The Metallography of Early Ferrous Edge Tools and Edged Weapons 9780860544012, 9781407317694

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The Metallography of Early Ferrous Edge Tools and Edged Weapons

R. F. Tylecote and B. J. J. Giltnour

BAR British Series 15 5 1986

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. 155, 1986: 'The Metallography of Early Ferrous Edge Tools and Edged Weapons' © R.F.Tylecote and B.J.J.Gilmour, 1986 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544012 paperback ISBN 9781407317694 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544012 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS

P art I

P age

1 .

G eneral I ntroduction

i

2 .

P reparation o f S pecimens

3

3 .

E xamination

4

4 .

S ome A spects o f t he P hysical M etallurgy o f I ron a nd I ron-carbon A lloys

5 .

R esults o f E xamination o f E dge T ools

7 1 8

P art I I 6 .

R esults o f t he E xamination o f E dged W eapons

1 09

A cknowledgements

2 55

R eferences

2 56

Part I - List of Figures

FIGURE

PAGE

1.

Methods of welding iron to steel to make blades.

6

2.

Effect of load on hardness RV.

8

3.

Effect of working on the hardness of low-carbon iron. (after Williams et a1 18).

4.

Hardening of iron by solid solution elements. (After Rollason et al9).

5.

The carburizing of iron in various media at 900 ° C. (After Shaw-Scott 1).

16

6.

K n i f e b l ade f r o m H u c k h o e, No r t h u m b e r l a n d and metallographic section.

19

7.

Knife blade from Winklebury, Rants and section.

23

8.

Outlines of two knife blades from W interton, Lines. Roman Villa.

24

9.

Section of knife 1 7 from Winterton, Lines.

25

10

11

metallographic

Roman Villa.

27-28

10.

Outlines of Roman cutlery from Wanborough, Wilts.

1 1.

Metallographic sections of Wanborough cutlery .

31

12.

Sections of knives from Poundbury, Dorset.

40

13.

Outlines of four blades from West Stow, Suffolk showing positions of sections.

43

14.

X-radiograph and photomicrograph of a blade from Winchester (WP 1516).

45

15.

Section through a pattern-welded knife blade from 1314th. cent. Winchester (BS 103 1).

46

16.

Section through two scarf-welded steeled medieval knife blades from Winchester. BS 4263 is ll- 12th century and BS 271 10th cent.

47

17.

Section through knife blade from Winchester dated to the 1 1 th century.

48

18.

X-radiograph and photomicrograph of a 1 5- 1 6 th century iron cored steeled blade from Winchester. (WP 3398).

49

15th

cent. knife

F IGURE 1 9.

2 0.

P AGE X -radiograph a nd p hotomicrograph o f a n 1 8th

c entury

h omogeneous s teeled b lade f rom W inchester .

( CC 2 585) .

A n

k nife

u nstratified

b ut

c learly

m edieval

4 9

f rom

W inchester i n w hich t he p attern-welded s ection h as b ecome t he c utting e dge r ather t han t he b ack a s w as i ntended ( BS 3 494). 2 1.

1 5th c entury s teeled b lade f rom C oitho , L incs . ;

t he b ack

i s m ade o f 1 0-20 l aminations. 2 2.

5 1

S EM t race a cross l aminations o f a bove b lade s howing n ickel e nrichment a t t he i nterface o f t wo l aminations.

2 3.

2 4.

5 2

O utline o f s hears a nd s cissors f rom S alisbury , W ilts . a nd C hingley ,

K ent .

S ections

o f

5 5

s hears

a nd

s cissors

f rom

S alisbury

a nd

C hingley . 2 5.

5 7-58

P rofile a nd s ection o f c arpenter 's a xe f rom W inchester o f t he 9 -10th 6 262).

2 6.

2 7.

c entury

s howing

h ardened

s teel

i nsert .

( BS 6 1

P rofile o f c arpenter's a xe-head f rom K empsford, G los . P robably S axo-Norman . S ections

t hrough c utting e dge o f a bove a xe

6 3

s howing h ow

s teel w as a pplied b y " welding-on" . 2 8.

2 9.

3 0. 3 1.

5 1

1 8th c entury a xe-head

f rom L ymm,

6 4 C heshire,

s howing

h ardened s teel i nsert.

6 6

O utline a nd s ection o f a s ickle f rom R omano-British W anborough , W ilts.

6 8

S ections t hrough R omano-British t ools.

7 0

S ections t hrough R omano-British w ood-cutting

c hisel

a nd

g ouges.

7 2

3 2.

S ections t hrough w ood-cutting c hisels.

7 3

3 3.

A c arburized s pade-shoe f rom t he 9 th c entury ,

W inchester .

( CC 1 690) . 3 4.

3 5.

7 6

T wo h ammer h eads f rom W inchester s howing e vidence s teeling a nd h eat t reatment ( BS 3 394 a nd B S 3 766) . R omano-British

c old

c hisels

f rom

C estingthorpe

o f 7 7 a nd 8 2

W anborough . 3 6.

S ection t hrough c hisel o r d rift f rom a p re-Roman I ron A ge l evel a t G ussage A ll S aints,

D orset .

8 7

F IGURE 3 7.

P AGE S ections t hrough c hisels a nd d rifts f rom W inchester a nd C hingley .

3 8.

3 9.

8 8

S ection t hrough a R omano—British s aw—blade W anborough a nd a p iled s teel f ile f rom W anborough . R oman o r m edieval s poon—bit f rom L etchworth,

t rom 9 1 H erts . 9 4

s howing s teeled c utting e dge . 4 0.

C annon—boring b ar a nd b it f rom C hiddingley , S ussex ( After B utler a nd T ebbutt 4 1 ) .

4 1.

9 5

S ection t hrough o ne o f t he s teeled i nserts i n t he h ead o f t he a bove , w ith h ardness m easurements . ( Courtesy o f 9 6

D r. E .M . T rent) . 4 2.

S tructure n ear w eld o f c annon—boring b it .

T roostite a nd

m artensite X 1 25 . 4 3.

9 6

D etail o f c rown s cythe ( After r ef. 3 ).

P art I I 4 4.

4 5.

4 6.

4 7.

4 8.

S ection t hrough ( BS 3 433) .

a rrowhead

f rom

A fter ( Coghlan 1 11

1 4th c entury W inchester 1 11

O utlines o f s pearheads;

N o 's

1a nd 2 a re f rom L unt,

C oventry a nd a re o f R oman d ate . A nglo—Saxon.

( Hobley3 9 ) , t he r est a re 12

S ection t hrough a s mall s pearhead f rom K empsford , G l os . N o . 3 5 . S ection t hrough r emains

S ection

N o .

N o .

o f

s ocketed

s pearhead

14

f rom

3 8 .

t hrough

K empsford , 5 0 .

L ist o f F igures

M edieval a rrowhead f rom L ambourn , B erks . a nd T ylecote ) . ( 63) .

K empsford , 4 9.

-

1 05

16 a s pearhead

f rom

t he

T hames

a t

3 6 .

19

S ection t hrough a p attern—welded s pearhead f rom t he T hames a t K empsford, N o . 3 3 + s ection f rom s ame s pearhead t o s how ' wavy ' w eld a nd o ther s urface d etail .

19

5 1.

O utlines o f s cramasaxes s howing p ositions o f s ections.

1 26

5 2.

S ection t hrough s cramasax N o . 5 0, f rom B arham D own , K ent.

1 27

5 3 .

S ection t hrough L eyton, E ssex .

1 27

s cramasax N o .

4 2

f rom

t he R iver L ea a t

F IGURE 5 4.

5 5.

5 6.

5 7.

5 8.

P AGE S ection t hrough s cramasax N o . K empsford.

3 7 f rom t he T hames a t 1 32

S ection t hrough p art o f an arrow s cramasax N o . 2 2 f rom t he T hames a t R eading .

1 36

S ection t hrough a n arrow s cramasax N o . 9f rom t he T hames a t H ampton , M iddlesex .

1 38

S ection t hrough a s cramasax N o . 3 4 f rom t he T hames a t K empsford.

1 38

S ection t hrough s cramasax N o . 4f rom D orset + s urface v iew d rawn f rom X —ray , a nd t hree—dimensional r econstruction .

1 42

5 9.

O utlines o f K rises.

1 45

6 0.

P hotomicrographs o f s tructure o f M alayan K ris ; T . 1 . ( a ) W hole s ection ( b ) N ear C ore , X 1 00 ( c ) s ame , X 4 00 ) .

1 46

E lectron p robe s can a cross b lade , T .1, i n n ickel c ontent.

1 47

6 1.

s howing v ariation

6 2.

S ection t hrough K ris N o . 5 7.

6 3.

O utlines o f s words s howing p ositions o f s ections.

6 4.

S ection t hrough s word b lade S 3 2 f rom R eading M useum .

6 5.

( T2).

1 49 1 51-5 1 59

S ection t hrough s word b lade S 2 9 f rom t he T hames a t L ittle W ittenhan , .

1 62

6 6.

S ection t hrough s word b lade S 2 7 f rom L ittle W itte r ihan i .

1 62

6 7.

E xamination o f R oman s word S 3 9 f rom F untham 's L ane , W hittlesey a nd m icrographs . 1 65-6

6 8.

S ection o f s word 5 1 3 f rom K ent.

6 9.

S tructure o f s ection o f s word S 2 0 f rom L enham, K ent ( from

f ragments

o nly )

1 69

+ s urface v iew d rawn f rom X —ray

a nd t hree—dimensional r econstruction .

1 69 , 1 71

7 0.

S ection t hrough s word S 4 5 f rom M itcham , S urrey X 5 .

7 1.

S ection t hrough s word S 1 0 f rom M itcham , ( C )

1 73

S urrey ( b ) X 5 ,

X 2 5 .

1 75-6

7 2.

S ection t hrough s word 5 5 5 f rom

7 3.

S ection t hrough s word S 5 4

7 4.

S ection t hrough s word 5 5 3 f rom S arre, K ent.

1 80

7 5.

S ection t hrough s word S 5 2 f rom S arre, K ent.

1 80

"

S arre o r B ifrons, K ent. "

"

1 78 1 78

F IGURE

P AGE

7 6.

S ection t hrough s word S 5 1 f rom S arre, K ent.

1 83

7 7.

S ection t hrough s word S 1 2 f rom W ickhambreux , K ent.

1 83

7 8.

S ection t hrough s word S 4 9, p robably f rom B ifrons, K ent.

1 86

7 9.

S ection o f s word S 1 f rom L oveden H ill , L incoln . ( a) X 3 .5, ( b) X 1 9 + s urface d etail d rawn f rom X -ray a nd t hree-dimensional v iew . 1 86-7

8 0.

S ection o f s word 5 4 0 f rom C hesterton , C ambridge.

1 89

8 1.

S ection o f s word S 1 4 f rom E astrey , K ent.

1 93

8 2.

S ection o f s word S 1 8 f rom A ylesford, K ent.

1 93

8 3.

S ection o f s word S 1 9 f rom W ickhambreaux , K ent.

1 99

8 4 .

S ection o f s word S 1 6 f rom S arre , K ent

+ s urface d etail

d rawn f rom X -ray a nd t hree-dimensional v iew .

1 99-200

8 5.

S ection o f s word S 1 7 f rom S arre, K ent.

2 04

8 6.

S ection o f s word S 5 6 f rom B ifrons, K ent.

2 04

8 7.

S ection o f s word S 1 5 f rom H olborough, K ent.

2 08

8 8.

S ection o f s word S 3 1 f rom C averhsam , R eading.

2 11

8 9.

S ection o f B rentford ,

9 0.

S ection o f

s word

S 4 6,

p robably f rom

t he T hames

a t

M iddlesex . s word

S 4 1

2 14 f rom

t he

T hames

a t

V auxhall, 2 16

L ondon . 9 1.

S ection o f s word S 2 3

p robably f rom t he T hames n ear 2 19

R eading. 9 2.

S ection

o f s word 5 7 p robably f rom t he T hames n ear

L ondon .

2 19

9 3.

S ection o f s word S 8 p robably f rom t he T hames n ear L ondon .

2 23

9 4.

S ection o f s word S 4 8 f rom R ochester , K ent + s urface d etail d rawn f rom X -ray, a nd t hree-dimensional v iew .

2 25

9 5.

S ection o f s word S 4 7 f rom t he T hames a t W aterloo B ridge.

2 26

9 6.

S ection o f s word S 2 4 f rom t he T hames a t C leeve ,

G oring

o n T ha mes, O xon .

2 28

9 7.

S ection o f s word S 4 3 f rom t he T hames n ear L ondon .

2 31

9 8.

S ection o f s word S 2 5 f rom O xford R oad, R eading.

2 33

F IGURE 9 9. 1 00 .

1 01.

P AGE S ection o f s word S 4 4 f rom t he T hames a t B rentford.

2 35

S ection o f s word S 2 6 f rom t he T hames a t W allingford B ridge.

2 37

S ection o f p rovenance).

2 39

sword

S 2 8

f rom

R eading

Museum

( no

1 02.

S ection o f s word S 3 0 f rom S unbury W eir s tream .

2 41

1 03.

T ypes o f p attern w elded s word s tructures i n s ection .

2 46

T ABLES

P age N o. 1 .

2 .

A tomic r adii o f t he t he f errite l attice . E ffect

o f

a nnealed 3 .

4 .

e lements a nd

t heir p osition i n 1 2

c arbon a nd p hosphorus

o n

t he h ardness

o f

i ron .

1 3

E ffect o f c old work o n t he h ardness p hosphorus-containing

i ron .

E ffect

o n t he d iffusion

o f p hosphorus

o f

i ron a nd 1 4

o f

c arbon

i n

i ron . 5 .

1 5

E ffect

o f

t emperature

o n

t he

t hickness

o f

t he

c arburised l ayer a fter 2 h ours . 6 .

1 7

S tructure o f c utlery f rom t he R omano-British s ite a t W anborough , W ilts .

7 .

M etallography o f

2 9 e dge

t ools :

s ummary

o f

P leiner 's

r esults o n C zechoslovakian m aterial 42 . 8 .

C omparison o f m etallurgical l evels r eached o n R omanoB ritish

9 .

9 7-98

s ites .

MetallograpHy o f G reencastle ( after

1 00 medieval S cott 3 3 ) .

i ron

o bjects

f rom

1 0.

T ypology o f R ussian k nives ( after K olchin 8 8 ) .

1.

S ummary o f r esults o f t he m etallography o f e dge t ools f rom H elg6 ( after M odin a nd P leiner ) .

1 2.

1 01 1 02

1 07

C omposition o f p attern-welded M erovingian s word b lades

( after S alm

5 4

2 52

) .

R esults A

K nives a nd c leavers. A l

P re-Roman

2 0-21

A 2

R omano-B

2 0-21

A 3

M edieval ( post-Roman t o 1 5th c entury)

3 8-39

A 4

P ost-medieval

5 3

B

S cissors a nd s hears

5 6

C

A xe-heads

6 0

D

S cythes, s ickles a nd b illhooks

6 7

C

W ood—cutting g ouges a nd c hisels

7 1

E

S pade—shoes a nd p loughshares

7 5

F

H ammer—heads

7 5

G

M ason 's c hisels, s mith 's c hisels e tc.

7 9

J

S awblades a nd f iles

9 0

K

A wls

9 0

D

A rrowheads a nd s pearheads

10

M

S cramasaxes

1 25

N

S words

1 56-58

T he M etallography o f E arly F errous E dge T ools a nd W eapons b y R .F. T ylecote a nd B rian G ilmour

1 .

G eneral I ntroduction S ome o f t he o bjects e xamined i n t his work a rise f rom a c ontinuous

p rogramme b y o ne o f u s o ver a bout 2 0 y ears .

T his w ork c ould h ave g one o n a

l ot l onger b ut i t w as f elt t hat i n v iew o f t he i ncreasing n umbers o f o bjects n ow a rising f rom B ritish e xcavations a nd t he i ncreasing n umber

o f p eople

w orking i n t his f ield , i t w ould b e u seful t o b ring a ll t he r esults t ogether , s o t hat o thers c ould b enefit f rom t he r esults a nd c ompare t hem w ith t heir o wn . A lso , c ompared w ith o ther E uropean c ountries , B ritain a ppeared t o b e v ery b ackward i n t he e xamination o f s uch a rtifacts e specially w hen o ur w ork i s c ompared w ith t he work o f K oichin o n t he m aterial f rom N ovgorod , P iaskowski o n t he P olish m aterial a nd P leiner o n C zech a nd o ther E uropean m aterial . I n a ctual p ublished b efore i n e xcavation .

f act s ome o f t he r esults p resented h ere h ave b een t he a rchaeological r eports d ealing w ith t heir

W hile t he p rincipal a uthor h as b een c oncentrating o n t he d omestic t ools , t he s econd a uthor h as b een i nvestigating w eapons . H is r esults w ill e ventually b e i ncorporated i n a t hesis t o b e p resented t o t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology i n t he U niversity o f L ondon . I t w as t hought t hat t he i nclusion h ere o f s ome o f t hese r esults w ould b alance t he w ork a nd a llow c omparison b etween t he c ivil a nd m ilitary a spects o f t he s mith 's w ork . I n t he t wo s ections o n r esults ,

t he o bjects e xamined h ave b een d ivided

i nto d omestic a nd a gricultural t ools s uch a s k nives a nd a xes ,

a nd m ilitary

w eapons s uch a s s words , d aggers e tc . N aturally t here w as a c ertain o verlap i n t echnique a nd i t b ecame o bvious t hat t he s ingle e dged s word k nown a s s eax o r s cramasax w as b ased u pon t he d esign a nd p roduction o f t he d omestic k nife . W e h ave n ot e xamined e nough a xes t o k now w hether t here w as a d ifference i n t echnique b etween t he c onstruction o f m ilitary a nd c ivil a xes . B ut t he p attern-welded s word a ppears t o h ave b een d esigned i n i ts e arliest p hase a s a n o rnamental o r p restige w eapon a nd i ts m ilitary u sefulness s eems t o h ave t aken s econd p lace t o i ts a ppearance . I f i t w as n ot f or t he f act t hat w e k now t hat s uch s words w ere u sed f or f ighting ( Beowulf e tc) w e w ould h ave s upposed t hat i ts p urpose w as l ike t he c eremonial s word o f t oday . Most o f t he a rtifacts e xamined w ere f ound i n B ritain b ut i t i s u ncertain i f t hey w ere a lso m anufactured i n B ritain , a s , f rom t he R oman p eriod

o nwards ,

a n e xtensive

i nternational

t rade w as

b eing c arried

o n i n

s ome d omestic t ools l ike k nives , a nd i n p restige w eapons .2 W e h ave i ncluded a f ew a rtifacts f rom c ountries o utside E urope, m ainly b ecause t hey i llustrate t echniques

t hat

a re d ifferent

b ut w hich m ay h ave b een u sed

i n

E urope. E arly e dge t ools w ere m ade i n t hree w ays ;

b y s urface c arburising ,' b y

w elding s teel t o i ron o r b y w ork-hardening w rought i ron .3 T he m ost c ommon m ethod , a fter t he R oman p eriod , w as t he w elding o f s teel t o i ron . T he

1

w ide u se o f o f t he p rocess o f w elding s teel t o i ron r ather t han t he u se o f s olid s teel w as m ainly f or t wo r easons . T he f irst i s t hat h ardened c arbon s teels a nd c arbon s teels w ere t he o nly s teels u sed b efore t he l atter h alf -

o f t he n ineteenth c entury a re b rittle i n t heir f ully h ardened s tate . J udging f rom t he k nives e xamined h ere , a fter t he R oman p eriod t he f ully -

h ardened s tate was v ery much s ought a fter a nd t herefore t o g et a l ong l asting i mplement t hat d id n ot b reak w hen f lexed , i t w as n ecessary t o w eld a n e dge o f h ardened s teel t o a n u nhardenable i ron o r s oft s teel b ack . T he o ther r eason f or w elding t he t wo w as t hat f rom t he e arliest I ron A ge ,

s teel w as m ore c ostly t han i ron .

T his i s s till t he c ase ,

t hat s o-called " mild" s teel i s l ittle m ore t han i ron .

r emembering

I t i s d ifficult t o

a rrive a t a c omparative c osting i n B ritain f or t he M edieval p eriod b ecause s o m uch s teel was i mported, w hereas m uch o f t he i ron u sed w as o f l ocal o rigin . T his i s l argely d ue t o t he f act t hat , t o g et s teel b y t he s olid s tate d iffusion o f c arbon i nto i ron , o ne m ust u se f airly p ure i ron t o g et t he m aximum d iffusion r ates w hich a re n ot v ery g reat . A g ood d eal o f t he e arly i ron p roduced i n B ritain c ontained p hosphorus w hich s lows d own t he d iffusion o f c arbon b ut o n t he o ther h and g ives a r elatively h ard i ron w hen c old h ammered . T his , h owever , i s n ot h ard e nough f or t he b est k nives f or w hich c arbon s teel i s n eeded a nd w hich m ust b e m ade e ither b y c arburizing h igh q uality l ocal i ron w hich w as a t a p remium , b y c arburizing i mported i ron ,

o r b y u sing i mported s teel .

A bout

1 300 A .D . ,

s teel

w as

s elling i n

B ritain a t a bout £ 3 p er t on , w hile w rought i ron w as o nly a bout £ . 60 p er t on , t hus g iving a r elative p rice o f 5t imes . T he i ncentive t o u se s teel e conomically g ave r ise t o m uch i ngenuity o n t he p art o f b lacksmiths a nd c utlers . C learly t here w ere a g reat n umber o f s olutions t o t he e conomic a nd t echnological p roblems a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i ndividual s miths h ad t heir o wn p ersonal w ay o f d ealing w ith t he p roblem .

o f

I n t his w ay w e m ight b e a ble t o d etect t he w ork o f d ifferent i ndividuals d ifferent s chools . O n t he o ther h and t here w ere f ashions i n t hese

t hings , a nd o f c ourse i mprovements i n t echnique w hich i nvoked c hanges i n d esign . W e s ee f or e xample , t he u se o f p attern w elding i n A nglo-Saxon s word s mithing a p rocess which c ould b e u sed t o g ive a h allmark a nd -

t herefore s ome i ndication o f q uality

t o

j ustify t he h igh

c ost .

P attern-

w elding , a s u sed i n t he A nglo-Saxon p eriod , d id n ot g ive a h ard e dge a nd f or t he b est b lades h ad t o b e c ombined w ith t he s traight-forward w elding-on o f a h ardenable s teel e dge . ( See b elow , P art 2 ) . B ut t he p attern-welded p art l ooked a ttractive a nd n o d oubt w as s o m uch p rized t hat i ts u se w as c arried f orward t o l ater M edieval t imes. I t w as n ot u ntil t he n ineteenth c entury t hat s teel-making p rocesses h ad i mproved s o m uch , a nd s teel h ad b ecome r elatively s o m uch c heaper , t hat i t w as p ossible t o m ake a c heap a nd s atisfactory k nife o ut o f h omogeneous c arbon s teel . E ven s o, t he q uality w as n ot m uch b etter a nd f or s ome p urposes , s uch a s s cythes , t he o ld f ashioned m ethod o f s andwiching a p iece o f s teel b etween t wo p ieces o f i ron w as s till u sed. T herefore ,

f or m ost o f t he l ast 2 000 y ears , k nives a nd o ther e dge t ools

h ave b een m ade b y c ombining t he m inimum o f s teel w ith t he m aximum o f i ron c onsistent w ith a g ood c utting e dge . T his c an b e d one b asically i n f our w ays a s s hown i n F ig . 1 .

1 .

B y h aving a l ayer o f s teel c overed w ith t wo p lates o f i ron i n s uch a w ay t hat t he s teel p rojects a t t he t hinned

2

c utting e dge .

S harpening s uch a t ool w ill a lways g ive a

s teel e dge t o t he b lade. 2 .

W elding-on a s teel s trip t o t he e dge o f ap iece o f i ron , s ometimes m ade b y p iling . T he s teel e dge w ill w ear a way w ith s harpening u ntil e ventually t here i s n o s teel l eft a nd t he t ool b ecomes u seless a nd i s d iscarded .

3 .

U sing

a p iece

a lternate h eat

o f

l ayers

p iled

o f

a fter w elding ,

material

i ron a nd t hese

s teel .

which

c onsists

G iven

o f

s ufficient

l ayers m ay b e h omogenised s o

t hat t he t ool c onsists o f ap iece o f h omogeneous s teel. 4 .

B y h aving a n i ron c ore a round w hich a p iece o f s teel h as b een wrapped i .e . t he r everse o f T ype 1 . T his s eems c omparatively r are p erhaps b ecause i t u ses m ore s teel t han 1 , i n m ost c ases a nd , m ore i mportantly , t he l asting q ualities o f t he t ool a re n ot m uch b etter t han i n t he c ase o f 2 .

W hile

t he s imple T ype

1 s andwich i s e asy t o c ategorise ,

t here a re i n

f act a w ide r ange o f s tructures g iving m uch t he s ame r esults g oing f rom t he ' English ' s andwich t o t he ' Danish ' s andwich i n w hich a l ayer o f s teel i s w elded t o o ne s ide o f ap iece o f i ron . T his o ne-sided s andwich m ay b e v ery l imited i n i ts u se o f s teel s o t hat t he s teel f orms a t hin e dge m ore l ike t he T ype 2 s tructure . T his i s u sed f or w ood-cutting c hisels r ight u p t o t he 1 9th c entury . I n o ther c ases t he s teel l ayer m ay b e a pplied t o t he whole width a nd l ength o f t he b lade . I t i s n ot dways p ossible t o d ifferentiate t he t ype w hen o nly l imited s ection l ength i s a llowed a nd s o , w hen w e a re i n d oubt a s t o t he t ype i t i s r eturned a s T ype 1 /2 . T he o nes ided s andwich i s r eferred t o a s T ype 1 (a ) , a nd m ore c omplicated m ultidecker s andwiches a re r eferred t o a s T ype 1 (b) . I t i s n ot a lways e asy t o d ifferentiate t his t ype f rom a T ype 3 b lade i n w hich t he v arious l ayers h ave n ot b een f ully d iffused . I f w e i nclude w ork-hardened f errite w ith o r w ithout p hosphorus a nd c all i t T ype

0 w e h ave

5 b asis

t ypes

s hown i n F ig .

1 i n which T ype

1 i n

p articular h as a n umber o f s ubdivisions . T ype 2 c an b e s ubdivided i nto s carf w elded i n w hich c ase t he i ron-steel w eld i s a t a n a ngle , o r b uttw elded i n w hich c ase i t i s a t r ight a ngles t o t he s ection . A knife f or e xample,

h as a n umber o f d ifferent p rofiles t hat t o a

c ertain e xtent d efine i ts u se b ut n ot n ecessarily s o .

