The Oxford Handbook of the Writings of the Hebrew Bible 2018001368, 9780190212438, 9780190900526, 9780190212452

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T h e Ox f o r d H a n d b o o k o f

THE WRITINGS OF T H E H E B R E W  B I B L E

The Oxford Handbook of

THE WRITINGS OF THE HEBREW BIBLE Edited by

DONN F. MORGAN

1

3 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. © Oxford University Press 2019 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data Names: Morgan, Donn F., editor. Title: Oxford handbook of the Writings of the Hebrew Bible /​ edited by Donn F. Morgan. Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2018] | Series: Oxford handbooks | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018001368 | ISBN 9780190212438 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780190900526 (epub) | ISBN 9780190212452 (online resource) Subjects: LCSH: Bible. Hagiographa—​Criticism, interpretation, etc. Classification: LCC BS1308.O94 2018 | DDC 223/​.06—​dc23 LC record available at https://​lccn.loc.gov/​2018001368 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

Contents

Preface  List of Contributors  List of Abbreviations 

ix xi xv

1. Studying the Writings as Postexilic Literature and Canon  Donn F. Morgan

1

PA RT I   H I S TORY  2. The Writings in the Early Postexilic Period (Cyrus through Ezra-​Nehemiah)  Lester L. Grabbe

19

3. The Writings in the Hellenistic and Roman Period  Timothy H. Lim

33

4. Archaeology of the Postexilic Period and the Writings  Benjamin D. Gordon

49

PA RT I I   I N ST I T U T IONA L A N D L I T E R A RY T R A DI T ION S  5. Cultic Traditions in the Writings: Priests and Levites in the Postexilic Period  Mark A. Leuchter

67

6. Wisdom Traditions and the Writings: Sage and Scribe  James L. Crenshaw

84

7. Apocalyptic Visions and Revisions of the End in the Writings  Bennie H. Reynolds III

99

vi   Contents

8. Postexilic Prose Traditions in the Writings: Novella Writers, Storytellers, and History Writers  Thomas M. Bolin 9. Postexilic Poetic Traditions in the Writings  Susan E. Gillingham

116 132

PA RT I I I   L I T E R AT U R E  10. Reading Psalms Sapientially in the Writings  William P. Brown

151

11. The Book of Job in the Context of the Writings  Katharine J. Dell

169

12. Reading Proverbs as a Book in the Writings  Julius Steinberg

181

13. Lamentations and Canon: Conversations in the Dark  Scott Ellington

199

14. Ruth: A Reading of Scripture?  A. Graeme Auld

215

15. Esther’s Frame within the Writings  Timothy J. Stone

229

16. Qoheleth in the Writings  Erhard S. Gerstenberger

245

17. The Wisdom of Desire in the Song of Songs  Carey Walsh

261

18. Reimagining Community Past and Present in Ezra and Nehemiah  Melody D. Knowles

276

19. Chronicles and the Writings  John C. Endres

290

20. Reading Daniel as Part of the Writings  Ralph W. Klein

307

Contents   vii

PA RT I V   L AT E R I N T E R P R E TAT ION  21. Writings in the Dead Sea Scrolls  Lawrence H. Schiffman

325

22. Nascent Judaism: The Writings and the History of Religions  Jon L. Berquist

342

23. Ancient Near Eastern Religions and the Writings  Daniel C. Snell

357

24. The Divine–​Human Encounter in the Hebrew Wisdom of the Writings and the Confucian Analects  Archie C. C. Lee 25. Moving Texts: The Writings in Western Music and Visual Arts  Roger Ferlo

369 384

26. The Reception of the Writings and Their Place in the Biblical Canon  397 Lee Martin McDonald 27. The Canonical Shape and Function of the Writings  Timothy J. Stone

414

28. Aspects of Jewish Reception of the Ketuvim (Writings)  Alan Cooper

430

29. The Writings in the Christian Bible  Mark W. Elliott

448

30. The Writings and Canon: Enduring Issues and Legacy  Donn F. Morgan

463

Index Textual Index

473 481

Preface

This handbook serves as a research and reference resource for serious students of the Writings, the third canonical division of the Hebrew Bible. It presents and discusses the most current and significant scholarship dealing with this literature and its postexilic setting. In doing so, the handbook provides not only an important research guide for students of the Writings but a major contribution to the history of religion and interpretation of what has been called an Axial Age. The many chapters and individual studies contained in this Handbook of the Writings of the Hebrew Bible presuppose and argue for the significance of this literature as a canonical division of the Hebrew Bible. The import of the Writings has been discussed from three different perspectives. First, as a postexilic creation, this literature is both a resource for and a product of a time critical to the nascence of Judaism and Christianity. The postexilic period in Israel and the ancient Near East is the context for the Writings. Within this multicultural context several important social groups contributed to the oral and literary traditions associated with the Hebrew Bible. Sages, visionaries, cultic officials, singers, poets, storytellers, and more have left their marks on this literature and its institutional history. The most current thinking about these groups and their contributions, together with a solid presentation of the history of the time, including insights and contributions of archeology, is presented in the first section, a necessary backdrop for understanding the Writings. Second, as a collection of diverse literature, the Writings lift up the importance of difference and dialogue between seemingly incompatible traditions (universalism and particularism, the wisdom of Proverbs and that of Qoheleth, etc.) in scripture. The Writings illustrate a breadth of social functions and roles associated with late postexilic communities of faith struggling with the Diaspora, with loss of land, and national autonomy. The handbook gives special attention to each book—​its literary forms, structure, and message. Each chapter discusses the purposes of the literature, highlighting pertinent contemporary parallels or applications when appropriate. Third and finally, the Writings are scripture and a canonical division of the Hebrew Bible. As such, it has a rich history of reception in both Judaism and Christianity, reflecting a powerful impact on the nature of the faith communities that use it. The import of its overall structure and themes, the ways in which it commends the interpretation and use of Torah and Prophets, and the mandating of a biblical dialogue between books of very different origin and message continue to enrich and sustain its readers today. This final section of the handbook presents and discusses this rich reception history in religious traditions (biblical and nonbiblical), in music and art, and as scriptural canon.

