The Mismeasure of Man [2 ed.] 0393314251, 9780393314250

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BY STEPHEN JAY GOULD IN NORTON PAPERBACK

EVER SINCE DARWIN Reflections in Natural History THE PANDA'S THUMB More Reflections in Natural History THE MISMEASURE OF MAN Revised and Expanded HEN'S TEETH AND HORSE'S TOES Further Reflections

in Natural History

THE FLAMINGO'S SMILE Reflections in Natural History AN URCHIN IN THE STORM Essays about Books and Ideas ILLUMINATIONS A Bestiary (with R. W. Purcell) WONDERFUL LIFE The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History BULLY FOR BRONTOSAURUS Reflections

in Natural History

FINDERS, KEEPERS Treasures amd Oddities of Natural History Collectors from Peter the Great to Louis Agassiz (with R. W. Purcell)

THE MISMEASURE OF MAN

T o the m e m o r y o f G r a m m y and Papa Joe, who came, struggled, and prospered, Mr. G o d d a r d notwithstanding.

Contents Acknowledgments

15

Introduction to the Revised and Expanded Edition: Thoughts at Age Fifteen

19

T h e f r a m e of The Mismeasure of Man, 1 9 W h y r e v i s e The Mismeasure of Man a f t e r fifteen y e a r s ? , 26 R e a s o n s , history a n d revision of The Mismeasure of Man, 36

2. American Polygeny and Craniometry before Darwin: Blacks andlndians as Separate, Inferior Species Cfolj A shared context of culture,

63

P r e e v o l u t i o n a r y styles o f scientific r a c i s m : m o n o g e n i s m a n d polygenism, 71 Louis A g a s s i z — A m e r i c a ' s theorist of polygeny,

74

Samuel George Morton—empiricist of polygeny,

82

The case of Indian inferiority: C r a n i a A m e r i c a n a The case of the Egyptian catacombs: C r a n i a A e g y p t i a c a The case of the shifting black mean The final tabulation of 1849

62

CONTENTS

IO Conclusions T h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l a n d slavery,

101

3. Measuring Heads: Paul Br oca and the Heyday ofCraniology / -4f^"yi T h e allure of numbers,

105

Introduction Francis

Galton—apostle

of quantification

A curtain-raiser with a moral: numbers do not guarantee truth M a s t e r s o f c r a n i o m e t r y : P a u l B r o c a a n d his s c h o o l , The great circle route Selecting

characters

Averting

anomalies

BIG-BRAINED GERMANS SMALL-BRAINED MEN OF EMINENCE LARGE-BRAINED CRIMINALS FLAWS IN A PATTERN OF INCREASE THROUGH TIME Front and back THE CRANIAL INDEX THE CASE OF THE FORAMEN MAGNUM Women's brains Postscript,

140

4. Measuring Bodies:

Two Case Studies on the

Apishness of Undesirables T h e a p e i n all o f us: r e c a p i t u l a t i o n ,

j^C^ 142

T h e ape in some of us: criminal anthropology,

151

Atavism and criminality Animals and savages as born criminals The stigmata: anatomical, physiological, and social Lombroso's retreat The influence of criminal anthropology Coda Epilogue,

173

114

CONTENTS

II

5. The Hereditarian Theory of IQ: An American ij6

Invention A l f r e d Binet and the original purposes of the Binet scale, 176 Binet flirts with craniometry Binet's scale and the birth of IQ The dismantling of Binet's intentions in America H . H . G o d d a r d a n d the m e n a c e o f t h e f e e b l e - m i n d e d ,

18&

Intelligence as a Mendelian gene GODDARD IDENTIFIES THE MORON A UNILINEAR SCALE OF INTELLIGENCE BREAKING THE SCALE INTO MENDELIAN COMPARTMENTS THE PROPER CARE AND FEEDING (BUT NOT BREEDING) OF MORONS Preventing the immigration and propagation of morons Goddard recants L e w i s M . T e r m a n a n d the mass m a r k e t i n g o f i n n a t e I Q ,

204

Mass testing and the Stanford-Binet Terman's technocracy of innateness Fossil IQ's of past geniuses Terman on group differences Terman recants R. M. Yerkes and the A r m y Mental Tests: IQ comes of age,

222

Psychology's great leap forward Results of the army tests A critique of the Army Mental Tests THE CONTENT OF THE TESTS INADEQUATE CONDITIONS DUBIOUS AND PERVERSE PROCEEDINGS: A PERSONAL TESTIMONY FINAGLING THE SUMMARY STATISTICS: THE PROBLEM OF ZERO VALUES FINAGLING THE SUMMARY STATISTICS: GETTING AROUND OBVIOUS CORRELATIONS WITH ENVIRONMENT Political impact of the army data CAN DEMOCRACY SURVIVE AN AVERAGE MENTAL AGE OF THIRTEEN?

CONTENTS THE ARMY TESTS AND AGITATION TO RESTRICT IMMIGRATION I BRIGHAM'S MONOGRAPH ON AMERICAN INTELLIGENCE THE TRIUMPH OF RESTRICTION ON IMMIGRATION BRIGHAM RECANTS

The Real Error of Cyril Burt: Factor Analysis and

the

Reification

T h e case o f Sir C y r i l B u r t ,

of

Intelligence

264

C o r r e l a t i o n , c a u s e , a n d f a c t o r analysis,

269

Correlation and cause Correlation in more than two dimensions Factor analysis and its goals The error of reification Rotation and the nonnecessity of principal components Charles S p e a r m a n and general intelligence,

286

The two-factor theory The method of tetrad differences Spearman's g and the great instauration of psychology Spearman's g and the theoretical justification of IQ Spearman's reification of g Spearman on the inheritance of g Cyril B u r t a n d the hereditarian synthesis, The source

of Burt's

303

uncompromising hereditarianism

BURT'S INITIAL "PROOF" OF INNATENESS LATER ARGUMENTS BURT'S BLINDNESS BURT'S POLITICAL USE OF INNATENESS Burt's extension of Spearman's theory Burt on the reification of factors Burt and the political uses of g L . L . T h u r s t o n e a n d the v e c t o r s o f m i n d , Thurstone's critique and reconstruction The egalitarian

interpretation

Spearman and Burt react

of PMA's

326

2 64

CONTENTS

13

Oblique axes and second-order g Thurstone on the uses of factor analysis Epilogue: A r t h u r Jensen and the resurrection of S p e a r m a n ' s g, A final t h o u g h t ,

347 350

7 . A Positive Conclusion

357

D e b u n k i n g a s positive s c i e n c e , Learning by debunking,

351

352

Biology and h u m a n nature,

354

365

Epilogue Critique The Bell Curvv.

of

The

Bell

Curve

367

Disingenuoumess

of content

Disingenuousness^of Disingenuousness

argument ofprogram

G h o s t s o f B e l l C u r v e s pasX

379

Three Centuries' Perspectives on Race and Racism \. A g e - o l d fallacies o f t h i n k i n g a n d s t i n k i n g ^ Racial g e o m e t r y ,

367

39

1

391

401

T h e m o r a l state o f T a h i t i — a n d o f D a r w i n ,

Bibliography

425

Index

433

Acknowledgments GENES MAY BE SELFISH in a l i m i t e d m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e , b u t t h e r e c a n b e n o g e n e f o r selfishness w h e n I h a v e s o m a n y f r i e n d s a n d colleagues willing to offer their aid. I thank Ashley M o n t a g u , not only f o r his specific s u g g e s t i o n s , b u t also f o r l e a d i n g t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t scientific r a c i s m f o r s o m a n y y e a r s w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g c y n i c a l a b o u t h u m a n possibilities. S e v e r a l c o l l e a g u e s w h o h a v e w r i t t e n , o r a r e w r i t i n g , t h e i r o w n b o o k s o n b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m willingly s h a r e d t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n a n d e v e n let m e u s e t h e i r o w n f i n d i n g s , s o m e times

before

they

could

publish

them

themselves:

G.

Allen,

A. Chase, S. Chorover, L. Kamin, R. Lewontin. Others heard of m y e f f o r t s a n d , w i t h o u t solicitation, s e n t m a t e r i a l a n d s u g g e s t i o n s that enriched the b o o k greatly: M. Leitenberg, S. Selden. L. Meszoly p r e p a r e d t h e o r i g i n a l illustrations i n C h a p t e r 6 . P e r h a p s K r o p o t k i n w a s r i g h t a f t e r all; I shall r e m a i n w i t h t h e h o p e f u l . A note on references: In place of conventional footnotes, I h a v e u s e d t h e s y s t e m o f r e f e r e n c e s u n i v e r s a l l y f o u n d i n scientific literat u r e — n a m e of a u t h o r a n d year of publication, cited in parentneses a f t e r t h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e o f text. ( I t e m s a r e t h e n listed b y a u t h o r and by year for any o n e author in the bibliography.) I know that m a n y r e a d e r s m a y b e d i s c o n c e r t e d a t f i r s t ; t h e t e x t will s e e m clutt e r e d t o m a n y . Y e t , I a m c o n f i d e n t t h a t e v e r y o n e will b e g i n t o " r e a d t h r o u g h " t h e citations a f t e r a f e w p a g e s o f e x p e r i e n c e , a n d will then discover that they d o not interrupt the f l o w o f prose. T o m e , t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f this s y s t e m f a r o u t w e i g h a n y aesthetic d e f i c i t — no m o r e flipping back and forth from text to end-notes (no p u b lisher will set t h e m all a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p a g e a n y m o r e ) , o n l y t o f i n d that a t a n t a l i z i n g little n u m b e r y i e l d s n o j u i c y tidbit o f subsid-

i6

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

iary i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t o n l y a d r y b i b l i o g r a p h i c c i t a t i o n ; * i m m e d i a t e access t o t h e t w o essential bits o f i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a n y historical i n q u i r y — w h o a n d w h e n . I b e l i e v e that this s y s t e m o f r e f e r e n c i n g i s o n e o f the f e w p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s that scientists, n o r m a l l y n o t a v e r y literate lot, m i g h t s u p p l y t o o t h e r f i e l d s o f w r i t t e n s c h o l a r ship. A n o t e on title: I h o p e that an a p p a r e n t l y sexist title will be t a k e n in t h e i n t e n d e d s p i r i t — n o t o n l y as a play on P r o t a g o r a s ' f a m o u s a p h o r i s m , b u t also a s a c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e p r o c e d u r e s o f biological determinists discussed in the book. T h e y did, i n d e e d , s t u d y " m a n " (that is, w h i t e E u r o p e a n m a l e s ) , r e g a r d i n g this g r o u p as a s t a n d a r d a n d e v e r y b o d y else as s o m e t h i n g to be m e a s u r e d u n f a v o r a b l y a g a i n s t it. T h a t t h e y m i s m e a s u r e d " m a n " u n d e r s c o r e s t h e d o u b l e fallacy. * T h e relatively small number of truly informational footnotes can then be placed at the bottom of the page, where they belong.

T H E MISMEASURE OF MAN

Introduction to the Revised and Expanded Edition Thoughts at Age Fifteen The frame of The Mismeasure of Man T h e o r i g i n a l title f o r The Mismeasure of Man w o u l d h a v e h o n o r e d m y h e r o C h a r l e s D a r w i n f o r t h e w o n d e r f u l l y incisive s t a t e m e n t that h e m a d e a b o u t b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m t o c l i m a x his d e n u n c i a t i o n o f slavery in the Voyage of the Beagle. I w a n t e d to call this b o o k Great Is Our Sin—from D a r w i n ' s line, cited as an e p i g r a p h on my title p a g e : " I f t h e m i s e r y o f o u r p o o r b e c a u s e d n o t b y the laws o f n a t u r e , b u t b y o u r institutions, g r e a t i s o u r sin." I d i d n o t follow my initial i n c l i n a t i o n — a n d I am s u r e that I m a d e t h e r i g h t d e c i s i o n — b e c a u s e I k n e w d a m n e d well that m y w o r k w o u l d t h e n b e m i s s h e l v e d t o o b l i v i o n i n t h e r e l i g i o n section o f m a n y b o o k s t o r e s (as my v o l u m e of e v o l u t i o n a r y essays, The Flamingo's Smile, e n d e d up in t h e o r n i t h o l o g y division of a g r e a t B o s t o n institution that shall r e m a i n n a m e l e s s ) . T h i n g s c a n always be w o r s e . I o n c e , i n a n e q u a l l y p r e s t i g i o u s B o s t o n e m p o r i u m , f o u n d a c o p y o f that 1960s u n d e r g r a d u a t e m a n i f e s t o The Student as Nigger on a s h e l f marked "Race Relations." My friend Harry K e m e l m a n , author of t h e m a r v e l o u s m y s t e r y series f e a t u r i n g t h e o l o g i c a l sleuth D a v i d S m a l l , told me that his first e n t r y in t h e series—Friday the Rabbi. . .— o n c e a p p e a r e d in a list of c h i l d r e n ' s titles as " F r e d d y the Rabbit. . . ." B u t tables d o t u r n occasionally. M y b u d d y A l a n D e r s h o w i t z told me that a w o m a n successfully a c q u i r e d his Chutzpah by telling the

20

THE

MISMEASURE

OF

MAN

b o o k s t o r e c l e r k : "I w a n t a c o p y of that b o o k w h o s e title I can't p r o n o u n c e b y t h e a u t h o r w h o s e n a m e I can't r e m e m b e r . " I e v e n t u a l l y d e c i d e d on The Mismeasure of Man b e c a u s e t h e ess e n c e o f m y b o o k , i n a p a r a d o x i c a l w a y that c o n f e r r e d s t a y i n g p o w e r o v e r t h e s e fifteen y e a r s since initial p u b l i c a t i o n , lies in its limitation of s c o p e . The Mismeasure of Man is n o t f u n d a m e n t a l l y a b o u t the g e n e r a l m o r a l t u r p i t u d e o f fallacious biological a r g u m e n t s i n social settings (as m y o r i g i n a l a n d b r o a d e r title f r o m D a r w i n w o u l d h a v e i m p l i e d ) . I t i s n o t e v e n a b o u t t h e full r a n g e o f p h o n y a r g u m e n t s f o r t h e g e n e t i c basis of h u m a n inequalities. The Mismeasure of Man treats one particular form of quantified c l a i m a b o u t t h e r a n k i n g of h u m a n g r o u p s : t h e a r g u m e n t that i n t e l l i g e n c e c a n b e m e a n i n g f u l l y a b s t r a c t e d as a single n u m b e r c a p a b l e of r a n k i n g all p e o p l e on a l i n e a r scale o f intrinsic a n d u n a l t e r a b l e m e n t a l w o r t h . F o r t u n a t e l y — a n d I m a d e m y d e c i s i o n o n p u r p o s e — t h i s limited subject e m b o d i e s t h e d e e p e s t ( a n d m o s t c o m m o n ) p h i l o s o p h i c a l e r r o r , w i t h the m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l a n d f a r - r a n g i n g social i m p a c t , f o r the e n t i r e t r o u b l i n g subject o f n a t u r e a n d n u r t u r e , o r t h e g e n e t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n t o h u m a n social o r g a n i z a t i o n . If I h a v e l e a r n e d o n e t h i n g as a m o n t h l y essayist f o r m o r e t h a n t w e n t y y e a r s , I h a v e c o m e t o u n d e r s t a n d the p o w e r o f t r e a t i n g g e n eralities by p a r t i c u l a r s . It is no use w r i t i n g a b o o k on " t h e m e a n i n g of l i f e " ( t h o u g h w e all l o n g t o k n o w t h e a n s w e r s t o s u c h g r e a t q u e s t i o n s , w h i l e r i g h t l y s u s p e c t i n g that t r u e solutions d o n o t exist!). B u t a n essay on " t h e m e a n i n g of 0.400 h i t t i n g in b a s e b a l l " can r e a c h a g e n u i n e conclusion with surprisingly extensive relevance to such b r o a d topics a s t h e n a t u r e o f t r e n d s , the m e a n i n g o f e x c e l l e n c e , a n d e v e n (believe i t n o r not) t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f n a t u r a l reality. Y o u h a v e t o s n e a k u p o n g e n e r a l i t i e s , n o t assault t h e m h e a d - o n . O n e o f m y f a v o r i t e lines, f r o m G . K . C h e s t e r t o n , p r o c l a i m s : " A r t i s limitation; the e s s e n c e o f e v e r y p i c t u r e i s t h e f r a m e . " ( M y c h o s e n title d i d g e t m e i n t o s o m e t r o u b l e , b u t I m a k e n o a p o l o g i e s a n d r e l i s h e d all t h e discussion. The Mismeasure of Man is a n i n t e n d e d d o u b l e e n t e n d r e , n o t a vestige o f u n t h i n k i n g s e x i s m . M y title p a r o d i e s P r o t a g o r a s ' s f a m o u s a p h o r i s m a b o u t all p e o p l e , a n d also n o t e s t h e reality of a truly sexist past that r e g a r d e d m a l e s as standards for humanity and therefore tended to mismeasure men, w h i l e i g n o r i n g w o m e n . I stated this r a t i o n a l e u p f r o n t , i n t h e o r i g i nal p r e f a c e — s o I c o u l d always use u n t h i n k i n g criticism as a test to

REVISED

AND

EXPANDED

EDITION

21

see w h o liked t o m o u t h o f f w i t h o u t r e a d i n g the b o o k f i r s t — l i k e M r . D o l e criticizing t h e v i o l e n c e i n m o v i e s h e has n e v e r s e e n , a n d w o u l d n o t e v e n d e i g n t o w a t c h . [ I d o n ' t , o f c o u r s e , m i n d criticism o f the title b a s e d o n d i s a g r e e m e n t with m y stated rationale.] I n a n y case, m y title a l l o w e d m y c o l l e a g u e C a r o l T a v r i s t o p a r o d y m y p a r o d y a s a n a m e f o r h e r m a r v e l o u s b o o k The Mismeasure of Woman—and I am at least m i g h t i l y g l a d f o r that.*) The Mismeasure of Man r e s i d e s in a t h r e e f o l d f r a m e , a set of limitations that a l l o w e d m e t o c o n t a i n o n e o f t h e largest o f all intellectual subjects w i t h i n a c o h e r e n t a n d r e a s o n a b l e c o m p r e h e n s i v e n a r r a t i v e a n d analysis. 1. I restricted my t r e a t m e n t of biological d e t e r m i n i s m to the m o s t historically p r o m i n e n t (and r e v e a l i n g l y fallacious) f o r m o f quantified a r g u m e n t about mentality: the theory of a measurable, g e n e t i c a l l y f i x e d , a n d u n i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e . A s I w r o t e i n the I n t r o d u c t i o n to link the p s e u d o s c i e n t i f i c claim with its social utility: This book, then, is about the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity, its location within the brain, its quantification as one number for each individual, and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series of worthiness, invariably to find that oppressed and disadvantaged g r o u p s — races, classes, or sexes—are innately inferior and deserve their status. In short, this book is about the Mismeasure of Man. T h i s p a r t of the f r a m e also e x p l a i n s w h a t I left o u t . I h a v e , f o r e x a m p l e , o f t e n b e e n a s k e d w h y I o m i t t e d so influential a m o v e m e n t as p h r e n o l o g y in my account of quantified theories for mental funct i o n i n g . B u t p h r e n o l o g y i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y c o n t r a r y t o t h e subject o f *A linguist friend did correctly anticipate the one curious problem that my title would entail. For some reason (and I have done this myself, so I am not casting blame but expressing puzzlement), people tend to mispronounce the first word as "mishmeasure"—leading to unwanted levity and embarrassment in introductions before talks, or in radio interviews. Apparently, or so my friend explained, we anticipate the zh sound to come in "measure"—and we unconsciously try to match the first part of the word to the later sound, therefore saying "mish" instead of "mis." I find this error fascinating. After all, we make the mistake in anticipation of a sound as yet unsaid, thus indicating (or so I suppose) how our brain monitors language before the fact of expression. Isn't the form of the error also remarkable? Are we driven to prefer these alliterative, pleasantly repeated combinations of sounds? Does this consonance occur merely for ease of articulation, or is something deeper about cerebral patterning thus revealed? What do such phenomena have to say about the origin and form of poetry? What about the nature and organization of our mental functioning?

22

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The Mismeasure of Man. P h r e n o l o g i s t s c e l e b r a t e d t h e t h e o r y of richly m u l t i p l e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t i n t e l l i g e n c e s . T h e i r v i e w led t o T h u r stone and Guilford earlier in o u r century, and to H o w a r d G a r d n e r a n d o t h e r s t o d a y — i n o t h e r w o r d s , t o t h e t h e o r y o f m u l t i p l e intellig e n c e s : the m a j o r c h a l l e n g e t o J e n s e n i n t h e last g e n e r a t i o n , t o Herrnstein and M u r r a y today, and to the entire tradition of rankable, unitary intelligence m a r k i n g the mismeasure of man. By readi n g e a c h b u m p o n t h e skull a s a m e a s u r e o f " d o m e s t i c i t y , " o r " a m a t i v e n e s s , " o r " s u b l i m i t y , " o r "causality," the p h r e n o l o g i s t s div i d e d m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g into a rich c o n g e r i e s o f l a r g e l y i n d e p e n d e n t a t t r i b u t e s . W i t h s u c h a view, n o single n u m b e r c o u l d possibly express general h u m a n worth, a n d the entire concept of IQ as a u n i t a r y b i o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t y b e c o m e s n o n s e n s e . I do c o n f e s s to a w a r m s p o t i n m y h e a r t f o r the p h r e n o l o g i s t s (do h e a r t s h a v e b u m p s o f g r e a t e r heat?), f o r t h e y w e r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y o n t h e r i g h t t r a c k — w h i l e t h e y w e r e a b s o l u t e l y j u s t a s w r o n g a s t h e m i s m e a s u r e r s o f this b o o k i n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y o f cranial b u m p s . ( H i s t o r y o f t e n heaps irony u p o n irony. Cranial b u m p s may be nonsense, but und e r l y i n g cortical localization o f h i g h l y specific m e n t a l p r o c e s s i n g i s a reality o f e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g fascination i n m o d e r n n e u r o l o g i c a l r e search.) In a n y case, p h r e n o l o g y , as a false v e r s i o n of t h e p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t t h e o r y of m u l t i p l e i n t e l l i g e n c e s , w o u l d f o r m a m a j o r c h a p t e r in a b o o k o n c r a n i a l m i s m e a s u r e m e n t i n g e n e r a l , b u t falls o u t s i d e t h e subject o f this v o l u m e o n t h e history o f fallacies i n t h e t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , i n n a t e , linearly r a n k a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e . I f I e x c l u d e p h r e n o l o g y o n t h e g r o u n d s o f " r i g h t subject, d i f f e r e n t t h e o r y , " I also o m i t an ocean of material for the related, if opposite, reason of " w r o n g subject, s a m e t h e o r y " — i n o t h e r w o r d s , all claims f o r u n i l i n e a r inn a t e r a n k i n g s b a s e d o n b i o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s o t h e r t h a n the q u a n t i fication of intelligence. I therefore, for e x a m p l e , include no explicit c h a p t e r on t h e e u g e n i c s m o v e m e n t ( t h o u g h I treat the subject in its i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h I Q ) b e c a u s e m o s t a r g u m e n t s relied o n the p u t a t i v e possession o f p a r t i c u l a r g e n e s f o r i n n a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d traits, n o t o n m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e insides o r o u t s i d e s o f h e a d s . 2 . 1 f o c u s e d u p o n t h e " g r e a t " a r g u m e n t s a n d e r r o r s o f historical o r i g i n a t o r s , n o t o n t r a n s i e n t a n d e p h e m e r a l m o d e r n u s a g e s . Five y e a r s f r o m n o w , w h o will r e m e m b e r ( w h o w o u l d e v e n c a r e t o recall)

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t h e r a p i e r s o f r h e t o r i c , o r the t e n d e n t i o u s a r g u m e n t s o f o u r c u r r e n t a n d l a r g e l y d e r i v a t i v e g l a d i a t o r s ; b u t w e c a n (and must) n e v e r f o r g e t t h e brilliance o f D a r w i n a n d t h e truly g r e a t a n d i n f o r m a t i v e e r r o r s m a d e b y his last g e n e r a t i o n o f creationist o p p o n e n t s , A g a s s i z a n d S e d g w i c k ? T h e f o u n d a t i o n stones a r e f o r e v e r ; m o s t c u r r e n t skirm i s h e s follow t h e j o u r n a l i s t ' s o l d m a x i m : y e s t e r d a y ' s p a p e r w r a p s today's garbage. The Mismeasure of Man, as a s e c o n d essential f e a t u r e of its f r a m e , restricted a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o r i g i n s , a n d t o the e n d u r i n g f o u n d e r s , o f the t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , linearly r a n k a b l e , i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h i s d e c i s i o n p e r m i t t e d a n e a t division o f t h e b o o k into t w o h a l v e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g the c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l c e n t e r p i e c e s f o r this t h e o r y d u r i n g t h e past t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s o f its p r o m i n e n c e . T h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o c u s e d o n physical m e a s u r e m e n t o f skulls, e i t h e r t h e o u t s i d e (by r u l e r a n d c a l i p e r s , a n d b y c o n s t r u c t i n g v a r i o u s indices a n d ratios f o r t h e s h a p e s a n d sizes o f h e a d s ) o r the inside (by m u s t a r d s e e d o r l e a d shot, t o f i l l t h e c r a n i u m a n d m e a s u r e t h e volu m e of the braincase). T h e twentieth century m o v e d to the putatively m o r e d i r e c t m e t h o d o f m e a s u r i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f b r a i n s b y i n t e l l i g e n c e testing. I n s h o r t , f r o m m e a s u r i n g the physical p r o p e r ties o f skulls t o m e a s u r i n g the i n t e r i o r s t u f f i n b r a i n s . I b e l i e v e in this restriction to g r e a t f o u n d a t i o n a l d o c u m e n t s f r o m the d e p t h of my scholar's soul, b u t I also realize that this d e c i sion c o n f e r r e d a n e n o r m o u s practical benefit u p o n this r e v i s e d version. T h e o l d a r g u m e n t s h a v e s t a y i n g p o w e r , " l e g s " i n m o d e r n p a r l a n c e . W e will n e v e r q u i t e attain the C h r i s t i a n ' s q u i e t c o n f i d e n c e of verbum Dei manet in aeternum, but we will c a r e a b o u t B r o c a , B i n e t , a n d B u r t s o l o n g a s s c h o l a r s h i p a n d a fascination with history e n d u r e . B u t I s u s p e c t that the w o r l d will little n o t e , n o r l o n g r e m e m ber, Jensen, Murray, Herrnstein, Lewontin, and Gould. Since I wrote about the great and original a r g u m e n t s , and virtually i g n o r e d t h e m o d e r n avatars o f 1 9 8 1 , this revision r e q u i r e d few c h a n g e s , a n d t h e m a i n t e x t o f t h e c u r r e n t v e r s i o n d i f f e r s v e r y little f r o m the o r i g i n a l b o o k ; t h e n o v e l t y in this revision lies in this i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d i n t h e a p p e n d e d section o f essays a t t h e back. T h e h o t topics o f 1 9 8 1 a r e n o w legless history; I d o u b t that H e r r n s t e i n a n d M u r r a y will p e n e t r a t e t h e m i l l e n n i u m , t h o u g h the basic f o r m o f t h e a r g u m e n t n e v e r g o e s a w a y a n d c o n t i n u e s t o r e c u r e v e r y few y e a r s —

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h e n c e the necessity f o r this b o o k a n d its f o c u s u p o n t h e e n d u r i n g sources of continual recurrence. As I w r o t e in t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n to the first e d i t i o n : I have said little about the current resurgence of biological determinism because its individual claims are usually so ephemeral that their refutation belongs in a magazine article or newspaper story. Who even remembers the hot topics o f t e n years ago [from 1981]: Shockley's proposal; for reimbursing voluntarily sterilized individuals according to their number of IQ points below t o o , the great XYY debate, or the attempt to explain urban riots by diseased neurology of rioters. I thought that it would be more valuable and interesting to examine the original sources of the arguments that still surround us. These, at least, display great and enlightening errors. 3 . T h e t h i r d m a j o r a s p e c t o f f r a m i n g arises f r o m m y o w n p r o f e s sional c o m p e t e n c e s . I am a w o r k i n g scientist by t r a d e , n o t a histor i a n . I h a v e i m m e n s e fascination f o r history; I r e a d a n d s t u d y the subject intensely, a n d I h a v e w r i t t e n m u c h , i n c l u d i n g t h r e e b o o k s a n d scores of essays, on p r e d o m i n a n t l y historical subjects. I feel that I h a v e a d e c e n t a n d p r o p e r g r a s p o f t h e logic a n d e m p i r i c s o f a r g u m e n t s a b o u t b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m . W h a t I lack, f o r w a n t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g , is t h e t r a d e s m a n ' s " f e e l " — t h e sine qua non of f i r s t - c l a s s s c h o l a r s h i p — f o r b r o a d e r political c o n t e x t s ( a n t e c e d e n t s a n d b a c k g r o u n d s ) , t h e s t a g e o n w h i c h biological a r g u m e n t s i m p a c t society. In the p r o f e s s i o n ' s j a r g o n , I am fully up to s n u f f (I w o u l d e v e n b e a r r o g a n t a n d say " b e t t e r t h a n most") o n the " i n t e r n a l i s t " t h e m e s o f intricacies i n a r g u m e n t s a n d m e a n i n g s , a n d i n fallacies o f supporting data, but woefully u n d e r p r e p a r e d on the "externalist" side o f b r o a d e r historical c o n t e x t , the "fitting" o f scientific claims i n t o social settings. C o n s e q u e n t l y , a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e o l d tactic o f e x t r a c t i n g v i r t u e f r o m necessity, I e x p l o r e d a d i f f e r e n t p a t h in t r e a t i n g t h e history of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m , o n e that w o u l d use m y special skills a n d competences, but not suffer u n d u l y from my inadequacies. I would not have written the book at a l l — I would not have even contemp l a t e d s u c h a p r o j e c t in the first p l a c e — i f I h a d n o t b e e n able to d e v i s e a p r e v i o u s l y u n c h a r t e d w a y t o t r e a t this i m p o r t a n t a n d b y n o m e a n s n e g l e c t e d subject. ( I h a v e a p e r s o n a l h o r r o r o f d e r i v a t i v e

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w r i t i n g , a n d h a v e n e v e r d a b b l e d — w i t h o n e small e x c e p t i o n a s a p e r s o n a l f a v o r t o a d e a r , o l d e r , a n d r e v e r e d c o l l e a g u e — i n the g e n r e of t e x t b o o k s ; life is t o o short.) My special skill lies in a c o m b i n a t i o n , n o t a u n i q u e n e s s . I was able t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r t w o salient a n d richly i n t e r a c t i n g c o m p o n e n t s e a c h v o u c h s a f e d b y itself t o t h e c o m p e t e n c e o f m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t r a r e l y c o m b i n e d i n o n e p e r s o n ' s interest. N o o n e b e f o r e m e h a d systematically u n i t e d t h e s e t w o c o m p e t e n c e s a t b o o k l e n g t h a n d i n g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w o f t h e subject. W o r k i n g scientists a r e g e n e r a l l y g o o d a t a n a l y z i n g d a t a . W e a r e t r a i n e d t o s p o t fallacies o f a r g u m e n t a n d , especially, t o b e h y p e r c r i t i cal o f s u p p o r t i n g d a t a . W e scrutinize c h a r t s a n d l o o k a t e v e r y d o t o n a g r a p h . S c i e n c e m o v e s f o r w a r d a s m u c h b y c r i t i q u i n g the c o n c l u sions of o t h e r s as by m a k i n g n o v e l d i s c o v e r i e s . I was t r a i n e d as a statistically m i n d e d p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , with special e x p e r t i s e in h a n d l i n g l a r g e m a t r i c e s o f d a t a o n variation i n p o p u l a t i o n s a n d historical c h a n g e within l i n e a g e s . ( T h e m i s m e a s u r e o f m a n resides i n the s a m e t h e m e s — d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e a n a l o g t o variation i n p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d m e a s u r e d disparities a m o n g g r o u p s a s the a n a l o g to t e m p o r a l d i f f e r e n c e s in l i n e a g e s t h r o u g h time.) I t h e r e f o r e felt p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p e t e n t t o a n a l y z e t h e d a t a , a n d s p o t the fallacies, i n a r g u m e n t s a b o u t m e a s u r e d d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g h u m a n groups. B u t a n y w o r k i n g scientist c o u l d s o p r o c e e d . W e n o w c o m e t o t h e g r e a t p a r o c h i a l i s m o f m y p r i m a r y p r o f e s s i o n . M o s t scientists d o n ' t c a r e a f i g a b o u t history; m y c o l l e a g u e s m a y n o t q u i t e follow H e n r y F o r d ' s d i c t u m that history is b u n k , b u t t h e y do r e g a r d t h e past as a m e r e r e p o s i t o r y o f e r r o r — a t best a s o u r c e o f m o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n pitfalls a l o n g p a t h s t o p r o g r e s s . S u c h a n a t t i t u d e d o e s n o t c r e a t e s y m p a t h y f o r , o r interest in, historical f i g u r e s o f o u r scientific past, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e folks w h o m a d e m a j o r mistakes. T h u s , most scientists c o u l d , in p r i n c i p l e , a n a l y z e t h e o r i g i n a l data sets of b i o l o g i c a l determinism, but w o u l d never be inclined even to contemplate such an effort. P r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o u l d r e r u n t h e statistics a n d criticize t h e g r a p h s o f t h e i r subjects. T h e p r o c e d u r e i s really n o t all that a r c a n e or difficult. B u t a g a i n we e n c o u n t e r a trade's p a r o c h i a l i s m : historians s t u d y social c o n t e x t s . A historian

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w o u l d want to know h o w Morton's conclusion about the inferiority o f c r a n i a l capacity i n A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s i m p a c t e d t h e d e b a t e s a b o u t w e s t w a r d e x p a n s i o n — b u t w o u l d not g e n e r a l l y t h i n k a b o u t sitting d o w n with M o r t o n ' s tables o f skull m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d t r y i n g t o f i g u r e o u t w h e t h e r M o r t o n h a d r e p o r t e d his d a t a c o r r e c t l y . I t h e r e f o r e f o u n d my special n i c h e , f o r I c o u l d a n a l y z e t h e d a t a w i t h s o m e statistical e x p e r t i s e a n d attention to d e t a i l — a n d I do l o v e to s t u d y the historical o r i g i n of g r e a t t h e m e s that still s u r r o u n d us. I c o u l d , in s h o r t , c o m b i n e the scientist's skill with t h e historian's c o n c e r n . The Mismeasure of Man t h e r e f o r e f o c u s e s u p o n t h e analysis of g r e a t d a t a sets i n t h e history o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m . T h i s b o o k i s a c h r o n i c l e of d e e p a n d i n s t r u c t i v e fallacies (not silly a n d superficial e r r o r s ) i n the o r i g i n a n d d e f e n s e o f t h e t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , linearly r a n k e d , innate, and minimally alterable intelligence. The Mismeasure of Man is t h e r e f o r e u n a b a s h e d l y " i n t e r n a l i s t " in t r e a t i n g m e a s u r e d i n t e l l i g e n c e . I r e a n a l y z e t h e d a t a o f history's g r e a t c l a i m s — i n a w a y , I h o p e , m o r e a k i n to f o r e n s i c a d v e n t u r e (a subject o f g e n e r a l fascination) t h a n o f c a t a l o g u e s a s d r y a s d u s t . W e will e x p l o r e M o r t o n ' s switch f r o m m u s t a r d seed to l e a d shot in the m e a s u r e m e n t o f c r a n i a l c a p a c i t y ; B r o c a ' s m e t i c u l o u s statistics i n t h e o d d light o f his u n c o n s c i o u s social p r e j u d i c e s ; G o d d a r d ' s a l t e r e d p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e i m b e c i l e line o f K a l l i k a k s i n t h e N e w J e r s e y p i n e b a r r e n s ; Y e r k e s ' s s u p p o s e d test o f i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e (but actual i n d e x o f familiarity w i t h A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e ) g i v e n t o all a r m y r e c r u i t s in W o r l d W a r I ( a n d also, by y o u r s truly, to classes of H a r v a r d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s ) ; C y r i l B u r t ' s g r e a t , c r u c i a l , a n d g e n u i n e e r r o r (not his insignificant a n d later o v e r t f r a u d ) i n t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l justification of i n t e l l i g e n c e as a single f a c t o r . T w o f a m o u s a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y q u o t a t i o n s c a p t u r e the interest a n d p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f this e n d e a v o r , this t h i r d a s p e c t o f m y f r a m e f o r t h e m i s m e a s u r e o f m a n . G o d d w e l l s i n t h e details; s o d o e s the devil.

Why revise The Mismeasure of Man after fifteen years? I r e g a r d the c r i t i q u e of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m as b o t h timeless a n d timely. T h e n e e d f o r analysis i s timeless b e c a u s e the e r r o r s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m a r e s o d e e p a n d insidious, a n d b e c a u s e t h e a r g u m e n t a p p e a l s t o t h e w o r s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f o u r c o m m o n na-

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t u r e . T h e d e p t h r e c o r d s t h e link o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m t o s o m e o f t h e oldest issues a n d e r r o r s o f o u r p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n s — i n c l u d i n g reductionism, o r the d e s i r e t o e x p l a i n partly r a n d o m , l a r g e scale, a n d i r r e d u c i b l y c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n a b y d e t e r m i n i s t i c b e h a v ior o f smallest c o n s t i t u e n t parts (physical objects b y a t o m s i n m o t i o n , m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g by i n h e r i t e d a m o u n t of a c e n t r a l stuff); reification, or t h e p r o p e n s i t y to c o n v e r t an abstract c o n c e p t (like intellig e n c e ) into a h a r d entity (like an a m o u n t of quantifiable b r a i n s t u f f ) ; dichotomization, o r o u r d e s i r e t o p a r s e c o m p l e x a n d c o n t i n u o u s reality i n t o divisions b y t w o (smart a n d s t u p i d , black a n d w h i t e ) ; a n d hierarchy, or o u r inclination to o r d e r items by r a n k i n g t h e m in a l i n e a r series o f i n c r e a s i n g w o r t h ( g r a d e s o f i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e i n this case, t h e n o f t e n b r o k e n into a t w o f o l d division by o u r u r g e s to d i c h o t o m i z e , as in n o r m a l vs. f e e b l e - m i n d e d , to use the f a v o r e d t e r m i n o l o g y o f e a r l y d a y s i n I Q testing). W h e n w e j o i n o u r t e n d e n c i e s t o c o m m i t these g e n e r a l e r r o r s w i t h t h e sociopolitical reality of a x e n o p h o b i a that so o f t e n (and so sadly) r e g u l a t e s o u r a t t i t u d e t o " o t h e r s " j u d g e d i n f e r i o r , w e g r a s p the p o t e n c y of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m as a social w e a p o n — f o r " o t h e r s " will b e t h e r e b y d e m e a n e d , a n d their l o w e r s o c i o e c o n o m i c status v a l i d a t e d as a scientific c o n s e q u e n c e of their i n n a t e i n e p t i t u d e r a t h e r t h a n society's u n f a i r c h o i c e s . M a y I t h e r e f o r e r e p e a t D a r w i n ' s g r e a t line: " I f t h e m i s e r y o f o u r p o o r b e c a u s e d n o t b y the laws o f n a t u r e , b u t b y o u r institutions, g r e a t i s o u r sin." B u t c r i t i q u e s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m a r e also timely a t c e r t a i n m o m e n t s (including the present) b e c a u s e — a n d you may now choose your favorite image, f r o m heads of the Lernaean H y d r a if y o u r tastes b e classical, t o b a d p e n n i e s o r r e t u r n i n g cats i f y o u p r e f e r f a m i l i a r p r o v e r b s , t o c r a b g r a s s o n s u b u r b a n lawns i f y o u f a v o r vern a c u l a r m o d e r n i t y — t h e s a m e b a d a r g u m e n t s r e c u r e v e r y few y e a r s with a predictable a n d depressing regularity. No sooner do we deb u n k o n e v e r s i o n t h a n the n e x t c h a p t e r o f the s a m e b a d text emerges to ephemeral prominence. No mystery attends the reason for these recurrences. T h e y are n o t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s o m e u n d e r l y i n g cyclicity, o b e y i n g a n a t u r a l law that m i g h t be c a p t u r e d in a m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a as c o n v e n i e n t a s I Q ; n o r d o these e p i s o d e s r e p r e s e n t a n y h o t item o f n e w d a t a o r s o m e p r e v i o u s l y u n c o n s i d e r e d n o v e l twist i n a r g u m e n t , f o r t h e t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e , i n n a t e , a n d effectively u n c h a n g e a b l e

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i n t e l l i g e n c e n e v e r alters v e r y m u c h i n e a c h s e q u e n t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n . E a c h s u r g e t o p o p u l a r i t y w o r k s with t h e s a m e fallacious logic a n d flawed information. T h e r e a s o n s f o r r e c u r r e n c e a r e sociopolitical, a n d n o t far t o seek: r e s u r g e n c e s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m c o r r e l a t e with e p i s o d e s o f political r e t r e n c h m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y with c a m p a i g n s f o r r e d u c e d g o v e r n m e n t s p e n d i n g o n social p r o g r a m s , o r a t t i m e s o f f e a r a m o n g r u l i n g elites, w h e n d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s sow s e r i o u s social u n r e s t o r e v e n t h r e a t e n t o u s u r p p o w e r . W h a t a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t social c h a n g e c o u l d b e m o r e c h i l l i n g l y e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e claim that established o r d e r s , w i t h s o m e g r o u p s o n t o p a n d o t h e r s a t t h e b o t t o m , exist a s a n a c c u r a t e reflection o f t h e i n n a t e a n d u n c h a n g e a b l e intell e c t u a l capacities o f p e o p l e s o r a n k e d ? W h y s t r u g g l e a n d s p e n d t o raise the u n b o o s t a b l e I Q o f r a c e s o r social classes a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e e c o n o m i c l a d d e r ; b e t t e r s i m p l y t o a c c e p t n a t u r e ' s u n f o r t u n a t e dictates a n d save a passel o f f e d e r a l f u n d s ; (we c a n t h e n m o r e easily sustain tax b r e a k s f o r the w e a l t h y ! ) ? W h y bother yourself about underrepresentation of disadvantaged g r o u p s i n y o u r h o n o r e d a n d r e m u n e r a t i v e bailiwick i f s u c h a b s e n c e r e c o r d s t h e d i m i n i s h e d ability o r g e n e r a l i m m o r a l i t y , biologically imposed, of most m e m b e r s in the rejected g r o u p , a n d not the legacy o r c u r r e n t reality o f social p r e j u d i c e ? ( T h e g r o u p s s o s t i g m a t i z e d m a y b e r a c e s , classes, s e x e s , b e h a v i o r a l p r o p e n s i t i e s , r e l i g i o n s , o r n a t i o n a l o r i g i n s . B i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m is a g e n e r a l t h e o r y , a n d p a r t i c u l a r b e a r e r s o f c u r r e n t d i s p a r a g e m e n t act a s s u r r o g a t e s f o r all o t h e r s subject t o similar p r e j u d i c e a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d places. I n this s e n s e , calls f o r solidarity a m o n g d e m e a n e d g r o u p s s h o u l d n o t b e d i s m i s s e d a s m e r e political r h e t o r i c , b u t r a t h e r a p p l a u d e d a s p r o p e r reactions to c o m m o n reasons for mistreatment.) Please n o t e that I am d i s c u s s i n g t h e cyclical surge to popularity of innatist a r g u m e n t s f o r u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e , n o t the episodic f o r m u l a t i o n o f s u c h claims. T h e g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t i s always p r e s e n t , always available, always p u b l i s h e d , always e x p l o i t a b l e . E p i sodes of intense public attention therefore record swings in the pend u l u m o f political p r e f e r e n c e s t o w a r d t h e r i g h t position f o r e x p l o i t i n g this h o a r y o l d fallacy with a s e r i o u s n e s s b a s e d on naive h o p e o r cynical r e c o g n i t i o n o f e v i d e n t utility. R e s u r g e n c e s o f b i o l o g ical d e t e r m i n i s m c o r r e l a t e w i t h p e r i o d s o f political r e t r e n c h m e n t a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o f social g e n e r o s i t y .

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T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a has e x p e r i e n c e d t h r e e m a j o r epis o d e s , e a c h s o c o r r e l a t e d . T h e f i r s t constitutes o n e o f t h e s a d d e s t i r o n i e s of A m e r i c a n history, a n d sets t h e l o n g e s t c h a p t e r in The Mismeasure of Man. We like to t h i n k of A m e r i c a as a l a n d with g e n e r ally e g a l i t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n s , a n a t i o n " c o n c e i v e d in liberty a n d d e d i cated to the p r o p o s i t i o n that all m e n are c r e a t e d e q u a l . " W e r e c o g n i z e , au contraire, that m a n y E u r o p e a n nations, with their l o n g histories o f m o n a r c h y , f e u d a l o r d e r , a n d social stratification, h a v e b e e n less c o m m i t t e d t o ideals o f socialjustice o r equality o f o p p o r t u nity. S i n c e t h e I Q test o r i g i n a t e d i n F r a n c e , w e m i g h t n a t u r a l l y ass u m e that t h e false h e r e d i t a r i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s o c o m m o n l y a n d s o h a r m f u l y i m p o s e d u p o n t h e tests, a r o s e i n E u r o p e . Ironically, this r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n i s e n t i r e l y false. A s d o c u m e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 6, A l f r e d B i n e t , the F r e n c h i n v e n t o r , n o t o n l y a v o i d e d a h e r e d i tarian i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f his test, b u t explicitly (and f e r v e n t l y ) w a r n e d a g a i n s t s u c h a r e a d i n g as a p e r v e r s i o n of his d e s i r e to u s e the tests f o r i d e n t i f y i n g c h i l d r e n w h o n e e d e d special h e l p . ( B i n e t a r g u e d that a n innatist i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d o n l y stigmatize c h i l d r e n a s u n t e a c h a b l e , t h u s p r o d u c i n g a result o p p o s i t e to his i n t e n t — a f e a r e n t i r e l y a n d tragically j u s t i f i e d by later history.)* T h e hereditarian interpretation of IQ arose in America, largely t h r o u g h p r o s e t y l i z a t i o n o f the t h r e e p s y c h o l o g i s t s — H . H . G o d d a r d , L . M . T e r m a n , a n d R . M . Y e r k e s — w h o translated a n d p o p u l a r i z e d the tests in this c o u n t r y . If we ask h o w s u c h a p e r v e r s i o n c o u l d o c c u r i n o u r l a n d o f liberty a n d j u s t i c e f o r all, w e m u s t r e m e m b e r that t h e y e a r s j u s t f o l l o w i n g W o r l d W a r I , t h e t i m e o f p e a k activity f o r t h e s e scientists, f e a t u r e d a n a r r o w , p a r o c h i a l , j i n g o i s t i c , isolationist "nativist" ( W A S P , n o t I n d i a n ) , r a l l y - r o u n d - t h e - f l a g , t i n h o r n p a t r i o t i s m u n m a t c h e d by any other period d u r i n g our century, even in the h e y d a y o f M c C a r t h y i s m d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1950s. T h i s was t h e a g e o f restriction u p o n i m m i g r a t i o n , t h e s p r e a d o f J e w i s h q u o t a s , t h e execution of Sacco and Vanzetti, the height of lynchings in the S o u t h e r n states. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , m o s t o f t h e m e n w h o built b i o d e t e r m i n i s m i n the i g 2 o s r e c a n t e d t h e i r o w n c o n c l u s i o n s d u r i n g t h e libe r a l s w i n g o f t h e 1930s, w h e n P h . D . ' s w a l k e d d e p r e s s i o n b r e a d l i n e s a n d p o v e r t y c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e e x p l a i n e d b y i n n a t e stupidity. T h e t w o m o s t r e c e n t e p i s o d e s also c o r r e l a t e with political swings. T h e first i n s p i r e d me to write The Mismeasure of Man as a positive r e a c t i o n w i t h an a l t e r n a t i v e vision (not, I trust, as a negativistic

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d i a t r i b e ) ; t h e s e c o n d has p r o m p t e d m e t o p u b l i s h this r e v i s e d v e r sion. A r t h u r J e n s e n l a u n c h e d t h e f i r s t o f these r e c e n t e p i s o d e s i n 1 9 6 9 w i t h a n o t o r i o u s l y fallacious article on the s u p p o s e d i n n a t e n e s s of g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n I Q (with e m p h a s i s o n disparity b e t w e e n whites a n d blacks in A m e r i c a ) . His c h i l l i n g o p e n i n g line b e l i e d all his later c l a i m s that he h a d o n l y p u b l i s h e d as a d i s i n t e r e s t e d s c h o l a r , a n d n o t as a m a n with a social a g e n d a . He b e g a n with an e x p l i c i t attack u p o n t h e f e d e r a l H e a d S t a r t p r o g r a m : " C o m p e n s a t o r y e d u c a t i o n has b e e n tried a n d i t a p p a r e n t l y has f a i l e d . " M y c o l l e a g u e R i c h a r d H e r r n s t e i n fired a s e c o n d m a j o r salvo in 1 9 7 1 , with an article in the Atlantic Monthly that b e c a m e t h e o u t l i n e a n d e p i t o m e of The Bell Curve, p u b l i s h e d w i t h C h a r l e s M u r r a y i n 1 9 9 4 , a n d t h e i m m e d i a t e p r o d f o r this r e v i s e d v e r s i o n of The Mismeasure of Man. As I stated a b o v e , articles on this subject by p e o p l e of n o t o r i e t y a p p e a r e v e r y m o n t h i n p r o m i n e n t places. I n a n a l y z i n g w h y J e n s e n ' s p i e c e b e c a m e s u c h a cause celebre, r a t h e r t h a n o n e m o r e i g n o r e d m a n i f e s t o w i t h i n a w e l l - k n o w n g e n r e , we m u s t t u r n to social c o n t e x t . S i n c e J e n s e n ' s article c o n t a i n e d n o n o v e l a r g u m e n t , w e m u s t seek t h e newly fertile soil that a l l o w e d s u c h a n o l d a n d e v e r - p r e s e n t s e e d to g e r m i n a t e . As I also stated a b o v e , I am no social p u n d i t , a n d my view on this issue m a y be naive. B u t I well r e m e m b e r these politically active times o f m y y o u t h . I recall t h e g r o w t h o f o p p o s i t i o n t o the V i e t n a m W a r , t h e assassination o f M a r t i n L u t h e r K i n g i n 1 9 6 8 (and t h e f e a r i n s p i r e d b y a t t e n d a n t u r b a n riots), t h e s t e p p i n g d o w n o f L y n d o n J o h n s o n , inside a n d o u t s i d e strife a t t h e C h i c a g o D e m o cratic Party C o n v e n t i o n o f 1 9 6 8 , a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g e l e c t i o n o f Richard N i x o n as p r e s i d e n t — w i t h the onset of a conservative reaction that always e n g e n d e r s r e n e w e d a t t e n t i o n f o r t h e false a n d o l d , b u t n o w a g a i n u s e f u l , a r g u m e n t s of biological d e t e r m i n i s m . I w r o t e The Mismeasure of Man at t h e a p o g e e of this r e a c t i o n , s t a r t i n g in t h e m i d 1 9 7 0 s . T h e f i r s t e d i t i o n a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 8 1 , a n d t h e b o o k has b e e n v i g o r o u s l y i n p r i n t e v e r since. I h a d no p l a n s f o r a r e v i s e d v e r s i o n . I am n o t a m o d e s t p e r s o n , t h o u g h I d o try t o k e e p m y a r r o g a n c e t o m y s e l f (not always successfully, I s u p p o s e ) . B u t I felt no n e e d f o r an u p d a t e b e c a u s e I h a d m a d e w h a t I still r e g a r d as a wise d e c i s i o n w h e n I first w r o t e the b o o k (and s u r e l y n o t b e c a u s e I view this f l a w e d , b u t p r o u d , child of m i n e as u n i m p r o v a b l e ! ) . The Mismeasure of Man r e q u i r e d no u p d a t e

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o v e r the first f i f t e e n y e a r s b e c a u s e I h a d f o c u s e d o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n d o c u m e n t s of biological determinism, a n d not on " c u r r e n t " usages s o q u i c k l y s u p e r a n n u a t e d . I h a d stressed t h e d e e p p h i l o s o p h i c a l e r r o r s that d o n o t c h a n g e r a t h e r t h a n t h e i m m e d i a t e (and s u p e r f i cial) m a n i f e s t a t i o n s that b e c o m e o b s o l e t e y e a r b y y e a r . T h e t h i r d m a j o r e p i s o d e t h e n k i c k e d o f f i n 1 9 9 4 , with p u b l i c a tion of The Bell Curve by R i c h a r d H e r r n s t e i n a n d C h a r l e s M u r r a y . A g a i n , their l o n g b o o k c o n t a i n e d n o t h i n g n e w , t h o u g h the a u t h o r s s p u n o u t t h e o l d a r g u m e n t s o v e r e i g h t h u n d r e d p a g e s f i l l e d with c o p i o u s c h a r t s a n d g r a p h s that b a m b o o z l e p e o p l e i n t o c o n f u s i n g b o t h n o v e l t y a n d p r o f u n d i t y w i t h their f e a r o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n . (In fact, The Bell Curve is e m i n e n t l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h e a r g u m e n t i s o l d , u n c o m p l i c a t e d , a n d f a m i l i a r ; t h e m a t h e m a t i c s , t h o u g h lab o r e d t h r o u g h s e v e r a l h u n d r e d p a g e s b y i t e r a t i n g e x a m p l e after e x a m p l e , represents o n e study, appropriately simple in concept, a n d easy e n o u g h t o c o m p r e h e n d . M o r e o v e r , f o r all m y s e v e r e criticism of t h e a u t h o r s ' c o n t e n t , I will h a p p i l y g r a n t that they w r i t e well a n d clearly.) W h e n I m e t C h a r l e s M u r r a y i n d e b a t e a t H a r v a r d ' s Institute of Politics, I c o u l d o n l y t h i n k to b e g i n w i t h a f a v o r i t e line f r o m S h a k e s p e a r e ' s Love's Labour Lost: " H e d r a w e t h o u t the t h r e a d o f his v e r b o s i t y f i n e r t h a n t h e staple o f his a r g u m e n t . " T h e r e m a r k a b l e i m p a c t of The Bell Curve m u s t t h e r e f o r e , a n d o n c e a g a i n a s a l w a y s , b e r e c o r d i n g a s w i n g o f the political p e n d u l u m to a sad p o s i t i o n that r e q u i r e s a r a t i o n a l e f o r a f f i r m i n g social inequalities as dictates of b i o l o g y . (If I m a y m a k e a s o m e w h a t l u r i d , b u t I t h i n k a propos, b i o l o g i c a l a n a l o g y , the t h e o r y of u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e , i n n a t e , u n a l t e r a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e acts like a f u n g a l s p o r e , a d i n o f l a g ellate cyst, or a t a r d i g r a d e t u n — a l w a y s p r e s e n t in a b u n d a n c e , b u t in a n inactive, d o r m a n t , o r r e s t i n g stage, w a i t i n g t o s p r o u t , e n g o r g e , or awake w h e n fluctuating external conditions terminate slumber.) S o m e r e a s o n s f o r The Bell Curve's i m p a c t m u s t be i d i o s y n c r a t i c — a c a t c h y title, a fine j o b of e d i t i n g by a l e g e n d a r y figure on t h e N e w Y o r k s c e n e , a brilliant publicity c a m p a i g n (I will c o n f e s s to j e a l o u s y , a n d a d e s i r e to find t h e p e o p l e r e s p o n s i b l e so that I c a n h i r e t h e m a w a y f o r m y o w n b o o k s ) . B u t t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r factors m u s t c o u n t f o r little in c o m p a r i s o n with the o v e r a r c h i n g g e n e r a l i t y : n e w l y fertile political soil. S h o u l d a n y o n e be s u r p r i s e d that p u b l i c a t i o n of The Bell Curve c o i n c i d e d exactly w i t h t h e e l e c t i o n of N e w t G i n g r i c h ' s C o n g r e s s , a n d w i t h a n e w a g e o f social m e a n n e s s u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n

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m y lifetime? Slash e v e r y p r o g r a m o f social services f o r p e o p l e i n g e n u i n e n e e d ; t e r m i n a t e s u p p o r t f o r t h e arts (but d o n ' t c u t a d i m e , h e a v e n f o r f e n d , f r o m t h e military); b a l a n c e the b u d g e t a n d p r o v i d e tax r e l i e f f o r the w e a l t h y . P e r h a p s I a m c a r i c a t u r i n g , b u t c a n w e d o u b t the c o n s o n a n c e o f this n e w m e a n s p i r i t e d n e s s w i t h a n a r g u m e n t that social s p e n d i n g c a n ' t w o r k b e c a u s e , c o n t r a D a r w i n , t h e m i s e r y o f the p o o r d o e s result f r o m t h e laws o f n a t u r e a n d f r o m the innate ineptitude of the disadvantaged? I w o u l d a d d a n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r the p a r t i c u l a r a p p e a l o f g e n e t i c e x p l a n a t i o n s i n t h e 1990s. W e a r e l i v i n g i n a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a g e o f scientific a d v a n c e f o r m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y . F r o m t h e W a t s o n - C r i c k m o d e l o f 1 9 5 3 t o t h e i n v e n t i o n o f P C R a n d the r o u t i n e s e q u e n c i n g of D N A — f o r purposes as varied as O. J. Simpson's blood signature to d e c i p h e r i n g the phylogeny of b i r d s — w e now have unpreced e n t e d access t o i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e g e n e t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n o f individuals. We naturally favor, a n d tend to o v e r e x t e n d , exciting n o v e l t i e s i n v a i n h o p e that t h e y m a y s u p p l y g e n e r a l solutions o r p a n a c e a s — w h e n s u c h c o n t r i b u t i o n s really c o n s t i t u t e m o r e m o d e s t (albeit vital) pieces o f a m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x p u z z l e . W e h a v e s o t r e a t e d all g r e a t insights a b o u t h u m a n n a t u r e i n t h e past, i n c l u d i n g n o n g e n e t i c t h e o r i e s r o o t e d i n f a m i l y a n d social d y n a m i c s , m o s t n o t a b l y (of c o u r s e ) F r e u d ' s n o t i o n o f p s y c h o s e x u a l stages, w i t h n e u rosis a r i s i n g f r o m s u p p r e s s e d o r m i s d i r e c t e d d e v e l o p m e n t i n o n t o g eny. If insightful nongenetic theories could be so egregiously e x a g g e r a t e d i n the past, s h o u l d w e b e s u r p r i s e d that w e a r e n o w r e p e a t i n g this e r r o r b y o v e r e x t e n d i n g the g e n u i n e e x c i t e m e n t w e feel a b o u t g e n e t i c e x p l a n a t i o n ? I a p p l a u d t h e d i s c o v e r y o f g e n e s that p r e d i s p o s e c a r r i e r s t o certain illnesses, o r that c a u s e disease directly i n n o r m a l e n v i r o n m e n t s ( T a y - S a c h s , sickle-cell a n e m i a , H u n t i n g t o n ' s c h o r e a ) — f o r t h e g r e a t est h o p e of c u r e lies in identification of a m a t e r i a l substrate a n d a m o d e o f a c t i o n . A s t h e f a t h e r o f a n autistic s o n , I also c e l e b r a t e the h u m a n e a n d l i b e r a t i n g v a l u e o f i d e n t i f y i n g i n b o r n b i o l o g i c a l bases f o r c o n d i t i o n s o n c e d e e m e d p u r e l y p s y c h o g e n i c , a n d t h e r e f o r e subtly b l a m e d o n p a r e n t s (especially b y p r o f e s s i o n a l s w h o s w o r e u p a n d d o w n t h e y h a r b o r e d n o s u c h intent, b u t m e r e l y m e a n t t o specify s o u r c e s i n t h e interest o f f u t u r e p r e v e n t i o n ; a u t i s m , a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d b y v a r i o u s p s y c h o l o g i s t s , b e c a m e a result e i t h e r o f t o o m u c h , o r o f t o o little, m a t e r n a l love). T h e b r a i n , a s a n o r g a n o f t h e b o d y , i s a s subject t o disease a n d

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g e n e t i c d e f e c t as a n y o t h e r . I w e l c o m e the d i s c o v e r y of g e n e t i c causes or influences for such scourges as schizophrenia, bipolar manic depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. No pain can m a t c h that of a p a r e n t w h o " l o s e s " a v i b r a n t a n d p r o m i s i n g child to t h e r a v a g e s o f s u c h illnesses, w i t h their f r e q u e n t l y d e l a y e d o n s e t n e a r the e n d o f life's s e c o n d d e c a d e . L e t u s c e l e b r a t e t h e release o f p a r e n t s f r o m c o n s u m i n g guilt a n d , m o r e i m p o r t a n t o f c o u r s e , t h e possibility o f a m e l i o r a t i o n , o r e v e n c u r e , s u p p l i e d b y identification of causes. B u t all t h e s e g e n u i n e d i s c o v e r i e s i n v o l v e definite a n d specific p a t h o l o g i e s , diseases, o r c o n d i t i o n s that t h w a r t w h a t w e m a y still legitimately call " n o r m a l " d e v e l o p m e n t — t h a t is, the bell c u r v e . (Bell c u r v e s a r e t e c h n i c a l l y called n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s ; t h e y arise w h e n v a r i a t i o n i s d i s t r i b u t e d r a n d o m l y a r o u n d the m e a n — e q u a l l y i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s , w i t h g r e a t e r probability o f v a l u e s n e a r t h e m e a n . ) S p e cific p a t h o l o g i e s d o n o t fall o n the bell c u r v e , b u t usually f o r m c l u m p s o r clusters f a r f r o m t h e c u r v e ' s m e a n v a l u e a n d a p a r t f r o m the n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e c a u s e s o f t h e s e e x c e p t i o n s t h e r e f o r e d o n o t c o r r e s p o n d with r e a s o n s f o r v a r i a t i o n a r o u n d the m e a n o f t h e bell c u r v e itself. J u s t b e c a u s e p e o p l e with D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e t e n d t o h a v e q u i t e s h o r t stature a s the result o f a n e x t r a twenty-first c h r o m o s o m e , w e w o u l d n o t i n f e r that s h o r t - s t a t u r e d p e o p l e i n the n o r m a l distribution o f t h e bell c u r v e o w e t h e i r h e i g h t t o possession o f a n e x t r a c h r o m o s o m e . Similarly, t h e d i s c o v e r y o f a g e n e " f o r " H u n t i n g t o n ' s chorea does not imply the existence of a g e n e for high intelligence, o r low a g g r e s s i v i t y , o r h i g h p r o p e n s i t y f o r x e n o p h o b i a , o r special attraction t o f a c e s , b o d i e s , o r legs o f a s e x u a l p a r t n e r — o r f o r a n y o t h e r g e n e r a l f e a t u r e that m i g h t be d i s t r i b u t e d as a bell c u r v e in t h e full p o p u l a t i o n . " C a t e g o r y m i s t a k e s " a r e a m o n g t h e m o s t c o m m o n e r r o r s o f h u m a n t h o u g h t : w e c o m m i t a classic c a t e g o r y m i s t a k e i f w e e q u a t e t h e c a u s e s o f n o r m a l v a r i a t i o n with the r e a s o n s f o r p a t h o l o g i e s (just as we m a k e a c a t e g o r y e r r o r in a r g u i n g that b e c a u s e I Q has m o d e r a t e heritability w i t h i n g r o u p s , t h e c a u s e s f o r a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s m u s t b e g e n e t i c — s e e m y r e v i e w o f The Bell Curve in essay 1 at t h e b a c k ) . T h u s , we s h o u l d be e x c i t e d a b o u t a d v a n c e s i n i d e n t i f y i n g the g e n e t i c c a u s e s o f c e r t a i n diseases, b u t w e s h o u l d n o t m o v e f r o m this style o f e x p l a n a t i o n t o t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f behavioral variation in o u r general population. O f all t h e b a l e f u l false d i c h o t o m i e s that stymie o u r u n d e r s t a n d -

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i n g o f t h e w o r l d ' s c o m p l e x i t y , n a t u r e vs. n u r t u r e m u s t r a n k a m o n g t h e t o p two o r t h r e e ( a p h o n y division o n l y e n h a n c e d b y t h e e u p h o n y o f t h e s e n a m e s ) . I d o n ' t t h i n k that a n y s m o k e s c r e e n i n f u r i ates m e m o r e t h a n t h e b i o d e t e r m i n i s t ' s f r e q u e n t c l a i m " B u t w e a r e the sophisticated ones; o u r o p p o n e n t s are p u r e environmentalists, s u p p o r t e r s o f n u r t u r e a l o n e ; w e r e c o g n i z e that b e h a v i o r s arise b y an interaction of nature and nurture." May I then emphasize again, as t h e text of The Mismeasure of Man d o e s t h r o u g h o u t , that all parties t o t h e d e b a t e , i n d e e d all p e o p l e o f g o o d will a n d d e c e n t i n f o r m a t i o n , s u p p o r t the u t t e r l y u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l s t a t e m e n t that h u m a n f o r m a n d b e h a v i o r arise f r o m c o m p l e x m i x t u r e s o f g e n e t i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n tal i n f l u e n c e s . E r r o r s o f r e d u c t i o n i s m a n d b i o d e t e r m i n i s m take o v e r i n s u c h silly s t a t e m e n t s as " I n t e l l i g e n c e is 60 p e r c e n t g e n e t i c a n d 40 p e r c e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l . " A 60 p e r c e n t (or w h a t e v e r ) "heritability" f o r intellig e n c e m e a n s n o s u c h t h i n g . W e shall n o t g e t this issue s t r a i g h t until w e r e a l i z e that t h e " i n t e r a c t i o n i s m " w e all a c c e p t d o e s n o t p e r m i t s u c h s t a t e m e n t s as " T r a i t x is 29 p e r c e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d 71 p e r c e n t g e n e t i c . " W h e n c a u s a t i v e factors ( m o r e t h a n t w o , b y t h e way) interact so complexly, and t h r o u g h o u t growth, to p r o d u c e an intricate a d u l t b e i n g , w e c a n n o t , i n p r i n c i p l e , p a r s e that b e i n g ' s b e h a v i o r into q u a n t i t a t i v e p e r c e n t a g e s o f r e m o t e r o o t c a u s e s . T h e a d u l t b e i n g i s a n e m e r g e n t entity w h o m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a t his o w n level a n d i n his o w n totality. T h e truly salient issues a r e malleability a n d flexibility, n o t fallacious p a r s i n g by p e r c e n t a g e s . A trait m a y be 90 p e r c e n t h e r i t a b l e , y e t e n t i r e l y m a l l e a b l e . A t w e n t y - d o l l a r p a i r o f e y e g l a s s e s f r o m the local p h a r m a c y m a y fully c o r r e c t a d e f e c t of vision that is 100 p e r c e n t h e r i t a b l e . A "60 p e r c e n t " b i o d e t e r m i n i s t is n o t a subtle interactionist, b u t a d e t e r m i n i s t on t h e "little bit p r e g nant" model. T h u s , for example, Mr. Murray, in high d u d g e o n about my r e v i e w of The Bell Curve ( r e p r i n t e d h e r e as t h e first essay in the c o n c l u d i n g section), w r i t e s in t h e Wall Street Journal ( D e c e m b e r 2, 1994), excoriating my supposed unfairness to him: Gould goes on to say that "Herrnstein and Murray violate fairness by converting a complex case that can yield only agnosticism into a biased brief for permanent and heritable differences." Now compare Mr. Gould's words with what Richard Herrnstein and I wrote in the crucial paragraph summarizing our views on genes and race: "If the reader is now convinced that

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either the genetic or environmental explanations have won out to the exclusion of the other, we have not done a sufficiently good j o b of presenting one side or the other. It seems highly likely to us that both genes and the environment have something to do with racial differences. What might the mix be?" D o n ' t y o u g e t it y e t , M r . M u r r a y ? I d i d n o t state that y o u a t t r i b u t e all d i f f e r e n c e t o g e n e t i c s — n o p e r s o n w i t h a n iota o f k n o w l e d g e w o u l d say s u c h a foolish t h i n g . My q u o t e d line d o e s n o t so c h a r g e y o u ; m y s e n t e n c e states a c c u r a t e l y that y o u a d v o c a t e " p e r m a n e n t a n d h e r i t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s " — n o t that y o u a t t r i b u t e all d i s p a r i t y t o g e n e t i c s . Y o u r o w n d e f e n s e s h o w s that y o u d o n ' t g r a s p the m a j o r p o i n t . Y o u r s t a t e m e n t still p o r t r a y s t h e issue as a battle of t w o sides, w i t h e x c l u s i v e victory p ote nti ally available t o o n e . N o o n e b e l i e v e s such a thing; e v e r y o n e accepts interaction. Y o u then portray yourself a s a b r a v e a p o s t l e o f m o d e r n i t y a n d scholarly c a u t i o n f o r p r o c l a i m i n g it " h i g h l y likely . . . that b o t h g e n e s a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o d o with racial d i f f e r e n c e s . " Y o u h a v e o n l y stated a t r u i s m e n t i r e l y o u t s i d e the r e a l issue. W h e n y o u m a k e the p r o p e r distinction b e t w e e n heritability a n d f l e x i b i l i t y o f b e h a v i o r a l e x p r e s sion, t h e n w e m i g h t h a v e a real d e b a t e b e y o n d t h e r h e t o r i c o f phrasing. I shall n o t p u r s u e my c r i t i q u e o f The Bell Curve h e r e , f o r I p r e s e n t this e f f o r t in t h e first t w o essays of the c o n c l u d i n g section. I o n l y wish to state that I d e c i d e d to p r o d u c e this r e v i s e d v e r s i o n of The Mismeasure of Man as a r e s p o n s e to this latest cyclic e p i s o d e of b i o d e t e r m i n i s m . I t m i g h t s e e m o d d that a b o o k w r i t t e n fifteen y e a r s a g o c o u l d s e r v e as a r e b u t t a l to a m a n i f e s t o issued in 1 9 9 4 — m o r e t h a n o d d , i n fact, since o u r basic n o t i o n s o f causality m a y b e t h e r e b y i n v e r t e d ! A n d yet, as I r e r e a d The Mismeasure of Man, a n d m a d e so few c h a n g e s b e y o n d c o r r e c t i n g t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r s a n d e x c i s i n g the few r e f e r e n c e s e n t i r e l y topical t o 1 9 8 1 , 1 r e a l i z e d that m y fifteen y e a r old b o o k is w r i t t e n as a r e b u t t a l to The Bell Curve. (Lest this s t a t e m e n t s e e m a b s u r d l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c , I h a s t e n to p o i n t o u t that H e r r n s t e i n ' s 1 9 7 1 Atlantic Monthly article, a p o i n t by p o i n t e p i t o m e of The Bell Curve, d i d f o r m an i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e c o n t e x t f o r The Mismeasure of Man.) B u t my c l a i m is n o t a b s u r d l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c f o r a n o t h e r m o r e i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n . The Bell Curve p r e s e n t s n o t h i n g n e w . T h i s e i g h t h u n d r e d p a g e m a n i f e s t o i s little m o r e t h a n a l o n g b r i e f f o r the h a r d - l i n e v e r s i o n o f S p e a r m a n ' s g—the t h e o r y o f intel-

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l i g e n c e as a u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e , genetically b a s e d , a n d m i n i m a l l y alt e r a b l e t h i n g in t h e h e a d . The Mismeasure of Man is a logical, e m p i r i c a l , a n d historical a r g u m e n t against this v e r y t h e o r y o f intellig e n c e . O f c o u r s e I c o u l d n o t k n o w the specifics o f w h a t the f u t u r e w o u l d bring. But j u s t as Darwinism can provide as g o o d an argum e n t against f u t u r e e p i s o d e s o f c r e a t i o n i s m a s against the a n t i e v o l u tionists of D a r w i n ' s o w n d a y , I trust that a c o g e n t r e f u t a t i o n of a b a n k r u p t t h e o r y will h o l d , with all its m e r i t intact, if s o m e o n e tries to float a d e a d issue with no n e w s u p p o r t at s o m e f u t u r e m o m e n t . T i m e , b y itself, h o l d s n o a l c h e m y t o i m p r o v e a case. I f g o o d a r g u m e n t s c a n n o t t r a n s c e n d t i m e , t h e n w e m i g h t a s well t h r o w o u t o u r libraries.

Reasons, history and revision ofThe Mismeasure of Man i.

Reasons

My o r i g i n a l r e a s o n s f o r w r i t i n g The Mismeasure of Man m i x e d t h e p e r s o n a l with t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l . I c o n f e s s , first of all, to s t r o n g feelings on this p a r t i c u l a r issue. I g r e w up in a family with a t r a d i t i o n of p a r t i c i p a t i o n in c a m p a i g n s f o r social j u s t i c e , a n d I w a s active, as a s t u d e n t , in t h e civil r i g h t s m o v e m e n t at a t i m e of g r e a t e x c i t e m e n t a n d success in the e a r l y 1960s. Scholars are often wary of citing such c o m m i t m e n t s , for, in the s t e r e o t y p e , an ice-cold i m p a r t i a l i t y acts as the sine qua non of p r o p e r a n d d i s p a s s i o n a t e objectivity. I r e g a r d this a r g u m e n t a s o n e o f the m o s t fallacious, e v e n h a r m f u l , claims c o m m o n l y m a d e i n m y p r o f e s sion. I m p a r t i a l i t y (even if d e s i r a b l e ) is u n a t t a i n a b l e by h u m a n b e i n g s w i t h inevitable b a c k g r o u n d s , n e e d s , beliefs, a n d d e s i r e s . I t i s d a n g e r o u s f o r a s c h o l a r e v e n t o i m a g i n e that h e m i g h t attain c o m p l e t e n e u t r a l i t y , f o r t h e n o n e stops b e i n g vigilant a b o u t p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s a n d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e s — a n d t h e n o n e truly falls victim t o t h e dictates o f p r e j u d i c e . Objectivity m u s t b e o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d a s fair t r e a t m e n t o f d a t a , not a b s e n c e o f p r e f e r e n c e . M o r e o v e r , o n e n e e d s t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d a c k n o w l e d g e inevitable p r e f e r e n c e s i n o r d e r t o k n o w t h e i r i n f l u e n c e — s o that fair t r e a t m e n t o f d a t a a n d a r g u m e n t s c a n be attained! No conceit could be worse than a belief in one's o w n intrinsic objectivity, n o p r e s c r i p t i o n m o r e suited t o t h e e x p o s u r e o f fools. ( P h o n y psychics like U r i G e l l e r h a v e h a d p a r t i c u l a r success

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in b a m b o o z l i n g scientists with o r d i n a r y stage m a g i c , b e c a u s e o n l y scientists a r e a r r o g a n t e n o u g h t o t h i n k that t h e y always o b s e r v e with r i g o r o u s a n d objective scrutiny, a n d t h e r e f o r e c o u l d n e v e r b e s o f o o l e d — w h i l e o r d i n a r y m o r t a l s k n o w p e r f e c t l y well that g o o d p e r f o r m e r s c a n a l w a y s f i n d a w a y t o trick p e o p l e . ) T h e best f o r m o f objectivity lies in explicitly i d e n t i f y i n g p r e f e r e n c e s so that their inf l u e n c e c a n b e r e c o g n i z e d a n d c o u n t e r m a n d e d . ( W e d e n y o u r prefe r e n c e s all t h e t i m e in a c k n o w l e d g i n g n a t u r e ' s factuality. I really do h a t e t h e fact o f p e r s o n a l d e a t h , b u t will n o t base m y biological views o n s u c h distaste. Less facetiously, I really d o p r e f e r t h e k i n d e r L a m a r c k i a n m o d e o f e v o l u t i o n t o w h a t D a r w i n called t h e m i s e r a b l e , low, b u n g l i n g , a n d inefficient w a y s o f his o w n n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n — but nature doesn't give a d a m n about my preferences, and works in D a r w i n ' s m o d e , a n d I t h e r e f o r e c h o s e t o d e v o t e m y p r o f e s s i o n a l life to this study.) W e m u s t identify p r e f e r e n c e s i n o r d e r t o c o n s t r a i n their influe n c e o n o u r w o r k , b u t w e d o n o t g o astray w h e n w e use s u c h p r e f e r e n c e s t o d e c i d e w h a t subjects w e wish t o p u r s u e . L i f e i s s h o r t , a n d p o t e n t i a l s t u d i e s infinite. W e h a v e a m u c h b e t t e r c h a n c e o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g s o m e t h i n g significant w h e n w e follow o u r passionate interests a n d w o r k i n a r e a s o f d e e p e s t p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g . O f c o u r s e s u c h a s t r a t e g y increases d a n g e r s of p r e j u d i c e , b u t the g a i n in d e d i c a t i o n c a n o v e r b a l a n c e a n y s u c h w o r r y , especially i f w e r e m a i n e q u a l l y c o m m i t t e d t o t h e o v e r a r c h i n g g e n e r a l g o a l o f fairness, a n d f i e r c e l y c o m m i t t e d t o c o n s t a n t v i g i l a n c e a n d scrutiny o f o u r p e r s o n a l biases. ( I h a v e n o d e s i r e t o give M r . M u r r a y a m m u n i t i o n f o r f u t u r e e n c o u n t e r s , b u t I h a v e n e v e r b e e n able t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y h e insists o n p r o m u l g a t i n g t h e d i s i n g e n u o u s a r g u m e n t that h e has n o p e r sonal stake or p r e f e r e n c e in t h e subject of The Bell Curve, b u t o n l y t o o k u p his s t u d y f r o m d i s i n t e r e s t e d p e r s o n a l c u r i o s i t y — t h e claim that d i s a b l e d h i m i n o u r d e b a t e a t H a r v a r d , f o r h e s o lost credibility t h e r e b y . A f t e r all, his o v e r t r e c o r d o n o n e political side i s far s t r o n g e r t h a n m y o w n o n the o t h e r . H e has b e e n e m p l o y e d b y r i g h t w i n g t h i n k t a n k s f o r y e a r s , a n d t h e y d o n ' t h i r e f l a m i n g liberals. H e w r o t e the b o o k , Common Ground, that b e c a m e R e a g a n ' s bible as m u c h as M i c h a e l H a r r i n g t o n ' s Other America m i g h t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d K e n n e d y D e m o c r a t s . If I w e r e h e , I w o u l d say s o m e t h i n g like: " L o o k , I'm a political c o n s e r v a t i v e , a n d I'm p r o u d of it. I k n o w that t h e a r g u m e n t of The Bell Curve m e s h e s well w i t h my politics. I r e c o g -

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n i z e d this f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . I n fact, this r e c o g n i t i o n led m e t o b e especially vigilant a n d c a r e f u l w h e n I a n a l y z e d the d a t a o f m y b o o k . B u t I r e m a i n c a p a b l e o f b e i n g fair w i t h d a t a a n d logical i n a r g u m e n t , a n d I b e l i e v e that t h e available i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p o r t s m y view. B e sides, I am n o t a c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c a p r i c i o u s r e a s o n s . I b e l i e v e that the w o r l d d o e s w o r k i n t h e m a n n e r o f t h e bell c u r v e , a n d that m y political views r e p r e s e n t t h e best w a y t o constitute g o v e r n m e n t s i n the l i g h t o f t h e s e realities." N o w this a r g u m e n t I c o u l d r e s p e c t , w h i l e r e g a r d i n g b o t h its p r e m i s e s a n d s u p p o r t i n g d a t a a s false a n d m i s i n t e r p r e t e d . ) I w r o t e The Mismeasure of Man b e c a u s e I h a v e a d i f f e r e n t political vision, a n d b e c a u s e I also b e l i e v e (or I w o u l d n o t m a i n t a i n t h e ideal) that p e o p l e a r e e v o l u t i o n a r i l y c o n s t i t u t e d in a w a y that m a k e s this vision a t t a i n a b l e — n o t inevitable, L o r d o n l y k n o w s , b u t attainable w i t h s t r u g g l e . I t h e r e f o r e s t u d i e d this subject with passion. I h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e l u n c h c o u n t e r sit-in p h a s e of t h e civil r i g h t s m o v e m e n t . I h a d attended Antioch College in southwestern O h i o , near Cincinnati a n d t h e K e n t u c k y state l i n e — t h e r e f o r e " b o r d e r " c o u n t r y , a n d still largely segregated in the 1950s. T h e r e I had taken part in m a n y actions t o i n t e g r a t e b o w l i n g alleys a n d s k a t i n g r i n k s ( p r e v i o u s l y with " w h i t e " a n d " N e g r o " n i g h t s ) , m o v i e t h e a t e r s ( p r e v i o u s l y blacks i n the b a l c o n y a n d whites d o w n s t a i r s ) , r e s t a u r a n t s , a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a Y e l l o w S p r i n g s b a r b e r s h o p r u n by a s t u b b o r n m a n ( w h o m I c a m e to respect in an o d d way) n a m e d G e g n e r (meaning "adversary" in G e r m a n and therefore contributing to the symbolic value) w h o s w o r e that h e c o u l d n ' t c u t a black m a n ' s h a i r b e c a u s e h e d i d n ' t k n o w h o w . (I first m e t Phil D o n a h u e w h e n he c o v e r e d this story as a c u b r e p o r t e r f o r t h e Dayton Daily News.) I s p e n t a g o o d p a r t of an u n d e r g r a d u a t e y e a r i n E n g l a n d , effectively r u n n i n g a n e x t e n s i v e a n d successful c a m p a i g n w i t h a n o t h e r A m e r i c a n ( t h o u g h w e c o u l d n ' t b e p u b l i c s p o k e s p e o p l e , g i v e n o u r " w r o n g " accents) t o integ r a t e the l a r g e s t d a n c e hall i n B r i t a i n , t h e M e c c a L o c a r n o b a l l r o o m in B r a d f o r d . I h a d j o y s a n d s a d n e s s e s , successes a n d d e f e a t s . I felt c r u s h e d w h e n , i n a w a v e o f u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h o u g h l a m e n t a b l e narr o w n e s s , t h e black l e a d e r s o f t h e S t u d e n t N o n - V i o l e n t C o o r d i n a t i n g C o m m i t t e e d e c i d e d t o r e m o v e whites f r o m t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . A l l m y g r a n d p a r e n t s w e r e i m m i g r a n t s t o A m e r i c a , a n d i n the g r o u p o f Eastern E u r o p e a n Jews w h o m G o d d a r d and c o m p a n y w o u l d h a v e so s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d . I d e d i c a t e d The Mismeasure of Man

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t o m y m a t e r n a l H u n g a r i a n g r a n d p a r e n t s (the o n l y o n e s I k n e w well), b o t h brilliant p e o p l e with n o access t o m u c h f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n . M y g r a n d m o t h e r c o u l d s p e a k f o u r l a n g u a g e s fluently, b u t c o u l d only write her a d o p t e d English phonetically. My father became a leftist, a l o n g w i t h s o m a n y o t h e r idealists, d u r i n g u p h e a v a l s o f the d e p r e s s i o n , t h e S p a n i s h Civil W a r , a n d t h e g r o w t h o f n a z i s m a n d fascism. H e r e m a i n e d politically active until p o o r h e a l t h p r e c l u d e d f u r t h e r stress, a n d politically c o m m i t t e d t h e r e a f t e r . I shall a l w a y s b e gratified t o t h e p o i n t o f tears that, a l t h o u g h h e n e v e r saw The Mismeasure of Man in final f o r m , he lived j u s t l o n g e n o u g h to r e a d t h e galley p r o o f s a n d k n o w (shades, I r e c o g n i z e , o f A l j o l s o n s i n g i n g K o l N i d r e a s his d y i n g f a t h e r listened) that his s c h o l a r son h a d n o t f o r g o t t e n his r o o t s . S o m e r e a d e r s m a y r e g a r d this c o n f e s s i o n a l a s a s u r e sign o f t o o m u c h f e e l i n g to w r i t e a p r o p e r w o r k in n o n f i c t i o n . B u t I am w i l l i n g t o b e t that p a s s i o n m u s t b e t h e c e n t r a l i n g r e d i e n t n e e d e d t o lift s u c h b o o k s a b o v e t h e o r d i n a r y , a n d that m o s t w o r k s o f n o n f i c t i o n r e g a r d e d b y o u r c u l t u r e a s classical o r e n d u r i n g a r e c e n t e r e d i n t h e i r a u t h o r ' s d e e p beliefs. I t h e r e f o r e s u s p e c t that m o s t o f m y coll e a g u e s in this e n t e r p r i s e c o u l d tell similar stories of a u t o b i o g r a p h i c p a s s i o n . I w o u l d also a d d that, f o r all my c o n v i c t i o n s a b o u t social j u s t i c e , I feel e v e n m o r e p a s s i o n a t e a b o u t a closer b e l i e f c e n t r a l to m y p e r s o n a l life a n d activities: m y m e m b e r s h i p i n the " a n c i e n t a n d u n i v e r s a l c o m p a n y o f s c h o l a r s " (to cite t h e w o n d e r f u l l y a r c h a i c line used by Harvard's president in conferring Ph.D.'s at our annual c o m m e n c e m e n t ) . T h i s t r a d i t i o n r e p r e s e n t s , a l o n g with h u m a n kindness, the greatest, most noble, and most e n d u r i n g feature on t h e b r i g h t side o f a m i x e d p a n o p l y d e f i n i n g w h a t w e call " h u m a n n a t u r e . " S i n c e I am b e t t e r at s c h o l a r s h i p t h a n at k i n d n e s s , I n e e d to cast my fealty w i t h h u m a n i t y ' s g o o d n e s s in this s p h e r e . M a y I e n d u p n e x t t o J u d a s Iscariot, B r u t u s , a n d C a s s i u s i n t h e devil's m o u t h at t h e c e n t e r of hell if I e v e r fail to p r e s e n t my m o s t h o n e s t assessm e n t a n d best j u d g m e n t o f e v i d e n c e f o r e m p i r i c a l t r u t h . My p r o f e s s i o n a l r e a s o n f o r w r i t i n g The Mismeasure of Man was also, i n l a r g e p a r t , p e r s o n a l . T h e s a d d e s t p a r o c h i a l i s m i n a c a d e m i c l i f e — t h e d e p r e s s i n g c o n t r a r y to t h e ideals I m e n t i o n e d in t h e last p a r a g r a p h — l i e s i n t h e petty s n i p i n g that s m a l l - m i n d e d m e m b e r s o f one profession unleash when someone credentialed in another w o r l d d a r e s t o say a n y t h i n g a b o u t activities i n the sniper's p a r i s h .

