The online English grammar 9780955186608, 0955186609
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ABOUT THIS VERSION PDF Version 1. 1 This f ull PDF version of t he Online English Grammar has a number of advant ages over t he version t hat you can f ind online f or public viewing: ● ● ●
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It covers more grammar t opics t han t he online version You can view it on your deskt op as an easy ref erence guide It is easy t o print out pages f rom t his version using any st andard print er You can access regular updat es t o t he Online English Grammar now t hat you have purchased t his copy. All t hat is required is t hat you supply your username and password t o begin t he download. You will receive regular emails when new updat es are available. The updat e subscript ion is valid f or one year f rom t he dat e you purchased t he it em f rom us.
WHAT ELSE IS PLANNED? Af t er t he out st anding response t o our release of t he Online English Grammar as a deskt op edit ion, we are developing a range of new English language guides and worksheet s t o help bot h st udent s and t eachers wit h t heir English language requirement s. These guides and worksheet s will all be available as downloads f rom our websit e at ht t p: / / www. English4Today. com and you will be not if ied of t heir release as we publish t hem. At t he moment we have t he f ollowing under development : ● ● ● ● ●
English grammar worksheet s f or t eachers and st udent s A Writ er's Guide t o Using English Writ ing Let t ers A Guide t o English Pronunciat ion Grammar Games Pack
We are also in t he process of working on Version 2. 0 of t he PDF Version of t he Online English Grammar - adding even more sect ions, sound f iles and exercises. The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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MAIN SUBJECT INDEX
1. act ive/ passive equivalent s Keywor ds: act ive, passive equivalent
2. as + adj ect ive + as Keywor ds: as, adj ect ive
3. as present part iciple Keywor ds: present part iciple , wit h verbs of movement wit h verbs of percept ion, as adj ect ive wit h spend, wit h wast e, wit h cat ch, wit h f ind, replacing t ime clause, replacing reason clause
4. cert aint y Keywor ds: cert ainly, def init ely, probably, surely
5. changes of t ime and place ref erence Keywor ds: t ime ref erence, place ref erence
6. common irregular verbs - group 1 Keywor ds: irregular verbs
7. common irregular verbs - group 2 Keywor ds: irregular verbs
8. common irregular verbs - group 3 Keywor ds: irregular verbs
9. comparat ive + t han Keywor ds: comparat ive , t han, adj ect ive
10. comparat ive f orm Keywor ds: comparat ive, adverbs
11. comparat ives & superlat ives Keywor ds: comparat ives, superlat ives, adj ect ives
12. comparisons of quant it y - showing no dif f erence Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive, dif f erence
13. comparisons of quant it y - menu Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive
14. comparisons of quant it y - showing dif f erence Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive, dif f erence
15. compound nouns Keywor ds: compound nouns, phrasal verbs
16. count able & uncount able Keywor ds: count able, uncount able, noun
17. def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: def ining relat ive clauses
18. def ining words - which, whose Keywor ds: which, whose
19. degree - enough, very, t oo, ext remely, almost et c Keywor ds: enough, very, t oo, ext remely, almost , nearly, complet ely
20. demonst rat ives - t his, t hat , t hese, t hose et c Keywor ds: t his, t hat , t hese, t hose, det erminers
21. dif f erence words - ot her, anot her Keywor ds: ot her, anot her
22. dist ribut ives - all, bot h, half Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , dist ribut ives, det erminers
23. dist ribut ives - each, every, eit her, neit her Keywor ds: each, every, eit her, neit her
24. dist ribut ives - menu Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , each, every, eit her, neit her
25. examples Keywor ds: get , got , get t ing
26. except ions t o using t he def init e art icle
Keywor ds: no def init e art icle, det erminer, except ions
27. f orm - adj ect ives Keywor ds: gender, posit ion, f orm, adj ect ive
28. f orm - adverb Keywor ds: adverb, f orm
29. f orm -past Keywor ds: be + past part iciple
30. f orm, wit h or wit hout 't o' Keywor ds: t o-inf init ive, zero inf init ive
31. f unct ion Keywor ds: order, adj ect ives, f unct ion
32. f unct ion Keywor ds: adverb, f unct ion
33. f unct ion Keywor ds: f unct ion, inf init ive of purpose, inf init ive as subj ect , inf init ive af t er adj ect ives, inf init ive wit h t oo/ enough
34. f unct ion Keywor ds: unknown agent , subj ect , by f ormal/ scient if ic t ext s
35. f ut ure cont inuous Keywor ds: f ut ure, act ions in progress
36. f ut ure f orms - int roduct ion Keywor ds: f ut ure, at t it ude
37. f ut ure f orms - simple f ut ure Keywor ds: will/ shall, predict ion, decision, f ut ure f act s, cert aint y
38. f ut ure perf ect Keywor ds: f ut ure, complet ed act ions
39. f ut ure perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: unf inished, f ut ure t ime
40. f ut ure wit h 'going t o' Keywor ds: plans, int ent ions
41. gerund or inf init ive? Keywor ds: gerund/ inf init ive-, no dif f erence in meaning
42. gerund/ inf init ive - dif f erence in meaning Keywor ds: gerund/ inf init ive, dif f erence in meaning
43. gerunds Keywor ds: gerund, as subj ect , af t er preposit ions, af t er phrasal verbs, in compound nouns, can't st and. can't help
44. get , got , get t ing Keywor ds: get , got , get t ing
45. get / have somet hing done, x needs doing Keywor ds: get , need
46. if sent ences wit h condit ional perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: condit ional perf ect cont inuous
47. if sent ences wit h if + past , would, present condt ional Keywor ds: if + past , would, present condt ional
48. if sent ences wit h if , condt ional t enses Keywor ds: if , condt ional t enses
49. if sent ences wit h if +not , unless, verbs Keywor ds: if +not , unless, verbs
50. if sent ences wit h mixed condit ionals Keywor ds: mixed condit ionals
51. if sent ences wit h perf ect condit ional, if + past perf ect Keywor ds: perf ect condit ional, if + past perf ect
52. if sent ences wit h wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only Keywor ds: wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only
53. if set ences wit h present cont inuous condit ional Keywor ds: present cont inuous condit ional
54. inf init ive af t er quest ion words Keywor ds: inf init ive, quest ion words
55. int errogat ive - why, where, how, when Keywor ds: why, where, how, when
56. int roduct ion - def ining relat ive clauses, non-def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: def ining relat ive clauses, non-def ining relat ive clauses
57. int roduct ion - irregular verbs
Keywor ds: verbs, irregular
58. int roduct ion - present part iciple, gerund Keywor ds: present part iciple, gerund
59. int roduct ion - report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak Keywor ds: report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak
60. irregular comparat ives & superlat ives Keywor ds: irregular comparat ives, superlat ives, adj ect ives
61. list of common irregular verb Keywor ds: irregular, verbs
62. main menu - adj ect ives Keywor ds: adj ect ives
63. main menu - adverbs Keywor ds: adverbs
64. manner - adverbs Keywor ds: adverbs, manner
65. menu - f unct ion and class Keywor ds: det erminers, f unct ion, class, pre-det erminers
66. menu - kinds of adverbs Keywor ds: kinds, adverbs
67. menu - nouns Keywor ds: nouns
68. menu - quant if iers Keywor ds: much, many, a lit t le, a f ew, some, any
69. menu / int roduct ion Keywor ds: menu, int roduct ion, t enses
70. nat ionalit ies Keywor ds: nat ionalit ies, count ry, nouns
71. negat ive inf init ive Keywor ds: negat ive inf init ive
72. non-def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: relat ive clauses, non-def ining
73. not as + adj ect ive + as Keywor ds: not , as, so, not as, not so, adj ect ive
74. noun gender Keywor ds: gender, masculine, f eminine, noun
75. order of adj ect ives Keywor ds: order, adj ect ives
76. ot her f orms of f ut ure Keywor ds: is t o, obligat ion, about t o, immediat e f ut ure
77. ot her f orms of inf init ive Keywor ds: perf ect inf init ive, cont inuous inf init ive, passive inf init ive, perf ect cont inuous inf init ive
78. past cont inuous Keywor ds: past cont inuous, descript ion, narrat ive
79. past perf ect Keywor ds: past perf ect , j ust
80. past perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: past perf ect cont inuous, process, report ed speech
81. place, adverbs of place Keywor ds: adverbs, place
82. plurals Keywor ds: singular plural, irregular plural, noun
83. possessive Keywor ds: possessive, t ime expressions, apost rophe, names, possessive
84. possessives Keywor ds: possessive adj ect ives, possessive pronouns, my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, t heir, t heirs
85. pre-det erminers Keywor ds: such, what , rat her, quit e
86. preposit ions in relat ive clauses Keywor ds: preposit ions, relat ive clauses
87. present cont inuous Keywor ds: -ing, verbs, t enses, present part iciple, verbs not used in cont inuous f orm
88. present cont inuous f or f ut ure event s Keywor ds: arrangement s, f ut ure
89. present perf ect 1 Keywor ds: present perf ect , past part iciple, irregular verbs
90. present perf ect 2 Keywor ds: present perf ect , ever, never, already, yet
91. present perf ect 3 Keywor ds: present perf ect , simple past , t ime, at t it ude
92. present perf ect 4 Keywor ds: present perf ect , f or, since
93. present perf ect cont inous Keywor ds: present perf ect cont inous, present part iciple
94. quant if iers 1 - det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le Keywor ds: det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le
95. quant if iers 2 - many, much, more, most et c. Keywor ds: many, much, more, most , lit t le, less, least , f ew, f ewer, f ewest
96. quant if iers 3 - how, much, many, f ew, lot et c. Keywor ds: how, much, many, f ew, lot , number, several, count able, uncount able
97. quant if iers 4 - numbers Keywor ds: cardinal, ordinal, f ract ions, decimals, unit s, years, zero
98. quant if iers 5 - some and any Keywor ds: det erminers, quant if iers, some, any
99. quant if iers 6 - somet hing, somebody, someone et c. Keywor ds: somet hing, somebody, someone, somewhere, anyt hing, anybody, anyone, anywhere, not hing, nobody, noone, nowhere,
100. quant if iers 7 - enough Keywor ds: enough, quant if iers, det erminers
101. quest ion words - which, what , whose Keywor ds: which, what , whose
102. relat ive adverbs - which, what , whose Keywor ds: where, when, why
103. report ing hopes and int ent ions Keywor ds: hopes, int ent ions, t o-inf init ive, t hat -clause
104. report ing orders, request s, suggest ions Keywor ds: orders, request s, suggest ions, should - omission, t hat -clause
105. report ing quest ions Keywor ds: report ing yes/ no quest ions, report ing quest ions wit h quest ion words
106. simple past Keywor ds: simple past , f orm, f unct ion, irregular verbs, irregular verbs, auxiliary 'did', ago
107. simple present Keywor ds: verbs, t enses, present simple
108. simple present f or f ut ure event s Keywor ds: f ut ure, f act s, t imet able, calendar
109. summary Keywor ds: verb t enses, present t enses, perf ect t enses, condit ional t enses, past t enses, f ut ure t enses
110. summary of report ing verbs Keywor ds: summary, report ing verbs, t o-inf int ive, t hat -clause
111. t ense changes Keywor ds: report ed speech, t ense changes
112. t he + superlat ive Keywor ds: t he, superlat ive, adj ect ives
113. t he def init e art icle Keywor ds: t he, def init e art icle
114. t he indef init e art icle Keywor ds: t he, indef init e art icle, a, an
115. t he, a, an Keywor ds: t he, a, an, indef init e art icle, except ions
116. t ime, adverbs of Keywor ds: adverbs, t ime
117. t ype 1 condit ional Keywor ds: if + present + f ut ure, f act
118. use of capit al let t ers Keywor ds: capit al let t ers, names, mont hs, days, holidays, seasons, geographical, names, st reet s, buildings, t it les of books, nouns
119. verbs + inf init ive wit h/ wit hout noun Keywor ds: verb wit h or wit hout noun + inf init ive
120. verbs f ollowed by gerund Keywor ds: verb + gerund
121. verbs f ollowed by inf init ive Keywor ds: verbs + inf init ive wit hout a noun
122. verbs f ollowed by noun + inf init ive Keywor ds: verb + noun + inf init ive
123. viewpoint , comment ing Keywor ds: adverbs, viewpoint , comment ing
124. zero condit ional Keywor ds: if + present , general t rut hs, inst ruct ions
125. zero inf init ive Keywor ds: zero inf init ive
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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TABLE OF CONTENTS General About t he aut hor Which English? Ask our English t eachers a quest ion Visit t he members' sect ion of t he English4Today websit e
Adj ectives as + adj ect ive + as comparat ive + t han comparat ives & superlat ives comparisons of quant it y - showing no dif f erence comparisons of quant it y - menu comparisons of quant it y - showing dif f erence f orm - adj ect ives f unct ion irregular comparat ives & superlat ives main menu - adj ect ives not as + adj ect ive + as order of adj ect ives t he + superlat ive
Adverbs cert aint y comparat ive f orm degree - enough, very, t oo, ext remely, almost et c f orm - adverb f unct ion int errogat ive - why, where, how, when main menu - adverbs manner - adverbs menu - kinds of adverbs place, adverbs of place relat ive adverbs - which, what , whose t ime, adverbs of viewpoint , comment ing
Determiners def ining words - which, whose demonst rat ives - t his, t hat , t hese, t hose et c dif f erence words - ot her, anot her dist ribut ives - all, bot h, half dist ribut ives - each, every, eit her, neit her dist ribut ives - menu
except ions t o using t he def init e art icle menu - f unct ion and class menu - quant if iers possessives pre-det erminers quant if iers 1 - det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le quant if iers 2 - many, much, more, most et c. quant if iers 3 - how, much, many, f ew, lot et c. quant if iers 4 - numbers quant if iers 5 - some and any quant if iers 6 - somet hing, somebody, someone et c. quant if iers 7 - enough quest ion words - which, what , whose t he def init e art icle t he indef init e art icle t he, a, an
Direct and Indirect Speech changes of t ime and place ref erence int roduct ion - report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak report ing hopes and int ent ions report ing orders, request s, suggest ions report ing quest ions summary of report ing verbs t ense changes
-ING Form as present part iciple gerund or inf init ive? gerund/ inf init ive - dif f erence in meaning gerunds int roduct ion - present part iciple, gerund verbs f ollowed by gerund
Irregular Verbs common irregular verbs - group 1 common irregular verbs - group 2 common irregular verbs - group 3 int roduct ion - irregular verbs list of common irregular verb
Nouns compound nouns count able & uncount able menu - nouns nat ionalit ies noun gender plurals use of capit al let t ers
Passive
act ive/ passive equivalent s f orm -past f unct ion get / have somet hing done, x needs doing
Possessive with 's and ' possessive
Relative Clauses def ining relat ive clauses int roduct ion - def ining relat ive clauses, non-def ining relat ive clauses non-def ining relat ive clauses preposit ions in relat ive clauses
The Infinitive f orm, wit h or wit hout 't o' f unct ion inf init ive af t er quest ion words negat ive inf init ive ot her f orms of inf init ive verbs + inf init ive wit h/ wit hout noun verbs f ollowed by inf init ive verbs f ollowed by noun + inf init ive zero inf init ive
To Get examples get , got , get t ing
Verbs and Verb Tenses f ut ure cont inuous f ut ure f orms - int roduct ion f ut ure f orms - simple f ut ure f ut ure perf ect f ut ure perf ect cont inuous f ut ure wit h 'going t o' if sent ences wit h condit ional perf ect cont inuous if sent ences wit h if + past , would, present condt ional if sent ences wit h if , condt ional t enses if sent ences wit h if +not , unless, verbs if sent ences wit h mixed condit ionals if sent ences wit h perf ect condit ional, if + past perf ect if sent ences wit h wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only if set ences wit h present cont inuous condit ional menu / int roduct ion ot her f orms of f ut ure past cont inuous past perf ect past perf ect cont inuous present cont inuous
present cont inuous f or f ut ure event s present perf ect 1 present perf ect 2 present perf ect 3 present perf ect 4 present perf ect cont inous simple past simple present simple present f or f ut ure event s summary t ype 1 condit ional zero condit ional
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
A Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'A' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives irregular comparat ives & superlat ives Keywor ds: irregular comparat ives, superlat ives, adj ect ives
main menu - adj ect ives Keywor ds: adj ect ives comparisons of quant it y - menu Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive
not as + adj ect ive + as Keywor ds: not , as, so, not as, not so, adj ect ive as + adj ect ive + as Keywor ds: as, adj ect ive t he + superlat ive Keywor ds: t he, superlat ive, adj ect ives comparisons of quant it y - showing dif f erence Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive, dif f erence
comparisons of quant it y - showing no dif f erence Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive, dif f erence
comparat ives & superlat ives Keywor ds: comparat ives, superlat ives, adj ect ives
order of adj ect ives Keywor ds: order, adj ect ives f unct ion Keywor ds: order, adj ect ives, f unct ion f orm - adj ect ives Keywor ds: gender, posit ion, f orm, adj ect ive comparat ive + t han Keywor ds: comparat ive , t han, adj ect ive
Adverbs comparat ive f orm Keywor ds: comparat ive, adverbs manner - adverbs Keywor ds: adverbs, manner f orm - adverb Keywor ds: adverb, f orm cert aint y Keywor ds: cert ainly, def init ely, probably, surely t ime, adverbs of Keywor ds: adverbs, t ime relat ive adverbs - which, what , whose Keywor ds: where, when, why int errogat ive - why, where, how, when Keywor ds: why, where, how, when
f unct ion Keywor ds: adverb, f unct ion viewpoint , comment ing Keywor ds: adverbs, viewpoint , comment ing place, adverbs of place Keywor ds: adverbs, place degree - enough, very, t oo, ext remely, almost et c Keywor ds: enough, very, t oo, ext remely, almost , nearly, complet ely
menu - kinds of adverbs Keywor ds: kinds, adverbs main menu - adverbs Keywor ds: adverbs
Determiners possessives Keywor ds: possessive adj ect ives, possessive pronouns, my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, t heir, t heirs
except ions t o using t he def init e art icle Keywor ds: no def init e art icle, det erminer, except ions
t he, a, an Keywor ds: t he, a, an, indef init e art icle, except ions dist ribut ives - menu Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , each, every, eit her, neit her
dif f erence words - ot her, anot her Keywor ds: ot her, anot her dist ribut ives - all, bot h, half Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , dist ribut ives, det erminers
t he indef init e art icle Keywor ds: t he, indef init e art icle, a, an quant if iers 5 - some and any Keywor ds: det erminers, quant if iers, some, any
quant if iers 6 - somet hing, somebody, someone et c. Keywor ds: somet hing, somebody, someone, somewhere, anyt hing, anybody, anyone, anywhere, not hing, nobody, noone, nowhere,
t he def init e art icle Keywor ds: t he, def init e art icle
-ING Form as present part iciple Keywor ds: present part iciple , wit h verbs of movement wit h verbs of percept ion, as adj ect ive wit h spend, wit h wast e, wit h cat ch, wit h f ind, replacing t ime clause, replacing reason clause
Passive act ive/ passive equivalent s Keywor ds: act ive, passive equivalent
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
B Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'B' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Determiners dist ribut ives - all, bot h, half Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , dist ribut ives, det erminers
dist ribut ives - menu Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , each, every, eit her, neit her
Passive f orm -past Keywor ds: be + past part iciple
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
C Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'C' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives irregular comparat ives & superlat ives Keywor ds: irregular comparat ives, superlat ives, adj ect ives
comparat ives & superlat ives Keywor ds: comparat ives, superlat ives, adj ect ives
comparat ive + t han Keywor ds: comparat ive , t han, adj ect ive comparisons of quant it y - showing dif f erence Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive, dif f erence
comparisons of quant it y - showing no dif f erence Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive, dif f erence
comparisons of quant it y - menu Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive
Adverbs comparat ive f orm Keywor ds: comparat ive, adverbs cert aint y Keywor ds: cert ainly, def init ely, probably, surely viewpoint , comment ing Keywor ds: adverbs, viewpoint , comment ing
Determiners quant if iers 6 - somet hing, somebody, someone et c. Keywor ds: somet hing, somebody, someone, somewhere, anyt hing, anybody, anyone, anywhere, not hing, nobody, noone, nowhere,
menu - f unct ion and class Keywor ds: det erminers, f unct ion, class, predet erminers
quant if iers 4 - numbers Keywor ds: cardinal, ordinal, f ract ions, decimals, unit s, years, zero
quant if iers 3 - how, much, many, f ew, lot et c. Keywor ds: how, much, many, f ew, lot , number, several, count able, uncount able
Direct and Indirect Speech changes of t ime and place ref erence Keywor ds: t ime ref erence, place ref erence
Irregular Verbs common irregular verbs - group 3 Keywor ds: irregular verbs common irregular verbs - group 1 Keywor ds: irregular verbs common irregular verbs - group 2 Keywor ds: irregular verbs
Nouns nat ionalit ies Keywor ds: nat ionalit ies, count ry, nouns use of capit al let t ers Keywor ds: capit al let t ers, names, mont hs, days, holidays, seasons, geographical, names, st reet s, buildings, t it les of books, nouns
count able & uncount able Keywor ds: count able, uncount able, noun compound nouns Keywor ds: compound nouns, phrasal verbs
Relative Clauses int roduct ion - def ining relat ive clauses, non-def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: def ining relat ive clauses, non-def ining relat ive clauses preposit ions in relat ive clauses Keywor ds: preposit ions, relat ive clauses
non-def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: relat ive clauses, nondef ining
Verbs and Verb Tenses t ype 1 condit ional Keywor ds: if + present + f ut ure, f act present cont inuous Keywor ds: -ing, verbs, t enses, present part iciple, verbs not used in cont inuous f orm
f ut ure cont inuous Keywor ds: f ut ure, act ions in progress zero condit ional Keywor ds: if + present , general t rut hs, inst ruct ions if sent ences wit h if + past , would, present condt ional Keywor ds: if + past , would, present condt ional
if set ences wit h present cont inuous condit ional Keywor ds: present cont inuous condit ional
if sent ences wit h perf ect condit ional, if + past perf ect Keywor ds: perf ect condit ional, if + past perf ect
if sent ences wit h condit ional perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: condit ional perf ect cont inuous
if sent ences wit h mixed condit ionals Keywor ds: mixed condit ionals if sent ences wit h if , condt ional t enses Keywor ds: if , condt ional t enses
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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D Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'D' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adverbs degree - enough, very, t oo, ext remely, almost et c Keywor ds: enough, very, t oo, ext remely, almost , nearly, complet ely
Determiners quant if iers 2 - many, much, more, most et c. Keywor ds: many, much, more, most , lit t le, less, least , f ew, f ewer, f ewest
def ining words - which, whose Keywor ds: which, whose quest ion words - which, what , whose Keywor ds: which, what , whose dif f erence words - ot her, anot her Keywor ds: ot her, anot her dist ribut ives - each, every, eit her, neit her Keywor ds: each, every, eit her, neit her
dist ribut ives - menu Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , each, every, eit her, neit her
menu - f unct ion and class Keywor ds: det erminers, f unct ion, class, predet erminers
quant if iers 7 - enough Keywor ds: enough, quant if iers, det erminers menu - quant if iers Keywor ds: much, many, a lit t le, a f ew, some, any possessives Keywor ds: possessive adj ect ives, possessive pronouns, my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, t heir, t heirs
demonst rat ives - t his, t hat , t hese, t hose et c Keywor ds: t his, t hat , t hese, t hose, det erminers
except ions t o using t he def init e art icle Keywor ds: no def init e art icle, det erminer, except ions
t he, a, an Keywor ds: t he, a, an, indef init e art icle, except ions t he def init e art icle Keywor ds: t he, def init e art icle quant if iers 4 - numbers Keywor ds: cardinal, ordinal, f ract ions, decimals, unit s, years, zero
dist ribut ives - all, bot h, half Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , dist ribut ives, det erminers
quant if iers 6 - somet hing, somebody, someone et c. Keywor ds: somet hing, somebody, someone, somewhere, anyt hing, anybody, anyone, anywhere, not hing, nobody, noone, nowhere,
quant if iers 5 - some and any Keywor ds: det erminers, quant if iers, some, any
quant if iers 1 - det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le Keywor ds: det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le
quant if iers 3 - how, much, many, f ew, lot et c. Keywor ds: how, much, many, f ew, lot , number, several, count able, uncount able
t he indef init e art icle Keywor ds: t he, indef init e art icle, a, an pre-det erminers Keywor ds: such, what , rat her, quit e
Direct and Indirect Speech report ing hopes and int ent ions Keywor ds: hopes, int ent ions, t oinf init ive, t hat -clause
summary of report ing verbs Keywor ds: summary, report ing verbs, t oinf int ive, t hat -clause
report ing orders, request s, suggest ions Keywor ds: orders, request s, suggest ions, should - omission, t hat -clause
report ing quest ions Keywor ds: report ing yes/ no quest ions, report ing quest ions wit h quest ion words
changes of t ime and place ref erence Keywor ds: t ime ref erence, place ref erence
t ense changes Keywor ds: report ed speech, t ense changes int roduct ion - report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak Keywor ds: report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak
Passive get / have somet hing done, x needs doing Keywor ds: get , need
Relative Clauses non-def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: relat ive clauses, nondef ining
def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: def ining relat ive clauses
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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E Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'E' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adverbs degree - enough, very, t oo, ext remely, almost et c Keywor ds: enough, very, t oo, ext remely, almost , nearly, complet ely
Determiners dist ribut ives - each, every, eit her, neit her Keywor ds: each, every, eit her, neit her
quant if iers 7 - enough Keywor ds: enough, quant if iers, det erminers except ions t o using t he def init e art icle Keywor ds: no def init e art icle, det erminer, except ions
t he, a, an Keywor ds: t he, a, an, indef init e art icle, except ions
To Get examples Keywor ds: get , got , get t ing
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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F Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'F' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives f orm - adj ect ives Keywor ds: gender, posit ion, f orm, adj ect ive f unct ion Keywor ds: order, adj ect ives, f unct ion
Adverbs f unct ion Keywor ds: adverb, f unct ion f orm - adverb Keywor ds: adverb, f orm comparat ive f orm Keywor ds: comparat ive, adverbs
Determiners quant if iers 4 - numbers Keywor ds: cardinal, ordinal, f ract ions, decimals, unit s, years, zero
quant if iers 2 - many, much, more, most et c. Keywor ds: many, much, more, most , lit t le, less, least , f ew, f ewer, f ewest
menu - f unct ion and class Keywor ds: det erminers, f unct ion, class, predet erminers
quant if iers 1 - det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le Keywor ds: det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le
-ING Form int roduct ion - present part iciple, gerund Keywor ds: present part iciple, gerund
Nouns noun gender Keywor ds: gender, masculine, f eminine, noun
Passive f orm -past Keywor ds: be + past part iciple f unct ion Keywor ds: unknown agent , subj ect , by f ormal/ scient if ic t ext s
The Infinitive verbs f ollowed by inf init ive Keywor ds: verbs + inf init ive wit hout a noun
f orm, wit h or wit hout 't o' Keywor ds: t o-inf init ive, zero inf init ive f unct ion Keywor ds: f unct ion, inf init ive of purpose, inf init ive as subj ect ,
inf init ive af t er adj ect ives, inf init ive wit h t oo/ enough
ot her f orms of inf init ive Keywor ds: perf ect inf init ive, cont inuous inf init ive, passive inf init ive, perf ect cont inuous inf init ive
Verbs and Verb Tenses f ut ure cont inuous Keywor ds: f ut ure, act ions in progress f ut ure f orms - int roduct ion Keywor ds: f ut ure, at t it ude f ut ure wit h 'going t o' Keywor ds: plans, int ent ions f ut ure perf ect Keywor ds: f ut ure, complet ed act ions f ut ure perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: unf inished, f ut ure t ime ot her f orms of f ut ure Keywor ds: is t o, obligat ion, about t o, immediat e f ut ure
f ut ure f orms - simple f ut ure Keywor ds: will/ shall, predict ion, decision, f ut ure f act s, cert aint y
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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G Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'G' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives f orm - adj ect ives Keywor ds: gender, posit ion, f orm, adj ect ive
-ING Form gerund/ inf init ive - dif f erence in meaning Keywor ds: gerund/ inf init ive, dif f erence in meaning
gerund or inf init ive? Keywor ds: gerund/ inf init ive-, no dif f erence in meaning
verbs f ollowed by gerund Keywor ds: verb + gerund gerunds Keywor ds: gerund, as subj ect , af t er preposit ions, af t er phrasal verbs, in compound nouns, can't st and. can't help
Nouns noun gender Keywor ds: gender, masculine, f eminine, noun
Passive get / have somet hing done, x needs doing Keywor ds: get , need
To Get examples Keywor ds: get , got , get t ing get , got , get t ing Keywor ds: get , got , get t ing
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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H Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'H' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Determiners dist ribut ives - all, bot h, half Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , dist ribut ives, det erminers
dist ribut ives - menu Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , each, every, eit her, neit her
Direct and Indirect Speech report ing hopes and int ent ions Keywor ds: hopes, int ent ions, t oinf init ive, t hat -clause
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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I Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'I' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives irregular comparat ives & superlat ives Keywor ds: irregular comparat ives, superlat ives, adj ect ives
Adverbs int errogat ive - why, where, how, when Keywor ds: why, where, how, when
Determiners t he, a, an Keywor ds: t he, a, an, indef init e art icle, except ions t he indef init e art icle Keywor ds: t he, indef init e art icle, a, an
Direct and Indirect Speech summary of report ing verbs Keywor ds: summary, report ing verbs, t oinf int ive, t hat -clause
report ing hopes and int ent ions Keywor ds: hopes, int ent ions, t oinf init ive, t hat -clause
report ing orders, request s, suggest ions Keywor ds: orders, request s, suggest ions, should - omission, t hat -clause
changes of t ime and place ref erence Keywor ds: t ime ref erence, place ref erence
t ense changes Keywor ds: report ed speech, t ense changes int roduct ion - report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak Keywor ds: report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak
-ING Form verbs f ollowed by gerund Keywor ds: verb + gerund int roduct ion - present part iciple, gerund Keywor ds: present part iciple, gerund
gerunds Keywor ds: gerund, as subj ect , af t er preposit ions, af t er phrasal verbs, in compound nouns, can't st and. can't help
gerund or inf init ive? Keywor ds: gerund/ inf init ive-, no dif f erence in meaning
gerund/ inf init ive - dif f erence in meaning Keywor ds: gerund/ inf init ive, dif f erence in meaning
as present part iciple Keywor ds: present part iciple , wit h verbs of movement wit h verbs of percept ion, as adj ect ive wit h spend, wit h wast e, wit h cat ch, wit h f ind, replacing t ime clause, replacing reason clause
Irregular Verbs int roduct ion - irregular verbs Keywor ds: verbs, irregular list of common irregular verb Keywor ds: irregular, verbs common irregular verbs - group 1 Keywor ds: irregular verbs common irregular verbs - group 3 Keywor ds: irregular verbs common irregular verbs - group 2 Keywor ds: irregular verbs
Relative Clauses int roduct ion - def ining relat ive clauses, non-def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: def ining relat ive clauses, non-def ining relat ive clauses
The Infinitive negat ive inf init ive Keywor ds: negat ive inf init ive inf init ive af t er quest ion words Keywor ds: inf init ive, quest ion words f unct ion Keywor ds: f unct ion, inf init ive of purpose, inf init ive as subj ect , inf init ive af t er adj ect ives, inf init ive wit h t oo/ enough
ot her f orms of inf init ive Keywor ds: perf ect inf init ive, cont inuous inf init ive, passive inf init ive, perf ect cont inuous inf init ive
verbs f ollowed by inf init ive Keywor ds: verbs + inf init ive wit hout a noun
verbs f ollowed by noun + inf init ive Keywor ds: verb + noun + inf init ive
verbs + inf init ive wit h/ wit hout noun Keywor ds: verb wit h or wit hout noun + inf init ive