x   Preface Because this handbook rests upon the recognition that these books are part of a scriptural canon, the normative and authoritative nature of particular books as well as of the entire literary collection must be taken seriously. The user of this handbook will thus be challenged to see the individual books of the Writings in larger scriptural, historical, theological, and hermeneutical contexts. It is hoped that this Oxford Handbook will provide a good orientation and starting point for future study of this literature important to historians, theologians, and literary scholars, to say nothing of the many faith communities that use it as normative scripture. This preface to The Oxford Handbook of the Writings of the Hebrew Bible would not be complete without my thanksgiving for the work and support of many friends and colleagues. First, without Steve Wiggins of Oxford University Press, this volume would simply not exist. It was Steve’s idea to have such a handbook. He then strongly encouraged me to take the idea and run with it. From helping to conceptualize its format, to aiding me in my search for first-​rate contributors, to providing other support all along the way of a four-​year research project, Steve has truly been indispensable. Thank you, Steve, and to all the staff of Oxford who help to make such projects become published reality. I owe many thanks to all the contributors to this volume who committed to a long-​ term project and faithfully not only did their own work but often helped me with larger issues of organization and implementation. To my colleagues in the Society of Biblical Literature, the Anglican Association of Biblical Scholars, the Society of Old Testament Studies, and the European Association of Biblical Scholars who patiently heard me read papers and speak informally about this project—​thank you for your interest and your insights. Finally, as always, my wife, Alda, has been the sounding board for new ideas, for frustrations, and for challenges along a long road of study and interchange with colleagues all over the world. Thank you! Donn F. Morgan October 2017

Contributors

A. Graeme Auld  Professor Emeritus of Hebrew Bible The University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, Scotland Jon L. Berquist  Professor of Hebrew Bible Claremont School of Theology Claremont, California Thomas M. Bolin  Professor of Theology and Religious Studies St. Norbert College De Pere, Wisconsin William P. Brown  William Marcellus McPheeters Professor of Old Testament Columbia Theological Seminary Decatur, Georgia Alan Cooper  Elaine Ravich Professor of Jewish Studies and Provost The Jewish Theological Seminary New York, New York James L. Crenshaw  Robert L. Flowers Professor of the Old Testament Emeritus Duke University Durham, North Carolina

Katharine J. Dell  Reader in Old Testament Literature and Theology Cambridge University, United Kingdom, and Fellow and Director of Studies in Theology, Religion and Philosophy of Religion St. Catharine’s College Cambridge, England Scott Ellington  Professor School of Christian Ministries Emmanuel College Franklin Springs, Georgia Mark W. Elliott  Professor of Historical and Biblical Theology University of St. Andrews St. Andrews, Scotland John C. Endres  Professor of Sacred Scripture (Old Testament) Jesuit School of Theology of Santa Clara University Berkeley, California Roger Ferlo  Professor of Biblical Interpretation and the Practice of Ministry Emeritus Bexley Seabury Seminary Federation Chicago, Illinois

xii   Contributors Erhard S. Gerstenberger  Professor Emeritus of Old Testament Philipps-​Universität Marburg, Germany Susan E. Gillingham  Professor of the Hebrew Bible University of Oxford United Kingdom and Fellow and Tutor in Theology Worcester College, Oxford Benjamin D. Gordon  Assistant Professor and Rosenberg-​ Perlow Fellow in Religious Studies University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Lester L. Grabbe  Emeritus Professor of the Hebrew Bible and Early Judaism The University of Hull Hull, England Ralph W. Klein  Christ Seminary-​Seminex Professor of Old Testament Emeritus Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago Chicago, Illinois Melody D. Knowles  Vice President of Academic Affairs and Associate Professor of Old Testament Virginia Theological Seminary Alexandria, Virginia Archie C. C. Lee  Professor Center for Judaic and Inter-​Religious Studies Shandong University Jinan, China

Mark A. Leuchter  Professor of Hebrew Bible and Ancient Judaism Temple University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Timothy H. Lim  Professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism The University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, Scotland Lee Martin McDonald  President Emeritus and Professor of New Testament Studies Acadia Divinity College at Acadia University Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada Donn F. Morgan  Professor of Old Testament Emeritus Church Divinity School of the Pacific Berkeley, California Bennie H. Reynolds III Director of Assessment Medical University of South Carolina Charleston, South Carolina Lawrence H. Schiffman  Judge Abraham Lieberman Professor of Hebrew and Judaic Studies and Director of the Global Network for Advanced Research in Jewish Studies New York University New York, New York Daniel C. Snell  L. J. Semrod Presidential Professor Emeritus University of Oklahoma Norman, Oklahoma

Contributors   xiii Julius Steinberg  Professor of Old Testament and Hebrew Theologische Hochschule Ewersbach, Germany Timothy J. Stone  History Department The Stony Brook School Stony Brook, New York

Carey Walsh  Professor of Old Testament Villanova University Villanova, Pennsylvania

Abbreviations

AB Anchor Bible ABD

Anchor Bible Dictionary

ABRL

Anchor Bible Reference Library

AOAT

Alter Orient und Altes Testament

ASTI

Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute

ATD

Das Alte Testament Deutsche

BAR

Biblical Archaeology Reports

BASOR

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

BBB

Bonner biblische Beitrage

BCE

Before the Common Era

BHS

Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia

BibInt

Biblical Interpretation Series

BJS

Brown Judaic Studies

BKAT

Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament

BSac

Bibliotheca Sacra

BZAW

Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die altestamentliche Wissenschaft

CBET

Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology

CBQ

Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CBQMS

Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series

CE

The Common Era

DJD

Discoveries in the Judean Desert

DSD

Dead Sea Discoveries

EdF

Ertrage der Forschung

EHS

Europaische Hochschulschriften

ET

English Translation

EV

English Version

FAT

Forschungen zum Alten Testament

FOTL

Forms of the Old Testament Literature

xvi   Abbreviations FRLANT

Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments

Haer

(Irenaeus) Adversus haereses (Elenchos)

