani

The last major event o f Shapur’s reign was the appearance o f the false prophet and painter Mani (Manes).22 Shapur sum m oned him to a debate w ith the Zoroastrian priests, in which he was put to confusion; the king then had him flayed, and his skin, stuffed w ith straw, hung on the city gate. Soon after this Shapur died, leaving the throne to his brother Ardashir.

R E I G N S OF A R D A S H I R II, S H A P U R III & B A H R A M IV

N othing o f interest is recorded o f these Kings o f the Shahnama.

98 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A R E I G N OF Y A Z D A G I R D I Arabian Education o f Prince Bahram

Yazdagird I was a son o f Shapur III; Firdawsi accuses him o f oppression and neglect o f justice, but in reality it seems to have been his toleration, and even encouragem ent, o f C hristianity that earned him the sobriquet o f ‘the Sinner’. H e was persuaded by his counsellors to send away his young son Bahram to Arabia, to be brought up under the care o f M unzir and N u m a n , princes o f Hira, and he was there well instructed in every princely accom plishment.

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40 Bahram G ur hunting w ith Azada

T H E S A S A N I A N D Y N A S T Y 99

O nce he was out hunting accompanied by a girl musician named Azada, w ho pertly challenged him to perform several feats o f archery w hich she thought impossible. But Bahram was successful in all o f them, and w hen Azada imprudently suggested that the performance o f such feats must be devil’s work, Bahram threw her to the ground and trampled her under his camel.23 Later, M unzir made Bahram display his skills so that a report could be sent to his father, and this he did by unerringly shooting four running ostriches w ith four consecutive arrows. M unzir then had a likeness o f him, hunting on camel-back, taken by the best available painters, and sent to Yazdagird, and it was followed at intervals by further pictorial bulletins o f the young prince’s progress. These fired Yazdagird with desire to see his son, so he was sent to the Persian court w ith N u m a n as companion. Despite the warm welcome he received, Bahram chafed at the position he was given at court, after his free outdoor life in Arabia, and one evening, w orn out by constant attendance on the king, he fell asleep at his post. Yazdagird was furious and banned him from the court. H e was eventually reinstated by the intervention o f Tainush, the envoy o f R um , and returned to M unzir in Arabia.

Mysterious Death of Yazdagird

M eanwhile Yazdagird was taken ill, and by the advice o f his counsellors sought a cure at the spring o f Sav, near Tus in Khurasan. W hen he arrived at the spring a strange white horse rose out o f the water; and though it fiercely resisted all the efforts o f the royal grooms to capture and subdue it, w hen the king himself drew near and placed a saddle on its back, it remained docile and motionless. But w hen Yazdagird passed behind it to adjust the crupper, it lashed out w ith its rear hoofs, kicking him in the head and killing him, and then vanished once m ore beneath the water.

100 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

R E I G N OF B A H R A M V ( B A H R A M G U R )

Bahrain Wins the Croum

T he nobles refused to crown Bahram, fearing that he w ould resemble his father, and chose an elderly man o f the royal stock named Khusraw. W hen the news reached Bahram in Arabia, M unzir and N u m a n furnished him w ith troops, and he invaded Iran, whilst the neighbouring nations took up a threatening attitude. An envoy, Jawanwi, was sent to Bahrain’s camp to protest, but after an interview w ith M unzir he professed his allegiance to Bahram, advising him to advance into Iran, where he would be well received. So Bahram entered his patrimony, and justified his invasion to the assembled Persians. In the course o f his speech he proposed a choice by ordeal betw een Khusraw and himself: let him and his rival try to seize the crown from betw een two raging lions. This was agreed. Khusraw declined the priority to which, as the senior, he was entitled, and Bahram, having confessed his sins and purified himself, clubbed the lions, sat on the throne betw een their corpses, and assumed the crown. The unsuccessful (by default) candidate was the first to offer his homage and congratulations.

Anecdotes of Bahram Gur

Bahram G ur (‘wild ass’, so called from his addiction to hunting that animal) began his reign by pardoning his subjects for their initial rejection o f his claims, and rem itted all arrears of taxes. Firdawsi treats his reign at considerable length, beginning w ith a series o f anecdotes, in most o f which the King mingles incognito with his subjects o f all classes.

1. The W ater-Carrier & the Jew In the first o f these Bahram was, as was his habit, enjoying the chase, w hen he engaged a local in conversation, enquiring about local conditions and characters. The local inform ed him that in the neighbouring city lived two contrasting characters: Lambak, a water-

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carrier, poor but generous and hospitable, and Baraham a Jew, rich and miserly. Bahrain’s curiosity was aroused and he decided to investigate. H e first issued a proclamation that water sold by Lambak was bad. H e then w ent to the w ater-carrier’s house pretending to be an army captain, and requested lodging for the night. Lambak received him warmly and entertained him lavishly; in fact he persuaded him to stay three nights, though as a result o f the proclamation he had to pawn the tools o f his trade in order to procure sufficient provisions. O n the third evening the King himself cooked the meal, and in the m orning excused himself and returned to the chase. In the evening he knocked on Baraham ’s door, posing as a m em ber o f the hunt w ho had lost his way, but his request for

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41 Bahram G ur at the house o f Lambak

102 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

lodging was at first curtly refused. How ever in the end he was allowed to bed dow n outside the door, and the Jew stipulated that he must clear up his horse’s droppings in the m orning. In Bahram ’s presence his ‘host’ was served w ith a lavish meal but offered not so m uch as a m outhful to his guest. N ext m orning the King returned to the palace, donned his crown, and gave a state reception to w hich both Lambak and Baraham were bidden. T he Jew was made to sit dow n whilst the King sent a servant to his house w ith baggage-animals and orders to strip it o f all contents and bring them to him. So vast was the treasure w ithin that m ore baggage-animals had to be procured, and even then m uch was left behind. Bahram presented Lambak w ith a hundred camel-loads o f this treasure, distributing the rem ainder to the poor, and scornfully dismissing Baraham w ith four small coins.

2. Ban on W ine-D rinking T he next story begins, like the foregoing, with Bahram at the chase; this time his quarry was lions. A pair o f them rushed at him, but one after the other, so that having transfixed the male w ith an arrow, he was able to slay the lioness w ith his sword. This was observed by the owner o f the land, who congratulated Bahram on his prowess, saying that these lions had long been a plague to him. He made a great feast for the king, not realising w ho he was (though he remarked on his likeness to the king). N ext m orning, w hen Bahram was drinking w ith his courtiers, they were joined by a noble villager o f the neighbourhood bearing gifts o f fruit. He was cordially invited to partake, which he did, somewhat to excess, and finally excused himself in some disorder, rode into the country, and lay down to sleep it o ff W hilst he was thus unconscious, a crow came and pecked out his eyes, as a result o f w hich he expired. W hen he heard o f this melancholy event Bahram immediately forbade all wine drinking throughout his dominions. It happened that at this time a young shoe-maker was m arried to a virtuous wife, but found him self unable to consum m ate the marriage. H e confided his problem to his m other, w ho produced wine from a hidden stock w ith w hich she plied him generously, and then bade him go to it again. This time he was successful, and, full of

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euphoria, and the fumes still in his head, he strode into the street. There he encountered one o f the royal lions w hich had broken loose, and, nothing daunted, leaped upon its back. The lion was clearly startled, but accepted the situation philosophically, while the youth grasped its ears to steer it and to steady himself. The keeper soon came up w ith them, secured the lion, and lost no time in reporting this phenom enon to the King. Bahram heard the whole story from the lad’s m other, w hich caused him to laugh heartily and to lift the ban on drinking wine.

3. The Deserted Village O nce m ore the King was hunting, but being wearied in the heat, and having found no game, he rode into a prosperous and populous village to rest awhile. The population came out to view the royal cortege, but none o f them did obeisance. So Bahram, by this time in a foul temper, cursed the village and its inhabitants. R uzbih the high priest was w ith him, and took this for a command, so he harangued the villagers, saying that the king was m uch pleased w ith them, and decreed that all were raised to noble rank - men, w om en and children — and thus all were made equal. The result was bloody chaos; youths m urdered their elders and then fell upon each other, those w ho were able fled away, no crops were sown, trees withered, and streams ran dry. A year passed, and Bahram , once m ore h u n tin g in the neighbourhood, was horrified to find the village desolate and alm ost u n in h ab ite d . H e o rd ered R u z b ih , w h o was again accompanying him, to put matters right w ithout delay, drawing on the royal treasury for whatever was required. R uzbih searched the area, and at last found an old m an w ho told him the sad story o f the ruin o f the village, w hich he blamed on the decree prom ulgated by the K ing’s minister. R uzbih therefore appointed him governor on the spot, bidding him dem and w hatever he wanted, including craftsmen to assist him, and a body o f the unemployed to restore the population, but each man to m aintain his own proper rank and position in society. In a year’s tim e prosperity was restored to the village, the king was delighted, and R uzbih was richly rewarded.

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4. The M iller’s Daughters T he first night out on a m o n th ’s hunting expedition w ith his entourage, Bahram G ur had reached a town, on the outskirts o f w hich he saw a fire burning near a mill, w ith the tow n elders seated round it. A little apart from them , the village maidens were seated, feasting and telling stories. Bahram was gratified to hear one o f the revellers propose the king’s health in flattering terms w ith a stentorian voice. R iding up closer to the gathering, he was approached by four o f the girls, each o f rare beauty, w ho were the daughters o f the miller; they sang him a song in the king’s praise. At this point the miller, w ho had been hunting on his own, appeared and bowed himself low before the distinguished looking visitor. Bahram, handed him a golden goblet o f wine, and asked him why his daughters were not yet m arried. The old man replied that there were no suitable husbands to be found locally, and the susceptible m onarch immediately offered to m arry all four, brushing aside their father’s protest that he was a poor man, and could afford no dowry. So the four village beauties were safely installed in the king’s overflowing w om en’s quarters. The girls’ parents sat up all night congratulating themselves, and recalling that Bahram had m arried their daughters for their own worth, w ith no consideration o f wealth or birth. In the m orning the village headman called on them to offer his felicitations, expressing his satisfaction at his close friendship with one whose sonin-law was the King.

5. The Treasures o f Jamshid O n a subsequent hunting expedition Bahram was approached by a local landlord demanding a private interview. H e revealed to the king that while working on an irrigation channel on his land, he found that the rush o f water had uncovered the m outh o f a deep hole, where he had reason to believe a treasure was buried. Bahram sum m oned a working party, and soon a door was disclosed. W hen this was opened a vast chamber was revealed, filled w ith treasures o f every kind — gems, coins and jewelled golden figures o f buffalo and other animals and birds. U pon one o f the buffaloes was found the seal o f King Jamshid. Despite the urging o f the courtiers, Bahram refused

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PLATE 42 Bahram Gur finds the treasure of Jamshid

to appropriate any o f the treasures to himself, but after suitably rewarding the finder, had it sold and the proceeds distributed among the poor. This generous action inspired a fervent eulogy from an ancient sage named Mahiyar comparing Bahram favourably w ith Faridun and Jamshid himself, and declaring that he was under the guidance o f the angel Surush.

6. The Unobliging M erchant After another hunt in sultry weather King Bahram was suffering from the colic. H e stopped, incognito o f course, at the house o f a certain

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m erchant and asked for a night’s lodging. The m erchant made him comfortable, and Bahram, handing him some money, asked if he m ight have some roasted almonds and cheese. The m erchant had no almonds in the house, and felt no inclination to go out to buy them, but after some delay, produced a roasted fowl from the larder, w hich he placed before Bahram on a tray. The king was angry, not only at receiving the w rong kind o f food for his ailing stomach, but also for being kept waiting for it, and rebuked the m erchant accordingly. The latter retorted vigorously that as a guest he should be satisfied w ith w hat was put before him. The rest o f the evening passed in silence. In the m orning, as he was preparing to depart, Bahram was detained by the m erchant’s young apprentice, who, after a visit to the bazaar served up a delicious meal in w hich almonds and cheese were prom inent, with plenty o f wine on the side. W hen the king eventually returned to his palace, he had the m erchant and his apprentice brought before him. H e placed the apprentice among the nobles and presented him w ith a bag o f gold, but decreed that his master should henceforth be his slave, and pay him a sum o f m oney twice a m onth from his savings. So Bahram Gur showed his contem pt for avarice.

7. Bahram G ur changes His M ind O ne day Bahram decided to enjoy a m o n th ’s hunting o f the wild ass in Turan. After a couple o f days o f this pastime, he encountered a hairy dragon w ith breasts like a w om an’s, w hich he quickly despatched with a couple o f arrows. Intrigued by its curious anatomy, he cut open its body and found there the corpse o f a youth it had swallowed whole. D uring this operation he became half blind and dizzy from the dragon’s foul exhalations, and rode off in search o f sleep and water. H e was hospitably received by a country wom an and her husband, who, not know ing w ho he was, made him comfortable w ith a good wash and a simple meal. N ext day his hostess provided a m eal o f roast lamb despite her husband’s protests at such extravagance. Still feeling queasy, Bahram was unable to get to sleep, and asked her to tell him a story. Instead she complained to him o f various deceits and swindles practised on the villagers by passing courtiers and officials, w hich gave him a sleepless night, and

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PLATE 43 Bahram Gur at the house of the Countryman

determ ined him to act the tyrant himself, as those w ho acted so seemed to prosper. N ext m orning his hostess, having charged her husband w ith making a pot o f porridge, went out to milk her cow. But the udder was dry, and no milk would come. This, she loudly inform ed her husband, was a sure sign that the king’s heart had turned from justice to tyranny. Bahram heard her words plainly, and immediately repented o f his foolish thoughts, praying earnestly that he m ight never again be tem pted to swerve from justice. M eanwhile his hostess revisited the cow, and this time the milk came plentifully, w hich gave her joy and relief. After he had partaken o f the porridge they had prepared for him, Bahram asked them to take his riding-w hip and hang it on a tree outside the house (that being the sign o f a royal resident), which they did w ithout thinking. But w hen they noticed that all passers-by dism ounted and saluted w hen they saw the whip, they realised w ith a shock w ho their guest was, and hastened to offer

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their loyal devotion and hum ble apologies for shortcomings in the entertainm ent provided. Bahram, laughing, made the old man headman o f the village, and rode on his way.

