The nature of stratigraphical record. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 114 pp
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English Pages 132 Year 1973
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D erek
V .
A ger
1973
A ll righ t s reserv ed . N o p art o f t h is p u b lic at io n m ay be re p ro d u ce d o r t ran sm it t e d , in an y fo rm or by an y m ean s, w it h ou t p erm ission . First p u b lish e d 1 973 by T H E
M A C M I L L A N
P R E S S
L T D
L o n d o n an d B asin gst o k e A sso ciat e d co m p an ie s in N e w Y ork D u b lin M e lb o u rn e , Jo h an n e sb u rg an d M ad ras SB N
333
15172
0
D ist rib u t e d in t h e U n it e d S t at e s by H A L S T E D
P R E S S
a D iv isio n of J O H N
W
I L E Y
&
S O N S
I N C
N ew Y ork L ib r a r y
o f C o n g r e ss c a t a lo g
card
n o.
Prin t e d in G re at B rit ain by A .
W
H E A T O N
&
C O M P A N Y
E x e t e r, D ev on
7 3-81 00
For Kitty an d M artin
A ie n A p is t e y e in
Tr a n sf e r r e d fr o m D e p a r t m e n t a l Lib r a r y S u m m e r 2000
ST ANDREWS UNI VERSITY LI B^ VRY OFFICIALLY WITHDRAWN FROM STOCK BY COLLECTIONS
10 MA
I2 J
St A n d r
ews
U n iv e r
THIS BOOK WAS ISSUED ON:
U 9 D R 0 0 J
i
i
H
i
i
i
a
n
i
s it y
L ib r
ar y
Contents L ist o f P lat e s
ix
P re f ac e
x iii
T h e
P e r sist e n c e
2.
T h e
F le e t in g
3.
M o re
4.
C a t a str o p h ic
S t r a t ig r a p h y
35
5.
C a t a st r o p h ic
U n ifo r x n it a r ia n ism
43
6.
T h e
7.
M a r x ist
8.
T h e
G ap s
of
1
1.
F a d e s
15
F o ssil th an
27
R eco rd
51
P r o c e ss o f Se d im e n t a t io n S t r a t ig r a p h y
N atu re
o f
th e
an d
th e
C o n tro l
G o ld e n
S p ik e
61 75
R e f e re n c e s
101
In d ex
111
x
L I S T
C am aret, 1 .1 4 .
C e r in n ear
3 .1 .
C rozon
an d
b etw een
A rch aean
g n e iss
T h ic k ,
w e ll- b e d d e d
d ’O i s a n s 3 .3 .
3 .4 .
(Ise r e )
C o n d e n se d Bu rto n
d e p o sit
Lo w er
th e
C retaceo u s
B o h e m ia n
Ju r a s s ic
Fren ch
(K im m e r id g ia n )
m a r in e
M a ssif,
o f
se d im e n ts
n ear
K o lin ,
ab ove
Bo u rg
n ear
Ju r a ssic
fly sc h
( B a jo c ia n ) lim e st o n e s,
(D V A )
b ored
V o lg ia n
U ly a n o v sk ,
C retaceo u s
(D V A )
E n g la n d .
w it h
th e
se d im e n ts
A lp s.
o f M id d le D o r se t,
b reak
‘s t r a t o t y p e ’
p h o sp h a t ic (U p p e r m o st
in at
(D V A )
U .S .S .R .
n ear
n o d u le s Ju r a s sic )
B ia lsk o
B ia la
in
th e
P o lish
It a lia n
A p en
(D V A )
C a r p a t h ia n s. 4 .2 .
th e
B r a d sto c k ,
G o r o d ish c h i 4 .1 .
of
(D V A )
F ran ce.
Ju r a ssic
(D V A )
Ju r a .
U p p e r
Lo w er
in
S t r a t ig r a p h ic a l th e
B r it t a n y ,
U p p e r
(D V A )
C z e c h o slo v a k ia . 3 .2 .
Sto n e,
(A in ), F r e n c h
U n c o n fo r m it y
P L A T E S
P e n in su la ,
L it h o g r a p h ic C e r in
O F
E x o t ic
b lo c k s
n in e s.
( P h o t o grap h
in
argille scaglio se , i n k in d ly p ro v id e d b y
th e
th e
P ro f e sso r G ilb e rt
W ilson ) 4 .3 .
E x o t ic
rou n d ed
R o b o n aro a
sc a le
in
at
b lo c k
in
P o r tu g u e se
th e
b o ttom
th e
Bo b o n aro
T im o r . o f
th e
N ote
S c a ly th e
C la y ,
m en
(P h o t o grap h
b la c k .
n ear
p r o v id in g
k in d ly
p ro v id e d by D r M . G. A u d le y - C h arle s) 4 .4 .
R e c o n st r u c t io n tim e s,
n ear
o f th e
su p p o se d
B u ilt h , W a le s.
sc e n e r y
in
e a r ly
O r d o v ic ia n
(Fro m Jo n e s an d P u gh , 1949, by
k in d p e rm issio n o f S ir W illiam P u gh an d t h e G e o lo gic al So c ie t y o f L o n d o n ) 5 .1 .
5 .2 .
L a m in a t e d
b e in g
erod ed
th e W a sh , e a ste r n
E n g la n d .
(D V A )
F ift e e n t h - c e n t u r y
la n d slip
Fren ch 6 .1 .
F o r m a t io n
B u t t e s ’ in
ab an d on ed 8 .1 .
(e a r ly
th e
d r ill- b it
M o n tse r r a t,
at
at
C la p s
th e
d e
sid e
L u c
o f
a
creek
(D r o m e )
in
in
th e
o f
th e
w it h
an
(D V A )
A lp s.
M ara d a ‘T w i n
se d im e n t
n ear
Sir t e
M io c e n e ) B a sin
sy m b o lic a lly B a r c e lo n a ,
o f in
fo r m in g
e a ste r n th e
S p a in .
on e
L ib y a ,
fo r e g r o u n d . A
st r a n g e ly
(D V A ) sh a p e d
(D raw n b y Jo h n U z z ell E d w ar d s f ro m a p h o t o grap h t ak e n b y t h e au t h o r) m o u n t a in
8 .2
L e
C h a in e
a
fr a c t u r e
P u y
d e
o f M io c e n e
des lin e
D om e,
c o n g lo m e r a t e .
P u y s, a in
th e
n ear
lin e
o f la te
A u vergn e,
C le r m o n t
C a e n o z o ic
v o lc a n o s a lo n g
se e n
th e
F erran d ,
fr o m
Fran ce.
to p
o f
( D raw
th e
n by
L I S T
O F
P L A T E S
Jo h n U z z e ll E d w ard s f ro m au t h o r) P u y - lik e
v o lc a n o
n ear
x i
a p h o t o grap h
L ib e si£ e
on
th e
t ak e n
w e st
sid e
by
th e
o f
th e
(D raw n by Jo h n U z z e ll E d w ar d s f ro m a p h o t o grap h t ak e n b y th e au t h o r) B o h e m ia n
M a ssif,
C z e c h o slo v a k ia .
Preface T h is
is n o t
— an
‘i d e a s
earth
h ist o r y
tiv e ly
so ,
th an
as
in
a ll
m y
I
fo r
y ears
an d
n on -co m b atan t
th e
n ot
th an
so ld ie r s
th e
w it h
of
I
It
is— I
th e
lik e
gen eral
g e o lo g y
se p a r a te d
h ad
I
to
to
t h in k
p attern
as
a
w h o le
sp e c ia lit ie s.
I
of
rath er
w rote
in v o lv e d
in
a lw a y s
th e
it ,
h as
en gaged in
w r it e
th em
dow n
it
b e fo r e
se n se , it is s t r a t ig r a p h y
m ad e
u su a lly
a c t u a lly
a
h ave
a c t u a lly
c o n c lu sio n s c o n t a in e d
too
on
st im u la t in g , if p e r h a p s p r o v o c a
in t o x ic a t e d . I n
n o n - st r a t ig r a p h e r .
th e
t r e a t ise .
t o , b e c a u s e t h e id e a s it c o n t a in s h a v e b e e n fe r m e n t in g
th at
is
w ill b e
con cern ed
rath er
th at
r e se a r c h
co m m en tary
h op e
t ig r a p h y
th an
a
a
a g g lo m e r a tio n
c o m p le t e ly a
is
t h o se
lo o se
b r a in
by
or
It
w h ic h
I h ad
b ecam e at
textb o o k b o o k ’.
to
a
b e c a u se
a
a
u se d
b u t
I
c le a r e r
in
th e
o f
p ic t u r e
are
tau gh t
o ffe r
fig h tin g .
th is b o o k
m in u t ia e
an d
can
It
I
lo o k e d
th e
str a
e x c u se
o f th e
b a t t le
se e m s
to
m e
in e sc a p a b le , if o n e
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
c o r r e la t io n
a c t u a lly t o se e t h e m . N o b u t
d ou b t
I
am
I
sh a ll
o v e r - sim p lifie d , gen eral h ave
b u t
I
a lso
h a v e n ’t
m in d .
M y
B arran d e— F o r F o r
a lso I
c r it ic ise d
am
in
is s a d
fo r
o b st in a t e
w h ic h
I
so m e
if so m e
am
o f
m y
o f m y
en ou gh
to
c h ie fly
g e n e r a lisa t io n s,
d e t a ils a r e
se e n
in t e r e st e d ,
m otto
in
h ave
m o st
h ad
th is
th e r e , so
th en it
I
am
h a s n ’t
c o n n e c t io n
is
o f
th e
I
fo r
t h e W e n lo c k
d e lig h t e d
r e g ist e r e d
th at
th e
r ig h t .
I h a v e se e n
m e . I f th e C h a lk a n d
R u r it a n ia ,
th em
r e a so n , I
p art
su b st a n t ia t io n m ad e
in
th at
are
in
to
h ear
m y
great
it ,
sim p le
Jo a c h im
'C ’est ce q u e j ’ai v u ’.
th e sa m e
th e
h a v e im p r e sse d
occu r
w ron g or
m a in t a in
t r ie d , a s f a r a s p o ssib le , t o u se e x a m p le s w h ic h
m y se lf a n d w h ic h
so m e
I
p r in c ip le s,
lim e st o n e b u t
be
u n rep en tan t. It
I
h ave
o n ly
se e m s t o
p a r t ic u la r th e
h ave n ot m ad e
u se
o f
o p p o r t u n it y
be
r e fe r r e d
to
n eed ed
fo r
w ork to
g r e a t u se o f t h e lit e r a t u r e .
by
d isc u ss
books an d a
m y se lf th e
c e r t a in or
by
m atter
p ap ers w h en p o in t .
fr ie n d s, or
to
se e
I
h ave w h ere it
fo r
P R E F A C E
x i v
m y se lf. F o r t h e sa k e o f r e a d a b ilit y , I h a v e o m it t e d
m o st d ir e c t r e fe r
en ces
con cern ed ,
fr o m
se le c t io n in
an
th e
o f
text.
th e
I
a p o lo g ise
m ore
an n o tated
r e le v a n t
to
th e
p ap ers
b ib lio g r a p h y .
au th o rs
are
T h e se
list e d
are
fo r
n ot
each
b u t
a
ch ap ter
in t e n d e d
to
be
e x h a u st iv e . T h e
on e
th o u gh t lo t
great
an d
h e a lt h ie r
n ot o f
r e la t e
I
if
le ss
w e
took
th o u gh ts
sp r e a d in g
t h in k in g
h av e even
m y
se a - flo o r
o u r
h op e
argu m en t,
in
th e
fo r
th is b o o k
rage. fo r
I
gran ted .
su ffic ie n t ly
an d
la st
p la t e
fe w
to
ou r
It
a ll
B u t
r e m a in
th e
so m e
sa m e
c a se s,
p r o b le m s m o r e th e
b la m e
I
sin c e r e ly
an d
fo r
agree
o u r
on
to
m an y
m y
an d
to
M ary
d r a w in g
th e
fig u r e s,
to
Stan
p r in t in g
m y
p h o to g r a p h s,
M rs
J.
gen eral an d be
treated
b o o k ; you
W a r in g le t
m e
a ll
d o
r e v o lu t io n ise d id e a s,
e x c it in g
rou n d
th e
m y p u t
on
m e r e ly
earth .
fe e l m o r e w illin g t o flo a t in g
p la t e s.
D r
P e ig i
W a lla c e
c r it ic a l r e a d in g o f t h e m a n u sc r ip t over
e x c e sse s. D r
th e
y e a r s.
h ere,
sh e
N o r
M ik e
are
T h o u gh is
m y
B r o o k s,
fo r
sa y
a
P u gh
an d
O sb o r n e
an d
t y p in g w ord
to th e to
M rs
Jo h n
an d
in
w e
n o
w ay
p r e se n t
c o l
b o th
J.
N u t t a ll,
m a n u sc r ip t t h o se
t im e s
w it h
w h o
r e sp e c t. Y o u
U z z e ll
C h r ist in e
o f
w h om
h ad
E d w a r d s fo r N ic h o lls
M iss
w it h
t h in k
s t r a t ig r a p h y in p a r t i c u l a r a r e so le m n at
I
id e a s
a n d c r it ic ise d th is t e x t .
g r a t e fu l
F in a lly ,
th at n ew
a
m ak e
c o lle a g u e
d isc u sse d
an d
very
an d
am
th an
d isc u ssio n s
K e llin g
sa ilin g
a lm o st
fo r m e r
p r in c ip le s
errors
G ilb e r t
v e r y k in d ly r e a d I
u se fu l
gen eral
fo r
D r
c o n t in e n t s
rath er
m y
be
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l e n ig m a s
are
t im e s I
sa u c e r s th an k
h av e
p la t e s th e
sa id
t h e se
o f
fo r h e r c a r e fu l a n d
th e
r e sp o n sib le le a g u e s,
fly in g
lik e
very
th e
d iffic u lt . A t
on
w o u ld
w h erever
rearran gem en ts
be
w o u ld
e x c it in g
th at
th e y a r e , d o n o t h e lp v e r y m u c h . M y
In
m ay
r e a lly
th o u gh
w ill s t im u la t e
sc ie n c e
th e
t e c t o n ic s
y e a r s.
is t h a t it
t h in k
M .
great th at
fo r
D a v ie s
care.
sc ie n c e
in
m a t t e r s t h a t sh o u ld b etter
n ot
read
t h is
w ill fin d it t o o l ig h t - h e a r t e d .
Sw an se a 1972
D erek
A ger
i The Persistence of Facies U p p e r C re t ac e o u s C h alk In
1957
I
co u n try t h e ir
fa u n a s.
in
U p p e r
In
th e
I
I
fa c t
sa w
b la c k
of
F ran ce,
in
th e
W h at
I
D o v e r ’ in
D en m ark .
b y
o ld
t h in k in g
c h a lk
w as
th e
Sea
c o a st.
lim e st o n e s
o f fo ssils. B u t
o f
n o r th - w e st
p la t e a u
an d
th e
th em es
w h at
E u ro p e
M ic rast e r
as
id e n t ic a l w it h
r o llin g
th e
c liff se c t io n
B la c k
a s w h it e
su c h
Sw e d e n
e x c it in g
rock s an d
th e
o f
P ic a r d y
c liffs
th at
an d
‘W h i t e
o f
are
in
e a ste r n
e x p r e sse d
th is b o o k . T h o u gh
I
th o u gh t
p u b lic a t io n , W e h av e
Ir e la n d ,
it
m ig h t
t im e s
v ia
B u lg a r ia
record
ab ove sa id
exten d ed
E n g la n d
C o u n t r ie s, n o r th e r n
U n io n .
th e be
an d W e
o f th e B la c k
a ll
an d
G erm an y
e v e n t u a lly
a lso
kn ew
w a s m e r e ly
an
to
o f th e
th e
o b se r v a t io n it
w as
w ay
n orth ern an d
w orth y
n ot
a ll
sa m e
fr o m
in
fa c ie s
o f th a t v a st
so u th
ran ge
in
o f
N orth ern th e to
th e
Low
P o la n d ,
th e
an d to
m in i
fa c ie s o f la t e
th ro u gh
E gy p t
a
su r p r isin g .
S c a n d in a v ia
th e in
of
th at
A n t r im
Fran ce,
so u th e r n
G e o r g ia
e x t e n sio n
So v ie t
Isr a e l.
M y
so u th
sid e
Sea.
S im ila r ly , a t th e o t h e r e n d so u t h - w e st I r e la n d
su r v e y o r s,
th at
lo n g k n o w n , o f c o u r se , t h a t th e W h ite C h a lk
C retaceo u s
in
at
on
th e
list
fr ie n d s
an d
to v isit a
on
d e sc r ib e d
w h it e
fo ssil
g e o lo g ic a lly
fr ie n d Sile
w ere
so u t h e r n
m e
th e
lo c a l M e so z o ic
str a n g e - so u n d in g
E n g la n d
se t
n ear
fa m ilia r
o f
v isit
T u r k ish
w a s lo o k in g
q u a r r ie s
T h is
a
t h e se
a
an d
to
a t so m e o f th e
se d im e n t s
an d
w 'a s
flin t s
th e
fo r t u n e
lo o k
lit e r a t u r e
n o d u le s
Ech in o co ry s. C liffs
good
w as tak en
T u r k ish
ch ert
w it h
th e
C retaceo u s
w it h in
h ad
o f T u rk ey , to
b u t
th ey
o f t h e b e lt , C h a lk
(w h e r e it m u st h a v e b e e n h ad
e v id e n t ly
been
to o
w a s la t e r d isc o v e r e d n o t ic e d
sc a r e d
o f
b y th e e a r ly t h e ir
au to
2
T H E
c r a tic it
N A T U R E
d ir e c t o r
w as
to
fo u n d
O F
record
c o v e r in g
T H E
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
su c h
an
u n lik e ly
e x t e n siv e
areas
R E C O R D
p h e n o m e n o n ). L a t e r
o f
th e
se a
flo o r
st ill
so u th
of
Ir e la n d . N ow
th is
sp r e a d
it m u s t a ls o an
o f
e x t r e m e ly p u r e
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l fo r
on
C h a lk (st ill in
th e of
th e
o f
o f th e
age
b u t io n
o f su c h
in
in
A la b a m a .
age,
a
u n iq u e
n ow
is su r e ly
is
b e fo r e
m ore,
or
th e E n g lish
a ll t h e w a y t o N e w le t
‘ U rgo n ian ’
c a lle d
th e
S p a in ,
w h ere
o f
rou n d an d
o f
it
th e
th e
th en
a c r o ss th e
fo u n d o f a ll,
h ave
th e
b la c k
G in g in
flin t s
an d
E u rop e— on
fo r su c h
a
w id e d ist r i
h as
excep t
been
n o
p erh ap s
sh o r t p e r io d oth er
so m e
r e m a r k a b l y w i d e s p r e a d : in
dow n
C y p ru s an d
th e
d e p o sit
M io c e n e
th e w e ste r n
th e M id d le
E a st
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
c o lu m n
to
fin d .
fo r
‘E n c h a n t e d
in
It
Ju r a
th e
B la c k
T y p ic a lly ,
th e
C ity ’ at
o u ter
m an y
M o u n t a in s in
th e
se e n
C u en ca e a st
ab ove
(p la t e
(p la t e
o f
1 .1 ).
M a r se ille s.
A lp s
1 .2 ).
It
th e
lim e st o n e s a r e
in
w e ll
P o la n d
It
th en d o m i
th e
th rou gh e a ste r n
d e v e lo p e d an d
a ll
R o u m a n ia
(p la t e
C a u c a su s
th ou gh t
an d
(fo r e x a m p le , th e
r id g e s is
u su a lly
Tt
H a n n i b a l ’s r o u t e
textb o o k
an d
is
M orocco
t o u r ist - a t t r a c t in g
M o u n t a in s o f B u lg a r ia
to th e C r im e a
B a r r e m ia n /
th at
in
str a n g e
C z e c h o slo v a k ia ,
th e B a lk a n
U r g o n ia n
be
n ear
th e
th e
can
r a n g e s o f th e
o f
at
d e v e lo p e d
C a ssis,
o f G la n d a sse
cap s
Sea
T h is
t im e s,
w as
e x a m p le ,
c liffs
C a r p a t h ia n s, th rou gh
C retaceou s
lim e st o n e
fa c i e s ’.
fo r m s,
e sc a r p m e n t
th e
c h a lk s
su r p r isin g
c o m p a r a t iv e ly
th ere
C h a n n e l , in
e a r ly
‘U r g o n i a n
su b - A lp s).
p art
A u st in
are
n o r t h - w e st
n eed ed
sin c e ,
slo w ly
m a ssiv e
sc e n e r y
t o w e r in g th e
a
m a g n ific e n t
n ate s th e
th e
Z e a la n d .
u s c lim b
en d
le v e l,
o f
fin d
com e,
lim est o n es
th e
th e
w e
sa m e
in
bu t
in t h e
to
C retaceo u s
m o st
th e
se e w h a t o t h e r w id e sp r e a d fa c ie s w e c a n
sh ap e s
w o r se
d e v e lo p m e n t )
A u st r a lia ,
w it h
r e st in g — a s
t h e m se lv e s a r e
ap p ro ach es to
fo r m s
la te r
A n d
fa c ie s d u r in g a
W h at
e it h e r
c h a lk s w h ic h
A p t ia n
is a lm o s t u n iq u e
T e x a s, w e an d
en ou gh ,
u n u su a l se d im e n t :
is e v e n
E u ro p ean
W e ste r n
fo ssils,
t im e .
it
T o w ard s
very
sa n d s.
lik e
Bu t
th e
g e n e r a l e x p la n a t io n
g e o lo g ic a l
q u it e
r e m a r k a b le
th ere
ch aracter,
w it h
st ill
is is a
A t la n t ic
an d
C retaceou s
fa m ilia r
g la u c o n it ic So m e
aw ay
fa c ie s c h a lk
lim e st o n e w h ic h
M ississip p i a n d
la te
sa m e
an d
sid e
sa m e
fa r t h e r
C h a lk
th at
N e v e r t h e le ss,
co n tem p o ran eo u s
m u ch
u n ifo r m
c o c c o lit h
c o lu m n .
oth er
th e
A r k a n sa s,
o f
a
be rem em b ered
(p la t e
1 .3 ) a n d 1 .4 ).
o f a s r u d ist
reef
T H E
d e p o sit s, a n d
lo c a lly
ab erran t
b iv a lv e s
n orth ern
Sp a in ).
p o rtan t
th an
b r o a d e st sto n e
w it h o u t
ten d s to
th ey
(fo r
sh o w
an d
se n se
in
u su a lly
o f
b e d d in g
th at
term
C retaceou s accep ted fa c ie s. a
n am es
sta g e
or
m a ssiv e
so ,
it
an d
lim e st o n e
it
is
an d
h as
o n ly
th at
is
a
is
o f G u e r n ic a are
m ore
r e e f lim e st o n e
to
sa y , a
c o m m o n ly
in t o
in im
in
m a ssiv e
r e c r y st a llise d .
p a ss la t e r a lly
b ecom e
fo r
an d
is
g r o w t h s o f t h e se
c it y
Ju r a — c o r a ls
it
it
is
a lm o st
n ot
th e
lim e It
oth er
is s a id
to
st ill
a
v a lid
d e v e lo p e d
over
a
d ir t y
a lso
fa c ie s
o f
be
d ia c h r o n o u s,
a
th e
h a r d ly
very
b y
w id e
in
in t e r n a t io n a lly
m ore
g e n e r a lisa t io n a
w ord
on e
is d ia c h r o n o u s , b u t it
in sit u
t r a g ic
B u lg a r ia ).
st r a t ig r a p h y ,
sta g e
th e
le n se s t h a t
‘U r g o n i a n ’
A d m it t e d ly
th e
term ;
p la n e s
h u ge
(w e ll se e n , f o r e x a m p le , in T h e
in
3
F A C IE S
trem en d o u s
E lse w h e r e — a s
d e v e lo p
O F
e x a m p le , n e a r
r u d ist s
G a llic
P E R S IS T E N C E
to
area
so u th e r n th an
sa y
h a lf
th at
tow ard s
a
th e
e n d o f e a r ly C r e t a c e o u s t im e s.
T it h o n ian lim est o n e s B e lo w
th e
c o m m o n ly
t o w e r in g
U r g o n ia n
a
great
se c o n d
sto n e a t th e t o p A fr ic a th e o f
th e
su c h
o t h e r w ise
th e
in
be
o b lit e r a t e d
a
so u th e r n fo r m e d
Fran ce
w h ere
at
th e
im p o r t a n t
th e
th e
ou ter
A lp s.
p o in t
an d
n ot
A lp s,
th e
P y go p e .
th e
In
ab erran t
th e
Ju r a
an d
a lso
it
m an y
h as
been
d e p o sit io n
n atu re
is
ab u n d an t
N orth
e x a m p le ,
cap s
is t h e
p r e c ise
of
in
t in t in n id s a n d
w it h
T it h o n ia n
th e
c o m m o n ly
a p t y c h i, n a u t ilo id
r e e f lim e st o n e , b u t u su a lly
d o lo m it isa t io n
It
is
lim e
it r u n s fr o m fo r m s, fo r
b r a c h io p o d
th e
th ere
m a ssiv e
su c c e ssio n
th at
th e
a
T it h o n ia n
lim e st o n e , w it h
an d
It
C retaceo u s
th e
E u ro p e,
by
G r e n o b le .
u n u su a l fo r m s a s a m m o n it e
coral
by
in t o
illu st r a t e s
b e le m n it e s
m id d le :
p la c e s t o
d e
it is
u p
C alp io n e lla
o f a
sp e c ia lise d in
th at
T h u s
fo r m
P orte
H ere
carb o n ate
th e
an d
b o x - fo ld s,
aw ay .
se d im e n t.
Sp a in
th e
Ju r a
erod ed o f
o f
o f
o f t h e Ju r a s s ic su c c e ssio n . A g a in
th ro u gh
c liffs
c liffs
e sc a r p m e n t
can
ja w s ,
th e
be
h o le
se e n
in
th e c o r a ls h a v e b e e n
d e d o lo m it isa t io n
as
is c o m m o n ly
t h e fa t e o f r e e fs . It
m ig h t
E n g la n d is
a lso
is t h e
m a in ly
a
sa id
m o llu sc a n
‘T i t h h o n i a n ’, ‘U r g o n i a n ’,
be
th o u gh
is
th at
T it h o n ia n
u su a lly
th e
P o r t la n d
lim e st o n e fa u n a
n ot
q u it e
r e se r v e d
of
la c k in g
fo r
E u rop e, an d
is st ill d is p u t in g w it h in t e r n a t io n a l t e r m
L im e st o n e
o f
so u t h e r n
y e t a n o t h e r fo r m , w it h
lim it e d
so
th e acce p te d
in
th e
d iv e r sit y . in
B u t
th e
r e sp e c t a b ilit y
carb o n ate
fa c ie s
of
w h at term as
th e
a lp in e
t h e ‘V o l g i a n ’ t h e h o n o u r o f b e i n g
fo r t h e t o p m o st s t a g e o f t h e Ju r a s s i c .
4
T H E
In
N A T U R E
it s r e e f o r
A lp s,
th e
O F
r e e f- lik e
T H E
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
fa c ie s, th e
C a r p a t h ia n s,
th e
T it h o n ia n
B a lk a n
R E C O R D
c o n t in u e s r o u n d
M o u n t a in s
to
W h e r e b e st d e v e lo p e d , fo r e x a m p le a t S t r a m b e r k in it
c o n t a in s
c o r a ls m an y or
a
r ic h
(th o u g h
an d
th e
v a r ie d
fo ssils a r e
m ore
y e a r s o f q u a r r y in g t h a n
n ot
th e se
in sit u
w ere
fa u n a
in
in c lu d in g
th e
C a u c a su s.
C z e c h o slo v a k ia ,
m a ssiv e
o b v io u s in
th e
th e
th e
com p ou n d
c o lle c t io n s fr o m
q u a r r ie s t h e m se lv e s). W h e t h e r
r e e fs is st ill
a
m atter
o f d isp u t e , b u t
th e
d o m in a n c e o f t h e lim e st o n e is e v e r y w h e r e o b v io u s. I t d o m in a t e s, fo r e x a m p le , th rou gh
th e
r a p id s
th e
o f
th e
‘I r o n
G a t e s ’, w h e r e
C a r p a t h ia n s b e tw e e n
R o u m a n ia
th e
an d
D an u b e
roars
Ju g o s la v ia
(p la t e
1 .5 ) . T h e
p o in t
h as
th e r e fo r e
n ow
been th at
it is u s u a lly
in
la t e r a l se n se . I t m ig h t b e sa id
a
q u ie t ,
lo w - e n e r g y
sh e lv e s). T h i s c e r t a in ly
n ot
A s
fit
w e
e x a m p le s in
h ig h
c o n d it io n s
on
m ad e are
w it h
th e
c o n t in u e
w it h
so
th ree
e x a m p le s
r e m a r k a b ly
p e r sist e n t
t h a t t h e se r e p r e se n t n o m o r e t h a n an
e x t e n siv e
d o e s n o t fit , h o w e v e r , w it h
d oes
p e r sist e n c e . fin d
carb o n ate
fa c ie s
th at
oth er
dow n
c o n t in e n t a l
th e
fa c ie s
th e
sh e lf
(o r
r e e f lim e st o n e s a n d th at
sh o w
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
o t h e r k in d s o f se d im e n t a n d
in
th e
it
sa m e
c o lu m n
w e
o t h e r k in d s o f q u it e
e n e r g y fa c ie s.
T h e ‘G e rm an ic ’ T r ias E v ery
stu d e n t
k n o w s,
or
sh o u ld
kn ow ,
th e
c la ssic
t r in it y
o f
th e
G e r m a n ic T r ia ssic : K e u p e r M u sc h e lk a lk B u n ter. It
is
n ot
g e n e r a lly
w id e sp r e a d th e
B e t ic
t h e se
e m p h a sise d
se n t im e n t s
C o r d ille r a
g y p sife r o u s,
red
in
an d
so u th e r n
green
M o u n t a in s
o f
e a ste r n
as
in
G erm an y
c le a r
as
m a r ls
S p a in , an d
(fo r e x a m p le , a lo n g th e R io lik e
th e
W h at
r o a d - c u t t in g s
is m o r e ,
gorge,
n orth
o f E u ro p e T h e tin c tiv e
o f
it
th e th e
te x tb o o k s,
T h u s a S p a in o f
h ow ever,
B r ito n
an d
th e
can
t h r e e - fo ld
In
d iv isio n
c r o s- b e d d e d ,
red
h ow
d r iv e
in st a n t ly
K eu p er.
B r id g n o r t h
e x a c t ly
an d
in
very
th rou gh
r e c o g n ise th e
th e
C e lt ib e r ic
o f th e
T r ia s
is
‘B u n d s a n d s t e i n ’
C a b r i e l , s o u t h - w e s t o f T e r u e l ) is e x a c t l y
n ear
a lso
S o fia
(fig u r e
b a sa l
is
are.
lik e
e lse w h e r e
in
th e in
th e
c liff
E n g lish
se c t io n s
B u lg a r ia ,
at
M id la n d s. in
th e
th e oth er
Isk e r en d
1 .1 ) .
c o n g lo m e r a t e
in
E n g la n d
p u r p l e , ‘l i v e r - c o l o u r e d ’ a n d
is fu ll
w h it e
o f
b o u ld e r s
o f a
q u a r t z it e s t h a t h a v e
d is been
by
th e
by
T r ia ssic
U z z e ll
sa n d st o n e Jo h n
a u t h o r ).
(d r a w in g
Low er
from
B e lo g r a d c h ik , Ed w ard s
at
a
p h otograp h
n o r t h - w e st
tak en
B u lg a r ia
O F
1 .1 .
P E R S IS T E N C E
fi g u r e
T H E F A C IE S
5
6
T H E
N A T U R E
oth er
w it h so
so m e
fa r ).
th e
sid e
A lo n g
c h ik , in
rock
to
oth er.
in
t h o se u p lift
w e
can
even
th e
to
T h e
b a sic
H ig h
an d
H ow ever, w h en can
a lm o st
if w e
c lo se
h ear u p
st a r t lin g . V e r y
are
of
p rod u ced
o f
th e
are
m ak e
m y
th e
ocean
(r e st in g
e x p la in en d
is w e ll th e
o f
o ld
th e in
red
sa n d sto n e
even th e
sa y in g :
of
th e
T h e
kn ow n
th at,
se a b o a r d E u rop e,
fa u lt - c o n -
even
to
th e
B ir m in g
w h ic h
p r o v id e d
C it y .
If w e
go
c lo s e r s im ila r it ie s, w it h fa m ilia r
r ig h t
red
a c r o ss
sa n d sto n e .
th e
A t la n t ic ,
I
t e c t o n ic s” . O b v io u sly
r e se m b la n c e s
g lo r io u s
sa m e
o u r
an d
so r t
K e u p er. ro ad
green
o f
dow n
c o lo u r s red
T h e
(p la t e
of
an d
road
w o u ld
n ot
b e
so
t o th e so u t h - w e st
th e
P a in t e d
green
c u t t in g s
D e se r t
‘m a r l s ’ a lo n g
as
t h in
w e
H ig h w a y
o f A m e r i c a ’, jo i n i n g C h i c a g o a n d m a r ls a n d
o f g y p su m , a ll o f w h ic h w o u ld b e p e r fe c t ly o f th e R iv e r Se v e r n
E u rop e
n ear
Y ork
“ p la t e
le t u s g o
in th e
S t a t e s a n d lo o k a t th e M o e n k o p i a n d a sso c ia t e d
A r iz o n a . by
K eu p er
N ew
on
if o n e
w h y
e a ste r n
la u g h a b le ,
b a sa l
c o m p a r iso n s
a g a in ,
th ere
c o n g lo m e r a t e
to on e
It
of
a lm o st
w it h in
t h e se
read ers
A r i z o n a ( t h e ‘m a i n
A n g e le s) sh o w
B e lo g r a d
T r ia s o f n o r t h - w e st
lik e t h e
m u ch
w e ll, b u t t h e n
E u ro p ean s h av e 7 0 in
a fie ld .
Sto n e s’ o f th e
e x t r u sio n s
I
c o r n e r o f th e U n it e d fo r m a t io n s
th e
fr o m
G ro u p
A t l a s o f M o r o c c o , w e fin d
in t r u sio n s
b u t
N ear
p e b b le s
d iffic u lt
sim ila r
lik e
sim ila r it ie s
‘b r o w n s t o n e ’ h o u s e s th e
sa m e ,
k n o w n t o h a v e b e e n l a r g e l y d e p o s it e d in
‘B u i l d i n g
regard
t r a v e lle d
E n g la n d ). E v e n
p rod u ce
fa r t h e r
h a m , E n g la n d , b e in g r e m a r k a b ly th e
th e
b e lo w .
q u a r t z it e
is v e r y
N ew ark
S t a t e s is e x a c t ly
are n ow
th e
go
b a sa lt s,
is
I
h ere
t h e b a s a l c o n g lo m e r a t e is la r g e ly
to
r e m a r k a b ly
it s
it
r ig h t a c r o ss
(th o u g h
b o u ld e r s
o f M id la n d
is a ls o
so
th e
S p a in ,
p u r p le
p la c e s, it
b a sin s. of
lik e
B r itta n y
im m e d ia t e ly
sim ila r
R E C O R D
G re s A rm o ricain
th e
th at
se p a r a te d
U n it e d
an d b o th
exten t
C a b r ie l
o u tcro p s
e x a c t ly
a g a in , fr o m
t r o lle d
R io
an d
C h a n n e l in
n o t io n
c o n t in e n t - w id e
so u r c e
o f th e
th e
b r e c c ia s a lso
w id e ly
Bu t
th e
o f
p o st u la t e s
ap art
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
n o r t h - w e st B u lg a r ia , a g a in
P e r m ia n
th e
E n g lish
q u a r t z it e
c o m p o se d
su c h
o f th e
sc e p t ic ism
so u r c e
T H E
G re s d e M ay
m a t c h e d w it h t h e th e
O F
s t a n d st o n e s w it h
Lo s
la y e r s
a t h o m e a lo n g th e b a n k s
1 .6 ) .
T h e C o al M e asu re s A g a in
c o n t in e n t a l d r ift
sim ila r it y M e a su r e s ‘A t l a n t i c
o f on
th e b o th
m ay
U p p e r sid e s
R i v e r ’. A s a
o f
b e
h e ld
to
a c c o u n t fo r
C a r b o n ife r o u s w h at
th e
n o n - sp e c ia list , I
a ir lin e s fo u n d
th e
r e m a r k a b le
(P e n n sy lv a n ia n ) n ow
lik e
it q u it e
to
C oal
c a ll
th e
e a sy , w it h
m y
T H E
sc a n t y
k n o w le d g e
id e n t ify
m o st
lo c a lit y
in
to
w o u ld
p la n t s
d iv e r se
P erh ap s h av e
o b sc u r e t h e
C e r t a in ly
th e
th e
Illin o is.
d iffe r e n c e s ten d
o f
o f
P E R S IS T E N C E
th ere
o f
O F
th e
flo r a
if
I
been
B r it ish
o f
h ad
th e
C o al
m ore
ap p aren t,
o f
d iffe r e n c e s, e sp e c ia lly
in
b etter
r e se m b la n c e s; fo r w o r k
o b sc u r e d
con cen trated
on
u su a lly
fo r c e d
flo r a s.
been
m a r in e
fr o m
st ill
th e w ay in
th e
c lo sin g m u ch
u p in
b ack
th e
a lw a y s
th e
in
in
A m e r ic a h a s
E u ro p e
n o n - m a r in e
as
w it h
th e
M id - W e st a r e
w e
h ave
fa u n a s
p la n t s, th e
very
an d n on
lik e t h o se
th at
R u ssia . an d
acco u n t
T e x a s to
la t e r a l
fo r
th at
U .S .S .R .
d e v e lo p
P e n n sy lv a n ia n , b u t t h e se
w h ereas
on
A m e r ic a n
to
t im e s
th e
fa ll
v e r t ic a l
to
fr o m
fo ssils,
kn ow n , h ow ever, th at
th e
h ave
C a r b o n ife r o u s
Sea
to
I r e la n d
W h atev er
th e
m a r in e
b iv a lv e s o f t h e
exten d
w e
th e
Tt is n o w
exp ert
th e
to
C reek
o b v io u s. are
in
h ave
an
exp erts
th e A m e r ic a n
w ay
M azon
b u t
m e n t o f m a r in e s e d im e n t s in a
M e a su r e s,
fa m o u s
been
m ore
7
F A C IE S
a
exten d s
in
th e D o n etz
T h is
A t la n t ic
a
fa c ie s
th e
C o a l M e a su r e s,
d e v e lo p m e n t
e sse n t ia lly
th e
sa m e
c o a l b a sin , n o r t h
am ou n ts
b y
c h a n g e s in
gen eral
m ere
to
so m e
4 0 °
1 7 0 °
d oes n ot
in
la t e
fo r m
a ll
o f th e C a sp ia n
o f lo n g itu d e , a n d
r e a lly
h e lp
a ll
th at
e x p la in in g t h is r e m a r k a b le p h e n o m e n o n .
L o w e r C arb o n if e ro u s lim est o n e In
B r it a in , th e
great
(M ississip p ia n )
age
b e c a u se
it
d ay s
m a p p in g
a
o f
fo r m e d
E u ro p e T h e
I n d ia n a th e
u se d
on
th e
(p la t e (p la t e
b u ild
m u ch
o f
o u r
th e
U n it e d
e d u c a tio n )
th e
lo o k s
th e
h ig h
(w it h
r ig h t
tr a c in g
th e
q u arry
at
th e
to p
fir m ly
cu t
T h e
fa m ilia r to M am m oth
th e
m an
C av e
fr o m
of
n orth ern
q u a r r y ’ in
sm o o th th e
A rm ee
fa c e s
fir st th at
t u r n in g
t h e sto n e
w as over
h is b a c k
fa c in g s fo r th e
Y ork .
A ll t h e p h y s io g r a p h ic a l fe a t u r e s o f t h e M id - W e st e r n are
o f
State
w h ereas
G ran d e
p rod u ced
th e
M id - W e st . r e g io n
w ir e s t o
an d
w it h
L im e st o n e ’ o f w e ste r n
c ir c u la t in g
N a p o le o n
B u ild in g in N e w
in
‘E m p i r e
th e
e a r ly
d iffic u lt ie s
th e
to
th e d ou b t
a c r o ss
lim e st o n e ,
L im e st o n e ’ In
(n o
B o u lo n n a is
lik e
m on u m en t
In d ia n a
sc e n e r y .
g e o lo g ist s
‘M o u n t a i n
th e
e x a c t ly u se
n o
C a r b o n ife r o u s
‘M o u n t a i n
u p la n d
h ad
in
th e
Sta te s,
A p p a la c h ia n s
1 .8 ). B o t h
B o u lo g n e
State
c a lle d
C a r b o n ife r o u s
E n g la n d ), th e
E m p ir e
be
N a p o le o n ’
1 .7 )
e a r ly
to
lo o k s
fr o m
d e v e lo p m e n t o f e a r ly
to
M e a su r e s’ a n d
‘C a r r i e r e
F ran ce
in
‘C o a l
so in
E u r o p e - o r ie n t e d
fa m ilia r
lim e st o n e u se d
th e
E n g lish
K en tu ck y
is
M ississip p ia n
P e n n in e s o r th e
n o t h in g
m ore
th an
M e n d ip s. a
rath er
8
T H E
la r g e r
N A T U R E
A m e r ic a n ise d
B u t
th is
th e
is a
c a se
So u th
w a y , h av e stu c k
sto n e ’
cover
A m e r ic a n s— fo r life r a t io n So
o f
th e
as fa r
th e
age
fo r m s
th e
n am e
good
carb on ate
lo c a l
n am es
a s C a n t a b r ia
th e
st e e p e st
r e fe r s t o
in
So m e r se t
w ood
red
o b sc u r e
th e
red
fa c ie s
in
o f
In
it
th e
o f
th e th e
o f very
as
in
th e
is
is
S im ila r ly , R u n d le
ab o ve
rock
A von
G o rge
red d en ed r ig h t
to w n
th e
L isb u m e
th e
e a r ly
E u ro p e
th ey
at
B r ist o l, th e o v e r ly in g
th e
C a n a d ia n
an
im p r e ssiv e
fo r m s
o f B a n f f in
L im e st o n e ,
o v e r ly in g
th e
in
a lso
o f t h is
1 .9 ), a n d
th e
b y
u p
L im e st o n e
th e
in
(p la t e
fr o m
p ro
w h o le .
L im e sto n e
C an y on
th e
w id e sp r e a d
M id - W e st ,
R e d w a ll
o f th e
o ld -
age,
a llo w e d
tim e
G ran d
L im e st o n e
M ississip p ia n
A la sk a ,
in
b e se e n
t h e ir
th is
u n it y
r ig h t a c r o ss th e
st a in in g
b e d s, ju s t
e x a m p le
th e
‘C a r b o n i f e r o u s L i m e
th e
a
A r iz o n a , t h e
d e p o sit s.
e sc a r p m e n t, fo r
o r
can n ot
B r it ish ,
r e a so n s— h a v e
to
an d
c liff
th e
C a r b o n ife r o u s
P e r m o - T r ia ssic
1 .1 0 ) .
th e
C a r b o n ife r o u s w a s a g a in
P e r m o - T r ia ssic
R o c k ie s,
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l W h ereas
to th e gen eral term
lo t fa r t h e r . T h u s in
to p m o st
H o le
R E C O R D
d e p o sit io n . N o t o n ly w e r e lim e st o n e s d e p o sit e d
so u th
w en t a
W ook ey
v a r ie d
fo r m a t io n
e a r ly
carb on ate
th e
very
o f
tr e e s.
fa sh io n e d
a ll
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
W a le s.
w h ere
n o m e n c la t u r a !
to
T H E
v e r sio n
D a n - y r - O g o f c a v e s in
fo r
O F
A lb e r t a
(p la t e
very
sim ila r
w it h
c h a r a c te r s. W e
can
o p p o site lim e st o n e sim ila r th e
a lso
trace
d ir e c t io n o f
th is
fa u n a l
in t o age,
list .
A sia .
very
T h e
fa c t
fo r
th e
th at
w ere
it s
c a u t io n a r y
fa m ilia r it y
th ey
lik e
in
o f th e
by
o u r o ld
in
is
co u n terp art
n o t e sh o u ld
B r it ish
w it h
th ere
o f fo ssils w ill b e
a
an d
th e
m e r e ly
th e t h ic k
w ^ it h
s u b je c t
p erh ap s be
fo ssil n a m e s m a y
st u d ie d
M o u n t E v e r e s t i t s e l f is c a p p e d
lim e st o n e s
K a sh m ir ,
B r it ish
p e r sist e n c e
n ext ch ap ter, b u t a
h ere,
C a r b o n ife r o u s
T h u s
a o f
so u n d e d
r e fle c t
p a la e o n t o lo g ist s.
th e
F in a lly
fr ie n d t h e C a r b o n ife r o u s
L im e sto n e .
Frasn ian reefs St ill
c lim b in g
m en t is
w e
th e
m o st by
dow n
m eet
is
F r a sn ia n r e m a r k a b le
r u g o se
c o r a ls
th e
in
c o lu m n ,
th e
Stage
an d
e x a m p le an d
lo w e r
th e
n ext
great
p art
o f
th e
p r e se n ts
u s
w it h
w h at
st r o m a to p o r o id s.
In
so m e
bu t
b r o a d e st
in
th e
F r a sn ia n
se n se ) w e r e
Stage
r e e fs
e x p e r ie n c in g
an d
reef
d e v e lo p
D e v o n ia n . is,
o f a ll. T h is w a s th e h e y d a y
e a r l i e r — in t h e G i v e t i a n — e ls e w h e r e t h e y l a s t e d ia n ,
lim e st o n e
U p p e r
areas
p e r h a p s,
T h is th e
o f r e e fs b u ilt th ey
sta r te d
o n in t o th e F a m m e n lim e st o n e s
t h e ir fin e st h o u r . T h i s
(in
t h e ir
is t r u e , in
T H E
a
h u m b le
w e st
w a y , in
E n g la n d .
F ran ce
an d
co u n try
of
o il
th e
In
so - c a lle d
tru e
so u th - w e st
th e
It
o f th e D e v o n ia n r e e fs
is
o f
t h e se
c h ie f
of
tru e
in
in
r e e fs
so u r c e
of
in
B e lg iu m , th e
C z e c h o slo v a k ia .
M id - W e st a n d
rocks
9
F A C IE S
area
c la ssic
cen tral
th e
O F
b e a u t ifu l
It
is
a lso
th e
w e a lt h
m o st
in
th e
k a r st
tm e
th e C a n a d ia n
fo r m
so u th
n orth ern
in
R o c k ie s,
im p o r t a n t
p r o v in c e
of
1 .1 1 ).
W e ste r n
d e v e lo p e d ,
ty p e
th e
G erm an y .
A m e r ic a n
an d
(p la t e
in
in
cavern ou s
r e se r v o ir s
A lb e r t a
is
M o r a v ia
M o r o c c o , in w h ere
th e
It
P E R S IS T E N C E
A u st r a lia
p erh ap s
th e
to o ,
b e st
m a g n ific e n t
in
th e
r e e fs
o f
w o r ld , n o t a b ly
se c t io n s o f t h e W in d ja n a G o r g e ( p la t e
t h is
in
age
th e
are
sp le n d id
1 .1 2 ).
T h e O ld R e d S an d st o n e T h e
oth er great
sto n e
Ir e la n d fr o m
to
th e
e a ste r n
Sc o t t ish sto n e
w h ic h
R u ssia n
C a n a d a
se c t io n s. I t
m e n t io n e d
fa u n a
c lo se ly
Sc o t la n d , th e
fa c ie s o f th e D e v o n ia n
d e v e lo p m e n t
T h u r so
m a r in e
w it h
in
b e lo w
so
of
lik e
T h ere
been
t h o se
n ot O ld
are
san d fr o m
d e sc r ib e d
o f t h e c la ssic
o n ly
d oes
R ed
Sa n d sto n e
sa id
C a it h n e ss.
in c r e d ib ly
red
o f E u ro p e
th e C a r b o n ife r o u s L im e
M id d le
t h e m se lv e s
G ro u p
are
th e
n orth
r e c e n t ly
r e m a in s v e r y
o f
se d im e n t s
th at
h as
K a sh m ir .
th at
F la g sto n e
d e p o sit s
It
a ls o b e se e n
e a r lie r
th e
fish
is t h e c o n t i n e n t a l
a c r o ss th e
P la t fo r m .
can
r e se m b le
b u t
exten d s
to
So
be
it
p e r sist e n t
th e
fish
e x a c t ly
is
ab o u t
in lik e
n ot
m e r e ly
th e
e a r t h ’s
su r fa c e .
M id Silu rian lim est o n e s T h e
great
tim e
o f carb o n ate
w a s w h a t w e w o u ld T h e
e sc a r p m e n t
m a ssiv e
M in ir e e fs, W e n lo c k
or
p art
w h ere
o f
W e n lo c k
(m o r e
‘h a i l s t o n e s ’ ,
th e
e a r lie r . th ev
isla n d
are
d u r in g
th e
S ilu r ia n
o r W e n lo c k t i m e in S h r o p sh ir e b e lo w )
d e v e lo p e d
in
n ow h ere
is
m o st
S ilu r ia n
o u tcro p s
ap p ro ach
fin e st
d e v e lo p m e n t
(u n fo r t u n a t e ly
P e r io d B r it a in .
fo r m e d
o f m id
th e
r e e f lim e st o n e s e x t e n d
t h e ir
G o t la n d
in
b ed d ed
th ey
S im ila r
reach o f
E d ge
t h in ly
L im e st o n e , th o u g h
r e e fs d isc u sse d n a v ia ,
o f
lim e st o n e
d e p o sit io n
c a ll th e W e n lo c k ia n
in
u p
a
age.
o f
th is
siz e o f t h e to
th e
n o r m a lly
b y
S c a n d i m ilit a r y
b an n ed
to
g e o lo g ist s). O n th e
a
m u ch
G reat
d ou s
gran d er
Lak es
in
sc a le
N o rth
p r o p o r t io n s, su c h
sk ir t s o f C h ic a g o . B u t
as in
are
th e
N ia g a r a n
A m e r ic a , w h e r e th e
tim e
sp le n d id
th e
lim e st o n e s r e e fs
T h o rn ton
reach
R e e f on
arou n d trem en th e
o u t
t e r m s, t h e se lim e st o n e s a r e v e r y m u c h
10
o f
T H K
th e
"t h e
sa m e
age
N ia g a r a
ov er an
N A T U R E
as
O F
T H E
th o se
in
S T R A T I G R A P H IC A L
E u ro p e
an d , as
F a lls a r e n o t h in g m o r e
th an
R E C O R D
1 h ave
sa id
th e N ia g a r a
e lse w h e r e ,
R iv e r fa llin g
e sc a r p m e n t o f W e n lo c k L im e st o n e ” .
