The New Deal [Original Ed] 1575240831, 9781575240831

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The New Deal

by Justus D, Doenecke

Hans L. Trefousse, Editor

THE NEW DEAL Justus D. Doenecke

AN ANVIL ORIGINAL Under the general editorship of Hans L. Trefousse

& KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY MALABAR, FLORIDA 2003

Original Edition 2003 Printed and Published by

KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY KRIEGER DRIVE MALABAR, FLORIDA 32950 Copyright © 2003 by Justus D. Doenecke All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including information storage and retrieval systems without permission in writing from the publisher. No liability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein. Printed in the United States of America.

FROM A DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS: This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional service. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Doenecke, Justus D. The New Deal / Justus D. Doenecke.

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-57524-083-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. United States—History—1933-1945. 2. Depressions—1929—United States. 3. New Deal, 1933-1939. 4. United States—History—1933-1945—Sources. 5. Depressions—1929—United States—Sources. 6. New Deal, 1933-1939—Sources. I. Title. II. Anvil series (Huntington, N.Y.)

E806 .D626 2003 973.917—dc21 1ONIS S76

Sea one

2002016115

THE ANVIL SERIES

Anvil paperbacks give an original analysis of a major field of history or a problem area, drawing upon the most recent research. They present a concise treatment and can act as supplementary material for college history courses. Written by many of the outstanding historians in the United States, the format is one-half narrative text, one-half supporting documents, often from hard to find sources.

For Bill Hamilton

CONTENTS

Preface

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PART I—The Depression and the New Deal . The Advent of Depression The First Hundred Days . Efforts at Implementation

. Growing Dissent and Congressional Victory . The Second Hundred Days . A Hostile Court Reacts 1936: A Year of Decision Court-Packing and Labor Upheaval . The New Deal Comes to an End —_=).

Conclusion

25 47 72 87 104 118 135 152 168

PART II—Documents

1. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Commonwealth Club Speech, September 23, 1932

173

2. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1933

177

3. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Second Fireside Chat, May 7, 1933

182

4. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “Bombshell Message,” July 2, 1933

184

5. Senator William E. Borah Attacks the NRA, February 7, 1934 6. Hugh Johnson Defends the NRA, January 18, 1934

186 189

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. Jouett Shouse’s Speech to the Beacon Society of Boston,

. .

10. i is, 13, 14. 15. 16. by.

December 8, 1934 Upton Sinclair’s Design to End Poverty in California, 1934 Father Charles E. Coughlin Announces the National Union for Social Justice, November 11, 1934 Huey Long, “My First Days in the White House” Huey Long’s Radio Speech, February 23, 1934 Franklin D. Roosevelt’s State of the Union Address, January 4, 1935 Harry Hopkins, Address to WPA Luncheon, September 19, 1936 Schechter Poultry Corporation v. United States, May 27, 1935 United States v. Butler, January 6, 1936 Carter v. Carter Coal Company, May 18, 1936 Morehead v. People of New York ex rel. Tipaldo, June 1, 1936

18. Alfred M. Landon, Acceptance Speech, July 23, 1936 Le The Republican and Democratic Platforms of 1936 20. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Campaign Speech, October 31, 1936

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197 203 207 ZAZ 216 219 222 229 232

235 pa SY 251

21. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Tenth Fireside Chat, March 9, 1937

Le Report of the Committee on the Judiciary, June 7, 1937 73 West Coast Hotel v. Parrish, March 29, 1937 24. National Labor Relations Board v. Jones and Laughlin Steel Corporation, April 17, 1937 29: Helvering et al. v. Davis, May 24, 1937 26. John L. Lewis Defends the CIO, December 31, 1936 pie Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Twelfth Fireside Chat, April 14, 1938 28. Leonidas Dyer, Speech on Lynching, November 8, 1937 Bibliography Index

254 251 264 267 271 214 278 284 289 301

PREFACE During the 1930s the entire West experienced its greatest trauma since the industrial revolution. So did Japan. It has commonly been called the World Depression. Earmarks lay everywhere. Workers’ wages had vanished. Farm prices dipped to a record low. Savings were eliminated. From Tokyo to Sydney, Toronto to Berlin, people felt crushed. Indeed, not since the Black Death of the late Middle Ages had there been such a sense of hopelessness. Bellhops and bankers alike felt themselves on the edge of a precipice. Statistics told the same story. Between 1932 and 1939, world production declined 38 percent and international trade fell off two-thirds. In 1932 the number of unemployed tallied thirty million, a figure that does not include further millions only able to find work for a few hours a week. In the mining villages of South Wales, Yorkshire, and Scotland there were no jobs at all. In 1933 British shipbuilding amounted to 7 percent of the 1914 levels, with the Tyne and Clyde Rivers full of mouldering cranes and rotting ships. Britain might have been relatively well off. Riots shook France. Civil war racked Spain. Austria experienced an abortive Socialist uprising. In Trieste women lived on pigeons their children had stoned. In one region of Japan peasants were reduced to consuming barnyard grass. Argentina saw wheat and livestock prices collapse, Brazil the price of coffee. Canadians burned their corn in locomotives. Each nation coped somewhat differently. Britain resorted to a dole, accompanied by a humiliating means test. France clung to the gold standard and reduced government expenses, then experimented with a leftist coalition led by a Socialist. In Germany a government that called itself National Socialist took over, in the process imposing a totalitarian regime on its people. Economic policies included corporatizing its economy, establishing a Four Year Plan, increasing state control of banking, and engaging in deficit financing. Italy and Japan sought to divert their populace with overseas expansion, the one sending troops to Ethiopia, the other to China. The Soviet Union, whose closed economy had made it far less vulnerable to the world market, continued on its path toward collectivization of the most brutal sort. This book tells how one nation dealt with this crisis. The United

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States presented one of the most innovative approaches to the emergency, the New Deal of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The improvisation that took place within six years was unique in American history. It had few imitators elsewhere. The following account concentrates on political history; that is, on legislation, party politics, and legal controversy. It was decisions in these areas that often determined whether Americans could grow crops, be hired in factories, put food on their tables, and continue mortgage payments. At stake was nothing less than the survival of the nation’s capitalistic system and the health of its republican form of government.

PART I THE DEPRESSION AND THE NEW DEAL

CHAPTER

1

THE ADVENT OF DEPRESSION Gabriel Over the White House. After years of economic depression, the United States turned to a wealthy widower, Major Judson Cumming Hammond, former governor of Wisconsin. Six feet tall but carrying a decided paunch, President Hammond was known for booming platitudes that he himself never believed. Outside the sheltered White House, the nation was indeed in chaos. Armies of the unemployed camped in the city parks and gangsters ran wild as poverty plagued the land. Less than a month after his inauguration, while driving outside of Baltimore, “Jud” skidded into a cement mixer and suffered a concussion. As he slowly recovered, he cut himself off from political cronies and immersed himself in serious literature—international politics, economic theory, foreign journals of all types. When he returned to the Oval Office, his right ear tilting as if listening to the voice of the Angel Gabriel, he bullied Congress into declaring a state of national emergency. He organized unemployed demonstrators into a paramilitary force that intimidated legislators. He established a National Reconstruction Corps, labor battalions whose task involved reclaiming land, constructing dams, and building highways. Most important, he established Councils of State, composed of the nations’s most intelligent men and women, to do much of the governing usually handled by Congress and state legislators. In a decision entitled Roxboro v. Iowa, the Hammond-dominated Supreme Court ruled that both public and private debts could be discharged in new paper money, even though the original agreements had required payment in gold. By addressing the public in weekly talks over a new medium called television, Hammond reached two-thirds of the nation’s homes, skirting a hostile press in the process. After the United States defeated Japan in a major war and established a customs union encompassing the entire Western Hemisphere, Hammond railroaded some sixteen constitutional amendments through Congress. Included were proportional representation of all political parties and a six-year term for the president. Congress would convene only at the call of the chief executive. While the vast majority of Americans

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hailed him as a world savior, the opposition formed a Liberty League, an organization that sought to restore power to the states. As such opposition mounted, a racketeer shot Hammond on the steps of the British Embassy. The president was not killed, but the shock gave him amnesia. Remembering nothing of his major innovations, he was determined to recant his actions in a major radio-televison address. Luckily for the republic, his bad heart gave out just as he was about to undo the reforms that had saved the nation. So read the plot of a novel, Gabriel Over the White House. The work was mediocre in style, bizarre in plot. Although no author was listed, it had been written by a British brigadier general, Thomas F Tweed. Within several months, however, it spawned a movie version that became one of the controversial pictures of the year. Yet released just as the nation was changing leadership from Herbert Hoover to Franklin D. Roosevelt, Tweed’s work could be seen as most auspicious, perhaps in some ways a harbinger of things to come. But to understand why such a work could be so popular, one must know the impact of what became known as the Great Depression, the most important economic event in the twentieth century.

