The Oxford Handbook of African Languages 9780199609895, 0199609896

Table of contents :
Cover
The Oxford Handbook of AFRICAN LANGUAGES
Copyright
Contents
Acknowledgments
List of Maps, Figures, and Tables
List of Abbreviations
List of Contributors
Part I: INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Part I: Introduction
1.2 Part II: Domains of grammar
1.3 Part III: Language comparison
1.4 Part IV: Language phyla and families
1.5 Part V: Language structure: case studies
1.6 Part VI: Languages, cognition, and culture
1.7 Part VII: Language and society
1.8 Part VIII: Language and history
1.9 Part IX: Language and orature
Part II: DOMAINS OF GRAMMAR
Chapter 2: Phonology and phonetics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Autosegmental phonology
2.3 Segmental and prosodic inventories
2.4 Vowel harmony
2.5 V-V and C-C clusters
2.6 syllabification
2.7 Reduplication
2.8 Phonological phrasing
2.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Tone
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Levels and contours: the primitives of tone
3.2.1 Levels
3.2.2 Contours
3.3 Tone features
3.4 Downstep and upstep
3.5 What tones do that is special
3.5.1 Local versus long-distance assimilation and shift
3.5.2 Melodies
3.5.3 Segmental influences
3.6 Summary
References
Chapter 4: Morphology
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Morphological typology of african languages
4.2.1 Isolating languages
4.2.2 Agglutinating languages
4.2.3 Fusional languages
4.3 Salient concepts in african morphology
4.3.1 Derivation
4.3.1.1 Inter-word class derivation
4.3.2.2 Intra-word class derivation
4.3.2 Compounding
4.3.3 Inflection
4.3.4 Reduplication
4.3.5 Morphological classes
4.4 Historical morphology
References
Chapter 5: Syntax
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The sentence: basic constituent order
5.3 The noun phrase
5.4 Pronouns
5.5 Adpositions
5.6 Adjectives and adverbs
5.7 Relative clauses
5.8 Multiclausal constructions, serial verbs and auxiliaries
5.9 Topic and focus
5.10 Question formation
5.11 Passive and raising
5.12 Conclusion
References
Part III: LANGUAGE COMPARISON
Chapter 6: African language types
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Previous studies in african comparative typology: a selective foray
6.3 Salient typological features
6.3.1 Phonological characteristics
6.3.2 Morphosyntactic characteristics
6.3.2.1 Noun class systems
6.3.2.2 Case marking
6.3.2.3 Verbal extensions
6.3.2.4 Serial verb constructions
6.4 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 7: Dialectology and linguistic geography
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Dialectology
7.2.1 Introduction to methods in dialectometry
7.2.2 Dialectometry analysis and African languages: the case of Berber lexis
7.2.2.1 The linguistic atlas of the Rif as a data source
7.2.2.2 Data matrix of Rif-Berber lexis
7.2.2.3 Distance matrix of Rif-Berber lexis
7.2.2.3.1 Binary distance (Bin)
7.2.2.3.2 "Gewichteter identitatswert" distance (GIW)
7.2.2.3.3 Levenshtein distance (Lv)
7.2.2.4 Numerical dialectometry analyses of Rif-Berber lexis
7.2.2.5 Visualization of dialectometry analyses of Rif-Berber lexis
7.2.3 Contrastive results
7.3 Linguistic geography
7.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Reflections on the history of african language classification