HAT

Handbuch zum Alten Testament

HB Hebrew Bible HBM

Hebrew Bible Monographs

HBS

Herder’s Biblische Studien

HDR

Harvard Dissertations in Religion

HThKAT

Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament

HUCA

Hebrew Union College Annual

JANER

Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions

JBL

Journal of Biblical Literature

JBR

Journal of Bible and Religion

JHebS

Journal of Hebrew Scriptures

JHS

Journal of Hellenic Studies

JJS

Journal of Jewish Studies

JSJ

Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods

JSOT

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSOTSup

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series

JTS

Journal of Theological Studies

KAT

Kommentar zum Alten Testament

LAI

Library of Ancient Israel

LHBOTS

Library of Hebrew Bible/​Old Testament Studies

LSTS

Library of Second Temple Studies

MT Masoretic Text NIB

The New Interpreter’s Bible

NICOT

New International Commentary of the Old Testament

NRSV

New Revised Standard Version

OBO

Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis

OBT

Overtures to Biblical Theology

OTL

Old Testament Library

PRSt

Perspectives in Religious Studies

RevQ

Revue de Qumran

SBAB

Stuttgarter biblische Aufsatzbände

Abbreviations   xvii SBLDS

Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series

SBLMS

Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series

SJ

Studia Judaica

SJOT

Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament

STDJ

Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah

ThWAT

Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament

Transeu Transeuphratene TRE

Theologische Realenzyklopadie

TThZ

Trierer Theologische Zeitschrift

UF

Ugarit-​Forschungen

VT

Vetus Testamentum

VTSupp

Vetus Testamentum Supplements

WBC

Word Biblical Commentary

WMANT

Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament

WUNT

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

ZABR

Zeitschrift für altorientalische und biblische Rechtgeschichte

ZAW

Zeitschrift für die altestamentliche Wissenschaft

T h e Ox f o r d H a n d b o o k o f

THE WRITINGS OF T H E H E B R E W  B I B L E

Chapter 1

St udy ing the W ri t i ng s as P ostexilic L i t e rat u re and Ca non Donn F. Morgan

The Writings, or Hagiographa in Greek, is the title of the third division of the Hebrew Bible, following Torah and Prophets. Its contents contain a wide range of literature:  Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-​Nehemiah, and 1–​2 Chr. Within this literature the Psalms are much beloved and used regularly in both Jewish and Christian liturgy. The book of Lamentations, though traditionally attributed to Jeremiah and focused on the sixth century bce destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians, is closely tied to lament forms of prayer found in the Psalms. The book of Job is an enduring literary masterpiece, confounding and challenging as it addresses fundamental human and theological issues of life that touch all people everywhere. Job, together with Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, is recognized and categorized as biblical wisdom literature. The Song of Songs, often associated with Solomon, is love poetry, also seen by some as wisdom literature. Chronicles and Ezra-​ Nehemiah tell and retell the history of Israel from earliest times through the work of Ezra and Nehemiah in postexilic times, with a special focus on the monarchial period. Ruth and Esther, espousing very different theological and social perspectives, make their points through narratives focused on particular women important in the history of Israel. Daniel, usually considered the latest book of the Hebrew Bible, contains both stories of Daniel and others struggling against foreign threats to their religious practice as well as fully developed apocalyptic visions of the “end.”

Context and Raison D’etre There is incredible diversity within this literature: poetry and prose; apocalyptic and establishment points of view; theological and anthropological perspectives; lament and

2   Donn F. Morgan praise; and much more. In addition to the fact that most of this literature receives its “final” form sometime in the rather long postexilic period (ca. 520 bce to 67 bce), a frequent question posed to this seemingly disparate and different collection is: “What holds this literature together?” Or: “What is the rhyme and reason of the Writings?’ The first answer to such concerns may be perceived as a truism or perhaps begging the questions altogether: This literature is all scripture and set inside a canon, namely the Hebrew Bible, as a particular division. As such, this literature, all of it, is authoritative and normative for the teaching and living of communities of faith that consider it scripture. Beyond this, however, for much of its history as a part of the Hebrew Bible, the Writings as a division and collection has often raised more issues and questions than it has answered (Steinberg and Stone 2015a: 1–​58). Among the kinds of questions and concerns brought to this canonical division as a whole are the following: • Content and genre. What kind of literature is represented here (prayers [e.g., hymns, laments, etc.], proverbs, history, letters, apocalyptic visions, love poetry, et  al.)? What are its primary concerns? • Order: Structure and sequence. Is there any rationale to be discerned in the order of the books? Has that order affected the communities of faith that use it? What evidence do we have for this? • Interrelationships. How do we relate the liturgical poetry of Lamentations to the Psalms? Or the wisdom of Proverbs to Ecclesiastes and Job? Or the history writing of Ezra-​Nehemiah to 1–​2 Chr? The collection as a whole demands some answers to these questions. • Historical context. Can we learn anything about the purpose and rationale for including these books as scripture in the Writings by seeing them in their historical context as postexilic Jewish literature? What major traditions (religious, social, political, theological) are functioning at this time in the life of the people, and how are the Writings reflective of or influenced by them? • Function and use. How do the ancient biblical communities of faith use these texts? The Psalms, for example, perform an all-​important liturgical function for many. But what about the wisdom literature of Job and Proverbs? What about the wise naysayer in Ecclesiastes? How did they and how do we use the visions of Daniel or the histories of Chronicles and Ezra-​Nehemiah? • Relationship to other scripture. How is this collection of literature related to the other two divisions of the Hebrew Bible, Torah and Prophets? Are the Writings important to the New Testament or to contemporary rabbinic writings or later Jewish literature (e.g., the Mishnah or Talmud)? Answering these questions may involve a focus on intertextuality or tradition history. It may need to address theological and historical developments in religious institutions. Canonical questions focusing on the overall purposes of scriptural collections and how these collections are related to one another may also be raised. As is so often the case, exploring relationships to other scripture is set within our frail grasp of the historical settings and purposes for this ancient literature. In our contemporary attempts to understand and make sense of these relationships for our present day, we must first trace a fascinating