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T h u s has i t a l w a y s b e e n , a n d t h u s d o w e d i l u t e b o t h t h e small p l e a s u r e s a n d f i e r c e j o y s o f s c h o l a r s h i p . S o m e scientists g r i p e d a t G o e t h e because a " p o e t " should not write about empirical nature (Goethe did interesting and e n d u r i n g work in mineralogy and botany; happily, e a c h s n i p e r t e n d s t o b e p a r r i e d b y b e t t e r scientists with g e n e r o s ity o f spirit, a n d G o e t h e n u m b e r e d m a n y biologists, especially E t i e n n e G e o f f r o y S a i n t - H i l a i r e , a m o n g his s u p p o r t e r s ) . O t h e r s g r o u s e d w h e n Einstein o r P a u l i n g e x p o s e d t h e i r h u m a n i t y a n d wrote about peace. T h e m o s t c o m m o n , n a r r o w - m i n d e d c o m p l a i n t a b o u t The Mismeasure of Man g o e s : G o u l d is a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , n o t a p s y c h o l o g i s t ; he c a n ' t k n o w t h e subject a n d his b o o k m u s t be bullshit. I w a n t to o f f e r t w o specific r e b u t t a l s o f this n o n s e n s e , b u t w o u l d f i r s t r e m i n d m y c o l l e a g u e s that w e all m i g h t c o n s i d e r g i v i n g m o r e t h a n lip service t o t h e ideal o f j u d g i n g a w o r k b y its c o n t e n t , n o t t h e a u t h o r ' s n a m e or rank. F o r m y f i r s t specific r e b u t t a l , h o w e v e r , I d o w a n t t o p u l l r a n k . T r u e , I am n o t a p s y c h o l o g i s t a n d I k n o w little a b o u t t h e technicalities of item selection in m e n t a l testing or t h e social use of results in c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e r i c a . H e n c e , I c a r e f u l l y said n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e s e subjects ( a n d w o u l d n o t h a v e w r i t t e n t h e b o o k i f I h a d j u d g e d mastery o f s u c h m a t e r i a l a s essential f o r m y i n t e n t i o n s ) . M y b o o k , b y t h e w a y , has b e e n c o m m o n l y p o r t r a y e d , e v e n (to m y c h a g r i n ) o f t e n p r a i s e d , as a g e n e r a l attack u p o n m e n t a l testing. The Mismeasure of Man is no s u c h t h i n g , a n d I h a v e an a g n o s t i c a t t i t u d e ( b o r n l a r g e l y o f i g n o r a n c e ) t o w a r d m e n t a l t e s t i n g i n g e n e r a l . I f m y critics d o u b t this, a n d r e a d these lines a s a s m o k e s c r e e n , j u s t c o n s i d e r m y e x p r e s s e d o p i n i o n a b o u t Binet's o r i g i n a l I Q t e s t — s t r o n g l y a n d e n tirely positive (for B i n e t r e j e c t e d the h e r e d i t a r i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d o n l y w a n t e d to u s e t h e test as a d e v i c e to identify c h i l d r e n in n e e d o f special h e l p ; a n d f o r this h u m a n e g o a l , I h a v e n o t h i n g b u t p r a i s e ) . The Mismeasure of Man is a critique of a specific t h e o r y of i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t e n s u p p o r t e d by particular i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a certain style o f m e n t a l testing: t h e t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , g e n e t i c a l l y b a s e d , u n changeable intelligence. T h e subject that I d i d c h o o s e f o r The Mismeasure of Man r e p r e sents a c e n t r a l a r e a of my p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r t i s e — i n fact, I w o u l d g o f u r t h e r a n d say ( n o w t u r n i n g t o m y a r r o g a n t m o d e ) that I h a v e u n d e r s t o o d this a r e a b e t t e r t h a n m o s t p r o f e s s i o n a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s

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w h o h a v e w r i t t e n o n t h e history o f m e n t a l testing, b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t h a v e e x p e r t i s e in this vital subject, a n d I d o . I am an e v o l u t i o n a r y biologist by t r a i n i n g . V a r i a t i o n is t h e focal subject of e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g y . I n D a r w i n i a n t h e o r y , e v o l u t i o n o c c u r s (to p u t the p o i n t technically f o r a m o m e n t ) b y t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f variation within p o p u l a t i o n s into d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n p o p u l a t i o n s . T h a t i s (and n o w m o r e s i m p l y ) , i n d i v i d u a l s d i f f e r , a n d s o m e o f this v a r i a t i o n has a g e n e t i c basis. N a t u r a l selection w o r k s b y d i f f e r e n t i a l l y p r e s e r v i n g t h e v a r i a t i o n that c o n f e r s b e t t e r a d a p t a t i o n i n c h a n g i n g local e n v i r o n m e n t s . A s a c a r i c a t u r e , f o r e x a m p l e , h a i r i e r e l e p h a n t s will d o b e t t e r a s ice sheets a d v a n c e o v e r Siberia, a n d w o o l l y m a m m o t h s will e v e n t u a l l y e v o l v e as selection, a c t i n g statistically a n d n o t a b s o l u t e l y , preserves m o r e hirsute elephants generation after generation. In other words, variation within a population (some elephants hairier t h a n o t h e r s a t a n y m o m e n t ) b e c o m e s c o n v e r t e d into d i f f e r e n c e s t h r o u g h t i m e (woolly m a m m o t h s a s d e s c e n d a n t s o f e l e p h a n t s w i t h o r d i n a r y a m o u n t s o f hair). N o w c o n s i d e r t h e subjects o f this m i x : g e n e t i c a l l y b a s e d v a r i a t i o n within populations, and development of differences between p o p u l a t i o n s — a n d w h a t do y o u h a v e ? Voila: t h e subject of the The Mismeasure of Man. My b o o k is a b o u t t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of s u p p o s e d l y genetically based variation in intelligence a m o n g m e m b e r s of a p o p u l a t i o n (the a i m of IQ testers assessing all the kids in a c l a s s r o o m , or o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c r a n i o m e t r i c i a n s m e a s u r i n g t h e h e a d s o f all t h e w o r k e r s i n a f a c t o r y , o r w e i g h i n g t h e b r a i n s o f their d e a d acad e m i c c o l l e a g u e s ) . M y b o o k i s also a b o u t the p u t a t i v e r e a s o n s f o r m e a s u r e d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s (racial i n w h i t e vs. black, o r class-based in rich vs. p o o r , f o r e x a m p l e ) . If I k n o w the t e c h n i c a l basis of a n y subject, I u n d e r s t a n d this m a t e r i a l best (and m a n y psyc h o l o g i s t s d o n ' t b e c a u s e they h a v e n o t h a d t r a i n i n g in a p r o f e s s i o n like e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g y that r e g a r d s the m e a s u r e m e n t o f g e n e t i cally b a s e d v a r i a t i o n as c e n t r a l to its b e i n g ) . F o r my s e c o n d specific r e b u t t a l , I e n t e r e d p a l e o n t o l o g y in the m i d 1960s, at an i n t e r e s t i n g t i m e in the p r o f e s s i o n ' s history, w h e n t r a d i t i o n s o f subjective a n d i d i o s y n c r a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o yield t o calls f o r m o r e q u a n t i t a t i v e , g e n e r a l i z e d , a n d t h e o r e t ically b a s e d a p p r o a c h e s to fossil o r g a n i s m s . (I a m , by the w a y , no l o n g e r so b e g u i l e d by t h e l u r e of q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t I was so t r a i n e d a n d was o n c e a t r u e b e l i e v e r . ) W e y o u n g T u r k s o f this m o v e m e n t

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all d e v e l o p e d e x p e r t i s e i n two a r e a s , t h e n m o s t u n f a m i l i a r (if n o t a n a t h e m a ) t o p r a c t i c i n g p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s : statistics a n d c o m p u t e r s . I w a s t h e r e f o r e t r a i n e d in t h e statistical analysis of genetically b a s e d v a r i a t i o n within a n d b e t w e e n p o p u l a t i o n s — a g a i n , t h e k e y subject of The Mismeasure of Man (for Homo sapiens is a variable biological species, n o d i f f e r e n t i n this r e g a r d f r o m all the o t h e r o r g a n isms I h a d s t u d i e d ) . I t h i n k , in o t h e r w o r d s , that I a p p r o a c h e d the m i s m e a s u r e o f m a n w i t h requisite a n d u n c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p e r t i s e f r o m a n a p p r o p r i a t e p r o f e s s i o n that has n o t o f t e n e n o u g h p r o m o t e d its special say a b o u t a subject so close to its c e n t e r . In w r i t i n g n u m e r o u s essays on the lives of scientists, I h a v e f o u n d that b o o k s o n g e n e r a l topics o r full systems usually o r i g i n a t e in tiny p u z z l e s or little t r o u b l i n g issues, n o t usually f r o m an abstract o r o v e r a r c h i n g d e s i r e t o k n o w t h e n a t u r e o f totality. T h u s , t h e seve n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s c r i p t u r a l g e o l o g i s t T h o m a s B u r n e t built u p t o a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f t h e e a r t h b e c a u s e h e w a n t e d t o k n o w the s o u r c e o f w a t e r f o r N o a h ' s flood. T h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y g e o l o g i s t J a m e s H u t t o n d e v e l o p e d a n e q u a l l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e system f r o m a n initial n i g g l i n g p a r a d o x : i f G o d m a d e soil f o r h u m a n a g r i c u l t u r e , b u t soil d e r i v e s f r o m e r o s i o n o f r o c k s ; a n d i f t h e e r o s i o n o f r o c k s will ultim a t e l y d e s t r o y the l a n d a n d p u t t h e e n t i r e e a r t h u n d e r w a t e r , t h e n how could G o d choose a means of o u r eventual destruction as a m e t h o d f o r m a k i n g t h e soil that sustains us? ( H u t t o n a n s w e r e d b y i n f e r r i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f i n t e r n a l f o r c e s that raise m o u n t a i n s f r o m the d e e p , t h u s d e v e l o p i n g a cyclical t h e o r y o f e r o s i o n a n d r e p a i r — a n a n c i e n t w o r l d w i t h n o v e s t i g e of a b e g i n n i n g , o r p r o s p e c t o f an end.) The Mismeasure of Man also b e g a n with a tiny i n s i g h t that s t u n n e d m e with a frisson o f r e c o g n i t i o n . O u r y o u n g T u r k g e n e r a t i o n o f p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s l i n k e d statistics a n d c o m p u t e r s b y l e a r n i n g t h e techn i q u e o f m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s — t h a t is, the s i m u l t a n e o u s statistical consideration of relationships a m o n g many measured properties of o r g a n i s m s ( l e n g t h o f b o n e s , p e r h a p s , f o r fossil species, p e r f o r m a n c e o n n u m e r o u s m e n t a l tests f o r h u m a n s i n t h e m i s m e a s u r e o f m a n ) . T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a r e n o t all c o n c e p t u a l l y difficult; m a n y h a d b e e n p a r t l y d e v e l o p e d o r e n v i s i o n e d e a r l i e r i n t h e c e n t u r y . B u t practical utility r e q u i r e s i m m e n s e l y l o n g c o m p u t a t i o n s that o n l y b e c a m e possible with the d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o m p u t e r s . I was t r a i n e d p r i m a r i l y in the g r a n d d a d d y of m u l t i v a r i a t e tech-

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n i q u e s (still v i g o r o u s l y i n v o g u e a n d e m i n e n t l y u s e f u l ) : f a c t o r analysis. I h a d l e a r n e d this p r o c e d u r e as an abstract m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y a n d h a d a p p l i e d f a c t o r analysis t o t h e s t u d y o f g r o w t h a n d e v o l u t i o n i n v a r i o u s fossil o r g a n i s m s (for e x a m p l e , m y P h . D . thesis, p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 6 9 , o n B e r m u d i a n l a n d snails; a n d o n e o f m y f i r s t p a p e r s , published in 1967, on growth and form in pelycosaurian reptiles— t h o s e p e c u l i a r c r e a t u r e s with sails on their b a c k s , a l w a y s i n c l u d e d in sets o f plastic d i n o s a u r s , b u t really a n c e s t o r s o f m a m m a l s a n d n o t d i n o s a u r s at all). F a c t o r analysis allows o n e t o f i n d c o m m o n a x e s i n f l u e n c i n g sets o f i n d e p e n d e n t l y m e a s u r e d variables. F o r e x a m p l e , a s a n a n i m a l g r o w s , m o s t b o n e s g e t l o n g e r — s o g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e in size acts as a c o m m o n f a c t o r b e h i n d t h e positive c o r r e l a t i o n s m e a s u r e d f o r t h e l e n g t h o f b o n e s i n a series o f o r g a n i s m s v a r y i n g f r o m small t o l a r g e w i t h i n a s p e c i e s . T h i s e x a m p l e is trivial. In a m o r e c o m p l e x case, subject t o n u m e r o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , w e g e n e r a l l y m e a s u r e positive c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g m e n t a l tests g i v e n t o t h e s a m e p e r s o n — t h a t is, i n g e n e r a l a n d with m a n y e x c e p t i o n s , p e o p l e w h o d o well o n o n e k i n d o f test t e n d t o d o well o n o t h e r s . F a c t o r analysis m i g h t d e t e c t a g e n e r a l axis that c a n , in a m a t h e m a t i c a l s e n s e , c a p t u r e a c o m m o n e l e m e n t i n this j o i n t v a r i a t i o n a m o n g tests. I h a d s p e n t a y e a r l e a r n i n g t h e intricacies of f a c t o r analysis. I was t h e n historically n a i v e , a n d n e v e r d r e a m e d that s u c h a v a l u a b l e a b s t r a c t i o n , w h i c h I h a d a p p l i e d o n l y to fossils with m i n i m a l political i m p o r t , m i g h t h a v e a r i s e n in a social c o n t e x t to t o u t a p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y o f m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g with definite political m e a n i n g . T h e n o n e d a y I was r e a d i n g , q u i t e aimlessly a n d o n l y f o r l e i s u r e , a n article a b o u t the history o f m e n t a l testing, a n d I r e a l i z e d that S p e a r m a n ' s g—the c e n t r a l c l a i m o f t h e u n i t a r y t h e o r y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d the o n l y justification that s u c h a n o t i o n has e v e r h a d (The Bell Curve is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l o n g d e f e n s e of g, explicitly so s t a t e d ) — w a s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n the f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t o f a f a c t o r analysis o f m e n t a l tests. M o r e o v e r , I l e a r n e d that S p e a r m a n h a d i n v e n t e d the t e c h n i q u e o f f a c t o r analysis specifically t o s t u d y t h e u n d e r l y i n g basis o f positive c o r r e l a t i o n a m o n g tests. I also k n e w that p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s o f f a c t o r a n a l y s e s a r e m a t h e m a t i c a l abstractions, n o t e m p i r ical r e a l i t i e s — a n d that e v e r y m a t r i x subject to f a c t o r analysis c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d j u s t a s well b y o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e style o f f a c t o r analysis a p p l i e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r

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case. S i n c e the c h o s e n style is l a r g e l y a m a t t e r of r e s e a r c h e r ' s p r e f e r e n c e , o n e c a n n o t c l a i m that p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s h a v e e m p i r i c a l reality (unless t h e a r g u m e n t c a n b e b a c k e d u p with h a r d d a t a o f a n o t h e r sort; t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l e v i d e n c e a l o n e will n e v e r suffice, b e c a u s e w e c a n a l w a y s g e n e r a t e a l t e r n a t i v e a x e s with entirely d i f f e r ent meanings). T h e r e c a n o n l y b e a few s u c h m o m e n t s — t h e e u r e k a s , the scales d r o p p i n g f r o m t h e e y e s — i n a scholar's life. M y p r e c i o u s a b s t r a c t i o n , the t e c h n i q u e p o w e r i n g m y o w n r e s e a r c h a t t h e t i m e , h a d n o t b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o a n a l y z e fossils, o r t o p u r s u e the i d e a l i z e d p l e a s u r e o f m a t h e m a t i c s . S p e a r m a n h a d i n v e n t e d f a c t o r analysis t o p u s h a c e r t a i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m e n t a l t e s t s — o n e that h a s p l a g u e d o u r c e n t u r y with its b i o d e t e r m i n i s t i m p l i c a t i o n s . (I am c o n f i d e n t a b o u t t h e o r d e r o f causality b e c a u s e S p e a r m a n h a d b e e n d e f e n d i n g the t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r y e a r s with o t h e r n o n m u l t i v a r i a t e t e c h n i q u e s b e f o r e h e i n v e n t e d f a c t o r analysis. T h u s w e k n o w that h e d e v e l o p e d f a c t o r analysis t o s u p p o r t the t h e o r y — a n d that the t h e o r y d i d n o t arise s u b s e q u e n t l y f r o m t h o u g h t s i n s p i r e d b y t h e first results of f a c t o r analysis.) A frisson of m i x e d fascination a n d a bit of a n g e r passed up a n d d o w n my spine, as m u c h of my previous idealization of science c o l l a p s e d (ultimately to be r e p l a c e d by a far m o r e h u m a n e a n d sensible v i e w ) . F a c t o r analysis h a d b e e n i n v e n t e d f o r a social use c o n t r a r y to my beliefs a n d v a l u e s . I felt p e r s o n a l l y o f f e n d e d , a n d this b o o k , t h o u g h n o t w r i t t e n until s o m e ten y e a r s later, u l t i m a t e l y a r o s e f r o m this i n s i g h t a n d f e e l i n g of violation. I felt c o m p e l l e d to write The Mismeasure of Man. M y f a v o r i t e r e s e a r c h tool h a d a r i s e n f o r a n alien social u s e . F u r t h e r more, and in another irony, the harmful hereditarian version of I Q h a d n o t d e v e l o p e d i n E u r o p e , w h e r e B i n e t h a d i n v e n t e d the test f o r benevolent purposes, but in my o w n country of America, honored f o r e g a l i t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n s . I am a patriot at h e a r t . I h a d to w r i t e t h e b o o k t o m a k e c o r r e c t i o n a n d ask f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . 2.

History and revision

I p u b l i s h e d The Mismeasure of Man in 1981; t h e b o o k has certainly h a d a n active a n d f a s c i n a t i n g history e v e r since. I was p r o u d w h e n Mismeasure w o n the N a t i o n a l B o o k Critics C i r c l e a w a r d i n nonfiction, f o r this p r i z e is t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l ' s a c c o l a d e , g i v e n by t h o s e w h o do the reviewing. T h e reviews themselves followed an interesting

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p a t t e r n — u n i f o r m l y w a r m i n t h e serious p o p u l a r press, p r e d i c t a b l y v a r i o u s i n t e c h n i c a l j o u r n a l s o f p s y c h o l o g y a n d the social sciences. M o s t o f t h e l e a d i n g m e n t a l testers i n t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n tradition w r o t e m a j o r r e v i e w s , a n d o n e m i g h t well g u e s s their thrust. A r t h u r J e n s e n , f o r e x a m p l e , d i d not like the b o o k . B u t m o s t o t h e r p r o f e s sional p s y c h o l o g i s t s w r o t e with p r a i s e , o f t e n c o p i o u s a n d u n s t i n t i n g . T h e n a d i r c e r t a i n l y a r r i v e d (with a bit o f h u m o r i n the a b s u r d i t y ) in t h e Fall 1 9 8 3 issue of an a r c h c o n s e r v a t i v e j o u r n a l , The Public Interest, w h e n my d y s p e p s i c c o l l e a g u e B e r n a r d D. Davis p u b l i s h e d a r i d i c u l o u s p e r s o n a l attack o n m e a n d t h e b o o k u n d e r the title " N e o L y s e n k o i s m , I Q , a n d t h e Press." His thesis m a y b e easily s u m m a r i z e d : G o u l d ' s b o o k g o t terrific r e v i e w s i n t h e p o p u l a r press, b u t all a c a d e m i c w r i t e r s p a n n e d i t u n m e r c i f u l l y . T h e r e f o r e the b o o k i s politically m o t i v a t e d c r a p , a n d G o u l d h i m s e l f isn't m u c h b e t t e r i n a n y t h i n g h e d o e s , i n c l u d i n g p u n c t u a t e d e q u i l i b r i u m a n d all his e v o lutionary ideas. L o v e l y stuff. I firmly b e l i e v e in n o t a n s w e r i n g u n f a i r n e g a t i v e r e v i e w s , f o r n o t h i n g c a n s o d i s o r i e n t a n a t t a c k e r a s silence. B u t this was a bit t o o m u c h , so I c a n v a s s e d a m o n g f r i e n d s . B o t h N o a m C h o m s k y a n d S a l v a d o r L u r i a , g r e a t s c h o l a r s a n d h u m a n i s t s , said essentially t h e s a m e t h i n g : n e v e r r e p l y unless y o u r a t t a c k e r has floated a d e m o n s t r a b l y false a r g u m e n t , w h i c h , if u n a n s w e r e d , m i g h t d e v e l o p a "life of its o w n . " I felt that Davis's d i a t r i b e fell into this c a t e g o r y a n d t h e r e f o r e r e s p o n d e d i n t h e S p r i n g 1984 issue o f the s a m e j o u r n a l (my o n l y p u b l i c a t i o n in j o u r n a l s o f that ilk). A s I e x p l a i n e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d , M r . Davis h a d o n l y r e a d a few r e v i e w s , p r o b a b l y i n p u b l i c a t i o n s that h e l i k e d , o r that h a d b e e n sent to h i m by c o l l e a g u e s s h a r i n g his political p e r s u a s i o n s . I, t h a n k s to my p u b l i s h e r ' s p r o d i g i o u s c l i p p i n g service, h a d all t h e r e v i e w s . I p i c k e d o u t all t w e n t y - f o u r w r i t t e n b y a c a d e m i c e x p e r t s i n p s y c h o l o g y a n d f o u n d f o u r t e e n positive, t h r e e m i x e d , a n d s e v e n n e g a t i v e (nearly all o f t h e s e b y h e r e d i t a r i a n m e n t a l t e s t e r s — w h a t else w o u l d o n e e x p e c t ? ) . I was p a r t i c u l a r l y p l e a s e d that C y r i l B u r t ' s o l d p e r i o d i cal The British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, h a d w r i t t e n o n e o f t h e m o s t positive a c c o u n t s : " G o u l d has p e r f o r m e d a v a l u a b l e service i n e x p o s i n g t h e logical basis o f o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e b a t e s i n t h e social sciences, a n d this b o o k s h o u l d b e required r e a d i n g for students and practitioners alike." T h e b o o k has sold s t r o n g l y e v e r since p u b l i c a t i o n a n d has n o w

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s u r p a s s e d 250,000 c o p i e s , p l u s translations into t e n l a n g u a g e s . I have b e e n particularly gratified by the w a r m and challenging corres p o n d e n c e that has c o n t i n u a l l y c o m e m y w a y (and a t least a m u s e d b y s o m e o f t h e h a t e mail, i n c l u d i n g a few threats f r o m n e o - N a z i s a n d a n t i - S e m i t e s ) . I am p a r t i c u l a r l y g l a d , in r e t r o s p e c t , that I c h o s e to w r i t e in a w a y that s u r e l y p r e c l u d e d m a x i m a l eclat at p u b l i c a t i o n (as a b r e e z i e r style w i t h m o r e r e f e r e n c e s to i m m e d i a t e issues w o u l d h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d ) , b u t that g a v e t h e b o o k s t a y i n g p o w e r ( a f o c u s on f o u n d i n g arguments, analyzed by consulting original sources in their original languages). The Mismeasure of Man is n o t easy r e a d i n g , b u t I i n t e n d e d t h e b o o k f o r all s e r i o u s p e o p l e w i t h interest in t h e subject. I f o l l o w e d t h e t w o c a r d i n a l r u l e s that I u s e in w r i t i n g my essays. First, do n o t waffle on a b o u t g e n e r a l i t i e s (as I f e a r I h a v e d o n e a bit in this i n t r o d u c t i o n — s i n s o f m y m i d d l e a g e , n o d o u b t ! ) . F o c u s o n t h o s e small, b u t f a s c i n a t i n g , details t h a t c a n p i q u e p e o p l e ' s interest a n d illustrate generalities far better than overt a n d tendentious discussion. T h i s s t r a t e g y p r o v i d e s a b e t t e r b o o k f o r r e a d e r s , b u t also m a k e s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n s o m u c h m o r e f u n f o r m e . I g o t t o r e a d all t h e o r i g i n a l s o u r c e s ; I h a d all t h e p l e a s u r e o f p o k i n g i n t o B r o c a ' s d a t a a n d f i n d ing the holes a n d unconscious prejudices, of reconstructing Yerkes's test t o a r m y r e c r u i t s , o f h e f t i n g a skull f i l l e d w i t h l e a d shot. H o w m u c h m o r e r e w a r d i n g t h a n easy r e l i a n c e o n s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s , a n d c o p y i n g a few c o n v e n t i o n a l t h o u g h t s f r o m o t h e r c o m m e n t a t o r s . S e c o n d , simplify w r i t i n g b y e l i m i n a t i n g j a r g o n , o f c o u r s e , b u t do not adulterate concepts; no compromises, no d u m b i n g down. P o p u l a r i z a t i o n is p a r t of a g r e a t h u m a n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n in s e r i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p , n o t a n e x e r c i s e i n d u m b i n g d o w n f o r p l e a s u r e o r profit. I t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t shy f r o m difficult, e v e n m a t h e m a t i c a l m a t e r i a l . S i n c e I've b e e n h o l d i n g b a c k f o r f i f t e e n y e a r s , p e r m i t m e a f e w p a r a g r a p h s f o r p u r e b r a g g i n g a n d s a y i n g w h a t has p l e a s e d m e m o s t about the book. T h e history o f m e n t a l testing i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y h a s t w o m a j o r s t r a n d s : scaling a n d r a n k i n g b y m e n t a l a g e a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y I Q testing, a n d analysis o f c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g m e n t a l tests a s m a n i f e s t e d i n f a c t o r analysis. Effectively e v e r y p o p u l a r w o r k o n m e n t a l t e s t i n g e x p l a i n s t h e I Q t h r e a d i n detail a n d virtually i g n o r e s f a c t o r analysis. T h i s s t r a t e g y i s f o l l o w e d f o r a n o b v i o u s a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e r e a s o n : t h e I Q story i s easy t o e x p l a i n a n d c o m p r e h e n d ;

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f a c t o r analysis, a n d m u l t i v a r i a t e t h i n k i n g i n g e n e r a l , a r e e n o r m o u s l y difficult f o r m o s t p e o p l e a n d h a r d t o e x p r e s s w i t h o u t c o n s i d erable mathematics. B u t s u c h c o n v e n t i o n a l w o r k s c a n n o t a d e q u a t e l y p r e s e n t t h e history o f the h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e — f o r this n o tion relies s o crucially o n b o t h parts. W e m u s t u n d e r s t a n d w h y p e o p l e e v e r t h o u g h t that a u n i l i n e a r r a n k i n g c o u l d o r d e r p e o p l e b y m e n t a l w o r t h — t h e I Q t h r e a d , usually well t r e a t e d . B u t w e c a n n o t g r a s p o r i n t e r p r e t t h e t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e until w e k n o w t h e basis f o r t h e p r i o r c l a i m that i n t e l l i g e n c e c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d as a single entity (that m i g h t t h e n be m e a s u r e d by a single n u m b e r like I Q ) . T h i s r a t i o n a l e d e r i v e s f r o m f a c t o r analysis a n d its s u p p o s e d v a l i d a t i o n of S p e a r m a n ' s g—the u n i t a r y t h i n g in the h e a d . B u t factor analysis has usually b e e n i g n o r e d , t h u s p r e c l u d i n g all possibility o f real u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I r e s o l v e d that I w o u l d treat f a c t o r analysis h e a d - o n — a n d I h a v e n e v e r s t r u g g l e d so h a r d to r e n d e r m a t e r i a l in a m a n n e r accessible to g e n e r a l r e a d e r s . I k e p t failing b e c a u s e I c o u l d n o t translate the mathematics into understandable prose. T h e n I finally realized, in o n e o f t h o s e " a h a " insights, that I c o u l d use T h u r s t o n e ' s a l t e r n a t i v e g e o m e t r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f tests a n d a x e s a s v e c t o r s (arrows) radiating from a c o m m o n point, rather than the usual algebraic f o r m u lations. T h i s a p p r o a c h s o l v e d m y p r o b l e m b e c a u s e most p e o p l e grasp pictures better than numbers. T h e resulting C h a p t e r 7 is by no m e a n s easy. It will n e v e r r a n k h i g h in p u b l i c a c c l a i m , but I h a v e n e v e r b e e n s o p r o u d o f a n y t h i n g else I e v e r w r o t e f o r p o p u l a r a u d i e n c e s . I t h i n k I f o u n d t h e k e y f o r p r e s e n t i n g f a c t o r analysis, a n d o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t scientific issues o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t t r e a t i n g this subject. N o t h i n g has e v e r gratified m e m o r e t h a n n u m e r o u s unsolicited c o m m e n t s f r o m p r o f e s s i o n a l statisticians o v e r the y e a r s , t h a n k i n g m e f o r this c h a p ter a n d a f f i r m i n g that I h a d i n d e e d s u c c e e d e d in c o n v e y i n g f a c t o r analysis, a n d t h a t I h a d d o n e so a c c u r a t e l y a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l y . I am n o t n e a r l y r e a d y , b u t I will e v e n t u a l l y c h a n t my Nunc dimittis in p e a c e . O n e f i n a l a n d p e r i p h e r a l p o i n t a b o u t f a c t o r analysis a n d C y r i l B u r t : M y c h a p t e r o n f a c t o r analysis b e a r s t h e title " T h e Real E r r o r o f C y r i l B u r t : F a c t o r A n a l y s i s a n d t h e Reification o f I n t e l l i g e n c e . " B u r t h a d b e e n c h a r g e d with o v e r t f r a u d i n m a k i n g u p data f o r his

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s t u d i e s , d o n e a t the e n d o f a l o n g c a r e e r , o n identical twins s e p a r a t e d e a r l y in life a n d r e a r e d in d i f f e r e n t social c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Inevitably, I s u p p o s e , s o m e r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e tried t o rehabilitate B u r t a n d t o cast d o u b t u p o n t h e c h a r g e s . I r e g a r d t h e s e a t t e m p t s a s w e a k a n d d o o m e d t o f a i l u r e , f o r the e v i d e n c e o f B u r t ' s f r a u d s e e m s c o n clusive a n d o v e r w h e l m i n g to m e . B u t I wish to e m p h a s i z e that I r e g a r d t h e subject a s u n f o r t u n a t e , d i v e r s i o n a r y , a n d u n i m p o r t a n t — a n d t h e title o f m y c h a p t e r t r i e d t o e x p r e s s this view, t h o u g h p e r h a p s i n a p u n t o o o p a q u e . W h a t e v e r B u r t d i d o r d i d n o t d o a s a pitiful o l d m a n (and I e n d e d u p f e e l i n g q u i t e s y m p a t h e t i c t o w a r d h i m , n o t g l o a t i n g o v e r his e x p o s u r e , b u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s o u r c e s o f his a c t i o n in p e r s o n a l p a i n a n d possible m e n t a l illness), this late w o r k h a d n o e n d u r i n g significance i n t h e history o f m e n t a l testing. B u r t ' s earlier, d e e p , and honest error embodies the fascinating and port e n t o u s i n f l u e n c e o f his c a r e e r . F o r B u r t was t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f p o s t - S p e a r m a n i a n f a c t o r analysts (he i n h e r i t e d S p e a r m a n ' s acad e m i c p o s t ) — a n d t h e k e y e r r o r o f f a c t o r analysis lies i n reification, o r t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f a b s t r a c t i o n s into p u t a t i v e r e a l entities. Factor analysis i n the h e r e d i t a r i a n m o d e , n o t later studies o f twins, r e p r e s e n t e d B u r t ' s " r e a l " e r r o r — f o r reification c o m e s f r o m t h e L a t i n f o r res, or r e a l t h i n g . I n e v i t a b l y , a s f o r all active subjects, m u c h has c h a n g e d , s o m e t i m e s t o m y b e n e f i t a n d s o m e t i m e s t o m y deficit, since t h e b o o k f i r s t a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 8 1 . B u t I h a v e c h o s e n t o leave t h e m a i n t e x t essentially "as is" b e c a u s e t h e basic f o r m o f the a r g u m e n t f o r u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e , h e r i t a b l e , a n d l a r g e l y u n c h a n g e a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e has n e v e r v a r i e d m u c h , a n d t h e c r i t i q u e s a r e similarly stable a n d d e v a s t a t i n g . As n o t e d b e f o r e , I h a v e d e l e t e d a few r e f e r e n c e s topical to 1 9 8 1 , c h a n g e d a f e w m i n o r e r r o r s o f t y p o g r a p h y a n d fact, a n d i n s e r t e d a few f o o t n o t e s t o c r e a t e a bit o f d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n m e i n 1981 a n d m e n o w . O t h e r w i s e , y o u r e a d m y o r i g i n a l b o o k i n this r e v i s e d e d i t i o n . T h e m a j o r n o v e l t y o f this revision lies i n t h e t w o slices o f b r e a d that s u r r o u n d the m e a t o f m y o r i g i n a l t e x t — t h i s p r e f a t o r y statem e n t i n f r o n t a n d t h e c o n c l u d i n g section o f essays a t t h e e n d . I h a v e i n c l u d e d f i v e essays i n t w o g r o u p s f o r this c l o s i n g slice. T h e f i r s t g r o u p o f t w o r e p r o d u c e s m y t w o v e r y d i f f e r e n t r e v i e w s o f The Bell Curve. T h e first a p p e a r e d in The New Yorker f o r N o v e m b e r 28, 1 9 9 4 . I was particularly pleased because Mr. M u r r a y became so apoplectic a b o u t this article, a n d b e c a u s e s o m a n y p e o p l e felt that I h a d p r o -

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v i d e d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d fair (if s h a r p ) c o m m e n t a r y by c r i t i q u i n g b o t h t h e illogic of The Bell Curve's q u a d r i p a r t i t e g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t , a n d t h e i n a d e q u a c i e s o f t h e b o o k ' s e m p i r i c a l claims (largely e x p o s e d b y s h o w i n g h o w the a u t h o r s b u r i e d c o n c l u s i v e l y c o n t r a r y d a t a i n a n a p p e n d i x w h i l e c e l e b r a t i n g their p o t e n t i a l s u p p o r t i n t h e m a i n text). I felt g r a t e f u l that this r e v i e w w a s t h e first m a j o r c o m m e n t to a p p e a r b a s e d o n a c o m p l e t e r e a d i n g a n d critique o f t h e b o o k ' s actual t e x t ( o t h e r s h a d w r i t t e n c o g e n t c o m m e n t a r i e s on The Bell Curve's politics, b u t h a d d i s c l a i m e d o n t h e text, p l e a d i n g inability t o c o m p r e h e n d the m a t h e m a t i c s ! ) . T h e s e c o n d r e p r e s e n t s m y a t t e m p t s t o p r o v i d e a m o r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n t e x t f o r The Bell Curve's fallacy by c o n s i d e r i n g its c o n s o n a n c e with o t h e r a r g u m e n t s f r o m t h e history o f b i o d e t e r m i n i s m . T h i s essay, p u b l i s h e d in Natural History in F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 5 , r e p e a t s s o m e m a t e r i a l f r o m The Mismeasure of Man in t h e section o n B i n e t a n d t h e o r i g i n o f t h e I Q t e s t — b u t I left the r e d u n d a n c y a l o n e since I t h o u g h t that this d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t f o r c i t i n g B i n e t m i g h t strike r e a d e r s a s i n t e r e s t i n g . T h e f i r s t section o n G o b i n e a u , t h e g r a n d d a d d y o f m o d e r n scientific r a c i s m , r e p r e s e n t s m a t e rial that I p r o b a b l y s h o u l d h a v e o r i g i n a l l y p l a c e d , b u t d i d n o t , in The Mismeasure of Man. T h e s e c o n d g r o u p i n c l u d e s t h r e e historical essays o n key f i g u r e s f r o m the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries respectively. W e f i r s t m e e t Sir T h o m a s B r o w n e a n d his s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e f u t a t i o n o f t h e c a n a r d "that J e w s stink." B u t I v a l u e d B r o w n e ' s a r g u m e n t p r i m a r i l y f o r f o l l o w i n g the c o g e n t f o r m that h a s o p p o s e d b i o d e t e r m i n i s m e v e r s i n c e — s o his o l d r e f u t a t i o n has e n d u r i n g w o r t h . T h i s essay e n d s with a s u m m a r y o f the startling r e v i s i o n that m o d e r n g e n e t i c a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y d a t a a b o u t h u m a n o r i g i n s m u s t i m p o s e u p o n o u r n o t i o n o f races a n d their m e a n i n g . T h e s e c o n d essay a n a l y z e s t h e f o u n d i n g d o c u m e n t o f m o d e r n racial classification, t h e fivefold system d e v i s e d in t h e late e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y t h e genially liberal G e r m a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t B l u m e n b a c h . I use this essay to s h o w h o w t h e o r y a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n a l w a y s i n f l u e n c e o u r analysis a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r e s u m a b l y objective d a t a . B l u m e n b a c h m e a n t well, b u t e n d e d u p a f f i r m i n g racial h i e r a r c h y b y w a y o f g e o m e t r y a n d aesthetics, n o t b y a n y o v e r t vic i o u s n e s s . I f y o u e v e r w o n d e r e d w h y w h i t e folks a r e n a m e d C a u c a sians in h o n o r of a small r e g i o n in Russia, y o u will find the a n s w e r i n this essay a n d i n B l u m e n b a c h ' s definitions. T h e last article s u m -

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marizes Darwin's sometimes conventional, sometimes courageous v i e w s o n racial d i f f e r e n c e s a n d e n d s with a plea f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g historical f i g u r e s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f their o w n times, a n d n o t i n a n a c h ronistic r e f e r e n c e t o o u r s . I d i d n o t w a n t t o e n d w i t h stale b r e a d , a n d t h e r e f o r e s o u g h t t o b u i l d this c l o s i n g section f r o m essays not p r e v i o u s l y a n t h o l o g i z e d . O f t h e f i v e , o n l y o n e has a p p e a r e d b e f o r e i n m y o w n c o l l e c t i o n s — t h e last p i e c e on D a r w i n f r o m Eight Little Piggies. B u t I c o u l d n o t b e a r t o e x p u n g e m y p e r s o n a l h e r o , w h i l e c o n c l u d i n g w i t h this essay g r a n t s m e s y m m e t r y b y a l l o w i n g t h e b o o k t o close w i t h t h e s a m e w o n d e r f u l line f r o m D a r w i n that b o t h b e g i n s this essay o n the o p e n i n g slice o f b r e a d a n d s e r v e s a s the e p i g r a p h i c q u o t e f o r the m e a t o f this b o o k , t h e t e x t of The Mismeasure of Man. O n e o t h e r e s s a y — T h e New Yorker r e v i e w of The Bell Curve—has b e e n r e p r i n t e d , in collections q u i c k l y p u b l i s h e d i n r e s p o n s e t o M u r r a y a n d H e r r n s t e i n ' s b o o k . T h e o t h e r essays h a v e n e v e r b e e n a n t h o l o g i z e d b e f o r e , a n d I p u r p o s e l y left t h e m o u t of my n e x t collection to a p p e a r , Dinosaur in a Haystack. T h i s subject o f b i o d e t e r m i n i s m has a l o n g , c o m p l e x , a n d c o n t e n tious history. W e c a n easily g e t lost i n t h e m i n u t i a e o f abstract academic arguments. B u t we must never forget the h u m a n m e a n i n g of lives d i m i n i s h e d b y t h e s e false a r g u m e n t s — a n d w e m u s t , p r i m a r i l y f o r this r e a s o n , n e v e r f l a g i n o u r r e s o l v e t o e x p o s e t h e fallacies o f science m i s u s e d f o r a l i e n social p u r p o s e s . S o let m e close with t h e o p e r a t i v e p a r a g r a p h of The Mismeasure of Man: " W e pass t h r o u g h this w o r l d b u t o n c e . F e w t r a g e d i e s c a n b e m o r e e x t e n s i v e t h a n t h e s t u n t i n g o f life, few injustices d e e p e r t h a n t h e d e n i a l o f a n o p p o r t u nity t o strive o r e v e n t o h o p e , b y a limit i m p o s e d f r o m w i t h o u t , b u t falsely i d e n t i f i e d as l y i n g w i t h i n . "

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Introduction CITIZENS OF T H E REPUBLIC, S o c r a t e s a d v i s e d , s h o u l d be e d u c a t e d a n d a s s i g n e d b y m e r i t t o t h r e e classes: r u l e r s , a u x i l i a r i e s , a n d craftsm e n . A stable society d e m a n d s that t h e s e r a n k s b e h o n o r e d a n d that citizens a c c e p t t h e status c o n f e r r e d u p o n t h e m . B u t h o w c a n this a c q u i e s c e n c e be s e c u r e d ? S o c r a t e s , u n a b l e to d e v i s e a logical a r g u m e n t , fabricates a m y t h . W i t h s o m e e m b a r r a s s m e n t , h e tells Glaucon: I will speak, although I really know not how to look you in the face, or in what words to utter the audacious fiction. . . . T h e y [the citizens] are to be told that their youth was a dream, and the education and training which they received from us, an appearance only; in reality during all that time they were being formed and fed in the womb of the earth. . . . Glaucon, o v e r w h e l m e d , exclaims: " Y o u had g o o d reason to be a s h a m e d o f t h e lie w h i c h y o u w e r e g o i n g t o tell." " T r u e , " r e p l i e d S o c r a t e s , " b u t t h e r e i s m o r e c o m i n g ; I h a v e o n l y told y o u half." Citizens, we shall say to them in our tale, you are brothers, yet God has framed you differently. Some of you have the power of command, and in the composition of these he has mingled gold, wherefore also they have the greatest honor; others he has made of silver, to be auxiliaries; others again who are to be husbandmen and craftsmen he has composed of brass and iron; and the species will generally be preserved in the children. . . . An oracle says that when a man of brass or iron guards the State, it will be destroyed. Such is the tale; is there any possibility of making our citizens believe in it? Glaucon replies: " N o t in the present generation; there is no way of a c c o m p l i s h i n g this; b u t their sons m a y b e m a d e t o b e l i e v e i n t h e t a l e , a n d t h e i r son's s o n s , a n d posterity a f t e r t h e m . "

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G l a u c o n h a d u t t e r e d a p r o p h e s y . T h e s a m e tale, i n d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s , has b e e n p r o m u l g a t e d a n d b e l i e v e d e v e r since. T h e j u s tification for r a n k i n g g r o u p s b y i n b o r n w o r t h has v a r i e d with the tides o f W e s t e r n history. Plato relied u p o n dialectic, t h e C h u r c h u p o n d o g m a . F o r t h e past two c e n t u r i e s , scientific claims h a v e b e c o m e the p r i m a r y a g e n t f o r v a l i d a t i n g Plato's m y t h . T h i s b o o k i s a b o u t t h e scientific v e r s i o n o f Plato's tale. T h e g e n eral a r g u m e n t m a y be called biological determinism. It h o l d s that s h a r e d b e h a v i o r a l n o r m s , a n d the social a n d e c o n o m i c d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n h u m a n g r o u p s — p r i m a r i l y races, classes, a n d s e x e s — a r i s e f r o m i n h e r i t e d , i n b o r n distinctions a n d that society, in this s e n s e , is a n a c c u r a t e reflection o f b i o l o g y . T h i s b o o k discusses, i n historical p e r s p e c t i v e , a p r i n c i p a l t h e m e within biological d e t e r m i n i s m : t h e claim that w o r t h can be a s s i g n e d to i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s by measuring intelligence as a single quantity. T w o m a j o r sources of data h a v e s u p p o r t e d this t h e m e : c r a n i o m e t r y (or m e a s u r e m e n t o f the skull) a n d certain styles o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l testing. Metals h a v e c e d e d t o g e n e s ( t h o u g h w e retain a n e t y m o l o g i c a l v e s t i g e of Plato's tale in s p e a k i n g of p e o p l e ' s w o r t h i n e s s as their " m e t t l e " ) . B u t t h e basic a r g u m e n t has n o t c h a n g e d : that social a n d e c o n o m i c roles a c c u r a t e l y reflect t h e i n n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p e o p l e . O n e aspect o f the intellectual strategy has a l t e r e d , h o w e v e r . Socrates k n e w that he was telling a lie. D e t e r m i n i s t s h a v e o f t e n i n v o k e d the traditional p r e s t i g e o f scie n c e as objective k n o w l e d g e , f r e e f r o m social a n d political taint. T h e y p o r t r a y t h e m s e l v e s a s p u r v e y o r s o f h a r s h truth a n d their o p p o n e n t s a s sentimentalists, i d e o l o g u e s , a n d wishful t h i n k e r s . L o u i s A g a s s i z ( 1 8 5 0 , p . 1 1 1 ) , d e f e n d i n g his a s s i g n m e n t o f blacks t o a s e p a r a t e species, w r o t e : " N a t u r a l i s t s h a v e a r i g h t to c o n s i d e r the q u e s t i o n s g r o w i n g o u t o f m e n ' s physical relations a s m e r e l y scientific q u e s t i o n s , a n d to investigate t h e m w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e to e i t h e r politics o r r e l i g i o n . " C a r l C . B r i g h a m ( 1 9 2 3 ) , a r g u i n g f o r the e x c l u sion o f s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s w h o h a d s c o r e d p o o r l y o n s u p p o s e d tests o f i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e stated: " T h e steps that s h o u l d b e t a k e n t o p r e s e r v e o r i n c r e a s e o u r p r e s e n t intellectual capacity m u s t o f c o u r s e b e dictated b y science a n d n o t b y political e x p e d i e n c y . " A n d C y r i l B u r t , i n v o k i n g f a k e d data c o m piled b y t h e n o n e x i s t e n t Ms. C o n w a y , c o m p l a i n e d that d o u b t s about the genetic foundation of IQ "appear to be based rather on

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t h e social ideals o r t h e subjective p r e f e r e n c e s o f t h e critics t h a n o n any first-hand examination of the evidence supporting the o p p o site v i e w " (in C o n w a y , 1 9 5 9 , p . 1 5 ) . S i n c e b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m possesses s u c h e v i d e n t utility f o r g r o u p s i n p o w e r , o n e m i g h t b e e x c u s e d f o r s u s p e c t i n g that i t also arises in a political c o n t e x t , d e s p i t e t h e d e n i a l s q u o t e d a b o v e . A f t e r all, i f the status q u o i s a n e x t e n s i o n o f n a t u r e , t h e n a n y m a j o r c h a n g e , i f possible a t all, m u s t inflict a n e n o r m o u s c o s t — p s y c h o l o g ical f o r i n d i v i d u a l s , o r e c o n o m i c f o r s o c i e t y — i n f o r c i n g p e o p l e into u n n a t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s . In his e p o c h a l b o o k , An American Dilemma ( 1 9 4 4 ) , S w e d i s h sociologist G u n n a r M y r d a l d i s c u s s e d t h e t h r u s t o f biological a n d m e d i c a l a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h u m a n n a t u r e : " T h e y h a v e b e e n associated i n A m e r i c a , a s i n t h e rest o f t h e w o r l d , with conservative and even reactionary ideologies. U n d e r their long h e g e m o n y , t h e r e has b e e n a t e n d e n c y t o a s s u m e b i o l o g i c a l causation w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n , a n d t o a c c e p t social e x p l a n a t i o n s only u n d e r t h e d u r e s s o f a siege o f irresistible e v i d e n c e . I n political q u e s t i o n s , this t e n d e n c y f a v o r e d a d o - n o t h i n g policy." O r , as C o n d o r c e t said m o r e succinctly a l o n g time a g o : they " m a k e n a t u r e h e r s e l f a n a c c o m p l i c e i n t h e c r i m e o f political i n e q u a l i t y . " T h i s b o o k seeks t o d e m o n s t r a t e b o t h t h e scientific w e a k n e s s e s a n d political c o n t e x t s o f d e t e r m i n i s t a r g u m e n t s . E v e n so, I d o n o t i n t e n d t o c o n t r a s t evil d e t e r m i n i s t s w h o stray f r o m t h e p a t h o f scientific objectivity w i t h e n l i g h t e n e d a n t i d e t e r m i n i s t s w h o a p p r o a c h d a t a with a n o p e n m i n d a n d t h e r e f o r e see t r u t h . R a t h e r , I criticize t h e m y t h that science itself i s a n objective e n t e r p r i s e , d o n e p r o p e r l y o n l y w h e n scientists c a n s h u c k t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e i r c u l t u r e a n d v i e w t h e w o r l d as it really is. A m o n g scientists, f e w c o n s c i o u s i d e o l o g u e s h a v e e n t e r e d these d e b a t e s o n e i t h e r side. Scientists n e e d n ' t b e c o m e e x p l i c i t a p o l o g i s t s f o r t h e i r class o r c u l t u r e i n o r d e r t o reflect t h e s e p e r v a s i v e aspects o f life. M y m e s s a g e i s n o t that b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s t s w e r e b a d scientists o r e v e n that t h e y w e r e a l w a y s w r o n g . R a t h e r , I b e l i e v e that science m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d as a social p h e n o m e n o n , a g u t s y , h u m a n e n t e r p r i s e , n o t t h e w o r k o f r o b o t s p r o g r a m e d t o collect p u r e i n f o r m a t i o n . I also p r e s e n t this v i e w as an u p b e a t f o r s c i e n c e , n o t as a g l o o m y e p i t a p h f o r a n o b l e h o p e sacrificed on t h e altar of h u m a n limitations. S c i e n c e , since p e o p l e m u s t do it, is a socially e m b e d d e d activity.

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I t p r o g r e s s e s b y h u n c h , vision, a n d i n t u i t i o n . M u c h o f its c h a n g e t h r o u g h time d o e s n o t r e c o r d a c l o s e r a p p r o a c h t o a b s o l u t e t r u t h , b u t t h e a l t e r a t i o n of c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s that i n f l u e n c e it so s t r o n g l y . Facts a r e n o t p u r e a n d u n s u l l i e d bits o f i n f o r m a t i o n ; c u l t u r e also i n f l u e n c e s w h a t w e see a n d h o w w e see it. T h e o r i e s , m o r e o v e r , a r e n o t i n e x o r a b l e i n d u c t i o n s f r o m facts. T h e m o s t c r e a t i v e t h e o r i e s a r e o f t e n i m a g i n a t i v e visions i m p o s e d u p o n facts; t h e s o u r c e o f i m a g i n a t i o n is also s t r o n g l y c u l t u r a l . T h i s a r g u m e n t , a l t h o u g h still a n a t h e m a t o m a n y p r a c t i c i n g scientists, w o u l d , I t h i n k , b e a c c e p t e d b y n e a r l y e v e r y h i s t o r i a n o f science. In a d v a n c i n g it, h o w e v e r , I do n o t ally m y s e l f with an o v e r e x t e n s i o n n o w p o p u l a r i n s o m e historical circles: t h e p u r e l y relativistic claim that scientific c h a n g e o n l y reflects t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n of social c o n t e x t s , that t r u t h is a m e a n i n g l e s s n o t i o n o u t s i d e cult u r a l a s s u m p t i o n s , a n d that science c a n t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e n o e n d u r i n g a n s w e r s . A s a p r a c t i c i n g scientist, I s h a r e t h e c r e d o o f m y c o l l e a g u e s : I b e l i e v e that a f a c t u a l reality exists a n d t h a t s c i e n c e , t h o u g h o f t e n i n a n o b t u s e a n d e r r a t i c m a n n e r , c a n l e a r n a b o u t it. G a l i l e o was n o t s h o w n t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f t o r t u r e i n a n abstract debate about lunar motion. He h a d threatened the Church's conv e n t i o n a l a r g u m e n t f o r social a n d d o c t r i n a l stability: t h e static w o r l d o r d e r with planets c i r c l i n g a b o u t a c e n t r a l e a r t h , priests s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e P o p e a n d serfs t o t h e i r l o r d . B u t t h e C h u r c h s o o n m a d e its p e a c e with Galileo's c o s m o l o g y . T h e y h a d n o c h o i c e ; t h e e a r t h really d o e s r e v o l v e a b o u t t h e s u n . Y e t t h e h i s t o r y o f m a n y scientific subjects i s virtually f r e e f r o m s u c h c o n s t r a i n t s o f fact f o r t w o m a j o r r e a s o n s . First, s o m e topics a r e i n v e s t e d w i t h e n o r m o u s social i m p o r t a n c e b u t blessed with v e r y little reliable i n f o r m a t i o n . W h e n t h e ratio o f d a t a t o social i m p a c t is so low, a h i s t o r y of scientific a t t i t u d e s m a y be little m o r e t h a n an o b l i q u e r e c o r d o f social c h a n g e . T h e history o f scientific v i e w s o n r a c e , f o r e x a m p l e , serves a s a m i r r o r o f social m o v e m e n t s ( P r o v i n e , 1 9 7 3 ) . T h i s m i r r o r reflects i n g o o d times a n d b a d , i n p e r i o d s o f b e l i e f i n equality a n d i n eras o f r a m p a n t r a c i s m . T h e d e a t h k n e l l o f t h e o l d e u g e n i c s i n A m e r i c a was s o u n d e d m o r e b y H i t l e r ' s p a r ticular u s e o f o n c e - f a v o r e d a r g u m e n t s f o r sterilization a n d racial purification than by advances in genetic knowledge. S e c o n d , m a n y q u e s t i o n s a r e f o r m u l a t e d b y scientists i n s u c h a restricted way that a n y l e g i t i m a t e a n s w e r c a n o n l y v a l i d a t e a social

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p r e f e r e n c e . M u c h o f t h e d e b a t e o n racial d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e n t a l w o r t h , f o r e x a m p l e , p r o c e e d e d u p o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n that intellig e n c e is a t h i n g in the h e a d . U n t i l this n o t i o n was s w e p t a s i d e , no a m o u n t of data could dislodge a strong Western tradition for o r d e r i n g r e l a t e d i t e m s into a p r o g r e s s i v e c h a i n o f b e i n g . S c i e n c e c a n n o t e s c a p e its c u r i o u s dialectic. E m b e d d e d i n surr o u n d i n g culture, it can, nonetheless, be a powerful agent for quest i o n i n g a n d e v e n o v e r t u r n i n g t h e a s s u m p t i o n s that n u r t u r e it. S c i e n c e c a n p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n t o r e d u c e t h e ratio o f d a t a t o social i m p o r t a n c e . Scientists c a n s t r u g g l e t o identify t h e c u l t u r a l a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h e i r t r a d e a n d t o ask h o w a n s w e r s m i g h t b e f o r m u l a t e d u n d e r d i f f e r e n t assertions. Scientists c a n p r o p o s e c r e a t i v e t h e o r i e s that f o r c e startled c o l l e a g u e s t o c o n f r o n t u n q u e s t i o n e d p r o c e d u r e s . B u t science's p o t e n t i a l a s a n i n s t r u m e n t f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s u p o n it c a n n o t be fully r e a l i z e d u n t i l scientists g i v e u p t h e twin m y t h s o f objectivity a n d i n e x o r a b l e m a r c h t o w a r d t r u t h . O n e m u s t , i n d e e d , locate the b e a m i n o n e ' s o w n e y e before interpreting correctly the pervasive motes in everybody else's. T h e b e a m s c a n t h e n b e c o m e facilitators, r a t h e r t h a n i m p e d iments. G u n n a r M y r d a l ( 1 9 4 4 ) c a p t u r e d b o t h sides o f this dialectic w h e n he wrote: A handful of social and biological scientists over the last 50 years have gradually forced informed people to give up s o m e of the more blatant of our biological errors. But there must be still other countless errors of the same sort that no living man can yet detect, because of the fog within which our type of Western culture envelops us. Cultural influences have set up the assumptions about the mind, the body, and the universe with which we begin; pose the questions we ask; influence the facts we seek; determine the interpretation we give these facts; and direct our reaction to these interpretations and conclusions. B i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m is too l a r g e a subject f o r o n e m a n a n d o n e b o o k — f o r i t t o u c h e s virtually e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n b i o l o g y a n d society since the d a w n o f m o d e r n science. I have therefore confined myself to o n e central and manageable a r g u m e n t i n t h e edifice o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m — a n a r g u m e n t i n t w o historical c h a p t e r s , b a s e d o n t w o d e e p fallacies, a n d c a r r i e d f o r t h i n o n e c o m m o n style.

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T h e a r g u m e n t b e g i n s w i t h o n e o f t h e fallacies—reification, o r o u r t e n d e n c y t o c o n v e r t abstract c o n c e p t s i n t o entities ( f r o m t h e L a t i n res, o r t h i n g ) . W e r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m e n t a l i t y i n o u r lives a n d wish t o c h a r a c t e r i z e it, i n p a r t s o that w e c a n m a k e t h e divisions a n d distinctions a m o n g p e o p l e that o u r c u l t u r a l a n d political systems dictate. W e t h e r e f o r e g i v e t h e w o r d " i n t e l l i g e n c e " t o this w o n d r o u s l y c o m p l e x a n d m u l t i f a c e t e d set o f h u m a n c a p a bilities. T h i s s h o r t h a n d s y m b o l i s t h e n reified a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e a c h i e v e s its d u b i o u s status as a u n i t a r y t h i n g . O n c e i n t e l l i g e n c e b e c o m e s a n entity, s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s o f s c i e n c e virtually dictate that a l o c a t i o n a n d physical s u b s t r a t e be s o u g h t f o r it. S i n c e t h e b r a i n is t h e seat of m e n t a l i t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e must reside there. W e n o w e n c o u n t e r t h e s e c o n d fallacy—ranking, o r o u r p r o p e n s i t y f o r o r d e r i n g c o m p l e x v a r i a t i o n as a g r a d u a l a s c e n d i n g scale. M e t a p h o r s o f p r o g r e s s a n d g r a d u a l i s m h a v e b e e n a m o n g t h e m o s t p e r v a s i v e i n W e s t e r n t h o u g h t — s e e L o v e j o y ' s classic essay ( 1 9 3 6 ) o n the g r e a t c h a i n o f b e i n g o r B u r y ' s f a m o u s t r e a t m e n t (1920) o f t h e i d e a o f p r o g r e s s . T h e i r social utility s h o u l d b e e v i d e n t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a d v i c e f r o m B o o k e r T . W a s h i n g t o n ( 1 9 0 4 , p . 245) t o black A m e r i c a : For my race, o n e of its dangers is that it may grow impatient and feel that it can get upon its feet by artificial and superficial efforts rather than by the slower but surer process which means o n e step at a time through all the constructive grades of industrial, mental, moral and social development which all races have had to follow that have become i n d e p e n d e n t and strong. B u t r a n k i n g r e q u i r e s a c r i t e r i o n f o r a s s i g n i n g all i n d i v i d u a l s to their p r o p e r status i n the single series. A n d w h a t b e t t e r c r i t e r i o n t h a n a n objective n u m b e r ? T h u s , t h e c o m m o n style e m b o d y i n g b o t h fallacies o f t h o u g h t h a s b e e n q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a s a single n u m b e r f o r e a c h p e r s o n . * T h i s b o o k , t h e n , is a b o u t t h e a b s t r a c t i o n of i n t e l l i g e n c e as a single entity, its l o c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e b r a i n , its q u a n t i f i c a t i o n as o n e n u m b e r f o r *Peter Medawar (1977, p. 13) has presented other interesting examples of "the illusion embodied in the ambition to attach a single number valuation to complex quantities"—for example, the attempts made by demographers to seek causes for trends in population in a single measure of "reproductive prowess," or the desire of soil scientists to abstract the "quality" of a soil as a single number.

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each individual, a n d the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series o f w o r t h i n e s s , i n v a r i a b l y t o f i n d that o p p r e s s e d a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s — r a c e s , classes, o r s e x e s — a r e i n n a t e l y i n f e r i o r a n d d e s e r v e t h e i r status. I n s h o r t , this b o o k i s a b o u t t h e Mismeasure of Man.* D i f f e r e n t a r g u m e n t s f o r r a n k i n g h a v e c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e last t w o c e n t u r i e s . C r a n i o m e t r y was t h e l e a d i n g n u m e r i c a l science o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I discuss (Chapter 2) the most extensive data compiled before Darwin to r a n k races b y t h e sizes o f their b r a i n s — t h e skull collection o f Phila d e l p h i a p h y s i c i a n S a m u e l G e o r g e M o r t o n . C h a p t e r 3 treats t h e f l o w e r i n g of c r a n i o m e t r y as a r i g o r o u s a n d r e s p e c t a b l e science in t h e s c h o o l o f P a u l B r o c a i n late n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e . C h a p t e r 4 t h e n u n d e r s c o r e s the i m p a c t o f q u a n t i f i e d a p p r o a c h e s t o h u m a n a n a t o m y i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y biological d e t e r m i n i s m . I t p r e s e n t s t w o case studies: the t h e o r y o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n a s e v o l u t i o n ' s primary criterion for unilinear ranking of h u m a n g r o u p s , a n d the a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r as a b i o l o g i c a l atavism r e f l e c t e d i n t h e a p i s h m o r p h o l o g y o f m u r d e r e r s a n d o t h e r miscreants. W h a t c r a n i o m e t r y was f o r t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t i n g h a s b e c o m e f o r t h e t w e n t i e t h , w h e n i t a s s u m e s that intellig e n c e (or at least a d o m i n a n t p a r t of it) is a single, i n n a t e , h e r i t a b l e , a n d m e a s u r a b l e t h i n g . I discuss t h e t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f this invalid a p p r o a c h to m e n t a l testing in C h a p t e r 5 (the h e r e d i t a r i a n v e r s i o n o f t h e I Q scale a s a n A m e r i c a n p r o d u c t ) a n d C h a p t e r 6 (the a r g u m e n t f o r r e i f y i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e as a single entity by t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t e c h n i q u e of f a c t o r analysis). F a c t o r analysis is a difficult m a t h e matical subject a l m o s t invariably o m i t t e d f r o m d o c u m e n t s w r i t t e n f o r n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l s . Y e t I b e l i e v e that it c a n be m a d e accessible a n d e x p l a i n e d i n a pictorial a n d n o n n u m e r i c a l w a y . T h e m a t e r i a l of C h a p t e r 6 is still n o t "easy r e a d i n g , " b u t I c o u l d n o t leave it o u t — f o r t h e history o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t i n g c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t g r a s p i n g t h e f a c t o r analytic a r g u m e n t a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g its d e e p * Following strictures of the argument outlined above, I do not treat all theories of craniometries (I omit phrenology, for example, because it did not reify intelligence as a single entity but sought multiple organs with the brain). Likewise, I exclude many important and often quantified styles of determinism that did not seek to measure intelligence as a property of the brain—for example, most of eugenics.

5*

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c o n c e p t u a l fallacy. T h e g r e a t I Q d e b a t e m a k e s n o s e n s e w i t h o u t this c o n v e n t i o n a l l y m i s s i n g subject. I h a v e tried to treat t h e s e subjects in an u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a y by u s i n g a m e t h o d that falls o u t s i d e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p u r v i e w o f e i t h e r a scientist or h i s t o r i a n o p e r a t i n g a l o n e . H i s t o r i a n s r a r e l y treat t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e details in sets of p r i m a r y d a t a . T h e y w r i t e , as I c a n n o t a d e q u a t e l y , a b o u t social c o n t e x t , b i o g r a p h y , o r g e n e r a l intellectual h i s t o r y . Scientists a r e u s e d t o a n a l y z i n g t h e d a t a o f t h e i r p e e r s , b u t few a r e sufficiently i n t e r e s t e d i n history t o a p p l y t h e m e t h o d t o their p r e d e c e s s o r s . T h u s , m a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e w r i t t e n a b o u t B r o c a ' s i m p a c t , b u t n o o n e has r e c a l c u l a t e d his s u m s . I h a v e f o c u s e d u p o n t h e r e a n a l y s i s of classical d a t a sets in c r a niometry and intelligence testing for two reasons b e y o n d my incompetence to p r o c e e d in any other fruitful way and my desire to do s o m e t h i n g a bit d i f f e r e n t . I b e l i e v e , first of all, that S a t a n also d w e l l s with G o d i n t h e details. I f t h e c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s u p o n science can be detected in the h u m d r u m minutiae of a supposedly o b j e c t i v e , a l m o s t a u t o m a t i c q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , t h e n t h e status o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m as a social p r e j u d i c e reflected by scientists in their own particular m e d i u m seems secure. T h e s e c o n d r e a s o n f o r a n a l y z i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a arises f r o m t h e special status that n u m b e r s enjoy. T h e m y s t i q u e o f science p r o claims that n u m b e r s a r e t h e u l t i m a t e test o f objectivity. S u r e l y w e c a n w e i g h a b r a i n o r s c o r e a n i n t e l l i g e n c e test w i t h o u t r e c o r d i n g o u r social p r e f e r e n c e s . I f r a n k s a r e d i s p l a y e d i n h a r d n u m b e r s obtained by rigorous a n d standardized procedures, then they must reflect reality, e v e n i f t h e y c o n f i r m w h a t w e w a n t e d t o b e l i e v e f r o m the start. A n t i d e t e r m i n i s t s h a v e u n d e r s t o o d t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r e s t i g e o f n u m b e r s a n d t h e special difficulty that their r e f u t a t i o n entails. L e o n c e M a n o u v r i e r ( 1 9 0 3 , p . 406), t h e n o n d e t e r m i n i s t black s h e e p o f B r o c a ' s f o l d , a n d a f i n e statistician himself, w r o t e o f B r o c a ' s d a t a o n t h e small b r a i n s o f w o m e n : W o m e n displayed their talents and their diplomas. T h e y also invoked philosophical authorities. But they were o p p o s e d by numbers u n k n o w n to Condorcet or to J o h n Stuart Mill. T h e s e numbers fell u p o n poor w o m e n like a sledge h a m m e r , and they were accompanied by commentaries and sarcasms m o r e ferocious than the most misogynist imprecations of certain church fathers. T h e theologians had asked if w o m e n had a soul. Several centuries later, s o m e scientists were ready to refuse them a h u m a n intelligence.

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I f — a s I b e l i e v e I h a v e s h o w n — q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a a r e as subject to c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t a s a n y o t h e r a s p e c t o f s c i e n c e , t h e n they h a v e n o special c l a i m u p o n f i n a l t r u t h . In r e a n a l y z i n g t h e s e classical d a t a sets, I h a v e c o n t i n u a l l y l o c a t e d a p r i o r i p r e j u d i c e , l e a d i n g scientists to invalid c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m a d e q u a t e d a t a , o r d i s t o r t i n g t h e g a t h e r i n g o f d a t a itself. I n a few cases—Cyril Burt's d o c u m e n t e d fabrication o f data-on I Q o f i d e n t i c a l twins, a n d m y d i s c o v e r y that G o d d a r d a l t e r e d p h o t o graphs to suggest mental retardation in the K a l l i k a k s — w e can specify c o n s c i o u s f r a u d a s t h e c a u s e o f i n s e r t e d social p r e j u d i c e . B u t f r a u d i s n o t historically i n t e r e s t i n g e x c e p t a s g o s s i p b e c a u s e t h e p e r p e t r a t o r s k n o w w h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g a n d t h e unconscious biases that r e c o r d subtle a n d i n e s c a p a b l e c o n s t r a i n t s o f c u l t u r e a r e n o t illustrated. I n m o s t cases d i s c u s s e d i n this b o o k , w e c a n b e fairly c e r t a i n that b i a s e s — t h o u g h o f t e n e x p r e s s e d a s e g r e g i o u s l y a s i n cases o f c o n s c i o u s f r a u d — w e r e u n k n o w i n g l y influential a n d that scientists b e l i e v e d t h e y w e r e p u r s u i n g u n s u l l i e d t r u t h . S i n c e m a n y o f t h e cases p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e s o p a t e n t , e v e n risible, by today's s t a n d a r d s , I wish to e m p h a s i z e that I h a v e n o t t a k e n c h e a p shots a t m a r g i n a l f i g u r e s (with the possible e x c e p t i o n s o f M r . B e a n in C h a p t e r 3, w h o m I u s e as a c u r t a i n - r a i s e r to illustrate a general point, and Mr. Cartwright in C h a p t e r 2, whose statements a r e t o o p r e c i o u s t o e x c l u d e ) . C h e a p shots c o m e i n thick catal o g u e s — f r o m a eugenicist n a m e d W. D. M c K i m , Ph.D. (1900), w h o t h o u g h t that all n o c t u r n a l h o u s e b r e a k e r s s h o u l d b e d i s p a t c h e d with c a r b o n i c a c i d g a s , t o a c e r t a i n E n g l i s h p r o f e s s o r w h o t o u r e d t h e U n i t e d States d u r i n g t h e late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , o f f e r i n g t h e u n s o l i c i t e d a d v i c e that w e m i g h t solve o u r racial p r o b l e m s i f e v e r y I r i s h m a n killed a N e g r o a n d g o t h a n g e d f o r it.* C h e a p shots a r e also g o s s i p , n o t history; t h e y a r e e p h e m e r a l a n d u n i n f l u e n t i a l , h o w e v e r a m u s i n g . I h a v e f o c u s e d u p o n t h e l e a d i n g a n d m o s t influential scientists o f their times a n d h a v e a n a l y z e d t h e i r m a j o r w o r k s . I h a v e e n j o y e d p l a y i n g d e t e c t i v e in m o s t of t h e case studies that m a k e u p this b o o k : f i n d i n g p a s s a g e s e x p u r g a t e d w i t h o u t c o m m e n t * Also too precious to exclude is my favorite modern invocation of biological determinism as an excuse for dubious behavior. Bill Lee, baseball's self-styled philosopher, justifying the beanball (New York Times, 24 July 1976): "I read a book in college called 'Territorial Imperative.' A fellow always has to protect his master's home much stronger than anything down the street; My territory is down and away from the hitters. If they're going out there and getting the ball, I'll have to come in close."

6o

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i n p u b l i s h e d letters, r e c a l c u l a t i n g s u m s t o locate e r r o r s that s u p port expectations, discovering h o w adequate data can be filtered t h r o u g h p r e j u d i c e s t o p r e d e t e r m i n e d results, e v e n g i v i n g t h e A r m y M e n t a l T e s t f o r illiterates t o m y o w n s t u d e n t s with interesti n g results. B u t I trust that w h a t e v e r zeal a n y i n v e s t i g a t o r m u s t invest i n details h a s not o b s c u r e d t h e g e n e r a l m e s s a g e : that d e t e r minist a r g u m e n t s f o r r a n k i n g p e o p l e a c c o r d i n g t o a single scale o f intelligence, no matter now numerically sophisticated, have rec o r d e d little m o r e t h a n social p r e j u d i c e — a n d that w e l e a r n s o m e t h i n g h o p e f u l a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f science i n p u r s u i n g s u c h a n analysis. If this subject w e r e m e r e l y a scholar's abstract c o n c e r n , I c o u l d a p p r o a c h i t i n m o r e m e a s u r e d t o n e . B u t f e w b i o l o g i c a l subjects h a v e h a d a m o r e d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e u p o n millions o f lives. B i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m is, in its e s s e n c e , a theory of limits. It takes t h e c u r r e n t status o f g r o u p s a s a m e a s u r e o f w h e r e they s h o u l d a n d m u s t b e ( e v e n w h i l e it allows s o m e r a r e i n d i v i d u a l s to rise as a c o n s e q u e n c e of their fortunate biology). I h a v e said little a b o u t t h e c u r r e n t r e s u r g e n c e of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m b e c a u s e its i n d i v i d u a l claims a r e usually s o e p h e m e r a l that t h e i r r e f u t a t i o n b e l o n g s i n a m a g a z i n e article o r n e w s p a p e r story. W h o e v e n r e m e m b e r s t h e h o t topics o f ten y e a r s a g o : S h o c k ley's p r o p o s a l s f o r r e i m b u r s i n g v o l u n t a r i l y sterilized i n d i v i d u a l s a c c o r d i n g t o their n u m b e r o f I Q p o i n t s b e l o w t o o , the g r e a t X Y Y d e b a t e , o r t h e a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n u r b a n riots b y d i s e a s e d n e u r o l o g y o f r i o t e r s . I t h o u g h t that i t w o u l d b e m o r e v a l u a b l e a n d i n t e r e s t i n g t o e x a m i n e t h e o r i g i n a l s o u r c e s o f the a r g u m e n t s that still surr o u n d us. T h e s e , a t least, display g r e a t a n d e n l i g h t e n i n g e r r o r s . B u t I was i n s p i r e d to w r i t e this b o o k b e c a u s e b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n ism is rising in p o p u l a r i t y a g a i n , as it always d o e s in times of political r e t r e n c h m e n t . T h e cocktail p a r t y circuit has b e e n b u z z i n g with its u s u a l p r o f u n d i t y a b o u t i n n a t e a g g r e s s i o n , sex r o l e s , a n d t h e n a k e d a p e . Millions o f p e o p l e a r e n o w s u s p e c t i n g that their social p r e j u d i c e s a r e scientific facts a f t e r all. Y e t t h e s e latent p r e j u d i c e s t h e m s e l v e s , n o t f r e s h d a t a , are t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f r e n e w e d attention. W e pass t h r o u g h this w o r l d b u t o n c e . F e w t r a g e d i e s c a n b e m o r e e x t e n s i v e t h a n t h e s t u n t i n g o f life, few injustices d e e p e r t h a n t h e d e n i a l o f a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o strive o r e v e n t o h o p e , b y a limit

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i m p o s e d f r o m w i t h o u t , b u t falsely identified a s l y i n g w i t h i n . C i c e r o tells t h e story o f Z o p y r u s , w h o c l a i m e d that S o c r a t e s h a d i n b o r n vices e v i d e n t in his p h y s i o g n o m y . His disciples r e j e c t e d t h e c l a i m , b u t S o c r a t e s d e f e n d e d Z o p y r u s a n d stated that h e d i d i n d e e d possess t h e vices, b u t h a d c a n c e l l e d their effects t h r o u g h t h e e x e r c i s e of reason. We inhabit a world of h u m a n differences and predilections, b u t the e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f t h e s e facts t o t h e o r i e s o f r i g i d limits is i d e o l o g y . G e o r g e Eliot well a p p r e c i a t e d t h e special t r a g e d y that b i o l o g i c a l labeling imposed u p o n m e m b e r s of disadvantaged g r o u p s . She e x p r e s s e d i t f o r p e o p l e like h e r s e l f — w o m e n o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y talent. I w o u l d apply it m o r e w i d e l y — n o t only to those whose dreams a r e f l o u t e d b u t also t o t h o s e w h o n e v e r realize that they m a y d r e a m . B u t I c a n n o t m a t c h h e r p r o s e ( f r o m t h e p r e l u d e t o Middlemarch): S o m e have felt that these blundering lives are d u e to the inconvenient indefiniteness with which the S u p r e m e Power has fashioned the natures of women: if there were o n e level of feminine incompetence as strict as the ability to count three and no more, the social lot of w o m e n might be treated with scientific certitude. T h e limits of variation are really much wider than anyone would imagine from the sameness of women's coiffure and the favorite love stories in prose and verse. H e r e and there a cygnet is reared uneasily a m o n g the ducklings in the brown p o n d , and never finds the living stream in fellowship with its own oary-footed kind. Here and there is born a Saint Theresa, foundress of nothing, whose loving heartbeats and sobs after an unattained goodness tremble off and are dispersed a m o n g hindrances instead of centering in some long-recognizable d e e d .

TWO

American Polygeny and Craniometry before Darwin Blacks and Indians as Separate, Inferior Species Order is Heaven's first law; and, this confessed, Some are, and must be, greater than the rest. — ALEXANDER POPE, Essay on Man (1733) APPEALS TO REASON or to t h e n a t u r e of t h e u n i v e r s e h a v e b e e n u s e d t h r o u g h o u t history to enshrine existing hierarchies as p r o p e r and inevitable. T h e h i e r a r c h i e s r a r e l y e n d u r e f o r m o r e t h a n a few g e n erations, but the arguments, refurbished for the next r o u n d of social institutions, cycle endlessly. T h e c a t a l o g u e o f justifications b a s e d o n n a t u r e t r a v e r s e s a r a n g e o f possibilities: e l a b o r a t e a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n r u l e r s a n d a h i e r a r c h y o f s u b o r d i n a t e classes with t h e c e n t r a l e a r t h o f P t o l e m a i c astronomy and a ranked o r d e r of heavenly bodies circling a r o u n d it; o r a p p e a l s t o t h e u n i v e r s a l o r d e r o f a " g r e a t c h a i n o f b e i n g , " r a n g i n g i n a single series f r o m a m o e b a e t o G o d , a n d i n c l u d i n g n e a r its a p e x a g r a d e d series o f h u m a n races a n d classes. T o q u o t e A l e x ander Pope again: Without this just gradation, could they be Subjected, these to those, or all to thee? From Nature's chain whatever link you strike, T e n t h , or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike.

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T h e h u m b l e s t , a s well a s t h e g r e a t e s t , p l a y t h e i r p a r t i n p r e s e r v i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f u n i v e r s a l o r d e r ; all o c c u p y t h e i r a p p o i n t e d r o l e s . T h i s b o o k treats a n a r g u m e n t t h a t , t o m a n y p e o p l e ' s s u r p r i s e , s e e m s to be a l a t e c o m e r : b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m , t h e n o t i o n that p e o p l e a t t h e b o t t o m a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o f intrinsically i n f e r i o r m a t e rial ( p o o r b r a i n s , b a d g e n e s , o r w h a t e v e r ) . P l a t o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , c a u t i o u s l y floated this p r o p o s a l in t h e Republic, b u t finally b r a n d e d it as a lie. Racial p r e j u d i c e m a y b e a s o l d a s r e c o r d e d h u m a n h i s t o r y , b u t its b i o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n i m p o s e d t h e a d d i t i o n a l b u r d e n o f i n t r i n sic i n f e r i o r i t y u p o n d e s p i s e d g r o u p s , a n d p r e c l u d e d r e d e m p t i o n b y c o n v e r s i o n o r assimilation. T h e "scientific" a r g u m e n t has f o r m e d a p r i m a r y line o f attack f o r m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y . I n disc u s s i n g t h e first b i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y s u p p o r t e d b y e x t e n s i v e q u a n t i t a tive d a t a — e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c r a n i o m e t r y — I m u s t b e g i n b y p o s i n g a q u e s t i o n o f causality: d i d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n d u c t i v e science a d d legitimate data to c h a n g e or strengthen a nascent argum e n t f o r racial r a n k i n g ? O r d i d a p r i o r i c o m m i t m e n t t o r a n k i n g f a s h i o n t h e "scientific" q u e s t i o n s a s k e d a n d e v e n t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d to s u p p o r t a f o r e o r d a i n e d c o n c l u s i o n ?

