The Later Stone Age of the Drakensberg Range and its Foothills 9780860544371, 9781407346113

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The Later Stone Age of the Drakensberg Range and its Foothills

H. Opperman

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 19

BAR International Series 339 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S339, 1987: 'The Later Stone Age of the Drakensberg Range and its Foothills'

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 19

©

H. Oppernan, 1987

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544371 paperback ISBN 9781407346113 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544371 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C O N T E N T S PAGE LIST

OF

FIGURES

vi

LIST

OF

TABLES

x i

1

PREFACE

1

2

I NTRODUCTION:

3

PREVIOUS PROVINCE

A IMS

RESEARCH

Archaeology The h istorical

4

THE

ENVIRONMENT

Topography

and

AND

IN

RESEARCH

NORTHEASTERN

DESIGN

4

CAPE

10 15

period

OF

THE

STUDY

AREA

geology

2 1

Soils Drainage Modern climate Modern vegetation F auna The climate Pleistocene

5

25 2 5 2 6 2 8 33

and and

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

vegetation Holocene

OBSERVATIONS

during

the

t erminal 35

AT

COLWINTON

ROCK

SHELTER

I ntroduction Excavation

40 40

Stratigraphy

42

Dating Artefact

45 45

description

Fauna

7 1

Microfauna

78

F lora Summary

78 and

d iscussion

i ii

82

6

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

OBSERVATIONS

AT

BONAWE

ROCK

SHELTER

Introduction Excavation Stratigraphy Dating Artefact description

87 89 91 91 93

Fauna Microfauna F lora Summary

7

8

and

114 1 17 117 1 19

discussion

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SHELTER

OBSERVATIONS

AT

TE

VREDE

ROCK

Introduction Excavation Stratigraphy Dating Artefact description F auna

123 124 124 124 127 1 34

Microfauna Summary and

1 35 135

discussion

ARCHAEOLOGICAL ROCK SHELTER

OBSERVATIONS

AT

THE

RAVENSCRAIG

Introduction Excavation Stratigraphy Dating Artefact description F auna F lora Summary and discussion

9

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

OBSERVATIONS

136 137 137 140 140 148 149 151

AT

GRASSRIDGE

ROCK

SHELTER Introduction Excavation Stratigraphy Dating

153 1 54 1 54 1 57

Artefact description F auna Summary and d iscussion

157 165 1 67

i v

10

1 1

SUMMARY

Environment D ating S ubsistence system Technology Social organisation

1 69 1 69 1 70 175 177

CONCLUSIONS

179

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

184

APPENDIX

185

REFERENCES

2 54

LIST

OF

F IGURES

PAGES 1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

Location adjacent

o f Later areas

Stone

Age

s ites

i n

the

study

2

Territories o f three Bushman b ands i n t he ( c. 1 850) according to h istorical sources Geology

o f

Map

1

1 979

and

the

study

page

3 126)

area

( based

on

study

area 1 8

Geological

Survey, 2 2

Drakensburg escarpment. and Bonawe Rock Shelters

Transect

t hrough

Colwinton 2 3

Monthly average rainfall for B arkly P ass ( 10 km south of Colwinton), Maclear ( 22 km northeast of Te Vrede), E lliot ( 6 km west o f Bonawe) and Willow Park ( 10 km northeast o f Grassridge). I nformation f rom Weather Bureau ( 1965) records ( 1931-1960)

2 7

6 .

Veld

30

7 .

Colwinton

Rock

Shelter.

P lan

8 .

Colwinton

Rock

Shelter.

Section

9 .

Colwinton

Rock

Shelter.

Hearth

10.

Colwinton Rock Shelter. 1 : Wood artefact ( layer 1 ); 2 : Bone h ook ( layer 1 ); 3 : Bone point ( layer 2 ); 4 : Bone awl ( layer 4 ); 5 : Pendant ( layer 2 ); 6 : Bone bead ( layer 3 ); 7-10 : Potsherds

48

1 1.

Colwinton

54

1 2.

Colwinton means

13.

14.

t ypes

o f

t he

Colwinton r ials

study

Rock

Shelter.

Rock

Shelter.

s craper Rock

l ength

Shelter.

area

( based

Waste

and

Colwinton l ayer 3 ); 3 ); ( from

Acocks

1 975)

section

41

f eature

: raw

Changes and

on

43 47

materials

through

t ime

i n

t he

breadth

Utilized

5 5

waste

: raw

mate5 7

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Scraper 5 -8 : f rom l ayer 2 ; 9-12 : f rom f rom layer l ayer 6

1 5.

o f

4 ;

1 7-20

: f rom

l ayer

1 -4 : f rom layer 1 ; l ayer 3 ; 1 3-16 : 5 ;

2 1-23

: f rom 5 9

Rock 2 -3

4 : Double l ayers

Shelter. : Concave scrapers

5 and

1 : L arge scraper ( from s crapers ( from l ayers 2 and ( from

6 )

l ayer

6 );

5 -6

: Cores 60

v i

1 6.

1 7.

Colwinton Rock Shelter. 1 -3 : Adzes ( from l ayer 3 ); 4-5 : Borers ( from l ayers 4 and 5 ); 6 : Point ( from l ayer 6 ); 7 : Backed f lake ( from l ayer 4 ); 8-13 : Segments ( from l ayers 3 and 4 ); 1 4-15 : Knives ( from l ayers 3 and 4 ) Colwinton

Rock

Shelter.

D iagram

for

s craper

61

per

l ength, breadth and h eight. The horizontal l ine i s t he r ange, t he vertical l ine i s t he arithmetic mean and the r ectangle i s t he standard deviation . ...

64

Colwinton t ouch

Rock

66

1 9.

Colwinton

Rock

Shelter.

2 0.

Colwinton

Rock

Shelter.

1 8.

s ion

Shelter.

Position

' Scraper Scrapers

o f

scraper

form : Bulb

2 2.

Colwinton Rock Shelter. f rom t eeth crown h eights

Percentage

Colwinton

D istribution

l ifespan

2 5.

2 6.

2 7.

o f

percus-

Rock

67

Colwinton

2 4.

66

present/absent

2 1.

2 3.

r e-

Rock o f

Shelter.

Shelter.

Scrapers

: raw

materials

l ifespan

o f

eland 79

of

percentage

wildebeest/hartebeest

Colwinton Rock Shelter. for l ifespan o f e land

67

Cummulative

80 percentage

graph 81

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Cummulative percentage for l ifespan o f wildebeest/hartebeest

graph 81

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Percentages of i dentified species o f woody p lants f rom charcoal samples ( according t o Tusenius, 1 986)

83

D istribution o f with p aintings)

88

Later Stone at t he f oot

Age s ites ( rock shelters o f t he Drakensburg

2 8.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

P lan

and

2 9.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

Section

30.

Bonawe Rock Shelter. 1 -6 : Bone hooks ( from l ayers 2 and 3 a); 7 : Tooth p endant ( from l ayer lb); 8-12 : Bone points ( from l ayers l c, 2 and 3a); 1 3 : Bone pendant ( from l ayer l c)

v ii

s ection

90 92

95

3 1.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

3 2.

Number o f artefacts e astern Cape s ites

F ragments p er

bucket

o f

c lay

t hrough

pot t ime

r ims at

. ...

97

north95

3 3.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

Untrimmed

3 4.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

M ean

l ength

3 5.

Bonawe f lakes

Rock

Shelter.

Mean

breadth

3 6.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

Cores

3 7.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

Chunks

3 8.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

Chips

% 9.

Bonawe Rock Shelter. Scrapers. 1 -4 : f rom l ayer l a; 5 -7 : f rom l ayer lb; 8-10 : f rom l ayer l c; 1 1-13 : f rom l ayer 2 ; 1 4-16 : f rom l ayer 3a; 1 7-19 : f rom l ayer 3b; 2 0-22 : f rom l ayer 3 c

1 05

Bonawe Rock Shelter. D iagrams f or s craper l ength and b readth. The h orizontal l ine i s t he r ange; t he v ertical l ine i s t he arithmetic mean and t he o pen r ectangle i s t he standard d eviation

1 07

Bonawe Rock Shelter. D iagram for s craper h eight. The h orizontal l ine i s t he r ange, t he v ertical l ine i s t he arithmetic mean and t he open r ectangle i s t he s tandard deviation

1 08

4 2.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

S crapers

: position

1 09

43.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

Scrapers

: p lan

f orm

44.

Bonawe Rock Shelter. present/absent

Scrapers

: bulb

o f

4 5.

Bonawe

Scrapers

46.

Bonawe Rock Shelter. b eest/hartebeest f rom

4 0.

4 1.

4 7.

Bonawe p lants 1 986)

f lakes o f

: r aw

materials

untrimmed

o f

f lakes

100 101

u ntrimmed 1 01

Rock

Rock f rom

materials

: r aw : r aw

1 02

materials

1 03

materials

o f

1 04

retouch

1 10

percussion 1 11

Shelter.

Shelter. c harcoal

: r aw

:

r aw

m aterials

P ercentage l ifespan t ooth c rown h eights

o f

1 12

wilde1 18

I dentified species of woody s amples ( according t o Tusenius 1 20

4 8.

Te

Vrede

Rock

Shelter.

P lan

and

4 9.

Te

Vrede

Rock

Shelter.

Section

v iii

s ection o f

t he

e xcavation

1 25 . ..

1 26

50.

5 1.

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. Scrapers 1 -7 : f rom 8-13 : f rom l ayer 2 ; 14-16 : f rom l ayer 3 Te

Vrede

Rock

Shelter.

1 -4

: Segments

( from

l ayer

1 ; 1 29

l ayer

1 ); 5 : Borer ( from l ayer 2 ); 6-8 : Adzes ( from l ayer 1 ); 9-12 : l arge s crapers ( from l ayers 1 and 2 )

1 30

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. D iagrams for s craper l ength, breadth and h eight. The horizontal l ine i s t he r ange; t he v ertical l ine i s t he arithmetic mean and t he open r ectangle i s t he standard deviation

1 32

5 3.

Ravenscraig

Rock

Shelter.

P lan

138

5 4.

Ravenscraig

Rock

Shelter.

Section

55.

Ravenscraig of points.

Rock Shelter. Bone 1 -4 : f rom l ayer 1 ;

Ravenscraig ( from l ayer

Rock 1 )

5 2.

56.

57.

5 8.

5 9.

Shelter.

Rim

and

s ection

1 39

points and f ragments 5 : f rom l ayer 2 . .. fragments

o f

clay

141

pots 143

Ravenscraig Rock Shelter. Scrapers : 1 -6 : f rom l ayer 1 ; 7-12 : f rom l ayer 2 ; 13-15 : f rom l ayer

3

Ravenscraig Rock Shelter. D iagrams f or s craper l ength, breadth and h eight. The horizontal l ine i s t he range; t he vertical l ine i s t he arithmetic mean and t he open rectangle i s t he standard deviation Ravenscraig Rock Shelter. I dentified woody species f rom charcoal samples ( according t o

145

146

p lant Tusenius

1 986)

1 50

60.

Grassridge

Rock

Shelter.

P lan

61.

Grassridge

Rock

Shelter.

Section

62.

Grassridge Rock Shelter. Bone artefacts. 1 : Point ( from l ayer VB); 2 and 3 : Awls ( from l ayers AS and LBS); 4 : L inkshaft ( from l ayer HSK); 5 : Shell pendant ( from l ayer AS); 6 : P endant ( from l ayer AS); 7 : Point ( from l ayer VB)

159

Grassridge Rock Shelter. Scrapers. 1 -4 : f rom l ayer VB; 5 -6 : f rom l ayer B R; 9-12 : f rom l ayer HSK; 13-15 : f rom l ayer AS; 1 6-18 : f rom l ayer LBS

1 61

63.

i x

and

section

1 55 1 56

64.

6 5.

66.

6 7.

6 8.

6 9.

Grassridge Rock Shelter. 1 -6 : S egments VB and B R); 7 : Borer ( from l ayer LBS); ( from l ayer VB); 1 0-11 : L arge scrapers VB and BR)

( from l ayers 8-9 : Adzes ( from l ayer 1 62

Grassridge Rock Shelter. D iagram of s craper l ength, b readth, and h eight. The h orizontal l ine i s t he r ange, t he v ertical l ine i s t he arithmetic mean and t he o pen r ectangle i s t he s tandard d eviation

1 63

Radiocarbon dates f or L ater study and adjacent areas

1 71

Stone

Percentages o f i dentified early f rom n ortheastern Cape s ites Percentages o f i dentified n ortheastern Cape s ites The annual movement gatherers a ccording t his s tudy

l ate

Age

s ites

Holocene

i n

t he

f auna 1 73

Holocene

f auna

f rom 1 74

p attern o f L ater Stone Age h unter t o C arter ( 1970), C able ( 1982) and 1 81

x

LIST

OF

TABLES

PAGES

1 .

2 .

3 .

P lant foods region Colwinton bucket Radio

f rom

t he

northeastern

Cape

escarpment 1 85

Rock

Shelter.

Number

o f

artefacts

per 1 86

c arbon

dates

f rom

s ites

i n

the

north-eastern

Cape 4 .

1 86

Colwinton Rock shell beads

Shelter.

5 .

Colwinton

Rock

Shelter.

Frequencies

6 .

Colwinton

Rock

Shelter.

I nventory

7 .

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Untrimmed chalcedony f lakes ( unbroken) : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean for l ength,

8 .

breadth

Frequencies

of

ostrich

1 87

and

maximum

o f

o f

pot

stone

.

artefacts

1 88

1 90 f lakes for 1 90

Colwinton

1 0.

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Scraper l ength : f requencies ( f), arithmetic mean ( R), standard deviation ( S), standard error ( SR) and skewness

1 92

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Scraper breadths : f requenc ies ( f), arithmetic mean ( R), standard deviation ( s), standard error ( SR) and skewness

1 92

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Scraper heights : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( R), standard deviation ( s), standard error ( Si) and skewness

1 92

Breadths Colwinton Rock Shelter. Scrapers : Lengths x 100 : frequencies ( f), arithmetic mean ( R), standard deviat ion ( s), standard error ( Si) and skewness

1 93

1 2.

1 3.

14.

Colwinton t ests

1 5.

on

Rock pairs

Colwinton Rock s craper mass

Shelter. o f

s craper

Shelter.

Core

1 87

9 .

1 1.

Shelter.

sherds

l ength

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Untrimmed hornfels ( unbroken) : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean length, breadth and maximum l ength Rock

egg-

subclasses

Matrix

o f

1 91

Mann-Whitney

U

samples Frequencies

1 93 of

t he

means

of 1 94

x i

1 6.

1 7.

Colwinton mean ( 7),

Rock Shelter. Segments standard deviation ( s)

Colwinton Rock Shelter. l ength, breadth, h eight arithmetic

1 8.

1 9.

2 1.

The are

2 5.

2 7.

Rock

Colwinton f ragments

Rock

Colwinton

d eviation

Shelter.

Adzes

: raw

Rock

Shelter.

Mass

o f

:

( s)

1 95

: l ength, arithmetic 1 95 mean

of 1 95

material

1 96

t he

f auna 1 97

unidentifiable

bone 1 98

game

t o

Shelter. b ig

Colwinton grassveld

Rock game

Colwinton

f auna.

culated 2 6.

standard

minimum n umbers o f i ndividuals by which r epresented at Colwinton Rock Shelter

small 2 4.

Backed f lakes ( Layers 1 -4) : f requency ( f), r ange,

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Adzes : arithmetic l ength, breadth and h eight o f r etouch Colwinton

2 3.

( 7),

arithmetic 1 94

Colwinton Rock Shelter. B acked b lades breadth, h eight : f requency ( f), r ange mean ( 7), standard deviation ( s)

2 0.

2 2.

mean

: r ange

on

50%

Ratio

o f

numbers

of 1 98

Shelter. Ratio o f to mountain game

o f

minimum

game

Mass

o f

l iving

meat

m inimum

f rom

numbers

of 1 98

game

species

( cal-

mass)

1 99

Colwinton Rock Shelter. Percentage calculated f rom t ooth crown h eights

l ifespan

o f

e land 2 00

Minimum n umbers i nsectivores and rodents f rom Colwint on, Bonawe and Te Vrede Rock Shelters ( Identificat ion by D .M. Avery)

201

2 8.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

Frequency

o f

potsherds

2 02

2 9.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

I nventory

o f

stone

30.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

Number

artefacts

3 1.

Bonawe

Rock

Shelter.

Ochre

32.

Bonawe Rock Shelter. Untrimmed hornfels f lakes broken) f requency (0, mean l ength, breadth and maximum length

o f

artefacts per

.

bucket

203 206 207

x ii

( un207

3 3.

Bonawe Rock Shelter. Untrimmed chalcedony f lakes ( unbroken) : f requency ( f), mean l ength, breadth and maximum l ength

2 07

Bonawe Rock Shelter. Scraper l engths ( all materials) : f requency ( f), mean ( 7), standard deviation ( s), standard error ( S7), s kewness

2 08

Bonawe Rock Shelter. Scraper breadths ( all materials) : f requency ( f), mean ( 7), standard d eviation ( s), standard error ( S7), s kewness

2 08

Bonawe Rock Shelter. Scraper h eights ( all materials) : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( 7), s tandard d eviat ion ( s), s tandard e rror ( S7), s kewness

2 09

breadth Bonawe Rock Shelter. Scrapers : l ength x 1 00 ( all materials) : f requency ( f), arithmetic m ean 00, s tandard d eviation ( s), standard error ( Si), s kewness

2 09

3 8.