zero inf init ive Keywor ds: zero inf init ive f orm, wit h or wit hout 't o' Keywor ds: t o-inf init ive, zero inf init ive
Verbs and Verb Tenses if sent ences wit h mixed condit ionals Keywor ds: mixed condit ionals menu / int roduct ion Keywor ds: menu, int roduct ion, t enses if sent ences wit h if , condt ional t enses Keywor ds: if , condt ional t enses
zero condit ional Keywor ds: if + present , general t rut hs, inst ruct ions t ype 1 condit ional Keywor ds: if + present + f ut ure, f act if sent ences wit h if + past , would, present condt ional Keywor ds: if + past , would, present condt ional
if set ences wit h present cont inuous condit ional Keywor ds: present cont inuous condit ional
if sent ences wit h condit ional perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: condit ional perf ect cont inuous
if sent ences wit h if +not , unless, verbs Keywor ds: if +not , unless, verbs
if sent ences wit h wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only Keywor ds: wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only
if sent ences wit h perf ect condit ional, if + past perf ect Keywor ds: perf ect condit ional, if + past perf ect
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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J Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'J' has not ret urned any relat ed it ems. You may have bet t er luck wit h a keyword search using t he keyword search box. The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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K Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'K' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adverbs menu - kinds of adverbs Keywor ds: kinds, adverbs
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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L Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'L' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Determiners quant if iers 1 - det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le Keywor ds: det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le
quant if iers 2 - many, much, more, most et c. Keywor ds: many, much, more, most , lit t le, less, least , f ew, f ewer, f ewest
Irregular Verbs list of common irregular verb Keywor ds: irregular, verbs
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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M Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'M' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives main menu - adj ect ives Keywor ds: adj ect ives
Adverbs menu - kinds of adverbs Keywor ds: kinds, adverbs main menu - adverbs Keywor ds: adverbs manner - adverbs Keywor ds: adverbs, manner
Determiners dist ribut ives - menu Keywor ds: all, bot h, half , each, every, eit her, neit her
quant if iers 2 - many, much, more, most et c. Keywor ds: many, much, more, most , lit t le, less, least , f ew, f ewer, f ewest
menu - quant if iers Keywor ds: much, many, a lit t le, a f ew, some, any menu - f unct ion and class Keywor ds: det erminers, f unct ion, class, predet erminers
Nouns menu - nouns Keywor ds: nouns noun gender Keywor ds: gender, masculine, f eminine, noun
Verbs and Verb Tenses menu / int roduct ion Keywor ds: menu, int roduct ion, t enses if sent ences wit h mixed condit ionals Keywor ds: mixed condit ionals
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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N Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'N' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives not as + adj ect ive + as Keywor ds: not , as, so, not as, not so, adj ect ive
Determiners quant if iers 4 - numbers Keywor ds: cardinal, ordinal, f ract ions, decimals, unit s, years, zero
quant if iers 3 - how, much, many, f ew, lot et c. Keywor ds: how, much, many, f ew, lot , number, several, count able, uncount able
dist ribut ives - each, every, eit her, neit her Keywor ds: each, every, eit her, neit her
quant if iers 6 - somet hing, somebody, someone et c. Keywor ds: somet hing, somebody, someone, somewhere, anyt hing, anybody, anyone, anywhere, not hing, nobody, noone, nowhere,
Nouns plurals Keywor ds: singular plural, irregular plural, noun count able & uncount able Keywor ds: count able, uncount able, noun compound nouns Keywor ds: compound nouns, phrasal verbs use of capit al let t ers Keywor ds: capit al let t ers, names, mont hs, days, holidays, seasons, geographical, names, st reet s, buildings, t it les of books, nouns
noun gender Keywor ds: gender, masculine, f eminine, noun menu - nouns Keywor ds: nouns nat ionalit ies Keywor ds: nat ionalit ies, count ry, nouns
Relative Clauses non-def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: relat ive clauses, nondef ining
The Infinitive negat ive inf init ive Keywor ds: negat ive inf init ive verbs f ollowed by noun + inf init ive Keywor ds: verb + noun + inf init ive
verbs + inf init ive wit h/ wit hout noun Keywor ds: verb wit h or wit hout noun + inf init ive
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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O Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'O' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives order of adj ect ives Keywor ds: order, adj ect ives f unct ion Keywor ds: order, adj ect ives, f unct ion
Determiners dif f erence words - ot her, anot her Keywor ds: ot her, anot her quant if iers 4 - numbers Keywor ds: cardinal, ordinal, f ract ions, decimals, unit s, years, zero
Direct and Indirect Speech report ing orders, request s, suggest ions Keywor ds: orders, request s, suggest ions, should - omission, t hat -clause
The Infinitive ot her f orms of inf init ive Keywor ds: perf ect inf init ive, cont inuous inf init ive, passive inf init ive, perf ect cont inuous inf init ive
Verbs and Verb Tenses ot her f orms of f ut ure Keywor ds: is t o, obligat ion, about t o, immediat e f ut ure
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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P Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'P' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adverbs place, adverbs of place Keywor ds: adverbs, place
Determiners menu - f unct ion and class Keywor ds: det erminers, f unct ion, class, predet erminers
pre-det erminers Keywor ds: such, what , rat her, quit e possessives Keywor ds: possessive adj ect ives, possessive pronouns, my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, t heir, t heirs
-ING Form as present part iciple Keywor ds: present part iciple , wit h verbs of movement wit h verbs of percept ion, as adj ect ive wit h spend, wit h wast e, wit h cat ch, wit h f ind, replacing t ime clause, replacing reason clause
int roduct ion - present part iciple, gerund Keywor ds: present part iciple, gerund
Nouns plurals Keywor ds: singular plural, irregular plural, noun
Passive f orm -past Keywor ds: be + past part iciple f unct ion Keywor ds: unknown agent , subj ect , by f ormal/ scient if ic t ext s get / have somet hing done, x needs doing Keywor ds: get , need act ive/ passive equivalent s Keywor ds: act ive, passive equivalent
Possessive with 's and ' possessive Keywor ds: possessive, t ime expressions, apost rophe, names, possessive
Relative Clauses preposit ions in relat ive clauses Keywor ds: preposit ions, relat ive clauses
def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: def ining relat ive clauses
Verbs and Verb Tenses past perf ect Keywor ds: past perf ect , j ust present perf ect 1 Keywor ds: present perf ect , past part iciple, irregular verbs
present cont inuous Keywor ds: -ing, verbs, t enses, present part iciple, verbs not used in cont inuous f orm
present perf ect 2 Keywor ds: present perf ect , ever, never, already, yet present perf ect 3 Keywor ds: present perf ect , simple past , t ime, at t it ude
present perf ect 4 Keywor ds: present perf ect , f or, since past cont inuous Keywor ds: past cont inuous, descript ion, narrat ive past perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: past perf ect cont inuous, process, report ed speech
present cont inuous f or f ut ure event s Keywor ds: arrangement s, f ut ure
if sent ences wit h wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only Keywor ds: wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only present perf ect cont inous Keywor ds: present perf ect cont inous, present part iciple
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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Q Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'Q' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives comparisons of quant it y - showing no dif f erence Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive, dif f erence
comparisons of quant it y - showing dif f erence Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive, dif f erence
comparisons of quant it y - menu Keywor ds: quant it y, comparison, adj ect ive
Determiners quant if iers 6 - somet hing, somebody, someone et c. Keywor ds: somet hing, somebody, someone, somewhere, anyt hing, anybody, anyone, anywhere, not hing, nobody, noone, nowhere,
quant if iers 5 - some and any Keywor ds: det erminers, quant if iers, some, any
quant if iers 1 - det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le Keywor ds: det erminers, a f ew, f ew, a lit t le, lit t le
quant if iers 3 - how, much, many, f ew, lot et c. Keywor ds: how, much, many, f ew, lot , number, several, count able, uncount able
pre-det erminers Keywor ds: such, what , rat her, quit e quest ion words - which, what , whose Keywor ds: which, what , whose quant if iers 4 - numbers Keywor ds: cardinal, ordinal, f ract ions, decimals, unit s, years, zero
quant if iers 7 - enough Keywor ds: enough, quant if iers, det erminers quant if iers 2 - many, much, more, most et c. Keywor ds: many, much, more, most , lit t le, less, least , f ew, f ewer, f ewest
menu - quant if iers Keywor ds: much, many, a lit t le, a f ew, some, any
Direct and Indirect Speech report ing quest ions Keywor ds: report ing yes/ no quest ions, report ing quest ions wit h quest ion words
The Infinitive inf init ive af t er quest ion words Keywor ds: inf init ive, quest ion words
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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R Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'R' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adverbs relat ive adverbs - which, what , whose Keywor ds: where, when, why
Determiners pre-det erminers Keywor ds: such, what , rat her, quit e
Direct and Indirect Speech summary of report ing verbs Keywor ds: summary, report ing verbs, t oinf int ive, t hat -clause
report ing hopes and int ent ions Keywor ds: hopes, int ent ions, t oinf init ive, t hat -clause
report ing orders, request s, suggest ions Keywor ds: orders, request s, suggest ions, should - omission, t hat -clause
report ing quest ions Keywor ds: report ing yes/ no quest ions, report ing quest ions wit h quest ion words
changes of t ime and place ref erence Keywor ds: t ime ref erence, place ref erence
t ense changes Keywor ds: report ed speech, t ense changes int roduct ion - report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak Keywor ds: report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak
Relative Clauses non-def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: relat ive clauses, nondef ining
preposit ions in relat ive clauses Keywor ds: preposit ions, relat ive clauses
def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: def ining relat ive clauses int roduct ion - def ining relat ive clauses, non-def ining relat ive clauses Keywor ds: def ining relat ive clauses, non-def ining relat ive clauses
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S Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'S' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives t he + superlat ive Keywor ds: t he, superlat ive, adj ect ives comparat ives & superlat ives Keywor ds: comparat ives, superlat ives, adj ect ives
Determiners quant if iers 6 - somet hing, somebody, someone et c. Keywor ds: somet hing, somebody, someone, somewhere, anyt hing, anybody, anyone, anywhere, not hing, nobody, noone, nowhere,
quant if iers 5 - some and any Keywor ds: det erminers, quant if iers, some, any
pre-det erminers Keywor ds: such, what , rat her, quit e
Direct and Indirect Speech summary of report ing verbs Keywor ds: summary, report ing verbs, t oinf int ive, t hat -clause
int roduct ion - report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak Keywor ds: report ed speech, 't hat ', say, t ell, t alk, speak
Verbs and Verb Tenses simple present f or f ut ure event s Keywor ds: f ut ure, f act s, t imet able, calendar
simple past Keywor ds: simple past , f orm, f unct ion, irregular verbs, irregular verbs, auxiliary 'did', ago
simple present Keywor ds: verbs, t enses, present simple summary Keywor ds: verb t enses, present t enses, perf ect t enses, condit ional t enses, past t enses, f ut ure t enses
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T Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'T ' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adj ectives t he + superlat ive Keywor ds: t he, superlat ive, adj ect ives comparat ive + t han Keywor ds: comparat ive , t han, adj ect ive
Adverbs t ime, adverbs of Keywor ds: adverbs, t ime
Determiners t he indef init e art icle Keywor ds: t he, indef init e art icle, a, an demonst rat ives - t his, t hat , t hese, t hose et c Keywor ds: t his, t hat , t hese, t hose, det erminers
t he, a, an Keywor ds: t he, a, an, indef init e art icle, except ions t he def init e art icle Keywor ds: t he, def init e art icle
Direct and Indirect Speech changes of t ime and place ref erence Keywor ds: t ime ref erence, place ref erence
t ense changes Keywor ds: report ed speech, t ense changes
The Infinitive verbs + inf init ive wit h/ wit hout noun Keywor ds: verb wit h or wit hout noun + inf init ive
inf init ive af t er quest ion words Keywor ds: inf init ive, quest ion words negat ive inf init ive Keywor ds: negat ive inf init ive zero inf init ive Keywor ds: zero inf init ive ot her f orms of inf init ive Keywor ds: perf ect inf init ive, cont inuous inf init ive, passive inf init ive, perf ect cont inuous inf init ive
f orm, wit h or wit hout 't o' Keywor ds: t o-inf init ive, zero inf init ive verbs f ollowed by inf init ive Keywor ds: verbs + inf init ive wit hout a noun
verbs f ollowed by noun + inf init ive Keywor ds: verb + noun + inf init ive
f unct ion Keywor ds: f unct ion, inf init ive of purpose, inf init ive as subj ect , inf init ive af t er adj ect ives, inf init ive wit h t oo/ enough
To Get
examples Keywor ds: get , got , get t ing get , got , get t ing Keywor ds: get , got , get t ing
Verbs and Verb Tenses present perf ect cont inous Keywor ds: present perf ect cont inous, present part iciple
simple present Keywor ds: verbs, t enses, present simple f ut ure cont inuous Keywor ds: f ut ure, act ions in progress present cont inuous Keywor ds: -ing, verbs, t enses, present part iciple, verbs not used in cont inuous f orm
present perf ect 1 Keywor ds: present perf ect , past part iciple, irregular verbs
present perf ect 2 Keywor ds: present perf ect , ever, never, already, yet present perf ect 3 Keywor ds: present perf ect , simple past , t ime, at t it ude
present perf ect 4 Keywor ds: present perf ect , f or, since summary Keywor ds: verb t enses, present t enses, perf ect t enses, condit ional t enses, past t enses, f ut ure t enses
simple past Keywor ds: simple past , f orm, f unct ion, irregular verbs, irregular verbs, auxiliary 'did', ago
past cont inuous Keywor ds: past cont inuous, descript ion, narrat ive past perf ect Keywor ds: past perf ect , j ust past perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: past perf ect cont inuous, process, report ed speech
f ut ure f orms - int roduct ion Keywor ds: f ut ure, at t it ude f ut ure f orms - simple f ut ure Keywor ds: will/ shall, predict ion, decision, f ut ure f act s, cert aint y
present cont inuous f or f ut ure event s Keywor ds: arrangement s, f ut ure
f ut ure wit h 'going t o' Keywor ds: plans, int ent ions menu / int roduct ion Keywor ds: menu, int roduct ion, t enses f ut ure perf ect Keywor ds: f ut ure, complet ed act ions f ut ure perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: unf inished, f ut ure t ime ot her f orms of f ut ure Keywor ds: is t o, obligat ion, about t o, immediat e f ut ure
t ype 1 condit ional Keywor ds: if + present + f ut ure, f act simple present f or f ut ure event s Keywor ds: f ut ure, f act s, t imet able, calendar
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U Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'U' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Determiners quant if iers 3 - how, much, many, f ew, lot et c. Keywor ds: how, much, many, f ew, lot , number, several, count able, uncount able
quant if iers 4 - numbers Keywor ds: cardinal, ordinal, f ract ions, decimals, unit s, years, zero
Nouns use of capit al let t ers Keywor ds: capit al let t ers, names, mont hs, days, holidays, seasons, geographical, names, st reet s, buildings, t it les of books, nouns
count able & uncount able Keywor ds: count able, uncount able, noun
Verbs and Verb Tenses if sent ences wit h wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only Keywor ds: wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only
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V Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'V' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adverbs viewpoint , comment ing Keywor ds: adverbs, viewpoint , comment ing
Direct and Indirect Speech summary of report ing verbs Keywor ds: summary, report ing verbs, t oinf int ive, t hat -clause
-ING Form verbs f ollowed by gerund Keywor ds: verb + gerund
Irregular Verbs common irregular verbs - group 2 Keywor ds: irregular verbs common irregular verbs - group 1 Keywor ds: irregular verbs list of common irregular verb Keywor ds: irregular, verbs int roduct ion - irregular verbs Keywor ds: verbs, irregular common irregular verbs - group 3 Keywor ds: irregular verbs
The Infinitive verbs f ollowed by noun + inf init ive Keywor ds: verb + noun + inf init ive
verbs + inf init ive wit h/ wit hout noun Keywor ds: verb wit h or wit hout noun + inf init ive
verbs f ollowed by inf init ive Keywor ds: verbs + inf init ive wit hout a noun
Verbs and Verb Tenses present cont inuous Keywor ds: -ing, verbs, t enses, present part iciple, verbs not used in cont inuous f orm
simple past Keywor ds: simple past , f orm, f unct ion, irregular verbs, irregular verbs, auxiliary 'did', ago
f ut ure f orms - int roduct ion Keywor ds: f ut ure, at t it ude past perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: past perf ect cont inuous, process, report ed speech
past perf ect Keywor ds: past perf ect , j ust f ut ure f orms - simple f ut ure Keywor ds: will/ shall, predict ion, decision, f ut ure f act s, cert aint y
past cont inuous Keywor ds: past cont inuous, descript ion, narrat ive present perf ect cont inous Keywor ds: present perf ect cont inous, present part iciple
present perf ect 4 Keywor ds: present perf ect , f or, since present perf ect 3 Keywor ds: present perf ect , simple past , t ime, at t it ude
present cont inuous f or f ut ure event s Keywor ds: arrangement s, f ut ure
present perf ect 1 Keywor ds: present perf ect , past part iciple, irregular verbs
if sent ences wit h if , condt ional t enses Keywor ds: if , condt ional t enses
simple present Keywor ds: verbs, t enses, present simple summary Keywor ds: verb t enses, present t enses, perf ect t enses, condit ional t enses, past t enses, f ut ure t enses
present perf ect 2 Keywor ds: present perf ect , ever, never, already, yet if sent ences wit h if + past , would, present condt ional Keywor ds: if + past , would, present condt ional
menu / int roduct ion Keywor ds: menu, int roduct ion, t enses if sent ences wit h wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only Keywor ds: wish, would rat her, suppose, what if , if only if sent ences wit h if +not , unless, verbs Keywor ds: if +not , unless, verbs
if sent ences wit h mixed condit ionals Keywor ds: mixed condit ionals if sent ences wit h condit ional perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: condit ional perf ect cont inuous
f ut ure perf ect cont inuous Keywor ds: unf inished, f ut ure t ime if set ences wit h present cont inuous condit ional Keywor ds: present cont inuous condit ional
simple present f or f ut ure event s Keywor ds: f ut ure, f act s, t imet able, calendar
t ype 1 condit ional Keywor ds: if + present + f ut ure, f act zero condit ional Keywor ds: if + present , general t rut hs, inst ruct ions ot her f orms of f ut ure Keywor ds: is t o, obligat ion, about t o, immediat e f ut ure
f ut ure perf ect Keywor ds: f ut ure, complet ed act ions f ut ure cont inuous Keywor ds: f ut ure, act ions in progress f ut ure wit h 'going t o' Keywor ds: plans, int ent ions if sent ences wit h perf ect condit ional, if + past perf ect Keywor ds: perf ect condit ional, if + past perf ect
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W Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'W' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Adverbs relat ive adverbs - which, what , whose Keywor ds: where, when, why int errogat ive - why, where, how, when Keywor ds: why, where, how, when
Determiners pre-det erminers Keywor ds: such, what , rat her, quit e def ining words - which, whose Keywor ds: which, whose quest ion words - which, what , whose Keywor ds: which, what , whose
The Infinitive verbs + inf init ive wit h/ wit hout noun Keywor ds: verb wit h or wit hout noun + inf init ive
f orm, wit h or wit hout 't o' Keywor ds: t o-inf init ive, zero inf init ive
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X Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'X' has not ret urned any relat ed it ems. You may have bet t er luck wit h a keyword search using t he keyword search box. The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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Y Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'Y' has not ret urned any relat ed it ems. You may have bet t er luck wit h a keyword search using t he keyword search box. The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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Z Your search f or it ems st art ing wit h t he let t er 'Z' has ret urned t he f ollowing list . The it em may appear in t he t op heading, main sub-heading or in t he list of keywords.
Determiners quant if iers 4 - numbers Keywor ds: cardinal, ordinal, f ract ions, decimals, unit s, years, zero
The Infinitive zero inf init ive Keywor ds: zero inf init ive f orm, wit h or wit hout 't o' Keywor ds: t o-inf init ive, zero inf init ive
Verbs and Verb Tenses zero condit ional Keywor ds: if + present , general t rut hs, inst ruct ions
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THE QUANTIFIERS NUMBERS The cardinal numbers (one, t wo, t hree, et c. ) are adj ect ives ref erring t o quant it y, and t he ordinal numbers (f irst , second, t hird, et c. ) ref er t o dist ribut ion.
Number
Ordinal
Cardinal
1
one
f irst
2
t wo
second
3
t hree
t hird
4
f our
f ourt h
5
f ive
f if t h
6
six
sixt h
7
seven
sevent h
8
eight
eight h
9
nine
nint h
10
t en
t ent h
11
eleven
elevent h
12
t welve
t welf t h
13
t hirt een
t hirt eent h
14
f ourt een
f ourt eent h
15
f if t een
f if t eent h
16
sixt een
sixt eent h
17
sevent een
sevent eent h
18
eight een
eight eent h
19
ninet een
ninet eent h
20
t went y
t went iet h
21
t went y-one
t went y-f irst
22
t went y-t wo
t went y-second
23
t went y-t hree
t went y-t hird
24
t went y-f our
t went y-f ourt h
25
t went y-f ive
t went y-f if t h
26
t went y-six
t went y-sixt h
27
t went y-seven
t went y-sevent h
28
t went y-eight
t went y-eight h
29
t went y-nine
t went y-nint h
30
t hirt y
t hirt iet h
31
t hirt y-one
t hirt y-f irst
40
f ort y
f ort iet h
50
f if t y
f if t iet h
60
sixt y
sixt iet h
70
sevent y
sevent iet h
80
eight y
eight iet h
90
ninet y
ninet iet h
100
one hundred
hundredt h
500
f ive hundred
f ive hundredt h
1, 000
one t housand
t housandt h
100, 000
one hundred t housand
hundred t housandt h
1, 000, 000
one million
milliont h
Examples: ● ● ●
● ●
There are t went y-five people in t he room. He was t he fourt eent h person t o win t he award since 1934. Six hundred t housand people were lef t homeless af t er t he eart hquake. I must have asked you t went y t imes t o be quiet . He went t o Israel f or t he t hird t ime t his year.
Fract ions and decimals Said
Written
Said
half
0. 5
point f ive
a quart er
0. 25
point t wo f ive
t hree quart ers
0. 75
point seven f ive
Percent ages Written
Said
25%
t went y f ive percent
50%
f if t y percent
75%
sevent y f ive percent
100%
a/ one hundred percent
Unit s Written
Said
$1, 200
one t housand t wo hundred dollars
£16, 486
sixt een t housand f our hundred and eight y-six pounds
545kms
f ive hundred and f ort y-f ive kilomet res
$25. 35
t went y-f ive dollars t hirt y-f ive
Years Written
Said
1988
Ninet een eight y-eight
1864
Eight een sixt y-f our
1999
Ninet een ninet y-nine
How t o say '0' nought
used in mathematical expressions and decimals: 'nought t imes t hree equals nought ' 0. 3 = 'nought point t hree' (or 'point t hree') 0. 03 = 'point nought t hree'
zero
used in scientific expressions, especially temperatures: 20oC = minus t went y degrees or t went y degrees below zero also used to mean 'the lowest point': 'The heavy rain reduced visibilit y t o zero'
'o' (t he let t er) used in telephone numbers: 0171 390 0062 = 'o one seven one t hree nine o double o six t wo'
nil / nothing
used to express the score in games such as football: 2 - 0 = 't wo nil ' or 't wo not hing'
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DETERMINERS FUNCTION AND CLASSES OF DETERMINERS Function Det erminers are words placed in f ront of a noun t o make it clear what t he noun ref ers t o. The word 'peopl e' by it self is a general ref erence t o some group of human beings. If someone says 't hese peopl e', we know which group t hey are t alking about , and if t hey say 'a lot of peopl e' we know how big t he group is.
Classes of Determiners There are several classes of det erminers: Def init e and Indef init e art icles t he, a, an Demonst rat ives t hi s, t hat , t hese, t hose Possessives my, your , hi s, her , i t s, our , t hei r Quant if iers a f ew, a l i t t l e, much, many, a l ot of , most , some, any, enough, et c. Numbers one, t en, t hi r t y, et c. Dist ribut ives al l , bot h, hal f , ei t her , nei t her , each, ever y Dif f erence words ot her , anot her Quest ion words Whi ch, what , whose Def ining words whi ch, whose The f ollowing words are pre-det erminers. They go bef ore det erminers, such as art icles: such and what , hal f , r at her , qui t e
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DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES THE, A, AN Def init e art icle: THE Indef init e art icle: A/ AN Except ions t o using t he def init e art icle
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DEFINITE ARTICLE THE Art icles in English are invariable. That is, t hey do not change according t o t he gender or number of t he noun t hey ref er t o, e. g. the boy, the woman, the children
'The' is used: 1. t o ref er t o somet hing which has already been ment ioned. Example: An elephant and a mouse f ell in love. The mouse loved the elephant's long t runk, and the elephant loved the mouse's t iny nose. 2. when bot h t he speaker and list ener know what is being t alked about , even if it has not been ment ioned bef ore. Example: 'Where's the bathroom?' 'It 's on the first floor . ' 3. in sent ences or clauses where we def ine or ident if y a part icular person or obj ect : Examples: The man who wrot e t his book is f amous. 'Which car did you scrat ch?' 'The red one . My house is the one wit h a blue door. ' 4. t o ref er t o obj ect s we regard as unique: Examples: the sun, the moon, the world 5. bef ore superlat ives and ordinal numbers: (see Adj ect ives) Examples: the highest building, the first page, the last chapt er. 6. wit h adj ect ives, t o ref er t o a whole group of people: Examples: the Japanese (see Nouns - Nat ionalit ies), the old 7. wit h names of geographical areas and oceans: Examples: the Caribbean, the Sahara, the At lant ic 8. wit h decades, or groups of years: Example: she grew up in the sevent ies
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES THE + SUPERLATIVE 't he' is placed bef ore t he superlat ive: For example: He is t he richest man in t he world.
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES These adj ect ives have complet ely irregular comparat ive and superlat ive f orms:
Adj ective
Comparative
Superlative
good
bet t er
best
bad
wor se
wor st
lit t le
l ess
l east
much
mor e
most
f ar
f ur t her / f ar t her
f ur t hest / f ar t hest
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE Number of syllables
Comparative
Superlative
one syllable
+ -er
+ -est
t al l
t al l er
t al l est
one syllable wit h t he spelling consonant + single vowel + consonant : double t he f inal consonant :
f at
f at t er
f at t est
bi g
bi gger
bi ggest
sad
sadder
saddest
Number of syllables
Comparative
Superlative
two syllables
+ -er OR more + adj
+ -est OR most + adj
ending in: -y, -l y, -ow ending in: -l e, -er or -ur e t hese common adj ect ives - handsome, polit e, pleasant , common, quiet
happy
happi er / mor e happy
happi est / most happy
yel l ow
yel l ower / mor e yel l ow
yel l owest / most yel l ow
si mpl e
si mpl er / mor e si mpl e
si mpl est / most si mpl e
t ender
t ender er / mor e t ender
t ender est / most t ender
If you are not sure, use MORE + OR MOST + Not e: Adj ect ives ending in '-y' like happy, pr et t y, busy, sunny, l ucky et c: . replace t he -y wit h - i er or -i est in t he comparat ive and superlat ive f orm
busy
busi er
busi est
Number of syllables
Comparative
Superlative
three syllables or more
more + adj
most + adj
i mpor t ant
mor e i mpor t ant
most i mpor t ant
expensi ve
mor e expensi ve
most expensi ve
Examples:
a. A cat is fast , a t iger is fast er but a cheet ah is t he fast est b. A car is heavy , a t ruck is heavier , but a t rain is t he heaviest c. A park bench is comfort able, a rest aurant chair is more comfort able, but a sof a is t he most comfort able
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FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES ORDER Where a number of adj ect ives are used t oget her, t he order depends on t he f unct ion of t he adj ect ive. The usual order is: Value/ opinion, Size, Age/ Temperat ure, Shape, Colour, Origin, Mat erial
Value/ opinion
delicious, lovely, charming
Size
small, huge, t iny
Age/ Temperature
old, hot , young
Shape
round, square, rect angular
Colour
red, blonde, black
Origin
Swedish, Vict orian, Chinese
Material
plast ic, wooden, silver
Examples: ● ● ●
a lovely old red post -box some small round plast ic t ables some charming small silver ornament s
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FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES FUNCTION Adj ect ives t ell us more about a noun. They can: Describe feelings or qualities: He is a lonely man They are honest people Give nationality or origin: Pierre is French This clock is German Our house is Vict orian Tell more about a t hing's characteristics: A wooden t able. The knif e is sharp. Tell us about age : He's a young man My coat is very old Tell us about size and measurement : John is a t all man. This is a very long f ilm. Tell us about colour : Paul wore a red shirt . The sunset was crimson and gol d . Tell us about material/ what something is made of : It was a wooden t able She wore a cot t on dress Tell us about shape : A rect angular box A square envelope Express a j udgement or a value : A fant ast ic f ilm
Grammar is boring.
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FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES FORM 1. Adj ect ives are invariable : They do not change t heir f orm depending on t he gender or number of t he noun.
A hot pot at o
Some hot pot at oes
2. To emphasise or st rengt hen t he meaning of an adj ect ive use 'very' or 'really':
A very hot pot at o
Some really hot pot at oes.
( BUT see also Modif iers/ Adverbs) 3. Position of adj ect ives: a) Usually in front of a noun: A beaut iful gi r l . b) After verbs like "t o be", "t o seem" , "t o look", "t o t ast e": ● ● ●
The gi r l i s beaut i f ul You l ook t i r ed Thi s meat t ast es f unny.
c) After t he noun: in some f ixed expressions: ● ● ●
The Pr i ncess Royal The Pr esi dent el ect a cour t mar t i al
t he adj ect ives involved, present , concerned: 1. I want t o see t he people involved/ concerned (= t he people who
have somet hing t o do wit h t he mat t er) 2. Here is a list of t he people present (= t he people who were in t he
building or at t he meet ing)
Be careful! When t hese adj ect ives are used bef ore t he noun t hey have a dif f erent meaning: ● ● ●
An involved discussion = det ailed, complex A concerned f at her = worried, anxious The present sit uat ion = current , happening now
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ADVERBS - FUNCTION Adverbs modif y, or t ell us more about ot her words, usually verbs: ● ●
The bus moved slowly . The bears at e greedily .
Somet imes t hey t ell us more about adj ectives: ●
You look absolut ely f abulous!
They can also modif y ot her adverbs: ● ●
She played t he violin ext remely well. You're speaking t oo quiet ly.
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ADVERBS - MENU ● ● ● ●
Funct ion Form Comparat ive f orms Kinds of adverbs
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ADVERBS - FORM 1. In most cases, an adverb is f ormed by adding '-ly' t o an adj ective : Adj ective
Adverb
cheap quick slow
cheaply quickly slowly
Examples: ● ● ● ●
Time goes quickly . He walked slowly t o t he door. She cert ainly had an int erest ing lif e. He carefully picked up t he sleeping child.
If t he adj ect ive ends in '-y' , replace t he 'y' wit h 'i' and add '-ly' :
Adj ective
Adverb
easy angry happy lucky
easily angrily happily luckily
If t he adj ect ive ends in - 'able', '-ible' , or '-le' , replace t he '-e' wit h '-y' :
Adj ective
Adverb
probable t errible gent le
probably t erribly gent ly
If t he adj ect ive ends in '-ic' , add '-ally' :
Adj ective
Adverb
basic economic t ragic
basically economically t ragically
Not e: Except ion: public - publicly
2. Some adverbs have t he same form as t he adj ect ive:
Adj ective / Adverb lat e near st raight wrong
early f ast hard high
Compare: ● ● ● ● ● ●
It is a fast car. He drives very fast . This is a hard exercise. He works hard. We saw many high buildings. The bird f lew high in t he sky.
3. 'Well ' and 'good' 'Well' is t he adverb t hat corresponds t o t he adj ect ive 'good' . Examples: ● ● ● ● ● ●
He is a good st udent . He st udies well . She is a good pianist . She plays t he piano well . They are good swimmers. They swim well .