8. Bahram G ur adds Three to his Harem Shortly after this, Bahram set out on a hunting expedition o f great magnificence: twenty camels bore the royal pavilion and other paraphernalia o f the chase, seven elephants were employed in conveying the imperial throne, each m em ber o f the hunt was attended by thirty pages richly apparelled, the falconers had charge of 160 hawks and 200 falcons and peregrines, and an orchestra accompanied the expedition wearing crowns and riding on a hundred camels.24 D uring the hunt a favourite black hawk, a present to Bahram from the Khan o f Chin, flew away and was lost to sight. In following it, the king and his party came upon a rich estate, a garden w ith a pool where an old man was seated w ith three beautiful girls. This was Barzin, a wise local lord, but disaffected towards the king, and in consequence somewhat apprehensive at Bahrain’s arrival. However w hen the king explained that he was looking for his lost black hawk, Barzin was able to reassure him that he had seen it a few minutes ago in one o f his trees, and it was soon secured by the falconers. T he old man then called for wine, w hich was brought in abundance, and the whole party sat down to enjoy his hospitality. Fired by the wine, Barzin then proposed a musical interlude by the girls, one singing, one dancing, and one playing the harp. The king readily approved o f this, and asked w ho the girls were; the old man proudly replied that they were his daughters. So, accompanied by Faranak on the harp, Shambalid danced, and M ah-Afrid rendered a song in fulsome praise o f the king. Bahram was entranced and, draining his massive crystal cup, requested Barzin’s approval o f his proposal o f marriage to all three daughters. This was willingly given, and Bahram ’s latest three acquisitions were packed off to the royal w om en’s quarters in three golden litters attended by forty R om an slaves. Bahram remained for some time drinking w ith Barzin, a whip suspended over the door to proclaim his presence, and then returned

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to his palace. H e spent a week in his harem, then a second week hunting w ith R uzbih and a retinue o f a thousand. W ild ass were plentiful, and it was their mating season. Bahram conceived a novel way o f displaying his prowess w hen a couple o f them began copulating w ithin easy range o f his bow; a single arrow pierced and slew both animals, and this rather cruel and cowardly feat was loudly applauded by his retinue.

9. Bahram G ur makes a Further Addition to his Harem N ext, Bahram shot a pair o f lions on the edge o f a forest, and a little further on came across a large flock o f sheep. T he head shepherd replied to the king’s enquiry that the sheep belonged to a very rich jew eller nam ed Mahiyar, w ho had a beautiful daughter, and gave him directions to the jew eller’s house. Bahram pursued his way to the village alone, while Barzin, left behind, gave way to a violent tirade against the king for his womanising, saying that he had heard from one o f the eunuchs that the palace contained nearly a thousand w om en, and that at this rate the king w ould soon fade away. Arrived at the jew eller’s house and hearing sounds o f revelry, Bahram again pretended to be a huntsm an w ho had lost his way, and was readily admitted to a feast followed, as usual, by a drinking session. M ahiyar was very proud o f his daughter Arzu, and got her to sing a couple o f songs for the entertainm ent o f his unexpected guest. Almost inevitably, Bahram was enraptured and immediately asked the hand o f Arzu in marriage. She was very willing, but her father counselled Bahram to sleep on it and make his decision in the m orning. But the king was all impatience, and Mahiyar, overruled, pronounced them man and wife. However she returned to her room before dawn, and one o f Bahram ’s servants hung the royal whip over the house door. By m orning a considerable num ber o f Bahram ’s troops had seen it and assembled outside. The porter was the first to realise the true situation, and woke his master, w ho was feeling some effects o f the pervious night’s indulgence, and the latter hastened to enlighten his daughter. M eanwhile Bahram awoke, called for Arzu, w ho attended him w ith wine, and they were soon joined by her father full o f compliments and apologies for imagined irregularities

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whilst in his cups. The king brushed these aside, and M ahiyar put on another feast to w hich the king’s men, still waiting outside, were all admitted. The festivities closed w ith another song by Arzu w ith her harp, and R uzbih appeared w ith forty R om an eunuchs and a litter in w hich the king’s latest conquest was duly conveyed to the royal bower.

10. Bahram G ur & the Miser T he very next day Bahram, again attended by R uzbih, started on another great hunt lasting a m onth and rounded off by a night o f feasting and revelry in the royal camp. The bag o f game was so large that all the dwellers in the neighbourhood were supplied w ith meat at little or no cost. At length the king decided to make for hom e, and, coming to a town, ordered all the baggage train to push on and leave him there incognito. H e asked where the headman lived, and was directed to an apparently ruined house. The owner, whose name was Farshidward, greeted him, but pleaded destitution, showed him the filthy floor and tottering walls, and protested that he was unable to offer any accom modation or hospitality. So Bahram departed m uch displeased, and on the road he m et a thorn-gatherer busy at his occupation. T he king asked him w ho was the chief man in the tow n he had just left, and the th o rn gatherer replied that it was one Farshidward, a miser, w ho, though possessed o f vast wealth and num erous herds o f sheep and camels, chose to live in squalor and isolation. Bahram rejoined his party, and detached a hundred m en under Bihruz, guided by the th o rn gatherer (w hom he provided w ith gold and a noble steed), to the place w here Farshidward’s flock and herds were grazing. In addition to those they found huge stores o f food and concealed hoards o f gold and treasure. O n receiving their report, the king made an order that all this should be confiscated and distributed to the deserving poor, for though Farshidward had legally harm ed nobody, nor obtained his riches dishonestly, yet the fear o f G od was not in him, and he had never used his hoarded wealth for his ow n or anybody else’s benefit.

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11. A Great H unting Expedition It was not long before another full-scale royal hunt - 30,000 participants — was organised, the intended quarry this time being lions. O n arrival at the hunting ground, Bahram bade all to an allnight revel. O n the following day he slew two lions at close quarters w ith his sword, and later an aged counsellor dissuaded him from any further slaughter o f the noble beasts. So he returned to camp for another drinking bout. As he raised his great crystal goblet, the king delivered a speech in praise o f his forebears, Ardashir and Faridun, and issued an order that during the impending hunt no damage should be done to standing crops or fruit trees, on pain o f a year’s im prisonm ent. The following day was devoted to the chase o f the wild ass, and Bahram showed his skill by shooting one straight through the body length-wise, so that the arrow was completely buried, and by cutting another in two w ith a single sword stroke. Loud applause greeted these feats. H e then pressed on to Baghdad, where he spent a fortnight in music and revelry before travelling on to Istakhr (Persepolis), the old capital. H ere he beautified the w om en’s quarters, and loaded the occupants w ith m oney and gifts.

Victories of Bahram Gur

But this halcyon existence had to end; neighbouring monarchs had received reports o f Bahram ’s indolence and luxury, and the Khan25 and Caesar both prepared to invade Iran. Even Bahram ’s counsellors expostulated w ith him for his lack o f spirit and for wasting his time in hunting and feasting, and there arose an atmosphere o f discontent and despair throughout the land. But the king was secretly gathering his forces, w hich he placed under the comm and o f his brother Narsi. However the dispirited opposition took the law into its own hands, and sent a deputation to the Khan o f C hin offering the submission o f Iran. The Khan was delighted, and occupied the north-eastern city o f Marv. But Bahram swiftly brought his army to the neighbourhood by forced marches, and was inform ed by his spies o f the slack security arrangements maintained at M arv by the Khan. After resting his

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troops for a day, he made a surprise attack on the Khan and inflicted on him a crushing defeat, the Khan himself and 300 o f his noblem en being made prisoners. W hen he had rested a while at Marv, Bahram m arched his m en against Bukhara. H e signally defeated the Turkman host, and received a deputation from them, begging for mercy, and offering submission and tribute. To this he acquiesced, at the same time restraining his troops from further bloodshed. H e established the river Jihun (Oxus) as the boundary betw een the two kingdoms, and appointed Shahra, a trusty warrior, as governor o f Turan. H e then wrote a letter to his brother Narsi describing his campaign and victories. Narsi meanwhile received a deputation o f all those w ho had been concerned in the traitorous submission to the Khan, begging him to entreat his royal brother to grant them mercy and forgiveness. Bahram freely pardoned them all, and after a state thanksgiving made a progress through the realm, distributing largesse and repairing caravanserais and bridges on the way. This culminated in a trium phal entry into Taisafun (Ctesiphon) the capital, w here he was happily reunited w ith his brother Narsi. Bahram then sent a circular letter to all his chiefs and provincial governors, full o f piety and good advice, and appointed Narsi governor o f the great north eastern province o f Khurasan. Bahram then turned his attention westwards, and noted that Caesar’s ambassador was still at court awaiting an audience. H e was assured that the ambassador was a noble, wise, learned, and modest man, but also heard that his staff were ill-conditioned and held the Persians in low regard. The ambassador was warmly received in audience by Bahram, w hom he greeted and com plim ented w ith equal warm th, announcing that he had seven questions to put to the wise m en o f the Persian court. These, o f a rather esoteric and philosophical nature (the ambassador was a Platonist) were answered w ithout difficulty and at some length by the Persian H igh Priest, w hich earned him a robe o f honour and other royal gifts. T he two m en continued their high-flow n discussions at court next m orning, after w hich Bahram gave the ambassador leave to depart, loaded w ith rich gifts. H e also made a wide distribution o f largesse to his chiefs and officials, accompanied by a long and edifying speech that brought tears to the eyes o f his audience.

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Bahram Gur in India & his Return

Later, the king was w arned by one o f his ministers o f the hostile activities o f Shangul, King o f H ind (India) on his eastern frontier. Bahram decided to deal w ith the m atter himself, in the guise o f an ambassador, bearing a letter o f stern adm onition. H e departed, ostensibly on a hunting expedition, but w hen he was near the border rode off w ith a select party, and soon reached Shangul’s m agnificent palace. H e was readily adm itted to the latter’s presence, and was provided w ith a golden throne to sit on. B ut w hen the letter was read to Shangul by a scribe, his face grew dark, and he gave an angry and bombastic answer. Bahram replied by proposing a debate or com bat betw een chosen m en o f Iran and H ind, at w hich Shangul, som ew hat mollified, suggested that they sleep on it, and meanw hile enjoy a feast together. By way o f entertainm ent, he put on a wrestling m atch betw een two Indian champions, after w hich Bahram offered to wrestle w ith the victor. H e overthrew the cham pion w ith o u t difficulty, and after further potations the com pany sought their beds. In the m orning the Indian king amused himself for some time on his polo-ground, and then invited Bahram to show his skill in archery, w hich he did to such effect that he excited Shangul’s suspicion that he must be something m ore than a mere ambassador. W hen this was put to him, Bahram disclaimed anything o f the kind. But Shangul instructed a trusty courtier to approach him, and invite him to stay on in India, and receive a great estate and high advancement, an offer which Bahram politely but firmly declined, saying that he was anxious to return home. But Shangul was determ ined to bring Bahram down, and asked him to deal w ith a giant rhinoceros in a w ood nearby. Bahram readily agreed if a guide could be provided. The guide dilated on the immense size and ferocity o f the monster, as they approached its lair, but decamped before they reached it. Bahram ’s Persian followers tried to dissuade him from such a perilous encounter, but the king rode at the beast full tilt, disabled it w ith a shower o f arrows, and then dism ounting drew his sword and cut off its head. Shangul made a great feast to celebrate this victory, but he was still uneasy, and next day he sent Bahram off w ith another guide to rid the land o f a huge

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PLATE 44 Bahram Gur and the Rhinoceros

poisonous dragon, promising to pay tribute in full to Iran if he should be successful. They found the dragon by a stream, w rithing horribly and w ith fire flashing from its eyes. As before, Bahram, disregarding his followers’ entreaties, made straight at it and then wheeling to left and right as he poured in his arrows - poisoned on this occasion into its body and head, from w hich poured blood and poison. As it wallowed helplessly, he strode up to it, drove his sword into its heart, and severed its head w ith his battle-axe. After rendering thanks to the Almighty, he had the monstrous corpse m ounted on wagons and conveyed to Shangul.

