The Origins of Hereditary Social Stratification: A study focusing on early prehistoric Europe and modern ethnographic accounts 9780860545316, 9781407346946

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The Origins of Hereditary Social Stratification A study focusing on early prehistoric Europe and modern ethnographic accounts

Malcollll McKay

BAR International Series 413

1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S413, 1988: 'The Origins of Hereditary Social Stratification' © Malcolm McKay, 1988

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545316 paperback ISBN 9781407346946 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545316 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS M aps

1 .

I ntroduction

1

C urrent T heories a nd P roblems i n t he S tudy o f S ocial S tratification

6

2 .

R anking i n H unter-Gatherer S ocieties

1 7

3 .

S ex,

3 2

4 .

H ereditary S ocial S tratification i n t he P alaeolithic

4 4

4 .1

I ntroduction

4 4

4 .2

P alaeolithic H unters a nd H unter-Gatherers

4 7

4 .3

P opulation S ize

5 6

4 .4

U pper P alaeolithic B urials

5 7

4 .5

D iscussion

6 0

4 .6

C onclusion

6 2

5 .

6 .

R esource C ontrol a nd L eadership

H ereditary S ocial S tratification i n t he M esolithic

7 2

5 .1

I ntroduction

7 2

5 .2

T he P ost-Glacial T ransition

7 5

5 .3

T he R ed D eer H unters

7 8

5 .4

P lant R esources a nd H uman P opulation

8 9

5 .5

C oastal a nd M arine E conomies

9 1

5 .6

M esolithic B urial a nd R eligious C ustoms

9 3

5 .7

C onclusion

9 7

A griculture a nd t he A lienation o f t he L and

1 11

6 .1

I ntroduction

1 11

6 .2

E thnographic E vidence

1 11

6 .3

S ocial S tratification a nd t he T ransition t o A griculture

1 17

1.

7.

8.

9.

Society in Neolithic Europe

Some Considerations

124

7.1

Introduction

124

7.2

The Neolithic Colonization of Britain

124

7.3

The Population of the Earliest Neolithic Societies

128

7.4

The Form of the Evidence

133

7.5

The Search for Rank in Neolithic Societies

135

7.6

Conclusion

142

Social Stratification in the Early Neolithic

150

8.1

Introduction

150

8.2

Social Hierarchies in the LBK Culture

150

8.3

Post-LBK Changes

159

8.4

Social Stratification in Neolithic Britain

165

8.5

Conclusion

179

Denouement

193

9.1

Introduction

193

9.2

Uncertain Relations : Metallurgy and Social Status

196

9.3

Cult, Culture or Fashion Package?

201

9.4

Conclusion

204

Bibliography

211

ii.

M APS

1 .

P rincipal s ites d iscussed i n c hapter 4

4 5

2 .

Principal B ritish s ites d iscussed i n c hapter 5

7 3

3 .

Principal E uropean s ites d iscussed i n c hapters 5 a nd 7

7 4

4 .

P rincipal E uropean s ites d iscussed i n c hapter 8

1 51

5 .

P rincipal B ritish s ites d iscussed i n c hapter 8

1 66

6 .

P rincipal s outhern B ritish s ites d iscussed i n c hapter 8

1 67

E arly C halcolithic i ndustries d iscussed i n c hapter 9

1 94

7 .

I NTRODUCTION T he m ost d ifficult o f t asks f acing a rchaeologists i s t he r ecreation o f t he a bstract v alues a nd b eliefs o f p rehistoric s ocieties. O ne s uch v alue i s c lass r anking w here h ereditary p rinciples r ather t han i ndividual a bility i s t he m ajor c reative f actor. I n t his w ork I am a ttempting t o d evelop b oth a n a rchaeological m odel t o d etect h ereditary s ocial s tratification, a nd a lso t o o ffer t he p roposition t hat i t h as e xisted f or f ar l onger t han h as b een p reviously t hought. R esearch o f t his n ature c an h ave s everal r easons f or c oming i nto b eing. I n t his c ase t here w ere t wo s omewhat r elated p roblems t hat h ad m y i nterest a nd w hich,

t o m e,

s eemed t o h ave c urrently

r ather u nacceptable a nswers. T he r esearch f or m y M .A . d egree h ad b een o n t he p roblem o f t he B eaker P eople o f w estern E urope.' O ne v iew, t o w hich I d o n ot s ubscribe , s ees t hem a s a n e lite o f t rader/pastoralists b elonging t o ah igher s ocial c lass t han t he o ther N eolothic p eoples. 2 T he p roblem o f s ocial e lites i s c entral t o t he s tudy o f t he L ate N eolithic i n w estern E urope b ecause o f t he a ppearance, f or t he f irst t ime, i n t hat p eriod o f r ich s ingle b urials. B eaker b urials a re d istinctive a nd, b y c omparison t o o ther p eople's , rich. T his s ocial d istinction i s s een t o s tem f rom t he c ontrol o f t he m etal t rade a nd i s c onsidered t he f orerunner o f t he t ruly e lite c lasses o f E arly l I ngtice. I nherent i n t his v iew o f t he L ate N eolithic i s t hat t rue h ereditary s ocial c lasses h ad n ot e xisted p reviously, a nd t hat t he c ontrol o f m etal p roduction c reated t he p olitical a nd e conomic b asis f or t his s ocial r evolution. W hilst I h ave n o q uarrel w ith a c oncept t hat a rgues f or s ocial e litism b ased o n t he c ontrol o f m etal p roduction a nd t rade, I d o h ave p rofound d ifficulty i n a ccepting t hat h ereditary s ocial c lasses c ame i nto b eing, f or w hatever r easons, o nly i n t he L ate N eolithic, a nd t hat p rior t o t his p eriod h uman s ociety w as c lassless o r, a t l east, p ossessed n o h ereditary d istinctions. T herefore t he f irst p roblem i s -w as t he m etal t rade t he c atalyst f or t he c reation o f h ereditary r anked s ocieties? T he s econd p roblem w as t hat I s aw n o s atisfactory p roof t hat h uman s ociety w as e ssentially e galitarian p rior t o t he L ate N eolithic. A ll o ur a ssumptions a re b ased o n n egative e vidence t he l ack o f a dequately d istinctive d ifferences b etween b urials, a nd t he l ack o f a n e conomic b asis f or c reating i ndividual w ealth. N egative e vidence s erves m ainly, i n m y o pinion, t o g enerate p roblems b y s tressing w hat i s m issing, r ather t han c reating a nswers o r u nders tanding . I n t his c ase i t w as c reating a n a ssumption w hich h ad p olitical a cceptance, b ut n o t angible p roof f rom a s trict a rchaeol ogical v iewpoint. M y r esearch s tarted w ith a n e xamination o f t he N eolithic p eriod w hose s ocial e vents, I b elieved, w ould p rovide s ome a lternative r esearch d irections. T he f urther I p rogressed t he m ore I b ecame c onvinced t hat l ittle c ould b e g leaned. T he e vidence w as f ragmentary, a nd I w as b ecoming i ncreasingly c ertain t hat t he g rowth o f f arming a nd t he d evelopment o f f ixed v illages c ould n ot b e a ccomplished b y p urely e galitarian s ocieties. T here a re t oo m any d ifficulties t hat r equire d irected g roup a ctivity t o o vercome. T he c oncept o f h eadmen a s l eaders h as a lways b een a ccepted, b ut i t s eems t o m e t hat t he q ualities w hich c reate t hem i n o ne p erson c ould c onceivably b e p assed t o c hildren , n ot t hrough g enetic m eans, b ut t hrough t raining. F amilies c ould

a chieve h ereditary a scendency w ithout c ontrol o f a s ingle c ommodity w e w ould s ee a s c reating p ersonal w ealth. T his l ine o f r esearch l ed t o t he e xamination o f m odern hunterg atherer s ocieties. T hese p eoples a re g enerally d epicted a s l argely e galitarian, w ith l eadership i f i t d oes e xist b eing a r esult o f h unting s kills o r s hamanistic a bility -in e ffect o pen t o a ll. M odern h unter-gatherers h ave a lways s erved a s o ur m odels f or r ecreating t he p olitical s tructures o f p rehistoric s ocieties a nd o ur v iew o f t hese s ocieties a s e galitarian s tems i n p art f rom t he a pplication o f p arallels f rom t he p resent t o t he p ast.

If elt t hat i f

f amily

t raining c ould b e s een t o b e a p art o f m odern h unter-gatherer l eaders hip t hen t his w as a m odel f or a pplication t o p rehistoric s ocieties. I t i s i n p art, a s d iscussed i n c hapter 2 , b ut a m ore f undamental f eature o f h unter-gatherer l eadership e merged. T hese bands a re u sually b ased i n f ixed t erritories w hich c ontain a ll t he r esources n eeded f or s urvival. T hese r esources a lthough s hared b y a ll a re, i n s ome c ases, t he h ereditary p roperty o f a n i ndividual w ho i s g enerally t he b and's l eader. T he h ereditary c ontrol o f s ome r esources i n h unter-gatherers h as a lways b een r ecognised, b ut, a s f ar a s I am a ware, i t h as n ot b een u sed f or a m odel t o d epict t he e xistence o f h ereditary s ocial c ontrol a nd c lasses p rior t o t he L ate N eolithic. T he m odel u sed h as a lways b een o ne o f s ingle g eneration l eadership b ased o n h unting s kill, w hich i s t he m ore o bvious f eature o f h unterg atherer l eadership. I a m a ware o f t he p roblems a ssociated w ith t rying t o a pply d etails o f m odern h unter-gatherer s ocieties t o p rehistoric s ocieties t hese a re d iscussed i n c hapters o ne a nd t wo -b ut, d espite r eservations , I f eel t hat s ufficient c ommonality e xists t o a llow s ome d evelopment o f p arallels. T herefore, m y r esearch b ase, w hich i nitially l ay i n t he N eolithic, e xpanded c onsiderably w ith t he r ealisation t hat i f i t w as p ossible t o d etect f ixed r esources i n t he r anges o f P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic h unter-gatherer b ands, t hen w e m ay h ave t he e vidence f or h ereditary s ocial s tratification m uch f urther b ack i n t he p ast p reviously c onsidered.

t han

T he w ork i s d ivided i nto t hree m ain a reas o f d iscussion. T he f irst c ontains, i n c hapter o ne, a s ummary o f o ur c urrent i deas o n t he d evelopment o f h ereditary s ocial s tratification. T hen, i n t he s ame s ection, c hapters t wo a nd t hree a re a n a nalysis o f t he nature o f l eadership a nd r esource c ontrol i n m odern h unter-gatherer s ocieties i n o rder t o d evelop a m odel f or a pplication t o p rehistoric s ocieties. T he s econd a rea o f d iscussion i s a n a ttempt t o a pply t his m odel t o t he P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic p eriods, a nd t o a rgue t he m eans b y w hich t he m odel i s t ransferred t o t he f arming c ommunities o f t he N eolithic. T he f inal d iscussion i s a r e-appraisal o f t he s ocial s tructures o f t he N eolithic u sing t he a rguments t hat h ave b een d eveloped. A p roblem b asic t o t his t opic i s t he i ntrusion o f m odern p olitical v alues. Ih ave n ot u ndertaken t his w ork t o c reate a n a llegory f or t he c urrent p olitical s cene, n or a re t he c riticisms c ontained w ithin t his w ork a imed a t c urrent i deals. T here a re c riticisms, b ut t hese a re d irected a t n arrowed v ision. I t i s c oinc idental t hat t he n arrowed v ision r esults f rom o ver-adherence t o p olitical v alues, s ought

e ither o f t he l eft o r t he r ight.

T hroughout

I h ave

t o b ring f orth t he a lternatives a nd t o e xamine t hese w ithin 2 .

t he c onstraints o f t he o nly r eal e vidence w e h ave, w hich i s a rchaeol ogical, a nthropological a nd e thnographic. T he i nfluences o f o ur c urrent c ulture a nd i ts p olitics m ust i ntrude -objectivity t ends a lways t o b e i llusory -b ut, a s I a rgue i n c hapter o ne, r estructuring t he p ast i n o rder t o p rove " correct" o ur c urrent i deals i s o f t he u tmost d ishonesty . W e m ust a lways r emember t hat a s a rchaeologists w e a re n ot d ealing w ith o ur p ast, b ut w ith t he p resent o f p eople w ith t heir o wn i deas a nd v alues. I f a nthropologists h ave b een a ccused o f a n i mperialistic v iew o f c ultures, s ome a rchaeologists m ight w ell b e a ccused o f v icarious p olitical a ctivity b y r eading i nto t he a rchaeol ogical e vidence m ore t han i s w arranted b y i ts s ubstance. T his i s n ot a n e conomic o r s ocial p rehistory o f E urope, o r a ny r egion t ouched u pon w ithin i t. C ertainly I h ave a ttempted t o a nalyse t he r elationships b etween t he r esource b ase a nd t he s ocial s tructures i n b oth t he m odern s ocieties a nd a lso t he p rehistoric s ites, b ut t he e conomy, a s I s ee i t, i s ap art o f t he e vidence t o u se t o d educe t he s ocial m ilieu. I have h ad t herefore, t o b e h ighly s elective a s t o t he s ites t hat a re u sed f or t his a nalysis, b ecause o nly t he m ost d etailed a re o f v alue. T his h as r esulted i n a n a pproach w hich m ay s eem s omewhat f ragmentary i f t he r eader i s e xpecting t he t raditional a pproach w hich i s t hrough c ultures, t heir e xtent a nd t heir s equences. T here a re a g reat m any s ites w hich h ave b een e xcluded b ecause o f t his n on-cultural m ethod, a nd a lso d etailed d escriptions o f m any c rossc ultural a ffinities h ave b een d eleted w here t hey a re n ot e specially u seful t o t he d iscussion. A s e xamples, a lthough g roups l ike t he m ammoth h unters o f t he U pper P alaeolithic, o r t he r ed d eer h unters o f t he M aglemosian, a re d iscussed i n s ome d etail t hrough t heir s ites, h ave r efrained f rom a ttempting a nything b ut t he m ost g eneral o f

I

s urveys a bout t heir e xtent o r t heir a reas o f o rigin -s uch q uestions a re n ot o f u se t o t he d iscussion. O nly w here t hese q uestions h ave s ome r elevance t o t he p roblem o f h ereditary s ocial s tratification a re t hey d iscussed. T his d eliberate c ourse m ay c reate p roblems w here g eneralities r un a ground o n t he s hoals o f d etailed o bjections, b ut I h ave a ttempted t o c hart a s s afe a c ourse a s p ossible i n r egions w here s ide e xcursions w ould b e o f l imited r elevance. T his t ight a pproach i s o f c rucial i mportance i n aw ork t hat c overs s ome 5 00,000 y ears o f h uman h istory . T he a rchaeological i nvestigation i s m ainly c entred u pon E urope, i n p articular t he n orth-west. U ltimately, t herefore, t he d iscussion c oncerns t he d evelopment o f s ocial s tratification i n n orth-west E urope , b ut i t i s s uggested t hat t he r esulting m odel m ay b e a pplied t o o ther p arts o f t he w orld. T he r eason f or c hoosing E urope w as t he r eady a vailability o f v ast a mounts o f m aterial w hich a llows a t horough a ttempt a t t esting t he h ypothesis i n a d etailed a rchaeological s etting. Ih ave n ot r ecalibrated r adiocarbon d ates. T his d ecision s temmed f rom a c ombination o f t he l ack o f a n a dequate s tandard f or t he p re-Neolithic p eriod, a nd a r ealisation t hat, e xcept f or a b road c hronological s equence n ecessary t o t he d iscussion, e xact d ating w as n ot c rucial. A ny r ecalibration w ould h ave r esulted i n a c lumsy d iscussion o f P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic d ates. I n t he l ast c hapter Ih ave r ecalibrated d ates. T his w as n ecessary b ecause p art o f t he d iscussion i s r elated t o s pecific c hronological p roblems. T he t opics, h owever, a re s ufficiently n arrow ( metallurgy a nd B eakers) s o a s t o c reate n o m ajor i mbalances o r c ontradictions w ith t he r emainder o f t he w ork. 3 .

T his w ork i s b ased o n m y P h.D.

t hesis w hich w as s ubmitted i n

t he U niversity o f M elbourne i n 1 987. T here a re s ome c hanges w hich r esulted f rom t he c omments o f t he e xaminers a nd a lso f rom s ome minor a lterations I h ave t hought w orthwhile. O therwise t he w ork i s e ssentially t he s ame a s m y P h.D. t hesis. F inally, I w ould l ike t o a cknowledge t hose w ho h ave h elped a nd e ncouraged m y w ork. M r . William C ulican, w hose u ntimely d eath d eprived m e o f a f riend a nd u nderstanding s upervisor . M r. R onald R idley w ho g uided m e t hrough t he e arly r esearch, a nd D r. A ntonio S agona w ho s upervised t he l ater r esearch. I s uspect t hat i t i s u nusual f or a P h.D. s tudent t o h ave h ad t hree s upervisors i n f our y ears, b ut I c ould n ot h ave a sked f or b etter. I w ould a lso l ike t o t hank D r . C live G amble, D r . A lasdair W hittle, D r . D erek R oe, D r. M arek Z velebil, D r . G raeme B arker a nd D r. R ichard B radley w ho o ffered u seful c omments o n t he t hrust o f t he w ork. I s hould l ike a lso t o t hank M erilyn B ourke w ho d id t he t yping a nd my c olleague K arina G oodman f or h er v alued a ssistance i n t he a wesome t ask o f p roof-reading .

U niversity o f M elbourne 1 988

4 .

R EFERENCES 1 .

M . M cKay, 1 982, C ult o r C ulture? T he B eaker P eople o f E urope, U npublished M .A . T hesis, D epartment o f H istory, U niversity o f M elbourne.

2 .

C hapter 9 b elow .

5 .

C HAPTER 1 C URRENT T HEORIES A ND PROBLEMS I N T HE S TUDY O F S OCIAL S TRATIFICATION C urrent a nthropological t heory o ffers u s s uch a r osy v iew o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic l ife o f h unter g atherers l t hat i t s eems, s uperf icially a t l east, a s erious a ct o f b ad p lanning b y m ankind c reated t he N eolithic. W hy t he h uman r ace d ecided t o a bandon t he t hree h our w orking d ay i n f avour o f t he s unrise t o s unset t yranny o f a griculture a nd a nimal h usbandry, a nd t he i nequalities o f s tratified s ocieties, m ight w ell b e e xplained o nly i n t erms o f o ur s elf-destructive natures. T his i s, o f c ourse, a g ross o ver-simplification b ut a t p resent we s till s ee t he m ajor c hange i n o ur b asic s ocial o rganisation o ccurring w ith t he t riumph o f t he s edentary e conomy. I n E urope, a s e lsewhere, t he o rigins o f s ocial s tratification a re s ought w ithin t he g uidelines s et b y t wo c onsiderations. F irstly, t here i s t he q uestion o f t he s ocial m echanism t hat c reated i t: w hy d id i t o ccur? S econdly, t here i s t he h istorical q uestion: w hen d id i t o ccur? T his w ork w ill e xamine b oth t hese q uestions, but b efore w e t urn t o t hese t asks i t i s n ecessary t o d iscuss b riefly c urrent t heory o n t he o rigins o f s ocial s tratification i n E urope. 2 T he p urpose o f t his i s t o d emonstrate t hat o ur t heoretical s tate a t p resent t ends t o r eflect a ssumptions b ased n ot u pon t he a rchaeological r ecord but u pon o ur i deological c onditioning. T he e ffect o f t his p reconditioning h as t o s ome e xtent l imited t he n umber a nd t hrust o f t he q uestions w hich s hould b e a sked i n t his d iscussion. A ccordingly t he p urpose o f t his c hapter i s t o d elineate t he a reas i n w hich t he c urrent i deas s hould b e a pproached w ith c aution,

a nd f rom t here t o s uggest o ther a venues w hich

s hould b e e xamined. A rchaeology a nd a nthropology h ave m any p oints i n

c ommon a nd t he

a rguments i n t his d ebate o ften d raw u pon t he p arallels o ffered b y e xisting p rimitive p astoral a nd a gricultural s ocieties. A nthropol ogical e vidence m ust b e u sed w ith g reat c are f or i t c an b ecome a ll t oo e asy t o c reate a p icture o f t he p ast w hich m ay w ell b e q uite i naccurate. C arl S auer w isely s tated i n t he l ate 1 940's t hat c onditions o f p reh istoric p eoples m ust n ot b e j udged " ... f rom t heir m odern s urvivors, n ow r estricted t o t he m ost m eagre r egions o f t he e arth,

s uch a s t he

i nterior o f A ustralia, t he A merican G reat B asin a nd t he A rctic t undra a nd t aiga . T he a reas o f e arly o ccupations w ere a bounding i n f ood." 3 C are a lso must b e t aken n ot t o o ver-indulge t hat c urrent w him o f a rchaeologists w hich i s t he c reation o f m odels. I t i s a r ather u nfortunate t rend i n o ur d iscipline t hat w hen s o m uch s olid a rtefactual e vidence o f o ur p ast r emains u nexamined i n m useum c ollections much t ime a nd e ffort i s s pent c reating t heoretical m odels. M odels, w hich d espite t heir c omplicated m ethodology, s ucceed o nly i n s tating t hat w hich i s p lainly a nd s ometimes p ainfully o bvious.

4

I n t he e arly 1 970's S tuart P iggott s aid o f t he t rend t owards t he c reation o f m odels, " ...we m ust r ecognize t hat t here a re n ot o nly e xplicit m odels w hich w e k now w e a re u sing, b ut i mplicit m odels w hich w e d o n ot a lways r ealize w e a re u sing.

T hese a re m odels w hich h ave

t urned i nto b uilt-in a ssumptions o n o ur p art, a s a r esult o f t he s ocial c onditioning w hich m akes u s a nd o ur m odels a s much s ocial a rtefacts a s a h ouse o r ah andaxe. I t i s i mpossible t o t ake a w holely d etached v iew: w e a re a ll c hildren o f o ur a ge a nd w e t hink i n t erms o f 6 .

t hat a ge,

s o t hat o ur m odels,

e xplicit a nd i mplicit, a re e qually

T his c onditioned a nd c annot b e t hought t o e mbody i mmutable t ruths." 5 e choes E .H. C arr's c autionary w ords t o h istorians, " My f irst a nswer, t herefore t o t he q uestion, ' what i s h istory?', i s t hat i t i s a c ontinuous p rocess o f i nterraction b etween t he h istorian a nd h is f acts, a n u nending d ialogue b etween t he p resent a nd t he p ast. " P iggott's s tatement e xpresses c learly t he p roblems t hat o ccur i n t he a nalysis o f p rehistoric s ocial c onditions. M uch o f o ur c urrent p hilosophical b asis f or t he a nalysis o f s ocial a nd e conomic s tructures i s b ased u pon t he w riting o f K arl M arx . W e h ave u sed t his p hilosophical m ethodology f or m any y ears, b ut w hilst t he e conomic d iscussion w hich i s i ts b asis i s g enerally s ound, w e h ave t ended t o a ccept s omewhat u ncritically m any o f t he n on-economic f ormulations w hich h ave b een d eveloped f rom i t.

C entral t o t his p roblem i s t he f act t hat m uch o f

M arxist t hought i s b ound t o c urrent p olitical i deology a nd t his c olours o ur p erception o f p ast s ocial a nd p olitical c onditions. T he a bsolute e xtremes a re t hankfully f ew ,

b ut w e n eed o nly c onsider t he d istortion

o f e vidence t o f it p olitical t heory t hat w as p ractised b y N arr i n R ussia, 7 o r, a t t he o ther e nd o f t he p olitical s pectrum, K ossinna i n G ermany .8 U ltimately, i t i s n ot w hether p olitical t heory i s c orrect o r i ncorrect t hat i s i mportant,

i t i s t he a mount b y w hich a ny p hilosophical

m ethod a nd i ts a ttendant m odels c olour o ur p erception o f t he p ast. N o o ne c an d eny t hat a rchaeology m ust h ave a p hilosophical f ramework a nd a m ethodological a pparatus. B ut t his p hilosophical k it e xists t o p roduce h ypotheses which m ust s tand o r f all b y t heir r elev ance t o t he a ctuality o f t he e xcavations. W e m ust a ttempt t o a void t he d ominance o f t heory a nd t o s ee m odels n ot a s f rameworks u pon w hich t he p ast i s r econstructed, b ut a s s caffolding u pon w hich w e s tand t o w ork u pon t he e difice o f t he p ast. W e m ust a lso b e a ware o f t he e xtent o f t he b iases c reated b y o ur c urrent p olitical h eritage i n o ur t reatm ent o f p ast s ocial a nd p olitical s tructures. O ur c urrent b iases h ave m ade t he d iscussion o f t he c entral t heme o f t his w ork, s ocial s tratification, a p articularly t horny p roblem, a nd o ne i n w hich t he r ecourse t o p arallels i n c urrently e xisting p rimitive s ocieties a nd i n m odern p olitical a nd e conomic t heory i s m ade q uite r eadily.

A s

Ih ave n oted a bove,

t he u tmost c are. e galitarian, t hat n ot e xist b ecause h istorian, o r t he

t hese p arallels n eed t o b e d rawn w ith

P rehistoric s ocieties m ay, o r m ay n ot, h ave b een a waits t o b e s een -b ut t heir s ocial c onditions d id o f t he t heories o f an ineteenth c entury e conomic c urrent s tate o f p rimitive s ocieties, t hey e xisted

b ecause o f r esponses t o e conomic, s ocial a nd p olitical c onditions i n t heir p resent. T heir p resent, n ot o ur p ast. P arallels c an b e d rawn, b ut t hese n eed t o b e t ested t horoughly a gainst t he a rchaeological e vidence, a nd t he n egative e vidence, w hich i s s o o ften t he b asis f or t he r econstruction o f p rehistoric p olitical c onditions, i s n o e vidence a t a ll, d espite t he p ersuasiveness o f t he m odels w hich a re c reated f rom i t. N egative e vidence a nd i deological b ias a re t he m ost p otent c reators o f h ighly i maginary r econstructions o f t he s ocial l ife o f p rehistoric c ommunities w hich s imply c annot b e j ustified b y t he e xtent o f t he m aterial e vidence. A n e xample w hich c omments o n t he A nau I c ulture o f C entral A sia s ays " The b uildings o f t he s mall v illages s how b y t heir n ature t hat t heir i nhabitants m ay h ave l ived a s n uclear 7 .

f amilies w ho s hared e qual r ights i n t he c ommunity. T he g rave g oods, a t a ny r ate, g ive n o g round t o s uppose t hat p roperty i nequality e xisted a t t hat t ime. 19 T he p hysical r emains o f t he h uts a t A nau a re a f ew f oundations. A nother e xample c oncerns t he p ostulated a bsence o f s ocial h ierarchy a t c atal H üyük, " ...the b uildings a re r emarkably u niform a nd t here i s n o d ifferentiation o f l arge e lite o r p ublic b uildings... W hatever t he p recise s ocial o rganisation o f t he s ite o r t he c haracter o f t he t rade t hat s upported i t, t here i s l ittle i ndication o f r anking. i d° I t i s n ecessary t o s tress t hat o nly a s mall f raction o f g atal H üyük h as b een e xcavated. 1 1 T he d anger o f d rawing c onclusions s uch a s t hese f rom l imited e vidence i s b est i llustrated b y t he f ollowing e xamples. I f, f or s ome r eason, t he p yramid o f C heops h ad v anished w e c ould a rgue t hat a c lassless s ociety e xisted o n i ts s ite b y c iting t he r emains o f t he w orkers' h uts w hich l ie near i t. T hese w ere u niform a nd l acked e vidence o f h ierarchical d istinction. 12 E qually t he o rdinary h uts t nat s urrounded t he g reat c eremonial c entres o f M esoamerii r c ivilization w ere u niform a nd l acked e vidence o f s ocial d istinction. P ut s imply, p resent o pinion p laces t he o rigin o f s ocial s tratif ication i n p eriods w hen t he r ealisation o f t he e xchange v alue o f c ommodities w as d iscovered t o e nhance t heir v alues o ver a nd a bove t heir s ubsistence w orth. I n o ther t erms, s ome p eople d iscovered h ow t o g et r ich a t t he e xpense o f t heir f ellows. A n i mportant c omponent o f t his t heory i s i ts r eliance u pon a n e conomic b ase r ather t han a s ocial o r p olitical m otive. T he r eliance r esults n ot b ecause a rchaeologists a re i deologically a verse t o s ocial o r p olitical r easons f or t he g rowth o f s ocial s tratification, b ut b ecause, o f t he t hree p ossible c auses, o nly e conomic f actors a re l iable t o l eave t races i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. A p rehistoric s ettlement o r c emetery i n w hich s ome s ections h ave m ore a rtefacts t han t he a verage c an o ffer a v ery a cceptable p icture o f a s tratified s ociety, a nd s ome v ery i nteresting i nterpretat ions o f s uch s ites h ave b een m ade. S usan S hennan p rovided o ne o f t he m ost i mportant s tu s4es o f t his k ind i n h er e xamination o f t he E BA c emetery a t B ran . ' P eebles a nd K us h ave p rovided a d etailed a nd f arr eaching a nalysis o f a M ississippian c ulture s ite a t M oundville, A labama i n t he U nited S tates. T heir s tudy e xamines b oth b urials a nd s ettlements a nd o ffers s ome i nteresting a nd i mportant c onclusions a bout t he n ature o f s ocial s tratification a nd a r e-interpretation o f t he r ole o f c hiefs. I n p articular t he s uggestion t hat c hieftainship, i n t his c ulture, w as n ot b ased o n r edistribution o f w ealth -a n a ssumption w hich h as l ong b een c entral t o o ur i deas o f t he r ole o f c hiefs i n m any p rehistoric s ocieties. 1 5 W hat, h owever, i f a s ociety h as a s ocial s tratification i n w hich p ower, r ank o r w hatever i s b ased u pon s omething o ther t han p hysical w ealth? W e c ould n ot d iscern t he s ocial s tatus o f a n o rthodox I slamic r uler o r a M edieval f riar f rom t he e vidence o f t heir g raves. A E uropean B ronze A ge w arrior i s o bviously a p erson o f r ank, b ut what o f h is c ounterpart a mongst t he P lains I ndians o f A merica where t he b ody w as n ot i nterred b ut e xposed f or d ecomposition? O ur p rimary e vidence, l ike t he t heoretical c onsiderations d iscussed a bove, a lso s erves, i f w e a re n ot c areful, t o p redetermine t he c onclusions w e will d raw. T hus a c emetery i n w hich t here i s n o a ppreciable d ifferences i n t he g rave c ontents b ecomes t he r emains o f a n e galitarian s ociety, n ot b ecause i t i s, b ut b ecause o ur a ccepted s ymbols o f r ank a re m issing.

8 .

Another problem, and one related to the previous discussion concerns the basis upon which initially to focus the research. In Europe, the main region for examination, there are no residual primi­ tive cultures which, in theory, may have preserved some vestige of prehistoric social features. The present state of research is there­ fore based, by necessity, upon the material cultural remains, which are mainly from burials. A theory of the creation of social stratifi­ cation has accordingly developed which places this event in the Early Bronze Age. This view has been created by a circular piece of reasoning based upon a combination of the two problems discussed previously. Firstly we are ideologically committed to the view that social rank and wealth are interrelated, and that this wealth will be reflected in physical things. The first physically demonstrable wealth we have in the archaeological record is the metal grave-goods of the EBA. Our second assumption is that a society will demonstrate its social structure by the wealth in its graves. Unhappily the simple truth is that social rank must be reflected in physical wealth, for without this happy correlation of two separate social features, the archaeologist or anthropologist cannot advance theories of social stratification. It is thus that a circular argument has developed and to move from this impasse requires a fundamental re-examination of our assumptions about social stratification and elites within society. The traditional view of the causes of social stratification in Europe has stood unaltered for many years, and relies upon two inter­ The first is the abandon­ related occurrences for its raison d'�tre. ment of the communal burial practices which are a signal feature of the Late Neolithic in much of western and central Europe. The second is the emergence of the custom of single burials. With the emergence of single grave cultures comes the opportunity as discussed above for archaeologists to discern by the grave contents the individual wealth of the people interred therein. The presence in the graves of weapons offers another piece of evidence, and thus the overall view that "... the disparity in the grave deposits show us ti emergence of a stratified society with a warrior-aristocracy ... " 5 Coles and Harding succinctly express this hypothesis, "In most parts of Bronze Age Europe one finds - in distinction to Neolithic practice - 'rich' graves and 'poor' graves side by side. The rich graves vary in richness, but the richest are remarkable not only for their splendour but also for the amount of potential wealth encapsulated in them and thus lost to the society that produced them. It is hard to think of this process in terms other than those of aggrandisement of the few, the rise of the elite, and the start of social stratification. Once acquired, this habit was never lost: it persists to the present day.11 17 As does, one might add, the above hypothesis. There is no denying the appearance of rich graves, nor, for that matter, the clear evidence of some form of stratified society which they represent. Also the presence of rich children's graves tends to indicate that a society is stratified - the age of the occupants argues against their capacity to acquire the wealth objects.18 This last point is a somewhat uncertain benchmark for it is quite possible that excessive displays of grief might create biases in the artefacts. The main objects which provide the real core of the hypothesis are metal artefacts. Randsborg has done a study of Danish EBA graves. He has analysed the distribution of bronze objects in the graves, and 9.

has found a preponderance of weapons in male graves, and a preponder­ ance of jewellery objects in female graves, thus further strengthening the idea of a rich class of warriors. He has further argued that the concentration of gold objects in graves with the most bronzework confirms this picture of a wealthy warrior elite. 19 The evidence of these EBA graves has also been used to create models to explain exactly how the elite class came into being. The most favoured, as we can see from the above examples, is the concept of a warrior group taking control and eventually monopolising the metal industry. This warrior elite was able also, with its new bronze weapons, to subjugate the peasant farmers and extract tribute of food in return for protection.20 The other favoured model sees the new elite as traders and metallurgists. An entrepreneurial group who were able, through their technical skills to monopolise metal supplies and in doing so accumulated wealth and social power.21 These two models can be amplified to create a basic model for the extension of terri­ tories under the control of these aristocrats. Welinder has proposed a scheme based upon evidence from Sweden. He sees an expansionist system with a redistributive function in which a chieftain, who has control of the output of a metal smith, is able to ·create a situation where neighbouring settlements trade food for which they receive metal objects, and happily for the chieftain, political subjugation.22 This is an interesting idea for it argues for cases where the export or extension of political power is by economic rather than military means.23 This situation has been explored by Philip Kohl in his suggestion that some village economies in Mesopotamia were deliberately restricted so as to enhance steatite bowl production.24 The above is a very brief summary of the foremost arguments which seek to explain the development of social stratification in Europe. It is plain how closely it is bound by the evidence of the rich burials. The sudden appearance of a recognisable symbol of wealth - bronze - has led to explanations which make use of the evid­ ence, but which do not explore the possibility of personal wealth taking other forms. Several years ago Antonio Gilman proposed that we should look further back than the Bronze Age for the beginnings of social stratifi­ cation.25 He suggested, in a penetrating article, that the roots may lie in economic developments in the Late Neolithic where capital intensive activities such as viticulture, olive growing, deep-sea fishing and irrigation projects created the need for protection of valuable and difficult-to-replace resources. In the search for protection these agriculturalists turned to "hired" warriors. The warriors, at first the servants, evolved into a ruling group whose military power allowed them to consolidate a hierarchical and heredi­ tary aristocracy which came to own the products they were originally engaged to protect.26 Gilman's theory seeks in a very positive way to escape the methodological impasse created by the equation of EBA metal grave goods with the emergence of social stratification. Also he is able to counter the argument that is commonly raised against elite growth models, which is that the "oppressed" could easily move thus depriving the elite of the source of the wealth and social status. Gilman argues that the time-and-wealth consuming aspects of olive growing,

10.

v iticulture, d eep-sea f ishing a nd i rrigation w ould m ake p eople r eluctant a nd, q uite p ossibly, e conomically u nable t o m ove.L 7 T hus, a ccording t o G ilman , t he w ealthy e lite o f t he E BA w ould h ave r uled o ver ah ereditary p easant g roup t hat w as t ied t o t he l and b y c apital e xpenditure, a nd t hat t he E BA s ees o nly t he c ontinuation o f r ule b y e lite g roups r ather t han i ts i nception. G ilman's t heory i s i nteresting b ut, ultimately, i t i s u nsatisf actory. I t s eeks t o p rovide a n a nswer b y s imply m oving t he p roblem b ack s everal c enturies a nd t o a d ifferent d ata b ase. I nstead o f r apacious t raders w e a re o ffered r apacious w arriors, a nd t he f unerary e vidence i s r eplaced b y a c all t o d iscover b otanical e vidence t o s upport t his h ypothesis. 28 T his, i n i tself, i s n ot u nwelcome, b ut i n t he e nd w e s till h ave a t heory w hich p laces t he d evelopment o f s ocial s tratification q uite l ate i n E uropean p rehistory. B oth h ypotheses h ave i n c ommon a n umber o f a ssumptions w hich r eflect a ttitudes t hat m ay r esult m ore f rom t he s ocial c onditioning o f t he a rchaeologists t han t he a rchaeological e vidence. T hese a ssumptions w ill b e d iscussed i n m ore d etail i n s ubsequent c hapters, b ut f or n ow I w ill l ist t hem w ith s ome p reliminary c omments. F irstly, t here i s t he v ery b asic a ssumption t hat t he p ossession o f p hysical w ealth w ill a utomatically e levate t he p ossessor t o a p osition o f s ocial a uthority. 29 T his d oes h appen, b ut i t i s n ot a n a utomatic p rocess.

I t m ay w ell b e t hat t he f irst t ime t hose p eople

a ssumed a uthority w as w hen t hey w ere p romoted b y a rchaeologists. S ocial a uthority g ives t he o pportunity t o a cquire wealth, b ut t he r everse i s l ess c ertain. A nother a ssumption i s t hat t he w ealth o f o ur h ypothetical r uling c lass w as a cquired u sing t he f eudal s ystem . T here i s a bsolutely n o e vidence e ither t o s upport o r d eny t his t heory. A t hird a ssumption i s t hat t he a ppearance o f b ronze w eapons i n t he g raves d enotes a s udden i ncrease i n m ilitarism . 30 B ronze w eapons a re f ound s imply b ecause b ronze i s r esistant t o d ecay. O ur N eolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge p eople c ould h ave b een u sing w ooden s pears a nd c lubs a gainst e ach o ther,

b ut t hese o bjects d o n ot s urvive e asily.

T he a ssumption i s

a lso made t hat t he s ource o f w ealth w as t he m anufacture o f, a nd t rade i n , b ronze. T his i s p ossible, b ut a s G ilman p oints o ut, t he p resence o f b ronze o bjects t ells u s o nly t hat t he o ccupants c ould a fford b ronze I t i s a lso a ssumed t hat o bjects, n ot t hat t hey m anufactured t hem . 31 s ocial s tratification d id n ot d evelop u ntil t he L ate N eolithic o r t he E arly B ronze A ge. T his i s, a s w e h ave s een, b ased u pon p urely n egative e vidence, a nd d emonstrates h ow d eeply e ngrained i s o ur m odern c oncept o f e galitarianism a s t he G arden o f E den f rom w hich w e w ere e xpelled f or e ating t he a pple o f v ulgar m aterialism . A ll i n a ll, t he a ssumptions a bout t his a spect o f o ur s ocial d evelopment t ell u s, a s Ih ave s uggested, m ore a bout o ur a rchaeologists t han o ur p ast. I t i s n ot m y i ntention t o o ffer t oo h arsh a c riticism o f c urrent a rguments c oncerning t he o rigin o f s ocial s tratification. S ocial c lass d oes n ot f ossilise a t a ll w ell, a t l east i n t he p hysical s ense, a nd w e a re t herefore r estricted t o a pplying o ur d eductive p owers t o t he p hysical r emains o f c omplex s ocieties, w hich m ay o r m ay n ot h ave t ransf erred s ome i ndication o f t heir s ocial c omplexity t o t heir a rtefacts. O ne need o nly c ompare t he c omplex s ocial s tructure o f a m odern h unterg atherer s ociety w ith t he s implicity o f t heir m aterial c ulture. A lso Id o n ot w ish t o d ismiss c onclusions b ased o n n egative e vidence, i t i s, 1 1.

a fter a ll,

t he l ack o f b ronze o bjects i n s ome g raves,

a s m uch a s t heir

p resence i n o thers, i n t he E BA t hat a llows u s t o d educe t hat t here w ere r ich a nd p oor i n t hat s ociety. B ut a n a rtefact c annot b e u sed a s t he b enchmark f or a s ocial p henomenon i n a p eriod b efore i ts i nvention. T herefore b ronze m ay b e t he i ndex o f s ocial s tratification i n t he E BA b ut t he r eal q uestion i s, w hat i s t he i ndex i n t he N eolithic? Q uite p ossibly i t w as a t s ome p eriod G ilman's c apital i ntensive i ndustries, b ut w hat w as i t b efore? I t i s h oped t hat t he a nswer t o t his q uestion w ill b e f ound n ot j ust i n a r e-examination o f t he m ore p opular t heories but a lso i n s ome a dditional a reas o f e nquiry. t han t hey d eserve.

S ome t hat h ave r eceived l ess a ttention

A n i mportant p oint, a nd o ne t hat i s s urprisingly a bsent f rom G ilman's d iscussion, a nd m any o thers, i s t he p ossibility t hat t he g rowth o f s ocial s tratification i s n ot a ssociated w ith t rade o r p rimitive f eudalism, b ut i nstead w ith u sury. G ilman h as s tressed t he c apital i ntensive n ature o f s ome e arly e conomic d evelopments, a nd t his p oint i s c onceded. B ut w e m ust a lso l ook a t t he s imple p roposition t hat p erhaps s urplus p roduction w as n ot a lways t raded f or v aluable o bjects b ut w as i nstead l oaned a s d evelopment " capital" t o f armers b eginning n ew f arms. T his c apital c ould h ave b een l oaned e ither a s s eed g rain t o e nable o thers t o s tart f arms, o r a s " financial" a id t o s upport f armers w hilst t heir o lives, g rapes o r g rain c rops w ere c oming t o m aturity. D ebts c ould h ave b een r epaid w ith s ome f orm o f i nterest, a p ortion o f t he c rop f or i nstance, w hich i ncreased t he m aterial a ssets o f t he c reditor, a nd p erhaps m ore i mportantly, w hilst t he d ebt r emained u npaid, t he c reditor h ad a m aterial h old o ver t he d ebtor, b ecoming i n e ffect a l eader o f a c ommunity. O f n ote i s t he S umerian t erm f or " interest" w hich i s d erived f rom t he c haracter f or y oung g oats. 32 T his v iew a llows a d irect c orrelation b etween t he r ise o f c apitalism a nd t he r ise o f s ocial s tratification i n p re-monetary s ocieties. M arxist t hought t ends t o p lace t his d evelopment m uch l ater.

3 3

C onnected w ith t he c oncept o f u sury i s t he t hought t hat p erhaps i tems o f e quipment c ould h ave b een l oaned f or a s uitable r ental f ee. T he m ajor i tem t hat c omes i mmediately t o m ind i s t he t ractor o f

t he

p rimitive w orld -the o x . W e k now t hat o xen w ere u sed t o d raw t he a rds o f N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge f armers f or t here a re m any p etroglyphs d epicting t his p ractice f rom a ll o ver E urope. 34 I t i s c lear a lso t hat a mong m any m odern f armers t here i s r esistance t o t he u se o f o xen, t he m ajor c oncern b eing t hat a n o x i s a v ery e xpensive a nimal t o k eep a nd i n m arginal a reas t he c ost o f u pkeep e rodes t he a dditional p roduction P erhaps w ealthy m ade p ossible b y t he u se o f o xen t o d raw p lows. 35 f armers m ay h ave r ented t heir o xen t o l ess a ffluent p eople u nable t o b ear t he c ost o f o wning o xen, o r, e ven s impler, n ot y et f ully e stabl ished o n t heir o wn f arms. O nce a gain p ayment c ould have b een i n t he nd t he o wner o f t he o xen m ay h ave a ssumed a f orm o f p roduce, 36 a p osition o f i mportance i n t he c ommunity. T he i mportance o f b oth t hese f orms o f c apital " investment" i s t hat t hey c ontain t he m echanism o f d ebt t ransference f rom g eneration t o g eneration. 3 7 T his p rovides t he o perational m odel f or t he t ransference o f p ersonal s tatus f rom g eneration t o g eneration. T hus w e h ave a m odel w here p ersonal w ealth c an b e t ranslated i nto s ocial p ower, w ithout t he n ecessity f or e ndemic w arfare. 1 2.

C an w e b e s ure, h owever, t hat g raves w hich c ontain t he b odies o f w omen, a nd c hildren, w ith c ostly g rave-goods a re n ecessarily r epresent atives o f a h ereditary n obility? P erhaps t hey a re f rom s ingle g eneration w ealthy f amilies. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat s ome w ealthy g raves r eflect t he p resence o f s ome f orms o f r itual s acrifice a nd r itual w ealth d isposal.

H uman s acrifice w as c ommon i n E urope d own t o

t he R oman p eriod.-5 8 F urthermore, w e h ave t he p roblem o f d eciding i f t he e conomic a nd d emographic i nformation i ndicated b y t he g raves i s c orrect. U cko d emonstrated t he d ifficulties o f u sing t he e vidence p resented i n c emeteries,

b y d rawing a ttention t o t he v ariety o f b urial

c ustoms w ithin c ontemporary s ocieties.

3 9

R ecently,

O 'Shea 4 u w as a ble

t o d emonstrate e vidence o f s ocial r anking i n t he g raves o f s ome A merican I ndian s ocieties b y u sing e thnographic d etails t o d efine w hich o bjects w ere s tatus i tems, a nd t hen a nalysing t he g rave c ontents. T his a pproach, a nd t he m odels d eveloped, h ave s ome l imitations s ince t hey a re o nly a pplicable t o s ites w here w e c an e stablish a c ontinuity o f c ulture b etween p ast a nd p resent.

s ee,

T he m atter o f t he o rigins o f s ocial s tratification i s, a s w e c an a d ifficult b ut i nteresting p roblem . T heories a nd a ssumptions

c ompete f or a cceptance i n t he a nalysis o f a p henomenon w hich h as l eft l ittle p hysical t race i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T here i s a m glange o f e xplanations, e ach o f w hich " works" u ntil i t i s c losely e xamined. W e k now t hat h ereditary s ocial c lasses d eveloped a nd w e a ssume t hat t his o ccurred i n t he E BA , b ecause o ne c ommodity -b ronze -provides a c onvenient s tandard f or a ssessment. B ut b efore b ronze t here w ere p robably o ther v aluable b ut l ess d urable c ommodities w hich c ould h ave c reated t he s ocial m echanisms f or t he o rigin o f c lasses. W e w ill b egin o ur examination w ith t he s ocial s ystems o f h unter-gatherers.

1 3.

R EFERENCES 1 .

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M oscow, p . 1 82ff; P . B onte, 1 981, ' Marxist t heory a nd a nthropol ogical a nalysis: t he s tudy o f n omadic p astoralist s ocieties', i n J .S. K ahn a nd J .R . L lobera, e ds., T he A nthropology o f P reC apitalist S ocieties, 3 4.

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p. p

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M t. B ggo, P rovence, F rance; H . d e L umley, M .-E. F onvielle a nd J . A belanet, 1 976, " Les g ravures r upestres d e l 'age d u B ronze d ans l a r ggion d u M ont B eg° ( Tende, A lpes Maritimes)", i n, J . G uilaine, e d., L a P rghistoire F ransaise, L es C ivilisations Ngolithigues e t P rotohistorigues d e l a F rance,

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P aris, F ig. 4 : A sperget a nd F ossum , B ohüslan, S weden; C oles a nd H arding, 1 979, p . 3 18, p ls. 1 3a a nd 1 3b: a nd V al C amonica, N orthern I taly, E . A nati, 1 965, T he C amonica V alley, J onathan C ape, L ondon, p p. 1 14-115, a re a f ew. 3 5.

3 6.

I nstances f rom I ndonesia a nd G ambia a re r eported i n C . C lark a nd M . H aswell, 1 964, T he E conomics o f S ubsistence Agriculture, M acmillan a nd C o., L ondon, p p. 5 5-56. O ne m ust n ot d iscount t he p ossibility t hat p ayment c ould h ave b een i n l abour, t hus s trengthening t he f eudal i mage. L abour i s a v ery i mportant c ommodity o n p resent d ay p rimitive f arms w here, n aturally, t he a mount o f f ood p roduced i s u tterly d ependent u pon h ow m uch l and c an b e b rought i nto u se. C lark a nd H aswell, 1 964, c hpt.

3 7.

5 .

M odern p arallels a bound i n t he t hird w orld c ountries w ith g eneration a fter g eneration t ied t o s ervice t hrough h igh a nd c ompounding i nterest c harges o n d ebts. F or a n i nteresting d iscussion o f o ne a spect o f t his p roblem s ee D .W. M cCurdy, 1 974, ' Savings o n l oans i n t ribal I ndia', i n J .P. S pradley a nd D .W . M cCurdy, e ds., C onformity a nd C onflict, B oston, p p. 4 28-438.

3 8.

L ittle,

B rown a nd C o.,

T acitus, G ermania 9 , a mongst o ther r eferences. S ome o f t he b odies r ecovered f rom E uropean b ogs w ere s acrificial v ictims, P .V . G lob, 1 977, T he B og P eople, F aber a nd F aber, L ondon, p . p .

1 51ff; 9 8ff.

S . P iggott, 1 974, T he D ruids, P enguin, H armondsworth, T he r itual d isposal o f m etal a nd o ther v aluable

o bjects w as a c ustom i n s ome I ron A ge s ocieties, B . C unliffe, 1 974, I ron Age C ommunities i n B ritain, R outledge a nd K egan P aul, L ondon, p . 2 97. 3 9.

P .J. U cko, 1 969, ' Ethnography a nd a rchaeological o f f unerary r emains', W A 1 , p p. 2 62-280.

4 0.

J .M . O 'Shea, 1 984, M ortuary V ariability: I nvestigation, A cademic P ress, L ondon.

1 6.

i nterpretation

A n Archaeological

C HAPTER 2 R ANKING I N H UNTER-GATHERER S OCIETIES S ocial s tructures g row f rom o ur n eed t o m anage o ur e xistence w ithin t he r estraints c reated b y o ur e conomic a nd s ocial n eeds. W e e xist i n a c ircular s ocial p rocess c reated b y i ntellectual a nd t echnological a dvances w hich l iberate u s f rom n atural r estraints, b ut w hich i n t heir t urn c reate n ew r estraints a nd u ltimately f resh n eeds t o m odify o ur s ocial c ondition.

C onversely t he l ack o f c omplexity i n

a n e conomic s ystem m eans t he l ess p ressing t he n eed t o c reate s ocial m eans t o m anage i t. A w ide e cological a nd g eographical r ange a t t he b ase o f a s imple e conomic s ystem m eans l ess n eed, o r d esire, t o c reate t erritorial r estraints. A f undamental d emonstration o f t he e ffect o f r estraints u pon t he c reation o f t erritorial a nd h ierarchical s tructures c an b e f ound i n t he b ehaviour o f p rimates. P rimates i n t he w ild e xhibit d efined s ocial b ehaviour i n w hich a ge, s trength, a nd s ex a ll p lay i mportant p arts. S ome t ypes h ave s mall s ocial u nits. T he h amadryas, g eladas a nd g ibbons, f or e xample, f orm g roups b ased u pon s trong b onding b etween m ating p airs. A dult m ales e mphasise t his s ocial s tructure b y c reating p rivate t erritories w hich t hey d efend v igourously. O ther t ypes h ave l arge s ocial u nits. B aboons, c himpanzees a nd m acaques, f or e xample, f orm t roops w hich d epend u pon t he m ore c omplex s ocial o rganisation o f m aternal a nd s ibling b onding f or t heir c ohesiveness. I n t hese c ommunities h ierarchical s tructure e xtends f ar b eyond t he m ating p air t o e ncompass t he w hole t roop. 1 I n t he w ild b oth s ocieties a re a s ocial a nd b iological r esponse t o t he r estraints b oth o f t he e nvironment, a nd t he i ndividual s pecies' a bility t o s ustain i ts e xistence w ith t he a vailable r esources. I f o vercrowding o ccurs, t hen g roups l eave a nd t he e nvironmental a nd s ocial t ensions a re r eleased. I n c aptivity, w here t he i ntervention o f m an c reates a n ew r estraint, a nd a n a dditional c omplexity i n t he s ocial o rder, t he p rimate r esponse i s t o r etain t he s ocial o rder o f t he w ild s tate w ith t he a ddition t hat t he s ocial r oles o f d ominance a nd m ating b ecome r igidly s et. 2 I n e ffect t he i nherent c aptivity o f t he i ndividual w hich i s c reated b y s ocial o rganisation i s s trengthened w hen c hanges i n t he e nvironment c ause a r eduction o f t he e cological a nd g eographical r ange. T hus s ocial m anagement o f t he n ew r estraints r equires a m ore s trict o rdering o f t he s ocial b ehaviour o f t he c ommunity. T here i s a g iant g ap b etween t he s ocial f oundations o f a p rimate t roop a nd t he s ocial a nd i ntellectual f oundations o f a h unter-gatherer g roup. B ut t his g ap w hich i s c reated b y t he l atter's u se o f c omplex l anguage, t he m anufacture o f t ools a nd a m ore d iverse u tilisation o f r esources,

i s c onsiderably l ess i f w e t ake i nto a ccount

t he r estraints

o f t he s ocial o rder. B oth g roups m ust f ind t he s ocial m eans t o e nsure t hat t hey s urvive u pon t he a vailable r esources. T he p rimary h uman r esponse t o t he d ictates o f e nvironmental r estraint i s t o c reate s ocial s tructures w hich e nsure t hat t he g roup i s b est a ble t o u tilise i ts a vailable r esources. T hese s tructures i n t urn f oster r ules w hich b ind t he g roup a nd e nsure t hat i t d oes n ot e xceed t he l imits o f t he r esources u pon w hich i t d epends. T he s ocial r ules a lso c reate t he n eed f or s ome f orm o f e xecutive c ontrol t o e nsure t hat t hey a re o bserved.

I n h unter-gatherer g roups t his c reates t he p osition 1 7.

o f c hief. I n t he p rimate g roup c rowding c reated t he r igidisation o f s ocial r oles. I n t he h uman g roup c rowding c reates t he n eed f or e xecutive c ontrol o f s ocial a ctivity. A f undamental f eature o f h unter-gatherer g roups i s t heir a pparently e galitarian n ature. T he r ole o f t he c hief i n h unter g atherer s ocieties i s l argely c oncerned w ith e nsuring t hat t he g roup m akes t he o ptimum u se o f f ood r esources a nd t his s implicity i s e xemplified i n t heir t itles.

T he c hief o f a n

! Kung B ushman b and c an

b e a n /iha o r g aoxa, " chief", o r a k xau " headman". T he c hief o f a N ambikuara b and o f B razil i s t he u ilikande, " one w ho u nites" o r " the o ne w ho j oins t ogether".

4

A mong t he v arious E skimo t ribes t he c hiefs

mialik, " owner o f a h ave a v ariety o f n ames; n alingag " good-hunter"; 5 u b oat"; näs-kuk, " the h ead"; a nd ä i-ai yu-kSk, " the o ne t o w hom a ll T he A ndaman I slanders r eferred t o t heir c hiefs a s e r-kuro , l isten". 6 " big", 7 o r m ai a -igla, " chief" o r " leader" .8 I n t hese s imple c ommunities t he c hiefs h ave l imited a uthority, a nd n o p ower t o e nforce d ecisions. 9 A c hief's r ole i s s ometimes t o d irect h is b and 's s earch f or f ood, a nd o n o ccasions d eal w ith o utsiders, a nd h is a uthority r ests l argely o n h is c ontinual a bility t o p erform t hese t asks t o t he p opular s atisfaction. A mongst t he E skimo, w ith t heir m aritime e conomy,

t he t itle o f u mialik " owner o f a b oat"

d escribes t he r ole a nd f unction o f t he c hief a s a d irector o f r esource m anagement. A c hief o f t he N ambikuara d escribed h is r ole a s w alking a head o f t he g roup i n i ts t ravels. 10 T he r ole o f t he c hief, d espite t his a pparent s implicity, c an b e o nerous a nd s ometimes t here i s a m arked r eluctance t o a ssume t he r ole. 1 1 T he r estraints u pon t he a uthority o f a c hief,

i n h unter-gatherer

s ociety, d o n ot o ccur b ecause t here e xists a n e thical p recept t hat e galitarianism i s t he i deal p olitical c ondition f or t he c ommunity. P rimitive s ocieties a re n ot e galitarian i n t he s ense o f o ur m odern p olitical v alues. o f s everal f actors.

P rimitive e galitarianism a rises o ut o f a c ombination F irstly,

t here i s

t he c ommon r eliance u pon a ll

r esources w ithin t he b and's t erritory. B ecause p eople d o n ot g row c rops, o r r aise a nimals b ut i nstead u se r esources t hat o ccur n aturally , t here i s n o c hance 1 2f or t he p roduction o f a r esource t o c onfer o wnership u pon i ts p roducer. T he s econd f actor i n t he m aintenance o f p rimitive e galitarianism i s t he f act t hat a ll b and m embers a re g enerally k in. T his d ictates t hat r esources a re s hared b ecause t he g roup i s k in a nd t hus e ntitled t o s hare i n r esources. 1 3 A t hird f actor w hich h as s ome b earing i s t he s ize o f b ands. S tudies i ndicate t hat t he m aximum p ermanent p opulation t hat c an b e s upported b y t he e conomy o f t he s impler h unter-gatherer s ocieties i s a round 2 5 t o p erhaps 4 0 m embers. W ithin s uch a s mall a nd i nterrelated g roup t here i s b ound t o b e a d ecrease i n t he u niqueness o f t he c hiefly r ole. Y ou c annot c laim d ivine d escent i f y ou h ave t he s ame a ncestors a s y our s ubjects. T he s ize o f h unter-gatherer b ands i s d etermined by a c ombination o f s everal f actors. T hese a re t he a verage, n ot o ptimum, r esources a vailable, a nd t he w alking d istance f rom t he c amp-site n ecessary t o g ather t hose r esources. B ecause t he g athering r ange t ends, t herefore, t o b e a c ircular t erritory, t here i s a ccordingly, a n e xponential i ncrease i n r esources a s t he d istance f rom t he c entral c amp i ncreases. T here i s, h owever, a l imit u pon t he d istance w hich a n i ndividual c an w alk a nd s till r eturn t o t he c amp i n a d ay, 1 8.

c onsidering t hat g athering

a lso i s a s low a nd c areful p rocess.

T he f actor o f d istance s eems t o

a ct t o l imit t he n umber o f p eople i n a p articular b and.

M ost h unter-

g atherers c ould, o ne p resumes, o vercome t his b y f requent c hanges o f c amps, b ut e ven t hen t he o verall r esources a vailable w ould b e d epleted. H unter-gatherer b ands t hat r etain t heir t raditional e conomies g enerally a verage a round 2 5 p ersons i n p opulation a nd g enerally p ractise s ome f orms o f b irth c ontrol t o k eep t o t his l imit. 1 4 G roups l arger t han t hese n ormal b ands d o a ssemble, b ut t hese a re u sually i n r esponse t o s easonal f ood g luts, o r r ituals a ssociated w ith t ribal o r r eligious a ffiliations. T he l arge g atherings w hich c an n umber o ver 1 00 p eople a re u sually o f s hort d uration, p erhaps a f ortnight a t m ost. F actors s uch a s d epletion o f f ood r esources o r f riction b etween b ands o r i ndividuals u sually a ppear f airly e arly a nd t he l arge g roup b reaks u p . 1 5 R esource a vailability i s c rucial t o p ermanent g roup s izes v ery l arge p ermanent p opulations a re p ossible w here r esources a re p lentiful, s uch a s t he American n orth-west c oast I ndians. T hese c onsiderations a re i mportant t o o ur a ssessment o f t he c amps o f t he U pper P alaeolithic h unters w hich a re e xamined i n c hapter 4 . R eturning n ow t o o ur m ain t heme,

i t

i s w rong t o s ee p rimitive

e galitarianism a s a f orm o f n atural d emocracy, a R ousseauian i deal s tate w herein t he n eeds a re s imple a nd t he g overnment m inimal. I n r eality t he s ociety i s f ormed i n r eaction t o t he r estraints c reated b y t he r esources u sed, a nd t he k inship s tructure w ithin t he b and. T he c hief's r ole i s t o w ork w ithin t hese r estraints, a nd y et p erform w hat i s e ssentially a n e xecutive t ask. T he e galitarianism p resent i n h unter-gatherer g roups s tems f rom t heir e conomic s ystem . I t i s n atural i n s o f ar a s i t m ust n ecessarily a bide b y t he n atural c onditions i n w hich i t e xists. T he e xemplar w hich Ih ave d escribed i s s ubject t o m any v ariations i n r eality. A m ajor c ause o f v ariation i s t he t ension c reated b ecause t he c ommunal n ature o f t he r esources m eans t hat t hey m ust b e m anaged w ithin a n e galitarian s ystem -yet, d espite t his p rinciple, t he s ystem n eeds l eadership, h owever s light,

t o c ontrol t he p rocess.

1 6

A t rue e galitarian s ystem

7 T herefore t he p rincipal w ould f unction w ithout t he n eed f or a c hief. 1 c ause o f t ension w ithin t he s ystem i s t he o ffice o f c hief, a nd w e m ust e xamine t his o ffice m ore f ully .

A n i mportant h int o f t he s ocial r esponse t o t his i nherent t ension l ies i n t he ! Kung a ttitude t o t heir c hiefs. A s i ndividuals t he ! Kung a re a verse t o p ersonal d isplay a nd t hey e xist u tterly a s m embers o f a g roup. 1 8 T heir b and l eaders a ttempt i n n o w ay t o s tand o ut. G ifts t hat t hey r eceive ( leadership a ttracts g ifts) w ould h ave t o b e s hared a s p art o f c ommunal p roperty a nd t hey g enerally r efuse t hese. R efusal d oes n ot a rise b ecause t he h eadman d islikes s haring, b ut b ecause a g ift w ould a ttract a ttention t o h imself a nd p erhaps p romote j ealousy. 1 9 I n a nother s ociety t he h eadman m ight n ot c are a bout t he j ealousy, b ut i n ! Kung s ociety t he c ommon n eed f or c o-operation i n s urvival i s o f c rucial i mportance. J ealousy w ould e ndanger ! Kung e conomic u nity. T he h eadman's r ole i s t o h old t heir r esources i n t rust a nd t o b e r esponsible f or t he i ntegrity o f t he b and's t erritory 20 n one o f w hich c ould b e d one e ffectively i f h e w as t he c entre o f T he ! Kung r esponse t o t he p otential s ocial t ension t hat j ealousy . 21 t he r ole o f t he h eadman m ight c reate i s t o e ncourage t he s eparation o f t he d uties f rom t he m an, b y s tressing t he i mportance o f h is m embership o f t he g roup r ather t han h is e xecutive r ole. 1 9.

The custom of gift giving and property sharing is present in most hunter-gatherer societies. This serves several purposes, one of which is pertinent to our inquiry. The resources from which property is drawn are communal, but property, that is the resources gathered by one person, is not. The custom of gift giving is the means by which the personal property gathered from communal resources is returned to the community, and through this process group unity is strengthened to the benefit of the individual.22 A variant of this process is the pauperization of headmen who are forced by custom, to distribute to their people the many gifts that they receive from outsiders seeking the co-operation of the band. L�vi-Strauss' description of the pressure exerted upon the headman of the Namb�kuara reveals that a chief is often reduced to a state of despair. 3 But despite the inference of excessive greed which is present in L�vi-Strauss' account, the power of the chief to treat with outsiders rests ultimately on the collective will of his people, and his distribution of gifts obtained is thus only another form of equal allocation of communal resources. In this case the collective will is the resource. The !Kyng are compulsive sharers and they have a very strong social order.Z4 As I have noted above, the chief is compelled to share by custom, but because he is also by custom, considered the best hunter25 he is compelled to give more. In a sense he is buying the right to retain office, but as it is unlikely he will be deposed, because of the hereditary control of special resources, he is actually surrendering through gift giving to the greater power of group unity. As in the case of the Nambikuaras this is a social mechanism by which the tension created by the office of leader in an egalitarian community is released. One might note, at this point, that there are great differences among hunter-gatherer societies in attitudes to resource sharing. The compulsive sharing present in !Kung society is contrasted with accounts of personal greed, refusal to share with relatives and instances of hoarding of meat. Sahlins has described this as a process of " ... temporizing between domestic welfare and broader obligations toward kinsmen in the hope of satisfying the latter without menacing the former. 11 2 6 To return to the !Kung, the rather complex social controls on the power of the headmen are necessary not just for the reasons discussed, but also because the office of headman is hereditary. Inheritance of the office is almost always to the senior son of the headman, but in rare cases a daughter may succeed. 2 7 The headmanship owes its hereditary nature to the communal need for the management of vital resources. Within the !Kung environment the resources are avail­ able to all members of the band, but the resources that define a territory, i.e. those ones without which a territory would not be viable, tsin beans, waterholes or wild oranges for example, are the property of the senior family group, the head of which is the leader of the band. A territory is called a n!ore, and whilst individual bands can, and do, share some resources, etiquett� demands that approval for use must be sought from the resource owner. 8 This linkage of resource ownership to leadership is fundamental to !Kung society and is so strong that there are no other means of selecting leaders if a lineage dies out. One group of San, the Gura, went for a number of years without a chief when his line died with him.2 9 Another result is that 20.

i f a l eader i s i ncompetent o r u npopular t hen t he b and's r ecourse i s t o here i s n o a ttempt t o w rest t he r esources w hich f orm t he d ecamp 3 ° - t n !ore f rom t heir h ereditary o wner. S imilar e xamples o f t he r elationship o f l eadership t o r esources, o wnership a nd t erritorial d efinition c an b e f ound i n t he G /wi S an s ociety . T he f ounder, a nd h ence t he o wner, o f a t erritory i s t he o ne f rom w hom p ermission t o u se r esources i s o btained. 31 A s w ith o ther S an g roups p ermission i s n ever a ctually r efused a nd t he o wner i s, i n e ffect, v oicing a pproval o n b ehalf o f h is f ellows a s t heir l eader. 3 2 S ilberbauer n otes t hat i f t here i s d oubt, o r r eluctance, t hen t he o wner m ay s ubmerge t heir a uthority i nto t he c ommon w ill a nd s eek g uidance. 33 T here i s s ome d oubt a s t o t he e xistence o f i nheritance o f r esource lthough t his s eems s omewhat m ore c learly o wnership a mongst t he G /wi, 34 a e xpressed a mongst t he ! Kung. 35 I t i s c lear t hen t hat, a lthough t he s ocieties o f t he ! Kung a nd G /wi a re i n p ractice l argely e galitarian, t his s tate i s a chieved o nly t hrough t he d eliberate u se o f c omplex s ocial m echanisms.

I t i s n atural

o nly i n s o f ar a s i t m ust a bide b y t he n atural c onditions o f t he e nvironment i n w hich i t e xists. R esources a re o pen t o a ll, b ut l eaders hip i s n ot a nd t his i s o pen o nly t o t he s enior f amily g roup w ithin w hose t erritory t he b and l ives. I n e ffect a lthough t he l eadership i s s imple, a nd i ncurs n o u nearned r espect, i t i s r estricted a nd h ereditary. O f c ourse o ne m ust b e c areful n ot t o s tretch t he i magery t oo f ar. T he i ntrinsic f eatures a re a s Ih ave d escribed, b ut i n p ractice l ittle o f t his i s o bvious f or, " Headmen a re a s t hin a s t he r est... . a nd) h ave c onsiderable r esponsibility w ithout a ny s pecific r eward." 36 T he m ost d eveloped f orm o f h ereditary r anking a mongst h unterg atherers w as f ound i n t he I ndian t ribes o f t he n orth-west c oast o f A merica. T here w as n o a ttempt t o c reate a n e galitarian s ociety f or, a s D rucker h as o bserved, " Northwest c oast s ociety w as o rganized o n n o i dealistic p remises o f t he e quality o f m an. E ach i ndividual h ad h is p lace i n t he a rbitrarily c alibrated s ocial s tructure o f h is c ommunity." 37 E ach I ndian g roup w as d ivided i nto t hree s ocial c lasses. T hese w ere g biefs o r n obles, c ommoners a nd s laves, a nd m embership w as h ereditary. J° B ut t here w ere, a part f rom t hese r ather v ague d istinct ions, n o r eal c lasses. E ach p erson, a s Ih ave n oted a bove, w as e ither s uperior o r i nferior t o s omeone e lse. 39 T he s tatus o f t he i ndividual w as a chieved a t b irth, a nd e ven w ithin f amilies s trict r ules o f p rimogeniture m aintained t he r elative r ank o f p eople. 40 I n a ddition t o t his r igidly c ontrolled s ystem o f r anking, n atural r esources w ere a lso s ubject t o c ontrols. A ll t he r esources u pon w hich t he g roup r elied f or s urvival w ere o wned b y s omeone o r o ther. R esources f rom b erry b ushes t hrough t o l engths o f b eaches w here f ish w ere c aught, o r t racts o f l and w herein s easonal r esources w ere a vailable, w ere s ubject t o r ules o f a pproval f or e xploitation b y o thers. 41 T hese r ights o f u se w ere i nalienable a nd w ere t ransmitted l ike s ocial r ank t hrough i nheritance. 42 A s w ith t he S an, p ermission f or u se w as n ever r efused, a nd o wnership i s g enerally e xpressed i n t he r ight t o f irst f ruits. 43 A nother f eature, w hich c an b e s een t o p arallel r esource o wnership i n t he s impler h unter-gatherer s ocieties, i s t hat t he r esources a re t he p roperty o f t he s enior m ember H is r ight b eing d ecided a t b irth a s Ih ave n oted o f a k in g roup. 44 a bove.

T his i s s imilar t o t he o wnership r ights o f a S an l eader, b ut 2 1.

f reed o f t he d irect c orrelation t o l eadership b ecause o f t he m uch g reater p opulation. T he f unction o f t he c hief i n t he n orth-west c oast s ocieties w as d irected u sually t owards t he c ontrol o f e conomic a ctivities w here l arge g roups w ere i nvolved. 45 Y et a part f rom c eremonial o ccasions, s uch w as t he p ressure o f t he r anking s ystem t hat a c hief d oes n ot s eem t o h ave p ossessed e xcessive p ower. K inship t ies, a nd t he c laims o f o ther i ndividuals w ith r ank a cted t o p revent t he r ise o f d espots. " A nd, a s w ith t he S an, t he n eed o f a ll t he c ommunity t o s hare r esources c reates a p owerful s ocial f orce t o a ct a gainst t he a buse o f r esource o wnership p rivileges,

y et i n e ach s ociety r ank a nd r esources a re l inked,

t here i s a h ereditary p rinciple w hich a cts t han r estrict i t.

a nd

t o o rder r esource u se r ather

W e w ill n ow t urn t o t he e xamination o f a d ifferent t ype o f s ociety -the h unting b ased s ocieties o f t he E skimos. I t i s i ronic t hat i n a n e nvironment w hich i s i ntolerant o f m istakes E skimo s ociety d eveloped a h igh t olerance o f h uman f railty .

T heir n eed f or s ocial

c o-operation i n s urvival c reated t he s ocial c apacity t o e xtract t he m ost p ositive a spects o f a p erson's c haracter, a nd.in d oing s o t olerating c haracteristics w hich w ere a nti-social. 47 T his i s a n otable c ontrast t o t he ! Kung w ho a re a lm9§t o bsessive i n t heir a ttempts t o n eutralise a nti-social b ehaviour. 4 . ° C o-operation a nd e quality have b ecome d eeply e ngrained i n t he E skimo c oncept o f t he s ocial o rder o f t hings, a nd, o f a ll h unter-gatherers, t hey w ould p robably h ave t he b est c laims t o a n e galitarian s ociety. Y et, u pon e xamination, a s w ith t he ! Kung, w e w ill s ee t hat E skimo s ociety c ontains a d iscernible s tratific ation. L eadership i n E skimo s ociety i s n ot a r eadily a pparent p henomenon . I t i s r arely n eeded , f or t he m ajor a ctivities a re f ixed b y t he s easonal c hanges a nd m ost o ther a ctivities r equire n o d ictation t o b e c arried o ut.

T he m ajor s ocial g roup i s t he f amily, w hich c o-

o perates w ith o ther f amilies, a ll o f w hich a re i nterrelated, a t t he h igher l evel o f t he v illage. B ut a s tratum o f l eaders e xists w hich f alls i nto t wo f orms -chiefs a nd s hamans -although s ometimes t he t wo f orms a re c ombined i n o ne p erson.

4 9

T here i s a n ebulous q uality a bout l eadership i n E skimo s ocieties, a nd t here i s a v agueness a nd l ack o f u niformity i n t he a ccounts o f i t i n t he r eports o f e xplorers a nd e thnographers . T he f irst E uropean a ccounts d escribe t ribal c hiefs o f g reat a uthority, 50

but w ith t he

e xception o f o ne o r t wo, t hese f irst a ccounts t end t o r eflect t he t ransposition o f E uropean n otions o f l eadership t o a lien a nd l ittle u nderstood s ocieties. I t i s f airly s afe t o s ay t hat e ach o bserver h as o btained a d ifferent v iew o f t he p henomenon . I n 1 887 R ink c aptured t he e ssential f eature o f hunter-gatherer c hieftainship i n h is d escription o f E skimo c hiefs a s f irst-rate N elson d escribed t he c hief a s b eing c hosen f or s uperior h unters. 51 S tefansson d escribed t he a bility, b ut h aving n o f ixed a uthority. 52 a uthority o f a w haleboat o wner a nd t hat h e h ad t he s tatus o f c hief i n h is v illage. 53 D amas h as d escribed E skimo l eadership a s e ssentially w eak. 54 D umond h as g one a s f ar a s t o a rgue t hat t here w ere n o c hiefs o nly r espected i ndividuals. 55

2 2.

T hus t here i s a d iversity o f v iews o f t he n ature o f E skimo c hiefs. T hese r ange f rom d escriptions o f c onventional l eadership t o t he v iew t hat l eadership w as n on-existent. A r ather e xtreme m anifest ation o f t he l atter v iew i s " ...there a re n o c hiefs, n obility o r s laves. N o c lan s ystem a nd n o s ecret s ociety l ay b onds u pon t he i ndividual... T hey k now n o g overnment. H ere, f or o nce i s a s ociety w hich i s e ntirely b uilt u pon t hat v oluntary a greement o f w hich K ropotkin d reamt. S ubject t o p ersonal l iability t owards t he i nherited l aws e veryone e njoys f ull i ndividual f reedom ." 5 b T here a re e xceptions t o t he g enerally e galitarian v iew .

T he e arly a ccounts,

a s Ih ave n oted,

d escribe p owerful c hiefs, 57 a nd d espite t he s trong p ossibility t hat t here i s a t ransposition o f E uropean v alues, t hese c annot b e i gnored. T he t ransposition o f E uropean c oncepts o f l eadership i s o ften n otoriously w ide o f t he m ark -5dw itness t he c reation o f " kings" a mongst t ribal A ustralian A boriginals, , o r t he B ritish a ttempt t o i mpose a c hieftain s ystem u pon t he K aramajong, a n A frican p astoral p eoRle w hich r esulted i n m ass d iscontent a nd m igration o f t he " subjects". 5 N elson s tated t hat i t w as n ot u ncommon a mong t he B ering s hore E skimos f or a p erson t o s eize p ower a nd t o r ule b y f ear a nd b ribery, o ften k illing t hose w ho w ere o pposed. "

I t a ppears,

a lso,

t hat s ons

c ould s ucceed f athers. 61 O bviously E skimo c hieftainship i s m ore c omplex t han s ome o pinion w ould a dmit. T he r eal s ituation s eems t o b e s omewhat d ifferent t o D umond's r emark " ... t here w ere n o " chiefs" a t a ll, b ut i nfluential i ndividuals w ho w ere r espected b ecause o f i nnate a bility a nd o f t heir v irtuosity i n s uch a cquired s kills a s w ere a vailable t o e veryone." 62 T he k ey e lement i n a ll t he d escriptions i s t he r elationship o f h unting s kills a nd l eadership. I t i s h ighly l ikely t hat t he n ature o f E skimo l eadership l ies s omewhere b etween t he e xtremes c ited, a nd c ertainly t hose p eople w ho a re t he b est hunters a re l ooked t o f or l eadership. T here i s, h owever, a n a dded h int o f c omplexity c reated b y t he e xistence o f a d uality i n t he s ocial f unction o f l eadership. T here a re a ctually t wo " leaders" -the e conomic " leader" w ho i s t he b est h unter, a nd t he s haman w ho i s t he c ustodian o f t ribal l ore a nd r eligion. T he t wo o ffices c an b e c ombined, b ut o ften a re n ot. T here i s a v ery r eal n eed f or t he d uality b ecause, d espite t he p ossibility o f i nherited l eadership, t he e conomic b ase o f E skimo l ife o ffers n o f ixed r esources u pon w hich t o b uild s uch i nstitut ions, a nd h unting s kills a re t ransitory w hich m eans t he n eed f or t he c omparative p ermanence o f a r itual l eader, t he s haman. T o s ummarise t he n ature o f E skimo l eadership i t m ay b e s een t o h ave t he f ollowing f eatures. F irstly, t here i s a n i mportant e lement o f d uality w hich d ivides i t b etween h unting a bility a nd s hamanistic s kills. T his m ay b e s een t o b e t he c reation o f e conomic i nfluences. S econdly, t here m ay b e t he e xistence o f a n i nheritance f actor, b ut t his w ill b e m ore l ikely t o a ppear i n t he o ffice o f s haman, m ainly b ecause h unting s kills a re n ot e asily i nherited. T hirdly, a nd f inally, i t h as b een s ubject t o d espotic a buses i n t he p ast w hich d oes t end t o n ullify t he p ure e galitarian i nterpretation, a s d oes t he r ecognition o f t he p ossibility o f t he f actor o f i nheritance. T hese g eneral c haracteristics w ill b e o f i mportance i n t he a ssessment o f t he h unter s ocieties o f t he U pper P alaeolithic, d iscussed i n c hapter 4 . C loser e xamination a lso c asts d oubts u pon t he g enerally a ccepted o pinion o f t he n ature o f g ift a nd r esource s haring. E skimos a re a lso c ompulsive r esource s harers, b ut t here i s a s trong o vertone o f 2 3.

c ompetitiveness,

a nd,

i t s eems,

a cquisitiveness i n t heir s ystem.

N elson r eported, " (the) m an w ho h as a ccumulated much p roperty, b ut i s w ithout a bility t o g uide h is f ellows, i s r eferred t o m erely a s a r ich m an.. " ,63 a d escription w hich s upports t he a spect o f n onm aterialism i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties. A nother r eport, h owever, s ays t hat p eople w ho a re i mprovident " ...must l ive w ith t he o thers o r d well b y t hemselves a nd p ass a m iserable e xistence, s carcely b eing n oticed b y t heir f ellows e ven d uring a s eason o f a bundance. 7 ' 64 T here i s n o i ndication o f e quality i n t hese r eports o f s haring, e ven t hough s haring a nd g ift g iving i s q uite c ommon. C learly i t i s d ifficult t o s ee E skimo c ulture, b oth i n r espect t o l eadership o r r esource s haring, a s p urely e galitarian.

I nstead t he s ystem w orks t owards a b asic l evel

o f e quality -no o ne w ill s tarve -b ut o nce t he s ocial r equirement i s s atisfied t hen, u nlike t he ! Kung, t he i ndividual i s f ree t o a cquire w ealth w ithout t he s ocial i mperative t o s hare. 65 I n E skimo s ociety l eadership, e ither p olitical o r e conomic, g enerally m inimal, b ut i t d oes e xist a nd i t d oes h ave f eatures o f i nherent s tratification. "

i s

T he r ecognition o f i ts n ature g ives a

d ifferent v iew o f E skimo s ociety, a s i t d oes o f ! Kung s ociety. T his i s i mportant, f or o ur p ortrayal o f p rehistoric s ocieties a s e galitarian a nd u nstratified s tems f rom t he e xamination o f m odern hunter-gatherers. O nce w e r ecognise t hat t hese s ocieties h ave t he e lements o f s tratificat ion t hen w e c an l ay t he b asis f or a rguing t hat a s imilar c ondition m ay h ave b een p resent i n p rehistoric s ocieties. O ur s ocial t hought h as a r eluctance t o b reak f rom t he r igidity o f t he d ivision o f h istory i nto p re-class a nd c lass p hases. W e s ee m odern h unter-gatherer s ocieties a nd p rehistoric s ocieties a s c lassless, y et t hey c an b e s hown t o p ossess s ocial f eatures o f c lass d ivided s ocieties. T he r eason t hat w e d o s o i s t heir a pparent l ack o f r ecognisable i ndicators o f c lass s ystems -w ealth, s tratification a nd c entralised a uthority. B ut t hese f eatures d o e xist, a lbeit u sually i n m uch d iluted f orm . L ee h as w ritten o f t he s tresses a nd c ontradictions t hat a re p resent i n w hat h e c alls t he p re-class s ociety o f t he ! Kung, a nd s uggests p arallels i n s ocieties w ith s ocial c lasses. ° P erhaps w e s hould b e l ess r igid i n o ur t heory, f or i f s uch p arallels e xist, t hen t here s eems l ittle b enefit i n r etaining t he b oundaries w e h ave s ought t o c reate b etween p re-class a nd c lass s ocieties. A fter a ll, o r t he E skimos, c annot b e i n b oth c onditions a t o nce.

t he

! Kung,

S ome t ime a go S ahlins d escribed s ocial s tratification a s . an a spect o f s ocial s tructure f unctionally a djusted t o t he t echnological e xploitation o f t he e nvironment." 68 H e w as d escribing p art o f t he f unction o f t he h ighly f ormalised c lass s ystems o f P olynesia. I n t his s ystem s tratification w orks t o m anage t he i nternal c ontradictions o f t he e conomic a nd s ocial f eatures o f e ach i sland, w here m any i nterests n eeded t o b e s erved w hilst m aintaining a w orking s ocial a nd e conomic s tructure f or a ll. A v ariant o f t his h ierarchical s ystem o f s ocial c ontrol i s t he r anked b ut c lassless s ocial s ystem f ound i n t he t ribal s ocieties o f t he I ndians o f t he n orth w est c oast o f A merica. T his r egulatory a spect o f r ank s ystems i n s uccessful s ocieties i s e xpressed b y G odelier w hen h e s ays, " The c ondition u nder w hich a s ystem c an r eproduce i tself i s t hus n ot a n a bsence o f c ontradictions b ut r ather o ne i n w hich c ontradictions a re r egulated a nd t his r egulation m aintains a p rovisional u nity." 69 2 4.

O ur c urrent s ocial o rder i s t he d ynamic p roduct o f a r etreat f rom r igid s ocial s tratification t o a n o pen s ociety. T his i s t he p roduct o f m any i nfluences, n one o f w hich w ere a v oluntary s urrender o f s ocial p ower b y a ny o ne g roup. B ut t his i s o ur c ondition, n ot t he c ondition o f t he ! Kung , G /wi, K wakiutl, S alish o r t he E skimos. N or c an w e s ay i t w as t he c ondition o f a p rehistoric s ociety. T he r egulation o f w hich G odelier s peaks i s o ur d emocratic m ethod. T he g eneral s ocial s ystem i n m odern h unter-gatherer s ociety i s e galitarianism b ecause o f t he n ature o f t he e nvironment a nd i ts r esources. T he r egulation t hat G odelier d escribes i s, i n p art, t he e nvironment, b ut n o h uman s ociety c an s urvive i f i t i s t he h apless p rey o f t he e nvironment. A ccordingly w e s ee i n h unter-gatherer s ociety t he p resence o f b oth c hiefs a nd t he i nstitution, a lbeit u nobtrusive, o f h ereditary l eadership -the o ther p art o f G odelier's r egulatory m eans t owards u nity a nd t he r eproduction o f t he s ocial s ystem . T he o bvious r eason f or t he e xistence o f h ereditary l eadership i n t hese o therwise e galitarian s ocieties l ies i n t he m eans b y w hich t hey p erpetuate t heir c ulture . I n s ocieties w here a ll e ducation i s w ithin ould b e t he f amily t he s kills o f r eligious o r p olitical l eadership 7 ° w w ithheld f rom p eople n ot i n t he a ppropriate f amily. I t i s am atter o f e xpedience r ather t han i ntentional e litism , o r a s S ahlins w rote, " ...social s tructure f unctionally a djusted t o t he ..exploitation o f 1 I n e ffect o nly t he c hild o f a c hief o r a s haman t he e nvironment." 7 w ould r eceive w hatever t raining w as n ecessary f or t hese t asks. T hus i t i s p ossible t o a rgue t hat a f orm o f h ereditary s ocial s tratification i s p resent i n s imple h unter-gatherer s ocieties. F urther i t c an b e d emonstrated t hat s tratification i n t hese s ocieties i s n ot a p roduct o f n on-egalitarian t raits s uch a s p ower-seeking, w ealth o r g reed . I nstead i t c an b e d emonstrated t hat s tratification c omes a s a r esult o f t he n eed f or s ocial g roups t o m anage t heir e nvironment a nd I t a cquires i ts h ereditary n ature i ts r esources f or t he c ommon g ood./ 2 b ecause o f t he m eans b y w hich a h unter-gatherer g roup t ransmits i ts t raditions t o i ts h eirs. I t h as a n on-dictatorial f orm b ecause t he u se o f r esources i s e qually s hared a mong a ll. L astly t he l eadership i s f ragile a nd c an e asily b e t hrown o ff i f a g roup l oses c onfidence i n i ts l eader .7 3 T he m ajor p roblem a rising f rom t his c oncept o f s ocial s tratificat ion i s t hat i t l eaves l ittle t race o n t he e nvironment a nd h ence l ittle o r n othing f or t he a rchaeologist. O ne c ould s uggest t hat t he t races o f c ampsites w ithin t he t erritorial r ange o f a p articular b and s hows s ome t ype o f d irection i n t he s equence o f t heir l ocation. B ut h unterg atherers g enerally s elect t heir c ampsites a ccording t o t he a vailability o f s easonal r esources r ather t han a t t he d irection o f a n i ndividual. F urthermore, t hose i ndividuals w ho a re t he c hiefs d o n ot h ave a r ecognisable e conomic s uperiority o ver t heir f ellows, t hus t heir g raves, i f w e c an f ind t hem , t ell u s l ittle. T here i s, i n t he a bsence o f r ecognisable w ealth, o ne e lement i n t he s tructure o f h unter-gatherer c hieftainship w hich o ffers u s t he p hysical e vidence o f p rimitive l eadership . T his i s t he p reviously d escribed r elationship b etween t he p hysical e xtent o f a t erritory a nd t he o wnership o f v ital r esources b y t he b and l eader. I t i s p ossible t herefore t o s ay t hat t he a rchaeological e vidence o f c hieftainship, a nd u ltimately t he e xistence o f n on-egalitarian f eatures i n p rehistoric 2 5.

h unter-gatherer s ocieties i s t he t erritorial r ange o f a p articular b and. T he f act o f l eadership i n h unter-gatherer g roups i s o bvious a nd n ot o pen t o s erious d ispute. N or, f or t hat m atter, i s t he e galitariani sm w hich i s p resent i n t hese s ocieties. B oth a re p roducts o f t he r estraints c reated b y t he e nvironment. B ut t here a re s ubtle r estrict ions u pon t hese f actors w hich m odify t hem a nd m ake t hem l ess c lear c ut a nd l ess e asy t o c ategorise. W e s ee t hat t he l eaders, w hilst o stensibly b eing s ubject t o t he w ishes o f t heir p eople, d o h ave a r eal m easure o f p ower o ver r esource m anagement. W e s ee a lso t hat t he e galitarianism w hich i s a f actor i n r esource s haring d oes n ot a ppear i n t he o wnership o f r esources. A c hief w ill s hare g ifts w ith h is p eople, a nd h e a lso s hares w ith t hem t he e conomic r esources w hich h e c ontrols. T here i s n othing n ew i n t he r ecognition o f o wnership o f r esources i n h unter4 b ut i ts s ocial e ffects h ave n ot b een c ompletely g atherer s ocieties, 7 a nalysed . S tripped o f q ualifications t he s ituation i s t hat t he c hief h as c ontrol o f r esources t hrough i nheritance a nd h e s hares w ith h is p eople, t hey d o n ot s hare w ith h im . T his n on-egalitarian a spect o f t he h unter-gatherer c ommunity i s g enerally c amouflaged b y t he e galitari anism o f d ay-to-day l ife, b ut i t e xists, n ot a s a d ivision b ut, a s I h ave d iscussed , a s t he c ore a bout w hich t hese s ocieties a re f ormed. O nce t his f eature i s r ecognised t hen i t b ecomes v ery d ifficult t o a ccept t he u nmodified i deological n ature o f t raditional M arxist t hought w hich a rgues " ...that p rimitive c ommunism w as t he p ristine f orm o f h uman s ocial o rganization...", a s G ilman a ttempts t o r eassert. 7 5 T he t erritorial r ange o f ah unter-gatherer g roup o ffers , a s I h ave d emonstrated, t he p hysical e vidence o f s ocial s tratification. I t f rees u s, a lso, f rom t he c ircular a rgument g enerated b y t he u se o f g rave g oods a s e vidence ( discussed i n c hapter 1 ) a nd a llows u s t o p ursue t he p roblem f urther b ack i nto t he p ast . W e w ill r eturn t o t his t heme i n c hapter 4 . I n t he n ext c hapter w e w ill e xamine t he i mportant q uestion o f s exual d ivisions i n t he c ontrol o f r esources.