Bonawe

2 10

3 9.

Bonawe Rock on p airs o f

3 4.

3 5.

3 6.

3 7.

4 0.

4 1.

42.

4 3.

4 4.

Rock

Shelter.

Means

o f

Shelter. M atrix s craper s amples

s craper

o f

mass

( g)

Mann-Whitney

U t ests 2 11

Bonawe Rock Shelter. B acked b lades ( all l ayers) : f requency ( f), m ean l ength, breadth, s tandard d ev iation ( s), r ange

2 13

Bonawe Rock Shelter. f ragments ( g)

2 13

The are

Mass

of

unidentified

m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals by which r epresented at Bonawe Rock Shelter

Bonawe Rock Shelter. Ratio o f t he mountain game t o grassveld game

m inimum

Bonawe Rock Shelter. Ratio small g ame t o b ig game

m inimum

4 5.

Northeastern

46.

Bonawe f auna. M ass l ated on 5 0% o f t he Vrede

Rock

C ape

s ites.

o f

t he

Species

o f meat f rom l iving mass)

4 7.

Te

Shelter.

48.

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. f requency ( f), means o f m aximum l ength ( mm)

I nventory

bone

t he

f auna 2 14

n umbers

of 2 15

n umbers

of 2 15

d iversity g ame

i ndexes

species

2 15

( calcu2 16

o f

Stone

artefacts

Untrimmed c halcedony f lakes l ength ( L), breadth ( B) and

2 17 : 2 20

49.

50.

5 1.

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. frequency ( f), means o f maximum l ength ( mm)

Untrimmed hornfels f lakes : l ength ( L), breadth ( B) and

Te Vrede i als

Utilized

5 3.

Shelter.

f lakes

: raw

mater2 20

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. Scraper l ength : f requency ( 0, arithmetic mean ( 7), standard deviation ( s), standard

5 2.

Rock

220

error

o f

the

mean

( S7),

s kewness

221

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. Scraper breadth : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( 7), standard deviation ( s), standard error o f t he mean ( S7), s kewness

221

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. Scraper h eight : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( 7), standard d eviation ( s), standard error o f the mean ( S7), s kewness

222

breadth 54.

5 5.

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. quency ( f), arithmetic

Scraper mean ( 7)

l ength standard

( s),

t he

( S7),

s tandard

error

o f

mean

x 100 : fredeviation 222

s kewness

Te Vrede t ests on

Rock Shelter. Matrix o f pairs o f s craper s amples

5 6.

Te

Vrede

Rock

Shelter.

Scrapers

: mean

5 7.

Te

Vrede

Rock

Shelter.

Scrapers

: r aw

5 8.

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. Segments ( all l ayers) : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( 7) of l ength, breadth and t hickness, standard d eviation ( s), error of t he mean ( S7), r ange

5 9.

Mann-Whitney

U 223

mass

( g)

224

materials

2 24

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. Adzes : arithmetic mean o f l ength, breadth, t hickness and h eight o f s econdary t rimming Te

Shelter.

Adzes

: raw

61.

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. i ndividuals present

Fauna

: m inimum

Te Vrede Rock fragments

Shelter.

Masses

Te

Shelter.

63.

Vrede

2 25

60.

6 2.

224

Vrede

game

Rock

Rock

t ypes

materials

225

n umbers

of 2 26

o f

unidentified

bone 227

( calculated

F auna on

50%

x iv

: mass o f

o f

l iving

meat mass)

f rom 227

6 4.

Te

Shelter.

Ratio

o f

small

6 5.

T e Vrede Rock S helter. grassveld game

Ratio

o f

mountain

6 6.

Vrede

Rock

Rock

6 7.

R avenscraig

.R ock

Shelter

.Ostrich

6 8.

Ravenscraig f acts

Rock

Shelter

. Inventory

70.

7 1.

7 2.

game

game

227

t o

Shelter.

Number

o f

artefacts

per 2 28

e ggshell o f

b eads

stone

. ..

2 28

arte2 29

R avenscraig Rock Shelter. Untrimmed chalcedony ( unbroken) : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean o f l ength, breadth and m aximum l ength

f akes 2 35

R avenscraig Rock Shelter. Untrimmed hornfels f lakes ( unbroken) : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean o f l ength, breadth and maximum l ength

2 35

R avenscraig Rock Shelter. Scraper l ength : f req uency ( f), arithmetic m ean ( i), standard deviation ( s), s tandard error o f t he mean ( SR), s kewness

2 35

R avenscraig q uency ( f), ( s),

7 3.

l arge

2 28

Ravenscraig b ucket

6 9.

t o

Rock Shelter. Scraper breadth : f rearithmetic mean ( X), s tandard deviation

s tandard

error

o f

t he

m ean

( S U,

s kewness

2 36

R avenscraig Rock Shelter. Scraper h eight : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( 7), standard deviation ( s), s tandard error o f the m ean ( S7), s kewness

2 36

l ength R avenscraig Rock Shelter. Scraper breadth x 1 00 : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( 7), s tandard deviat ion ( s), standard error o f t he mean ( S7) skewness .

2 37

7 5.

R avenscraig

2 37

76.

R avenscraig Rock Shelter. t ests on p airs o f s craper

7 4.

Rock

Shelter.

Scrapers M atrix s amples

o f

Ravenscraig

Rock

Shelter.

Scrapers

7 8.

R avenscraig i ndividuals

Rock

Shelter.

F auna

R avenscraig Rock bone f ragments

m ass

Mann-Whitney

U 2 38

7 7.

7 9.

: Mean

: r aw

: m inimum

materials n umbers

2 40 o f 2 41

Shelter.

Masses

o f

u nidentified 2 42

XV

80.

R avenscraig ( calculated

f auna. on 5 0%

8 1.

R avenscraig

f auna

: r atio

o f

t he

8 2.

R avenscraig g ame

f auna

: r atio

o f

mountain

8 3.

8 4.

Mass o f meat from o f l iving mass)

game

species 242

smaller t o

to

l arge

grass

game

242

veld 2 43

R avenscraig Rock e land f rom t ooth

Shelter. Percentage crown h eights

8 5.

Grassridge

Rock

Shelter.

Ostrich

eggshell

b eads

2 43

86.

Grassridge

Rock

Shelter.

Ostrich

e ggshell

f ragments

244

8 7.

Grassridge f acts

Rock

Shelter.

I nventory

9 0.

9 1.

9 2.

9 3.

9 4.

9 5.

o f

2 43

Rock

89.

Number

o f

Grassridge b ucket

8 8.

Shelter.

l ifespan

artefacts

per 243

o f

stone

arte2 45

Grassridge Rock Shelter. Untrimmed chalcedony ( unbroken) : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean o f l ength, breadth and maximum l ength

f lakes 246

Grassridge Rock Shelter. Untrimmed hornfels f lakes ( unbroken) : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean o f l ength, breadth and maximum l ength

246

Grassridge Rock Shelter. Scraper/length : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( 7), standard deviation ( s), standard error o f t he mean ( Si), s kewness

246

Grassridge Rock Shelter. S craper breadth : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( TO, s tandard deviation ( s), standard error o f t he mean ( Si), s kewness

247

Grassridge Rock Shelter. Scraper h eight : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( i E), standard deviation ( s), s tandard error o f t he mean ( Si), s kewness

247

breadth Grassridge Rock Shelter. Scraper l ength x 100 : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( X), s tandard deviat ion ( s), s tandard error o f t he mean ( Si), s kewness

247

Grassridge Rock Shelter. t ests o n p airs o f s craper

M atrix o f s amples

248

Grassridge

Scrapers

Rock

Shelter.

x vi

Mann-Whitney

: r aw

U

materials

. ..

248

96.

Grassridge

97.

Grassridge Rock Shelter. S egments : arithmetic mean ( 7), s tandard deviation ( s), s tandard error o f t he m ean ( Si)

2 49

Grassridge Rock Shelter. Adzes : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean o f l ength, breadth and h eight o f s econdary t rimming ( mm)

2 50

98.

99.

1 00.

1 01.

1 02.

1 03.

Grassridge f ragments

Rock

Rock

Shelter.

Shelter.

Scrapers

M asses

o f

: mean

mass

( g)

u nidentified

. ..

2 49

bone 2 50

The m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals b y which t he f auna are r epresented i n t he L ater Stone A ge l evels o f t he Grassridge Rock Shelter ( identified b y J .S. Brink) . .

2 51

Grassridge g ame

2 52

Rock

Shelter

Grassridge f auna. ( calculated on 5 0%

: r atio

o f

s mall

t o

Mass o f m eat f rom g ame o f t he l iving mass)

Grassridge Rock Shelter. g ame t o g rassveld g ame

Fauna

: r atio

o f

l arge

species 2 52 mountain 2 53

x vii

1

P REFACE

T his s tudy i s b ased o n t he r esults o f e xcavations i n f ive rockshelters i n t he northeastern r egion o f t he C ape P rovince o f t he R epublic o f South A frica. Two o f t he s helt ers, Colwinton and R avenscraig, a re s ituated i n p arallel v alleys which t ransect t he D rakensberg mountain r ange. T he o ther t hree s ites, T e V rede, B onawe and G rassridge ( 80 km t o t he w est) a re l ocated i n t he f oothills o f t he e scarpment ( Fig.1). A ll t he s ites h ave d eposits w ith a c onsiderable t ime d epth and a lthough at l east o ne s ite r evealed r emains o f Upper P leistocene o ccupation, o nly t he observations o f t he l ast approximately 1 4 000 y ears w ill b e d iscussed. For d escriptive purposes t he f ollowing p eriods o f t ime are d ist inguished: end-Pleistocene ( 14 000 - 1 0 000 B .P.(before t he present)), E arly H olocene ( 10 000 - 6000 B .P.), M iddle H oloc ene ( 6000 - 5 000 B .P.) and L ate H olocene ( 5000 B .P.- t he present). T he c entral t heme o f t his study i s a d escription o f t he subsistence s ystem o f t he L ater S tone Age p eoples t hat o ccup ied t he p resent d ay d istricts o f B arkly E ast, E lliot, Macl ear and S terkstroom which are a ll i n t he D rakensberg r egion o f t he northeastern C ape. Considerations which were t aken i nto account w ith t he choice o f t his t opic were t he f ollowing: f irst, t he g ap t hat e xists at present i n South African archaeological studies o n a daptation patterns o f prehistoric h unter-gatherers i n d ifferent e cological z ones. S econd, t he k nowledge t hat B ushman b ands i n t he D rakensberg and E ast G riqualand f ollowed t heir t raditional w ay o f l ife u ntil l ate i n t he n ineteenth c entury t hus providing ethnohist orical i nformation which c ould b e used t o g enerate a model and hypothesis d escribing t heir subsistence s ystem. A t hird factor f or c onsideration i s t he h istorical g ame o f t he D rakensberg and i ts f oothills which w ere c haracterised by t he l arger t ypes l ike t he w ildebeest t hat f ollowed d efinite patterns o f s easonal m ovement b ased o n grazing potentials. W ell preserved f aunal r emains w ere r ecovered f rom a ll t he e xcavated d eposits and c ould b e used a s e vidence t o d iscuss t he s ubsistence strategy o f t he h unters. B efore t he c ommencement o f t his study, w ith t he e xception o f rock a rt studies, l ittle w as k nown about t he archaeology o f t he northeastern C ape. T his f act t ogether w ith t he o ccurrence o f l arge prehistorically i nhabited rock s helters and c aves, which promised a w ealth o f i nformation, motivated t his i nvestigation. A preliminary s urvey o f archaeological s ites i n t he d ifferent e cological z ones o f t he study area was d one i n 1 978 i n order t o evaluate t he possibility o f a c ontrasting s tudy o f s ites above and b elow t he e scarpment. E xcavations w ere c ommenced t owards t he end o f 1 978 and c ontinued t hrough s everal s easons u ntil 1 981. A lthough t he culture stratigraphic f ramework f or t he L ater Stone A ge i n t he e astern, s outhern and northern C ape h as a lready b een w ell d eveloped b y r ecent r esearch ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976; C arter 1 977; D eacon, J . 1 982; H umphreys & T hackeray 1 983) t he position was m uch l ess f avourable f or t he Holocene c ultural s equence i n t he D rakensberg r egion o f t he northeastern C ape. While t he subsistence s ystem o f h unter

1

. e

T — I

2

g atherers i s t he f ocus o f t his study i t i s a lso s een as n ecessary, because o f t he g eneral l ack o f k nowledge o f t he archaeology o f t he area, t o i dentify t he t echnological c hanges t hat t ook p lace. More attention i s t herefore g iven t o t echnology t han i s usual i n a s tudy o f t his k ind. T he f ramework o f t his s tudy c omprises a d iscussion o f t he a ims and m ethods o f t he r esearch f ollowed b y an a ccount o f previous r esearch work i n t he study area ( chapters 2 -3). T he l atter i ncludes a rchaeological f acts and ethnohistorical observations. An analysis o f environmental a spects, present and past, i s g iven i n c hapter 4 . I n t he d iscussion o f e xcavations i n t he d ifferent rock s helters t he s equence i s C olwinton, B onawe, T e V rede, R avenscraig, g rouped i n t he m ain s tudy a rea ( chapters 5 -8), and G rassridge, which i s s ituated o n t he w estern b order o f t he northeastern C ape ( chapter 9 ). I n chapter 1 0 t he i nformation r evealed by t he i nvestigation i s consolidated and s een i n r elation t o t he d irect and i ndirect a ims o f t he study. T he c losing c hapter p laces t he s tudy i n t he c ontext o f archaeology i n S outh A frica. ' Bushmen' apparently h ad no common n ame f or themselves and were k nown a s such a fter r eceiving t he n ame Bosjesmans f rom t he e arliest D utch s ettlers at t he C ape ( Bradlow & B radlow 1 979). A lthough t he t erm ' San' i s at present p referred by s ome r esearchers i t i s still not generally a ccepted and t he word B ushman c ontinues t o appear i n ethnological and archaeological publications ( Steyn 1 971, V innicombe 1 976, S ilberbauer 1 981). Consequently t he t erm B ushman i s a lso u sed i n t his study a s a g roup n ame f or the L ater Stone A ge i nhabitants o f t he D rakensberg r egion at the t ime o f c ontact w ith t he f irst w hite observers.

3

2

I NTRODUCTION

: A IMS

AND R ESEARCH

D ESIGN

P reliminary work i n t he s tudy a rea i ndicated s ignificant d ifferences b etween t he r egions above t he e scarpment a nd t he f oothills s outh o f t he m ountain r ange i n r espect o f a n umber o f a spects i ncluding t opography, c limate, f auna and f lora. T he a im o f t his s tudy w as t o d etermine h ow t he n atural r esources a long t he n orth s outh g radient o f t he D rakensberg r egion w ere utilized i n a m obile h unter-gatherer e conomy. A s ignificant e cological d ifference c an a lso b e observed o n t he w estern b order o f t he m ain s tudy a rea, i n t he v icinity o f t he I ndwe R iver, b etween t he s ourveld and sweetveld r egions. T he a rea, which i ncludes t he D rakensberg r ange and t he s ourveld o n t he f oothills, s tretches f or h undreds o f k ilometres e ast and northeast and i s b ig enough t o j ustify d istinctive a daptations i n s ubsistence s ystems. A s easonal m odel o f m ountain o ccupation i n t he s ummer and t hornveld o ccupation i n t he w inter, d eveloped b y C arter ( 1970) t o d escribe t he e xploitation c ycle o f t he n atural r esources i n a djacent s outhern N atal b y L ater S tone A ge b ands and t he a pplication t hereof b y C able ( 1982), h as n ever b een satisfactorily t ested. Even i ts t heoretical validity, when considering t he v ariability i n t he s easonal b ehaviour o f modern B ushmen b ands, appears u nlikely ( see c hapter 3 ). I n o rder t o d evelop a h ypothesis and a m odel w hich c ould g ive an a lternative d escription o f prehistoric s ubsistence s ystems amongst h unter-gatherer b ands i n t he Drakensberg, ethno-historical observations m ade i n t he northeastern C ape d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he p revious c entury were used a s well a s e cological c haracteristics o f t he environment ( see c hapter 3 ). S ilayi, a T embu, s tayed f or t hree y ears c . 1 850 w ith a B ushman b and i n t he v icinity o f present d ay U gie. D uring t his t ime h e t ook p art i n t he g roup's a ctivities and i t i s c lear f rom h is observations t hat t he m ovements o f t he b and w ere l imited t hroughout t he y ear t o t he m ountainous p arts o f t he Maclear and E lliot d istricts a lthough t hey a lso v isited t he f oothills ( Macquarrie 1 962). Two o ther B ushman b ands f urther e ast, i n t he upper r eaches o f t he T ina and U mzimvubu r ivers, f ollowed t he s ame pattern and a lso m oved i n t he p eriod d irectly b efore 1 850 a lternately b etween t he m ountains and t he f oothills ( Lochenberg 1 850; Q uinti 1 850). T he p ermanent o ccupation b y white f armers o f t he d istricts o f B arkly E ast, Maclear and E lliot t ook p lace o nly a fter 1 850. I t i s t herefore possible t hat t he B ushman b ands i n t his a rea and i n t he a djacent N omansland ( East G riqualand) w ere s till enjoying a m easure o f i ndependence and t ried t o f ollow t heir t raditional e xistence p atterns u ntil t he s econd h alf o f t he n ineteenth c entury ( Wright 1 971:17). T he u se o f e thnographic observations o f h unter-gatherers t o c onstruct m odels f or g roups f ar r emoved i n t ime c an not b e accepted u nprovisionally ( Yellen 1 977:4; Ebert 1 979:60), b ut i t m ay i ndicate a s ubsistence s trategy t hat s hould b e