A t ypology d ealing

w ith s hape h as b een d evised b y M r . P . O ttaway b ased o n h is e xamination o f t he mainly medieval k nives f rom Y ork . 4 '5 T hese a re l ettered a lphabetically A ,B ,C ,D e tc *

a nd i t i s h oped t o u se t his t ypology f or s hape

i n f uture work w here r eference i s m ade t o t his p arameter . B y u sing a lphabetical l etters f or f orm, a nd n umbers f or m etallurgical s tructure c onfusion i s r educed . B ut a s troke s hould b e u sed t o s eparate f orm f rom s tructure

2 .

i .e .

A l/ 2a .

P reparation o f S pecimens P ieces were c ut f rom t he k nife b lades b y m eans o f a n 0 .48 mm t hick

a brasive c ut-off w heel a s

t hey w ere u sually t oo h ard t o c ut w ith a h ack-

3

s aw .

I n m ost c ases p ieces f rom 6 t o 1 2 mm t hick w ere r emoved b y c utting

r ight t hrough t he b lade , b ut i n s ome c ases w here t he s pecimens w ere w ell p reserved a nd h ad s ome a esthetic v alue , ' V ' s haped p ieces w ere r emoved b y m aking t wo c uts f rom t he b lade e dge m eeting s omewhere i n t he m iddle o f t he b lade . F rom t wo t o s ix s ections w ere m ounted t ogether v ertically i n ac old o r t hermosetting r esin . T he m aximum t emperature o btained i n t his m ounting p rocess i s a bout 1 50 °C a nd h as b een f ound n ot t o c hange t he s tructure o f c arbon s teels i n t he s hort t ime n ormally u sed ( about 1 0 minutes) .

T he

m ounts w ere t hen p olished u sing t he s tandard m etallographic t echniques o f d ry o r w et g rinding f ollowed b y d iamond p olishing . T he p olished s ections w ere n ormally e tched i n 2 -3% n itric a cid i n a lcohol ( Nital) a lthough o ther s tandard p oints.

3 .

e tching

t reatments

w ere

u sed

o ccasionally

t o

c lear

u p

s pecific

E xamination T he

m ounts

m icroscope ,

a nd

w ere

f irst

o utline

e xamined

s ketches

b y

m ade ;

a l ower—power t he

s tructural

( X10)

d etails

b inocular w ere

t hen

f illed i n u sing a n ormal m etallurgical m icroscope w ith m agnifications o f 5 0 9 50 t imes.

-

I n t he s ections s hown , t he s tructural p hases h ave b een s hown i n b rief u sing t he f ollowing s ystem o f s ymbols:

A s

L ight—etching f errite b ands o n a w eld j unction u sually d ue t o t he h igh a rsenic c ontent o f t he i ron o r s teel .

C em

C ementite ; w hen p resent w ith F i t i s u sually i n t he g rain

b oundaries .

F

F errite.

F (+P)

F errite w ith s ome p earlite.

F+ P

F errite a nd p earlite ( about e qual a mounts).

g bc.

G rain b oundary c arbide.

M

M artensite.

M+F

M artensite a nd

f errite d ue

t o q uenching a t t oo l ow a

t emperature f or t he c arbon c ontent o f t he s teel. M+T M artensite a nd t roostite. N

N itride o r c arbide n eedles.

P

P earlite.

P (+F)

P earlite w ith s ome f errite .

S C

S pheroidised c arbides.

4

T

T roostite.

T M

T empered m artensite.

B

B ainite.

M ost o f

t hese t erms a re i n n ormal u se a mongst m etallographers a nd a re

i nternational ( see a ppendix f or d efinitions) .

T he

t erm

' troostite ' h as

g one o ut o f u se i n s ome c ountries a nd i n s ome a reas o f t he U .K . H ere i t i s r etained f or t he v ery c ommon n odular d ark-etching p hase w hich i s , w hen s een u nder a v ery h igh m agnification , af orm o f p earlite which f orms u nder c ontinuous c ooling c onditions ( CCT ) a t r ates b etween t hose g iving l amellar p earlite a nd t hose g iving n i artensite. U ntil r ecently t he q uite c ommon o ccurrence o f ' needles ' i n f errite w as p ut d own t o t he p resence o f i ron n itride ( Fe 2N ) . M ore r ecently , h owever , w ith t he I ncreasing u se o f t he e lectron m icroscope i t h as b een f ound t hat m any t hat w ere t hought t o b e n itride w ere , i n f act , c arbide , s o t he l etter N i s h ere u sed t o i ndicate b oth t ypes o f n eedle . V ery o ften t he j unction b etween s teel a nd i ron I s w ell m arked b y a l ight-etching b and o f f errite . W e n ow k now 7 t hat t his I s d ue t o t he s urface e nrichment o f i ron o r s teel i n e lements s uch a s a rsenic w hen t he m etal i s b eing h eated i n t he s mith 's h earth f or w elding . W hen a p iece o f s teel i s w elded t o i ron a nd b oth h ave l ow a rsenic c ontent ( less t han 0 .015% ), a d iffuse j oint i s o btained u nless t he d iffusion o f c arbon a cross i t i s h indered b y al ot o f s lag e ntrapped i n t he w eld o r t he w eld i s c arried o ut e specially f ast . W here t he ' white b ands ' a re e xtremely p rominent t his f act h as b een i ndicated b y t he s ymbol ' As ' a nd i s a n i ndication o f h igh a rsenic , m ost l ikely i n t he i ron a nd t herefore i ndicative o f ac ertain t ype o f i ron o re a s as ource f or t he m etal . S o f ar w e d o n ot h ave m uch d ata o n t he A s c ontent o f B ritish , o r i ndeed o ther , i ron o res ; b ut n o d oubt i n t he c ourse o f t ime t his s ituation w ill b e r ectified . M eanwhile t hese w hite l ines h elp t o m easure t he d egree o f p iling t hat h as g one i nto t he p roduction o f t he i ron o r s teel . A rsenic i s a m uch m ore c ommon e lement i n e arly i ron a nd I t i s n ot u nusual

t o

h ardening ,

h ave

a s

much

a s

a s w ith p hosphorus .

2 % A s

g iving

a ppreciable

s olid

s olution

( vide i nfra ) .

I n t heir w ork o n t he c orrosion r esistance o f w rought i ron ,

C hilton a nd

E vans 6 f ound e vidence f or t wo t ypes o f s egregation ( 1 ) m icrosegregation ( Q z ones) which w as d ue t o t he s olid s tate r eduction o f t he o res ( differences b etween i ron a nd i ts i mpurities) a nd ( 2 ) i n acrosegregation ( V z ones) w hich w as c aused b y e nrichment o n t he w elding p lanes . B oth p rocesses m ight b e r esponsible f or t he t ype o f e nrichment o f N i a nd C u i n i ron b ut f or t he m oment we w ill c onsider p rocess ( 2) . H ere i n t he d ays b efore t he i ntroduction o f t he e lectron s canning m icroscope ( 1955) , C hilton w as a ble t o o btain f ine m icro-analysis b y A . B erger i n B elgium w hich g ave r esults s howing t hat m odern w rought i ron h ad b een e nriched f rom 0 . 19% N i t o 2 . 7% a long t he w elding p lanes d uring t he p iling p rocess . T his i s t he o rder o f i ncrease o ne g ets w ith a rsenic 7 , a nd t here i s n o d oubt a bout t he p rocess g iving r ise t o i t . T he w idth o f t he e nriched z one w as o f t he o rder o f 0 . 1 m m ( = 1 00 f . 4 .m) a nd t hese z ones c ould b e c learly s een i n t he m icrostructure a s p arallel l ines s howing t he r egularity o btained i n p iling . ' White ' l ines o f s imilar r egularity c an b e s een i n t he f errite t hat f orms t he b ack o f a

5

°'

4

:

:

:

a ) , ) )

C u

C) . 0 0)

I c ar— i

Q )

'H

c a

•-

O D

r 1

• I

6

c a :

( V . c

I 'H

c a

a )

a )

c a

c a a ) c

F

c a 9

.

4 J

O D

ca

a

O D c a

( U " I

C L I

— V

a )

c o

9

-

c a i a )

0 ) ' H ca

C )

0 ) a ) Ca

0 )

Z

C,4 C ' I J

L P )

L !

U

0\ L C

L f

9 8

Q

0

— 0

. 1-

o f e vidence a vailable f rom G reece a nd t he N ear E ast w here i t c an b e s hown t hat h omogeneous s teel w as b eing u sed f rom a bout 1 000 B C o nwards .4 4 I t i s n ot k nown w hether t his w as m ade b y i ntentional c arburising o f i ron o r b y t he s election o f t he h igh c arbon p arts o f t he h eterogeneous b loom . S o l ittle r emains i n m any c ases t hat i t i s p ossible t hat what w e f ind i s t he o ccasional h igh c arbon p arts o f av ery h eterogeneous b lade. W hen w e c ome t o l ook a t t he R oman s cene i n B ritain o ne i s a ppalled a t w hat t he R omano-British c ustomer w as w illing t o a ccept . W hereas w e w ould e xpect a s tainless s teel k nife t o h ave a h ardness o f a t l east 5 50 a nd a k itchen k nife t o h ave o ne o f 6 50 o r m ore , t he R omano-British c ook w ould a pparently b e h appy w ith o ne a s l ow a s 1 33 H V m ade o f w rought i ron ( Table 8 ) . I t i s t rue t hat i t was w ithin t he p ower o f u sers a t Wanborough t o d emand a g ood k nife w ith a h ardness o f 7 20 H V , b ut t he r esults g iven f or s everal R oman s ites , i ncluding W anborough , s how t hat h e r arely g ot i t . I n m any c ases a lso , t he R oman s mith g ave t he u ser a p iece o f s teel b ut f or s ome r eason w as u nwilling o r u nable t o h eat-treat i t .

T his s eems t o b e

aw aste o f g ood s teel ( Table 8 ) . T his c hanges w ith t he a rrival o f t he M igration p eople s o t hat w e s ee a t P oundbury a nd R amsbury k nives w ith h ardnesses o f 6 15 ,

5 20 ,

5 53 a nd 8 80 H V ,

l ike t hose t hat w e w ould e xpect t oday . T his b ecomes n ormal i n t he f ull m edieval p eriod a nd w ent o n u ntil t he 1 9th c entury w hen c onsistent c arbon s teel m ade t he w elding o f i ron t o s teel u nnecessary. T he r esults o f t he s tratified e xamples w hich m ainly c ome f rom t he 1 0th t o t he

1 4th c enturies h ave b een s ummarised i n T able A 3 .

c ompared w ith r esults

o btained

o n l ater s ites

s uch a s

T hese h ave b een t hose

f rom G oitho ,

B arton B lount, H olyoak a nd C hingley . T hus w e h ave a r easonable r epresentation f rom t he 1 0th 1 8th c enturies . T he r esults c learly s how t hat t he c ommonest g roup was t he s teel-edged T ype 2 , w hich b ecame t he -

m ainstay o f t he 1 2th 1 4th c enturies . I n t his c onnection i t i s w orth n oting t he c omment r epeated i n L loyd 's b ook o n t he c utlery i ndustry 45 a nd d ated t o 1 582 :- ' T his a rgument c uts l ike a L eadenhall k nife w here , a s t hey s ay i n c ommon s peech , i f o ne p ours o n s teel w ith a l adle , a nother c omes a nd -

w ipes i t o ff w ith a f eather ' . I t w ould a ppear t hat t his q uotation r efers t o s teeling w hich g ot t he b ad r eputation i t d eserved a nd w hich w as g radually r eplaced b y m ore h omogeneous s teel b lades f rom t he 1 4th c entury o nwards . S o f ar ,

t he

o nly c omparable

s eries

o f k nives

e xamined

i n t he B ritish

I sles c omes f rom G reencastle i n N orthern I reland .4 6 T hese a ll c ome f rom 1 3th c entury l evels . T he r esults a re s ummarised i n T able 9 a nd s how a s imilar v ariation i n q uality t o t hose f rom s imilar l evels a t W inchester . T he r esults o f t he m etallurgical e xamination o f e dge t ools f rom N orth-East E urope a nd S candinavia s hows t hat t he w elding t echnique w as p opular f rom t he M igration p eriod o nwards . W hat i s o utstanding i s t he s mall n umber o f e xamples o f kn ives m ade b y s urface c arburising . O ut o f t he e ntire R ussian c ollection o f 4 7 e xamples r eported b y K oichin o nly 2 a ppear t o h ave b een c arburised. T he t echniques u sed i n t he M edieval p eriod a re n ot u nlike t hose u sed i n t he

p re-Roman

a nd

R oman

p eriods

p h os p horus-containing o r n ot,

e xcept

t hat

t he

f erritic

h as v irtually d isappeared .

k nife

w hether

T he s andwich

s tructures a re n ow b etter d eveloped a nd t here a re a t l east f our m ain t ypes , w ith t he T ype 1 h aving m any s ub-varietie 4 8 C omparison w ith K olchin 's w ork o n t he m aterial f rom M edieval N ovgorod

9 9

'

( Table

1 0)

a nd o ther R ussian

N u m b e r s o f a r t i f a c t s

a c h i e v e d o

0 0

C a r b u r i s e d

L r

—

c ,_

a )

.

0

a ) O J 4 J U ) 0 ' ) )

J _ C " ) a ) 4 4 C' )

W C J )

W C L E -

C o

C ' O

1 00

L ) 0 u

B r a n c a s t e r

' 4 C ' 4 J 0 E i

T able 9 .

M etallography o f M edieval I ron A rtifacts f rom G reencastle. ( After S cott 3 3 )

N o .

1 3 3 b 1 4 3 9a

D ate

E dge S tructure

L ate 1 3th C .

M art.

i t i t I t

3 9b

i f

5 7/42

i f

F +P+ M +T

B ack/Core S tructure

H V

R emarks T ype

3 51 1 41

P +F P +F

16 1 73

2 1

F +P F e+N

1 07 9 7

1 2

-

4 21 3 62

M

F+P+

E 44/67 7 0

P +Fe+C M +T

G C/C5

M

O ut o f 9k nives,

H V

-

1 52 -

4 68

F +P

19

2

F +P

14

3

F +P F e

18

C arb? 4

F e

-

1 00-127

2

t he e dges o f 5w ere f ound t o b e made o f h eat—treated c arbon

s teel w ith h ardnesses g reater t han 3 00 B y .

1 01

T able 1 0. R ussian K nives ( from K olchin )4 7

D ate

T YPE

C entury

1

2

3

9 th-10th

8

2

0

1 0th

5

1

0

1 0th-11th

2

3

0

1 0th-12th

1

2

0

1th

1

0

0

1th-12th

0

6

0

1 2th

1

0

0

1 2th-13th

1

2

0

1 3th

1

1

0

1 3th-14th

0

1

0

1 02

s ites s hows t hat T ype 1 w as a n e arly t ype t here a lso b ut i t d id n ot g et r eplaced b y T ype 2 t o t he s ame e xtent a s a t

W inchester,

f or e xample .

N evertheless , t he s imilarity b etween t he m aterial f rom R ussia , a nd P oland a bout w hich w e k now s o m uch f rom t he w ork b y P iaskowski , s hows a r emarkable u niformity o f t echnique a cross E urope . G iven t his u niformity a cross s o w ide a n a rea i t w ould s eem t hat w e a re n ot g oing t o b e a ble t o d iscern t he w ork o f i ndividual s miths u nless t he b lades c ontain m akers ' m arks w hich c an b e r elated t o i ndividual s miths l ike t he s word—makers . S cissors w ere n ot i ntroduced u ntil t he B yzantine p eriod s o t hey d o n ot a ppear i n t he R oman o r p re—Roman p eriods i n B ritain . I n f act i n B ritain w e h ave n one f rom W inchester o r a ny o ther o f t he w ell—known M edieval s ites , a nd t hose f rom S alisbury c ould b e a nywhere i n t he p eriod 1 4th t o m id-19th c enturies . c enturies .

T hose f rom C hingley a re m ore c losely d ated t o t he 1 6th 1 7th B efore t he M edieval p eriod s hears w ere t he m ain s hearing t ool -

a nd t heir u se c ontinued f or c ertain p urposes u ntil r ecent t imes. T he f erritic b lade f rom R oman S ilchester i s o f i nterest n ot o nly b ecause i t s hows

t he u ltimate i n t he u se o f h igh p hosphorus i ron I n t he R oman

p eriod , b ut b ecause i t s hows t he p resence o f N eumann l amellae ( deformation t wins ) which p rove t hat t he b lade w as s everely c old—worked t o g et t he h igh h ardness o f 2 82 2 90 H V . -

A xes

a re n ot a s c ommon i n t he I ron A ge a s t hey w ere i n t he B ronze A ge .

P erhaps t his i s b ecause t hey l asted l onger a nd when n o l onger f it f or f urther work w ere r e—used b y t he s mith a nd w ere l ost t o t he a rchaeological r ecord .

T he v ast m ajority o f B ronze A ge a xes a re l ate a nd n o d oubt w ere i n

p rocess o f b eing r e—used w hen t he I ron A ge s upervened .

I n o ur w ork w e h ave

n ot l ooked a t a ny f rom t he p re—Roman I ron A ge b ut r eference i n t his r espect s hould b e m ade t o t he w ork o f S cott 3 3 w ho e xamined s everal I rish a xes o f t he c ommon p re—Roman s ocketed t ype a nd f ound t o b e m ade f rom a s ingle s heet o r i ron f rom w hich a f lap p rojected a nd w as u sed t o f orm t he c utting e dge . T he f lap a ppears t o h ave b een i ntentionally c arburised o n o ne s urface s o t hat w hen f olded i t c onsisted o f f errite a nd p earli e w ith 0 .4%C i n t he c entre o f t he s ection , s urrounded b y f errite a t t ue s urface . T he c arburised a rea w as e xposed a fter s harpening t he e dge. R omano—British a xes w ere o f t he s haft—hole t ype a nd j udging b y t he p ieces r emoved c arbon s teel . h ardness -es

i n

f rom t he c utting e dges w ere e ither T ype 1 o r h omogeneous H ardnesses a s h igh a s 5 15 H V were a chieved b ut l ower t he

r ange

2 00-300

s eem

t o b e a cceptable .

N aturally t hese

w ere n ot q uench—hardened a nd a gree w ith t he a xe f rom S ilchester e xamined b y C ogh1an 52 w hich h as a h ardness I n t he r ange 18-210 . I t i s d ebatable w hether h ardnesses a s h igh a s 5 15 w ere n ecessary f or a t ool u sed f or c utting w ood a nd a l ot d epends o n h ow i t w as i ntended t o b e s harpened .5 3 I f t his w as t o b e d one b y c old—working o n af ield a nvil t hen a l ow h ardness w ould b e q uite e ffective . A frican a xes t oday a re n ot q uench—hardened a lthough m any a re m ade o f s teel o f E uropean o rigin . A S udanese a xe w as m ade f rom a p iece o f h igh c arbon s teel . T he e dge s howed a v ery f ine p earlite—ferrite s tructure w ith a h ardness o f 3 60-400 H V . T he a rea a round t he s haft h ole w as 3 09 . A N igerian s ocketed a xe w as m ade f rom a 0 .5% c arbon s teel a gain w ith p earlite a nd g rain—boundary f errite . T his h ad a h ardness o f 2 57-274 o n t he e dge a nd 1 78 o n t he s ocket.

1 03

I t i s t herefore a s urprise t o f ind t hat t he B ritish m edieval a nd p ost— m edieval a xes h ave b een q uench—hardened t o g ive a h ardness i n t he r ange 3 90 t o 5 50 H V . T hree o ut o f f our h ave b een m ade i n T ype 1 with a p iece o f s teel c arefully p laced b etween t he p iece o f i ron t hat w as wrapped r ound a m andrel t o f orm t he s haft h ole .

T he K empsford a xe w as a n a pplication o f

t he T ype 2 weld, b ut w as v ery c arefully m ade i n s pite o f t he u se o f a n e asier a nd c heaper w ay o f m aking a s teel e dge . C omparison w ith c ontinental a xes

s how

m uch

t he

s ame

t echnique .

S alm

5 4

g ives u s a n a xe o f t he

5 th

c entury f rom T rémont o n t he M euse w hich h as a c arbon s teel i nsert o f T ype 1 g iving a m aximum h ardness o f 4 37 H V w hich h as b een o btained b y q uenching a nd t empering . H aithabu i n V iking S chlesvig h as p roduced a xes o f p iled s teel o f v arying c arbon c ontent s o a rranged t hat

t he h ighest c arbon c ontent was

i n

t he c entre .5 5 B ut t his w as n ot q uench—hardened a nd t he h ardness w as i n t he r ange 1 21 t o 1 99 ; n ot a v ery e fficient u se o f ac arbon s teel . T he d istinguishing f eature o f t he s cythe i s t he b ack w hich i s n ecessary t o s upport s uch a l ong b lade .

r ein forcement a t t he S ince t his i mplement

n eeds n o g reater h ardness t han a s hear b lade i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he l ate R oman a nd 1 7th c entury b lades a re m uch t he s ame , b eing o f l ow h ardness ( 119-220) . T his c ontrasts w ith a m odern b lade o f h omogeneous c arbon s teel w hich h as a n e dge h ardness o f 5 25 . B ut i n t he 1 9th c entury a g ood s cythe -

aC rown s cythe

-

w as m ade b y w elding i n ap iece o f c arbon s teel b etween t wo

p ieces o f w rought i ron , i .e . T ype 1 b lade ( Fig . 4 3) . T his w as f orged d own t o g ive t he r einforcement o r ' set ' s hown i n t he f igure . T he b lade w ould b e q uenched a nd t empered w hich w ould h arden t he c arbon s teel o nly a nd g ive a g ood i mpact—resistant b lade . S uch b lades w ere m ade i n E ngland u ntil t he 1 960s . S ickles a re n ot s uch a g reat p roblem a nd ,

a s T able D s hows ,

m ade i n a ll t ypes g iving h ardnesses i n t he r ange 8 7-370 H V . p robably m ade b y k nife—smiths u sing t he s ame t echniques. W ood—cutting c hisels a nd g ouges d o n ot

n eed t o

b e v ery

t hey w ere

B illhooks w ere

h ard b ut

m any

h ave b een m ade u sing t he T ype 1 t echnique w ith a p iece o f s teel w elded o nto o ne s ide . S ome c onsist o f h omogeneous c arbon s teel , a nd h ardnesses i n t he r ange 4 00 t o 7 10 a re o btained. A s D r . R ees h as s hown , 56

t he R oman p lough i s ac omplicated p iece o f

e quipment c onsisting o f a c oulter t o c ut t he s od , a s hare t o u ndermine i t a nd a m ould b oard t o t urn i t. U nfortunately w e h ave n ot e xamined t he c oulter -which o ne w ould e xpect t o b e t he h ardest o f t he t hree . B ut a R oman c oulter w as f ound a t S tanton L ow a nd e xamined b y t he U nited S teel C os L td . i n 1 960 . C learly o ne p art o f t his w as m ade o f w rought i ron , w ith 0 .08% N i a nd 0 .01% C u a nd s ome s lag . T he s tructure w as t hat o f f errite b ut o nly o ne p iece w as e xamined a nd i t i s p ossible t hat a p iece o f s teel w as w elded t o i t . P leiner h as e xamined E uropean c oulters a nd t here i s s trong e vidence f or s teel .4 2 ,57 A s f or s hares , w e k now t hat t hese w ere o riginally o f w ood a nd a re n ot s urprised t o f ind t hat t he t wo R oman o nes f rom E ssex a re m erely w rought i ron w ith h ardnesses i n t he r ange 1 09-230 . T he s pade s hoe f rom m edieval W inchester s eems t o h ave b een m ade b y c arburising b ut t he h ardness i s o nly 2 10 . A R oman m ason 's c hisel f rom C hesterholm w as e xamined b y S mythe .5 8 W hile i t c ontained s ome m artensite t he c arbon c ontent o f

t he t ip w as

v ariable a nd t he h ardness v aried f rom 4 64-579 1 V . O n t he w hole t his i s f airly t ypical o f t he b etter o nes t hat w e h ave e xamined s uch a s t hose f rom C estingthorpe a nd W anborough .

V iking p eriod c hisels f rom H elga i n S weden

1 04

C L

b 0.

A

ANGLE O F GR I ND I NG Mak ing a c r own s cy the . Athe u nf orged b l ad e ( a ) w rough t i r on o r m i ld s t ee l p la te s s andw i ch t h e c a s t t o o l s t ee l p la t e ( h ) . B . -S ec t ion t h rough t h e f o rged b l ad e s how ing t h e s e t ' .

F ig. 4 3.

D etail o f c rown s cythe ( After r ef. 3 ).

1 n5

a re n ot v ery d ifferent 5 9

( Table 1) .

I t i s a p ity t hat n one o f t he f iles e xamined a re s tratified b ut w e d o k now t hat f ully m artensitic f iles w ere b eing u sed i n E urope i n t he R oman p eriod 6 0 a nd t hat m icrohardnesses o f 7 00-1000 H V w ere p ossible . T he f ile f rom W anborough w ith a h ardness o f o nly 5 35 H V1 would n ot b e a v ery e fficient t ool . B ut t he h ardness o f t hose f rom W inchester would b e w ell a bove t he R oman B avarian t ool i f i t h ad b een m easured s cale.

o n a m icrohardness

T wo o ther f iles h ave b een f ound i n t he B ritish I sles . t he p re-Roman

I ron A ge

s ite

m etallographically e xamined .

o f

G ussage A ll

I t i s

S aints

O ne c omes f rom

a nd

h as

n ot

b een

1 62 mm l ong a nd h as 1 0-12 c uts/cm o n

o ne o f i ts f aces . T he o ther i s a lso f rom t he p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd c omes f rom F iskerton , L incs . 6' U nfortunately i t h as b een a lmost c ompletely c orroded a nd i t n ow c onsists o f a m artensitic o r c ementitic e nvelope f rom w hich t he c ontents h ave b een r emoved , p resumably b ecause t hey w ere a nodic t o t he c asing . T he r esults o f t he R oman s aw-teeth s how t hat g ood s aws c ould b e m ade i n t he R oman p eriod . B ut o ne f rom O xyrhynchus h ad a h ardness o f o nly 1 27140 a nd a s C oghlan 5 2 e ven s oft w ood'.

n oted

' would n ot r emain s harp f or v ery l ong w hen c utting

P leiner h as e xamined a t l east t hree R oman s poon a ugers . 42

A s w ould b e

e xpected f rom B ritish e vidence n one o f t he b its w ere q uench-hardened b ut t hey w ere m ade o f s teel w hich i n o ne c ase w as h ypereutectoid ( more t han 0 .8% C ) w ith m icrohardness

r eaching 8 00 H V .