2 6.

REFERENCES 1.

Summarised in V. Reynolds, 1973, 'Ethology of social change', in C. Renfrew, ed., The Explanation of Cultural Change, Duckworth, London, pp. 467-469; also I. De Vore and K.R.L. Hall, 1965, 'Baboon ecology', in I. De Vore, ed., Primate Behavior, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, pp. 20-52; P.E. Simonds, 'The bonnet macaque in South India', ibid., pp. 175-196; V. Reynolds and F. Reynolds, 'Chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest', ibid., pp. 368-424.

2.

Reynolds, 1973, p. 468.

3.

L. Marshall, 1967, '!Kung Bushman bands', in R. Cohen and J. Middleton, eds., Comparative Political Systems, Natural History Press, Garden City, pp. 36-37.

4.

C. Llvi-Strauss, 1967, 'The social and psychological aspects of chieftainship in a primitive tribe: The Nambikuara of north­ western Mato Grosso', in Cohen and Middleton, p. 51.

5.

E.M. Weyer, 1967, 'The structure of social organisation among the Eskimo', in Cohen and Middleton, p. 13.

6.

ibid., p. 9.

7.

A.R. Radcliffe-Srown, 1948, The Andaman Islanders, Free Press, Glencoe, p. 45.

8.

E.H. Man, (1883), Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, repr. Sanskaran Prakashak, Delhi, 1975, p. 40.

9.

ibid., p. 41; E.W. Nelson, 1899, The Eskimos about Bering Strait, Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report 18, Washington, p. 304; Marshall, 1967, p. 39; L�vi-Strauss, 1967, pp. 52-53.

10.

L�vi-Strauss, 1967, p. 51.

11.

Marshall, 1967, p. 38.

12.

Discussed in chapter 6.

13.

J. Woodburn, 1968, "An introduction to Hadza ecology", in Lee and De Vore, p. 50; Marshall, 1967, p. 23; L�vi-Strauss, 1967, pp. 54-55; Man, 1975, p. 40, are some of many examples.

14.

F.E. Has.san, 1975, 'Determination of the size, density, and growth rate of hunter-gathering populations', in S. Polgar, ed., Population, Ecology and Social Evolution, Mouton, The Hague. idem, 1981, Demographic Archaeology, Academic Press, London, p. 25ff.

15.

An example of such gatherings amongst the !Kung is quoted in R.B. Lee, 1972, 'Work effort, group structure and land-use in contemporary hunter-gatherers', in P.V. Ucko, R. Tringham and G.W. Dimbleby, eds., Man Settlement and Urbanism, Duckworth, 27.

L ondon, p p.

1 81-183.

1 6.

E .R . S ervice, 1 966, T he H unters, P rentice H all, N ew J ersey, p . 2 4ff; H .T. W right, 1 977.

1 7.

L .R . H iatt, 1 986, A boriginal P olitical L ife, A ustralian I nstitute o f A boriginal S tudies, C anberra, a rgues ( p. 1 5), t hat A boriginal l eadership i s e ssentially o f an on-hereditary b igm an t ype ( see c hapters 6 a nd 8 b elow ). If ind, h owever , t he a rgument f or a c ombination o f e galitarian p olitics a nd a ge r anking s ystems b ased o n r esource c ontrol, p p. 9 -10, u nconv incing a s i t s eems t o i gnore h ereditary a spects o f t he k inship s ystem w hich f osters n on-egalitarian s tructures, A .R . P illing, 1 968, ' Southeastern A ustralia: l evel o f s ocial o rganization', i n L ee a nd D e V ore, e ds., p . 1 41. B ut A ustralian A boriginal s ocial, e conomic a nd p olitical b ehaviour h as i mmense v ariety a nd i t i s u nwise t o u se o ne e xample t o p ropose a g eneral r ule f or a ll. S ee G . B lainey, 1 975, T riumph o f t he N omads, M acmillan, M elbourne, f or a w ide r anging d iscussion.

1 8.

he ! Kung S an, R .B. L ee, 1 979, T C ambridge, C hpt. 1 2.

1 9.

M arshall,

2 0.

L ee , 1 979, p p. 3 44-347 d iscusses t he p roblem o f e xactly d efining ! Kung l eadership.

2 1.

M arshall,

2. 2

S ahlins,

2 3 .

C . L evi-Strauss, L ondon, p . 3 11.

2 4.

L ee,

2 5.

M arshall,

2 6.

S ahlins,

2 7.

M arshall,

2 8 .

L ee,

2 9.

M arshall,

3 0.

L ee,

3 1.

G .R . S ilberbauer, 1 981, H unter a nd H abitat i n t he C entral K alahari D esert, C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge, p .

1 967, p .

1 967,

3. 3

i bid .

3 4.

i bid .,

p .

p p.

1 85-276.

3 6-41.

1 27. 3 7.

34-340. 3

1 967, p . p p.

T ristes T ropigues, J onathan C ape,

34-336. 3

1 967, p . p . p

3-40. 3

1 973,

1 974, p .

1 979,

i bid .

p p.

1 967, p p.

1 979,

3 2.

3 8.

1 974, p p.

1 979,

C ambridge U niversity P ress,

3 8.

3 44-345.

1 42. 2 8.

1 41.

3 5.

L ee,

1 979,

3 44ff.

P .

3 6.

M arshall,

3 7.

P . D rucker , 1 939, ' Rank, w ealth, a nd k inship i nN orthwest C oast s ociety', A merican A nthropologist 4 1, p . 5 5.

3 8 .

P . D rucker , 1 965, C ultures o f t he N orth P acific C oast, P ublishing C o., S an F rancisco, p . 4 7.

3 9.

i bid ., p . 4 8 ; F . B oas, 1 920, ' The s ocial o rganization o f t he K wakiutl', A merican A nthropologist 2 2, p p. 1 11-126; H .G . B arnett, 1 938 , ' The C oast S alish o f C anada ', A merican A nthropolo gist 4 0, p p . 1 18-141.

4 0 .

D rucker,

1 967, p .

1 965, p.

4 1.

i dem ,

1 939, p .

4 2.

i bid .

4 3.

i bid .

4 4.

i bid .,

4 5.

i dem ,

4 6.

i bid .; B arnett,

p. p 1 965,

3 8 .

C handler

4 8 .

5 9.

5 9-60. p. p

4 8-49. 1 938,

p .

1 29.

4 7.

Shamans c ould b e o f m arked u nsoundness o f m ind. M owat's d escription o f o ne s haman i s p articularly r evealing. K akumee w as a m urderer, a c ompulsive h oarder o f w ealth a nd l oathed b y h is p eople f or h is m eanness of s pirit, y et h is p ower a s a s haman w as n ever q uestioned. N or d id a nyone a ttempt t o b ring h im t o a ccount f or t he m urders h e h ad c ommitted . T he t ribe t olerated h im b ecause t hey n eeded h is a ccess t o t he s pirit w orld. F . M owat, 1 968, P eople o f t he D eer, S phere B ooks, L ondon, c hapter 1 3 . F urthermore h is f ather w as a s haman, i bid ., p . 1 80 .

4 8 .

L ee,

1 979, p .

4 58ff.;

S ilberbauer,

1 981, p .

1 73ff.

4 9.

A .P. L ow , 1 906, C ruise o f t he N eptune, G overnment P rinting B ureau, O ttawa, p . 1 63 . I t m ust b e s tressed t hat E skimo e conomic a nd s ocial p ractices a re i mmensely v aried a nd, a s w ith t he A ustralian A boriginals ( Fn. 1 7 a bove), w e m ust n ot c reate i nterpretations that i gnore t hisv ariety . M y a imin this d iscussion i s t o d emonstrate t hat strict e galitarian i nterpret ations t end t o i gnore t he r ange o f p ermutations.

5 0 .

W eyer,

5 1.

5 2.

1 967, p .

1 2.

H. R ink, 1 887, 'The E skimo t ribes: t heir d istribution a nd c haracteristics, e specially i n r egard t o l anguage; w ith a c omparative v ocabulary', M eddelelser o w G rOnland 1 1, p . 2 7. N elson ,

1 899 ,

p .

3 05.

2 9.

53.

V. Stefansson, 1914, The Stefansson-Anderson Arctic Expedition of the American Museum: Preliminary E thnol ogical Repor t, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 14, Pt. 1., New York, p. 164.

54.

D. Damas, 1968, 'The diversity of Eskimo societies', in Lee and De Vore, eds., p. 115.

55.

D.E. Dumond, 1977, The Eskimos and Aleuts, Thames and Hudson, London, p. 3.

56.

K. Birket-Smith, 1929, The Caribou Eskimos, Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition, 1921-24, Vol. 5, Pt. 1, Copenhagen, pp. 259260. Mowat's description of these same people offers a contrasting view.

57.

Weyer, 1967, p. 12.

58.

Pilling, 1968, p. 140.

59.

N. Dyson-Hudson, 1966, Karamajong Politics; Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 13-16.

60.

Nelson, 1899, p. 303.

61.

ibid., p. 304; Rink, 1887, p. 27.

62.

Dumond, 1977, p. 31.

63.

Nelson, 1899, p. 304.

64.

L.M. Turner, 1894, Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Area, Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report 11, Washington DC., p. 240.

65.

A particularly good example which describes the result if the basic level of gift etiquette is not observed is described in M. Herbert, 1973, The Snow People, Book C lub Associates , London, pp. 129-130. Witness the hoarding of w ealth acquired as payment for services by Kakumee, the shaman, in Mowat, 1968, p. 194ff.

66.

The need for caution in this area of interpretation is acute. The Eskimo - especially those of the far north - are not true hunter-gatherers. They are hunters and possess no permanent large sources of gathered resources. This is discussed more fully in chapter 4.

67.

Lee, 1979, p. 4.

68.

M.D. Sahlins, 1958, Social Stratification in P olynesia, University of Washington Press , Seattle, p. ix.

69.

M. Godelier, 1974, 'Considerations theoriques et critiques sur le probl�me des rapports entre homme et son environment', Inform. Sci. Soc. 13, p. 55, quoted in Lee, 1979, p. 5, author's emphasis. 30.

7 0 .

S ee a ccounts o f E skimo s hamans g iving i nstruction i n t heir s kills t o t heir c hildren . E .g. M owat, 1 968, p p. 1 80-184.

7 1.

S ahlins,

7 2.

Av ery r ecent a rticle o ffers a s tudy o f h unter-gatherer t errit oriality a nd p olitical s tructure w hich c oincides g enerally w ith m y c onclusions. I t d oes n ot, h owever, s eem t o g o f ar e nough t owards c onsidering t he e ffects o f i nheritance o f r esources . R . L ayton, 1 986, ' Political a nd t erritorial s tructures a mong h unter-gatherers', m an 2 1, p p. 1 8-33.

7 3 .

L gvi-Strauss,

7 4 .

S ee J .G .D . C lark a nd S . P iggott, 1 970, Prehistoric Societies, P enguin, H armondsworth, p . 1 24, f or a d iscussion, a lbeit l imited, o f t he p henomenon.

7 5 .

A . G ilman , 1 984, ' Explaining t he U pper P alaeolithic r evolution', i n S priggs, e d ., p . 1 23.

1 958,

p .

i x .

1 967,

p .

5 3; M arshall,

3 1.

1 967, p .

3 8.

C HAPTER 3 S EX,

R ESOURCE C ONTROL A ND L EADERSHIP

T he p revious c hapter s ought t o e stablish a t heoretical m odel t o d emonstrate t he c orrelation o f l eadership i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties w ith c ontrol o f c ertain, g enerally k ey, r esources i n t heir t erritories, a nd a lso t o d emonstrate t hat t here w ere h ereditary c haracteristics i n t he t ransmission o f t his c ontrol. B ut, w hilst t he d emonstration o f s uch h ereditary p rinciples d oes g ive u s am odel w ith w hich t o e xamine t he d evelopment o f h ereditary s ocial s tratification, i t a lso r aises t he r ather t horny p roblem o f t he s exual d ivision o f w ork i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties. I t i s a g eneral f eature o f t hese s ocieties t hat m ales h unt a nd f emales g ather. B ut t he r esources, h owever, u pon which p olitical c ontrol i s b ased a re t hose t hat f all w ithin t he a mbit o f f emale l abour, w hilst, p aradoxically, w ith f ew e xceptions l l eadership i n h unterg atherer s ocieties i s g enerally a m ale a ctivity. A f urther c onsideration w hich a dds d ifficulty t o

t he p roblem

c oncerns t he c omparative n utritive v alue o f m ale a nd f emale e conomic a ctivity. W ithout q uestion t he f emale g athering a ctivity i s t he m ainstay o f h unter-gatherer s ubsistence -e ven m uch n eeded a nimal p rotein i s, i n t he m ain, d erived f rom s mall a nimals c aught b y w omen. T he h unting o f l arge a nimals b y m ales o ccasionally p rovides m eat, b ut a h igh p roportion o f h unting e xpeditions f ail t o p roduce a k i11. 2 I n p resent s ocieties t he m eat g arnered f rom h unting e xpeditions i s d esired ietary c omponent a lready p rovided b y l ess f or i ts n utritive v alue 3 -a d s mall a nimals -than t he v ariation i t p rovides t o t he r ather b land d iet H unting p ersists d espite t he n otable e nergy w aste 5 o f g athered f oods. 4 b ecause p eople l ike t o e at f ood t hat t astes g ood. I t w ould s eem l ikely,

t herefore,

t hat i f t he c ontrol o f

r esources f orms t he b asis o f l eadership, a nd i t d oes, t hen t he l eaders hip i n h unter-gatherer c ommunities s hould l evolve u pon w omen. B ut a s n oted p reviously f emale l eadership i s r are, °a nd i n ! Kung s ociety, t o g ive o ne e xample, a m ale m ay e stablish h is o wn b and i f h e h as a ccess t o, a nd c ontrol o f, b y f emales.

esources w hich w ould b e g athered f ood r esources 7 -food r

I t i s n ecessary t o s tress t hat t he i nitial a ct o f

i ndependence u sually i nvolves a s ingle f amily u nit, b ut t hese s oon e xpand i nto l arger g roups c onsisting o f s everal f amily u nits f orming a n e xtended f amily, o ften i ncluding m ales f rom o ther b ands W e t hus h ave a p aradox. B ut b efore w e c an s eek a nswers

s eeking w ives. t o t his p roblem

t here i s a nother a spect o f t he s exual d ivision o f l abour w hich c reates a p roblem i n t he a nalysis o f t he c haracter o f l eadership i n p rehistoric c ommunities. A rchaeological a nalysis,

a nd u ltimately t he u nderstanding o f

p rehistory, d epends u pon t he p hysical e vidence o f a rtefacts. A ny p eculiarity i n t he a rtefacts, e ither i n s ubstance o r i n n umber n eeded f or a p articular f unction w hich w ill e ffect t heir c hances o f p reservat ion, m ust c reate a n i mbalance i n t he a rtefactual e vidence, a nd e ventually e ither e mphasise o r o bscure a p articular a ctivity. T he t ools r equired i n g athering a ctivities a re u nfortunately t hose w hich m ostly w ill l eave l ittle o r n o a rchaeological t race -d igging s ticks, s mall f lint k nives t hat m ight b e u sed m any t imes, u nlike s kinning t ools a nd, o bviously, h ands w hich g ather f oodstuffs. 8 A dditionally i t g oes w ithout s aying, t hat a reas i n w hich t he o riginal e nvironment h as 3 2.

u ndergone e xtensive m odification w ill n ot p ossess a ny s ubstantial t races o f t he p lant r esources w hich s upported t he g athering p art o f t he e conomy, p ollen a nalysis n otwithstanding. W e h ave a lways b een a ware o f t hese p articular p roblems, b ut i t i s o nly f airly r ecently t hat w e h ave s ought t o u nderstand t he i mportance o f t he v anished e conomy. T herefore t here a re t hree p roblems a rising f rom t he s exual d ivision o f l abour i n t he h unter-gatherer e conomy. F irstly, t he r esources u pon w hich t erritorial c ontrol i s b ased a re p rimarily g athered b y f emales;

s econdly,

g athering a ctivity l eaves l ittle t race

i n t he a rchaeological r ecord, d espite i ts i mportance; a nd t hirdly w e h ave l ittle c hance i n h eavily a ltered e nvironments o f r econstructing t he p rehistoric e cology i n w hich g athering a ctivities t ook p lace. T hese p roblems a re e xacerbated b y o ur r eliance u pon t he s ocial e vidence o f modern h unter-gatherers w hich a re l ocked i nto m arginal e conomic s ituations w hich a llow n o c hange. I n a n a rchaeological i nvestigation t he p rincipal r eference p oint i s t he c hange i n c ultures a s d iscerned f rom a s uccession o f f eatures. I n a c urrent h unter-gatherer s ociety, s uch a s t he ! Kung , w e h ave a s tatic e ntity. W e a re f aced w ith t he p roblem o f s eeking a p arallel b etween a d ynamic e vent, t he e volution o f p rehistoric s ociety, a nd a s tationary s ocial o rganisation, t he c urrent h unter-gatherers. T he d evelopment o f p ronounced h ereditary s tratification l ies i n t he p ast o f o ur s ociety, a nd h ypothetically i n t heir f uture.

T hus,

i f w e l ocate t he s ocial m echanism i n t heir

s ocieties w hich w ill e xplain t he t endency f or p olitical p ower t o a ccrue g enerally t o m ales, i t w ill b e a n e ssentially r ather w eak f orce o perating i n s uch a w ay a s n ot t o c reate r ecognisable o r s ocially u nacceptable c ontradictions t o t he p erceived d esire f or e galitarianism a nd c o-operation i n s urvival. T his s ame f orce, h owever, w ill i n o ur p rehistory b e a ble t o c reate a c umulative e ffect b ecause o f t he e volutionary n ature o f o ur a ncestral s ocieties. T his i s n ot a q uestion o f v alue b ut a r esult o f m odern h unter-gatherer s ocieties h aving t o e xist i n a t runcated e conomic m ilieu. T he p roblem o f d etermining t he e xistence o r e xtent o f t he g athered p ortion o f t he p rehistoric e conomy i s d iscussed m ore f ully i n c hapter 4 i n r elation t o g atherer e conomies. T he t wo i nterrelated a spects n ature o f r esources, a nd

c limatic e ffects o n m odern h unter a nd h untera nswer t o t he o ther p roblems s eems t o l ie i n o f t he h unter-gatherer e conomy. T hese a re t he t he n ature o f t he w ork n eeded t o o btain t hem .

I n h unter-gatherer s ocieties,

a s d iscussed i n c hapter 2 ,

a ll

r esources a re f airly e qually s hared. B ut a lthough a ll r esources a re e qually s hared, n ot a ll r esources r equire e qual e ffort t o o btain t hem . T he p lants a nd s mall a nimals w hich c onstitute t he g athered p ortion o f t he e conomy r equire l ess t ime a nd e ffort t han d oes t he h unting o f l arger a nimals. B ut t he g athered p art o f t he e conomy c onstitutes t he m ain e lement i n t he o verall t otal o f c onsumed f ood. H unting, a lthough i t p rovides w elcome v ariety, p roduces f ar l ess t han a c omparable p eriod o f t ime s pent i n g athering. T otal w ork e ffort, h owever, t ends t o b e e qual, f or w omen s pend m ore t ime i n " housekeeping" a ctivities, i .e. c hild r earing, c ooking, e tc., t han m en. T he f ollowing t able o f ! Kung a ctivity d emonstrates t he d ivision o f w ork d uring a t ypical w eek.

9

A s imilar b reakdown o f w ork f or a n A ustralian A boriginal g roup s hows t hat w omen s pend 2 5% m ore t ime a t w ork t han m en, 1° b ut t his w ould s eem t o r eflect a lso t he d ecline i n a vailable l arge a nimal r esources, a nd p erhaps a d ecline i n h unting s kill. T he g roup s pent s ome o f i ts t ime 3 3.

T ABLE 1

S ubsistence

T oolmaking

S ubtotal

M en

2 1.6

7 .5

2 9.1

W omen

1 2.6

5 .1

1 7.7

A verage

1 7.1

6 .3

2 3.4

H ousework _

4 4.5

1 5.4 ,

2 2.4 1 8.9

W eekly T otal

-

4 0.1 4 2.3

a t m ission s tations. I n t he w eeks t hat t he a nthropologist p rovided f lour, t he w omen's w ork d eclined m arkedly. 1 D espite t he a pparent e quality o f s ubsistence e ffort b y b oth m ale a nd f emale

( although a s Ih ave n oted t he f emale w ork a ctually

p roduces m ore f ood), t he nature o f t he r esources c reates a n i mbalance w hich i ncreases t he s ocial p restige o f t he m ale a ctivity. T o q uote L ee, " In l ight o f t he g reatest i mportance o f g athered f ood i n t he d iet i t i s c urious t hat a ll ! Kung, b oth m en a nd w omen, v alue meat m ore h ighly t han p lant f ood. W hen m eat i s s carce i n t he c amp a ll p eople e xpress a c raving f or i t e ven w hen v egetable f oods a re a bundant... S ince g ame a nimals a re s carce a nd u npredictable c ompared t o p lant f oods i t i s p erhaps n ot s o s urprising t hat h unting i s i nvested w ith m ore s ymbolic s ignificance t han g athering.. 1 , 12 . W e c an s ee, t herefore, t hat n ot o nly i s t he m ale c ontribution t o t he g roup s ubsistence m ore v alued i n d ietary t erms d espite i ts l esser q uantity, b ut i n a ddition i t h as a cquired a s ymbolic v alue n ot p ossess ed b y t he f emale c ontribution.

I t a lso f ollows t hat t he f emale p art

o f t he e conomy m ay h ave l ess v alue i n t he r ealm o f t he s ymbols i mportant t o a s ociety. T his i s f airly o bvious, b ut w hat d oes i t c ontribute t o t he i nquiry? C ertainly a mongst t he ! Kung, a t l east, t here a ppears t o b e n o q uestion o f e xploitation, f orced o r a ccidental, f or w omen have c onsiderable s ocial a uthority a nd a re n ot a ctively c ritical o f t heir o wn r ole i n t he e conomy.

1 3

O n i ts o wn, h owever, t he s ymbolic v alue o f m eat may n ot b e e nough t o p romote m ale s upremacy; i t m ay o nly s erve t o s trengthen t he m ale c ontrol o f h unting. S ymbolic v alue i s o ne p art o f t he a nswer, b ut i t i s s till n ecessary t o d elve d eeper i nto t he i nternal s tructure o f m ale/female d ivisions i n h unter-gatherer e conomies. I t i s a d ifficult a rea o f s ocial s tructure t o d iscuss a nd o ne t hat i s o ften c louded w ith t he a pplication o f v ulgarised s ocial t heory t urned t o p olitical e nds. W e a re n ot d ealing w ith t he s illy q uestion a re w omen f it t o l ead? L eadership i n a ny s ociety i s r eally a p rocess o f a pplied i ntelligence, h ave a ny l ess,

a nd t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat w omen

o r a ny m ore,

i ntelligence t han m en.

B ut w hilst l eader-

s hip i s a p rocess o f i ntellect, i ts a ctual e xistence d epends u pon t wo s pecific f actors i n t he i ndividual -w ill a nd d esire -p lus a s pecific c ondition i n t he s ocial m ilieu w hich i s o pportunity. I f a n i ndividual h as t he i ntelligence, t he w ill a nd t he d esire, b ut i s c onstrained b y e ither p ersonal o r s ocial c onditions, t hen i t i s q uite l ikely t hat h e o r s he w ill n ot b ecome a l eader. W e m ust t herefore e xamine t he q uestion o f o pportunity i n r elation t o t he t raditional t asks o f males 3 4.

a nd f emales i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties. I n t he t able r eproduced a bove w e s ee t hat m ales t end, a verage,

t o w ork m ore h ours p er w eek t han w omen.

o n

S uperficially t here-

f ore o ne w ould e xpect t hat whatever s mall a uthority w hich m anifests i tself i n ! Kung s ociety w ould c ome p redominantly f rom f emales. B ut i n r eality t his i s n ot s o. t hat

i s s pent i n w ork,

O bviously w e m ust l ook, n ot a t t he t ime a lone b ut a t

t he n ature o f t he w ork i tself.

T he p rincipal o ccasion f or l eadership o pportunity o ccurs i n t asks w hich i nvolve a n umber o f p eople a nd w hich a lso p resent c ond itions w here l eadership i s n eeded . I mportant a s t hey a re t o t he s ubsistence o f t he c ommunity, t he g athering t asks o f t he f emales a re r arely p erformed a s a g roup a ctivity. 1 4 T he w omen t end t o g ather p lant f oods a nd s mall a nimals i n a n i ndividualistic a nd o pportune f ashion, a nd o ften t he n eed o f s ome w omen t o c arry s mall c hildren f urther r estricts t he r ange o f g athering t rips. I n a ddition t he f emale w ork, a s d istinct f rom s ocial a ctivity t ends t o b e l ess c ommunity o rientated a nd more d irected t owards t he n eeds o f t he i mmediate f amily g roup. d espite t heir c entral i mportance t o o verall c ommunal s urvival,

S o,

t he

p olitical e ffect o f f emale w ork i s f ragmented -their u ndeniable 1 5 s trength i n t he f amily c annot t ransmit i tself t o t he w hole g roup. ' H unting, t he t raditional m ale t ask, i s m ore o ften t han n ot c arried o ut b y g roups o f m en. G roup c o-operation e nsures t hat h unting e xpeditions w ill b e s uccessful. A mongst t he ! Kung, a s a mongst o ther h unter-gatherers, h unting a bility r ates h igh i n t he i deal c haracterist ics o f t he s uccessful m ale. F urthermore, u ntil v ery r ecently, a s L ee n otes, " Traditionally t here w as n o c ulturally a pproved w ay f or a m an t o b e a n onhunter,"lb a nd m uch c eremony w as a ttached t o f irst k ills, a nd t o r ecounting t he s tory o f t he k i11. 1 7 H unting i s a s plendid s ource o f l eadership o pportunity a t an umber o f l evels. O pportunities e xist i n t he p lanning, t racking a nd d irecting, a nd i n e nsuring t hat t he r esult o f t he e ffort i s a s uccessful k ill. I n o ther s ocieties, a s w e h ave s een i n c hapter 2 , s ome o f t he t erms f or c hief a re s ynonymous w ith t erms f or g reat h unters. I t i s s ignificant t hat t here a re n o s uch c orrelations d eriving f rom w ords t hat d escribe g athering a ctivities. Iw ould s uggest, t herefore, t hat t he a nswer t o o ur f irst q uestion -w hy d oes t he c ontrol o f t he p rimary c ommunal f ood s ource n ot l ead t o f emale l eadership? -is t hat i t i s a t ask w hich d oes n ot n eed l eadership. 1 8 T he h unting a ctivity, o n t he o ther h and, h as w ithin i ts s tructure t he p otential t o c reate, a nd m aintain, l eadership t hrough t he v ery n ecessary t ask o f e nsuring t hat a g roup o f h unters, w ho q uite i ncidentally a re m ale, c o-operate f or a s uccessful c onclusion. I t i s, t herefore, t he t asks, n ot t he s ex o f m embers o f h unter-gatherer s ocieties, t hat d etermine w hy m ales p redominate a s l eaders, a nd t his s ituation i s r einforced b y t he i mportance t hat i s a ttached t o m eat i n t he d iet. I t i s c onceivable t hat i f w omen w ere t he h unters t hen l eadership w ould d evolve u pon t hem . 1 9 B y d efining t he r easons f or m ale p rimacy i n t he l imited l eaders hip o pportunities t hat e xist w ithin h unter-gatherer s ocieties, w e c an n ow m ove a way f rom t he i mpasse c reated b y t he p aradox o f t he f emale's d irect c ontrol o ver g athered a nd f ixed r esources. F urthermore , a s w ill b e d iscussed b elow , t he i mbalance i n t he a rchaeological e vidence c reated b y t he a bundance o f h unting a nd b utchering a rtefacts m ade o f d urable m aterial, a nd t he s carcity o f g athering a rtefacts, w hich w ere 3 5.

m ade o f m ore f ragile m aterial, b ecomes l ess o f a p ressing p roblem b ecause w e h ave a t heoretical b ase f or p roceeding w ithout t his l ost m aterial. W e w ill n ow t urn f rom t he n ature o f w ork i n m odern h unterg atherers t o t he n ature o f w ork i n t he m ost p rehistoric o f c ommunities, t hose o f t he P alaeolithic. F irstly w e m ust c onsider t he n ature o f t he d iet o f e arly h ominids. T here a ppears l ittle r eason t o d oubt t hat f or a ll o f t he h uman r ace's e xistence i t h as b een e ssentially o mnivorous. O ur n earest p rimate r elatives, t he c himpanzees, a re, 20 a nd t he d entition o f t he e arliest h ominids f rom A ustralopithecus a farensis t o H omo h abilis i s c learly s uitable f or a d iet o f m eat a nd v egetable m atter.

2 1

I t i s q uite p ossible t hat t he m ale e mphasis u pon h unting m ay h ave e volved a t t his s tage o f d evelopment. A n oteworthy o cc rence i s t he t rait o f h unting a ctivity i n m ale c himpanzee b ehaviour. 4 T he a vaila ble m aterial f rom t he f irst p hases o f h uman d evelopment i s, h owever, e xtremely s light. W e h ave s o l ittle e vidence t hat w e c annot t ell i f t he m eat i n e arly h ominid d iet w as h unted o r s cavenged, e xclude m ale a nd f emale c o-operation i n o btaining m eat. r eturning b riefly t o t he e xample o f c himpanzees h unting,

a nd w e c annot A lso, w e c annot b e

c ertain i f t hat i s n ot a r ecently f f luired t rait - .p erhaps i n r esponse t o c ompetition w ith e arly h ominids. ' T he e arly p eriod o f h uman e volution d oes n ot p rovide t he n ecess ary d ata t o s uit o ur p urpose f or, a s w e h ave s een, i t i s n ot s imply m eat-eating o r h unting t hat c reates t he p otential o f l eadership. T he r eal p otential l ies i n t he c ombination o f t he s ymbolic v alue o f m eat a nd t he o pportunity i n t he h unt f or i ndividuals e ither t o i mpress, o r i mpose t heir w ill u pon, o thers. O nce i mposed, a s w e h ave s een i n c hapter 2 , t he a uthority t hen e xtends t o c ontrol o f f ixed r esources w ithin t he t erritorial r ange o f t he g roup -w hich t hen, b ecause o f t he e xtended f amily s tructure o f t he g roup, b ecomes i nheritable. T he f irst p eriod i n p rehistory when w e b egin t o h ave m ore t han u tterly f ragmentary e vidence o f h uman s ociety a nd i ts a ctivities, a nd p ossibly m ore i mportantly i ts a spirations, i s t he U pper P alaeolithic. T hese p eople w ere h unter-gatherers, b ut c an w e a ssume t hat s exual d ivision o f w ork w as a f eature o f U pper P alaeolithic e conomies? I t i s w ith t his q uestion t hat a r ather i nsurmountable p roblem i s c reated. W e s imply d o n ot h ave e nough e vidence t o a llow u s t o f irmly d escribe t he e conomies o f t he P alaeolithic a s s exually d ivided. T here h as b een a t endency t o a ssume t hat e vidence o f h unting a nd m eat p rocess ing i s c lear e vidence o f t his d ivision o f l abour. 24 A lso, a s L ovejoy eproductive s trategy c hanges a nd t he e volution o f h as s uggested, 25 r b ipedalism m ay a lso h ave l ed t o s exual d ivision i n f oraging a ctivities. B ut w hilst t he e vidence o f t he e ssentially o mnivorous n ature o f t he h uman d iet i ndicates a v ery g reat a ntiquity, 26 t here i s n o o ther e vidence e xcept p arallels w ith m odern h unter-gatherer s ocieties t o e xtend t his t o a s exual d ivision o f l abour i n t he s ocieties o f t he P alaeolithic. 27 I n a w ay t he a rgument i s c ircular, n ot u nlike t he u se o f g rave g oods t o i ndicate s ocial s tratification d iscussed i n c hapter o ne. F inally, i t i s n ot u ntil t he U pper P alaeolithic t hat a r ecognisa ble i conography o f s exual d ivision i s r eflected i n a rt. W hen t his o ccurs, f urthermore, t he i mages a re o f l ittle h elp. G enerally t he d epiction o f h umans i s e ither s tylized 28 3 6.

o r,

i n t he c ase o f f emale

f igures, a r eduction t o t he m ost f undamental s ymbolism o f t he p rocreat ive f unction -the s o-called ' Venus' f igures. S ometimes w e h ave r ecognisable p ortraits f ree o f s ymbolic r eduction, b ut t hese a re D epiction o f h uman a ctivity i s u sually j ust p rofile d rawings. 29 u tterly r are b efore t he M esolithic. A h unting s cene o n t he w all o f t he r ock s helter a t G asulla o n t he S panish L evant 30 s eems t o d epict m ales but o ne e xample i s s carcely c onclusive. T he g roup o f f igures o n t he w all o f t he G rotta d ell'Addaura n ear P alermo i n S icilx i s o ften r eferred t o a s " athletes" f rom t heir p oses, o r i nitiates.'' O ther s uggestions a re d ancers o r t he s pectators o f t orture o r h uman s acrifice. 32 W hatever t he s cene, i t i s o f l ittle h elp a s t he f igures s eem t o b e m ale, a lthough t hat c ould b e o f s ome c onjecture. T he u ppermost f igure c ould b e m ale o r f emale. I f i t i s i nterpreted a s b eing a r ear v iew ,

t hen a n a thletic m ale's s lender h ips a nd b uttocks

a re d epicted. I f i t i s a f rontal v iew , t hen t hese f eatures a re c learly av ulva. B ut a s t he a ctivity i n w hich t he f igures a re i nvolved i s i mpossible t o p roperly d iscern t hey a re u ltimately o f l ittle u se t o o ur i nquiry. A ssociated w ith t hese f igures i s o ne w hich m ay o ffer a r eal g limpse o f f emale w ork. T he f igure a ppears t o b e a f emale w ho i s c arrying a b undle a cross h er s houlder a nd w hich h angs d own h er b ack. T he f igure i s c lose t o t hat o f a n o bviously p regna l 34 d eer a nd t wo m ale f igures w ith s pears w ho m ay b e a ttacking t he d eer. JJ T his g roup l ies i mmediately b elow t he " athletes" a nd m ight b e r elated, a lthough i n w hat w ay i s i mpossible t o s ay.

I f t he f emale f igure i s a p art o f t he s cene

w ith t he d eer a nd t he t wo " hunters" t hen i s t his a r are g limpse o f m ale a nd f emale a t w ork t ogether? T he m ale p ursuing g ame w hilst t he w oman i s c oming b ehind c arrying t he f amily's s mall p ossessions a nd, p erhaps, s ome g athered f oodstuffs. T he s cene i f v iewed i n t his l ight i s r emarkably s imilar t o a p hotograph o f a n A ustralian a boriginal f amily o n t he hunting t rail. 34 O verall, h owever, t he d epiction o f h uman f igures i s r are a nd w hilst t he a forementioned d epiction o f t he h uman p rocreative f unction i n t he i dealized f orm o f t he " Venus" f igures d oes, a dmittedly, r epresent a s exually d istinct a ctivity ( albeit i n t he g uise o f q ueen b ee), i t i s o ne o f p hysiological r ather t han e conomic f unction. M ale f igures o f e quivalent m eaning a re v ery r are. T he " sorcerer" i n t he s anctuary a t L es T rois F rAres 35

i s c learly a ssociated w ith t he d eer

o r b ison i n f ront o f h im i n a s exual m anner.

T he a nthropomorph f rom

t he S panish P alaeolithic c ave o f H ornos d e l a P ena 36

a lso h as a q uite

e xaggerated e rect p enis, i n t he s ame m anner i n w hich t he s exual f eatures o f t he " Venus" f igures a re e xaggerated . T hese s trongly s exual d epict ions o f h uman b eings a re o f i nterest m ore t o t he a nalysis o f s pirituality p erhaps t han t o t he a ssessment o f e conomic r oles. W omen w ould p roduce c hildren w hether t hey h unted o r g athered a nd w ith a ll t he o ptimism i n t he w orld o ne c ould n ot o ffer t he " Venus" f igures a s t he f emale c ounterpart t o t he m ale h unting s cenes. T hat i s u nless t he e conomic s tructure o f t he U pper P alaeolithic w as a rranged i n a h itherto t otally u nsuspected f ashion. T his w hole t opic i s f raught w ith u nsupp orted a ssumptions a nd u nabashedly F reudian s exual p sychoanalysis. T annahill h as p rovided a t hought p rovoking a nalysis o f t he p roblem i n w hich t he " Venus" f igures c an b e s een a s r epresenting a r ange o f i deas f rom f ertility s ymbols t hrough t o w omen s uffering f rom a s urfeit o f c hild-bearing. 37 T he s exuality o f t hese f igures m ight p erhaps b e m ore i n t he v iewer's p erception t han i n t he d epiction. T here w ere m any m odern s ocieties w ho, u ntil t hey w ere e nlightened, d id n ot a ssociate nd t he s ame c ould h ave b een t rue i n t he s exual a ct w ith p rocreation, 38 a 3 7.

t he P alaeolithic.

T he " sorcerer" a t L es T rois F re 'res m ay n ot b e

e nsuring t he p rocreation o f d eer b ut, p erhaps, a ffecting a n a ct o f c onquest, i n t he s ame w ay i n w hich a m ale d eer i n r ut i s d ominant o ver f emale d eer, a nd w eaker m ales. T he c onnection b etween h unting a nd c onquest i s o bvious. F inally, i t i s p robably n ot s urprising t hat t he a rt o f t he E uropean U pper P alaeolithic i s e ssentially h unter o rientated a s w e w ill s ee i n t he n ext c hapter f or c limatic c onditions c reated a u niquely m eat-centred s ociety. I n t he a rt o f h unter-gatherer s ocieties o f r ecent t ime t he e conomic a ctivities o f t he s exes a re m ore e venly b alanced . T he r ock a nd c ave p aintings o f t he A ustralian a boriginals, e specially t hose i n A rnhem L and w hich m ay e xtend b ack s ome 2 0,000 y ears, o ffer d epictions o f f emale g athering a ctivity.

T he i mportance, h owever,

i s n ot

t he a ge

o r t he d epiction o f w omen w orking, b ut t hat t he t asks a re c learly s exually s egregated. M ales a lways h unt a nd w omen g ather o r c arry n ever a re t he s exes a nd t asks m ixed. 39 O f f urther s ignificance i s t hat t he A ustralian a rt p redates a ny E uropean a rt w ith h uman f igures, a lthough i ndividual d ating o f s ites a nd a rt i s i mprecise a nd c urrently r elies o n C haloupka's i dea o f f our s tyle p hases. 4u D ating i s c omplic ated t o a f urther e xtent b ecause m any d esigns a lthough o f g reat a ge a re, o r w ere, r egularly r epainted . N evertheless w e d o h ave i n t his a rt a c lear s ign t hat t he s exual d ivision o f l abour i s o f s ome d emonstrable a ntiquity. T he " yam" f igures w hich a lso a ppear i n n orthern A ustralian 41 a rt d o n ot s eem t o b e a c elebration o f g athered f ood b ut t o b e a r epresentation o f a p lant w ith s piritual s ignificance, p erhaps i n t he w ay t he m andrake r oot a chieved i ts m ystic q uality t hrough e lements o f a nthropomorphisation. W hilst w e h ave,

a t l east,

p artial e vidence o f t he a ntiquity o f

t he s exual d ivision o f l abour w e a re n ot c ertain a s t o t he r easons. I t m ight b e a rgued t hat d ifferences i n s tature b etween t he s exes may h ave w orked t o d irect m ales t owards t he m ore p hysically d emanding t ask o f h unting a nd f emales t o t he l ess p hysically d emanding t ask o f g athering. P rimates a nd h ominids h ave c ertainly q uite d istinct s exual d imorphism, a nd w hilst t his b egan a s a c ompetitive s trategy f or r eproduction, t he o bviously g reater p hysical s trength o f m ales w ould l ead t o t heir d ominance o f t he h unting r ole. 42 B ut t his d ominance must b e s een, n ot a s a u surpation o f t he m ajor s ymbolic a ctivity i n h uman s ociety, b ut a s t he s imple r esult o f t he p ure p rinciples o f n atural s election. We t end t hese d ays t o s hy c lear o f s uch s implistic a ssessments o f t he r oles o f m ale a nd f emale , a nd o ne m ight a dd q uite r ightly s o, 43 b ut t here a ppears t o b e n o o ther c hoice. O ne c ould s tress t hat t he s uperior s trength o f t he m ale a nd t he c orresponding g reater c hance o f s uccess i n h unting i s a v aluable f eature o f t he w hole a spect o f human s ociety a nd i ts s urvival, a nd t herefore a f urther i ndication o f c o-operation b etween t he s exes r ather t han a d istinction.

T o i nvest t he e conomic d ifferen-

t iation w ith a pplied p hilosophical d istinctions c oncerning i ntellect a nd l eadership i s t o u tterly m isunderstand t he e ssential d ichotomy o f m ale/female e conomic c o-operation. T he h uman r emains f rom t he P alaeolithic a lso a re o f l ittle v alue t o o ur e xamination o f t he a ntiquity o f t he s exual d ivision o f l abour. T hey a re f ar t oo f ew, a nd t hose w e d o h ave a re p reserved i n s uch g enerally p oor c ondition a s t o c reate m ore o ptions t han f irm a nswers i n t heir i nterpretation. T his p roblem i s d iscussed m ore f ully i n c ppter 4 .

T here a re s ome q uantitative s urveys, 3 8.

i n p articular B inford's " I a nd

H arrold's, 45 o f t he P alaeolithic s keletal e vidence w hich a re d irected m ainly a t s ocial a nalysis. D espite t he p roblem t hat t he d ata b ase i s v ery s mall, a nd t he r esults t herefore m ay h ave n o r eal v alue o utside o f t he t est s ample, s ome p oints m ight b e p ertinent t o o ur p r9 ent d iscuss ion. T here i s am arked i mbalance i n m ale/female b urials 4° w hich H arrold s ees a s i ndic tion t hat t he m ale p ersona w as s een a s h aving g reater s ignificance.

4 7

I f t he m ale a ctivity o f h unting w as m ore

v alued t han g athering t hen t his i s n ot s urprising. T herefore t he a ctual p hysical i mbalance i n t he n umber o f m ale a nd f emale b urials s uggests t hat t he m ales k illed i n t he h ighly s ymbolic a ctivity o f h unting, d emanded s pecial r itual i n b urial w hilst t he f emales w ere n ot a ccorded s uch r ites. A nother e xplanation h as b een o ffered b y D ivale w ho s uggests, u sing e thnographic a ccounts a s e vidence, t hat t his i mbalance m ay r eflect a p opulation f eature c aused b y f emale i nfantic ide. 48 P erhaps t here i s a lso a n i mbalance i n p reservation. F emales k illed w hilst g athering m ay h ave b een t aken b y c arnivores a nd t herefore m ay n ot h ave b een a vailable f or b urial -in w hich c ase t here i s n o r itual o r p opulation i mbalance. I n c losing t his e xamination o f t he s exual d ivision o f l abour, o ne c an o nly c onclude t hat w hilst t he p henomenon e xists l ittle c an b e p ositively c oncluded a s t o e ither i ts s ocial o rigins, o r t he p articular p eriod i n w hich i t b egins.

A ll o ne c an s ay i s t hat i t w ould a ppear t o

b e t he m ost d eeply e ntrenched f eature i n h uman e conomic a ctivities. T here i s n o a rchaeological e vidence o f a ny l ong-term a lternatives, n or i s t here a ny e thnographic o r a nthropological e vidence o f m ajor d epart ures f rom t his f undamental d ivision o f l abour.

3 9.

R EFERENCES 1 .

I t i s i mpossible t o g eneralise, M arshall, 1 967, p . 3 7 c ites o ne e xample o f a f emale c hief, a nd i n m any s ocieties, n otably A ustralian A boriginal,

2 .

t he w omen a re h ardly s ubservient.

A s a c hange f rom e xamples d erived f rom o bservation o f

! Kung

a ctivities s ee t he d escriptions o f A ustralian A boriginal e conomic p ractices i n R .A . G ould, L iving A rchaeology, 1 980, C ambridge U niversity P ress,

C ambridge,

p .

6 0ff.

3 .

I t i s n ecessary t o e xclude t he E skimos f rom t hese e xamples.

4 .

G ould,

1 980,

5 .

i bid .,

p .

p .

7 4,

a lthough L ee w rites o f h igher y ields a mongst

! Kung h unters, 6 .

7 5.

L ee,

1 979,

p .

2 65ff .

T he c urrent s ituation i n A ustralian A boriginal t here i s i ncreasing f emale l eadership s eems t o

s ociety w here s tem f rom

i mbalances c reated b y t he c olonial i mpact. T raditional m ale t asks h ave b een m ade r edundant w hereas t raditional f emale t asks w ere l ittle a ffected. 7 .

M arshall,

1 967,

8 .

F or f urther d iscussion o f t he t heoretical a spects o f t hese p roblems s ee, R . F oley, 1 981, ' A m odel o f r egional a rchaeological s tructure', P PS 4 7, p p. 1 -17.

9 .

A dapted f rom L ee,

1 0.

G ould,

1. 1

i bid.

1 2.

R .B. L ee, 1 982, ' Politics, s exual a nd n on-sexual, i n a n e galitn E . L eacock a nd R .B. L ee, e ds., P olitics a nd a rian s ociety', i H istory i n B and S ocieties, C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge , p. 4 0-41; a lso s p ee W oodburn, 1 968 , p p. 5 2-53; S ilberbauer, 1 981, p . 2 04ff.

1 3.

L ee, 1 982, p p. 4 1-43. O f c ourse w e h ave n o w ay o f k nowing i f t he s ymbolic i mportance o f m eat w as i nitially i nflated b y s ome p olitical o r p ropaganda e ffort b y m ales t o f orce o r p ersuade

1 980,

p .

3 8.

1 979,

p .

2 78.

T able 7 .

f emales t o a ccept t he s ubsidiary r ole. 1 4.

T here i s o ne m ajor e xception w hich i s t he a nnual m ongongo n ut h arvest. L ee, 1 979, c hpt. 7 .

1 5.

L ike e very t heory t here a re e xceptions. ! Kung women c an o wn a n !ore a cquiring i t, a s w ould a m ale, t hrough b eing t he s enior s urviving m ember o f t he n !ore's t raditional o wning f amily . I f a w oman i s s trongwilled e nough a nd d esires l eadership, t hen t he c ontrol o f an !ore p rovides t he r esource b ase, L ee, 1 979, p .344. M ore o ften i t i s t he m ale w ho m arries a f emale n !ore o wner w ho b ecomes a l eader, i bid ., p . 3 45. 4 0.

1 6.

L ee,

1 979,

p .

2 35.

1 7.

i bid .,

1 8.

A mongst t he ! Kung, t he w omen d o n ot s eek t o b ecome h unters, i bid ., p . 2 35. I n o ther h unter-gatherer c ommunities t he s exual o rientation o f w ork i s s ometimes m ore d efined a nd a ppears t o a ct t owards d iscouraging, i n a s ubtle w ay, a bnormalities i n s exual b ehaviour , i .e. h omosexuality, b estiality, e tc. T his i s a chieved b y s tressing t hat o ne o f t he p arties i s u nable t o p erform t he t raditional w ork o f m ale o r f emale; C .M . T urnbull, ' The r itualisation o f p otential c onflict a mongst t he M buti', i n L eacock a nd L ee, p p. 1 36-137, r ecounts t he b itter s weet t ale o f o f b oy a nd h is g oat.

1 9.

I t m ay b e a pposite t hat i n G reek m yth t he i nversion o f t he s ocial o rder a s r epresented b y t he t ales o f t he A mazons s tresses t heir h unting a nd f ighting s kills r ather t han t heir p olitical p rowess.

2 0.

S ummarised i n D . P ilbeam, N ew Y ork , p . 3 5ff.

2 1.

Ia m u sing t he p hylogeny d evised b y J ohanson w hich e xcludes A .africanus a nd A .robustus f rom t he m ain H omo d escent l ine, D .C. J ohanson a nd M .A . E dey, 1 981, L ucy, G ranada , L ondon, p . 2 88 . A .robustus a nd t he b izarre A .boisei h ave d entition c learly a dapted f or a c oarse v egetable d iet.

2. 2

P ilbeam , 1 972, p . 3 4. H unting i s a r elatively s mall p art o f c himpanzee a ctivity a nd s ome o bserved g roups d isplay n o e vide nce o f t his a ctivity, s o o ne m ust n ot o veremphasise i ts i mportance , R eynolds a nd R eynolds, 1 965, p . 3 80; J . G oodall, 1 965, ' Chimpanzees o f t he G ombe S tream R eserve', i n D e V ore, e d ., p p. 4 44-445.

2 3.

A p enetrating d iscussion o f t he a ntiquity o f h unting i s, S .L. W ashburn a nd C .S. L ancaster, 1 968, ' The e volution o f h unting ' i n L ee a nd D e V ore, e ds., p p. 2 93-303.

2 4.

G .L. I saac, 1 978a, ' The f ood s haring b ehaviour o f p roto-human 9 0-106; i dem , 1 978b, h ominids ', S cientific A merican, A pril , pp. ' Food s haring a nd h uman e volution: a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he P lio -P leistocene o f E ast A frica ', J .Anthropol. R es. 3 4, p p. 3 11-350.

2 5.

0 .

p . 2 38ff.

L ovejoy,

1 981,

1 972,

T he A scent o f M an, M acmillan,

' The o rigins o f m an ', S cience 2 11, p p.

3 40-

3 50. 2 6.

2 7.

L . K eeley a nd N . T oth, 1 981, ' Microwear p olishes o n e arly s tone t ools f rom K oobi F ora, K enya ', N ature 2 93, p p. 4 64-465. R .

F oley,

1 984,

' Early m an a nd t he R ed Q ueen',

i n R .

F oley, e d .,

H ominid E volution a nd C ommunity E cology, A cademic P ress ,

2 8 .

p .

9

A .

R osenfeld,

L ondon,

1 . 1 977,

' Profile f igures: 4 1.

s chematisation o f t he

h uman f igure i n t he M agdalenian C ulture o f E urope', U cko, 2 9.

A .

e d.,

F ormin I ndigenous A rt,

S ieveking,

F igs.

5 2-54,

1 979,

T he C ave A rtists, T hames a nd H udson,

i bid .,

F ig.

1 30.

3 1.

i bid.,

F ig.

1 31.

3 2.

L . B ernabö B rea, 1957, S icily B efore t he G reeks, H udson, L ondon, p p. 3 2-33, p ls. 4 , 5 .

3 3.

i bid.,

p .

J .G.D.

C lark,

L ondon,

p .

9 0ff . L ondon,

a re e xamples.

3 0.

3 4.

i n P .J.

D uckworth, L ondon,

3 2,

F ig.

p l.

T hames a nd

5 .

1 967,

T he S tone A ge H unters,

T hames a nd Hudson,

8 3.

3 5.

S ieveking,

1 979,

3 6.

U cko,

3 7.

R . T annahill, 1 981, S ex i n H istory, A bacus, L ondon, p p. 2 2-26; G amble h as u sed t he s imilarity i n t hese f igures f rom a ll p arts

1 977,

F ig.

9 2.

F rontispiece.

o f E urope t o s uggest t hat t his i s e vidence o f w ide s ocial i ntera ction, w hich d eveloped a s a r esponse t o s urvival n eeds d ictated b y w orsening c limatic c onditions a round 2 5,000 t o 2 3,000 y ears a go. C . G amble, 1 983, ' Culture a nd s ociety i n t he U pper P alaeolithic o f E urope', G atherer Economy i n P rehistory, C ambridge, p p. 2 01-211.

e d.,

H unter-

T annahill,

3 9.

G . C haloupka, 1 977, ' Aspects o f t he c hronology a nd s chematisat ion o f t wo p rehistoric s ites o n t he A rnhem L and P lateau', i n p p.

p .

B ailey,

C ambridge U niversity P ress,

3 8.

U cko,

1 981,

i n G .

2 43-259.

4 0.

i bid.

4 1.

i bid.,

4 2.

P ilbeam ,

p. p

S .

L .S. K amin,

4 3.

p .

R ose,

3 1.

2 57ff. 1 52-153. a nd R .C. L ewontin,

1 984, N ot i n O ur G enes,

P enguin, H armondsworth, c hapter 6 , ' The D etermined P atriarchy', o ffers a n i nteresting, w ell d ocumented , d iscussion o f e xcesses i n t he a ssessment o f m ale/female c apability. 4. 4

S .R . B inford, 1 968a, ' A s tructural c omparison o f d isposal o f t he d ead i n t he M ousterian a nd t he U pper P alaeolithic', S thwest.J . A nthrop .

2 4,

p. p

1 39-154.

4 5.

F .B. H arrold, 1 980, 'A c omparative a nalysis of E urasian P alaeol ithic b urials', W A 1 2, p p. 1 95-211.

4 6.

S .R .

B inford,

1 968a,

p .

1 46. 4 2.

4 7.

H arrold,

1 980,

4 8 .

W .T. D ivale, 1 972, ' Systematic p opulation c ontrol i n t he M iddle a nd U pper P alaeolithic: i nferences b ased o n c ontemporary h unter-gatherers', WA 4 , p . 2 31.

P .

2 07.

4 3.

C HAPTER 4 H EREDITARY S OCIAL S TRATIFICATION I N T HE P ALAEOLITHIC 4 .1

I ntroduction I n t his c hapter I w ill a ttempt, b y u sing t he t heoretical a rgu-

m ents d eveloped i n t he p revious t wo c hapters, t o d etermine i f s ocial s tratification e xisted i n t he P alaeolithic. W e h ave s een h ow h ereditary r anking c an d evelop f rom h ereditary o wnership o f s pecific f ixed r esources i n t he t erritory o f a h unter-gatherer b and, b ut c an t his m odel b e a pplied t o t he P alaeolithic c ommunities? Iw ill d emons trate t hat t here a re s ome g rounds t o s uggest t hat i t d id, a lthough t here w ere i mportant v ariations t hat w ere a r esult o f c limatic i nfluences u pon t he e conomy. A p icture o f p rehistoric s ociety will e merge w here t here w ere t wo m ain f orms o f s ocial h ierarchy. O n o ne h and t here w ere s ocieties i n w hich r eliance o n hunting c reated s ingle g eneration s tratification. O n t he o ther t here w ere s ocieties where a b alance o f h unting a nd g athering c reated t he c onditions f or h ereditary s ocial s tratification. T rue h unter-gatherer s ocieties a re g enerally o nly p ossible w hen c limatic c onditions a llow t he e xistence o f p lant r esources o f o ne k ind o r a nother a ll y ear, a nd w here t here a re n o m ajor m igrations o f f ood a nimals o ut o f b and t erritories. E xamples a re t he ! Kung a nd t he A ustralian a borigines. D ry s easons c ause a r eduction i n t he r ange o f p lants a nd a nimals, but, a lbeit r educed, t hese r esources s till r emain a ccessible t o t he b and. C onversely, t he E skimo r ely f or m uch o f t heir f ood u pon h unting ( gathering i s p ossible o nly i n t he s hort s ummer). F or t he r est o f t he y ear v egetable m atter i s v ery s carce a nd o ften t he o nly s ource i s t he s tomach c ontents o f h erbivores k illed f or m eat. I n a ddition, f or a l arge p art o f t he y ear, t he f ood a nimals a re a bsent f rom E skimo t erritories w hen t hey m igrate t o a void t he h arshness o f w inter. ' E skimos m ust t hen r ely o n s tored m eat, s trays o r m arine a nimals. 2 I n c ontrast t o t he ! Kung, t he E skimo t erritorial r ange o ffers f ew o r n o f ixed r esources u pon w hich t o c reate h ereditary c ontrols. T here i s, a ccordingly, n o r eal e vidence o f s ocial s tratific ation b ased o n r esource c ontrol. I nstead t here i s a minimal f orm b ased, a s w e h ave s een i n C hapter 2 , e ither o n h unting s kills o r s hamanistic a uthority, o f w hich o nly t he l atter c an b e o f ah ereditary t ype. T herefore w ith t hese t wo m odern e xamples o f c limatic d eterminism i n m ind i t i s p ossible t o s uggest w hich o f t he t wo f orms o f s ocial s tratification m ight h ave b een p resent i n s pecific p rehistoric c ommun ities b y u sing t he a nalysis o f c limatic e ffects u pon t heir e conomic r esources. O f c ourse i t i s n ot t hat s imple, b ut i f t he c limatic e ffect i s c ombined w ith t he c onventional e vidence o ffered b y t ool a ssemblages, a nd a nimal a nd p lant r emains, w e d o h ave a m eans o f a pplying t he t heoretical m odel e stablished i n c hapter t wo t o t he a rchaeological r ecord. A n i mportant a spect o f t he r ecognition o f t he e ffects o f c limate i s t hat i t g ives u s a n a dditional a lternative t o t he c onstraints c reated b y t he c lassificatory s ystems o f o rdering s tone t ools b sth a s t ypes a nd a s p roducts o f " cultures". A s G lynn I saac a nd o thers h ave n oted, t he m anufacture a nd u se o f s tone t ools i n p resent c ommunities i s q uite o pportunistic. T ools a re r arely made t o s et t ypological f ormulae , a nd g enerally t he m ain c riteria a re t he p resence o r a bsence o f a 4. 4

M ap

1 .

P rincipal s ites d iscussed i n c hapter 4 .

1 .

T erra A mata

2 .

L e L azaret

3 . 4 .

/U beidiya

L a C otte d e S ainte B relade

4 5.

5 . 6 .

M olodova K ostienki

7 .

D olni V estonice

8 .

G rotte d u R enne

r equired p oint o r e dge f or a s pecific t ask . T his i s n ot a n a ttempt t o d eny t he p resence o f t ool t ypes o f s tandard s hapes i n p rehistoric i ndustries -obviously s ome s hapes a nd f orms a re c onducive t o t he o ptimum f unction o f a p articular t ool. T he e xistence o f a xes, b acked b lades a nd f amilies o f p articular s crapers, a wls a nd burins t estify t o t he c reative f orces o f f unctional n ecessity.

T hese m ore " perfect"

f orms, h owever, t end t o b e s elected f rom a v ast a mount o f l ithic m aterial p resent a t s ites b ecause t hey c onform t o o ur s ystems o f c lassification .4 T herefore t he c lassifications o f s tone t ools a re r eflections o f o ur s ense o f f unction r ather t han a d irect r eflection o f p rehistoric i deas o f f unction. A nyone w ho h as e xcavated a s ite w ith a l arge l ithic i ndustry i s w ell a ware o f t he m any t ools w hich a re c onveniently d escribed a s " scrapers" b ut w hich c ould b e k nives, b urins, a wls,

o r e ven w asters.

5

I n a ddition,

a s C larke h as s uggested ,

6

o ur

h unter-centred v iew o f t he p ast h as t ended t o o bscure t he p ossible u ses o f s ome g roups o f s tone t ools i n t he p reparation o f v egetable f oods. T he u se o f c limatic d ata w ill h elp u s t o e xpand o ur u nderstanding o f t he e vidence l eft b y g athering a ctivities a nd c reates a w ider b asis u pon w hich t o s eek e vidence o f s ocial s tratification b ased o n h eredit ary c ontrol o f s pecific f ixed r esources. I n c hapter 3 t he a ntiquity o f h unter-gathering a ctivity w as b riefly d iscussed i n r elation t o t he e volution o f t he s exual d ivision o f l abour i n h uman s ocieties. T he e xistence o f t his e conomic a ctivity i n t he v ery e arliest s tages o f h uman e volution i s g enerally a ssumed, 7 b ut, w hilst t he a ssumption m ay w ell b e c orrect, t he a ctual m aterial e vidence u pon w hich i t i s b ased i s o pen t o v aried i nterpretation. C onclusions t hat s ome b one c oncentrations i n e arly S outh A frican s ites i ndicate d eliberate s election 8 s eems a l ittle o ptimistic. V arious s tudies s how t hat a nimals l ike h yaenas, c hee phs a nd l eopards t end t o l eave s imilarly o rdered r esidues f rom m eals. T he l ater s ites i n E ast A frica,

i n p articular K BS a t K oobi F ora,

d isplay s ome i ndications o f

d eliberate b one s election a nd t hus m ay b e s urer e vidence o f h uman a ctivity. 1 0 B ut, a s P otts a rgues t he e xact p art t hat m eat p layed i n e arly h ominid d iets i s o pen t o q uestion " -a s imilar p oint w as m ade b y D avid C larke s ome y ears e arlier i n r elation t o M esolithic e cono1 m ies 2 ( see c hapter 5 ). F urthermore t here i s t he p roblem t hat w hen w e a re d ealing w ith e arly h ominid b ehaviour a nd a ttempt t o a pply c urrent e vidence o f h uman s ocial b ehaviour t o t hem w e d o s o a t s ome p eril. T his o ccurs b ecause a s H ill c autions, w e a re d ealing w ith a s eparate s pecies o f a nimal.

T hey,

a s o ur a ncestors, m ay h ave h ad s imilar

r esponses t o t he f ood v ariety i n t heir e nvironment a s d o h unterg atherers o f H omo s apiens t ype. E qually, h owever, t hey m ay n ot h ave, a nd t he p articular f orm o f h unter-gathering a ctivity u ndertaken b y t he g racile a ustralopithecines, H .habilis a nd t he e arly H .erectus m ay h ave b een q uite d ifferent. T hey m ay h ave b een o pportunistic s cavengers i n t he m anner o f m odern p rimate p acks r ather t han o rdered b y t erritory a nd r esource a s i n m odern h umans. P erhaps t hey m ay h ave s urvived b y f ollowing t he h erds a nd s cavenging v egetable m atter w hen d esired -w e c annot s ay. 1 4 F inally, a nd a dded t o t his p roblem o f s pecies s eparat ion,

i s t he a bsolute p aucity o f e vidence, w hich c ould l ead t o a ny

r econstruction o f s ocial b ehaviour i n t hese e arly h ominid g roups. c annot e ven s afely h ypothesise u pon t he s ize o f t heir bands.

W e

I n a ccordance w ith t hese r eservations, a nd t o a void w hat w ould b e a r ather f ruitless d iscussion o n t he p ossible s ocial b ehaviour o f t he p re-Homo s apiens h ominids,

Iw ill r estrict t he d iscussion o f t he 4 6.

a rchaeological e vidence t o t he l ater M iddle P alaeolithic a nd b eyond. F rom t his p eriod w e h ave m ore f irm d ata a nd w e a re d ealing w ith m odern ( including H .neanderthalis) p opulations. T he c riteria f or s ite s elections a re t wo-fold. F irstly I h ave s elected t hose s ites w here t here i s e vidence ( e.g. h earths, c onstructed w ork p latforms, e tc.) w hich e nable s ome a ssessment o f b and p opulation o r t erritoriality, f or w ithout t his d irect e vidence a ny a ttempts a t s ocial a nalysis a re i mpossible. S econdly I h ave c hosen s ites t hat a re w ell r eported o r d iscussed . T his c hoice w as d ictated b y t he g eneral a vailability o f p ublished i nformation, a nd a d esire o n m y p art t o o ffer a lternative a ssessments o f t he f amiliar e vidence. T he e stablishment o f t his t heoretical f ramework w ill t hen a llow u s t o d iscuss t he v exed q uestion o f t he r icher b urials f rom t hese e pochs w ith r eference t o t he p robable s ocial s tructure o f t he b ands i n w hich t hey l ived . T his m ethod o f a pproach w ill, I h ope, a void s ome o f t he p roblems t hat a re a ssociated w ith m ortuary e vidence. 4 .2

P alaeolithic H unters a nd H unter-Gatherers

T he p opulation o f m odern h unter-gatherer b ands i s g enerally a round 2 0 t o 2 5 p eople o r a bout t hree t o f ive f amily u nits. C onsidera ble n umbers o f P alaeolithic c amp s ites h ave b een f ound w here t he n umber a nd r elationship o f h earths s uggest t hat s imilar p opulation 5 l evels w ere p robably a f eature o f p rehistoric h unter-gatherer b ands. 1 R ecognition o f t his p arallel h as l ong b een o ur c hief m eans o f f leshing o ut t he r ather s lender a rchaeological e vidence f rom P alaeolithic c amp s ites. W ith t he m ajor e xception o f t he e arliest h ominids, a s d iscussed a bove, t here i s a t p resent n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat t his i nterpretat ion s hould b e q uestioned. T he o ldest e vidence o f a c onstructed h abitation i s a t t he D K1 s ite a t O lduvai G orge. A n a rrangement o f l oosely p iled l ava b locks i n a s omewhat c rescentic s hape i s t aken t o b e t he f oundations o f aw indb reak . I t i s a ssociated w ith t he H .habilis l evels b ut o ther t han a v ague r esemblance t o t he f oundations o f m odern E ast A frican h uts n o 6 f irm d ata i s a vailable t o d emonstrate i ts f unction. 1 O ne o f t he o ldest p reserved c amp s ites i s a t T erra A mata i n N ice i n t he s outh o f F rance . T he s ite i s i mportant f or t his i nvestigation b ecause t here i s e vidence o f t wo b ehavioural t raits a ssociated w ith m odern h unter-gatherer b ands: s easonal o ccupation a nd e vidence t hrough s tone i mportation o f a p ossibly f ixed t erritorial r ange. T erra A mata w as o ccupied t owards t he e nd o f t he M indel g laciat ion. T hermoluminescence d ates d erived f rom b urnt f lint a nd l imestone 7 w hen t he c limate w as f ound a t t he s ite a verage t o c .230,000 ± 4 0,009 1 8 T he e xcavation c ooler, m ore h umid a nd s ea l evels w ere h igher. I r evealed a n umber o f l iving f loors e ach w ith a h earth a nd s urrounded b y a n o val o f l imestone b locks a pproximately 1 3 x 6m etres. I t i s s uggested t hat t his i s e vidence o f e ither o pen-roofed w indbreaks, o r r oofed h uts. T his l atter v iew i s s trengthened b y t he e xistence o f s ome 9 S cattered a round t he h earths, i nside t he s trucl arge p ost h oles. 1 t ures, a re d eposits o f s tone c hips w hich a re p robably w ork a reas. 2 ° D e L umley o riginally s uggested t hat t here w ere a r egular s eries o f s easonal o ccupations, 21 b ut V illa, i n h er r eassessment, a rgues t hat t here i s c onsiderable c onfusion i n t he e xact s equence o f t he l iving f loors,

a nd t hat w hile p ollen a nalysis s hows l ate s pring o ccupation, 4 7.

2 2

t he p resence o f u nshed a ntler s uggests a l ate a utumn o r w inter O verall, h owever, t he e vidence p oints t o r eo ccupation a s w el1. 23 o ccupation b ut w ith w hat r egularity i s u ncertain. T he p eople o f T erra A mata s eem t o h ave b ased t heir s ubsistence u pon t he h unting o f l arge a nimals f or m eat. T hese w ere d eer ( Cervus e laphus), a f orm o f e xtinct e lephant ( Elephas m eridionalis), w ild b oar ( sus s crofa), t he i bex ( Capra i bex ), a nd M erk's r hinoceros ( Dicerothinus m erki) a nd a lso a urochs. 24 T here i s a lso e vidence, a s b efits a l ittoral s ite, o f t he u se o f m arine f ood, m ainly s hellfish T here i s n o d irect e vidence b ut a lso i ncluding s ome v ertebrate f ish. 25 o f t he c onsumption o f v egetable f oods, but p ollen a nalysis s hows t hat w ater l ilies o f t he g enus E uryale . g rew i n a s tream n ear t he s ite. T he t ubers o f w ater l ilies a re e dib1e 2 b a nd i t i s t empting t o t hink t hat t hese, a long w ith t he s hellfish, w ere s ome o f t he s easonal r esources t hat d rew p eople t o t he s ite. S easonal o ccupation i s i ndicated b y t he p resence i n h uman c oprolites o f t he p ollen o f p lants s uch a s G enista ( broom) w hich s heds i ts p ollen a t t he e nd o f s pring. 27 N o h uman r emains w ere f ound b ut a f ootprint w as f ound p reserved i n t he s and o f t he f ossil d une. 28 T he l ate M indel d ate o f T erra A mata s uggests t hat t he p eople m ay h ave b een o f t he s ame d eveloped H .erectus t ype a s p eople w hose r emains w ere f ound a t V grtesszöllös i n H ungary. o f l ate M indel o rigin.

T hese a re a lso

2 9

T he t ool i ndustry i s f airly c rude, c onsisting mainly o f b ifacial c hoppers. 3° T here i s, h owever, n o n earby s ource f or t he s tone o f w hich t he t ools a re m ade. T he n earest s ource i s t he E stgrel h ills w hich o verlook t he M editerranean s outhwest o f C annes, a nd w hich a re s ome 3 5 k ms. f rom T erra A mata. 31 T he v isits t o t he s ite m ay h ave b een q uite s hort. A nalysis o f h earth p ositions, a nd r euse, s uggest p erhaps 1 1 s eparate v isits o f 2 o r 3 d ays d uration. W hether o r n ot t hese w ere s trictly a nnual i s u ncertain. D e L umlex s uggests t hat t hey w ere, b ut V illa's r e-assessment a rgues o therwise.

J 2

I t i s f airly a pparent t hat t he p eople o f T erra Amata w ere n ot s imply t railing t he h erds f or t heir s ubsistence.

T hey s eem t o h ave h ad

a f airly w ell d efined t erritorial r ange m oving a long t he C 8te d 'Azur m aking u se o f l ittoral r esources, t he l arger a nimals t hat f requented t he r egion, a nd t he s uitable s tone o f t he E stgrel h ills. F or p art o f t he y ear -l ate s pring, a nd p erhaps l ate a utumn -they c amped a t T erra A mata f or s everal d ays, a nd t his s uggests s ome f ixed r esource t o a ct a s a n a ttraction. S hell-fish a re a n o bvious a ttraction, b ut o ne w ould e xpect t hese t o b e a vailable a long m ost o f t he c oast. T he p resence o f w ater l ilies w ith t heir e dible t ubers m ay h ave b een a nother a ttraction. B ecause o f t he w ater-lily's r eliance o n w et a nd b oggy c onditions -the m argin o f a s tream -it w as p robably m uch m ore r estricted. I f t he c onditions w ere s uitable f or w ater-lilies, p erhaps o ther e dible p lants w ith s imilar r estrictions o n t heir h abitats w ere a lso g rowing. W e c annot b e c ertain, b ut i t i s n ot u nlikely t hat a long t he s alt-wasted c oast t here w ere l ittle o ases w here s treams c reated s mall g ardens o f e dible p lants. G ardens t hat c ould, p erhaps, s ustain a h unter-gatherer b and f or a f ew d ays, a nd w hich s erved a s i deal c amp-sites, w hilst t he m en h unted a nd t he w omen h arvested v egetables a nd s hell-fish. T he l ong s tone p icks c ould h ave b een u sed t o g rub r oots f rom t he e arth. 33

4 8.

D e L umley n otes t hat t he r e-occupation o f t he c amp s ites s uggests a g roup w ith a s table s ocial o rganization. 34 I t d oes, h owever, s uggest a l ittle m ore t han t hat b land a ssessment. M odern h unter-gatherer b ands h ave f ixed t erritories t hrough w hich t hey m ove, c onfident t hat t he r esources o f

t hese t erritories w ill b e a vailable i n

t heir s eason a nd g enerally f ree f rom t he d epredation o f n eighbouring b ands. P art o f t he m eans b y w hich r esources a re p rotected i s t he s ystem o f h ereditary o wnership b y a n i ndividual, w hich i s d iscussed i n c hapter t wo. T he p eople o f T erra A mata r evisited t he s ame s ite y ear a fter y ear i n t heir m ovements t hrough t heir t erritory -m ovements w hich w e know t o h ave e xtended,

a t l east,

t o t he E sterel h ills o ver 3 5 kms.

a way. T his m ovement w ith i ts c onfident r eturn t o s pecific a nd a ttract ive s ites s uggests t hat t hey w ere a lso c onfident t hat t hese r esources w ould b e a vailable r egularly, y ear a fter y ear. O f p articular i nterest i s t he p resence o f r ed d eer ( Cervus e laphus) w hich, a s Iw ill d iscuss m ore f ully i n c hapter 5 , i s a n a nimal t hat h as a s mall s easonal r ange. T his s mall s easonal r ange m ight t herefore h ave m ade t he r ed d eer h erds a f ixed r esource, u nlike a nimals w ith g reater r anges, i n t he o verall r esource c atchment o f t he p eople o f T erra A mata. I f, t herefore, w e c ombine t he r ed d eer h erds w ith t he e vidence o f s easonal r evisits a nd t he p ossible w ide r ange o f r esources a vailable,

t hen T erra A mata w as a

p art o f aw ell d efined t erritory. T his h as s uch c lear p arallels w ith m odern h unter-gatherer t erritories, t hat t he h ereditary c ontrol o f r esources, a nd t herefore h ereditary s ocial s tratification, s eems t o h ave b een a f eature o f t he s ocial s tructure a t T erra A mata. A f ew k ilometres f rom T erra A mata i s t he L ate A cheulian c ave s ite o f L e L azaret . M uch m ore r ecent t han i ts n eighbour i t i s a pproxim ately 1 50,000 y ears o ld. I n c ontrast t o T erra Amata, i t d ates f rom t he h eight o f t he R iss g laciation -a p eriod o f m uch c older a nd d rier c limate. 3 5 T he s ite's m ost i nteresting f eature i s t he t races o f a m an-made s helter w ith t wo h earths a nd t he p ossible r emains o f a n 6 T he t ool i ndustry s eems i nternal " wall" d ividing t he s helter i n t wo. 3 l argely d esigned f or b utchering. 37 T here i s i nsufficient e vidence o f

v egetable i tems t o i ndicate i f t he s ite's i nhabitants w ere t rue h unterg atherers. T he c ombination o f a c old c limate a nd b utchering t ools, h owever, s uggests t hat L e L azaret w as a h unter's c amp. T here i s a l arge q uantity o f f aunal r emains w hich i ndicate t hat t he p eople o f L e L azaret w ere h unting p igs, c attle, g oats, e lephant a nd h orse. 3° I t i s s uggested t hat t he p resence o f t he f oot b ones o f w olves, f ox, l ynx a nd p anther i ndicate t he u se o f t hese f urs a s b edding. 39 A s imilar s uggestion i s m ade t o e xplain t he p resence o f s eaweed, t he e xistence o f w hich w as d educed f rom t inx s hells w hich m ay h ave b een c arried t o t he s ite a ttached t o i t. 4 " S eaweed h as o ther u ses w hen d ried. P erhaps l ike t he A frican M iddle S tone A ge s ites d iscussed b elow, w e h ave e vidence o f m eat p rese rvation . T he b urning o f s eaweed t o p roduce s alt p rimarily t o c ure f m eat w as q uite c ommon i n p arts o f n orthern E urope u ntil r ecently. 41 I m eat w as p reserved , t hen p erhaps t here w as a n u nwillingness t o f ollow t he h erds, a nd a p reference t o r emain i n a f ixed t erritory c entred u pon s ome v alued r esource. T he s tone d eposits o f t he E sterel h ills c ould h ave b een s uch a r esource ( these w ere a lso w ithin t he t erritory o f t he p eople o f T erra A mata), a nd t here a re s ome U pper A cheulian s ites i n t hat a rea. 42 T here a re s everal i nstances i n t he e thnographic m aterial o f q uarry o wnership b y i ndividuals i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties. T he g reenstone q uarry a t M t. W illiam i n V ictoria, A ustralia, w as t he 4 9.

h ereditary p roperty o f o ne a boriginal

f amily.

4 3

A q uarry o f t he D una

p eople, w ho l ive i n t he r egion a round L ake K opiago i n t he W estern H ighlands o f N ew G uinea, w as o wned b y o ne p erson w ho a cted a s a c aretaker. 44 T he E stgrel q uarry m ight h ave b een o wned i n a s imilar f ashion a s p art o f t he r esource " package" o f t he b and l eader, j ust a s t he

! Kung l eaders o wn a r esource " package" ( see c hapter 2 ).

B esides t he p reservation o f m eat t he g athering o f s eaweed s uggests s alt p roduction, s ome o f w hich m ight h ave b een t raded t o n eighbouring b ands. F urthermore, i t m ight b e e vidence o f s ome f orm o f i nherited p ropriety r ights t o s ections o f s horeline, a s w ith t he A merican n orth w est c oast I ndians. e xtremely t hin, b ut A cheulian s ociety.

4 5

A dmittedly t he e vidence i s

i t d oes o ffer s ome n ew i nterpretations o f U pper

A s ite w ith s triking s imil9iities t o T erra A mata i s ' Ubeidiya, I t i s g enerally a ccepted o n i n t he J ordan V alley, i n I srael. 4° t ypological p arallels t hat t he s ite i s M iddle P alaeolithic, b ut more s pecific d ating h as p roved e lusive. A c ombination o f f aunistic r emnants o f V illafranchian e ncroaching o n t ypical P ost-Villafranchian f auna, a nd d ifferences b etween d ates c alculated b y t he t horium-uranium m ethod a nd g eological c omparisons w ith B ed I I a t O lduvai, h ave g iven a d ate r ange b etween 4 90,000 B P a nd 1 28,000 B P. 47 W hatever i ts d ate ' Ubeidiya s eems t o h ave b een a f avourite s topping p lace f or t he band i n w hose t erritory i t l ay, a s s ome e ffort w as e xpended o n t he c reation A nimals h unted w ere e lephant, o f a l evel f loor o ut o f l arge p ebbles. 48 p igs, c attle, h orse a nd h ippopotamus, a nd t here i s a lso a l arge r ange o f s maller a nimals r epresented a t t he s ite . 49 F loral e vidence i s q uite s parse. P ollen a nalyses f rom t he ' Ubeidiya g eological f ormation s how a m assive p reponderance o f o ak w ith g enerally n ot m ore t han 1 % o f o ther t ree p ollen, a nd u pwards o f 1 0% o f p ollen f rom g rasses a nd s mall s hrubs s uch a s G ramineae, C yperaceae, U mbelliferae a nd o thers. 5 ° S upplement ary e vidence f rom t he a nalysis o f b ird s pecies r epresented s uggests t hat ' Ubeidiya l ay o n t he m arshy s hore o f al ake w ith a n o pen o ak f orest i nland.

5 1

A t p resent t he s ite i s s ome 2 00 m etres b elow s ea-

l evel, b ut i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic i t w as a t, o r a bove, s ea-level. I ts d escent w as a r esult o f m ajor t ectonic m ovement i n t he r ift C limatic d etails a re s ketchy a lthough i t w ould s eem , i f t he v alley. 52 p ollen a nalyses a re a ccurate, t hat ' Ubeidiya p robably h ad a s lightly m oister c limate t han t oday's. 53 T he d eliberately c onstructed l iving f loor s uggests t hat t he onsidered t he p eople o f ' Ubeidiya ( probably d eveloped H .erectus) 54 c s ite s ufficiently a ttractive t o m ake i t a r egular s topping p lace. A s w ith T erra A mata, t he p eople d welling a t ' Ubeidiya w ould h ave h ad a ccess t o a r ange o f f oods b oth a nimal a nd v egetable. T he m ajor a nimal s pecies h ave b een n oted, b ut i n a ddition t here w ere a lso f ish b ones. 5 5 V egetable f oods s uch a s t he t ubers o f w ater-lilies a nd r eeds w ould h ave b een v aluable s ources o f n utrition. F reshwater f ish w ould h ave a ttracted m any t ypes o f w ater b irds, 56 w hilst t he e ggs o f t hese b irds m ust h ave b een g athered a nd e aten. I t i s p ossible t o d epict t he p eople o f ' Ubeidiya g oing a bout a f airly o rdered r egimen d uring t heir v isits t o t he s ite. M en o ut h unting, o r p erhaps " f ishing w ith s pears i n t he s hallows, w hilst t he w omen w ere g athering v egetable f oods a nd r aiding b irds n ests f or e ggs. S pare t ime w as s pent m aking t ools o r r epairing e quipment i n t he r elative d ryness o f t he c obbled l iving p latform c onstructed o n t he l ake s hore. 5 0.

T he s ocial o rder i s m uch l ess a ccessible t o o ur i nquiry.

W ith

c limatic c onditions c onducive t o aw ide v ariety o f v egetable r esources, w e c an e xpect t hat t he e conomy w as a t rue h unter-gatherer t ype. C onstruction o f t he c obbled p latform s uggests a d esire t o m ake a p ermanent i mprovement t o t he s ite's e xisting a ssets, a nd t his s uggests i n t urn t he e xpectation, l ike a t T erra A mata, o f r egular v isits t o m ake u se o f t hese a ssets. A dd t o t his t he r ich f aunal a nd v egetable r esources w hich m ake t he a rea a l ikely f ixed t erritory f or a b and o f h unter-gatherers,

a nd o ne w ould e xpect,

i n s uch a b alanced e nvironment,

t hat t he p eople o f ' Ubeidiya s ought s ome m eans t o p reserve t his e conomic s ecurity. A s Ih ave d iscussed i n c hapter 2 , t he p rincipal f unction o f h unter-gatherer l eadership i s r esource m anagement. I n t he b enign c limatic c onditions t hen i n e xistence w e w ould e xpect s ome l ongt erm v egetable r esources t o e xist -w hat t hey w ere c annot, h owever, b e s aid . T heir e xistence c annot b e d oubted, a nd t heir p roper m anagement p robably c ontributed t o t he s ense o f s ecurity w hich a llowed t he b uilding o f t he c obbled f loor. Ih ave a lready n oted, i n r egard t o L e L azaret, t hat e vidence o f t he p reservation a nd s torage o f f ood i s i mportant t o o ur k nowledge o f p rehistoric t erritoriality. F ood p reservation i s n ot a c onsistent f eature o f h unter-gatherer e conomies. I n m any i nstances t he n atural c apacity o f s ome f ood p lants t o r esist d ecay r enders s torage u nnecessary . E xamples a re t he q uandong f ound i n p arts o f A ustralia, w hose f ruits c an s urvive f or l ong p eriods o n t he g round, 57 a nd t he m any r oots a nd b ulbs h arvested b y t he S an. 58 N evertheless, w ithout a f ixed t erritory, s torage o f f ood i s n ot w orthwhile b ecause t here w ould b e n o g uarantee t hat t he p eople w ho l aid d own t he c ache w ould h ave a ccess t o

i t w hen i t

w as n eeded. I n A ustralia, s torage o f v arious t ypes o f n uts, g rass s eed a nd l iving m ussels h as b een n oted. 59 T he A ndamanese w ere a ble t o p reserve p ieces o f c ooked m eat i n l engths o f b amboo, 6° a nd i nstances o f s moking o r d rying m eat a re w orldwide. B ut i nformative a s t hese e xamples f rom r ecent h istory a re, t he c hances o f e vidence o f f ood s torage o ccurring i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o f t he P alaeolithic a re v ery s lim . T here i s s ome p ossible e vidence o f m eat p reservation i n s ites o f t he A frican M iddle S tone A ge.

T his w as a p eriod o f t ransition i n t he

l ithic i ndustry f rom l arge c ore t ools s uitable f or b utchering t o m ore v aried a nd s maller t ypes s uited t o v egetable p rocessing, e specially p ounding a nd g rinding. 61 I n s ome s ites t here a re h orizons w here f ragmentary c harred b one i s a ssociated w ith c arbonised o rganic r emains. U sing p arallels d erived f rom o bservation o f m odern p ractice i n t he b utchering a nd d rying o f m eat, 62 J .D. C lark s uggests t hat t his a ssociat ion o f b one a nd a sh m ay i ndicate t he p reservation o f m eat b y s moking o r d rying o ver l ong f ire p its. W hilst t his s uggestion i s i mportant, w e c annot b e a bsolutely c ertain i f t he s moking a nd d rying o f m eat t ook p lace. T he f ragmented n ature o f t he b ones m ay h ave r esulted f rom l ess f rugal u se o f m eat, p erhaps a n ormal h unter's f east f ollowing t he k ill. B ut i f w e a re l ess p essimistic a nd a ccept t hat t hese s ites s aw t he p reservation o f m eat, t hen w e c an s uggest t hat, p erhaps, a d egree o f t erritoriality e xisted i n t hese M iddle S tone A ge c ultures. D o w e h ave a g roup o f p eople m aking u se o f a s easonal r esource i n t he f orm o f m igrating a nimals b y p reserv ing t he m eat f or f uture u se, r ather t han f ollowing t he h erd w hich m ay t ake t hem f rom o ther f ixed v egetable r esources i n t heir t erritory? 5 1.

I

a m n ot s uggesting t hat t he m eat w as s tored i n t he c aves, f or t his w ould b e n o p rotection f rom t he l eopards t hat f requent A frican c aves, b ut o nce d ried i t c ould b e c arried w ith t he b and i n t heir m ovement a round a f ixed t erritory . T he p resence o f t ools u seful f or t he p rocessing o f v egetable f oods " s uggests a m ixed d iet a nd t he p ossibility o f s ome f ixed v egetable r esources a round w hich a t erritory a nd u ltimately s ome h ereditary s ocial c ontrol c ould b e b uilt. T his i s a n e lusive p roblem .

I f t he p reservation o f m eat was

t aking p lace t his m ight i ndicate a n u nwillingness t o f ollow t he h erds, a nd a p reference t o r emain i n o ne a rea t reating t hem a s a nother f orm o f s easonal r esource. I t d oes n ot, h owever, i ndicate t hat t he e conomy w as a t rue h unter-gatherer o ne.