A shared context of culture I n assessing the i m p a c t o f s c i e n c e u p o n e i g h t e e n t h - a n d n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i e w s o f r a c e , w e m u s t first r e c o g n i z e the c u l t u r a l m i l i e u o f a society w h o s e l e a d e r s a n d intellectuals d i d n o t d o u b t t h e p r o p r i e t y o f racial r a n k i n g — w i t h I n d i a n s b e l o w w h i t e s , a n d b l a c k s b e l o w e v e r y b o d y else (Fig. 2.1). U n d e r this u n i v e r s a l u m b r e l l a , a r g u m e n t s d i d n o t c o n t r a s t e q u a l i t y with i n e q u a l i t y . O n e g r o u p ) — w e m i g h t call t h e m " h a r d - l i n e r s " — h e l d that b l a c k s w e r e i n f e r i o r a n d that t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l status j u s t i f i e d e n s l a v e m e n t a n d colonization. A n o t h e r g r o u p — t h e "soft-liners," if y o u w i l l — a g r e e d that blacks w e r e i n f e r i o r , b u t h e l d that a p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o f r e e d o m d i d n o t d e p e n d u p o n their level o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . " W h a t e v e r b e t h e i r d e g r e e o f t a l e n t s , " w r o t e T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n , "it i s n o m e a s u r e o f their rights." Soft-liners h e l d v a r i o u s a t t i t u d e s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f black disa d v a n t a g e . S o m e a r g u e d that p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n a n d s t a n d a r d o f life c o u l d " r a i s e " blacks to a w h i t e l e v e l ; o t h e r s a d v o c a t e d p e r m a -

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n e n t black i n e p t i t u d e . T h e y also d i s a g r e e d a b o u t t h e biological o r c u l t u r a l r o o t s o f black i n f e r i o r i t y . Y e t , t h r o u g h o u t the e g a l i t a r i a n tradition of the E u r o p e a n Enlightenment and the A m e r i c a n revolution, I c a n n o t identify a n y p o p u l a r position r e m o t e l y like t h e " c u l tural r e l a t i v i s m " that p r e v a i l s (at least by lip-service) in liberal circles t o d a y . T h e n e a r e s t a p p r o a c h i s a c o m m o n a r g u m e n t that black i n f e riority is p u r e l y c u l t u r a l a n d that it c a n be c o m p l e t e l y e r a d i c a t e d by e d u c a t i o n to a C a u c a s i a n s t a n d a r d . A l l A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e h e r o e s e m b r a c e d racial a t t i t u d e s that would embarrass public-school mythmakers. Benjamin Franklin, w h i l e v i e w i n g t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f blacks a s p u r e l y c u l t u r a l a n d c o m pletely r e m e d i a b l e , n o n e t h e l e s s e x p r e s s e d his h o p e that A m e r i c a w o u l d b e c o m e a d o m a i n o f w h i t e s , u n d i l u t e d b y less p l e a s i n g c o l o r s . I could wish their numbers were increased. A n d while we are, as I may call it, scouring our planet, by clearing America of woods, and so making this side of our globe reflect a brighter light to the eyes of inhabitants in Mars or V e n u s , why should we . . . darken its people? Why increase the Sons of Africa, by planting them in America, where we have so fair an opportunity, by excluding all blacks and tawneys, of increasing the lovely white and red?* (Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, 1751). O t h e r s a m o n g o u r h e r o e s a r g u e d f o r biological inferiority. T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n w r o t e , albeit tentatively: " I a d v a n c e it, t h e r e f o r e , as a s u s p i c i o n o n l y , that t h e b l a c k s , w h e t h e r o r i g i n a l l y a distinct r a c e , o r m a d e distinct b y t i m e a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e , a r e i n f e r i o r t o the whites i n t h e e n d o w m e n t b o t h o f b o d y a n d m i n d " (in Gossett, 1 9 6 5 , p . 44). L i n c o l n ' s p l e a s u r e a t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f black soldiers i n the U n i o n a r m y g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d his r e s p e c t f o r f r e e d m e n a n d f o r m e r slaves. B u t f r e e d o m does not imply biological equality, a n d Lincoln n e v e r * I have been struck by the frequency of such aesthetic claims as a basis of racial preference. Although J. F. Blumenbach, the founder of anthropology, had stated that toads must view other toads as paragons of beauty, many astute intellectuals never doubted the equation of whiteness with perfection. Franklin at least had the decency to include the original inhabitants in his future America; but, a century later, Oliver Wendell Holmes rejoiced in the elimination of Indians on aesthetic grounds: ". . . and so the red-crayon sketch is rubbed out, and the canvas is ready for a picture of manhood a little more like God's own image" (in Gossett, 1965, p. 243).

Greek Apollo Belvidere

2*1 T h e unilinear scale of h u m a n races and lower relatives according to Nott and Gliddon, 1868. T h e chimpanzee skull is falsely inflated, and the N e g r o jaw e x t e n d e d , to give the impression that blacks might even rank lower than the apes.

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a b a n d o n e d a basic a t t i t u d e , so s t r o n g l y e x p r e s s e d in t h e D o u g l a s debates (1858): T h e r e is a physical difference between the white and black races which I believe will forever forbid the two races living together on terms of social and political equality. A n d inasmuch as they cannot so live, while they do remain together there must be the position of superior and inferior, and I as m u c h as any other man am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race. Lest w e c h o o s e t o r e g a r d this s t a t e m e n t a s m e r e c a m p a i g n r h e t o r i c , I cite this p r i v a t e j o t t i n g , s c r i b b l e d on a f r a g m e n t of p a p e r in 1 8 5 9 : N e g r o equality! Fudge! H o w long, in the G o v e r n m e n t of a God great e n o u g h to make and rule the universe, shall there continue knaves to vend, and fools to quip, so low a piece of d e m a g o g i s m as this (in Sinkler, 1972, P- 47)I do n o t cite these s t a t e m e n t s in o r d e r to r e l e a s e s k e l e t o n s f r o m a n c i e n t closets. R a t h e r , I q u o t e t h e m e n w h o h a v e j u s t l y e a r n e d o u r h i g h e s t r e s p e c t i n o r d e r t o s h o w that w h i t e l e a d e r s o f W e s t e r n n a t i o n s d i d n o t q u e s t i o n t h e p r o p r i e t y o f racial r a n k i n g d u r i n g the e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . I n this c o n t e x t , t h e p e r v a s i v e assent g i v e n b y scientists t o c o n v e n t i o n a l r a n k i n g s a r o s e f r o m s h a r e d social belief, n o t f r o m objective d a t a g a t h e r e d t o test a n o p e n q u e s t i o n . Y e t , i n a c u r i o u s case o f r e v e r s e d causality, these p r o n o u n c e m e n t s w e r e r e a d a s i n d e p e n d e n t s u p p o r t f o r t h e political context. A l l l e a d i n g scientists f o l l o w e d social c o n v e n t i o n s (Figs. 2.2 a n d 2.3). I n t h e f i r s t f o r m a l d e f i n i t i o n o f h u m a n races i n m o d e r n t a x o n o m i c t e r m s , L i n n a e u s m i x e d c h a r a c t e r w i t h a n a t o m y (Systema naturae, 1 7 5 8 ) . Homo sapiens afer (the A f r i c a n b l a c k ) , he p r o c l a i m e d , is " r u l e d by c a p r i c e " ; Homo sapiens europaeus is " r u l e d by c u s t o m s . " Of A f r i c a n w o m e n , he w r o t e : mammae lactantes prolixae—breasts lactate profusely. T h e men, he a d d e d , are indolent and annoint themselves with g r e a s e . T h e t h r e e g r e a t e s t naturalists o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y d i d n o t h o l d blacks i n h i g h e s t e e m . G e o r g e s C u v i e r , w i d e l y h a i l e d i n F r a n c e a s the A r i s t o t l e o f his a g e , a n d a f o u n d e r o f g e o l o g y , p a l e o n t o l o g y , a n d m o d e r n c o m p a r a t i v e a n a t o m y , r e f e r r e d t o native A f r i c a n s a s

Algerian N e g r o

Saharran N e g r o

Gorilla

2»2 An unsubtle attempt to suggest strong affinity between blacks and gorillas. From Nott and Gliddon, Types of Mankind, 1854. Nott and Glidd o n c o m m e n t on this figure: "The palpable analogies and dissimilitudes between an inferior type of mankind and a superior type of monkey require no comment."

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" t h e m o s t d e g r a d e d o f h u m a n races, w h o s e f o r m a p p r o a c h e s that o f t h e beast a n d w h o s e i n t e l l i g e n c e i s n o w h e r e g r e a t e n o u g h t o a r r i v e a t r e g u l a r g o v e r n m e n t " ( C u v i e r , 1 8 1 2 , p . 105). C h a r l e s L y e l l , the c o n v e n t i o n a l f o u n d e r o f m o d e r n g e o l o g y , w r o t e : T h e brain of the B u s h m a n . . . leads towards the brain of the Simiadae [monkeys]. This implies a c o n n e x i o n between want of intelligence and structural assimilation. Each race of Man has its place, like the inferior animals (in Wilson, 1970, p. 347). C h a r l e s D a r w i n , t h e k i n d l y liberal a n d p a s s i o n a t e abolitionist,* wrote about a future time w h e n the g a p between h u m a n and a p e will i n c r e a s e b y the a n t i c i p a t e d e x t i n c t i o n o f s u c h i n t e r m e d i a t e s a s chimpanzees and Hottentots. T h e break will then be rendered wider, for it will intervene between man in a more civilized state, as we may hope, than the Causasian, and some ape as low as a babon, instead of as at preent between the negro or Australian and the gorilla [Descent of Man, 1871, p. 201). E v e n m o r e i n s t r u c t i v e a r e t h e beliefs o f t h o s e few scientists o f t e n cited i n r e t r o s p e c t a s c u l t u r a l relativisits a n d d e f e n d e r s o f equality. J . F . B l u m e n b a c h a t t r i b u t e d racial d i f f e r e n c e s t o t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f climate. H e p r o t e s t e d r a n k i n g s b a s e d o n p r e s u m e d m e n t a l ability a n d a s s e m b l e d a c o l l e c t i o n of b o o k s w r i t t e n by blacks. N o n e t h e l e s s , h e d i d n o t d o u b t that w h i t e p e o p l e set a s t a n d a r d , f r o m w h i c h all o t h e r races m u s t be v i e w e d as d e p a r t u r e s (see essay 4 at e n d of b o o k for m o r e information about B l u m e n b a c h ) : T h e Caucasian must, on every physiological principle, be considered as the primary or intermediate of these five principal Races. T h e two extremes into which it has deviated, are on the o n e hand the Mongolian, on the other the Ethiopian [African blacks] (1825, P- 37)* Darwin wrote, for example, in the Voyage of the Beagle: "Near Rio de Janeiro I lived opposite to an old lady, who kept screws to crush the fingers of her female slaves. I have stayed in a house where a young household mulatto, daily and hourly, was reviled, beaten, and persecuted enough to break the spirit of the lowest animal. I have seen a little boy, six or seven years old, struck thrice with a horse-whip (before I could interfere) opn his naked head, for having handed me a glass of water not quite clean. . . . And these deeds are done and palliated by men, who profess to love their neighbors as themselves, who believe in God, and pray that his Will be done on earth! It makes one's blood boil, yet heart tremble, to think that we Englishmen and our American descendants, with their boastful cry of liberty, have been and are so guilty."

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A l e x a n d e r von H u m b o l d t , world traveler, statesman, and greatest p o p u l a r i z e r o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s c i e n c e , w o u l d b e t h e h e r o o f all m o d e r n e g a l i t a r i a n s w h o seek a n t e c e d e n t s i n history. H e , m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r scientist o f his t i m e , a r g u e d f o r c e f u l l y a n d a t l e n g t h a g a i n s t r a n k i n g o n m e n t a l o r aesthetic g r o u n d s . H e also d r e w political i m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m his c o n v i c t i o n s , a n d c a m p a i g n e d against all f o r m s o f slavery a n d s u b j u g a t i o n a s i m p e d i m e n t s t o t h e n a t u r a l s t r i v i n g o f all p e o p l e t o attain m e n t a l e x c e l l e n c e . H e w r o t e i n t h e m o s t f a m o u s p a s s a g e of his five-volume Cosmos: Whilst we maintain the unity of the h u m a n species, we at the same time repel the depressing assumption of superior and inferior races of m e n . T h e r e are nations more susceptible of cultivation than others—but n o n e in themselves nobler than others. All are in like d e g r e e designed for freedom (1849, p. 368). Y e t even H u m b o l d t invoked innate mental difference to resolve s o m e d i l e m m a s o f h u m a n history. W h y , h e asks i n t h e s e c o n d volu m e o f Cosmos, d i d the A r a b s e x p l o d e i n c u l t u r e a n d science s o o n a f t e r t h e rise o f I s l a m , w h i l e S c y t h i a n tribes o f s o u t h e a s t e r n E u r o p e stuck t o their a n c i e n t w a y s ; f o r b o t h p e o p l e s w e r e n o m a d i c a n d shared a c o m m o n climate and environment? H u m b o l d t did find some cultural d i f f e r e n c e s — g r e a t e r contact of A r a b s with surr o u n d i n g u r b a n i z e d c u l t u r e s , f o r e x a m p l e . B u t , i n t h e e n d , h e lab e l e d A r a b s a s a " m o r e h i g h l y g i f t e d r a c e " with g r e a t e r " n a t u r a l a d a p t a b i l i t y f o r m e n t a l c u l t i v a t i o n " ( 1 8 4 9 , P- 57^)A l f r e d Russel W a l l a c e , c o d i s c o v e r e r o f n a t u r a l selection with D a r w i n , i s j u s t l y h a i l e d a s a n antiracist. I n d e e d , h e d i d affirm n e a r equality i n t h e i n n a t e m e n t a l c a p a c i t y o f all p e o p l e s . Y e t , c u r i o u s l y , this v e r y b e l i e f led h i m t o a b a n d o n n a t u r a l selection a n d r e t u r n t o divine creation as an explanation for the h u m a n m i n d — m u c h to D a r w i n ' s d i s g u s t . N a t u r a l selection, W a l l a c e a r g u e d , c a n o n l y b u i l d structures immediately useful to animals possessing them. T h e b r a i n o f s a v a g e s is, p o t e n t i a l l y , a s g o o d a s o u r s . B u t t h e y d o n o t use i t fully, a s t h e r u d e n e s s a n d i n f e r i o r i t y o f t h e i r c u l t u r e indicates. S i n c e m o d e r n s a v a g e s a r e m u c h like h u m a n a n c e s t o r s , o u r b r a i n m u s t h a v e d e v e l o p e d its h i g h e r c a p a c i t i e s l o n g b e f o r e w e p u t t h e m to a n y use.

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Preevolutionary styles of scientific racism: monogenism and polygenism P r e e v o l u t i o n a r y j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r racial r a n k i n g p r o c e e d e d i n two modes. T h e "softer" a r g u m e n t — a g a i n using inappropriate definitions f r o m m o d e r n p e r s p e c t i v e s — u p h e l d t h e s c r i p t u r a l u n i t y o f all p e o p l e s i n the single c r e a t i o n o f A d a m a n d E v e . T h i s v i e w was called monogenism—or o r i g i n f r o m a single s o u r c e . H u m a n races are a p r o d u c t o f d e g e n e r a t i o n f r o m E d e n ' s p e r f e c t i o n . R a c e s h a v e d e c l i n e d t o d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s , whites least a n d blacks most. C l i m a t e p r o v e d most p o p u l a r as a p r i m a r y c a u s e f o r racial distinction. D e g e n e r a t i o n i s t s d i f f e r e d o n t h e r e m e d i a b i l i t y o f m o d e r n deficits. S o m e h e l d that t h e d i f f e r e n c e s , t h o u g h d e v e l o p e d g r a d u a l l y u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e o f c l i m a t e , w e r e n o w f i x e d a n d c o u l d n e v e r b e rev e r s e d . O t h e r s a r g u e d that the fact o f g r a d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t i m p l i e d reversibility i n a p p r o p r i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t s . S a m u e l S t a n h o p e S m i t h , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e C o l l e g e o f N e w J e r s e y (later P r i n c e t o n ) , h o p e d that A m e r i c a n blacks, in a climate m o r e suited to Caucasian temperam e n t s , w o u l d s o o n t u r n w h i t e . B u t o t h e r d e g e n e r a t i o n i s t s felt that i m p r o v e m e n t in benevolent climes could not proceed rapidly e n o u g h t o h a v e a n y i m p a c t u p o n h u m a n history. T h e " h a r d e r " a r g u m e n t a b a n d o n e d scripture as allegorical and h e l d that h u m a n races w e r e s e p a r a t e b i o l o g i c a l species, the d e s c e n d a n t s o f d i f f e r e n t A d a m s . A s a n o t h e r f o r m o f life, blacks n e e d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e " e q u a l i t y o f m a n . " P r o p o n e n t s o f this a r g u m e n t w e r e called " p o l y g e n i s t s . " Degenerationism was probably the m o r e p o p u l a r a r g u m e n t , if o n l y b e c a u s e s c r i p t u r e w a s n o t t o b e d i s c a r d e d lightly. M o r e o v e r , t h e interfertility o f all h u m a n races s e e m e d t o g u a r a n t e e their u n i o n as a single species u n d e r B u f f o n ' s c r i t e r i o n that m e m b e r s of a species b e a b l e t o b r e e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r , b u t n o t w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a n y o t h e r g r o u p . B u f f o n himself, the g r e a t e s t naturalist o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F r a n c e , w a s a s t r o n g abolitionist a n d e x p o n e n t o f i m p r o v e m e n t for inferior races in appropriate environments. B u t h e n e v e r d o u b t e d t h e i n h e r e n t validity o f a w h i t e s t a n d a r d : T h e most temperate climate lies between the 40th and 50th d e g r e e of latitude, and it produces the most h a n d s o m e and beautiful men. It is from this climate that the ideas of the g e n u i n e color of mankind, and of the various degrees of beauty o u g h t to be derived.

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S o m e d e g e n e r a t i o n i s t s cited t h e i r c o m m i t m e n t s i n the n a m e o f h u m a n brotherhood. Etienne Serres, a famous French medical a n a t o m i s t , w r o t e i n i 8 6 0 that t h e perfectability o f l o w e r r a c e s disting u i s h e d h u m a n s a s t h e o n l y species subject t o i m p r o v e m e n t b y its o w n e f f o r t s . H e l a m b a s t e d p o l y g e n y a s a " s a v a g e t h e o r y " that " s e e m s t o l e n d scientific s u p p o r t t o t h e e n s l a v e m e n t o f races less a d v a n c e d in civilization t h a n t h e C a u c a s i a n " : T h e i r conclusion is that the N e g r o is no more a white man than a donkey is a horse or a zebra—a theory put into practice in the United States of America, to the shame of civilization (i860, pp. 407-408). N o n e t h e l e s s , S e r r e s w o r k e d t o d o c u m e n t the signs o f i n f e r i o r i t y a m o n g l o w e r r a c e s . A s a n a n a t o m i s t , h e s o u g h t e v i d e n c e within his specialty a n d c o n f e s s e d t o s o m e difficulty i n e s t a b l i s h i n g b o t h criteria a n d d a t a . H e settled o n t h e t h e o r y o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n — t h e i d e a that h i g h e r c r e a t u r e s r e p e a t t h e a d u l t stages o f l o w e r a n i m a l s d u r i n g t h e i r o w n g r o w t h ( C h a p t e r 4). A d u l t blacks, h e a r g u e d , s h o u l d b e like w h i t e c h i l d r e n , a d u l t M o n g o l i a n s like w h i t e a d o l e s c e n t s . H e s e a r c h e d d i l i g e n t l y b u t d e v i s e d n o t h i n g m u c h b e t t e r t h a n t h e dist a n c e b e t w e e n n a v e l a n d p e n i s — " t h a t i n e f f a c e a b l e sign o f e m b r y o n i c life in m a n . " T h i s d i s t a n c e is small relative to b o d y h e i g h t in babies o f all races. T h e n a v e l m i g r a t e s u p w a r d d u r i n g g r o w t h , b u t attains g r e a t e r h e i g h t s i n whites t h a n i n y e l l o w s , a n d n e v e r gets v e r y f a r a t all i n blacks. B l a c k s r e m a i n p e r p e t u a l l y like w h i t e c h i l d r e n a n d a n n o u n c e their inferiority thereby. P o l y g e n y , t h o u g h less p o p u l a r , h a d its illustrious s u p p o r t e r s as well. D a v i d H u m e d i d n o t s p e n d his life a b s o r b e d i n p u r e t h o u g h t . H e h e l d a n u m b e r o f political posts, i n c l u d i n g the s t e w a r d s h i p o f t h e E n g l i s h c o l o n i a l office i n 1 7 6 6 . H u m e a d v o c a t e d b o t h t h e s e p a r a t e c r e a t i o n a n d i n n a t e i n f e r i o r i t y o f n o n w h i t e races: I am apt to suspect the negroes and in general all the other species of m e n (for there are four or five different kinds) to be naturally inferior to the whites. T h e r e never was a civilized nation of any other complexion than white, nor even any individual e m i n e n t either in action or speculation.* No ingenious manufacturers amongst them, no arts, no sciences. . . . Such a *This "inductive" argument from human cultures is far from dead as a defense of racism. In his Study of History (1934 edition), Arnold Toynbee wrote: "When we classify mankind by color, the only one of the primary races, given by this classification, which has not made a creative contribution to any of our twenty-one civilizations is the Black Race" (in Newby, 1969, p. 217).

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uniform and constant difference could not h a p p e n in so many countries and ages, if nature had not made an original distinction betwixt these breeds of m e n . Not to mention our colonies, there are negroe slaves dispersed all over Europe, of which n o n e ever discovered any symptoms of ingenuity, tho' low people without education will start up amongst us, and distinguish themselves in every profession. In Jamaica indeed they talk of one negroe as a man of parts and learning; but 'tis likely he is admired for very slender accomplishments like a parrot w h o speaks a few words plainly (in Popkin, 1974, p. 143; see Popkin's excellent article for a long analysis of H u m e as a polygenist). C h a r l e s W h i t e , a n E n g l i s h s u r g e o n , w r o t e the s t r o n g e s t d e f e n s e of p o l y g e n y in 1799—Account of the Regular Gradation in Man. W h i t e a b a n d o n e d B u f f o n ' s c r i t e r i o n o f interfertility i n d e f i n i n g species, p o i n t i n g t o successful h y b r i d s b e t w e e n s u c h c o n v e n t i o n a l l y s e p a r a t e g r o u p s a s f o x e s , w o l v e s , a n d j a c k a l s . * H e railed a g a i n s t t h e idea that c l i m a t e m i g h t p r o d u c e racial d i f f e r e n c e s , a r g u i n g that s u c h ideas might lead, by extension, to the " d e g r a d i n g notion" of evolution b e t w e e n species. H e d i s c l a i m e d a n y political m o t i v a t i o n a n d a n n o u n c e d an u n t a i n t e d p u r p o s e : " t o investigate a p r o p o s i t i o n in natural history." H e explicitly r e j e c t e d a n y e x t e n s i o n o f p o l y g e n y t o " c o u n t e n a n c e the p e r n i c i o u s p r a c t i c e o f e n s l a v i n g m a n k i n d . " W h i t e ' s criteria o f r a n k i n g t e n d e d t o w a r d t h e aesthetic, a n d his arg u m e n t i n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g g e m , o f t e n q u o t e d . W h e r e else b u t a m o n g Caucasians, he argued, can we find . . . that nobly arched head, containing such a quantity of brain. . . . Where that variety of features, and fulness of expression; those long, flow* Modern evolutionary theory does invoke a barrier to interfertility as the primary criterion for status as a species. In the standard definition: "Species are actually or potentially interbreeding populations sharing a common gene pool, and reproductively isolated from all other groups." Reproductive isolation, however, does not mean that individual hybrids never arise, but only that the two species maintain their integrity in natural contact. Hybrids may be sterile (mules). Fertile hybrids may even arise quite frequently, but if natural selection acts preferentially against them (as a result of inferiority in structural design, rejection as mates by full members of either species, etc.) they will not increase in frequency and the two species will not amalgamate. Often fertile hybrids can be produced in the laboratory by imposing situations not encountered in nature (forced breeding between species that normally mature at different times of the year, for example). Such examples do not refute a status as separate species because the two groups do not amalgamate in the wild (maturation at different times of the year may be an efficient means of reproductive isolation).

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ing, graceful ring-lets; that majestic beard, those rosy cheeks and coral lips? Where t h a t . . . noble gait? In what other quarter of the globe shall we find the blush that overspreads the soft features of the beautiful w o m e n of Europe, that e m b l e m of modesty, of delicate feelings . . . where, except on the bosom of the European w o m a n , two such p l u m p and snowy white hemispheres, tipt with vermillion (in Stanton, i960, p. 17).

Louis Agassiz—America's theorist of polygeny R a l p h W a l d o E m e r s o n a r g u e d that intellectual e m a n c i p a t i o n s h o u l d f o l l o w political i n d e p e n d e n c e . A m e r i c a n scholars s h o u l d a b a n d o n t h e i r s u b s e r v i e n c e t o E u r o p e a n styles a n d t h e o r i e s . W e h a v e , E m e r s o n w r o t e , " l i s t e n e d t o o l o n g t o the c o u r t l y m u s e s o f E u r o p e . " " W e will w a l k o n o u r o w n f e e t ; w e will w o r k with o u r o w n h a n d s ; w e will s p e a k o u r o w n m i n d s " (in S t a n t o n , i g 6 o , p . 84). In the early to mid-nineteenth century, the b u d d i n g profession o f A m e r i c a n science o r g a n i z e d itself t o f o l l o w E m e r s o n ' s a d v i c e . A collection o f eclectic a m a t e u r s , b o w i n g b e f o r e the p r e s t i g e o f E u r o p e a n theorists, b e c a m e a g r o u p o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s with i n d i g e n o u s ideas a n d a n i n t e r n a l d y n a m i c that d i d n o t r e q u i r e c o n s t a n t f u e l i n g f r o m E u r o p e . T h e doctrine of polygeny acted as an important agent i n this t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ; f o r i t w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t t h e o r i e s o f l a r g e l y A m e r i c a n o r i g i n that w o n t h e a t t e n t i o n a n d r e s p e c t o f E u r o p e a n s c i e n t i s t s — s o m u c h s o that E u r o p e a n s r e f e r r e d t o p o l y g e n y a s t h e " A m e r i c a n school" of anthropology. Polygeny had E u r o p e a n antec e d e n t s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , b u t A m e r i c a n s d e v e l o p e d t h e d a t a cited i n its s u p p o r t a n d b a s e d a l a r g e b o d y of r e s e a r c h on its t e n e t s . I shall concentrate on the two most famous advocates of p o l y g e n y — A g a s siz t h e t h e o r i s t a n d M o r t o n t h e d a t a analyst; a n d I shall try to u n cover both the hidden motives and the finagling of data so central to t h e i r s u p p o r t . * F o r starters, it is o b v i o u s l y n o t a c c i d e n t a l that a n a t i o n still p r a c t i c i n g slavery a n d e x p e l l i n g its a b o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s f r o m t h e i r h o m e l a n d s s h o u l d h a v e p r o v i d e d a base f o r t h e o r i e s that blacks a n d I n d i a n s a r e s e p a r a t e species, i n f e r i o r t o whites. L o u i s A g a s s i z ( 1 8 0 7 — 1 8 7 3 ) , t h e g r e a t Swiss naturalist, w o n his r e p u t a t i o n i n E u r o p e , p r i m a r i l y a s C u v i e r ' s disciple a n d a s t u d e n t o f * An excellent history of the entire "American school" can be found in W. Stanton's The Leopard's Spots.

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fossil fishes. H i s i m m i g r a t i o n t o A m e r i c a i n t h e 1840s i m m e d i a t e l y e l e v a t e d t h e status o f A m e r i c a n n a t u r a l history. F o r the f i r s t t i m e , a major E u r o p e a n theorist had f o u n d e n o u g h of value in the United States to c o m e a n d stay. A g a s s i z b e c a m e a p r o f e s s o r at H a r v a r d , w h e r e he f o u n d e d a n d directed the M u s e u m of C o m p a r a t i v e Zoolo g y until his d e a t h i n 1 8 7 3 ( I o c c u p y a n office i n t h e o r i g i n a l w i n g of his b u i l d i n g ) . A g a s s i z was a c h a r m e r ; he was l i o n i z e d in social a n d intellectual circles f r o m B o s t o n t o C h a r l e s t o w n . H e s p o k e f o r science w i t h b o u n d l e s s e n t h u s i a s m a n d r a i s e d m o n e y with e q u a l zeal t o s u p p o r t his b u i l d i n g s , collections, a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s . N o m a n d i d m o r e t o establish a n d e n h a n c e t h e p r e s t i g e o f A m e r i c a n b i o l o g y d u r i n g the nineteenth century. A g a s s i z also b e c a m e t h e l e a d i n g s p o k e s m a n f o r p o l y g e n y i n A m e r i c a . H e d i d n o t b r i n g this t h e o r y w i t h h i m f r o m E u r o p e . H e c o n v e r t e d t o t h e d o c t r i n e o f h u m a n r a c e s a s s e p a r a t e species a f t e r his f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h A m e r i c a n blacks. A g a s s i z d i d n o t e m b r a c e p o l y g e n y a s a c o n s c i o u s political d o c t r i n e . H e n e v e r d o u b t e d the p r o p r i e t y o f racial r a n k i n g , b u t h e d i d c o u n t h i m s e l f a m o n g t h e o p p o n e n t s o f slavery. His a d h e r e n c e t o p o l y g e n y f l o w e d easily f r o m p r o c e d u r e s o f b i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h that h e h a d d e v e l o p e d i n o t h e r a n d e a r l i e r c o n t e x t s . H e was, f i r s t o f all, a d e v o u t c r e a t i o n i s t w h o lived l o n g e n o u g h t o b e c o m e the o n l y m a j o r scientific o p p o n e n t o f e v o l u t i o n . B u t n e a r l y all scientists w e r e c r e ationists b e f o r e 1 8 5 9 , a n d m o s t d i d n o t b e c o m e p o l y g e n i s t s (racial d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h i n a single species p o s e d no t h r e a t to t h e d o c t r i n e o f special c r e a t i o n — j u s t c o n s i d e r b r e e d s o f d o g s a n d cattle). A g a s s i z ' s p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o p o l y g e n y a r o s e p r i m a r i l y f r o m t w o asp e c t s o f his p e r s o n a l t h e o r i e s a n d m e t h o d s : 1. I n s t u d y i n g t h e g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a n i m a l s a n d p l a n t s , Agassiz developed a theory about "centers of creation." He believed t h a t species w e r e c r a t e d i n t h e i r p r o p e r p l a c e s a n d d i d n o t g e n e r a l l y migrate far f r o m these centers. O t h e r b i o g e o g r a p h e r s invoked crea t i o n in a s i n g l e s p o t w i t h e x t e n s i v e m i g r a t i o n t h e r e a f t e r . T h u s , w h e n A g a s s i z s t u d i e d w h a t w e w o u l d n o w r e g a r d a s a single w i d e s p r e a d s p e c i e s , d i v i d e d into fairly distinct g e o g r a p h i c a l r a c e s , h e t e n d e d t o n a m e s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e s p e c i e s , e a c h c r e a t e d a t its c e n t e r of o r i g i n . Homo sapiens is a p r i m a r y e x a m p l e of a c o s m o p o l i t a n , variable species.

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2. A g a s s i z w a s an e x t r e m e splitter in his t a x c n o . n i c practice. T a x o n o m i s t s t e n d t o fall i n t o t w o c a m p s — " l u m p e r s , " w h o c o n c e n trate o n similarities a n d a m a l g a m a t e g r o u p s with small d i f f e r e n c e s into single s p e c i e s , a n d " s p l i t t e r s , " w h o f o c u s o n m i n u t e distinctions a n d establish species o n t h e smallest peculiarities o f d e s i g n . A g a s s i z was a splitter a m o n g splitters. H e o n c e n a m e d t h r e e g e n e r a o f fossil fishes f r o m isolated t e e t h that a later p a l e o n t o l o g i s t f o u n d in t h e v a r i a b l e d e n t i t i o n o f a single i n d i v i d u a l . H e n a m e d invalid species of freshwater fishes by the h u n d r e d s , basing them u p o n peculiar i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n single, v a r i a b l e species. A n e x t r e m e splitter w h o v i e w e d o r g a n i s m s a s c r e a t e d o v e r their e n t i r e r a n g e m i g h t well b e t e m p t e d t o r e g a r d h u m a n races a s s e p a r a t e c r e a t i o n s . N o n e t h e l e s s , before c o m i n g to A m e r i c a , Agassiz advocated the doctrine of human u n i t y — e v e n t h o u g h he viewed o u r variation as exceptional. He w r o t e in 1 8 4 5 : H e r e is revealed anew the superiority of the h u m a n genre and its greater i n d e p e n d e n c e in nature. Whereas the animals are distinct species in the different zoological provinces to which they appertain, man, despite the diversity of his races, constitutes o n e and the same species over all the surface of the globe (in Stanton, i960, p. 101). Agassiz may have b e e n predisposed to p o l y g e n y by biological belief, b u t I d o u b t that this p i o u s m a n w o u l d h a v e a b a n d o n e d t h e Biblical o r t h o d o x y o f a single A d a m i f h e h a d n o t b e e n c o n f r o n t e d b o t h b y the sight o f A m e r i c a n blacks a n d t h e u r g i n g s o f his p o l y g e nist c o l l e a g u e s . A g a s s i z n e v e r g e n e r a t e d a n y d a t a f o r p o l y g e n y . His c o n v e r s i o n f o l l o w e d a n i m m e d i a t e visceral j u d g m e n t a n d s o m e p e r sistent p e r s u a s i o n b y f r i e n d s . H i s later s u p p o r t r e s t e d o n n o t h i n g d e e p e r in the realm of biological k n o w l e d g e . A g a s s i z h a d n e v e r s e e n a black p e r s o n i n E u r o p e . W h e n h e f i r s t m e t blacks as s e r v a n t s at his P h i l a d e l p h i a h o t e l in 1 8 4 6 , he e x p e r i e n c e d a p r o n o u n c e d visceral r e v u l s i o n . T h i s j a r r i n g e x p e r i e n c e , c o u p l e d with his s e x u a l fears a b o u t m i s c e g e n a t i o n , a p p a r e n t l y established his c o n v i c t i o n that blacks a r e a s e p a r a t e s p e c i e s . In a rem a r k a b l y c a n d i d p a s s a g e , h e w r o t e t o his m o t h e r f r o m A m e r i c a : It was in Philadelphia that I first f o u n d myself in prolonged contact with negroes; all the domestics in my hotel were m e n of color. I can scarcely express to you the painful impression that I received, especially since the

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feeling that they inspired in me is contrary to all our ideas about the confraternity of the h u m a n type [genre] and the unique origin of our species. But truth before all. Nevertheless, I experienced pity at the sight of this degraded and degenerate race, and their lot inspired compassion in me in thinking that they are really men. Nonetheless, it is impossible for me to reprocess the feeling that they are not of the same blood as us. In seeing their black faces with their thick lips and grimacing teeth, the wool on their head, their bent knees, their elongated hands, their large curved nails, and especially the livid color of the palm of their hands, I could not take my eyes off their face in order to tell them to stay far away. A n d w h e n they advanced that hideous hand towards my plate in order to serve me, I wished I were able to depart in order to eat a piece of bread elsewhere, rather than dine with such service. What unhappiness for the white race—to have tied their existence so closely with that of negroes in certain countries! God preserve us from such a contact! (Agassiz to his mother, December 1846.) ( T h e standard Life and Letters, compiled by Agassiz's wife, omits these lines in presenting an expurgated version of this famous letter. Other historians have paraphrased them or passed t h e m by. I recovered this passage from the original manuscript in Harvard's H o u g h t o n Library and have translated it, verbatim, for the first time so far as I know.) Agassiz p u b l i s h e d his major s t a t e m e n t on h u m a n races in the Christian Examiner f o r 1 8 5 0 . H e b e g i n s b y d i s m i s s i n g a s d e m a g o g u e s b o t h t h e d i v i n e s w h o w o u l d o u t l a w h i m a s a n infidel (for p r e a c h i n g the doctrine o f multiple A d a m s ) a n d the abolitionists w h o w o u l d b r a n d h i m as a d e f e n d e r of slavery: It has been charged u p o n the views here advanced that they tend to the support of slavery. . . . Is that a fair objection to a philosophical investigation? Here we have to do only with the question of the origin of m e n ; let the politicians, let those w h o feel themselves called u p o n to regulate h u m a n society, see what they can do with the results. . . . We disclaim, however, all connection with any question involving political matters. It is simply with reference to the possibility of appreciating the differences existing between different m e n , and of eventually determining whether they have originated all over the world, and under what circumstances, that we have here tried to trace s o m e facts respecting the h u m a n races (1850, p. 113). Agassiz t h e n p r e s e n t s his a r g u m e n t : T h e t h e o r y o f p o l y g e n y d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e a n attack u p o n t h e s c r i p t u r a l d o c t r i n e o f h u m a n unity. M e n are b o u n d by a c o m m o n structure and sympathy, even

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t h o u g h r a c e s w e r e c r e a t e d a s s e p a r a t e species. T h e Bible d o e s n o t s p e a k a b o u t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d u n k n o w n t o t h e a n c i e n t s ; t h e tale o f A d a m refers only to the origin of Caucasians. Negroes and Caucasians a r e a s distinct i n t h e m u m m i f i e d r e m a i n s o f E g y p t a s t h e y a r e t o d a y . I f h u m a n races w e r e t h e p r o d u c t o f climatic i n f l u e n c e , t h e n t h e p a s s a g e o f t h r e e t h o u s a n d y e a r s w o u l d h a v e e n g e n d e r e d substantial c h a n g e s ( A g a s s i z h a d n o i n k l i n g o f h u m a n antiquity; h e b e l i e v e d that t h r e e t h o u s a n d y e a r s i n c l u d e d a m a j o r c h u n k o f o u r e n t i r e history). M o d e r n races o c c u p y d e f i n i t e , n o n o v e r l a p p i n g , g e o graphic areas—even though some ranges have been blurred or o b l i t e r a t e d b y m i g r a t i o n . A s physically distinct, t e m p o r a l l y i n v a r i a n t g r o u p s w i t h d i s c r e t e g e o g r a p h i c a l r a n g e s , h u m a n races m e t all A g a s s i z ' s b i o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i a f o r s e p a r a t e species. T h e s e races must have originated . . . i n the same numerical proportions, and over the same area, in which they now occur. . . . T h e y cannot have originated in single individuals, but must have been created in that numeric harmony which is characteristic of each species; m e n must have originated in nations, as the bees have originated in swarms (pp. 128—129). T h e n , a p p r o a c h i n g t h e e n d o f his article, A g a s s i z a b r u p t l y shifts his g r o u n d and announces a moral imperative—even though he had explicitly j u s t i f i e d his i n q u i r y by c a s t i n g it as an objective investigation o f n a t u r a l history. T h e r e are u p o n earth different races of m e n , inhabiting different parts of its surface, which have different physical characters; and this fact . . . presses u p o n us the obligation to settle the relative rank a m o n g these races, the relative value of the characters peculiar to each, in a scientific point of view. . . . As philosophers it is our duty to look it in the face (p. 142). As direct evidence for differential, innate value Agassiz ventures no f u r t h e r t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d set o f C a u c a s i a n c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e s : T h e indominable, courageous, proud Indian—in how very different a light he stands by the side of the submissive, obsequious, imitative negro, or by the side of the tricky, cunning, and cowardly Mongolian! Are not these facts indications that the different races do not rank u p o n o n e level in nature (p. 144). B l a c k s , A g a s s i z d e c l a r e s , m u s t o c c u p y t h e b o t t o m r u n g o f a n y objective l a d d e r :

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It seems to us to be mock-philanthropy and mock-philosophy to assume that all races have the same abilities, enjoy the same powers, and show the same natural dispositions, and that in consequence of this equality they are entitled to the same position in h u m a n society. History speaks here for itself. . . . This compact continent of Africa exhibits a population which has been in constant intercourse with the white race, which has enjoyed the benefit of the example of the Egyptian civilization, of the Phoenician civilization, of the Roman civilization, of the Arab civilization . . . and nevertheless there has never been a regulated society of black m e n developed on that continent. Does not this indicate in this race a peculiar apathy, a peculiar indifference to the advantages afforded by civilized society? (pp. 143-144). I f A g a s s i z h a d n o t m a d e his political m e s s a g e c l e a r , h e e n d s b y a d v o c a t i n g specific social policy. E d u c a t i o n , h e a r g u e s , m u s t b e tail o r e d t o i n n a t e ability; train b l a c k s i n h a n d w o r k , whites i n m i n d work: What would be the best education to be imparted to the different races in consequence of their primitive difference, . . . We entertain not the slightest doubt that h u m a n affairs with reference to the colored races would be far m o r e judiciously conducted if, in our intercourse with them, we were guided by a full consciousness of the real difference existing between us and them, and a desire to foster those dispositions that are eminently marked in them, rather than by treating them on terms of equality (p. 145). Since those "eminently m a r k e d " dispositions are submissiven e s s , o b s e q u i o u s n e s s , a n d i m i t a t i o n , w e c a n well i m a g i n e w h a t A g a s s i z h a d in m i n d . I h a v e t r e a t e d this p a p e r in detail b e c a u s e it is so typical of its g e n r e — a d v o c a c y of social policy c o u c h e d as a d i s p a s s i o n a t e i n q u i r y i n t o scientific fact. T h e s t r a t e g y i s b y n o means m o r i b u n d today. I n a later c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , p u r s u e d i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e Civil W a r , A g a s s i z e x p r e s s e d his political v i e w s m o r e f o r c e f u l l y a n d a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h . ( T h e s e letters a r e also e x p u r g a t e d w i t h o u t indication in t h e s t a n d a r d v e r s i o n p u b l i s h e d by A g a s s i z ' s wife. A g a i n , I h a v e r e s t o r e d p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l letters i n H a r v a r d ' s H o u g h t o n Library.) S. G. H o w e , a m e m b e r of Lincoln's Inquiry C o m m i s s i o n , a s k e d A g a s s i z ' s o p i n i o n a b o u t the r o l e o f blacks i n a r e u n i t e d n a t i o n . ( H o w e , k n o w n best f o r his w o r k i n p r i s o n r e f o r m a n d education of the blind, was the h u s b a n d of Julia W a r d H o w e ,

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author of the "Battle H y m n of the Republic".) In four long and i m p a s s i o n e d l e t t e r s , A g a s s i z p l e a d e d his case. T h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f a l a r g e a n d p e r m a n e n t black p o p u l a t i o n i n A m e r i c a m u s t b e a c k n o w l e d g e d a s a g r i m reality. I n d i a n s , d r i v e n b y t h e i r c o m m e n d a b l e p r i d e , m a y p e r i s h i n battle, b u t " t h e n e g r o e x h i b i t s b y n a t u r e a pliability, a r e a d i n e s s to a c c o m m o d a t e h i m s e l f to c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a p r o n e n e s s t o imitate t h o s e a m o n g w h o m h e lives" ( 9 A u g u s t 1863). A l t h o u g h legal e q u a l i t y m u s t b e g r a n t e d t o all, blacks s h o u l d b e d e n i e d social e q u a l i t y , lest t h e w h i t e r a c e b e c o m p r o m i s e d a n d d i l u t e d : "Social equality I d e e m at all t i m e i m p r a c t i c a b l e . It is a n a t u r a l impossibility f l o w i n g f r o m t h e v e r y c h a r a c t e r o f t h e n e g r o r a c e " ( 1 0 A u g u s t 1863); f o r blacks a r e " i n d o l e n t , p l a y f u l , s e n s u o u s , imitative, s u b s e r v i e n t , g o o d n a t u r e d , versatile, u n s t e a d y i n t h e i r p u r p o s e , d e v o t e d , affectionate, in everything unlike other races, they may but be c o m p a r e d to children, g r o w n in the stature of a d u l t s w h i l e r e t a i n i n g a c h i l d l i k e m i n d . . . . T h e r e f o r e I h o l d that t h e y a r e i n c a p a b l e o f l i v i n g o n a f o o t i n g o f social equality w i t h t h e whites, in o n e and the same community, without being an element o f social d i s o r d e r " ( 1 0 A u g u s t 1863). Blacks m u s t b e r e g u l a t e d a n d l i m i t e d , lest a n i n j u d i c i o u s a w a r d o f social p r i v i l e g e sow later discord: No man has a right to what he is unfit to use. . . . Let us beware of granting too much to the negro race in the beginning, lest it b e c o m e necessary to recall violently s o m e of the privileges which they may use to our detriment and their own injury (10 August 1863). For Agassiz, nothing inspired m o r e fear than the prospect of amalgamation by intermarriage. White strength d e p e n d s u p o n s e p a r a t i o n : " T h e p r o d u c t i o n of h a l f b r e e d s is as m u c h a sin against n a t u r e , as incest in a civilized c o m m u n i t y is a sin against p u r i t y of c h a r a c t e r . . . . F a r f r o m p r e s e n t i n g to me a n a t u r a l s o l u t i o n of o u r difficulties, t h e i d e a o f a m a l g a m a t i o n i s m o s t r e p u g n a n t t o m y feeli n g s , I h o l d it to be a p e r v e r s i o n of e v e r y n a t u r a l s e n t i m e n t . . . . No e f f o r t s s h o u l d b e s p a r e d t o c h e c k that w h i c h i s a b h o r r e n t t o o u r b e t t e r n a t u r e , a n d to t h e p r o g r e s s of a h i g h e r civilization a n d a p u r e r m o r a l i t y " ( 9 A u g u s t 1863). A g a s s i z n o w realizes that h e has a r g u e d h i m s e l f into a c o r n e r . I f i n t e r b r e e d i n g a m o n g races ( s e p a r a t e species t o A g a s s i z ) i s u n n a t ural and repugnant, why are "halfbreeds" so c o m m o n in America?

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A g a s s i z attributes this l a m e n t a b l e fact to t h e s e x u a l r e c e p t i v e n e s s o f housemaids and the naivete o f y o u n g Southern gentlemen. T h e s e r v a n t s , i t s e e m s , a r e h a l f b r e e d s a l r e a d y (we a r e n o t told h o w their parents overcame a natural r e p u g n a n c e for one another); y o u n g m e n r e s p o n d aesthetically t o the w h i t e half, w h i l e a d e g r e e o f black h e r i t a g e l o o s e n s t h e n a t u r a l inhibitions o f a h i g h e r r a c e . O n c e acclimated, the p o o r y o u n g m e n are h o o k e d , and they acquire a taste f o r p u r e blacks: As soon as the sexual desires are awakening in the y o u n g men of the South, they find it easy to gratify themselves by the readiness with which they are met by colored [halfbreed] house servants. . . . This blunts his better instincts in that direction and leads him gradually to seek m o r e spicy partners, as I have heard the full blacks called by fast y o u n g men (9 August 1863). Finally, A g a s s i z c o m b i n e s vivid i m a g e a n d m e t a p h o r t o w a r n against the ultimate d a n g e r of a mixed and enfeebled people: Conceive for a m o m e n t the difference it would make in future ages, for the prospect of republican institutions and our civilization generally, if instead of the manly population d e s c e n d e d from cognate nations the United States should hereafter be inhabited by the effeminate progeny of m i x e d races, half indian, half negro, sprinkled with white blood. . . . I shudder from the consequences. We have already to struggle, in our progress, against the influence of universal equality, in consequence of the difficulty of preserving the acquisitions of individual eminence, the wealth of refinement and culture growing out of select associations. What would be our condition if to these difficulties were added the far more tenacious influences of physical disability. . . . H o w shall we eradicate the stigma of a lower race when its blood has once been allowed to flow freely into that of our children (10 August 1863).* A g a s s i z c o n c l u d e s that l e g a l f r e e d o m a w a r d e d t o slaves i n m a n u m i s s i o n m u s t s p u r t h e e n f o r c e m e n t o f rigid social s e p a r a t i o n a m o n g r a c e s . F o r t u n a t e l y , n a t u r e shall b e t h e a c c o m p l i c e o f m o r a l *E. D. Cope, America's leading paleontologist and evolutionary biologist, reiterated the same theme even more forcefully in 1890 (p. 2054): "The highest race of man cannot afford to lose or even to compromise the advantages it has acquired by hundreds of centuries of toil and hardship, by mingling its blood with the lowest. . . . We cannot cloud or extinguish the fine nervous susceptibility, and the mental force, which cultivation develops in the constitution of the IndoEuropean, by the fleshly instincts, and dark mind of the African. Not only is the mind stagnated, and the life of mere living introduced in its stead, but the possibility of resurrection is rendered doubtful or impossible."

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virtue; for people, free to choose, gravitate naturally toward the climates o f their o r i g i n a l h o m e l a n d . T h e black species, c r e a t e d f o r h o t a n d h u m i d c o n d i t i o n s , will p r e v a i l i n t h e S o u t h e r n l o w l a n d s , t h o u g h whites will m a i n t a i n d o m i n i o n o v e r t h e s e a s h o r e a n d elev a t e d g r o u n d . T h e n e w S o u t h will c o n t a i n s o m e N e g r o states. W e s h o u l d b o w b e f o r e this necessity a n d a d m i t t h e m i n t o t h e U n i o n ; w e h a v e , after all, a l r e a d y r e c o g n i z e d b o t h " H a i t y a n d L i b e r i a . " * But the bracing North is not a congenial h o m e for carefree and lackadaisical p e o p l e , c r e a t e d f o r w a r m e r r e g i o n s . P u r e blacks will migrate South, leaving a stubborn residue to dwindle and die out in the N o r t h : "I h o p e it may gradually die out in the north w h e r e i t has only a n artificial f o o t h o l d " ( 1 1 A u g u s t 1863). A s f o r t h e m u l a t t o e s , " t h e i r sickly p h y s i q u e a n d t h e i r i m p a i r e d f e c u n d i t y " s h o u l d a s s u r e their d e m i s e o n c e t h e shackles o f slavery n o l o n g e r provide an opportunity for unnatural interbreeding. A g a s s i z ' s w o r l d c o l l a p s e d d u r i n g t h e last d e c a d e o f his life. H i s s t u d e n t s r e b e l l e d ; his s u p p o r t e r s d e f e c t e d . H e r e m a i n e d a h e r o t o the p u b l i c , b u t scientists b e g a n to r e g a r d h i m as a r i g i d a n d a g i n g d o g m a t i s t , s t a n d i n g f i r m i n his a n t i q u a t e d beliefs b e f o r e t h e D a r w i n i a n tide. B u t his social p r e f e r e n c e s f o r racial s e g r e g a t i o n p r e v a i l e d — a l l t h e m o r e b e c a u s e his f a n c i f u l h o p e f o r v o l u n t a r y g e o g r a p h i c separation did not.

Samuel George Morton—empiricist of polygeny A g a s s i z d i d n o t s p e n d all his t i m e in P h i l a d e l p h i a r e v i l i n g black w a i t e r s . I n t h e s a m e letter t o his m o t h e r , h e w r o t e i n g l o w i n g t e r m s of his visit to t h e a n a t o m i c a l collection of P h i l a d e l p h i a ' s disting u i s h e d scientist a n d p h y s i c i a n S a m u e l G e o r g e M o r t o n : " I m a g i n e a series of 600 skulls, m o s t of I n d i a n s f r o m all tribes w h o i n h a b i t o r o n c e i n h a b i t e d all o f A m e r i c a . N o t h i n g like i t exists a n y w h e r e else. T h i s c o l l e c t i o n , by itself, is w o r t h a t r i p to A m e r i c a " ( A g a s s i z t o his m o t h e r , D e c e m b e r 1 8 4 6 , t r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l letter in H o u g h t o n Library, H a r v a r d University). *Not all detractors of blacks were so generous. E. D. Cope, who feared that miscegenation would block the path to heaven (see preceding footnote), advocated the return of all blacks to Africa (1890, p. 2053): "Have we not burdens enough to carryin the European peasantry which we are called on every year to receive and assimilate? Is our own race on a plane sufficiently high, to render it safe for us to carry eight millions of dead material in the very center of our vital organism?"

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Agassiz speculated freely and at length, but he amassed no data to s u p p o r t his p o l y g e n i c t h e o r y . M o r t o n , a P h i l a d e l p h i a patrician with t w o m e d i c a l d e g r e e s — o n e f r o m f a s h i o n a b l e E d i n b u r g h — p r o v i d e d t h e " f a c t s " that w o n w o r l d w i d e r e s p e c t f o r t h e " A m e r i c a n s c h o o l " o f p o l y g e n y . M o r t o n b e g a n his collection o f h u m a n skulls i n t h e 1820s; h e h a d m o r e t h a n o n e t h o u s a n d w h e n h e d i e d i n 1 8 5 1 . F r i e n d s (and e n e m i e s ) r e f e r r e d t o his g r e a t c h a r n e l h o u s e a s "the American Golgotha." M o r t o n w o n his r e p u t a t i o n a s the g r e a t d a t a - g a t h e r e r a n d objectivist o f A m e r i c a n s c i e n c e , t h e m a n w h o w o u l d raise a n i m m a ture enterprise f r o m the mires of fanciful speculation. Oliver W e n dell H o l m e s praised M o r t o n for "the severe and cautious c h a r a c t e r " o f his w o r k s , w h i c h " f r o m their v e r y n a t u r e a r e p e r m a n e n t data f o r all f u t u r e s t u d e n t s o f e t h n o l o g y " (in S t a n t o n , 1 9 6 0 , p . 96). T h e s a m e H u m b o l d t w h o h a d a s s e r t e d the i n h e r e n t equality o f all races w r o t e : T h e craniological treasures which you have been so fortunate as to unite in your collection, have in you found a worthy interpreter. Your work is equally remarkable for the profundity of its anatomical views, the numerical detail of the relations of organic conformation, and the absence of those poetical reveries which are the myths of modern physiology (in Meigs, 1851, p. 48). W h e n M o r t o n d i e d in 1 8 5 1 , t h e New York Tribune w r o t e that " p r o b ably no scientific m a n in A m e r i c a e n j o y e d a h i g h e r r e p u t a t i o n a m o n g s c h o l a r s t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d , t h a n D r . M o r t o n " (in Stant o n , i 9 6 0 , p . 144). Y e t M o r t o n g a t h e r e d skulls n e i t h e r f o r t h e dilettante's m o t i v e o f abstract interest n o r t h e t a x o n o m i s t ' s zeal f o r c o m p l e t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . He h a d a h y p o t h e s i s to test: that a r a n k i n g of races c o u l d b e established objectively b y physical characteristics o f t h e b r a i n , p a r t i c u l a r l y by its size. M o r t o n t o o k a special interest in n a t i v e A m e r i c a n s . A s G e o r g e C o m b e , his f e r v e n t f r i e n d a n d s u p p o r t e r , wrote: O n e of the most singular features in the history of this continent, is, that the aboriginal races, with few exceptions, have perished or constantly receded, before the Anglo-Saxon race, and have in no instance either mingled with them as equals, or adopted their manners and civilization. T h e s e p h e n o m e n a must have a cause; and can any inquiry be at once m o r e inter-

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esting and philosophical than that which endeavors to ascertain whether that cause be connected with a difference in the brain between the native American race, and their conquering invaders (Combe and Coates, in review of Morton's Crania Americana, 1840, p. 352). M o r e o v e r , C o m b e a r g u e d that M o r t o n ' s collection w o u l d a c q u i r e t r u e scientific v a l u e only if m e n t a l a n d m o r a l w o r t h c o u l d be r e a d f r o m b r a i n s : " I f this d o c t r i n e b e u n f o u n d e d , t h e s e skulls a r e m e r e facts i n N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , p r e s e n t i n g n o p a r t i c u l a r i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o the m e n t a l qualities o f t h e p e o p l e " ( f r o m C o m b e ' s a p p e n d i x t o M o r t o n ' s Crania Americana, 1 8 3 9 , p. 2 7 5 ) . A l t h o u g h h e vacillated e a r l y i n his c a r e e r , M o r t o n s o o n b e c a m e a l e a d e r a m o n g the A m e r i c a n p o l y g e n i s t s . H e w r o t e s e v e r a l articles t o d e f e n d the status o f h u m a n races a s s e p a r a t e , c r e a t e d s p e c i e s . H e t o o k o n t h e s t r o n g e s t claim o f o p p o n e n t s — t h e interfertility o f all h u m a n r a c e s — b y a r g u i n g f r o m b o t h sides. H e relied o n trave l e r s ' r e p o r t s t o c l a i m that s o m e h u m a n r a c e s — A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g ines a n d C a u c a s i a n s i n p a r t i c u l a r — v e r y r a r e l y p r o d u c e fertile o f f s p r i n g ( M o r t o n , 1 8 5 1 ) . H e a t t r i b u t e d this f a i l u r e t o " a d i s p a r i t y of primordial organization." But, he continued, Buffon's criterion o f interfertility m u s t b e a b a n d o n e d i n a n y case, f o r h y b r i d i z a t i o n i s c o m m o n i n n a t u r e , e v e n b e t w e e n species b e l o n g i n g t o d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a ( M o r t o n , 1 8 4 7 , 8 5 ° ) - S p e c i e s m u s t b e r e d e f i n e d a s " a prim o r d i a l o r g a n i c f o r m " ( 1 8 5 0 , p . 82). " B r a v o , m y d e a r S i r , " w r o t e A g a s s i z in a letter, " y o u h a v e at last f u r n i s h e d s c i e n c e with a t r u e p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e f i n i t i o n o f s p e c i e s " (in S t a n t o n , i 9 6 0 , p . 1 4 1 ) . B u t h o w to recognize a primordial form? M o r t o n replied: "If certain e x i s t i n g o r g a n i c t y p e s c a n b e t r a c e d b a c k into t h e ' n i g h t o f t i m e , ' a s dissimilar as we see t h e m n o w , is it n o t m o r e r e a s o n a b l e to r e g a r d them as aboriginal, than to suppose them the m e r e and accidental d e r i v a t i o n s o f a n isolated p a t r i a r c h a l s t e m o f w h i c h w e k n o w n o t h i n g ? " ( 1 8 5 0 , p . 82). T h u s , M o r t o n r e g a r d e d s e v e r a l b r e e d s o f d o g s a s s e p a r a t e species b e c a u s e their s k e l e t o n s r e s i d e d i n t h e E g y p t i a n c a t a c o m b s , a s r e c o g n i z a b l e a n d distinct f r o m o t h e r b r e e d s a s t h e y a r e n o w . T h e t o m b s also c o n t a i n e d blacks a n d C a u c a s i a n s . M o r t o n d a t e d the b e a c h i n g o f N o a h ' s A r k o n A r a r a t a t 4 , 1 7 9 y e a r s b e f o r e his t i m e , a n d t h e E g y p t i a n t o m b s a t j u s t 1,000 y e a r s a f t e r t h a t — clearly n o t e n o u g h t i m e f o r t h e sons o f N o a h t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e into r a c e s . ( H o w , h e asks, c a n w e b e l i e v e that races c h a n g e d s o r a p i d l y f o r 1,000 y e a r s , a n d n o t a t all f o r 3,000 y e a r s since then?) H u m a n 1

A M E R I C A N

P O L Y G E N Y

A N D

C R A N I O M E T R Y

85

races m u s t h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e start ( M o r t o n , 1 8 3 9 , p . 88). B u t s e p a r a t e , a s the S u p r e m e C o u r t o n c e said, n e e d n o t m e a n u n e q u a l . M o r t o n t h e r e f o r e set o u t t o establish relative r a n k o n "objective" g r o u n d s . He surveyed the drawings of ancient Egypt a n d f o u n d that blacks a r e i n v a r i a b l y d e p i c t e d a s m e n i a l s — a s u r e sign that t h e y h a v e a l w a y s p l a y e d t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e b i o l o g i c a l r o l e : " N e g r o e s w e r e n u m e r o u s i n E g y p t , b u t their social position i n a n c i e n t times was t h e s a m e that it is n o w , that of s e r v a n t s a n d s l a v e s " ( M o r t o n , 1 8 4 4 , p . 158). ( A c u r i o u s a r g u m e n t , t o b e s u r e , f o r t h e s e blacks h a d b e e n c a p t u r e d i n w a r f a r e ; s u b - S a h a r a n societies d e p i c t e d blacks as rulers.) B u t M o r t o n ' s f a m e a s a scientist r e s t e d u p o n his collection o f skulls a n d t h e i r r o l e in racial r a n k i n g . S i n c e the c r a n i a l cavity of a h u m a n skull p r o v i d e s a f a i t h f u l m e a s u r e o f t h e b r a i n i t o n c e c o n t a i n e d , M o r t o n set o u t t o r a n k races b y t h e a v e r a g e sizes o f t h e i r b r a i n s . H e filled t h e cranial cavity with sifted w h i t e m u s t a r d s e e d , p o u r e d t h e s e e d b a c k i n t o a g r a d u a t e d c y l i n d e r a n d r e a d t h e skull's v o l u m e i n c u b i c i n c h e s . L a t e r o n , h e b e c a m e dissatisfied with m u s tard s e e d b e c a u s e h e c o u l d n o t o b t a i n consistent results. T h e s e e d s d i d n o t p a c k w e l l , f o r t h e y w e r e t o o light a n d still v a r i e d t o o m u c h i n size, d e s p i t e sieving. R e m e a s u r e m e n t s o f single skulls m i g h t diff e r by m o r e t h a n 5 p e r c e n t , or 4 c u b i c i n c h e s in skulls with an a v e r a g e capacity near 80 cubic inches. Consequently, he switched t o o n e - e i g h t h - i n c h - d i a m e t e r lead shot " o f t h e size called B B " a n d a c h i e v e d c o n s i s t e n t results that n e v e r v a r i e d by m o r e t h a n a single c u b i c i n c h f o r t h e s a m e skull. M o r t o n p u b l i s h e d t h r e e m a j o r w o r k s o n t h e sizes o f h u m a n s k u l l s — h i s lavish, b e a u t i f u l l y illustrated v o l u m e o n A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s , t h e Crania Americana of 1 8 3 9 ; his studies on skulls f r o m t h e E g y p t i a n t o m b s , t h e Crania Aegyptiaca o f 1844; a n d t h e e p i t o m e o f his e n t i r e c o l l e c t i o n in 1849. E a c h c o n t a i n e d a table, s u m m a r i z i n g his results o n a v e r a g e skull v o l u m e s a r r a n g e d b y r a c e . I h a v e r e p r o d u c e d all t h r e e tables h e r e ( T a b l e s 2.1 t o 2.3). T h e y r e p r e s e n t the major contribution of A m e r i c a n polygeny to debates about racial r a n k i n g . T h e y o u t l i v e d t h e t h e o r y o f s e p a r a t e c r e a t i o n s a n d w e r e r e p r i n t e d r e p e a t e d l y d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s irref u t a b l e , " h a r d " d a t a o n the m e n t a l w o r t h o f h u m a n races (see p . i 1 6 ) . N e e d l e s s t o say, they m a t c h e d e v e r y g o o d Y a n k e e ' s p r e j u d i c e — w h i t e s o n t o p , I n d i a n s i n t h e m i d d l e , a n d blacks o n t h e bot-

86

T H E

Table 2*1

M I S M E A S U R E

OF

MAN

Morton's summary table of cranial capacity by race INTERNAL CAPACITY (IN ) 3

RACE

N

MEAN

LARGEST

SMALLEST

Caucasian Mongolian Malay American Ethiopian

52 10 18 144 29

87 83 81 82 78

109 93 89 100 94

75 69 64 60 65

Table 2*2

Cranial capacities for skulls from Egyptian tombs PEOPLE

Caucasian Pelasgic Semitic Egyptian Negroid Negro

MEAN CAPACITY (IN )

N

88 82 80 79 73

21 5 39 6 1

3

torn; a n d , a m o n g w h i t e s , T e u t o n s a n d A n g l o - S a x o n s o n t o p , J e w s i n t h e m i d d l e , a n d H i n d u s o n the b o t t o m . M o r e o v e r , t h e p a t t e r n h a d b e e n stable t h r o u g h o u t r e c o r d e d history, f o r whites h a d t h e s a m e a d v a n t a g e o v e r blacks i n a n c i e n t E g y p t . Status a n d access t o p o w e r i n M o r t o n ' s A m e r i c a faithfully reflected biological m e r i t . H o w c o u l d sentimentalists a n d e g a l i t a r i a n s stand against t h e dictates o f n a t u r e ? M o r t o n h a d p r o v i d e d c l e a n , objective d a t a b a s e d o n t h e largest collection o f skulls i n t h e w o r l d . D u r i n g t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 7 I s p e n t several w e e k s r e a n a l y z i n g M o r t o n ' s d a t a . ( M o r t o n , t h e self-styled objectivist, p u b l i s h e d all his r a w i n f o r m a t i o n . W e c a n i n f e r with little d o u b t h o w h e m o v e d f r o m r a w m e a s u r e m e n t s t o s u m m a r y tables.) I n s h o r t , a n d t o p u t it b l u n t l y , M o r t o n ' s s u m m a r i e s a r e a p a t c h w o r k of f u d g i n g a n d finagling in t h e c l e a r interest of c o n t r o l l i n g a p r i o r i c o n v i c t i o n s . Y e t — a n d this i s t h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g aspect o f t h e c a s e — I f i n d n o evidence of conscious fraud; indeed, had Morton been a conscious f u d g e r , h e w o u l d n o t h a v e p u b l i s h e d his d a t a s o o p e n l y . C o n s c i o u s f r a u d is p r o b a b l y r a r e in science. It is also n o t v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g , f o r it tells us little a b o u t the n a t u r e of scientific activity.

A M E R I C A N

Table 2*3

P O L Y G E N Y

A N D

87

C R A N I O M E T R Y

Morton s final summary of cranial capacity by race CRANIAL CAPACITY (IN ) 3

LARGEST

SMALLEST

18 5 7 10 6 32 3 17

114 105 97 94 97 91 98 96

70 91 82 75 78 67 84 66

90 ~ 96 90 . 84 87 80 89 80

18 55

97 96

74 68

88 80

6

91

70

82

20 3

97 84

68 82

86' 83.

Toltecan Family Peruvians

155

75]

22 161

101 92 104

58

Mexicans Barbarous Tribes

67 70

79 J 84

62 12 3 8

99 89 83 83

65 73 68 63

83 82 75 75

RACES AND FAMILIES

N

MEAN

MEAN

MODERN CAUCASIAN GROUP

T e u t o n i c Family Germans English Anglo-Americans Pelasgic Family Celtic Family Indostanic Family Semitic Family Nilotic Family

92

ANCIENT CAUCASIAN GROUP

Pelasgic Family Nilotic Family MONGOLIAN GROUP

Chinese Family MALAY GROUP

Malayan Family Polynesian Family

O

KJ

AMERICAN GROUP

/y

NEGRO GROUP

Native African Family American-born Negroes Hottentot Family Australians

83

L i a r s , i f d i s c o v e r e d , a r e e x c o m m u n i c a t e d ; scientists d e c l a r e that their p r o f e s s i o n has p r o p e r l y p o l i c e d itself, a n d they r e t u r n t o w o r k , m y t h o l o g y u n i m p a i r e d , a n d objectively v i n d i c a t e d . T h e p r e v a l e n c e of unconscious finagling, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , s u g g e s t s a

88

T H E

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

MAN

g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t t h e social c o n t e x t o f science. F o r i f scientists c a n b e h o n e s t l y s e l f - d e l u d e d t o M o r t o n ' s e x t e n t , t h e n p r i o r p r e j u d i c e m a y b e f o u n d a n y w h e r e , e v e n i n t h e basics o f m e a s u r i n g bones and toting sums. The case of Indian inferiority:

Crania

Americana*

M o r t o n b e g a n his first a n d largest w o r k , t h e Crania Americana o f 1 8 3 9 , with a d i s c o u r s e o n the essential c h a r a c t e r o f h u m a n r a c e s . His s t a t e m e n t s i m m e d i a t e l y e x p o s e his p r e j u d i c e s . O f t h e " G r e e n l a n d e s q u i m a u x , " h e w r o t e : " T h e y are crafty, s e n s u a l , u n g r a t e f u l , o b s t i n a t e a n d u n f e e l i n g , a n d m u c h o f t h e i r a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e i r child r e n m a y b e t r a c e d t o p u r e l y selfish m o t i v e s . T h e y d e v o u r t h e m o s t disgusting aliments u n c o o k e d a n d uncleaned, and seem to have no i d e a s b e y o n d p r o v i d i n g f o r the p r e s e n t m o m e n t . . . . T h e i r m e n t a l faculties, f r o m i n f a n c y t o old a g e , p r e s e n t a c o n t i n u e d c h i l d h o o d . . . . I n g l u t t o n y , selfishness a n d i n g r a t i t u d e , t h e y a r e p e r h a p s u n e q u a l l e d b y any o t h e r n a t i o n o f p e o p l e " ( 1 8 3 9 , p . 54). M o r t o n t h o u g h t little b e t t e r o f o t h e r M o n g o l i a n s , f o r h e w r o t e o f t h e C h i n e s e (p. 50): " S o versatile a r e their f e e l i n g s a n d a c t i o n s , that t h e y h a v e b e e n c o m p a r e d t o the m o n k e y r a c e , w h o s e a t t e n t i o n i s p e r p e t u a l l y c h a n g i n g f r o m o n e object t o a n o t h e r . " T h e H o t t e n t o t s , h e c l a i m e d (p. 90), are " t h e n e a r e s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e l o w e r a n i m a l s . . . . T h e i r c o m p l e x i o n is a yellowish b r o w n , c o m p a r e d by travellers t o t h e p e c u l i a r h u e o f E u r o p e a n s i n t h e last stages o f j a u n d i c e . . . . T h e w o m e n a r e r e p r e s e n t e d as e v e n m o r e r e p u l s i v e in a p p e a r a n c e than the m e n . " Y e t , w h e n M o r t o n h a d to describe o n e C a u c a s i a n tribe a s a " m e r e h o r d e o f r a p a c i o u s b a n d i t t i " (p. 9), h e q u i c k l y a d d e d that " t h e i r m o r a l p e r c e p t i o n s , u n d e r t h e influence of an equitable government, would no doubt assume a m u c h m o r e favorable aspect." M o r t o n ' s s u m m a r y c h a r t ( T a b l e 2.1) p r e s e n t s t h e " h a r d " a r g u m e n t o f t h e Crania Americana. H e h a d m e a s u r e d t h e capacity o f 144 I n d i a n skulls a n d c a l c u l a t e d a m e a n of 82 c u b i c i n c h e s , a full 5 c u b i c i n c h e s b e l o w t h e C a u c a s i a n n o r m (Figs. 2.4 a n d 2.5). In a d d i t i o n , M o r t o n a p p e n d e d a table o f p h r e n o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t s indicating a deficiency of " h i g h e r " mental powers a m o n g Indians. " T h e b e n e v o l e n t m i n d , " M o r t o n c o n c l u d e d (p. 82), " m a y r e g r e t *This account omits many statistical details of my analysis. T h e complete tale appears in Gould, 1978. Some passages in pp. 88-101 are taken from this article.

A M E R I C A N

P O L Y G E N Y

A N D

C R A N I O M E T R Y

8

9

t h e i n a p t i t u d e o f t h e I n d i a n f o r civilization," b u t s e n t i m e n t a l i t y m u s t yield t o fact. " T h e s t r u c t u r e o f his m i n d a p p e a r s t o b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m that o f t h e w h i t e m a n , n o r c a n the t w o h a r m o n i z e i n t h e social r e l a t i o n s e x c e p t o n the m o s t limited scale." I n d i a n s " a r e n o t o n l y a v e r s e t o t h e restraints o f e d u c a t i o n , b u t f o r t h e m o s t p a r t a r e i n c a p a b l e o f a c o n t i n u e d p r o c e s s o f r e a s o n i n g o n abstract s u b j e c t s " (p. 8 1 ) . S i n c e Crania Americana is p r i m a r i l y a treatise on t h e i n f e r i o r q u a l i t y o f I n d i a n intellect, I n o t e f i r s t o f all that M o r t o n ' s cited a v e r a g e o f 8 2 c u b i c i n c h e s f o r I n d i a n skulls i s i n c o r r e c t . H e s e p a rated Indians into two groups, "Toltecans" from Mexico and South America, and "Barbarous Tribes" from North America. Eighty-two i s t h e a v e r a g e f o r B a r b a r o u s skulls; t h e total s a m p l e o f 144 yields a m e a n of 80.2 c u b i c i n c h e s , or a g a p of a l m o s t 7 c u b i c i n c h e s between Indian and Caucasian averages. (I do not know how Mort o n m a d e this e l e m e n t a r y e r r o r . I t d i d p e r m i t h i m , i n a n y case, t o r e t a i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c h a i n o f b e i n g with whites o n t o p , I n d i a n s i n t h e m i d d l e , a n d blacks o n t h e b o t t o m . ) B u t t h e " c o r r e c t " v a l u e of 80.2 is f a r t o o low, f o r it is the result o f a n i m p r o p e r p r o c e d u r e . M o r t o n ' s 144 skulls b e l o n g t o m a n y d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f I n d i a n s ; t h e s e g r o u p s d i f f e r significantly a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s i n c r a n i a l capacity. E a c h g r o u p s h o u l d b e w e i g h t e d e q u a l l y , lest t h e f i n a l a v e r a g e b e b i a s e d b y u n e q u a l size o f s u b s a m p l e s . S u p p o s e , f o r e x a m p l e , that w e tried t o e s t i m a t e a v e r a g e h u m a n h e i g h t f r o m a s a m p l e o f t w o j o c k e y s , t h e a u t h o r o f this b o o k (strictly m i d d l i n g s t a t u r e ) , a n d all t h e p l a y e r s i n t h e N a t i o n a l Basketball Association. T h e h u n d r e d s o f Jabbars would s w a m p the r e m a i n i n g t h r e e a n d g i v e a n a v e r a g e i n e x c e s s o f six a n d a h a l f f e e t . If, h o w e v e r , w e a v e r a g e d t h e a v e r a g e s o f t h e t h r e e g r o u p s ( j o c k e y s , m e , a n d t h e basketball p l a y e r s ) , t h e n o u r f i g u r e w o u l d lie c l o s e r to t h e t r u e v a l u e . M o r t o n ' s s a m p l e is s t r o n g l y b i a s e d by a major overrepresentation of an extreme g r o u p — t h e small-brained I n c a P e r u v i a n s . ( T h e y h a v e a m e a n cranial capacity o f 74.36 c u b i c inches and provide 25 percent of the entire sample). Large-brained I r o q u o i s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o n t r i b u t e o n l y 3 skulls t o t h e total s a m p l e ( 2 p e r c e n t ) . If, b y t h e a c c i d e n t s o f c o l l e c t i n g , M o r t o n ' s samp l e h a d i n c l u d e d 2 5 p e r c e n t I r o q u o i s a n d j u s t a f e w I n c a s , his a v e r a g e w o u l d h a v e risen substantially. C o n s e q u e n t l y , I c o r r e c t e d this bias as best I c o u l d by a v e r a g i n g t h e m e a n v a l u e s f o r all tribes

2.4 T h e skull of an Araucanian Indian. T h e lithographs of this and the next figure were done by John Collins, a great scientific artist unfortunately unrecognized today. They appeared in Morton's Crama Amencana of ^ a .

2 * 5 T h e skull of a Huron Indian. Lithograph by John Morton's Crania Americana, 1839.

9

2

T H E

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

M A N

r e p r e s e n t e d b y 4 o r m o r e skulls. T h e I n d i a n a v e r a g e n o w rises t o 83.79 cubic inches. T h i s r e v i s e d v a l u e is still m o r e t h a n 3 c u b i c i n c h e s f r o m t h e Caucasian average. Yet, w h e n we e x a m i n e Morton's p r o c e d u r e for c o m p u t i n g the Caucasian m e a n , we uncover an astounding inconsistency. S i n c e statistical r e a s o n i n g is largely a p r o d u c t of t h e last o n e h u n d r e d years, I might have excused Morton's error for the I n d i a n m e a n b y a r g u i n g that h e d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e biases p r o d u c e d b y u n e q u a l sizes a m o n g s u b s a m p l e s . B u t n o w w e d i s c o v e r that h e u n d e r s t o o d this bias p e r f e c t l y w e l l — f o r M o r t o n c a l c u l a t e d his h i g h C a u c a s i a n m e a n b y c o n s c i o u s l y e l i m i n a t i n g s m a l l - b r a i n e d H i n d u s f r o m his s a m p l e . H e writes (p. 2 6 1 ) : " I t i s p r o p e r , h o w e v e r , t o m e n t i o n that b u t 3 H i n d o o s a r e a d m i t t e d i n t h e w h o l e n u m b e r , b e c a u s e the skulls o f t h e s e p e o p l e a r e p r o b a b l y s m a l l e r t h a n t h o s e o f a n y o t h e r e x i s t i n g n a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , 17 H i n d o o h e a d s g i v e a m e a n o f b u t 7 5 c u b i c i n c h e s ; a n d the t h r e e r e c e i v e d i n t o t h e table a r e t a k e n a t that a v e r a g e . " T h u s , M o r t o n i n c l u d e d a l a r g e s u b s a m ple of small-brained p e o p l e (Inca Peruvians) to pull d o w n the I n d i a n a v e r a g e , b u t e x c l u d e d j u s t a s m a n y small C a u c a s i a n skulls t o raise t h e m e a n o f his o w n g r o u p . S i n c e h e tells u s w h a t h e d i d s o b a l d l y , w e m u s t a s s u m e that M o r t o n d i d n o t d e e m his p r o c e d u r e i m p r o p e r . B u t b y w h a t r a t i o n a l e did h e k e e p I n c a s a n d e x c l u d e H i n d u s , unless it w e r e t h e a p r i o r i a s s u m p t i o n of a truly h i g h e r C a u c a s i a n m e a n ? F o r o n e m i g h t t h e n t h r o w o u t the H i n d u s a m p l e a s t r u l y a n o m a l o u s , b u t r e t a i n t h e I n c a s a m p l e (with t h e s a m e m e a n a s t h e H i n d u s , b y t h e way) a s t h e l o w e r e n d o f n o r m a l i t y f o r its disadvantaged larger group. I r e s t o r e d t h e H i n d u skulls t o M o r t o n ' s s a m p l e , u s i n g t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e o f e q u a l w e i g h t i n g f o r all g r o u p s . M o r t o n ' s C a u c a s i a n s a m p l e , b y his r e c k o n i n g , c o n t a i n s skulls f r o m f o u r s u b g r o u p s , s o H i n d u s s h o u l d c o n t r i b u t e o n e - f o u r t h o f all skulls t o t h e s a m p l e . I f w e r e s t o r e all s e v e n t e e n o f M o r t o n ' s H i n d u skulls, they f o r m 2 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e total s a m p l e o f sixty-six. T h e C a u c a s i a n m e a n n o w d r o p s t o 84.45 c u b i c i n c h e s , f o r n o d i f f e r e n c e w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g b e t w e e n I n d i a n s a n d C a u c a s i a n s . ( E s k i m o s , d e s p i t e M o r t o n ' s low o p i n i o n o f t h e m , y i e l d a m e a n o f 86.8, h i d d e n b y a m a l g a m a t i o n with o t h e r s u b g r o u p s i n the M o n g o l g r a n d m e a n o f 83). S o m u c h f o r I n d i a n inferiority.

A M E R I C A N

P O L Y G E N Y

The case of the Egyptian

A N D

catacombs:

C R A N I O M E T R Y

93

Crania Aegyptiaca

M o r t o n ' s f r i e n d a n d fellow p o l y g e n i s t G e o r g e G l i d d o n was U n i t e d States c o n s u l f o r the city o f C a i r o . H e d i s p a t c h e d t o Philad e l p h i a m o r e t h a n o n e h u n d r e d skulls f r o m t o m b s o f a n c i e n t E g y p t , a n d M o r t o n r e s p o n d e d with his s e c o n d m a j o r treatise, t h e Crania Aegyptiaca of 1844. M o r t o n h a d s h o w n , or so he t h o u g h t , that whites s u r p a s s e d I n d i a n s i n m e n t a l e n d o w m e n t . N o w h e w o u l d c r o w n his story b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g that t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n whites a n d blacks was e v e n g r e a t e r , a n d that this d i f f e r e n c e h a d b e e n stable f o r m o r e t h a n t h r e e t h o u s a n d y e a r s . M o r t o n felt that h e c o u l d identify b o t h races a n d s u b g r o u p s a m o n g races f r o m f e a t u r e s o f t h e skull (most a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t o d a y w o u l d d e n y that s u c h a s s i g n m e n t s c a n b e m a d e u n a m b i g u o u s l y ) . H e d i v i d e d his C a u c a s i a n skulls into Pelasgics ( H e l l e n e s , o r a n c i e n t G r e e k f o r e b e a r s ) , J e w s , a n d E g y p t i a n s — i n that o r d e r , a g a i n c o n f i r m i n g A n g l o - S a x o n p r e f e r e n c e s ( T a b l e 2.2). N o n - C a u c a s i a n skulls h e identified e i t h e r a s " n e g r o i d " ( h y b r i d s o f N e g r o a n d C a u casian with m o r e black t h a n white) o r a s p u r e N e g r o . M o r t o n ' s subjective division of C a u c a s i a n skulls is clearly u n w a r r a n t e d , f o r h e simply a s s i g n e d the m o s t b u l b o u s c r a n i a t o his f a v o r e d Pelasgic g r o u p a n d t h e m o s t flattened t o E g y p t i a n s ; h e m e n t i o n s n o o t h e r criteria o f s u b d i v i s i o n . I f w e i g n o r e his t h r e e f o l d s e p a r a t i o n a n d a m a l g a m a t e all sixty-five C a u c a s i a n skulls into a single s a m p l e , w e o b t a i n a n a v e r a g e capacity o f 8 2 . 1 5 c u b i c i n c h e s . (If w e g i v e M o r t o n t h e benefit o f all d o u b t a n d r a n k his d u b i o u s subsamples e q u a l l y — a s we did in c o m p u t i n g Indian and Caucasian m e a n s f o r t h e Crania Americana—we o b t a i n an a v e r a g e of 83.3 cubic inches.) E i t h e r o f t h e s e v a l u e s still e x c e e d s t h e n e g r o i d a n d N e g r o a v e r a g e s substantially. M o r t o n a s s u m e d that h e h a d m e a s u r e d a n innate difference in intelligence. He never considered any other p r o p o s a l f o r t h e disparity i n a v e r a g e cranial c a p a c i t y — t h o u g h a n o t h e r s i m p l e a n d o b v i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n lay b e f o r e h i m . Sizes o f b r a i n s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e sizes o f b o d i e s that c a r r y t h e m : b i g p e o p l e t e n d t o h a v e l a r g e r b r a i n s t h a n small p e o p l e . T h i s fact d o e s n o t i m p l y that b i g p e o p l e a r e s m a r t e r — a n y m o r e t h a n elephants should be j u d g e d m o r e intelligent than h u m a n s because their brains a r e l a r g e r . A p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n s m u s t b e m a d e f o r

2•6

Skulls from the Egyptian catacombs. From Morton's Crania Aegyptiaca of 1844.

94

T H E

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

M A N

d i f f e r e n c e s i n b o d y size. M e n t e n d t o b e l a r g e r t h a n w o m e n ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , their b r a i n s a r e b i g g e r . W h e n c o r r e c t i o n s f o r b o d y size are applied, m e n and w o m e n have brains o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal size. M o r t o n n o t o n l y failed t o c o r r e c t f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n sex o r b o d y size; h e d i d n o t e v e n r e c o g n i z e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h o u g h his d a t a p r o c l a i m e d i t l o u d a n d c l e a r . ( I c a n o n l y c o n j e c t u r e that M o r t o n n e v e r s e p a r a t e d his skulls b y sex o r s t a t u r e — t h o u g h his tables record these d a t a — b e c a u s e he wanted so m u c h to read differences in b r a i n size d i r e c t l y as d i f f e r e n c e s in i n t e l l i g e n c e . ) M a n y o f t h e E g y p t i a n skulls c a m e with m u m m i f i e d r e m a i n s o f t h e i r possessors (Fig. 2.6), a n d M o r t o n c o u l d r e c o r d t h e i r sex u n a m biguously. If we use Morton's o w n designations and c o m p u t e separ a t e a v e r a g e s f o r m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s (as M o r t o n n e v e r d i d ) , w e o b t a i n the following remarkable result. M e a n capacity for twenty-four m a l e C a u c a s i a n skulls is 86.5 c u b i c i n c h e s ; t w e n t y - t w o f e m a l e skulls a v e r a g e 7 7 . 2 (the r e m a i n i n g n i n e t e e n skulls c o u l d n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d b y s e x ) . O f t h e six n e g r o i d skulls, M o r t o n i d e n t i f i e d t w o a s f e m a l e (at 7 1 a n d 7 7 c u b i c inches) a n d c o u l d n o t a l l o c a t e t h e o t h e r f o u r (at 77> 77> 87. a n d 88).* I f w e m a k e t h e r e a s o n a b l e c o n j e c t u r e that t h e t w o s m a l l e r skulls (77 a n d 7 7 ) a r e f e m a l e , a n d t h e t w o l a r g e r m a l e (87 a n d 88), w e o b t a i n a m a l e n e g r o i d a v e r a g e o f 8 7 . 5 , slightly above the Caucasian male m e a n of 86.5, and a female negroid a v e r a g e o f 7 5 . 5 , slightly b e l o w t h e C a u c a s i a n v a l u e o f 7 7 . 2 . T h e a p p a r e n t difference of 4 cubic inches between Morton's Caucasian a n d n e g r o i d s a m p l e s m a y o n l y r e c o r d t h e fact that a b o u t h a l f his C a u c a s i a n s a m p l e i s m a l e , w h i l e o n l y o n e - t h i r d the n e g r o i d s a m p l e may be male. ( T h e apparent difference is magnified by Morton's incorrect r o u n d i n g of the negroid average d o w n to 79 rather than u p t o 80. A s w e shall see a g a i n , all o f M o r t o n ' s m i n o r n u m e r i c a l e r r o r s f a v o r his p r e j u d i c e s . ) D i f f e r e n c e s i n a v e r a g e b r a i n size between Caucasians and negroids in the Egyptian tombs only r e c o r d d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t a t u r e d u e t o s e x , n o t v a r i a t i o n i n "intellig e n c e . " Y o u will n o t b e s u r p r i s e d t o l e a r n that t h e single p u r e N e g r o skull (73 c u b i c inches) is a f e m a l e . *In his final catalogue of 1849, Morton guessed at sex (and age within five years!) for all crania. In this later work, he specifies 77, 87, and 88 as male, and the remaining 77 as female. This allocation was pure guesswork; my alternate version is equally plausible. In the Crania Aegyptiaca itself, Morton was more cautious and only identified sex for specimens with mummified remains.