Writings as Postexilic Literature and Canon    3 and important history of interpretation in the postexilic period when Judaism is born. The study of the Writings touches and includes many important issues in biblical scholarship in both Judaism and Christianity for all who live in our world today. When the question “Who knows or cares about The Writings?” is raised, the answer should be “Everyone!” And yet, if we were to ask this question to Jewish or Christian congregations, in many cases there might not be much familiarity, recognition, or even interest in the Writings. Not so, however, in a typical gathering of biblical scholars. Today the significance of the Writings, with much attention to questions of history, literature, theology, and canon, is generally acknowledged in the academy. There appears to be a disparity between the interests of scholarship and the communities for which this literature is canonical scripture. Serious students of the Writings must acknowledge the wide gap between the interests and concerns of biblical scholarship and the communities of faith for whom this literature is both scripture and canon, and they must explore the implications of this disparity. Students of this literature know that its voices touch many important contemporary issues as well as provide an all-​important snapshot of the roots and development of both Judaism and Christianity. Whether as a professional scholar, a congregant, or a casual reader, there is a mandate coming from the study of the Writings to make this literature and canon more widely known and appreciated. While in biblical scholarship the books of the Writings are relatively well known, the ways in which they are organized differ widely, reflecting their different placements and order in Jewish and Christian Bibles. It might be argued that the diversity and sometimes seemingly inchoate nature of the Writings raise as many problems as they solve. Indeed, while this literature is a part of the scriptural canon, their definition, historical development, and function have become subjects of much disagreement in the past generation of biblical studies. Nevertheless, there are some points of consensus, some places where general agreement about the Writings can be had. This literature bears the stamp of the postexilic period, for the most part. As such, it is important in any discussions of the development of Judaism, and Christianity, containing within it themes and emphases of literary, sociological, historical, and theological import (sin, suffering, confession, and repentance; theodicy; governance; diaspora living; particularism and universalism; et al.). Whether so designated by philosophers, historians, or religious or secular scholars, this literature and the times in which it was composed deserve to be a part of an Axial Age. Coupled with important developments in biblical scholarship over the past fifty years or more, this literature warrants a continued focus as canonical scripture.

The Writings as Scripture and Canon Because the Writings are a canonical division within the Hebrew Bible, any study dealing with this literature as a whole must necessarily address questions about canon.

4   Donn F. Morgan Definitions of canon abound, but two of the oldest are pertinent here. First, canon is a container, something which divides, collects, and separates.1 So the literature in the Writings is separated both from the other literature in the Hebrew Bible as well as all other literature. Another central function associated with this characteristic of canon is preservation:  the books are kept—​safe and separate—​from others. Second, canon is a measure, providing limits. Not all literature can or should be in the container of canon. Certain judgments and evaluations about the character of the literature found in a canon are necessary. The Writings are a particular kind of canon, a canon of scripture. As such, all of this literature is authoritative, even normative, for the communities of faith that consider it “holy” scripture. The canonical functions of preservation and separation (distinguishing) are lifted up and emphasized because these writings are scripture. There can be no doubt, given the diversity of the Writings, that there were many different reasons for considering this particular literature authoritative, many different functions served, many different settings in which they were used. But, whether for worship or for general behavioral values and norms, or communal organization, or other purposes, this literature as scripture has a special place and role in religious communities. Ultimately, of course, these individual writings, originally written in particular times and places, become the property of a larger entity, Judaism, and, in another and different canonical container, Christianity as well. The Writings, together with Torah and Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, provide resources for the fulfillment of the basic needs of the larger community, among these being identity and mission. In contexts of governance or worship or family life, scripture provides important values, stories, and teachings for individual and communal formation and direction. The Writings as scripture begin with particular messages to the faith communities that consider it such. Ultimately, as this literature is used in many different religious and cultural contexts, published widely in a variety of books and other media, its value and import assume a universal character. Finally, then, not simply Jews or Christians but many others have the ability to learn from Job, to lament and praise with the psalmist, to experience the apocalyptic visions of Daniel, to learn of living faithfully in diaspora through Esther. As literature, as scripture, and as canon, the Writings lift up issues central for community identity building, for effective governance, for faithful living in the context of challenge and crisis. All of this, then, provides a rationale, even perhaps a mandate, for further study of the Writings of the Hebrew Bible. With a focus on the Writings as canon and scripture, there are a host of questions concerning its role and function that need to be addressed: • Does it make any difference how and when the Writings became canon? • Does the order and sequence of the Writings, as it has been transmitted over the centuries, make any difference to our interpretation of this canonical division? • Related to the question of order and sequence, how important is the (sub)collection of the Megilloth (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther) for students of the Writings?

Writings as Postexilic Literature and Canon    5 • Does the nature of this literature as scripture and canon lift up the importance of any particular perspectives and methods for reading and interpretation, for example, canonical criticism or reception history? • How important are questions of authorship and original setting for the Writings? These questions, stemming from particular characteristics of canon and scripture, provide further motivation and shape for a rich study of this biblical material. It is to the history of this study we now turn.

Studying the Writings as Literature, Scripture, and Canon The current scholarship devoted to individual books found within the Writings and to the postexilic period in the ancient Near East is impressive and found in many articles, monographs, dictionaries, and commentaries.2 This is hardly surprising, for some of the best literature and poetry ever written is contained in the Writings. Moreover, this literature addresses issues critical to religion and society at all times: particularism, universalism, orthodoxy, heresy, the role and place of the “other,” identity, mission, theodicy, and so on. The postexilic context of the Writings leads into and overlaps a time of explosive literary activity (200 bce to 200 ce) in the ancient Near East. This is a period when canons of scriptures are formed and interpretive processes necessary for their continuance and pertinence are created. Viewed in this historical light, the Writings contain important precursors and catalysts for seminal developments in Judaism and Christianity. Despite the scholarly attention given to the individual books in the Writings and to the postexilic period, there have been relatively few books written about the Writings as a canonical division of the Hebrew Bible. The absence of such a general discussion focusing on the scriptural division of the Writings is confirmed by Brevard Childs: “Modern critical scholarship has attributed little significance to the Hebrew canon’s division of a final section called the Writings or Hagiographa (ketubim)” (1979: 501). If, then, not much significance has been given previously to the Writings, a rather obvious and legitimate question is raised: Is there any need now for serious attention to the Writings as a canonical division? Comparing and contrasting previous scholarship on the Writings is one way to answer this question, lifting up central and enduring characteristics of this literature as well as highlighting new developments. We begin with a comparison of T. Henshaw’s The Writings:  The Third Division of the Old Testament Canon, a general overview of the scholarship on the Writings published in 1963, with Julius Steinberg’s and Timothy Stone’s recently published volume, The Shape of the Writings (2015b), addressing structural and canonical aspects of this scriptural literature.

