The Oxford Handbook of English Grammar 0198755104, 9780198755104

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   

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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O X F O R D H A N D B O O K S IN LI N G U I S T I C S Recently published

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR Edited by Ian Roberts

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY Edited by Ofelia García, Nelson Flores, and Massimiliano Spotti

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF ERGATIVITY Edited by Jessica Coon, Diane Massam, and Lisa deMena Travis

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF WORLD ENGLISHES Edited by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF POLYSYNTHESIS Edited by Michael Fortescue, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF EVIDENTIALITY Edited by Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF LANGUAGE POLICY AND PLANNING Edited by James W. Tollefson and Miguel Pérez-Milans

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF PERSIAN LINGUISTICS Edited by Anousha Sedighi and Pouneh Shabani-Jadidi

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF ENDANGERED LANGUAGES Edited by Kenneth L. Rehg and Lyle Campbell

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF ELLIPSIS Edited by Jeroen van Craenenbroeck and Tanja Temmerman

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF LYING Edited by Jörg Meibauer

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF TABOO WORDS AND LANGUAGE Edited by Keith Allan

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF MORPHOLOGICAL THEORY Edited by Jenny Audring and Francesca Masini

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF REFERENCE Edited by Jeanette Gundel and Barbara Abbott

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF EXPERIMENTAL SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS Edited by Chris Cummins and Napoleon Katsos

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF EVENT STRUCTURE Edited by Robert Truswell

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF LANGUAGE ATTRITION Edited by Monika S. Schmid and Barbara Köpke

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR Edited by Bas Aarts, Jill Bowie, and Gergana Popova

For a complete list of Oxford Handbooks in Linguistics please see pp. –.

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.........................................................................................................................................

ENGLISH GRAMMAR ......................................................................................................................................... Edited by

BAS AARTS, JILL BOWIE, and

GERGANA POPOVA

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Great Clarendon Street, Oxford,  , United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © editorial matter and organization Bas Aarts, Jill Bowie, and Gergana Popova  © the chapters their several authors  The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First Edition published in  Impression:  All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press  Madison Avenue, New York, NY , United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number:  ISBN –––– Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon,   Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

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There are many people who have helped shape the present volume, to whom we owe a debt of gratitude. First and foremost, we would like to thank our contributors for their inspiring work and their patience with the revision process. We are also enormously indebted to them for reviewing contributions to the handbook other than their own. Without their expertise and dedication a volume like this could not have come into being. We would also like to thank the colleagues who refereed individual chapters for us. Their scholarship, careful engagement with the rationale of the volume, as well as their constructive and detailed feedback were invaluable and given selflessly. We are also extremely grateful to colleagues at Oxford University Press and to the production team for their professional help and patience during the gestation of the volume. Bas Aarts Jill Bowie Gergana Popova

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C ............................... List of figures and tables List of contributors Introduction

xi xv xxiii

PART I GRAMMAR WRITING AND METHODOLOGY . Conceptualizations of grammar in the history of English grammaticology



M T

. Syntactic argumentation



B A

. Grammar and the use of data



J S  C T. S̈ 

. Grammar and corpus methodology



S W

PART II APPROACHES TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR . Cognitive linguistic approaches



J R. T

. Constructional approaches



M H

. Dependency and valency approaches



T H

. Generative approaches T L  L H



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viii



. Functional approaches



J. L M

. Modern and traditional descriptive approaches



R H  G K. P

. Theoretical approaches to morphology



A S

PART III SUBDOMAINS OF GRAMMAR . Inflection and derivation



A S

. Compounds



L B

. Word classes



W B. H

. Phrase structure



R D. B

. Noun phrases



E K

. Clause structure, complements, and adjuncts



P D

. Clause types and speech act functions



E K̈ 

. Tense and aspect



I D  A T

. Mood and modality



D Z

. Subordination and coordination



T E

. Information structure G K̈ 



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ix

PART IV GRAMMAR AND OTHER FIELDS OF ENQUIRY . Grammar and lexis



D S̈ 

. Grammar and phonology



S H  I C

. Grammar and meaning



A A

. Grammar and discourse



J B  G P

PART V GRAMMATICAL VARIATION AND CHANGE . Change in grammar



M H

. Regional varieties of English: Non-standard grammatical features



P S

. Global variation in the Anglophone world



B K

. Genre variation



H D  A W

. Literary variation



L J

References Name index Subject index

  

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L     .......................................................................................