4

supported

by

archaeological

Environmental

d ata

factors

b efore

were

a lso

i t

i s

accepted.

i mportant

b esides

t he

h istorical i nformation f or t he d evelopment o f a subsistence s ystem model. T he occurrence o f p atches o f m ixed grass i n t he s ourveld o f t he f oothills h as i n t he p ast c aused t he concent ration o f grassveld game during w inter t imes. I n t he Drakensberg long narrow v alleys t ranssecting t he mountain r ange s erved as passages f or t he movement o f game. T he hypothesis put f orward i s t hat t he Holocene h unterg atherers i n t he study area were m ainly mountain dwellers e xploiting t he r esources o f t he h igher Drakensberg r egions b ut i n t imes o f s carcity t hey m ade use o f t he f ood r esource potential o f t he lower l ying f oothills. I n

model

f orm

t his

m eans

t hat

t he

b ands

during

t he

L ater

Stone Age occupied t he valleys o f t he Drakensberg l ike t he Sterkspruitkloof and t he L angkloof. H ere t hey h unted at f irst grassveld g ame, b ut l ater, eland. During t he w inter months t hey s upplemented t heir meat supply b y h unting t he game t hat moved f rom t he sourveld t o t he sweeter m ixed veld patches on t he f oothills. T his model d iffers i n i mportant a spects f rom t he models d eveloped by Carter ( 1970) and C able ( 1982) i n which a s easonal movement f rom t he h igher mountain r anges i n t he summer to t he coastal r egion i n t he w inter i s foreseen. F irstly, long periods o f absence f rom t he mountains ( 6-7 months) are not considered and s econdly l ong d istance l inear s easonal movements d id not t ake place b ut rather s hort d istance v isits t o f ood r esources s ituated at a convenient d istance f rom t he e scarpment. Arising f rom t his model were s econdary a ims. The f irst a im was t o show t hat t he adaptation t hat o ccurred i n t he subsistence system o f t he h unter-gatherer b ands at t he f oot o f t he Drakensberg was c haracteristic o f t he sourveld r egion and d iffered from t he subsistence system i n t he sweetveld west o f t he m ain study area. S econd, t he study would a fford t he opportunity t o determine t he degree t o which t he d ifferent subsistence systems and changes t hereof were r eflected i n t he artefact assemblages. B ecause t he archaeology o f t he northeastern Cape i s r elatively unknown i t was s een a s n ecessary t o describe t he cultural s equence and c hronology. This would t hen g ive t he f ramework w ithin which t he p atterns o f e xistence o f b e d iscussed and a lso m ake studied r egions possible. I n contribution to t he s olving which are currently under archaeology.

t he L ater Stone Age groups could c omparisons w ith other b etter t his way t his study a lso m akes a o f s ome o f t he broader problems i nvestigation i n South African

A s far a s t esting o f t he hypothesis was concerned i t was e xpected t hat t here would b e evidence o f Later Stone Age s ites i n t he valleys o f t he Drakensberg a s well a s i n or n ear t he m ixed grassveld p atches at t he f oot o f t he mountain. The f aunal r emains f rom t hese s ites would b e used i n a comparison o f h unting p atterns. The nature o f archaeological evidence m akes i t d ifficult t o i solate s ingle events or t o show t hat i t was t he same b and t hat moved b etween shelters o n

5

t he f oothills and t hose i n t he Drakensberg valleys. Yet o verlapping i n dates o f h abitation, t he existence o f communication routes b etween t he shelters, s imilarities i n artefact assemblages as well as t he occurrence o f complementary k ey r esources i n t he v icinity o f t he shelters, a ll afford c ircumstantial evidence pointing t o contemporary occupation. A population concentration i n t he mountains i n t erms o f t he model would mean t hat more s ites w ith a h igher density o f cultural r emains could b e expected i n t he mountains t han i n t he f oothills. T he approach i n t his study i s ecological i n t he s ense t hat culture i s s een against an environmental b ackground and t hat t he systemic nature o f m an's r elationship with t hat which surrounds h im i s emphasised ( Watson, Le B lanc & R edman 1 971:88). The i nteraction o f c ulture and environment l eads t o adaptation processes of which t he f orm and d irection o f development could b e one or more o f a whole r ange o f possibilities ( Bettinger 1 980). While i n t his study evidence i s advanced f or one optimum s olution t o an adaptation problem i n a specific t ype o f environment t he writer i s aware o f t he fact t hat o ther adaptation possibilities could h ave o ccurred. I t would b e very d ifficult t o f ind any meaning i n observations o f t he subsistence ecology o f Holocene h untergatherers w ithout using analogues f rom ethnographical s tudies o f t he r emaining B ushman t ribes i n South Africa. The t erm hunter-gatherer r efers t o a group o f p eople who practise f or t heir food r equirements a wide variety o f activities i ncluding t he hunting o f l arge and small g ame, f ishing, f owling a s well a s t he g athering o f plant f oods and i nsects. T he dependency o n any o ne o f t hese activities v aries f rom group to group and i s normally i nfluenced by t he most abundant f ood r esources. Modern h unter-gatherers d epend t o a l arge e xtent o n p lants f or a stable and s ecure s ource o f f ood while h unting contributes an average o f 3 5% t o t he d iet ( Lee 1 968:42). It c annot, h owever, b e t aken f or granted t hat t his r atio a lso applied t o t he prehistoric h unter-gatherers. The consumption o f m eat b y modern B ushman b ands varies according t o i ts availability ( Steyn 1 971:169; L ee 1 979:205) and t he areas i n which t hese b ands f ind t hemselves t oday certainly have s maller quantities o f g ame t han were a f eature o f South Africa a f ew h undred y ears ago. I n t he study area l arge game was an i mportant component o f t he animals h unted and t he i nfluence o f t hese animals o n t he subsistence system o f t he Later Stone Age b ands i n t he r egion i s a central t heme o f t his study. I t i s n ecessary f or h unter-gatherers t o m aintain i n t heir t erritories a mobile existence o f which t he pattern i s determined b y t he d istribution o f n atural r esources ( Lee & D e Vore 1 976:74; P arkington 1 981). T his mobility does not i mply an a imless wandering over a l andscape b ut i s part o f an adaptation principle which i s e xecuted i n an orderly way ( Jochim 1 976:4) *. The o ccurrence o f game i n specific localities on a s easonal b asis i n t he Drakensberg r egion c ertainly would h ave b een o ne factor which would have i nfluenced t he mobility o f t he h unter-gatherers. There

exists

some

measure

6

o f

elasticity

i n

t he

s ubsistence systems and social organisation o f hunterg atherers ( Stuart 1 977:251) b ecause a lthough t heir t echnological development i s r elatively l ow t hey h ave s cope f or choices i n t heir e xploitation o f natural r esources. Modern Bushmen are very s elective i n t heir f ood h abits and o nly s ome o f t he e dible p lants and animals at t heir d isposal a re r egularly used ( Lee 1 968:35; L ee 1 979:159; 226). T he economical b ehaviour o f h unter-gatherers i s i n g eneral controlled by t he principle o f m inimum effort. T he e asy e xploitation o f r esources i s an i mportant factor i n f ood s election by modern B ushman groups ( Lee 1 968:41; Jochim 1 976:17). The population density o f h unter-gatherers i n an area i s c ontrolled by t he productivity o f t he f ood r esources w ith c onsideration o f food preferences o f t he group and c onsumption t hereof. According t o t he model o f Hassan ( 1981:8) for t he c alculation o f population densities o f present-day hunter-gatherer groups, b ased on r esource potentials and t he e ffectiveness o f t heir e xploitation, t he d ensities vary b etween 0 ,01 and 9 ,5 p ersons p er s quare k ilometre. T erms used w ith r egard t o t he utilization o f areas by h unter-gatherers are t he e xploitation area o f a specific s ite and t he annual r ange o f a b and. The f irst i s t he area around a s ite i n which t he natural r esources l ike plantfood and g ame a re available w ithin a d ay's r eturn t rip ( Vita-Finzi & H iggs 1 970; Roper 1 979). The l atter i s t he area t hrough which a mobile group moves d uring t he y ear i n order t o combine t he n atural r esources i n t he d ifferent parts o f t he area ( Vita F inzi & H iggs 1 970). The preceding d iscussion i s an e xplanation o f t he aims o f t he study. At t his stage i t i s a lso necessary t o give an i ndication o f t he r esearch design t hat l ed t o t he collection o f t he t ype o f d ata t hat were used f or t he t esting o f t he h ypothesis and to e xecute t he specific and g eneral aims o f t he study. The o ther steps t hat play a role i n r esearch which i s t heoretically well f ounded ( Plog 1 974) are r eferred t o d uring t he description o f t he f ieldwork and i nterpretation o f t he r esults. From t he start t he project was v isualised as a r egional study b ecause i t i s o nly on this l evel t hat s ignificant c onclusions c an b e m ade and problems i dentified. D uring the f ieldwork phase t hree s ites, chosen b ecause o f t heir localities, were e xcavated i nitially. Colwinton ( above t he e scarpment i n t he Langkloof), Bonawe ( in a p atch o f mixed g rass at t he f oot o f t he mountains) and G rassridge ( in t he sweetveld r egion west o f t he m ain study area) contained deep d eposits w ith archaeological r emains which potentially could g ive i mportant i nformation on t he e cology o f t he Later Stone Age i nhabitants o f t he Drakensberg. Especially t he r ich f aunal f inds were s een a s o f e xceptional value b ecause t hey provided an opportunity t o t est f or d ifferences i n t he h unting p atterns i n t he various ecological z ones and t o r each s ome u nderstanding o f t he i nfluence o f t he d ifferent s ubsistence strategies o n artefact a ssemblages. I n order t o d etermine t he e xtent o f t he hunting patterns which were

7

i dentified i n t he faunal a ssemblages f rom t he above mentioned s ites, t wo more s ites namely Ravenscraig ( in t he Sterkspruitkloof on top o f t he e scarpment) and T e Vrede ( at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment) were e xcavated. The s izes o f t he e xcavations ( 9, 4 , 6 , 1 , and 2 s q m ) were small r elative t o t he surfaces o f t he deposits i n t he rockshelters. I t i s t herefore possible t hat a ll t he activities which t ook place i n t he rockshelters are not r eflected i n the e xcavated m aterial. The contrasting environments i n which t he shelters are s ituated are o f great i mportance f or t he i nterpretation o f t he r esults. The environment o f e ach shelter was i nvestigated by means of botanical surveys, study projects by o ther i nstitutions and h istorical sources. A s eparate project o n t he i dentification o f charcoal samples f rom hearths i n t he deposits o f t hree shelters ( Tusenius 1 982, 1 986) f urnished valuable evidence concerning t he Holocene environment i n t he Drakensberg. The objectives o f t he environmental analyses were f irstly to come to an understanding o f t he c limate, v egetation, animals, soils and geomorphology, h ow t hese c hanged t hrough t ime and i nfluenced i mportant r esources ( Butz er 1 971:401; H iggs & Vita-Finzi 1 972:33; Jochim 1 976:24). S econdly, to m ake a survey o f t he n atural r esources i n t he r egion and t he seasonal availability t hereof. Thirdly, t o u nderstand t he local setting o f t he s ite i n r espect o f t he r easons f or o ccupation and t he f actors t hat prevented o r f acilitated t he movement o f men and animals. References t o t hese a spects appear i n chapter 4 a s well as i n the descript ion o f t he e xploitation area o f e ach shelter. Although artefact t echnology does not r eceive much attention i n t he study o f subsistence systems i t i s an i mport ant source o f i nformation o n human b ehaviour and t he c ontinuing process o f adaptation t o t he environment. Artefact a ssemblages from t he various s ites f orm t he dominant part o f t he cultural r emains and were used t o determine by means o f t ypological and metrical comparisons whether any r elationship e xisted b etween t he i nhabitants o f t he s ites. S een i n t he l ight o f t he i mportant role t hat p lant f ood plays i n the d iet o f t he hunter-gatherers i t i s a d rawback i n t his study t hat no plant food r emains could be r ecovered. Only charcoal f rom f ires survived and i dentifications o f i t were used t o i dentify changes t hrough t ime i n the v egetation. The study area i s c haracterised by n umerous rock art s ites which j ustify a s eparate r esearch project and t herefore rock art i s not used i n d iscussions or explanations i n t his book. Archaeological studies i n South Africa are at present s o far advanced t hat for t he t echnological d evelopment o f t he Later S tone Age there a lready e xists a f ramework w ithin which meaningful problems c an b e i dentified and i nvestigated. Much more u ncertainty i s, h owever, e xperienced w ith t he form o f subsistence systems during t he Holocene. T he i nformation and conclusions o n t he subsistence system o f t he hunter-gatherers i n t he Drakensberg o f t he northeastern Cape, which w ill b e

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p resented i n t he f ollowing c hapters, t hat w ill e ventually g ive a broader o f h uman a daptation i n South A frica.

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c ontribute v iew o f t he

t o a p icture v ariability

3

PREVIOUS

RESEARCH

I N NORTHEASTERN

CAPE

PROVINCE

ARCHAEOLOGY I t i s n ecessary f or t he a ims o f t his study t o evaluate previous r esearch on t he L ater S tone Age o f t he northeastern C ape w ith r eference t o work done i n t he adjacent areas as well as i n t he r est o f South Africa. Two phases are d istinguished i n t he d evelopment o f archaeological studies i n t hese r egions. D ESCRIPTIVE

PHASE

I n 1 929 appeared t he c lassic work o f Goodwin and V an R iet L owe o n t he S tone Age and i t was t o r emain t he b asis o f South African archaeological t hought up t o t he 1 960 's. Of i mportance is t hat i t brought t he t erm L ater Stone Age i nto common use and even nowadays t he t erm i s still used by archaeologists e specially i n a t echnological s ense ( Plug 1 978:21; Thackeray, A .I. 1 981:13; D eacon, J . 1 982:9). I t i s a lso used i n t his work and i ncludes artefact assemblages characterised by f lakes w ith plain striking platforms, i n s ome i nstances m icrolithic elements and various t ypes of s crapers. At present t he c ommencement o f t he L ater S tone Age is placed i n t he l ate P leistocene , approximately 2 5 000 years a go ( Thackeray, A .I. 1 981:13; D eacon, J . 1 982:36). Problems were a lso e xperienced, during t he writing o f t his study, w ith t he m eaning o f t he word ' industry' which i s o ften used i n connection w ith t he L ater Stone Age b ut i s u nsatisfactorily defined. An i ndustry i s s een a s t he assemblage of a ll artefacts which was m anufactured by a prehistoric group o f p eople i n an area d uring a specific p eriod ( Bishop & C lark 1 967:893). Accordingly i t has m eaning f or a defined area i n which only one Holocene population should be present. W ith possible e xception of the W ilton i ndustry ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976) i t c an b e said t hat not o ne o f t he present i dentified i ndustries i n South Africa satisfies this definition. Yet i t i s c lear on the b asis o f e xisting k nowledge t hat t he L ater S tone Age i s a t echnological stage, consisting of s everal s ubstages, o f t he South African S tone Age t hat o ccurred over a w ide area i n South Africa. I n t his study i t i s s een a s sufficient t o i ndicate t he r elationship o f t he artefact a ssemblages f rom t he v arious s ites w ith t he d ifferent t echnological s ubstages. T he c ulture h istorical f ramework o f Goodwin and V an R iet Lowe ( 1929) r ecognised t wo i ndustries i n t he L ater S tone Age o f South Africa n amely t he W ilton and t he Smithfield. Both were v aguely defined and t his l ed t o the appearance of various r egional variants. I n t he f ollowing years archaeologists attempted t o f it t heir artefact assemblages i nto t his f ramework. The presence o f m icrolithic elements, e specially segments, was used t o c lassify an assemblage as W ilton while other assemblages were s een as Smithfield ( Inskeep 1 967). According t o t he model o f Goodwin and Van R iet L ouw ( 1929:150) t he W ilton c ame f rom t he north o f Africa t o S outh Africa by means o f waves o f i mmigrants. I n t he northeastern C ape t he f ollowing observations were m ade up t o 1 965. An e arly r eport f rom l ate i n t he 1 800s r efers t o Stone Age artefacts f ound i n a c ave i n E ast