P ossibly,

l ike t he E skimo, h unting w as t he

c entre o f t he e conomy a nd t he s upply w as a vailable t hroughout t he y ear p reservation t aking p lace o nly a t p articularly l ean t imes, o r t o p rovide f ood f or h unters t o c arry w hen p ursuing m ore g ame. T he p resence o f t ools s uitable f or v egetable p rocessing c ould b e s een a s t he e vidence o f a m inor r ather t han m ajor d ietary c omponent. U nder t hese c ircumstances a ny s ocial s tratification t hat d eveloped w ould p robably b e b ased o n t he i mpermanent s tatus o ffered b y hunting p rowess. T here i s o ne f urther p iece o f e vidence o f s ocial t he s ite o f O rangia i n n orthern C ape P rovince,

s tructure.

S outh A frica,

A t

t here i s

a c luster o f s emi-circular s tone s ettings d ating f rom before 5 0,000 b ce 5 T hese a ppear t o b e t he r emains o f s helters a nd t heir number, s even, s uggests a b and p opulation o f b etween 2 5 a nd 3 5 p eople. T his i s v ery c lose t o m odern h unter-gatherer b and p opulations i n t his p art o f A frica. T he c ombination o f t he e vidence o f m eat p reservation a nd t he s helters t empts o ne t o s uggest t hat s ocieties o f t he M iddle S tone A ge w ere l ike m odern h unter-gatherers a nd t herefore h ad s imilar s ocial s tructures, w ith e lements o f h ereditary r esource c ontrol a nd l eadership. A las w e c annot b e c ertain -they f all w ithin t he c onditions d ecreed f or o ur e xamination, b ut t hey a re s o e phemeral a s t o s lip a ll t oo e asily f rom o ur d irect g aze. T here i s a t endency w hen d escribing h unter-gatherer e conomies t o o ver-emphasise t he i dea o f r esource m anagement. T he r eal r eason f or t he s uccess o f h unter-gatherer e conomies i s n ot a h ighly e fficient c ontrol o f r esources. E fforts a t c onservation a re r ather l imited a nd r arely e xtend b eyond n ot s tripping a n a rea c ompletely bare , " a nd t rue c onservation a nd r esource m anagement d oes n ot a ppear u ntil t he N eolithic. T he r eal s ource o f t he s uccess o f h unter-gatherer e conomies l ies i n a p ragmatic a cceptance o f t he n eed t o u tilise e verything e dible w hether p alatable o r u npalatable. W e h ave d iscussed i n c hapter 3 t he p opularity o f m eat d espite i ts l esser r ole i n t he d iet t han v egetable f oods. W oodburn h as n oted h ow t he H adza h ave a l ow o pinion o f m ost o f t he v egetable f ood t hey e at. 67 A n i ndication o f d ietary p ragmatism i s t he u se o f h ighly t oxic f oods w hich r equire e xtensive p reparation t o r emove t heir p oisons. T here a re m any s uch t oxic f ood p lants u tilised t oday. E xamples a re t he h ighly c arcinogenic s eeds o f t he c ycad p alms ( macrozamia n uts) e aten b y A ustralian a borigines, " a nd t he v ery p opular m anioc. " T he o ther s ide o f t his p ragmatic c oin i s t he m assive c onsumption o f s ome f oods w hen t hex a re i n s eason. E xamples a re t he m ongongo n ut h arvests o f t he ! Kung, / ° a nd t he a nnual f east o n B ogong m oths ( Agrotis 1 H unting s trategies a lso r eflect i nfusa) i n s outh e astern A ustralia. 7 5 2.

t his p endulum e ffect b etween p eriods o f p lenty a nd p eriods o f b are s urvival.

T he m ain s ide-effect o f t he s easonality o f a nimal m ovement

o n hunting s ocieties i s a t endency t o o ver-kill a nd w aste -the e quivalent o f v egetable g luts i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties. A n e xample o f t his i s t he c aribou h arvest o f t he E skimo p eople o f t he w estern s hores o f H udson's B ay, t he B arrens. 7 2 T he c ontinued s urvival o f a nimal s pecies u nder t hese c onditions i s n ot t he r esult o f c areful m anagement, b ut m ostly t he r esult o f h uman p opulations r egulating t hemselves i n r esponse t o t he c apacity o f t he b and's t erritory. 73 P rehistoric e xamples o f o ver-kill a re d ifficult t o i dentify. O ne c lear e xample i s t he s ite o f O lsen-Chubbuck o n t he B ig S andy C reek i n t he s tate o f C olorado i n t he U nited S tates. H ere w as f ound t he r emains o f a h erd o f b ison, n umbering 1 90 a nimals, w hich h ad b een d riven o ver a c liff i nto a r avine. 7 4 T here i s a nother p ossible e xample a t t he s ite o f L a C otte d e S aint-Brelade o n t he i sland o f J ersey. H ere a c ollection o f r emains o f y oung m ammoths h ave b een i nterpreted a s r esulting f rom a s mall h erd b eing d riven o ff a c liff. 75 T his v ery e ffective a nd y et wasteful m ethod o f o btaining a l arge a mount o f f resh W hilst p roviding d ramatic m eat c ontinued i nto h istoric t imes. 76 e vidence o f h unting p atterns, t he p roblem o f o ver-kill c reates a n eed f or c aution i n a ssessing t he l ength o f o ccupation a t p articular s ites, a nd t he s ize o f t he b ands w ho o ccupied t hem. W e w ill n ow t urn t o t he e xamination o f a g roup o f s ites w hich s eem t o h ave b een t hose o f s pecialised h unting b ands. T hese s ites, i n c entral a nd e astern E urope, d ate f rom t he l ater M iddle a nd t he U pper P alaeolithic. I n t hese p eriods t he c limate o f

t he r egion w as m ainly c old a nd

d ry w ith a s lightly w armer p eriod d uring t he P audorf o scillation a round 2 6,000 t o 2 3,000 B P. O verall, h owever, t he g enerally c old c onditions f ostered a n e nvironment n ow f ound o nly i n m ore n orthern l atitudes. T here w ere l arge i ce m asses,

t hen b ordering u pon t hese w ere b arren

a rctic d eserts w ith l ittle m ore p lant l ife t han l ichens a nd m osses. F urther s outh w ere v ast e xpanses o f t undra w ith s hort g rasses a nd s mall p lants. T his r egion, l ike i ts m odern c ounterparts i n n orthern C anada, A sia a nd S candinavia, w as o ne o f l ong c old w inters w hich r each t heir d eepest i ntensity i n F ebruary, a nd s hort s ummers w hen p lants e xploded i nto a b rief r eproductive r iot o f f lowers a nd b erries. F urther s outh s till w ere o pen l oess p lains w ith p lentiful g rass a nd p ockets o f c oniferous f orests t hat a ttracted t he m igratory a nimals e scaping t he i ntense n orthern w inter. A nimal p opulations w ere a s v aried. T he m ain s pecies w ere c old r esistant f orms t hat h ad e volved i n r esponse t o t he l engthy p eriod o f g laciation. L ess c old r esistant a nimals l ike r eindeer w ere r estricted t o t he s outhern p ine f orests w ith s easonal e xcursions i nto t he t undra d uring t he b rief s ummers.

7 7

T he w ealth o f a nimal l ife a nd t he s carcity o f p lants s uitable f or h uman d iets, e xcept f or t he b rief s ummer f lora, c reated s ocieties w hose p rimary e conomy w as h unting. T hese s ocieties w ere n omadic a nd f ollowed t he m ain p rey t he h erds o f w oolly m ammoths o ver m any h undreds o f k ilometres, p ausing i n t hese q uests w hen t he i ntensity o f w inter f orced r etreat t o t he s outh a nd s ubsistence u pon s tored f ood. T owards t he e nd o f t he P alaeolithic, a s t he c limate a meliorated a round 1 1,000 B P, s ome b ands b egan t o d evelop q uasi-domestic e conomies b ased u pon r eindeer h erds, w hich b ecame t he d ominant s pecies a s t he w armer c ond itions a nd t he s ubsequent r etraction o f f avourable e nvironments f orced 5 3.

t he c old r esistant s pecies i nto e xtinction. M ost o f

t he v ast a rea i n w hich t he n omadic h unters l ived w ere

f lat p lains. T here w ere n o c aves f or s helter, a nd i t w ould a lso s eem, g iven t he e xtensive u se o f b one a nd t usks f or b uilding m aterials, f ew t rees. W e h ave s ufficient w ell p reserved s ites t o i ndicate t hat c amps w ere c entred u pon l arge c ommunal t ents w ith s everal s eparate h earths i nside. W hether t his c ommunal l iving w as a r esult o f s ocial b onds b etween f amily g roups o r t he m ore s imple n eed f or c o-operation i n c reating s helter f rom t he e ver-present c old w inds i s u nknown. m ultiplicity o f l arge s ites w ith s everal h earths, h owever, c ommunal b onds.

T he

s uggests

B efore w e e xamine t he s ocial s tructure o f t hese n omadic h unters Iw ill s ummarise t he a rchaeological d ata f or t he m ain s ites s elected. T he f irst s ite, a nd o ne o f c onsiderable i mportance i s M olodova V . T his i s o ne o f s everal h undred P alaeolithic s ites w hich l ie o n t erraces o f t he D niestr R iver i n M oldavia. M olodova V d isplays t races o f a v ery l ong, a lbeit i nterrupted, o ccupation. T here a re 1 4 o ccupational l evels . T he e arliest l evels a re X IIa t o X I w hich a re d ated t o a pproximately 4 0,300 B P. T he t ool i ndustry i s M ousterian a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t hese l evels a re e arlier t han t he i ndicated d ate. L evel X II h as h earths a ssociated w ith o val a rrangements o f m ammoth b ones w hich a re g enerally i nterpreted a s t he r emains o f h uts. 78 F ollowing l evel X I t here i s a v ery l ong g ap i n t he o ccupation o f s ome 1 7,000 y ears. O ccupation l evels X t o V II a re i n t he p eriod o f t he P audorf o scillation , a nd l evel V II h as a n a pproximate d ate o f 2 3 ,400 B P. T ools a re o f t he G ravettian t ype w ith a p redominance o f b lades a nd b urins. 79 O nce m ore t here i s a b reak i n t he o ccupation, t his t ime o f a pproximately 7 ,000 y ears. T he f inal l evels, V I t o I , a re e xceptionally r ich a nd b egin a round 1 6,000 B P, w hile t he t ool i ndustry d isplays t he g eneral E pipalaeo lithic f eatures o f g eometric f orms w ith a s teady t ransition t o b one a nd a ntler t ypes. 8 ° A s teady i ncrease i n a ntler u se r eflects t he i ncreased e conomic i mportance o f r eindeer a s t he w arming c limate c aused a d ecline i n m ammoth p opulations. T here a re r emains o f huts i n l evels V I, I II, I I a nd I a, 81 a nd o ccupation t erminates i n l evel I a t a pproxim ately 1 0,000 B P. T hroughout t he o verall p eriod o f t he s ite's e xistence i t s eems t o h ave b een i gnored i n c older p eriods,

8 2

b ut w hy

t his w as s o i s u nknown. P ollen a nalysis s uggests t hat f or m ost o f t he 3 5,000 y ears t here w as a s teady d evelopment o f a c oniferous f orest s teppe e nvironment a ttractive t o m any c old-resistant a nimal s pecies. 83 L ike M olodova V t he s ite o f K ostienki I i s p art o f a g roup o f P alaeolithic s ites. K ostienki i s o n t he u pper t errace o f t he D on r iver a nd h as f ive o ccupation l evels.

I nitial a ssessment, a nd a n e rroneous

r adiocarbon d ate o f a pproximately 1 4,000 B P, 8 4 d epicted a s ite w ith a l ong o ccupation f inishing a t l evel 1 a round 1 4,000 B P. A m ore r ecent p rocessing o f t he o riginal r adiocarbon m aterial s hows t he d ates f or l evel 1 t o f all a round 2 3,000 B P. 85 F urthermore, t he f ive l evels s hould t herefore b e s een a s c loser i n t ime. T he i ndustry t hroughout i s t ypical o f t he e astern G ravettian w ith a t rend t owards t he d evelopment o f f iner f laked t ools. 86 T he e nvironment, a s r evealed b y p ollen a nalysis,

w as t ypical c oniferous f orest s teppe.

8 7

R emains o f h uts w ith

i nternal h earths, s imilar t o t hose f ound a t M olodova, K ostienki 4 ccur i n l evels 4 a nd 1 . T he p rincipal ( Alexandrovka) a nd P ushkari, 88 o a nimal r emains a re t hose o f m ammoths. 89

5 4.

T he n ext s ite,

D olni V estoniCe i n C zechoslovakia, w as s ituated

i n r ather p icturesque s urroundings o n a h ill n ear t o s ome s prings. A s mall s tream with s wampy m argins r an a cross i ts f ront. " R adiocarbon d ates s how t hat t he s ite w as o ccupied f rom c .29,000 t o c .25,000 B P. 91 T ools l ike t hose i n o ther m ammoth h unter c amps, h ad a g ood v ariety o f b one a nd i vory o bjects i ncluding a wls, n eedles, k nives, l anceheads a nd p icks. 92 T he s tone t ools a re v ery t ypical G ravettian w ith m any n arrow b lades, n otched a nd d enticulated b lades, e nd s crapers a nd b urins. 93 T here w ere f our l arge s tructures w ith i nternal h earths o n t he s ite. 94 A round t he m argins o f t he c amp w ere l arge p iles o f b ones e ither w aste, o r p erhaps f uel f or f ires. 95 I n a ddition t here i s e vidence o f t he u se o f t usks t o p rovide a f ence o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he c amp. 96 T he e nvironment w as c oniferous f orest t undra. 97 S imilar s ites a re k nown a t P avlov , B rno a nd P tedmost, a ll i n C zechoslovakia. 98 T hese t hree s ites, M olodova, K ostienki a nd D olni V estoniie o ffer c lear e vidence o f t he u nifying e ffects a s pecialised e conomy c an h ave o n p eoples s eparated b oth i n t ime a nd s pace. T his u niformity i s f urther d emonstrated b y s ites i n F rance. A t t he C hatelperronian s ite o f G rotte d u R enne o n t he Y onne R iver i n F rance, l evels 1 0 a nd 9 h ave t races o f h uts r econstructed s everal t imes d uring t he p eriod o f o ccupation. 99 U nlike t he p lains o f c entral a nd e astern E urope t his r egion h as a n a bundance o f c aves, b ut t he h uts, w hich w ere r oughly c ircular a nd s ome 3 t o 4m etres i n d iameter a re b uilt n ear t he e ntrances. C learly t hey a re a n a ttempt t o p rovide w armer a ccommodation t han t he c aves a lone w ould o ffer. I t i s s uggested t hat t hese h uts h ad f rameworks o f t usks, 100 l ike t heir e astern c ounterparts, a s t he p alaeoenvironmental e vidence s uggests t hat w ood w as s carce i n t he o pen f orest t undra. 1 °1 T he f loors o f t he h uts w ere p artially p aved w ith f lat l imestone s labs. 102 R adiocarbon a nalysis s uggests t hat t hese h uts d ate t o c .33,500 B P. 1 °3 L ike i n t he e ast t he e conomy w as b ased o n h unting t he c old r esistant s pecies, p rincipally m ammoth a nd w oolly r hinoceros w ith a lso t he l ikelihood o f b ear 1 04 a ttracted i nto t he r egion b y t he e xistence o f c aves. T he t ool k it i s f airly t ypical o f a h unter e conomy w ith k nives, e ndscrapers, b urins a nd p erforators b eing t he p rincipal t ypes. 1 05 p rocessing h ides. 1 06

B one a rtifacts a re t ypes c learly u seful f or

A s Ih ave a lready n oted t hese s ites r epresent h uman p opulations w ith q uite s pecialised h unting e conomies. D ominant a nimal s pecies, m ammoths a nd w oolly r hinoceros i ndicate t he e xistence o f t hese s peciali sed e conomies. N ot i n t he o bvious s ense, b ut b ecause o f t heir d istinctive p hysiology w hich c ombines l ong h airy c oats w ith t he a bility t o p rocess i n t heir d igestive s ystems t he c oarsest o f v egetable d iets. S uch a n e volutionary d evelopment w as i n r esponse t o l ong c old c ondit ions i n w hich, f or m uch o f t he y ear, t heir f ood p lants w ere e ither t ough, w oody, c old r esistant t ypes, o r c oncealed a nd d ormant u nder s now d rifts, r equiring g reat p hysical s trength t o e xpose t hem. T he p rep onderance o f t he b ones o f m ammoths, w hich w as a n e xtremely d ifficult a nd d angerous a nimal t o k ill, t estifies t o t heir d ominant p lace i n t he f aunal c ommunity, a nd s erves t o e mphasise t he e xtent a nd d uration o f c old c onditions. T his, i n t urn, a llows u s t o d epict, w ith s ome c onfidence, a n e nvironment l ike m odern t undra r egions p ossessed o f m arkedly s easonal p lant r esources s uitable f or human c onsumption w hich, t herefore, c reated r eliance o n a nimals f or s urvival. T here i s a s ignificant p oint t hat m ust b e m ade a t t his s tage. 5. 5

I t i s,

Ib elieve, m istaken,

a s W obst h as d one,

t o d raw p arallels

1 07

b etween m odern h unter-gatherers a nd t he U pper P alaeolithic h unters t o p roduce a m odel d epicting a p eople w ith l imited t erritorial r anges. H e c riticises B reuil a nd L antier's s uggestion t hat t hese p eople u ndert ook l ong t reks l °8 u sing t he ! Kung S an a s t he p rincipal p arallel 1 09 t hus i gnoring t he v ery s imple f act t hat i f m odern p arallels a re t o b e d rawn, w e m ust u se t he E skimo, w ho b ecause o f t he c limatic e xtremes o f t heir e nvironment must p erforce u ndertake l ong t ravels t o e nsure s urvival. I n s ocial t erms w e a re f aced w ith a s ociety w hose a daptation t o t he c old c onditions w as a bsolute,

a nd w ho m ade l ong j ourneys

f ollowing t he h erds a s an ormal p art o f t heir e xistence. T his i s n ot a u nique s ocial f eature -it w ould, d isregarding t he c old, b e s imilar t o t he e conomic c onditions o f m odern n omadic p astoralists. W ild a nimal h erds t end t o f ollow r egular s easonal p aths c reating a f orm o f t errit oriality i n t he s ociety o f t he U pper P alaeolithic h unters. T he c rucial p oint i s t hat t he " territories" w ould b e m uch l arger t han t he n ormal r anges o f t rue h unter-gatherers. 4 .3

P opulation S ize W hilst w e m ay d epict w ith s ome d egree o f c ertainty t he p rincipal

e conomic b ase o f t hese U pper P alaeolithic b ands,

t heir s ociety i s m ore

d ifficult t o r econstruct. T he m ost i mportant s ocial f eature i s t heir p opulation f or t his c an b e u sed t o d etermine t he n umber o f f amilies. U nfortunately, t here i s s ome v ariance i n t he a rchaeological r ecord a nd w hether t his r eflects t he a ctual p opulations o r t he p oor a rchaeological p reservation o f s ites i s a c entral p roblem , a nd o ne w hich i s p robably u nanswerable. T he l argest p opulation f igure s uggested f or t he mammoth h unters' c amps i s a s easonal o ccupancy o f b etween 1 00-120 f or D olni V estoniCe. T his f igure i s d erived f rom e stimates b ased o n t he f ive o r s ix h uts b eing c ontemporaneous,

a nd t he f act t hat e ach hut h as a bout f ive

h earths. 1 1° I f t his f igure i s a ccurate t hen D olni V estoni n m ay r epresent a s ummer c amp a nd a nnual g athering o f an ormally d ispersed p opulation. I f, h owever, t he h uts w ere n ot o ccupied c oncurrently t hen w e w ould h ave a p opulation f igure m uch c loser t o t he n orm f or m odern h unter-gatherer b ands.

E ach h ut c ould c ontain,

i f w e t ake a f amily

g roup a s 4 o r 5 p ersons, 2 0 t o 2 5 p eople w hich i s t he m odern a verage. T he d etermination o f t his f igure i s d iscussed i n c hapter 2 a nd i s d erived f rom a c ombination o f r esources, t heir s patial d istribution a nd t he d istance t ravelled t o h arvest t hem. T his f igure i s a lso a n o ptimum a nd c an b e l ower, e specially i n t he c ase o f E skimo g roups, w ho o ccupy m odern r anges s imilar t o t he p rehistoric g roups u nder d iscussion. L arge p opulations a re a lso p roposed f or M olodova V a nd K ostienki b ased o n o ptimistic r econstructions o f t he s ize o f h uts a nd t he n umber o f h earths c ontained i n t hem . T he h ut a t K ostienki I i s r econstructed w ith 9 h earths w hich c ould m ean a p opulation o f b etween 4 0_45, 11 w hilst a t M olodova t he 1 5 h earths c ould r epresent a p opulation b etween 6 0 a nd 7 5. 1 12 T he o riginal r econstruction o f t he M olodova h ut i s o pen t o q uestion i n r egard t o t he c orrect r elationship o f h earths t o 13 a nd i n c omparison w ith t he s ite o f M ezhirich w here a s mall w alls, 1 14 F urthermore, t he h ut u nquestionably c ontained o nly t wo h earths. 1 r econstructed f ramework c omprising a c omplex t racery o f b ones a nd 15 s eems s omewhat i maginery, g iven t he a ctual s tate i n w hich t he t usks 1 e vidence i s p reserved. s ite o f G rotte d u R enne.

D oubt i s a lso c ast o n t hese e stimates b y t he H ere l ike a t M ezhirich, 5 6.

t he h uts c ontained

o nly o ne o r t wo h earths.

1 16 P erhaps, a s C hampion a nd o thers s uggest, t he n umber a nd p lacement o f h earths m ay b e d eceptive a nd a r esult o f

o ther f actors,

" The c hoice o f...hearth...depended o n t he w ind

d irection t hat d ay a nd t he f act t hat s moke g ets i n y our e yes. L astly,

"

1 17

t he a ctual q uantity o f d ead a nimals r epresented i n t he b ones

r ecovered i s o f l imited v alue t o o ur e stimates. M ammoth b ones, a nd t he b ones o f o ther l arge a nimals, a re b ig a nd t hey d ecay s lowly, e specially i n c old c limates.

T his w ould c reate a s ituation w here

r egular r e-occupations o f p opular s ites w ould l ead t o m assive a ccumm ulations o f b ones, e ven i f o nly t wo o r t hree a nimals w ere k illed e ach y ear. 1 18 E vidence f rom s ome s ites h owever, s uggests t hat b ones i n s ome l evels a re o f v arying a ges. 1 1 T his c ould i ndicate d eliberate c ollection, p erhaps f or b uilding. F urthermore, t here i s a lways t he 1 20 p ossibility o f o ver-kill, s uch a s a t L a C otte d e S aint-Brelade. I n c losing, I w ould s tress t he n eed f or c aution i n e stimating t he p opulation o f t he m ammoth h unters' b ands. T he h igh e stimates m ay w ell b e c orrect, b ut c loser s crutiny m ight s how t he f igures t o b e i nflated. I n e ach c ase i f t he f actor o f c oncurrence i s r emoved f rom t he d iscussion, w e f ind t hat t he n ew e stimates t end t o b e a round t he m odern o bserved p opulation f igures f or h unter-gatherer b ands o f 2 0 t o 2 5 p eople o r l ower. I t i s h ard t o a ccept, u nless t hese a re b rief g atherings o f l arger g roups, t hat t he c onstraints u pon h unter a nd h unter-gatherer e conomics i n t he P alaeolithic s hould b e r adically d ifferent t o t oday's. B efore w e f urther d iscuss t he s ocial c onditions o f t he U pper P alaeolithic, w e w ill b riefly e xamine t he s ignificance o f b urials t o o ur u nderstanding o f t hat s ociety. 4 .4

U pper P alaeolithic B urials I t i s g enerally a ccepted t hat t he U pper P alaeolithic i s a p eriod

o f q uickening s ocial c hanges, w hich a re r eflected i n c ave a rt a nd i n t he i ncreasing s piritual c omplexity o f b urials. 1 21 N evertheless, w hilst

t he a rt o f t he p eriod i s q uite p lentiful, a nd w ell p reserved,

t he b urials a re r are a nd, i n m any c ases, l ess t han a dequately p reserved. D espite t hese p roblems, a ttempts h ave b een m ade t o a pply q uantitive m ethods t o t he a nalysis o f b urials w ith t he v iew o f r econstructing t he s ocial d eterminants o f t he m anner of d isposal. T his i s i n c ontrast t o t he t raditional a pproach w hich h as r econstructed t he r eligious a nd e conomic a spects o f t he s ocieties f rom a n e xamination o f g rave g oods. T he p rincipal s tatistical w orks a re t hose o f S .R . B inford 1 22 a nd F .B. H arrold. 1 23 I n t he l ast c hapter, I e xpressed m y g eneral r eservations a bout t he n arrowness o f t he e vidence e xpressly i n r eference t o t he v alue o f t hese a nalyses c oncerned w ith t he p roblem o f t he s exual d ivision o f l abour i n t he U pper P alaeolithic. I t i s p ossible, h owever, t hat t he b urial d ata m ay, b oth i n t hemselves, a nd i n t he i deas o f B inford a nd H arrold, t hrow l ight u pon t he m aterial a nd s ocial p rioritie s o f t he p eople r esponsible f or t hese b urials, p articularly i n r egard t o t he p roblem o f s ocial s tratification. T here a re t wo c onclusions c ommon t o b oth a nalyses. F irstlx t he n ature o f b urial b ecomes m ore c omplex i n t he U pper P alaeolithic . 14 S econdly t he g raves o f m ales g enerally c ontain m ore g rave g oods t han t hose o f f emales. 1 25 T he p rincipal a rea o f d ifference l ies i n H arrold's r ejection o f B inford's s uggestion t hat t he N ear E astern b urials t o

d isplay e vidence o f g reater s ocial c omplexity.

t his e xamination i s

1 26

O f i nterest

t he c oncentration o f g rave g oods i n t he m ale 5 7.

b urials. T he g reater r ichness o f t he m ale g raves s uggests, n otes,

t hat t here w as a " ...

a s H arrold

m ore c omplex s ocial p ersonae f or m ales,

i n g eneral, t han f or f emales." 1 27 A s uggestion w hich, a s h e o bserves, i s d erived f rom L ewis B inford 's v iew t hat b urial c ustoms t end t o b e s tructured s o a s t o r eflect t he o verall s ocial i mportance o f t he i ndividual. 1 28 I d o n ot i ntend t o d ispute t his v iew, but w ill i nstead c onsider w hy m ale b urials s hould b e b oth " richer" a nd d isplay e vidence o f g reater c omplexity i n t he b urial r ites, e .g. o chre p owder, t han t he g raves o f f emales. I n o ther w ords w hy d oes t he m ale p ersona a ppear t o b e o f g reater i mportance t han t he f emale p ersona? T here a re s everal p ossible r easons f or t his d ichotomy.

F irstly,

m ales w ere s ocial l eaders w ith c ontrol o f t he b and's a ctivities a nd i ts w ealth. S econdly, m ales h ad m ore w ealth, n ot a s a r esult o f l eadership b ut a s a p art o f t he s ocial f unction o f c onspicuous d isplay t o a ttract f emales. T hirdly, l ike m odern b ands o f h unters o r h unter-gatherers, t he m ale h unting a ctivity h ad b oth a g reater s ocial v alue, a nd o ffered g reater o pportunities f or a cquisition o f d ecorative o bjects s uch a s a nimal t eeth, b ones f or c arving, e tc., t han d id t he f emale g athering a ctivities. a pplicable,

1 29

F ourthly, t he a ctual c oncept o f " wealth" may n ot b e a nd t he g rave g oods a re s imply o f p ersonal r ather t han

s ocial v alue -w ealth, a cquired s ocial v alue.

a fter a ll, i s r eally o nly g oods w hich have T hese o bjects b eing a cquired t hrough h unting.

T he f irst s uggestion o ffers n o s olution. n ot e xist,

o r e xist f or l ong,

i n m odern b ands.

S uch b ehaviour d oes A n o vert d isplay o f

l eadership g enerally r esults i n g roup f ragmentation r ather t han o beisance. T his f acet o f b and b ehaviour i s d iscussed i n c hapter t wo i n s pecific r eference t o l eadership. T he s econd s uggestion i s p ossible.

I n v iew , h owever, o f t he

l imitations i mposed b y r esources o n b and s ize t here w ould b e l ittle b enefit t o m ales t o c ontinue t his e conomically d emanding b ehaviour f or l ong p eriods. I n m odern s ocieties w ealth d isplays o f t his t ype a re g enerally f ound i n p astoral o r f arming e conomies w here w ealth expansion i s p ossible ( see c hapter 8 ). T his i s n ot t o i nfer t hat d isplay f or a ttracting w ives d id n ot e xist. I t e xists, w ithin t he c onstraints o f e conomy, i n m odern h unter a nd h unter-gatherer b ands -m onogamy i s r are a nd i t i s r easonable t o e xpect t hat i t d id s o i n p rehistory. T he p rincipal a nd, i n f act, o nly m eans o f d isplay o pen i n t hese s ocieties i s h unting s kill, a nd t here i s n o c oincidence i n t he f act t hat t he g reat m ajority o f P alaeolithic g rave " wealth" o bjects, t usks, e tc ., a re p roducts o f t he h unt.

b one,

t eeth,

D isplay, h owever, i s j ust a p art o f t he a nswer. T he g athering a ctivities a nd t ools o f w omen l eave l ittle a rchaeological t race, a nd o ur t hird s uggestion w hich e mphasises t he d urable n ature o f o bjects d erived f rom h unting i s p articularly i mportant. I t i s q uite p ossible t hat t he m aterial i mbalance b etween m ale a nd f emale g raves f rom t he U pper P alaeolithic d erives m ainly f rom t he a rtefacts o f m ale e conomic a ctivity h aving a m uch h igher s urvival r ate. 1 30 W hat w e m ight h ave i s n ot t he d ominance i n P alaeolithic s ociety o f t he d esire t o r ecreate t he m ale p ersona b ut t he i nclinatio o f a rchaeological p reservation. T herefore, t he t endency o f h unters a nd h unter-gatherers t o s tress t he v alue o f h unting w ill b e f urther d istorted b y t he v agueries o f 5 8.

a rchaeological p reservation t o c reate a r ecord w here m en a re a pparently a ccorded g reater f unerary h onour. O ur f inal s uggestion w hich q uestions s tresses t he p ossibility t hat

t he c oncept o f " wealth"

t he g rave g oods w ere o f p ersonal r ather

t han s ocial v alue. T his r e-appraisal i s o f u se w hen w e c onsider t he q uestion o f c hildren's b urials with a ccompanying g rave g oods. T he p resence o f g rave g oods w hich i mply s ocial s tatus i n j uvenile b urials i s s ometimes u sed t o s uggest t he e xistence o f h ereditary s tratification ( see c hapter 1 ) b y a rguing t hat t he o ccupants w ould h ave b een t oo y oung t o h ave t he n ecessary s kills o r s tatus t o h ave a cquired t he o bjects, a nd t herefore c ould o nly h ave a chieved t he h onour o f a " wealthy" g rave t hrough f amily a ffiliations. T hese " wealth" o bjects c ould, o f c ourse, r epresent p arental a ffection o r o bjects a cquired b y t he c hildren t hemselves. A fter a ll t he a verage h unting c amp must h ave h ad a g reat m any t eeth, t usks a nd o ther " attractive" o bjects s imply l ying a round. F urthermore, w e h ave n o i dea o f t he a ge w hen c hildren i n U pper P alaeol ithic s ocieties w ere e xpected t o c ontribute t o b and s urvival. A mongst m odern h unter-gatherers c hildren a re e ased i nto t he w orkforce q uite e arly. 1 31 T he a nalysis o f t he p oints r aised b y B inford a nd H arrold, l ike t he a nalysis o f p opulation n umbers, d oes n ot e xpose s tartling d iffere nces i n t hese t wo a reas b etween t he p rehistoric s ocieties a nd t heir m odern c ounterparts. D ifferences i n c ontent b etween m ale a nd f emale b urials m ight, a s w e h ave s een, r eflect e ither a r itual d ifference, o r t he m ore m undane d ifferences c reated b y t he d iffering e conomic r oles. L ikewise, t he p resence o f " valuable" o bjects i n c hildren's g raves c an b e d ue t o q uite m undane r easons. N evertheless, t he d eeper a nalysis o f p opulation a nd f unerary p ractice u sing m odern p arallels o pens u p t he r ange o f p ermutations. T his s erves t o p revent t he d iscussion b ecoming m ired i n s earches f or s pirituality a s d id e arlier e xamples. 1 32 T he e scape f rom t he s earch f or s pirituality i s v ital f or w e c annot i gnore t he u npleasant f act t hat w e a re d ealing w ith e vidence o f t he m ost u nsatisfactory k ind. F or t he w hole o f t he M iddle a nd U pper P alaeolithic i n E urope a nd A sia w e h ave l ess t han

1 40 b urials 1 33

-n ot

m any f or a p eriod o f 2 00,000 y ears. F urthermore, w e a re d ealing w ith ah ighly u nrepresentative s ample. A dded t o t he u tterly i ndeterminable r ates o f p reservation o f b urials, w e h ave t he p robability t hat, a s m any p rehistoric p eoples h ad n o w ith m odern h unter-gatherers, 134 d iscernible f unerary r ites. T he b odies a re s imply l eft t o t he m ercy o f t he e lements a nd s cavengers. U nder t hose c onditions L ewis B inford's d ictum t hat f unerary r ites r eflect t he s ocial p ersona o f t he i ndividual 135 s eems l ess t han a pplicable. H unter-gatherer s ocieties t hat s imply a bandon t he d ead a re n ot n oted f or t heir u tter d isregard o f t he l iving i ndividual. W e c an a nalyse o nly t he b urials t hat a re a vailable, a nd t he t ruth i s t hat t hese r epresent o nly t he m ortuary p ractices o f a n u nknown p ercentage o f t he p rehistoric p eoples w ho b uried t heir d ead. F urthermore, w hilst c onjecture a bout t he r eligious b eliefs o f t hese p eoples i s i mportant, t he t emporal f actor a dds f urther p roblems. U cko n otes t hat a r ange o f m ortuary p ractices c an e xist i n t he o ne s ociety,

a nd t hat t hese c an b e a pplied r igourously o r e rratic-

a lly o n te b asis o f a ge, s ex, s ocial i mportance, o r t he w him o f t he f amily. 1 3° U nder t hese c onditions c an w e s ay t hat t he u se o f o chre i n b urials t hat a re s eparated b y v ast d istances i n t ime a nd s pace, s uch a s t hose i n t he G ravettian b urials a t G rotte d e l a B arma G rande i n I taly 5 9.

a nd t he U pper P alaeolithic b urial a t M arkina G ora i n R ussia,

1 37

r epresent t he s ame t raditions o r r eligious o bservances? W e c annot, a nd w e c annot e ven s ay t hat w ithin e ach c ommunity t here e xisted s uch t raditions o ver a ny a ppreciable l ength o f t ime. U ltimately, h owever i nteresting i t m ay b e, t he a ssessment o f t he n ature o f s pirituality i n P alaeolithic s ocieties c omes d own t o t he a nalysis o f s ingle e xamples w ithout a ny r eal g uarantee o f

t heir a pplication o n a w ider s cale.

T he s ame p roblems b eset t he u se o f b urials i n t he e xamination o f s ocial s tratification.

H ence m y r eluctance t o u se t he P alaeolithic

m ortuary e vidence t o s upport t he i dea t hat t hese s ocieties p ossessed h ereditary s ocial s tratification. T he e conomic e vidence a nd e thnog raphic p arallels a re f ar m ore s ubstantial a nd r eliable. 4 .5

D iscussion

M iddle P alaeolithic s ites a nd t hose o f t he U pper P alaeolithic p resent a m arked c ontrast i n t heir a ccessibility t o t he a nalysis o f t heir e conomic a nd s ocial c onditions. T he M iddle P alaeolithic s ites o f T erra A mata a nd ' Ubeidiya d isplayed a f air s election o f t he e conomic a nd s ocial f eatures w e w ould e xpect f rom h unter-gatherer c amps. p resent e vidence o f a w ide r esource s trategy, s easonality, a nd r elatively s hort b ut r egular v isits. T hese f eatures e nable t he

T hey

t heoretical a pplication o f c urrent s ocial p ractices t o r econstruct a v iew o f t he a bstract f eatures o f t heir s ociety l ike h ereditary r esource o wnership w ith i ts a ttendant a spect o f h ereditary s ocial s tratification . U pper P alaeolithic s ites, d espite b eing m any t imes m ore p lentiful, a nd a ccompanied b y m uch a ncillary i nformation l ike g raves a nd a rt, p resent f ar m ore d ifficulty i n a nalysis. I t i s a p roblem n ot o f t oo m uch i nformation,

b ut o f

t heir f ailure t o f it a dequately w ith a ny c urrent

s ocieties. A t t he b eginning o f t his c hapter t he d istinction b etween hunter, a nd h unter-gatherer s ocial o rganisation w as m ade. G enerally a s ociety's e nvironment a nd e conomy d etermines t he f orm w hich i ts s ocial o rganisation w ill t ake. H unter-gatherers,

l ike t he

! Kung S an,

r ely o n f ixed s easonal

p lant r esources w ithin t heir t erritory a nd g roup s urvival d epends u pon s ome f orm o f c ontrol o ver t hese. T herefore t he h ereditary o wnership o r r esponsibility f or p reservation o f t hose r esources b y o ne p erson i s a ccepted a s a n ormal f eature i n a n o therwise e galitarian s ociety. A lso , g enerally, t he o wner o f t he r esources i s t he b and's l eader, a lthough t he o ffice t ends t o b e q uite m inimal. O n t he l arger s cale o f t he e nvironment, s uch r esource u se i s o nly p ossible i n r egions w here c limatic c onditions o ffer t he p ossibility o f p lant r esources b eing o f s ufficient s ize a nd v ariety t o p rovide a b alance t o a nimal p roducts. H unters, o f w hich t he n orthern E skimos a re p robably t he o nly t rue s urvivors, a re f ound i n r egions w here c limatic c onditions a re s uch a s t o p reclude t he g rowth o f s ufficient v egetable r esources t o o ffset r eliance o n m eat p roducts. T hese s ocieties d o n ot t herefore h ave a f ixed e conomic b asis,

b ut r ely o n t he s easonal m ovements o f a nimal

h erds. U nder t hese c onditions s ocial l eadership i s n ot f ound i n t he c ontrol o f p lant r esources b ut i n t he a bility t o h unt. H unting s kill i s n ot a n i nheritable c ommodity ( although i t c ould b e t aught) a nd l eadership t herefore t ends t o b e f luid -this i s c learly t he c ase i n 6 0.

E skimo s ociety.

I n a ddition t o t he b est h unter,

a nother f orm o f

l eadership e xists i n E skimo s ociety -the s hamans. b e h ereditary b ut i s n ot ( in m ost c ases) p olitical.

T his p osition c an T he s haman h olds

o ffice b ecause o f a r eal o r p urported s upernatural a bility,

a nd i s

a lso t he c ustodian o f t he g roup's s piritual h eritage, s omething w hich t he e phemeral n ature o f h unting l eadership w ould n ot p ermit. A ccordingly, i t i s p ossible t o h ypothesise a " typical" h unting b and p olitical s tructure w ith a d ual b ut m utually d ependent l eadership. C learly i t i s t he h unting b and p olitical m odel w hich s eems t he o bvious t ype a pplicable t o t he U pper P alaeolithic s ocieties, b ut c aution i s n eeded h ere f or t wo r easons. T he f irst i s t he v ast r ange o f t ime a nd c limatic c onditions i n w hich t he U pper P alaeolithic h unters e xisted. T he s econd i s, t hat d espite t heir u ndeniable s uccess i n e xploiting t heir e nvironment, t he E skimos w ere c onstrained f rom e ither c hange o r s outhward s pread b y a c ombination o f s urvival e ngendered c onservatism, a nd u ntil r ecently t he a ctive h ostility o f t he I ndian p opulations. T he E skimo a re t herefore b est s een a s t he p roducts o f a s omewhat i nvoluntary a daptation w hich r esulted f rom p opulation r ises a t t he 1 38 e nd o f t he l ast I ce A ge. T heir e arliest s ites a re a round 8 000 B C. I t i s u nlikely t hat t here w ere s imilar p opulation p ressures o n t he U pper P alaeolithic b ands. T he c entral r ole o f h unting i n U pper P alaeolithic s ociety g oes a lmost w ithout s aying , t here i s a n a ccumulation o f b ones a t c amp-sites, c ave a nd m obiliary a rt, g rave-goods, a nd s tone t ool k its w ith t heir e mphasis o n h unting a nd b utchering e quipment.

B ut,

a s w e h ave s een,

t hese f eatures t end t owards a o ne-sided e valuation w hich m ay n ot b e c orrect. T he s ize o f t he a nimals h unted w ould a utomatically c reate l arge d eposits o f b ones, a nd t here i s t he p ossibility o f o ver-kill. S tone t ool k its a re l ittle u nderstood a nd t here m ay b e a l arger p roport ion o f g athering t ools t han i s c urrently r ecognised p resent. T he e mphasis i n g rave-goods u pon m ale a ssociated h unting o bjects c ould r esult b ecause t he g athering a ctivities o f w omen h ave l ess s piritual m eaning o r, m ore s imply,

l eave l ittle t race.

I n a ddition,

t o t hese

c onsiderations t he l ength o f t ime i nvolved, s ome 3 5,000 y ears, s aw p eriods i n w hich c limatic c onditions a meliorated f or s ufficient p eriods o f s everal t housand y ears t o p erhaps e ncourage m ore p ermanent p lant r esources I 39 -a nd r esult m aybe i n a c hange f rom t he d ominance o f h unting i n t he c reation o f l eaders. A ll t hese c onsiderations h ave b een e xamined, a nd w e m ust n ot d eny t he p ossibility o f t heir e xistence. C ave a nd m obiliary a rt, w hich w e a ssume t o o ffer n ot j ust a n i nsight i nto t he a esthetic o utlook o f t he p eople, b ut a lso t heir s piritual v alues, d oes n ot l end a ny s upport t o t he a bove m entioned c onsiderations. A bove a ll i t o ffers n othing b ut h unting o r a nimal a ssociated i mages. T here i s n ot a s ingle n ut, b erry, r oot o r t uber d epicted, 1 40 a nd, w hilst h unting s cenes b ecome m ore p opular, t here i s n ot a s ingle i mage o f w omen g athering. W omen a re d epicted, b ut o nly a s t hose u nreal " fertility g oddesses". A re w e d ealing w ith a s ociety w here t he s ymbolic v alue o f m eat, a nd h unting, f ar o utweighs o ther e conomic a ctivities? -it s eems l ikely. T he e mphasis o n t he m ale p ersona i n g raves m ay w ell r eflect t he t rue s ituation.

W e h ave s een

t hat a mong m odern h unter-gatherers m eat a nd h unting d oes h ave m uch m ore " value" t han g athering a ctivities d espite t heir c rucial r ole i n b and s ubsistence. F urthermore, t he d ual n ature o f h unter s ociety l eadership w hich i s r epresented b y s hamans m ay p erhaps h ave e xisted i n t he U pper P alaeolithic. T he " sorcerer" f igures f rom F ontanet a nd L es T rois 6 1.

F reres 1 41

c ould b e s hamans.

G ranted t hat c ave a rt i s a n i mperfect

m eans o f r econstructing t he s piritual v alues o f

t he U pper P alaeo -

l ithic -the t heories o f L eroi-Gourhan a nd o thers i ndicate t he p ossible c omplexities o f i nterpretation -the s heer v olume o f h unting o r a nimal r elated d epictions d oes s uggest a c ertain s ocial f ixation u pon a nimals. P erhaps s ome o f t hat w as s piritual b ut i t i s h ard t o a void t he i mpression t hat U pper P alaeolithic s ociety w as c reated a round h unting a s t he f oundation o f s urvival.

T here a ppears t o b e n o

i ndication t hat t he b rief w arming p eriods c reated a ny l ong-lived c hange f rom t he m eat b ased e conomy. I t i s p ossible t hat w hen s easonal c hanges a llowed t here w as t he a ddition o f aw ider s upply o f v egetable p roducts, b ut t his a lternate e conomic b ase s eems n ot t o h ave b een c onsidered e ither o f s ufficient s tatus i n i ts a rtefacts, o r t o b e d epicted i n a rt 1 42 a nd t herefore, i t w ould s eem, n ot a s ufficient b ase u pon w hich t o b uild l eadership. O bviously f ood must h ave b een g athered a nd, w hen s easonal p lants w ere a vailable, i t must b e r eckoned a s a s erious p art o f t he d iet -o ne w ould p resume h unting s uccess w as n ever c omplete o r a ssured. B ut t he p olitical a spect o f t he e xploitat ion o f p lant r esources, w hich i s c reated a round p ermanent r esources c ould n ot d evelop, e ither b ecause t he c limate w as m ostly u npropitious, o r b ecause t he h unting r elated l eadership m ode w as s o p olitically a nd s ocially e ntrenched t hat o nly t he m ajor c limatic c hanges, a nd t he c onsequent e conomic a daptations, a t t he e nd o f t he P alaeolithic c ould s eriously t hreaten i ts d ominance. 4 .6

C onclusion

I n t his c hapter I h ave s ought t o r econstruct s ome a spects o f M iddle a nd U pper P alaeolithic s ociety. T he e vidence o f a bstract s ocial f eatures i s f ar l ess c ommon, o r a ccessible , t han t hat f or e conomic c onditions,

a nd b ecause o f t hese l imitations,

t he r esults a re f ar f rom

s atisfactory a nd m ust b e l ess t han s pecific. Ih ave s ought t o e valuate t hose f ew v ague d etails w e h ave, a nd t o p oint o ut t he v arious a lternat ives t hey m ight r epresent. S ometimes t his h as r esulted i n w hat m ight b e p erceived t o b e a n o verly n egative o r P yrrhonian s cepticism, but t his t ype o f i nquiry, a s Ih ave d escribed i n c hapter 1 , h as a lways b een s ubject t o m any u nsupported a ssumptions. A f lexible s cepticism i n t he a ppraisal o f t he d ata i s v ital t o s eeking r esults. L ittle,

o r n othing,

c an b e s aid w ith c ertainty o f

s tructure o f s ociety i n t he P alaeolithic.

t he r anking

T he a ccepted v iew c reates

a n e galitarian a nd r ather l oose b and s tructure a round s everal f amily g roups, o r h earths, o f 4 t o 5 p eople. G enerally t hese b ands h ave 3 t o 5 f amily g roups s o w e h ave a b asic p opulation o f a round 1 5 t o 2 5 p eople . T hese f igures a re p robably a ccurate a nd a re s ecurely b ased i n m odern p arallels. T he o nly v ariation i n t his p icture i s p rovided b y o ffering d ifferent s ubsistence o pportunities f or t hese b ands. T he q uestion o f l eadership o f a ny f orm i s r arely d iscussed a nd, i f i t i s, t hen s afety i s s ought i n e galitarianism o r p rimitive d emocracy. Ih ope I h ave d emonstrated t hat t he c ombination o f c limatic d ata, a rchaeological i nformation a nd m odern e thnographic m aterial c an o ffer n ew i nsights. T he M iddle a nd U pper P alaeolithic might b e s een a s a p eriod w hen l eadership i n s ome s ocieties c ould b e h ereditary i f c limatic a nd p lant c onditions w ere p ropitious. T here b eing, I t hink, v ery l ittle o ther t han a ntiquity t o s eparate t hem f rom modern e xamples. I t i s d ifficult t o s ee t he ! Kung S an a s t he r esult o f 1 00,000 y ears o f 6 2.

s ocial e volution -if t his i s t he c ase t he n ext s tep m ust b e o blivion. C ertainly t he e conomic a nd c limatic c onditions o f t he U pper P alaeol ithic i n E urope c an s uggest l ittle e lse t han l eadership i n t he p ractical m atters b eing r esolved b y h unting s kill. O bviously n one o f t he a rguments l ead t o a n o verall a nd c ertain s tatement, b ut I d o t hink t hat i t i s, a t l east, p ossible t hat t he o rigins o f h ereditary s tratifi cation m ay l ie i n t he P alaeolithic.

I n t he n ext c hapter t he

M esolithic p eriod w ill b e e xamined f or s imilar e vidence.

6 3.

R EFERENCES 1 .

T hese i mportant d istinctions a re d iscussed a t l ength i n L .R . B inford, 1 980, ' Willow s moke a nd d og's t ails: h unter-gatherer s ettlement s ystems a nd a rchaeological s ite f ormation', A merican A ntiquity 4 5, p p. 3 30-361. T he p roblem i s a lso m entioned i n J .B. C ampbell, 1 977, T he U pper P alaeolithic of B ritain V ol.1, O xford U niversity P ress,

2 .

O xford,

p. p

3, 3

14. 1

T here a re m any v ariations i n c old c limate h unter-gatherer s ocieties, M .A .P. R enouf, 1 984, ' Northern c oastal h unterf ishers: a n a rchaeological m odel', W A 1 6, p p. 1 8-27.

3 .

G . I saac, 1 978, ' The a rchaeological e vidence f or t he a ctivities o f e arly A frican h ominids', i n C . J olly, e d ., E arly Hominids o f Africa, D uckworth, L ondon, p . 2 34; B . H ayden, 1 977, ' Stone t ool f unctions i n t he W estern D esert', i n R .V.S. W right, e d., S tone T ools a s C ultural M arkers, A ustralian I nstitute o f A boriginal S tudies, C anberra, p p. 1 79-188.

4 .

J .P. W hite a nd J .F. O 'Connell, 1 982, A P rehistory o f Australia, N ew G uinea a nd S ahul, A cademic P ress, S ydney, p p. 8 3-84.

5 .

O f p articular i nterest a re I saac's c omments, G . L l. I saac, 1 984, ' The a rchaeology o f human o rigins: s tudies o f t he L ower P leistocene i n E ast A frica 1 971-1981', i n F . W endorf a nd A .E. C lose, e ds., A dvances i n W orld A rchaeology 3 , p . 5 0ff.

6 .

D .L. C larke, 1 978, M esolithic E urope: D uckworth, L ondon, p . 7 ff.

7 .

I saac,

8 .

e .g. R .A . D art, 1 957, ' The o steodontokeratic c ulture o f A ustralopithecus p rometheus', Mem . T ransv . M us. 1 0, p p.

9 .

1 978a, b ,

1 984;

K eeley a nd T oth,

T he E conomic B asis,

1 981.

1 -105.

e .g . C .K . B rain, 1 978, ' Some a spects o f t he S outh A frican A ustralopithecine s ites a nd t heir b one a ccumulations', i n J olly, e d., p . 1 46ff; A . H ill, 1 984, ' Hyaenas a nd h ominids: t aphonomy a nd h ypothesis t esting', i n F oley,

e d., p p.

11-128. 1

1 0.

I saac, 1 978a, b ; D .W. P hillipson, 1 985, African Archaeology, C ambridge U niversity P rass, C ambridge, p . 2 3ff.

1. 1

R . P otts, 1 984, ' Early h ominid h unters? P roblems o f i dentifyi ng t he e arliest h unter/gatherers', i n F oley, e d., p p. 1 29-166.

1 2.

D .L.

1 3.

H ill,

1 4.

A s timulating s urvey o f a lternatives i s g iven i n G . I saac, 1 980, ' Casting t he n et w ide: a r eview o f a rchaeological e vidence f or e arly h ominid l and-use a nd e cological r elations',

C larke, 1 984,

1 978, p .

p .

9 ff.

12. 1

i n L . K onigsson, e d., C urrent A rgument o n E arly M an, P ergamon P ress, O xford, p p. 2 26-251; S .R . B inford, 1 968b, ' Ethnographic d ata a nd u nderstanding t he P leistocene', i n L ee a nd D e V ore, 6 4.

p p.

e ds., 1 5.

2 74-275.

L . B inford c autions a gainst a t oo l iteral c orrelation, L .R . B inford, 1 968, ' Methodological c onsiderations o f t he a rchaeol ogical u se o f e thnographic d ata', i n L ee a nd D e V ore, e ds., p p. 2 68-273 . A n e xcellent s ummary o f t he c urrent l evel o f d ebate i s i n, E urope,

C .

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1 986, T he P alaeolithic S ettlement o f

C ambridge U niversity P ress,

C ambridge,

p .

2 56ff.

1 6.

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1 7.

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1 8.

p .

5. 5

H . d e L umley, 1 969, ' A p alaeolithic c amp a t N ice', S cientific American M ay, p . 4 2; H . d e L umley a nd Y . B oone, 1 976, " Les s tructures d 'habitat a u P algolithique i nfgrieure", i n H . d e L umley, p .

e d.,

L a P rghistoire F rancaise V ol.

1 9.

d e L umley,

2 0.

i bid.,

p .

4 5ff.

2 1.

i bid.,

p .

4 9.

2. 2

i bid.,

p .

4 5;

2 3.

V illa,

1 983,

2 4.

d e L umley,

2 5.

i bid.

2 6.

G . p .

2 7.

d e L umley,

2 8.

i bid;

P hillips,

1 981,

F ig.

2 9.

i bid;

M .H.

1 977,

G uide t o F ossil M an,

p. p

1 ,

C NRS, P aris,

6 26ff. 1 969,

4 3.

V illa, p .

1 969,

D imbleby, 2 8.

p .

D ay,

p .

8 2.

8 2. p .

1 978,

1 969,

1 983,

4 5.

P lants a nd Archaeology,

p .

G ranada,

4 5. 7 . C assell, L ondon,

7-81. 7

3 0.

C omparable t o C lactonian,

3 1.

i bid.

3 2.

i bid.,

3. 3

d e L umley,

3 4.

i bid.,

3 5.

d e L umley a nd B oone,

p .

p .

4 3ff;

V illa,

1 969, p .

S t.Albans,

d e L umley,

1 983.

4 8.

5 0. 1 976,

p .

6 36.

6 5.

1 969,

p .

4 7.

3 6.

d e L umley a nd B oone,

3 7.

H .

d e L umley,

1 976,

1 976,

6 39, F ig.

1 7.

' Les c ivilisations d u P algolithique

i nfgrieur e n P rovence', p .

p .

i n d e L umley,

F igs.

1 0,

1. 1

3 8.

i bid .,

6 39.

3 9.

d e L umley a nd B oone,

4 0.

i bid .,

4 1.

J .G .D. C lark, 1 952, P rehistoric E urope: M ethuen, L ondon, p p. 8 3, 9 0.

4 2.

d e L umley,

4 3.

P .J.F . C outts a nd R . M iller, 1 977, T he M t. W illiam A rchaeol ogical Area, V ictorian A rchaeological S urvey, M elbourne.

4 4.

J .P. W hite, N . M odjeska a nd I . H ipuya, a nd m ental t emplates', i n W right, e d.,

4 5.

D rucker,

4 6.

M . S tekelis, 0 . B ar-Yosef a nd T . S chick, 1 969, Archaeological Excavations a t ' Ubeidiya, 1 964-1966, T he I srael A cademy o f

p .

1 976,

6 39.

P .

6 38.

1 976,

1 939,

p .

p .

T he Economic B asis,

8 39.

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5 9.

S ciences a nd H umanities, J erusalem . 4 7.

i bid .,

p .

2 5.

4 8 .

i bid.,

p .

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4 9.

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5 0.

p .

5 4ff.

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5 1.

D allas,

p .

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J erusalem, p .

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5 2.

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5 3.

i bid.,

5 4.

A f ragment o f s kull a nd t wo t eeth h ave b een f ound b ut w ere i nsufficient t o p rovide a bsolute i dentification, P .V. T obias,

p .

1 0ff.

1 968, A M ember o f t he G enus H omo f rom ' Ubeidiya, A cademy o f S ciences a nd H umanities, J erusalem; P . 5 5.

T he I srael

S tekelis e t a l.,

2 7.

H aas,

1 966,

p p.

5 8-59.

T he a ssociation o f f ish b ones w ith 6 6.

w aterfowl b ones t ends t o t hrow d oubt o n p urely h uman p redation u pon f ish. 5 6.

T chernov,

1 968,

5 7.

G ould,

5 8.

L ee, 1 979, p . 1 63; a lso w e c annot i gnore t he f ortuitous p reservation o f m eat i n a rctic c onditions a nd w hich G amble

1 980 ,

p .

3 0.

6 6.

p .

s uggests c ould h ave b een a r egular s ource f or U pper P alaeolithic h unters,

G amble,

1 986,

1 983, p p.

p .

3 87ff.

2 29-232.

5 9.

F lood,

6 0.

M an,

6 1.

P hillipson,

6 2.

J .D . C lark, 1 973, ' Archaeological i nvestigation o f a p ainted r ockshelter a t M wana w a C hencherere, n orth o f D edza, C entral

1 975,

p .

1 31.

1 985,

p .

5 8ff.

M alawi', S ociety of M alawi J ournal 2 6 6 3 .

( 1),

p p.

2 8-46.

J .D . C lark, 1 983, ' The s ignificance o f c ultural c hange i n t he E arly L ater P leistocene i n n orthern a nd s outhern A frica', i n E . T rinkhaus, e d., T he Mousterian L egacy: H uman B iocultural C hange i n t he U pper P leistocene, BAR I nternational S eries 1 64, O xford . T he s ites m entioned b y C lark a re: B order C ave, P .B. B eaumont, 1 973, ' Border C ave: A p rogress r eport', S outh African J ournal o f S cience 6 9, p p. 4 1-46; K lasies R iver M outh c aves, J .J. W ymer a nd R . S inger, 1 972,'Middle S tone A ge o ccupational s ettlements o n t he T zitzikama c oast, e astern C ape P rovince, S outh A frica', i n U cko, T ringham a nd D imbleby, p. 2 07-210; R ecliffe, Z imbabwe, C .K. C ooke, 1 971, ' Excavations p a t Z ombepata C ave, S ipolilo D istrict, M ashonaland, R hodesia', S outh African A rchaeological B ulletin 2 6, p p. 1 04-127; T win R ivers K opje, Z ambia, J .D. C lark, 1 971, ' Human b ehavioural d ifferences i n s outhern A frica d uring t he l ater P leistocene', A merican A nthropologist 7 3,

6 4.

J .D .

C lark,

1 983,

p .

8 .

6 5.

P hillipson,

1 985,

p .

6 5,

6. 6

S ilberbauer,

6 7.

W oodburn,

6 8.

D .R . H arris,

1 981,

1 968,

p .

1 977,

p .

p. p

F ig .

1 211-1236.

4 .4.

7 8.

5 2. ' Subsistence s trategies a cross T orres

S trait', i n J . A llen, J . C olson a nd R . J ones, e ds., S unda a nd S ahul: P rehistoric S tudies i n S outheast A sia, M elanesia a nd A ustralia, A cademic P ress, L ondon, p . 4 26ff. 6 9.

P .

F arb a nd G .

A rmelagos,

M ifflin, B oston, 7 0.

L ee,

1 979, p .

p .

1 980, C onsuming P assions, H oughton

1 97ff.

1 82ff.

6 7.

7 1.

J . F lood, 1 980, T he M oth H unters: A boriginal P rehistory o f t he A ustralian A lps, A ustralian I nstitute o f A bor iginal S tudies, C anberra.

7 2.

M owat,

7 3 .

D ivale,

7 4.

J .B. W heat, 1 967, ' A P aleo-Indian b ison k ill', A merican J anuary, p p. 4 4-52.

7 5.

K . S cott, 1 980, ' Two h unting e pisodes o f M iddle P alaeolithic a ge a t L a C otte d e S aint-Brelade, J ersey ( Channel I slands)', W A 1 2, p . 1 50.

7 6.

A n e xample o f t his m ethod w as p ainted b y t he a rtist A lfred J acob M iller d uring h is t ravels i n t he A merican w est i n 1 8373 8 , B . D eVoto, 1 957, A cross t he W ide M issouri, B onanza B ooks, N ew Y ork, P l.LX ; D eVoto s uggests, h owever, t hat M iller d id n ot w itness s uch a n e vent, b ut r elied o n t he a ccounts o f o thers, i bid .

7 7.

J .M . C oles a nd E .S. H iggs, P enguin, H armondsworth.

7 8 .

i bid ., p .

7 9.

i bid .

8 0.

i bid .,

p. p

3 52-353 .

8 1.

i bid.,

p. p

3 54-355.

8 2.

i bid .,

p .

2 53.

8 3.

i bid .,

p .

2 32.

8 4.

i bid .,

p .

3 49.

8 5.

T here i s s ome c onfusion i n t he c urrent p ublished d escriptions o f K ostienki 1 . I n P hillips, 1 981, p . 7 9 t he d ates a re g iven a s c .29,000-c.28,000 B P. T . C hampion, C . G amble, G . S hennan a nd A . W hittle, 1 984, P rehistoric E urope, A cademic P ress, L ondon, p . 7 7 g ive t he d ate a s c .23,000 B P . Ip refer t he l atter d ate b ecause t he t ool i ndustry w ould s eem t oo a dvanced t o f it c omfortably w ith t he o lder d ate.

8 6.

C oles a nd H iggs,

8 7.

P hillips,

8 . 8

C oles a nd H iggs,

8 9.

P hillips,

1 981, p .

9 0.

i bid .,

8 3.

1 968,

p .

5 8ff.

1 972.

p .

1 975,

Scientific

T he A rchaeology o f E arly M an,

3 53 .

1 981,

1 975,

p .

3 50.

1 975, p .

3 50.

p .

7 9.

7 9.

6 8 .

1 975,

2 98.

9 1.

C oles a nd H iggs,

9 2.

i bid .

9 3.

i bid .

9 4.

i bid .,

p .

9 5.

i bid .;

J .G .D .

9 6.

C oles a nd H iggs.

9 7.

P hillips,

9 8 .

C oles a nd H iggs,

9. 9

F .B. H arrold, 1 981, ' New p erspectives o n t he C h2telperronian', Ampurias 4 3, p . 2 4; A . L eroi-Gourhan, M . B rezillon a nd B . S chmider, 1 976, ' Les c ivilisations d u P aleolithique s uperieur d ans l e c entre e t l e s ud-est d u B assin P arisien', i n D e L umley, e d ., p p. 1 322-1326.

1 00.

H .L. M ovius, 1 969, ' The C hCtelperronian i n F rench a rchaeology: t he e vidence o f A rcy-sur-Cure', A ntiquity 4 3, F ig. 2 ; H arrold, 1 981, p . 2 4. B ut s ee G amble, 1 986, p . 2 63 f or s ome c autionary

P .

2 96. C lark,

1 981,

1 967.

1 975, p .

F ig .

p .

2 96.

p .

2 98.

3 6.

8 3.

1 975,

w ords o n t he s ubject o f t ents i n c aves. 1 01.

H arrold,

1 02.

i bid .,

p .

2 4.

1 03.

i bid .,

p .

8 .

1 04.

i bid.,

p. p

1 05.

L eroi-Gourhan e t a l., 1 976, p p. 1 323-1325, F ig. 3 ; H arrold, 1 981, p . 1 4ff., t able 7 ; M ovius, 1 969, p . 1 15ff.

1 06.

H arrold,

1 07.

H .M . W obst, 1 974, ' Boundary c onditions f or P alaeolithic s ocial s ystems: a s imulation a pproach', A merican A ntiquity 3 9, p. p

1 981,

1 0,

1 981,

p .

1 0.

2 4.

t able 8 .

1 52-153 .

1 08.

H . B reuil a nd R . L antier, 1 965, T he M en o f t he O ld S tone Age, G eorge G . H arrap a nd C o. L td., L ondon, p . 8 4; W obst, p . 1 52.

1 09.

W obst,

10. 1

P hillips,

11. 1

C oles a nd H iggs,

12.

i bid.,

13. 1

C hampion e t a l.,

1 974,

p .

1 981,

F ig.

1 53. p .

8 5.

1 975,

F ig.

1 43 .

1 36. 1 984, p p.

7 2-73 .

6 9.

14. 1

C hampion e t a l.,

15. 1

P hillips,

16.

H arrold,

17.

C hampion e t a l.,

18. 1

P hillips,

1 981,

p. p

J .

W ymer,

1 982,

T he P alaeolithic Age,

p .

2 35.

19. 1

1 981, 1 981,

p ls. p .

p .

p .

7 3.

3 , 4 .

2 4; M ovius, 1 984,

p .

5 4,

7 3;

1 981.

F i2.

G amble,

2 .

1 986,

p .

2 56ff .

7 4. C room H elm, L ondon,

1 20.

S cott,

1 21.

B reuil a nd L antier, 1 965, p . 2 31ff; F . B ordes, 1 968, T he O ld S tone Age. W eidenfeld a nd N icholson, L ondon. p p. 2 40-241.

1 22.

S .R .

1 23.

H arrold,

1 24.

S .R .

B inford,

1 968a,

p. p

1 47-148; H arrold,

1 980,

p. 2 07-208 . p

1 25.

S .R .

B inford,

1 968a,

p. p

1 43-144;

1 980,

p .

1 26.

H arrold,

1 27.

i bid.,

1 28.

L . B inford, 1 971, ' Mortuary p ractices: t heir s tudy a nd t heir p otential', i n J .A . B rown, e d., Approaches t o t he S ocial D imensions o f M ortuary P ractices, M emoirs o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology 2 5, p p. 6 -20.

1 29.

C hilde's a rgument, t hat w e c annot a ctually d efine " wealth" u nless w e h ave a n e conomic p oint o f c omparison, i s a pposite. V .G . C hilde, 1 958, " Valediction", B ull. I nst. of Archaeol. 1 , p .

1 980,

1 984,

B inford,

p .

1 50.

1 968a.

1 980.

1 980,

p .

H arrold,

2 07.

2 01.

2 07.

3 . p p.

7 -8.

1 981,

p .

1 30.

D .L.

C larke,

1 978,

1 31.

e .g.

S ilberbauer,

1 32.

e .g.

B reuil a nd L antier,

1 33.

H arrold,

1 34.

A .L .

1 980,

K roeber,

p .

2 43ff.

1 965, p .

2 31ff.

1 97.

1 927,

' Disposal o f t he d ead', A merican A nthropo-

l ogist 2 9, p p. 3 08-315; U cko, 1 969, p . 2 70; T he H unting P eoples, J onathan C ape, L ondon, 1 35.

L .R .

B inford,

1 36.

U cko,

1 37.

Wymer,

1 969, 1 982,

1 971.

p .

2 70ff.

p p.

2 51-252. 7 0.

C .S. C oon, p . 3 29ff.

1 972,

1 38 .

D umond, p . 3 4ff. much l ater.

1 39.

T he P audorf o scillation l asted s ome 2,000 y ears a s d id t he D ordogne o f c .19,000-16,000 B C.

1 40 .

T he y am f igures o f t he A ustralian Aboriginals a re a n e xception, C haloupka, 1 977, F ig. 1 2.

1 41.

S ieveking,

1 42.

F igs.

These a re c oastal,

9 1,

9 2,

t he E skimos m oved i nland

9 5.

T hese i mbalances a re n ot r eflected i n t he a rt o f h unterg atherers,

e .g.

C haloupka,

1 977,

7 1.

F ig.

7 .

C HAPTER 5 H EREDITARY S OCIAL S TRATIFICATION I N T HE M ESOLITHIC 5 .1

I ntroduction

T he M esolithic i s g enerally s een a s t he p eriod w hen t he basic e conomy o f m an u ndergoes a c hange f rom p rimarily h unting t o a n e xpanded f orm i ncluding h unting a nd g athering. t heoretical

T his t ransition

c ombinations o f c limatic c hanges,

i s e xplained b y

e xpanded v egetable

r esources a nd a d eveloping a wareness o f t he r ange o f f oodstuffs e ither v egetable o r a nimal a vailable f or s ubsistence. T his g eneral v iew i s p robably o nly m arginally c orrect f or E urope, w herein l ies i ts g enesis a nd w here s uch c hanges a re a pparent i n t he p eriod f ollowing t he l ast g laciation. I n t he N ear a nd M iddle E ast i t i s o f r ather l imited v alue a s a t heory,

a nd i n A frica i t p robably d oes n ot a pply a t a ll.

d iagnostic f eature u sed t o e stablish t he M esolithic i s k it o f s mall a nd m icrolithic t ypes. T he a ppearance o f i n E urope,

T he m ain

t he " new" t ool t his t ool k it,

c oincides r oughly w ith t he e nd o f t he l ast i ce a ge a nd

t herefore h as l ed t o t he a cceptance o f d ietary c hanges a nd t he " new" t ool k it a s b eing s ynchronous. T he c oincidence o f t hese e lements i s p robably a ccidental, b ut u nfortunately i t h as c reated a s ocial i nterp retation w hich d epicts a c hange i n b and e conomic a nd s ocial s tructure f rom p ure h unting t o h unter-gathering. A s Ih ave s hown i n t he p revious c hapters, t hese d istinctions a re o f v ital i mportance i n t he d eterminat ion o f t he f orms s ocial h ierarchies m ay t ake a nd t herefore i t i s n ecessary t o b e c areful i n a ssessing i f h unting o r h unter-gatherer e conomies a re p resent i n t he a rchaeological r ecord . O ne r esult o f t his c aution i s t he r ecognition o f p eriods o f l ong-term c yclical c hange i n s ubsistence s trategies w here t he i ce f ree p eriods i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic a re q uite c learly c onducive t o h unter-gatherer e conomies, e .g. T erra A mata a nd ' Ubeidiya, d espite t he l ack o f Homo s apiens. U nder t hese c onditions t he d ominant h unting e conomy o f t he U pper P alaeolithic i s s imply, i n E uropean t erms, a l ocalised a daptation t o t he c older c limate. T herefore i t i s p ossible t o s ee t he e conomy o f t he M iddle a nd U pper P alaeolithic p opulations a lternating b etween h unter-gathering a nd p ure h unting. F urthermore, i f w e e xtend t he a rgument t o t he M esolithic t ool-kit i t c an b e s een a s i ndicative o f a t echnological " advance" r ather t han e ither a r esponse t o d ietary c hange o r a s a c ausal f eature o f t his c hange. T he a ppearance o f m icrolithic t ool k its i n r egions w here t he b asic s ubsistence p attern u nderwent l ittle c hange s upports

t his v iew .

A nother a spect o f t he M esolithic o r E pipalaeolithic i s i ts p erceived r ole i n t he e volution o f N eolithic a gricultural a nd p astoral e conomies. I t i s a p eriod i n w hich t he c reation o f e xpanded h unterg atherer e conomies w as t he s pur f or t he r apid e volution o f, f irstly, s maller b ut m ore h eavily e xploited b and t erritories; s econdly, t he e stablishment o f p ermanent v illages w ithin t hese t erritories a nd; t hirdly, d omestic e conomies a s t he u ltimate r esult o f t his s edentarin ess. I n t he t erms o f s ocial e volution i t i s s een a s a p eriod o f g enerally e galitarian s ocieties b ecoming e galitarian v illage d wellers, a nd w here t he e conomic c hanges a re s een a s t he c ause o f t he i ncreasing c omplexity o f h uman s ociety a nd t he c ause, u ltimately, o f t he d evelopm ent o f h ierarchical s tructures. T he o verall i mplication o f c urrent v iews i s t hat a ll t he i mportant c hanges a re l argely a ccidental o r r esponses o f e conomic n ecessity.

T his a ssessment i s p robably c orrect 7 2.

S 3 0 5 0

M ap 2 .

P rincipal B ritish s ites d iscussed i n c hapter 5 .

1 .

S tar C arr

6 .

C ulver W ell

2 .

T hatcham

7 .

W estward H o!

3 .

D eepcar

8 .

4 .

D ownton

5 .

O akhanger

9 . 1 0.

7 3 .

O ronsay M t. S andal M orton

M ap

3 .

P rincipal E uropean s ites d iscussed i n c hapters 5 a nd

. 1

S vaerdborg

7 .

F ranchthi C ave

. 2

L epenski V ir

8 .

V edbaek

. 3

H o dic a nd

. 4

T agus e stuary

1 0.

M uldbjerg

. 5

E rteb011e

1. 1

B rand

. 6

K arlsfält

T eviec

7 4.

9 .

7 .

O leneostrovski Mogilnik

i n s ome c ases,

b ut a f actor w hich i s o verlooked,

o r n ot p roperly

d iscussed, i s t he p ossibility o f h uman i ntervention t o o ffset c hanges i n e conomy o r s ocial s tructure s o a s t o m aximise t he p roper u se o f a vailable r esources a bove t hat g enerally a vailable t o h unter-gatherers. T his v iew w hich L ewis B inford h as t ermed " vitalism " i s g enerally i gnored o r n ot d iscussed b ecause, a s W right s tates, " ...however r easonable t hey m ight b e a s p sychoanalytical h ypotheses, ( they) a re n ot t estable b y f ield a rchaeology." 2 P erhaps t hey m ay b e t estable i f i t i s p ossible t o r econstruct t he s ocial s tructures o f t he s ocieties i n w hich t hese e conomic e vents w ere t aking p lace, f or, a s w e h ave s een, t he basic e lement i n h unter-gatherer l eadership i s t he m anagement o f t he b and 's r esources. T he p urpose o f t his c hapter i s t o e xamine t he M esolithic c ultures o f E urope f or a ny e lements o f t erritoriality b ased o n p articularly v alued r esources. T his will b e d ealt w ith i n t he l ight o f t he i deas d eveloped i n c hapters 2 a nd 3 , a nd t he d iscussion w ill c omplete t he a nalysis b egun i n c hapter 4 . T here w ill b e a n arrowing o f t he f ocus t o E urope i n o rder t o e stablish t he c ontinuity o f c ulture f eatures i nto t he N eolithic p eriod, a nd t o f urther e xamine t he p roblem o f h ereditary s tratification. 5 .2

T he P ost-Glacial T ransition

T he M esolithic p eriod o ffers u s e xtensive e vidence w ith w hich t o a ssess t he e conomic a nd s ocial s tructures o f p rehistoric s ocieties. T here i s g eneral a greement t hat f rom a round 2 0,000 t o 1 8,000 B C i n t he M iddle a nd N ear E ast t here i s a n a pparent w idening o f t he r esource b ase o f t he e conomy, w hilst i n E urope t his b egins a round 1 1,000 B C. T he i ncrease i n t he r esource b ase i s c umulative a nd l eads u ltimately t o a griculture a nd d omestication. T he e xact p rocess b y w hich s edentary f arming o ccurs i s n ot g enerally a greed, a lthough F lannery's m odel b ased o n t he p roposal

t hat t here w as a d esire t o r ecreate

f avourable e nvironments a s p opulation p ressures f orced p eople t o m ove i nto m arginal e nvironments i s, a t p resent, d iscussed f urther i n c hapter 6 ).

t he m ost a ccepted 3 ( this i s

T here a re g reat r egional d ifferences i n t he o nset o f M esolithic a nd E pipalaeolithic e conomies b etween E urope a nd t he M iddle E ast, w hich Iw ill b riefly s ummarise. I n E urope, t he c omparison o f M iddle a nd U pper P alaeolithic c amp s ites d emonstrate t hat t he U pper P alaeolithic h unting s ocieties w ere a l ocal a daptation t o t he e xtremely c old e nviro nment. T he e nd o f t he P alaeolithic s aw a w idening o f t he r esource b ase b ecause t he c limatic c hanges w ere s ufficient t o c reate a n i ncrease i n s uitable e nvironments f or p lants w hich b ecame h uman f ood. C oncomita nt w ith t hese c hanges t he w armer c limate i ncreased f orests a nd d ecreased t he o pen t undra e nvironment s uited t o t he l arge c old t olerant a nimals. A s t hese a nimals b ecame e xtinct t he r anges o f f irstly r eindeer, a nd t hen o ther u ngulates i ncreased, w hich r esulted i n t he n eed f or t he h uman p opulation t o c reate n ew h unting t echniques a c hange w hich i s d emonstrated b y t he m icrolithic t ool k it. I n t he M iddle a nd N ear E ast t he s ituation i s r ather d ifferent. F irstly t he n ew m icrolithic t ool k it a ppears m uch e arlier, a nd s econdly, a s B rai9 lwood h as d emonstrated, t here a ppears t o b e n o g reat c limatic c hanges." T he p rincipal c hange c reated b y t he w arming c limate w ould b e i n w inter e xtremes, t his s erving t o l imit t he s outhward

7 5.

a dvance o f c old r esistant a nimals i n w inter, a nd t o o pen t hese p articular n iches t o l ocally d ominant, a nd h ighly a daptable, s pecies s uch a s s heep, g oats a nd d eer. A long t he s ea c oasts t here w ere a lso m arked s ea-level r ises. O therwise t he h uman p opulations m ay h ave s een l ittle c hange i n t heir b asic e conomy. T he r apidity w ith w hich s emis edentary h unter-gatherer e conomies a ppear t o h ave c ome s uggests

i nto b eing,

t hat t here w ere n o m ajor v ariation i n h uman s ubsistence

p atterns i n t his r egion, 5 a nd t he s ea-level r ises m ay mask t he r eal a ntiquity a nd d uration o f t hese h unter-gatherer s ocieties. A s we s aw i n c hapter 4 , t he s ite o f ' Ubeidiya i ndicates t hat s imilar e conomies c ould h ave e xisted i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic. C ertainly t hese c onditions a llow p lenty o f s cope f or t he l ong t erm m an/animal/plant s ymbiotic m odel o f H iggs a nd J arman 6 -scope w hich i s r ather l acking i n t he c onditions a pplying i n E urope. B rief t hough t his c omparison i s, t he m ajor p oint w hich e merges i s t hat t he m icrolithic t ool k it c annot b e s een t o r esult f rom s imilar t echnological n eeds i n E urope a nd

t he

M iddle E ast. I n E urope i t s eems t o b e q uite c learly a r esponse t o t he n eeds o f n ew h unting t echniques a nd t he p rocessing o f p lant f oods. I n t he M iddle E ast, h owever, w here t hese n eeds p robably w ere n ot p ressing o r p erhaps d id n ot e xist t here i s n o e asy e xplanation. T he h ighly p ract ical f eatures o f t he m icrolithic

t ool k it,

e ase o f m anufacture c oupled

w ith a n a ll p urpose s implicity l eads o ne t o s uspect a lthough i t c annot b e p roven , t hat t here i s a f undamental i ntellectual c hange i n t he h uman r ace i n t his r egion a round 2 0,000 B C. T his i dea i s a kin t o t he e volutionary p rocess b y w hich B raidwood e xplained t he o rigins o f a griculture a nd a nimal h usbandry. 7 T here s eems l ittle e lse t o explain t hese t echnological a dvances i n t his r egion i n v iew o f

t he l ongevity o f

t he h unter-gatherer e conomic s ystem . T he m arked d ifferences,

b oth c hronological a nd c limatic b etween

E urope a nd t he M iddle E ast a re c omplicated b y v ariations w ithin E urope. W estern a nd n orth-western E urope r etain h unter-gatherer e conomies u ntil t he a rrival o f f arming.

I n e astern a nd n orthern c entral E urope

t here

i s, l ike i n t he M iddle E ast, a lbeit l ater, s ome a reas where s edentary h unter-gatherer c ommunities e volve a s w ell a s a g eneral t rend t o d omestic e conomic c ommunities. I t i s o bvious t hat b ecause o f t he v ariety o f e conomic f actors w e c an e xpect a n umber o f d ifferent p aths t o d omestic e conomies. T hese a re m ore p roperly t he s ubject o f t he f ollowing c hapters, b ut f or t he m oment t heir i mportance i s t hat t hey d emonstrate t hat t he M esolithic w as a p eriod i n w hich a g eneral

p urpose

a nd h ighly a daptable e conomy w as c reated. A c urrently p revailing v iew o f t he E uropean M esolithic d epicts r esource-rich c ommunities m ore e conomically a nd s ocially c omplex t han t he m odern h unter-gatherers. T his v iew p artly r ests u pon a q uite h arsh I d o n ot v iew o f t he m odern h unter-gatherer e conomy a nd e nvironment. 8 f ind m yself i n a greement b ecause i t d oes t end t o o verdo t he a spect o f m arginality i n t heir e nvironments -a v iew r edolent o f S auer's s tatem ent t hat t he p rehistoric h unter-gatherers w ere d ifferent " ...from t heir m odern s urvivors, n ow r estricted t o t he m ost m eagre r egions o f t he e arth,

s uch a s t he i nterior o f A ustralia,

t he A merican G reat B asin

a nd t he A rctic t undra a nd t aiga. T he a reas o f e arly o ccupation w ere a bounding i n f ood. I t 9 P resent i n t his v iew i s t he a ttitude t hat m odern h unter-gatherers h ave b een p ushed i nto t he m arginal r egions t o s urvive a s b est t hey m ight, w hich i s n ot w holly c orrect. T he ! Kung h ave 7 6.

o ccupied, w ith s uccess, t heir t erritories f or t housands o f y ears, d id t he A boriginal p eople o f t he s emi-arid r egions o f A ustralia.

a s T he

m odern r egions w here t here a re a bundances o f f ood a re m ostly t ropical, b ut t he h unter-gatherers o f t hese r egions d o n ot p ossess g reater s ocial o r e conomic c omplexity t han t he ! Kung. 10 Iw ould s uggest t hat i t i s n ot t he g reat a bundance o f r esources w hich c reates m ore c omplex h unterg atherer s ocieties, b ut i nstead t he n eed t o c onserve s carce o r f avoured r esources w hich c reates s ocial s tructures t o c ontrol a nd m anage t hem a nd t o e nsure t heir a vailability. T he n 'ore o f t he S an b ased o n s ome f ixed r esource a re p erfect e xamples -it i s,

I f eel, n o a ccident

t hat

t he m ost t erritorially c onscious g roup o f S an, t he ! Ko, o ccupy t he m ost a rid o f t erritories i n t he t ribal r egion. 1 1 A bundant r esources l ike t he r oots a nd b erries g athered d aily b y w omen a re n ot m anaged a nd t herefore d o n ot c reate a ny s ocial s tructures b ased o n t he m anagement f unction . I f o ne m ight e xtend t he a rgument f urther, a c omparison o f t he r elative s implicity o f h unter-gatherer s ociety w hen p laced a longs ide t hat o f a n a gricultural s ociety, d emonstrates t he e xtent t o w hich t he need t o m anage v ital d omestic c rops l ike w heat o r b arley w ill c reate g reat c omplexities i n t he e conomic f abric. T hese c omplexities a rise b ecause t here i s a n e ver p resent n eed t o s afeguard t he d omestic c rops f rom t he n atural p erils o f p redators t o e nsure t heir a vailability f or human n eeds. T herefore I c annot a ccept t hat t he h unter-gatherers o f t he M esolithic n ecessarily m ay h ave p ossessed m ore c omplex s ocieties t han e ither t heir L ater P alaeolithic f orebears o r t heir m odern c ounterp arts b ecause t hey l ived i n r icher t erritories. T he m ain r esult, a s w e w ill s ee, i s a w idening o f t he r esource b ase a nd a n i ncrease i n p opulation d ensity -a lthough b and s izes m ay h ave b een c lose t o t he m odern n orm . I n t he s everal m illennia t hat f ollow u pon t he m ajor g lacial r etreat f rom E urope t he e nvironment u ndergoes a w arming p rocess w hich r esults, b y t he n inth m illennium , i n a l andscape i n w hich t here i s a d ominant f orest c over o f b irch, p ine a nd i ncreasing n umbers o f o ak a nd e lm . T he p rincipal a nimals l iving i n t his f orest w ere r ed d eer, r oe d eer, e lk, a urochs a nd b oar. b eaver, m arten a nd b adger. 1 2

T he s maller a nimals w ere w olf, f ox, W ithin t his e nvironment i t i s s afe t o

a ssume t hat t he h uman p opulation h ad s lowly c hanged i ts e conomic b ase i n s tep w ith t he e cological c hanges, t o c oncentrate u pon t he d eer a nd a urochs a s t he p rincipal m eat s ources. O ne w ould a lso s uspect t hat, a s t he p lant l ife b ecame m ore v aried, t he g athered p art o f t he e conomy h ad a lso i ncreased . S ea l evels w ere s till v ery l ow a nd B ritain w as, i n t his p eriod, p art o f t he l and m ass o f w estern E urope. T he a rea w hich i s n ow t he E nglish C hannel a nd t he s outhern N orth S ea w as a l owl ying a nd s wampy p lain i n w hich t he R hine R iver, a nd i ts t ributary t he T hames, d ebouched i nto t he A tlantic s outh-west o f t he m assive c halk b luffs o f t he K entish p lateau. A cross t his p lain r oamed h unters w ho m ade u se o f t he m any r esources, a nimal a nd v egetable, a vailable i n t he f orests, s wamps a nd a long t he s hores o f r iver a nd s ea. E vidence o f t heir p resence c omes f rom t he o ccasional d redging u p o f a rtefacts o n t he N orth S ea f ishing b anks. 1 3 T hese h unters, w ho w ere p art o f t he M aglemosian t radition, f ound t heir p rincipal p rey i n r ed a nd r oe d eer, w ith e lk a nd a urochs b eing l ess p opular . 1 ' + T races o f t he M aglemosian a re f ound t hroughout n orth-western E urope a nd B ritain a nd t he c ultural a ssemblage i s t ypified b y m icrolithic t ools, a xes f or w ood-working, a nd t he e xtensive u se o f t ools m ade f rom d eer b one a nd a ntler. T he s eal evel r ise, h owever, w as r easonably r apid a nd t his c oupled w ith d ecreases i n t he n umber o f l arger a nimals c aused o ngoing c hanges i n t he 7 7.

M aglemosian c ulture. T he e lk b ecame a n i ncreasingly m inor p rey d ue t o 5 a nd a s t he l and b ridge b etween B ritain f orests b ecoming m ore m ature, 1 a nd E urope w as f looded t he h unters m oved i nto t he o ld u pland r egions. A c oncomitant i ncrease i n l ittoral a nd l acustrine r esources c reated a c hange i n t he t ool k it w hich h as a n i ncreasing c omponent o f g eometric m icroliths, e specially t ypes s uitable f or a rrowheads t o k ill b irds a nd w ild-fowl. A lthough t here a re r egional d ifferences, 1 6 t his t ool k it i s g enerally s imilar t o t he S auveterrian o f F rance. 1 7 D uring t he M esol ithic t here w as a n i ncreasing a mount o f d eforestation w hich i s a lmost s urely r elated t o human a ctivity. T he p rocess i s c learly d emonstrated 8 T hese a re b y i ncreases o f h azel p ollen i n a nalyses f rom m any s ites. 1 t rees w hich, b eing r elatively s mall, w ill o nly g row w hen t he f orest

c anopy h as b een o pened u p s ufficiently f or l ight t o g et t hrough. T his d eforestation i s i mportant t o o ur a ssessment o f t he h uman m odification o f t he e nvironment a nd, m an's p rey,

l ike t he c hange i n t he m ain a nimals t hat w ere

a re s ignificant t o o ur d iscussion o f t he e xistence o f

s ocial

s tratification. T he e xamination o f t he U pper P alaeolithic h unting s ocieties i n c hapter 4 s uggested t hat i t i s l ikely t hat t heir s ocial

s tructure w as

s imilar t o t hat o f m odern E skimos. T he p rincipal p arallel b eing t he r eliance o n h unting o f a nimals w hich, b ecause o f c old c onditions, h ad e xtended r anges, a nd t he e ncouragement o f l eadership b ased o n t he e phemeral q uality o f h unting s kills. W ith t he a melioration o f t he c limate t he l arge e xtreme c old-adapted a nimals, l ike m ammoths, woolly r hinoceros a nd o thers b ecame e xtinct. I nitially t here was a l engthy p eriod w hen r eindeer b ecame t he m ain p rey, b ut t hese a lso a re c old t olerant w ith l arge r anges, 1 9 a nd s o t here w as p robably l ittle e ffect u pon h uman s ociety. T he a forementioned e stablishment, h owever, o f r ed a nd r oe d eer w ith t heir m uch s maller t erritorial r anges, a s t he c limate w armed f urther, s ignificantly c hanged t he h unting p atterns o f t heir h uman p redators, a nd c reated t erritorial s ystems b uilt u pon d eer h erds a nd t heir m igrations i n w hich, p aradoxically w hen c ompared w ith m odern h unter-gatherers,

g athered f oods w ere o f s econdary i mportance i n

t he

i nitial s tages. 5 .3

T he R ed D eer H unters A n a rea o f g reat

i s c entral B arker. 2 °

i mportance f or t he s tudy o f r ed d eer e conomies

I taly, a nd i t h as r eceived e xtensive a nalysis b y G raeme I n c entral I taly t ranshumant m igration o f a nimals e ither

w ild o r d omestic h as l ong b een o f g reat s ignificance i n h uman e conomies . T his i s l argely a r esult o f t he g eography o f t he I talian p eninsula w ith i ts c entral,

r ugged, m ountain c hain w hich i s h igh e nough f or

w inter s now , a nd t he s hallow c oastal v alleys w ith t heir f ertile a lluvial s oils a nd l ow o r n on-existent s ummer r ain. D efined a s t hey a re b y t he p arallel s purs o f t he A pennine f oothills, t hese v alleys f orm n atural t erritories h aving r ich s oils a nd d irect a ccess a long t he r iver v alleys t o t he m ountain p astures. C oupled w ith t hese f eatures t he p eninsula i s r elatively n arrow a nd t his m eans t hat t he s easonal p astures a re s ufficiently c lose t o e nable a ccess w ithout l ong m arches. T he e arly s ummer m ove, w hen t he c oastal p astures h ave b ecome o verg razed, t o t he h igh p astures, o r t he l ate a utumn r eturn t o t he c oastal p astures b efore t he s nows,

i s a m atter o f a f ew w eeks a t m ost.