Figures . Lumping of nouns and pronouns



. Reassignment of adjunctizers to the preposition class



. Three illustrations of the types of information available from acceptability judgements



. The visual logic of    factorial designs, illustrated using the whether-island effect design



. Three types of evidence



. The A perspective in corpus linguistics



. Example of a Key Word in Context concordance for the lexical item school in ICE-GB, showing adjacent word class labels



. A Fuzzy Tree Fragment for an adjective phrase (AJP) containing a general adjective head (AJHD, ADJ(ge)) with at least one premodifier (AJPR) and one postmodifier (AJPO)



. A simple grammatical concordance



. Examining any line in the concordance displays the sentence and phrase structure tree, showing how the FTF matches a tree in the corpus



. Comparing frequency distributions over different time periods



. FTF for retrieving a positive (‘¬neg’ = not negative) auxiliary verb, verb or VP (‘∨’ = ‘or’), followed by a tag question with a negative auxiliary or verb



.a Dependency representation of in the kitchen



.b Dependency tree diagram of in the kitchen



. Stemma representing the structural order of ()



.a Phrase structure (constituent structure) of ()



.b Dependency stemma of ()



.c Dependency representation of ()



. Dependency stemma of ()



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     . Representation of transfer in the case of de Pierre and Pierre’s



. Stemma for Then she changed her mind



. Dependency representation of ditransitive give in Word Grammar



. Dependency representation of coordination in Word Grammar



. Semantic dependency of Leo sent a letter to Alan



. Syntactic and semantic dependencies of complements and modifiers of w



.a Analysis of grammatical non-projective structure That pizza I will not eat with crossing lines



.b Analysis of That pizza I will not eat involving rising



.a Analysis of () without rising



.b Analysis of () with rising



. The ditransitive construction



. Structure of whose book everyone said they had enjoyed



. Diagrams of NPs with Determiner-Head and Modifier-Head function fusion



. Diagram of a fused relative NP with Head-Prenucleus function fusion



. Diagram of the noun phrase this once which contains a fused Modifier-Head



. The basic structure of clause types



. Lambrecht’s () assumed mental representation of discourse referents (alternative terms by Prince and Chafe in brackets)



. Network of choices associated with her



. Inverted T-model



. A partial schema network for a verb (adapted from Taylor : )



. The grammaticalization chain for the modal idiom (had) better in the Late Modern Period



. Being to V and semi-modal having to V (frequency per million words) in the OBP corpus



. Proportion of periphrastic constructions and mandative subjunctives in the Brown family of corpora



. Diachronic development of core modals in the Brown-family of corpora



. Diachronic development of semi-modals in the Brown-family corpora



. Morphosyntactic distinctions along a continuum of ‘individuality’



. Correspondences between non-standard and standard tense use



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. Map ‘Give it me’, taken from An Atlas of English Dialects by Clive Upton and J. D. A. Widdowson (: )



. Global network for the entire WAVE feature set (N = )



. Tense and Aspect network in WAVE



. NeighborNet clustering of L varieties in WAVE



Tables . Contingency table of frequencies exploring the interaction between the polarity of question tags and the polarity of preceding verb phrases, extracted with FTFs and then manually reviewed. The verb phrase and tag never both have a negative polarity in all  cases



. Word class and feature matrix



. The major clause types



. Clause types, meanings, and literal forces



. Simple and progressive forms of the ‘tenses’



