The Periphery in the Center: Sardinia in the ancient and medieval worlds 9781841712574, 9781407353210

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BAR S970 2001  ROWLAND  THE PERIPHERY IN THE CENTER

The Periphery in the Center Sardinia in the ancient and medieval worlds

Robert J. Rowland, Jr.

BAR International Series 970 B A R

2001

The Periphery in the Center Sardinia in the ancient and medieval worlds

Robert J. Rowland, Jr.

BAR International Series 970 2001

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 970 The Periphery in the Center

© RJ Rowland,Jr. and the Publisher 2001 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781841712574 paperback ISBN 9781407353210 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841712574 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd/ Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

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Preface This book has its origin in a series of seminars I began offering in the History department at the University of MissouriColumbia in the late 1960s; these bi-annual, semester-long seminars were on the topic of the provinces of the Roman Empire. It so happened that this coincided the Irish nationalism phase of my life when, inter alia, I had been studying the Irish language and was contemplating a research project on medieval Irish versions of classical literature and in fact published one brief note on the topic.' Long before I ever heard of Cavour's expression of the three Irelands,2 I had selected Sardinia as the subject of my Roman provincial research, perhaps because, as I explained to an audience in Settimo San Pietro in November 1996, the Romans never conquered or colonized Ireland so I was unable to study Roman Ireland and Sardinia became my lrlanda sostituita. Soon, under the tutelage of my friend and colleague at Missouri, Homer L. Thomas, I came to realize that one could not really study Roman anywhere without corning to grips with the pre- and post-Roman developments, so my research moved both backwards and forwards and the subject was no longer Roman Sardinia, but Sardinia toute court. For a long while it was my intention to carry the story to the final Spanish conquest in 1478, but the dual hurdles of the additional amount of original research required and my increasing awareness, with the passage of time, of the realities of actuarial tables led me to conclude essentially in AD 1297 when Pope Boniface VIII created the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica and gave it in perpetual fief to the Catalan ruler Jaime II, King of Aragon and Valenza and Count of Barcellona, now, in exchange for an annual payment of 2000 marks of silver, also Vexillarius, Capitaneus et Adrniratus Generalis Ecclesie, endowed with license to invade. A brief summary of Jaime's invasion and its sequel along with some useful social and economic details in chapter ten do transgress the 1297 terminus. At one level, the present volume can be seen as a sort of a synthesis of more than 2000 pages of the pertinent volumes in the Chiarella series of Sardinian prehistory and history,' an amount of detail that would be more than out of place here; this is not, however, merely a synthesis of secondary accounts but is based on long-term research of original documents, including archaeological reports, and work in the field. Several possibly competing standards have guided my choice of what to present and discuss in greater or lesser detail: my own interests and thoughts on what might be of interest and/or utility to readers. The same can be said for the illustrations: of the universe of hundreds, if not thousands of possible illustrations, I have endeavored to keep the reader's needs in mind in making my choices, which can easily be supplemented by an ever-increasing number of web sites.' By and large, the material is presented in chronological order, but there are occasional thematic connections as well with the result that some events or facts are introduced more than once, from different perspectives: thus, for example, the Vandals appear in chapters seven, eight and nine, and nuragic sacred wells are discussed in both chapter four and five. The actual writing of the text began with a detailed outline which I drafted during a sabbatical semester followed by a research leave semester at the University of Maryland, an outline which was set aside when I moved to New Orleans in the summer of 1991 to become Dean of Arts and Sciences at Loyola University and which was taken up again when I began a year-long sabbatical leave in the summer of 1998. Revisons and additions were addressed after I resumed teaching in the fall semester 1999. It goes without saying that one cannot reach the end of a journey without considerable assistance along the way. My graduate school mentor at the University of Pennsylvania, Bill McDermott, expanded my horizons and encouraged my inquisitiveness. During the same period and afterward, T. R. S. Broughton, Agnes Michels and Lily Ross Taylor at Bryn Mawr College were very kind and encouraging. Other friends and colleagues at Missouri provided support and encouragement at various stages: Eugene Lane, Al Leonard, Fordyce Mitchel, Charles Nauert, David Soren, and Saul Weinberg especially. The research infrastructures at the University of Missouri, the University of Maryland, and Loyola University provided much needed financial support as have the National Endowment for the Humanities and the American Council of Learned Societies. Homer Thompson facilitated my being a summer visitor at the Institute for Advanced Study in 1972, surely one of the most productive summers of my career. Interlibrary loan librarians at my three universities were extremely helpful, and it's not for their lack of trying that there a few gaps in my bibliography; a special thanks is owed to Ann Edwards at Missouri who actually succeeded in securing books on loan from Italian libraries. In Italy, librarians at the American Academy in Rome, the Archivio dello Stato and the Biblioteca Regionale

1 "Aeneas as a Hero in Twelfth-Century Ireland,"

Vergilius 16 (1970), 29-32 (cf. "The Patrick Question: an Hypothesis," Classica et Medievalia 30 [1969], 383-384; "Some Medieval Aeneases," the Augustan Age 6 [1987], 176-191). 2