A re n ig Q u art z it e s In
th e
O r d o v ic ia n
e x a m p le
of
q u a r t z it e s
of m y
p e r sist e n c e
in
th e
corn er o f
o f
lo w e r
fa c ie s
p art
o f
th e w o r ld , th e m o st
is
th at
th e
o f
th e
Sy st e m .
r e m a r k a b le
p u r p le
E v ery
an d
B r it ish
w h it e
g e o lo g y
s t u d e n t k n o w s a b o u t t h e ‘l i v e r - c o l o u r e d ’ q u a r t z i t e p e b b l e s w h i c h fo u n d are
in
o u r T r ia ssic
sa id
to
h ave
A r m o r ic a in ’ th ou gh
com e
an d
‘G r e s
th is im p lie s t h e
d ia m e t e r la n d s.
c o n g lo m e r a t e s
fo r
se v e r a l
P erh ap s
a ll
th e
de
M ay *
(r e fe r r e d
w ay
fr o m
o f
it is t h e
w h ic h
O r d o v ic ia n
‘G r e s
(p la t e
o f p e b b le s u p
k ilo m e t r e s
u p
are
e a r lie r ) a n d
th e
B r itt a n y
tr a n sp o r t a t io n
h u n d red
to
to
1 .1 3 ),
to
th e
20
or
even 30
E n g lish
d is t in c t iv e n e s s o f t h is p a r t ic u la r
cm
M id
a n a t o m ic a l
c o lo u r t h a t m a k e s u s fo r g e t t h e p u r e w h it e q u a r t z it e s t h a t a l s o o c c u r at
th is
le v e l,
Q u a r tz ite th e
w ay
erod ed
o f
even w e st
fr o m lo c a l
so u r c e s
t h e se
d ow n
th rou gh th ey
fo r m e d
ap p ear
on
a g a in
sim ila r
w ay ty p e
B u lg a r ia r isk th e
to
sa y in g
th e th e
th e
th e
t h e ir
n orth ern
so u t h in t o
r e a sse m b la g e
are
F o r
S p a in .
h ist o r y
an d
or
S t ip e r st o n e s
of
are
oth er b u t
e x a c t ly
o f p la t e s, a s n o w
in
th e
m y sa m e
th ey
go
a
m a jo r
th e r o le
P e n in su la . T h e y
m a ssiv e
p arts
o r fa c t
C a n t a b r ia ,
p la y e d
Ib e r ia n
a ll
h id d e n
E n g la n d in
e a s t sid e s o f t h e S p a n is h T h ere
com e
fr o m
o u t st a n d in g
From T h e re
o f th e
R o c k ie s, o f
th e
p e b b le s
th e
B a r r io s Q u a r t z it e )
O r d o v ic ia n
th ey
p o ssib le )
p e r sist e n c e .
A fr ic a .
C a n a d ia n
th at
ou r
ir r e le v a n t .
is
th e
(a s
w h eth er
se e m s
to
(a s
M id la n d s
Bu t
st ill
m ilit a r y
dow n in
ow n
is a lm o st
F ran ce
in
on
(a s
q u a r t z it e s
fo r c e n t u r ie s
th e n
ou r
B r it t a n y
ab o u t
b a r r ie r
in
S h r o p sh ir e ).
o f
M e se ta a n d q u a r t z it e s
th e
w o r ld ,
ig n o r a n c e age.
e n v isa g e d , d o e s
I
W h at n ot
w ill is
of
fr o m n ot
m ore,
sim p lify
th e
p i c t u r e a t a l l ; it m a k e s it f a r m o r e c o m p l e x .
T h e b asal C am b rian Q u art z it e Even on e
m ore th at
r e m a r k a b le
is
fo u n d , a lm o st
C a m b r ia n . th e
t im e
m ix e d
u p
H ere
sp an s w it h
n in g o f th e th at
w as
th an
d a t in g becom e
on ce
b a sa l
over
becom es lo n g e r
argu m en ts
m a in
a ll
th e
th e
ab o u t
w o r ld , a t
m ore
an d th e
O r d o v ic ia n
an d
lo n g e r .
th e
m ore O n e
o r ig in s o f
q u a r t z it e
is t h e
b o ttom
o f th e
p r o b le m a t ic a l is
life
to
an d
b e g in
th e
f o s s i l r e c o r d , o f t h e m y s t e r i o u s ‘L i p a l i a n
fa v o u r e d
an d
o f
great
w o r ld - w id e
as
tem p ted
get
I n t e r v a l5
m a r in e
tr a n s
T H E
P E R S IS T E N C E
O F
g r e ssio n s. P e r h a p s a ll t h a t it is s a fe
to sa y
c o m m o n ly
fin d
arou n d
c o n fo r m a b ly a b ly
in
b e lo w
ab ove
w h erever e a st
a
great
on e
So u th
in
th at
se e s
g lo m e r a t e ,
to
sa n d sto n e s,
R o c k ie s
R o ck ’ o f
th e
C a m b r ia n
P r e c a m b r ia n
r o c k s.
th e C a n a d ia n
R o c k ie s a n d
is e v e n
r e m a r k a b le
a lm o st
th e
by
can
S c o t t ish
t h e w h o le
sh a le s
even
B r it a in ,
H ig h la n d s— a
an d
b ed
i.e .
fo llo w e d t h in
r e c o g n ise
at
tru e
is
tru e
it is t r u e th an
a
t h is,
b a sa l
b y
o f
con
g la u c o n it ic
lim e st o n e s. t h is
fu ll
is
it
d e e p e n in g su c c e s
everyw h ere;
o r t h o q u a r t z it e ,
m a r in e
on e
m ore
q u a r t z it e , b u t u p
in
T h is
it
by
C a m b r ia n
q u a r t z it e
u n c o n fo r m -
in
fa c t
th e
an d
is t r u e
th e
fo llo w e d
n orth ern
t h is c o n t e x t is t h a t v e r y u n fo ssilife r o u s
o f
tu rn
fo llo w e d
Lo w er
o f
in
an
b a se
In
it is n o t o n l y ten d s
on e
v a r ie t y
th e
A u st r a lia .
th at
w o r ld
fo ssilife r o u s
G r e e n la n d , it
in
sio n
th e
11
F A C IE S
le v e l
In
th e
b o r in g s
th e ‘P i p e
k n o w rn
as
lS k o lit h o s\ T h e lat e P re c am b rian glac iat io n F in a lly , b e fo r e w e b e c o m e c o m p le t e ly lo st in on e in
m u st
m an y
m e n t io n
h as
co m p ared
o b v io u sly
w it h
p r e su m e d
th e la t e
w e st o f I r e la n d th rou gh sim ila r fr o m
g la c ia l
p a r t s o f th e w o r ld
D a tin g
b u t
th e
l>e c o m e
p r e c isio n
th rou gh
E u ro p e
an d
L ik e
a s fa r
th e se ,
kn ow n
accu rate
d ates
‘T o r r i c l o n i a n ’
‘r e d
bu t o f
‘V i n d h y a n ’ o f w o r ld ,
aw ay
th e
in
as
fr o m
or
G r e e n la n d , w h ic h are
o f
th e
la t e
to
fr o m
o b v io u s
argu m en ts so m e
o f
is n o t So
b e h in d
h ave
th e
to as
e x p la n a t io n been
on e th e
w o n d e r in g
p u t
c a r l> o n a t e
e x p la in , goes
bu t
o f a
an d
oth er
in
exp ected
oth er p arts o f
tim e s
w h eth er
o f
N o rth
n am ed
an d
h ave
th ey
c lim a t ic
fo r w a r d
on
dow n
th e
of
a
c h ild ,
c lim a t ic
Bu t
th e
th e
A m e r ic a ,
th e
in
So u th
a ll
th e
on e
n ever
grou n d s
o b je c t
an d
c o lu m n ,
to
be
a g a in st
to
str o n g e x p la in
o f t h is c h a p t e r
lo o k s a b o u t
c e a se s
p arts
A m e r ic a .
c e r t a in ly
c o n c lu sio n s m u st
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
sp e c t a c le s o f th e sp e c ia list eyes
c o n t r o l, a n d
n o
be
grou p s
A u st r a lia , A fr ic a
w on d er;
u p
A u st r a lia .
sim ila r ,
d ist r ib u t io n s. to
th e
th en
T h e se fin a l e x a m p le s o f p e r sist e n t fa c ie s b r in g s u s r ig h t u p th e
le v e l
c o lu m n ,
an d
m ig h t b e
P r e c a m b r ia n
‘H u r o n i a n ’
dozen
th is
exten d
a lso k n o w n
B r a z il, C h in a
a
C h in a
by
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
d e p o sit s
occu r
n e a r th e n o r t h e r n m o st t ip . V e r y
r e m a r k a b ly
B r it a in ,
In d ia
in a c c u r a t e
th e
g la c ia l
th ey
b e d s’
are
u p
fa n t a sie s,
th at
P r e c a m b r ia n .
th e H ig h la n d s o f S c o t la n d
N o r w a y t o V a r a n g e r f jo r d d e p o sit s a r e
d e p o sit s
o f th e k n ow n
e x t r e m e ly
h ig h e r
P r e c a m b r ia n
u p
P r e c a m b r ia n
p e r ig la c ia l
n e a r th e to p
d r ift in g a r g u m e n t s, b u t
o f th e
an d
if
com e
la t e r .
on e
le a v e s
o n e w it h
am azed
at
th e th e
12
T H E
d iv e r sit y h ave so
an d
N A T U R E
y et th e
b ig g e r
an d
ow n
o f
Sa n d sto n e
o f th e
A fr ic a
in
th e
o f it a ll. N o
ch ap ter, b u t
Som eo n e
p e r sist e n c e
sid e
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
e x a m p le s o f th e
t h is
e x p e r ie n c e .
in c r e d ib le e a st
in
T H E
u n ifo r m it y
b etter
fa sc in a t e s m e
m y
O F
an d
w ill
I
R E C O R D
d ou b t m y
p e r sist e n c e
w r it e
as
p r o b a b ly
fa r
te ll
A m e r ic a n
th e
M id d le
W e st.
I
o f
th e
or
be
o f
g la d
th e to
fr o m
a lm o st
Sa n d sto n e
E a st
sh a ll
a s p o ssib le
m e
lo n g - r a n g in g N u b ia n
in t o
r e a d e r s w ill
o f fa c ie s w h ic h
u p
th e
D ak o ta
h ave
m y
p r e ju d ic e s c o n fir m e d . Bu t a
b e fo r e
fe w
le a v in g
t h is
m atter
of
p e r sist e n c e
I
w an t
to
m e n t io n
sp e c ia l c a se s o f p e r sist e n c e o n a fin e r sc a le .
S p e c ial case s W e h a v e so fa r c o n sid e r e d on
a
rath er
w h ic h
gran d
a
n u m b e r o f e x a m p le s o f p e r sist e n t fa c ie s
sc a le ; b u t th e r e
in t h e ir w a y a r e e v e n
T h u s
th e
E n g lish m a n ,
th e
to p
th e
R h a e t ia n
b la c k
o f
th e
fa m ilia r
can n ot
d e p o sit s
p y r it o u s
m a r ls a n d
T r ia s,
o f
sh a le s
are
m o r e d e t a ile d
e x a m p l e s o f it
m o r e a m a z in g . w it h
bu t
be
T h a ila n d
h is
R h a e t ia n
a st o u n d e d an d
fin d s
th em
R h ae t av ic u la co n t o rt a,
w it h
s a n d s t o n e s , w it h
e v a p o r it e s , ju s t
se d im e n ts
w h en
lik e
h e
read s
d e sc r ib e d
r e st in g
th o se
o f th e
on
at o f as red
Sev ern
c liffs. O n e h o fe n
o f
th e
fin e - g r a in e d u su a lly
Ston e
lim e st o n e
in t e r p r e te d
B e sid e s m u ch
an d
fa m o u s o f a ll fo ssilife r o u s d e p o sit s
is
of
B a v a r ia
o n ly
in
d e v e lo p e d
its
p o p u la r
flo r a
as
d e p o sit s
in
o f
o ffsh o r e
a tt e n tio n ,
great
it
d iv e r sit y ,
h as
a
a
very
Ju r a ,
exten t
b e h in d
th e
S o le n T h is
sm a ll
area,
C u r io u se r Sp a in ,
in
A g e r !)
n orth
r e st r ic t e d
fo u n d an d
th e
to
age
(p la t e
h ig h
on
Sto n e
very
lit h o lo g y , f a u n a , flo r a
sm a ll an d
area age
oth er
(a b o v e t h ir d an d
(a n d
w h ic h
w on
fa u n a d ate
it
p a r t o f th e so u t h e r n
is o f
U n fo r t u n a t e ly
th e
e sc a r p m e n t
o f L e r i d a , is y e t a a
a m m o n ite s
th e r e , b u t o t h e r w ise t h e
c u r io u se r ,
h ave
p r e se r v e d
sim ila r ly
lit h o lo g y , o f sim ila r
1 .1 4 ).
tr a p s.
w h ic h
in a g e .
th e w e ste r n
L it h o g r a p h ic
r e e fs, o f s i m il a r
sim ila r
h as yet been
C e r in
se d im e n t
m a r v e llo u sly
in c lu d in g
T h i s is w o n d e r f u l e n o u g h ; b u t in Fren ch
o f
over
is t h e
G erm an y .
A rch ae o p t e ry x ,
fa m o u s sp e c im e n s o f
q u it e p r e c ise ly a s L o w e r K im m e r id g ia n
an d
so u th e r n
t h o u g h t o f a s a la g o o n a l d e p o sit b e h in d sp o n g e r e e fs, t h o u g h
r e c e n t ly
so
m o st
L it h o g r a p h ic
fa u n a
th e
o f
th e
e x a c t ly even
lik e
is s t a r t lin g .
P vren n ees
a t t r a c t iv e
lit h o g r a p h ic
flo r a
A rch ae o p t e ry x
n o
r e se m b la n c e
sid e
lim it e d
an d
v illa g e
in of
lim e st o n e , a g a in th e
y ie ld in g a
oth er
tw o
in
fe a t h e r ). O t h e r
T H E
sim ila r
d e p o sit s
S w a b ia n an d
o f ab o u t
ab ove
tin u o u s even
are
sa m e
in
se le c t e d
d ist r ib u t io n s
m ore
la r g e
N ew
in
age
13
F A C IE S
occu r
So u th
at
N u sp lin g e n
W a le s, Ju ju y
p e r sist
over
A lp in e
T h e
areas
u p
in
in
th e
A r g e n t in a
o f
im p o r t a n t
M arq u ette
an d
years
A ll
v a st
v a r v e s w it h in
o f
A n im ik ie
in
o f
sq u a r e
m ile s.
T h e
be
th e
at
th e
are
u n its
th in
fo u n d
of
sh o w n b a sa l
a ll r o u n d
area
th e
cap
en d
B a sin
in
A u st r a lia o r
in
th at
ir o n
in d iv id u a l
in c h
o f st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
g e n e r a lisa t io n s.
L ik e
Bu t
I
fin d
c o r r e la t io n
m y s e lf le ft w it h
p r o p o sit io n o f t h is b o o k
A fr ic a ,
th e
Se r ie s
fo r m a tio n s
th at
E ven
rem ark
are
m ore be
traced
F o r m a t io n sa id
are
over
o f th e
t o b e c o r r e la t -
even
m ic r o sc o p ic
1 8 5 m ile s.
g e o lo g ist se e m s t o h a v e
o t h e r s.
in
2000
D h arw ars
m ile s a n d
be traced ov er
th e
M e sa b i,
ab o u t
So u th
Iro n
t h ic k
la t e
is
S u p e r io r
(i.e .
b an d s can
Brock m an
in
fa b u lo u s
th e
h ist o r y .
2 0 0 0 0 sq u a r e
a ll
an d
varved
earth
w o r ld
o f L ak e
T r a n sv a a l
t h o se b a n d s c a n
to
w e st
th e
age
v a lu a b le
o f so m e
B a s in , w it h
sa m e
b an d ed
fa c t
th e
n otew orth y
th e
e p iso d e
th e
arou n d
a
p o lit ic ia n
m y c a se t o m a k e m y p o in t . T h o se
m in u t ia e
fir st m a in
L it h o lo g ic a l
P a r t ic u la r ly
ab o u t
W e ste r n
th is
e x a m p le
o v e r sta te d th e
d isc o n
C an ad a, h ave been
ir o n st o n e s
kn ow n .
w a r t im e b o m b st o r ie s, e v e r y
fa v o u r it e
b a sin s.
fe e t t h ic k , c a n
B a sin , b a n d s a b o u t a n
over an
L ik e
fe w
r a n g e s,
are in
h ave
T h u s
H a m e r sle y a b le
B .P .)
h o w e v e r , is t h e a r e a s.
w e ll
O th ers
B a sin
c h a r a c t e r ist ic
is
oth er
A m e r ic a .
H a m e r sle y
a b le ,
180 000
a
of
T h e re
u n it s t h a t p e r sist o v e r fa n t a st ic a lly
o f w e ste r n
b an d ed
e c o n o m ic a lly
In d ia .
to
m an y ,
d e p o sit s.
c h a in .
occu rren ce rocks
m illio n
t h in
T r ia s , o n ly
am o n g
sy n c h r o n o u s
se d im e n ta r y
th e P e r m ia n
P r e c a m b r ia n
N o rth
e x a m p le s fr o m sim ila r
p a r t ic u la r
m e m b e r o f th e th e
o f
e x a m p le s o f v e r y
areas
1 0 0 f e e t o r le s s in
o f
th e
Ju r a , T a lb r a g e r
O F
in t h e c e n t r a l C o n g o .
T h e
to
P E R S IS T E N C E
I
h is o w n
m ay
h ave
w h o a r e fa sc in a t e d
m ay
be
w h at
h o r r ifie d
m ay
be
b y
at
m y
c a lle d
th e
:
AT CERTAIN TIMES IN EARTH H IS TO RY, PARTICU LAR TYPE S OF SED I M ENTARY
E N VIRO N M E N T W ERE
th e
’s s u r f a c e . T h i s m a y
e ar t h
Pe rsist e n ce o f Facie s.
PRE V ALE N T O VE R be
c a lle d
th e
V A S T AREAS
OF
Ph e n o m en o n of th e
2 The Fleeting Fossil W e a ll k n o w
sp e c ie s).
W e
extrem e. th at, are
t h a t sp e c ie s c o m e a n d
H o m o sap ie n s
fa c t
ju s t
th e
t h is t o k in d
a lso
Y et
kn ow
it is t h e
as
are
r a p id it y
m o st
(in
o f m o st
is f r a g m e n t a r y
o f
p e r sist e n t
c o n t a in .
in
th e
p a la e o n t o lo g ist s
aro u n d
th e
T h e o r e t ic a lly , w e
w o r ld , so
m ig h t
exp ect
e n v ir o n m e n t t e n d s to su p p o r t th e
w h at w e kn ow
a lr e a d y
w r it t e n
(e sp e c ia lly
is
a p p r o p r ia t e
n ot or
th re e
b e lie v e
in
r e c o r d s in O n e la r g e
sa m e
fa r
g e o g r a p h ic a l
so
a g a in .
(o n e
are
Bu t
very
gets v ery
at I
d ist r ib u t io n
n a u se a tin g can n ot
r e sist
it
m e n t io n in g
w e ll d o c u m e n t e d sc e p t ic a l
of
le n g t h , so
an d
w h ic h
a b o u t o t h e r p e o p l e ’s
p a la e o n t o lo g y ). is t h e
d ist in c t iv e
c o n t in e n t
excep t la t e
a n c e sto r s
d o
th e
b r a c h io p o d s)
e x a m p le s w h ic h
e x a m p le
of
to
a t th e p r e se n t d a y .
ab o u t
M e so z o ic
p e r so n a lly
an d
sp an
as
fo ssil r e c o r d e x p e r ie n c e
fa c ie s
th ey
fr ig h t e n in g
t h e life e x p e c t a n c y
o f o r g a n is m s , b u t in f a c t t h e p e r sist e n c e o f so m e fo ssils a p p e a r s
fo ssils
I
th e
b e so , sin c e t h e sa m e
h ave
tw o
th at
g o w it h
exceed ed
com m on
lit h o lo g ic a l
fo ssils w h ic h
to g o fa r b e y o n d I
h a s a lr e a d y
T r ia ssic w h ic h
A n t a r c t ic a ,
T r ia ssic
or
la t e an d
tim e
d e sc e n d a n ts,
ap art
as
in
y et
I n d o n e sia ,
it
been
rocks
(fig u r e
H alo re lla,
b r a c h io p o d h as
d a t in g
2 .1 ).
tu rn s
n orth ern
record ed
It
u p
is
every
fr o m
q u it e
a
sm a ll
n o
ap p aren t
d ir e c t
h as
sim u lt a n e o u sly
S ib e r ia ,
w h ic h
fr o m
T u rk ey
an d
in
p la c e s
N ev ad a.
W h a t is m o r e , t h e se fo r m s a r e n o t o n ly t h e s a m e g e n u s, b u t a ls o t h e sam e
sp e c ie s,
fia b ly )
been
an d
p u t
th e
in
th e
N ev ad an sa m e
sp e c im e n s
su b sp e c ie s
as
h ave a
even
fo r m
in
(v e r y th e
ju s t i
A u st r ia n
A lp s. A
d ist a n t
r e m a r k a b le p r e sb y te r y a lso
been
r e la t io n in
gard en fo u n d
o f
E a r ly
H alo re lla ,
C retaceo u s
c a lle d r o c k s.
P e re grin e lla, It
a t C h a t illo n - e n - D io is in
in
a
C z e c h o slo v a k ia , a t
a
sin g le sin g le
b lo c k
in
lo c a lit y
is th e
b e st
Fren ch
P o la n d , a s a in
C a lifo r n ia
is e v e n
kn ow n
m ore
fr o m
th e
A lp s, b u t h a s
sin g le sp e c im e n an d
at
n ot
in
m ore
16
T H E
fig u r e
2 .1 .
N A T U R E
D ist r ib u t io n c lo se in
st r u c tu r e s in
d ist a n t
th o u gh
th e
C r e ta c e o u s.
m ak e
str a ta
p rep ared
in
b r a c h io p o d s
th e la t e T r ia ssic
P lo t t e d by
on
J.
a
C .
H alo re lla a n d i t s a n d Pe re grin e lla
r e c o n st r u c t io n
B r id e n ,
A .
G .
m ap
fo r
Sm it h
an d
th e
c le a r
ab ove
or
Its
t h e w o r l d . Y e t it is o n e o f t h e m o s t w h o le
th at b e lo w
n am e
record
n on e
an d
o f th e
c o u ld
m e a n s,
h as
in t e r n a l
ab u n d an t
it
b r a c h io
p o ssib ly in
be
fa c t ,
c la ssifie d
‘l i t t l e
as
s t r a n g e r ’,
it is b y n o m e a n s sm a ll f o r a b r a c h io p o d .
w o r ld
at
on e
flo w n
p e r h a p s, grou p ,
in it
r e la t io n s.
o th e r w o r d s, w e
w h it h e r
in
b u t
d ist in c t iv e u se I
p r o b a b ly
in
a g a in ,
g e o lo g ic a l
w h o
k n o w s” ?
fr a g m e n t a r y
every
M e so z o ic
sta g e
record
an d
h a r d ly h a v e
in
th e
o f
can
been
“w h en ce,
u n d e r st a n d
rare
an d
n ow
lit t le - k n o w n
very
of
an d t h is,
t h o r o u g h ly
t h e se
la r g e
an d
th e
o n ly
w ork.
Bu t
m isse d .
e x a m p le s
p rod u ce
a are
ap p e ar arou n d
an d
can
r e la t io n s
w h o le h e a r t e d ly
sp e c ia list
su d d e n ly
h ist o r y
O n e
b r a c h io p o d s
b r a c h io p o d
b e lie v e
every
fo ss il s t h a t ju s t in
M e so z o ic
fo r m s c a n
can
h ave
m om en t
th e th e
d ocu m en ted
I
d ist in c t iv e
R E C O R D
E . D rew ry
w h ic h
p od s
on es
e a r ly
b r a c h io p o d s
even
th e
th e
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
t w o o r t h r e e o t h e r p la c e s in
d ist in c t iv e
In
T H E
H alo re llo id e a
C retaceou s
G .
th an
o f
r e la t io n
th e
th e
O F
b e c a u se fr o m h is
m y
ow n
th ey ow n
are
e x a m p le s.
A t
th e
T H E
oth er
en d
of
th e
a n im a l
I g u an o d o n ,
d in o sa u r
F L E E T IN G
n ow
k in g d o m ,
I
id e n t ifie d
in
S p it z b e r g e n , b e s id e s it s b e st - k n o w n B u t on e
even
ta k in g
is s t r u c k
(a t le a st
p a r t ic u la r
grou p s
w h ile
an d
th en
C a m b r ia n
‘t h e
te ll
u s?
arou n d , a lm o st e a r ly
in t o
o f
retu rn A ge
W e
kn ow
bu t
in
of
th at
M id
p e r io d
th e
w ere
th e
b iv a lv e s
in
o f
w h at
a t
is n o w
m u d
st a r fish
se a - flo o r
oth er
se e m
to
th e
a
w h o le ,
in
w h ic h
fa sh io n ’
p o p u la r
o f
e a r ly
fo r
sc ie n c e
h ave
a
w as th e books
a n im a l
an d
an d
h a u n ts. as
r o le . W h y
b r a c h io p o d s
th e
sh e e r
E u ro p e,
th ey
to
an d
w ere)
grou p s
d o m in a t e d
c o r a ls
Ju r a s s ic
to
m u lt ip lic it y
p rod u ce
th e
or
in
th e
an d
th e
w it h
th e
I
o f
th e
o y st e r
t h e e a r lie st Ju r a s s ic se a -
m illio n s
ch ew ed
u p on
t h e ir
m illio n s o f
w ay
th rou gh
Z o o p h y co s.
t r a c e - fo ssil
p ilc h a r d s), b u t
com p are
on
th e
th at
p r o d u c e e v id e n c e a t th e p r e se n t
(e .g .
th e
A sia
w ay
‘in
m in o r
t r ilo b it e s th e
c la sse s
been
p le n t y
th e r e m u st h av e b e e n
(w h a te v e r
Ju r a s s i c
e a sily
h ave
w e ll- lo v e d
B e lg ia n
or
r e m a r k a b le
T r ilo b it e s’ a s
th ere
w on d er
G ry p h ac a ar c u at a creatu res
to
th at
A u st r a lia ,
t h e M io c e n e .
so m e t im e s
flo o r s o v e r
th e
c o m p a r a t iv e ly
S im ila r ly ,
C a r b o n ife r o u s,
I
a
th e
th at
everyw h ere.
e c h in o id s in
to
se e m
c ite
an d
p h y la
str u c k ) b y
fo ssils
m ig h t A fr ic a ,
E n g lish
c o n sid e r a t io n
I am
17
F O S S I L
O n e
can
d a y o f g r e a t lo c a l a b u n d a n c e
kn ow
o f n o t h in g
p lu s
ab u n d an ce
w id e
on
a
m odern
d ist r ib u t io n
of
th e e x a m p le s ju s t m e n t io n e d . It a
m ay
b e sa id
t h a t t h e se a r e
su p e r fic ia l k n o w le d g e
Bu t
I
an d
w it h
an d
u b iq u it y
c a se s
d e fy
an
t h is
rock y
an yon e
is
sc io u s
o f in
fa c t s
r e a so n ,
open
tak en
S ilu r ia n
so
an d
p arts o f th e
lo o k in g a t
an y
m in d ,
to
n ot
p a r t ic u la r th e
m in d
th e m se lv e s.
an d
s u p e r fic ia l im p r e ssio n s d e r iv e d fr o m
o f sm a ll
p art be
fo ssils.
o f
th e
root
in
recorded
th e
by
kn ow
fo ssils
lit e r a t u r e
th e
very
h ave,
an d
in
fo r
su p e r - a b u n d a n c e
w e ll
th at
rath er so m e
in
m an y
th an
in
su b c o n
A t ry p a re t ic u laris
th e
D e v o n ia n
th e
in e x p lic a b le
p a la e o n t o lo g ist s’
everyw h ere.
St rin go ce p lx alu s b u rt in i
record.
e a r t h ’s h i s t o r y c l o s e l y
p a la e o n t o lo g ist
C e r t a in
been
str u c k I
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
o f th e
are
in
th e
o b v io u s
e x a m p le s. T h ere p o in te d
is
o f c e r t a in H u n g a r ia n h ad
m u ch
E m p ir e
m u ch
out
in
s u b je c t iv it y
an
fo ssils
e a r lie r
c o r r e sp o n d s
E m p ir e , co n trol
sta n d s
ou t
th o u gh over even
in
sy st e m a t ic
e ssa y ,
fo r
r e m a r k a b ly it
is
b etter,
f o s s il if e r o u s p a r t s o f it f a l l o n
a
T h e
an d
it
I
h ave
th at
th e
d ist r ib u t io n
w e ll w it h
th e
o ld
d o u b t fu l
e v o lu t io n .
p a la e o n t o lo g y .
e x a m p le ,
w h eth er
o ld so
th e
A u str o -
H a p sb u r g s
su n se t - d e fy in g
h ap p en s
th at
th e
B r it ish m a in
n o n - e q u a t o r ia l g r e a t c ir c le , th e r e b y
18
T H F ,
p r o v id in g it
w as
N A T U R E
a m p le
ten ce.
in b o t h
r e m a in s
T h e
sp h e r e
la t e
w ere
th at
a ll th e
h ave
been
a n d in g
a ll t h e
r e m a in s
m ore
th e
g r a p t o lit e
th e
fa c t
se g m e n ts
o f
d iffe r e n t
th e
th e
b y th e
o f
go
th e
w o r ld , th e
in
c r in o id s
fo ssils
of
in
fa u n a s
an d
m in o r
th e
an d
Lo w er
m ore
th e
th e
p e r sis* h e m i
m ere
fa c t
L o w e r Ju r a s s i c
A m e r i c a is s u r e l y
very
lit t le
been
record , even th at
th e
O r d o v ic ia n
an d
flo r a s c a n th at
tim e s
are
(o r
are
be
accep t
w ere
an d
th ey
b u t
th e
in
th e
very
m ore
c o r a ls on
fe w
th e o f
in
th an
p retty
w e ll
rep re
L o b o t h y ris,
an d
a ft e r w a r d s,
b eh aved
sim ila r ly .
s u b je c t
o f fa u n a l
th em
sta n d
on
th e
in
se d im e n ts.
‘R h e n i s h ’
th e
u p
to
s u b je c t
co n tem p o ran eo u s
t e r m s o f lo c a l
th e
an d
th e
t h e ir
a s c o n c r e t e e v id e n c e .
n oted
in
fo r
t h is t e m p o r a r y e c lip se .
regard ed
r e fle c t e d
w h ile
w ere
gen u s
sy m p o siu m
e x p la in e d
are
d iffe r e n t
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
e x a m p le ,
b e fo r e
u p
la t e st be
are
te r e b r a t u lid s
b o th
p ile d
su c c e ssiv e
c o m p e tin g
F o r
st ill
c a se s th e y
im p o r t a n c e . A n d
su r v iv e d
‘H e r c y n i a n ’ )
lit t le
m e r e ly
m o st
d u ll- lo o k in g
th e can
n ot
o fte n
t h in g .
c o m p le x
h ave
an d
‘B o h e m i a n ’
D e v o n ia n
T h e
a ll
In
very
Ju r a s s ic
b e le m n it e s
fo ssil
are
ch aracters
sa m e
m o n o t o n o u s,
d iffe r e n c e s
fa m o u s
o n e s.
N orth
e v o lu t io n .
A lm o st a ll th e d iffe r e n c e s t h a t h a v e b e e n
m en tal
fo ssils
n orth ern
E u ro p ean
g r a p t o lit e s
th e
w as
e x a m in a t io n
h as p rod u ced
fo ssil
c le a r ly
U .K . to C h in a . E v e n
t h e ir r e la t iv e
an d
th e
on e
ord er
zon al
tree
e x a c t ly
M o u n t a in s o f p a p e r p r o v in c e s
th e
p r a c t ic a lly
se v e r a l o t h e r fa m ilie s so m e h o w
c r it ic a l
Bu t
im p e r ia list
p a la e o n t o lo g ic a l
m o d em
zo n e s o f th e
b r a n c h e s,
sp o t lig h t ,
th e
se n te d
T h e
an d
d o in g
th o u gh an d
th e
a m m o n ite s
w ere over
of
arou n d
th e r ig h t o r d e r , in
b r a n c h in g
tr e e s, t h a t c o m e fa sh io n a b le
a ll
th an
z o n e s fr o m
th at
a
in
w a n d e r e r s. th an
p r e su m p t io n s o f st r a t ig r a p h ic a l p a la e o n t o lo g y , th e r e
o f
p la y
p ic t u r e fo r e sts
p e r sist e n c e
se g m e n t s
p la c e
a lik e
a m m o n it e
is
p o la r rath er
c a se s.
r e m a r k a b le
r e c o g n i s e d , in as
th e
a llo w in g fo r a ll th e fr a ilt ie s o f p a la e o n t o lo g ist s,
a
c la ssic
S ilu r ia n
fo r
C a r b o n ife r o u s
fa r
r e m a r k a b le ,
S T R A T T C .R A P H I C A I . R E C O R D
p a la e o n t o lo g ist s
N e v e r t h e le ss, e v e n st ill
T H E
a m m u n it io n
im p e r ia list ic
t h a t se t t h e p a t t e r n
th ere
O F
e n v ir o n T h u s
th e
p r o v in c e s
d iffe r e n c e s
of
betw een
a
lim e - m u d a n d a sa n d y se a - flo o r . T h e
o n ly
r e c o g n ise d
d ist in c t iv e in
m y
v a g u e ly
d e fin e d
M id d le
Ju r a s sic , t h e
a
b e lt
p a r a lle l
M o ro cco
an d
‘ p r o v i n c e 1,
st u d ie s
e q u a t o r ia l
to
th e
n ot
gen u s
th e
se n se ,
(fo r
n orth
I
h ave
so m e w h a t
sta g e
o f th e
tu rn s u p
a lo n g
e x a m p le , or
th at
is a
th e B a t h o n ia n
Flab e llo t h y ris
eq u ato r to
st r ic t
b r a c h io p o d s,
b e lt . T h u s in
p r e se n t
an d
in
M e so z o ic
d ist in c t iv e
th e
In d ia )
o f
so u t h .
in Bu t
M e x ic o , t h is
st ill
T H E
c o n fir m s
m y
p o in t , sin c e
by th e act o f an M an y
o f
p u sh e d term
‘f a c i e s
th e y
do
so r t
by
o f
f o s s i l s ’.
In
th e
(su c h
n o r m a lly
are
o n ly
as
get
at
w id e ly
e m p h a sise d If
th e re
r e p e a tin g o f
w ere
w it h o u t
Bu t
so m e w h e r e p r e se r v e d
r ig h t
fa c ie s
th e
M id
th e
L ate
h ave
n e ss
o f
It
is
oth er
to
L ate
T r ia s?
a ll
I
b r in g s
so m e
of
b o th
th e
e a sy
id e a s
m a jo r
an d
e m p h a sise
ch an ges
th at
occu rred ,
th ey
st ill b e in g In
fo ssil
t h is
to
h ead y
th e
in
h ave
w in e
an d
c o u ld
th is
by book
it th e
th at
N .S - R .—
a
a ll
m y
an d
on
u p
e x p e r ie n c e
can n ot
be
o n ly
be
p e r sist e n c e Su r e ly
r ig h t
fa c ie s
sh o u ld
or
be
th e
lin k s b e t w e e n
th e
M e so z o ic
fa u n a s o f
p a la e o n t o lo g ist s
c a se
d o
se c o n d
as a
record, bu t n ot
m o st
p r o v id e
su r p r isin g
c o r o lla r y , t h e
th e
h ist o r y
very
m u ch
to
ad o p t
very
se e k
a
fo r
an
in
lin e
w it h
read
liv in g
In
w it h
th e
so m e
p a la e o n
o f th e
extern al
flo o d .
b y
th e
n e o c a t a st r o p h ist
m a jo r
c a u se .
p a la e o n t o lo g is t s sin c e
fr in g e
ab ru p t
o f life .
e m in e n t
N o a h ’s
be
b u t sam e
P e re grin e lla
a b r u p t n e ss o f so m e
lu n a t ic
sh o u ld
se a r c h in g fo r str a w s t o p r o p c a lly
th e
a ll
in
(a n d
Sev eral
an y
th e
th e th e m e o f th e g e o g r a p h ic a l
book)
h a s in t o x ic a t e d
b la m e
p u b lish e d c a se
record .
it
t h is m issin g
th e
h ave
ch an ges
fr e q u e n t ly
t io n .
to
in
at
th e
th e re
th e
t h e ir
w id e
n eeded.
e n t h u sia st ic
an d
m e
t e m p t in g
e x p r e sse d
an d
a
th e
o f
c o n n e c t in g
th at
d id
w o u ld
been
w o r ld
p ie c e s o f
fo ssils, w e
t o lo g ist s
w h en
th e
kn ow
a t t it u d e
is a
th e
d isp u t e d
o f p a r t ic u la r
h ave
I
is
a n c e sto r s
P e r m ia n
c la im e d
been
T h a t
in
th e
th at
fo ssils’.
ab o u t
e x p la n a t io n
w o u ld
p r o v id e
th e
m ore,
t h is,
as
th at
e x p la in s
w it h
‘f a c i e s
been
o f t h e se
be
ap p e ar
is
are
th an
im m e d ia t e
so m e
to
h a r d ly
W h at
o f t h e fo ssil r e c o r d . A lo n g s id e
p e r sist e n c e
if
se d im e n t a r y
e n v ir o n m e n t s
t h is
it
h ave
d isa p p e a r
fo r
a n c e sto r s,
fo ssils
fu lle r
an d
se e m s
w o r d s, t h e y
to
so m e w h e r e
c o u n t r ie s h a v e
c o n n e c t io n s.
fe a t u r e
as
d isp a r a g in g
p a r t ic u la r
p r e v io u s c h a p t e r
th e re
th e
fa u n a s o f
c la im s
real
Su r e ly
an d
se v e r a l
m ore
w o r ld
p r e se r v e d
P a la e o z o ic
in
th e
all
fa r th e
e x p la n a t io n
lo c a lit ie s.
th e
a
r e st r ic t e d
oth er
so m e
p r o v id e
I g u an o d o n ?
d isa p p e a r
so
w it h
ap p ear
b y
th o u gh
th at
in
su r e ly
in to
sa id
th ey
o b v io u s
In
n o t h in g
I
very
p r e se r v e d ,
st r o n g ly
w h at
fa c ie s.
an d
c ite d
Pe re grin ella)
o f
se p a r a te d
to o
w ord s
in
d isc o n t in u o u s d ist r ib u t io n . t im e
h ave
r e a so n a b le
liv e d
ap p earan ce
I
c o n t r o lle d
t h o se
o r g a n ism s c o n c e r n e d n ot
u p
p a la e o n t o lo g ist s
oth er
th ey
fa c ie s. C e r t a in ly
su d d e n
fo r m s sp r in g
e x a m p le s
t h e o r isin g
b e c a u se
occu rren ces
su c h
19
F O S S I L
e x p e r im e n t in g (a n d fr e q u e n t ly u n su c c e ssfu l) c r e a t o r .
th e
a sid e
F L E E T IN G
fa c t ,
T h is
th e
d ay s
books
sam e
are
e x p la n a
fu n d a m e n t a list
h is p r e ju d ic e s , le t m e s t a t e c a t e g o r i (su c h
as
it
is)
h as
le d
m e
to
an
20
T H E
u n q u a lifie d su ffic ie n t
N A T U R E
O F
accep tan ce
e x p la n a t io n
T H E
o f
fo r
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A l.
e v o lu t io n
w h at
I
by
h ave
R E C O R D
n atu ral
se e n
in
fin d
d iv in e c r e a t io n , o r se v e r a l su c h
sa r y
h y p o t h e s i s . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h is is n o t t o d e n y
se le c t io n
th e
fo ssil
as
a
record .
I
c r e a t io n s, a c o m p le t e ly u n n e c e s th a t th e re a r e
so m e
v e r y c u r io u s fe a t u r e s a b o u t t h e fo ssil r e c o r d . O n e
t h in g
is t h a t su c h lo st
w h ic h
t h e ir
sc ie n t ific
be
very
fe w
if
r e sp e c t a b ilit y ,
to
p u t
e v o lv in g
e v o lu t io n
occu rred .
d a ta
d id
if it
n o r m a lly
e v o lu t io n
c liff, by
even
m y
at
th e
on e
ch an ged I
am
n ow
p le a se d
th e
to
c o m in g
se e
th e
(G o u ld ,
m a in
th e b u t
m ean
th at to
I
d en y
e x p la in
e v o lu t io n
h a v e lo n g c r it ic ise d
w as
fo ssil
fir st
m y
d id
th e
o y st e r s u p
b r illia n t ly
sp e c ie s t h r o u g h o u t
it s
t im e , b e fo r e o n e
m ore
sa m e
v ie w s
r e c e n t ly
1 9 7 1 ).
cen tre
H e
o f
it s
n ot
n o t io n a
sin g le
exp ou n d ed m u st c le a r ly
g e o g r a p h ic a l can
c la im
ran ge,
th at
e x p r e sse d th at
a n c e sto r s,
bu t
e x p r e sse d
i t :
in
it h a s
b r e a k s in
e v o lu t io n .
It
w ill
w e
is a ls o
h ist o r y
w as
G o u ld
sp e c ie s
sp e c ia t io n ” .
com e
to
a
th e
th e
a r ise ,
in n ot
so m e w h a t
o f e v o lu t io n
H e
fo ssil
so m e w h a t
p r o b a b le , o f
en cou n ter
S. J.
m o st I
st o r y o f h o m e o st a t ic e q u ilib r ia , o f
So
th at an d
p e r ip h e r a l,
“ T h e
aw k ard
ap p aren t.
by
n ew
o f th e
th an
o p in io n
q u an t a
or
ev en ts
m ore
to
th e
r a p id
m an y
p o p u la t io n s
to
ste p s
su g g e ste d
u n fo ld in g , b u t a
by
th at
a t t it u d e
m ore
sh o r t
c o n c lu d e d real
an d
su d d e n
p o p u la t io n s. A s h e
d ist u r b e d
p h eral
I
c h a sin g
b y
is n o t o n e o f s t a t e l y r a r e ly
on
d iffic u lt
is t h a t
of
se e m s
r e la t io n sh ip s,
p r e d e c e sso r a t Sw a n se a . O n e
g e o lo g ic a l
p roceed s
A m e r ic a
iso la t e d
by
ap p ro ach
o f a
in
p le t h o r a th e re
in t o so m e t h in g e lse .
e v o lu t io n
in
stu d ie d
th at
v a r ia t io n
m om en t
th e
y e a r s’ w o r k
o f
n ot
m ore
m ean
d a y s,
h a v e lo n g sin c e
of
tw en ty
does
years
a v a ila b le ,
p le n t y
even
it se e m s t o
m o st d ist in g u ish e d
stu d y
T h is
be
th e
st u d e n t
p r o c e ss o f g r a d u a l c h a n g e o f o n e sp e c ie s in t o
be
th o u gh
th rou gh
sp it e
h ave
fo u n d
p e r io d s o f t im e .
can
in
n ow
h ave
w o u ld
b y a
lo n g
an d
w e
lin e a g e s.
It
fo r c ib ly
lin e a g e s o f m y
t h e ir p la c e . I n I
n ot. W h at
p rocccd
an o th er over th at
in
B r a c h io p o d a ,
an y
very
Z ap h re n t is d e ian o u e i,
an d
in fo r m a t io n
lit t le
M e so z o ic
m e
e v o lu t io n a r y
O st re a- G ry p h ae a
as
p a la e o n t o lo g ic a l to
h a s str u c k
m o st o f th e c la ssic
c o u r se ,
th e r e fo r e record
are
c a t a st r o p h ic
th at
e n v ir o n m e n t a l
th e
p e r i
d iffe r e n c e s
t h a t w ill se le c t p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r s . T h e su d d e n
g r e a te st
d in o sa u r s p o ssib le
p r o b le m s
e x t in c t io n s. h ave
c a u se
been
in
th e
E x a m p le s ch ew ed
b la m e d ,
fr o m
fo ssil
su c h
as
over an d m e t e o r ic
record , th e
over
h ow ever,
are
th e
o f
th e
d isa p p e a r a n c e
ad n au se am ,
im p a c t
to
c h r o n ic
w it h
every
c o n st ip a
T H E
an y
on e
c o m p a r a t iv e ly
tio n .
F o r
e a sy
w h en
on e
h as
u n r e la t e d in
w e
th e
sim u lt a n e o u s
fr o m
a m m o n it e s
h a b it a t s
en d
o f
th e
fr o m
to
th e
to
is v e r y
an d
C .
a
in se r t io n s, d ark er
se v e r a l liv in g to
sa y th e
w e
h ave
r e c e n t ly
b etw een
th e
su c h
d r a w in g
su sc e p t ib ilit y le v e l
o f t h e ir
m an y
or
o f th e
th at
at
t h is
of
fu ll
p h y lu m
w as
It
w o r ld
fr o m th e
years
a
w it h in
m en ted .
T h ere
ju s t i f i a b l y
q u ib b le
im p r e c isio n
o f
C e r t a in ly a
is n o
th e
p o in t
ab o u t
in
w o r ld ,
th e re
th e
are
n ot
T h u s
d o
occu r
d e n y in g
b o u n d a r ie s
st r a t ig r a p h y .
t a g o n ist s o f m a jo r P r o fe sso r
ch an ges
of
th e
fa u n a ! b r e a k s, th e
S c h in d e w o lf
c la im e d
th ree,
w ere
in
o f
an
th o u gh
t h is t h e se
in
fr o m
th e
m in d recen t
e x t in c t io n
th e
a lo n e
o r
P e r m ia n ;
u n c a n n ily
th e
of to
r a p id
b ig c h a n g e
in
la t e r . h ave
o f
been
w e ll
th o u gh
d o cu
w e
m ay
p a la e o n t o lo g ist s,
su c h m o st
an d
at
to
th e
en d
great
th e th e
o f g r u b b in g
b r a c h io p o d s
o f
d id a lso
o b je c t
im p o r t a n c e
tw o
h is
ch an ges
to
th em , even
en ou gh
of
o f
r e su lt ,
th e
an d
th e
a
th e
s u b je c t iv it y an d
as
e v id e n t
le a s t , st ill sh o w th e
bu t
‘s i m u l t a n e o u s ’
at
on e
H
t e r m in o lo g y
m a jo r
ch an ges
p la n t m a c r o fo ssils se e m s t o h a v e c o m e m u c h N e v e r t h e le ss, g r e a t
th e
becom e
as
o n ly
m oved ,
th e
w e ll
a lso
N ot
P a la e o
M e so z o ic
V o lu m e
te m e r ity
th at
g e n e r a l, at
st r o n g ly
even
on
th e
e it h e r
rou n d
P a la e o z o ic on
t h e ir
b ou n d ary ,
w as
lik e
sp o r e s, a ll
h ad
h as
in
on
very
an d
e d it o r
n o t h in g
g r o u p s,
p la n t
m e
c o m m e n t in g
m atter.
le v e l
w ork
p r o d u c in g
stu d y
I
b etw een
P ale o n t o lo gy .
great
kn ew
th e re
on
w orkers
grou p .
th e
o r g a n ic
t o ld
o f
O u r
tw o
I
b reak
sp e c ia list s o n ly w o r k
sp e c ia list s o n ly
m eth od s
d iffe r e n t
th e
ch an ge
in
th at
v e r y a w a r e o f th e fr a ilt ie s o f p a la e o n
P a la e o z o ic /M e so z o ic
p a r ts.
b e c a u se
th an
w it h in
b u ild
o f
is
c a t a st r o p h ism . A t
c o n su m p t io n
d e m o n st r a t e a
im p r e sse d
p a r t ic u la r
re c e sse s
lit e r a t u r e
g a p s.
e a sy
le ss
p t e r o d a c t y ls,
fo r w a r d
oxygen
I n v e rt e b rat e th e
th e
se n te n c e m y
w as
at
a n a t o m ic a l
am
p u t
if P a la e o z o ic
r e g im e n t
on
ch an ge
to
M e so z o ic
T h is
T re at ise
le v e l in
e a sy life
if
M o o r e ’s
c la ssific a t io n ,
I
it
m u ch
M e so z o ic . T h i s is n o t
c o r r e la t io n
th e
d in o sa u r s,
fu n d a m e n t a list s,
on e
p o sit iv e
is
e x t in c t io n to
T e sta m e n t
th e
th e
an d
o f th e
O ld
I m u st sa y th a t I a m
M e so z o ic
n am es
o f
c lo se
as
e x t in c t io n
d e sc e n d a n t s.
rath er
sc a le
h y p o th e se s
fo ssils
in se r t
en d
th e It
r e p r e se n t a t iv e s.
an d
th e
th e
on
A g a in
v a st
at
fa ll b a c k
to lo g ist s. I t
R .
as
c a u se .
e x p la in
grou p s
z o ic
su c h
r a n g in g
to
a tt e n tio n
life
p o ssib le
a
to
in t e r e st in g
m o d em
grou p ,
to
h ave
o p p o sit e
o f
e c o lo g ic a l fin d
21
F O S S I L
g r o u p s,
d iffe r e n t
th at
F L E E T IN G
th e
su d d e n n o t a b le
G erm an th e
o f
th e
h id d e n
ch an ges recen t
to
p ro
p a la e o n t o lo g ist
e m in e n t
A m e r ic a n
22
T H E
fig u r e
2 .2 .
N A T U R E
P ercen tage
O F
D e v o n ia n ,
N e w e ll
(1 9 6 7 )
G e o lo g ic a l
p a la e o n t o lo g ist o f
t h e se
b rou gh t h ow ever,
m ay
ab o u t h as
N o t ic e
by
by
m an
h a r d ly
k in d
S o c ie t y
ad d ed
of th e
fa m ilie s
an d
p e r m is sio n
of
R E C O R I>
th e of
c h ie f peak s
grou ps n ear
of
th e
C r e t a c e o u s p e r io d s. P r o fe sso r
N e w e ll
fo ssil
en d
of
From
an d
th e
o f A m e r ic a
N e w e ll
an o th er in
of
c o r r e la t io n
P e r m ia n , T r ia ssic
P r o fe sso r
be
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
e x t in c t io n
in v e r t e b r a t e s. th e
T H E
th e
a ffe c t e d
c la im s if w e
la st th e
six
cou n t
m illio n m a r in e
w h ic h s o m u c h o f t h e r e st o f o u r r e c o r d
(fig u r e th e y ears
2 .2 ) .
fa u n a l o r
so .
in v e r t e b r a t e
d e p e n d s.