. Vendler’s Aktionsart classes and their defining features



. Main functions of finite subordinate clauses



. Main functions of non-finite subordinate clauses



. Coordination in and of phrases



. Prince’s () model of hearer-status and discourse-status and correspondences with Lambrecht () and Prince (a)



. Word class-phonology generalizations (adapted from Monaghan et al. : –)



. Inflectional paradigm for OE bīdan ‘await’ (based on Hogg and Fulk : )



. Full-verb, mixed, and auxiliary syntax of dare in interrogative and negated sentences in the Brown-family corpora of American and British English (AmE and BrE)



. Logical types of universal statement (following Greenberg), taken from Evans and Levinson (: )



. Asymmetrical paradigms (adapted from Anderwald : )



. Seventy-six varieties in WAVE: world regions



. Domains of grammar covered in WAVE ( features in all)



. Geographical composition of the clusters in the global network



. Vernacular angloversals: top  ( %)



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    

. Vernacular angloversals: top runners-up ( %)



. Top diagnostic features of L varieties (AR  %, AR difference  %), sorted by AR difference



. Top diagnostic features of traditional L varieties (AR  %, AR difference  %), sorted by AR difference



. Top diagnostic features of high-contact L varieties (AR  %, AR difference  %), sorted by AR difference



. Top diagnostic features of L varieties (AR  %, AR difference  %), sorted by AR difference



. The most diagnostic features of English-based pidgins and creoles (AR of P/Cs  %, AR difference  %), sorted by AR difference



. Diagnostic morphosyntactic features per Anglophone world region (AR difference region – rest of world  %; * for medium-frequency features, ** for high-frequency/pervasive features)



. Top distinctive features for the British Isles



. Top distinctive features for Africa



. Top distinctive features for the Australia Pacific region



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Bas Aarts is Professor of English Linguistics and Director of the Survey of English Usage at University College London. His publications include: Syntactic Gradience (, OUP), Oxford Modern English Grammar (, OUP), The Verb Phrase in English (, edited with J. Close, G. Leech, and S. Wallis, CUP), Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar (edited with S. Chalker and E. Weiner, nd edition , OUP), How to Teach Grammar (with Ian Cushing and Richard Hudson, , OUP), as well as book chapters and articles in journals. He is a founding editor of the journal English Language and Linguistics (CUP). Ash Asudeh is a Professor in the Department of Linguistics and the Director of the Center for Language Sciences at the University of Rochester. He has held positions at Carleton University, in the Institute of Cognitive Science, and at Oxford University, where he was Professor of Semantics in the Faculty of Linguistics, Philology, and Phonetics and a Senior Research Fellow at Jesus College. His research interests include syntax, semantics, pragmatics, language and logic, and cognitive science. He has published extensively on the syntax–semantics interface, particularly in the frameworks of Lexical Functional Grammar and Glue Semantics. Laurie Bauer FRSNZ is Emeritus Professor of Linguistics at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. He is the author of more than twenty books on linguistic topics, particularly on morphology and word-formation. He was one of the inaugural editors of the journal Word Structure. The Oxford Reference Guide to English Morphology, which he co-wrote with Rochelle Lieber and Ingo Plag, received the Linguistic Society of America’s Leonard Bloomfield Prize in . In  he was awarded the Royal Society of New Zealand’s Humanities medal. Robert D. Borsley is Professor Emeritus at the University of Essex, where he worked from  to , and Honorary Professor at Bangor University, where he worked from  to . He has published extensively on the syntax of English and Welsh, and on other languages, including Breton, Polish, and Arabic. He has worked mainly within the Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar framework and has made a variety of contributions to its development. He was a Journal of Linguistics Editor from  to . Jill Bowie is an Honorary Research Fellow at the Survey of English Usage, University College London, where she previously worked on the AHRC-funded projects ‘The changing verb phrase in present-day British English’ and ‘Teaching English grammar