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of classification
8.3 Language data, large scale collections, and first attempts at classification
8.4 The age of enlightenment romanticism, and the rise of comparative linguistics
8.5 The nineteenth century
8.6 The twentieth century
References
Part IV: LANGUAGE PHYLA AND FAMILIES
Chapter 9: Niger-congo, with a special focus on benue-congo
9.1 What tdo we mean by niger-congo?
9.2 Language relationships within niger-congo languages
9.2.1 The history of Niger-Congo classification
9.2.2 Subgrouping within Niger-Congo
9.2.3 What proves relationships in Niger-Congo?
9.3 Benue-congo: niger-congo's largest subgroup
9.3.1 Delineating Benue-Congo and Bantu
9.3.2 Benue-Congo subgroups
9.4 Niger-congo language typology
9.4.1 The areality of major Niger-Congo features
9.4.2 The typology of Benue-Congo languages
9.5 Advancing the comparative picture
References
Chapter 10: Atlantic
10.1 Overview
10.2 Atlantic as a geographically and typologically motivated grouping
10.3 Chances for the comparative method?
10.4 A different basis for atlantic?
10.5 Current research and a way foreward
Quoted web pages
References
Chapter 11: Mande
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Historical sources and early scholarship
11.3 External and internal classification
11.4 Linguistic reconstruction
11.5 Language contact and typology
References
Chapter 12: KWA
References
Chapter 13: Gur
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Linguistic approaches
13.3 Classification
13.4 Some limguistic characteristics
13.4.1 Phonemes, tones, syllables
13.4.2 Word order
13.4.3 Noun phrase
13.4.4 Verb phrase
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 14: Bantu and bantoid
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Early studies of bantu languages, the recondtruction of proto-bantu, and twentieth-century developments
14.3 Internal classifications
14.4 Bantu dispersals
14.5 Bantu and bantoid
14.6 Non-genetic classifications
References
Chapter 15: Adamawa
15.1 Adamawa as alinguistic unit
15.2 Adamawa languages and groups
15.3 Classification
15.4 Linguistic characteristics
15.4.1 Verb
15.4.2 Word order
15.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 16: Ubangi
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Language documentation and classification
16.3 Grammatical features
References
Chapter 17: Kpodofanian
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Kodofanian languages: A BRIEF OVERVIEW
17.3 Kodofanian studies
17.3.1 The challenge of studying Kordofanian languages
17.3.2 The main types of approaches
17.3.2.1 First testimonies: before World War I
17.3.2.2 The missionaries’ linguistic work
17.3.2.3 The surveys
17.3.2.4 The study of individual languages
17.4 Some salient features of kordofanian languages
17.4.1 Phonology
17.4.2 Morphology
17.4.2.1 Noun classes
17.4.2.2 Verb extensions
17.4.3 Lexicon
17.4.3.1 Heibanian and Katloid
17.4.3.2 Heibanian and Rashadian
17.4.3.3 Heibanian and Talodian
17.4.3.4 Heibanian and Lafofa
17.4.3.5 Other comparisons between Kordofanian families:Katloid Rashadian and Talodian
17.4.3.6 Proto-Kordofanian roots
17.5 Conclusion and prospects
17.6 Appendices: worldlists of cognates between various kordofanian families
17.6.1 Appendix 1: Plausible lexical cognates between Heibanian and Katloid
17.6.2 Appendix 2: Plausible lexical cognates between Rashadian and Heibanian
17.6.3 Appendix 3: Plausible lexical cognates between Talodian and Heibanian
17.6.4 Appendix 4: Plausible lexical cognates between Lafofa and Heibanian
17.6.5 Appendix 5: Plausible lexical cognates between Katloid, Rashadian and Talodian
Acknowledgments
List of abbreviations
Abbreviated references
References
Chapter 18: Afro-asiatic overview
References
Chapter 19: Egyptian
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Language history
19.3 Phonology
19.4 Morphosyntax
19.5 Lexicon
References
Chapter 20: Berber
Acknoledgment
References
Chapter 21: East Cushitic
21.1 Background
21.2 EC as cushitic par excellence?
21.3 The internal organization of EC
21.4 HEC
21.5 Disentangling LEC
21.6 Southern LEC: omo-tana and oromoid vs. dully and yaaku
References
Chapter 22: North cushitic
22.1 Introduction
22.2 The history of the classicication of beja
22.3 Lexicostatistic studies
22.4 Etymology and the comparative method
22.5 The issues of language contact
22.5.1 Contact with Arabic
22.5.2 Contact with NS