2 1

R ed d eer w hich l ive i n s mall h erds a re i deally s uited t o r egion,

t his

b ecause i ts f ragmented g eography i mparts a r isk o f d estruction 7 8.

t hrough o ver-grazing. R ed d eer h ave s mall s exually d ivided h erds, w ith m ales f orming o ne h erd w hilst f emales a nd t heir y oung f orm a nother. T he s eparate g roups c ome t ogether i n a utumn t o b reed, b ut o therwise f ollow s eparate g razing p atterns w ithin t he s easonal m ovement. 22 F or t he M esolithic p eople o f t hese e ncapsulated e nvironments w ere t he m ost i mportant m eat s ource.

t he l ed d eer

B arker's e xamination c entres u pon t he s pecific c atchments f or p articular s ites i n d ifferent p eriods r ather t han c reating a n o verview w here t hese s ites a re i ntegrated i nto o ne m odel o f a s easonal t errit ory b ased o n a nimal m ovement. T here i s, h owever, l ittle t o p revent s uch a n o verview t o c reate a m odel i n w hich t he h uman b ands f ollow t he s mall h erds a s p redators. E stimates b ased o n a d eer h erd o n t he S cottish i sland o f R hum s how t hat a h erd o f 1 200 a nimals c an b e m aintained a t a s table l evel b y c ulling o f a pproximately o ne-sixth o f t he m ature h inds a nd s tags e ach y ear. 2 5 I f t his o ne-sixth f actor i s u sed a s ab aseline f or t he m eat a vailable t o a b and f or f ood, t hen, B arker s uggests, t his w ould s upport a h uman p opulation w ithin a s ite's c atchment a rea o f 2 o r 3 f amily g roups, t otalling p erhaps 1 0 t o 1 5 p eople. 24 T he e xtension o f t his d ata l eads t o a m inimum h uman p opulat ion w ithin t he n atural t erritories o f p erhaps

1 0 p eople f ollowing t he

s easonal m ovements o f t he d eer. T his e stimate d oes n ot, h owever, i nclude v egetable f oods w hich, w ith r eference t o c hapter 3 a bove, c an b e s hown t o p rovide m ore f ood t han m eat d oes i n an ormal h unterg atherer e conomy. I t i s t herefore p ossible t hat t hese " territories" c ould h ave s upported s omewhat l arger b ands p erhaps a s h igh a s 5 f amily g roups, t otalling p erhaps 2 5 t o 3 0 i ndividuals. P ollen a nalyses a re n ot v ery h elpful, o r v ery n umerous. T hose t hat a re a vailable i ndicate a n o ak f orest, w ith s ome o pen a reas o f p asture i n t he E pipalaeolithic p eriod. 2 5 T he s ocial s tructure o f t hese h unting b ands p ossibly c onforms t o t he m odern h unter-gatherer t ype, d espite o ur l ack o f r eal e vidence o f e ither g atherable r esources o r t heir u se.

T his i nterpretation

h inges u pon t he d emonstrated e xistence o f t he r elatively s mall s easonal m ovements o f t he d eer, w hich h as e choes i n t he m odern t ransh umant p astoralism o f t he r egion. 26 U nder t hese c onditions w here a b and o f p eople f ollow t he s ame h erd a nd i ts r ange o f m ovement t herefore d efines t he p arameters o f t heir t erritorial r ange, t hat h erd b ecomes a f ixed r esource. A s w e h ave s een i n c hapter 2 t he e xistence o f f ixed r esources, v ital t o t he b and's s urvival i mparts t he o bligation t o m anage a nd p rotect t hose r esources. T he a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he s ite o f G rotte P olesini s hows t hat 6 0% o f t he d eer k illed w ere b etween 3 a nd 8 y ears o ld 27 w hich m ay i ndicate s ome s ystematic c ulling. A gainst t hat, h owever, t here i s t he c omplicating f actor o f h erd b ehaviour w here m ales f orm s eparate h erds t o t hose o f f emales a nd t he y oung. A lso t here i s t he p roblem t hat d uring t he r utting s eason t he v enison o f t he m ales a cquires a n u npleasantly s trong o dour a nd t aste w hereas t he b est m eat i s g enerally c onsidered t o b e f rom b arren h inds. 28 U nder t hese c onditions i t i s l ikely t hat " management" m ight h ave b een r estricted t o k illing w eaker o r b etter t asting a nimals, a nd g iven t hat t here w as o ver 1 0% o f v ery y oung a nimals i n t he s ample, 29 a f air d egree o f s cavenging o r j ust s imply d isregard f or p roper h erd " management" m ay h ave e xisted . O verall t he n atural f eatures o f d eer h erds, a nd t he t aste o f v enison ( the r eal r eason f or d eer h unting), m ay h ave c reated a n i llusion o f m anagement b y e ncouraging t he k illing o f u nprotected y oung a nd o lder f emales w hilst a ccidently, r ather t han 7 9.

b ecause o f d irect h uman a gency,

f ostering t he s urvival o f t he f ittest

m ales a nd t he b est b reeding f emales. N evertheless, d espite t hese r eservations a bout t he e xistence o r e xtent o f h erd " management" i n t he M esolithic,

t he f ixed e lement o f

t he d eer h erds i n t he human t erritory

p arallels e xactly t he f ixed e lement o f v egetable r esources i n m odern h unter-gatherer t erritories, a nd m ay w ell o ffer t he s ame i nformation a bout h ereditary o wnership a nd c ontrol. I t i s p ossible t o s uggest t hat i n t hese t erritories e ach h erd w as c onsidered t o b e t he p roperty o f a b and o f h unters. T his r esource w as v aluable a nd i t f ollows t hat t he b and w ould w ish t o p rotect i t f rom a ny n eighbouring p eople w ho m ight a ttempt t o p oach t he a nimals. U nder t hose c onditions t he t ask o f o wnership a nd p rotection w ould f all t o t he s enior m ember o f t he s enior f amily g roup -as i n m odern h unter-gatherers -a nd t his e lement o f s eniority w ould b e p erpetuated b y i nheritance, w hich i s t he m ost c onvenient a nd l east s ocially d isruptive m eans.

T hus i t

i s l ikely t hat

t he p eople w ho h unted t he r ed d eer h ad a h ierarchical s ocial s ystem b ased o n i nherited s eniority,

r ather t han t he e phemeral

s ystem b ased

o n h unting s kills a s w ith t heir p redecessors o f t he U pper P alaeolithic. T his p articular v ariation o f t he b asic m odel o ffered i n c hapter 2 i s u seful f or t he u nderstanding o f s ocial s ystems w here a ll t he e vidence i ndicates a s hort p eriod i n t he d evelopment o f h unter-gatherer s ocieties w hen h unting s till a ppears t o d ominate a nd p roper e xploitat ion o f v egetable r esources w as y et t o d evelop, w hilst t he t erritorial r anges o f t he p eople w as c ontracting. T he m odel d oes p rovide a s tep p rocess w hereby t he h unting s ocieties o f t he U pper P alaeolithic c an b e t ranslated, w ith m inimal s ocial d isruption i nto t he t rue h unterg atherers o f t he l ater p art o f t he M esolithic. A s Ih ave p reviously s tressed, c hanges i n t hese s ocieties, a nd t he e xistence o f p articular s ocial s tructures m ust o perate b y p rocesses w hich c reate t he l east p ossible c ontradictions i n t raditional s ystems. T his t raditional m odel m ay b e a pplicable t o S tar C arr i n Y orkshire. S tar C arr w as o ccupied i n t he p re-Boreal p eriod w hen n orthw estern E urope w as s till r elatively c old. T he r adio-carbon d ates a re 7 ,538 ± 3 50 a nd 7 ,607 ± 2 10, 30 a nd t he m ain t ree c oyer w as b irch a nd s ome w illow, b oth o f w hich a re c old a dapted t rees. 3 1 A s D avid C larke h as r emarked " Star C arr.. . was a w inter s ite s et i n t he s heltered f ringes o f t he n orthern p re-boreal b irch f orest,

f acing t he N orwegian

i ce-cap o nly 4 00 m iles a way a cross a n e xposed, i ce-locked N orth S ea b ay. 1 t 3 z U nder t hese c onditions i t i s r easonable t o e xpect t hat h unting w as t he m ajor s ource o f f ood a nd v egetable f oods m ay h ave b een r elatively m inor. C lark h as l isted t he t ypes o f e dible p lants p resent a t S tar C arr. T hese a re y ellow w ater-lily ( Nuphar l utea) w hich h as e dible s eeds, c ommon r eed ( Phragmites c ommunis) a nd b og-bean ( A lenyanthes t rifoliata) w hich h as e dible r hizomes, p lus a r ange o f o ther m inor p lants. 33 B ut h e c oncludes t hat t here i s v ery l ittle e vidence t o s uggest t hat t hese w ere u sed a nd s uggests t hat t he v egetable p art o f t he S tar C arr d iet m ay h ave c ome f rom t he p artly d igested c ontents o f 4 D avid C larke, h owever, t he s tomachs o f t he a nimals k illed f or m eat. 3 s uggested t hat t he r oot-mattocks u sed a t S tar C arr a re e vidence o f t he u se o f t hese p lants. 3 5 W hatever t he a nswer, b irch f orests a re p oorer i n v egetable f ood t han d eciduous o nes 36 a nd g iven t he harsh c onditions

w e s hould e xpect t hat m eat w as

t he p rincipal d ietary c omponent.

C lark,

i n 1 972, r e-assessed t he e vidence o f s ettlement a nd c oncluded, a s h e h ad d one i n 1 954, t hat S tar C arr w as a w inter s ettlement o ccupied b y a " ...small h unting b and w hich s upported i tself.. . by t he c ulling o f r ed d eer s tags

s upplemented b y h unting.. . other g ame." 3 7 8 0.

O thers h ave

d iffered w ith t his v iew .

I n

1 979 P itts s uggested t hat S tar C arr w as

n ot a s ettlement s ite b ut a n i ndustrial s ite d evoted t o a ntler w orking a nd h ide p rocessing, 38 w hilst i n 1 981 A ndresen e t a l s uggested t hat i t w as n othing m ore t han a h unting b lind a nd t he s ite d ebris r epresents 9 N ow, t he p roducts o f a c ombination o f t ool-kit r epairs a nd b oredom. 3 w hatever t he r eal n ature o f S tar C arr, h unting c amp, i ndustrial s ite

o r hunting b lind, f ood,

a nd t ools,

i t i s u ndeniably t rue t hat t he p rincipal

s ource o f

w as r ed d eer.

S tar C arr w as s ituated o n t he s wampy m argins o f a l ake. T here h ad b een a ttempts t o s tabilise t he s urface b y t hrowing d own b irch b rushwood,

s tones a nd w ads o f c lay.

A l arge b irch t ree h ad b een f elled

i nto t he l ake, a nd m ay h ave f ormed a l anding s tage f or w atercraft ° aw ooden p addle w as f ound. 41 U n9 ler t hese c onditions p reservation o f h earths h as b een r ather s crappy. T here a re s ix s hallow l enses o f a sh , b ut f our o f t hese a re s o c losely g rouped t hat t hey c ould r epresent o nly o ne f amily h earth . 43 T herefore i t i s p ossible t hat o nly 2 t o 3 f amilies o ccupied t he s ite, o r i f A ndresen e t a l. a re c orrect, o nly a f ew h unters. T he t ool-kit w as v ery l arge w ith a g reat m any b one a nd a ntler t ools, a s w ell a s a l arge q uantity o f s tone a rtefacts, c ores T he a nimal r emains, t hose o f t he f ood a nimals, a nd m icroliths. 44 d emonstrate t he i mportance o f r ed d eer w hilst t here w ere s maller O verall t he g reat q uantities o f r oe d eer, e lk, a urochs a nd p ig. 45 d etail r evealed a t t he s ite, o f w hich t he a bove i s a b are s ummary, g ives u s a n e xcellent p icture o f t he e conomy o f a M esolithic h unting s ociety. a bout

U nfortunately i t d oes n ot g ive u s a g reat d eal o f d etail

t he s ocial s tructure o f t he p eople w ho d welt t here. A t f irst g lance t he s ocial s tructure w ould s eem t o b e s imilar t o

t he h unter-dominated s ocieties o f t he U pper P alaeolithic a nd h ence t o p arallel m odern E skimo s ociety. T his p arallel l ies a t t he b ase o f C lark's u nderstanding o f t he s ociety. 4 ' T here a re p roblems w ith t his a ssessment, p rincipally b ecause o f t he m ajor p resence o f r ed d eer. A s Ih ave d iscussed i n c hapters 2 a nd 4 , i t i s t he m igratory r ange o f c aribou w hich p revents t hem f rom b ecoming a f ixed e conomic r esource i n t he r ange o f t he p eople w ho h unt t hem , a nd t heir E uropean c ounterparts, t he r eindeer, a re n o d ifferent. T his c haracteristic o f e xtended r anges c an p ose p roblems i f t he c aribou, o r r eindeer, c hange t heir m igratory r oute -Sturdy q uotes t he c ase o f t he K azan E skimo w ho s tarved i n a s eason o f c aribou a bundance b ecause t he c aribou c hanged t heir m igration r oute .4 7 T he p resence o f r ed d eer w ith t heir q uite s mall r anges, a s d iscussed a bove i n r eference t o c entral I taly, t end t o r ender t he E skimo b ased m odel u nacceptable. T he p eople o f S tar C arr p robably h ad t he c ontrol a nd u se o f a s ingle h erd w hich t hey f ollowed t hroughout t he y ear -Clark h as e sti nted a s easonal r ange f or t he p eople o f S tar C arr o f a bout 6 0 K m2 -w hich c ofresponds t o t he T he l ack o f v egeg eneral t erritorial r ange w hich r ed d eer o ccupy.' 9 t able f ood w hich I h ave d iscussed c ould w ell h ave b een r elieved b y t he u se o f s tomach c ontents. O ther r esources a t S tar C arr t end t o e mphasise t he i dea o f a f airly s mall t erritory. R oe d eer h ave s mall r anges, e lk h ave w ider r anges b ut t here a re v ery f ew a t S tar C arr, a nd a urochs a nd p igs a re r elatively s olitary a nimals w ith l ittle n eed f or w ide t ravel. 50 T he o ther a nimal r emains, m arten, h edgehog, h are, b adger, w olf, f ox a nd b eaver a re m inimal 51 a nd q uite p robably n ot r elated t o h uman a ctivity o r a re o f l ittle f ood v alue. 8 1.

A t opic t o w hich w e w ill r eturn i n g reater d etail

i s t he u se

o f t he r ise i n h azel p ollen a s a n i ndicator o f f orest c learance. A t S tar C arr a nd r elated s ites t he s amples f or t he p eriod o f o ccupation s how d ominance o f b irch ( Betula) p ollen w ith m inimal s amples o f h azel ( Corylus) p ollen. 52 L ater l evels h ave v ery h igh s amples o f h azel p ollen, b ut t his i s m ost l ikely r elated t o t he g eneral i ncrease i n h azel i n t he l ater p art o f t he M esolithic. T his l ow q uantity o f h azel p ollen m eans t hat t he c limate w as y et t oo c old -h azel p refers m ixed d eciduous f orest 53 a nd t his m eans w armer c onditions t han w ere i n e xistence a t S tar C arr d uring t he p eriod o f h uman o ccupation. T heref ore w e c annot p lace a ny e mphasis o n t he h azel s pectra i n t he p ollen s ample. O verall h azel w as p robably v ery r are i n t he e nvironment a round S tar C arr a nd p erhaps r estricted t o s ome s heltered p ockets. S ome h azel n uts w ere f ound i n t he a rchaeological l evel b ut i t i s t he o pinion o f t he e xcavators t hat t hese w ere a l ater d eposit, p erhaps b y a ni m als.

5 4

I t i s f airly c lear t hat t he p eople o f S tar C arr w ere p rincipally h unters. T hey w ould n ot h ave n eeded t o f ollow a g reat r ange o f m ovement t o s urvive a s t here w as a r esident r ed d eer h erd . I t i s a lso c lear, a lthough t he e vidence i s s omewhat n egative, t hat v egetable r esources p layed l ittle p art i n t heir d iet, u nless w e h ypothesise t hat t he s ummer v egetable r ange w as m ore a bundant.

T here i s n o e vidence o f

d eliberate e ncouragement o f t he r ed d eer p opulation, e ither t hrough f orest c learance o r f eeding a s i s i ndicated b y e vidence a t l ater s ites -w hich w ill b e d iscussed b elow . T herefore t he p eople o f S tar C arr m ay b e s een a s p ossessing a n e conomy a nd s ociety t ransitional b etween t he w ider r anging U pper P alaeolithic c ommunities a nd t he m ore s edentary h unters o f t he l ater M esolithic. U nder t hese c onditions i t i s d ifficult

t o o ffer a ny f irm s uggestions a s t o t he s ocial s tructure

o f S tar C arr. T here w ere p erhaps o nly t hree f amilies p resent, i f i t w as a t rue c amp r ather t han a h unting b lind. I t i s e ntirely p ossible t hat t he b and r egarded t he d eer h erd a s i ts p ossession a nd t he o wners hip w as i nvested i n o ne p erson, t he s enior m ember o f t he s enior g roup w hich n aturally w ould r esult i n a h ereditary s ystem o f c ontrol. I f t he m odel o f A ndresen a nd o thers i s c orrect t hen S tar C arr was t he t ransitory c amp o f s ome h unters w ho w ould b e m ale -a s we h ave s een h unting i s a m ale t ask -a nd t his w ould m ean a l arger p opulation a s i t i s d ifficult t o e nvisage t hree h unters e ach w ith t heir o wn f ire. T he f emales a nd c hildren w ere p resumably a t s ome o ther c amp s ite. A l arger p opulation i n t he b and w ould n ot a lter t he i dea o f s ome f orm o f h ereditary c ontrol o ver t he t erritory a nd t he d eer h erd. B eyond t his o ne c annot g o a s t he s ocial e vidence i s, a s Ih ave s hown, q uite t hin. A s ite w hich h as p arallels w ith S tar C arr i s T hatcham i n B erks hire. T here a re a r ange o f r adio-carbon d ates f rom t he s ite a nd t hese s how a l ong o ccupation. J5 T he s ite i n f act s eems t o h ave b een q uite p opular a nd,

u nlike S tar C arr,

p ossesses a l arge n umber o f h earths.

T he

s tone i ndustry a nd t he e conomy i s t ypical M aglemosian a nd o nce a gain t he p rincipal p rey w as r ed d eer. 56 T hatcham i s n ow a r aised a rea i n a r eed s wamp, but i n t he p reB oreal p eriod i t w as o n t he s hore o f an arrow l ake w hich w as f ringed b y a f orest o f b irch a nd p ine w ith w illows i n a reas c lose t o t he l ake: I t i s s uggested t hat t he d enseness o f t he f orest p revented l andward s ettlement a nd t herefore t he o riginal s ettlers a rrived b y b oat. 58 T he e xcavations w ere c arried o ut o ver a v ery l arge a rea a nd t he 8 2.

7

a rchaeological d eposit w as d ivided i nto f ive s ites. S ite I w hich h ad a n o ccupation f loor o n t he s lopes o f a n a ncient b luff i ncluded s everal h earths. U nfortunately t he s tratification w as t oo c onfused t o a chieve a ny s ort o f u nity f rom t hem . t hat s ome o f t he h earths w ere i n s craped h ollows, l ined with s arsen s tones. 59 S ite I I w as a t a l ower l evel t han s ite I ,

O f i nterest w as

o ne o f w hich w as

t his, h owever, w as n ot

ar esult o f a ge b ut o f b eing c loser t o t he l ake i n t he p eriod o f s ettlem ent. T he p eople w ho m ade u se o f t his s ite a ppear t o h ave u sed s ome n arrow g ullies f or s helter, e recting i n t hem s mall t ents w eighed d own w ith l arge s tones. " S ite I II w as o n a l ow-lying f lat p iece o f g round a nd p roved t o t he m ost e xtensive a rchaeological r emains o f t he w hole a rea.

h ave

T here were h eavy c oncentrations o f f lints a nd f lint d ebris, a nd w ell A lso t here w ere numerous p reserved b ones o f b irds a nd s mall m ammals. 61 h earths a nd q uantities o f h azel nuts. T his d id n ot i ndicate, h owever, a s t he f lint d ensity a nalysis w as t o l ater p rove, a l arge s ettlement b ut a s uccession o f s maller o ccupations. 62 T he m ost i nteresting s ingle f eature w as a n arrow t rench a bout 3 f eet w ide a nd 1 8 i nches d eep w hich r an f or

1 5

f eet a t r ight a ngles f rom t he b luff.

w as a f ish t rap.

I t

i s s uggested t hat i t

6 3

S ite I V w as a ctually i n t he e xisting s wamp a nd w as n ot e xcavated s cientifically. Am echanical e xcavator w as u sed t o c ut a r ough t rench 3 0 f eet l ong, 6 f eet w ide a nd a bout 6 f eet d eep. T he m aterial f rom t his t rench was s ifted a nd f ound t o c ontain b one, w ood a nd s ome f lints.

6 4

S ite V w as a lso i n t he s wamp, b ut a c offer d am w as u sed t o a llow m ore s ystematic w ork . w ood. 65

B oreal

T his s ite a lso h ad f lints,

b one a nd p reserved

P ollen a nalysis s howed a r ange o f c limatic c onditions f rom p ret o A tlantic, b ut t here w as n o s ettlement i n t his l atter p eriod.

T he r adio-carbon d ates, h owever, w hich a re q uoted a bove t end t o a rgue f or o ccupation o nly i n t he p re-Borea1. 66 T he a rtefacts, l ike t hose a t S tar C arr d isplayed , w ith t he t ypical M aglemosian s tone t ools, a l arge p ercentage o f b one a nd a ntler o bjects. 67 T here w ere s ome p reserved h azel nuts i n s ite 1 11. 68 A s t he c limate w as p robably s till t oo c old f or widespread h azel g rowth t hese m ay h ave c ome f rom a s mall s heltered s pot i n t he g eneral a rea.

C arr.

6 9

T he f aunal e vidence d isplays a g eneral s imilarity t o S tar T he m ajor a nimal p resent w as r ed d eer b ut n o a ctual c arcass

e stimates a re g iven .

7 0

I n v iew o f t he f ragmentary n ature o f t he b ones

o ne i s t empted t o t hink t hat t he a nimals w ere b utchered e lsewhere. O ther m ajor m eat a nimals w ere e lk, r oe d eer, a urochs a nd p ig. T here w ere a lso r emains o f d og, w olf, c at, m arten, b adger, r abbit a nd a ssorted r odents. 7 1 A s a t S tar C arr m any o f t hese r emains m ay n ot h ave r esulted f rom human a ctivity. T hatcham o ffers u s a l ittle m ore t han S tar C arr o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic c onditions o f t he M aglemosian d eer h unters. U nlike S tar C arr t he c omplex o f s ites a t T hatcham d emonstrate t hat i t w as a 8 3 .

f avoured a nd l ong-term s topping p lace. T he s mall c hannel w hich may h ave b een a f ish t rap w ould, i f k ept c lear, h ave e nhanced t he v alue o f t he s ite o ver a g oodly p eriod. A lthough t he p arallels a re n ot e xact, o ne i s r eminded o f t he e xtensive e el t raps b uilt b y A ustralian A borigines i n t he W estern D istrict o f V ictoria i n A ustralia .7 2 O f i nterest a lso i s t hat t his g roup o f A borigines h ad a h eadman w ho h ad c entral a uthority, 73 a nd, i f t he p arallel w ith s ome o ther A ustralian g roups i s c orrect,

7 4

t his w as a h ereditary r ole.

A nother f eature a t T hatcham w as w hich i n t he p re-Boreal

t he p roximity o f a h azel g rove

p eriod w as p robably q uite v aluable b ecause t he

c ooler w eather c onditions w ould h ave l imited t he n umber o f h azel t rees. C oupled w ith t hese b enefits t here w as t he p resence o f a r ed d eer h erd a s t he p rincipal m eat s ource. A ll o f t hese f eatures p oint v ery c learly t o t he e xistence o f aw ell e stablished t erritory o wned b y t he s ite's r ed d eer h unters. W e h ave a lready d iscussed i n s ome d etail t he hypot hetical e xistence o f t erritoriality a nd t he h ereditary c ontrol o f r esources i n t he s ocieties o f t he r ed d eer h unters a nd t here i s n o n eed t o r epeat i t. T he s ite o f T hatcham w ith i ts a rchaeological d etails d efinately r einforces t his i nterpretation a nd a dds t he s ignificant f eature o f a c entral t erritorial c amp a s t he f ocus f or a f ixed d omain. T he s parsely p reserved s i4e a t D eepcar i n Y orkshire w as a lso s ituated n ear a l ake o r a s wamp. T heT h et ool i ndustry was w ell r epresented a nd i s o f M aglemosian t ype.

7 6

T here w ere n o

t races o f

b one o r p lant m aterial, b ut t he s ite's l ocation s uggests t he s ame e conomic b ase a s a t S tar C arr a nd T hatcham. T he m ajor p oint o f i nterest i s t he e vidence o f a s mall h ut w hich a ppears t o h ave b een 7 T he o utline w as d elineated b y e rected o ver a s mall s cooped h ollow . 7 s emi-circles o f s tones. I n t he h ut b oundaries w ere t hree p ossible h earths w ith s catters o f t ools a nd f lint d ebris a bout t hem -the h earths w ere a ssumed t o h ave e xisted b ecause t here w ere

t hree r ela-

t ively h ard a reas, n o c harcoal w as f ound. 7 8 L ittle e lse c an b e s aid o f t he s ite b ecause o f t he l ack o f o rganic r emains. I ts m ajor i nterest t o u s i s t he n umber o f h earths w hich, l ike S tar C arr, s uggest t hat t he s ize o f t he h unter b ands w as a bout t hree f amily g roups o r p erhaps 1 5 p eople. T his p opulation e stimate a grees w ell w ith m odern p arallels d iscussed i n c hapter 2 . D eepcar m ay n ot h ave s een r egular v isits. T he e xcavator n otes t hat w hen t he s ite w as e xcavated i n A pril a nd M ay t he w inds w ere b itterly c old. T his s uggests t hat i f a ny o ccupation w as a ttempted i n p rehistory t hen a s helter o r w indbreak w ould b e v ery n ecessary .

7 9

A nother s ite w ith t he r emains o f as tructure i s D ownton W iltshire.

8°

T he o ccupation i s n ot

i n

s ecurely d ated b ut p arallels w ith

t he s ite o f O akhanger d iscussed b elow) l ed t he e xcavator t o s uggest l ate f ifth m illennium . 81 L ittle o r n othing i s k nown a bout t he e conomy o f t he s ite. T he h igh q uantity o f f lint f lakes a nd d ebris s uggest a n 2 T he p opulation o f t he b and w ho p roduced t he t ools i ndustrial s ite. 8 s eems t o h ave c onsisted o f b etween 2 a nd 3 f amily g roups. T his a ssessment i s b ased u pon t he e xistence o f t wo d istinct g roups o f s take h oles, f our c ooking p its, a nd a l argish l ens o f c harcoal. 8 3 T he t wo

s ets o f s take h oles a re a bout f ive f eet a part s o i t i s p ossible

t hat

t here w ere t wo s eparate s helters o n t he s ite, a nd t herefore t wo f amily g roups. T wo o f t he c ooking p its a re v ery c lose t ogether, u nder a f oot, b ut t he o ther t wo a re w ide a part -6 f eet, a nd a way f rom t he g roup o f t wo.

8 4

O verall t he e vidence,

t herefore, p oints 8 4.

t o a s mall b and o f

p erhaps 1 0 t o 1 2 p eople m oving t hrough t heir t erritory, w ho c amped f or ab rief p eriod t o r enew t heir t ool k it. O akhanger i n H ampshire i s a l ate M esolithic s ite w hich h as s ome f eatures q uite p ertinent t o t his i nquiry. T he a rea w hich h as b een e xcavated i s i n a t ract o f l and c alled t he W arren s ome 5 00 y ards f rom O akhanger F arm . T wo e xcavations w ere u ndertaken, t he f irst w as i n 1 950 b 6 5 a nd t he s econd i n 1 958. 86 R adiocarbon d ates t he s ite a t 6 300 -120 B P ( c.4350 B C u ncal.) which c onforms w ith t he g eneral T he s ite's m ain f eature i s t he i ndications o f t he p ollen a nalysis. 87 v ast q uantity o f f lint t ools a nd d ebris w hich i s t ypological t ypical o f t he l ater M esolithic.

8 8

T he s ocial a nd e conomic e vidence, w hilst

n ot a s v ast, d oes c ertainly p rovide s ome i nteresting d etails. A s w ith o ther s ites d iscussed t here i s e vidence o f p erhaps 2 o r 3 f amily g roups i n t he b and w ho o ccupied t he a rea. S 1K h earths h ave b een l ocated w ith s urrounding c oncentrations o f f lints."' T hese a re d ivided i nto t wo s ets o f t hree, a nd w ithin t hese s ets t he h earths a re q uite c lose t ogether, p erhaps 2 o r 3 f eet a part. T wo f amilies s pending a s hort p eriod a t t he s ite ,

o r r eturning e very f ew w eeks c ould p roduce s uch a

p attern. T here w ere a w ide r ange o f r esources a vailable t o t hese p eople, a mong w hich w er2 t he w ild-fowl o n t he n umerous s mall l akes a nd p onds t hat w ere n earby. 1° T he l arge n umber o f s crapers a ttest t o t he nd t herefore, a lthough n o f aunal e vidence i s p rocessing o f h ides 91 a n oted,

t he u sual h eavy r eliance o n r ed d eer. P erhaps t he m ost v ital e vidence c omes f rom t he p ollen a nalysis.

T he o verall p icture p resented b y t he a nalysis s hows t hat t he e nvironm ent a round O akhanger i n t he f ifth m illennium w as a m ixed o ak f orest. T rees p resent w ere o ak, e lder, p ine, b eech, l ime a nd a lder. N otably t here w ere g ood c oncentrations o f h azel, h eather, v arious g rasses a nd f erns w hich d emonstrate o pen f orest c over. 92 T here w as, h owever, a c oncentrated a mount o f i vy p ollen w hich D imbleby n otes i s u nusual i n t hese c onditions. 93 S ubsequent a nalysis a nd c omparison w ith E uropean s ites s uggests t hat t he i vy w as d eliberately b rought t o t he s ite a s a nimal f odder. 94 T he p ollen p resent a t O akhanger a llows u s t o s tate t hat t he i vy w as b rought t o t he s ite i n l ate a utumn, b etween S eptember a nd November w hen i t f lowers, a nd a p eriod w hen a nimal f odder i s b ecoming s carce. 95 T his i nformation h as l ed t o s peculation t hat O akhanger p resents e vidence o f M esolithic a nimal h usbandry w hich m ight n ot b e wique, a s D imbleby n otes o ther s uch c oncentrations o f i vy p ollen . S o f ar i n t his c hapter w e h ave l ooked o nly a t t he r elationship o f m an a nd r ed d eer a s s pecifically p redatory, b ased o n t he h unting b ands p ossessing a t erritory i n w hich t hey h unt t he r ed d eer h erd a s a f ixed r esource o f t hat t erritory. T he p ossibility o f s ome f orm o f r ed d eer h usbandry a dds a n ew d imension t o t he d iscussion. I f t he l ater M esolithic h unters w ere f eeding t he d eer i n l ean s easons t hen w e h ave a s trengthening o f t he i dea o f i nherited i ndividual o wnership. I n m odern p astoral s ocieties, w ithout e xception, a lthough t he a nimals m ay b e 9 7 c ommunally h erded a nd g razed t hey r emain t he p roperty o f i ndividuals. I f t he d eer w ere b eing f ed t hen t his r epresents a n e xample o f t he d uties t hat a ccompany t he " office" o f a l eader i n a m odern h unterg atherer b and -protection a nd m anagement o f t he v ital r esources. I t f ollows t hat i f t his w as t he c ase t hen t he r ed d eer h ave b ecome t ransf ormed f rom a r esource " managed" i n t he u sually r ather l oose f ashion o f m odern h unter-gatherers t o a m ore c ontrolled r esource t hat i s t ightly 8 5.

t ied t o t heir h ereditary t erritorial " owners".

T his p articular

c ondition i s b ut a s hort s tep f rom t he c urrent o wnership o f d omestic a nimals. I t i s w orth n oting a t t his p oint J arman's d escription o f " wild" d eer w hich a re i n r eality d omestic i n a ll b ut n ame. 8 S omewhat l ess s pecific s upport f or t his i dea o f i ncreased d eer m anagement c omes f rom t he s teadily r ising r ate o f f orest c learance i n t he M esolithic. T he o pening o f t he f orest i s c harted i n t he i ncreases o f h azel p ollen a nd t he i ncrease i n g rasses, 99 t he l atter i s, o f c ourse, b eneficial f or h erbivores, a nd s hould h ave i ncreased r ed d eer n umbers. F or s ome y ears i t h as b ecome g enerally a ccepted t hat t his c learance w as a p roduct o f h uman a ction, p erhaps b y burning a t r egular i ntervals, 1 00 ( an i ncidental e ffect i s t he i ncrease i n h azel n uts). F orest c learance o f t his igt i s w ell a ttested i n e thnographic r ecords a s M ellars h as d escribed, a nd t he g rowth o f n ew g rass i s r apid e nough t o q uickly a ttract a nimals. H ow e xtensive t he p rocess w as i n V I

p rehistory i s s till n ot p roven a nd w e c annot i gnore n atural c auses s uch N evertheless t here a s l ightning s trikes o r " escaping" c amp f ires. 102 i s m arked d eforestation a nd o ne o f i ts e ffects w as t o

i ncrease t he

a mount o f g razing f or d eer a nd t his r esult i s c learly n o h indrance t o m y a rgument. F ire s etting i s m ost d efinitely a f orm o f r esource m anagement.

s urvey .

T he D anish s ite o f S vaerdborg i n Z ealand i s o f i nterest i n t his S vaerdborg i s, l ike T hatcham , n ow a s wamp but i n t he M agle-

m osian i t w as a s mall p eninsula i n a l ake.' "

T he s ite i s a ctually a

c omplex o f s ettlement f loors a nd h as b een i nxestigated m any t imes s ince 1 917 w hen S vaerdborg I w as f irst e xcavated . 1 u4 S vaerdborg I c onsists o f a pproximately 1 0 h uts s pread, i n t he t emporal s ense, o ver t he l ater p hases o f t he M aglemosian. S vaerdborg I I i s t he s ite o f o ne hut a nd S vaerdborg I II a lso a ppears t o b e a s ingle h ut. 1 05 T he d imensions o f t he g roup o f s ites a re r ather v ague b ut i t a ppears t o b e 4 00 m etres l ong b y a bout 3 00 m etres w ide. 1 00 O verall i t w ould s eem t hat S vaerdb org w as v isited s everal t imes b y a s mall b and w ho h ad n o p articular p referred c amp s ite. T here w ere n o a ctual h ut r emains a nd t heir 1 07 e xistence h as b een p resumed f rom g roups o f d ense f lint s catters. T he f aunal r emains a re q uite w ell p reserved a nd i ncludes p ike w hich d emonstrates u se o f t he l acustrine r esources 1 08 -something w hich w as n ot e vident a t S tar C arr o r T hatcham . T he l arger a nimals w ere p ig, r oe d eer, r ed d eer, e lk a nd a urochs, a nd t here was t he u sual r ange o f s maller a nimals, b eaver, m arten, b adger a nd o tter. 1°9 A ctual c arcass n umbers w ere n ot e stimated o wing t o t he f ragmentary n ature o f t he b ones, b ut i t i s s uggested t hat r ed d eer w ere t he major a nimal. 1 10 P ollen a nalysis i ndicates t hat a t t he t ime o f s ettlement a m ixed o ak f orest w as s preading t o r eplace t he b irch a nd p ine o f t he p reB oreal. T here w as a lso a n i ncrease i n t he h azel s pectra, a lthough t his i s s till f airly l ow . O ther t rees p resent w ere e lm, l inden, a sh, w illow, a spen a nd j uniper. 1 11 A ll o f w hich s hows a w armer c limate i n e xistence. E xcluding t he w armer c limate t here a re c onsiderable p arallels w ith T hatcham . T here i s t he s ame l ong-term u se o f t he s ite a nd t he s ame m ultiplicity o f l iving f loors. T he s tone i ndustry i s t ypical M aglemosian, a s a re t he a ntler a nd b one a rtefacts. 1 12 T he u se o f a l ake-side s etting w ith i ts m ultiplicity o f r esources i s a bsolutely t ypical o f t he p eriod.

T he r ise i n h azel p ollen i ndicates t hat t his 8 6.

f ood r esource w as a vailable, a nd h azel-nuts a nd y ellow w ater-lily s eed 13 S vaerdborg w as a a re r eported f rom s ome o f t he o ccupation f loors. I 14 a nd a s t he r ed-deer c ount i s l ow i t i s p robable t hat t he s ummer s ite 1 p eople o f t his b and w ere m aking u se o f o ther r esources. T he a spect o f

s easonal u se o f r esources i n t he M esolithic i s d iscussed b y P rice, w ho s hows t hat t here i s a d ecline i n r ed d eer u se i n s ummer a nd a r ise i n w inter w hen o ther r esources a re l ow . 1 15 O verall, h owever, r ed d eer c onstitute t he s ingle m ost i mportant s pecies. T he v iew o f s ociety w hich c an b e d erived f rom S vaerdborg o ffers n o c ontrasts w ith t he E nglish s ites. A s mall b and, p erhaps 3 o r 4 f amily g roups, r eturned c ontinually t o a f avoured s ite. T here w as p robably a h erd o f r ed d eer w hich e xisted i n t he v icinity o f t he c amp. O ther a vailable r esources w ere e xcellent, a nd t he i ncreasing s pectra o f h azel p ollen d emonstrates b oth t he p resence o f a p opular f ood, a nd p erhaps a n i ncrease i n o pen a reas o f g rass w here d eer m ay f eed. T his m ight h ave r esulted f rom d eliberate c learance b ut w e h ave n o s pecific e vidence a t t he s ite t o s upport s uch a c onclusion. I t i s s afe t o e xpect t hat S vaerdborg w as a p robable f ocus f or a t erritory, t hrough w hich t he b and m oved. T his s uggestion o f t erritoriality a rgues, a s f or T hatcham, o f h ereditary c ontrol b y t he b and a nd d erived f rom t he s pecific a uthority o f t he s enior m ember a s Ih ave a rgued i n p revious c ircumstances. I n t he l ate M esolithic a b and o f r ed d eer h unters e stablished a s ettlement a t L epenski V ir i n Y ugoslavia . T he s ite i s s ituated o n a s helf o f r ock o n t he r ight b ank o f t he D anube r iver a t t he f oot o f t he s teep K or k h ills, a nd o nly 2 0 o r s o k ilometres d ownstream f rom t he N eolithic s ites o f S tartevo a nd V inta. T here a re f our m ain c ultural s trata. T he f irst i s p roto-Lepenski V ir w hich a ppears t o h ave b een a b rief l asting h unting c amp. T he n ext t wo p hases, L epenski V ir I a nd I a re d efinately M esolithic a nd t he f inal p hase i s L epenski V ir I II I w hich i s N eolithic with a ffinities t o t he S tarCevo c ulture. 1 16 T he M esolithic s trata o f p hase I a re d ivided i nto f ive s eparate s ub-phases w hich a re n umbered a t o e . P hase I I h as n o s ub-phases. 1 17 R adiocarbon d ates a re a vailable f or t he M esolithic l evels a nd t hese s how a p eriod o f o ccupation s panning a pproximately 8 00 y ears b eginning a round 5 400 B C ( uncal.). 1 18 T he p eriod o f M esolithic o ccupation i s a l ittle a nachron istic f or, i n t he B alkans, a t t his t ime f arming c ommunities a re w ell e stablished. A lexander h as s uggested t hat L epenski V ir m ay n ot b e a M esolithic c ommunity a s s uch, b ut a s pecialised s easonal h unting f ishing c amp o f t he f arming c ommunities. 1 19 N evertheless p hases I a nd I s how n o t races o f d omesi f i f arm a nimals, b ut o nly s izeable c oncenI t rations o f d eer a nd f ish. L epenski V ir i s u sually d iscussed i n t erms o f t he r ather s trange r ock s culptures o f f ish-like b eings, w hich a re t he f irst l arge f ree-standing s culptures i n E urope. 1 21 I ts i nterest t o u s, h owever, t he s ize a nd o rganisation o f t he s ettlement.

i s

T he M esolithic p eople l ived i n n eatly p lanned t rapezoidal h uts w ith f airly c onsistent l ength t o w idth r atios. 1 22 A ll t he h uts w ere t ent-like i n s hape w ith t heir walls s et i nto r ows o f s tones f or f oundations,

a nd w ere f loored w ith a W mitive c ement m ixture i nto

w hich t he h earth s tones w ere p re-set.' 3 S ettlement w as q uite d ense a ccording t o S rejovi5, p rincipally d ue t o t he r estricted g round s urface , b ut t he h uts w ere e venly s paced . P hase I a h as t he r emains o f 2 2 h uts, 8 7.

t he c entre o f w hich i s a l arger h ut. w ith a c entral h ut o f l arger s ize. a ddition t o

1 24

1 25

t he c entral l arger h ut o f

a nother l arge h ut.

1 26

P hase I b h as 2 6 h uts,

a gain

P hase I c h as 2 6 h uts b ut, t he p receeding p hases,

i n

t here i s

P hase I d i s s omewhat s maller t han e arlier

p hases a nd t here a ppears t o b e a d ivision o f t he s ite. T he o riginal l arger h ut o f t he f irst t hree p hases h as g one a nd, i nstead , t here i s a s mall g roup o f h uts a round t he s econd l arge h ut w hich f irst a ppeared i n p hase I c o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he s ettlement. A n ew l arge h ut h as a ppeared w hich i s t he f ocus f or a g roup o f h uts o n t he n orthern 27 P hase I e h as 2 3 h uts w hich a re s ide. O verall t here a re 2 0 h uts. 1 g rouped a round a n ew l arge h ut w hich i s p laced i n t he l arge e mpty s pace b etween t he s eparate d ivisions o f p hase I d . 1 28 P hase I I i s i mperfectly

p reserved a s m uch o f i ts h ut f oundations w ere d estroyed i n t he b uilding o f p hase I II. T here w ere b etween 3 0 a nd 4 3 h uts w hich s eem t o h ave b een l aid o ut s imilarly t o p hase I e. 1 29 T he n umber o f h uts i n e ach p hase a t L epenski V ir c reates a p roblem i f w e a re t o r egard t he s ite a s M esolithic. A ll t he f aunal e vidence p oints t o a M esolithic e conomy 1 3 ° -there a re n o d omestic t ypes o f a nimals -b ut t he p opulation f igures s eem t oo h igh. e ach p hase a t 2 0 h uts,

I f w e a verage

t hen t his i s 2 0 f amily u nits which m eans b etween

xcavator's i nterpretation i s t hat t here w as 8 0 a nd 1 00 p eople. T he 31e 1 c ontinuous s ettlement, b ut t his d oes n ot f it w ith t he d ynamics o f h unter-gatherer e conomics w hich a re d iscussed i n c hapter 2 . T here a re r egions w hich s upported v ery l arge h unter-gatherer c ommunities a s c ontinuous s ettlements, i n p articular t he A merican n orth-west, 132 b ut t hese a re r egions o f i mmense a nd v aried n atural r esources.

I t i s n oted

t hat a t L epenski V ir c arp w ere a m ajor f o9d s ource, 1 33 a nd t hey d o h ave T here d oes n ot, h owever, a l arge p resence i n t he f aunal r emains. 114 s eem t o b e e nough t o f eed

1 0 p eople l et a lone

1 00.

A lso t here a re

q uantities o f r ed d eer, b ut s till n ot e nough f or s uch a l arge p opulat ion. T he q uantities a re l ess t han t wice t hose f or S tar C arr ( see a bove). P ollen a nalysis i s o f l ittle h elp. I t s hows a t ypical p reB oreal t o B oreal t ransition o f b irch f orest d eveloping i nto a m ixed o ak f orest. T here a re n o i ndications o f l arge a ccumulations o f p articular e dible p lants 1 35 a nd n o c aches o f n uts o r f ood s torage p its. I s uspect t hat L epenski V ir w as a n a nnual g athering p lace o f r eligious o r c ultural s ignficance. T he p resence o f t he f ish s culptures c ould i ndicate a c ult g athering r elated t o f ishing -the s ite, a fter a ll, i s o n t he b anks o f a r iver. S ome s upport i s g iven t o t his i dea b y t he b ehaviour o f c arp d uring t heir m ating s eason. D uring t his t ime t he c arp f loat f or l ong p eriods m otionless n ear t he s urface, a nd t he l ong s tone b locks w ith i ncised d esigns 1 36 c ould h ave b een u sed t o c lub t hem , a s s uggested b y T ringham . 1 37 O ther e vidence o f f ishing i s p resented b y t he s mall w aisted s tones w hich m ay h ave b een n et w eights. 1 3ö Even i f t here w as n o c ult s ignificance t he a nnual c oncentration o f e asy-toc atch c arp c ould h ave s erved a s a r eason f or a l arge g athering o f p eople a t t he s ite. I f L epenski V ir w as t he s ite o f a n a nnual r eligious o r f easting g athering f or a n ormally d ispersed p opulation o f h unters, t he number o f h uts r epresented a t t he s ite w ould, t herefore, r epresent t he a ccumulat ion o f m any p eriods o f s ettlement r ather t han t he s ix i dentified b y S rejoviC i n p hases I a nd I I. P erhaps t here w ere o nly 4 o r 5f amily g roups w hose r evisits o ver a l ong p eriod c reated t he i llusion o f a c oncentrated s ettlement. T he l arger h uts t hat a re p resent i n e ach p hase c ould b e c ult c entres, o r t hey c ould b e t he r esidence o f t he 8. 8

s enior f amily.

I f t he l atter i s c orrect

t hen w e s ee a s ociety o n t he

v erge o f m oving f rom t he l oosely e galitarian t ype o f h unter-gatherer l eadership t o o ne i n w hich h ereditary r ights o r l eadership s kills a re r ewarded b y s pecial d istinction a nd s tatus. I t i s n oteworthy, a s A lexander h as s uggested, t hat L epenski V ir i s a n i sland o f M esolithic e conomy i n a r egion o f N eolithic f armers a nd t raders. 139 I n a ddition L epenski V ir, a s i t i s p resented b y S rejoviC, i s u nique i n t he M esolithic o f t he B alkans. T here a re n o o ther s ites w ith s uch a c oncentration o f d wellings o r p opulation. 1 4 ° A s imilar c ollection o f s ubstantial h uts a nd e vidence o f s easonal p opulation r ises i s t o b e f ound n ear P ortland i n s outhwestern V ictoria, A ustralia . E thnographic r eferences a re v ery c lear a nd t hey i ndicate t hat t hese v illages w ere o ccupied s easonally. 1 41 T he m ajor s easonal r esources w ere f ish a nd e els w hich w ere c aught i n a s eries o f 42 R esources w ere r ich e nough t o s upport m an-made w eirs a nd t raps. 1 b etween 4 00 t o 1 000 i ndividuals. 1 43 T hese A boriginal s ites w ith t heir s trong e vidence o f s easonal p opulation g atherings o ffer f irm s upport

t o a r einterpretation o f t he f unction o f L epenski V ir. T he p arallels a re marked -seasonal r iverine r esources, s ubstantial h uts a nd h igh p opulations.

C learly L epenski V ir i s m ost l ikely e ither,

a s easonal

g athering s ite f or a l arge n ormally d ispersed p opulation, o r a s ite o f a r egular r evisit b y a s mall g roup. I t s eems u nlikely t hat a p ermanent p opulation o f o ver 1 00 p eople c ould b e s upported b y a h unter-gatherer e conomy b ased o n t he r esources a vailable i n t he s ite's e conomic c atchment a rea. T he r ange o f t he r ed d eer e conomy i s d emonstrated b y t he s ite o f F ranchthi C ave i n G reece, i n t he A rgolid. U nfortunately t he s ite i s o f l ittle v alue i n t he d iscussion o f s ocial s tratification. B riefly, h owever, t he m ain m eat s ource w as r ed d eer, w ith s ome m inor u se o f p igs. 1 4 ' U nlike t he n orthern M esolithic e conomies t he p rincipal n uts g athered i n t he s urrounding c ountryside w ere p istachio a nd a lmond a lmonds w ere p articularly p lentiful. 1 45 T he e nvironment w as a n o pen o ak p istachio f orest. 1 46 M esolithic o ccupation i s e stimated t o h ave 47 P opulation e stimates a re l asted u ntil t he e arly f ifth m illennium . 1 n ot p ossible i n v iew o f t he l ack o f h earths. O ne m ight s uppose, h owever, t hat b and s ize w as s imilar t o o ther s ites i n M esolithic E urope.

5 .4

P lant R esources a nd H uman P opulation

T he c oncentration, i n t his c hapter, o n t he h unting a spect o f t he e conomy h as t ended t o i gnore t he p lant c omponent o f t he M esolithic d iet. W here m ention o f t he f lora h as b een m ade i t h as b een a s t he m eans t o r econstruct t he h unting e nvironment r ather t han t o e xamine t he v eget able r esources. T hese, u nfortunately, a re o f l ittle u se i n t he 1 48 r econstruction o f t erritories a s, u nlike t he ! Kung's e nvironment, t he m ajor E uropean f ood p lants t end t o b e b oth p rolific a nd w idespread. I t i s n ow g enerally a ccepted t hat t here w as a s easonal c ycle i n t he M esolithic. P art o f t he s easonal r ound w as s pent, a s Iw ill d iscuss p resently, i n h arvesting l ittoral r esources a nd f ishing. w ould b e s pent g athering f ruit, n uts a nd e dible p lants.

O ther t imes T he s easonal

c hanges w ould p rovide d ietary c hanges, a nd s ome r espite f or t he d eer h erds, p reventing o ver-hunting. P rice's s tudy o f t he D utch M esolithic s hows t hat h unting p eaks i n w inter, w hen o ther r esources a re e xtremely s carce, a nd d eclines i n s ummer a s p lants, a nd f ish, a ssume m ore 8 9.

i mportance i n t he d iet.

1 49

D espite t he f act t hat t he d etails o f v egetation, t hat a re a vailable, l ack t he s pecific n ature n ecessary f or e xtrapolation i nto s ignificant d etails o f t erritorial e xtent,

t heir n ature i s w orth

c onsidering. T his i s t o a void t he o veremphasis o n m eat, a nd t o a ffirm t he p robable s mallness o f M esolithic t erritories. T he s ites o f t he B oreal p hase d emonstrate t hat t he p lant r esources w ere a bundant. A t L epenski V ir p ollen a nalysis s hows c herry,

a pple, h azel,

t hat h ackberry, w alnut, p lum,

p ear,

j uniper a nd o thers w ere, a nd s till a re p resent.

I n a ddition t here w ere q uantities o f t ubers, r oots a nd v arious h erbac eous p lants. 1 50 T his s ummary o f t he i mmediate r esources c ould p robably a pply t o m uch o f E urope. A t t he F ranchthi C ave t here were w alnuts a nd p istachio. 1 51 I n B ritain d etailed a nalyses s how t he p resence o f h azelnuts, h awthorn, p lum, b lackberry, p lantain, a nd wide v arieties o f e dible r oots a nd t ubers a s w ell, w e m ight p resume, m any e dible p lants n ot s pecifically f ound i n t he t ests 1 52 s uch a s t hose f ound a t L epenski V ir. T he v egetable c omponent o f t he d iet i s o f g reat d iversity a nd o f o bvious s ubsistence v alue. T his g reat d iversity o f r esources a vailable within t he n atural t erritories o f t he r ed d eer a cted t o r estrict t he h uman t erritorial s izes, b y o ffering a lternate f oods i n d ifferent s easons. A p rime c onsideration i n h uman d iets, a s w e h ave s een i n c hapter 3 , i s v ariety i n t aste. T he b and m ight b e g etting a ll t he nutrition i t n eeds f rom a l imited a nd r igorous d iet o f f resh m eat, o r n uts, b ut f resh f ruits a nd b erries m ake t he d iet m ore i nteresting a nd p leasant. T his c oncentrat ion m ay a lso h ave a llowed g reater p opulation d ensity a s i s s uggested b y t he i ncrease i n t he n umber o f s ites w hen c ompared w ith t he U pper P alaeolithic -b ut t his m ay b e i llusory. M eiklejohn h as p roposed t hat t he M esolithic w as a p eriod o f human p opulations d ispersing i nto s mall b ands i nstead o f m aintaining t he l arger g roups o f t he U pper P alaeol ithic. 1 53 S upport c an b e g iven t o t his i dea b y t he p opulation e stimates f or t he s ites d iscussed i n t his c hapter w hich t end t o h over a round 2 t o 3 f amily g roups. m odern h unter-gatherer b ands. c hapter 4 ,

T his f igure i s s lightly l ess t han i n N evertheless, a s Ih ave a rgued i n

I f eel t hat t he p erceived h igher b and p opulations o f

t he

U pper P alaeolithic a re a r esult o f s easonal a ggregations a nd b iases i n t he p reservation o f a nimal r emains. F urthermore I f ind i t h ard t o a ccept t hat t he i ncreased r esources o f t he M esolithic would h ave l ed o nly t o b and d ispersal a nd n ot i nclude s teady i ncreases i n b oth p opulation s ize a nd d ensity. T he e conomic r esources a rgue f or a d ecrease i n t erritorial s izes a nd t herefore g reater s cope f or n ew b ands t o b e c reated i n t he m anner o f m odern h unter-gatherers d iscussed i n c hapter 2 . A n o dd p oint i s t hat M esolithic c ave p aintings o f h unting s cenes s how m ore h unters t han m ight b e a vailable t o ab and o f 2 o r 3 f amilies. T hese g roups m ight o nly m uster 3 o r 4 m ale h unters, i f m odern p arallels a re u sed, y et t he s cene o n t he r ock s helter o f G assul e i n S pain h as p erhaps 7 o r 8h unters a ttacking a h erd o f p igs. I t i s q uite o dd -p erhaps i t i s a s cene d epicting a ctivity a t a s easonal g athering. I t i s q uite f rustrating t hat,

d espite t he p roven q uantity,

q uality a nd v ariety o f v egetable f oods a vailable i n t he M esolithic, t here i s l ittle t hat c an b e a dded t o o ur u nderstanding o f s ocial b ehaviour. I t i s n ot u nreasonable t o e xpect t hat s ome o f t hese r esources c ould h ave f ormed t he b asis f or s pecific c laims o f 9 0.

t erritoriality a nd h ereditary c ontrol, b ut t heir a pparent a bundance t ends t o h ide a ny l ocal s pecialities. A n e xample i s t he h azel. T he h azelnut w as a p opular f ood s ource y et, a s t he p ollen a nalyses s how, i t s eems t o h ave m ultiplied t o s uch a n e xtent t hat t here w as p robably a g lut o f h azelnuts. L ittle m ore c an b e s aid a bout t he s ocial a ffects o f p lant r esources a nd w e w ill n ow e xamine t he s pecialised l ittoral s ites. 5 .5

C oastal a nd M arine E conomies

I t i s n ow g enerally a ccepted t hat t he c reation o f c ultural e ntities t o e xplain t he c oastal a nd m idden s ites a s s eparate e conomies w as m istaken. T he L arnian o f I reland o r t he O banian o f S cotland d o n ot r epresent s eparate p eoples, b ut i nstead s easonally s pecialised i ndustries a nd a ctivities c arried o ut b y p eople a s p art o f a n e conomy w hich e ncompassed h unting a nd f ood g athering. S trandlooping i s c ons idered t o b e a p roduct o f c hanges i n t he e nvironment i n t he l ater M esolithic p eriod w hen a c ombination o f s ea-level r ises a nd i ncreased f orest i mposed t he n eed f or r eater e xploitation o f a vailable r esources u pon t he h unting p opulation.' 55 C ertainly t here i s am assive i ncrease i n c oastal s ites a fter t he e nd o f t he l ast m arine t ransgression, 1 56 b ut a s a ny o lder c oastal s ites w ould n ow b e q uite s ecurely f looded w e c annot m ake a ny f irm p ronouncements. I t i s w orth r emembering t hat t here w as s hellfish e xploitation a t T erra A mata, w hich w as d iscussed i n c hapter 4 . T he l ittoral e conomies c an b e s een t o p ossess t wo d istinct c omponents -shellfish g athering a nd f ishing. T he r ole o f s hellfish i n t he d iet h as t ended t o b e o veremphasised a s a r esult o f t he s heer v olume o f s hell m iddens, w hich a s B ailey h as n oted a re m ore a n i ndicat ion o f t he p oor f ood v alue o f s hellfish r ather t han t heir o verwhelming p opularity . 1 )7 H e h as c larified t he r elative d ietary v alues b y n oting t hat t he m olluscan e quivalent o f a r ed d eer c arcass i s 3 1,360 l impets, o r 5 2,267 o ysters, o r

1 56,800 c ockles.

T he d aily k ilocalorie r equire-

m ent o f o ne p erson w ould b e m et, i f n o o ther f ood w as e aten, b y 4 00 l impets, o r 7 00 o ysters, o r 1 400 c ockles. 1 58 A s ingle c od, o r s almon c ould m eet t hese r equirements a nd b e c onsumed i n c onsiderably l ess t ime. T wo A ustralian e xamples a re p ertinent. M eehan h as s hown t hat i n t ropical a reas w ith e xtensive p rehistoric s hell m iddens t he r elative a nnual c ontribution o f s hellfish t o t he e ntire d iet r anged b etween 5 % t o 2 0%. In T asmania v arious e xcavations h ave s hown s easonal e xploitation o f s hellfish, e specially i n l ean t imes. 1 60 O f i mportance a lso i s t hat s hell m iddens o ften c ontain e vidence o f n on-littoral r esources, w hich s erves t o u nderline t heir e xistence a s p art o f a w ide r esource b ased t erritory.

W e w ill n ow e xamine a f ew o f t hese s ites.

A t C ulver W ell i n D orset e xcavations r evealed a l arge s hell m idden, a f loor o f l imestone s labs o n p art o f t he m idden, a c ooking p it, h earth a nd a v ariety o f m icroliths a nd t ools s uitable f or p rocess ing o f s hellfish. R adiocarbon d ates l ie a round 5 200 B C. 1 61 T here w ere t hree p hases i n t he M esolithic o ccupation. P hase I w as u pon t he n atural s ubsoil o f y ellow c lay c ontemporary w ith t he b eginning o f t he m idden, a nd t here w as a s ingle p ost h ole a ssociated w ith t his l evel. P hase 2 p ossessed a l arge s tone f loor l aid u pon t he t hickest p art o f t he midden. P hase a lso h ad a s tone f loor p art o f w hich l ay u pon t he f loor o f p hase 2 . 1 6 T he d eliberately c onstructed f loors s uggest r egular r evisits i n a s easonal r ound. 9 1.

T he s ite o f W estward H o! i n D evon i s a ssociated w ith a s ubm erged f orest. A r adiocarbon d ate f rom a p eat l ayer a bove t he m idden 63 A ccompanying t i s 6 585 - 1 30 B P. 1 he s hell m aterial, i n w hich m ussels a nd p eriwinkle w ere p resent w ere f aunal r emains. I ncluded w ere r ed d eer, h azelnuts, t o e at,

f allow d eer a nd p ig. 1 64

h awthorn b erries,

P ollen a nalysis s howed t hat

p lums a nd b lackberries were a vailable

a nd t herefore t he s ite w as o ccupied i n l ate s pring. 1 65

S hell m iddens o n t he H ebridean i sland o f O ronsay d emonstrate t he r ange o f m arine r esources t hat w ere c aught. T he s hellfish i ncluded w helk, o yster, l impet, s callop, c ockle a nd p eriwinkle ) " Q uite a v ariety o f f ish w ere i dentified w hich i ncluded w rasse, d ogfish a nd l ing. ( uncal.). 1 68

1 67

s aithe,

R adiocarbon d ates s how o ccupation a round

r ay, 3 500 B C

T he s ite o f M ount S andel o n t he B ann R iver i n N orthern I reland h as e vidence o f t he s easonal e xploitation o f f ish. M ount S andel d ates 69 T here a re w ell p reserved t races f rom 7 ,010 t o 6, 490 B C ( uncal.). 1 o f s everal h uts w hich w ere b uilt a round s mall h ollows. 1 70 T he s tone t ool-kit was p ri marily o f n arrow b lades, w ith a l esser p roportion o f 71 m icroliths. 1 S everal h earths w ere f ound t hat w ere r ich i n h azelnut s hells. 1 72 T he p rincipal a ttraction o f M ount S andel a ppears t o h ave b een f ish a nd p ig. H are w as a lso e aten w hilst r ed d eer b ones w ere s o r are a s t o s uggest t hey w ere o f m inor i mportance i n t he d iet. 1 73 I t i s n oted, h owever, t hat c omparative d ata f rom o ther I rish s ites d isplays e vidence t o i ndicate t hat r ed d eer w ere p robably l ess n umerous i n t he I rish M esolithic. T his m ay h ave r esulted f rom I reland's i solation f rom B ritain o ccurring a t a t ime w hen t he e arly p ost-glacial s tock o f r ed d eer w as l ow , t hus c reating a s mall b reeding s tock. 1 74 A s ite o f c onsiderable i mportance t o t he p rehistory o f S cotland i s M orton i n F ife. T he s ite i s l ocated i n t he T entsmuir d istrict o f F ife o n w ind d eposited s ands o verlooking t he N orth S ea. I n t he M esolithic p eriod M orton w as p robably a s mall i sland c onnected t o t he m ainland b y a s andy s pit. 1 75 T here a re t wo m ain o ccupation a reas s ite A w hich l ies o n t he h ighest p art a nd s ite B w hich m idden o verlaying b each c obbles a nd s hingle. 1 76

i s a l arge

S trong e vidence o f t erritoriality c omes f rom t he a nalysis o f t he s tone m aterial. T he l ithic i ndustry w as e xtensive 1 77 a nd t he s tone w as i mported f rom s ome q uite d istant q uarries. F lint p ebbles m ay h ave c ome f rom S t. M onance w hich i s 2 5 k ilometres t o t he s outh. B lue-grey f lint c ame f rom S t. F ort a nd W ormit w hich a re 7 k ilometres t o t he w est. B rown f lint i s w idely d ispersed i n s mall a mounts. S ome m aterials s uch a s c halcedony, c ommon o pal a nd q uartz c ome f rom t he L ower O ld R ed S andstone L avas, t he n earest o utcrop o f w hich i s 3 t o 5 k ilometres t o t he n orth-west. O ther, m ore m inor m aterials, c ould h ave b een f ound l ocally. T his w idely g arnered s tone s erves t o e mphasise t he m ovements t hrough t he e nvironment i n r esponse t o s easonal c hanges. T he d ates o f o ccupation w ere d erived f rom 1 1 r adiocarbon c alculations a nd s how t hese t o h ave b een f rom a pproximately 7 000 B C t o 6 100 B C ( uncal.). 1 78 A n umber o f s eparate c amp s ites h ave b een l ocated, b ut n one s how e vidence o f o ccupation b y m ore t han 1 o r 2 f amily g roups. 1 79 S mall s tructures, m ostly w indbreaks, w ere c ommon, b ut o ne i n s ection T 47 m ay 9 2.

h ave b een a hut. 1 8° a s D eepcar, F arnham ,

P arallels a re n oted w ith s tructures a t s ites s uch S elmeston, D ownton a nd e lsewhere. 181

T he r esource t erritory i n w hich M orton l ay i ncluded w ide s elections o f f auna a nd f lora. F aunal r emains a t t he s ite i ncluded r ed d eer, r oe d eer , a urochs a nd p ig .182 B ird b one s w ere c ommon i n t he m idden o f s ite B a nd t he m ajor t ypes e aten w ere g ui llemot,

g annet a nd c ormorant. 1 83 F ish w ere a m ajor s ource o f f ood. T he m ost p opular was 84 C onsiderable n umbers o f s hell f c od a nd h addock. 1 ish w ere e aten i ncluding m ussel, p eriwinkle, l impet a nd w helk. 1 85 T he f loral e vidence w as i nconclusive. S ite A h ad a f ew h azelnuts, b ut t he p ollen a nalysis s hows o nly a w ide r ange o f w eeds s uch a s f at h en, k notgrass, c orn s purrey, c hickweed , i ron r oot, a nd a nnual k nawel. 18 6 C oles n otes t hat t hese p lants w ere f ound i n t he s tomach c ontents o f t he I ron A ge c orpse f rom a b og a t G rau balle i n D enmark, a nd t herefore t hese p lants c ould h ave f ormed p art o f

t he M esolithic d iet.

1 87

S imilar e xamples o f c oastal s ites w ith d iverse r esources a re p resent o n t he c ontinent. T he D anish s ite a t M eilgaard i n e ast J utland h as q uite e xtensive f aunal r emains. T he f igures q uoted a re c alculated a ccording t o am inimum number e stimate. T here w ere oe d eer, 9 r ed d eer, 7 s eals, 3 0 f ish a nd a pproximately 1 1 p igs 2 7 r s ome 1 00,000 o ysters.I 88 O lby L yng i n e astern S jaelland h as s imilar 89 S ome F rench s ites a t T viec a nd H ögdic i n e vidence o f m ixed d iets. 1 inkle, B rittany h ad l arge amounts o f m ussel l w

o yster a nd s callops,

a s

w ell a s r ed d eer, r oe d eer a nd b oar. 1 9° F ranchthi C ave, w hich h as 91 I n f act b een a lready d iscussed h ad l arge q uantities o f f ish b ones. 1 w henever t he s ites o f s hell m iddens a re e xamined t hey r eveal t heir 92 i ntergration i n t he l arger e conomy o f f orest a nd s ea s hore 1

-e cono-

m ies which a re s easonally r ather t han c ulturally d etermined. D espite t his s omewhat a nglo-centric v iew o f t he l ittoral s ites i t i s c lear t hat t hey m ust b e s een a s c omponents o f m ore d iversified t erritorial r esource b ases. T he c oastal s ites a dd l ittle, e xcept t he i dea o f r esource d iversity t o o ur c entral t heme o f t erritorially b ased s ocial h ierarchies. T hey d o n ot, h owever, o ffer a ny e vidence t o t he c ontrary. I n f act i t i s q uite l ikely t hat t he r ed d eer b ased t errit ories t hat h ave b een d iscussed s hould a lso b e s een t o i nclude, b esides p lant r esources, a ccess f or s ome t o l ittoral r esources a s a n i mportant c omponent o f t heir e conomic b ase. I f, a nd i t i s m ost l ikely, t he r ed d eer h erds w ere s ubject t o h ereditary " ownership" t hen t he l ittoral r esources i n t he t erritory m ight a chieve t he s ame s tatus. T here i s n o e vidence t o c larify t he s ituation e ither w ay. M odern e thnographic r ecords a re s ilent. T he d iscussion o f r esource o wnership i n c hapter 2 s hows t hat i t i s i mportant a nd s carce, o r s ingular r esources w hich c reate t he n eed f or m anagement a nd h ence o wnership. S hellfish a re n ot, i n t heir n atural e nvironments, s carce a nd, g iven t he s mall p opulations o f t he M esolithic , t hey m ay n ot h ave b een e xposed t o o ver e xploitation. T his l atter c ondition s uggests t hat h ereditary c ontrol d id n ot e xist i n t he s ame w ay t hat m any o f t he r esources i n m odern h unter-gatherer t erritories a re n ot c ontrolled. 5 .6

M esolithic B urial a nd R eligious C ustoms T he m ost s ocially i nformative a spect o f M esolithic b urial c ustoms

i s, a s C hapman h as n oted, 1 93 t he a ppearance o f f ormal, t erritorial r elated b urial a reas. E xamples o f t hese c emeteries a re f ound i n m any 9 3 .

p arts o f E urope -shell m iddens o f M oita d o S ebIstio, C abe v d e A rmoreira a nd C abeco d a A rruda i n t he T agus e stuary; T eviec a nd Hd edic i n B rittany; V edbaek i n D enmark; Z vejnieki i n L ithuania; M aroula i n t he C yclades a nd t he b urials a t L epenski V ir. I t i s o bvious t hat i f t here a re c oncentrations o f b urials i n s pecific a reas n ear l iving s ites t hen w e a re d ealing w ith a n a spect o f ab and's c oncept o f i ts t erritory, a nd, u ltimately, t he a cceptance o f s tability i n t erritorial o ccupation. W hat, h owever, d o t hese b urials t ell u s o f i nternal s ocial r anking? T he M esolithic c emetery a t V edbaek n orth o f C openhagen i n D enmark w as n ot f ound u ntil 1 975. I t w as, h owever, n ext t o aw ell k nown s ettlement s ite l ocated n ear t he l ocal s ports g round a nd which h ad b een e xcavated s everal t imes s ince 1 924. 1 94 V edbaek Ugebakken h ad e vidence o f a l ate M aglemosian s ettlement -polished a xes, a rrowheads, a nd b one a nd a ntler t ools. 1 95 F aunal r emains d emonstrated t ypical c oastal i ngredients o f s eal, p orpoise, v arious t ypes o f f ish, a s w ell a s r ed a nd r oe d eer. O f s ome i nterest w as a c ouple o f human b ones, o ne o f w hich t hat h ad b een s plit f or m arrow. 1 96 R adiocarbon d ates w ere c .4100 B C ( uncal.), w hich c ompare f avourably w ith t he d ates f rom t he c emetery o f b etween c .4300 B C a nd c .3860 B C ( uncal.) 1 97 t o i ndicate t he p robable c ontemporaniety o f s ettlement a nd g raveyard. 1 9 g raves w ere e xcavated . T hese were s imple, s hallow l t rough s haped h oles, a nd s ome m ay h ave o nce c ontained b ark c offins.' " G rave g oods w ere f ound w ith t en o f t he b urials.

A c ommon f eature w as t he

p resence o f o chre, b ut i ts f unction i s u ncertain. I t c ould p erhaps b e a n i ndication o f t he o ft q uoted r itual o f r estoring t he b loom o f l ife a lthough t his h as n ever b een a p roven f unction. T he e xcavators s uggest t hat i t m ight s imply b e t he r emnant o f c lothes d ye, o r t he n ormal c osmetic c oating o f

t he l iving p erson. 1 99

T he g rave g oods w ere l argely f lint b lades,

p ierced a nimal

a nd a ntlers. F ive g raves h ad n o g rave g oods o r o chre 2 0, 2 1). T hree g raves h ad o nly o chre ( burials 3 , 1 5,

t eeth

( burials 1 , 2 , 7 , 1 8). O ne g rave

( burial 5 ) h ad a f lint b lade a nd o chre. T he r emainder were m ore " richly" f urnished . B urial 4 h ad a f lint b lade, a b one d agger, s ome p ierced t eeth a nd o chre.

B urial 6 h ad t hree f lint b lades,

a n a ntler

a xe a nd o chre. B urial 8 c ontained a y oung f emale a nd a baby. T he f emale h ad q uantities o f p ierced t eeth w hich s uggest n ecklaces a nd c lothes d ecorations. T he b aby h ad a f lint b lade a nd r ested o n a s wan's w ing. B urial 9 h ad o chre a nd a t ooth p endant. B urial 1 0's m ost d istinctive f eature w as t he f ive l arge s tones r esting o n h is l egs. T here w ere a lso t wo f lint b lades, o chre a nd a ntlers. Burial 1 h ad n o s keleton p resent, b ut t here w ere a b one a wl, o ne a ntler a nd a c ore-axe. B urial 1 2 h ad t wo f lint b lades, a b one s patula a nd o chre. B urial 1 4 h ad o ne f lint b lade, o ne c ore-axe a nd o chre . B urial 1 9 was t riple a nd c ontained o ne u nsexed s keleton, a f emale a nd a b aby. T he f emale had a n a nimal t eeth n ecklace a nd a f lint b lade, w hilst t he b aby a nd t he 2 00 u nsexed s keleton h ad o nly o chre. B urial 2 2 r ested u pon t wo a ntlers. A ll t he g rave g oods a re t ypical o f w hat m ight b e expected i n a s imple h unting b and. T he g rave w hich a ttracts m ost i nterest i s number e ight w here, i t i s s uggested, r est t he b odies o f a w oman a nd c hild w hose p ossessions i ndicate s ome s tatus. 201 T here i s l ittle t o c onfirm t his v iew -the g rave g oods d espite t heir q uantity a re n ot t oo d ifferent t o t hose i n t he o ther g raves. T he f lint b lade a ssociated w ith t he b aby i s i nconclusive. I t i s q uite p ossible t hat i t i s t he l ast g ift o f a 9 4.

g rieving f ather.

T he t wo e xamples w ith d eer a ntlers a re e nigmatic.

S imilar g rave g oods a re r eported e lsewhere, e .g. T eviec a nd H ogdic, L epenski V ir, 2u2 b ut a ntlers a re n ot c ommon t o a ll g raves. P erhaps t his m ight b e t he t race o f a c ult o f w hich o nly s ome c ommunity m embers w ere a dherents -or, a s A lekshin h as s uggested i n r egard t o t he B reton g raves, t hese w ere p eople w ho l ie buried o utside t heir h ome t errit ories. M ore s imply, t he a ntlers m ay j ust b e a w him o f t he f uneral p arty, i t i s i mpossible t o b e m ore s pecific. O verall i t s eems t hat t he b urials a re a ccompanied b y e ither a f inal o ffering o r s ome p ersonal p ossession, n one o f w hich i ndicate t he o wner's s tatus. A b urial a t M elby i n Z ealand h ad t wo p olished a xes, 203 a nd d etailed c omparison w ith o ther M esolithic b urials i n D enmark s how t hat g rave-goods t end t o b e A s imilar e xamination o f s ingle g raves f rom o ther u ndistinguished . 204 p arts o f E urope s hows t he s ame l ack o f d istinctive g rave g oods.

2 05

S imilar c onditions a re p resent i n t he M esolithic g raves f rom M uge i n P ortugal. T his r emarkable, a nd l arge, c ollection o f b urials i s c ontained i n t hree s hell m iddens f lanking t he M uge r iver n ear i ts p oint o f c onfluence w ith t he T agus. 206 T he t hree s ites a re M oita d o S ebästio, C abe90 d e A rmoreira a nd C abeio d a A rruda. I nvestigation o f t he s ite b egan i n 1 863 a nd h as c ontinued a t r egular i ntervals e ver s ince. 2 " A lthough t he s ites a re p rimarily s hell m iddens t here i s a lso r emains o f a urochs, d eer, s heep, h orse a nd p igs, w hich i ndicates a w ide u se o f t he d istrict's r esources. 208 T he t ool i ndustry i s t ypical o f t he l ate M esolithic w ith q uantities o f t rapezoids a nd c rescents. 209 R adiocarbon d ates a re: C abe p d a A moreira, 7 030 -350 B C a nd 6 050 00 B C a nd 5 150 -300 B C 3 00 B C ( uncal.), a nd C abeio d a A rruda 6 430 + 3 O f f urther i nterest a re t he t races o f a h ut, o r w ind( uncal.). 210 b reak, d iscovered a t M oita d o S ebästio,211 w hich s eems l ittle d ifferent t o s tructures a t D eepcar, M ount S andel a nd o ther s ites ( discussed a bove). T he g raves a t t he t hree s ites w ere s ubject t o t horough e xcavat ion i n 1 952. A t M oita d o S ebästio 3 4 w ere d iscovered, w hilst 1 7 w ere d iscovered a t C abe90 d a A moreira, a nd 1 3 a t C abe$o d a A rruda. 212 A s a t Vedbaek t he g rave g oods w ere t ypical o f t he e xpected p ossessions o f h unter-gatherers. T hese w ere s hells p ierced t o f orm n ecklaces a nd p endants, f lint b lades, a ttractive n aturally p olished s tones, a nd b one o bjects. A n umber o f t he c orpses h ad b een s prinkled w ith o chre. 213 T here i s l ittle i n t he n ature o f t he g rave g oods t o d istinguish a ny o ne p erson f rom a nother. T he c emetery a t Z vejnieki i n L ithuania l ies n ear t o a s ettlement o ccupied i n b oth t he M esolithic a nd N eolithic.

2 14

T here w ere a n umber

o f m ultiple g raves w hich, l ike a t V edbaek, s uggest e ither a r ecognised f amily g rave, o r d eath t hrough a m ultiple a ccident o r d isease. G rave g oods w ere f lint a nd b one t ools, p ierced t eeth f orming n ecklaces o r p endants, a nd m any b odies w ere c overed w ith o chre. I t i s a m oot p oint i f t he c hild w ho w as b uried w ith s everal o rnaments w as t he p ossessor o f i nherited s tatus, 215 o r m ore s imply t he s ubject o f a d isplay o f g rief. T he b urials a t L epenski V ir w ere a ll i n t he s ettlement, g enerally u nder t he f loors o f t he d wellings.

I n t he e arliest p hase -

p roto-Lepenski V ir -there i s e vidence t hat t he b odies w ere e xposed f or a p eriod o f t ime a nd f ollowing t hat o nly s ome p arts o f t he b odies w ere a ctually b uried. 216 T he b urials o f t he M esolithic w ere c omplete. G rave g oods w ere r ather p oor -the a ntlers h ave b een r emarked o n 9 5.

a bove -a nd c onsisted o f o x s kulls a nd n ecklaces. 217 A r ecent a rea o f t heoretical i nvestigation c oncerns t he p ossibi lity t hat i n s ome p laces i n E urope p ost-glacial f oraging w as a p referred a lternative t o a griculture. 218 I n t hese a reas, S candinavia, B altic E urope a nd p arts o f R ussia t he d iversity a nd s heer c oncentration o f r esources e nabled h unter-gatherer g roups t o h old o ut a gainst t he t rend t o a griculture, a nd t o c reate m aterially r ich a nd s emi-sedentary s ocieties. L19 T here a re t wo m ain p ieces o f d ata t hat a re u sed t o s upport t his c onclusion. T he f irst i s

t he w ell r ecognised f act t hat f arming i s s low t o

r each n orthern a nd n orth-eastern E urope. 22° T he t ransition b etween h unter-gatherers a nd f armers i s c onsidered m ore f ully i n c hapter 7 w here I e xamine t he t ransitional e conomies o f E arly N eolithic D enmark a nd t he B ritish I sles. T he s econd p iece o f e vidence i s t he e xistence o f s ome q uite " rich" b urials i n c emeteries, i n p articular t hat a t O leneostrovski M ogilnik ( Deer I sland C emetery) o n L ake O nega i n R ussia. 221 M arek Z velebil a nd a c olleague , J ohn M . O 'Shea, h ave a nalysed t his m aterial a nd s uggest t hat a t hree-tiered s ystem o f s ocial s tratification m ay h ave e xisted. 222 T he f irst f orm o f s tatus a ppears b ased o n a nimal t eeth w orn a s n ecklaces. T he m ost p recious w as b ear t eeth -a n o bvious r esult o f t he d anger o f b ear h unting. T he n ext m ost p recious w ere b eaver a nd e lk t eeth x a nd t here w as a f inal a nd p oorest g roup w ho h ad n o o rnaments a t a l1. 2 L3 A s econd f orm o f s tatus s eems b ased o n s pecific r oles i n t he c ommunity. S ome m ale g raves h ave r ich d eposits o f b one s pearpoints b ut n o o ther a rtefacts. Z velebil s uggests t hat t hese a re t he g raves o f s pecialist h unters. 224 T he t hird f orm o f s tatus i s i nferred f rom a g roup o f g raves w here t he o ccupants a re b uried s tanding u p. T hese a lso c ontain a p articularly r ich a ssemblage o f g rave g oods a nd i t i s s uggested t hat t hese m ay b e t he g raves o f r itual s pecialists.

2 25

T he O len I sland c emetery i s r emarkable b oth b ecause i t has o ver 1 50 b urials a nd b ecause i t h ad t o b e r eached b y w ater. 226 C learly i t w as a n a rea o f s ome s acred s ignificance. T he g rave g oods a re o f g reat i nterest a lso. B esides t he n ecklaces, t here a re m any f ine c arvings i n w ood, s tone a nd b one o f h umans, e lk, b ear a nd w aterfow1. 2 27 I t i s a lso s uggested t hat t hese m ay h ave h ad a m onetary f unction a s o bjects f or e xchange f or f ood o r o ther b asic c ommodities A nother i mportant c omponent o urial r itual i s r ed o chre. h 2 f te h b 28 9 O len I sland o ffers u s q uite d istinct, a nd u nmistakeable e vidence o f s ome f orm o f s ocial s tratification. W hereas V edbaek, Z vejniecki a nd t he T agus e stuary c emeteries h ad r ather s lender e vidence o f s ocial d ifferences, O len I sland h as a lmost a p lethora o f e vidence. B ut w e m ust d ecide w hat f orm t his s ocial s tratification t ook. W as i t o f a s ingle g enerational k ind o r d id i t h ave h ereditary f eatures? a nd t his, a s w e h ave s een i n t he p revious c hapter i s d ependent u pon t he e conomic b ase o f t he s ociety. Ip refer t o d isregard t he e vidence o f c hildren's g raves b ecause, a s Ih ave s uggested e lsewhere, t hese a re n ot a r eliable i ndicator o f h ereditary s tatus. T he p resence i n t he g raves o f h unting r elated i tems, s pearpoints A a nimal t eeth, a rrowheads, k nives a nd d aggers, a s w ell a s t he c arvings 23u s uggests a b asic h unting e conomy. O bviously t here w ould h ave b een p lant 9 6.

g athering i n s eason, but t he c lear s tatus a ccorded t o h unters, b y t he g raves w ith s pearpoints,

a s s hown

a rgues f or a s ocial a cceptance o f t he

e conomic d ominance o f h unting. F urthermore t he p resence o f t he a nimal f igurines i n g raves o ffers s triking p arallels w ith t he g rave g oods o f a nother c ulture t hat i s e conomically b ased i n h unting -the E skimo.

L il

E skimo s ocial s tatus i s, a s w e h ave s een i n c hapter 2 , b ased o n t wo s eparate o ccupations. T hese a re h unting a nd s hamanism, a nd t here a re d istinctive d ifferences i n t heir i nheritance c haracteristics. H unters a re u nlikely t o p ass o n a ny s ocial s tatus t o t heir o ffspring e xcept o f t he m ost t ransitory k ind. T his i s b ecause h unting, a lthough i t c an b e t aught, r elies o n a s eries o f p ersonal s kills r elated t o r eaction, s trength, e yesight a nd b odily c o-ordination w hich m ay n ot b e i nherited. S hamanism , h owever , a s w e h ave s een c an b e t aught a nd t his b ecome a n i nherited f orm o f s tatus.

t ends t o

T here a re t wo m ajor t ypes o f burials a t O len I sland -the h unters, a nd t he s tanding f igures w ho m ay b e s hamans. T herefore i f t here i s s ome f orm o f h ereditary s ocial s tratification r epresented a t O len I sland t hen i t i s m ore l ikely t o b e i n t he s hamanistic b urials. O f c ourse i t w ould b e e xcellent i f t he c hildren's b urials c ould b e d ifferentiated i nto h unting a nd s hamanistic f amily g roups, b ut t his i s n ot l ikely. W e m ust, a ccordingly, b e c areful i n o ur a ssessment o f t he c hildren's g raves. T here m ay b e a n i nherited s tatus r eflected i n t he g rave g oods, b ut e qually t hese g oods c ould b e d emonstrations o f g rief, o r t ransitory s tatus b ased o n t he p arent's h unting s kills. I n c losing o ne m ight a dd t hat w hilst O len I sland s eems t o r epresent a c ulture t hat i s o utside o f t he b road t hrust o f s ocial e volution f rom h unter-gatherers t o a griculturist i t d oes, n evertheless, p rovide o ne o f t he f ew i nstances o f c learly r ecognisable s ocial s tratification i n p rehistoric E urope. I t i s u nfortunate t hat s uch c lear e vidence i s n ot a vailable i n t he c emeteries o f t he m ore m ainstream c ultures. T he M esolithic c emet eries d o, h owever, a ppear t o r einforce t he g enerally a ccepted i dea t hat m ost g roups l ived i n p ermanent t erritories -b ased, a s w e h ave d iscussed, o n av ariety o f s easonally e xploited r esources. T he c emet eries m ay h ave b een s ited i n a n a rea t hat t he b and t raditionally r egarded a s s acred ( Olen I sland i s o bviously s o), o r p erhaps m ore s imply, t he b urials t ended t o a ccumulate i n s ites w here a b and s pent a g reat d eal o f t ime b ecause o f t he a bundant r esources. 5 .7

C onclusion

A t p resent w e h ave l ittle t o g o o n i n r econstructing p ossible t erritorial r anges, o r n otions o f t erritoriality i n p rehistoric p opul ations. T he c entral p roblem i s t hat w e d o n ot k now h ow b ands w ere s tructured a bove t he s ingle u nit s uggested b y h earth d istribution. I n t he e nd w e t ransform o ur i dea o f a n e conomic r ange, a s d efined b y r esources, i nto a p olitical t erritory. F urthermore, t he p roblem i s e xacerbated b y o ur r ather i ncomplete u nderstanding o f t he e conomic l ink b etween v arious r esources i n s patial t erms, a nd t heir u se i n t emporal t erms. W e t end t o c ompress s ite d ata w hich s pans s everal t housand y ears t o p roduce a g eneralised r econstruction. J acobi h as s uggested am ore s pecific p icture o f o ne a rea. U sing s imilarities i n t ool t ypes a nd r egular o ccurrences o f a p articular f lint t ype i n s ites i n n orthern E ngland h e h as d efined w hat m ight b e t ra f l o f a ctual t erritories, r ather t han h ypothetical e conomic r anges. ' 3 2 U nfortunately i t i s u sually i mpossible b ecause o f t he p overty o f d ata t o a ttempt s imilar 9 7.

r econstructions e lsewhere. W e a re,

t herefore,

t hrown b ack t o u sing t heoretical m aterial

b ased o n a r agbag o f a ssumptions a bout r esource d istribution a nd s easonality t o d efine t erritories, w hile w e h ave n o m eans o f p roving t heir p olitical a ctuality. T he c emeteries, w ith a ll t heir l imitations, d o o ffer u s a g limmer o f p rehistoric h uman i deas o f t erritoriality, r ather t han o ur m ore u sual m eans b ased o n t he i mpersonal, m echanistic, d etermination c reated b y r esource d istribution a nd g eography. T he d efinition o f t erritories, h owever, i s o utside o f t he b ounds o f t his d iscussion, b ut t here a re s ome p arts o f t he p roblem w hich a re a pposite. I n t he a rchaeological s ense w e a re d ealing w ith a t hree t ier s tructure 233 o f w hich o nly p art m ay r eflect a p olitical a ctuality. I n a scending o rder o f c omplexity w e h ave f irstly t he s easonal t erritories o f t he h unter-gatherer b ands. W hen t hese b ands a re u nited b y m arriage, o r f ragmentation c aused b y e conomic o r s ocial f actors w e h ave o ur s econd t ier w hich a re s ocial t erritories. T hese m ight be d etermined b y f airly l ocalized c hanges i n t ool k its. T he h ighest t ier i s t he t echnot erritory, w hich i s t he s patial e xtent o f a p articular c ultural a ssemb lage. T he m odern a nalogy f or t his s ystem i s t he h unter-gatherer s ocieties d iscussed i n c hapter 2 .