B ut t he f act

t hat

t he L etchworth

a uger w as n ot o nly w elded b ut q uench-hardened a rgues f or a p ost-Roman d ate.

1 06

T able 1 S ummary o f r esults o btained b y M odin a nd P leiner 5 9 o n t he m etallography o f e dge t ools f rom H elg6 V ( 1), 1 978) V iking p eriod.

K nife

T ype 1 , s andwich. 2 00-1400 H V ; M artensite w ith A s l ines.

K nife

W holly m artensitic; T ype 3 ; h omogenous w ith A s l ines.

A rrowhead 1

0 .15-0 .2% C ; H V

=

2 00-210 ;

6 00 H V p iled ;

f errite w ith g .b . p earlite.

2

F +P a nd p hos. s orbitic. H V 2 20-535.

3

F errite a nd F +P ;

4

w rought i ron m ostly ;

1

P iled F e a nd s lag w ith w elds; F e +p earlite ; H V 2 00-250. p earlite s ph . n ot h eat t reated.

I

2

T ype 1 , c arburized a t e nd a nd t hen s andwiched b etween F e; ( HV 2 50-270). T ip s orbite ; H V 4 00-500.

I

3

h omogenous m arte r isitic; H V 6 00-900;

‚ I

4

‚ I

5

C hisel

P unch

P ossibly c arburised.

a bout 0 .2% C ;

H V 1 80-400.

F +P ; H V 2 00-600.

A s l ines ( 400 H V).

H V 6 00-800.

I ,

M artensite + t roostite ; 0 .4% C , H V 3 00-700. P earlite a nd f errite, 0 .6% C ;

H ardness H V ;

1 07

L oad

=

H V 1 80-400.

3 0 g .

P art 2 6 . 6 .1

R esults o f t he E xamination o f E dged W eapons. ( 1) T wo

A rrowheads a nd S pearheads. t ypes

o f

a rrowheads

p redominate

-

a s mall b road h ead a nd a t hin

d agger t ype t he l ong b odkin ( Jones) .6 2 E ffectiveness i s m easured b y t he d elivery o f t he m aximum a mount o f e nergy o n t he s mallest p ossible a rea . M ail a rmour i s e asily p enetrated b ut p late a rmour 3 mm t hick i s p rotective . I t t akes a p enetration o f 1 1 mm t o t he t horax t o c ause f atal wounding t hrough 2 mm p late . B y 1 405 i t was r ecognised t hat a rrowheads n eeded a ccurate h eat—treatment a nd h ardnesses o f 4 00 1 V w ere a ttained ; b ut b efore -

1 480 f ew a rrowheads e xceeded t he r ange 1 20-220 H V . E ventually , a part f rom h elmets, p late a rmour w as f ound t o b e u seless a gainst t he l ater f irearms a nd w as d iscarded . F or c ivil p urposes ,

i .e .

t he p enetration o f f lesh ,

i ron i s a ll t hat i s

r equired f or t he s ort o f g ame l ikely t o b e m et w ithin B ritain .

I f e dges

l ose t heir h ardness d ue t o c ontact w ith b one o r t he g round t hey c an b e r epaired a nd s harpened . S pearheads a nd a rrows f or m ilitary u se o n t he o ther h and , r equire a h arder e dge a nd i t w ould s eem t hat t his i s w hat w e h ave i n t he c ase o f t he m edieval a rrow a nd t he A nglo—Saxon s pearheads . W rought b loomery i ron h as a h ardness i n t he r ange 1 00-150 1 V , w hile a c arburised f errite + p earlite s tructure w ould h ave h ardnesses i n t he r ange o f 2 00-300 1 V . I t w ould a ppear t hat t he f ormer w as a dequate f or t he p enetration o f s hields b ut t hat h arder e dges w ould b e n eeded f or c ertain t ypes o f b ody a rmour . O nly t hree a rrowheads w ere e xamined .

O ne f rom t he R omano—British s ite

o f W anborough w hich w as s ectioned o n t he s hank j ust b elow t he h ead a nd w as f ound t o h ave b een m ade o f a t empered m artensitic s teel w ith a h ardness o f 3 90 1 V . I t w ould s eem t hat t he s teel h ead h ad b een w elded t o a f erritic s hank . A nother R oman a rrowhead c ame f rom B rancaster . T his w as e ntirely f errite ,

b ut w ith s mall a reas o f c arbide r eaching a bout 0 . 2%C a nd h aving a

h ardness o f 1 56 H V . T he t hird a rrowhead w as f rom L ambourn , B erks , a nd w as d ated t o t he 1 3th c entury .6 3 T his c onsisted o f s teel b arbs w elded t o a f erritic c ore with a h ardness o f 1 28 H V . A n a ttempt h ad b een m ade t o h arden t he b arbs b ut , a s t hey o n ly c ontained l ow c arbon t he h ardness o f t he t empered m artensite w as o nly 2 40 1 V. ( Fig. 4 4). ( Table Q. S pearheads f rom t he L unt , B aginton , C oventry .

T hese c ame f rom a R oman

f ort d ated t o t he p eriod 6 0-76 A D . A p iece 1 mm l ong w as r emoved f rom t he b lade o f t hat s hown i n F ig . 4 6 ( 1 ) a nd c onsisted a lmost e ntirely o f c oarse f errite a nd s lag w ith a s mall a mount o f i ntergranular c arbide a t o ne e nd . T he h ardness w as

1 23 H V1

w hich s uggests

t hat t he f errite h as a r elatively

l ow p hosphorus c ontent. A p iece 7 mm l ong w as r emoved f rom t he b lade o f t he s econd s pearhead f rom t his s ite . ( Fig . 4 6 ( 2)) , a nd c onsisted a gain o f c oarse f errite w ith s ome s lag b ut w ith n eedles o f c arbide o r n itride . T here a re a lso s mall a reas o f f ine f errite + p earlite i ndicating a c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 . 10 . 2. A t o ne e nd o f t he s pecimen t he c arbon c ontent r ose t o 0 .4% w ith f ine i rresolvable p earlite p ossibly b ain ite . T he h ardness o f t he f errite w as 1 75 H VI

s uggesting a n a ppreciable p hosphorus c ontent .

1 09

C'

a ) 0

Q )

1 0 1

0

I 0

C

C D 0

0

0

0

0

—

N N

0

—

N

_

-

r . -c '-

q

C14 C14 00

— -

4

++ —

S .-

N N.

O c r 1

0 L 14 5

C'

00

( ' 1 — C r 4

P� 4

+

44

00 S

S .

41

C ') S

0

C' C'

.-

S..

44

S S

44

S -

44

Cf l N S

N N. N

-

5-

N

-

44

.

I c

L N. —

C' .

-

S

r X4

N 5 -

'

44

N. N

1

4 4

+

S

-

P4

l a4

C l ) C o

•

a )

C . )

o

C o

0

Q )

0

N. r q

I l

oc� P Q

I

P Q

l

l

I o

1 0 4 i

-

I ' . 0

_ 4 J

a N

a d s a n d S

C J

P P

l

4 i

a )

S i t e / L a b R e f . N o .

0

00

N

N.

C / )

C' N.

N . N.

C '(

N.

' I

0 -

0

4

cc

N 00 t C' ' .0 . -C N Lr N . ON a N-

C 0 C)

- 0

N '-

'-'

C ' N.

.

-.

L C l) C / )

1 . 0

cn

C / )

C / )

C

c) I t c

-

C / ) p q

C o

B r a n c a s t e r -C )

( 0 a ) C o

G )

1 3 . ( I )

1 10

Q )

a ) C r:

c l )q a ) c o

W i n c h e s t e r

4 _ i ‚ -

Fig. 44. Tylecote).

Medieval arrowhead from Lambourn, Berks. ( 63 ).

After (Coghlan and

---· --

mm

0 Fig. 45.

.5

Section through arrowhead from 14th century Winchester (BS 3433).

111

1 5 cm

1

2

S35

S38

S 33

S 36

P os it ions

o f s ec t ions F ig .

4 6 .

s ca le b ars 1 0cm O utlines o f s pearheads .

1 12

T wo s pearheads c ame f rom W anborough b ut t hese w ere p oor q uality w ith l ow h ardnesses . O ne w as f errite w ith a h ardness o f 1 05 H V, a nd t he o ther f errite + p earlite w ith a h ardness o f 1 68 . B oth w ere d ated t o t he 4 th c entury . T hree c ame f rom C estingthorpe a nd a ll c onsisted o f f errite w ith h ardnesses i n t he r ange 8 3133 1 V . A nother R omano-British e xample c ame f rom B rancaster . l t w as s quare-headed w ith a f luted t ang . A s egment w as r emoved f rom o ne c orner o f t he h ead , 4c m f rom t he t ip . I t w as a ll f errite w ith s ome s lag a nd a l ittle c arbide i n t he g rain b oundaries g iving a h ardness o f 1 40 1 V . W inchester h as p rovided a 1 3th c entury s ocketed a rrowhead o r s pearhead , B S 3 433 .

T his h as b een m ade o f as andwich c onstruction w ith a h igh c arbon

c ore which o utcrops a t

t he e dge .

T he h ardness o f t his i s 2 78 a nd i t

a ppears t o b e f errite a nd p earlite.

S3 5 . A s pearhead f rom t he T hames

( Fig . 4 5).

( Table L ) ,

w as f ound

i n t he r iver T hames

a t t he o ld f ord a t K empsford i n C loucestershire , m easured 1 5 .9 c m l ong a nd 2 . 7 c m w ide . T he s urface h ad m ostly c orroded a way b ut c orrosion w as n ot d eep , a nd t he m ajority o f t he w eapon s urvived w ith a g ood m etallic c ore , a nd a s t he c orrosion h ad b een f airly e ven , t he s hape s urvived q uite w ell . I ts t ype a nd d ate a re u ncertain , b ut i t p robably f alls i n t he p eriod 6 1th c entury . I n o utline i t r esembled t he S wanton s eries K , ( Swanton , 1 974 , p . 2 3) , a lthough t he p rofile w as q uite d ifferent , b eing c onvex i n s ection ( Fig . -

4 6). A n arrow V -shaped s ection w as c ut f rom n ear t he w idest p art e xtending t o j ust o ver h alf w ay a cross t he b lade .

U netched , t he s ection s howed t he s lag

c ontent t o h e g enerally f airly l ow, m ostly p resent a s s mall f lattened r ibbons a nd s pots w ith a f ew l arger a nd o ne p articularly m assive i rregularly s haped

i nclusion .

T he

s lag

i nclusion

t ended

m ostly

t o

c ongregate

a long

l ines a long t he m ain a xis o f t he s ection, g iving a s omewhat s treaky o r l ayered a ppearance . W hen e tched i n n ital ( Fig . 4 7) ,

ac entral l ine o f s lag s pots b ecame m ore

p rominent 6 4 b eing h ighlighted b y a n arrow b ut d istinct l ine o f p earlite w hich a ppeared s uperimposed u pon i t . T his m ost p robably m arked t he p osition o f aw eld d ividing t he b lade i nto t wo h alves a long t he m ain a xis o f t he

s ection .

T he

m acrograph i n F ig .

4 7

s hows

t his

d iagram s hows a s implified v ersion o f m acrograph . b lade s ection ,

( a) a nd ( b ) i n t he d iagram ,

a nd

t he a ccompanying

T he t wo h alves o f t he

s howed u p m ainly a s f airly e ven ,

g rey p earlitic z ones r epresenting a c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 . 2-0 .37 . I n s omewhat d arker a reas i n t he u pper r ight a nd l ower l eft p arts o f t he m acrograph t he c arbon c ontent w as r ather h igher , p robably a bout 0 . 3-0 .47 C onversely i n t he u pper l eft a nd l ower r ight h and a reas o f t he m acrograph t he p earlitic z ones f aded o ut a ltogether t o l eave l ocalised a reas o f l arge g rained f errite . T he p earlite o ccurred a s f airly w ell s pheroidised l amellae i n as mall-medium g rain s ize m atrix o f f errite . T he s treaky e f fect c reated b y t he p arallel b roken l ines o f s lag a cross t he s ection s uggested t hat t he m etal o f b oth p arts ( a) a nd ( h) m ay h ave b een

s ubjected

t o p iling o r a p rocess o f f orging o ut,

f olding a nd f orging

o ut a gain u ntil t his k ind o f l ayered e ffect w as p roduced. T he

o verall,

f airly

e ven ,

c arbon

d istribution a cross

t he

s ection m ay

h ave b een a chieved b y t he c arburisation o f t he t wo p ieces ( a ) a nd ( b ) b efore t hese

t wo p ieces w ere w elded

t ogether a s p art

13

o f t he f inal f orging o f t he

( a)

5mm

dca r bunsed

( b)

( c)

F ig . 4 7 .

S ection t hrough a s mall s pearhead f rom K empsford , G los .

1 14

N o . 3 5 .

s pearhead .

T he t wo f erritic a reas w here t he c arbon c ontent f ades o ut

a ltogether m ight t hen h e e xplained a s l ocalised a reas w here c arbon a bsorption d id n ot t ake p lace d uring t he c arburising p rocess o r p ossibly j ust a s a reas w hich w ere d ecarhurised d uring t he f inal f orging o f t he s pearhead . T he l atter i s p robably l ess l ikely b ecause a m ore g eneral s urface d ecarburisation m ight h ave b een e xpected i n t his c ase . T he t hird p ossibility i s t hat ( a ) a nd ( b ) w ere a t o ne t ime b oth p arts o f t he s ame b ar o f s teel w hich d id i nclude s maller a reas o f f errite . T his p ossibility t oo i s p robably l ess l ikely i n t his c ase b ecause a p rocess o f f olding a nd f orging O ut s everal t imes w ould h ave t ended t o d istribute t he f errite a reas m ore e venly o r a t l east f latten t hem o ut m ore . F our c ontent r eadings f errite

h ardness r eadings w ere t aken, o ne i n p art ( a) w here t he c arbon w as a t i ts h ighest, a pproximately 0 .3-0 .4% c arbon , a nd t hree f rom a nother h igh c arbon a rea t o b e d ecarburised a rea w here o nly w as v isible . T he r esults w ere a s f ollows; p art ( a) n ear t he

c entre , 1 72 M V ; p art ( b ) n ear t he c entre 1 72 M V a nd ( b ) n earer t he o utside o f t he b lade w here t he c arbon c ontent w as s omewhat l ower , 1 72 M V ; p art ( b ) n ear t he t ip o f t he c utting e dge w here o nly l arge g rained f errite w as v isible, 16 M V . T he

g reat

s imilarity

b etween

p arts

( a )

a nd

( b )

d oes

s uggest

s trongly

t hat t hey w ere a t o ne s tage p art o f t he s ame b ar o f m etal t hat w as e ither c ut o r f olded t hen f orged o ut t o p roduce t he s pearhead .

T he r econstruction

d iagram o f F ig . 4 7 i llustrates t his . T he o verall q uality w as q uite g ood , t he w eapon m ostly c onsisting o f a l ow c arbon s teel o f a f airly l ow s lag c ontent . T he s pheroidised n ature o f t he p earlite o f t he s teel s uggests t hat t he s pearhead w as s ubjected t o f airly p rolonged h eating a t a l ittle b elow t he l ower c ritical p oint , p ossibly a bout 6 50 7 00 °C ; l ong e nough f or t he p earlite l amellae t o p artially b all—up o r s pheroidise . T his - .

p rocedure o f s ubcritical a nnealing m ay h ave b een d one d eliberately t o t oughen t he m etal a fter f inal f orging o f t he s pearhead .

S3 8 , A nother s ocketed s pearhead ( Table L ) f ound i n t he R iver T hames a t t he o ld f ord a t K empsford , G loucestershire . b y 3 . 9 c m i n w idth T he h oles t o l ocate n ear t he m outh a nd s pearhead w as v ery

I t m easured 1 5 .7 c m i n l ength

a t t he w idest p art o f t he w ings o f t he b lade ( Fig . 4 6) . a n i ron s ecuring p eg l ay o n o pposite s ides o f t he s ocket t he c orroded r emains o f t he p eg s urvived i n s itu . T he s imilar i n s hape a nd s ize t o L ate B ronze A ge s ocketed

s pearheads a nd t herefore m ay h e a n e arly I ron A ge c opy o f aL ate B ronze A ge t ype o f s pearhead i . e . a t ransitional B ronze A ge/Iron A ge t ype , p ossibly o f a bout 6 00 B . C . T he f u ll e xtent o f c orrosion w as d ifficult t o g auge b ut i t a ppeared t o h e m ainly c onfined t o f airly h eavy s urface p itting . A s ection e xtending t o j ust o ver h alf—way a cross t he s ocket w as c ut f rom n ear t he w idest w inged p art o f t he s pearhead .

W hen t he s ection w as v iewed u netched

b oth s ides o f t he s ocket s howed a f airly l ow s lag c ontent w ith t he s horter s urv iving p art c ontaining p roportionally m ore t han t he o ther . I n e ach c ase t he s lag w as p resent a s s mall s pots a nd r ibbons w hich t ended t o b e s egregated i nto l ines w hich g ave a f low p attern t o t he m etal o f t he s ocket , o n e ither s ide , w h ich w as a ligned a long e ach a rm o f t he s ection a nd j oined a long a l ine w hich c o incided w ith t he m ain a xis o f t he s ection f rom c entre o f t he W ea p o n t o t he t ip o f t i me w ing o r f lange a t t he e dge . W hen

e tched

w ith

n ita l

t his

f low

p attern e ffect

w as

e mphasised

t he

( Fig .

4 8 ) . I t c ould n ow b een s een t hat t i me s ection c onsisted o f t wo h alves , ( a ) a nd ( h) ( Fig . 4 8) w hich j oined a t aw eld l ine a long t he m ain a xis o f t he

15

( b )

5mm

/ /

/ / /

( c)

/

/

/

/

/ / /

-

V V

F ig .

4 8 .

S ection t hrough r emains o f s ocketed s pearhead f rom K empsford ,

3 8.

1 6

N o .

s ection . T his w eld l ine was m arked b y a white l ine t hat c oincided i n p laces w ith a b roken l ine o f f lattened s lag r ibbons. A rea ( a) p roved t o b e m ainly a l ow c arbon s teel o f a bout 0 .2% c arbon which c onsisted o f af airly e ven d istribution o f f airly s mall g rained l amellar p earlite

o ver m ost o f t he s ocketed p art ,

w hile o ver t he w ing o r

e dge p art t he p earlite b ecame r ather b anded , i nterspersed w ith n arrow b ands o f l arger g rained f errite . T he c arbon c ontent o f ( a) w as l ess, a pproximately 0 .1% i n t his wing p art . A rea ( b) c onsisted o f a lternate n arrow b ands o f l arge g rained f errite a nd s mall g rained l amellar p earlite r esulting i n a n o verall c arbon c ontent o f ( b ) o f a bout 0 . 17 S hort r odl ike n itride o r c arbide n eedles w ere a lso v isible i n p laces i n t he f errite b ands p articularly a long t he i nnermost b and , i .e . n ext t o t he s ocket v oid , o f a rea ( b) . H ardness v alues o f 1 41 a nd 1 49 H V w ere p roduced f rom e ither e nd ( in s ection ) o f t he f airly l ow c arbon i ron , p art ( a ) . C orresponding t ests f rom e ither e nd o f t he v ery l ow c arbon i ron , p art ( b ) g ave h ardness v alues o f 12 a nd 13 H V . T he f errite l ine m arking t he w eld b etween ( a ) a nd ( b ) g ave a h ardness v alue o f 1 64 H V . T he w hite l ine m ay r epresent a b and o f l ocalised a rsenic e nrichment a t t he w eld j unction . T he

l ow

s lag

c ontent

o f

t he t wo h alves

o f

t he b lade s howed t hat

t he

i nitial f orging w ork o n t he b loom a fter s melting w as d one w ell a nd t he b anded n ature o f t he s lag p resent m ay a lso r eflect t hat t he m etal w as f orged o ut , f olded , a nd f orged o ut a gain ( piled) s everal t imes b efore t he f inal a ssembly a nd f orging o f t he s pearhead . I f t his i s c orrect t hen t he a lternate f errite a nd p earlite b ands o bserved i n a reas ( a) a nd ( b) m ay i ndicate t hat s urface c arburisation m ay a lso h ave t aken p lace a t e ach s tage a nd t he r ather h igher c arbon ( 0 .2% ) a nd m ore h omogeneous p art o f a rea ( a ) m ight h ave b een t he r esult o f v ariable r educing/oxidising c onditions i n d ifferent p arts o f t he s mith 's h earth .

S3 6 A nother f airly s mall s pearhead ( Table L ) , a s t he l ast .

T he s urface h ad b een e xtensively ,

c ame f rom t he s ame s ite

b ut q uite e venly ,

p itted b y

c orrosion , a lthough t he m etallic c ore s urvived q uite w ell . T he s urface c orrosion m eant t hat t he o riginal p rofile w as d ifficult t o g auge b ut i t a ppeared t o b e r oughly c onvex w ith s ome t endency t owards a c entral r ib . ( Its d imensions w ere 2 0 c m l ong b y 3 .2 c m w ide o utline,

( max) ( Fig .

a lthough t he s ocket w as p roportionately l onger i n t his c ase . 1 919 ) .

4 6)) .

I ts

s ize a nd p rofile w ere s imilar t o P etersen T ype C s pearhead6 I t w ould a ppear t o b elong t o t he L ate-Saxon p eriod ,

( Petersen , p ossibly t o t he

1 0th o r 1th c enturies . A t ransverse V -shaped s ection e xtending t o j ust o ver h alf-way a cross t he s ection w as c ut f rom t he w ide p art o f t he s pearhead i n s uch a w ay t hat o ne e dge ( the o ne t o b e e xamined) w as c ut o bliquely t o t he e dge o f t he w eapon b ut a t r ight a ngles t o w hat a ppeared t o b e t he m ain w eld l ines v isible o n t he r adiograph . When v iewed

u netched

t he

s lag

c ontent

was

s een t o b e q uite

l ow .

S everal b roken l ines o f m ostly s mall s lag r ibbons a nd s pots c ould b e s een r unning a cross t he s ection f rom s ide t o s ide s uggesting t hat t here w ere w elds p resent r unning i n t his d irection d ividing t he s ection p ossibly i nto s everal p arts a lthough i t w as n ot p ossible t o d etermine h ow m any a t t his s tage .

A n i rregular p atch o f p artially f lattened s lag r ibbons a nd

17

s pots ,

a ligned t his t ime a long t he m ain a xis n ear t he t ip o f t he c utting e dge. W hen e tched s een

i n

t he

w ith n ital

m acrograph

o f

t he s tructure

o f F ig .

4 9 .

t he s ection ,

o ccurred c entrally

b ecame m uch c learer a s c an b een

T he d iagram o f

s implified v ersion o f w hat i s v isible i n t he m acrograph .

F ig .

4 9

s hows

a

I t w as p ossible

t o s ee t hat t he s ection w as d ivided i nto f our m ain a reas w hich a re m arked ( a ) ( d ) i n F ig . 4 9 . A p ossible f ifth a rea i s a lso s hown w hich d ivides w hat w ould b e am uch l arger a rea ( d ) o therwise c ontaining v ery l ittle s lag , i nto t hree p arts d , ea nd f a s s hown o n t he d iagram a nd m acrograph . P art -

1 o ccupies t he m ore o r l ess e xact c entre o f t he s pearhead a nd t wo r ather d iscontinuous a nd i rregular l ines o f s lag i nclusions , i ndicated a s b roken l ines o n F ig . 4 9 , m ark t he p robable p osition o f w elds b etween t hese c entral p ieces , d , ea nd f . T races o f t hese w elds c ould b e s een o n t he r adiograph . T he c utting e dge p art ( a ) g ave a r ather u neven s tructure .

T he a rea a t

t he s urviving t ip o f t he c utting e dge e tched l ightly a nd h ad a d istinctly a cicular m artensitic a ppearance . A way f rom t he t ip t his s oon g ave w ay t o p ale e tching W idmanstätten-looking f errite a nd p earlite, t he p earlite f raction n ot b eing o ptically r esolvable . T his w ould a ppear t o r epresent a q uenched l ow c arbon s teel p robably n ot m ore t han 0 .2-0 .3% c arbon , i f t hat . W here t he c entral p atch o f s lag i nclusions o ccurs , t hat p articular a rea c onsisted a lmost e ntirely o f f errite ( apart f rom t he s lag) . T he v ery d ark e tched z one w hich c an b e s een o n t he m acrograph t o o ccupy m ost o f t he i nner a rea o f ( a) c onsisted o f a c entral v ery d ark a cicular l ooking a rea o f t empered m artensite . p earlite ,

T his w as m ixed w ith a c ertain a mount o f u nresolved

a nd a way f rom t his c entral a rea t he s tructure g radually c hanged

i nto a p aler z one o f p earlite w ith a n i ncreasing p roportion o f f errite . T he c arbon c ontent o f t he d ark e tched a rea ( a ) a ppears t o b e m uch h igher t han a t t he t ip o f t he c utting e dge a nd m ay b e n earer 0 .4%-0 .5% . B etween t he c utting e dge t ip a nd d ark e tched a rea t he c arbon c ontent d ecreased t o w ell u nder 0 . 1% w here t he c entral a rea o f s lag i nclusions o ccurs . A lthough t he a ppearance h as b een e xaggerated s omewhat b y t he d ark e tching e ffects o f t he h eat t reatment, t his p art ( a ) w as c learly o f a n u neven c omposition . A v arying c arbon d istribution l ike t his i s n ot t o b e e xpected f rom a p iece o f wrought i ron t hat h as b een c arburised s o t his p iece ( a) may h ave b een a p iece o f s pecifically p roduced b loomery s teel. T he w eld l ine b etween c utting e dge p iece ( a ) a nd t he f irst o f t he i nner p ieces

( b )

w as

v ery

c learly

m arked

b y

a n a lmost

c ontinuous

l ine

o f

s lag

r ibbons w hich w as h ighlighted b y a d iffuse w hite l ine a long i ts l ength . P art ( b ) a ppears t o h ave b een a t wisted a nd p ossibly c omposite s trip t he -

f olded a ppearance b eing o utlined i n p laces b y a f ew s lag s pots . T he m ain a rea c onsisted o f a f airly e ven f ine g rain l ow c arbon d istribution o f p earlite i n f errite , t he c arbon c ontent b eing p robably m ostly l ess t han 0 . 17 T he s maller t wo a reas , o utlined b y t he s lag s pots, a ppeared t o h ave a r ather m ore p atchy d istribution o f p earlite i n f errite a nd w ith a g enerally l arger g rain s ize a nd s lightly h igher c arbon c ontent , p ossibly a bout 0 . 1% . T he w eld b oundary b etween ( b ) a nd ( c ) w as l ess e asy t o s ee b ut w as m arked b y a f ew s lag s tringers a nd s pots a nd o ne d eep c orrosion p it . P art ( c ) s howed a b anded s tructure . T he b ands c onsisted o f af airly f ine-grained d istribution o f p earlite i n f errite v ery s imilar t o t he m ain a rea o f p art ( b ) a nd w ith a s imilar c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 . 1% o r l ess .

