The Oxford Guide to the Languages of the Central Andes (Oxford Guides to the World's Languages) 0198849923, 9780198849926

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the oxford guide to the

LANGUAGES OF THE CENTRAL ANDES

ox f or d g u ide s to t he w or l d ’s l a ng ua g e s

general editors Adam Ledgeway, University of Cambridge, and Martin Maiden, University of Oxford

advisory editors

Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, Central Queensland University Edith Aldridge, University of Washington Stephen R. Anderson, Yale University Bernard Comrie, University of California, Santa Barbara Jan Terje Faarlund, University of Oslo Alice Harris, University of Massachusetts, Amherst Bernd Heine, University of Cologne Paul Hopper, Carnegie-Mellon University

Geoffrey Khan, University of Cambridge Lutz Marten, SOAS, London Marianne Mithun, University of California, Santa Barbara Irina Nikolaeva, SOAS, London Chris Reintges, CNRS, Paris Masayoshi Shibatani, Rice University David Willis, University of Oxford

published The Oxford Guide to the Atlantic Languages of West Africa Edited by Friederike Lüpke The Oxford Guide to Australian Languages Edited by Claire Bowern The Oxford Guide to the Languages of the Central Andes Edited by Matthias Urban The Oxford Guide to the Malayo-Polynesian Languages of Southeast Asia Edited by Alexander Adelaar and Antoinette Schapper The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages Edited by Adam Ledgeway and Martin Maiden The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages Edited by Martine Robbeets and Alexander Savelyev The Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages Edited by Marianne Bakró-Nagy, Johanna Laakso, and Elena Skribnik

in preparation The Oxford Guide to the Bantu Languages Edited by Ellen Hurst, Nancy Kula, Lutz Marten, and Jochen Zeller The Oxford Guide to the Papuan Languages Edited by Nicholas Evans and Sebastian Fedden The Oxford Guide to the Slavonic Languages Edited by Jan Fellerer and Neil Bermel The Oxford Guide to the Tibeto-Burman Languages Edited by Kristine Hildebrandt, Yankee Modi, David Peterson, and Hiroyuki Suzuki

the oxford guide to the

Languages of the Central Andes edited by

Matthias Urban

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © editorial matter and organization Matthias Urban 2024 © the chapters their several authors 2024 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2024943239 ISBN 9780198849926 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198849926.001.0001 Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

This volume is dedicated to the memory of three pioneers of Central Andean linguistics: Peter Landerman (1940–2023), Pieter C. Muysken (1950–2021), and Gérald Taylor (1933–2020).

Short contents Detailed contents Series preface List of abbreviations The contributors

PART I: Background and context 1. Introduction: Central Andean linguistic diversity and the diversity of Central Andean linguistics Matthias Urban

xi xlii xliii xlvi

1 3

2. Physical geography and cultural trajectory of the Central Andes Peter Kaulicke

38

3. Historical linguistics, philology, and the development of Andean linguistics Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino

63

PART II: Language profiles

83

4. Huaylas (Ancash) Quechua Carlos Molina-Vital

85

5. Southern Yauyos Quechua Aviva Shimelman

139

6. Chachapoyas Quechua Aviva Shimelman and Jairo Valqui

167

7. Cuzco Quechua Raúl Bendezú-Araujo and Jorge Acurio-Palma

196

8. Aymara Matt Coler

219

9. Jaqaru Matt Coler

245

10. Uru and Chipaya Katja Hannß

265

11. Mochica Matthias Urban

311

12. Puquina Nicholas Q. Emlen, Arjan Mossel, Simon van de Kerke, and Willem F. H. Adelaar

335

vii

short contents 13. Híbito and Cholón Astrid Alexander-Bakkerus

392

14. Small and extinct languages of Northern Peru Matthias Urban

419

15. Kallawaya Pieter Muysken

438

16. The Andean Spanish of Southern Peru and Bolivia Luis Andrade Ciudad

469

PART III: Comparative studies

483

17. Central Andean Segmental Phonologies in Continental Perspective Lev Michael and Allegra Robertson

485

18. The morphology of the nominal domain in the languages of the Central Andes Olga Krasnoukhova

532

19. The grammar of the verb in the languages of the Central Andes Matthias Pache

551

20. Syntactic structures in the languages of the Central Andes Rik van Gijn

597

21. Discourse, information structure, and evidentiality in the Central Andes Karolina Grzech

635

22. Linguistic complexity in the Central Andes Johanna Nichols

667

PART IV: Language history

681

23. Expansions and language shift in prehistory Paul Heggarty

683

24. Language ecologies and dynamics in the ancient Central Andes Matthias Urban

725

25. Language diffusion and state agency: Quechuan in Inca and colonial times César Itier

739

PART V:

755

Language contact, sociolinguistics, and linguistic anthropology

26. The Quechuan–Aymaran relationship Nicholas Q. Emlen 27. Contact between Indigenous languages of the Central Andes and Spanish: Linguistic outcomes as cases of contra-hierarchical diffusion Anna María Escobar 28. Language ideologies and the Quechuan family Rosaleen Howard

viii

757

783 798

short contents 29. The Andean–Amazonian interface: Sociolinguistic relations and areal–typological patterns Nicholas Q. Emlen, Rik van Gijn, and Sietze Norder