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in schools’, led by Bas Aarts. She holds a PhD from the University of Reading and a BA and MA from the University of Queensland. Her research interests include recent change in English and the grammar of spoken discourse. She has co-authored papers with Survey colleagues on clause fragments and on changes in the English verb phrase. Ian Cushing is a lecturer in the Department of Education at Brunel University London. He has a broad range of teaching and research interests, including applied cognitive linguistics (especially in educational contexts), critical language policy, and pedagogical grammar. He is the author of Text Analysis and Representation (, CUP), Language Change (, CUP), and a co-author of How to Teach Grammar (, OUP, with B. Aarts and R. Hudson), as well as various journal articles and book chapters. Ilse Depraetere is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Lille. She is a member of the research group Savoirs, Textes, Langage (UMR  STL). She has published widely on tense, aspect, and modality, the semantics/pragmatics interface being in the foreground of her publications. She is the co-author with Chad Langford of Advanced English Grammar: A Linguistic Approach ( (nd edn), Bloomsbury) and she co-edited with Raphael Salkie Semantics and Pragmatics: Drawing a Line (, Springer). Heidrun Dorgeloh is Senior Lecturer in English Linguistics at the Heinrich-HeineUniversity Düsseldorf with a specialization in syntax, discourse analysis, and professional varieties of English. She wrote her dissertation on English word order, notably subject–verb inversion as it is used in different genres, followed by a series of research on the function and meaning of grammatical constructions in professional contexts. Her research interests include the interrelationship of non-canonical syntax and discourse, the evolution of genres, and registers and genres of various professions, such as science, medicine, and law. Patrick Duffley is Professor of English Linguistics at Université Laval in Quebec City. He has published monographs on the infinitive, the gerund-participle, and complementation in English, as well as a number of articles on modal auxiliaries, wh-words, negative polarity, and indefinite determiners. His work utilizes concepts inspired by cognitive grammar and Guillaumian psychomechanical theory in order to develop a semantico-pragmatic approach to grammar and syntax. He recently published a monograph with John Benjamins applying this approach to the phenomenon of subject versus non-subject control with non-finite verbal complements in English. Thomas Egan is Emeritus Professor of English Linguistics at Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences. His research interests encompass topics within the areas of corpus linguistics, contrastive linguistics, cognitive linguistics, and historical linguistics, including grammaticalization. He is the author of a monograph on complementation, entitled Non-Finite Complementation: A Usage-Based Study of Infinitive and -ing Clauses in English (, Rodopi). More recently he has (co-)authored some dozen articles

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contrasting various prepositional constructions in English and French and/or Swedish and Norwegian. Liliane Haegeman is Professor of English Linguistics at Ghent University in Belgium and is a member of the DiaLing—Diachronic and Diatopic Linguistics research group. From  to , she was Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Geneva (Switzerland), and between  and  she was Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Lille III. Haegeman has worked extensively on the syntax of English and Flemish and has also written a number of textbooks for generative syntax. Her latest monograph is Adverbial Clauses, Main Clause Phenomena, and the Composition of the Left Periphery with Oxford University Press. Sam Hellmuth is Senior Lecturer in Linguistics in the Department of Language and Linguistic Science at the University of York. Sam earned her MA and PhD at SOAS University of London, and specializes in the study of prosody (stress, rhythm, and intonation), and the modelling of variation in prosody within and between speakers, dialects, languages, and contexts, in a laboratory phonology approach (using quantitative and qualitative methods, on both naturally occurring and experimental data). Thomas Herbst is Professor of English Linguistics at the Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU). He studied English and German at the Universities of Erlangen-Nürnberg and Oxford (St. Edmund Hall). He has taught at the universities of Reading, Augsburg, and Jena. The focus of his interests and of his publications lies in the fields of valency theory, collocation studies, cognitive and constructionist theories of language, pedagogical construction grammar, and linguistic aspects of film dubbing. He is one of the editors of the Valency Dictionary of English () and co-editor of Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik and Lexicographica. Martin Hilpert is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Neuchâtel. He holds a PhD from Rice University. His interests include cognitive linguistics, language change, construction grammar, and corpus linguistics. He is the author of Germanic Future Constructions (, John Benjamins), Constructional Change in English (, Cambridge University Press), and Construction Grammar and its Application to English (, Edinburgh University Press). He is Editor of the journal Functions of Language and Associate Editor of Cognitive Linguistics. Willem B. Hollmann is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Lancaster. His research focuses on cognitive-typological linguistic theory and methodology, language change, and dialect grammar. These areas frequently overlap and interact in his work, especially in his publications in the nascent area of cognitive sociolinguistics. He is currently Chair of the national Committee for Linguistics in Education (CLiE), which reflects and is part of his keen interest and engagement in language teaching in primary and secondary education.