18

( a )

( b )

F ig . 4 9 .

( a)

S ection t hrough a s pearhead f rom t he T hames a t K empsford , N o . 3 6 .

2 20

( b)

F ig . 5 0 . S ection K empsford , N o . 3 3

t hrough a p attern-welded

1 19

s pearhead

f rom

t he

T hames

a t

/ / ‚

/

‚

( e)

F ig .

5 0 ( continued)

S ection f rom s ame s pearhead t o s how ' wavy ' w eld

s urface d etail d rawn f rom X -ray a nd t hree-dimensional v iew .

1 20

+

T he b oundary b etween t he c omposite s trip ( c) a nd c ore p iece ( d) was f airly c learly m arked b y a f ew s lag s pots a nd r ibbons a nd a lso b y t wo v ery d eep c orrosion p its w hich h ave c learly f ollowed t he w eld l ine b etween ( c ) a nd ( d). A s m entioned a bove t his c ore p art o f t he s pearhead p robably o riginally c onsisted o f t hree p arts , m arked d , ea nd f o n t he d iagram , F ig . 4 9a , s eparated b y a n i rregular l ine o f s lag s pots a nd r ibbons . I t w ould a ppear t hat t hese c omposite p arts o f ( d ) w ere f orged t ogether b efore t he f inal a ssembly o f t he s pearhead . P art ( e) s howed a f airly e ven d istribution o f f ine g rain p earlite a nd f errite . T he p earlite w as m ostly u nresolvable ( optically) a morphous l ooking , a lthough s omewhat g ranular w ith a f ew a cicular p atches p ossibly o f m artensite . T he c arbon c ontent o f t he c entral p art a ppeared t o b e a bout 0 .3-0 -47 F our h ardness r eadings w ere t aken o n t he e dge p art ( a ) :

f irstly n ear t he

t ip w hich s howed a m artensitic a ppearance , 3 60 H V ; s econdly a l ittle f urther i n w here t he m artensitic a rea s oon g ave w ay t o o ne o f f errite a nd p earlite ( 272 H V) ,

t hirdly f urther

i n a gain a nd

i n t he c entre o f a v ery d ark a rea

t empered i n artensite ( 496 H V ) , a nd f inally n ear t he i nner w eld w here a d ense a rea o f a morphous l ooking p earlite o r g rain b oundary c arbide o f p iece ( b ) g ave 2 10 H V . O ne o f t he p aler v ery l ow c arbon b ands o f p iece ( c) g ave 1 63 H V w hile a n a djacent f errite b and w ith s lightly m ore p earlite g ave 1 59 H V . O f t he c entral p arts o f t he s pearhead , t he f errite o f t he i ron p iece ( d ) a way f rom t he z one o f c arbon d iffusion g ave 1 08 H V a lthough i n t he a rea h eavily a ffected b y c arbon d iffusion a h ardness v alue o f 2 17 H V w as o btained . o f 2 77 H V .

T he s mall g rain p earlite o f c entral s teel p iece ( e) g ave a v alue

T here h as b een a g reat d eal o f c arbon d iffusion o utwards i nto p arts ( d ) a nd ( f ) .

T he p earlite p roportion g radually d ecreases a way f rom ( e ) a nd t he

p earlite f ades o ut a ltogether a bout h alf w ay a cross p art ( f ) t o g ive w ay t o l arge g rained f errite . I t w ould a ppear t hat t he c ore o f t he s pearhead w as o riginally m ade u p a s as andwich o f t wo p ieces o f w rought i ron b etween w hich w as f orged a p iece o f m edium c arbon s teel w hich m ay h ave c ontained a bout 0 .4-0 .5% C . T his c omposite p iece m ust t hen h ave b een h eated a bove t he u pper c ritical p oint a pproximately 8 00 °C f or a f airly l ong t ime , p ossibly s everal h ours i n w hat -

m ay h ave b een a d eliberate a ttempt t o p roduce a c omposite p iece o f a f airly h omogeneous p iece o f s teel.

S3 3. A s pearhead f ound n ear t he f ord a t K empsford i n G loucestershire, ( Table Q.

I ts

w ide b lade

( Fig .

4 6)

c losely

r esembled

P etersen 's

T ype H

V iking s pearheads ( Petersen ,6 5 1 919) w hich w ould a ppear t o d ate i t t o a round 9 00 A .D . I ts c ondition w as f airly t ypical o f r iver f inds w ith f airly h eavy s urface c orrosion p itting b ut w ith f airly g ood L ength 3 3 .1 c m b y 5 . 6 c m a t i ts w idest p oint .

m etal s urvival u nderneath . D ate a pproximately 9 th t o

1 0th c ent . A .D . An arrow w edge-shaped s ection w as c ut f rom t he b lade 4 c m d own f rom t he s houlder o f o ne o f t he w ings . A s econd s ection w as c ut f rom a p oint a bout 8c m d own f rom t he s houlder o n t he o ther s ide o f t he s pearheads .

T his w as

c ut s o a s t o g et a s urface v iew o f t he c utting e dge a nd p art o f t he p attern w elded d esign . T he t ransverse s ection u netched s howed a f airly l ow s lag c ontent a cross t he s ection e xcept f or a b and i n t he c entre w hich c ontained m uch s lag, m ostly s nail s pots a nd r ibbon-like i nclusions o f o ne o r t wo d arker p hase c onstituents ( probably f ayalite a nd a g lassy m atrix ) b ut w ith

1 21

s ome o f t he l arger i nclusions s howing a t hird p hase ( of w stite) a s a d endritic p attern . W hen

e tched

w ith n ital

t he s tructure

s howed u p c learly

( Fig .

5 0)

t he

s ection c an h e d ivided i nto 1 0 m ain p arts, t hese b eing t he d ifferent c omponents o f t he s pearhead . T he w eld l ines w ere f airly c learly m arked b y ' w hite ' l ines which c onsisted o f f errite p robably l ocally e nriched b y a rsenic . T hese w ere s uperimposed b y a f ew s mall t wo-phase s lag i nclusions o f ap ale a nd d ark , p robably w üstite a nd f ayalite i n ag lassy m atrix . A lso s uperimposed w ere n arrow l inear s egregations o f p earlite . T he s mall t ip p art ( a ) a ppeared t o b e a s trip o f s teel w elded b etween t he e dge o f t he i nner p arts

( bi) a nd ( bii) w hich w ere o f w rought i ron .

A

f airly f ine g rain r ather amorphous o r g ranular l ooking d istribution o f p earlite w ith f errite i ndicating a c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 .5% o ver m uch o f ( a ) b ut d ecreasing t owards t he w elds w here f airly e xtensive c arbon d iffusion h ad t aken p lace i nto t he a djacent f errite o f p arts ( hi) a nd ( bii ) . T he m ainly l arge g rain f errite p arts ( bi) a nd ( bii) e ach s howed a s lightly p earlite a rea n ext t o t he i nner w eld w ith p art ( c) i ndicating a s light d egree o f p ossibly a ccidental c arburisation w hile t he i ndividual p ieces w ere b eing f orged . T he t wo h alves ( hi) a nd ( bii) w ere v irtually i dentical e ven t o t he e xtent o f p artial c arburisation s uggesting t hat t hey w ere t wo h alves o f t he s ame p iece o f w rought i ron f olded i n h alf , w elded t ogether a nd f orged o ut a gain d uring w hich t ime t he s teel e dge p iece ( a ) w as w elded i n . T he w eld l ine b etween e dge p arts

( hi) a nd ( bii) a nd t he i nner b and ( c )

o n X -ray g ives r ise t o t he s ine w ave p attern w hich f orms t he o uter p art o f t he p attern w elded z one . T he l ine i s f airly c learly marked b y s mall i nclusions o f s lag a nd p articularly b y o ne l arge i nclusion s howing a d endritic p attern o f w üstite a gainst a d arker m atrix o f f ayalite o r ag lassy c onstituent w hich w as t rapped b etween t he p arts ( b ) a nd ( c) d uring w elding . T he p art ( c ) i tself h ad a h igh s lag c ontent o f v arying i nclusions m ostly o f ad ark p hase ? f ayalite .

A part f rom i ts s lag c ontent p art ( c) c onsisted o f

m ainly l arge g rained f errite . T he p art

( d) which h ad s hown a f airly p ronounced s traight-grained

p attern o n X -ray s howed u p a s a r ather f eatureless b and i n s ection . I t c onsisted o f f errite p lus p earlite w ith a c arbon c ontent o f b etween a bout 0 .1

a nd 0 .3% . T he.central

p lain c ore p iece ( g ) w as n ot s uspected f rom

t he X -ray a nd

c onsisted o f f errite w ith a r ather v ariable p earlite d istribution v ery s imilar t o p art ( d ) g iving a c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 . 1-0 .3% . I t w ould a ppear t hat p arts ( d ) a nd ( g ) a re b oth l ittle m ore t han l ow c arbon i ron ; a lthough p atchy t he c arbon c ontent i s o ne o f a l ow c arbon s teel . T hey a re s o s imilar t hat t hey p robably c ame f rom t he s ame p iece o f l ow c arbon i ron . T he s urface p arts ( e ) a nd ( f ) g ave r ise t o t he s piral o r c ork-screw l ike i nner p attern i n t he w elded z one v isible o n X -ray . T hey a re v ery s imilar t o e ach o ther a nd c onsisted o f a lternating b ands o f p ale v ery l arge g rained f errite a nd d arker g rey s mall m edium f errite p lus p earlite w ith a c arbon c ontent o f 0 . 17 T hese b ands g ave a g ently f olded a ppearance s howing h ow a t ransverse v iew o f t he s piral s tructure l ooks . T he s piral s tructure o f p arts ( e ) a nd ( f ) w as a chieved b y t he w elding t ogether a nd t wisting o f t he p aler a nd d arker e lements w hich s how i n t he s ection .

1 22

T he

n arrow

b and

( 1 )

s hows u p a s a m edium g rain f errite p lus a l ittle

p earlite w ith a c arbon c ontent o f n o m ore t han 0 .1% , i .e. a l ow c arbon i ron . T he i nner p iece ( h ) s howed a f airly e ven f errite + p earlite d istribution w ith a c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 .2% b ut t owards t he e dges t his f aded o ut s uggesting t hat t he p iece m ay h ave b een a t o ne s tage a f airly e ven p iece o f l ow c arbon s teel w hich b ecame e xtensively c arburised . d uring t he i nitial f orging o f t he s ocket o f t he s pearhead .

T his i s u ncertain a nd p art ( h ) c an

p robably b e r egarded a s ap iece o f l ow c arbon i ron o f ap atchy c omposion . T he s teel e dge p art ( a ) g ave a h ardness o f 2 69 H V a nd t he i ron p art ( b ) , t o w hich i t h ad b een w elded g ave a h ardness o f 15 1 V . T he p ale h igh s lag i ron p art ( c ) g ave a h ardness o f 1 71 H V . T he l ow c arbon i ron o f p arts ( d ) a nd ( g )

g ave h ardnesses o f

1 22 a nd

1 36 H V .

H ardnesses o f

2 20 a nd 2 34 H V

w ere o btained f or t he p ale b ands i n e ach o f t he w elded p arts ( e ) a nd ( f ) a nd t he l ow c arbon i ron o f p art ( e ) p roduced a h ardness o f 1 43 H V . S trip ( 1 ) g ave 1 33 H V a nd 1 41 H V f or t he c entral p iece ( h) w ith i ts s imilar o r s lightly h igher c arbon c ontent . T he r elatively h igh h ardness v alues f or t he f errite p arts ( c ) a nd e specially ( e ) a nd ( f ) a re p robably t he r esult o f ah igh p hosphorus c ontent . T he

s econd e tched s ection g ave t he s tructure s hown i n F ig .

5 0e .

T his

s hows h ow p art o f t he s urface o f t he w eapon m ay h ave l ooked i f i t was p olished a nd e tched i n a s imilar w ay . A s s hown i n F ig . 5 0a p arts ( a ) ( d ) -

a nd a v ery s mall p art o f ( e) o r ( f) a re r epresented h ere . M ost o f t he d arker e tched s teel p art ( a ) h as c orroded a way b ut a s mall p art s urvives . T he w ider e dge p art ( b ) s hows a n i nteresting ' watered ' p attern a r esult o f a v ariable b ut l ow c arbon c ontent w ith a reas o f p aler l arger g rain f errite w hich o n f orging o ut h ave g iven t his v ery s treaky a ppearance w hich i s s imilar t o t hat o bservable o n s ome m edieval a nd l ater J apanese s word b lades . T he m ain ly s mall g rained c lean a nd g rey m etal o f p art ( h ) c ontrasts s harply w ith t he p ale m ainly l arge g rain f errite o f ( c ) w ith i ts s lag s treaks,

a nd

t he w eld l ine g iving t he s ine w ave p attern s hows u p c learly . T his p attern s eems t o h ave b een a chieved b y t he i nitial p reparation o f t he e dges o f ( b ) a nd ( c) t hat w ere d estined t o b e w elded t ogether . T hese e dges b een g iven a c orrugated p rofile d uring i nitial f orging s o t hat

m ust h ave t hese t wo

p rofiles w ould i nterlock a nd c ould t hen b e f orge w elded t ogether t o g ive a s ingle p iece w ith p arallel s ides b ut w hich w ould t hen g ive t his s ine w ave p attern o n l ater s urface p reparation . T he g rey f airly s mall g rained l ow c arbon

i ron p iece

( d ) o ccupies

m ost

o f

t he r est

o f F ig .

S Ue a nd t he d ark

b and o f corrosion r uns r oughly t hrough t he m iddle o f i t . Av ery s mall p art o f t he i nner p attern w elded p arts e ither ( e ) o r ( f ) a ppears b ut i t i s t oo s mall a n a rea t o r eally s how a ny d etail . T he m ethod o f c onstruction i s s hown i n F ig .

( m )

5 0 ( c ) a nd ( d) .

S cran iasaxes ( Seaxes) a nd O ther S ingle E dged W eapons

As eax o r s cramasax

i s as ingle e dged s word w hich w as u sually h ilted i n

m uch t he s ame w ay a s ad ouble-edged s word .

I ts s ection i s m ore l ike t hat

o f ak nife b ut i t w as u sually d ecorated b y p attern-welding o r b y g rooves o r l ines a nd p atterns o f n on-ferrous i nlay o r ( occasionally) c omplex i nscriptions . N orway .

S cramasaxes a re l ess c ommon i n B ritain b ut w ere p opular i n

T heir l ength v aries

c onsiderably s o

k nives u sed a s d aggers .

1 23

t hat

s ome a re n o m ore

t han

S 50, Scramasax from Barham Down (Table M), (Maidstone Museum (no ai::c, No)), is. a heavily corroded scramasax(Fig, 51), missing the tip of the blade and the end of the tang, apparently found in a grave at Barham Down in Kent in 1842 although there is no further record of this, It was covered in a heavy crust of iron corrosion products which have split into several large flakes. The approximate shape with its gently curving back and cutting edge could just be made out and this seemed similar to o ther examples from Anglo-Saxon graves and looks like Wheeler's Type 1, or 'Frankish type' of 6th-8th century date(Wheeler, 66 1927, p. 178). It seems most likely that this blade came from an Early Anglo-Saxon burial and that it is roughly of a 5th-7th century A.O. date. Two wedge shaped sections were cut from the blade, one from the back and one from the cutting edge. The sections were cut from fairly near the middle of the blade but were staggered a few centimetres apart so as not to weaken the metallic core too much but so as still to achieve an overall complete transverse section. When viewed unetched much slag was visible in both sections. Some very large irregular three phase inclusions occurred in both sections and in these the central phase was a pale grey consituent ( ? wustite) in a dendritic formation in a medium and darker grey matrix(? a glassy constituent and fayalite). Some two phase, pale grey and darker grey inclusions were also visible. Most of the inclusions were smaller, ribbon­ like and of one dark(? fayalite) phase or two phases, medium and darker grey(? fayalite and a glassy constituent). The slag content was much lower along a narrow margin on one side of the 'back' section and also nearer the tip of the ' cutting edge' section . When etched with nital the areas of much lower slag content the margin of the back section and the area towards the tip of the cutting edge section, both rapidly went very dark(Fig. 52) and tended to stain b lue. These darker etched areas(b) and(d) in Fig. 52 consisted of fine-grained pearlite with some ferrite. The pearlite was of a fairly well spheroidised, but still partly lamellar structure, and the overall carbon content appeared to vary between about 0.5 and 0.8%. The remaining areas · of the section, those with the much higher slag content, etched slowly and are the pale areas(a) and (c), Fig. 52, in the back and cutting edge sections respectively. These consisted mainly of very large grained ferrite with a few patches of short rod-like nitride or carbide needles also visible. There were no specific lines of sl3.g inclusions which could be easily distinguished from the rest as representing weld lines between areas(a) and (b),(c) and (d) respectively, although in both cases it is quite clear that a piece of fairly high carbon steel, (c) and(d), has been welded to a piece of wrought iron, (a) and·(c), of fairly low grade - to judge from the high slag content. Fairly extensive carbon diffusion was also visible across the approximate weld positions. The steel part of both sections gave in each case a hardness value of 248 HV. The very large grain ferrite core gave a hardness of 171 RV in both sections. The latter value is rather high for plain wrought iron, this and the very large grain size probably indicating the presence of phosphorus in this core piece.129 It seems most probable, despite corrosion having removed so much, that 124

—

N

r -

Lr

—

N

—

—

I f)

—

4 4 I I D

I fI r -.

I 0 0

C)

N

+ z J-

00

0 N

N I f )

—

-

-

M u s

1 0 1 t h C .

9 1 t h C .

I

1 0 1 t h C .

a )

N

0 -

0

0 0

M a i d s t o n e

•

N

•

Z

•-

C

Q

0 0 0 N •

0 -

H

0

D 0 0

D o r s e t

i r

0

z

4 3 U )

0 0

0

C I A

r —

N N

(7 )

C)

C t )

C / )

C )

1 25

P os it ions

o f s ec t ions

s ca le b a rs 1 0cm

S4

S9

S 22

S34

S 37

-J

S42

S50

F ig . 5 1.

O utlines o f s cramasaxes s howing p ositions o f s ections .

1 26

( a)

2 48

-

5mm

c a rbon d i f fus ion f r om d

( b )

F ig. 5 2.

S ection t hrough s cramasax N o. 5 0,

f rom B arham D own , K ent.

( a)

F ig .

5 3 .

S ection

t hrough

s crar nasax

E ssex. 1 27

N O .

t rum

t he

R iver

L ea

a t

L eyta t i ,

1 29

5 3 . ( c o n t i n u e d )

S e c t i o n t h r o u g h

4 2 f r o m t h e R i v e r L e a a t L e y t o n , E s e x

a reas

( b )

a nd

( d )

w ere p arts

o f

o ne p iece

o f

s teel

t hat f ormed a ' j acket '

i .e . was a s ingle p iece f olded a nd w elded a round a w rought i ron c ore o f w hich b oth ( a ) a nd ( c ) a re r epresentative a reas . T he h igh q uality o f t he o uter s teel ' jacket ' c ontrasted m arkedly w ith t he w rought i ron o f t he c ore . T he f inished b lade a ppears t o h ave b een a ir-cooled , t hen s ubjected t o a p eriod o f f airly p rolonged a nnealing b elow t he l ower c ritical p oint o f a bout 7 00 °C , w hich w as p resumably d one s pecifically t o t oughen t he s teel . T he b lade w ith i ts s teel j acket a nd i ron c ore i s a c lear e xample o f t he T ype 4 b lade ( Fig. 1 ).

S 4 2,

S cramasax ( ? ) f rom t he R iver L ea a t L eyton ( Table M ) ,

( Museum o f

L ondon , 0 .2275) . T he l ower , o r t ip p art , o f ap robable s cramasax ( Fig . 5 1) f ound i n t he p resent c entury . T here w as n o i ndication t hat i t h ad b een b ent o r b roken i n a ntiquity b ut t he b reak w as n ot r ecent a nd t he t ang e nd m ay j ust h ave c orroded a way a s a r esult o f d ifferential c orrosion u nder w ater . T he s urviving p iece o f b lade w as m uch p itted b y c orrosion a lthough t he m etallic s urvival o f t he c ore a ppeared t o b e q uite g ood . I t m easured 6 4 .2 c m i n l ength b y 3 . 7 c m i n w idth a nd 0 .85 c m a t i ts t hickest . N ear t he b ack o f t he b lade , o n e ither s ide , w ere t wo n arrow g rooves s eparated b y a w ide g roove

o r

f uller .

T he

t wo n arrow g rooves

r an p arallel

t o

t he

s traighter p art o f t he b ack a nd c ame t ogether t o f orm a p oint w here t he b ack o f t he b lade c urved t owards t he t ip . T he c utting e dge w as f airly s traight , c urving u p al ittle t owards t he t ip . I n f orm t his b lade w as c losest t o t he W heeler T ype I II o r H urbuck T ype o f s cramasax , c enturies ( Wheeler, 6 6 T wo w idth ,

V -shaped

1 927,

s ections ,

p .

a ttributed t o t he 8 th

-

1 0th

1 79). e ach

e xtending

j ust

o ver h alf-way

a cross

t he

w ere c ut f rom e ither s ide o f t he b lade s o a s t o o btain a c omposite

t ransverse s ection . T he s ections f rom t he c utting e dge a nd f rom t he b ack w ere t aken 1 . 5 c m a nd 9 . 5 c m r espectively a way f rom t he b roken e nd o f t he b lade ( Fig. 5 1). U netched ,

av aried s lag c ontent a nd d istribution w as v isible , m ostly a s

s mall s pots a nd w ell f lattened i nclusions . T hese i nclusions w ere g rouped i n f airly b road b ands w hich r an a long t he m ain a xis o f b oth s ections . A ll t he s lag v isible w as a ligned i n t he s ame d irection a cross t he s ection . T he s lag c ontent o f t hese b anded a reas v aried b etween v ery l ow a nd q uite h igh . W hen e tched w ith n ital t he b anded a ppearance o f t he s ections b ecame m ore p ronounced a nd a q uite d istinctive ' f low ' p attern s howed u p .

( Fig .

5 3) .

A

p ossible t otal o f s even h ands a ltogether w ere d ifferentiated a nd t hese a re m arked ( a) ( g) o n t he d iagram o f F ig . 5 3 . B ands ( a), ( b) a nd ( c) a nd -

( e ) , ( f) a nd ( g) c an r eally b e c onsidered a s t he t wo l argest c omponents o f t he b lade , a s f ar a s i ts f inal a ssembly i s c oncerned . E ach o f t hese t wo c omponents was c omposed l argely o f p iled, o r l aminated, w rought i ron . B etween t hese t wo l arger c omponents a s mall s trip o f f airly h omogeneous s teel ( d) i n F ig . 5 3 , w as w elded . d ark e tched b and .

T his c entral s teel s trip s hows u p a s t he

T owards t he b ack o f t he b lade t his d ark b and c an b e s een

t o n arrow , a lmost t o ap oint , a lthough i t a ppears t o c ontinue a s a n arrow b ut d istinct v ery d ark g rey l ine , m arking h ere , a s ingle w eld l ine b etween t he t wo p iled w rought i ron o uter c omponents o f t he b lade . N ear t he b ack o f t he b lade t he b ands o f t he o uter p iled p ieces c urve s harply o utwards , w hich

1 29

r eflects s ection ,

s ome f inal h ot f orging a t r ight a ngles i . e . a gainst t he b ack o f t he b lade .

t o

t he

m ain a xis

o f

t he

T he c entral s teel s trip ( d ) w as p robably o f a f airly h omogeneous c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 .5 0 .6% , a lthough i t g ave a v arying e tched a ppearance f rom p ale a t t he c utting e dge t ip , t o v ery d ark a t t he i nner e nd . T he t ip -

e nd c onsisted m ostly o f m artensite , w hich a way f rom t he t ip e nd b ecame p rogressively m ore m ixed w ith a d arker e tched c onstituent w hich s howed u p , u nder h igher m agnification , a s af eathery s tructure, p robably o f u pper b ainite ( Fig . 5 3) . T he m artensite o nly o ccurred n ear t he c utting e dge , a nd f urther a way f rom t his e nd t he d arker c onstituent b ecame m ixed w ith a g radually i ncreasing p roportion o f f errite , o f a n e longated s omewhat a cicular f orm . T he d arker c onstituent a lso v aried a nd p artly a ppeared t o c onsist o f p oorly f ormed p earlite a nd g ranular o r s pheroidised c arbide . N ear t he c entre o f t he b lade , h owever , t he f errite a ppeared r ather m ore e quiaxed i n f orm . T owards t he b ack o f t he b lade t he n arrow , b ut d istinctly v isible g rey l ine t hat t he c entral b and ( d ) t apered d own t o , c onsisted o f f errite i n a n a cicular d istribution w ith p earlite w hich a ppeared p artially s pheroidised. T he r emaining p arts o f t he b lade a ll a ppear t o h ave b een w rought i ron w ith l ittle c arbon , a lthough a fter t he f inal w elding t ogether, f airly e xtensive c arbon d iffusion o ccurred o utwards f rom t he c entral s teel p iece ( d),

i nto t he a djacent i ron p iece

( c)

a nd ( e) .