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The Indian king was sorely disappointed at this result, especially as Bahram ’s exploits had w on the hearts o f his people, and his ministers strongly advised him to cease plotting for the downfall o f his Persian guest. So Shangul changed his m ind completely, gave Bahram his beautiful daughter Sapinud in marriage, showered rich gifts on him and his Persian followers, and made a great feast for all comers, which lasted a week. M eanwhile news o f Bahram ’s prowess and o f his marriage to Shangul’s daughter had reached the Faghfur o f C hin (Emperor o f China) w ho wrote a letter inviting him to Chin, and promising him a warm welcome and leave to depart at will. But Bahram took offence to the opening phrase o f the letter in w hich the Faghfur announced himself as ‘m onarch o f the w orld’, a title to w hich Bahram considered that he alone was entitled. H e therefore returned a rather stiff answer, declining the proffered hospitality, and the m atter was dropped. Bahram was happy w ith his new wife, w ho soon discovered his true identity, and together they plotted to escape to Iran. They chose a day w hen Shangul and all his court would be absent, attending a festival, and rode off unobserved. W hen they reached the Indus, they comm andeered a boat, and crossed safely to the Persian shore. But Bahram ’s absence had been noted and immediately reported to Shangul, w ho made all speed and caught up w ith them near the river-crossing. However, after initial and mutual recriminations they were fully reconciled, and parted, Shangul back to India, and Bahram with his wife hom e to Iran. Here they received a tumultuous welcome, led by Bahram ’s son Yazdagird, and his brother Narsi w ho was now High Priest. The king gave an audience, and an edifying speech to his subjects, and then took his wife to the fire-tem ple o f Azargashasp, where the marriage was blessed and she received instruction in the Zoroastrian religion. After a short time, Shangul felt a strong desire to see his daughter again, so, accom panied by seven Indian kings and a num erous entourage, he visited Iran and was kindly received by his son-inlaw. There were the usual lavish feasts, drinking sessions, and hunting expeditions, but the father was enabled to spend some time w ith his daughter, and was entranced by her new estate. At length, after two m onths, the hour o f departure arrived, but before he left

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Shangul drew up a docum ent bequeathing all his treasures and his kingdom to Bahram. So he returned hom e w ith his suite and many precious gifts. Having ordered an account to be made o f all the royal treasure, and finding it ample to cover the rem ainder o f his life, Bahram rem itted all taxes throughout his dominions. Yet there was still some unrest and crime which he endeavoured to remedy by appointing new and capable governors in all the provinces. H e m et complaints from the poor that they had no music for their rustic revels by asking Shangul to send 10,000 gypsies from India. W hen these arrived, they thw arted all his attempts to make them settle down as agriculturists, and earned a living wandering through the villages making music for the peasants. Soon after this Bahram died peacefully, having bequeathed the crown to his son Yazdagird.26

R E I G N S OF Y A Z D A G I R D II & H U R M U Z D III

N othing o f interest is recorded o f these kings in the Shahnama.

R E I G N OF P I R U Z

Crushing Defeat of Piruz

T he next king was Piruz (or Firuz), son o f Yazdagird II and older brother o f H urm uzd III. He was at first a builder o f cities, but later made war on the Khan (see note 25) in breach of the treaty made w ith him by Bahram G ur after his successful campaign. Khushnawaz, the K han’s son, sent Piruz a letter o f protest, but the king persisted in his impious course. In the battle that followed, Piruz and his troops were lured by a feigned retreat o f the K han’s m en into a concealed ditch. The enemy then wheeled upon them as they struggled in utter confusion, and inflicted a crushing defeat w ith heavy casualties, Piruz himself being among the slain.

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PLATE 45 Defeat and death of Piruz

R E IG N O F B A L A SH P iruz Avenged

Balash was a younger son (or possibly brother) o f Piruz and was crowned as his successor, but in view o f his youth Sufarai, a prom inent and experienced nobleman, was appointed to gather and com m and an army to avenge the death o f Piruz. The preliminary

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exchange o f letters served only to exacerbate feelings on both sides, and a great battle was fought; Khush-nawaz was worsted, and took refuge in a fortress. By the subsequent negotiations all the Persian prisoners taken w hen Piruz was defeated were freed, including his elder son Qubad. Sufarai then prevailed upon Balash to abdicate, and Q ubad ascended the throne.

FIR ST R E IG N OF Q U B A D

Rebellion

At first Sufarai remained as chief minister, but after a while he returned to his native Shiraz. In his absence he became the victim o f court slander and intrigue, as a result o f w hich Q ubad sent Shapur of Rayy, his com m ander-in-chief, to bring Sufarai in bonds from Shiraz. Following the advice o f his counsellors, and in spite of Sufarai’s signal services to the crown, Q ubad had him executed. This provoked a rebellion; Q ubad was confined in charge o f Sufarai’s son Rizm ihr, and Jamasp, Q ubad’s younger brother, was put on the throne.

R E IG N OF JA M A SP

Temporary Absence of Qubad

B ut R izm ih r helped Q ubad to escape northw ards, and on his way he m et and m arried a local ch ief’s daughter, leaving her almost im m ediately to take refuge w ith the Khan; Q ubad had a pact w ith the Khan, and the latter lent him a form idable body o f troops to assist his restoration. O n m arching south into Iran, he was greeted by the news that his wife had presented him w ith a son, and w hen he also heard that her father was a descendant o f Faridun he was doubly gratified. T he child was nam ed Kisra. Q ubad was m et by a deputation o f nobles w ho im plored him to resume the crow n, assuring him that Jamasp was willing to stand down. A nd so he did.

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S E C O N D R E IG N OF Q U B A D

Prince Kisra & the Mazdakites

Some time after this a certain Mazdak, a man o f noble birth and great talent, appeared at court, professing and practising a kind o f communism, and Q ubad was at first sympathetic to his views. But Mazdak complained to the king that the prince Kisra was opposed to his teaching. So Kisra arranged a debate betw een Mazdak and a group o f Zoroastrain sages in w hich Mazdak had the worst o f it, and Q ubad turned him over, along w ith three thousand o f his followers, to the prince. Kisra had all the Mazdakites buried head downwards w ith their feet in the air. H e then brought in Mazdak him self to view this discouraging spectacle, w hich he facetiously called his ‘garden’, and had him hanged high and shot to death w ith arrows. After this Q ubad bestowed the throne on Kisra, w ho was then renamed Nushirwan (‘o f imm ortal spirit’).

R E I G N OF N U S H I R W A N

Insolence & Defeat of Caesar

Nushirw an began his reign by reorganising the realm into four provinces; taxes were reduced, and agriculture, w hen necessary, was subsidised; the administration o f justice was reformed. At a military review he submitted himself to inspection and drew the regulation pay like all the rest. He was rightly called ‘Nushirwan the Just’. He made a tour o f his empire, attending to suppliants, and built a great wall in the pass betw een Iran and Turan. After he had chastised some trouble-makers in various parts o f his dom inion he received a visit from M unzir the Arab o f Hira, complaining o f the overbearing behaviour o f Caesar, and requesting permission to attack him. A stern letter was sent to Caesar, which called forth a provocative reply, and Nushirwan called together his counsellors to consider the situation. The decision was for war. Nushirwan first admonished his troops on their behaviour, not to harm civilians, fruit trees, nor crops, and the army m arched on R um . Several strongholds were

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PLATE 46 E nthronem ent o f Nushirw an

captured, a victory was gained over Caesars general Farfurius (Porphyrius?), and the great city o f Antakiya (Antioch) was taken. O n his return, Nushirwan built a city to accommodate his R om an prisoners, and received tribute from Caesar.

Revolt of N ushzad

O ne o f N ushirw an’s wives was a Christian, and her son Nushzad was brought up in that faith. W hen he was grown up, the king fell ill, and Nushzad took this opportunity to raise a rebellion, having heard a false report o f the kings death. Nushirwan entrusted the task of putting down the rebellion to R am Barzin, giving him strict orders

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PLATE 47 D eath o f Nushzad

that Nushzad should not be harmed. Nevertheless, he was mortally w ounded in the battle, and his body was consigned to his m other for Christian burial.

B uzurjm ihr as Dream Interpreter

N ushirw an one night had a strange dream w hich none o f his sages was able to interpret. So he sent them out to various parts o f the country to try to find one sufficiently versed in dream interpreta­ tion for the purpose. O ne o f them reached M arv in the far n o rth ­ east, and there by chance encountered a youth nam ed Buzurjm ihr, w ho said he had the skill. H e interpreted the king’s dream as

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signifying that a young m an in female disguise had penetrated the royal harem. This was found to be the case, w hen N ushirw an had carried out a close and detailed inspection, and the young m an and his half-sister, w ho had instigated the affair, were hanged. As a result o f this, Buzurjm ihr was highly honoured, and becam e the king’s chief minister. In his h onour N ushirw an instituted a weekly banquet, o f w hich seven were held in succession. All the wise m en and the king him self attended, w ith Buzurjm ihr in the place o f honour, and m any philosophical m atters were learnedly and lengthily discussed.

The Misfortunes of Mahbud

Nushirw an had a vizier named M ahbud, a blameless man w ith two young sons whose privilege it was to serve the king w ith food. But M ahbud excited deep jealously in a certain chamberlain named Zuran, w ho conspired w ith a Jewish sorcerer to ruin him. They contrived that the Jew should cast an evil eye on the food, thus rendering it poisonous, as it contained milk. W hen the food was brought in, Zuran warned the king that an attempt was being made on his life. So the two sons o f M ahbud, w ho had brought the food in, were made to eat it, and both fell dead. M ahbud and his whole family were thus destroyed. Some time later, on a royal hunting expedition, the conversation betw een Nushirwan and his companions, amongst w hom was Zuran, turned on witchcraft and sorcery. Zuran, w ithout thinking, observed that food made w ith milk could be poisoned by a look from a sorcerer. The king’s suspicions were aroused, and in a later, private, conversation he drew out the whole story from Zuran, who endeavoured to place the entire blame on the Jew. H e was immediately put in fetters, and the Jew, being seized, revealed everything. Two gibbets were erected and the two wretches hanged side-by-side, to be finished off w ith stones and arrows. Nushirwan was able to locate four survivors o f M ahbud’s family, and bestowed on them the fortunes and possessions o f Zuran and the Jew.

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N ushirwan marries the K h a n ’s Daughter

After this, the Khan, in his admiration o f Nushirwan, fitted out a large caravan o f valuable presents w hich he sent off to Iran accompanied by an envoy o f high rank. But on the way they had to pass through the land o f the Haitalians, whose King Ghatkar intercepted and plundered the caravan. The Khan was enraged, and marched his army against Ghatkar. A stubborn battle ensued which was eventually w on by the Khan, and the Haitalians enthroned a new king, Faghanish, to replace Ghatkar.

PLATE

48 N ushirw ans envoy and the K hans daughters

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N ushirwan was w orried at the news o f the K han’s victory; he was, after all, the successor o f the old enemies Afrasiyab and Arjasp, whereas the new king o f the Haitalians was descended from Bahram Gur. So Nushirwan determ ined to lead his army against him. But the Khan, w hen he heard o f this, stifled his instinctive irritation, and sent ten envoys to Nushirwan w ith presents and a letter urging peace betw een them. Nushirwan agreed, and the Khan then offered him one o f his daughters in marriage, an offer which the king graciously accepted. T he delicate mission o f choice was entrusted to M ihran Sitad, a wise old chief, w ho was strictly instructed by his master to make a very careful choice, having regard to the status o f the princess’s m other, her disposition and accomplishments. W hen M ihran Sitad had arrived and been greeted by the Khan, the girls were paraded before him. Five o f the princesses were finely dressed and elaborately adorned, but the sixth, w ho was her father’s favourite and whose m other was a queen, wore no m ake-up and was dressed in ordinary rather w orn clothes. The wise old envoy was not deceived, and picked the sixth w ithout hesitation, and she was duly despatched, under his protection, to her new hom e w ith a numerous entourage. At this happy consumm ation the Khan w ithdrew to his own country, leaving several provinces in Persian hands, while Nushirwan returned to his capital at M ada’in (Ctesiphon).

Introduction of Chess

N ext, an envoy arrived from the Raja o f Hind, bearing many gifts, amongst which were a chess-board and set of chess-men. H e made a rather original proposal that if the Persians could work out how the game was played, and correctly identify the various pieces and their moves, they might call on the Indians for tribute, but if they failed, let the reverse obtain. The king asked for a w eek’s grace, and w hen all the sages at court had laboured in vain, Buzurjm ihr was sent for, and solved the whole thing in a day and a night, m uch to the chagrin o f the Indian envoy. H e then turned the tables on the Indians by inventing the game o f word (backgamm on), and bore it, at N ushirw an’s bidding, to the Raja, to w hom he explained its

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mysteries. H e then returned in trium ph w ith two thousand camels bearing Indian tribute. [The poet here embarks on a digression relating the story o f the origin o f chess.] A famous Indian king, Jamhur, had a son named Gav, but died w hen the latter was still an infant. Gav’s m other then m arried her late husband’s brother Mai, w ho ruled the kingdom during the infancy of Gav, and had a son by him named Talhand. But Mai also died w hen the boys were no m ore than seven and two years old, and the counsellors made their m other queen. W hen they were o f age both princes were eager for the succession, and sat together at an assembly o f the nobles, w ho were bidden to choose betw een them. But no decision could be reached, the princes quarrelled, and in the end both parties took up arms, and a battle was fought after Gav’s efforts at reconciliation had failed. In this battle Gav was victorious, but Talhand prepared to renew the conflict, and a second battle took place by the sea. This time Talhand’s heart failed him in the midst o f the battle, and he swooned and died on his elephant. His m other at first blamed Gav for his brother’s death, but in order to assure her o f the true course o f events he instructed his wise m en to make a plan or model o f the whole battle, w ith all the protagonists and their moves, thus showing how Talhand was surrounded and gave up the ghost. And so the game of chess was invented.

The Book of Kalila wa Dimna obtained

At the court o f N ushirwan there was a certain celebrated physician named Barzwi, w ho found reference in an ancient Indian manuscript to a m ountain herb capable o f reviving the dead. So he volunteered to travel to India to find it. His search was in vain, but his Indian guide put him in touch w ith an aged sage, w ho told him that he, too, had puzzled over the manuscript reference, and had concluded that it must be metaphorical: the herb is the wise man and the m ountain is knowledge. H e told Barzwi that in the R aja’s treasury was a book

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containing this knowledge, called Kalila,27 w hich m ight also perhaps be figured as the vital herb. The Raja was reluctant to hand over the book, but at length agreed to let Barzwi read it in his presence. So Barzwi, seated before the Raja, read a chapter a day, com m itting it to m em ory as he went along, and sending a transcription, chapter by chapter, to Nushirwan. O n his return he requested that w hen Buzurjm ihr made a fair copy o f the whole book for the king, he should include an account o f him, Barzwi, and the story o f how he obtained it.