T o
each
e x t in c t io n s T h is fa u n a s
la st , on
T H E
T h e se b reak
m a jo r
ju s t
c u r io u s ch an ges
b reak s are
d isc u sse d ,
fa c t ,
F L E E T IN G
a ll,
th e
h ow ever,
in
th e
fo ssil r e c o r d
im p r e sse d ,
fo r
e x a m p le ,
F r a sn ia n w h ic h
an d
h a s str u c k
b r a c h io p o d s.
h ave
b v
th e
or
(1 9 7 0 )
u n d erw en t
h ave
C a r b o n ife r o u s; t r ilo b it e s, th e
It
a n y t h in g
h as
sin c e
th at
m a jo r
th e
p o in t
a t r y p id
b y
at
D ig b y
th e
c o r a ls
sa m e
an d
p r e su m a b ly
th e
la t e r
g r o u p s,
th e so m e
fa u n a s
a lm o st
se v e r a l o t h e r b r a c h io p o d
grou p s
c lv m e n iid
w en t
ou t
th e
p rod u ce
t h e se
been
e c o lo g ic a lly
d isa p p e a r e d T h u s
a
th e ab ru p t th e
r e p la c e d
a b r u p t ly , t h o u g h to
lo n g
b etw een
of
p o in t e d
is
of
a ll
th e
p r o u p s (th e
st r o p h e o d o n t id s) w e n t t h e sa m e w a y . A ft e r
n ew
th e
w o r ld ,
been
grou p s
It
st a r t lin g
D e v o n ia n . T h e
w ere
c h a n g e s.
c e a se d
B e sid e s
th e
th ey
oth er
so m e w h e r e
se v e r a l
w ere
h ave
over
th at
L ate
I
occu r
m y o p ic w ay ) h a s b e e n
t e n t a c u lit id s a n d
c a la m it y ,
im p o r t a n t
th at
a ll
o r t h id s, p e n t a m e r id s a n d th is
o b v io u s.
an d
m y
t r a u m a tic
t im e s.
le a st
ch an ges
E r a s.
ab ru p t
(in
m an y
su r v iv e d
m o st
le v e l,
st r o m a t o p o r o id s v ir t u a lly m u st
th e
th e
su g g e ste d
th at
th e
P e r m ia n /T r ia ssic an d
o f th e
r h v n c h o n e llid s.
M cL aren le v e l
I
t h is
are
o f
th e
P e r io d s
sta g e s
m e m o st
at
betw een
so m e
by
F a m m e n ia n
d isa p p e a r a n c e
o f c o u r se , lik e
lim it s
th at
23
F O S S I L
b e fo r e
ap p eared ,
a m m o n o id s,
an d
d e st in e d
to
o f
w h ic h
q u it e
p la y
a
th e
m o st
d iffe r e n t
m a jo r
fr o m
r o le
in
th e
w o r ld o f st r a t ig r a p h ic a l p a la e o n t o lo g y . M c L a r e n ’s s u g g e s t e d a r o se
fr o m
ou r
m oon ) th at o f
th e
Sy st e m .
str u c t u r e s
b e , d isp u t e d , b u t c o n sid e r e d
as
g e ste d
a
a
th at
w ave
th e
a
a
fo r
T h ere
are
on
n ow
earth .
fe a t u r e
m e t e o r it e
th o u sa n d
w ave
an d
w e ll
in
h ic r h .
t u r b id it y
in
so m e
t u r h id it v fr o m
su h sid e d , th e
oth er
N o lv p t ic c o sm ic
sh e lt e r e d
d ou b t
S c h in d e w o lf r e v e r s a l s in
sh a llo w
b ack
gen eral
a
h u n d red are,
It
A t la n t ic
h as
sa v s :
fo llo w e d
w o u ld
th e
w ill
been
be
su g
p rod u ce
“ T h is
w ill
k ill o f f a ll
w o r ld , e x c e p t p e r h a p s
se a s. T h e n , w h e n
th e
w ater
been
w o u ld
su ch
an d
w o u ld
M cL are n
th at
o f th e fe a t u r e
c o llisio n s m u st
h ist o r y .
th e
A s
a
t h e se
su c h
c a ta str o p h e
th e
h ave
w ave
an d
th e
r e p o p u la t e d
h a b it a t s. m an y
o f m y
e x p la n a t io n s rav
in la n d
o f
th at
b o t t o m - d w e llin e ; filt e r fe e d e r s a r o u n d
t h o se
an d
over
M an y
earth
fa llin g
fe e t
th e
o f
p a r t ic u la r
M ars
im p a c t s a r e
it st ill se e m s p r o b a b le r e g u la r
th is
(fr o m
m e t e o r it ic
c la im e d
g ia n t
tw en ty
d o ” . Su ch
e x p la n a t io n k n o w le d g e
m e t e o r it e s a n d
S o la r
im p a c t
recen t
as
a c t iv it y (1 9 6 2 ). th e
r e a d e r s w ill
m e t e o r it ic fa v o u r e d F o r
e a r t h 's
a
b v
t im e
m a g n e t ic
in st a n t ly
im p a c t oth er it
w as
or
d ist r u st su c h
e q u a lly
th e
p a la e o n t o lo g ist s, p o p u la r
fie ld , w h ic h
apooa-
in c r e a se su c h
in as
to
su g g e st
th at
w e kn ow
to h av e
been
24
T H E
su d d e n ,
m ay
p r o v id e d la t e d th at
th e
th e
r e v e r sa ls. becom e
of
b etw een
been an d
lo w
becom es la t e
c a se , th e re
are
e a r t h ie r
fa v o u r e d
b y
w h ic h
t h is
th e
are
la t e r .
r e c e sse s
d id
th e
n ot
ic e
fa v o u r e d
P erh ap s o f
it
th e
e x ist e n t
an d
sh o w
an d
a
a
th at
Betw een
bu t
7700
C o lu m b ia n
o f
an d
back
sh a k y ,
bu t
n e v e r t h e le ss
th ere
an d
an d
m an y
la t e C r e t a c e o u s tim e s e x t in c t io n
le v e ls.
as th e
1 9 6 7 ),
or
oth er
th e
D ir e
sp e c ie s
T h is
is
B iso n h ad
on
e n v ir o n m e n t d e st r u c t io n . T h e r e
h as
been
o f th e
e x t in c t io n
o f
o f
th e
m o st
earth . H e so m e
450
m ay
a lr e a d y
sp e c ie s.
Bu t,
(in
c o in c id e d
th re e
sh o r t
th e
C a m e l,
fa c t
n on e
w it h
m a ss
o f
th e
H o r se ,
w it h in
b la m e d
c lim a t e
ic e .
c e n t u r ie s, th e
th e
a l l b e c a m e e x t i n c t in
is n o
e ffic ie n t
an d
retreat
th e h u m an
an d
su d d e n
th e
d isa p p e a r e d
o f
h ear b ack
fin a l
c o m m o n ly
a m e lio r a t io n
sh a ll
r o a m in g
g la c ia t io n
h ave
th e
W o lf,
in
t h e e a r t h ’s
o u r g e o lo g ic a l y e st e r d a y .
P le ist o c e n e to
ch an ges
ch an ges
W e
th an
c o n sid e r in
y e a r s a g o , w it h in th e
g la c ia t io n . I t is a lso b la m e d
on e
a u th o r s.
rath er
to
a fte r
fr o m
fa r t h e r
b etter,
ap p ear
h o r iz o n .
cores
goes
(1 9 6 3
th e W e ste r n
m ille n n ia . d u r in g
th e
p a st
str o n g
on e
tim e
occu rred
8000
an d
M an y
p r e c e d in g d rou gh t
a ll
M am m oth ,
G ia n t A r m a d illo A m e r ic a .
fr o m
th e
h ave
very
se a
of
m a g n e t ic
r e v e r sa l
o f d eep
w h at
v o lu m e
r a d io la r ia n s
im p o r t a n t
by
is
g e o lo g ic a l
r e su lt
ages
e x t in c t io n s),
h ist o r y
argu ed
th an
e x p la n a t io n s, su c h
N e w e ll
n ow
( p e r h a p s t h e m se lv e s b r o u g h t a b o u t b y c h a n g e s in
o f
T h e se
is
st im u
if
sim u lt a n e o u s e x t in c t io n s t h a t h a p p e n e d
o f
o f
n u m b er
m o st
it
sh ie ld
so
in c r e a sin g
y ears
P e r m ia n
tw o
an d
e x t in c t io n s
sp e c ie s
m ore
th e
Bu t
an
N a t u r a lly ,
w it h
le v e l
is
m illio n
la r g e
p r o t e c t iv e
rays
m ore
ap p earan ce
a
w e r e r e v e r s a l s in
m a g n e t ism ) m ore
la st
in
n o
b etw een
24
th e
e q u a t o r . N e v e r t h e le ss,
th ere
e ig h t
la t it u d e s.
e v id e n c e
c o in c id e an y
t h e ir
o b se r v e d
be
th e
c o r r e la t io n
la st
a p p a r e n tly
in t o
str o n g
ou t
th e
c lim a t e
in v o lv e d ,
th e
h ig h
se a
an d
in
b o th
In
w o u ld
R E C O R D
c o sm ic
m u t a t io n .
th e
p o le s
dow n
a g a in st
g e n e tic
six
h as
tim e
o f
T h u s
c o r r e la t io n
brok en
B e lt
e x t in c t
T h is
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
r a d ia t io n
m e c h a n ism o f a
T H E
A lle n
w ay
b etw een
e v id e n c e
w h ic h
b y
in c r e a se d
th e
O F
t e m p o r a r ily
van
e v o lu t io n
ever
in
h ave
b y
d iffe r e n c e
in
N A T U R E
on
a
th e
N o rth
th e
tw o
p r o lo n g e d
fo llo w in g
th e
la st
t e c h n o lo g ie s o f sla u g h t e r d ou b t
agen ts h ave a fte r
th at
o f
been a ll,
H o m o sap ie n s
e x t in c t io n r e sp o n sib le
h e
is
ju s t
in
th e
fo r th e
on e
m ore
sp e c ie s in t h e l o n g h is t o r y o f t h e e a r t h . W e can
h ave
se e n
r a p id ly
y e a r s,
th e
w ip e
C row n
very ou t
r e c e n t ly
in
th e
So u th
P a c ific
h ow
o n e sp e c ie s
v a st p o p u la t io n s o f o t h e r o r g a n ism s. In
o f T h o rn s
st a r fish ,
A c an t h ast e r p lan c i,
a
is s a i d
fe w to
T H E
h ave
d e c im a t e d
isla n d
th e
g a str o p o d
b y
h u m an
c la im e d sp r e a d
th e
on
c y c lic
p r e se n t
th e
m ore
(o r
o f
th e
sa id
A lm o st e x p la in
th e
o f
u p
o f
back
se e k in g
fo r
w h ic h
o f
w e
p h y sic a l
on
razor-ed ge
o n ly
u su a l
sit u a t io n
p a r t ly
a ll
th e
w it h
w id e
r e sp o n sib le
e x t in c t io n s
fa ir
e ffe c t
u pon
sin g le
o r g a n ic
m a r in e
c o u ld
it s
con tem agen t
u n r e la t e d
r e p t ile s,
sa y
sp e c ie s, a lb e it
a
an d
of
c o n fid e n c e ,
W e
m ore n ew
v a r ie d
if w e
th e
fo r
grou p s
a m m o n ite s,
m in o r g r o u p s b e sid e s a t e x c lu d e
r e la t e d
ou r
is
so
fa r
as
ow n
th e
sp e c ie s, w e
to
it
as
w it h in
p a st
fo r
th e
to
a lw a y s th an
th an
so la r on
th e
fo r c e d
th e
earth
h y p o th e se s
e a r t h ’s c r u s t .
c h a lle n g e
e xtra
in
e x a m p le ,
are
to
an o th er
c o m p o sit io n
p o in t
p r o v a b le
th ro u gh o u t
p e c u lia r
o f it s h ist o r y . i t is s u r e ly
w h en
or
Bu t
in
th e cu rren t
se a - flo o r sp r e a d in g . A ft e r a ll, t h e
kn ow , are
p art
to
greater
fin d in g
m ore of a
a s th e
W e
an d
rou te
flu c t u a t io n s
(r e c e n t ly ,
th an
o n e ) t h a t se e k
on e
ten d
su c h
c o m m o n p la c e
b r ie f
th e
tu rn
o u t sid e
e v id e n c e
w e
by
B a r b a d o s).
e a sie r
o f su r v iv a l a n d in
in
a g a in
te c t o n ic s a n d are
N o a c h ia n
m a t te r s su c h
T h e se
co n tro l
exp ect
very
th e
p a st , le a d
arou n d
life
a
th e
to
L ife
th e
th is
u n iv e r se ;
p la n e t
an d
h a s a lw a y s b e e n
im p o r t a n t t o u n d e r st a n d
o r g a n ic
w o r ld
se e m e d
c lo se r
o b lit e r a t io n .
N e v e r t h e le ss as
T h e
o n ly
its
m an y
th e
an d
o f
m om en ts
m atter
so m e
fo r p la t e
fa c t s
fo r
th an
th e
(in c lu d in g
a g a in r e e fs
m ay
th en a
th e
H y p o th e se s
c o u r se ,
b io lo g ic a l,
th o se
h ave
su g g e ste d .
H o m o sap ien s.
o f
a ll
i t is m o r e e x c i t i n g a n d
e n t h u sia sm
th e
coral
T h is,
it s w a y
t h e o r ie s
a tm o sp h e r e .
com e
on
w orkers as
b la m e d ,
b la m e
C e r t a in ly ,
o sc illa t io n s a n d
e v id e n c e
it se lf.
th at
w a s p r iz e d
n ear
m an
h a v in g
r u d ist id s a n d
ph en om en a.
r a d ia t io n
it )
of
e x t in c t io n s in
e a r t h ’s
te r r e str ia l
m an y
fa c t
n ow h ere
v ir t u a lly
be
can n ot
p te r o sa u r s,
th e
m a jo r
th e
p r o sa ic
is
of
th e
a n y o n e f a c t o r h a v in g t h is so r t o f e ffe c t .
a ll
c lim a t ic
o f
th at
can
m o st,
w e
M e so z o ic .
c a n n o t fin d
w it h
by
e c h in o d e r m
m ore
rep o rts h ad
so
la c k
th an
c le a r ly
b e le m n it e s, t h e
en d
th e
r e e fs
R eef an d
c a u se d
m y se lf) t h a t w e a r e ju s t o n e
d in o sa u r s,
th e
to
be o r
sim u lt a n e o u s e x t in c t io n
o f
B a r r ie r
been
m a ssa c r e .
years
d e st r u c t iv e Bu t
coral
an yw ay,
can
in t e llig e n c e
p o r a r ie s, th e
it
sa id
h ave
r e c e n t ly , to
a la r m ist on e
coral
m illio n
(a s I h a v e
M ore
d am age
e a r lie r
a
G reat
m ay
25
F O S S I L
p r e v io u sly c o n t r o lle d
th e
N e v e r t h e le ss, la st
tu rn
t o u r ist s.
as
fo r th e
in
th at
th at
is p r o b a b l y
th e
c o r a ls o f th e
g r o u p s. T h is
th e
F L E E T IN G
I
h as
p a r t ic u la r , th r e e
sh o u ld in t o
ad d
every
th at oth er
p la t e
t e c t o n ic s h a s c r e p t
a sp e c t
o f
m a jo r fa u n a l b o u n d a r ie s c a n
th e n ow
earth be
in t o
sc ie n c e s. r e la t e d
t h is In
to th e
T H E
2 6
p la t e
N A T U R E
O F
in
N orth
sit u a t io n
w in n e r * P r o fe sso r su p p o r t g e ste d
th e H .
C .
T H E
rare
A t la n t ic
U rey ,
o f e x t r a - t e r r e st r ia l th at
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
c o llisio n s
h as
th at
w o u ld
h ave
a tm o sp h e r e
been
an d
b etw een
E v en
a
com e
ou t
th e
to
N ob el
earth
h eat
an d
c o m e ts,
on
m a r in e fa u n a s.
la n d a n d
h u m id it ie s c o u ld
in
h as su g recorded
v a st q u a n t it ie s o f e n e r g y u p
c o n sid e r a b ly
th e su r fa c e la y e r s o f th e o c e a n s. T h e h ig h
p r iz e
st r o n g ly
m a ss e x t in c t io n s. H e
p rod u ced
su ffic ie n t
tem p eratu res an d b o th
area.
r e c e n t ly
c a u se s fo r
a s sc a t t e r s o f t e k t it e s, m u st h a v e
R E C O R D
h ave h ad
b o th
th e
r e su lt a n t h ig h
a d isa st r o u s e ffe c t
W e c a n n o t d e m o n st r a t e a n y t h in g r e a lly c o m p a r a b le t o th e su d d e n m a ss
e x t in c t io n s
of
th e
p a st
h a p p e n in g
at
th e
p r e se n t
d ay,
an d
in
t h e fl e e t i n g s e c o n d w e h a v e a v a i l a b l e t h a t is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g . W h a t is m o r e , w e c a n n o t e v e n le a d
t o su c h
sta te th e
o f
a ffa ir s,
too
m u ch
on
fo ssil r e c o r d , e s p e c ia lly
e x t in c t
or
m an y
p a la e o n t o lo g ist s,
r e c e n t ly to
se e th e p r o c e sse s g o in g o n
o f
m e a su r e
th e l iv e
se c o n d by
t o d a y t h a t m ig h t
e x t in c t io n s. I fe e l t h a t w e r e ly t o o m u c h
bu t
a
18th th e
sh a d o w
cen tu ry p a st
b y
p r o p o sit io n
in
th o se g r o u p s t h a t a r e
o f t h e ir as
fo r m e r
P r o fe sso r
h ist o r ia n s: th e o f
on
th e p r e se n t
u n ifo r m it a r ia n ism , w h e n
H u gh
“ T h e ir
p r e se n t” . W e t h is
u n if o r m it a r ia n is m
book : al o ne
se lv e s.
.
in t e r p r e t in g
n ow
It
m ay
c o m p le t e ly be
m o st
m ay
se r io u s e r r o r
a r r iv e ,
m ay
Ph e n o m en on o f t h e Fallib ilit y o f th e Fo ssil R e co rd .
be
of
sa id w as
th e r e fo r e ,
p a l a e o n t o l o g is t s
T h is
sa id
T rev o r-R o p er
at
c anno t
term ed
th e
3 More Gaps than Record T h e
la t e
h e
h eard
th e
sa m e
m ean
u n la m e n te d th e
on e
sa n d
p er
y e ar?
F ie ld
p h r a se
‘c o n t i n u o u s g r a in
w e
th e
th e
r e su lt s lo o k
o f th e 1
I n d ia n
c e n t im e t r e
th e
U p p e r
in
w orks ou t to b u ry
as
T h u s
th o u sa n d
an d
th e
be
M ic ra s t e r !
a
a
in
30
g iv e
th at
w h en
fe e l
rath er do
so m e t h in g
u s v a stly
p r e se r v e d been
w e lik e
m ore
fo r u s in
m ad e
very
m illio n
t h a t is fo r
ooze
at
E u ro p e
rates
se d im e n t s,
on
th e
b etw een
c o n se r v a t iv e
a
flo o r ^
an d
e st im a t e
w o u ld
fo r
g iv e
a
a b so lu t e m a x im u m , b e fo r e
years
o f a
se d i
o u r st r a t i
to c a lc u la t e
G lo b ige rin a
n orth ern
th o u sa n d th
A n d
m ean
a c c u m u la t in g
y e a r s. A
C h a lk
ab ou t
n e a r ly
w e
w o u ld
fin d
fig u r e o f s o m e t h in g lik e 3 0 0 0 0 fe e t a s a n c o n so lid a t io n ,
I
lik e c o n t in u o u s ly d e p o s it e d
se e m s to
C retaceou s
D o
attem p ts h av e
r id ic u lo u s.
p er
to
w h a t lo o k
O cean
sa id
h is g u n ;
m e t r e o f se a - flo o r p e r m in u t e , p e r d a y ,
o f t h e se
se e m
g r a p h ic a l r e c o r d . W h e n
on ce
fo r
‘c o n t i n u o u s s e d i m e n t a t i o n *. W h a t
le a st
n o r m a lly
o f se d im e n t a t io n
G o e r in g
reach ed
se d im e n t a t io n ’ ?
e v e r y sq u a r e
E ven
th an
M a r sh a ]
‘C u l t u r e ’ , h e
ab o u t th e
by
m en t
w ord
fo r
fo o t
it s
p er
d e p o sit io n .
year,
th e m o st r a p id ly
or
T h at
200
years
a c c u m u la t in g
c h a lk . R ecen t q u it e
e st im a t e s o f th e
c o n sid e r a b le
sq u a r e
fo r
c e n t im e t r e
fr o m
10 to
30
silic e o u s o o z e s
c e n t im e t r e gram m es In
in
p er
o f d e p o sit io n
v a r ia t io n , b u t
c a lc a r e o u s o o z e , th e
an d
rate
rate
p er
se e m s
th o u sa n d
g r a m m e s in r a n g e s fr o m
th o u sa n d
st ill v e r y to
v ary
years
o f d e e p - se a
lit t le
fr o m in
th e
y ears
in
th e
a s 0 .0 5
sh o w
se d im e n t. T h u s
0 .1
to
1
gram m e
le ss p r o d u c t iv e
th e m o r e p r o d u c t iv e a s lit t le
ooze
t r o p ic s,
to
zon es
a r e a s. T h e
gram m es p er as
h ig h
fo r p er
rate
sq u a r e as
50
th e G u lf o f C a lifo r n ia .
sh a llo w - w a t e r a r e a s, o f c o u r se , th e
r a t e s a r e h ig h e r . C a r b o n a t e
28
T H E
d e p o sit io n h a lf a is
on
m etre
N A T U R E
th e
c o n t in u o u sly
fo u r
p a r it y
in
G reat
sw e p t
o f th e o r
r a t e s,
se d im e n t r e su lt s t io n
is
P r o fe sso r
n ot
W h en th e
Bu t
w h at
rates
o f
b etw een
th e
B o h e m ia n m ore
an d
w h at
b reak
in
in are
lo o k
lik e
Fren ch
o f
A lp s
th e
h ave
th e
h ad
rate
o f
Bah am as t h is d is
th at th an
t h e se
a
lo o k
ten th
w it h
o f
th e
w it h
kn ow n
oth ers
a
o f
n ew
rock
th at
c o n t r a d ic
t h ic k n e ss
argu m en t,
o f
rock
an d
so m e
th e
are
p le n t y
sp le n d id
th e as
ou r
in t o
o f t h e se
o f
t h in
lim e st o n e
sp e c t a c u la r
stu d ie s
ap p aren t,
lim e st o n e s
aw ay
u n c o n fo r m it y
su c h
so lu t io n
a r e a s o f t h ic k
Bo u rg
(a n d
I su sp e c t o n e
H e r e , if a n y w h e r e ,
c o n t in u o u s se d im e n t a t io n . B u t
th e
as
th e
S ic ily ,
crack s
se q u e n c e s (fig u r e
c lifT s o f t h e
ab ove
o f
c o n t in u e ,
w e ste r n
in
3 .1 ) .
‘c o n t i n u o u s ’
Lo w er
Ju r a s s i c
d ’O i s a n s
3 .2 ). T h o u s a n d s o f fe e t o f s h a l e s a n d
Ju r a s s ic .
t h e ir
o f u n c o n fo r m i
P r e c a m b r ia n
becom e
tro u gh
p r a c t it io n e r s ch an ge
th e
Bu t
Ju r a s s ic
p ack ed
at
at
as
3 .1 .
m o st th en
w it h o u t sig n ific a n t b r e a k s” .
th e re
su c h
break s
D a u p h in o is
(p la t e
b u t
t h ic k n e ss
t h ic k n e ss
th e
of
u n broken
r e p r e se n t o n e sm a ll p a r t p art) o f
m ore
th e
se d im e n t a t io n
p la t e
th e
sta g e s
w e
so r t
C retaceo u s
se v e r a l
se d im e n t
d ed u ced
a lw a y s fa c e d
an d
O b v io u sly
c o n c e a le d
Look
th e
are
is o b v io u s,
sit u a t io n
su p p o se
th e
y e a r s. F r o m
th at
n o , w e ju s t m e a n
o t h e r w ise
Bu t
t h is
sh o w n
m ore
as
c o n t in u o u s
U p p e r
se d im e n t a t io n .
average
c o m p a c t ib le ,
r e a lise d
t h in g
w it h
o f
M a ssif
r e m a r k a b le w h ere
be
d e p o sit io n
sa y : “ O h
th e
av eraged
o f g e o lo g ic a l tim e .
is s i g n i f i c a n t ?
tie s w h e r e
h ave
o f th e se d im e n t
u n d er
N e w e l]
slig h t ly
m u st
sam e
c h a lle n g e d
an d
T h e
th o u sa n d
N orm an
o n ly
it
th e
d o c t r in e
grou n d
w ater.
to
m o st
lim e st o n e s r e p r e se n t n o
are
fo r a p a r t ic u la r p e r io d
o f
sa id
th o u gh
o f lim e st o n e
p er
it . N e v e r t h e le s s w e
b etw een
is
R E C O R D
C a e n o z o ic t im e s.
m u d s)
fr o m
d eep er
m etres
c e n t im e t r e s
se d im e n t s
(p a r t ic u la r ly
Ban k
y e a r s, ev en
in t o
T e r tia r y
o f C retaceou s an d
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
B ah am a
6000
fiv e
C retaceo u s an d
T h e se
T H E
p e r th o u sa n d
a c c u m u la t io n is o n l y
O F
in
th e
m u d sto n e s
sm a ll p a r t o f t h a t sm a ll
on e
w o u ld
w h at are
t h in k
a ll t h o se
w e
m u st
b e d d in g
p l a n e s ? W h a t is a n y b e d d i n g p l a n e i f i t is n o t a m i n i - u n c o n f o r m i t y ? If w e
r e a lly
h ad
c o n t in u o u s se d im e n t a t io n
th en
th e re
w o u ld
su r e ly
b e n o b e d d in g p la n e s a t a ll. In
fa c t
th e
c o m p a r a t iv e ly
o n ly sm a ll
t im e
w e
se e
u n b ed d ed
t h ic k n e sse s o f
in sit u
se d im e n ts,
a lm o s t a lw a y s fin d e v id e n c e o f t h e d e st r u c t io n by
r e c r v st a lllsa t io n
G ilb e r t
K e llin e : h a s
or
by
th e
p o in t e d
b u r r o w in c r
ou t
to
ap art
fr o m
r e e f d e v e lo p m e n t , w e c a n o f th e b e d d in g p la n e s
a c t iv it y
m e, an d
I
o f
accep t
o r g a n ism s.
D r
h is v ie w , t h a t
M O R E
G A P S
T H A N
29
R E C O R D
EARLY K IM M E R ID G lA N
> IQOm
KIMMERIDGlAN 'sX OXFORDIAN
\
CALLOVIAN
0'5m
/ S1NEMURIAN
fig u r e
3 .1 .
>5 0 r r »
C o n d e n se d lim e st o n e
se q u e n c e s o f w e st
p r e se r v e d
Sic ily
in
so lu t io n
(fr o m
in fo r m a t io n
b y
textu ral an d
h o llo w s in
W en d t,
in
Ju r a s s ic 1965
an d
1971)
b e d d in g
p la n e s
en ces
w it h in
m o st
b e d d in g
n ot
actu al
be
p rod u ced
p la n e s sh o w
s e d im e n t a t io n ’. e v id e n c e
o f a
Bu t
I
p a u se
d ia g e n e t ic still
in
d iffe r
m a in t a in
th at
se d im e n ta tio n , if
e r o sio n .
I d e a lly , I a b le
can
‘c o n t i n u o u s
su p p o se , w e
d e v e lo p m e n t
o f
a
sh o u ld
lo o k
p a r t ic u la r
arou n d
u n it
if
w e
fo r th e are
to
t h ic k e st fin d
a v a il
a n y t h in g
30
T H E
a p p r o a c h in g c u la t e d ,
N A T U R E
c o n t in u o u s
t a k in g
In
w o u ld
fa c t
w e
h ave
c it e d
an
as
a s th e la t e Sc o t la n d
o f
d e p o sit s
be
su c h
o f
th e
p a t h ia n s , t h e r e is a
H a v in g
a
so m e t h in g
it
h as been
m a x im u m lik e
in
Ju r a s s ic
t h o se
on e
c a l
rate
fo o t
th at
th e
o f
in
areas
se d im e n ta tio n S ilu r ia n
to
e a r ly
o f t h in n e st
a
m o st
w it h o u t
o f th e
So u th ern
O lig o c e n e
of
th e
se d im e n t a t io n . C le a r ly
n orth ern
b r e a k s.
S p a in
or
attach m en t
fo r
H ills o f w e ste r n
kn ow n
b y
W illia m
reach es
w h at
th em , I
E n g la n d
S m i t h ’s
is
fo r
us
c o m p a r e s f a v o u r a b l y w it h
so u th e r n
c o n d e n se d
in t o
Bu t
lo n g
h as
even
E n g la n d ,
a
in
m ere been
th e
11
w h ere
very
even
P o lish
by
in
C a r
th e t u r b id it y
kn ow n
t h ic k
fr o m
o r ig in a l
th e
p e r io d
In
A la sk a
th e
a p e r io d
w e
of
o f
th e
t h ic k n e ss
th e M id d le th e D o r se t
th is
age
are
(p la t e
p a la e o n t o lo g ic a l
In
C o t sw o ld s,
3 .3 ).
stu d ie s th ere
is
o f fo ld in g in w h a t o t h e r
B r it ish
g e o lo g ic a l
fa r t h e r a fie ld , o u r m a g n ific e n t
in sig n ific a n c e .
n am e
S t a g e in
m en
fo r m a t io n
trem en d o u s
lim e st o n e s
c a r e fu l
in
r e sist
tw o o b v io u s b r e a k s
d e v e lo p m e n t
p e a c e fu l
is m o r e , i f w e lo o k
can n ot
w h ere th e
it s e q u iv a le n t o n
th e
fe e t w it h
e v id e n c e o f t w o m a jo r b r e a k s a n d w as a
A n d th e
g r e a t d e a l o f e v id e n c e o f e r o sio n
1 0 0 fe e t . T h i s c o n st it u t e s t h e B a jo c ia n an d
o f
it
o f
d o w n t h e se d im e n t .
O o l it e ’,
o f ab o u t Ju r a s s ic
n o n - d e p o sit io n a l
fly sc h
C o tsw o ld
q u a in t ly
‘I n f e r i o r
in t o
h ere
c o n t in u o u s
th e
a lso
se n t im e n t a l
t io n in g th e
w ise
th en
th e
O r d o v ic ia n — e a r ly
im m e n se
as
c u r r e n ts t h a t la id
th at
been
E ven th at
R E C O R D
d e v e lo p m e n t s th e r e m a y b e fe w , if a n y , e r o sio n a l b r e a k s, b u t m u st
c o a st
w h o le ,
a n o m a ly
an d
A p e n n in e s, a r e
th e re
st ill
a
th o se
U p la n d s
su c h
as
h ave
b r e a k s, su c h
in
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
y e a r s.
c o m m o n ly
It a lia n
T H E
se d im e n t a t io n .
sy st e m s
se d im e n t a t io n th o u sa n d
O F
read
th at
th e
ap p ears
w h en
w e
h ist o r y . W h a t
1 0 0 fe e t d w in d le s M id d le
B a jo c ia n
a lo n e a m o u n t s t o so m e 4 0 0 0 fe e t . A g a in , o f
Z e a la n d A r c tic
th e
fin d
c h ild lik e
7000 or
fe e t
10 0 0 0
C an ad a,
w e ste r n in
th e
n e a r ly
T sle
t h is
o f
o f
17 0 0 0
W h at
W ig h t
am ou n t
K im m e r id g ia n
fe e t
or
Ir e la n d .
w on d er o f
to
I
F r a sn ia n
fe e t
su ffic e s u n t o ld
(L o w e r
o f A r e n ig ia n
t h in k to
of
as
p a ss
a
of
fo r
e x a m p le
Ju r a s s ic )
U p p e r (L o w e r
fe w
th e
th o u sa n d s
read
(U p p e r
ste p s
in
D e v o n ia n )
in
O r d o v ic ia n )
in
a lo n g
th e
M id d le
O lig o c e n e ,
fe e t
se d im e n t
of
N ew
b each bu t
in
I
N ew
G u in e a . F o r
an y
p a r t ic u la r ly so m e w h e r e
t in y
p art
fo n d e lse
in
in
o f th e o u r
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l c o lu m n
ow n
t h e w o r ld
b ack y ard , w h ere
th at
w e
can
sa m e
o f w h ic h
a lm o st
d iv isio n
w e
a lw a y s is a
are fin d
h u n d red
M O R E
G A P S
T H A N
31
R E C O R D
SW
fig u r e
3 .2 .
C o n tr a ste d
v e r sio n s
m o st Ju r a s s i c (a)
id e a lise d
o r
a
th e
th o u sa n d
t h in k
th at
w e
sa m e
t im e s h ave
w it h in
a
v a r ia t io n
t h ic k e r .
m a x im u m 30
3
o n ly
fe e t , w it h
V e ry m a jo r in
o fte n
n o
so
are
tu rn
a lo n g
in
o n ly
can
fe e t u n d e r
aw ay
ou t
to
lo w e r
th e o u tc r o p
actu al
total
sh o w
k id d in g
t h ic k n e sse s
o u r se lv e s
c o m p le t e su c c e ssio n
w e
th e
o b v io u s b r e a k s, o n
m ay
th e
if w e
fo r a n y p a r t
in a n y o n e p la c e .
it is n o t a s s i m p l e
u n it
t h ic k n e ss o f
se e
r e m a r k a b le
‘P u r k e c k ia n ’ S t a g e a t t h e t o p
o f 562
m ile s o r
in
v a r ia t io n
e x p r e sse d
W e
d ist a n c e
t h ic k n e ss. T h e so - c a lle d
Y et
ty p e
a n y t h in g lik e a
sh o r t
reach es a
v a r ia t io n
E n g la n d .
i n t e r v e n i n g ‘b a s i n s ’ .
o f th e st r a t ig r a p h ic a l c o lu m n E ven
th e
text-b oo k
i n g ‘a x e s ’ a n d (b )
of
d e p o sit s in
th e
W e a ld
ch an ges
so u th
o f Lo n d on .
‘P u r b e c k i a n ’ i s d o w n th e
Fren ch
to
a
m ere
c liffs n e a r B o u lo g n e .
a s t h a t . W h a t lo o k s lik e t h in n in g in be
so m e t h in g
o f
o f t h e Ju r a s s i c
m u ch
m ore
o f th e
Lo w er
a
c o m p lic a t e d
th e sm a lle r c o n st it u e n t u n it s. T h e
textb o o k
E n g la n d ,
lo o k e d
p ic t u r e at
in
o f th e th e
lo w e r
u su a l
p art
tw o - d im e n sio n a l
a lo n g t h e o u t c r o p , is o f t h in n in g o v e r t h r e e o f se d im e n t a t io n n e sse s, t h e 3 .2 k ) . B u t
in
‘a x e s ’ a r e if w e lo o k
b etw een n ot
so
a t ju s t
(fig u r e
3 .2
a ).
o b v io u s, b u t on e
a x e s w it h
If w e p u t th ey
are
p a r t o f t h a t st o r y
in
w ay,
t h ic k e r b a sin s
in a c t u a l
still in
Ju r a s sic
textb o o k
th e re
t h ic k (fig u r e
d e t a il , w e fin d
T H E
32
N A T U R E
O F
T H E
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
R E C O R D
RADSTOCK
CHARMOUTH
d avo ei
l b «t
Jam eso n l
r ar ico st at iiin
ax yn o lu m 10 tu 2
cb t u su m
U N
lu rrverl
Km icoslGt Uf T
bockland i ✓
ang ulation
L
*
c 2 0
S
m ile s
" V
liasicu s p lan o rb ls
fig u r e
3 .3 .
A ctu al
v a r ia t io n
co a st a n d
w it h in
th e M e n d ip
zon es
c o m p lic a t io n s.
T h u s
is c a l l e d ) f r o m
t h e D o r s e t ‘t r o u g h ’ t o t h e M e n d i p
11
o f
an y
th e
12
break s
if w e
c o n stit u e n t
z o n e s t h in in
th e
trace
as
b etw een
th e
D o r se t
Lo w er
L ia s
( a s it
‘a x i s ’.
th e
th ey
zon es o f th e
ou gh t
su c c e ssio n ,
b u t
(fig u r e
th e
‘a x i s ’ , w e f i n d t h a t
3 .3 ) w it h
t w e lft h
n o
a c t u a lly
sig n s o f th ic k e n s
m a r k e d ly ! Su ch m e o f
to th e
T h is w ill
be
a
se c t io n w h o le
o f
fo r
ty p e in
kn ow n u n it
t h is
m u ch
a to
o f
th e
m o st
a
b y
I
th e
top
th e o f
sa y
(sin c e
e x a m p le
Ju r a s s ic .
h ere
to be
c o lu m n ,
T it h o n ia n th e
le a d s
con cep t
c o n t in e n t a l w o r k e r s.
m u st
Ju r a s s ic
as an
se c t io n s o f th e
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
p o ssib ly p r e t e n d
u s tak e w it h
c la ssic
h atred )
m an y
p a r t ic u la r
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
en ou gh , to
at
t h e ir
c h a p t e r ; a ll
m e can th e
in
fa c t , p o sit iv e
fa v o u r e d fo r
la t e r
co m p etes
p la c e
(in
se c t io n
n a t u r a lly
a
str a ta
d ou b ts
o f s t r a t ig r a p h y ) , le t
C u r r e n t ly O n e)
of
d isc u sse d
K e e p in g , p la c e
se r io u s
‘s t r a t o t y p e ’ s o id e a
ty p e o f
m isb e h a v io u r h ave
h ow ever it
th e
n o
r e p r e se n t a t iv e sm a ll.
w as th e
b ir th
V o lg ia n
Stage.
(d isc u sse d A
d iv isio n
is t h a t
le sse r
in
C h ap ter
r iv a l
is
th e
M O R E
P o r t la n d ia n q u a in t ly T h e th e
b ir sk ).
It
o b v io u s
bu t b y
th e
is a n
e x c e lle n t
b o r in g s
se c t io n
th at
h ere on e
B r it ish A ll
3 .4 ) .
ou t
Stage
p r o m in e n t
t y p ify
an y
a
sa y
n o t h in g
o f
th e
is
at
G o r o d ish c h i,
a lo n g
(U ly a n o v sk , fo r m e r ly
S im
w it h
very
b an d s b reak
w h o le
it is w o r se , fo r o n e o f t h o se
to
of F ran ce.
o f L e n in
C le a r ly
to
e m in e n t B r it ish
fo ssils, b u t
o f p h o sp h a t ic is
a
n o d u le s
d isa d v a n t a g e
d iv isio n
o f g e o lo g ic a l
b r e a k s is n o w
p a la e o n t o lo g ist ) t o
w it h
th o u gh t
in
a
t im e ,
(a t le a st
c o n c e a l t h e w h o le o f t h e
P o r t la n d ia n . t h is
p a ssa g e th an
(p la t e
E n g la n d ,
se c t io n , p a c k e d by
33
R E C O R D
B o lo n ia n
V o lg ia n
b ir t h - p la c e
m ark ed
se t s
an d
th e
fr o m
break s
T H A N
‘P u r b e c k i a n ’) o f
B o n o n ia n
‘s t r a t o t y p e ’ o f
r iv e r
an d
(c u m
n am ed
G A P S
of
le a d s
m e
to
g e o lo g ic a l
S h a k e s p e a r e ’s
th e
t im e ‘g a p
c o n c lu sio n h as in
le ft
th at
over
n a t u r e ’.
th e
m o st If
greater
o f th e
you
p art
earth
stu d y
o f th e
n o
m ore
textb o o k s
o r
r Jr n i i J i l 4 i ] i 1r 1 i i j 1 1 ■ X 1 3 T I r 1 T-
e \P =
fig u r e
3 .4 .
_
'
C o m p a r iso n th e
of
th e
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
p ic t u r e
(r ig h t )
c o n v e n t io n a l record
(le ft )
p ic t u r e w it h
of a
w h at
p a r tic u la r p a r t
is p r o b a b l y
th e
of
tru e
34
T H E
N A T U R E
O F
c o r r e la t io n
c h a r ts,
su c h
G e o lo g ic a l
So c ie t y
of
sio n
th at
record
th e
T H E
as
th e
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
to
th e
m a g n ific e n t
A m e r ic a ,
o f se d im e n t a t io n se r v ic e
ST R A T IG R A P H IC A L
lip
yet
d isc o v e r e d , n e v e r t h e le ss
id e a
com e
c o lu m n
w it h
p ay
you
R E C O R D
se r ie s
p rod u ced
in e v it a b ly
in
an y
on e
to
p la c e
o c c a sio n a l g a p s. E v e n
th at
th e re
a lm o st
are
g e o lo g ist
th e
c o n c lu
is
a
th ou gh
p r o b a b ly m a n y
every
b y
th e
lo n g
h e m ay
breaks n ot
se e m s t o
accep t
t h e a b o v e d o c t r in e a lb e it su b c o n sc io u sly . Bu t
I
m a in t a in
g r a p h ic a l
record
th at
a
m e n t a t io n . T h is d o c t r in e se e
th e
v a r ie d
st a r t
fr o m
I t h in k
is a
fa r
p r e d o m in a t e sh o w n
h e r e ),
m ig r a t e
in t o
P erh ap s
m ore
It
fo o t b a ll
is
area
m y
n et as a
on e
an d th e
fa r
Is a
an d
th en
n e w sp a p e r a ssu m e s
you
records se e
th an an d
is
to
gap s
th ey
are
th e
fo ssils
ou t
a g a in .
rem em b er
t o g e t h e r w it h togeth er
d e liv e r e d
th at
th at w h at
fa c t s. T h e
m ig r a t e
a t t it u d e
lo t o f h o le s t ie d
an d
fo ssil
d ia c h r o n o u s
t h is
st r a t i
t h e le ft
r ig h t y o u
lo n g e r
lo t o f h o le s t ie d
h as a
p r e ju d ic e s
p le a d
in on
con vey
th e
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l c o lu m n ,
o f th e sa m e
be
a ll
o f
o c c a sio n a l se d i
w it h
o n ly
n o t h in g
at
a
st r in g . se d i
fo r
th e
a ll h a p
th e o th e r d a y s o f th e w eek .
d ou b t
w e
are
very
fig u r e 3 .4 . O n th e
b reak
e ls e w h e r e
Satu rd ay s
e p ic o n t in e n t a l
So
sh o u ld
to
record
th o u gh
m u ch
record
fr o m
w ay
o f a
r e su lt s o n
p en ed on N o
as
sm a ll
lik e ly e x p la n a t io n
lit h o lo g ie s
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
in of
p ic t u r e
o n ly
a s n o t h in g . O n
th e
c h i l d ’s d e f i n i t i o n T h e
sin g le
en d
p r o b a b ly
b e st
w it h
o f p art
(a n d
th e
th e
an d
accu rate
gap
is i l l u s t r a t e d
se d im e n ts, a n o t h in g
m ore
lo n g
c o n v e n t io n a l p ic t u r e
w it h
m en t.
fa r
Is o f o n e
m y
d e fe n c e
are
se d im e n t th at
c o lo u r e d
an d
t h is
is
by
h a v in g
n ot en ou gh th e
n atu re
lo o k e d
o c e a n ic , b u t
o f
th e
at I
too
m u st
st r a t ig r a p h ic a l
th e c o n t in e n t s a n y w a y . m ay
com e
to
th e
t h ir d
p r o p o sit io n
o f
th is
book
:
t h e
SED IM E N TARY PILE AT AN Y ONE PLACE ON THE EARTH’S SU RFACE IS NOTHING p e r io d s
MORE TH AN A TIN Y AND o f
e ar t h
h is t o r y
. T h is
FRAG MENTARY RECORD OF V AS T m ay
be
c a lle d
th e
o f t h e G ap B e in g M o re I m p o rt an t t h an th e R e co rd .
Ph e n o m e n o n
4 Catastrophic Stratigraphy I
have
and
h e a rd
it s a id
s e d im e n to lo g y
th a t
t h e o n l y m a j o r a d v a n c e in s t r a t i g r a p h y
s in c e th e
Second
W o rld
W a r w a s th e c o n c e p t
o f t h e t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t . T h i s is p r o b a b l y t r u e , b u t it s e e m s t o m e t h a t w e h a v e n o w b e c o m e s o e n g r o s s e d i n t h e j a r g o n o f ‘t u r b i d i t e s ’ (a n o b je c tio n a b le g e n e tic te rm ) a n d th a t
m ost
of
us
have
lo s t
s ig h t
w ith
of
t h e i r ‘b o t t o m
th e
real
s t r u c t u r e s ’,
s ig n ific a n c e
of
th e
o rig in a l id e a . In
e f f e c t, in o n e s t e p
th e c o n c e p t o f th e
u s b a c k to th e c a ta s tro p h is m of
th e
c o m fo rta b le
d o c trin e
s u b s id e n c e , w e w e re n o w
tu rb id ity
c u r r e n t to o k
o f e a r lie r g e o lo g ic a l th o u g h t. I n p la c e of
fa c e d
s e d im e n ta tio n
k e e p in g
w ith th e n o tio n
pace
w ith
o f e m p ty tro u g h s
f o r m i n g in t h e s e a f lo o r , w i t h o n l y o c c a s i o n a l r u s h e s o f s e d i m e n t to f ill t h e m . Thus
in
th e
fly s c h o f t h e
P o lis h C a r p a th ia n s
( p la te 4 .1 ), it h a s
b e e n e s tim a te d th a t th e re w a s o n th e a v e ra g e o n e tu rb id ity c u r r e n t f lo w e v e r y 2 9 0 0 0 y e a r s . A n d in t h e e v e n m o r e c la s s ic g r o u n d o f t h e Ita lia n th e
A p e n n in e s , w h e re
tu rb id ity
c u rre n t,
K uenen
s in g le
and
g rad ed
M ig lio rin i
beds
up
to
firs t 20
re c o g n is e d
m e tre s
th ic k
w ith in th e M a c ig n o S a n d s to n e a r e s a id to h a v e b e e n d e p o s ite d b y a s i n g l e ‘w h o o s h ’ o f t u r b i d w a t e r . W h a t is m o r e , t h e s ta rtlin g
change
A p e n n in e s ,
th e
in
M a c ig n o S a n d s to n e a s a w h o le r e p re s e n ts a
s e d im e n ta tio n
w h o le
of
th e
fro m
U pper
w h a t w e n t b e fo re . In J u ra s s ic ,
th e
w h o le
of
th e th e
C re ta c e o u s , th e w h o le o f th e P a la e o c e n e a n d E o c e n e a n d th e lo w e r p a r t o f th e O lig o c e n e — in a n a p p a r e n tly u n b r o k e n su c c e s s io n — m a y a m o u n t to a s little a s 7 0 m e tr e s o f s e d im e n t. B u t th e n th e
O lig o c e n e a lo n e
reach es as m u ch
as 3000
th e re st o f
m e t r e s . T h i s is t h e
36
TH E
M a c ig n o
NATURE O F TH E
S a n d s to n e . T h e
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
s to r y is t h a t s lo w s e d i m e n t a t i o n
in d e e p
Diaspri ( U p p e r J u r a s s i c r a d i o l a r i a n c h e r t s ) Scaglia o r Scisti policromi ( C r e t a c e o u s t o O l i g o c e n e s h a l e s ) . T h e n , a t t h e t o p o f t h e Scaglia, t h e r e w a s a
w a te r p r o d u c e d firs t th e and
th e n
th e
v a ri-c o lo u re d sud den
change
in
la rg e f o ra m in if e ra
s e d im e n ta tio n (th e
to
a
b re c c ia te d
lim e s to n e f u ll o f
Brecciole nummulitiohe). T h i s
h e r a ld e d th e
i n c o m p a r a b l y f a s t e r d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e M a c i g n o ‘t u r b i d i t e s ’. But
even
m o re
‘c a t a s t r o p h i c ’ d e p o s i t s
w ere
to
f o llo w
in
th e
A p e n n in e s , fo r w ith th e e a r th m o v e m e n ts in d ic a te d b y th e s y n o ro g e n ic s e d im e n ts m e n tio n e d w est a n as th e
Argille scagliose o r
m o re th a n
a
s h a tte re d
s iz e
Ita ly
fro m
th e
‘s c a l y c l a y s ’. I t w a s t h o u g h t t o b e n o t h i n g
a rg illa c e o u s d e p o s it p r o d u c e d
s u b m a rin e la n d s lip p in g a n d in
a b o v e , th e re c a m e in to
a llo c h th o n o u s se rie s o f n a p p e s . T h is w a s f o r m e r ly k n o w n
fro m
s m a ll
c a rry in g w ith
f ra g m e n ts
b y re p e a te d
it e x o tic b lo c k s r a n g in g
( p la t e 4 .2 ) u p
to
w h o le
m o u n ta in s .
S o m e o f th e s e a r e u n k n o w n in t h e a u to c h th o n o u s s u c c e s s io n o f th e Ita lia n
m a in la n d , fo r e x a m p le
th e
g re a t m asses o f s e rp e n tin e a n d
a s s o c i a t e d r o c k s s e e n n e a r t h e w e s t c o a s t . T h e i r s iz e s d i m i n i s h e s a s th e y g e t f a r t h e r a w a y f r o m t h e i r s o u rc e a r e a in t h e T y r r h e n i a n S e a ( f i g u r e 4 .1 ) . M o r e r e c e n t w o r k h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e a l l o c h t h o n
f ig u r e 4 . 1 .
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f a l l o c h t h o n o u s o p h i o l i t e s in t h e n o r t h A p e n n i n e s . (A fte r M e r la , 1 9 5 2 )
C A T A S T R O P H IC
is n o t
q u ite
as
c o n fu se d
Argille scagliose h a s in
m any
o th e r
a s w a s fo rm e rly
been d ro p p e d
p a rts
of
th e
37
S T R A T IG R A P H Y
th o u g h t, a n d
in I t a l y
w o rld ).