6

T H E

9

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

MAN

Table 2*4 Cranial capacity of Indian groups ordered by Morton's assessment of body stature STATURE AND GROUP

CRANIAL CAPACITY (IN )

N

88.3 88.8 84.4

8 4 7

80.2 80.5 81.7

13 8 9

78.8 74.4

10 33

3

LARGE

Seminole-Muskogee Chippeway and related groups Dacota and Osage MIDDLE

Mexicans Menominee Mounds SMALL

Columbia River Flatheads Peruvians

T h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f b r a i n a n d b o d y also resolves a q u e s t i o n left h a n g i n g in o u r p r e v i o u s discussion of t h e Crania Americana: W h a t i s t h e basis f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n a v e r a g e b r a i n size a m o n g I n d i a n p e o ples? ( T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s b o t h e r e d M o r t o n c o n s i d e r a b l y , f o r h e c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d h o w s m a l l - b r a i n e d I n c a s h a d built s u c h a n e l a b o r a t e civilization, t h o u g h h e c o n s o l e d h i m s e l f with the fact o f t h e i r r a p i d c o n q u e s t b y t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r e s ) . A g a i n , t h e a n s w e r lay b e f o r e h i m , b u t M o r t o n n e v e r saw it. M o r t o n p r e s e n t s subjective d a t a o n b o d i l y statures i n his d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s tribes, a n d I p r e s e n t these assessments a l o n g with a v e r a g e b r a i n sizes in T a b l e 2.4. T h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f b r a i n a n d b o d y size i s a f f i r m e d w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n . T h e low H i n d u m e a n a m o n g C a u c a s i a n s also r e c o r d s a d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t u r e , n o t a n o t h e r case o f d u m b I n d i a n s . The case of the shifting black

mean

In t h e Crania Americana, M o r t o n cited 78 c u b i c i n c h e s as the a v e r a g e cranial capacity f o r blacks. Five y e a r s later, in t h e Crania Aegyptiaca, h e a p p e n d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g f o o t n o t e t o his table o f m e a s u r e m e n t s : " I h a v e i n m y possession 7 9 c r a n i a o f N e g r o e s b o r n i n A f r i c a . . . . Of t h e w h o l e n u m b e r , 58 a r e a d u l t . . . a n d g i v e 85 c u b i c i n c h e s f o r t h e a v e r a g e size o f t h e b r a i n " ( 1 8 4 4 , p . 1 1 3 ) . S i n c e M o r t o n h a d c h a n g e d his m e t h o d o f m e a s u r e m e n t f r o m

A M E R I C A N

P O L Y G E N Y

A N D

C R A N I O M E T R Y

97

m u s t a r d seed t o lead shot b e t w e e n 1 8 3 9 a n d 1 8 4 4 , 1 s u s p e c t e d this a l t e r a t i o n a s a c a u s e f o r t h e rising bla ck m e a n . F o r t u n a t e l y , M o r t o n r e m e a s u r e d m o s t o f his skulls p e r s o n a l l y , a n d his v a r i o u s catal o g u e s p r e s e n t t a b u l a t i o n s o f t h e s a m e skulls b y b o t h s e e d a n d shot (see G o u l d , 1 9 7 8 , f o r details). I a s s u m e d that m e a s u r e s b y s e e d w o u l d b e l o w e r . S e e d s a r e light a n d v a r i a b l e i n size, e v e n after s i e v i n g . H e n c e , t h e y d o n o t p a c k well. B y v i g o r o u s s h a k i n g o r p r e s s i n g o f t h e t h u m b a t the f o r a m e n m a g n u m (the h o l e a t t h e b a s e o f a skull), s e e d s c a n b e m a d e t o settle, p r o v i d i n g r o o m f o r m o r e . M e a s u r e s b y s e e d w e r e very variable; M o r t o n reported differences of several cubic inches f o r r e c a l i b r a t i o n s o f t h e s a m e skull. H e e v e n t u a l l y b e c a m e d i s c o u r a g e d , f i r e d his assistants, a n d r e d i d all his m e a s u r e m e n t s p e r s o n ally, with lead shot. R e c a l i b r a t i o n s n e v e r v a r i e d by m o r e t h a n a c u b i c i n c h , a n d w e m a y a c c e p t M o r t o n ' s j u d g m e n t that m e a s u r e s b y shot w e r e objective, a c c u r a t e , a n d r e p e a t a b l e — w h i l e e a r l i e r m e a s u r e s b y seed w e r e h i g h l y subjective a n d erratic. I then calculated the discrepancies between seed and shot by r a c e . S h o t , as I s u s p e c t e d , always y i e l d e d h i g h e r v a l u e s t h a n s e e d . F o r 1 1 1 I n d i a n skulls, m e a s u r e d b y b o t h criteria, shot e x c e e d s s e e d b y a n a v e r a g e o f 2.2 c u b i c i n c h e s . D a t a a r e n o t a s reliable f o r b l a c k s a n d C a u c a s i a n s b e c a u s e M o r t o n d i d n o t specify i n d i v i d u a l skulls f o r t h e s e r a c e s in t h e Crania Americana ( m e a s u r e d by s e e d ) . F o r C a u c a s i a n s , 1 9 identifiable skulls yield a n a v e r a g e d i s c r e p a n c y o f o n l y 1.8 c u b i c i n c h e s f o r shot o v e r s e e d . Y e t 1 8 A f r i c a n skulls, r e m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e s a m p l e r e p o r t e d in Crania Americana, p r o d u c e a m e a n by s h o t of 83.44 c u b i c i n c h e s , a rise of 5.4 c u b i c i n c h e s f r o m the 1 8 3 9 a v e r a g e b y s e e d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e m o r e " i n f e r i o r " a r a c e by M o r t o n ' s a p r i o r i j u d g m e n t , t h e g r e a t e r t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n a subjective m e a s u r e m e n t , easily a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y f u d g e d , a n d a n objective m e a s u r e u n a f f e c t e d b y p r i o r p r e j u d i c e . T h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r b l a c k s , I n d i a n s , a n d C a u c a s i a n s i s 5.4, 2.2, a n d 1.8 c u b i c i n c h e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Plausible s c e n a r i o s a r e easy t o c o n s t r u c t . M o r t o n , m e a s u r i n g b y s e e d , picks up a t h r e a t e n i n g l y l a r g e black skull, fills it lightly a n d gives it a f e w d e s u l t o r y s h a k e s . N e x t , he takes a distressingly small C a u c a s i a n s k u l l , s h a k e s h a r d , a n d p u s h e s m i g h t i l y a t the f o r a m e n m a g n u m with his t h u m b . I t i s easily d o n e , w i t h o u t c o n s c i o u s motivation; e x p e c t a t i o n is a p o w e r f u l g u i d e to a c t i o n .

T H E

98 Table 2*5

Corrected values for Morton's PEOPLE

Mongolians Modern Caucasians Native A m e r i c a n s Malays Ancient Caucasians Africans The

final

tabulation

M I S M E A S U R E

final

O F

MAN

tabulation

CRANIAL CAPACITY (IN ) 3

87 87 86 85 84 83

of 1849

M o r t o n ' s b u r g e o n i n g c o l l e c t i o n i n c l u d e d 623 skulls w h e n h e p r e s e n t e d his f i n a l t a b u l a t i o n i n 1 8 4 9 — a n o v e r w h e l m i n g affirmat i o n o f t h e r a n k i n g that e v e r y A n g l o - S a x o n e x p e c t e d . T h e Caucasian subsamples suffer f r o m errors a n d distortions. T h e G e r m a n m e a n , r e p o r t e d a t 9 0 i n t h e s u m m a r y , i s 88.4 f r o m i n d i v i d u a l skulls listed i n t h e c a t a l o g u e ; t h e c o r r e c t A n g l o - A m e r i c a n a v e r a g e i s 8 9 ( 8 9 . 1 4 ) , n o t 90. T h e h i g h E n g l i s h m e a n o f 96 i s c o r r e c t , b u t t h e small s a m p l e i s entirely m a l e . * I f w e follow o u r p r o c e d u r e o f c o m p u t i n g a v e r a g e s a m o n g s u b s a m p l e s , t h e six m o d e r n C a u c a s i a n " f a m i l i e s " yield a m e a n o f 8 7 c u b i c i n c h e s . t T h e a n c i e n t C a u c a s i a n a v e r a g e f o r t w o s u b s a m p l e s is 84 c u b i c inches ( T a b l e 2.5). Six C h i n e s e skulls p r o v i d e M o r t o n with a M o n g o l i a n m e a n o f 8 2 , b u t this l o w v a l u e r e c o r d s t w o cases o f selective a m n e s i a : First, • T o demonstrate again how large differences based on stature can be, I report these additional data, recovered from Morton's tabulations, but never calculated or recognized by him: 1) For Inca Peruvians, fifty-three male skulls average 77.5; sixtyone female skulls, 72.1. 2) For Germans, nine male skulls average 92.2; eight females, 84.3. t My original report (Gould, 1978) incorrectly listed the modern Caucasian mean as 85.3. T h e reason for this error is embarrassing, but instructive, for it illustrates, at my expense, the cardinal principle of this book: the social embeddedness of science and the frequent grafting of expectation upon supposed objectivity. Line 7 in Table 2.3 lists the range of Semitic skulls as 84 to 98 cubic inches for Morton's sample of 3. However, my original paper cited a mean of 80—an obvious impossibility if the smallest skull measures 84. I was working from a Xerox of Morton's original chart, and his correct value of 89 is smudged to look like an 80 on my copy. Nonetheless, the range of 84 to 98 is clearly indicated right alongside, and I never saw the inconsistency—presumably because a low value of 80 fit my hopes for a depressed Caucasian mean. T h e 80 therefore "felt" right and I never checked it. I am grateful to Dr. Irving Klotz of Northwestern University for pointing out this error to me.

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M o r t o n e x c l u d e d t h e latest C h i n e s e s p e c i m e n (skull n u m b e r 1 3 3 6 a t 9 8 c u b i c i n c h e s ) , t h o u g h i t m u s t h a v e b e e n i n his collection w h e n h e p u b l i s h e d his s u m m a r y b e c a u s e h e i n c l u d e s m a n y P e r u v i a n skulls with h i g h e r n u m b e r s . S e c o n d l y , a l t h o u g h M o r t o n d e p l o r e d the a b s e n c e o f E s k i m o s f r o m his c o l l e c t i o n ( 1 8 4 9 , p . iv), h e d i d n o t m e n t i o n the t h r e e E s k i m o skulls that h e h a d m e a s u r e d f o r Crania Americana. ( T h e s e b e l o n g e d t o his f r i e n d G e o r g e C o m b e a n d d o n o t a p p e a r i n M o r t o n ' s final c a t a l o g u e . ) M o r t o n n e v e r r e m e a s u r e d t h e s e skulls w i t h s h o t , b u t i f w e a p p l y t h e I n d i a n c o r r e c t i o n o f 2.2 c u b i c i n c h e s t o their s e e d a v e r a g e o f 86.8 w e o b t a i n a m e a n o f 89. T h e s e t w o s a m p l e s ( C h i n e s e with n u m b e r 1 3 3 6 a d d e d , a n d E s k i m o c o n s e r v a t i v e l y c o r r e c t e d ) yield a M o n g o l i a n a v e r a g e of 87 cubic inches. B y 1 8 4 9 M o r t o n ' s I n d i a n m e a n h a d p l u m m e t e d t o 7 9 . B u t this figure is invalid for the same reason as before, t h o u g h now intensified—inequality of numbers a m o n g subsamples. Small-headed ( a n d small-statured) P e r u v i a n s p r o v i d e d 2 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e 1 8 3 9 s a m p l e , b u t t h e i r f r e q u e n c y h a d r i s e n t o n e a r l y h a l f ( 1 5 5 o f 338 skulls) b y 1 8 4 9 . I f w e u s e o u r p r e v i o u s c r i t e r i o n a n d c o m p u t e t h e a v e r a g e o f all s u b s a m p l e s w e i g h t e d e q u a l l y , t h e I n d i a n a v e r a g e i s 86 cubic inches. For the N e g r o average, we should d r o p Morton's australoids b e c a u s e h e w a n t e d t o assess t h e status o f A f r i c a n blacks a n d w e n o l o n g e r a c c e p t a close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s — d a r k skin e v o l v e d m o r e t h a n o n c e a m o n g h u m a n g r o u p s . I also d r o p t h e H o t t e n t o t s a m p l e o f 3 . A l l skulls a r e f e m a l e , a n d H o t t e n t o t s a r e v e r y small i n s t a t u r e . N a t i v e a n d A m e r i c a n - b o r n b l a c k s , a m a l g a m a t e d t o a single s a m p l e , yield a n a v e r a g e v a l u e b e t w e e n 8 2 a n d 83, but closer to 83. In short, my correction of Morton's conventional r a n k i n g reveals n o significant d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g r a c e s f o r M o r t o n ' s o w n d a t a ( T a b l e 2.5). A l l g r o u p s r a n k b e t w e e n 8 3 a n d 8 7 c u b i c i n c h e s , and Caucasians share the pinnacle. If western Europeans choose to seek their s u p e r i o r i t y i n h i g h a v e r a g e s f o r their s u b s a m p l e s ( G e r manics and A n g l o - S a x o n s in the Caucasian tabulations), I point out that s e v e r a l I n d i a n s u b s a m p l e s a r e e q u a l l y h i g h ( t h o u g h M o r t o n a m a l g a m a t e d all N o r t h A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s a n d n e v e r r e p o r t e d a v e r a g e s b y s u b g r o u p ) , a n d that all T e u t o n i c a n d A n g l o - S a x o n a v e r a g e s a r e e i t h e r m i s c a l c u l a t e d o r b i a s e d i n M o r t o n ' s table.

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Conclusions M o r t o n ' s f i n a g l i n g m a y b e o r d e r e d i n t o f o u r g e n e r a l categories: 1. F a v o r a b l e inconsistencies a n d s h i f t i n g criteria: M o r t o n o f t e n chose to include or delete large subsamples in order to match g r o u p a v e r a g e s with p r i o r e x p e c t a t i o n s . H e i n c l u d e d I n c a P e r u v i a n s t o d e c r e a s e t h e I n d i a n a v e r a g e , but d e l e t e d H i n d u s t o raise t h e C a u c a s i a n m e a n . H e also c h o s e t o p r e s e n t o r n o t t o calculate t h e a v e r a g e s o f s u b s a m p l e s i n s t r i k i n g a c c o r d with d e s i r e d results. H e m a d e calculations f o r C a u c a s i a n s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f T e u t o n s and Anglo-Saxons, but never presented data for Indian s u b s a m p l e s with e q u a l l y h i g h a v e r a g e s . 2 . Subjectivity d i r e c t e d t o w a r d p r i o r p r e j u d i c e : M o r t o n ' s m e a s u r e s with s e e d w e r e sufficiently i m p r e c i s e t o p e r m i t a w i d e r a n g e o f i n f l u e n c e b y subjective bias; later m e a s u r e s with s h o t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e r e r e p e a t a b l e , a n d p r e s u m a b l y objective. I n skulls m e a s u r e d b y b o t h m e t h o d s , v a l u e s f o r shot always e x c e e d v a l u e s for the light, poorly packing seed. B u t degrees of discrepancy m a t c h a p r i o r i a s s u m p t i o n s : an a v e r a g e of 5.4, 2.2, a n d 1.8 c u b i c i n c h e s f o r b l a c k s , I n d i a n s , a n d whites, r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , blacks f a r e d p o o r e s t a n d whites best w h e n t h e results c o u l d b e b i a s e d t o w a r d a n e x p e c t e d result. 3. P r o c e d u r a l o m i s s i o n s that s e e m o b v i o u s to u s : M o r t o n was c o n v i n c e d that v a r i a t i o n in skull size r e c o r d e d d i f f e r e n t i a l , i n n a t e m e n t a l ability. H e n e v e r c o n s i d e r e d a l t e r n a t e h y p o t h e s e s , t h o u g h his o w n d a t a a l m o s t c r i e d o u t f o r a d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . M o r t o n n e v e r c o m p u t e d m e a n s b y sex o r s t a t u r e , e v e n w h e n h e r e c o r d e d t h e s e d a t a i n his t a b u l a t i o n s — a s f o r E g y p t i a n m u m m i e s . H a d he c o m p u t e d the effect of stature, he would presumably have r e c o g n i z e d that it e x p l a i n e d all i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in b r a i n size a m o n g his g r o u p s . N e g r o i d s y i e l d e d a l o w e r a v e r a g e t h a n C a u c a sians a m o n g his E g y p t i a n skulls b e c a u s e t h e n e g r o i d s a m p l e p r o b ably c o n t a i n e d a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f s m a l l e r - s t a t u r e d f e m a l e s , n o t b e c a u s e blacks a r e i n n a t e l y s t u p i d e r . T h e Incas that h e i n c l u d e d i n the I n d i a n s a m p l e a n d t h e H i n d u s that h e e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e C a u c a s i a n s a m p l e b o t h p o s s e s s e d small b r a i n s as a conseq u e n c e o f small b o d y size. M o r t o n u s e d a n a l l - f e m a l e s a m p l e o f t h r e e H o t t e n t o t s t o s u p p o r t t h e stupidity o f b l a c k s , a n d a n all-male s a m p l e o f E n g l i s h m e n t o assert the s u p e r i o r i t y o f w h i t e s .

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4 . Miscalculations a n d c o n v e n i e n t o m i s s i o n s : A l l miscalculations a n d o m i s s i o n s that I h a v e d e t e c t e d a r e in M o r t o n ' s f a v o r . He rounded the negroid Egyptian average d o w n to 79, rather than up t o 80. H e cited a v e r a g e s o f 9 0 f o r G e r m a n s a n d A n g l o - S a x o n s , but t h e c o r r e c t v a l u e s a r e 8 8 a n d 89. H e e x c l u d e d a l a r g e C h i n e s e skull a n d a n E s k i m o s u b s a m p l e f r o m his f i n a l t a b u l a t i o n f o r m o n g o l o i d s , t h u s d e p r e s s i n g their a v e r a g e b e l o w t h e C a u c a s i a n v a l u e . Y e t t h r o u g h all this j u g g l i n g , I d e t e c t n o sign o f f r a u d o r c o n scious m a n i p u l a t i o n . M o r t o n m a d e n o a t t e m p t t o c o v e r his tracks a n d I m u s t p r e s u m e that h e was u n a w a r e h e h a d left t h e m . H e e x p l a i n e d all his p r o c e d u r e s a n d p u b l i s h e d all his raw d a t a . All I c a n d i s c e r n is an a p r i o r i c o n v i c t i o n a b o u t racial r a n k i n g so p o w e r f u l that it d i r e c t e d his tabulations a l o n g p r e e s t a b l i s h e d lines. Y e t M o r t o n was w i d e l y h a i l e d a s t h e objectivist o f his a g e , t h e m a n w h o w o u l d r e s c u e A m e r i c a n science f r o m t h e m i r e o f u n s u p p o r t e d speculation.

The American school and slavery The toward version gers . . .

l e a d i n g A m e r i c a n p o l y g e n i s t s d i f f e r e d i n their a t t i t u d e slavery. M o s t w e r e N o r t h e r n e r s , a n d most f a v o r e d s o m e o f S q u i e r ' s q u i p : "[I h a v e a ] p r e c i o u s p o o r o p i n i o n o f niga still p o o r e r o n e o f s l a v e r y " (in S t a n t o n , i 9 6 0 , p . 193).

B u t t h e identification of blacks as a s e p a r a t e a n d u n e q u a l species h a d o b v i o u s a p p e a l as an a r g u m e n t f o r slavery. Josiah N o t t , a leading polygenist, e n c o u n t e r e d particularly receptive audiences in the S o u t h f o r his " l e c t u r e s o n n i g g e r o l o g y " (as h e called t h e m ) . M o r t o n ' s Crania Aegyptiaca r e c e i v e d a w a r m w e l c o m e in the S o u t h (in S t a n t o n , i 9 6 0 , p p . 5 2 - 5 3 ) . O n e s u p p o r t e r o f slavery w r o t e that the S o u t h n e e d n o l o n g e r b e "so m u c h f r i g h t e n e d " b y "voices o f E u r o p e o r o f N o r t h e r n A m e r i c a " i n d e f e n d i n g its " p e c u l i a r institutions." W h e n M o r t o n d i e d , the S o u t h ' s l e a d i n g m e d i c a l j o u r n a l p r o c l a i m e d (R. W. G i b b s , Charleston Medical Journal, 1 8 5 1 , q u o t e d i n S t a n t o n , i 9 6 0 , p . 144): " W e o f the S o u t h s h o u l d c o n s i d e r h i m a s o u r b e n e f a c t o r , f o r a i d i n g m o s t materially i n g i v i n g t o the n e g r o his t r u e position as an i n f e r i o r r a c e . " Nonetheless, the polygenist a r g u m e n t did not occupy a primary place i n t h e i d e o l o g y o f slavery i n m i d - n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a — a n d f o r a g o o d r e a s o n . F o r m o s t S o u t h e r n e r s , this e x c e l l e n t a r g u m e n t e n t a i l e d t o o h i g h a p r i c e . T h e p o l y g e n i s t s h a d railed

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a g a i n s t i d e o l o g u e s a s b a r r i e r s t o t h e i r p u r e s e a r c h f o r t r u t h , but their targets w e r e p a r s o n s m o r e o f t e n than abolitionists. T h e i r t h e o r y , i n a s s e r t i n g a plurality o f h u m a n c r e a t i o n s , c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e d o c t r i n e o f a single A d a m a n d c o n t r a v e n e d t h e literal t r u t h o f s c r i p t u r e . A l t h o u g h t h e l e a d i n g p o l y g e n i s t s h e l d a diversity o f relig i o u s a t t i t u d e s , n o n e w e r e atheists. M o r t o n a n d A g a s s i z w e r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y d e v o u t , b u t t h e y d i d b e l i e v e that b o t h s c i e n c e a n d r e l i g i o n w o u l d b e a i d e d i f u n t r a i n e d p a r s o n s k e p t t h e i r noses o u t o f scientific issues a n d s t o p p e d p r o f e r r i n g t h e B i b l e a s a d o c u m e n t to settle d e b a t e s in n a t u r a l history. Josiah N o t t stated his g o a l in a forceful way (Agassiz and M o r t o n would not have put it so baldly): ". . . to cut loose t h e n a t u r a l history of m a n k i n d f r o m t h e B i b l e , a n d t o p l a c e e a c h u p o n its o w n f o u n d a t i o n , w h e r e i t m a y r e m a i n w i t h o u t collision o r m o l e s t a t i o n " (in S t a n t o n , ig6o, p . 1 1 9 ) . T h e p o l y g e n i s t s f o r c e d d e f e n d e r s o f slavery i n t o a q u a n d a r y : S h o u l d t h e y a c c e p t a s t r o n g a r g u m e n t f r o m science a t t h e cost o f l i m i t i n g religion's s p h e r e ? I n r e s o l v i n g this d i l e m m a , t h e B i b l e usually w o n . A f t e r all, s c r i p t u r a l a r g u m e n t s f o r s u p p o r t i n g slavery w e r e n o t w a n t i n g . D e g e n e r a t i o n o f blacks u n d e r t h e c u r s e o f H a m was a n o l d a n d e m i n e n t l y f u n c t i o n a l s t a n d b y . M o r e o v e r , p o l y g e n y was n o t t h e o n l y quasi-scientific d e f e n s e available. J o h n B a c h m a n , f o r e x a m p l e , was a S o u t h C a r o l i n a p a r s o n a n d p r o m i n e n t naturalist. A s a c o m m i t t e d m o n o g e n i s t , h e s p e n t a g o o d p a r t o f his scientific c a r e e r a t t e m p t i n g t o r e f u t e p o l y g e n y . H e also u s e d m o n o g e n i s t p r i n c i p l e s t o d e f e n d slavery: In intellectual power the African is an inferior variety of our species. His whole history affords evidence that he is incapable of self-government. O u r child that we lead by the hand, and who looks to us for protection and support is still of our own blood notwithstanding his weakness and ignorance (in Stanton, i960, p. 63). A m o n g n o n p o l y g e n i s t , "scientific" d e f e n s e s o f slavery, n o a r g u ments ever matched in absurdity the doctrines of S. A. Cartwright, a p r o m i n e n t S o u t h e r n p h y s i c i a n . (I do n o t cite these as typical a n d I d o u b t that m a n y i n t e l l i g e n t S o u t h e r n e r s p a i d t h e m m u c h attention; I m e r e l y wish to illustrate an e x t r e m e within t h e r a n g e of "scientific" a r g u m e n t . ) C a r t w r i g h t t r a c e d the p r o b l e m s o f black p e o p l e t o i n a d e q u a t e d e c a r b o n i z a t i o n o f b l o o d i n t h e l u n g s (insufficient r e m o v a l of c a r b o n d i o x i d e ) : " I t is the d e f e c t i v e . . . a t m o spherization of the blood, conjoined with a deficiency of cerebral

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m a t t e r in t h e c r a n i u m . . . that is t h e t r u e c a u s e of that d e b a s e m e n t o f m i n d , w h i c h has r e n d e r e d t h e p e o p l e o f A f r i c a u n a b l e t o t a k e c a r e o f t h e m s e l v e s " ( f r o m C h o r o v e r , 1 9 7 9 ; all q u o t e s f r o m C a r t w r i g h t a r e t a k e n f r o m p a p e r s h e p r e s e n t e d t o the 1 8 5 1 m e e t i n g o f the L o u i s i a n a M e d i c a l Association.) C a r t w r i g h t e v e n h a d a n a m e f o r it—dysesthesia, a disease of i n a d e q u a t e b r e a t h i n g . H e d e s c r i b e d its s y m p t o m s i n slaves: " W h e n d r i v e n t o l a b o r . . . h e p e r f o r m s t h e task a s s i g n e d t o h i m i n a h e a d l o n g a n d careless m a n n e r , t r e a d i n g d o w n with his feet o r c u t t i n g with his h o e t h e plants he is p u t to c u l t i v a t e — b r e a k i n g the tools he works with, a n d spoiling everything he touches." Ignorant N o r t h e r n e r s a t t r i b u t e d this b e h a v i o r t o " t h e d e b a s i n g i n f l u e n c e o f slave r y , " b u t C a r t w r i g h t r e c o g n i z e d it as t h e e x p r e s s i o n of a t r u e d i s e a s e . H e i d e n t i f i e d insensibility t o p a i n a s a n o t h e r s y m p t o m : " W h e n t h e u n f o r t u n a t e i n d i v i d u a l i s subjected t o p u n i s h m e n t , h e n e i t h e r feels p a i n of a n y c o n s e q u e n c e . . . [nor] a n y u n u s u a l r e s e n t m e n t m o r e t h a n s t u p i d sulkiness. In s o m e cases . . . t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a n a l m o s t total loss o f f e e l i n g . " C a r t w r i g h t p r o p o s e d t h e following cure: T h e liver, skin and kidneys should be stimulated to activity . . . to assist in decarbonizing the blood. T h e best means to stimulate the skin is, first, to have the patient well washed with warm water and soap; then to anoint it all over with oil, and to slap the oil in with a broad leather strap; then to put the patient to some hard kind of work in the open air and sunshine that will compel him to expand his lungs, as c h o p p i n g wood, splitting rails, or sawing with the crosscut or whip saw. C a r t w r i g h t d i d n o t e n d his c a t a l o g u e o f diseases with d y s esthesia. H e w o n d e r e d w h y slaves o f t e n tried t o flee, a n d identified t h e c a u s e as a m e n t a l disease called drapetomania, or t h e i n s a n e desire to run away. " L i k e children, they are constrained by unaltera b l e p h y s i o l o g i c a l laws, t o l o v e t h o s e i n a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e m . H e n c e , f r o m a law o f his n a t u r e , t h e n e g r o c a n n o m o r e h e l p lovi n g a k i n d m a s t e r , t h a n t h e child c a n h e l p l o v i n g h e r that gives it suck." F o r slaves afflicted with d r a p e t o m a n i a , C a r t w r i g h t p r o posed a behavioral cure: owners should avoid both extreme permissiveness a n d c r u e l t y : " T h e y h a v e o n l y t o b e k e p t i n that state, a n d t r e a t e d like c h i l d r e n , t o p r e v e n t a n d c u r e t h e m f r o m r u n n i n g away." T h e d e f e n d e r s o f slavery d i d n o t n e e d p o l y g e n y . R e l i g i o n still

T H E

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s t o o d a b o v e science as a p r i m a r y s o u r c e f o r t h e rationalization of social o r d e r . B u t t h e A m e r i c a n d e b a t e o n p o l y g e n y m a y r e p r e s e n t t h e last t i m e that a r g u m e n t s in the scientific m o d e d i d n o t f o r m a f i r s t line o f d e f e n s e f o r t h e status q u o a n d the u n a l t e r a b l e quality o f h u m a n d i f f e r e n c e s . T h e Civil W a r lay j u s t a r o u n d t h e c o r n e r , b u t so d i d 1 8 5 9 a n d D a r w i n ' s Origin of Species. S u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t s f o r slavery, c o l o n i a l i s m , racial d i f f e r e n c e s , class s t r u c t u r e s , a n d sex roles w o u l d g o f o r t h p r i m a r i l y u n d e r t h e b a n n e r o f science.

THREE

Measuring Heads Paul Broca and the Heyday of Craniology No rational man, cognisant of the facts, believes that the average negro is the equal, still less the superior, of the average white man. And, if this be true, it is simply incredible that, when all his disabilities are removed, and our prognathous relative has a fair field and no favor, as well as no oppressor, he will be able to compete successfully with his bigger-brained and smaller-jawed rival, in a contest which is to be carried on by thoughts and not by bites. —T. H . HUXLEY

The allure of numbers Introduction E v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y s w e p t a w a y t h e creationist r u g that h a d supported the intense debate between monogenists and polygenists, b u t it satisfied b o t h sides by p r e s e n t i n g an e v e n b e t t e r r a t i o n a l e f o r their s h a r e d r a c i s m . T h e m o n o g e n i s t s c o n t i n u e d t o c o n s t r u c t l i n e a r h i e r a r c h i e s o f races a c c o r d i n g t o m e n t a l a n d m o r a l w o r t h ; t h e p o l y g e n i s t s n o w a d m i t t e d a c o m m o n a n c e s t r y in t h e p r e h i s t o r i c mists, b u t a f f i r m e d that races h a d b e e n s e p a r a t e l o n g e n o u g h t o e v o l v e m a j o r i n h e r i t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n talent a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e . A s historian o f a n t h r o p o l o g y G e o r g e S t o c k i n g writes ( 1 9 7 3 , p- l x x ) : " T h e r e s u l t i n g intellectual tensions w e r e r e s o l v e d a f t e r 1 8 5 9 b y a c o m p r e h e n s i v e e v o l u t i o n i s m w h i c h was a t o n c e m o n o g e n i s t a n d racist, w h i c h a f f i r m e d h u m a n u n i t y e v e n a s i t r e l e g a t e d t h e d a r k s k i n n e d s a v a g e to a status v e r y n e a r t h e a p e . " T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y was n o t o n l y t h e e r a o f e v o l u t i o n i n a n t h r o p o l o g y . A n o t h e r t r e n d , e q u a l l y irresistible,

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swept t h r o u g h the h u m a n sciences—the allure of n u m b e r s , the faith that r i g o r o u s m e a s u r e m e n t c o u l d g u a r a n t e e i r r e f u t a b l e p r e c i s i o n , a n d m i g h t m a r k the transition b e t w e e n subjective speculation a n d a t r u e science as w o r t h y as N e w t o n i a n p h y s i c s . E v o l u t i o n a n d quantification f o r m e d an u n h o l y alliance; in a s e n s e , their u n i o n f o r g e d t h e f i r s t p o w e r f u l t h e o r y o f "scientific" r a c i s m — i f w e define "science" as m a n y do w h o misunderstand it most profoundly: as any claim apparently backed by copious n u m b e r s . Anthropologists had presented numbers before Darwin, but the c r u d i t y of M o r t o n ' s analysis ( C h a p t e r 2) belies a n y claim to r i g o r . By the end of Darwin's century, standardized procedures and a d e v e l o p i n g b o d y o f statistical k n o w l e d g e h a d g e n e r a t e d a d e l u g e of m o r e truthworthy numerical data. T h i s c h a p t e r i s t h e story o f n u m b e r s o n c e r e g a r d e d a s s u r p a s s i n g all o t h e r s i n i m p o r t a n c e — t h e d a t a o f c r a n i o m e t r y , o r m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e skull a n d its c o n t e n t s . T h e l e a d e r s o f c r a n i o m e t r y w e r e n o t c o n s c i o u s political i d e o l o g u e s . T h e y r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s a s s e r v a n t s o f their n u m b e r s , apostles o f objectivity. A n d t h e y c o n f i r m e d all t h e c o m m o n p r e j u d i c e s o f c o m f o r t a b l e w h i t e m a l e s — that blacks, w o m e n , a n d p o o r p e o p l e o c c u p y t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e roles b y t h e h a r s h dictates o f n a t u r e . Science is rooted in creative interpretation. N u m b e r s suggest, c o n s t r a i n , a n d r e f u t e ; they d o n o t , b y t h e m s e l v e s , specify t h e c o n t e n t o f scientific t h e o r i e s . T h e o r i e s a r e built u p o n the i n t e r p r e t a tion o f n u m b e r s , a n d i n t e r p r e t e r s a r e o f t e n t r a p p e d b y t h e i r o w n r h e t o r i c . T h e y b e l i e v e i n their o w n objectivity, a n d fail t o d i s c e r n t h e p r e j u d i c e that leads t h e m t o o n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a m o n g m a n y c o n s i s t e n t with their n u m b e r s . Paul B r o c a i s n o w d i s t a n t e n o u g h . W e c a n s t a n d b a c k a n d s h o w that h e u s e d n u m b e r s n o t t o g e n e r a t e n e w t h e o r i e s b u t to illustrate a p r i o r i c o n c l u s i o n s . Shall we b e l i e v e that science i s d i f f e r e n t t o d a y simply b e c a u s e w e s h a r e t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t o f m o s t p r a c t i c i n g scientists a n d m i s t a k e its i n f l u e n c e f o r objective t r u t h ? B r o c a was a n e x e m p l a r y scientist; n o o n e has e v e r surpassed him in meticulous care and accuracy of measurement. B y w h a t r i g h t , o t h e r t h a n o u r o w n biases, c a n w e identify his p r e j u d i c e a n d h o l d that science n o w o p e r a t e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f c u l t u r e a n d class?

M E A S U R I N G

Francis

H E A D S

Galton—apostle

of

quantification

N o m a n e x p r e s s e d his era's fascination with n u m b e r s s o well a s D a r w i n ' s c e l e b r a t e d c o u s i n , Francis G a l t o n ( 1 8 2 2 - 1 9 1 1 ) . I n d e p e n d e n t l y w e a l t h y , G a l t o n h a d t h e r a r e f r e e d o m t o d e v o t e his c o n s i d e r a b l e e n e r g y a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e t o his f a v o r i t e subject o f m e a s u r e m e n t . G a l t o n , a p i o n e e r o f m o d e r n statistics, b e l i e v e d that, with sufficient l a b o r a n d i n g e n u i t y , a n y t h i n g m i g h t b e m e a s u r e d , a n d that m e a s u r e m e n t i s t h e p r i m a r y c r i t e r i o n o f a scientific s t u d y . H e e v e n p r o p o s e d a n d b e g a n t o c a r r y out a statistical i n q u i r y i n t o t h e efficacy o f p r a y e r ! G a l t o n c o i n e d t h e t e r m " e u g e n i c s " i n 1883 a n d a d v o c a t e d t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f m a r r i a g e a n d f a m i l y size a c c o r d i n g to hereditary e n d o w m e n t of parents. G a l t o n b a c k e d his faith in m e a s u r e m e n t with all t h e i n g e n u i t y o f his idiosyncratic m e t h o d s . H e s o u g h t , f o r e x a m p l e , t o c o n s t r u c t a " b e a u t y m a p " o f t h e British Isles i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r ( 1 9 0 9 , PP-

S 5-S )1

lG

Whenever I have occasion to classify the persons I meet into three classes, "good, m e d i u m , bad," I use a needle m o u n t e d as a pricker, wherewith to prick holes, unseen, in a piece of paper, torn rudely into a cross with a long leg. I use its upper e n d for "good," the cross arm for "medium," the lower e n d for "bad." T h e prick holes keep distinct, and are easily read off at leisure. T h e object, place, and date are written on the paper. I used this plan for my beauty data, classifying the girls I passed in streets or elsewhere as attractive, indifferent, or repellent. Of course this was a purely individual estimate, but it was consistent, j u d g i n g from the conformity of different attempts in the same population. I f o u n d L o n d o n to rank highest for beauty; Aberdeen lowest. W i t h g o o d h u m o r , h e s u g g e s t e d the f o l l o w i n g m e t h o d f o r q u a n t i f y i n g b o r e d o m ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 278): Many mental processes admit of being roughly measured. For instance, the degree to which people are bored, by counting the number of their fidgets. I not infrequently tried this method at the meetings of the Royal Geographical Society, for even there dull memoirs are occasionally read. • • . T h e use of a watch attracts attention, so I reckon time by the number of my breathings, of which there are 15 in a minute. T h e y are not counted mentally, but are punctuated by pressing with 15 fingers successively. T h e counting is reserved for the fidgets. T h e s e observations should be confined to persons of middle age. Children are rarely still, while elderly philosophers will sometimes remain rigid for minutes altogether.

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Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n was G a l t o n ' s g o d , a n d a s t r o n g b e l i e f in t h e inheritance of nearly everything he could measure stood at the r i g h t h a n d . G a l t o n b e l i e v e d that e v e n t h e m o s t socially e m b e d d e d behaviors had strong innate c o m p o n e n t s : " A s many m e m b e r s of o u r H o u s e of Lords marry the daughters of millionaires," he w r o t e ( 1 9 0 9 , p p . 3 1 4 - 3 1 5 ) . "it i s q u i t e c o n c e i v a b l e that o u r S e n a t e m a y i n time b e c o m e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a m o r e t h a n c o m m o n s h a r e o f s h r e w d business capacity, possibly also b y a l o w e r s t a n d a r d o f commercial probity than at present." Constantly seeking new a n d i n g e n i o u s w a y s t o m e a s u r e t h e relative w o r t h o f p e o p l e s , h e p r o p o s e d t o r a t e blacks a n d whites b y s t u d y i n g t h e history o f e n c o u n ters b e t w e e n black c h i e f s a n d w h i t e travelers ( 1 8 8 4 , p p . 3 3 8 - 3 3 9 ) : T h e latter, no doubt, bring with them the knowledge current in civilized lands, but that is an advantage of less importance than we are apt to suppose. A native chief has as g o o d an education in the art of ruling m e n , as can be desired; he is continually exercised in personal government, and usually maintains his place by the ascendancy of his character shown every day over his subjects and rivals. A traveller in wild countries also fills, to a certain degree, the position of a c o m m a n d e r , and has to confront native chiefs at every inhabited place. T h e result is familiar e n o u g h — t h e white traveller almost invariably holds his own in their presence. It is seldom that we hear of a white traveller meeting with a black chief w h o m he feels to be the better man. G a l t o n ' s m a j o r w o r k o n t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e (Hereditary Genius, 1869) i n c l u d e d a n t h r o p o m e t r y a m o n g its criteria, b u t his interest i n m e a s u r i n g skulls a n d b o d i e s p e a k e d later w h e n h e established a l a b o r a t o r y at t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p o s i t i o n of 1884. T h e r e , f o r t h r e e p e n c e , p e o p l e m o v e d t h r o u g h his a s s e m b l y line o f tests a n d m e a s u r e s , a n d r e c e i v e d his a s s e s s m e n t a t t h e e n d . A f t e r t h e E x p o s i t i o n , he m a i n t a i n e d t h e lab f o r six y e a r s at a L o n d o n m u s e u m . T h e l a b o r a t o r y b e c a m e f a m o u s a n d a t t r a c t e d m a n y notables, including Gladstone: Mr. Gladstone was amusingly insistent about the size of his head, saying that hatters often told him that he had an Aberdeenshire head—"a fact which you may be sure I do not forget to tell my Scotch constituents." It was a beautifully shaped head, though rather low, but after all it was not so very large in circumference (1909, pp. 249-250). Lest this b e m i s t a k e n f o r t h e h a r m l e s s m u s i n g s o f s o m e d o t t y V i c t o r i a n e c c e n t r i c , I p o i n t o u t that Sir F r a n c i s was t a k e n q u i t e

M E A S U R I N G

H E A D S

seriously a s a l e a d i n g intellect o f his t i m e . T h e A m e r i c a n h e r e d i t a r ian L e w i s T e r m a n , t h e m a n m o s t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r instituting I Q tests i n A m e r i c a , r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y c a l c u l a t e d G a l t o n ' s I Q a t a b o v e 200, b u t a c c o r d e d o n l y 1 3 5 t o D a r w i n a n d a m e r e 1 0 0 - 1 1 0 t o C o p e r n i c u s (see p p . 2 1 3 — 2 1 8 o n this l u d i c r o u s i n c i d e n t i n t h e history o f m e n t a l testing). D a r w i n , w h o a p p r o a c h e d h e r e d i t a r i a n a r g u m e n t s with s t r o n g s u s p i c i o n , w r o t e a f t e r r e a d i n g Hereditary Genius: " Y o u have m a d e a convert of an o p p o n e n t in o n e sense, for I h a v e a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d that, e x c e p t i n g f o o l s , m e n d i d n o t d i f f e r m u c h in intellect, o n l y in zeal a n d h a r d w o r k " (in G a l t o n , 1909, p. 290). G a l t o n r e s p o n d e d : " T h e r e j o i n d e r that m i g h t b e m a d e t o his r e m a r k a b o u t h a r d w o r k , i s that c h a r a c t e r , i n c l u d i n g t h e a p t i t u d e f o r w o r k , is h e r i t a b l e like e v e r y o t h e r f a c u l t y . " A curtain-raiser with a moral: numbers do not guarantee truth In 1906, a V i r g i n i a p h y s i c i a n , R o b e r t B e n n e t t B e a n , p u b l i s h e d a l o n g , technical article c o m p a r i n g t h e b r a i n s o f A m e r i c a n blacks a n d whites. W i t h a k i n d o f n e u r o l o g i c a l g r e e n t h u m b , h e f o u n d m e a n i n g f u l d i f f e r e n c e s w h e r e v e r h e l o o k e d — m e a n i n g f u l , that is, i n his f a v o r e d s e n s e o f e x p r e s s i n g black i n f e r i o r i t y i n h a r d n u m b e r s . B e a n t o o k special p r i d e in his data on t h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m , a s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e b r a i n that c o n t a i n s f i b e r s c o n n e c t i n g t h e r i g h t a n d left h e m i s p h e r e s . F o l l o w i n g a c a r d i n a l t e n e t o f c r a n i o m e t r y , that h i g h e r m e n t a l f u n c t i o n s r e s i d e i n t h e f r o n t o f t h e b r a i n a n d s e n s o r i m o t o r capacities t o w a r d t h e r e a r , B e a n r e a s o n e d that h e m i g h t r a n k r a c e s b y t h e relative sizes o f parts within t h e c o r p u s callosum. So he measured the length of the g e n u , the front part of t h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m , a n d c o m p a r e d i t with the l e n g t h o f t h e splen i u m , the b a c k p a r t . H e p l o t t e d g e n u vs. s p l e n i u m (Fig. 3.1) a n d o b t a i n e d , f o r a r e s p e c t a b l y l a r g e s a m p l e , virtually c o m p l e t e s e p a ration b e t w e e n black a n d w h i t e b r a i n s . W h i t e s h a v e a relatively l a r g e g e n u , h e n c e m o r e b r a i n u p f r o n t i n the seat o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . All t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e , B e a n e x c l a i m e d ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 390) b e c a u s e the g e n u c o n t a i n s f i b e r s b o t h f o r o l f a c t i o n a n d f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e ! B e a n c o n t i n u e d : W e all k n o w that blacks h a v e a k e e n e r s e n s e o f smell t h a n w h i t e s ; h e n c e w e m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d l a r g e r g e n u s i n blacks i f i n t e l l i g e n c e d i d not d i f f e r substantially b e t w e e n r a c e s . Y e t black g e n u s a r e s m a l l e r d e s p i t e their o l f a c t o r y p r e d o m i n a n c e ; h e n c e , blacks m u s t really s u f f e r f r o m a p a u c i t y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e .

3*1 Bean's plot of the genu on the y-axis vs. the spienium on the x-axis White circles are, unsurprisingly, for white brains; black squares for black brains. Whites seem to have a larger genu, hence more up front, and presumably more intelligence.

MEASURING

HEADS

III

M o r e o v e r , B e a n did not neglect to push the c o r r e s p o n d i n g conclusion f o r s e x e s . W i t h i n e a c h r a c e , w o m e n h a v e relatively s m a l l e r g e n u s than m e n . B e a n t h e n c o n t i n u e d his d i s c o u r s e o n t h e relatively g r e a t e r size o f f r o n t a l vs. p a r i e t a l a n d occipital (side a n d back) p a r t s o f t h e b r a i n i n w h i t e s . I n t h e relative size o f t h e i r f r o n t a l a r e a s , h e p r o c l a i m e d , b l a c k s a r e i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n " m a n [sic] a n d t h e o u r a n g - o u t a n g " ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 380). T h r o u g h o u t this l o n g m o n o g r a p h , o n e c o m m o n m e a s u r e i s c o n s p i c u o u s b y its a b s e n c e : B e a n says n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e size o f t h e b r a i n itself, t h e f a v o r e d c r i t e r i o n o f classical c r a n i o m e t r y . T h e r e a s o n f o r this n e g l e c t lies b u r i e d i n a n a d d e n d u m : black a n d w h i t e b r a i n s d i d n o t d i f f e r i n o v e r a l l size. B e a n t e m p o r i z e d : " S o m a n y f a c t o r s e n t e r i n t o b r a i n w e i g h t that it is q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r disc u s s i o n o f t h e subject i s p r o f i t a b l e h e r e . " Still, h e f o u n d a w a y o u t . His brains c a m e f r o m u n c l a i m e d bodies given to medical schools. W e all k n o w that blacks h a v e less r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r d e a d t h a n w h i t e s . O n l y the l o w e s t classes o f w h i t e s — p r o s t i t u t e s a n d t h e d e p r a v e d — would be found a m o n g abandoned bodies, "while a m o n g Negroes i t i s k n o w n that e v e n t h e b e t t e r classes n e g l e c t t h e i r d e a d . " T h u s , even an absence of m e a s u r e d difference m i g h t indicate white superiority, f o r t h e d a t a " d o p e r h a p s s h o w that t h e l o w class C a u c a s i a n has a l a r g e r b r a i n t h a n a b e t t e r class N e g r o " ( 1 9 0 6 , p. 409). Bean's general conclusion, expressed in a summary p a r a g r a p h before the troublesome a d d e n d u m , proclaimed a c o m m o n prejudice as the conclusion of science: T h e N e g r o is primarily affectionate, immensely emotional, then sensual and u n d e r stimulation passionate. T h e r e is love of ostentation, and capacity for melodious articulation; there is u n d e v e l o p e d artistic power and taste—Negroes make g o o d artisans, handicraftsmen—and there is instability of character incident to lack of self-control, especially in connection with the sexual relation; and there is lack of orientation, or recognition of position and condition of self and environment, evidenced by a peculiar bumptiousness, so called, that is particularly noticeable. O n e would naturally expect some such character for the N e g r o , because the whole posterior part of the brain is large, and the whole anterior portion is small. B e a n d i d n o t c o n f i n e his o p i n i o n s t o t e c h n i c a l j o u r n a l s . H e p u b lished t w o articles i n p o p u l a r m a g a z i n e s d u r i n g 1 9 0 6 , a n d a t t r a c t e d

112

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sufficient a t t e n t i o n to b e c o m e t h e subject of an e d i t o r i a l in American Medicine f o r A p r i l 1 9 0 7 (cited i n C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 , p . 1 7 9 ) . B e a n h a d p r o v i d e d , t h e e d i t o r i a l p r o c l a i m e d , " t h e a n a t o m i c a l basis f o r the c o m p l e t e f a i l u r e o f t h e n e g r o schools t o i m p a r t t h e h i g h e r studi e s — t h e brain cannot c o m p r e h e n d them any m o r e than a horse c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e r u l e of t h r e e . . . . L e a d e r s in all political parties n o w a c k n o w l e d g e t h e e r r o r o f h u m a n equality. . . . I t m a y b e practicable t o rectify the e r r o r a n d r e m o v e a m e n a c e t o o u r p r o s p e r i t y — a large electorate without brains." But Franklin P. Mall, Bean's m e n t o r at Johns H o p k i n s , became s u s p i c i o u s : B e a n ' s d a t a w e r e too g o o d . H e r e p e a t e d B e a n ' s w o r k , b u t with a n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n p r o c e d u r e — h e m a d e s u r e that h e d i d n o t k n o w w h i c h b r a i n s w e r e f r o m blacks a n d w h i c h f r o m whites until after he h a d m e a s u r e d t h e m (Mall, 1909). F o r a s a m p l e o f 106 b r a i n s , u s i n g B e a n ' s m e t h o d o f m e a s u r e m e n t , h e f o u n d n o d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n whites a n d blacks i n the relative sizes o f g e n u a n d s p l e n i u m (Fig. 3.2). T h i s s a m p l e i n c l u d e d 1 8 b r a i n s f r o m B e a n ' s o r i g i n a l s a m p l e , 1 0 f r o m w h i t e s , 8 f r o m blacks. B e a n ' s m e a s u r e of t h e g e n u was l a r g e r t h a n Mall's f o r 7 w h i t e s , but f o r o n l y a single black. B e a n ' s m e a s u r e o f t h e s p l e n i u m was l a r g e r t h a n Mall's f o r 7 of t h e 8 blacks. I use this small tale of z e a l o t r y as a c u r t a i n - r a i s e r b e c a u s e it illustrates s o well the m a j o r c o n t e n t i o n s o f this c h a p t e r a n d b o o k : 1. Scientific racists a n d sexists o f t e n c o n f i n e t h e i r label of inferiority to a single d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p ; but r a c e , s e x , a n d class go t o g e t h e r , a n d e a c h acts a s a s u r r o g a t e f o r t h e o t h e r s . I n d i v i d u a l studies m a y b e limited i n s c o p e , but t h e g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h y o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m p e r v a d e s — h i e r a r c h i e s o f a d v a n t a g e a n d disa d v a n t a g e follow t h e dictates o f n a t u r e ; stratification reflects b i o l o g y . B e a n s t u d i e d r a c e s , b u t h e e x t e n d e d his m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n t o w o m e n , a n d also i n v o k e d d i f f e r e n c e s o f social class t o a r g u e t h a t e q u a l i t y o f size b e t w e e n black a n d w h i t e b r a i n s really reflects t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f blacks. 2 . P r i o r p r e j u d i c e , n o t c o p i o u s n u m e r i c a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n , dictates c o n c l u s i o n s . W e c a n scarcely d o u b t that B e a n ' s s t a t e m e n t a b o u t black b u m p t i o u s n e s s reflected a p r i o r b e l i e f that he set o u t t o objectify, n o t a n i n d u c t i o n f r o m d a t a a b o u t f r o n t s a n d b a c k s o f b r a i n s . A n d t h e special p l e a d i n g that y i e l d e d b l a c k i n f e r i o r i t y f r o m equality of b r a i n size is l u d i c r o u s o u t s i d e a s h a r e d c o n t e x t of a p r i o r i b e l i e f in the i n f e r i o r i t y of blacks.

J * 2 Mall's plot of g e n u vs. splenium. Mall measured the brains without knowing whether they came from whites or blacks. He found no difference between the races. T h e line represents Bean's separation between h i t e s and blacks. w

I I

T H E

4

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O F

M A N

3. N u m b e r s and graphs do not gain authority from increasing p r e c i s i o n o f m e a s u r e m e n t , s a m p l e size, o r c o m p l e x i t y i n m a n i p u lation. Basic e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n s m a y b e flawed a n d n o t subject t o correction by e x t e n d e d repetition. Prior c o m m i t m e n t to one a m o n g m a n y p o t e n t i a l c o n c l u s i o n s o f t e n g u a r a n t e e s a s e r i o u s flaw in design. 4. C r a n i o m e t r y w a s n o t j u s t a p l a y t h i n g of a c a d e m i c i a n s , a subject c o n f i n e d t o t e c h n i c a l j o u r n a l s . C o n c l u s i o n s f l o o d e d t h e p o p u l a r p r e s s . O n c e e n t r e n c h e d , t h e y o f t e n e m b a r k e d o n a life of their o w n , endlessly copied f r o m secondary source to secondary s o u r c e , r e f r a c t o r y t o d i s p r o o f b e c a u s e n o o n e e x a m i n e d t h e fragility o f p r i m a r y d o c u m e n t a t i o n . I n this case, Mall n i p p e d a d o g m a in the b u d , but not before a leading j o u r n a l h a d r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t blacks b e b a r r e d f r o m v o t i n g a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f their i n n a t e stupidity. , B u t I also n o t e a n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n B e a n a n d t h e great E u r o p e a n craniometricians. B e a n committed either conscious f r a u d o r e x t r a o r d i n a r y s e l f - d e l u s i o n . H e w a s a p o o r scientist following an absurd experimental design. T h e great craniometric i a n s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e r e fine scientists b y t h e c r i t e r i a o f t h e i r time. T h e i r n u m b e r s , unlike Bean's, w e r e generally sound. T h e i r p r e j u d i c e s p l a y e d a m o r e s u b t l e role i n s p e c i f y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d in suggesting what n u m b e r s might be gathered in the first p l a c e . T h e i r w o r k was m o r e r e f r a c t o r y t o e x p o s u r e , b u t e q u a l l y i n v a l i d f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n : p r e j u d i c e s l e d t h r o u g h d a t a i n a circle b a c k t o t h e s a m e p r e j u d i c e s — a n u n b e a t a b l e s y s t e m that g a i n e d a u t h o r i t y b e c a u s e i t s e e m e d t o arise f r o m m e t i c u l o u s m e a s u r e ment. B e a n ' s story h a s b e e n told s e v e r a l times ( M y r d a l , 1 9 4 4 ; H a l l e r , 1 9 7 1 ; C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 ) , i f n o t with all its details. B u t B e a n w a s a m a r ginal figure on a t e m p o r a r y and provincial stage. I h a v e f o u n d no m o d e r n analysis o f t h e m a i n d r a m a , t h e d a t a o f P a u l B r o c a a n d his school.

Masters of craniometry: Paul Broca and his school The great

circle

route

In 1 8 6 1 a fierce d e b a t e e x t e n d e d o v e r s e v e r a l m e e t i n g s of a y o u n g association still e x p e r i e n c i n g its birth p a n g s . P a u l B r o c a

MEASURING

HEADS

( 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 8 0 ) , p r o f e s s o r o f clinical s u r g e r y i n t h e f a c u l t y o f m e d i c i n e , h a d f o u n d e d t h e A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l Society o f Paris i n 1 8 5 9 . A t a m e e t i n g o f t h e society t w o y e a r s later, L o u i s P i e r r e G r a t i o l e t r e a d a p a p e r that c h a l l e n g e d B r o c a ' s m o s t p r e c i o u s b e l i e f : G r a t i o l e t d a r e d t o a r g u e that t h e size o f a b r a i n b o r e n o r e l a t i o n s h i p t o its d e g r e e of intelligence. B r o c a r o s e i n his o w n d e f e n s e , a r g u i n g that " t h e s t u d y o f t h e b r a i n s o f h u m a n r a c e s w o u l d lose m o s t o f its interest a n d utility" i f v a r i a t i o n i n size c o u n t e d f o r n o t h i n g ( 1 8 6 1 , p . 1 4 1 ) . W h y h a d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s s p e n t s o m u c h t i m e m e a s u r i n g skulls, u n l e s s their results c o u l d d e l i n e a t e h u m a n g r o u p s a n d assess t h e i r relative worth? A m o n g the questions heretofore discussed within the Anthropological Society, n o n e is equal in interest and importance to the question before us now. . . . T h e great importance of craniology has struck anthropologists with such force that many a m o n g us have neglected the other parts of our science in order to devote ourselves almost exclusively to the study of skulls. . . . In such data, we h o p e d to find some information relevant to the intellectual value of the various h u m a n races (1861, p. 139). B r o c a t h e n u n l e a s h e d his d a t a a n d p o o r G r a t i o l e t was r o u t e d . H i s final contribution to the debate must rank a m o n g the most oblique, yet abject c o n c e s s i o n s p e e c h e s e v e r o f f e r e d b y a scientist. H e d i d n o t a b j u r e his e r r o r s ; h e a r g u e d i n s t e a d that n o o n e h a d a p p r e c i a t e d t h e subtlety of his p o s i t i o n . ( G r a t i o l e t , by the w a y , was a royalist, n o t a n e g a l i t a r i a n . H e m e r e l y s o u g h t o t h e r m e a s u r e s t o a f f i r m t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f blacks a n d w o m e n — e a r l i e r c l o s u r e o f t h e skull sutures, for example.) Broca concluded triumphantly: In general, the brain is larger in mature adults than in the elderly, in men than in w o m e n , in eminent m e n than in m e n of mediocre talent, in superior races than in inferior races'(1861, p. 304). . . . Other things equal, there is a remarkable relationship between the d e v e l o p m e n t of intelligence and the volume of the brain (p. 188). Five y e a r s later, i n a n e n c y c l o p e d i a article o n a n t h r o p o l o g y , B r o c a expressed himself m o r e forcefully: A prognathous [forward-jutting] face, more or less black color of the skin, woolly hair and intellectual and social inferiority are often associated,

n6

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while more or less white skin, straight hair and an orthognathous [straight] face are the ordinary equipment of the highest groups in the human series (1866, p. 280). . . . A group with black skin, woolly hair and a prognathous face has never been able to raise itself spontaneously to civilization (pp. 295-296). T h e s e a r e h a r s h w o r d s , a n d B r o c a h i m s e l f r e g r e t t e d that n a t u r e h a d f a s h i o n e d s u c h a system ( 1 8 6 6 , p . 296). B u t w h a t c o u l d h e d o ? Facts a r e facts. " T h e r e i s n o f a i t h , h o w e v e r r e s p e c t a b l e , n o interest, h o w e v e r l e g i t i m a t e , w h i c h m u s t n o t a c c o m m o d a t e itself t o t h e p r o g r e s s o f h u m a n k n o w l e d g e a n d b e n d b e f o r e t r u t h " (in C o u n t , 1 9 5 0 , p . 7 2 ) . Paul T o p i n a r d , B r o c a ' s l e a d i n g disciple a n d s u c c e s s o r , t o o k as his m o t t o ( 1 8 8 2 , p. 7 4 8 ) : "J'ai horreur des systemes et surtout des systemes a priori" (I a b h o r s y s t e m s , especially a p r i o r i systems). , B r o c a s i n g l e d o u t t h e f e w e g a l i t a r i a n scientists o f his c e n t u r y f o r p a r t i c u l a r l y h a r s h t r e a t m e n t b e c a u s e they h a d d e b a s e d t h e i r c a l l i n g b y a l l o w i n g a n ethical h o p e o r political d r e a m t o c l o u d their j u d g m e n t a n d distort objective t r u t h . " T h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f political a n d social c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h a s n o t b e e n less i n j u r i o u s t o a n t h r o p o l o g y t h a n t h e r e l i g i o u s e l e m e n t " ( 1 8 5 5 , i n C o u n t , 1 9 5 0 , p . 73). T h e great G e r m a n anatomist Friedrich T i e d e m a n n , for example, had a r g u e d that blacks a n d whites d i d n o t d i f f e r i n c r a n i a l capacity. Broca nailed T i e d e m a n n for the same error I u n c o v e r e d in Morton's w o r k (see p p . 8 2 — 1 0 1 ) . W h e n M o r t o n u s e d a subjective a n d i m p r e c i s e m e t h o d o f r e c k o n i n g , h e c a l c u l a t e d systematically l o w e r capacities f o r blacks t h a n w h e n h e m e a s u r e d t h e s a m e skulls with a precise technique. T i e d e m a n n , using an even m o r e imprecise m e t h o d , c a l c u l a t e d a black a v e r a g e 4 5 c c a b o v e the m e a n v a l u e r e c o r d e d b y o t h e r scientists. Y e t his m e a s u r e s f o r w h i t e skulls w e r e n o l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e r e p o r t e d b y c o l l e a g u e s . ( F o r all his d e l i g h t i n exposing T i e d e m a n n , Broca apparently never checked Morton's f i g u r e s , t h o u g h M o r t o n was his h e r o a n d m o d e l . B r o c a o n c e p u b lished a o n e - h u n d r e d - p a g e p a p e r a n a l y z i n g M o r t o n ' s t e c h n i q u e s i n the most minute d e t a i l — B r o c a , 1873b.) W h y h a d T i e d e m a n n g o n e astray? " U n h a p p i l y , " B r o c a w r o t e ( 1 8 7 3 b , p . 12), " h e was d o m i n a t e d b y a p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a . H e set o u t t o p r o v e t h a t t h e cranial capacity o f all h u m a n races i s the s a m e . " B u t "it is an a x i o m of all o b s e r v a t i o n a l sciences that facts m u s t p r e c e d e t h e o r i e s " ( 1 8 6 8 , p . 4). B r o c a b e l i e v e d , sincerely I

M E A S U R I N G

H E A D S

a s s u m e , that facts w e r e his o n l y c o n s t r a i n t a n d that his success in a f f i r m i n g t r a d i t i o n a l r a n k i n g s a r o s e f r o m t h e p r e c i s i o n o f his m e a sures a n d his c a r e i n e s t a b l i s h i n g r e p e a t a b l e p r o c e d u r e s . Indeed, one cannot read Broca without gaining enormous r e s p e c t f o r his c a r e in g e n e r a t i n g d a t a . I b e l i e v e his n u m b e r s a n d d o u b t that a n y b e t t e r h a v e e v e r b e e n o b t a i n e d . B r o c a m a d e a n e x h a u s t i v e s t u d y o f all p r e v i o u s m e t h o d s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e cranial capacity. H e d e c i d e d that l e a d s h o t , a s a d v o c a t e d b y "le c e l e b r e M o r t o n " ( 1 8 6 1 , p . 183), g a v e t h e best results, b u t h e s p e n t m o n t h s r e f i n i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e , t a k i n g into a c c o u n t s u c h factors a s t h e f o r m a n d h e i g h t o f t h e c y l i n d e r u s e d t o r e c e i v e t h e shot a f t e r i t i s p o u r e d f r o m t h e skull, t h e s p e e d o f p o u r i n g shot into t h e skull, a n d t h e m o d e o f s h a k i n g a n d t a p p i n g t h e skull t o p a c k t h e shot a n d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r o r n o t m o r e will f i t i n ( B r o c a , 1 8 7 3 b ) . B r o c a f i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d a n objective m e t h o d f o r m e a s u r i n g cranial c a p a c ity. I n m o s t o f his w o r k , h o w e v e r , h e p r e f e r r e d t o w e i g h the b r a i n directly a f t e r a u t o p s i e s p e r f o r m e d b y his o w n h a n d s . I s p e n t a m o n t h r e a d i n g all of B r o c a ' s m a j o r w o r k , c o n c e n t r a t i n g on his statistical p r o c e d u r e s . I f o u n d a d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n in his m e t h o d s . H e t r a v e r s e d the g a p b e t w e e n fact a n d c o n c l u s i o n b y what m a y b e t h e usual r o u t e — p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n r e v e r s e . C o n c l u sions c a m e f i r s t a n d B r o c a ' s c o n c l u s i o n s w e r e the s h a r e d a s s u m p tions o f m o s t successful w h i t e m a l e s d u r i n g his t i m e — t h e m s e l v e s o n t o p b y the g o o d f o r t u n e o f n a t u r e , a n d w o m e n , b l a c k s , a n d p o o r p e o p l e b e l o w . His facts w e r e reliable ( u n l i k e M o r t o n ' s ) , b u t they were g a t h e r e d selectively a n d t h e n m a n i p u l a t e d u n c o n s c i o u s l y i n the service o f p r i o r c o n c l u s i o n s . B y this r o u t e , t h e c o n c l u s i o n s achieved n o t o n l y t h e blessing o f science, b u t t h e p r e s t i g e o f n u m bers. B r o c a a n d his s c h o o l u s e d facts as illustrations, n o t as c o n straining d o c u m e n t s . T h e y b e g a n with c o n c l u s i o n s , p e e r e d t h r o u g h their facts, a n d c a m e b a c k in a circle to t h e s a m e c o n c l u sions. T h e i r e x a m p l e r e p a y s a closer s t u d y , f o r u n l i k e M o r t o n ( w h o m a n i p u l a t e d d a t a , h o w e v e r u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) , t h e y reflected their prejudices b y a n o t h e r , a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e c o m m o n , r o u t e : a d v o cacy m a s q u e r a d i n g as objectivity. Selecting

characters

W h e n t h e " H o t t e n t o t V e n u s " d i e d i n Paris, G e o r g e s C u v i e r , t h e greatest scientist a n d , as B r o c a w o u l d later d i s c o v e r to his d e l i g h t ,

118

THE

MISMEASURE

OF

MAN

t h e largest b r a i n o f F r a n c e , r e m e m b e r e d this A f r i c a n w o m a n a s h e h a d seen h e r in the flesh. She had a way of pouting her lips exactly like what we have observed in the orang-utan. Her movements had something abrupt and fantastical about them, reminding one of those of the ape. Her lips were monstrously large [those of apes are thin and small as Cuvier apparently forgot]. Her ear was like that of many apes, being small, the tragus weak, and the external border almost obliterated behind. T h e s e are animal characters. I have never seen a h u m a n head m o r e like an ape than that of this woman (in T o p i n a r d , 1878, p p . 493-494). T h e h u m a n body can be measured in a thousand ways. A n y investigator, convinced b e f o r e h a n d of a group's inferiority, can select a small set of m e a s u r e s to illustrate its g r e a t e r affinity with a p e s . ( T h i s p r o c e d u r e , o f c o u r s e , w o u l d w o r k e q u a l l y well f o r w h i t e males, though no one m a d e the attempt. White people, for examp l e , h a v e thin l i p s — a p r o p e r t y s h a r e d with c h i m p a n z e e s — w h i l e most black Africans have thicker, consequently m o r e " h u m a n , " lips.) B r o c a ' s c a r d i n a l bias lay in his a s s u m p t i o n that h u m a n r a c e s c o u l d b e r a n k e d i n a l i n e a r scale o f m e n t a l w o r t h . I n e n u m e r a t i n g t h e aims o f e t h n o l o g y , B r o c a i n c l u d e d : " t o d e t e r m i n e t h e relative position o f races i n the h u m a n series" (in T o p i n a r d , 1 8 7 8 , p . 660). It d i d n o t o c c u r t o h i m that h u m a n v a r i a t i o n m i g h t b e r a m i f i e d a n d r a n d o m , r a t h e r t h a n l i n e a r a n d h i e r a r c h i c a l . A n d since h e k n e w the o r d e r b e f o r e h a n d , a n t h r o p o m e t r y became a search for characters that w o u l d display t h e c o r r e c t r a n k i n g , not a n u m e r i c a l exercise in raw empiricism. T h u s B r o c a b e g a n his s e a r c h f o r " m e a n i n g f u l " c h a r a c t e r s — those that w o u l d d i s p l a y the established r a n k s . I n 1 8 6 2 , f o r e x a m p l e , h e tried t h e ratio o f r a d i u s ( l o w e r a r m b o n e ) t o h u m e r u s ( u p p e r a r m b o n e ) , r e a s o n i n g that a h i g h e r ratio m a r k s a l o n g e r f o r e a r m — a c h a r a c t e r o f a p e s . All b e g a n well: blacks y i e l d e d a ratio o f . 7 9 4 , whites . 7 3 9 . B u t t h e n B r o c a r a n i n t o t r o u b l e . A n E s k i m o skeleton yielded .703, an Australian aborigine .709, while the Hottentot V e n u s , C u v i e r ' s n e a r a p e ( h e r s k e l e t o n h a d b e e n p r e s e r v e d i n Paris), m e a s u r e d a m e r e .703. B r o c a n o w h a d two c h o i c e s . H e c o u l d e i t h e r a d m i t that, o n this c r i t e r i o n , whites r a n k e d l o w e r t h a n several d a r k - s k i n n e d g r o u p s , o r h e c o u l d a b a n d o n t h e c r i t e r i o n . Since h e k n e w ( 1 8 6 2 a , p . 10) that H o t t e n t o t s , E s k i m o s , a n d A u s t r a -

M E A S U R I N G

H E A D S

I/O

lian a b o r i g i n e s r a n k e d b e l o w m o s t A f r i c a n b l a c k s , h e c h o s e t h e seco n d c o u r s e : " A f t e r this, i t s e e m s difficult t o m e t o c o n t i n u e t o say that e l o n g a t i o n o f t h e f o r e a r m i s a c h a r a c t e r o f d e g r a d a t i o n o r i n f e r i o r i t y , b e c a u s e , o n this a c c o u n t , t h e E u r o p e a n o c c u p i e s a p l a c e between N e g r o e s on the o n e h a n d , and Hottentots, Australians, and eskimos on the other" (1862, p. 11). L a t e r , h e a l m o s t a b a n d o n e d his c a r d i n a l c r i t e r i o n o f b r a i n size b e c a u s e i n f e r i o r y e l l o w p e o p l e s c o r e d s o well: A table on which races were arranged by order of their cranial capacities would not represent the degrees of their superiority or inferiority, because size represents only o n e element of the problem [of ranking races]. On such a table, Eskimos, Lapps, Malays, Tartars and several other peoples of the Mongolian type would surpass the most civilized people of Europe. A lowly race may therefore have a big brain (1873a, p. 38). B u t B r o c a felt that h e c o u l d s a l v a g e m u c h o f v a l u e f r o m his c r u d e m e a s u r e o f o v e r a l l b r a i n size. I t m a y fail a t t h e u p p e r e n d b e c a u s e some inferior g r o u p s have big brains, but it works at the lower end b e c a u s e small b r a i n s b e l o n g e x c l u s i v e l y t o p e o p l e o f low intelligence. Broca continued: But this does not destroy the value of small brain size as a mark of inferiority. T h e table shows that West African blacks have a cranial capacity about 100 cc less than that of European races. To this figure, we may add the following: Caffirs, Nubians, Tasmanians, Hottentots, Australians. T h e s e examples are sufficient to prove that if the volume of the brain does not play a decisive role in the intellectual ranking of races, it nevertheless has a very real importance (1873a, p. 38). An unbeatable argument. Deny it at one end where conclusions are u n c o n g e n i a l ; a f f i r m i t b y the s a m e c r i t e r i o n a t t h e o t h e r . B r o c a d i d not f u d g e n u m b e r s ; h e m e r e l y selected a m o n g t h e m o r i n t e r p r e t e d his way a r o u n d t h e m t o f a v o r e d c o n c l u s i o n s . I n c h o o s i n g a m o n g m e a s u r e s , B r o c a d i d n o t j u s t d r i f t passively m the sway of a p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a . He a d v o c a t e d selection a m o n g characters as a stated g o a l w i t h explicit criteria. T o p i n a r d , his c h i e f disciple, d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n " e m p i r i c a l " c h a r a c t e r s " h a v i n g n o apparent design," and "rational" characters "related to some physiological o p i n i o n " ( 1 8 7 8 , p . 2 2 1 ) . H o w t h e n t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h characters a r e " r a t i o n a l " ? T o p i n a r d a n s w e r e d : " O t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s tics are l o o k e d u p o n , w h e t h e r r i g h t l y o r w r o n g l y , a s d o m i n a n t .

THE

120

MISMEASURE

OF

MAN

T h e y h a v e a n affinity i n n e g r o e s t o t h o s e w h i c h t h e y e x h i b i t i n a p e s , a n d establish t h e transition b e t w e e n these a n d E u r o p e a n s " ( 1 8 7 8 , p . 2 2 1 ) . B r o c a h a d also c o n s i d e r e d this issue i n t h e m i d s t o f his d e b a t e with G r a t i o l e t , a n d h a d r e a c h e d t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n (1861, p. 176): We surmount the problem easily by choosing.for our comparison of brains, races whose intellectual inequalities are completely clear. T h u s , the superiority of Europeans compared with African Negroes, American Indians, Hottentots, Australians and the Negroes of Oceania, is sufficiently certain to serve as a point of departure for the comparison of brains. Particularly o u t r a g e o u s e x a m p l e s a b o u n d i n t h e selection o f i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e p r e s e n t g r o u p s i n illustrations. T h i r t y y e a r s a g o , w h e n I w a s a c h i l d , t h e H a l l o f M a n i n the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y still d i s p l a y e d t h e c h a r a c t e r s o f h u m a n races b y linear a r r a y s r u n n i n g f r o m a p e s t o whites. S t a n d a r d a n a t o m i c a l illustrations, until this g e n e r a t i o n , d e p i c t e d a c h i m p , a N e g r o , a n d a w h i t e , p a r t b y p a r t i n that o r d e r — e v e n t h o u g h v a r i a t i o n a m o n g whites a n d blacks is always l a r g e e n o u g h to g e n e r a t e a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r w i t h o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s : c h i m p , w h i t e , black. I n 1 9 0 3 , f o r e x a m p l e , the A m e r i c a n anatomist E. A. Spitzka published a long treatise o n b r a i n size a n d f o r m i n " m e n o f e m i n e n c e . " H e p r i n t e d the f o l l o w i n g figure (Fig. 3.3) with a c o m m e n t : " T h e j u m p f r o m a C u v i e r or a T h a c k e r a y to a Z u l u or a B u s h m a n is n o t g r e a t e r t h a n f r o m t h e latter t o t h e gorilla o r t h e o r a n g " ( 1 9 0 3 , p . 604). B u t h e also p u b l i s h e d a similar figure (Fig. 3.4) illustrating v a r i a t i o n in b r a i n size a m o n g e m i n e n t whites a p p a r e n t l y n e v e r r e a l i z i n g that h e h a d d e s t r o y e d his o w n a r g u m e n t . A s F . P . M a l l , t h e m a n w h o e x p o s e d B e a n , w r o t e o f t h e s e f i g u r e s ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 24): " C o m p a r i n g [ t h e m ] , it a p p e a r s that G a m b e t t a ' s b r a i n r e s e m b l e s t h e gorilla's m o r e t h a n i t d o e s that o f G a u s s . " Averting

anomalies

I n e v i t a b l y , since B r o c a a m a s s e d s o m u c h d i s p a r a t e a n d h o n e s t data, he generated n u m e r o u s anomalies and apparent exceptions t o his g u i d i n g g e n e r a l i t y — t h a t size o f b r a i n r e c o r d s intelligence a n d that c o m f o r t a b l e w h i t e m a l e s h a v e l a r g e r b r a i n s t h a n w o m e n , p o o r p e o p l e , a n d l o w e r races. I n n o t i n g h o w h e w o r k e d a r o u n d e a c h a p p a r e n t e x c e p t i o n , w e o b t a i n o u r clearest i n s i g h t i n t o B r o c a s

MEASURING

HEADS

121

m e t h o d s o f a r g u m e n t a n d i n f e r e n c e . W e also u n d e r s t a n d w h y d a t a c o u l d n e v e r o v e r t h r o w his a s s u m p t i o n s . BIG-BRAINED GERMANS

G r a t i o l e t , in his last d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t , p u l l e d o u t all t h e stops. H e d a r e d t o claim t h a t , o n a v e r a g e , G e r m a n brains a r e 100 g r a m s h e a v i e r t h a n F r e n c h b r a i n s . C l e a r l y , G r a t i o l e t a r g u e d , b r a i n size has n o t h i n g t o d o with i n t e l l i g e n c e ! B r o c a r e s p o n d e d d i s d a i n f u l l y : " M o n s i e u r G r a t i o l e t has a l m o s t a p p e a l e d t o o u r patriotic sentim e n t s . B u t i t will b e easy f o r m e t o s h o w h i m t h a t h e c a n g r a n t s o m e v a l u e t o t h e size o f t h e b r a i n w i t h o u t c e a s i n g , f o r that, t o b e a good Frenchman" (1861, pp. 441-442). B r o c a t h e n w o r k e d his w a y systematically t h r o u g h the d a t a . First o f all, G r a t i o l e t ' s f i g u r e o f 100 g r a m s c a m e f r o m u n s u p p o r t e d claims o f t h e G e r m a n scientist E . H u s c h k e . W h e n B r o c a c o l l a t e d all t h e a c t u a l d a t a h e c o u l d f i n d , the d i f f e r e n c e i n size b e t w e e n G e r m a n a n d F r e n c h b r a i n s fell f r o m 100 t o 4 8 g r a m s . B r o c a t h e n a p p l i e d a series of c o r r e c t i o n s f o r n o n i n t e l l e c t u a l factors t h a t also affect b r a i n

size.

He

argued,

quite

correctly,

that

brain

size

increases with b o d y size, d e c r e a s e s with a g e , a n d d e c r e a s e s d u r i n g l o n g p e r i o d s o f p o o r h e a l t h (thus e x p l a i n i n g w h y e x e c u t e d c r i m i nals o f t e n h a v e l a r g e r b r a i n s t h a n h o n e s t folk w h o d i e o f d e g e n e r ative diseases i n hospitals). B r o c a n o t e d a m e a n F r e n c h a g e o f f i f t y six a n d a h a l f y e a r s in his s a m p l e , w h i l e t h e G e r m a n s a v e r a g e d o n l y f i f t y - o n e . H e e s t i m a t e d that this d i f f e r e n c e w o u l d a c c o u n t f o r 1 6 grams of the disparity between French and G e r m a n s , cutting the German advantage to 32 grams. He then removed from the Germ a n s a m p l e all i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a d d i e d b y v i o l e n c e o r e x e c u t i o n . T h e mean brain weight of twenty G e r m a n s , d e a d from natural causes, n o w s t o o d at 1,320 g r a m s , a l r e a d y below t h e F r e n c h a v e r a g e ° f >333 g r a m s . A n d B r o c a h a d not e v e n yet c o r r e c t e d f o r the 1

larger a v e r a g e b o d y size of G e r m a n s . Vive la France. Broca's c o l l e a g u e d e J o u v e n c e l , s p e a k i n g o n his b e h a l f a g a i n s t the u n f o r t u n a t e G r a t i o l e t , a r g u e d

that g r e a t e r G e r m a n b r a w n

accounted f o r all t h e a p p a r e n t d i f f e r e n c e i n b r a i n a n d t h e n s o m e . ° f the a v e r a g e G e r m a n , h e w r o t e ( 1 8 6 1 , p . 4 6 6 ) : He ingests a quantity of solid food and drink far greater than that satisfies us. This, joined with his consumption of beer, which is pereven in areas where wine is made, makes the German much more

l c n

e

Spitzka's depiction of variation in brain size a m o n g white m e n of eminence.

124

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M I S M E A S U R E

O F

M A N

fleshy [charnu] than the Frenchman—s'o much so that their relation of brain size to total mass, far from being superior to ours, appears to m e , o 1 the contrary, to be inferior. I d o n o t c h a l l e n g e B r o c a ' s u s e o f c o r r e c t i o n s b u t I d o n o t e his skill i n w i e l d i n g t h e m w h e n his o w n p o s i t i o n was t h r e a t e n e d . B e a r this i n m i n d w h e n I discuss h o w d e f t l y h e a v o i d e d t h e m w h e n t h e y m i g h t h a v e c h a l l e n g e d a c o n g e n i a l c o n c l u s i o n — t h e small b r a i n s o f women. SMALL-BRA I NED MEN OF EMINENCE

T h e A m e r i c a n anatomist E . A . Spitzka u r g e d m e n o f eminence t o d o n a t e t h e i r b r a i n s t o science a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h . " T o m e t h e t h o u g h t o f a n a u t o p s y i s c e r t a i n l y less r e p u g n a n t t h a n I i m a g i n e the process of cadaveric decomposition in the grave to b e " (1907, p . 235). T h e dissection o f d e a d colleagues b e c a m e s o m e t h i n g o f a

cottage

industry

among

nineteenth-century

craniometricians.

B r a i n s e x e r t e d t h e i r c u s t o m a r y f a s c i n a t i o n , a n d lists w e r e p r o u d l y touted, accompanied by the usual invidious comparisons. ( T h e leading A m e r i c a n anthropologists J. W. Powell and W J M c G e e even m a d e a wager over w h o carried the larger brain. As K o - K o told N a n k i - P o o a b o u t t h e f i r e w o r k s that w o u l d follow his e x e c u t i o n , " Y o u w o n ' t s e e t h e m , b u t they'll b e t h e r e all t h e s a m e . " ) S o m e m e n o f g e n i u s d i d v e r y well i n d e e d . A g a i n s t a E u r o p e a n a v e r a g e o f 1,300 t o 1,400 g r a m s , t h e g r e a t C u v i e r s t o o d o u t with his t o p h e a v y 1,830 g r a m s . C u v i e r h e a d e d t h e c h a r t s until T u r g e n e v finally b r o k e t h e 2,000 g r a m b a r r i e r i n 1 8 8 3 . ( O t h e r p o t e n t i a l o c c u p a n t s o f this s t r a t o s p h e r e , C r o m w e l l a n d Swift, lay i n l i m b o f o r insufficiency o f r e c o r d . ) T h e o t h e r e n d was a bit m o r e c o n f u s i n g a n d e m b a r r a s s i n g . W a l t W h i t m a n m a n a g e d t o h e a r A m e r i c a s i n g i n g with o n l y 1,282 grams. As a c r o w n i n g indignity, Franz Josef Gall, o n e of the two f o u n d e r s of p h r e n o l o g y — t h e original "science" of j u d g i n g various m e n t a l c a p a c i t i e s b y the size o f l o c a l i z e d b r a i n a r e a s — w e i g h e d i n a t a m e a g e r 1 , 1 9 8 g r a m s . (His c o l l e a g u e J. K. S p u r z h e i m y i e l d e d a q u i t e r e s p e c t a b l e 1 , 5 5 9 g r a m s . ) A n d , t h o u g h B r o c a d i d n ' t k n o w it, his o w n b r a i n w e i g h e d o n l y 1,424 g r a m s , a bit a b o v e a v e r a g e t o b e s u r e , b u t n o t h i n g t o c r o w a b o u t . A n a t o l e F r a n c e e x t e n d e d the r a n g e o f f a m o u s a u t h o r s t o m o r e t h a n 1,000 g r a m s w h e n , i n 1 9 2 4 . he opted for the other end of T u r g e n e v ' s f a m e and clocked in at a mere 1,017 grams.