22.6 Dialectology and the internal classification of Beja
References
Chapter 23: Central cushitic
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Salient phonological features
23.2.1 Presence of /ŋ/
23.2.2 Presence of /z/
23.2.3 Presence of /ɣ/
23.2.4 Presence of central vowels
23.2.5 Lack of ejectives
23.2.6 Lack of implosives
23.2.7 Lack of pharyngeals
23.2.8 Lack of /ɲ/
23.2.9 Lack of vowel length
23.2.10 Lack of consonant gemination
23.3 Salient Morphological features
23.3.1 Personal pronouns
23.3.2 The unmarked nominative/marked accusative case
23.3.3 Agreeing genitives
23.4 Constituent order
23.5 Lexical similarity
23.6 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 24: South Cushitic
24.1 Geographical didtribution and speakers
24.2 Sources
24.3 External and internal classification
24.4 Internal Classification
24.4.1 Typological profile of PSC
24.4.2 Internal development of the modern WRlanguages from PSC
24.5 The history of SC as a series of language contacts
References
Chapter 25 Omotic
25.1 Introduction
25.2 History of classification
25.2.1 Pre-“Omotic” endeavors
25.2.2 The establishment of “Omotic”
25.2.3 Post-“Omotic” debates
25.3 Outlook
References
Chapter 26: Chadic
26.1 Introduction
26.2 A survey of chadic languages
26.2.1 List and classification of languages
26.2.2 Geographic situation
26.2.3 Number of speakers
26.3 The typical chadic language
26.3.1 Phonology
26.3.2 Morphology
26.3.3 Sentence structure and function marking
26.4 Chadic and afro-asiatic
26.5 The chadic family and linguistic areas
26.5.1 Africa as a linguistic area
26.5.2 The Macro-Sudan belt
26.2 Conclusion
References
Chapter 27: Ethio-semitic
References
Chapter 28: Nilo-saharan and its limits
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Some diagnostic features
28.2.1 The n/k alternation
28.2.2 The causative
28.2.3 The reflexive (middle voice) marker
28.2.4 Pronominal reference
28.2.5 A stable preposition
28.2.6 Postpositions and case marking in Northeastern NS
28.2.7 Some further grammatical cognates
28.3 Some Final Observations
References
Chapter 29: Saharan
29.1 Introduction
29.2 South overview of research history
29.3 Distribution of the saharan languages
29.4 Common saharan genetic features
29.4.1 Common Saharan person elements
29.5 Common saharan verb structure
29.5.1 Plurality
29.5.2 Common features shared by the Saharan languages
29.6 Summary
References
Chapter 30: Eastern sudanic
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Phonological variation
30.3 Morphosyntactic variation
30.3.1 Number marking on nouns
30.3.2 Constituent order within the noun phrase
30.3.3 Pronominal reference
30.3.4 Constituent order and head marking versus dependent marking at the clausal level
References
Chapter 31: Central sudanic
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Inventory
31.3 Lexical evidence
31.4 Sound correspondences
31.5 Morphology
31.6 World order
31.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 32: Khoisan
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Surviving languages
32.3 Field studies: dictionaries and grammars
32.4 Phonology and instrumental studies
32.5 Historical studies and classification
32.6 Digitization
32.7 Sociolinguistics
32.8 The current situation
References
Chapter 33: Linguistic isolates
References
Part V: LANGUAGE STRUCTURES: CASE STUDIES
Chapter 34: Bom-Kim
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Phonology
34.3 Word categories and morphology
34.3.1 Nouns, nominal morphology, and pronouns
34.3.2 Verbs and inflectional morphology
34.3.3 Negation
34.3.4 Verb extensions
34.3.5 Adpositions
34.3.6 Adjectives and other minor categories
34.4 Syntax
34.4.1 Word order, the verb phrase: SVO ~ S–AUX–OP–V
34.4.2 Relativization and focus
34.4.3 Questions
34.4.4 Subordinate clauses
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 35: Dan
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Phonology
35.3 Morphology
35.3.1 Nouns
35.3.1.1 Locative nouns
35.3.1.2 Relational and free nouns
35.3.1.3 Plural marking
35.3.2 Adjectives
35.3.3 Numerals
35.3.4 Pronominal predicative markers (PPM)
35.3.5 Noun phrase structure
35.3.5.1 Genitive-like noun phrases
35.3.5.2 Attributive noun phrases
35.3.5.3 Coordinative noun phrases
35.3.6 Pronouns
35.3.6.1 Personal pronouns
35.3.6.2 Interrogative pronouns
35.3.6.3 Demonstrative pronouns and adverbs
35.3.7 Verbs
35.3.7.1 Lability
35.3.7.2 TAM and polarity
35.4 Syntax