(th o u g h
T he
p o e tic
th e
te rm
i t is s t i l l u s e d
nam e
has
been
r e p l a c e d b y t e r m s s u c h a s ‘c h a o t i c c o m p l e x ’ a n d t h e p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c 'o l i s t o s t r o m e s *
w ith o u t
r e a lly
a d d in g
to
our
k n o w le d g e ,
e s s e n t i a l p o i n t is t h a t s u b m a r i n e I a n d s l i p p i n g is n o w
o n ly p a r t o f th e p ro c e s s r a th e r th a n th e w h o le . M o d e m re v e rte d n is a b le ta n c e s
but
th e
th o u g h t to b e th o u g h t h a s
t o e a r l i e r n a p p e th e o r i e s in w h i c h s iz e a b le s lic e s o f r e c o g s tr a tig ra p h y fro m
th e
have
been
s o u th -w e s t.
pushed
A t
th e
fo rw a rd
sam e
c o n s id e ra b le
tim e
th e re
has
d is been
e x te n s iv e s lid in g , e s p e c ia lly a t th e f r o n t o f th e n a p p e s . B u t r a t h e r th a n
re d u c in g
th e
h a v e in c re a s e d
a m o u n t o f su ch
s lid in g , m o d e m
it, fo r o lis to s tro m e s a r e n o w
id e a s se e m
to
r e c o g n is e d in a ll p a r t s
o f th e su c c e s s io n , a u t o c h th o n o u s a s w e ll a s a llo c h th o n o u s . T h is
e x a m p le
w as
w o rth
d is c u s s in g
Argille scagliose t y p e
b ec a u se th e
in
m o re
d e ta il
o f 'c a t a s t r o p h i c *
th a n
m ost
d e p o s i t is n o w
r e c o g n is e d in m a n y p a r ts o f th e w o rld , f ro m C a lif o r n ia to F o rm o s a . In
T u rk e y ,
near
th e
C h a lk
c liff m e n tio n e d
at
th e
b e g in n in g
of
C h a p t e r 1 , t h e r e is a g r e a t j u m b l e o f C r e t a c e o u s b l o c k s r e s t i n g , w i t h a
v e ry
been
irre g u la r ju n c tio n , o n
d e s c rib e d
l a n d s l i p d e p o s i t li k e th o s e in rash
enough
( h u m o ro u s ly
E o c e n e n u m m u litic m a rls . T h is h a d
a s a t h r u s t , b u t i t is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y
to
su g g est
c a lle d
by
th a t
th e
I
w as
d u ly
s la p p e d
dow n
trie d
fo rg e t th e
to
g r e a t A n k a r a melange i t s e l f tiirlii giivec— a T u r k i s h v e r s i o n Argille scagliose t y p e o f d e p o s i t .
th e
lo c a ls
o f L a n c a s h ire h o tp o t) m ig h t b e a n
s e n io rs , a n d
a s u b m a rin e
I ta ly . I n fa c t, m a n y y e a rs a g o I w a s
by
m y
m o re
k n o w le d g e a b le
b rie f p u b lic a tio n
te c to n ic
in q u e s t i o n , b u t
la t e r w o rk h a s n o w le d m e to s u s p e c t t h a t I m ig h t h a v e b e e n r ig h t a f te r a ll. C e rta in ly
th e re
are
m any
s m a s h e d -u p -lo o k in g
th e w o r ld c a r r y in g h u g e e x o tic b lo c k s f a r f ro m O ne
of
th e
m o st re m a rk a b le
T im o r, w h e re th e re
is a
I
have
h e a rd
d e p o s it, k n o w n
d e p o s its
aro u n d
th e ir p la c e o f o rig in .
o f is i n
th e
as B o b o n a ro
is la n d
of
S c a ly C la y ,
t h a t e x t e n d s f o r s o m e 6 0 0 m ile s o f o u t c r o p , 6 0 m ile s w i d e a n d m ile s th ic k .
In
fa c t,
if
its a lle g e d
o c c u rre n c e
c o r r e c t , it e x t e n d s f o r a le a s t a t h o u s a n d
on
o th e r
m ile s . P la te 4 .3
1|
is la n d s
is
sh o w s a
r o u n d e d e x o ti c p e b b l e in t h is d e p o s i t, w i t h s o m e m e n a t t h e b o t t o m to
p ro v id e
a s c a le . Q u i t e
a p a r t fro m
th e
p ro b le m
as to
how
th is
m a s s i v e c h u n k o f b a s i c i g n e o u s r o c k b e c a m e r o u n d e d , i t is d i f f i c u l t to
use
a
te rm
o th e r th a n
‘c a t a s t r o p h i c ’ f o r t h e
a rriv a l o f s u c h
a
38
TH E
p e b b le .
It
is
NATURE O F TH E
in te re s tin g
to
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
n o te ,
in
p a s s in g ,
th a t
ra th e r
s im ila r
c h a o tic d e p o s its a n d s lu m p to p o g r a p h y h a v e n o w b e e n f o u n d a t th e f o o t o f m a n y p r e s e n t - d a y c o n t i n e n t a l s lo p e s . H o w e v e r , it w o rld
to
is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o g o
f in d
e x a m p le s
of
a lw a y s u s in g o n e r u le r to a
d e p o s it
e x c e p tio n a l
su ch
to
th e
d e p o s its .
r e m o te r p a r ts o f th e
In
s tra tig ra p h y
m e a su re a n o th e r a n d o n e c a n
if
we
have
s o m e th in g
m o re
one
is
o n ly c a ll
‘n o r m a l ’ w i t h
w h ic h o n e c a n m a k e a c o m p a ris o n . T h u s , th o u g h th e p la c id B r itis h J u r a s s ic s e d im e n ts h a v e re c e iv e d v a s tly m o r e t h a n o f th e ir m o re
t h e i r f a r e s h a i r o f s t u d y , i t is c u r i o u s t h a t s o m e
s p e c ta c u la r fe a tu re s h a v e b e e n
T h e m in u tia e o f its E n g lis h o u tc r o p f r o m
re la tiv e ly n e g le c te d .
D o rs e t to Y o rk s h ire h a v e
p r o b a b ly b e e n tu r n e d o v e r b y m o re lo v in g h a n d s th a n h a v e to u c h e d any
e q u iv a le n t
heap
o f s e d im e n t e ls e w h e re . B u t th e
n a rro w
o u t
c r o p s o n e it h e r s id e o f S c o t la n d h a v e b e e n h o n o u r e d b y c o m p a r a tiv e ly f e w
p u b l i c a t i o n s , t h o u g h t h e i r s t o r y is m u c h
m o re
e x c itin g .
T h u s , w h ile w e fo llo w w ith in te r e s t th e s u p p o s e d ly d r a m a tic v a r i a tio n
fro m
2 fe e t to
10 fe e t to 3 9 fe e t o f a c e r ta in
z o n e a lo n g th e
E n g lis h o u tc r o p , w e h a r d ly b o th e r w ith a f o o tn o te to s a y t h a t th e s a m e z o n e i n w e s t e r n S c o t l a n d is n e a r l y O n — to
1 3 4 f e e t th ic k .
t h e e a s t s id e o f S c o t l a n d , i n S u t h e r l a n d , t h e r e a r e w h a t a r e m e — th e
m o s t e x c itin g
K im m e rid g ia n
s ta g e
of
th e
d e p o s i ts in U pper
th e
B ritis h
J u ra s s ic
J u ra s s ic . T h e
is h e r e
d e v e lo p e d
to
a n e x c e p tio n a l th ic k n e s s in a n a r r o w s tr ip a lo n g m o r e t h a n 1 0 m ile s of
c o a s t.
In te rb e d d e d
n u m e ro u s
b o u ld e r
in
th e
beds,
th a t
usu al
d e e p is h
have
been
w a te r b la c k
v a rio u s ly
s h a le a r e
in te rp re te d
as
o r d in a r y s e d im e n ta r y c o n g lo m e ra te s , a s te c to n ic b r e c c ia s , a s d e p o s its fro m
m e l t i n g ic e a n d a s r o c k f a lls f r o m
B a i l e y ’s l u c i d
e x p la n a tio n
(u p to m o re th a n
t o w e r i n g c liff s . S ir E d w a r d
o f th e s e d e p o s its w a s t h a t th e
1 0 0 f e e t lo n g ) f e ll f r o m
p r o b a b ly trig g e re d b y e a r th q u a k e s w h ic h a ls o p r o d u c e d dy k es th a t a re
a fe a tu re
o f th e
b o u ld e rs
a s u b m a rin e fa u lt s c a r p ,
s e c ti o n s . E a c h
th e c la s tic
s e is m ic s h o c k
p ro
d u c e d a ts u n a m i, w h ic h s w e p t s h a llo w w a te r s e d im e n ts a n d f a u n a (in c lu d in g
re e f
c o r a ls )
dow n
th e
fa u lt
scarp
to
s e ttle
am ong
th e
b o u l d e r s . B a i l e y ’s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e ‘n a t u r a l s e i s m o g r a p h ’, a s h e c a lle d
i t , is c e r t a i n l y
a p p lic a b le in
m a n y o th e r p la c e s a r o u n d
th e
w o rld . T h e g ig a n tic T e r tia r y b e s t-k n o w n
e x a m p le .
b o u ld e r b e d s o f E c u a d o r a r e p e rh a p s th e
B o u ld e rs
up
to
3 km
lo n g
f a lle n d o w n a s c a r p a lo n g a n o u tc r o p m o r e th a n
are
s a id
to
have
3 0 0 k m lo n g . T h e
C A T A S T R O P H IC
T e rtia ry
‘W i l d f l v s c h ’ o f
39
S T R A T IG R A P H Y
S w itz e rla n d
m ay
be
a n o th e r e x a m p le .
I
h a v e u s e d th is k in d o f e x p la n a tio n m y s e lf f o r r e p e a te d b o u ld e r b e d s w ith in
a
th ic k
C re ta c e o u s lim e s to n e s e q u e n c e
n e a r L a g u e ru e la
in
T e r u e l P r o v i n c e , in e a s t e r n S p a i n . A ll th e s e e x a m p le s p r o v i d e c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f v e r y r a p i d s e d i m e n ta tio n
o f a ‘c a t a s t r o p h i c * k i n d
tio n a l
d e p o s its
in
re m e m b e r th a t
areas
B aro n
of
in w h a t m a y b e r e g a r d e d te c to n ic
in s ta b ility .
C u v ie r, p e r h a p s
th e
B ut
as e x c e p
le t
us
a ls o
g re a te s t p ro ta g o n is t o f
c a ta s tro p h is m
in it s e a r l i e r f o r m , w o r k e d o n t h e p l a c i d , u n t e c t o n i s e d
s e d im e n ts
M o n tm a tre
m enon
of
I
am
tr y in g to
and
th e
e n v iro n s
d e m o n s tra te
in
of
P a ris .
T he
pheno
t h i s c h a p t e r is s e e n i n
th e
m o s t d o m e s tic o f d e p o s its . T h u s , th e N e o c e n e s e d im e n ts a r o u n d th e
m ost
p a rt,
fla t-ly in e c
th e M e d ite r r a n e a n a re , fo r
s h a llo w -m a rin e
and
ric h ly
f o s s ilif e r o u s .
Y e t r e c e n t l y D r H s u o f Z u r i c h h a s s u orc r e s te d t h a t t h e v r e c o r d w h a t m ust
have
been
one
h is to ry . A t th e e n d deep,
d e s s ic a te d
A t th e
of
b a s in
b e g in n in g
a g a in , a c c o rd in g
th e
o f th e w ith
o f th e to
m ost
s p e c ta c u la r
M io c e n e , th e e v a p o rite s
and
P lio c e n e , t h e
H s ii, a s a
in c id e n ts
in
M e d ite rra n e a n la c u s trin e
e a rth
becam e a d ia to m ite s .
S tra it o f G ib r a lta r o p e n e d
f a n ta s tic c a ta r a c t th r o u g h
w h ic h
a
c a t a s t r o p h i c d e l u g e r e f il le d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . In
th e
v io le n t
next
c h a p te r
phenom ena
I
su ch
s h a ll as
d is c u s s
th e
h u rric a n e s .
c o lle a g u e
G ilb e r t K e ll in # h a s c o m e to
th e
s e d im e n ts
in
can
th e
s tra tig ra p h ic a l
rec o rd
e ffe c ts o f
Q u ite
p re s e n t-d a y
in d e p e n d e n tly
my
c o n c lu s io n t h a t c e r ta in b e b e s t in te rp re te d
in
t e r m s o f v i o l e n t s t o r m s . B v a n a l o g v w i t h ‘t u r b i d i t e s ’ h e h a s c o i n e d th e
te rm
th a t m a v
‘t e m p e s t i t e s ’ f o r g r a d e d
b e d s o f s h a llo w
have
b y s to rm s a n d
a g a in . T h e y s e ttin g
and
reco rd
th e
th e te rm
been
c h u rn e d
d iffe r fro m in
th e
up
tu rb id ite s
re la tiv e
in
p a u c ity
e ro s io n a l p a s s a g e o f a
th e ir o f th e
tu rb id
w a te r s e d im e n t a llo w e d
g e n e ra l basal
to
s e ttle
e n v iro n m e n ta l
s o le
m a rk s
th a t
c u rre n t. D r K e llin g u sed
firs t f o r C a r b o n if e r o u s d e p o s its o n th e M o r o c c a n M e s e ta ,
b u t T h a v e s e e n t h e s a m e s o r t o f th in s r in J u r a s s i c c a r b o n a t e s o n t h e P o lis h
fo re la n d
h o riz o n s a n d O n
and
th e v
have
a re a s , th o u g h
a m uch
been
d e s c rib e d
fro m
n o t p re v io u s ly in te r p r e te d
h u m b l e r s c a le , s o m e y e a r s a g o t h e
m any
o th e r
in th is w a y .
m o st s u rp ris in g
t h i n g s w e r e f o u n d in t h e p e a c e f u l C a e n o z o i c s e d i m e n t s a n d u n d e r ly in g
C h a lk
L ondon
of
B a s in .
th e
Enboum e
A lth o rig h
V a lle y
a t th e
at
su rfa c e
th e th e re
w e s te rn are
o n ly
end
o f th e
f la t g re e n
fie ld s, u n d e r n e a t h a p i l l a r o f c h a lk w a s f o u n d p u s h i n g u p s o m e 2 0 0
40
TH E
fe e t
th ro u g h
NATURE O F TH E
th e
T e rtia ry ,
s u r p r i s i n g fo s s il f in d
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
li k e
of th e
an
ig n e o u s
s tu d y w a s a n
in tru s io n .
The
1 8 th c e n tu r y
m ost
c la y p ip e ,
m o re th a n 2 0 fe e t d o w n . M y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f w h a t is g o i n g o n a t t h e p r e s e n t d a y i s b e i n g saved
fo r th e
c o m e fro m
n e x t c h a p te r , b u t so m e o f th e m o st s ta r tlin g
t h e l a t e s t ( a n d m o s t a c c u r a t e l y d a t e d ) d e p o s i t s . I t is w e l l
k n o w n th a t R o m a n
re m a in s a re f o u n d a t c o n s id e ra b le d e p th in th e
lo w e r T h a m e s V a lle y a n d to
B rita in
G o in g e ro s io n
re s u lts
is
fo u n d
fa r
th a t th e
dow n
in
‘R o m a n h ill
s n a il5 th e y in tro d u c e d
w ash
and
s im ila r
f a r t h e r b a c k , i n to p o s t- g la c ia l tim e s , w e fin d and
d e p o s itio n
w e re
s o m e tim e s v e r y
d e p o s its .
e v id e n c e th a t
r a p id
in d e e d . A lo n g
t h e c h a l k d o w n s in s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f s h o r t , s te e p -s id e d
d ry
v a lle y s
tra d itio n a lly
b la m e d
on
th e
d e v il
(fo r
e x a m p l e , D e v i l ’s D y k e n e a r B r i g h t o n ) . T h e s e h a v e b e e n g o u g e d o u t o f t h e h ills , p r o b a b l y u n d e r p e r i g l a c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t h e i r d e b r i s sp read
on
th e
lo w la n d s
b e lo w .
F ro m
f a u n a s o f t h e c h a l k s lu d g e f r o m
c a re fu l
w o rk
on
th e
s n a il
o n e o f t h e s e ( t h e D e v i l ’s K n e a d i n g
T r o u g h in K e n t ) D r M i c h a e l K e m e y s h o w e d t h a t t h e e r o s io n m u s t h a v e h a p p e n e d in a v e r y s h o r t ti m e in d e e d . W ith in
t h e s l u d g e t h e r e is a c l e a r b l a c k h o r i z o n , o n l y a n i n c h o r
so th ic k , w h ic h h a s n o w The
b la c k
w ood.
In
c o lo u ra tio n fa c t,
at
b e e n r e c o g n is e d a ll o v e r s o u th e r n is d u e
one
ch a rc o a l
fra g m e n ts
in
th is
s tu d y
c a ta s tr o p h is m s o f a b ib lic a l k in d
and
w e p ic tu re d
u n iv e rs a l c o n fla g r a tio n li k e ly ,
h o w e v e r,
th a t
s ta g e
to
to it
a c c o u n t fo r th e
r e p re s e n ts
a
our
b la c k
fro m
th o u g h ts
B rita in . b u rn t ran
on
h a lf-s e rio u s ly a
b a n d . I t is m o r e
s h o rt p e r io d
o f d ry
c lim a te
w h e n t h e r e w e r e f r e q u e n t b r u s h fire s . T h e s n a il f a u n a s u g g e s ts t h e sa m e th in g a n d
e n a b le d th e b e d to b e c o r r e la te d w ith th e A lle ra d
o s c illa tio n o f D e n m a r k a n d n o r th e r n
E u r o p e g e n e ra lly . T h is w a s a
b r ie f e p is o d e o f c lim a tic a m e lio r a tio n a f te r th e la s t g la c ia tio n . T h e ch arco al m a d e g iv in g a n
age
it p o s s ib le t o g e t a c a r b o n - 1 4 d a t e o n of abo ut
a ll o v e r E u ro p e
and
h o riz o n
sam e
of
th e
10 77 0 y e a rs b efo re
c o rre la te s k in d
re m a rk a b ly
aro u n d
th e
th e w ith
G rea t
th e d e p o s it,
p r e s e n t . T h i s fits th e
Tw o
L akes
in
C reek s N o rth
A m e ric a . T h e p o in t I a m
t r y i n g t o m a k e a l l t h e t i m e is t h a t e r o s i o n a n d
d e p o s i t i o n h a v e f r e q u e n t l y in t h e p a s t b e e n v e r y s h o r t - t e r m m e n a . C o m in g
b a c k , a s a lw a y s , to
th e
J u ra s s ic , o n e
has
pheno o n ly
to
c o m p a r e th e 3 0 a m m o n ite z o n e s re p re s e n te d in o n e fo o t o f s e d im e n t in S ic ily w ith th e
15 0 0 0 f e e t r e p r e s e n t i n g a s in g le z o n e in O r e g o n ,
C A T A S T R O P H IC
to
r e a lis e
how
s ta rtlin g ly
41
S T R A T IG R A P H Y
d iffe re n t
ra te s o f
d e p o s itio n
m ust
have
b e e n in d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y w e a r e h a r d l y y e t in a p o s iti o n r a t e s in t e r m s o f y e a r s , t h o u g h z o ic ,
s tra tig ra p h ic a l
and
I
am
now
s u b d iv is io n
try in g
to
m a p s ( G r e e k : i'-to-t = s a m e ; lin e s
of
equal
a s s u m p tio n
T am
ra te s
has
re a c h e d
it
g re a te s t
p re c is io n
isotachic
c o n s tru c t w h a t
m ay
tackos - s p e e d ) .
T h e s e a r e m a p s s h o w in g
o f s u b s id e n c e ,
th a t d e p th
to e s tim a te th e s e
tr y in g to d o so. I n th e M e s o
th o u g h
b e c a lle d
one
has
to
m ake
th e
o f s u b s id e n c e e q u a ls th ic k n e s s o f s e d im e n t
m u ltip lie d b v a c o n s ta n t f o r th e ty p e o f s e d im e n t in v o lv e d ( to a llo w f o r d iff e re n tia l c o m p a c tio n ). R a d io m e tric d a tin g h a s n e a r ly r e a c h e d th e
s ta g e w h e n
w e can
m a k e r e a s o n a b le e s tim a te s a t th e s ta g e , if
n o t t h e z o n e le v e l. I n f a c t , s ta g e d a t e s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n e s t i m a t e d fo r
th e
C re ta c e o u s , w ith
m illio n
y e a rs a ttrib u te d
2 0 m illio n
are
g iv e n
to
th e
s ta rtlin g
to th e
c o n c lu s io n
th a t o f
th e
67
tw e lv e s ta g e s o f th e s y s te m , n e a r ly
a s in g le s ta g e — th e
C e n o m a n ia n .
I f tru e ,
th is w o u ld b e a n o th e r r e m a r k a b le illu s tra tio n o f th e e p is o d ic n a tu r e o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n , b u t t h e f ig u r e s h a v e b e e n d i s p u t e d . A lth o u g h w e d o
n o t e v e r y w h e r e h a v e t h e p r e c is i o n o f M e s o z o ic
c h ro n o lo g y , w e d o fro m th e
s tr a tie ja p h ic a l
d e p o s itio n
in t h e
ti m e to ti m e f in d e v i d e n c e , in a ll p a r t s o f
c o lu m n ,
of
v e ry
ra p id
and
m o s t h a r m le s s o f s e d im e n ts . I n
v ery
s p a s m o d ic
th e la te C a r b o n
if e r o u s C o a l M e a s u r e s o f L a n c a s h i r e , a fo s s il t r e e h a s b e e n f o u n d , 3 8 f e e t h lc ^ h a n d
s till s t a n d i n g in its liv in e r p o s iti o n . S e d i m e n t a t i o n
m u s t th e r e f o r e h a v e b e e n f a s t e n o u g h to b u r y th e tr e e a n d s o lid ify b efo re
th e tr e e h a d
S ta te , w ith in
th e
tim e to r o t. S im ila rly , a t G ilb o a in N e w Y o rk
d e p o s its o f th e
D e v o n ia n
C a ts k ill d e lta , a
f la s h -
f lo o d ( its e lf a n e x a m p l e o f a m o d e r n c a t a s t r o p h i c e v e n t) u n c o v e r e d
in situ D e v o n i a n
a w h o le fo re s t o f
tre e s u p to 4 0 f e e t h ig h .
B y s u c h m e a n s i t is p o s s i b l e , w i t h i n t h e L a n c a s h i r e C o a l M e a s u r e s fo r e x a m p le , to n a te d
w ith
d e m o n s tra te
v e ry
s lo w
r e s p o n s ib le
fo r th e
If w e
to
tu rn
th a t v e ry
s e d im e n ta tio n
ra p id and
s e d im e n ta tio n
th a t
th e
b u lk o f a t le a s t s o m e p a r ts o f th e
v o lc a n ic d e p o s its , w h ic h
can
h a rd ly
a lte r
fo rm e r
w as
reco rd . be
re g a rd e d
a s e x c e p t i o n a l in e a r t h h i s t o r y , w e c a n f i n d m a n y e x a m p l e s o f g r e a t th ic k n e s s e s a c c u m u l a t i n g v e r y r a p i d l y i n d e e d . A t B u i l t h in C e n t r a l W a le s , a c o m p lic a te d
h is to ry h a s b e e n w o rk e d o u t f o r o n e p a r t o f
t h e O r d o v ic ia n . F ir s t, s p ilitic la v a s w e r e e x tr u d e d , la y e r u p o n la y e r, and
w e a th e re d
to
p ro d u c e
a
s ta irc a s e -lik e
scen ery
g r a p h y ’). T h e i r w e a t h e r i n g t^ a v e r i s e t o s a n d y a n d
( o r ‘t r a p
to p o
p e b b ly d e p o s its .
42
TH E
T hen a
NATURE O F
TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L
RECORD
se rie s o f k e r a t o p h y r e s w e r e e x t r u d e d o n to p o f th e s p ilite s
a n d w e a t h e r e d i n t o r o u n d e d h ills w i t h d e t r i t a l p y r i t o u s s a n d b a n k e d up
a g a in s t th e m .
F in a lly
th e
sea e n cro a c h e d
on
th is
to p o g r a p h y
p r o d u c i n g s te e p c lif fs , in le ts , s e a s ta c k s a n d s a n d y o r s h i n g ly b e a c h d e p o s its . A g iv e n
in
re c o n s tru c tio n
p l a t e 4 .4
w ard s a n d
o f th e
su p po sed
( i t w ill b e n o t e d
s c e n e ry o f th is tim e
th a t th e v ie w
th a t th e sh a d o w s a re th e re fo re c o m in g fro m
e v id e n tly p ro v in g th a t th e
B ritis h
Isle s w e re th e n
is
is lo o k i n g w e s t
in t h e
th e n o rth , s o u th e rn
h e m i s p h e r e ) . B u t t h e m o s t s u r p r i s i n g f a c t a b o u t th is is t h a t a ll th e s e e v e n t s to o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f a s in g le g r a p t o l i t e z o n e . A d m itte d ly
O r d o v ic ia n
g ra p to lite
zones
m ust
have
la s te d
m uch
lo n g e r th a n
th e a m m o n ite z o n e s o f t h e M e s o z o ic , b u t n e v e rth e le s s
t h e t i m e s c a l e is s t i l l s u r p r i s i n g . A g a in e v e r y o n e w ill h a v e th e ir o w n f a v o u r ite e x a m p le s o f r a p id d e p o s itio n , b u t th e S E D IM E N T A T IO N
IN
r e s u lta n t p r o p o s itio n f o r th is c h a p t e r m u s t b e : T HE
P AST
HAS
OF T EN
BEEN
V E R Y R A P ID
IN D E E D
Phenomenon of the Catastrophic Nature of much of the Stratigraphical Record.
a n d
v e r y
s p a s m o d ic
. T h is m a y b e c a lle d
th e
5 Catastrophic U niformit arianism I t f o ll o w s n a t u r a l l y
fro m
go
w h e re
on
to
c o n s id e r
th e p re v io u s c h a p te r t h a t w e s h o u ld n o w s e d im e n ta tio n
is
a c tu a lly
ta k in g
p la c e
t o d a y . H e r e i t is i m p o r t a n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n e p h e m e r a l s e d i m e n ta tio n
th a t
com es
and
g o e s w ith
th e
seaso n s a n d
s e d im e n ta tio n th a t a c tu a lly a c c u m u la te s a n d
p erm a n e n t
s ta y s . M y m a i n c o m
p l a i n t w i t h t h e s t u d e n t s o f m o d e r n s e d i m e n t s is t h a t t h e y p a y m o r e a tte n tio n
to
th e q u e s tio n
of how
s e d im e n ts a r e
d e p o s ite d
th a n
to
t h e q u e s tio n a s to w h e th e r o r n o t th e y s ta y th e r e . T h u s t h e e x c e lle n t s tu d ie s
of
E n g la n d
th e
g iv e
m ud
and
sand
f la ts
u s a c le a r p ic tu re
a n d t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d li f e , a n d
a ro u n d
th e
W ash
o f th e z o n a tio n
in
o f th e
e a s te rn
s e d im e n ts
o f th e p ro c e ss e s in v o lv e d , b u t d o n o t
te l l u s if t h e y h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d in d e p t h a n d a r e li k e ly t o s ta y t h e r e f o r th e g e o lo g is t o f t h e f u tu r e . I n
f a c t t h e r e is c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t
th e m e a n d e r in g c re e k s t h a t w a n d e r a c ro s s th e fla ts a r e e a tin g a w a y t h e s e d i m e n t a g a i n s o o n a f t e r i t is d e p o s i t e d w ell k n o w n to b e
re m o v e d
p ro g re s s iv e la rg e ly
th a t th e a g a in
b u ild -u p
a id e d
by
s e d im e n ts b u ild
up
( p l a t e 5 .1 ) . I t i s a l s o
in t h e
sum m er an d
in
t h e w -in te r. T h u s , t h o u g h
th e re
in
th e
in te rtid a l
hum an
upper
le v e ls
i n t e r f e r e n c e , in
of th e
th e
te n d
is a s l o w zone,
lo w e r le v e ls t h e r e
is
v irtu a lly n o o v e ra ll a c c re tio n . I f w e lo o k a t t h e s e a - f lo o r m a p s t h a t a r e n o w b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s in g ly
a v a ila b le , o n e
is s t r u c k
(a t le a s t,
I
am ) by
th e
g re a t are a s
t h a t a r e e i t h e r r e c e iv i n g n o s e d i m e n t a t a l l o r e ls e a r e c o v e r e d w i t h th e
m e re s t v e n e e r. T h u s it h a s b e e n w ritte n
r e c e n tly : “ T h e s h e lf
o f f e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s is c o v e r e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y w i t h r e l i c t n e a r s h o re s a n d s o f th e ( P le is to c e n e ) tr a n s g r e s s io n ” . E v e n w h e r e s e d i m e n t is r e c o r d e d , i t is f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e f o r m
of
44
T H E
NATURE O F
THE
sa n d w av es th a t m o v e fro m
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L
RECORD
p la c e to p la c e a n d d o n o t a c c u m u la te .
M o s t o f t h e s e d i m e n t in f a c t s e e m s t o b e a c c u m u l a t i n g c lo s e in s h o r e and
v e rv
little
g e ts
to
th e re
th e
c a lc u la te d
th a t
has
d e p o s itio n
c lo s e in s h o r e
o u te r be
is a l w a y s
s u d d e n a n d v i o l e n t. T h e s e h a v e n o p l a c e in t h e o r d i n a r y c o u r s e o f n a tu r e . B u t o p e ra tio n s u n ifo rm ly r e p e a te d , m o tio n s w h ic h su c c e e d o n e a n o th e r w ith o u t in te r r u p tio n , a r e th e c a u s e s w h ic h a lo n e o u g h t to b e th e f o u n d a tio n o f o u r re a s o n in g ” . T h is m a y b e a re a s o n a b le p h ilo s o p h ic a l a r g u m e n t w h e n w e a r e th in k in g in b r ie f h u m a n te r m s , but
th e
d o c trin e
s tra tig ra p h ic a l of
T hom as
re c o rd
O sb e rt
and
I
b o th
M o rd a u n t :
seem
“O ne
to
p re fe r
c ro w d ed
th e
hour
of
g l o r i o u s l i f e is w o r t h a n a g e w i t h o u t a n a m e ” .
T he
h u rric a n e ,
th e
h o u r o r a d a y th a n
f lo o d
or
th e
ts u n a m i
m ay
do
m o re
in
an
th e o r d in a r y p ro c e sse s o f n a tu r e h a v e a c h ie v e d
in a t h o u s a n d y e a r s . G i v e n a ll th e m i l l e n n i a w e h a v e t o p l a y w i t h in th e s tra tig ra p h ic a l re c o rd , w e c a n e x p e c t o u r p e rio d ic c a ta s tro p h e s to d o a ll th e w o rk w e w a n t o f th e m . I t is p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s t r u c t i v e t o l o o k a t t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l r e c o r d o f o u r k in d re d
s c i e n c e o f a r c h a e o l o g y . T h i s is c l o s e e n o u g h
to us
i n t i m e t o q u a l i f y f o r t h e ‘p r e s e n t ’ e n d o f t h e u n i f o r m i t a r i a n trin e .
B u f f o n ’s
‘w h i c h
‘o p e r a t i o n s
succeed
one
a n o th e r
p lo u g h in g , s o w in g a n d
u n ifo rm ly
r e p e a t e d ’,
w ith o u t
i n t e r r u p t i o n ',
r e a p in g , th e b u ild in g a n d
tio n s , th e b ir th s , m a r r ia g e s a n d m ake
v ery
little
s h o w in g
in
d e a th s o f h u m a n
th e
a rc h a e o lo g ic a l
th e
doc
o p e ra tio n s ,
th e s e
are
th e
d e c a y o f h a b ita h is to ry . B u t th e y reco rd .
It
is t h e
flo o d s a n d t h e f ir e s , t h e b a t t l e s a n d t h e b o m b a r d m e n t s , t h e e r u p t i o n s and
th e e a r th q u a k e s w h ic h
h a v e p re s e rv e d so m u c h o f th e h u m a n
s t o r y . W h e n t h e p a l a c e is a l l o w e d t o d e c a y a n d t h e s t o n e s a r e t a k e n a w a y to b u ild th e s h a n ty to w n , th e n th e fre s c o e s a n d th e te s s e la te d p a v e m e n ts , th e s ta tu e s a n d o n ly w h e n th e b a r b a r ia n
th e
b e a u t i f u l p o t t e r y a r e a l l l o s t . I t is
r e d u c e s t h e p a l a c e t o a h e a p o f s to n e s in
th e d e s e r t a n d s la u g h te r s a ll th e in h a b ita n ts , t h a t th e r e c o r d o f a r t and
th o u g h t a n d
e v e ry d a y
l i f e is p r e s e r v e d
fo r us. T h in k
o f th a t
m o st p e rf e c t o f a ll a rc h a e o lo g ic a l re c o rd s — th e c ity o f P o m p e ii— w h e re w e h a v e e v e ry th in g p re se rv e d fro m g ard e n
to th e
b e a n s in
t h e s t a t u e in t h e e l e g a n t
th e c o o k in g p o t, fro m
th e p o litic a l g ra ffiti
50
TH E
NATURE O F TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
o n t h e w a lls t o t h e o b s c e n e p a i n t i n g s in t h e b r o t h e l . T h e s e w e r e a ll p r e s e r v e d b y a s in g le , b r ie f c a ta s t r o p h e — th e e r u p t io n o n th e 2 4 th A u g u s t T h is
is
not
to
o f V e s u v iu s
.d . 7 9 .
a
deny
fo r
one
m om ent
th e
c o n tin u ity
and
th e
g ra d u a ln e s s o f th e p ro c e sse s w h ic h a r e c h a n g in g th e e a r th . B u t w e m u s t a lw a y s d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n th e n a tu r e o f th e p ro c e s s a n d th e n a tu re sense,
o f th e th a t
reco rd .
is
to
I do
not deny
of
in te rp re tin g
say,
p ro c e s s e s t h a t w e see g o in g o n rem em b er lik e th e th a t
I
th a t
ru sh am
th e
p e rio d ic
o f a tu rb id ity
sa y in g
is t h a t
u n ifo rm ita ria n is m
a t th e
th e
I
by
in it s t r u e
m eans
of
th e
p r e s e n t d a y , so lo n g a s w e
c a ta s tro p h e c u rre n t)
p ast
(in c lu d in g
su d d en
e v e n ts
is o n e o f t h o s e p r o c e s s e s . A l l
s tro n g ly
su sp ect
th a t
th o s e
p e rio d ic
c a ta s tr o p h e s m a k e m o r e s h o w in g in th e s tr a tig r a p h ic a l r e c o r d t h a n w e h a v e h ith e rto assu m ed . T hat
b rin g s
we
th e n
C A T A S T R O P H IC E V E N T o f
g r a d u a l
to
my
MAY H AVE
e v o l u t io n
. T h is
Quantum Sedimentation.
fifth
p r o p o s itio n :
t h e
M ORE E F F E C T T H AN V AS T
m ay
b e c a lle d
th e
p e r io d ic
P E R IO D S
Phenomenon of
P la t e 1 .3 . U r g o n ia n lim e s t o n e a b o v e D r y a n o v a m o n a s t e r y , n e a r G a b r o v a , B u lg a r ia .
(DVA)
P la te 'I r o n
P la to 1 .4 . U r g o n i a n lim e s t o n e f o r m in g e s c a r p m e n t , v a l l e y o f R i v e r H e o r y , G e o r g ia , U . S . S . R .
1 .5 . T i t h o n i a n lim e s t o n e c a p p i n g J u r a s s ic s u c c e s s io n a t t h e G a t e s ’, w h e r e t h e D a n u b e flo w s t h r o u g h t h e C a r p a t h ia n s
b e t w e e n R o m a n i a ( o n t h e r ig h t ) a n d J u g o s l a v ia (o n t h e le ft ).
{DVA)
(DVA)
P la t e 1 .6 . R o a d - c u t t i n g in t h e T r ia s s ic M o e n k o p i F o r m a t io n , H i g h w a y 7 0 n e a r H o lb r o o k , A r iz o n a , U . S . A .
(DVA)
P la to
1 ,7 .
L ow er
Carriire Napoleon,
C a r b o n if e r o u s lim e s t o n e , n e a r M a r q u is e ( P a s d e
C a la is ) , F r a n c e .
(DVA)
P la t e 1 .9 . R e d w a ll lim e s t o n e ( M is s i s s ip p ia n ) f o r m in g t h e m o s t o b v io u s c l i f f in t h e G r a n d C a n y o n , a s s e e n fr o m t h e P o w e ll M e m o r i a l, A r iz o n a , U . S . A .
(DVA)
P la te 1 .8 . M is s is s ip p ia n l im e s t o n e , E m p ir e S t a t e Q u a r r y , n e a r B lo o m in g t o n , I n d ia n a , U . S . A .
(DVA)
P la te 1 .1 0 . R u n d l c lim e s t o n e ( M is s is s i p p ia n ) , f o r m in g t h e e s c a r p m e n t o f M o u n t R u n d le , a b o v e B a n ff , A lb e r t a , C a n a d a .
(DVA)
P la t e 1 .1 1 . U p p e r D e v o n ia n l im e s t o n e e s c a r p m ent
w it h
r e e f d e v e lo p m e n t s
in
th e
lo w e r
(F r a s n ia n ) p a r t, C h i n a m a n ’s L e a p , n e a r C a n m o r e , A lb e r t a , C a n a d a .
P la t e 1 .1 2 . P a n o r a m a o f a la t e D e v o n ia n r e e f , s h o w in g t h e m a s s iv e r e e f p r o p e r in t h e c e n t r e , fo r e - r e e f ta lu s d e p o s it s o n t h e le ft a n d f la t - ly in g la g o o n a l d e p o s it s o n t h e r ig h t. W in d j a n a G o r g e , N a p ie r R a n g e , W e s t e r n A u s t r a lia . ( P h o t o g r a p h k in d ly p r o v id e d b y
Dr l\ E. 1‘layford)
(DVA)
P la t e 1 .1 3 . L o w e r O r d o v ic ia n
Gris amoricain f o r m in g B r it t a n y , F r a n c e ,
h e a d la n d n e a r C a m a r e t , C r o z o n P e n in s u la ,
(DVA)
P la to 1 .1 4 . C e r in L it h o g r a p h i c S t o n e , U p p e r J u r a s s ic
(K im m e r id g ia n ) F ren ch J u ra .
n e a r C e r in
(DVA)
(A in ),
P l a t e + .3 . E x o t ic r o u n d e d b l o c k in t h e B o b o n a r o S c a ly C la y , n e a r B o b a n a r o in P o r t u g u e s e T i m o r . N o t e t h e m e n p r o v id in g a s c a l e a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e b lo c k . ( P h o t o g r a p h k i n d l y p r o v id e d b y )
Dr M. G. Audley-Charles
P la t e 3 .1 . U n c o n f o r m it y b e t w e e n U p p e r C r e t a c e o u s m a r in e s e d i m e n t s a n d A r c h a e a n g n e is s o f t h e B o h e m ia n M a s s if , n e a r K o lin . C z e c h o s lo v a k ia .
P la te 3 .2 . T h i c k , w c l l - b c d d c d L o w e r J u r a s s ic s e d im e n t s a b o v e B o u r g d ’O is a n s (I s £ r e ) in t h e F r e n c h A lp s .
(DVA)
(DVA)
P la te 3 .3 . C o n d e n s e d d e p o s it o f m i d d le J u r a s s ic (B a jo c ia n ) lim e s t o n e s , B u r to n B r a d s to c k , D o r s e t , E n g la n d .
(DVA)
P la te 3 .4 . S t r a t ig r a p h ic a l b r e a k w it h b o r e d p h o s p h a t ic n o d u l e s i n t h e ‘s t r a t o t y p e ’ o f t h e V o l g i a n ( u p p e r m o s t J u r a s s ic ) a t G o r o d is h c h i, n e a r U ly a n o v s k , U .S .S .R .
(DVA)
P la t e 4 .4 . R e c o n s t r u c t io n o f t h e s u p p o s e d s c e n e r y in e a r ly O r d o v ic ia n t im e s , n e a r H u ilth , W a le s . ( F r o m .J o n e s a n d P u g h , 1 9 4 9 , b y k in d p e r m is s io n o f S i r W illia m P u g h a n d t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f London)
P la te 5 .1 . L a m in a t e d s e d im e n t b e i n g e r o d e d a t t h e s id e o f a c r e e k in t h e W a s h , e a s t e r n E n g la n d . ( / ) i
VA
P la te 5 .2 . F if t e e n t h c e n t u r y la n d s lip a t C la p s d e L u c ( D r o m e ) in th e F r e n c h A lp s .
[DVA)
P la t e 8 .1 . M o n t s e r r a t , n e a r B a r c e lo n a , S p a in . A s t r a n g e ly s h a p e d m o u n t a in o f M i o c e n e c o n g lo m e r a t e . (D r a w n b y fr om a p h o t o g r a p h ta k e n b y t h e a u t h o r )
John Uzztll Edwards
P la te 8 .2 . L a C h a in e d e s P u y s , a l in e o f l a t e C a e n o z o ic v o lc a n o e s a lo n g a fr a c t u r e l i n e i n t h e A u v e r g n e , s e e n fr o m t h e t o p o f t h e P u y d e D o m e , n e a r C le r m o n t F e r r a n d , F ra n ce. (D r a w n by fr o m a p h o t o g r a p h ta k e n b y t h e a u t h o r )
John Uzztil Edwards
P la t e 8 .3 . P u v - lik e v o lc a n o n e a r L ib c S ic e o n t h e w e s t s id e o f t h e B o h e m ia n M a s s if , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . ( D r a w n b y fr o m a p h o t o g r a p h t a k e n b y t h e a u t h o r )
John Uzzell Edwards
6 The Process of Sedimentation So
fa r as
th e
p ro c e ss o f s e d im e n ta tio n
c o n s id e r tw o
c o n c e p ts
o th e r. T h e s e a re concept on
th e
w h ic h
w hat I
are
m a y te rm
one hand, and
is c o n c e r n e d , w e n e e d
fu n d a m e n ta lly o p p o se d ‘t h e
g e n tle r a in
to
to e a c h
fro m
heaven’
‘t h e m o v i n g f i n g e r w r i t e s ’ c o n c e p t
o n th e o th e r. T he
fo rm e r
m e n ta tio n
is t h a t
w h ic h
s till
s tra tig ra p h e rs , th o u g h th e
p re s u m p tio n
tim e ,
s e d im e n t
d iffe re n t s u lta n t th e
m o re
not
le s s s u b c o n s c i o u s
to
by
be
w as
s tu d e n ts
ra in in g
by
a ttitu d e
m any
( if
dow n
to
s e d i
not
m o s t)
o f R e c e n t s e d im e n ts .
ev e ry w h e re ,
e n v iro n m e n ts
o f t h i s ‘g e n t l e r a i n
tr a d itio n a l
h e ld
t h a t d u r i n g a n y p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t in
c o n te m p o ra n e o u s
reco rd
or
seem s
fro m
I t is
g e o lo g ic a l
p re s e rv in g
s im u lta n e o u s ly .
a ll
th e
T he
re
h e a v e n ’ p ro c e ss w o u ld
M ayer c a k e ’ s tra tig ra p h y ,
w ith
each
la y e r
in
be th is
m ix e d m e t a p h o r r e p r e s e n tin g s e v e r a l d if f e r e n t fa c ie s . T he g o in g
o n ly on
p la c e
at
th e
w h e re
th is
ty p e
o f s e d im e n ta tio n
p re se n t
day
is
th e
in
ocean
seem s
d e p th s ,
to
w h e re
be th e
d e p o s its c o n s is t m a in ly o f th e r e m a in s o f m in u te p e la g ic o r g a n is m s , lite ra lly ra in in g
r a in in g dow n
dow n
m o re
fro m
a
w a te ry
in te rm itte n tly
h e a v e n , p lu s v o lc a n ic
fro m
th e
a e ria l
heaven
du st
above.
I t m a y a ls o h a p p e n t o w a r d s t h e e d g e o f th e c o n t i n e n t a l s h e lv e s , b u t t h i s is le s s c e r t a i n . E v e n o n t h e o c e a n f lo o rs , h o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e v a s t a re a s w ith o u t
se d im e n t a n d
g re a t gaps
w ith in
th e
s e d im e n t
th a t
is t h e r e . O n t h e m a i n p a r t o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l v e s , w h i c h is t h e r e g i o n t h a t c h ie fly c o n c e rn s u s in c h ie f c o n trib u tio n
of
th e
s tr a tig r a p h y o f th e c o n tin e n ts , th e
R e c e n t s e d im e n ta ry
s tu d ie s , in
m y
o p in io n ,
h a s b e e n th e d e m o n s tr a tio n o f la te ra l r a th e r th a n v e r tic a l s e d im e n N .S .R .-
52
T H E
ta tio n .
M o d e rn
la y e r o v e r a th e n
NATURE
OF
TH E
d e p o s its a r e
w id e
area.
S T R A T lG R A P H fC A L R E C O R D
n o t,
T hey
it se em s, la id
s ta rt fro m
a
dow n
la y e r u p o n
p a rtic u la r
p o in t a n d
b u ild o u t s id e w a y s a s in th e tr a d i tio n a l p ic tu r e o f a d e lta . I n
o t h e r w o r d s , a l l b e d d i n g is l i k e l y t o b e c r o s s - b e d d i n g , t h o u g h o f t e n o n s o g e n t l e a s c a le a s n o t t o b e r e c o g n is a b le in t h e fie ld . I t t h e r e f o r e f o ll o w s t h a t a l l s e d i m e n t a r y b o d ie s , o t h e r t h a n d e e p s e a o o z e s and
v o lc a n ic a s h
d e p o s its , a r e
li k e ly t o
b e d ia c h ro n o u s . T h is w as
a ls o o n e o f t h e m a in c o n c lu s io n s r e a c h e d
S uch
b y A la n
id e a s w o u ld
seem
to
c o n tra d ic t
th e
fro m
to
th e
in h is
la te r a l p e rs is te n c e
fa c ie s a b o u t w h i c h s o m u c h f u s s w a s m a d e in w ill r e t u r n
B. S haw
Time in Stratigraphy.
b rillia n t little b o o k
th is
C h a p te r
p o in t la te r . L e t u s c o n s id e r a s im p le
s tra tig ra p h ic a l
c o lu m n
to
see
th e
of
1. B u t w e e x a m p le
im p lic a tio n s
of
my
c o n c lu s io n s . In
th e
S ir te B a s in o f e a s te r n
L ib y a , th e re
a r e m a g n i f i c e n t c liff
s e c t i o n s , r u n n i n g l i t e r a l l y f o r h u n d r e d s o f m i l e s , i n w h a t is u s u a l l y re fe rre d
to as th e M a r a d a
F o r m a tio n , o f e a r ly M io c e n e (B u rd ig a -
lia n ) a g e . T e c to n ic d ip s a r e n e g lig ib le in th is r e g io n a n d th e w in d in g e s c a r p m e n t s , w i t h m a n y i s o l a t e d ‘j e b e l s ’ o r h i l l o u t l i e r s i n b e t w e e n (p la te
6 .1 )
m ake
p o s s ib le
a
d e ta ile d
in v e s tig a tio n
of
th e
la te ra l
v a r i a t i o n s in t h i s s o - c a lle d f o r m a t i o n , o n a s c a le b e y o n d o u r d r e a m s in m o r e v e g e t a t e d t e m p e r a t e t e r r a i n s . In
e ffe c t, th e s c a r p h a s b e e n ta k e n a s r e p r e s e n tin g th e w h o le o f
t h e M a r a d a u n i t , s i n c e i t is c o m m o n l y c a p p e d b y a w h i t e l i m e s t o n e of
p o s t- B u rd ig a lia n
s tre w n s o rte d
w ith by
age
and
th e
Lcpidocyclina f r o m
th e
d e s e rt w in d
d esert th e
f lo o r
b e lo w
O lig o c e n e
is c o m m o n l y
( s o m e tim e s n e a tly
in to m e g a J o s p h a e ric a n d
m ic ro s p h a e ric
fo rm s). A
s e d im e n ta ry
in v e s tig a tio n
o f th e
a rea
le d
to
th e
p o s tu la tio n
o f f i v e d i s t i n c t f a c i e s w i t h i n t h e M a r a d a : (i) a n o f f s h o r e s a n d b a n k f a c i e s ; ( ii) a l a g o o n a l f a c i e s ; (iii) a n i n t e r t i d a l f a c i e s ; ( i v ) a f l u v i a t i l e f a c ie s ; a n d (v ) a n e s t u a r i n e f a c ie s c u t t i n g a c r o s s t h e o t h e r f o u r . T h e la g o o n a l f a c ie s h a s b e e n d is p u te d a n d p lic a te d
in
v a rio u s
w ays
and
t h e e s t u a r i n e f a c i e s is c o m
c o n fu se s
th e
is s u e ,
c o n s id e r th r e e o f th e s e f a c i e s : t h e o ffs h o r e , th e f lu v ia tile . A ll th r e e f o s s i ls a n d
a re
v e ry
w e ll r e p r e s e n te d
tr a c e - f o s s ils . T h e r e th e
c o n c lu s io n
th a t
a r e m a in ly
th e
n o rth
th e
d e p o s its to th e s o u th .
le t
us
ju s t th e
a s s e d im e n ts , s h e lly
is n o d i s p u t e a b o u t t h i s s i d e o f t h e
in te r p r e ta tio n , n o r w ith d e v e lo p e d to
so
in te rtid a l a n d
and
th e
o ffsh o re
flu v ia tile
d e p o s its
(c o n tin e n ta l)
TH E
PR O CESS
O F
INTERPRETATION UJ -I
53
S E D IM E N T A T IO N
1 UJ
oc
O < t-
§
ow X z 10 IV
111 Q
O
UL. f o *
-
INTERPRETATION
2
UJ
UJ
U
Z3 _ )
x £ i/> e e u_
> ::d g l a u c o n i t i c
f ig u r e
RECORD
cl a ys
C y c l i c s e d i m e n t a t i o n a n d ‘e v e n t ’ c o r r e l a t i o n th e I s le o f W ig h t , s o u th e r n E n g la n d
in t h e E o c e n e o f
O v e r a p e r io d o f m a n y y e a r s I h a v e h a d a s u c c e s s io n o f r e s e a r c h s tu d e n ts
w o rk in g
on
th e
E ocene
s tra ta
of
th e
Is le o f W ig h t, o ff
th e s o u th c o a s t o f E n g la n d . N o d o u b t w h e n th e i r th e s e s e v e n tu a lly a p p e a r t h e y w ill c o n t r a d i c t m y o v e r s i m p li f ie d id e a s o n t h e m a t t e r , but
th is
seem s
to
me
an
id e a l
s t r a t i g r a p h y ’. C y c l i c s e d i m e n t a t i o n w ith and
th e
s u c c e s s io n
at
th e
p la c e
to
d e m o n s tra te
east en d
o f th e
is la n d
la r g e ly
t h a t a t th e w e st e n d la r g e ly c o n tin e n ta l. C o r r e la tio n
is , f o r
th e
‘e v e n t
h a s lo n g b e e n re c o g n is e d h e re ,
m o s t p a r t , im p o s s ib le . C o r r e l a t i o n
by
m a rin e , b y fo s sils
lith o lo g y a lw a y s
le a d s o n e in to a n im p o s s ib le ta n g le . T h e r e a r e b a s ic a lly th r e e k in d s o f s e d im e n t in v o lv e d (fig u re 7 .2 ) : (i) c r o s s - b e d d e d y e l l o w a n d b u f f s a n d s ; ( ii) l a m i n a t e d b e d s o f a l t e r n a tin g
la y e rs o f c la y
(o r lig n ite ) a n d
sand; and
( iii ) g l a u c o n i t i c o r
s a n d y c la y s w i t h m a r i n e fo s s ils . I f o n e t r ie s t o c o r r e l a t e o n e o f th e s e (sa y th e one
la m in a te d b ed s) fro m
one end
fin d s t h a t th e r e a r e ju s t to o m a n y
o f th e
is la n d to th e o th e r ,
u n its a t th e e a s t e n d . T h e
M A R X IS T
p a ra d o x ic a l
S T R A T IG R A P H Y
s o lu tio n ,
it
seem s
AND
to
TH E
m e,
GOLDEN
is
to
65
S P IK E
c o rre la te
th e
u n lik e
l i t h o l o g i e s a s s h o w n i n f i g u r e 7 .2 . T h e g l a u c o n i t i c c l a y s a t t h e e a s t end
s h o u ld
w est en d .
th e re fo re It m ay
‘m a r i n e - n e s s ’. W e
be
e q u a te d
b e e x p re sse d a re
th e n
w ith
as a
th e
la m in a te d
c o rre la tio n
c o rre la tin g
beds a t
th e
o f th e d e g re e s o f
e q u iv a le n t
p o in ts
on
th e
c y c le . A n y w a y , it se em s to w o r k ! T h is h a s , o f c o u rs e , b e e n d o n e b efo re
e ls e w h e re ,
but
th e
p rin c ip le
is n o t ,
I
b e lie v e ,
s u ffic ie n tly
a p p re c ia te d . U n d o u b te d ly , c o m p a r a tiv e ly s u d d e n a n d v e r y w id e s p r e a d e v e n ts , such
as
d u rin g
m a jo r th e
m a rin e
e a r t h ’s
C e n o m a n ia n
tra n s g re s s io n s ,
h is to ry .
tr a n s g re s s io n ,
T he
d id
m ost
occur at fa m o u s
e x e m p lifie d
by
v a rio u s
of
p la te
th e s e
ti m e s is
3 .1 , w h e r e
th e L a te
C r e ta c e o u s s e d im e n ts re s t, w ith m a r k e d u n c o n f o r m ity , o n th e P r e c a m b r i a n r o c k s o f t h e B o h e m i a n M a s s i f . T o c a l l i t t h e ‘C e n o m a n i a n tr a n s g re s s io n * A lb ia n th e
or
is s o m e t h i n g o f a n o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , f o r i t is o f t e n
T u ro n ia n
b e g in n in g
a lm o s t a ll
of
over
in
L a te
th e
age,
but
a
m a jo r
C r e ta c e o u s tim e s
w o rld .
tra n s g re s s io n
seem s
I t p re s u m a b ly
to
at
have
r e p re s e n ts a n
about
o c c u rre d epoch
of
g e o m o rp h o lo g ic a l m a tu r ity a n d p la te s ta b ility . L ith o lo g ic a l
c o n tin u ity
or
m a rin e
tra n s g re s s io n s
or
o ro g e n ic
p h a s e s o r a n y o t h e r p h y s ic a l p h e n o m e n o n , m u s t a lw a y s b e m e a s u r e d ( in
th e
o rg a n ic
absen ce
o f a n y th in g
e v o lu tio n . T h e
is t h a t w e k n o w
th a t th e y
E u ro p e
in spite of t h e
s ta rte d
and
s tra tig ra p h y
ended we
are
b e tte r)
a g a in s t th e
p o in t a b o u t th e are of
s c a le p r o v i d e d
U rg o n ia n
about
th e sa m e a g e th ro u g h o u t
f a c t t h a t f o s s il e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h e m at
d iffe re n t
p rim a rily
tim e s
by
lim e s to n e s , say ,
in
c o n c e rn e d
d iffe re n t
w ith
th e
to h a v e
p la c e s .