M E A S U R I N G

H E A D S

125

T h e small b r a i n s w e r e t r o u b l e s o m e , b u t B r o c a , u n d a u n t e d , m a n a g e d t o a c c o u n t f o r all o f t h e m . T h e i r possessors e i t h e r d i e d v e r y o l d , w e r e v e r y s h o r t a n d slightly built, o r h a d s u f f e r e d p o o r p r e s e r v a t i o n . B r o c a ' s r e a c t i o n to a s t u d y by his G e r m a n c o l l e a g u e R u d o l f W a g n e r was typical. W a g n e r h a d o b t a i n e d a real p r i z e i n 1 8 5 5 , the b r a i n o f t h e g r e a t m a t h e m a t i c i a n K a r l F r i e d r i c h G a u s s . It w e i g h e d a m o d e s t l y o v e r a v e r a g e 1,492 g r a m s , b u t was m o r e richly c o n v o l u t e d t h a n a n y b r a i n p r e v i o u s l y dissected (Fig. 3.5). E n c o u r a g e d , W a g n e r w e n t o n t o w e i g h t h e b r a i n s o f all d e a d a n d willing p r o f e s s o r s a t G o t t i n g e n , i n a n a t t e m p t t o p l o t t h e d i s t r i b u tion o f b r a i n size a m o n g m e n o f e m i n e n c e . B y t h e time B r o c a was battling with G r a t i o l e t i n 1 8 6 1 , W a g n e r h a d f o u r m o r e m e a s u r e m e n t s . N o n e p o s e d a n y c h a l l e n g e t o C u v i e r , a n d t w o w e r e distinctly p u z z l i n g — H e r m a n n , t h e p r o f e s s o r o f p h i l o s o p h y a t 1,368 g r a m s , a n d H a u s m a n n , t h e p r o f e s s o r o f m i n e r a l o g y , a t 1,226 g r a m s . B r o c a c o r r e c t e d H e r m a n n ' s b r a i n f o r his a g e a n d r a i s e d i t

3 • 5 T h e brain of the great mathematician K. F. Gauss (right) proved to be something of an embarrassment since, at 1,492 grams, it was only slightly larger than average. But other criteria came to the rescue. Here, E. A. Spitzka demonstrates that Gauss's brain is much m o r e richly convoluted than that of a Papuan (left).

126

THE

MISMEASURE

OF

MAN

by 16 grams to 1.19 percent above a v e r a g e — " n o t m u c h for a prof e s s o r o f linguistics," B r o c a a d m i t t e d , " b u t still s o m e t h i n g " ( 1 8 6 1 , p . 1 6 7 ) . N o c o r r e c t i o n c o u l d raise H a u s m a n n t o t h e m e a n o f o r d i nary

folks,

but considering

his

venerable

seventy-seven

years,

B r o c a s p e c u l a t e d t h a t his b r a i n m a y h a v e u n d e r g o n e m o r e t h a n t h e u s u a l a m o u n t o f senile d e g e n e r a t i o n : " T h e d e g r e e o f d e c a d e n c e that o l d a g e c a n i m p o s e u p o n a b r a i n i s v e r y v a r i a b l e a n d cannot be calculated." B u t B r o c a was still b o t h e r e d . H e c o u l d g e t a r o u n d t h e low valu e s , b u t h e c o u l d n ' t raise t h e m t o u n u s u a l w e i g h t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t o clinch a n u n b e a t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n , h e s u g g e s t e d with a t o u c h o f i r o n y that W a g n e r ' s p o s t - G a u s s i a n subjects m a y n o t h a v e b e e n s o e m i n e n t a f t e r all: It is not very probable that 5 m e n of genius should have died within five years at the University of Gottingen. . . . A professorial robe is not necessarily a certificate of genius; there may be, even at Gottingen, s o m e chairs occupied by not very remarkable m e n (1861, pp. 165-166). A t this p o i n t , B r o c a d e s i s t e d : " T h e subject i s d e l i c a t e , " h e w r o t e ( 1 8 6 1 , p . 169), " a n d I m u s t n o t insist u p o n i t a n y l o n g e r . " LARGE-BRAINED CRIMINALS

T h e l a r g e size o f m a n y c r i m i n a l b r a i n s was a c o n s t a n t s o u r c e o f bother to craniometricians and criminal anthropologists.

Broca

t e n d e d to dismiss it with his claim that s u d d e n d e a t h by e x e c u t i o n p r e c l u d e d t h e d i m i n u t i o n that l o n g b o u t s o f d i s e a s e p r o d u c e d i n many

honest

men.

In

addition,

death

by

hanging

tended

to

e n g o r g e the b r a i n a n d lead t o s p u r i o u s l y h i g h w e i g h t s . I n t h e y e a r o f B r o c a ' s d e a t h , T . B i s c h o f f p u b l i s h e d his s t u d y o n t h e b r a i n s o f 1 1 9 assassins, m u r d e r e r s , a n d t h i e v e s . T h e i r a v e r a g e e x c e e d e d t h e m e a n o f h o n e s t m e n b y 11 g r a m s , w h i l e 1 4 o f t h e m topped

1,500 g r a m s , a n d 5 e x c e e d e d

1,600 g r a m s . B y c o n t r a s t ,

o n l y t h r e e m e n o f g e n i u s c o u l d boast m o r e t h a n 1,600 g r a m s , while t h e assassin L e P e l l e y , a t 1,809 g r a m s , m u s t h a v e g i v e n p a u s e t o the shade o f C u v i e r . T h e largest female brain ever w e i g h e d (1,565 g r a m s ) b e l o n g e d t o a w o m a n w h o h a d killed h e r h u s b a n d . Broca's successor Paul T o p i n a r d puzzled over the data and f i n a l l y d e c i d e d that t o o m u c h o f a g o o d t h i n g i s b a d f o r s o m e p e o ple. T r u l y inspired criminality m a y require as m u c h upstairs as

MEASURING

HEADS

professorial virtuosity;

I2J

w h o shall d e c i d e b e t w e e n

Moriarty and

H o l m e s ? T o p i n a r d c o n c l u d e d : "It seems established that a certain p r o p o r t i o n o f c r i m i n a l s a r e p u s h e d t o d e p a r t f r o m p r e s e n t social r u l e s b y a n e x u b e r a n c e o f c e r e b r a l activity a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , b y t h e fact o f a l a r g e o r h e a v y b r a i n " ( 1 8 8 8 , p . 1 5 ) . FLAWS IN A PATTERN OF INCREASE THROUGH TIME

O f all B r o c a ' s s t u d i e s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f his w o r k o n d i f f e r ences between m e n and w o m e n , n o n e w o n m o r e respect or attention t h a n his s u p p o s e d d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f s t e a d y i n c r e a s e i n b r a i n size a s E u r o p e a n civilization a d v a n c e d f r o m m e d i e v a l t o m o d e r n times ( B r o c a , 1 8 6 2 b ) . T h i s s t u d y m e r i t s close analysis b e c a u s e i t p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t s the best case o f h o p e d i c t a t i n g c o n c l u s i o n t h a t I h a v e e v e r e n c o u n t e r e d . B r o c a v i e w e d h i m s e l f a s a liberal i n t h e s e n s e t h a t h e d i d n o t c o n d e m n g r o u p s to p e r m a n e n t inferiority based on their c u r r e n t status. W o m e n ' s b r a i n s h a d d e g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h t i m e t h a n k s t o a socially e n f o r c e d u n d e r u s a g e ; t h e y m i g h t i n c r e a s e a g a i n u n d e r diff e r e n t social c o n d i t i o n s . P r i m i t i v e races h a d n o t b e e n sufficiently c h a l l e n g e d , w h i l e E u r o p e a n b r a i n s g r e w steadily with t h e m a r c h o f civilization. B r o c a o b t a i n e d l a r g e s a m p l e s f r o m e a c h o f t h r e e Parisian c e m e teries, f r o m t h e t w e l f t h , t h e e i g h t e e n t h , a n d t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ries. T h e i r a v e r a g e c r a n i a l c a p a c i t i e s w e r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

1,426,

1,409, a n d 1,462 c c — n o t e x a c t l y t h e s t u f f f o r a f i r m c o n c l u s i o n o f steady i n c r e a s e t h r o u g h t i m e . ( I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o f i n d B r o c a ' s raw data f o r statistical t e s t i n g , b u t with a 3.5 p e r c e n t m e a n d i f f e r ence b e t w e e n smallest a n d l a r g e s t s a m p l e , it is likely t h a t no statistically significant d i f f e r e n c e s exist a t all a m o n g t h e t h r e e samples.) B u t h o w d i d these l i m i t e d d a t a — o n l y t h r e e sites with n o i n f o r mation o n r a n g e s o f v a r i a t i o n a t a g i v e n t i m e a n d n o c l e a r p a t t e r n t h r o u g h t i m e — l e a d B r o c a t o his h o p e f u l c o n c l u s i o n ? B r o c a h i m s e l f a d m i t t e d a n initial d i s a p p o i n t m e n t : h e h a d e x p e c t e d t o f i n d i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y site ( 1 8 6 2 b , p . 106). Social class, h e a r g u e d , m u s t h o l d t h e a n s w e r , f o r s u c c e s s f u l g r o u p s within a c u l t u r e o w e at least p a r t of t h e i r status to s u p e r i o r wits. T h e twelfth-century sample came from a c h u r c h y a r d and must represent

gentry.

A

common

grave

provided

the

eighteenth-

century skulls. B u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s a m p l e was a m i x t u r e ,

128

THE

MISMEASURE

OF

MAN

n i n e t y skulls f r o m i n d i v i d u a l g r a v e s with a m e a n o f 1484 cc, a n d thirty-five f r o m a c o m m o n g r a v e with a n a v e r a g e o f 1403 cc. B r o c a c l a i m e d that i f d i f f e r e n c e s i n social class d o n o t e x p l a i n w h y calculated v a l u e s fail t o m e e t e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e n the d a t a a r e unintelligible. Intelligible, t o B r o c a , m e a n t steadily i n c r e a s i n g t h r o u g h t i m e — t h e p r o p o s i t i o n that the d a t a w e r e m e a n t t o p r o v e , n o t rest u p o n . A g a i n , B r o c a travels in a circle: Without this [difference in social class], we would have to believe that the cranial capacity of Parisians has really diminished during centuries following the 12th. N o w during this period . . . intellectual and social progress has been considerable, and even if we are not yet certain that the development of civilization makes the brain grow as a consequence, no o n e , without doubt, would want to consider this cause as capable of making the brain decrease in size (1862b, p. 106). B u t B r o c a ' s division o f the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s a m p l e b y social class also b r o u g h t t r o u b l e a s well a s r e l i e f — f o r h e n o w h a d t w o samples from c o m m o n graves and the earlier o n e h a d a larger m e a n capacity, 1,409 f o r t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y vs. 1,403 f o r t h e n i n e t e e n t h . B u t B r o c a w a s n o t t o b e d e f e a t e d ; h e a r g u e d that t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o m m o n g r a v e i n c l u d e d a b e t t e r class o f p e o p l e . In t h e s e p r e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t i m e s , a m a n h a d to be really rich or n o b l e t o rest i n a c h u r c h y a r d . T h e d r e g s o f t h e p o o r m e a s u r e d 1,403 i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; t h e d r e g s l e a v e n e d b y g o o d stock yielded about the same value one h u n d r e d years before. E a c h solution b r o u g h t B r o c a n e w t r o u b l e . N o w that h e was c o m m i t t e d to a p a r t i t i o n by social class within c e m e t e r i e s , he h a d to a d m i t t h a t a n a d d i t i o n a l s e v e n t e e n skulls f r o m t h e m o r g u e ' s g r a v e at t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y site y i e l d e d a h i g h e r v a l u e t h a n skulls of m i d d l e - a n d u p p e r - c l a s s p e o p l e f r o m i n d i v i d u a l g r a v e s — 1 , 5 1 7 vs. 1,484 cc. H o w c o u l d u n c l a i m e d b o d i e s , a b a n d o n e d t o t h e state, surpass t h e c r e a m of society? B r o c a r e a s o n e d in a c h a i n of surpassingly w e a k i n f e r e n c e : m o r g u e s s t o o d o n r i v e r b o r d e r s ; they probably housed a large n u m b e r of d r o w n e d people; many d r o w n e d a r e suicides; m a n y suicides a r e i n s a n e ; m a n y i n s a n e p e o p l e , like c r i m i n a l s , h a v e s u r p r i s i n g l y l a r g e b r a i n s . W i t h a bit of i m a g i n a t i o n , n o t h i n g c a n b e truly a n o m a l o u s .

MEASURING

Front

and

HEADS

I2Q

back

Tell me about this new y o u n g s u r g e o n , Mr. Lydgate. I am told he is wonderfully clever; he certainly looks it—a fine brow i n d e e d . — GEORGE ELIOT,

Middlemarch (1872)

Size o f the w h o l e , h o w e v e r u s e f u l a n d decisive i n g e n e r a l t e r m s , d i d n o t b e g i n t o e x h a u s t t h e c o n t e n t o f c r a n i o m e t r y . E v e r since t h e h e y d a y o f p h r e n o l o g y , specific p a r t s o f t h e b r a i n a n d skull h a d b e e n a s s i g n e d d e f i n i t e status, t h u s p r o v i d i n g a set of s u b s i d i a r y criteria f o r t h e r a n k i n g of g r o u p s . ( B r o c a , in his o t h e r c a r e e r as a m e d i c a l m a n , m a d e his m o s t i m p o r t a n t d i s c o v e r y i n this a r e a . I n 1861 h e d e v e l o p e d t h e c o n c e p t o f cortical localization o f f u n c t i o n w h e n he d i s c o v e r e d that an a p h a s i c p a t i e n t h a d a lesion in t h e left i n f e r i o r f r o n t a l g y r u s , n o w called B r o c a ' s c o n v o l u t i o n . ) M o s t of t h e s e subsidiary criteria c a n be r e d u c e d to a single f o r m u l a : f r o n t i s b e t t e r . B r o c a a n d his c o l l e a g u e s b e l i e v e d that h i g h e r m e n t a l f u n c t i o n s w e r e localized i n a n t e r i o r r e g i o n s o f the c o r t e x , a n d that p o s t e r i o r a r e a s b u s i e d t h e m s e l v e s with t h e m o r e m u n d a n e , though crucial, roles of involuntary m o v e m e n t , sensation, and e m o t i o n . S u p e r i o r p e o p l e s h o u l d h a v e m o r e i n f r o n t , less b e h i n d . W e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n h o w B e a n f o l l o w e d this a s s u m p t i o n i n g e n e r a t i n g his s p u r i o u s d a t a o n f r o n t a n d b a c k p a r t s o f the c o r p u s callosum i n whites a n d blacks. B r o c a o f t e n u s e d t h e distinction o f f r o n t a n d b a c k , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o extract h i m s e l f f r o m u n c o m f o r t a b l e situations i m p o s e d b y his data. H e a c c e p t e d G r a t i o l e t ' s classification o f h u m a n g r o u p s i n t o "races frontales" (whites with a n t e r i o r a n d f r o n t a l lobes m o s t h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d ) , "racesparietales" ( M o n g o l i a n s w i t h parietal or m i d lobes most p r o m i n e n t ) , a n d "races occipitales" (blacks with m o s t in t h e back). H e o f t e n u n l e a s h e d t h e d o u b l e w h a m m y a g a i n s t i n f e r i o r g r o u p s — s m a l l size a n d p o s t e r i o r p r o m i n e n c e : " N e g r o e s , a n d e s p e cially H o t t e n t o t s , h a v e a s i m p l e r b r a i n t h a n o u r s , a n d t h e relative poverty o f their c o n v o l u t i o n s c a n b e f o u n d p r i m a r i l y o n their f r o n t a l lobes" ( 1 8 7 3 a , p . 32). A s m o r e d i r e c t e v i d e n c e , h e a r g u e d that ahitians artificially d e f o r m e d t h e f r o n t a l a r e a s o f c e r t a i n m a l e children i n o r d e r t o m a k e t h e b a c k p o r t i o n s b u l g e . T h e s e m e n ^ecame c o u r a g e o u s w a r r i o r s , b u t c o u l d n e v e r m a t c h w h i t e h e r o e s • l e : " F r o n t a l d e f o r m a t i o n p r o d u c e d b l i n d passions, f e r o c i o u s nets, a n d a n i m a l c o u r a g e , all of w h i c h I w o u l d willingly call r s t v

THE

MISMEASURE

OF

MAN

o c c i p i t a l c o u r a g e . W e m u s t n o t c o n f o u n d i t with t r u e c o u r a g e , f r o n t a l c o u r a g e , w h i c h w e m a y call C a u c a s i a n c o u r a g e " ( 1 8 6 1 , p p . 202-203). B r o c a also w e n t b e y o n d size t o assess t h e q u a l i t y o f f r o n t a l vs. occipital r e g i o n s i n v a r i o u s r a c e s . H e r e , a n d n o t o n l y t o p l a c a t e his adversary,

he

accepted

Gratiolet's

favorite

argument

that

the

s u t u r e s b e t w e e n skull b o n e s c l o s e e a r l i e r i n i n f e r i o r r a c e s , t h u s trapping the brain within a rigid vault and limiting the effectiveness o f f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n . N o t o n l y d o w h i t e s u t u r e s close later; t h e y close i n a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r — g u e s s h o w ? I n b l a c k s a n d o t h e r i n f e r i o r p e o p l e , t h e f r o n t s u t u r e s close f i r s t , t h e b a c k s u t u r e s later; i n w h i t e s , t h e f r o n t s u t u r e s c l o s e last. E x t e n s i v e m o d e r n s t u d i e s o f cranial closure show no difference of timing or pattern a m o n g races ( T o d d and L y o n , 1924 and 1925). B r o c a u s e d this a r g u m e n t t o e x t r i c a t e h i m s e l f f r o m a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m . H e h a d d e s c r i b e d a s a m p l e o f skulls f r o m t h e earliest p o p u l a t i o n s o f Homo sapiens

( C r o - M a g n o n t y p e ) a n d f o u n d that

they e x c e e d e d m o d e r n F r e n c h m e n in cranial capacity. Fortunately, h o w e v e r , their anterior sutures closed first a n d these progenitors m u s t h a v e b e e n i n f e r i o r a f t e r all: " T h e s e a r e signs o f i n f e r i o r i t y . W e f i n d t h e m i n all r a c e s i n w h i c h t h e m a t e r i a l life d r a w s all c e r e b r a l activity t o it. A s i n t e l l e c t u a l life d e v e l o p s a m o n g a p e o p l e , t h e a n t e r i o r s u t u r e s b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d stay o p e n f o r a longer time" ( 1 8 7 3 a , p. 19). T h e a r g u m e n t of front and back,* so flexible and far-ranging, s e r v e d a s a p o w e r f u l tool f o r r a t i o n a l i z i n g p r e j u d i c e i n t h e f a c e o f a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y fact. C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o e x a m ples. THE CRANIAL INDEX

B e y o n d b r a i n size itself, t h e t w o m o s t h o a r y a n d m i s u s e d m e a s u r e s o f c r a n i o m e t r y w e r e s u r e l y t h e facial a n g l e ( j u t t i n g f o r w a r d o f f a c e a n d j a w s — t h e less t h e b e t t e r ) , a n d t h e c r a n i a l i n d e x . T h e c r a n i a l i n d e x n e v e r h a d m u c h g o i n g f o r i t b e y o n d ease o f m e a s u r e m e n t . It was c a l c u l a t e d a s t h e r a t i o o f m a x i m u m w i d t h t o m a x i m u m •Broca did not confine his arguments on the relative worth of brain parts to the distinction between front and back. Virtually any measured difference between peoples could be given a value in terms of prior conviction about relative worth. Broca once claimed, for example (1861, p. 187), that blacks probably had larger cranial nerves than whites, hence a larger nonintellectual portion of the brain.

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l e n g t h o f t h e skull. Relatively l o n g skulls (ratio o f .75 o r less) w e r e called d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c ; relatively s h o r t skulls ( o v e r .8), b r a c h y c e p h a l i c . A n d e r s R e t z i u s , t h e S w e d i s h scientist w h o p o p u l a r i z e d t h e c r a n i a l i n d e x , c o n s t r u c t e d a t h e o r y o f civilization u p o n it. H e b e l i e v e d that S t o n e A g e p e o p l e s o f E u r o p e w e r e b r a c h y c e p h a l i c , a n d that p r o g r e s s i v e B r o n z e A g e e l e m e n t s ( I n d o - E u r o p e a n , o r A r y a n d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c s ) later i n v a d e d a n d r e p l a c e d t h e o r i g i n a l and m o r e primitive inhabitants. S o m e original brachycephalic stocks s u r v i v e a m o n g s u c h b e n i g h t e d p e o p l e a s B a s q u e s , F i n n s , a n d Lapps. B r o c a d i s p r o v e d this p o p u l a r tale c o n c l u s i v e l y b y d i s c o v e r i n g d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c s b o t h a m o n g S t o n e A g e skulls a n d within m o d e r n r e m n a n t s o f " p r i m i t i v e " stocks. I n d e e d , B r o c a h a d g o o d r e a s o n t o b e s u s p i c i o u s o f a t t e m p t s b y N o r d i c a n d T e u t o n i c scientists t o e n s h r i n e d o l i c h o c e p h a l y a s a m a r k o f h i g h e r capability. M o s t F r e n c h m e n , including Broca himself (Manouvrier, 1899), were b r a c h y c e p h a l i c . I n a p a s s a g e that recalls his dismissal o f T i e d e m a n n ' s c l a i m s f o r equality b e t w e e n black a n d w h i t e b r a i n s , B r o c a l a b e l e d Retzius's d o c t r i n e a s s e l f - s e r v i n g gratification r a t h e r t h a n e m p i r i c a l t r u t h . D i d h e e v e r c o n s i d e r t h e possibility that h e m i g h t fall p r e y to similar m o t i v a t i o n s ? Since the work of Mr. Retzius, scientists have generally held, without sufficient study, that dolichocephaly is a mark of superiority. Perhaps so; but we must also not forget that the characters of dolichocephaly and brachycephaly were studied first in Sweden, then in England, the United States and Germany—and that in all these countries, particularly in Sweden, the dolichocephalic type clearly predominates. It is a natural tendency of m e n , even a m o n g those most free of prejudice, to attach an idea of superiority to the dominant characteristics of their race (1861, p. 513). O b v i o u s l y , B r o c a d e c l i n e d t o e q u a t e b r a c h y c e p h a l y with i n h e r ent stupidity. Still, t h e p r e s t i g e o f d o l i c h o c e p h a l y was s o g r e a t that B r o c a felt m o r e t h a n a little u n c o m f o r t a b l e w h e n clearly i n f e r i o r people turned up l o n g h e a d e d — u n c o m f o r t a b l e e n o u g h to invent o n e o f his m o s t s t r i k i n g , u n b e a t a b l e a r g u m e n t s . T h e cranial i n d e x h a d r u n i n t o a s t u n n i n g difficulty: n o t o n l y w e r e A f r i c a n b l a c k s and A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g i n e s d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c , b u t t h e y t u r n e d o u t t o be the w o r l d ' s m o s t l o n g h e a d e d p e o p l e s . A d d i n g insult t o this injury, t h e fossil C r o - M a g n o n skulls w e r e n o t o n l y l a r g e r t h a n those o f m o d e r n F r e n c h m e n ; t h e y w e r e m o r e d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c a s well.

I

3

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Dolichocephaly, B r o c a reasoned, could be attained in several w a y s . T h e l o n g h e a d e d n e s s that s e r v e d a s a m a r k o f T e u t o n i c genius

obviously

arose by

frontal

elongation.

Dolichocephalics

a m o n g people known to be inferior must have evolved by lengthe n i n g the b a c k — o c c i p i t a l d o l i c h o c e p h a l y i n B r o c a ' s t e r m s . W i t h o n e sweep, Broca e n c o m p a s s e d both the superior cranial capacity a n d t h e d o l i c h o c e p h a l y o f his C r o - M a g n o n fossils: " I t i s b y t h e greater d e v e l o p m e n t of their posterior c r a n i u m that their general cranial capacity is r e n d e r e d greater than o u r s " ( 1 8 7 3 a , p. 4 1 ) . As for blacks, they had acquired both a posterior elongation and a diminution in frontal width, thus giving them both a smaller brain i n g e n e r a l a n d a l o n g h e a d e d n e s s (not t o b e c o n f u s e d with t h e T e u t o n i c style) e x c e e d e d b y n o h u m a n g r o u p . A s t o t h e b r a c h y c e p h a l y o f F r e n c h m e n , i t i s n o f a i l u r e o f f r o n t a l e l o n g a t i o n (as t h e T e u t o n i c s u p r e m a c i s t s c l a i m e d ) , b u t a n a d d i t i o n o f w i d t h t o a skull a l r e a d y admirable. THE CASE OF THE FORAMEN MAGNUM

T h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m i s t h e h o l e i n the base o f o u r skull. T h e s p i n a l c o r d passes t h r o u g h i t a n d t h e v e r t e b r a l c o l u m n articulates t o t h e b o n e a r o u n d its e d g e (the occipital c o n d y l e ) . I n t h e e m b r y o l o g y o f all m a m m a l s , t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m b e g i n s u n d e r t h e s k u l l , b u t m i g r a t e s b a c k t o a p o s i t i o n b e h i n d t h e skull a t b i r t h .

In

h u m a n s , t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m m i g r a t e s o n l y slightly a n d r e m a i n s u n d e r t h e skull i n a d u l t s . T h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m o f a d u l t g r e a t apes occupies an intermediate position, not so far f o r w a r d as in h u m a n s , n o t s o f a r b a c k a s i n o t h e r m a m m a l s . T h e f u n c t i o n a l sign i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e o r i e n t a t i o n s i s clear. A n u p r i g h t a n i m a l like Homo sapiens m u s t h a v e its skull m o u n t e d on top of its v e r t e b r a l c o l u m n in o r d e r t o l o o k f o r w a r d w h e n s t a n d i n g erect; f o u r f o o t e d a n i m a l s m o u n t t h e i r v e r t e b r a l c o l u m n behind t h e i r skull a n d l o o k f o r w a r d i n their u s u a l p o s t u r e . T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s p r o v i d e d a n irresistible s o u r c e f o r i n v i d i o u s c o m p a r i s o n . I n f e r i o r p e o p l e s s h o u l d h a v e a m o r e p o s t e r i o r foram e n m a g n u m , as in apes and lower mammals. In

1862 B r o c a

e n t e r e d a n e x i s t i n g s q u a b b l e o n this issue. R e l a t i v e e g a l i t a r i a n s like J a m e s C o w l e s P r i t c h a r d h a d b e e n a r g u i n g that t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m lies e x a c t l y i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s k u l l i n b o t h whites a n d blacks. Racists like J . V i r e y h a d d i s c o v e r e d g r a d e d v a r i a t i o n , t h e h i g h e r

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the race, the m o r e forward the f o r a m e n m a g n u m . N e i t h e r side, B r o c a noted, h a d m u c h in the way of data. With characteristic objectivity, h e set o u t t o r e s o l v e this v e x a t i o u s , i f m i n o r , issue. B r o c a a m a s s e d a s a m p l e o f sixty w h i t e s a n d thirty-five b l a c k s a n d m e a s u r e d the l e n g t h o f t h e i r skulls b o t h b e f o r e a n d b e h i n d t h e a n t e r i o r b o r d e r o f t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m . B o t h races h a d t h e s a m e a m o u n t o f skull b e h i n d — 1 0 0 . 3 8 5 m m f o r whites,

100.857

m m f o r blacks ( n o t e p r e c i s i o n t o t h i r d d e c i m a l p l a c e ) . B u t w h i t e s h a d m u c h less i n f r o n t ( 9 0 . 7 3 6 vs. 100.304 m m ) a n d t h e i r f o r a m e n m a g n u m t h e r e f o r e lay i n a m o r e a n t e r i o r p o s i t i o n (see T a b l e 3 . 1 ) . B r o c a c o n c l u d e d : " I n o r a n g - u t a n s , t h e p o s t e r i o r p r o j e c t i o n [the p a r t o f t h e skull b e h i n d the f o r a m e n m a g n u m ] i s s h o r t e r . I t i s t h e r e f o r e i n c o n t e s t a b l e . . . t h a t t h e c o n f o r m a t i o n of t h e N e g r o , in this r e s p e c t a s i n m a n y o t h e r s , t e n d s t o a p p r o a c h that o f the m o n k e y " ( 1 8 6 2 c , p . 16). But Broca then began to worry. T h e standard arg u m e nt about the f o r a m e n m a g n u m r e f e r r e d o n l y t o its r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o n the c r a n i u m itself, n o t t o t h e f a c e p r o j e c t i n g i n f r o n t o f t h e c r a n i u m . Y e t B r o c a h a d i n c l u d e d t h e f a c e i n his a n t e r i o r m e a s u r e . N o w everyone

k n o w s , h e w r o t e , that b l a c k s h a v e l o n g e r faces t h a n

whites. T h i s is an a p e l i k e sign of i n f e r i o r i t y in its o w n r i g h t , b u t it s h o u l d not b e c o n f u s e d with the r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m w i t h i n t h e c r a n i u m . T h u s B r o c a set o u t t o s u b t r a c t the facial i n f l u e n c e f r o m his m e a s u r e s .

He found

that blacks d i d ,

i n d e e d , h a v e l o n g e r f a c e s — w h i t e faces a c c o u n t e d f o r o n l y 1 2 . 3 8 5 m m o f t h e i r a n t e r i o r m e a s u r e , black faces f o r 2 7 . 6 7 6 m m (see T a b l e 3 . 1 ) . S u b t r a c t i n g facial l e n g t h , B r o c a o b t a i n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g figures for anterior cranium: 78.351 for whites, 72.628 for blacks. In other words, based on the cranium alone, the f o r a m e n m a g n u m Table 3*1 Broca's measurements on the relative position of the foramen magnum DIFFERENCE IN

ANTERIOR

Facial Cranial 'STERIOR

WHITES

BLACKS

FAVOR OF BLACKS

90.736 12.385 78.351

100.304 27.676 72.628

+ 9.568 + 15.291 - 5.723

100.385

100.857

+

0.472

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of blacks lay farther forward (the ratio of f r o n t to b a c k , c a l c u l a t e d f r o m B r o c a ' s d a t a , i s .781 f o r whites, a n d . 7 2 0 f o r blacks). C l e a r l y , b y criteria explicitly a c c e p t e d b e f o r e t h e s t u d y , blacks a r e s u p e r i o r t o whites. O r s o i t m u s t b e , unless t h e criteria s u d d e n l y shift, a s they did forthwith. T h e v e n e r a b l e a r g u m e n t o f f r o n t a n d b a c k a p p e a r e d t o resc u e Broca and the threatened people he represented. T h e m o r e f o r w a r d position o f t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m i n blacks d o e s n o t r e c o r d t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y a f t e r all; it o n l y reflects their lack of a n t e r i o r b r a i n p o w e r . R e l a t i v e to w h i t e s , blacks h a v e lost a g r e a t d e a l of b r a i n in front. But they have a d d e d some brain behind, thus r e d u c i n g the front/back ratio o f t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m a n d p r o v i d i n g a s p u r i o u s a p p e a r a n c e o f black a d v a n t a g e . B u t they h a v e n o t a d d e d t o these i n f e r i o r b a c k r e g i o n s as m u c h as t h e y lost in t h e a n t e r i o r r e a l m . T h u s blacks h a v e s m a l l e r a n d m o r e p o o r l y p r o p o r t i o n e d b r a i n s t h a n whites: T h e anterior cranial projection of whites . . . surpasses that of N e g r o e s by 4.9 percent. . . . T h u s , while the foramen m a g n u m of Negroes is further back with respect to their incisors [Broca's most forward point in his anterior measure that included the face], it is, on the contrary, further forward with respect to the anterior e d g e of their brain. To change the cranium of a white into that of a N e g r o , we would have not only to move the jaws forward, but also to reduce the front of the cranium—that is, to make the anterior brain atrophy and to give, as insufficient compensation, part of the material we extracted to the posterior cranium. In other words, in N e g r o e s , the facial and occipital regions are developed to the detriment of the frontal region (1862c, p. 18). T h i s was a small i n c i d e n t in B r o c a ' s c a r e e r , b u t I c a n i m a g i n e no b e t t e r illustration o f his m e t h o d — s h i f t i n g criteria t o w o r k t h r o u g h g o o d d a t a t o w a r d d e s i r e d c o n c l u s i o n s . H e a d s I'm s u p e r i o r ; tails, you're inferior. A n d old a r g u m e n t s n e v e r s e e m t o die. W a l t e r F r e e m a n , d e a n o f A m e r i c a n l o b o t o m i s t s (he p e r f o r m e d o r s u p e r v i s e d thirty-five h u n d r e d lesions o f f r o n t a l p o r t i o n s o f t h e b r a i n b e f o r e his retirem e n t in 1 9 7 0 ) , a d m i t t e d late in his c a r e e r (cited in C h o r o v e r , 1979): What the investigator misses most in the m o r e highly intelligent individuals is their ability to introspect, to speculate, to philosophize, especially in regard to onesself. . . . On the whole, psychosurgery reduces creativity, sometimes to the vanishing point.

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F r e e m a n t h e n a d d e d that " w o m e n r e s p o n d b e t t e r t h a n m e n , Negroes better than whites." In other words, people w h o didn't h a v e as m u c h up f r o n t in t h e first p l a c e d o n ' t miss it as b a d l y .

Women's

brains

O f all his c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n g r o u p s , B r o c a collected m o s t i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e b r a i n s o f w o m e n vs. m e n — p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e i t w a s m o r e accessible, n o t b e c a u s e h e h e l d a n y special a n i m u s toward w o m e n . "Inferior" groups are interchangeable in the general t h e o r y o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m . T h e y a r e c o n t i n u a l l y j u x t a posed, and o n e is m a d e to serve as a surrogate for a l l — f o r the g e n e r a l p r o p o s i t i o n h o l d s that society follows n a t u r e , a n d that social r a n k reflects i n n a t e w o r t h . T h u s , E . H u s c h k e , a G e r m a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , w r o t e i n 1 8 5 4 : " T h e N e g r o b r a i n possesses a s p i n a l c o r d o f t h e t y p e f o u n d i n c h i l d r e n a n d w o m e n a n d , b e y o n d this, a p p r o a c h e s t h e t y p e o f b r a i n f o u n d i n h i g h e r a p e s " (in M a l l , 1 9 0 9 , pp. 1-2). T h e celebrated G e r m a n anatomist Carl V o g t wrote in 1864: By its r o u n d e d apex and less developed posterior lobe the N e g r o brain resembles that of our children, and by the protuberance of the parietal lobe, that of our females. . . . T h e grown-up N e g r o partakes, as regards his intellectual faculties, of the nature of the child, the female, and the senile white. . . . Some tribes have f o u n d e d states, possessing a peculiar organization; but, as to the rest, we may boldly assert that the whole race has, neither in the past nor in the present, performed anything tending to the progress of humanity or worthy of preservation (1864, p p . 183-192). G. H e r v e , a colleague of Broca, wrote in 1881: " M e n of the black races h a v e a b r a i n scarcely h e a v i e r t h a n that o f w h i t e w o m e n " ( 1 8 8 1 , p. 6 9 2 ) . I do n o t r e g a r d as e m p t y r h e t o r i c a c l a i m that the battles o f o n e g r o u p a r e f o r all o f u s . B r o c a c e n t e r e d his a r g u m e n t a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l status o f m o d e r n w o m e n u p o n t w o sets o f d a t a : t h e l a r g e r b r a i n s o f m e n i n m o d e r n societies a n d a s u p p o s e d w i d e n i n g t h r o u g h t i m e o f t h e disparity i n size b e t w e e n m a l e a n d f e m a l e b r a i n s . H e b a s e d his m o s t extensive s t u d y u p o n a u t o p s i e s h e p e r f o r m e d i n f o u r Parisian h o s pitals. F o r 292 m a l e b r a i n s , h e c a l c u l a t e d a m e a n w e i g h t o f 1,325 g r a m s ; 140 f e m a l e b r a i n s a v e r a g e d 1 , 1 4 4 g r a m s f o r a d i f f e r e n c e o f 181 g r a m s , o r 1 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e m a l e w e i g h t . B r o c a u n d e r s t o o d , o f course, that p a r t o f this d i f f e r e n c e m u s t b e a t t r i b u t e d t o the l a r g e r

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size o f m a l e s . H e h a d u s e d s u c h a c o r r e c t i o n t o r e s c u e F r e n c h m e n f r o m a claim o f G e r m a n s u p e r i o r i t y (p. 1 2 1 ) . I n that case, h e k n e w h o w t o m a k e t h e c o r r e c t i o n i n e x q u i s i t e detail. B u t n o w h e m a d e n o a t t e m p t t o m e a s u r e t h e effect o f size a l o n e , a n d actually stated that h e d i d n ' t n e e d t o d o so. Size, a f t e r all, c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e e n t i r e d i f f e r e n c e b e c a u s e w e k n o w that w o m e n a r e n o t a s intelligent as men. We might ask if the small size of the female brain d e p e n d s exclusively u p o n the small size of her body. T i e d e m a n n has proposed this explanation. But we must not forget that w o m e n are, on the average, a little less intelligent than m e n , a difference which we should not exaggerate but which is, nonetheless, real. We are therefore permitted to s u p p o s e that the relatively small size of the female brain d e p e n d s in part u p o n her physical inferiority and in part u p o n her intellectual inferiority (1861, p. 153). To record the supposed widening of the g a p t h r o u g h time, B r o c a m e a s u r e d t h e cranial capacities o f p r e h i s t o r i c skulls f r o m L ' H o m m e M o r t c a v e . H e r e h e f o u n d a d i f f e r e n c e o f o n l y 99.5 c c between males and females, while m o d e r n populations r a n g e from 129.5 220.7 cc. T o p i n a r d , B r o c a ' s c h i e f d i s c i p l e , e x p l a i n e d t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i s c r e p a n c y t h r o u g h t i m e a s a result o f d i f f e r i n g e v o l u t i o n a r y p r e s s u r e s u p o n d o m i n a n t m e n a n d passive w o m e n : t

o

T h e man w h o fights for two or m o r e in the struggle for existence, who has all the responsibility and the cares of tomorrow, who is constantly active in combatting the environment and h u m a n rivals, needs m o r e brain than the woman w h o m he must protect and nourish, than the sedentary woman, lacking any interior occupations, whose role is to raise children, love, and be passive (1888, p. 22). In 1879 Gustave Le B o n , chief misogynist of Broca's school, u s e d t h e s e d a t a t o p u b l i s h w h a t m u s t b e t h e m o s t v i c i o u s attack u p o n w o m e n i n m o d e r n scientific l i t e r a t u r e (it will t a k e s o m e d o i n g t o b e a t A r i s t o t l e ) . L e B o n w a s n o m a r g i n a l h a t e - m o n g e r . H e was a f o u n d e r o f social p s y c h o l o g y a n d w r o t e a s t u d y o f c r o w d b e h a v i o r still cited a n d r e s p e c t e d t o d a y {La psychologie des Joules, 1895). His w r i t i n g s also h a d a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e u p o n M u s s o l i n i . L e B o n c o n cluded: In the most intelligent races, as a m o n g the Parisians, there are a large n u m b e r of w o m e n whose brains are closer in size to those of gorillas than to the most developed male brains. This inferiority is so obvious that no o n e can contest it for a moment; only its d e g r e e is worth discussion. All

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psychologists w h o have studied the intelligence of w o m e n , as well as poets and novelists, recognize today that they represent the most inferior forms of h u m a n evolution and that they are closer to children and savages than to an adult, civilized man. T h e y excel in fickleness, inconstancy, absence of thought and logic, and incapacity to reason. Without doubt there exist s o m e distinguished w o m e n , very superior to the average man, but they are as exceptional as the birth of any monstrosity, as, for example, of a gorilla with two heads; consequently, we may neglect them entirely (1879, p p . 6 0 61). N o r d i d L e B o n s h r i n k f r o m t h e social i m p l i c a t i o n s o f his v i e w s . H e was h o r r i f i e d b y the p r o p o s a l o f s o m e A m e r i c a n r e f o r m e r s t o g r a n t w o m e n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n o n t h e s a m e basis a s m e n : A desire to give them the same education, and, as a consequence, to propose the same goals for them, is a dangerous chimera. . . . T h e day w h e n , misunderstanding the inferior occupations which nature has given her, w o m e n leave the h o m e and take part in our battles; on this day a social revolution will begin, and everything that maintains the sacred ties of the family will disappear (1879, p. 62). Sound familiar?* I h a v e r e e x a m i n e d B r o c a ' s d a t a , t h e basis f o r all this d e r i v a t i v e p r o n o u n c e m e n t , a n d I find the n u m b e r s s o u n d b u t B r o c a ' s interp r e t a t i o n , t o say t h e least, ill f o u n d e d . T h e claim f o r i n c r e a s i n g d i f f e r e n c e t h r o u g h t i m e is easily d i s m i s s e d . B r o c a b a s e d this c o n tention o n t h e s a m p l e f r o m L ' H o m m e M o r t a l o n e . I t consists o f seven m a l e , a n d six f e m a l e , skulls. N e v e r has s o m u c h b e e n c o a x e d f r o m so little! I n 1888 T o p i n a r d p u b l i s h e d B r o c a ' s m o r e e x t e n s i v e d a t a o n Parisian hospitals. S i n c e B r o c a r e c o r d e d h e i g h t a n d a g e a s well a s brain size, w e m a y u s e m o d e r n statistical p r o c e d u r e s t o r e m o v e their effect. B r a i n w e i g h t d e c r e a s e s with a g e , a n d B r o c a ' s w o m e n w e r e , o n a v e r a g e , c o n s i d e r a b l y o l d e r t h a n his m e n a t d e a t h . B r a i n weight i n c r e a s e s with h e i g h t , a n d his a v e r a g e m a n was a l m o s t h a l f a foot taller t h a n his a v e r a g e w o m a n . I u s e d m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n , a technique that p e r m i t s s i m u l t a n e o u s a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f "Ten years later, America's leading evolutionary biologist, E. D. Cope, dreaded the result if "a spirit of revolt become general among women." "Should the nation have attack of this kind," he wrote (1890, p. 2071), "like a disease, it would leave its traces in many after-generations." He detected the beginnings of such anarchy in Pressures exerted by women "to prevent men from drinking wine and smoking ooacco in moderation," and in the carriage of misguided men who supported "lale suffrage: "Some of these men are effeminate and long-haired." a n

i8

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3

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MAN

h e i g h t a n d a g e u p o n b r a i n size. I n a n analysis o f t h e d a t a f o r w o m e n , I f o u n d that, at a v e r a g e male height and a g e , a w o m a n ' s brain w o u l d weigh 1,212 grams.* Correction for height and age reduces the

181

g r a m difference by m o r e than a third to

113

grams. It is difficult to assess this r e m a i n i n g d i f f e r e n c e b e c a u s e B r o c a ' s d a t a c o n t a i n n o i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t o t h e r f a c t o r s k n o w n t o influe n c e b r a i n size i n a m a j o r way. C a u s e o f d e a t h h a s a n i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t , as d e g e n e r a t i v e d i s e a s e o f t e n entails a substantial d i m i n u tion o f b r a i n size. E u g e n e S c h r e i d e r ( 1 9 6 6 ) , also w o r k i n g with B r o c a ' s d a t a , f o u n d t h a t m e n killed i n a c c i d e n t s h a d b r a i n s w e i g h i n g , o n a v e r a g e , 6 0 g r a m s m o r e t h a n m e n d y i n g o f i n f e c t i o u s diseases. T h e best m o d e r n d a t a that I hospitals) r e c o r d s a full

c a n find

(from American

100 g r a m d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n d e a t h b y

d e g e n e r a t i v e heart disease a n d by accident or violence. Since so m a n y o f B r o c a ' s subjects w e r e e l d e r l y w o m e n , w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t l e n g t h y d e g e n e r a t i v e d i s e a s e was m o r e c o m m o n a m o n g t h e m t h a n a m o n g the men. M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , m o d e r n s t u d e n t s o f b r a i n size h a v e still n o t agreed on a p r o p e r measure to eliminate the powerful effect of b o d y size ( J e r i s o n , 1 9 7 3 ; G o u l d , 1 9 7 5 ) . H e i g h t i s p a r t l y a d e q u a t e , but m e n and w o m e n of the same height do not share the same b o d y b u i l d . W e i g h t i s e v e n w o r s e t h a n h e i g h t , b e c a u s e m o s t o f its v a r i a t i o n reflects n u t r i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n intrinsic s i z e — a n d fat vs. s k i n n y e x e r t s little i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e b r a i n . L e o n c e M a n o u v r i e r t o o k u p this subject i n t h e 1880s a n d a r g u e d that m u s c u l a r mass a n d f o r c e s h o u l d b e u s e d . H e t r i e d t o m e a s u r e this e l u s i v e p r o p e r t y in various ways a n d f o u n d a m a r k e d difference in favor of m e n , even in men and w o m e n of the same height. W h e n he corrected f o r w h a t h e c a l l e d " s e x u a l m a s s , " w o m e n c a m e o u t slightly a h e a d in b r a i n size. T h u s , t h e c o r r e c t e d 1 1 3 g r a m d i f f e r e n c e i s s u r e l y t o o l a r g e ; the t r u e f i g u r e i s p r o b a b l y c l o s e t o z e r o a n d m a y a s well f a v o r w o m e n a s m e n . O n e h u n d r e d t h i r t e e n g r a m s , b y t h e w a y , i s e x a c t l y the a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a f i v e - f o o t f o u r - i n c h a n d a six-footf o u r - i n c h m a l e i n B r o c a ' s d a t a t — a n d w e w o u l d n o t w a n t t o ascribe *I calculate, where y is brain size in grams, x, age in years, and x body height in cm: y = 764.5-2.55X, +3.47x2 t For his largest sample of males, and using the favored power function for bivanate 2

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g r e a t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e t o tall m e n . I n s h o r t , B r o c a ' s d a t a d o n o t p e r m i t a n y c o n f i d e n t c l a i m that m e n h a v e b i g g e r b r a i n s t h a n w o m e n . M a r i a M o n t e s s o r i d i d n o t c o n f i n e h e r activities t o e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m f o r y o u n g c h i l d r e n . S h e l e c t u r e d o n a n t h r o p o l o g y f o r several y e a r s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f R o m e a n d w r o t e a n influential b o o k e n t i t l e d Pedagogical Anthropology ( E n g l i s h e d i t i o n ,

1913). She was,

t o say the least, n o e g a l i t a r i a n . S h e s u p p o r t e d m o s t o f B r o c a ' s w o r k and the theory of innate criminality p r o p o s e d by h e r compatriot Cesare L o m b r o s o (next chapter). She measured the circumference o f c h i l d r e n ' s h e a d s i n h e r s c h o o l s a n d i n f e r r e d t h a t the best p r o s pects had b i g g e r brains. B u t she had no use for Broca's conclusions about w o m e n . She discussed Manouvrier's work at length a n d m a d e m u c h o f his tentative claim that w o m e n h a v e slightly l a r g e r brains when p r o p e r corrections are m a d e . W o m e n , she concluded, a r e intellectually s u p e r i o r t o m e n , b u t m e n h a v e p r e v a i l e d h e r e t o f o r e b y d i n t o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e . S i n c e t e c h n o l o g y has a b o l i s h e d f o r c e as an instrument of power, the era of w o m e n may soon be u p o n us: " I n s u c h a n e p o c h t h e r e will really b e s u p e r i o r h u m a n b e i n g s , t h e r e will really b e m e n s t r o n g i n m o r a l i t y a n d i n s e n t i m e n t . P e r h a p s i n this w a y t h e r e i g n o f w o m a n i s a p p r o a c h i n g , w h e n t h e enigma of her anthropological

s u p e r i o r i t y will b e d e c i p h e r e d .

W o m a n was a l w a y s t h e c u s t o d i a n o f h u m a n s e n t i m e n t , m o r a l i t y and h o n o r " ( 1 9 1 3 , p . 259). M o n t e s s o r i ' s a r g u m e n t r e p r e s e n t s o n e possible a n t i d o t e t o "scientific" claims f o r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n f e r i o r i t y o f c e r t a i n g r o u p s . O n e m a y a f f i r m t h e validity o f b i o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s , b u t a r g u e that the d a t a h a v e b e e n m i s i n t e r p r e t e d b y p r e j u d i c e d m e n w i t h a stake i n t h e o u t c o m e , a n d t h a t d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s a r e truly s u p e r i o r . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , E l a i n e M o r g a n h a s f o l l o w e d this s t r a t e g y in h e r Descent of Woman,

a s p e c u l a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of h u m a n

prehistory f r o m t h e w o m a n ' s p o i n t o f v i e w — a n d a s farcical a s m o r e f a m o u s tall tales b y a n d f o r m e n . I d e d i c a t e this b o o k to a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n . M o n t e s s o r i a n d Morgan follow Broca's m e t h o d to reach a m o r e congenial conclusion. I w o u l d r a t h e r label t h e w h o l e e n t e r p r i s e of setting a b i o l o g i cal value u p o n g r o u p s f o r w h a t it is:

i r r e l e v a n t , intellectually

unsound, and highly injurious. > . calculate, where y is brain weight in grams and x is ^ height in cm: y = 1 1,6x° •«

bodv ii -°!" S

b r a i n

a l l o m e t r

1

2

140

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MAN

Postscript C r a n i o m e t r i c a r g u m e n t s lost m u c h o f their luster i n o u r c e n t u r y , a s d e t e r m i n i s t s s w i t c h e d their a l l e g i a n c e t o i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t i n g — a m o r e " d i r e c t " p a t h t o t h e s a m e invalid g o a l o f r a n k i n g g r o u p s b y m e n t a l w o r t h — a n d a s scientists e x p o s e d t h e p r e j u d i c e d n o n s e n s e that d o m i n a t e d m o s t l i t e r a t u r e o n f o r m a n d size o f the h e a d . T h e A m e r i c a n anthropologist Franz Boas, for e x a m p l e , m a d e short w o r k o f t h e f a b l e d c r a n i a l i n d e x b y s h o w i n g that i t v a r i e d widely b o t h a m o n g a d u l t s o f a single g r o u p a n d within t h e life o f a n individu a l ( B o a s , 1899). M o r e o v e r , h e f o u n d significant d i f f e r e n c e s i n cranial i n d e x b e t w e e n i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s a n d t h e i r A m e r i c a n - b o r n children. T h e immutable obtuseness of the brachycephalic southern E u r o p e a n might veer toward the dolichocephalic Nordic n o r m in a single g e n e r a t i o n o f a l t e r e d e n v i r o n m e n t ( B o a s , 1 9 1 1 ) . I n 1 9 7 0 the S o u t h A f r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t P . V . T o b i a s w r o t e a c o u r a g e o u s article e x p o s i n g t h e m y t h that g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n b r a i n size b e a r a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i n t e l l i g e n c e — i n d e e d , h e a r g u e d , g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n b r a i n size, i n d e p e n d e n t o f b o d y size a n d o t h e r b i a s i n g f a c t o r s , h a v e n e v e r b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d a t all. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n m a y strike r e a d e r s a s s t r a n g e , especially since i t c o m e s f r o m a f a m o u s scientist well a c q u a i n t e d with t h e r e a m s o f p u b l i s h e d d a t a o n b r a i n size. A f t e r all, w h a t c a n b e s i m p l e r than w e i g h i n g a b r a i n ? — T a k e i t o u t , a n d p u t i t o n t h e scale. O n e set o f difficulties r e f e r s to p r o b l e m s of m e a s u r e m e n t itself: at w h a t level is the b r a i n s e v e r e d f r o m t h e spinal c o r d ; a r e t h e m e n i n g e s r e m o v e d o r n o t ( m e n i n g e s a r e t h e b r a i n ' s c o v e r i n g m e m b r a n e s , a n d the d u r a m a t e r , o r thick o u t e r c o v e r i n g , w e i g h s 5 0 t o 6 0 g r a m s ) ; h o w m u c h t i m e e l a p s e d a f t e r d e a t h ; was t h e b r a i n p r e s e r v e d i n a n y fluid b e f o r e w e i g h i n g a n d , i f so, f o r h o w l o n g ; a t w h a t t e m p e r a t u r e w a s the b r a i n p r e s e r v e d a f t e r d e a t h . M o s t l i t e r a t u r e d o e s n o t specify t h e s e factors a d e q u a t e l y , a n d studies m a d e b y d i f f e r e n t scientists usually c a n n o t b e c o m p a r e d . E v e n w h e n w e c a n b e s u r e that t h e s a m e object has been measured in the same way u n d e r the same conditions, a second set o f biases i n t e r v e n e s — i n f l u e n c e s u p o n b r a i n size w i t h n o direct tie t o t h e d e s i r e d p r o p e r t i e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e o r racial affiliation: sex, b o d y size, a g e , n u t r i t i o n , n o n n u t r i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , o c c u p a t i o n , and cause of death. T h u s , despite thousands of published pages, a n d t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f subjects, T o b i a s c o n c l u d e s that w e d o not

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I

4

I

k n o w — a s i f i t m a t t e r e d a t a l l — w h e t h e r blacks, o n t h e a v e r a g e , h a v e l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r brains t h a n whites. Y e t t h e l a r g e r size o f white brains was a n u n q u e s t i o n e d " f a c t " a m o n g w h i t e scientists until quite recently. Many investigators have devoted an extraordinary a m o u n t of a t t e n t i o n t o t h e subject o f g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n h u m a n b r a i n size. T h e y have gotten nowhere, not because there are no answers, but b e c a u s e t h e a n s w e r s a r e so difficult to g e t a n d b e c a u s e t h e a p r i o r i convictions are so clear and controlling. In the heat of Broca's debate with G r a t i o l e t , o n e of B r o c a ' s d e f e n d e r s , a d m i t t e d l y as a nasty d e b a t i n g p o i n t , m a d e a r e m a r k that a d m i r a b l y e p i t o m i z e s t h e motivations implicit in t h e e n t i r e c r a n i o m e t r i c t r a d i t i o n : "I h a v e n o t i c e d f o r a l o n g t i m e , " stated de J o u v e n c e l (1861, p. 465), "that, in g e n e r a l , those w h o d e n y t h e intellectual i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e brain's v o l u m e h a v e small h e a d s . " Self-interest, f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n , has b e e n the w e l l s p r i n g o f o p i n i o n o n this h e a d y issue f r o m t h e start.

FOUR

Measuring Bodies Two Case Studies on the Apishness of Undesirables T H E CONCEPT OF EVOLUTION t r a n s f o r m e d h u m a n t h o u g h t d u r i n g the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . N e a r l y e v e r y q u e s t i o n i n t h e life sciences was r e f o r m u l a t e d i n its light. N o i d e a was e v e r m o r e w i d e l y u s e d , o r m i s u s e d ("social D a r w i n i s m " a s a n e v o l u t i o n a r y r a t i o n a l e f o r the inevitability o f p o v e r t y , f o r e x a m p l e ) . B o t h c r e a t i o n i s t s ( A g a s s i z a n d Morton) a n d evolutionists (Broca and Galton) could exploit t h e d a t a o f b r a i n size t o m a k e their invalid a n d i n v i d i o u s distinctions a m o n g g r o u p s . B u t o t h e r q u a n t i t a t i v e a r g u m e n t s a r o s e a s m o r e d i r e c t s p i n o f f s f r o m e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y . I n this c h a p t e r I discuss t w o a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a p r e v a l e n t t y p e ; t h e y p r e s e n t b o t h a s t r o n g c o n t r a s t a n d a n i n t e r e s t i n g similarity. T h e f i r s t i s t h e m o s t g e n e r a l e v o l u t i o n a r y d e f e n s e o f all f o r r a n k i n g g r o u p s — t h e a r g u m e n t f r o m r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , o f t e n e p i t o m i z e d b y the o b f u s c a t i n g tongue-twister "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny." T h e second is a

specific

human

evolutionary

criminal

hypothesis

for

behavior—Lombroso's

the

biological

criminal

nature

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anthropology.

Both theories relied u p o n the same quantitative and supposedly e v o l u t i o n a r y m e t h o d — t h e s e a r c h f o r signs o f a p i s h m o r p h o l o g y i n groups d e e m e d undesirable.

The ape in all of us: recapitulation O n c e the fact o f e v o l u t i o n h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y naturalists d e v o t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t r a c i n g t h e a c t u a l p a t h ways that evolution h a d followed. T h e y sought, in o t h e r w o r d s , to

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r e c o n s t r u c t t h e t r e e o f life. Fossils m i g h t h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e evid e n c e , f o r o n l y t h e y c o u l d r e c o r d t h e actual a n c e s t o r s o f m o d e r n f o r m s . B u t t h e fossil r e c o r d i s e x t r e m e l y i m p e r f e c t , a n d t h e m a j o r t r u n k s a n d b r a n c h e s o f life's t r e e all g r e w b e f o r e t h e e v o l u t i o n o f h a r d p a r t s p e r m i t t e d t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f a fossil r e c o r d a t all. S o m e indirect criterion had to be f o u n d . Ernst Haeckel, the great Germ a n zoologist, refurbished an old theory of creationist biology a n d s u g g e s t e d that t h e t r e e o f life m i g h t b e r e a d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e e m b r y o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f h i g h e r f o r m s . H e p r o c l a i m e d that " o n t o g e n y r e c a p i t u l a t e s p h y l o g e n y " o r , t o e x p l i c a t e this m e l l i f l u o u s t o n g u e - t w i s t e r , that a n i n d i v i d u a l , i n its o w n g r o w t h , passes t h r o u g h a series of stages r e p r e s e n t i n g adult a n c e s t r a l f o r m s in their c o r r e c t o r d e r — a n i n d i v i d u a l , i n s h o r t , climbs its o w n f a m i l y tree. R e c a p i t u l a t i o n r a n k s a m o n g t h e m o s t influential i d e a s o f late n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y science. I t d o m i n a t e d the w o r k o f s e v e r a l professions, including embryology, comparative m o r p h o l o g y , a n d p a l e o n t o l o g y . A l l t h e s e disciplines w e r e o b s e s s e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f r e c o n s t r u c t i n g e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e s , a n d all r e g a r d e d r e c a p i t u l a tion a s the k e y t o this q u e s t . T h e gill slits o f a n e a r l y h u m a n e m b r y o r e p r e s e n t e d an a n c e s t r a l a d u l t fish; at a later s t a g e , t h e t e m p o r a r y tail r e v e a l e d a r e p t i l i a n or m a m m a l i a n a n c e s t o r . R e c a p i t u l a t i o n spilled f o r t h f r o m b i o l o g y t o i n f l u e n c e s e v e r a l o t h e r disciplines i n crucial w a y s . B o t h S i g m u n d F r e u d a n d C. G . J u n g were c o n v i n c e d recapitulationists, a n d Haeckel's idea played n o small r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y . (In Totem and Taboo, f o r e x a m p l e , F r e u d tries to r e c o n s t r u c t h u m a n history f r o m a c e n t r a l c l u e p r o v i d e d b y t h e O e d i p u s c o m p l e x o f y o u n g b o y s . F r e u d r e a s o n e d that this u r g e t o p a r r i c i d e m u s t reflect a n actual e v e n t a m o n g ancestral a d u l t s . H e n c e , t h e sons o f a n ancestral c l a n m u s t o n c e h a v e killed t h e i r f a t h e r i n o r d e r t o g a i n access t o w o m e n . ) M a n y p r i m a r y - s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m s o f t h e late nineteenth c e n t u r y w e r e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e l i g h t o f r e c a p i t u l a tion. Several s c h o o l b o a r d s p r e s c r i b e d t h e Song of Hiawatha in early grades, r e a s o n i n g that c h i l d r e n , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e s a v a g e s t a g e ° f their ancestral p a s t , w o u l d identify with it.* hf i f d > the justification provided for recapitulation by Haeckel and h^hi S ' ^ ^ reasons for its later downfall, may consult my dull, but 'ghly detailed treatise, Ontogeny and Phylogeny, Harvard University Press, 1977. e a t

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R e c a p i t u l a t i o n also p r o v i d e d a n irresistible c r i t e r i o n f o r a n y scientist w h o w a n t e d t o r a n k h u m a n g r o u p s a s h i g h e r a n d l o w e r . T h e adults of inferior g r o u p s m u s t be like children of superior g r o u p s , f o r t h e c h i l d r e p r e s e n t s a p r i m i t i v e a d u l t a n c e s t o r . I f a d u l t blacks a n d w o m e n a r e like w h i t e m a l e c h i l d r e n , t h e n they a r e living r e p r e s e n tatives o f a n a n c e s t r a l s t a g e i n the e v o l u t i o n o f w h i t e m a l e s . A n anatomical theory for ranking races—based on entire bodies, not only o n h e a d s — h a d been f o u n d . R e c a p i t u l a t i o n s e r v e d as a g e n e r a l t h e o r y of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r minism. All "inferior" g r o u p s — r a c e s , sexes, and classes—were c o m p a r e d with t h e c h i l d r e n o f w h i t e m a l e s . E . D . C o p e , t h e celebrated A m e r i c a n paleontologist who elucidated the mechanism of r e c a p i t u l a t i o n (see G o u l d , 1 9 7 7 , p p . 8 5 - 9 1 ) , i d e n t i f i e d f o u r g r o u p s o f l o w e r h u m a n f o r m s o n this c r i t e r i o n : n o n w h i t e r a c e s , all w o m e n , southern as o p p o s e d to northern E u r o p e a n whites, a n d lower classes w i t h i n s u p e r i o r r a c e s ( 1 8 8 7 , PP- 9 9 3 — C o p e particularly d e s p i s e d " t h e l o w e r classes o f t h e I r i s h " ) . C o p e p r e a c h e d t h e d o c t r i n e o f N o r d i c s u p r e m a c y a n d a g i t a t e d t o curtail t h e i m m i g r a tion o f J e w s a n d s o u t h e r n E u r o p e a n s t o A m e r i c a . T o e x p l a i n t h e inferiority of southern E u r o p e a n s in recapitulatory terms, he a r g u e d that w a r m e r climates i m p o s e a n e a r l i e r m a t u r a t i o n . S i n c e m a t u r a t i o n signals t h e s l o w d o w n a n d cessation o f b o d i l y d e v e l o p ment, southern E u r o p e a n s are caught in a m o r e childlike, hence p r i m i t i v e , state a s a d u l t s . S u p e r i o r n o r t h e r n e r s m o v e o n t o h i g h e r stages b e f o r e a later m a t u r a t i o n cuts o f f t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t : 2

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T h e r e can be little doubt that in the Indo-European race maturity in s o m e respects appears earlier in tropical than in northern regions; and though subject to many exceptions, this is sufficiently general to be looked u p o n as a rule. Accordingly, we find in that race—at least in the warmer regions of Europe and America—a larger proportion of certain qualities which are m o r e universal in w o m e n , as greater activity of the emotional nature when compared with the j u d g m e n t . . . . Perhaps the m o r e northern type left all that behind in its youth (1887, p p . 162-163). Recapitulation provided a primary focus for anthropometric, p a r t i c u l a r l y c r a n i o m e t r i c , a r g u m e n t s a b o u t t h e r a n k i n g o f races. T h e brain, once again, played a d o m i n a n t role. Louis Agassiz, in a c r e a t i o n i s t c o n t e x t , h a d a l r e a d y c o m p a r e d t h e b r a i n o f a d u l t blacks with that o f a w h i t e f e t u s s e v e n m o n t h s o l d . W e h a v e a l r e a d y cited

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(p. 103) V o g t ' s r e m a r k a b l e s t a t e m e n t e q u a t i n g t h e b r a i n s o f a d u l t blacks a n d w h i t e w o m e n w i t h t h o s e o f w h i t e m a l e c h i l d r e n a n d e x p l a i n i n g , o n this basis, t h e f a i l u r e o f black p e o p l e t o b u i l d a n y civilization w o r t h y o f his n o t i c e . C o p e also f o c u s e d u p o n t h e skull, p a r t i c u l a r l y u p o n " t h o s e important elements of beauty, a well-developed nose and b e a r d " ( 1 8 8 7 , p p . 2 8 8 - 2 9 0 ) , b u t h e also d e r i d e d t h e d e f i c i e n t calf m u s c u l a t u r e o f blacks: T w o of the most prominent characters of the negro are those of immature stages of the Indo-European race in its characteristic types. T h e deficient calf is the character of infants at a very early stage; but, what is m o r e important, the flattened bridge of the nose and shortened nasal cartilages are universally immature conditions of the same parts in the IndoEuropean. . . . In s o m e races—e.g., the Slavic—this u n d e v e l o p e d character persists later than in s o m e others. T h e Greek nose, with its elevated bridge, coincides not only with aesthetic beauty, but with developmental perfection. I n 1890 A m e r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t D . G . B r i n t o n s u m m a r i z e d t h e a r g u m e n t with a p a e a n o f p r a i s e f o r m e a s u r e m e n t : T h e adult who retains the m o r e n u m e r o u s fetal, infantile or simian traits, is unquestionably inferior to him whose development has progressed beyond them. . . . Measured by these criteria, the European or white race stands at the head of the list, the African or negro at its foot. . . . All parts of the body have been minutely scanned, measured and weighed, in order to erect a science of the comparative anatomy of the races (1890, p. 48). I f a n a t o m y built t h e h a r d a r g u m e n t o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , p s y c h i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f f e r e d a rich f i e l d f o r c o r r o b o r a t i o n . D i d n ' t e v e r y o n e k n o w that s a v a g e s a n d w o m e n a r e e m o t i o n a l l y like c h i l d r e n ? Despised g r o u p s h a d b e e n c o m p a r e d w i t h c h i l d r e n b e f o r e , b u t t h e theory o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n g a v e this old c h e s t n u t t h e respectability o f main-line scientific t h e o r y . " T h e y ' r e like c h i l d r e n " was n o l o n g e r just a m e t a p h o r of b i g o t r y ; it n o w e m b o d i e d a t h e o r e t i c a l c l a i m that inferior p e o p l e w e r e literally m i r e d i n a n ancestral s t a g e o f s u p e rior groups. G . Stanley H a l l , t h e n A m e r i c a ' s l e a d i n g p s y c h o l o g i s t , stated t h e general a r g u m e n t i n 1904: " M o s t s a v a g e s i n m o s t respects a r e chiln , or, because of sexual maturity, m o r e properly, adolescents of r e

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a d u l t size" ( 1 9 0 4 , vol. 2, p. 6 4 9 ) . A. F. C h a m b e r l a i n , his c h i e f disc i p l e , o p t e d f o r t h e paternalistic m o d e : " W i t h o u t p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e s , t h e w o r l d at l a r g e w o u l d be m u c h w h a t in small it is w i t h o u t t h e blessing of children." T h e recapitulationists e x t e n d e d t h e i r a r g u m e n t t o a n astonishi n g a r r a y o f h u m a n capacities. C o p e c o m p a r e d p r e h i s t o r i c a r t with the sketches of children and living "primitives" (1887, p. 153): " W e find that t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e earliest r a c e s o f w h i c h w e h a v e a n y k n o w l e d g e w e r e q u i t e similar t o t h o s e w h i c h t h e u n t a u g h t h a n d o f i n f a n c y traces o n its slate o r t h e s a v a g e d e p i c t s o n t h e r o c k y faces o f cliffs." J a m e s Sully, a l e a d i n g E n g l i s h p s y c h o l o g i s t , c o m p a r e d t h e aesthetic senses o f c h i l d r e n a n d s a v a g e s , b u t g a v e t h e e d g e t o children (1895, p. 386): In much of this first crude utterance of the aesthetic sense of the child we have points of contact with the first manifestations of taste in the race. Delight in bright, glistening things, in gay things, in strong contrasts of color, as well as in certain forms of m o v e m e n t , as that of feathers—the favorite personal adornment—this is known to be characteristic of the savage and gives to his taste in the eyes of civilized man the look of childishness. On the other hand, it is doubtful whether the savage attains to the sentiment of the child for the beauty of flowers. H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , t h e a p o s t l e o f social D a r w i n i s m , o f f e r e d a pithy s u m m a r y ( 1 8 9 5 , p p . 8 9 - 9 0 ) : " T h e intellectual traits o f t h e uncivili z e d . . . a r e traits r e c u r r i n g in t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e c i v i l i z e d . " Since recapitulation b e c a m e a focus for the general theory of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m , m a n y m a l e scientists e x t e n d e d t h e a r g u m e n t t o w o m e n . E . D . C o p e c l a i m e d that t h e " m e t a p h y s i c a l c h a r acteristics" o f w o m e n w e r e . . . very similar in essential nature to those which m e n exhibit at an early stage of development. . . . T h e gentler sex is characterized by a greater impressibility; . . . warmth of emotion, submission to its influence rather than that of logic; timidity and irregularity of action in the outer world. All these qualities belong to the male sex, as a general rule, at s o m e period of life, though different individuals lose t h e m at very various periods. . . • Probably most m e n can recollect some early period of their lives when the emotional nature predominated—a time when emotion at the sight of suffering was more easily stirred than in maturer years. . . . Perhaps all men can recall a period of youth when they were hero-worshippers—when they felt the need of a stronger arm, and loved to look up to the powerful

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friend who could sympathize with and aid them. This is the "woman stage" of character (1887, p. 159). In what must be the most absurd statement in the annals of biological d e t e r m i n i s m , G. S t a n l e y H a l l — a g a i n , I r e m i n d y o u , n o t a c r a c k p o t , b u t A m e r i c a ' s p r e m i e r p s y c h o l o g i s t — i n v o k e d the h i g h e r s u i c i d e rates o f w o m e n a s a sign o f their p r i m i t i v e e v o l u t i o n a r y status ( 1 9 0 4 , v o l . 2, p. 194): T h i s is o n e expression of a p r o f o u n d psychic difference between the sexes. Woman's body and soul is phyletically older and m o r e primitive, while man is m o r e m o d e r n , variable, and less conservative. W o m e n are always inclined to preserve old customs and ways of thinking. W o m e n prefer passive methods; to give themselves up to the power of elemental forces, as gravity, when they throw themselves from heights or take poison, in which m e t h o d s of suicide they surpass man. Havelock Ellis thinks drowning is b e c o m i n g m o r e frequent, and that therein w o m e n are becoming more womanly. As a justification for imperialism, recapitulation o f f e r e d too much promise to remain sequestered in academic pronouncem e n t s . I h a v e a l r e a d y cited C a r l V o g t ' s low o p i n i o n o f A f r i c a n blacks, b a s e d o n his c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e i r b r a i n s with t h o s e o f w h i t e c h i l d r e n . B . K i d d e x t e n d e d t h e a r g u m e n t t o j u s t i f y colonial e x p a n sion into t r o p i c a l A f r i c a ( 1 8 9 8 , p . 5 1 ) . W e a r e , h e w r o t e , " d e a l i n g with p e o p l e s w h o r e p r e s e n t the s a m e s t a g e i n t h e history o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r a c e that t h e child d o e s i n t h e history o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . T h e tropics will n o t , t h e r e f o r e , b e d e v e l o p e d b y t h e natives t h e m s e l v e s . " I n the c o u r s e o f a d e b a t e a b o u t o u r r i g h t t o a n n e x t h e P h i l i p pines, R e v . J o s i a h S t r o n g , a l e a d i n g A m e r i c a n imperialist, p i o u s l y d e c l a r e d that " o u r policy s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d n o t b y n a t i o n a l ambition, n o r b y c o m m e r c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , b u t b y o u r d u t y t o t h e world i n g e n e r a l a n d t o t h e Filipinos i n p a r t i c u l a r " ( 1 9 0 0 , p . 287). His o p p o n e n t s , c i t i n g H e n r y C l a y ' s c o n t e n t i o n that t h e L o r d w o u l d not c r e a t e a p e o p l e i n c a p a b l e o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , a r g u e d a g a i n s t t i i e n e e d f o r o u r b e n e v o l e n t t u t e l a g e . B u t C l a y h a d s p o k e n i n the bad old d a y s b e f o r e e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y a n d r e c a p i t u l a t i o n : Clay's conception was formed . . . before modern science had shown that races develop in the course of centuries as individuals do in years, and an u n d e v e l o p e d race, which is incapable of self-government, is no a t

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m o r e of a reflection on the Almighty than is an u n d e v e l o p e d child w h o is incapable of self-government. T h e opinions of m e n w h o in this enlighte n e d day believe that the Filipinos are capable of self-government because everybody is, are not worth considering. E v e n R u d y a r d K i p l i n g , the p o e t l a u r e a t e o f i m p e r i a l i s m , u s e d t h e r e c a p i t u l a t i o n i s t a r g u m e n t i n t h e f i r s t stanza o f his m o s t f a m o u s apology for white supremacy: T a k e up the White Man's Burden Send forth the best ye breed Go, bind your sons to exile to serve the captive's need: To wait, in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild— Your new-caught sullen peoples, Half devil and half child. T e d d y R o o s e v e l t , w h o s e j u d g m e n t was n o t a l w a y s s o k e e n , w r o t e t o H e n r y C a b o t L o d g e that t h e v e r s e " w a s v e r y p o o r p o e t r y b u t m a d e g o o d s e n s e f r o m t h e e x p a n s i o n p o i n t o f v i e w " (in W e s ton, 1972, p. 35). A n d s o t h e story m i g h t stand, a t e s t i m o n y t o n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y folly a n d p r e j u d i c e , i f a n i n t e r e s t i n g twist h a d n o t b e e n a d d e d d u r i n g o u r o w n c e n t u r y . B y 1920 t h e t h e o r y o f r e c a p i t u l a tion h a d c o l l a p s e d ( G o u l d , 1 9 7 7 , p p . 1 6 7 - 2 0 6 ) . N o t l o n g a f t e r , t h e Dutch anatomist Louis Bolk p r o p o s e d a theory of exactly opposite m e a n i n g . R e c a p i t u l a t i o n r e q u i r e d that a d u l t traits o f a n c e s t o r s develop m o r e rapidly in descendants to b e c o m e juvenile f e a t u r e s — h e n c e , traits o f m o d e r n c h i l d r e n a r e p r i m i t i v e c h a r a c t e r s o f ancestral a d u l t s . B u t s u p p o s e that the r e v e r s e p r o c e s s o c c u r s a s i t o f t e n d o e s i n e v o l u t i o n . S u p p o s e that j u v e n i l e traits o f a n c e s t o r s d e v e l o p s o slowly i n d e s c e n d a n t s that they b e c o m e a d u l t f e a t u r e s . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n of r e t a r d e d d e v e l o p m e n t is c o m m o n in n a t u r e ; it is called n e o t e n y (literally, " h o l d i n g o n t o y o u t h " ) . B o l k a r g u e d that h u m a n s a r e essentially n e o t e n o u s . H e listed a n i m p r e s s i v e set o f f e a t u r e s s h a r e d b y a d u l t h u m a n s a n d fetal o r j u v e n i l e a p e s , b u t lost in adult apes: vaulted cranium a n d large brain in relation to body size; small face; h a i r c o n f i n e d l a r g e l y t o h e a d , a r m p i t s , a n d p u b i c r e g i o n s ; u n r o t a t e d b i g t o e . I h a v e a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d o n e o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t signs o f h u m a n n e o t e n y i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t ( p p . 1 3 " 2 -

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1 3 5 ) : r e t e n t i o n o f t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m i n its fetal p o s i t i o n , u n d e r t h e skull. N o w consider the implications of neoteny for the r a n k i n g of h u m a n g r o u p s . U n d e r r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , a d u l t s o f i n f e r i o r races a r e like c h i l d r e n o f s u p e r i o r races. B u t n e o t e n y r e v e r s e s t h e a r g u m e n t . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f n e o t e n y , i t i s " g o o d " — t h a t is, a d v a n c e d o r s u p e r i o r — t o r e t a i n t h e traits o f c h i l d h o o d , t o d e v e l o p m o r e slowly. T h u s , s u p e r i o r g r o u p s r e t a i n their c h i l d l i k e c h a r a c t e r s a s a d u l t s , w h i l e i n f e r i o r g r o u p s pass t h r o u g h t h e h i g h e r p h a s e o f c h i l d h o o d and then d e g e n e r a t e toward apishness. N o w consider the conventional p r e j u d i c e o f w h i t e scientists: whites a r e s u p e r i o r , blacks i n f e rior. U n d e r r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , black adults s h o u l d b e like w h i t e c h i l d r e n . B u t u n d e r n e o t e n y , w h i t e a d u l t s s h o u l d b e like black children. F o r s e v e n t y y e a r s , u n d e r t h e sway o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , scientists h a d c o l l e c t e d r e a m s o f objective d a t a all l o u d l y p r o c l a i m i n g t h e s a m e m e s s a g e : a d u l t b l a c k s , w o m e n , a n d lower-class whites a r e like white u p p e r - c l a s s m a l e c h i l d r e n . W i t h n e o t e n y n o w i n v o g u e , t h e s e h a r d data c o u l d m e a n o n l y o n e t h i n g : u p p e r - c l a s s a d u l t m a l e s a r e i n f e r i o r b e c a u s e t h e y lose, w h i l e o t h e r g r o u p s r e t a i n , t h e s u p e r i o r traits o f c h i l d h o o d . T h e r e i s n o e s c a p e f r o m this c o n c l u s i o n . A t least o n e scientist, H a v e l o c k Ellis, d i d b o w t o t h e c l e a r i m p l i cation a n d a d m i t t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f w o m e n , t h o u g h h e w r i g g l e d out o f a similar c o n f e s s i o n f o r blacks. H e e v e n c o m p a r e d r u r a l w i t h u r b a n m e n , f o u n d that m e n o f t h e city w e r e d e v e l o p i n g w o m a n l y a n a t o m y , a n d p r o c l a i m e d t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f u r b a n life ( 1 8 9 4 , P- 5 t 9 ) : " T h e l a r g e - h e a d e d , d e l i c a t e - f a c e d , s m a l l - b o n e d m a n o f u r b a n civilization i s m u c h n e a r e r t o t h e typical w o m a n t h a n i s t h e savage. N o t o n l y b y his l a r g e b r a i n , b u t b y his l a r g e pelvis, t h e m o d ern m a n is f o l l o w i n g a p a t h first m a r k e d o u t by w o m a n . " B u t Ellis was iconoclastic a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l (he w r o t e o n e o f t h e f i r s t s y s t e m atic studies o f s e x u a l i t y ) , a n d his a p p l i c a t i o n o f n e o t e n y t o s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e s n e v e r m a d e m u c h i m p a c t . M e a n w h i l e , with r e s p e c t t o racial d i f f e r e n c e s , s u p p o r t e r s o f h u m a n n e o t e n y a d o p t e d a n o t h e r , m o r e c o m m o n , tactic: t h e y simply a b a n d o n e d t h e i r s e v e n t y y e a r s o f hard data a n d s o u g h t n e w a n d o p p o s i t e i n f o r m a t i o n t o c o n f i r m t h e inferiority o f blacks. L o u i s B o l k , c h i e f d e f e n d e r o f h u m a n n e o t e n y , d e c l a r e d that fhe most s t r o n g l y n e o t e n i z e d r a c e s a r e s u p e r i o r . I n r e t a i n i n g m o r e Juvenile f e a t u r e s , t h e y h a v e k e p t f u r t h e r a w a y f r o m " t h e p i t h e c o i d

THE

MISMEASURE

OF

MAN

a n c e s t o r o f m a n " ( 1 9 2 9 , p . 26). " F r o m this p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e division o f m a n k i n d i n t o h i g h e r a n d l o w e r r a c e s i s fully j u s t i f i e d [ 1 9 2 9 , p. 26]. It is o b v i o u s that I a m , on t h e basis of my t h e o r y , a c o n v i n c e d b e l i e v e r i n t h e i n e q u a l i t y o f r a c e s " ( 1 9 2 6 , p . 38). B o l k r e a c h e d i n t o his a n a t o m i c a l g r a b - b a g a n d e x t r a c t e d s o m e traits i n d i c a t i n g a g r e a t e r d e p a r t u r e f o r black a d u l t s f r o m t h e a d v a n t a g e o u s p r o p o r t i o n s o f c h i l d h o o d . L e d b y these n e w facts t o a n o l d a n d c o m f o r t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n , B o l k p r o c l a i m e d ( 1 9 2 9 , p . 25): " T h e white race appears to be the most progressive, as being the most retarded." Bolk, w h o viewed himself as a "liberal" m a n , declined to r e l e g a t e blacks t o p e r m a n e n t i n e p t i t u d e . H e h o p e d that e v o l u t i o n would be benevolent to them in the future: It is possible for all other races to reach the zenith of d e v e l o p m e n t now occupied by the white race. T h e only thing required is continued progressive action in these races of the biological principle of anthropogenesis [i.e., neoteny]. In his fetal development the negro passes through a stage that has already b e c o m e the final stage for the white man. Well then, when retardation continues in the negro too, what is still a transitional stage may for this race also b e c o m e a final o n e (1926, p p . 473-474). B o l k ' s a r g u m e n t v e r g e d o n t h e d i s h o n e s t f o r t w o r e a s o n s . First, h e c o n v e n i e n t l y f o r g o t all t h e f e a t u r e s — l i k e t h e G r e c i a n n o s e a n d full b e a r d s o a d m i r e d b y C o p e — t h a t r e c a p i t u l a t i o n i s t s h a d stoutly e m p h a s i z e d b e c a u s e they p l a c e d w h i t e s far f r o m the c o n d i t i o n s o f childhood. Secondly, he sidestepped a pressing and embarrassing issue: O r i e n t a l s , n o t w h i t e s , are clearly t h e m o s t n e o t e n o u s o f h u m a n r a c e s ( B o l k listed t h e n e o t e n o u s f e a t u r e s o f b o t h races selectively a n d t h e n p r o c l a i m e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t o o close t o call; see Ashley M o n t a g u , 1962, for a fairer assessment). W o m e n , moreo v e r , a r e m o r e n e o t e n o u s t h a n m e n . I trust that I will n o t be seen as v u l g a r w h i t e a p o l o g i s t if I d e c l i n e to p r e s s the s u p e r i o r i t y of O r i e n t a l w o m e n a n d d e c l a r e instead that t h e w h o l e e n t e r p r i s e o f r a n k i n g g r o u p s b y d e g r e e o f n e o t e n y i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y unjustified. J u s t as A n a t o l e F r a n c e a n d W a l t W h i t m a n c o u l d w r i t e as well as T u r g e n e v with b r a i n s a b o u t h a l f t h e w e i g h t o f his, I w o u l d b e m o r e t h a n m i l d l y s u r p r i s e d i f t h e small d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e g r e e o f n e o t e n y a m o n g races b e a r a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p t o m e n t a l ability o r m o r a l w o r t h . N o n e t h e l e s s , o l d a r g u m e n t s n e v e r d i e . I n 1 9 7 1 t h e British psychologist and genetic determinist H. J. Eysenck again brought f o r t h a n e o t e n i c a r g u m e n t f o r black i n f e r i o r i t y . E y s e n c k t o o k three facts a n d u s e d n e o t e n y to f o r g e a story f r o m t h e m : 1) black babies

MEASURING

BODIES

and y o u n g children exhibit m o r e rapid sensorimotor d e v e l o p m e n t t h a n w h i t e s — t h a t is, t h e y a r e less n e o t e n i c b e c a u s e they d e p a r t m o r e q u i c k l y f r o m t h e fetal state; 2 ) a v e r a g e w h i t e I Q s u r p a s s e s a v e r a g e black IQ by a g e t h r e e ; 3) t h e r e is a slight n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a tion b e t w e e n s e n s o r i m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e f i r s t y e a r o f life a n d later I Q — t h a t is, c h i l d r e n w h o d e v e l o p m o r e r a p i d l y t e n d t o e n d u p with l o w e r I Q ' s . E y s e n c k c o n c l u d e s ( 1 9 7 1 , p . 7 9 ) : " T h e s e f i n d i n g s a r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e o f a v e r y g e n e r a l v i e w i n b i o l o g y [the theory of neoteny] according to which the m o r e p r o l o n g e d the i n f a n c y t h e g r e a t e r i n g e n e r a l a r e t h e c o g n i t i v e o r intellectual abilities o f t h e s p e c i e s . T h i s law a p p e a r s t o w o r k e v e n within a g i v e n species." E y s e n c k fails t o r e a l i z e that h e h a s b a s e d his a r g u m e n t o n w h a t is a l m o s t s u r e l y a n o n c a u s a l c o r r e l a t i o n . ( N o n c a u s a l c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e t h e b a n e o f statistical i n f e r e n c e — s e e C h a p t e r 6 . T h e y a r e p e r fectly " t r u e " i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l s e n s e , b u t t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e n o causal c o n n e c t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , w e m a y c a l c u l a t e a s p e c t a c u l a r correlation—very near the m a x i m u m value of 1.0—between the rise i n w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e past f i v e y e a r s a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g s e p a r a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a b y c o n t i n e n t a l drift.) S u p p o s e that l o w e r black I Q i s p u r e l y a result o f g e n e r a l l y p o o r e r environment. Rapid sensorimotor d e v e l o p m e n t is one way of identifying a p e r s o n as b l a c k — b u t a less a c c u r a t e w a y t h a n skin c o l o r . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f p o o r e n v i r o n m e n t with l o w e r I Q m a y b e c a u s a l , but the c o r r e l a t i o n o f r a p i d s e n s o r i m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h l o w e r IQ is probably noncausal because rapid sensorimotor developm e n t , in this c o n t e x t , m e r e l y identifies a p e r s o n as black. E y s e n c k ' s a r g u m e n t i g n o r e s t h e fact that black c h i l d r e n , in a racist society, generally live i n p o o r e r e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h i c h m a y l e a d t o l o w e r I Q scores. Y e t E y s e n c k i n v o k e d n e o t e n y t o g i v e t h e o r e t i c a l m e a n i n g , and t h e r e b y causal status, to a n o n c a u s a l c o r r e l a t i o n r e f l e c t i n g his h e r e d i t a r i a n bias.