35.4.1 Simple sentences
35.4.2 Complex sentences
References
Chapter 36: Biali
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Phonology
36.2.1 Vowels
36.2.2 Consonants
36.3 The noun phrase
36.3.1 Noun classes
36.3.2 Nominal derivation
36.3.2.1 Nouns from verbs
36.3.2.2 Nouns from nouns
36.3.2.3 Derivation by noun reduplication
36.3.3 Nominal compounding
36.3.4 Noun phrases
36.3.5 Nominal qualifiers
36.3.6 Pronouns
36.3.6.1 Allocutive pronouns
36.3.6.2 Substitutive pronouns
36.3.6.3 Interrogative pronouns
36.3.7 Numerals
36.4 The verb
36.4.1 Verbal derivation
36.4.2 Aspect
36.4.2.1 Formal markers
36.4.2.2 Tone markers
36.4.3 Tense
36.4.4 Mood
36.4.5 Negation
36.4.6 Focalization
36.4.7 Adverbs
References
Chapter 37: Yukuben
37.1 Demographic and socio-geolinguistic background
37.2 Phonology
37.2.1 Syllable structure
37.2.2 Vowels
37.2.3 Vowel sequences—the distribution and phonotactics of vowels
37.2.4 Consonants
37.2.5 Phonological alternations and processes
37.3 Morphology
37.3.1 Noun
37.3.1.1 Inflection
37.3.1.2 Derivation and compounding
37.3.2 Adjectivals and associatives
37.3.3 Numerals
37.3.4 Pronouns
37.3.4.1 Personal
37.3.4.2 Possessive
37.3.4.3 Relating concord
37.3.4.4 Interrogative
37.3.5 Demonstrative
37.3.6 Verb
37.3.6.1 Verb phrase
37.3.6.2 Tense, aspect, mood
37.3.7 Adverbials
37.4 Syntax
References
Chapter 38: Bende
38.1 General information
38.2 Phonology
38.2.1 Sounds and phonemes
38.2.2 Tones
38.2.3 Glide, vowel coalescence, and nasalization
38.3 Morphology
38.3.1 Nominal morphology
38.3.1.1 Nouns
38.3.1.2 Adjectives
38.3.1.3 Numerals
38.3.2 Verbal morphology
38.4 Syntax
38.4.1 Word order
38.4.2 Major sentence types
38.4.2.1 Simple sentences
38.4.2.2 Complex sentences
References
Chapter 39: Waja
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Phonology
39.2.1 Consonants
39.2.2 Vowels
39.2.3 Tone
39.3 Morphosyntax
39.3.1 Noun and noun phrase
39.3.2 Concord
39.3.3 Adjectives
39.3.4 Personal pronouns
39.3.5 Verb and verb phrase
39.3.5.1 The verb forms
39.3.5.2 Motion and posture verbs with copy pronouns
39.3.5.3 Verb extensions
39.3.5.4 The tense–aspect–mood system (TAM)
39.3.5.5 Use of the definite verb form
39.3.5.6 Use of the indefinite verb form
39.3.5.7 Use of the verbal noun
39.3.5.8 Past marker na
39.3.5.9 Non-verbal predication
39.3.5.10 Negation
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 40: Zande
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Phonology
40.3 Word formation
40.4 The noun phrase
40.5 The verb phrase
40.6 Number and numerals
40.7 Gender
40.7 Syntax
40.8.1 Floating determiners
40.8.2 Secondary predicates
40.8.3 Complementizers
40.8.4 Negation
40.8.5 Grammar of space
References
Chapter 41: Zenaga
41.1 Introduction
41.2 Phonology
41.2.1 Vowels
41.2.2 Consonants
41.2.2.1 Voicing opposition
41.2.2.2 Emphasis opposition
41.2.2.3 Length opposition
41.2.3 Syllable structure
41.3 Morphology
41.3.1 Nouns
41.3.1.1 Inflection
41.3.1.2 Derivation
41.3.1.2.1 Deverbal nouns
41.3.1.2.2 Diminutives
41.3.2 Nominal determiners
41.3.3 Adjectives
41.3.4 Numerals
41.3.5 Pronouns
41.3.5.1 Personal
41.3.5.1.1 Independent
41.3.5.1.2 Suffixal
41.3.5.2 Possessive
41.3.5.3 Demonstrative
41.3.6 Relative
41.3.7 Interrogative
41.3.8 Verbs
41.3.8.1 Inflection
41.3.8.2 Derivation
41.3.8.3 Tense, aspect, mood
41.3.9 Adverbials
41.4 Syntax
41.4.1 Word (constituent) order
41.4.2 Major sentence types
41.4.2.1 Simple sentences
41.4.2.2 Complex sentences
41.4.2.2.1 Coordination
41.4.2.2.2 Subordination
41.4.2.3 Negation
41.4.2.4 Questions
41.4.2.5 Other important types
41.4.3 Noun phrase structure
41.4.4 Clause structure
References
Chapter 42: Sidaama
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Phonology
42.2.1 Segmentals
42.2.2 Morphophonemic rules
42.2.3 Suprasegmentals
42.2.3.1 Syllables
42.2.3.2 Pitch accent
42.2.3.3 Intonation
42.3 Parts of speech
42.3.1 Open classes
42.3.1.1 Nouns
42.3.1.2 Verbs
42.3.1.3 Adjectives
42.3.1.4 Adverbs
42.3.2 Closed classes
42.4 Morphology
42.4.1 Affixes and reduplication
42.4.2 Morphological case-marking system
42.4.3 Suffix orders
42.5 Syntax
42.5.1 Grammatical relations
42.5.2 Word order
42.5.3 External possessor constructions
References
Chapter 43: Kolisi
43.1 bIntroduction
43.2 Phonology
43.2.1 Vowels
43.2.2 Consonants
43.2.3 Syllable structure
43.2.4 Tone
43.3 Morphology
43.3.1 Pronouns
43.3.1.1 Personal pronouns
43.3.1.2 Demonstrative pronouns
43.3.1.3 Reflexive pronouns