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COMPARATIVE FORMS OF ADVERBS In general, comparat ive and superlat ive f orms of adverbs are t he same as f or adj ect ives: ●
add -er or -est t o short adverbs:
Adverb
Comparative
Superlative
hard lat e f ast
hard er lat er f ast er
t he hard est t he lat est t he f ast est
Example: ● ●
Jim works harder t han his brot her. Everyone in t he race ran fast , but John ran t he fast est of all.
wit h adverbs ending in -ly , use more f or t he comparat ive and most f or t he superlat ive:
Adverb
Comparative
Superlative
quiet ly slowly seriously
more quiet ly more slow ly more seriously
most quiet ly most slow ly most seriously
Example: ● ●
The t eacher spoke more slowly t o help us t o underst and. Could you sing more quiet ly please?
Some adverbs have irregular comparat ive f orms:
Adverb
Comparative
Superlative
badly f ar lit t le well
worse fart her/ furt her less bet t er
worst fart hest / furt hest least best
Example: ● ●
The lit t le boy ran furt her t han his f riends. You're driving worse t oday t han yest erday !
BE CAREFUL! Somet imes 'most ' can mean 'very' : ●
We were most grat ef ul f or your help
●
I am most impressed by t his applicat ion.
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KINDS OF ADVERBS There are several classes or 'kinds' of adverbs t hat we use f or specif ic f unct ions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Adverbs of manner Adverbs of place Adverbs of t ime Adverbs of cert aint y Adverbs of degree Int errogat ive adverbs Relat ive adverbs Viewpoint and comment ing adverbs
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KINDS OF ADVERBS ADVERBS OF MANNER Adverbs of manner t ell us how somet hing happens. They are usually placed after the main verb or after the obj ect. Examples: ● ● ● ● ● ●
He swims well , (af t er t he main verb) He ran. . . rapidly , slowly , quickly . . She spoke. . . soft ly , loudly , aggressively . . James coughed loudly t o at t ract her at t ent ion. He plays t he f lut e beaut ifully . (af t er t he obj ect ) He at e t he chocolat e cake greedily .
BE CAREFUL! The adverb should not be put between t he verb and t he obj ect : ● ●
He at e gr eedi l y t he chocolat e cake [incorrect] He at e t he chocolat e cake gr eedi l y [correct]
If t here is a preposition bef ore t he obj ect , e. g. at , t owards, we can place t he adverb eit her bef ore t he preposit ion or af t er t he obj ect . Example: ● ●
The child ran happi l y t owards his mot her. The child ran t owards his mot her happi l y.
Somet imes an adverb of manner is placed bef ore a verb + obj ect t o add emphasis: ●
He gent ly woke t he sleeping woman.
Some writ ers put an adverb of manner at t he beginning of t he sent ence t o cat ch our at t ent ion and make us curious: ●
Slowly she picked up t he knif e.
(We want t o know what happened sl owl y, who did it sl owl y, why t hey di d i t sl owl y) However, adverbs should always come AFTER intransitive verbs (=verbs which have no obj ect ). Example: ● ●
The t own grew quickly He wait ed pat ient ly
Also, t hese common adverbs are almost always placed AFTER the verb: ● ● ● ●
well badly hard fast
The posit ion of t he adverb is import ant when t here is more t han one verb in a sent ence. If t he adverb is placed af t er a clause, t hen it modif ies t he whole action described by t he clause. Not ice t he dif f erence in meaning bet ween t he f ollowing pairs of sent ences: ● ● ● ●
She quickly agreed t o re-t ype t he let t er (= her agreement was quick) She agreed t o re-t ype t he let t er quickly (= t he re-t yping was quick) He quiet ly asked me t o leave t he house (= his request was quiet ) He asked me t o leave t he house quiet ly (= t he leaving was quiet )
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KINDS OF ADVERBS ADVERBS OF PLACE Adverbs of place t ell us where somet hing happens. They are usually placed af t er t he main verb or af t er t he obj ect : Example:
after the main verb: ● ● ● ●
I looked everywhere John looked away , up, down, around. . . I'm going home, out , back Come in
after the obj ect: ● ●
They built a house nearby She t ook t he child out side
'Here' and 't here' Wit h verbs of movement , here means t owards or wit h t he speaker: ● ●
Come here (= t owards me) It 's in here (= come wit h me t o see it )
T here means away f rom, or not wit h t he speaker: ● ●
Put it t here (= away f rom me) It 's in t here (= go by yourself t o see it )
Here and t here are combined wit h preposit ions t o make many common adverbial phrases: down her e, down t her e; over her e, over t her e; under her e, under t her e; up her e, up t her e
Here and t here are placed at t he beginning of t he sent ence in exclamat ions or when emphasis is needed. They are f ollowed by t he verb if t he subj ect is a noun: ●
Here comes t he bus. (f ollowed by t he verb)
Or by a pronoun if t his is t he subj ect (it , she, he et c. ):
● ●
Here it is! (f ollowed by t he pronoun) T here she goes! (f ollowed by t he pronoun)
NOTE: most common adverbs of place also f unct ion as prepositions. Examples:
about , across, along, around, behind, by, down, in, off, on, over, round, t hrough, under, up. Go t o Prepositions or Phrasal Verbs Ot her adverbs of place: ending in '- wards' , expressing movement in a part icular direct ion: backwards f orwards downwards upwards inwards out wards
nort hwards sout hwards east wards west wards homewards onwards
Example: ● ●
Cat s don't usually walk backwards. The ship sailed west wards.
BE CAREFUL! 'Towards' is a preposition, not an adverb, so it is always f ollowed by a noun or a pr onoun: ● ●
He walked t owards t he car . She ran t owards me.
expressing bot h movement and locat ion:
ahead, abroad, overseas, uphill, downhill, sideways, indoors, out doors Example: ● ●
The child went indoors. He lived and worked abroad.
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KINDS OF ADVERBS ADVERBS OF TIME Adverbs of t ime t ell us when an act ion happened, but also for how long, and how oft en. Examples: ● ● ●
When: t oday, yest er day, l at er , now, l ast year For how long: al l day, not l ong, f or a whi l e, si nce l ast year How often: somet i mes, f r equent l y, never , of t en, year l y
"When" adverbs are usually placed at t he end of t he sent ence: ● ●
Goldilocks went t o t he Bears' house yest erday . I'm going t o t idy my room t omorrow .
This is a "neut ral" posit ion, but some "when" adverbs can be put in ot her posit ions t o give a dif f erent emphasis Compare: ● ●
●
Lat er Goldilocks at e some porridge. (t he t ime is more import ant ) Goldilocks lat er at e some porridge. (t his is more f ormal, like a policeman's report ) Goldilocks at e some porridge lat er . (t his is neut ral, no part icular emphasis)
"For how long" adverbs are usually placed at t he end of t he sent ence: ● ●
She st ayed in t he Bears' house all day . My mot her lived in France for a year .
Not ice: 'for' is always f ollowed by an expression of durat ion: ● ● ● ●
for for for for
t hree days, a week, several years, t wo cent uries.
'since' is always f ollowed by an expression of a point in t ime: ● ● ●
since Monday, since 1997, since t he last war.
"How often" adverbs expressing t he frequency of an act ion are usually placed bef ore t he main verb but af t er auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, may, must ) :
● ● ● ● ●
I oft en eat veget arian f ood. (bef ore t he main verb) He never drinks milk. (bef ore t he main verb) You must always f ast en your seat belt . (af t er t he auxiliary must ) She is never sea-sick. (af t er t he auxiliary i s) I have never f orgot t en my f irst kiss. (af t er t he auxiliary have and bef ore t he main verb f or got t en)
Some ot her "how oft en" adverbs express t he exact number of t imes an act ion happens and are usually placed at t he end of t he sent ence: ● ●
This magazine is published mont hly . He visit s his mot her once a week.
When a frequency adverb is placed at t he end of a sent ence it is much st ronger. Compare: ● ●
She regularly visit s France. She visit s France regularly .
Adverbs t hat can be used in t hese t wo posit ions: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
frequent ly, generally, normally, occasionally, oft en, regularly, somet imes, usually
'Yet ' and 'st ill' Yet is used in quest ions and in negat ive sent ences, and is placed at the end of the sentence or after not . ●
● ●
Have you f inished your work yet ? (= a simple request f or inf ormat ion) No, not yet . (= simple negat ive answer) They haven't met him yet . (= simple negat ive st at ement ) Haven't you f inished yet ? (= expressing slight surprise)
St ill expresses cont inuit y; it is used in posit ive sent ences and quest ions, and is placed before the main verb and after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, mi ght , wi l l ) ● ● ● ●
I am st ill hungry. She is st ill wait ing f or you Are you st ill here? Do you st ill work f or t he BBC?
ORDER OF ADVERBS OF TIME If you need t o use more t han one adverb of t ime at t he end of a sent ence, use t hem in t his order: 1: 'how long' 2: 'how oft en' 3: 'when' (t hink of 'low ')
Example: ● ● ● ●
1 + 2 : I work (1) for five hours (2) every day 2 + 3 : The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year . 1 + 3 : I was abroad (1) for t wo mont hs (3) last year . 1 + 2 + 3 : She worked in a hospit al (1) for t wo days (2) every week (3) last year .
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KINDS OF ADVERBS ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY These adverbs express how cert ain or sure we f eel about an act ion or event . Common adverbs of cert aint y:
cert ainly , definit ely, probably, undoubt edly, surely Adverbs of cert aint y go bef ore t he main verb but af t er t he verb 't o be': ● ●
He definit ely lef t t he house t his morning. He is probably in t he park.
Wit h ot her auxiliary verb, t hese adverbs go bet ween t he auxiliary and t he main verb: ● ●
He has cert ainly f orgot t en t he meet ing. He will probably remember t omorrow.
Somet imes t hese adverbs can be placed at t he beginning of t he sent ence: ●
Undoubt edly , Winst on Churchill was a great polit ician.
BE CAREFUL! wit h surely. When it is placed at t he beginning of t he sent ence, it means t he speaker t hinks somet hing is t rue, but is looking f or conf irmat ion: Example: ●
Surely you've got a bicycle?
See also ADVERBS OF ATTITUDE
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KINDS OF ADVERBS VIEWPOINT AND COMMENTING ADVERBS There are some adverbs and adverbial expressions which t ell us about t he speaker's viewpoint or opinion about an act ion, or make some comment on t he act ion.
Viewpoint Frankly , I t hink he is a liar. (= t his is my f rank, honest opinion) T heoret ically , you should pay a f ine. (= f rom a t heoret ical point of view but t here may be anot her way of looking at t he sit uat ion) These adverbs are placed at t he beginning of t he sent ence and are separat ed f rom t he rest of t he sent ence by a comma. Some common Viewpoint adverbs:
honest ly, seriously, confident ially, personally, surprisingly, ideally, economically, officially, obviously, clearly, surely, undoubt edly. Examples: ● ● ●
Personally , I'd rat her go by t rain. Surprisingly , t his car is cheaper t han t he smaller model. Geographically , Brit ain is rat her cut of f f rom t he rest of Europe.
Commenting ● ●
She is cert ainly t he best person f or t he j ob. You obviously enj oyed your meal.
These are very similar t o viewpoint adverbs, and of t en t he same words, but t hey go in a dif f erent posit ion - af t er t he verb t o be and before t he main verb. Some common Comment ing adverbs:
definit ely, cert ainly, obviously, simply.
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KINDS OF ADVERBS ADVERBS OF DEGREE Adverbs of degree t ell us about t he int ensit y or degree of an act ion, an adj ect ive or anot her adverb. Common adverbs of degree:
Almost , nearly, quit e, j ust , t oo, enough, hardly, scarcely, complet ely, very, ext remely. Adverbs of degree are usually placed: 1. bef ore t he adj ect ive or adverb t hey are modif ying:
e. g. The wat er was ext remely cold. 2. bef ore t he main verb:
e. g. He was j ust leaving. She has almost f inished. Examples: ● ● ● ●
She doesn't quit e know what she'll do af t er universit y. They are complet ely exhaust ed f rom t he t rip. I am t oo t ired t o go out t onight . He hardly not iced what she was saying.
Enough, very, too Enough as an adverb meaning 't o t he necessary degree' goes af t er adj ect ives and adverbs. Example: ● ●
Is your cof f ee hot enough? (adj ect ive) He didn't work hard enough. (adverb)
It also goes bef ore nouns, and means 'as much as is necessary'. In t his case it is not an adverb, but a 'det erminer'. Example: ● ●
We have enough bread. They don't have enough food.
Too as an adverb meaning 'more t han is necessary or usef ul' goes bef or e adj ect ives and adverbs, e. g. ● ●
This cof f ee is t oo hot . (adj ect ive) He works t oo hard. (adverb)
Enough and too wit h adj ect ives can be f ollowed by 'f or someone/ somet hi ng'.
Example: ● ● ● ●
The dress was big enough f or me. She's not experienced enough f or t his j ob. The cof f ee was t oo hot f or me. The dress was t oo small f or her.
We can also use 't o + i nf i ni t i ve' af t er enough and too wit h adj ect ives/ adverb. Example: ● ● ● ●
The cof f ee was t oo hot t o drink. He didn't work hard enough t o pass t he exam. She's not old enough t o get married. You're t oo young t o have grandchildren!
Very goes bef ore an adverb or adj ect ive t o make it st ronger. Example: ● ●
The girl was very beaut if ul. (adj ect ive) He worked very quickly. (adverb)
If we want t o make a negat ive f orm of an adj ect ive or adverb, we can use a word of opposit e meaning, or not very . Example: ● ●
The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very beaut if ul He worked slowly OR He did n't work very quickly.
BE CAREFUL! There is a big dif f erence bet ween too and very. ●
●
Very expresses a fact : He speaks very quickly. Too suggest s t here is a problem : He speaks t oo quickly ( f or me t o under st and).
Other adverbs like very These common adverbs are used like very and not very, and are list ed in order of st rengt h, f rom posit ive t o negat ive:
ext remely, especially, part icularly, pret t y, rat her, quit e, fairly, rat her, not especially, not part icularly. Not e: rat her can be posit ive or negat ive, depending on t he adj ect ive or adverb t hat f ollows:
Positive : The t eacher was rat her nice. Negative : The f ilm was rat her disappoint ing. Note on inversion wit h negat ive adverbs: Normally t he subj ect goes bef ore t he verb:
SUBJECT
VERB
I She
lef t goes
However, some negat ive adverbs can cause an inversion - t he order is reversed and t he verb goes bef ore t he subj ect Example: I have never seen such courage. She rarely lef t t he house.
Never have I seen such courage.
Rarely did she leave t he house.
Negat ive inversion is used in writing, not in speaking. Ot her adverbs and adverbial expressions t hat can be used like t his:
seldom, scarcely, hardly, not only . . . . . but also, no sooner . . . . . t han, not unt il, under no circumst ances.
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KINDS OF ADVERBS INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS These are:
why , where, how , when They are usually placed at t he beginning of a quest ion. Examples: ● ● ● ● ●
Why are you so lat e? Where is my passport ? How are you? How much is t hat coat ? When does t he t rain arrive?
Not ice t hat how can be used in f our dif f erent ways: 1. meaning 'in what way?' : How did you make t his sauce? How do you st art t he car? 2. wit h adj ect ives: How t all are you? How old is your house? 3. wit h much and many : How much are t hese t omat oes? How many people are coming t o t he part y? 4. wit h ot her adverbs: How quickly can you read t his? How of t en do you go t o Lond o n ?
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KINDS OF ADVERBS RELATIVE ADVERBS The f ollowing adverbs can be used t o j oin sent ences or clauses. They replace t he more f ormal st ruct ure of pr eposi t i on + whi ch in a relat ive clause:
where, when, why Examples: ●
●
●
●
That 's t he rest aurant where we met f or t he f irst t ime. ( wher e = at / i n whi ch ) I remember t he day when we f irst met . ( when = on whi ch ) There was a very hot summer t he year when he was born. ( when = i n whi ch ) Tell me (t he reason) why you were lat e home. ( why = f or whi ch , but could replace t he whole phrase 't he r eason f or whi ch')
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ADJECTIVES Section Menu FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES ■ ■ ■
Form Funct ion Order
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Forming t he Comparat ive and Superlat ive Irregular Comparat ives and Superlat ives t he + Superlat ive The Comparat ive + t han As + adj ect ive + as Not as + adj ect ive + as Comparisons of quant it y
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES COMPARATIVE + THAN To compare t he dif f erence bet ween t wo people, t hings or event s. Examples: ● ● ● ●
Mt . Everest is higher t han Mt . Blanc. Thailand is sunnier t han Norway. A car is more expensive t han a bicycle. Albert is more int elligent t han Art hur.
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AS + ADJECTIVE + AS To compare people, places, event s or t hings, when t here is no difference, use as + adj ect ive + as: ●
Pet er is 24 years old. John is 24 years old. Pet er is as old as John.
More examples: ● ● ● ●
Moscow is as cold as St . Pet ersburg in t he wint er. Ramona is as happy as Raphael. Einst ein is as famous as Darwin. A t iger is as dangerous as a lion.
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS Dif f erence can also be shown by using not so/ as . . . as: ● ● ● ●
Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest Norway is not as sunny as Thailand A bicycle is not as expensive as a car Art hur is not as int elligent as Albert
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY To show dif f erence: more, less, fewer + t han To show no dif f erence: as much as , as many as, as few as, as lit t le as
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY To show difference: more, less, fewer + t han Examples: Wit h countable nouns: more / fewer ● ● ● ● ●
Eloise has more children t han Chant al. Chant al has fewer children t han Eloise. There are fewer dogs in Cardif f t han in Brist ol I have visit ed fewer count ries t han my f riend has. He has read fewer books t han she has. Wit h uncountable nouns: more / less
● ● ● ● ●
Eloise has more money t han Chant al. Chant al has less money t han Eloise. I spend less t ime on homework t han you do. Cat s drink less wat er t han dogs. This new dict ionary gives more inf ormat ion t han t he old one.
So, t he rule is:
MORE + nouns t hat are countable or uncountable FEWER + countable nouns LESS + uncountable nouns To show no dif f erence see next page.
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY To show no difference : as much as , as many as, as few as, as lit t le as ● ●
as many as / as f ew as + countable nouns as much as / as l i t t l e as + uncountable nouns
Examples: Wit h countable nouns: ● ● ● ● ● ●
They have as many children as us. We have as many cust omers as t hem. Tom has as few books as Jane. There are as few houses in his village as in mine. You know as many people as I do. I have visit ed t he St at es as many t imes as he has. Wit h uncountable nouns:
● ● ● ● ●
John eat s as much f ood as Pet er. Jim has as lit t le f ood as Sam. You've heard as much news as I have. He's had as much success as his brot her has. They've got as lit t le wat er as we have.
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NOUNS NATIONALITIES a. Country: I live in England. b. Adj ective : He reads English lit erat ure. c. Noun: She is an Englishwoman.
COUNTRY
ADJECTIVE
NOUN
Af rica
Af rican
an Af rican
America
American
an American
Argent ina
Argent inian
an Argent inian
Aust ria
Aust rian
an Aust rian
Aut ralia
Aust ralian
an Aust ralian
Bangladesh
Bangladesh(i)
a Bangladeshi
Belgium
Belgian
a Belgian
Brazil
Brazilian
a Brazilian
Brit ain
Brit ish
a Brit on/ Brit isher
Cambodia
Cambodian
a Cambodian
Chile
Chilean
a Chilean
China
Chinese
a Chinese
Colombia
Colombian
a Colombian
Croat ia
Croat ian
a Croat
t he Czech Republic
Czech
a Czech
Denmark
Danish
a Dane
England
English
an Englishman/ Englishwoman
Finland
Finnish
a Finn
France
French
a Frenchman/ Frenchwoman
Germany
German
a German
Greece
Greek
a Greek
Holland
Dut ch
a Dut chman/ Dut chwoman
Hungary
Hungarian
a Hungarian
Iceland
Icelandic
an Icelander
India
Indian
an Indian
Indonesia
Indonesian
an Indonesian
Iran
Iranian
an Iranian
Iraq
Iraqi
an Iraqi
Ireland
Irish
an Irishman/ Irishwoman
Israel
Israeli
an Israeli
Jamaica
Jamaican
a Jamaican
Japan
Japanese
a Japanese
Mexico
Mexican
a Mexican
Morocco
Moroccan
a Moroccan
Norway
Norwegian
a Norwegian
Peru
Peruvian
a Peruvian
t he Philippines
Philippine
a Filipino
Poland
Polish
a Pole
Port ugal
Port uguese
a Port uguese
Rumania
Rumanian
a Rumanian
Russia
Russian
a Russian
Saudi Arabia
Saudi, Saudi Arabian a Saudi, a Saudi Arabian
Scot land
Scot t ish
a Scot
Serbia
Serbian
a Serb
t he Slovak Republic
Slovak
a Slovak
Sweden
Swedish
a Swede
Swit zerland
Swiss
a Swiss
Thailand
Thai
a Thai
The USA
American
an American
Tunisia
Tunisian
a Tunisian
Turkey
Turkish
a Turk
Viet nam
Viet namese
a Viet namese
Wales
Welsh
a Welshman/ Welshwoman
Yugoslavia
Yugoslav
a Yugoslav
Not e: We use t he + nat ionalit y adj ect ive ending in -ese or -ish wit h a plural verb, t o ref er t o all people of t hat nat ionalit y:
T he Chinese are very hard-working. T he Spanish of t en go t o sleep in t he af t ernoon.
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INDEFINITE ARTICLE A / AN Use 'a' wit h nouns st art ing wit h a consonant (l et t er s t hat ar e not vowel s), 'an' wit h nouns st art ing wit h a vowel ( a, e, i , o, u ) Examples:
A boy An apple A car An orange A house An opera NOTE: An bef ore an h mut e - an hour, an honour. A bef ore u and eu when t hey sound like 'you': a european, a universit y, a unit The indefinite article is used: ●
●
to refer to something for the first time: An elephant and a mouse f ell in love. Would you like a drink? I've f inally got a good j ob. to refer to a particular member of a group or class Examples: ❍
❍
❍
❍
●
●
with names of j obs: John is a doct or . Mary is t raining t o be an engineer . He want s t o be a dancer . with nationalities and religions: John is an Englishman. Kat e is a Cat holic. with musical instruments: Sherlock Holmes was playing a violin when t he visit or arrived. ( BUT t o describe t he act ivit y we say "He plays t he violin. ") with names of days: I was born on a T hursday
to refer to a kind of, or example of something: t he mouse had a t iny nose t he elephant had a long t runk it was a very st range car with singular nouns, after the words 'what ' and 'such' : What a shame! She's such a beaut iful girl .
●
meaning 'one', referring to a single obj ect or person: I'd like an orange and t wo lemons please. The burglar t ook a diamond necklace and a valuable paint ing.
Not ice also t hat we usually say a hundr ed , a t housand , a mi l l i on.
NOTE: t hat we use 'one' t o add emphasis or t o cont rast wit h ot her numbers: I don't know one person who likes eat ing elephant meat . We've got six comput ers but only one print er .
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EXCEPTIONS TO USING THE DEFINITE ARTICLE There is no art icle: ●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
wit h names of countries (if singular) Germany is an import ant economic power. He's j ust ret urned f rom Zimbabwe. ( But: I'm visit ing t he Unit ed St at es next week. ) wit h t he names of languages French is spoken in Tahit i. English uses many words of Lat in origin. Indonesian is a relat ively new language. wit h t he names of meals. Lunch is at midday. Dinner is in t he evening. Breakfast is t he f irst meal of t he day. wit h people's names (if singular): John's coming t o t he part y. George King is my uncle. ( But: we're having lunch wit h t he Morgans t omorrow. ) wit h titles and names: Prince Charles is Queen Elizabet h's son. President Kennedy was assassinat ed in Dallas. Dr. Wat son was Sherlock Holmes' f riend. ( But: t he Queen of England, t he Pope. ) Af t er t he 's possessive case: His brot her's car . Pet er's house. wit h professions: Engineering is a usef ul career. He'll probably go int o medicine. wit h names of shops: I'll get t he card at Smit h's. Can you go t o Boot s f or me? wit h years: 1948 was a wonderf ul year. Do you remember 1995 ? Wit h uncountable nouns: Rice is t he main f ood in Asia. Milk is of t en added t o t ea in England. War is dest ruct ive. wit h t he names of individual mountains, lakes and islands: Mount McKinley is t he highest mount ain in Alaska.
She lives near Lake Windermere. Have you visit ed Long Island? ●
●
wit h most names of towns, streets, stations and airports: Vict oria St at ion is in t he cent re of London. Can you direct me t o Bond St reet ? She lives in Florence. They're f lying f rom Heat hrow. in some fixed expressions, f or example:
by car by t rain by air on f oot on holiday on air (i n br oadcast i ng)
at at at in in in
school work Universit y church prison bed
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THE DEMONSTRATIVES THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE 1. Funct ion The demonst rat ives t his, t hat , t hese, t hose , show wher e an obj ect or person is in relat ion t o t he speaker. Thi s (singular) and t hese (plural) ref er t o an obj ect or person near t he speaker. That (singular) and t hose (plural) ref er t o an obj ect or person f urt her away. It can be a physical closeness or dist ance as in: Who owns t hat house? (dist ant ) Is t his John's house? (near) Or it can be a psychological dist ance as in:
T hat 's not hing t o do wit h me. . (dist ant ) T his is a nice surprise! (near) 2. Posit ion a) b) c) d)
Bef ore t he noun. Bef ore t he word 'one'. Bef ore an adj ect ive + noun. Alone when t he noun is 'underst ood'.
Examples:
T his car looks cleaner t han t hat one. T his old world keeps t urning round Do you remember t hat wonderf ul day in June? I'll never f orget t his.
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THE POSSESSIVES Possessive pronouns and possessive adj ect ives show who t he t hing belongs t o.
PERSON
ADJECTIVES
PRONOUNS
1st
(I)
my
mine
2nd
(you)
your
yours
3rd
(he)
his
his
(she)
her
hers
(it )
it
it s
1st
(we)
our
ours
2nd
(you)
your
yours
3rd
(t hey)
t heir
t heirs
Plural
NOTE: In English, possessive adj ect ives and pronouns ref er t o t he possessor, not t he obj ect or person t hat is possessed. Example: Jane's brot her is married t o John's sist er. Her brot her is married t o his sist er. Examples: a. b. c. d. e.
Pet er and his sist er . Jane and her fat her . Do you know where your books are? Is t his t heir picnic? No, it is ours. I t hink t his is your passport . Yes, it is mine.
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THE QUANTIFIERS Quant if iers are adj ect ives and adj ect ival phrases t hat give approximat e answers t o t he quest ions "How much?" and "How many?" Example: I've got a lit t le money. I've got a lot of f riends. ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍
Quant if iers wit h count able and uncount able nouns A f ew and f ew, a lit t le and lit t le Some and any Compound nouns made wit h SOME, ANY and NO Graded Quant if iers Enough + Noun
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THE QUANTIFIERS Quantifiers with countable and uncountable nouns Adj ect ives and adj ect ival phrases t hat describe quant it y are shown below. Some can only go wit h count abl e nouns (f riends, cups, people), and some can only go wit h uncount abl e nouns (sugar, t ea, money, advice). The words in t he middle column can be used wit h bot h count able and uncount able nouns. Only with uncountable nouns
With uncountable and countable nouns
Only with countable nouns
How much?
How much? or How many?
How many?
a lit t le
no/ none
a f ew
a bit (of )
not any
a number (of )
-
some (any)
several
a great deal of
a lot of
a large number of
a large amount of
plent y of
a great number of
-
lot s of
-
+ noun
Note: much and many are used in negat ive and quest ion f orms. Example: ● ● ● ●
How much money have you got ? How many cigaret t es have you smoked? There's not much sugar in t he cupboard. There weren't many people at t he concert .
They are also used wit h t oo, (not ) so, and (not ) as : There were t oo many people at t he concert - we couldn't see t he band. It 's a problem when t here are so many people. There's not so much work t o do t his week. In posit ive st at ement s, we use a lot of : ● ●
I've got a lot of work t his week. There were a lot of people at t he concert .
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THE QUANTIFIERS A few and few, a little and little These expressions show t he speaker's attitude t owards t he quant it y he/ she is ref erring t o.
A few (f or count able nouns) and a lit t le (f or uncount able nouns) describe t he quant it y in a positive way: ● ●
"I've got a few f riends" (= maybe not many, but enough) "I've got a lit t le money" (= I've got enough t o live on)
Few and lit t le describe t he quant it y in a negative way: ● ●
Few people visit ed him in hospit al (= he had almost no visit ors) He had lit t le money (= almost no money)
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THE QUANTIFIERS Some and Any Some and any are used wit h count able and uncount able nouns, t o describe an indef init e or incomplet e quant it y. Some is used in positive st at ement s: ● ●
I had some rice f or lunch He's got some books f rom t he library.
It is also used in quest ions where we are sure about t he answer: ● ●
Did he give you some t ea? (= I'm sure he did. ) Is t here some f ruit j uice in t he f ridge? (= I t hink t here is)
Some is used in sit uat ions where t he quest ion is not a request f or inf ormat ion, but a met hod of making a request , encouraging or giving an invit at ion: ● ● ●
Could I have some books, please? Why don't you t ake some books home wit h you? Would you like some books?
Any is used in quest ions and wit h not in negative st at ement s: ● ● ●
Have you got any t ea? He did n't give me any t ea. I don't t hink we've got any cof f ee lef t .
More examples:
SOME in posit ive sent ences. a. I will have some news next week. b. She has some valuable books in her house. c. Philip want s some help wit h his exams. d. There is some but t er in t he f ridge. e. We need some cheese if we want t o make a f ondue. SOME in quest ions: a. Would you like some help? b. Will you have some more roast beef ? ANY in negat ive sent ences a. She doesn't want any kit chen appliances f or Christ mas. b. They don't want any help moving t o t heir new house. c. No, t hank you. I don't want any more cake. d. There isn't any reason t o complain. ANY in int errogat ive sent ences a. Do you have any f riends in London?
b. Have t hey got any children? c. Do you want any groceries f rom t he shop? d. Are t here any problems wit h your work?
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THE QUANTIFIERS Compound nouns made with SOME, ANY and NO Some + Any +
-t hing
-body
-one
-where
No + Compound nouns wit h some- and any - are used in t he same way as some and any .
Positive statements: ● ● ●
Someone is sleeping in my bed. He saw somet hing in t he garden. I lef t my glasses somewhere in t he house.
Questions: ● ● ● ●
Are you looking f or someone? (= I'm sure you are) Have you lost somet hing? (= I'm sure you have) Is t here anyt hing t o eat ? (real quest ion) Did you go anywhere last night ?
Negative statements: ● ●
She didn't go anywhere last night . He doesn't know anybody here.
NOTICE t hat t here is a dif f erence in emphasis bet ween not hing, nobody et c. and not . . . anyt hing, not . . . anybody : ● ●
I don't know anyt hing about it . (= neut ral, no emphasis) I know not hing about it (= more emphat ic, maybe def ensive)
More examples:
SOMET HING, SOMEBODY, SOMEWHERE a. I have somet hing t o t ell you. b. There is somet hing t o drink in t he f ridge. c. He knows somebody in New York d. Susie has somebody st aying wit h her. e. They want t o go somewhere hot f or t heir holidays. f . Keit h is looking f or somewhere t o live. ANYBODY, ANYT HING, ANYWHERE a. Is t here anybody who speaks English here? b. Does anybody have t he t ime? c. Is t here anyt hing t o eat ? d. Have you anyt hing t o say? e. He doesn't have anyt hing t o st ay t onight .
f . I wouldn't eat anyt hing except at Maxim's.
NOBODY, NOT HING, NOWHERE a. There is nobody in t he house at t he moment b. When I arrived t here was nobody t o meet me. c. I have learnt not hing since I began t he course. d. There is not hing t o eat . e. There is nowhere as beaut if ul as Paris in t he Spring. f . Homeless people have nowhere t o go at night . ANY can also be used in posit ive st at ement s t o mean 'no mat t er which', 'no mat t er who', 'no mat t er what ': Examples: a. You can borrow any of my books. b. They can choose anyt hing f rom t he menu. c. You may invit e anybody t o dinner, I don't mind.