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Griqualand ( Frames 1 898). H ewitt and Stapleton published i n 1 931 a r eport o n rock p aintings, stone artefacts and pot sherds which were collected i n s ome rock shelters n ear Cala. I llustrations show s crapers s imilar t o t hose a ssociated w ith t he e arly Holocene i n t he study area. Two rock shelters were e xcavated by Laidler at Nqamakwe ( Laidler 1 933) ( Fig.1). The d eposits i n rock shelter B contained a Middle Stone Age artefact a ssemblage f ollowed by a L ater Stone Age a ssemblage which was i dentified a s ' Smithfield'. The d eposit i n shelter C consisted o f t hree l ayers w ith Smithfield A , B and C a ssemblages. A f ew potsherds were f ound i n t he youngest l ayer and bone was preserved t hroughout. Laidler e xcavated another s ite i n the Ngcisininde Valley, 32 km f rom Tsomo ( Laidler 1 937). S even occupation l ayers were r ecognised i n a deep d eposit ( 2,7 m deep) f rom which potsherds, bone and stone artefacts were r ecovered. The potsherds f rom l ayers 1 and 2 were e xamined by D erricourt 1 977) and he sees t hem as b elonging to t he Later Stone Age. Apparently Laidler could not f ind any s egments or b acked blades i n h is e xcavations d espite c areful observations. H e a lso questions t he validity o f t he development w ithin t he Smithfield a s proposed by Goodwin and Van R iet Louw ( 1929)). After a l ong h iatus i n systematic r esearch B .D. Malan ( 1955:1-26) m ade a superficial survey o f archaeological s ites i n E ast Griqualand. I t was f ollowed by an excavation a lso i n t his area in 1 961 ( Farnden 1 966). The shallow deposit c ontained only a small a ssemblage o f artefacts and no mention i s m ade o f bone r emains. The contribution t hat t he early r esearch attempts c an m ake t o t his study i s l imited. The descriptions i ndicate t he d istribution o f Later Stone Age groups and possible t echnological a ffinities. E XPLANATORY

PHASE

T he approach t o archaeological studies i n South Africa started t o change during t he l ate 1 960's and t he r equirements f or r esearch b egan t o place more emphasis o n explanation t han o n mere description. Dissatisfaction w ith t he W ilton and Smithfield concepts ( Inskeep 1 967) l ed t o determined attempts o f r edefinition. T he W ilton Rock S helter was r e-excavated and t he m aterial analysed ( Deacon, J . 1 974:12). A model presenting t he Wilton as a system developing t hrough d ifferent growth phases was g enerated. These growth phases c an b e s een as t he r esult o f adaptation t o t he environment ( Deacon, J . 1 972:38). T he e xistence o f t he W ilton and Smithfield as t wo s eparate entities was now questioned ( Deacon, J . 1 974:12) and t he possibility t hat only o ne t echnological complex had b een present i n South Africa during t he m iddle and l ate Holocene was suggested. T he use o f animal and p lant r emains i n archaeological e xplanations l ed t o an ecological approach f or the solving o f archaeological problems. The t endency was now t o move away f rom t he l ithic centred v iewpoint that characterised t he previous 30 years t o an approach which t ried t o f ind models t hat c ould explain t he e xploitation o f t he environment by t he

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prehistoric peoples. I n t he western Cape P arkington m ade a study o f seasonal mobility ( Parkington & Poggenpoel 1 972, P arkington 1981) and from c ircumstantial evidence i t was i nferred t hat seasonal movement o f Later Stone p lace f rom t he mountains i n t he summer to t he w inter. For the Cape Fold mountains a model

Age b ands t ook coast i n t he was developed

t hat saw t he areas o f t he prehistoric hunter g atherer bands a s adjacent sectors e xtending f rom t he mountain r ange t o t he c oast. Each o f t hese s ectors r epresented a d ialectic group compounded of smaller subsistence groups ( Deacon, H .J.1976:170). The i mplication o f t he above mentioned models i s t hat gradient areas w ith t heir complementary natural r esources were preferred by Holocene hunter g atherers a lthough t he coastal areas were a lso exploited. I t was observed i n t he s outhern and e astern Cape t hat a s equence o f t hree t echnological substages o ccurred i n t he Later Stone Age i .e. t he Robberg ( 20 000 1 2 000 B .P.) c haracterised by b ladelets f rom small blade cores t ogether w ith a f ew small s crapers and b acked t ools; t he Albany ( 12 000 8000 B .P.) characterised by l arge s crapers and an absence o f backed t ools; t he W ilton ( 8000 - h istorical t imes), characterised by s mall s crapers and b acked t ools as well as a variety o f o ther t ools ( Klein 1 974a; D eacon, J . 1 978). During the l ate P leistocene and t erminal P leistocene l arge and medium l arge grassland g ame species were mostly h unted while t he m anufacturers o f t he Wilton t echnological substage started t o concentrate f rom early Holocene t imes on t he smaller t erritorial g ame. The e xplanation f or t his shift l ies i n h uman adaptation t o changes i n vegetation f rom m ainly grassland t o f ynbos ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976:161). The spread o f t he m icrolithic t echnique associated w ith t he W ilton i s d escribed as d iffusion a long social and l anguage routes ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976:170) i n contrast t o t he e arlier v iewpoint f avouring m igration waves. R edefinition o f t he Smithfield has b een attempted by S ampson and i s b ased on t he r esults o f a s eries o f 1 1 e xcavations which were executed i n t he p eriod 1 965-1967 i n t he Orange R iver S cheme r egion. This area l ies o n t he border b etween t he Orange Free State and t he northeastern Cape and i ncludes t he t raditional d istribution area o f t he Smithfield. Strictly speaking Sampson's work c an b e s een as a continuation o f t he descriptive phase ( Sampson 1 967, 1970, 1 972, 1 974). H e succeeded i n f inally proving t he s equence i n t he Smithfield according t o Goodwin and Van R iet Lowe as i nvalid and i dentified i nstead s ix stages o f devolopment i n t he various deposits ( Sampson 1 970:1). This s equence was l ater r evised by h im t o i nclude f our I ndustrial Complexes i .e. Oakhurst, W ilton, Smithfield and S trandloper ( Sampson 1 972:288). I n a f urther d escription o f h is c lassification s cheme phase 1 or Smithfield A i s a ssigned t o t he Lockshoek i ndustry ( 12 000-8000 B .P.), p hase 2 -5 t o t he i nterior W ilton i ndustry ( 8000-500B.P.) and phase 6 t o t he Smithfield i ndustry ( 500 B .P. and l ater)(Sampson 1 974). Sampson's r esearch r esults certainly stimulated archaeologists i nvestigating Later Stone Age s ites i n t he i nterior o f t he c ountry. H umphreys ( 1979) f ound t he s ix phase b ecause no s ingle s ite contained a ll

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model t he

u nacceptable phases and

e specially t he stratigraphic context and age o f phase I could not b e proved. Sampson a lso used arbitrary units i n most o f h is e xcavations and not c learly d efined occupation l ayers. Even an attempt by S ampson t o apply h is c lassification s cheme t o t he whole o f South Africa's L ater Stone Age was not g enerally accepted b ecause o f i nsufficient data ( Thackeray, A .I. 1 981). I t i s i nteresting t hat advanced s cale and cluster analysis o f a rtefact a ssemblages f rom t he Orange R iver S cheme a rea r evealed a s ignificant r elationship b etween phase 1 a ssemblages ( Southard 1 975:34). The i nvestigation by Southard a lso c onfirmed t he sequence o f Oakhurst, W ilton and Smithfield. An e xcavation i n M erino Walk c ave, s ituated i n t he f oot h ills o f t he Stormberg, was conducted a s part o f t he Orange R iver S cheme project ( Sampson 1 970)(Fig. 1 ). The e xcavation i s o f i mportance for t his study b ecause i t i s s ituated approximately 1 5 km north o f Grassridge, which i s o ne o f t he k ey s ites i n t he project. Dates f or t he deposit are l acking b ut t he d iscussion o f t he small artefact a ssemblage suggests t hat i t b elongs t o t he same p eriod a s Grassridge, i .e. e arly Holocene. Fourteen sterile l ayers covering t he occupation m aterial i ndicate t hat Merino Walk was l ike Grassridge w ithout human i nhabitants f or a l ong t ime. An extensive archaeological survey program was u ndertaken by D erricourt i n t he C iskei and T ranskei r egions during t he e arly 1 970' s. P art o f t he survey was an e xcavation i n a rock s helter on t he farm Oakleigh i n t he Queenstown d istrict ( Derricourt 1 977). The deposit was t he r esult o f t wo p eriods o f o ccupation. The earlier one was characterised by an artefact a ssemblage t hat i ncluded f ew f ormal t ools b ut a c onsiderable number o f utilised artefacts. A s econd phase f rom 2090 ± 5 5 B .P. ( Pta-671) f ollows a break i n habitation. A s eries o f f our r adiocarbon dates shows t hat t he shelter was c ontinually v isited u ntil h istorical t imes. Pot sherds appear a fter 1 040 ± 5 5 B .P. ( Pta-935). T he fauna i s typical o f a grassland environment with small t o medium-small antelope abundant. S heep and c attle r emains o ccur only i n t he t op part o f t he d eposit a fter about 300 years a go. T he evidence for a break i n occupation prior t o 3 000 yrs a go i s o f special i nterest b ecause i t coincides w ith a break i n habitation a fter t he m iddle Holocene t hat was observed at s ites i n t he study area. The hunting p attern o f small t o medium small game i s a lso s imilar t o t he hunting strategy f ollowed at Grassridge. Of s ignificance f or t his study i s t he work by Carter i n e astern Lesotho during 1 967-1974. F ive s ites were e xcavated d uring t he f ieldwork w ith one, B elleview, s ituated i n E ast G riqualand close to t he Lesotho border. This shelter c ontained 3 m o f d eposit w ith c ultural m aterial present t hroughout and a series o f r adiocarbon dates i ndicated t hat o ccupation covered t he t erminal P leistocene and Holocene p eriod. It was t herefore e xpected t hat a d egree o f cultural r esemblance would e xist b etween t he archaeological m aterial f rom s ites w ith t he same t ime depth i n t he study area. B ased o n h is observations C arter ( 1977:166) d ivided t he Later Stone Age o f L esotho i nto t hree substages, i .e. I ndustry 1 ( 360 A .D. t o h istorical t imes) which was characterised by pottery,

1 3

glass b eads, bone f ish h ooks, bone points, s mall end s crapers and concave s crapers. I ndustry 2 ( 11 000 B .C. t o 3 60 A .D) i s s imilar t o I ndustry 1 e xcept t hat potsherds and glass b eads w ere absent. I ndustry 3 e xisted o nly f or a s hort while approximately 1 4 000 y ears a go and c ontained characteristic s mall utilised b lades and c ores. T his i ndustry o ccurs o nly a t t he s ite S ehonghong. Unfortunately C arter d oes not s upply a m etrical analysis o f t he artefacts f rom t he v arious s ites s o t hat c hange t hrough t ime could b e r ecognised i f i t d id occur, f or i nstance i n I ndustry 1 . A lso i t i s not possible t o d raw any conclusion f rom t he l ists o f animal s pecies on c hanges t hrough t ime i n t he o ccurrence o f g ame or h unting s trategy. P lant m aterial f rom S ehonghong g ives an i ndication o f s ome o f t he p lants t hat p layed a role i n t he e conomy o f t he h unter g atherers. S ixteen p lants were i dentified i ncluding grass and wood s pecies a s w ell a s t wo potential f ood p lants, Watsonia s p. and Moraea t ritia. T he m ajority o f t he p lants were c ollected i n t he spring and early summer and could i ndicate s ummer o ccupation ( Carter 1 977:114). B y means o f an analysis o f t he w inter t emperatures, f ire wood and grazing a vailability C arter ( 1977:227) r eaches c onclusions c oncerning t he s eason o f o ccupation o f h is L ater S tone Age s ites. H e proposes t hat s easonal movement o f m an and g ame f rom H a Soloja c ould h ave t aken p lace i n t he summer t o t he f lats o f E ast Griqualand b ut supplies no e vidence ( Carter 1 977:229). T he suggestion i s h owever o f i mportance b ecause t his study i nvestigates t he subsistence s ystems o f h unter g atherers a long t he e cological gradient o f t he Drakensberg r egion o f t he northeastern Cape. C arter's hypothesis ( 1970), b ased o n t he s easonal a vailability o f grazing and r egarding s easonal movement i n t he s outhern Natal, s erved a s a stimulus f or t he r esearch b y C able ( 1982) o n L ater Stone Age e xploitation p atterns i n t hat r egion d uring t he past 3 500 y ears. C able proposes a model, b ased o n data f rom t wo e xcavations and o ther environmental f actors, according t o which t he Drakensberg and L esotho were v isited b y b ands o f h unter g atherers d uring t he months O ctober t o M arch. D uring autumn t hese b ands m oved t hrough t he m iddleveld o f v alley b ushveld and Ngongoni v eld t o t he coastal r egion where f ood r esources w ere available t hroughout t he y ear. I n t he l ate w inter t he process w as r eversed and t he b ands r etreated t o t he mountains. T his hypothesis a lso h as i mplications f or t he study a rea where h ighland and l owland r egions a re present b ut, a s was t he c ase w ith C arter ( 1970), C able ( 1982:278) acknowledges t hat h is cycle o f s easonal movement i s m ostly t heoretical and b ased o n c ircumstantial evidence. Various factors c aused h is attempt t o t est h is model t o f ail. F irstly h e c ould not s ucceed i n f inding a l ink b etween t he Later Stone Age h unter-gatherers o f t he Drakensberg and t he coast b ecause no s ites c ould b e l ocated i n t he m iddleveld. S econdly t he f aunal a ssemblages f rom t he t wo c oastal s ites were t oo s mall t o g ive an i mpression o f t he subsistence s ystem. T hirdly t he s easonal movement patterns o f modern h unter g atherers, a lthough t hey are mobile, s how a h igh d egree o f v ariability and c onsequently t he model under d iscussion, t hat f oresees a l inear s easonal t rek o ver a long d istance, m ay b e t oo s implistic. T he o nly c onclusion t hat c an b e d erived f rom t he work o f C able ( 1982) i s t hat d ifferent s ubsistence s ystems operated at t he c oast and i n t he Drakensberg.

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I t i s c lear f rom t he preceding summary t hat t here a lready e xisted a culture h istorical f ramework f or t he Later Stone Age i n South Africa w ithin which i t was e xpected t hat, w ith due consideration o f r egional i nfluences, the t echnological development i n t he study area should f it. Although hypothetical e conomical exploitation patterns o f the n atural r esources were a lso developed f or t he adjacent areas r esearchers c ould not succeed i n g enerating a t estable model t o describe t he subsistence system o f t he prehistoric i nhabitants o f t he Drakensberg. THE HISTORICAL

PERIOD

T he hypothesis and model t hat t his study e xamines are b ased m ainly o n ethnohistorical observations m ade during the f irst h alf o f t he nineteenth century. I t i s t herefore n ecessary t o m ake an appraisal, using k nown h istorical sources o f t he d istribution, material culture and customs o f t he B ushman population o f t he northeastern Cape during t his p eriod. I n t his s ection the i ncreasing pressure t hat B ushman groups e xperienced f rom black t ribes and white settlers w ill b e r eviewed and r eference w ill b e made to specific observations t hat throw l ight on the l ifestyle o f t he B ushmen during t heir l ast years o f i ndependence i n the Drakensberg mountains o f t he northeastern Cape. I n D erricourt's archaeological surveylthe area o f d istribution o f t he B ushman b ands i n the e astern parts o f t he Cape f rom t he 1 7th century i s d epicted a s t he r egion north o f t he Amatola Mountains up t o t he S tormberg, t he upper r eaches o f t he K ei R iver and t he upper parts o f t he Transkei up t o t he Drakensberg e scarpment. I n t he c oastal areas o f t he C iskei and T ranskei t he southern Nguni t ribes a s well a s t he Gonaqua, a Hottentot t ribe, were a lready present before t he 1 600s. T he t ime o f arrival o f t he f irst Nguni groups i n the Transkei and C iskei i s uncertain b ut o n t he e astern Cape coast, at C halumna R iver mouth, pot sherds ( Shixini ware) s imilar to E arly I ron Age ware f rom Natal were f ound i n a m idden ( Derricourt 1 977:107; Maggs 1 980:9). During building activities on t he c ampus o f t he University o f Fort Hare a h uman skeleton was found approximately 0 ,6m under t he surface i n association with a f ew pot sherds. A metrical analysis o f t he skeleton r evealed strong negroid characteristics ( P. Banghart, personal communication). W ear o f t he t eeth i s s imilar to that o f p eople eating cereals ground w ith a grinding stone. A radiocarbon d ate o f 880 ± 50B.P.(Pta-3101), f rom bones o f t he s keleton, i s evidence that a group of I ron Age a griculturalists was a lready west o f t he K ei R iver about 1 000 years ago. Observations at both Chalumna R iver and M iddledrift ( Derricourt 1 977) showed t hat pastoralists ( Hottentots) were i n the e astern Cape even earlier t han t he a griculturalists. I n L esotho t he s ettlement o f b lack tribes o nly t ook p lace during t he 17th century ( Maggs 1 980:12). At present t here i s no evidence i ndicating t he d istribution of black t ribes before t he 1 9th century i n t he d istricts o f B arkly E ast, E lliot, Maclear, Wodehouse and the r egion o f E ast G riqualand. I nteraction b etween B ushman, Hottentot and t he b lack tribes was apparently previously l imited to the coastal areas. D espite t he g eneral conception t hat t he black t ribes were h ostile t owards t he B ushman population, l ittle concrete evidence could be f ound f or such an attitude i n the