43.3.2 Nouns
43.3.3 Verbs
43.3.3.1 Negation
43.3.3.2 Interrogation
43.3.3.3 Passive
43.3.3.4 Causative
43.3.3.5 Imperative
43.3.3.6 Converb
43.3.3.7 Jussive
43.3.4 Adjectives
43.3.5 Adverbs
43.3.6 Derived nominals
43.3.7 Conjunctions
43.4 Syntax
43.4.1 Word order
43.4.2 Verb phrase
43.4.3 Noun phrase
43.4.4 Subordination
43.5 Finals remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 44: Iraqw
44.1 The language and its speakers
44.2 Phonology
44.2.1 Vowels
44.2.2 Consonants
44.2.3 Tone
44.2.4 Shape of syllables, roots, and words
44.3 Nominal morphology
44.3.1 Gender of nouns
44.3.2 Number of nouns
44.3.3 Number and gender agreement in adjectives
44.3.4 Numerals
44.3.5 Pronouns
44.3.5.1 Indefinite pronouns and suffixes
44.3.5.2 Interrogative pronouns and other question words
44.3.6 Noun phrase structure, antigenitive (construct) case
44.4 Verbal morphology
44.4.1 Verbal inflection
44.4.2 The verbs ‘to be’ or so-called “selectors”
44.4.3 Verbal derivation
44.4.4 Adverbials
44.4.4.1 Verbal adverbs
44.4.4.2 Case clitics
44.4.4.3 Sentential adverbs and adverbials
44.4.4.4 Interjections
44.4.4.5 Ideophones
44.5 Syntax
44.5.1 Constituent order and basic syntactic structures of simple sentences
44.5.2 Negative clauses and questions
44.5.3 Complex sentences
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 45: Wandala
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Phonology
45.3 Lexical Categories
45.4 Morphology
45.5 the Structure of the noun phrase
45.8 Semantic relations within the clause
45.9 Number
45.10 Locative predication
45.11 Locative ectensions
45.12 Adjuncts
45.13 Verbless predication
45.14 Aspect
45.15 Tense
45.6 Mood
45.17 Negation
45.18 Questions
45.19 Comment clause
45.20 Topicalization
45.21 Focus
45.22 Reference system
45.23 Paratactic constructions
45.24 Complementation
45.25 Conditional and Temporal clauses
45.26 Adjunct clauses
45.27 The relative clause
References
Chapter 46: Kumam
46.1 Introduction
46.2 Phonology
46.2.1 Consonants
46.2.2 Vowels
46.2.3 Syllable canon
46.3 Tone
46.3.1 Inventory of tones
46.3.2 Tone sandhi
46.3.3 Downstep and double downstep
46.3.4 Syntactic functions of tone
46.4 Major categories
46.4.1 Verbs
46.4.2 Nouns
46.4.3 Adjectives
46.4.4 Prepositions
46.4.5 Pronouns
46.4.6 Demonstratives
46.4.7 Interrogative pronouns
46.4.8 Numerals
46.5 Syntax
46.5.1 Basic order in sentences
46.5.2 Intransitive, transitive, and middle sentences
46.5.3 Predicate nominal and predicate adjectival constructions
46.5.4 Existence, location, and possession
46.5.5 Topicalization
46.5.6 Complex sentences
46.6 Negation
46.7 Questions
References
Chapter 47: Baale
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Phonology and morphological alternations
47.3 Morphology and morphosyntax
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 48: Sonoghay languages
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Phonology
48.3 Derivation
48.4 Nominals
48.5 Arguments
48.6 Predicates
48.7 Information structure
48.8 Lexicon
References
Chapter 49: Cara
49.1 Introduction
49.2 Phonology
49.2.1 Vowels
49.2.2 Consonants
49.2.3 Tones
49.3 Morphology
49.3.1 Nominals
49.3.1.1 Gender and number
49.3.1.2 Subject–object relation
49.3.1.3 Associative particle dì
49.3.2 Adjectives
49.3.3 Numerals
49.3.4 Pronominal forms
49.3.4.1 Personal pronouns
49.3.4.2 Demonstratives
49.3.4.3 Possessives
49.3.4.4 Interrogatives
49.3.5 Verbals
49.3.5.1 Structure of finite verbs
49.3.5.2 Verbal extensions
49.3.5.3 Juncture
49.3.5.4 Passive
49.3.5.5 Tense and aspect
49.3.5.6 Mood/modality
49.3.5.7 Negation
49.4 Syntax
49.4.1 Word order
49.4.2 Simple sentences
49.4.2.1 Declaratives
49.4.2.2 Questions
49.4.3 Complex sentences
49.4.3.1 Coordination and subordination
49.4.3.2 Relative clauses
References
Chapter 50: ǁX’egwi
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Phonology
50.2.1 Vowels
50.2.2 Consonants
50.2.3 Tone
50.3 Morphology
50.3.1 Noun
50.3.2 Adjectives
50.3.3 Numerals
50.3.4 Pronouns
50.3.4.1 Personal pronouns
50.3.4.2 Demonstrative pronouns
50.3.4.3 Interrogative pronouns
50.3.5 Verb
50.3.6 Adverbials
50.4 Syntax
References
Chapter 51: Sandawe
50.1 Introduction
51.2 Phonology
51.2.1 VowelsVowels
51.2.2 Consonants
51.2.3 Tone
51.3 Morphology
51.3.1 Noun
51.3.1.1 Inflection
51.3.1.2 Derivation
51.3.2 Adjectives and numerals
51.3.3 Pronouns
51.3.4 Verb
51.3.4.1 Inflection
51.3.4.2 Derivation
51.3.4.3 Tense, aspect, mood
51.3.5 Adverbials
51.4 Syntax