818

30. Language and the Andean environment Joshua Shapero

839

References Index

860 923

ix

Detailed contents Series preface List of abbreviations The contributors

PART I: Background and context 1. Introduction: Central Andean linguistic diversity and the diversity of Central Andean linguistics Matthias Urban 1.1 Extent and characteristics of the Central Andes 1.2 Past and present linguistic landscapes of the Central Andes 1.3 Language contact, areal typology, and the fabric of Central Andean languages 1.4 The emergence and development of descriptive traditions in the languages of the Central Andes 1.5 The emergence and development of the historical linguistics of the Central Andes 1.6 Language, culture, and society in the past 1.7 Language, culture, and society in the present 1.8 Language shift and language endangerment 1.9 The broader relevance of Central Andean languages and linguistics 1.10 The present volume 1.11 Conventions 1.11.1 Glossonyms and spelling conventions for other proper names 1.11.2 Orthographies and other conventions for the representation of linguistic data

1.11.3 Terminology and morpheme glosses 2. Physical geography and cultural trajectory of the Central Andes Peter Kaulicke 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Northern perspectives 2.2.1 The Northern environment 2.2.2 Population and cultural trajectories 2.3 Central perspectives 2.3.1 Environment 2.3.2 Population and cultural trajectories 2.4 Southern perspectives 2.4.1 Introduction 2.4.2 Environment 2.4.3 Population and cultural trajectories 2.5 Summary and conclusions

xlii xliii xlvi

1 3 3 4 7 10 15 18 21 23 25 27 28 28 29 36 38 38 39 39 42 46 46 48 52 52 52 54 60

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detailed contents

xii

3. Historical linguistics, philology, and the development of Andean linguistics Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino 3.1 Preliminaries 3.2 Philology and the Andean world 3.3 The written documentary record 3.4 Agreements 3.4.1 Diachronic questions 3.4.1.1 The Quechuan sibilants 3.4.1.2 Weakening of consonantal codas in Cuzco Quechua 3.4.1.3 The possessive phrase in Coastal Quechua 3.4.1.4 Stress and vowel elision 3.4.1.5 Evolution of accusative marking in Southern Aymara 3.4.1.6 Evolution of derivative suffixes 3.4.2 Questions of external relations 3.4.3 Lexico-semantic questions 3.5 Disagreements 3.5.1 Reconstructions of protolanguages 3.5.2 Philological and ecdotic problems 3.5.2.1 Recent relapses in the editions of chronicles 3.5.2.2 Misguided editions 3.6 Epilogue

63

PART II: Language profiles

83

4. Huaylas (Ancash) Quechua Carlos Molina-Vital 4.1 General information 4.1.1 Geography, environment, and economics 4.1.2 Speaker population and endangerment 4.2 Internal variation and classification 4.3 Phonology and phonotactics 4.3.1 Vowels 4.3.2 Consonants 4.3.3 Syllable structure, root structure, and phonotactic constraints 4.3.4 Important morphophonological processes 4.3.4.1 Syllable structure and the suffix -ni ‘epenthetic (ep)’ 4.3.4.2 Monophthongization 4.3.4.3 Vowel lowering in derivational morphology 4.3.5 Stress assignment 4.4 Parts of speech and transcategorical operations 4.4.1 Parts of speech 4.4.2 Transcategorical operations 4.4.2.1 Nominal derivation (nominalization) 4.4.2.1.1 -na ‘potential nominalizer (pot.nmlz)’ 4.4.2.1.2 -q ‘agentive nominalizer (ag)’ 4.4.2.1.3 -shqa ‘resultative nominalizer (res)’ 4.4.2.1.4 -nqa ‘actual nominalizer (act.nmlz)’ 4.4.2.1.5 -y ‘infinitive (inf)’ 4.4.2.2 Verbal derivation 4.4.2.2.1 -ya: ‘transformative (tf)’

85

63 65 66 67 68 68 68 69 69 70 71 72 74 76 76 78 78 80 81

85 85 85 86 87 87 88 89 89 89 90 90 91 92 92 92 92 92 92 93 93 93 93 93

detailed contents 4.4.2.2.2 -na: ‘desiderative (desr)’ 4.4.2.2.3 -tsa: ‘factive (fact)’ 4.4.2.2.4 -ta: ‘substance-covering (cov)’ 4.4.2.2.5 Voice as verbalizer: -tsi ‘causative (caus),’ -ku

‘middle voice, reflexive, medio passive (mid)’ and -ka: ‘spontaneous voice (spon)’

4.5 Nominals 4.5.1 Subclasses of nominals 4.5.1.1 Pronouns 4.5.1.1.1 Personal pronouns 4.5.1.1.2 Demonstrative pronouns 4.5.1.1.3 Nominally inflected pronouns (emphatic and quantifiers)