6   Donn F. Morgan From the beginning of his work, Henshaw acknowledges difficulty:  “Controversy continues on many questions relating to ‘The Writings’, so that in dealing with these it is impossible to speak of the ‘assured results which the future is not likely to reverse’ ” (Henshaw 1963:  5). Steinberg and Stone affirm this judgment:  “Finally, it is vital to note that the paucity of the historical evidence for the formation of the Hebrew canon leaves much unexplained and any final appraisal in serious doubt” (2015a: 52). This is complemented by Stone’s earlier study of the Megilloth where he states: “No overarching scheme unites the Writings” (2013:  6) as a way of introducing and summarizing the problems associated with describing the structural character of this literature as scripture and as canon. Despite the rather sobering consensus concerning the mysterious character of this collection, or perhaps inchoate is a more precise term, and despite warnings that studying the canon and its history, particularly that of the Writings, is fraught with supposition and tentative (or perhaps tenuous) conclusions, many studies addressing the very issues raised by the Writings have continued in the more than fifty years between Henshaw and Steinberg and Stone. For example, when the scholarship presented in Henshaw’s general overview of the Writings is compared with the interests of contemporary scholarship, most of the components are the same. These include a focus on (1) the literature itself; (2) the history of the postexilic period; (3) the significant traditions (for example, wisdom and apocalyptic) of sages and seers; and (4) the development and finalization of scripture and canon. What is not the same, however, are the issues being debated, the methods being utilized, or the sequence of the presentations. Henshaw, for example, presents the question of canon formation and its pertinence for the Writings as the very first topic. Today, however, canon is often the last topic, presenting the latest historical reconstructions of the canonization process. Henshaw, using a common metaphor for canon, begins by describing the “container” in which the Writings are found. Despite acknowledging there is much still unknown and unresolved, he relied upon a scholarly consensus of answers to the “when” and “how” and “what” of this division of the Hebrew Bible (for example, tripartite canon development, a council at Jamnia, etc.). In contrast, the present generation of biblical scholarship speaks of an ongoing debate (of which the Steinberg and Stone volume is a sterling example) about the shape and character of the Writings, on the one hand, and the whole development of canon, Jewish and Christian, on the other. Indeed, much contemporary scholarly work addressing the history, literature, and theology of the Writings and canon represents an overturning of the consensus views recounted by Henshaw in the early 1960s (no council at Jamnia, no early tripartite canon, etc.). Further, the methods used to study canonical literature have been supplemented by canonical analysis (see, for example, Childs 1979 and Sanders 1984 and 1987), by concerns with reception history,3 by revisionist histories based on new archeological findings (for example, Finkelstein 2001), to name but a few. There is, then, no longer a scholarly consensus about the “when,” the “how,” and the “what” of canon, its formation, and its interpretation. Rather than starting with a relatively well-​ defined container in which the components of the Writings fit, today we must begin to examine this literature in light of both its important historical context and its life

Writings as Postexilic Literature and Canon    7 subsequent to canonization in order to understand and articulate its pertinence and value. The pertinence and value of the Writings was something Henshaw had presumed. So things have changed! The consensus view represented by Henshaw rested upon historical critical methodologies. In both church and society, the social and political upheavals of the mid-​to late twentieth century ultimately highlighted diversity in both method and culture, with impacts that continue to bring shifts in our understanding of the Bible, its history, and its import. One of the powerful change agents in our understanding of canon and its history, namely the discovery and subsequent study of the Dead Sea Scrolls, was a part of Henshaw’s analysis as well. For many early on, the literary evidence from Qumran witnessed to a very different picture of “canon” in early Judaism, where many text types and text collections were in circulation at the same time. But it took significant time and reflection to tease out the implications of Qumran for canon. While most scholars of the period are now compelled to acknowledge the plurality of textual collections in the late postexilic period, there is still a desire by some to find the roots of the Writings as a canonical division early, while others believe it must be quite late. “Fluidity” is a characteristic of canon formation for text critics and historians of canon formation, with the reigning supposition being the presence of many texts, and perhaps even canons, in many communities. Another hotly debated issue revolves around the “containers” used to speak of and organize canon in this late postexilic period. In the older consensus represented by Henshaw, Torah was fully formed and recognized by the fourth century bce, the Prophets no more than two centuries later, with the Writings gradually developing until Jamnia in the first century bce. Today, besides recognizing that Torah was subject to editing and interpretation in later periods (see, for example, Fishbane 1985), many argue that the tripartite division of Torah, Prophets, Writings (Hebrew acronym: TNK/​Tanak) is a very late development, with a bipartite (Torah and Prophets) division in existence for much of the early period (see, for example, Barton 1997; McDonald and Sanders 2002; Lim 2013). The limited evidence makes it impossible to rule out either of these historical reconstructions. The “conservative” position argues for an earlier date, presumably more authoritative and less tarnished by subsequent interpretation, while the “liberal” position maintains a more inclusive and amorphous process of canonization with deference to prophetic authority and interpretation. Henshaw states concerning the formation and closure of the Hebrew canon: “It is generally supposed that the Hebrew Canon was finally fixed at the Council of Jamnia (c. a.d. 90)” (1963: 16). Today, many scholars see this supposition as the wishful and creative thinking of a previous generation of canon students. Together with long-​held suppositions concerning the history of Israel, for example, the size of the Davidic and Solomonic monarchies, or the character and size of Judea’s infrastructure and population in Persian times, the existence of the so-​called council of Jamnia has faded into the history of previous generations of biblical interpretation (see McDonald and Sanders 2002). In its place is a great diversity of opinion on the dates of canonization—​ranging from a late fixing of canon in the third century ce, or even later, to a relatively early

8   Donn F. Morgan formation in the second century bce, or even earlier. Regardless of methods used or eloquence of argumentation, the sparseness of evidence, formerly no impediment to consensus theories like the council at Jamnia, now prevents a new consensus. Instead, this lack of evidence in effect authorizes or validates the present diversity of opinion. Whether or not these changes in scholarly opinion will help answer our ultimate question of why anyone should know or care about the Writings remains to be seen. But surely the question itself is much more visible and in the center of biblical scholarship, if not the communities of faith that hold the literature of the Writings as scripture.