51.4.1 Constituent order
51.4.2 Major sentence types
51.4.2.1 Complex sentences
51.4.2.2 Questions
52.4.2.3 Copular constructions
References
Part VI: LANGUAGE, COGNITION, AND CULTURE
Chapter 52: Ideophones
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Methodological approaches: from purely formal to more discourse-prafmatic definitions
52.3 Typological definition
References
Chapter 53: Color term systems: Genetic vs. areal distribution in sub-Saharan Africa
53.1 Introduction
53.2 Color term cocepts and systems
53.3 Data and methodology of the seventh african languages study
53.4 Genetic and areal distribution of systems
References
Chapter 54: Experiencer constructions
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Experiencer constructions, definition, elements
54.2.1 Wolof (Niger-Congo, Atlantic)
54.2.2 South Cushitic: Iraqw, Alagwa, Burunge
54.2.3 Amharic (Afro-Asiatic, South Semitic)
54.2.4 Likpe (Niger-Congo, Kwa)
54.2.5 Wolaitta (Afro-Asiatic, Omotic)
54.2.6 Hausa (Afro-Asiatic, Chadic)
54.3 Summary
Reeferences
Chaptrer 55: Language and ethnobotany
55.1 Introduction
55.2 Folk taxonomy in selected bantu languages
55.2.1 Unique beginner
55.2.2 Life forms
55.2.3 Common names
55.2.3.1 Generics/generic taxa
55.2.3.2 Specifics/specific (subgeneric) taxa
55.3 Folk taxonomy and bantu noun classes
55.3.1 The unique beginner and life forms
55.3.2 Generics and specifics/subgeneric taxa
55.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 56: Distinctive languages
56.1 Introduction
56.2 Functions of distinctive languages
56.3 Categorization
56.3.1 General notes
56.3.2 Subcategories of distinctive languages
56.3.2.1 Guild languages
56.3.2.2 Ritual languages
56.3.2.3 Reverence languages
56.3.2.4 Anti-languages
56.3.2.5 Urban youth languages
56.3.3 Overview
56.4 Linguistic strategies
56.4.1 General notes
56.4.2 Phonological strategies
56.4.2.1 Affixation
56.4.2.2 Permutation
56.4.2.3 Substitution of phonemes
56.4.2.4 Truncation
56.4.2.5 Word-forming pattern
56.4.3 Lexical-semantic strategies
56.4.3.1 Paraphrase
56.4.3.2 Derivation and composition
56.4.3.3 Synonymy
56.4.3.4 Semantic shift
56.4.4 Overview
56.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 57: Conversation Analysis
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Methodological preliminaries
57.3 Organization of turm-taking
57.4 Sequence organization
57.5 Future perspectives
References
Chapter 58: Cognition and language
58.1 Introduction
58.2 Review: the development ofcognitive linguistics in relation to african languages
58.2.1 On the relation between language and cognition
58.2.1.1 Nativism vs. cognitivist assumptions of embodimentand linguistic categories
58.2.1.2 Lexical categorization
58.2.1.3 Conceptual metaphor
58.2.2 Insight contributed through the study of Africanlanguages: grammaticalization and spatial expressions
58.2.2.1 Grammaticalization
58.2.2.2 Spatial orientation
58.3 Current developments: culture as a relevant variable
58.3.1 Philology and historical semantics: the benefitfrom cognitive linguistic insight
58.3.2 Temporality
58.4 Areas of convergent conceptual patterns and the prospect of cognitive research on african languages
References
Part VII: LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY
Chapter 59: Indigenous african scripts
59.1 Introduction
59.2 Tifinagh
59.3 West african syllabaries
59.3.1 The Vai syllabary *
59.3.2 The Mende syllabary
59.3.3 The Loma syllabary
59.3.4 The Kpelle syllabary
59.3.5 The Bambara syllabary
59.4 West african alphabets
59.4.1 Bassa Vah alphabet
59.4.2 Nko script
59.4.3 Wolof Garay script
59.4.4 Hausa scripts
59.4.5 Adlam alphabet
59.5 Script of cameroon
59.5.1 Bamum script *
59.5.2 Bagam script
59.6 Script of somalia and ethiopia
59.6.1 Somali alphabets
59.6.2 Oromo script
59.7 Script of northeastern Africa
59.7.1 Beria script *
59.7.2 Nubian scripts
59.8 Script of religious communities
59.8.1 Medefaidrin (Obεri Ɔkaimε) script
59.8.2 Mandombe script
59.8.3 Yoruba “holy” writing
59.9 Individual writing systems
59.9.1 Bété script *
59.9.2 Nwagu Aneke Igbo syllabary
59.9.3 Aka Umuagbara script
59.9.4 Mwangwego script *
59.9.5Other alphabetic scripts
59.10 Scripts of the diaspora
References
Chapter 60: Language policy and politics
60.1 Introduction
60.2 Public recognition
60.2.1 Official multilingualism
60.2.2 Language rationalization
60.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 61: Language and education