4.5.1.1.4 Interrogative and indefinite pronouns

4.5.1.2 Numerals 4.5.1.3 Gender 4.5.1.4 Order of constituents in the nominal phrase

4.5.2 Nominal derivation 4.5.2.1 -yuq ‘inalienable possession (inal.poss)’ 4.5.2.2 -sapa ‘multiple possession (mult.all)’ 4.5.2.3 -ntin ‘accompaniment, adjacency (incl)’ 4.5.2.4 -mayi ‘partnership (part)’ 4.5.2.5 -lla ‘restrictive, limitative (lim)’ 4.5.3 Nominal inflection 4.5.3.1 Person 4.5.3.2 Number 4.5.3.3 Case 4.5.3.3.1 -ta ‘accusative (acc)’ 4.5.3.3.2 -pa ‘genitive (gen)’ 4.5.3.3.3 -man ‘allative (all)’ 4.5.3.3.4 -chaw ‘locative (loc)’ 4.5.3.3.5 -paq ‘dative, allative, purposive (dat)’ 4.5.3.3.6 -piq ~ -pita ‘ablative (abl)’ 4.5.3.3.7 -naw ‘simulative (simul)’ 4.5.3.3.8 -yaq, -kama ‘limitative (lim)’ 4.5.3.3.9 -wan ‘comitative-instrumental (com)’ 4.5.3.3.10 -raykur ‘causal (csl)’ 4.5.3.3.11 -pura ‘exclusive (excl)’ 4.6 Verbs 4.6.1 Verb subclasses 4.6.1.1 Copulative verbs 4.6.1.2 Transitive verbs 4.6.1.3 Intransitive verbs 4.6.2 Verbal derivation 4.6.2.1 Aspect 4.6.2.1.1 Imperfectives 4.6.2.1.2 Perfectives 4.6.2.2 Voice 4.6.2.2.1 -tsi ‘causative (caus)’ 4.6.2.2.2 -ku ‘middle (mid)’ 4.6.2.2.3 -na and -ku ‘reciprocal (recp)’ 4.6.2.2.4 -ka: ‘spontaneous (spon)’

93 94 94 94 94 94 94 94 95 95 95 96 97 97 97 97 97 97 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 100 101 101 101 101 101 101 102 102 102 103 103 103 104 105 105 105 105 106 109 109 110 111 112

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detailed contents 4.6.2.2.5 -pu ‘benefactive (ben)’ 4.6.2.2.6 -pa: ‘applicative (appl)’

4.6.2.3 Other derivational suffixes 4.6.2.3.1 -mu ‘cislocative (cisl)’ 4.6.2.3.2 -lla: ‘limitative (lim)’ 4.6.2.3.3 -rpu ‘downward (dw)’ 4.6.2.3.4 -rpa: ‘stationary (stn)’ 4.6.2.3.5 -paku ‘attentive action (atten)’ 4.6.2.3.6 -chaku ‘(care)’ 4.6.2.4 Order of derivational suffixes

4.6.3 Inflectional categories of the verb 4.6.3.1 Person and number 4.6.3.1.1 Subject marking 4.6.3.1.2 Object marking 4.6.3.2 Tense 4.6.3.2.1 Present 4.6.3.2.2 -rqa ‘experienced past (pst)’ 4.6.3.2.3 -rqu ‘recent past/perfective of immediateness (‘rec.pst)’ 4.6.3.2.4 -naq ‘non-experienced past or narrative past (narr.pst)’ 4.6.3.2.5 -shqa ‘past perfect (prf)’ 4.6.3.2.6 -q + kay ‘habitual past construction (hab)’ 4.6.3.2.7 ‘future (fut)’ 4.6.3.3 ‘conditionals (cond)’ 4.6.3.4 ‘imperatives (imp)’ 4.7 Independent suffixes (enclitics) 4.7.1 Connectors of sentence information 4.7.1.1 -raq ‘continuative (cont)’ 4.7.1.2 -na ‘discontinuative (disc)’ 4.7.1.3 -pis ‘additive (add)’ 4.7.1.4 -taq ‘contrastive (contr)’ 4.7.2 Negative and interrogative 4.7.2.1 -tsu ‘negative (neg)’ 4.7.2.2 -ku ‘interrogative (q)’ 4.7.3 Modality: topic and evidentials 4.7.3.1 -qa ‘topic (top)’ 4.7.3.2 -mi ‘evidential–direct experience (evd)’ 4.7.3.3 -shi ‘evidential–reportative/quotative (evr)’ 4.7.3.4 -chi ‘evidential–conjectural (evc)’ 4.7.3.5 -ri ‘corroborative (corr)’ 4.7.3.6 -tsuraq ‘dubitative (dub)’ 4.8 Basic syntax 4.8.1 Grammatical relations 4.8.2 Constituent order 4.8.3 Major clause types 4.8.3.1 Assertions 4.8.3.2 Negations and prohibitions 4.8.3.3 Questions 4.8.4 Complex clauses 4.8.4.1 Juxtaposition and coordination 4.8.4.2 Subordination 4.8.4.2.1 Relative clauses 4.8.4.2.2 Nominal clauses (embedding) 4.8.4.2.3 Adverbial clauses