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Rodney Huddleston earned his BA at the University of Cambridge and his PhD in Applied Linguistics at the University of Edinburgh. He is a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy. He taught at Edinburgh, London, and Reading before moving in  to spend the majority of his career in the Department of English at the University of Queensland. He has published numerous books and papers on English grammar, the most significant work being The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (, with Geoffrey K. Pullum), which won the Linguistic Society of America’s Leonard Bloomfield Book Award in . Marianne Hundt is Professor of English Linguistics at Zürich University. Her corpusbased research focuses on variation and grammatical change in contemporary and late Modern English. Her publications cover both first- and second-language varieties of English, notably in the South Pacific and South Asia. She has been involved in the compilation of various corpora and has explored the use of the World Wide Web as a corpus. Her publications include English Mediopassive Constructions (, Rodopi) and New Zealand English Grammar: Fact or Fiction? (, John Benjamins). She is co-author of Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study (, CUP) and co-editor of English World-Wide. Lesley Jeffries is Professor of Linguistics and English Language at the University of Huddersfield, UK, where she has worked for most of her career. She is the co-author of Stylistics (, CUP) and Keywords in the Press (, Bloomsbury) and author of a number of books and articles on aspects of textual meaning including Opposition in Discourse (, Bloomsbury), Critical Stylistics (, Palgrave) and Textual Construction of the Female Body (, Palgrave). She is particularly interested in the interface between grammar and (textual) meaning and is currently working on a new book investigating the meaning of contemporary poetry. Gunther Kaltenböck, who previously held a professorship at the University of Vienna, is currently Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Graz. His research interests lie in the areas of cognitive-functional grammar, corpus linguistics, pragmatics, phonetics, variation and change, as well as Thetical Grammar. Apart from numerous book chapters and contributions to international journals, his publications include a monograph on It-Extraposition and Non-Extraposition in English (, Braumüller) and several co-edited volumes, such as New Approaches to Hedging (, Emerald), Outside the Clause (, John Benjamins), and Insubordination: Theoretical and Empirical Issues (, de Gruyter). Evelien Keizer is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Vienna. She obtained her PhD in English Linguistics from the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam in ; since then she has held positions at the University of Tilburg, University College London, and the University of Amsterdam. She has published widely on the noun phrase in English (e.g. The English Noun Phrase: The Nature of Linguistic Categorization, , CUP) and Dutch (Syntax of Dutch: The Noun Phrase, Vol. , ,