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Literature
61.3 African or european LOIs?
61.3.1 Terminology
61.3.2 African experiences
61.4 Which african LOIs?
61.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 62: Language endangerment, documentation, and revitalization
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Types of Endangerment in africa
62.2.1 How languages become endangered
62.3 Documentation
62.4 Reviatlization
62.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 63: Language birth: Youth/town language
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Examples of youth/town languages from african cities
63.2.1 Nouchi (Ivory Coast)
63.2.2 Town Bemba (Zambia)
63.2.3 Tsotsitaal (South Africa)
63.2.4 Camfranglais (Cameroon)
63.2.5 Sheng (Kenya)
63.3 Discussion
63.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 64: Language contact
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Early work on language contact in Africa
64.3 Africa as a contact zone: recent findings
64.4 Theoretical framework of language contact
64.5 Language contact in souroudougou
64.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 65: Mixed languages: The case of Ma’á/Mbugu
65.1 Background
65.2 Normal mbugu and inner mbugu or ma'A
65.3 Patterns of inner mbugu usage
65.4 Historical scenario
65.5 Language shift or not
65.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 66: African languages in the diaspora
66.1 Introduction
66.2 The African diaspora
66.3 Linguistic practices and african languages in the diaspora
66.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 67: Pidgin and creole languages
67.1 Introduction
67.2 Definitions and basic concepts
67.3 Distribution, classification, and major characteristics
67.3.1 Exoglossic language-based languages and/or varieties
67.3.1.1 Portuguese-based PC
67.3.1.2 French-based PC
67.3.1.3 English-based PC
67.3.1.4 Dutch- or Afrikaans-based PC
67.3.2 Arabic-based PC
67.3.3 Endoglossic language-based languages and/or varieties
67.3.3.1 Bantu-based PC
67.3.3.2 Other African language-based PC
References
For further reading
Chapter 68: Sign languages
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Emergence and creation
68.3 Sign languages outside the context of deaf education
68.4 Language change and contact
68.5 Multimodal communication
68.6 Language policies and applied benefits
68.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 69: Arabic in africa
69.1 Native arabic: the dialects
69.1.1 Population distribution and basic history
69.1.2 The dialects
69.1.2.1 The Maghreb
69.1.2.2 Sudanic Arabic
69.1.2.3 Egyptian Arabic
69.1.2.4 Eastern Libya
69.1.3 Contact
69.1.3.1 Coptic, Berber
69.1.3.2 Other African languages
69.1.3.3 Code-switching
69.1.3.4 Pidgin and Creole Arabic
69.1.4 Sociolinguistics
69.2 Alassical and standard arabic
69.2.1 The domain of Classical Arabic
69.2.2 Writing
69.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 70: Orthography standardization