T here i s, h owever,

t he p roblem t hat

t his s ystem d oes n ot r eflect t he r eal p olitical s tructure b ecause t he a rchaeological m ethod, w hich i s t ied t o a rtifactual e vidence, c reates f ar t oo w ide a v iew. T he S an o f N amibia m ay h ave b road u niformity i n t heir e conomy a nd t echnology, a nd, a t l east o nce a y ear, t here are s ocial g atherings a mongst t he v arious t ribes, ! Kung, ! Ko, e tc ., but t he p olitical s tructure i s b ased p urely u pon t he h ereditary c ontrol o f c ertain r esources w ithin a n !ore w hich s upports 3 o r 4 f amilies. I ntermarriage o r b and f ragmentation m ay c hange t he p opulation s tructure o f a b and, b ut t he p olitical e ntity o f t he n !ore r elated g roup r emains s upreme. 234 I t f ollows, t herefore, t hat o ur a rchaeologically d efined e conomic t erritories m ust b e c reated f rom a s s mall a c ombination o f h ypothetical s easonal r esources a s i s p ossible, i n o rder t o r eflect t his f undamental p olitical s tructure. W ith t his i n m ind i t i s p ossible

t o

s ee e ach o f t he s ites d is-

c ussed a s e vidence o f t he e xistence o f a p olitically s eparate a nd c ompact r esource t erritory. I t i s, h owever , i n v ery f ew r egions o f w estern E urope w here t hese i ndividual s ites c an b e e xtrapolated i nto g roups w hich m ay r eflect a ctual p olitical t erritories. T he g roup o f s ites a round L es M allaetes i n S pain, 235 t he a bovementioned g roup i n n orthern E ngland, t he g roup n ear V edbaek i n D enmark, 236 a nd t he c entral I talian v alleys a nd p astures w hich w ere u sed t o d efine t he s patial n ature o f t he r ed d eer e conomies a re a mong t he f ew. B ut e ven w hen r educed t o t he r elative c ompactness o f t hese e xamples, w e s till h ave n o m ore t han h ypothetical e vidence o f t he s easonal r ound o f r esource g athering -the n ecessity o f h uman e xistence d ictates t hat i t t ook p lace b ut w e w ill p robably b e d enied a bsolute d etails o f

i ts n ature.

T he t erritories w ould h ave b een t ransitory -poor s easons, n ess, h uman f railty w ould a ll t ake t heir t oll u pon t he b and.

i ll-

M embers

w ould s hift a llegiance t o o ther b ands o r f ixed r esources m ight be d estroyed -all t hese c onditions w ould l imit t he t ime s pan o f a t errit ory. B ut w ithin t hese c onditions t he r esources t hat s upported t he g roup w ould n eed t o b e m anaged a nd g uarded, a s w ith m odern h unterg atherer b ands.

T here i s n othing,

e xcept 9 8.

t heir q uantity,

i n t he

p erceived r esources o f t he M esolithic h unter-gatherers t o d istinguish t hem f rom t heir m odern c ounterparts -and t herefore w e m ust e xpect t hat t he p olitical s ystem o f c ontrol w ould b e s ubstantially i dentical. T here i s e vidence t hat s ome g roups m ay h ave a cted t o p reserve t he existence o f t heir t erritories -the r ise i n h azel p ollen i ndicates l and c learance, p erhaps f or p asturing o f d eer, a nd t he o ccasional i nstances o f h igher t han n ormal c oncentrations o f i vy p ollen s uggest w inter f odder f or d eer. T his i s v ery i mportant, n ot j ust b ecause i t m ay a nticipate a nimal h usbandry, b ut b ecause i t s hows h uman i nterest i n p reserving t he b asic e conomic r esource w hich d etermined t he e xtent o f t he t erritory a nd u ltimately i ts p olitical s eparateness. F eatures w hich p oint t o a g roup p erceiving i tself t o h ave s ome f uture b eyond t he l ives o f t he c urrent g eneration, a nd i n s pite o f t he t endency f or t erritories t o b reak u p. T his w ould c ome m ainly f rom t he i nterrelatedn ess o f b and m embers w ith t heir a cceptance o f a c ommon h eritage,

b ut

i ts e ffect w ould b e t o s trengthen t he a cceptance o f s ome r esource o wners hip b eing v ested i n t he s enior m ember o f t he s enior f amily g roup, a nd t herefore t he a cceptance o f h ereditary c ontrol. I t i s a p ity t hat t he c emeteries,

w ith t he e xception o f O len

I sland, d o n ot d isplay p ositive e vidence o f s ocial r anking. I t h as, h owever, b een s uggested t hat b urial i tself m ay b e e vidence o f s tatus 2. 37 O ccurrences o f d eliberately s mashed h uman b one, a s a t V edbaek, 238 a nd t he o verall p aucity o f h uman r emains f rom t he M esolithic m ight i ndicate t hat,

a s w ith m odern h unter-gatherers, m ost human b eings r eceived s cant

a ttention i n d eath .

E ven w ithout s uch p ositive d isplays o f s tatus a s

r ich burials, t he i mplication o f t he e conomic s tructure a re, a s Ih ave a rgued, m ore t han s ufficient t o s uggest t hat s trong h ereditary r esource c ontrols e xisted i n t he M esolithic. T his s ocial s ystem i s o f i mmense i mportance, a s w e w ill s ee, t o t he i ntroduction o f f arming i nto w estern E urope, f or n o o ther h ypothesis e xists t o e xplain w hy e galitarian s ocieties, u nder t he c onventional M esolithic s ocial m odel, a llowed t he l and t o b e a lienated f rom t he c ommon o wnership t o p rivate c ontrol. A c hange o f t his n ature i s o nly p ossible i f t he p eople a lready p ossessed h ereditary s ocial s ystems w hich r ecognised t hat s ome r esources w ere " owned" b y i ndividuals.

9 9.

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5 8 .

i bid ., p .

36. 3

5 9.

i bid .,

p .

33. 3

6 0 .

i bid .,

p. p

6 1.

i bid .,

p .

35. 3

6 2.

i bid .

6 3 .

i bid .,

p .

36. 3

6 4.

i bid .,

p. p

F ig .

9 .

7, p l. 7

XI. X

7 .

1 954,

p. p

1 5,

p .

7 5.

1 975, C lark, 1 972, C lark,

C lark,

2 1-24.

1 972. p .

1 33.

1 954,

p .

p .

3 4.

1 954,

33, 3

33, 3

1 5.

p .

6 0.

36. 3

36. 3

35-336. 3

1 02.

6 5.

W ymer ,

1 962, p .

3 36.

6 6.

i bid .,

p .

6 7.

i bid ., p p.

6 8.

i bid .,

p .

3 53.

6 9.

i bid .,

p .

3 55.

7 0 .

i bid .,

p p .

3 57-358.

7 1.

i bid .,

p p.

3 55-358.

7 2.

P .J.F. C outts, R .K . F rank a nd P . H ughes, 1 978, ' Aboriginal e ngineers o f t he W estern D istrict, V ictoria ', R ecords o f t he V ictorian A rchaeological S urvey 7 , p p . 1 -47.

7 3 .

i bid ., p .

7 4.

P illing ,

7 5.

J . R adley a nd P . M ellars, 1 964, ' A M esolithic s tructure a t D eepcar, Y orkshire, E ngland', P PS 3 0, p p. 1 -24.

7 6.

i bid .,

p .

7 7.

I bid.,

p p .

7 8 .

i bid.,

p . 6 .

7 9.

i bid .

8 0.

E . H iggs, 1 959, ' Excavations a t aM esolithic s ite a t D ownton, n ear S alisbury, W iltshire', P PS 2 5, p p. 2 09-232.

8 1.

i bid .,

8 2.

i bid ., p p .

8 3 .

i bid .,

p .

8 4.

i bid .,

F ig.

8 5.

W .F . R ankine, 1 952, ' A M esolithic c hipping f loor a t t he W arren, O akhanger, S elbourne, H ants.', P PS 1 8, p p. 2 1-35.

8 6.

W .F . R ankine, W .M . R ankine a nd G .W . D imbleby, 1 960, ' Further e xcavations a t a M esolithic s ite a t O akhanger, S elbourne, H ants.', P PS 2 6, p p. 2 46-262.

8 7.

i bid .,

8 8 .

R ankine,

1 952, p .

8 9.

R ankine,

1 952,

3 37. 3 40-353.

3 3 . 1 968,

p .

1 44.

8 .

p .

5 -7,

F ig .

2 .

2 29. 2 16-224. 2 24ff,

F ig .

1 2.

1 2.

p p. 2 52,

2 55ff. 2 5ff; R ankine, e t a l.,

F ig .

2 .

1 03 .

1 960, p .

2 47ff .

9 0.

R ankine, e t a l.,

9 1.

i bid.

9 2.

i bid .,

p .

2 54.

9 3.

i bid .,

p .

2 57.

9 4.

I .G .

1 960,

S immons a nd G .W .

p .

2 54.

D imbleby,

1 974,

' The p ossible r ole o f i vy

( Hedera h elix L .) i n t he M esolithic e conomy o f western E urope', J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience 1 , p p. 2 91-296; D imbleby, 1 978, p . 1 40. 9 5.

D imbleby,

9 6.

i bid.

9 7.

1 978,

F or e xample,

p .

E .E.

U niversity P ress,

1 40.

E vans-Pritchard, O xford,

P .H. G ulliver, 1 955, L ondon, p . 1 50ff.

p .

1 940,

T he Nuer, O xford

1 6ff; D yson-Hudson,

T he F amily H erds,

1 966,

p .

4 0ff;

R outledge a nd K egan P aul,

9 8.

J arman, 1 972, p . 1 32, d rawing c arriages o r b red i n p edigreed h erds i n s ome E nglish f orests.

9 9.

J .G .D.

C lark,

1 954,

p .

3 8ff; R ankine, e t a l.,

J .G .D.

C lark,

1 956,

p .

2 0; e tc.

1 00.

1 960, p .

S ummarised i n I .G . S immons, G .W. D imbleby a nd C . ' The M esolithic', i n I .G . S immons a nd M . T ooley,

2 55;

G rigson, 1 981, e ds., T he

E nvironment i n B ritish P rehistory, D uckworth, L ondon, p . 1 02ff; J .G . E vans, 1 975, T he E nvironment o f E arly M an i n t he British I sles, 1 01.

P aul E lek,

L ondon,

p .

8 0ff.

P . M ellars, 1 976, ' Fire e cology, a nimal p opulations a nd m an: a s tudy o f s ome e cological r elationships i n p rehistory', p p s4 2, P P. 1 5-45; C anberra .

a lso s ee S .J.

H allam,

1 979,

F ire a nd H earth, A IAS,

1 02.

A borigines, fire a nd D .R . H orton, 1 982, ' The b urning q uestion: 1 3, P p. 2 37-251. A ustralian e cosystems', Mankind

1 03.

E . B rinch P etersen, S vaerdborg B og,

1 971,

Z ealand,

1 04.

i bid.,

p .

1 05.

i bid .,

p. p

1 06.

i bid .,

F ig .

1 07.

i bid .,

p.

4 8.

1 08.

i bid .,

p .

6 0.

1 09.

K .

R osenlund, 1971,

p .

5 9ff.

' Svaerdborg I I:

a M aglemose hut f rom

D enmark', A cta Archaeologia 4 2,

P .

7 2.

4 3 . 4 3-44. 1 .

' Zoological m aterial',

1 04.

i n B rinch P etersen,

10. 1 11.

12.

K.

R osenlund,

1 971,

P .

S . J orgensen, 1 971, B rinch P etersen, p . B rinch P etersen,

6 1.

' Bog g eology and p ollen a nalysis', 5 2ff.

1 971,

p .

i n

6 2ff.

13.

i bid .,

14.

i bid.

15.

T .D. P rice, 1978, ' Mesolithic s ettlement s ystems i n t he N etherl ands', i n Mellars, e d., p . 1 04.

16. 1

D. p .

17. 18.

p .

7 5.

S rejoviC., 1 972,

L epenski V ir,

T hames a nd H udson, L ondon,

3 5ff.

i bid .,

p .

5 0ff.

The i ndividual d ates a re:

L V I a,

5 275 ± 1 00, 5 090 ± 1 00; L V I d 1 00, 4 850 ± 1 00; L V l e, 4 870

?

5 410 :4 .1 00,

5 360±

1 00; L V I c,

00, 4 895 ± 00, 4 910 ± 1 4 950 ± 1 00; i bid., I, c .4600 ± 1 1 00; L V I

P . 4 3. 19.

J . A lexander, 1 972, a nd H udson, L ondon,

1 20.

S . B ökönyi,

1 21.

SrejoviC,

1 972,

1 972,

1 22.

i bid .,

F igs.

1 23.

i bid .,

p p.

1 24.

i bid.,

F ig .

7 .

1 25.

i bid .,

F ig .

1 3.

1 26.

i bid.,

F ig .

1 4.

1 27.

i bid.,

F ig .

1 5.

1 28.

i bid.,

F ig .

1 6.

1 29.

i bid.,

p p.

1 30.

B ökönyi,

1 31.

S rejovi ,

1 32.

D rucker,

9 ,

oman C onquest, J ugoslavia B efore the R p . 3 0.

' The v ertebrate fauna',

p .

i n S rejoviC, p .

8 0ff. 1 1.

1 0,

5 0-56.

7 3-74, Fig.

1 972, 1 972, 1 939,

p . p .

1 7.

1 87. 1 35ff.

1 965.

1 33.

nd F armers o f E astern R . T ringham, 1 971, H unters, Fishers a . 5 5. E urope, H utchinson, L ondon, p

1 34.

B ökönyi,

1 972,

p .

1 87. 1 05.

T hames

1 87.

1 35.

Bö l0 3nyi,

1 36.

S rejovi6, 1972,

1 37.

T ringham , 1971,

p .

5 5.

1 38.

S rejovic, 1972,

p .

1 33,

1 39.

A lexander, 1972,

1 40.

i bid .,

1 41.

1 42. 1 43. 1 44.

1 972,

p .

p .

1 86ff.

p l.

2 6ff;

p .

F igs.

3 5,

3 6.

3 0.

T ringham,

1 971, p.

5 3ff .

H. L ourandos, 1 976, ' Aboriginal s outh ettlement a nd l and u se i n s w estern V ictoria: a r eport o n c urrent f ield w ork', T he Artefact 1 ( 4),

p .

1 81ff.

i bid .,

p .

1 82ff;

L ourandos, T .W .

1 976,

J acobsen,

C outts e t a l,

1 973, 'Excavation i n the F ranchthi

H esperia 4 2,

1 45.

i bid .,

p .

6 7.

1 46.

i bid.,

p .

6 8ff.

1 47.

i bid.,

p .

2 83 .

1 48.

L ee,

1 979,

P rice,

1 978.

p . 180.

1 971',

1 49.

7 4.

C ave,

1 969-

6 0.

P .

1 58ff.

P .

1 978,

p .

1 03ff.

1 50.

V . M igiC., D . C o ne a nd A . D iniC, 1 972, 'Ecological -phytocenol ogical i nvestigation', i n S rejoviC, p . 171ff.

1 51.

J acobsen,

1 52.

1 973,

p p.

7 0-71

t a l, J.G .D . C lark, 1 954, P . 1 3ff; Wymer , 1 962, p . 3 35; R ankine e 965, 1 960, p . 2 55; P .A .M . K eef, J .J. Wymer a nd G .W . D imbleby, 1 PS 3 1, ' A M esolithic s ite o n I ping C ommon, S ussex , E ngland', P p .

8 6; D .M .

C hurchill,

t ' The k itchen m idden s ite a

1 965,

W estward H o!, D evon, E ngland', P PS 3 1, 1 978, 1 53.

7 8-79;

D .L. Clarke,

ize a nd C . M eiklejohn, 1 978, ' Ecological a spects o f p opulation s g rowth i n l ate-glacial a nd e arly p ostglacial n orth-western E urope',

1 54.

p p.

3 0ff.

P .

i n M ellars,

e d .,

p p.

6 6-79.

S ieveking, 1 979, F ig. 1 30. A nother s cene f rom t he C ueva d e l os hese m ay b e evidence C aballos s hows 1 2 h unters, J acobi suggests t 978, ' Northern E ngland i n t he o f c ommunal d rives, R .M . J acobi, 1 e ighth m illennium b c:

1 55.

M egaw a nd S impson,

1 56.

i bid .,

p .

a n e ssay',

1 981,

p .

6 4.

6 5. 1 06.

i n M ellars, e d., p .

3 24ff.

1 57.

1 58 . 1 59 .

Shell m iddens a G.N. B ailey, 1978, ' s i ndicators o f postglacial e conomies: a t erritorial p d., p . 3 9. erspective', i n M ellars, e i bid . M eehan q uoted i n B ailey,

1 978, p .

3 9.

1 60.

W hite a nd O 'Connell, 1 982, p . 1 66ff; e .g . R ones, 1 966, ' A . J s peculativea rchaeological s equence f or n orth-west T asmania ', R ecords o f the Q ueen V ictoria M useumLaunceston 2 5.

1 61.

S . P almer , 1 977, M esolithic C ultures i n B ritain, D olphin P ress, L ondon, p p. 1 45-146.

1 62.

P almer,

1 63 .

Churchill, 1965, p .

1 977,

p . 146. 7 8 .

1 64.

i bid .,

p .

7 7 .

1 65.

i bid ., p .

7 8 .

1 66.

P . M ellars and S . P ayne, 1 971, 'Excavations o f t wo M esolithic s hell m iddens o n t he I sland o f O ronsay ( Inner H ebrides)', N ature 2 31, p . 3 98 .

1 67. 1 68 .

E .W . M ackie, 1 972, ' Radiocarbon d ates f or t wo M esolithic s hell h eaps a nd a N eolithic a xe factory', P PS 3 8, p . 4 12.

1 69.

P .C . W oodman, 1 978, ' The c hronology a nd e conomy o f t he I rish M esolithic: s ome w orkingh ypotheses', in M ellars, p . 3 34.

1 70.

i bid .,

1 71.

i bid., p p .

1 72.

i bid ., p .

3 43 .

1 73 .

i bid.,

p .

3 44.

1 74 .

i bid.,

p .

3 60ff.

1 75.

arlysettlement o f S cotland: e xcavations J .M . C oles, 1 971, 'The e a t M orton, Fife', P PS 3 7, p p. 2 84-288 .

1 76.

i bid ., p p. 288-289.

1 77.

i bid., p p .

1 78 .

i bid ., p .

1 79.

i bid ., p p .

3 21-349.

1 80.

i bid.,

p p .

3 35-336,

p .

3 37;

c omparable w ith D eepcar d iscussed a bove.

3 37-340.

2 94-320. 3 20.

F ig .

2 6.

1 07.

1 81.

C oles,

1 971, p .

37. 3

1 82.

i bid .,

p .

3 49.

1 83.

i bid .,

p .

3 50 .

1 84.

i bid .,

p .

3 51.

1 85.

i bid .,

p .

3 54ff.

1 86.

i bid .,

p .

3 60.

1 87.

i bid .;

G lob,

1 88 .

B ailey,

1 89.

P hillips,

1 90.

P .R .

1 91.

J acobsen,

1 92.

B ailey,

1 93 .

R . C hapman, 1 981, ' The e mergence o f f ormal d isposal a reas and t he ' problem ' o f m egalithic t ombs i n p rehistoric E urope', in C hapman, K innes a nd R andsborg, p p. 7 1-81.

1 94.

S .E. A lbrethsen a nd E. B rinch P etersen, 1 976, ' Excavation o f a M esolithic c emetery at V edbaek, D enmark', A cta A rchaeologia 4 7, p . l ff.

1 95.

i bid .,

p p. 4 -5.

1 96.

i bid.,

p .

1 97.

i bid .,

p p.

1 98.

i bid.,

p .

1 99.

i bid ., p . 2 1. T he l atter s uggestion t hat t he o chre i s a r emnant o f a c osmetic i s a pposite. Ih ave w orked i n t he e xcavat ion o f a T asmanian A boriginal o chre m ine s ite a nd I c an v ouch f or o chre's a dhesive q ualities.

2 00.

i bid .,

2 01.

P hillips,

2 02.

V .A . A lekshin, 1 983, ' Burial c ustoms as a n a rchaeological s ource', C urrent A nthropology 2 4, p . 144; S rejovi6 , 1 972, p . p . 1 2Off.

2 03 .

U .L. H ansen, 0 .V . N eilsen a nd V . A lexandersen, 1 972, ' A M esorchaeologia l ithic g rave f rom M elby i n Z ealand , D enmark', Acta A 4 3, p . 2 39, F ig. 1 .

1 977,

1 978, p .

G iot,

1 981,

P .

3 7ff.

4 7. p .

1 28.

1 960, B rittany, 1 973,

p .

L ondon,

p p.

2 4-26.

6 0 .

1 978; P hillips,

p p.

T hames a nd H udson,

1 981, p .

1 27ff .

5 . 4 ,

2 6.

6 .

7 -15. 1 981,

p .

1 43 .

1 08 .

2 04.

A lbrethsen a nd B rinch P etersen,

2 05.

i bid .,

2 06.

J .

p p.

R oche,

1 976,

p p.

2 2-23.

2 4-26. 1 966,

' Balance d e u n s iglo d e e xcavaciones e n l os

c oncheros m esoliticos d e M uge', A mpurias 2 8, 2 07.

i bid .,

p p.

1 6-19.

2 08.

i bid.,

p p .

2 6-28.

2 09.

i bid.,

p .

2 8ff.

2 10.

i bid .,

p .

3 8.

2 11.

i bid .,

p .

4 0ff,

2 12.

i bid .,

p .

4 4.

2 13.

i bid.,

p .

4 4ff.;

2 14.

P hillips,

1 981,

2 15.

i bid.,

1 42.

2 16.

S rejovi ,

1 972,

2 17.

i bid.,

1 20.

2 18.

M .

p .

p .

Z velebil,

F ig.

1 3ff.

6 .

a lso s ee n ote p .

1 41.

p .

1 17.

1 986,

p .

1 99.

' Postglacial f oraging i n t he f orests o f

E urope', S cientific A merican M ay, p p. 8 6-93 . i dem., 1 978, ' Subsistence a nd s ettlement i n t he n orth-eastern B altic',in M ellars, p p . 2 05-241. 2 19.

Z velebil,

1 986,

p .

2 20.

i dem .,

1 986,

2 21.

i bid.,

p .

2 22.

i bid .

2 23.

. G imbutas, 1 956, T he P rehistory o f E astern E urope, i bid .; M P t. 1 , A merican S chool o f P rehistoric R esearch, P eabody M useum, C ambridge, M ass., p l. 4 0a .

24. 2

Z velebil,

25. 2

i bid.;

26. 2

G imbutas,

1 956,

27. 2

i bid .,

1 84;

28. 2

Z velebil,

1 986,

p .

9 1,

29. 2

G imbutas,

1 956,

p .

1 84.

p .

i dem ,

1 978,

p .

2 12ff.

9 1.

9 0.

1 986,

p .

G imbutas,

p .

9 2ff.;

9 0.

1 956, P .

p l.

4 0b.

1 83.

Z velebil,

1 986,

p .

9 0.

a lso s ee n ext c hapter.

1 09.

2 30.

G imbutas,

2 31.

D umond, 1 977, F igs. 3 3, 3 8-43, 6 2-64; D . S now, 1 976, T he A merican I ndians: T heir A rchaeology a nd P rehistory, T hames a nd

2 32. 2 33.

1 956,

H udson,

L ondon,

J acobi,

1 978,

P .

1 84.

F igs.

p .

1 50-157,

1 63-165,

3 02ff.

J .G.D.

C lark,

n avia,

C ambridge U niversity P ress,

1 979,

1 975,

T he E arlier S tone Age S ettlement of S candiC ambridge,

p .

6 9ff.

2 34.

L ee,

2 35.

I . D avidson, 1 976, ' Les M allaetes a nd M onduver: t he e conomy o f ah uman g roup i n p rehistoric S pain ', i n S ieveking, L ongworth a nd W ilson,

p .

a re s ome e xamples.

p. p

3 43ff.

4 83-499.

2 36.

A lbrethsen a nd B rinch P etersen,

2 37.

C hampion,

2 38.

A lbrethsen a nd B rinch P etersen,

e t a /.,

1 984,

p .

1 976.

1 09.

1 10.

1 976,

p .

5 .

C HAPTER 6 A GRICULTURE A ND T HE A LIENATION O F T HE L AND 6 .1

I ntroduction

T he d evelopment o f a griculture a nd a nimal d omestication p resents a s erious c ontradiction t o a ny v iew o f t he p ast w hich a rgues f or t he l ate d evelopment o f h ereditary s ocial s tratification.

C onventional

t heories -those w hich p osit o rigins i n t he E arly B ronze A ge, o r e ven G ilman's 1 w hich was d iscussed i n c hapter 1 -assume a p eriod e xisted i n w hich d omestic e conomies w ere p racticed i n s ocieties w ith t he s ame f undamental e galitarian p olitical s ystems a s t heir h unter-gatherer f orebears. T he b asic p roblem i n t his v iew i s t hat n o m odel i s o ffered w hich a dequately e xplains h ow e galitarian h unter-gatherers w ith t heir t radition o f c ommon r esource u sage c ame t o a ccept a n ew e conomic s ystem i n w hich a l arge p art o f t he l and i s a lienated, t hrough a griculture, f rom t he c ommon e xploitation. I t i s, o f c ourse, p ossible t o p ropose a g radual c hange o f a ttitude s pread o ver s everal m illennia b ut t his s erves o nly t o p rolong t he t ransition r ather t han e xplain i t. W e h ave a s eries o f t heories w hich e xplain t he a ctual p roce ss es o f d omestica- 3 t ion o f p lants a nd a nimals, 2 a nd t heories w hich e xplain t he b enefits, b ut w e h ave n othing w hich a dequately n egotiates t he h iatus b etween c ommon a nd p rivate r esource e xploitation. I n t his c hapter I w ill s eek t o e xplain t his v ital t ransition a s a d evelopment o f t he o wnership o f k ey r esources b y s ingle i ndividuals i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties. 6 .2

E thnographic E vidence T he p roblem o f l and c learance a nd c rop p lanting i s n ot s imply

t he a lienation o f l and b ut a lso t he a lienation o f r esources. I f a p lot o f l and i s c leared a nd p lanted, a l arge v ariety o f o ther f ood r esources a re d estroyed a nd t hereby r emoved f rom t he c ommon e conomy. M ost c urrent s ocieties h ave l and o wnership s ystems w hich r emove t he e lement o f c ommonality b efore t he c rop i s p lanted, i .e. t he l and u ser a cquires s ome f orm o f t itle. T his i s n ecessary b ecause i f i t w as n ot t he c ase t he c rop w ould r evert t o t he c ommon u sage r egardless o f t he l abour o f t he p lanter. T he o verall e ffect i s t o t ie t he l and a nd i ts p roduce t ogether a nd c reate a s eparate, o wned r esource p ackage w hich i s n ot s hared. I n t he f ew r emaining s ocieties t hat d o n ot r ecognise t hat l and c an b e a lienated f rom t he c ommon u se t he i mpediments t o t he d evelopment o f a griculture a re q uite i mmense. W oodburn r elates h ow t he a gricult ural s chemes i ntroduced t o t he H adza h ave a lways f ailed. G rain c rops w ere h arvested a s am atter o f c ourse, r egardless o f o wnership, b y p eople u nable t o a ccept t he i dea o f p rivate o wnership o f r esources.

I n

t he f ew c ases w here t he o wner w as a ble t o h arvest, t he i ncessant d emands o f o ther H adza r esulted i n t he g rain, i ncluding t hat n eeded t o p lant t he n ext s eason's c rop, b eing d istributed d espite t he n eed f or c ontrolled r ationing. 4 U nder t hose c onditions t here i s l ittle c hance t hat a griculture c an d evelop. S imilar i nstances o f h unter-gatherer i nability t o u nderstand t he n ecessities o f a griculture h ave o ccurred a mongst t he ! Kung. L ee h as d escribed o ne f armer w ho f ound t hat h is f ellow ! Kung w ere w illing t o s hare h is c rop b ut u tterly u nwilling t o h elp i n c learing a nd p lanting. 5 A nother ! Kung w as a ble t o b ecome a s uccessful c ow h erder.

H e d id t his b y c areful d istribution o f g ifts

t o h is f ellows. H is s uccess w as b ought a t ah eavy p rice, h owever, f or h e a cquired s uch a r eputation o f m eanness t hat h e w as d eserted b y h is b and. E ventually h e b ecame s o l onely t hat h e s old h is h erd a nd m oved T he c entral p roblem i n t hese c onditions i s t hat f rom t he d istrict. 6 t he r esource s haring i mperative, w hich i s t he m ain f orce i n h unterg atherer e conomies, w orks t o p revent t he n ecessary h usbanding o f s ome r esources t o p rovide t he b asis f or e nsuing s easons. A s W oodburn h as n oted i t i s d ifficult t o s ee a gricultural s ocieties d eveloping f rom s imilar h unter-gatherers i n t he p ast . 7 I n a n a ttempt t o s olve t his p roblem W oodburn h as s uggested t hat t here a re t wo f orms o f h unter-gatherer e conomies. T he f irst, w hich h e t erms i mmediate-return s ystems, a re t hose i n w hich r esources a re s hared e qually, t here a re n o m arked i nequalities o f s tatus a nd i nter-personal xamples a re t he H adza, r elationships t end t o b e r ather s hort t erm .8 E a nd t he ! Kung s ocieties. T he s econd a re d elayed-return s ystems w hich u se a m ixture o f g athered r esources, a nd r esources w hich n eed s ome f orm o f l abour a nd c apital i nvestment o ver a l ong p eriod b efore t hey c an b e u tilised . I n t his s ystem r esources a re p rivately o wned a nd t here i s s ome s ocial r anking a ccording t o w ealth o r s tatus. F urther t here a re t ight s ocial l aws w hich b ind i ndividuals t o t he c ommunity. W oodburn unterm akes t he p oint t hat m ost m odern s ocieties a re o f t his t ype. 9 H g atherer s ocieties w hich e pitomise t he d elayed-return s ystem a re t he s emi-agricultural c ommunities o f N ew G uinea. T hese a re d iscussed b elow . T he d elayed-return e conomic s ystems, W oodburn i mplies, a re t hose w hich c ould d evelop m ore a dvanced a gricultural e conomies. 1 0 I t i s p ossible t o f ind W oodburn's d ivision o f h unter-gatherer s ystems a n a ttractive t heory. T he s eemingly i nescapable p roblem o f t he r eluctance o f m odern h unter-gatherer s ocieties, l ike t he ! Kung, t o a llow a ny c hange t o t heir e conomy a nd t hus f oster a griculture i s n eatly s idestepped. I nstead o f d evising a m odel t o e xplain t he t ransitions n ecessary W oodburn h as p laced t hese p eople i n t he u ltra-conservative c ategory, 1 a nd p laced t he i mpetus f or t he h istoric d evelopment o f 1 a gricultural s ocieties i n t he h unter-gatherer p eoples w ith d elayedr eturn e conomies. U nfortunately t his i s n o r eal a nswer t o t he p roblem . W hile i t i s i ndeed p ossible t o c reate s uch s eparations i n m odern s ociet ies -the e xamples a re t here b efore u s -there i s s till n o e xplanation o f h ow d elayed-return s ocieties e volved f rom i mmediate-return s ocieties . S urely t he p roblems t hat b eset w ould-be a griculturists a mongst t he ! Kung w ould a lso h ave b eset t hose f ar o ff p ioneers o f p rivate o wnership w ho t ried t o c reate t he e arliest d elayed-return s ystems. T he t heory's i nherent f ault i s t hat i t s eeks t o f ind i ts s olutions i n t he s ocial s ystem r ather t han i n t he r esource b ase. S ocial a nd e conomic s ystems a re c reated t o u tilise o r c ontrol r esources, b ut i t i s t he r esources t hemselves w hich g ive t he f inal f orm t o t hese s ystems. ! Kung s ociety i s l argely e galitarian, b ut t here i s a f orm o f h ereditary o wnership a nd l eadership . T his r esults b ecause c ertain r esources a re v ital t o t he e xistence o f a b and's t erritory a nd m ust b e p rotected . T he ! Kung s ocial o rder, t herefore, i s b oth e galitarian b ecause m ost r esources a re g enerally a vailable a nd i mperceptibly r anked b ecause s ome v ital r esources a re s carce. T herefore t o s eek t he s olutions f or t he p roblem o f e conomic e volution i n t he s ocial o rder i s f ruitless -the s olutions, i f t hey a re t o b e f ound, m ust b e s ought i n t he n ature o f r esources. I n s imple a gricultural c ommunities w here g athered r esources a re s till o f e conomic i mportance t he o wnership o f l and a nd r esources i s 12. 1

c omplex .

T here i s a d istinction m ade b etween t he l and a nd i ts c rops.

T he l and i s p art o f t he t erritory o f e ach p articular g roup b ut o nce i t i s a llotted t o o r c laimed b y a n i ndividual i t b ecomes t heirs f or a s l ong a s t hey m aintain i t. I n s ome r egions, h owever, l ong t erm r esources l ike t rees, r emain t he p roperty o f t he o riginal o wner e ven i f t hey n o l onger w ork t he l and a nd i t h as b ecome t he p roperty o f s omeone e lse. C rops a re a lways t he p roperty o f t he c urrent o wner, a nd c rops w hich a re p lanted o pportunistically, s uch a s i n a f lood p lain a re a lso t he p rope rty o f t he p lanter. W e w ill n ow e xamine s ome e xamples w hich I h ave s elected, b ecause t hey d isplay t he d ifference i n t he w ay t hat s imple a gricultural c ommunities p erceive t he o wnership o f w ild a nd d omestic r esources. T he S haranahua a re a n I ndian t ribe w ho l ive i n t he j ungles o f e astern P eru . T hey h ave a m ixed e conomy b ased o n a griculture a nd h unting a nd g athering. J anet S iskind h as l isted t he a pproximate p ercent ages w hich e ach r esource p rovides i n t he d iet. A gricultural p roduce p rovides t he b ulk o f t he f ood - a round 6 0%. G ame, t heir o nly m eat s ource, a ccounts f or 3 0%, w hilst f ish a nd g athered f oods m ake u p t he r emaining 1 0%. 1 2 T he g ardens w hich a re t he p rincipal s ource o f f ood a re c leared by t he m en, b ut t heir c are a nd m aintenance i s t he w omen's t ask. 13 L ike o ther h unter-gatherers, h owever, m eat h as a m uch g reater p opularity t han i ts f airly s mall d ietary c ontribution w ould s uggest. T he w omen, w ho d o n ot h unt, a re c ontinually e xhorting t he m en t o h unt 1 4 a nd m ay e ven r esort t o g roup e ffort t o a chieve t his a im .

1 5

T he g ardens o f t he S haranahua a re o wned b y t he m en. E ach m an, i f h e i s m arried , w ill c lear a g arden p lot f or h is w ives t o g row m anioc,

a nd,

i f h e h as t hem ,

f or h is m arried d aughters a lso.

T enure o f

t he l and c ontinues f or a s l ong a s t he m an l ives. I f am an d ies, t he 6 T his c an w omen i n h is f amily n o l onger h ave t he u se o f t he g arden. 1 c ause h ardship f or w omen w ho l ack b oth f athers a nd h usbands. 1 7 T he p roduce o f t he g ardens b elongs e ntirely t o t he f amily w ho f arms t hem t here i s n o i mperative, a s w ith m eat, t o s hare. I n a ddition t o t he m ain g ardens, u se i s a lso m ade o f t he r ich s ilt l eft b y r iver f loods t o g row p eanuts, m aize a nd w atermelon. 1 8 T hese p lots a re l ess f ormally m arked, b ut o wnership s till r esides i n t he p lanter a nd t heft i s a s ource o f t ension. 1 9 T he p lants o f t he f orest a re r egarded a s c ommon p roperty a nd k nowledge o f p opular o r v aluable r esources i s s hared . 2° O ne m ay s ee t hat t here i s a v ariety o f r ules g overning r esource o wnership i n t he S haranahua e conomy. M eat a nd g athered f oods a re s hared a mongst a ll t he v illage, b ut t he a gricultural p roduce i s t he p roperty o f t he f amily w ho g rows i t. T he l and c an o nly b e o wned b y m en but o nce i ts u se c eases i t r everts t o t he c ommon p roperty. 21 T his h as t he e ffect o f s eparating l and f rom i ts c rops -a r emnant, p erhaps, o f t raditional v iews o f e galitarian a ccess t o r esources? T he k ey p oint i s t hat t he m ost i mportant r esource, a gricultural p roduce, i s t ightly c ontrolled -a f eature w hich h as p arallels i n t he h ereditary o wnership o f v ital r esources i n h unter-gatherer g roups. T he M aricopa a re a t ribe o f I ndians w hich f orm p art o f t he Y uma c ommunity o f s outhern A rizona i n t he U nited S tates. 22 B y t he e arly 1 930's l ittle r emained o f t he t raditional e conomy b ut s ome d etails o f l and o wnership h ad s urvived. F ields w ere o wned b y m en b ut w orked b y w omen. T itle w as h ereditary i n t he m ale l ine a nd f ailure t o w ork a p lot d id n ot r esult i n r eversion o f t hat l and t o t he c ommunal 1 13.

o wnership.

2 3

M eat g enerally c ame f rom g ame a nd w as s hared w ith

f amily

a nd f riends, 24 w hilst w ild f oods w ere f reely g athered b y a l1. 25 B efore t he i ntroduction o f w heat t here w as a g reater r eliance o n w ild f oods I t i s l ike m esquite b eans, s upplemented b y t he g rowing o f c orn. 26 p ossible t herefore t hat c ustoms o f l and t enure h ave u ndergone s ome c hange.

A s w ith t he S haranahua a lthough t he m en o wn a nd p lant t he

C learly l and t enure i s p art f ields t heir p rincipal t ask i s h unting. 27 o f t he m eans o f s afeguarding t he m ajor f ood s ource. C hieftainship a mongst t he M aricopa w as h ereditary a lthough t he a ctual r ole w as s omewhat v ague.

2 8

P erhaps i t i s b est d escribed a s

T here i s n othing t o s uggest b eing a c onvenor o f c ouncil d iscussions. L9 t hat t he c hief w as o f a r icher o r m ore p owerful f amily. T he M aricopa a dopted a h ereditary s ystem b ecause t hey f elt t hat a s on w ould have r eceived t he c orrect i nstruction f rom t he f ather; n evertheless t hey w ould p ass o ver a n i ncompetent s on f or a nother c lose r elative o n t he f ather 's s ide. 3° T he a ctual a ntiquity o f t he s ystem i s u nknown -it m ay h ave b een l argely a r esult o f M exican i nterference i n M aricopan

3 1 a ffairs w hen t he t ribe l ived i n M exico i n t he e arly n ineteenth c entury. W e n ow m ove t o t he o ther s ide o f t he P acific. L and t enure s ystems a re f airly u niform t hroughout N ew G uinea a nd M elanesia. T he M aenge o f N ew B ritain a llot e ach m arried c ouple a b lock within t he

i mmediate t erritory o f t he v illage. P art o f t he b lock i s c leared a nd w hen i ts c rop i s g athered i t i s l eft f allow a nd a n ew p lot i s c leared P A s v illage p opulations r ise n ew b locks o f l and f urther f rom t he v illage a re a llotted. 33 T he v illage r etains s ome r ights o ne o f which being t he m aintenance o f r ights o f w ay. 34 I n g eneral, h owever, t he l ocal b ig-man h as s upervision o ver l ands o ccupied b y m embers o f h is d escent g roup. T his i s o ften e xpressed i n o rganising c ommunal w ork p arties i n f encing b locks o r c learing w ork. l ong a s i t i s w orked,

3 5

i .e.

I n t heory t enure o f l and i s h eld o nly a s i t w ould r evert a fter a y ear's c ropping w hen

i t b ecomes f allow , b ut i n r eality t he t enure l asts f or t he l ifetime o f t he o ccupant. 36 W idows, o r w idowers, a lthough n ot o f t he s ame d escent g roup a s t he o riginal o ccupant c ould c ontinue o ccupancy i f t hey d ecided n ot t o r eturn t o t heir n ative v illages o n t heir s pouse's d eath. 37 C hildren d o n ot i nherit i n t he s trict s ense b ecause o f m atrilinear d escent r ules b ut t hey e njoy a p riority o f u sage i n t he way o f widows a nd w idowers. 38 C omplications a re c reated i n t his s ystem w hen l and o utside o f t he v illage s ystem i s c laimed a nd c leared b y i ndividuals, o r w hen a p articular t ype o f w ild t ree i s f ound a nd t ended b y a n i ndividual. T hese a ssets c ould b e i nherited b y c hildren . 39 I n a ddition i t i s p ossible f or s omeone o utside o f a p articular d escent g roup t o a cquire l and, o r a n a sset l ike a t ree, b y g ift o r p urchase. O n t he d eath o f t he o ccupant t he l and w ould r evert t o t he d escent g roup i f i t was a g ift, b ut i f t he l and w as p urchased, e specially i f i t w as m ade c lear t hat t he p urchase w as m ade f or t he p urchaser's c hildren t hen t itle w as g enerally s ecure. 40 T o s ummarise, l and t enure i s i nitially a c ommunity d ecision b ut a s d escent g roups d evelop, t he a llotment a nd u se o f l and a nd r esources i s i nvested i n t he a uthority o f t he b ig-man . T his s ociety i s m atril inear i n d escent a nd t herefore d irect i nheritance o f l and i s n ot g eneral. T here a re e xceptions w here l and o utside o f t he v illage t errit ory i s c laimed a nd w orked,

o r w here s ome l and o r a ssets a re p urchased 14. 1

t hese c an b e i nherited b y c hildren. I n a ll c ases t he p roduce i s t he p roperty o f t he g rower. E xceptions a re m ade i n t he c ase o f t rees w hich a re e xempted f rom t he n ormal u ncle/nephew i nheritance p racti9e i n m atrilinear s ocieties a nd g enerally p ass f rom f ather t o s on. 41 O ver t he l ast f ew c enturies t here h as d eveloped a s trong t rend t owards t he b reaking d own o f t he a vuncular i nheritance r ules i n t hese s ocieties.

H ogbin h as n oted e fforts b y f athers t o e nsure t hat t heir

c hildren w ill i nherit t heir p roperty, r ather t han t heir u terine T his c hange s eems t o b e a l ocal m anifestation r ather t han n ephews. 42 a r esult o f t he E uropean c ontact. 43 F urther s train h as b een p laced o n t he t raditional s ystem o f t he M aenge b y E uropean i ntroduced c ash c rops -in t his c ase c opra. C ash c ropping w as s een b y m any t o b e a44 w ay o f b reaking f ree o f t he c onstraints o f t he t raditional s ystems. L arger a mounts o f l and w ere n eeded t han w ere a llotted u nder t he t radit ional s ystem a nd w hilst t he p urchasers w ere a ble t o a cquire t he l and, a nd t he r ights o f d irect i nheritance, f or t he " standard" p rice o f a p ig a nd a b ag o f r ice, t he r ewards t hey e njoyed w ere o bviously g reater a nd a ccordingly p urchases f or t he p urpose o f c ash c ropping n ow n eed t o b e m ade i n c ash. 45 C ash c ropping h as a lso s erved t o p revent f ree t ransfer o f r everted l and f rom i ts d escent g roup h olders t o t he p rosp ective e ntrepreneur. " T hese l ater d evelopments, w hilst o f i nterest, a re o f l ess r elevance t o t he d iscussion s ave t o d emonstrate t he w ays i n w hich t enure s ystems m ay b e m odified. T he p eople o f t he v illage o f A kuna i n t he c entral h ighlands o f N ew G uinea h ave a l and t enure s ystem w hich, w ith i ts d escent l ine a nd c lan c entred f eatures, m irrors t he M elanesian t raditions. T here a re, h owever, s ome l ocal f eatures w hich a re o f i nterest. P igs a re a n i mportant s ource o f m eat a nd t hey a re a llowed t o f orage f or f ood i n t he f orest a reas n ear t he v illage. A f armer w ho a ppropriates f ree l and w hich i s a f avourite f orage a rea o f t he p igs h as l ittle r ecourse t o v illage s upport i f h is l and a nd c rops a re r avaged . 47 A f urther v ariation i s t hat c hildren, b oth m ale a nd f emale, c an i nherit t heir p arents' p roperty. T his s ystem h as t he i deal o f e quality b ut i n f act t ends t o f avour m ales. 48 I n p articular, t rees a nd v arious s tanding s hrubs a re a ccepted a s b eing i n t he m ale r ealm o f i nterest a nd t hus a re o nly i nherited b y m ales. 49 T rees b eing a l ong t erm c rop e ndure w hen t he l and o n w hich t hey g row h as r everted t o t he c ommon o wnership a s s uch t hey r emain t he p roperty o f t heir o riginal o wner, e ven i f t he l and i s a cquired b y s omeone e lse. 5 ° A s w ith t he o ther e xamples t he m en o wn a nd c reate t he g ardens b ut t hey a re w orked a nd h arvested b y t he w omen w ho, t hus, h ave r eal c ontro1. 51 T he T sembaga o f t he M adang d istrict o f N ew G uinea h ave a s ystem o f l and t enure w hich i s b ased o n c lan o r s ubclan m embership w ith a n i mportant c omponent o f p atrilinear i nheritance. I n a ddition l and c an b e a cquired b y c learing v irgin f orest. 52 I nequities i n t his s ystem a re r emedied b y t ransfers o f l and t o c lan m embers w ho h ave s hortages o f l and. T his c ustom s erves t o p revent e conomic p roblems w hich c ould c ause s ome s ocial d isruption. 33 I t h as a lso, b ecause o f c omplicated r elations b etween t he t hree s ub-clan's a nd t he d esire f or e quity i n l and h olding, c reated s ituations w here m any p eople w ork l and w hich d oes n ot f orm p art o f t heir s ub-clan's o riginal b lock. 54 T his e xample o ffers q uite c lear e vidence o f l and t enure b eing i ntended t o e nsure t he b est e xploitation o f r esources.

15. 1

L and u se d isplays t he u sual s exual d ivision o f l abour.

T he m en

c lear t he s crub, f ell t he t rees a nd d o t he i nitial b urning. W omen d o m ost o f t he p lanting, e xcept f or b ananas a nd s ugar c ane a nd a re r espons ible f or h arvesting. 55 T he s exual d ivision o f l abour w orks a lso t o a dd t o t he e fficiency o f l and u se. A s i t i s t he m en w ho h ave t enure i t i s p ossible t hat a m an m ay p ossess f ar m ore l and t han h is i mmediate f amily c ould w ork. T his p ossible m ismanagement i s a voided b y w omen m aking g ardens w ith t heir w idowed f ather a nd t heir o wn o r t heir h usband's u nmarried b rothers. C onversely a m an w ould m ake g ardens w ith h is u nmarried s isters o r aw idowed m other. 5 6 O bviously t he s ystem i s i ntended t o f ulfill t he c onditions o f c lan a nd s ub-clan r elationships, b ut i ts e conomic e ffect i s t o i ncrease t he a mount o f p roduce, a nd t o c reate a m ore e ven d istribution. T he p roduce i s t he p roperty o f t he g ardening p air. C rops a re m ainly t aro, y am a nd s weet p otato, b ut t here a re a n umber o f o ther v egetables g rown. T hese i nclude manioc, n asturt ium , h ibiscus, p eas, b eans, c ucumber, p arsley a nd w atercress. R ecently i ntroduced c rops i nclude c orn, m aize,

p aw p aw a nd t obacco.

5 7

H unting a nd g athering d oes n ot c ontribute s taples t o t he e conomy . ut t A v ariety o f a nimals a re h unted 58 b heir c ontribution t o t he d iet i s n ot a s i mportant a s e lsewhere b ecause t he T sembaga r aise p igs a nd c hickens. 59 L and t enure a nd r esource o wnership i n t hese s ocieties i s a f ar c ry f rom t he h ereditary r esource o wnership s ystems i n h unter-gatherer g roups. t enure.

T here i s c lear p rivate r esource o wnership a nd f ormalised l and N o p rivately g rown r esources a re c onsidered c ommunal p roperty

a nd t here a re d irect s anctions a gainst t heft a s a gainst o ther a ntis ocial b ehaviour. ° T he l ast a reas o f c ommunal r esource u se a re t he f orests y et t heir e conomic i mportance v aries. W hilst t he S haranahua r ely o n t he f orest f or t heir m eat, t he T sembaga h ave a lmost a bandoned t his s ource i n p reference t o d omestic a nimals. T he o bvious d ifference b etween t he t wo e conomies i s t he r emoval o f t he r esource b ase f rom d ispersal i n t he e nvironment t o i ts c oncent ration, a nd c ontrol, w ithin t he a mbit o f a p ermanent s ettlement. T enure o f l and, a nd t he d estruction o f c ommunally a vailable r esources w hen t he l and i s c leared a nd p rivately o ccupied, i s r endered s ocially a cceptable b y s ocial r ules w hich t ake i nto a ccount k inship a ffiliations a nd t he o verall n eeds o f t he i ndividual m embers o f t he s ociety ( I w ould l ike t o e mphasise t hat t he m echanics o r b enefits o f t he d evelopment o f a griculture a re n ot t he p urpose o f t his d iscussion). T he p olitical e ffect o f t he t ransition i s t o c hange t he r esponsibility f or t he m anagement o f v ital r esources. I n t he h unter-gatherer c ommunities v ital o r s ingular r esources a re s ometimes o wned b y i ndividuals. t hat t hey a re m anaged a nd p rotected,

T he p urpose o f t his i s t o e nsure a nd m eans t hat t his r esponsibility

l ies w ith o ne p erson i nstead o f t he s ociety. T his p erson a cts o n b ehalf o f t he w hole c ommunity -their o wnership i s, i n e ffect, a s tewardship. I n t he f arming c ommunity t he r esource b ase h as b een n arrowed a nd o nly t he m ost f avoured r esources a re c oncentrated u pon. R esources a re n o l onger e qually s hared a t t he c ommunity l evel a nd i nstead e ach f amily h as a ssumed t he t ask o f g rowing t heir o wn p ortion o f t he s taple. T he e ffect i s t o t ransfer t he r esponsibility f or t he m anagement o f v ital r esources f rom o ne p erson t o t he w hole c ommunity. T his t ransfer o f e conomic c ontrol i s, h owever, o nly a r esult o f t he 16. 1

t ransition n ot a c ause. T he h ereditary c omponent o f h unter-gatherer r esource m anagement i s a lso t ransformed. I t b ecomes a p art o f t he c lan a nd k inship s ystems b y w hich e ach c ommunity m ember e stablishes t heir r ights w ithin t he l and t enure s ystem .6 1 T he o ffice o f c hief i s t ransf ormed a lso. T heir o riginal f unction a nd r eason f or b eing i s n ow a f unction o f e very l and h older, a nd, t herefore, a gricultural c ommunities h ave e volved a d ifferent f orm o f c hieftainship -one w hich i s b uilt a round t he r esolution o f d isputes a rising f rom c ompeting i nterests i n r esource e xploitation, a nd t he r edistribution o f r esources w ithin t he 2 c ommunity .6 6 .3

S ocial S tratification a nd t he T ransition t o A griculture

B arbara B ender h as a rgued t hat t he d omestication o f r esources m ay h ave b een a d evelopment o f t he a ctivities o f s ome h unter-gatherer l eaders, w ho w ere s eeking t o m aintain t heir p osition t hrough i ncreasing An ecessary p art o f t his t heir k nowledge a nd c ontrol o f r esources. 63 a im i s t he a bility t o c ontrol i mportant r esources f or r edistribution, a nd t his i s b est a chieved t hrough s edentism a nd t hus e nsuring t he p rotection o f t hem . 64 I f ind l ittle t o d isagree w ith i n t his v iew, a lthough a s I d iscuss i n t he n ext c hapter t he e xact n ature o f r edist ribution i s n ot a s c lear c ut a s B ender's a rgument s uggests. I n a b road s ense, h owever, t he a rchaeological e vidence s upports t he i dea o f g raduated s edentism . A n i mportant e xample i s t he N atufian s edentary O f i nterest i s t he c ontemporaneous h unter-gatherers o f P alestine. 65 K ebaran G eometric B g roup w hich, a lthough u sually d escribed a s a ould s eparate p opulation o f m ore t raditional h unter-gatherers, 66 c p ossibly b e t he s pecialised h unting t ool k it o f t he N atufian. A nother i nteresting e xample, a nd o ne w hich I h ave d iscussed i n c hapter 2 , i s t he s edentary h unter-gatherer s ociety o f t he A merican n orth-west. 67 T hese t ypes o f c ultures a re o ften c ited a s r epresenting a t rans itional f orm o f e conomy , a nd o ne i n w hich t he w ealth o f r esources a llowed t he e galitarian s haring p rocess t o b ecome m ore s ymbolic t han r eal, i .e . p otlach ( see b elow ). R ecent a rticles h ave s uggested t hat a p art o f t his a nti-egalitarian p rocess m ay h ave b een t he d evelopment o f f ood s torage, i n w hich i ndividuals b uilt u p s upplies w hich c ould b e e xchanged . " T his r esulted i n i ncreased w illingness t o s pecialise i n p articular c rops o r a nimals a s c ommodities i n s tatus s eeking t rade a ctivities, w hich, i n t urn , w ould o ffer f urther i ncentives f or d omest ication. " M ore r ecently a f urther s uggestion h as b een m ade w hich a rgues t hat t he p resence i n g raves o f " wealth" o bjects s uch a s f ine c arvings a re i ndicators o f c ommunities w hich u sed t hese a s " money" f or e xchange f or f ood o r o ther c ommodities. 7° T he a ccumulation o f t hese o bjects w ould o ffer a nother m eans o f a cquiring s tatus ( see t he d iscuss ion o f t he O len I sland c emetery i n c hapter 5 ). Im ust a dmit t o r eservations a bout t he i nfluence o f f ood s torage o n t he d evelopment o f d omestic e conomies . O ne m ight e xpect t hat a n a bundance o f w ild f ood w ould s erve t o e ncourage t he c ontinuation o f h unter-gatherer e conomies 1 I t i s a lso a rguable r ather t han c reate t he c onditions f or c hange. 7 t hat t he g eneral e galitarian a ttitude t owards f ood s ources i n h unterg atherer c ommunities ( key r esources e xcepted) m ight p revent f ood s torage -the e xamples n oted b y W oodburn a nd d iscussed a bove a re p ertinent. I f, h owever, i t i s a f actor t hen t here m ust h ave b een a p re-existing a ttitude i n t he c ommunity w hich a llowed a cceptance o f " ownership", a nd t his a dds w eight t o m y a rgument e xpressed i n c hapter t wo. 72 1 17.

O verall, h owever, t hese r ecent s uggestions a re b est v iewed a s v ariations o f B ender's h ypothesis r ather t han a s n ew t heoretical m odels.

7 3

A nother i mportant f eature o f B ender's m odel

i s

t hat s he

q uestions d omestication t heories w hich r ely o n i ncreases i n p opulation t o p rompt r adical m eans o f a lleviating f ood c rises, n oting t hat w hilst t hese m ay h ave o ccurred i n s outh-west A sia, t hey d o n ot o ccur e lsewhere. 7 4 I t hink, h owever, t hat t he d emographic m odel h as g reat r elevance. F lannery's d emonstration t hat t he n eed t o e stablish v iable c ommunities i n m arginal a reas h as t he e ffect o f t ransporting s pecies a nd t hus p romoting t heir d omestication, i s v alid i n t he r egions where i t c an b e a pplied, i .e. s outh-west A sia. 7 5 N evertheless B ender's t heory d oes g ive u s a nother w ay i n w hich h uman i ntervention,

r ather t han a ccident,

h as c reated t he c onditions o f o ur e xistence . A c ombination o f t he t wo m odels p rovides a p lausible m eans t o u nderstand t he n eed f or d omesticat ion a nd i ts s ubsequent e conomic d omination. O f f urther i nterest i s B ender's r ecognition o f a nti-egalitarian m otives a s p roviding t he i mpulse f or d omestication. B ut s he a rgues f rom t he c onventional v iew t hat t his r epresents a M odification o f t he e galitarian p attern a s h uman s ociety d evelops, a nd t hat 4

r emains,

i n

t he s impler s ocieties, o f s ingle-generational c haracter. 7° T he o verall t hrust, h owever, i s t o c reate a n e litist e xploitative m odel f or r esource c ontrol. T his i s p robably t he l ong t erm e ffect, b ut a s I h ave d emonstrated t his i s l ess c ertain i n t he s impler e conomies w here h ered itary c ontrol i s a p ositive, n on-exploitative, m eans o f r esource m anagement. Iw ould l ike t o s uggest a m odification t o t his m odel.

T he

i mpulse f or c ontrol o f k ey r esources i s n ot a r esult o f a mbition f or e lite s tatus i n o therwise e galitarian s ocieties. I nstead i t d erives f rom t he d emonstrable h ereditary c ontrol o f s ome i mportant r esources w hich i s a n on-exploitative s ystem o f r esource " ownership". T hese r esources a re t he k ey t o t he e stablishment o f n ew t erritories w hen f ood s hortage,

o r o ther s tresses,

c reate t he n eed f or hunter-gatherer

b ands t o s plit. O bviously i n a reas o f s parse r esources t he c ompetition f or t hese r esources w ould c reate e ither f ierce r ivalry o r, a s a ppears t o b e t he c ase i n s imilar r egions t oday, a g reater r eluctance t o s plit u p b ands 7 7 s ociety.

W itness t he t oleration o f h uman f railty i n ! Kung o r E skimo I n r egions s uch a s t he A merican n orth-west where r esources

a re m uch m ore p lentiful t here w ould b e l ess d ificulty i n r esponding t o t he s tress o f p opulation r ises b y c reating n ew t erritories. T here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t he b asic p rincipal o f h ereditary c ontrol o f r esources t o p rotect t hem w ould n ot c ontinue. I n f act i t i s t his p rinciple w hich l ies a t t he b ase o f t he h ighly c omplex r esource o wners hip a mongst t he I ndians o f t he American n orth-west ( see c hapter 2 ), a nd t here i s a pparently n o r eal r estriction t o c ommunal a ccess. T he m eans b y w hich e galitarian p rinciple i s s ymbolically a ffirmed i s t he p otlach w hich i s b oth t he r ecognition o f e lite s tatus a nd t he m eans b y w hich c ommunal a ccess i s r e-affirmed. T his i s s till t he s ame, a lthough s omewhat d isguised, r esource p rotection s ystem o f t he s impler hunterg atherers, b ut t he e ssential d ifference,

a s B ender n otes,

i s t he m ove

t o s edentism w hich a rises f rom r esource a bundance. T he c reation o f s edentary h unter-gatherers i s b ut a s hort s tep f rom s edentary f arming c ommunities. 18. 1

P ressures o n t he r esources within

t he t erritory w ould s erve t o s trengthen t he a lready e xisting r esource m anagement s ystems a nd h ereditary p ositions w ould a cquire m ore i mporta nce b oth f or e conomic r easons, a nd b ecause t he o ption o f a voiding c onflict b y b and f ragmentation h as b ecome l ess a vailable. T his l atter c ondition w ould c reate a g reater n eed f or c onflict r esolution i n l eadership t asks a nd t hus t he n ature o f c hieftainship w ould u ndergo a p rofound c hange. S imultaneous m odifications i n t he r esource b ase a nd t he d evelopment o f d omesticated r esources w ould m ean t hat n ew l eaders hip

f orms w ould b ecome a p art o f t he a gricultural r evolution.

W e t herefore h ave a n a nswer t o t he p roblem o f a lienation o f r esources i n t he t ransition t o d omestic e conomies. I n t he d iscussion o f t he d ifferences b etween h unter-gatherer l and t enure s ystems a nd t hose i n s imple f arming c ommunities I a rgued t hat t he r ole o f t he r esource p rotector i n h unter-gatherer b ands h ad d evolved u pon t he i ndividual i n t he f arming c ommunity. T his w as b ecause t hat w hilst t he c ommunal r esources w ere n ow i ndividually o wned, t he e galitarian p rinc ipal o f r esource u se w as p rotected i n t he c lan a nd k inship s ystems w hich c reated s ystems o f o pening t he l and f or t hose w ho n eeded i t. T he d eveloped h unter-gatherer s ocieties 78 a re t he k ey t hat l inks s edent ary a nd n on-sedentary u se o f r esources. R unning t hrough a ll t hree s ystems i s a cceptance o f h ereditary r oles, a nd w hilst t hese m ay c hange , t he t rend i s t owards g reater p restige t o a ccrue t o t hose w ho h old t hem . U nder t hese c onditions i t i s n ecessary t o v iew ! Kung a nd H adza r eject ion o f a griculture n ot a s a n ormal h unter-gatherer r eaction b ut s imply a s an a berration a rising f rom t he u nique c onditions o f t heir o wn s ocieties.

1 19.

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7 3 .

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7 4.

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7. 7

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1 978 , p .

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1 23 .

C HAPTER 7 S OCIETY I N N EOLITHIC E UROPE: 7 .1

S OME C ONSIDERATIONS

I ntroduction I n t his c hapter I a m b reaking t emporarily f rom t he d iscussion o f

a s ingle t heme w hich i s t he c haracteristic o f t he p receding c hapters. M y p urpose i s t o r eview a number o f i ssues t hat, w hilst t hey a re o ften d iscussed i n r elation t o w ider p roblems o f s ocial s tructure i n t he N eolithic, a re o f s ome i mportance t o t he p roblem o f h ereditary s ocial s tratification. A s s uch t hey f orm p art o f t he g eneral a ssumptions t hat u nderly s tatements c oncerning s ocial c lasses i n p rehistory. T hese i ssues c over a w ide r ange o f s ubjects i ncluding t erritorial p atterns, t ransitional e conomies, c olonisation, a nd a n ewer f ield o f s tudy -the s tructuralist a nalysis o f a rtefacts. A nother a rea o f i nquiry, a nd t he o ne w hich h as c onstituted t he m ain b asis f or i nvestigation o f s ocial r anking i n p rehistory,

i s

t he d istribution o f r ich b urials a nd t he

a ccompanying g rave-goods. M y r eason f or d iscussing t hese m atters s eparately i s t o a void m aking t he e xamination o f

t he a rchaeological e vidence, which w ill b e

d one i n t he f ollowing c hapters, t oo u nwieldly. A lso t he g enerally t heoretical a nd e xperimental n ature o f s ome o f t his work d emands s ome s eparate d iscussion o f i ts r elevance a nd m ethodology b efore i t c an b e a pplied t o t he c onventional s ite e vidence . T here i s ah eavy e mphasis u pon w estern E uropean a nd B ritish e vidence w hich i s i ntentional. T wo c onditions h ave c reated t his e mphasis. T he f irst i s a f airly s imple c ase o f g eographical b ias i n t he a rchaeological m aterial w hich s ees m ost o f t he m ajor w ork u pon s ocial s tructure i n N eolithic E urope b eing o n w estern European o r B ritish t hemes. T he s econd o ccurs b ecause i t i s o ften e asier t o d etect s ocial c hanges i n f ringe c ultures w hich h ave n ot a cquired t he m ore c omplex s ocial s tructures o f t heir d eveloped n eighbours. E urope a nd B ritain w ere t he l ast t o u ndergo

W estern

un eolithization" 1

a nd

t herefore t he e arliest f eatures a re m ost l ikely t o h ave b een p reserved f or l onger. B ecause o f t hese c onditions t he d iscussion i n t he l ater c hapters w ill c losely f ollow t he w estern e vents, a nd t hus t he e mphasis o f 7 .2

t his c hapter. T he N eolithic C olonization o f B ritain T he N eolithic c olonization o f t he B ritish I sles i s o f c onsider-

a ble i mportance t o o ur d iscussion o f s ocial s tructure. U nlike t he s pread o f t he f arming e conomy i n c ontinental E urope ( discussed i n c hapter 8 ), w hich h ad l ittle i mpediment e xcept t he c learing o f f orests, t he i ntroduction o f f arming t o B ritain r equired t he c rossing o f a l arge b ody o f w ater. T his b arrier c reated t he n eed t o b e a ble t o t ransport l ivestock a nd g rain, a s w ell a s h uman b eings, i n a s afe a nd a n e ffect ive w ay, s o t hat t he f arming e conomy c ould b e r esumed i n t he n ew l and w ithin t he c onstraints c aused b y c limatic a nd s easonal f actors. T he n ew s ettlers a lso f aced t he p roblem o f d ealing w ith a nd, i f n ecessary, o vercoming a ny r esistance t hat m ay h ave b een o ffered b y t he a boriginal i nhabitants o f t he i slands, w hose M esolithic h unter-gatherer e conomy w as a bout t o b e s uperseded. I t s eems v ery l ikely, i n v iew o f t hese c onditions, t hat w e a re n ot d ealing w ith a s eries o f r andom s ettlements 1 24.

t hat,

s omehow,

c oalesced i n t he s pan o f s everal c enturies i nto a

t hriving f arming e conomy, b ut i nstead q uite p ossibly w ith a n umber o f w ell p lanned a nd r elatively l arge m igrations o f f armers a nd t heir s tock.

T hese v arious c onditions a rgue f or t he e xistence o f a f air

l evel o f s ocial l eadership a nd d irection i n t he p arent c ommunities i n w estern E urope -the e vidence f or w hich I d iscuss i n t he n ext c hapter. G raeme B arker's s uggestion t hat t he p opulations o f

t he e arliest

f arming c ommunities i n t he B ritish I sles w ere l argely i ndigenous 2 i s a ttractive, b ut i t r emains n evertheless t rue t hat d omestic a nimals s uch a s s heep, c attle a nd g oats, a nd d omestic p lants s uch a s t he c ereal c rops w ere n ot.

N or, o ne m ight s uspect, w as t he e xpertise o f

f arming a nd, t herefore, t hese c ommodities b oth a gricultural a nd i ntell ectual h ad t o b e i ntroduced f rom E urope. W e w ill p robably n ever k now t he r easons u nderlying t he i ntroduction o f t he d omestic e conomy, b ut f actors s uch a s p opulation p ressure o r e ndemic w arfare m ay h ave c ontributed. I n 1 969 C ase d iscussed i n d etail t he m any p roblems a ssociated w ith t he i ntroduction o f t he N eolithic e conomy t o B ritain, s uch a s t he c arriage o f a nimals i n s kin b oats, t he p reservation o f g rain a nd m ost i mportantly t he n eed t o a dhere t o p lanting s easons. 3 H e s uggested t hat t he e arliest s ettlement c onsisted o f s mall g roups w ho m ay h ave i niti ally m ade o nly s hort s tays, p erhaps t o p lant c rops o r d espatch s tock f or s ummer g razing. 4 T he l ack o f e xact p arallels b etween t he f irst B ritish N eolithic p ottery ( Windmill H ill, H embury, e tc.) a nd i ts p oss ible c ontinental a ntecedents h e e xplains b y s uggesting t hat t he r igours o f t he C hannel c rossing d iscouraged t he c arriage o f p ottery. T here f ollowed, h e f urther s uggests, a l ongish p eriod o f p ioneering w ork when p ottery c ontainers w ere n ot u sed a nd t he n eeds o f s torage w ere m et w ith l eather b ags o r w icker c ontainers. T hus w hen p ottery m aking w as r esumed t he w are p roduced b ore o nly g eneralised r esemblances t o t he c ontinental t ypes. 5 O bviously t he p ioneering p eriod, w hatever i ts l ength, w as a p eriod o f a djustment t o t he B ritish c onditions a nd i n t he s truggle f or s urvival l ittle t ime w as a vailable f or e xtravagant f uneral c ustoms s uch a s t he g reat t ombs, o r t he c onstruction o f c ausew ayed c amps, s o m uch a f eature o f t he e stablished N eolithic p eriod. C ase h as p rovided a n e xplanation o f t he

' mechanics'

o f t he

i nitial p rocess o f s ettlement b ut w hy t his w as b egun r emains u ncertain a part f rom t he v agaries o f p opulation p ressure. T o g o b eyond C ase's e xcellent d iscussion w e h ave n o e vidence w hich o ffers d etails o f t he i nteractions b etween t he M esolithic n ative p opulations a nd t he f irst a griculturists a nd p astoralists. W ere t here i solated v iolent t ragedies a s e arly s ettlers w ere k illed b y n atives s eeking t o p rotect t heir l and? D id t he N eolithic s ettlers f inally o vercome t his o pposition t hrough d int o f a s uperior t echnology? o r w ere f orms o f t reaty c reated w hich c eded l and i n r eturn f or p ayment? W e h ave n o e vidence t o o ffer a ny a nswers t o t hese q uestions. T here a re n o g raves w ith t heir p athetic r emains o f t ragic d eath. N othing i n t he N eolithic m aterial a ssemblage s uggests t echnological s uperiority, a nd p ayment f or l and s eems u nlikely g iven t he p robability t hat b oth s ettlers a nd l ocal p eoples e xisted u pon i dentical r esources. T his i s a c olonisation e xpectations. N o g raves d otting t he b ush o r r elict p opulations l iving o ut t he d ecline o f o n t he f ringe o f p rogress, a nd n o w eapons o f 1 25.

p rocess a lien t o o ur p rairie, n o d isplaced a nd t heir w orld a s d wellers c onquest. A ll t he e vidence

s uggests t hat t he N eolithic a rrival o ccurred w ithout r esistance, a s i f t he l and l ay b are a nd d epopulated,

a lmost

o pen f or s ettlement.

G iven t hese c onsiderations i t i s p ossible t hat t he N eolithic c olonists d id n ot c ome t o a v irgin l and o f h unter-gatherers. I n c hapter 5 I d iscussed t he n ature o f t he M esolithic e conomy a nd t he w ork o f B arker w ho a rgued f or t he i ncreasing t rend t owards s tockm anagement, e specially t he r ed d eer h erds. T he a vailable e vidence f rom t he M esolithic s uggests t hat i t w as a p eriod o f i ncreasing s edentarin ess i n s ettlement a s t he o pening o f f orests c reated n ew n iches f or e xpanded q uantities o f v egetable f oods. 6 I t i s l ikely, t herefore, t hat t he N eolithic e conomy c ame n ot a s a n a lien s ystem b ut a s a n i mprovement t o a lready e stablished s ystems. T he r aising o f c attle a nd s heep d emanded

l ittle c hange i n h erd m anagement s kills,

i nitially a t l east,

l earnt f rom t he c are o f r ed d eer. S owing o f w heat a nd barley i n f orest c learings m ay h ave o ffered a n ew f ood s ource n ot a t o dds w ith t he s emis edentary e conomy, a nd a t f irst p robably o nly a s mall p art o f t he d iet, s upplementing w ild f oods. U nder t hese c ircumstances i t i s e ven p ossi ble t hat s ome l ocal p eople l earnt t he t echniques o n t he c ontinent, i ntroducing t hem t o B ritain i ndependently o f N eolithic s ettlers. T he m ajor q uestion w hich a rises f rom t hese c onsiderations,

i n

r egard t o o ur c entral t heme, c oncerns t he h ierarchical s tructure i n t hese p roto-Neolithic c ommunities. I n p articular, i s i t p ossible t o d etect e lements o f l eadership i n t hese e vents, b eyond t hat o f

t he

s imple f amily h ierarchies i n e galitarian c ommunities? I n s eems o bvious t hat a ttempts t o o pen u p a nd s ettle n ew l and, e specially o ne w hich r equired a s ea-voyage b oth d angerous a nd l ong d istance, w ould n ot b e s pur-of-the-moment o r h aphazard d ecisions. C ase s uggests t hat t he k nowledge o f t he n ew l and m ay h ave b een o btained w hen s mall g roups d etached f rom t he m ain c ommunity,or m aking u se o f s lack p eriods i n t he s easonal a ctivities a ssociated w ith a griculture went e xploring. 7 L ong s ea-voyages w ould n ot h ave b een e xtraordinary i n t he c ommunities a long t he w estern E uropean c oast w ith a l ong e conomic A lso, t radition a ssociated w ith M esolithic s trandlooping a ctivities. 8 a nd v ery i mportantly, t hese c ommunities m ay h ave p ractised s ome f orm o f s hifting a griculture which h ad c onditioned t hem t o r egular , a nd a t t imes h azardous m ovement. I f t hey e xisted a t t he f ringe o f m ore s ettled c ommunities t hen t he r ichness o f r esources o ffered b y t he B ritish I sles w ould h ave b een a p owerful i ncentive t o u ndertake t he v oyage a cross t he C hannel. T his p robable c haracteristic o f t he e arly s ettlers m ay s erve t o e xplain w hy t he B ritish c ommunities e volved a s d ispersed g roups c entred o n f arms r ather t han v illages -their c ontact w ith t he M esolithic h unter-gatherers r einforcing t heir o wn s ocial o rganisation. 9 N evertheless, w hilst t his m ay e xplain w hy t hey m oved w e s till n eed t o i nvestigate h ow t hey m oved, e specially i n r egard t o t he c ondit ions c reated b y s easonality a nd t he p roblems o f g rain a nd s tock t ransp ortation o ver w ater a s d escribed b y C ase. 1 ° T his c reates s omewhat o f a p roblem . W hilst p lentiful e vidence o f t he o rganisation a nd e conomics o f c olonisation e xists, e .g. E uropeans i n A merica, A frica a nd Australia , w here t he s ettlers w ere t ransported t o r egions d istant f rom t heir h omel ands, t hese p eople, l ike t he R omans w ho s ettled i n B ritain w ere g iven g reat s upport u sually i n t he f orm o f m ilitary p rotection a nd s ome f orms o f o fficial e ncouragement a nd a ssistance. I t i s f air t o a ssume t hat 1 26.

t he N eolithic s ettlers w ould n ot h ave t hese a dvantages. N or c ould t hey h ave a rranged t he m ove i n e asy s tages. T he p roblems o f p rotecting c rops a nd a nimals w ould h ave r equired t heir o wners t o s ettle i mmedia tely, r ather t han r eturning t o t he p arent c ommunity. T his w ould n ecessitate e ither i mporting f ood o r l iving o ff t he l and u ntil t he c rops were h arvested . I n a ddition t o t he l abour n eeded f or l and c learance, p erhaps t he p ossibility o f h ostile n atives w ould c reate t he n eed f or a l arge i nitial s ettlement p opulation a s p rotection -this n eed w ould c ontribute a f urther s train o n t he a bility o f t he e arliest c olonies t o s upport t hemselves. O bviously w e a ppear t o b e d ealing w ith l arger p opulation s izes t han o ne o r t wo f amilies a nd t hus w ith s ome n eed f or o rganisation a nd c o-ordination o f e ffort. u ndertaken a fter i nitial e xploration.

T hese e fforts b eing

A t t his p oint i t i s a pposite t o q uery o ne a spect o f

t he s uggested

s chemes f or t he e arliest s ettlements. T here s eems t o b e a g eneral a ssumption t hat c ereal a nd a nimals w ere t ransported i n t he e arliest v oyages s o a s t o e xactly r ecreate t he e conomy o f t he h omeland. 1 1 I t w ould s eem m ore l ikely t hat a griculture w as t he m ainstay o f t he f irst c ommunities. S eeds w ould b e e asier t o t ransport, l ess e ffort w ould b e n eeded t han i f t he r equirements o f f eeding a nd p rotecting a nimals w as a dded t o

t he e ffort o f l and c learance,

a nd m eat, w hen d esired,

c ould

b e o btained f rom w ild s ources. T here i s s upport f or t his i dea i n H erodotus' a ccount o f t he P hoenician e xpedition d ispatched b y t he P haraoh N echo t o c ircumnavigate A frica. H e r ecords t hat o n t wo o ccas ions t he P hoenicians p ut a shore i n a utumn t o p lant g rain s o a s t o h ave p rovisions f or t he n ext p art o f t heir j ourney. 1' O nce t he f irst c olonies w ere e stablished, w ith r eserves o f s eed g rain a nd p erhaps t erritorial s ecurity t hen a nimals l ike s heep a nd c attle c ould b e i ntrod uced.

S uch a t wo s tage a gricultural p rogram w ould l essen t he p ressure

o n t he f irst s ettlers. A s In oted a bove, o ur m ajor s ource f or t he p roblems o f c olonisat ion i s e vidence p rovided b y t he r elatively h ighly s ophisticated e fforts o f t he E uropeans.

T here i s o ne r egion, h owever, w here w e have s ome

d etails o f c olonisation w ithin t he c onstraints o f aN eolithic e conomy. T his i s P olynesia. A s o ne m ight e xpect t here a re a v ariety o f c auses. O ne c ause i s t he p roblems o f w ar o r a ggressive n eighbours. T he N ga F aea o f T ikopia w ere d riven f rom t heir h omeland b y t he N ga A riki who w anted t heir f ertile l and. T ip N ga F aea u nder t he l eadership o f t heir c hief s et s ail f or n ew l ands. A nother c ause i s r ivalry a mongst t he m embers o f a n a ristocratic f amily. A y ounger b rother o f a c hieftain m ay wish t o e stablish h is l ine f ree o f s ubservience a nd t hus s et s ail w ith h is f ollowers a nd f amily f or a n ew i sland. 1 4 A s w ith o ur f irst e xample t his i s a d irected a nd p lanned e vent. T here i s a lso t he p oss ibility o f a ccidental s ettlement w here a c anoe i s s wept a long b y a dverse w eather c onditions. I n f act s ome a uthorities, i n p articular 5 c onsider t hat a ll l ong-distance c olonisation w as o f t his S harp, 1 a ccidental k ind, t hough t his d oes n ot r ule o ut d eliberate u ndertaking o f s hort v oyages. L ike t he e arly c olonists o f w estern E urope m ost o f t he P olynesian p ioneers w ould n ot f ace t he p roblem o f a lien e nvironm ents. O ne o ther c ase, n oted b y F irth w as t he d esire f or a dventure a nd t o s ee n ew l ands. 1 6 I f eel t hat i t i s n ot r emiss t o s uggest t hat a s imilar v ariety o f m otives e xisted i n p rehistoric w estern E urope, a lthough t he e xtent o f l eadership i n s uch i nstances r emains t o b e d emonstrated. 1 7

1 27.

A dmittedly i t i s h ighly p robable t hat t he P olynesian s ocieties w ith t heir m arked h ereditary s ocial s tratification a nd a ristocratic h ierarchies a re b est e quated, i f t hey m ust b e, w ith t he r anking p resent i n E urope i n t he p ost-Medieval p eriod, b ut t his d oes n ot n egate t he c entral c omponent o f t he P olynesian c olonial p rocess w hich i s d irection b y c ommunity l eaders.

I t i s f airly c lear,

s eminal s tudy o f t he c olonisation p rocess,

i f w e c onsider C ase's t hat t he major r equirement

f or s uccess, a s i n P olynesia, i s c oherent a nd s ustained d irection. T he s imple a nd u ndynamic e conomic l eadership o f t he hunter-gatherer s ocieties,

d iscussed i n c hapters 2 a nd 6 ,

c ould n ot e nsure t hat t he

c olonies, w ith t heir m ajor i nvestment i n s tock b oth g rain a nd a nimal, a nd w ork e ffort i n l and c learance w ould s urvive. T he r isks o f f ailure a nd t heir p ossibly f atal r esults a re t oo g reat t o m ake t he c olonizat ion p rocess a ttractive t o a c ommunity u nless s ome f orward p lanning c an a ssuage c ommunity d oubts. 7 .3

T he P opulation o f t he E arliest N eolithic S ocieties

O f p articular i mportance t o t his i nquiry i s t he n eed t o d efine b oth t he p opulation s ize a nd t he c ultural b ackground o f t he f ringe E arly N eolithic c ommunities. T hese s ettlements a ppear t o h ave b een b asically i ndigenous, a nd, t herefore, w e m ight e xpect t hat t heir i nhabitants' t raditional s ocial a ttitudes t owards r esource c ontrol w ould h ave c ontinued i nto t he n ew d omestic e conomy. I f w e e xamine t he d etails o f s ocial s tructure w hich t hese s ettlements o ffer, w e m ight t hen f ind t he e arliest e vidence o f p olitical p ractices w hich a ppear i n s tronger a nd c learer f orms i n t he d eveloped f arming c ommunities. O ne p articular c ulture w hich o ffers e xcellent o pportunities f or t his s ort o f e xamination i s t he E rteb$11e o f D enmark. T he E rtebSlle l ies i n t he t ransitional e conomic p hase b etween t he c onventional h unter-gatherer g roups o f t he M esolithic, a nd t he t rue N eolithic c ultures o f w estern E urope. I n a s ense i t i s w rong t o i mply t hat w e h ave a s trict e volutionary s equence o f e conomic d evelopment w hich l inks t he M aglemosian w ith t he N eolithic t hrough t he E rteb yale. W e d o n ot -the E rtebg ille l ike e very o ther c ultural g roup e xisted i n r esponse t o p articular e conomic c onditions, a nd n ot a ccording t o a c ultural a ttitude t hat i t w as t he m eans b y w hich a n ew s ociety w ould e volve. W e c annot d eny, h owever, t hat t he E rteb Ale had a n e conomy w hich w as m ore s edentary t han t he p receding M aglemosian, a nd w as i n i ts t urn s uperseded b y t he t otally s edentary N eolithic e conomy. I t i s, t herefore, p ossible t o a rgue f or t he e volution o f s ocial i deas which a lthough s ublimated i n t he a pparently u nchanging d aily r ound o f s ubs istence g radually a cquire a f orce w hich p ermits f uller a nd m ore b enef icial a doption o f i nnovations i n t he e conomy. I t i s i n t his s ense, a nd n ot a s trict D arwinian o ne, t hat I u se t he s ocial i nformation t hat w e c an d erive f rom t he a rchaeological r emains o f t he E rte Ulle a nd o ther s imilar c ultures. T here i s n o o ne a ccepted c hronological s cheme f or t he p ostM aglemosian d evelopments i n D enmark. T he t wo s chemes t hat a re o ffered, h owever, d iffer o nly i n s ome i nternal p oints o f d etail. W ithin a c ommon f ramework o f a g eneral t rend t owards c oastal s ettlement a nd e xploitation o f s emi-domesticated r esources, T roels-Smith h as d ivided t he p eriod i nto f our p hases, K ongemose, V edbaek, B loksbjerg a nd E rteb 5 611e '18 w hilst T auber d efines o nly t wo p hases, K ongemose a nd 1 9 E rteb$11e. 1 28.

T he s ites o f t he E rtebSlle a re f ound i n e astern D enmark, a lthough t he e ponymous s ite i s i n t he n orth o n t he s hores o f t he L imfjorden. S ites a re m ainly m iddens f ormed o f a ccumulations o f m ussels a nd o ysters . A N otwithstanding t he a forementioned m ajor c ultural d ivisions w ithin t he E rteb$11e, t here i s e vidence t hat i t m ay b e d ivided i nto s ome i nternal d evelopmental p hases w here t here a re v ariations i n i ndustrial a ctivity. T his i s a pparent f rom c hanges i n t he a rtefact c oncentrations a t v arious s ites. T he m ost c onvenient d ivision i s i nto t wo p hases. I n t he f irst p hase, w hich b egins a round he t ool k it c onsists o f r hombic a rrows, o blique a rrows, 4 900 B C, 21 t icrolith b arbed s pears, p olished a xes, t ransverse a rrows, c ore a xes ,x m a nd d eer a ntler h afted a xes 2 L -a f airly t ypical h unter-gatherer t ool k it. T he s econd p hase w hich b egins a round 4 400 B C 23 s ees t he i ntrod uction o f p ottery, f lat-trimmed f lake a xes a nd T -shaped s tag a ntler h afted a xesL 4 -changes t hat s erve t o e mphasise t he t ransitional n ature o f t he E rtebille e conomy . T he e xact p lace o f d omesticates, p lant o r a nimal, i n t he E rte1 3 411e e conomy i s u nknown . C ertainly t he m ajor r esources t hat w ere e xploited s eem t o h ave b een o f w ild f orms. A part f rom t he u biquitous m ollusc s hells, t he p rincipal f ood a nimals w ere r ed a nd r oe d eer, w ild p ig , s eals, p orpoises, b irds a nd f ish . 25 S ome b ones o f d omestic c attle h ave b een f ound i n E rteb Ale s ites b ut t heir c ontemporaneity w ith t he Am ajor p roblem o ther f aunal r emains i s n ot a dequately d emonstrated . 26 t o o ur a nalysis i s t hat e vidence o f t he u se o f a ny t ype o f p lant f ood, w ild o r d omestic, i s e xtremely s parse b ecause n o s ystematic r ecovery o f T he s uggesp lant r emains f rom E rteb$11e s ites h as b een c arried o ut. 27 t ions o f c ereal u se b y t he E rteb$11e p eople i s a ctually b ased o n p ollen a nalyses f rom s ites o f t he c ontemporaneous E llerbek c ulture o f N evertheless, a nd d espite t he l ack o f s ubstanS chleswig-Holstein . 28 t ial e vidence o f t he u se o f d omesticates, t here d oes a ppear t o b e s ome i ndications, h owever b road, o f a d eveloping t rend t owards i ncreasingly s edentary s ettlement. T hese a re e vidence o f b oth w inter a nd s ummer nd t he u se o f p ottery. T he f ormer, o ccupation o f t he m idden s ites, 49 a a s Iw ill f urther d iscuss b elow, s uggests t he d evelopment o f n ew s ocial a ttitudes t o r esource m anagement, w hilst t he u se o f t he l atter d oes n ot f it w ith t raditional h unter-gatherer e conomic m obility, a nd t he r eluct ance t o c arry m ore t han i s n ecessary f or s urvival. B efore I e xamine t he w ider s ocial i mplications i n t he l ight o f t he t heory d eveloped i n c hapter 6 , Iw ill b riefly d iscuss t wo o ther S candinavian s ites. A lthough t he s ite o f M uldbjerg i n W est Z ealand, D enmark, i s f rom t he E arly T RB p eriod , a nd i s t herefore m uch m ore r ecent t hat t he E rteb 5 611e , i t i s q uite e vident t hat i ts i nhabitants h ad a n e conomy w hich was v ery s imilar i n m any a spects t o t he t ransitional f orm o f t he E rteb Ale. M uldbjerg n ow l ies i n a p eat b og , b ut a t t he t ime o f s ettlem ent i t w as o n a f loating i sland c omposed o f c ompacted s wamp v egetation ° R adiocarbon s amples g ive a d ate o f o n t he e dge o f a s hallow l ake . 3 a pproximately 2 800 B C ( uncalibrated). 3 1 M uldbjerg a ppears t o h ave b een a s easonal c amp f or a s mall g roup w ho w ere e xploiting t he s ummer b ounty o f t he a rea . 3 2 T he p rincipal r esources t hat w ere a vailable, a nd e xploited a lthough e xact p roportions a re u nknqwn , w ere f ish , b irds, h azelnuts, r aspberries a nd s trawb erries.." T here w ould a ppear t o h ave b een a p redominance o f h unting w hich i s a ttested t o b y t he q uantities o f a rrowheads a nd h eavy s crapers, 3 4 b ut t he e vidence f or t he p rocessing o f p lant f oods i s, a s 1 29.

u sual, n egligible a nd t hus c reates i mbalances w hich I have d iscussed e lsewhere. A s w ith t he E rteb Ale s ites w e h ave s ome e vidence o f e xploitation o f a s emi-domestic e conomy.