Black Thursday. On September 3, 1929, stock market prices were at their height, having doubled since July 1926. The Dow Jones average stood at 381. By October 1, however, it had slid to 320. On the 23rd there was a spectacular drop during the last hour of trading. A day later, the so-called Black Thursday, almost 13 million shares changed hands. On Friday and Saturday, heavy trading continued. Over the weekend General Motors, the nation’s largest corporation, lost nearly $2 billion in paper value. Monday, October 28, was another terrible day. Nine and a quarter million shares were sold. The decline in points was greater than that of the entire past week. Tuesday was even worse, the most devastating to date in the entire history of the stock market. Well over 16 million shares were sold. By mid-November the market had dropped about 50 percent from Labor Day. Within weeks, $30 billion had vanished into thin air, a sum practically equal to the entire cost of American participation in World War I. This downward plunge continued for 2 years. By June 1932 common stocks were worth 15 percent of their value less than two and a half years earlier.

THE ADVENT OF DEPRESSION

The Consequences of an Unbalanced Economy.

5

Despite

the stock market boom of the late twenties, beneath the surface much of the economy had remained unhealthy. True, during the twenties, employment and business earnings were high and industrial productivity had nearly doubled. Moreover, between 1922 and 1928, per capita disposable income had increased nearly 50 percent. Wages and consumer purchasing, however, had not kept pace with productivity. For several years home building had been in decline. If national income grew rapidly, the share of increase was disproportionately weighed to the upper two-fifths of the income scale. In 1929 a study by a major research foundation, the Brookings Institution, reported that less than 30 percent of all families had incomes over $2,500 a year, the baseline for a standard of living that would include adequate health, clothing, and health care as well as ownership of a home and an automobile. Eighty percent of all families had no savings whatsoever. Certain groups in particular suffered. Blacks had a life expectancy of 45 years, 15 years shorter than that of whites. A significant number of immigrants, disillusioned by the lack of opportunity, returned to their homelands. Included were nearly a third of the Poles, Slovaks, and Croatians; about half the Italians; and over 50 percent of the Greeks, Russians, Rumanians, and Bulgarians. In June 1929, that is, several months before the Great Crash, Federal Reserve indexes showed that business activity had peaked. Then steel production, the linchpin of the nation’s economy, started to fall. By early summer the economy had seriously weakened. By the time the market crashed, one-fifth of the nation’s industrial capacity was not being used. That October factory payrolls and department store sales began to decline. With surpluses growing, it made little sense for investors to sink funds in new productive enterprises, for such entities did not exist. Waning production in such mass-consumer industries as autos and home appliances forced reductions in railroads, trucking, and industries that supplied raw materials. Between mid-1929, when the economy had capped, and early 1933, when it bottomed out, the economy shrank 30 percent. During this time, because of the lack of consumer demand, there was strong deflation. From 1929 to 1933, the price level fell by 24 percent. Hence, for countless millions who had borrowed money, life suddenly

became much harder.

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THE NEW DEAL

When the crash occurred, business, confronted with dwindling markets, started laying off workers. In 1929 the unemployment rate had been 3.2 percent; in 1933 it was about 25 percent. In 1929, for example, the United States Steel Corporation listed close to a quarter of amillion full-time workers on its payroll. Three years later the number came to only 19,000. In some cities, such as Detroit, the decline in the auto industry caused over 50 percent unemployment. As jobs grew fewer and money tighter, demand for farm products dwindled, thereby increasing the farmers’ already heavy debt. In 1929 two-fifths of all Americans still lived in rural areas and agriculture created one-fourth of all American jobs. If the urban middle classes and even some efficient farms were enjoying Coolidge prosperity, gross farm income had dropped from $17 billion in 1919 to $12 billion in 1929. Because of low farm prices on the world market, two areas were particularly hard hit: the Cotton Belt, which extended from South Carolina to Texas, and the Wheat Belt, which ranged from North Dakota to

Oklahoma. Just after World War I, for example, cotton had sold for 35 cents a pound. By 1919 the price had dropped to eighteen cents, and by the winter of 1932-33, 5 cents. Between 1929 and 1932, as many as onethird of the nation’s farmers lost their land. A drought in the southcentral states, particularly Arkansas, compounded the tragedy, in the process creating the “Dust Bowl.” President Hoover, who had been inaugurated president just seven months before the Great Crash, had recently warned about market speculation. Now it would be his responsibility to alleviate ever worsening conditions.

Herbert Hoover: The Great Engineer. In 1874, Herbert Clark Hoover was born in West Branch, Iowa, a small Quaker settlement 25 miles from Iowa City. His father was a village blacksmith, then a farm implement merchant, his mother a lay minister in the Society of Friends. Orphaned at age nine, Hoover was raised in Oregon by an uncle. After graduating from Stanford University, he became an international mining engineer, so prosperous that he made the first of several million dollars well before he was 40. During World War I, Hoover's leadership in Belgium relief, then as food administrator for the entire United States, made his name a household word. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, he held a variety of powerful posts, in the process playing a major role in the economic

THE ADVENT OF DEPRESSION

7

reorganization of Europe. By 1920 he had become one of the most famous—and respected—people in the nation. Franklin D. Roosevelt, then assistant secretary of the navy, commented of him, “He certainly is a wonder, and I wish we could make him President. There couldn’t be a better one.” It was hardly surprising that President-elect Warren Gamaliel Harding appointed Hoover secretary of commerce, a position he retained under Calvin Coolidge. In this office, Hoover encouraged the formulation of trade associations, pushed cooperative markets for farmers, and was particularly aggressive in seeking markets overseas. When in 1927 the Mississippi River flooded and left over a third of a million people destitute, Hoover directed the relief efforts, gaining even more positive publicity in the process. Though he had never held elective office, in 1928 Hoover appeared a natural for the Republican presidential nomination. His opponent was Alfred Emanuel Smith, reform governor of New York state. Hoover won the election easily, tolling 21.4 million votes to Smith’s 15 million. Smith’s Roman Catholicism and defiance of federal prohibition of alcoholic beverages hurt him in much of the South, though it helped him in major cities. The nation, however, was so prosperous that any prominent Republican would undoubtedly have won. In Hoover’s speech accepting his party’s nomination, he felt absolutely confident in saying, “We shall soon . . . be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation.”

Hoover Confronts the Depression. Once the Great Crash occurred, the president started meeting with business, labor, and farm leaders. Events on Wall Street, he believed, must be kept from spilling over to Main Street. Fearing a serious recession, he asked all concerned

to foster industrial expansion, avoid strikes, stabilize prices, provide relief, and share work whenever possible. Above all, he stressed, “There must be no drastic wage cuts.” Indeed he preferred a cut in profits. He soon was advocating national and state public works, and by the end of July 1930, Congress had allocated $800 million for public works—river and harbor improvements, public buildings, highways, and the massive Boulder (later renamed Hoover) Dam, located on the Colorado River between Arizona and Nevada. In fact, between 1929 and 1932, overall government outlays increased 50 percent. By 1932 over half of total federal allocations involved deficit spending.

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To aid the long-depressed farmer, in 1929 Hoover had already created the eight-member Federal Farm Board. The board sought to purchase surplus crops outright, holding them in storage until prices reached their maximum. Because, however, it lacked the power to limit production, its efforts were bound to fail. Half a billion dollars were spent, but with no substantial benefit to farmers. Despite all such efforts, the economic situation continually worsened. By September 1930, United States Steel announced a 10 percent wage cut, an action soon followed by such firms as Bethlehem Steel and Jones and Laughlin. Similarly General Motors proclaimed a 10 to 20 percent reduction in pay. In 1932 manufacturing output was just over half what it had been 3 years earlier. That is, between the years 1929 and 1932 industrial production had been cut in half. Certain major industries— private construction, automobiles, and steel among them—fell to less than one-quarter their 1929 levels. Although it is impossible to get accurate statistics, by October 1930 possibly 4 million Americans were unemployed; by January 1931 the number might have reached 6 million, by March 8 million. By midyear close to 12 million lacked jobs and half that number was working parttime. Even white-collar employees were being hit. The crowd of men waiting for the 8:14 train at a prosperous suburb included many who had lost their jobs, but who pretended to be still active. The economy was little helped by the Smoot-Hawley tariff, reluctantly signed by Hoover in June 1930. The bill was sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot (Rep.-UT), who spoke in terms of attaining “a high degree of self-sufficiency,” and Representative Willis C. Hawley (Rep.OR), who promised to make the nation “self-contained and self-sustaining.” The tariff involved 75 increases for farm products, 925 for manufactured goods. The rationale here was simple: buying domestic goods rather than foreign ones would stimulate the domestic economy. Of course, if Americans did not buy foreign goods, foreigners in turn would not possess the American dollars needed to buy American products. A thousand professional economists correctly feared that the measure would intensify economic nationalism throughout the world. By the end of 1930, a number of nations, including Canada and Australia, had responded by raising their own barriers. The tariff did little to raise agricultural prices, something that Hoover sought above all. As a result of the 1930 congressional elections, a coalition of Democrats and anti-Hoover Republican progressives soon dominated the

THE ADVENT OF DEPRESSION

9

House. Yet, by February 1931, Hoover again had every reason to feel confident. Major economic indicators—employment, payrolls, and production—had steadied. In fact, until about June 1, they were slightly rallying.

