The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: The History of Empires [2] 0197532764, 9780197532768

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The Oxford World History of Empire

In Two Volumes

The Oxford World History of Empire Volume 2: The History of Empires Edited by P E T E R F I B IG E R BA N G C . A . BAY LY † WA LT E R S C H E I D E L

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3 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. © Oxford University Press 2021 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress ISBN 978–​0–​19–​753276–8 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197532768.001.0001 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

All histories, then, even histories of the “fragment” are implicitly universal histories. —​C. A. Bayly (Birth of the Modern World, 2004, 8)

Contents Volume 2 The History of Empires List of Contributors

xi

List of Figures, Tables and Maps xix Prolegomena xxv Peter Fibiger Bang



PA RT I .   B R O N Z E T O I R O N   AG E

The Near-​Eastern “Invention” of Empire (Third Millennium to 300 bce) 1 Peter Fibiger Bang 1. Egypt, Old to New Kingdom (2686–​1069 bce) Juan Carlos Moreno García

13

2. The Sargonic and Ur III Empires Piotr Steinkeller

43

3. The Empires of Western Asia and the Assyrian World Empire Gojko Barjamovic

73

4. The Achaemenid Persian Empire: From the Medes to Alexander Matthew W. Waters 5. Ancient Mediterranean City-​State Empires: Athens, Carthage, Early Rome Walter Scheidel

111

137

PA RT I I .   T H E C L A S SIC A L   AG E Culminating in the Formation of Large World Empires on the Margins of Eurasia: The Mediterranean and China (323 bce–​600 ce) 159 Peter Fibiger Bang

6. Hellenistic Empires: The Dynasties of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids Christelle Fischer-​Bovet

167

7. The Mauryan Empire Himanshu Prabha Ray

198

8. The First East Asian Empires: Qin and Han Mark Edward Lewis

218

viii Contents

9. The Roman Empire Peter Fibiger Bang

240

10. The Parthian and Sasanian Empires Matthew P. Canepa

290

11. The Kushan Empire Craig Benjamin

325

PA RT I I I .   T H E E C UM E N IC T U R N Eclipse of the Old World and the Rise of Islam (600–​1200) Peter Fibiger Bang

347

12. The Caliphate Andrew Marsham

355

13. The Tang Empire Mark Edward Lewis

380

14. Śrīvijaya John N. Miksic

401

15. The Khmer Empire Michael D. Coe

430

16. The Byzantine Empire (641–​1453 ce) Anthony Kaldellis

450

17. Charlemagne, the Carolingian Empire, and Its Successors Rosamond McKitterick

468



PA RT I V.   T H E M O N G O L M OM E N T

The Rise of Chinggis Khan and the Central Asian Steppe, Followed by Regional Reassertion Peter Fibiger Bang

499

18. The Mongol Empire and the Unification of Eurasia Nikolay N. Kradin

507

19. The Ming Empire David M. Robinson

533

20. The Delhi Sultanate as Empire Sunil Kumar

571

21. Caliphs, Popes, Emperors, Kings, and Sultans: The Imperial Commonwealths of Medieval Islam and Western Christendom Jacob Tullberg 22. The Venetian Empire Luciano Pezzolo

597 621

Contents  ix

23. The Mali and Songhay Empires Bruce S. Hall

648

PA RT V.   A N O T H E R WO R L D The Separate but Parallel Path of Imperial Formations in the Precolonial Americas Peter Fibiger Bang

665

24. The Aztec Empire Michael E. Smith and Maëlle Sergheraert

671

25. The Inca Empire R. Alan Covey

692

PA RT V I .   T H E G R E AT C O N F LU E N C E The Culmination of Universal Empires and the Conquest of the New World: Agrarian Consolidation and the Rise of European Commercial and Colonial Empires (1450–​1750) Peter Fibiger Bang

719

26. The Ottoman Empire Dariusz Kołodziejczyk

729

27. The Mughal Empire Rajeev Kinra

751

28. The Habsburg Monarchy and the Spanish Empire (1492–​1757) Josep M. Delgado and Josep M. Fradera

789

29. The Qing Empire: Three Governments in One State and the Stability of Manchu Rule Pamela Kyle Crossley

810

30. The Portuguese Empire (1415–​1822) Francisco Bethencourt

832

31. The Dutch Seaborne Empire: Qua Patet Orbis Leonard Blussé

862

32. The First British Empire: Atlantic Empire and the Peoples of the British Monarchy (1603–​1815) Nicholas Canny

884

PA RT V I I .   T H E G L O BA L T U R N The Age of European Colonialism, Subjection of Old Agrarian Empires to the European-​Led World Economy, and Nationalist Secessions (1750–​1914) 909 Peter Fibiger Bang

x Contents

33. Deconstructing the British Empire: Between Repression and Reform C. A. Bayly

921

34. An Imperial Nation-​State: France and Its Empires David Todd

941

35. The Russian Empire (1453–​1917) Dominic Lieven

964

36. Late Spanish Empire: Reform and Crisis (1762–​1898) Josep M. Fradera

989

37. US Expansionism during the Nineteenth Century: “Manifest Destiny” Amy S. Greenberg 38. The Kinetic Empires of Native American Nomads Pekka Hämäläinen 39. Ottoman Turkey and Qing China: Response and Decline (1774–​1937) Michael A. Reynolds and Rana Mitter 40. The Sokoto Caliphate Murray Last