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Amsterdam University Press). She is also the author of A Functional Discourse Grammar for English (, OUP) and co-editor of several edited volumes and special issues. Ekkehard König was educated at the Universities of Kiel, Edinburgh, and Stuttgart. After holding professorial positions in Germany and other European countries, he retired in  from the Freie Universität Berlin and is now Adjunct Professor at the Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg. In addition to directing a variety of research projects in Germany, he was Programme Director of the ESF-funded project ‘Typology of Languages in Europe’. His current duties include the editorial responsibility of the international journal Studies in Language (together with Lindsay Whaley). Bernd Kortmann is Full Professor of English Language and Linguistics at the University of Freiburg, Germany, and since October  Executive Director of FRIAS, the Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies. He has widely and extensively published in English linguistics, notably on the grammar of standard and non-standard varieties of English, and is co-editor of the international journal English Language and Linguistics as well as of the book series Topics in English Linguistics and Dialects of English. Terje Lohndal is Professor of English Linguistics at NTNU The Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim and holds an Adjunct Professorship at UiT The Arctic University of Norway. Together with Marit Westergaard, he directs the AcqVA (Acquisition, Variation, Attrition) research group. Lohndal works on syntax and its interfaces from a comparative perspective, drawing on data from both monolingual and multilingual individuals. He has published articles in journals such as Linguistic Inquiry, Journal of Linguistics, Journal of Semantics, and several books, among others, Phrase Structure and Argument Structure with Oxford University Press and Formal Grammar with Routledge. J. Lachlan Mackenzie is Emeritus Professor of Functional Linguistics at VU Amsterdam, having previously been Full Professor of English Language there. With a PhD from the University of Edinburgh (), his career was in the Netherlands, working closely with Simon Dik, Kees Hengeveld, and many others on the development of Functional Grammar and Functional Discourse Grammar. He is an Editor of the journal Functions of Language and his research interests range from functional linguistics to pragmatics, discourse analysis, and the expression of emotion. Key publications include Functional Discourse Grammar (, OUP) and Pragmatics: Cognition, Context and Culture (, McGraw Hill). See www.lachlanmackenzie.info Gergana Popova works at Goldsmiths, University of London. She obtained her MA from the University of Sofia and her PhD from the University of Essex. Her interests are in theoretical linguistics and linguistic theory, morphology, and the interface between morphology and syntax and morphology and lexical semantics. She is currently working on periphrasis (with Andrew Spencer). A further interest is how

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corpora and corpus-analytic techniques can be used in the study of linguistic phenomena, including the study of language use and discourse. Geoffrey K. Pullum is Professor of General Linguistics in the School of Philosophy, Psychology, and Language Sciences at the University of Edinburgh. He is a Fellow of the British Academy, the Linguistic Society of America, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He previously taught at University College London; the University of Washington; Stanford University; the University of California, Santa Cruz; and Brown University. In addition to more than  scholarly publications on linguistics, he has written hundreds of popular articles and blog posts. He co-authored The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language () with Rodney Huddleston. Doris Schönefeld is a Professor of Linguistics at the Institute of British Studies at the University of Leipzig (Germany). She works in the field of usage-based (cognitive) linguistics with a special focus on Construction Grammar. In addition to research into particular constructions of English (such as copular  constructions), she is interested in more general linguistic issues, such as the relationship between lexicon and syntax (Where Lexicon and Syntax Meet, , Mouton de Gruyter) and methodologies in empirical linguistic research (co-authored articles (, ), and an edited book on Converging Evidence: Methodological and Theoretical Issues for Linguistic Research, , John Benjamins). Carson T. Schütze is Professor of Linguistics at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he has taught since . His research spans topics in syntax, morphology, first language acquisition, language processing, and linguistic methodology, often focusing on Germanic languages. His monograph The Empirical Base of Linguistics (, reprinted ) is often cited as a catalyst for the recent eruption of empirical and philosophical work on acceptability judgements. Peter Siemund has been Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Hamburg since . He pursues a crosslinguistic typological approach in his work on reflexivity and self-intensifiers, pronominal gender, interrogative constructions, speech acts and clause types, argument structure, tense and aspect, varieties of English, language contact, and multilingual development. His publications include, as author, Pronominal Gender in English: A Study of English Varieties from a Cross-Linguistic Perspective (, Routledge), Varieties of English: A Typological Approach (, CUP), and Speech Acts and Clause Types: English in a Cross-Linguistic Context (, OUP), and, as Editor, Linguistic Universals and Language Variation (, Mouton de Gruyter) and Foreign Language Education in Multilingual Classrooms (with Andreas Bonnet; , John Benjamins). Andrew Spencer retired from the Department of Language and Linguistics, University of Essex, in , where he had taught for twenty-five years. He is the author of Morphological Theory (), Phonology (), Clitics (, with A. Luís), Lexical Relatedness (), and Mixed Categories (in press, with I. Nikolaeva). His interests are