O n e ither s ide o f

t he

c entral p iece ( d ) , t he i ron a reas a ppear t o c onsist o f t hree b ands . ( a ) , ( b ) a nd ( c ) c onsisted o f l arge g rained f errite a nd d iffered m ainly i n t heir s lag c ontent which was s uccessively h igh , l ow a nd m edium . T he s lag c oncentrations

v aried

s omewhat a long

t he s ections

s o

t hat

t he

c ontent

i n

b and ( c ) w as h igher t owards t he t ip o f t he c utting e dge , w hile t hat o f ( b ) i ncreased t owards t he b ack o f t he b lade w here i t w as s imilar t o t hat o f ( a ) , w hich h ad a c onsistently h igh s lag c ontent . T he b ands ( e), ( f) a nd ( g) v aried i n r oughly t he s ame w ay , ( e) w ith a g enerally l ow s lag c ontent , w hile t he s lag c ontent o f ( f ) w as s imilarly h igh t o ( a ), a nd t hat o f ( g ) f ell a pproximately b etween t he t wo . T he b and ( f ) d iffered s omewhat f rom t he o thers , i n t hat i t c ontained s ome c arbon i n t he p art t owards t he b ack o f t he b lade . I t w as p robably n ot m uch m ore t han a bout 0 .1%,

i .e .

l ittle m ore t han w rought i ron ,

a nd may n ot h ave m uch

s ignificance. T wo h ardness v alues ,

8 31 a nd 7 48 H V ,

w ere o btained f or t he m artensitic

a rea n ear t he t ip o f t he c entral s teel p iece ( d ) a nd a t hird v alue o f 3 97 M V , f urther i n w here a d ark n odular c onstituent, p robably t roostite , s howed u p .

A h ardness v alue o f 2 64 H V w as o btained f or p art

( d) n ear t he

i nner

e nd a nd a f urther v alue o f 2 04 H V n earby , w here i t h ad b ecome p artly d ecarburised . F rom t he i ron p arts t hat m ade u p t he r est o f t he b lade , t he f ollowing h ardness v alues w ere o btained : ( a ) l arge g rain f errite 1 57 H V , ( b) m edium g rain f errite 1 77 M V, ( e) f errite a nd p earlite ( probably d iffused f rom ( d )) 2 17 M V , ( f ) l arge g rain f errite 1 99 H V . -

-

-

B efore

-

t he f inal w elding t ogether o f

t he b lade c omponents ,

t he m ain ly

w rought i ron p arts ( a ) , ( b ) , ( c ) a nd ( e ) , ( f ) a nd ( g ) m ost p robably a lready f ormed t wo s ingle p ieces b etween w hich t he s teel p iece ( d ) w as t o b e w elded . T hey a ppeared t o c onsist o f i ndividual p ieces o f i ron o f d iffering s lag c ontents, w hich w ere w elded o r p iled t ogether .

1 30

A fter

t he

f inal

f orging

t he

b lade w as

q uenched,

a lthough a f ully

q uenched o r m artensitic s tructure o nly o ccurred n ear t he t ip o f t he c utting e dge , w hich m eans t hat t he q uenching w as i nefficient , p ossibly d eliberately S O . T he a cicular n ature o f t he f errite i n t he p earlite a reas a lso i ndicated f airly f ast c ooling , b ut t he s omewhat s pheroidised f errite n ear t he c entre , m ay i ndicate t hat s ome s elf-annealing t ook p lace i n t he m iddle o f t he b lade.

S3 7, A l ong s cramasax, f ound i n t he R iver T hames n ear t he o ld f ord a t K empsford i n G loucestershire, ( Table M ) . T he s urface h ad b een f airly e venly a nd l ightly c orroded ,

b ut u nder t his t he m etal o f t he b lade a ppeared

t o h ave s urvived w ell ( Fig . 5 1) . I ts d imensions w ere : L ength 7 7 .5 c ms , m aximum w idth 4 . 2 c ms , a nd m aximum t hickness 0 . 8 c ms . O n e ither s ide o f t he b lade n ear t he b ack w as a w ide g roove o r f uller . I t i s s imilar i n f orm t o t he W heeler T ype I II o r t H urbuck ' t ype o f s cramasax , w hich w ould p lace i t w ithin t he L ate-Saxon p eriod, p robably t he 9 th o r 1 0th c entury . T wo V -shaped s ections w ere c ut f rom p ositions s taggered a long t he b lade , s o a s t o e nable a c omposite t ransverse s ection t o b e e xamined . u netched ,

t he

s ection a cross

t he

b ack p art

o f

W hen v iewed

t he b lade s howed a v arying

s lag c ontent , w ith t wo b road b ands c ontaining m any p artially f lattened s lag r ibbons a nd s pots r unning u nevenly a long t he m ain a xis o f t he s ection . T hese t wo b ands w ere s eparated b y a g enerally w ider , f airly s lag-free a rea , w ith a f urther s lag f ree a rea t o o ne s ide o f t he b lade . T owards t he c utting e dge e nd o f t he b ack s ection , t he s lag b and f aded o ut a nd j ust t he o ccasional f lattened i nclusion w as s een h ere . T he c utting e dge s ection a lso s howed a v arying a mount o f s lag , w ith v ery l ittle i n t he a reas a long t he s ides , w hereas t he c entral z one a long t he m ain a xis c ontained a s lightly h igher p roportion o f s lag r ibbons a nd s pots. W hen e tched w ith n ital t he s tructure s hown i n t he a djacent m acrographs o f F ig . 5 4 c ould b e s een . T his i s a lso s hown i n s implified f orm i n t he d iagram a ccompanying . T hese s how t hat t he b lade c onsisted o f av ery c learly m arked s andwich o f t hree p arts ( b), ( c) a nd ( a) . T he w eld p osition b etween t he b ack ( d ) a nd t he c utting e dge c omponents , w as d ifficult t o s ee a s i t w as n ot m arked b y a ny d iscernible l ine o f s lag s pots , a lthough a long p art o f i ts l ength i t w as m arked b y an arrow f aint l ine o f p earlite . T he b ack a nd c omposition .

t he c utting e dge w ere , h owever , o f a m arkedly d ifferent T he b ack a rea ( d) d id a ppear t o c onsist o f o ne p iece,

a lthough i ts s tructure , a nd h ence i ts a ppearance , v aried g reatly .

T he t wo

b road b anded a reas o f h igh s lag c ontent n oted a bove , c onsisted o therwise m ostly o f l arge g rained f errite . T he a djacent l ow s lag b ands a lso c onsisted m ostly o f l arge g rain f errite . T he m acrograph o f a rea ( d ) ( Fig . 5 4) a lso s hows t wo d ense d ark p atches w hich r epresent a pparent a reas o f q uite h igh c arbon s teel i n a n o therwise a lmost m ainly f errite m atrix . T hese s howed a h eat-treated m icrostructure o f v ery d ark e tching , i rresolvable p earlite , w ith s ome t endency t owards a n a cicular m qrtensitic a ppearance . T he c arbon c ontent o f t hese a reas w as r oughly b etween 0 .5 a nd 0 .8% C . T here a ppears t o h ave b een c onsiderable c arbon d iffusion o utwards f rom t he t wo s teel a reas w ithin t he b ack ( a ) , w hich s hows t hat t his p art o f t he b lade w as s ubjected t o f airly p rolonged h eating . T he b anded n ature o f a rea ( a ) s uggests

t hat t his

b ack p iece w as

1 31

f irst

o f

a ll

f ormed

b y

t he

f orging

( a )

5mm

M

( c)

( d)

( e )

5mm

F ig .

5 4 .

S ection t hrough s cramasax N o . 3 7 f rom t he T hames a t K empsford .

1 32

o ut, f olding , a nd f orging o ut a gain ( piling) o f o ne p iece o f w rought i ron o f g reatly v arying s lag c ontent o r , m ore l ikely , a s imilar f orging p rocedure i nvolving t wo d ifferent p ieces o f w rought i ron , o ne c ontaining m uch s lag , t he o ther v ery l ittle . T he t wo s teel a reas a re d ifficult t o i nterpret f or c ertain , b ut t hey a re u nlikely t o r epresent s teel w ires w elded i nto t his b ack p art o f t he b lade, d uring a ny f orging o r p iling p rocedure , a s t his w ould a lmost c ertainly h ave l eft s ome t races, p robably i n t he f orm o f e ntrapped s lag o f t he w eld j unction , b ut n one w ere o bserved . O ne p ossible e xplanation i s t hat t hese a reas , w hich b oth l ay w ithin b ands o f f errite w ith a h igh s lag c ontent, a re t he p roduct o f u neven c onditions w ithin t he b loomery f urnace w hich p roduced t his p iece o f w rought i ron . T he c oarse n ature a nd q uantity o f t he s lag i n t hese b ands s uggests t hat t he i ron f rom t his p articular b loom w as n ot s ubjected t o c areful o r p rolonged f orging a fter s melting i n o rder t o r emove s lag . A ccidentally p roduced p articles o f s teel m ight s urvive a s d istinct a reas w ithin a p iece o f i ron n ot s ubjected t o m uch p ost—smelting f orging a s s eems t o h ave b een t he c ase h ere . T he c utting e dge o f

t his b lade w as o f av ery d istinctive s andwich

c onstruction ( Fig . 5 4d) . T he o uter p arts ( b ) a nd ( c ) w ere s imilar t o e ach o ther , c onsisting m ainly o f f airly l arge g rained f errite , w ith s mall a mounts o f p earlite v isible a t t he g rain b oundaries i n p laces a nd w ith a q uite l ow s lag c ontent . H owever , t he b oundary , i n e ach c ase , w ith t he c entral a rea ( a ) w as m arked b y aw ide d iffuse z one o f p earlite w hich f aded o ut f rom t he c entral a rea . T his c learly r epresented d iffusion a cross w eld z ones b etween t he a rea ( b), ( d) a nd ( a) . T he a ctual w eld l ines t hemselves w ere n ot c learly v isible b ut w ere p robably m arked b y p atchy a nd f aint g rey l ines o f p earlite a nd f aint a nd f uzzy w hite f erritic l ines v isible i n p laces a cross t he s ection . T he c entral a rea ( d) c onsisted m ostly o f d ark e tched i rresolvable p earlite a nd n odular t roostite w hich w as m ixed w ith i ncreasing a mounts , t owards t he w eld j unctions w ith a reas ( b ) , ( c ) a nd ( a ) , o f f errite w hich e xhibited a n a cicular a ppearance . A d istinctive s pine o f p aler e tched m artensite w as v isible a long t he c entre o f a rea ( d ) a nd t his w idened o ut n ear t he t ip o f t he c utting e dge w hich c onsisted m ostly o f m artensite . T he z one

where

c arbon h ad

d iffused

i nto

a reas

( b) a nd

( c)

a lso

s howed

a

p redominantly m artensitic a ppearance n ear t he c uttting e dge t ip . T he w eld j unction b etween t he c utting e dge ,

c omprising t he s andwich o f

a rea ( b ), ( d ) a nd ( c ) a nd t he b ack p art ( d ) o f t he b lade w as a lso n ot v ery c learly m arked . N o l ines o f s lag w ere v isible a cross t he s ection a lthough ap atchy g rey l ine o f p earlite c ould b e s een s eparating a reas ( c ) a nd ( b ) o f t he c utting e dge f rom t he b ack a rea ( d ) , b ut t he j unction b etween ( d ) a nd ( a) h ad b ecome l ost i n a g enerally r ather d iffuse a rea o f l ow c arbon p earlite. T he

m artensitic a rea o f

t he

c utting e dge

s teel

p art

( a )

n ear

t he

t ip

g ave a h ardness v alue o f 7 37 l i v , b ut n ear t he c entre , w here m ainly p earlite w ith s ome f errite s howed , a h ardness v alue o f 2 36 H V w as o btained . T he v ery l ow c arbon i ron o f t he o uter e dge p arts ( b) a nd ( c) g ave h ardness v alues a s f ollows: T he

p art ( b),

s tructures o bserved

1 78 a nd 1 75 H V, p art ( c) 1 74 a nd 2 14 H V. i n t he s ections s how

t hat

t he

b lade u nderwent

p rolonged h eating d uring f orging, w hich c aused f airly e xtensive c arbon d iffusion a cross t he w eld j unction b etween t he d ifferent p arts . T he b lade w as a lso q uenched a fter i ts f inal f orging a lthough t here i s n o i ndication o f a ny s ubsequent t empering . T he h eat t reatment h as r endered t he c arbon

1 33

c onstituent

o f

t he

c entral

s teel

p art

( a ) ,

o f

t he c utting e dge s andw ich ,

d ifficult t o e stimate , a t t he c entre i t m ay b e w ithin t he r egion o f 0 .5 0 .8% C . B efore t he a ssembly o f t his p art o f t he b lade a rea ( d ) a ppears t o h ave b een a w ell p repared h omogeneous p iece o f s teel . -

S2 2, T he s urviving m ain p art o f t he b lade o f an arrow s cramasax f rom t he R iver T hames, a t R eading ,

( Table

M ),

( Museum

N o .

5 2 .80),

i ts

f orm

a pproximating t o t he W heeler t ype o f t he 9 th 1th c enturies . ( Fig . 5 1) . A lthough t he t ang e nd i s m issing , t he r emainder o f t he b lade i s i n c omparatively g ood c ondition , w hich i s f ortunate b ecause a t s ome s tage t he -

s urface c orrosion p roducts a ppear t o h ave b een s tripped o ff b y e lectrolytic r eduction .

T he l ength i s 3 3 .6 c m a nd t he w idth 2 .8 c m .

O ne r esult o f t he

e lectrolytic s tripping h as b een t o r eveal t he d ifferential e ffects o f c orrosion e tching o n t he s urface o f t he b lade, i n p articular t he c lear o utlining o f an arrow p attern-welded s trip r unning a long t hrough t he c entre o f t he b lade o n e ither s ide . A lso s till c learly v isible w ere t wo p arallel g rooves r unning a long t he b lade o n b oth s ides n ear d ecoration v ery c ommon o n L ate-Saxon s cramasaxes .

t he

b ack

-

a f orm

o f

Ar adiograph o f t he b lade s howed t he s uperimposed i mages o f t he p arallel g rooves , t he p artially o verlapping i mages o f t he p attern-weld s trip , v isible o n e ither s ide o f t he b lade, a nd a lso s howed u p a s omewhat w avy , g enerally s traight, w ood-grain e ffect a cross t he r est o f t he b lade .

b ut

A n arrow s ection w as t aken r ight a cross t he b lade a t t he e xisting t ang e nd w hich h ad c learly b een c ut ( not i n a ntiquity ) b efore , a lthough n o r ecord o f t his s urvives . E xamination o f t he s ection b efore e tching r evealed a v ery v ariable d istribution o f b oth l arge a nd s mall 2 -phase s lag i nclusions a cross t he b lade . T hese w ere m ostly i rregular i n s hape a nd o nly s ome s howed a t endency t o b e f lattish o r r ibbon-like . T he o nly d istinctly l inear d istribution o f s lag i nclusions w as w here t hey c ongregated a long t he w eld l ines a long e ither s ide o f t he c entral p attern-welded z one ( Fig . 5 5) . M uch c orrosion h ad c learly t aken p lace , p articularly a long t he l arger s lag i nclusions, w hich a lso s howed s igns o f c racking d uring f orging. E tching w ith n ital f urther a ccentuated t he u neven v ariable c omposition w ithin t he d ifferent p arts o f t he b lade , w hich c ould n ow c learly b e s een t o c onsist o f t hree p arts, a w ide b ack a nd a c utting e dge b etween w hich h ad b een w elded a s ingle t wisted f orm o f p attern-welded s trip . I n t he p atternw elded , s trip t he m ain e lements s howed a s a lternate l ight a nd d ark w avy , f olded b ands . A lthough m uch v ariable s ize s lag w as g enerally v isible , a m uch g reater p roportion o f t he s lag was c oncentrated i n t he d arker a reas , w hich c ontained a g reat d eal, g iving a v ery c oarse a ppearance . A part f rom s lag , t he p ale a reas c omprised f airly p ure , l arge-grained, f errite w ith o ccasional N eumann h ands i ndicative o f c old h ammering , v isible a s s traight v

e

r

Y

l ines i n t he f errite g rains . T hese c ontrasted ( Fig . 5 5) w ith t he d arker a reas w hich w ere m ostly o f f ine-grained f errite w ith s ome p earlite m ainly d istributed

a r ou nd

t he g rain b oundaries .

T he c arbon c ontent o f t hese a reas

w as v ery l ow , m ostly l ess t han 0 . 1% , w hich r eally c lasses i t a s al ow-carbon w rought-iron r ather t han a s teel . T he c entral p attern-welded p art ( b ) o f t he b lade, t herefore, c onsisted o f a t wisted c omposite r od c ontaining a lternate b ands o f w rought i ron o f d iffering c omposition . T he c omposition o f t he b ack , p art ( c ) , a nd c utting e dge , p art ( a ) , w as v ery v ariable , b ut i n b oth c ases i t i s p redominantly a p atchy l ooking c oarse w rought i ron .

T he c arbon c ontent w as m ostly l ow,

1 34

b elow a bout 0 .1% ,

a lthough i n s ome a reas l ower i n p art ( a ) ,

( darkest

i n F ig .

w as a s m uch a s 0 .2

-

5 5)

t he c arbon c ontent ,

g enerally

0 .3% a nd t he v arying c oncentrations

o f p earlite ( differing s hades o f g rey i n F ig . 5 5) a re c learly v ery u neven . Two h ardness r eadings w ere t aken a long t he c entral a xis o f t he l ow c arbon i ron c utting e dge , p art ( a ) , t he f irst n earer t he t ip o f t he c utting e dge a nd t he s econd n earer t he i nner w eld . T hese g ave h ardnesses o f 1 52 a nd 1 43 H V . O ne o f t he p ale, v ery l arge g rained f errite b ands o f t he p attern w elded c entral p art ( b ) , g ave a h ardness o f 2 20 H V . T he b ack p iece ( c ) , g ave t wo h ardnesses 1 81 a nd 1 84 H V . T he r elatively m uch h igher v alue f or t he p ale f errite b and o f p art ( b ) p robably i ndicates a h igher p hosphorus c ontent f or t his a nd t he o ther s imilar b ands. T he e tching o f t he s ection a lso f urther a ccentuated t he w eld l ines b etween t he c entral p attern-welded p art a nd t he b ack a nd c utting e dge . T he r eason f or t his w as r evealed u nder h igher m agnification a s t he p resence o f a n arrow l inear d istribution o f p earlite a mongst t he s lag ( Fig . 5 5) a long b oth w eld l ines . T his ' g rey l ine ' d istribution o f p earlite m ust b e t he r esult o f t he a bsorption o f a f airly e ven , b ut s mall a mount o f c arbon , d uring t he f orge-welding t ogether o f t he m ain e lements o f t he b lade . T his m ay h ave b een t he r esult o f t he u se o f a f luxing a gent w hich c ontained c arbon i n a f airly f inely d ispersed f orm . T he c entral p attern-welded s trip d id n ot e xhibit a ny s ign o f a ' grey-line ' p henomenon b etween t he l ight a nd d ark a reas, t he j unction s b etween w hich w ere r ather d iffuse . T he a lternate b anding o f t hese z ones m ay h ave b een t he r esult o f f orging o ut , f olding , a nd f orging o ut a gain o f as ingle p iece o f w rought i ron o f a s imilarly v ariable c omposition t o b oth t he b ack a nd c utting e dge o f t he b lade . A r epetition o f t his f orging p rocess ( alternatively t ermed ' p iling ' ) t wo o r t hree t imes w ould p robably , a fter a f inal t wisting , h ave b een s ufficient t o g ive t he f inal b anded e ffect v isible i n t his c ase . T he v ery v ariable c ontent a nd d istribution o f s lag a nd p earlite ( i .e . c arbon ) i n t he b ack a nd c utting e dge o f t he b lade s uggests

t hat t hese p arts i n e ach c ase c onsist o f a p iece o f

o nly r oughly c onsolidated b loom o f v ariable c arbon c ontent . ad iagram o f h ow t his b lade m ay h ave b een a ssembled.

F ig . 5 5 s hows

S9 , S cramasax , f rom t he R iver T hames , ( Table M ) , ( Museum o f L ondon , A 2 7086) . A f airly s hort, w ide , d ecorated s cramasax o r k nife w ith a s harply a ngled b ack a nd m issing a ll b ut a s mall p art o f t he t ang ( Fig . 5 1) . I t w as f ound i n t he R iver T hames a t H ampton a nd h as b een c lassified a s a W heeler T ype I V o r ' Honey L ane ' t ype o f s cramasax a nd , t herefore , p robably o f 1 0th -

1th c entury d ate ( Wheeler ,6 6 1 927, p . 1 79) . T he v isible d ecoration c onsisted o f t hree p arallel b ands o f t wisted c opper a nd b ronze o r b rass w ires i nlaid i nto t he s urface n ear , a nd p arallel t o , t he b ack . N ear t he a ngle o f t he b ack f urther s imilar t wisted p ortions o f w ire h ave b een i nlaid s o a s t o j oin t he t hree p arallel b ands t ogether .

P arallel a nd n ext t o t he

t hree b ands o f i n laid t wisted w ire o n t he s ite o f t he c utting e dge , t races o f a p attern-welded d esign w ere v isible i n t he i ron c orrosion p roducts o n t he s urface

o f

t he b lade .

I ts

l ength w as

1 9 .0 c m ,

w idth 4 . 5 c m a nd t he

m aximum t hickness a t t he b ack 0 .55 c m .

A part f rom t he n on-ferrous w ires, a r adiograph s howed u p t he p atternw elded s trip w hich w as v isible i n t he s urface c orrosion . T his p attern w as i n t he f orm o f a s ine w ave a nd s howed u p v ery s harply , s uggesting t hat t he c omposite p iece f orming t his s trip w as m ade f rom t wo p ieces e ach i nitially f orged

t o

g ive

a r ibbed

o r

c orrugated

1 35

p rofile

a long

i ts

l ength a nd

t hen

( a)

L

1 7 7

(C)

( d)

F ig . 5 5 . a t

S ection t hrough p art o f an arrow s cramasax N o . 2 2 f rom t he T hames

R eading + s urface d etail d rawn f rom X -ray a nd t hree-dimensional v iew.

1

w elded X -ray p iece

t ogether .

T he b ack o f t he b lade s howed a s traight g rain e ffect o n

b ut o therwise a ppeared t o b e o f o ne p iece , t o w hich t he c omposite w as w elded . T he s ide o f t he b lade t owards t he c utting e dge a lso

s howed s traight g raining a lthough t his w as r estricted t o h alf o f t his a rea a longside t he c omposite o r p attern-welded p iece . T his s uggests t hat t he c utting e dge h alf o f t he b lade m ay h ave b een m ade f rom t wo p ieces, a lthough t his m ust r emain j ust a p ossibility i ndicated b y t he r adiograph . S ectioning w as a ttempted a cross t he b ack h alf o f t he b lade b y a n e xisting b reak a nd i t w as h oped t hat a n e xamination o f m ost p arts o f t he b lade w ould b e p ossible b y s o d oing . U nfortunately e xcessive c orrosion i n t his a rea , p robably p romoted b y t he p resence o f t he n on-ferrous m etal i nlay w ork , m eant t hat o nly a s mall p art o f m etal w as f ound s urviving r ight a t t he b ack o f t he b lade . T his p iece p roved t o c onsist o f av ery c oarse w rought i ron w ith m uch s lag i n i t . F ig . 5 6 s hows t he s ection a fter e tching w ith n ital . T he v ery l arge g rain s tructure o f t he f errite s hows u p a nd t he d ark p atches a re a c ombination o f s lag i nclusions a nd c orrosion s urrounding t hem . T his s hows u p b etter a t h igher m agnification when t he v arying s ize a nd i rregular s hape o f t he s lag i nclusions c an b e s een . T hey c an a lso b e s een t o c onsist o f t wo m edium-dark g rey p hases , p robably f ayalite a nd a g lassy m atrix . A lso p resent a re s tress l ines o r N eumann b ands w hich i ndicate t hat s ome f inal c old h ammering t ook p lace , a lthough n ot e nough t o d istort t he f errite g rains . A s eries o f h ardness v alues r anging b etween 7 5 H V a nd 9 8 H V w ere o btained , w hich a re f airly t ypical o f a s oft f airly p ure w rought i ron . T he m etal u sed h ere f or t he b ack o f t he b lade a ppears t o b e a p oor q uality p iece o f w rought i ron , w ith m uch s lag , l ittle m ore t han a r oughly c onsolidated p iece o f b loom .

S3 4, S cramasax , f ound i n t he R iver T hames a t t he o ld f ord a t K empsford, G loucestershire . ( Swindon M useum , N o . 7 90308). ( Table M ). T he f airly s traight c utting o dge a nd t he s harply a ngled b ack a llow t his b lade t o b e g rouped a s o ne o f t he v ariants o f t he W heeler S cramasax T ype I V o r H oney L ane t ype w hich h ave b een d ated a pproximately t o t he 1 0th/11th c enturies . ( Fig . 5 1).

T he len gth was 2 4 .6 c m a nd t he w idth 2 .0 c m .

T he

b lade s urface h ad b een f airly h eavily e tched b y c orrosion a lthough t he m etallic c ore h ad s urvived w ell . D ifferent p arts o f t he s urface h ad e tched o r c orroded p referentially s o a s t o r eveal a c hevron p attern f ormed b y t wo t wisted c omposite r ods w elded s ide b y s ide ( these t wo b ands r an d own t he c entral p art o f t he b lade o n e ither s ide) . T he d irection i n w hich t he c hevron p attern p ointed r eversed o n e ach s ide s o t hat i t w as i mpossible t o d educe w hether o r n ot t wo s imilar p airs o f t wisted c omposite s trips h ad b een w elded b ack t o b ack . Two o ffset V -shaped s ections b lade . W hen v iewed u netched , b oth f ine , b roken l ines o f s mall s lag s ection a nd m arked t he p ositions o f b lade .

I t

a ppeared

t hat

w ere c ut f rom t he c entral a rea o f t he s ections s howed d istinct a lthough f airly s pots a nd r ibbons w hich r an a cross t he w elds b etween t he d ifferent . p arts o f t he

t he c entral p art o f

t wo t wisted c omposite r ods w elded s ide-by-side .

t he b lade c onsisted o f

j ust

T he b ack a rea s howed o nly

af ew s mall s lag i nclusions w hile t he c entral , c omposite p arts o f t he b lade c ontained r ather v arying a mounts o f i nclusions w hich w ere u neven i n b oth s ize a nd d istribution . T he a rea o f t he c utting e dge c ontained m uch 2 a nd 3 p hase s lag i nclusions a nd v arying f rom s mall s pots t o l arge i rregular i nclusions .

T hese w ere g rouped m ainly t owards t he c entre o f t his a rea w ith

1 37

( a)

( b)

L I

5mm

F ig . 5 6 . S ection t hrough a n arrow s cramasax N o . H ampton , M iddlesex .