A Bank in Vienna. As the summer of 1931 approached, the nation was again plunging into poverty, in part due to a financial crisis in Vienna. It was the failure of Austria’s central bank, the Kreditanstalt, that triggered major depression in Europe and thereby made its counterpart in the United States permanent. The bank’s fall led to panic in Germany, the apex of Europe’s prosperity, then to neighboring countries. In September Britain defaulted on further gold payments to foreigners, thereby going off the gold standard. As foreign investors began withdrawing gold and capital from the American banking system, domestic depositors panicked, causing a run on U.S. banks. In his stateof-the-union address delivered in December 1931, Hoover claimed, “Our self-contained national economy, with its matchless strength and resources, would have enabled us to recover long since, but for the continued dislocation, shocks, and setbacks from abroad.” By now, the nation’s entire financial structure was threatened. Bankers called in their loans and depositors withdrew their savings, thereby helping to create the very collapse they feared. By any indexes—production, wages, investments—everything was falling again. Panic had seized the entire business community. Believing that a healthy banking system was the essential element in recovery, Hoover made the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), established in January 1932, the keystone of his recovery program. It was patterned after the War Finance Corporation, set up in 1918 to supply capital for war industries. During 1932, the RFC lent $1.5 billion. Five thousand banks, railroads, life insurance companies, farm mortgage associations, and building and loan associations benefited from its bounty. In the process, many businesses were rescued from failure and much public confidence was restored. The further undermining of the American financial structure was temporarily halted. At the same time, by its cautious lending policies, the RFC did little to aid institutions most at risk. One could well argue that it made economic sense to save the nation’s credit mechanism through RFC loans, though political wisdom would have centered on funds for direct relief. In July the RFC expanded its functions. The Emergency Relief and

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Construction Act of July 1932 empowered it to provide $300 million worth of federal loans to foster state and local construction of public works, to aid states otherwise unable to finance relief measures, and to assist in liquidating closed banks. The relative meagerness of the appropriation, together with cumbersome administrative procedures, made the effort somewhat futile. Between 1929 and 1932, the Gross National Product, that is, the total output of goods and services, had fallen about 30 percent. In 1932, only about one-quarter of the 12 million jobless were actually receiving assistance, which was mainly limited to fuel. New York City’s relief fund could only care for about half of the unemployed heads of families, the average family allocation being $2.39 per week. In Chicago, half the labor force lacked work; its municipal workers went without pay. In July 1932, the Philadelphia Community Council noted “slow starvation and progressive disintegration of family life.” If there was relatively little outright starvation, pockets of hunger certainly permeated the nation. Coal miners in Pennsylvania lived on weed roots and dandelions, those in Kentucky ate wild onions and weeds. In the South poor whites and blacks survived on salt pork and hominy. As far as direct aid to the unemployed went, Hoover drew the line. Refusing to budge any further, in July 1932 he even vetoed a bill introduced by Senator Robert Wagner (Dem.-NY) and House speaker John Nance Garner (Dem.-TX) that would have increased the number of federal employment agencies. In resisting a congressional appropriation to the Red Cross in 1931, the president had claimed, “The net results of governmental doles are to lower wages toward the bare subsistence level and to endow the slacker.” By the summer of 1932, Hoover saw his recovery program as complete. He would venture no further. By exhibiting such rigidity, Hoover was creating a negative image that lasted for decades. Not only were the makeshift shack villages of the unemployed called Hoovervilles; a man would turn his pockets inside out and call it a Hoover flag. One jest involved Hoover asking Andrew Mellon for a nickel to telephone a friend. “Here’s a dime,” his Treasury secretary replied. “Call up both of them.” The Federal Reserve system did little to help matters. In the mid1920s, it had expanded the money supply too quickly, then contracted it too rapidly when it thought speculation was getting out of control. In 1930 the money supply declined 6 percent, then another 12 percent in

THE ADVENT OF DEPRESSION

11

1931. With credit reduced and the currency significantly deflated, much less purchasing power was available and hence the economy was strangled even further. The exodus of gold, the basis of much of the world’s currencies, created further problems. In early 1933, the Federal Reserve Board was reporting the exit of a quarter billion dollars worth of gold a week. To preserve the gold standard, the Federal Reserve raised interest rates 1.5 percent to 3.5 percent, a clear effort to attract gold back into the nation. As other nations engaged in a similar practice, mutual hoarding resulted. If one added the new interest rates of the “Fed” to the deflation, all borrowers—that is, much of the American public—were in tremendous trouble. Obviously, with the wisdom of hindsight, one could claim that Hoover did “too little, too late.” Given, however, constitutional and ideological limitations, it made perfect sense for Hoover to stress the initiative of private business and local government. The federal government was neither large nor powerful enough to cope with the growing panic. Furthermore, the Federal Reserve Board, which determined so much financial policy, was not only legally independent of the executive branch; even in 1932, it would never sanction massive government deficits in the face of prevailing economic orthodoxy. Certainly no Democrat then electable could have done more than Hoover. If fact, Democrats often criticized the president not for doing too little but too much.

Hoover the Man. Hoover’s grim persona helped him little. If in private he was neither taciturn nor bashful, at least outwardly Hoover was far from your stereotypical politician, being unable to slap a back, kiss a baby, or laugh explosively. Painfully shy, he addressed groups in a stiff, sometimes pedantic manner. “This is no showman’s job,” he once remarked. “You will not make a Teddy Roosevelt out of me.” Though lacking any oratorical skill, he would insist upon writing all of his own speeches, going over one draft after another, only to end up with prose both tedious and lengthy. Given his sensitivity, it’s hardly surprising that Hoover got along badly with journalists. Most of his contacts were quite painful, his press conferences being extremely stiff. He was terribly sensitive to criticism from any source, a quality that made the press ride him all the more. Hoover particularly resented the barbed comments because few presidents ever worked harder.

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources Arnold, Thurman. The Folklore of Capitalism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1937. Arnold, Thurman. The Symbols of Government. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1935. Beard, Charles A., with G. H. E. Smith. The Open Door at Home. New York: Macmillan, 1934. Berle, Adolf A., Jr.; and Gardiner C. Means. The Modern Corporation and Private Property. New York: Macmillan, 1932. Bingham, Alfred M. Jnsurgent America. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935. Browder, Earl. Communism in the United States. New York: International Publishers, 1935. Browder, Earl. What is Communism? New York: Vanguard, 1936. Buhite, Russell D., and David W. Levy, eds., FDR’s Fireside Chats. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992. Chase, Stuart. A New Deal. New York: Macmillan, 1932. Christman, Henry M., ed., Kingfish to America: Share Our Wealth: Selected Papers of Huey P. Long. New York: Schocken, 1985. Commager, Henry Steele, ed. Documents in American History. New York: AppletonCentury, 1948. Corey, Lewis. The Crisis of the Middle Class. New York: Covici, Friede, 1935. Coughlin, Charles E. A Series of Lectures on Social Justice. Royal Oak, MI: Shrine of the Little Flower, 1935. Dahlberg, Arthur. Jobs, Machines and Capitalism. New York: Macmillan, 1932. Dennis, Lawrence. The Coming American Fascism. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935. Douglas, Lewis. The Liberal Tradition: A Free People and a Free Economy. New York: Van Nostrand, 1935. Flynn, John T. Country Squire in the White House. New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1940. Freedman, Max, ed. Roosevelt and Frankfurter: Their Correspondence, 19251945. Boston: Little, Brown, 1967. Hallgren, Mauritz A. The Gay Reformer: Profits Before Plenty under Franklin D, Roosevelt. New York: Knopf, 1935. Hopkins, Harry. Spending to Save: The Complete Story of Relief. New York: Norton, 1936. Jackson, Robert. The Struggle for Juridical Supremacy: A Study of a Crisis in American Power Politics. New York: Knopf, 1941.