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THE QUANTIFIERS Graded Quantifiers They f unct ion like comparat ives and hold a relat ive posit ion on a scale of increase or decrease.
INCREASE From 0% to 100% Wit h plural count able nouns:
many
more
most
Wit h uncount able nouns:
much
more
most
DECREASE From 100% to 0% Wit h plural count able nouns:
few
fewer
fewest
Wit h uncount able nouns:
little
less
least
Examples: ●
●
● ●
●
●
●
●
There are many people in England, more in India, but t he most people live in China. Much t ime and money is spent on educat ion, more on healt h services but t he most is spent on nat ional def ence. Few rivers in Europe are not pollut ed. Fewer people die young now t han in t he sevent eent h cent ury. The count ry wit h t he fewest people per square kilomet re must be Aust ralia. Scient ist s have lit t le hope of f inding a complet e cure f or cancer bef ore t he year 2, 000. She had less t ime t o st udy t han Paul but had bet t er result s. Give t hat dog t he least opport unit y and it will bit e you.
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THE QUANTIFIERS Enough + Noun Enough is placed bef ore t he noun, t o indicat e t he quant it y required or necessary: ● ●
There is enough bread f or lunch. She has enough money.
Enough is also used wit h adj ect ives and adverbs - see t hese sect ions. ● ● ●
We didn't have enough t ime t o visit London Bridge. Are t here enough eggs t o make an omelet t e? Richard has enough t alent t o become a singing st ar.
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THE DISTRIBUTIVES ALL, BOTH, HALF EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER These words ref er t o a group of people or t hings, and t o individual members of t he group. They show dif f erent ways of looking at t he individuals wit hin a group, and t hey express how somet hing is dist ribut ed, shared or divided.
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THE DISTRIBUTIVES ALL, BOTH, HALF These words can be used in t he f ollowing ways:
ALL +
1
-
Uncount able noun
2
t he
or
3
my, your, et c.
Count able noun in t he plural
4a
t his, t hat
Uncount able noun
4b
t hese, t hose
Count able noun in t he plural
Example: 1.
All cheese cont ains prot ein All children need af f ect ion
2.
All t he people in t he room were silent . Have you eat en all t he bread?
3.
I've invit ed all my friends t o t he part y. I've been wait ing all my life f or t his opport unit y.
4a.
Who's lef t all t his paper on my desk?
4b.
Look at all t hose balloons! 1 2 t he
Count able noun in t he plural
BOTH + 3 my, your, et c. 4 t hese, t hose
Example: 1.
Bot h children were born in It aly.
2.
He has crashed bot h (of) t he cars.
3.
Bot h (of) my parent s have f air hair.
4
You can t ake bot h (of) t hese books back t o t he library. See not e below
HALF +
1
a
Uncountable
2
the
or
3
my, your, etc.
countable noun
4
this, that, these, those
Example: 1.
I bought half a kilo of apples yest erday.
2.
You can have half (of) t he cake. She gave me half (of) t he apples.
3.
I've already given you half (of) my money . Half (of) his books were in French.
4
Half (of) t hese snakes are harmless You can t ake half (of) t his sugar .
NOTE: All, bot h, half + OF: 'OF' must be added when f ollowed by a pronoun:
All of you; bot h of us; half of t hem It is also quit e common t o add it in most of t he above sit uat ions except when t here is no art icle (No. 1 in all t he t ables above. )
.
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THE DISTRIBUTIVES EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER These dist ribut ive words are normally used wit h singular nouns, and are placed bef ore t he noun.
Each, eit her and neit her can be used wit h plural nouns but must be f ollowed by 'of ':
Each is a way of seeing t he members of a group as individuals: ● ●
Each chi l d r ecei ved a pr esent . Each of t he chi l dr en r ecei ved a pr esent .
Every is a way of seeing a group as a series of members: ●
Every chi l d i n t he wor l d deser ves af f ect i on.
It can also express dif f erent point s in a series, especially wit h t ime expressions: ● ●
Every t hi r d mor ni ng John goes j oggi ng. Thi s magazi ne i s publ i shed every ot her week.
Either and Neither are concerned wit h dist ribut ion bet ween t wo t hings eit her is posit ive, neit her is negat ive: ● ● ● ● ●
Whi ch chai r do you want ? Eit her chai r wi l l do. I can st ay at eit her hot el , t hey ar e bot h good Ther e ar e t wo chai r s her e. You can t ake eit her of t hem . Neit her chai r i s any good, t hey'r e bot h t oo smal l . Whi ch chai r do you want ? Neit her of t hem - t hey'r e bot h t oo smal l .
.
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DIFFERENCE WORDS OTHER, ANOTHER These words ref er t o somet hing dif f erent , remaining, or addit ional. They are placed before the noun.
Anot her is used wit h singular nouns, ot her wit h singular or plural. ● ● ● ●
There are ot her j obs you could t ry. Where's t he ot her packet of cereals? Is t here any ot her bread? Have anot her cup of t ea.
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QUESTION WORDS WHICH, WHAT, WHOSE In quest ions, t hese words ask which t hing or person is being ref erred t o. They are placed bef ore t he noun. ● ● ●
Which dress are you going t o wear t onight ? What colour is your dress? Whose car are you going t o use?
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DEFINING WORDS WHICH AND WHOSE In a st at ement , t hese words def ine or explain which t hing or person is ref erred t o: Example: ●
●
He went back t o t he house. (Which house?) The house which st ood on t he corner. = He went back t o t he house which st ood on t he corner. I saw t he man. (Which man?) The man whose car you damaged. = I saw t he man whose car you damaged.
More examples: ● ● ● ●
He couldn't remember which f ilm he had seen. That 's t he man whose wif e works in my of f ice. Tell me which cof f ee you like. The woman whose dog bit you is at t he door.
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PRE-DETERMINERS SUCH, WHAT, RATHER, QUITE These words are normally placed bef ore t he indef init e art icle. Such and what are of t en used t o express surprise or ot her emot ions: Examples: a. b. c. d.
What a lovely day! She's such a lovely woman! What an incredible f ilm! He's such a f ant ast ic guit arist !
Rather and quite are 'comment ing' words, ref erring t o t he degree of a part icular qualit y. They can express disappoint ment , pleasure, or ot her emot ions, and are used bef ore a/ an + adj ect i ve + noun: Examples: a. b. c. d.
It 's rat her a small car. (= I'm a bit disappoint ed because it 's small) It was quit e a nice day. (= I was agreeably surprised. ) He's had quit e a bad accident . (= I'm worried) I've j ust met rat her a nice man. (= I'm pleased)
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THE INFINITIVE The zero infinitive is used: a. af t er most auxiliaries (e. g. must , can, should, may , might ) b. af t er verbs of percept ion, (e. g. see, hear , feel ) wit h t he pat t ern verb + obj ect + zero infinit ive c. af t er t he verbs 'make' and 'l et ', wit h t he pat t ern make/ let + obj ect + zero infinit ive d. af t er t he expression 'had bet t er ' e. af t er t he expression 'woul d r at her ' when ref erring t o t he speaker's own act ions
Examples:
After auxiliaries: ● ● ● ● ● ●
She can't speak t o you. He should give her some money. Shall I t alk t o him? Would you like a cup of cof f ee? I might st ay anot her night in t he hot el. They must leave bef ore 10. 00 a. m.
After verbs of perception: ● ● ● ●
He saw her fall f rom t he clif f . We heard t hem close t he door. They saw us walk t oward t he lake. She felt t he spider crawl up her leg.
After the verbs 'make' and 'let': ● ● ● ●
Her parent s let her st ay out lat e. Let's go t o t he cinema t onight . You made me love you. Don't make me st udy t hat boring grammar book!
NOTICE t hat t he 't o-infinit ive' is used when 'make' is in t he passive voice: ● ●
I am made t o sweep t he f loor every day. She was made t o eat f ish even t hough she hat ed it .
After 'had better':
We had better t ake some warm clot hing. She had better ask him not t o come. You'd better not smile at a crocodile! We had better reserve a room in t he hot el. You'd better give me your address. They had better work harder on t heir grammar!
After 'would rather': Note : t his is ONLY when ref erring t o t he speaker's own act ions - see 'would rather' in sect ion on Unreal past .
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THE INFINITIVE 1. Form The inf init ive is t he base f orm of a verb. It may be preceded by 't o' (t he t oi nf i ni t i ve) or st and alone (t he base or zer o i nf i ni t i ve). 2. Infinitive with or without 't o' The t o-inf init ive is used: a. af t er cert ain verbs. e. g. want , wish, agree, fail, mean, decide, learn b. af t er t he auxiliaries t o be t o, t o have t o, and ought t o c. in t he pat t ern 'it is + adj ect ive + t o-i nf i ni t i ve' Examples:
with 't o' ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
The elephant decided t o marry t he mouse The mouse agreed t o marry t he elephant You will have t o ask her You are t o leave immediat ely He ought t o relax She has t o go t o Berlin next week It's easy t o speak English It is hard t o change j obs af t er t went y years It's stupid t o believe everyt hing you hear
without 't o' ● ● ● ● ●
I would rather visit Rome. She would rather live in It aly. Would you rather eat st eak or f ish? He would rather work in a bank. I'd rather be a f orest t han a t ree.
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THE 'ZERO' CONDITIONAL 1. Form In 'zero' condit ional sent ences, t he t ense in both parts of t he sent ence is t he simple present:
'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION)
MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT)
If + simple present If you heat ice If it rains
simple present it melt s. you get wet
NOTE: The order of t he clauses is not f ixed - t he 'if' clause can be f irst or second: ● ●
Ice mel t s i f you heat i t . You get wet i f i t r ai ns.
2. Function In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is now or always and t he sit uat ion is real and possible. They are used t o make st at ement s about t he real world, and of t en ref er t o general t rut hs, such as scient if ic f act s. Examples: a. b. c. d. e.
If you freeze wat er, it becomes a solid. Plant s die if t hey don't get enough wat er. If my husband has a cold, I usually cat ch it . If public t ransport is ef f icient , people st op using t heir cars. If you mix red and blue, you get purple.
This st ruct ure is of t en used t o give inst ruct ions, using t he imperat ive in t he main clause: ● ●
If Bill phones, t ell him t o meet me at t he cinema. Ask Pet e if you're not sure what t o do.
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THE INFINITIVE VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE C. These are t he most common of t he verbs f ollowed by a t o-infinit ive, wit h or wit hout a noun. Example: ● ●
I asked him t o show me t he book. I asked t o see t he book.
ask * beg* choose dare desire* elect
expect * help mean* (=int end) request * want wish*
The verbs marked * can also be f ollowed by a t hat -clause Not e:
dare: In negat ive and int errogat ive sent ences t he inf init ive wit h or wit hout 't o' is possible, t hough it is more common t o omit t he 't o': ● ● ●
I never dared t ell him what happened. Dare you t ell him t he news? Would you dare (t o) j ump out of a plane?
Examples: ● ● ● ● ● ●
We've chosen John t o represent t he company at t he conf erence. The elephant didn't mean t o t read on t he mouse. We expect you t o do your best in t he exam. Do you want t o go t o t he beach? Do you want me t o go wit h you t o t he beach? You are request ed t o be quiet in t his library.
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REPORTED SPEECH SUMMARY OF REPORTING VERBS Not e t hat some report ing verbs may appear in more t han one of t he f ollowing groups. 1. Verbs f ollowed by 'if' or 'whet her' + clause: say see
ask know remember
2. Verbs f ollowed by a t hat -clause: add admit agree announce answer argue boast claim comment complain conf irm consider deny
reply report reveal say st at e suggest suppose t ell t hink underst and warn
doubt est imat e explain f ear f eel insist ment ion observe persuade propose remark remember repeat
3. Verbs f ollowed by eit her a t hat -clause or a t o-infinit ive: promise swear t hreat en
decide expect guarant ee hope
4. Verbs f ollowed by a t hat -clause cont aining should (but not e t hat it may be omit t ed, leaving a subj ect + zero-inf init ive): advise beg demand
insist pref er propose
recommend request suggest
5. Verbs f ollowed by a clause st art ing wit h a quest ion word:
decide describe discover discuss explain f orget guess
imagine know learn realise remember reveal say
see suggest t each t ell t hink underst and wonder
6. Verbs f ollowed by obj ect + t o-infinit ive advise ask beg command
f orbid inst ruct invit e
t each t ell warn
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'- ING' FORM VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND The gerund is used af t er cert ain verbs. Example:
miss: I mi ss l i vi ng i n Engl and. The most import ant of t hese verbs are shown below. Those marked * can also be f ollowed by a t hat -cl ause Example:
VERB
GERUND
She admit t ed. . .
breaking t he window THAT-CLAUSE
She admit t ed. . .
t hat she had broken t he window.
acknowledge, * admit , * ant icipat e, * appreciat e, * avoid, celebrat e, consider, cont emplat e, def er, delay, deny, * det est , dislike, dread, enj oy, ent ail, escape, excuse, f ancy (=i magi ne) *, f inish, f orgive, imagine, * involve,
keep, loat he, mean, (=have as r esul t ) * ment ion, * mind, miss, pardon, post pone, prevent , propose, * recall, * recollect , * remember, report , * resent , resist , risk, save (=pr event t he wast ed ef f or t ) st op, suggest , * underst and, *
Not es:
Appreciat e is f ollowed by a possessi ve adj ect i ve and t he gerund when t he gerund does not ref er t o t he subj ect . Compare : I appr eci at e having some t i me of f wor k. (I'm having t he t ime. . . ) I appr eci at e your giving me some t i me of f wor k. (You're giving me t he t ime. . . )
Excuse, forgive, pardon can be f ollowed by an obj ect and t he gerund or f or + obj ect and t he gerund (bot h common in spoken English), or a possessi ve adj ect i ve + gerund (more f ormal and less likely t o be said): Excuse me int errupt ing. Excuse me f or int errupt ing. Excuse my int errupt ing. Suggest can be used in a number of ways, but BE CAREFUL. It is import ant not t o conf use t hese pat t erns: suggest / suggest ed (+ possessive adj ect ive) + gerund: He suggest s going t o Glast onbury He suggest ed going t o Glast onbury He suggest ed/ suggest s my going t o Glast onbury suggest / suggest ed + t hat -clause (where bot h t hat and shoul d may be omit t ed): He suggest s t hat I should go t o Glast onbury He suggest ed t hat I should go t o Glast onbury He suggest ed/ suggest s I should go t o Glast onbury He suggest ed/ suggest s I go t o Glast onbury He suggest ed I went t o Glast onbury. suggest / suggest ed + quest ion word + inf init ive: He suggest ed where t o go.
Propose is f ollowed by t he gerund when it means 'suggest ': John pr oposed going t o t he debat e but by t he inf init ive when it means 'i nt end': The Gover nment pr oposes bringing i n new l aws. . St op can be f ollowed by a gerund or inf init ive, but t here is a change of meaning - see GERUND / INFINITIVE? sect ion. Dread is f ollowed by t he inf init ive when used wit h 't hi nk', in t he expression 'I dr ead t o t hi nk': I dr ead t o t hi nk what she'l l do next . Prevent is f ollowed EITHER by a possessive adj ect ive + gerund: You can't pr event my leaving. OR by an obj ect + f rom + gerund: You can't pr event me f r om leaving. Examples: ● ● ● ● ● ●
● ●
Normally, a mouse wouldn't cont emplat e marrying an elephant . Most mice dread meet ing elephant s. We can't risk get t ing wet - we haven't got any dry clot hes. If you t ake t hat j ob it will mean get t ing home lat e every night . I can't imagine living in t hat big house. If you buy some pet rol now, it will save you st opping on t he way t o London. She couldn't resist eat ing t he plum she f ound in t he f ridge. They decided t o post pone paint ing t he house unt il t he weat her improved.
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'- ING' FORM GERUND OR INFINITIVE? The t wo groups of verbs below can be f ollowed eit her by t he gerund or by t he inf init ive. Usually t his has no ef f ect on t he meaning, but wit h some verbs t here is a clear dif f erence in meaning. Verbs marked * can also be f ollowed by a t hat -cl ause. Example: t o prefer I pref er to live in an apart ment . I pref er living in an apart ment .
A. Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning: allow at t empt begin bot her cease cont inue
deserve f ear* hat e* int end* like love
neglect omit permit pref er* recommend* st art
Notes: 1. Allow is used in t hese t wo pat t erns: a. Al l ow + obj ect + t o-i nf i ni t i ve: Her par ent s al l owed her t o go t o t he par t y. b. Al l ow + ger und: Her par ent s don't al l ow smoking i n t he house. 2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used wit h passive const ruct ions or where t here is a passive meaning: a. Your pr oposal s deser ve being consi der ed i n det ai l . b. These i deas deser ve di scussi ng. (= t o be discussed). 3. The verbs hat e, love, like, prefer are usually f ollowed by a gerund when t he meaning is general, and by a t o-i nf i ni t i ve when t hey ref er t o a part icular t ime or sit uat ion. You must always use t he t o-i nf i ni t i ve wit h t he expressions 'woul d l ove t o', 'woul d hat e t o', et c. Compare: ● ● ● ●
I I I I
hat e t o t ell you, but Uncl e Ji m i s comi ng t hi s weekend. hat e looking af t er el der l y r el at i ves! l ove dancing. woul d l ove t o dance wi t h you.
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COMMON GROUP 2 ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS Two of t he t hree f orms are t he same. Examples wit h 'cat ch': ● ● ●
Mary catches t he bus t o work every day. Mary caught t he bus t o work yest erday. Mary has caught t he bus t o work since her car broke down.
Base
Past
Past Participle
Group
beat
beat
beat en
2
become
became
become
2
behold
beheld
beheld
2
bend
bent
bent
2
beseech
besought
besought
2
bet
bet , bet t ed
bet , bet t ed
2
bind
bound
bound
2
bleed
bled
bled
2
breed
bred
bred
2
bring
brought
brought
2
build
built
built
2
burn
burnt , burned
burnt , burned
2
buy
bought
bought
2
cat ch
caught
caught
2
cling
clung
clung
2
come
came
come
2
creep
crept
crept
2
dare
dared
dared
2
deal
dealt
dealt
2
dig
dug
dug
2
dive
dived
dived
2
dream
dreamt
dreamt
2
dwell
dwelt , dwelled
dwelt , dwelled
2
f eed
f ed
f ed
2
f eel
f elt
f elt
2
f ight
f ought
f ought
2
f ind
f ound
f ound
2
f it
f it , f it t ed
f it , f it t ed
2
f lee
f led
f led
2
f ling
f lung
f lung
2
get
got
got , got t en
2
gild
gilt , gilded
gilt , gilded
2
gird
girt , girded
girt , girded
2
grind
ground
ground
2
Note
regular in AE
regular in AE
regular in BE
'got t en' in AE
hang
hung
hung
2
have
had
had
2
hear
heard
heard
2
hold
held
held
2
keep
kept
kept
2
kneel
knelt
knelt
2
lay
laid
laid
2
lead
led
led
2
leap
leapt , leaped
leapt , leaped
2
learn
learnt
learnt
2
leave
lef t
lef t
2
lend
lent
lent
2
light
lit
lit
2
lose
lost
lost
2
make
made
made
2
mean
meant
meant
2
meet
met
met
2
pay
paid
paid
2
plead
pled, pleaded
pled, pleaded
2
rend
rent
rent
2
run
ran
run
2
say
said
said
2
seek
sought
sought
2
sell
sold
sold
2
send
sent
sent
2
shine
shone
shone
2
sit
sat
sat
2
sleep
slept
slept
2
slide
slid
slid
2
sling
slung
slung
2
slink
slunk
slunk
2
smell
smelt
smelt
2
sneak
snuck, sneaked
snuck, sneaked
2
speed
sped, speeded
sped, speeded
2
spell
spelt
spelt
2
spend
spent
spent
2
spill
spilt
spilt
2
spin
spun
spun
2
spit
spat
spat
2
spoil
spoilt , spoiled
spoilt , spoiled
2
st and
st ood
st ood
2
st ick
st uck
st uck
2
st ing
st ung
st ung
2
st rike
st ruck
st ruck
2
sweep
swept
swept
2
swing
swung
swung
2
t each
t aught
t aught
2
t ell
t old
t old
2
regular in AE
regular in AE
regular in AE
regular in AE
t hink
t hought
t hought
2
underst and
underst ood
underst ood
2
weep
wept
wept
2
wet
wet , wet t ed
wet , wet t ed
2
win
won
won
2
wind
wound
wound
2
wit hdraw
wit hdrew
wit hdraw
2
wring
wrung
wrung
2
regular in BE
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ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS Irregular verbs are t he bane of st udent s whose mot her t ongue is not English and who are t rying t o underst and how t hese verbs are applied in various t enses. They even t rip up nat ive English speakers who aren't always sure of t he f orm of t hese verbs! It isn't made any easier by t he f act t hat some verbs are regular in American English and irregular in Brit ish English. However, t here are some general classif icat ions t hat make it a lit t le easier t o remember how t hese verbs are f ormed and t o remember t hem when applying t hem in your sent ences.
Irregular verbs in English fall into three categories: 1. GROUP 1: verbs where all t hree f orms are t he same - e. g. 'hi t , hi t , hi t ' 2. GROUP 2: verbs where t wo of t he t hree f orms are t he same - e. g. 'become, became, become' 3. GROUP 3: verbs where all t hree f orms are dif f erent - e. g. 'choose, chose, chosen'
Common irregular verbs that differ in American English and British English
● ● ●
● ●
wake can be regular in American English but is irregular in Brit ish English di ve is irregular in American English but regular in Brit ish English get in American English usually has a past part icple of 'got t en' while in Brit ish English t he past part iciple is 'got ' wet , qui t , and f i t are regular in Brit ish English but irregular in American English l ear n, l ean, smel l , bur n, dr eam, spi l l and spoi l are all regular in American English while in Brit ish English t hey can be regular but is more common t o see t he past and past part iciples wit h -t added (e. g. dr eamt , spoi l t , spi l t , smel t )
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COMMON GROUP 1 ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS All t hree f orms are t he same.
Base
Past
Past Participle
Group
bid
bid
bid
1
cut
cut
cut
1
hit
hit
hit
1
hurt
hurt
hurt
1
let
let
let
1
put
put
put
1
quit
quit
quit
1
read
read
read
1
rid
rid
rid
1
shut
shut
shut
1
split
split
split
1
spread
spread
spread
1
t hrust
t hrust
t hrust
1
Note
regular in BE
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COMMON GROUP 3 ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS All of t he t hree f orms are dif f erent . Examples wit h 'begin': ● ● ●
I begin my day wit h a glass of organge j uice. I began t o st udy French when I was living in Paris. I have begun t o underst and my parent s since I have had children of my own.
Base
Past
Past Participle
Group
arise
arose
arisen
3
awake
awoke, awaked
awoken
3
be
was
been
3
bear
bore
borne
3
bef all
bef ell
bef allen
3
beget
begot
begot t en
3
begin
began
begun
3
bereave
bereaved
beref t
3
best ride
best rode
best ridden
3
bid
bade
bidden
3
bit e
bit
bit t en
3
blow
blew
blown
3
blow
blew
blown
3
break
broke
broken
3
broadcast
broadcast
broadcast
3
burst
burst
burst
3
cast
cast
cast
3
choose
chose
chosen
3
cost
cost
cost
3
dive
dove
dived
3
do
did
done
3
draw
drew
drawn
3
drink
drank
drunk
3
drive
drove
driven
3
eat
at e
eat en
3
f all
f ell
f allen
3
f ly
f lew
f lown
3
f orbear
f orbore
f orborne
3
f orbid
f orbade
f orbidden
3
f orget
f orgot
f orgot t en
3
f orgive
f orgave
f orgiven
3
f orsake
f orsook
f orsaken
3
Note
regular in BE
f reeze
f roze
f rozen
3
give
gave
given
3
go
went
gone
3
grow
grew
grown
3
hide
hid
hidden
3
know
knew
known
3
lie
lay
lain
3
melt
melt ed
melt ed, molt en
3
mow
mowed
mown, mowed
3
ride
rode
ridden
3
ring
rang
rung
3
rise
rose
risen
3
rise
rose
risen
3
see
saw
seen
3
sew
sewed
sewn
3
shake
shook
shaken
3
shear
sheared
shorn, sheared
3
shed
shed
shed
3
shoe
shod, shoed
shone
3
shoot
shot
shone
3
show
showed
shown
3
shrink
shrank
shrunk
3
sing
sang
sung
3
sink
sank
sunk
3
slit
slit
slit
3
smit e
smot e
smit t en
3
speak
spoke
spoken
3
spring
sprang
sprung
3
st eal
st ole
st olen
3
st ride
st rode
st ridden
3
swear
swore
sworn
3
swim
swam
swum
3
t ake
t ook
t aken
3
t ear
t ore
t orn
3
t hrow
t hrew
t hrown
3
t read
t rod
t rodden
3
t read
t rod
t rodden
3
undergo
underwent
undergone
3
undert ake
undert ook
undert aken
3
wake
woke
woken
3
wear
wore
worn
3
weave
wove
woven
3
writ e
wrot e
writ t en
3
can be regular in AE
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ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS Base
Past
Past Participle
Group
arise
arose
arisen
3
awake
awoke, awaked
awoken
3
be
was
been
3
bear
bore
borne
3
beat
beat
beat en
2
become
became
become
2
bef all
bef ell
bef allen
3
beget
begot
begot t en
3
begin
began
begun
3
behold
beheld
beheld
2
bend
bent
bent
2
bereave
bereaved
beref t
3
beseech
besought
besought
2
best ride
best rode
best ridden
3
bet
bet , bet t ed
bet , bet t ed
2
bid
bade
bidden
3
bid
bid
bid
1
bind
bound
bound
2
bit e
bit
bit t en
3
bleed
bled
bled
2
blow
blew
blown
3
blow
blew
blown
3
break
broke
broken
3
breed
bred
bred
2
bring
brought
brought
2
broadcast
broadcast
broadcast
3
build
built
built
2
burn
burnt , burned
burnt , burned
2
burst
burst
burst
3
buy
bought
bought
2
cast
cast
cast
3
cat ch
caught
caught
2
choose
chose
chosen
3
cling
clung
clung
2
come
came
come
2
cost
cost
cost
3
creep
crept
crept
2
cut
cut
cut
1
dare
dared
dared
2
deal
dealt
dealt
2
dig
dug
dug
2
dive
dove
dived
3
dive
dived
dived
2
do
did
done
3
draw
drew
drawn
3
dream
dreamt
dreamt
2
drink
drank
drunk
3
drive
drove
driven
3
dwell
dwelt , dwelled
dwelt , dwelled
2
eat
at e
eat en
3
f all
f ell
f allen
3
f eed
f ed
f ed
2
f eel
f elt
f elt
2
f ight
f ought
f ought
2
f ind
f ound
f ound
2
f it
f it , f it t ed
f it , f it t ed
2
f lee
f led
f led
2
f ling
f lung
f lung
2
f ly
f lew
f lown
3
f orbear
f orbore
f orborne
3
f orbid
f orbade
f orbidden
3
f orget
f orgot
f orgot t en
3
f orgive
f orgave
f orgiven
3
f orsake
f orsook
f orsaken
3
f reeze
f roze
f rozen
3
get
got
got , got t en
2
gild
gilt , gilded
gilt , gilded
2
gird
girt , girded
girt , girded
2
give
gave
given
3
go
went
gone
3
grind
ground
ground
2
grow
grew
grown
3
hang
hung
hung
2
have
had
had
2
hear
heard
heard
2
hide
hid
hidden
3
hit
hit
hit
1
hold
held
held
2
hurt
hurt
hurt
1
keep
kept
kept
2
kneel
knelt
knelt
2
know
knew
known
3
lay
laid
laid
2
lead
led
led
2
leap
leapt , leaped
leapt , leaped
2
learn
learnt
learnt
2
leave
lef t
lef t
2
lend
lent
lent
2
let
let
let
1
lie
lay
lain
3
light
lit
lit
2
lose
lost
lost
2
make
made
made
2
mean
meant
meant
2
meet
met
met
2
melt
melt ed
melt ed, molt en
3
mow
mowed
mown, mowed
3
pay
paid
paid
2
plead
pled, pleaded
pled, pleaded
2
put
put
put
1
quit
quit
quit
1
read
read
read
1
rend
rent
rent
2
rid
rid
rid
1
ride
rode
ridden
3
ring
rang
rung
3
rise
rose
risen
3
rise
rose
risen
3
run
ran
run
2
say
said
said
2
see
saw
seen
3
seek
sought
sought
2
sell
sold
sold
2
send
sent
sent
2
sew
sewed
sewn
3
shake
shook
shaken
3
shear
sheared
shorn, sheared
3
shed
shed
shed
3
shine
shone
shone
2
shoe
shod, shoed
shone
3
shoot
shot
shone
3
show
showed
shown
3
shrink
shrank
shrunk
3
shut
shut
shut
1
sing
sang
sung
3
sink
sank
sunk
3
sit
sat
sat
2
sleep
slept
slept
2
slide
slid
slid
2
sling
slung
slung
2
slink
slunk
slunk
2
slit
slit
slit
3
smell
smelt
smelt
2
smit e
smot e
smit t en
3
sneak
snuck, sneaked
snuck, sneaked
2
speak
spoke
spoken
3
speed
sped, speeded
sped, speeded
2
spell
spelt
spelt
2
spend
spent
spent
2
spill
spilt
spilt
2
spin
spun
spun
2
spit
spat
spat
2
split
split
split
1
spoil
spoilt , spoiled
spoilt , spoiled
2
spread
spread
spread
1
spring
sprang
sprung
3
st and
st ood
st ood
2
st eal
st ole
st olen
3
st ick
st uck
st uck
2
st ing
st ung
st ung
2
st ride
st rode
st ridden
3
st rike
st ruck
st ruck
2
swear
swore
sworn
3
sweep
swept
swept
2
swim
swam
swum
3
swing
swung
swung
2
t ake
t ook
t aken
3
t each
t aught
t aught
2
t ear
t ore
t orn
3
t ell
t old
t old
2
t hink
t hought
t hought
2
t hrow
t hrew
t hrown
3
t hrust
t hrust
t hrust
1
t read
t rod
t rodden
3
t read
t rod
t rodden
3
undergo
underwent
undergone
3
underst and
underst ood
underst ood
2
undert ake
undert ook
undert aken
3
wake
woke
woken
3
wear
wore
worn
3
weave
wove
woven
3
weep
wept
wept
2
wet
wet , wet t ed
wet , wet t ed
2
win
won
won
2
wind
wound
wound
2
wit hdraw
wit hdrew
wit hdraw
2
wring
wrung
wrung
2
writ e
wrot e
writ t en
3
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THE INFINITIVE VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE B. These are t he most common of t he verbs t hat are normally f ollowed by a noun + inf init ive. The verbs marked * may also be f ollowed by a 't hat clause'. Example:
VERB
NOUN
INFINITIVE
He reminded
me
t o buy some eggs. THAT-CLAUSE
He reminded accust om aid appoint assist cause challenge command * def y direct * drive empower enable encourage ent ice
me
t hat I had t o buy some eggs.
ent it le order * ent reat persuade* f orce press get prompt implore* provoke incit e remind * induce require* inspire st imulat e inst ruct * summon invit e t each lead t ell leave (make someone responsible) t empt oblige t rust * warn*
Not es:
command, direct , ent reat , implore, order, require, t rust : t here is no noun bet ween t hese verbs and a 't hat -cl ause': ● ●
The general commanded his men t o surrender. The general commanded t hat his men should surrender.
persuade and remind: t here is always a noun bet ween t hese verbs and a 't hat -cl ause': ● ●
You can't persuade people t o buy small cars. You can't persuade people t hat small cars are bet t er.
inst ruct , t each, warn: t he noun is opt ional bet ween t hese verbs and a 't hat -cl ause': ● ● ●
She t aught her st udent s t o appreciat e poet ry. She t aught her st udent s t hat poet ry was valuable. She t aught t hat poet ry was valuable.