1011 1035

1058 1082

PA RT V I I I .   T H E T W E N T I E T H C E N T U RY The Collapse of Colonial Empires and the Rise of Superpowers Peter Fibiger Bang 41. The German and Japanese Empires: Great Power Competition and the World Wars in Trans-Imperial Perspective Daniel Hedinger and Moritz von Brescius

1111

1123

42. Decolonization and Neocolonialism Stuart Ward

1161

43. The Soviet Union Geoffrey Hosking

1187

44. America’s Global Imperium Andrew Preston

1217

45. Epilogue: Beyond Empire? Frederick Cooper

1249

Index of Places, Names, and Events.

1279

List of Contributors Peter Fibiger Bang is Associate Professor of History at the University of Copenhagen. His work has concentrated on (re)contextualizing the Roman Empire in world history, often in collaboration with his two co-​editors, and tackles a wide range of topics, from the economy to state-​ formation and power. A  mainstay has been the attempt to explore comparisons with other pre-​colonial empires such as the Mughals, the Ottomans, and the Chinese. Among his books are The Roman Bazaar (Cambridge 2008); with C. A. Bayly, Tributary Empires in Global History (Palgrave 2011); with D. Kolodziejczyk, Universal Empire (Cambridge 2012); with W. Scheidel, The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean (Oxford 2013). Irregulare Aliquod Corpus? Comparison, World History and the Historical Sociology of the Roman Empire (Copenhagen 2014) offers a theoretical and methodological manifesto. Gojko Barjamovic is Senior Lecturer on Assyriology at Harvard University. His main area of research is the economic and social history of Western Asia in the second millennium BCE. His particular focus is on the study of trade in the Bronze Age and the development of early markets and trans-​regional interaction. He also writes on early state power and civic institutions of governance, historical geography, intellectual history, chronology, and food in the ancient world. C. A. Bayly was the Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History at the University of Cambridge, a Fellow of St. Catharine’s College, Cambridge, Fellow of the British Academy and Trustee of the British Museum. He used his basis in late Mughal and Colonial Indian history to rethink the character of imperial and global history. Characteristic of his writing was an unmatched capacity to mobilize his wide-ranging interests to see the links between seemingly contradictory phenomena and a keen sense of the agency of subject communities. From 2005 to 2009 he was the vice-​chair of a European research network, funded by COST and chaired by Peter Bang, that sought to explore comparisons between pre-​colonial empires. Among his many writings are Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars (Oxford 1983), Imperial Meridian (Harlow 1989), The Birth of the Modern World (Malden 2004) and the posthumous Remaking the Modern World 1900–​2015 (Hoboken & Chichester 2018). Craig Benjamin is a Professor of History in the Meijer Honors College at Grand Valley State University, where he researches and teaches Big History and ancient Eurasian history. Recent books include Big History:  Between Nothing and Everything (McGraw-​Hill, 2014); Cambridge History of the World Vol IV (Cambridge University Press, 2015)  and Empires of Ancient Eurasia: The First Silk Roads Era 100 BCE–​250 CE (Cambridge University Press, 2018). Craig has recorded programs and courses for the History Channel and The Great Courses, and lectures for Archaeological Tours, and Scientific American and New York Times cruises. Francisco Bethencourt is Charles Boxer Professor of History at King’s College London since 2005. He is the author of Racisms:  From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century (Princeton University Press, 2013) and The Inquisition: A Global History, 1478–​1834 (Cambridge University Press, 2009). He has edited Cosmopolitanism in the Portuguese-​Speaking World (Brill, 2017) and Utopia in Portugal, Brazil and Lusophone African Countries (Oxford University Press, 2015). He organized an exhibition on Racism and Citizenship in Lisbon, May–​September 2017, seen by ca. 60,000 visitors.