In
s ta rts a n d
th e
f in is h e s , n o t w i t h th e m o n o t o n o u s m id d le s . A
tra n s g re s s io n
is , b y
d e fin itio n ,
tr a n s g re s s iv e .
I
trie d
to
show
in c h a p te r 4 th a t s u c h e v e n ts m a y h a v e h a p p e n e d , o n a g e o lo g ic a l tim e
s c a le ,
u n sou nd
v ery
q u ic k ly
in d e e d .
N e v e rth e le s s ,
it
is
th e o re tic a lly
to d e fin e w h a t w e w a n t to b e a s y n c h r o n o u s h o riz o n a t a
le v e l t h a t w e s u s p e c t t o b e d i a c h r o n o u s . W e c o m e t h e r e f o r e to t h e p r o b le m
of
d e fin in g
th e
in d iv id u a l s tr a tig ra p h ic a l
u n it,
w h ic h
is
th e b a s is o f n e a r ly a ll o u r tr o u b le s . L e t u s c o n s id e r t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l u n i t in h i s t o r i c a l te rm s th a t c a n
b e m o r e e a s ily a p p r e c i a te d
th a n
th e u n im a g in a b le
v is ta s o f g e o lo g ic a l tim e . L e t u s ta k e a s a n e x a m p le th e E d w a r d ia n E r a , s till w e ll r e m e m b e r e d b y m a n y li v i n g t o d a y . F irs t
le t
us
c o n s id e r
how
we
d e fin e
th e
E d w a rd ia n
E ra .
Its
66
TH E
NATURE O F TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L . R E C O R D
l o g i c a l b e g i n n i n g w a s t h e c o m i n g t o t h e t h r o n e o f t h a t ‘c o m f o r t a b l y d is re p u ta b le ’ m o n a rc h ,
E d w a rd
V II
on
th e
22nd
Ja n u a ry
1901.
T h e m o re tid y m in d e d a m o n g u s fin d it m o re c o n v e n ie n t to th in k o f th e h is
E d w a rd ia n
m o th e r
w as
E r a a s s ta r tin g o n th e
s till
o b v io u s ly ,
1st J a n u a r y ' 1 9 0 0 , w h e n
if o b s c u re ly , o n
p e d a n ts w o u ld in s is t, h o w e v e r t h a t th e
th e
th ro n e .
1st J a n u a r y
tr u e b e g in n in g o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry a n d
1901
T he
w a s th e
th e r e f o r e th e o b v io u s
‘n a t u r a l ’ m a r k e r p o i n t f o r a n e w e r a . So w e have
th re e
th e E d w a rd ia n
p o s s ib le p o in ts f o r d e f in in g
th e
b e g in n in g o f
E r a . B u t d e f i n i n g t h e e n d o f t h a t e r a is e v e n m o r e
d iffic u lt. L o g ic a lly , I s u p p o s e , it w a s o ti th e 6 t h
M ay
1910, w hen
H a i l e y ’s C o m e t w a s m a k i n g o n e o f i t s o n c e - a - c e n t u r y v i s i t s t o o u r s k ie s t o jo in e d
b la z e h is
fo rth
th e
d e a th
o f p rin c e s , a n d
in te r n a tio n a l a n c e s to rs .
s in g le o r g a n is m it h a s b e e n
m ay
n o t seem
to
K in g
In d e e d , th o u g h
E d w a rd
V II
th e d e a th
of a
b e v e r y s ig n if ic a n t s c ie n tific a lly ,
w e ll a r g u e d b y G e o rg e D a n g e r f ie ld t h a t th is o n e e v e n t
d id , in e ffe c t, m a r k
th e e n d o r a t le a s t th e b e g in n in g o f th e e n d ,
o f t h a t r e m a r k a b l e p e r i o d o f h u m a n h i s t o r y d o m i n a t e d b y ‘L i b e r a l E n g l a n d ’. B u t m o st o f u s w o u ld p r o b a b ly s a y t h a t th e E d w a r d ia n E r a e n d e d w ith
th e b u lle ts t h a t G a v rilo P rin c ip
duke
F e rd in a n d
am ong
th e
u s m ig h t p la c e
o f th e
2 8 th
fire d in to th e b o d y o f A r c h
Jun e
1914. T h e
m o re
c h a u v in is tic
th e m a rk e r in th e c a le n d a r fo r 4 th
A ugust
sa m e y e a r w h e n G r e a t B rita in e n te re d th e w a r a g a in s t th e
c e n tra l w hen
on
p o w e rs , o r tw o y e a r s la te r a t d a w n
th e
o p e n in g o f th e B a ttle o f th e
on
th e
1st J u l y
S o m m e d e s tro y e d
1916,
t h e liv e s
a n d t h e illu s io n s o f a g e n e r a t i o n o f B r iti s h y o u t h . A m e ric a n s , p ro b a b ly S ta te s
w ho
say
a ls o
used
t h a t it e n d e d
e n te re d
th e
w ar.
th e
on
te rm
2nd
M any
‘E d w a r d i a n
A p ril
m o re
(o f
1917, w h en v a rie d
E r a ’,
w o u ld
th e
U n ite d
p o litic a l
b e lie f s )
w o u ld a r g u e t h a t th e o b v io u s d iv in d in g lin e in h u m a n h is to r y w a s th e
O c to b e r
R e v o lu tio n
w h ic h
to o k
p la c e
in
R u s s ia , in
its p a r a
d o x ic a l w a y , d u rin g N o v e m b e r 1917. S o w e see th e d iffic u ltie s o f d e f in in g e v e n a r e c e n t p e r io d o f e a r th h i s t o r y ', a n d a b ly
th e p ro ta g o n is ts o f th e v a rie d v ie w p o in ts w o u ld p r o b
( if it m a t t e r e d
a t a ll) a r g u e j u s t a s f ie r c e ly a s s t r a t i g r a p h e r s
o v e r t h e b o u n d a r i e s . B u t h i s t o r y is s i m p l e , i t c a n
be m e a su re d o u t
b y n e a t d a t e s . S t r a t i g r a p h i c a l b o u n d a r i e s , w i t h n o r e a l d a t e s a t a ll , a re
m uch
m o re
w o rth y
and
n e e d fu l
th e s e s p e ll o u t o u r b a s ic la n g u a g e .
o f v e h e m e n t d is c u s s io n , fo r
M A R X IS T
S T R A T IG R A P H Y
AND
TH E
G O LD EN
67
S P IK E
B u t h a v in g u s e d th e E d w a r d ia n E r a a s a n a n a lo g y in th e d e f in i tio n
of
s tra tig ra p h ic a l
p ro b le m
b o u n d a rie s ,
le t
us
c o n s id e r
th e
re la te d
o f h o w w e r e c o g n is e it. S u p p o s e n o r e a l d a t e s w e r e a v a i l
a b le , a s w i th o u r o ld e r e r a s , th e n w e w o u ld h a v e t o re c o g n is e i t b y th e p h e n o m e n a o f o r g a n ic e v o lu tio n . W e c a n q u ic k ly d isp o se o f th e m o s t o b v io u s z o n e fo s s il, t h e k i n g h i m s e l f , in t h a t h e h a d li v e d f o r 6 0 y e a r s b e f o r e h i s e r a b e g a n a n d e ra
a lre a d y
w e h a v e s e e n t h a t h is
is c o m m o n l y r e g a r d e d a s l a s t i n g s e v e r a l y e a r s a f t e r h i s e x t i n c
t i o n . W h a t is m o r e , t h e E d w a r d i a n E r a is r e c o g n i s e d a n d r e c o g n i s a b le
in
m any
p a r ts o f th e w o rld
w h e re th e
‘z o n e f o s s i l ’ n e v e r s e t
fo o t. W e can such
p erh ap s
a s c lo th e s ,
re c o g n is e th e e r a b y o t h e r o r g a n ic p h e n o m e n a
lite ra tu re
c irc u m s ta n c e , a n d and
th e
‘T e d d y
and
m u s i c . B u t E l g a r ’s p o m p o s i t y
G a l s w o r t h y ’s s a g a
are
s till v e ry
B o y ’ s ty le o f d re s s r e a p p e a r e d
m uch
in
th e
and
w ith
us
f if tie s a s a
s o rt o f a ta v is tic fla s h b a c k . W h a t w e re p r o b a b ly th e m o s t im p o r ta n t c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e e r a , th e so c ia l a n d p o litic a l a ttitu d e s , a r e n o t fo s s ilis a b le a t a ll . A H
th e s e
th o s e w e h a v e f a r th e r M any
o f th e
p ro b le m s a r e e x a c tly c o m p a r a b le w ith
back
d o w n th e
a rg u m e n ts o v e r th e
s tra tig ra p h ic a l c o lu m n .
S ilu ria n /D e v o n ia n
b o u n d ary ,
f o r e x a m p l e , r e l a t e t o w h e t h e r o n e ’s f a v o u r i t e f o s s i ls a r e f i s h , g r a p to lit e s , tr i l o b i t e s o r b r a c h i o p o d s . I o n c e h e a r d a v e r y d i s t i n g u i s h e d p a la e o n to lo g is t a r g u e t h a t th e b a s e o f th e D e v o n ia n w a s o b v io u s ly a t o n e p a r t i c u l a r le v e l b e c a u s e h e h a d tr ilo b ite
changed
h is to ric a l
a t th a t h o riz o n
p a tte r n , v e te ra n
car
e n th u s ia s ts
e v e n th e m o s t re g a l o f th e m , a n d fro m
19 05 to
1918. F o r th e m
h is to ry w a s th e o n e in m o to r-c a rs
to
be
sho w n
th a t o n e
s p e cies o f
in to a n o th e r . S im ila rly w ith ig n o re
a ll o th e r
our
f o s s il s ,
d e f i n e ‘E d w a r d i a n ’ a s t h e p e r i o d
th e
c ritic a l s ta r tin g
d a te
in h u m a n
1 8 9 6 w h e n B r itis h la w w a s c h a n g e d t o a llo w
d riv e n
w ith o u t a
m an
p re c e d in g
th e m
on
fo o t
c a r r y i n g a r e d fla g . O ne to lo g y
o f th e
m ost
p u b lis h e d
in
in te r e s tin g re c e n t
p a p e rs o n
y e ars
w as
s tra tig ra p h ic a l p a la e o n
one
on
th e
d a tin g
o f o ld
m i n i n g c a m p s in t h e A m e r i c a n W e s t b y m e a n s o f b e e r b o t t l e s a n d b e e r c a n s . T h e o ld -fa s h io n e d 7 .3 a ) w a s r e p l a c e d a b o u t v id e d b o ttle s
w ith
a
rim
becam e
o v er’ b y
th e
fo r a
b o ttle , s h a p e d to
m e ta l c a p
m a c h in e -m a d e
beer
p a p e r la b e l ( f ig u r e
can
ta k e a c o rk
(fig u re
1 9 0 0 b y t h e b o t t l e (s till h a n d - m a d e ) p r o
w ith
and
(fig u re th e re
s o ld e re d
7 .3 6 ) I n w as a
edges
7 .3 c ) . D u r i n g t h e t h i r t i e s
and
th e
1 9 2 0 s th e
p ro g re s s iv e an
‘t a k e
u n fo s s ilis a b le
( p re s u m a b ly a f te r th e
68
TH E
fig u r e 7 .3 .
NATURE O F TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L
RECORD
B e e r b o ttle s a n d b e e r c a n s c o n s id e r e d as s tr a tig r a p h ic a l p a la e o n
a,
to lo g y .
h a n d -m a d e b o ttle fo r co r k ;
c,
b,
m a c h in e -m a d e b o t d e
fo r m e ta l c a p ; e a r l y t in c a n w i t h s o l d e r e d j o i n t s a n d u n p r e s e r v e d p a p e r la b e l; c a n s e a l e d b y c r i m p i n g w i t h la b e l p r i n t e d o n m e ta l;
d,
e, w i t h
t e a r - o f f m e t a l f la p , (a to
d a fte r
H u n t, 1 9 59)
e n d o f p r o h ib itio n ) th is w a s r e p la c e d b y th e c a n s e a le d b y c r im p in g and
w ith
th e la b e l p r in te d
d ire c tly o n
to th e
m e ta l
( f ig u r e
7 .3
d).
S in c e th e a b o v e p a p e r w a s p u b lis h e d in 1 9 5 9 , a f u r t h e r e v o lu tio n a r y s t e p w a s t a k e n w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n in 1 9 6 7 o f t h e b e e r c a n w i t h a te a r - o f f fla p s ta rte d th e w as
( fig u re
fo rm e r w a s b e in g a ls o
h e r e 3 in
a n o th e r w h ic h
r e c a p itu la te d th e e a rly a
7.3e).
S u b s e q u e n tly , in
19 71 , th e c ir c u la r rin g
t o b e r e p l a c e d b y a D - s h a p e d r i n g , s in c e i t w a s f o u n d t h a t e x te n s iv e ly
in te re s tin g
th e
th e ir
e a rly
in
p a rk in g
e v o lu tio n a ry
u sed
b ra n c h ,
beer cans
b e e r-b o ttle
(lik e s o m a n y
a n c e s try .
In
m e te rs ! T h e re not
e f fic ie n t o n e
f o s s i ls )
o th e r w o rd s, m a n y
b e e r c a n s im ita te d th e b o ttle s h a p e , a lth o u g h
p a rtic u la rly
illu s tra te d
o rg a n ic
fo r th e ir m a te ria l.
{M any
of
it w a s n o t o f u s — o ld
s o ld ie r s p a r t i c u l a r l y — r e m e m b e r t h i s p r i m i t i v e s h a p e s u r v i v in g in a fo rm
of
e v o lu tio n a ry
c o n s e rv a tis m
as
th e
w e ll-k n o w n
and
w e ll-
h a t e d t i n s o f ‘B r a s s o ’ m e t a l p o l i s h ) . B e e r c a n s o f t h e s e v a r i o u s k i n d s h a v e a c tu a lly b e e n u s e d to d a t e s e d im e n ts p r e s e n tly b e in g d e p o s ite d o ff B a ja C a lifo rn ia . B e s id e s
b e in g
a
b e a u tifu l
illu s tra tio n
of
s tra ig h tfo rw a rd
s tra ti
g r a p h ic a l p a la e o n to lo g y , th e b o ttle s a n d c a n s a ls o d e m o n s tr a te v e r y c l e a r l y m a n y o f t h e o t h e r a s s o c i a t e d p r o b le m s . T h u s ( lik e a ll o t h e r f o s s ils ) t h e y a r e f a c i e s f o s s i l s . T h e y a r e v e r y a b u n d a n t o n t h e d e s e r t s u rfa c e s o f th e A m e r ic a n s o u th -w e s t, b u t a r e p r e s u m a b ly r a r e a n d
M A R X IS T
S T R A T IG R A P H Y
AND
TH E
GOLD EN
69
S P IK E
lo c a lis e d in d e e p s e a d e p o s i ts . T h e y m u s t b e le s s c o m m o n in w i n e d r in k in g
re g io n s a n d
c o u n trie s .
T hey
m ig ra tio n
and
v irtu a lly
a ls o
d is p la y
unknow n a ll
th e
d ia c h ro n is m . T h u s
in s tr ic tly
M oham m edan
s tra tig ra p h ic a l d ra w b a c k s
th e
beer can
e v o lv e d
in
of
N o rth
A m e r i c a in t h e t w e n t i e s a n d t h i r t i e s , b u t (if m y m e m o r y s e rv e s m e c o rre c tly ) d id n o t r e a c h E u r o p e u n til a f te r th e S e c o n d W o rld W a r , except as
e rra tic
s p e c im e n s
W h a t is m o r e , t h e y f o s s i ls
fro m
th e
p la s tic
e a s ily p r e s e r v e d . I n
tr a n s p o r te d
are no w
by
A m e ric a n
s e rv ic e m e n .
s u ffe rin g s e v e re c o m p e titio n as in d e x
b o ttle , w h ic h
is
(re g re tta b ly )
f a c t t h e r e is a h u m o r o u s F r e n c h
m uch
m o re
c la s s ific a tio n
o f th e to p m o s t s tr a tig r a p h ic a l s ta g e in to
Poubellien superieur ( a plastique) Poubellien inferieur (sans plastique) o r in o th e r w o rd s U p p e r d u s tb in ia n (w ith p la s tic ) L o w e r d u s tb in ia n
( w ith o u t p la s tic )
S o w e s e e t h a t a ll t h e p r o b l e m s o f c o r r e l a t i o n a r e j u s t a s r e a l in recen t
h is to ry
as
th e y
a re
in
th e
s tra tig ra p h ic a l
re co rd , o n ce
we
h a v e lo s t t h e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e d a t e a t t h e t o p o f t h e n e w s p a p e r o r le tte r . B u t s till th e
p r in c ip le
of dependence on
o r g a n ic e v o lu tio n
p r o v e s th e m o s t s a tis fa c to ry . O n c e th e b e e r c a n h a d b e e n in v e n te d , t h a t is e v o l v e d , i n o n e p l a c e , i t w a s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t i t w o u l d e v e n tu a lly
ta k e
th e p la c e o f th e b o ttle a ll o v e r th e w o rld , th o u g h
th e
p r o c e s s is s t i l l g o i n g o n . I t is t h e s t a r t l i n g a n d c o m p l e t e c h a n g e o v e r a l a r g e a r e a t h a t w e h a v e m o s t t o d i s t r u s t . I f t h e P a l a e o l i t h i c s t o n e a x e is i m m e d i a t e l y s u c c e e d e d in a s e c tio n b y a p l a s t i c b u c k e t , t h e n w e m u s t s u s p e c t a gap.
W e m u s t n o t u s e th is s e c tio n
to d e fin e
o u r b o u n d a ry o r w e
w ill o v e r l o o k n o t o n l y t h e E d w a r d i a n E r a b u t m o s t o f t h e r e s t o f h u m a n h i s t o r y b e s id e s . Y e t m a n y p a l a e o n t o l o g i s t s a n d s t r a t i g r a p h e r s s ti ll ta l k o f d e f in in g b o u n d a r i e s a t ‘f a u n a 1 b r e a k s ’ a s t h o u g h
th e re w a s a n e w
c re a tio n
a t e v e r y s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l b o u n d a r y a n d t h e fo s s ils a b o v e t h e b o u n d a r y had
no
th a t
I
a n c e sto rs . T h is m ay
c a ll
‘t h e
is a l l p a r t o f
qu est
fo r th e
th e
a ttitu d e
g o ld e n
in
s tr a tig ra p h y
h o r i z o n 5. T h i s
is t h e
u n s p o k e n a s s u m p tio n w h ic h se e m s to u n d e r lie m u c h s tr a tig ra p h ic a l t h o u g h t a n d w h i c h s a y s in e f f e c t t h a t if o n e lo o k s ( a n d a r g u e s ) lo n g enough day
one
and w ill
h a m m e rs com e
S ilu ria n /D e v o n ia n
h a rd
upon
e n o u g h , th e n th e
b o u n d a ry .
g o ld e n
e v e n tu a lly
h o riz o n
th a t
Ft is t h e a s s u m p t i o n
one re a lly
g lo rio u s
is
th e
t h a t th e m a g ic
70
T H E
NATURE O F TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
m o m e n t th a t w as th e b e g in n in g o f th e D e v o n ia n w a s o rd a in e d by G o d o r M a r x lo n g b e f o r e M a n s t a r t e d liis in v e s tig a tio n s . The
o n l y r e a l a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e ‘g o l d e n h o r i z o n ’ is t h e
s p i k e 1. T h i s
has
none
of
th e
m y s tic is m
about
it,
but
‘g o l d e n
has
been
h a m m e r e d in b y a p r a g m a t i c h u m a n b e in g , a f t e r c a r e f u l c h o ic e o f th e m o s t s u ita b le
s e c tio n a v a ila b le . M a n y
c o u n tr ie s , e s p e c ia ll y o n
th e E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t , s till f a v o u r t h e " s tr a to ty p e ’ c o n c e p t, w h e r e by
a
s tra tig ra p h ic a l
re fe re n c e
to
a
d iv is io n
ty p e s e c tio n
(n o rm a lly
a
s ta g e )
is
d e fin e d
o r s tra to ty p e , a t o r n e a r th e
by
lo c a lity
m e n tio n e d i n th e s ta g e n a m e . T h i s o b je c tiv e , t h o u g h s till s o u g h t a s th e
panacea
fo r
a l l s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l i ll s , h a s
cau sed
m any
of
th e
p r o b le m s t h a t a f flic t u s t o d a y . T h u s t h e B a c c h a n a lia n a n d M a c h i a v e llia n S ta g e s , t h o u g h th e o r e ti c a lly a d j a c e n t in tim e , w ill in e v ita b ly be
d e fin e d
at
th e ir
tw o
u n lik e ly t h a t th e t o p
d iffe re n t
ty p e
lo c a liti e s .
It
is e x t r e m e l y
o f th e B a c c h a n a l i a n a t its ty p e lo c a lity w ill
e x a c tly c o r r e s p o n d w it h th e b a s e o f t h e M a c h ia v e llia n i n its h o m e g ro u n d . T h e re tw e e n
m ay
be an
o v e rla p , w ith
th e p ro ta g o n is ts o f th e
r e s u lta n t a rg u m e n ts b e
tw o s ta g e s (lik e t h e
c la s s i c d i s p u t e
b e tw e e n S e d g w ic k a n d M u r c h i s o n in t h e h e r o ic a g e o f g e o lo g y ). A lt e r n a tiv e ly , s t r a t a w ill l a t e r b e d is c o v e r e d t h a t a p p e a r t o f a ll in to th e
tim e
g a p b e tw e e n t h e tw o s ta g e s . T h e
re s u lta n t p s e u d o
s c ie n tific a r g u m e n t s w ill t h e n c o n c e r n th e m s e lv e s w i t h th e m e a n i n g le s s
q u e s tio n
as
to
w h e th e r th e
fa u n a
of
th e
in te rv e n in g
stra ta
p e r t a i n m o r e t o t h e s t a g e b e lo w ' o r t o t h e s t a g e a b o v e . W e a r e t h e n b a c k t o t h e ‘q u e s t f o r t h e g o l d e n h o r i z o n ’ a g a i n , w i t h t h e i l l o g i c a l p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e r e a l l y is a n a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n . B r itis h J u r a s s ic w o r k e r s h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y d is illu s io n e d a b o u t t h e s t r a t o t y p e b e c a u s e , t h o u g h J u r a s s ic s t r a t i g r a p h y h a s a lw a y s le d th e
re s t o f th e c o lu m n , m a n y
d e riv e d fro m a
F re n c h m a n The
w ith
su ch
c la s s i c J u r a s s i c s t a g e s w e r e
( A l c i d e d ’O r b i g n y ) w h o n e v e r v i s i t e d
B ritis h
s tra to ty p e
o f th e
E n g l is h p la c e - n a m e s (lik e K im m e r id g e a n d B a th ) b y
M e s o z o ic
m a tte rs )
C o m m itte e
th e re fo re
co ncept as
(w h o
fo u n d
i t is u s u a l l y
it
E n g la n d .
c o n c e rn e d
im p o s s ib le
p ro c la im e d
on
th e m s e lv e s
to
accept
th e
th e
c o n tin e n t.
T h e y c h o s e i n s t e a d t o d e f in e o n l y o n e b o u n d a r y ( th e lo w e r) o f e a c h d iv is io n
and
h y p o th e tic a l) a p p ro p ria te has
th e
to
d e fin e
d riv e n
it b y
in to
s e c tio n . T h i s
im m e n s e
th e
a
‘g o l d e n m ost
s p ik e ’ ( u n f o r t u n a t e l y
s u ita b le
h o riz o n
‘t o p l e s s ’ f a s h i o n , a s i t
a d v a n ta g e
th a t
th e
ba se
in
th e
has been
of one
o n ly m o st
c a lle d ,
d iv is io n
th e n
a u t o m a t i c a l l y d e f in e s th e to p o f t h e d iv is io n b e lo w . T h e r e c a n b e
M A R X IS T
S T R A T IG R A P H Y
AND
TO E
GOLD EN
S P IK E
71
n o f u r t h e r a r g u m e n t s a b o u t g a p s o r o v e r la p s . T h e b a s e o f t h e u p p e r d iv is io n c a n b e d e f in e d a s p r e c is e ly a s t h e lo w e s t g r a in o f s e d im e n t a b o v e t h e g o l d e n s p i k e , s o t h a t e v e n i f t h e r e is a b r e a k a t t h e l e v e l c h o s e n , th e d e fi n itio n w ill s till s t a n d a n d m is s in g s t r a t a b e lo w
th e
s p ik e w ill a u t o m a t i c a l l y b e lo n g t o th e lo w e r d iv is io n . T h i s w h o le i d e a w a s s u b s e q u e n tly t a k e n u p b y t h e S t r a t i g r a p h i c a l C o m m i t t e e o f th e G e o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f T e n d o n a n d th e ir
'P r o v i s i o n a l
C ode
of
S tra tig ra p h ic a l
p u b lis h e d in
N o m e n c l a t u r e ’.
T h is
c h a p t e r is , i n e f f e c t , a n u n o f f i c i a l p a r t o f o u r e f f o r t s t o p r o s e l y t i s e th e
id e a a r o u n d
th e w o r ld .*
It
im m e d ia te ly p ro te c ts u s fro m
th e
im p o s s ib le s i tu a tio n o n e m e e ts in t h e l i t e r a t u r e w it h r e m a r k s s u c h a s : ‘T h e A a l e n i a n o f M r X , w h i c h is t h e B a j o c i a n o f M r Y , s h o u l d in f a c t b e r e g a r d e d a s p a r t o f t h e T o a r c i a n ’. N o t o n ly a r e d if f e r e n t n a m e s u s e d fo r th e sa m e th in g , d iffe re n t th in g s a r e k n o w n b y th e sa m e n a m e . T h u s c e r ta in o f th e J u ra s s ic s ta g e n a m e s u se d b y so m e F re n c h
w o rk e rs
do not even
o v e rla p
In t h e i r u s a g e b e t w e e n
one
sp e c ia lis t a n d a n o th e r . Id e a lly , th e g o ld e n
s p ik e
( o r ‘m a r k e r p o i n t ’ a s i t is m o r e p r o
s a ic a lly c a lle d ) s h o u ld b e c h o s e n in a s e c tio n w h e r e s e d im e n ta tio n s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a s n e a r l y c o n t i n u o u s a s is e v e r p o s s i b l e , w h e r e th e re
are
no
m a rk e d
li th o lo g ic a l
changes
and
w h e re
th e re
a re
u n b r o k e n e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e s i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f f o s s i ls . I t is n o g o o d d e f i n i n g a c h r o n o s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n , say,
th e
M a c h ia v e llia n
j u n c t i o n o f th e E lg in
and
th e
B a c c h a n a lia n
at
th e
lith o lo g ic a l
M a rb le a n d th e G eo rg es S a n d s. T h e fa u n a s
a n d / o r flo ra s o f th e s e tw o f o r m a tio n s a r e lik e lv t o b e d if f e r e n t f o r p u r e l y e c o lo g ic a l o r p r e s e n t a t i o n a l r e a s o n s (in f a c t t h e m a tio n
lo w e r f o r
in th is c a s e , h a v i n g b e e n m e ta m o r p h o s e d , w ill p r e s u m a b ly
h a v e n o r e c o g n i s a b l e fo s s ils a n y w a y ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e w i l l b e a m a r k e d ‘f a u n a ) b r e a k ’ a n d t h e b o u n d a r y ' is a u t o m a t i c a l l y s u s p e c t . I t w o u ld b e m u c h l e t t e r t o c h o o s e , n o t t h e le v e l w h e r e th e g e n u s
Euphoria is Amnesia ( a s o f u n ifo rm (w h ic h
su cceeded
s u d d e n ly
i n f i g u r e 3 .4 :1
and
by
2 on
th e
to ta lly
u n re la te d
genus
le f t), b u t w it h in a f o r m a tio n
lith o lo g y w h e r e , f o r e x a m p le , th e s p e c ie s
Abra cadabra
r e a l l y e x is t s ) p a s s e s i n s e n s i b l y i n t o a d e s c e n d e n t s p e c i e s o r
s u b s p e c ie s b y a p r o g r e s s iv e s ta tis t ic a l s w in g in th e u n i t c h a r a c t e r s .
*
The
firs t in te r n a tio n a l d e c is io n
to
d e fin e
a b o u n d a ry
in
th is w a y w as
ta k e n a t th e 2 4 th I n te r n a tio n a l G e o lo g ic a l C o n g re s s in 1 9 7 2 f o r th e S ilu ria n D e v o n ia n
ju n c tio n .
A p p ro p ria te ly , a n d
o n o m a to p o e ic a lly ,
th e
f i r s t 'g o l d e n
s p i k e ’ is t o b e h a m m e r e d i n a t a l o c a l i t y i n C z e c h o s l o v a k i a k n o w n a s K l o n k .
72
TH E
NATURE O F TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
I f t h e c h o s e n s e c tio n h a s t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s ib le d iv e r s ity a n d a b u n d a n c e o f r a p i d l y e v o l v i n g f o s s i ls , w e c a n t h e n h o p e f o r t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s ib le n u m b e r o f d if f e r e n t m e a n s f o r c o r r e l a t i o n . E ven
if, t h r o u g h
w e a re p e rsu a d e d
a r g u m e n t s o f h is to r y , p r i o r i t y o r c o n v e n ie n c e , to c h o o s e a s e c tio n a n d
a h o r i z o n w h i c h is le s s
t h a n p e r f e c t in th e a b o v e c h a r a c te r s , th is s till d o e s n o t d e t r a c t f r o m th e v a lu e o f t h e g o ld e n s p ik e a s t h e u l t i m a t e a r b i t e r f o r a p a r t i c u l a r b o u n d a r y . W e a r e n o t t o k n o w t h a t n e w m e th o d s o f c o r r e la ti o n w il l not
be
d e v e lo p e d
d e v e lo p e d
(a s
sp o res,
h v s tric h o s p h e re s ,
e tc .,
have
been
in r e c e n t y e a rs ) t o c o r r e la te th e le a s t p r o m is in g - lo o k in g
f o r m a tio n s . U l t i m a t e l y p e r h a p s w e s h a ll h a v e a l i t t l e b la c k b o x i n t o w h ic h w e o n ly h a v e t o p o p o u r r o c k s p e c im e n f o r its a g e t o b e r e a d a u to m a tic a lly
on
a
d ia l.
E ven
th e n
o u r m a r k e r p o i n t w ill h a v e
p r e s e r v e d f o r u s a s t a b i l i t y i n s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l n o m e n c l a t u r e a n d w il l h a v e saved us fro m
th e u t t e r l y w a s te f u l v a c illa tio n s in o p in io n a n d
fa s h io n t h a t tr o u b le u s to d a y . M o s t o f t h e t a l k a r o u n d t h e w o r l d h a s b e e n o f ‘s t a g e s ’, a s t h o u g h th e s e u n i ts , th o u g h
o f n o d e f in e d d im e n s io n s , a r e th e
u l t i m a t e in
s tr a tig r a p h ic a l c o rr e la tio n o n a w o rld -w id e sc a le . W h e n a D e v o n ia n s ta g e in C a n a d a m a y b e 1 0 0 0 0 f e e t t h i c k a n d
a J u r a s s ic s ta g e in
S i c i l y m a y b e t h i n n e r t h a n it s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a m m o n i t e s , w e c a n n o t a l t o g e t h e r i g n o r e s h e e r s iz e . W h a t is m o r e , a T e r t i a r y s t a g e l o o k s v e r y m u c h lik e a z o n e t h r o u g h M e s o z o ic e y e s , a n d w it h P a la e o z o ic s p e c t a c l e s a J u r a s s i c s t a g e is a t m o s t a n
O r d o v i c i a n z o n e . A ls o it
m u s t b e sa id
are
now
b e in g
th a t
J u ra s s ic z o n e s, w h ic h
re c o g n ise d
on
s o m e th in g
th e b e st k n o w n , a r e
a p p ro a c h in g
a
w o rld -w id e
s c a le . I n p r a c t ic e , th e r e f o r e , w e m u s t g o to t h e s m a lle s t c o n v e n ie n t u n i t a s o u r b a s is o f c o r r e la ti o n . T h e s m a lle r u n i t m u s t d e fin e th e la r g e r . T h u s t h e b a s e o f th e E p ic e n e S y s te m m u s t b e d e f in e d a t t h e b o t t o m o f its b a s a l B in o m ia l S e rie s , a n d
th e
b a se o f th a t S e rie s m u s t b e
d e fin e d a t th e b o tto m o f th e b a s a l P a r a Z o n e . U ltim a te ly w e h a v e t h e b a s e o f t h e J u r a s s ic d e f in e d b y a s in g le b e d d in g p l a n e o n t h e coast w o rld
of
S o m e r s e t,
w h e re
we
to o k
th e
J u ra s s ic
to se e it d u r in g o u r c e le b ra tio n s o f th e
b ir th o f W illia m
S m i th in
s p e c ia lis ts o f t h e b ic e n te n a r y o f th e
1 9 6 9 . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w e s till h a v e i n t e r
n a t i o n a l m e e t i n g s p l a n n e d t o d is c u s s t h i s v e r y m a t t e r . I t d o e s n o t m a tte r
w h e th e r
th e
g o ld e n
F ra n c e
o r in
s p ik e
is h a m m e r e d
E n g la n d
o r in
a rb itra ry
d e c is io n , s t o p a r g u i n g a b o u t w o r d s a n d
in
C h i n a , so lo n g a s w e
so m e w h e re can
in
m ake an
g e t o n w ith th e
M A R X IS T
S T R A T IG R A P H Y
AND
TH E
GOLD EN
S P IK E
73
m u c h m o re d iffic u lt (b u t m u c h m o re re w a rd in g ) ta s k o f c o rr e la tio n . In th e
t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o g o b a c k t o W i l l i a m fa th e r
of
m e m o ir to
s tra tig ra p h y ,
th e
and
to
first g e o lo g ic a l m a p
f in d in
h im 1815 :
S m ith ,
c o m m e n tin g “T h e
in
h is
e d g e s o f th e
s tra ta . . . a re c a lle d th e ir o u tc ro p s ; a n d
th e u n d e r e d g e o f e v e ry
s t r a t u m , b e in g t h e
t h a t b e in g g e n e ra lly
to p
o f th e n e x t, a n d
th e
b e s t d e f i n e d , is r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e f u l l e s t p a r t o f e a c h c o l o u r ” . O f c o u rs e ; W illia m
S m ith w a s d e fin in g lith o s tr a tig r a p h ic a l r a th e r th a n
c h r o n o s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l u n i t s , b u t t h e p r i n c i p l e is t h e s a m e . l e t
us
n e c e ss a ry ) in
a
m a k e t o
s e l e c t e d
Golden Spike. and
w e can
a n
d e f in e
a r b i t r a r y t h e
s e c tio n .
d e c is io n
b a s e
o f
(b y a
e v e r y
show
of hands
s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l
T h is m a y b e c a lle d th e
if
u n it
Principle of the
T h e n s tr a tig r a p h ic a l n o m e n c la tu r e c a n b e f o rg o tte n
g e t o n w ith
th e
c o rre la tio n a n d in te rp re ta tio n .
r e a l w o r k o f s t r a t i g r a p h y , w h i c h is
8 The Nature of the Control W e c o m e th e r e f o r e to s y n th e s is e t h e id e a s I h a d t r i e d t o p u t o v e r in
th e
p re c e d in g
c h a p te rs . T h e
m a in
and
v e ry
u n s a tis fy in g
con
c lu s io n t h a t I h a v e r e a c h e d m a y b e e x p r e s s e d in t h e t i t l e I s o m e tim e s g iv e t o a l e c tu r e o n fu n n y and
a b o u t th e r id ic u lo u s ly
e x tre m e ly
t h e s u b j e c t : ‘T h e r e ’s s o m e t h i n g d a m n
s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l r e c o r d ’. T h e in c o m p le te ,
w id e s p re a d ,
but
w ith
re c o rd
p a rtic u la r
s e p a ra te d
by
is s p a s m o d i c
stra ta
v a s tly
and
f o s s i ls
lo n g e r g a p s
th a n
a n y t h i n g t h a t is p r e s e r v e d . T h e s a m e s t r a t a a n d f o s s i ls , t h o u g h t o a ll i n te n ts a n d g e o lo g ic a l p u r p o s e s s y n c h r o n o u s , m u s t h a v e s p r e a d d ia c h r o n o u s ly .
T r a d itio n a l
c o n c e p ts
su ch
as
g e n tle ,
c o n tin u o u s
s e d im e n ta tio n ( a n d p e r h a p s s im ila rly c o n tin u o u s e v o lu tio n ) a r e n o t a d e q u a t e t o e x p l a i n w h a t w e s e e . N o r is t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e ‘s t r a t o ty p e ’ s a tis fa c to ry a s a m e a n s o f e s ta b lis h in g a n in te r n a tio n a l s tr a ti g r a p h i c a l l a n g u a g e . T h e r e c o r d is s p a s m o d i c a n d m u s t b e t r e a t e d a s s u c h . T h e ‘l a y e r c a k e ’ a n a l o g y j u s t w i l l n o t d o . W e m a y c o n s id e r r a th e r th e
a n a lo g y
p e rio d ic a lly in to a sh o p fo r d is p la y a n d a p ile . T h e but
th e
b e in g
b ro u g h t
r e s u l t a n t s u c c e s s i o n c e r t a i n l y l o o k s l i k e a ‘l a y e r c a k e ’,
p ro c e ss
d iffe re n t.
o f c a rp e ts
ro lle d o u t o n e b y o n e o n
of
fo rm a tio n
S u p e rfic ia lly
p a r a l le l la y e r s . B u t in
it
is
and no
th e m o re
f a c t w re k n o w
th a t
re c o rd th a n
it
p re se rv e s
a
s u c c e s s io n
a re of
th e tim e - g a p s b e tw e e n
s u c c e s s iv e l a y e r s m a y h a v e b e e n v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e . W re a l s o k n o w t h a t w h e n a n e w l a y e r a r r i v e d , it w a s n o t d e p o s ite d s im u lta n e o u s ly a ll o v e r t h e p r e c e d in g la y e r , it w a s u n r o lle d f r o m o th e r,
so
th a t
th e
a c tu a l
c o n ta c t
w as
o n e sid e o r th e
p r o g r e s s iv e
ra th e r
th a n
s y n c h ro n o u s . O n e m ig h t e x p a n d th e m e ta p h o r f u r th e r b y p o in tin g o u t t h a t in
th e in te r v a l b e tw e e n
th e a r r i v a l o f s u c c e s s iv e c a r p e ts ,
7 6
se v e ra l
of
TH E
NATURE O F TH E
th e
e x is tin g
p ile
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
w o u ld
p ro b a b ly
have
been
s o ld
and
r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s u c c e s s io n . A ls o th e h e ig h t o f th e s h o w r o o m ( a n d th e h e ig h t o f th e p ro s p e c tiv e b u y e rs) p ro v id e a n u ltim a te c o n tro l o n th e th ic k n e s s o f t h e p ile . T h is
a n a l o g y is in e v e r y w a y
a p p lic a b le to m y c o n c e p t o f th e
s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l c o lu m n . I t d if f e r s f r o m t h e m o re - o r- le s s s u b c o n s c io u s concept of
‘t h e
g e n tle
ra in
fro m
h e a v e n ’ ty p e
o f s e d im e n ta tio n ,
w h ic h p r o b a b l y o n l y a p p l ie s in s p e c ia l c ir c u m s ta n c e s s u c h a s th o s e o f t h e o c e a n ic o o z e s . I t a ls o d if f e r s f r o m
t h e ‘l a y e r c a k e 1 a p p r o a c h
in n o t v is u a lis in g la y e r s w h ic h a r e p a r a l le l in b o t h s p a c e a n d tim e . It
re c o g n is e s
th a n
th a t
s e d im e n t
v e rtic a lly a n d
u s u a lly
a c c u m u la te s
la te ra lly
ra th e r
t h a t a l m o s t e v e r y s e d i m e n t a r y ' b o d y is t h e r e
f o r e d i a c h r o n o u s in h u m a n
te rm s , th o u g h th is d ia c h ro n is m
is v e r y
r a r e l y d e te c t a b l e in g e o lo g ic a l te r m s . T h u s t h e ti m e t a k e n t o u n r o ll a c a r p e t is v e r y s h o r t c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e a r r i v a l o f s u c c e s s iv e c o n s i g n m e n t s . In
a
sense
th is
m ay
be
th o u g h t
to
c o n tra d ic t w h a t
I
s a id
in
c h a p te r 1, w h e re th e e m p h a s is w a s o n th e e v id e n t s y n c h ro n e ity o f p a rtic u la r
d e p o s its ,
m a tte r
re la tiv ity .
of
N ia g a ra
p a rtic u la rly
lim e s to n e s
T h e y d id
Thus w e re
n o t b e g in
th e
c a rb o n a te s . m id
o b v io u s ly
B ut
S ilu ria n not
a g a in
th is
is
a
W e n lo c k /G o tla n d /
c o m p le te ly
sy n c h ro n o u s .
f o r m in g e v e ry w h e re s im u lta n e o u s ly , a n d
ca r
b o n a te s e d im e n ta tio n d id n o t cease th r o u g h o u t th e n o r th e r n h e m is p h e r e w it h t h e w a v in g o f s o m e m a g ic a n d / o r d e is tic w a n d . M o r e p ro b a b ly , c a rb o n a te s g re w o u tw a rd s la te ra lly fro m se v e ra l (p e rh a p s m a n y ) d i f f e r e n t c e n tr e s , t o f u s e o r o v e r la p . B u t w e s till n e e d s o m e c ir c u m s ta n c e , o r g ro u p o f c irc u m s ta n c e s , to tr ig g e r o ff s u c h a c c u m u l a t o r y a n d , it m u s t b e e m p h a s is e d a g a in , e p is o d ic s e d im e n ta tio n . M y
g e n e r a l v ie w
o b s e r v e r , is t h a t
on
th is m a tte r , as a s u ita b ly h u m b le o u ts id e
th e s tu d e n t o f m o d e m
s e d im e n ts p a y s to o m u c h
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e w a y th e s e s e d im e n ts a r e la id d o w n , t h e i r f o r m a n d c o m p o s itio n , b u t n o t e n o u g h a tte n tio n
to th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r
o r n o t th e y s ta n d a n y c h a n c e o f p re s e rv a tio n fo r th e s tra tig r a p h e r of
to m o rro w .
W e
th in k ,
p e rh a p s,
to o
m uch
o f th e
s e d im e n ta r y '
e n v i r o n m e n t, a n d n o t e n o u g h o f w h a t m a y b e c a lle d t h e g e o p h y s ic a l e n v ir o n m e n t th a t c a n e n s u re th e ir p re s e rv a tio n . A h ig h l y o v e r - s i m p lif ie d p i c t u r e o f th e w a y s e d im e n ts a c c u m u l a t e fo r th e
fu tu re
s t r a t i g r a p h e r is e x p r e s s e d
in s tr ip
c a rto o n
fo rm
in
f i g u r e 8 .1 . A t t h e t o p , i n ‘ 1’ w e s e e t h e b a s i c e n v i r o n m e n t a l s i t u a ti o n . w ith a la n d - m a s s to th e le f t o n t h e m a r g in o f w h ic h a r e f o u n d
THE NATURE OF THE CONTROL 1
77
ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION oif-shore
2
TECTONIC SITUATION subsidence
zr 3
ACCUMULATORY SITUATION
4
RESULTANT STRATIGRAPHICAL SITUATION
- 's Z lormcrtjor. x
5
CHANGE IN TECTONIC SITUATION sufcsiderce
6
NEW ACCUMULATORY SITUATION
7
SECOND RESULTANT STRATtGRAPHtCAL SITUATION
f o r rr d io n
fig u re
8 . I.
S u c c e s s iv e tio n
of
d ia g ra m s
tw o
(h ig h ly
fo rm a tio n s
b u t in f a c t r e p r e s e n t i n g th e m s e lv e s
x
fcrmctan y id e a lis e d ) to
w h ic h
seem
s e p a ra te
to
illu s tra te
be
e p is o d e s
la te ra l
th e
d e p o s i
e q u iv a le n ts ,
d ia c h ro n o u s w ith in
f lu v ia tile , n e a r - s h o r e a n d o f f - s h o r e s e d im e n ts . T h e y a r e n o t b u ild in g u p v e r tic a lly , th e y a r e in a c o n s t a n t ( a lb e it c o m m o n ly in te r m i t t e n t )
TH E
7 8
NATURE O F
TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
s t a t e o f c h a n g e . T h e n i n ‘2 ’ w e s e e a p o s t u l a t e d t e c t o n i c s i t u a t i o n w ith
su b sid e n c e
of
a
m a rg in a l
b e lt.
T h is
re s u lts
in
a
s itu a tio n ,
r e p r e s e n t e d i n ‘3 ’, w h e r e n e a r - s h o r e s e d i m e n t s c a n a c t u a l l y a c c u m u la te , p r e s u m in g t h e s u b s id e n c e t o h a v e o c c u r r e d in t h a t p a r t i c u l a r e n v iro n m e n ta l n e a r-sh o re th e n
a rriv e
fo rm a tio n sh o re
b e lt. T h e r e
at
V
‘4* w i t h
its e lf .
th e
c o n s is tin g
s e d im e n ts ,
w ith in
is t h e n
a d y n a m ic
s e d im e n ts b u ild in g o u t la te r a lly
b u t— a s
T h is
c o m p le tio n
of a
m ay
I
s itu a tio n , w ith
of
a
lith o s tra tig ra p h ic a l
s e e m in g ly u n i f o r m have
w e ll
a lre a d y
be
th e
th e
in t h e u s u a l w a y . W e
d e p o s it o f n e a r
in d ic a te d — d ia c h ro n o u s is o s ta tic
lim it
d isc u sse d
p re v io u s ly . N o w s u p p o s e w e h a v e a c h a n g e in th e te c to n ic s i tu a tio n , r e s u ltin g , p e rh a p s, fro m
th e s ta b le s itu a tio n
re a c h e d
in t h e n e a r - s h o r e a r e a .
A ll th is tim e , i t m u s t b e r e a lis e d , th e f lu v ia tile , n e a r - s h o r e a n d o f f s h o r e e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e l t s h a v e r e m a i n e d m o r e o r le s s i n t h e s a m e p o s itio n .
The
su b sid e n c e
now
ta k e s
p la c e
fa rth e r
out
fro m
th e
l a n d - m a s s , i n t h e o f f - s h o r e b e l t ( ‘5 ’) p e r h a p s s i m p l y b y t h e w i d e n i n g o f t h e d e p r e s s io n w ith c o n t i n u e d s u b s id e n c e . T h i s r e s u lts in a n e w a c c u m u l a t o r y s i t u a t i o n , s h o w n i n ‘6 ’, w i t h o f f - s h o r e s e d i m e n t s n o w b e in g p re s e rv e d . A g a in th e
la te r a l d e p o s itio n w ill o c c u r , h u t th i s tim e
s e d im e n ts w ill h a v e
th a n
t h e i r d i a c h r o n e i t y r a t h e r b e t t e r d is g u is e d
t h a t o f t h e n e a r - s h o r e d e p o s its . T h e y m a y , in
fa c t, c o m e to
re s t o n t o p o f t h e e a r l i e r f o r m a t i o n , a t le a s t a t t h e e d g e . W ith th e e n d o f t h a t a c c u m u l a t o r y e p is o d e w e a r r i v e a t th e s e c o n d r e s u l t a n t s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l s i t u a t i o n a s s u g g e s t e d i n ‘7 ’. W re n o w h a v e a s t r a t i g ra p h ic a l se t-u p th a t h a s fo r a se c o n d to p a ss la te ra lly in to V F ro m W e
fo rm a tio n
V
w h ic h seem s
a n d t o b e its ti m e e q u i v a l e n t .
th e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l p o i n t o f v ie w w e h a v e tw o f o r m a tio n s .
know
(fro m
la r g e ly l a t e r t h a n
our V
g o d - lik e in
is d i a c h r o n o u s w i t h i n
v is io n
o f th e ir h is to ry )
tim e . W e a ls o k n o w
th a t
‘y ’ is
th a t e a c h fo rm a tio n
its e lf. B u t tim e - w is e t h e
g a p b e tw e e n th e m
m a y w e ll b e m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n th e t im e - s p a n w ith in th e m . I n o t h e r w o r d s *3’ a n d
‘6 ’ m a y b e v e r y b r i e f e p i s o d e s , w - h e r e a s t h e
p a u s e b e t w e e n ‘4 ’ a n d *5’ m a y b e v e r y l o n g . E v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t , p e r h a p s , is t h e r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t a l l t h r o u g h th is lo n g h is to r y , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e lts h a v e h a r d l y c h a n g e d t h e i r p o s itio n s o r t h e i r n a t u r e . T h e t h r e e e n v i r o n m e n ts w e r e t h e r e a ll t h e t i m e , j u s t o s c i l l a t i n g b a c k w a r d s a n d f o r w a r d s a l i t t l e in r e l a t i o n t o u p l if t in la n d . T h e e n v i r o n m e n ts d id n o t c h a n g e , it w a s t h e c h a n g e s in
th e
te c to n ic s itu a tio n
th a t e n su re d
J h e p r e s e r v a tio n o f t h e tw o
TH E
fo rm a tio n s .