xiv

113 114 116 116 118 118 118 118 119 119 120 121 121 122 123 123 123 124 124 124 124 125 125 125 125 125 125 126 126 126 127 127 127 127 127 128 128 128 129 129 129 129 129 130 130 130 130 131 131 132 132 133 134

detailed contents 4.9 Text sample 4.10 Literature 5. Southern Yauyos Quechua Aviva Shimelman 5.1 General information 5.1.1 Geography and environment 5.1.2 Speaker population and language endangerment 5.2 Internal variation and classification 5.3 Phonology and phonotactics 5.3.1 Vowel phonemes 5.3.2 Consonant phonemes 5.3.3 Syllable structure and root structure: phonotactic constraints 5.3.4 Major morphophonological processes 5.3.5 Stress assignment 5.3.6 Phonological developments from the protolanguage 5.4 Parts of speech and transcategorical operations 5.4.1 Parts of speech 5.4.2 Transcategorical operations 5.4.2.1 Nominal derivation 5.4.2.1.1 -na ‘nominalizer (nmlz)’ 5.4.2.1.2 -q ‘agentive (ag)’ 5.4.2.1.3 -sHa ‘resultative (res)’ 5.4.2.1.4 -y ‘infinitive (inf)’ 5.4.2.2 Verbal derivation 5.4.2.2.1 -cha ‘factive (fact)’ 5.4.2.2.2 -ku ‘reflexive (refl)’ 5.4.2.2.3 -tuku ‘simulative (simul)’ 5.4.2.2.4 -ya ‘inchoative (inch)’ 5.4.2.2.5 -na ‘verbalizer (vblz)’ 5.4.2.2.6 -naya ‘desiderative (desr)’ 5.4.2.3 Other derivational processes 5.5 Nominals 5.5.1 Subclasses of nominals 5.5.1.1 Pronouns and other pro-forms 5.5.1.1.1 Personal pronouns 5.5.1.1.2 Demonstrative pronouns 5.5.1.1.3 Dependent pronouns 5.5.1.1.4 Interrogative-indefinites 5.5.1.2 Numerals 5.5.1.3 Common nouns 5.5.1.4 Locative nouns 5.5.2 Nominal derivation 5.5.2.1 -kuna ‘non-exhaustivity (nonexhst)’ 5.5.2.2 -ntin ‘accompaniment, adjacency (incl)’ 5.5.2.3 -sapa ‘multiple possession (mult.all)’ 5.5.2.4 -yuq ‘possession (poss)’ 5.5.2.5 -masi ‘partnership (part)’ 5.5.2.6 -cha ‘diminutive (dim)’ 5.5.3 Nominal inflection 5.5.3.1 Person 5.5.3.2 Number

137 137 139 139 139 139 140 140 141 141 141 141 141 142 142 142 143 143 143 143 143 143 143 143 143 143 143 143 143 144 144 144 144 144 144 144 145 145 146 146 146 146 146 146 146 147 147 147 147 148

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detailed contents 5.5.3.3 Case 5.5.3.3.1 5.5.3.3.2 5.5.3.3.3 5.5.3.3.4 5.5.3.3.5 5.5.3.3.6 5.5.3.3.7 5.5.3.3.8 5.5.3.3.9 5.5.3.3.10

-ta ‘accusative (acc)’ -pa ‘genitive-locative (gen)’ -man ‘allative-dative (all)’ -pi ‘locative (loc)’ -paq ‘ablative, benefactive, purposive (abl, ben, purp)’ -hina ‘simulative (simul)’ -kama ‘limitative (lim)’ -wan ‘comitative-instrumental (com)’ -rayku ‘causal (csl)’ -puRa ‘exclusive (excl)’

5.6 Verbs 5.6.1 Verb subclasses 5.6.2 Verbal derivation 5.6.2.1 Affixes 5.6.2.1.1 -cha ‘diminutive (dim)’ 5.6.2.1.2 -chi ‘causative (caus)’ 5.6.2.1.3 -ka ‘accidental (passacc)’ 5.6.2.1.4 -kaćha ‘frequentive (freq)’ 5.6.2.1.5 -ku ‘reflexive, middle, medio-passive, passive (refl)’ 5.6.2.1.6 -lla ‘restrictive, limitative (lim)’ 5.6.2.1.7 -mu ‘cislocative, translocative (cisl)’ 5.6.2.1.8 -naku ‘reciprocal (recp)’ 5.6.2.1.9 -naya(:) ‘desiderative (desr)’ 5.6.2.1.10 -pa ‘repetitive (repet)’ 5.6.2.1.11 -pa(:)ku ‘joint action (jtact)’ 5.6.2.1.12 -pu ‘benefactive, translocative (ben)’ 5.6.2.1.13 -Ra ‘durative (dur)’ 5.6.2.1.14 -Raya ‘passivizer (pass)’ 5.6.2.1.15 -Ri ‘inceptive (incep)’ 5.6.2.1.16 -Ru ‘various (urgt)’ 5.6.2.1.17 -sHi ‘accompaniment (acmp)’ 5.6.2.1.18 -tamu ‘irreversible (irrev)’ 5.6.2.1.19 -yku ‘exceptional performance (excep)’ 5.6.2.2 Affix order 5.6.3 Inflectional categories of the verb 5.6.3.1 Person and number 5.6.3.1.1 Subject 5.6.3.1.2 Subject and object reference 5.6.3.2 Tense 5.6.3.2.1 Present 5.6.3.2.2 Future 5.6.3.2.3 Simple past 5.6.3.2.4 Narrative past 5.6.3.2.5 Perfect 5.6.3.2.6 Habitual past 5.6.3.3 Conditionality 5.6.3.4 Imperativity 5.6.3.5 Aspect 5.6.3.6 Subordination 5.6.3.7 Order of affixes