Examples: ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
The prof essor challenged his st udent s t o argue wit h his t heory. This law empowers t he government t o charge more t axes. You can't f orce me t o do somet hing I don't agree wit h. You are obliged t o drive on t he lef t in England. I invit ed t he new st udent t o have dinner wit h me. What inspired you t o writ e t his poem? The elephant t old t he mouse t o climb up his t ail.
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THE INFINITIVE VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE A. The t o-i nf i ni t i ve is used af t er t he verbs in t his group, without a preceding noun. The verbs marked * can also be f ollowed by a 't hat -clause' Example:
VERB
TO-INFINITIVE
I hope. . .
t o see you next week. THAT- CLAUSE
I hope. . .
af f ord agree* aim appear † arrange* bot her care claim * condescend consent decide* demand * det ermine* endeavour
t hat I'll see you next week
f ail guarant ee* happen † hast en have (= be obliged) hesit at e hope* learn long manage of f er prepare pret end * proceed
promise* propose prove (= t urn out ) ref use resolve* seek seem † st rive swear * t end t hreat en* t rouble undert ake volunt eer vow *
† These verbs can only be f ollowed by a 't hat -cl ause' when t hey have t he subj ect 'i t '. e. g. It appear ed t hat no-one had l ocked t he door . Examples: ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
He claimed t o be an expert . I managed t o reach t he t op of t he hill. I know you're only pret ending t o love me! Don't pret end t hat you know t he answer. She f ailed t o explain t he problem clearly. The cust oms man demanded t o search our luggage. I can't af f ord t o go out t onight .
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TENSES PRESENT CONTINUOUS 1. Present continuous, form The present cont inuous of any verb is composed of t wo part s - t he pr esent t ense of t he ver b t o be + t he pr esent par t i ci pl e of t he mai n ver b. (The f orm of t he present part iciple is: base+i ng, e. g. t al ki ng, pl ayi ng, movi ng, smi l i ng)
Affirmative Subj ect
+ t o be
+ base+ing
she
is
t alking
Subj ect
+ t o be + not
+ base+ing
she
is not (isn't )
t alking
t o be
+ subj ect
+ base+ing
is
she
t alking?
Negative
Interrogative
Example: t o go, present cont inuous
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I am going
I am not going
Am I going?
You are going
You aren't going.
Are you going?
He, she, it is going
He, she, it isn't going
Is he, she, it going?
We are going
We aren't going
Are we going?
You are going
You aren't going
Are you going?
They are going
They aren't going
Are t hey going?
Note : alt ernat ive negat ive cont ract ions: I'm not goi ng, you'r e not goi ng, he's not goi ng et c.
2. Present continuous, function As wit h all t enses in English, t he speaker's at t it ude is as import ant as t he t ime of t he act ion or event . When someone uses t he present cont inuous, t hey are t hinking about somet hing t hat is unfinished or incomplet e. The present cont inuous is used:
●
●
●
●
●
t o describe an act ion t hat is going on at t his moment e. g. You are using t he Int er net . You are st udying Engl i sh gr ammar . t o describe an act ion t hat is going on during t his period of t ime or a t rend, e. g. Are you st ill working f or t he same company? Mor e and mor e peopl e are becoming veget ar i an. t o describe an act ion or event in t he f ut ure, which has already been planned or prepared (See also 'Ways of expressing t he f ut ure) e. g. We're going on hol i day t omor r ow . I'm meet ing my boyf r i end t oni ght . Are t hey visit ing you next wint er? t o describe a t emporary event or sit uat ion, e. g. He usual l y pl ays t he dr ums, but he's playing bass gui t ar t oni ght . The weat her f or ecast was good, but it 's raining at t he moment . wit h 'always, f orever, const ant ly', t o describe and emphasise a cont inuing series of repeat ed act ions, e. g. Har r y and Sal l y are always arguing! You're forever complaining about your mot her -i n-l aw!
BE CAREFUL! Some verbs are not used in t he cont inuous f orm - see below.
3. Verbs that are not normally used in the continuous form The verbs in t he list below are normally used in t he simple f orm, because t hey ref er t o st at es, rat her t han act ions or processes: List of common verbs normally used in simple f orm: Senses / Perception f eel * , hear, see*, smell, t ast e
Opinion assume, believe, consider, doubt , f eel (= t hink), f ind (= consider), suppose, t hink *
Mental states f orget , imagine, know, mean, not ice, recognise, remember, underst and
Emotions / desires envy, f ear, dislike, hat e, hope, like, love, mind, pref er, regret , want , wish
Measurement cont ain, cost , hold, measure, weigh
Others look (=resemble), seem, be (i n most cases), have (when i t means t o possess) *
Not es: 1. 'Percept ion' verbs (see, hear, f eel, t ast e, smell) are of t en used wit h 'can': e. g. I can see. . . 2. * These verbs may be used in t he cont inuous f orm but wit h a dif f erent meaning, compare: a. Thi s coat feels ni ce and war m. (= your per cept i on of t he coat 's qual i t i es) b. John's feeling much bet t er now (= hi s heal t h i s i mpr ovi ng) a. She has t hr ee dogs and a cat . (=possessi on) b. She's having supper . (= She's eat i ng)
a. I can see Ant hony i n t he gar den (= per cept i on) b. I'm seeing Ant hony l at er (= We ar e pl anni ng t o meet ) Examples: ● ● ● ● ●
I wish I was in Greece now. She want s t o see him now. I don't underst and why he is shout ing. I feel we are making a mist ake. This glass holds half a lit re.
.
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TENSES SIMPLE PAST BE CAREFUL! The simple past in English may look like a t ense in your own language, but t he meaning may be dif f erent .
1. Simple past, form Regular verbs: base+ed e. g. wal ked, showed, wat ched, pl ayed, smi l ed, st opped Irregular verbs: see list in verbs Simple past, be, have, do: Verb Subj ect Be
Have
Do
I
was
had
did
You
were
had
did
He, she, it
was
had
did
We
were
had
did
You
were
had
did
They
were
had
did
Affirmative a. I was in Japan last year b. She had a headache yest erday. c. We did our homework last night . Negative and interrogative Not e: For t he negat ive and int errogat ive simple past f orm of "do" as an ordinary verb, use t he auxiliary "do", e. g. We didn't do our homework last night . The negat ive of "have" in t he simple past is usually f ormed using t he auxiliary "do", but somet imes by simply adding not or t he cont ract ion "n't ". The int errogat ive f orm of "have" in t he simple past normally uses t he auxiliary "do". ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
They weren't in Rio last summer. We hadn't any money. We didn't have t ime t o visit t he Eif f el Tower. We didn't do our exercises t his morning. Were t hey in Iceland last January? Did you have a bicycle when you were a boy? Did you do much climbing in Swit zerland?
Simple past, regular verbs Affirmative
Subj ect
verb + ed
I
washed
Negative Subj ect
did not
infinitive without t o
They
didn't
visit . . .
Did
subj ect
infinitive without t o
Did
she
arrive. . . ?
Did not
subj ect
infinitive without t o
Didn't
you
like. . ?
Interrogative
Interrogative negative
Example: t o walk, simple past . Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I walked
I didn't walk
Did I walk?
You walked
You didn't walk
Did you walk?
He, she, it walked
He didn't walk
Did he walk?
We walked
We didn't walk
Did we walk?
You walked
You didn't walk
Did you walk?
They walked
They didn't walk
Did t hey walk?
Note: For t he negat ive and int errogat ive f orm of all verbs in t he simple past , always use t he auxiliary 'did''. Examples: Simple past, irregular verbs
t o go a. He went t o a club last night . b. Did he go t o t he cinema last night ? c. He didn't go t o bed early last night . t o give d. We gave her a doll f or her birt hday. e. They didn't give John t heir new address. f . Did Barry give you my passport ? t o come g. My parent s came t o visit me last July. h. We didn't come because it was raining. i. Did he come t o your part y last week?
2. Simple past, function The simple past is used t o t alk about a complet ed act ion in a t ime before now . Durat ion is not import ant . The t ime of t he act ion can be in t he recent past or t he dist ant past . ● ● ● ●
John Cabot sailed t o America in 1498. My f at her died last year. He lived in Fij i in 1976. We crossed t he Channel yest erday.
You always use t he simple past when you say when somet hing happened, so it is associat ed wit h cert ain past t ime expressions
Examples: ●
●
●
frequency: of t en, somet i mes, al ways; a definite point in time : l ast week, when I was a chi l d, yest er day, si x weeks ago. an indefinite point in time : t he ot her day, ages ago, a l ong t i me ago et c. Note: t he word ago is a usef ul way of expressing t he dist ance int o t he past . It is placed after t he period of t ime e. g. a week ago, t hr ee year s ago, a mi nut e ago. Examples: a. Yest er day, I arrived in Geneva. b. She finished her work at seven o'cl ock . c. We saw a good f ilm l ast week . d. I went t o t he t heat re l ast ni ght . e. She played t he piano when she was a chi l d . f . He sent me a let t er si x mont hs ago. g. Pet er left f i ve mi nut es ago.
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TENSES FUTURE FORMS Introduction There are a number of dif f erent ways of ref erring t o t he f ut ure in English. It is import ant t o remember t hat we are expressing more t han simply t he time of t he act ion or event . Obviously, any 'f ut ure' t ense will always ref er t o a t ime 'lat er t han now', but it may also express our attitude t o t he f ut ure event . All of t he f ollowing ideas can be expressed using dif f erent t enses: a. Simple predict ion b. Arrangement s c. Plans and int ent ions d. Time-t abled event s e. Predict ion based on present evidence f . Willingness g. An act ion in progress in t he f ut ure h. An act ion or event t hat is a mat t er of rout ine i. Obligat ion j . An act ion or event t hat will t ake place immediat ely or very soon k. Proj ect ing ourselves int o t he f ut ure and looking back at a complet ed act ion. The example sent ences below correspond t o t he ideas above: a. There will be snow in many areas t omorrow. b. I'm meet ing Jim at t he airport . c. We're going t o spend t he summer abroad. d. The plane t akes off at 3 a. m. e. I t hink it 's going t o rain! f . We'll give you a lif t t o t he cinema. g. This t ime next week I'll be sun-bat hing. h. You'll be seeing John in t he of f ice t omorrow, won't you? i. You are t o t ravel direct ly t o London. j . The t rain is about t o leave. k. A mont h f rom now he will have finished all his exams. It is clear f rom t hese examples t hat several t enses are used t o express t he f ut ure. The sect ions t hat f ollow show t he f orm and f unct ion of each of t hese t enses.
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TENSES PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS Past perfect continuous, form The past perf ect cont inuous is composed of t wo element s - t he past perf ect of t he verb t o be (=had been) + t he present part iciple (base+i ng) . Examples:
Subj ect
had been
verb-ing
I
had been
walking
had been
t rying
hadn't been
sleeping
been
eat ing
been
living
Affirmative She
Negative We
Interrogative Had you
Interrogative negative Hadn't t hey
Example: t o buy, past perfect continuous Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I had been buying
I hadn't been buying
Had I been buying?
You had been buying
You hadn't been buying
Had you been buying
He, she, it had been buying
He hadn't been buying
Had she been buying?
We had been buying
We hadn't been buying
Had we been buying?
You had been buying
You hadn't been buying
Had you been buying
They had been buying
They hadn't been buying Had t hey been buying
Past perfect continuous, function The past perf ect cont inuous corresponds t o t he present perf ect cont inuous, but wit h ref erence t o a t ime earlier t han 'bef ore now'. Again, we are more int erest ed in t he process. Examples: a. Had you been wait ing long bef ore t he t axi arrived? b. We had been t rying t o open t he door f or f ive minut es when Jane f ound her key. c. It had been raining hard f or several hours and t he st reet s were very wet . d. Her f riends had been t hinking of calling t he police when she walked in. This f orm is also used in reported speech. It is t he equivalent of t he past
cont inuous and t he present perf ect cont inuous in direct speech: Jane said "I have been gardening all af t ernoon. " gardening all af t ernoon.
Jane said she had been
When t he police quest ioned him, John said "I was working lat e in t he of f ice t hat night . " When t he police quest ioned him, John t old t hem he had been working lat e in t he of f ice t hat night .
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TENSES PAST PERFECT Past perfect, form The Past Perf ect t ense in English is composed of t wo part s: t he past t ense of t he verb t o have (had) + t he past part iciple of t he main verb.
Subj ect
had
past participle
We
had
decided. . .
had
given.
hadn't
asked.
t hey
arrived?
Affirmative She
Negative We
Interrogative Had
Interrogative negative Hadn't
you
f inished?
Example: t o decide, Past perfect Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I had decided
I hadn't decided
Had I decided?
You had decided
You hadn't decided
Had you decided?
He, she, it had decided
He hadn't decided
Had she decided?
We had decided
We hadn't decided
Had we decided?
You had decided
You hadn't decided
Had you decided?
They had decided
They hadn't decided
Had t hey decided?
Past perfect, function The past perf ect ref ers t o a t ime earlier t han bef ore now. It is used t o make it clear t hat one event happened bef ore anot her in t he past . It does not mat t er which event is ment ioned f irst - t he t ense makes it clear which one happened f irst . In t hese examples, Event A is t he f irst or earliest event , Event B is t he second or lat est event : John had gone out
when I arrived in t he of f ice.
Event A
Event B
I had saved my document
bef ore t he comput er crashed.
a.
b. Event A
Event B
When t hey arrived
we had already st art ed cooking
Event B
Event A
c.
He was very t ired
because he hadn't slept well.
Event B
Event A
d.
Past perfect + j ust 'Just ' is used wit h t he past perf ect t o ref er t o an event t hat was only a short t ime earlier t han bef ore now, e. g. a. The t rain had j ust left when I arrived at t he st at ion. b. She had j ust left t he room when t he police arrived. c. I had j ust put t he washing out when it st art ed t o rain.
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TENSES SIMPLE FUTURE Simple future, form The 'simple' f ut ure is composed of t wo part s: wi l l / shal l + t he inf init ive wit hout 't o'
Subj ect
will
infinitive without t o
He
will
leave. . .
I
will
go
I
shall
go
They
will not
see
They
won't
see
she
ask?
she
t ake?
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative Will
Interrogative negative Won't
Contractions: I will
I'll
You will
you'll
He, she, will
he'll , she'll
We will
we'll
You will
you'll
They will
t hey'll
NOTE: The f orm 'i t wi l l ' is not normally short ened. Example: t o see, simple future Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I'll see
I won't see/
Will I see?/
*I will/ shall see
I shan't see
Shall I see?
You'll see
You won't see
Will you see?
He, she, it will see
He won't see
Will she see?
We 'll see
We won't see/
Will we see?/
*We will/ shall see
We shan't see
Shall we see?
You will see
You won't see
Will you see?
They'll see
They won't see
Will t hey see?
*NOTE: shall is slight ly dat ed but can be used inst ead of will wit h I / we.
Simple future, function The simple f ut ure ref ers t o a t ime lat er t han now, and expresses f act s or cert aint y. In t his case t here is no 'at t it ude'. The simple f ut ure is used: a. t o predict a f ut ure event : It will rain t omorrow. b. (wit h I/ we) t o express a spont aneous decision: I'll pay f or t he t icket s by credit card. c. t o express willingness: I'll do t he washing-up. He'll carry your bag f or you. d. (in t he negat ive f orm) t o express unwillingness: The baby won't eat his soup. I won't leave unt il I've seen t he manager! e. (wit h I in t he int errogat ive f orm) t o make an of f er: Shall I open t he window? f . (wit h we in t he int errogat ive f orm) t o make a suggest ion: Shall we go t o t he cinema t onight ? g. (wit h I in t he int errogat ive f orm) t o ask f or advice or inst ruct ions: What shall I t ell t he boss about t his money? h. (wit h you) t o give orders: You will do exact ly as I say. i. (wit h you) t o give an invit at ion: Will you come t o t he dance wit h me? Will you marry me? NOTE: In modern English will is pref erred t o shall .
Shall is mainly used wit h I and we t o make an of f er or suggest ion (see examples (e) and (f ) above, or t o ask f or advice (example (g) above). Wit h t he ot her persons ( you, he, she, t hey) shall is only used in lit erary or poet ic sit uat ions, e. g. "Wi t h r i ngs on her f i nger s and bel l s on her t oes, She shall have musi c wher ever she goes. "
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TENSES PAST CONTINUOUS 1. Past continuous - form . The past cont inuous of any verb is composed of t wo part s : t he past t ense of t he verb t o be (was/ wer e) , and t he base of t he main verb +i ng.
Subj ect
was/ were
base-ing
They
were
wat ching
was
reading
wasn't
reading
she
reading?
she
reading?
Affirmative She
Negative She
Interrogative Was
Interrogative negative Wasn't
Example: t o play, past continuous Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I was playing
I was not playing
Was I playing?
You were playing
You were not playing
Were you playing?
He, she, it was playing
She wasn't playing
Was she playing?
We were playing
We weren't playing
Were we playing?
You were playing
You weren't playing
Were you playing?
They were playing
They weren't playing
Were t hey playing?
2. Past continuous, function The past cont inuous describes act ions or event s in a t ime before now , which began in t he past and was st ill going on at t he t ime of speaking. In ot her words, it expresses an unfinished or incomplet e act ion in t he past . It is used: ●
●
of t en, t o describe t he background in a st ory writ t en in t he past t ense, e. g. "The sun was shining and t he birds were singing as t he elephant came out of t he j ungle. The ot her animals were relaxing in t he shade of t he t rees, but t he elephant moved very quickly. She was looking f or her baby, and she didn't not ice t he hunt er who was wat ching her t hrough his binoculars. When t he shot rang out , she was r unni ng t owards t he river. . . " t o describe an unf inished act ion t hat was int errupt ed by anot her event or act ion: "I was having a beaut if ul dream when t he alarm
clock rang. " ●
●
t o express a change of mind: e. g. "I was going t o spend t he day at t he beach but I've decided t o go on an excursion inst ead. " wit h 'wonder ', t o make a very polit e request : e. g. "I was wondering if you could baby-sit f or me t onight . "
More examples: a. They were wait ing f or t he bus when t he accident happened. b. Caroline was skiing when she broke her leg. c. When we arrived he was having a bat h. d. When t he f ire st art ed I was wat ching t elevision.
Note : wit h verbs not normally used in t he cont inuous f orm, t he simple past is used. See list in Present cont inuous
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TENSES PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS Present perfect continuous, form The present perf ect cont inuous is made up of t wo element s: (a) t he present perf ect of t he verb 't o be' (have/ has been), and (b) t he present part iciple of t he main verb (base+ing).
Subj ect
has/ have been
base+ing
She
has been
swimming
Affirmative She has been / She's been
running
Negative She hasn't been
running
Interrogative Has she been
running?
Interrogative negative Hasn't she been
running?
Example: t o l i ve, present perf ect cont inuous Affirmative
Negative
I have been living
I haven't been living
Have I been living?
You have been living
You haven't been living
Have you been living?
He, she, it has been living He hasn't been living
Interrogative
Has she been living?
We have been living
We haven't been living
Have we been living?
You have been living
You haven't been living
Have you been living?
They have been living
They haven't been living Have t hey been living?
Present perfect continuous, function The present perf ect cont inuous ref ers t o an unspecified time bet ween 'bef ore now' and 'now'. The speaker is t hinking about somet hing t hat st art ed but perhaps did not f inish in t hat period of t ime. He/ she is int erest ed in t he process as well as the result, and t his process may st ill be going on, or may have j ust f inished. Examples:
1. Actions that started in the past and continue in the present. a. She has been wait ing f or you all day (=and she's st ill wait ing now). b. I've been working on t his report since eight o'clock t his morning (=and I st ill haven't f inished it ).
c. T hey have been t ravelling since last Oct ober (=and t hey're not home yet ).
2. Actions that have j ust finished, but we are interested in the results: a. She has been cooking since last night (=and t he f ood on t he t able looks delicious). b. It 's been raining (= and t he st reet s are st ill wet ).
c. Someone's been eat ing my chips (= half of t hem have gone). Not e:
Verbs without continuous forms Wit h verbs not normally used in t he cont inuous f orm, use t he present perf ect simple. See list of t hese verbs under 'Present Cont inuous': ● ● ● ● ●
I've want ed t o visit China f or years. She's known Robert since she was a child. I've hat ed t hat music since I f irst heard it . I've heard a lot about you recent ly. We've underst ood everyt hing we've heard t his morning.
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TENSES PRESENT PERFECT + for, since Using t he present perf ect , we can def ine a period of t ime bef ore now by considering it s duration, wit h for + a period of time, or by considering it s starting point , wit h since + a point in time .
For + a period of time: for six years, for a week, for a mont h, for hours, for t wo hours. I have worked here for f ive years. Since + a point in time: since t his morning, since last week, since yest erday, since I was a child, since Wednesday, since 2 o'clock. I have worked here since 1990.
More examples:
present perfect with for : a. b. c. d.
She has lived here for t went y years. We have t aught at t his school for a long t ime. Alice has been married for t hree mont hs. They have been at t he hot el for a week.
present perfect with since: a. b. c. d.
She has lived here since 1980. We have t aught at t his school since 1965. Alice has been married since March 2nd. They have been at t he hot el since last Tuesday.
Note: 1. For and since can bot h be used wit h t he past perf ect . 2. Since can only be used wit h perf ect t enses, for can also be used wit h t he simple past .
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TENSES PRESENT PERFECT OR SIMPLE PAST? Always use t he present perfect when t he t ime is not import ant , or not specif ied. Always use t he simple past when det ails about t he t ime or place are specif ied or asked f or.
Compare: Present perfect
Simple past
I have lived in Lyon.
I lived in Lyon i n 1989.
They have eat en Thai f ood.
They at e Thai f ood l ast ni ght .
Have you seen 'Ot hello'?.
Where did you see 'Ot hello'?
We have been t o Ireland.
When did you go t o Ireland?
There is also a dif f erence of attitude t hat is of t en more import ant t han t he t ime f act or.
"What di d you do at school t oday?" is a quest ion about activities, and considers t he school day as finished. "What have you done at school t oday?" is a quest ion about results - "show me", and regards t he t ime of speaking as a continuation of t he school day.
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TENSES PRESENT CONTINUOUS FOR FUTURE EVENTS 1. Present continuous for the future, form See not es on f orm in sect ion on Present Cont inuous. Subj ect
+ t o be
+ base- ing
She
is
meet ing
2. Future: Present continuous for the future, function The present cont inuous is used t o t alk about arrangement s f or event s at a t ime lat er t han now. There is a suggest ion t hat more t han one person is aware of t he event , and t hat some preparat ion has already happened. e. g. a. I'm meet i ng Ji m at t he ai r por t = and bot h Jim and I have discussed t his. b. I am l eavi ng t omor r ow. = and I've already bought my t rain t icket . c. We'r e havi ng a st af f meet i ng next Monday = and all members of st af f have been t old about it . More examples: a. b. c. d.
Is she seeing him t omorrow? He isn't working next week. T hey aren't leaving unt il t he end of next year. We are st aying wit h f riends when we get t o Bost on.
Note: in example (a), seei ng is used in a cont inuous f orm because it means meet i ng. BE CAREFUL! The simple present is used when a f ut ure event is part of a programme or t ime-t able. Not ice t he dif f erence bet ween: a. We're having a st af f meet i ng next Monday. b. We have a st af f meet i ng next Monday. (= we have a meet ing every Monday, it 's on t he t ime-t able. )
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TENSES PRESENT PERFECT 1. Present perfect - form The present perf ect of any verb is composed of t wo element s : t he appropriat e f orm of t he auxiliary verb t o have (present t ense), plus t he past part iciple of t he main verb. The past part iciple of a regular verb is base+ed, e. g. pl ayed, ar r i ved, l ooked . For irregular verbs, see t he Table of irregular verbs in t he sect ion called 'Verbs'.
Affirmative Subj ect
t o have
past part iciple
She
has
vi si t ed
Subj ect
t o have + not
past part iciple
She
hasn't
vi si t ed
t o have
subj ect
past part iciple
Has
she
vi si t ed. . ?
Negative
Interrogative
Interrogative negative t o have + not subj ect
past part iciple
Hasn't
vi si t ed. . . ?
she
Example: t o wal k, present perf ect
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I have walked
I haven't walked
Have I walked?
You have walked
You haven't walked
Have you walked?
He, she, it has walked
He, she, it hasn't walked
Has he, she, it walked
We have walked
We haven't walked
Have we walked?
You have walked
You haven't walked
Have you walked?
They have walked
They haven't walked
Have t hey walked?
2. Present perfect, function The Present Perf ect is used t o indicat e a link bet ween t he present and t he past . The t ime of t he act ion is before now but not specified, and we are of t en more int erest ed in t he result t han in t he act ion it self .
BE CAREFUL! There may be a verb t ense in your language wit h a similar f orm, but t he meaning is probably NOT t he same. The present perf ect is used t o describe: 1. An act ion or sit uat ion t hat st art ed in t he past and cont inues in t he present . Example: I have l i ved i n Br i st ol si nce 1984 (= and I st ill do. )
2. An act ion perf ormed during a period t hat has not yet f inished. Example: She has been t o t he cinema t wice t his week (= and t he week isn't over yet . ) 3. A repeat ed act ion in an unspecif ied period bet ween t he past and now. Example: We have visit ed Port ugal several t imes. 4. An act ion t hat was complet ed in t he very recent past , (expressed by 'j ust'). Example: I have j ust finished my work. 5. An act ion when t he t ime is not import ant . Example: He has read 'War and Peace'. (t he result of his reading is import ant )
Note: When we want t o give or ask det ails about when, wher e, who, we use t he simple past . Example: He read 'War and Peace' last week. Examples:
1. a. b. c. d.
Actions started in the past and continuing in the present. They haven't lived here f or years. She has worked in t he bank f or f ive years. We have had t he same car f or t en years. Have you played t he piano since you were a child?
2. a. b. c.
When the time period referred to has not finished. I have worked hard t his week. It has rained a lot t his year . We haven't seen her t oday .
3. a. b. c. d.
Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past and now. They have seen t hat f ilm six t imes. It has happened several t imes already. She has visit ed t hem f requent ly. We have eat en at t hat rest aurant many t imes.
4. a. b. c. d.
Actions completed in the very recent past (+ j ust ) . Have you j ust finished work? I have j ust eat en. We have j ust seen her. Has he j ust left ?
5. a. b. c.
When the precise time of the action is not important or not known. Someone has eat en my soup ! Have you seen 'Gone wit h t he Wind'? She's st udied Japanese, Russian and English.
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'IF' SENTENCES AND THE 'UNREAL' PAST In t his sect ion you will f ind inf ormat ion on sent ences cont aining t he word 'if', t he use of condit ional t enses, and t he 'unreal past', t hat is, when we use a past t ense but we are not act ually ref erring t o past t ime.
IF AND THE CONDITIONAL There are f our main t ypes of 'if' sent ences in English: 1. The 'zero' conditional , where t he t ense in both parts of t he sent ence is t he simple present:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple present If you heat ice If it rains
simple present it melt s. you get wet
In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is now or always and t he sit uat ion is real and possible . They are of t en used t o ref er t o general t rut hs. 2. The Type 1 conditional , where t he t ense in t he 'if clause is t he simple present , and t he t ense in t he main clause is t he simple future
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple present If it rains If you don't hurry
Simple future you will get wet we will miss t he t rain.
In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is t he present or future and t he sit uat ion is real . They ref er t o a possible condition and it s probable result . 3. The Type 2 conditional , where t he t ense in t he 'if' clause is t he simple past , and t he t ense in t he main clause is t he present conditional :
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past If it rained If you went t o bed earlier
Present conditional you would get wet you wouldn't be so t ired.
In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is now or any time , and t he sit uat ion is unreal . They are not based on fact , and t hey ref er t o an unlikely or hypothetical condition and it s probable result . 4. The Type 3 conditional , where t he t ense in t he 'if' clause is t he past perfect , and t he t ense in t he main clause is t he perfect conditional :
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect If it had rained If you had worked harder
Perfect conditional you would have got wet you would have passed t he exam.
In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is past , and t he sit uat ion is contrary to reality. The facts t hey are based on are t he opposite of what is expressed, and t hey ref er t o an unreal past condition and it s probable past result . A f urt her t ype if 'if' sent ence exist s, where Type 2 and Type 3 are mixed. The t ense in t he 'if' clause is t he past perf ect , and t he t ense in t he main clause is t he present condit ional:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect If I had worked harder at school If we had looked at t he map
Present conditional I would have a bet t er j ob now. we wouldn't be lost .
In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is past in t he 'if' clause, and present in t he main clause. They ref er t o an unreal past condition and it s probable result in t he present .
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TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL 1. Form In a Type 1 condit ional sent ence, t he t ense in t he 'if clause is t he simple present , and t he t ense in t he main clause is t he simple future
'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION)
MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT)
If + simple present If it rains If you don't hurry
Simple future you will get wet we will miss t he t rain.
2. Function In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is t he present or future and t he sit uat ion is real . They ref er t o a possible condition and it s probable result . They are based on f act s, and t hey are used t o make st at ement s about t he real world, and about part icular sit uat ions. We of t en use such sent ences t o give warnings: ● ●
If you don't l eave, I'l l cal l t he pol i ce. If you don't dr op t he gun, I'l l shoot !
Examples: ● ● ● ●
If you drop t hat glass, it will break. Nobody will not ice if you make a mist ake. If I have t ime, I'll finish t hat let t er. What will you do if you miss t he plane?
NOTE: We can use modals t o express t he degree of cert aint y of t he result : ● ●
If you drop t hat gl ass, i t might break. I may finish t hat l et t er i f I have t i me.
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TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 1. Form In a Type 2 condi t i onal sent ence, t he t ense in t he 'if' clause is t he simple past , and t he t ense in t he main clause is t he present conditional :
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past If it rained If you went t o bed earlier
Present conditional you would get wet you wouldn't be so t ired.
Present conditional, form The present condit ional of any verb is composed of t wo part s - t he modal auxiliary woul d + t he inf init ive of t he main verb (wit hout 't o'. )
Subj ect
would
infinitive without t o
She
would
learn
would
go
wouldn't
ask
she
come?
t hey
accept ?
Affirmative I
Negative I
Interrogative Would
Interrogative negative Wouldn't
Would: Contractions of would In spoken English, would is cont ract ed t o 'd. I'd
We'd
you'd
you'd
he'd, she'd
t hey'd
The negat ive cont ract ion = wouldn't . Example: t o accept , Present conditional
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I would accept
I wouldn't accept Would I accept ?
You would accept
You wouldn't accept
Would you accept ?
He would accept
She wouldn't accept
Would he accept ?
We would accept
We wouldn't accept
Would we accept ?
You would accept
You wouldn't accept
Would you accept ?
They would accept
They wouldn't accept
Would t hey accept ?
2. Function In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is now or any time , and t he sit uat ion is unreal . They are not based on fact , and t hey ref er t o an unlikely or hypothetical condition and it s probable result . The use of t he past t ense af t er 'if' indicat es unreality. We can nearly always add a phrase st art ing wit h "but ", t hat expresses t he real sit uat ion: ●
●
If t he weat her wasn't so bad, we would go t o t he par k (. . . but it is bad, so we can't go) If I was t he Queen of Engl and, I would give ever yone £100. (. . . but I'm not , so I won't )
Examples of use:
1. To make a st at ement about somet hing t hat is not real at present , but is possible:
I would visit her i f I had t i me. (= I haven't got t i me but I mi ght have some t i me) 2. To make a st at ement about a sit uat ion t hat is not real now and never could be real:
If I were you, I'd give up smoki ng (but I coul d never be you) Examples: a. If I was a plant , I would love t he rain. b. If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring. c. If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her. d. You wouldn't need t o read t his if you underst ood English grammar. e. Would he go t o t he concert if I gave him a t icket ? f . They wouldn't invit e her if t hey didn't like her g. We would be able t o buy a larger house if we had more money NOTE: It is correct , and very common, t o say "If I were " inst ead of "If I was".