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Kemler, Edgar. The Deflation of American Ideals: An Ethical Guide for New Dealers. New ed.; Seattle: University of Washington, 1967. Kennedy, Joseph P. I’m for Roosevelt. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1936. Leuchtenburg, William E., ed. The New Deal: A Documentary History. New York: Harper and Row, 1968. Lilienthal, David E. 7VA—Democracy on the March. New York: Harper, 1944. Lippmann, Walter. An Inquiry into the Principles of the Good Society. Boston: Little Brown, 1937. Lippmann, Walter. The Method of Freedom. New York: Macmillan, 1934. Long, Huey Pierce. My First Days in the White House. Harrisburg, PA: Telegraph Press, 1935. Lundberg, Ferdinand. America’s Sixty Families. New York: Citadel, 1937. Lyon, Leverett S., Paul T. Homan, George Terborgh, Lewis Worwin, Charles Dearing, Leon C. Marshall. The National Recovery Administration: An Analysis and Appraisal. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution,

1935. Myers, William Starr and Walter Newton, eds. The Hoover Administration: A Documented Narrative. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1936. Nixon, Edgar B., ed. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs. Vol. I. January 1933-February 1934 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1969), 269. Nock, Albert Jay. Our Enemy, the State. New York: Morrow, 1935. Pearson, Drew, and Robert S. Allen. The Nine Old Men. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran, 1937. Peek, George N., with Samuel Crowther. Why Quit Our Own. New York: Van Nostrand, 1936. Roosevelt, Elliott, ed. ED.R.: His Personal Letters, 1928-1945. New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pierce, 1950. Roosevelt, Franklin D. Looking Forward. New York: John Day, 1933. Roosevelt, Franklin D. On Our Way. New York: John Day, 1934. Roosevelt, Franklin Delano. The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Edited by Samuel I. Rosenman, Vols. I-V. New York: Random House, 1938. Vols. VI-VII. New York: Macmillan, 1941. Roosevelt’s Foreign Policy, 1931-1941: Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Unedited Speeches and Messages. New York: Wilfred Funk, 1942. Seligman, Lester G., and Elmer E. Cornwall. New Deal Mosaic: Roosevelt Confers with his National Emergency Council, 1933-1936. Eugene: University of Oregon Books, 1965. Stolberg, Benjamin, and Warren Jay Vinton. The Economic Consequences of the New Deal. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1935. Thomas, Norman. After the New Deal, What? New York: Macmillan, 1936. Tugwell, Rexford G. The Industrial Discipline and the Government Arts. New York: Columbia University Press, 1933.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY,

291

[Tweed, Thomas Frederic]. Gabriel Over the White House. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1933. Wallace, Henry. New Frontiers. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1934. Wallace, Henry. Whose Constitution: An Inquiry into the General Welfare. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1936. Warren, George, and Frank Pierson. Prices. New York: Wiley, 1933. White, Walter. Rope and Faggot—A Biography ofFudge Lynch. New York: Knopf,

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Gross, James A. The Reshaping of the National Labor Relations Board: National Labor Policy in Transition, 1937-1947. Albany: SUNY Press, 1981. Grubbs, Donald H. Cry from the Cotton: The Southern Tenant Farmers Union and the New Deal. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971. Hair, William Ivy. The Kingfish and His Realm: The Life and Times of Huey P. Long. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991. Harris, Jonathan. Federal Art and National Culture: The Politics of Identity in New Deal America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Hawley, Ellis W. The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly: A Study of Economic Ambivalence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966. Himmelberg, Robert E The Great Depression and the New Deal. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001. Himmelberg, Robert FE The Origins of the National Recovery Administration: Business, Government,

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INDEX Adams, Alva, 165 Adkins v. Cnildren’s Hospital, 11617, 235, 236-37, 264-66 African Americans. See Blacks Agricultural Adjustment acts: /933, 38-40, 112, 194; 1936, 119; 1938, 155. See also Agricultural Adjustment Administration; United States v. Butler Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) of 1933: First New Deal and, 45; divisions over, 65; strengths and weaknesses, 66-67, 99-101, 119, 121-22; Coughlin on, 81; Long on, 83; Republicans on, 85; Vandenberg on, 126; Reed and, 144; Landon on, 241, 246; of 1936, 119; George on, 165; 1936 Republican platform on, 246; general policy evaluated, 169. See also Agricultural Adjustment acts; United States v. Butler Agriculture: in 1920s, 6; Hoover and, 8; 1932 campaign, 19, 20; 1933 prices, 25, 48, 49; 193233 general conditions, 36-38, 64-67, 68; 1934 prices, 52; 1934 drought, 85; 1935 prices, 99-100; blacks and, 121-22; Landon on, 128, 131, 240-41; 1935 poll on, 133; 1936 party platforms on, 128, 245-47; in 1936-38, 118, 152, 153, 15455. See also individual agencies, legislation, crops Akron sit-down strike (1936), 125-26 Alabama v. Ickes, 143 Aldrich, Winthrop W., 96, 211

Allen, O. K., 83 Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers, 147 Amalgamated Clothing Workers. See Hillman, Sidney Amazon Petroleum Company, 106-7 American Bankers Association, 45, 96 American Farm Bureau Federation, 38, 67, 112, 119. See also O’Neal, Edward American Federation of Labor (AFL): Perkins and, 28; growth of, 60, 123; on 1935

relief act, 88; on social security, 94; industrial unions and, 12325, 144, 145, 148, 150, 151. See also Green, William; Lewis, John L. American Labor party, 132 American Liberty League, 72-74, 193-97 American Rolling Mills, 146 Armour & Co., 99, 112 Arnold, Thurman, 158 Arthurdale, 59-60 Ashwander v. T:VA., 113-14 Associated Gas and Electric, 96 Association Against the Prohibition Amendment, 193 Austria, vii, 9 Auto industry: early depression and, 5, 8, 23; NRA and, 54; open shop and, 56, 60; NLRB and, 63; UAW and, 147-50, 151, production in 1937, 152 Ayres, William A., 157 Baker, Newton, 18 Bank holiday (1933), 29-30

301

302 Bank of the United States (New York), 15 Bankers ‘Trust Company (New York), 107-8 Bankhead Cotton Control Act, 64, 119, 144 Bankhead, John Hollis, 64, 155 Bankhead, William Brockman, 64 Banking: condition of, 9, 15, 19, 2223, 23-24; 1933 legislation, 2930, 44-45, 169-70; 1936 party platforms on, 249-50. See also Federal Reserve activities; Glass-Steagall act Banking Act (1933). See GlassSteagall act Banking Act (1935), 95-96; Vandenberg on, 126 Barkley, Alben, 165 Baruch, Bernard, 24, 33, 39; protégés of, 43, 65; Long on, 211 Beard, Charles A., 120 Beck, David, 144 Bennett, Harry, 149 Berle, Adolf, 25, 28-29, 154, 173 Bernstein, Barton J., 168 Best, Gary Dean, 168, 177 Bethlehem Steel, 8, 146 Bethune, Mary McLeod, 123 Biddle, Francis, 63 Bingham, Alfred, 120-21 Bituminous Coal Conservation Act of 1935. See Guffey coal bill Black bill (1933), 41 Black, Hugo, 42, 97, 143, 158. See also Black bill Blacks: general condition of 5, 10, 25, 100, 121-23; Long and, 82; 1936 election and, 122, 123, 134. See also Lynching; individual New Deal agencies Bone, Homer T., 137

THE NEW DEAL Bonus: march, 20; legislation, 9293,118 Borah, William E.: NRA and, 43, 55, 56, 59, 186-89; 1934 elections and, 86; social security and, 94; /936 election and, 126, 127; Long and, 209; court-packing and, 263 Brains Trust, 28-29 Brandeis, Louis, 104, 112, 113 Bricker, John, 166 Bridges, Harry, 144, 145, 151 Britten, Fred, 39 Brookings Institution: on 1929 incomes, 5; on NRA, 59 Browder, Earl, 74, 129 Brownlaw, Louis, 163, 164 Brownlee, W. Elliot, 52 Budget: in 1932, 7; FDR on, 19, 20, 25, 30-32; Hoover on, 23, 74; Landon on, 127, 131; 1935 poll on, 133; Vandenberg on, 126; party platforms in /936, 249-50; in 1937, 152, 153; in 1938, 156 Burke, Edward R., 137, 263 Burns, James MacGregor, 139, 168 Business: advent of depression, 5-6, 8-11, 12-13; in 1932, 19-20; in 1933, 21, 25-26, 68; in 1934, 85; in 1935, 118; in 1936; 133% mel937, 152253 Butler, Pierce: background of, 104; minimum wage and, 116; social security decisions and, 142, 271, 274. See also “Four Horsemen”; Morehead v. Tipaldo Butler, William Morgan, 112 Byrnes, James, 156-57 Caldwell, Erskine, 101 Cardozo, Benjamin, 104, 107, 111,

INDEX 115, 142. See also Social security: Supreme Court decisions; Carter v. Carter Coal Company; Helvering et al. v. Davis Carter, James W. See Carter v. Carter Coal Company Carter v. Carter Coal Company, 115, 135; text, 232-35 Cermak, Anton J., 21 Chamber of Commerce, United States, 41, 42 Chandler, Albert Benjamin