9 f rom t he T hames a t

)

-

( b)

F ig .

-

numa rr n b ands 5mm

5 7 .

S ection t hrough a s cramasax N o . 3 4 f rom t he T hames a t K empsford .

t he c oncentration o f

s lag

b eing m uch l ower a long t he m argins

t owards t he

s urface a nd t he t ip o f t he c utting e dge . W hen e tched w ith n ital t he s tructure o f t he t wo s ections s howed u p q uite c learly a nd t heir a ppearance w as q uite s triking a s c an b e s een i n t he m acrograph o f F ig . 5 7b . T he e xplanatory d iagram i n F ig . 5 7a s hows t he s tructure v isible o n t he m acrograph i n s implified f orm . T he b lade c ould n ow q uite c learly b e s een t o b e o f f our p arts , ac utting e dge p iece ( a),

t wo c omposite p ieces ( b) a nd ( c),

a nd ( c) a nd ( d)

w ere

m arked b y d ark g rey l ines o f p earlite , w ith a v ery a cicular a ppearance , s uperimposed u pon t he b roken l ines o f s lag s pots w hich w as a ll t hat h ad i ndicated t he w eld p osition b efore e tching . F aint t races o f as imilar l ine o f p earlite w ere j ust v isible a mongst t he s lag s pots a long t he w eld j unction b etween p arts ( a) a nd ( b). T he c utting e dge p art ( a ) m ostly s howed u p a s ap ale a rea o f f errite o f av ariable m edium t o l arge g rain s ize , w ith m uch s lag i n t he c entral a rea . An arrow d iffuse p ale g rey m argin o f p earlite l ay a long a nd j ust i nside t he w eld l ine b ut t he c arbon c ontent o f t his m argin was c learly v ery l ow p robably l ess t han 0 . 1% . A g rey a rea o f v ery a cicular p earlite o ccupied -

t he a rea o f t he t ip o f t he c utting e dge . m artensite-like a ppearance a nd would a ppear

I t e xhibited a n a lmost t o r epresent a q uenched

s tructure i n a n a rea w hose c arbon c ontent w as t oo l ow t o g ive a m artensitic s tructure u nder t he c onditions i n w hich t he q uenching t ook p lace . T he c arbon c ontent i s d ifficult t o e stimate b ut i s p robably u n likely t o b e m ore t han a bout 0 . 1 0 . 27 T he p resence o f t he m argin o f p earlite n ear t he w eld , a s w ell a s t hat o f t he t ip , m ay i ndicate t hat t his p art o f t he b lade w as p artially c arburised b efore t he f inal a ssembly o f t he b lade . A t t he w eld s ome d ecarburisation a ppears t o h ave t aken p lace , h ence t he p ale z one -

b etween t he g rey m argin a nd

t he w eld .

I f s urface c arburisation d id t ake

p lace t hen t he c orresponding p earlitic a reas

t hat m ight h ave b een e xpected

t o b e v isible o n t he u pper a nd l ower s urface a reas o f t he c utting e dge , m ust h ave t o b e r emoved e ither b y d ecarburisation l ess l ikely s ince t he p earlitic a rea a t t he t ip s urvived o r b y s urface g rinding a fter t he f inal f orging o f t he b lade . T here w as n o e vidence t hat t he t ip m ight h ave b een -

-

w elded a s a s eparate p iece i nto t he c utting e dge . T he a cicular a ppearance i ndicates a W idmanst tten d istribution o f p earlite i n f errite. T he c omposite p arts ( b ) a nd ( c ) b oth s howed u p a s a d istorted s andwich s tructure, i n e ach c ase m ade u p o f t hree w hite a nd t hree g rey b ands. T he p earlite o f t he g rey b ands w aE o f am edium g rain s ize a nd h ad a v ery a cicular a ppearance s imilar t o t hat o f t he t hick g rey l ines o f p earlite m arking t he w eld j unction b etween ( b ) , ( c ) a nd ( d ) . T hese g rey p earlitic z ones c ontained o nly a l ittle s lag . A llowing f or t he p resence o f t he p earlite t he c arbon c ontent o f t hese b ands w as p robably n o m ore t han 0 . 1 -

0 .2%. T he

w hite

z ones

c onsisted

m ainly

o f

v ery

l arge

g rained

f errite w ith

q uite a l ot o f s lag m ostly a s s mall b lobs a nd p artially f lattened r ibbons b ut w ith f ew l arger i nclusions . N eumann b anding w as a lso v isible i n t he -

f errite g rains w hich w ould i ndicate s ome c old w orking . T he j unction b etween p earlitic a nd f erritic a reas s howed u p v ery s harply a nd a lthough t here w ere a lmost n o t ell-tale l ines o f s lag s pots t hese m ust

1 39

i ndicate

weld

l ines.

T he

s harp

d istinctions

d ecarburisation o r c arbon d iffusion a cross t he w eld c ontrast

t he

p earlite

a ctually

a ppears

d enser

a long

s how

n o

s ign

j unction,

m ost

p arts

o f

b ut b y

o f

t hese

b oundaries . T hese d enser m argins o f p earlite m ay h ave b een p resent a s a s imilar p henomenon a s t he g rey l ines o f p earlite o bserved a long t he w elds b etween a reas ( b), ( c) a nd ( d) b ut h ave b een l ess o bvious b ecause o f t he m asking e ffect o f t he a djoining g rey p earlite b ands. T he

b ack p art

( d)

o f

t he b lade

s howed

a s

a f airly

e ven

l ow

s lag

d istribution o f a cicular g rey p earlite a nd f errite p robably r epresenting a c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 .2% , s lightly h igher t han i n t he g rey b ands o f ( b ) a nd ( c ) . N ear t he s urface o f t he b ack a rea t he p earlite a nd f errite h ad p artially s egregated i nto n arrow b ands, g iving a k ind o f w ood g rain e ffect o n t he s ection . T his m ay h ave b een t he r esult o f a s mall a rea , l ocally r ich i n p hosphorus c ausing t he s egregation , t he b anding b eing c reated b y t he f orging o ut o f t his s trip o r b ar o f m etal b efore t he f inal a ssembly o f t he b lade . T he t ip o f t he c utting e dge ( a ) g ave a h ardness o f 2 04 H V , w hereas t he i nner , i ron , p art g ave a h ardness o f 1 25 H V . O n e ach o f t he b ands o f p ale , v ery l arge g rain f errite a nd g rey f errite + p earlite i n t he p attern-welded p iece ( b ) a nd t wo e ach o f t hese b ands i n p attern-welded p iece ( c ) w ere g iven h ardness t ests w ith t he f ollowing r esults : ( b ) v ery l arge g rain f errite 2 61 H V , ( b ) f errite a nd p earlite 1 44 M V ; ( c ) v ery l arge g rain f errite 2 30 a nd 2 34 H V ; ( c ) f errite a nd p earlite 1 28 a nd 1 39 H V . T he m uch h igher v alues f or t he v ery l arge g rain f errite b ands p robably i ndicates a h igh p hosphorus c ontent f or t hese p ale b ands . T he b ack p art ( d) o f t he b lade g ave a h ardness o f 1 65 H V . T he b lade a ppears t o h ave b een o f f our p arts, a b ack p iece ( d ) o f f airly h omogeneous c arbon s teel ,

t wo t wisted

c omposite o r p attern-welded r ods

c onsisting o f a lternate b ands o f h igh p hosphorus ( pale) a nd l ow c arbon i ron ( grey ),

a nd a c utting e dge p iece o f p artially c arburised w rought i ron .

T he c utting e dge m ust h ave b een p artly g round d own a t t he s ides f urther e vidence o f c arburisation w hich m ight h ave b een e xpected .

r emoving

S4 , f rom D orset ( ? ) . ( Dorset C ounty M useum) . ( Table M ) . A s cramasax w ith a n a ngled b ack a nd a g ently c urved c utting e dge ( Fig . 5 1) . I t a ppeared t o b e f airly l ightly a nd e venly c orroded w ith a g ood m etallic c ore , h owever , t he s urface c orrosion l ayer w as q uite t hick a nd m asked w hat l ay b eneath . T he c ondition w as f airly t ypical o f f inds f rom r iverbeds o r o ther w aterlogged e nvironments , a lthough t he f ind s ite i s n ot k nown .

I ts l ength

i s 3 1 .6 c m w ith a m aximum w idth o f 3 .3 . c m a nd i n s hape i t i s s imilar t o t he W heeler T ype 1 11/1V s cramasax f ound a t W althamstow d ated t o t he 9 th 1 0th c enturies a nd s o a sg iilar d ate m ay b e l ikely h ere . T his s pecimen h as b een -

d iscussed e lsewhere . A r adiograph s howed t he b lade t o b e o f f airly c omplex c onstruction a nd t o b e p attern w elded . A d ouble b and e ach s ide s howing a c lear d iagonal g rain p attern r an d own t he b lade f rom t he t ang p arallel t o t he u pper p art o f t he b ack a nd m eeting t he s urface o f t he l ower p art o f t he b ack n ear t he a ngle . T he a bsence o f a ny c riss-crossing i n t his p attern s howed t hat t wo p airs o f s imilar t wisted c omposite r ods h ad b een w elded b ehind o ne a nother . O n t he r adiograph t he d ouble d iagonal p attern w as o utlined o n e ither s ide b y a n arrow s trip w hich s howed u p a s traight g rained e ffect . T he r emaining a reas , t he n arrow m argin b y t he u pper p art o f t he b lade a nd t he w ider a rea

1 40

b y t he c utting e dge s howed l ittle o r n o s igns o f g raining . s eparate p arts t o t he b lade w ere i ndicated b y t he r adiograph .

A t l east 8

T wo w edge s haped s ections w ere c ut f rom t he b lade , o ne f rom t he b ack a nd o ne f rom t he c utting e dge , t he c uts b eing s taggered s o a s t o g ive a n o verall c omposite t ransverse s ection w ithout c utting t he b lade i n h alf o r losing t oo m uch s trength . T he s ection f rom t he b ack w as t aken 1 0 c m d own f rom t he h ilt o r s houlder a nd t he s ection f rom t he c utting e dge a bout 3 c m f urther d own t he b laae . U netched a v ery l ow s lag c ontent s howed a lthough m any c orrosion p its w ere v isible . A fter e tching w ith n ital , a v ery c lear s tructure s howed ( Fig . 5 8) a nd t he b lade c ould b e s een t o h ave b een m ade u p o f 8m ain c omponents , ( a ) ( h ) i n F ig . 5 8 a . T he e dge p art ( a) g ave a r ather b anded a ppearance w ith d arker b ands c onsisting m ainly o f d ense , m ostly u nresolvable p earlite , w ith -

s ome f errite i nterleaved w ith p aler b ands , p redominantly o f m artensite , w ith s ome p earlite . T here w ere n o o bvious s igns o f w elds b etween t he b ands b ut as kilfully w elded p iled s tructure w ould s eem m ost p robable f or t he p iece , p robably o riginally o f h igh c arbon s teel a nd w rought i ron p arts w elded , f orged o ut a nd s ubjected t o f airly p rolonged h eating a lthough n ot f or l ong e nough t o g ive a h omogeneous m edium c arbon s teel ( Fig . 5 8 ca nd d ) . T he c arbon c ontent w as d ifficult t o e stimate b ut p robably v aries b etween a bout 0 .4 0 .6% . -

T he p ale e tched ' plain ' p ieces ( b) a nd ( g) h ad b een welded t o e ither s ide o f t he p attern w elded z one a nd t hey e ach c onsisted o f v ery l arge g rained f errite . T he p attern w elded c ore c onsisted o f f our t wisted c omposite r ods ( c ) a nd ( f ) , w elded s ide b y s ide a nd b ack t o b ack a s s hown in F ig . 5 8 . T he v ery l arge , r oughly d iamond s haped , c orrosion p it v isible i n F ig . 5 8 o ccupies t he p osition o f av ery l arge 3 p hase s lag i nclusion ( of w i istite , f ayalite i n a g lassy m atrix ) , s ome o f w hich s till s urvived a nd I s j ust v isible I n F ig . 5 8 . T his v ery l arge i nclusion w as t rapped i n t he c entre o f t he p attern w elded p art o f t he b lade w hen t he f our c omposite c omponents w ere w elded t ogether . T he c omposite p ieces ( c ) a nd ( f ) c onsisted o f a lternate p ale b ands o f v ery l arge g rain f errite a nd d arker g rey b ands o f s mall g rain f errite p lus a l ittle p earlite a t m ost , g iving a c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 . 1 0 .2% i . e . -

t he whole o f t he p attern w elded p art o f t he b lade , a s w ell a s t he a djacent s trips a ppeared t o c onsist m ainly o f w rought i ron w ith s ome f airly l ow c arbon i ron i n t he g rey b ands o f t he p attern w elded p ieces. T he b ack p art ( h) c onsisted o f a p iece o f f airly h igh c arbon s teel, p robably i n t he r egion o f 0 .5 0 .77 . . F ig . 5 8b s hows i ts r ather p atchy a ppearance v arying b etween p aler a reas o f m artensite a nd d arker a reas o f -

f ine g rain v irtually i rresolvable p earlite w ith s ome f errite. T he e dge p art ( a) was g iven f our h ardness t ests, t hree f rom t he m artensitic a reas a nd t he o ther f rom o ne o f t he d ense p earlitic a reas . T he f irst t hree g ave v alues o f 7 75 , 5 55 a nd 6 47 H V a nd t he f ourth a h ardness o f 3 18 H V . T he t wo p ale e tched, v ery l arge g rain p arts ( b) a nd ( g) g ave h ardnesses o f 2 30 a nd 2 10 H V .

T he d arker,

g rey l ower c arbon i ron o f

p attern w elded p arts ( d ) , ( e ) a nd ( f) g ave h ardnesses o f 1 84 , 1 85 a nd 1 52 1 V r espectively . O ne o f t he m artensitic a reas o f t he b ack p art ( h) g ave a h ardness o f 6 47 H V a nd o ne o f t he f ine g rain p earlitic a reas g ave 3 11 H V . T he c omparatively h igh v alues f or a ll t he v ery l arge g rain f errite a reas i n p art ( b) a nd ( g) p robably i ndicates a h igh p hosphorus c ontent.

1 41

( a)

M ( b)

( c)

? we lds \\ \\\ \\ -

oros ion a round s l ag

M

5mm F ig . 5 8 .

S ection t hrough s cramasax N o . 4 f rom D orset

14 9

(e)

Fig. 58 (continued)

40mm

-

J

Surface view drawn from X-ray and three-dimensional reconstruction.

0

�RffilffiHMHUlffi!ffi�:��

A fter

f inal a ssembly ,

w elding t ogether a nd f orging o ut ,

t he b lade w as

q uenched, a lthough n ot e fficiently e nough t o g ive a f ully m artensitic m icrostructure t o t he s teel p arts ( a) a nd ( h) . T he s tructure d oes, h owever , a ppear t o b e q uite e ven , w hich m ay be in d ic a t i ve o f a de l ib e rate s lower

o r

' s lack '

q uench .

( n) D aggers a nd K ris S hort, p iercing w eapons, n eed t o b e e ven l ess r n etallographically s ophisticated t han l ong s lashing w eapons l ike s cramasaxes a nd s words a nd w e a re n ot s urprised t o f ind t he R oman e xample i s m ade o f w rought i ron . U nfortunately , t he s ample w as v ery l imited i n t his g roup , a nd t he o ther e xamples , t wo M alaysian k ris , a re r ather e xotic w ith t heir w avy p atternw elded b lades . C learly t he p attern w as m eant t o b e s een , b ut l ike t he A nglo-Saxon s word , w e w onder i f t he p attern f ulfilled a ny p hysical p urpose , a part f rom b eing a b y-product o f t he f orging p rocess. T he R oman s ite a t B rancaster p roduced a d agger b lade .

A s egment w as

r emoved f rom o ne e dge . I t w as e ntirely f erritic w ith v ariable g rain s ize . I t c ontained s ome v ery l arge , l ightly w orked , s lag i nclusions a nd s ome s lag s tringers . T here w as s ome c arbide f ilms ( cementite) i n s ome o f t he g rain b oundaries . T he c arbon c ontent w ould b e a bout 0 .05% C which a grees w ith t he h ardness o f 19 H V. C learly , af airly p ure i ron . A v ery d ifferent f orm o f d agger i s t he M alayan k ris . O ne o f t he t wo e xamined p robably d ates f rom t he 1 7th c entury . T his h as b een m ade t o g ive ap attern-welded s tructure ( Fig. 5 9, T I). A s ection f rom t he t ip m easured 2 .5 x 1 .5 mm ( Fig . 6 0a) .

I t c onsisted

o f ac entral b and o f f errite + p earlite 0 .5 m m t hick c ontaining a bout 0 .5% C w ith a W idmanst tten d istribution . T he h ardness w as 1 97 H V1 w hich i s r easonable f or t his c arbon c ontent a nd w ould n ot i ndicate h igh p hosphorus . T he p earlite w as r ather m ore s pheroidal t han l amellar a nd f airly c oarse . T he c entral b and w as b ordered f errite a nd s lag ( Fig . 6 0a a nd b ) .

o n e ither s ide b y a p iled s tructure o f T he f errite h ad a h ardness o f 1 56 H V1 .

T he p iling n ear t he c entre i s f iner t han o n t he o utside a nd t he f errite b ands w ere f ound t o a lternate , w ith c ontinuous l ines o f h igh-nickel i ron . T hese a re c ertainly h arder t han t he f errite m atrix , i . e . g reater t han 3 00 H V ( 50g) c ompared w ith 2 10 H V ( 50g). A n

e lectron

p robe

s can

f rom

t he h igh

c arbon c ore a cross s ome

o f

t he

l aminations g ave t he r esults s hown i n F ig . 6 1 , w hich s hould b e c ompared w ith t he p hotomicrograph . B oth s how b ands w hich t end t o d ecrease i n f requency t owards t he o uter s urface . T he b ands a re 5 1 5 f An t hick a nd t he f erritic ide . T he n ickel c ontent o f t he b ands i s o f a reas b etween a re 2 0 6 0 4m w -

-

t he o rder o f 2

-

3 % .

T hese b ands a re v ery l ike

t he w hite l ines i n t he G oitho k nife a nd t he

z ones i n C hilton 's w rought i ron .

I n b oth c ases t hese a re m ost p robably

d ue t o s urface e nrichment d uring o xidation p rior t o f olding a nd p iling . I n t he c ase o f t he k ris t hey a re c ertain ly h arder t han t he f erritic m atrix ( 3 00 H V ) a nd w ould a ppear t o c ontain s ome m artensite .

1 44

S ince t he c ore h as

E

0 0

0

H

1 45

(b) "

F ig .

( c ) 6 0 .

s ection

P hotomicrographs

o f

( h) N ear c ore, X 1 00

s tructure

o f

O.t b rf lPY

M alayan K ris ;

( c) s ame, X 4 00.

1 46

T .I.

( a )

W hole

E l e c t r o n p r o b e s c a n a c r o s b l a d e , T . 1 , s h o w i n g v a r i a t i o n i n i c k e l

0

a

1 47

n ot b een q uenched , i t i s w hich w ould b e e xpected a nd 0 . ¼C . A s econd k ris

( S57,

p ossible t hat t he b ands a re a ir-hardened s teel , i f t he c omposition w as i n t he r ange 3 5 % N i -

T 2 i n F ig .

5 9b ) t hought

t o b e 1 9th o r 2 0th c entury

was l oaned f or e xamination b y D r . I an C lover o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology , U niversity o f L ondon . I t i s a t ypical e xample o f ap atternw elded S E A sian b lade 4 6 .2 c m l ong a nd n ot u nlike t he p revious e xample . B ut t he l ower p art o f t he b lade w as r ather p itted b y c orrosion , w hile t he u pper p art s howed t he t ypical ' r elief m ap ' s tructure . A n arrow w edge-shaped s ection w as r emoved f rom t he f lared s houlder o f t he h ilt p art o f t he b lade a nd w hen e tched t he s tructure s hown I n F ig . 6 2 b ecame c learly v isible . I t w as c lear t hat t he s ection c onsisted o f f our p arts w elded t ogether ( Fig . 6 2) . P art ( a ) f ormed t he c utting e dge a s w ell a s t he c ore o f t he b lade a nd a s i n t he p revious c ase c onsisted o f a p iece o f h omogeneous h igh c arbon s teel , t his was well-spheroidised p earlite, w ith f errite , i ndicating a c arbon c ontent o f a bout 0 .6 0 . 7% a nd h aving a h ardness o f 1 89 H V . T he c entral -

p iece

( b)

c onsisted

o f

a lternate

p ale

b ands

o f

f errite

i nterleaved

w ith

f errite a nd p earlite . I n t his a rea t he c arbon c ontent w as l ow , 0 . 1 0 . 2% . T his p art s uggested a p iled s tructure o f a lternate b ands o f i ron a nd l ow -

c arbon s teel r epeated s everal t imes

( Fig .

6 2) .

T he s urface s howed a s imilar b anded s tructure a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t his b anded s tructure i s a ccentuated b y b eing m ade o f l aminations o f h igh a nd l ow n ickel i ron , f ormed e ither b y o xidation e nrichment d uring f orging , o r b y h igh n ickel s teel . N o f urther w ork w as d one t o d ecide w hich p rocess , i f a ny, w as i nvolved. T he c utting e dge w as f ormed b y g rinding a way o ne s ide o f t he a ssembled p ieces a fter t hey w ere welded t ogether .

T he r esults o f t his o blique

g rinding o n e ither s ide w as t hat t he c ore p art ( a ) , w as e xposed t o f orm t he c utting e dge a nd w hatever f inal p olishing a nd e tching t hat w as d one t o t he b lade ,

c aused t he c haracteristic ' c ontour m ap ' p attern t o b e e xposed .

D uring a nd a fter t he f inal f orging a nd b efore

t his

f inal g rinding a nd

f inishing , t he b lade m ust h ave b een s ubjected t o p rolonged h eating , f ollowed b y s low c ooling , w hich l eft t he s teel c ore o f t he b lade i n a r elatively s oft s pheroidised

s tate .

T his

m ay h ave

b een p art

o f a d eliberate t oughening .

p rocess.

( p)

S words T he

s words e xamined i n t his s ection b elong m ostly t o

p eriod i .e .

m ostly f rom t he 6 th t o t he

1th c entury .

T he

t he A nglo-Saxon r eason f or t he

c omparative f requency o f t he e arlier s words I s t hat most c ome f rom I nhumation b urials i n l arge c emeteries a t at ime w hen i t w as t he c ustom t o b ury t he d ead w ith t heir w eapons a nd b adges o f o ffice . s words r ivers

-

o f t his p eriod a re t he r esult o f t here a re m any f rom t he T hames

-

Many o f t he l ater

( probable ) r itual d eposition I n a nd m arshes . H ere t he l ack o f

o xygen i n t he b ottom m uds h ave l ed t o r educed o xidation a nd g ood p reservation . T his p ractice i s f ound d uring t he l ater R oman p eriod a nd b ecame c ommon i n t his c ountry i n t he L ate S axon p eriod .

1 48

( a) P . s -F

C

I

8 9

5 m

( b)

( c)

F ig.

6 2.

S ection t hrough K ris N o. 5 7.

Ihn

( T2).

T oday , a fter f inding, i t i s t he n ormal p ractice t o r adiograph m ost w eapons a nd t his s hould r eveal t he u se o f p attern w elding . A s t his m ethod o f c onstruction i s r evealed b efore s ectioning b y c orrosion a long t he s mithed w elds , an ew s word s uch a s a r eplica w ill n ot s how i t . A lso a b lade t hat h as r usted w ithin i ts s cabbard m ay n ot s how p attern w elding v ery c learly , e ither b ecause c orrosion h as b een r educed b y t he p resence o f t he s cabbard , o r b ecause t he n on—ferrous m etal o f t he s cabbard o bscures t he p attern o n t he b lade. I n 1 00g .

t his

s ection a ll

t he

h ardness

r eadings

S 3 2 . S word, P rovenance U ncertain ;

w ere

( Reading

t aken w ith a l oad o f

Museum,

1 31:61).

T he

s urviving b lade f ragment o f a s hort s word w hich w as b roken , j ust b elow t he h ilt ( Fig . 6 3) T able N . I ts v ery d istinctive l eaf—shaped b lade i s v ery s imilar i n s hape a nd s ize ( Its l ength b eing 3 8 .6 c m a nd i ts w idth 3 .7 c m ) t o l eaf—shaped s word b lades o f t he l ate B ronze A ge . T he c ondition o f t he b lade w as v ery c haracteristic o f r iver f inds o f i ron t hat h ave b een i mmersed a nd a t l east p artially b uried i n s ediments f or a l ong t ime . P arts o f t he b lade s urvived w ith o nly a l ittle s urface p itting whilst o ther p arts, p articularly I n t he c entre , h ad b een c orroded a lmost r ight t hrough a nd t he c orrosion a ppeared t o h ave s pread s lowly o utwards f rom f ocal p oints, a ttacking d ifferent p arts w ithin t he b lade s electively , s o a s t o r eveal w hat a ppeared t o b e a d istinctly l ayered s tructure t o t he b lade . T here a ppears t o b e n o p articular r eason t o d oubt t hat t his b lade i s a nything o ther t han a n e arly I ron A ge c opy o f a l ate B ronze A ge f orm o f s word .

T ransitional

B ronze A ge/Iron A ge o bjects , f orged f rom b loomery m etal s o a s t o l ook l ike t raditional f orms , p reviously o nly m ade f rom c ast b ronze , a re r are , b ut h ave b een f ound f rom t ime t o t ime. A V —shaped

t ransverse s ection e xtending j ust o ver h alf w ay a cross t he

w idth w as c ut f rom t he c entral , w ider , p art o f t he b lade ( Fig . 6 4) . W hen v iewed u netched , i ±e a reas o f t he s ection n earer t he s urface o f t he b lade g ave a s triated a ppearance , c aused b y m any b roken l ines o f s lag r ibbons a nd s pots, w hich r an p arallel t o t he s urface o n e ither s ide . c orrosion h ad

t aken

p lace

a round

s ome

o f

t he

l arger

F airly e xtensive

f lattish

i nclusions .