xii  List of Contributors Leonard Blussé is Emeritus Chair, History of Asian-​European relations, Leiden University, and Visiting Professor at the Research Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Xiamen University. Some publications include: Visible Cities, Batavia, Canton and Nagasaki and the Coming of the Americans (Harvard University Press, 2008), Bitter Bonds, A  Colonial Divorce Drama of the Seventeenth Century (Markus Wiener, 2002), and Strange Company (KITLV Press, 1986). Moritz von Brescius is Senior Lecturer in Modern History at the University of Bern. He has studied in Berlin, Oxford, Florence, and Cambridge. His first book is German Science in the Age of Empire: Enterprise, Opportunity and the Schlagintweit Brothers (Cambridge University Press, 2019). His doctoral dissertation was awarded several prizes. In 2020-​2021, he is a John F. Kennedy Memorial Fellow at the CES, University of Harvard. His research areas include the global history of science and empire, most recently also the environmental and economic history of plantation economies and the acclimatisation of cash crops as part of the global expansion of commodity frontiers. His next project is about the ‘synthetic age’ and resource regimes in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Matthew P. Canepa is Professor and Elahé Omidyar Mir-​Djalali Presidential Chair in Art History and Archaeology of Ancient Iran at the University of California, Irvine where he directs the Graduate Specialization in Ancient Iran and the Premodern Persianate World. An elected Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, Canepa is the author of numerous publications including the award-​winning books The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–​642 CE (2020 James R. Wiseman Award, Archaeological Institute of America) and The Two Eyes of the Earth: Art and Ritual of Kingship between Rome and Sasanian Iran (2010 James Henry Breasted Award, American Historical Association). Nicholas Canny, Professor Emeritus of History at the National University of Ireland, Galway, is an expert on early modern history broadly defined. He edited the first volume of The Oxford History of the British Empire (1998) and, with Philip D. Morgan, The Oxford Handbook of the Atlantic World, c.  1450–​c. 1850 (2011). His major book is Making Ireland British, 1580–​1650 (Oxford University Press, 2001). He continues to publish on Atlantic history and on historiography. The major study he has undertaken to submit to Oxford University Press in July 2020 is entitled: Imagining Ireland’s Pasts: Interpreting Early Modern Ireland through the Centuries. Michael D. Coe was educated in Harvard University (Ph.D.  in 1959). He was the Charles J.  MacCurdy Professor of Anthropology, Emeritus, at Yale University. His long-​term interests were the Olmec and Maya civilizations of Mesoamerica, and the comparative study of tropical forest complex cultures in both hemispheres. Among his books are The Maya (ninth edition, with Stephen Houston); Breaking the Maya Code (three editions); and Angkor and the Khmer Civilization (second edition, with Damian Evans, 2018). Frederick Cooper is Professor of History at New York University. He is the author of Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (2005); Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference (with Jane Burbank, 2010); Citizenship between Empire and Nation: Remaking France and French Africa, 1945–​1960 (2014); Africa in the World:  Capitalism, Empire, Nation-​State (2014); and Citizenship, Inequality, and Difference: Historical Perspectives (2018). R. Alan Covey is Professor of Anthropology at the University of Texas at Austin, and a research associate in the Division of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History. Previously, he held tenure at Dartmouth College and Southern Methodist University. Covey has conducted archaeological and archival research in the Andes since 1996, and his research has been supported by the National Science Foundation, the National Geographic Society, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and various private organizations. His work, which investigates Inca society

List of Contributors  xiii before and after the European invasion, has appeared in authored and edited books, as well as in dozens of journal articles and book chapters. Pamela Kyle Crossley is Collis Professor of History at Dartmouth College. Her most recent books include Hammer and Anvil: Nomad Rulers at the Forge of the Modern World (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019), The Wobbling Pivot: China since 1800 (Wiley/​Blackwell, 2010); and What Is Global History? (Polity, 2008). Josep M. Delgado is Full Professor of Economic History at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona. He received his doctorate from the Universitat de Barcelona in 1982. He is researching the Spanish Empire in the eighteenth and twentieth centuries with a particular focus on the eighteenth-​century Bourbon Reforms. In 2007 he published Dinámicas imperiales (1650–​1796): España, América y Europa en el cambio institucional del sistema colonial español. He is currently working on the topics of trade, finances, and institutional change in the late stages of the Spanish Empire, with particular attention to the Philippines and the Pacific empire’s competition. Christelle Fischer-​Bovet is Associate Professor of Classics and History at the University of Southern California. Her main research interests are in the social and cultural history of the Eastern Mediterranean from Alexander to the Romans, with a particular focus on Greco-​Roman Egypt and topics such as social unrest, ethnic cooperation, and ancient Greek historiography. Her first book, Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt, combines documentary evidence with social theory to examine the role of the army in Hellenistic Egypt, and she is the co-​editor of the forthcoming Comparing the Ptolemaic and Seleucid Empires:  Integration, Communication and Resistance (Cambridge University Press). Josep M. Fradera is Full Professor at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona. He received his doctorate in Modern History from the Autonomous University of Barcelona in 1983. Fradera’s topics of research divide into two branches. First, he researches nineteenth-​century Spanish colonialism, including the division of the greater empire and the development of the Caribbean and Pacific colonies. Second, he works on Spanish politics, regionalism, and peripheral nationalisms in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. His latest book is The Imperial Nation. Citizens and Subjects in the British, French, Spanish, and American Empires (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018, Translated by Ruth MacKay). Amy S. Greenberg (Ph.D., Harvard University) is George Winfree Professor of History and Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies at Pennsylvania State University and a president of the Society for Historians of the Early American Republic. She is the author of five books, including the award-​winning A Wicked War:  Polk, Clay, Lincoln and the 1846 U.S. Invasion of Mexico; Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire and, most recently,  Lady First:  The World of First Lady Sarah Polk. She is currently at work on a study of nineteenth-​century anti-​ expansionist sentiment in the United States, tentatively titled Who's Afraid of a Little Empire? Bruce S. Hall is an Associate Professor in the Department of History at the University of California, Berkeley. He obtained his Ph.D. in African history from the University of Illinois at Urbana-​Champaign in 2005. His research has focused on the intellectual and social history of Muslim West Africa. He has previously taught at Duke University, University at Buffalo (SUNY), and the Johns Hopkins University. Pekka Hämäläinen is the Rhodes Professor of American History at Oxford University. He is the author of The Comanche Empire and Lakota America: The New History of Indigenous Power, both published by the Yale University Press. In 2014-​19, he served as the Principal Investigator of a research project on nomadic empires in world history, funded by the European Research Council. The research leading to the essay in this volume has received funding from the European Research