It
m u st
NATURE
n o t be
O F
THE
79
CONTROL
fo rg o tte n , o f c o u rs e , th a t
su b sid e n c e
its e lf m a y m o d if y th e n a t u r e o f th e s e d im e n t a c c u m u la t e d . M y
e x a m p le m a y se e m
a
l i t t l e s t r a i n e d a n d a r t i f i c i a l , b u t i t is,
1 s u b m it a m o r e r e a lis tic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p ro c e s s o f s e d im e n ta tio n
(in
th e
se n se o f a c c u m u la tio n )
th a n
th e
‘g e n t l e
ra in
fro m
h e a v e n ’ t a c i t l y a c c e p t e d b y m o s t o f u s . T h e ‘m o v i n g f i n g e r ’ o f t h e d y n a m i c t e c t o n i c s i t u a t i o n ‘w r i t e s ’ t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l r e c o r d f o r u s , a n d o n l y t h e e r o s i o n a l ‘t e a r s ’ a c c o m p a n y i n g s u b s e q u e n t u p l i f t c a n w a s h o u t a w o r d o f it. T h is
th e n
is
th e
b a s ic
te c to n ic
c o n tro l
of
th e
s tra tig ra p h ic a l
r e c o r d , in t h e s e n s e o f h e a p s o f s e d im e n t b e in g p r e s e r v e d f o r o u r s tu d y . W e
c o m e th e n
in e v ita b ly t o th e q u e s tio n
as to w h e th e r o r n o t
t h e r e is a p a t t e r n , c y c l i c o r o t h e r w i s e , i n t h i s r e c o r d . I n t h e p r e f a c e to h is g r e a t th a n
History of Europe, H .
a n d m o re
le a rn e d th a n
A . L . F i s h e r w r o te : “ M e n w is e r
I h a v e d is c e r n e d i n h is to r y a p l o t , a
r h y th m , a p r e d e te r m in e d p a tte r n . T h e s e h a rm o n ie s a r e c o n c e a le d f r o m m e . I c a n se e o n ly o n e e m e r g e n c y f o llo w in g u p o n a n o t h e r a s w ave
fo llo w s u p o n
w ave
. .
I t seem s to m e th a t th e
s a m e is
t r u e o f t h e m u c h o l d e r h i s t o r y o f E u r o p e , w h i c h is t h e s u b j e c t o f th is b o o k . O f c o u rse, th e
h is to ric a l a n a lo g y
fo r h is to ry o n ly c o n c e rn s th e d u rin g a
is n o t a c o m p l e t e l y v a l i d
in te ra c tio n s
w ith in a
one,
s in g le s p e c ie s
few t h o u s a n d y e a r s , in c o n n e c tio n w ith w h ic h g e o lo g ic a l
a n d c li m a to lo g ic a l c h a n g e s h a v e p la y e d o n l y a m i n o r ro le (a s in th e e x tin c tio n o f C a r t h a g e a n d o f th e V ik in g s e ttle m e n t s in G r e e n la n d ) . M a n y g e o lo g is ts h a v e , lik e th e a lle g e d ly w is e r m e n m e n t i o n e d b y F is h e r, c la im e d
to
se e p a t t e r n s in e a r t h
h is to r y . T h u s t h a t g r e a t
A m e r ic a n g e o lo g is t, A . W . G r a b a u , w r o te a w h o le s e rie s o f b o o k s
Palaeozoic Formations in the Light of the Pulsation Theory.
e n title d M any
e s p e c ia lly
m o re in
have
r e c o g n is e d
m u ltip le s o f th e
p u ls a tio n s
c y c le o f e le v e n y e a rs . T h e s e a s o n a l r h y t h m t h e d a ily r h y t h m B ut
q u e s tio n s
p ap er. I a m o f c y c lic
on
a
m a g ic f ig u re se v e n
s m a lle r or
th e
s c a le ,
su n sp o t
o f v a r v e d d e p o s its a n d
o f fo s sil c o r a l g r o w t h a r e n o w w e ll k n o w n . of
c y c lic ity
p ro d u c e
m uch
w a im th
and
m uch
f o r t u n a t e l y n o t h e r e c o n c e r n e d w ith t h e c o n tr o v e r s ie s
s e d im e n ta tio n , b u t
I am
c o n cern ed
w ith
th e
so m ew h at
g r a n d e r t o p i c o f o r o g e n i c c y c l e s . T h e r e a r e a n y n u m b e r o f ‘m e g a ’ th e o rie s a b o u t th e h is to ry ' o f th e e a r t h . I n
p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e is t h e
s t a n d a r d c o n c e p t o f th e o r o g e n ic c y c le . S t a r t i n g f r o m
th e g e o s y n
81)
TH E
NATURE O F
TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
c l i n a l p h a s e , t h e r e is t h e e u g e o s y n c l i n a l t r o u g l i f i l l e d w i t h t u r b i d i t e s , g r e y w a c k e s o r f i y s c h ( a c c o r d i n g t o w h e r e o n e is o n e a r t h a n d i n t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l c o l u m n ) , a n d t h e r e is t h e S t e i n m a n n t r i n i t y o f s e r p e n t in e s , s p iiitic p illo w la v a s a n d c h e r t ( w h ic h w e n o w a r e t a u g h t to
c a ll
th e
‘o p h i o l i t e
tro u g h , w ith
s u i t e ’).
its v o lc a n ic - f r e e
T h e re
is
a ls o
th e
q u a rtz sa n d s a n d
m io g e o s y n c lin a l
c a rb o n a te s . T h e n
c o m e s t h e o r o g e n ic p h a s e w i t h its f o ld in g a n d t h r u s t i n g , its m e t a m o rp h is m
and
i ts g r a n i t e
e m p la c e m e n t, p a s s in g
in to
a
phase of
b lo c k f a u l tin g . F o ll o w in g th is w e h a v e t h e lo n g p e r i o d o f is o s ta tic em e rg e n c e , ra p id
w e a th e rin g o f th e n e w
m o u n ta in s w ith th e f o r
m a t i o n o f m o la s s e -ty p e d e p o s its , w id e s p r e a d r e d b e d s e d im e n ta tio n a n d a ls o p e r h a p s a p e r i o d o f g l a c i a t i o n , b e f o r e p e n e p l a n a t i o n , w i d e s p r e a d m a r i n e tr a n s g r e s s io n s a n d t h e r e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f th e c y c le in n e w tr o u g h s . I n th e s u p e r f ic ia lly s i m p le r te r m s o f p l a t e te c to n ic s , th e s e a r e t h e r e p e a t e d e f fe c ts o f p la te s s p li ttin g a n d
m e e tin g .
T h e r e is a l s o t h e v e r y o b v i o u s r e p e a t e d c o n t r o l o f c e r t a i n f o r m s o f s e d im e n ta tio n b y c lim a tic fa c to rs . C a r b o n a te s a n d e v a p o r ite s a r e o b v io u s
e x a m p le s .
M any
a u th o rs
have
u sed
th e
d is trib u tio n
of
p a r t i c u l a r c a r b o n a te s to s u p p o r t p a r t i c u l a r th e o r ie s o f c o n t i n e n t a l d is t r i b u t i o n in th e p a s t. L d o n o t p r e s u m e to a r g u e w ith th e s e , b u t o u r m o d e rn
p a ra lle ls d o
n o t h e lp
u s o v e r m u c h . I t lia s b e e n w e ll
a r g u e d , f o r e x a m p le , t h a t t h e s a b k h a c y c le s o f c a r b o n a t e d e p o s itio n a r e th e e q u i v a l e n t , in a r i d tr o p i c a l c lim a te s , o f t h e C o a l M e a s u r e ty p e c y c le s o f t h e s u b - tr o p ic a l o r t e m p e r a t e z o n e s . T h e r e f o r e th e g r e a t e x t e n t o f o n e o r t h e o t h e r a t v a r io u s ti m e s in t h e p a s t, m i g h t be
no
m o re
th a n
a
m e a su re
o f th e
w id th
of
th e
c o n te m p o ra ry
c lim a ti c b e lts . B u t it c a n h a r d l y b e a r g u e d t h a t e i t h e r c a r b o n a t e o r co al m e a su re a n y th in g
d e p o s itio n
lik e th e
w ay
is g o i n g
it h a s in
on th e
aro u n d
th e
p a s t. T h e
w o rld
to d a y
in
n e a re st a p p ro a c h ,
p e r h a p s , is t h e l o n g b e l t o f d e l t a s e x t e n d i n g t o d a y , f r o m t h e G a n g e s in
e a ste rn
In d ia ,
v ia
th e
B ra h m a p u tra ,
th e
Irra w a d d y
and
th e
S i tta n g , t o th e r iv e r s o f th e G u l f o f S ia m a n d o n v ia th e M e k o n g to
th e
th e s e
S a n g -k o i a n d are
S i- k ia n g r iv e r s o f s o u t h e r n
in te r ru p te d
by
th e
m o u n ta in
c h a in s
C h in a . B u t ev e n of
B u rm a
and
M a la y a . R e c e n tl y th e c o a l m e a s u r e ty p e o f c y c le h a s b e e n v e r y p la u s ib ly e x p la in e d w e can
in te r m s o f c lim a ti c a l ly c o n t r o lle d
v e ry
phenom ena d eserv e
soon I
s p e c ia l
have
g e t lo s t in been
m e n tio n
a
m u ltitu d e
d is c u s s in g in
p a s s in g .
in
th is
O ne
ic e - s h e e t s u rg e s , a n d
o f e x p la n a tio n s o f th e b o o k . T w o , h o w e v e r, is t h e
s u g g e s tio n
th a t
T H E
NATURE
O F
TH E
CONTROL
8 !
p e rio d s o f g r e a t c a r b o n a te d e p o s itio n c o r r e la te w ith p ro d u c tiv ity carb o n
of
v o lc a n o e s
d io x id e
e x a m p le , f o r
in
th e
th e
and
a tm o s p h e re .
e x te n s iv e
e a rly C a rb o n ife r o u s , a n d been
s u g g e s te d
c a rb o n a te in
th e
a tm o s p h e re
th e
T h is
c a rb o n a te s
has
o f th e
p e a k s in
p re se n c e been la te
th e
o f m o re
b la m e d ,
D e v o n ia n
fo r and
f o r th o s e o f t h e C r e ta c e o u s . I t h a s a ls o
th a t th e re
ro c k s, w ith
re s u lt fro m
has been
a
n o n - r e c u r r e n t e v o lu tio n
a p ro g r e s s iv e d i m i n u t i o n o f c a r b o n
sin c e
la te
M e s o z o ic
tim e s .
It
is
of
d io x id e
a ls o
w o rth
th in k in g a b o u t th e p o s s ib ility t h a t r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f th e c o n t in e n ts and
oceans
w o u ld
th e m s e lv e s
have
c o n s id e ra b le
c lim a tic
e ffe c ts .
T h u s t h e g r a n d io s e R u s s ia n p r o p o s a l t o m e lt th e A r c tic ic e - c a p b y m eans s in c e
o f n u c le a r it w o u ld
pow er m ay
p ro d u c e a
new
b e c ritic is e d o c e a n ic a r e a
on
th e g ro u n d s
( w ith
th a t,
in c re a s e d p e ri
p h e r a l p r e c i p it a tio n ) in h ig h la tit u d e s , th is w o u ld r e s u lt in e v ita b ly in a n o t h e r g la c ia tio n o f P le is to c e n e p r o p o r t io n s . The
se co n d
fa v o u re d
w h ip p in g -b o y ,
e s p e c ia ll y
fo r
w id e s p re a d
tr a n s g r e s s io n s a n d r e g re s s io n s , h a s b e e n t h e p e r i o d ic o r o g e n y . M a n y h a v e s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e ris e o f a n e w m e d i a n r id g e w i t h i n a n o c e a n ic b a s in m ig h t w e ll b e e n o u g h t o flo o d g r e a t a r e a s o f c o n t in e n ts . T h u s th e
m a j o r c y c lic
changes
in
J u ra s s ic s e d im e n ta tio n
(a n d
p o s sib ly
e v e n t h e c h a n g e s o f f a u n a l a n d f lo r a l e v o lu ti o n ) h a v e b e e n b la m e d on
e u s ta ti c c h a n g e s in s e a - le v e l, a n d
m o v e m e n ts fo rw a rd
on
th e
ocean
re c e n tly , w a s
flo o r. A
th a t
th e s e in t u r n m o re
o ro g e n ic
w a s th a t c ru s ta l s h o rte n in g
m o v e m e n ts
jails i n
tin e n ta l m a sse s m u s t c a u s e e u s ta tic w ith in
th e
o n e p e iro g e n ic
o r i g i n a l s u g g e s tio n , p u t w ith in
th e
con
s e a - le v e l. T h e a r g u m e n t
c o n tin e n ts w o u ld p ro d u c e
th e s a m e d i s p la c e m e n t o f u n d e r l y i n g la y e r s , b u t t h e s e a s w o u ld b e s p r e a d w id e r a n d t h e r e f o r e lo w e r. I t w a s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t , a s s u m in g th e a v e r a g e d e p th o f th e o c e a n s to b e a b o u t 4 k m , th e n a 1 p e r c e n t in c r e a s e in
th e a r e a o f t h e o c e a n s w o u ld b e e n o u g h t o lo w e r th e
w o r ld - w id e s e a - le v e l b y a b o u t 4 0 m . T h i s c o u ld e a s ily b e p r o d u c e d b y o ro g e n ie s o c c u r r i n g
s im u lta n e o u s ly in tw o o r m o r e c o n tin e n ts .
T h is
to
th e o ry
w as
u sed
e x p la in
J u ra s s ic , la te C re ta c e o u s a n d re tr e a t a t th e e n d
o f th e
th e
m a jo r
la te T e r tia r y
re g re ssio n s
tim e s , w it h
of
la te
th e m a jo r
M e s o z o ic b e in g b la m e d o n th e
c o l li s io n
o f I n d i a a n d A s ia a t a b o u t th is tim e . P e r h a p s m u c h e l s e b e s i d e s w il l b e e x p l a i n a b l e i n s u c h t e r m s . D r G ilb e rt
K e llin g
C a m b ria n
and
has e a rly
s u g g e s te d
to
O rd o v ic ia n
me
th a t
th e
w id e s p re a d
q u a r tz ite s , w h ic h
I
e a rly
d is c u s s e d
in
c h a p t e r 1, m a y r e p r e s e n t e p i s o d e s o f p l a t e s t a b i l i t y . A t s u c h t i m e s ,
82
TH E
NATURE O F TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
to p o g r a p h ie s w ill h a v e b e c o m e r e d u c e d in a ll th e c o n t in e n ts , e r o s io n w ill h a v e s lo w e d u p , a n d o n l y v e r y m a t u r e , m u ltic y c le d s e d im e n ts w o u ld h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d o n th e c o n t i n e n t a l a r e a s . N o w t h a t w e s e e m to b e a p p r o a c h i n g , b y w a y o f p l a t e te c to n ic s a n d s e a - f l o o r s p r e a d i n g , s o m e s o r t o f g e n e r a l th e o ry - o f e a r t h h i s t o r y ' a c c e p ta b le
to
th e
p h y s ic is ts , it
is p e r h a p s
u n w is e
to
c o n tin u e
to
h y p o th e s is e in th is w a y . B u t I w a s t r a i n e d in a n e r a w h e n w e w e re to ld
th a t c o n tin e n ta l
lo g is ts , b u t t h e s ib le . A n d
d r if t w a s a ll r ig h t f o r th e
u n s c ie n tif ic
‘r e a l ’ s c i e n t i s t s — t h e p h y s i c i s t s — s a i d
geo
it w a s i m p o s
I r e m e m b e r a n e a r lie r e p o c h w h e n th e g e o lo g ists w e re
to ld b y th e p h y s ic is ts , i n c l u d i n g t h e g r e a t L o r d K e lv in h im s e lf , t h a t th e y w e r e fo o lis h t o p o s tu la te s o m a n y m illio n s o f y e a r s f o r e a r t h h is to r y , w h e n it c o u ld e a s ily b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m c la s s ic p h y s ic s t h a t th is w a s q u ite
im p o s s ib le . S o I t h i n k
w e g e o lo g is ts s h o u ld n o t b e
t o o b a s h f u l to th e o r is e o n t h e b a s is o f p u r e ly g e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e , a n d I c a n n o t a v o id t h e c o n c lu s io n t h a t a t le a s t s o m e o f t h e e n ig m a s I h a v e b e e n d is c u s s in g m a y h a v e a n o ri g in in t h e c lim a te . It
is
fa irly
e v id e n t
th a t
th e
w id e ly
sp read
lim e s to n e s
and
d o lo m ite s o f c h a p t e r 1 a r e , a t le a s t in p a r t , e x p lic a b le in te r m s o f a w id e r tr o p ic a l b e lt th a n e v id e n c e o f th is t h a t
w e h a v e a t p re s e n t. T h e r e
it h a r d ly
is s o m u c h
n e e d s re s ta te m e n t h e re , n o r d o es
i t s c o r o l l a r y t h a t t h e p r e s e n t t r o p i c a l b e l t is a t y p i c a l l y n a r r o w . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n m a y a ls o e x p l a in s o m e o f o u r a n o m a l o u s fo ssil d i s t r i b u tio n s a n d
e x tin c tio n s . M a n y
fo s sil d i s t r i b u t i o n s , o f v e r y
v a rie d
a g e s , im p ly r e m a r k a b ly u n i f o r m c o n d itio n s o v e r a w id e p a r t o f th e e a r t h ’s s u r f a c e .
It
has
been
f a c to r , so f a r a s s h a llo w 15°C
w in te r
is o th e rm ,
p re s e n t lim it b e tw e e n
s u g g e s te d
m a rin e w h ic h
th e
th a t
th e
o rg a n is m s a r e
c o rre sp o n d s
te m p e ra te
and
p re tty th e
f a u n a s . T h i s is a l s o t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t b r e a k It
h a s a ls o b e e n p o in te d
fu n d a m e n ta l
p ro p e rtie s
m a in
c o n tro llin g
c o n c e r n e d , is t h e w e ll
w ith
th e
s u b tro p ic a l m a rin e in m o d e m
fa u n a s.
o u t t h a t t h e r e a r e m a n y c h a n g e s in th e of
w a te r
(a n d
th e re fo re
p re s u m a b ly
of
p r o to p la s m ) a t th is le v e l. O n th is b a s is , o n e c a n p lo t in th e tr o p ic a l b e lt f o r m o s t p e r io d s o f g e o lo g ic a l tim e , t h o u g h th e m a r g i n o f e r r o r is
su ch
th a t
s o m e tim e s
th e y
fit in
w ith
d riftin g
h y p o th e s e s
and
s o m e tim e s t h e y d o n o t. T h u s t h e a r c h a e o c y a t h i d s ( o r P le o s p o g ia ) o f th e C a m b ria n , c e rta in
b ra c h io p o d s a n d
f o r a m s in t h e P e r m i a n
a n d th e r u d is tid b iv a lv e s in t h e C r e t a c e o u s a ll s e e m t o p a r a l le l t h e p r e s e n t e q u a to r . O th e r d is trib u tio n s , s u c h a s m a n y o f th e P a la e o z o ic c o ra ls , e v id e n tly d o n o t.
T H E
NATURE
O F
TH E
83
CONTROL
A n i n t e r e s t i n g p o s s i b i l i t y is t h a t , w i t h a w i d e r t r o p i c a l b e l t t h a n at
p re s e n t,
a ro u n d
one
th e
m ig h t
e q u a to r,
expect
w ith
an
e q u a to ria l
m in im u m
h y p e r-tro p ic a l
te m p e ra tu r e s
not
b e lt
know n
in
m o d e r n se a s . T h e w in te r is o t h e r m f o r th is m i g h t w e ll b e a b o v e t h e n e x t c r i t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e f o r w a t e r , i .e . 3 0 ° C . I t w o u l d t h e n b e a re a s o n a b le
d e d u c tio n
th a t h av e
s in c e
a d a p te d th e y
to
w e re
th e s e no
th a t so m e o f th e
d is a p p e a re d , su c h
a n c ie n t e q u a to ria l
as th e
h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re s , a n d
lo n g e r a v a ila b le .
It
g ro u p s
r u d is ts , m a y h a v e b e e n
h a rd ly
becom e
e x tin c t w h e n
e x p la in s ,
h o w e v e r, th e
s im u lta n e o u s e x tin c tio n o f th e c o o le r w a te r d w e llin g b e le m n ite s . T h e p o e t ’s e y e s ( a c c o r d i n g t o S h a k e s p e a r e 's T h e s e u s ) “ i n a f i n e fre n z y
ro llin g , d o t h
g la n c e
fro m
heaven
to
e a r th , fro m
e a rth
to
h e a v e n ” . S o , u l tim a te ly , m u s t th e e y e o f th e g e o lo g is t, in s e e k in g th e
n a tu re
c lim a te
as
of th e
th e
c o n tro l.
p rim a ry
O ne
a lw a y s
e x p la n a tio n
of
seem s th e
to
com e
back
so rt o f p h e n o m e n a
to I
h a v e b e e n d isc u s sin g , b u t fo r th e u ltim a te c o n tro l, s o o n e r o r la te r , w e m u s t f a c e th e p o s s ib il ity o f a n e x t r a - t e r r e s t r i a l c a u s e , th o u g h in m o s t g e o lo g ic a l c ir c le s
o n e seem s
to
b e e x p e c te d
to
b lu s h w h e n
d o i n g so . I m e n tio n e d , in c h a p t e r 2 , th e p o s s ib il ity o f m e te o r ite s o r v a r i a tio n s in c o s m ic r a y s a s a c a u s e o f a b r u p t c h a n g e s in f a u n a l s u c c e ss io n s. S u c h h y p o th e s e s h a v e b e e n p o s t u l a t e d b y h ig h l y r e p u t a b le g e o lo g is ts w h e n n o o t h e r p o s s ib le c a u s e c a n b e f o u n d t o e x p la in c e r ta in p h e n o m e n a . I m a k e n o a p o lo g y fo r jo in in g a d is tin g u is h e d b a n d o f p re d e c e s s o rs . C h a n g e s , c y c lic o r o th e r w is e , w it h in t h e s o la r s y s te m o r w ith in o u r g a la x y , w o u ld s e e m to b e th e e a s y a n d in c o n tro v e rtib le
s o lu tio n
fo r e v e ry th in g
th a t
I have
fo u n d
re m a rk a b le
in t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l r e c o r d . B u t p e r h a p s w e a r e n o t v e r y f a r f r o m fin d in g
su ch
p r o o f , if th e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l
re c o rd
o f th e
M oon
or
M a r s p r o v e s to p a r a l le l in a n y w a y t h a t o f E a r t h . H o w e v e r , I w o u l d n o t w i s h t o e n d t h i s tx > o k i n a n a t m o s p h e r e o f s c ie n c e f ic tio n . I f w e c a n n o t a c c e p t f ly in g s a u c e r s , w e m u s t a t le a s t a c c e p t
f lo a tin g p la te s .
I t w o u ld
be
u tte rly
in a p p ro p ria te
in
1 97 2 to try to c o n s id e r th e n a tu re o f th e s tra tig r a p h ic a l re c o rd , o r in d e e d o f a n y m a j o r a s p e c t o f g e o lo g y , w i t h o u t s e e k in g its r e l a t i o n s h ip w ith t h e id e a s o f s e a - f lo o r s p r e a d i n g a n d p la te te c to n ic s . T h i s is n o t j u s t c l i m b i n g o n u p to th e
t o a f a s h i o n a b l e b a n d - w a g o n , i t is f a c i n g
f a c t t h a t f o r t h e fir s t ti m e in t h e h is t o r y o f o u r s c ie n c e
w e a r e a p p r o a c h in g a g e n e ra l th e o ry o f th e e a r th . W e a r e b e g in n in g t o s e e h o w t h e w h o l e t h i n g f its t o g e t h e r a n d a g a i n , I t h i n k , w e a r e b e g i n n i n g t o s e e a s o m e w h a t ‘c a t a s t r o p h i c ’ p i c t u r e . N .S.R .—D
84
T H E
NATURE
O F TH E
.S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L
RECORD
I f w e tr y ' t o r e l a t e t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l c o l u m n , i n a l l its f a n t a s t i c d e t a i l , to th e s e g e n e r a l th e o r ie s , w e w ill in e v ita b ly s o o n b o g d o w n in
a
w e lte r
of
in fo rm a tio n .
I
s h a ll
th e re fo re
o n ly
g e n e r a lis e a b o u t th o s e p a r t s o f th e w o r ld w h ic h
a tte m p t
I know
to
b e s t, a n d
I s h a l l b e r u t h l e s s i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f m y f a c t s . T h a t is n o t t o s a y t h a t I s h a ll s e le c t m y f a c ts t o fit m y th e o r y , I s h a ll r a t h e r s e le c t th o s e g e n e r a l im p r e s s io n s t h a t I h a v e g a t h e r e d in t h e c o u r s e o f m y g e o l o g i c a l w a n d e r i n g s . I n e v i t a b l y it w i l l b e s a i d t h a t it is t o o s o o n fo r su ch
sy n th e se s .
L am
u n re p e n ta n t;
p e r h a p s it w ill e n c o u r a g e
s o m e o n e e lse to d o b e t t e r . The
m o s t o b v io u s f a c t o f N o r t h
A m e ric a n
s tra tig ra p h y
is t h e
w a y in w h ic h t h e m a in m o b ile b e lts r u n p a r a l l e l to th e m a r g in s o f th e
p re se n t
c o n tin e n t.
T h is
has
o fte n
been
c o n tra s te d
w ith
s itu a tio n o n o u r s id e o f th e A tla n tic w h e re o n e c a n s ta n d
th e
o n th e
c o a s t o f s o u th - w e s t I r e l a n d , o r B r i t t a n y , o r G a li c i a a n d se e th e fo ld b e lts h e a d i n g s t r a i g h t o u t i n t o th e o c e a n . I n f a c t , in g e n e r a lit ie s , E u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r ic a a r e r e m a r k a b ly a lik e . I f o n e r o t a te s o n e o f th e m S h ie ld
a
and
little , e v e r y th in g th e R u s s ia n
fa lls
in to
P la tfo rm
lin e .
The
F e n n o -S c a n d ia n
m a tc h th e C a n a d ia n
S h ie ld a n d
t h e S t a b l e I n t e r i o r o f t h e U . S .A . e v e n t o t h e ‘s y n e c l i s e s ’ a n d ‘a n t i c l is e s ’ o r ‘b a s i n s ’ a n d
‘d o m e s ’. T h e r e - e m e r g e n c e o f t h e b a s e m e n t
i n t h e P o d o l i a M a s s i f o f t h e U k r a i n e is b u t a l a r g e r v e r s i o n o f t h e O z a rk s.
The
U ra ls
M is s is s ip p i; a n d m e n t.
The
w e s te r n c e n tra l
th e
re a lly
becom e
th e
C a s p ia n
D e p re s s io n , th e
c o m p lic a te d
ra n g e s o f N o rth E u ro p e . T h e
o r o g e n ie s
have
A m e ric a ,
in
b ig
o p e ra te d
E u ro p e
A p p a la c h ia n s ;
p a rts
A m e ric a
d iffe re n c e a lo n g
th e re
have
of
and
b o th
th e
been
V o lg a ,
th e
c o n tin e n ts
are
th e
w h o le o f w e s te r n a n d
h e r e is t h a t
ro u g h ly
th e
M ississip p i E m b a y -
p a ra lle l tw o
w h ile lin e s
d is tin c t
s u c c e s siv e in
N o rth
tre n d s ,
one
p a r a l le l t o th e A t l a n ti c , th e o t h e r to t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , r e la te s d i r e c t l y t o t h e p l a t e h is to r ie s o f t h e tw o c o n tin e n ts . I n E u ro p e w e h a v e o n e m a jo r set o f s tru c tu re s , fro m P re c a m b ria n to R e c e n t, w h ic h r e l a t e firs t t o p la te s s p li ttin g a n d c o llid in g a p p r o x i m a te ly a lo n g t h e A t l a n t i c lin e a n d t o th e l a t e r s e a - f lo o r s p r e a d in g t h a t p r o d u c e d t h a t o c e a n a s w e se e it to d a y . T h e s e c o n d m a j o r s e t o f s tru c tu re s s ta r t m u c h o ld e r) a n d a lo n g la te
th e
fro m
th e
la te
P a la e o z o ic
r e la te t o th e c o llis io n s a n d
lin e o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n / T e t h y s .
P re c a m b ria n
o ro g e n ie s ,
th e
(th o u g h
m a y a ls o b e
le s s o b v i o u s s p l i t t i n g In
o th e r w o rd s , th e
T a c o n ia n /C a le d o n ia n
o r o g e n ie s
a n d th e o p e n in g o f th e A tla n tic a re o n e th in g , th e H e rc y n ia n a n d
TH E
NATURE O F
TH E
85
CONTROL
A lp in e o r o g e n ie s a n d th e c r e a t i o n o f th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r e a n o t h e r . The
s im p li s tic r u le s e e m s to b e t h a t a lm o s t e v e r y th in g in E u r o p e
( in m o d e m
t e r m s ) is e i t h e r n o r t h - e a s t — s o u t h - w e s t o r e l s e i t is e a s t -
w e s t. It has
been
w e ll a r g u e d
th a t
th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e
A tla n tic
b e g a n a s f a r b a c k a s P r e c a m b r i a n tim e s . T h e m o b ile b e lts o f P r o te r o z o ic
tim e s
A tla n tic , fro m
e x te n d e d
th e
le n g th
e a st G re e n la n d
and
of
w hat
is n o w
N o rw a y in
th e
th e
N o rth
n o r t h , v ia th e
B ritis h Isle s, N e w f o u n d la n d a n d t h e e a s t c o a s t o f th e U n i t e d S ta te s to th e w e st c o a s t o f A f r ic a in th e s o u th . T h e p la te s w e re a lr e a d y d e fin e d
and
in
m o tio n .
L a te r
th e
s y s te m
w as
s ta b ilis e d
and
th e
p r e s e n t c o n t in e n ts s lo w ly b u i l t u p a n d e x te n d e d b y p lu to n is m . A t th e e n d o f P re c a m b ria n
tim e s , o n e c a n n o t b u t b e im p r e s s e d
b y th e s im ila r itie s o f d e p o s its s u c h a s th e E o c a m b r ia n o f G r e e n l a n d , th e S c a n d in a v ia n J o tn ia n , th e D a lra d ia n
and
th e
F re n c h
S c o ttis h T o r r i d o n i a n / M o i n i a n
B rio v e ria n .
T hese
d o m in a n tly
and
c la s tic
s e d im e n ts , w ith t h e i r g la c ia l tillite s , a r e a lm o s t e v e r y w h e r e fo llo w e d b y th e
q u a rtz ite s , g la u c o n itic sa n d s to n e s a n d
s h a llo w w a t e r lim e
s to n e s o f th e e a r l y C a m b r i a n . O n l y lo c a lly d o w e s e e m to h a v e a n o ro g e n y a t
th is t i m e , w h ic h
is c o n f u s e d
(a s so m u c h
e ls e i n s t r a
tig ra p h y ) b y n o m e n c la tu r a l a n o m a lie s . T h u s th e C z e c h s ta lk o f A s s y n tia n
o ro g e n y ,
S c o tla n d . A R om an
but
is
b e tte r n a m e w o u ld
n am e fo r C a e n
s e d im e n ts
th e re
seem
to
have
in
no
s ig n
seem
to
of be
su ch
at
A ssy nt
s « r
in
C a d o m ia n , a f te r th e
N o r m a n d y , w h e r e a ll th e P r e c a m b r ia n
been
te c to n is e d
b e fo re
th e
b e g in n in g o f
th e e a r ly P a la e o z o ic . T h e A v a lo n ia n o r o g e n y o f a b o u t th e s a m e a g e in N e w f o u n d la n d , h a s b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s in v o lv in g th e f o r m a tio n o f a v o lc a n ic is la n d a r c a n d a s s o c ia te d tr e n c h s e d im e n ts o n r o u g h ly n o r t h - s o u t h l in e s . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e r p e n t i n e s , g l a u c o p h a n e s c h is ts a n d a s s o c ia te d ro c k s o f A n g le s e y r e p r e s e n t a s u b d u c tio n z o n e w h e r e o c e a n ic c r u s t w a s b e in g c o n s u m e d b e lo w t h e e a r ly E u ro p e a n
p la te . T h e
n o rth -w e s t H ig h la n d
s u c c e s s io n w o u ld
th e n
b e lo n g to th e e a r ly A m e r ic a n p la te o n th e o th e r s id e o f a n o c e a n o f u n k n o w n w id th . T h e sa m e s to ry w o u ld c o n tin u e in to th e e a r ly C a m b r ia n , w h e re t h e c o n t r a s ts b e tw e e n th e n o r th - w e s t S c o tt is h a n d t h e A n g lo - W e ls h s u c c e s s io n s a r e
w e ll k n o w n .
If w e
in c lu d e h e r e t h a t
p a r t o f th e
D a l r a d i a n s u c c e s s i o n w h i c h is k n o w n t o b e C a m b r i a n i n a g e , t h e n t h e r e w o u ld b e a n o c e a n o f u n k n o w n w i d t h lo s t in th e s p a c e n o w o c c u p ie d b y th e S o u th e r n U p la n d s o f S c o tla n d .
86
TH E
In
la te
NATURE O F
C a m b ria n
TH E
and
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L
e a rly
O rd o v ic ia n
RECORD
tim e s
s o m e th in g
w as
s till c le a r ly h a p p e n i n g a l o n g th e A t l a n t i c lin e . A s u b m a r in e tr e n c h h a s b e e n p o s tu la te d t o a c c o m m o d a te t h e th ic k p ile s o f M a n x a n d S k id d a w
s la te s
in
n o rth -w e s t
E n g la n d , p e rh a p s
s u p e rim p o s e d
on
a n e a r lie r C a m b r i a n is la n d a r c . An fro m
e a rly
O rd o v ic ia n
tre n c h
is a l s o t h o u g h t
to
h a v e e x te n d e d
ju s t n o r th o f th e S o u th e r n U p la n d s o f S c o tla n d d o w n a c ro s s
n o rth e rn
I r e l a n d . A lo n g th is t r e n c h , o c e a n ic c r u s t w it h
o p h io lit e s
a n d ‘t u r b i d i t e s ’ c o m i n g f r o m t h e s o u t h - e a s t w a s p r o b a b l y c o n s u m e d d o w n a B e n io ff z o n e . T h is in t u r n m a y h a v e g iv e n ris e to th e h ig h te m p e ra tu re
m e ta m o rp h is m
and
c a lc -a lk a lin e
s o u th e r n p a r t o f th e S c o tt is h H ig h la n d s a n d
in tru s io n s
Ire la n d .
I t a ls o p ro b a b ly
g a v e rise t o c o n s id e r a b le
d ire c te d
o v e rth ru s tin g
th e
in
H ig h la n d
of
th e
t h e i r p r o l o n g a t i o n in n o rth -w e s te rly
a r e a , in c lu d in g
th e
g re a t
M o i n e T h r u s t i ts e l f . O p h i o l i t i c a s s o c ia tio n s o f e a r ly O r d o v i c i a n a g e o c c u r t h r o u g h o u t th e
C a le d o n id e
o rig in a te d
as a
and
A p p a la c h ia n
b e lts , a n d
are
re s u lt o f s e a - flo o r s p r e a d i n g
th o u g h t to
b e tw e e n
and
have w ith in
i s l a n d a r c s . I n m i d O r d o v i c i a n t i m e s a v o l c a n i c i s l a n d a r c is t h o u g h t to
have
e x te n d e d
th ro u g h
th e
E n g lis h
L ake
D is tr ic t, W a le s a n d
N e w f o u n d la n d . P e r h a p s a t th is p o i n t in tim e , t h e r e w a s a c h a n g e fro m
s e a - f lo o r s p r e a d in g
in
th e
N o rth
A tla n tic
a r e a , to s e a -flo o r
c o n t r a c t i o n . T h i s m a y b e r e f le c te d in t h e f a u n a l c h a n g e s a n d m a y have
b ro u g h t to
an
end
th e
s ta b le c o n d itio n s re p r e s e n te d
by th e
p u r e q u a r tz it e s t h a t e x te n d a ll th e w a y f r o m th e W e ls h b o r d e r l a n d to
M o ro c c o .
In
fa c t,
se v e ra l o f
th e
e a rly
P a la e o z o ic
fa c ie s a n d
fa u n a s s e e m to ig n o re th e w e s te rn M e d ite r r a n e a n a n d p a ss u n h in d e r e d o n i n t o w e s t A f r ic a . T h i s a r g u e s a g a in s t m a n y o f th e p a la e o m a g n e tic
r e c o n s tru c tio n s th a t p u t th e m
w e st A fric a
is p a r t
of E u ro p e
and
fa r a p a rt. T o
e ith e r th e
d iv is io n
m e, n o rth is f a r t h e r
s o u th o r , if t h e y m u s t b e s a ilin g o n d if f e r e n t p la te s , t h e n th o s e p Ja te s w e r e v e r y c lo s e t o g e t h e r lo n g b e f o r e th e A lp in e c o n v u ls io n s . I t h a s been
s u g g e s te d
th a t s u c h s e d im e n ts
a re c h a ra c te ris tic
c o n t in e n ta l s h e lv e s a s t h e y m o v e a w a y f r o m T h i s s o r t o f e v id e n c e
le a d s m e to t h e c o n c lu s io n
ti n e n t a l p la te s , r a t h e r t h a n s a ilin g a b o u t t h e e a r t h in
c a ta s tro p h ic
c o llis io n s ,
s e p a ra te d
and
o f a s e is m ic
a m id -o c e a n ic
cam e
r id g e .
th a t th e c o n u n til th e y m e t
to g e th e r
a g a in
r e p e a t e d l y a l o n g t h e s a m e g e n e r a l l in e s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e w e r e m a n y c a ta s tro p h e s a n d c e rta in p a rts o f e a c h p la te w e re p a rtic u la rly a c c id e n t p ro n e .
T H E
M e a n w h ile ,
back
NATURE O F
in
th e
TH E
87
CO NTROL
O rd o v ic ia n ,
f o llo w in g
on
th e
s ta b le
e p is o d e , t h e r e w e r e c le a r ly m a j o r p l a t e c o llis io n s , w it h t h e f o r m a tio n
o f o c e a n ic
P re -C a ra d o c ia n
tr e n c h e s , B e n io ff z o n e s a n d m o v e m e n ts
are
w id e s p re a d
v o lc a n ic in
is la n d
a rcs.
e u g o s v n c lin a l s e d i
m e n ts . T h e T a c o n ia n m o v e m e n ts o f e a s te rn N o r th A m e ric a c le a rly r e p r e s e n t t h e m e e tin g o f p la te s w it h t h e in v o lv e m e n t o f c o n s id e r a b le q u a n titie s o f o c e a n ic m a te ria l. T h e s a m e m o v e m e n ts a re p ro b a b ly m uch
m o re
in e v id e n c e in w e s te r n
w i l l i n g t o a d m i t .. O r o g e n i e s a n d about
th is a g e
(th a t
E u ro p e th a n
wre u s u a l l y s e e m
a c c o m p a n y in g m e ta m o rp h is m
is , a b o u t 4 7 8 m i l l i o n
of
y e a r s B .P .) h a v e b e e n
r e c o g n is e d , f o r e x a m p le , in t h e M a s s if C e n t r a l , t h e V o s g e s a n d th e B la c k
F o re st.
F o llo w in g o n
th e s e
m o v e m e n ts
w e have a
m a rk e d
re g r e s s io n fo llo w e d b y t h e w id e s p r e a d tr a n s g re s s io n s ^ b o th In E u r o p e and
N o rth
A m e ric a , o f th e
m id -S ilu ria n
la te L la n d o v e r y a n d
ti m e s t h e p la te s t h a t a r e n o w
W e n lo c k . S o b y
in th e n o r t h e r n
h e m i
s p h e r e w e r e a g a in s ta b le a n d lo w in re lie f. I t w o u ld s e e m t h a t th e p la te s w h ic h h a d c o m e t o g e t h e r in t h e T a c o n i a n o r o g e n y , w it h th e s u b d u c tio n o f th e
o f a p ro to -A tla n tic
s e d im e n ta ry
p ile
p la te a n d
a lo n g
th e
th e w e s te r ly o v e r - r id i n g
lin e o f th e A p p a la c h ia n s
had
n o w m o r e o r le s s s t o p p e d . T h e W e n l o c k / N i a g a r a n l i m e s t o n e s s p r e a d g e n tly a n d w id e ly o n th e s h a ll o w s h e lv e s . T h e la c k o f p r o v in c ia lis m in
S ilu ria n
fau n as
p ro b a b ly
re fle c ts
th is
s ta b ilis a tio n
of
o c e a n ic
p la te s t h a t h a d b e e n t e m p o r a r i l y w e ld e d to g e th e r . V o lc a n ic ity h a d b e e n a g a in r e d u c e d to a m in im u m , t h o u g h w h a t t h e r e w a s s h o w e d its e lf v e r y s ig n if ic a n tly a lo n g th e lin e o f th e f u t u r e H e r c y n i a n f r o n t . T h i s m a v , in f a c t, b e th e firs t w h is p e r o f t h e T e th y s . The
C a le d o n ia n
S ilu ria n a lo n g
th e
Though fro m
o ro g e n y
in
re a c h in g
its c l i m a x
a t th e e n d
of
tim e s , e x p r e s s e d it s e lf a lo n g t h e s a m e T a c o n i a n lin e s a n d lin e s t h a t w e r e , m u c h e v id e n c e
of
th e
la te r, to
C a le d o n ia n
a r e a s as re m o te as th e C a n a d ia n
M a s s i f , i t is f a i r l y o b v i o u s w h e r e p e r h a p s , s ig n if ic a n t t h a t
th e
b e th e
o ro g e n y
A tla n tic O c e a n .
has
been
c la im e d
R o c k ie s a n d th e B o h e m ia n
its m a in
lo n g s e a r c h
e f f e c t s w e r e f e l t . I t is, fo r th e
d e fin e th e S ilu r ia n /D e v o n ia n b o u n d a ry w e n t fro m
id e a l s e c tio n
to
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
t o t h e U k r a i n e , t o M o r o c c o a n d t o t h e w e s t e r n r e g i o n s o f t h e U . S .A . a n d C a n a d a . H e r e n o t o n ly d o th e s e d im e n ts p re s e rv e a c o n tin u o u s and
m o r e o r le s s u n i f o r m
th e
fau n as
e v o lv in g , e ls e w h e r e .
(m o st
o b liv io u s
re c o rd o v e r th e d is p u te d b o u n d a r y , b u t
n o ta b ly of
th e
th e
m o n o g ra p tid s )
g re a t
th in g s
th a t
w ent w -e re
on
h a p p ily
g o in g
on
88
TH E
NATURE O F
TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
O n e m u s t p re s u m e th a t, a s a re s u lt o f th e T a c o n ia n a n d C a le d o n ia n
o r o g e n ie s ,
th e
A m e ric a n
and
E u ro p e a n
p la te s w e re
now
c lo s e t o g e t h e r . I n f a c t th e a m o u n t o f o c e a n ic c r u s t in v o lv e d in th e ro c k s o f th e C a le d o n id e s su g g e sts t h a t a s h o rt-liv e d p r o to - A tla n tic h a d c o m e t o a n e n d a n d th e tw o c o n t i n e n t a l s h e lv e s h a d m e t. T h is m a y e x p l a in th e e v id e n t u n i f o r m i t y o f S i l u r i a n f a c ie s a n d S ilu r ia n f a u n a s . T h e r e fo llo w e d th e p o s t- o r o g e n i c s e d im e n ts o f th e O l d R e d S a n d s to n e ,
e x te n d in g
fro m
C anada
to
A s ia .
P e rh a p s
it w a s
th e
o r o g e n y w i t h its c r u s t a l s h o r t e n i n g i n t h e c o n t i n e n t s t h a t p r o d u c e d th e
w id e s p re a d
m a rin e
c h a p te r . C o u p le d
w it h
re g re s sio n s
as
p o s s ib le p u l lin g
s u g g e s te d
e a rlie r
in
th is
a p a r t , th is m a y h a v e p r o
d u c e d th e m a r k e d p r o v in c ia lis a tio n r e c o g n is e d in D e v o n i a n m a r i n e fa u n a s. B y m i d a n d l a t e D e v o n i a n tim e s , t h e n e w m o u n t a i n s o f E u r o p e had
been
w o rn
dow n
and
s h a ll o w
s h e lf
seas
c o n tin e n ta l m a rg in s . In e ffe c t it w a s a r e tu r n
sp re a d
on
to
th e
to th e c o n d itio n s o f
m i d - S tlu r ia n tim e s , w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e c r e a s e in p r o v in c ia lis m , b u t it la s te d l o n g e r a n d le d t o t h e f a n t a s t i c f lo w e rin g o f t h e F r a s n i a n re e fs. N o d o u b t th e r e w e re a ls o c lim a tic
fa c to rs in v o lv e d a n d o n e
a u t o m a t i c a l l y lo o k s t o t h e r e c o n s tr u c tio n m a p s to se e if a ll th e r e e fg ro w in g a re a s, fro m
C a n a d a t o A u s t r a l i a , w e r e p l a c e d in t h e r i g h t
la tit u d e s . N o t s u r p r is in g ly , it s e e m s t h a t t h e y w e r e . N o w w e c o m e to o n e o f th e g re a t a n o m a lie s o f th e s tra tig r a p h ic a l re c o rd , w ith th e w id e s p re a d e x tin c tio n s o f th e F r a s n ia n /F a m m e n ia n ju n c tio n . T h e r e
is n o e v i d e n t e x p l a n a t i o n
to b e fo u n d
in d r i f t i n g
c o n t in e n ts o r c o llid in g p la te s . I t s e e m s t h a t h e r e , a t le a s t, w e m u s t a p p e a l to a n e x tra -te rre s tria l ca u se . It m u st b e re m e m b e re d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e w e r e i m p o r t a n t e a r t h m o v e m e n ts in N o r t h A m e r ic a in
m id - D e v o n ia n
e a ste rn
tim e s .
C a n a d a , w h e re
T h ese fo ld e d
a re e a rly
th e
A c a d ia n
D e v o n ia n
m o v e m e n ts
of
ro c k s a r e o v e rla in
w ith m a r k e d u n c o n f o r m i t y b v la t e D e v o n i a n s e d im e n ts . T h a t th e s e m o v e m e n ts
w ere
s till
e s s e n tia lly
A tla n tic
in
th e ir
o rie n ta tio n ,
is
sh o w n b y th e g re a t a c c u m u la tio n s o f s y n -o ro g e n ic a n d p o s t-o ro g e n ic s e d im e n ts d o w n th r o u g h th e A p p a la c h ia n b e lt o f th e U n ite d S ta te s . O f th e s e , th e m o s t f a m o u s a r e th e v a st la te D e v o n ia n a c c u m u la tio n s o f th e C a ts k ill M o u n ta in s . The
e a rly
C a rb o n ife ro u s
sh e lf
seas
w h ic h
f o llo w e d
th e
la te
D e v o n ia n re g r e s s io n w e r e r e a lly , in t h e i r g e n e r a litie s , v e r y lik e t h e G iv e tia n
and
F ra s n ia n
w as th a t cau sed
by
seas o f th e
D e v o n ia n . T h e
th e e a r lie r w id e s p re a d
b ig d iffe re n c e
e x tin c tio n s . T h e
re e fs
TH E
NATURE
O F
TH E
89
CONTROL
a n d a ll th e o t h e r m a r i n e b io ta , h a d t o b e c o n s tr u c t e d f r o m d if f e r e n t o rg a n ic
b u ild in g
b lo c k s .
The
s tro m a to p o ro id s ,
fo r
e x a m p le ,
had
la rg e ly g o n e a n d th e n e w c o ra ls h a d n o t y e t le a r n e d to b u ild re e fs ( in f a c t t h e R u e r o s a w e r e n e v e r t o r e m e m b e r t h e h a b i t a n d i t w a s o n ly
to
be
re le a rn e d
W a u ls o rtia n
and
fo u n d e d
b ry o z o a n s
on
b io h e rm s
in
by
o th e r
th e
S c le ra c tin ia
re e fs and
In d ia n a )
w e re
on
th e
of
th e
of
th e
M e s o z o ic ).
C a rb o n ife ro u s
a lg a e .
O th e rs
n o th in g
m o re
s u g g e s tio n
of
w e re
(in c lu d in g th a n
heaps
The
la r g e ly
th e
‘t y p e ’
o f c rin o id
d e b r is . F o llo w in g
fro m
p la te
s e p a ra tio n
in
th e
D e v o n i a n , th e e a r l y C a r b o n i f e r o u s w a s c h a r a c te r is e d b y te n s io n a n d r if tin g , a s in
th e
M id la n d
V a lle y o f S c o tla n d , w ith
l a v a f lo w s . T n t h e A p p a l a c h i a n
its e x te n s iv e
re g io n th e r e w e re r e p e a te d u p lifts
g i v i n g r is e t o c o a r s e d e t r i t u s i n t h e t r o u g h t o t h e w e s t , w h i l s t a v a s t s h a ll o w
c a r b o n a te - d e p o s itin g se a e x te n d e d o v e r th e s ta b le in te r io r
o f N o r t h A m e r ic a a s f a r a s t h e P a c if ic r a n g e s . W e k n o w , h o w e v e r, th a t p re lim in a r y ru m b le s o f th e H e rc y n ia n o ro g e n y w e r e a lr e a d y b e g in n in g to b e h e a r d a t th e e n d o f D in a n tia n
t i m e s . Tn N o r t h A m e r i c a u p l i f t a n d e r o s i o n a t t h i s t i m e w e r e
e n o u g h to d iv id e le a s t in
th e M is s is s ip p ia n
and
P e n n s y lv a n ia n
p e rio d s , a t
t h e i r n o m e n c l a t u r e . W h a t t h i s m e a n t i n t e r m s o f p l a t e s is
n o t c l e a r , b u t o n e c a n s e e in E u r o p e t h a t s o m e t h i n g f u n d a m e n t a l had happened a
a n d w e a r e n o w d e a lin g , n o t w it h a n A t l a n t i c lin e ,
but
w it h
M e d ite rra n e a n
th e
re s u rre c tio n
of
a
one.
m uch
It
is p o s s i b l e
o ld e r
tre n d ,
th a t
p o s s ib ly
H u d s o n ia n -K e tilid ia n -L a x fo rd ia n -S v e c o fe n n ia n
th is as
to o
o ld
o ro g e n y
w as
as of
th e
e a rly
A r c h a e a n tim e s . F ro m
p a la e o m a g n e tic
e v id e n c e ,
it
is a l l e g e d
th a t
th e
A fric a n
a n d / o r E u r o p e a n p la te s m o v e d v a s t d is ta n c e s d u r i n g th e D e v o n i a n a n d o n l y b e g a n t o a p p r o a c h e a c h o t h e r d u r i n g C a r b o n i f e r o u s tim e s * 1 am
a little u n h a p p y
a b o u t th is , b e c a u s e t h e r e s e e m
c lo s e r e s e m b la n c e s b e tw e e n th e m
to
be su ch
t h e tw o p la te s , t h a t T w o u ld n o t w is h
e v e r to b e f a r a p a r t. A lte rn a tiv e ly , d id th e T e th y s /M e d ite r -
r a n e a n , l ik e
th e
A tla n tic , o p e n
A lp in e o ro g e n y n o
m o re
th a n
and an
s h u t s e v e ra l tim e s ? W a s th e
e n c o re fo r th e
H e rc y n ia n
p er
f o r m a n c e ? W h a t e v e r th e p ro c e s s , it c o u ld w e ll b e t h a t th e c r u s ta l s h o r t e n i n g in H e rc y n ia n
th e c o n tin e n ts p ro d u c e d
o r o g e n y , w ri t h
b y th e
e a rly p h a s e s o f th e
its r e s u l t a n t lo w e r in g o f s e a -le v e ls , p r o
d u c e d th e w id e s p r e a d r e g r e s s io n o f la te C a r b o n if e r o u s tim e s , w h e n c o al m e a su re
sw am p s sp read
fro m
T e x a s to
th e D o n e tz .