(“Happy”), 165 Charles C. Steward Machine Company v. Davis, 141-42, 272, 273 Chase National Bank. See Aldrich, Nelson Child labor, 54, 56, 59, 60, 183, 242 Chrysler, Walter, 149 Chrysler Corporation, 149 Civil Works Administration (CWA), 68-69, 70, 161, 214 Civil Works Emergency Relief Act, 69 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): founded, 34; activities, 34-35; blacks and, 34, 122; FDR and, 35, 41, 219, 281; polls on, 133; Native Americans and, 161; terminated, 167; evaluated, 169 Clark, Bennett Champ, 59, 165 Clements, Robert Earl, 78 Coal industry, 10, 60, 63, 145. See also Guffey coal bill \ Cohen, Benjamin, 44, 70, 97, 157 Collier, John, 160-61 Comestock, William A., 23 Commerce, Department of: Business Advisory Council, 91-92 Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO): founded, 124-25; 1936 election and, 132; union-

303 ization drives of, 144-51; Lewis speech defending, 274-78. See also Congress of Industrial Organizations; Lewis, John L.; individual industries, unions Committee for the Nation to Rebuild Prices and Purchasing Power, 32 Committee on Economic Security, O82 72 Commodity Credit Corporation, 38, 67 “Commodity dollar,” 51 Commonwealth and Southern Corporation, 143 Communist party, 92, 94, 129, 133, 151. See also Browder, Earl; Minor, Robert Congress of Industrial Organizations, 151. See also Committee for Industrial Organization Conkin, Paul, 17, 168 Connery. W. P,, Jr., 91, 158 Cooke, Morris L., 102 Copeland, Royal S., 143 Corcoran, Thomas, 44, 70, 157 Corey, Lewis, 120 Corn (crop): 38, 99, 100, 119, 153, 155, 166, 245 Costigan, Edward, 159 Cotton (crop): in 1920s, 6; AAAs and, 38, 99-100, 100-1, 119, 155; FDR on, 49; Bankhead Cotton Control Act, 64; in 1935, 99; in 1936, 245; in 1937, 153 Cotton (goods). See Textiles Coughlin, Charles E., 79-81, 130, 133, 164; announces NUSJ, 203-7 Court-packing, 135-36, 263 Couzens, James, 23

304 Cox, James, 14 Creel, George, 75 Cummings, Homer, 27, 108, 136 Curley, James W., 52-53 Daniels, Josephus, 14 Darrow, Clarence, 57-58 Davis, Chester, 66 Davis, George P. See Helvering v. Davis Davis, John W., 72 Debt, U.S. See Budget Deficiency Relief Bill (1938), 155 Democratic party: /936 platform, 128-29, 243-51. See also various elections, legislation Dennis, Lawrence, 120 De Priest, Oscar, 34 Dern, George, 27 Dewey, Thomas E., 166 Dewson, Mary (“Molly”), 161 Dixie Terminal v. United States, 142 Domestic Allotment Plan, 38 Douglas, Lewis, 32, 34, 121 Douglas, William O., 144 Dubinsky, David. See International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union Du Pont company, 118, 126 du Pont, Irénée, 72, 211. See also Du Pont company du Pont, Pierre S., 62, 211. See also Du Pont company Dyer, Leonidas C., 160; anti-lynching speech of, 284-87

Eccles, Marriner, 95 Economy, U.S. See Business Economy Act (1933), 30-32 Edison Illuminating Company of Boston. See Helvering v. Davis Election: 1920, 14, 20; 1928, 7;

THE NEW DEAL 1930, 8-9, 15; 1932, 12, 18-21, 25; 1934, 85-86; 1936, 122, 123, 126-34; 1938, 166 Emergency Banking bill (1933), 30, 33 Emergency Relief and Construction Act (1932), 9-10 Emergency Relief Appropriation Act (1935), 87-88, 102; (1938), 156 Emery, James A., 91 Employment. See Unemployment End Poverty in California (EPIC), 75-77, 120; Sinclair statement on, 197-202 “Ever-normal granary,” 155 Export-Import Bank: Peek and, 66; Shouse on, 194 Ezekiel, Mordecai, 39 Fair Labor Standards Act (1938), 158-59 Fairless, Benjamin, 146, 154 Farley, James A.: 1932 race and, 18; appointed postmaster general, 27; on Liberty League, 73; Sinclair race and, 76; Long and, 84; 1936 election and, 133; court-packing and, 138; on blacks, 285 Farm Bureau Federation. See American Farm Bureau Federation Farm Credit Act (1933), 38 Farm Credit Administration, 26-27, 37-38, 194, 247 Farm Holiday Association, 36-37, 38, 65 Farm Security Administration, 122, 155, 161, 281 Farm Tenant Act (1937), 155 Farmer-Labor party of Minnesota, 74, 75, 86. See also Olsen, Floyd Farming. See Agriculture

INDEX Fechner, Robert, 34 Federal Art Project, 90 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), 45, 170 Federal Emergency Relief Act (1933), 35-36 Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): created, 36; Hopkins heads, 36, 68-69, 86; activities of, 69-70, 101; blacks and, 122; FDR 1935 speech on, 217 Federal Farm Board, 8, 27 Federal Housing Administration (FHA), 59, 122 Federal Power Commission, 97 Federal Reserve activities: in 1920s, 10-11; Emergency Banking bill and, 30; Glass-Steagall act and, 45; Frazier-Lemke legislation and, 67; SEC and, 70; Coughlin on, 80, 81, 205; 1935 Banking Act and, 95-96; 1937 recession and, 153, 155-56, 281 Federal Securities Act (1933), 44 Federal Theatre Project, 90 Federal Trade Commission, 44, 56, 97. See also Ayres, William A. Federal Works Agency, 167 Federal Writers’ Project, 90 Firestone rubber, 125, 126 First National Bank of New York. See Reynolds, Eli Fish, Hamilton, 50 Fisher, Irving, 32, 51 Flanagan, Hallie, 90 Fletcher, Henry P., 86 Ford, Henry, 40, 54, 157. See also Ford Motor Company Ford, James W., 129 Ford Motor Company, 149-50. See also Ford, Henry

305 “Four Horsemen,” 104, 106, 113, 116, 136, 141. See also Butler, Pierce; McReynolds, Samuel D.; Sutherland, George; Van Devanter, Willis France, vii, 48 Frank, Jerome, 66 Frankfurter, Felix, 44, 144 Frazier, Lynn, 67 Frazier-Lemke mortgage legislation, 67, 112, 140

Gabriel Over the White House (Tweed), 3-4 Gallagher, Michael, 81 Gannett, Frank, 164 Garment industry. See Textiles Garner, John Nance, 10, 18-19, 128, 138 Garrison, Lloyd K., 63 Gavagan, Joseph A., 160 General Electric. See Swope, Gerald General Motors, 4, 8, 72, 118, 14849, 276 George, Walter, 165 Germany, vii, 9 Gillette, Guy, 165 Girdler, Tom, 147 Glass, Carter: offered Treasury slot, 26; on veterans bonus, 31; on gold standard, 33; on NRA, 55, 59; on 1935 Banking Act, 96; on gold contracts cases, 109. See also Glass-Steagall act Glass-Steagall act, 44-45, 80, 95 Gold contracts cases, 107-9, 142 Gold policy: Hoover and, 11, 19, 22; FDR presidency and, 32-33, 39, 48, 49-50, 51-52, 74, 185; Coughlin on, 80, 81; Landon on, 127, 129, 242; evaluated,

%,

306 169. See also Gold contracts cases Gold Reserve Act (1934), 49-50. See also Gold contacts cases Goodrich, B. FE, rubber, 125 Goodyear rubber, 125-26 Gore, Thomas P., 39 Graham, Otis, L., Jr., 52 Great Britain, vii, 9 Great Depression: worldwide scope, vii-viii; 1929 stock market crash, 4; causes of, 5-6; Hoover and, 7-11, 19-20; revival in

1937, 152-53. See also Agriculture, Business

Green, William, 34, 41, 42, 43, 62, 125, 144 Gross National Product (GNP), 10, 86, 118, 152 Guffey, Joseph, 114, 232 Guffey coal bill (1935), 114-16, 232-35; revised 1937, 115-16 Guffey coal decision. See Carter v. Carter Coal Company Hallgren, Mauritz A., 120 Harriman, Henry I., 41 Harrington, Francis C., 167 Hartley, Fred, 159 Hawley, Willis C. See SmootHawley tariff Hearst, William Randolph, 14, 55, 98, 127 Helvering et al. v. Davis, 142; text, 271-74 Hillman, Sidney, 58, 124, 132, 133 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 16 Home Building and Loan Association v. Blaisdell, 105 Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC), 35, 122 Hoosac Mills, 112