xiv  List of Contributors Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/​2007-​2013) /​ERC grant agreement no. 615040. Daniel Hedinger teaches at the history department of the Ludwig-​Maximilians University, Munich. Specializing in modern East Asian and European history, his current work focuses on the Second World War in global and trans-​imperial perspectives. He recently completed a monograph on global fascism and the history of the Tokyo–​Rome–​Berlin Axis. Publications include “The Spectacle of Global Fascism: The Italian Blackshirt Mission to Japan’s Asian Empire” (Modern Asian Studies, 2017), “The Imperial Nexus:  The Second World War and the Axis in Global Perspective” (Journal of Global History, 2017), and “A Global Conspiracy? The Berlin–​ Tokyo–​Rome Axis on Trial and its Impact on the Historiography of the Second World War” (Journal of Modern European History, 2016). Geoffrey Hosking was Professor of Russian History, University College London, 1984–​2007, now Emeritus. He previously taught at the universities of Essex, Wisconsin (Madison), Cologne, and Cambridge. His most important books are Beyond Socialist Realism: Soviet Fiction since Ivan Denisovich (1980); A History of the Soviet Union (third edition, 1992); Russia: People and Empire (1997); Rulers and Victims:  The Russians in the Soviet Union (2006); Russia and the Russians (second edition, 2011); Trust: a History (2014). Anthony Kaldellis is Professor of Classics at the Ohio State University. He has written extensively on many aspects of Byzantine history, literature, and culture. His work has focused on the reception of the classical tradition. A recent monograph proposes a new, Roman interpretation of the Byzantine political sphere, and he has just published a narrative history of the tenth and eleventh centuries (Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood). Rajeev Kinra is Associate Professor of South Asian and Global History at Northwestern University, specializing in Mughal history and early modern Indo-​Persian literary and political culture more broadly. He is the author of numerous articles, and his book Writing Self, Writing Empire:  Chandar Bhan Brahman and the Cultural World of the Indo-​Persian State Secretary (University of California Press, 2015; Primus, 2016), which explores various modes of civility and courtly culture by examining the life, career, and writings of the seventeenth-​century state secretary, Chandar Bhan Brahman, was awarded the Mohammad Habib Memorial Prize by the Indian History Congress in December 2019. Dariusz Kołodziejczyk is Professor of Early Modern History at the University of Warsaw and at the Polish Academy of Sciences. He has published extensively on the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, and the contacts between Central-​Eastern Europe and Asia. He is currently President of the Comité International des Etudes Pré-​ottomanes et Ottomanes (CIEPO), an honorary member of the Turkish Historical Society and a member of Academia Europaea. Among his publications is Universal Empire. A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in European History (CUP 2012), co-​edited with P. F. Bang. Nikolay N. Kradin is Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (2011) and director of the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnology, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Vladivostok. He is the author of fourteen monographs, including Nomads of Inner Asia in Transition (2014), The Great Wall of Khitan (2019 –​in co-​authorship). He is also the co-​editor of Alternatives of Social Evolution (2000), Nomadic Pathways in Social Evolution (2003), The Early State, its Alternatives and Analogues (2004). His research focuses on the archaeology, history, and anthropology of Inner Asian nomads, political anthropology, and world-​system analysis. Sunil Kumar studies the culture, society, and politics of the Central Islamic Lands, in Afghanistan and North India, specifically during the twelfth through the sixteenth centuries. He is currently