The ape in some of us: criminal anthropology Atavism

and

criminality

In Resurrection, T o l s t o y ' s last g r e a t n o v e l ( 1 8 9 9 ) , t h e assistant Prosecutor, an u n f e e l i n g m o d e r n i s t , rises to c o n d e m n a p r o s t i t u t e talsely a c c u s e d o f m u r d e r :

I

5

2

THE

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MAN

T h e assistant prosecutor spoke at great length. . . . All the latest catchphrases then in v o g u e in his set, everything that then was and still is accepted as the last word in scientific wisdom was included in his s p e e c h — heredity and congenital criminality, Lombroso and T a r d e , evolution and the struggle for existence. . . . "Running away with himself, isn't he?" said the presiding j u d g e with a smile, bending towards the austere m e m b e r of the court. "A fearful dunderhead!" said the austere member. I n B r a m S t o k e r ' s Dracula ( 1 8 9 7 ) , P r o f e s s o r V a n H e l s i n g u r g e s M i n a H a r k e r to d e s c r i b e t h e evil C o u n t : " T e l l us . . . d r y m e n of s c i e n c e w h a t y o u see with t h o s e s o b r i g h t e y e s . " S h e r e s p o n d s : " T h e C o u n t is a criminal and of criminal type. N o r d a u and L o m b r o s o w o u l d s o classify h i m , a n d q u a c r i m i n a l h e i s o f i m p e r f e c t l y f o r m e d mind."* Maria Montessori expressed an embattled optimism when she w r o t e i n 1 9 1 3 (p. 8): " T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f c r i m i n a l i t y s p r e a d s without check or succor, and up to yesterday it aroused in us nothi n g b u t r e p u l s i o n a n d l o a t h i n g . B u t n o w that s c i e n c e h a s laid its f i n g e r u p o n this m o r a l f e s t e r , i t d e m a n d s t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f all m a n k i n d t o c o m b a t it." T h e c o m m o n subject o f t h e s e d i s p a r a t e a s s e s s m e n t s i s C e s a r e L o m b r o s o ' s t h e o r y of I'uomo delinquente—the c r i m i n a l m a n — p r o b ably t h e m o s t influential d o c t r i n e e v e r t o e m e r g e f r o m t h e a n t h r o p o m e t r i c t r a d i t i o n . L o m b r o s o , a n Italian p h y s i c i a n , d e s c r i b e d t h e i n s i g h t that led t o his t h e o r y o f i n n a t e c r i m i n a l i t y a n d t o t h e p r o f e s sion h e e s t a b l i s h e d — c r i m i n a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . H e h a d , i n 1 8 7 0 , b e e n trying to discover anatomical differences between criminals and insane m e n "without succeeding very well." T h e n , "the m o r n i n g of a g l o o m y d a y i n D e c e m b e r , " h e e x a m i n e d t h e skull o f t h e f a m o u s * In his Annotated Dracula, Leonard Wolf (1975, p. 300) notes that Jonathan Harker's initial description of Count Dracula is based directly upon Cesare Lombroso's account of the born criminal. Wolf presents the following contrasts: HARKER WRITES: "His [the Count's] face was . . . aquiline, with high bridge of the thin nose and peculiarly arched nostrils. . . ." LOMBROSO: "[The criminal's] nose on the contrary . . . is often aquiline like the beak of a bird of prey." HARKER: "His eyebrows were very massive, almost meeting over the nose. . . ." LOMBROSO: "The eyebrows are bushy and tend to meet across the nose." HARKER: ". . . his ears were pale and at the tops extremely pointed. . . ." LOMBROSO: "with a protuberance on the upper part of the posterior margin . . . a relic of the pointed ear. . . ."

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153

b r i g a n d V i h e l l a , a n d h a d that f l a s h o f j o y o u s insight that m a r k s b o t h brilliant d i s c o v e r y a n d c r a c k p o t i n v e n t i o n . F o r h e saw i n that skull a series of atavistic f e a t u r e s r e c a l l i n g an apish past r a t h e r t h a n a h u m a n present: This was not merely an idea, but a flash of inspiration. At the sight of that skull, I s e e m e d to see all of a sudden, lighted up as a vast plain under a flaming sky, the problem of the nature of the criminal—an atavistic being who reproduces in his person the ferocious instincts of primitive humanity and the inferior animals. T h u s were explained anatomically the e n o r m o u s jaws, high cheek bones, prominent superciliary arches, solitary lines in the palms, e x t r e m e size of the orbits, handle-shaped ears found in criminals, savages and apes, insensibility to pain, extremely acute sight, tattooing, excessive idleness, love of orgies, and the irresponsible craving of evil for its own sake, the desire not only to extinguish life in the victim, but to mutilate the corpse, tear its flesh and drink its blood (in Taylor et al., 1973, p. 41). L o m b r o s o ' s t h e o r y w a s n o t j u s t a v a g u e p r o c l a m a t i o n that c r i m e i s h e r e d i t a r y — s u c h claims w e r e c o m m o n e n o u g h i n his t i m e — b u t a specific evolutionary t h e o r y b a s e d u p o n a n t h r o p o m e t r i c data. Criminals a r e e v o l u t i o n a r y t h r o w b a c k s i n o u r midst. G e r m s o f a n ancestral past lie d o r m a n t i n o u r h e r e d i t y . I n s o m e u n f o r t u n a t e individuals, t h e past c o m e s t o life a g a i n . T h e s e p e o p l e a r e i n n a t e l y d r i v e n to act as a n o r m a l a p e or s a v a g e w o u l d , b u t s u c h b e h a v i o r is d e e m e d c r i m i n a l i n o u r civilized society. F o r t u n a t e l y , w e m a y i d e n tify b o r n c r i m i n a l s b e c a u s e they b e a r a n a t o m i c a l signs o f their apishness. T h e i r atavism i s b o t h physical a n d m e n t a l , b u t t h e p h y s ical signs, o r s t i g m a t a a s L o m b r o s o called t h e m , a r e decisive. C r i m inal behavior c a n also arise in n o r m a l m e n , but we k n o w the " b o r n criminal" b y his a n a t o m y . A n a t o m y , i n d e e d , i s d e s t i n y , a n d b o r n criminals c a n n o t e s c a p e their i n h e r i t e d taint: " W e a r e g o v e r n e d b y silent laws w h i c h n e v e r cease to o p e r a t e a n d w h i c h r u l e society with m o r e a u t h o r i t y t h a n the laws i n s c r i b e d o n o u r statute b o o k s . C r i m e • • • a p p e a r s to be a n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n " ( L o m b r o s o , 1 8 8 7 , P- 667). Animals and savages as

born

criminals

T h e identification o f apish atavism i n c r i m i n a l s d i d not clinch Lombroso's a r g u m e n t , f o r physical a p i s h n e s s c a n e x p l a i n a m a n ' s arbaric b e h a v i o r o n l y i f t h e n a t u r a l inclinations o f s a v a g e s a n d

54

J

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l o w e r a n i m a l s a r e c r i m i n a l . I f s o m e m e n look like a p e s , b u t a p e s b e k i n d , t h e n t h e a r g u m e n t fails. T h u s , L o m b r o s o d e v o t e d t h e first p a r t of his m a j o r w o r k (Criminal Man, first p u b l i s h e d in 1876) to what must be the most ludicrous excursion into a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m e v e r p u b l i s h e d — a n analysis o f t h e c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r o f anim a l s . H e cites, f o r e x a m p l e , a n a n t d r i v e n b y r a g e t o kill a n d d i s m e m b e r a n a p h i d ; a n a d u l t e r o u s stork w h o , with h e r l o v e r , m u r d e r e d h e r h u s b a n d ; a c r i m i n a l association of b e a v e r s w h o g a n g e d up to m u r d e r a solitary c o m p a t r i o t ; a m a l e a n t , w i t h o u t access to f e m a l e r e p r o d u c t i v e s , w h o v i o l a t e d a ( f e m a l e ) w o r k e r with atrophied sexual organs, causing her great pain and death; he even r e f e r s t o t h e insect e a t i n g o f certain plants a s a n " e q u i v a l e n t o f crime" ( L o m b r o s o , 1887, p p . 1-18). L o m b r o s o t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o t h e n e x t logical s t e p : c o m p a r i s o n o f c r i m i n a l s with " i n f e r i o r " g r o u p s . " I w o u l d c o m p a r e , " w r o t e a French s u p p o r t e r , "the criminal to a savage a p p e a r i n g , by atavism, i n m o d e r n society; w e m a y t h i n k that h e was b o r n a c r i m i n a l b e c a u s e h e was b o r n a s a v a g e " ( B o r d i e r , 1 8 7 9 , p . 284). L o m b r o s o v e n t u r e d into e t h n o l o g y t o identify c r i m i n a l i t y a s n o r m a l b e h a v i o r a m o n g i n f e r i o r p e o p l e . H e w r o t e a small treatise ( L o m b r o s o , 1896) o n t h e D i n k a o f t h e U p p e r N i l e . I n it, h e s p o k e o f t h e i r h e a v y t a t t o o i n g a n d h i g h t h r e s h o l d f o r p a i n — a t p u b e r t y t h e y b r e a k their incisors with a h a m m e r . T h e y d i s p l a y apish s t i g m a t a as n o r m a l p a r t s o f their a n a t o m y : " t h e i r n o s e . . . i s n o t o n l y f l a t t e n e d , but t r i l o b e d , r e s e m b l i n g that o f m o n k e y s . " H i s c o l l e a g u e G . T a r d e w r o t e that s o m e c r i m i n a l s " w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e o r n a m e n t a n d the m o r a l aristocracy o f a t r i b e o f R e d I n d i a n s " (in Ellis, 1 9 1 0 , p . 254). H a v e l o c k Ellis m a d e m u c h o f a c l a i m that c r i m i n a l s a n d i n f e r i o r p e o p l e o f t e n d o n o t b l u s h . "Inability t o b l u s h has a l w a y s b e e n considered the a c c o m p a n i m e n t of crime and shamelessness. Blushing i s also v e r y r a r e a m o n g idiots a n d s a v a g e s . T h e S p a n i a r d s u s e d t o say o f the S o u t h A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s : ' H o w c a n o n e trust m e n w h o d o n o t k n o w h o w t o b l u s h ' " ( 1 9 1 0 , p . 138). A n d h o w f a r d i d the Incas g e t b y t r u s t i n g P i z a r r o ? L o m b r o s o c o n s t r u c t e d virtually all his a r g u m e n t s in a m a n n e r that p r e c l u d e d t h e i r d e f e a t , t h u s m a k i n g t h e m scientifically vacu o u s . H e cited c o p i o u s n u m e r i c a l d a t a t o l e n d a n air o f objectivity to his w o r k , b u t it r e m a i n e d so v u l n e r a b l e that e v e n m o s t of B r o c a s school t u r n e d a g a i n s t t h e t h e o r y o f a t a v i s m . W h e n e v e r L o m b r o s o e n c o u n t e r e d a c o n t r a r y fact, h e p e r f o r m e d s o m e m e n t a l gymnas-

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tics to i n c o r p o r a t e it within his system. T h i s p o s t u r e is clearly e x p r e s s e d i n his s t a t e m e n t s o n t h e d e p r a v i t y o f i n f e r i o r p e o p l e s , f o r a g a i n a n d a g a i n h e e n c o u n t e r e d stories o f c o u r a g e a n d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t a m o n g t h o s e h e w i s h e d t o d e n i g r a t e . Y e t h e twisted all these stories into his system. If, f o r e x a m p l e , he h a d to a d m i t a f a v o r a b l e trait, h e j o i n e d i t with o t h e r s h e c o u l d d e s p i s e . C i t i n g t h e s o m e w h a t d a t e d a u t h o r i t y o f T a c i t u s f o r his c o n c l u s i o n , h e w r o t e : " E v e n w h e n h o n o r , chastity, a n d pity a r e f o u n d a m o n g s a v a g e s , i m p u l s i v e n e s s a n d laziness a r e n e v e r w a n t i n g . S a v a g e s h a v e a h o r r o r o f c o n t i n u o u s w o r k , s o that f o r t h e m t h e p a s s a g e t o active a n d m e t h o d i c a l l a b o r lies b y the r o a d o f selection o r o f slavery o n l y " ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 367). O r c o n s i d e r his o n e b e g r u d g i n g w o r d o f p r a i s e f o r the i n f e r i o r a n d c r i m i n a l r a c e o f g y p s i e s : T h e y are vain, like all delinquents, but they have no fear or shame. Everything they earn they spend for drink and ornaments. T h e y may be seen barefooted, but with bright-colored or lace-bedecked clothing; without stockings, but with yellow shoes. T h e y have the improvidence of the savage and that of the criminal as well. . . . T h e y devour half-putrified carrion. T h e y are given to orgies, love a noise, and make a great outcry in the markets. T h e y murder in cold blood in order to rob, and were formerly suspected of cannibalism. . . . It is to be noted that this race, so low morally and so incapable of cultural and intellectual development, a race that can never carry on any industry, and which in poetry has not got beyond the poorest lyrics, has created in Hungary a marvelous musical art—a new proof of the genius that, mixed with atavism, is to be found in the criminal ( 1 9 1 1 , p. 40). I f h e h a d n o d a m n i n g traits t o m i x with his p r a i s e , h e discounted t h e m o t i v a t i o n f o r a p p a r e n t l y w o r t h y b e h a v i o r primitives." A w h i t e saint d y i n g b r a v e l y u n d e r t o r t u r e is a m o n g h e r o e s ; a " s a v a g e " e x p i r i n g with e q u a l d i g n i t y doesn't feel t h e p a i n :

simply among a hero simply

Their [criminals'] physical insensibility well recalls that of savage peoples who can bear in rites of puberty, tortures that a white man could v e r endure. All travellers know the indifference of N e g r o e s and Amer•can savages to pain: the former cut their hands and laugh in order to ^ ° r k ; the latter, tied to the torture post, gaily sing the praises of 'heir tribe while they are slowly burnt (1887, p. 319). n e

a

0 l d

w

We r e c o g n i z e in this c o m p a r i s o n of atavistic c r i m i n a l s with ani" a g e s , a n d p e o p l e o f l o w e r races t h e basic a r g u m e n t o f s a v

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r e c a p i t u l a t i o n d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s section. T o c o m p l e t e the chain, L o m b r o s o n e e d e d only to proclaim the child as inherently c r i m i n a l — f o r t h e c h i l d is an ancestral a d u l t , a l i v i n g p r i m i t i v e . L o m b r o s o d i d n o t s h r i n k f r o m this n e c e s s a r y i m p l i c a t i o n , a n d h e b r a n d e d as criminal the traditional innocent of literature: " O n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t d i s c o v e r i e s o f m y s c h o o l i s that i n t h e child u p to a certain age are manifested the saddest tendencies of the criminal m a n . T h e g e r m s o f d e l i n q u e n c y a n d o f c r i m i n a l i t y a r e f o u n d n o r m a l l y e v e n i n t h e first p e r i o d s o f h u m a n l i f e " ( 1 8 9 5 , p . 53). O u r i m p r e s s i o n of t h e child's i n n o c e n c e is a class bias; we c o m f o r t a b l e folks s u p p r e s s the n a t u r a l inclinations o f o u r c h i l d r e n : " O n e w h o lives a m o n g t h e u p p e r classes has n o i d e a o f t h e passion babies h a v e f o r a l c o h o l i c l i q u o r , b u t a m o n g t h e l o w e r classes i t i s o n l y t o o c o m m o n a t h i n g t o see e v e n s u c k l i n g b a b e s d r i n k w i n e a n d l i q u o r s with w o n d e r f u l delight (1895, p. 56).* The stigmata:

anatomical,

physiological,

and social

L o m b r o s o ' s a n a t o m i c a l s t i g m a t a (Fig. 4 . 1 ) w e r e , f o r t h e m o s t part, neither pathologies n o r discontinuous variations, but e x t r e m e v a l u e s o n a n o r m a l c u r v e that a p p r o a c h a v e r a g e m e a s u r e s f o r t h e s a m e trait in g r e a t a p e s . (In m o d e r n t e r m s , this is a f u n d a m e n t a l s o u r c e o f L o m b r o s o ' s e r r o r . A r m l e n g t h varies a m o n g h u m a n s , * In Dracula, Professor Van Helsing, in his inimitable broken English, extolled the argument from recapitulation by branding the Count as a persistent child (and therefore both a primitive and a criminal as well): Ah! there I have hope that our man-brains that have been of man so long and that have not lost the grace of God, will come higher than his child-brain that lie in his tomb for centuries, that grow not yet to our stature, and that do only work selfish and therefore small. . . . He is clever and cunning and resourceful; but he be not of man-stature as to brain. He be of child-brain in much. Now this criminal of ours is predestinate to crime also; he too have child-brain, and it is of the child to do what he have done. T h e little bird, the little fish, the little animal learn not by principle but empirically; and when he learn to do, then there is to him the ground to start from to do more.

4 • 1 A panoply of criminal faces. T h e frontispiece to the atlas of Lombroso's Criminal Man. G r o u p E are German murderers; G r o u p I are burglars (Lombroso tells us that the man without a nose managed to escape justice for many years by wearing the false nose depicted in the figure on the left, wearing a derby); "H" are purse snatchers; "A" are shoplifters; "B," "C," "D," and 'F" are swindlers; while the distinguished gentlemen of the bottom row declared themselves bankrupt fraudulently.

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and some people must have longer arms than others. T h e average c h i m p has a l o n g e r a r m t h a n the a v e r a g e h u m a n , b u t this d o e s n ' t m e a n that a relatively l o n g - a r m e d h u m a n is genetically similar to a p e s . N o r m a l v a r i a t i o n within a p o p u l a t i o n is a d i f f e r e n t biological p h e n o m e n o n f r o m d i f f e r e n c e s i n a v e r a g e v a l u e s between p o p u l a tions. T h i s e r r o r o c c u r s a g a i n a n d a g a i n . I t i s t h e basis o f A r t h u r J e n s e n ' s fallacy i n a s s e r t i n g that a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n I Q b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n whites a n d blacks a r e l a r g e l y i n h e r i t e d — s e e p p . 1 8 6 — 1 8 7 . A true atavism is a discontinuous, genetically based, ancestral t r a i t — t h e o c c a s i o n a l h o r s e b o r n w i t h f u n c t i o n a l side toes, f o r e x a m p l e . ) A m o n g his apish s t i g m a t a , L o m b r o s o listed ( 1 8 8 7 , p p . 6 6 0 — 6 6 1 ) : g r e a t e r skull t h i c k n e s s , simplicity o f cranial s u t u r e s , l a r g e j a w s , p r e e m i n e n c e o f t h e f a c e o v e r t h e c r a n i u m , relatively long arms, precocious wrinkles, low and narrow forehead, large ears, a b s e n c e o f b a l d n e s s , d a r k e r skin, g r e a t e r visual acuity, d i m i n ished sensitivity t o p a i n , a n d a b s e n c e o f v a s c u l a r r e a c t i o n (blushing). A t t h e 1886 I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s o n C r i m i n a l A n t h r o p o l o g y , h e e v e n a r g u e d (see F i g . 4.2) that the feet o f prostitutes a r e often p r e h e n s i l e a s i n a p e s (big toe w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m o t h e r s ) . F o r o t h e r s t i g m a t a , L o m b r o s o d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e a p e s t o seek

4 • 2 T h e feet of prostitutes. This figure was presented by L. Jullien to the 4th International Congress on Criminal Anthropology in 1896. Commenting u p o n it, Lombroso said: "These observations show admirably that the morphology of the prostitute is more abnormal even than that of the criminal, especially for atavistic anomalies, because the prehensile foot is atavistic."

4*3 T h e cranial capacities of normal men (in black) compared with criminals (hatched). T h e y-axis is in percentages rather than actual numbers.

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similarity with m o r e distant, a n d e v e n m o r e " p r i m i t i v e , " c r e a t u r e s : h e c o m p a r e d p r o m i n e n t c a n i n e teeth a n d a f l a t t e n e d p a l a t e with t h e a n a t o m y o f l e m u r s a n d r o d e n t s , a n o d d l y s h a p e d occipital c o n d y l e (area f o r a r t i c u l a t i o n o f skull a n d v e r t e b r a l c o l u m n ) with t h e n o r m a l c o n d y l e s o f cattle a n d p i g s ( 1 8 9 6 , p . 188), a n d a n a b n o r m a l h e a r t with t h e u s u a l c o n f o r m a t i o n i n s i r e n i a n s ( a g r o u p o f r a r e m a r i n e m a m m a l s ) . H e e v e n p o s t u l a t e d a m e a n i n g f u l similarity b e t w e e n t h e facial a s y m m e t r y o f s o m e c r i m i n a l s a n d f l a t f i s h e s w i t h b o t h eyes o n t h e u p p e r s u r f a c e o f t h e i r b o d i e s ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 3 7 3 ) ! L o m b r o s o b o l s t e r e d his s t u d y of specific d e f e c t s with a g e n e r a l anthropometric survey of the criminal head a n d b o d y — a sample o f 383 c r a n i a f r o m d e a d c r i m i n a l s , p l u s g e n e r a l p r o p o r t i o n s m e a s u r e d f o r 3,839 a m o n g t h e living. A s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f L o m b r o s o ' s style, c o n s i d e r t h e n u m e r i c a l basis o f his m o s t i m p o r t a n t c l a i m — that c r i m i n a l s g e n e r a l l y h a v e s m a l l e r b r a i n s t h a n n o r m a l p e o p l e , e v e n t h o u g h a f e w c r i m i n a l s h a v e v e r y l a r g e b r a i n s (see p . 1 2 6 ) . * L o m b r o s o ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 365) a n d his disciples ( F e r r i , 1 8 9 7 , p . 8 , f o r e x a m p l e ) r e p e a t e d this c l a i m c o n t i n u a l l y . Y e t L o m b r o s o ' s d a t a s h o w n o s u c h t h i n g . F i g . 4.3 p r e s e n t s t h e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r c r a n i a l capacity m e a s u r e d b y L o m b r o s o i n 1 2 1 m a l e c r i m i n a l s a n d 328 u p r i g h t m e n . Y o u d o n ' t n e e d f a n c y statistics t o see that t h e two distributions differ very little—despite Lombroso's conclusion that, i n c r i m i n a l s , " t h e small capacities d o m i n a t e a n d t h e v e r y g r e a t a r e r a r e " ( 1 8 8 7 , p . 144). I h a v e r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a f r o m L o m b r o s o ' s tables o f p e r c e n t a g e s w i t h i n classes a n d c a l c u l a t e a v e r a g e v a l u e s o f 1,450 c c f o r c r i m i n a l h e a d s a n d 1,484 c c f o r lawabiding heads. T h e standard deviations of the two distributions (a g e n e r a l m e a s u r e o f s p r e a d a b o u t t h e a v e r a g e ) d o n o t d i f f e r significantly. T h i s m e a n s that t h e l a r g e r r a n g e o f v a r i a t i o n i n t h e lawa b i d i n g s a m p l e — a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t f o r L o m b r o s o since i t e x t e n d e d t h e m a x i m u m capacity f o r d e c e n t f o l k t o 100 c c a b o v e •Other standard craniometrical arguments were often pressed into service by criminal anthropology. For example, as early as 1843, Voisin invoked the classical argument of front and back (see pp.129-135) to place criminals among the animals. He studied five hundred young offenders and reported deficiencies in the forward and upper parts of their brain—the supposed seat of morality and rationality. He wrote (1843, pp. 100-101): Their brains are at a minimum of development in their anterior and superior parts, in the two parts that make us what we are and that place us above the animals and make us men. They [criminal brains] are placed by their nature . . . entirely outside the human species.

I

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t h e m a x i m u m f o r c r i m i n a l s — m a y s i m p l y b e a n artifact o f l a r g e r s a m p l e size f o r l a w - a b i d i n g m e n (the l a r g e r t h e s a m p l e , t h e g r e a t e r the chance of including e x t r e m e values). L o m b r o s o ' s s t i g m a t a also i n c l u d e d a set of social traits. He emphasized particularly: 1) T h e argot of criminals, a l a n g u a g e of t h e i r o w n with h i g h levels o f o n o m a t o p o e i a , m u c h like t h e s p e e c h o f c h i l d r e n a n d s a v a g e s : " A t a v i s m c o n t r i b u t e s t o i t m o r e t h a n anyt h i n g else. T h e y s p e a k d i f f e r e n t l y b e c a u s e t h e y feel d i f f e r e n t l y ; t h e y s p e a k a s s a v a g e s b e c a u s e they a r e t r u e s a v a g e s i n t h e m i d s t o f o u r brilliant E u r o p e a n civilization" ( 1 8 8 7 , p . 4 7 6 ) ; 2 ) T a t t o o i n g , r e f l e c t i n g b o t h t h e insensitivity o f c r i m i n a l s t o p a i n a n d t h e i r atavistic l o v e o f a d o r n m e n t (Fig. 4.4). L o m b r o s o m a d e a q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y o f c o n t e n t i n c r i m i n a l tattoos a n d f o u n d t h e m , i n g e n e r a l , lawless ( " v e n g e a n c e " ) o r e x c u s i n g ( " b o r n u n d e r a n u n l u c k y star," " o u t o f l u c k " ) , t h o u g h h e e n c o u n t e r e d o n e that r e a d : " L o n g live France and french fried potatoes." L o m b r o s o n e v e r a t t r i b u t e d all c r i m i n a l acts t o p e o p l e with atavistic s t i g m a t a . H e c o n c l u d e d that a b o u t 4 0 p e r c e n t o f criminals followed hereditary compulsion; others acted f r o m passion, rage, o r d e s p e r a t i o n . A t first g l a n c e , this distinction o f o c c a s i o n a l f r o m b o r n c r i m i n a l s has t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a c o m p r o m i s e o r r e t r e a t , b u t L o m b r o s o u s e d it in an o p p o s i t e w a y — a s a claim that r e n d e r e d his system i m m u n e t o d i s p r o o f . N o l o n g e r c o u l d m e n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y their acts. M u r d e r m i g h t b e a d e e d o f t h e l o w e s t a p e i n a h u m a n body or of the most upright cuckold o v e r c o m e by justified rage. All c r i m i n a l acts a r e c o v e r e d : a m a n with s t i g m a t a p e r f o r m s t h e m by i n n a t e n a t u r e , a m a n w i t h o u t stigmata b y f o r c e o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s . B y classifying e x c e p t i o n s within his s y s t e m , L o m b r o s o e x c l u d e d all p o t e n t i a l falsification. Lombroso's

retreat

L o m b r o s o ' s t h e o r y o f atavism c a u s e d a g r e a t stir a n d a r o u s e d o n e o f t h e m o s t h e a t e d scientific d e b a t e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . L o m b r o s o , t h o u g h h e p e p p e r e d his w o r k with v o l u m e s o f n u m b e r s , h a d n o t m a d e t h e u s u a l o b e i s a n c e s t o c o l d objectivity. E v e n t h o s e g r e a t a priorists, t h e disciples o f Paul B r o c a , c h i d e d L o m b r o s o f o r his l a w y e r l y , r a t h e r t h a n scientific, a p p r o a c h . P a u l T o p i n a r d said of h i m ( 1 8 8 7 , p. 6 7 6 ) : " H e d i d n o t say: h e r e is a fact w h i c h s u g g e s t s an i n d u c t i o n to m e , let's see if I am m i s t a k e n , l e t s

Lombroso regarded tattooing as a sign of innate criminality. T h e arm of this reprobate, depicted in Lombroso's Criminal Man, is inscribed: "A man of misfortune." On his penis we read, entra lutto—it all goes in. In ' s caption, Lombroso tells us that tattoos of shaking hands are found very frequently in pederasts. h

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p r o c e e d r i g o r o u s l y , let us collect a n d a d d o t h e r facts. . . . T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s f a s h i o n e d i n a d v a n c e ; h e seeks p r o o f , h e d e f e n d s his thesis like an a d v o c a t e w h o e n d s up by p e r s u a d i n g himself. . . . [ L o m b r o s o ] is t o o c o n v i n c e d . " L o m b r o s o slowly r e t r e a t e d u n d e r t h e b a r r a g e . B u t h e r e t r e a t e d like a military m a s t e r . N o t f o r a m o m e n t d i d he c o m p r o m i s e or a b a n d o n his l e a d i n g i d e a that c r i m e i s b i o l o g i c a l . H e m e r e l y e n l a r g e d t h e r a n g e o f i n n a t e c a u s e s . His o r i g i n a l t h e o r y h a d t h e v i r t u e o f simplicity a n d s t r i k i n g o r i g i n a l i t y — c r i m i n a l s a r e a p e s i n o u r midst, m a r k e d by the anatomical stigmata of atavism. Later v e r s i o n s b e c a m e m o r e d i f f u s e , b u t also m o r e inclusive. A t a v i s m r e m a i n e d as a p r i m a r y biological c a u s e of c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r , but L o m b r o s o a d d e d s e v e r a l c a t e g o r i e s o f c o n g e n i t a l illness a n d d e g e n e r a t i o n : " W e see i n t h e c r i m i n a l , " h e w r o t e ( 1 8 8 7 , p . 6 5 1 ) , " a s a v a g e m a n a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , a sick m a n . " I n later y e a r s , L o m b r o s o a w a r d e d special p r o m i n e n c e t o e p i l e p s y a s a m a r k o f criminality; h e f i n a l l y stated that a l m o s t e v e r y " b o r n c r i m i n a l " s u f f e r s from epilepsy to some degree. T h e a d d e d b u r d e n imposed by L o m b r o s o ' s t h e o r y u p o n t h o u s a n d s o f e p i l e p t i c s c a n n o t b e calculated; they b e c a m e a m a j o r t a r g e t o f e u g e n i c a l s c h e m e s i n p a r t b e c a u s e L o m b r o s o h a d e x p l i c a t e d t h e i r illness a s a m a r k o f m o r a l degeneracy. A s a n i n t r i g u i n g s i d e l i g h t , u n k n o w n t o m o s t p e o p l e t o d a y , the s u p p o s e d link b e t w e e n d e g e n e r a c y a n d racial r a n k i n g left u s a t least o n e l e g a c y — t h e designation of " M o n g o l i a n idiocy" or, more blandly, " m o n g o l i s m " for the chromosomal disorder now generally called " D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e . " D r . J o h n L a n g d o n H a y d o n D o w n , a n English p a t r i c i a n , identified the s y n d r o m e in a p a p e r entitled " O b s e r v a t i o n s o n a n e t h n i c classification o f idiots" ( D o w n , 1866). D o w n a r g u e d that m a n y c o n g e n i t a l " i d i o t s " ( a quasi-technical t e r m i n his d a y , n o t j u s t a n epithet) e x h i b i t e d a n a t o m i c a l features, a b s e n t i n their p a r e n t s b u t p r e s e n t a s d e f i n i n g f e a t u r e s o f lower races. H e f o u n d idiots o f t h e " E t h i o p i a n v a r i e t y " — " w h i t e n e g r o e s , a l t h o u g h o f E u r o p e a n d e s c e n t " ( 1 8 6 6 , p . 2 6 0 ) — o t h e r s o f t h e Malay t y p e , a n d " a n a l o g u e s o f t h e p e o p l e w h o with s h o r t e n e d f o r e h e a d s , p r o m i n e n t c h e e k s , d e e p - s e t e y e s , a n d slightly a p i s h n o s e , originally i n h a b i t e d the A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t " (p. 260). O t h e r s a p p r o a c h e d " t h e g r e a t M o n g o l i a n f a m i l y . " " A v e r y l a r g e n u m b e r o f congenital idiots a r e typical M o n g o l s " (p. 260). H e t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o describe.

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a c c u r a t e l y , t h e f e a t u r e s o f D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e i n a b o y u n d e r his c h a r g e — a f e w a c c i d e n t a l similarities w i t h O r i e n t a l s ("obliquely p l a c e d " eyes a n d slightly yellowish skin), a n d a m u c h l a r g e r n u m b e r o f dissimilar f e a t u r e s ( b r o w n a n d s p a r s e h a i r , thick lips, w r i n kled f o r e h e a d , etc.). N o n e t h e l e s s , h e c o n c l u d e d ( 1 8 6 6 , p . 2 6 1 ) : " T h e boy's a s p e c t is s u c h that it is difficult to r e a l i z e that he is t h e child o f E u r o p e a n s , b u t s o f r e q u e n t l y a r e t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s p r e s e n t e d , that t h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t that t h e s e e t h n i c f e a t u r e s a r e the result o f d e g e n e r a t i o n . " D o w n e v e n u s e d his e t h n i c i n s i g h t t o e x p l a i n t h e b e h a v i o r o f afflicted c h i l d r e n : " t h e y e x c e l l a t imitat i o n " — t h e trait m o s t f r e q u e n t l y cited as typically M o n g o l i a n in c o n v e n t i o n a l racist classifications o f D o w n ' s t i m e . D o w n d e p i c t e d h i m s e l f a s a racial liberal. H a d h e n o t p r o v e n h u m a n u n i t y b y s h o w i n g that t h e c h a r a c t e r s o f l o w e r races c o u l d a p p e a r i n d e g e n e r a t e s o f t h e h i g h e r ( 1 8 6 6 , p . 262)? I n fact, h e h a d m e r e l y d o n e f o r p a t h o l o g y w h a t L o m b r o s o was s o o n t o a c c o m p l i s h for c r i m i n a l i t y — t o a f f i r m t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l racist r a n k s b y m a r k i n g undesirable whites as biological representatives of lower g r o u p s . L o m b r o s o s p o k e o f atavisms that " l i k e n t h e E u r o p e a n c r i m i n a l t o the A u s t r a l i a n a n d M o n g o l i a n t y p e " ( 1 8 8 7 , p . 2 5 4 ) . Y e t D o w n ' s designation p e r s i s t e d t o o u r d a y a n d i s o n l y n o w f a d i n g f r o m u s e . Sir Peter M e d a w a r told m e that i n t h e late 1970s, h e a n d s o m e A s i a n colleagues p e r s u a d e d t h e L o n d o n Times t o d r o p " m o n g o l i s m " i n favor o f " D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e . " T h e g o o d d o c t o r will still b e h o n o r e d .

The

influence

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anthropology

Dallemagne, a prominent French opponent of Lombroso, paid h o m a g e to his i n f l u e n c e in 1896: His thoughts revolutionized our opinions, provoked a salutary feeling everywhere, and a happy emulation in research of all kinds. For 20 years, his thoughts fed discussions; the Italian master was the order of the day in all debates; his thoughts appeared as events. T h e r e was an extraordinary animation everywhere.

^

^ ' l e m a g n e was r e c o r d i n g facts, n o t j u s t p l a y i n g d i p l o m a t . irninal a n t h r o p o l o g y was n o t j u s t a n a c a d e m i c i a n ' s d e b a t e , h o w ^ l y . I t was the subject o f d i s c u s s i o n i n l e g a l a n d p e n a l circles years. I t p r o v o k e d n u m e r o u s " r e f o r m s " a n d w a s , until W o r l d e

r

a v e

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W a r I, t h e subject o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e h e l d e v e r y f o u r y e a r s f o r j u d g e s , j u r i s t s , a n d g o v e r n m e n t officials a s well a s f o r scientists. B e y o n d its specific i m p a c t , L o m b r o s i a n c r i m i n a l a n t h r o p o l o g y h a d its p r i m a r y i n f l u e n c e i n b o l s t e r i n g t h e basic a r g u m e n t o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m a b o u t t h e roles o f actors a n d their s u r r o u n d i n g s : actors f o l l o w t h e i r i n b o r n n a t u r e . T o u n d e r s t a n d c r i m e , s t u d y t h e c r i m i n a l , n o t his r e a r i n g , not his e d u c a t i o n , n o t t h e c u r r e n t p r e d i c a m e n t that m i g h t h a v e i n s p i r e d his t h e f t o r p i l l a g e . " C r i m i nal a n t h r o p o l o g y s t u d i e s t h e d e l i n q u e n t i n his n a t u r a l p l a c e — t h a t i s t o say, i n the f i e l d o f b i o l o g y a n d p a t h o l o g y " ( L o m b r o s o ' s disciple S e r g i , q u o t e d i n Z i m m e r n , 1898, p . 7 4 4 ) . A s a c o n s e r v a t i v e political a r g u m e n t , i t can't b e beat: evil, o r s t u p i d , o r p o o r , o r d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d , o r d e g e n e r a t e , p e o p l e a r e w h a t t h e y a r e a s a result o f t h e i r b i r t h . Social institutions reflect n a t u r e . B l a m e (and study) t h e victim, n o t his e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e Italian a r m y , f o r e x a m p l e , h a d b e e n b o t h e r e d b y s e v e r a l cases o f misdeismo, o r , a s w e w o u l d say, f r a g g i n g . T h e s o l d i e r Misd e a ( F i g . 4 . 5 ) , w h o g a v e t h e p h e n o m e n o n its Italian n a m e , h a d m u r d e r e d his c o m m a n d i n g officer. L o m b r o s o e x a m i n e d h i m a n d p r o c l a i m e d h i m "a n e r v o u s e p i l e p t i c . . . , v e r y a f f e c t e d by a vicious h e r e d i t y " (in F e r r i , 1 9 1 1 ) . L o m b r o s o r e c o m m e n d e d that epileptics b e s c r e e n e d f r o m t h e a r m y a n d this, a c c o r d i n g t o F e r r i , e l i m i n a t e d misdeismo. ( I w o n d e r i f t h e Italian a r m y g o t t h r o u g h W W I I w i t h o u t a single i n c i d e n t o f f r a g g i n g b y n o n e p i l e p t i c s . ) I n a n y case, n o o n e seemed disposed to consider the rights and conditions of recruits. T h e most dubious potential consequence of Lombroso's theory was n e i t h e r r e a l i z e d i n law n o r p r o p o s e d b y L o m b r o s o ' s s u p p o r t e r s : p r e s c r e e n i n g a n d isolation o f p e o p l e b e a r i n g s t i g m a t a before t h e y h a d c o m m i t t e d a n y o f f e n s e — t h o u g h F e r r i ( 1 8 9 7 , p . 2 5 1 ) did label as "substantially j u s t " Plato's d e f e n s e of a family's b a n i s h m e n t a f t e r m e m b e r s o f t h r e e successive g e n e r a t i o n s h a d b e e n e x e c u t e d for criminal offenses. L o m b r o s o did, h o w e v e r , advocate prescreeni n g o f c h i l d r e n s o that t e a c h e r s m i g h t p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s and know what to e x p e c t f r o m pupils with stigmata. Anthropological examination, by pointing out the criminal type, the precocious development of the body, the lack of symmetry, the smallness of the head, and the exaggerated size of the face explains the scholastic and disciplinary shortcomings of children thus marked and permits them

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to be separated in time from their better-endowed companions and directed towards careers more suited to their t e m p e r a m e n t ( 1 9 1 1 , pp. 438-439)W e d o k n o w that L o m b r o s o ' s s t i g m a t a b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t criteria f o r j u d g m e n t i n m a n y c r i m i n a l trials. A g a i n w e c a n n o t k n o w h o w m a n y m e n w e r e c o n d e m n e d unjustly b e c a u s e they w e r e e x t e n sively t a t t o o e d , f a i l e d t o b l u s h , o r h a d u n u s u a l l y l a r g e j a w s a n d arms. E. Ferri, Lombroso's chief lieutenant, wrote (1897, p p . 1 6 6 167): A study of the anthropological factors of crime provides the guardians and administrators of the law with new and more certain m e t h o d s in the detection of the guilty. Tattooing, anthropometry, physiognomy, physical and mental conditions, records of sensibility, reflex activity, vaso-motor reactions, the range of sight, the data of criminal statistics . . . will frequently suffice to give police agents and e x a m i n i n g magistrates a scientific guidance in their inquiries, which now d e p e n d entirely on their individual acuteness and mental sagacity. A n d when we r e m e m b e r the e n o r m o u s n u m b e r of crimes and offenses which are not punished, for lack or inadequacy of evidence, and the frequency of trials which are based solely on circumstantial hints, it is easy to see the practical utility of the primary connection between criminal sociology and penal procedure. L o m b r o s o d e t a i l e d s o m e o f his e x p e r i e n c e s a s a n e x p e r t witness. C a l l e d u p o n t o h e l p d e c i d e w h i c h o f t w o s t e p s o n s h a d killed a w o m a n , L o m b r o s o d e c l a r e d ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 436) that o n e " w a s , i n fact, the most perfect type of the born criminal: e n o r m o u s j a w s , frontal sinuses, a n d z y g o m a t a , thin u p p e r l i p , h u g e incisors, u n u s u a l l y l a r g e h e a d ( 1 6 2 0 cc) [ a m a r k o f g e n i u s i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s , but not h e r e ] , tactile o b t u s e n e s s with sensorial m a n i c i n i s m . H e was c o n victed." I n a n o t h e r c a s e , b a s e d o n e v i d e n c e that e v e n h e c o u l d not depict as better than highly v a g u e and circumstantial, Lombroso a r g u e d for the conviction of a certain Fazio, accused of robbing a n d m u r d e r i n g a r i c h f a r m e r . O n e girl testified that s h e h a d seen F a z i o s l e e p i n g n e a r the m u r d e r e d m a n ; t h e n e x t m o r n i n g h e hid a s the g e n d a r m e s a p p r o a c h e d . N o o t h e r e v i d e n c e o f his guilt was offered: U p o n examination I found that this man had outstanding ears, great maxillaries and cheek bones, lemurine a p p e n d i x , division of the frontal bone, premature wrinkles, sinister look, nose twisted to the right—in short, a physiognomy approaching the criminal type; pupils very slightly mobile

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. . . a large picture of a woman tattooed u p o n his breast, with the words, "Remembrance of Celina Laura" (his wife), and on his arm the picture of a girl. He had an epileptic aunt and an insane cousin, and investigation showed that he was a gambler and an idler. In every way, then, biology furnished in this case indications which, j o i n e d with the other evidence, would have been e n o u g h to convict him in a country less tender toward criminals. Notwithstanding this he was acquitted ( 1 9 1 1 , p. 437). Y o u win s o m e , y o u lose s o m e . (Ironically, i t was t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n t h e liberal n a t u r e o f j u r i s p r u d e n c e that limited L o m broso's i n f l u e n c e . M o s t j u d g e s a n d l a w y e r s simply c o u l d n ' t b e a r t h e i d e a o f q u a n t i t a t i v e science i n t r u d i n g i n t o their a n c i e n t d o m a i n . T h e y d i d n ' t k n o w that L o m b r o s i a n c r i m i n a l a n t h r o p o l o g y was a pseudo-science, but rejected it as an u n w a r r a n t e d transgression of a s t u d y fully legitimate in its o w n d o m a i n . L o m b r o s o ' s F r e n c h critics, with their e m p h a s i s o n t h e social c a u s e s o f c r i m e , also h e l p e d t o halt t h e L o m b r o s i a n t i d e — f o r t h e y , M a n o u v r i e r a n d T o p i n a r d i n p a r t i c u l a r , c o u l d p a r r y n u m b e r s with h i m . ) I n d i s c u s s i n g capital p u n i s h m e n t , L o m b r o s o a n d his disciples e m p h a s i z e d t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n that b o r n c r i m i n a l s t r a n s g r e s s b y n a t u r e . " A t a v i s m s h o w s u s t h e inefficacy o f p u n i s h m e n t f o r b o r n criminals a n d w h y it is that they inevitably h a v e p e r i o d i c r e l a p s e s into c r i m e " ( L o m b r o s o , 1 9 1 1 , p . 369). " T h e o r e t i c a l ethics passes o v e r these d i s e a s e d b r a i n s , a s oil d o e s o v e r m a r b l e , w i t h o u t p e n e trating it" ( L o m b r o s o , 1 8 9 5 , p . 58). Ferri stated in 1897 that, in o p p o s i t i o n to m a n y o t h e r s c h o o l s of thought, criminal anthropologists of Lombrosian persuasion were u n a n i m o u s i n d e c l a r i n g the d e a t h p e n a l t y l e g i t i m a t e ( 1 8 9 7 , p p . 2 3 8 - 2 4 0 ) . L o m b r o s o w r o t e ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 4 4 7 ) : " T h e r e exists, i t i s true, a g r o u p o f c r i m i n a l s , b o r n f o r evil, a g a i n s t w h o m all social cures b r e a k as a g a i n s t a r o c k — a fact w h i c h c o m p e l s us to e l i m i n a t e them c o m p l e t e l y , e v e n b y d e a t h . " H i s f r i e n d t h e p h i l o s o p h e r H i p polyte T a i n e w r o t e e v e n m o r e d r a m a t i c a l l y : You have shown us fierce and lubricious orang-utans with h u m a n faces. It is evident that as such they cannot act otherwise. If they ravish, steal, and kill, it is by virtue of their own nature and their past, but there >s all the more reason for destroying them w h e n it has been proved that they will always remain orang-utans (quoted favorably in Lombroso, 1 9 1 1 , P- 428). Ferri h i m s e l f i n v o k e d D a r w i n i a n t h e o r y as a c o s m i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n capital p u n i s h m e n t ( 1 8 9 7 , p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 ) :

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It seems to me that the death penalty is prescribed by nature, and operates at every m o m e n t in the life of the universe. T h e universal law of evolution shows us also that vital progress of every kind is d u e to continual selection, by the death of the least fit in the struggle for life. N o w this selection, in humanity as with the lower animals, may be natural or artificial. It would therefore be in agreement with natural laws that h u m a n society should make an artificial selection, by the elimination of anti-social and incongruous individuals. N o n e t h e l e s s , L o m b r o s o a n d his c o l l e a g u e s g e n e r a l l y f a v o r e d m e a n s o t h e r t h a n d e a t h f o r r i d d i n g society o f its b o r n c r i m i n a l s . Early isolation i n b u c o l i c s u r r o u n d i n g s m i g h t m i t i g a t e t h e i n n a t e t e n d e n c y a n d l e a d t o a u s e f u l life u n d e r close a n d c o n t i n u a l s u p e r vision. I n o t h e r cases o f i n c o r r i g i b l e c r i m i n a l i t y , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d exile to penal colonies provided a m o r e humanitarian solution than capital p u n i s h m e n t — b u t b a n i s h m e n t m u s t b e p e r m a n e n t a n d i r r e v o c a b l e . F e r r i , n o t i n g t h e small size o f Italy's colonial e m p i r e , a d v o c a t e d " i n t e r n a l d e p o r t a t i o n , " p e r h a p s t o l a n d s n o t tilled b e c a u s e o f e n d e m i c m a l a r i a : " I f t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f this m a l a r i a d e m a n d s a h u m a n h e c a t o m b , i t w o u l d e v i d e n t l y b e b e t t e r t o sacrifice c r i m i n a l s t h a n h o n e s t h u s b a n d m e n " ( 1 8 9 7 , p . 249). I n t h e e n d , he r e c o m m e n d e d deportation to the African colony of Eritrea. T h e L o m b r o s i a n c r i m i n a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w e r e n o t petty sadists, proto-fascists, o r e v e n c o n s e r v a t i v e political i d e o l o g u e s . T h e y t e n d e d t o w a r d l i b e r a l , e v e n socialist, politics a n d saw t h e m s e l v e s as scientifically e n l i g h t e n e d m o d e r n i s t s . T h e y h o p e d t o u s e m o d e r n science a s a c l e a n s i n g b r o o m t o s w e e p a w a y f r o m j u r i s p r u d e n c e the o u t d a t e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a g g a g e o f f r e e will a n d u n m i t i g a t e d m o r a l responsibility. T h e y called t h e m s e l v e s t h e " p o s i t i v e " s c h o o l o f crim i n o l o g y , n o t b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e s o c e r t a i n ( t h o u g h t h e y w e r e ) , but i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m e a n i n g o f e m p i r i c a l a n d objective rather than speculative. T h e "classical" s c h o o l , L o m b r o s o ' s c h i e f o p p o n e n t s , h a d comb a t t e d t h e c a p r i c i o u s n e s s o f p r e v i o u s p e n a l p r a c t i c e b y a r g u i n g that p u n i s h m e n t m u s t b e a p p o r t i o n e d strictly t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e crime a n d that all i n d i v i d u a l s m u s t b e fully r e s p o n s i b l e f o r their actions (no m i t i g a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s ) . L o m b r o s o i n v o k e d b i o l o g y t o a r g u e that p u n i s h m e n t s m u s t f i t the c r i m i n a l , n o t , a s Gilbert's M i k a d o w o u l d h a v e it, t h e c r i m e . A n o r m a l m a n m i g h t m u r d e r in a m o m e n t o f j e a l o u s r a g e . W h a t p u r p o s e w o u l d e x e c u t i o n o r a life in p r i s o n serve? H e n e e d s n o r e f o r m , f o r his n a t u r e i s g o o d ; society

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n e e d s n o p r o t e c t i o n f r o m h i m , f o r h e will n o t t r a n s g r e s s a g a i n . A born criminal might be in the dock for some petty crime. W h a t g o o d will a s h o r t s e n t e n c e s e r v e : since he c a n n o t be r e h a b i l i t a t e d , a s h o r t s e n t e n c e o n l y r e d u c e s the t i m e t o his n e x t , p e r h a p s m o r e serious, offense. T h e positive s c h o o l c a m p a i g n e d h a r d e s t a n d m o s t successfully f o r a set o f r e f o r m s , until r e c e n t l y r e g a r d e d a s e n l i g h t e n e d o r "libe r a l , " a n d all i n v o l v i n g the p r i n c i p l e o f i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c i n g . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e y w o n , a n d few p e o p l e r e a l i z e that o u r m o d ern apparatus of parole, early release, and indeterminate sentenci n g stems i n p a r t f r o m L o m b r o s o ' s c a m p a i g n f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l treatment of b o r n and occasional criminals. T h e main goal of criminal a n t h r o p o l o g y , w r o t e F e r r i i n 1 9 1 1 , i s t o " m a k e t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f the c r i m i n a l t h e p r i m a r y object a n d p r i n c i p l e o f the r u l e s o f penal j u s t i c e , i n p l a c e o f t h e objective g r a v i t y o f t h e c r i m e " ( p . 52). Penal sanctions must be adapted . . . to the personality of the criminal. . . . T h e logical consequence of this conclusion is the indeterminate sentence which has b e e n , and is, combatted as a juridical heresy by classical and metaphysical criminologists. . . . Prefixed penalties are absurd as a means of social defense. It is as if a doctor at the hospital wanted to attach to each disease the length of a stay in his establishment (Ferri, 1 9 1 1 , p. 251). T h e original Lombrosians advocated harsh treatment for "born criminals." T h i s m i s a p p l i c a t i o n o f a n t h r o p o m e t r y a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y theory is all t h e m o r e tragic b e c a u s e L o m b r o s o ' s biological m o d e l was so utterly invalid a n d b e c a u s e it shifted so m u c h a t t e n t i o n f r o m the social basis o f c r i m e t o fallacious ideas a b o u t t h e i n n a t e p r o pensity o f c r i m i n a l s . B u t t h e positivists, i n v o k i n g L o m b r o s o ' s enlarged model a n d finally even e x t e n d i n g the genesis of crime to u p b r i n g i n g a s well a s b i o l o g y , h a d e n o r m o u s i m p a c t i n t h e i r c a m paign f o r i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c i n g a n d t h e c o n c e p t o f m i t i g a t i n g circumstances. S i n c e their beliefs a r e , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , o u r p r a c t i c e s , w e h a v e t e n d e d t o view t h e m a s h u m a n e a n d p r o g r e s s i v e . Lombroso's d a u g h t e r , c a r r y i n g o n t h e g o o d w o r k , s i n g l e d o u t t h e United States f o r p r a i s e . W e h a d e s c a p e d t h e h e g e m o n y o f classical criminology a n d s h o w n o u r u s u a l r e c e p t i v e n e s s f o r i n n o v a t i o n . Many states h a d a d o p t e d the positivist p r o g r a m i n e s t a b l i s h i n g good r e f o r m a t o r i e s , p r o b a t i o n s y s t e m s , i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c i n g , and liberal p a r d o n laws ( L o m b r o s o - F e r r e r o , 1 9 1 1 ) . Y e

t e v e n a s t h e positivists p r a i s e d A m e r i c a a n d t h e m s e l v e s ,

T HE

MI S M E A S U R E

OF

MAN

their w o r k c o n t a i n s t h e s e e d s o f d o u b t that h a v e led m a n y m o d e r n r e f o r m e r s t o q u e s t i o n the h u m a n e n a t u r e o f L o m b r o s o ' s i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c e s a n d to a d v o c a t e a r e t u r n to t h e fixed p e n a l t i e s of classical c r i m i n o l o g y . M a u r i c e P a r m e l e e , A m e r i c a ' s l e a d i n g positivist, d e c r i e d as t o o h a r s h a N e w Y o r k State law of 1 9 1 5 that p r e scribed a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c e o f u p t o t h r e e y e a r s f o r s u c h infractions as disorderly conduct, disorderly h o u s e k e e p i n g , intoxication, a n d v a g r a n c y ( P a r m e l e e , 1 9 1 8 ) . L o m b r o s o ' s d a u g h t e r praised the complete dossier of m o o d s and deeds kept by volunteer w o m e n w h o g u i d e d t h e f o r t u n e s o f j u v e n i l e o f f e n d e r s i n several states. T h e y will " p e r m i t j u d g e s , i f t h e c h i l d c o m m i t s a n o f f e n s e , t o distinguish between a born criminal and a habitual criminal. Howe v e r , t h e child will n o t k n o w o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f this dossier, a n d this will p e r m i t h i m t h e most c o m p l e t e f r e e d o m t o d e v e l o p " L o m b r o s o - F e r r e r o , 1 9 1 1 , p . 124). S h e also a d m i t t e d t h e b u r d e n s o m e e l e m e n t o f h a r a s s m e n t a n d h u m i l i a t i o n i n c l u d e d i n seve r a l systems o f p r o b a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n M a s s a c h u s e t t s , w h e r e i n d e f i n i t e p a r o l e m i g h t c o n t i n u e f o r life: " I n t h e C e n t r a l P r o b a t i o n B u r e a u o f B o s t o n , I h a v e r e a d m a n y letters f r o m p r o t e g e s w h o a s k e d t o b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r p r i s o n s , r a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u e the h u m i l i a t i o n o f t h e i r p r o t e c t o r always o n t h e i r backs (or "in their b u n d l e s , " as she said literally in F r e n c h — L o m b r o s o - F e r r e r o , 1 9 1 1 , P- 135)F o r t h e L o m b r o s i a n s , i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c i n g e m b o d i e d both g o o d b i o l o g y a n d m a x i m a l p r o t e c t i o n f o r the state: " P u n i s h m e n t o u g h t n o t to be t h e visitation of a c r i m e by a r e t r i b u t i o n , b u t rather a d e f e n s e of society a d a p t e d to t h e d a n g e r p e r s o n i f i e d by the crimi n a l " ( F e r r i , 1 8 9 7 , P- 208). D a n g e r o u s p e o p l e r e c e i v e l o n g e r sent e n c e s , a n d t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t lives a r e m o n i t o r e d m o r e strictly. A n d s o the system o f i n d e t e r m i n a t e p e n a l t i e s — L o m b r o s o ' s l e g a c y — e x e r t s a g e n e r a l a n d p o w e r f u l e l e m e n t o f c o n t r o l o v e r e v e r y aspect of a p r i s o n e r ' s life: his d o s s i e r e x p a n d s a n d c o n t r o l s his fate; he is w a t c h e d i n p r i s o n a n d his acts a r e j u d g e d with the c a r r o t o f early r e l e a s e b e f o r e h i m . It is also u s e d in L o m b r o s o ' s o r i g i n a l sense to s e q u e s t e r the d a n g e r o u s . F o r L o m b r o s o , this m e a n t the b o r n criminal with his a p i s h stigmata. T o d a y , it o f t e n m e a n s t h e defiant, the p o o r , a n d the black. G e o r g e J a c k s o n , a u t h o r of Soledad Brother, d i e d u n d e r L o m b r o s o ' s l e g a c y , t r y i n g t o e s c a p e after e l e v e n years (eight a n d a h a l f in solitary) of an i n d e t e r m i n a t e o n e - y e a r - t o - l i f s e n t e n c e f o r stealing s e v e n t y dollars f r o m a gas station. e

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Coda T o l s t o y ' s f r u s t r a t i o n with t h e L o m b r o s i a n s lay in their i n v o c a tion o f science t o a v o i d t h e d e e p e r q u e s t i o n that called f o r social transformation as o n e potential resolution. Science, he realized, o f t e n acted a s t h e f i r m ally o f e x i s t i n g institutions. His p r o t a g o n i s t Prince N e k h l y u d o v , t r y i n g to f a t h o m a s y s t e m that falsely c o n d e m n e d a w o m a n h e o n c e w r o n g e d , studies t h e l e a r n e d w o r k s o f criminal a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d f i n d s n o a n s w e r : He also came across a tramp and a w o m a n , both of w h o m repelled him by their half-witted insensibility and s e e m i n g cruelty, but even in them he failed to see the criminal type as described in the Italian school of criminology: he saw in them only people w h o were repulsive to him personally, like others were w h o m he met outside prison walls—in swallowtail coats, wearing epaulets or bedecked with lace. . . . At first he had h o p e d to find the answer in books, and bought everything he could find on the subject. He bought the works of Lombroso and Garofalo [an Italian baron and disciple of Lombroso], Ferri, Liszt, Maudsley and T a r d e , and read them carefully. But as he read, he became m o r e and more disappointed. . . . Science answered thousands of very subtle and ingenious questions touching criminal law, but certainly not the o n e he was trying to solve. He was asking a very simple thing: Why and by what right does o n e class of people lock u p , torture, exile, flog, and kill other people, when they themselves are no better than those w h o m they torture, flog and kill? A n d for answers he got arguments as to whether human beings were possessed of free will or not. Could criminal propensities be detected by measuring the sk'ull, and so on? What part does heredity play in crime? Is there such a thing as congenital depravity? (Resurrection, 1899, 1966 edition translated by R. E d m o n d s , pp. 402-403.)

Epilogue We live in a m o r e subtle c e n t u r y , b u t t h e basic a r g u m e n t s n e v e r seem t o c h a n g e . T h e c r u d i t i e s o f t h e c r a n i a l i n d e x h a v e g i v e n w a y t o the c o m p l e x i t y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e testing. T h e signs o f i n n a t e c r i m inality are n o l o n g e r s o u g h t i n s t i g m a t a o f g r o s s a n a t o m y , b u t i n twentieth-century criteria: g e n e s a n d f i n e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e b r a i n . l

the m i d - 1 9 6 0 s , p a p e r s b e g a n t o a p p e a r l i n k i n g a c h r o m o a n o m a l y in m a l e s k n o w n as X Y Y with v i o l e n t a n d c r i m i n a l avior. ( N o r m a l m a l e s r e c e i v e a s i n g l e X c h r o m o s o m e f r o m t h e i r ers a n d a Y f r o m their f a t h e r s ; n o r m a l f e m a l e s r e c e i v e a sinn

somal

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g l e X f r o m e a c h of their p a r e n t s . O c c a s i o n a l l y , a c h i l d will r e c e i v e t w o Y ' s f r o m his f a t h e r . X Y Y m a l e s l o o k like n o r m a l m a l e s , b u t t e n d t o b e a little a b o v e a v e r a g e i n h e i g h t , h a v e p o o r skin a n d m a y t e n d , o n a v e r a g e — t h o u g h this i s d i s p u t e d — t o b e s o m e w h a t defic i e n t i n p e r f o r m a n c e o n i n t e l l i g e n c e tests.) B a s e d o n l i m i t e d o b s e r vation and anecdotal accounts of a few X Y Y individuals, and on a h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f X Y Y ' s i n m e n t a l - p e n a l institutions f o r t h e c r i m inally i n s a n e , a tale a b o u t c r i m i n a l c h r o m o s o m e s o r i g i n a t e d . T h e story e x p l o d e d i n t o p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h e n a t t o r n e y s f o r Richard Speck, m u r d e r e r of eight student nurses in C h i c a g o , sought to m i t i g a t e his p u n i s h m e n t w i t h a c l a i m that h e was X Y Y . ( I n fact, h e is a n o r m a l XY male.) Newsweek p u b l i s h e d an article e n t i t l e d " C o n genital c r i m i n a l s , " a n d t h e p r e s s c h u r n e d o u t i n n u m e r a b l e r e p o r t s a b o u t this latest r e i n c a r n a t i o n o f L o m b r o s o a n d his stigmata. Meanwhile, scholarly study picked u p , and h u n d r e d s of papers have now been written on the behavioral consequences of being X Y Y . A well-intentioned but, in my opinion, naive g r o u p of Boston doctors began an extensive screening p r o g r a m u p o n newborn b o y s . T h e y h o p e d that b y m o n i t o r i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a l a r g e s a m p l e o f X Y Y b o y s , t h e y m i g h t establish w h e t h e r a n y link e x i s t e d w i t h a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r . B u t w h a t o f t h e self-fulfilling p r o p h e s y ? for parents were told, a n d no a m o u n t of scholarly tentativeness can o v e r c o m e both press reports and inferences m a d e by worried parents f r o m t h e a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r m a n i f e s t e d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e b y all c h i l d r e n . A n d w h a t o f t h e a n g u i s h s u f f e r e d b y p a r e n t s , e s p e cially if t h e c o n n e c t i o n be a false o n e — a s it a l m o s t s u r e l y is. I n t h e o r y , t h e link b e t w e e n X Y Y a n d a g g r e s s i v e criminality n e v e r h a d m u c h g o i n g f o r i t b e y o n d t h e s i n g u l a r l y simplistic notion that since m a l e s a r e m o r e a g g r e s s i v e t h a n f e m a l e s a n d possess a Y that f e m a l e s lack, Y m u s t be the seat of a g g r e s s i o n a n d a d o u b l e d o s e spells d o u b l e - t r o u b l e . O n e g r o u p o f r e s e a r c h e r s p r o c l a i m e d in 1 9 7 3 (Jarvik et al., p p . 6 7 9 - 6 8 0 ) : " T h e Y c h r o m o s o m e is the male-determining chromosome; therefore, it should c o m e as no s u r p r i s e that a n e x t r a Y c h r o m o s o m e c a n p r o d u c e a n i n d i v i d u a l with h e i g h t e n e d m a s c u l i n i t y , e v i n c e d by characteristics s u c h as u n u s u a l tallness, i n c r e a s e d fertility . . . a n d p o w e r f u l a g g r e s s i v e tendencies." T h e tale o f X Y Y a s a c r i m i n a l s t i g m a h a s n o w b e e n widely e x p o s e d as a m y t h ( B o r g a o n k a r a n d S h a h , 1 9 7 4 ; Pyeritz et al-,

M E A S U R I N G

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1 9 7 7 ) . B o t h t h e s e studies e x p o s e the e l e m e n t a r y f l a w s o f m e t h o d i n m o s t l i t e r a t u r e c l a i m i n g a link b e t w e e n X Y Y a n d criminality. XYY

males

do

seem

to

be

represented

disproportionately

in

m e n t a l - p e n a l institutions, b u t t h e r e i s n o g o o d e v i d e n c e for h i g h f r e q u e n c i e s i n o r d i n a r y jails. A m a x i m u m o f 1

percent of X Y Y

males i n A m e r i c a m a y s p e n d p a r t o f their lives i n m e n t a l - p e n a l institutions (Pyeritz e t al., 1 9 7 7 , p . 92). A d d i n g t o this t h e n u m b e r that m a y be i n c a r c e r a t e d in o r d i n a r y jails at t h e s a m e f r e q u e n c y as n o r m a l X Y m a l e s , C h o r o v e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) estimates t h a t 9 6 p e r c e n t o f X Y Y males will l e a d o r d i n a r y lives a n d n e v e r c o m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n of penal authorities. Q u i t e a criminal c h r o m o s o m e ! M o r e o v e r , we h a v e n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e relatively h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f X Y Y ' s i n m e n t a l - p e n a l institutions has a n y t h i n g t o d o with h i g h levels o f innate a g g r e s s i v i t y . O t h e r scientists h a v e l o o k e d t o m a l f u n c t i o n i n specific areas o f the brain as a c a u s e of c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r . A f t e r e x t e n s i v e g h e t t o riots d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 6 7 , t h r e e d o c t o r s w r o t e a letter t o the p r e s t i g i o u s Journal of the American Medical Association

(cited

in

Chorover, 1979): It is important to realize that only a small n u m b e r of the millions of slum dwellers have taken part in the riots, a n d that only a subfraction of these rioters h a v e i n d u l g e d in arson, sniping a n d assault. Yet, if slum conditions alone d e t e r m i n e d and initiated riots, why are the vast majority of slum dwellers able to resist the temptations of unrestrained violence? Is there s o m e t h i n g peculiar about the violent slum dweller that differentiates him from his peaceful neighbors? W e all t e n d

t o g e n e r a l i z e f r o m o u r o w n areas o f e x p e r t i s e .

T h e s e doctors are psychosurgeons.

But why should

the violent

behavior of some desperate a n d discouraged p e o p l e point to a specific d i s o r d e r o f their brain w h i l e t h e c o r r u p t i o n a n d v i o l e n c e o f some c o n g r e s s m e n

and

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provokes

n o similar

theory?

H u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s a r e h i g h l y variable for all b e h a v i o r s ; t h e simple fact that s o m e d o a n d s o m e d o n ' t p r o v i d e s n o e v i d e n c e for a specific p a t h o l o g y m a p p e d u p o n t h e b r a i n o f d o e r s . Shall w e c o n centrate

upon

an

unfounded

speculation

for

the

violence

of

s o m e — o n e t h a t follows t h e d e t e r m i n i s t p h i l o s o p h y o f b l a m i n g t h e v i c t i m — o r shall w e try t o e l i m i n a t e t h e o p p r e s s i o n that b u i l d s g h e t tos a n d saps t h e spirit of their u n e m p l o y e d in t h e first p l a c e ?

FIVE

T h e Hereditarian Theory of IQ An American Invention Alfred Binet and the original purposes of the Binet scale Binet

flirts

When

with Alfred

craniometry Binet

(1857-1911),

director

of the

psychology

l a b o r a t o r y a t t h e S o r b o n n e , first d e c i d e d t o s t u d y t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of intelligence, he turned naturally to the favored m e t h o d of a waning century and

t o t h e w o r k o f his g r e a t c o u n t r y m a n Paul

B r o c a . H e set o u t , i n short, t o m e a s u r e skulls, n e v e r d o u b t i n g a t f i r s t t h e basic c o n c l u s i o n o f B r o c a ' s s c h o o l : T h e relationship between the intelligence of subjects a n d t h e volume of their h e a d . . . is very real and has b e e n c o n f i r m e d by all methodical investigators, without exception. . . . A s these works include observations on several h u n d r e d subjects, we c o n c l u d e that the p r e c e d i n g proposition [of correlation b e t w e e n h e a d size and intelligence] must be considered as incontestable (Binet, 1898, p p . 294-295). D u r i n g the n e x t three years, Binet published nine papers on c r a n i o m e t r y in L'Annee psychologique, t h e j o u r n a l he h a d f o u n d e d in 1895.

B y t h e e n d o f this effort, h e was n o l o n g e r s o sure.

Five

studies o n t h e h e a d s o f s c h o o l c h i l d r e n h a d d e s t r o y e d his original faith. B i n e t w e n t t o v a r i o u s schools, m a k i n g B r o c a ' s r e c o m m e n d e d m e a s u r e m e n t s o n t h e h e a d s o f p u p i l s d e s i g n a t e d b y teachers as their smartest a n d s t u p i d e s t . In several s t u d i e s , he increased his s a m p l e f r o m 6 2 t o 2 3 0 subjects. " I b e g a n , " h e w r o t e , "with t h e idea

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

T H E O R Y

OF

IQ

i m p r e s s e d u p o n m e b y the studies o f s o m a n y o t h e r scientists, that intellectual s u p e r i o r i t y is tied to s u p e r i o r i t y of c e r e b r a l v o l u m e "

(1900, p. 427). B i n e t f o u n d his d i f f e r e n c e s , b u t t h e y w e r e m u c h t o o small t o matter and m i g h t only record the greater a v e r a g e height of better p u p i l s ( 1 . 4 0 1 vs. 1.378 m e t e r s ) . M o s t m e a s u r e s d i d f a v o r t h e b e t t e r students,

but

the

average

difference

between

good

and

poor

a m o u n t e d to a m e r e millimeter—"extremement petite" as B i n e t w r o t e . Binet did not observe larger differences in the anterior region of the skull, w h e r e t h e seat o f h i g h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e s u p p o s e d l y lay, a n d w h e r e B r o c a h a d always f o u n d g r e a t e s t d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n s u p e r i o r a n d less f o r t u n a t e p e o p l e . T o m a k e m a t t e r s w o r s e , s o m e m e a s u r e s usually j u d g e d crucial i n t h e assessment o f m e n t a l w o r t h f a v o r e d the

poorer

pupils—for

poorer students

anteroposterior

exceeded

diameter

their s m a r t e r

of

the

colleagues by

skull,

3.0 m m .

E v e n i f m o s t results t e n d e d t o r u n i n t h e " r i g h t " d i r e c t i o n , t h e m e t h o d was surely useless f o r assessing i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e differences w e r e t o o small, a n d B i n e t also f o u n d that p o o r s t u d e n t s v a r ied

more

than

their s m a r t e r c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h u s , a l t h o u g h

the

smallest v a l u e usually b e l o n g e d to a p o o r p u p i l , t h e h i g h e s t o f t e n did as well. B i n e t also f u e l e d his o w n d o u b t s with a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y s t u d y o f his o w n suggestibility, a n e x p e r i m e n t i n t h e p r i m a r y t h e m e o f this b o o k — t h e

tenacity

of unconscious

bias

and

the

surprising

malleability of "objective," q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a in t h e interest of a p r e conceived idea.

"I

feared," Binet wrote (1900, p.

323), " t h a t i n

m a k i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s on h e a d s with t h e i n t e n t i o n of f i n d i n g a difference in v o l u m e b e t w e e n an i n t e l l i g e n t a n d a less i n t e l l i g e n t head, I w o u l d be led to increase, u n c o n s c i o u s l y a n d in g o o d faith, the cephalic v o l u m e o f i n t e l l i g e n t h e a d s a n d t o d e c r e a s e that o f unintelligent h e a d s . "

He recognized

the greater d a n g e r lurking

when biases are s u b m e r g e d a n d a scientist believes in his o w n objectivity ( 1 9 0 0 , p. 3 2 4 ) : " S u g g e s t i b i l i t y . . . w o r k s less on an act of which we h a v e full c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h a n on a h a l f - c o n s c i o u s a c t — and this is precisely its d a n g e r . " H o w m u c h b e t t e r off w e w o u l d b e i f all scientists s u b m i t t e d themselves to self-scrutiny in so f o r t h r i g h t a fashion: "I w a n t to state very explicitly,"

Binet wrote (1900,

p.

324), "what

I

have

observed a b o u t myself. T h e details that follow a r e those t h a t t h e

IJ8

T H E

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

M A N

majority o f a u t h o r s d o n o t p u b l i s h ; o n e d o e s not w a n t t o let t h e m b e k n o w n . " B o t h B i n e t a n d his s t u d e n t S i m o n h a d m e a s u r e d t h e s a m e h e a d s of "idiots a n d i m b e c i l e s " at a hospital w h e r e S i m o n was i n intern. B i n e t n o t e d that, for o n e crucial m e a s u r e m e n t , S i m o n ' s values w e r e consistently less t h a n his. B i n e t t h e r e f o r e r e t u r n e d t o m e a s u r e t h e subjects a s e c o n d time. T h e f i r s t t i m e , B i n e t a d m i t s , " I took m y m e a s u r e s m e c h a n i c a l l y , w i t h o u t a n y o t h e r p r e c o n c e p tion t h a n t o r e m a i n faithful t o m y m e t h o d s . " B u t the s e c o n d t i m e " I h a d a d i f f e r e n t p r e c o n c e p t i o n . . . . I was b o t h e r e d b y t h e differe n c e " b e t w e e n S i m o n a n d myself. "I w a n t e d to r e d u c e it to its t r u e v a l u e . . . . T h i s is s e l f - s u g g e s t i o n . N o w , capital fact, t h e m e a s u r e s taken d u r i n g the second experiment, u n d e r the expectation of a d i m i n u t i o n , a r e i n d e e d smaller t h a n t h e m e a s u r e s t a k e n [on t h e s a m e h e a d s ] d u r i n g t h e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t . " I n fact, all b u t o n e h e a d had "shrunk" between the two experiments and the average dimin u t i o n was 3 m m — a g o o d d e a l m o r e t h a n t h e a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n skulls o f b r i g h t a n d p o o r s t u d e n t s i n his p r e v i o u s w o r k . B i n e t s p o k e g r a p h i c a l l y o f his d i s c o u r a g e m e n t : I was p e r s u a d e d that I h a d attacked an intractable problem. T h e measures had required travelling, a n d tiring p r o c e d u r e s of all sorts; and they e n d e d with the discouraging conclusion that there was often not a millimeter of difference b e t w e e n the cephalic measures of intelligent and less intelligent students. T h e idea of measuring intelligence by measuring heads s e e m e d ridiculous. . . . I was on the point of a b a n d o n i n g this work, a n d I didn't want to publish a single line of it (1900, p. 403). At the end, Binet snatched a weak and dubious victory from t h e j a w s o f d e f e a t . H e l o o k e d a t his e n t i r e s a m p l e a g a i n , s e p a r a t e d o u t t h e f i v e t o p a n d b o t t o m p u p i l s f r o m e a c b g r o u p , a n d elimin a t e d all t h o s e i n t h e m i d d l e . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n e x t r e m e s were greater and m o r e consistent—3 to 4 mm on average. But even this d i f f e r e n c e d i d not e x c e e d t h e a v e r a g e p o t e n t i a l bias d u e t o suggestibility. C r a n i o m e t r y , t h e j e w e l o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y objectivity, was not d e s t i n e d for c o n t i n u e d c e l e b r a t i o n .

Binet's

scale

When

and the

birth

of IQ

B i n e t r e t u r n e d t o the m e a s u r e m e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i n

1 9 0 4 , h e r e m e m b e r e d his p r e v i o u s frustration a n d other techniques.

He abandoned

switched t o

w h a t h e called t h e " m e d i c a l "

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

T H E O R Y

O F

I Q

a p p r o a c h e s o f c r a n i o m e t r y a n d the search for L o m b r o s o ' s a n a t o m ical s t i g m a t a , a n d d e c i d e d instead o n " p s y c h o l o g i c a l " m e t h o d s . T h e literature o n m e n t a l testing, a t the t i m e , was relatively small a n d d e c i d e d l y i n c o n c l u s i v e . G a l t o n , w i t h o u t n o t a b l e success, h a d e x p e r i m e n t e d with a series of m e a s u r e m e n t s , m o s t l y r e c o r d s of p h y s i o l o g y a n d r e a c t i o n t i m e , r a t h e r t h a n tests o f r e a s o n i n g . B i n e t d e c i d e d to c o n s t r u c t a set of tasks that m i g h t assess v a r i o u s aspects of reasoning m o r e directly. In

1904

Binet

was

commissioned

by

the

minister

of public

e d u c a t i o n to p e r f o r m a s t u d y for a specific, practical p u r p o s e : to d e v e l o p t e c h n i q u e s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h o s e c h i l d r e n w h o s e lack o f success i n n o r m a l classrooms s u g g e s t e d t h e n e e d f o r s o m e f o r m o f special

education.

Binet

chose

a

purely

pragmatic

course.

He

d e c i d e d to b r i n g t o g e t h e r a l a r g e series of short tasks, r e l a t e d to e v e r y d a y p r o b l e m s o f life ( c o u n t i n g coins, o r assessing w h i c h face is " p r e t t i e r , " for e x a m p l e ) , b u t s u p p o s e d l y i n v o l v i n g such basic processes o f r e a s o n i n g a s " d i r e c t i o n ( o r d e r i n g ) , c o m p r e h e n s i o n , invention a n d censure (correction)" (Binet,

1909). L e a r n e d skills

like r e a d i n g w o u l d n o t b e t r e a t e d explicitly. T h e tests w e r e a d m i n istered i n d i v i d u a l l y b y t r a i n e d e x a m i n e r s w h o l e d subjects t h r o u g h the series o f tasks, g r a d e d i n their o r d e r o f difficulty. U n l i k e p r e vious tests d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e specific a n d i n d e p e n d e n t " f a c u l ties" of m i n d , Binet's scale was a h o d g e p o d g e of d i v e r s e activities. H e h o p e d t h a t b y m i x i n g t o g e t h e r e n o u g h tests o f d i f f e r e n t abilities he w o u l d be able to abstract a child's g e n e r a l p o t e n t i a l with a single score.

B i n e t e m p h a s i z e d t h e e m p i r i c a l n a t u r e o f his w o r k

with a f a m o u s d i c t u m ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 329): " O n e m i g h t a l m o s t say, 'It matters

very

little

what

the

tests

are

so

long

as

they

are

numerous.' " B i n e t p u b l i s h e d t h r e e v e r s i o n s o f t h e scale b e f o r e his d e a t h i n 1 9 1 1 . T h e original

1905 e d i t i o n s i m p l y a r r a n g e d t h e tasks i n a n

a s c e n d i n g o r d e r o f difficulty. T h e 1908 v e r s i o n e s t a b l i s h e d the criterion u s e d i n m e a s u r i n g t h e so-called I Q e v e r since. B i n e t d e c i d e d to assign an a g e level to e a c h task, d e f i n e d as t h e y o u n g e s t a g e at which a child o f n o r m a l i n t e l l i g e n c e s h o u l d b e able t o c o m p l e t e t h e task successfully. A child b e g a n the B i n e t test with tasks f o r t h e y o u n g e s t a g e a n d p r o c e e d e d i n s e q u e n c e until h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r c o m p l e t e t h e tasks. T h e a g e associated with the last tasks h e c o u l d p e r f o r m b e c a m e his " m e n t a l a g e , " a n d his g e n e r a l intellectual level

i8o

T H E

MIS M E A S U R E

O F

M A N

was c a l c u l a t e d b y s u b t r a c t i n g this m e n t a l a g e f r o m his t r u e c h r o n ological a g e . C h i l d r e n w h o s e m e n t a l a g e s w e r e sufficiently b e h i n d their c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e s c o u l d t h e n b e identified for special e d u cational p r o g r a m s , t h u s fulfilling Binet's c h a r g e f r o m t h e ministry. I n 1 9 1 2 t h e G e r m a n p s y c h o l o g i s t W . S t e r n a r g u e d that m e n t a l a g e s h o u l d b e d i v i d e d b y c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e , n o t s u b t r a c t e d f r o m it,* a n d t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e quotient, o r I Q , was b o r n . I Q t e s t i n g has h a d m o m e n t o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s i n o u r c e n t u r y . I n this light, we s h o u l d i n v e s t i g a t e Binet's m o t i v e s , if only to a p p r e c i a t e h o w t h e t r a g e d i e s o f m i s u s e m i g h t h a v e b e e n a v o i d e d i f its f o u n d e r h a d lived a n d his c o n c e r n s b e e n h e e d e d . I n c o n t r a s t with Binet's g e n e r a l intellectual a p p r o a c h , t h e m o s t c u r i o u s a s p e c t of his scale is its practical, e m p i r i c a l focus. M a n y scientists w o r k this w a y b y d e e p c o n v i c t i o n o r explicit inclination. T h e y b e l i e v e that theoretical s p e c u l a t i o n is v a i n a n d that t r u e science progresses by induction from simple experiments pursued to g a t h e r basic facts, n o t to test e l a b o r a t e t h e o r i e s . B u t B i n e t was primarily a t h e o r e t i c i a n . H e a s k e d b i g q u e s t i o n s a n d p a r t i c i p a t e d with e n t h u s i a s m in t h e m a j o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s of his p r o f e s s i o n . H e h a d a l o n g - s t a n d i n g interest i n t h e o r i e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . H e p u b lished his f i r s t b o o k o n t h e " P s y c h o l o g y o f R e a s o n i n g " i n 1 8 8 6 , a n d f o l l o w e d in

1903 with his f a m o u s " E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y of Intelli-

gence," in which he abjured previous commitments and developed a n e w s t r u c t u r e f o r a n a l y z i n g h u m a n t h i n k i n g . Y e t B i n e t explicitly declined

to a w a r d a n y theoretical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to his

scale of

i n t e l l i g e n c e , the m o s t e x t e n s i v e a n d i m p o r t a n t w o r k h e h a d d o n e in his f a v o r i t e subject. W h y s h o u l d a g r e a t t h e o r e t i c i a n h a v e acted in such a c u r i o u s a n d a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y w a y ? B i n e t d i d seek " t o s e p a r a t e n a t u r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d i n s t r u c t i o n " ( 1 9 0 5 , p. 42) in his scale: " I t is t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e a l o n e that we seek to m e a s u r e , by d i s r e g a r d i n g in so far as possible, t h e d e g r e e of i n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h the c h i l d possesses. . . . We g i v e h i m n o t h i n g to r e a d , n o t h i n g t o write, a n d s u b m i t h i m t o n o test i n w h i c h h e m i g h t * Division is more appropriate because it is the relative, not the absolute, magnitude of disparity between mental and chronological age that matters. A two-year disparity between mental age two and chronological age four may denote a far severer degree of deficiency than a two-year disparity between mental age fourteen and chronological age sixteen. Binet's method of subtraction would give the same result in both cases, while Stern's IQ measures 50 for the first case and 88 for the second. (Stern multiplied the actual quotient by 100 to eliminate the decimal point.)