90
TH E
The
m a in
NATURE O F TH E
o n s la u g h t
of
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
th e
H e rc y n ia n
o ro g e n y ,
as
seen
in
s o u th e r n E u r o p e , o c c u r r e d in m id la te C a r b o n if e r o u s tim e s , b e f o r e t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f S t e p h a n i a n s e d i m e n t s in t h e i n t e r m o n t a n e b a s i n s . T h u s i n C a n t a b r i a , i n n o r t h e r n S p a i n , t h e r e is a c l e a r l y d i s p l a y e d a n g u l a r u n c o n f o r m i t y a t th is le v e l, fo llo w e d b y th ic k c o n g lo m e r a te s . In so fa r
as
it
can
be
seen
th ro u g h
th e
c o n fu s io n
o f th e
A lp in e
o r o g e n e s i s , t h i s s i t u a t i o n is w i d e s p r e a d i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n l a n d s . F a r th e r n o rth
i n E u r o p e , t h e l a t e r C a r b o n i f e r o u s is m a r k e d
by a
p r o g r e s s i v e d r y i n g o u t a n d l o s s o f m a r i n e I n f l u e n c e . I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t m o v e m e n ts in th e
E u ro p e seem
P e n n s y lv a n ia n
S v s te m
in
to c o in c id e w ith a h re a k
N o rth
A m e ric a , ev e n
w ith in
th o u g h
th e re
a r e n o tr a c e s o r o r o g e n ic e p is o d e s in t h a t c o n t in e n t. The
m a in
o r o g e n y in
th e n o r th
o f E u ro p e , c o m in g a t th e e n d
o f t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s , is d e f i n e d b y t h e s o - c a l l e d ‘H e r c y n i a n f r o n t ’. T h is
lin e
can
be
tra c e d ,
ra th e r
p re c is e ly ,
fro m
N ew
E n g la n d ,
t h r o u g h s o u th - w e s t I r e l a n d , v ia s o u th P e m b r o k e s h ir e a n d t h e G o w e r P e n in s u la , u n d e r t h e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e o f S w a n s e a , t h e n s o u th o f th e K e n t c o a lf ie ld
to th e B o u lo n n a is a n d o n a s th e
du Midi
f a r In to th e E u ro p e a n
S ilu ria n
v o lc a n ic ity
m a rin e
D e v o n ia n
S a n d s to n e
f a c ie s
and
f a c ie s to
a ls o to
th e
Grande Faille
c o n t i n e n t . T t is t h e e a r l i e r l i n e o f ro u g h ly
th e
n o rth .
th e
lin e
s o u th
and
c o n tin e n ta l
It
S t i l l e ’s
is
of
change
fro m
O ld
b o u n d a ry
R ed
b e tw e e n
‘P a l a e o - E u r o p e * a n d ‘M e s o - E u r o p e ’, w i t h g e n t l y f o l d e d l a t e P a l a e o z o ics t o th e n o r t h a n d s t r o n g ly f o ld e d l a t e P a la e o z o ic s t o th e s o u th . I t m a y a ls o b e s ig n if ic a n t t h a t th e e a s t-w e s t s t r u c tu r e s o f s o u th e r n B rita in
becom e
n o rth e rn
n o rth -s o u th
E n g la n d .
In
o th e r
to
fo rm
w o rd s ,
th e
th e y
P e n n in e s w in g
backbone
fro m
a
of
M e d ite r
r a n e a n t o a n A tl a n ti c o r i e n t a t i o n . I t m u s t a ls o b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t i f o n e s w i n g s S p a i n ( a s o n e m u s t ) t o c lo s e t h e B a y o f B i s c a y , t h e n th e
m a in
A tla n tic
H e rc y n ia n ra th e r
tre n d
th a n
a
A s tu ric a ’ o r A s tu ria n
of
th e
Ib e ria n
M e d ite rra n e a n
kneebend
th e n
M e s e ta
d ire c tio n .
re p re se n t a
becom es The
an
‘R o d i l l a
s w in g f r o m
th e
la tte r to th e fo rm e r. S im ila rly th e H e r c y n ia n f o ld in g o f th e A n tiA tl a s in
so u th e rn
M o ro cco
s w in g s f r o m
an
‘A t l a n t i c ’ d i r e c t i o n
in
t h e w e s t t o t h e ‘M e d i t e r r a n e a n ’ d i r e c t i o n f a r t h e r e a s t . I t h a s b e e n su g g e ste d c o n tin u in g o n
th ro u g h
t h a t s t a r t i n g in m id D e v o n i a n th e C a rb o n ife r o u s , a m id
tim e s a n d
E u ro p e a n
ocean
o f u n c e r t a i n w id th e x t e n d e d r o u g h ly a lo n g t h e lin e o f th e E n g lis h C hannel
and
th e n
on
e a stw a rd s
in to
th e
E u ro p e a n
c o n tin e n t.
C e r ta in ly th e r e a r e so m e little p u ffs o f p illo w - la v a s a n d a s s o c ia te d
TH E
NATURE
O F
TH E
91
CONTROL
ro c k s o f th is a g e w h ic h m a y r e p r e s e n t s u b d u c tio n z o n e s g o in g d o w n under
s o u th e rn
B rita in ,
th e
R h e in is c h e r
S c h ie fe rg e b irg e a n d
th e
H a r z o n o n e s id e a n d u n d e r A r m o r ic a a n d t h e V o s g e s o n th e o th e r . B u t th e y a re o p h io lite
n o th in g
s u ite s .
c o m p ared
W hat
is
w ith
m o re ,
th e C a le d o n ia n
th e re
is v e r y
little
and
A lp in e
th a t
can
be
c a lle d o c e a n ic c r u s t o r t r e n c h - f illin g s e d i m e n t (flv s c h , o lis to s tr o m e s , e tc .)
w ith in
h id d e n
th e
under
H e rc y n ia n
A lp in e
m a s s ifs
fo ld - b e lts .
of
E u ro p e .
P e r s o n a lly ,
I
P e rh ap s p re fe r
it
is a ll
th e
n o tio n
t h a t t h i s s t r u c t u r e , w h a t e v e r it w a s , d i d n o t o p e n v e r y f a r a t t h i s t i m e a n d s o o n c l o s e d a g a i n . W h a t s e e m s t o m e m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t is t h a t it b o th
fo re s h a d o w e d a n d p a ra lle le d
th e H e r c y n i a n , T e t h y a n
a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n lin e s t h a t w e r e t o c o m e . The
g e n e ra l d ry in g o u t o f n o r th e r n
E u ro p e c o n tin u e d
th ro u g h
t h e P e r m i a n , w i t h in s ig n if ic a n t i n t e r r u p t i o n s s u c h a s th e Z e c h s te in sea
(w h e n
C a rb o n ife ro u s
L im e s to n e
ty p e
c o n d itio n s
trie d
to
re
a s s e r t th e m s e lv e s ). W h e t h e r th is w a s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e re g r e s s io n s to ry o r in p a r t th e c r e a tio n o f a ra in -s h a d o w a r e a b e h in d th e n e w m o u n t a i n s , i t is d i f f i c u l t t o d e d u c e . T h e g r e a t c o m p re s s io n a l m o v e m e n ts o f c o llid in g p la te s s u b s id e d and
w e re
is o s ta tic
re p la c e d
by
re a d ju s tm e n t.
th e A lso
p re s s io n a l m o v e m e n ts o f th e o ld e r h is to ry
v e rtic a l
m o v e m e n ts
of
te n s io n
at
tim e
th e
g re a t
com
a ls o t h e r e w a s a
m uch
th is
U ra ls . H e re
o f tro u g h s a n d
cam e
and
o ro g e n ie s , m o s t o b v io u s ly t h e
g re a t
P r e c a m b r ia n s e d im e n ta ry tr o u g h o f T im a n , w h ic h m a k e s a n a r r o w a n g le
w ith
th e
n o rth e rn
U ra ls , m u c h
in
th e
sam e w a y th a t th e
T a la e o - R o c k i e s ’ m a k e o n e w i t h th e l a t e r R o c k ie s . I n th e U r a l s th e la te th e
P a la e o z o ic
g e o s y n c lin e
p e rs is te d
th ro u g h
th e
g re a te r p a rt o f
P e r m i a n a n d t h e A s i a n r e c o r d is, o n t h e w h o l e , v e r y d i f f e r e n t
fro m th a t o f E u ro p e . T h is g re a t and
s tr u c tu r e , w h ic h
A s i a , is a l m o s t u n i q u e
fo rm s th e
in
th e
f r o n tie r b e tw e e n
P h a n e r o z o ic r e c o r d , in
sh o w s tw o c o n tin e n ta l p la te s c o m in g to g e th e r a n d
E u ro p e t h a t it
fo rm in g a n e w
c o n tin e n t.
N e a rly a ll th e
o th e r s ( e x c e p t p e r h a p s th e R o c k ie s ) a r e
e s s e n tia lly
th e
m a rg in a l
e ffe c ts
H ere
have
o c e a n ic
p la te s .
we
of tw o
c o llis io n s
of
c o n tin e n ta l
c o n tin e n ta l p la te s
( a lb e it
and one
v a s tl y l a r g e r t h a n t h e o th e r ) s e a le d t o g e t h e r in t h e e a r t h 's e p h e m e r a l p e rm a n e n c e . P e rh a p s , as w ith th e A tla n tic a n d th e M e d ite r r a n e a n , t h i s is w h e r e w e m a y e x p e c t t h e n e x t r i f t i n g , t h o u g h I d o u b t i f it w ill h a p p e n s o o n e n o u g h t o s u b s t a n t i a t e m y id e a . The
p a tte rn
in n o rth -w e s t E u ro p e
w as now
v e ry
m uch
one of
92
TH E
te n s io n a n d
NATURE O F T H E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L
RECORD
riftin g . T h e V a le o f E d e n b e tw e e n th e P e n n in e s a n d
t h e L a k e D is tr ic t in n o r t h e r n
E n g la n d
p r o v id e s a s m a l l b u t g o o d
e x a m p le o f th is h a p p e n i n g in P e r m i a n tim e s . T h e e x tr u s io n o f g r e a t q u a n titie s
o f q u a rtz
v o lc a n ic s
in
th e
p o rp h y ry
B la c k
in
th e
F o re st m a y
S o u th
be
T y ro l
fu rth e r
and
o f o th e r
e x a m p le s .
In
th e
M a s s i f C e n t r a l o f F r a n c e t h e r e w e r e a w h o l e s e r ie s o f l i t t l e g r a b e n a n d th e re m a rk a b le about 2 km
sillon houiller, a
r if t s tr u c tu r e o f th is a g e , o n ly
w id e .
M e a n w h ile , in N o r t h A m e r ic a , th e o r o g e n y w h ic h p r o d u c e d th e A p p a l a c h i a n s t r u c t u r e s p r o b a b l y d id n o t r e a c h its c lim a x u n t i l th e end
of
th e
P e rm ia n .
The
g re a t
c o m p r e s s iv e
fo rc e s
w e re
a g a in
o p e r a tiv e a lo n g th e A tl a n ti c lin e a n d m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 m ile s o f c r u s ta l s h o rte n in g
has
been
e s tim a te d .
G ra n itic
b a th o lith s
w e ld e d
th e
g e o s y n c lin a l ro c k s o n t o th e c o n t in e n t. It
m ust
U n ite d
not
li e
S ta te s
O u a c h ita
f o rg o tte n ,
th e re
a re
h o w e v e r,
ro u g h ly
th a t
in
th e
s o u th
e a s t-w e s t s tru c tu r e s s u c h
of
th e
a s th e
M o u n ta in s w h ic h m a y r e la te to a P a la e o -T e th y s a n d b e
t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f th e H e r c y n i a n f o ld b e lts o f E u r o p e . I t m u s t a ls o n o t b e f o r g o tte n t h a t w e in B r i ta in , a t le a s t, t e n d t o g e t o u r l a tit u d e s w ro n g
w hen
m a tc h
N ew
w as
to
be
n o rth e rn
lo o k in g E n g la n d th e
a c ro s s w ith
U .S .A .
A fric a , a n d
th e
O ld
w as
A tla n tic .
We
s h o u ld
not
try
to
E n g la n d . B e fo re s e p a ra tio n , w h a t
c lo s e
a g a in s t
it is o n l y t h e
s o u th e rn
G u lf S tre a m
E u ro p e
and
th a t m akes o u r
L a b ra d o r ia n la titu d e s h e a ra b le . F o ll o w in g o n
fro m
t h e e v id e n c e o f te n s io n in
P e rm ia n
E u ro p e ,
in t h e T r i a s t h e r e s e e m t o h a v e b e e n r i f t i n g s t r u c tu r e s e v e r y w h e r e , su ch
as,
M id la n d
fo r
e x a m p le ,
c o a lfie ld s
th e
of
h o rst
E n g la n d .
and
g ra b e n
R ecent
s tru c tu re s
e v id e n c e
fro m
of
th e
b o r e h o le s
c le a r ly d e m o n s tr a t e s t h e c o n tr o l o f T r ia s s ic b a s in s e d im e n ta tio n b y m a r g in a l fa u lts . T h e g re a t g ra b e n C h e s h ire a tte m p t
B a sin at
m ay
s e p a ra tin g
m id s t o f th e C o m m o n p ria te to
be
re m a rk
th o u g h t
W a le s
fro m
o f th e V a le o f S e v e rn a n d of
as
an
E n g la n d .
e a rly B ut
w ritin g
c lo s e
in
th e
M a r k e t d is c u s s io n s o f 1 9 7 2 , i t s e e m s a p p r o
th a t B rita in
d e c id e d
s o m e 2 0 0 m illio n y e a r s a g o
t o r e m a in w it h E u r o p e r a t h e r t h a n d e p a r t w it h N o r t h The
th e
(p re n a tio n a lis t)
re s e m b la n c e
o f th e N e w a rk
A m e r ic a .
S e rie s a lo n g th e e a s te r n
s e a b o a r d o f t h e U .S .A , t o t h e T r i a s s i c d e p o s i t s o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e h a s a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d c o m m e n t . E q u a l l y s t r i k i n g is t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f th e
s tru c tu re s
p e rh a p s th e
in
w h ic h
th e s e
b e st A m e ric a n
s e d im e n ts a r e
e x a m p le s
p re se rv e d . T h e s e a re
o f M a rs h a ll
K a y ’s ‘t a p h r o -
TH E
NATURE
O F
TH E
93
CONTROL
g e o s y n c t i n e s ’, t h a t is t o s a y , g e o s y n c l i n e s w i t h f a u l t e d
m a rg in s . I t
is r e l e v a n t t o t h e t h e m e o f t h i s c h a p t e r t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e y h a v e a ls o
been
c a lle d
‘e p i e u g e o s v n c l l n e s ’, t h a t
is t o
say , fa u lt-b o u n d e d
g e o s y n c lin e s d e v e lo p e d o n to p o f o ld e u g e o s y n c lin e s . T h e s ig n if ic a n t p o in t h e re
is a g a i n
th e
c o in c id e n c e
and
p a ra lle lis m
o f s tru c tu re s
a lo n g t h e N e w E n g l a n d c o a s t. T h o u g h m a n y o f u s w o u ld n o t w is h to d ig n ify
su c h p h e n o m e n a w ith th e n a m e
c e rta in ly
v e ry
th ic k
a c c u m u la tio n s
in
‘g e o s y n c l i n e ’, t h e y a r e
fa u lt
s tru c tu re s
ro u g h ly
p a ra lle l w ith th e A tla n tic c o a st. T h e r e see m s little d o u b t th a t th e y m a r k th e te n s io n a f e f fe c ts o f th e s p l i t t i n g a p a r t o f th e tw o A tl a n ti c f a c in g p la te s . P r o b a b ly cam e
to
an
end
w ith
th e re h a d th e
been
an
C a le d o n ia n
e a rlie r A tla n tic
w h ic h
o ro g e n y , b u t th is w a s
th e
b e g in n in g o f th e o c e a n t h a t w e h a v e to d a y . It
is a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s p o i n t t o d i g r e s s f o r a m o m e n t o n
th e
s u b je c t o f th e f a u n is tic c h a n g e s t h a t to o k p l a c e a t t h e e n d o f t h e P a la e o z o ic . T h is w a s
o ne o f N o rm an
N e w e l l ’s g r e a t c a t a s t r o p h e s
i n t h e h i s t o r y o f l i f e ( t h o u g h i t is I m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e f l o r i s t i c c h a n g e s w e r e to c o m e la te r ) . I n o n e o f h is la te s t a r tic le s , P r o f e s s o r N e w e ll h a s c o m m e n te d : “ O f th e s e g r e a t c h a n g e s (in th e p h y s ic a l e n v i r o n m e n t) n o s in g le se t o f f a c to r s h a s in f lu e n c e d th e l a t e r h is t o r y o f lif e m o r e t h a n th e c o n t in u o u s m o d if ic a tio n s o f t o p o g r a p h ic r e lie f and
d is tr ib u tio n o f c o n tin e n ts a n d o c e a n b a sin s a n d th e a tte n d a n t
c lim a tic w o u ld
c h a n g e s ” . I s u b s c rib e w h o le h e a r te d ly
n o t in
g ra p h ic a l
fa c t re s tric t th e m
changes
appear
to
to th e
have
to
t h e s e v ie w s a n d
‘l a t e r h i s t o r y ’. M a j o r g e o
cau sed
w id e s p re a d
e x tin c tio n s
b v th e d e s tr u c tio n o f h a b i t a t s . T h i s in t u r n h a s le d to r a p i d e v o lu tio n
t o fill t h e v a c a n t o r n e w e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e s . A s H . L . H a w k i n s
o n c e w r o te : “ D e a t h m a k e s ro o m f o r lif e ” . I a m c o m in g m o r e a n d m o re to th e
v ie w
c o n tin e n ts a n d a
v c rv
t h a t t h e e v o lu tio n o f lif e , lik e t h e e v o l u ti o n o f
o f th e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l c o lu m n in g e n e r a l, h a s b e e n
e p is o d ic
a ffa ir,
w ith
s h o r t 'h a p p e n i n g s ’ i n t e r r u p t i n g
lo n g
p e r io d s o f n o t h i n g m u c h in p a r t i c u l a r . M uch
is
h id d e n
in
th e
m is ts
of
th e
e a rly
T ria s s ic ,
w h ic h
is
p r o b a b l y t h e l e a s t - k n o w n e p i s o d e in t h e l o n g h i s t o r y o f P h a n e r o z o i c ti m e .
N e v e rth e le s s , o n e
changes
in
th e
r e g r e s s io n s
cau sed
a d v e rtis e d
in
P e rm ia n a n d
m ay
m a rin e
th e
bv
re a s o n a b ly p re s u m e
fau n as
th e
e v id e n t
at
th is
H e rc y n ia n
tim e
o ro g e n v .
c o n tin e n ta litv
o f so
th a t
th e
f o llo w e d T h ese m uch
m a jo r
fro m a re
o f th e
e a r ly T r ia s s ic r e c o r d in E u r o p e a n d N o r th
th e
w id e ly la te
A m e ric a .
T h e w e ld in g t o g e t h e r o f p la te s in th e o r o g e n y w o u ld h a v e te n d e d
94
TH E
to
NATURE O F TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
p re s e r v e t h e e q u a n i m i t y o f t h e la n d flo ra s a n d
b ra te s. T h e
p la n ts
at
le a s t o n l y s h o w e d
th e la n d v e rte
s ig n if ic a n t c h a n g e s w it h
t h e r i f t i n g o f t h e p la te s in l a t e r T r ia s s ic tim e s . T h e o n e f e a t u r e t h a t c le a r ly d if f e r e n tia te s b e tw e e n
th e N e w a rk
S e r i e s o f e a s t e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d t h e c la s s i c T r i a s o f n o r t h - w e s t E u r o p e , is t h e p r e s e n c e o f b a s i c i g n e o u s i n t r u s i o n s a n d
e x tr u s io n s
in t h e f o r m e r . I t is t h e r e f o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h i s f e a t u r e is a l s o s e e n in th e T r i a s o f s o u th e r n
S p a in a n d M o ro c c o , w h ic h , a c c o rd in g to
t h e m o s t g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d p l a t e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s , w o u l d h a v e l> e e n c lo s e t o
th e e a ste rn s e a b o a rd
o f th e
S ta te s . T h e s e w e r e th e r e f o r e
p r o b a b l y c lo s e s t t o t h e m a i n l i n e o f p l a t e r i f t i n g . T h e o t h e r g r a b e n s tru c tu re s
in
w e s te rn
E u ro p e , a lre a d y
d isc u sse d , w e r e
p re s u m a b ly
‘t e n t a t i v e * s p l i t s w h i c h n e v e r c a m e t o a n y t h i n g . So
th e
A tla n tic w a s d e fin e d
in th e
T r ia s s ic a n d , in f a c t, t h e r e
is i n c r e a s i n g e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t m u c h o f t h e s h a p e o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e w a s b lo c k e d
o u t in
le n g th s o f c o n te m p o r a r y
M e s o z o ic tim e s . M a n y o f th e a r c u a t e
c o a s tlin e s
T r ia s s ic b a s in s . I t h a s b e e n
s a id
now
seem
th a t th e
Iris h
to
b e th e e d g e s o f
Sea a n d
ev e n th e
B r i s to l C h a n n e l ( j u s t o u t s i d e m y w i n d o w a s I w r i t e ) a r e o l d e r t h a n th e
A t l a n t i c . T h i s is t r u e i n t h e
tr o u g h s b e fo re
and th e
b a s in s m a in
d e v e lo p e d
o p e n in g
of
se n s e t h a t M e s o z o ic s e d im e n ta r y '
and
w e re
th e
N o rth
c o m p le te
in
A tla n tic .
th e se
Som e
area s of
th e
m a r g i n a l f a u lts — n o t a b ly t h a t a l o n g th e S u t h e r l a n d c o a s t d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r — w e r e c le a r ly o p e r a tiv e d u r i n g M e s o z o ic tim e s fin th is c a s e l a t e J u r a s s i c ) a n d m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n a c t i v e s e i s m i c li n e s . O t h e r s , s u c h a s t h e f a u l t t h a t l e t d o w n t h e g r e a t t h i c k n e s s o f M e s o z o i c in C a rd ig a n
B ay
( to t h e w e s t o f W a le s ) m u s t h a v e b e e n m u c h la t e r ,
th o u g h th e y s e rv e d to d e fin e b a sin s th a t w e re p re s u m a b ly a lr e a d y th e r e . T h e m a r g in a l J u r a s s ic s tr ip s o f e a s t G r e e n l a n d a r e s im ila r ly f a u l t - b o u n d e d . I t is s u r e l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( b o t h s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y ) t h a t t h e g r e a t ‘h a r d r o c k ’ m a s s i f o f S c o t l a n d is n o w k n o w n t o b e a lm o s t e n tir e ly s u r r o u n d e d A p a rt fro m
b y m u c h l a t e r ‘s o f t r o c k ’ b a s i n s .
th e s e te n s io n a l e ffe c ts , m o s t o f M e s o z o ic tim e s o v e r
m o s t o f E u r o p e m a y b e t h o u g h t o f a s w h a t I h a v e c a l l e d t h e ‘l o n g q u i e t e p is o d e * . T h r o u g h C re ta c e o u s
tim e s ,
re m a rk a b ly
u n e v e n tfu l
s p a s m o d ic )
th e g r e a te r p a r t o f T ria s s ic , J u ra s s ic a n d
w hat
is n o w h is to ry
a c c u m u la tio n
of
n o rth e rn th a t
m ade
s e d im e n t
and
E u ro p e
e x p e rie n c e d
p o s s ib le
th e
th e
slo w
a
g e n tle
(if
e v o lu ti o n
of
o r g a n is m s w h ic h le d t o th e g r o w t h o f th e s c ie n c e o f s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l p a l a e o n t o l o g y i n t h e s e s t r a t a . F o r l a r g e a r e a s t h e r e is n o t s o m u c h
T H E
NATURE
O F
TH E
95
C O N T R O I.
a s a p e b b le b e d to m a k e o n e s tu m b le in th e c lim b u p th e c o lu m n . I n th is p a s s iv ity , t h e in f a n c y o f s t r a t i g r a p h y m a y h a v e b r a in w a s h e d u s i n t o t h i n k i n g t h a t t h i s is t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l r e c o r d . T h e s a m e is t r u e i n e a s t e r n a n d s o u t h e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a , th o u g h
m uch
of
th a t
re c o rd
is
out
on
th e
c o n tin e n ta l
s h e lf .
E ls e w h e r e (a s a l o n g th e w e s te r n s e a b o a r d o f N o r t h A m e r ic a ) p la te s w e re
m e e tin g
and
b e in g s u b d u c te d , b u t o v e r a g re a t p a r t o f th e
e a r t h ’s s u r f a c e , a n d
m y p a r t o f it in p a r t i c u l a r , th e
g e n tly m o v in g a p a r t a s th e A tla n tic fo rm e d f ro m
p la te s w e r e
its m e d ia n rid g e .
F o r m o s t o f th is tim e , f o r e x a m p le , m u c h o f n o r t h e r n E u r o p e w a s in t h e c o n d iti o n o f a s h a ll o w , f lo o d e d s h e lf . T h e
in c re d ib le p e rs is
t e n c e o f t h e ‘B l u e L i a s ’ f a c i e s o f e a r l y J u r a s s i c t i m e s is s y m p t o m a t i c o f t h i s . I t is n o c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t t h e s i m p l e o l d G e r m a n s u b d i v i s i o n o f th e J u ra s s ic
in to
‘B l a c k
J u r a ’, ‘B r o w n
Ju ra ’ and
‘W h i t e J u r a ’
is s t i l l s o e f f e c t i v e a r o u n d E u r o p e . A w a y in th e s o u th o f E u r o p e , a s in w e s te r n N o r t h A m e r ic a , t h e r e a r e fly s c h d e p o s its , th e o p h io lite s u ite a n d m u c h e lse b e s id e s , in d i c a t i v e o f i s l a n d a r c s , d e e p t r e n c h e s a n d o c e a n f lo o r s . T h e q u i e s c e n c e o f t h e J u r a s s ic c u l m i n a t e d in th e w id e s p r e a d
T i t h o n i a n lim e s to n e s
o f s o u th e rn
J u ra s s ic
E u ro p e
E u ro p e . A n o th e r
it
has
th e
been
by
a
d o m in a n c e
e x p la in e d
g e n e ra l
s e ttin g
g e n e ra l e x p la n a tio n
o f th e
griottes
of
M e d ite rra n e a n . fro m
In
O n
s tra tig ra p h y ,
it s o w n
som e
b e n e e d e d . D e p o s its v e ry
th e
th e ir su p p o se d
o rg a n is m s .
s o u th e rn lim e s to n e s
s p e c ia l w a y s , b u t c o n s id e r e d
M e d ite rra n e a n
s e e m s to
in
o f n o d u la r re d
o f p e la g ic
in v a r i o u s
Ammonitico rosso o c c u r
th e J u ra s s ic
o f th e
Ammonitico rosso f a c i e s
is t h e
c h a ra c te ris e d
fe a tu re
in
m o re
s im ila r to
a t s e v e r a l le v e ls o n b o t h sid e s
P a la e o z o ic t h e y
a re
u s u a lly
re s e m b la n c e to c h e rrie s , a n d
c a lle d can
be
f o u n d (in n o r t h e r n S p a in a n d s o u t h e r n F r a n c e , f o r e x a m p le ) in th e C a m b r i a n , th e D e v o n i a n a d th e U p p e r C a r b o n if e r o u s , b e sid e s t h e i r v e r y w id e d is t r ib u tio n in t h e J u r a s s ic . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a ls o o c c u r in
A lg e r ia
and
T u n i s i a , f o r e x a m p le , im p lie s s i m ila r d e p o s itio n a l
e n v iro n m e n ts a n d
p ro b a b ly n o
g re a t s e p a ra tio n . I t
is d i f f i c u l t t o
a v o id a c lim a ti c e x p l a n a t i o n f o r th is fa c ie s , ju s t a s th e d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n
th e
fa rth e r
n o rth
T ith o n ia n w e re
and
a ls o
th e
c o n te m p o ra n e o u s
p ro b a b ly
c lim a tic
ra th e r
V o lg ia n th a n
fa c ie s p h y s io
g ra p h ic . B u t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n c lu s io n o n e m u s t r e a c h a b o u t J u r a s s ic t i m e s is t h a t m u c h o f t h e f o r m o f t h e p r e s e n t c o n t i n e n t s h a d t h e n b e e n b lo c k e d
o u t a s it is t o d a y . T h i s p o i n t w a s w e l l e x p r e s s e d b y
96
TH E
NATURE O F TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
th e g r e a t A rk e ll s h o r tly b e f o r e h e d ie d . H e w r o te : “ A ll th e o c c u r r e n c e s o f J u r a s s ic f o r m a tio n s . . . a m o u n t to l i t t l e m o r e t h a n re lic s o f m a r g i n a l la p p in g s o f t h e se a a r o u n d t h e e d g e s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t s ; t h e s o le e x c e p t i o n b e i n g t h e T e t h y s ” . P a s s in g o n n o w
to th e C re ta c e o u s , th e re w e re c o m p lic a tio n s a t
th e b e g in n in g o f th a t p e rio d , p e rh a p s r e la te d to th e p o o rly d a te d o ro g e n ie s o f o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld . N e v e r th e le s s , th e s e w e r e n o t v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t a n d s o m e f a c i e s — n o t a b l y t h e ‘W e a l d e n ’ o f w e s t e r n E u ro p e — a re
a g a in
re m a rk a b ly
w id e s p re a d .
The
i n i ts w a y , v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e T i t h o n i a n . I n
‘U r g o n i a n 1 w a s ,
th e F r e n c h J u r a , fo r
e x a m p le , th e y a r e o f te n r e m a r k a b l y a lik e in f a c ie s a n d f a u n a . B u t s o m e th in g v e r y s e rio u s h a p p e n e d in m id - C r e ta c e o u s tim e s a f t e r th e d e p o s itio n
of
th e
‘U r g o n i a n ’.
If
we
p u rsu e
th e
d o c trin e
of
th e
o r o g e n y /r e g r e s s io n c o u p le , th e n w e m u s t a ls o e x p e c t th e c o ro lla r y th a t
th e
w e a rin g
c o n tin e n ts
by
dow n
m a rg in a l
of
m o u n ta in
s e d im e n ta tio n
ra n g e s
and
m u st
le a d
th e to
sp rea d
of
w id e s p re a d
tra n s g re s s io n s . C e r ta in ly a t a b o u t th e b e g in n in g o f la te C re ta c e o u s tim e s
we
have
one
o f th e
b est d o c u m e n te d
tr a n s g r e s s io n s
t i m e . T h e ‘C e n o m a n i a n t r a n s g r e s s i o n ’ t u r n s u p — a ll
over
E u ro p e
and
e m b a y m e n t o f N o rth
N o rth
A fric a
and
o f a ll
n e a rly e v e ry w h e re
ro u n d
th e
M is s is s ip p i
A m e r ic a , a n d in m a n y o t h e r p la c e s b e sid e s .
I s h o u l d p e r h a p s s a y t h e ‘s o - c a l l e d C e n o m a n i a n
tra n s g re s s io n ’ fo r
it o f te n d if fe r s in a g e b y a s t a g e o r so , b u t n e v e r th e le s s , it w a s th e m o s t s t a r t l i n g e v e n t o f C r e t a c e o u s tim e s . I t c a n n o t b e b e t t e r e x e m p lif ie d
th a n
b y th e
u n c o m fo rta b le
re la tio n s h ip o f la te C re ta c e o u s
m a rin e s e d im e n ts to th e m e ta m o rp h o s e d P r e c a m b r ia n ro c k s o f th e B o h e m i a n M a s s i f , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n p l a t e 3 .1 . I f m y t h e o r i s i n g is c o r r e c t , t h e n
t h e ‘C e n o m a n i a n t r a n s g r e s s i o n ’
w a s th e re s u lt o f th e w e a r in g d o w n o f th e H e r c y n ia n a n d p e r h a p s la te r ra n g e s
(a s in
th e w e s te rn U n ite d
S ta te s) to g e th e r w ith
m a r
g in a l s e d im e n ta tio n . I t m a y b e c o m p a r e d w ith th e e a r ly C a m b r ia n tra n s g re s s io n a f te r th e C a d o m ia n o ro g e n y 3 th e m id - S ilu r ia n tr a n s g re ssio n
a f te r th e
T a c o n ia n
o ro g e n y
and
th e e a r ly C a rb o n ife ro u s
tr a n s g r e s s io n a f t e r t h e C a l e d o n i a n a n d A c a d ia n o ro g e n ie s . B u t th is is a n o b v i o u s o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , a n d on
my
c la im
w o rd s
e a rlie r
in
th is c h a p te r
I w o u ld n o t w is h to g o b a c k a b o u t th o s e w is e
m en
w ho
t o se e a p a t t e r n in h is to r y . U n le s s a n d u n t il w e f in d a d e t e r
m in is tic c o n tr o l, p r e s u m a b ly d e e p in s i d e t h e e a r t h , I c a n se e o n ly a s e rie s o f a c c id e n ts , m o s t o f th e s e a c c id e n ts s e e m t o b e t h e c o llis io n s o f p l a t e s o n t h e e a r t h ’s s u r f a c e .
TH E
The
b ig g e st
c irc u m s ta n c e s o ro g e n y .
p a r t in B a lk a n
c o m p lic a tio n th a t
The
b e c o m in g
NATURE
im p o rta n c e
TH E
of
p ro d u c e d
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O F
m id -C re ta c e o u s
th e
of
97
CONTROL
tim e s
f ir s t g r e a t s p a s m
th e
m id -C re ta c e o u s
re c o g n is e d . T h e y
th e h is to ry o f th e e a s te rn
c e rta in ly
w e re
o f th e
th e
A lp in e
m o v e m e n ts
p la y e d a
is
m a jo r
A lp s , t h e C a r p a t h i a n s a n d
th e
M o u n ta in s , w ith w id e s p re a d n o r th e r ly th r u s tin g o f n a p p e s .
I t w a s a l s o a t t h i s t i m e t h a t t h e r e o c c u r r e d t h e ‘i n v e r s i o n ’ o f V o i g t ’s
randtrdge As
a
o r m a r g in a l tro u g h s
re s u lt,
o ld e r
rid g e s
in
(su ch
n o r th e r n , e x tra -A lp in e as
th e
E u ro p e .
L o n d o n -B ra b a n t
M a s sif)
b e c a m e b u r ie d u n d e r th e s e d im e n ts o f n e w , s e c o n d a r y tr o u g h s . O n e c a n o n ly d e d u c e th a t th e E u ra s ia n a n d A fric a n p la te s b e g a n d r i v i n g to g e t h e r a t th is tim e , w ith t h e l a t t e r d r a g g e d d o w n b e n e a th t h e r is in g A lp in e m o u n ta in s . T h i s w o u ld s e e m e v e r, th e
n o tio n
o f m a jo r
tra n s g re s s io n s
to c o n tra d ic t, h o w
b e in g
th e
m u c h -d e la y e d
a fte r-e ffe c ts o f a n o ro g e n y . T h e re m a rk a b le s ta b ility o f n o r th e r n E u ro p e a n d e a s te rn N o rth A m e r ic a a f te r th is m id - C r e ta c e o u s sp a s m
is s u r e l y c l e a r e v i d e n c e
o f t h e e p is o d ic n a t u r e o f s o m e o f t h e p l a t e m o v e m e n ts . T h e p e r s is te n c e o f th e w h ite c h a l k f a c ie s o u ts id e t h e n e w m o u n t a i n b e lts m u s t c le a rly
in d ic a te
a
lo n g
p e rio d
w hen
th e
E u ra s ia n
and
A m e ric a n
p la te s w e r e n o t b e in g a f f e c te d b y a n y m a j o r c o n t i n e n t a l c o llis io n s . It
s t ii l r e m a i n s
d if fic u lt t o e x p l a in
A u s tra lia , th o u g h
one
phenom enon
p ro d u c e d
th a t
th e
G in g in
m ig h t g u ess th a t th e
C h a lk
t h i s is p a r t
of fa ra w a y o f th e
a lm o s t w o rld -w id e
sam e
‘C e n o m a n i a n
t r a n s g r e s s i o n ’. B u t w e m u s t n o t f o r g e t t h e g r e a t f l y s c h t r o u g h s w h i c h w e re
d e v e lo p e d
in
A lp in e
E u ro p e
th ro u g h
m uch
of
C re ta c e o u s
tim e a n d w h i c h in m a n y c a s e s c o n t in u e d o n i n t o t h e T e r t i a r y . B y th is tim e , t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f th e n o r t h
A tla n tic w a s p r e
s u m a b ly w id e o p e n , a n d ] s tro n g ly s u s p e c t a c ra c k g o in g u p a s f a r a s e a st G re e n la n d . T e th y a n
e le m e n ts
G re e n la n d
I h a v e e a r l i e r s u g g e s te d (o f la te
m ig h t b e e x p la in e d
s w e e p in g its w a y i n to a n th e
J u ra s s ic a n d
p re se n c e
of
o th e r
th a t th e
p re se n c e of
e a rly
C re ta c e o u s ag e) in
in te r m s o f a n
e a rly G u lf S tre a m
in c ip ie n t N o r th
M e d ite rra n e a n
A t l a n ti c . S o m i g h t a ls o
g e n e ra
and
s p e c ie s
in
th e
m o r e w e s te r ly o u t c r o p s o f B r i ta in . T h e m a in o p e n in g o f th e N o r th A tla n tic , h o w e v e r, w a s e v id e n tly a T e r tia r y a f fa ir. T h e v o lc a n ic h is to ry o f th a t e v e n t d o e s n o t n e e d r e s ta te m e n t h e re , b u t th e c o m p le x ity o f th e s tr a ta l h is to ry m a k e s th is
of
th e
c o n tro v e rs ia l
p a rt
of
c o lu m n a ll.
The
b o th
th e
m o st c o n fu s in g
w id e s p re a d
re g re s sio n
and at
th e
th e
m o st
end
of
98
TH E
NATURE O F TH E
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
C r e t a c e o u s tim e s m a y b e r e l a t e d to t h r e e m a j o r p l a t e p h e n o m e n a : th e
L a ra m id e
o ro g e n y
a lo n g
th e
w e s te rn
edge
o f th e
A m e ric a n
p la te , th e o p e n in g o f th e n o rth e rn p a r t o f th e N o r th A tla n tic a n d th e
f u r th e r g rin d in g to g e th e r o f th e A fric a n
and
E u ra s ia n
p la te s
to p ro d u c e th e e a rly T e r tia r y P y re n e e a n fo ld in g o f C a n ta b r ia , th e P y r e n e e s a n d B a ss e P r o v e n c e in s o u th - w e s t E u r o p e . N e w e a s t-w e s t fo ld
m o u n ta in s
im m e d ia te ly
began
to
be
d e s tro y e d
a g a in ,
p ro
d u c in g m o u n ta in s o f c o n g lo m e ra te su c h a s th e f a n ta s tic sh a p e s o f M o n ts e rra t, n e a r in
a
c o u n try
B a rc e lo n a
( p l a t e 8 .1 ) w h i c h
o f c o n g lo m e ra te s
lik e
is r e m a r k a b l e
S p a in . T h e
even
A tl a s f o l d i n g
in
n o r th - w e s t A f r ic a c o n f o r m s r e m a r k a b ly w it h t h a t o f t h e P y r e n e e s , w h ic h
p ro v id e p ro b a b ly
th e
b e st e v id e n c e w e h a v e in
E u ro p e o f
t h e c o in c id e n c e o f H e r c y n i a n a n d A lp in e f o ld b e lts . The
H e rc y n ia n
m a s s ifs o f E u r o p e , s u c h a s th e S p a n is h M e s e ta ,
t h e M a s s if C e n t r a l o f F r a n c e , th e E if e l o f G e r m a n y , t h e B o h e m ia n M a s s if o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d th e R h o d o p e M a s s if o f B u lg a r ia a r e c h a ra c te ris e d
by
ro u g h ly
n o rth -s o u th
te n s io n a l g ra b e n
fille d w ith
T e r t i a r y n o n - m a r i n e s e d im e n ts . T h e y a ls o d is p la y a ll t h e f e a tu r e s o f a
v o lc a n ic ity
th a t
la s te d
la te
enough
to
te rrify
P a la e o lith ic m a n
a n d p e r h a p s t o p r o v i d e h i m w i t h h i s f ir e . S o m e o f t h e c r a t e r s l o o k s o f re s h t h a t o n e a lm o s t e x p e c ts t h e ro c k s s till to b e w a r m . B u t th is v o l c a n i c i t y a l s o t e s ti f ie s t o t h e g r e a t t e n s i o n a l s t r e s s e s t h a t w e r e s t i l l a f f e c tin g E u r o p e , p r o d u c i n g v a s t fis s u re e r u p tio n s a n d lo n g s t r a i g h t lin e s o f v o lc a n ic c o n e s , s u c h a s th e C h a i n e d e P u y s n e a r C l e r m o n t F e rra n d
(p la te
8 .2 )
and
th e
p u y -lik e
v o lc a n o e s
in
th e
‘C z e c h
A u v e r g n e ’ o n t h e w e s t s i d e o f t h e B o h e m i a n M a s s i f ( p l a t e 8 .3 ) . T h e m a in sp a sm e a rly
M io c e n e
o f th e A lp in e o r o g e n y c a m e in O lig o c e n e a n d
tim e s ,
w ith
th e
A fric a n
p la te
g rin d in g
a g a in s t
E u r o p e a n d t h e a lp i n e c h a in s s p r e a d in g o u t t o n o r t h a n d s o u th lik e a n o p e n i n g f a n . S o m u c h is n o w k n o w n o f t h e A l p i n e f o l d b e l t s , t h e tim e s a n d deduced
fo rm s o f th e ir m o v e m e n ts , a n d
s o m u c h is n o w
b e in g
a b o u t t h e r e la tio n s h ip o f a ll th is t o th e th e o r ie s o f p la te
te c to n ic s , t h a t
I m a r v e l a t m y a u d a c i t y in s a y in g a n y t h i n g a t a ll
a t t h i s s t a g e . C l e a r l y i t is m o r e t h a n j u s t a p i c t u r e o f t w o c o n t i n e n t c a rry in g
p la te s c o m in g to g e th e r . A s w ith e v e ry th e o r y t h a t see m s
a t f ir s t t o h a v e a n o b v i o u s a n s w e r t o e v e r y p r o b l e m , t h e b e a u t i f u l l y s im p le p ic t u r e
is b e c o m i n g s m u d g e d , t h e t w o o b v i o u s l a r g e p l a t e s
o f A fric a
E u ro p e
and
th e
e a s te rn
th e
M e d ite rra n e a n ,
a re
M e d ite rra n e a n .
b e in g The
a lth o u g h
it
c o n fu se d m o st has
by
th e
ap p aren t in
C y p ru s
‘m i n i p l a t e s ’ o f
a n o m a ly s o m e th in g
is t h a t com *
TH E
p a ra b le
to
a
m id -o c e a n ic
‘s t r i p i n g ’, w i t h ra n ean
NATURE
re v e rs a ls,
O F
TH E
rid g e ,
of o th e r
99
CONTROL
does
not
oceans.
have
The
th e
m a g n e tic
e a ste rn
M e d ite r
is s t i l l e v i d e n t l y a n a c t i v e t e c t o n i c a r e a o f c o l l i d i n g p l a t e s ,
w i t h C r e t e a n d a d j a c e n t rid g e s a s p a r t o f a s m a ll is la n d a r c p a r a l l e l to th e H e lle n ic tr e n c h . The
w e s te rn
M e d i t e r r a n e a n , h o w e v e r , is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , h a v i n g
a lp in e fo ld s to t h e s o u th a s w e ll a s t o th e n o r t h . H e r e , p e r h a p s , a ll th e o c e a n
f lo o r m a t e r i a l h a s b e e n
c a rrie d
u p in to th e m o u n ta in s .
F ly s c h -b e a rin g tr o u g h s a n d o p h io lite s a r e m a jo r c o n s titu e n ts o f th e a l lo c h th o n o u s e le m e n ts in th e a lp in e s c h a in s , in c lu d i n g th o s e in t h e A p e n n i n e s d is c u s s e d e a r lie r . A s i m ila r b e lt o f M e s o z o ic o p h io lite s h a s b e e n T a u ru s and
M o u n ta in s
Ira q
and
o f s o u th e rn
th e n
on
th ro u g h
T u r k e y , ju s t Ira n
to
tra c e d
fro m
in to n o r th e r n
th e
S y r ia
O m a n . T h e s e a p p e a r to
r e la te to a n e a r lie r p h a s e o f o c e a n s p r e a d in g d u r in g la te T ria s s ic t i m e s , a n d w re r e c a r r i e d t o t h e i r p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n s i n n a p p e s f o r m e d d u r i n g th e C r e ta c e o u s , a s in e a s t e r n E u r o p e . O ne f a irly
fe a tu re w e ll
in
of m o d ern th e
M o st n o ta b ly th e F re n c h
A lp s
w e s te rn
p la te
s y s te m s t h a t
M e d ite rra n e a n
does seem
is t h e
to
tra n s fo rm
show fa u lt.
S e s tri-V o lta g g io lin e s e p a ra te s th e re v e rs e -fa c in g
and
Ita lia n
A p e n n in e s .
In
th e
f o r m e r th e
te c to n ic
m o v e m e n t a n d t h e m i g r a t i o n o f t r o u g h s is t o t h e s o u t h a n d s o u t h w e s t. I n
t h e A p e n n i n e s , i t is t o w a r d s t h e n o r t h - e a s t . C o m p a r a b l e
u n i t s in th e tw o r a n g e s s e e m t o h a v e c o m e f r o m a n o c e a n ic tr o u g h t h a t w a s t o r n a p a r t a n d t h r u s t in o p p o s ite d ir e c tio n s . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d
th a t, th o u g h
th e tra n s fo rm
f a u l t its e lf h a s d is a p p e a r e d ,
t h e S e s t r i - V o l t a g g i o l i n e i n d i c a t e s its f o r m e r p o s i t i o n . I t s e p a r a t e d B e n io ff z o n e s th a t w e re
d ip p in g a n d
c o n s u m in g o c e a n ic
c r u s t in
o p p o s ite d ir e c tio n s , a s in th e s o u th - w e s t P a c ific t r e n c h s y s te m a t th e p re s e n t d a y . O th e r w re n c h fa u lts a ro u n d be
in te rp re te d
and
s im ila rly ,
m o st
n o ta b ly
th e M e d ite rra n e a n
b e tw e e n
th e
e a s te rn
m ay A lp s
th e D in a r id e s , w h e re s im ila rly o p p o s in g s tru c tu r e s a r e f o u n d
i n c lo s e p r o x i m i t y . T h e l a s t p u s h o f t h e a l p i n e m o u n t a i n s o v e r t h e i r o w 'n M i o c e n e m o l a s s e - d e t r i t u s is n o w k n o w n i n a l l t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t r a n g e s . S i n c e t h e n t h e s t o r y in E u r o p e h a s b e e n e s s e n t i a l l y o n e o f s e t t l i n g d o w n a f t e r t h e s to r m . A t firs t th e n e w m o u n t a i n s m u s t h a v e b e e n w o r n d o w n w ith g re a t r a p id ity to p ro d u c e th e v a s t q u a n titie s o f N e o g e n e c o n g lo m e ra te s . T h e n
th e re w e re th e
m o la s s e - ty p e s a n d s , w h ic h
in
100
TH E
th e ir d ra b ,
NATURE O F TH E
khaki
S T R A T IG R A P H IC A L R E C O R D
f e a tu r e le s s n e s s a r e
re c o g n is a b le
in
th e
s m a lle s t
e x p o s u re s fro m S p a in to B u lg a ria a n d b e y o n d . The
la te r
E n g lis h
s h e ll y
san d s
‘c r a g s ’ a n d
lim e s to n e s o f th e
th e
o f th e
n o rth e rn
faluns)
F re n c h
M e d ite rra n e a n
N eogene
and
th e
(su c h
as
th e
e c h in o id -b e a rin g
m ay rep resen t a
re tu rn
to p la te
s ta b ility . W e m u s t r e m e m b e r , h o w e v e r , t h a t ju s t a s a ll t h e a lp in e c h a in s o f E u r o p e a r e n o w k n o w n t o h a v e b e e n still p u s h in g f o r w a r d o v e r th e
m o la ss e in
la te M io c e n e
tim e s , so in p la c e s s u c h a s th e
A p e n n in e s , m o v e m e n ts w e r e s till g o i n g o n
a s la te a s Q u a te r n a r y
tim e s . I n t h e C a l i f o r n i a n g e o lo g y t h a t is s o m u c h u n lik e e v e r y o n e e ls e ’s, t h e r e a r e r i g h t - a n g l e d u n c o n f o r m i t i e s w i t h i n t h e P l e i s t o c e n e , so th e p la te s th e re
w e re c e rta in ly
s till m o v in g . A n d
we know , of
c o u r s e , t h a t t h e A t l a n t i c is s t i l l t e a r i n g a l o n g t h e d o t t e d l i n e d o w n i t s c e n t r e , a l b e i t v e r y s l o w ly i n h u m a n t e r m s . E v e n a s I w r i t e t h e f in a l c o r r e c tio n s
to
th is te x t in J a n u a r y
1 97 3 , a s p le n d id , th o u g h
d e s tr u c tiv e n e w t e a r h a s o p e n e d a c r o s s t h e is la n d o f H e im a e y , s o u th o f I c e l a n d , a n d n e w o c e a n i c c r u s t is b e i n g f o r m e d . I t is a l s o w o r t h m e n ts
in
n o tin g h e re
n o rth e rn
E u ro p e
th a t th e
th a t c a n
o n ly m id - T e r tia r y m o v e
b e c a lle d
an
o ro g e n y a re
in
S p its b e r g e n , w h e r e w e f in d th e la s t e x p r e s s io n o f a n A t l a n t i c c o m p re ssiv e
lin e
c le a rly
p re se rv e d
dow n
th e
w est
c o a s t, p r e s u m a b ly
re fle c tin g th e c o n tin u e d g r in d in g to g e th e r o f th e n o r th e r n m o s t tip o f th e E u ro p e a n p la te w ith th a t o f G re e n la n d . The lo o k e d
e v e n ts in
o f th e
any
g la c ia tio n s
P le is to c e n e
c o n s id e ra tio n
w e re
th e
m o st
g la c ia tio n s
o f th e
m u st n ev er b e o v e r
s tra tig ra p h ic a l
o b v io u s ly
c a ta s tro p h ic
reco rd . T h o se e v e n ts
in
our
h i s t o r y a n d p r o d u c e d i n t h e i r t il l s a n d p e r i g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s s o m e o f t h e m o s t p e r s is te n t f a c ie s o f a ll. I n o u r n e a r - s ig h te d w a y o f lo o k in g a t t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l c o l u m n , w e t e n d t o f o r g e t t h a t th e s e r e c e n t e v e n ts , v irtu a lly
if
c o n s id e re d
on
in s ta n ta n e o u s
th e
and
n o rm a l
c e rta in ly
g e o lo g ic a l
tim e - s c a le ,
c a ta s tro p h ic . T h e
w e re
w h o le o f
th e P le is to c e n e ic e -a g e w o u ld fit w it h in a n a m m o n i t e z o n e o r tw o . The
fin a l
c o n c lu s io n
I
com e
to
th e re fo re
is t h a t ,
th e o rie s o f p la te te c to n ic s n o w p ro v id e u s w ith a th e y
s till s e e m
to
me
to
be
a
th o u g h
th e
modus operandi,
p e rio d ic p h e n o m e n o n . N o th in g
is
w o r l d - w i d e , b u t e v e r y t h i n g is e p i s o d i c . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e h i s t o r y o f a n y o n e p a r t o f th e e a r t h , lik e th e life o f a s o ld ie r , c o n s is ts o f lo n g p e r io d s o f b o r e d o m a n d s h o r t p e r io d s o f te r r o r .