Buzurjmihr & the Locked Casket

O ne day w hen B uzurjm ihr was accom panying N ushirw an on a hunting expedition, they becam e separated from the m ain body o f huntsm en; and the king, feeling tired, lay dow n and dozed on the grass. As he did so the clasp securing his jew elled arm let becam e detached, and whilst he was asleep a bird swooped dow n and carried it off. W hen he awoke and missed it, the king blam ed B uzurjm ihr for the loss and flung him into prison. Soon after this Caesar sent an embassy to N ushirw an bearing, in addition to the usual gifts, a locked casket, w ith a message that if the Persians could divine the contents o f the casket w ithout opening it, he w ould pay his usual tribute, but if they failed, no tribute was payable. W hen none o f the wise m en at court could offer any solution, the king realised that Buzurjm ihr was his only hope. So w ith a good deal o f embarrassment he set him free w ith a clean suit o f clothes and a fine saddled horse, and im plored him to forget the hardships he had endured. B uzurjm ihr accordingly took up and exam ined the casket before the w hole court. Now, on his way to the palace B uzurjm ihr had encountered three w om en, one m arried w ith a child, the second m arried but childless, and the third unm arried. H e took this as an om en from w hich he deduced the answer: ‘T he casket contains three pearls, one pierced, one half-pierced, and one unpierced.’ T he casket was opened, and its contents were found to be exactly as he had said.

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Nushirwan’s Last Campaign

After a long section devoted to N ushirw an’s w it and wisdom , the epic arrives at his last campaign against R u m . T here was a new Caesar, young and inexperienced, who, on receiving a polite message from N ushirw an congratulating him on his accession, treated the Persian envoy w ith studied discourtesy, and sent him back w ith an insulting reply. N ushirw an imm ediately gathered his troops and penetrated deeply into Caesar’s dom inions, taking the cities o f Halab (Aleppo) and Saqila, and defeating the R om an general Batarun (Marcian). B ut the enem y checked him by flooding a great trench. At this point N ushirw an found him self short o f m oney and supplies, and sent an envoy to raise loans in the adjacent cities. In one o f these lived a very rich shoe-m aker, w ho offered to advance the w hole sum required if the king w ould arrange for his son to be educated at court. N ushirw an showed his wisdom and foresight by returning the m oney and turning the offer dow n as a probable cause o f trouble in the next generation. Envoys now arrived from R u m w ith rich gifts and abject apologies for young Caesar’s uncouth behaviour; a heavy tribute was im posed on the R om ans, and peace was made. N ow aged 74, Nushirwan turned his thoughts to the appointm ent o f a w orthy successor, and fixed on his son H urm uzd. T he youth was duly questioned on philosophy and morality by Buzurjm ihr and, his answers being satisfactory, he was officially proclaimed heir apparent. Lastly, Nushirw an had an ominous dream, w hich was interpreted by Buzurjm ihr as signifying the birth o f the prophet M uham m ad and the trium ph o f Islam over the religion o f Zoroaster.28 H e died a few years after this, and was followed shortly by his wise and faithful m inister Buzurjmihr.

R E I G N OF H U R M U Z D IV

The Rise of Bahram Chubina

H urm uzd’s reign opened auspiciously, but before long he turned on his father’s surviving ministers and put four o f the foremost o f them

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PLATE 49 Casket brought to H urm uzd containing N ushirw an’s prophecy

to death. O ne o f them was the Treasurer, Bahram Azarmihan, w ho had injudiciously displayed to the king in a casket, a roll o f silk on w hich was w ritten by the hand o f Nushirwan the text o f a prophecy foretelling H urm uzd’s tragic fall. The king took this to be an attempt to underm ine him, and had the old statesman m urdered in prison. The kingdom was then threatened by enemies on every side: Sawa the Turk from the east, Caesar from the west, the Khazars from the north, and the Arabs from the south. However his armies dispersed the Khazars, and in consequence Caesar and the Arabs withdrew; but Sawa remained. The aged M ihran Sitad advised the king that there was a great w arrior amongst his subjects, Bahram C hubina by name, and bade him seek him out to lead the army against the Turks. H e was soon located, came to court, and was made com m ander-inchief.

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O n his way to encounter Sawa, a local wom an complained to Bahram Chubina that one o f his officers had taken hay from her w ithout paying for it. Bahram promptly had the guilty man executed. An exchange o f abusive messages between Sawa and Bahram Chubina was naturally followed by battle, before which Bahram Chubina put up an earnest prayer for assistance to the Almighty, while Sawa’s pagan sorcerers vainly chanted their spells. W hen the battle joined, Bahram Chubina was everywhere, rallying the Persians w hen they seemed to be breaking, and causing Sawa’s elephants to turn tail by ordering his archers to aim for their trunks. H e soon spotted Sawa and transfixed him w ith an arrow, and at this the Turks gave way and fled, the Persians pursuing them with great slaughter.

PLATE

50 Sawa Shah pursued by Bahram C hubina

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Bahram Chubina & Parmuda

T he severed heads o f Sawa and his chieftains, together w ith the prisoners and m uch spoil, were sent to King H urm uzd, and the king w rote Bahram Chubina a letter o f congratulation, bidding him pursue and overthrow Sawa’s son Parmuda. This order was obeyed forthw ith, and Parmuda fled to his stronghold o f Awaza, where he was besieged. H e sent a message to Bahram Chubina begging for quarter, and this was forwarded to the king. The request was granted, and Parmuda was sum m oned to appear before H urm uzd. W ithout asking Bahram C hubina’s permission, the young man set out for the court, at which the Persian general was extremely angry, sent out troops to bring him back, and sternly upbraided him, giving him a cut w ith his whip. H e then sent Parmuda off once more, w ith the treasure found in the stronghold o f Awaza. The young man was kindly received by H urm uzd, but he complained o f being whipped and insulted by Bahram Chubina, and at the same time intelligence reached the king that his general had retained certain items from among the spoils. After making a pact w ith Parmuda and sending him on his way hom e laden w ith gifts, H urm uzd sent a furious letter to Bahram Chubina together w ith a derisory gift o f a distaff, a spinning wheel and a set o f w om en’s clothes. O n receipt o f these, Bahram Chubina put on the clothes, seated himself at the spinning wheel, the distaff in his hand, and showed himself thus to his men. The soldiers were outraged at the insult offered to their general, and abjured their allegiance to the king.

Bahram Chubina proclaims himself King

In the course o f a hunting expedition Bahram Chubina came upon a palace in the forest, w hich he decided to enter and explore, leaving his horse in charge o f his followers. After a while, becom ing apprehensive, one o f them entered the palace, w here he found Bahram seated w ith a beautiful princess, w ho at once gave orders for the entertainm ent o f the whole retinue. She urged Bahram to seize the throne, a proposal that troubled him, but he nevertheless had

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himself proclaimed the following day. O ne o f his nobles, Kharrad Barzin, was horrified at this, and fled w ith the news to King H urm uzd. M eanwhile Bahram Chubina called a m eeting o f his chief nobles to canvas their views on the m atter o f his taking the crown. All spoke in favour o f it except his sister Gurdiya; however he followed the majority, and celebrated the occasion w ith a great feast. H e established his position by a cordial exchange o f letters w ith the Khan, and sought to destroy Khusraw the Crow n prince by turning his father against him. For this purpose he issued and circulated coinage bearing Khusraw’s image and superscription, and in a sarcastic letter to H urm uzd he praised the prince’s abilities (so unlike his father!), thereby inflaming the king’s jealousy to the extent o f giving orders for his murder. But Khusraw was given timely warning by a sympathetic chamberlain, and made good his escape. T he king sent an army against Bahram C hubina under Ayin Gashasp, but the latter was m urdered on the way. The m urderer carried his severed head to Bahram Chubina, but the general had had a high opinion o f Ayin Gashasp, and hanged his m urderer forthwith. H urm uzd’s army, now leaderless, dispersed, some to jo in Bahram Chubina, and some to Khusraw. At this crisis Khusraw’s uncles, Bandwi and Gustaham, w ho had been im prisoned on suspicion w hen their nephew fled the court, broke out o f prison and incited the troops against King H urm uzd, w hom they dethroned and blinded.

War between Khusraw & Bahram Chubina

Khusraw and Bahram C hubina were now open rivals for the throne, and as their two armies approached one another, the two leaders held an abortive parley. Khusraw offered Bahram a high position at court, Bahram scornfully refused, and the parley degenerated into an undignified slanging match. Bahram then staged a night attack w hich was at first successful, but in an encounter on the bridge o f Nahravan Khusraw, displaying great valour, caused Bahram to retreat. But Khusraw’s army and resources were seriously depleted, and his father, w hom he contrived to visit in his distress, advised him to seek the aid o f Caesar. W hen his party were already on the road to R u m , Bandwi

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and Gustaham turned back, entered the palace, and strangled the w retched H urm uzd w ith a bowstring.

R E I G N OF K H U S R A W ( P A R V I Z )

W ith a handful o f loyal attendants Khusraw sped on his flight to R u m , and while resting at a monastery on the way was overtaken by a party o f Bahram C hubina’s troops. H e escaped, however, by the help o f Bandwi, w ho had caught up w ith him, and now donned the crown and royal robes and showed himself on the roof, while Khusraw galloped away unnoticed. Bandwi gave him time to get well away before he admitted the deception; he was taken before Bahram Chubina, w ho put him in chains.

PLATE 51 Khusraw consults a herm it o f R u m

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Although by this time Bahram Chubina was widely accepted as King, he had not been officially recognised as such, nor had he been crowned, so w ith this in mind, he assembled all the chief m en o f Iran to debate the matter. O pinion was evenly divided, but in the end Bahram C hubina wrote out a declaration o f his kingship, to be ratified by all the nobility; those w ho refused m ight jo in Khusraw in exile. M eanwhile Bandwi in his confinem ent succeeded in beguiling his gaoler, Bahram son o f Siyawush, into a plot to m urder Bahram Chubina. Bahram therefore freed Bandwi, and arranged w ith five accomplices to m urder Bahram Chubina as he played polo. H e took the precaution o f donning a shirt o f mail under his dress, but his wife, w ho was secretly in love w ith Bahram Chubina, noticed this, and sent a message warning him to beware. So w hen Bahram Chubina arrived at the polo ground he tapped the players on the back by way o f greeting, thus detecting his would-be slayer by the answering chink o f mail. By this means he identified Bahram son o f Siyawush as the villain, and cut him down w ithout hesitation. As soon as Bandwi heard o f this he decamped as fast as he could.

Caesar's Talisman

Khusraw pursued his journey towards R um , not w ithout adventure. W hen he reached the city o f Warigh, after receiving encouraging advice and timely warnings from a local herm it, he was m et by an envoy o f Caesar w ith a welcoming message, so he sent a return embassy, w ith strict instructions to m ind their bearing, behaviour, and language whilst asking Caesar’s help in regaining the kingdom. But though at first favourable to the request, after consultation w ith his philosophers, Caesar returned a negative answer. However, w hen Khusraw indicated that in that case he would seek solace w ith the Khan, Caesar changed his tune and a treaty was drawn up, Persia yielding territory in return for present assistance. Caesar then had a talisman constructed, consisting o f a life-size and lifelike figure o f a weeping wom an on a throne bewailing her dead husband, and bade the Persian envoys visit her and try to make her speak. They failed, one after the other, till finally Kharrad Barzin, the

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chief envoy, was called upon to try. H e observed the figure closely, and noticed several features about her that seemed mechanical rather than hum an, and told Caesar so. Caesar com m ended him highly, and this led to a conversation on the religion o f the Hindus and Christianity, culminating in praise o f the religion o f Zoroaster, and o f the Persian Kings in their practice o f it.

The War Renewed

Caesar sent not only troops to the aid o f Khusraw, but also his daughter Maryam in marriage to him, w ith a numerous train and rich gifts. Khusraw received them w ith great satisfaction, m arried M aryam immediately, and com bined the Persian troops w ith his R om an allies, putting all under the com m and o f Caesar’s brother Niyatus. W hen the army was in m otion, Khusraw was joined by Bandwi and Mawsil, an Arm enian w ho had sheltered him in his flight; and he visited a neighbouring fire-temple to pray solemnly for aid in the coming struggle. H earing o f Khusraw’s movements, Bahram Chubina wrote letters to the Persian chiefs urging them to abandon Khusraw and jo in up w ith him, but the bearer o f the letters was so impressed by the splendours o f the royal camp that he handed over the letters to Khusraw himself. The king com m ended and rewarded him, and sent him back to Bahram C hubina w ith a packet o f forged letters, purporting to come from the chiefs addressed and pledging their support. T he armies confronted one another for their first battle, and Kut, a R om an champion, rode out and challenged Bahram C hubina to single combat. But Bahram cut him through from helm et to breast, bound the corpse to its horse, and sent it back to Khusraw’s camp. In the general engagement that followed, the Rom ans, dismayed by the fate o f their champion, were defeated w ith great slaughter. In the second battle on the following day Khusraw decided to dispense w ith his R om an allies, and attacked Bahram C hubina w ith his Persian troops. Bahram ’s elephant was overwhelmed by their arrows, as was the horse he then m ounted. But he fought so desperately on foot that he drove the Persians back, and even

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Khusraw himself was in m ortal danger till he was saved by the intervention o f the angel Surush. O n their third encounter Khusraw and Bahram C hubina were brought face-to-face, and the king landed a heavy blow o f his mace on Bahram ’s helmet, causing him to retire; w hereupon the royal troops, Persians and Rom ans together, made a massive charge, and the army o f Bahram Chubina was dispersed. The victorious Khusraw, astutely enough, proclaimed quarter to all w ho submitted, an offer readily accepted by most o f Bahram C hubina’s chief warriors, and the usurper and his remaining followers beat a hasty retreat. Persian scouts on the following m orning found his camp abandoned. A body o f cavalry was sent in pursuit, while Bahram and his m en made their way towards Chin; however the pursuers were trapped in a reed-bed fired by Bahram ’s troops. Their leader was captured and sent back to Khusraw. Having plundered the camp o f Bahram Chubina, the King sent a letter to Caesar announcing his victory, w hich was answered by a cargo o f rich gifts and a robe o f honour. The feast o f celebration was somewhat m arred by a religious altercation betw een the Christian Niyatus and the Zoroastrian Bandwi, but it was happily resolved by the tact o f Maryam. Khusraw then called a parade o f his R om an allies and sent them hom e w ith ample rewards, at the same time bestowing provinces and patents on his Persian chiefs.