3

See "Laterza Irlanda." Gli scritti sulla Sardegna di Carlo Cattaneo e Giuseppe Mazzini, a cura di F. Cheratzu (Cagliari, 1995)

Contu 1997 (prehistoric); Barreca 1974 (Phonecian-Punic); Meloni 1990 (Roman); Boscolo 1978 (Byzantine-Judicate); Artizzu 1985 (PisanGenoese). 4 In citing web sites in footnotes and bibliography, I have inserted spaces to avoid useless blank spaces created by "word-wrap"; readers familiar with the web should have no difficulty making the necessary adjustments. Excellent overall sites for Sardinia at this moment (June 200 I) are: Some of the best links on Sardinia (http://saturn.phy.umist.ac.uk:8000/~pac/sardegna _ en.html) A virtual encyclopedia (http://eiha.crs4.it/) Sardinia on the Web (http://www.crs4.it/HTML/ItSardinfo.html) Sardinia links (http:/ /www.geocities.com/ Athens/Troy/7818/sardinia.html#SARDINIA) Sardegna - ITWGW (http:/ /www.geocities.com/ Athens/ Acropolis/8673/Sardegna-ITWGW.html)

in Cagliari, the University of Cagliari, the Istituto per gli Studi Sardi, and the Soprintendenza Archeologica per le Provincie di Cagliari e Oristano have unfailingly gone out of their way to be of assistance: in January 2001, when I lamented that Stiglitz 1999 was not in the superintendancy's collection, not only did the libriarian call the author to request a copy, but he brought one in so that it was on my desk the next morning, two marvelous examples of Sardinian courtesy and hospitality. Libreria Pozzi (Cagliari) and Casalini Libri (Fiesole) have generally been very good in filling my requests, but not always: e.g., neither was able to locate some recently published volumes which I subsequently found on the shelves in bookstores in Cagliari and, while the former was able to supply vol. 2 but not vol. 1 of Studi in onore di Massimo Pittau, the latter reported that the pair was not commercially available and regretted their inability to supply a copy, nor was one locatable in any library in Cagliari during my visit in January 2001. The lesson is that, notwithstanding e-mail and web sites, communications other than in-person and on-the-spot remain somewhat archaic. In addition to librarians, the number of Sardinians and Italians who have been generous with assistance, hospitality, and kindness to a visiting stranger is almost too numerous to list. First, there are two archaeological superintendants in Cagliari, Feruccio Barreca and Vincenzo Santoni; and three in Sassari, Ercole Contu, Francesco Nicosia and Fulvia Lo Schiavo. Colleagues in the superintendancies and universities have been extremely kind in providing offprints, conversations, and/or information: Simonetta Angiolillo, Enrico Atzeni, Ginetto Bacco, Paolo Bernardini, Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Marcella Bonello, Manlio Brigaglia, Franco Campus, F. C. Casula, Giorgio Cavallo, Francesco Manconi, Attilio Mastino, Antonio Matzuzi, Giampaolo Mele, Paolo Merci, Maria Antonietta Minutula, Alberto Moravetti, Piero Meloni, Leo Neppi Modena, Franco Porra, Donatella Salvi, Mario Sanges, Giovanna Sotgiu, Giuseppe Spiga, Alfonso Stiglitz, Marco Tangheroni, Giovanni Tore, Carlo Tronchetti, and Raimondo Zucca. The Ghera family and Don Francesco Amadu in Ozieri and the Casula clan both in Fonni and in Maryland and Illinois (olim of my natal Shenandoah, PA) were very helpful at critical times. Irene Meloni and Franco Staffa deserve a special thanks for their friendship and encouragement over the years. Anglophone and other colleagues whose contributions and support cannot be overlooked include Ernst Badian, Miriam Balmuth, Marshall Becker, John Bintliff, John Duffy, Steven Dyson, Barbro Santillo Frizzell, Lenore Gallin, Paula Kay Lazrus, Mark Leone, James Lewthwaite, Claude Nicolet, Philip Perkins, Patricia Philips, J.-M. Poisson, David Ridgway, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, Raffaele Santillo, David Trump, Robert Tykot, Gary Webster, Colin Wells, and Edith Wightman. Finally, my deepest gratitude, appreciation, and love are reserved for my bride of more than forty years, Carole Rowland, who has supported my work, endured my absences, and shared my affection for Sardinia for the entire journey. It is to her, and to our children and grandchildren, that I dedicate this opusculum.