1 5

p eriod before t he 1700s. I t s eems more l ikely t hat a power b alance e xisted b etween the various population groups as long a s t he food r esources o f t he hunter gatherers were not t hreatened. S uch a s ituation d id d evelop 1 00 years l ater during t he D ifac iane p eriod. I ntermarriage w ith t he blacks t ook place ( How 1 962:11) and s igns o f acculturation, which i ndicate peaceful contact, were observed ( Wright 1 971:9). This study a lso produced ample evidence t o prove t hat B ushman b ands occupied t he Drakensberg t housands o f years b efore t he arrival of t he f irst pastoralists and agriculturalists and t hat they were not driven t here by t hem ( Kay 1832:476; W illcox 1 956:27). At t he b eginning o f t he 1 9th century t he D ifaqane conflict b etween t he b lack t ribes o f Natal and L esotho was i n f ull swing and t ogether w ith clashes w ith t he White s ettlers i t l ed t o t he e xtermination o f t he Bushman t ribes i n the northeastern Cape. Matiwane, chief o f a l arge Nguni t ribe ( the Ngwane), f led from Natal after b attles w ith t he i mpis o f Tshaka, penetrated i nto Lesotho i n 1 827 and eventually r eached t he d istricts o f Wodehouse, Barkly-East and Queenstown ( BarklyE ast R eporter 1 973; Omer-Cooper 1 978:86). T his group, comprising hundreds of f ugitives, must have been strong competition f or the hunter g atherers o f t hese areas for the natural f ood r esources. Many farm and place names are r eminders o f t his period for i nstance F etcani Glen, F etcani Pass, Maxongoshoek, Lehannes Pass. More pressure on t he hunting areas o f the B ushmen were e xerted by white farmers appearing w ith t heir families and l arge h erds o f l ivestock i n 1 845 i n t he v icinity o f t he Kraai R iver ( Barkly-East R eporter 1 973). The l arge game r esources o f t he Drakensberg and t he f oothills were depleted shortly a fterwards and that contributed to a pattern o f stock t heft and r eprisals t hat continued up t o the 1870s. As was t he c ase w ith t he stockfarmers o f Natal ( Wright 1 971) t he f armers o f t he northeastern Cape also suffered l arge losses i n stock as t he r esult o f r aids i n t he period 1 840 t o 1 875. Some of t he i ncidents are still r emembered. A b and o f stock t hieves was surprised on t he farm Denorbin ( Barkly-East d istrict) by farmers f rom Vaalhoek f ollowing the t racks o f t heir stolen c attle ( Mr. Small, personal communication). A skirmish a lso t ook place on t he farm T he Caves where B ushmen drove stolen stock i nto a v ery l arge c ave ( Barkly-East R eporter 1 973). T he s ituation was complex and i n the Drakensberg r egion o f t he northeastern Cape and Natal, B ushman b ands robbed stock f rom both blacks and whites. Sometimes black b ands, bushman and hottentot groups r aided t ogether i n Nomansland ( East Griqualand)(Vinnicombe 1 976:67). White farmers, Xhosas and Hottentots a lso undertook e xtermination e xpeditions against t he guilty parties. Rock paintings, dating t o this conflict p eriod, on t he farm Nelsrust ( Elliot d istrict) i nclude p ictures o f t he f irst white s ettlers, s oldiers and the Nguni. D espite t he pressure exerted on t hem because o f stock theft activities, t he B ushman b ands i n the Drakensberg o f t he north-eastern Cape were still enjoying a measure o f i ndependence o f movement i n 1 850. I t i s therefore possible t hat t he ethnographic i nformation f rom t his p eriod contains i mportant a spects o f t heir traditional l ife style. At present t here i s i nformation from t he members o f B ushman b ands b efore t he Harding Commission o f i nquiry i nto stock t heft i n 1 850, of at l east t hree groups o f B ushmen roaming about i n

1 6

t he v icinities ( Fig. 2 ).

o f

t he

Tsomo

and

t he

Mzimkulu

r ivers

i n

c .1850

The band o f Mdwebo, approximately 1 5 members strong. moved about i n an area that bordered on t he Ngeli mountains i n t he s outh, t he M zimkhulu R iver i n the east, t he M zimvubu R iver i n t he west and t he Drakensberg i n t he north ( Lochenberg 1 850). Adjacent t o the west was t he t erritory o f t he T hola b and. T heir area stretched o ver t he Drakensberg and i ncluded t he surroundings o f the T ina R iver i n the f oothills b ut not f urther s eawards than t he Ngeli mountains. T his b and was considerably l arger t han t he one o f Mdwebo and a scate o f enmity existed between t he t wo b ands. T he f lats at t he f oot o f t he Drakensberg Thola(Quinti 1 850).

were

mentioned

as

t he

domain

o f

t he

I mportant i nformation on the l ifestyle o f t he B ushman b and o f Mdwebo i s g iven i n the d escriptions by J .J.Uys o f his encounters w ith t hem i n E ast Griqualand ( Uys 1 846; Wright 1 971:55). In June 1 846 Uys met Mdwebo w ith a group o f 1 17 men, women and children at B lesbokberg ( possibly Bokberg a ccording to V innicombe 1 976:37). About 30 men h ad h orses and one B ushman had a gun i n h is possession. S everal stolen articles as well as stolen horses and c attle were r ecognised by Uys. Another encounter was during October 1 846 ( Shepstone, J . W. undated) i n t he v icinity o f t he I bisi R iver ( Bisi R iver). At t his stage the group was only 20 men strong. All o ther r eferences to t his group except t he previous one, mention r elatively s mall n umbers. A group o f 1 17 was an e xception and m ay i ndicate the union o f groups during w inter. When questioned t he B ushmen answered t hat t hey h ad to f ollow t he game as i t t rekked o ver the v eld. T hey h ad bows and poisoned arrows and were clad w ith t he skins o f s mall game. As emergency f ood t he B ushmen had long strips o f e land s kin. A s imilar custom, where the skins o f l arge game were b aked and stored, was observed amongst t he Nharo B ushman i n the Kalahari ( Steyn 1 971:196). I n this r eport t he custom of B ushmen to s ignal messages by means o f f ires and skins, as was a lso observed by S ilayi ( Macquarrie 1 962:36), is mentioned. Both encounters, one i n the w inter and t he o ther o ne i n t he e arly summer, p lace t he b and approximately 50km s outh o f t he Drakensberg. I n June 1848 t his b and was again observed at t he I bisi R iver ( Melville 1848). At t imes t he group S ince

a lso t he

stayed on the Ngeli mountain b and was s een on the f lats on

during during

t he w inter t he summer.

they probably

v isited

( Lochenberg 1 850). s everal occasions t he

Ngeli

mountain

A t hird b and under t he l eadership o f Nqabayo, r elated t o t he group o f Mdwebo and approximately 4 3 men strong, h ad t heir t erritory t o the west o f t he T hola b and. T he t erritory o f t his b and i ncluded t he t errain at t he f oot o f t he Drakensberg f rom t he T ina R iver i n a westerly d irection past t he Tsitsa R iver and t he I nxu R iver and a lso parts o f t he Drakensberg l ike the Prentjiesberg near Ugie ( Macquarrie 1 962:32; Quinti 1 850). An i nteresting possibility i s t hat the

1 7

0, 4

/ \

4 e )

Thola M z imkhu lu R ive r

N OMA N bAN ayo

M z imvubu R iver

R e i R iver 0

e o km

F ig . 2 . T erritories o f t hree B ushman b ands i n t he s tudy a rea ( c . 1 850 ) a ccording t o h istorical s ources .

1 8

rock s helters o f Colwinton, c ould h ave been i ncluded i n

Bonawe, T e Vrede and Ravenscraig t he annual t erritory o f one b and.

Another B ushman b and, t he Mbaklu, previously l iving i n t he Drakensberg on the upper r eaches o f t he M zimvubu R iver, i s a lso mentioned as well a s B ushmen at the Orange R iver, but no f urther i nformation about t hem i s available ( Quinti 1 850). A ccording t o the preceding descriptions t he d ifferent B ushman b ands h ad more or l ess adjacent t erritories which i ncluded mountainous areas and grassveld at t he f oot o f t he mountain i n which t hey moved i n north-south and east-west d irections. A T embu, S ilayi, stayed i n the middle o f the l ast c entury f or t hree years w ith a B ushman b and during which t ime h e t ook part i n their wanderings and subsistence activities. A l arge c ave i n the Prentjiesberg was v isited by t his b and and i t i s at t he f oot o f t his mountain that t he T e Vrede rock s helter i s located. The following facts are o f i mportance i n t he n arrative o f S ilayi as i t was written down by Stanford i n 1 884 ( Macquarrie 1 962). Together with t he men i n the b and S ilayi t ook part i n stock t heft i n t he Wodehouse d istrict and even f urther to t he w est. T hey a lso hunted e land, buffalo, h artebeest, w ildebeest and o ther game. The m ane and t ail h air o f w ildebeest was used t o m anufacture brushes f or painting, an activity which h e e vidently observed. T he poison f or t he arrows used for hunting was produced b y Ngqabayi, the chief, f rom t he roots o f a shrub mixed w ith t he b ark o f a t ree and cooked i n a clay pot. Hartebeest and w ildebeest d ied quickly o f t he poison but buffalo took longer. A buffalo wounded during daylight was usually f ound d ead t he f ollowing morning. The b and was continually on the move and built no b ut stayed i n rock s helters. When on the move the b and sticks to i ndicate d irections f or t he absent members. and s kins were a lso used t o s ignal messages.

huts used F ire

A lthough S ilayi gave no d irect description o f s easonal movements h e mentioned t hat t he b and moved a long t he Gubenxa R iver approximately 30km s outh o f t he Prentjiesberg. This r iver l eads t o a l arge b asin o f m ixed v eld through which the X uka and B ashee r ivers f low. Grassland game would move during t he l ate summer and w inter t o this area f rom the surrounding s ourveld because i t was more n utritious. T he symbolic value o f t he eland i s young m an f irst had t o give t he breast t o t he f ather o f a young g irl before h e w ife.

emphasised because a and h eart o f an e land could take h er as his

The gathering o f plant f ood was t he work o f the women and c hildren while t he men were away on an expedition. A porridge was m ade o f a m ixture o f t he dried parts o f a bulbous plant w ith roasted white ants. The children a lso drank beverages c oncocted f rom various roots and h erbs. Although t he B ushmen r aided stock f rom t he neighbouring black t ribes t hey were

1 9

nevertheless used a s r ain

o n a f riendly f ooting m akers by t he b lacks.

w ith

t hem

and

w ere

a lso

I n s hort t he ethnohistorical evidence shows t hat t he B ushmen o f t he Drakensberg w ere at t he t ime o f t he above mentioned observations still engaged i n a mobile h unterg atherer e xistence. T he b ands stayed i n t he mountains b ut a lso v isited t he f lats at t he f oot o f t he mountains, p ossibly d uring t he w inter. An e xceptionally l ow population d ensity i s evident b ut c an b e e xplained w hen i t i s considered t hat t he k ey f ood r esources are c oncentrated i n t he mountain v alleys and m ixed grass patches at t he f oot o f t he mountains and t hat t hese areas cover only a f raction o f t he t otal area.

2 0

4

T HE

E NVIRONMENT OF

T HE STUDY AREA

Northeastern C ape P rovince i s not a u niform r egion w ith i ts o wn g eomorphological c haracter. T he r egional d ivisions o f S outh Africa b y Wellington ( 1955), b ased on l andscape i ndividualities, and b y B arnard et a l ( 1972), b ased on e conomic g eographical s imilarities, p lace t he northeastern C ape i n d ifferent r egions. I t i s nevertheless a r ecognised s ocial entity o f 3 1 2 50 s q km c onfined i n t he north by T ranskei, L esotho, and t he Orange R iver ( Fig.1). On t he e astern and s outhern s ides t he r egion s hares borders w ith T ranskei and i t stretches t o t he w est approximately up t o a l ine r unning t hrough t he t owns V enterstad, S teynsburg and H ofmeyer. O f i mportance f or t his study i s a m ain area i ncluding t he D rakensberg r egion o f t he d istricts o f B arkly E ast, E lliot and Maclear and t he d istrict o f S terkstroom f urther t o t he w est. T he above mentioned boundaries a re i ndicated f or m ap p urposes b ecause only n atural obstructions would l imit t he m ovement o f h unter-gatherer groups. TOPOGRAPHY AND G EOLOGY T he D rakensberg r ange c overs m ost o f t he l and surface o f t he study a rea. Starting i n t he v icinity o f Dordrecht t he D rakensberg s tretches i n an e astern and l ater more northernly d irection f or approximately 1 000km. T he f irst 1 30km p art o f t he mountain r ange, which l ies w ithin t he borders o f t he C ape P rovince, h as a w est-east orientation w ith t he h ighest points a t B endearg ( 2770m), 3 4km w est o f M aclear and B en M acdhui ( 3000m), 1 8km north o f R hodes, o n t he L esotho border. I n t he v icinity o f B arkly E ast t he t errain i s at places v ery broken but t o t he northwest t he surface i s both lower a nd more e ven. T he d escent f rom t he e scarpment t o t he s outh and s outhwest t akes p lace i n g iant t erraces c aused by t he u nderlying rock f ormations ( Figures 3 ,4). On t he abovementioned s ide undulating f oothills a lternate w ith s andstone o utcrops amongst w hich swift f lowing streams h ave c ut d eep v alleys. T he N geli mountains, approximately 5 0km s outh o f t he D rakensberg, are a p ossible r emainder o f a p eneplain f rom t he J urassic P eriod ( Thompson 1 942:52). I n t he d irection o f t he K raai R iver, north o f t he e scarpment, t he d escent i s m ore e ven w ith s low f lowing t ributaries. Two r egions c an b e d istinguished, n amely t he f oothills and t he Drakensberg r ange o f w hich t he Stormberg i s a w esterly e xtension. T he 1 700m c ontour c an b e s een a s t he t ransition l ine b etween t he t wo r egions. P assages t hrough t he e scarpment a re t he B aster f oot-path, B urgersnek, P ondosnek, B arkly P ass, V aalhoek, Tsitsa f oot-path, L ehanas P ass, S aalboom f oot-path, T embus P ass and m any o ther f oot-paths. I n t he g eological s tructure o f t he northeastern C ape t he o ldest rock l ayers a re t he m igmatite, gneiss and o ther u ltramorphic rock f ormations d ating t o t he P re-Cambrian P eriod ( Cole 1 961:4). S edimentation o f t he K aroo s equence t hat f ollows u nconformably t ook p lace d uring t he Ordovician t o t he J urassic P eriods and w as t erminated by h eavy volcanic a ctivities ( Lock et a l 1 974:117). T he o ldest rocks o f t he K aroo are t he D wyka Formation c onsisting o f t illites ( Kent 1 980:536). Following are t he E cca and B eaufort G roups w ith

2 1

2 2 C larence F orma t ion

D rakensberg F ormation

9

Mo lt•no F ormat ion

0 . o

0 o . . 0 E . o U -

O F MOUNTA INS

L i t

2 3

C OL W INTON

t hicknesses of c onsists m ainly

2 300 o f

and 2000m r espectively. The shales, sandstones and grit

f ormer and i s

d istinguished from t he B eaufort where r eddish and purplish m udstones appear in large quantities ( Mountain 1 968:69). T he Molteno Formation r ests unconformably on t he B eaufort Group. I t has a t hickness o f 600m and contains t ypical grey and b lue shales, mudstones and sandstones with a coarse granularity ( Haughton 1 969:366). The Molteno Formation i s v isible close to the t ar road on t he farm Lemoenfontein, B arkly E ast d istrict. The next are t he Elliot, C larens and Drakensberg Formations. These formations are clearly v isible i n a westerly d irection approximately t hree k ilometres d own t he B arkly P ass. The E lliot Formation ( formerly k nown a s t he R ed B ed stage o f t he Stormberg S eries) i s r esponsible f or t he steep t errace l ike s lopes o f t he e scarpment north o f E lliot. T his f ormation is highly erodable and i s s eldom s een i n t he B arkly E ast d istrict. Only a f ew r ed patches are v isible as t he r esult o f earlier movements i n t he earth's crust. T he constituent m aterial i s m edium t o f ine grain sandstones as well as r ed and purple m udstones ( Visser & Botha 1 980:55). Fossilised t ree t runks and r emains o f d inosaurs occur i n t his f ormation. The C larence Formation ( formerly Cave S andstone) i s o f special i nterest t o the archaeologist. I t r ests conformably o n t he E lliot Formation. T he constituent m aterial, d ominantly m assive f ine grained cream coloured or pink sandstone up t o 300m t hick, presumably had a w ind origin during conditions ( Haughton 1 969:366). Weathering r esulted

desert i n t he

f ormation o f c aves and rock shelters o f which some are very l arge, f or i nstance on t he farms The Caves, Longholm, Maartensdell and Wartrail i n the B arkly E ast d istrict. Many o f t he c aves and rock shelters were, i f dry enough, i nhabited during t he Later Stone Age. Dolerite i ntrusions i n t he C larence Formation, as observed at Moshesh's Ford, c aused t he f ormation o f a v ery hard, grey h ornfels which was used as raw m aterial f or artefacts. The roof o f t he Karoo s equence i s formed by t he Drakensberg l ava which was t he r esult o f volcanic activity during t he Jurassic P eriod ( King 1 944:25, Lock et a l 1 974:117-129). Molten rock m aterial ( magma) f rom great d epths under t he earth's crust f lowed i n various phases t hrough cracks. Moshesh's Ford i n t he B arkly E ast d istrict was an i mportant point o f volcanic activity and t he l ava s equence i s c learly observable on t he farm ( Lock 1 978:56). At t he b ase o f t he l avas g as b ubbles which occurred during t he f low o f t he l avas now c ontain minerals o f t he z eolite and s ilica groups ( Truswell 1 970:129). The l atter were an i mportant raw m aterial i n t he m anufacturing o f tools, mostly s crapers, at a ll t he s ites i n the study area. D uring t he Cretaceous P eriod and t he M iocene, l ifting o f t he l and surface and continuous erosion formed t he Drakensberg e scarpment a lthough i t was s ituated f urther to t he east t han at present. The erosion process i s at present still shifting t he e scarpment i n a westerly d irection and c auses a broken l andscape ( King 1 944:279).