THE NEW DEAL

Hoover, Herbert: background of, 67; Great Depression and, 6, 711, 153; personality of, 11-12; 1932 election and, 12, 19-21; interregnum, 21-24; Swope plan and, 42; Liberty League and, 73-74; on New Deal, 74, 127, 154; Coughlin on, 79; on Tipaldo decision, 117; and 1936 election, 126, 127; Long on, 209; executive reorganization and, 163 Hopkins, Harry: background of, 36; FERA and, 36; on NRA, 56; CWA and, 68-69; Coughlin on, 81; on /934 election, 86; WPA and, 88-89, 165, 219-22. See also Works Progress Administration “Hot oil” cases, 106-7 Housing policy: evaluated, 170. See also Home Owners Loan Corporation Howe, Louis, 14, 28, 177 Hucheson, William L., 124 Hughes, Charles Evans: background of, 105; Minnesota moratorium case and, 105; Panama Refining case and, 107; gold contracts cases and, 108-9, 142; railroad retirement decision and, 110, 255; TVA and, 114; Butler decision and, 112; Guffey coal decision and, 115; 7ipaldo decision and, 116, 235; on court-packing, 137-38; FDR on, 255. See also Schechter Poultry Corporation ». United States; West Coast Hotel Company v. Partish; National Labor Relations Board v. Jones and Laughlin Steel Corporation Hull, Cordell: appointed secretary

INDEX of state, 26; London Economic Conference and, 47, 48, 49, 184; Peek and, 66; 1936 Democratic platform and, 128 Hurley, Patrick, 20

Ickes, Harold: given Interior slot, 27; PWA and, 43-44, 67-68, 88-89; model communities and, 59; Long and, 84; Alabama v. Ickes, 143; on big business, 157; on Collier, 160. See also Public Works Administration Independent Offices Appropriations Bill (1933), 32 Indian Reorganization Act (1934), 160-1 Indians. See Native Americans Industrial Discipline and the Government Arts, The (Tugwell), 28 Inflation: 1932 campaign and, 19; interregnum, 23; 1933 efforts at, 32-34, 38, 39-40, 49; 1934 efforts at, 50-51; Coughlin and, 80-81; /935 poll and, 133; 1936 party platforms on, 249, 250. See also Gold policy; Silver policy Inland Steel, 146, 147 Insull, Samuel, 173 International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union (ILGWU), 124, 133 Interregnum of 1932-33, 21-24 Iron and Steel Institute. See Girdler, Tom Jackson, Robert, 137, 157, 229 Johnson, Hugh: background of, 43, 65; on Hopkins, 36; NRA drafting and, 42, 43-44, 4546, 52; defends NRA, 53, 55,

307 56, 57, 58, 189-93; resigns, 58; labor and, 61, 62-63, 92; Long on, 84. See also National Recoyery Administration Jones, Marvin, 155 Jones and Laughlin Steel, 8, 146; Supreme Court case, 140-41, 267-270 Justice, Department of: antitrust division, 158 Kennedy, David M., 79, 168 Kennedy, Joseph P., 71, 81 Keynes, John Maynard, 51, 156 Knox, Frank, 126, 127 Knutson, Harold, 164 Krock, Arthur, 154 Labor: 1933-34 unrest, 60-64, 85; Long and, 82; conflict within, 123-25; 1935 polls and, 133; 1936 election and, 132-33, 134; Landon on, 241-42; 1936 party platforms on, 244-45; New Deal policy evaluated, 170. See also Strikes; individual legislation, leaders, organizations, industries Labor’s Non-Partisan League, 132, 134 La Follette, Philip, 75 La Follette, Robert M., Jr., 75, 134. See also La Follette committee La Follette committee, 144-45, 274, 276-77 La Guardia, Fiorello, 42, 132 Landis, James, 44, 71 Landon, Alfred M.: background of, 127; 1936 campaign and, 127, 128, 129, 130-31, 132, 133, 134, 237-42; attacks FDR’s

308 1937 agenda, 154; attacks WPA politics, 165 Langer, William, 37, 65 League of Nations, 14 Lehman, Herbert, 24, 132 Lemke, William E., 30, 67, 130, 133 Lerner, Max, 74 Leuchtenburg, William E., 50, 168, 177, 264 Lewis, David J., 35 Lewis, John L.: background of, 124; NRA and, 43; Guffey coal bill and, 114; industrial unionism and, 124, 125, 274-78; 1936 election and, 132; 1937 US. Steel settlement and, 146; 1937 Chrysler settlement and, 149; breaks with FDR, 150. See also Committee for Industrial Organization; Congress of Industrial Organization; United Mine Workers Liberty League. See American Liberty League Lilienthal, David A., 162 Lippmann, Walter, 13, 55, 109 Little Steel, 146-47 London Economic Conference (1933), 47-49, 169 Lonergan, Augustine, 165 Long, Huey, 67, 81-85, 98, 207-15. See also Share Our Wealth Lorillard, P., company, 99, 112 Louisville Bank v. Radford, 112 Lundeen, Ernest, 94 Lynching, 159-60; Dyer on, 284-87

MacArthur, Douglas, 20, 81 MacDonald, Ramsay, 48 Maritime Federation of the Pacific, 145 Maritime industry, 61, 145

THE NEW DEAL Martin, Homer, 148, 150 Martin, Joseph, 119 Maverick, Maury, 153 Mayer, Louis B., 76 McCarran, Patrick, 165, 263 McDonald, Forrest, 168 McGroarty, John, 93-94 McReynolds, James D.: background of, 104; Nebbia case and, 106; gold contracts cases and, 109; TVA and, 114; early courtpacking proposal of, 136; Wagner Act and, 141, 267; social security decisions and, 141, 142, 271, 274. See also Four Horsemen McReynolds, Samuel D., 47 Means, Gardiner C., 29, 173 Mellon, Andrew W.: Long on, 211 Merriam, Frank, 61, 76-77 Miller, Nathan, 72 Millis, Harry A., 63 Mills, Ogden, 85-86 - Minimum wage cases. See Morehead v. Tipaldo; West Coast Hotel Company v. Parrish Minneapolis general strike (1934), 61 Minnesota moratorium case. See Home Building and Loan Association v. Blaisdell Minor, Robert, 55 Mitchell, Charles, 44 Modern Corporation and Private Property, The (Berle-Means), 7), WIS “Mohawk Valley” formula, 146 Moley, Raymond: Brains trust and, 28; NRA and, 42; London Economic Conference and, 48, 49; FDR speeches and, 173, 177, 182

INDEX Morehead, Frederick C. See Morehead v. Tipaldo Morehead v. Tipaldo, 116-17, 135, 140, 235, 255, 264; text, 235-37 Morgan, Arthur, 161-62 Morgan, H. A., 162 Morgan, John Pierpont, Jr., 44, 211. See also Morgan banking house Morgan banking house, 83. See also Morgan, John Pierpont, Jr. Morgenthau, Henry, Jr., 26-27, 51, 68, 81, 84, 152 Mortgages, farm: 37, 130, 170. See also Frazier-Lemke mortgage legislation; Home Building and Loan Association v. Blaisdell Murphy, Charles F, 13-14 Murphy, Frank, 144, 148, 149, 209 Murray, Philip, 145, 150, 151

Nation (weekly): on HOLC, 35; on tenant farming, 101; on Tipaldo decision, 235 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 121, 122, 159, 284 National Association of Manufacturers (NAM), 43, 94. See also Emery, James A. National City Bank of New York. See Mitchell, Charles National Committee to Uphold Constitutional Government, 164 National Emergency Council, 58, 194 National Farmers Union, 38 National Grange, 38 National Housing Act (1934), 59 National Industrial Recovery Act, 42-43, 194. See also National Recovery Administration National Labor Board (NLB), 62, 63

309 National Labor Relations Act of 1935. See Wagner Act National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), 63, 91, 92, 104, 147, 194. See also Supreme Court: Wagner Act National Labor Relations Board v. Friedman-Harry Marks Clothing Company, 141 National Labor Relations Board v. Jones and Laughlin Steel Corporation, 140-1, 267-70 National Recovery Administration (NRA): First New Deal and, 45; agency launched, 52-55; Borah on, 55, 56, 59, 186-89; opposition to, 55-58, 81, 126, 194; Hugh Johnson defends, 56, 57-58, 189-93; demise of, 58-59; housing and, 59; labor and, 60, 61, 62-63, 85, 123; Creel and, 75; Long on, 84, 214, 215; Wagner Act and, 91, 92; oil industry and, 106; coal industry and, 114, 232; blacks and, 121; Reed and, 144; women and, 161; George on, 165; evaluated, 169. See also Schechter Poultry Corporation v. United States; Public Works Administration National Recovery Review Board, 56-58, 59 National Steel, 146 National Union for Social Justice (NUSJ), 80, 130, 203-7 National Youth Administration (NYA), 90, 119, 122, 123, 167, 281 Native Americans, 160-61 Nebbia, Leo. See Nebbia v. New York Nebbia v. New York, 105-6, 235

310 Nelson, George, 129 New Deal: origin of term, 19; First, 45-46, 87; Second, 87, 122; evaluated, 168-70 New York Times: and Liberty League, 73; on court-packing, 136. See also Krock, Arthur Nock, Albert Jay, 121 Norman, Norman C. See Gold contracts cases Norris, George, 40, 41, 102, 134, 137, 162. See also Norris-La Guardia Act Norris-La Guardia Act, 42 Nye, Gerald P.,, 55, 56, 59, 94, 189 O’Brien, Thomas C., 130 O’Connor, J. F T., 76 O’Connor, John J., 165 O’Gorman, James A., 14 Oil. See Petroleum Old Age Revolving Pensions, 77-79 Olsen, Floyd, 61, 74-75 O’Mahoney, Joseph, 137, 158, 263 O’Neal, Edward, 37