T he b ones o f d omesticated

c attle h ave b een r ecovered, a nd s ome o f t he T RB p otsherds h ave wheat g rain i mpressions 35 -b ut t here i s n o e vidence t o s upport e ither t he g rowing o f w heat o r t he r aising o f c attle a t t he s ite. I t i s, o bviously, d ifficult t o o ffer a ny m ajor r econstruction o f t he e conomic b ase o f t he i nhabitants o f M uldbjerg. T he p resence o f c attle b ones m ight b e e vidence o f c attle t heft b y a f ringe g roup o f h unter-gatherers . B ut t he e xcavator's s uggestion t hat t he i nhabitants h ad a p ermanent s ettlement e lsewhere w here c rops w ere g rown a nd c attle r aised h as m erit. 3 6 T his v iew f its w ell w ith k nown T RB p ractices i n o ther p arts o f E urope ( see c hapter 8 ) w here s mall s easonal s ettlements a re n oted . T his i nterpretation o f t he s ite's p urpose, n otwithstanding, t here i s I f eel a s g ood a c ase t o b e p ut f or s eeing M uldbjerg a s r epresentative o f t he t ransitional e conomy. F irstly i t i s i n a r egion w hich p ossessed a l ong t radition o f s emi-sedentary h unter-gatherer s ocieties e xploiting s easonal r esources. S econdly, a s t he p ottery i ndicates M uldbjerg d ates f rom t he e arly T RB a nd, d espite t he r elative l ateness o f t he p ossible s urvival o f t his f orm o f e conomy, i t i s f ar f rom t he h eartland o f t hat c ulture. P erhaps t he p ottery h ad a l ong j ourney t hrough t rade t o c ome t o t his s ite. T he s econd s ite i s K arlsfält i n s outhern S cania i n S weden, w hich a lso d ates f rom t he E arly T RB p eriod . T here w as n ot e nough u seable c harcoal f or r adiocarbon d ating a nd h ence t he s ite i s d ated b y c eramic e vidence a lone. 37 T he p resence o f t ypical v essels w ith s uspension l ugs p laces t he f irst o ccupation i n t he E arly T RB p eriod, a s d oes t he p rese nce o f t hin b utted a xes. 38 A lthough t here i s s trong e vidence o f 9 t here i s l ittle o r c ereal g rowth i n t he l ater o ccupation o f t he s ite, 3 n o e vidence o f s uch a ctivity d uring t he E arly N eolithic p hase. T he

m ajor s ource o f d ata i s p ollen a nalysis a nd t he f irst p hase s hows s ome f orest c learance, b ut n o c ereal p ollen, 40 a nd d espite t he f limsiness o f t he d ata i t i s p ossible t hat t he e arliest p hase o f s ettlement was a s easonal a ctivity, s imilar p erhaps t o M uldbjerg. T he t ool k it i s o f a t ype s uitable f or b oth h unting a nd a gricult ural a ctivities. T here a re m any s crapers, k nives, a xes a nd t ransverse a rrowheads, a s w ell a s g rinders a nd q uerns. 41 O verall t he f lint i ndusn v iew o f t ry w as o f l ittle h elp i n p recisely d ating t he s ite, 42 but, i t he p ollen a nalysis,

t he q uerns a nd g rinders b elong t o

t he l ate p hase,

w hilst o ne m ight s uspect t hat t he a rrowheads, p artly a t l east, belong t o t he e arly p hase w hen h unting w as p ossibly m ore i mportant. A reas o f s emi-swamp t o t he e ast a nd w est o f t he s ite w ould h ave b een s uitable f or w ater-fowl a nd l ong n arrow v alleys t o t he n orth w ould h ave s uited r ed d eer.

4 3

P articularly i mportant e vidence t o s upport t he s uggestion o f a n e arly n on-farming p hase, i s t he p resence o f w ild p lants s uitable f or h uman c onsumption. T hese w ere c hess, d arnel, b each g rass, b earberry, p ink p ersicaria a nd b indweed. 44 P lants, a s w e h ave s een, t hat were u sed i n t he M esolithic. f or b one p reservation. 45

A p articular p roblem i s t he p oor c onditions T he o nly f aunal r emains c onsisted o f s ome

r ather f ragmentary b ones o f d omestic c ow, s heep o r g oat, a nd p igs 46 w hich w ere a ssociated w ith b oth t he p hases o f t he s ettlement. 47 A s a t M uldbjerg,

t hese m ay h ave b een s ome d omestic a nimals, which w ere

b y t heir o wners t o a s easonal c amp t o s upplement t he f ood s upply. 1 30.

d riven

U nfortunately t he o nly e vidence o f

t he h unting o f w ild a nimals i s i n-

d irect. U se-wear a nalysis o f s ome t ools s uggests t heir u se i n t he w orking o f h orn a nd a ntler. 48 A dmittedly t he e vidence u sed t o s uggest t hat t he f irst s ettlem ent a t K arlsfUlt w as t he s easonal c amp o f a s emi-sedentary b and o f h unter-gatherers i s s lim . I t c onsists o nly o f p ollen a nalyses, s ome p lant r emains, a nd t he p ossible u se o f s ome s tone t ools f or t he w orking o f h orn a nd a ntler . P erhaps t he s trongest p art i s t he p ollen a nalysis w hich s hows a p eriod o f f orest c learance 49 a ssociated w ith t he a rrival o f a g roup o f p eople w ho u sed p ottery o f t he E arly T RB t ype, a nd w ho i t w ould s eem d id n ot g row c ereals. T his c ombination o f f eatures o ffers s ome p arallels w ith t he s ettlement a t M uldbjerg,

a nd r ecalls c haracter-

i stics o f t he E rtebSlle. I n v iew o f t hese s imilarities i t i s t empting t o s ee t he e arlier p hase a t K arlsfält a s o ne i n w hich s ettlement w as o f a t ransitional e conomic t ype. P opulations a t b oth t hese s ettlements a re u nknown. A t M uldbjerg t here w as e vidence o f o ne h ut a nd s ome h earths 5° -the e xact n umber o f h earths i s n ot g iven -the s ingle h ut s uggests a s mall b and, p erhaps o ne f amily g roup. T here i s v ery l ittle e vidence a t K arlsfält w ith w hich t o e stimate t he p opulation s ize i n t he f irst s ettlement. T he o nly t angible p iece o f d etail i s t he n umber o f, a nd d istribution o f p ottery s herds. C ompared w ith t he s herd t otal i n t he l ater p hase t he n umber i n t he f irst p hase i s m inor, s ome 4 % o f t he o verall f igure. 51 T hese a re c lustered i n f our g roups, 52 a nd b ut f or t he l ack o f h earths, i t i s t empting t o s uggest t hat t hese l ie w ithin r ange o f t wo o r t hree l iving a reas.

I t i s,

h owever,

d ifficult

t o s peculate f urther -the

s mall number o f a rtefacts s uggests a s mall b and p erhaps o f o ne o r t wo f amilies, b ut t hat i s a s f ar a s w e c an g o. T he p opulation s izes o f i ndividual E rtebSlle b ands i s e stimated f rom t he p roposed a ccumulation r ate o f s hells i n t he m iddens.

5 3

V ague

a s t his m ethod i s, t he r esults t end t o s uggest s mall g roups o f p erhaps t wo f amilies. T hese m atch t he e stimates ( perhaps e ven v aguer) f or t he E arly T RB s ites d iscussed a bove. O verall i t w ould s eem t hat t he o nset o f t he N eolithic p eriod s aw n o c hange i n b and s izes o ver t hose p ertaini ng t o t he M esolithic ( discussed i n c hapter 5 ). O f c ourse t he E arly T RB s ites m ight b e t hose o f s mall g roups t emporarily d etached f rom l arger c ommunities, p erhaps f or h unting. I t i s a p oint u pon w hich w e c annot b e c ertain, b ut t he v ague p arallels, h owever, b etween t hem a nd t he E rtebSlle s ites, s uch a s s mall q uantities o f p ot s herds, s mall o ccupation a rea, a nd t he m inimal q uantities o f d omestic a nimal r emains, t end t o s upport t he l ow p opulation m odel. T he l ow p opulation s izes i n a f ringe N eolithic r egion l ike D enmark s uggests t hat t he d omestic e conomy w as g rafted u pon t he o rigi nal hunter-gatherer b ands, r ather t han b eing i ntroduced b y aw ave o f n ew s ettlers. O ther, a nd p erhaps m ore o bvious, c onfirmation c omes f rom t he c ontinuation o f L ate M esolithic a rtefact f orms i nto t he E rteby ille p eriod. 54 W e a re, h owever, c oncerned w ith s ocial f eatures a nd o ur p rimary s ource f or t hose i s t he s ize o f b ands a nd t heir r esource n eeds, r ather t han t he t ool k it.

T he D anish " neolithization" m odel i ndirectly

s upports B arker's d epiction o f t he B ritish E arly N eolithic p opulation a s l argely i ndigeneous. 55 B ritain a lso w as a f ringe N eolithic r egion, b ut we m ight e xpect, b ecause o f i ts i solation, a g reater n eed f or t he i mpetus p rovided b y s ome m ore p ronounced N eolith " invasion". 1 31.

A fter a ll ,

t he d omesticates h ad t o b e i ntroduced, but, u nlike D enmark w hich was n ot i solated, t he l ocal p opulation w ould n ot have h ad t he e xample o f n ear n eighbours t o s pur i nterest i n t he d omestic e conomies. T he m aintenance o f M esolithic p opulation l evels i nto t he E arly N eolithic m eans t hat w e c an n arrow t he p ossible s ources o f s ocial c hange t o t hose c oncerned w ith t he e conomy . A s w e h ave s een, t he i ntroduction o f c ereals a nd d omestic a nimals s eems t o h ave b een s low a nd i rregular.

A t M uldbjerg t he p eople s till m aintained a s emi-

h unter-gatherer e xistence f or p art o f t he y ear, a nd t he E rteb ( Alle p eople w ere v ery t ardy i n s hifting t he b ase o f t heir s emi-sedentary e conomy f rom w ild s ources t o d omesticates.

O bviously i t

i s n ot u nrea-

s onable t o e xpect t hat t he p rocess o f d omestication w ould b e s low, a nd, e ven w ith t he n earness o f q uite s ettled d omestic e conomies, t here w ould b e a n atural r eluctance t o a bandon m ore f amiliar f ood-stuffs. B ut w hilst t hat i s t o b e e xpected, t here m ust h ave b een s ocial p ressures o f t he t ype d iscussed i n c hapter 6 , w here t he t radition o f f ree a ccess t o m any r esources d elayed o r a ctively h indered t he p roper u tilisation o f d omesticates. W e d iscussed i n c hapter 6 t he p roblems o f w ould-be f armers a mongst t he ! Kung a nd t he H adza a nd h ow e galitarian t raditions w orked t o u ndermine t heir m odest a ttempts a t f arming. Y et, w ithin t hese s ocieties, t here a re w ell d efined p rinciples o f p rivate r esource c ontrol -the d istinction b eing p laced u pon t hose r esources w hose e xistence d efines t he t erritory o f t he b and. Ih ave a rgued a bove t hat t here w as q uite p ossibly, i n t he M esolithic, h ereditary c ontrol o f t erritory d efining r esources l ike t he h erds o f r ed d eer, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i n t he E rteb t l ille c ulture b eds o f s hellfish p erformed a s imilar f unction a nd w ere l ikewise u nder h ereditary c ontrol. C ereals a nd c attle,

h owever,

c annot i n t heir i nitial p eriod o f u se f all i nto

s uch a c ategory p recisely b ecause t hey a re i ntroduced. B ut t heir e xploitation i ncreased, a nd, t herefore, t he e conomically d isastrous e ffects o f u nrestrained e galitarian a ccess w ere o vercome. T he t heoretical s cheme a dvanced i n c hapter 6 a rgues t hat t he d ifficulty i s o vercome b y t ransference o f r esource o wnership f rom t he b and o r c hief,

t o e ach i ndividual i n r eturn f or t heir a cceptance of t he

r esponsibility o f r esource m anagement. T he c ommunity, o r c hief, s till r etains a c entral c ontrol t hat i s o nly i nvoked i f t he r esources c ease t o b e m anaged , e .g. t hrough d eath o f t he i ndividual. C ombined w ith t his p rinciple i s t he c hange o f t he r esource b ase f rom wild t o d omestic p roducts. Q uite c learly a t s ome p oint i n t he p rocess o f d omestication o f t he e conomy, t he o ld t erritory d efining r esources s uch a s r ed d eer, s hellfish b eds o r w hatever, w ill h ave t heir f unction d isplaced b y t he n ew s ources o f t erritorial d efinition s uch a s a rable l and, o r p erhaps g razing l and f or a nimals. O nce t hat h appens t he w ild r esources, t hough s till b elonging t o a t erritory w ill b ecome o pen t o t otally e galitarian e xploitation, a s a re t he r esources i n t he f orests a round t he s imple f arming c ommunities w hich w ere d iscussed i n g reater d etail i n c hapter 6 .

F urthermore,

a t n o p oint i n t hese e conomic t ransitions

i s t he t raditional f orm o f h ereditary l eadership r eplaced . I t, l ike t he e conomy, a lso u ndergoes a t ransition w here, b y f ormalising i ts r esource m anagement a spect, i t s trengthens i ts c apacity t o f unction i n a m ore c omplex e conomy.

I t i s c lear t hat t he n ature o f l eadership

i n t he E arly N eolithic i n w estern E urope h as t he s trongest p ossibility o f b eing a g reat d eal m ore d eveloped t han s ome c urrent o pinion w ould a llow.

1 32.

7 .4

T he F orm o f t he E vidence

C olin R enfrew h as d efined t he t hree w ays i n w hich c ontemporary a rchaeologists h ave s ought t o u nderstand t he f orm o f r anking i n p reh istoric s ocieties. T he f irst i s t he e xamination o f i nter-site r elationships i n o rder t o d etermine i f p articular s ites h eld a c ont emporary s uperiority o ver o ther s ites i n t heir v icinity. T he s econd i s t he a nalysis o f n on-residential s ites t o d etermine i f t heir c onstr uction r epresents t he m obilisation o f l abour t hrough t he a pplication o f c omplex o rganisation u pon t he l ocal p opulation. T he t hird c oncerns t he s tudy o f m ortuary p ractices t o d iscern i f i ndividuals m ay b e r anked -usually b y c omparison o f g rave-goods. 56 T he e pistemological b ase f or t hese t opics o f i nquiry l ies i n o ne m eans, a rtefacts.

o r o ther, o f a pplying a s ubjective s ystem o f r anking t o I n t he f irst c ategory t he s ize o f a s ite, o r t he c omplexity

o f i ts s tructures, r elative t o a nother d etermines i ts p lace w ithin t he p roposed h ierarchy. I n t he s econd t he e stimated a mount o f l abour u sed i n c onstruction i s c ompared t o t he l abour p otential o f t he c ontemporary p opulation, a nd t he l arger t he l abour f orce r equired t he l arger i s t he a ssumption o f s ome f orm o f d irection i n c onstruction. I n t he t hird c ategory t he i mmediate a nd o ften u nquestioned a ssumption i s t hat s uperior g rave-goods r epresent s uperior s tatus. T here a re t wo p roblems c onnected w ith t hese a pproaches t o t he p roblem o f s ocial h ierarchies w hich c reate b uilt-in i mbalances. F irstly, i t i s t he a rchaeologist w ho d ecides t he o rder o f r anking. T he s econd p roblem a rises f rom t he s election o f t he a rtefacts u pon w hich t he a ssessment o f r ank i s m ade. I n t his c ase I a m n ot c oncerned w ith p roblems o f a rchaeological p reservation, b ut t he o verall p roblem o f t he t ype o f a rtefacts s elected . I t i s a n i nteresting q uirk o f o ur a rchaeological m ethod t hat w e a lways s elect t he s econdary i ndicators o f w ealth r ather t han t he p rimary s ources o f w ealth. T he N eolithic e conomy w as b ased o n t he e xploitation o f l and, a nd t he r aising o f c attle. W ithout t he s ound c ontrol o f t hese c ommodities t here w ould b e f ew s ettlements, n o f ood t o f eed t he l abourers w ho b uilt m egalithic s tructures, a nd m ost c ertainly n o p roduce w hich c ould b e t raded, i n t hese p re-monetary s ocieties, f or t he e xpensive p ersonal p ossessions w hich a re f ound i n t he g raves. T his i s n ot a p aean f or t he h umble f armer b ut a s uggestion t hat w e s hould t reat t he r esource b ase a nd t he m eans o f i ts m anagement a s p aramount i n o ur c onsideration o f t he s ocial s tructures o f t he s ocieties i n t he N eolithic. I n t his w ay a lso w e w ill , p erhaps, b e a ble t o s idestep t he f irst p roblem b y a voiding, t o s ome e xtent, s ubjective a ssessments o f t he v alue o f a rtefacts w hen w e a re i n n o p osition t o k now t heir r eal w orth. C hilde's o bservation t hat w e c annot a scertain t he t rue v alue o f o bjects u nless w e a re a ware o f t heir exchange v alue i n t heir e conomic a nd s ocial c ontext i s i ndisputa ble. 57 I f t he s treets a re p aved w ith g old t hen a sphalt m ay b e p ricel ess. I t i s t rue t hat w e c annot e ntirely w ork w ithout c omparison o f a rtefacts b ut, a t t he v ery l east, w e s hould b e m ore c autious o f t heir u sefulness t o t he i nquiry a nd r ecognise t hat t hey a re s econdary s ources o f e conomic i nformation. T here i s a nother m eans b y w hich t he p roblem o f r anking m ay b e a ddressed, a nd i s o ne w hich l ies o utside t he s trictly m aterialistic m ethods o utlined a bove. I an H odder h as a ttempted t o a pply s tructuralist 1 33 .

m ethodology t o t he p roblem b y e xamining t he i nternal a rrangement o f t he p arts o f w hich b oth a rt a nd a rtefacts a re c omposed. T he r esults o f s uch d eliberations c annot t ell u s t he e xact n ature o f t he r anking, b ut t hey m ay, a t l east, o ffer s ome f urther c onfirmation o f i ts e xiste nce. I n a c omparative a nalysis o f T RB a nd L BK p ottery H odder h as s uggested t hat t he s trongly d elineated g roups o f o pposing p atterns i n T RB p ot d ecoration a re r epresentative o f a s ociety i n which c ompetitive g roups a re c onstantly s eeking t o d efine a nd a ffirm t heir p osition a nd r ights.

T he L BK p ottery,

o n t he o ther h and, w ith i ts

f ree-flowing

d esigns w as a p roduct o f a s ociety w here b oth s mallness o f s ettlement a nd g reater a vailability o f l and p revented t he d evelopment o f c ompetit ive f orces w ithin t he c ommunity.J 8 I n a nother s tudy H odder h as e xamined t he i ncreasing c omplexity o f l ong-house d esign i n t he L BK a nd T RB p eriods. H e h as s uggested t hat t he i ncrease i n t he n umber o f " private" r ooms

( those n ot i mmediately n ear t he e ntrance)

r epresents

t he i ncrease o f m ale d ominance o ver w omen -the n ew " private" r ooms a re d omestic s paces -a nd a r esultant i ncrease i n t he s tatus o f m ales i n t he c ommunity. 59

i deas.

s ome

O bviously t here a re c riticisms w hich c an b e l evelled a t H odder's T he m ost i mportant i s t hat s tructuralist a nalysis i s p erhaps

t he m ost s ubjective o f a ll m ethodologies,

r elying a s i t d oes a lmost

t otally o n t he i ndividual's i ntuitive a ssessment. B ut t his d oes n ot n egate t his a pproach b ecause i t o ffers o ne w ay o f g etting a way f rom t he t yranny o f a rtefactual c omparison. W e a re, i n e ffect, a ble t o m ove b elow t he s urface c reated b y t he w holeness o f a n a rtefact a nd e xamine i ts c omponent p arts t o d etermine i f t heir r elationships c an t ell u s a nything a bout t he s ociety t hat c reated t hem . T his i s a m atter o f s ome i mportance i n t he a ssessment o f s ettlement p lans. T here a re, h owever, n o n ew p ictures e merging f rom H odder's i nvestigations. H e c onfirms t hat t he T RB c ulture i s a p roduct o f am ore t ightly s ettled, m ore l and c ompetitive s ociety t han t he o lder, l ess c onstricted, L BK c ulture. B ut t his w e h ave a lready d educed f rom s ettlement d etails. T he s uggestion t hat t he i ncrease i n h ouse s izes, a nd t he c oncomitant i ncrease i n " private" a reas r epresents a n ew m ale d ominated c ompetitive s ociety s eems t o s tretch t he e vidence t oo f ar. W e s imply d o n ot k now, w ith a ny d egree o f c ertainty, w hat u se r ooms w ere p ut t o, o r t o w hat d egree r estrictions w ere p laced o n t heir a ccess b y i ndividuals. A s tructuralist a pproach l ike t hat a dopted b y H odder c an l ead t o a c ircular a rgument, a nd i n t his c ase i t h as. H odder i s p ositing h is i nterpretation o f p ot d ecoration a nd h ouse p lans u pon a n a lready c onc eived v iew o f t he p ast w hich i s e ntirely c onventional. H e s ees N eolithic s ociety a s e volving t hrough a s eries o f s ocial a nd t echnol ogical d evelopments f rom e galitarian i deals t o s tratified s ocieties. 60 I ntermixed w ith t his f amiliar s cheme i s t he i nclusion o f t he n ow f ashionable v iew t hat s uch d evelopments c reated d rastic c hanges i n t he r elations b etween m en a nd w omen.

T he h ackneyed o ld s aw t hat i n v ery

e arly s ocieties n o o ne s ex w as d ominant, t hat e ach c ontributed e qually, a nd t hat c ompetitiveness w as a s ocially u nacceptable a ctivity 61 ( I d o n ot d ispute t hat m ost o f t hese f eatures a re p resent i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties, b ut c ompetitiveness d oes e xist -see c hapters 2 a nd 3 ). T herefore i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he v iew o f t he p ast t hat e merges f rom H odder's a nalysis o f p ot d ecoration a nd h ouse p lans, r einforces t he a lready h eld v iew o f t he p ast, b ecause t his h as p rovided t he a nalytical s tructure u pon w hich t he a ssessment w as c arried o ut. F inally t he i nterpretation o f d esign e lements o n p ottery o f t he T RB t ype a s 1 34.

r epresenting t he a rtistic e xpression o f t he c ontradictions a nd t he o pposing f orces w ithin t he s ociety i s p erhaps t oo p recious a p oint. S tructurally s peaking a ll d esigns u pon a b lank s urface a re i n c ontrast t o t hat s urface a nd w hy t he L BK d esigns s hould b e l ess s o t han t he T RB d esigns i s r ather a m oot p oint. A fter a ll L BK d esigns a re c ut v ery d eeply i nto t he f abric w hilst T RB d esigns, e ven w ith t heir p ossible e lements o f o pposition, a re, b y c omparison, f airly s hallow s cratches. T hus d espite t he p romised f reshness o f H odder's s tructuralist m ethodol ogy w e a re, i n t he e nd, p resented w ith t he s tandard v iew o f p rehistory i n w hich f ree e galitarian s ocieties g ive w ay t o e xploitative s tratified s ocieties -a

v iew w hich,

i n p art,

s eems t o r esult f rom t he i ntroduc-

t ion t o t he d ebate o f t he q uestion d oes l ife m irror a rt, m irror l ife? 7 .5

o r d oes a rt

T he S earch f or R ank i n N eolithic S ocieties We w ill n ow r eturn t o a p roblem t hat w as b riefly t ouched u pon

a bove, a nd w hich c oncerns t he n ature o f t he e vidence u sed i n s tudies o f p rehistoric r anked s ocieties. In oted a bove t hat i n g eneral t his i s e ssentially s econdary m aterial -grave-goods o r p roducts o f l abour. T he d irection o f o ur i nquiry h as, I b elieve, b ecome d iverted b ecause t he s econdary m aterial i s m uch m ore a ccessible, a nd t he r esult h as b een t hat we h ave c oncentrated u pon t he o bjects t hat w ealth c an p rovide r ather t han t he m aterial t hat p rovides t he w ealth. T his i s a v ery i mportant p oint b ecause i t i s n ot a n e ssential f eature o f h uman s ociety t hat wealth a nd s tatus, o r p ower, a re s ynonymous. N or i s i t e ntirely c orrect t hat j uvenile g raves w hich c ontain g rave-goods a re t he g raves o f c hildren w ho p ossessed i nherited s tatus. 02 F urthermore, t he c ons truction o f l arge n on-residential s tructures c an b e a ccomplished w ithout t he s upport o f a r anked s ociety. T he m ortuary m onuments o f t he K elabits o f n orth B orneo a re a s triking e xample. 65 A dmittedly t hese a re r ather i solated e xamples, b ut t hey o pen u p t o v iew o ther w ays o f i nterpreting t he a rchaeological m aterial,

a nd e mphasise t he

n eed t o e xamine t he s ources o f w ealth r ather t han t he p roducts o f w ealth. E ssential t o t his i s t he n eed t o p ay p articular a ttention t o t he m anagement o f t he r esource b ase, e specially i n v iew o f t he m odel o f r esource p rivatisation d eveloped i n c hapter 6 . B ut f irstly w e w ill b riefly e xamine s ome o f t he s tudies t hat h ave b een d irected t owards i dentifying f eatures i n t he a rchaeological r ecord t hat m ay p oint t owards

t he e xistence o f c omplex s ocial s tructures,

i n p articular

r anking. T his e xamination i s n ot e xhaustive, n or i s i t i ntended t o b e, r ather i t i s a d iscussion o f t he m ain w orks, i .e. t hose t hat a re m ost o ften c ited, b ecause t hese h ave h ad t he m ost i nfluence u pon o ur c urrent

t hought.

R anking i n N eolithic s ocieties h as a lways b een a ssumed , r ather t han p roven t o e xist f rom e stimates o f t he l abour r equirements a nd s ophisticated d irection n eeded t o e rect t he v arious h enges a nd f unerary m onuments. F or m any y ears t his l eadership w as t hought t o b e o f a r eligious n ature t hat w as, s omehow , g rafted o n t o a n e ssentially e galitarian s ociety. b4 M ore r ecently, a nd l argely b ecause t he r ecalib ration o f r adiocarbon d ating f reed u s f rom t he a pplication o f o riental r anking s ystems t o E uropean s ocieties, t hese m onuments a re d epicted a s t he p roducts o f m inimally r anked s egmentary s ocieties, a nd t o s erve a v ariety o f f unctions f rom b urial p laces t o t erritorial m arkers. T he h enges, i n p articular, a re s een t o f unction a s c eremonial p laces f or c ultural g atherings. V ery l arge s tructures, s uch a s S tonehenge, 1 35.

A vebury,

S ilbury a nd C arnac a re u sed a s e vidence t o a rgue f or t he

d evelopment o f l arge t erritories l ed b y c hiefs o r p rinces. T his i s n ot u nreasonable i n v iew o f t he e normous a mount o f l abour e xpended i n t heir c reation. O ne o f t he m ore i mportant s tudies i s t hat u ndertaken b y R enfrew o n t he d emography o f N eolithic W essex. 65 R enfrew u sed t he n ow widely a ccepted m odels d eveloped b y S ervice " a nd S ahlins 67 which d efine t he f eatures o f c hiefdoms. T hese f eatures i nclude r anking, r edistribution o f p roduce,

g reater p opulation d ensity,

c omplex r ituals a nd s trong

t erritoriality. " R enfrew c reated a p icture o f W essex i n w hich t he N eolithic s ociety w as u ndergoing e volution f rom t he o lder s egmentary s ocieties t o m ore c omplex c hiefdoms. T he b asis o f h is a rgument l ay i n t he e stablishment o f " territories" c entred o n t he b arrows t hat d ot t he W essex c ountryside, a nd u ses t he c onstruction o f T hiessen p olygons. " R enfrew i s a t p ains t o p oint o ut, t he " ...important u nderlying a ssumpt ion h ere i s t hat a ll t he b arrows m ust h ave b een f unctioning i n s ome 1 ,70 s ense, a lthough n ot n ecessarily f or b urial, a t t he s ame t ime... . A ndrew F leming h as a lso a dopted t his l ine o f r easoning but g oes s omew hat f urther i n t he s earch f or r anking. H e a rgues t hat t he t ombs a re n ot j ust t erritorial m arkers b ut d irect s tatements o f t he p ower o f l eaders -formal d isplays o f t he c ontrol b y i ndividuals o f t racts o f l and a nd g roups o f p eople. 71 T o r eturn t o R enfrew's a rgument, h e s ees l arger t erritories b eing d efined b y s imilar t echniques, b ut w hich t ake a s t heir f ocus t he c ausewayed e nclosures. T hese " chiefdoms" m ight i nclude u p t o 2 0 o f t he b asic u nits a s d efined b y b arrows. 7 2 F oremost i n t his h ierarchy a re t he l arge l abour c onsuming s tructures l ike S tonehenge I II o r S ilbury which r epresent t he f ocus o f t he " greater c hiefdoms" w hich d eveloped i n t he E arly B ronze A ge. 73 R enfrew's t hesis t herefore, i s t hat e ach s uccessive b uilding p hase o ccurs w hen t he s ociety h ad g rown l arger, a nd t hat t hese c hanges a re e vidence o f t he d evelopment o f i nternal r anking t hrough t he i ncreasing a cquisition o f p ower b y l eaders o f t he f amily b ased g roups. T he e arliest s tages, h e p roposes,

a re e ssentially w ithin t he e galitarian p rinciples o f t he

s maller g roups w hile t he f inal o nes a re n ot.

7 4

A s imilar s tudy, a nd o ne w hich o wes i ts i nspiration t o R enfrew, i s t hat u ndertaken b y D arvill o f t he d istribution o f f unerary s truct ures i n I reland. 75 O nce a gain T hiessen p olygons a re u sed t o d etermine p ossible " territories", a nd t he g eneral a ssumption i s t hat a ll t he 6 Larger m onuments a re f unctioning t o s ome p urpose a t t he s ame t ime. 7 " territories" a re d efined b y f ocussing o n p assage g raves, w ith p erhaps a s pecial c entre a t N ewgrange. 77 D arvill h as u sed t he s ame S ervice/ S ahlin m odel a s R enfrew , a nd t he e volutionary d evelopment o f c omplex s ocieties i s s een, a s w ith R enfrew, i n t he m onuments a s v isible e xpress ions o f t he g rowing c apacity t o o rganise g reater l abour f orces. E ssential t o b oth s tudies i s t he r edistribution f unction o f c hiefdoms m odelled o n t he P olynesian e xamples, w hich p rovides t he n ecessary r esource s upport f or t his p ublic l abour. 7 8 T he p roblem w ith b oth t hese s tudies i s

t hat t hey t end t owards

t he s implistic, a lthough D arvill's i s p erhaps t he w orst o ffender. T he b asic f ault l ies i n t he u se o f T hiessen p olygons, w hich b ecause o f t he e ase i n w hich t hey m ay b e c onstructed, a ct t o b lur d istinctions a nd t o o bscure s ubtleties. W e a re l eft w ith a p icture o f W essex a nd I reland i n t he N eolithic p eriod w hich s tresses e ven p opulation d istribution, c hronological p arity i n c onstruction o r u se o f t he b arrows, a nd a 1 36.

g entle i rresistable m ove o n t he p art o f s ociety f rom f amily b ands t o c hiefdoms. B oth a uthors t end t o h ave i gnored t hat T hiessen p olygons a re, a t b est, o nly t he m ost v ague o f t erritorial i ndicators, a nd h ave a llowed a p ossible a nswer t o b ecome a c ertainty. ( To b e f air, a l ater a rticle b y R enfrew m oves a way f rom t his r ather e xtreme c alculation o f t erritoriality a nd a dmits t he p robability t hat c hronological p arity d id n ot e xist ) . 7 9 I n p articular i t i s u nwise t o t reat t he b arrows a s h aving a c ontinuing f unction, a nd t hus h aving a l ong t erm r ole a s t erritorial f ocii. W hilst A tkinson h as c riticised t he s ynchronous v iew h e, p erhaps, g oes t oo f ar i n h is n omadic m odel m aking p opulation n umbers f ar t oo l ow . 80 W e d o n ot have s ufficient c hronological i nform ation t o a rgue f or a m ore o r l ess s ynchronous f unction, e specially a s w e a re d ealing w ith a p eriod o f n early t wo t housand y ears -D arvill p rovides v ery f ew d ates. 81 Q uite c learly I h ave n o q uarrel w ith t he o verall m odel o f s ocial d evelopment, b ut t here i s t oo m uch r egularity a nd c ontinuity i mplied b y t he n eat b oundaries b ased o n b arrows, w hich d evelop f rom t ombs t o c entres o f f amily h eritage v eiled i n t he m ists o f a ntiquity. T he m odel d emands f or s ome, n ot a ll, o f t hese s egmentary u nits ( which a re n o m ore t han e xtended f amilies), a c ontinuity o f e xistence o ver m any c enturies. T his i s d emanding t oo m uch o f e ven t he m ost s table d escent g roups, a nd h as n o m odern e thnog raphic p arallels, a re d rawn . 82

e ven i n t he P acific r egion w hence t hese m odels

F urthermore t he t ype o f c hiefdomship i s n ot p roperly d efined. T he g eneral s uggestion i s t hat i t s omehow h as a r edistributive f unction, c omplex .

y et r edistribution i n t he P olynesian s ocieties i s r ather I d iscuss t his p roblem i n m ore d etail b elow, b ut t here a re

8 3

s ome p oints w hich m ay b e m ade h ere. F irstly i n t he p olitical c ons tructs o f M elanesia w hich a re c alled b ig-man s ystems t he h ierarchical o rder i s t o s ome e xtent f ree f lowing. T he r edistributive e conomic m ode i s c reated t o b uy p ower t hrough e laborate d istribution o f f ood a nd g oods,

a nd t he p osition o f b ig-man i s m aintained o nly t hrough

s heer hard w ork i n o btaining t he g oods t o s upport o ne's p ower b ase. I f a p erson b ecomes i ncapable o f t he w ork n eeded t hen t hey l ose p ower , a nd w ill b e r eplaced b y a c ompetitor. T he p osition i s n ot h ereditary ) a lthough r elationship t o a b ig-man i s o f h elp i n p ersonal a spirationse 4

I n t he c hieftain s ocieties o f H awaii r edistribution h as a much m ore p urely p olitical m otivation. H awaii h ad h ereditary c hieftainship w hich, d espite e lements o f i nstability, w ere s ufficiently s table t o p roduce d ynasties.

8 5

P ower d id c hange h ands,

o ften v iolently, b ut

t here was n owhere n ear t he s ocial f lux t hat w as a p ermanent f eature o f M elanesian s ocieties. C hiefs p racti sed r edistribution o f r esources, b ut a s P eebles a nd K us n ote, 86 t his was g eared t owards b uying l oyal l ieutenants r ather t han e ither e nsuring a dequate r esource d istribution, o r g iving t heir p eople b read a nd c ircuses. What t hen i s t he m odel s uggested f or W essex? I t s eems t o b e n o m ore t han a v ague i dea t hat c hiefs w ere s omehow a ble t o m obilise t he r esources n eeded t o s upport l arge c onstruction g angs. T here i s n o a ttempt t o g o b eyond t his s imple i dea, a nd n o a ttempt i s m ade t o o ffer a d efinition within t he b ounds c reated b y t he t wo d ifferent P acific s ystems. T his i s i mportant b ecause t he P acific s ystems a re u tterly o pposed i n t heir a ims. O ne, t he M elanesian, i s d esigned t hrough i ts i nstability a nd f lux t o c reate a s w ide a n o pportunity f or a ll t o a scend t o t he h eights o f p ower.

I t,

p erhaps, h as a s uggestion o f s ome o f t he 1 37.

e galitarian f eatures t hat e xist i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties.

T he

o ther, t he H awaiian, i s d esigned t o c reate i n i ts i deal f orm p ermanent h ereditary c hieftainships. I t h as n o e galitarian c omponent, a nd t he o pportunities f or l eadership,

e ven a mongst r evolutionaries, a re

r estricted t o t he h ereditary n obility. I t s eems t o m e t hat R enfrew i s s ubstituting t he c hief f or t he p riest o f t he o ld m odels, a nd t hus s ecularising t he p roblem r ather t han a dvancing i ts s olution. I f eel t hat i t i s n ot u nreasonable t o o ffer a n a lternate v iew w here g roups o f p eople a re f orced t o m ove b ecause o f b ad s easons o r l ivestock d iseases a nd l eave t heir b arrows t o d ecay, a nd w here t he s ame t erritory m ight a ttract n ew s ettlers a t a f uture t ime, w ho w ould b uild t heir o wn m onuments. T hese w ould b e p eriods o f s ettlement t hat m ight l ast o nly f or a f ew g enerations a nd m ight w ell c ause a n o verlap i n b arrow c onstruction s o t hat t erritorial m odels b ased o n t heir d ist ribution w ould b e e xaggerated b y s everal d egrees. O f p articular i mportance i n t his a rgument i s t hat w e h ave n o e vidence o f a ttempts t o b uild l ong l asting d wellings. I n f act w e h ave s o l ittle e vidence o f d omestic s tructures i n t he N eolithic o f B ritain a nd I reland, 87 s uppose t hat t he e conomy w as l argely n omadic.

w e m ight

I t s eems v ery s trange t hat w hilst t he t erritorial m odels o f R enfrew a nd D arvill a rgue f or t he e xistence o f l ong t erm " territories" w e h ave n o e vidence o f s ubstantial d omestic s tructures. T his s trongly s uggests t hat t he f uneral m onuments m ight, t o t he c ontrary, n ot b e i ndicators o f t erritories b ut, i nstead, s ited a ccording t o r eligious p recepts o f w hich w e h ave n o s ubstantial k nowledge. B ut, a lthough t here i s n o f irm e vidence t o i ndicate t hat t he f unerary m onuments a re t erritorial i ndicators, a s Iw ill d iscuss i n t he n ext c hapter t here i s a c oincidental r ise i n t he i ndications o f s ocial f riction d uring t he M egalithic p eriod w hich s uggests t hat s ome, a t l east, d id p erform t his t ask . T he v alue o f R enfrew 's a nd D arvill's i deas i s m ore m arked a t t he r egional l evel w here t he o verall c oncentration o f m onuments i s l ess s ubject t o t he u se o f c lumsy m ethodology. I n a ddition t here may a lso b e r elevance i n t heir g eographic r elationships w ith m onuments s uch a s S tonehenge I II, A vebury o r S ilbury. T here i s o ne p roblem i n t his s chema b ecause t he l arge m onuments, i n t heir c ompleted f orm d ate t o t he E arly B ronze A ge. I p ropose t o i gnore t his s omewhat i rrelevant d istinction w hich i s a c reation o f o ur c lassifications, r ather t han a ny c ultural c hanges i n t he s econd m illennium . 88 M any o f t he b arrows c ontinued i n u se a s b urial s ites w ell i nto t he B ronze A ge, s o c learly t he l ocal p opulace r emained i f n ot o f t he s ame l ineages, a t l east o f t he s ame r eligious p ersuasion. T herefore o n t he l arger l evel o f r egional g roupings t he m ain c entres o f p opulation r emained t he s ame.

8 9

A m ajor s tudy o f B ronze A ge b arrow d istribution i s t hat b y H e h as r estricted h is a nalysis t o b arrows whose A ndrew F leming. 9° T he a ttractive f eature p rimary i nterments a re o f B ronze A ge d ate. 91 o f F leming's w ork i s t hat t here i s n o a ttempt t o i solate s ingle " territ ories" b ut i nstead a ttention i s f ocussed u pon r egional g roupings. H e h as d efined s ome t en p ossible " territories" d istributed t hrough Wilts hire a nd D orsetshire,

9 2

a nd e mphasises t heir p art i n a l arger r egional

p opulation b y n oting t hat t here a re n o n oticeable a rtefactual v ariations b etween e ach r egion. 93 O f p rimary i nterest t o t his i nquiry i s his s uggestion t hat t hese b arrow c oncentrations r epresent t he " home a reas" 1 38.

o f g roups o f t ranshumant p astoralists. 94 H e b ases t his s uggestion u pon e stimates o f t he p opulations t hat c ould b e s upported i n t he r egions d efined b y t he b arrow c lusters. 95 T his s uggestion h as s ome a ppeal a s t he p roblem o f l abour o rganisation n eeded t o build t he b arrows i s n eatly r esolved. I n t he o ther s chemes a l ocal c hief h ad t o o rganise a d ispersed f arming p opulation t o w ork a nd t o p rovide t he r esources n eeded t o s upport t hem . I n F leming's s cheme, t he l abour f orce would g ather a s am atter o f c ourse i n t heir " home a reas" a t l east o nce a y ear, w here t hey w ould b e a vailable f or t his c ommunity w ork a nd m ost i mportantly t hey w ould b ring t heir o wn f ood. T he c ontrast t o R enfrew's a nd D arvill's s chemes i s m arked. I n t hese w e a re o ffered a v iew o f a s ocially e volving p opulation o f a griculturists w ho p rogress f rom s mall s egmented s ocieties t o c hiefdoms w hose s way e ncompasses l arge t erritories. E ach s tep m arked b y g reater c apacities t o o rganise l abour, a nd w hich r esults i n p rogressively l arger m onuments. F leming o ffers a m ore s tatic v iew w here b arrows a ccumulate d ue t o t he n eeds o f, p erhaps, o nly t en s ocial g roups o ver a l ong p eriod. L abour o rganisat ion i s n ot a p rofound p roblem a nd t he e rection o f t he l arge h enges a nd S ilbury a re a r eligious i nvestment o f l abour w hich i s s pread o ver s everal g roups o f p eople. T here i s, h owever, l ittle d ifference i n t he s chemes o f h ierarc hical e volution t hat b oth v iews p resent. T he c limax o f b oth t hese s chemes c omes i n t he B ronze A ge a nd t here i s n o s uggestion o f c omplex s ocial o rganisation i n t he E arly N eolithic. T here i s s till v ery m uch t he c onventional v iew t hat t rue r anking d oes n ot a ppear u ntil t he E arly B ronze A ge. I n a ddition t o t hese s omewhat c onservative f eatures t here i s l ittle a ttempt i n R enfrew's a nd D arvill's s chemes t o c onsider t he p olitical e ffects g enerated b y t he e conomic b ase a nd i ts e xploitation. F leming d oes g ive t his s ome c onsideration a s h e n eeds t o s upport h is a rgument f or a p astoral e conomy, b ut, i n t he e nd, t he e conomy r emains, a s b oth t hese m odels d emand, b ecause o f t heir r eliance o n t he d evelopm ent o f t rade b ased w ealth i n t he E BA a s t he s timulus o f r anking s ystems, a s ource o f s ubsistence r ather t han o f p olitical o rganisation. R esearch i n D enmark h as p aid c loser a ttention t o t he e ffects o f e conomic c onditions o n t he d evelopment o f N eolithic s ocieties. T he m ost i mportant s tudy i s b y R andsborg . 96 T his s ets o ut t o e xplore t he l ong a ccepted i dea t hat m arked d ifferences i n e conomies b etween v arious g roups i n N eolithic D enmark r esulted f rom v arying c apacities t o p roperly e xploit t he e nvironment. 97 T he b asic m eans a dopted t o a ssess t he p otential p roductivity o f N eolithic s ettlements w as t he t raditional D anish s tandard -the b arrel o f h ard c orn ( Danish t Onder h artkorn). T his i s a c alculation o f t he n umber o f h ectares, i n a p articular a rea, n eeded t o p roduce o ne b arrel o f c orn. 98 T he f irst r esult o f t he i nvestigation w as t hat t here w as n o s ignificant d ifferences i n t he o verall m aterial a ttainments o f m egalithic a nd n on-megalithic g roups w here a ccess t o g ood s oils w as e qually a vailable. 9 9 T here a re, h owever, q uite d istinct r egional d ifferences i n b urials a nd t he t ypes o f g rave-goods a nd t hese s till r emained u nexplained. C alculation o f N eolithic p opulations was o f i mportance t o t he i nquiry a nd a r easonably r eliable m eans u sing s tone a xes a nd m ace-heads a s a b asic i ndicator w as d eveloped . A s R andsborg w rites " ...the p roduction o f w eapons s eems t o b e g overned b y t he n umber , 100 o f p eople u sing t hem .1

1 39.

T he p opulation e stimates d erived f rom t he a nalysis o f a xe a nd m ace-head d istribution w ere t hen a pplied t o a r egional s tudy o f hard c orn v alues f or D enmark.

1 01

T his r evealed t hat

t here were n o m eaning-

f ul d epartures f rom t he c apacity o f a ny r egion t o c arry p opulation l evels b eyond i ts p roduction p otentia1. 1 °2 A lso t o e merge f rom t hese c omparisons w as e vidence o f a n umber o f p opulation r elated a spects o f b urial c ustoms. I t w as f ound t hat m egalithic b urial s tructures were a f eature o f r egions t hat h ad c lustered s ettlements. I n r egions w here p opulations w ere d ispersed b urials w ere i n s imple e arth g raves. T here w as, h owever, a n o dd q uirk i n t he p rovision o f g rave-goods w here i t w as f ound t hat t he r icher b urials

t ended t o b e i n t he m ore m arginal s oil

a reas w here p opulations w ere l ower. B oth t ypes o f s ettlement, c lustered 03 R andsborg h as a nd d ispersed w ere p resent i n t he m arginal a reas. 1 s uggested s ome r easons f or t hese v ariations i n b urial s tyles. He f eels t hat m egalithic t ombs w ere a f orm o f t erritorial f ocus -a w ay o f u sing t he d ead p erson's s tatus t o s trengthen c ommunal f eeling i n a reas w here t he c lose p roximity o f o ther c ommunities m ay h ave e ngendered t ensions. P erhaps i n m ore d ispersed c ommunities t hese t ensions w ere a bsent a nd t here w as n o n eed f or s uch c ommunal c entres. T he i ncrease i n g raveg oods i n t he m arginal a reas s eems o dd, f or o ne w ould e xpect t hat t hese w ould b e m ore l ikely t o o ccur i n t he b etter f arming r egions. R andsborg s uggests t hat t his r epresents a d eliberate b oosting o f a p erson's w ealth o r s tatus i n a reas w here t he o verall w ealth i s l ower t han i n t he b etter s oil r egions. 1 °4 T here i s, h owever , a d ecided i ncrease, i n t he b etter s oil a reas, o f t he r itual d isposal o f w ealth i n b ogs, s o o verall c ommunity a ttitudes s imilar. 1 05

t o c onspicuous w ealth d estruction s eem t o h ave b een

T his s tudy i s o f i mmense i mportance t o o ur u nderstanding o f N eolithic s ociety. I t h ighlights t hat i f a ttention i s p aid t o t he s ource o f N eolithic w ealth -the l and, t hen s uch t hings a s b urial s tyles, d ifferences i n g rave-goods a nd s ettlement t ypes b ecome l ess r eliable i ndicators o f s tatus u nless t hey a re r elated t o t he p roduction p otential o f t he e nvironment. I s ab urial i n a s imple e arth g rave w hich i s a ccompanied b y f ew g rave-goods t hat o f a p erson o f l ess s tatus , t han a p erson i nterred i n a m egalithic t omb w ith r ich g rave-goods? C ertainly t he D anish e vidence l eaves t his q uestion q uite o pen, a nd m eans t hat t he p roblems o f burial s tyle a nd s tatus c an o nly b e a deq uately i nvestigated i f t he e conomic p otential o f t he r egions i nvolved a nd t heir s ettlement p atterns a re t aken i nto c onsideration. F urtherm ore i f s uch v ariations c an o ccur i n a r egion a s s mall a s D enmark c onsiderable c are m ust b e t aken i f w e a ttempt t o c reate t heories o f s ocial s tructure i n p opulations i nhabiting l arger a reas. W e w ill n ow e xamine s ome s tudies t hat h ave b een u ndertaken i nto t he c omparison o f b urials, a nd g rave-goods, i n c emeteries. G rave-goods a nd t he a ssumptions t hey g enerate a bout i ndividual s tatus h ave a lways f ormed t he b asis o f t heories a bout r anking i n p rehistoric s ocieties. F ormal c emeteries a re g enerally a f eature o f N eolithic c ommunities b ecause o f t he s edentary e conomies. S ome m ay e xist i n t he M esolithic ( see c hapter 6 ) b ut i t i s o nly w ith t he s edentary e conomy t hat t hey p roliferate a nd t hus o ffer r easonable o pportunities f or s ystematic a nalysis o f t heir c ontents. T hey a re, h owever, r arely a ssociated w ith s ettlement e vidence a nd t hat i s w hy t he f irst s tudy, w e w ill examine, i s i mportant. S trictly s peaking t he a nalysis o f

1 40.

t he M oundville,

A labama,

s ite

o f t he American I ndian M ississippian c ulture b y C hristopher P eebles a nd 06 i s o ut o f p lace i n a n e xamination o f E uropean p roblems. S usan Kus 1 I t i s,

h owever,

o ne o f t hose r are e xamples w here s ettlement a nd c eme-

t ery have b een e xamined a s a n i ntegrated u nit, a nd w here p articular a spects o f o ur c oncept o f r anked s ocieties h ave b een a rchaeologically t ested. O f p articular i mportance i n t his s tudy i s t he a ttempt t o t est t he a ssumption t hat r esource r edistribution i s a f unction o f, p erhaps p art o f t he r eason f or c hiefs i n t ribal s ocieties.

a nd

S ervice h as d epicted t he c reation o f r edistribution b y d escribi ng h ow a s v illages b ud o ff f rom a p arent c ommunity t hey e ach o ccupy s lightly d ifferent b iotic z ones. T hey t hen b egin t o s pecialise i n d ifferent p roduce w hich, o n i ts o wn, d oes n ot p rovide s ufficient r esource v ariety. T his p roblem i s o vercome b y t rade, t he c ontrol o f w hich b ecomes a f unction o f a b ig-man ( see c hapter 6 ) w ho, a s t he r eciprocal p rocesses d evelop m ore c omplexities, b ecomes a c hief. 1°7 T his m odel h as b een a pplied w ithout a lteration t o p rehistoric s ocieties 1 08 s ince i t w as f irst d escribed b y S ahlins a nd S ervice i n t he 1 950's.' 09 M ore r ecently t he r edistributive m odel h as b een q uestioned. E arle has a rgued t hat r edistribution a ctually h as t wo d istict v ariat ions. O ne i s t he r esource l evelling p rocess d escribed a bove; t he o ther i s a m ore l imited f unction d esigned t o c ement a lliances a mongst a f avoured f ew . 1 1° F urthermore, a s P eebles a nd K us d emonstrate, e xamination o f H awaiian s ocieties w here r edistribution i s s upposed t o f unction i n t he i deal f ashion s hows t hat i t i s g enerally d esigned t o d istribute l uxury g oods a mongst h igher r anking i ndividuals r ather t han a ll r esources e qually a mongst t he p opulation. Ill T he c hief's i nterest i n t he s ociety a s aw hole w as a imed l ess a t r edistribution a nd m ore a t c onservation t hrough l imiting r esource d istribution. 1 12 T he s tudy o f t he M oundville s ite a nd i ts a rtefacts t ended t o s upport t his r evised v iew o f t he v alidity o f t he r edistributive m odel. T he s ite o f M oundville w as a l arge p alisaded t own w ith c lear t races o f p rivate a nd p ublic s tructures. O utlying t he m ain t own w ere s maller v illages w hich w ere s hown t o b e c ontemporaneous. 1 13 T here w as a v ast t hese 2 053 n umber o f b urials w hich c ould b e e xamined -some 3051114Of w ere s elected f or e xamination o f e vidence o f r anking. A t hree t iered s tructure o f s ocial r anking w as r evealed w ith a c oncentration o f a rtefacts i n t he g raves o f t he r elatively s mall t op c lass. I n a ddition , a lthough t here w as a n umber o f f emale a nd j uvenile b urials i n t his p rime g roup, t he m ajority o f t hese w ere m ales w ith w eapons. A f inal f eature w as t hat t he " rich" b urials w ere a ssociated l argely w ith t he m ain t own r ather t han w ith t he v illages. 1 15 O bviously t here a re c lear p arallels b etween t he d emographic a nd s ocial f eatures o f M oundville, a nd t hose o f a t ypical P olynesian c hiefdom . 1 16 B ut p articularly i mportant,

h owever,

i s

t he c oncentration o f p restige g oods i n t he

g raves o f o nly a f ew p eople w hich l ay i n t he m ain c entre o f t he c ulture. C learly, a s P eebles a nd K us n ote, r edistribution o f g oods w as n ot a f unction o f t he c hiefs o f M oundville 17 a nd t his a grees w ith E arle's r eassessment o f o bvious,

t herefore,

t he H awaiian c hiefdoms n oted a bove.

I t i s

t hat w e m ust b e v ery c areful i n a ttributing a r e-

d istributive f unction t o t he c hiefdoms o f p rehistoric E urope, e specia lly when t here i s av ast d ifference b etween m obilising f ood r esources f or a w orking p arty b uilding a m egalithic t omb a nd c ontrolling a n e conomy a s c omplex a s t he P olynesian e xamples. 1 41.

O ne o f t he m ajor s tudies o f w ealth d istribution i n E uropean p rehistoric c emeteries i s S usan S hennan's e xamination o f t he g raves 8 1 B ran i s a n E arly B ronze A ge c emetery a t B ranY i n C zechoslovakia. 1 o f t he N itra i s, h owever, v ille, t here i n t he r atio

c ulture a nd o f t he s lightly l ater I ngtice c ulture. I t o f l esser u se t o o ur d iscussion b ecause, u nlike M oundi s n o r elated s ettlement. B ran' s hows a c urious i mbalance o f m ale a nd f emale " rich" b urials. 1 19 C uriously, i n

c ontrast t o M oundville, a nd a lso t o r ecent p rehistoric c emeteries i n H awaii, 1 20 t here a re m ore w ealthy f emale b urials t han t hose o f m ales. S hennan o ffers t he s uggestion t hat t his r eflects b oth a cquisition o f s tatus a t b irth, a nd t he p ractice o f p olygyny w ith m en p aying b ridew ealth, o r a c ustom w hereby t he w omen s erve a s v ehicles t o d isplay t heir h usband's w ealth. 1 21 I t s eems c lear t hat B ran i s r epresentative o f a h ereditary h ierarchical s ociety a nd, l ike t he M oundville s ite, i ts w ealth i mbalance s uggests t hat r edistribution o f r esources w as, a s i n t he r ecent P olynesian e xamples, 1 22 p olitical r ather t han e conomic. ' T he e xaminations o f t he M oundville a nd t he B ran C ' c emeteries d o n ot a ttempt t o t ake t heir c onclusions b eyond w hat t he e vidence m ay s afely s tand. S hennan's a nalysis i s aw elcome a ddition t o a f ield o f s tudy w here o verworking o f t he e vidence o ften l eads t o f ar g reater c laims t han m ay b e s afely a dduced. 1 23 P eebles a nd K us w ith t heir a dmirable c omparison o f e thnographic a nd a rchaeological m aterial h ave a lso s et a s tandard w hich i s h ard t o s urpass. 1 24 I n c hapter 5 I n oted t he s uggestion t hat b urial i tself m ight h ave o nly b een a vailable t o m ore i mportant i ndividuals. S imilar s uggestions h ave b een m ade a bout t he n ature o f c emeteries t hat a re a ssociated w ith L BK s ettlements. I t i s a rgued t hat t he r eservation o f v alued l and f or c emeteries i s a n e xpression o f t he e xistence o f c ertain p owerful d escent g roups, m embership o f w hich e ntitled a p erson t o b urial i n t hese c emeteries. 1 25 T he l evel o f t he e vidence i s i nsuffic ient t o e ither p rove o r d isprove t his i dea, b ut, n evertheless, t his i nterpretation o ffers a q uite i nteresting a nd p lausible v iew o f t he s ocial f unction o f c emeteries i n t he f irst f arming c ommunities. 7 .6

C onclusion

T his h as b een a c hapter t o w hich n o c onclusion i s t ruly a pt. I ts p urpose h as b een t o d iscuss a s eries o f i ssues i n a s c onvenient a w ay a s p ossible,

a nd t hus f ree t he f ollowing c hapters, which w ill

c oncern t hemselves w ith t he N eolithic, f rom u nnecessary c omplexity. O nly o ne t opic h as n eed o f r eiteration a nd c onsideration o f a wider e mphasis a nd t hat i s t he b riefly d iscussed m atter o f t he p rimary r esource b ase. I t h as b een m y p urpose t hroughout t his s tudy t o e mphasise t he i mportance o f r esource m anagement i n t he d etermination o f s ocial h ierarchies, a nd t his w ill b e e xpanded u pon i n g reater d etail a s w e c onsider t he a rchaeological m aterial o f t he N eolithic.

S everal

i mportant p oints h ave e merged w hich w ill i mprove t he d irection o f o ur a nalysis. T hese a re, t he c onsideration t hat t he e arliest N eolithic s ettlement o f B ritain w as p erhaps m ore o rganised t han C ase h as s uggested, a nd a lthough w e s eem t o b e d ealing w ith s egmentary s ocieties, t he r edistribution f unction o f c hiefs h as n ot b een a dequately d efined o r a pplied t o t he p rehistoric c ommunities, w hilst f urthermore i t m ay n ot b e a s i mportant a f eature a s s ome m ay s uggest. L astly, a s R andsborg h as s o l ucidly d emonstrated, t he r esource b ase o f c ommunities h as m ore s ubtle e ffects t han w e h ave p resumed i n t he 1 42.

p ast.

W ith t hese,

a nd o ther c onsiderations i n m ind,

e specially t he

M esolithic c omponent i n E arly N eolithic s ociety, w e w ill c ommence t he c oncluding p art o f t his e xamination o f t he o rigins o f h ereditary s ocial

s tratification.

1 43.

R EFERENCES 1 .

T he b asic c hronology f or t he s pread o f t he N eolithic e conomy i n E urope i s p rovided b y A .J. A mmerman a nd L .L. C avalli-Sforza, 1 971, ' Measuring t he r ate o f s pread o f e arly f arming i n E urope', M an 6 , p p. 6 74-688. F or s ome c riticism s ee P hillips, 1 981, p . 1 51.

2 .

G . B arker, 1 985, P rehistoric F armingin E urope, U niversity P ress, C ambridge, p . 2 03.

3 .

H .

4 .

i bid .,

5 .

i bid .

6 .

S ummarised i n B arker,

7 .

C ase,

8 .

i bid ., p .

9 .

B arker,

1 0 .

C ase,

1 1.

i bid ., p . 1 80; B arker, 1985, p . a re s ome e xamples.

1 2.

H erodotus, B k .

1 3 .

ikopia', R . F irth, 1 961, ' History a nd t raditions o f the T P olynesian S ociety M emoir 3 3, p p. 1 36-143 .

1 4.

P .V . K irch, 1 984, T he Evolution o f t he P olynesianC hiefdoms, C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge, p . 8 1ff.

1 5.

A . S harp, 1 961, ' Polynesian n avigation t o d istant i slands', J ournal o f t he P olynesian S ociety 7 0, p p. 2 21-226.

1 6.

R . p .

1 7.

R enfrew a rgues t hat p opulation p ressures c reated t he d esire t o b uild t he b urial m onuments a s t erritorial m arkers, C . R enfrew , 1 984, ' Megaliths, t erritories a nd p opulations', ( 1976) r eprinted i n C . R enfrew , e d ., A pproaches t o S ocial A rchaeology, E dinburgh U niversity P ress, E dinburgh, p . 1 87ff.

1 8 .

J . T roels-Smith, 1 967, P alaeohistoria 1 2, p p.

1 9.

H . T auber, 1 972, ' Radiocarbon c hronology o f the D anish M esolithic a nd N eolithic', A ntiquity 4 6, p p. 1 06-110.

2 0.

T roels-Smith,

C ase,

1 969a,

p .

C ambridge

' Neolithic e xplanations', A ntiquity 4 3,

p .

1 77.

1 81.

1 969a, p .

1 985, p .

1 94ff.

1 81.

1 83ff.

1 985,

1 969a ,

p . p .

2 03. 1 77ff. 1 97ff.; W hittle,

1 985,

p .

2 19ff.

4 .42.

F irth, 1936, 1 8ff.

W e,

t he T ikopia,

1 967, p .

G eorge A llen a nd U nwin,

L ondon,

' The E rtebSlle culture a nd i ts b ackground ' 5 05-528.

5 07; a v aluable d iscussion o f t he r ole o f 1 44.

l ittoral r esources i n t he E rteb0 611e c ulture i s, P . R owly-Conwy, 1 983, ' Sedentary h unters: t he E rtebblle e xample', i n B ailey, e d ., p p. 1 11-126. 1 972,

1 07.

2 1.

T auber ,

2 . 2

T roels-Smith ,

2 3.

T auber ,

2 4 .

T roels-Smith ,

2 5.

i bid .,

p .

5 22.

2 6.

i bid .,

p .

5 23 .

2 7.

W hittle,

2 8.

i bid .

2 9.

i bid .,

3 0 .

J . T roels-Smith, 1 960, ' The M uldbjerg d welling p lace: a n e arly N eolithic a rchaeological s ite i n t he A amosen B og, W est Z ealand, D enmark', S mithsonian R eport f or 1 959, G ovt. P rinting O ffice, Washington, p . 5 89ff.

3 1.

T auber,

3 2.

T roels-Smith,

3 . 3

i bid.

3 4.

i bid .,

3 5.

i bid., p .

6 00.

3 6.

i bid .,

6 00ff.

3 7.

L . L arsson, 1 983, ' Karsfglt: a s ettlement f rom t he E arly a nd L ate F unnel B eaker C ulture i n S outhern S cania, S weden', A cta

P .

1 967, p .

1 972, p .

p. p

p .

p .

5 08 .

1 25.

1 22-123 .

1 972,

F igs.

p .

1 07.

1 967,

1 985,

5 06.

p .

1 07.

1 960, p .

1 2,

A rchaeologia 5 4, 3 8 .

i bid., p p.

3 9.

i bid ., p .

4 0 .

i bid.,

p. p

4 1 .

i bid.,

p .

1 0ff.

4 2.

i bid .,

p .

2 6.

4 3.

i bid .,

p . 4 2.

4. 4

i bid .,

p . 5 8 .

1 3,

p .

5 93ff .

1 4.

2 6.

2 6-27. 4 2. 4 1,

4 8-49.

1 45.

4 5.

L arsson,

1 983,

4 6.

i bid ., p .

4 7.

i bid .,

4 8 .

i bid ., p .

4 9.

S ee c hapter 5 .

5 0.

p . 42.

6 4.

p p.

3 4-35. 6 5.

Troels-Smith,

1 960,

1 983, p .

P .

5 97.

5 1.

L arsson,

5 2.

i bid .,

5 3.

W hittle,

5 4.

T roels-Smith,

5 5 .

B arker,

5 6.

C . R enfrew , 1 982, ' Socio-economic change i n r anked s ocieties', i n R enfrew a nd S hennan, e ds., p p. 3-5.

5 7.

C hilde,

F ig .

2 6.

2 9.

1 985,

p .

1 23 .

1 967, p .

1 985, p .

1 958, p .

5 24ff.

2 03 .

3 .

5 8.

I. H odder , 1 982, ' Sequences o f s tructural change i n t he D utch N eolithic ', i n I . H odder, e d ., S ymbolic a nd S tructural A rchaeol ogy, C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge, p p. 1 62-177.

5 9.

I. H odder, 1 984, ' Burials, h ouses, w omen a nd m en i n t he E uropean ower N eolithic ', i n D. M iller and C . T illey, e ds ., I deology, P p. 5 1-68 . a nd P rehistory, C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge, p

6 0.

i bid .,

p .

6 1.

6 1.

i bid .,

p .

6 2.

6 2.

For o ne e xample w here t he offerings reflect p arental g rief. M . P arker P earson, 1 982, ' Mortuary p nd ractices, s ociety a i deology', i n H odder, e d ., p . 1 10.

6 3 .

onathan C ape, C. R enfrew , 1 973a , B efore C ivilization, J p p. 1 38-140.

6 4.

urope, See G . D aniel, 1 958, T he M egalith B uilders o fW estern E T he m ost e xtreme H utchinson, L ondon, c hapter 7 f or d iscussion. he M egalith s E . M ackie, 1 977, T v iew o f r eligious o rigins i he M ycenaean xford . F inally t here i s t B uilders, P haidon, O .C . A tkinson, 1 979, S tonehenge, P enguin, a rchitect t heory, A.J 66. H armondsworth, p . 1

6 5.

Monuments , mobilization a nd s ocial o rganizaC . R enfrew, 1 973b, ' ', i n C. R enfrew , ed ., T he E xplanation t ion i n N eolithicW essex uckworth, L ondon, p p. 5 39-558. o f C ulture C hange, D

1 46.

L ondon,

6 6.

E .R . S ervice, N ew Y ork.

6 7.

S ahlins, C liffs.

1 958;

6 8 .

R enfrew ,

1 973b,

6 9.

i bid.,

7 0.

i bid.

7 1.

A .Fleming , 1 93 .

7 2.

R enfrew ,

7 3.

i bid .,

p .

7 4.

i bid.,

p p.

7 5.

T .C . D arvill, 1 979, ' Court c airns, p assage g raves a nd s ocial c hange i n I reland', M an 1 4, p p. 3 11-327.

7 6.

i bid ., p .

3 17ff.

7 7.

i bid .,

3 21ff.

7 8 .

R enfrew,

1 973b,

7 9.

R enfrew,

1 984,

8 0.

R .J .C. A tkinson, 1 968, ' Old M ortality: s ome a spects o f b urial a nd p opulation i n N eolithic E urope', i n J .M . C oles a nd D .D.A . S impson, e ds., S tudies i n A ncient E urope, E ssays P resented t o S tuart P iggott, L eicester U niversity P ress, L eicester, p p. 8 3-94 .

8 1.

D arvill,

1 979,

p .

3 14.

8 2.

R enfrew,

1 984,

p .

1 78ff.

8 3.

R enfrew ,

1 973b,

8 4.

S ahlins,

1 963,

8 5.

K irch,

8 6.

P eebles a nd K us,

8 7.

T hese a re d iscussed i n t he f ollowing c hapter.

8 . 8

C . B urgess, 1 980, T he A ge o f S tonehenge, D ent, L ondon, p rovides am ore r ealistic s cheme.

8 9.

R enfrew ,

9 0.

A .

p .

p .

1 958, P rimitive S ocial O rganization,

i dem .,

p .

1 968,

R andom H ouse,

T ribesmen, P rentice H all, E nglewood

5 43 .

5 44.

' Tombs f or t he l iving', M an 8 , p p.

1 973,

1 973b,

p .

1 77-

5 49.

5 52. 5 56-557.

p . p .

F leming ,

1 979, p .

3 25.

1 86.

p .

5 43 .

i s t he c lassic a ccount.

1 984, p .

1 973b,

5 43; D arvill,

2 43ff . 1 977,

F ig .

1 971,

a nd b elow .

5 .

' Territorial p atterns i n B ronze A ge W essex ', 1 47.

P PS 3 7, p p.

1 38-166.

9 1.

i bid .,

p .

1 39.

9 2.

i bid .,

p .

1 52ff.

9 3 .

i bid .,

p .

1 54.

9 4.

i bid .,

p .

1 59ff.

9 5.

i bid.,

p .

1 59.

9 6.

K . R andsborg, 1 975, ' Social d imensions o f e arly N eolithic D enmark', P PS 4 1, p p. 1 05-118.

9 7.

i bid .,

9 8 .

i bid .

9. 9

p .

1 07.

i bid .,

p .

1 08 .

1 00.

i bid .,

p .

10. 1

1 01.

i bid .,

p .

1 09ff.

1 02.

i bid .,

p .

1 11.

1 03.

i bid.,

p .

1 13ff.

1 04.

i bid .

1 05.

i bid .,

p .

1 15.

1 06.

P eebles a nd K us,

1 07.

E .R . S ervice, 1 975, T he O rigins o f t he S tate a nd C ivilization, W .W . N orton a nd C o., N ew Y ork.

1 08.

e .g .

1 09.

S ahlins,

1 10.

T .K . E arle, 1 977, ' Redistribution: a r eappraisal', u npub. m anuscript, U niversity o f C alifornia a t L os A ngeles, 1 975, q uoted i n P eebles a nd K us, p . 4 23ff .

11.

P eebles a nd K us,

12.

i bid .,

p .

13. 1

i bid .,

p. p

4 33-435.

14. 1

i bid .,

p . p

4 35-438.

15. 1

i bid .,

p .

16. 1

e .g .

R enfrew , 1 958;

1 977.

1 973a,

p .

S ervice,

1 977,

1 55ff;

1 973b, p .

5 43.

1 958.

p p.

4 24-427.

4 26.

4 39.

S ahlins,

i dem ,

1 963 . 1 48.

17.

P eebles a nd K us,

. 18

S .

19.

i bid .,

1 20 .

J .A . T ainter a nd R .H . C ordy, 1 977, ' An a rchaeological a nalysis o f s ocial r anking a nd r esidence g roups i n p rehistoric H awaii', W A 9 , p p. 9 5-112.

1 21.

S .

1 22.

T his i s a lso a f eature, a lbeit l ess i mmediate, o f t he p otlach c eremonies d escribed i n c hapter 6 .

1 23 .

O ne s uch s tudy w hich s tretches t he e vidence b eyond b reaking p oint i s P . v an d e V elde, 1 979, ' The s ocial a nthropology o f a N eolithic c emetery i n t he N etherlands', C urrent A nthropology 2 0, p p. 3 7-58 .

1 24.

O ther i mportant s tudies o f t he s ocial a spects o f b urial i nclude: L .R . B inford, 1 971; J .W. G ruber, 1 971, ' Patterning i n d eath i n a l ate p rehistoric v illage i n P ennsylvania ', A merican A ntiq uity 3 6, p p . 6 4-76; A .A . S axe, 1 970, S ocial D imensions o f M ortuary P ractices, u npub. P h.D. t hesis, U niversity o f M ichigan; J .A . T ainter , 1 973, ' The s ocial c orrelates o f m ortuary p atterni ng a t K aloko, N orth K ona, H awaii', A rchaeology a nd P hysical A nthropology i n O ceania 8 , p p. 1 -11; O 'Shea , 1 984.

1 25.

W hittle,

S hennan, F ig .

S hennan,

1 977,

P .

44. 4

1 975. 4 .

1 975, p .

1 985,

p .

2 86.

9 0ff.

1 49.

C HAPTER 8 S OCIAL S TRATIFICATION I N T HE E ARLY N EOLITHIC 8 .1

I ntroduction

T here e xists a m arked d ifference b etween t he s ettlements o f t he E arly N eolithic f armers i n n orth-western E urope a nd t hose w hich d evel oped l ater i n t he B ritish I sles. I n E urope t here w as a g eneral e arly t rend t owards v illage t ype s ettlement, w hilst i n B ritain t he N eolithic s ettlers w ere d ispersed a nd s ettled i n s mall f arms -a nd c ontinued i n t his f orm u ntil t he R oman I ron A ge. T here i s n o e asily i dentified e xplanation f or t his d ifference, o ther t han t hat t he B ritish s ettlem ents m ay r eflect a c ombination o f c ultural t raits p resent i n w estern T RB g roups a t t he t ime o f t he B ritish s ettlement l r einforced b y c ontact w ith t he i ndigenous h unter-gatherer p opulations. IT his p attern d id n ot e xist i n t he i nitial " neolithization" o f E urope w here t he i ntroduction o f a griculture s aw t he A tlantic f oraging c ommunities q uickly s ubmerged b y t he s pread o f t he L BK ( Linearbandkeramik) p eople w ith t heir v illage c entred e conomy. 2 T he o nly p lace w here d ispersed s ettlement c ontinued i n t he e arly p eriod w as i n S candinavia. T hese, h owever, w ere c omplex h unter-gatherer c ultures s uch a s w as t he E rtebSlle. W hen f arming w as f ully i ntroduced v illages q uickly d eveloped. T hese q uite f undamental d ifferences i n s ettlement

t ypes make t he

e xamination o f s ocial h ierarchy s ystems m ore d ifficult. C learly m odels t hat a re d eveloped f rom t he L BK c ulture a nd i ts s uccessors w ould n ot b e t otally a pplicable t o t he B ritish c ommunities a nd v ice v ersa.

T he t ask

o f t his c hapter w ill b e t o e xamine t he e conomic c onditions o f t hese s ocieties a nd t o a ttempt t o f ormulate w hat t ypes o f r anking s ystems c ould b e p resent a nd i f t hese w ould p ossess h ereditary e lements. 8 .2

S ocial H ierarchies i n t he L BK C ulture T he o rigins o f t he L BK C ulture a re l ittle u nderstood.

T wo

t heories e xist, b oth o f w hich have m erit. O ne a rgues f or o rigins i n t he l ate S tar &vo-Körös c ulture o f e astern E urope, s eeing t he i ntrod uction o f a griculture a s t he r esult o f t he e xpansion o f a gricultural c ommunities i nto c entral a nd w estern E urope. S ome p arallels i n l ithic t echnology a re c ited a s e vidence, a s w ell a s t he m ajor p iece o f e vidence w hich i s t he i ntroduction o f d omesticates. T he o ther t heory s ees t he L BK g roup o riginating i n a c omplex c ombination o f a gricultural p rocedures b eing a cquired b y i ndigenous p opulations i n t he a cculturat ion p rocess. I n t his s cheme t he m oving f rontier o f a griculture i s s ustained b y g roups a t i ts e dge a cquiring f arming b y e xample o f t heir n eighbours. T his i s, i n e ssence, n ot a m ovement o f p eoples, b ut i nstead a m ovement o f i deas.

T he l atter v iew h as s trength i n t he m anner b y

which i t s olves a w eakness o f t he S tar &vo-Körös o rigins m odel. T his c oncerns t he l ack o f p arallels b etween t he p ainted w are a nd s mall h ouses o f t he S tar &vo-Körös c ulture, a nd t he u npainted i ncised ware a nd l arge l ong-houses o f 3t he L BK.

L ithic p arallels c an b e e xplained

b y f unctional n ecessity. T he c onstruction o f l ong-houses b y t he L BK p eople m ay a lso r eflect t he s ocial e ffect o f f orager bands b eing t ranslated i nto s edentary f armers b ut s till r etaining e lements o f t heir e xtended f amily s tructure. P erhaps t he o nly w eakness o f t he a cculturat ion m odel i s t hat a griculture i s i ntroduced q uite r apidly a nd t his m ay b e a t a r ate f ar f aster t han a cculturation p rocesses m ight w ork. 1 50.

M ap 4 .

P rincipal E uropean s ites d iscussed i n c hapter 8 .

. 1

E lsloo

6 .

B ylany

. 2

O lszanica

7 .

A ichbühl

. 3

B rze n ' Kujawski

8 .

E golzwil

. 4

B urg schi

9 .

T iszapolgär-Basatanya

. 5

N itra

1 51.

W hittle c autiously s uggests t hat a c ombination o f t he t wo t heories m ight b e t he a nswer.

4

W hatever t he o rigins o f t he L BK c ulture t he s pread o f a gricult ure i s r apid. S tarting i n t he B alkans a round 6 000 b o, i t r eaches t he A tlantic c ommunities b y t he m iddle o f t he f ifth m illennium b c. T he L BK f armers m ade u se o f r ich l oess s oils t o g row e mmer, e inkorn, a nd b arley . T heir d omestic a nimals w ere c attle, s heep/goat, a nd p igs. W ide u se w as a lso m ade o f w ild r esources. 5 O f p rincipal i nterest t o t his i nquiry a re t he L BK s ettlements a nd h ouses. A lthough t here a re m any s ettlements k nown, s tretching f rom P oland t o H olland, l ittle i s s afely u nderstood a bout p opulation s izes, o r i ndividual s ocial u nits. E ach s ettlement c onsisted o f a d ispersed g roup o f l ong-houses. T hese b uildings a verage a round 3 0 m etres i n l ength b y 5 m etres i n w idth. C onstruction w as g enerally h eavy w ith l arge p osts i nserted i nto t he g round a s u prights. O ne e nd o f t he b uilding u sually h as a c oncentration o f p osts w hich, i t 6h as b een s ugg ested, i s e vidence o f a r aised a rea, o r s econd s torey. P hillips, a nd o thers,

s uggest t hat t he h ouses w ere d ivided i nto t hree s ections.

T he

c entral s ection c ontained t he l iving q uarters w hile t he s outh-east s ection ( the h ouses a re g enerally o rientated t owards t he n orth-west) w as a s tore-room , a nd t he n orth-west s ection w as a n a nimal b ier. 7 T his v iew i s n ot u niformly a ccepted, i n p articular t he s talling o f a nimals i nside b uildings i s q uestioned.

8

C hemical t ests h ave b een i nconclu-

s ive. 9 A nother l ittle u nderstood f eature o f L BK h ouses i s t he r ecur0 V arious e xplanations r ence o f a s et o f p osts a rranged i n a Y p attern. 1 h ave b een o ffered, b ut p robably t he m ost a cceptable i s t hat t hey f ormed a m eans o f s trengthening t he l ongitudinal s tructure o f t he h ouses. 1 T here i s a g eneral l ack o f g ood p reservation i n L BK s ites a nd i n m ost c ases o ur o nly e vidence o f v illage a nd h ouse a rrangements a re 2 T he c learest e vidence w e h ave i s t he h ouse f oundations p ost-holes. 1 a nd t his h as l ed u s t o a r ather c ircular a rgument i n o ur u nderstanding

o f L BK s ocial s tructure,

a nd t o o ur p erception o f v illage h ierarchy.

O ur p rincipal s ource o f s ocial d etail f or L BK s ociety c omes f rom e thnographic e xamples. T hese e xamples h ave t ended t o d emonstrate t hat i n c urrent s ocieties l ong-houses o f t he L BK t ype a re u sually a ssociated w ith m atrilocal a nd m atrilinear s ocieties. A nother p iece o f d ata i s t hat e xpansive s ocieties, w hich t he L BK w as, t end t o b e m atrilocal, a s t he m en a re f orced t hrough c ompetition f or w ives t o m ove t o n ew r egions a nd c ommunities. 1 3 S ouds g 7 a rgues f urther f or t his v iew b y c ombining t he a nthropological d ata f rom b urials, a nd h is s tatement t hat t he 4 T his r eliance o n f ingerprints o n p ots c an b e i dentified a s f emale. 1 t he i dentification o f s ex f rom f ingerprints i s q uestionable. 1 5 v an d e V elde h as a lso a rgued s trongly f or m atrilinear s ociety i n h is e xaminat ion o f t he c emetery a t E lsloo.

1 6

I t i s o bvious t hat t he u se o f e thnographic e vidence f rom c urrent m atrilinear s ocieties w ill l ead u s t o a n umber o f o ther a ssumptions w hich m ay b e u nwarranted. W e w ould b e l ed t o a v iew o f L BK s ociety w hich w ould h ave f eatures i n c ommon w ith t hose s ocieties d iscussed i n c hapter 6 . T hese i nclude s uch f eatures a s w omen b eing t he m ain f ood p roducers u sing g ardens o wned a nd c leared b y m en; m en t aking r espons ibility f or t he w idows a nd c hildren o f t heir b rothers; e xagamous m arriages w here i t i s t he m an w ho m oves t o a nother c ommunity; 1 52.

i nheritance o f p roperty b y n ephews;

a nd t he p robability o f " big-man"

p olitics w here m en c an u se t he c hances f or e xcess p roduction i nherent i n t hese s ocieties f or p olitical m eans. I n t he f inal a nalysis, h owever, o ur a ssumptions f or L BK m atrilinearity a re d erived m ainly f rom t he i nterpretation o f t he i nterior f eatures o f L BK h ouses. I f t hese f indings a re s uspect, t hen o ur a ssumptions a bout L BK s ociety a re a lso s uspect. T here i s l ittle a greement u pon t he m ost i mportant f actor i n o ur e xamination o f s ocial s tructure -the i ndividual p opulation o f e ach h ouse. S oudsk , w ho s upports t he m atrilinear v iew , h as u sed t he e vidence f rom t he L ate L engyel s ite a t P ostoloprty w here 4 c ontemporary o vens were f ound i n ah ouse so me 3 2 m etres i n l ength. T his h e h as t ranslated t o a h ouse a t B ylany w hich i s 2 0 m etres l ong a nd w hich h e s uggests w ould c ontain s pace f or 3 f amilies. 1 7 A l ater s tudy b y M ilisauskas a lso f ollows S oudsk 3 S's m ethods a t O lszanica i n P oland .

1 8

t o d etermine p opulations

T hese f amilies w ould b e i nterrelated i n

m atrilinear k inship s ystems, p erhaps g roups o f s isters o r s isters-inl aw . T he w eakness o f t his m ethod i s t hat h earths, n ominally t he f amily c entre, h ave g enerally n ot s urvived . S ome h ave f ound t his e xtrapolat ive m ethod u nconvincing, e specially i n v iew o f t he d earth o f L BK h earths. W hittle i s s ceptica1, 1 9 a nd M odderman t ends t owards t he v iew o f a n e xtended f amily -a d evelopment o f M esolithic s ocial g roups r ather t han a g roup o f f amily u nits.

2 0

F urther p roblems h ave a risen i n t he i nterpretation o f t he l ength o f t ime t hat e ach h ouse w as o ccupied . S oudskY e xamined t he n umber o f i ndividual r elinings o f s torage p its a nd, a ssuming t hese w ere a nnual e vents s uggested t hat t he h ouses a t B ylany w ere o ccupied f or 1 0 o r 1 1 y ears.

, 1

P art o f t his a rgument i s t he a cceptance t hat L BK f armers

2 3 T his v iew i s n ow q uestioned. p racticed s lash-and-burn a griculture. 22 R owley-Conwy h as o ffered c onvincing a rgument t hat s lash-and-burn

I t i s a lso n oted a griculture m ay n ot h ave b een w idely p racticed. 24 t hat t he r elative m assiveness o f t he h ouses c ould h ave g iven t hem a q uite l ong u seful l ife. 25 I n v iew o f t hese f undamental d ifferences i n t he i nterpretation o f s ettlements, t he a nalysis o f s ocial h ierarchies b ecomes e ven m ore d ifficult. T he o nly c lear i ndication o f s ome f orm o f s ocial d ifferentation i n L BK s ettlements i s t he u sual p resence o f o ne b uilding t hat i s l arger t han t he r est. T he p urpose o f t his l arger b uilding h as b een t he s ubject o f s ome d ebate, a nd t hree m ain u ses h ave b een s uggested . T hese a re t hat i t w as a c ommunal b uilding s imilar t o a M elanesian m en's h ouse, a t emple, o r t he h ouse o f a v illage l eader w ho w as p erhaps o f t he M elanesian b ig-man t ype. 26 A m ajor p roblem i n d etermining t he p urpose o f t hese l arge h ouses i s t hat a part f rom t heir s ize, a nd a c orresponding n eed f or s tronger c onstruction, n othing e lse d istinguishes t hem f rom t heir s maller c ompanions. 27 T he s uggestion t hat t hey m ay h ave b een a t emple o r a s acred s tructure o f s ome k ind i s t he m ost s imple t o d ismiss. T here a re n o s tatues, f igurines, d istinctive p ottery o r r emains o f s acrificial a nimals a ssociated w ith t hese b uildings.

I f s ome f orm o f r eligious

a ctivity w as p racticed w e s hould e xpect s ome d istinctive a rtefacts. T he l arger h uts a t L epenski V ir, w hich w as d iscussed i n c hapter 5 , h ad s tatues a ssociated w ith s tone " tables" . 28

1 53.

T he p ossibility t hat t hey a re m en's h ouses, o r c lubhouses, h as m ore t o r ecommend i t. M en 's h ouses i n M elanesian v illages s erve s everal f unctions. T hey a re f ormed a round g roups o f m en r elated t hrough t heir f athers, a nd t hey a re a p art o f t he k inship s ystems t hat e xist i n m atrilinear s ocieties. 29 M en's h ouses a lso a ct a s c entres f or t he p ublic d istribution c eremonies t hat a re p art o f t he p olitical a ctivities o f b ig-men s eeking t o i ncrease, o r m aintain, t heir c ommunity s tanding. 3° A m ajor c ommodity a t t hese p otlachs i s m eat, u sually p ork. T hese c eremonies o nly , t ake p lace w hen a s ufficiently i mpressive s tock h as b een a ccumulated, n ecessary .

3 1

a nd t herefore s ome f orm o f c orraling i s

T his i s o f i nterest b ecause t he l arge h ouse i n t he LGr

p hase a t B ylany h ad a n a ttached c orral o r e nclosure.

3 2

O ne a ttempt w as m ade t o t est t he m en's h ouse h ypothesis. M ilisauskas s ought t o a nalyse t he a rtifacts f rom t he s ite o f t he l arge h ouse a t O lszanica .

H e t hought t hat t here w ould b e a l arger p ercen-

t age o f a rtifacts r elated t o m ale a ctivities,

s uch a s a xes, a dzes a nd

c hisels. T here w as n o m arked i ncrease r elative t o o ther h ouses a nd, f urthermore, p ottery, w hich i s u sually a ssociated w ith f emale a ctivit ies, d id n ot o ccur i n l esser q uantities r elative t o o ther h ouses, a s m ight b e e xpected. 33 T his d oes n ot n ecessarily n egate t he h ypothesis. I t m ay w ell b e,

a s g rave c ontent t ends t o s how,

t here i s n ot a . z reat

d ifference b etween a rtifacts a ssociated w ith m ales a nd f emales. 34 T he r eal p roblem i s t hat t he e xistence o f am en's h ouse, o f t he M elanesian f orm,

c annot e ither b e p roved o r d isproved f rom t he a rchaeological

e vidence. T he f inal s uggestion i s t hat

t he l arge h ouses were t he h omes o f

c ommunity l eaders. T hese l eaders, a s Ih ave a lready n oted , a re g enerally r eferred t o a s b ig-men a long t he l ines o f t he M elanesian l eaders. M ilisauskas b est s ums u p t his v iew " ...it i s a lso p ossible t hat t he m ost i mportant m an, s uch a s t he B ig M an i n t he v illage, i nhabited t he l ongest l onghouse.

T his d oes n ot

i mply t hat t here w as

i nherited r anking o f i ndividuals i n L inear s ociety, but o nly t hat a m an o r w oman c ould a chieve a g reater s tatus o n t he b asis o f p ersonal s kills...".

3 5

T he p roblem t hat a rises w hen w e s tart u sing t erms l ike " big-man" i s, a s w ith t he u se o f m atrilinear s ocial m odels, t he c reation o f a n umber o f a ssumptions a bout L BK s ocial l eadership t hat c annot b e a dequately d emonstrated i n t he a rchaeological m aterial. T his i s p articularly i mportant i n t his i nstance b ecause t he o ffice a nd r ole o f a b ig-man i s q uite c omplex .