References C h a p te r
;
1
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s e d im e n ts . G e o l. M a g ., 9 5 , 8 3 - 4
o th e r
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n o rth -w e s t
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d u p lic a te d
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lig h t-h e a rte d
c o n trib u tio n
to
a
F e s ts c h r ift
d ra w in g
a tte n tio n
to
som e
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G e o l., 4 2 ,
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A
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(1 9 6 6 ). D e v o n ia n
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M .
4 7,
It
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is
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L es
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en
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R un ds
L e c o m p t e ’s v o l u m i n o u s
w o rk
on
3 8 4 -4 0 1
chau,
to
s e le c t
one
fro m
th e
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F.
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T h re e
g re a t
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of
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banded
iro n
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g e n e ra l a c c o u n t o f th is w o n d e r f u l P a la e o z o ic a r e a , d ra w in g
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fo r
C re ta c e o u s
o u tlie rs
in
s o u th -w e s t
p a la e o g e o g ra p h y .
Pt oc .
Ire la n d g e o l.
a tte n tio n and
S o c .,
th e ir L o n d .,
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C h a p te r
A g e r, D .
:
2
V.
The Fleeting Fossil
(1 9 6 8 a ). T h e
54a D u p lic a te d
su m m a ry
F a m m e n ia n
of a
le c tu re
ta k e o v e r .
on
th e
C ir c .
a b ru p t
p a la e o n t.
fau n a!
No.
A s s .,
changes
a t th e
F ra s n ia n -F a m m e n ia n b o u n d a ry . A g e r,
D.
V.
(1 9 6 8 6 ).
The
s u p p o s e d ly
u b iq u ito u s
5 4 -7 0 R ec o rd s
th e
re la tio n s . C o p p e r, P.
re m a rk a b le
(1 9 6 7 ).
The
d is tr ib u tio n A tr y p a
G o u ld ,
S.
b ra c h io p o d
(fo r 1 9 6 0 -1 9 6 4 ),
o f H a lo r e lla , P e r e g r in e lla
z o n a ta
b ra c h io p o d
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T e th y a n
a n d its re la tio n s . J . p a l a e o n t . S o c . I n d i a , 5 - 9
H a lo r e lla
g ro u p
b ra c h io p o d s
in at
and
th e ir
th e
E if e l,
th e
end
of
tim e s . J.
(1 9 7 1 ). S p e c ia tio n
and
p u n c tu a te d
e q u ilib ria :
an
a lte rn a tiv e
to p h y le ti c g r a d u a l i s m . A b s t r a c t s 1 9 7 1 A n n u a l M e e t i n g G e o l . S o c . A m e r 5 8 4 -5 O n ly th e a b s tr a c t o f a n e x c itin g p a p e r .
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M c A le s te r,
A.
L.
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A n im a l
e x tin c tio n s ,
oxygen
c o n s u m p tio n ,
and
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in te re s tin g
of oxygen
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P a le o n t.,
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T im e ,
life
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F.
A .,
R aw son,
P r o v in c e s in S p a c e a n d
P . F .,
and
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(ed s).
(1 9 7 1 ).
Faunal
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T w e lv e p a p e rs ( in c lu d in g o n e b y th e a u th o r ) a n d a n e x c e lle n t s u m m in g -u p o n t h i s v e x e d q u e s t i o n , w i t h r e m a r k a b l y d i v e r g e n t v ie w s . N e w e ll, N . D , (1 9 6 3 ), C r is e s in t h e h is to r y o f life . S c i e n t i f i c A m e r i c a n , 2 0 8 , 7 7 -9 2 A
s e m i-p o p u la r a c c o u n t o f th e
p e rio d ic m a s s e x tin c tio n s r e c o rd e d in th e
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A
m o re
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d is c u s s i o n
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th e
sa m e
m a tte r
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p a p e r c o n f i r m i n g t h i s a u t h o r ’s o w n p r e j u d i c e s t h a t t h e s u p p o s e d g r e a t
c h a n g e s a t th e e n d o f th e P a la e o z o ic a r e m o re a p p a r e n t t h a n re a l. S c h in d e w o f f ,
O .
H .
(1 9 6 2 ).
N e o k a ta s tro p h is m u s .
D e u ts c h e
g e o l.
G e s e ll.
Z e its c h r ., 1 1 4 , 4 3 0 -4 4 5
The
v ie w s o f th is g r e a t G e r m a n
p a la e o n to lo g is t o n
m a jo r b re a k s in
th e
f o s s il r e c o r d . U re y ,
H.
C.
A
(1 9 7 3 ).
C o m e ta ry
c o llis io n s
and
g e o lo g ic a l
p e rio d s .
N a tu r e ,
2 4 2 , 3 2 -3
L a n d .,
v ery
d is tin g u is h e d
p h y s ic is t
e x p re s s in g
u n c o n v e n tio n a lly
c a ta s tro p h ic
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E p is o d e s
of
s e a -f lo o r s p r e a d i n g
reco rd e d
by
th e
A v ery, O . E.
N o rth
A tla n tic
b a s e m e n t. T e c to n o p k y s ., 1 2 , 2 1 1 -2 3 4
C h a p te r
More Gaps than Record
:
3
C a s e y , R . (1 9 6 8 ). T h e ty p e -s e c tio n o f th e V o lg ia n s ta g e ( U p p e r J u ra s s ic ) a t G o ro d is c h e , n e a r U ly a n o v s k , U .S .S .R . P r o c . g e o l. S o c . L e n d . , N o .
1648,
7 4 -5 T h i s b r i e f n o t e , t o g e t h e r w i t h o n e t h e p r e v io u s y e a r in th e s a m e p u b l i c a tio n , illu s tra te s th e in a d e q u a c y o f th e s tr a to ty p e c o n c e p t. L i s i tz i n , A . P . ( 1 9 7 1 ) . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f s ilic e o u s m ic ro fo s s ils in s u s p e n s io n a n d in b o t t o m s io n a n d T h e
s e d im e n ts a n d D is trib u tio n in b o t t o m
o f c a r b o n a t e m ic ro fo s s ils in s u s p e n
s e d im e n ts in F u n n e ll, B. M ., a n d R ie d e l, W . R . (ed s)
M ic r o p a la e o n t o l o g y o f O c e a n s , C a m b r id g e U n iv . P re s s,
1 7 3 -1 9 5 a n d
1 9 7 -2 1 8 F o r a re c e n t s u rv e y o f th e ra te s o f a c c u m u la tio n o f o c e a n ic o rg a n ic o o z e. N e w e ll,
N.
D .
S tr a tig r a p h y .
(1 9 6 7 ).
P a ra c o n fo rm itie s .
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E ssa ys
in
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and
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G e o l. S p e c . P u b l., N o . 2 , 3 4 9 -6 7
E m p h a s is e s
th e
im p o rta n c e
of
s e d im e n ta ry
b re a k s
of
re g io n a l
e x te n t,
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im
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J.
(1 9 7 1 ).
fu ilu n g e n im Two
G en ese
und
Fauna
s u b m a rin e r
s e d im e n ta re r
M e d ite r r a n e n J u r a . P a la e o n to g r a p h ic a
a c c o u n ts o f th e
re m a rk a b le
co nd en sed
A b t. A ,
d e p o s its in
S p a lte n -
1 3 6 , 1 2 2 —9 2
s o lu tio n
c re v ic e s
w i t h i n J u r a s s i c lim e s to n e s i n w e s t S ic ily .
Catastrophic Stratigraphy
4 :
C h a p te r
A b b a te , E .. B o rto lo tti, V ., P a s s e r in i, P ., a n d S a g ri, M . to th e g e o lo g y o f th e n o r th e r n T h is , a n d
t h e w h o le s e rie s o f p a p e r s
a d m ira b le
su m m a ry
in
(1 9 7 0 ). I n tr o d u c tio n
A p e n n in e s . S e d i m e n t . G e o l., 4 , 2 0 7 - 4 9
E n g lis h
t h a t im m e d i a t e l y fo llo w
of m odem
v ie w s o n
th e
i t , g iv e a n
n o rth e rn
n i n e s i n c l u d i n g t h e ‘o l i s t o s t r o m e s > a n d s i m i l a r d e p o s i t s . A c» er. D . V . ( 1 9 5 6 ) . S u m m e r f i e l d m e e t i n g i n I t a l y . P r o c .
G e o l.
A pen 66.
A s s .,
3 2 9 -5 2 A
g e n e r a l a c c o u n t in
E n g lis h o f t h e r e m a r k a b l e g e o lo g ic a l h is to r y o f th e
A p e n n in e s , as f o rm e rly in te r p r e te d b y M ig lio rin i a n d M e rla . A u d le y - C h a r le s , M . G . (1 9 6 5 ). A M i o c e n e g r a v i t y s lid e d e p o s it f r o m e a s te r n T im o r . G e o l. M a g ., 1 0 2
, 2 6 7 -7 6
A n a c c o u n t o f a n A r g i l l e s c a g l io s c ty p e d e p o s it w i t h t h e b o u l d e r s h o w n in p la te B a ile y ,
IX . E.
B ., a n d
W e ir,
J.
(1 9 3 2 ). S u b m a r in e
fa u ltin g
in
K im m e rid g ia n
tim e s : ea st S u th e rla n d . T r a n s , ro y . S o c . E d in b ., 5 7 , 4 2 9 -6 7 T h e c l a s s ic p a p e r o n t h e S u t h e r l a n d b o u l d e r b e d s . B irk e n m a je r, K ., a n d r a d io la r ite s in S c i.,
9.
th e
G a s io ro w s k i, S . M . P ie n in y K lip p e n
(1 9 6 1 ). S e d im e n ta r y c h a r a c te r o f
B e lt, C a r p a th ia n s . B u ll. A c a d , p o lo n .
1 7 1 -1 7 6
F o r in te re s tin g c a lc u la tio n s o n B ro a d h u rs t,
F.
M ., a n d
th e fre q u e n c y o f tu r b id ity c u rre n ts .
L o rin g , D .
H .
(1 9 7 0 ). R a te s
o f s e d im e n ta tio n
in
th e U p p e r C a rb o n ife ro u s o f B rita in . L e th a ia , 3 , 1 - 9 A
fo llo w -u p
a lte rn a tio n
fr o m of
e a rlie r p a p e rs
v ery
C a r b o n if e r o u s tim e s . C o n y b e a re , C . E . B.
s lo w
w ith
(1 9 6 7 ).
in
w h ic h
v e ry
th e
ra p id
In flu e n c e
of
a u th o rs
d e m o n s tra te
s e d im e n ta tio n
c o m p a c tio n
on
d u rin g
th e la te
s tr a tig r a p h ic
a n a l y s i s . B u l l , c a n a d . p e t r o l '. G e o l . , 1 5 , 3 3 1 - 4 5 An
e s s e n tia l
re fe re n c e
in
a ll
th e s e
d is c u s s io n s ,
d e a lin g
w ith
th e
v ita l
q u e s tio n o f th e re la tiv e c o m p a c t a b ility o f s e d im e n ts . H a w k in s , H . L . (1 9 5 3 ). A p in n a c le o f c h a lk p e n e tr a tin g th e E o c e n e o n th e flo o r o f a b u r ie d r iv e r- c h a n n e l a t A s h fo rd H ill, n e a r N e w b u ry , B e rk s h ire . Q u a r t. J . g e o l. S o c . L o n d ., 1 0 8 . 2 3 3 -6 0
A n a c c o u n t o f th e
su rp ris in g th in g s th a t c a n h a p p e n
in
th e m o s t p la c id
o f te rra in s . Jo n e s , O . T .,
and
Pugh, W .
J.
(1 9 4 9 ). A n
e a rly
O rd o v ic ia n
s h o re -lin e
R a d n o r s h i r e , n e a r B u il t h W e lls . Q u a r t . J . g e o l. S o c . L o n d . , 1 0 5 Two
v e r y e m in e n t B r itis h
a re m a rk a b le a re a .
g e o lo g is ts c o m b in e
in
. 6 5 -9 9
in
a fa s c in a tin g a c c o u n t o f
105
REFEREN CES
K em ey,
M .
P.
(1 9 6 3 ).
L a te -g la c ia l
d e p o s its
on
th e
C h a lk
of
so u th -e a s t
E n g la n d . P r o c . r o y S o c . (B ), 2 4 6 , 2 0 3 -5 4 D e m o n s tra te s q u ite tim e s .
su dd en
e n v iro n m e n ta l c h a n g e s in
g e o lo g ic a lly
recen t
K u e n e n , P . H ., a n d M ig lio r in i, C . I . (1 9 5 0 ). T u r b id ity c u r r e n ts as a c a u se o f g r a d e d b e d d in g . J . G e o l., 5 8 , 9 1 - 1 2 7 T h e c la s s ic p a p e r o n t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s a s a m a j o r f a c t o r in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f g e o s y n c lin a l s e d im e n ts . K u lp , J . L . 1 1 0 5 -1 4
(1 9 6 1 ). G e o lo g ic a l
tim e
s c a le .
S c ie n c e ,
N .Y .,
133, N o.
3459,
A u s e fu l s u rv e y o f th e r a d io m e tr ic d a tin g , in c lu d in g a d e ta ile d su b d iv isio n o f th e C r e t a c e o u s t h a t h a s s in c e b e e n d is p u te d . M e rla , G .
(1 9 5 2 ).
G e o lo g ia
d e l l ’A p p e n n i n o
S e tte n tr io n a le . B o ll. S o c . g e o l.
7 0 . 9 5 2 -9 8 2
I ta l.,
The
s ta n d a rd
account
of
th e
g e o lo g ic a l
h is to ry
of
th e
A p e n n in e s
as
and
th e e ru p tio n s
i n t e r p r e t e d b y th e m o d e r n I t a l i a n s c h o o l.
C h a p te r
5
Catastrophic Uniformitarianism
:
B o e k s c h o te n , G . J .
(1 9 7 1 ). Q u a te r n a r y
te p h ra
on
C re te
o f th e S a n to r in i v o lc a n o . O p e r a B o ta n ic a , N o . 3 0 , 4 0 - 8 . A
r e c e n t s u m m a ry o f th e e v id e n c e o f th e c a ta s tr o p h ic d e s tru c tio n
M in o a n B re tz ,
J.
o f th e
c i x 'i l i s a t i o n . H.
(1 9 2 3 ).
T he
C h a n n e le d
S c a b la n d
of
th e
C o lu m b ia
P la te a u .
} . G e o l., 3 1 , 6 1 7 - 4 9
O ne
o f th e first
p a p e rs by
o f a m o ra in ic d a m B re tz , J . H .
m an
on
th e
s u d d e n b u rs tin g
C 1 9 6 9 ). T h e L a k e M i s s o u l a f l o o d s a n d t h e c h a n n e l e d s c a b l a n d . 7 7, 503^43
J.
G e o l.,
A
d e fin itiv e p a p e r, w r itte n
u s in g
th is re m a r k a b le
in M o n t a n a a n d its c a t a s t r o p h i c e ff e c ts .
th e
e v id e n c e
a e ria l a n d
now
a lm o s t 5 0 y e a rs l a t e r a f te r m u c h c o n tro v e rs y ,
a v a ila b le
fr o m
new
s a te lite p h o to g r a p h s a n d n e w
ro a d -c u ts , m a n -m a d e d a m s,
d e ta ile d m a p s , to p ro v e b e y o n d
d is p u te h is o r i g i n a l c a t a s t r o p h i c a l h y p o th e s is . C o le m a u n ,
P . J . (1 9 6 8 ). 1 5 , 2 6 7 -7 3
T s u n a m is
as
g e o lo g ic a l
a g e n ts .
/.
G e o l.
Soc.
A u s tr a lia ,
A r e c e n t b rie f s u rv e y o f ts u n a m is n e g l e c te d g e o lo g ic a l a g e n ts .
and
th e ir
p ro b a b le
im p o r ta n c e
as
C u r r a y , J . R . (1 9 6 5 ). L a te Q u a te r n a r y h is to r y o f th e c o n tin e n ta l sh e lv e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n W r i g h t , H . E .. a n d F r e y , D . G . (e d s) T h e Q u a t e r n a r y o f th e U n ite d S ta te s , P r in c e to n
U n iv . P ress, p p . 7 2 3 -3 5
A v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g a r t i c l e in a v e r y v a l u a b l e s o u rc e -b o o k . E ric s o n ,
D.
B .,
and
W o llin , G .
(1 9 7 1 ).
T he
E v e r -C h a n g in g
Sea.
P a la d in ,
London. A
w o n d e rfu lly
re a d a b le
so u rc e -b o o k
of
fa s c in a tin g
in fo rm a tio n
about
p re s e n t-d a y m a rin e p h e n o m e n a . E v a n s, G . (1 9 6 5 ). I n te r tid a l f la t s e d im e n ts a n d th e ir e n v iro n m e n ts o f d e p o s i tio n in th e W a s h . Q u a r t . ] . G e o l. S o c . L o n d . , 1 2 1 , 2 0 9 - 4 5 A
d e ta ile d
a c c o u n t o f th is in te re s tin g a re a o f m o d e m
se d im e n ta tio n .
G r e t e n e r , P . E . ( 1 9 6 7 ) . S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e r a r e e v e n t i n g e o l o g y . B u l l , a m e r ., A ss. p e t.
G e o l.,
5 1 , 2 1 9 7 -2 0 6
P r e s e n ts t h e th e s is t h a t g iv e n t h e v a s tn e s s o f g e o lo g ic a l tim e , t h e i m p r o b a b l e is c e r t a i n t o h a v e h a p p e n e d m a n y t i m e s .
106
REFEREN CES
H ay es,
M .
O.
H u rric a n e
(1 9 6 7 ).
C a rla ,
H u rric a n e s
as
g e o lo g ic a l
a g e n ts :
case
1 9 6 1 , a n d C in d y , 1 9 6 3 . B u r . e c o n . G e o l.
s tu d ie s
U n it).
of
T exa s,
R e p t. In v e s tig a tio n N o . 6 1 , 56 p p .
D e ta ils o f th e c a ta s tro p h ic
e ffe c t o f h u rric a n e s o n
m e n to lo g y a n d p u ts fo rw a rd H o lm e s ,
A.
to p o g ra p h y a n d
th e h y p o th e s is o f q u a n tu m
(1 9 6 5 ). P r in c ip le s
of
P h y s ic a l
G e o lo g y .
(2 n d
se d i-
s e d im e n ta tio n . E d itio n ). N e ls o n ,
London T h e g r e a t s o u r c e - b o o k o f a l l t h e o r i g i n a l t h o u g h t i n g e o l o g y . I f (a s i n t h i s book) you
th in k
you
have a
new
id e a , y o u
w ill a lm o s t c e r ta in ly f in d
it
h e re a lre a d y . M a ld e , H .
E.
(1 9 6 8 ).
The
c a ta s tro p h ic
L a te
P le is to c e n e
B o n n e v ille
flo o d ,
S n a k e R iv e r P la in , I d a h o . U .S . G e o l. S u r v e y P r o fe s s io n a l P a p e r N o . 5 9 6 , 52 pp.
The
c a ta s tro p h ic
b re a k in g
of
a
g la c ia lly -d a m m e d
la k e ,
s im ila r
to
th a t
d e s c r ib e d b y B re tz . M a r in a te s , S . (1 9 3 9 ). T h e v o lc a n ic d e s tr u c tio n o f M in o a n 13, The
C re te . A n t i q u i t y ,
4 2 5 -3 9 firs t s u g g e s tio n
th a t
th e
e ru p tio n
o f th e S a n to r in i v o lc a n o b ro u g h t
t o a n e n d t h e ‘g o l d e n a g e ’ o f t h e M i n o a n c i v i l i s a t i o n o n C r e t e .
C
The Process of Sedimentation
6 :
h a pt e r
D o u s t,
H .
(1 9 6 8 ).
A u s tra lia ). V o l.
P a e la e o n v iro n m e n t 1, Z e lte n
s tu d ie s
a re a , L ib y a .
in
th e
U n p u b lis h e d
M io c e n e P h .D .
(L ib y a ,
th e s is .
U n iv .
L o n d o n , 1 -2 5 4
A
p a la e o n to lo g ic a l a n d
p a la e o e c o lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h
to th e s am e s e d im e n ts
a s th o s e d is c u s s e d b y S e lle y (s e e b e lo w ). E v a n s , G ., a n d B u s h , P . (1 9 6 9 ). S o m e o c e a n o g r a p h ic a l a n d s e d im e n to lo g ic a l o b s e rv a tio n s c o s te r a s .
on
a
P e rs ia n
U .N .A .M .
G u lf
la g o o n , M e m .
U J f.E .S .C .O .,
M e x ic o
S im p ,
(1 9 6 7 ),
A u s e fu l s u m m a ry o f so m e in te re s tin g m o d e m
in te r n a l.
Lagunas
1 5 5 -1 7 0
s e d im e n ts w ith e v id e n c e o f
d ia c h ro n is m in th e la s t 4 0 0 0 y e a rs . S e lle y ,
R. C.
(1 9 6 9 ).
N e a r-sh o re
m a rin e
and
c o n tin e n ta l s e d im e n ts o f th e
S irte b a s in , L ib y a . Q u a r t . J . g e o l. S o c . L o n d . , 1 2 4 , 4 1 9 - 6 0 A lu c id s u rv e y o f s e d im e n ta tio n a lo n g a M io c e n e s h o re lin e . Shaw ,
A.
B.
(1 9 6 4 ).
T im e
in
S tr a tig r a p h y .
M c G ra w -H ill, N e w
O n e o f th e m o s t o rig in a l b o o k s e v e r w ritte n
Y o rk .
in t h e fie ld o f s t r a t i g r a p h y .
T r i i m p y , R . (1 9 6 0 ). P a l e o te c t o n i c e v o lu tio n o f t h e c e n t r a l a n d w e s te r n A lp s . B u ll, g e o l. S o c . A m e r ., 7 1 , 8 4 3 - 9 0 8
A r e c e n t s u r v e y o f o n e o f t h e c la s s ic g e o s y n c lin a l a r e a s o f th e w o r ld . V o ig t, E . (1 9 6 3 ). t ) b e r R a n d tr o g e v o n S c h o lle n r a n d e m im
G e b ie t
der
M itte le u ro p a is c h e n
Senke
und
u n d ih r e B e d e u tu n g
an g re n z e n d e r
G e b ie te .
Z e its c h r . D e u ts c h g e o l. G e s e lL , 1 1 4 , 3 7 8 -4 1 8
O ne
of
th e
m o st im p o rta n t
p a p e rs
p u b lis h e d
on
E u ro p e a n
g e o lo g y
in
re c e n t y ea rs.
C h a p te r
A g e r,
D.
4949,
7
V .
:
Marxist Stratigraphy and the Golden Spike (1 9 6 4 ). T h e
B ritis h
M e s o z o ic
C o m m itte e .
N a tu r e ,
1059
I n w h i c h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e ‘g o l d e n s p i k e ’ i s f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d .
203,
No.
1 07
REFEREN CES
A g e r, D .
V.
(1 9 7 0 ). T h e
T ria s s ic
sy ste m
in
B rita in
and
its s tr a tig r a p h ic a l
n o m e n c la tu re . Q u a r t. J . g e o l. S o c ., 1 2 6 , 3 - 1 7 A
d is c u s s io n
b ased
on
o f th e c o rre la tio n
th e
p rin c ip le
th a t
b e tw e e n c o n tin e n ta l a n d a
m a rin e
tra n s g re s s io n
m a rin e
in
one
d e p o sits
p art
of
a
c o n t i n e n t m u s t h a v e w i d e s p r e a d e f fe c ts e ls e w h e r e , e s p e c ia lly i n th e c e n t r e o f d e p o s i t i o n a l b a s in s . A rk e ll, W . J . (1 9 3 3 ). T h e J u r a s s ic S y s t e m
G r e a t B r ita in . C la re n d o n
in
P re ss ,
O x fo rd . S t il l t h e g r e a t s o u r c e - b o o k o n th e B ri tis h J u r a s s ic . A rk e ll, W . J . E d in b u rg h . A
(1 9 5 6 ).
m o n u m e n ta l
J u ra ssic
w o rk
G e o lo g y
w h ic h , a lo n g
of
w ith
th e
O liv e r
W o r ld .
e v e ry th in g
and
B oyd,
e lse , r e d e f in e d
o f th e b a s ic u n its o f th e J u r a s s ic a n d d e m o n s tr a te d
som e
th e c o n tra d ic tio n s o f
m a n y c o m m o n usag es. G e o rg e , T . N . e t. a l. (1 9 6 7 ). R e p o r t o f th e S tr a tig r a p h ic a l S u b - C o m m itte e . P r o c . g e o l. S o c . L o n d ., N o . 1 6 3 8 , 7 5 - 8 7
T h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e b a s e - m a r k i n g ‘g o l d e n s p i k e ’ ( h e r e p o i n t ’) i n c l u d e d n o m e n c la tu re , G e o rg e ,
T.
N.
in
e t.
th e
B ritis h
(1 9 6 9 ).
a l.
P ro v is io n a l
C ode
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s
on
c a lle d on
a ‘m a r k e r -
s tr a tig r a p h ic a l
s tr a tig ra p h ic a l
u sa g e.
P r o c . g e o l . S o c . I . o n d N o . 1 6 5 6 , 1 3 9 —1 6 6
C o m p le m e n ta ry
to
th e p re v io u s r e p o r t w ith
s p ik e ’ re -e m p h a s is e d
and
a p p lie d
to
th e
p rin c ip le o f th e
‘g o l d e n
th e d e fin itio n o f J u ra s s ic sta g e s a n d
zo ne s. H u n t,
C.
B.
(1 9 5 9 ).
G e o lim e s , 3 , 8 -1 0
D a tin g
of
m in in g
cam ps
w ith
tin
cans
and
b o ttle s .
and 34
T h i s is t h e o r i g i n a l p a p e r i n w h i c h b e e r b o t t l e s a n d
b e e r c a n s w e r e f ir s t
u s e d in s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l p a la e o n to lo g y .
C
h a pt e r
The Nature of the Control
8 :
A g e r, D . V .
(1 9 6 3 ). P r in c ip le s
of
M c G ra w -H ill,
P a le o e c o lo g y .
N ew
Y o rk .
F o r b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n s o f v a r i o u s f a u n a l a n d f l o r a d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e f o s s il re c o rd , in c lu d in g A u d le y -C h a rle s ,
th e s u g g e s tio n
M .
G.
(1 9 7 0 ).
o f a h y p e rtro p ic a l z o n e
S tra tig ra p h ic a l
(p . 1 5 6 ).
c o rre la tio n
of
th e
T ria s s ic
ro c k s o f th e B ritis h Isle s. Q u a r t . J . g e o l. S o c ., 1 2 6 , 1 9 - 4 7 A
b e a u tifu l
d e m o n s tra tio n
of
th e
c o n tro l
o f T ria s s ic
s e d im e n ta tio n
by
te n s io n a l f a u ltin g . B e rry ,
W .
B. N .
b io f a c ie s , a n d L e th a ia ,
E a rly
(1 9 7 2 ).
E a rly
O rd o v ic ia n
b a th y u rid
c o rre la tio n s — th e ir re la tio n s h ip
to
p ro v in c e
lith o fa c ie s ,
a p ro to -A tla n tic O c e a n .
5 , 6 9 -8 8
O rd o v ic ia n
p la te
m o v e m e n ts
deduced
fro m
fa u n a l
changes
and
te c to n ic s . D ew ey, J.
F.
(1 9 7 1 ). A
so u th e rn m a rg in J.
An
G e o l.,
m o d el fo r
th e
L ow er
P a la e o z o ic e v o lu tio n
o f th e e a rly C a le d o n id e s o f S c o tla n d a n d
o f th e
Ire la n d . S c o t.
7 , 2 1 9 -2 4 0
in te re s tin g
paper
re in te rp re tin g
c la s s ic
c o u n try
in
th e
lig h t o f
th e
id e a s o f p la te te c to n ic s . D e w e y , J . F ., a n d
B ird , J . M . (1 9 7 0 a ). M o u n ta in
b e lts a n d
th e n e w
g lo b a l
te c to n ic s . J . G e o p h y s . R e s e a r c h , 7 5 , 2 6 2 5 - 2 6 4 7 D ew ey, J.
F ., a n d
T e c to n o p h y s ic s ,
B ird , J . 1 0, 6 2 5 -3 8
M .
(1 9 7 0 6 ).
P la te
te c to n ic s
and
g e o s y n c lin c s .
REFEREN CES
10 8
Two yet
a l r e a d y c la s s ic p a p e r s o n t h e n e w g e o lo g y w ith its re p e r c u s s io n s (n o t by
any
m e a n s fu lly
w o rk e d o u t) o n
th e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e
s tra ti*
g ra p h ic a l re c o rd . E v ans, G .
(1 9 7 0 ). C o a s ta l a n d
n e a r-sh o re
s e d im e n ta tio n :
a c o m p a ris o n
of
c la s tic a n d c a r b o n a te d e p o s itio n . P r o c . G e o l. A s s ., 8 1 , 4 9 3 - 5 0 8 An
e x c e lle n t
account
of
R ecent
c o a s ta l
s e d im e n ta tio n
in
tro p ic a l
and
te m p e r a te c lim a te s . G ass,
I.
G.
et
(1 9 7 2 ).
a t.
H is to r ic a l
O pen
G e o lo g y .
U n iv e rs ity
P re ss ,
B le tc h le y . T h e m o s t r e f r e s h i n g b r e a t h o f f r e s h a i r w e h a v e h a d in B r itis h s t r a t i g r a p h y f o r a v e ry lo n g tim e . G r a b a u , A . W . (1 9 3 7 ). F u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p ts in
g e o lo g y a n d th e ir b e a r in g
o n C h in e s e s tr a tig r a p h y . B u ll. S o c . g e o l. C h in a , 1 6 , 1 2 7 -7 6 U s e f u l f o r a b r i e f s t a t e m e n t o f h i s ‘p u l s a t i o n t h e o r y ’ o f e a r t h h i s t o r y . G r a s ty , R . L . (1 9 6 7 )* O r o g e n y , a c a u s e o f w o r ld - w id e r e g re s s io n o f t h e s e a s . N a tu r e , 2 1 6 , 7 7 9 -8 0
A b rie f p a p e r w ith a v e ry g o o d id e a . H a lla m ,
A.
(1 9 6 3 ).
E u s ta tic
c o n tro l
of
m a jo r
c y c lic
changes
in
J u ra s s ic
s e d im e n ta tio n . G e o l. M a g ., 1 0 0 , 4 4 4 -5 0 I t ’s a l l d o n e b y s e a - l e v e l s . H o llin , J . T . (1 9 6 2 ). O n th e 32, In
g la c ia l
h is to ry
of
A n ta rc tic a . J .
G la c io lo g y ,
1 7 3 -1 9 5 w h ic h
th e
f lu c tu a tio n s o f th e
A n ta rc tic
ic e - c o v e r a r e s h o w n
to r e la te
to th o s e o f th e n o r th e r n ic e sh e e ts, th e n c e im p ly in g a w o rld -w id e c o n tro l. A lso t h e s u g g e s tio n o f s e e k in g th e c a u s e in H o llin ,
J.
T.
(1 9 6 9 ).
Ic e
s u rg e s
and
th e
th e s tr a tig r a p h y o f M a rs .
g e o lo g ic a l
re c o rd .
C an.
J.
S c i.,
6 , 9 0 3 -1 0 Sudden
s u rg e s o f p o l a r ic e p r o d u c i n g v e r y w i d e s p r e a d e f fe c ts .
M a, T . Y . H . d u rin g
th e
(1 9 5 4 ). C lim a te L ow er
and
C a rb o n ife ro u s
th e
r e la tiv e p o s itio n s o f th e c o n tin e n ts
p e rio d .
A c ta
G e o l.
N o.
T a iw a n ic a ,
6,
1-86 O n e o f a w h o le s e rie s o f p a p e r s r e l a t i n g to t h e d is t r i b u t i o n o f P a la e o z o ic c o ra l
g ro w th
w a n d e rin g . H u g h es, C . J.
fo rm s
to
an
(1 9 7 0 ). T h e
e q u a to r
th a t
la te P r e c a m b ria n
re q u ire s A v a lo n ia n
d riftin g
and
o ro g e n y in
p o la r
A v alo n ,
s o u t h - e a s t N e w f o u n d l a n d . A m e r . J . S c i . , 2 6 9 . 1 8 3 —9 0 An
in te re s tin g
a c c o u n t o f th is o ro g e n y a n d
th e e lo n g a te d
is la n d a rc a n d
tr o u g h fo rm e d h e r e a t th is tim e . M itc h e ll,
A . H .,
and
R e a d in g , H . G .
7 9 , 2 5 3 -8 4 Is la n d a rc th e o ry a p p lie d
(1 9 7 1 ).
E v o lu tio n
o f is la n d
a rc s . / .
G e o l.,
to th e s tr a tig r a p h ic a l re c o rd , e s p e c ia lly t h a t o f
th e e a r l y P a la e o z o ic o n e i t h e r s id e o f th e N o r th A t l a n ti c . M ey e rh o ff,
A.
A.
(1 9 7 0 ).
C o n tin e n ta l
d rift
I I :
H ig h -la titu d e
e v a p o rite
d e p o s its a n d g la c ia l h is to ry o f A r c tic a n d N o r th A tla n tic o c e a n s . / . G e o l., 7 8 ,4 0 6 - 4 4 A s a n e x a m p le o f th e u s e o f s e d im e n t d is trib u tio n s a s a m m u n itio n a g a in s t d r if tin g h y p o th e s e s . N e w e ll, N . D .
(1 9 7 1 ). F a u n a l
e x tin c tio n . I n
E n c y c lo p e d ia
of
S c ie n c e
and
T e c h n o l o g y , 3 rd e d itio n , M c G ra w -H ill, N e w Y o rk .
A s e m i - p o p u l a r s u m m a r y o f P r o f e s s o r N e w e l l ’s v i e w s . R o n o v , A . B.
(1 9 5 9 ). O n
th e
P o s t-P re c a m b ria n
G e o c h e m ic a l h is to ry o f th e
a tm o s p h e r e a n d h y d r o s p h e r e . G e o c h e m ., N o . 5 , 4 9 3 - 5 0 6 C o rre la tio n o f v o lc a n ic ity a n d c a rb o n a te d e p o s itio n .
109
REFEREN CES
S c h o lJ e , P . A . (1 9 7 0 ). T h e S e s t r i- V o lta g g io l i n e : te c to n ic
b o u n d a ry
b e tw e e n
th e
A lp s
and
a
th e
tra n s fo rm
fa u lt In d u c e d
A p e n n in e s . A m e r . ] .
S c i.,
2 6 9 , 3 4 3 -5 9 An
in te re s tin g
e x a m p le
of
how
p la te
te c to n ic
th e o ry
is b e i n g
used
to
e x p la in th e A lp in e m o u n ta in sy ste m s o f E u ro p e . S p je ld n a e s ,
N.
(1 9 6 1 ).
O rd o v ic ia n
c lim a tic
zo nes.
N orsk,
g e o l.
T id s s k r .,
4 1 , 4 5 -7 7 As an
e x a m p le
P a la e o z o ic
of
th e
c a rb o n a te s )
u se o f s e d im e n t d is trib u tio n s and
sh e ll
c h a ra c te rs
as
(in
th is c a se L o w e r
e v id e n c e
in
fav o u r
of
d r if tin g h y p o th e s e s . S t e h l i , F . G . (1 9 5 7 ). P o s s ib le P e r m i a n c lim a tic z o n a ti o n a n d its im p lic a tio n s . A m e r . J . S c i., 2 5 5 , 6 0 7 -1 8
A n im p o r ta n t p a p e r w h ic h , th o u g h m u c h c ritic is e d , h a s le d to a g r e a t d e a l m o re c o n s tru c tiv e th o u g h t.
J.
S u tto n ,
(1 9 6 8 ). D e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c o n t i n e n t a l f r a m e w o r k o f t h e A tla n tic .
Ptoc. G e o l . A
A s s ., 7 9 , 2 7 5 - 3 0 3
b r illia n t p re s id e n tia l
a d d re s s w ritte n
ju s t b e fo re th e
fu ll o n s la u g h t o f
p la te te c to n ic s b u r s t u p o n u s. W a lto n , E . S c o tla n d .
K.
(1 9 7 0 ). G e o s y n c lin a l
T o m k e ic ff
M e m o r ia l
th e o ry
L e c tu r e ,
and
L o w e r P a la e o z o ic ro c k s
U n iv e r s ity
of
in
N e w c a s tle -u p o n -
22pp. A d e lig h tf u lly s im p le e x p o s itio n o f th e la te s t id e a s . T yn e,
W ils o n , J . T . (1 9 6 6 ). 2 1 1 , 6 7 8 -8 1 The
su g g e s tio n
c lo s e d to f o r m
on
D id th e
th e
A tla n tic
b a sis o f fa c ie s
c lo s e and
and
th e n
fa u n a s
th e A p p a la c h ia n s a n d th e n re o p e n e d .
th a t
reo p en ? a
N a tu r e ,
P ro to -A tla n tic
Index A b b a te , E .
104
B o rto lo tti, V .
71
A bra
2 4 , 25
A c a n th a s te r
A g e r,
D .
V.
101,
102,
104,
106,
B ra z il
B re tz , 8, 30, 47, 48
42,
72, 9 5 , 100
J.
M .
a rc h a e o c y a th id s
101
A rg e n tin a
82 12
C a e n o z o ic
36, 37,
7, 2 5 ,
104
8 4 -9 4 , 97,
C anada
2, 9,
100,
11, 13, 25, 8 8 , 97,
A v e ry , O . E .
C asey, R . c h a lk
103
25 3, 18, 25, 83 1, 9 , 1 7 , 101 107
107
11,
13,
30,
17,
18, 2 2 ,
72,
103
1 1, 1 8, 4 8 , 7 2 , 8 0 , 108 6 , 7, 4 1 , 8 0 , 1 02 105
13 22
C o n y b ea re, C . E . B . C o p p e r, P. 102 c o ra ls 82,
101-
3, 4 , 8 , 9, 17, 18, 20, 22, 2 5 , 89,
108
C re ta c e o u s
1, 2, 3,
16, 2 2 , 2 4 , 2 7 ,
28, 35, 36, 3 9 -4 1 , 65, 8 1 , 8 2 , 94,
12
9 6 -9 9 , 101, 102, 104 , 105
B irk e n m a je r, K . b iv a lv e s
10,
1, 2 , 2 7 , 3 7 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 9 7 , 101
c o n o d o n ts
3 8, 4 6 , 104
B e rry , W . B. N . b ird s
81, 82,
6, 7, 8,
C o le m a n , P . J .
28, 44, 62
B a ile y , E . B .
M .
17, 22 ,
1 0 1 , 108
c o a l m e a su re s C ongo
b e le m n ite s
9,
C a rb o n ife ro u s
C h in a 1 5 ,1 7 ,9 9
B a rb a d o s
11,
1 02 , 104, 108 104, 107
102
B aham as
8,
8 4 -8 8 , 92,
17, 102
A u s tra lia
3 10,
39, 41, 62, 81, 8 8 -9 1 , 95, 96, 97,
A u d le y -G h a rle s , M . G .
J.
49
85, 8 6 , 95, 96 6 1 ,9 6 ,1 0 7
A tla n tic 6, 1 0 8 , 109
B ird ,
104
22, 28, 39, 57
C a lp io n e lla
13
A rk e ll, W . J .
B e lg iu m
16
5 5 , 106
C a m b ria n
A r g ille s c a g lio s e
A u s tria
4 6, 4 7, 105
B u lg a ria 1 -6 , 10, 98, 9 9 , 101, 102 B u rm a 80 B u sh, P .
8 1 , 108
A tr y p a
1 7 -2 3 , 6 7 ,
15, 108
A r c h a e o p te r y x
A rc tic
H .
B u ffo n , C o m te d e 3 , 1 2 , 18, 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 5 , 4 0 ,
A n ta rc tic a
16,
B ro a d h u rs t, F . M . b ry o z o a n s 2 2 ,8 9
95
a m m o n ite s A n d ric h u k ,
15,
11
J.
B rid e n , J . C .
A le u tia n s 45 a lg a e se e p la n ts A lg e ria
3,
82
107 A la s k a
104
b ra c h io p o d s
104
2, 3, 17, 20, 22, 25, 82, 83
B o e k s c h o te n , G . J . B o n o p a rte , N . 7
105
C u rra y , J . R .
105
C u rry , D .
101
C u v ie r, G .
39
C y p ru s
2, 98
IN D E X
112
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
2, 4 , 9 , 15, 2 8 , 65 ,
G o u ld , S . J .
2 0 , 102
G ra b a u , A . W .
71, 85, 87, 9 6, 98
g ra p to lite s D a n g e rfie ld , G . D ehm , R .
G ra s ty , R . L .
66
G ra y , F.
101
D e n is o n , R . H .
G re e c e
101
108
101 4 8 , 9 9 , 105, 106
D e n m a rk
1, 4 0
G re e n la n d
D e v o n ia n
8, 9 , 17, 18, 2 2, 2 3, 30,
G re te n e r, P . E .
11, 79, 8 5 , 9 7, 100 105
17, 2 0
4 1 , 6 7, 69, 70, 72, 81, 87, 88, 89,
G rypkaea
9 5, 1 0 1 -1 0 3
G u p ta , V . J .
D ew ey, J. F.
7 9 , 108
18, 4 2 , 6 7 , 87
101
107
d 'O r b i g n y , A .
H a lla m , A .
70
D o u s t, H . 1 06
108 15, 16,
H a lo r e lla
D re w ry , G . E .
16
H a lo r e llo id e a
16
H a m ilto n , D .
101
E a rth q u a k e s
38, 45
H a w k in s , H . L .
E c h in o c o r y s
1
H ayes, M . O .
e c h in o d e rm s
1, 1 7 , 18, 2 2 , 2 4 , 25
H o lc o m b e , T . L .
E cuador
E d w a rd V II Egypt I E n g la n d
4 4 , 5 8 , 106
15, 24, 25 H su , K . J. 39 H om o
1, 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 - 1 0 ,
12,
17,
3 0, 31, 32, 38, 39, 4 0 , 43, 48, 54,
H u gh es, C . J.
64, 65, 70, 72, 85. 86, 9 0 , 9 2 , 97,
H u n g a ry H u r o n ia n
3 5, 3 7, 6 4, 6 5, 104
E ric s o n , D . B . E vans, G .
h u rric a n e s
105
F is h
6 8 , 107 11 3 9 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 4 9 , 106
5 5 , 1 0 5 ,1 0 6 ,1 0 8 Ic e la n d
F in la n d
108
17
H u n t, C . B.
100, 104, 105 E ocene
103
108
H o lm e s , A .
6 5 -6 7
9 3 , 104 106
H o llin , J . T .
38
102
84
100 1 7 , 19
Ig u a n o d o n
9 , 1 7 , 6 7 , 101
F is h e r, H . A . L .
79
fo ra m in ife rs
2 2 , 3 6 , 3 7 , 5 2 , 8 2 , 103
F o rm o sa 37 F ra n c e 1, 2,
3,
8 ,1 1 ,1 3 ,1 8 ,8 0 ,8 1 ,1 0 1
In d ia n
O cean
In d o n e s ia
18
F la b e llo th y r is
In d ia
7,
9,
10,
12,
15,
Ira n
99
Ira q
99
Ire la n d
28, 31, 32, 39, 47, 6 9 , 71, 72, 84,
90,
85, 87, 90, 9 1 , 92, 95, 96, 98, 99,
Isra e l
100
Ita ly
27
15, 4 8 , 57
1, 2 , 7 , 9 ,
11, 3 0 , 8 4 , 8 6 ,
9 4 , 10 1, 1 02 , 107 1 28, 29, 30, 3 5 -3 7 , 40, 49, 50,
5 6 , 57, 72, 9 2 , 99, 1 00, 104, 105, G a s io ro w s k i, S . M . G ass, 1. G .
108
g a s tro p o d s
Japan
22, 25, 40
G e o rg e , T . N . G e rm a n y
109
104
1, 4 ,
9,
12,
13, 87, 91,
J u ra s s ic
39
G ilg , J . G .
11,
24, 47,
1 00, 105, 108
4, 99 3 -6 ,
12,
13,
58, 80, 81,
62, 104,
70,
71,
107,
72,
81,
108
27
G lo b ig e r in a
G o e rin g , H . G o u ld , J .
103 104
63
27
17,
18,
22,
2 8 -3 3 , 3 5 , 36, 38, 39, 40, 4 6 , 61,
103
g la c ia tio n
Jones, O . T . J u g o s la v ia
9 2 , 9 5 , 102 G ib r a lta r
4 5 , 48
Jo h n so n , G . L.
107
K ay, M . K e llin g , G .
92, 93 2 8 , 3 9 , 81
9 4 -9 7 ,
101-
113
IN D E X
K e lv in , L o rd
82
N oah
K em ey , M . P.
4 0 , 105
K u en en , P. H .
3 5 , 105
K u lp , J . L .
105
L a n d s lip s
19, 25
N o rth A fric a N o rw a y
3 7 , 3 8 , 3 9 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 104
1 1 ,8 5
O ld R e d S a n d s to n e
L e c o ra p te , M .
101
L e p id o c y c lin a
52
O lig o c e n e O m an 99
5 2 , 5 3 , 106
O r d o v ic ia n
L ib y a
L is itz in , A . P .
103
72,
18
l^ o b o th y r is
104
L o w e n s ta m , H .
10, 22
O s tr e a
20
102
P a c if ic
24, 89, 99
P a la e o c e n e M a, T . Y . H .
108
M c A Ie s te r, A . L . M cG ugan, A.
103 101
J.
p la n ts
106 106
83,
61, 70
M e d ite rra n e a n
39, 8 4, 85, 86, 89,
9 1 , 9 5 , 9 7 , 9 8, 9 9, 100
M e rla , G . M e x ic o
104, 105 18
M io c e n e
102
P le is to c e n e
Q u a te r n a r y
P lio c e n e
see
39, 99
P o la n d I , 2, 15, 3 0 , 3 5 , 39 , 104 P o rtu g a l 46
M is s is s ip p ia n
103
P ygope
3
Q u a te rn a ry
24, 40, 4 3 , 44. 46, 47,
5 5 -5 8 , 8 1 , 100, 1 05, 106
see C a r b o n ife r o u s
M itc h e ll, A . H .
108
23, 83
R a d io la ria n s
2 4 , 103, 104
R aw son, P. F.
M o o re , R . C .
21
M o rd a u n t, T . O .
103
R e a d in g , H . G . 49
2, 6, 9, 18, 3 9 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 90,
94, 98
r e p tile s
12
R h a e ta v ic u la
70
R o n o v , A . B. R o u m a n ia
2, 4
3 1
S a g ri, M .
104
N e w a ll, G .
103
S an ds, G .
71
N e w e ll, N . D .
2 2 , 24, 28, 9 3 , 103,
108 N ew Z e a la n d N ik o lo v , I .
103
108
N e th e rla n d s
N e w G u in e a
108
1 7 , 19, 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 5 , 1 03
R h od es, F. H . T .
M u rc h is o n . R . I . N a u tilo id s
11, 13, 2 8 , 6 5 , 8 5 , 8 9 ,
3 5 , 1 0 4 , 105
2, 17, 37, 39, 5 2 , 5 3 , 98,
M o ro cco
P la y fo rd , P. E .
91, 9 6 , 1 01 , 1 0 2 , 108 P ug h, W . J. 104
9 9 , 100, 104, 106
M oon
6 , 10, 1 6, 2 5 , 6 5 , 8 2 ,
8 5 -1 0 0 , 1 0 3 , 1 07 , 1 0 8 , 109
108
1, 2 7
M id d le m is s , F . A . M ig lio rin i, C . I.
109
15, 16, 19, 102 7, 1 2 ,1 8 , 2 1 ,4 1 , 7 2 ,8 9 ,9 3 ,
P re c a m b ria n
M ey e rh o ff, A . A . M ic r a s le r
23, 24. 82,
94
2 3 , 8 3 , 108
90,
92,
p la te te c to n ic s
M a rin a to s , S . M ars
91,
se e C a r b o n ife r o u s
19, 2 1 , 2 2 , 9 3 , 101, 1 0 3 ,
13,
P e r e g r in e lla
24
M a rx , K .
104
P e n n s y lv a n ia n P e rm ia n
23, 103
M a ld e , H . E .
35
P a s s e r in i, P .
m a g n e tis m 23, 24 M a la y a 80 m a m m a ls
18, 2 2 , 30, 4 1 . 4 2 ,
8 1 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 1 0 2 , 104, 1 0 7 , 109
101
L o w ry , D . C .
M c L a re n , D .
9 , 1 01
30, 35, 36, 52, 98
o s tra c o d s
L o rin g , D . H .
3 , 10, 1 1, 12, 8 5 , 8 6 ,
9 2, 96, 98
S c a n d in a v ia
1, 9 , 8 4 . 8 5
S c h in d e w o lf, O . 30 2, 30 101, 102
S c h o lle , P . A . S c o tla n d
2 1 , 2 3 , 103 109
9 , 11, 3 0 , 3 8 , 4 6 , 8 5 , 8 6 ,
89, 9 4 , 104, 107