Issues and Methods So much has happened since Henshaw published his overview of the Writings now more than fifty years ago. Then we could speak of a consensus; today there is none. Then there were some “tried and true” methods providing perspective for the biblical text and its historical development; today there are many different methods and perspectives, some of them with historical focus, some not, with nothing considered “tried and true” by all. So many theories and positions! At one level, things have remained the same, with the ongoing debate over the historical nature and extent of the canon a prime example. Even in “new” canonical analysis, for example, many have noted the contrast of James Sanders’s position with that of Brevard Childs is in some ways a reflection or variation on older themes and concerns of Rudolph Bultmann contrasted with Karl Barth. But in other ways canonical study reflects a new postmodern approach, a decoupling of historical development and values from classical theological and literary interpretations, representing new concerns and perspectives in the academy and the world. And, as is so often the case, most of these “new” developments and perspectives are borrowed and imported from other academic disciplines and cultural developments. As we discuss the Writings in this new time and new place after Henshaw, which issues are most pertinent and which methods are most promising for our study of canon and its history? The following list is not exhaustive, but it represents some of the places where new scholarship has made a difference in our understanding of this canonical division. 1. Scripture: Definitions and significance. In the study of the Writings most attention on scripture has been on its extent and status, viewed primarily through an historical prism. So, for example, we speak of the problems with viewing such books as Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, and Esther as scripture, tracing their interpretations in early Judaism. Or we debate the existence of bipartite or tripartite divisions of scripture in the Hebrew Bible’s early development, contrasting them with a very different organization found in the Greek Septuagint. While the battle lines are clear and the positions strong, we are perhaps unlikely to reach definitive answers to these scriptural questions and their underlying historical development in the foreseeable future. On the other hand, the reading of a text holistically, looking

Writings as Postexilic Literature and Canon    9 at its “canonical” or final shape has enhanced, expanded, and nuanced the definition of scripture, on the one hand, and provided new opportunities for study and debate, on the other. Espousing a way of reading the biblical text in its final form that has some affinities with literary criticism, Childs has argued for a distinctive function of scripture within communities of faith based less on its historical anchor in a particular time and place and more on its theological structure, holistically conceived (1979). Sanders, on the other hand, while also concerned with the overall final picture of canon, focuses much more on historical development, relying upon redaction and other compositional perspectives to understand and describe the particular communities represented by the (final) text (1984). Sanders is more interested in explaining why the message is what it is, while Childs, focusing theologically on the final canonical structure of the text, is more interested in articulating the pertinence and relevance of the scriptural/​canonical message for all biblical communities. While many others have made significant contributions to our understanding of scripture and canon in the past fifty years, the focus on holistic reading of the final form of the text, coupled with a preference for either historical or literary perspectives, has become central to determining and describing the character of scripture in both ancient and contemporary worlds. 2. Themes. How shall we understand and make sense of the contents of the Writings? It is both popular and in a sense politically correct to notice and affirm the incredible diversity of history, literature, and theology in this canonical division. But without finding some major message or messages that continue to remain applicable to the present day, the diversity of the Writings is in danger of being jettisoned or dismissed as a collection of irrelevant literature. At the same time, there have been several interesting attempts to lift up its importance as a postexilic collection with many recognizable themes. Many have identified the wisdom voice of the Writings found in Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes and, to a lesser extent, the Song of Songs. And a voice lifting up many historical themes, aiming to anchor the particularity of the community of Israel (Chronicles, Daniel) in Judea but also aware of the new diaspora character of Judaism (Ezra-​Nehemiah, Ruth, Esther) is also very important in this collection. While thematic approaches to the literature of the Writings do not clearly address the structure and meaning of the “whole” canonical collection in ways done for Torah and Prophets (Blenkinsopp 1977; Childs 1979; Sanders 2005 [1972], Seitz 2009; etc.), it does provide important ways to understand and tie together many of the different voices in the Writings, anchoring them in the new challenges of the postexilic period (see Steinberg 2006) and advocating their continued pertinence as scripture and canon in the present day. 3. Functions or roles. Highlighting the ways in which this literature functions within the community of faith is central to understanding its character as ancient scripture, as well as its historical development within both Judaism and Christianity. The liturgical functions and roles of the Psalms are an obvious and important example. Jews and Christians alike share this literature. Again, the enduring questions of Job, coming out of difficult circumstances that continue to be a part of every life, are always very much with us. And, while the tone and topic of Lamentations, are a