2 4

S OILS T he weathering products o f t he Molteno and Drakensberg rocks f orm t he predominant e lements o f t he soils. The soils i n t he mountains are derived f rom b asalt and are r esidual and colluvial i n character. The soils are as a r ule t hin on t he s lopes b ut deep i n the r iver valleys. B lack moist soils c overed w ith grass occur on t he southern mountain s lopes while o n t he northern s lopes t he soils are brownish w ith considerable i ntrusion o f s hrubs b ecause o f over grazing. This i s t he r esult o f a warmer c limate on t he northern s lopes c ausing t he snow t o melt quicker than on t he southern s lopes and t he grass t o b e available sooner f or grazing. Two projects on D epartment o f

t he soils o f t he area were conducted Agriculture and T echnical S ervices.

by

t he

I n a soil survey i n the B arkly E ast d istrict ( Hartman 1 972) t he soils are grouped i nto four physiographic c ategories namely d eep a lluvial s oils occurring i n t he r iver v alleys, soils a longside smaller streams and watercourses, s oils o f t he lower h ill areas, and t he shallow and stony s oils o f t he steep mountain s lopes. The l atter t wo are unsuitable for a griculture. T he pH o f t he s oils varies b etween 5 ,7 and 8 ,2. The vegetation on t hese soils i s predominantly k aroid bushveld w ith a subdominant grassveld w ithin which occur areas o f sweet t o m ixed grass and m ixed t o s our grass. The soils o f t he southern s lopes are characterised by a c atena, n amely a s eries o f soils which b ecome progressively deeper d own t he s lope and which show, b esides depth, considerable d ifferences i n t exture and m inerals. T he origin o f t hese s oils i s t he Molteno sandstones and shales w ith d olerite i ntrusions. The soils are mostly r esidual b ut s ometimes a lso colluvial. On t he f lats t he soils are well d eveloped b ut subjected t o strong erosion. A longside r ivers where m arsh c onditions m ay occur because of poor drainage, t he soils are deep brown t o black clay ( Van d er Merwe 1 940:141). The v egetation i s m ixed t o sour grassveld w ith b ush i n the k loofs. A soil survey i n the area east o f Dordrecht ( Hartman 1 971) d istinguished t hree physiographical c ategories, n amely s oils a longside r ivers, s oils o f t he lower hills and s oils o f t he stony s lopes o f t he mountainous areas. Only 1 0% o f t he s oil i s covered by grassveld and i t i s mostly k aroid bushveld and s hrubveld that dominate. DRAINAGE T he Drakensberg mountains o f t he northeastern C ape are e xceptionally r ich i n water r esources i n the form o f m any fountains and small s treams which occur i n a lmost every k loof. Small f ountains are o ften s een on s lopes w ith a southern aspect. Strong water s eepages i n some o f t he rock shelters are used for h ousehold purposes by farmers. T he r egion at the f oot o f t he e scarpment has on the other h and, e xcept for r ivers and s mall streams, m arkedly f ewer water r esources. The d ifference b etween t he water r esources o f t he mountain and lower l ying areas m ay b e one factor i n favour o f mountain occupation by h unter-gatherers. South

o f

t he

mountain

2 5

r ange,

which

served

as

a

watershed, the r ivers are short and swift f lowing. They cut t hrough narrow valleys d irectly t owards t he s ea and have no well d eveloped tributuary s ystems. The area which m arks t he continuation of t he f oothills i s drained by s everal l arge r iver s ystems. The c atchment area o f t he Umzimvubu R iver covers t he eastern h alf o f the Transkei a s well as E ast Griqualand. T he r egion north o f the Amatola mountain range is drained by t he Kei R iver and the Bashee River h as as c atchment area the E lliot d istrict and western Transkei. The Umtata and t he Untamvuma r ivers drain the lower part o f t he Transkei. I n the past t hese r ivers probably created e ffective s easonal obstacles against movement parallel to t he e scarpment. C lose t o t he e scarpment movement b etween r ivers and streams c an t ake p lace w ith more ease. Drainage, north and northwest o f t he e scarpment, occurs by means o f t he Orange R iver c atchment area o f which t he Kraai R iver i s an i mportant t ributary. Tributaries o f the K raai R iver, namely t he Saalboomspruit, Sterkspruit and Langkloof R iver, are only t hree o f s ixty-three subcatchment areas t hat r epresent the c atchment area o f t he Orange R iver S cheme. The above mentioned t hree streams originate i n t he Drakensberg and f low t hrough long valleys which were a lso r elatively easy routes for p eople and game t hrough t he mountain range. MODERN

CLIMATE

T he Koppen climatic s ystem places t he study area CFB-zone ( Schulze & McGee 1 978:39) i .e. a r egion t emperate climate, a lways moist w ith warm summers.

i n t he w ith a

According t o t he T hornthwaite classification system, b ased on evapotranspiration, i t i s possible t o d ivide t he t errain i nto t wo r egions w ith t he e scarpment as the d ividing l ine ( Schulze & M cGee 1 978). T his system places B arkly E ast i n a sub-Alpine m icrothermic climate w ith surplus water during t he summer. T he d istricts o f E lliot and Maclear h ave a cold-temperate mesothermic climate, a lso w ith surplus water during t he summer ( Schulze & M cGee 1 978:45). The climate c an b e s een o verall as t emperate w ith m ild wet summers and cool dry w inters during which low n ight t emperatures are possible. RAINFALL Oceanic air-currents, forced against t he e scarpment by an anticyclone south o f Port Elizabeth, c ause l ight orographic rains e specially at the b eginning o f t he rainy s eason which l asts f rom November t o March ( Schulze 1 972:521). Later i n the rainy s eason t hunder storms o ften occur w ith an a verage frequency o f 7 0 d ays p er year. Rainfall statistics ( Weather B ureau 1 972) s how t hat the d istrict t hat i ncludes Maclear r eceives t he h ighest rainfall, namely 8 27,1 mm per year. T he B arkly E ast area r eceives 7 18,7 mm p er y ear and t he Elliot- Dordrecht area 529,8 mm per year. Rainfall stations at M aclear, Barkly P ass, Elliot and W illow Park ( 10 km east o f G rassridge) show mean annual rainfall f igures o f 803,3 mm, 7 36,4 mm, 781,6 mm, 624,2 mm r espectively ( Fig. 5 ) ( Weather B ureau 1 965). Less t han 2 5% o f t he rainfall occurs i n t he w inter w ith June and July a s the driest months. A ll the s ites i n t he study area, w ith t he e xception o f Grassridge, are i n

m n 1 40 • •

1 20

X •

X •

.

\ I .

6 0 0 •

4 0

‘ \ • \ 1 \4b .

2 0

F

N I

A

M

J

J

A

S

O

N

D

m onths 0 x •—

0D a rk ly E ast —x Mac lea r

• ••••*Elliot D .— •— D W i l low P ark

F ig . 5 . M onthly a verage r ainfall f or B arkly P ass ( 10 k m s outh o f C olwinton ), M aclear ( 22 k m n ortheast o f T e V rede ), E lliot ( 6 k m w est o f B onawe ) a nd W illow P ark ( 10 k m n ortheast o f G rassridge ). I nformation f rom W eather B ureau ( 1985) r ecords ( 1931-1960 ).

2 7

r elatively h igh r ainfall areas w hich would ensure enough water t hroughout t he y ear. Even d uring t he w inter no w ater s hortages o ccur, e specially i n t he mountains. HAIL,

S NOW,

F ROST

O n t he s outhern s lopes h ail c an b e e xpected on a n average o f s even d ays p er y ear. H ail s tones w ith d iameters up t o 60 mm w ere observed i n t he E lliot d istrict. The s ame f actors t hat brought h ail a lso c ause s now t hat o ccurs o n average 8 ,3 d ays p er y ear w ith J une and J uly t he most l ikely months f or s now. T he mountain r ange e xperiences h eavier s nowfall t han t he f oothills and s now c an o ccur any t ime o f t he y ear. S now d uring J anuary i s not u nheard o f i n t he B arkly E ast d istrict. On t he s outhern s lopes o f t he e scarpment s now t akes l onger t o m elt t han o n t he northern s lopes. D uring t he dry w inter m onths s now i s an i mportant s ource o f moisture f or t he s oil. T he e arliest f rosts o ccur f rom 20 April o n t he f oothills and t he l atest r ecorded d ate f or f rost i s 1 0 O ctober. I n t he mountains f rost c an o ccur o ver a l onger p eriod and c an b e e xpected d uring a utumn, w inter and s pring. I t c an b e f ound even i n t he s ummer i n t he k loofs. M ist mountains. s oil. W INDS

i s c ommon t hroughout t he y ear, e specially i n I t s upplies c onsiderable m oisture f or p lants

t he and

AND T EMPERATURE

W inds a re an i mportant e cological f actor i n t he D rakensberg r egion and c onsiderable s easonal v ariations o ccur. D uring t he s ummer w arm and d ry northwesterly mountain w inds b low w hich a lternate w ith c old s outheasterly w inds. I n t he w inter m onths s outheasterly and s outhwesterly w inds a re accompanied b y f reezingly c old w eather. A lthough t he m ountain r egions r eceive m ore s now a nd a lso are c older t han t he a reas at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment t he mountain v alleys provide more protection a gainst t he c old w inds t han t he f lats. S heep f armers o ften move t heir s tock d uring t he w inter f rom t he l ower l ying p arts t o m ountain f arms. I n t he autumn and spring s outhern w inds bring g ood r ain. D ata f rom t he W eather B ureau ( 1954) s how t hat B arkly E ast h as f or 9 3 d ays o f t he y ear a m inimum t emperature u nder f reezing point w hile t emperature e xtremes o f approximately 3 4° C d uring s ummer and 1 2° C d uring t he w inter are possible. F or 2 50 d ays p er y ear t he t emperature f alls f rom o ne d ay t o t he n ext b y m ore t han 5 ° C. No t emperature d ata are available f or E lliot and M aclear d istricts. I t i s c lear f rom t he above i nformation t hat a lthough t here are at present no d rastic d ifferences i n c limate b etween t he D rakensberg and i ts f oothills, t he d ifferences are s ufficient t o c ause p erceptible s hifts i n h abitat. MODERN

V EGETATION

T he v egetation o f t he e scarpment i s d ivided b y Coetzee ( 1967:107) i nto t wo b elts, n amely a Montane and an A ustroa froalpine b elt. S uch a r igid d ivision i s h owever, a ccording

2 8

t o a more r ecent ecological approach o f c lassification or gradient analysis, t oo i nflexible ( Bates 1 982:23). The l atter v iews t he vegetation as a continuum w ith no clear borders v isible. I n the c ase o f a mountain s lope, environmental and v egetation changes c an t ake place gradually while i ntergrowing of plant populations a lso o ccurs ( Miles 1 979:10). The classification o f v egetation i nto various types r emains a cceptable and h as considerable practical advantages ( Kershaw 1 973:229; Miles 1 979:11). I n t he d iscussion of t he v egetation o f t he study area t he o lder method is used t ogether w ith t he botanical survey by A cocks ( 1975)(Fig.6). Vegetation studies were a lso conducted i n the project area, i n t he v icinities o f t he various rock shelters, by G . Russel, S . R ussel, D . van d er Z ee and P . P hillipson o f t he University o f Fort H are. The Montane belt o f t he s outhern foothills i s characterised by d ominantly open grassveld w ith b ush i n t he protected kloofs. The veld t ype is H ighland sourveld and Dohne-sourveld ( Acocks 1 975:82) and occurs on s oils derived f rom t he Molteno s ystem at h eights varying b etween 1 350m and 2 150m. The origin and prevailing nature o f t he grassland i s probably due t o a ccidental or d eliberate burning ( Killick 1 963; Tainton 1 981:22). Grasses, which are i mportant for grazing, i nclude T hemeda triandra. T he dominance o f t his type o f grass i s the r esult o f r egular burning ( Robinson et a l 1 979). T ristachy h ispida and H eteropogon contortus are a lso present. Overgrazing o f the v eld by c attle stimulates t he growth o f Erogrostis plana while A colypha schinzii dominates when o vergrazing by sheep o ccurs ( Acocks 1 975:83). Large patches o f s outhern tall grassveld or m ixed veld grow i n t he r iver b asins. The dominant types o f grass h ere are T hemeda triandra and H yparrhenia h irta ( Acocks 1 975:102). Areas where these patches are f ound occur around Cala and to t he north i n the upper r eaches o f t he Tsomo R iver, t he Bashee and X uka r iver valleys north o f Tsolo and i n the h eadwaters o f t he Umzimvubu R iver. Smaller patches grow s outh of Mt F letcher and i n t he K inira valley north o f Mt Frere. The growth p eriod o f t he grasses is between S eptember to April ( Tainton 1 981:33) and t he protein content and t herefore n utritional value o f the southern tall grassveld d iminishes considerably s lower d uring the summer t han is the c ase with t he surrounding sourveld s o that i t c an supply grazing for at l east t wo months longer. T he patches o f m ixed v eld were o f great i mportance i n the subsistence system o f t he prehistoric hunter gatherers and a ccording t o historical sources game moved f rom t he s ourveld t o these patches during the winter months. Mann ( 1859:163) writes t hat b lesbuck, wildebeest, quagga and z ebra s earched for grazing during t wo or three w inter m onths i n the K lip R iver area o f Natal and a lso i n the upper d istricts o f t he Cape Colony. Grout ( 1862:302) r efers t o b lesbuck t rekking o ver t he Drakensberg t o spend t he winter i n Natal. I n Nomansland t he h eadwaters o f t he Umzimvubu R iver would h ave been a r efuge for g ame during the w inter months ( Hook 1 908:127). T hese concentrations o f game would h ave b een r elatively e asily e xploitable f ood r esources f or b ands o f hunters.

2 9

T hemede—Fes tuca A lp ine v e ld • 0

•

H igh land S ourve ld a nd D ohne S ourve ld D ry C ymbopogon—Themeda v e ld

S ou the rn T a l l g r ass v e ld — V a l ley B ushve ld C ymbopogon—Themeda

_

—

S tormberg p lateau s wee tve ld H igh land s ou rve ld t o C ymbopogon—Themeda O the r

F ig . 6 .

V eld t ypes o f t he s tudy a rea ( based o n A cocks 1 975) .

3 0

S pecific r eferences t o t he s easonal movement o f g ame t hrough t he L angkloof a nd t he S terkspruitkloof could not b e f ound i n t he l iterature. But according t o t he r eminiscences o f one o f t he o ldest l iving white i nhabitants i n t he r egion, who grew up at t he end o f t he previous c entury i n t he v icinity o f t he X ubenga R iver, g ame d id move during t he cold m onths t hough t he Sterkspruitkloof t o t he f oothills. H e a lso c laimed t hat grassland g ame s uch a s w ildebeest trekked during t he w inter months t o t he upper r eaches o f t he I nxu ( Wildebeest) R iver ( I.J. B rummer, p ersonal communication). T his confirms t he standpoint t hat g ame would start to c ongregate f rom t he l ate s ummer i n t he areas o f m ixed grass. The b urning o f v eld b efore t he starting o f t he summer r ains i s still practised by m any f armers i n t he area, e specially i n t he areas where sourgrass d ominates, and t akes p lace i n a 4 -year cycle. T his m ethod was a lso f ollowed b y t he B ushmen o f t he Drakensberg t o m ake t he v eld attractive t o t he g ame ( Drayson 1 858: 1 10; Carter 1 970). Sparrman ( 1786:107) m entions t hat colonists v isiting t he Tsomo R iver observed l ots o f s moke o n a mountain t wo d ays t ravel t o t he north. I f t he v eld i s not b urned i t m ay d evelop i nto a b ush o r shrub v eld ( Acocks 1 975) b ecause b urning i s an i mportant f actor i n l imiting t he i ntrusion o f b ush ( Trollope 1 974:67). The o ccurence o f t he r emains o f m ainly grassland t ypes o f g ame i n a ll t he l ayers i n t he d eposits at Bonawe and Te Vrede t estifies t hat grassveld h as c haracterised t he v egetation at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment f or t he p ast 1 0 000 y ears. A l arge v ariety o f t ree and shrub species grows on t he h illsides a nd i n t he k loofs o f t he E lliot d istrict. The most c ommon t ypes are Leucosidea sericea ( especially on t he o verstocked v eld), D iospyros s cabrida, Myrsine a fricana, B uddleja auriculata, D iospyros d ichrophylla, Rhamnus prinoides, C lutia pulchella, Grewia occidentalis, Erica c affra, Protea c affra, Acacia k arroo ( common on d isturbed s oil), R ubus sp., Rhus v iminalis, R .krebsiana, R .macowanii and C liffortia nItigula ( a shrub which i s t ypical o f o vergrazed areas). Possible f ood plants are common ( see Table 1 ), i ncluding Watsonia m eriana, Hypoxis m ulticeps, Hypoxis argentea and H aemanthus m agnificus. Other common p lants are Ranunculus m ultifudus, C enia s ericea, O enothera sp.,Kohoutia omatymbica, G azania krebsiana, Gerbera amigna, Lobelia spp. and T rachyandra a sperata. To t he west and northwest o f t he e scarpment grows montane b elt v egetation up t o h eights t hat v ary b etween 1 980m and 2 130m above s ea-level i n t he d rainage area o f t he Kraai R iver. This i ncludes t he surroundings o f B arkly E ast, a s ection o f t he L angkloof R iver valley, t he Saalboomspruit v alley a nd H euningneskloof. At present t he dominant v eld t ype i n t he west and northwest i s b ushveld w ith a l imited grass component o f Cymbopogon-Themeda, which i s a m ixed t o sour grass. I n t he south grassland d ominates. The presence o f Aristida d iffusa v ar. burkei and Cynodon d actylon i s a s ign o f v eld d eterioration. Karroid v egetation i s p erceptible w ith Crysochoma t enuifolia an i mportant r epresentative. West