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5.7 Clitics with phrasal or clausal scope 5.7.1 Clitics that position the utterance 5.7.1.1 -chu ‘interrogative (q)’ 5.7.1.2 -lla ‘restrictive-limitative (lim)’ 5.7.1.3 -ña ‘discontinuative (disc)’ 5.7.1.4 -pis ‘additive (add)’ 5.7.1.5 -qa ‘topic marker (top)’ 5.7.1.6 -Raq ‘continuative (cont)’ 5.7.1.7 -taq ‘sequential (seq)’ 5.7.2 Clitics that position the speaker 5.7.2.1 -Yá ‘emphatic (emph)’ 5.7.2.2 -puni ‘certainty, precision (cert)’ 5.7.2.3 -mi ‘evidential–direct experience (evd)’ 5.7.2.4 -shi ‘evidential–reportative/quotative (evr)’ 5.7.2.5 -ćhi ‘evidential – conjectural (evc)’ 5.7.2.6 -aRi ‘assertive force (ass)’ 5.7.2.7 -ik and -iki ‘evidential modifiers (ev.mod.2, ev.mod.3)’ 5.7.3 Combinations 5.8 Basic syntax 5.8.1 Grammatical relations 5.8.2 Constituent order 5.8.3 Major clause types 5.8.4 Coordination 5.8.5 Clausal complementation 5.8.5.1 -na ‘nominalizer (nmlz)’ 5.8.5.2 -q ‘agentive (ag)’ 5.8.5.3 -sHa ‘resultative (res)’ 5.8.5.4 -y ‘infinitive (inf)’ 5.8.6 Relativization 5.8.7 Negation 5.9 Lexical and semantic properties 5.9.1 Lexical differences among the SYQ dialects 5.9.2 Evidentials 5.10 Text sample 5.11 Literature 6. Chachapoyas Quechua Aviva Shimelman and Jairo Valqui 6.1 General information 6.2 Internal variation 6.3 Phonology and phonotactics 6.3.1 Vowel phonemes 6.3.2 Consonant phonemes 6.3.2.1 Consonant inventory 6.3.2.2 Controversial segments 6.3.2.2.1 Affricates 6.3.2.2.2 Laterals 6.3.3 Root structure and syllable structure 6.3.4 Major morphophonological processes 6.3.4.1 Occlusives 6.3.4.1.1 Voicing of occlusives

159 159 159 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 161 161 161 161 161 162 162 162 162 162 162 163 163 163 163 163 164 164 164 164 165 165 166 167 167 167 168 168 168 168 169 169 170 170 173 173 173

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detailed contents 6.3.4.1.2 Fricatization of occlusives 6.3.4.2 Fricatives /s, sh/ 6.3.4.3 Nasals 6.3.4.4 Approximants /r, j, w/ 6.3.4.4.1 /r/ 6.3.4.4.2 /y/ 6.3.4.4.3 /w/

6.3.5 Stress assignment 6.3.6 Phonological developments from the protolanguage 6.3.7 Orthographic conventions 6.4 Parts of speech and transcategorical operations 6.4.1 Parts of speech 6.4.1.1 Subclasses of nominals 6.4.1.2 Subclasses of verbs 6.4.1.3 Subclasses of adjectives 6.4.2 Transcategorical operations 6.4.2.1 Nominal derivation 6.4.2.1.1 -na ‘nominalizer (nmlz)’ 6.4.2.1.2 -k ‘agentive (ag)’ 6.4.2.1.3 -shka ‘resultative (res)’ 6.4.2.1.4 -y ‘infinitive (inf)’ 6.4.2.2 Verbal derivation 6.4.2.2.1 -cha ‘factive (fact)’ 6.4.2.2.2 -ku ‘reflexive (refl)’ 6.4.2.2.3 -ya ‘inchoative (inch)’ 6.4.2.3 Other derivational processes 6.5 Nominals 6.5.1 Subclasses of nominals 6.5.1.1 Pronouns 6.5.1.1.1 Personal pronouns 6.5.1.1.2 Demonstrative pronouns 6.5.1.1.3 Dependent pronouns 6.5.1.1.4 Interrogative indefinites 6.5.1.2 Numerals 6.5.1.3 Common nouns 6.5.2 Nominal derivation 6.5.2.1 -ntin ‘accompaniment, stereotypical association (incl)’ 6.5.2.2 -yuk ‘possession (poss)’ 6.5.3 Nominal inflection 6.5.3.1 Person 6.5.3.2 Number 6.5.3.3 Case 6.5.3.3.1 -ta ‘accusative (acc)’ 6.5.3.3.2 -pa ‘genitive (gen)’ 6.5.3.3.3 -pi ‘locative (loc)’ 6.5.3.3.4 -man ‘allative (all)’ 6.5.3.3.5 -kaman ‘limitative (lim)’ 6.5.3.3.6 -manta ‘ablative (abl)’ 6.5.3.3.7 -pa ‘purposive (purp)’ 6.5.3.3.8 -wan ‘comitative-instrumental (com)’ 6.5.3.3.9 -shina and -yupay ‘simulative (simul)’ 6.5.3.3.10 -rayku ‘causal (csl)’