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in theoretical morphology and in morphology and its interfaces with syntax and the lexicon. He is currently working on periphrasis (with G. Popova) and on a crosslinguistic study of deverbal participles. Jon Sprouse is an associate professor in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Connecticut. His research focuses on experimental syntax—the use of formal experimental measures to explore questions in theoretical syntax—with a particular focus on acceptability judgements. He is the Editor of the forthcoming Oxford Handbook of Experimental Syntax, and Co-Editor of Experimental Syntax and Island Effects (with Norbert Hornstein, , Cambridge University Press). John R. Taylor is the author of Linguistic Categorization (rd edn, , OUP); Possessives in English: An Exploration in Cognitive Grammar (, OUP); Cognitive Grammar (, OUP); and The Mental Corpus: How Language is Represented in the Mind (, OUP). He edited The Oxford Handbook of the Word () and co-edited Language and the Cognitive Construal of the World (, Mouton de Gruyter). He is a member of the editorial board of Cognitive Linguistics Research series (Mouton de Gruyter) and is an Associate Editor of the journal Cognitive Linguistics. Margaret Thomas is Professor in the Program of Linguistics at Boston College. Most of her current research is in the history of linguistics, especially in the United States, with additional interests in second language acquisition and in Japanese psycholinguistics. She is the author of Fifty Key Thinkers on Language and Linguistics (, Routledge), and Formalism and Functionalism in Linguistics: The Engineer and the Collector (, Routledge). She serves on the editorial boards of several journals, and as the reviews editor for Second Language Research and for Language and History. Anastasios Tsangalidis is Professor of Syntax and Semantics at the School of English, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. His main research interests are in the area of syntactic and semantic description and the relevance of grammar to language teaching, focusing on the description of the verb in English and Modern Greek—and especially the interaction of tense, aspect, mood, and modality. Most recently he has co-edited (with Agnès Celle) a special issue of the Review of Cognitive Linguistics on The Linguistic Expression of Mirativity. Sean Wallis is Principal Research Fellow and Deputy Director of the Survey of English Usage at University College London. His publications include Exploring Natural Language (, with G. Nelson and Bas Aarts, John Benjamins), The English Verb Phrase (, edited with J. Close, G. Leech, and Bas Aarts, CUP), as well as book chapters and articles in journals across a range of topics from artificial intelligence and computing to statistics and corpus research methodology. He runs a blog on statistics in corpus linguistics, corp.ling.stats (http://corplingstats.wordpress.com). Anja Wanner is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of WisconsinMadison, where she teaches syntax and grammar in use and directs the ‘Grammar

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Badgers’ outreach project. Trained as a generative linguist, she became interested in syntactic variation and genre after studying the representation of implicit agents and changing attitudes towards the use of the passive voice in scientific writing. Additionally, she has published on the relationship between verb meaning and syntactic behaviour, the role of prescriptive grammar in language change, and the grammar of persons diagnosed with Alzheimer’s Disease. Debra Ziegeler attained her PhD from Monash University, Melbourne, in : Aspects of the Grammaticalisation of Hypothetical Modality, published in  as Hypothetical Modality: Grammaticalisation in an L Dialect (John Benjamins, SILC series). A second study, Interfaces with English Aspect (, John Benjamins, SILC series), looked at the relationship between modality and aspect in English. In other publications, she has focused on the semantics of modality associated with proximative meaning (in Journal of Pragmatics , , Journal of Historical Pragmatics ) as well as the diachronic grammaticalization of the semi-modals, e.g. be supposed to, be able to, and have to (e.g. Journal of Historical Pragmatics , ).