List of Contributors  xv Professor and Head, Department of History, Delhi University, and has held visiting positions at Ludwig-​Maximilians University Munich, SOAS London, University of California–​Berkeley, EHESS and EPHE Paris. His authored monographs include The Emergence of the Delhi Sultanate (2007, 2010) and The Present in Delhi’s Past (2002, 2010). Murray Last is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Anthropology, University College London. He specializes in both the pre-​colonial history of Muslim northern Nigeria and the ethnography of illness and healing. In 1967 he published The Sokoto Caliphate (London: Longmans Green) and in 1986 he edited (with G. L. Chavunduka) The Professionalisation of African Medicine (Manchester: Manchester University Press for the International African Institute). He was sole editor of the International African Institute’s journal AFRICA for 15 years (1986–​2001). Mark Edward Lewis is the Kwoh-​ting Li Professor of Chinese Culture at Stanford University. He is the author of nine monographs, including Sanctioned Violence in Early China, Writing and Authority in Early China, and The Construction of Space in Early China. His latest monograph, Honor and Shame in Early China, is forthcoming at Cambridge University Press. Dominic Lieven is Honorary Fellow (and emeritus fellow) at Trinity College, Cambridge and a Fellow of the British Academy (since 2001). Previously he was a professor at London School of Economics, a visiting professor at Harvard and Tokyo universities, and a Humboldt Fellow. He is an expert on the history of imperial Russia, empires, monarchy, and international relations. His last two books were Russia Against Napoleon (2009), which won the Wolfson Prize and the Prix de la Fondation Napoleon, and Towards The Flame (2015), which won the Pushkin House (UK) prize. Both books were chosen by The Economist as books of the year. He is currently working on a book about emperors and emperorship across the millennia. Andrew Marsham is Reader in Classical Arabic Studies at the University of Cambridge. He researches the political culture of early Islam and early Arabic historiography, and is currently working on a monograph on the Umayyad Empire. His publications include Rituals of Islamic Monarchy (Edinburgh, 2009)  and the co-​edited Power, Patronage and Memory in Early Islam (Oxford, 2018). Rosamond McKitterick held the Chair of Medieval History in the University of Cambridge from 1999–​2016 and is a Fellow of Sidney Sussex College. She has published on literacy, manuscript transmission, perceptions of the past, historical writing, and political culture in the Early Middle Ages, including Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity (Cambridge, 2008). She was awarded the Dr. A. H. Heineken International Prize for History by the Royal Dutch Academy in 2010. Her most recent book is Rome and the Invention of the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages: The Liber pontificalis, published by Cambridge University Press in 2020. John N. Miksic received his Ph.D. from Cornell University based on archaeological fieldwork in Sumatra, Indonesia. He spent four years in Malaysia as a Peace Corps Volunteer, worked for two years as a Rural Development Advisor in Sumatra, and taught at Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, for six years. In 1987 he joined the National University of Singapore. His specialty is the archaeology of maritime trade in Southeast Asia. Rana Mitter is Professor of the History and Politics of Modern China. He is the author of several books, the most recent of which is China’s War with Japan, 1937–​45: The Struggle for Survival (Penguin, 2013: US title: Forgotten Ally: China’s World War II). The book won the 2014 RUSI/​ Duke of Westminster’s Medal for Military Literature, was named as a 2013 Book of the Year in the Financial Times and The Economist, and was named a 2014 Choice Outstanding Academic Title. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 2015.

xvi  List of Contributors Juan Carlos Moreno García (PhD in Egyptology, 1995; Habilitation, 2009) is a Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) senior researcher at the University of Sorbonne. He has published extensively on pharaonic administration, socioeconomic history, and landscape orga­ nization, and has organized several conferences on these topics. Recent publications include The State in Ancient Egypt: Power, Challenges, and Dynamics (2019); Dynamics of Production in the Ancient Near East, 1300–​500 BC (2016); L’Égypte des pharaons: De Narmer à Dioclétien (3150 av. J.-​C.–​284 apr. J.-​C.) (2016); and Ancient Egyptian Administration (2013). He is also chief editor of The Journal of Egyptian History (Brill) and area editor (“economy”) of the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Luciano Pezzolo is Associate Professor of Early Modern History at the Department of Humanities of Ca’ Foscari University of Venice. His main fields of interest are economic, financial, and military history from the Late Middle Ages to the seventeenth century. A monograph on war and finance in early modern Italy is forthcoming. Andrew Preston is Professor of American History at Cambridge University, where he is also a Fellow of Clare College. He is the author or editor of eight books, including Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (Knopf, 2012) and American Foreign Relations: A Very Short Introduction (OUP, 2019). Himanshu Prabha Ray is recipient of the Anneliese Maier research award of the Humboldt Foundation (2013–​ 2018) and is affiliated with the Distant Worlds Programme, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich. She is former Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, and is the series editor of Routledge Archaeology of Religion in South Asia. Michael A. Reynolds is Associate Professor of Near Eastern Studies and Director of the Program in Russian, East European and Eurasian Studies at Princeton University where he teaches courses on Ottoman history, Russian and Eurasian History, warfare, empire and global order, and foreign policy. He is the author of Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 1908–​1918 and editor of Constellations of the Caucasus: Empires, Peoples, and Faiths. David M. Robinson is Robert H.  N. Ho Professor in Asian Studies and History at Colgate University. His most recent books include Seeking Order in A Tumultuous Age: The Writings of Chŏng Tojŏn (2016); In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia (2019); Ming China and Its Allies: Imperial Rulership in Eurasia (2020). His current work focuses on China and Korea during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in the wake of the Mongol Empire’s collapse. Walter Scheidel is Dickason Professor in the Humanities, Professor of Classics and History, and Kennedy-​Grossman Fellow in Human Biology at Stanford University. The author or (co-​)editor of 19 other books, he has worked on premodern social and economic history, historical demography, and the comparative world history of labor, state formation, and inequality. Maëlle Sergheraert obtained her Ph.D. in Precolumbian archaeology at the University of Paris 1, Pantheon-​Sorbonne. Her work focuses on the Aztec Empire and their strategies of imperial control. In 2011, she spent a postdoctoral year at Arizona State University, working on the concept of altepetl, the Aztec city-​state. She is now working at the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs as the head of the SSH, archaeology and cultural heritage section. Michael E. Smith is an archaeologist at Arizona State University. His research focuses on Aztec households and domestic contexts, and their role in wider social, political, and economic dynamics. He also participates in several interdisciplinary projects that make comparisons among ancient and contemporary cities. His latest book, At Home with the Aztecs:  An Archaeologist Uncovers Their Daily Life (2016), was named Best Popular Book by the Society for American Archaeology.