Bahram Chubina in Chin

Bahram C hubina eventually reached the court o f the Khan o f Chin, where he and his followers were warmly welcomed. There was a great man at the K han’s court named Maqatura, w ho called every m orning on the Khan, and w ent away w ith a thousand gold pieces. Bahram C hubina felt that the kindly Khan was being imposed upon, and urged him to resist such shameless cupidity, w hich he did, w ith Bahram’s backing. Maqatura, o f course, was furious, and challenged Bahram C hubina to a duel the following m orning. H e began the fight w ith a shot that struck Bahram harmlessly on the belt. Bahram ’s return shot pinned his adversary to his saddle, and he expired, to the Khan’s secret satisfaction.

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PLATE 52 Bahram C hubina kills the Lion-ape

N o t far from the K han’s palace on a bleak m ountain side, there lived a m onster know n as the Lion-Ape (shir-kappi), w hich had killed and eaten the Khan’s favourite daughter and many others besides, and the queen besought Bahram Chubina to rid the land o f it. This he undertook to accomplish the following m orning. He left his companions at the foot o f the m ountain and advanced alone. The m onster rose from a pool where it had been wallowing, to be m et by three arrows in quick succession from Bahram ’s bow; he then came to close quarters, speared it in the belly, and finished by cutting it in two. As a result of this encounter, Bahram Chubina became the greatest m an in Chin, and m arried one o f the K han’s daughters. News o f his successes and prosperity duly reached Khusraw, w ho wrote an illjudged letter to the Khan, full o f violent abuse o f his guest. T he Khan replied in a dignified missive, reproving Khusraw for his bad manners, so unw orthy o f his distinguished family. Bahram C hubina offered to lead a host to conquer Iran, and this suggestion was accepted by the Khan and his ministers. Khusraw was alarmed w hen news o f this reached him, and he sent the experienced Kharrad Barzin, w ith a load o f gifts, on a mission to the Khan.

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Murder of Bahram Chubina

H e was well received, and gained the K han’s confidence, but he failed to shake the latter’s faith in Bahram ’s integrity. So Khar rad Barzin ingratiated himself w ith the queen by curing one o f her daughters o f an internal complaint. At the same time he became intimate w ith an elderly and indigent Turkman named Q ulun, a relative o f the slain Maqatura, and so harbouring a grudge against Bahram Chubina. This man agreed to assist him in his plans. At K harrad’s behest the queen obtained for him an impression o f the K han’s seal, w hich he used to secure a pass for Q ulun to visit Bahram ’s camp. All w ent as planned. Q ulun obtained access to Bahram on the pretext o f delivering to him a letter from his wife, the K han’s daughter, and stabbed him fatally w ith a knife concealed in his sleeve. Bahram cried out, and his attendants swarmed into the room and beat the m urderer to death. Bahram Chubina expired in the arms o f his sister Gurdiya. The Khan destroyed the house o f Q ulun and all his surviving relatives, and punished the queen for her part in the plot; Kharrad Barzin made good his escape to Iran. News o f the m urder was joyfully received at the Persian court; Khusraw was m uch relieved, and richly rewarded Kharrad Barzin for his efficient planning.

Activities of Gurdiya

T he K han’s next step was to propose m arriage to Gurdiya, but she po in ted out that it m ight be th o ught ill-tim ed in view o f her b ro th e r’s recent death, and asked for a perio d o f four m onths for her m ourning. She consulted w ith her counsellors, urging, w ith historical precedents, that any m ingling o f Iranian and Turanian blood was doom ed to disaster. T hey prudently left the decision to her, so she started off for Iran w ith a select body o f troops. T he K han was very angry w hen he heard o f her flight, and im m ediately dispatched an arm y in pursuit under his b rother Tuw urg. After four days they came up w ith G urdiya’s party, w hereupon she engaged T uw urg in single com bat and slew him , whilst her troops drove off the m en o f C hin. She then w rote

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a letter to her surviving b ro th er G urdw i to inform him o f the situation. Khusraw was by now comfortably settled on the throne; his thoughts turned to the m urder o f his father H urm uzd and he realised that the murderers, his uncles Bandwi and Gustaham, were still at large. Bandwi was at hand, so he was fettered, his hands and feet were lopped, and he died as a result. Gustaham was in Khurasan, and was sum m oned to appear before the king. H e suspected what m ight be in store for him, and took refuge w ith his followers in the forests o f Mazandaran, leading the life o f a robber chief. B ut w hen he heard o f the exploits o f Gurdiya, and that she was not far away, he rode out to m eet her. H e told her o f Khusraw’s latest blood-shedding adding that a like fate probably awaited her if she fell into his hands, and w hen he w ent on to propose marriage, she accepted him. But her brother Gurdwi was called into consultation w ith Khusraw, w ho was still intent on avenging his father, and they devised a plan. Khusraw wrote Gurdiya a letter promising her marriage and amnesty, and advancement for her followers if she would destroy Gustaham. This proposition was reinforced by an enclosed letter from her brother, and the two letters were entrusted to G urdw i’s wife, w ho easily gained access to Gurdiya. O n reading the letters, Gurdiya had no hesitation in falling in w ith the plan. She suffocated the drunken Gustaham in his bed, and took com m and o f his troops, w hom she led southwards to the King’s court. Khusraw was delighted, and m arried her w ithout delay. Shortly afterwards she gave an impressive display o f her amazonian prowess before the king and his chief wife Shirin (who had some misgivings on the matter), finishing up by draining a large bum per o f wine at a draught. The king made her overseer o f his extensive household. D uring a drinking bout one night, Khusraw noticed that one o f the goblets was inscribed w ith the name o f Bahram, and this rem inded him o f his old enemy Bahram Chubina and o f the city o f R ayy w hich he had made his residence. So he deliberately dispatched as governor an evil man w ho subjected the inhabitants to intolerable oppression, broke down the gutters from their roofs, and had all the cats in the city destroyed. Gurdwi was inform ed o f these outrages, and besought his sister to prevail upon Khusraw to relieve the city from its afflictions. She responded by introducing into the court a

T HE SASANIAN DYN AS TY

139

cat, bejewelled, dressed as a child, and m ounted on a horse. This caused such m errim ent to Khusraw and his courtiers that he immediately granted her request, and the city was saved.

Birth o f Shirwi

In the sixth year o f Khusraw’s reign his wife Maryam, Caesar’s daughter, gave birth to a son, Shirwi, for w hom the astrologers predicted an evil fate. But his father took little heed o f this, and proudly announced the birth to Caesar. Caesar sent a letter o f congratulation, to w hich he added a request for the return o f the True Cross, captured by Ardashir,29 a request w hich Khusraw, none too politely, refused.

PLATE 53 Khusraw at Shirin’s palace

140 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

Khusraw & Shirin

In his youth Khusraw had as a mistress, Shirin, w hom he lost sight o f during his struggle w ith Bahram Chubina. Later, w hen a royal hunting party passed by her dwelling, she showed herself, and rem inded Khusraw o f their form er happiness, so he added her to his harem. But Shirin became jealous o f Maryam, and secretly gave her poison. Shirwi meanwhile was growing up frivolous and irrespon­ sible, so that Khusraw confined him to the palace, w here he passed his time in debauchery w ith his young companions.

Barbad the Minstrel

A bout this time Sarkash, the court musician, felt his position threatened by a younger perform er named Barbad, and contrived to have him denied access to the court. But Barbad found a friend in the person o f M ardwi the gardener, w ho arranged for him to be present, but unseen, w hen Khusraw took his pleasure in the garden at the N ew Year. So Barbad dressed himself in green and, carrying his harp, climbed into the branches o f a great cypress tree, beneath w hich the king soon took his place to drink wine. W hen he played and sang, Khusraw and all the court were enraptured, but nobody could discover where he was. At length he came down and stood before the king, w ho forthw ith made him chief musician. W hen his behaviour became known, Sarkash was disgraced.

Fall of Khusraw

But in his latter years Khusraw turned from justice to oppression; his sole aim was to increase his wealth. The people began to leave their homes, and some sought refuge in R um . Two traitors, Guraz and Farrukhzad, invited Caesar to invade and take over the kingdom , and very soon his armies were in m otion. By a crafty ruse, however, Khusraw induced him to retire. But the trouble at hom e became serious; fighting broke out betw een the rebels and the royal troops, in w hich the latter were worsted. Shirwi was released from his house-

THE SASANIAN DY NASTY

141

1

t

PLATE 54 Khusraw and Shirin listening to the music of Barbad

arrest, and hailed as king w ith the royal name o f Q ubad (II). Awakened by the noise, Khusraw attem pted to conceal himself in the garden, but he was caught there by Farrukhzad and the rebels. He was placed on an elephant and conveyed to Taisafun w here he was kept in strict confinem ent, whilst his son Shirwi ascended the throne as Q ubad II.

142 E P I T O M E OF T H E S H A H N A M A

R E I G N OF Q U B A D II ( S H I R W I ) M urder o f Khusraw

Q ubad began by sending a message o f extenuation and excuse to his imprisoned father, w ho returned a long answer o f self-justification. This gave Q ubad a fit o f remorse, but the chiefs were solidly against

PLATE 55 Suicide o f Shirin on the corpse o f Khusraw

THE SASANIAN DYNAS TY

143

the deposed king. However they were prevailed upon to treat Khusraw well for a m onth to see w hether he w ould change his attitude. D uring this time he was constantly visited and tended by his faithful queen Shirin. Poor Barbad the minstrel was distraught w hen he heard o f Khusraw s fall, and after composing and singing a dirge, he cut off his fingers and burned his instruments. T he m onth o f grace passed. Yielding to pressure from the nobles, Q ubad reluctantly agreed to their plan to have Khusraw secretly m urdered. The horrid task was entrusted to a miscreant named M ihr H urm uzd, w ho visited the wretched Khusraw in his prison and stabbed him to death. At the same time the rebels had fifteen o f his sons massacred. Q ubad then sent for his step-m other Shirin and, incredibly, proposed marriage to her. She scornfully rejected his unnatural offer, only requesting that she might be allowed to look once m ore on the face o f her m urdered husband in his coffin, and having embraced the corpse, she took poison. Q ubad himself was poisoned shortly after, and Ardashir (III) a young boy, was placed on the throne.

R E I G N S OF A R D A S H I R III, G U R A Z , P U R A N D U K H T , A Z A R M I D U K H T & F A R R U K H Z A D 30

Period of Confusion

Ardashir III came to the throne in AD 628 and during the next four years five successive monarchs reigned. Ardashir was m urdered after six months, and his successor, the usurper Guraz (or Farayin), m et the same fate after a mere fifty days. After him came two queens, Purandukht and Azarmidukht, daughters o f Khusraw, both o f w hom died (or were murdered) w ithin a few months o f accession. The form er signalised her reign by the execution o f Piruz, the m urderer o f Ardashir III, w ho was bound to an unbroken colt w hich was then driven at high speed, vainly trying to rid itself o f its helpless rider, till it finally rolled upon him and he died miserably Farrukhzad’s was the last, and shortest, o f these unhappy reigns; he survived one m onth on the throne before being poisoned by a slave.

144 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

R E I G N OF Y A Z D A G I R D III

The Arab Invasion

So began the reign o f the last o f the Sasanians, a young grandson o f Khusraw. At first he seemed to have inaugurated an era o f peace and tranquillity, but before long the Caliph ‘U m ar sent his general Sa‘ad b. Waqqas to invade his dominions from the south. Against him Yazdagird fielded his com m ander-in-chief, w ho bore the auspicious name o f Rustam . The armies m et at Qadisiyya on the Euphrates. O n the eve o f the battle Rustam , w ho had some skill in astrology, wrote his brother a letter full o f evil foreboding. He also w rote to Sa‘ad, endeavouring to delay or prevent hostilities, but the Arab returned a scornful answer. The two leaders m et in single combat31 in the middle o f a dust-storm. R ustam killed Sa‘ad’s horse, and dism ounted in order to see his adversary m ore clearly through the dust, but it was blown into his eyes, and Sa‘ad, taking advantage o f his m om entary blindness, cut him down. At the news o f their leader’s fall, the Persians fled, w ith the Arabs in hot pursuit.