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 ,  ,   

 I

.................................................................................................................................. T volume aims to provide an authoritative, critical survey of current research and knowledge in the field of English grammar, where ‘grammar’ is used in the sense which encompasses morphology (the principles of word formation) and syntax (the system for combining words into phrases, clauses, and sentences). This handbook is not, however, intended to be a grammar of English. While it includes descriptive coverage of core topics in English grammar, it differs from a typical grammar in several ways, and casts its net much wider. First, it devotes considerable attention to rival analyses of particular areas of grammar, and the evidence and arguments for these analyses. Second, it addresses foundational areas of research methodology and different theoretical approaches to grammar, enabling readers to take a more informed and critical approach to grammatical descriptions and current research. Third, it covers important areas of extension beyond ‘core’ grammar: the relationship of grammar to other areas of the language (lexis, phonology, meaning, and discourse); and grammatical variation over time, across genres, and among regional dialects and World Englishes. We discuss the rationale for our approach in more detail in the next section.

 R

.................................................................................................................................. Ever since William Bullokar’s Pamphlet for Grammar was published in , countless grammars have been produced, with eighteenth-century authors being particularly productive (Linn ). Each of these grammars is in many ways unique. Thus while Bullokar (: ) opined that English did not have much grammar (‘As English hath few and short rules for declining of words, so it hath few rules for joining of words in

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sentence or in construction’; cited in Michael : ), other grammarians struggled with the question of how many word classes to recognize. This led to accounts in which there were only two or three word classes, and others in which there were many, such that by  there were fifty-six different systems of word classes (Michael ). What we find, then, from early times, is that grammars present very particular, often idiosyncratic, analytical views of English. This situation has continued right up to the present. One needs only to compare the grammars of Jespersen (–), Quirk et al. (), McCawley (), and Huddleston and Pullum (), to name but four, to see how the syntax of the same language can be analysed in very different ways. For example, in Jespersen we find very distinctive terminology and a unique analytical framework, many elements of which were later adopted by theoretical linguists. We also find novel analyses in Quirk et al. (, ), and this framework is perhaps the most influential in the field of language teaching. McCawley’s grammar is different again: here it is obvious that the author was a Generative Semanticist, which resulted in analyses that are often surprising, idiosyncratic, and highly original. Finally, Huddleston and Pullum, like Quirk et al., build on the tradition, but often base their analyses on recent theoretical work in linguistics, especially Chomskyan grammar and phrase structure grammar. Their work is characterized by numerous new analyses in many areas of grammar, such as the treatment of conjunctions and prepositions. Anyone who reads or consults these grammars (and others) could be forgiven for sometimes feeling somewhat bewildered by the different analyses that can be found in the literature for one and the same phenomenon. As an example, consider the structure of English noun phrases. An ostensibly simple NP like the cats receives quite different analyses in terms of which element is the head. Traditional grammars regard the noun as the head, whereas modern generative work assumes that the determiner is the head (resulting in a DP, rather than an NP). As another example, the treatment of auxiliary verbs in the two most widely used grammars of English, namely Quirk et al. () and Huddleston and Pullum (), is radically different. The former regard auxiliaries as ‘helping verbs’ which are dependents of a lexical verb (the so-called dependent-auxiliary analysis), whereas the latter, influenced by early generative work (e.g. Ross , Pullum and Wilson ), regard auxiliaries as ‘catenative verbs’ with their own complement-taking properties (the so-called catenative-auxiliary analysis). Analytical differences of this kind are quite widespread in these two grammars, despite the fact that they are rather close to each other in conceptual outlook. Differences in approach and analysis are amplified when two different (theoretical) frameworks are involved, for instance Generative Grammar and Cognitive Grammar. The former takes structure as primary (‘autonomous syntax’), whereas the latter takes meaning to be fundamental. Recent work in the various versions of Construction Grammar has resulted in further developments in English grammar. In this handbook we have asked authors to show how approaches to the same set of data depend on the theoretical framework an analyst chooses to deploy. We believe that this book will help readers to come to grips with different treatments of the co