o f

t he

m ain

study

area,

3 1

on

t he

f oothills

o f

t he

Stormberg t he veld i s c haracteristic o f t he transition b etween Cymbopogon-Themeda v eld and H ighland s ourveld ( Acocks 1 975) w ith b ush r emnants i n t he kloofs. S igns o f K aroo i ntrusion occur, f or i nstance F elicia f ilifolia. The condition o f t he veld i s poor w ith Eragrostis c urvula, Cymbopogon, Hyparrhenia, Aristida c f.diffusa present. Tree t ypes i n t he k loofs i nclude O lea a fricana, C eltis a fricana, H alleria l ucida, Grewia o ccidentalis and K igge-I JITJ africana. The Austro-alpine vegetation b elt grows on t he h igher p arts o f t he Drakensberg and o ccurs i n t he surroundings o f t he Sterkspruit valley and Langkloofspruit valley above h eights o f 1 850m above s ea-level. The v eld t ype i s ThemedaF estuca A lpine v eld ( Acocks 1 975:95). I t v aries f rom sweet t o m ixed and grows mostly on s oils o f b asalt origin. The dominant grass species i s Themeda triandra w ith o ther grass species l ike E lionurus argentus, H eteropogen contortus, Eragrostis c hloromelas and F estuca costata a lso present. I n t he kloofs dwarf t rees and s hrubs are f ound w ith L eucosidea sericea very c ommon. Other t ree t ypes are Rhus l aevigata, H eteromorpha arborescens and D iospyros austraa fricana. Woody shrubs commonly f ound i nclude Chrysocoma t enuifolia ( Karoo false f ynbos intruder), Erica spp., P asserina sp., C liffortia n itidula and F elicia f ilifolia. Possible f ood plants are R ubus p innatus, Rhus l aevigata and Hyobanche s anguinea. Other p lants H elichrysum sp., Cotyledon sp.

are Aloe aristata, E uphorbia c lavarioides, A lbuca sp., P achycrapus c oncolor and

The d ifferences i n t he v egetation o f t he mountainous areas and t he foothills are important b ecause t hey d etermined t he potentials o f t he subsistence strategies o f t he h unter g atherer b ands. The grazing h abits and seasonal b ehaviour o f g ame i n both r egions played a c onsiderable role i n t he s ubsistence system o f t he prehistoric h unters. S tudies o f modern B ushman groups i n Botswana emphasise t he role t hat t he g athering o f plant m aterial p lays i n every day l ife ( Schapera 1 960; S ilberbauer 1 965; L ee 1 968;1979; S teyn 1 971). I t i s a d ependable s ource o f f ood and a lso supplies m aterial f or m any h ousehold articles. Every B ushman h unter, woman and c hild, h as a w ide k nowledge o f a ll useful p lant species i n t heir surroundings, a lthough c ollection i s s elective u nder normal c ircumstances ( Lee 1 979:159). S uccess w ith t he h unting o f g ame i s o ften v ery u ncertain and plant f ood t herefore f orms t he b ulk ( 60%) o f t he d iet o f t he Kalahari B ushman ( Marshall 1 976; L ee 1 979:205). The use o f analogies i n t he r econstruction o f prehistoric s ubsistence s ystems h as i ts l imitations, b ut r esearch i n t he e astern C ape ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976) h as shown clearly t hat p lant f ood a ssociated w ith W ilton t echnology a lso p layed a s ignificant role i n t he L ater Stone Age e conomy. An ethnohistorical r eference t o t he use o f plant f oods by Bushmen i n t he Drakensberg occurs i n t he d escription b y L t. John S hepstone o f a c ave i n t he h eadwaters o f t he M zimkulu R iver shortly a fter t he B ushman occupants h ad f led ( Shepstone, J . 1 849). A lthough t he deposits which were e xamined during t he c ourse o f t his study c ontained v ery l ittle plant m aterial

3 2

e xcept c harcoal, t he present e cological z ones i n t he study a rea, e specially t he f oothills, a re r ich enough i n v egetation t o supply a c onsiderable quantity o f p lant f ood. A l ist o f p lants w ith an i ndication o f t he potential plant f oods, i dentified in t he surroundings o f t he v arious rock s helters, i s g iven i n T able 1 . F AUNA I ntensive hunting s ince t he m iddle o f t he previous c entury and l ater organised agriculture, stock k eeping and animal d iseases h as c aused t he d isappearance o f a ll l arge g ame species, except i n a f ew protected areas. The e arlier h unting activities are r eflected i n t he n ame Beenvlei, a h unters' post i n t he Drakensberg round about 1 850, which was l ater c hanged t o B arkly E ast. H ere t he h unters d ressed t heir products b efore t rekking westwards o ver Swartnek ( Barkly E ast R eporter 1 973). Rock art b y L ater Stone Age artists i s evidence o f t he w ide v ariety o f g ame species t hat abounded i n t he study area. Amongst t he present d ay B ushman groups i n t he Kalahari, where p lant f oods contribute 60-80% o f t he annual d iet, h unting s till c atches t he i magination and i s r itually i mportant ( Lee 1 968:40; M arshall 1 976). T he use o f meat i s i nfluenced by i ts a vailability. A l arge quantity o f m eat, which was t he r esult o f t he use o f metal t raps, l ed amongst t he Nharo t o a d ecrease i n t he collection o f p lant f ood ( Steyn 1 971:169). I n t imes when hunting i s s uccessful t he d iet o f t he ! Kung c onsists o f 90% meat ( Lee 1 979:205). Ethnohistorical evidence shows t hat t he seasonal movements o f game were a lso f ollowed b y t he Bushman b ands ( Shepstone, J . W. undated). These movements were c aused by v ariations i n t he c arrying c apacity o f t he t ypes o f veld t hat grow i n t he northeastern Cape. At present t he grassveld v aries f rom sweet ( west o f Dordrecht) t o sour ( the v icinities o f E lliot and M aclear) while m ixed veld o ccurs on t op o f t he e scarpment ( Barkly E ast) and i n t he r iver v alleys. T he sour grass i s very n utritious during t he spring and e arly summer. Water i s usually a vailable at m any p laces i n t he veld d uring t hese t imes o f t he y ear and t his enabled t he g ame t o graze o ver a m uch l arger a rea t han during t he l ate s ummer and spring when suitable grazing c an b e f ound o nly i n t he r iver b asins. D uring a good r ainy s eason i n t he b eginning o f 1 873 a s mall group o f t ravellers moving t hrough t he Slang R iver ( Elliot d istrict) t o E ast Griqualand encountered v irtually no g ame ( Anon 1 978). This c annot b e c ontributed s olely t o t he i ntensive h unting o f t he preceding y ears b ut a lso t o t he w ide d istribution o f t he game, b ecause i n April 1 889 S tanford saw abundant hartebeest at t he f oot o f t he Drakensberg ( Macquarrie 1 962:100). For domestic stock t he grazing potential o f t he m ixed v eld i s approximately 8 months ( Van d er Eyk et a l 1 969:32) b ut i t i s possible t hat b lesbuck a nd w ildebeest graze i t f or a l onger t ime. B lesbuck m anage v ery well o n even sourveld i n t he w inter ( Kettlitz 1 967) provided t he grass i s short. Also

3 3

w ildebeest survive well o n s hort grassveld trek ( P. Novelle, R esearch o fficer Mountain s onal c ommunication).

i f t hey c annot Z ebra P ark, p er-

An i mpression o f t he s izes o f t he e arly g ame h erds at t he f oot o f t he mountain i s g iven i n h istorical sources. B lack w ildebeest was o ne o f t he most common grassveld antelope species. A lthough abundant, apparently t he f ormation o f v ery l arge h erds a s f or i nstance i n t he southern Orange F ree State d id not t ake p lace. A h erd o f 20 w ildebeest was observed s outh o f t he I ngeli mountains, Nomansland, i n Novemb er 1 862 ( Dobie 1 945:49). Gardiner ( 1836) observed a h erd o f 1 1 w ildebeest c lose t o t he h eadwaters o f t he Umzimkulu R iver. On t he C edarville f lats i n E ast Griqualand 40 w ildebeest were shot o n o ne d ay ( Hook 1 908:127). Hartebeest and b lesbuck were a lso abundant ( Macquarrie 1 962:100,218). Eland h erds were f ound at t he f oot o f a s well a s i n t he Drakensberg ( Macquarr ie 1 962:100) and a h erd o f 5 0 was observed i n t he Transkei i n 1 863 ( Hook 1 908; Macquarrie 1 962). B uffalo and z ebra a lso o ccurred ( Hook 1 908; M acquarrie 1 962). S maller game species which were grey r hebuck, k lipspringer and 1 962:100). T he t wo l ions s hot i n 1 844 were among t he l ast i n t he area ( Hook A

variety

o f

b irds

was

f ound

p lentiful were r ed and bushbuck ( Macquarrie o n t he C edarville f lats 1 908:127). i ncluding

partridges,

p heasants, guinea-fowl, w ild p eacock and ducks ( Macquarrie 1 962:100). Modern B ushmen t rap b irds o nly t o supplement t heir meat s upply ( Steyn 1 971:104; L ee 1 979:209). T he n umbers o f t he abovementioned g ame were depleted t hrough t ime so t hat i n t he 1 960s o nly t he f ollowing game s till o ccurred i n t he study a rea ( Bigalke & B alkeman 1 962; D u P lessis 1 969; Von R ichter 1 971a): steenbuck, grysbuck, grey r hebuck, r ed r hebuck, b lesbuck ( above and b elow t he mount ain); springbuck, duiker, oribi, b lack w ildebeest ( Ndubi n ature r eserve, Umtata)(only b elow t he mountain). Aardvark o ccur o nly o n t he f oothills. I ndigenous f reshwater f ish species i n t he r ivers o f t he study area are t he sardine s ize B arbus anoplus and eels ( Anguilla mossambica) ( Jubb 1 967:101;153). Edible f rogs ( Xenopus sp.) are present i n a ll t he streams. Frogs o f t his species have l egs w ith more meat t han t he small i ndigenous f ish ( R. van der B erg, D epartment o f Zoology, University o f Fort H are, p ersonal c ommunication). Frogs are e aten b y modern B ushmen ( Steyn 1 971:14 Marshall 1 976:129). T he game o f t he Drakensberg r egion was c ertainly an i mportant potential s ource o f f ood for t he hunter-gatherers. T he mountains were i n g eneral t he h abitat o f t he eland and t he grey r hebuck while t he w ildebeest, h artebeest and z ebra k ept t o t he grassveld at t he f oot o f t he mountains. I t was t he grazing habits and s easonal b ehaviour o f t he game t hat h ad a d etermining i nfluence o n t he subsistence system o f t he B ushman b ands.

3 4

DURING

THE CLIMATE T HE TERMINAL

AND VEGETATION PLEISTOCENE AND

HOLOCENE

A lthough southern Africa d id not e xperience glacial c onditions during t he P leistocene t he glacial and i nterglacial periods world w ide h ad f ar r eaching e ffects on t he l ocal climatic conditions and vegetation patterns ( Van Z inderen Bakker 1 978:134). Of special i nterest for t his s tudy i s t he l ast cold p eriod t hat r eached a m aximum b etween 2 5 000 y ears and 1 8 000 years a go i n t he s outhern hemisphere ( CLIMAP 1 976:113; Lorius et a l 1 979:647; F aure 1 981:379) as w ell a s t he subsequent c limatic amelioration. It c an b e a ssumed t hat t he area u nder d iscussion during t his p eriod e xperienced climatic and vegetation o scillations which were e quivalent i n n umber, i f not i n m agnitude, to t hose which o ccurred i n t he r est o f s outhern Africa. I n t he analysis o f t he evolution o f t he climate o f South A frica during t he past 2 5 000 years various r esearchers m ade use o f r adiocarbon d ates i n a ssociation with pollen analysis, geomorphological and p edological s tudies, faunal r emains and o xygen i sotopic analysis. I n a ll a m ass o f facts i s at present available t o construct a broad framework o f environmental changes which c an s erve a s b ackground f or a d iscussion o f h uman b ehaviour i n t he northeastern Cape during t he L ater Stone Age. Corresponding conditions i n t he northern and southern h emispheres d uring t he l ate P leistocene were c haracterised by l ow t emperatures ( Fairbridge 1 970:98) and p eriods o f e xtreme d rought i n parts o f Africa, I ndia, South America and A ustralia ( Williams 1 976:618). I n South Africa c irques i n t he Drakensberg basalt as l ow a s 1 800m a re i nterpreted as t he r esult o f c older conditions t han at present ( Butzer 1 973:9; Dyer & M arker 1 979:269). The l atest o f t hese cold p eriods, a lthough u ndated, coincided according t o H arper ( 1969:99) and C arter ( 1977:197) w ith t he l ast m aximum cold o f t he l ate P leistocene ( 18 000 B .P.). The r esulting lower snowline exp lains t he absence o f a rchaeological r emains o lder t han 1 6 000 years i n t he B arkly E ast area. A drop i n t emperature o f 5° C t o 9 1 /2 ° C lower t han at present d uring t he m aximum o f t he l ate P leistocene i s s een a s possible f or s outhern Africa ( Harper 1 969:97; B utzer 1 973:10; T alma e t a l 1 974:140; Carter 1 977; D eacon, J . 1 982:44). An earlier standpoint that t he lowering i n t emperature was c oupled w ith an i ncrease i n r ainfall c aused b y t he d eeper p enetration o f cyclonic s torms, b ecause o f a northerly s hift i n t he westerlies, i nto t he i nterior ( Coetz ee 1 967:126; Van Z inderen B akker 1 978:134) was seen by D eacon H .J.(1983a) as u nproven. A l arge s cale d isplacement o f t he westerlies and anticyclonic c ells necessary for t he enlarging o f t he w inter r ainfall area d id not t ake place but an i ncrease i n t he i ntensity o f t he a ir c irculation b ecause o f w inds occurred ( Deacon, H .J. 1 983a:326) which only i nf luenced t he the t otal r ainfall while t he seasonal d istribution r emained t he same. Lower s ea t emperatures l ed to a d ecrease i n evaporation i n t he southern and e astern Cape and t hat a gain l owered t he r ainfall ( Deacon, J . 1 982:47).