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

T H E O R Y

OF

181

IQ

s u c c e e d b y m e a n s o f r o t e l e a r n i n g " ( 1 9 0 5 , p . 42). " I t i s a specially i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e s e tests that t h e y p e r m i t u s , w h e n n e c e s sary, to free a b e a u t i f u l native i n t e l l i g e n c e f r o m t h e t r a m m e l s of the school" (1908, p. 259). Y e t , b e y o n d this o b v i o u s d e s i r e t o r e m o v e t h e superficial effects o f clearly a c q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e , B i n e t d e c l i n e d t o d e f i n e a n d s p e c ulate u p o n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e score h e a s s i g n e d t o e a c h child. I n t e l l i g e n c e , B i n e t p r o c l a i m e d , is t o o c o m p l e x to c a p t u r e with a single n u m b e r . T h i s

n u m b e r , later called

I Q , is only a r o u g h ,

empirical g u i d e c o n s t r u c t e d for a limited, practical p u r p o s e : T h e scale, properly speaking, does not permit the measure of the intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured (1905, p. 40). Moreover,

the

n u m b e r is

only an

average of many

perfor-

m a n c e s , n o t a n entity u n t o itself. I n t e l l i g e n c e , B i n e t r e m i n d s u s , i s not a single, scalable t h i n g like h e i g h t . " W e feel it necessary to insist o n this fact," B i n e t ( 1 9 1 1 ) c a u t i o n s , " b e c a u s e later, for t h e sake o f simplicity of s t a t e m e n t , we will s p e a k of a child of 8 years h a v i n g the i n t e l l i g e n c e of a c h i l d of 7 or 9 years;

t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s , if

a c c e p t e d arbitrarily, m a y g i v e p l a c e t o illusions."

B i n e t was too

g o o d a t h e o r e t i c i a n to fall i n t o t h e logical e r r o r that J o h n S t u a r t Mill h a d

i d e n t i f i e d — " t o believe

that w h a t e v e r r e c e i v e d

a name

must b e a n entity o r b e i n g , h a v i n g a n i n d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e o f its own." Binet also h a d a social m o t i v e f o r his

reticence.

He g r e a t l y

feared that his practical d e v i c e , if reified as an entity, c o u l d be perverted a n d u s e d as an indelible label, r a t h e r t h a n as a g u i d e for identifying c h i l d r e n w h o n e e d e d h e l p . H e w o r r i e d that s c h o o l m a s ters with " e x a g g e r a t e d zeal" m i g h t u s e I Q a s a c o n v e n i e n t e x c u s e : " T h e y s e e m to r e a s o n in t h e f o l l o w i n g way: ' H e r e is an e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t y for g e t t i n g rid o f all t h e c h i l d r e n w h o t r o u b l e us,' a n d without the t r u e critical spirit, t h e y d e s i g n a t e all w h o a r e u n r u l y , o r disinterested

in

the school"

(1905,

p.

169).

B u t he feared even

more what has since b e e n called t h e "self-fulfilling p r o p h e s y . " A rigid label m a y set a

teacher's a t t i t u d e a n d e v e n t u a l l y d i v e r t a

child's b e h a v i o r i n t o a p r e d i c t e d p a t h : h is really too easy to discover signs of backwardness in an individual er

> one is forewarned. This would be to operate as the graphologists did

T H E

M I S M E A S U R E

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w h o , w h e n Dreyfus was believed to be guilty, discovered in his handwriting signs of a traitor or a spy" (1905, p. 170). N o t o n l y d i d B i n e t d e c l i n e t o label I Q a s i n b o r n i n t e l l i g e n c e ; h e also r e f u s e d to r e g a r d it as a g e n e r a l d e v i c e for r a n k i n g all p u p i l s a c c o r d i n g t o m e n t a l w o r t h . H e d e v i s e d his scale o n l y for t h e l i m i t e d p u r p o s e of his c o m m i s s i o n by the ministry of e d u c a t i o n : as a p r a c tical g u i d e for i d e n t i f y i n g c h i l d r e n w h o s e p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e indicated a n e e d for special e d u c a t i o n — t h o s e w h o w e w o u l d t o d a y call learning disabled or mildly retarded. Binet wrote (1908, p.

263):

" W e a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n that t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e u s e o f o u r scale will n o t b e its a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e n o r m a l p u p i l s , b u t r a t h e r t o t h o s e o f inferior g r a d e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . " A s t o t h e c a u s e s o f p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e , B i n e t r e f u s e d t o s p e c u l a t e . H i s tests, i n a n y case, c o u l d n o t decide (1905, p. 37): O u r p u r p o s e is to be able to measure the intellectual capacity of a child w h o is brought to us in o r d e r to know w h e t h e r he is normal or retarded. We should therefore study his condition at the time and that only. We have n o t h i n g to do either with his past history or with his future; consequently, we shall neglect his etiology, a n d we shall m a k e no attempt to distinguish b e t w e e n acquired a n d congenital idiocy. . . . A s t o that which concerns his future, we shall exercise the same abstinence; we do not attempt to establish or p r e p a r e a prognosis, and we leave u n a n s w e r e d the question of w h e t h e r this retardation is curable, or e v e n improvable. We shall limit ourselves to ascertaining the truth in regard to his present mental state. B u t o f o n e t h i n g B i n e t was s u r e : w h a t e v e r t h e c a u s e o f p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e in s c h o o l , t h e a i m of his scale was to identify in o r d e r t o h e l p a n d i m p r o v e , n o t t o label i n o r d e r t o limit. S o m e children m i g h t b e i n n a t e l y i n c a p a b l e o f n o r m a l a c h i e v e m e n t , b u t all could i m p r o v e with special h e l p . T h e difference between

strict h e r e d i t a r i a n s a n d

their o p p o -

nents is n o t , as s o m e caricatures s u g g e s t , t h e b e l i e f that a child's p e r f o r m a n c e is all i n b o r n or all a f u n c t i o n of e n v i r o n m e n t and l e a r n i n g . I d o u b t that t h e m o s t c o m m i t t e d a n t i h e r e d i t a r i a n s have ever d e n i e d the existence of innate variation a m o n g children. T h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e m o r e a m a t t e r of social policy a n d e d u c a t i o n a l practice. H e r e d i t a r i a n s v i e w their m e a s u r e s of i n t e l l i g e n c e as markers o f p e r m a n e n t , i n b o r n limits. C h i l d r e n , s o l a b e l e d , s h o u l d b e sorted,

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

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183

I Q

trained a c c o r d i n g t o their i n h e r i t a n c e a n d c h a n n e l e d i n t o p r o f e s sions a p p r o p r i a t e f o r their b i o l o g y . M e n t a l t e s t i n g b e c o m e s a t h e ory of limits. A n t i h e r e d i t a r i a n s , like B i n e t , test in o r d e r to identify a n d h e l p . W i t h o u t d e n y i n g t h e e v i d e n t fact that n o t all c h i l d r e n , w h a t e v e r their t r a i n i n g , will e n t e r t h e c o m p a n y o f N e w t o n a n d Einstein,

they

emphasize

the

power

of

creative

education

to

increase t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f all c h i l d r e n , o f t e n i n e x t e n s i v e a n d u n a n t i c i p a t e d ways. M e n t a l testing b e c o m e s a t h e o r y for e n h a n c i n g potential t h r o u g h p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n . Binet spoke eloquently of well-meaning teachers, c a u g h t in the u n w a r r a n t e d p e s s i m i s m o f their invalid h e r e d i t a r i a n a s s u m p t i o n s (1909, p p . 1 6 - 1 7 ) : As I know from e x p e r i e n c e , . . . they seem to admit implicitly that in a class where we find the best, we must also find the worst, a n d that this is a natural and

inevitable p h e n o m e n o n ,

with

which a teacher must not

become p r e o c c u p i e d , a n d that it is like the existence of rich a n d p o o r within a society. What a p r o f o u n d error. H o w can we h e l p a c h i l d if we label h i m as u n a b l e to a c h i e v e by biological p r o c l a m a t i o n ? If we do n o t h i n g , if we don't intervene actively and usefully, he will continue to lose time . . . a n d will finally b e c o m e discouraged. T h e situation is very serious for h i m , and since his is not an exceptional case (since children with defective c o m p r e h e n s i o n are legion), we might say that it is a serious question for all of us and for all of society. T h e child w h o loses the taste for work in class strongly risks b e i n g unable to acquire it after he leaves school (1909, p. 100). B i n e t railed a g a i n s t the m o t t o " s t u p i d i t y is f o r a l o n g t i m e " ("quand on est bete, c'estpour longtemps"), a n d u p b r a i d e d t e a c h e r s w h o "are not i n t e r e s t e d i n s t u d e n t s w h o lack i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e y h a v e neither s y m p a t h y n o r r e s p e c t for t h e m , a n d their i n t e m p e r a t e lang u a g e leads t h e m to say such t h i n g s in their p r e s e n c e as ' T h i s is a child w h o will n e v e r a m o u n t t o a n y t h i n g . . . h e i s poorly e n d o w e d • • • he is n o t i n t e l l i g e n t at all.' H o w o f t e n h a v e I h e a r d these i m p r u dent w o r d s " ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 100). B i n e t t h e n cites a n e p i s o d e i n his o w n baccalaureate w h e n o n e e x a m i n e r told h i m t h a t h e w o u l d n e v e r nave a " t r u e " p h i l o s o p h i c a l spirit:

"Never!

What a momentous

w

° r d . S o m e r e c e n t t h i n k e r s s e e m t o h a v e g i v e n their m o r a l s u p p o r t

t

o

these d e p l o r a b l e v e r d i c t s b y a f f i r m i n g that a n individual's intel-

184

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l i g e n c e is a fixed q u a n d t y , a q u a n t i t y t h a t c a n n o t be i n c r e a s e d . We m u s t p r o t e s t a n d r e a c t a g a i n s t this b r u t a l p e s s i m i s m ; w e m u s t try to demonstrate t h a t it is founded u p o n nothing" (1909, p. 101). T h e c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d b y Binet's test w e r e t o b e h e l p e d , n o t indelibly l a b e l e d . B i n e t h a d definite p e d a g o g i c a l s u g g e s t i o n s , a n d many

were

education

implemented.

must be

H e b e l i e v e d , f i r s t o f all,

that

special

tailored to the individual needs of disadvan-

t a g e d c h i l d r e n : i t m u s t b e b a s e d o n " t h e i r c h a r a c t e r a n d their aptit u d e s , a n d o n t h e n e c e s s i t y for a d a p t i n g o u r s e l v e s t o t h e i r n e e d s a n d their c a p a c i t i e s " ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 1 5 ) . B i n e t r e c o m m e n d e d small classr o o m s o f f i f t e e n t o t w e n t y s t u d e n t s , c o m p a r e d with sixty t o e i g h t y t h e n c o m m o n i n p u b l i c schools c a t e r i n g t o p o o r c h i l d r e n . I n p a r ticular, h e a d v o c a t e d

special m e t h o d s o f e d u c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g a

p r o g r a m that h e c a l l e d " m e n t a l o r t h o p e d i c s " : What they should learn first is not the subjects ordinarily taught, however important they may be; they should be given lessons of will, of attention, of discipline; b e f o r e exercises in grammar, they need to be exercised in mental orthopedics; in a word they must learn how to learn (1908, p.

257)Binet's i n t e r e s t i n g p r o g r a m of mental orthopedics included a set o f p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e s d e s i g n e d t o i m p r o v e , b y t r a n s f e r t o m e n t a l functioning, the will, attention, and discipline that Binet viewed as prerequisites

for

studying

academic

subjects.

In

one,

called

"Vexercise des statues," a n d d e s i g n e d to i n c r e a s e a t t e n t i o n s p a n , child r e n m o v e d v i g o r o u s l y until told t o a d o p t a n d retain a n i m m o b i l e position. (I p l a y e d this g a m e as a kid in t h e streets of N e w Y o r k ; w e also called i t " s t a t u e s . " ) E a c h d a y t h e p e r i o d o f i m m o b i l i t y w o u l d be increased.

In

another,

designed

to

improve

speed,

children

f i l l e d a p i e c e o f p a p e r with a s m a n y d o t s a s t h e y c o u l d p r o d u c e i n the allotted t i m e . B i n e t s p o k e w i t h p l e a s u r e a b o u t t h e success o f his special classrooms (1909, p.

1 0 4 ) a n d a r g u e d that p u p i l s s o b e n e f i t e d h a d not

o n l y i n c r e a s e d t h e i r k n o w l e d g e , b u t their i n t e l l i g e n c e a s well. Intell i g e n c e , i n a n y m e a n i n g f u l sense o f t h e w o r d , c a n b e a u g m e n t e d b y g o o d e d u c a t i o n ; it is not a fixed a n d inborn quantity: It is in this practical sense, the only one accessible to us, that we say that the intelligence of these children has been increased. We have increased what constitutes t h e intelligence of a pupil: the capacity to learn and to assimilate instruction.

T H E

The

H E R E D I T A R I A N

dismantling

of Binet's

T H E O R Y

OF

intentions

in

i8

I Q

3

America

I n s u m m a r y , B i n e t insisted u p o n t h r e e c a r d i n a l p r i n c i p l e s for u s i n g his tests. A l l his caveats w e r e later d i s r e g a r d e d , a n d his i n t e n tions o v e r t u r n e d , b y t h e A m e r i c a n h e r e d i t a r i a n s w h o t r a n s l a t e d his scale into w r i t t e n f o r m as a r o u t i n e d e v i c e for t e s t i n g all c h i l d r e n . 1. T h e scores are a practical d e v i c e ; t h e y d o n o t buttress a n y theory o f intellect. T h e y d o n o t d e f i n e a n y t h i n g i n n a t e o r p e r m a nent. W e m a y n o t d e s i g n a t e w h a t t h e y m e a s u r e a s " i n t e l l i g e n c e " o r any o t h e r reified entity. 2. T h e scale is a r o u g h , e m p i r i c a l g u i d e for i d e n t i f y i n g m i l d l y r e t a r d e d a n d l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n w h o n e e d special h e l p . I t is not a d e v i c e for r a n k i n g n o r m a l c h i l d r e n . 3. W h a t e v e r t h e c a u s e of difficulty in c h i l d r e n identified

for

h e l p , e m p h a s i s shall b e p l a c e d u p o n i m p r o v e m e n t t h r o u g h special training. L o w scores shall n o t b e u s e d t o m a r k c h i l d r e n a s i n n a t e l y incapable. I f Binet's p r i n c i p l e s h a d b e e n f o l l o w e d , a n d his tests consistently u s e d a s h e i n t e n d e d , w e w o u l d h a v e b e e n s p a r e d a m a j o r misuse o f science i n o u r c e n t u r y . I r o n i c a l l y , m a n y A m e r i c a n school boards h a v e c o m e full cycle, a n d n o w u s e I Q tests o n l y a s B i n e t originally

recommended:

as

instruments

for

assessing

children

with specific l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s . S p e a k i n g p e r s o n a l l y , I feel that tests o f t h e I Q t y p e w e r e h e l p f u l i n t h e p r o p e r d i a g n o s i s o f m y o w n learning-disabled son. H i s a v e r a g e score, t h e I Q itself, m e a n t n o t h ing, for i t was o n l y a n a m a l g a m o f s o m e v e r y h i g h a n d v e r y low scores; b u t t h e p a t t e r n o f low v a l u e s i n d i c a t e d his areas o f deficit. T h e m i s u s e o f m e n t a l tests i s n o t i n h e r e n t i n t h e i d e a o f t e s t i n g itself. It arises p r i m a r i l y f r o m t w o fallacies, e a g e r l y (so it seems) embraced b y t h o s e w h o wish t o u s e tests f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f social ranks a n d distinctions: reification a n d h e r e d i t a r i a n i s m . T h e next c h a p t e r shall treat r e i f i c a t i o n — t h e a s s u m p t i o n that test scores represent a s i n g l e , scalable t h i n g in t h e h e a d called g e n e r a l intelligence. T h e h e r e d i t a r i a n fallacy i s n o t t h e s i m p l e claim t h a t I Q i s t o some d e g r e e " h e r i t a b l e . " I h a v e no d o u b t t h a t it is, t h o u g h t h e e

g r e e has clearly b e e n e x a g g e r a t e d b y t h e m o s t a v i d h e r e d i t a r i -

a n s

- It is hard to find any broad aspect of h u m a n performance or

anatomy that has n o h e r i t a b l e c o m p o n e n t a t all. T h e h e r e d i t a r i a n a c

y resides i n t w o false implications d r a w n f r o m this basic fact:

i86

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1. T h e e q u a t i o n o f " h e r i t a b l e " with " i n e v i t a b l e . " T o a biologist, heritability refers t o t h e p a s s a g e o f traits o r t e n d e n c i e s a l o n g family lines as a result of g e n e t i c transmission. It says little a b o u t t h e r a n g e of e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o d i f i c a t i o n to w h i c h t h e s e traits are subject. In our vernacular, "inherited" often m e a n s "inevitable." But not to a biologist. G e n e s d o n o t m a k e specific bits a n d pieces o f a b o d y ; t h e y c o d e for a r a n g e o f f o r m s u n d e r a n a r r a y o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . M o r e o v e r , e v e n w h e n a trait has b e e n built a n d set, e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n t e r v e n t i o n m a y still m o d i f y i n h e r i t e d d e f e c t s . Millions o f A m e r i c a n s see n o r m a l l y t h r o u g h lenses that c o r r e c t i n n a t e deficiencies o f vision. T h e claim t h a t I Q i s s o - m a n y p e r c e n t " h e r i t a b l e " does

not

conflict

with

the

belief

that

enriched

education

can

increase w h a t we call, also in the v e r n a c u l a r , " i n t e l l i g e n c e . " A part i a l l y i n h e r i t e d l o w I Q m i g h t b e subject t o e x t e n s i v e i m p r o v e m e n t t h r o u g h p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n . A n d i t m i g h t not. T h e m e r e fact o f its heritability p e r m i t s n o c o n c l u s i o n . 2. T h e confusion of within- and b e t w e e n - g r o u p heredity. T h e major political i m p a c t o f h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o r i e s d o e s n o t arise f r o m t h e i n f e r r e d heritability of tests, b u t f r o m a logically invalid e x t e n sion. S t u d i e s o f t h e heritability o f I Q , p e r f o r m e d b y such traditional

m e t h o d s a s c o m p a r i n g scores o f relatives, o r c o n t r a s t i n g

scores o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n with b o t h their b i o l o g i c a l a n d legal parents, a r e all o f t h e " w i t h i n - g r o u p " t y p e — t h a t is, t h e y p e r m i t a n e s t i m a t e of heritability within a single, c o h e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n (white A m e r i c a n s , f o r e x a m p l e ) . T h e c o m m o n fallacy consists i n a s s u m i n g that i f h e r e d i t y e x p l a i n s a c e r t a i n p e r c e n t a g e o f variation a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n a g r o u p , it m u s t also e x p l a i n a similar p e r c e n t a g e of the

difference

blacks,

for e x a m p l e .

in

average

IQ

B u t variation

between

groups—whites

a m o n g individuals

and

within

a

g r o u p a n d d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n v a l u e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s a r e entirely s e p a r a t e p h e n o m e n a . O n e i t e m p r o v i d e s n o license f o r s p e c u l a t i o n about the other. A

hypothetical

and

noncontroversial

example

will

suffice.

H u m a n h e i g h t has a h i g h e r heritability t h a n a n y v a l u e e v e r p r o p o s e d for I Q . T a k e t w o s e p a r a t e g r o u p s o f m a l e s . T h e f i r s t , with an a v e r a g e h e i g h t of 5 f e e t 10 i n c h e s , live in a p r o s p e r o u s A m e r i can t o w n . T h e s e c o n d , with an a v e r a g e h e i g h t of 5 feet 6 inches, are s t a r v i n g in a t h i r d - w o r l d village. Heritability is 95 p e r c e n t or so in e a c h p l a c e — m e a n i n g o n l y that relatively tall fathers t e n d to h a v e

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

T H E O R Y

O F

I Q

tall sons a n d relatively short fathers s h o r t sons. T h i s h i g h w i t h i n g r o u p heritability a r g u e s n e i t h e r f o r n o r against t h e possibility that better n u t r i t i o n i n t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n m i g h t raise t h e a v e r a g e h e i g h t o f t h i r d - w o r l d villagers a b o v e t h a t o f p r o s p e r o u s A m e r i cans. L i k e w i s e , I Q c o u l d b e h i g h l y h e r i t a b l e w i t h i n g r o u p s , a n d t h e a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n whites a n d blacks i n A m e r i c a m i g h t still o n l y r e c o r d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s of blacks. I h a v e o f t e n b e e n f r u s t r a t e d with the f o l l o w i n g r e s p o n s e to this a d m o n i t i o n : " O h well, I see w h a t y o u m e a n , a n d y o u ' r e r i g h t i n theory. T h e r e m a y b e n o necessary c o n n e c t i o n i n logic, b u t isn't i t m o r e likely all t h e s a m e that m e a n d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s would

have

the

same

causes

as

variation

within

groups."

Tbe

answer is still " n o . " W i t h i n - a n d b e t w e e n - g r o u p h e r e d i t y are n o t tied by rising d e g r e e s of probability as heritability increases w i t h i n groups and differences enlarge between them. T h e two p h e n o m ena are s i m p l y s e p a r a t e . F e w a r g u m e n t s are m o r e d a n g e r o u s t h a n the o n e s that " f e e l " r i g h t b u t can't be justified. A l f r e d B i n e t a v o i d e d t h e s e fallacies a n d stuck b y his t h r e e p r i n ciples.

American

psychologists

perverted

Binet's

intention

and

i n v e n t e d t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o r y o f I Q . T h e y reified Binet's s c o r e s , and t o o k t h e m a s m e a s u r e s o f a n entity called i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e y assumed that i n t e l l i g e n c e was largely i n h e r i t e d , a n d d e v e l o p e d a series of s p e c i o u s a r g u m e n t s c o n f u s i n g cultural d i f f e r e n c e s with innate p r o p e r t i e s . T h e y b e l i e v e d that i n h e r i t e d I Q scores m a r k e d people and

groups

for

an

inevitable

station

in

life.

And

they

assumed that a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s w e r e largely t h e products o f h e r e d i t y , d e s p i t e m a n i f e s t a n d p r o f o u n d v a r i a t i o n i n quality of life. T h i s c h a p t e r a n a l y z e s the m a j o r w o r k s o f t h e t h r e e p i o n e e r s o f hereditarianism i n A m e r i c a : H . H . G o d d a r d , w h o b r o u g h t Binet's le to A m e r i c a a n d reified its scores as i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e ; L. M. e r m a n , w h o d e v e l o p e d t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t scale, a n d d r e a m e d o f a rational society t h a t w o u l d allocate p r o f e s s i o n s b y I Q scores; a n d R- M. Y e r k e s , w h o p e r s u a d e d the a r m y to test 1.75 million m e n in World W a r I , t h u s establishing t h e s u p p o s e d l y objective d a t a that vindicated h e r e d i t a r i a n claims a n d led t o t h e I m m i g r a t i o n Restriction A c t of 1 9 2 4 , with its low c e i l i n g for l a n d s s u f f e r i n g t h e b l i g h t °f poor genes. T h e hereditarian

theory

of IQ

is

a

home-grown

American

i88

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p r o d u c t . If this claim s e e m s p a r a d o x i c a l for a land with egalitarian traditions, r e m e m b e r also the jingoistic n a t i o n a l i s m o f W o r l d W a r I, t h e fear of e s t a b l i s h e d o l d A m e r i c a n s f a c i n g a tide of c h e a p (and s o m e t i m e s politically radical) labor i m m i g r a t i n g f r o m s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e , a n d a b o v e all o u r persistent, i n d i g e n o u s racism.

H. H. Goddard and the menace of the feeble-minded Intelligence

as

a

Mendelian

gene

G O D D A R D IDENTIFIES T H E M O R O N

It remains now for someone to determine the nature of feeble-mindedness and complete the theory of the intelligence quotient. — H. H. GODDARD, 1 9 1 7 , in a review of Terman, 1 9 1 6 T a x o n o m y is always a c o n t e n t i o u s issue b e c a u s e t h e w o r l d d o e s n o t c o m e t o u s i n n e a t little p a c k a g e s . T h e classification o f m e n t a l deficiency a r o u s e d a h e a l t h y d e b a t e early i n o u r c e n t u r y . T w o cate g o r i e s o f a tripartite a r r a n g e m e n t w o n g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e : idiots c o u l d n o t d e v e l o p full s p e e c h a n d h a d m e n t a l a g e s b e l o w t h r e e ; imbeciles

could

not

master

written

language

and

ranged

from

t h r e e to seven in m e n t a l a g e . ( B o t h t e r m s a r e n o w so e n t r e n c h e d i n t h e v e r n a c u l a r o f i n v e c t i v e s that few p e o p l e r e c o g n i z e their technical status in an o l d e r p s y c h o l o g y . ) Idiots a n d imbeciles c o u l d be c a t e g o r i z e d a n d s e p a r a t e d t o the satisfaction o f most professionals, for their affliction was sufficiently s e v e r e to w a r r a n t a d i a g n o s i s of t r u e p a t h o l o g y . T h e y a r e n o t like us. But

consider

the

nebulous

and

more

threatening

realm

of

" h i g h - g r a d e d e f e c t i v e s " — t h e p e o p l e w h o c o u l d b e t r a i n e d t o function in society, t h e ones w h o e s t a b l i s h e d a b r i d g e b e t w e e n p a t h o l o g y a n d n o r m a l i t y a n d t h e r e b y t h r e a t e n e d the t a x o n o m i c edifice. T h e s e p e o p l e , with m e n t a l a g e s o f e i g h t t o t w e l v e , w e r e called debile (or w e a k ) b y t h e F r e n c h . A m e r i c a n s a n d E n g l i s h m e n usually called them "feeble-minded," a term mired in hopeless ambiguity because o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i s t s u s e d f e e b l e - m i n d e d as a g e n e r i c t e r m for all mental defectives, not just those of h i g h grade. T a x o n o m i s t s o f t e n c o n f u s e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f a n a m e with the solution o f a p r o b l e m . H . H . G o d d a r d , t h e e n e r g e t i c a n d c r u s a d i n g d i r e c t o r o f r e s e a r c h a t t h e V i n e l a n d T r a i n i n g S c h o o l for FeebleM i n d e d Girls a n d B o y s i n N e w J e r s e y , m a d e this crucial error. H e d e v i s e d a n a m e for " h i g h - g r a d e " d e f e c t i v e s , a w o r d t h a t b e c a m e

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e n t r e n c h e d i n o u r l a n g u a g e t h r o u g h a series o f j o k e s that rivaled the k n o c k - k n o c k o r e l e p h a n t j o k e s o f o t h e r g e n e r a t i o n s . T h e m e t a p h o r i c a l w h i s k e r s o n these j o k e s a r e n o w s o l o n g that m o s t p e o p l e would probably grant an ancient p e d i g r e e to the n a m e . B u t G o d d a r d i n v e n t e d t h e w o r d i n o u r c e n t u r y . H e c h r i s t e n e d these p e o p l e " m o r o n s , " f r o m a G r e e k w o r d m e a n i n g foolish. G o d d a r d was t h e f i r s t p o p u l a r i z e r o f t h e B i n e t scale i n A m e r i c a . H e translated B i n e t ' s articles into E n g l i s h , a p p l i e d his tests, a n d a g i t a t e d for their g e n e r a l use. H e a g r e e d with B i n e t that t h e tests w o r k e d best i n i d e n t i f y i n g p e o p l e j u s t b e l o w t h e n o r m a l r a n g e — Goddard's newly christened morons. But the resemblance between B i n e t a n d G o d d a r d e n d s t h e r e . B i n e t r e f u s e d t o d e f i n e his scores a s " i n t e l l i g e n c e , " a n d w i s h e d t o identify i n o r d e r t o h e l p . G o d d a r d r e g a r d e d t h e scores as m e a s u r e s of a s i n g l e , i n n a t e entity.

He

wished t o identify i n o r d e r t o r e c o g n i z e limits, s e g r e g a t e , a n d c u r tail b r e e d i n g t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f a n e n d a n g e r e d A m e r i c a n stock, t h r e a t e n e d b y i m m i g r a t i o n f r o m w i t h o u t a n d b y prolific r e p r o d u c t i o n o f its f e e b l e - m i n d e d w i t h i n . A UNILINEAR SCALE OF INTELLIGENCE T h e a t t e m p t t o establish a u n i l i n e a r classification o f m e n t a l deficiency, a rising scale f r o m idiots to imbeciles to m o r o n s , e m b o d ies two c o m m o n fallacies p e r v a d i n g m o s t t h e o r i e s o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m d i s c u s s e d in this b o o k : t h e reification of i n t e l l i g e n c e as a single, m e a s u r a b l e entity; a n d t h e a s s u m p t i o n , e x t e n d i n g b a c k to M o r t o n ' s skulls ( p p . 8 2 — 1 0 1 ) a n d f o r w a r d to J e n s e n ' s u n i v e r s a l scaling of g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ( p p . 3 4 7 - 3 5 0 ) , that e v o l u t i o n is a tale of u n i l i n e a r

progress,

and

that

a

single

scale

ascending from

primitive t o a d v a n c e d r e p r e s e n t s t h e b e s t w a y o f o r d e r i n g variation. T h e c o n c e p t o f p r o g r e s s i s a d e e p p r e j u d i c e with a n a n c i e n t pedigree (Bury,

1920) a n d a subtle p o w e r , e v e n o v e r t h o s e w h o

would d e n y it explicitly ( N i s b e t , 1980). C a n the p l e t h o r a o f causes a n d p h e n o m e n a g r o u p e d u n d e r t h e rubric of m e n t a l deficiency possibly be o r d e r e d usefully on a single scale, with its i m p l i c a t i o n that e a c h p e r s o n o w e s his r a n k to t h e relative a m o u n t of a single s u b s t a n c e — a n d that m e n t a l deficiency means h a v i n g less t h a n m o s t ? C o n s i d e r s o m e p h e n o m e n a m i x e d U

P in the c o m m o n n u m b e r s o n c e a s s i g n e d t o d e f e c t i v e s o f h i g h

grade: g e n e r a l low-level m e n t a l r e t a r d a t i o n , specific l e a r n i n g disa-

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M I S M E A S U R E

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bilities c a u s e d b y local n e u r o l o g i c a l d a m a g e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s , cultural d i f f e r e n c e s , hostility t o testers. C o n s i d e r s o m e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l causes: i n h e r i t e d p a t t e r n s o f f u n c t i o n , g e n e t i c p a t h o l o g i e s arising a c c i d e n t a l l y a n d n o t p a s s e d i n family lines, c o n g e n ital brain d a m a g e c a u s e d b y m a t e r n a l illness d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y , b i r t h t r a u m a s , p o o r n u t r i t i o n o f fetuses a n d b a b i e s , a v a r i e t y o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s i n early a n d later life. Y e t , t o G o d d a r d , all p e o p l e with m e n t a l a g e s b e t w e e n e i g h t a n d t w e l v e w e r e m o r o n s , all t o b e t r e a t e d i n r o u g h l y t h e s a m e w a y : institutionalized o r carefully r e g u l a t e d , m a d e h a p p y b y c a t e r i n g t o their limits, a n d , a b o v e all, p r e v e n t e d f r o m b r e e d i n g . G o d d a r d m a y h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t u n s u b t l e h e r e d i t a r i a n o f all. H e u s e d his u n i l i n e a r scale o f m e n t a l deficiency t o identify intellig e n c e a s a single entity, a n d h e a s s u m e d that e v e r y t h i n g i m p o r t a n t a b o u t i t was i n b o r n a n d i n h e r i t e d i n family lines. H e w r o t e i n 1920 (quoted in T u d d e n h a m , 1962, p. 4 9 1 ) : Stated in its boldest form, o u r thesis is that the chief d e t e r m i n e r of h u m a n c o n d u c t is a unitary mental process which we call intelligence: that this process is c o n d i t i o n e d by a nervous m e c h a n i s m which is inborn: that the d e g r e e of efficiency to be attained by that nervous m e c h a n i s m and the c o n s e q u e n t grade of intellectual or mental level for each individual is d e t e r m i n e d by the kind of c h r o m o s o m e s that c o m e together with the union of the g e r m cells: that it is but little affected by any later influences except such serious accidents as may destroy part of the m e c h a n i s m . G o d d a r d e x t e n d e d t h e r a n g e o f social p h e n o m e n a c a u s e d b y differences

in

e v e r y t h i n g that

innate

intelligence

concerns us

until

it

encompassed

about h u m a n behavior.

almost

Beginning

with m o r o n s , a n d w o r k i n g u p t h e scale, h e a t t r i b u t e d m o s t u n d e sirable b e h a v i o r t o i n h e r i t e d m e n t a l deficiency o f t h e o f f e n d e r s . T h e i r p r o b l e m s a r e c a u s e d n o t o n l y b y s t u p i d i t y p e r se, b u t b y the link b e t w e e n d e f i c i e n t i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d i m m o r a l i t y . * H i g h intellig e n c e n o t o n l y p e r m i t s u s t o d o o u r s u m s ; i t also e n g e n d e r s the g o o d j u d g m e n t t h a t u n d e r l i e s all m o r a l b e h a v i o r . T h e intelligence controls the emotions and t h e e m o t i o n s are controlled in proportion to the d e g r e e of intelligence. . . . It follows that if there is *The link of morality to intelligence was a favorite eugenical theme. Thorndike (1940, pp. 264-265), refuting a popular impression that all monarchs are reprobates, cited a correlation coefficient of 0.56 for the estimated intelligence vs. the estimated morality of 269 male members of European royal families!

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little intelligence the emotions will be uncontrolled and whether they be strong or weak will result in actions that are unregulated, uncontrolled and, as experience proves, usually undesirable. T h e r e f o r e , w h e n we measure the intelligence of an individual and learn that he has so much less than normal as to c o m e within the g r o u p that we call feeble-minded, we have ascertained by far the most important fact about him (1919, p. 272). M a n y c r i m i n a l s , m o s t alcoholics a n d p r o s t i t u t e s , a n d e v e n t h e " n e ' e r d o wells" w h o s i m p l y d o n ' t fit i n , a r e m o r o n s : " W e k n o w what f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s is, a n d w e h a v e c o m e t o s u s p e c t all p e r s o n s w h o a r e i n c a p a b l e o f a d a p t i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o their e n v i r o n m e n t a n d l i v i n g u p t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f society o r a c t i n g sensibly, o f being feeble-minded" ( 1 9 1 4 , p. 571). A t the n e x t level o f t h e m e r e l y d u l l , w e f i n d t h e t o i l i n g m a s s e s , d o i n g what c o m e s naturally. " T h e p e o p l e w h o are d o i n g the d r u d g e r y , " G o d d a r d writes ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 4 6 ) , " a r e , a s a r u l e , i n t h e i r proper places."

We must next learn that there are great g r o u p s of m e n , laborers, w h o are but little above the child, who must be told what to do and shown how to do it; and w h o , if we would avoid disaster, must not be put into positions where they will have to act u p o n their own initiative or their own j u d g ment. . . . T h e r e are only a few leaders, most must be followers (1919, pp. 243-244). A t the u p p e r e n d , i n t e l l i g e n t m e n r u l e i n c o m f o r t a n d b y r i g h t . Speaking before a g r o u p of Princeton undergraduates in 1 9 1 9 , Goddard proclaimed:

N o w the fact is, that workmen may have a 10 year intelligence while you have a 20. To d e m a n d for him such a h o m e as you enjoy is as absurd as it would be to insist that every laborer should receive a graduate fellowship. How can there be such a thing as social equality with this wide range of mental capacity? " D e m o c r a c y , " G o d d a r d a r g u e d ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 3 7 ) , " m e a n s t h a t the p e o p l e r u l e b y s e l e c t i n g the wisest, m o s t i n t e l l i g e n t a n d m o s t h u m a n t o tell t h e m w h a t t o d o t o b e h a p p y . T h u s D e m o c r a c y i s a m e t h o d for a r r i v i n g at a truly b e n e v o l e n t aristocracy." BREAKING THE SCALE INTO MENDEL1AN COMPARTMENTS B u t i f i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r m s a single a n d u n b r o k e n scale, h o w c a n W

e

solve t h e social p r o b l e m s that b e s e t us? F o r a t o n e l e v e l , low

'ntelligence g e n e r a t e s s o c i o p a t h s , w h i l e a t t h e n e x t g r a d e , i n d u s -

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trial society n e e d s d o c i l e a n d d u l l w o r k e r s t o r u n its m a c h i n e r y a n d a c c e p t low r e c o m p e n c e . H o w c a n w e c o n v e r t t h e u n b r o k e n scale i n t o t w o c a t e g o r i e s at this crucial p o i n t , a n d still m a i n t a i n t h e i d e a t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e is a single, i n h e r i t e d entity? We c a n n o w u n d e r s t a n d w h y G o d d a r d lavished s o m u c h a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e m o r o n . T h e m o r o n t h r e a t e n s racial h e a l t h b e c a u s e h e r a n k s h i g h e s t a m o n g the undesirable and might, if not identified, be allowed to flourish a n d p r o p a g a t e . W e all r e c o g n i z e t h e idiot a n d i m b e c i l e a n d k n o w w h a t m u s t b e d o n e ; the scale m u s t b e b r o k e n j u s t a b o v e t h e level o f the m o r o n .

T h e idiot is not our greatest problem. He is indeed loathsome. . . . Nevertheless, he lives his life and is d o n e . He does not continue the race with a line of children like himself. . . . It is the moron type that makes for us our great problem (1912, p p . 101-102). G o d d a r d w o r k e d in the first flourish of e x c i t e m e n t that greeted the rediscovery of Mendel's work and

t h e basic d e c i p h e r i n g o f

h e r e d i t y . W e n o w k n o w that virtually e v e r y m a j o r f e a t u r e o f o u r b o d y i s built b y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f m a n y g e n e s with e a c h o t h e r a n d with a n e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t . B u t i n t h e s e early d a y s , m a n y biologists naively a s s u m e d that all h u m a n traits w o u l d b e h a v e like t h e c o l o r , size, o r w r i n k l i n g o f M e n d e l ' s p e a s : t h e y b e l i e v e d , i n short, that e v e n the m o s t c o m p l e x parts o f a b o d y m i g h t b e built b y single g e n e s , a n d that v a r i a t i o n i n a n a t o m y o r b e h a v i o r w o u l d r e c o r d the d i f f e r e n t d o m i n a n t a n d recessive f o r m s o f t h e s e g e n e s . E u g e n i c i s t s seized u p o n this foolish n o t i o n with avidity, f o r it a l l o w e d t h e m to assert t h a t all u n d e s i r a b l e traits m i g h t be t r a c e d to single g e n e s a n d e l i m i n a t e d with p r o p e r strictures u p o n b r e e d i n g . T h e early literat u r e o f e u g e n i c s i s f i l l e d with s p e c u l a t i o n s , a n d p e d i g r e e s laboriously c o m p i l e d a n d f u d g e d , a b o u t t h e g e n e for Wanderlust traced t h r o u g h t h e family lines o f n a v a l c a p t a i n s , o r the g e n e for t e m p e r a m e n t that m a k e s s o m e o f u s placid a n d o t h e r s d o m i n e e r i n g . W e m u s t n o t b e m i s l e d b y h o w silly such ideas s e e m t o d a y ; t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d o r t h o d o x g e n e t i c s f o r a b r i e f t i m e , a n d h a d a m a j o r social impact in America. G o d d a r d j o i n e d t h e transient b a n d w a g o n with a h y p o t h e s i s that m u s t r e p r e s e n t a n u l t i m a t e i n t h e a t t e m p t e d reification o f intellig e n c e . H e tried t o trace t h e p e d i g r e e s o f m e n t a l d e f e c t i v e s i n his V i n e l a n d School and c o n c l u d e d that "feeble-mindedness" obeyed M e n d e l i a n rules o f i n h e r i t a n c e . M e n t a l d e f i c i e n c y m u s t therefore

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be a definite t h i n g , a n d it m u s t be g o v e r n e d by a single g e n e , u n d o u b t e d l y recessive t o n o r m a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ( 1 9 1 4 , p . 539). " N o r m a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , " G o d d a r d c o n c l u d e d , " s e e m s t o b e a unit c h a r a c ter a n d t r a n s m i t t e d i n t r u e M e n d e l i a n f a s h i o n " ( 1 9 1 4 , p . ix). G o d d a r d c l a i m e d that h e h a d b e e n c o m p e l l e d t o m a k e this u n l i k e l y c o n c l u s i o n b y t h e press o f e v i d e n c e , not b y a n y p r i o r h o p e or prejudice. A n y theories or h y p o t h e s e s that have b e e n p r e s e n t e d have b e e n merely those that were suggested by the data themselves, and have b e e n worked out in an effort to u n d e r s t a n d what the data s e e m to comprise. S o m e of the conclusions are as surprising to the writer a n d as difficult for h i m to accept as they are likely to be to many readers ( 1 9 1 4 , p. viii). C a n w e seriously v i e w G o d d a r d a s a f o r c e d a n d r e l u c t a n t c o n vert to a h y p o t h e s i s that fit his g e n e r a l s c h e m e so well a n d s o l v e d his m o s t p r e s s i n g p r o b l e m so neatly? A single g e n e for n o r m a l intelligence r e m o v e d the p o t e n t i a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n a u n i linear scale that m a r k e d i n t e l l i g e n c e as a single, m e a s u r a b l e entity, a n d a desire to s e p a r a t e a n d identify t h e m e n t a l l y deficient as a c a t e g o r y a p a r t . G o d d a r d h a d b r o k e n his scale i n t o two sections a t j u s t the r i g h t p l a c e : m o r o n s c a r r i e d a d o u b l e d o s e o f the b a d recessive; dull laborers h a d a t least o n e c o p y o f t h e n o r m a l g e n e a n d c o u l d b e set b e f o r e their m a c h i n e s . M o r e o v e r , t h e s c o u r g e o f feeble-mindedness might now be eliminated by schemes of breeding easily p l a n n e d . O n e g e n e can b e t r a c e d , l o c a t e d , a n d b r e d o u t . I f one h u n d r e d genes regulate intelligence, eugenic b r e e d i n g must fail or p r o c e e d with h o p e l e s s sloth. THE PROPER CARE AND FEEDING (BUT NOT BREEDING) OF MORONS If m e n t a l d e f i c i e n c y is the effect of a single g e n e , t h e p a t h to its eventual e l i m i n a t i o n lies e v i d e n t l y b e f o r e us: d o not allow s u c h people to bear children: If both parents are f e e b l e - m i n d e d all the children will be feebleminded. It is obvious that such matings s h o u l d not be allowed. It is perfectly clear that no f e e b l e - m i n d e d person s h o u l d ever be allowed to marry or to b e c o m e a parent. It is obvious that if this rule is to be carried o u t the •ntelligent part of society must e n f o r c e it ( 1 9 1 4 , p. 561). I f m o r o n s c o u l d c o n t r o l their o w n s e x u a l u r g e s a n d desist for t u

e g o o d o f m a n k i n d , w e m i g h t p e r m i t t h e m t o live freely a m o n g

U s

- But they cannot, because immorality a n d stupidity are inexor-

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a b l y l i n k e d . T h e wise m a n c a n c o n t r o l his sexuality in a rational m a n n e r : " C o n s i d e r for a m o m e n t t h e sex e m o t i o n , s u p p o s e d t o b e t h e m o s t u n c o n t r o l l a b l e of all h u m a n instincts; yet it is n o t o r i o u s t h a t t h e i n t e l l i g e n t m a n c o n t r o l s e v e n this" ( 1 9 1 9 , p .

273). T h e

m o r o n cannot b e h a v e in so e x e m p l a r y a n d abstemious a fashion:

T h e y are not only lacking in control but they are lacking often in the perception of moral qualities; if they are not allowed to marry they are nevertheless not h i n d e r e d from becoming parents. So that if we are absolutely to prevent a feeble-minded person from becoming a parent, something must be d o n e other than merely prohibiting the marrying. To this e n d there are two proposals: the first is colonization, the second is sterilization (1914, p. 566). G o d d a r d did impractical

n o t o p p o s e sterilization, b u t h e r e g a r d e d i t a s

because

traditional

sensibilities

of a

society

not

yet

w h o l l y rational w o u l d p r e v e n t such w i d e s p r e a d m a y h e m . C o l o n i zation i n e x e m p l a r y institutions like his o w n a t V i n e l a n d , N e w J e r sey,

must

be

our

preferred

solution.

Only

here

could

the

r e p r o d u c t i o n o f m o r o n s b e c u r t a i l e d . I f the p u b l i c b a l k e d a t the great e x p e n s e of building so m a n y new centers for confinement, t h e cost c o u l d easily be r e c o u p e d by its o w n s a v i n g s :

If such colonies were provided in sufficient number to take care of all the distinctly feeble-minded cases in the community, they would very largely take the place of our present almshouses and prisons, and they would greatly decrease the numbers in our insane hospitals. Such colonies would save an annual loss in property and life, d u e to the action of these irresponsible people, sufficient to nearly, or quite, offset the e x p e n s e of the new plant (1912, p p . 105-106). I n s i d e t h e s e institutions, m o r o n s c o u l d o p e r a t e i n c o n t e n t m e n t a t their biologically a p p o i n t e d level, d e n i e d o n l y the basic b i o l o g y o f their o w n sexuality. G o d d a r d e n d e d his b o o k o n t h e causes o f m e n t a l deficiency with

this plea for t h e c a r e of institutionalized

m o r o n s : " T r e a t t h e m a s c h i l d r e n a c c o r d i n g t o their m e n t a l a g e , constantly e n c o u r a g e a n d praise, n e v e r d i s c o u r a g e o r scold; a n d

keep them happy" ( 1 9 1 9 , p. 3 2 7 ) . Preventing

the

immigration

and propagation

of morons

O n c e G o d d a r d h a d identified t h e c a u s e o f f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s i n a single g e n e , t h e c u r e s e e m e d s i m p l e e n o u g h : d o n ' t allow native

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m o r o n s to breed and k e e p foreign ones out. As a contribution to t h e s e c o n d s t e p , G o d d a r d a n d his associates visited Ellis I s l a n d in 1 9 1 2 "to o b s e r v e c o n d i t i o n s a n d offer a n y s u g g e s t i o n s a s t o w h a t might be d o n e to secure a m o r e t h o r o u g h examination of immig r a n t s for t h e p u r p o s e o f d e t e c t i n g m e n t a l d e f e c t i v e s " ( G o d d a r d , 1 9 1 7 , p. 253). As G o d d a r d described the scene, a fog h u n g over N e w Y o r k harbor that day a n d no immigrants could land. B u t o n e h u n d r e d were about ready to leave, w h e n G o d d a r d intervened: " W e picked out

one

young

man

whom

we

suspected

was

defective,

and,

t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r p r e t e r , p r o c e e d e d t o g i v e h i m t h e test. T h e b o y tested 8 b y t h e B i n e t scale. T h e i n t e r p r e t e r said, 'I c o u l d n o t h a v e d o n e that w h e n I c a m e t o this c o u n t r y , ' a n d s e e m e d t o t h i n k t h e test u n f a i r . W e c o n v i n c e d h i m that t h e b o y was d e f e c t i v e " ( G o d dard,

1913, p.

105).

E n c o u r a g e d b y this, o n e o f t h e f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e B i n e t scale i n A m e r i c a , G o d d a r d raised s o m e f u n d s for a m o r e t h o r o u g h s t u d y a n d , i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1 9 1 3 , s e n t t w o w o m e n t o Ellis I s l a n d f o r two a n d a half months. T h e y were instructed to pick out the feebleminded

by

sight,

a

task

that

Goddard

preferred

to

assign

to

w o m e n , t o w h o m h e g r a n t e d i n n a t e l y s u p e r i o r intuition: After a p e r s o n has h a d considerable e x p e r i e n c e in this work, he almost gets a sense of what a f e e b l e - m i n d e d p e r s o n is so that he can tell o n e afar off. T h e p e o p l e w h o are best at this work, a n d w h o I believe should do this work, are w o m e n . W o m e n s e e m to have closer observation than m e n . It was quite impossible for others to see h o w these two y o u n g w o m e n could pick out the f e e b l e - m i n d e d without the aid of the Binet test at all ( 1 9 1 3 , p. 106). G o d d a r d ' s w o m e n tested thirty-five J e w s , t w e n t y - t w o H u n g a r ians, f i f t y Italians, a n d forty-five Russians. T h e s e g r o u p s c o u l d n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s r a n d o m s a m p l e s b e c a u s e g o v e r n m e n t officials h a d already " c u l l e d o u t t h o s e t h e y r e c o g n i z e d a s d e f e c t i v e . " T o b a l a n c e this bias, G o d d a r d a n d his associates " p a s s e d b y t h e o b v i o u s l y n o r mal. T h a t left u s t h e g r e a t mass o f ' a v e r a g e i m m i g r a n t s . ' " ( 1 9 1 7 , p . 244). ( I a m c o n t i n u a l l y a m a z e d b y t h e u n c o n s c i o u s s t a t e m e n t s o f prejudice t h a t slip i n t o s u p p o s e d l y objective a c c o u n t s . N o t e h e r e that a v e r a g e i m m i g r a n t s are b e l o w n o r m a l , o r a t least n o t o b v i o u s l y n o r m a l — t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t G o d d a r d was s u p p o s e d l y testing, n o t asserting a priori.)

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B i n e t tests on t h e f o u r g r o u p s led to an a s t o u n d i n g result: 83 percent of the Jews, 80 percent of the H u n g a r i a n s , 79 percent of t h e Italians, a n d 8 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e Russians w e r e f e e b l e - m i n d e d — t h a t is, b e l o w a g e t w e l v e o n t h e B i n e t scale. G o d d a r d h i m s e l f was f l a b b e r g a s t e d : c o u l d a n y o n e b e m a d e t o b e l i e v e that four-fifths o f a n y n a t i o n w e r e m o r o n s ? " T h e results o b t a i n e d b y t h e f o r e g o i n g e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e d a t a are s o s u r p r i s i n g a n d difficult o f a c c e p t a n c e t h a t t h e y c a n h a r d l y stand b y t h e m s e l v e s a s v a l i d " ( 1 9 1 7 , p . 2 4 7 ) . P e r h a p s t h e tests h a d n o t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n e d b y i n t e r p r e t ers? B u t t h e J e w s h a d b e e n tested b y a Y i d d i s h - s p e a k i n g p s y c h o l o gist, a n d t h e y r a n k e d n o h i g h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r g r o u p s . E v e n t u a l l y , G o d d a r d m o n k i e d a b o u t with t h e tests, tossed several o u t , a n d g o t his figures d o w n to 40 to 50 p e r c e n t , b u t still he was d i s t u r b e d . G o d d a r d ' s figures were even more absurd than he imagined f o r t w o r e a s o n s , o n e o b v i o u s , t h e o t h e r less so. A s a n o n e v i d e n t r e a s o n , G o d d a r d ' s o r i g i n a l translation o f t h e B i n e t scale s c o r e d p e o p l e h a r s h l y a n d m a d e m o r o n s o u t o f subjects usually r e g a r d e d a s n o r m a l . W h e n T e r m a n d e v i s e d t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t scale i n 1 9 1 6 , h e f o u n d t h a t G o d d a r d ' s v e r s i o n r a n k e d p e o p l e well b e l o w his o w n . T e r m a n r e p o r t s ( 1 9 1 6 , p . 62) that o f 104 a d u l t s tested b y h i m a s b e t w e e n t w e l v e a n d f o u r t e e n years m e n t a l a g e (low, b u t n o r m a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ) , 5 0 p e r c e n t w e r e m o r o n s o n t h e G o d d a r d scale. For the evident reason, consider a g r o u p of frightened men and w o m e n w h o speak no English and w h o have just e n d u r e d an o c e a n i c v o y a g e i n s t e e r a g e . M o s t are p o o r a n d h a v e n e v e r g o n e t o s c h o o l ; m a n y h a v e n e v e r h e l d a pencil o r p e n i n their h a n d . T h e y m a r c h o f f t h e boat; o n e o f G o d d a r d ' s intuitive w o m e n takes t h e m a s i d e shortly t h e r e a f t e r , sits t h e m d o w n , h a n d s t h e m a p e n c i l , a n d asks t h e m to r e p r o d u c e on p a p e r a figure s h o w n to t h e m a m o m e n t a g o , b u t n o w w i t h d r a w n f r o m their sight. C o u l d their failure b e a result o f testing c o n d i t i o n s , o f w e a k n e s s , fear, o r c o n f u s i o n , r a t h e r t h a n o f i n n a t e s t u p i d i t y ? G o d d a r d c o n s i d e r e d t h e possibility, b u t rejected it: T h e next question is 'drawing a design from m e m o r y , ' which is passed by only 50 percent. To the uninitiated this will not s e e m surprising since it looks hard, and e v e n those w h o are familiar with the fact that normal children of 10 pass it without difficulty may admit that persons w h o have never had a p e n or pencil in their h a n d s , as was true of many of the immigrants, may find it impossible to draw the design ( 1 9 1 7 , p. 250).

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797

I Q

P e r m i t t i n g a c h a r i t a b l e v i e w o f this failure, w h a t b u t s t u p i d i t y c o u l d e x p l a i n a n inability t o state m o r e t h a n sixty w o r d s , a n y w o r d s , i n one's o w n l a n g u a g e d u r i n g three minutes? What shall we say of the fact that only 45 percent can give 60 words in three minutes, w h e n normal children of 11 years sometimes give 200 words in that time! It is hard to find an explanation except lack of intellig e n c e or lack of vocabulary, a n d such a lack of vocabulary in an adult would probably m e a n lack of intelligence. H o w could a person live even 15 years in any e n v i r o n m e n t without learning h u n d r e d s of names of which he c o u l d certainly think of 60 in three minutes? ( 1 9 1 7 , p. 251) Or ignorance of the date, or even the m o n t h or year? Must we again c o n c l u d e that the E u r o p e a n peasant of the type that immigrates to America pays no attention to the passage of time? T h a t the d r u d g e r y of life is so severe that he cares not w h e t h e r it is January or July, w h e t h e r it is 1912 or 1906? Is it possible that t h e person may be of considerable intelligence a n d yet, because of the peculiarity of his e n v i r o n m e n t , not have acquired this ordinary bit of k n o w l e d g e , e v e n t h o u g h the calendar is not in general use on the continent, or is s o m e w h a t complicated as in Russia? If so what an e n v i r o n m e n t it must have b e e n ! ( 1 9 1 7 , p. 250) Since e n v i r o n m e n t , either E u r o p e a n or immediate, could not e x p l a i n s u c h abject failure, G o d d a r d stated: " W e c a n n o t e s c a p e t h e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s e i m m i g r a n t s w e r e o f s u r p r i s i n g l y low intelligence" ( 1 9 1 7 , p. bothered

251). T h e high

p r o p o r t i o n o f m o r o n s still

G o d d a r d , b u t h e finally a t t r i b u t e d i t t o t h e c h a n g i n g

c h a r a c t e r o f i m m i g r a t i o n : "It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e i m m i g r a t i o n of r e c e n t y e a r s is of a d e c i d e d l y d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r f r o m t h e e a r l y i m m i g r a t i o n . . . . We a r e n o w g e t t i n g t h e p o o r e s t of e a c h r a c e "

( 9 7> 1

1

P- 2 6 6 ) . " T h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e a v e r a g e 'third class' i m m i -

g r a n t i s low, p e r h a p s o f m o r o n g r a d e " ( 1 9 1 7 , p .

243).

Perhaps,

G o d d a r d h o p e d out loud, things were better on the u p p e r decks, b u t h e d i d n o t test t h e s e w e a l t h i e r c u s t o m e r s . W h a t t h e n s h o u l d b e d o n e ? S h o u l d all t h e s e m o r o n s b e s h i p p e d back, o r p r e v e n t e d f r o m s t a r t i n g o u t i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e ? F o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e restrictions that w o u l d b e legislated w i t h i n a d e c a d e , G o d d a r d a r g u e d that his c o n c l u s i o n s " f u r n i s h i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d erations for f u t u r e actions b o t h scientific a n d social as well as l e g islative" ( 1 9 1 7 , p . 2 6 1 ) . B u t b y this t i m e G o d d a r d h a d s o f t e n e d his earlier h a r s h p o s i t i o n o n t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f m o r o n s . P e r h a p s t h e r e

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JQC?

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

MAN

w e r e n o t e n o u g h m e r e l y d u l l w o r k e r s t o f i l l t h e vast n u m b e r o f frankly u n d e s i r a b l e j o b s . T h e m o r o n m i g h t h a v e t o b e r e c r u i t e d : " T h e y do a g r e a t d e a l of w o r k that no o n e else will d o . . . . T h e r e is an immense amount of drudgery to be done, an immense amount o f w o r k f o r w h i c h w e d o n o t wish t o p a y e n o u g h t o s e c u r e m o r e i n t e l l i g e n t w o r k e r s . . . . M a y it be that possibly t h e m o r o n has his place" ( 1 9 1 7 , p. 269). Nonetheless,

Goddard

rejoiced

in

the

general

tightening of

s t a n d a r d s for a d m i s s i o n . H e r e p o r t s that d e p o r t a t i o n s for m e n t a l deficiency i n c r e a s e d 3 5 0 p e r c e n t i n

1913 and 570 percent in

1914

o v e r t h e a v e r a g e o f the f i v e p r e c e d i n g years:

This was d u e to the untiring efforts of the physicians w h o were inspired by the belief that mental tests could be used for the detection of feeble-minded aliens. . . . If the American public wishes feeble-minded aliens excluded, it must d e m a n d that congress provide the necessary facilities at the ports of entry (1917, p. 271). M e a n w h i l e , at h o m e , the feeble-minded must be identified and k e p t f r o m b r e e d i n g . I n several s t u d i e s , G o d d a r d e x p o s e d t h e m e n ace o f m o r o n i t y b y p u b l i s h i n g p e d i g r e e s o f h u n d r e d s o f w o r t h l e s s souls, c h a r g e s u p o n t h e state a n d c o m m u n i t y , w h o w o u l d n e v e r h a v e b e e n b o r n h a d their f e e b l e - m i n d e d f o r e b e a r s b e e n d e b a r r e d from reproduction.

G o d d a r d d i s c o v e r e d a stock o f p a u p e r s a n d

n e ' e r - d o - w e l l s i n t h e p i n e b a r r e n s o f N e w J e r s e y a n d t r a c e d their a n c e s t r y b a c k t o t h e illicit u n i o n o f a n u p s t a n d i n g m a n with a s u p p o s e d l y f e e b l e - m i n d e d t a v e r n w e n c h . T h e s a m e m a n later m a r r i e d a w o r t h y Q u a k e r e s s a n d started a n o t h e r line c o m p o s e d w h o l l y o f u p s t a n d i n g citizens. S i n c e t h e p r o g e n i t o r h a d f a t h e r e d b o t h a g o o d a n d a b a d line, G o d d a r d c o m b i n e d t h e G r e e k w o r d s for b e a u t y (kallos) a n d b a d (kakos), a n d a w a r d e d h i m t h e p s e u d o n y m M a r t i n K a l l i k a k . G o d d a r d ' s Kallikak family f u n c t i o n e d as a p r i m a l m y t h o f t h e e u g e n i c s m o v e m e n t for several d e c a d e s . G o d d a r d ' s s t u d y is little m o r e t h a n g u e s s w o r k r o o t e d in c o n c l u sions set f r o m t h e start. H i s m e t h o d , a s a l w a y s , r e s t e d u p o n the t r a i n i n g o f intuitive w o m e n sight. shacks.

Goddard

did

Goddard's

unbounded.

In

not faith

to recognize the feeble-minded by

administer in

visual

Binet

1919 he analyzed Edwin

M a n With T h e H o e " :

tests

identification

in

pine-barren was

virtually

Markham's poem " T h e

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Bowed by the weight of centuries he leans U p o n his h o e and gazes at the g r o u n d , T h e emptiness of ages in his face A n d on his back the burden of the world. . . . M a r k h a m ' s p o e m h a d b e e n i n s p i r e d b y Millet's f a m o u s p a i n t i n g o f the s a m e n a m e . T h e p o e m , G o d d a r d c o m p l a i n e d ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 3 9 ) , " s e e m s t o i m p l y t h a t t h e m a n Millet p a i n t e d c a m e t o his c o n d i t i o n a s t h e result o f social c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h h e l d h i m d o w n a n d m a d e h i m like t h e c l o d s t h a t h e t u r n e d o v e r . " N o n s e n s e , e x c l a i m e d G o d d a r d ; m o s t p o o r p e a s a n t s suffer o n l y f r o m t h e i r o w n f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s , a n d Millet's p a i n t i n g p r o v e s it. C o u l d n ' t M a r k h a m see that the p e a s a n t i s m e n t a l l y deficient? "Millet's M a n W i t h T h e H o e i s a m a n of a r r e s t e d m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t — t h e p a i n t i n g is a p e r f e c t picture o f a n i m b e c i l e " ( 1 9 1 9 , p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 ) . T o M a r k h a m ' s s e a r i n g question: " W h o s e b r e a t h blew o u t t h e l i g h t within this b r a i n ? " G o d d a r d r e p l i e d t h a t m e n t a l fire h a d n e v e r b e e n k i n d l e d . Since G o d d a r d c o u l d d e t e r m i n e d e g r e e s o f m e n t a l deficiency b y e x a m i n i n g a p a i n t i n g , h e certainly a n t i c i p a t e d n o t r o u b l e with flesh and blood. He dispatched the redoubtable Ms. Kite, soon to see f u r t h e r service o n Ellis I s l a n d , t o t h e p i n e b a r r e n s a n d q u i c k l y p r o d u c e d t h e sad p e d i g r e e o f t h e k a k o s line. G o d d a r d d e s c r i b e s o n e o f M s . Kite's identifications ( 1 9 1 2 , p p .

77-78):

Used as she was to the sights of misery and degradation, she was hardly prepared for the spectacle within. T h e father, a strong, healthy, broadshouldered m a n , was sitting helplessly in a corner. . . . T h r e e children, scantily clad and with shoes that would barely hold together, stood about with drooping jaws and the unmistakable look of the feeble-minded. . . . T h e whole family was a living demonstration of the futility of trying to make desirable citizens from defective stock through making and enforcing compulsory education laws. . . . T h e father himself, though strong and vigorous, showed by his face that he had only a child's mentality. T h e mother in her filth and rags was also a child. In this house of abject poverty, only o n e sure prospect was ahead, that it would produce more feeble-minded children with which to clog the wheels of h u m a n progress. If these s p o t identifications s e e m a bit hasty or d u b i o u s , c o n f e r e

Goddard's

method

for

inferring

the

mental

P a r t e d , or otherwise unavailable ( 1 9 1 2 , p. 15):

state

of the

5.7

An honest picture of Deborah, the Kallikak descendant living in

Goddard's institution.

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20I

After s o m e experience, the field worker becomes expert in inferring the condition of those persons who are not seen, from the similarity of the language used in describing them to that used in describing persons she has seen. It m a y be a small i t e m in the m i d s t of such a b s u r d i t y , b u t I d i s c o v e r e d a bit o f m o r e c o n s c i o u s s k u l d u g g e r y . M y c o l l e a g u e Stev e n S e l d e n a n d I w e r e e x a m i n i n g his c o p y o f G o d d a r d ' s v o l u m e o f the Kallikaks. T h e f r o n t i s p i e c e s h o w s a m e m b e r o f t h e kakos line, saved f r o m d e p r a v i t y b y c o n f i n e m e n t i n G o d d a r d ' s institution a t V i n e l a n d . D e b o r a h , as G o d d a r d calls h e r , is a b e a u t i f u l w o m a n (Fig. 5 . 1 ) . S h e sits c a l m l y in a w h i t e dress, r e a d i n g a b o o k , a cat l y i n g c o m f o r t a b l y o n h e r l a p . T h r e e o t h e r plates s h o w m e m b e r s o f the k a k o s line, l i v i n g in p o v e r t y in their rural shacks. A l l h a v e a d e p r a v e d look a b o u t t h e m (Fig. 5.2). T h e i r m o u t h s a r e sinister i n a p p e a r a n c e ; their e y e s a r e d a r k e n e d slits. B u t G o d d a r d ' s b o o k s are nearly s e v e n t y years o l d , a n d t h e ink has f a d e d . It is n o w clear that all t h e p h o t o s o f n o n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d k a k o s w e r e a l t e r e d b y i n s e r t i n g heavy d a r k lines t o g i v e e y e s a n d m o u t h s their diabolical a p p e a r ance. T h e t h r e e plates o f D e b o r a h are u n r e t o u c h e d . S e l d e n t o o k his b o o k t o M r . J a m e s H . Wallace, Jr., d i r e c t o r o f P h o t o g r a p h i c S e r v i c e s a t the S m i t h s o n i a n Institution. M r . W a l l a c e reports (letter to S e l d e n , 1 7 M a r c h 1980):

T h e r e can be no doubt that the photographs of the Kallikak family m e m bers have been retouched. Further, it appears that this retouching was limited to the facial features of the individuals involved—specifically eyes, eyebrows, mouths, nose and hair. By contemporary standards, this retouching is extremely crude and obvious. It should be r e m e m b e r e d , however, that at the time of the original publication of the book, our society was far less visually sophisticated. T h e widespread use of photographs was limited, and casual viewers of the time would not have nearly the comparative ability possessed by even preteenage children today. . . . T h e harshness clearly gives the appearance of dark, staring features, sometimes evilness, and sometimes mental retardation. It would be difficult to understand why any of this retouching was d o n e were it not to give the viewer a false impression of the characteristics of those depicted. I believe the fact that no other areas of the photographs, or the individuals have been retouched is significant in this regard also. . . . I find these photographs to be an extremely interesting variety of photographic manipulation.

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recants

B y 1928 G o d d a r d h a d c h a n g e d his m i n d a n d b e c o m e a latterd a y s u p p o r t e r o f t h e m a n w h o s e w o r k h e h a d originally p e r v e r t e d , A l f r e d B i n e t . G o d d a r d a d m i t t e d , first o f all, that h e h a d set the u p p e r limit o f m o r o n i t y far t o o h i g h :

It was for a time rather carelessly assumed that everybody w h o tested 12 years or less was feeble-minded. . . . We now know, of course, that only a small percentage of the people w h o test 12 are actually feeble-minded— that is, are incapable of managing their affairs with ordinary p r u d e n c e or of c o m p e t i n g in the struggle for existence (1928, p. 220). B u t g e n u i n e m o r o n s still a b o u n d a t their r e d e f i n e d level. W h a t shall b e d o n e with t h e m ? G o d d a r d d i d n o t a b a n d o n his b e l i e f i n their i n h e r i t e d m e n t a l i t y , b u t h e n o w t o o k Binet's line a n d a r g u e d t h a t m o s t , if n o t all, c o u l d be t r a i n e d to l e a d u s e f u l lives in society:

T h e problem of the m o r o n is a problem of education and training. . . . This may surprise you, but frankly when I see what has been m a d e out of the m o r o n by a system of education, which as a rule is only half right, I have no difficulty in concluding that when we get an education that is entirely right there will be no morons w h o cannot m a n a g e themselves and their affairs and c o m p e t e in the struggle for existence. If we could h o p e to add to this a social order that would literally give every man a chance, I should be perfectly sure of the result (1928, p p . 223-224). B u t i f w e let m o r o n s live i n society, will t h e y n o t m a r r y a n d b e a r children;

is

this

not the

g r e a t e s t d a n g e r o f all,

the

source of

G o d d a r d ' s previous and passionate warnings?

S o m e will object that this plan neglects the eugenic aspect of the problem. In the community, these morons will marry and have children. A n d why not? . . . It may still be objected that moron parents are likely to have imbecile or idiot children. T h e r e is not much evidence that this is the case. T h e danger is probably negligible. At least it is not likely to occur any

5*2 Altered photographs of members of the Kallikak family living in poverty in the N e w Jersey pine barrens. N o t e how mouths and eyebrows are accentuated to produce an appearance of evil or stupidity. T h e effect is much clearer on the original photographs produced in Goddard's book.

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OF

M A N

oftener than it does in the general population.* I assume that most of you, like myself, will find it difficult to admit that the foregoing may be the true view. We have worked too long u n d e r the old concept (1928, p p . 2 2 3 224). G o d d a r d c o n c l u d e d ( 1 9 2 8 , p . 225) i n r e v e r s i n g t h e t w o b u l w a r k s o f his f o r m e r system:

1. Feeble-mindedness (the moron) \snot incurable [Goddard's italics]. 2. T h e feeble-minded do not generally need to be segregated in institutions. " A s for myself," G o d d a r d c o n f e s s e d (p. 224), " I t h i n k I h a v e g o n e over to the enemy."

Lewis M. Terman and the mass marketing of innate IQ Without offering any data on all that occurs between conception and the age of kindergarten, they announce on the basis of what they have got out of a few thousand questionnaires that they are measuring the hereditary mental endowment of human beings. Obviously, this is not a conclusion obtained by research. It is a conclusion planted by the will to believe. It is, I think, for the most part unconsciously planted. . . . If the impression takes root that these tests really measure intelligence, that they constitute a sort of last judgment on the child's capacity, that they reveal "scientifically" his predestined ability, then it would be a thousand times better if all the intelligence testers and all their questionnaires were sunk without warning in the Sargasso Sea. — WALTER LIPPMANN, in the course of a debate with Lewis Terman Mass

testing

and

the

Stanford-Binet

L e w i s M . T e r m a n , t h e twelfth child i n a n I n d i a n a f a r m family o f f o u r t e e n , t r a c e d his interest i n t h e s t u d y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t o a n itinerant book

peddler and

phrenologist

who

visited

his

home

w h e n h e was n i n e o r ten a n d p r e d i c t e d g o o d t h i n g s after f e e l i n g t h e b u m p s o n his skull. T e r m a n p u r s u e d this early interest, n e v e r d o u b t i n g that a m e a s u r a b l e m e n t a l w o r t h lay i n s i d e p e o p l e ' s h e a d s . In

his

doctoral

dissertation

of

1906,

Terman

examined

seven

" b r i g h t " a n d s e v e n " s t u p i d " b o y s a n d d e f e n d e d e a c h o f his tests a s a m e a s u r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e b y a p p e a l i n g t o the s t a n d a r d c a t a l o g u e o f

*Do not read into this statement more than Goddard intended. He had not abandoned his belief in the heritability of moronity itself. Moron parents will have moron children, but they can be made useful through education. Moron parents, however, do not preferentially beget defectives oflower grade—idiots and imbeciles.

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racial a n d n a d o n a l s t e r e o t y p e s . O f tests for i n v e n t i o n , h e w r o t e : " W e h a v e o n l y t o c o m p a r e t h e n e g r o with t h e E s k i m o o r I n d i a n , a n d t h e A u s t r a l i a n n a t i v e with t h e A n g l o - S a x o n , t o b e struck b y a n a p p a r e n t k i n s h i p b e t w e e n g e n e r a l intellectual a n d i n v e n t i v e ability" ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 14). O f m a t h e m a t i c a l ability, h e p r o c l a i m e d ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 29): " E t h n o l o g y s h o w s that racial p r o g r e s s has b e e n closely p a r a l leled b y d e v e l o p m e n t o f the ability t o d e a l with m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n cepts a n d r e l a t i o n s . " T e r m a n c o n c l u d e d his study b y c o m m i t t i n g b o t h o f t h e fallacies identified o n p . 1 8 5

a s f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n view. H e

reified a v e r a g e test scores as a " t h i n g " called g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e b y a d v o c a t i n g t h e f i r s t o f t w o possible positions ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 9): "Is intellectual ability a b a n k a c c o u n t , on w h i c h we can d r a w f o r a n y d e s i r e d p u r p o s e , or is it r a t h e r a b u n d l e of s e p a r a t e d r a f t s , e a c h d r a w n for a specific p u r p o s e a n d i n c o n v e r t i b l e ? " A n d , while a d m i t t i n g that h e c o u l d p r o v i d e n o real s u p p o r t f o r it, h e d e f e n d e d t h e innatist v i e w ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 68): " W h i l e o f f e r i n g little positive d a t a o n the subject, t h e s t u d y has s t r e n g t h e n e d m y i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e relatively g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e of e n d o w m e n t o v e r t r a i n i n g as a d e t e r m i n a n t o f a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s intellectual r a n k a m o n g his fellows." G o d d a r d i n t r o d u c e d Binet's scale t o A m e r i c a , b u t T e r m a n was the p r i m a r y a r c h i t e c t o f its p o p u l a r i t y . Binet's last v e r s i o n o f 1 9 1 1 i n c l u d e d f i f t y - f o u r tasks, g r a d e d f r o m p r e n u r s e r y t o m i d - t e e n - a g e years. T e r m a n ' s f i r s t revision o f 1 9 1 6 e x t e n d e d t h e scale t o " s u p e rior a d u l t s " a n d i n c r e a s e d t h e - n u m b e r o f tasks t o ninety. T e r m a n , by t h e n a p r o f e s s o r at S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , g a v e his revision a n a m e that has b e c o m e p a r t o f o u r c e n t u r y ' s v o c a b u l a r y — t h e S t a n f o r d B i n e t , t h e s t a n d a r d f o r virtually all " I Q " tests t h a t f o l l o w e d . * I offer n o d e t a i l e d analysis o f c o n t e n t (see B l o c k a n d D w o r k i n , 1976 or C h a s e , 1977), but present two e x a m p l e s to show h o w T e r man's tests stressed c o n f o r m i t y with e x p e c t a t i o n a n d d o w n g r a d e d original r e s p o n s e . W h e n e x p e c t a t i o n s are society's n o r m s , t h e n d o "Terman (1919) provided a lengthy list of the attributes of general intelligence captured by the Stanford-Binet tests: memory, language comprehension, size of vocabulary, orientation in space and time, eye-hand coordination, knowledge of familiar things, judgment, likeness and differences, arithmetical reasoning, resourcefulness and ingenuity in difficult practical situations, ability to detect absurdities, speed and richness of association of ideas, power to combine the dissected parts of a form board or a group of ideas into a unitary whole, capacity to generalize from particulars, and ability to deduce a rule from connected facts.

206

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t h e tests m e a s u r e s o m e abstract p r o p e r t y o f r e a s o n i n g , o r familiarity with c o n v e n t i o n a l b e h a v i o r ? T e r m a n a d d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m to B i n e t ' s list:

An Indian who had c o m e to town for the first time in his life saw a white man riding along the street. As the white man rode by, the Indian said—'The white man is lazy; he walks sitting down.' What was the white man riding on that caused the Indian to say, 'He walks sitting down.' T e r m a n a c c e p t e d " b i c y c l e " a s t h e o n l y c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e — n o t cars o r o t h e r vehicles b e c a u s e legs d o n ' t g o u p a n d d o w n i n t h e m ; n o t h o r s e s (the m o s t c o m m o n " i n c o r r e c t " answer) b e c a u s e a n y selfr e s p e c t i n g I n d i a n w o u l d h a v e k n o w n w h a t h e was l o o k i n g at. ( I m y s e l f a n s w e r e d " h o r s e , " b e c a u s e I saw t h e I n d i a n as a c l e v e r i r o n ist, criticizing an e f f e t e city relative.) S u c h o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e s as "a cripple in a wheel chair," and "a person riding on someone's back" w e r e also m a r k e d w r o n g . Terman

also

included

this

item

from

Binet's

original:

"My

n e i g h b o r has b e e n h a v i n g q u e e r visitors. First a d o c t o r c a m e t o his h o u s e , t h e n a l a w y e r , t h e n a minister. W h a t d o y o u t h i n k h a p p e n e d t h e r e ? " T e r m a n p e r m i t t e d little latitude b e y o n d " a d e a t h , " t h o u g h h e d i d allow " a m a r r i a g e " f r o m a b o y h e d e s c r i b e d a s " a n e n l i g h t e n e d y o u n g e u g e n i s t " w h o r e p l i e d that the d o c t o r c a m e t o see i f t h e p a r t n e r s w e r e fit, t h e l a w y e r t o a r r a n g e , a n d t h e m i n i s t e r t o tie the knot. He did not accept the combination "divorce a n d remarr i a g e , " t h o u g h h e r e p o r t s that a c o l l e a g u e i n R e n o , N e v a d a , h a d f o u n d t h e r e s p o n s e " v e r y , v e r y c o m m o n . " H e also d i d n o t p e r m i t p l a u s i b l e b u t u n c o m p l i c a t e d solutions ( a d i n n e r , o r a n e n t e r t a i n m e n t ) , or such o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e s as: " s o m e o n e is d y i n g a n d is g e t t i n g m a r r i e d a n d m a k i n g his will b e f o r e h e d i e s . " B u t T e r m a n ' s m a j o r i n f l u e n c e d i d n o t r e s i d e i n his s h a r p e n i n g o r e x t e n s i o n o f t h e B i n e t scale. B i n e t ' s tasks h a d t o b e a d m i n i s t e r e d b y a t r a i n e d tester w o r k i n g with o n e c h i l d a t a t i m e . T h e y c o u l d not

be

used

as

instruments

for

general

ranking.

But

Terman

w i s h e d t o test e v e r y b o d y , for h e h o p e d t o establish a g r a d a t i o n o f i n n a t e ability t h a t c o u l d sort all c h i l d r e n into t h e i r p r o p e r stations in life:

What pupils shall be tested? T h e answer is, all. If only selected children are tested, many of the cases most in n e e d of adjustment will be over-

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l o o k e d . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e tests i s t o tell u s w h a t w e d o n o t a l r e a d y k n o w , a n d it w o u l d be a m i s t a k e to test only t h o s e p u p i l s w h o a r e r e c o g n i z e d as obviously below o r a b o v e a v e r a g e .

S o m e o f t h e biggest s u r p r i s e s a r e

e n c o u n t e r e d i n t e s t i n g t h o s e w h o h a v e b e e n l o o k e d u p o n a s close t o avera g e in ability. U n i v e r s a l t e s t i n g is fully w a r r a n t e d (1923, p. 22). T h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t , like its p a r e n t , r e m a i n e d a test for i n d i v i d uals, b u t it b e c a m e t h e p a r a d i g m for virtually all t h e w r i t t e n v e r sions that f o l l o w e d . B y careful j u g g l i n g a n d e l i m i n a t i o n , * T e r m a n s t a n d a r d i z e d t h e scale s o that " a v e r a g e " c h i l d r e n w o u l d score 100 a t e a c h a g e ( m e n t a l a g e e q u a l t o c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e ) . T e r m a n also e v e n e d o u t t h e v a r i a t i o n a m o n g c h i l d r e n b y establishing a s t a n d a r d deviation of 15 or mean

of

100 a n d

1 6 p o i n t s a t e a c h c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e . W i t h its standard

deviation

of

15,

the

Stanford-Binet

b e c a m e ( a n d i n m a n y respects r e m a i n s t o this d a y ) t h e p r i m a r y criterion f o r j u d g i n g a p l e t h o r a of m a s s - m a r k e t e d written tests that f o l l o w e d . T h e invalid a r g u m e n t r u n s : w e k n o w t h a t t h e S t a n f o r d B i n e t m e a s u r e s i n t e l l i g e n c e ; t h e r e f o r e , a n y w r i t t e n test t h a t c o r r e lates s t r o n g l y with S t a n f o r d - B i n e t also m e a s u r e s i n t e l l i g e n c e . M u c h o f t h e e l a b o r a t e statistical w o r k p e r f o r m e d b y testers d u r i n g t h e past

fifty

years

provides

no

i n d e p e n d e n t confirmation

for

the

p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t tests m e a s u r e i n t e l l i g e n c e , b u t m e r e l y establishes correlation with a preconceived and unquestioned standard. T e s d n g soon became a multimillion-dollar industry; marketing c o m p a n i e s d a r e d n o t take a c h a n c e with tests n o t p r o v e n by their correlation

with

Terman's

standard.

The Army

Alpha

(see

pp.

2 2 2 - 2 5 2 ) initiated mass testing, b u t a flood of c o m p e t i t o r s g r e e t e d school a d m i n i s t r a t o r s within a f e w years after t h e war's e n d . A quick g l a n c e a t t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a p p e n d e d t o T e r m a n ' s later b o o k ( 1 9 2 3 ) illustrates, d r a m a t i c a l l y a n d u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , h o w all Terman's (1919, p.

cautious

w o r d s a b o u t careful

and

lengthy

assessment

2 9 9 , for e x a m p l e ) c o u l d e v a p o r a t e b e f o r e strictures o f

cost a n d t i m e w h e n his d e s i r e to test all c h i l d r e n b e c a m e a reality (Fig. 5.3). T h i r t y m i n u t e s a n d five tests m i g h t m a r k a c h i l d f o r life, i f schools a d o p t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m i n a t i o n , a d v e r t i s e d i n T e r man

1 9 2 3 , a n d c o n s t r u c t e d b y a c o m m i t t e e that i n c l u d e d T h o r n -

d i k e , Y e r k e s , a n d T e r m a n himself. *This, in itself, is not finagling, but a valid statistical procedure for establishing uniformity of average score and variance across age levels.

5*3 An advertisement for mass mental testing using an examination written by, a m o n g others, T e r m a n and Yerkes.

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National Intelligence Tests for Grades 3-8 T h e direct result of the application of the army testing m e t h o d s to school needs. . . . T h e tests have been selected from a large g r o u p of tests after a try-out and a careful analysis by a statistical staff. T h e two scales prepared consist of five tests each (with practical exercises) and either may be administered in thirty minutes. T h e y are simple in application, reliable, and immediately useful in classifying children in Grades 3 to 8 with respect to intellectual ability. Scoring is unusually simple. B i n e t , h a d h e l i v e d , m i g h t h a v e b e e n distressed e n o u g h b y s u c h a superficial a s s e s s m e n t , b u t h e w o u l d h a v e r e a c t e d e v e n m o r e s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t T e r m a n ' s intent. T e r m a n a g r e e d with B i n e t t h a t the tests w o r k e d best for i d e n t i f y i n g " h i g h - g r a d e d e f e c t i v e s , " b u t his

reasons

for so d o i n g stand in c h i l l i n g contrast with

Binet's

d e s i r e t o s e g r e g a t e a n d h e l p ( 1 9 1 6 , p p . 6-7):

It is safe to predict that in the near future intelligence tests will bring tens of thousands of these high-grade defectives u n d e r the surveillance and protection of society. This will ultimately result in curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an e n o r m o u s a m o u n t of crime, pauperism, and industrial inefficiency. It is hardly necessary to emphasize that the high-grade cases, of the type now so frequently overlooked, are precisely the ones whose guardianship it is most important for the State to assume. T e r m a n relentlessly e m p h a s i z e d limits a n d their inevitability. H e n e e d e d less t h a n a n h o u r t o c r u s h t h e h o p e s a n d belittle t h e efforts of s t r u g g l i n g , " w e l l - e d u c a t e d " p a r e n t s afflicted with a c h i l d o f l Q 75-

Strange to say, the mother is encouraged and hopeful because she sees that her boy is learning to read. She does not seem to realize that at his age he ought to be within three years of entering high school. T h e forty-minute test has told m o r e about the mental ability of this boy than the intelligent mother had been able to learn in eleven years of daily and hourly observation. For X is feeble-minded; he will never complete the grammar school; he will never be an efficient worker or a responsible citizen (1916). W a l t e r L i p p m a n n , t h e n a y o u n g j o u r n a l i s t , saw t h r o u g h T e r m a n ' s n u m b e r s t o t h e h e a r t o f his p r e c o n c e i v e d a t t e m p t , a n d w r o t e in measured anger:

T h e danger of the intelligence tests is that in a wholesale system of education, the less sophisticated or the m o r e prejudiced will stop when

2

T H E

IO

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

M A N

t h e y h a v e classified a n d forget t h a t their d u t y is to e d u c a t e . T h e y will g r a d e t h e r e t a r d e d child i n s t e a d of fighting t h e causes of his b a c k w a r d n e s s . F o r t h e whole drift of t h e p r o p a g a n d a b a s e d on intelligence testing is to t r e a t p e o p l e with low intelligence q u o t i e n t s as congenitally a n d hopelessly inferior. Terman's

technocracy

of innateness

If it were true, the emotional and worldly satisfactions in store for the intelligence tester would be very great. If he were really measuring intelligence, and if intelligence were a fixed hereditary quantity, it would be for him to say not only where to place each child in school, but also which children should go to high school, which to college, which into the professions, which into the manual trades and common labor. If the tester would make good his claim, he would soon occupy a position of power which no intellectual has held since the collapse of theocracy. T h e vista is enchanting, and even a little of the vista is intoxicating enough. If only it could be proved, or at least believed, that intelligence is fixed by heredity, and that the tester can measure it, what a future to dream about! T h e unconscious temptation is too strong for the ordinary critical defenses of the scientific methods. With the help of a subtle statistical illusion, intricate logical fallacies and a few smuggled obiter dicta, selfdeception as the preliminary to public deception is almost automatic. — WALTER LIPPMANN, in a debate with Terman P l a t o h a d d r e a m e d o f a rational w o r l d r u l e d b y p h i l o s o p h e r k i n g s . T e r m a n r e v i v e d this d a n g e r o u s vision b u t l e d his c o r p s o f m e n t a l testers i n a n act o f u s u r p a t i o n . I f all p e o p l e c o u l d b e t e s t e d , a n d t h e n s o r t e d i n t o roles a p p r o p r i a t e f o r their i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h e n a j u s t , a n d , a b o v e all, efficient society m i g h t be c o n s t r u c t e d for the first t i m e in history. Dealing

off the

bottom,

Terman

argued

that

we

must first

restrain or e l i m i n a t e t h o s e w h o s e i n t e l l i g e n c e is t o o low f o r an effective o r m o r a l life. T h e p r i m a r y c a u s e o f social p a t h o l o g y i s innate

feeble-mindedness.