Panama Refining Company v. Ryan, 107 Parity, farm: defined, 38-39 Parrish, Elsie. See West Coast Hotel Company v. Parrish Patman, Wright, 92, 93 Pavy, Benjamin, 85 Pearson, Frank, 32-33 Pecora, Ferdinand, 44, 71 Peek, George Nelson, 64, 65, 66 Perkins, Frances: background of, 28, 161; on Black bill, 41; on NRA, 42; on unionism, 63; Wagner Act and, 92; social security and, 93; on sit-down strike, 150

THE NEW DEAL Perry, John M. See Gold contracts cases Petroleum, 54, 151, 194. See also “Hot oil” cases Philip Morris company, 99 Pittman, Key, 47-48, 50 Polls: on Eleanor Roosevelt, 29; issues of 1935, 120, 133; Supreme Court, 139, 143; 1938 depression, 154; 1938 purges, 165 Prince, Frederick H., 112 Progressive party of Wisconsin, 75, 86 Prohibition, 14, 19, 20 Public Utilities Holding Company Act. See Wheeler-Rayburn Act Public Works Administration (PWA): created, 42, 43-44; attacks Hugh Johnson, 56; activities of; 67-68, 88, 89, 152; Long and, 84, 214; 1934 election and, 85; Cohen and, 97; blacks and, 122; TVA and, 143; Shouse on, 195; evaluated, 169 Pullman Company, 110 Railroad industry, 5, 60. See also Railroad retirement acts of 1934, 1935 Railroad Labor Act (1926), 63, 140 Railroad retirement acts of 1934, 1935, 109-10, 255 Rayburn, Sam, 96-97, 102 Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC): under Hoover, 9-10, 22, 23; under FDR, 30, 38, 51, 67, 194; Coughlin on, 79; Liberty League on, 194 Reed, Daniel, 94 Reed, Stanley, 144 Relief: 1934 election and, 85; in

INDEX 1936, 118; 1936 election and, 128-29, 133, 216-19; Landon on, 131, 154; second inaugural, 135; 1937 cuts, 153; Shouse on, 195-97; FDR’s 1935 speech, 216-19. See also Hopkins, Harry; individual agencies, legislation Reno, Milo, 49. See also Farm Holiday Association Reorganization of executive departments: proposals, 153, 163-64, 166-67 Republic Steel, 146, 147 Republican party: 1936 platform, 128-29, 242-51. See also various elections, legislation Resettlement Administration (RA), 101-2, 119, 155, 161. See also Farm Security Administration Reuther, Walter. See Reuther brothers Reuther brothers, 150 Revenue Act of 1935, 97-99; of 1936, 120 Reynolds, Eli, 23 Richberg, Donald, 56, 57, 58, 626339 /11,.92 Ritchie, Albert T., 18 R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, 58 Roberts, Owen J.: background of, 104-5; Nebbia case and, 106; railroad retirement decision and, 110; Tipaldo decision and, 116; West Coast Hotel decision and, 140. See also United States v. Butler Robinson, Joseph, 101, 138, 143 Rockefeller, John D., Jr.: Long on, 210-11 Roosevelt, Eleanor (wife), 13, 14, 16, 17, 59, 159; general role of 29, 161

311 Roosevelt, Franklin D.: on Hoover, 7; background of, 12-15; personality of, 15-17; Oglethorpe University speech, 16; 1932 election, 18-21; Commonwealth Club speech, 20, 17376; interregnum, 21-23; first inaugural, 25, 177-81; 1933 banking legislation, 29-30; 1933 economy act and, 30-31; currency and, 33, 49-52; agriculture and, 37, 38, 85, 99, 119-20, 155; TVA and, 40-41, 162; Black bill and, 41; NRA and, 43, 55-56, 58, 182-84; PWA and, 43, 67; on 1933 Federal Securities Act, 44; GlassSteagall act and, 45; second fireside chat, 182-84; First New Deal, 45-46; London Economic Conference and, 47, 48-49, 184-86; housing and, 59: labor and, 62, 63, 64, 92, 148, 150, 277-78; FERA and, 65, 68-69; SEC and, 70-71; on Liberty League, 72; Townsend and, 77, 78; Coughlin and, 80, 81; Long and, 81, 82, 83-84, 208, 209-10; 1934 election and, 86; 1935 State of the Union address, 87, 216-19; Second New Deal, 87; WPA and, 87, 88; bonus legislation and, 92-93, 118; social security and, 93, 94, 95; 1935 Banking Act and, 96; Wheeler-Rayburn Act and, 97; 1935, 1936 revenue acts and, 97-98, 120; on tenant farmers, 101; Resettlement Administration and, 1012; rural electrification and, 102; NRA Supreme Court decision

312 and, 111-12; blacks and, 123, 159-60; 1936 election and, 128, 129, 131-32, 132-34, 25153; Supreme Court battle and, 134, 135-39, 143-44, 170, 25463; second inaugural, 135; renewed depression and, 152, 153-56, 278-84; TNEC and, 157-58; 1938 wages and hours bill and, 158; executive reorganization and, 163-64, 166-67; 1938 purges and, 16465; general program evaluated, 168-70 Roosevelt, James (father), 12-13 Roosevelt, Sara Delano (mother), 12-13, 17 Roosevelt, Theodore, 13, 182 Roper, Daniel C., 27 Rosenman, Samuel, 19, 28 Rubber industry, 60, 125-26, 151 Rumsey, Mary Harriman, 56 Rural Electrification Administration (REA), 102, 170

San Francisco general strike (1934), 61 Schall, Thomas D., 55 Schechter Poultry Corporation v. United States, 110-12, 114; text, 222-29 Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr., 17, 27, 84, 168 Schwab, Charles M.: Long on, 211 Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), 70-71, 97, 104, 144, 249 Securities legislation, 44, 70. See also Securities and Exchange Commission Senate, U.S: Banking and Currency Committee, 22, 44, 96; Finance Committee, 59; Judi-

THE NEW DEAL ‘ciary*Committee, 137, 138, 257-63; Education and Labor Committee, 144-45; special committee on employment, 156-57 Sharecropping. See Tenant farming Share Our Wealth, 84, 130, 210-15 Sheehan, William F, 13 Short, Dewey, 88, 164 Shouse, Jouett, 72, 73; 1934 speech of, 193-97 Silver policy: Thomas amendment and, 39, 40, 49; London Economic Conference and, 47, 49, 185; Purchase Act (1934), 5051; Coughlin on, 81; policy evaluated, 50-51, 169 Sinclair, Upton, 75-77, 197-202. See also End Poverty in California Smith, Alfred E.: 7928 campaign and, 7; early relations with FDR, 14-15; 1932 campaign and, 18; on gold purchases, 51-52; on NRA, 55; Liberty League and, 72, 73; 1936 campaign and, 134 Smith, Edwin S., 63 Smith, Ellison (“Cotton Ed”), 39, 158, 165 Smith, Gerald L. K., 130, 133 Smoot, Reed. See Smoot-Hawley Tariff Smoot-Hawley Tariff, 8 Social security: Townsend plan and, 78; FDR seeks, 87; legislation framed, 93-95; blacks and, 122; Borah on, 126; Vandenberg on, 126; Landon on, 131, 240; Gallup poll on, 133; Supreme Court decisions, 138, 141-42, 271-74; 1936 party

INDEX platforms on, 243-44; money circulation and, 153; women and, 161; George on, 165; evaluated, 170 Socialist party, 74, 129, 133. See also Thomas, Norman

Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act. See Agricultural Adjustment Act, 1936 Somers, Andrew, 50

Southern Tenant Farmers Union, 101 Standard Oil, 82, 126 Stassen, Harold, 166 Steagall, Henry B. See GlassSteagall act Steel industry: condition in /929, 5; in 1932, 8, 19; in 1933, 25; NRA and, 54; labor and, 56, 60, 145-47, 151; condition in 1938, 153 Steel Workers’ Organizing Committee (SWOC), 145-47 Stock market: 1929 crash, 4; 1932, 19) 203 7933/21, 4521937) 152; 1938, 153; regulation evaluated, 170. See also Securities and Exchange Commission Stolberg, Benjamin, 74 Stone, Harlan Fiske: background of, 104; on NRA, 111; on AAA, 113, 229, 255; on minimum wages, 116-17, 255, 264; on social security, 142 Strikes, 60-62, 92, 125-26, 14450, 166 Sullivan, Mark, 132 Sumner, William Graham, 18 Sumners, Hatton, 138 Sun Oil, 72, 126 Supreme Court, U.S.: composition of, 104-5, 143-44; problem posed by, 103; NRA and, 92,