M ore c omplex e ven t han t he s tructure

o f h ereditary l eadership. S ahlins h as d escribed t he p rocess o f b ecoming a b ig-man a s " Big-men d o n ot c ome t o o ffice;

t hey d o n ot s ucceed t o,

n or a re

t hey

i nstalled i n, e xisting p ositions o f l eadership o ver p olitical g roups. T he a ttainment o f b ig-man s tatus i s r ather t he o utcome o f a s eries o f a cts w hich e levate a p erson a bove t he c ommon h erd a nd a ttract a bout h im a c oterie o f l oyal, l esser m en". 36 Ab ig-man a chieves p osition b y d emonstrating h is e conomic a cumen i n t he a ccumulation o f g oods a nd t hen b y d istributing t hem i n a p otlach t o h is s upporters. A p art o f t his p rocess i s t he c reation o f a lliances w ith k inship g roups w h9 b y t heir a lliance w ith t he b ig-man a re a lso f ostering t heir s tatus. -7 A s m ore p ower i s a chieved a lliances a nd t rading p artnerships a re nd s o a n i ndividual b ig-man m ay, i f f ormed w ith o ther c ommunities 38 a 1 54.

h e i s a ble,

a chieve a w ide r egional i nfluence.

o f b ig-man i s o pen t o a nyone,

I mportantly t he r ole

t he o nly p rerequisite i s t he c apacity f or

h ard work . A t t he b ase o f t he s ystem l ies a c omplex n etwork o f s ocial r ules a nd a ctions i ntended t o c reate o bligations a nd c ompetition. Ab ig-man r ises i n p ower b y b uying l oyalty a t e ach s tage a nd t his i s m aintained b y c ontinuing t o d emonstrate t he a bility t o d eliver g oods a nd s tatus t o h is s upporters. T he s upporters i n t heir t urn h elp m aintain t he s ystem b y w hich g oods f low t o t he b ig-man. I t i s v ery m uch a s ystem o f q uid p ro q uo b ecause t he b ig-man's s upporters r emain l oyal o nly a s l ong a s t heir material s tandards a nd c ommunity s tatus i s i mproved b y t heir a dherence. I f t his m utual a rrangement f alters b ecause a b ig-man b egins t o l ose h is d rive f or p ower t hen h is f all i s o ften r apid. 39 B ig-man p olitics a re e galitarian i n t he s ense t hat t he p osition o f b ig-man i s o pen t o a nyone w ho h as t he d esire a nd a bility, b ut i n o peration t here i s l ittle e galitarianism . B ig-man p olitics a re a bout p ure p ersonal p ower -they a re n ot a bout b eing a r espected e lder i n a h appy e galitarian c ommunity. T his i s o ne p articular e xample o f t he d angers p resent i n u sing e thnographic p arallels. T he g eneral t hrust o f i deas c oncerning l eadership i n L BK c ommunities i s t hat t hey a re e galit arian, a s Ih ave n oted a bove, b ut b ig-man p olitics r ely e xclusively o n t he p rinciple t hat p eople a re n ot e qual a nd t hat t he m aintenance o f i nequality i s d esirable. T here i s t herefore a n i nherent f ault i n, o n t he o ne h and d escribing L BK p olitics a s e galitarian, a nd o n t he o ther s uggesting a b ig-man s tyle o f l eadership. A f urther s ource o f d ifficulty i s t hat w e c annot d emonstrate t hat b ig-man l eadership e xisted b y u se o f t he a vailable a rchaeological e vidence. T his s tyle o f l eadership t ends t o b e f airly s hort-lived, a nd t he s hort o ccupation p hases s uggested b y S oudskY c ould f it w ith a p attern o f c hanging l eadership. 40 B ut, a s Ih ave s hown, t here i s s ome d oubt e xpressed a bout h is p roposals. F urthermore a p art o f t he s ocial s tructure i n b ig-man c ommunities i s t hat t here a re g enerally a n umber o f p eople a spiring t o t he h ighest s tatus. I s uggest w e s hould e xpect t hat t he a rchaeological e vidence w ould s how a g raduation i n h ouse s izes , w ith c lusters a round l arger h ouses o f d iffering s izes. T here i s n o e vidence o f t his c lustering a lthough t here i s v ariety i n h ouse s izes. I t i s, h owever, d ifficult t o b e c ertain a bout t his a pparent l ack o f m ultiple d ifferentiation. P roblems a ssociated w ith c orrectly s eparating p hases i n m any s ites m ay m ask t hese d ifferences a nd c lusters.

4 1

T his c autious a pproach t ends t o b e v alid a t t he l evel o f v illages b ut o n t he r egional l evel t he i nformation i s m uch l ess c lear. L BK s ettlements t end t o b e g rouped, a s a t M erzbach w here t hey a re s pread a long a v alley, a nd i n s outhern P oland w here t hey a re f ound i n t he z ones o f a rable s oil a long r ivers. 42 T his t ype o f s ettlement i s f airly s tandard t hroughout t he L BK d omain i n E urope. T rade p atterns a lso r eflect a d egree o f c ultural u niformity w ith p ottery, f lint, s hells a nd o bsidian b eing t raded o ver l ong d istances. 43 I t i s p ossible t hat i ndividuals m ight h ave h eld s way o ver g roups o f c ommunities a s b ig-men a nd t he l arger h ouses w ithin s ingle v illages c ould r epresent

t he

c lusters t o w hich I r efer . P ossible a lso, i s t hat t his r egional p ower, i f i t e xisted, m ight h ave b een b ased t o s ome e xtent i n t he c ontrol o f t rade. W e c ould d raw t he a nalogies o ut f urther b ut I f eel t hat t his w ould b e f ruitless.

O verall w e d o n ot h ave s ufficient e vidence o f 1 55.

a ctual s ocial d ifferentiation a t t he v illage l evel u pon w hich t o d raw r egional c onclusions. I n v iew o f t he f oregoing I c annot a ccept u nrese rvedly t he i dea o f b ig-man p olitics i n L BK s ociety. T his a ssessment d oes n ot d ismiss t he p ossibility o f a c apable p erson r ising t o l eaders hip, b ut o nly t he u se o f t he b ig-man m odel i n o ur a ttempts t o d efine t he n ature o f L BK l eadership. T he o ther t ype o f l eadership i s h ereditary a nd t he l arge h ouses c ould h ave b een t he h omes o f a r uling f amily. I t w ould b e f airly u nobtrusive -the s ize o f t he s ettlements w ould t end t o p reclude a ny p retensions o f g randeur o n t he p art o f t he h ereditary l eaders. T here a re m any p arallels i n t he e thnographic r ecord a nd w e will n ow b riefly e xamine t wo o f t hem . O ur f irst e xample c omes f rom a p astoral s ociety, t he Nuer o f E ast A frica. T he N uer a re a p atrilinear s ociety w ho a re d ivided i nto f amily u nits l ed b y t he e ldest m ale, g enerally a g randfather. 44 W ithin t hese l arger u nits t he s ons, a nd g randsons, f orm i ndividual f amily T he h erd w hich c omprises t he f amily's w ealth i s o wned b y g roups. 45 t he w hole f amily, b ut i ts d isposition a nd m anagement i s u ltimately i n t he c ontrol o f t he l eading m ale. " W hen t he f amily l eader d ies t he f amily g roup s plits a nd t he n ext g eneration o f m ales f orms i ts o wn g roups. T he h erd i s d ivided o ut a mongst t he n ew g roups a ccording t o s hares b ased o n s eniority. 47 T he p rincipal v isible e lement o f t he s ocial s tructure a re t he h omesteads w hich c ontain t he f amily u nits. T hese v ary i n s ize a ccording t o t he s ize a nd w ealth o f

t he f amily -b ut

e ach i s s ubdivided a round s eparate h earths f or e ach wife a nd h er c hildren. 48 T hese p astoralists a re p olygamous a nd t he p rincipal u nit o f r elationship i s t hat w hich e xists b etween f ull b rothers a nd s isters, a nd t heir p arents.

4 9

F or m ost p urposes t he f amily g roup f orms t he m ajor a utonomous u nit w ithin t he s ociety. T here i s, h owever, a s ystem o f c lans t o w hich f amilies b elong a nd t hese h ave d istinct h ierarchical r elationships t o e ach o ther . 5° B eyond t he u nifying c lans t here i s a s ystem o f t ribal l eaders w hich h as a d ual a spect. T he p rincipal e lement i s a c ouncil o f e lders a nd t hose w ho a chieve r ecognition f or w isdom t end t o b ecome r ecognised a s c ommunity l eaders.

5 1

T here i s a lso a s acred c hief,

k nown

a s t he l eopard-skin c hief. H e h as a uthority b ased o n t he s acredness o f h is p erson. T his s acredness i s d rawn f rom h is m embership o f a c lan w hose h ereditary f unction i t i s t o p rovide t hese c hiefs.' 2 O ther c lans a lso h ave h ereditary f unctions s uch a s p roviding m edicine-men. 53 T he p rincipal r ole o f t he s acred c hief i s m ediation i n m atters w hich i nvolve r ival p olitical o r f amily g roups. H is authority i n d ayt o-day m atters i s n o m ore t han a ny o ther e lder. T heir p ower i s n ot g uaranteed a nd r equires t he a cceptance o f t he p arties i nvolved i f i t i s t o b e o bserved. 54 D espite t he c onditions t hat l imit t he p ower o f t he s acred c hief, i t r emains, n evertheless, a p osition t hat i nvokes r espect a nd r ecognition o f i ts s pecial r ole n ot b ecause i t i s e arned, a s w ith m embership o f t he t ribal c ouncil, b ut b ecause i t i s i nherited t hrough m embership o f a p articular c lan. H ereditary c hiefs a re c ommon a mong t he A merican P lains I ndians 5 5 . A g eneral f eature i s t he d ivision o f l eadership i nto t wo p arts. T he o ffice o f w ar c hief w as u sually n ot h ereditary a nd c ould b e h eld b y a nyone w ith a bility. T he g reat w ar l eader G all o f t he H unkpapa S ioux

1 56.

w as a n o rphan;

C razy H orse o f t he O glala S ioux r ose t o p rominence o n

h is o wn m erits a s d id B lack K ettle o f t he C heyennes.

5 6

T he o ther

o ffice w as t hat o f s achem a nd t his w as h ereditary a nd c onfined i ts a uthority t o r itual a nd t imes o f p eace. S itting B ull o f t he H unkpapa, a nd n emesis o f C uster i nherited m uch a uthority f rom h is f ather. 57 L owie has d iscussed t his d ivision o f a uthority i n r elation t o t he T he M aricopa, a f arming p eople o f A rizona ( discussed i n I roquois. 58 c hapter 6 ) h ad a h ereditary c hief. H is r ole w as l argely c onfined t o a dvice a nd m ediation a nd l ike t he s acred c hief o f t he N uer h ad n o p hysical a uthority. 5 9 T he o ffice w as h ereditary f or t he p ragmatic r eason t hat t he M aricopa f elt a s on o r o ther c lose r elative w ould l earn t he j ob b y e xample. 6 0 N one o f t hese e xamples h ave a ny f eatures w hich w ould be d istinctive i n t he a rchaeological d eposits l eft b y t he c ommunities. T hey d o, h owever, g ive u s e very r eason t o d oubt t he a ssumption t hat t he L BK c ultures o f p rehistoric E urope w ere l acking i n h ereditary l eadership. 6 1 H ow t hen d o w e t est t he h ypothesis t hat t he l arge h ouses i n L BK v illages w ere t he h omes o f h ereditary l eaders? O bviously w e h ave m oved b eyond t he s imple h ereditary a spects o f r esource c ontrol a nd l eadership i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties. W e a re n ow d ealing w ith c omplex, f airly h ighly p opulated,

s egmentary s ocieties w hich,

l ike t he m odern e xamples

d escribed i n c hapter 6 , w ould p robably h ave q uite s trong r ules a bout a ccess t o r esources a nd t o t he l and. E ven a t t he m ost s uperficial l evel

t he a rrangement o f t he h ouses i n v illages d isplay c ommunal o rgan-

i sation o f t he p opulation w hich i s n ot p resent i n h unter-gatherers. A t a d eeper l evel t he o rganisation o f t he l and t o s eparate o ne f amily's p roduce f rom a nother's r equires a n o rdered s ociety. T he a bove n otwithstanding, I f eel t hat t he l arger h ouses a re s omething o f a r ed h erring. W e c annot n ecessarily a ssume t hat t hey w ere t he h omes o f al eading f amily, f or, t o d o s o i s t o i mpute e mbell ishments u pon s ocial r anking w hich p robably h ad n o p lace i n t hese r ather s imple s ocieties. T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat r anking d id n ot e xist , I t hink i t d id, b ut t o s uggest t hat t he e quation b ig h ouse e quals l eading f amily i s l acking b oth i n s ubtlety a nd, i n t he L BK i nstances, i n d irect e vidence. I t i s p referable, I b elieve, t o i gnore t he b ig h ouses a nd t o e xamine o ther i ndicators, i n p articular t he e conomic s tructure. T he o verall e ffect o f t he e vidence, a s Ih ave n oted a bove, i s t o s uggest t hat t he a gricultural e conomy w as a cquired b y t he c entral a nd w estern E uropeans i n a p rocess o f a cculturation. T here i s n o e vidence o f c onquest o r a m igration o f n ew p eoples. O bviously d omesticates h ad t o b e i ntroduced, b ut t here a re n o r eal p arallels i n h ouse p lans b etween t he l onghouses o f t he L BK a nd t he s maller m ore r ectangular d wellings o f s outh-eastern E urope, n or f or t hat m atter t he v illage l ayout. °2 N or a re t here d irect r elationships i n t he p ottery. W here t he e vidence o f t he v ery e arliest N eolithic s urvives, s uch a s t he l ater E rteb ( 611e g roups ( see c hapter 7 ) a nd S wifterbank i n H olland 63 i t s eems i nitially t o b e a n i ntroduced v ariation t o t he s easonal r ound o f h unter-gatherers. I n a ddition, a nd e xcept f or f ringe a reas l ike s outhern S candinavia, "

t here i s n o e vidence o f h unter-gatherer a nd

a gricultural e conomies c ontinuing s ide-by-side f or l ong p eriods. O f p articular i nterest t o t his c onsideration a re t he r esource-rich l oess v alleys i n s outhern P oland. I f a griculture w as i ntroduced b y i nvaders, o r m igrants, w e w ould e xpect r egions l ike t his t o d isplay e vidence o f 1 57.

t he

t wo e conomies o perating i n c ompetition .

T here i s n o r eal

e vidence

o f t his a lthough a c ave s ite n ear B amberg i n W est G ermany h as d ismemb ered s keletons d isplaying i ndications o f v iolence w hich a re a ssociated O verall, h owever, t he c hange s eems o rderly. I n w ith L BK p ottery. 65 H olland f or i nstance t here i s a " false s tart" i n t he t ransition t o a d omestic e conomy t hat m ay r epresent a n " experiment"

t hat d id n ot

pell o f b ad s easons c aused a r eturn t o t he f amiliar w ork 66 -perhaps a s e conomy. T he e vidence i s e xtremely f ragmentary b ut n owhere i s t here a ny i ndication o f t he a brupt c hange w e s hould e xpect i f t here was a m igration o f a griculturists f rom t he e ast . T herefore i f w e a re t o u nderstand t he s ocial p rocesses a t w ork i n t he L BK v illages, w e m ust t urn t o t hose p resent i n t he l ate M esol ithic h unter-gatherer g roups. Ih ave d iscussed t hese i n c hapter 5 a nd w ill n ot r eiterate t hem h ere, e xcept t o s tate t hat t he s trong p arallels i n t he n eeds f or e conomic m anagement b etween m odern h unter-gatherers a nd t he M esolithic p eoples s how t hat h ereditary f orms o f r esource c ontrol w ere p robably i n e xistence. I t i s u nfortunate t hat t he c onfusing n ature o f t he o ccupation l evels i n L BK s ettlements h as p revented b etter u nderstanding o f t heir e arliest p hases. T he M uldbjerg s ite h as s hown 67 t hat t he e arliest s tructures m ight w ell h ave b een s imple huts l ittle d ifferent f rom t he h unter-gatherer s tructures. B and s ize w ould a lso h ave b een s mall, p erhaps t wo o r t hree f amilies. E xamples s uch a s t he P itted-Ware c ulture, t he E rtebSlle c ulture, a nd r ecently t he I ndians o f t he A meric an n orth-west d emonstrate t hat a r esource-rich e nvironment c an l ead t o s edentism .

I t i s t hen a s hort s tep t o a griculture,

e specially i f

i t i s b ecoming i ncreasingly i mportant i n n eighbouring g roups. 68 T his w ould b e a g radual p rocess a nd, i n a r esource-rich r egion l ike Europe w here p opulations w ere p robably h igh, c ommunities m ight c oalesce, o r b and p opulations e xpand, w ithout a ny n eed t o c hange t he h unter-gatherer p olitical s tructure. I ncreases i n p opulation d ensity, r ather t han s imple p opulation i ncrease w hich u nder t he h unter-gatherer s ystem c ould d isperse, w ould l ead t o t he s ituation w here t he p opulation o f a n a rea w as f orced t o c ontinue t he m ore c omplex b ut a lso m ore p roductive a gricultural e conomy. " T he d evelopment o f t he l ong-house

c onstitutes t he n ext

s tep i n

t he s ocial d evelopment o f t hese e arly a griculturists. T he l ong-house p reserves t he b asic e xtended f amily o f t he h unter-gatherer b and. T his u nit i s, b e m ade.

i n e ffect, t he b asic g roup a round w hich l and a llocation w ould T herefore w hat w e s ee i n t he d evelopment o f t he l ong-house i s

a rchaeological e vidence o f t he a cceptance b y t he e arly a griculturists, t hat t he t raditional h unter-gatherer r esource t erritory h as b een t ransf ormed i nto t he f amily's g arden p lot. T his, i n t urn, would s eem t o r epresent a rchaeological e vidence o f t he p rocess d escribed i n c hapter 6w here t he " privatisation" o f r esources t ransforms t he r ole o f c ommunity l eadership f rom p rotection o f r esources t o a m ore j udicial o ne o f m ediation i n d isputes. I t f ollows t hat i f t here w as a t ransf ormation o f t he t raditional h unter-gatherer h ereditary l eadership i n t he m anner d escribed t hen t his p robably c ontinued i ts h ereditary c harac ter. T he m odern e xamples w hich I h ave q uoted s uch a s t he A merican I ndian c hiefs w ith t heir r ole a s m ediators o ffer a lmost e xact p arallels . L astly i t i s c lear t hat t he l arger h ouses a re n ot a s c rucial t o t he q uestion o f s ocial r anking a s t heir s ize m ay s uggest . T heir 1 58.

p urpose, h owever, r emains u nclear. I t i s p robable t hat t he l eadership o f t he L BK c ommunities r etained m uch o f t he l ack o f p retension t hat i s a f eature o f h unter-gatherer l eadership.

T herefore o ne w ould e xpect

t hat s uch a n o vert d isplay o f s tatus a s l iving i n t he l argest h ouse m ight a ttract t he s ocial l evelling p rocesses t hat w e h ave d iscussed i n c hapter 2 . U nder t hese c onditions t he m ost a ttractive e xplanation i s t hat t he l arge h ouses w ere, c ommunal h all o r c lub. 8 .3

a s Ih ave d iscussed a bove,

s ome f orm o f

P ost-LBK C hanges

B eginning i n t he l ater p art o f t he f ifth m illennium b c t here a re a s eries o f c ultural c hanges r eflected i n t he a rchaeological m aterial. T he r ather s imple f orms a nd i ncised d ecoration o f t he L BK p ottery i s r eplaced b y m ore c omplex s hapes a nd d ecorative f orms i n w hich v arious k inds o f i mpressed o r j abbed d ecorations p redominate. I n P oland a nd c entral E urope t he m ain f orms a re L engyel a nd S BK ( Stichbandkeramik) w hilst i n G ermany a nd t he L ow C ountries t he R össen T hese s tyles a re r ather s hort-lived i n a rchaeological s tyle e merges. 7° t erms, l asting o nly i nto t he f ourth m illennium t o b e r eplaced b y t he 1 B urial c ustoms, v ery w ide-spread T RB ( Trichterrandbecher) s tyle. 7 w hich i n t he L BK c onsisted o f s ingle i nhumations, c hange w ith t he

a rrival o f t he T RB t o i nclude c ollective b urials i n b arrows a nd, w here m aterials a re a vailable, v arious f orms o f m egalithic s tructures. A ssociated p articularly w ith t he t rue m egalithic s tructures, s ettlem ents b ecome d ispersed i nto f armlets s o t hat t he t ombs r eplace v illages a s t erritorial c entres i n s ome p arts o f E urope. O verall t he p ost-LBK p eriod i s o ne o f g reat c omplexity i n w hich d ifferences i n s ettlement p atterns o ccur w ithin t he f alse c ultural u nity s uggested b y q uite w idely s pread s tyles o f p ottery. T he c ontinuation o f t he l ong-house f orm o f v illage s ettlement i nto t he R össen a nd S BK p hases s uggests a c ontinuation o f t he L BK s ocial s tructure. A m ajor d ifference b etween t he p hases, a lthough o ne w hich w ould p robably n ot a ffect s ocial s tructures, i s t hat t he p ost-LBK l ong-houses a re t rapezoidal r ather t han r ectangular i n f o r m . 7 2 S ettlement p atterns a ssociated w ith T RB p ottery a re s o v aried t hat i t i s n ecessary t o q uestion i f t he T RB p hase i s o ne o f a ny s ignif icant c ultural u nity. I n P oland a nd c entral E urope t here a re t wo t ypes o f s ettlement a ssociated w ith T RB c eramics. T he m ain s ettlements a re l ong-house v illages w hich u nlike t heir L BK p redecessors a re l ocated o n e levated e asily d efended s ites. T he s econd a re q uite s mall a nd c onsist o f l ittle m ore t han s catters o f s herds, a nd m ay h ave b een h unting c amps. 7 3 A lso, a s w e m ove w estwards, t here a re v illages m ade u p o f

s mall r ectangular b uildings.

S ites i n s outhern-central E urope

c ontain u ndecorated p ottery w hich w ould s eem t o b e o f P fyn t ype. P fyn w are i s r elated t o M ichelsberg s tyles w hich i n t urn i s o f T RB C a ffinity . 7 4 O ne s ite i s A ichbühl o n t he F edersee L ake i n s outhern G ermany, w hich c onsists o f an umber o f s mall r ectangular h uts s urround ed b y f ences. 7 5 T he v ariety o f t he s ettlement s tyles i s a lso r eflected i n m ortuary p ractices. I n t he e ast t he m ajor f eature i s u nchambered l ong b arrows c ontaining i ndividual b urials.

T he w estern p ractice i s

c ollective b urials i n l ong b arrows. 7 6 I n t he l ater T RB p eriod i n J utland c ollective b urial g ives w ay t o c emeteries c onsisting o f l ong r ows o f b urials w ithout b arrows. 77 O verall t he T RB m ay b e d ivided i nto .8 f ive r egional v ariants a ccording t o b oth s ettlement s tyle a nd p ottery 7 1 59.

I t i s t empting,

a nd p robably c orrect a lso,

t o v iew t he T RB p hase a s

o ne o f e conomic u nity i n w hich r egional r esponses t o v arying g eographic c onditions o n t he n orthern E uropean p lain e ncouraged l ocalised v ariat ions i n a s imilar c ultural p ackage. T he v illages o f s mall r ectangular h ouses w hich r eplace t he l ongh ouse s tyle v illages i n p arts o f E urope o ffer l ittle e vidence o f s ocial r anking. I n t he m ain t hese v illages w ere s ituated o n t he s hores o f r ivers a nd l akes i n s outh-central E urope. A f actor w hich m ay h ave c ontributed t o t heir a rchitecture -the d amp g round m ay have b een t oo s oft f or t he h eavier l ong-houses. A nother f actor m ay b e a b lending o f t wo s eparate s ettlement t raditions. T he s outh G erman s ites s uch a s 7 9 A ichbühl h ave p ottery w hich s eems t o b e r elated t o M ichelsberg w are, w hereas t he S wiss s ites s uch a s B ur Oschi h ave p ottery which s eems c loser t o C ortaillod w are i n s tyle. 60 T his s tyle i s p art o f t he C hassey-Cortaillod-Lagozza f amily w hich i s o f M editerranean o rigin.

8 1

M editerranean f arming s ettlements t end t o c onsist o f c ollections o f s mall b uildings,

a lthough t he e vidence i s q uite s parse.

8 2

I t i s

l ogical t o s uspect t hat t he s tyle o f b uildings i n t hese s outh-central E uropean g roups m ay r epresent a m erging o f c ultures i n which t he s outhern b uilding s tyle w as b est s uited t o t he e nvironment. T here a re d ifferences, h owever,

w hich p revent g eneralisation.

S ettlements s uch

a s A ichbühl a nd E golzwil a re m ade u p o f s mall s tructures e ach, g enera lly, s eparated f rom i ts n eighbours b y a p alisade. T hese u nits a re i n t urn s et i n a s ingle r ow u sually b acking o nto t he l ake. 83 T he S wiss d wellings s eem t o b e m ore l ike i ndividual f arms w ith s everal s tructures w ithin a p alisade a nd i solated f rom t heir n eighbours. b e a l ocal m inor v ariation o n t he s ettlement p attern. S ocial d istinctions a re h ard t o f ind. s hows n o d ifference i n h ouse s izes,

8 4

B ut t hese m ay

8 5

T he p lan o f E golzwil

a lthough a s W hittle n otes t here

w as a c oncentration o f f inds i n t he s uccessive h ouses 7 a nd 7 a i n E golzwil 5 . 8 6 P erhaps, a nd t his i s o nly t he v aguest s upposition, w e m ight h ave a b uilding w ith a s imilar p urpose t o t he l arger L BK l ongh ouses d iscussed a bove. A t A ichbUhl t here w as a l arger building s et i n 7 t he c entre o f t he s ettlement. I t t oo m ay h ave h ad a s pecial p urpose 8 l ike t he L BK e xample. O ther t han t hese t entative s uggestions t here i s

l ittle e lse o ne c an s ay.

T hese v illages s eem t o h ave had a m ixed

U nder e conomy o f f arming s upported b y h unter-gatherer a ctivities. 88 t hese c onditions i t i s t empting t o s uggest a h ierarchical s tructure i n t ransition f rom h unter-gatherer t ype t o o ne w ith e lements o f b ig-man f orm . T he l arger h ouses c ould b e s tore-houses, but t here i s l ittle m ore o ne c an s ay. A lthough t he e vidence i s r ather p atchy t he p eriod f rom 3 500 b c i s o ne o f f arming e xpansion w ith a c orresponding s hift i n t he s ettleA s t he m ore m ent p atterns t o d ispersed f arms r ather t han v illages. 89 d esirable l ands o n t he l oess f illed v alleys a nd p lains became s carce t here i s am ovement o f s ettlement i nto l ess f avourable h illy a reas, a nd t o t he m ore s andy s oil a reas i n D enmark, t he L ow C ountries a nd n orthern G ermany. " T he c hange i n s ettlement s eems t o b e i n r esponse t o s everal i nfluences. F irstly t here s eems t o b e a n i ncrease i n p astoral a ctivit ies, p articularly t he r earing o f s heep a nd c attle. T here a re t wo r ather b road p ieces o f e vidence w hich p oint t o t his.

We h ave a marked

i ncrease i n p ottery o bjects w hich s eem t o b e i ntended f or t he p roduct ion a nd c onsumption o f m ilk p roducts -in p articular t here a re t he b eaker c ups f ound i n t he T RB, C orded-ware a nd t he M ichelsberg g roups, 1 60.

a nd w e h ave a n umber o f l arge h andled j ugs w hose f unction a ppears t o b e s torage o f l iquids. 91 A lso, a s S herratt h as n oted, t he i ncrease o f f arming i n t his p eriod w ould h ave c reated a n eed t o r aise m ore o xen a s t raction a nimals f or p loughing.

9 2

Ih ave a lready s uggested

( chapter 1 )

t hat p erhaps n ot a ll f armers c ould h ave a fforded t o o wn o xen -a s ituation p resent t oday i n s ome d eveloping c ountries. 93 I t i s q uite p ossible t hat s ome o f t he w ealthier, o r o pportunistic f armers, c ould h ave m et t his e xpanded n eed b y h iring o ut

t heir o xen,

t aking p ayment

i n k ind. T his c ould l ead t o w ealthier f armers a nd t heir f amilies a cquiring a f orm o f s tatus i n t he c ommunities. I f t he h iring f ee w as v ery h igh, o r i f s ome a ccident i ntervened a nd t he d ebtor w as u nable t o r epay, t he r esponsibility f or p ayment m ight p ass t o t he f amily a nd t hen b e t ransformed i nto s ome f orm o f i nherited a llegiance. T his c ombined w ith t he o ther h ereditary s ocial s tructures I h ave d iscussed, w ould f urther s trengthen t heir p lace i n t he s ocial o rder. A s w ell a s t he t rend t owards d airying t here a ppears t o b e a c hange f rom f abrics m ade o f l inen t o t hose o f w ool. P reserved f ragm ents o f w oollen c loth a nd i ncreased n umbers o f s pindle w horls, p articularly f rom t he S wiss w aterlogged s ites, t end t o s upport t his. 94 T he i ncrease i n p astoral a ctivities w ould p robably b e m ore m arked i n r egions o f m arginal l and. S uch l and m ight b e t oo p oor, o r t oo d iffic ult, t o p repare f or c ereals b ut w ould s till s upport p asture. T he s econd i nfluence l eading t o m ore d ispersed s ettlement w ould b e m ore a ppropriate i n l ess m arginal o r p rime f arming r egions. H ere, w e might e xpect t hat, t he n eed t o b alance a dequately f arming a nd p astoral a ctivities, w ould c reate a s ituation w here t he v illage s tyle s ettlements o f t he L BK a nd R össen g roups w ould c ease t o b e c onvenient. T he e conomy o f t hose g roups, a s Ih ave d iscussed , s eems t o h ave b een b ased o n s mall g ardens n ear t he l ong-houses a nd s ome s mall s cale s tock r earing a s w ell a s h unting. I t w ould s eem l ikely t hat a n i ncrease i n h erd s izes,

c ombined w ith human p opulation i ncreases, w ould c reate a

n eed f or e xpansion o f l and i n u se i n t hese c ommunities ( especially t he o pening u p o f p astures) a nd t his u ltimately w ould l ead t o d ispersal o f p opulations. I n p articular w e m ust n ot i gnore t he n eed f or f armers t o b e a ble t o g et t o a nd f rom t heir l and i n t he m ost c onvenient w ay. 95 A ssociated w ith t hese a gricultural c hanges t here m ay h ave b een s ome c hanges i n a ttitudes t o r ank, a nd a lso a g eneral s hift i n t he f ocus o f s ocial a ctivity. I t i s p articularly i nteresting t hat t he a forementioned f undamental c hange i n a ttitudes t o b urial p ractices o ccurs w ith t he d ispersal o f p opulation i nto f arms. O f i nterest a lso i s t hat t he s ettlement o f t he B ritish I sles i s a lso d eveloped a round d ispersed f arming c ommunities, a nd t his w ould s uggest t hat a m ajor p art o f t his s ettlement w as d uring t he m iddle f ourth m illennium . T he c hange i n s ettlement f orms w as, h owever,

a ccompanied b y

i ncreased s ocial f riction g enerated b y r ising p opulation d ensities. I n p art t his m ay h ave b een e xacerbated b y e ndemic c attle r aiding a mongst t he p astoralists a nd i s d emonstrated b y t he a ppearance o f f ormalised d isplays o f t erritorial p ossession. T he L BK p eriod s eems t o have b een o ne o f l argely p eaceful e xpansion b ut t owards i ts e nd, a nd c ontinuing i nto t he R össen, L engyel a nd S BK p eriods w e s ee t he a ppearance o f v arious f orms o f e nclosures. A t f irst t hese w ould s eem t o b e l ittle m ore t han a nimal p ens, b ut l ater d itches a nd p alisades b ecome m ore c omplex . % A g reat v ariety o f p urposes h ave b een s uggested f or t hese e nclosures a nd s ome o f t hese w ill b e d iscussed b elow i n l ight 1 61.

o f t he B ritish e vidence.

P erhaps t he c learest d emonstration o f s ocial

f riction a re t hose e nclosures w hich a re s ited t o c ontrol p romontories o r b ends i n r ivers. E xamples a re P laidt o n t he r iver N ette i n West G ermany, L angweiler 3 a bove t he M erz v alley, 97 H alle-Dölauer H eide i n c entral G ermany,

9 8

a nd S arup i n D enmark.

9 9

A nother p ossible i ndication

o f t erritorial s tress i s t he u se o f b urial m onuments, a s R enfrew s uggests, IM a s d elineators o f t erritory. T his h as b een q uestioned i n r egard t o t he l ocation o f m any m onuments a way f rom f arming a reas, 1 01 02 a rgues a nd m ore r ecently i n a s tudy o f S wedish m egaliths. S jogren 1 t hat t he t ombs i n s outhwest S weden a re m ore l ikely t o be f amily g raves. T he a rgument r ests u pon t he i dea t hat t his r egion's e conomy w as

1 03 p rincipally m aritime a nd t hus w ould n ot n eed t erritorial m arkers. T he p rincipal p roblem w ith S jogren's a rgument i s t hat i t w ould s eem t o m isinterpret R enfrew 's t hesis.

T his r elies o n e thnographic e vidence

m ainly f rom P olynesia, 1 04 w hich h as a w ell d eveloped m aritime e conomy . T here i s, h owever, n o d ifficulty i n t he t ombs a lso b eing s pecial f amily g raves f or, a s I s uggest b elow, i t w ould b e h ighly l ikely t hat t he l eading f amily w ould a lso s eek t o e xpress i ts d ominion o ver t he l and e ven i n d eath. T he p roblem o f t he t ombs b eing i n p eripheral a reas o f t erritories s eems a m inor d ifficulty. W e m ust c onsider t hat m ajor s ocial f riction w ould o ccur o n t he t erritorial b orders, a nd t hat t here m ight a lso b e a r eluctance t o w aste g ood a rable l and b y r endering l arge p arts o f i t i naccessible. M ajor s upport f or R enfrew 's t heory c an b e f ound i n R andsborg 's a nalysis o f t he D anish e vidence ( discussed i n t he p revious c hapter). A ccompanying t hese i ndications o f i ncreased t errit orial a wareness w e n ow s ee t he i ntroduction o f s ome a rtifacts, p articularly c opper o bjects w hich m ay h ave b een s tatus s ymbols. I f w e a ccept t hat t here a re s igns o f s ocial f riction g enerated b y c ompetit ion f or r esources t hen i t f ollows t hat t he t ypes o f l eadership which d eveloped i n t he L BK p eriod w ould h ave h ad t o c hange. P art o f t hat c hange w ould p robably b e t he a cquisition o f a ggressive a nd c ompetitive f orms o f s ocial s tatus. A p art o f S herratt's d iscussion o f t rade r elationships a nd s ocial c hanges i n t he N eolithic o f t he C arpathian B asin c oncerns t he c omparison o f g rave g oods i n c emeteries f rom d ifferent p eriods. U sing t he d istribution o f g rave g oods i n g raves a t t he L BK c emetery a t N itra i n C zechoslovakia, h e s uggests t hat c oncentrations o f p olished a xes a nd o rnaments i n t he g raves o f o lder m ales i ndicates m ale d ominance o f t rade l inks a nd a lliance s ystems. M oreover t his i mbalance i ncreases w ith t he a ge o f i ndividuals, w hich S herratt a rgues i ndicates t hat o lder m ales m ight a lso m onopolise t he w omen o f m arriageable a ge. T he overa ll v iew o f t he h ierarchical s ystem i s s een a s o ne i n w hich s ociety i s l ed b y g roups o f l ineage h eads w ho c ontrol r esource e xchange a nd a lliances t hrough m arriage. °5 A c emetery f rom t he f ollowing T iszapolg är a nd B odrogkeresztdr p hase p resents a d ifferent s ocial o rder. T he T iszapolggr-Basatanya c emetery i n H ungary h as a d ifferent r atio o f a ge a nd g rave g oods c oncentration. O lder m ales s till h ave s ome p restige g oods l ike c opper s hafthole a xes a nd a wls b ut t here i s a m arked c oncent ration o f c opper d aggers i n t he g raves o f y ounger m ales. S herratt s uggests t hat t here i s a m ove t o m ore i ndividual d isplays o f w ealth, a p ossible b reakdown o f l ineage a nd a ge b ased h ierarchies, a nd p erhaps l ess c ompetition i nduced i nter-settlement r ivalry w hich w ould d ecrease t he n eed f or m arriage b ased a lliances. T his l ater p eri 4 c ould b e o ne i n w hich l eadership w as o f t he M elanesian b ig-man f orm, 1 '6 w hilst t he f ormer s eems t o p arallel t he s ocial s ystems o f, f or i nstance, m odern A frican p astoral g roups. A f urther p oint, a nd o ne w hich R andsborg 1 62.

h as made i n h is d iscussion o f t he D anish E arly N eolithic,

i s t hat

p ersonal w ealth i s d isposed o f i n t he g raves p erhaps a s am eans o f b oosting s tatus.

1 07

I d o n ot, h owever,

a gree w ith R andsborg's s ugges-

t ion t hat t his d emonstrates e galitarianism. A ttractive a s

S herratt's a rguments a re,

I f eel t hat

t he d istri-

b ution o f g rave g oods i n t hese c emeteries m ay i ndicate a d ifferent f orm o f s ocial d ifferentiation. L et u s f irst c onsider t he d istribution o f a xes.

A xes, w hether t hey a re o f p olished s tone o r c opper,

a re

p rimarily a gricultural t ools. T he s ocial s tructure o f L BK c ommunities, w hich I h ave d iscussed i n d etail a bove, w ould s eem t o b e c omposed o f i ndividual e xtended f amilies w ith p robably s ome t ype o f l ow-key h ered itary l eadership. I n a n a gricultural c ommunity a f ine p olished a xe m ight r epresent a b adge o f o ffice, o r o f s uccess a s a f armer, r ather t han a m ore g eneralised f orm o f s tatus. I t i s u nfortunate t haL t he N itra b urials 1 08 c annot b e s eparated c hronologically, b ecause w e m ight s ee t hat a t a ny o ne t ime p erhaps o nly o ne p erson o wned s uch a n a xe. T his, h owever, i s p ure c onjecture a s w e h ave n o e vidence t o s upport s uch a v iew . B ut t he d istribution o f a xes i s e xactly w hat w e m ight e xpect i n a s ociety o f e xtended f amilies e ach l ed b y t he s enior m ale. J ust a s i n t he E ast A frican p astoralists,

d iscussed a bove,

t he c attle

a re t he p roperty o f t he s enior m ale i n e ach f amily . T he c emetery a t T iszapolgär-Basatanya o ffers u s a l ittle m ore s cope f or d iscussion. 1 09 S herratt's v iew i s, a s Ih ave n oted, t hat t his d emonstrates a n ewer m ore i ndividual o rientated s ociety w ith much l ess p ower i n t he h ands o f o lder m ales. B ut i f w e e xamine t he d istrib ution o f a xes w e f ind, a s w ith t he N itra c emetery, t hey a re s till i n t he p ossession o f o lder m ales, a nd t here i s a lso a g reater c oncentrat ion o f a wls i n t his g roup a s w el1.

1 1°

D aggers, w hich a re w eapons,

o ccur i n t he g raves o f y ounger m ales -e xactly w here w e s hould e xpect t hem t o b e b ecause t he y ounger m ales a re m ost l ikely t o b e w arriors o r c attle r aiders.

F urthermore t he c lear d ivision o f a xe a nd d agger

o wnership a ccording t o a ge s eems t o u ndermine S herratt's s uggestion o f am ore o pen s ociety w ith g reater o pportunities f or p ersonal a dvancement . T he e vidence o f t he a xes s uggests t hat, a s w ith t he L BK p eriod, s tatus c omes w ith a ge a nd a gricultural s kill -perhaps e xpressed i n t erms o f l and u nder c ultivation, f or t he a xe i s a l and c learance t ool. T he d aggers n ow c an b e s een t o i ndicate n ot s tatus, a lthough t heir o wners hip c ould d enote p hysical p rowess,

b ut t hat s ocial f riction, l ike t hat

d emonstrated b y d efensive c amps a nd t erritorial m arkers i n t he w est, h as c reated t he n eed f or w arriors. R andsborg's a nalysis o f a xe d istrib ution a nd d istinctive b urials i n t he D anish E arly N eolithic c an b e s een t o s upport t his i nterpretation o f a xes a s i ndicators o f s tatus s ystems b uilt u pon f arming s kills a nd l and o wnership. Y et t here i s a m odification t o t he l eadership s ystems i n t hese l ater s ocieties. W e s eem t o h ave e vidence o f t he d ual s ystem , w hich w as p resent i n, f or e xample, A merican I ndian g roups w here w ar l eadership w as s eparate t o p eace o r c eremonial l eadership. T his, h owever, i s a n a ddition t o t he e xisting s ystem r ather t han a p rofound c hange i n t he s tructure o f N eol ithic h ierarchical s ystems. S imilar p atterns a re o ccurring e lsewhere -in p articular G ilman's t heories a bout t he g rowth o f h ereditary s tratification i n t he M iddle N eolithic i n I beria. 1 11 T he d evelopment o f a w arrior g roup, w hich h e s ees a s a n i ndication o f s ocial f riction c reating t he o pportunities f or ag roup t o i mpose e xtortion, c ould i nstead a rise f rom t he s ame 1 63.

c ombination o f s ocial p ressures, E urope.

a s I s uggested h appened i n c entral

T he p resence o f w arriors i ndicating t he n eed for t hem r ather

t han a f undamental c hange i n t he s ocial o rder. I f t he basic s ource o f s tatus r emained i n t he a mount o f l and c ontrolled b y a p erson, w hich t he H ungarian a nd D anish e vidence s uggests, t hen t he w arrior e xperience w ould b e a s tepping-stone r ather t han i ts d irect s ource. V iewed a gainst t he b ackground o f f arming s ocieties w ith s uch c lear s igns o f s ocial s tratification, t he b arrow b urials c an b e s een a s a nother a spect o f s ocial r anking. T he c ontinuing p roblem i n o ur a ssess ment o f t he M egalithic t ombs h as b een t he r ecognition t hat o nly a s mall p roportion o f t he p ossible p opulation o f a ny r egion i s b uried i n t hem . V arying e xplanations h ave b een o ffered i n a nswer t o t his p roblem . T he e xplanations f all i nto t wo g roups, t hose w hich s ee a l ong m ortuary r itual i ncluding e xposure b efore b urial a nd c ulling o f o lder r emains t o m ake r oom f or n ew c orpses, a nd t hose who s uggest t hat b urial i n t he t ombs w as r eserved f or a s elect f ew . R ituals w ere c omplex, a s i ndic ated b y e vidence o f s orting a nd r itual a rrangements o f b ones. 1 12 T he p roblem t hat a rises i n t hese i nterpretations i s t hat t hey a re p osited u pon t he a ssumption t hat t he s ocieties t hat built t he t ombs w ere e ither e galitarian, o r p ossessed a m inimal f orm o f r anking. W e s ee t he t ombs, t herefore, a s i ndications o f t he b eginning o f s ocial r anking a nd w e a re t hus d iverted i nto t rying t o u nderstand t hem a s p art o f t he f orces c reating r anked s ocieties, r ather t han a s a m anifestation o f a s ystem o f s ocial r anking a lready i n p lace . I f w e e xamine t he p roblem f rom t he l atter v iewpoint t hen t he o bviously s elective a spect o f t he b urials c eases t o b e s uch a p roblem . 1 13 A fter a ll t he a rgument p ut f orward b y R enfrew t hat t hey a re t erritorial m arkers, r equires t hat a s trong s ense o f t erritory a nd t he n eed t o p rotect i t existed i n t hese s ocieties,

a nd,

a s Ih ave c ontinually a rgued t hroughout,

t he m ajor r ole

o f h ereditary l eadership i s t he p rotection o f t erritory a nd r esources. I n a w orld o f i ncreasing t ension w here t he l eadership r ole w as c ontinua lly t ested, t he t omb a s a v isual r eminder o f t he c ontinuity o f o ne f amily's s ervice w ould b e a d isplay o f p ower a imed a t n eighbouring 14 1 c ommunities, a nd, p erhaps, a lso a imed a t d issent w ithin t he c ommunity. S o f ar i n t his c hapter, m y p urpose h as b een b oth t o

a nalyse a nd

t o d efine t he a ttitudes t o r anking a nd h ereditary l eadership t hat m ay h ave e xisted i n t he p eriod l eading u p t o t he N eolithic c olonization o f B ritain. W e h ave s een t hat t here w as a m ajor c hange i n t he e conomy w hich s aw t he e nd o f n ucleated v illages i n m any p arts o f E urope a nd t he d evelopment o f d ispersed f arms. A ssociated w ith t his c hange w as a q uite m arked d evelopment o f p ublic d isplays o f s tatus s uch a s m onumental t ombs a nd c opper w eaponry . Y et t hese w ould s eem t o b e m ore a r esult o f i ncreased s ocial f riction a mongst e xpanding s ocieties r ather t han e arly e galitarian f arming c ommunities b eing r eplaced b y, o r c hanging i nto s tratified s ocieties. I t i s c lear, h owever, t hat t he n ewer f orms o f l eadership w ould c ertainly b e m ore f orceful t han t hat w hich e xisted i n t he L BK c ommunities.

A t t he b eginning o f t he p revious c hapter I

s uggested t hat t he i nitial N eolithic s ettlement o f t he B ritish I sles m ight h ave n eeded m ore d irection a nd o rganisation t han c urrent t heories s uggest.

W e w ill n ow t urn t o t he e xamination o f t he h ierarchical

s tructures t hat m ay h ave b een p resent i n N eolithic B ritain t o s ee i f t he c ontinental f orms w ere t ransferred t o B ritain, a nd t o e xamine f urther t he s ocial p atterns p resent i n t he d ispersed f arming c ommuni ties. 1 64.

8 .4

S ocial S tratification i n N eolithic B ritain

A s w e w ill s ee, t he a rchaeological e vidence a vailable f rom B ritain i n t he E arly N eolithic i s s omewhat o f a m ixed b lessing. W hilst t here i s a f air a bundance o f e vidence, t he p eculiar n ature o f t he f arming s ettlement, a nd t he i mperfectly u nderstood s tylistic s uccession i n e nclosure c onstruction a nd m ortuary p ractice,

t ends t o r ender a ny

a ssessment o f t he c haracter o f s ocial s tratification a l ittle l ess p ositive t han o ne w ould h ope. T he e arliest e vidence o f t he N eolithic e conomy i n t he B ritish I sles i s f ound i n I reland. R adiocarbon d ated p ollen s amples f rom C ashelkeelty i n C ounty K erry i ndicate t hat c ereals w ere b eing c ultiv ated v ery e arly i n t he f ourth m illennium b c. S imilar d ates h ave a lso b een o btained f rom a p assage g rave a t C arrowmore i n C ounty S ligo. 1 15 G iven t hat t he r oute t o I reland i s f irmly b locked b y B ritain w e m ight e xpect t he N eolithic s ettlement o f B ritain t o b e s omewhat e arlier, a lthough t he c urrent e arliest d ates f or B ritain a re 3 415 ± 1 80 b c 390 ± 1 50 b c f rom t he f lint m ines a t f rom L ambourn i n B erkshire l 3 F indon i n S ussex a nd 3 330 I 1 50 b c

f rom H embury i n D evon.

1 16

I n t he

p revious c hapter I d iscussed t he p roblem o f c olonisation a nd C ase's v iew t hat t here w as p robably a n e xtended p eriod, w hen t he e ffort o f p ioneering p recluded t he e stablishment o f t he m ore p ermanent f eatures o f t he s ociety o f t he p eriod, s uch a s c ommunal t ombs a nd p ottery. 1 17 O nce t he e conomy w as f irmly e stablished, h owever, w e s ee a r e-emergence o f c ultural f eatures w hich l ink t he c entral, e astern a nd s outhern p eoples t o t he T RB g roups o f n orth-western E urope. T hese f eatures i nclude s houldered a nd r ound-based p ottery, c ausewayed a nd c ontinuous 18 I n t he d itch e nclosures, l ong b arrows a nd t imber m ortuary h ouses. 1 s outh-west t here i s a s maller g roup w hose H embury s tyle p ottery a nd e nclosures o n p romontories h ave t heir c learest p arallels i n t he C hasseen e lements o f t he B reton N eolithic. 1 19 N otwithstanding t he t ransmission o f t hese c ultural f eatures, t he g eneral p aucity o f s ettlement s ites s uggests t hat t he l ong p eriod o f i nitial c olonisation c reated s ome n ew e lements i n t he e merging B ritish N eolithic c ulture.

G iven t he m ain p arallels,

w e m ight e xpect s ome

m ixture o f s ettlement s tyles, w ith R assen t ype t rapezoidal l ong-houses a s w ell a s, p erhaps, s ome s mall v illages o f r ectangular h ouses. I nstead t he p opulation s eems t o h ave b een d ispersed i nto i ndividual f arms a s i n p arts o f H olland a nd D enmark . 1 2 ° O ne m ight a dd t hat t his a ssumption r ests o n t he p urely n egative e vidence p resented b y t he c omplete l ack o f v illage s tyle s ettlements r ather t han t he e xistence o f i dentifiable f arms.

I t i s o ften n oted t hat m ore e xtensive e vidence o f

s ettlements m ay l ie i n r iver v allexs w here t hey a re c overed b y d eep l ayers o f s ediment a nd h ill-wash, 1 L1 b ut u ntil s uch e vidence i s f ound, i f i t e xists, w e h ave n o c hoice b ut t o a ssume t hat s ettlement w as d ispersed. E vidence o f s ettlements w ith huts h as b een f ound a t a f ew s ites. T hese a re H aldon i n D evon,

C legyr B oia i n P embrokeshire,

F engate i n

C ambridgeshire, E aton H eath a nd B roome H eath i n N orfolk, a nd H urst F en i n S uffolk. T he d istribution o f s ettlements w ithin i ndividual r egions i s u nknown b ut a nalogies d erived f rom p atterns p reserved a t L ough G ur, C ounty L imerick i n I reland, a nd S andsting, D eltin: z a nd N esting p arishes i n S hetland s uggest r elatively s mall d istances. 1 2L W e w ill n ow e xamine s ome o f t hese s ites. 1 65.

/

S EE MAP 6 :

1 0

200 KM

M ap 5 .

P rincipal B ritish s ites d iscussed i n c hapter

1 .

B ehy/Glenulra

2 .

L ochhill

9 .

8 .

O ffham Hill

1 0.

H aldon H embury

3 .

D alladies

1. 1

4 . 5 .

S treet H ouse W illerby W old

1 2.

C legyr B oia

1 3.

E aton H eath

6 .

K ilham

1 4.

B roome H eath

7 .

F engate

1 5.

H urst F en

8 .

O rsett

1 66.

M ap 6 .

iscussed i n c hapter 8 . P rincipal s outhern B ritish s ites d

. 1 . 2

K nap H ill W indmill H ill

. 3 . 4

W hitehawk R obin H ood's B all

. 5 . 6 . 7

S taines B ury H ill N ormanion D own

. 8

A bingdon

1 67.

9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2.

D orchester Wayland's S mithy C herhill H ambledon H ill

1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6.

T rundle W or B arrow Nutbane F ussell's L odge

C legyr B oia i n P embrokeshire h as t he r emains o f t wo s mall huts o n ah ill w ith a s uggestion o f a d efensive d itch a nd b ank. 1 23 T here i s n o e vidence, h owever, t o s uggest t hat t he h uts a re c ontemporary but t heir d ifferent s hapes m ay s uggest s eparate f unctions. T he f irst h ut w as a p arallel s ided b uilding w ith a s tructure b ased o n e ight p osts. I nside w as a s mall p it w ith a s tone c over w hose p urpose i s u nknown.

1 24

A gainst o ne w all w as a s mall r ough s tone b ank. 1 25 T he s econd hut a lso h ad a s tructure b ased o n e ight p osts b ut i t w as r oughly o val i n s hapel26 I f t he t wo h uts w ere c ontemporaneous, ah ouse a nd s ome f orm o f o utbuilding.

t hen p erhaps w e have e vidence o f O ther t han t hese m eagre d etails

w e h ave n o e vidence o f t he p opulation o r s ocial c omposition o f t he p eople w ho l ived t here. T he s ite o f H aldon i n D evon h as t he r emains o f a r ectangular h ut w ith, i f t he e vidence o f t he c entral p ost-holes i s c orrect, a g abled r oof.127 I t w as a round 6 m etres l ong b y a bout 2 m etres wide. I n t he s outh-eastern c orner was a h earth.

1 2o

T he f loor was o f hard p acked

c lay, w hilst t he w alls a ppear t o h ave h ad f ootings o f s tones. 1 29 P ottery 30 A s a t C legyr B oia t here i s n o d efinite w as o f t he H embury s tyle. 1 e vidence a s t o t he p opulation a nd s ocial c omposition o f t he i nhabitants. A t E aton H eath

t he r emains o f t wo h uts w ere d iscovered i n

. 31 1 971 1

A lthough t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he b uildings w ere c ontemp oraneous, a s a t C legyr B oia t here w as a d istinct d ifference i n s ize a nd s hape o f t he h uts w hich m ight i ndicate s eparate f unctions. Hut A w as a f ive-post r ectangular s tructure m easuring 3 m etres b y 2 .5 m etres. H ut B w as t rapezoidal w ith s even p osts a nd m easured 5 m etres b y 3m etres b y 2 m etres. 1 5 2 E rosion w as q uite s evere a nd n o h earths w ere f ound. 1 33 T he p rincipal f eatures o f a rchaeological i nterest w ere t he g reat m any r itual s hafts.

1 34

H urst F en i n S uffolk h as a bundant e vidence o f f airly l ong t erm s ettlement i n t he f orm o f f lint a nd p ottery s catters,

a nd a g reat m any

U nfortunately t he o nly e vidence w hich m ight i ndicate s torage p its. 135 36 w hich c ould b e t he r emains o f a a s tructure i s a r ow o f s take-holes, 1 w all o f a r ectangular b uilding. N o t race o f h earths w ere d etected w hich C lark f elt w as a l ittle o dd i n v iew o f t he a bundance o f c harcoal a nd

f ire-crackled f lints w hich m ay h ave b een p ot-boilers.

1 37

A nother s ite w ith a mple e vidence o f l ong-term s ettlement i s B roome H eath i n N orfolk. T here i s a n a bundance o f f lints, p ottery s herds a nd s torage p its b ut a s w ith H urst F en m eagre e vidence o f s truct ures. 138 A g roup o f f our p ost-holes i n c utting 5 i n a rea L1 39 may b e t he r emains o f a g ranary. F engate n ear P eterborough h ad a s mall r ectangular s tructure 4° C a m s imilar t o t hat a t H aldon a s d id L landegai i n n orth W ales. 1 B rea i n C ornwall i s t he s ite o f a s tone-walled h illtop f ort w ith a s eries o f hut p latforms. A ssociated w ith t hese a re s herds o f E arly N eolithic p ottery a nd a rrowheads. T his s ite h as c lear p arallels w ith t he N eolithic o ccupation a t H embury 1 41 a nd t he a pparently d efensive n ature o f C legyr B oia . T aken t ogether t hese t hree s ites, C legyr B oia, H embury a nd C a m B rea s uggest t hat t here w ere g reat t ensions e xisting b etween s ome g roups i n t he E arly N eolithic. O verall, h owever, t he s canty t races o f d wellings f rom t he E arly N eolithic g ive u s l ittle i nformation a bout t he n ature o f i ts s ociety. 1 68.

C learly t he l ack o f v illages i ndicates, a s Ih ave n oted b efore, t hat t he s ettlement w as d ispersed. T he d efensive s ites s eem t o b e c oncent rated i n t he s outh-west i n r ugged c ountry w ith r elatively p oor l and a nd m ay h ave b een b uilt i n r esponse t o l ocal t ensions n ot p resent e lsew here . I t i s l ikely t hat t he g eneral l ack o f s tructures i ndicates t hat m ost d wellings w ere l ight w eight h uts o r s imple t ents. T he r ectangular s tructures s eem t o b e p art o f a g eneral c ultural t radition w hich c ont inues t hrough t he N eolithic . S imilar s imple r ectangular b uildings o ccur a t L ate N eolithic s ites t hroughout t he B ritish I sles. S ome 42 M ount P leasant i n e xamples a re: R onaldsway o n t he I sle o f M an; 1 G lamorganshire i n W ales; 1 43 a nd B allyglass, C o. M ayo, L ough G ur, C o. L imerick a nd B allynagilly, C o. T yrone i n I reland. 1 44 T he d ispersed s ettlement p resent i n B ritain s eems t o i ndicate t hat t he p rocesses d escribed i n c hapter 6 w hereby c ommunal r esources a re g iven o ver t o p rivate m anagement a t t he o nset o f d omestic e conomies, h ave b een c arried t o t heir l ogical e xtreme a nd e ven t he v illage h as d isappeared . A gainst t hat b ackground o f s ocial s tructure i t i s n ot s urprising t hat w e s ee a p roliferation o f s ymbolic c entres s uch a s c ommunal t ombs, c ausewayed e nclosures a nd h enges. L ess i s k nown a bout t he c haracter o f l and d ivision a nd f ield s izes. A t p resent t he e arliest e xample o f a f ield s ystem d ates f rom t he l ate t hird m illennium . T his i s a t B ehy/Glenulra , C o. M ayo, 45 T he f ields a verage a round 7 h ectares a nd a re d efined b y I reland. 1 l ow s tone w alls. I t i s c onsidered t hat t heir m ain u se w as t o c ontain a nimals -a n a ssumption d erived f rom t heir s ize . 1 46 T he e vidence o f t his i solated e xample a nd l ater r elict s ystems d ating f rom t he E arly 47 s how a l and b roken u p i nto s mall h oldings, a nd a lso i mply B ronze A ge 1 a f irm c oncept o f i ndividual l and o wnership. W e m ust, h owever, b e c areful i n a ssuming t hat t he f ield b oundary s ystems n ecessarily i ndic ate p rivate o wnership. F ield b oundaries a re p rimarily t he m eans o f s egregating t he v arious a ctivities o n f arms, a nd p roviding a s ystematic w ay o f s eparating f allow f ields f rom t hose i n Ae. I t i s p ossible t o h ave b oundary s ystems, a s F leming h as a rgued, l ' 40 w hich a re a p art o f c ommunal l and u se a nd w hich a re d esigned t o p erform t hose f unctions j ust s tated . F leming g oes f urther a nd e quates t his c ommunal u se o f 49 B efore I d iscuss t his l atter c onsideral and w ith e galitarianism . 1 t ion i t m ust b e n oted t hat w e c annot r ely o n p reserved f ield s ystems a s a ccurate i ndicators o f h ierarchical g raduations i n t he f arming c ommunit ies, b ecause w e h ave n o r eliable m eans o f c onnecting i ndividual h ouses w ith p articular f ields. D espite F leming's c laim t hat " it i s t hus p ossible t o b uild a m odel i nvolving a h igh l evel o f c ooperation a nd c ollective l and-taking w ithout r ecourse t o M arxist t heory o r n on-European e thnography", 1 50 h is u se o f E uropean e xamples i llustrates o nly c ooperative l and u se, n ot e galitarian p olitical a nd s ocial s tructures. G roup l abour a nd c ooperat ive l and u se a re, i n t he i nstances h e q uotes, 1 51 t he m eans b y w hich p roduction i s i mproved r ather t han d eliberate m eans o f f reeing s ocieties o f t hose i nternal c ontradictions w hich p roduce h ierarchical g raduations . I n t he e xamples I d iscussed i n c hapter 6 t he k ey e lement i n t he d ivision o f t he l and i s t he s eparation o f o ne p erson's p roperty f rom a nother's. F leming's e xamples a re d erived f rom r elatively m arginal f arming r egions 1 52 w here c ollectivisation a ctually i mproves e ach i ndividual's p roduction. I n t he n on-marginal f arming r egions c ollectivisation w ould n ot b e n eeded a nd, a lthough t he p arallels b etween t he m odern s ocieties Ih ave d iscussed i n c hapter 6 a nd p rehistoric s ocieties m ay n ot b e e xact 1 69.

t he e thnographic e vidence s eems

t o b e a p owerful a rgument f or t he

e xistence o f p rivate o wnership o f l and a nd r esources u nder s imilar c onditions i n p rehistoric s ocieties. B ut t he e arliest p reserved f ield s ystems a re s till m uch m ore r ecent t han t he e arliest f arming i n t he B ritish I sles. T heir existence a lso i ndicates a f ormal d ivision o f t he l and i nto p astoral a nd a gricult ural a ctivities w hich w as p robably m issing i n t he e arlier p eriod. P ollen a nalysis s hows t hat m any a reas i n n orth-western E urope a nd B ritain w ere s ubject t o p eriods o f a griculture, p astoralism a nd f orest r egeneration w hich s eem f ar t oo l engthy t o b e t he p roducts o f s imple s hifting a griculture. T hese a lternating p hases, s ome o f w hich a ppear t o l ast f rom m any d ecades t o c enturies, s eem t o b e a r esult o f human f actors s uch a s p opulation f luctuations a nd v arying e conomic s ystems. 1 53 T he l atter c ould i ndicate m igratory c hanges i n p opulations.

U nder s uch

c onditions, a nd t aking i nto c onsideration t he a mount o f l and a vailable t o t he c olonists, w e s hould e xpect t hat a ny l and d ivision s ystems w ould b e i n r esponse t o n eeds t o p rotect c rops o r a nimals f rom p redators r ather t han t o t he i nter-community f rictions g enerated b y l and s hortages . T hese c onditions w ere j ust a ppearing o n t he c ontinent a t t he t ime w hen t he f irst N eolithic c ommunities w ere d eveloping i n B ritain. I t i s w orth n oting a t t his p oint,

t hat t he f oregoing a rgument s uggests t hat t he

e arliest B ritish e xamples o f c ommunal t ombs a nd e nclosures w ere i nitia lly b uilt b ecause o f i mported c ultural t raditions r ather t han, a s o n t he c ontinent, a s a r esponse t o p opulation p ressures g enerating t errit orial c ompetition. B ut a s w ith t he m eagre t races o f b uildings, t here i s l ittle i n o ur c urrent k nowledge o f t he e arliest s ystems o f l and m anagement t o e xpand o ur v iew o f t hese s ocieties o f d ispersed a gricult urists, n or i s t here a ny e vidence p resent i n t hese d ata t o p oint d irectly t o t he e xistence o f h ierarchies w ithin t hese s imple c ommunities . T he c ausewayed e nclosures o f t he W indmill H ill c ulture which a re f ound t hroughout s outhern E ngland a re c losely r elated t o t he e nclosures b uilt b y t he l ate L BK p eople a nd t heir s uccessors. T here h as b een a v ariety o f p urposes s uggested a s t heir f unction f rom c attle k raals, 1 54 c eremonial o r r eligious s ites, 1 55 t o t heir " ...functions p robably i ncluded t he p rovision o f b oth p ermanent a nd n on-permanent p laces t o l ive, p rotection o f b oth s tock a nd p eople, a nd c entres f or e xchange a nd d istribution o f i mperishables a nd p erishables, i ncluding m arriageable d aughters." 1 56 T wo o f t hem , K nap H ill i n W iltshire 1 57 a nd H embury i n D evon 1 58 a re c learly d efensive b ut i n g eneral t heir s iting s eems t o b e a ccording t o t he d ictates o f v isibility a nd a ccessibility. T he e nclos ures a re s urrounded b y d itches w hich u sually w ere f lat b ottomed a nd v ertical s ided, a nd t he b anks f ormed b y t he e xcavated material were s ometimes s urmounted b y l ight p alisades. L ittle e vidence o f s tructures h as b een f ound i n t he e nclosures. A t H embury t here w as t he r emains o f a s mall h ut, 1 59 a nd a t W indmill H ill a r ow o f p ost h oles h as b een i nter60 W hilst a part p reted a s t he e nd w all o f a s mall r ectangular b uilding. 1 f rom t he m ultitude o f s torage p its w hich a re g enerally f ound i n t he e nclosures, t he o nly o ther p ossible s tructural f eatures t hat h ave b een f ound a re t he g ate p osts a t W hitehawk i n S ussex, 1 61 a nd t wo l arge p ost h oles a t O rsett i n E ssex w hich m ight b e e vidence o f a c eremonial e ntrance.

1 62

A s tructure a t R obin H ood's B all,

i s c onsidered t o p redate t he e nclosure.

1 63

S hrewton i n W iltshire

A f eature o f

t he e nclosures

w hich o ffers s ome d etail o f c ommunal b ehaviour i s t he b eaded n ature o f t he d itches w hich s uggests t hat s egments w ere d ug b y d ifferent i ndividu als o r f amilies. T his i s g enerally t aken t o i ndicate t hat t hese 1 70.

c ommunal c entres w ere b uilt i n a r itual o f c ollective e ffort w here p articipation w as o f m ore i mportance t han t he c reation o f a c ontinuous d itch ( see d iscussion o f t he e nclosure a t E tton b elow). O ne r ecurring f eature i n t he d itches a round t he e nclosures a re d eposits o f h uman a nd a nimal b ones, a s w ell a s, i n s ome s ites c omplete b urials. S ome o f t hese s ites a re: O ffham H ill i n S ussex, w hich h as a f lexed b urial a s w ell a s s ome d isarticulated b ones m ixed w ith o rdinary d ebris; 1 64 S taines i n M iddlesex , w hich h as d eposits o f a nimal b ones a s w ell a s t wo h uman s kulls; 1 65 C herhill i n N orth W iltshire, w hich h as d eposits o f r ubbish a nd w hat a ppears t o b e a c eremonial d eposit i n a s mall p it s ealed w ith s arsens; 1b6 B ury H ill i n Sussex z w hich h as s ome s elective d eposits o f a nimal b one a nd w aste f lints; 1 6 / O rsett i n E ssex, w hich h as s mall d eposits o f a sh a nd r ubbish w hich s eems d eliberately p laced; 1 68 K nap H ill i n W iltshire, w hich h as s ome f lints b uried i n a ssociation w ith s ome o x b ones; 1 69 W indmill H ill i n W iltshire, w hich h as s everal h uman b urials a s w ell a s m any a nimal b ones a nd a sh 7 ° W hitehawk i n S ussex, w hich h as h uman b urials 2 a s w ell a s d eposits; 1 f ragmentary r emains a nd a nimal b ones a ssociated w ith a sh; 1 71 R obin H ood's B all i n W iltshire, w hich h as a nimal b ones m ainly s heep a nd g oats; 1 72 H ambledon H ill i n W iltshire, w hich h as r egularly s paced s ingle s kulls i n t he d itches a s w ell a s b urials a nd r ubbish s electively b uried; 1 73 a nd E tton i n C ambridgeshire w hich h as s kull f ragments a nd a nimal b ones 1 74

( a m ore c omplete l ist i s p rovided b y D rewett).

1 75

T he r egularity o f t hese s eeming d eliberate d eposits o f a nimal a nd human b ones h as l ed S mith t o s uggest t hat t hey a re e vidence o f a r itual w hereby t he r emains o f c eremonial f easts, h eld i n t he e nclosures , w ere s wept i nto t he d itches a nd b uried a s o fferings. 1 76 A s omewhat m ore r adical t heory h as b een p roposed b y b oth M ercer a nd D rewett. B oth h ave s uggested t hat t he c ausewayed e nclosures w ere s acred a reas f or t he e xposure o f c orpses b efore t he b ones w ere p laced i n t he c ommunal t ombs, w hich a re o ften s ited n ear t he e nclosures.

1 77

T he p roblem w ith t hese

t heories i s t hat t hey t end t o b e b ased o n t he f inds a t W indmill H ill a nd H ambledon H ill w hich h ave m ore t han a verage d eposits o f b ones. O ther s ites l ike C herhill, B ury H ill, O rsett a nd K nap H ill f or e xample, h ave q uite s mall o r n egligible d eposits. D espite t hese r eservations t here d oes s eem t o b e s ome p ossible c orrelation b etween t he n umber o f e nclosing d itches a nd t he a mount o f d eposited b one m aterial. In ote t hat t hose e nclosures w ith m ore t han o ne d itch t end a lso t o h ave g reater a mounts o f h uman r emains, a nd t hat s ingle d itch e nclosures h ave l ittle o r n o h uman r emains. 1 78 T he f ollowing t able h as t he e nclosures a rranged i n o rder o f t he n umber o f d itches. I t i s n ot e xhaustive a s t here a re m any e nclosures w hich h ave y et t o b e e xcavated. 1 79 O bviously i t i s n ot w ise t o d raw a ny f irm c onclusions f rom s uch l imited d ata, y et a c omparison o f t his n ature i ndicates t hat t he m ultiv allate e nclosures d o h ave m ore b urials. F urthermore i t a lso l ends s upport t o t he i deas, d iscussed a bove, o f D rewett a nd M ercer. I n a ddition t his d ata a lso h elps t o c larify a p roblem t hat a rises i f w e c onsider t he c attle k raal m odel. I t h as n ever b een a dequately e xplained w hy a n e nclosure, w hich i s i ntended t o h old c attle f or s ome p art o f t he y ear, n eeds a m ultiple s ystem o f d itches. O ne d itch a nd a p alisade w ould b e s ufficient. I t i s c lear, h owever, t hat t he d ifference i n t he q uantities o f b urials b etween t he u nivallate a nd m ultivallate e nclosures 1 71.

T ABLE 2

N o. o f D itches

S ite

S keletal M aterial

4 +

H ambledon H ill

M any s kulls, burials.

4

W hitehawk

3b urials, b one f ragments .

4

R ybury

N one.

3

O rsett

N one.

3

W indmill H ill

M any s kull f ragments,

2

A bingdon

S kull f ragments.

2

O ffham H ill

S ingle b urial, b one f ragments.

2

M aiden C astle

S kull f ragments; b ones.

2

C herhill

B one f ragments. 1 80

2

S taines

S kull f ragments, b ones.

2

G reat W ilbraham

N one.

2

R obin H ood's B all

N one.

2

T rundle

N one.

1

K nap H ill

S ingle b urial.

1

W hitesheet H ill

B one f ragments.

1

B ury H ill

B one f ragments.

1

C rickley H ill

S kull f ragments.

1

B arkdale

N one.

1

B riar H ill.

N one .

1

B roome H eath

N one.

1

H embury

N one.

1

E tton

B one a nd s kull

2 b urials.

1 81

1 82

f ragments.

1 83

s uggests t hat t he l arger s ites h ad s ome r itual f unction, a p art o f w hich m ay h ave i nvolved t he d eliberate d eposition o f human r emains. Hambledon H ill i s t he c learest e xample o f t his. B ut s ome c are i s n ecessary b ecause i t m ight h ave b een t he s acred n ature o f s ome e nclosures t hat a ttracted b urials, i sation .

r ather t han t he b urials b eing a p art o f t he r itual-

A n e xample o f t his p rocess i s t he L ate N eolithic a nd E arly 1 72.

B ronze A ge B eaker b urials f ound a t S tonehenge a nd A vebury. 1 84 A nother w ay o f s eeking t he p urposes o f t he c ausewayed c amps i s t o v iew t hem a s o ne p art o f t he e conomic a nd c ultural m ilieu. B arker a nd Webley h ave p roposed t hat t he e conomy o f s outhern E ngland i n t he E arly N eolithic w as a c omplex m ixture o f a griculture a nd p astoralism- 85 I n t his s cheme t hey s ee t he c ausewayed e nclosures a s c entres o f t ribal 86 a nd a s c entres f or t he t erritories, a v iew d erived f rom R enfrew , 1 s easonal c ollection a nd c ulling o f h erds. T he d eposits o f a nimal b ones s uch a s s kulls a nd a rticulated l egs c ould, t hey s uggest, b e e vidence o f b utchering a nd s kinning a ctivities r ather t han r itual o fferings. 1 87 B arker a nd W ebley's p roposals h ave b een c riticised f rom t he v iewpoint t hat t hey h ave c reated a s traw m an i n u sing t he b randwirtschaft m odel o f e arly B ritish a griculture a s t he o pposing m ode1. 1 88 N evertheless t heir a ttempt t o d epict a griculture a nd p astoralism a s p arts o f o ne e conomy i s v aluable. P erhaps t he m ajor p roblem i s t hat i t i s o nly t he p astoral a ctivities i n t he e nclosures t hat a re e xamined -t here i s n o a ttempt t o e xplain t he h uman s keletal m aterial. A nother p roblem i s t he a ssumption o f c ontemporaneity i n t he u se o f t he e nclosures w hich i s a r esult o f r eliance o f R enfrew 's t erritorial t heories. 189 Ih ave d iscussed t his p roblem i n t he p revious c hapter, a nd s o Iw ill o nly c omment h ere t hat t he o verall r ange o f d ates a vailable f rom t he c amps ( table 3 ) t ends t o b e s o b road t hat s pecific i nstances o f c ontemporane ous t erritories c annot b e a dequately d emonstrated. N evertheless t he e xistence o f t erritories m ust b e a ssumed a nd, c ontemporaneous o r n ot, t he v arious e nclosures s eem, i n t heir c eremonial a spect, t o b e o ne e xpression o f t his t erritoriality. I t i s o bvious f rom t he f oregoing d iscussion t hat t here a re a n umber o f p ossible f unctions t hat c an b e a ttributed t o t he e nclosures. W hittle's g eneral p urpose m odel, w hich I h ave q uoted a bove, a ppears t o b e t he m ost a cceptable, a lthough s ome s ites l ike H ambledon H ill may h ave h ad m uch m ore r estricted t he m ortuary e nclosures, s uch a re a ttractive, e specially i n a nd t he e vidence o f i ncreased

r oles. I n p articular t he p arallels w ith a s t hat a t N ormanton D own i n W iltshire, 1 90 t he c ommon f eature o f c ausewayed d itches, m ortuary a ctivity a t t he l arger e nclo-

s ures. A f inal p iece o f c omparative d ata a re t he r adiocarbon d ates. A lthough i t i s n ot c onclusive t here d oes s eem t o b e a s light t rend t owards t he m ore c omplex c amps b eing l ater. T he e vidence o f s ocial s tructure p rovided b y t he c ausewayed e nclosures i s f airly m eagre. A s n oted b efore t he b eaded n ature o f t he d itches i s t aken t o i ndicate t hat t heir e xcavation w as u ndertaken b y g roups o f i ndividuals -perhaps s eparate f amilies a s p art o f a c ommunal r itual. T he e xcavation o f t he e nclosure a t E tton h as p rompted a n ew i nterpretation.

A n a pparent l ack o f s imilarity b etween d eposits a t

e ither s ide o f t he c auseways l eads P ryor t o s uggest t hat e ach o f t he d itch s egments w as d ug a t d ifferent t imes a nd, t herefore, a t n o t ime w as t he d itch o pen f or i ts e ntire l ength. 1 91 T he s pecially b uried d eposits o f b one, s uch a s t he s arsen c overed p it a t C herhill, m ay b e, a s S mith s uggests, p art o f r itual f easts. B urials a nd d eposits o f f ragmentary h uman b ones w hich s eem t o b e m ore n umerous i n t he m ultiv allate s ites s uggest t hat t hese e nclosures, e specially H ambledon H ill, W indmill H ill a nd W hitehawk, w ere o f s pecial s ignificance, p erhaps a s t erritorial c entres. T he a nimal b ones w hich a re p resent a t a ll s ites a lso s uggest t hat, b esides t he r itual a spects w hich s eem t o b e a ssocia ted m ainly w ith t he c reation o f t he e nclosures, a g reat p art o f t heir 1 73.

T ABLE 3

N o. o f D itches

S ite

D ates

S ource

, + ± + + + +

1 50 b e 9 0b c 1 00b e 1 00b e 9 0b e 1 30be

M ercer, 1 980, p p. 2 0, 34-35.

4+

H ambledon H ill

2 890 2 790 2 720 2 650 2 610 2 530

3

O rsett

c 4 i 1 13 b 2 791 . 2 776 7_ 7 4b c 2 670 4 3b c 2b c 2 635 i - 8 2 583 + 1 12b c

H edges a nd B uckley, 1 978, P . 2 95.

3

W indmill H ill

2 690 + 1 50 b c 2 580 + 1 50b c

P almer, 1976, p . 1 65.

2

A bingdon

+ 3 110 - 130 b c + 1 1 10b c 2 960 4 2 780 -135b c + 1 35bc 2 760 -

P almer, 1976, p . 1 65. ,

2

O ffham H ill

2 975 8 + 0b c + 2 790 - 60b c

B edwin, 1981, p . 8 6.

2

C herhill

2 765 +

E vans a nd S mith, 1 983, p . 11.

2

T rundle

+ 3 290 - 140 b c + 00b e 2 910- 1

B edwin, 1981, p . 8 6.

1

K nap H ill

2 760 + 1 15 b e

P almer,

1

B ury H ill

+ 2 730 - 80 b c + 2 620 8 0b e

B edwin, 1981, p . 8 6.

1

B roome H eath

1

H embury

9 0 b e

e 3 474 + 1 17 b 2 629 + 6 5be 6 7b c 2 573 + - 7 8b e 217 i 2 + e 330 - 150 b 3 + 3 240 - 150be + 1 50be 3 150 -

1 74.

1 976,

p .

W ainwright, 1972, p . 7 0.

P almer, 1976, p . 1 65.

1 65.

,

1

f unction w as c oncerned w ith m ore m undane m atters o f h erd m anagement. W e c annot i gnore t he l ogical s uggestion t hat t he a nnual r ituals m ight h ave b een m ore l ike f airs t han r eligious e vents. T he s trongest i mpress ion t hat d evelops f rom t hese c onsiderations, a s o thers h ave r ecognised , i s t hat t he e nclosures w ere a s m uch e conomic c entres a s r eligious s hrines, f unctioning a s i mportant c ommunal r esources f or t he d ispersed f arming p opulation . W e w ill n ow t urn t o t he e xamination o f a spects o f m ortuary p ract ices. I t i s n ot m y i ntention t o d iscuss t ypologies o r r egional v ariat ions i n e ither t he e arthen l ong b arrows o r t he c hambered t ombs -these q uestions a re w idely d iscussed e lsewhere. I nstead I w ill c oncentrate u pon t he d evelopment o f t he m onumental f unction i n t he c onstruction p hases o f e arthen l ong b arrows, a nd t he i nformation t his m ight p rovide o n t he n ature o f s ocial r anking. Ih ave a rbitrarily s elected t he e arthen l ong b arrows b ecause u nlike t he c hambered b arrows, t hey have, i n m ost c ases, e vidence o f a n e arlier p hase w hen d isplay w as m ore m uted . I t m ight b e s aid, t herefore, t hat c hambered b arrows, i n t he m ain r epresent a t radition w here o vert d isplay w as a lways a f unction i n t heir e rection, 1 92 w hilst t he e arthen l ong b arrows a re a c ulmination o f a s eries o f v arying a pproaches t o m ortuary d isplay . T his s equence c an o ffer u s g reat i nsights i nto t he e arliest N eolithic s ociety. A s K innes h as s uggested,

t he f ull r itual o f b arrow b urial

s eems

c omposed o f a s eries o f s teps e ach o f w hich, a t s ome t ime, r epresented t he c ulmination o f t he r ite. 1 93 I t i s p ossible i n t his e volutionary s cheme t o s ee t he p oint w hen t he t erritorial f rictions, w hich R enfrew p roposes, b egan t o c reate t he n eed f or t erritorial d isplay. T his m ay b e d etected w hen t he m ortuary h ouses b egan t o a cquire f eatures w hich s uggest t he e nding o f p ublic a ccess t o t he m ortuary c eremonies. T he m ortuary e nclosure a t N ormanton D own i n W iltshire w ith i ts r emains o f ap assage-like w ooden s tructure,

1 94

b ut n o b urial, m ight d ate f rom a

p eriod w hen t he r itual w hich h ad i ts c ulmination w ith a t imber s truct ure, w as b eing s uperseded b y t he f ull b arrow r itual. T he b uilders m ight h ave a bandoned t he o ld r itual i n f avour o f a c ompletely f resh s tart w ith t he n ew , p erhaps a s a n a ttempt a t a s trong t erritorial s tatement. P erhaps t he f inal s tage i n t he n eed t o m ake t erritorial d isplays a re t he b arrows f rom B eckhampton, a nd S outh S treet n ear A vebury, i n W iltshire. N either h as m ortuary h ouse o r b uria1. 1 95 I t i s o nly c omparatively r ecently t hat t he e xistence o f m ortuary s tructures a nd e nclosures h as b een a ccepted, 1 96 a nd, a lthough t hey a re a f eature o f t he e arthen b arrow b urial r itual, i t c annot b e c onfirmed i f a ll m ortuary s tructures a nd e nclosures w ere c apped w ith a b arrow . 1 97 ( It i s n ecessary t o d istinguish b etween m ortuary e nclosures s uch a s N ormanton D own, a nd t he p alisaded t rapezoidal e nclosures w hich f ormed t he r etaining w alls o f t he b arrows i n t heir f inal f orm ). T he o rigins o f b oth f orms a re u ncertain, b ut K innes s uggests t hat t he m ortuary s tructures m ax b e d escended f rom b ox-like s tructures f ound i n s ome l ate L BK g raves. 1 9ö T his s eems l ikely a s t he l ong b arrows, t hemselves, s eem t o r eflect t he t rapezoidal f orm o f t he l ate L BK a nd R össen l ong-houses- 99 C lassification o f t he m ortuary e nclosures i s a l ittle d ifficult. T he e nclosure a t N ormanton D own w as s urrounded b y a r ectangular t rench a nd h ad a p assage-like s tructure -e ach s ide w ith t hree t imber u pr ights -n ear i ts e ntrance.

2 0U

T his s tructure i s e nigmatic, h owever,

f or i ts t wo s ides a re n ot p roperly a ligned, 1 75.

n or a re t hey e xactly

p aralle1. t imes.

2 01

I t i s q uite p ossible t hat t hey w ere e rected a t d ifferent

T he e xcavator h as s uggested t hat t here m ight b e a c orrelation

w ith t he m ortuary e nclosure f ound b eneath W or B arrow b y P itt-Rivers. T here a re T his w as a p alisaded r ectangle w ith a p assage e ntrance. 202 f undamental d ifferences b etween N ormanton D own a nd W or Barrow. T he f ormer h as n o e vidence o f a p alisade. T hree e nclosures o ccur a t D orc hester a nd t he o nly e xcavated e xample i s 6 4 m etres l ong. a ssociated w ith a c ursus. t ain,

b ut

2"

T hese a re

T he p urposes o f t he e nclosures a re u ncer-

t hey m ight h ave b een p laces f or e xposing c orpses.

M ortuary s tructures, o r h ouses, d isplay s ome v ariety i n f orm . I n s ome c ases t here i s e vidence o f s everal p hases i n t heir c onstruction , a nd o verall

c hanges o f s ize a nd s hape.

T his w ould s uggest, a s d iscussed

a bove, t hat t here w ere e volutionary s tages i n t he r itual o f b urial, a nd t hat a lso t he c onstruction o f t he b arrow m ay n ot h ave b een a p lanned p art o f

t he r itual i n t he e arliest b urials.

O ne o f t he m ost c learly d efined s equences o f m ortuary s tructure d evelopment i s a ssociated w ith t he l ong b arrow a t N utbane i n H ampshire. T he f irst s tructure w as a s mall r ectangular b uilding 1 6 f t. b y 1 4 f t. s upported b y f our l arge p osts. 204 A t a l ater t ime t his building, w hich w as a llowed t o d ecay, w as r eplaced b y a l arger b uilding,

a lso r ectangu-

l ar, b ut w ith 3 c entral p osts w hich m ay h ave s upported a g abled r oof. C alculations b ased o n p ost-hole d epth s uggest t hat i t was o ver 9 f t. h igh.

A s

2 05

t his s tructure was b eing b uilt t he o riginal m ortuary

e nclosure, a n e arth-banked r ectangle, w as r eplaced b y a r ectangular T he l ast s tructures w ere t wo f ences c omposed o f f enced e nclosure. 206 l arge p osts w hich f lanked t he m ortuary h ouse, a nd c reated a s lightly c rescentic f acade. 207 A fter t he e rection o f a s mall c airn i n t he e nclos ure, a t s ome p oint t he w hole s tructure w as f ired a nd a barrow was e rected o n t he s till s mouldering a shes. 208 T he o riginal u nchambered l ong b arrow a t Wayland's S mithy i n B erkshire h ad a f ar l ess c omplex m ortuary s tructure. I t h ad a p aved f loor o f s arsens o n e ach s ide o f w hich w as a b ank o f s tones s tanding a round 2 f eet. 209 A t e ach e nd w as a s ingle p ost-hole w hich h ad c ontained a s plit t ree-trunk 4 f t. i n d iameter. T he s outhern e nd h ad a p air o f s arsen s tones w hich h ad l eant a gainst t he o uter s lo2e o f t he s arsen b ank. T owards t he n orth t imber r eplaced t he s arsens. 210 O verall t he s tructure s eems t ent-like w ith t he t wo h alves o f t he s plit t reet runk p erhaps f orming c enotaphs. A t s ome l ater t ime i t was c overed w ith a s mall b arrow. L ater t he e ntire m onument w as c overed b y a t rapezoidal c hamber t omb.

2 11

T he m ortuary s tructure o f t he D alladies l ong b arrow n ear M ontrose i n S cotland, w ent t hrough t wo s tages o f c onstruction. T he f irst s truct ure w as u prights. t o d ecay T he m ain e nclosed

s omewhat t rapezoidal i n f orm a nd f eatured s plit t ree-trunk I t m ay h ave h ad a g abled r oof. 212 T his b uilding w as a llowed a nd w as r eplaced w ith a n o pen-ended r ectangular s tructure. 213 f eature o f t his b uilding w as i ts h alf s tone w alls w hich t he t imber f ramework. T his s tructure w as f ired b efore t he

b arrow w as e rected. T he S treet H ouse c airn a t L oftus i n C leveland h ad a m ortuary s tructure w hich a ppears t o h ave h ad o nly o ne p hase. T here w ere t wo p its, o ne w ith f ragments o f b urnt b one, w hich p redated t he t omb but t heir s ignificance i s u ncertain.

2 14

1 76.

T he m ortuary s tructure c onsisted

o f f our c omponents. L eading t o a c rescentic f acade o f l arge t imbers w as a n a venue o f p osts. B ehind t he f acade w as a n arrow r ectangular b uilding w hich, l ike t hat a t D alladies, h ad w alls p artially b uilt o f s tone. B ehind t his s tructure was a m ortuary e nclosure s urrounded b y a l ow s tone k erb. 215 O f p articular i nterest w ere t he e nd-posts o f t he m ortuary b uilding w hich w ere l arge e nough t o s erve, W ayland's S mithy,

a s c enotaphs.

l ike t hose a t

F ollowing t he d eposition o f c orpses

t he whole s tructure w as b urnt a nd a l ow s tone c airn ; w hich f ollowed t he b asic p lan o f t he o riginal m onument, w as e rected . 210 W illerby W old b arrow o riginally h ad a p ost f acade a nd a n o pen e nclosure. 217 T his w as r eplaced w ith a s mall m ortuary s tructure o f T here i s, h owever, l ittle m ixed r ubble a nd t imber c onstruction. 218 c lear d etail. T he m ain b urial a rea w as e xcavated i n t he n ineteenth c entury b y G reenwel1, 219 a nd n o e ffort was m ade t o d iscern a ny a ccomp anying s tructures. T he L ochhill l ong c airn i n K irkcudbrightshire h ad a l ong r ectang ular m ortuary s tructure. A s a t Wayland's S mithy t he e nds w ere s upported b y a s ingle s ection o f a s plit t ree-trunk . I n t he c entre w ere t wo s maller c lose-set p osts. 220 T he w alls w ere o f s tone s labs s tanding . 75 m . h igh, a nd t he r oof w es p robably f ormed b y r esting t imber o n t hese a nd t he r idge-pole. 221 A fter a n u nknown p eriod o f t ime t he s tructure w as f ired a nd t he a shes c overed w ith a c airn. K ilham l ong barrow i n Y orkshire s eems t o h ave h ad s everal c onstruction p hases i n w hich t he f irst i s an arrow d itched r ectangular e nclosure. 222 T he p arallel i s n ot e xact but i t i s r edolent o f N ormanton D own a nd W or B arrow. T he l ater p hase, b efore t he e rection o f t he b arrow, i s r eprese nted b y a s quare o f t -holes, a pproximately a t hird o f t he w ay f rom t he western e ntrance,``' b ut i ts p urpose i s u nknown. O verall t he K ilham l ong barrow w as t rapezoidal a nd t hus h as a ffinities w ith W ayland's S mithy a nd F ussell's L odge. O ddly, f or a n orthern b arrow, i t l acks t he c haracteristic c rescentic f acade. F ussell's L odge h ad a m ortuary s tructure s imilar t o Wayland's S mithy.