11

Contents Chapter One: THE ISLAND SETTING Location Winds Environmental Change Coasts Deforestation Rivers and Water Supply Geology Climate Rainfall Malaria Soils and Agricultural Potential Mineral Resources Fauna

1-9 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 7

Chapter Two: PREHISTORY 1 Palaeolithic Pre-Neolithic Neolithic I Neolithic II Neolithic III Neolithic IV Domus de Janas Monte d 'Accoddi Ceramics Metal Dolmens and Menhirs Figurines

10-23 10 10 11 14 15 17 19 21 22 22 22 24

Chapter Three: PREHISTORY 2 Transitions Abealzu-Filigosa Statue-Menhirs Monte Claro Biriai Protonuraghi Bell Beakers Bonnanaro Tholos Nuraghi

25-35 25 25 26 27 29 30 31 33 34

Chapter Four: PREHISTORY 3 Nuragic Civilization Subsistence Complex Nuraghi Polities Villages Metallurgy Modes of Burial Cults and Shrines

36-52 36 36 38 39 39 42 42 46

Chapter Five: A CHANGING WORLD Interconnections and Relationships Metals Mycenaeans Phoenicians Continental Italy Phoenician Settlements Phoenician Expansion

53-71 53 54 55 57 58 59 63

8

9

111

Carthage Indigenous Society Monte Prama Statues

65 65 70

Chapter Six: PUNIC SARDINIA Carthaginians Punic Cities Habitations Economy Stele Sacred Architecture Tophets Mortuary Practices Punic Influence Fourth and Third Centuries First Punic War

72-88 72

Chapter Seven: ROMAN SARDINIA 1 Roman Arrival Second Punic War Roman Conquest Grain Production and Collection Post-Conquest Warfare Pax Romana Third Century Unrest and Interior Frontier Fourth Century Vandals

89-104 89 89 90 91 94 95 98 102 103

Chapter Eight: ROMAN SARDINIA 2 Economy and Society Mineral Resources Other Products Punic Continuity Cities Other Settlements Villas Sardinians in the Empire

105-125 105 106 107 108

Chapter Nine: LATE ROMAN AND MEDIEVAL SARDINIA Vandal Period Christians and Christianity Calaris Tharros New Towns Modes of Burial Rural Life and Society Byzantine Reconquest and Control Sulcis Barbaricini Gregorian Christianity Church of S. Saturno Jews in Sardinia Tariff Inscription Lombards Rise oflslam Greek Rite Church Byzantine Influence Sub-Byzantine Period Frankish Culture Other External Contacts Muslim Material Judikes

126-153 126 128

73 74 74 76 76 78

79 80 85 87

111

122 123 124

IV

135 135 136 137 138 139

141 141 141 142 143 143 144 144 145 146 147

148 149 149 149

Judicates

151

Chapter Ten: LATER MEDIEVAL SARDINIA Pisans and Genoese Effects of Schism Genoa vs. Pisa Delusions of Grandeur Dynastic Continental Families Collapse of Three Judicates Aragonese and Catalan Success Monastic Contributions Trade, Commerce and Social Transformations Local Records Rustic Villages Evidence of Burials

154-178 154 154 159 160 162 162 165 166 168 170 177 178

Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix

179 180 181 183 188 191

One: Some Typical Protonuraghi Two: Some Typical Tholos Nuraghi Three: Possible Cantons Four: Roman Rustic Villas Five: Toponyms possibly deriving from Roman Personal Names by Comune Six: Some Punic Names in the Roman Period

MAPS

192-210 192 193 194 195 196-197 198-199 200-201 202-203 204-205 206-207 208-209 210

Regions and Rivers of Sardinia Mountains of Sardinia Map to Illustrate Chapter One Map to Illustrate Chapter Two Map to Illustrate Chapter Three Map to Illustrate Chapter Four Map to Illustrate Chapter Five Map to Illustrate Chapter Six Map to Illustrate Chapter Seven Map to Illustrate Chapter Eight Map to Illustrate Chapter Nine Map to Illustrate Chapter Ten SOURCES FOR ILLUSTRATIONS

211

BIBLIOGRAPHY

212-265

ILLUSTRATIONS

267-313

V

List of Figures la. Distribution areas ofwatervessels 1b. Spatial distribution of ceramic materials from Piras workship (Pabillonis) 2. Harbors and Landing-places in ancient Sardinia 3. Venus ofMacomer 4. Locations ofBonu Ighinu Sites 5. Prehistoric Village of Puisteris-Mogoro 6. Bonu Ighinu Figurine from Cuccuru s'Arriu 7. Ozieri Period Figurine 8. Interior ofDomus de Janas at Putifigari 9. Capanna Number Four at Serra Linta-Sedilo 10. Reconstructions of First and Second Phases of Monte d' Accoddi 1la. Dolmen at Motorra-Dorgali 1lb. Dolmen at Sa Coveccada-Mores 12. Some Statue-Menhirs from Laconi 13. Distribution of Aligned Perforation Ware 14. Plan ofNuraghe Putzolu-Olbia 15. Locations of Protonuraghi 16a. Nuraghe Is Paras-Isili 16b. Nuraghe Orrubiu-Orroli 16c. Nuraghe Santu Antine-Torralba 17. Plan ofNuraghe Albucciu-Arzachena 18. Map of Zones Requiring Irrigation 19. Map ofNuragic Villages in the Territories ofDorgali and Oliena 20. Giants Tomb Sa Domu 'e S'Orku-Quartucciu 21a. Sas Mammulas at Tamuli-Macomer 21b. Menhir at Golgo-Baunei 22. Roman-period Radial Burial at Sa Forada de is Campanas-Villasor 23. Plan of Sacred Well of Sos Nuratolos-Ala . ..-;,,,-;,/ ,;~·:;',:

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