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6.6 Verbs 6.6.1 Verb subclasses 6.6.2 Verbal derivation 6.6.2.1 -chi ‘causative/(di-)transitivizer (caus)’ 6.6.2.2 -ku ‘reflexive, middle, medio-passive (refl)’ 6.6.2.3 -mu ‘cislocative, translocative (cisl)’ 6.6.2.4 -naku ‘reciprocal (recp)’ 6.6.2.5 -naya ‘desiderative (desr)’ 6.6.2.6 -pu ‘benefactive, translocative (ben)’ 6.6.2.7 -ri ‘prolongation/persistence/continuation (cont)’ 6.6.3 Inflectional categories of the verb 6.6.3.1 Person and number 6.6.3.2 Tense 6.6.3.2.1 Present 6.6.3.2.2 Future 6.6.3.2.3 Past 6.6.3.3 Conditionality 6.6.3.4 Imperativity 6.6.3.5 Aspect 6.6.3.6 Subordination 6.6.3.6.1 -ti ‘subordinator-different subjects (subds)’ 6.6.3.6.2 -shpa and -shtin ‘subordinator-same subjects (subis)’ 6.6.3.6.3 -na-poss-kama ‘limitative construction’ 6.7 Clitics with phrasal or clausal scope 6.7.1 Clitics that position the utterance with regard to other utterances 6.7.1.1 -chu ‘interrogation, disjunction, negation (neg)’ 6.7.1.2 -ña ~ -na ‘discontinuative (disc)’ 6.7.1.3 -pish ‘additive (add)’ 6.7.1.4 -ra ‘continuative (cont)’ 6.7.1.5 -ta ‘sequential/interrogative (seq)’ 6.7.2 Clitics that position the speaker with regard to the utterance 6.7.2.1 -mi, -shi, and -chi (evidentials) 6.7.2.2 -a(riya) ‘emphatic (emph)’ 6.8 Text sample 6.9 Literature 7. Cuzco Quechua Raúl Bendezú-Araujo and Jorge Acurio-Palma 7.1 General information 7.2 Internal variation 7.3 Phonology and phonotactics 7.3.1 Vowel phonemes 7.3.2 Consonant phonemes 7.3.3 Syllable structure and root structure 7.3.4 Phonological processes 7.3.5 Stress assignment 7.4 Parts of speech and transcategorical operations 7.4.1 Parts of speech 7.4.2 Transcategorical operations 7.4.2.1 Nominal derivation 7.4.2.2 Verbal derivation

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detailed contents 7.4.2.2.1 7.4.2.2.2 7.4.2.2.3 7.4.2.2.4 7.4.2.2.5 7.4.2.2.6 7.4.2.2.7

-cha ‘factive (fact)’ -ya ‘transformative (tf)’ -lli ‘self-transformative (stf)’ -tuku ‘simulative (simul)’ -na ‘relocative (reloc)’ -naya ‘desiderative (desr)’ -raya ‘durative (dur)’