T he s lag w as m ostly t wo p hase , l ight a nd d ark ( wüstite a nd f ayalite ) i n a ppearance . T he c entral a rea o f t he s ection w as f airly s lag—free w ith o nly af ew s mall f lattened s lag I nclusions p resent . W hen e tched w ith n ital ,

t hree f airly c lear z ones w ere v isible ,

b ut a s

c an b e s een i n t he m acrograph o f F ig . 6 4 t he d ivisions b etween t hese z ones w ere r ather b lurred . T he d iagram o f F ig . 6 4 s hows a s implified v iew o f t his s tructure. M ost o f t he u pper h alf o f t he s ection v isible I n t he n i acrograph w as o ccupied b y z one ( a ) w hich c onsisted o f v ery l arge g rained f errite , w ith m uch t wo p hase s lag ( see a bove ) d istributed a s p arallel b roken l ines a long t he l ength o f t he s ection . T his b anded o r s triated a ppearance i s s uggestive t hat t he z one o r p iece ( a) w as p iled a s well a s e xtensively f orged b efore t he f inal a ssembly o f t he b lade .

A l ittle p earlite o ccurs i n

p laces a long t he s lag l ines a nd a lso n ear t he j unction w ith a rea ( b) w here i t i s p robably a r esult o f c arbon d iffusion f rom ( b ) t o ( a) d uring t he f inal f orging o f t he b lade .

1 50

P os it ions

o f s ec t ions

s ca le b ars 1 0cm

S i

S7

38

S b F

' .

S 12

S 13

S 14

Fig.

6.

O utlines o f s words s howing p ositions o f s ections.

1 1

S 15

I

S 16

S 17 /

S 18

S 19

S20

S23

S24

b F ig. 6 3(2).

15 2

2 1

S25

S 26

S 27

S28

S 29

I S30

S3 1

S32

l ig. 6 3(3).

S 39

S40

< Z � S 4 1

S 43

S 44

5 45

S 46

-

S 47

F ig. 6 3(4).

4

S48

S 49

S 5 1

S52

C : : :_ -

-

S53

S54 ' 1

S 5

S56

) F ig. 6 3(5).

5 5

-

-

N 1

-

L4

L e)

I — 1 . 0 00

4 J

( )

c

N N -

co

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+

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PL4

PL 4

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c x .

F + P / 1 5 6 1 8 9

-

N N I I C C

4

N

—

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F + P / 2 0 2 1

F + P / 1 7 1 2 3 0

o f S w o r d s .

N

4 ) 1 . ) N -

N

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-

44

'I ON I

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C Y N L I

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tf l

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2 46

0

S umming u p w e c an s ay t hat a s w eapons t hese s words w ere ,

i n t he m ain ,

l ittle b etter t han t hose w hich h ad p roceeded t hem a nd t hey w ere m ostly n ot a s g ood a s t he e venly c arburised s teel o f t he R oman p eriod s patha f rom W hittlesey . T he

t wo

M iddle

S axon

s word b lades

s how c ertain c hanges

i n s tyle a nd

t echniques o f m anufacture f rom t he e arlier b lades . T hey a re t he e arliest e xamples s een i n t his s tudy o f b lades w ith a c entral g roove o r f uller d own e ach s ide a nd t he f ullers h ere w ere r ather w ide a nd s hallow . B oth t hese b lades were p attern-welded , t he p attern-welded p arts o ccupying t he f ull w idth o f t he f uller . T he R eading b lade ( S .31) s hows a T ype V f orm o f p attern-welding v ery s imilar t o t hat s een o n e arlier b lades w hereas t he B rentford

b lade

( S .46)

s hows

a v ariant

o f

T ype

I V

p attern-welded

c onstruction where i nstead o f b eing j ust a c ombination o f w rought i ron p ieces t he c entral u ntwisted ' composite ' p art w as a r od o f h igher c arbon s teel which w as p robably p iled a nd s et ' on e dge ' ( see a lso p attern-welding b elow) . T he e dges o f b oth b lades s howed a more a dvanced t echnique o f c onstruction t han s een o n n early a ll t he e arlier b lades . I n b oth c ases a s andwich c onstrucion h ad b een u sed , t he R eading b lade s howing I n a s ection a s a k nife T ype 1 /2 a nd t he B rentford b lade a T ype I . T he e dge o f t he R eading b lade w as r ather c urious i n t hat i t h ad a p iece s andwiched b etween p ieces o f i ron w ith a n a dditional c arbon s teel a lso w elded i n b etween t o f orm t he v ery e dge . T he B rentford b lade h ad b een g iven a n

o f l ow c arbon s teel n arrow r od o f h igh t ip o f t he c utting e dge w hich was a

s traightforward s andwich o f a m edium-carbon s teel p iece b etween t wo i ron p ieces. B oth s word b lades h ad b een q uenched , p robably i n w ater t o j udge f rom t he m ore o r l ess f ully m artensitic s tate o f t he s teel p arts , a nd t he B rentford b lade h ad a lso b een l ightly t empered , t he e arliest e xample o f t his t echnique f ound amongst t he b lades i n t his s tudy .

A lthough o nly t wo s word-blades o f

t his p eriod w ere e xamined , a lready w e a re s eeing a m uch h igher s tandard o f m anufacture f or ( what s eem n ow) o utwardly s imilar b lades t han w e h ave s een f or t he s word b lades o f t he E arly S axon p eriod . W e n ow s ee t he e conomical u se o f s teel t o g ive f ully h ardened e dges, i n t he r ange 6 47-775 H V . T he h ardened s teel s pine a nd e dges o f t he B rentford b lade c ombined w ith t he d uctility o f t he o ther , m ainly w rought i ron c omponents , h ave p roduced a •v ery s trong b lade c ombining m uch o f t he n ormally mutually e xclusive q ualities o f h ardness a nd f lexibility .

T he i deal a im o f t he s word-smith ,

a t l east w here a f unctional w eapon w as c oncerned , m ust h ave b een t o p roduce ab lade w hich w ould n ot b end o r b reak e asily b ut o ne w ith h ard , s harp e dges . T he R eading b lade I s b etter t han p revious e xamples a nd t he B rentford s word a m uch b etter w eapon a gain , g oing a g ood w ay t oward a chieving t his a im . T here n ow

s eems

l ittle d oubt t hat i n t his c ountry m ost s words o f t he

A nglo-Saxon p eriod u p t o t he 9 th c entury w ere p attern-welded . D uring t he L ate S axon p eriod h owever , t his t echnique o f m anufacture b ecomes l ess c ommon f or s word b lades a nd c eases t o b e u sed f or t hese p ossibly e arly i n 1th c entury, a lthough l t c ontinued t o b e u sed I n s cramasaxes o r k nives f or l onger . E xamples h ave r ecently b een f ound ( but n ot y et p ublished) i n t he C ity o f L ondon f rom c ontexts d ated t o t he l ater 1 2th c entury . A n ew t ype o f s word b lade e merged d uring t his p eriod , o ne w ith a n on p attern-welded b lade , i nto w hich a n I nscription o r d esign m ade o f s mall p attern-welded o r p lain p ieces o f i ron h ad b een f orged i nto t he s urface o f t he b lade , e ither o n o ne o r b oth s ides, n ear t he h ilt o f t he w eapon . I n t hese p lain b lades t he i nlayed d esign d oes n ot f orm a n i ntegral p art o f t he c onstruction .

2 47

A lthough t hese b lades , a part f rom t he i nlaid d esign , a ppear p lain o n X -ray , t hey d o n ot n ecessarily c onsist o f a h omogeneous p iece o f m etal a nd t he r esults h ere c onfirm t his . E leven s word b lades o f

t he 9 th

-

1th c enturies w ere e xamined

i n t his

s tudy a nd f ive o f t hese f ound t o b e p attern-welded . A lthough l ess c ommon t he p attern-welded e lement s howed a v ariety o f f orm s imilar t o t hat s een i n e arlier b lades a nd a gain t his p art o f t hese b lades w as m ade v ery l argely o f l ow c arbon i ron . S teel f orms a n i mportant e lement o f t he welded-on c utting e dges o f t hese f ive w eapons w ith t hree e xamples o f a s teel-cored T ype 1 k nife, s andwich ; o ne e xample o f t he o pposite, T ype 4 , i ron c ored c onstruction w ith a s teel o uter c asing , n ot s een e arlier ; a nd t he f inal e xample ( S .41 f rom t he T hames a t V auxhall) w here t he e dge w as mostly a f airly h igh c arbon s teel w ith a n arrow i ron s trip w elded d own o ne s ide . A ll f ive b lades h ad b een s ubjected t o s ome f orm o f h eat t reatment a fter f inal f orging . S lack q uenching ( possibly i n o il) m ay h ave b een u sed f or t he V auxhall b lade w hereas o f t he o ther b lades , t wo ( S .24 , S .48 ) a ppeared t o h ave b een q uenched i n water , a nd t wo h ad b een s ubjected t o t he a lmost o pposite t echnique o f p rolonged h eating o r s ub-critical a nnealing t o t oughen r ather t han h arden t he s teel o f t he e dges . T hese l ast t wo h ave m aximum h ardness v alues i n t he r ange 2 56-272 H V w hich c ompare w ith 4 90 H V f or t he V auxhall b lade a nd 5 64-647 H V f or t he w ater q uenched b lades . O nly t he V auxhall b lade g ave e vidence f or a uto-tempering . T hree o f t he r emaining s ix s words o f t his p eriod a ppeared o n X -ray t o h ave d esigns f ormed f rom s hort l engths o f t wisted r ods f orged i nto t he s urface o f b oth s ides o f t he b lades n ear t he h ilts . T hese i nlaid d esigns w ere d ifficult t o m ake o ut b ut i n e ach c ase a ppeared t o c onsist o f a s eries o f c rosses i nterleaved a nd f lanked b y v ertical l ines ( Figs . 9 1, 9 5, 9 9) . T he p arts o f t he b lades w ith d esigns w ere n ot s ampled s o t he s tructure o f t his r esidual f orm o f p attern-welding c annot b e g iven h ere . I t w ould h owever , s eem m ost l ikely t o h ave c onsisted o f al ow c arbon i ron s imilar t o t hat f ound i n t he t wisted e lements o f t he p attern-welded s words e xamined . T wo o f t hese t hree m edium-high c arbon s teel h eat t reatments . S .23 t o g ive a n e dge h ardness

i nlaid s words h ad b lades o f a f airly h omogeneous a lthough t hey h ad b een g iven q uite d ifferent f inal h ad b een q uenched , f rom a bout 7 25-750 °C , i n w ater o f 7 62 H V w hereas t he b lade S .47 h ad b een g iven a

f inal p rolonged p eriod o f s ub-critical a nnealing g iving a n e dge h ardness o f o nly 2 39 H V . T he t wo b lades w ould h ave p ossessed v ery d ifferent p roperties , t he f irst b eing v ery h ard b ut i nclined t o b e b rittle w hich m ay e xplain h ow i t c ame t o b e b roken ,

w hereas

t he o ther b lade w ould h ave

b een m uch m ore

d uctile , a lthough i ts e dges w ould h ave b een i nclined t o b lunt m ore e asily . T he s word f rom B rentford p robably p ossessed t he b est o verall q ualities o f t hese i nscribed b lades . T he f ullered p art o f o ne s ide c onsisted o f w rought i ron w hich h ad b een w elded t o a p iece o f l ow c arbon s teel w hich f ormed t he f ullered p art o n t he o ther s ide o f t he b lade . H igh c arbon s teel e dges h ad b een s carf w elded t o t his d uplex c ore . H ardnesses r anged b etween 3 25 H V f or t he h igh c arbon e dge t o 1 57 H V f or t he f erritic h alf o f t he c ore . T he b lade a ppears t o h ave b een a ir c ooled w ithout f urther h eat t reatment . T he r emaining t hree ' plain ' s word b lades e xamined were a lso q uite d ifferent t o o ne a nother i n c onstruction .

S .7 c onsisted o f a f airly

h omogenous l ow t o m edium c arbon s teel w hich s howed a n i ncompletely q uenched s tructure , p ossibly t he r esult o f s lack q uenching , a nd g ave a n e dge h ardness o f 4 77 H V . T he s word S 8 h ad a d uplex s tructure, o ne f ace o f t he b lade c onsisting o f ah igh c arbon s teel a nd t he o ther o f wrought i ron . T he

2 48

b lade h ere h ad b een g iven a p rolonged f inal s ub-critical a nneal

-

p robably

m ore t han w as d esirable t o t oughen t he s teel . T he h ardness r ange h ere w as b etween 1 72 H V i n t he s teel h alf t o 8 1 H V i n t he f erritic h alf , av ery s oft wrought i ron . T he f inal s word o f t his g roup, S 28, i s av ery g ood e xample o f ap iled o r m ulti-decker s andwich m ethod o f c onstruction w ith i ts t wo l ayers o f l ow c arbon s teel i nterleaved b etween t hree l ayers o f m edium-

h igher c arbon s teel . T he p iled s tructure m ay e arlier h ave b een o ne o f a h igher c arbon s teel i nterleaved w ith p ieces o f l ow c arbon i ron w hich h ave b ecome e nriched w ith c arbon d uring f orging o r b y b eing k ept f or a t ime i n a n on-oxidising p art o f t he s mith 's h earth . T he b lade a ppears t o h ave b een f inally s lack q uenched t o g ive h ardness v alues o f a round 5 00 H V f or t he h igher c arbon a reas s imilar t o t he h ardness o f t he o ther a ppear t o h ave b een g iven a s imilar q uenching t reatment .

b lades

-

w hich

T he o bservations m ade o n t he e leven s words o f t he L ate S axon p eriod h ave b een d iscussed i n s ome d etail i n t his s ection b ecause o f t he g reat v ariety o f t heir f abrication m ethods w hich h as c ome t o l ight i n t his s tudy . I n s ummarising t he o verall c hanges a nd d evelopments i n s word s mithing f rom t he E arly t o L ate S axon p eriods , t wo m ain p oints a re c lear . F irst , a ll o f

t he l ater p attern-welded s word b lades ,

t he 7 th-9th c enturies ,

i ncluding t hose a scribed t o

s how a m uch h igher s tandard o f o verall m anufacture

w ith t he m ore e xtensive a nd e fficient u se o f s teel w hich w ould h ave m ade t hese s words m ore s erviceable w eapons t han t hose o f t he 5 th-7th c enturies , w hich a s we h ave s een , w ere m ostly o f l ow c arbon I ron . p attern-welded c omponents, h owever , d id n ot t hemselves

T he a ctual c hange m uch

t hroughout t he A nglo-Saxon p eriod . S econdly , t he s ame c hange i n t he s tandard o f c onstruction a nd u se o f s teel i s t rue o f t he n on-pattern-welded s words , t he e arlier s words b eing o f l ow-carbon i ron , w hile l ater o n e ither m ore o r l ess h omogeneous s teel o r q uite e laborate c ombinations o f i ron a nd s teel w ere b eing u sed a nd v arious h eat t reatments e mployed a s w ell . T he m ajor c hange a nd i mprovement i n t he s tandard o f s word-smithing , a s s een i n t he e xamples s tudied f rom t his c ountry , a ppears t o h ave t aken p lace d uring

t he

7 th-8th c enturies .

I t

i s

s urprising

t hat

E arly

S axon

s word-

s miths d id n ot s trive h arder t o p roduce b etter b lades a s t hey m ust s urely h ave b een c apable o f d oing s o . T he o nly E arly S axon s cramasax e xamined w as b y c ontrast a g ood e xample o f as teel c ased , i ron c ored b lade

-

s eemingly a

m uch m ore f unctional w eapon t han t he c ontemporary s words . I t I s p ossible t hat t he s word w as m ore o f a c eremonial w eapon a t t his t ime a nd t here m ay s imply n ot h ave b een a d emand f or t he p art o r w holly s teel w eapons w hich w ould h ave b een b oth m ore e xpensive a nd d ifficult t o m ake . T he s word m ay h ave b ecome a m ore f unctional w eapon d uring t he 7 th-9th c enturies c reating a d emand f or t he b etter q uality b lades . T he e arlier s words, w ere, p resumably , r egarded a s a dequate f or t heir p urpose , a lthough t o w hat e xtent t hey were f unctional o r c eremonial i s u nknown . T he h ardness v alues o btained f or t he e arlier b lades t end t o s uggest t hat t hese were r ather b etter a nd m ore s erviceable w eapons t han t heir p redominantly w rought i ron s tructures w ould o therwise i ndicate a lthough s till m uch i nferior t o t he l ater b lades. T hree o ther s word

b lades w ere e xamined

t o g ain s ome i dea o f h ow t he

m anufacturing t echniques m ight c ompare i n t he l ater m edieval p eriod . O ne o f t he b lades w as p ossibly e ven l ater b ut t hey d o s how a t l east t hat m ethods o f c onstruction d id v ary l ater o n . T he l ate m edieval s word f rom W allingford B ridge was m ade i n a w ay q uite d ifferent t o t he e arlier e xamples ,

i ts

t hree p ieces

o f

w rought

2 49

i ron

i nterleaved

a nd

s carf

w elded

b etween p ieces o f m edium-high c arbon s teel .

T he s econd l ate m edieval b lade

( S .28) w as p robably m ade f rom t wo p ieces o f w rought i ron s andwiched b etween t hree p ieces o f h igh c arbon s teel . I t h ad a lso b een q uenched . T he t hird b lade w as a m ore o r l ess h omogeneous m edium-high c arbon s teel . N either t he W allingford B ridge s word n or t his t hird b lade f rom S unbury W eir S tream h ad b een q uenched b ut b oth h ad b een g iven a s ub-critical a nneal t o t oughen t he s teel o f t he b lades .

P attern-welding M uch h as b een w ritten o n t he c onstruction o f t he p attern-welded s words ( France-Lanord ,8 3 A ntiens ,7 9 M aryon , S alm , 5 4 E llis-Davidson ,8 4 Y pey 93 a nd o thers) a nd t he t echnique h as b een r eproduced b y J ohn A nstee a nd d iscussed b y A nstee a nd B iek , 85 s o i t i s n ot n ecessary t o g o i nto d etails o f t he t echnique , b ut m erely t o s ummarise t he r esults w e h ave p resented h ere a nd t o d iscuss t he m ain p oints w hich a rise f rom t hese . A f orerunner o f t he p attern-welded s word c an b e s een i n a b lade f rom L lyn C errig B ach i n A nglesey , o ne o f f our s words f ound i n a h oard o f 2 nd c entury B. C . t o f irst c entury A .D . d ate 8 1 . I n t his b lade s everal r ods o f l ow c arbon i ron o r s teel h ad b een w elded t ogether s ide-by-side w ith t he welds r unning f rom s urface t o s urface, i .e . a t r ight a ngles t hrough t he t hickness o f t he b lade . T he t echnique h ad d eveloped b y t he l ate s econd c entury A. D . i nto t he m ore f amiliar f orm w ith t wisted r ods w elded s ide-bys ide t o f orm t he c ore p art o f as word b lade . A b lade l ike t his f rom S outh S hields was f ound i n 1 953 b eneath c ontexts d ated t o cA .D . 2 0084 a nd a s imilar f orm o f

p attern-welding

o ccurs

i n o ne

o f

r ecently i n a 4 th-century g rave i n C anterbury .6 8

t wo

s words f ound

m ore

T hese a re p aralleled b y

t he b etter k nown f inds f rom t he p eat b ogs o f J utland . A t V imose , c A .D . 2 00 , a t otal o f 6 7 s words i ncluded f ourteen p attern-welded b lades a nd a t N ydam i n S chleswig , Y.D . 3 00 , ( Ellis-Davidson , 84 1 962, 3 2) .

1 06 s words i ncluded 9 0 p attern-welded b lades

S uch s words w ere m ade b y w elding a nd s ometimes t wisting m ultiple r ods t ogether a nd f orming c omposite p ieces w hich w ere l aid a nd w elded t ogether i n v arious w ays t o f orm t he c ore o f t he b lade t o w hich t he e dges w ere a dded. •

A s eries

o f

p attern-welded

t ypes

w as

b uilt u p

i n

t he

c ourse

o f

t his

s tudy t o s how t he d ifferent w ays i n w hich t hese c ould b e c onstructed ( Fig . 1 03) . T he T ypes V a nd V I w ere f ound t o b e t he m ost c ommon a mongst t he s words e xamined a lthough e xamples o f m ost o f t he o thers w ere e ncountered a nd t he r emainder c an b e i nferred . c ourse o f f urther w ork .

F urther t ypes m ay c ome t o l ight i n t he

N early a ll t he p attern-welded s words f ound i n t his c ountry b elong t o t he A nglo-Saxon p eriod . S everal h undred s words o f t his p eriod e xist i n m useum c ollections i n t his c ountry , m any f ound a c entury o r m ore a go , b ut i t i s r eally o nly i n t he l ast t wenty-five y ears o r s o w ith t he i ncreasing u se o f X -radiography t hat t he e xtent t o w hich t hese b lades w ere p attern-welded i s b ecoming k nown . T he t wisted r od p attern o ccurs r epeated ] o n X -ray a s s hown b y A nstee a nd B iek 's s urvey i n t heir 1 961 a rtic1e05 w hich a lso d ecribed a s eries o f e xperiments i n w hich r eplicas o f p attern-welded b lades w ere m ade w ith t wisted c ore e lements t o w hich c utting e dges w ere w elded o n s eparately . A r ecent r adiographic s urvey b y J anet L ang a nd B arry A ger o f 1 27 s words o f t he A nglo-Saxon p eriod i n t he B ritish M useum c ollections i s s hortly t o b e p ublished .

2 50

I n t his, p attern—welding w as s een i n m ore t han h alf t he s words o f t he 5 th-6th c enturies , c ompared w ith a bout t wo—thirds o f t he s words o f t he 6 th7 th c enturies . N early t wo t hirds o f t he 9 th-10th c entury s words a lso s howed p attern—welding . f rom o ther c ollections

A s imilar n umber o f s word a nd s cramasax b lades w ere e xamined b y X —ray i n a ddition t o t hose

m etal l og r aphically e xamined a nd d iscussed i n o ur w ork h ere .

N early a ll t he

E arly S axon b lades p robably b elong t o t he 6 th-7th c enturies a nd a c omparison w ith t he e arlier b lades s howed a t wisted f orm o f p attern—welding , a nd a bout t wo—thirds o f t he b lades o f ab roadly s imilar 9 th-10th c entury p eriod s howed p attern w elded a reas i n t he c entre o f t he b lade . T he c haracteristic p atterns o f t he b lades i ncorporating t wisted c omponents w as f irst n oticed o n s words f rom w aterlogged s ites s uch a s t hose f rom N ydam , w here s low c orrosion h ad d eeply a nd d ifferentially e tched t he s urface o f t he w eapons t o r eveal p atterns . T he p atterns s een o n X —ray a lso s how u p b ecause o f t he e ffects o f d ifferential c orrosion i n t he g round . T he p attern—welded s tructure o f A nstee 's m odern r eplica , which was n ot c orroded , d id n ot s how o n X —ray . T he o pposite s ituation m ay a lso b e t rue , a nd b uried p attern—welded b lades w hich a re t otally c orroded m ay n ot s how a ny o f t heir p attern—welded s tructure o n ar adiograph ,- e specially w here a d ense s urface i ncrustation i s p resent . We c an n ow s ee t hat p attern—welding w as v ery p opular i n t his c ountry f or s words d uring t he A nglo—Saxon p eriod, b ut why was t his t he c ase? W as p attern—welding u sed f or s tructural o r d ecorative r easons? P attern w elded e lements o f t he N ydam b lades h ave b een s hown t o h ave c ombined l ow a nd h igh c arbon i ron 92 s uggesting t hat i t m ight h ave b een i ntended a s aw ay o f c ombining i ron a nd s teel t o p roduce a s trong b lade . O ther p arts o f t he b lades a lso h ad a v arying c arbon c ontent s o t his d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow . T he p attern—welded e lements o f t he A nglo—Saxon b lades e xamined i n t he p resent s tudy w ere c onsistent i n c omposition r ight t hrough t he p eriod , a nd s how t hat t he t echnique s erved a m ainly d ecorative p urpose a nd t hat t he c omplexity o f t he p atterns q ualities o f t he b lade . T he

p attern—welded

b ore

l ittle r elation t o t he o verall f unctional

c omposite

p arts

were

f ound

t o c onsist a lmost

i nvariably o f l ow c arbon i ron . H owever , t hese c omposite p arts w ere m ostly m ade f rom a lternate p ieces o f l ow a nd h igh p hosphorus i ron . T he c omposites a ppear t o h ave o ften b een l ightly c arburised g iving t he l ow p hosphorus p arts a c arbon c ontent o f u p t o a bout 0 . 1% , t he h igh p hosphorus p arts r emaining v irtually c arbon f ree a s t hey w ould n ot c arburise a s r eadily . T his m ay h ave b een d one i ntentionally n ot s o m uch t o s trengthen t he m etal w hich i t w ould n ot h ave d one t o a ny a ppreciable e xtent , b ut t o r educe t he g rain s ize o f t he l ow p hosphorus p arts t hereby i mproving t he e ffect t hat w ould h ave b een o btained o n e tching t he f inished b lade . P hosphorus o n t he o ther h and p romotes g rain g rowth , a nd, a lthough t he s word—smiths w ould n ot h ave r ealised t his , t hey w ere c learly p roducing c omposite s tructures w hich w ould h ave b een m ost i mpressive w hen e tched. T he

p hosphorus—contai n ing

f errite

s tays

b right

w hen e tched

( in n ital )

w hereas t he n on—phosphorus i ron e tches d arker p artly d ue t o t he m uch s maller g rain s ize ( where t he c arbon c ontent I s l ow) , s o i t w ould a ppear t hat t he s word—smith b y c ombining h igh a nd l ow p hosphorus c omponents a nd a lso b y t he l ight c arburising o f t he l ow p hosphorus i ron w as e xploiting t hese g rain s ize a nd c ompositional c haracteristics b y e mpirical m eans t o a chieve t he b est v isual q ualities h e c ould . T he d ecorative a spect o f t he p atterns m ust h ave b een t he m ost i mportant f actor .

2 51

T able 1 2 C omposition o f M erovir igian p attern-welded s word-blades ( After S alin54) % C

M3B lade

0 .15

M7B lade

0 .12

M 1 0 B lade

0 .09

S i

-

-

-

M n

S

p

0

0 .016

0 .35

0 .01

0 .02

0 .21

0 .05

0 .02

0 .30

N 2

0 .006 0 .0085

M 1 B lade

0 .08

M 1 E dge

0 .2

-

-

0

0 .02

0 .16

0

0 .02

0 .14

0 .03

0 .18

L uneville B lade

0 .01-0.05

-

-

-

-

L uneville E dge

0 .02-0.03

2 52

T his c onclusion i s f urther u nderlined b y t he f act t hat p attern-welding c ontinued t o b e p opular I n t he L ate S axon p eriod a t t he s ame t ime t hat p lain b lades w ith o r w ithout i nlaid I nscriptions ( made o f p attern-welded p ieces) w ere b eing m ade .