2 24

M ortuary e nclosures w ithout e ither t races o f s tructures o r b arrows a re s o r are a s t o p rovide l ittle w orthwhile s ocial i nformation. T he b arrows, h owever, a re s omewhat m ore r ewarding. I t s eems c lear t hat t here a re v ery d istinct p hases i n t heir c onstruction a nd t hat t hese s eem t o i ndicate s ome d ifferent s ocial c onditions.

A t N utbane,

D alladies a nd

p ossibly S treet H ouse t here i s e vidence o f av ery m odest f irst p hase. N utbane h ad a s mall r ectangular h ouse w hich w as n ot b urnt a nd m ay h ave d ecayed a way n aturally. 225 D alladies h ad a b uilding s imilar t o t hose a t F ussell's L odge a nd Wayland's S mithy b ut i t a lso w as a llowed t o d ecay u nlike t hose e xamples, b efore i t w as r eplaced b y a l arger n aturally, 226 s tructure. D alladies i s o f p articular i nterest, b ecause b oth i ts m ortua ry h ouses d o n ot l ie a long t he l ong a xis o f t he b arrow, b ut a re p laced d iagonally a nd c lose t o t he n orthern s ide n ear t he f acade. 227 S treet H ouse h as t wo s mall p its w ith b one f ragments w hose r elation t o t he c airn b ut m ight b e t races o f s ome p re-cairn m ortuary p ractice . i s u ncertain, 228 I t i s p ossible t hat N ormanton D own d ates a lso f rom t his p eriod o f m ore s ubdued r itual. T he n ext p hase, a nd o ne o f m ore d istinctive d isplay, i s r eprese nted b y t he c onstruction o f t he p itched-roof s tructures w ith t he m assive e nd p osts. T hese a re W ayland's S mithy, F ussell's L odge, L ochh ill, S treet H ouse a nd D alladies. N utbane h ad a v ery d istinctive 1 77.

m ortuary h ouse a nd p alisaded e nclosure. W illerby W old a nd K ilham a re t oo p oorly p reserved t o o ffer m uch d etail. G enerally t he f inal p hase s ees t he c reation o f a t rapezoidal p alisaded e nclosure, t he f iring o f t he m ortuary h ouse x a nd t he e rection o f ab arrow w ithin, a nd s upported b y, t he p alisade. 2L9 E ach o f t hese s tages r epresents a n e scalation i n t he n ature o f t he d isplay, b ut a lso a c orresponding d e-escalation i n t he p ublic a ccess t o t he r emains i n t he m ortuary s tructure . T he r adioc arbon d ates ( Table 4 ) p rovide o nly t he b roadest h ints a s t o t he p eriod w hen t he o vert d isplays b egin. A ll t he d ates a re f rom t he m ortuary s tructures -in t he c ases o f N utbane a nd D alladies t he s econd s tructure. T ABLE 4

S ite

D ate

S ource

D alladies

3 240 + 1 50 b c

P iggott,

F ussell's L odge

3 230 + 1 50 b c

A shbee,

L ochhill

3 120 + 1 05 b c

M asters,

W ayland's S mithy

2 820 + 1 30 b c

A tkinson,

N utbane

2 730 + 1 50 b c

P iggott,

S treet H ouse

2 690 b c

A verage o f f our d ates, V yner, 1 984, p p. 1 84-185.

1 973, 1 966,

p . p .

1 973, 1 965, 1 973,

3 6. 2 7.

p . p . p .

1 00. 1 32. 3 6.

I t i s c lear t hat n o a ppreciable i nformation i s p rovided i n t hese d ates t o a llow d ating o f t he p rimary s tructures a t N utbane a nd D allad ies b eyond a t erminus a nte q uem . W e s ee a v ague p arallel b etween t he d ates o f t he m ortuary s tructures, a nd t he g eneral a verage d ates o f t he s ingle a nd d ouble r ing e nclosures ( Table 3 ). I t f ollows t hat t here i s a nother r ough p arallel i n d ates b etween t he c ompleted barrows a nd t he m ore c omplex e nclosures. 230 T his a dds n othing n ew t o t he e volutionary t heories o f t erritorial d isplay a nd t omb d evelopment. 231 O f s ome i nterest, h owever, i s t he d ifference i n c onstruction b etween N utbane a nd a nd t he o ther s tructures. A f urther p oint o f i nterest i s t he p arallel b etween t he f irst s tructure, r epresented b y f our p ost-holes, a nd t he s imilar p ost-hole a rrangement p resent a t K ilham .2 52 B oth N utbane a nd a nd K ilham a re c omparatively l ate. K ilham 's d ate i s 2 880 ± 1 25 b c ,233 i t i s t empting t o s uggest t hat b oth t hese s ites s ee t he b eginnings o f a n ew c ustom w here m ortuary s tructures n o l onger f eature t he c enotaphl ike p osts. T his m ight m ean t hat t here w as a m uch s horter p eriod b etween t he c onstruction o f t he m ortuary h ouse a nd i ts i ncorporation i n t he b arrow. I f t his w as t he c ase t hen t his d evelopment m arks t he p oint w here t he f irst e vidence o f t he h eightened t erritorial f riction c reates t he n eed f or m ore i nstantaneous m ortuary d isplay. A r esponse i n w hich t he o lder s tructures w ith t heir m ore m uted b ut l onger l asting c enotaphs b ecomes o bsolete. N utbane, w ith i ts c omplex p alisade a nd v ery d istinctive h ousel ike b uilding ( a c opy o f t he f ew N eolithic h uts t hat w e k now o f) a lso s uggests a f amily o rientated r ather t han c ommunal r itual. T homas a nd W hittle 234 h ave s uggested t hat t he c reation o f t he c hamber t ombs w ith 1 78.

t heir c haracteristic o f s hutting t he f uneral r ite a way f rom t he c ommunal g aze, m ight r epresent a ttempts b y s ome f amilies t o s et t heir l ineage a part t o s trengthen d ynastic m ystique.

P erhaps N utbane i s a n e xample

o f t his d eveloping d ynastic f eeling. O f c ourse i t h as b een a ccepted f or s ome t ime 235 t hat t he l imited n umber o f i nterments i n t he c ommunal g raves s uggests t hat, e ither t here w as d eliberate s election, o r m ore l ikely, t hat t hese a re t he t ombs o f f amilies o f s uperior s tatus. 236 T he a ttempt, h owever, t o c reate d ynastic m ystique s eems t o b e a l ater p henomenon a nd o ne t hat i s p ossible o nly i f t here i s a d eliberate e xclusion o f c ommunal a ccess. 237 T his f eature, a nd t he p reviously d iscussed s uggestion o f i ncreased t erritorial f riction e xpressed i n t he m ore r apid e rection o f t he b arrow, w ould s eem t o b e a n i ndication o f c ommunal a cceptance t hat o ne l ineage a nd t he t erritory w ere i nseparable . Ih ave d iscussed t he m ajor t heoretical a rguments i n t he p revious c hapt er, but i t i s w orth n oting h ow c lose i s t he p arallel b etween t his v iew a nd t hat p roposed b y R andsborg 238 s hips i n D enmark . 8 .5

f or t omb a nd t erritorial r elation-

C onclusion

T he m any p arallels t hat e xist i n t he m aterial c ulture b etween t he p ost-LBK f armers i n E urope, a nd t he E arly N eolithic f armers o f B ritain s uggest o verwhelmingly t hat e ach w ould p ossess s imilar s ocial s tructures. I n t he f irst p art o f t his c hapter I s uggested t hat t he l eadership i n L BK a nd p ost-LBK c ommunities w ould n ot b e s imilar a s a r esult o f e conomic c hanges. L eadership i n t he L BK c ommunities w ould s till r etain f eatures o f t he h ereditary f orms p resent i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties, b ut i n v iew o f t he c hanges i n r esource o wnership i t m ay w ell h ave b ecome l argely c eremonial. T he q uoted e xamples f rom A frican p astoral s ocieties t end t o s upport t his i nterpretation. I n t he p ostL BK p eriod t here w as a m ove t o m ore d ispersed s ettlements a nd c onc urrently a n i ncrease i n e vidence o f t erritorial d isplay. E nclosures, f ortified o r d efensible v illage s ites a nd b urial m onuments b ecome c ommon. T hese I h ave t aken, f ollowing R enfrew 's l ead, t o i ndicate i ncreased i ntercommunity r ivalry. I n a ddition t here i s e vidence, i n t his i nstance f rom H ungary, t o s uggest t hat t he y ounger m en a re b ecoming w arriors. T his i s d emonstrated i n c emeteries w here w eapons l ike d aggers, a re a ssociated w ith y ounger m en w hilst t he o lder m en a re b uried w ith a xes. T his f urther s uggests t hat, a lthough w arriors a re p resent, t he r eal s tatus i n t hese s ocieties i s t o b e f ound i n l and o wnership -a xes a re p rimarily a gricultur al t ools. C oncentrations o f a xes a re a lso f ound i n t he g raves o f t he o lder m en i n t he p receding p eriods. A s Ih ave s uggested a bove i t w ould s eem t hat a lthough b eing aw arrior w as a s ource o f s tatus, i t w as p robably s een a s a s teppings tone t o t he r eal s ource o f s tatus w hich w as l and o wnership. T his v iew f inds a n a lmost e xact p arallel i n t he d ual h ierarchical s ystems p resent i n American I ndian s ocieties, w here w ar c hiefs a re d rawn f rom w arriors, w hilst t he o ffice o f t he c eremonial c hief i s h ereditary. F urther e vidence o f t he a cceptance b y t he s ocieties t hat s ome i ndividuals h ave s uperior s tatus i s f ound, a s R andsborg d emonstrates, i n D enmark w here m onumental t ombs a re e rected f or s ingle i ndividuals. T he D anish s ociety i s d ispersed i nto s mall f arms r ather t han v illages. P art o f t he c ause o f t his d ispersal o f s ettlement i s t aken t o b e t he i ncrease i n p astoral a ctivities, a nd i t i s p articularly n oteworthy t hat e vidence o f w arriors a nd c onspicuous m ortuary d isplay i s a f eature o f s ocieties w here c attle r aiding w as p robably p resent. T his w ould p rovide 1 79.

a mple s cope f or d emonstration o f w arrior s kills a nd t he a cquisition o f s tatus. T he s tyles o f s ettlement i n D enmark a nd B ritain a re s imilar a nd t herefore w e m ust a ccept a lso t hat s imilar s ocial a ttitudes t o t he a cquisition o f s tatus,

a nd h ereditary r ank, w ere p resent

f rom t he o ut-

s et i n B ritain. I n B ritain i t s eems f airly l ikely t hat t he r eady a vailability o f l and w ould h ave l essened t erritorial f riction f or a p eriod o f t ime. U nder t hese c onditions w e m ight f ind a d ecrease i n t he i mportance o f w arriors a nd a n i ncrease i n t he p ower o f t he h ereditary c hiefs, o r p erhaps e ven a r eturn, f or a t ime, t o t he o lder s tyle o f h ereditary l eadership w hich w as p resent i n t he L BK s ocieties. I t i s o f p articular i nterest t hat t he b arrows c opy t he t rapezoidal f orm o f l ate-LBK l ongh ouses. O f g reater i nterest, h owever, i s t hat, d espite t he p robability t hat t he p opulation p ressures i n B ritain w ould h ave b een l ess t han i n E urope, m ortuary d isplay i s a f eature o f burials a lmost f rom t he b eginning . I t i s c lear t hat t he l ow n umber o f i nterments i n t he e arthen b arrows p robably r epresen ts t he m embers o f s pecial l ineages r ather t han t he w hole c ommunity. F urthermore t he s tages i n t he d evelopment o f b arrow b urial s how t hat f or m uch o f t he t ime t he o utward d isplay o f s tatus w as a m ortuary h ouse u sually m ade o f w ood, a nd a part f rom t he p resence o f m assive t imber c enotaphs, t hese w ere q uite m odest. T his l ack o f o vert d isplay s uggests t hat t hese t ombs a re t hose o f m embers o f h ereditary l ineages w hose f unction m ight b e a kin t o t he s impler c eremonial l eadership m entioned a bove.

U nfortunately w e h ave n o m ortu-

a ry s tructures t hat a re n ot a ssociated w ith b arrows, but i t i s p ossible t hat t here m ay h ave b een m ore o f t hese n ow d ecayed w ithout a t race. A t a bout t he t ime w e s ee t he f irst e nclosures b eing b uilt, t here b egins t he f irst c onstruction o f b arrows. T he e nclosures, a t l east i n t heir e arly s tages, s eem t o h ave b een l argely a ssociated w ith p astoral a ctivities a nd t his s uggests t hat a s w ith t he E uropean evidence, t here w as a n i ncrease i n t erritorial f riction. T erritorial d isplay a nd h ered itary t erritorial c ontrol n ow b ecome v ery i mportant. T here i s s ome m arginal e vidence i n t he f orm o f b arrows l ike N utbane a nd D alladies, w hich h ave s everal s tages i n t he c onstruction o f t he m ortuary s truct ures, t hat t he b arrow w as d eliberately e rected o n a v ery o ld t radit ional s ite p erhaps t o e mphasise t he l ong-term p ossession o f a t erritory. T he s election o f b urial m onuments a s t he m eans o f t erritorial d isplay f urther s tresses t he e xistence o f h ereditary s tratification, b ecause i t e mphasises t he r ecognition b y t hese p eople o f a s pecial r elationship b etween o ne l ineage a nd t he t erritory.

T his i s t he e mbodiment o f

t he

t erritorial a nd r esource m anagement f unction o f p rimitive l eadership w hich I h ave d iscussed i n c hapters 2 a nd 6 . T he f inal s tage i n t he d evelopment o f h ereditary r anked s ocieties, i s s hown by t he a bove n oted e vidence t hat s ome o f t he i mportant f amilies w ere b eginning t o p rivatise t he m ortuary r itual, p erhaps a s a n a ttempt t o i ncrease t he s pecial m ystique o f t heir i nherited s tatus. I t i s a t t his p oint t hat t he w ider m obilization o f p eople a nd r esources, s uggested b y R enfrew b egins. T his i s n ot t he b eginning o f o vertly r anked s ocieties a s h e a rgues, 239 b ut i nstead t he f irst v isible m anifestation o f t he s ystem o f h ereditary r anking w hich h ad b een i n e xistence s ince t he L BK p eriod.

1 80.

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c hapter 2 .

p. p

1 985, p .

1 88-202.

1 49.

F leming,

1 36ff.

1 50.

i bid.,

p .

1 38.

1 51.

i bid.,

p .

1 33ff.

1 52.

e .g . n orthern W ales,

F leming,

1 87.

1 985,

p .

1 33ff .

1 53.

T here a re m any r eferences, s ome e xamples a re A . Whittle, 1 978, ' Resources a nd p opulation i n t he B ritish N eolithic', A ntiquity 5 2, p p. 3 4-42; P ilcher e t a l., 1 971; A . F leming, 1 972, ' The g enesis o f p astoralism i n E uropean p rehistory', 1 91;

1 54.

1 55.

B arker,

1 985,

p .

W A 4 , p p.

S . P iggott, 1 954, N eolithic C ultures o f the B ritish I sles, C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge. I .F .

S mith,

1 966,

1 2,

1 56.

W hittle,

1 977,

1 57.

G . C onnah, 1 965, ' Excavations at K nap H ill, A lton P riors, W AM 6 0, p p. 1 -23.

1 58.

F ox ,

1 59.

M egaw a nd S impson,

1 60.

I .F . S mith, 1 965, P ress, O xford, p .

1 973,

p p.

' Windmill H ill a nd i ts i mplications', P alaeo-

h istoria

s ur

1 79-

1 97ff.

p .

4 69-481.

p .

3 45. 1 961',

3 . 3 1 979,

p .

8 2.

W indmill H ill a nd Avebury, O xford U niversity 2ff. T his, h owever, m ay p redate the e nclo2

s ure.

1 61.

E .C. C urwen, 1 934, 'Excavations in W hitehawk N eolithic c amp, B righton, 1 932-3', A ntiq .Journ. 1 4, p . 1 05.

1 62.

J . H edges a nd D . B uckley, 1 978, ' Excavations a t a N eolithic c ausewayed e nclosure, O rsett, E ssex , 1 975', P PS 4 4, p . 2 42. D o t hese h ave a s imilar s ymbolic f unction t o t he m assive e nd-posts o f t he e arly m ortuary s tructures d iscussed b elow?

1 63 .

N .

T homas,

B all, 1 64.

W AM 5 9,

p .

1 0.

P . D rewett, 1 977, ' The e xcavation o f aN eolithic c ausewayed e nclosure o n O ffham H ill, E ast S ussex , 1 976', PPS 4 3, p . 2 09, F ig.

1 65.

1 964, 'The N eolithic causewayed c amp a t R obin H ood's

S hrewton',

5 .

R . R obertson-Mackay, 1 962, ' The e xcavation o f t he c ausewayed c amp a t S taines, M iddlesex ', Arch.News L etter 7 , p . 1 33; i dem ., 1 965, ' The p rimary N eolithic s ettlement i n s outhern E ngland, s ome n ew a spects', A tti D el V I C ongresso I nternazionale D elle S cienze P reistoriche e P rotostoriche, p .

1 66.

1 67.

3 21.

J .G . E vans a nd I .F . S mith, 1 983, 'Excavations a t C herhill, N orth W iltshire, 1 967', P PS 4 9, p . 5 5. O .

B edwin,

1 981,

' Excavations a t the N eolithic E nclosure o n B ury

H ill, H oughton, W .

S ussex 1 979', P PS 4 7,

1 68.

H edges a nd B uckley,

1 69.

C onnah,

1 70.

I .F .

1 965,

S mith,

p .

1 965,

1 978,

p .

2 37.

7 . p .

7 ff. 1 88.

p .

7 4.

1 71.

C urwen,

1 934,

p p.

1 72.

T homas,

1 964,

p .

1 73.

R .

M ercer,

1 07,

1 11.

l lff.

1 980, H ambledon H ill: A N eolithic L andscape,

U niversity P ress,

p p.

E dinburgh,

E dinburgh

3 0ff.

1 74.

F . P ryor, 1 987, 'Etton 6 1, p . 7 9.

1 75.

D rewett,

1 76.

I .F .

1 77.

D rewett,

1 78.

T his i s b ased o n a c omparison o f d ata i n D rewett, 1 977, t able 2 , a nd R . P almer, 1 976, ' Interrupted d itch e nclosures i n B ritain: t he u se o f a erial p hotography f or c omparative s tudies', P PS 4 2, p. 1 61-186. p

1 79.

P almer, 1 976; D .R . W ilson, 1 975, ' Causewayed c amps a nd i nterr upted d itch s ystems', A ntiquity 4 9, p p. 1 78-186.

1 80.

E vans a nd S mith,

1 983,

1 81.

B edwin,

7 4.

1 82.

W ainwright,

1 83.

P ryor,

1 84.

A tkinson, 1 979, p . 1 54ff; A . B url, 1 979, P rehistoric Avebury, Y ale U niversity P ress, L ondon, p . 1 90; M cKay, 1 982, p . 6 5.

1 85.

978, ' Causewayed c amps a nd e arly N eoG . B arker a nd D . W ebley, 1 l ithic e conomies i n c entral s outhern E ngland', P PS 4 4, p p. 161-

1 977,

S mith,

1 965,

1 981,

1 987,

2 25.

p .

1 977,

p .

2 0.

2 26; M ercer,

p .

p .

1 986: n eolithic m etamorphoses', A ntiquity

p .

1 980,

p .

6 3.

5. 5

1 972. p .

7 9.

1 86. 1 86.

R enfrew,

1 973b.

1 87.

B arker a nd W ebley, 1 978, p . 1 75ff; O ne c annot i gnore t he " head a nd h oofs" o fferings f ound i n s ome N eolithic burials, e .g. S . P iggott, 1 962, ' Heads a nd h oofs', A ntiquity 3 6, p p. 1 10-118; M .E. R obertson-Mackay, 1 980, ' A ' head a nd h oofs' b urial b eneath a r ound b arrow, with N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge s ites o n H emp K noll, n ear A vebury, W iltshire', P PS 4 6, p p. 1 23-176.

1 88.

J .G .

1 89.

B arker a nd W ebley,

1 90.

F .

E vans,

d e M .

1 978,

V atcher,

' Comment', 1 978, 1 961,

p .

PS 4 4, P

p .

1 85.

1 74.

' The e xcavation o f t he l ong m ortuary

e nclosure o n N ormanton D own, W ilts.', P PS 2 7, 1 91.

P ryor,

1 987,

p .

7 9.

m ight r epresent a

I t i s

p. p

1 60-173.

t empting t o t hink t hat t he e nclosures

r itual i n w hich l ong p its f illed w ith s pecial 1 89.

d eposits w ere a rranged i n c ircular p atterns, o f a d eliberate e nclosure m ight b e i llusory.

a nd t he a ppearance T his m ay e xplain

t he c reation o f m ultivallate e nclosures s uch a s Windmill H ill. T his

c ould h ave b een a p articularly s acred s ite w hich a ttracted

oncentrically a s e ach w as m uch r itual a nd t he c ircles m ultiplied c oted, n o a dequate e xplanation h as u sed u p. A s Ih ave a lready n n e nclosure w hich m ay h ave h eld hy a b een o ffered t o e xplain w eeded m ultiple d itches. f t he y ear n c attle f or p art o 1 92.

erkshire i s W ayland's S mithy in B

i nteresting i n t hat t he c ham-

n a n e arthen b arrow, b ered b arrow i s b uilt o mithy', A ntiquity 3 9, p p. 1 965, ' Wayland's S

R .J.C. A tkinson, 1 26-133.

1 93 .

Monumental f unction i n B ritish Neolithic b urial I . K innes, 1 976, ' p ractices', W A 7 , p . 1 7ff.

1 94.

V atcher,

1 95.

968, ' Excavations o f t wo long barrows I .F . S mith a nd J .G . E vans, 1 i n N orth W iltshire', A ntiquity 4 2, p p. 1 38-142.

1 96.

ong b arrows P . A shbee, 1 969, ' Timber m ortuary h ouses a nd e arthen l a gain', A ntiquity 4 3, p p. 4 3-45.

1 97.

W hittle,

1 98.

K innes,

1 99.

P .

p .

1 985, 1 975,

A shbee,

1 957', 2 00.

1 961,

1 63,

p. p p .

2 34-235.

1 8. ' The F ussell's L odge l ongb arrow e xcavations

1 966,

A rchaeologia

V atcher,

1 961,

F ig. 3.

1 00, p .

F igs.

2 ,

4 5ff; K innes,

1 975,

p . 18.

3 .

2 01.

i bid.,

p .

2 02.

i bid .,

F ig.

2 03.

The e xcavations at D orchester, O xfordtkinson, 1951, ' R .J.C . A rch.Newsletter 4 , p p. 56-59. 946-51', A s hire 1

2 04.

F .

. d e M

1 63. 5 .

1 959,

M organ,

. PS 2 5, p H ants', P 2 05.

i bid.,

p. p

2 06.

i bid .,

p .

3 2.

2 07.

i bid .

2 08.

i bid .,

p .

3 4ff.

A tkinson,

1 965,

2 09. 2 10.

i bid.

2 11.

i bid.,

p .

ong b arrow a tN utbane, ' Excavations o f a l

2 9.

3 1-32.

p .

1 27.

1 27ff.

1 90.

2 12.

S . P iggott, 1 973, A ntiquity 4 7, p p.

2 13.

i bid.,

2 14.

B .E. V yner, 1 984, ' The e xcavation o f a N eolithic c airn a t S treet H ouse, L oftus, C leveland', P PS 5 0, p . 1 53 .

2 15.

i bid.,

p .

1 53ff.

2 16.

i bid.,

p .

1 62.

2 17.

T .G . M anby, 1 963, ' The e xcavation o f t he W illerby W old l ong b arrow ', P PS 2 9, p . 1 77ff.

2 18.

i bid .,

p .

1 80ff.

2 19.

i bid.,

p .

1 75ff.

20. 2

L .

M asters,

p .

9 7ff.

p .

' The D alladies l ong b arrow: N E S cotland', 3 2-36.

3. 3

1 973,

' The L ochhill l ong c airn', A ntiquity 4 7,

21. 2

i bid .

22. 2

T .G . M anby, 1 971, ' The K ilham l ong b arrow e xcavations 1 969', A ntiquity 4 5, p . 5 1.

23. 2

i bid .

24. 2

A shbee,

1 966,

p .

7 ff.

25. 2

M organ,

1 959,

p .

2 9.

26. 2

P iggott,

27. 2

i bid.,

F ig .

28. 2

V yner,

1 984,

29. 2

A shbee p rovides a w ider s urvey, A shbee,

2 30.

M egaw a nd S impson,

2 31.

R enfrew ,

2 32.

M anby,

1 971,

2 33.

i bid .,

p .

2 34.

J . T homas a nd A . W hittle, 1 986, ' Anatomy o f a t omb -W est K ennet r evisited', O xford J ournal o f Archaeology 5 , p p. 1 29-159.

2 35.

A tkinson,

2 36.

A v ery l arge number o f r adiocarbon d ates o btained r ecently f rom t he c hambered t omb a t H azleton i n G loucestershire s how t hat, f or t his

1 973,

p .

1 965-

7 ff.

1 . p .

1 53 .

1 979, p .

1 973b; K innes, p .

1 966,

p .

7 5ff .

8 9.

1 975.

5 1.

5 3 .

1 968.

t omb a t l east,

t he i nterments a ll t ook p lace i n l ess t han 1 91.

epresented . t hree c enturies. B etween 2 7 a nd 3 0 i nterments a re r A . S aville, J .A .J. G owlett a nd R .E. M . H edges, 1 987, ' Radiocarbon d ates f rom t he c hambered t omb a t H azleton ( Glos.): a c hronology f or n eolithic c ollective b urial', A ntiquity 6 1, p p. 1 08-119. 2 37.

T he i deological a spect o f t his c hange i s e xplored i n S .J. S hennan, 1 982a, ' Ideology, c hange a nd t he E uropean E arly B ronze A ge',

i n H odder,

e d.,

p. p

1 55-161.

2 38.

R andsborg,

1 975.

2 39.

R enfrew h as r ecently r estated t his v iew i n h is examination o f I ndo-European o rigins. C . R enfrew, 1 987, A rchaeology a nd L anguage, J onathan C ape, L ondon, p . 2 52ff.

1 92.

C HAPTER 9 D ENOUEMENT 9 .1

I ntroduction

p laces

T he L ate N eolithic i s t he p eriod i n w hich c ontemporary t heory t he b eginnings o f h ereditary s ocial s tratification. T his i s a

p eriod o f e xpanding a griculture a nd t echnological a dvances. P erhaps t he m ost i mportant o f t hese a dvances i s t he d evelopment o f m etallurgy. I n t he t raditional v iew o f t he r ise o f r anked s ocieties m etallurgy, a nd t he c ontrol o f t he m etals'

t rade,

i s s een a s t he p rime c ause.'

T his

t rade based m odel i s, i n r eality, a v ersion o f S ahlin's r edistributive m odel which d epicts t he p ower o f a c hief r ising f rom , a nd b eing s ust ained b y, c ontrol a nd d istribution o f v alued r esources. 2 G ilman h as s ummarised t he c urrent v iew a s, " (the) n ew p aradigm .. . may b e s ummarised a s f ollows: t he d evelopment o f e xtensive n etworks f or t he p rocurement a nd a llocation o f r esources n ecessary f or e veryone l ed t o t he e mergence o f a p ermanent r uling c lass w hich m anaged t he c omplex p roduction/ d istribution p roblems i nvolved." 3 T he m ost i mportant e xample o f t he a pplication o f t his m odel t o p rehistoric E urope i s S herratt's a nalysis o f t rade i n c entral a nd e astern E urope. 4 T his v iew i s e ntrenched a nd h as c reated a n e xtreme a nd h ighly s elective f unctionalist a rgument t hat s ocial s tratification w ill n ot d evelop u ntil t he n eed a rises t o c ontrol t he t rade i n v aluable c ommodities, o f w hich m etal i s t he m ost d esirable. I n t he e arly N eolithic, a s S hennan u nequivocably s tates, " ...there i s n o e vidence f or o ther t han e galitarian s ocial r elations, w hether o ne l ooks a t t he B andkeramik o f c entral E urope o r t he e arly m egalith b uilding s ocieties o f t he w est." 5 I t i s a s i f w e c annot h ave h ierarchies i n s ociety u ntil w e h ave l earnt t hat t here e xists a n atural h ierarchy i n t he i ntrinsic v alue o f r esources.

t ion

6

T he m ost i mportant c hallenge t o t his m odel w as G ilman's s uggest hat s ocial s tratification d id n ot s tem f rom c ontrol o f t rade,

b ut i nstead f rom a c oup d i nat b y w arriors w hose o riginal f unction w as t he p rotection o f p easant f armers. T his s uggestion c an b e c riticised o n s everal g rounds. P rincipally b ecause i t s imply m oves t he p roblem b ack i n t ime w hilst r etaining t he s imilar m ethodological w eaknesses t hat a re p resent i n t he f unctionalist v iews. F urthermore, a s H icks s uggests, G ilman f ails t o e xplain f rom w hom t he f armers a re s eeking p rotection. 7 T he m ere e xistence o f am arauding g roup o f w arriors s uggests, a s i n t he c entral E uropean e xamples d iscussed i n t he p revious c hapter, t hat a d eveloped h ierarchical s ystem w as a lready i n e xistence. C entral t o b oth G ilman's t heory a nd t he f unctionalist v iews i s am ethodological p roblem w hich t ends t o l essen t heir v alidity. I n b oth a pproaches t o t he p roblem , r esearch h as t ended t o w ork backwards i n a p rocess w hich s trips s uccessive l ayers o ff a ccumulated s ocial a nd e conomic f eatures u ntil t he d esired p ristine s urface i s e xposed. T his h as t he e ffect o f ' discovering' a p redetermined s et o f c onditions w hich, i n t he r esearc hers'

v iew,

r epresent

t he p oint a t w hich h ereditary s ocial s tratifica-

t ion b egins -w e h ave i n b oth m ethodologies a v eiled s ubjectivity a s p otent a s t he m ethods o f t he s tructuralists. G ilman's t heory n eeds w arriors f or i t t o w ork, a nd s o h e c reates a s et o f e conomic c onditions w hich p reclude e asy m igration b y p easant f armers m aking t hem a p assive p rey f or t hese w arriors, a nd a s teady s ource o f i ncome f or s uccessive g enerations o f w arrior o verlords. 8 T he s upporters o f t rade g enerated h ierarchical s ystems n eed a v aluable c ommodity a nd f ind i t i n m etal, 1 93 .

M ap

7 .

E arly C halcolithic i ndustries d iscussed i n

. 1

6 .

T agus

. 2

A lgarve Huelva

c hapter 9 .

C onnelle-Ortucchio

7 .

G audo

. 3

A lmeria

8 .

M acchia a M are

. 4

Remedello

9 .

L aterza

. 5

R inaldone

1 94.

d espite t he p roblem t hat t he a mount o f m etal i n c irculation i n t he L ate N eolithic a nd t he E arly B ronze A ge s eems t o h ave b een v ery s mall i ndeed . F urther t o t his c riticism b oth v iews h ave a n i nbuilt c ontradiction. N either c an e xplain w hy, p rehistoric s ocieties,

i f e galitarianism i s s o f irmly p resent i n

t he s ocial a cceptance o f i nequality a nd s ubju-

g ation a ppears t o b e b oth r elatively q uick a nd a ccomplished w ith n o o pposition. D espite t he p roposed e xistence o f a rmed w arriors, o r a rmed t raders, w e h ave n o m ortuary e vidence o f e xcessive c onflict. I t s eems t hat o ur n atural a nd p referred s tate o f e galitarianism w as s urrendered w ith i ndecent h aste. T hese r ather i nexact h ypotheses h ave b een f orced u pon u s b y t he a bsence i n t he a rchaeological r ecord o f a ny e vidence o f l arge s cale s ocial o rganisation i n p rehistoric E urope.

I n t he e ast u rbanization

a nd o rganised s ystems o f f arming w ere f orced u pon t he p opulation a s a r esponse t o i rrigation p roblems. R anked s ocieties d eveloped q uickly i nto t rue s tates b ecause a p ermanent a nd p owerful a uthority w as n eeded t o r egulate t he u se o f v aluable w ater r esources. 9 I n E urope, h owever, t here a re n o l arge s cale p ermanent s tates u ntil t he R oman E mpire a nd t hus n o n eed f or a s imilar p ermanent m anagerial h ierarchy. T here h ave b een a ttempts t o d emonstrate t he p ossibility o f s ome f orms e xisting i n p articular p arts o f E urope m ost n otably i n I beria. C hapman h as a rgued t hat t here w as o rganised c ontrol o f w ater s upplies a nd, t hat t he p olitical p ower t his g enerated b ecame t he b asis f or i ndividual c ontrol o f t he m etals'trade.lu O ne c annot d ispute t hat s ites l ike L os M illares a nd Z ambujal a re e vidence o f a k ind o f r egional p olitical d ominion, 1 1 b ut t hey a re n ot o f c omparable s ize o r c omplexity t o t he e astern u rban c entres, n or c an t hey p rovide a ny g eneral p aradigm f or E urope a s a w hole. T hey r emain e xamples o f a l ocalised r esponse t o a s et o f r egiona lly p eculiar e nvironmental c onditions. I n t he r est o f w estern E urope t he o nly e vidence o f m ajor s ocial o rganisation i s t o b e f ound i n t he c onstruction o f t he m egaliths a nd t his, a s w e h ave s een, c ould b e m anaged w ithin t he l imits s et b y t he s ize o f k inship g roups o r s mall t ribes.

w ith

I n t he p receding c hapters I h ave d emonstrated w hy I d isagree t he r easons t hat t hese s chemes o ffer f or t he o rigins o f s ocial

s tratification. B ut, n evertheless, t he a dvent o f t he m etal t rade a nd c omplex f arming s ystems a re g oing t o a ffect t he s ocieties i n w hich t hey a ppear. I n t he l ast c hapter I d iscussed t he r ather m eagre e vidence o f c hanges i n s ocial s tratification w rought b y t he i ntroduction o f e xpanded f arming p ractices. I n t his c hapter, a nd a t t he r isk o f a ppearing t o c onclude t his w ork w ith a d igression, I w ould l ike b riefly t o e xamine t wo r elated p henomena i n t he L ate N eolithic o f w estern E urope w hich a re o ften c ited i n d iscussions o f t he e vidence f or s ocial s tratification. T hese a re t he i ntroduction o f m etallurgy, a nd t he p roblem o f t he B eaker ' culture'. I n s ome w ays t hese m ay n ow a ppear t o b e r elatively d ead i ssues -as w e w ill s ee s ome v ery p lausible t heories h ave b een a dvanced w hich h ave l owered t he h eat i n t hese a reas o f d iscussion. T here i s a p roblem , h owever, i n t hat t hese e xplanations a re b ased u pon t he t heoret ical m odels w hich h ave b een u sed t o p osit t he l ate d evelopment o f h ereditary s tratification. 1 2 A s w ith t he b arrow b urials d iscussed i n t he l ast c hapter -m etallurgy a nd t he c ontrol o f t he m etal t rade, a nd t he B eaker p henomenon a re d epicted a s e arly m anifestations o f t he c hange f rom e galitarian t o n on-egalitarian s ocieties. T he f irst i s a p artial c ause a nd t he s econd a s e vidence o f t he e xistence o f e lite c lasses. I f, h owever, w e s ee t hem a s e vents i n s ocieties w hich a re 1 95.

n on-egalitarian, t hen t here i s r oom f or s ome n ew s uggestions -o r, t he l east, a r eopening o f t he d iscussion. 9 .2

U ncertain R elations: U ntil

t he b eginning o f

a t

M etallurgy a nd S ocial S tatus t he B ronze A ge i n w estern E urope t here i s

s o l ittle u se o f m etal t hat w e a re, i n a ll h onesty, f aced w ith n early i nsurmountable p roblems i n a ssessing t he s ocial s ignificance o f m etal w orkers. F urthermore t he i nherent s implicity o f w orking c opper w hich w as t he o nly m etal i n u se, m ay h ave p revented t he d evelopment o f t he c omplicated s ocial a nd e conomic c ustoms w hich u sually s urround t he m ore c omplex o f h uman e ndeavours. S tephen S hennan h as a rgued i n h is d iscuss ion o f t he e conomic a nd s ocial f orces a t p lay a t t he e nd o f t he N eolithic, t hat " ...if a l inkage b etween g rowing s ocial d ifferentiation a nd t he g rowth o f t he m etal i ndustry i s a ccepted, t he i nference t o b e d rawn f rom t he a rgument s o f ar i s t hat t he f ormer w as d ependent o n l atter, s o t he g rowth o f t he m etal i ndustry i tself r emains u nexp-

t he

l ained ." 1 3 H e e xplains t he g rowth o f t he m etal i ndustry a s o ccurring w hen " ...very w idely d istributed p rocesses o f d ispersion a nd e xpansion f ollowing o n t he e stablishment o f a n ewly i ntegrated m ixed f arming s ystem a ffected m uch o f c entral a nd n orthern E urope. T hey w ere a ssoci ated w ith c hanges i n t he s patial s cale o f m aterial c ulture p atterning a nd i n t he s ocial r elations b etween t he n ew s mall s ettlements w hich h ad a ppeared, w hich i nvolved s ome d egree o f i nequality, s een i n g rave g oods a nd r elated t o c ontrol o f s ubsistence r esources. A lthough t hese new c onditions w ere c haracteristic o f v ery w ide a reas, i t was o nly i n t hose r egions i n t he g eneral a rea o f t he m etal s ources t hat c opper i tems f ormed p art o f t he g rave g oods, i nitially a pparently n ot e specially h ighly v alued. I n t he B ell B eaker p hase t his c hanged. T he u se o f m etal p rovided a b asis f or u ndermining e xisting d ifferentials a nd s etting u p n ew o nes w hich h ad a n i mportant b asis i n c ompetition f or c ontrol o f e xchanges o f m etal a nd o ther i tems. T his r esulted i n t he g rowth o f w idely r amifying n etworks o f e xchange a nd c ontact." 1 4 T he B eaker p henom enon i s u sed i n t his m odel a s a c atalyst. I d o n ot d ispute t he r ole o f b ronze a s a n i ndicator o f w ealth, 5 ( as I h ave e xpressed i n c hapter 1 ), I a m n ot i n b ut l ike G ilman 1 c omplete a greement w ith t he a utomatic c orrelation o f w ealth a nd p ower.

A lso, a s Iw ill a rgue f urther b elow I a m n ot c onvinced o f t he d epiction o f B eaker a rtefacts a s a s tatus " package". S hennan, h owever, s tates i n t he l ast q uoted p assage t hat t he " ...copper i tems ( were) i nitially a pparently n ot e specially h ighly v alued". I t i s t his p recise p oint w hich, I b elieve, p rovides t he k ey t o o ur u nderstanding o f t he s tatus v alue o f t he f irst m etal o bjects a nd o ne w hich r equires s ome d iscussion . I n t his m atter w e a re h ampered b y a s ocial v iew o f m etal w orkers w hich d erives f rom t he e xample a nd m ystique o f b ronze a nd i ron p roduct ion. B oth t hese m etals r equire a h igh d egree o f t echnical c ompetence i n t heir m anufacture. B ronze n eeds a s ophisticated u nderstanding o f t he c ombined p roperties o f c opper a nd t in, o r a rsenic, a nd t heir p roportions w hich w ill c reate t he b est a nd h ardest p roduct. I n a ddition t he c omplex ities o f c old a nd h ot w orking m ust b e u nderstood s o t hat i mproper a nnealing w ill n ot h arm t he s trength o f t he o bjects. I ron, b ecause t he a ncient w orkers l acked t he t echnology t o c ast i t, r equired t he m astery o f t echniques o f w orking c reated t o f orm o bjects t hrough b eating a nd s haping. U nderstanding w as a lso n eeded o f o re t ypes. M etal w orkers, i n b oth b ronze a nd i ron, n eeded t o b e a ble t o p rocess d ifferent t ypes o f 1 96.

c opper,

t in a nd i ron o res,

e ach o f w hich h as a d ifferent s et o f c onsti-

t uent i mpurities a ccompanying t he m etal c omponent w hich d ictate t he u se o f d ifferent s melting o r w orking p rocesses.

I 6

B ut h owever m uch t he

s imple i ndustry o f t he c halcolithic p eriod w as a f orerunner t o, a nd l earning p eriod f or, t he d evelopment o f t echniques e ssential i n t he B ronze a nd I ron A ges i t c annot b e d escribed a s o ther t han u ncomplicated a nd a n e xtension o f l ithic a nd c eramic i ndustries. I n t his r egard i t i s, t herefore, h ighly l ikely t hat l ittle s ocial s tatus m ay h ave a ccrued t o t he v ery e arliest m etal w orkers o r t heir p roducts. T here a re t wo m ajor a reas o f c halcolithic i ndustry i n w estern E urope. A s w ell

T hese a re t he I talian p eninsula a nd s outhern S pain a nd P ortugal . t here i s a c omparatively m inor o ffshoot o f t he e astern E uropean

c opper i ndustry i n c entral E urope. I n F rance, t he L ow C ountries, S candinavia a nd t he B ritish I sles t here a re n o m etal i ndustries u ntil t he B eaker p eriod o f t he L ate N eolithic. T he I berian C halcolithic h as t hree c entres o f c opper-working. T hese a re: t he T agus e stuary g roup; t he A lgarve-Huelva g , roup o n t he G ulf o f C adiz;

a nd t he A lmeria g roup o f t he s outh-east.li

A ll o f t hese

a re s ituated n ear s ources o f c opper o re. T he o verall d ate f or t hese g roups w hich i s c .3100-2900 B C, d erives f rom a r adiocarbon s ample f rom t he A lmeria c ulture l evels a t L os M illares. 1 8 P rior t o t he t rue C halc olithic p eriod t here i s e vidence o f s ome v ery p rimitive m etal w orking. L oma d e l os P eregrinos, a s ite w ith p roto-Almerian a ffinities, h as y ielded a f ew c opper a wls. 1 9 T wo v illage s ites a t T res C abezos a nd E l G arcel, w hich a lso d isplay p roto-Almerian f eatures h ad t races o f c opper s lag.

2°

T he s mallest o f t hese i ndustries i s t he A lgarve-Huelva. I ts p roducts, w hich m ainly s eem t o h ave b een s mall r ibbed d aggers, a re f ound i n t ombs a t A lcalg. 21 T he T agus a nd A lmerian i ndustries p roduced a r ange o f c opper o bjects: k nives a nd d aggers.

a wls,

f ishhooks,

f lat a xes,

s aws,

c hisels,

2 2

I taly h ad a t hriving a lbeit m inor m etal i ndustry.

A s i n I beria

t here i s s ome e vidence o f m etal u se b efore t he t rue C halcolithic p eriod . S ome c opper s lag h as b een f ound o n t he a cropolis o n t he i sland o f L ipari. T his i s a ssociated w ith p ottery o f t he D iana N eolithic c ulture a nd d ates a round 3 700 B C. 23 D iana w are i s f ound i n s ites i n s outhern ut t here i s n o e vidence o f i ts a ssociation w ith m etalworking I taly, 24 b i n t his r egion. 3 500-3300 B C, 25

C ertainly t he d ates f or D iana w are i n s outhern I taly, p redate t he e arliest a ppearance o f c opper w orking o n

t he p eninsula. T here a re s ix r egional g roups i n t he I talian C halcolithic. T hese a re t he R emedello, R inaldone, C onelle-Ortucchio, M acchia a M are, 6 T he o ldest o f t his i s t he R inaldone c entred o n G audo a nd L aterza. 2 t he T uscan c opper d eposits, w hich h ad i ts b eginnings a round 3 0002 700 B C. 27 T he o ther g roups a re s omewhat y ounger a nd t he m ost d eveloped o f t hese i s t he R emedello o f t he P o V alley. M etalwork i n a ll r egions i s q uite s imple -m ainly f lat a xes, d aggers a nd a f ew r ings a nd b racel ets. A s ingle s haft-hole a xe o f t he R inaldone c ulture f rom P omerance i s t he m ost a dvanced o bject.

2 8

T he d evelopment o f m etallurgy i n e astern a nd c entral E urope i s c omplex a nd i ts s ignificance l ies o utside o f t he t opic o f t his 1 97.

t hesis.

Its technology and social implications have been widely discussed29 and I will not reiterate them here. In western and western central Europe the picture is somewhat different with few or no copper objects present until the Beaker period. The Channelled-ware peoples in Czechoslovakia possessed a few small beads, bracelets and other trinkets whilst the later Rivnll culture had some awls and knives,30 (I discussed some aspects of the Tiszapolg�r culture in the previous chapter). In western Germany and in parts of Switzerland the only evidence of metallurgy are rolled copper beads.31 In all these industries there is a fairly even division in the types of artefacts between objects of high practical value such as axes, and objects with only decorative functions such as beads and bracelets. Within the practical group are objects like daggers and arrowheads which might also have martial use. It is unfortunate that unlike the contents of the cemetery of Tiszapolgar-Basatanya we have no quantitive studies which compare the age of the grave occupant with the types of grave goods. We might find that the presence of "prestige" objects is not simply an indication of rank, but also a reflection of the change in occupation experienced by people as they grow older. As I suggested in the previous chapter, a young warrior armed with a dagger might become, as age takes its toll, an elderly farmer whose most useful possession is the axe he uses to chop wood, or clear land. Daggers, however, are really a form of knife and one would expect that normal domestic func­ tions would be their major reason for use. The arrowheads are somewhat more complex in their use. If we assume that the relative scarcity of metal would add to its intrinsic worth, there might have been a marked reluctance to waste them on low value targets, if there was a danger of missing and losing the arrow.3 2 Metal arrowheads might well have been reserved for prestige targets such as other warriors. This tends to be borne out by the continued use of flint arrowheads into the Iron Age,33 and also the use of simple hardened wooden arrows well into the Anglo­ Saxon period.34 Another major object with a purely domestic use is the awl. Principal uses could range from leather working, woodworking, scratching designs on pots, and, as Harrison suggests, they could also be a quickly cast means of testing the strength of a batch of metal.35 The objects which resemble halberds which appear in some Italian regions 36 are probably weapons, if only because it is difficult to allot to them an agricultural function. Despite the range of artefact types, copper objects remain both scarce and crudely made, and we may be mistaken in assuming that these first metal tools bestowed status upon their owners. If, as it seems, our criterion for assessing relative worth is the combination of scarcity and expense of production, the polished stone axes then still in use are far better candidates for this honour. The crudity of the metal arte­ facts reflects not simply experimentation but also quickness of manu­ facture. The real status creating effects may have been largely indirect. Metal axes and knives are more efficient, and stronger, than their stone counterparts. As with the oft quoted case of the Yir Yoront people of Australia and their acquisition of iron axes,37 the greater efficiency of the metal tools may have led to increased leisure, and more time to become involved in political activities which could enhance personal status. The whole issue is one of great complexity, and it is very diffi­ cult to make out a strong case that, in the earliest period, copper

198.

o bjects a nd s ocial s tatus w ere l inked. E ven t he c orrelation o f d agger o wnership w ith w arrior s tatus f alls a part u pon e xamination. I t i s a n e lementary a nd o ften o verlooked f act t hat a w arrior w ith a l ong s pear 8 w hich m ight h ave o nly a f ire-hardened w ooden t ip, c ould e asily f end o ff s omeone a rmed w ith a d agger. Y ou c annot e njoy s ocial s tatus i f y ou g et k illed i n y our f irst c ombat.

A s i n t he p revious c hapter,

o ne i s f orced

t o c onclude t hat t he p ossession o f a xes a nd d aggers m ay b e i ndirectly r elated t o l and o wnership w hich w ould b e t he r eal s ource o f s tatus. A nother p oint t o b e c onsidered i f w e t ry t o e quate c opper u se a nd s tatus i s t he o wnership o f o re s ources. I n c hapter 4 I b riefly m entioned i nstances o f q uarry o wnership b y i ndividuals. L ike t he i nherited r esource o wnership p resent i n h unter-gatherer s ocieties t his i s t he m eans b y w hich v ital r esources a re p rotected f or t he c ommon g ood. Y et, a s w e a re a ware, a ccess t o r esources i s r arely, i f e ver, r efused. I n t he c ase o f q uarry s ites e veryone n eeds a ccess t o o btain t he m aterials f or t ools v ital t o t heir s urvival. W hilst i t i s p robable t hat r ival g roups m ay h ave b een p revented f rom g aining a ccess t o f avoured s tone s ources, i t i s u nlikely t hat t he m embers o f t he g roup, i n w hose t erritory t he q uarry l ay, w ould e ver b e d enied a ccess. T o d o s o w ould g o s quarely a gainst t he t raditions o f r esource m anagement p resent

i n t hese s ocieties.

Y et w e a re p repared t o a ccept

t hat f rom

t he v ery b eginnings o f c opper u se, i ndividuals w ere a ble t o s eize c ontrol o f o re d eposits, a nd a lso t o m arket t he m etal p roducts i n c omplete d isregard o f t he e stablished s ystems o f r esource a ccess. F urther t o t his c ontradiction i s t he p roblem o f t he a lienation o f

t he

i ndividual f rom e qual a ccess t o t he t echnological b asis o f t heir s ociety. I n c hapter 6 I d iscussed t he s imilar p roblem o f r esource r estriction a nd d estruction c reated b y t he a rrival o f t he d omestic e conomy. W hilst i t i s c lear t hat o nce e stablished t he e xploitation o f m etal b y a m inority f or i ts o wn p rofit, w ould b e l argely s afeguarded b y t he n eed f or s pecialised s kills. T hese s kills, l ike t hose o f s hamans, w ould b e t ransmitted t hrough t raining w ithin f amily g roups, a nd n ew h ereditary a rtisan c lasses w ould d evelop. B ut t his d oes n ot e xplain h ow a g reater p art o f t he p opulation a llows i tself t o b e c ut o ff f rom b oth a ccess t o t he m etal o re, a nd t he s kills t o c reate m etal o bjects. A fter a ll t he e arliest m etal o bjects a re m ade f rom n ative c opper i n a p rocess o f h ammering a nd h eating w hich i s n ot i ntrinsically m ore d ifficult t han p rocessing s tone. I n f act i t w ould s eem t hat m any s tone o bjects, s uch a s t he f lint d aggers w hich a pe m etal d aggers, 39 w ere p robably m ore d ifficult a nd t ime c onsuming t o m ake. A p olished s tone axe w ould d emand m ore l abour t han i ts e arliest m etal c ounterpart. T he d eveloping c omplexity o f t he m etal p rocessing m ight b e c ompensated f or, a nd i n f act a meliorated b y, t he r elative e ase i n w hich m etal o bjects c ould b e p roduced. B ut t his i ncreasing t echnological c omplexity m ight a lso w ork t o n egate e galitarian a ccess t o c ommunity r esources. I t i s p robable t hat w hile c opper r emained t he o nly m etal t here w as l ittle r estriction t o a ccess, b ut w hen b ronze w as d eveloped t he n ature o f t he m etal i ndustry w ould c hange r adically. A ccess

t o c opper s ources w as m ost l ikely c ontrolled a long t he

s ame l ines a s w as a ccess t o a gricultural l and ( chapter 6 ). U nder t his s ystem t he m etal r esources w ould b e o pen t o a ll t hose w ho c ould u tilise t hem . I t i s p ossible t hat s ome m oderate s tatus m ight d evelop, b ut t he g enerally p oor l evel o f w orkmanship s uggests t hat t here w as l ittle r eal 1 99.

e ffort t o e xploit m etallurgical s kills t o a cquire s tatus.

T he r eal

d evelopment o f s tatus a ssociated w ith m etal-working a nd t he m etal o ccurs w ith t he i nvention o f t in-bronze t echnology.

t rade

T his i s b ecause,

u nlike c opper, t in i s f ound i n v ery f ew r egions o f E urope -southwestern B ritain, n orthern S pain, B rittany, s outhern G ermany, T uscany, a nd S ardinia. " T he n eed t o t ransport t in o r b ronze i ngots o ver l ong d istances t o s atisfy t he d emand f or b ronze w ould r equire t he c o-operat ion o f r egional c hieftains. A lliances a nd t reaties w ould n eed t o b e m ade a nd t hese c ould b e f acilitated b y bribery o r p ayments.

P ayments

s uch a s t hese, m ade i n k ind, w ould a ct t o i nflate b ronze v alue w hich w ould a lready b e h igh r elative t o c opper b ecause o f t he s hortage o f t in . U nder t hose c onditions b ronze o bjects w ould b ecome s ymbolic o f p olitical p ower, w hilst t he o lder c opper o bjects w ould c ease t o b e r eadily a vaila ble a s t he c opper w ould c ome i ncreasingly u nder t he s way o f l ocal c hiefs s eeking t o e xtend t heir c ontrol o f t he m etal t rade. T his g eneral s cheme f its w ell w ith t he o bservable d evelopment o f o vert d isplays o f g rave w ealth w hich f irst o ccurs i n t he E arly B ronze A ge, a nd a voids t he s udden c hange i n a ttitudes t o p ersonal s tatus w hich t he c onventional m odels d emand. 41 T here i s l ittle r oom i n t his s chema f or t raders a nd s miths t o a cquire e xcessive s tatus, a nd r eal p ower w ould l ie w ith t he h ereditary l eaders a nd w ould b e b ased o n m uch o lder t raditions o f l and a nd r esource p rotection. T he t raders a nd s miths w ould h ave t o o perate w ithin t he p rotection o ffered b y t ribal c hiefs. E ssentially t his s cheme a grees w ith R enfrew 's c autious v iew o f b oth t he s tatus o f t raders, a nd t he u ncritical u se o f m ore m odern a nalogies. 42 I n a ddition i t t ends t o s upport H eskel's a rgument t hat t he a doption o f t echnological i nnovat ions b y c onservative s ocieties i s g reatly f acilitated w hen s ocial l eaders p erceive a dvantages t o t hemselves i n t he n ew t echnology. 43 T he r ole o f t he s mith i n c ontemporary s ocieties w as i nvestigated b y R owlands. 44 S everal p oints w ere m ade i n t his e xcellent p aper w hich a re o f i mportance t o o ur i nquiry. E thnographic e vidence s hows t hat i n m any s ocieties t he s mith i s n ot r esponsible f or t he p rocurement o f m etal b ut i nstead w orks o n t he s tock p rovided b y h is c ustomers. T his, a s R owlands s uggested, e nables u s t o g et a way f rom v iews o f t rader/ m etallurgists a nd s pecialized t rade r outes a nd s ee t he m etal t rade a s p art o f t he e xchange o f o ther c ommodities. 45 T his i s i mportant b ecause i t s uggests, a s Ih ave d one s o a bove, t hat s miths m ight n ot h ave p oss essed a ny e xtraordinary s tatus e xcept a s s pecialist c raftsmen, a s w ould a lso p otters a nd o ther a rtisans. A nother p oint r aised c oncerns t he i dea t hat s ocial s tratification a rises f rom p roduction o f s urpluses w hich a llow s ome g roups o r i ndividuals

t o b e t hus s upported w ithout

t heir c ontribution t o t he b asic e conomy.

I n p articular

t his a rgument

h as o ften b een u sed t o e xplain t he d evelopment o f c raft s pecialists a nd t heir a cquisition o f p ersonal s tatus. R owlands n oted, t hat i n m any s ocieties, s miths a re r equired t o b e p art o f t he g eneral e conomy, s imply b ecause t here i s n ot e nough w ork t o j ustify t heir s upport by t he c ommunity. 46 T his i s r elevant t o o ur q uestion b ecause, a s I h ave n oted a bove,

t here w as n ot a g reat d eal o f m etal

i n c irculation i n t he

L ate N eolithic, a nd t herefore c ommunity s upport o f s miths, a nd t he a ccompanying s ocial s tatus e ither o f t hem o r t heir p atrons m ight n ot h ave b een a s c ommon a s w e a ssume. A f inal m atter i s t he a ctual s tatus o f s miths i n t heir c ommunity. R owlands c ited e nough examples t o d emonstrate c learly t hat t here i s s uch a m ix o f a ttitudes t o s miths, t hat w e o ught n ot m ake a ssumptions a bout t he s ocial s tatus o f t heir 2 00.

p rehistoric c olleagues.

4 7

S ufficient e vidence e xists, a s Ih ave d iscussed, t o c reate a n eed f or c aution i n o ur d iscussion o f t he s ocial e ffects t hat t he e arly u se o f c opper m ay h ave p roduced.

W hilst t he l ater d evelopment

o f bronze c an b e u sed a s a c lear d emonstration o f t he g rowth o f w ealth, s tatus a nd e xtensive n etworks o f t rade a nd a lliance, b ecause i t c omb ines t wo m etals w hose s ources a re g eographically s eparated w ith a n eed f or t echnical s kill, c opper c annot. I n f act t he e vidence s eems t o i ndicate t hat t he m anufacture o f c opper o bjects w as c arried o n i n t he s ame s ocial a nd i ntellectual t radition a s s tone o bjects. H ereditary s tatus i n t hese c ommunities w ould g row, a s Ih ave d emonstrated, t he r eal s ource o f w ealth a nd p ower -the l and. 9 .3

C ult,

f rom

C ulture o r F ashion P ackage?

T he B eaker p henomenon i s o ne o f t he m ost d iscussed f eatures o f t he p rehistory o f E urope. F or m any y ears c onsidered t o b e a n i ndepend ent c ulture i t i s n ow c onsidered t o b e n othing m ore t han a f ashionable a rtefact p ackage t hat b estowed s tatus o n i ts o wners. T he t ype o f n umbers o f a rtefacts i n t he " package" v ary f rom r egion t o r egion b ut e ssentially t hey c onsist o f a d rinking c up ( the b eaker), b uttons o f s tone, b one o r j et w ith a c haracteristic v -perforation, a s tone w rist b racer, f lint a rrowheads a nd o ccasionally a f lint o r c opper d agger. B ut t here i s n eed f or c onsiderable c aution i n o ur a cceptance o f a u nity t o t his p ackage. A s Ih ave d iscussed e lsewhere, 48 m any o f t he o bjects a pparently h ave w idely s eparated p oints o f o rigin i n E urope, a nd s ome o bjects a re n oticeably a bsent o r i n v ery s mall numbers i n s ome r egions o f Europe. O ne i mportant e xample i s t he v -bored b uttons w hich, w hilst c ommon i n F rance a nd S pain, a re e xtremely r are i n B ritain. 49 T he s uggestion t hat t he p ackage w as a c ollection o f f ashionable a rtefacts i f f airly r ecent. S hennan h as a rgued t hat t he s pread o f B eaker w are w as a ccomplished t hrough a s eries o f s hort d istance r ecipr ocal e xchanges. T heir c umulative e ffect w as t o p roduce, o ver s everal c enturies, t he c urrently r ecognised d istribution p atterns. 50 H arrison h as a lso a rgued f or a s imilar v iew a lthough h is, a s w e w ill s ee, t ends T his f unctional t o b e m ore r eliant o n f ashion a mongst a n e lite c lass. 51 m odel i s n ow t he m ost g enerally a ccepted a nd h as r eplaced a s eries o f c ultural m odels w hich h ad p roposed t hat t he B eaker p eople w ere a m igrat ory g roup o f m etalworkers, w arriors o r p astoralists w ith o rigins i n m any d ifferent p arts o f E urope. T hese w ere I beria, 52 s outhern G ermany P s outhern F rance, 54

a nd e astern E urope.

5 5

I n a ddition t here a re s ome

t heories w hich s uggest m ultiple o rigins -p rincipally H arrison 56 a nd O bviously i t i s o f s ome i mportance t o o ur i nquiry t o e xamine M cKay. 57 b riefly

t he c onflict b etween t he f unctional a nd c ultural m odels. H arrison's b asic a rgument i s t hat t he B eaker p ottery a nd p ackage

o riginates i n t he L ow C ountries a nd w estern G ermany, a s a d evelopment o f t raits p resent i n t he C orded W are a nd B attle A xe c ultural c omplex o f t he L ate N eolithic. H e b ases t his u pon t he v ery e arly d ates f or B eaker p ottery i n t his r egion. 58 I t i s n ow g enerally a ccepted t hat t he A OC a nd A 00 b eakers o f t his r egion,

c learly p redate t he l ater b and d ecorated

f t he M aritime f orm w hich a re c ommon t o t he A tlantic c ommunib eake;.A o t ies. ' I n t he p ast t his d ifference i n d ates h as b een u sed t o s upport t he n otion o f d ual o rigins. 60 H arrison, h owever, n ow u ses i t t o a rgue f or a s ingle o rigin with t he M aritime a nd o ther f orms a s l ater t ypes 2 01.

r epresenting t he m erging o f l ocal c ultural f eatures w ith t he i mported b eaker f orm . I d o n ot h ave t he s pace, o r w arrant, t o d iscuss t his p roblem h ere -as I h ave n oted I h ave d one t his e lsewhere. Iw ould, h owever, l ike t o p oint o ut t he m ajor d ifficulty w ith H arrison's c hronol ogical s cheme. I n a rguing t hat t he D utch d ates d emonstrate c lear e vidence o f t he p rimacy o f b eakers f rom t his r egion o ver a ll t ypes o f b eakers, i ncluding t he S panish M aritime t ype, w hich h as c onsiderable r ight t o b e c onsidered a n o riginal f orm , 6Ih e h as i gnored a m ajor p roblem .

C hapman n oted,

s ome y ears a go,

t hat t he v ery f ew r adiocarbon

d ates f rom S panish B eaker s ites p reclude a ny f irm j udgement a s t o w hich 2 I n o ther a rea, t he L ow C ountries o r S pain, w as t he p lace o f o rigin. 6 w ords, a ll t he D utch d ates c annot g uarantee t hat H olland w as t he o nly p lace o f o rigin o f t he B eaker p henomenon. T he v ery c lear e vidence o f s hapes w hich d oes s how t hat e arly D utch a nd S panish b eakers a re v ery d ifferent i n f orm -the f ormer t ending t o b e n arrow a nd t all w ith f lat b ases, w hilst t he l atter t end t o h ave a s quatter s hape with r ounded o r c oncave b ases 63 -is a v ery p owerful a rgument a gainst t he s ingle o rigin m odel. T he m ajor p oint f or d iscussion, h owever, i s t he i dea t hat t he B eaker p ackage w as a s tatus s ymbol f or L ate N eolithic p eople r ather t han t he a rtefacts o f a s eparate c ulture. T o c reate t he e conomic c ond itions f or t he a ttractiveness o f t his f ashion p ackage Harrison a rgues, a s d oes G ilman, 64 t hat t he L ater N eolithic s aw a s udden u psurge o f w ealthy p easant f armers. T hese e lite f armers s ought t o e xtend t heir p ower o ver l ess s uccessful n eighbours b y g aining c ontrol o f t rade i n v arious l uxury g oods -the f ine B eaker p ottery b eing o ne o f t hese l uxuries. G reed f or t he n ew l uxury o bjects c reated a s ituation where t hese o bjects w ere r apidly d isseminated t hroughout w estern a nd c entral E urope o ver a s pace o f p erhaps t wo c enturies. 05 I f ind t his i dea o f r apid d issemination d ifficult t o a ccept. H arrison a sserts " With t he n ew i deas a nd f resh i nformation t hat a rchaeologists h ave a ssembled... i t i s n ow p ossible t o t hink a nd t alk a bout t he C opper A ge i n W estern E urope w ith a v ocabulary t hat d oes n ot r ely u pon r apid m ovements o f p eople t o ' explain' m ajor c hanges i n t he p ast." 66 Y et H arrison u ses t he c ompressed u ncalibrated c hronology, a nd a rgues t hat t he B eaker d issemination w as r apid,

" It was t he g reater d egree o f

n ot m ovements o f m erchants o r n omads, t rinkets d esirable s ymbols o f w ealth,

s ocial r anking,

t hat m ade B ell B eaker p ottery a nd a nd w hich l ed t o t heir a doption

T here a ll o ver E urope a t a bout t he s ame t ime, a round 2 100-2000 b c." 67 i s n o d ifference b etween t he t enor o f t his s tatement a nd P iggott's emarkable u niformity w ithin t he.. . Bell B eaker g roups a rgues ..the r f or a r apid d issemination o f t he s tyle, "68 o r C larke's " explosive". 6 9 B ut i f w e r ecalibrate t he r adiocarbon d ates w e f ind t hat t he p rocess s eems t o h ave b een r ather l eisurely. T he o ldest d ates i n S pain a re f rom a l ayer i mmediately b eneath t he B eaker s trata a t C ueva d e l a M ora i n A ndalusia. T hese g ive u s a t erminus a nte q uem o f a round 3 300 B C. 7° A t Z ambujal w e have a B eaker nd a t A lmizaraque a d ate o f 2 200 ± d ate o f 2 100 ± 4 0 b c ( 2550 B C) 2 1 a S o w e c an s tate t hat t he B eaker p eriod 1 20 b c ( 2700 B C) w as o btained ./ 2 i n S pain b egins b etween 3 300 B C a nd 2 700 B C . I n H olland e arly d ates a re 4 100 ± 6 0 B P

( 2590 B C)

f rom A ngelslo,

7 3

a nd 4 165 ± 5 5 B P ( 2560 B C)

W e c an t herefore s uggest t hat t he b eginning o f t he B eaker f rom E de. 74 p eriod i n H olland i s a round 2 700-2600 B C. O ne m ust a dmit t hat i f H arrison's D utch o rigins m odel i s c orrect t hen t he m ovement o f Beaker o bjects a cross E urope t o S pain w as i ndeed r apid, 2 02.

i f n ot

s upersonic.

B ut t he r eal t est l ies i n t he d ates f or t he r egions i n b etween.

I n t he

s outh o f F rance t here a re s ome d ates a ssociated w ith B eaker w are o f d istinct S panish t ype. A g roup o f t hree f rom H abitat d e l a C ouronne l ie a round 2 600 B C ./ 5 A nother g roup f rom L a B alance, A vignon a nd G rotte 6 M urge f all b etween 2 600 a nd 2 300 B C . 7 J uvenal i n t he A ude l ie a round 2 700 B C.

B rittany b ut s ome d ates B C . 7 8

T wo d ates f rom A bri-de-Font W e h ave n o d ates f rom

7 7

f rom G uernsey a re i n t he r ange 2 450 t o 2 200

T he e arliest d ates i n t he B ritish I sles p resent a p roblem . T hey a re 3 110-3010 B C w hich w as o btained f rom b one f ound a t S kateraw i n E ast L othian, a nd 3 170 B C a nd 3 110-3010 B C f or A OC s herds f ound i n q uarry d itches a t G iants H ill i n L incolnshire. 7 9 T hese d ates a re e xtremely s uspect o n t wo c ounts. F irstly t hey a re f ar e arlier t han t he g eneral r ange o f D utch e arly B eaker d ates. S econdly t hey a re o n a verage s ome 5 00 t o 6 00 y ears e arlier t han t he g eneral b atch o f B eaker d ates i n B ritain. B allynagilly i n C o. T yrone h as a s eries o f d ates r anging f rom 2 500 B C t o 1 800 B C, 8 ° a nd D urrington W alls i n W iltshire h as a s eries o f d ates

r anging f rom 2 400 B C t o

1 900 B C.

8 1

A ll o ther B ritish B eaker d ates

a re l ater t han 2 400 B C . 82 I t i s d ifficult t herefore t o a ccept t he G iants H ill a nd S kateraw e vidence, a nd o ne i s f orced t o c onclude t hat t he B eaker a rrival i n t he B ritish I sles i s p erhaps n o e arlier t han 2 500 B C . I t i s c lear t hat i f H arrison's D utch o rigins m odel i s c orrect, w e s hould s ee a d ate s eries b eginning i n H olland a nd b ecoming p rogress ively m ore r ecent t he f urther w e j ourney f rom H olland. I nstead w e h ave t he o ldest d ates i n H olland a nd S pain a nd i n t he i nterlying r egions w e have y ounger d ates. T his t ends t o s upport a d ual o rigins m odel f or w hich f urther s upport i s 0 .ven b y t he e arly S panish s tyle o f b eakers F urthermore t here i s l ittle s upport f or f ound i n s outhern F rance.ö 3 H arrison's s uggestion t hat t he B eaker e xpansion r epresents t he r apid a doption o f a s tatus p ackage. U sing c alibrated d ates w e s ee t hat i t t akes a round 3 00 y ears f or t his p ackage t o e nter B ritain f rom H olland, a nd p erhaps l onger f or i t t o r each B rittany. I d o n ot f eel t hat 3 00 t o 4 00 y ears i s a n e xcessively f ast t ime f or t he m ovement o f e ither a s tatus p ackage, o r a g roup o f p eople, f rom H olland t o B ritain a nd F rance. I t t ook R ome, i n s imilar d emographic a nd g eographic c onditions , o nly 2 00 y ears t o c onquer a nd c olonise t he s ame r egion, a s w ell a s t he e ntire M editerranean a rea. O ur n ext t ask i s t o q uestion t he v alidity o f t he B eaker p ackage a s a s tatus s ymbol. H arrison w rites " In t he c ase o f t he B ell B eaker p henomenon w e h ave s omething w hich d id n ot b egin a s a c ulture a t a ll b ut a s a f ashion i n f ine p ottery, l ater g iven m ore e mphasis a s o ther s tatus o bjects w ere a dded t o i t f rom q uite d ifferent r egions o f E urope. E urope." 8 4 T he b asic p roblem w ith t his s tatement i s t hat m ost B eaker p ottery c annot b e d escribed a s " fine", i n f act a g reat d eal o f i t i s e xtremely c rude. H arrison h as, t hroughout t his s tudy, u sed p hotographs a nd d rawings o f t he b est e xamples f rom a ll o ver E urope. Y et a c omplete r egional s tudy, s uch a s C larke's a nalysis o f t he B ritish B eaker w are, 85 w hich g reat

i llustrates a ll t he t hen k nown e xamples, d emonstrates j ust h ow t he g ulf i s b etween t he f ew g ood e xamples a nd t he m ajority o f p ots

w hich a re o f l ess t han f ine q uality. A re w e d oing t o b eakers t hat w hich w e h ave d one t o s tone t ools? i .e. s electing t he m inority o f f ine e xamples a nd u sing t hese a s t he s tylistic n orm . 86 A lso w hat o f t he B eaker p ottery w hich i s o rdinary d omestic w are s uch a s b owls, d ishes a nd j ugs 2 03 .

m uch o f w hich i s u ndecorated. 87 P erhaps, a s H arrison s uggests, i t i s l ikely t hat m uch o f t he n orthern B eaker w are o wes i ts o rigins t o o lder c ultural t raditions, 88 b ut t o l ump a ll o f t his v ariety o f s hapes t ogether a s a f ashionable p rehistoric e quivalent o f am odern e xpensive d inner s ervice, a s h is t heory d emands, s eems t o s tretch t he e vidence t oo f ar.

Ia m r eminded o f

t hose t heories w hich s aw t he B ritish B eaker

p eople a s a r ace o f i nvading w arriors w ho a chieved w ealth a nd s tatus t hrough t heir d ominance o ver t he l ocal p easant f armers. 89 O ut o f s ome 2 000 b eakers i n B ritain o nly f our a re a ssociated w ith ' rich' b urials, t hose a t C allychally, D orchester, B arnack a nd D riffield. O ne c ould s carcely c all t his e vidence o f a s ociety o f f eudal o verlords . 90 A rchaeology h as m ade a g iant s tep i n i ts m ove a way f rom t he n otion o f c ultures f ormed f rom a t oo s elective a ppraisal o f a rtefacts. Y et w e a re, I b elieve, i n d anger o f m oving t o t he e qually f alse p osit ion o f c reating a p ast i n w hich t here a re n o c ultural e ntities. I n t he p resent o ur w orld h as m any s eparate a nd d istinct r egional p opulat ions, a nd w e m ust a ccept t hat c onditions w ere s imilar i n t he p ast. I d o n ot t hink w e c an a ccept t hat t he v ariety o f B eaker p ottery f orms r epresents n othing m ore t han a f ashionable a ssemblage. T he m any f orms, a nd t he d ifferences i n s tyles b etween t he n orthern a nd s outhern r egions a rgue f or b oth d ual o rigins, a nd t he e xistence o f s eparate c ultural g roups. W e h ave i n t he B eaker p ottery a ll t he f unctional f orms t hat a t rue d omestic u sage d emands. W e h ave a w ide r ange o f d ecoration b oth i n s tyle a nd s tandard w hich r eflects v aried c apabilities i n p ottery p roduction. W e h ave a v ery c lear e volution i n s tyle f rom t he e arly p eriod t o w hen t he B eaker w are i s s ubmerged b y t he B ronze A ge p ottery. T here i s a lso a w ide r ange o f o ther a rtefacts, a rrowheads, f lint k nives , b uttons, w rist b racers a nd d ecorative o bjects w hich, w hilst n ot c ompl etely d istinct f rom t he a rtefacts o f o ther N eolithic p eoples, s till o ccur i n e nough a ssociations w ith t he p ottery t o s uggest a c ultural f unction. T he p roblem w ith t he f ashion p ackage m odel i s t hat w e a re e xpected t o p lace t oo m uch i nto t his c onvenient h old-all. I f t here w ere o nly o ne o r t wo f airly s tandard o bjects w ith a w ide c irculation i t w ould s eem q uite l ikely t hat t hey h ad a c ult v alue o f s ome s ignificance. T o i nclude a v ast r ange o f b eakers w ith i mmense v arieties o f s tyle a nd q uality; a c ollection o f d ishes, b owls, j ugs a nd c ups o f e qually d iverse a ppearance; m any d ifferent f lint o bjects; k nives a nd j ewellery; a nd s ome m etal o bjects s eems, t o m e, t o b e u nreasonable a nd a n a voidance o f a r eal i nvestigation o f t he p roblem . T herefore, a lthough s ome o bjects m ay h ave b een o f s ufficient q uality t o b estow s tatus o n t heir o wners, e .g. t he g old w rist b racer f rom A gua B ranca 91 o r s ome o f t he c opper d aggers, I f ind i t q uite i mpossible t o a gree t hat a ll t he a rgefact p acka ge r epresents i s a f ashionable s election f or t he f ashionably s elect. I t hink w e s hould c oncentrate u pon t he c ultural d eterminants o f t he B eaker p henomenon, a nd p erhaps t hen w e will d evelop a m ore c onvincing e xplanation t han a r ather v ague r eliance o n s tatus s eeking e lite c lasses. E specially w hen t here i s n o r eason o ffered , e xcept f or s ketchy i deas o f c ommodity m onopolies, 92 a s t o w hy t hese e lite c lasses w ere a ble t o d evelop s o r apidly i n t he L ate N eolithic a gainst t he e galitarian t radit ion w hich i s s upposed t o b e s o f irmly i n p lace. 9 .4

C onclusion

I t h as b een m y i ntention i n t his w ork t o e xamine t he m anner b y w hich s ocial s tructures, s uch a s l eadership, r esource m anagement a nd h ereditary r anking,

d evelop f rom t he e conomic e nvironment i n w hich 2 04.

p eople l ive. Ih ave d emonstrated t hat t hese s ocial f eatures, i n p articular h ereditary r anking, b egin m uch f urther b ack i n h uman h istory t han o ur c urrent t heory s uggests. T he c rucial e lement i n t he a ntiquity o f r anking i s t hat i t a rises f rom t he n eed t o e xploit t he e nvironment f or t he c ommon g ood o f a ll r ather t han t he b enefit o f t he f ew. T here a re, h owever, c hanges c reated b y a ltering e conomic p ractices w hich g radually c ause t he p urpose o f r anking t o b ecome n arrowed a nd u ltimately o ppressive. T his f inal s tate, w hich p robably b egins i n t he E arly B ronze A ge , l ies o utside t he r ange o f t his i nquiry b ut i ts m anifestations a re w idely d iscussed e lsewhere,

a s Ih ave n oted,

a nd t his b ody o f d iscussion

r epresents t he c urrent u nderstanding o f t he p roblem . I s uspect t hat m y u se o f e thnographic e vidence t o c reate m y t heoretical f ramework c an b e c onsidered r isky, a nd w ill p rovoke d isa greement. Ia m f ully aware o f t he r isks, b ut t he s earch f or t he o rigins o f h ereditary r anking i s d ifficult b ecause t hese s orts o f s ocial f eatures d o n ot p reserve v ery w ell i n t he a rchaeological c ontext. B ecause o f t his I f eel I a m j ustified i n u sing a ll a vailable m eans t o s eek a n a nswer t o t he p roblem . Ih ope I h ave m anaged t o b e e ven-handed i n i ts u se, a nd t hat I have n ot g lossed o ver t he u ncertainty t hat i s p resent i n s eeking p arallels b etween p ast a nd p resent. 93 I t i s m y h ope a lso t hat m y n arrowing o f t he i nquiry's u ltimate f ocus t o n orth w estern E urope, w ill b e u nderstood a s a m eans t o t est t he argument i n o ne s pecific a rea. T here i s n o i ntention, o n m y p art, t o i gnore o ther e xamples o f r anking i n t he M iddle E ast a nd e lsewhere, a nd I h ope t hat t he s cheme I h ave p roduced w ill h ave a pplication i n o ther p arts o f t he w orld. L astly I h ope t hat I h ave m ade i t c lear t hat w e m ust a ttempt t o u ndertake o ur r esearch i nto p rehistoric p olitical a nd s ocial s tructures f ree f rom b iases c reated b y o ur m odern p olitical c onditions. W e c annot d eny o ur m odern c ondition,

b ut i t

i s a rrogant

t o a ssume t hat t he t umul-

t uous e vents o f t he p ast t wo c enturies, a nd t he a ttitudes t hey h ave c reated, r epresent a ll t he p olitical a lternatives t hat a re a vailable. W hatever i nequalities h ave d eveloped, a nd w hatever t he d istance w e h ave m oved f rom t he i deal o f e galitarianism , i t i s c lear t hat i t i s a p oorly d efined c ondition w hich s eems t o b e a bsent f rom e ven t he m ost s imple o f s ocieties. T his a s Ih ave d emonstrated i s n ot a r esult o f a n atural h uman c haracteristic, b ut i nstead i s a d irect r esult o f o ur n eed t o m ake

t he o ptimum u se o f o ur e nvironment f or o ur c ontinued s urvival.

2 05.

R EFERENCES 1 .

e .g.

C oles a nd H arding,

2 .

S ahlins,

3 .

G ilman,

4 .

A . S herratt, 1 976, ' Resources, e arly E uropean m etallurgy', i n e ds., p p. 5 57-581.

5 .

S .J. S hennan, 1 982, ' The e mergence o f h ierarchical i n R enfrew a nd S hennan, e ds., p . 1 0.

6 .

G ilman,

7 .

R .

8 .

G ilman,

9 .

R .M .

1 0.

R .

1 974, 1 981,

p . p .

1 979,

p .

5 35.

1 40. 2 . t echnology a nd t rade: a n e ssay i n S ieveking, L ongworth a nd W ilson,

s tructure',

1 981.

H icks,

1 981,

1 981,

' Comment',

p .

C urrent A nthropology 2 2, p .

1 2.

5 ff.

A dams,

1 966,

T he Evolution of U rban S ociety,

A ldine,

C hicago .

C hapman,

1 978,

' The e vidence f or p rehistoric w ater c ontrol i n

s outh-east S pain', J ournal of A rid E nvironments 1 , p p . 2 61-274; i dem , 1 982, ' Autonomy, r anking a nd r esources i n I berian p rehist ory;

i n R enfrew a nd S hennan,

e ds., p p.

1 1.

W hittle,

1 2.

his p osition i s, A r ecent s tatement o f t

1 985,

p .

4 6-51.

2 90ff. S .J.

S he r man,

1 986,

' Central E urope i n t he t hird m illennium B .C .: A n evolutionary t rajectory f or t he b eginning o f t he E uropean B ronze A ge ', J ournal of A nthropological Archaeology 5 , 1 986,

1 36ff.

1 3.

S hennan,

1 4.

i bid .,

1 5.

G ilman,

1 6.

T he v arious c opper o res a nd t heir p rocessing r equirements a re s ummarised i n J .D. M uhly, 1 976, C opper a nd T in, A rchon B ooks, H amden, p . 1 71ff.

1 7.

H .N.

p .

p .

p .

1 29.

1 41.

1 981,

S avory,

p .

5 .

1 968,

S pain a nd P ortugal,

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F ig. 4 4; R .J. H arrison, 1 974a, ' A r econsideration o f t he I berian b ackground t o B eaker m etallurgy', P alaeohistoria 1 6, p . 6 8. 1 8.

P iggott,

1 965,

1 9.

S avory,

2 0.

D .H. T rump, 1 981, H armondsworth, p .

2 1.

S avory,

1 968,

1 968,

p . p .

p .

7 6. 19. 1 T he P rehistory o f t he M editerranean, P enguin, 9. 9 1 46;

H arrison, 2 06.

1 974a,

p .

6 8.

2. 2

H arrison,

2 3.

C . R enfrew a nd R . W hitehouse, 1 974, ' The c opper a ge o f p eninsula I taly a nd t he A egean', B SA 6 9, p . 3 76.

2 4.

R . W hitehouse, 1 969, ' The N eolithic p ottery s equence i n s outhern I taly', P PS 3 5, p . 2 93.

2 5.

W hitehouse,

2 6.

R enfrew a nd W hitehouse,

2 7.

i bid .,

p .

3 57.

2 8.

i bid.,

p .

3 49.

2 9.

e .g.

C .

1 974a,

p .

1 969,

R enfrew,

p .

7 0.

2 93;

1 969a,

R enfrew a nd W hitehouse,

1 974,

p. p

1 974,

p .

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3 0.

p p.

p .

1 38ff.

E .

a nd J .

1 53-166;

N eustupny,

T ringham ,

B . O ttoway, PS 3 9, p p. P

c hpt.

4 ; W hittle,

1 985,

1 961, C zechoslovakia B efore t he S lays,

T hames a nd H udson, L ondon, 3 1.

1 971,

p .

6 4ff.

1 973, ' Earliest c opper o rnaments i n n orthern E urope', 2 94-331; B . O ttoway a nd C . S trahm , 1 975, ' Swiss

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3 2.

M ercer m akes t his p oint i n r egard t o t he b ronze a rrowheads o f t he B ronze A ge. R .J. M ercer, 1 970, ' Metal a rrow-heads i n t he E uropean B ronze a nd E arly I ron A ges', P PS 3 6, p . 1 83.

3. 3

J .G.D. C lark, 1 963, ' Neolithic b ows f rom S omerset, E ngland, t he p rehistory o f a rchery i n n orth-western E urope', P PS 2 9, p. p

5 0-98.

3 4.

D .

3 5.

H arrison,

3 6.

R enfrew a nd W hitehouse,

3 7.

L .

a nd

W ilson,

S harp,

1 971, 1 974a,

1 970,

T he A nglo-Saxons, p .

P enguin,

H armondsworth,

8 2. 1 974,

F igs.

2 ,

3 .

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p .129.

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p p.

i n

3 85-396.

3 8.

O r e ven a r ake o r h oe.

3 9.

e .g . C .J. B ecker, 1 951, ' Late N eolithic f lint m ines a t A alborg', A cta Archaeologia 2 2, F ig . 1 4; V .G . C hilde, 1 947, T he D awn o f E uropean C ivilization,

4 0.

M uhly,

4 1.

G ilman,

1 976, p p. 1 981,

p .

K egan P aul,

2 51-256. 2 .

2 07.

L ondon,

F igs.

9 6,

16. 1

4 2.

C . R enfrew, 1 969b, ' Trade a nd c ulture p rocess i n E uropean p reh istory', C urrent A nthropology 1 0, p . 1 52.

4 3.

D .L. H eskel, 1 983, ' A m odel f or t he a doption o f m etallurgy i n t he a ncient M iddle E ast', C urrent A nthropology 2 4, p . 3 63.

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M .J. R owlands, 1 971, ' The a rchaeological i nterpretation o f p reh istoric m etalworking', W A 3 , p p. 2 10-224.

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6 .

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R .J.

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A . C astillo Y urrita, 1 926, L a c ultura d el o rigen y e xtension e n Europa, B arcelona.

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E .

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M cKay,

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G ilman,

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6 6.

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1 64.

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i bid .,

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6 9.

D .L.

7 0.

C hapman,

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R .J. H arrison, 1 977, ' Beaker c ultures o f I beria, F rance a nd t he ', i w estern M editerranean i slands, 2 200-1500 B C' n M ercer, e d., p . 7 .

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O . d a V eiga F erreira, 1 975, ' The m egalithic t omb o f P edra Branca, P ortugal', P PS 4 1, p . 1 70.

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J .N. L anting , W .G . N ook a nd J .D. v an d er W aals, 1 973, ' C14 c hronology a nd t he B eaker p roblem ', H elinium 1 3, p . 5 1.

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i bid .,

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J . C ourtin, 1 967, ' Datations d e l a c ulture d u v ase c ampaniforme e n P rovence', B ull. S oc. P rghist. F raniaise, C .R .S.M . 6 4, p .

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H arrison,

F igs.

2 1,

8 4.

1 981. 1 65.

1 970,

1 976,

p .

p .

1 64-165.

C larke,

p .

p .

5 0.

1 33.

5 2. 1 970,

p .

2 77.

x cix .

C hapman, I .

1 980,

1 976,

K innes,

p .

1 982,

A ntiquity 5 6, p . 7 9.

A .M . 1 07,

G ibson, O xford,

8 0.

i bid .,

p .

3 03 .

8 1.

i bid .,

p .

3 04.

8 2.

i bid.,

p p.

8 3.

R .

R iquet,

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H arrison,

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D .L.

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T his d isparity i s e xplained a way a s a r esult o f c opying b y i nferior p otters, s ee S he rman, 1 977, p . 5 6.

8 7.

H arrison,

8 8 .

i bid ., p p.

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B url,

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M cKay,

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9 2.

e .g .

9 3 .

F or d iscussion o f t his p roblem s ee K .C . C hang, 1 967, ' Ma jor a spects o f t he i nterrelationships o f a rchaeology a nd e thnology', C urrent A nthropology 8 , p p. 2 27-243; J .E. Y ellen, 1 977, A rchaeol ogical A pproaches t o t he P resent: M odels f or R econstructing t he P ast, A cademic P ress, L ondon .

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F igs.

3 0,

3 9-41,

4 5,

5 0,

8 4,

9 2,

9 5,

1 02-104.

4 5-46.

1 979,

p p .

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p p.

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1 980, F ig .

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