7.5 Nominals 7.5.1 Subclasses 7.5.1.1 Pronouns 7.5.1.1.1 Personal pronouns 7.5.1.1.2 Demonstrative pronouns 7.5.1.1.3 Interrogative pronouns 7.5.1.2 Numerals 7.5.2 Nominal derivation 7.5.3 Nominal inflection 7.5.3.1 Person and number 7.5.3.2 Case 7.5.3.2.1 -ta ‘accusative (acc)’ 7.5.3.2.2 -pa ~ -q ‘genitive (gen)’ 7.5.3.2.3 -man ‘allative-dative (dat)’ 7.5.3.2.4 -pi ‘locative (loc)’ 7.5.3.2.5 -paq ‘benefactive (ben)’ 7.5.3.2.6 -manta ‘ablative (abl)’ 7.5.3.2.7 -kama ‘limitative (lim)’ 7.5.3.2.8 -wan ‘comitative-instrumental (com)’ 7.5.3.2.9 -rayku ‘causal (csl)’ 7.5.3.2.10 -ø ‘nominative’ 7.6 Verbs 7.6.1 Subclasses 7.6.1.1 Copular verbs 7.6.1.2 Intransitive verbs 7.6.1.3 Transitive and ditransitive verbs 7.6.2 Verbal derivation 7.6.2.1 Grammatical suffixes 7.6.2.1.1 -chi ‘causative (caus)’ 7.6.2.1.2 -ysi ‘accompaniment (acmp)’ 7.6.2.1.3 -pu ‘benefactive (ben)’ 7.6.2.1.4 -ku ‘reflexive (refl)’ 7.6.2.1.5 -na ‘reciprocal (recp)’ 7.6.2.2 Aspectual suffixes 7.6.2.2.1 -ri ‘inchoative (inch)’ 7.6.2.2.2 -paya ‘frequentative (freq)’ and -pa ‘repetitive (rep)’ 7.6.2.2.3 -ypari ~ -rpari ‘sudden action (sudd)’ 7.6.2.3 Directional suffixes 7.6.2.3.1 -yku ‘inward (iw)’ 7.6.2.3.2 -rqu ‘sudden action (sudd)’ 7.6.2.3.3 -ykacha ‘multidirectional (mult)’ 7.6.2.3.4 -mu ‘cislocative, translocative (cisl)’ 7.6.3 Inflectional categories of the verb 7.6.3.1 Person, number, and tense 7.6.3.1.1 Person

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detailed contents 7.6.3.1.2 Tense 7.6.3.1.3 Aspect

7.6.3.2 Mood 7.7 Clitics with phrasal or clausal scope 7.7.1 Evidentials 7.7.2 -chusina ‘dubitative (dub)’ 7.7.3 -puni ‘certainty (cert)’ 7.7.4 -qa and -ri ‘topic (top)’ 7.7.5 -chu ‘interrogative (q)’ 7.7.6 -chu ‘negative (neg)’ 7.7.7 -pis ~ -pas ‘additive (add)’ 7.7.8 -taq ‘contrastive (contr)’ 7.7.9 -raq ‘continuative (cont)’ and -ña ‘discontinuative (disc)’ 7.7.10 -lla ‘limitative (lim)’ 7.7.11 -yá ‘emphatic (emph)’ 7.8 Basic syntax 7.8.1 Grammatical relations 7.8.2 Constituent order 7.8.3 Major clause types 7.8.4 Coordination 7.8.5 Clausal complementation 7.8.6 Relativization 7.8.7 Negation 7.9 Text sample 7.10 Literature 8. Aymara Matt Coler 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Internal variation 8.3 Phonology and phonotactics 8.3.1 Vowel phonemes 8.3.2 Consonant phonemes 8.3.3 Syllable structure and root structure 8.3.4 Major morphophonological processes 8.3.4.1 Syllabic reduction of /aya/ and /uyu/ 8.3.4.2 Vowel deletion 8.3.4.2.1 Phonotactic vowel deletion 8.3.4.2.2 Syntactic vowel deletion 8.3.4.2.3 Lexically specified vowel deletion 8.3.4.3 Laryngeal harmony 8.3.4.4 Uvular harmony 8.3.4.5 Neutralization of non-modal plosives 8.3.5 Stress assignment 8.4 Parts of speech and transcategorical operations 8.4.1 Parts of speech 8.4.1.1 Nouns 8.4.1.2 Verbs 8.4.1.3 Particles 8.4.2 Transcategorical operations 8.4.2.1 Verbalization of nouns 8.4.2.1.1 -: or -ø ‘copulative verbalizer (cop.vblz)’

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detailed contents 8.4.2.1.2 8.4.2.1.3 8.4.2.1.4 8.4.2.1.5 8.4.2.1.6 8.4.2.1.7 8.4.2.1.8

-c ka ‘locative verbalizer (loc.vblz)’ -cha ‘factive (fact)’ -ncha ‘saturator (sat)’ -pta ‘transformative (tf)’ -kipta ‘accelerated transformative (atf)’ -si ‘reflexive (refl)’ -tata ‘propagative, dispersal or broadcast motion (incep)’ 8.4.2.2 Nominalization of verbs 8.4.2.2.1 -ña ‘action nominalizer (nmlz)’ 8.4.2.2.2 -ta ‘resultative (re)’ 8.4.2.2.3 -iri ‘agentive (ag)’ 8.4.2.2.4 -wi ‘locality nominalizer (loc.nmlz)’ 8.4.2.2.5 -sa, -sina, and -ipana ‘subordinators (sub)’