A s w e h ave a lready s een ,

t he c hangeover t o b lades w hich

c ontained a n a ppreciable s teel c ontent a nd i n w hich f urther h eat t reatments w ere u sed , o ccurred i n t his c ountry b etween t he 7 th-9th c enturies a nd b ore n o r elation t o t he u se o f p attern-welding. P attern-welding f or s words a ppears t o h ave s imply g one o ut o f f ashion I n cA .D . 1 000 a lthough f or s cramasaxes I t c ontinued u ntil c A .D . 1 200 a nd l ater s cramasaxes I ncorporating t his t echnique m ay y et b e f ound. T he A nglo-Saxon s word w as c ontemporary w ith t he M erovingian b lades w hich w ere p attern-welded i n t he s ame w ay . S alin h as d one a c onsiderable a mount o f work o n t his s ubject g iving o verall a nalyses o f t he F rench b lades a nd s ome m echanical p roperties ( Table 1 2) . T he r esults s how t he u sual l ow M n a nd S e xpected o f e arly c harcoal i rons a nd

l ow

c arbon

a nd

h igher

p hosphorus

e xpected

f rom

t he

B ritish

m etallographic r esults. T he p attern-welded s words f ound I n L atvia a nd d escribed b y A nteins a re b elieved t o h ave b een i mported f rom t he R hineland a nd a re t ypical o f t hose u sed b y t he R us d uring t he 6 th-12th c enturies . T he s tructures e ncountered a re i n a ll r espects t he s ame a s t hose f ound i n t his work . M any h ave i nscriptions s uch a s U lfbehrt , a nd t here a re 15 e xamples o f t his t ype i n t he L atvian c ollection . T he m etal o f t he i nscriptions w as i tself p atternw elded . S ome o f t he b lades h ad a T ype 1 s andwich , t he c entre p iece o f w hich h ad b een h eat-treated t o g ive s orbite a nd t roostite w ith a h ardness o f 2 50-330 H V . O ne b lade c ontained a ' s tick ' f igure o f am an a nd w as p ossibly l ocal . T he V iking t ype s words f rom N ovgorod d epicted b y K olchin , o f t he 9 th-13th c enturies s eem t o b e o f t his t ype , a nd a re n ot p attern-welded . C arbon c ontents r eached

1 . 1% i n p laces .

T he o bservations o f A l-Biruni ( A .D . 9 73 1050),84,54 t hat d amascened s words m ade o f w ootz w ere m ore b rittle i n c old w eather t han t he p atternw elded s words o f t he R us s eems t o b e a r eference t o b rittle f racture . I t i s well-known t oday t hat c ertain e lements a nd t reatments c an e mbrittle f errite t o s uch a n e xtent t hat i t l oses i ts d uctility o n I mpact a t t emperatures a s h igh a s 1 0 °C .

B ecker a nd D ick 9°

c arried o ut t ests o n

w rought i ron f rom R oman p ile-shoes a nd c ompared t he r esults w ith m odern s teel 'a nd w rought i ron . T he r esults f or t he b rittle-ductile t ransition t emperature w ere a s f ollows :

T ransition t emperature

°C

( 20j/cm2 ) .

A nnealed R oman p ile

4 0 °C ,

( Modern) S T 3 7 s teel

1 0 °C

W rought i ron

2 7 °C

2 0 °C

3 5 °C

T he R oman i ron c ontained 0 .2% P a nd 0 .12-0 .16% N i a s p rincipal i mpurities . B ut t hese a re n ot t hought t o b e r esponsible f or t he p oor v alues.

T his i s m ore l ikely d ue t o c oarse g rain s ize a nd s lag I nclusions.

2 53

T avadze e t a 19 1 h ave a lso e xamined t he b rittle f racture p roperties o f e arly i ron w ith 0 . 1-0 .4% C a nd c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat t he n otch i mpact s trength w as c onsiderably b elow t hat o f m odern m aterial o f t he s ame u ltimate t ensile s trength .

T hey a lso b lamed t he s lag i nclusions .

I t w ould s eem t hen t hat t he p hosphorus c ontent b y i tself i s n ot t he m ost i mportant f actor . T he h igh c arbon c ontent o f w ootz ( 1 .6% m ax ) w ould b e a f actor m ilitating a gainst i t i n c old c limates . I t i s p ossible t hat t he b anded s tructure o f p attern-welded s words , i n s pite o f t he l arge n umber o f s lag i nclusions i n s ome b lades , m ay h ave a b eneficial e ffect . I t w ould b e e xpected t hat t he h igh p hosphorus i ron would h ave a l arge g rain s ize w hile t hat o f t he l ow p hosphorus l ow c arbon i ron w ould b e f iner . M ixing t he t wo s tructures i n a lternate b ands would p roduce t he h igh c orrosion r esistance o f t he h igh p hosphorus b ands a nd t he c rack-arresting c haracteristic o f t he f ine-grained f errite + c arbide s tructure i n t he n eighbouring b ands . I t w ould s eem t hat t he p attern-welded s words o f t he R us w ere s uperior t o t he o riental s words i n t he c limate i n which t hey h ad t o o perate.

2 54

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

M uch o f t he w ork p resented h ere b y o ne o f u s

( FY I ' ) h as

b een d one a s

p art o f t he r egular e xamination o f f inds f rom a rchaeological e xcavations f or t he A ncient M onuments L aboratory o f t he D epartment o f t he E nvironment ( now t he E nglish H eritage ) . W e a re g rateful t o t he e xcavators a nd t he e ditors o f e xcavation r eports f or m aking t he r elevant m aterial a vailable . O n t he whole m ost o f t he m aterial i n t his m onograph h as n ot b een p ublished b efore b ut s ome , s uch a s t hat f rom C hingley a nd G oltho , h as a nd w e a re i ndebted t o D .W . C rossley a nd G uy B eresford f or t heir p ermission . T he w ork o n t he m aterial f rom W inchester i s i n c ourse o f p ublication , a nd m ore i nformation o n t he a rchaeological a spects o f t he t ools b riefly m entioned I n t he t ables h ere w ill b e f ound I n t he r elevant v olume o f W inchester S tudies . W e a re g rateful t o M artin B iddle f or a llowing u s t o u se t his m aterial p rior t o i ts f inal p ublication b y t he O xford U niversity P ress . W e a re i ndebted t o E .W .

H olden a nd

t he S ociety f or P ost—Medieval A rchaeology f or t he d rawing

s hown i n F ig . 4 0 w hich w as p ublished b y B utler a nd T ebbutt 4 1 , E .M . T rent f or t he h ardness m easurements s hown i n F ig. 4 1.

a nd t o D r .

T he s econd a uthor I s r esponsible f or m ost o f t he w ork o n e dged w eapons a lthough w e s hare t he c onclusions t o t his p art o f t he work . W e a re i ndebted t o t he k eepers a nd c urators w ho h ave f ound u s s pecimens t o w ork o n , m uch o f i t i n b ad c ondition a fter e xcvavation i n t he n ineteenth c entury . T hose w ho e specially c ome t o m ind a re J ohn C larke o f t he M useum o f L ondon , L eslie C ram , R eading M useum , D avid K elly , M aidstone M useum , R odney A lcock a nd R oger P eers o f t he D orset C ounty Museum,

a nd B rian O ldham o f t he

I nstitute o f A rchaeology , L ondon . M any o thers h ave h elped w ith t his w ork I n s ome w ay a nd o ur t hanks g o o ut t o a ll t hose m etallographers a nd a rchaeologists who h ave n ot b een m entioned h ere o r i n t he r eferences . P erhaps o ne s hould a lso t hank t he i nventor o f

t he V ickers P rojection M icroscope w hich s till

s eems

t he b est

p iece o f a pparatus f or t aking p hotographs a t a m agnification o f b etween 5 a nd 1 0 t imes . F inally w e w ould l ike t o t hank t he H istorical M etallurgy S ociety f or a g rant t owards t his w ork w hen I t w as i n i ts i nfancy l ong a go .

2 55

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1,

A rch . T rans .

3 88) A M L ab . R ep . N o .

7 ( 2) A rts a nd C rafts .

( Forthcoming). 2 5.

A . S elkirk . W est S tow , S uffolk . T he A nglo-Saxon V illage ,

2 6.

J . H aslam ,

L . B iek a nd R .F .

s ite a t R amsbury, W ilts. 2 7.

D .W . C rossley .

C urrent A rch . 1 973 ( 40), 1 51-158 .

E ast A nglian A rch . N o . T ylecote .

2 4 ,

1 985 .

A m iddle-Saxon i ron s melting

M ed. A rch . 1 980, 2 4, 1 -68.

T he B ewl V alley i ronworks, K ent c . 1300-1730 A .D .

R oy . A rch . I nst. M onogr .

1 975.

2 8 .

C . B eresford . T he M edieval c lay-land v illage . M onog. N o . 6 , 1 975.

2 9 .

C . B eresford .

B arton B lount .

( SK 2 09346) .

S oc .

M ed . A rch .

M ed . A rch .

1 969 ,

1 3 .

2 76-

7 . 3 0 .

T he s ite o f H olyoak w as

e xcavated b y Mrs .

G wen B rown .

R eport

f orthcoming . 3 1. 3 2.

G .C . B oon .

R oman S ilchester .

L ondon , 1 957,

p p .

1 84-186.

W e a re i ndebted t o t he k eepers o f t he S alisbury a nd S outh W iltshire M us . a t S alisbury f or p ermission t o e xamine t hese i tems f rom t heir c ollection .

3 3 .

B .C . S cott .

M etallographic s tudy o f s ome e arly i ron t ools a nd

weapons f rom I reland .

P roc . R oy . I rish A cad . 7 7 ( C), N o . 1 2,

3 01-

3 17. 3 4.

V .G . C hilde a nd M orvern , A rgyll.

3 5.

W .H . M anning a nd C . S aunders . B ucks.

3 6.

R .W .

W . T horneycroft . T he v itrified f ort a t R ahoy, P .S.A . S cot. 1 937/8, 7 2, 2 3-43. A s ocketed i ron a xe f rom M aids M orton ,

A nt.J . 1 972, 5 2 ( 2), 2 76-292.

C larke a nd S .M . B lackshaw ( Eds .) .

2 57

T he c onservation o f i ron .

N ational M aritime M us. 3 7.

1 982.

M onog. a nd R epts. N o. 5 3.

B . J ohnson a nd P . B earpark ( Forthcoming) .

T he s ite w as e xcavated i n

1 973 a nd t here i s a s hort r eport i n J HMS 1 976, J ohnson a nd P . B earpark . 3 8.

M .G .

S pratling e t a l .

S aints, D orset . ( Ref. 9 4). 3 9.

B rian H obley .

I n :

b y B .

A n I ron A ge b ronze f oundry a t G ussage A ll E .A . S later a nd J . T ate

A N eronian

B aginton , W arwicks.

1 0 ( 2), 8 3,

( Eds.) .

V espasianic m ilitary

-

T rans. B 'ham A rch . S oc .

p p .

2 68-292 .

s ite a t T he L unt ,

1 969, 8 3, 6 5129.

4 0.

B rit. S tandards I nst. B . S tandard 8 761957. H and H ammers.

4 1.

D .S . B utler a nd C .F . T ebbutt . M ed. A rch . 1 975, 9 , 3 8-41.

4 2.

R . P leiner .

4 3.

E . T holander . E vidence o f t he u se o f c arburised s teel a nd q uenchh ardening i n L BA C yprus . J . S wed . I nst . i n A thens 1 971 , S tockholm , 1 8(3), 1 5-23 .

4 4.

T . S tech-Wheeler ,

A W ealden c annon-boring b ar .

P ost-

S tare E vropske K ovarstvi, P rague 1 962.

J . M uhly , R . M axwell-Hyslop ,

R . M addin .

I ron a t

T aanach a nd e arly i ron m etallurgy i n t he E ast M editerranian . 1 981, 8 5 , 2 45-268 . 4 5.

G .I .H . 1 968.

4 6.

B .C .

L loyd .

S cott .

T he C utlery T rades .

1 913 .

R eprint,

C ass,

A .J .A .

L ondon ,

M etallographic a nd c hemical s tudies o n a g roup o f i ron

a rtifacts f rom t he e xcavations a t G reencastle, C o . D own . A rch . J . 3 9, 1 976, 4 2-52.

U lster

4 7.

B .A . K olchin . C hernaya m etallurgiya y e r n etalloobrakta u d revnii R ussi. M oscow , 1 953.

4 8.

M .W . T hompson .

4 9.

J . P iaskowski . A n i nteresting e xample o f e arly t echnology : A s ocketed a xe f rom W ietrazno-Bobrka i n t he C arpathians . J ISI, 1 960 , 1 94, 3 36-340.

5 0.

J .A . R oper . E arly N orth-West s cythe s miths a nd s cythe g rinders . 1 541-1647. W est M ed. S tudies, 1 969, 3 , 7 3-86.

5 1.

S alisbury w as a c utlery c entre a t l east u p t o 1 862 when i t e xhibited

N ovgorod t he G reat ( 10th-15th c ent.).

L ondon ,

1 967.

i n L ondon . 5 2.

H .H . C oghian . O xford , 1 977.

5 3.

J .D .

L ight a nd H . U nglik .

1 7961812. 5 4.

N otes o n p rehistoric a nd e arly i ron i n t he O ld W orld .

E . S alm.

A f rontier f ur t rade b lacksmith s hop ,

Q uebec, 1 984. L a c ivilisation M érovingienne d 'aprês l es

2 58

s épultures ,

l es

t extes e t l e l aboratoire , JP icard, P aris. 5 5.

5 6.

5 7.

R . T homsen .

L es T echniques ,

-

1 957,

p . 3 11) .

A &

M etallographische U ntersuchungen a n d rei W ikinger-

z eitlichen E isenäx ten a us H aithabu . I n B er . ( Ed. K . S chietzel) N o . 5 , 1 971, 3 0-57.

A usgrabung i n H aithabu

S ian R ees . A ncient a gricultural i mplements . B ucks . 1 981 .

S hire A rchaeology,

R . P leiner . K ultur.

5 8.

( Pt .3

C .E .

D ie T echnologie d es

S lovenska A rch .

P earson a nd J .A .

C hesterholm .

S chmiedes

1 967, 1 5.

S mythe .

i n d er G ros s -nt hhrischen .

( 1), 1 74.

E xamination o f a R oman c hisel

f rom

P . U niv . D urham P hil. S oc. 1 938, 9 ( 3), 1 41-145.

5 9.

S ten M odin a nd R . P leiner . T he m etallographic e xamination o f l ocks , k eys a nd t ools . E xcay . a t H elgo , V ol . 5 ( 1 ) , 1 978 ( Eds . K . L amm a nd A . L understr& n ) pp. 8 1-109.

6 0 .

R .

P leiner .

S mithing t echniques

V orgeschichtsbl tter , 1 970, 3 5, 6 1. 6 2.

i n R oman B avaria .

B ayrische

13-141.

W e a re i ndebted t o V anessa F ell o f S alisbury f or t his i nformation . P .N . J ones .

A s hort h istory o f t he a ttack o f a rmour .

M etallurgist

a nd M at. T ech . 1 984, M ay , 1 6 ( 5), 2 47-250. 6 3.

H .H . C oghian a nd R .F . T ylecote . N ewbury a rea o f B erkshire ; 1 2 ( 1), 1 2-17.

6 4.

M .J .

S wanton .

A c orpus

R eports, N o . 7 . 6 5 .

J . P etersen .

6 6.

R .E .M .

M edieval i ron a rtifacts f rom t he

m etallurgical e xaminations .

J I IMS .

1 978 ,

o f P agan A nglo-Saxon S pear T ypes .

B .A .

1 974.

D e N orske V ikingsverd, O slo, 1 919.

Wheeler . L ondon a nd t he V ikings .

L ondon Mus .

C at . N o .

1 ,

1 927. 6 7.

C .W .

B rewer .

w eapons. 6 8.

Metallurgical

J I ]NS .

G .

W ebster , J . W atson ,

o f

e quipment f rom

6 9.

D .B . K elly ,

M aidstone .

7 0 .

D .B . K elly ,

M aidstone .

7 1.

J ohn

A ccount

c emetery a t S arre . 7 2.

( a) ( b)

C anterbury ,

s teel

o f

1 982,

1 85-190.

p p.

P ersonal C ommunication .

t he

1 966 ,

S ociety 's C antiana , ‚ I

I ,

T he s words a nd p ieces

P ersonal C ommunication .

A rch .

d o . d o .

s ix a ncient

a t C anterbury C astle ' b y P . B ennett ,

AK entish P atchwork ,

B rent .

o f

J . A nstee a nd L . B iek .

' Excavations

S .S. F reare a nd S . S tow .

C oodsall ,

e xamination

1 976, 1 0 ( 1), 1 -9 .

1

2 59

p .

( see a lso R .H .

1 316) . r esearches

1 862-63 ,

I n t he A nglo-Saxon

5 , 3 03-322 .

1 864-65, 6 , 1 57-185. 1 865,

7 , 3 07-321.

7 3.

G eorge D owker . 1 887, 1 7, 6 -9.

7 4.

D .M . W ilson a nd J . H urst ( Eds .) . K .R . F ennell). M ed. A rch . 1 957.

7 5.

V era I . E vison . C antiana .

7 6.

T .G .

C antiana ,

M edieval B ritain 1 956 . 1 , 1 48 .

( Exc . b y

A n A nglo-Saxon c emetery a t H olborough , K ent .

A rch .

1 956, 7 0, 8 4-131.

M .

I ron a nd M an I n p rehistoric S weden .

G odfrey-Fausset .

C antiana , 7 8.

A rch .

L T h lin-Bergman I n : ( Ed . H elen C larke) B lacksmithing i n p rehistoric S weden . 9 9133.

7 7.

A S axon c emetery a t W ickhambreux .

T he

S axon

1 876, 1 0, 2 98-315.

S wanton .

S tockholm ,

c emetery

a t

1 979 ,

B ifrons .

p p .

A rch .

( concluded i n 1 879, 1 3, 5 52-556).

T he s pear i n A nglo-Saxon t imes .

T hesis U niv .

D urham .

1 966. 7 9.

A .K .

A nteins .

S tructure a nd m anufacturing t echnique o f p attern . .

welded o bjects f ound i n t he B altic S tates . 5 63-571. 8 0.

C .W . B rewer . a rmour .

8 1.

J ISI, 1 968 , J une, 2 6,

M etallurgical e xamination o f m edieval a nd p ost-medieval

J HMS.

J .N M cGrath .

1 981, 1 5 ( 1), 1 -8.

A p reliminary r eport o n t he m etallographic e xamination

o f f our f ragmentary E IA s word b lades f rom L lyn C errig B ach , A nglesey . J HNS. 8 2.

A .R .

1 968, 2 ( 2), 7 8-80. W illiams .

R oman A rms a nd A rmour :

a t echnical n ote .

J . A rch .

S cience, 1 977, 4 , 7 7-87. 8 3.

A .

F rance-Lanord .

L a

f abrication d es é pëes d amascées a ux é poques

m érovingiennes e t c arolingiennes. 8 4.

H .R . E llis-Davidson .

L e P ays G aumois 1 949, 1 -3, 1 9-45.

T he S word i n A nglo-Saxon E ngland .

O xford .

1 962. 8 5.

J .W . A nstee a nd L . B iek . A rch .

8 6.

H .

1 961.

O 'Neill .

W elding . 8 7. 8 8.

8 9.

A s tudy I n p attern-welding .

M etallurgical f eatures i n w elded

s teels .

T rans .

I nst .

1 946, 9 , 1 -9.

M .W . T hompson .

N ovgorod t he G reat.

L ondon 1 967.

B .A . K oichln .

C hernaya m etallurgiya y e m etalloobratka u d revnii

R ussi. M oscow ,

1 953.

A . Z eki V alidi . D ie S chwerter d er G ermanen n ach a rabischen B erichten d es 9 -11 J ahrhunderts . Z eitschrift d er D eutschen M orgenlän dischen G esellschaft.

9 0.

Medieval

5 , 7 1-93.

1 936, 9 0 ( NPXV) 1 9 f f. p ages.

C . B ecker a nd W . D ick . I ron p ile s hoe f rom t he R oman b ridge a t T rier. A rch . E isenhüttenwesen , 1 971, 4 2 ( 3), 2 23-227.

2 60

9 1.

F .N .

T avadze,

U .I .

S arrak,

G .V .

S vanishvili .

T he

m echanical

p roperties a nd t he n ature o f t he f racture o f a rchaeological S oobshh . A kad. N auk. G ruz S SR , 1 975, 8 0 ( 2), 4 09-412. 9 2.

E .

S churmann a nd

H .

S chroer .

Härte

u nd

K lingenbruchs t uck e ines N ydam S chwertes . 1 959 , 3 0 , ( 3 ) , 1 27-130 . 9 3 .

J . Y pey . E uropean P attern-welded w eapons . 1 982, 1 2, 3 81-388.

9 4.

E .A .

S later

a nd

J .0 .

T ate

( Eds .) .

M .D. H owe .

F rom t he M useum .

P roceedings and

D urobrivae, 6 , 1 978.

2 61

a n

d em

A rch . E isenhittenwesen .

A rch . K orrespondenblatt ,

I nternational S ymposium o n A rchaeometry P rospection , E dinburgh . E dinburgh , 1 980 . 9 5.

G lühversuche

I ron .

o f

t he

1 6th

A rchaeological

A PPENDIX G LOSSARY P HASES I N F e-C A LLOYS 1 .

F errite

iFe, c ontaining n ot m ore t han 0 .02% C a t 7 23 °C

-

a nd 0 .0001% s tructure. 2 .

A uster iite

C a t

2 0 °C .

B ody-centred

c ubic

' -Fe, c ontaining n ot m ore t han 1 .75%C a t 1 130 °C

-

a nd 0 .89% C a t t he e utectoid t emperature o f

7 23 °C .

F ace-centred c ubic s tructure . 3 .

D elta-ferrite

-

a lmost p ure b ody-centred c ubic i ron , s table b etween 1 403 °C a nd t he m elting p oint ( 1535 °C ) i n t he absence o f c arbon. Maximum carbon c oncentration 0 .09% a t 1 490 °C .

4 .

M artensite

-

d iffusionless

t ransformation p roduct

o f q uenching

a ustenite . Metastable . B ody-centred t etragonal s tructure t he c arbon a toms b eing r esponsible f or t he t etragonality . F orms o nly b etween M5 a nd Mf t emperatures, a s p lates ( needles) i n a ustenite c rystals . D ecomposes o n h eating t o t emperatures a t w hich c arbon c an d iffuse f reely . 5 .

(n ntite

6 .

P earlite

-

-

F e 3C c ommonest i ron c arbide . F requently e ncountered a s t he f orm o f ' combined c arbon ' i n t hese a lloys . C arbon c ontent 6 .77 -

e utectoid m ixture o f f errite a nd c ementite f ormed f rom a ustenite o n c ooling a t

s low

e nough

r ate t o

a llow d iffusion-controlled t ransformation . U sually l amellar i n f orm , b ut m ay b e ' s pheroidised ' i f f ormed b y v ery s low c ooling . F e3C i s m atrix . 7 .

S orbite

8 .

T roostite

-

-

i n t he f orm o f

I n t his c ase , t he

s pheroids

i n a f errite

f ine s pheroidised s tructure o f F e 3C i n F errite f ormed b y t empering m artensite b etween 5 00 °C a nd 7 00 °C . d ark-etching c onstituent ,

b arely o r n ot r esolvable

u nder t he o ptical m icroscope , f ormed o n c ooling a ustenite a t r ates i ntermediate b etween t hose g iving p earlite a nd l amellar m ixture o f ( normally, m icroscopy

m artensite . f errite a nd

V ery f ine i ron c arbide

i f n ot a lways, F e3C) . h as n ow c onfirmed t hat

E lectron t his p hase

c onsists o f v ery f ine p earlite a nd m any a uthorities p refer t o c all i t b y t his n ame u sing t he t erm ' rosette ' t o d escribe t he o ften r ounded a ppearance o f t he n odules .

B ut i t i s ac ommon p hase i n e arly

a rtifacts a nd i t i s c onvenient a nd d escriptive t o r etain t he t erm ' n odular t roostite ' f or t he d arke tching n odular p hase w hich o ccurs

2 62

i n c onjunction

w ith

m artensite

u nder

s lack

( slow)

q uenching

c onditions ( see F ig. 4 2). 9 . T empered M artensite

d ark e tching c onstituent o f m artensitic s teels t empered b elow t he t emperature r ange i n w hich s orbite f orms . F orm v aries f rom n eedles o f ' b lack m artensite ' t o i rresolvable m ass o f f errite a nd c arbide l amellae , a s t empering t emperature r ises . A t l ow t empering t emperatures c arbide i s ' e psilon c arbide ' , w hich i s c ommonly s tated t o h ave a c lose— p acked h exagonal s tructure ,

a nd

w hose f ormula

v ariously r eported a s F e4C, F e 3C , a nd F e 2C . f ormer a re t he m ore l ikely .

i s T he

A t h igher t empering t emperatures , t he c arbide p hase t ransforms t o c ementite ,

w hich l ater s pheroidlses .

( see S orbite). 1 0.

B ainite

p hase u sually f ound o nly

-

( in b inary a lloys)

i n

i sothermally t ransformed m aterial f ormed b etween a bout 5 00 °C a nd t he M8 t emperature o f t he a lloy c oncerned . I n g eneral, t wo f orms a re f ound -

' Upper

B ainite ' ,

w hich h as

a f eathery a ppearance ,

a nd ' Lower B ainite ', w ith a n a cicular s tructure . B oth a re v ery f ine m ixtures o f f errite a nd c arbide , t he c arbide i n t he f ormer d efinitely b eing c ementite, a nd p robably a lso i n t he l atter , t he p hases d iffering m ainly i n t he k inetics o f f ormation . 1.

E psilon C arbide

-

m etastable

p hase

o f

u nknown

c omposition

a nd

s omewhat d oubtful s tructure f orming a s a n i ntermediate b etween m artensite a nd c ementite o n t empering t he f ormer . A lso f ound f errite s upersaturated w ith c arbon .

2 63

o n

a geing

A PPENDIX H ardness o f M odern T ools a nd M aterials.

M ild S teel

1 50 H V1

W rought I ron

1 02

H

H

( +P)

1 63-173

A xe

6 00

F ork/rake

7 00

K itchen k nife

6 80

S tainless t able k nife

5 50

H ammer f ace

6 66

2 64