List of Contributors  xvii Piotr Steinkeller is Professor of Assyriology in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University. Following his undergraduate work at Warsaw University (Mediterranean archaeology and Assyriology), he studied at the University of Chicago, where he received, in 1977, a Ph.D. in Assyriology. Since 1981 he has taught at Harvard University. His research focuses on Mesopotamia during the third millennium bce, in particular, socioeconomic history, historical geography of Mesopotamia, Iran, and the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamian religion, and history of early cuneiform writing. He has written five books and over 140 articles and book reviews. David Todd is a Senior Lecturer in World History at King’s College London. His book Free Trade and Its Enemies in France, 1814–​1851 (Cambridge, 2015)  examined early French intellectual responses to the intensification of international trade, and his book about France’s global informal empire, A Velvet Empire: French Informal Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century, will come out with Princeton University Press in January 2021. Jacob Tullberg, Postdoc at the University of Copenhagen, is a Medieval historian with special interest in comparative history. His Ph.D. dissertation Beyond Feudalism (2012) criticized the widespread assumption that there was a well-​defined entity such as European feudalism in the Middle Ages. His forthcoming monograph investigates how the Carolingian Empire and the Abbasid Empire were transformed, respectively, into the Latin Christian and the Islamic commonwealth. Stuart Ward is Professor of Imperial History and Head of the Saxo Institute at Copenhagen University. He specializes in settler colonial history and the impact of global decolonization on the imperial metropoles of Western Europe. He co-​edited the Australian volume for the Oxford History of the British Empire companion series (2008), and has published several works on the fate of imperial civic culture in post–​World War II Australia, Australia and the British Embrace (2001), and The Unknown Nation (2010). His work also examines the social and cultural resonances of empire’s end in twentieth-​century Britain, including British Culture and the End of Empire (ed., 2001)  and A World History of the End of Britain, shortly to be published by Cambridge University Press. Matthew W. Waters received his Ph.D.  from the University of Pennsylvania. He is currently Professor of Classics and Ancient History and Chair of the Languages Department at the University of Wisconsin–​Eau Claire. His research focuses on the ancient Near East and Greece, specifically the Achaemenid period in Iran, and he is the author of three books and several dozen articles and related publications. He has received fellowships from the American Council of Learned Societies, the Center for Hellenic Studies, the Loeb Classical Library Foundation, UW-​ Madison’s Institute for Research in the Humanities, and the Institute for Advanced Study.

List of Figures, Tables and Maps List of Figures Figure 15.1: Detachment of Jayavarman VII’s army on the march. Detail of a relief on the Bayon, Jayavarman’s state temple, ca. 1200 CE Photo: Michael D. Coe.

434

Figure 15.2: Suryavarman II (r. 1113–ca. 1150 CE), enthroned among courtiers. Detail of a relief at Angkor Wat Photo: Michael D. Coe.

439

Figure 21.1: Four women, representing Roma, Gallia, Germania and Sclavinia, are paying tribute to the emperor From Das Evangeliar Ottos III, Munich, Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek, Clm 4453.

605

Figure 22.1: Military machine and debt service (as percent of state expenditure) Source: Pezzolo 1990, 124; 1994, 324–25; 2006a, 77. Figure 24.1: The Aztec conquest of Cuetlaxtlan, as depicted in the Codex Terreriano-​Remensis, f. 37r Redrawn by Maelle Sergheraert. Figure 24.2: Tax list for the province of Tepecoacuilco, as depicted in the Codex Mendoza, f. 37r. Source: Berdan and Anawalt 1992, vol. 4, f. 37r Reproduced with permission of Frances F. Berdan.

637

677

680

Figure 24.3: Imperial style stone relief carvings from the province of Cuauhnahuac showing military and political themes. A: shield and arrows, a symbol of warfare, from Cuernavaca. B: name glyph of the emperor Ahuitzotl (r. 1486–1502), from the Temple of Tepozteco at Tepoztlan 682 Drawings by Emily Umberger; reproduced with permission. Figure 24.4: Trajectories of infrastructural and despotic power for the Aztec Empire and the city-​states

688

Figure 25.1: The Yucay Valley of highland Peru Photo: R. Alan Covey.