313 110-12, 222-29; AAA and, 99, 112-13, 229-32; mortgages and, 105; minimum prices and, 105-6; hot oil cases and, 1067; gold contracts cases and, 107-9, 142; railroad legislation and, 109-10, 140; TVA and, 113-14, 142-43; Guffey coal

bill and, 115-16, 232-35; minimum wages and, 116-17, 13940, 235-37, 264-66; 1936 election and, 129, 250-51; FDR’s battle with, 135-39, 164, 166, 254-63; Wagner Act and, 14041, 267-270; social security and, 141-42, 271-74; George on, 165; revolution of, 170 Sutherland, George: background of, 104; Minnesota moratorium case and, 105; social security decisions and, 141-42; TVA and, 143; minimum wage and, 264. See also “Four Horsemen”; Carter v. Carter Coal Company Swanson, Claude A., 27 Swift & Co., 99, 112 Swope, Gerald, 41-42, 62 Taber, John, 119 Taft, Robert A., 127, 142, 166 Talmadge, Eugene, 62 Tariff: Smoot-Hawley, 8; FDR and, 19; Hoover and, 19, 74; Hull and, 26; London Economic Conference and, 47, 48; 1936 campaign and, 128, 131 Taxation: 1940, 169. See also Revenue acts of 1935, 1936

Taylor, Myron C., 146 Teamsters Union, 144 Temporary Emergency Relief Ad-

THE NEW DEAL

314 ministration (New York State),

15, 36 Temporary National Economic Committee (TNEC), 157-58 Tenant farming, 38, 66, 82, 100101, 102, 121, 135, 155 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 40-41, 122, 161-63; Supreme Court decisions, 113-14, 14243; evaluated, 170 Textile industry: conditions in 1932, 19; FDR /933 speech, 183; NRA and, 53-54; labor and, 60-61, 61-62; 1933 prices, 66; conditions in 1937-38, 152, 153; 1938 wages and hours law, 159 Thomas, Elmer. See Thomas amendment Thomas, Norman, 34, 43, 55, 74, 101, 129 Thomas, R. J., 150 Thomas amendment, 39-40, 49, 51 Time: on Hugh Johnson, 53; on gold contracts, 109; on /936 prosperity, 133; on strikes, 144; on 1937 market crash, 152 Tinkham, George Holden, 164 Tipaldo, Joseph. See Morehead v. Tipaldo Tipaldo decision. See Morehead v. Tipaldo Tobacco industry, 38, 39, 64, 66, 99, 119, 155 Townsend, Francis E., 77-78, 130, 133. See also Townsend plan Townsend plan, 77-79, 93-94, 133. See also Townsend, Francis E. Truth-in-Securities Act. See Federal Securities Act Tugwell, Rexford: on FDR, 15, 16; in Brains Trusts, 28; NRA

% and, 42; agriculture policy, 66,

101, 102; on TVA, 162 Tydings, Millard, 165

Unemployment: worldwide, x1; 1929, 6; 1930, 8; 1931, 8, 9; 1932, 19-20; during interregnum, 21; 1933, 6, 25, 35, 45, 60, 68, 91; 1934, 55, 71; 1935, 59, 91, 216; 1936, 118, 133; 1936 party platforms on, 24748; 1938, 152-53, 155, 156-57, 166, 169; 1939, 169; 1940, 169; blacks and, 25, 121; women and, 161 Unemployment Councils, 94 Union party, 130, 133 Unions. See Labor United Automobile Workers, 148-50 United Mine Workers (UMW), 43, 132. See also Lewis, John L.; Murray, Philip United Rubber Workers, 126 United States v. Butler, 112-13, 118, 119, 229-32, 255 United States Steel, 6, 8, 72, 118, 145, 146, 276. See also Fairless, Benjamin United Textile Workers, 62 Urban League, 122 Vandenberg, Arthur, 39, 45, 126, 155 Van Devanter, Willis, 104, 138. See

also “Four Horsemen” Vann, Robert, 122 Van Nuys, Frederick, 160, 165, 263 Veterans of Foreign Wars, 92 Vinton, Warren Jay, 74 Wadsworth, James W., 72 Wages and hours laws: NRA and, 42, 54, 60; FDR pushes, 135;

INDEX Supreme Court and, 136, 138, 153; 7938 bill, 158-59, 164, 166, 170; George on, 165 Wagner, Robert: /932 employment proposal, 10; FERA and, 35; NRA and, 42; NLB and, 62; NLRB and, 63-64; blacks and, 122; lynching and, 159, 160. See also Wagner Act Wagner Act (1935): drafted, 91, 92; blacks and, 122; Supreme Court and, 136, 138; Landon on, 154, 156; George on, 165; evaluated, 170. See also National Labor Relations Board v. Jones and Laughlin Steel Corporation Wallace, Henry A.: background of, 27; first AAA and, 39, 64, 6566, 99; NRA and, 52; Long on, 84; tenant farmers and, 101; third AAA and, 155 Walsh, David, 164 Walsh, Thomas J., 27 Wander, Meghan Robinson, 52 War debts, 21-22 Warren, Earl, 127 Warren, George, 32-33, 51 Weiss, Carl Austin, Jr., 85 West Coast Hotel Company v. Parrish, 139-40; text, 264-66 Wheat (crop): in 1920s, 6; first AAA and, 38; 1933, 49, 64-65; 1935, 99, 100; second AAA, 119;

315 1936 Democratic platform on, 245; FDR on, 153; third AAA and, 155; 1938, 166 Wheeler, Burton K., 32, 50, 96, 137. See also Wheeler-Rayburn Act Wheeler-Rayburn Act, 96-97 White, Walter, 159 Wierton Steel, 62

Williams, Aubrey, 165 Williams, S. Clay, 58 Winant, John, 62 Women: New Deal and, 161 Woodin, William H., 26, 83 Woodward, Ellen, 161 Works Progress Administration (WPA): FDR suggests, 21619; general activities of, 88-91; Great Plains and, 119; blacks and, 122-23; Hopkins 1936 speech on, 219-22; Landon and, 127; in 1937, 152; in 1938, 155, 156, 281; Native Americans and, 161; corruption and, 165-66; evaluated, 169. See also Hopkins, Harry; Works Projects Administration Works Projects Administration, 90, 167. See also Works Progress Administration World Court, 19, 81 Youngstown Steel and Tube, 146, 147 Zangara, Joseph, 21

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Justus D. Doenecke is professor of history at New College of Florida in Sarasota. His books and articles cover such topics as politics in the Gilded Age, American diplomacy in the 1930s and early 1940s, and the Cold War. His book In Danger Undaunted: The Anti-Interventionist Movement of 1940-1941 as Revealed in the Papers of the America First Committee (1990) was awarded the Arthur S. Link Prize for Documentary Editing by the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations. Another book, Storm on the Horizon: The Challenge to American Intervention, 1939-1941 (2000), won the annual book award of the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library Association for the best book on any topic of American history focusing within the years 1914-1964, the years of Hoover’s public life.

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SELECTED ANVIL SERIES TITLES Baker: THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES Burton: BRITISH-AMERICAN DIPLOMACY, 1895-1917 Doenecke: THE BATTLE AGAINST INTERVENTION, 1939-1941 Donaldson: THE SECOND RECONSTRUCTION Edwards: THE KOREAN WAR Eubank: THE BOMB Eubank: THE MISSILE CRISIS IN CUBA Fichtner: THE HABSBURG EMPIRE Gallagher: THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Gershoy: THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-1799 Jensen: THE MAKING OF THE AMERICAN CONSTITUTION Kennan: SOVIET FOREIGN POLICY, 1917-1941 Kiraly: BASIC HISTORY OF MODERN HUNGARY, 1867-1999 Launius: NASA: A HISTORY OF THE U.S. CIVIL SPACE PROGRAM Levin: THE HOLOCAUST YEARS Meredith: A SHORT HISTORY OF THE NATIVE AMERICANS IN THE UNITED STATES Morris: BASIC DOCUMENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY Muccigrosso: BASIC HISTORY OF AMERICAN CONSERVATISM Parmet: PRESIDENTIAL POWER FROM THE NEW DEAL TO THE NEW RIGHT Prall: THE PURITAN REVOLUTION AND THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR Rawley: SECESSION Riesenberg: A HISTORY OF CITIZENSHIP Ross: U.S. WAR PLANS, 1939-1945 Shafer: NATIONALISM AND INTERNATIONALISM Snyder: CONTEMPORARY NATIONALISMS Snyder: NATIONAL SOCIALIST GERMANY Trefousse: PEARL HARBOR Trefousse: RECONSTRUCTION Turner: ASSASSINATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN

Walch: CATHOLICISM IN AMERICA Williams: RULING RUSSIANN EURASIA

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& KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY MALABAR, FLORIDA

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