Terman

(1916,

p.

7)

criticized

Lom-

b r o s o for t h i n k i n g that t h e externalities o f a n a t o m y m i g h t r e c o r d c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r . I n n a t e n e s s , to be sure, is t h e s o u r c e , b u t its d i r e c t sign i s low I Q , n o t l o n g a r m s o r a j u t t i n g j a w :

T h e t h e o r i e s of L o m b r o s o h a v e b e e n wholly d i s c r e d i t e d by t h e results of intelligence tests. S u c h tests h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d , b e y o n d a n y possibility of d o u b t , t h a t t h e most i m p o r t a n t trait of at least 25 p e r c e n t of o u r criminals is m e n t a l weakness. T h e physical a b n o r m a l i t i e s which h a v e b e e n f o u n d so c o m m o n a m o n g p r i s o n e r s a r e n o t t h e s t i g m a t a o f criminality, b u t t h e physical a c c o m p a n i m e n t s o f f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s . T h e y h a v e n o diagnostic significance e x c e p t in so far as t h e y a r e indications of m e n t a l deficiency (1916, p. 7).

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211

F e e b l e - m i n d e d p e o p l e are d o u b l y b u r d e n e d b y their u n f o r t u n a t e i n h e r i t a n c e , f o r lack o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e b i l i t a t i n g e n o u g h i n itself, leads to i m m o r a l i t y . If we w o u l d e l i m i n a t e social p a t h o l o g y , w e m u s t i d e n t i f y its c a u s e i n t h e b i o l o g y o f s o c i o p a t h s t h e m s e l v e s — a n d t h e n e l i m i n a t e t h e m b y c o n f i n e m e n t i n institutions a n d , a b o v e all, b y p r e v e n d n g their m a r r i a g e a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f o f f s p r i n g .

N o t all criminals are feeble-minded, but all feeble-minded persons are at least potential criminals. That every feeble-minded woman is a potential prostitute would hardly be disputed by anyone. Moral j u d g m e n t , like business j u d g m e n t , social j u d g m e n t , or any other kind of higher thought process, is a function of intelligence. Morality cannot flower and fruit if intelligence remains infantile (1916, p. 11). T h e feeble-minded, in the sense of social incompetents, are by definition a burden rather than an asset, not only economically but still more because of their tendencies to become delinquent or criminal. . . . T h e only effective way to deal with the hopelessly feeble-minded is by permanent custodial care. T h e obligations of the public school rest rather with the large and m o r e hopeful group of children w h o are merely inferior (1919, pp. 132-133). I n a p l e a for u n i v e r s a l testing, T e r m a n w r o t e ( 1 9 1 6 , p . 12): " C o n s i d e r i n g t h e t r e m e n d o u s cost o f vice a n d c r i m e , w h i c h i n all p r o b ability

amounts

to

not

less

than

$500,000,000

per

year

in

the

U n i t e d States a l o n e , it is e v i d e n t that p s y c h o l o g i c a l testing has f o u n d h e r e o n e o f its richest a p p l i c a t i o n s . " A f t e r m a r k i n g t h e s o c i o p a t h for r e m o v a l f r o m society, intellig e n c e tests m i g h t t h e n c h a n n e l biologically a c c e p t a b l e p e o p l e into p r o f e s s i o n s suited for their m e n t a l level. T e r m a n h o p e d that his testers w o u l d " d e t e r m i n e t h e m i n i m u m ' i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t ' necessary for success i n each l e a d i n g o c c u p a t i o n " ( 1 9 1 6 , p .

17). A n y

c o n s c i e n t i o u s p r o f e s s o r tries to find j o b s f o r his s t u d e n t s , b u t few are a u d a c i o u s e n o u g h to tout their disciples as apostles of a n e w social o r d e r :

Industrial concerns doubtless suffer e n o r m o u s losses from the employment of persons whose mental ability is not equal to the tasks they are expected to perform. . . . Any business employing as many as 500 or 1000 workers, as, for e x a m p l e , a large department store, could save in this way several times the salary of a well-trained psychologist. T e r m a n virtually closed professions o f p r e s t i g e a n d m o n e t a r y r e w a r d t o p e o p l e with I Q b e l o w

100 ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 8 2 ) , a n d a r g u e d

2/2

T H E

MIS M E A S U R E

OF

t h a t "substantial s u c c e s s " p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e d a n I Q a b o v e

M A N

1 1 5 or

1 2 0 . B u t h e was m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n establishing ranks a t t h e low e n d o f t h e scale, a m o n g t h o s e h e h a d d e e m e d " m e r e l y i n f e r i o r . " M o d e r n industrial society n e e d s its t e c h n o l o g i c a l e q u i v a l e n t o f the Biblical m e t a p h o r for m o r e b u c o l i c t i m e s — t h e h e w e r s o f w o o d a n d d r a w e r s o f water. A n d t h e r e a r e s o m a n y o f t h e m :

T h e evolution o f m o d e r n industrial o r g a n i z a t i o n t o g e t h e r with t h e m e c h a n i z a t i o n of processes by m a c h i n e r y is m a k i n g possible t h e l a r g e r a n d l a r g e r utilization of i n f e r i o r mentality. O n e m a n with ability to t h i n k a n d p l a n guides t h e labor o f ten o r twenty l a b o r e r s , w h o d o what they a r e told to do a n d h a v e little n e e d for r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s or initiative (1919, p. 276). I Q o f 7 5 o r b e l o w s h o u l d b e the r e a l m o f u n s k i l l e d labor, 7 5 t o 8 5 " p r e e m i n e n t l y t h e r a n g e for semi-skilled l a b o r . " M o r e specific j u d g m e n t s c o u l d also b e m a d e . " A n y t h i n g a b o v e 8 5 I Q i n t h e case of a barber probably represents so m u c h d e a d waste" ( 1 9 1 9 , p. 288). IQ 75 is an " u n s a f e risk in a m o t o r m a n or c o n d u c t o r , a n d it conduces to discontent" ( T e r m a n ,

1 9 1 9 ) . P r o p e r v o c a t i o n a l train-

i n g a n d p l a c e m e n t is essential for t h o s e " o f t h e 70 to 85 class." W i t h o u t it, t h e y t e n d to l e a v e school " a n d drift easily into t h e r a n k s o f t h e anti-social o r j o i n t h e a r m y o f B o l s h e v i k d i s c o n t e n t s " ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 285). Terman

investigated

IQ

among

professions

and

concluded

with satisfaction that an i m p e r f e c t allocation by i n t e l l i g e n c e h a d already

occurred

explained away.

naturally.

The

embarrassing

exceptions

he

H e s t u d i e d 4 7 e x p r e s s c o m p a n y e m p l o y e e s , for

e x a m p l e , m e n e n g a g e d in rote, repetitive work "offering e x c e e d i n g l y limited o p p o r t u n i t y for t h e e x e r c i s e o f i n g e n u i t y o r e v e n p e r sonal j u d g m e n t " ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 7 5 ) . Y e t their m e d i a n I Q s t o o d a t 9 5 , a n d fully 2 5 p e r c e n t m e a s u r e d a b o v e

104, t h u s w i n n i n g a p l a c e

a m o n g the r a n k s o f t h e intelligent. T e r m a n was p u z z l e d , b u t attribu t e d such low a c h i e v e m e n t p r i m a r i l y t o a lack o f "certain e m o tional, m o r a l , o r o t h e r desirable qualities," t h o u g h h e a d m i t t e d that "economic

pressures"

might

have

forced

some

"out

o f school

b e f o r e t h e y w e r e able t o p r e p a r e for m o r e e x a c t i n g service" ( 1 9 1 9 , p.

275).

In

another

study,

Terman

amassed

a

sample

of

256

" h o b o e s a n d u n e m p l o y e d , " largely f r o m a " h o b o h o t e l " i n Palo A l t o . H e e x p e c t e d t o f i n d their a v e r a g e I Q a t t h e b o t t o m o f his list; y e t , while t h e h o b o m e a n o f 8 9 d i d n o t s u g g e s t e n o r m o u s e n d o w m e n t , t h e y still r a n k e d a b o v e m o t o r m e n , salesgirls, f i r e m e n , a n d

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

T H E O R Y

O F

I Q

p o l i c e m e n . T e r m a n s u p p r e s s e d this e m b a r r a s s m e n t b y o r d e r i n g his table i n a c u r i o u s way. T h e h o b o m e a n was distressingly h i g h , b u t h o b o s also v a r i e d m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r g r o u p , a n d i n c l u d e d a substantial n u m b e r o f r a t h e r low scores. S o T e r m a n a r r a n g e d his list b y t h e scores o f t h e lowest 2 5 p e r c e n t i n e a c h g r o u p , a n d s u n k his h o b o s i n t o t h e cellar. H a d T e r m a n merely advocated a meritocracy based b n achievem e n t , o n e m i g h t still d e c r y his elitism, b u t a p p l a u d a s c h e m e that awarded opportunity to hard work and strong motivation.

But

T e r m a n b e l i e v e d that class b o u n d a r i e s h a d b e e n set b y i n n a t e intell i g e n c e . H i s c o o r d i n a t e d r a n k o f p r o f e s s i o n s , p r e s t i g e , a n d salaries reflected t h e b i o l o g i c a l w o r t h o f e x i s t i n g social classes. I f b a r b e r s d i d n o t r e m a i n Italian, t h e y w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o arise f r o m t h e p o o r a n d t o stay a p p r o p r i a t e l y a m o n g t h e m : T h e c o m m o n o p i n i o n that the child from a cultured h o m e d o e s better in tests solely by reason of his superior h o m e advantages is an entirely gratuitous assumption. Practically all of the investigations which have b e e n m a d e of the influence of nature and n u r t u r e on mental p e r f o r m a n c e a g r e e in attributing far m o r e to original e n d o w m e n t than to e n v i r o n m e n t . C o m m o n observation would itself suggest that the social class to which the family belongs d e p e n d s less on chance than on the parents' native qualities of intellect and character. . . . T h e children of successful and cultured parents test h i g h e r than children from wretched and ignorant h o m e s for the simple reason that their heredity is better ( 1 9 1 6 , p. 115). Fossil

IQ's

of past

geniuses

Society m a y n e e d masses o f t h e " m e r e l y i n f e r i o r " t o r u n its m a c h i n e s , T e r m a n b e l i e v e d , b u t its u l t i m a t e h e a l t h d e p e n d s u p o n the l e a d e r s h i p o f r a r e g e n i u s e s with e l e v a t e d I Q ' s . T e r m a n a n d his associates p u b l i s h e d a f i v e - v o l u m e series on Genetic Studies of Genius i n a n a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e a n d follow p e o p l e a t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t scale. I n o n e v o l u m e , T e r m a n d e c i d e d t o measure, retrospectively, the I Q o f history's p r i m e m o v e r s — i t s s t a t e s m e n , soldiers, a n d intellectuals. I f t h e y r a n k e d a t t h e t o p , t h e n I Q i s surely t h e single m e a sure

of ultimate worth.

But

h o w can

a

fossil

IQ be recovered

without conjuring up y o u n g Copernicus and asking him what the white m a n was r i d i n g ?

U n d a u n t e d , T e r m a n a n d his c o l l e a g u e s

tried t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e I Q o f past n o t a b l e s , a n d p u b l i s h e d a thick book (Cox,

1926) that m u s t r a n k as a p r i m a r y curiosity w i t h i n a

21

4

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literature a l r e a d y s t u d d e d with a b s u r d i t y — t h o u g h J e n s e n ( 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 1 3 a n d 3 5 5 ) a n d o t h e r s still take i t seriously.* T e r m a n ( 1 9 1 7 ) had already published a preliminary study of Francis G a l t o n a n d a w a r d e d a s t a g g e r i n g I Q o f 200 t o this p i o n e e r o f m e n t a l testing. H e t h e r e f o r e e n c o u r a g e d his associates t o p r o c e e d with a l a r g e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . J. M . C a t t e l l h a d p u b l i s h e d a r a n k i n g o f the i ,000 p r i m e m o v e r s o f history b y m e a s u r i n g t h e l e n g t h s o f their entries i n b i o g r a p h i c a l dictionaries. Terman's

associate,

whittled

t h e list to

Catherine

M.

Cox,

282, a s s e m b l e d d e t a i l e d

b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t their early life, a n d p r o c e e d e d t o e s t i m a t e t w o I Q v a l u e s for e a c h — o n e , called A i

I Q , for b i r t h t o

s e v e n t e e n years; t h e o t h e r , A 2 I Q , f o r a g e s s e v e n t e e n t o t w e n t y six. C o x ran into p r o b l e m s r i g h t a t t h e start. S h e a s k e d f i v e p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g T e r m a n , t o r e a d h e r dossiers a n d t o e s t i m a t e t h e t w o I Q scores for e a c h p e r s o n . T h r e e o f t h e f i v e a g r e e d substantially i n their m e a n v a l u e s , w i t h A i

I Q clustering around

135 and A 2 I Q

n e a r 1 4 5 . B u t t w o o f t h e raters d i f f e r e d m a r k e d l y , o n e a w a r d i n g a n a v e r a g e I Q well a b o v e , t h e o t h e r well b e l o w , t h e c o m m o n f i g u r e . C o x s i m p l y e l i m i n a t e d their scores, t h e r e b y t h r o w i n g o u t 4 0 p e r c e n t o f h e r d a t a . T h e i r low a n d h i g h scores w o u l d h a v e b a l a n c e d e a c h o t h e r a t t h e m e a n i n a n y case, s h e a r g u e d ( 1 9 2 6 , p . 7 2 ) . Y e t i f five people working in the same research g r o u p could not agree, w h a t h o p e f o r u n i f o r m i t y o r c o n s i s t e n c y — n o t t o m e n t i o n objectivity—could be offered? Apart

from

these

debilitating

practical

difficulties,

the

basic

l o g i c o f t h e s t u d y was h o p e l e s s l y f l a w e d f r o m t h e f i r s t . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n I Q that C o x r e c o r d e d a m o n g h e r subjects d o n o t m e a s u r e t h e i r v a r y i n g a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s , not t o m e n t i o n their n a t i v e intellig e n c e . I n s t e a d , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s are a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l artifact o f the v a r y i n g quality o f i n f o r m a t i o n that C o x was able t o c o m p i l e a b o u t t h e c h i l d h o o d a n d early y o u t h o f h e r subjects. C o x b e g a n b y assigni n g a base I Q o f 100 t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ; the raters t h e n a d d e d t o (or, rarely, s u b t r a c t e d from) this v a l u e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d a t a p r o vided.

•Jensen writes: "The average estimated IQ of three hundred historical persons . . . on whom sufficient childhood evidence was available for a reliable estimate was IQ 155. . . . Thus the majority of these eminent men would most likely have been recognized as intellectually gifted in childhood had they been given IQ tests" (Jensen, !979. P- H 3 ) -

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

Cox's

dossiers

accomplishments,

T H E O R Y

are

motley

with

an

OF

lists

emphasis

I Q

of

2

childhood

on

and

examples

1

5

youthful

of precocity.

S i n c e h e r m e t h o d i n v o l v e d a d d i n g t o t h e base f i g u r e o f 100 f o r e a c h n o t a b l e item i n t h e dossier, e s t i m a t e d I Q r e c o r d s little m o r e t h a n t h e v o l u m e o f available i n f o r m a t i o n .

In general,

low I Q ' s

reflect a n a b s e n c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d h i g h I Q ' s a n e x t e n s i v e list. ( C o x even admits that she is not measuring true I Q , but only what can

be

deduced

from

limited d a t a ,

though

this

d i s c l a i m e r was

i n v a r i a b l y lost i n translation t o p o p u l a r accounts.) T o b e l i e v e , e v e n f o r a m o m e n t , t h a t such a p r o c e d u r e c a n r e c o v e r t h e p r o p e r o r d e r ing o f I Q a m o n g " m e n o f genius," o n e must assume that the childh o o d o f all subjects was w a t c h e d a n d r e c o r d e d with r o u g h l y e q u a l a t t e n t i o n . O n e m u s t claim (as C o x d o e s ) that a n a b s e n c e o f d o c u m e n t e d c h i l d h o o d p r e c o c i t y indicates a h u m d r u m life n o t w o r t h writing about, not an extraordinary giftedness that no o n e bothered to record. T w o basic results o f C o x ' s s t u d y i m m e d i a t e l y a r o u s e o u r s t r o n g s u s p i c i o n t h a t h e r I Q scores reflect the historical a c c i d e n t s o f surviving

records,

rather

than

the

true

accomplishments

of

her

g e n i u s e s . First, IQ is n o t s u p p o s e d to alter in a definite d i r e c t i o n d u r i n g a p e r s o n ' s life. Y e t a v e r a g e A i I Q i s 1 3 5 i n h e r s t u d y , a n d a v e r a g e A 2 I Q i s a substantially h i g h e r h e r dossiers ( p r i n t e d in full in C o x ,

1 4 5 . W h e n w e scrutinize

1 9 2 6 ) , t h e r e a s o n is readily

a p p a r e n t , a n d a clear artifact o f h e r m e t h o d . S h e has m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n h e r subjects a s y o u n g a d u l t s t h a n a s c h i l d r e n ( A 2

IQ

records achievements d u r i n g ages seventeen t h r o u g h twenty-six; A i I Q m a r k s t h e earlier years). S e c o n d , C o x p u b l i s h e d d i s t u r b i n g l y low A 1 I Q f i g u r e s for s o m e f o r m i d a b l e c h a r a c t e r s , i n c l u d i n g C e r vantes a n d C o p e r n i c u s , b o t h a t 1 0 5 . H e r dossiers s h o w t h e r e a s o n : little o r n o t h i n g i s k n o w n a b o u t their c h i l d h o o d , p r o v i d i n g n o d a t a f o r a d d i t i o n t o t h e base f i g u r e o f 100. C o x e s t a b l i s h e d s e v e n levels o f reliability

for h e r

figures.

T h e seventh, believe it or not, is

"guess, based on no data." A s a f u r t h e r a n d o b v i o u s test, c o n s i d e r g e n i u s e s b o r n i n t o h u m ble c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w h e r e tutors a n d encourage

and

then

to

record

scribes d i d n o t a b o u n d

daring

feats

to

of precocity. J o h n

S t u a r t Mill m a y h a v e l e a r n e d G r e e k i n his c r a d l e , b u t d i d F a r a d a y o r B u n y a n e v e r g e t t h e c h a n c e ? P o o r c h i l d r e n a r e a t a d o u b l e disa d v a n t a g e ; n o t o n l y d i d n o o n e b o t h e r t o r e c o r d their early y e a r s ,

2/6

T H E

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

MAN

b u t t h e y a r e also d e m o t e d as a d i r e c t result of their p o v e r t y . F o r C o x , using the favorite ploy of eugenicists, inferred innate parental i n t e l l i g e n c e f r o m their o c c u p a t i o n s a n d social s t a n d i n g ! S h e r a n k e d p a r e n t s on a scale of p r o f e s s i o n s f r o m 1 to 5, a w a r d i n g t h e i r child r e n a n I Q o f 100 f o r p a r e n t a l r a n k 3 , a n d a b o n u s (or deficit) o f 10 I Q p o i n t s for e a c h step a b o v e o r b e l o w . A child w h o d i d n o t h i n g w o r t h n o t i n g f o r t h e f i r s t s e v e n t e e n years o f his life c o u l d still score a n I Q o f 1 2 0 b y v i r t u e o f his p a r e n t ' s w e a l t h o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a n d ing. C o n s i d e r t h e case o f p o o r M a s s e n a , N a p o l e o n ' s g r e a t g e n e r a l , w h o b o t t o m e d o u t a t 100 A i

IQ and about w h o m , as a child, we

k n o w n o t h i n g e x c e p t that h e s e r v e d a s a cabin b o y for t w o l o n g v o y a g e s on his u n c l e ' s ship. C o x writes (p. 88): N e p h e w s of battleship c o m m a n d e r s probably rate s o m e w h a t above 100 IQ; but cabin boys w h o remain cabin boys for two l o n g voyages a n d of w h o m there is n o t h i n g m o r e to report until the age of 17 than their service as cabin boys, may a v e r a g e below 100 IQ. O t h e r a d m i r a b l e subjects with i m p o v e r i s h e d p a r e n t s a n d m e a g e r r e c o r d s s h o u l d h a v e s u f f e r e d t h e i g n o m i n y o f scores b e l o w 100. B u t C o x m a n a g e d t o f u d g e a n d t e m p o r i z e , p u s h i n g t h e m all a b o v e t h e t r i p l e - d i g i t d i v i d e , i f o n l y slightly. C o n s i d e r t h e u n f o r tunate Saint-Cyr, saved only b y remote kin, a n d granted a n A i I Q of

105:

" T h e f a t h e r was a t a n n e r after h a v i n g b e e n a b u t c h e r ,

w h i c h w o u l d g i v e his son a n o c c u p a t i o n a l I Q status o f 9 0 t o

100;

b u t t w o d i s t a n t relatives a c h i e v e d signal martial h o n o r s , t h u s indic a t i n g a h i g h e r strain i n t h e f a m i l y " ( p p . 9 0 - 9 1 ) . J o h n B u n y a n f a c e d m o r e familial obstacles t h a n his f a m o u s P i l g r i m , b u t C o x m a n a g e d to e x t r a c t a score of 105 for h i m : Bunyan's father was a brazier or tinker, but a tinker of recognized position in the village; a n d the m o t h e r was not of the squalid p o o r , but of p e o p l e w h o were "decent and worthy in their ways." T h i s would be sufficient e v i d e n c e for a rating b e t w e e n 90 a n d 100. But the record g o e s further,

and

we

read

that

notwithstanding

their

"meanness

and

inconsiderableness," Bunyan's parents put their boy to school to learn "both to read and write," which probably indicates that he s h o w e d something m o r e than the promise of a future tinker (p. 90). Michael Faraday squeaked by at

1 0 5 , o v e r c o m i n g the d e m e r i t o f

p a r e n t a l s t a n d i n g with s n i p p e t s a b o u t his reliability as an e r r a n d

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

T H E O R Y

O F

217

I Q

b o y a n d his q u e s t i o n i n g n a t u r e . H i s e l e v a t e d A 2 I Q o f 1 5 0 o n l y r e c o r d s i n c r e a s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t his m o r e n o t a b l e y o u n g m a n hood.

In

o n e case,

however,

C o x couldn't bear to record

the

u n p l e a s a n t result that h e r m e t h o d s d i c t a t e d . S h a k e s p e a r e , o f h u m ble o r i g i n a n d u n k n o w n c h i l d h o o d , w o u l d h a v e s c o r e d b e l o w 100. S o C o x s i m p l y left h i m o u t , e v e n t h o u g h s h e i n c l u d e d several o t h ers with e q u a l l y i n a d e q u a t e c h i l d h o o d r e c o r d s . A m o n g o t h e r curiosities o f s c o r i n g that reflect C o x a n d T e r m a n ' s social p r e j u d i c e s , several p r e c o c i o u s y o u n g s t e r s ( C l i v e , L i e big,

and

Swift,

rebelliousness

in

in

particular)

school,

were

particularly

downgraded

for

their

for their u n w i l l i n g n e s s

to

s t u d y classics. An a n i m u s a g a i n s t t h e p e r f o r m i n g arts is e v i d e n t in t h e r a t i n g o f c o m p o s e r s , w h o (as a g r o u p ) r a n k j u s t a b o v e soldiers a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f i n a l list. C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g u n d e r s t a t e m e n t a b o u t M o z a r t (p. 1 2 9 ) : " A c h i l d w h o learns t o p l a y t h e p i a n o a t 3 , w h o receives a n d benefits b y m u s i c a l instruction a t that a g e , a n d w h o studies a n d e x e c u t e s t h e m o s t difficult c o u n t e r p o i n t a t a g e 14, i s p r o b a b l y a b o v e t h e a v e r a g e level o f his social g r o u p . " I n t h e e n d , I s u s p e c t that C o x r e c o g n i z e d t h e s h a k y basis o f h e r w o r k , b u t persisted b r a v e l y n o n e t h e l e s s . C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n r a n k i n e m i n e n c e ( l e n g t h o f Cattell's entry) a n d a w a r d e d I Q w e r e disa p p o i n t i n g t o say t h e l e a s t — a m e r e 0.25 for e m i n e n c e vs. A 2 I Q , with n o f i g u r e r e c o r d e d a t all for e m i n e n c e vs. A i I Q (it i s a l o w e r 0.20 b y m y calculation). I n s t e a d , C o x m a k e s m u c h o f t h e fact that h e r ten m o s t e m i n e n t subjects a v e r a g e 4 — y e s o n l y 4 — A 1 I Q p o i n t s a b o v e h e r ten least e m i n e n t . C o x calculated her strongest correlation

(0.77)

between A 2 I Q

a n d " i n d e x o f reliability," a m e a s u r e o f available i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h e r subjects. I c a n i m a g i n e n o b e t t e r d e m o n s t r a t i o n that C o x ' s I Q ' s are artifacts o f differential a m o u n t s o f d a t a , not m e a s u r e s o f i n n a t e ability o r e v e n , f o r that m a t t e r , o f s i m p l e talent. C o x r e c o g n i z e d this a n d , in a final effort, tried to " c o r r e c t " h e r scores for m i s s i n g information

by

adjusting

poorly

documented

t o w a r d t h e g r o u p m e a n s o f 1 3 5 for A i

IQ and

subjects

upward

1 4 5 for A 2 I Q .

T h e s e a d j u s t m e n t s b o o s t e d a v e r a g e I Q ' s substantially, b u t led t o o t h e r e m b a r r a s s m e n t s . F o r u n c o r r e c t e d scores, t h e m o s t e m i n e n t fifty averaged

142 f o r A i I Q , while t h e least e m i n e n t f i f t y s c o r e d

comfortably lower at 133. With corrections, the first fifty scored 160, t h e last f i f t y , 1 6 5 . U l t i m a t e l y , o n l y G o e t h e a n d V o l t a i r e s c o r e d

2l8

T H E

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

M A N

near the top both in IQ and eminence. O n e m i g h t paraphrase V o l taire's f a m o u s q u i p a b o u t G o d

and conclude

that e v e n

though

a d e q u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e I Q o f history's e m i n e n t m e n d o e s not exist, it was p r o b a b l y inevitable that t h e A m e r i c a n h e r e d i t a r i a n s w o u l d try to i n v e n t it.

Terman

on

group

differences

T e r m a n ' s e m p i r i c a l w o r k m e a s u r e d w h a t statisticians call the " w i t h i n - g r o u p v a r i a n c e " o f I Q — t h a t is, t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n scores within single p o p u l a t i o n s (all c h i l d r e n in a s c h o o l , for e x a m p l e ) . At best, he was able to s h o w that c h i l d r e n testing well or p o o r l y at a y o u n g a g e g e n e r a l l y m a i n t a i n their o r d e r i n g with r e s p e c t t o o t h e r c h i l d r e n a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n g r o w s u p . T e r m a n ascribed

most of

these d i f f e r e n c e s

without

to variation

in b i o l o g i c a l e n d o w m e n t ,

m u c h e v i d e n c e b e y o n d a n assertion that all r i g h t - m i n d e d p e o p l e recognize

the domination of nurture by nature.

hereditarianism

might

offend

our

present

This brand

sensibilities

with

of its

elitism a n d its a c c o m p a n y i n g p r o p o s a l s for institutional c a r e a n d f o r c e d a b s t i n e n c e f r o m b r e e d i n g , b u t it d o e s n o t , by itself, entail t h e m o r e c o n t e n t i o u s claim for i n n a t e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s . T e r m a n m a d e this invalid e x t r a p o l a t i o n , a s virtually all h e r e d i tarians d i d a n d still d o . H e t h e n c o m p o u n d e d his e r r o r b y c o n f u s i n g the g e n e s i s o f t r u e p a t h o l o g i e s with causes

for v a r i a t i o n i n

n o r m a l b e h a v i o r . W e k n o w , f o r e x a m p l e , that t h e m e n t a l r e t a r d a tion associated with D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e has its o r i g i n in a specific g e n e t i c d e f e c t (an e x t r a c h r o m o s o m e ) . a t t r i b u t e t h e low

But we cannot therefore

I Q of many apparently normal children to an

i n n a t e b i o l o g y . We m i g h t as well claim that all o v e r w e i g h t p e o p l e can't h e l p i t b e c a u s e s o m e v e r y o b e s e i n d i v i d u a l s can trace their c o n d i t i o n t o h o r m o n a l i m b a l a n c e s . T e r m a n ' s d a t a o n t h e stability o f o r d e r i n g i n I Q within g r o u p s o f g r o w i n g c h i l d r e n relied largely u p o n t h e persistently low I Q o f biologically afflicted i n d i v i d u a l s , d e s p i t e T e r m a n ' s a t t e m p t t o b r i n g all scores u n d e r the u m b r e l l a o f a n o r m a l c u r v e ( 1 9 1 6 , p p . 6 5 - 6 7 ) , a n d t h u s t o s u g g e s t that all variation has a c o m m o n r o o t in the possession of m o r e or less of a single s u b s t a n c e . In short, it is invalid to e x t r a p o l a t e f r o m variation within a g r o u p to d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s . It is d o u b l y invalid to use t h e i n n a t e b i o l o g y of p a t h o l o g i c a l i n d i v i d u a l s as a basis for a s c r i b i n g n o r m a l v a r i a t i o n within a g r o u p to i n b o r n causes. A t least the I Q h e r e d i t a r i a n s d i d n o t follow their c r a n i o l o g i c a l

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

T H E O R Y

OF

2/9

I Q

f o r e b e a r s i n h a r s h j u d g m e n t s a b o u t w o m e n . Girls d i d n o t score b e l o w boys i n I Q , a n d T e r m a n p r o c l a i m e d their l i m i t e d access t o p r o f e s s i o n s b o t h unjust a n d wasteful o f intellectual talent ( 1 9 1 6 , p . 72;

1 9 1 9 , p . 288). H e n o t e d , a s s u m i n g that I Q s h o u l d e a r n its m o n -

etary r e w a r d , t h a t w o m e n s c o r i n g b e t w e e n

100 a n d

120 generally

e a r n e d , a s t e a c h e r s o r " h i g h - g r a d e s t e n o g r a p h e r s , " w h a t m e n with an IQ of 85 received as motormen, firemen, or policemen ( 1 9 1 9 , p. 278). B u t T e r m a n t o o k t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n line o n r a c e a n d class a n d p r o c l a i m e d its v a l i d a t i o n as a p r i m a r y a i m of his w o r k . In e n d i n g his c h a p t e r o n t h e uses o f I Q ( 1 9 1 6 , p p .

19-20), T e r m a n posed

three questions: Is the place of the so-called lower classes in the social a n d industrial scale the result of their inferior native e n d o w m e n t , or is their apparent inferiority merely a result of their inferior h o m e and school training? Is genius m o r e c o m m o n a m o n g children o f the educated classes than a m o n g the children of the ignorant and poor? A r e t h e inferior races really inferior, or are they merely u n f o r t u n a t e in their lack of opportunity to learn? D e s p i t e a p o o r c o r r e l a t i o n o f 0.4 b e t w e e n social status a n d I Q , Terman

(1917)

advanced

five

major

reasons

for

claiming

that

" e n v i r o n m e n t is m u c h less i m p o r t a n t t h a n is o r i g i n a l e n d o w m e n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e traits i n q u e s t i o n " (p. 9 1 ) . T h e f i r s t t h r e e , b a s e d o n a d d i t i o n a l c o r r e l a t i o n s , a d d n o e v i d e n c e for i n n a t e causes. T e r m a n c a l c u l a t e d : social

status

between

and

social

teachers'

status

and

1) a c o r r e l a t i o n of 0.55 b e t w e e n

assessments school

work;

of i n t e l l i g e n c e ; and

3)

a

2)

lower,

0.47 but

u n s t a t e d , * c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n " a g e - g r a d e p r o g r e s s " a n d social status. Since all five p r o p e r t i e s — I Q , social status, teacher's assessm e n t , school w o r k , a n d a g e - g r a d e p r o g r e s s — m a y b e r e d u n d a n t measures of the same c o m p l e x and u n k n o w n causes, the correlation b e t w e e n a n y a d d i t i o n a l p a i r a d d s little to t h e basic result of 0.4 b e t w e e n I Q a n d social status. I f t h e 0.4 c o r r e l a t i o n offers n o evid e n c e for i n n a t e causes, t h e n the a d d i t i o n a l correlations d o n o t either. T h e fourth argument, recognized as weak by T e r m a n himself *It is annoyingly characteristic of Terman's work that he cites correlations when fhey are high and favorable, but does not give the actual figures when they are low but still favorable to his hypothesis. This ploy abounds in Cox's study of posthumous genius and in Terman's analysis of IQ among professions, both discussed previ-

220

T H E

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

MAN

( 1 9 1 6 , p . 98), c o n f u s e s p r o b a b l e p a t h o l o g y with n o r m a l variation a n d is t h e r e f o r e i r r e l e v a n t , as d i s c u s s e d a b o v e : f e e b l e - m i n d e d child r e n are occasionally b o r n to rich or to intellectually successful parents. T h e f i f t h a r g u m e n t reveals t h e s t r e n g t h o f T e r m a n ' s h e r e d i t a r ian c o n v i c t i o n s a n d his r e m a r k a b l e insensitivity to the influence of environment. T e r m a n measured the I Q of twenty children in a C a l i f o r n i a o r p h a n a g e . O n l y t h r e e w e r e "fully n o r m a l , " while seve n t e e n r a n g e d f r o m 7 5 t o 9 5 . T h e low scores c a n n o t b e attributed t o life w i t h o u t p a r e n t s , T e r m a n a r g u e s , b e c a u s e (p. 99):

T h e o r p h a n a g e in question is a reasonably good o n e and affords an environment which is about as stimulating to normal mental development as average h o m e life a m o n g the middle classes. T h e children live in the orphanage and attend an excellent public school in a California village. L o w scores m u s t reflect the b i o l o g y o f c h i l d r e n c o m m i t t e d t o such institutions:

S o m e of the tests which have been made in such institutions indicate that mental subnormality of both high and moderate grades is extremely frequent a m o n g children who are placed in these h o m e s . Most, though admittedly not all of these, are children of inferior social classes (p. 99). T e r m a n offers n o direct e v i d e n c e a b o u t t h e lives o f his t w e n t y child r e n b e y o n d the fact o f their institutional p l a c e m e n t . H e i s n o t e v e n certain that t h e y all c a m e f r o m " i n f e r i o r social classes." S u r e l y , the m o s t p a r s i m o n i o u s a s s u m p t i o n w o u l d relate low I Q scores t o the o n e i n c o n t e s t a b l e a n d c o m m o n fact a b o u t t h e c h i l d r e n — t h e i r life in t h e o r p h a n a g e itself. Terman

moved

easily f r o m

individuals,

t o social classes,

to

races. D i s t r e s s e d b y t h e f r e q u e n c y o f I Q scores b e t w e e n 7 0 a n d 80,

he lamented (1916, pp. 91-92):

A m o n g laboring men and servant girls there are thousands like them. . . . T h e tests have told the truth. T h e s e boys are ineducable beyond the merest rudiments of training. No amount of school instruction will ever make them intelligent voters or capable citizens. . . . T h e y represent the level of intelligence which is very, very c o m m o n a m o n g Spanish-Indian and Mexican families of the Southwest and also a m o n g negroes. Their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stocks from which they came. T h e fact that o n e meets this type with such extraordinary frequency a m o n g Indians, Mexicans, and negroes suggests quite forcibly

E

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that the whole question of racial differences in mental traits will have to be taken up anew and by experimental m e t h o d s . T h e writer predicts that when this is d o n e there will be discovered enormously significant racial differences in general intelligence, differences which cannot be wiped out by any scheme of mental culture. Children of this g r o u p should be segregated in special classes and be given instruction which is concrete and practical. T h e y cannot master abstractions, but they can often be macfe efficient workers, able to look out for themselves. T h e r e is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce, although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusually prolific breeding. T e r m a n s e n s e d t h a t his a r g u m e n t s for i n n a t e n e s s w e r e w e a k . Yet w h a t d i d i t m a t t e r ? D o w e n e e d t o p r o v e w h a t c o m m o n sense proclaims so clearly?

After all, does not c o m m o n observation teach us that, in the main, native qualities of intellect and character, rather than chance, d e t e r m i n e the social class to which a family belongs? From what is already known about heredity, should we not naturally expect to find the children of well-to-do, cultured, and successful parents better e n d o w e d than the children w h o have been reared in slums and poverty? An affirmative answer to the above question is suggested by nearly all the available scientific evidence (1917, p. 99). W h o s e c o m m o n sense?

Terman

recants

T e r m a n ' s b o o k o n the S t a n f o r d - B i n e t revision o f 1 9 3 7 was s o different from the original v o l u m e of 1 9 1 6 that c o m m o n authorship s e e m s a t f i r s t i m p r o b a b l e . B u t t h e n times h a d c h a n g e d a n d intellectual f a s h i o n s o f j i n g o i s m a n d e u g e n i c s h a d b e e n s w a m p e d in the morass of a Great Depression. In

1 9 1 6 T e r m a n had fixed

adult mental a g e at sixteen because he couldn't get a r a n d o m sample o f o l d e r s c h o o l b o y s for testing. I n

1 9 3 7 h e c o u l d e x t e n d his

scale to a g e e i g h t e e n ; for " t h e task was facilitated by t h e e x t r e m e l y u n f a v o r a b l e e m p l o y m e n t situation a t t h e t i m e t h e tests w e r e m a d e , which o p e r a t e d to reduce considerably the school elimination norm a l l y o c c u r r i n g after f o u r t e e n " ( 1 9 3 7 , p . 30). T e r m a n d i d n o t e x p l i c i t y abjure his p r e v i o u s c o n c l u s i o n s , b u t a veil o f silence d e s c e n d e d u p o n t h e m . N o t a w o r d b e y o n d a few statements of caution do we hear a b o u t heredity. All potential rea-

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sons for d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s a r e f r a m e d i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l t e r m s . T e r m a n p r e s e n t s his o l d c u r v e s f o r a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n I Q b e t w e e n social classes, b u t h e w a r n s u s t h a t m e a n d i f f e r e n c e s a r e too small t o p r o v i d e a n y p r e d i c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n for i n d i v i d u a l s . W e also d o n o t

know how

to

partition

the average differences

b e t w e e n g e n e t i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l influences:

It is hardly necessary to stress the fact that these figures refer to mean values only, and that in view of the variability of the IQ within each group the respective distributions greatly overlap o n e another. N o r should it be necessary to point out that such data do not, in themselves, offer any conclusive evidence of the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors in determining the mean differences observed. A f e w p a g e s later, T e r m a n discusses the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n rural a n d u r b a n c h i l d r e n , n o t i n g t h e l o w e r c o u n t r y scores a n d t h e curious finding

t h a t rural

I Q d r o p s w i t h a g e after e n t r a n c e t o

school, w h i l e I Q f o r u r b a n c h i l d r e n o f semiskilled a n d u n s k i l l e d w o r k e r s rises. H e e x p r e s s e s n o f i r m o p i n i o n , b u t n o t e t h a t t h e o n l y h y p o t h e s e s h e wishes t o test a r e n o w e n v i r o n m e n t a l :

It would require extensive research, carefully planned for the purpose, to determine whether the lowered IQ of rural children can be ascribed to the relatively poorer educational facilities in rural communities, and whether the gain for children from the lower economic strata can be attributed to an assumed enrichment of intellectual environment that school attendance bestows. Autres temps, autres moeurs.

R. M. Yerkes and the Army Mental Tests: IQ comes of age Psychology's

great

leap forward

R o b e r t M . Y e r k e s , a b o u t t o t u r n forty, was a f r u s t r a t e d m a n i n 1915.

H e h a d b e e n o n t h e faculty o f H a r v a r d

U n i v e r s i t y since

1 9 0 2 . H e was a s u p e r b o r g a n i z e r , a n d a n e l o q u e n t p r o m o t o r o f his p r o f e s s i o n . Y e t p s y c h o l o g y still w a l l o w e d in its r e p u t a t i o n as a "soft" science, if a science at all. S o m e c o l l e g e s d i d n o t acknowle d g e its e x i s t e n c e ; o t h e r s r a n k e d i t a m o n g t h e h u m a n i t i e s and p l a c e d p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n d e p a r t m e n t s o f p h i l o s o p h y . Y e r k e s wished, a b o v e all, to establish his p r o f e s s i o n by p r o v i n g that it c o u l d be as

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r i g o r o u s a science as physics. Y e r k e s a n d m o s t of his c o n t e m p o r aries e q u a t e d r i g o r a n d science with n u m b e r s a n d quantification. The

most

promising source

of copious

and

objective

numbers,

Y e r k e s b e l i e v e d , lay i n t h e e m b r y o n i c f i e l d o f m e n t a l testing. Psyc h o l o g y w o u l d c o m e o f a g e , a n d g a i n a c c e p t a n c e a s a t r u e science w o r t h y o f f i n a n c i a l a n d institutional s u p p o r t , i f i t c o u l d b r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n o f h u m a n p o t e n t i a l u n d e r t h e u m b r e l l a o f science: Most of us are wholly convinced that the future of m a n k i n d d e p e n d s in no small measure u p o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of the various biological and social sciences. . . . We must . . . strive increasingly for the i m p r o v e m e n t of our m e t h o d s of mental m e a s u r e m e n t , for there is no l o n g e r g r o u n d for doubt c o n c e r n i n g the practical as well as the theoretical importance of studies of h u m a n behavior. We must learn to m e a s u r e skillfully every form and aspect of behavior which has psychological and sociological significance (Yerkes, 1917a, p. 1 1 1 ) . B u t m e n t a l t e s t i n g s u f f e r e d f r o m i n a d e q u a t e s u p p o r t a n d its o w n i n t e r n a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . I t was, f i r s t o f all, p r a c t i c e d e x t e n s i v e l y b y p o o r l y t r a i n e d a m a t e u r s w h o s e m a n i f e s t l y a b s u r d results w e r e g i v i n g the e n t e r p r i s e a b a d n a m e . I n 1 9 1 5 , a t the a n n u a l m e e t i n g of t h e A m e r i c a n

Psychological

Association

in

Chicago,

a

critic

r e p o r t e d that t h e m a y o r o f C h i c a g o h i m s e l f h a d tested a s a m o r o n o n o n e v e r s i o n o f t h e B i n e t scales. Y e r k e s j o i n e d with critics i n discussions a t t h e m e e t i n g a n d p r o c l a i m e d : " W e a r e b u i l d i n g u p a science, b u t w e h a v e n o t yet d e v i s e d a m e c h a n i s m w h i c h a n y o n e can o p e r a t e " ( q u o t e d i n C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 , p . 242). S e c o n d , a v a i l a b l e scales g a v e m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t results e v e n w h e n p r o p e r l y a p p l i e d . A s discussed o n p . 1 6 6 , h a l f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o tested i n t h e low, b u t n o r m a l r a n g e o n t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t , were m o r o n s o n G o d d a r d ' s v e r s i o n o f t h e B i n e t scale. Finally, s u p port h a d b e e n t o o i n a d e q u a t e , a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n t o o s p o r a d i c , t o build u p a p o o l o f d a t a sufficiently c o p i o u s a n d u n i f o r m t o c o m p e l belief ( Y e r k e s , 1 9 1 7 b ) . Wars

always

generate

their

retinue

of c a m p

followers

with

ulterior m o t i v e s . M a n y a r e s i m p l y s c o u n d r e l s a n d profiteers, b u t a few are s p u r r e d b y h i g h e r ideals. A s m o b i l i z a t i o n f o r W o r l d W a r I a p p r o a c h e d , Y e r k e s g o t o n e o f t h o s e " b i g i d e a s " that p r o p e l t h e history o f science: c o u l d p s y c h o l o g i s t s possibly p e r s u a d e t h e a r m y to test all its recruits? If so, t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s stone of p s y c h o l o g y m i

g h t b e constructed: the copious, useful, a n d u n i f o r m body o f

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n u m b e r s that w o u l d fuel a transition f r o m d u b i o u s art to r e s p e c t e d science. Y e r k e s p r o s e l y t i z e d within his p r o f e s s i o n a n d w i t h i n g o v e r n m e n t circles, a n d h e w o n his p o i n t . A s C o l o n e l Y e r k e s , h e p r e sided

over

the

administration

of

mental

tests

to

1.75

million

recruits d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I . A f t e r w a r d , h e p r o c l a i m e d t h a t m e n tal testing " h e l p e d t o w i n the w a r . " " A t t h e s a m e t i m e , " h e a d d e d , "it has i n c i d e n t a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d itself a m o n g the o t h e r sciences a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d its r i g h t t o serious c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n h u m a n e n g i n e e r ing" (quoted in Kevles, 1968, p. 581). Y e r k e s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r all the m a j o r h e r e d i t a r i a n s o f A m e r i c a n p s y c h o m e t r i c s t o write t h e a r m y m e n t a l tests. F r o m M a y t o J u l y 1 9 1 7 h e w o r k e d with T e r m a n , G o d d a r d , a n d o t h e r c o l l e a g u e s a t G o d d a r d ' s T r a i n i n g School in Vineland, N e w Jersey. T h e i r s c h e m e i n c l u d e d t h r e e t y p e s o f tests.

L i t e r a t e recruits

w o u l d b e g i v e n a w r i t t e n e x a m i n a t i o n , called t h e A r m y A l p h a . Illiterates a n d m e n w h o h a d failed A l p h a w o u l d b e g i v e n a pictorial test, called the A r m y B e t a . Failures i n B e t a w o u l d b e r e c a l l e d f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l e x a m i n a t i o n , usually s o m e v e r s i o n o f t h e B i n e t scales. A r m y p s y c h o l o g i s t s w o u l d t h e n g r a d e e a c h m a n f r o m A t o E (with plusses

a n d minuses)

placement.

Yerkes

and offer suggestions

suggested

that

recruits

for p r o p e r military with

a

score

of C—

s h o u l d b e m a r k e d a s "low a v e r a g e i n t e l l i g e n c e — o r d i n a r y p r i v a t e . " M e n o f g r a d e D a r e " r a r e l y suited for tasks r e q u i r i n g special skill, f o r e t h o u g h t , r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s or s u s t a i n e d a l e r t n e s s . " D a n d E m e n c o u l d n o t b e e x p e c t e d "to r e a d a n d u n d e r s t a n d written d i r e c t i o n s . " I d o n o t t h i n k that t h e a r m y e v e r m a d e m u c h u s e o f t h e tests. O n e can well i m a g i n e h o w p r o f e s s i o n a l officers felt a b o u t s m a r t assed y o u n g p s y c h o l o g i s t s w h o a r r i v e d w i t h o u t i n v i t a t i o n , o f t e n a s s u m e d a n officer's r a n k w i t h o u t u n d e r g o i n g basic t r a i n i n g , c o m m a n d e e r e d a b u i l d i n g to g i v e t h e tests (if t h e y c o u l d ) , saw e a c h r e c r u i t for a n h o u r i n a l a r g e g r o u p , a n d t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o u s u r p a n officer's t r a d i t i o n a l role i n j u d g i n g t h e w o r t h i n e s s o f m e n for v a r i o u s military tasks. Y e r k e s ' s c o r p s e n c o u n t e r e d hosdlity i n s o m e c a m p s ; i n o t h e r s , t h e y s u f f e r e d a p e n a l t y i n m a n y ways m o r e p a i n ful:

they

were

treated

politely, g i v e n

a p p r o p r i a t e facilities, a n d

t h e n i g n o r e d . * S o m e a r m y officials b e c a m e suspicious o f Y e r k e s ' s

•Yerkes continued to complain throughout his career that military psychology had not achieved its due respect, despite its accomplishments in World War I. During World War II the aging Yerkes was still grousing and arguing that the Nazis were

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intent and l a u n c h e d three i n d e p e n d e n t investigations of the testing p r o g r a m . O n e c o n c l u d e d that i t s h o u l d b e c o n t r o l l e d s o t h a t " n o theorist m a y .

.

. r i d e it as a h o b b y for t h e p u r p o s e of o b t a i n i n g

d a t a for r e s e a r c h w o r k a n d t h e f u t u r e benefit o f t h e h u m a n r a c e " (quoted in Kevles, 1968, p. 577). Still, t h e tests d i d h a v e a s t r o n g i m p a c t in s o m e areas, p a r t i c u larly i n s c r e e n i n g m e n for officer t r a i n i n g . A t t h e start o f t h e w a r , t h e a r m y a n d n a t i o n a l g u a r d m a i n t a i n e d n i n e t h o u s a n d officers. B y t h e e n d , t w o h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d officers p r e s i d e d , a n d t w o thirds o f t h e m h a d started their c a r e e r s i n t r a i n i n g c a m p s w h e r e t h e tests w e r e a p p l i e d . I n s o m e c a m p s , n o m a n s c o r i n g b e l o w C c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d for officer t r a i n i n g . B u t t h e m a j o r i m p a c t o f Y e r k e s ' s tests d i d n o t fall u p o n t h e a r m y . Y e r k e s m a y n o t h a v e b r o u g h t t h e a r m y its victory, b u t h e certainly w o n his battle. H e n o w h a d u n i f o r m d a t a o n 1.75 million m e n , and he h a d devised, in the A l p h a and Beta exams, the first m a s s - p r o d u c e d w r i t t e n tests o f i n t e l l i g e n c e .

Inquiries flooded in

f r o m schools a n d businesses. I n his massive m o n o g r a p h ( Y e r k e s , 1921)

on Psychological Examining in the

United States Army,

Yerkes

b u r i e d a s t a t e m e n t o f g r e a t social significance i n a n aside o n p a g e 96. H e s p o k e o f " t h e s t e a d y s t r e a m o f requests f r o m c o m m e r c i a l c o n c e r n s , e d u c a t i o n a l institutions, a n d i n d i v i d u a l s f o r t h e u s e o f a r m y m e t h o d s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x a m i n i n g o r for t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f such m e t h o d s t o special n e e d s . " Binet's p u r p o s e c o u l d n o w b e circ u m v e n t e d b e c a u s e a t e c h n o l o g y h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d for testing all p u p i l s . T e s t s c o u l d n o w r a n k a n d s t r e a m e v e r y b o d y ; t h e e r a o f mass testing h a d b e g u n .

Results

of the army

tests

T h e p r i m a r y i m p a c t o f t h e tests a r o s e n o t f r o m t h e a r m y ' s lackadaisical u s e o f scores f o r i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t f r o m g e n e r a l p r o p a g a n d a that a c c o m p a n i e d Y e r k e s ' s r e p o r t o f t h e s u m m a r y statistics ( Y e r k e s , 1 9 2 1 , p p . 5 5 3 - 8 7 5 ) . E . G . B o r i n g , later a f a m o u s p s y c h o l upstaging America in their proper use and encouragement of mental testing for military personnel. "Germany has a long lead in the development of military psychology. . . . The Nazis have achieved something that is entirely without parallel in military history. . . . What has happened in Germany is the logical sequel to the psychological and personnel services in our own Army during 1917-1918" (Yerkes, • 9 4 . p- 209). 1

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o g i s t h i m s e l f b u t t h e n Y e r k e s ' s l i e u t e n a n t (and t h e a r m y ' s c a p t a i n ) , s e l e c t e d o n e h u n d r e d sixty t h o u s a n d cases f r o m t h e f i l e s a n d p r o d u c e d d a t a that r e v e r b e r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e 1920s with a h a r d h e r e d i t a r i a n r i n g . T h e task was a f o r m i d a b l e o n e . T h e s a m p l e , w h i c h B o r i n g c u l l e d h i m s e l f with t h e aid o f o n l y o n e assistant, was v e r y large;

m o r e o v e r , t h e scales o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t tests ( A l p h a , B e t a ,

a n d i n d i v i d u a l ) h a d t o b e c o n v e r t e d t o a c o m m o n s t a n d a r d s o that racial a n d n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e s c o u l d b e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m s a m p l e s o f m e n w h o h a d t a k e n t h e tests i n d i f f e r e n t p r o p o r t i o n s (few blacks t o o k A l p h a , for e x a m p l e ) . F r o m B o r i n g ' s o c e a n o f n u m b e r s , t h r e e "facts" rose t o t h e t o p a n d c o n t i n u e d t o i n f l u e n c e social policy i n A m e r i c a l o n g after their s o u r c e i n t h e tests h a d b e e n f o r g o t t e n . 1. T h e a v e r a g e m e n t a l a g e o f w h i t e A m e r i c a n adults stood j u s t above the e d g e of moronity at a shocking and m e a g e r thirteen. T e r m a n h a d p r e v i o u s l y set t h e s t a n d a r d a t sixteen. T h e n e w f i g u r e b e c a m e a r a l l y i n g p o i n t f o r eugenicists w h o p r e d i c t e d d o o m a n d lamented our declining intelligence, caused by the unconstrained breeding

o f the

poor and

feeble-minded,

the spread

of Negro

b l o o d t h r o u g h m i s c e g e n a t i o n , a n d t h e s w a m p i n g o f a n intelligent native

stock b y t h e i m m i g r a t i n g d r e g s

o f s o u t h e r n a n d eastern

E u r o p e . Y e r k e s * wrote: It is customary to say that the mental age of the average adult is about 16 years. T h i s figure is based, h o w e v e r , u p o n examinations of only 62 persons; 32 of t h e m high-school pupils f r o m 16-20 years of age, a n d 30 of them "business m e n of m o d e r a t e success a n d of very limited educational advantages." T h e g r o u p is too small to give very reliable results and is f u r t h e r m o r e probably not typical. . . . It appears that the intelligence of the principal sample of the white draft, w h e n transmuted from Alpha and Beta e x a m s into terms of mental age, is about 13 years (13.08) (1921, p. 785)Y e t , e v e n a s h e w r o t e , Y e r k e s b e g a n t o sense t h e logical a b s u r d i t y of such a s t a t e m e n t . An a v e r a g e is w h a t it is; it c a n n o t lie t h r e e years b e l o w w h a t i t s h o u l d b e . S o Y e r k e s t h o u g h t a g a i n a n d a d d e d : We can hardly say, h o w e v e r , with assurance that these recruits are three years mental a g e below the average. I n d e e d , it might be a r g u e d on *I doubt that Yerkes wrote all parts of the massive 1921 monograph himself. But he is listed as the only author of this official report, and I shall continue to attribute its statements to him, both as shorthand and for want of other information.

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extrinsic g r o u n d s that the draft itself is m o r e representative of the average intelligence of the country than is a g r o u p of high-school students a n d business m e n ( 1 9 2 1 , p. 785). I f 13.08 i s t h e w h i t e a v e r a g e , a n d e v e r y o n e f r o m m e n t a l a g e 8 t h r o u g h 12 is a m o r o n , t h e n we a r e a n a t i o n of n e a r l y h a l f - m o r o n s . Y e r k e s c o n c l u d e d ( 1 9 2 1 , p . 7 9 1 ) : "It w o u l d b e totally i m p o s s i b l e t o e x c l u d e all m o r o n s as that t e r m is at p r e s e n t d e f i n e d , for t h e r e a r e u n d e r 13 years 37 percent of whites and 89 percent of negroes." 2. E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s c a n b e g r a d e d b y their c o u n t r y o f origin. T h e a v e r a g e m a n of m a n y nations is a m o r o n . T h e darker p e o p l e s o f s o u t h e r n E u r o p e a n d t h e Slavs o f e a s t e r n E u r o p e are less

intelligent

than

the

fair

peoples

of western

and

northern

E u r o p e . N o r d i c supremacy is not a jingoistic prejudice. T h e avera g e Russian has a mental a g e of 1 1 . 3 4 ; the Italian, 1 1 . 0 1 ; the Pole, 1 0 . 7 4 . T h e Polish j o k e a t t a i n e d t h e s a m e l e g i t i m a c y a s the m o r o n j o k e — i n d e e d , they described the same animal. 3 . T h e N e g r o lies a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e scale with a n a v e r a g e m e n t a l a g e o f 1 0 . 4 1 . S o m e c a m p s tried t o carry t h e analysis a bit f u r t h e r , a n d i n o b v i o u s racist d i r e c t i o n s . A t C a m p L e e , blacks w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s b a s e d u p o n intensity o f color; t h e l i g h t e r g r o u p s s c o r e d h i g h e r (p. 5 3 1 ) . Y e r k e s r e p o r t e d that t h e o p i n i o n s o f officers m a t c h e d his n u m b e r s (p. 7 4 2 ) ; All officers without e x c e p t i o n a g r e e that the n e g r o lacks initiative, displays little or no leadership, and c a n n o t accept responsibility. S o m e point out that these defects are greater in the s o u t h e r n n e g r o . All officers s e e m further to a g r e e that the n e g r o is a cheerful, willing soldier, naturally subservient. T h e s e qualities make for i m m e d i a t e o b e d i e n c e , although n o t necessarily for g o o d discipline, since petty thieving and venereal disease are c o m m o n e r than with white troops. A l o n g t h e way, Y e r k e s a n d c o m p a n y tested several o t h e r social prejudices. S o m e f a r e d p o o r l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p o p u l a r e u g e n i c a l notion t h a t m o s t o f f e n d e r s are f e e b l e - m i n d e d . A m o n g c o n s c i e n tious objectors for p o l i d c a l r e a s o n s , 59 p e r c e n t r e c e i v e d a g r a d e of A . E v e n o u t r i g h t disloyals s c o r e d a b o v e t h e a v e r a g e (p. 803). B u t o t h e r results b u o y e d

their p r e j u d i c e s .

As camp

followers t h e m -

selves, Y e r k e s ' s c o r p s d e c i d e d to test a m o r e traditional c a t e g o r y of colleagues:

t h e local prostitutes. T h e y f o u n d t h a t 5 3 p e r c e n t (44

p e r c e n t o f whites a n d 6 8 p e r c e n t o f blacks) r a n k e d a t a g e t e n o r

225

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b e l o w o n t h e G o d d a r d version o f t h e B i n e t scales. ( T h e y a c k n o w l e d g e that t h e G o d d a r d scales r a n k e d p e o p l e well b e l o w their scores o n o t h e r v e r s i o n s o f t h e B i n e t tests.) Y e r k e s c o n c l u d e d (p. 8 0 8 ) : T h e results of A r m y e x a m i n i n g of prostitutes corroborate the conclusion, attained by civilian examinations of prostitutes in various parts of the country, that from 30 to 60 percent of prostitutes are deficient and are for the most part h i g h - g r a d e m o r o n s ; and that 15 to 25 percent of all prostitutes are so low-grade mentally that it is wise (as well as possible u n d e r the existing laws in most states) permanently to segregate t h e m in institutions for the f e e b l e - m i n d e d . O n e m u s t b e t h a n k f u l for small bits o f h u m o r t o l i g h t e n t h e r e a d i n g o f a n e i g h t - h u n d r e d - p a g e statistical m o n o g r a p h . T h e t h o u g h t o f a r m y p e r s o n n e l r o u n d i n g u p t h e local prostitutes a n d sitting t h e m d o w n t o take the B i n e t tests a m u s e d m e n o e n d , a n d m u s t h a v e b e m u s e d t h e ladies e v e n m o r e . A s p u r e n u m b e r s , t h e s e d a t a carried n o i n h e r e n t social m e s s a g e . T h e y m i g h t h a v e b e e n u s e d t o p r o m o t e equality o f o p p o r t u nity a n d t o u n d e r s c o r e t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s i m p o s e d u p o n s o m a n y A m e r i c a n s . Y e r k e s m i g h t h a v e a r g u e d that a n a v e r a g e m e n t a l a g e of thirteen reflected t h e fact that relatively few recruits h a d the opportunity to finish or e v e n to attend high school. He m i g h t have a t t r i b u t e d t h e low a v e r a g e o f s o m e n a t i o n a l g r o u p s t o t h e fact that m o s t recruits f r o m t h e s e c o u n t r i e s w e r e r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s w h o d i d n o t s p e a k E n g l i s h a n d w e r e u n f a m i l i a r with A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e . H e m i g h t h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e link b e t w e e n low N e g r o scores a n d the history o f slavery a n d racism. B u t scarcely a w o r d d o w e r e a d t h r o u g h e i g h t h u n d r e d p a g e s o f a n y role for e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e . T h e tests h a d b e e n written b y a c o m m i t t e e t h a t i n c l u d e d all t h e l e a d i n g A m e r i c a n h e r e d i t a r ians discussed i n this c h a p t e r . T h e y h a d b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d t o m e a sure

innate

intelligence,

and

they

did

so

by

definition.

The

circularity o f a r g u m e n t c o u l d n o t b e b r o k e n . A l l t h e m a j o r f i n d i n g s received

hereditarian interpretations, often

by

n e a r miracles o f

special p l e a d i n g to a r g u e past a p a t e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e . A circular issued Greenleaf

f r o m t h e S c h o o l o f Military P s y c h o l o g y a t C a m p

proclaimed

(do

pardon

its

questionable

grammar):

" T h e s e tests d o n o t m e a s u r e o c c u p a t i o n a l f i t n e s s n o r e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t ; t h e y m e a s u r e intellectual ability. T h i s latter has b e e n

T H E

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O F

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s h o w n t o b e i m p o r t a n t i n e s t i m a t i n g military v a l u e " (p. 4 2 4 ) . A n d t h e boss h i m s e l f a r g u e d ( Y e r k e s , q u o t e d i n C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 , p . 249): Examinations A l p h a a n d Beta are so constructed and administered as to minimize the h a n d i c a p of m e n w h o because of foreign birth or lack of education are little skilled in the use of English. T h e s e g r o u p examinations were originally i n t e n d e d , and are n o w definitely k n o w n , to m e a s u r e native intellectual ability. T h e y are to s o m e extent influenced by-educational acquirement, but in the main the soldier's inborn intelligence and not t h e accidents of e n v i r o n m e n t d e t e r m i n e s his mental rating or grade in the army.

A

critique

of the Army

Mental

Tests

THE CONTENT OF THE TESTS

T h e A l p h a test i n c l u d e d e i g h t p a r t s , t h e B e t a s e v e n ; e a c h t o o k less t h a n a n h o u r a n d c o u l d b e g i v e n t o l a r g e g r o u p s . M o s t o f t h e A l p h a parts p r e s e n t e d items that h a v e b e c o m e familiar t o g e n e r a tions o f test-takers e v e r since: a n a l o g i e s , f i l l i n g i n t h e n e x t n u m b e r in a s e q u e n c e , u n s c r a m b l i n g s e n t e n c e s , a n d so f o r t h . T h i s similarity i s n o a c c i d e n t ; t h e A r m y A l p h a was t h e g r a n d d a d d y , literally a s well a s f i g u r a t i v e l y , o f all w r i t t e n m e n t a l tests. O n e o f Y e r k e s ' s d i s ciples,

C.

C.

Brigham,

later

became

secretary

of

the

College

E n t r a n c e E x a m i n a t i o n B o a r d a n d d e v e l o p e d t h e Scholastic A p t i t u d e T e s t o n a r m y m o d e l s . I f p e o p l e g e t a p e c u l i a r f e e l i n g o f dejavu in p e r u s i n g Yerkes's m o n o g r a p h , I suggest that they think back to their o w n C o l l e g e B o a r d s , with all its a t t e n d a n t a n x i e t y . T h e s e familiar parts a r e n o t especially subject t o c h a r g e s o f cultural bias, a t least n o m o r e s o t h a n their m o d e r n d e s c e n d a n t s . I n a g e n e r a l w a y , o f c o u r s e , t h e y test literacy, a n d literacy r e c o r d s e d u cation m o r e t h a n i n h e r i t e d i n t e l l i g e n c e . M o r e o v e r , a s c h o o l m a s ter's

claim

that

he

tests

children

of the

same

age

and

school

experience, a n d therefore m a y be r e c o r d i n g s o m e internal biology, didn't a p p l y t o t h e a r m y r e c r u i t s — f o r t h e y v a r i e d g r e a t l y i n access t o e d u c a t i o n a n d r e c o r d e d d i f f e r e n t a m o u n t s o f s c h o o l i n g i n their scores. A few of t h e items a r e a m u s i n g in t h e light of Y e r k e s ' s assertion that t h e tests " m e a s u r e n a t i v e intellectual ability." C o n s i d e r t h e A l p h a a n a l o g y : " W a s h i n g t o n is to A d a m s as first is to. . . ." B u t o n e p a r t of e a c h test is s i m p l y l u d i c r o u s in t h e l i g h t of Yerkes's analysis. H o w c o u l d Y e r k e s a n d c o m p a n y a t t r i b u t e t h e low

2

3

T H E

0

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

MAN

scores o f r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s t o i n n a t e s t u p i d i t y w h e n their m u l u p l e - c h o i c e test c o n s i s t e d entirely o f q u e s t i o n s like: Crisco is a: patent m e d i c i n e , disinfectant, toothpaste, food product T h e n u m b e r of a Kaffir's legs is: 2, 4, 6, 8 Christy Mathewson is famous as a: writer, artist, baseball player, c o m e dian I g o t t h e last o n e , b u t m y i n t e l l i g e n t b r o t h e r , w h o , t o m y distress, g r e w u p i n N e w Y o r k utterly oblivious t o t h e h e r o i c s o f t h r e e g r e a t baseball t e a m s t h e n r e s i d e n t , d i d not. Y e r k e s m i g h t h a v e r e s p o n d e d that r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s g e n e r a l l y t o o k B e t a r a t h e r t h a n A l p h a , b u t B e t a c o n t a i n s a pictorial v e r s i o n of the same theme.

I n this c o m p l e t e - a - p i c t u r e test, early items

m i g h t be d e f e n d e d as sufficiently u n i v e r s a l : a d d i n g a m o u t h to a f a c e or an e a r to a rabbit. B u t later items r e q u i r e d a rivet in a p o c k e t k n i f e , a f i l a m e n t in a l i g h t b u l b , a h o r n on a p h o n o g r a p h , a n e t on a tennis c o u r t , a n d a ball in a bowler's h a n d ( m a r k e d w r o n g , Y e r k e s e x p l a i n e d , i f a n e x a m i n e e d r e w t h e ball i n t h e alley, for y o u c a n tell f r o m t h e bowler's p o s t u r e t h a t h e has n o t y e t r e l e a s e d t h e ball). F r a n z B o a s , an early critic, told t h e tale of a Sicilian recruit w h o a d d e d a crucifix w h e r e it always a p p e a r e d in his n a t i v e l a n d to a h o u s e w i t h o u t a c h i m n e y . H e was m a r k e d w r o n g . T h e tests w e r e strictly t i m e d , for t h e n e x t fifty w e r e w a i t i n g b y t h e d o o r . R e c r u i t s w e r e n o t e x p e c t e d t o finish e a c h part; this was e x p l a i n e d t o the A l p h a m e n , b u t n o t t o B e t a p e o p l e . Y e r k e s w o n d e r e d w h y s o m a n y recruits s c o r e d flat z e r o o n s o m a n y o f t h e parts (the m o s t telling p r o o f o f t h e tests' w o r t h l e s s n e s s — s e e p p . 2 4 4 247).

H o w m a n y of us, if nervous, uncomfortable, a n d c r o w d e d

( a n d e v e n i f n o t ) , w o u l d h a v e u n d e r s t o o d e n o u g h t o write a n y t h i n g a t all i n t h e ten s e c o n d s allotted for c o m p l e t i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m a n d s , e a c h g i v e n b u t o n c e i n A l p h a , Part 1? Attention! Look at 4. W h e n I say "go" m a k e a figure 1 in the space which is in the circle but not in the triangle or square, and also make a figure 2 in the space which is in the triangle a n d circle, but not in the square. G o . Attention! Look at 6. W h e n I say "go" put in the s e c o n d circle t h e right answer to t h e question: "How many m o n t h s has a year?" In the third circle do n o t h i n g , but in the fourth circle put any n u m b e r that is a w r o n g answer to the question that y o u have just answered correctly. Go.

T H E

H E R E D I T A R I A N

INADEQUATE

T H E O R Y

O F

I Q

CONDITIONS

Y e r k e s ' s p r o t o c o l was r i g o r o u s a n d t r y i n g e n o u g h . H i s e x a m iners h a d t o p r o c e s s m e n r a p i d l y a n d g r a d e t h e e x a m s i m m e d i ately, so that failures c o u l d be recalled f o r a d i f f e r e n t test. W h e n f a c e d with t h e a d d e d b u r d e n o f thinly v e i l e d hostility f r o m t h e brass at several c a m p s , Y e r k e s ' s testers w e r e rarely able to carry o u t m o r e t h a n a c a r i c a t u r e o f their o w n stated p r o c e d u r e . T h e y c o n t i n ually c o m p r o m i s e d , b a c k t r a c k e d , a n d a l t e r e d i n t h e face o f n e c e s sity. P r o c e d u r e s v a r i e d s o m u c h f r o m c a m p t o c a m p that results could

scarcely

be

collated

and

compared.

The

whole

effort,

t h r o u g h n o fault o f Y e r k e s ' s b e y o n d impracticality a n d o v e r a m b i tion, b e c a m e s o m e t h i n g o f a s h a m b l e s , i f n o t a d i s g r a c e . T h e details are all i n Y e r k e s ' s m o n o g r a p h , b u t h a r d l y a n y o n e e v e r r e a d it. T h e s u m m a r y statisdcs b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t social w e a p o n for racists a n d e u g e n i c i s t s ; their r o t t e n c o r e lay e x p o s e d i n t h e m o n o g r a p h , b u t w h o looks w i t h i n w h e n t h e s u r f a c e shines with s u c h a c o n g e n i a l message. T h e a r m y m a n d a t e d that special b u i l d i n g s b e s u p p l i e d o r e v e n c o n s t r u c t e d for Y e r k e s ' s e x a m i n a t i o n s , b u t a d i f f e r e n t reality p r e vailed ( 1 9 2 1 , p . 6 1 ) . T h e e x a m i n e r s h a d t o t a k e w h a t t h e y c o u l d get, o f t e n r o o m s i n c r a m p e d b a r r a c k s with n o f u r n i s h i n g s a t all, a n d i n a d e q u a t e acoustics, i l l u m i n a t i o n , a n d

lines o f sight.

The

chief tester a t o n e c a m p c o m p l a i n e d (p. 106): " P a r t o f this i n a c c u racy I believe to be d u e to t h e fact that t h e r o o m in w h i c h t h e e x a m i n a t i o n is h e l d is filled t o o full of m e n . As a result, t h e m e n w h o are sitting i n t h e rear o f t h e r o o m a r e u n a b l e t o h e a r clearly and t h o r o u g h l y e n o u g h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e instructions." T e n s i o n s rose b e t w e e n Y e r k e s ' s testers a n d T h e c h i e f tester o f C a m p C u s t e r c o m p l a i n e d (p.

r e g u l a r officers. 111): " T h e igno-

rance o f t h e subject o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a v e r a g e officer i s e q u a l l e d only b y his i n d i f f e r e n c e t o it." Y e r k e s u r g e d restraint a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n (p. 1 5 5 ) : T h e e x a m i n e r s h o u l d strive especially to take t h e military point of view. Unwarranted claims c o n c e r n i n g the accuracy of the results should be avoided. In general, straightforward c o m m o n s e n s e statements will be found more c o n v i n c i n g than technical descriptions, statistical exhibits, or academic a r g u m e n t s .

2J2

T H E

M I S M E A S U R E

O F

MAN

A s friction a n d d o u b t m o u n t e d , t h e secretary o f w a r p o l l e d c o m m a n d i n g officers o f all c a m p s t o ask their o p i n i o n o f Y e r k e s ' s tests. H e r e c e i v e d o n e h u n d r e d replies, n e a r l y all n e g a t i v e . T h e y w e r e , Y e r k e s a d m i t t e d (p. 43), "with a few e x c e p t i o n s , u n f a v o r a b l e to psychological work, a n d h a v e led to the conclusion on the part of v a r i o u s officers of t h e G e n e r a l Staff t h a t this w o r k has little, if a n y , v a l u e t o t h e a r m y a n d s h o u l d b e d i s c o n t i n u e d . " Y e r k e s f o u g h t back a n d w o n a s t a n d o f f (but n o t all t h e p r o m o t i o n s , c o m m i s s i o n s , a n d h i r i n g s h e h a d b e e n p r o m i s e d ) ; his w o r k p r o c e e d e d u n d e r a c l o u d of suspicion. Minor

frustrations

never abated.

C a m p Jackson

ran

out of

f o r m s a n d h a d t o i m p r o v i s e o n b l a n k p a p e r (p. 78). B u t a m a j o r a n d p e r s i s t e n t difficulty d o g g e d t h e e n t i r e e n t e r p r i s e a n d f i n a l l y , as

I

shall d e m o n s t r a t e , d e p r i v e d t h e s u m m a r y statistics of a n y

meaning.

R e c r u i t s h a d t o b e a l l o c a t e d t o t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e test.

M e n illiterate i n E n g l i s h , e i t h e r b y lack o f s c h o o l i n g o r f o r e i g n b i r t h , s h o u l d h a v e t a k e n e x a m i n a t i o n B e t a , e i t h e r b y d i r e c t assignm e n t , o r i n d i r e c t l y u p o n f a i l i n g A l p h a . Y e r k e s ' s c o r p s tried h e r o i cally t o fulfill this p r o c e d u r e . I n a t least t h r e e c a m p s , t h e y m a r k e d identification tags o r e v e n p a i n t e d letters directly o n t h e b o d i e s o f m e n w h o f a i l e d — a r e a d y identification

g u i d e f o r f u r t h e r assess-

m e n t (p. 73, p. 76): "A list of D m e n was sent w i t h i n six h o u r s after t h e g r o u p e x a m i n a t i o n t o t h e clerk a t t h e m u s t e r i n g office. A s t h e m e n a p p e a r e d , this clerk m a r k e d o n t h e b o d y o f e a c h D m a n a letter P " ( i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e psychiatrist s h o u l d e x a m i n e t h e m further). B u t s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e division b e t w e e n A l p h a a n d B e t a v a r i e d substantially f r o m c a m p t o c a m p . A s u r v e y across c a m p s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e m i n i m u m score o n a n early v e r s i o n o f A l p h a v a r i e d f r o m 20 to 100 f o r a s s i g n m e n t to f u r t h e r testing (p. 476). Y e r k e s a d m i t t e d (p.

354):

This lack of a uniform process of segregation is certainly unfortunate. On account of the variable facilities for e x a m i n i n g and the variable quality of the groups e x a m i n e d however, it appeared entirely impossible to establish a standard uniform for all camps. C.

C.

(1921):

B r i g h a m , Yerkes's most zealous votary, even complained

THE H E R E D I T A R I A N THEORY OF IQ

233

T h e m e t h o d of selecting men for Beta varied from c a m p to camp, and sometimes from week to week in the same camp. T h e r e was no established criterion of literacy, and no uniform m e t h o d of selecting illiterates. T h e p r o b l e m c u t far d e e p e r t h a n s i m p l e inconsistency a m o n g c a m p s . T h e persistent logistical difficulties i m p o s e d a systematic bias that substantially l o w e r e d t h e m e a n scores o f blacks a n d i m m i grants.

For two major reasons, m a n y m e n took only A l p h a a n d

scored

either

zero

or

next

to

nothing,

not because

they

were

i n n a t e l y d u m b , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e illiterate a n d s h o u l d h a v e t a k e n B e t a b y Y e r k e s ' s o w n p r o t o c o l . First, recruits a n d d r a f t e e s h a d , o n a v e r a g e , s p e n t f e w e r years i n s c h o o l t h a n Y e r k e s h a d anticipated. Lines for Beta b e g a n to l e n g t h e n and the entire operation t h r e a t e n e d t o c l o g a t this b o t t l e n e c k . A t m a n y c a m p s , u n q u a l i f i e d m e n w e r e sent i n d r o v e s t o A l p h a b y artificial l o w e r i n g o f stand a r d s . S c h o o l i n g t o the third g r a d e sufficed f o r A l p h a i n o n e c a m p ; i n a n o t h e r , a n y o n e w h o said h e c o u l d r e a d , a t w h a t e v e r level, t o o k A l p h a . T h e c h i e f tester a t C a m p D i x r e p o r t e d (p. 72): " T o a v o i d excessively l a r g e B e t a g r o u p s , s t a n d a r d s for a d m i s s i o n t o e x a m i n a t i o n A l p h a w e r e set low." S e c o n d , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e press o f t i m e a n d the hostility o f r e g u l a r officers o f t e n p r e c l u d e d a B e t a retest f o r m e n w h o h a d incorrectly t a k e n A l p h a . Y e r k e s a d m i t t e d (p. 4 7 2 ) : "It was n e v e r successfully s h o w n , h o w e v e r , that t h e c o n t i n u e d recalls . . . w e r e so essential

that

repeated

interference

with

company

maneuvers

s h o u l d b e p e r m i t t e d . " A s the p a c e b e c a m e m o r e frantic, t h e p r o b l e m w o r s e n e d . T h e c h i e f tester a t C a m p D i x c o m p l a i n e d ( p p . 7 2 7 3 ) : " I n J u n e it was f o u n d i m p o s s i b l e to recall a t h o u s a n d m e n listed for i n d i v i d u a l e x a m i n a t i o n .

I n J u l y A l p h a failures a m o n g

n e g r o e s w e r e n o t r e c a l l e d . " T h e stated p r o t o c o l scarcely a p p l i e d t o blacks w h o , a s u s u a l , w e r e t r e a t e d with less c o n c e r n a n d m o r e c o n t e m p t b y e v e r y o n e . F a i l u r e o n B e t a , for e x a m p l e , s h o u l d h a v e led t o a n i n d i v i d u a l e x a m i n a t i o n . H a l f t h e black recruits s c o r e d D - o n Beta,

but

only

one-fifth

of these

were

recalled

and

four-fifths

received n o f u r t h e r e x a m i n a t i o n (p. 7 0 8 ) . Y e t w e k n o w that scores for blacks i m p r o v e d substantially w h e n t h e p r o t o c o l was f o l l o w e d . A t o n e c a m p (p. 7 3 6 ) , o n l y

14.1 p e r c e n t o f m e n w h o h a d s c o r e d

D - o n A l p h a failed t o g a i n a h i g h e r g r a d e o n B e t a . T h e effects o f this systematic bias a r e e v i d e n t i n o n e o f B o r i n g ' s

THE

MISMEASURE

OF

MAN

e x p e r i m e n t s with t h e s u m m a r y statistics. H e c u l l e d 4,893 cases o f m e n w h o h a d t a k e n b o t h A l p h a a n d B e t a . C o n v e r d n g their scores t o the c o m m o n scale, h e c a l c u l a t e d a n a v e r a g e m e n t a l a g e o f 1 0 . 7 7 5 for A l p h a , a n d a B e t a m e a n o f 1 2 . 1 5 8 (p. 6 5 5 ) . H e u s e d o n l y t h e B e t a scores i n his s u m m a r i e s ; Y e r k e s p r o c e d u r e w o r k e d . B u t w h a t o f the m y r i a d s w h o s h o u l d

have taken Beta, but only received

A l p h a a n d scored abysmally as a result—primarily poorly educated blacks a n d i m m i g r a n t s with a n i m p e r f e c t c o m m a n d o f E n g l i s h — t h e v e r y g r o u p s w h o s e l o w scores c a u s e d s u c h a h e r e d i t a r i a n stir later o n ? DUBIOUS AND PERVERSE PROCEEDINGS: A PERSONAL TESTIMONY A c a d e m i c i a n s o f t e n f o r g e t h o w p o o r l y o r i n c o m p l e t e l y t h e written r e c o r d , their p r i m a r y s o u r c e , m a y r e p r e s e n t e x p e r i e n c e . S o m e t h i n g s h a v e to be s e e n , t o u c h e d , a n d tasted. W h a t was it like to be a n illiterate black o r f o r e i g n recruit, a n x i o u s a n d b e f u d d l e d a t t h e n o v e l e x p e r i e n c e o f t a k i n g a n e x a m i n a t i o n , n e v e r told w h y , o r w h a t w o u l d b e m a d e o f t h e results: e x p u l s i o n , the f r o n t lines? I n 1 9 6 8 (quoted in

Kevles), an

e x a m i n e r recalled

his a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f

B e t a : "It was t o u c h i n g to see t h e i n t e n s e e f f o r t . . . p u t i n t o a n s w e r ing the questions, often by m e n w h o never before had held a pencil i n their h a n d s . " Y e r k e s h a d o v e r l o o k e d , o r consciously b y p a s s e d , something of importance. T h e Beta examination contained only p i c t u r e s , n u m b e r s , a n d s y m b o l s . B u t i t still r e q u i r e d p e n c i l w o r k a n d , o n t h r e e o f its s e v e n p a r t s , a k n o w l e d g e o f n u m b e r s a n d h o w t o write t h e m . Y e r k e s ' s m o n o g r a p h is so t h o r o u g h that his p r o c e d u r e for givi n g the t w o e x a m i n a t i o n s c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d d o w n t o t h e c h o r e o g r a p h y o f m o t i o n for all e x a m i n e r s a n d orderlies. H e p r o v i d e s facsimiles in full size f o r t h e e x a m i n a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s , a n d for all explanatory material used by examiners. T h e standardized words a n d g e s t u r e s of e x a m i n e r s a r e r e p r o d u c e d in full. S i n c e I w a n t e d to k n o w in as c o m p l e t e a w a y as possible w h a t it felt like to g i v e a n d t a k e t h e test, I a d m i n i s t e r e d e x a m i n a t i o n B e t a (for illiterates) to a g r o u p o f fifty-three

Harvard

undergraduates

in

my

course on

b i o l o g y as a social w e a p o n . I tried to follow Y e r k e s ' s p r o t o c o l scrup u l o u s l y in all its details. I feel that I r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e original situation a c c u r a t e l y , with o n e i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n : m y s t u d e n t s k n e w w h a t t h e y w e r e d o i n g , d i d n ' t h a v e t o p r o v i d e their n a m e s o n

235

fHEORY OF IQ THE

HEREDITARIA' jjig at stake. ( O n e f r i e n d later s u g g e s t e d

t h e f o r m , a n d h a d no^ed n a m e s — a n d p o s t e d r e s u l t s — a s j u s t a t h a t I s h o u l d h a v e re