10   Donn F. Morgan bit too melancholy for some, and the pessimism of Ecclesiastes a bit too cynical, both of these works continue to provide important and paradigmatic roles for living honestly and faithfully. A more general discussion of the roles and functions of the Writings can be found in Sanders (2005 [1972]), who is trying to address the overall value and character of the collection. My study, Between Community and Text (1990), is another example of this kind of approach to the literature, focusing on the ways in which these texts can and have been used in the context of the community of faith. Eugene Peterson (1980) deals with the pastoral contributions one might find in the Megilloth, the later liturgical collection of Ruth, the Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. Though it will always be a matter of debate whether a focus on themes, functions, and roles has anything to do with the “original” intentions and use of this literature, particularly as a canonical collection, there is no doubt that these kinds of approaches help us understand the character of ancient scripture in the life of faith communities, then and now. Several studies have focused on reception history, the ways in which biblical literature has been received and shaped by later communities of faith. This method can be used to highlight the continuing roles, functions, and themes of the Writings 4. Relationship of books to each other and to other parts of the canon. Work done in this area stretches back almost to Henshaw and continues to the present day. With a variety of methods, Childs (1979), Sanders (2005 [1972]), Barr (1983), Morgan (1990), Barton (1997), and Chapman (2000) have explored the relationship of the Writings’ components with Torah and Prophets, as well as questions of canonical development and reception. If we wish to take seriously the canonical “container” of the Writings, then we must, to the extent it is possible, study the interrelationships between the books of the Writings and their connection to Torah and Prophets. The importance of that order or sequence is likely to remain a matter of debate, with no consensus. But for those who begin with the Writings as a whole (for confessional or literary or historical or theological reasons), exploring the interrelationships found in the texts, sometimes with historical connections, sometimes not, is an important way to describe the character of the Writings as canonical division. Intertextuality and other methods associated with an exploration of the relationships between different texts in the Hebrew Bible represent one example of this holistic approach (see, for example, Childs 1986). 5. Authorship. At one level, a focus on authorship is directly related to thematic concerns already discussed. To speak of David, for example, is often to speak of psalms. To speak of Solomon, of wisdom. Like all other aspects of biblical study, there is an intertwined relationship between historical and literary, for many of these texts might well not have functioned as scripture without attribution to one of the ancients (David, Solomon, et al.). At the same time, the association of wisdom and prayer and song with these heroes and kings is accomplished more by the addition of texts to their names than by any actual historical composition process clearly attributable to kings or high priests or sages. Reading the Writings as a collection written or strongly associated with giant figures in the history of Israel represents a window into the “why” of the literature and its roles and functions in the life of the community.

Writings as Postexilic Literature and Canon    11 6. Order and sequence. The history of textual transmission would appear to support a view that there is no “one” order and rationale for the Writings. Still, there have still been many serious and recent attempts to define the character of the Writings in terms of particular orders and sequences of its books (see especially Steinberg and Stone 2015b). Barton (2015) has noted that the argument for order seems almost counterintuitive in light of the many sequences or variations for this collection of books. Questions about the significance of such an order, even if established, remain. If, for example, we were to discover a rationale for a structure of the Writings that can be anchored in the late postexilic period, could we then develop a hermeneutic that bridges, perhaps with reception history, ancient and contemporary periods? Alas, the hermeneutical significance of any particular order is still far from clear. Take the most fully developed complexes of Steinberg (2006): national/​historical and sapiential. How do we know these were significant for the communities who so “ordered” their canons? Are there particular writings or interpretations that explicitly demonstrate this? Often in The Shape of the Writings the evidence for the order presented is found within the texts themselves, but not in any writing external to the canon. And, while Barton also calls all this “ordering” reception history (2015), without commentary or other explicit demonstrations of its meaning, the significance of “order” for ancient communities remains veiled. If Stone, Steinberg, and others argue for the import of an early order, how do they demonstrate this? How does such an order function within a community of faith in such a way that demonstrates the order makes a difference? Put another way, doesn’t there need to be a clear and articulated intention on the part of such a community? The methodological perspectives associated with reception history seem especially pertinent for exploring the issues of order, sequence, and interrelationship of the Writings’ texts. Finally, how much can the “shape” of scripture (individual books and the divisions/​ subdivisions) be seen with historical methods, relating final form and sequence to the work of redactors? How much does the whole become greater than the sum of its parts, transcending the work and intentions of those same redactors? The divide between modern and postmodern and a variety of other polarities in scholarship are reflected in this debate over how to interpret scripture and its shape.

The Writings: Continuing Issues and Challenges Dating and History In assessing the value of determining precise dates for the closures of both Jewish and Christian scriptural canons, James Sanders once asked:  “Is it so important after all?” (McDonald and Sanders 2002:  292). Some, of course, would answer this question with a resounding Yes! Others, like Sanders, would interpret ancient closure as an example of a

12   Donn F. Morgan process of dialogue between text and community that continues into the present day. That dialogue, witnessed to by a myriad of different theological positions and faith communities, is what’s most important to learn, and remember, and continue. Still, a host of questions about dating and history remain and will continue to be debated. How vital is it that we focus on the Writings as something formed “early,” for example, perhaps, at the time of the Maccabean revolt? Some argue for this (see Steinberg and Stone 2015b), but what’s really at stake? Is it historical credibility? Or theological credibility? Or both? Whether one is conservative or liberal, the value and import of tying history to the theological are significant. For the students of canon, a focus on the whole—​whether a smaller text or a book or a division of scripture—​ is important. To interpret that whole within a clear historical framework is more important to some (e.g., McDonald and Sanders 2002) than to others (e.g., Childs 1979). The significance of an early tripartite structure for canon, versus the structure found in the Septuagint or the assumption that most of the literature of the Writings were grouped together under the “Prophets” until quite late, will continue to be debated and studied. Did the canons of Judaism and Christianity influence one another at an early stage of their process of closure? Or does each of them represent something unstained and pure, not touched by the other? And what difference does this make? The role of the Dead Sea Scrolls in assessing the issue of multiple canons and textual families will surely continue to be important. While most agree that Qumran witnesses to the existence of a great deal of fluidity of canonical literature in the centuries preceding Christianity, there are some who see the importance of an early structural formation of the Writings, perhaps even in the midst of textual pluralism. Is the pluralism we find at Qumran a figment of our imagination, in effect created by a later history of interpretation of scripture, authorized by present-​day experiences and values? Or does an earlier form of the canon authorize our contemporary interpretation? A clear answer to the question of an early or a late date for the development and closure of canon is important.

Diversity and Difference Most readers of the Writings note difference and diversity as central characteristics of the literature, as well as the lack of clear organization or structure of the whole. In a time and place where diversity is valued highly, where living with difference is a laudable goal for many, is this characteristic of the division a positive? While there are surely many ways to tie together certain parts (liturgically, historically, thematically, theologically, etc.), the Writings in their diversity seem to resist having one basic organization or structure or message. Might this be a welcome message and paradigm for our time (see, for example, Morgan 1990; Steinberg 2006)? What might be the implications of this diversity and difference for contemporary and very different faith communities? Can the Writings, already a division of scripture for Jews, become important to Christians who do not organize their canon according to this “container” but are still potentially affected by the diversity and difference found therein? And what are the implications for the academy? Do scholars have any responsibilities as they seek to make known the scriptural messages and mandates found within the Writings?