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TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 1. Form In a Type 3 condit ional sent ence, t he t ense in t he 'if' clause is t he past perfect , and t he t ense in t he main clause is t he perfect conditional :
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect If it had rained If you had worked harder
Perfect conditional you would have got wet you would have passed t he exam.
Perfect conditional - form The perf ect condit ional of any verb is composed of t wo element s: woul d + t he perf ect inf init ive of t he main verb (=have + past par t i ci pl e):
Subj ect
would
perfect infinitive
He They
would would
have gone. . . have st ayed. . .
would
have believed . . .
wouldn't
have given. . .
you
have lef t . . . ?
he
have been. . . ?
Affirmative I
Negative She
Interrogative Would
Interrogative negative Wouldn't
Example: t o go, Past condit ional Affirmative I would have gone
Negative I wouldn't have gone
Interrogative Would I have gone? Would you have gone?
You would have gone
You wouldn't have gone
He would have gone
She wouldn't have gone
Would it have gone?
We would have gone
We wouldn't have gone
Would we have gone?
You would have gone
You wouldn't have gone
Would you have gone?
They would have gone
They wouldn't have gone
Would t hey have gone?
In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is past , and t he sit uat ion is cont rary t o realit y . The f act s t hey are based on are t he opposit e of what is expressed. Type 3 condit ional sent ences, are t ruly hypot het ical or unreal , because it is now t oo lat e f or t he condit ion or it s result t o exist . There is always an unspoken "but . . . " phrase: ●
If I had worked harder I would have passed t he exam ( but I didn't work hard, and I didn't pass t he exam).
●
If I'd known you were coming I'd have baked a cake ( but I didn't know, and I haven't baked a cake).
NOTE: Bot h would and had can be cont ract ed t o 'd, which can be conf using. Remember t hat you NEVER use woul d in t he IF- clause, so in t he example above, "If I'd known" must be "If I had known", and "I'd have baked" must be "I would have baked. . " Examples: a. b. c. d. e.
If I'd known you were in hospit al, I would have visit ed you. I would have bought you a present if I'd known it was your birt hday. If t hey'd had a bet t er goalkeeper t hey wouldn't have lost t he game. If you had t old me you were on t he Int ernet , I'd have sent you an e-mail. Would you have bought an elephant if you'd known how much t hey eat ?
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TENSES SIMPLE PRESENT (See also Verbs -'Regular verbs in t he simple present ')
Simple present, third person singular Not e: 1. he, she, it: in t he t hird person singular t he verb always ends in -s:
he want s, she need s, he gi ves, she t hi nk s. 2. Negat ive and quest ion f orms use DOES (=t he t hird person of t he
auxiliary'DO') + t he inf init ive of t he verb. He want s. Does he want ? He does not want . 3. Verbs ending in -y : t he t hird person changes t he -y t o -ies:
fly
f l ies, cr y
cr ies
Exception: if t here is a vowel bef ore t he - y: pl ay pl ays, pr ay pr ays 4. Add -es t o verbs ending in: -ss, -x, -sh, -ch:
he passes, she cat ch es, he f i x es, i t push es See also Verbs -'Regular verbs in t he simple present ', and 'Be, do & have'
Examples:
1. Third person singular with s or -es a. b. c. d. e.
He goes t o school every morning. She underst ands English. It mixes t he sand and t he wat er. He t ries very hard. She enj oys playing t he piano.
2. Simple present, form Example: t o t hink, present simple Affirmative
Interrogative
Negative
I t hink
Do I t hink ?
I do not t hink.
You t hink
Do you t hink?
You don't t hink.
he, she, it t hinks
Does he, she, it t hink?
He, she, it doesn't t hink.
we t hink
Do we t hink?
We don't t hink.
you t hink
Do you t hink?
You don't t hink.
The simple present is used:
1. t o express habit s, general t rut hs, repeat ed act ions or unchanging
sit uat ions, emot ions and wishes: I smoke (habi t ); I wor k i n London (unchangi ng si t uat i on); London i s a l ar ge ci t y (gener al t r ut h) 2. t o give inst ruct ions or direct ions:
You walk f or t wo hundr ed met r es, t hen you t urn l ef t . 3. t o express f ixed arrangement s, present or f ut ure:
Your exam st art s at 09. 00 4. t o express f ut ure t ime, af t er some conj unct ions: aft er, when,
before, as soon as, unt il : He'l l gi ve i t t o you when you come next Sat ur day. BE CAREFUL! The simple present is not used to express actions happening now . See Present Cont inuous. Examples: 1. For habits
He drinks t ea at breakf ast . She only eat s f ish. They wat ch t elevision regularly. 2. For repeated actions or events
We cat ch t he bus every morning. It rains every af t ernoon in t he hot season. They drive t o Monaco every summer. 3. For general truths
Wat er freezes at zero degrees. The Eart h revolves around t he Sun. Her mot her is Peruvian. 4. For instructions or directions
Open t he packet and pour t he cont ent s int o hot wat er. You t ake t he No. 6 bus t o Wat ney and t hen t he No. 10 t o Bedf ord. 5. For fixed arrangements
His mot her arrives t omorrow. Our holiday st art s on t he 26t h March 6. With future constructions
She'll see you bef ore she leaves. We'll give it t o her when she arrives.
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TENSES SUMMARY OF VERB TENSES Present tenses Simple present : She want s a dr i nk . Present cont inuous: They are walking home. Past tenses Simple past : Pet er lived i n Chi na i n 1965. Past cont inuous: I was reading when she ar r i ved. Perfect tenses Present Perf ect : I have lived her e si nce 1987. Present perf ect cont inuous: I have been living her e f or year s. Past perf ect : We had been t o see her sever al t i mes bef or e she vi si t ed us. Past perf ect cont inuous: He had been wat ching her f or some t i me when she t ur ned and smi l ed. Fut ure perf ect : We will have arrived i n t he St at es by t he t i me you get t hi s l et t er . Fut ure perf ect cont inuous: By t he end of your cour se, you will have been st udying f or f i ve year s. Future tenses Simple f ut ure: They will go t o It al y next week. Fut ure cont inuous: I will be t ravelling by t r ai n. Conditional tenses Present condit ional: If he had t he money he would go Present cont inuous condit ional: He would be get t ing up now i f he was i n Aust r al i a. Perf ect condit ional: She would have visit ed me i f she had had t i me. Perf ect cont inuous condit ional: I would have been playing t enni s i f I hadn't br oken my ar m.
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TENSES FUTURE PERFECT Future perfect, form The f ut ure perf ect is composed of t wo element s: t he simple f ut ure of t he verb t o have (wi l l have) + t he past part iciple of t he main verb:
Subj ect
will have
past participle
He
will have
f inished
Affirmative I will have lef t Negative They won't have gone Interrogative Will we have seen? Interrogative negative Won't he have arrived? Example: t o arrive, future perfect Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I'll have arrived
I won't have arrived
Will I have arrived?
You'll have arrived
You won't have arrived
Will you have arrived?
He 'll have arrived
She won't have arrived
Will it have arrived?
We 'll have arrived
We won't have arrived
Will we have arrived?
You'll have arrived
You won't have arrived
Will you have arrived?
They'll have arrived
They won't have arrived
Will t hey have arrived?
Future perfect, function The f ut ure perf ect ref ers t o a complet ed act ion in t he f ut ure. When we use t his t ense we are proj ect ing ourselves f orward int o t he f ut ure and looking back at an act ion t hat will be complet ed some t ime lat er t han now. It is of t en used wit h a t ime expression using by + a point in f ut ure t ime. Examples: a. I'll have been here f or six mont hs on June 23rd. b. By t he t ime you read t his I'll have left . c. You will have finished your work by t his t ime next week.
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TENSES FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS Future perfect continuous, form This f orm is composed of t wo element s: t he f ut ure perf ect of t he verb t o be (wi l l have been) + t he present part iciple of t he main verb ( base+i ng) :
Subj ect
will have been
base+ing
We
will have been
living
will have been
working
won't have been
working
I have been
working?
Affirmative I
Negative I
Interrogative Will
Interrogative negative Won't
I have been
working?
Example: t o l i ve, Fut ure Perf ect cont inuous Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I'll have been living
I won't have been living
Will I have been living?
You'll have been living
You won't have been living Will you have been living?
He 'll have been living He won't have been living Will she have been living? We 'll have been living
We won't have been living Will we have been living?
You'll have been living
You won't have been living Will you have been living?
They'll have been living
They won't have been living
Will t hey have been living?
Future perfect continuous, function Like t he f ut ure perf ect simple, t his f orm is used t o proj ect ourselves f orward in t ime and t o look back. It ref ers t o event s or act ions in a t ime bet ween now and some fut ure t ime, t hat may be unfinished. Examples: a. I will have been wait ing here f or t hree hours by six o'clock. b. By 2001 I will have been living here f or sixt een years. c. By t he t ime I f inish t his course, I will have been learning English f or t went y years. d. Next year I will have been working here f or f our years.
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TENSES FUTURE CONTINUOUS Future continuous, form The f ut ure cont inuous is made up of t wo element s: t he simple f ut ure of t he verb 't o be' + t he present part iciple ( base+i ng)
Subj ect
simple future, 't o be'
base+ ing
You
will be
wat ching
Affirmative I will be asking Negative She won't be leaving Interrogative Will t hey be ret iring? Interrogative negative Won't we be st aying? Example: t o st ay, f ut ure cont inuous Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I will be st aying
I won't be st aying
Will I be st aying?
You will be st aying
You won't be st aying
Will you be st aying?
He, she, it will be st aying He won't be st aying
Will she be st aying?
We will be st aying
We won't be st aying
Will we be st aying?
You will be st aying
You won't be st aying
Will you be st aying?
They will be st aying
They won't be st aying
Will t hey be st aying?
Future continuous, function The f ut ure cont inuous ref ers t o an unfinished act ion or event t hat will be in progress at a t ime lat er t han now . It is used: a. t o proj ect ourselves int o t he f ut ure and see somet hing happening: This t ime next week I will be sun-bat hing in Bali. b. t o ref er t o act ions/ event s t hat will happen in t he normal course of event s: I'll be seeing Jim at t he conf erence next week. c. in t he int errogat ive f orm, especially wit h 'you', t o dist inguish bet ween a simple request f or inf ormat ion and an invit at ion: Will you be coming t o t he part y t onight ? (= request f or inf ormat ion) Will you come t o t he part y? (= invit at ion) d. t o predict or guess about someone's act ions or f eelings, now or in t he
f ut ure: You'll be feeling t ired af t er t hat long walk, I expect . More examples: a. event s in progress in t he f ut ure: When you are in Aust ralia will you be st aying wit h f riends? This t ime next week you will be working in your new j ob. At f our t hirt y on Tuesday af t ernoon I will be signing t he cont ract . b. event s/ act ions in normal course of event s: I'll be going int o t own t his af t ernoon, is t here anyt hing you want f rom t he shops? Will you be using t he car t omorrow? - No, you can t ake it . I'll be seeing Jane t his evening - I'll give her t he message. c. asking f or inf ormat ion: Will you be bringing your f riend t o t he pub t onight ? Will Jim be coming wit h us? d. predict ing or guessing: You'll be feeling t hirst y af t er working in t he sun. He'll be coming t o t he meet ing, I expect . You'll be missing t he sunshine now you're back in England.
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TENSES PRESENT PERFECT + ever, never, already, yet The adverbs ever and never express t he idea of an unident if ied t ime before now e. g. Have you ever vi si t ed Ber l i n?
'Ever' is used a. in questions. e. g. Have you ever been t o Engl and? Has she ever met t he Pr i me Mi ni st er ? b. in negative questions e. g. Haven't t hey ever been t o Eur ope? Haven't you ever eat en Chi nese f ood? c. and in negative statements using the pattern not hing. . . . . . . ever , nobody. . . . . . . ever e. g. Nobody has ever sai d t hat t o me bef or e. Not hing l i ke t hi s has ever happened t o us. d. 'Ever' is also used with 'T he first t ime. . . . e. g. It 's t he f i r st t i me (t hat ) I've ever eat en snai l s. Thi s i s t he f i r st t i me I've ever been t o Engl and.
'Never' means at no t i me bef or e now , and is t he same as not . . . . . ever : I have never vi si t ed Ber l i n BE CAREFUL! You must not use never and not t oget her:
I haven't never been t o It al y. I have never been t o It aly. Position: 'Ever' and 'never' are always placed before the main verb (past participle) .
Already and yet : Already ref ers t o an act ion t hat has happened at an unspecif ied t ime bef ore now. It suggest s t hat t here is no need f or repet it ion, e. g. a. I've already dr unk t hr ee cof f ees t hi s mor ni ng. (and you're of f ering me anot her one! ) b. Don't wr i t e t o John, I've already done i t . It is also used in quest ions: a. Have you already wr i t t en t o John? b. Has she f i ni shed her homewor k already ?
Position: already can be placed bef ore t he main verb (past part iciple) or at t he end of t he sent ence:
a. I have already been t o Tokyo. b . I have been t o Tokyo already .
yet is used in negat ive st at ement s and quest ions, t o mean (not ) i n t he per i od of t i me bet ween bef or e now and now, (not ) up t o and i ncl udi ng t he pr esent . e. g. a. Have you met Judy yet ? b. I haven't visit ed t he Tat e Gallery yet . c. Has he arrived yet ? d. They haven't eat en yet . Position: Yet is usually placed at t he end of t he sent ence.
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TENSES Introduction It is import ant t o underst and t he meaning and use of t enses in English. The f orm may be like t hat of a t ense in your own language, but t he meaning may be dif f erent , so be very careful! Summary of Verb Tenses
Present tenses Simple present Present cont inuous
Past tenses Simple past Past cont inuous
Perfect tenses Present Perf ect Present perf ect cont inuous Past perf ect Past perf ect cont inuous Fut ure perf ect Fut ure perf ect cont inuous
Future tenses Simple f ut ure Fut ure cont inuous
Conditional tenses Present Present Perf ect Perf ect
condit ional cont inuous condit ional condit ional cont inuous condit ional
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UNREAL PAST The past t ense is somet imes used in English t o ref er t o an 'unreal' sit uat ion. So, alt hough t he t ense is t he past , we are usually t alking about t he present , e. g. in a Type 2 condit ional sent ence:
If an el ephant and a mouse fell i n l ove, t hey woul d have many pr obl ems. Alt hough fell is in t he past t ense, we are t alking about a hypot het ical sit uat ion t hat might exist now or at any t ime, but we are not ref erring t o t he past . We call t his use t he unreal past. Ot her sit uat ions where t his occurs are: ●
● ●
af t er ot her words and expressions like 'if ' ( supposi ng, i f onl y, what i f ); af t er t he verb 't o wish'; af t er t he expression 'I'd rat her. . '
Expressions like 'if' The f ollowing expressions can be used t o int roduce hypot het ical sit uat ions: - supposing, if only, what if . They are f ollowed by a past t ense t o indicat e t hat t he condit ion t hey int roduce is unreal: ●
● ●
Supposing an elephant and a mouse fell in love? (= but we know t his is unlikely or impossible) What if we paint ed t he room purple? (= t hat would be very surprising) If only I had more money. (= but I haven't ). These expressions can also int roduce hypot het ical sit uat ions in t he past and t hen t hey are f ollowed by t he past perfect . Examples: ●
●
●
If only I hadn't kissed t he f rog (= I did and it was a mist ake because he t urned int o a horrible prince, but I can't change it now. ) What if t he elephant had t rodden on t he mouse? (She didn't , but we can imagine t he result ! ) Supposing I had given t hat man my money! (I didn't , so I've st ill got my money now. )
The verb t o wish The verb t o wish is f ollowed by an 'unreal' past t ense when we want t o t alk about sit uat ions in t he present t hat we are not happy about but cannot change: ● ● ●
I wish I had more money (=but I haven't ) She wishes she wa s beaut if ul (= but she's not ) We wish we could come t o your part y (but we can't )
When we want t o t alk about sit uat ions in t he past t hat we are not happy about or act ions t hat we regret , we use t he verb t o wish f ollowed by t he past perf ect : ● ● ●
I wish I hadn't said t hat (= but I did) He wishes he hadn't bought t he car (= but he did buy it . ) I wish I had t aken t hat j ob in New York (= but I didn't , so I'm st uck in Brist ol)
NOTE: When we want t o t alk about sit uat ions we are not happy about and where we want someone else t o change t hem, we use t o wish f ollowed by would + infinit ive: ●
●
●
I wish he would st op smoking. (= I don't like it , I want him t o change it ) I wish you would go away. (= I don't want you here, I want you t o t ake some act ion) I wish you wouldn't squeeze t he t oot hpast e f rom t he middle! (= I want you t o change your habit s. )
I'd rat her and it 's t ime. . . These t wo expressions are also f ollowed by an unreal past . The verb is in t he past t ense, but t he sit uat ion is in t he present . When we want t o t alk about a course of act ion we would pref er someone else t o t ake, we use I'd rat her + past t ense: ● ● ●
I'd rat her you went He'd rat her you called t he police I'd rat her you didn't hunt elephant s.
NOTE: t he st ress can be import ant in t hese sent ences, t o show what our pref erence is: ● ● ● ●
I'd r at her you went = not me, I'd r at her you went = don't st ay He'd r at her you cal l ed t he pol i ce = he doesn't want t o He'd r at her you cal l ed t he police = not t he ambulance service
Similarly, when we want t o say t hat now is a suit able moment t o do somet hing, eit her f or ourselves or f or someone else, we use it 's t ime + past t ense: ● ● ●
It 's (high) t ime I went . It 's t ime you paid t hat bill. Don't you t hink it 's t ime you had a haircut ?
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UNLESS Unless means t he same as if . . . not . Like i f , it is f ollowed by a present t ense, a past t ense or a past perf ect ( never by 'woul d'). It is used inst ead of if + not in condit ional sent ences of all t ypes:
Type 1: (Unless + present) a. You'll be sick unless you st op eat ing. (= You will be sick if you don't st op eat ing) b. I won't pay unless you provide t he goods immediat ely. (= If you don't provide t hem I won't pay) c. You'll never underst and English unless you st udy t his grammar caref ully. (= You'll never underst and if you don't st udy. . . )
Type 2: (Unless + past) a. Unless he was very ill, he would be at work. b. I wouldn't eat t hat f ood unless I was really hungry. c. She would be here by now unless she was st uck in t he t raf f ic.
Type 3: (Unless + past perfect) a. The elephant wouldn't have seen t he mouse unless she'd had perf ect eyesight . b. I wouldn't have phoned him unless you'd suggest ed it . c. They would have shot her unless she'd given t hem t he money.
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MIXED CONDITIONAL SENTENCES It is possible f or t he t wo part s of a condit ional sent ence t o ref er t o dif f erent t imes, and t he result ing sent ence is a "mixed condit ional" sent ence. There are t wo t ypes of mixed condit ional sent ence:
A. Present result of past condition: 1. Form The t ense in t he 'if' clause is t he past perf ect , and t he t ense in t he main clause is t he present condit ional: 'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect If I had worked harder at school If we had looked at t he map
Present conditional I would have a bet t er j ob now. we wouldn't be lost .
2. Function In t hese sent ences, t he t ime is past in t he 'if' clause, and present in t he main clause. They ref er t o an unreal past condit ion and it s probable result in t he present . They express a sit uat ion which is cont rary t o realit y bot h in t he past and in t he present : 'If I had wor ked har der at school ' is cont rary t o past f act - I didn't work hard at school, and 'I woul d have a bet t er j ob now' is cont rary t o present f act - I haven't got a good j ob. If we had l ooked at t he map (we didn't ), we woul dn't be l ost (we are lost ). Examples: ● ● ●
I would be a millionaire now if I had t aken t hat j ob. If you'd caught t hat plane you'd be dead now. If you hadn't spent all your money on CDs, you wouldn't be broke.
B. Past result of present or continuing condition. 1. Form The t ense in t he If- clause is t he simple past , and t he t ense in t he main clause is t he perf ect condit ional: 'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past If I wasn't af raid of spiders If we didn't t rust him
Perfect conditional I would have picked it up. we would have sacked him mont hs ago.
2. Function In t hese sent ences t he t ime in t he If- clause is now or always, and t he t ime in t he main clause is before now . They ref er t o an unreal present sit uat ion and it s probable (but unreal) past result :
'If I wasn't af r ai d of spi der s' is cont rary t o present realit y - I am af raid of spiders, and 'I woul d have pi cked i t up' is cont rary t o past realit y - I didn't pick it up. ●
'If we di dn't t r ust hi m' is cont rary t o present realit y - we do t rust him, and 'we woul d have sacked hi m' is cont rary t o past realit y - we haven't sacked him. Examples: a. If she wasn't afraid of f lying she wouldn't have t ravelled by boat . b. I'd have been able t o t ranslat e t he let t er if my It alian was bet t er . c. If I was a good cook, I'd have invit ed t hem t o lunch. d. If t he elephant wasn't in love wit h t he mouse, she'd have t rodden on him by now.
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PERFECT CONDITIONAL, CONTINUOUS 1. Perfect conditional, continuous - Form This t ense is composed of t wo element s: t he perf ect condt ional of t he verb 't o be' ( woul d have been) + t he present part iciple ( base+i ng).
Subj ect
would have been
base+ing
I We
would have been would have been
sit t ing swimming
would have been
st udying.
wouldn't have been
living.
we have been
t ravelling?
Affirmative I
Negative You
Interrogative Would
Interrogative negative Wouldn't
it have been
working?
Examples: t o work, Past continuous conditional Affirmative
Negative
I would have been working
I wouldn't have been working
You would have been working
You wouldn't have been working.
He would have been working
She wouldn't have been working
We would have been working
We wouldn't have been working
You would have been working
You wouldn't have been working
They would have been working
They wouldn't have been working
Interrogative
Interrogative negative
Would I have been working?
Wouldn't I have been working?
Would you have been working?
Wouldn't you have been working?
Would he have been working?
Wouldn't she have been working?
Would we have been working?
Wouldn't we have been working?
Would you have been working?
Wouldn't you have been working?
Would t hey have been working?
Wouldn't t hey have been working?
2. Function This t ense can be used in Type 3 condit ional sent ences. It ref ers t o t he unfulfilled result of t he act ion in t he if -clause, and expresses t his result as an unfinished or continuous action. Again, t here is always an unspoken "but . . " phrase: ●
●
If t he weat her had been bet t er (but it wasn't ), I'd have been sit t ing in t he garden when he arrived (but I wasn't and so I didn't see him). If she hadn't got a j ob in London (but she did), she would have been working in Paris (but she wasn't ).
Examples: ● ●
●
●
If I'd had a ball I would have been playing f oot ball. If I'd had any money I'd have been drinking wit h my f riends in t he pub t hat night . If I had known it was dangerous I wouldn't have been climbing t hat clif f . She wouldn't have been wearing a seat -belt if her f at her hadn't t old her t o.
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PRESENT CONTINUOUS CONDITIONAL
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In t ype 2 condi t i onal sent ences, t he cont inuous f orm of t he present condit ional may be used:
If I wer e a mi l l i onai r e, I woul dn't be doi ng t hi s j ob!
1. Present continuous conditional form. This f orm is composed of t wo element s: t he present condit ional of t he verb 't o be' (woul d be) + t he present part iciple of t he main verb (base+ing).
Subj ect
would be base+ing
He They
would be going would be living
Affirmative We
would be coming
Negative You
wouldn't be
working
you be
sharing?
Interrogative Would
Interrogative negative Wouldn't
t hey be
playing?
Example: t o live, Present continuous conditional. Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I would be living
I wouldn't be Would I be living living?
You would be living
You wouldn't Would you be living? be living
He would be She wouldn't Would he be living? living be living Would we be living?
We would be living
We wouldn't be living
You would be living
You wouldn't Would you be living? be living
They would be living
They wouldn't be living
Would t hey be living?
2. Present continuous conditional function This f orm is common in Type 2 condit ional sent ences. It expresses an unf inished or continuing action or sit uat ion, which is t he probable result of an unreal condition: ●
●
I would be working in It aly if I spoke It alian. (but I don't speak It alian, so I am not working in It aly. She would be living wit h Jack if she wasn't living wit h her parent s. (but she is living wit h her parent s so she's not living wit h Jack).
More examples: ●
●
●
I wouldn't be eat ing t his if I wasn't ext remely hungry. If I had an exam t omorrow, I'd be revising now. You wouldn't be smiling if you knew t he t rut h.
NOTE: This f orm is also f ound in: mixed condit ional sent ences (See sect ion on Mixed Condit ional Sent ences); in indirect speech:
She sai d "I'l l be wor ki ng i n t he gar den. " She sai d she would be working i n t he gar den. (See sect ion on Indirect Speech)
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TENSES SIMPLE PRESENT FOR FUTURE EVENTS 1. Form - see Simple Present sect ion. 2. Simple present for future events - function The simple present is used t o make st at ement s about event s at a t ime lat er t han now , when t he st at ement s are based on present fact s, and when t hese f act s are somet hing f ixed like a t ime-t able, schedule, calendar . Examples: a. b. c. d.
The plane arrives at 18. 00 t omorrow. She has a yoga class t omorrow morning. The rest aurant opens at 19. 30 t onight . Next Thursday at 14. 00 t here is an English exam.
Not e t he dif f erence bet ween: a. The plane leaves in t en minut es (= st at ement of f act ) b. The plane's going t o leave in t en minut es (= predict ion based on present sit uat ion, meaning ". . . and if you don't hurry up you're going t o miss it ! ")
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TENSES OTHER WAYS OF TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE 1. IS TO + INFINITIVE Form: This f orm is composed of t wo element s: t he appropriat e f orm of t he verb t o be + t o (am t o, ar e t o, i s t o), and t he inf init ive of t he main verb wit hout 't o'. .
Subj ect
to be t o
infinitive without t o
We
are t o
leave
Affirmative She
is t o
t ravel
are not (aren't ) t o
t ravel
Negative You
Interrogative Am
I to
t ravel?
Interrogative negative Aren't
t hey t o
t ravel?
Function: This f orm ref ers t o an obligat ion t o do somet hing at a t ime lat er t han now. It is similar t o 'must ', but t here is a suggest ion t hat somet hing has been arranged or organised f or us. It is not normally used in spoken English, but might be f ound in spy st ories, e. g. "You are t o leave t his room at once, and you are t o t ravel by t rain t o London. In London you are t o pick up your t icket f rom Mr Smit h, and you are t o fly t o your dest inat ion alone. When you arrive, you are t o meet our agent , Mr X, who will give you f urt her inf ormat ion. You are t o dest roy t his message now. "
2. BE + ABOUT TO + INFINITIVE Form : This f orm is composed of t hree element s : t he appropriat e f orm of t he verb t o be, present t ense, + 'about t o' + t he inf init ive of t he main verb wit hout 't o':
Subj ect
be
about to
infinitive without t o
I
am
about t o
leave
She
is
about t o
arrive
Function: This f orm ref ers t o a t ime immediat ely aft er t he moment of speaking, and emphasises t hat t he event or act ion will happen very soon: Examples: a. She is about t o leave. b. You are about t o see somet hing very unusual. c. I am about t o go t o a meet ing - can I t alk t o you lat er? It is of t en used wit h t he word 'j ust ', which emphasises t he immediacy of t he act ion: We are j ust about t o go t o sleep. Sally is j ust about t o t ake an exam. This f orm can also be used in t he simple past t ense t o ref er t o an act ion t hat was imminent , but was int errupt ed. In such cases it is of t en f ollowed by a 'when - clause': She was about t o leave when he arrived. I was j ust about t o t elephone her when she walked int o t he house.
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TENSES FUTURE WITH GOING TO 1. Future with Going to - form This f orm is composed of t hree element s: t he appropriat e f orm of t he verb 't o be' + goi ng t o + t he i nf i ni t i ve of t he main verb: Subj ect
'to be'
going to
infinitive
She
is
going t o
leave
2. Future with Going to - function The use of 'going t o' t o ref er t o f ut ure event s suggest s a very st rong associat ion wit h t he present . The t ime is not import ant - it is lat er t han now, but t he at t it ude is t hat t he event depends on a present sit uat ion, t hat we know about . So it is used: a) t o ref er t o our plans and int ent ions: We'r e goi ng t o move t o London next year . (= t he plan is in our minds now. ) b) t o make predict ions based on present evidence: Look at t hose cl ouds - i t 's goi ng t o pour wi t h r ai n! (= It 's clear f rom what I can see now. )
Note: In everyday speech, 'goi ng t o' is of t en short ened t o 'gonna', especially in American English. More examples:
Plans and intentions: a. Is Freddy going t o buy a new car soon? b. Are John and Pam going t o visit Milan when t hey are in It aly? c. I t hink Nigel and Mary are going t o have a part y next week. Predictions based on present evidence: a. T here's going t o be a t errible accident ! b. He's going t o be a brilliant polit ician. c. I'm going t o have t errible indigest ion. NOTE: It is unusual t o say 'I'm going t o go t o. . . ' Inst ead, we use 'going t o' + a place or event : Examples: We are going t o t he beach t omorrow. She is going t o t he ballet t onight . Are you going t o t he part y t omorrow night ?
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NOUNS USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS WITH NOUNS Capit al let t ers are used wit h:
Names and titles of people a. Winst on Churchill b. Marilyn Monroe c. t he Queen of England d. t he President of t he Unit ed St at es e. t he Headmast er of Et on f . Doct or Mat hews g. Prof essor Samuels.
Note : The personal pronoun 'I' is always writ t en wit h a capit al let t er.
Titles of works, books etc. a. b. c. d.
War and Peace The Merchant of Venice Crime and Punishment Trist an and Isolde
Months of the year January
July
February
August
March
Sept ember
April
Oct ober
May
November
June
December
Days of the week Monday
Friday
Tuesday
Sat urday
Wednesday
Sunday
Thursday
Seasons Spring Summer Aut umn Wint er
Holidays
Christ mas
East er
New Year's Day
Boxing Day
May Day
Thanksgiving Day
Geographical names. . . names of countries and continents America
England
Scot land
China
Peru
Albania
Af rica
Europe
Asia
names of regions, states, districts etc. Sussex
Calif ornia
Queensland
Provence
Tuscany
Vaud
Florida
Cost a Brava
Tyrol
names of cities, towns, villages etc. London
Cape Town
Rome
Florence
Bat h
Wagga Wagga
Vancouver
Wellingt on
Peking
names of rivers, oceans, seas, lakes etc. t he At lant ic
t he Dead Sea
t he Pacif ic
Lake Leman
Lake Vict oria
Lake Michigan
t he Rhine
t he Thames
t he Nile
names of geographical formations t he Himalayas
t he Alps
t he Sahara
Adj ectives relating to nationality nouns France - French music Aust ralia - Aust ralian animals Germany - German lit erat ure Arabia - Arabic writ ing Indonesia - Indonesian poet ry China - Chinese f ood
Names of streets, buildings, parks etc.
Park Lane
Cent ral Avenue
Pall Mall
George St reet
Sydney Opera House
Cent ral Park
Hyde Park
t he Empire St at e Building Wall St reet
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NOUNS COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Countable nouns are for things we can count Example: dog, horse, man, shop, idea. They usually have a singular and plural f orm. Example: t wo dogs, t en horses, a man, six men, t he shops, a few ideas.
Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count Example: t ea, sugar, wat er, air, rice. They are of t en t he names f or abst ract ideas or qualit ies. Example: knowledge, beaut y, anger, fear, love. They are used wit h a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural f orm. We cannot say sugars, angers, knowledges.
Examples of common uncountable nouns:
money, furnit ure, happiness, sadness, research, evidence, safet y, beaut y, knowledge. We cannot use a/ an wit h t hese nouns. To express a quant it y of one of t hese nouns, use a word or expression like: some, a lot of, a piece of, a bit of, a great deal of. . . Examples: ● ● ● ●
There has been a lot of research int o t he causes of t his disease. He gave me a great deal of advice bef ore my int erview. They've got a lot of furnit ure. Can you give me some informat ion about uncount able nouns?