Flight & Murder of Yazdagird

Yazdagird decided to retire to Khurasan, where he could be in easy reach o f potential allies, the Turks and Chinese. The governor o f Marv, a traitor named M ahwi, received him obsequiously, but incited his neighbour Bizhan the Turk to come and capture Yazdagird, w ho had few troops w ith him. Bizhan’s m en quickly put the royal guards to flight, and Yazdagird, after fighting heroically for some time on his own, managed to get away, and took refuge in a mill, where he spent the night. The miller arrived in the m orning, and was astonished to find a richly-clad w arrior among the hay. But w hen Yazdagird sent him out on an errand, he was stopped and questioned by M ahw i’s m en, w ho felt sure, from his description, that the well-dressed stranger was indeed the fugitive king. The miller was taken before M ahwi, w ho sent him back to his mill w ith an escort o f cavalry, and orders to kill his involuntary guest. The miller stabbed Yazdagird, the soldiers stripped the body and the miller flung it into the mill-stream.

T H E S A S A N I AN D Y N A S T Y 145

It was recovered and given decent burial by some neighbouring monks, w ho were later slaughtered by Mahwi.

The Bitter End: Firdawsi Signs O ff

M ahwi now assumed the crown, giving out that it had been bequeathed to him by Yazdagird himself, and filled the highest posts w ith his creatures. But Bizhan the Turk heard the true story, and m arched against him to avenge the m urdered king. M ahwi was run down, captured, mutilated, and bound to a horse w hich was turned loose in the desert. His second-in-com m and, Guraz, and his three sons were burned to death. Bizhan himself, whose record in these terrible events is not wholly creditable, went mad and com m itted suicide. And so, like a Jacobean tragedy, amid madness, mutilation and murder, the mighty Sasanian dynasty finally collapsed, and the great epic comes to an end. In his epilogue the poet Firdawsi tells us that he wrote the final lines on the day o f Ard in the m onth of Sapandarmad in the year o f the Flight 400 (AD 1010).

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NOTES

1 Readers who have had the benefit o f a classical education will doubtless have noticed a similarity between Rustam ’s panoply as depicted here (and in other illustrations to this volume) and classical Greek portrayals in sculpture or vase painting o f Heracles wearing the skin of the Nemean lion. Rustam wore his tiger-skin surcoat (babri-bayani) constantly, as vouched for by Firdawsi, and it appears from the earliest (early fourteenth century) representations o f the hero onwards. But the mask of a leopard on his helmet has to wait another hundred years. Its first appearance was at Shiraz in 1411 in a richly decorated anthology commissioned by the outstanding patron and bibliophile (but disastrous polititian) Iskandar Sultan, a grandson of the great conqueror Timur, or Tamerlaine (British Library MS Add.27261, f.298b). Classical remains are still common in Asia Minor, and it may be that a figure o f Heracles with the grinning mask of the Nemean lion on his brow was observed and noted by one of Tim ur’s officers during his Ottom an campaign or even by Prince Iskandar himself, who accompanied his grandfather on this occasion. But the latter had a lively mind, and was quite capable of thinking of the idea himself. The sevenfold plume on Rustam ’s helmet is a unique feature and quite consistent with the genius of the greatest painter of the time, Sultan Muhammad. 2 E.G. Browne, A Literary History o f Persia, London 1908, Vol. II, p.132. 3 A typical passage as translated by Browne (op. cit. Vol II, p.81): Long years this Shahnama I toiled to complete, That the King might award me some recompense meet, But naught save a heart wrung with grief and despair Did I get from those promises empty as air! Had the sire of the King been some Prince of renown My forehead had surely been graced by a crown! Were his mother a lady of high pedigree In silver and gold had I stood to the knee!

147

148 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K OF K I N G S

But, being by birth not a prince but a boor The praise of the noble he could not endure!

4

5

6

7

8

9

A complete English version, running to almost 200 lines, will be found in Warner Vol. I, pp.40-44. Pahlavi was the pre-Islamic Persian language spoken by the Sasanians. M odern Persian is fairly close to it, but has adopted the Arabic script and a great many Arabic words and phrases. In the Shahnam a Firdawsi deliberately reduced his use of Arabic words to a bare minimum. The only people familiar with Pahlavi in the poet’s time would be adherents of the ‘old religion’ (Zoroastranism), as it was the language of their scriptures. Zoroastrians used, and still use, old Persian names rather than the usual Muhammad, ‘Ali, Husayn, which are o f Arabic origin. The last Kayani monarch is Iskandar (Alexander the Great) who is claimed as a rightful heir to the Persian throne, and whose amazing travels and adventures are mostly derived from Pseudo-Callisthenes, an obscure writer o f the Ptolemaic period. His compilation is the main source of the various Alexander epics found in mediaeval Europe, Asia and Ethiopia. In a well-known miniature of this subject by the great master Sultan Muhammad, angels are depicted swooping down on the enemy, ‘peeling off’ in turn, and dive-bombing the demons with rocks, whilst the animals take a lively part in the discomfiture of the latter. See Dickson & Welch, The H oughton Shahnam a , Cambridge (Mass.) and London 1981, Vol. I, pl.4; S.C. Welch, R oyal Persian Manuscripts, London 1976, pl.4; and C. Welch, Wonders o f the Age, Cambridge (Mass.) 1979, pi.9. This and subsequent wars of the early Kings with the demons may represent a folk-memory of the struggles of the Aryan invaders, ancestors of the modern Persians, against the aboriginal inhabitants, who are described as black, rude, coarse and ugly. (See Ali Sami, Shiraz, Shiraz 1958, pp.5f.) The Japanese have similar legends of their early struggles with the aborigines (Ainu) whom they called ‘Earth-Spiders’. Iblis is the Arabic equivalent of Ahriman, the Evil Principle of the Zoroastrians. Its use by Firdawsi probably indicates a passage adopted from an Arabic version of a Pahlavi original. This banner of the leather apron, known as dirafsh-i-Kavani (‘flag of Kava’) accompanied the victorious armies o f the Sasanians and possibly of the Achaemenids, into battle. It was a sort of national Palladium. But at the fatal battle of Qadisiyya (AD 636) it was captured by the Arabs. By then the original leather apron was almost concealed by an accretion of jewels and other embellishments, and is said to have measured 22 x l5 feet. Its value was estimated 75 years ago at ^30,000. The savage Arabs broke it up and sold the jewels separately. The early Persians were cattle-breeders and, like the cowboys of N orth America, were expert in handling the lasso. Many examples of its effective use in battle will be encountered as the narrative proceeds.

NOTES

149

10 This is known as the Battle of the Twelve Rukhs, as it is held to include the combat of Bizhan and Human, described above, as well as the eleven duels here enumerated. 11 The Persian word for rhinoceros is karg, which is often confused with gurg (wolf), the Persian letters G and K being very similar in appearance. But Persian painters who have illustrated this story often depict a rhinoceros, which is a more formidable adversary for a hero to tackle, and its terrible horn is also more suited to the evisceration of Gushtasp’s horse (see below). The same confusion occurs later in the adventures of Isfandiyar and Bahram Gur. The rhinoceros is sometimes depicted as a unicorn. See R . Ettinghausen, The Unicorn (Freer Gallery of Art, Occasional Papers, Vol.I, no. 3), Washington, D.C., 1950. 12 The practice o f marriage with the next-of-kin was in accordance with the Magian (Zoroastrian) religion. 13 See note 11. 14 Evidently quite a different breed from the benign creature who saved the baby Zal and brought him up! 15 Bahman may claim to be the first historical character to appear in the Shahnama, though Gushtasp has sometimes been equated with Hystaspes; earlier attempts to identify Kay Khusraw with Cyrus have been shown to be futile. Bahman was called diraz-dast (‘long hand’) and is thus identifiable with Artaxerxes Longimanus (BC 465-425). However his successor in the Shahnama, Q ueen Humay, has no historical counterpart. Her son Darab corresponds to Darius II (BC 424—404), and Dara (Alexander’s half-brother in the epic) is, o f course, the ill-fated Darius III (Codomannus) (BC 336-330). The chronological confusion is obvious, but from here onwards the often fabulous or fictitious events o f the Shahnama are enacted in a broadly historical framework. 16 See note 12. 17 Though now the main focus of Muslim pilgrimage, the Ka‘ba, or Holy House, has a long and chequered pre-Islamic history. Briefly, it is said to have been founded by Adam, rebuilt by Abraham after the Flood, and supplied by the archangel Gabriel with the famous Black Stone, of volcanic origin and set in the south east corner o f the building. Later, however, idolatry was introduced into Mecca after a certain Amr b.Luhayy brought back an idol called Hubal, which he had been given on his travels by the Amalekites. Soon hundreds of idols were installed in and around the Ka‘ba till they were all destroyed by Muhammad in AD 629, and the Ka‘ba was cleansed. As well as Hubal, they included the three daughters o f Allah, al-Lat (mentioned by Herodotus as Alilat), al-‘Uzza, and Manat, whose favourable mention in the ‘Satanic Verses’ (Quran LIII.19, 20) caused much embarrassment to the Prophet. 18 It is wasted effort to try to trace or follow Iskandar’s travels (as here related) on a map; they defy all the laws of geography and most other laws. The reader is recommended to relax, with disbelief suspended, and so to enjoy 149

150 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K O F K IN G S

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

these extraordinary adventures, speculating, perhaps, on their origin, and comparing them with the folklore of other cultures. The literature on the Alexander epic is vast, and open to those who wish to explore the subject further, (cf. note 4 above). The Sasanian kings regarded themselves as divine beings, and legitimate successors of the ancient Kayanians, inheritors of the Royal Splendour {fani-kayani) or Divine Right, by virtue of which they alone could wear the crown o f Iran. The Royal Splendour was capable, as here, of taking visible form, and without it usurpers, such as Bahram Chubina (see below), were foredoomed. See Browne, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 128. This is presumably a garbled reminiscence of the capture of the Rom an Emperor Valerian in AD 258. It will be seen that Shapur II is also credited by Firdawsi with the capture of a Rom an Emperor; this is evidently due to a confusion of the two Shapurs. O ther accounts make Shapur dislocate their shoulders, or string the captives together by boring holes in their shoulders. But the title Z u ’l-aktaf may be simply honorific, ‘The broad-shouldered’. Actually Mani was executed by Bahram I in AD 273. This seems to be another case of confusion between the two Shapurs; Mani first appeared in the reign of Shapur I. See Browne, op. cit., Vol. I, pp.154 ff. The poet Nizami (1140-1202) devotes a whole poem of his Khamsa (‘Q uintet’), the H aft Paykar (‘Seven Portraits’), to Bahram Gur. His version o f this story is better known than that of Firdawsi, and is provided with an amusing sequel and a happy ending. Bahram’s rather brutal action, as given here, finds no place in Nizami’s version, where the girl’s name is Fitna. Startling as they may appear, these figures may not in fact be very much exaggerated. The celebrated rock reliefs o f Taq-i-bustan depicting two great royal hunts comprise, apart from a multitude of huntsmen and hunt servants, large numbers of elephants and camels, both loaded and ridden, a quarry of innumerable deer and wild boar, the King (Khusraw) shooting the former at full gallop, and picking off the latter from a boat, and a full orchestra in the background. Here the Khan apparantly represents not the Emperor of Chin, but the chieftain of the W hite Huns (or Haitalians, or Ephthalites) who periodically threatened the northern frontiers of Iran. Omar Khayyam’s well-known lines, as rendered by Fitzgerald: ‘And Bahram, that great hunter —the wild ass Stamps o ’er his head, but cannot break his sleep’ allude to the more dramatic account of Bahram’s death, in which, whilst in pursuit of a wild ass, he followed it into a deep cleft (or quicksand?) from which he never emerged. This version is given by the historians Tabari and Mirkhwand. O m ar’s lines contain a pun on gur, which in Persian can mean either ‘a wild ass’ or ‘a grave’ and a more literal translation of the lines is:

NOTES

151

‘Bahram who hunted the wild ass (gur) all his life See how the grave (gur) has hunted him down.’

27

28 29

30

31

See Peter Avery & John Heath-Stubbs, The R u b a ’iyat o f O m ar K hayyam , London 1979, p.55. This book is the celebrated Fables of Bidpai, known to the Persians as K alila wa D im na. It probably originated in India, as related here by Firdawsi, but has subsequently appeared in various forms and at various periods throughout the civilised world, from Aesop to La Fontaine. M uhammad was born in AD 570, and Nushirwan died about nine years later. According to the Shahnam a the True Cross had been captured by Ardashir, but in fact it was carried off by Khusraw when he took Jerusalem in AD 615. After Khusraw’s death it was restored to the Emperor Heraclius. These are the names, and order of succession, of monarchs during the confused period 628—632, as given in the Shahnam a. But many variations are to be found in both eastern and western historians. As Gibbon says (ed. J.B. Bury. 1898, Vol.V p.93) ‘The glory o f the house of Sassan ended with the life of Chosroes [Khusraw]; his unnatural son enjoyed only eight months the fruit of his crimes; and in the space o f four years the regal title was assumed by nine candidates, who disputed, with the sword and dagger, the fragments of an exhausted monarchy. Every province and each city of Persia was the scene of independence, of discord, and of blood, and the state of anarchy prevailed about eight years longer, till the factions were silenced and united under the common yoke of the Arabian caliphs.’ Guraz is better known to history as Shahr-baraz. The abysmal decline of the Sasanian empire may be attributed to the prolonged and exhausting wars with R om e and Byzantium (in the words of Gibbon) ‘undertaken without cause, prosecuted without glory, and terminated without effect.’ In fact Rustam and Sa‘ad did not meet at the battle of Qadisiyya. The Arab leader was prevented by boils from taking an active part in the battle, while Rustam, taking refuge from a sand-storm among the baggage, was injured by a falling bale, and killed by an Arab named Hillal. The final and decisive battle (not mentioned in the Shahnam a) took place at Nahavand in AD 642, and the fugitive Yazdagird was murdered ten years later.