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Figure 25.2: Llamas grazing in high elevation pasture Photo: R. Alan Covey.

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Figure 25.3: Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s depiction of mortuary practices of the Amazonian slope Illustration from Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s 1615 chronicle.

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Figure 25.4: Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s depiction of an Inca attack of a local fortress Illustration from Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s 1615 chronicle.

699

Figure 25.5: Storehouses at Huánuco Pampa R. Alan Covey and Craig Morris.

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Figure 25.6: Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s depiction of Otorongo (Jaguar) Achache Illustration from Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s 1615 chronicle.

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xx  List of Figures, Tables and Maps Figure 25.7: The aqllawasi at Huanuco Pampa R. Alan Covey and Craig Morris. Figure 25.8: Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s depiction of the Inca ruler Topa Inca Yupanqui summoning provincial wak’as, under the gaze of Huanacaure, the Inca sacred mountain. Illustration from Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala’s 1615 chronicle.

707

712

List of Tables Table 20.1: Delhi Sultanate Regimes, 1206–1526

573

Table 20.2: The Indian Sultanates, c. 1350–1550

583

Table 22.1: Budgets of the Republic of Venice, 1343–1679

639

Table 23.1: Rulers of the Songhay Empire

659

List of Maps Map I: Bronze to Iron Age, the Near- Eastern “Invention” of Empire (Third millennium to 300 bce) 2 Copyright: Peter Fibiger Bang with Jonathan Weiland. Map 1.1: Pharaonic Egypt Source: Bang and Scheidel, 2013, The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, 66. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

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Map 2.1: The Akkadian and Ur III Empires Copyright: Oxford University Press.

45

Map 3.1: Empires of the Near East, c. 1500–1100 BCE 77 Source: Bang and Scheidel, 2013, The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, map 4.2. Copyright: Oxford University Press. Map 3.2: Empires of the Near East, c. 900–550 BCE 79 Source: Bang and Scheidel, 2013, The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, map 4.3. Copyright: Oxford University Press. Map 4.1: The Achaemenid Empire Bang and Scheidel, 2013, The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, 200. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

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Map 5.1: The Athenian Empire Source: Morris 2013, 281. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

143

Map 5.2: The Carthaginian Empire from the First to the Second Punic War Source: Ameling 2013, 362. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

147

Map 5.3: The Roman State and Alliance System in Peninsular Italy (Third Century bce) 153 Source: Scheidel 2019, 60. Copyright: Walter Scheidel with Jonathan Weiland.

List of Figures, Tables and Maps  xxi Map II: The Classical Age, Culminating in the Formation of Large World Empires on the Margins of Eurasia: The Mediterranean and China (323 BCE —​600  CE) 160 Copyright: Peter Fibiger Bang with Jonathan Weiland. Map 6.1: The Hellenistic World, c. 250 BCE 169 Bang and Scheidel, 2013, The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, map. 12.1. Copyright: Oxford University Press. Map 7.1: The Mauryan Empire Olivelle, Leoshko, and Ray, 2012, Reimagining Asoka, Memory and History, p. xvii. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

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Map 8.1: The Han Empire, ca. 2 CE 219 Scheidel, 2014, State Power in Ancient China and Rome, p. xvii. Copyright: Oxford University Press. Map 8.2: Pre-​Qin States Sima Qian/​Brashier, 2009, The First Emperor, Selections from the Historical Records, p. xl. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

222

Map 9.1: The Roman Empire: The Three Phases of Imperialism. (1) 60s bce. (2) Second Century ce. (3) Sixth Century ce 247 Copyright: Peter Fibiger Bang with Jonathan Weiland. Map 10.1: The Parthian and Sasanian Empires Source: Bang and Scheidel, 2013, The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, p. 206. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

295

Map 11.1: Kushan Empire in the Second Century BCE 326 Copyright: Oxford University Press. Map III: The Ecumenic Turn: Eclipse of the Old World and the Rise of Islam (600–​1200) Copyright: Peter Fibiger Bang with Jonathan Weiland.

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Map 12.1: Limits of Muslim Rule in 750 CE 359 Source: Howard-​Johnston, 2010, Witnesses to a World Crisis, Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century, p. xxxiv. Copyright: Oxford University Press. Map 13.1: Tang China, c. 742 Source: Benn, 2004, China’s Golden Age, Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty, p. xii. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

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Map 14.1: Singapore, Riau, and Important Archaelogical Sites Source: Miksic, 2013, Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800, ­figure 1.06a. Copyright: John N. Miksic.

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Map 15.1: The Khmer Empire under Jayavarman VII Coe, 2003, Angkor and the Khmer Civilization, ­figure 63. Copyright: Michael D. Coe.