Some nouns are count able in ot her languages but uncount able in English. Some of t he most common of t hese are:
accommodat ion advice baggage behaviour bread f urnit ure inf ormat ion luggage
news progress t raf f ic t ravel t rouble weat her work
BE CAREFUL wit h t he noun 'hai r ' which is normally uncountable in English:
She has long blonde hair It can also be countable when ref erring t o individual hairs:
My fat her's get t ing a few grey hairs now See also Adj ect ives - Comparisons of quant it y
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REPORTED SPEECH CHANGE OF TIME AND PLACE REFERENCE Time/ place ref erences are also changed in report ed speech Examples: "I will see you here tomorrow ", she said. me there the next day.
She said t hat she would see
The most common of t hese changes are shown below: Today
that day
"I saw hi m t oday ", she sai d.
She sai d t hat she had seen hi m t hat day .
Yesterday
the day before
"I saw hi m yest erday ", she sai d.
She sai d t hat she had seen hi m t he day before.
The day before yesterday
two days before
"I met her t he day before yest erday ", he sai d.
He sai d t hat he had met her t wo days before.
Tomorrow
the next/ following day
"I'l l see you t omorrow ", he sai d
He sai d t hat he woul d see me t he next day.
The day after tomorrow
in two days time/ two days later
"We'l l come t he day aft er t omorrow ", t hey sai d.
They sai d t hat t hey woul d come in t wo days t ime/ t wo days lat er .
Next week/ month/ year
the following week/ month/ year
"I have an appoi nt ment next week", she sai d.
She sai d t hat she had an appoi nt ment t he following week.
Last week/ month/ year
the previous/ week/ month/ year
"I was on hol i day last week", he t ol d us.
He t ol d us t hat he had been on hol i day t he previous week.
ago
before
"I saw her a week ago, " he sai d.
He sai d he had seen her a week before.
this (for time)
that
"I'm get t i ng a new car t his week", she sai d.
She sai d she was get t i ng a new car t hat week.
this/ that (adj ectives)
the
"Do you l i ke t his shi r t ?" he asked
He asked i f I l i ked t he shi r t .
here
there
He sai d, "I l i ve here".
He t ol d me he l i ved t here.
Other changes: In general, personal pronouns change t o t he t hird person singular or plural, except when t he speaker report s his own words:
I/ me/ my/ mine, you/ your/ yours we/ us/ our/ ours, you/ your/ yours
him/ his/ her/ hers t hey/ t heir/ t heirs:
He said: "I like your new car. "
He t old her t hat he liked her new car.
I said: "I'm going t o my f riend's house. " f riend's house.
I said t hat I was going t o my
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REPORTED SPEECH TENSE CHANGES Normally, t he t ense in report ed speech is one t ense back in t ime f rom t he t ense in direct speech:
She sai d, "I am t i r ed. "
She sai d t hat she was t i r ed.
The changes are shown below: Simple present
Simple past
"I al ways drink cof f ee", she sai d
She sai d t hat she al ways drank cof f ee.
Present continuous
Past continuous
"I am reading a book", he expl ai ned.
He expl ai ned t hat he was reading a book
Simple past
Past perfect
"Bi l l arrived on Sat ur day", he sai d.
He sai d t hat Bi l l had arrived on Sat ur day
Present perfect
Past perfect
"I have been t o Spai n", he t ol d me.
He t ol d me t hat he had been t o Spai n
Past perfect
Past perfect
"I had j ust t urned out t he l i ght , " he expl ai ned.
He expl ai ned t hat he had j ust t urned out t he l i ght .
Present perfect continuous
Past perfect continuous
They compl ai ned, "We have been wait ing f or hour s".
They compl ai ned t hat t hey had been wait ing f or hour s.
Past continuous
Past perfect continuous
"We were living i n Par i s", t hey t ol d me.
They t ol d me t hat t hey had been living i n Par i s.
Future
Present conditional
"I will be i n Geneva on Monday", he sai d
He sai d t hat he would be i n Geneva on Monday.
Future continuous
Conditional continuous
She sai d, "I'll be using t he car next Fr i day".
She sai d t hat she would be using t he car next Fr i day.
NOTE: 1. You do not need t o change t he t ense if t he report ing verb is in t he present , or if t he original st at ement was about somet hing t hat is st ill t rue, e. g.
He says he has missed t he t r ai n but he'll cat ch t he next one. We expl ai ned t hat it is ver y di f f i cul t t o f i nd our house. 2. These modal verbs do not change in report ed speech:
mi ght , coul d, woul d, shoul d, ought t o, e. g. We expl ai ned t hat i t could be di f f i cul t t o f i nd our house. She sai d t hat she might br i ng a f r i end t o t he par t y.
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THE INFINITIVE INFINITIVE AFTER QUESTION WORDS These verbs: ask, decide, explain, forget , know , show , t ell , underst and, can be f ollowed by a quest ion word such as where, how , what , who, when or 'whet her' + the 'to-infinitive'. Examples: ● ● ● ● ●
She asked me how t o use t he washing machine. Do you underst and what t o do? Tell me when t o press t he but t on. I've f orgot t en where t o put t his lit t le screw. I can't decide whet her t o wear t he red dress or t he black one.
The quest ion word Why is f ollowed by t he zero infinitive in suggest ions: Examples: ● ● ● ● ● ●
Why Why Why Why Why Why
wait unt il t omorrow? not ask him now? walk when we can go in t he car? not buy a new bed f or your bedroom? leave bef ore t he end of t he game? not spend a week in Beirut and a week in Baghdad?
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THE INFINITIVE NEGATIVE INFINITIVE To f orm t he negat ive inf init ive, place not bef ore t he t o- or zero infinit ive: e. g. not t o worry: It 's hard not t o worry about exams. Examples: ● ● ● ● ●
I decided not t o go t o London. He asked me not t o be lat e. Elephant s ought not t o marry mice. You'd bet t er not smile at t he crocodile. I'd rat her not eat meat .
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THE INFINITIVE OTHER FORMS The inf init ive can have t he f ollowing f orms: ● ● ● ●
The The The The
perf ect inf init ive cont inuous inf init ive perf ect cont inuous inf init ive passive inf init ive
NOTE: as wit h t he present inf init ive, t here are sit uat ions where t he t o is omit t ed, e. g. af t er most modal auxiliaries.
The perfect infinitive :
t o have + past part iciple, e. g. t o have br oken, t o have seen, t o have saved. This f orm is most commonly f ound in Type 3 condit ional sent ences, using t he condit ional perf ect , e. g. If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake. Examples: ●
●
● ●
Someone must have broken t he window and climbed in. I would like t o have seen t he Taj Mahal when I was in India. He pret ended t o have seen t he f ilm. If I'd seen t he ball I would have caught it .
The continuous infinitive:
t o be + present part iciple, e. g. t o be swi mmi ng, t o be j oki ng, t o be wai t i ng Examples: ●
● ●
I'd really like t o be swimming in a nice cool pool right now. You must be j oking! I happened t o be wait ing f or t he bus when t he accident happened.
The perfect continuous infinitive :
t o have been + present part iciple Examples: t o have been crying t o have been wait ing t o have been paint ing ● ● ●
The woman seemed t o have been crying. You must have been wait ing f or hours! He pret ended t o have been paint ing all day.
The passive infinitive :
t o be + past part iciple, e. g. t o be gi ven, t o be shut , t o be opened Examples: ● ● ●
I am expect ing t o be given a pay-rise next mont h. These doors should be shut . This window ought t o be opened.
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THE INFINITIVE FUNCTION The most common uses of t he inf init ive are:
To indicate the purpose or intention of an action (where the 't o' has the same meaning as 'in order t o' or 'so as t o' ): ● ●
She's gone t o collect her pay cheque. The t hree bears went int o t he f orest t o f ind f irewood.
As the subj ect of the sentence : ● ●
To be or not t o be, t hat is t he quest ion. To know her is t o love her. (Not e: t his is more common in writ t en English t han spoken)
With nouns or pronouns, to indicate what something can be used for, or what is to be done with it: ● ● ●
Would you like somet hing t o drink? I haven't anyt hing t o wear. The children need a garden t o play in.
After adj ectives in these patterns: ●
●
●
It is + adj ect ive +t o-infinit ive It is good t o t alk It is + adj ect ive + infinit ive + for someone + t oinfinit ive. It is hard f or elephant s t o see mice It is + adj ect ive + infint ive + of someone + t oinfinit ive. It is unkind of her t o say t hat .
After an adj ective + noun when a comment or j udgement is being made: ● ● ●
It was a st upid place t o park t he car. This is t he right t hing t o do. It was an ast onishing way t o behave.
With too and enough in these patterns:
t oo much/ many (+ noun) + t o-infinit ive There's t oo much sugar t o put in t his bowl. I had t oo many books t o carry.
t oo + adj ect ive + t o-infinit ive This soup is t oo hot t o eat . She was t oo t ired t o work. t oo + adverb + t o-infinit ive He arrived t oo lat e t o see t he act ors. enough (+ noun) + t o-infinit ive I've had enough (f ood) t o eat . adj ect ive + enough + t o-infinit ive She's old enough t o make up her own mind. not enough (+noun) + t o-infinit ive There isn't enough snow t o ski on. not + adj ect ive + enough + t o-infinit ive You're not old enough t o have grandchildren!
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TO GET TO GET + direct obj ect = t o obt ain, t o receive, t o buy: To obtain ● ●
She got her dr i vi ng l i cense l ast week. They got per mi ssi on t o l i ve i n Swi t zer l and.
To receive ● ●
I got a l et t er f r om my f r i end i n Ni ger i a. He get s £1, 000 a year f r om hi s f at her .
To buy ● ●
She got a new coat f r om Zappal oni i n Rome. We got a new t el evi si on f or t he si t t i ng r oom.
TO GET + place expression = reach, arrive at a place: ● ● ●
We got t o London ar ound 6 p. m. What t i me wi l l we get t her e? When di d you get back f r om New Yor k?
TO GET + adj ective = t o become, show a change of st at e: ● ● ● ● ● ●
It 's get t ing hot t er . By t he t i me t hey r eached t he house t hey wer e get t ing hungr y. I'm get t ing t i r ed of al l t hi s nonsense. My mot her 's get t ing ol d and needs l ooki ng af t er . It get s dar k ver y ear l y i n t he wi nt er . Don't t ouch t he st ove unt i l i s get s cool .
TO GET + preposition / adverb is used in many phrasal verbs. Here are some of t he most common ones: Phrasal Verb
Meaning
get at
t ry t o express
get away with
escape punishment f or a crime or bad act ion
get by
manage (f inancially)
get down
descend; depress
get off
leave a f orm of t ransport (t rain, bus, bicycle, plane)
get on
ent er/ sit on a f orm of t ransport (t rain, bus, bicycle, plane); have a relat ionship wit h someone; manage
get out of
avoid doing somet hing, especially a dut y
get over
recover (f rom an illness, a surprise)
get through
use or f inish t he supply of somet hing
get up
leave your bed
get up to
do - usually somet hing bad
Examples: a. He got on his bicycle and rode down t he st reet . b. He gets up at 6. 00 a. m. every morning. c. She got out of t he washing-up every day, even when it was her t urn. d. We got off t he t rain j ust bef ore t he bomb exploded. e. We've got through all t he sugar - can you buy some more? f . The children are very quiet - I wonder what t hey're getting up to.
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TO GET 'To get ' can be used in a number of pat t erns and has a number of meanings.
TO GET + direct obj ect = obt ain, receive, buy. Example: I got my passpor t l ast week. More Examples
TO GET + place expression = reach, arrive at a place. Example: How ar e you get t i ng home t oni ght ? More Examples
TO GET + adj ective = become, show a change of st at e. Example: I am get t i ng ol d. More Examples
TO GET + preposition/ adverb is used in many phrasal verbs. Example: Thi s r ai n i s r eal l y get t i ng me down. More Examples
TO GET has a number of ot her meanings: a. Do you get i t ? (= underst and) b. He's get t i ng di nner t oni ght . (= prepare a meal) c. I'l l get t he bi l l . (= pay) d. That r eal l y get s me! (= irrit at e, annoy) Other expressions with GET: ●
●
●
To get rid of somet hing means t o t hrow it away. Example: I'm goi ng t o get r i d of al l t hese ol d newspaper s. To get out of be on t he wrong side means t o be in a bad mood. Example: He got out of t he wr ong si de of t he bed t hi s mor ni ng and he's been hor r i bl e al l day. To get your own back means t o have your revenge or punish someone. Example: She's get t i ng her own back f or al l t hose r ude t hi ngs you sai d at t he par t y l ast ni ght .
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DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH You can answer t he quest ion "What did he/ she say?" in t wo ways: ● ●
by repeat ing t he words spoken (direct speech) by report ing t he words spoken (indirect or report ed speech).
Direct Speech Direct speech repeat s, or quot es, t he exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writ ing, we place t he words spoken bet ween invert ed commas (". . . . ") and t here is no change in t hese words. We may be report ing somet hing t hat 's being said NOW (f or example a t elephone conversat ion), or t elling someone lat er about a previous conversat ion Examples:
She says "What t i me wi l l you be home?" She sai d "What t i me wi l l you be home?" and I sai d "I don't know! " "Ther e's a f l y i n my soup! " scr eamed Si mone. John sai d, "Ther e's an el ephant out si de t he wi ndow. "
Reported Speech Report ed speech is usually used t o t alk about t he past , so we normally change t he t ense of t he words spoken. We use report ing verbs like 'say', 't el l ', 'ask', and we may use t he word 't hat ' t o int roduce t he report ed words. Invert ed commas are not used.
She sai d, "I saw hi m. "
She sai d t hat she had seen him.
a. 'T hat ' may be omit t ed:
She t ol d hi m t hat she was happy. She t ol d hi m she was happy. b. 'Say' and 't ell':
Use 'say' when t here is no indirect obj ect : He sai d t hat he was t i r ed. Always use 't ell' when you say who was being spoken t o (i. e. wit h an indirect obj ect ): He t ol d me t hat he was t i r ed. 'T alk' and 'speak' are used: - t o describe t he act ion of communicat ing: He t al ked t o us. She was speaki ng on t he t el ephone. - wit h 'about ' t o ref er t o what was said: He t al ked (t o us) about hi s par ent s.
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REPORTED SPEECH HOPES, INTENTIONS, PROMISES When we report an int ent ion, hope or promise, we use an appropriat e report ing verb f ollowed by a t hat -cl ause or a t o-i nf i ni t i ve: "I'll pay you t he money t omorrow. " He pr omi sed t o pay me t he money t he next day. He pr omi sed t hat he woul d pay me t he money t he next day. Ot her verbs used in t his pat t ern include: hope, propose, t hreat en, guarant ee, swear . Examples: a. "I'll be back by luncht ime. "
He promised t o be back by l uncht i me. He promised t hat he would be back by l uncht i me. b. "We should arrive in London bef ore night f all. " They hoped t o arrive i n London bef or e ni ght f al l . They hoped t hey would arrive i n London bef or e ni ght f al l . c. "Give me t he keys t o t he saf e or I'll shoot you! " He t hreat ened t o shoot me i f I di dn't gi ve hi m t he keys t o t he saf e. He t hreat ened t hat he would shoot me i f I di dn't gi ve hi m t he keys t o t he saf e. Note : see also Summary of Report ing Verbs.
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REPORTED SPEECH ORDERS, REQUESTS, SUGGESTIONS 1. When we want t o report an order or request, we can use a verb like 't el l ' with a to-clause . Examples:
He t ol d me t o go away. The pat t ern is verb + indirect obj ect + t o-clause. (The indirect obj ect is t he person spoken t o. ) Ot her verbs used t o report orders and request s in t his way are: command, order, warn, ask, advise, invit e, beg, t each, forbid. Examples: a. The doct or said t o me, "St op smoking! ". The doct or told me to stop smoking. b. "Get out of t he car! " said t he policeman. The policeman ordered him to get out of the car . c. "Could you please be quiet , " she said. She asked me to be quiet . d. The man wit h t he gun said t o us, "Don't move! " The man wit h t he gun warned us not to move . (See also sect ion on Verbs f ollowed by inf init ive and Verbs f ollowed by gerund) 2. Requests for obj ects are report ed using t he pat t ern ask + for + obj ect : Examples: a. "Can I have an apple?", she asked. b. "Can I have t he newspaper, please?" He asked for the newspaper . c. "May I have a glass of wat er?" he said. He asked for a glass of water . d. "Sugar, please. " She asked for the sugar . e. "Could I have t hree kilos of onions?" He asked for three kilos of onions.
She asked for an apple.
3. Suggestions are usually report ed wit h a t hat -cl ause. 'That ' and 'shoul d' are opt ional in t hese clauses: She said: "Why don't you get a mechanic t o look at t he car?" She suggest ed t hat I should get a mechanic t o look at t he car. OR She suggest ed I get a mechanic t o look at t he car. Ot her report ing verbs used in t his way are: insist , recommend, demand,
request , propose. Examples: a. "It would be a good idea t o see t he dent ist ", said my mot her. mot her suggested I see t he dent ist . b. The dent ist said, "I t hink you should use a dif f erent t oot hbrush". dent ist recommended that I should use a dif f erent t oot hbrush.
My
The
c. My manager said, "I t hink we should examine t he budget caref ully at t his meet ing. " My manager proposed that we examine t he budget caref ully at t he meet ing. d. "Why don't you sleep overnight at my house?" she said. that I sleep overnight at her house.
She suggest ed
Notes:
Suggest can also be f ollowed by a gerund: I suggest ed post poning t he visit t o t he dent ist . See also Summary of Report ing Verbs.
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'- ING' FORM VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND The gerund is used af t er cert ain verbs. Example:
miss: I mi ss l i vi ng i n Engl and. The most import ant of t hese verbs are shown below. Those marked * can also be f ollowed by a t hat -cl ause Example:
VERB
GERUND
She admit t ed. . .
breaking t he window THAT-CLAUSE
She admit t ed. . .
t hat she had broken t he window.
acknowledge, * admit , * ant icipat e, * appreciat e, * avoid, celebrat e, consider, cont emplat e, def er, delay, deny, * det est , dislike, dread, enj oy, ent ail, escape, excuse, f ancy (=i magi ne) *, f inish, f orgive, imagine, * involve,
keep, loat he, mean, (=have as r esul t ) * ment ion, * mind, miss, pardon, post pone, prevent , propose, * recall, * recollect , * remember, report , * resent , resist , risk, save (=pr event t he wast ed ef f or t ) st op, suggest , * underst and, *
Not es:
Appreciat e is f ollowed by a possessi ve adj ect i ve and t he gerund when t he gerund does not ref er t o t he subj ect . Compare : I appr eci at e having some t i me of f wor k. (I'm having t he t ime. . . ) I appr eci at e your giving me some t i me of f wor k. (You're giving me t he t ime. . . )
Excuse, forgive, pardon can be f ollowed by an obj ect and t he gerund or f or + obj ect and t he gerund (bot h common in spoken English), or a possessi ve adj ect i ve + gerund (more f ormal and less likely t o be said): Excuse me int errupt ing. Excuse me f or int errupt ing. Excuse my int errupt ing. Suggest can be used in a number of ways, but BE CAREFUL. It is import ant not t o conf use t hese pat t erns: suggest / suggest ed (+ possessive adj ect ive) + gerund: He suggest s going t o Glast onbury He suggest ed going t o Glast onbury He suggest ed/ suggest s my going t o Glast onbury suggest / suggest ed + t hat -clause (where bot h t hat and shoul d may be omit t ed): He suggest s t hat I should go t o Glast onbury He suggest ed t hat I should go t o Glast onbury He suggest ed/ suggest s I should go t o Glast onbury He suggest ed/ suggest s I go t o Glast onbury He suggest ed I went t o Glast onbury. suggest / suggest ed + quest ion word + inf init ive: He suggest ed where t o go.
Propose is f ollowed by t he gerund when it means 'suggest ': John pr oposed going t o t he debat e but by t he inf init ive when it means 'i nt end': The Gover nment pr oposes bringing i n new l aws. . St op can be f ollowed by a gerund or inf init ive, but t here is a change of meaning - see GERUND / INFINITIVE? sect ion. Dread is f ollowed by t he inf init ive when used wit h 't hi nk', in t he expression 'I dr ead t o t hi nk': I dr ead t o t hi nk what she'l l do next . Prevent is f ollowed EITHER by a possessive adj ect ive + gerund: You can't pr event my leaving. OR by an obj ect + f rom + gerund: You can't pr event me f r om leaving. Examples: ● ● ● ● ● ●
● ●
Normally, a mouse wouldn't cont emplat e marrying an elephant . Most mice dread meet ing elephant s. We can't risk get t ing wet - we haven't got any dry clot hes. If you t ake t hat j ob it will mean get t ing home lat e every night . I can't imagine living in t hat big house. If you buy some pet rol now, it will save you st opping on t he way t o London. She couldn't resist eat ing t he plum she f ound in t he f ridge. They decided t o post pone paint ing t he house unt il t he weat her improved.
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REPORTED SPEECH QUESTIONS 1. Normal word order is used in report ed quest ions, t hat is, t he subj ect comes bef ore t he verb, and it is not necessary t o use 'do' or 'di d': "Where does Pet er live?" lived.
She asked him where Peter
2. Yes / no questions: This t ype of quest ion is report ed by using 'ask' + 'if / whet her + clause : a. "Do you speak English?"
He asked me if I spoke English. He asked me whether I
b. "Are you Brit ish or American?" was British or American. c. "Is it raining?"
She asked if it was raining.
d. "Have you got a comput er?" whether I had a computer . e. "Can you t ype?"
He want ed t o know
She asked if I could type .
f . "Did you come by t rain?" come by train.
He enquired whether I had
g. "Have you been t o Brist ol bef ore?" been to Bristol before .
She asked if I had
3. Question words: This t ype of quest ion is report ed by using 'ask' (or anot her verb like 'ask') + quest ion word + clause. The clause cont ains t he quest ion, in normal word order and wit h t he necessary t ense change. Examples: a. "What is your name?" he asked me. my name was. b. "How old is your mot her?", he asked. her mother was.
He asked me what
He asked how old
c. The mouse said t o t he elephant , "Where do you live?" The mouse asked t he elephant where she lived. d. "What t ime does t he t rain arrive?" she asked. asked what time the train arrived. e. "When can we have dinner?" she asked. when they could have dinner .
She
She asked
f . The elephant said t o t he mouse, "Why are you so small?" The elephant asked t he mouse why she was so small .
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RELATIVE CLAUSES NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES The inf ormat ion in t hese clauses is not essent ial. It t ells us more about someone or somet hing, but it does not help us t o ident if y t hem or it . Compare: 1. El ephant s t hat love mice ar e ver y unusual . (This t ells us which elephant s we are t alking about ). 2. El ephant s, which are large and grey , can somet i mes be f ound i n zoos. (This gives us some ext ra inf ormat ion about elephant s - we are t alking about all elephant s, not j ust one t ype or group). 3. John's mot her , who lives in Scot land, has 6 gr andchi l dr en. (We know who John's mot her is, and he only has one. The import ant inf ormat ion is t he number of grandchildren, but t he f act t hat she lives in Scot land might be f ollowed wit h t he words "by t he way" - it is addit ional inf ormat ion).
Punctuation Non-def ining relat ive clauses are always separat ed f rom t he rest of t he sent ence by commas. The commas have a similar f unct ion t o bracket s: My f r i end John has j ust wr i t t en a best -sel l i ng novel . (He went t o t he same school as me) > My f r i end John, who went t o t he same school as me, has j ust wr i t t en a best -sel l i ng novel . Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses Person Subj ect who
Thing
Place
which
Obj ect who/ whom which
where
Possessive whose
Notes: 1. In non-def ining clauses, you cannot use ‘ t hat ’ inst ead of who, whom or whi ch . 2. You cannot leave out t he relat ive pronoun, even when it is t he obj ect of t he verb in t he relat ive clause: He gave me t he l et t er , whi ch was i n a bl ue envel ope. He gave me t he l et t er , whi ch I r ead i mmedi at el y 3. The preposit ion in t hese clauses can go at t he end of t he clause, e. g. Thi s i s St r at f or d-on-Avon, whi ch you have al l hear d about . This pat t ern is of t en used in spoken English, but in writ t en or f ormal English you can also put t he preposit ion bef ore t he pronoun: e. g. St r at f or d-on-Avon, about whi ch many peopl e have wr i t t en i s Shakespear e’ s bi r t hpl ace.
4. Non-def ining clauses can be int roduced by expressions like al l of , many of + relat ive pronoun:
Person
Thing
all of
+ whom
+ whi ch
any of
+ whom
+ whi ch
(a) few of
+ whom
+ whi ch
bot h of
+ whom
+ whi ch
each of
+ whom
+ whi ch
eit her of
+ whom
+ whi ch
half of
+ whom
+ whi ch
many of
+ whom
+ whi ch
most of
+ whom
+ whi ch
much of
+ whom
+ whi ch
none of
+ whom
+ whi ch
one of
+ whom
+ whi ch
+ whom
+ whi ch
t wo of et c… Examples:
a. There were a lot of people at t he part y, many of whom I had known f or years. b. He was carrying his belongings, many of which were broken. 5. The relat ive pronoun whi ch at t he beginning of a non-def ining relat ive clause, can ref er t o all t he inf ormat ion cont ained in t he previous part of t he sent ence, rat her t han t o j ust one word. a. Chris did really well in his exams, which was a big surprise. (= t he f act t hat he did well in his exams was a big surprise). b. An elephant and a mouse f ell in love, which is most unusual . (= t he f act t hat t hey f ell in love is unusual). Examples: a. My grandmot her, who is dead now , came f rom t he Nort h of England. b. I spoke t o Fred, who explained t he problem. c. The elephant looked at t he t ree, under which she had oft en sat . d. We st opped at t he museum, which we’ d never been int o. e. She’ s st udying mat hs, which many people hat e. f . I’ ve j ust met Susan, whose husband works in London. g. He had t housands of books, most of which he had read.
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RELATIVE CLAUSE WHERE TO PUT THE PREPOSTITION IN A RELATIVE CLAUSE There are of t en preposit ions in relat ive clauses, and t he relat ive pronoun is t he obj ect of t he preposit ion. This means t hat t he preposit ion can somet imes be omit t ed. 1. The preposit ion is normally placed at t he end of t he relat ive clause:
Is t hat t he man (who) you arrived wit h? Do you know t he girl (t hat ) John is t alking t o? 2. In f ormal or writ t en English, t he preposit ion is of t en placed bef ore
t he relat ive pronoun, and in t his case t he pronoun cannot be omit t ed:
The per son wi t h whom he i s negot i at i ng i s t he Chai r man of a l ar ge company. It i s a soci et y t o whi ch many i mpor t ant peopl e bel ong. However, t his is unusual in spoken English. Examples: ●
● ●
●
●
The j ungle t he elephant lived in was f ull of st range and unusual animals. He was very f ond of t he mouse t hat he lived wit h. The t ree under which t hey had t heir home was t he largest and oldest in t he j ungle. In t he middle of t he j ungle was a river t hat all t he animals went t o every day . It was t he st ream in which t he elephant and t he mouse preferred t o swim.
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RELATIVE CLAUSES DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES As t he name suggest s, t hese clauses give essent ial inf ormat ion t o def ine or ident if y t he person or t hing we are t alking about . Obviously, t his is only necessary if t here is more t han one person or t hing involved. Example: El ephant s who mar r y mi ce ar e ver y unusual . In t his sent ence we underst and t hat t here are many elephant s, but it is clear t hat we are only t alking t he ones who mar r y mi ce.
Punctuation Commas are not used in def ining relat ive clauses. Relative pronouns The f ollowing relat ive pronouns are used in def ining relat ive clauses: Person
Thing
Subj ect
who/ t hat
which/ t hat
Obj ect
who/ whom/ t hat / ø
which/ t hat / ø
Possessive
whose
whose
Place
Time Reason
where when why
Notes: 1. The relat ive pronoun st ands in place of a noun. This noun usually appears earlier in t he sent ence: The woman
who/ that
Noun, subj ect of main clause
relat ive verb + rest of relat ive verb + rest of main clause pronoun clause ref erring t o 't he woman', subj ect of 'spoke'
spoke at the meeting was very knowledgeable.
2. Who, whom and whi ch can be replaced by t hat . This is very common in spoken English. 3. The relat ive pronoun can be omit t ed ( ø) when it is t he obj ect of t he clause:
The mouse t hat t he elephant loved was ver y beaut i f ul . OR The mouse t he elephant loved was ver y beaut i f ul . Bot h of t hese sent ences are correct , t hough t he second one is more common in spoken English. The mouse
that/ ø
the elephant loved was very beautiful.
Noun, subj ect of relat ive pronoun, main clause ref erring t o 't he mouse, obj ect of 'loved'
verb + rest of relat ive clause
verb + rest of main clause.
(You can usually decide whet her a relat ive pronoun is an obj ect because it is normally f ollowed by anot her subj ect + verb. )
4. Whose is used f or t hings as well as f or people. Examples: The man whose car was st olen. A t r ee whose leaves have fallen.
5. Whom is very f ormal and is only used in writ t en English. You can use who/ t hat , or omit t he pronoun complet ely : The doct or whom/ who/ t hat / ø I was hoping t o see wasn't on dut y.
6. That normally f ollows words like somet hi ng, anyt hi ng, ever yt hi ng, not hi ng, al l , and superlat ives. Examples: ● ●
There's somet hing t hat you should know . It was t he best f ilm t hat I've ever seen. Examples:
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
A clown is someone who makes you laugh. An elephant is an animal t hat lives in hot count ries. The plums t hat were in t he fridge were delicious. I have eat en t hem. Where are t he plums ( t hat ) I put in t he fridge? Has anyone seen t he book I was reading? Not hing t hat anyone does can replace my lost bag. Let 's go t o a count ry where t he sun always shines. They live in t he house whose roof is full of holes.
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RELATIVE CLAUSES See also Pronouns. There are t wo dif f erent t ypes of relat ive clause: 1. A "defining" or ident if ying clause, which t ells us which person or t hing
we are t alking about . 2. A "non-defining" or non-essent ial clause, which gives us more
inf ormat ion about t he person or t hing we are t alking about . This kind of clause could of t en be inf ormat ion included in bracket s (. . . ) Example: The f armer (his name was Fred) sold us some pot at oes. The f armer, whose name was Fred, sold us some pot at oes. It is import ant t o see t he dif f erence bet ween t he t wo t ypes of clause, as it af f ect s:
a. t he choice of pronoun used t o int roduce t he clause, b. t he punct uat ion - you must use commas wit h a non-def ining clause.
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'- ING' FORM THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE The present part iciple of most verbs has t he f orm base+i ng and is used in t he f ollowing ways:
a. as part of the continuous form of a verb (See cont inuous t enses in VERB TENSES) Example:
I am working, he was singing, t hey have been walking.
b. after verbs of movement/ position in the pattern: verb + present part iciple Example: ● ● ●
She went shopping He lay looking up at t he clouds She came running t owards me
This const ruct ion is part icularly usef ul wit h t he verb 't o go', as in t hese common expressions : to to to to
go go go go
shopping ski-ing f ishing surf ing
to to to to
go go go go
walking swimming running dancing
c. after verbs of perception in the pattern: verb + obj ect + present part iciple Example:
I hear d someone singing. He saw hi s f r i end walking al ong t he r oad. I can smel l somet hi ng burning! NOTE: There is a dif f erence in meaning when such a sent ence cont ains a zer o-i nf i ni t i ve rat her t han a part iciple. The inf init ive ref ers t o a complete act ion, but t he part iciple ref ers t o an incomplete act ion, or part of an act ion. Compare:
●
●
I hear d Joanna singing (= she had st art ed bef ore I heard her, and probably went on af t erwards) I hear d Joanna sing (= I heard her complet e perf ormance)
d. as an adj ective Examples:
amazing, worrying, excit ing, boring. ● ● ● ● ● ●
It was an amazing f i l m. It 's a bi t worrying when t he pol i ce st op you Dar k billowing cl ouds of t en pr ecede a st or m. Racing car s can go as f ast as 400kph. He was t r apped i nsi de t he burning house. Many of hi s pai nt i ngs depi ct t he set t ing sun.
e. with the verbs spend and wast e, in the pattern: verb + t ime/ money expression + present part iciple Example: ● ● ●
My boss spends t wo hour s a day t ravelling t o wor k. Don't wast e t i me playing comput er games! They've spent t he whol e day shopping.
f. with the verbs cat ch and find, in the pattern: verb + obj ect + present part iciple: Wit h cat ch, t he part iciple always ref ers t o an act ion which causes annoyance or anger: ● ●
If I cat ch you st ealing my appl es agai n, t her e'l l be t r oubl e! Don't l et hi m cat ch you reading hi s l et t er s.