8.5 Nominals 8.5.1 Subclasses 8.5.1.1 Personal and demonstrative pronouns 8.5.1.1.1 Personal pronouns 8.5.1.1.2 Demonstrative pronouns 8.5.1.2 Interrogative pronouns 8.5.1.3 Numerals 8.5.1.4 Common and proper nouns 8.5.1.5 Semantic adjectives 8.5.2 Nominal derivational-like suffixes 8.5.2.1 -ita, -itu, -cha, -lla ‘diminutive (dim)’ 8.5.2.2 -c chapi ‘delimitative (dl)’ 8.5.2.3 -wisa ‘privative (priv)’ 8.5.2.4 -rara ‘augmentative (aug)’ 8.5.3 Nominal inflectional-like suffixes 8.5.3.1 Location suffixes 8.5.3.2 -ni ‘possessor (poss)’ 8.5.3.3 Possessive paradigm 8.5.3.4 -naka ‘plural (pl)’ 8.5.3.5 -c pacha ‘reciprocal (recp)’ 8.5.3.6 Case suffixes 8.6 Verbs 8.6.1 Subclasses 8.6.1.1 Interrogative pronouns 8.6.1.2 The verb sa- ‘to say’ 8.6.2 Verbal derivational-like suffixes 8.6.2.1 Direction of motion suffixes 8.6.2.1.1 -nta ‘inward (iw)’ 8.6.2.1.2 -c su ‘outward (ow)’ 8.6.2.1.3 -qa ‘downward and dividing (dw)’ 8.6.2.1.4 -c xa ‘atop (atop)’ 8.6.2.1.5 -c ta ‘upward (uw)’ 8.6.2.2 Spatial location suffixes 8.6.2.3 -c kata ‘motion across or in front (ma)’ 8.6.2.4 -kipa ‘perifactive or contour motion (prf)’ 8.6.2.5 -muku ‘distancer (dst)’ 8.6.2.6 -c nuqa ‘placer (pla)’ 8.6.2.7 -naqa ‘diffuse motion, oscillative (df)’

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8.6.3 8.6.4

8.6.5

8.6.6

8.6.2.8 8.6.2.9 8.6.2.10 8.6.2.11

-tata ‘inceptive (incep)’ -c tapi ‘concentrative, congregative, gathering motion (cc)’ -c χata ‘above (above)’ -ni ‘cislocative, translocative (cisl)’ Multiplying and reversing suffixes 8.6.3.1 -ra ‘multiplier/reverser (mlt/rv)’ 8.6.3.2 -rpaya ‘multiplier/reverser (mlt/rv)’ Valency-increasing suffixes 8.6.4.1 -c xasi ‘perdurative (pdr)’ 8.6.4.2 -rapi ‘beneficiary (bn)’ 8.6.4.3 -raqa ‘detrimental (dtm)’ 8.6.4.4 -c t’a ‘applicative (mom)’ 8.6.4.5 -ya ‘causative (caus)’ 8.6.4.6 -si ‘reflexive (refl)’ Aspectual suffixes 8.6.5.1 -c ch’uki ‘fossilized intensifier (int)’ 8.6.5.2 -c chu ‘factive completive (fact.compl)’ 8.6.5.3 -wxa or -xa ‘completive (compl)’ 8.6.5.4 -c ka ‘non-completive (ncompl)’ 8.6.5.5 -ska ‘progressive (prog)’ 8.6.5.6 -c t’a ‘momentaneous (mom)’ 8.6.5.7 -tata ‘inceptive (incep)’ Other derivational-like suffixes 8.6.6.1 -xama ‘verbal simulative (vbl.simul)’ 8.6.6.2 -xwa ‘category buffer (bfr)’ 8.6.6.3 -paya ‘intensifier (int)’

8.7 Inflectional-like categories of the verb 8.7.1 Person/tense and evidentiality 8.7.2 Number 8.7.3 Mood and modality 8.7.3.1 Counterfactual mood 8.7.3.2 Evidentiality 8.7.3.3 Event modality 8.7.3.4 Imperative 8.7.4 Order of the inflectional-like suffixes 8.8 Suffixes not subcategorized for lexical category 8.8.1 Stem-external word-level suffixes 8.8.2 Phrase-final suffixes 8.9 Basic syntax 8.9.1 Grammatical relations 8.9.2 Constituent order 8.9.3 Major clause types 8.9.3.1 Main clauses 8.9.3.2 Complement clauses 8.9.3.3 Relative clauses 8.9.3.4 Adverbial clauses 8.9.3.5 Nominalizations that go directly with the verb 8.9.4 Coordination: conjunction and disjunction 8.9.5 Clausal complementation 8.9.6 Relativization 8.9.7 Negation

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detailed contents 8.10 Lexical and semantic properties 8.10.1 Ambivalent roots 8.10.2 Verbs of taking 8.10.3 Integration of loanwords 8.11 Text sample 8.12 Literature 9. Jaqaru Matt Coler 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Brief remarks on comparisons with Aymara 9.3 Phonology and phonotactics 9.4 Parts of speech and transcategorical operations 9.4.1 Verbalization of nouns 9.4.1.1 -wa ‘copulative verbalizer (cop.vblz)’ 9.4.1.2 -c k ‘locative verbalizer (loc.vblz)’ 9.4.1.3 -chi ‘factive (fac)’ 9.4.2 Nominalization of verbs 9.4.2.1 -ata ‘resultative (res)’ 9.4.2.2 -iri ‘agentive (ag)’ 9.4.2.3 -nushu ‘purposive (purp)’ 9.4.2.4 -c mashi ‘rartnership (part)’ 9.4.2.5 -c cha ‘deli