70.1 Introduction
70.2 Language vitality in africa
70.3 Design challenges specific to Africa
70.4 Motivations for orthography standardization
70.4.1 Endangered languages
70.4.2 Linguistic rights and cultural heritage
70.4.3 Universal quality primary education
70.4.4 Bible translation
70.5 Models for orthography standardization
70.5.1 Laissez-faire model
70.5.2 Top-down model
70.5.3 Community-based model
70.6 Orthography standardization practices
70.6.1 Historical background
70.6.2 Intra-language standardization
70.6.3 Language family standardization
70.3.4 National harmonization
70.6.5 International harmonization
70.7 Case studies
70.7.1 Ik (Uganda)
70.7.2 Aja (Benin and Togo)
70.8 Conlcusion: Best practices
References
Chapter 71: Pragmatics and communication
71.1 The scope of pragmatics
71.2 A methodology for the study of african cultures and societies
71.3 Development pragmatics
71.4 Pragmatic operators
71.4.1 Pragmatic aspects of nominal classification
71.4.2 Focus and implicature
71.5 Historical and political dimensions of linguistic choice
71.5.1 The wider scope of pragmatics: dual staging
71.5.2 The interplay of language use and dual staging
71.5.3 Dual staging in literary expression and publicadvertisement
71.6 Face and politeness
71.6.1 Strategies for mitigating social power
71.6.2 Conventional vs. conversational implicatures of dualdirective repertories
71.6.3 Linguistic politeness as a factor of social cohesion
71.7 Address and greeting routines
71.7.1 Enhancing the social value of positive face
71.7.2 Strategic omission of politeness markers
71.7.3 Pragmatics as a module of language description
References
Chapter 72: African languages in information and communications techonology
72.1 Introduction
72.2 Bridging or increading the digital divide?
72.3 Technological dimensions and interface language
72.4 Internet content
72.5 Texting
72.6 Conclusion
References
Part VIII: LANGUAGE AND HISTORY
Chapter 73: Words, things, and meaning: Linguistics as a tool for historical reconstruction
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Words, things, concepts: tighter and looser bundles
73.3 New directions
73.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 74: Language and archaeology
74.1 Introduction
74.2 Stratigraphy
74.3 Seriation
74.4 Geograpghic distribution
74.5 Absolute dating and time-depth
74.6 Towards archaeo-linguistics?
Acknowledgments
References
Part IX: LANGUAGE AND ORATURE
Chapter 75: Narratives
75.1 Western perception of african narrative art
75.2 General features of oral literature
75.3 Specoific types of oral literature: genres
75.3.1 Documentary literature
75.3.2 Fictional narrations
75.3.2.1 Fables
75.3.2.2 Animal tales
75.3.2.3 Fairy tales
75.3.3 Borderline narrations between truth and fiction
75.3.3.1 Anecdotes
75.3.3.2 Legends
75.3.3.3 Epic narrations
75.4 Modern scholarly view on oral literature in africa
References
Chapter 76: Proverbs
76.1 Introduction
76.2 Historical heritage
76.3 Culture heritage
76.4 Oral tradition
76.5 Language
76.6 Literature
76.7 Orature
76.8 Proverbs
76.8.1 Origin, creation, collection, and spread of proverbs
76.8.2 Types of proverbs
76.8.2.1 Form of proverbs
76.8.2.1.1 Linguistic features
76.8.2.1.1.1 Phonetics and phonology
76.8.2.1.1.2 Onomatopoeia and ideophones
76.8.2.1.1.3 Homophones, homographs, and homonyms
76.8.2.1.1.4 Elision and contraction
76.8.2.1.1.5 Assonance
76.8.2.1.1.6 Morphology and systax/sentence structure
76.8.2.1.2 Literary style of proverbs
76.8.2.1.2.1 Paradixical proverbs
76.8.2.1.2.2 Metaphors
76.8.2.1.2.3 Rhythm and meter
76.8.2.1.2.4 Puns/parnomasia
76.8.2.1.2.5 Aphorisms
76.8.2.1.2.6 Parabolic proverbs
76.8.2.1.2.7 Antithetical/contradictory proverbs
76.8.2.1.2.8 Repetition
76.8.2.1.2.9 Rhyme
76.8.2.1.2.10 Alliteration
76.8.2.1.2.11 Republication
76.8.2.1.2.11 Parody
76.8.2.1.2.13 Simile in proverbs: "like" or "as" proverbs
76.8.2.1.2.14 Climax
76.8.2.1.3 Other (general) features
76.8.2.1.3.1 Numerical proverbs
76.8.2.1.3.2 Integral proverbs
76.8.2.1.3.3 Synthetic proverbs
76.8.2.1.3.4 Onomastic proverbs or personifcation
76.8.2.1.3.5 Perverbs
76.8.2.2 Content
76.8.2.2.1 Oracy vs. literacy
76.8.2.2.2 Historical proverbs
76.8.2.2.3 Culture heritage
76.8.2.2.4 Chatterboxes
76.8.2.2.5 Invitability of the communality of work
76.8.2.2.6 Marriage and familky
76.8.2.2.7 Economics/banking
76.8.2.2.8 Justice/jurisdiction/lawsuits
76.8.2.2.9 Education
76.8.2.2.10 Politics
76.8.2.2.11 Old age and respect for elderly people
76.8.2.2.12 Spiritual and religious proverbs
76.8.2.2.13 Popular proverbs
76.8.2.2.14 Immediate action/opportunity
76.8.2.2.15 Reciprocity
76.8.2.2.16 Prioritization
76.8.2.2.17 Roaming/ineptitide
76.8.2.2.18 Caution
76.8.2.2.19 Truth/honesty
76.9 Impact of proverbs
76.10 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter 77: Poetry
77.1 Introduction
77.2 Oral poetry
77.2.1 Praise poetry
77.2.2 Epic-heroic poetry
77.2.3 War and hunting poetry
77.2.4 Elegiac poetry
77.2.5 Religious poetry
77.2.6 Lyric poetry and songs
77.3 Written poetry and manuscript cultures
77.4 Poetry in latin script and new media
77.5 Poetry in the postcolony
References
Author Index
Language Index
Subject Index