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TABLE OF THE KINGS IN THE SH A H N A M A Dynasty

Pishdadian

Kayanian

Ashkanian (Parthian)

Name (Persian)

Reign (in years) (Shahnama)

Name (Latin)

Gayumarth Hushang Tahmurath Jamshid [Zahhak] (usurper) Faridun Minuchihr Nawdar Zav Garshasp

30 40 30 700 1000*

Kay Qubad Kay Ka’us Kay Khusraw Luhrasp Gushtasp Bahman Artaxerxes (Longimanus) Humay (Queen) Darius II Darab Darius III Dara Iskandar Alexander (The Great)

100 150 60 120 120 99

Ardawan

Reign (dates) (Historical)

500 120 7 5 9

Artabanus IV 153

BC 465-425

32 12 14 14

424-404 336-330 330-323

200

BC-AD 249-226 AD209-226

154 E P I T O M E O F T H E S H A H N A M A

Dynasty

Sasanian

Name (Persian)

Nam e (Latin)

Reign (in years) (Shahnama)

Reign (dates) (Historical)

Ardashir I Shapur I Hurmuzd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narsi Hurmuzd II Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV

Artaxerxes Sapor Hormisdas Varanes Varanes Varanes Narses Hormisdas Sapor Artaxerxes Sapor Varanes

40 30 1 3 19 4 months 9 9 70 10 5 14

226-240 240-271 271-272 272-275 275-292 292 293-301 301-309 309-279 379-383 383-388 388-399

30 63

399-420 420-440

18 1 11 5

440-457 457-459 459-483 483-487 487-498

43

498-501 501-531

48 12 38

531-578 578-590 590-628

7 months

628-629

Sasanian (ctd) Yazdagird I Isdigertes Bahram V Varanes (Gur) Yazdagird II Isdigertes Hurmuzd III Hormisdas Piruz Peroses Balash Pallas Qubad I Cabades (1st Reign) Jamasp Qubad Cabades (2nd Reign) Nushirwan Chosroes I Hurmuzd IV Hormisdas Khusraw Chosroes II (Parviz) Qubad II Cabades (Shirwi) Ardashir III Artaxerxes Guraz (Farayin , Shahr-baraz) Purandukht (Queen) Azarmidukht (Queen) Farrukhzad Yazdagird III Isdigertes * less one day.

6 months 50 days 6 months

> 629-632

4 months 1 month 20

632-652

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY ATKINSON, J., T he Shah N a m eh , Oriental Translation Fund, 1832; reprinted Chandos Classics, 1886. A serviceable abbreviation o f the Shahnam a up to the death of Rustam (including the B a rzu N a m a ). In prose and verse. BROW NE, Prof. E.G., A Literary H istory o f Persia, London, 1908, 2 Vols. An excellent account of Firdawsi’s sources and the background of the Shahnam a (Vol. I, pp.l 10-123), and of the poet’s life and achievement (Vol.II, pp. 129-145), by the greatest o f our Persian scholars. COYAJEE, Sir Jehangir C., Studies in Shahnam eh, Bombay (Taraporevala) n.d. (c.1939). Text o f a series o f lectures delivered by the former Principal of the Presidency College, Calcutta, to the K .R. Cama Oriental Institute, Bombay. Amongst other things, it draws intriguing parallels between the Shahnam a and various western myths, such as A rthur’s R ound Table and the Holy Grail. LEVY, R ., T he E pic o f the K ings, U N ESC O Persian Heritage Series, 1967. Good prose translations o f selected passages. NOLDEKE, Th., ‘D as iranische N ationalepos ’ in Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, Strassburg 1896: English translation by L. Bogdanov in Journal o f the K .R . C am a O riental Institute, No.6, Bombay 1926. A magisterial monograph on all aspects of the Shahnam a itself, and of its background and sources. NORGP^EN, J., & DAVIS, E., Preliminary Index o f S h a h -N a m e h Illustrations, Ann Arbor (University of Michigan Center for Near Eastern & N orth African Studies), 1969. An invaluable index and survey of the illustrations in some 130 Shahnam a manuscripts, together with innumerable dispersed miniatures. PAVRY, B., T he Heroines o f A ncient Persia, Cambridge 1930. Stories of 21 Queens and Ladies retold from the Shahnam a.

155

156 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K O F K I N G S

R O B IN SO N , B.W., Persian Painting & the N a tional Epic (British Academy Hertz Lecture, 1982) Proceedings o f the British A cadem y 1 9 8 2 , London 1983. An account of the development of Persian painting in illustrations to the Shahnam a.

W A R N E R , A.G., & E., T he S hahnam a o f Firdawsi, 9 Vols, London, 1908—1925. (Trubner’s Oriental Series). The only English translation o f the whole epic: in blank verse with copious notes and commentaries. W ELCH, S.C., A K in g ’s B ook o f K ings, N ew York (Metropolitan Museum of Art) 1972. A lavishly-illustrated study o f the celebrated Shah Tahmasp (‘H oughton’) Shahnam a, by the eminent scholar who spent ten years studying the manuscript and its paintings. W ICKENS, G.M., ‘The Imperial Epic of Iran: a Literary Approach’ in Iranian C ivilisation and Culture, McGill University, Montreal 1972, pp. 133-144. A study o f Firdawsi’s literary methods, illustrated by a detailed analysis of his account o f the reigns o f Ardashir I and Shapur I. W ILKINSON, J.V.S., T he S h a h -N a m a h o f Firdawsi, Oxford 1931 (with an Introduction on the paintings by Laurence Binyon). A study of the Royal Asiatic Society’s magnificent manuscript of c.1440; narrative is confined to the subjects illustrated. W ILM O T-BU X TO N , E.M., The Book o f R u stem (Harrap’s ‘Told through the Ages’ series) London 1916. Adapted from A tk in so n (above) as a children’s introduction to the epic.

INDEX

Arnawaz, sister of Jamshid; 15, 17 Arsaces, see Ashk Arwand, river; 15 Arzhang, demon leader; 28 Arzhang, Turanian warrior; 46 Arzu, daughter of Mahiyar; 109f Ashk, founder of the Ashkanian (Parthian) Dynasty; 87 Ashkabus Turanian champion; 47f Ashkanian Dynasty (Parthians); 5, 87ff Ashkash, Persian warrior; 57 Asjadi, Ghaznavid court poet; 2 Awaza, fortress; 130 Awfi, biographer; I f Awlad, local chief in Mazandaran; 28 Ayin Gashasp, Persian nobleman; 131 Azada, slave-girl of Bahram Gur; 99 Azargashasp, fire-temple; 115 Azarmidukht, Sasanian Queen; 143

Abtin, father of Faridun; 15 Abu Mansur b Muhammad, patron; 4, 10 Abu Mansur al-Ma‘mari, official; 4 Afrasiyab, King of Turan; 4f, 21, 23, 30-33, 38-41, 45ff, 50-53, 55, 59-62, 124 Ahran, Rom an nobleman; 66ff Ahriman, Zoroastrian evil principle; 13 Akwan, demon; 5I f Alburz, mountain; 23 Alkus, Turanian warrior; 32 Aiwa, Rustams squire; 48 Andalus (Spain); 81 Andariman, son of Arjasp; 74 Antakiya (Antioch); 120 Arabia and the Arabs; 17, 96, 98f, 128, 144 Arash, see Ashk Ardashir I, 1st Sasanian King; 87f, 91-94, 111, 139 Ardashir II, 10th Sasanian King; 97 Ardashir III, 25th Sasanian King; 143 Ardawan, last Parthian King; 87f Aristotle, tutor to Iskandar; 86 Arjasp, King of Turan; 68ff, 73f, 124

Babylon; 86, 93 Baghdad; 111 Bahman, castle of; 43 Bahman, son of Isfandiyar; 74, 76, 78, 83 157

158 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K O F K I N G S

Bahman, son of Ardawan; 89 Bahram, Persian warrior; 38, 45f Bahram I, 4th Sasanian King; 95 Bahram II, 5th Sasanian King; 95 Bahram III, 6th Sasanian King; 95 Bahram IV, 12th Sasanian King; 97 Bahram V (Gur), 14th Sasanian King; 98-116, 124 Bahram, son of Siyawush; 133 Bahram Azarmihan, treasurer to Hurmuzd IV; 128 Bahram Chubina, usurper; 128-140 Balash, 18th Sasanian King; 117 Balkh, north-eastern city; 37, 69f Bandwi, uncle of Khusraw; 131-135, 138 Baraham, Jewish miser; 101 f Barbad, court musician; 140, 143 Barbaristan, King of; 30 Barzin, local lord; 108f Barzwi, physician and traveller; 125f, Batarun (Marcian), Rom an general; 127 Baysunghur, Timurid prince; 5 Bazanush (Jovian), Rom an general; 94, 97 Bazur, Turanian sorcerer; 46 Bidarafsh, Turanian warrior; 68f Bih-Afrid, daughter of Gushtasp; 69 Bihruz, officer under Bahram Gur; 110 Bihzad, Siyawush’s horse; 42 Birmiya, cow that fostered Faridun; 15 Bishutan, brother of Isfandiyar; 7Of, 73 Bistun (Behistun), sculptured rock; 55 Bizhan, son ofGiv; 45, 51, 53-57, 60, 65

Bizhan, Ashkanian; 87 Bizhan the Turk; 144f Black Demon; 11 Bogdanov, L, translator; 1 Brahmins, Indian holy men; 83 Brazen Hold, Arjasp’s fortress; 70, 73, 92 Browne, Professor EG; I f Bukhara, central Asiatic city; 112 Buzurjmihr, vizier to Nushirwan; 120f, 124, 126f Caesar (Qaysar), general name for Rom an and Byzantine emperors; 65—69, 94, 96f, 11 If, 119f, 126ff, 131, 133ff 139f Cats; 133f Caucasus, mountains; 84 Chahar maqala (‘Four Discourses’); 1 Chess, introduction and origin; 124f Chin (China); 17, 50, 85, 115, 135ff Chingish, Chinese warrior; 49 Christianity; 98, 120f, 134f Cowell, Professor Edward; 7 Ctesiphon, see Taisafun Cyrus, founder of the Achaemenid Dynasty; 6 Daqiqi, Samanid poet; 2f, 10 Dara, Kayanian King; 79, 88 Darab, Kayanian King; 78f Darabjird, city built by Darab; 79 Demavend, mountain; 16 Demons (dip); 5, 11, 13, 24f, 28, 43, 51ff Dilanjam, Caesar’s daughter; 66 Dirafsh-i-Kavani (‘Flag of Kava’), national standard; 15 Dragons; 11, 17, 27, 66f, 71, 83, 106, 114

IN D E X

Dreams; 15, 18, 23, 38, 41, 47, 65, 79, 88, 120, 127 Elephants; 20f, 52f, 55, 71, 78, 81, 108, 125, 129, 134, 141 Faghanish, Fiaitalian King; 123 Faghfur, Chinese Emperor; 62, 85,115 Failakus (Philip ofM acedon); 79 Faramurz, younger son of Rustam; 41, 75, 78 Faranak, mother of Faridun; 15f Faranak, daughter of Barzin; 108 Farat (Euphrates), river; 78 Farayin, see Guraz Farfurius (Porphyrius?), Rom an general; 120 Fariburz, son of Kay Ka’us; 43, 46f, 57, 65 Faridun, 5th Pishdadian King; 15-18, 23, 63, 66, 105, 111, 118 Farrukhi, Ghaznavid court poet; 2 Farrukhzad, name assumed by Gushtasp (qv) in R um Farrukhzad, traitor and usurper; 140f, 143 Farshidward, brother of Piran; 58f Farshidward, brother of Isfandiyar; 70 Farshidward, miser; 110 Farud, son of Siyawush; 33, 44ff Faskun, rhinoceros of; 66 Firangis, daughter of Afrasiyab; 38-43, 47 Firdawsi, author of the Shahnama; Iff, 87, 98, 100, 145 Florence, National Library, earliest Shahnama Manuscript; 5

Flying Machine of Kay Ka’us; 31f Four Treasures of Kaid; 80f Fur (Porus), Indian King; 3 I f

159

Gahar of Gahan, Turanian warrior; 50 Gang Bihisht, Turanian fortress; 60f Gang Dizh, Turanian fortress; 39, 62f Garshasp, last Pishdadian King; 21 Garsiwaz, brother of Afrasiyab; 38ff, 53f, 63f Gav, Indian prince; 125 Gayumarth, 1st Pishdadian King; 11 Ghatkar, Haitalian King; 123 Ghazna, city of Afghanistan; 2 Giv, son of Gudarz; 41-43, 45ff, 50, 53f, 57f, 65 Gloom, Land of; 84 Gog and Magog (Yajuj and Majuj), northern barbarians; 85 Gudarz, paladin, father of Giv; 33, 36, 41, 57ff, 63, 65 Gudarz, Ashkanian; 87 Gulistan Palace Library, Tehran, Baysunghur’s Shahnama; 5 Gulnar, mistress of Ardashir; 88f Guraz (Farayin, Shahr Baraz), traitor and usurper; 140, 143 Guraz, officer under Mahwi; 145 Gurazm, relative of Gushtasp; 69 Gurdafarid, amazon; 33 Gurdiya, amazon, sister of Bahram Chubina; 131, 137f Gurdwi, brother of Bahram Chubina; 138 Gurgin, Persian warrior; 53f, 55 Gurgsar, Turanian warrior; 70f, 73 Gurwi, murderer of Siyawush; 40, 58, 60 Gushbistar, a monstrous savage;