Writings as Postexilic Literature and Canon    13

Reading and Interpretation An interesting and important question raised by study of the Writings addresses the way we actually read the Bible in general and the Writings specifically. The Bible is often read in the context of common worship in relatively small sections. At the same time, literary critics and canonical scholars, among others, urge us to read books as a whole in order to see a larger message, to read books in relationship to one another to see an even greater message. So, for example, we explore the significance of the canon’s structure when Ruth is placed and read before the Psalms (with the focus on David being a point of connection) or when Job is read before or after Psalms. But do most individuals or communities of faith really read and interpret scripture in general and the Writings in particular in this way? Did ancient communities do this? What is the evidence for this? Everyone knows the structure and order of Torah and the Gospels. There are many ways to interpret those structures—​some of them old, some contemporary. To ask the question of Sanders again, what difference does it make whether the ways we interpret and see connections are old or new? Isn’t Brevard Childs ultimately right—​that there is no serious evidence for tying “final” canonical form to a particular time and place—​especially when looking at something like the Writings with its great diversity? In all of this, scholars and serious students are important resources in teaching and interpreting perspectives gained by holistic interpretations of the Writings.

New and Old Methods Our study of the Writings as literature and scripture for both Judaism and Christianity will necessarily rely on solid historical critical perspectives and the classical methods associated with such a perspective. At the same time, studying the message of scripture involves more than anchoring it in a particular time and place with particular authors and communities of faith. Indeed, we will need to assess the larger message to which scripture witnesses and for which collections like the Writings were created. Martin Noth, after providing an incredibly thorough analysis of historical, theological, and literary perspectives in the Pentateuch, perhaps said it best: The question still remains as to whether the combination of the sources—​even though the purpose of this was simply to augment the tradition-​material through addition—​actually did not give rise to something new, which transcended the individual sources and their particular content and put them in a peculiar light, beyond the conscious intentions of the (redactors) collectors. The question is whether this combination has not resulted, perhaps unintentionally, in unexpected narrative connections and theological insights, and hence whether in the final analysis the whole has not become great than merely the sum of its parts. Thenceforth this literary whole has been read as Holy Scripture and has been used in worship; thus it has exerted a historical impact, and has remained right to the present day as the only

14   Donn F. Morgan concretely given entity. Therefore, it is also a task of scholarship to take into its purview this totality in the form in which it has been transmitted. (1972: 250)

Many students of the canonical forms of biblical literature would see their task in ways compatible with Noth. In addition to this, discipline of reception history will be important for our study of the Writings. We can begin to see a development, beginning with historical critical methods and their special interests, then developing an interest in canon, both historically and theologically, finally culminating in reception history with its special interest in tracing the ways in which this literature has been received by and has impacted a community of faith through dialogue.

Conclusion Must anyone who argues for the import of the Writings as a canonical division necessarily be an apologist? From Henshaw to Steinberg and Stone, what has or hasn’t changed? We still have a postexilic historical focus, though our perceptions or evaluation of it has developed in new ways. Our views of canonization, putting it all together, and reading it as canon have changed. There have been new discoveries and new theories. There are new contemporary issues that divide and motivate us: diversity, pluralism, breakdown of consensus, postmodernism—​all of which affect our interpretation of the Writings. We conclude by noting again the disparity between scholarship’s interest in the Writings and the relative lack thereof in religious communities. The question “Does anyone or any community actually read and interpret the Writings like this?” seems to contain not only or even primarily a judgment but also a goal. In earlier days scholars devoted inordinate amounts of time addressing ways of thinking and interpreting that seemed incongruent not only with good scholarship but with common sense. This work continues (see, now, for example, Dell 2017). What if the Writings—​with all its challenges of interpretation and reception history, with all the pertinent parallels it has with contemporary culture, and all the differences of theology, history, and literature it contains—​became a part of the scriptural gospel proclaimed by students of the Bible? What if its students became a vehicle for sharing and living its message in contemporary religious communities and the larger societies of which they are a part? An interesting thought. Hopefully works like The Oxford Handbook of the Writings of the Hebrew Bible will contribute to such an endeavor.

Notes 1. For an overview of some of the major theories, issues, and debates about the biblical canon, see, for example, Lim (2013, 2017), McDonald (2007), and McDonald and Sanders (2002).

Writings as Postexilic Literature and Canon    15 2. See the bibliographies in standard dictionaries and in The Oxford Handbook of the Writings of the Hebrew Bible. 3. See, for example, volumes in the Through the Centuries in the Wiley-​Blackwell Bible Commentaries.

Bibliography Alter, Robert. 1981. The Art of Biblical Narrative. New York: Basic Books. Barr, James. 1983. Holy Scripture: Canon, Authority, Criticism. Philadelphia: Westminster. Barton, John. 1997. Holy Writings, Sacred Text. The Canon in Early Christianity. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. Barton, John. 2015. “Response.” In The Shape of the Writings, edited by J. Steinberg and T. J. Stone. 311–​316. Siphrut 16. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. 1977. Prophecy and Canon. A Contribution to the Study of Jewish Origins. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Chapman, Stephen. 2000. The Law and the Prophets. A  Study in Old Testament Canon Formation. Tubingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. Childs, Brevard S. 1979. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture. Philadelphia: Fortress. Childs, Brevard S. 1986. Old Testament Theology in a Canonical Context. Philadelphia: Fortress. Dell, Katharine. 2017. Who Needs the Old Testament? Its Enduring Appeal and Why the New Atheists Don’t Get It. London: SPCK. Finkelstein, Israel. 2001. The Bible Unearthed: Archeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. New York: Free Press. Fishbane, Michael. 1985. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. New York: Oxford University Press. Gillingham, Susan. 2008. Psalms through the Centuries. Volume 1. Blackwell Bible Commentaries. Oxford: Blackwell. Henshaw, T. 1963. The Writings. The Third Division of the Hebrew Canon. London: George Allen & Unwin. Joyce, Paul, and Lipton, Diana. 2013. Lamentations through the Centuries. Wiley-​Blackwell Bible Commentaries. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Lim, Timoth