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Map 15.2: Development of the Khmer Road System, 9th and 13th Centuries CE 444 Source: Hendrickson, 2010, “Historic Routes to Angkor, Development of the Khmer Road System (Ninth and Thirteenth Centuries AD) in Mainland Southeast Asia” in Antiquity, vol. 80, no. 324, p. 482. Copyright: Mitch Hendrickson. Map 16.1: The Byzantine Empire, 1040 CE 453 Source: Attaleiates, Kaldellis, and Krallis, 2012, The History, p. 620–621. Copyright: Ian Mladjov, Harvard University Press and Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library.

xxii  List of Figures, Tables and Maps Map 17.1: The Carolingian Empire, Europe ca. 814 Source: McKitterick, 2001, The Short Oxford History of Europe, The Early Middle Ages, pp. 284–285. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

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Map 17.2: The Division of the Frankish Empire in 843 Source: McKitterick, 2001, The Short Oxford History of Europe, The Early Middle Ages, p. 286. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

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Map 17.3: Europe, ca. 1000 McKitterick, 2001, The Short Oxford History of Europe, The Early Middle Ages, p. 290. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

483

Map IV: The Mongol Moment: The Rise of Chinggis Khan and the Central Asian Steppe Followed by Regional Reassertion Copyright: Peter Fibiger Bang with Jonathan Weiland.

500

Map 18.1: The Empire of the Mongols as it Developed During the Thirteenth Century CE 520 Source: Cunliffe, 2015, By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean, The Birth of Eurasia, p. 420. Copyright: Oxford University Press. Map 19.1: The Ming Empire Copyright: Oxford University Press.

543

Map 20.1: The Delhi Sultanate Copyright: Sunil Kumar with Peder Dam.

586

Map 21.1: The Christian and Islamic Ecumene in the Early Thirteenth Century CE. 606 Copyright: Jacob Tullberg with Peder Dam. Map 22.1: The Venetian Empire Source: Dursteler, 2013, A Companion to Venetian History, 1400–1797, p. 126. Copyright: Eric Dursteler.

622

Map 23.1: The Middle Niger Source: Hunwick, 1985. Sharīʻa in Songhay: The Replies of al-​Maghīlī to the Questions of Askia al-​Ḥājj Muḥammad, p. 2. Copyright: Oxford University Press.

649

Map V: Another World: The Separate, but Parallel Path of Imperial Formations in the Precolonial Americas Copyright: Peter Fibiger Bang with Jonathan Weiland.

666

Map 24.1: The Aztec Empire, 1520 Redrawing by Forest and Sergheraert based on Berdan, 1996, The Aztec Imperial Strategies. Copyright: Maelle Sergheraert.

674

Map 25.1: The Inca Empire Copyright: R. Alan Covey, How the Incas Built Their Heartland, AnnArbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006.

693

Map 25.2: Inca fortifications Copyright: R. Alan Covey, How the Incas Built Their Heartland, AnnArbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006. Map based on D’Altroy 2002; Hyslop 1984.

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Map 25.3: Distribution of Sun Temples and High Elevation Shrines Copyright: R. Alan Covey, How the Incas Built Their Heartland, AnnArbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006. Information on high elevation sacrifices from D’Altroy 2002.

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List of Figures, Tables and Maps  xxiii Map VI: The Great Confluence: The Culmination of Universal Empires and the Conquest of the New World: Agrarian Consolidation and the Rise of European Commercial and Colonial Empires (1450–1750) 720 Copyright: Peter Fibiger Bang with Jonathan Weiland. Map 26.1: The Ottoman Empire Source: Zielińska and Kołodziejczyk, 2003, Poznajemy dzieje cywilizacji. Historia i społeczeństwo. Podręcznik dla klasy piątej szkoły podstawowej. Copyright: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne.

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Map 27.1: The Mughal Empire Copyright: Rajeev Kinra with Peder Dam.

759

Map 28.1: The Empire of the Spanish Habsburgs in the 1580s under Philip II Source: George Chakvetadze based on Bouza, Cardim, and Feros 2019, xxiii. Copyright: Oxford University Press with George Chakvetadze.

800

Map 29.1: The Qing Empire at Its Greatest Extent, ca. 1800 Copyright: Pamela Kyle Crossley.

821

Map 30.1: Portuguese Settlements on the West Coast of Africa and on the Atlantic Islands Bethencourt, 2007, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800. Copyright: Cambridge University Press.

833

Map 30.2: Portuguese Settlements and Main Points of Trade in Central and East Africa Bethencourt, 2007, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800. Copyright: Cambridge University Press.

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Map 30.3: Portuguese Settlements and Main Points of Trade in Asia Bethencourt, 2007, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800. Copyright: Cambridge University Press.

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Map 30.4: Portuguese settlements in Brazil Bethencourt, 2007, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800. Copyright: Cambridge University Press.

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Map 31.1: Mercantilist Empire of the Dutch, 1665 https://​ericrossacademic.files.wordpress.com/​2015/​10/​08-​dutch-​world-​1665.jpg Copyright: Eric Ross.

874

Map 32.1: The British Empire, Seventeenth Century. Source: Marshall and Louis, 2001, The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. II,