86 Gushtasp, 5 th Kayanian King; 65-70, 74, 76, 78 Gustaham, paladin, brother of Tus; 59f, 65

160 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K OF K I N G S

Gustaham, uncle of Khusraw; 131f, 138 Gypsies; 116 Habash (Ethiopians); 83 Haftwad, ruler of Kerman; 91, 93 Haitalians (Ephthalites, W hite Huns); 123f Hajjir, Persian warrior; 33, 35 Halab (Aleppo); 127 Hamavan, mountain; 46f Hamavaran (Yemen), King of; 30 Harum, city of women; 83 Hinduism; 134 Hira, Arab kingdom; 98, 119 Hum, captor of Afrasiyab; 63f Human, Turanian commander; brother of Piran; 46f, 49, 57 Humay, Queen, daughter of Gushtasp; 69, 78 Hurm uzd I, 3rd Sasanian King; 94f Hurm uzd II, 8th Sasanian King; 95 Hurm uzd III, 16th Sasanian King; 116 Hurm uzd IV, 22nd Sasanian King; 127f, 130ff, 138 Hushang, 2nd Pishdadian King; I lf Iblis (the Devil); 13f, 31 Ighrirath, brother of Afrasiyab; 21 Ilyas, King of the Khazars; 67f India; 15, 65, 79-86, 93f, 113ff, 125 Indus, river; 115 Iraj, youngest son of Faridun; 17f Irma’il, Persian patriot; 15 Irman, frontier province; 53 Isfahan; 88 Isfandiyar, son of Gushtasp; 69-76, 78, 92

Iskandar (Alexander the Great), last Kayanian King; 79-87 Islam; 127 Ispahbud of Tabaristan; 3 Israfil, Angel of the Last Judgement; 84 Istakhr (Persepolis), ancient capital; 111 Jamasp, counsellor of Gushtasp; 68f, 74 Jamasp, 20th Sasanian King, brother of Qubad; 118 Jamhur, Indian king; 125 Jamshid, 4th Pishdadian King; 13, 15, 104f, (treasures of) 105 Jandal, minister of Faridun; 17 Jarira, daughter of Piran; 38, 45 Jawanwi, Persian envoy; 100 Jihun (Oxus), river; 43, 112 Ka‘aba, the Holy House at Mecca; 81 Kabtun, King of Egypt; 81 Kabul, city of Afghanistan; 77f Kabul, King of; 18, 47, 76ff Kafur, the man-eater; 50 Kaid, Indian king; 79ff, 94 Kaidrush, son of Queen Qaydafa; 81 Kalahur, Mazandarani warrior; 30 Kalila wa Dimna , Indian book of fables; 125f Kamus, Turanian champion; 47ff Kanauj, Indian city; 81 Karma’il, Persian patriot; 15 Kava, blacksmith and patriot; 15 Kayanian Dynasty; 5, 23-87 Kay Ka’us, 2nd Kayanian King; 24ff, 28, 30-33, 35, 37f, 60, 63ff Kay Khusraw, 3rd Kayanian King; 6, 38, 41ff, 46f, 51f, 54-64, (treasures of), 86

I N D E X 161

Kay Qubad, 1st Kayanian King; 23f, 87 Kerman, south-eastern city; 9I f Khan of the Haitalians; 111, 116 Khaqan, or Khan, of Chin (Emperor of China); 47—50, 108, l l l f , 118, 123f, 131, 133, 135f Kharrad Barzin, Persian grandee; 131, 133, 136f Khazars, north-western people; 67, 128 Khazarwan, Turanian warrior; 21 Khizr, Iskandar’s guide; 84 Khurasan, north-eastern province; 1, 99, 112, 138, 144 Khush Nawaz, son of the Khan; 116f Khusraw, Persian aspirant to the crown; 100 Khusraw (Parviz), 23rd Sasanian King; 131-144 Khutan, district on the borders of China; 41, 55 Kisra, Prince, see Nushirwan Kitayun, daughter of Caesar; 66f, 69, 74, 76 Kuhram, son of Arjasp; 74 Kujaran, city of Haftwad; 91 Kundrav, minister of Zahhak; 16 Kurds, people on western frontiers; 15, 91 Kut, Rom an champion; 134 Lahhak, brother of Piran; 58f Lambak, a water-carrier; lOOff Lambton Worm, in English folklore; 91 Lion-ape (Shir-kappi), monster; 136 Lubab al-Albab (‘Pure minds’); 1 Luhrasp, 4th Kayanian King; 65, 68f

Mada’in, area round Taisafun, qv Mah-Afrid, daughter of Barzin; 108 Mahbud, vizier to Nushirwan; 122 Mahiyar, sage; 105 Mahiyar, jeweller; 109 Mahmud, Sultan of Ghazna; Iff,

10 Mahwi, traitor and usurper; 144f Mai, Indian king; 125 Makran, Indian kingdom; 63 Malika, daughter of Ta’ir the Arab; 96 Mani, arch—heretic; 97 Manizha, daughter of Afrasiyab; 51, 53-56 Manuscript copies of the Shahnama; 5 Maqatura, Chinese grandee; 135 Mardwi, royal gardener; 140 Marv, north-eastern city; l l l f , 121, 144 Maryam, daughter of Caesar; 134f, 139f Mawsil, Armenian friend of Khusraw; 134 Mazandaran, Caspian province; 25, 27f, 70, 138 Mazandaran, King of; 25, 28 Mazdak, heretic and communist; 119 Mecca, Arabian city of pilgrimage; 81 Mihrab, King of Kabul; 18f Mihrak, tribal chieftain; 91, 94 Mihran, Indian sage; 79 Mihran Sitad, high priest and envoy; 124, 128 M ihr Hurmuzd, murderer of Khusraw; 143 M ihr-i-Nush, son of Isfandiyar; 75 Mihrnush, daughter of Mirak; 94

162 T H E P E R S IA N B O O K O F K IN G S

Minuchihr, 6th Pishdadian King; 18, 21 Mirdas, Arabian king, father of Zahhak; 13 Mirin, Rom an nobleman; 66ff Misr (Egypt); 81 Muhammad the Prophet; 10, 127 Munzir, Prince of Hira; 98ff, 119 al-Muqaffa, translator from Pahlavi; 4 Mutaqarib, metre; 1 Nahid, daughter of Failakus; 79 Nahravan, bridge of; 131 Nard (backgammon); 124 Nariman, great-grandfather of Rustam; 21 Narmpai, tribe subdued by Iskandar; 83 Narsi, 7th Sasanian King; 95f Narsi, brother of Bahram Gur; 11 If, 115 Nastihan, Turanian warrior; 58 Nastur, son of Zarir; 69 Nawdar, 7th Pishdadian King; 21 Nawruz , New Year festival; 13 Nishapur, north-eastern city; 4 Nisibin (Nisibis), frontier fortress; 97 Nyatus, brother of Caesar; 134f Nizami al-‘Arudi, author; Iff Noldeke, Professor T; 1, 87 N u man, Prince of Hira; 98ff Nusha, daughter of Narsi; 96 Nush-Azar, son of Isfandiyar; 75 Nushirwan (Kisra), 21st Sasanian King; 118-128 Nushzad, rebel son of Nushirwan; 120f Ostriches; 99 Pahlavi, earlier form of the Persian language; 14f

Palashan, Turanian warrior; 45 Papak, tribal king; 88 Parmuda, son of Sawa the Turk; 130 Parthians, see Ashkanian Dynasty Pashang, father of Minuchihr; 18 Pashang, King of Turan; 21, 24, 30 Phraates II , Parthian King; 87 Pilsam, Turanian warrior; 32, 41 Piran, Turanian hero and counsellor of Afrasiyab; 38f, 40-43, 45ff, 48ff, 54, 55, 57-60 Piruz, 17th Sasanian King; 116ff Piruz, murderer of Ardashir III; 143 Pishdadian Dynasty; 5, 11—21 Polo; 38f, 67, 93, 133 Puladwand, Turanian ally; 5Of Purandukht, Sasanian Queen; 143 Qadisiyya, battle of; 144 Qaydafa, Queen of Andalus; 81 Qaysar, see Caesar Qubad I, 19th Sasanian King; 118f Qubad II (Shirwi), 24th Sasanian King; 139-143 Qulun, Turanian warrior; 23 Qulun, murderer of Bahram Chubina; 137 Raja of Hind, Indian king; 124ff Rakhsh, Rustam’s charger; 23, 26ff, 32, 48f, 51, 76ff Ram Barzin, high priest and general; 120 Rayy, northern city; 138 Rhinoceros; 66f, 70, 113 Rizmihr, son of Sufarai; 118 Royal Splendour (farr); 13, 88f Rudaba, mother of Rustam; 18, 20, 78

INDEX

Ruhham, son of Gudarz; 48, 50, 57 R u ’in, son of Piran; 58 R um (Rome, the West); 17, 65, 68, 78f, 96f, 119, 127, 131ff, 140 Rushanak (Roxana), daughter of Dara; 79, 81 Rustam, national hero; 5f, 20—24, 26, 30-38, 41, 44, 46-58, 61ff, 65, 69f, 73-78, 87 Rustam, Persian commander at Qadisiyya; 144 Ruzbih, high priest and minister to Bahram Gur; 103, 109f Sa‘ad b Waqqas, Arab commander at Qadisiyya; 144 Sacae, warlike tribe; 87 Sada, festival of; 12 Safavid Dynasty; 7 Salm, son of Faridun; 17f Sam, grandfather of Rustam; 18, 21, 76 Samangan, frontier city; 32 Sapinud, daughter of Shangul; 115 Saqila, dragon of; 66 Saqila city of Rum ; 127 Sarkash, court musician; 140 Sarv, King of Yemen; 17 Sasan, Sasanian ancestor; 78, 88 Sasanian Dynasty; 5, 78, 87f, 91-145 Sav, a spring near Tus; 99 Sawa, Turanian ally; 50 Sawa the Turk; 128ff Seven stages of Rustam; 26—30 Seven stages of Isfandiyar; 70—74 Shaghad, half-brother of Rustam; 76ff Shahra, governor of Turan; 112 Shahr Baraz, see Guraz Shahrgir, Ardashir’s general; 93

163

Shahrinaz, sister of Jamshid; 15, 17 Shahwi, son of Haftwad; 93 Sham (Syria), King of; 30 Shamasas, Turanian warrior; 21 Shambalid, daughter of Barzin; 108 Shangul, King of India; 50 Shangul, Indian king; 113-116 Shapur I, 2nd Sasanian King; 93f Shapur II, 9th Sasanian King; 95ff Shapur III, 11th Sasanian King; 97f Shapur of Rayy, general under Qubad; 118 Shida, son of Afrasiyab; 60 Shidasp, counsellor to Tahmurath; 13 Shiraz; 88, 118 Shirin, wife of Khusraw; 138, 140, 143 Shir-kappi, see Lion—ape Shirwi, see Qubad II Shu‘ib, Arab warrior; 79 Shushtar, bridge at; 94 Simurgh, fabulous bird; (benevolent) 18, 20, 76, (malevolent) 71 Sind, province of western India; 86

Sipand, fortress taken by Rustam;

21 Sipanjab, border province; 41 Sistan (Zabulistan), eastern border province ; 18, 21, 30, 33, 35, 37f, 47, 51, 65, 69, 74, 76, 78, 87 Siyamak, son of Gayumarth; 11 Siyawush, son of Kay Ka’us; 36-41, 47, 50, 57ff Siyawushgird, city built by Siyawush; 39, 41f Sudaba, wife of Kay Ka’us; 30, 37, 41 Sufarai, Persian grandee; 117f

164 T H E P E R S I A N B O O K O F K I N G S

Suhrab, son of Rustam; 32—35 Surkha, son of Afrasiyab; 41 Surush, angel; 16, 65, 105, 135 Tabari, historian; 4 Tabaristan, Caspian province; 3 Tahmina, wife of Rustam; 32f, 36 Tahmurath, 3rd Pishdadian King; 12f Tainush, son of Queen Qaydafa; 82 Tainush, Rom an envoy; 99 Ta‘ir, Arab chieftain; 96 Taisafun (Ctesiphon), Sasanian capital city; 97, 112, 124, 141 Talhand, Indian prince; 125 Talisman, sent by Caesar; 133 Talking Tree; 85 Tazhav, renegade Persian; 45f True Cross; 139 Tukhar, counsellor to Farud; 44 Tur, son of Faridun; 17f Turan; 5, 17, 21, 30, 32, 38, 40-47, 50, 53, 57, 59f, 68f, 106, 112, 119 Tus, birthplace of Firdawsi; 1, 4, 99 Tus, paladin, son of Nawdar; 33, 36, 43f, 46ff, 50, 65 Tuwurg, brother of the Khan; 137 Twelve Rukhs, battle of; 57—59 ‘Umar, Caliph; 144 ‘Unsuri, Ghaznavid court poet; 2 Warazad, King of Sipanjab; 41 Warigh, city of Rum ; 133

Water of Life; 84 W hite Castle; 33 W hite Demon; 25, 28ff World’s End; 85 W orm of Kerman; 91-94 Yajuj and Majuj, see Gog and Magog Yanus (Julian), brother of Caesar; 97 Yazdagird I, 13th Sasanian King; 98f Yazdagird II, 15th Sasanian King; 115f Yazdagird III, last Sasanian King; 144f Yemen, south-eastern Arabia; 17,

86 Zabulistan, see Sistan Zahhak, usurper and tyrant; 5, 13-16, 19 Zal, father of Rustam; 18—23, 25f, 65, 69, 74, 76, 78 Zanga, officer under Siyawush; 38 Zardusht, see Zoroaster Zarir, brother of Gushtasp; 4, 65, 68f Zav, 8th Pishdadian King; 21 Zawara, Brother of Rustam; 75f, 78 Zhanda Razm, uncle of Suhrab; 34 Zoroaster, and Zoroastrianism; 60f, 71, 97, 115, 119, 127, 134f Zuran, chamberlain to Nushirwan; 122