This is not t he case wit h f i nd , which is unemot ional: ● ●
We f ound some money lying on t he gr ound. They f ound t hei r mot her sit t ing i n t he gar den.
g. to replace a sentence or part of a sentence: When t wo act ions occur at t he same t ime, and are done by t he same person or t hing, we can use a present part iciple t o describe one of t hem: ●
●
They went out i nt o t he snow. They l aughed as t hey went . went laughing out i nt o t he snow. He whi st l ed t o hi msel f . He wal ked down t he r oad. hi msel f , he wal ked down t he r oad.
They
Whist ling t o
When one act ion f ollows very quickly af t er anot her done by t he same person or t hing, we can express t he f irst act ion wit h a present part iciple: ●
●
He put on hi s coat and l ef t t he house. l ef t t he house.
Put t ing on hi s coat , he
She dr opped t he gun and put her hands i n t he ai r .
Dropping t he
gun, she put her hands i n t he ai r . The present part iciple can be used inst ead of a phrase st art ing as, since, because, and it explains t he cause or reason f or an act ion: ●
● ●
Feeling hungr y, he went i nt o t he ki t chen and opened t he f r i dge. (= because he f el t hungr y. . . ) Being poor , he di dn't spend much on cl ot hes. Knowing t hat hi s mot her was comi ng, he cl eaned t he f l at .
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'- ING' FORM INTRODUCTION The '-ing' f orm of t he verb may be a present part iciple or a gerund. The f orm is ident ical, t he dif f erence is in t he f unct ion, or t he j ob t he word does in t he sent ence.
The present participle : This is most commonly used: ●
●
●
●
as part of t he cont inuous f orm of a verb, he i s paint ing; she has been wait ing af t er verbs of movement / posit ion in t he pat t ern: verb + present part iciple, She sat looking at t he sea af t er verbs of percept ion in t he pat t ern: verb + obj ect + present part iciple, We saw hi m swimming as an adj ect ive, e. g. amazing, worrying, excit ing, boring
The gerund: This always has t he same f unct ion as a noun (alt hough it looks like a verb), so it can be used: ●
●
●
●
as t he subj ect of t he sent ence: Eat ing peopl e i s wr ong. af t er preposit ions: Can you sneeze wi t hout opening your mout h? She i s good at paint ing af t er cert ain verbs, e. g. like, hat e, admit , imagine in compound nouns, e. g. a driving l esson, a swimming pool , bi r d- wat ching, t r ai nspot t ing
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NOUNS THE PLURAL OF NOUNS Most nouns f orm t he plural by adding - s or - es.
Singular
Plural
boat
boat s
hat
hat s
house
houses
river
rivers
A noun ending in - y preceded by a consonant makes t he plural wit h -ies.
Singular
Plural
a cry
cries
a f ly
f lies
a nappy
nappies
a poppy
poppies
a cit y
cit ies
a lady
ladies
a baby
babies
There are some irregular f ormat ions f or noun plurals. Some of t he most common ones are list ed below. Examples of irregular plurals:
Singular
Plural
woman
women
man
men
child
children
t oot h
t eet h
f oot
f eet
person
people
leaf
leaves
half
halves
knif e
knives
wif e
wives
lif e
lives
loaf
loaves
pot at o
pot at oes
cact us
cact i
f ocus
f oci
f ungus
f ungi
nucleus
nuclei
syllabus
syllabi/ syllabuses
analysis
analyses
diagnosis
diagnoses
oasis
oases
t hesis
t heses
crisis
crises
phenomenon
phenomena
crit erion
crit eria
dat um
dat a
Some nouns have t he same f orm in t he singular and t he plural. Examples:
Singular
Plural
sheep
sheep
f ish
f ish
species
species
aircraf t
aircraf t
Some nouns have a plural f orm but t ake a singular verb. Examples: The news is on at 6. 30 p. m. news at hlet ics At hlet ics is good f or young people. Linguist ics is t he st udy of language. linguist ics dart s Dart s is a popular game in England . billiards Billiards is played all over t he world. Some nouns have a plural f orm and t ake a plural verb. Examples:
t rousers j eans glasses
My t rousers are t oo t ight . Her j eans are black. Those glasses are his.
ot hers include:
savings, t hanks, st eps, st air, cust oms, congrat ulat ions, t ropics, wages, spect acles, out skirt s, goods, wit s
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THE PASSIVE VOICE PASSIVE, FORM The passive voice in English is composed of t wo element s : t he appropriat e f orm of t he verb 't o be' + t he past part iciple of t he verb in quest ion:
Subj ect
verb 'to be'
past participle
The house
was
built . . .
Example: t o clean Subj ect
verb 'to be'
past participle
is
cleaned every day.
Simple present: The house
Present continuous: The house
is being
cleaned at t he moment .
was
cleaned yest erday.
was being
cleaned last week.
has been
cleaned since you lef t .
had been
cleaned bef ore t heir arrival.
will be
cleaned next week.
Simple past: The house
Past continuous: The house
Present perfect: The house
Past perfect: The house
Future: The house
Future continuous: The house
will be being
cleaned t omorrow.
Present conditional: The house
would be
cleaned if t hey had visit ors.
would have been
cleaned if it had been dirt y.
Past conditional: The house
NOTE: 't o be bor n' is a passive f orm and is most commonly used in t he past t ense:
I was born i n 1976. When were you born? BUT: Ar ound 100 babi es are born i n t hi s hospi t al ever y week.
Infinitive form : inf init ive of 't o be' + past part iciple: (t o) be cl eaned This f orm is used af t er modal verbs and ot her verbs normally f ollowed by an inf init ive, e. g.
You have t o be t est ed on your English grammar John might be promot ed next year. She want s t o be invit ed t o t he part y.
Gerund or -ing form: being + past part iciple: bei ng cl eaned This f orm is used af t er preposit ions and verbs normally f ollowed by a gerund Examples: a. Most f ilm st ars hat e being int erviewed. b. I remember being t aught t o drive. c. The children are excit ed about being t aken t o t he zoo.
NOTE: Somet imes t he passive is f ormed using t he verb t o get inst ead of t he verb t o be: a. He got arrest ed f or dangerous driving. b. T hey're get t ing married lat er t his year. c. I'm not sure how t he window got broken.
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THE PASSIVE VOICE PASSIVE, FUNCTION The passive voice is used t o show int erest in t he person or obj ect t hat experiences an act ion rat her t han t he person or obj ect t hat perf orms t he act ion, e. g. ●
●
●
The passi ve i s used . . . : We are int erest ed in t he passive, not who uses it . The house was built i n 1654: We are int erest ed in t he house, not t he builder. The r oad is being repaired: We are int erest ed in t he road, not t he people repairing it .
In ot her words, t he most import ant t hing or person becomes t he subj ect of t he sent ence. Somet imes we use t he passive voice because we don't know or cannot express who or what perf ormed t he act ion: ● ●
I not i ced t hat a wi ndow had been left open Ever y year peopl e are killed on our r oads.
If we want t o say who or what perf orms t he act ion, we use t he preposit ion by : ● ●
"A Har d Day's Ni ght " was writ t en by t he Beat l es ET was direct ed by Spi el ber g
The passive voice is of t en used in f ormal or scient if ic t ext s: ● ● ●
A gr eat deal of meani ng is conveyed by a f ew wel l -chosen wor ds. Our pl anet is wrapped i n a mass of gases. Wast e mat er i al s are disposed of i n a var i et y of ways.
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THE PASSIVE VOICE GET / HAVE SOMETHING DONE This const ruct ion is passive in meaning. It may describe sit uat ions where we want someone else t o do somet hing f or us. Examples: a. I must get / have my hair cut . b . When ar e you goi ng t o get t hat window mended? c . We'r e having t he house paint ed. If t he verb ref ers t o somet hing negat ive or unwant ed, it has t he same meaning as a passive sent ence: d. Ji m had his car st olen l ast ni ght . (= Jim's car was st olen) e. They had t heir roof blown off i n t he st or m . (= Their roof was blown of f in t he st orm) The const ruct ion can ref er t o t he complet ion of an act ivit y, especially if a t ime expression is used: f . We'l l get t he work done as soon as possi bl e. g. I'l l get t hose let t ers t yped bef or e l uncht i me. In all t hese sent ences, we are more int erest ed in t he result of t he act ivit y t han in t he person or obj ect t hat perf orms t he act ivit y.
'X' NEEDS DOING In t he same way, t his const ruct ion has a passive meaning. The import ant t hing in our minds is t he person or t hing t hat will experience t he act ion, e. g. a. The cei l i ng needs paint ing (= t he ceiling needs t o be paint ed) b. My hai r needs cut t ing (= my hair needs t o be cut )
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THE PASSIVE VOICE PASSIVE TENSES AND ACTIVE EQUIVALENTS Not ice t hat t he t ense of t he verb t o be in t he passive voice is t he same as t he t ense of t he main verb in t he act ive voice. Example: t o keep TENSE / VERB FORM
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
Simple present
keeps
is kept
Present continuous
is keeping
is being kept
Simple past
kept
was kept
Past continuous
was keeping
was being kept
Present perfect
have kept
have been kept
Past perfect
had kept
had been kept
future
will keep
will be kept
Conditional present
would keep
would be kept
Conditional past
would have kept
would have been kept
present infinitive
t o keep
t o be kept
perfect infinitive
t o have kept
t o have been kept
present participle/ gerund
keeping
being kept
perfect participle
having kept
having been kept
Example sent ences:
Active : I keep t he but t er in t he f ridge. Passive : The but t er is kept in t he f ridge. Active : They st ole t he paint ing. Passive : The paint ing was st olen. Active : They are repairing t he road. Passive : The road is being repaired. Active : Shakespeare wrot e Hamlet . Passive : Hamlet was writ t en by Shakespeare. Active : A dog bit him. Passive : He was bit t en by a dog.
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NOUNS COMPOUND NOUNS Formation Words can be combined t o f orm compound nouns. These are very common, and new combinat ions are invent ed almost daily. They normally have t wo part s. The second part ident if ies t he obj ect or person in quest ion ( man, friend, t ank, t able, room). The first part t ells us what kind of obj ect or person it is, or what it s purpose i s ( police, boy, wat er, dining, bed):
What type / what purpose
What or who
police
man
boy
f riend
wat er
t ank
dining
t able
bed
room
The t wo part s may be writ t en in a number of ways : 1. as one word. Example: policeman, boyfriend 2. as t wo words j oined wit h a hyphen. Example: dining-t able 3. as t wo separat e words. Example: fish t ank. There are no clear rules about t his - so writ e t he common compounds t hat you know well as one word, and t he ot hers as t wo words.
The two parts may be:
Examples:
bedr oom wat er t ank noun + noun mot or cycl e pr i nt er car t r i dge r ai nf al l noun + verb hai r cut t r ai n-spot t i ng noun + adverb
hanger -on passer -by
washi ng machi ne verb + noun dr i vi ng l i cence swi mmi ng pool
l ookout verb + adverb* t ake-of f dr awback gr eenhouse adj ective + noun sof t war e r edhead adj ective + verb adverb + noun
dr y-cl eani ng publ i c speaki ng onl ooker byst ander
out put over t hr ow adverb + verb* upt ur n i nput
Compound nouns of t en have a meaning t hat is dif f erent f rom t he t wo separat e words.
Stress is import ant in pronunciat ion, as it dist inguishes bet ween a compound noun (e. g. greenhouse) and an adj ect ive wit h a noun (e. g. green house). In compound nouns, t he st ress usually f alls on t he f irst syllable: a a a a
'greenhouse = place where we grow plant s (compound noun) green 'house = house paint ed green (adj ect ive and noun) 'bluebird = t ype of bird (compound noun) blue 'bird = any bird wit h blue f eat hers (adj ect ive and noun)
* Many common compound nouns are f ormed f rom phrasal verbs (verb + adverb or adverb + verb). Examples: breakdown, out break, out come, cut back, drive-in, drop-out , feedback, flyover, hold-up, hangover, out lay, out let , inlet , makeup, out put , set -back, st and-in, t akeaway, walkover.
.
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NOUNS Nouns answer t he quest ions "What is it?" and "Who is it?" They give names t o t hings, people and qualit ies. Examples: dog, bicycle, man, girl , beaut y , t rut h, world.
NOUN GENDER In general t here is no dist inct ion bet ween masculine, f eminine and neut er in English nouns. However, gender is somet imes shown by dif f erent f orms or dif f erent words. Examples:
Different words: Masculine
Feminine
man f at her uncle boy husband
woman mot her aunt girl wif e
Different forms: Masculine
Feminine
act or prince hero wait er widower
act ress princess heroine wait ress widow
Some nouns can be used f or eit her a masculine or a feminine subj ect : Examples: cousin
t eenager
t eacher
doct or
cook
st udent
parent
f riend
relat ion
colleague
part ner
leader
● ● ● ●
Mary is a doct or. She is a doct or Pet er is a doct or. He is a doct or. Art hur is my cousin. He is my cousin. Jane is my cousin. She is my cousin.
It is possible t o make t he dist inct ion by adding t he words 'mal e' or 'f emal e'.
Example: a female st udent ; a male cousin For prof essions, we can add t he word 'woman' Example: a woman doct or; a woman j ournalist . In some cases nouns describing t hings are given gender. Examples: ● ● ●
I love my car. She (t he car) is my great est passion. France is popular wit h her (France's) neighbours at t he moment . I t ravelled f rom England t o New York on t he Queen Elizabet h, she (t he Queen Elizabet h) is a great ship.
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NOUNS SECTION MENU: Noun Gender The Plural of Nouns Count able and Uncount able nouns Compound Nouns Proper Nouns Nat ionalit ies
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'- ING' FORM THE GERUND This l ooks exact ly t he same as a present part iciple, and f or t his reason it is now common t o call bot h f orms 't he -ing form' . However it is usef ul t o underst and t he dif f erence bet ween t he t wo. The gerund always has t he same f unct ion as a noun (alt hough it looks like a verb), so it can be used:
a. as the subj ect of the sentence: ● ● ●
Eat ing peopl e i s wr ong. Hunt ing el ephant s i s danger ous. Flying makes me ner vous.
b. as the complement of the verb 't o be' : ● ●
●
One of hi s dut i es i s at t ending meet i ngs. The har dest t hi ng about learning Engl i sh i s under st andi ng t he ger und. One of l i f e's pl easur es i s having br eakf ast i n bed.
c. after prepositions. The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition: ● ● ● ● ● ●
Can you sneeze wi t hout opening your mout h? She i s good at paint ing. They'r e keen on windsurfing. She avoi ded hi m by walking on t he opposi t e si de of t he r oad. We ar r i ved i n Madr i d af t er driving al l ni ght . My f at her deci ded agai nst post poning hi s t r i p t o Hungar y.
This is also t rue of cert ain expressions ending in a preposit ion, e. g. i n spi t e of , t her e's no poi nt i n. . : ● ●
Ther e's no poi nt i n wait ing. In spi t e of missing t he t r ai n, we ar r i ved on t i me.
d. after a number of 'phrasal verbs' which are composed of a verb + preposition/ adverb Example: t o l ook f or war d t o, t o gi ve up, t o be f or / agai nst , t o t ake t o, t o put of f , t o keep on: ● ● ● ●
I l ook f or war d t o hearing f r om you soon. ( at t he end of a let t er) When ar e you goi ng t o gi ve up smoking? She al ways put s of f going t o t he dent i st . He kept on asking f or money.
NOTE: There are some phrasal verbs and ot her expressions t hat include t he
word 't o' as a preposit ion, not as part of a t o-i nf i ni t i ve: - t o l ook f or war d t o, t o t ake t o, t o be accust omed t o, t o be used t o. It is import ant t o recognise t hat 't o' is a preposit ion in t hese cases, as it must be f ollowed by a gerund: ● ● ●
We ar e l ooki ng f or war d t o seeing you. I am used t o wait ing f or buses. She di dn't r eal l y t ake t o st udying Engl i sh.
It is possible t o check whet her 't o’ is a preposit ion or part of a t o-i nf i ni t i ve: if you can put a noun or t he pronoun 'i t ' af t er it , t hen it is a preposit ion and must be f ollowed by a gerund: ● ●
I am accust omed t o it (t he col d). I am accust omed t o being col d.
e. in compound nouns Example: ●
a driving l esson, a swimming pool , bi r d- wat ching, t r ai n- spot t ing
It is clear t hat t he meaning is t hat of a noun, not of a cont inuous verb. Example: ●
t he pool is not swimming, it is a pool f or swi mmi ng i n.
f. after the expressions: can't hel p, can't st and, i t 's no use/ good, and t he adj ect ive wor t h: ● ● ● ●
The el ephant coul dn't hel p falling i n l ove wi t h t he mouse. I can't st and being st uck i n t r af f i c j ams. It 's no use/ good t rying t o escape. It mi ght be wor t h phoning t he st at i on t o check t he t i me of t he t r ai n.
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'- ING' FORM GERUND OR INFINITIVE? B. Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning: Verbs marked wit h an ast erisk * can also be f ollowed by a t hat -clause. come f orget * go on
mean* regret * remember *
st op t ry
NOTES:
Come: Come + gerund is like ot her verbs of movement f ollowed by t he gerund, and means t hat t he subj ect is doing somet hing as t hey move: ●
She came running acr oss t he f i el d.
Come + to-infinitive means t hat somet hing happens or develops, perhaps out side t he subj ect 's cont rol: ●
● ●
At f i r st I t hought he was cr azy, but I've come t o appreciat e hi s sense of humour . How di d you come t o be out si de t he wr ong house? Thi s wor d has come t o mean somet hi ng qui t e di f f er ent .
Forget, regret and remember: When t hese verbs are f ollowed by a gerund, t he gerund ref ers t o an act ion t hat happened earlier: ●
●
I r emember locking t he door ( = I remember now, I locked t he door earlier) He r egr et t ed speaking so r udel y. (= he regret t ed at some t ime in t he past , he had spoken rudely at some earlier t ime in t he past . )
Forget is f requent ly used wit h 'never ' in t he simple f ut ure f orm: ●
I'l l never f or get meet ing t he Queen.
When t hese verbs are f ollowed by a to-infinitive , t he inf init ive ref ers t o an act ion happening at t he same t ime, or lat er: ●
I r emember ed t o lock t he door (= I t hought about it ,
●
●
t hen I did it . ) Don't f or get t o buy some eggs! (= Please t hink about it and t hen do it . ) We r egr et t o announce t he l at e ar r i val of t he 12. 45 f r om Paddi ngt on. (= We f eel sorry bef ore we t ell you t his bad news. )
Go on: Go on + gerund means t o cont inue wit h an act ion: ● ●
He went on speaking f or t wo hour s. I can't go on working l i ke t hi s - I'm exhaust ed.
Go on + to-infinitive means t o do t he next act ion, which is of t en t he next st age in a process: ●
●
Af t er i nt r oduci ng her pr oposal , she went on t o explain t he benef i t s f or t he company. John Smi t h wor ked i n l ocal gover nment f or f i ve year s, t hen went on t o become a Member of Par l i ament .
Mean: Mean + gerund expresses what t he result of an act ion will be, or what will be necessary: ●
●
If you t ake t hat j ob i n London i t wi l l mean t ravelling f or t wo hour s ever y day. We coul d t ake t he f er r y t o Fr ance, but t hat wi l l mean spending a ni ght i n a hot el .
Mean + to-infinitive expresses an int ent ion or a plan: ● ● ●
Di d you mean t o dial t hi s number ? I mean t o finish t hi s j ob by t he end of t he week! Sor r y - I di dn't mean t o hurt you.
Stop: Stop + gerund means t o f inish an act ion in progress: ●
I st opped working f or t hem because t he wages wer e so l ow. St op t ickling me!
Stop + to-infinitive means t o int errupt an act ivit y in order t o do somet hing else, so t he inf init ive is used t o express a purpose: ●
●
Try:
I st opped t o have l unch. (= I was working, or t ravelling, and I int errupt ed what I was doing in order t o eat . ) It 's di f f i cul t t o concent r at e on what you ar e doi ng i f you have t o st op t o answer t he phone ever y f i ve mi nut es.
Try + gerund means t o experiment wit h an act ion t hat might be a solut ion t o your problem. ●
●
If you have pr obl ems sl eepi ng, you coul d t r y doing some yoga bef or e you go t o bed, or you coul d t r y drinking some war m mi l k. 'I can't get i n t ouch wi t h Car l . ' 'Have you t r i ed emailing hi m?'
Try + to-infinitive means t o make an ef f ort t o do somet hing. It may be somet hing very dif f icult or even impossible: ●
●
●
The sur geons t r i ed t o save hi s l i f e but he di ed on t he oper at i ng t abl e. We'l l t r y t o phone at 6 o'cl ock, but i t mi ght be har d t o f i nd a publ i c t el ephone. El ephant s and mi ce have t o t r y t o live t oget her i n har mony.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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ABOUT ANTHONY HUGHES Author of the Online English Grammar Ant hony Hughes has been involved in educat ion f or t he past t went y years. He spent his f ormat ive years in Aust ralia and at t ended t he Universit ies of Sydney (B. A. ), New England (M. Lit t ) and t he Universit y of New Sout h Wales (Cert . TESOL) Af t er receiving a Mast ers in English Lit erat ure and Language he went on t o t each English in several count ries including Aust ralia, Swit zerland and France. While in Swit zerland he wrot e and direct ed a six part audio-visual course f or English language learners and was t he direct or of t he int ernat ional educat ion f air 'Mondolingua'. In 1995 he moved t o Brist ol in t he UK and f ormed t he Digit al Educat ion Net work Lt d wit h David Blackie. The Digit al Educat ion Net work (DEN) is now a world leader in t he provision of educat ional inf ormat ion on t he Int ernet and count s amongst it s client s many of t he world's t op educat ional organisat ions. Charged wit h t he development of t he DEN websit es and cont ent and wit h t he development of educat ional websit es f or client s around t he world, he has become an expert in t he development and design of high-end, dat abase driven and int eract ive sit es f or educat ion. Along wit h t he t echnical expert ise he has developed cont ent in t he f orm of t he Online English Grammar which current ly at t ract s over 180, 000 mont hly user sessions on DEN and of int eract ive games in t he DEN t est cent re. He is current ly working on a number of mult imedia and DV video based proj ect s f or primary and secondary schools as well as a series on t he use of English. In 1999 he f ormed ZEP Media Lt d t o provide an online educat ional sof t ware shop and resource cent re f or schools and t o act as a 'laborat ory' f or t he development of educat ional applicat ions using t he new t echnologies. Apart f rom his business act ivit ies he has cont ribut ed art icles and phot ographs t o a number of magazines, writ t en a screenplay on t he lif e of Friedrich Niet zsche and maint ains a st rong int erest in t he development of creat ive learning applicat ions using t he new t echnologies. Prof essional, publishing and Online Grammar licensing enquiries can be sent t o akh@zepmedia. com
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes
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WHICH ENGLIS H? Tra s h o r Ru b b is h ? - S o rt in g o u t o u r En g lis h Co lo u r o r co lo r? S o cks o r s o x? Org a n is a t io n s o r Org a n iza t io n s ? Un d e rg ro u n d o r s u b wa y? Ga s o r p e t ro l? Fa ll o r Au t u m n ? Ca n d y o r s we e t s ? Co o kie o r b is cu it ? Ce n t re o r Ce n t e r, Tra s h o r ru b b is h ? I o ft e n g e t e m a ils fro m u s e rs b e ra t in g m e fo r m y t e rrib le s p e llin g . Wh ile I a d m it t o a fe w g la rin g t yp o s fro m t im e t o t im e t h e e m a ils a re o ft e n co n ce rn e d wit h s p e llin g s t h a t h a ve m o re t o d o wit h g e o g ra p h y t h a n wit h p o o r lit e ra cy s kills . Ju s t t o co n fu s e t h e is s u e a lit t le m o re , I wa s b o rn in En g la n d , we n t t o Au s t ra lia wh e n I wa s five , wa s e n t ire ly e d u ca t e d in Au s t ra lia , s p e n t s e ve ra l ye a rs in t h e US A a n d Ca n a d a a n d t h e n t e n ye a rs in Fra n ce , a n d n o w live in En g la n d m a rrie d t o a Co lo m b ia n wife wh e re t h e co m m o n la n g u a g e a t h o m e is Fre n ch , wh e re m y wife s p e a ks S p a n is h t o t h e ch ild re n , I s p e a k En g lis h t o t h e m a n d t h e y s p e n d u n d u e a m o u n t s o f t im e lis t e n in g t o Am e rica n TV s h o ws like S e s a m e S t re e t , Bu ffy t h e Va m p ire Kille r a n d t h e S im p s o n s o r lis t e n in g t o Am e rica n ra p p e rs , En g lis h S p ice Girls o r, wh e n fo rce d , h e ro e s fro m t h e s e ve n t ie s s u ch a s Va n Mo rris o n a n d Ja m e s Ta ylo r. An d t h e y s u ck vo ca b u la ry, e xp re s s io n s , id io m s a n d g ra m m a r o u t o f a ll o f t h is a n d p lo n k it in t o t h e ir o wn En g lis h . In m y h o m e , a s in m a n y o t h e rs a ro u n d t h e wo rld , En g lis h is n 't s o m e t h in g t h a t yo u ca n p in d o wn a s yo u wo u ld a p rize b u t t e rfly a n d s a y 'Th e re it is ! Th a t is En g lis h '. Th e re is n o lo n g e r, if t h e re e ve r wa s , a s t a n d a rd En g lis h t o wh ich a ll s p e a ke rs s h o u ld p a y h o m a g e . No w we re co g n is e a s le g it im a t e va ria t io n s Am e rica n En g lis h , Au s t ra lia n En g lis h , Brit is h En g lis h , In d ia n En g lis h , t h e re is e ve n a va rie t y ca lle d S in g lis h fro m S in g a p o re . Yo u o n ly h a ve t o h a ve u s e d a n e le ct ro n ic s p e ll ch e cke r t o kn o w t h a t yo u ca n s e le ct fro m s o m e o f t h e s e En g lis h va rie t ie s wh e n co rre ct in g yo u r s p e llin g in a wo rd p ro ce s s o r. Alt h o u g h it is t ru e t h a t we h a ve a wo n d e rfu lly rich g lo b a l m a p p in g o f En g lis h wh ich m a ke s it p o s s ib le fo r En g lis h s p e a ke rs t o a lm o s t im m e d ia t e ly fix a fe llo w En g lis h s p e a ke r t o a g e o g ra p h ica l a re a , it is a ls o t ru e t h a t t h e re is m o re t h a t is s im ila r a m o n g t h e s e En g lis h va rie t ie s t h a n is d is s im ila r. If t h e re wa s n 't , En g lis h s p e a ke rs fro m d iffe re n t p a rt s o f t h e wo rld wo u ld h a ve a b s o lu t e ly n o h o p e o f u n d e rs t a n d in g e a ch o t h e r! In m o s t ca s e s it is p ro n u n cia t io n a n d n o t u s a g e , vo ca b u la ry o r g ra m m a r t h a t m a ke s a fe llo w En g lis h s p e a ke r fro m a n o t h e r p a rt o f t h e wo rld , o r s o m e t im e s e ve n a n o t h e r p a rt o f t h e co u n t ry, d ifficu lt t o u n d e rs t a n d . In t h e On lin e En g lis h Gra m m a r I t ry t o re m a in o p e n t o t h e in t e rn a t io n a l a n d e vo lvin g ch a ra ct e r o f En g lis h a n d , a t t h e ris k o f fa llin g in t o t h e s e a , t ry t o ke e p o n e fo o t e a ch in Brit is h a n d Am e rica n En g lis h - if I h a d m o re fe e t I wo u ld a t t e m p t t o co ve r s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a in En g lis h va ria t io n s a s we ll, b u t a s h o rt a g e o f fe e t is o n e o f t h e m a n y d ra wb a cks o f b e in g a lo wly b ip e d . Wh a t t h is m e a n s is t h a t I t ry t o p o in t o u t g ra m m a t ica l ru le s t h a t m a y va ry s lig h t ly d e p e n d in g o n wh e re yo u a re , t h e s a m e wit h s p e llin g . As fa r a s s p e llin g g o e s fo r t h e a ct u a l e xp la n a t io n s a n d e xa m p le s I t e n d t o u s e t h e Au s t ra lia n / Brit is h s p e llin g s . Fo r e xa m p le I u s e 'o rg a n is a t io n ' ra t h e r t h a n 'o rg a n iza t io n ' a n d 'co lo u r' ra t h e r t h a n 'co lo r' a n d p re fe r 'p ro g ra m ' t o 'p ro g ra m m e '. Au s t ra lia h a s a lwa ys
h a d t h e g re a t a d va n t a g e o f b e in g a b le t o ch o o s e t o fo llo w t h e Am e rica n o r Brit is h wa ys o r in ve n t t h in g s fo r it s e lf. Ho we ve r, if yo u lo o k u n d e r t h e b o n n e t o f t h e s e p a g e s yo u will s e e t h a t we a re fo rce d t o u s e Am e rica n En g lis h in t h e HTML wh ich we u s e t o co d e t h e p a g e s - 'co lo u r' is a lwa ys 'co lo r' a n d 'ce n t re ', 'ce n t e r' t h e re ! Th e im p o rt a n t t h in g t o re m e m b e r is t h a t wh ile s p e llin g 're m e m b e r' a s 're m b e r' is d e fin a t e ly wro n g , s p e llin g 's o cks ' a s 's o x' is n o t ! Th a t s a yin g 'S h e s p e a k En g lis h re a lly we ll' is d e fin a t e ly wro n g ( t h e ve rb 's p e a k' m u s t b e t h ird p e rs o n 's p e a ks ' o r u s e d in a n o t h e r t e n s e s u ch a s 's p o ke ') , s a yin g 'S h e s p e a ks En g lis h re a l we ll' m a y n o t b e wro n g ( it is a cce p t a b le t o u s e 're a l' ra t h e r t h a n 're a lly' in in fo rm a l Am e rica n En g lis h . ) Wh e n vis u a lis in g En g lis h a lwa ys t h in k o f it a s a writ h in g , m a n yh e a d e d , s e n s u a l, ch a n g in g a n d wo n d e rfu l cre a t u re a n d n o t s o m e d ry, ch a n g e le s s , in a n im a t e m e a s u rin g s t ick. Th a t s h o u ld a vo id t h e u rg e t o co n d e m n o t h e r p e o p le 's u s e o f En g lis h b e fo re ca re fu lly t h in kin g a b o u t wh a t t h e y h a ve s a id a n d wh e re t h e y co m e fro m - p e rh a p s t h e y a re e ve n co n t rib u t in g s o m e t h in g n e w, u n iq u e a n d co lo u rfu l t o t h e la n g u a g e . Th is m a y a ls o s lo w t h e flo w o f e m a ils a rrivin g in m y in - t ra y fro m a n g ry u s e rs wh o t h in k it is a d is g ra ce t h a t I co n s is t e n t ly s p e ll 'ce n t e r' a s 'ce n t re ' - a m I d ys le xic? An t h o n y Hu g h e s Au t h o r o f t h e On lin e En g lis h Gra m m a r
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1. 1 © copyright - all right s reserved 1995-2001, Ant hony Hughes