3 5

I nformation f rom Boomplaas c ave and N elc iG i,: B ay c ave b ased o n c harcoal, l arge and s mall m ammals s howed t hat t he s outhern Cape was c haracterised at about 2 0 000-16 000 y ears a go by cold d ry c onditions w ith a r ainfall o f 3 0-40% l ower t han t oday ( Deacon, J . 1 982). S ignificant s hifts i n t he v egetation i n s outhern A frica d uring t he l ate P leistocene w ere c aused b y a c onsiderable d rop i n t he t emperature and c hange i n t he r ainfall. Analysis o f charcoal f rom h earths at Boomplaas c ave s howed t hat t he o ccupants u sed c ompositea s p a s m aterial f or f ires d uring t he p eriod 2 2 0 00- 1 4 0 00 y ears a go ( Deacon, J . 1 982:49). W ith t he amelioration o f t he t emperature a fterwards t hey u sed more woody s pecies. Pollen studies a t F lorisbad ( Van Z inderen B akker 1 957) and at A liwal-North ( Coetzee 1 967) h ave d espite c ritisism ( Sampson 1 972) much i mportance f or t he u nraveling o f t he v egetation s equence o n t he i nland p lateau, which i s a s ummer r ainfall area. T hey s uggest a s eries o f v egetation c hanges r esulting f rom changes i n precipitation and t emperature. A lthough t he s equence would not b e r epeated e xactly i n t he study area, b ecause t he Drakensberg h as i ts own l ocal c limate, t he m ain c hanges a re probably r eflected. About 2 5 0 00B.P. t he v egetation at F lorisbad c hanged f rom k arroid t o grassland b ecause o f c old h igh precipitation conditions ( Van Z inderen B akker 1 978:39). A s imilar h igh r ainfall w ith accompanying grassland i s r eported f or A lexandersfontein ( Van Z inderen B akker & B utzer 1 973:246). T hese c onditions c ontinued u ntil 1 6 000B.P. when a fterwards r epeated o scillations f rom Karoo t o grassveld and b ack i ndicate f luctuations b etween c older-wetter and d rier-warmer conditions i n t he p eriod t hat i mmediately preceded t he Holocene. R ecent analysis o f pollen f rom Wonder K rater i n t he Transvaal B ushveld ( Scott 1 981:339) s hows t hat t he p eriod f rom 2 5 000 B .P. t o 1 1 000 B .P. was c haracterised b y a wet c old c limate w ith grassveld i n t he p lace o f b ushveld. T here n evertheless i s a t present no i rrefutable evidence f or t he abovementioned wetter c onditions at 1 8 0 00 B .P.in t he s ummer r ainfall a reas a lthough J .Deacon ( 1982:47) s ees i t a s a possibility b ecause o f t he p enetration s outhwards o f t ropical s ea a ir f rom t he I ndian o cean and t he Mosambique c hannel. F rom about 1 6 0 00 B .P., according t o evidence f rom i ce cores f rom Antarctica ( Lorius et a l 1 979:674), a c limatic amelioration o ccurred. The d ate f or t he b eginning o f t he Holocene, 1 0 0 00 a go i n South Africa, i s b ased o n t he study b y V incent ( 1972:45) o f d eep s ea c ores i n t he Mozambique c hannel and i s a lso a ccepted b y o ther r esearchers ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976:1, P lug 1 978:16). A world w ide r ise i n s ea l evel o f more t han l m i n 1 000 y ears t ook p lace at t his stage ( Faure 1 981:386) a s t he r esult o f t he melting o f t he i ce s heets i n t he northern h emisphere. An e ffect o f t he g eneral r ise i n t emperature was a c hange i n t he r ainfall p attern. T he S ahara now e xperienced a w et p hase ( Faure 1 981:378). T he p eriod 1 6 0 00-12 0 00 y ears B .P. i n t he s outhern C ape was m arked b y a h igher r ainfall

3 6

t han at present a s well a s t he appearance o f a vegetation s imilar t o t he modern o ne ( Deacon, J . 1 982:70). Evidence o f d rier conditions i n t he e arly Holocene was f ound at Groenv lei, Knysna, where a s equence o f pollen types, covering t he p ast 8 000 years, i ndicates a sub-dry c limate b efore 7 000 B .P. w ith a sparse v egetation ( Martin 1 969:190). The course o f t he p ost P leistocene was a lso elsewhere characterised by f luctuations i n t emperature and humidity t hat i nfluenced v egetation, p eople and g ame. I n t he Orange R iver c atchment a rea and o n t he e astern Cape coast wet p eriods are i ndicated a t about 8 000 years B .P. and again at about 4 200-1000 years B .P. w ith drier conditions o therwise ( Van Z inderen B akker & B utzer 1 973:247). T he work o f Carter ( 1977) i n eastern Lesotho gave e vidence o f a c limatic c hange i n t he early Holocene. I n t he d eposit o f t he B elleview rock s helter a s ingle c harcoal l ens, d ated t o 8650 ± 80 B .P. ( Pta-293), was f ound i n Layer 5 ( unit 1 7). T he m aterials o f which t he l atter were c omposed were brown s and and c lay which were washed i nto t he shelter d uring a p eriod of h igh r ainfall 1 3 000-4000 years B .P. ( Carter 1 977:199). A s equence o f p eat l ayers i n association w ith a s pring eye i n t he c atchment area o f t he Mashai R iver was a lso s een a s t he r esult o f t imes o f h igher r ainfall ( Carter 1 977:204). The o ldest p eat l ayer has a d ate o f 7 280 ± 1 50 B .P. ( Q-1165). Unfortunately a ssociated faunal and botanical i nfor mation, t o s how t he i mplications o f t he i ncreased r ainfall, i s l acking at t he abovementioned s ites. I n any c ase t hese c onclusions are not supported by i nformation f rom t he analysis o f c harcoal samples f rom s ites i n t he study area. S igns o f a wet p eriod o ccur i n t he Colwinton shelter i n t he f orm o f a l ayer o f a lluvium i mmediately u nder a h ardened s and l ayer on which t he o ldest o ccupation l ayer r ests. A lthough t he f irst o ccupation took place e arly i n t he Holocene i t i s not possible t o date t he underlying deposits o f t he wet period. Colwinton was a lready i nhabited when B elleview, 200 km northeast, was t oo wet f or o ccupation. C harcoal samples f rom Ravenscraig rock s helter i n t he Sterkspruitkloof s how t hat b efore about 10 000 years a go t he i nhabitants used n early equal q uantities o f L eucosidea s erica and E uryops spp. a s f uel. A l arge i ncrease i n E uryops spp. t ake place d irectly a fterwards and t his wood species r emains dominant t hroughout t he e arly Holocene a lthough gradually o ther wood types were a lso used a s f irewood ( Tusenius 1 986). E uryops spp. i s an i ndication o f a dry warm environment and t he i mplication o f t his i dentification i s t hat t he Sterks pruit surroundings were i n t he t erminal P leistocene / Holocene p eriod, r elatively wetter and cooler t han during t he e arly Holocene. T he gradual i ncrease i n o ther woody p lants i s e vidence t hat t he climate was s lowly g etting wetter. T he p eriod 1 1 000-8000 years B .P. was according to Lorius et a l ( 1979:647), the warmest i n t he s outhern h emisphere, and t he succeeding p eriod up t o 4000 years B .P., t he coldest. Local d eviations, however, o ccurred and i n t he s outhern Cape t he climate was at i ts warmest about 6000 y ears a go ( Deacon, J . 1 982:57). A cool phase o f a short d uration ( 5500-4700 B .P.) i s r evealed by t he analysis o f m arine d iatoms f rom Groenvlei ( Van Z inderen B akker 1 969:8).

3 7

I n t he study area a t emperature f luctuation, s hortly a fter 6000 years ago, was r eflected i n s hifts t hat took p lace i n t he v egetation and fauna. An analysis o f charcoal s amples f rom hearths i n t he Colwinton deposits shows clearly a dominant plant ( Euryops sp.) at 6000 years ago ( Layer 4 ) which i s r eplaced by another woody s hrub ( Cliffortia s p.) i n l ayers 3 -1 ( Tusenius 1 982). At R avenscraig rock s helter E uryops s p. a lso decreased i n i mportance as f uel and i n t he l ate Holocene i t i s Leucosidea which was commonly used ( Tusenius 1 986). Both C liffortia sp. and L eucosidea a re b ett er adapted t o cold wet environments t han Euryops sp. Grassland g ame such a s w ildebeest, hartebeest, b lesb uck, b lue antelope and z ebra, which were characteristic of t he e arly Holocene environments o f t he L angkloof and Sterkspruitkloof, d isappeared f rom t he d iet o f t he occupants o f t he rock shelters at t he b eginning o f t he l ate Holocene. E land, p artly a browser, and grey r hebuck now became t he dominant prey. When using t he faunal m aterial, which r epresents r emains o f t he hunting successes o f t he early h unters, t o r econstruct t he vegetation and climatic patterns, t he possible role o f d iet preferences m ust b e k ept i n m ind. The modern ! Kung o f t he K alahari , for i nstance, h unt o nly 1 7 animal s pecies on a g eneral b asis while 2 23 species are a vailable ( Lee 1 968:35). Animals l ike t he ostrich, z ebra, b uffalo and elephant are at l east s easonally i n t heir area b ut are s eldom hunted by t hem ( Lee 1 979:232). The Nharo s hun predators and b aboons ( Steyn 1 971:144). A mere change i n t he d iet t herefore d oes not a lways i ndicate a change i n environment.

t he t he

T he evidence for a c limatic change i s supplemented s hift i n t he type o f f irewood used by t he i nhabitants Colwinton s helter d uring t he l ate Holocene.

by o f

The d isappearance o f t he l arger grassland game l ike a lcelaphines a fter 6000 B .P. f rom t he h igh-lying parts o f t he study area and t he appearance o f e land and grey r hebuck i s probably t he r esult o f t he appearance o f a d ifferent type o f v egetation when t he climate changed f rom dry and warm to wetter and cooler. The archaeological r emains s how t hat t he occupation i ntensity at t he b eginning o f t he l ate Holocene i ncreased considerably i n t he Drakensberg rock s helters. S uch an i ncrease, c onsidering t he broken t errain, must h ave placed more stress o n t he a lready d eclining n umbers o f t he h erd game. The f aunal m aterial f rom B onawe and T e Vrede, dating to t he early and l ate Holocene, i n contrast w ith bone a ssemb lages f rom t he area o n t op o f t he e scarpment, h as r emnants i n a ll l ayers o f animals which are t ypical o f a grassland environment. This does not support t he r econstruction by Acocks ( 1975) o f a f orest and b ush vegetation on t he f ooth ills during prehistoric t imes. Microscopic analyses o f c harcoal s amples f rom Bonawe rock s helter r eveal, as was t he c ase o n t op o f t he mountain, a d efinite change i n t he wood t ypes used a s f uel f rom t he e arly t o the l ate Holocene

3 8

( Tusenius 1 986). I n t he e arly Holocene mostly O lea and R hus s pp. w ere used and i n t he l ate Holocene a m uch l arger v ariety o f wood species w ith t he p ercentages o f O lea and c f.Euclea/Diospyros s omewhat h igher. T ree t ypes b elonging t o t he Olea and t he R hus families i nclude t he h ardy w ild o live and t he k arree which a re a dapted t o warm dry environments. A d ecrease i n t he u se o f t hese t wo k inds o f wood f rom t he e arly t o t he l ate Holocene c onfirms t hat a lso at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment t he c limate c hanged f rom dry and warm t o c ooler and wetter. I t i s i nteresting t hat c ircumstantial e vidence, b ased o n t he absence o f r adiocarbon d ates, i ndicates t hat t he i nland p lateau was, possibly o f d rier c onditions, a sparsely p opulated r egion b etween 9 500 and 4600 B .P. ( Deacon, J . 1 974). I f t his was t he c ase t hen t he population d ensity would h ave i ncreased i n t he well watered e scarpment a rea d uring t his p eriod. I nterestingly t he e arliest o ccupation at both Bonawe and Colwinton rock s helters t ook p lace at about 9000 B .P. W illiams ( 1976:361) h owever warns a gainst a ssuming t hat a low f requency o f r adiocarbon d ates i ndicates a d ry p hase and a h igh f requency r epresents a wet o ne. At present s ufficient d ata e xist t o s how t hat m eaningful environmental changes o ccurred i n parts o f t he study a rea d uring t he end o f t he P leistocene and m iddle Holocene. I t r emains h owever i mpossible t o g ive a d etailed r econstruction o f climatic and v egetation p atterns f or any s pecific p eriod i n t he past. Changes i n t he S tone Age t echnology d uring t he p ast 20 000 years a re m arkedly u niform o ver l arge a reas and t his i ndicates t hat t he i nfluence o f d ifferent environments i s not n ecessarily c learly r eflected i n artefact a ssemblages. I t would a lso b e an o versimplification t o s ee environmental c hange a s t he o nly c ause o f c ulture c hange.

3 9

5

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

OBSERVATIONS AT

COLWINTON

R OCK

SHELTER

I NTRODUCTION The Colwinton rock s helter ( 1 8 30 m above s ea-level) ( 31 ° 07 ' 45"S)(27° 44 ' 2 2" E) i s located on t he eastern s ide o f t he Langkloof valley, i n t he Drakensberg mountains o f t he northeastern Cape, 2 3 km south o f B arkly E ast ( Fig.1). The Langkloof stretches for almost 40 km northwards from t he B arkly Pass up t o B arkly E ast and i s, together with a few other parallel valleys, part o f t he Orange R iver c atchment area. The shelter i s a l arge c avity i n t he l ight coloured sandstone o f t he C larence Formation and i s 3 8 m long, 1 0 m d eep i nside t he d ripline and approximately 1 3 m h igh at t he drip point. T he entire f loor consists o f an a lmost horizontal deposit which i s covered w ith a l ayer o f h ardened dung. The t alus o f t he deposit changes gradually i nto a s lope t hat descends steeply t o t he L angkloof R iver about 1 20 m f rom t he shelter. At t he northern s ide, i n f ront o f t he shelter, t here are i ndications t hat t he t op part o f t he deposit i n t hat s ection was r emoved t hrough t rampling when t he shelter was used a s a kraal. A lthough t he shelter i s s ituated i n a r egion well k nown f or i ts rock art o nly a f ew, v ery f aded, r ed paintings c an b e s een a gainst t he b ack wall. T he vegetation i n t he v icinity o f t he shelter i s at present dominantly grassland w ith dwarf trees and woody s hrubs i n t he k loofs. A poplar grove grows a f ew h underd metres south o f t he shelter on t he eastern bank o f t he stream. A l ist o f s ome o f t he f ood plants t hat occur i n t he e xploitation area o f t he shelter i s g iven i n Table 1 . I n t he summer t he shelter r eceives d irect sunshine f rom about 1 4h00. Only l imited protection i s provided e specially a gainst w inds f rom t he south which are r esponsible f or very cold weather. The shelter i s under normal c ircumstances d ry b ut during heavy r ains or when s now melts water s eepage, f rom t he s lope above t he shelter, occurs against t he roof and t he b ack o f t he shelter. The southern corner o f t he shelter i s a lways dry and t he deposit i s very a shy h ere b ecause i t was a suitable place f or h earths. The northern and s outhern good a s well as t hat t owards western s ide o f t he k loof. D uring t he a very s uitable habitation w ill r egular s now.

a spect f rom t he shelter t he mountain s lopes on

i s t he

summer months t he shelter t herefore provides dwelling p lace b ut during t he w inter months b e unpleasant b ecause o f cold w inds and

E XCAVATION T he

excavation

t ook

p lace

b etween

2 1

D ecember

1 978

and

2 2 January 1 979. A grid o f 1 m s quares w ith a f ixed r eferenc e point was constructed i n t he southern part o f t he shelter c lose t o t he b ack wall ( Fig. 7 ). F irst b lock C was excavated a s a t est pit, using units o f 0 ,05cm, i n order to g et an i ndication o f t he cultural m aterial i n, and depth o f, t he

4 0

•

> . •

• •• •

4 3

1 5

c o•

1 . 3 X

C 't C O:

C O

S c

4 1

1 5

d eposit. This m aterial was k ept s eparate f rom t he f inds i n t he o ther b locks. B ecause o f t he e xtent o f t he d eposit ( a surface area o f 4 00 s q m ) and t he t ime available f or t he e xcavation i t w as d ecided at t his stage t o enlarge t he t est pit as a t rench stretching f rom north t o s outh t o g ive a r epresentative sample o f t he contents o f t he deposit. T he r ange and d istribution o f a ctivity areas and h earths, which f all only p artly i n t he area o f e xcavation, would h owever r emain u nknown. To s tudy t hese a spects, t he h orizontal s tripping o f m aterial o ver a m uch l arger area would b e n ecessary. D uring t he e xcavation an attempt was m ade t o r emove s imultaneously m aterial f rom t he same l ayer i n d ifferent b locks. T his g ave a b etter u nderstanding o f t he d istribution o f t he archaeological m aterial. W ithin e ach o ccupation l ayer a d ivision o f 0 ,05m units was used t o ensure b etter control o ver t he position o f g eneral f inds. For h earths and o ther s ignificant m aterial l ike d iagnostic a rtefacts, bone t ools, pottery and c harcoal f or r adiocarbon d ating t he e xact t hree d imensional positions were d etermined and where n ecessary d rawn o n graph paper. A s ieve ( 3 mm) was used t o r egain t he c ultural r emains. Only t he obvious non-cultural m aterials l ike roof spalls were r emoved a fter which t he s ifted m aterial was packed i nto l arge, c learly m arked paper b ags f or r emoval t o t he l aboratory. Soil s amples were t aken f rom e ach l ayer. A c ount o f t he n umber o f b uckets which were t aken f rom t he d eposit was k ept b y m eans o f s mall m arked c ards ( Table 2 ). C ultural m aterial o ccurred t hroughout t he d eposit and t he preservation o f b one was good i n a ll l ayers. No p lant r emains e xcept c harcoal f ragments were f ound. A f air i mpression o f t he stratigraphic b uild up o f t he d eposit was g iven e specially b y t he profile o f t he e astern s ection o f t he e xcavation. The western s ection was m uch more a shy and u nclear. A ll t he b locks, e xcept B lock 1 , were e xcavated d own t o a h ardened s and l ayer u nder which a s terile s oft damp s oil w ith s ome l arge stones was f ound. I n t he s outhern c orner o f t he t rench t he d eposit h as a depth o f 0 ,6m and o n t he northern s ide 1 ,6m. B edrock was not r eached i n any o ne o f t he b locks. STRATIGRAPHY Taking i nto c onsideration s oil t exture, a rchaeological m aterial and c olour changes i t was possible during t he e xcavation t o d istinguish s everal o ccupation l ayers i n t he d eposit. Analysis o f t he cultural r emains and r adiocarbon d ates l ater c onfirmed t he v alidity o f t hese d ivisions. E ach o ccupation l ayer r epresents a summary o f e vents t hat t ook place o ver a p eriod o f a t housand y ears o r more and i t was mostly not possible, e xcept i n t he c ase o f h earths, to i solate s ingle events or e ven o ccupation surfaces. T he d eposit g ives an i mpression o f c ontinuous h abitation which c an b e m isleading b ecause breaks i n t he use o f t he s helter by h uman groups m ust h ave o ccurred a s a r esult o f t he mobility o f hunter g atherer b ands. L eaching eliminated t he m icrostratigraphy and o nly s ix m ain stratigraphic units were i dentified ( Fig. 8 ). T he f ollowing i s a s hort d escription o f t he c haracteristics o f e ach l ayer.

4 2

NI

•

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L AYER 6 T his i s a sandy c aused b y t he presence e arliest o ccupation o f

l oam d eposit w ith a d ark brown c olour o f o rganic m aterial and r epresents t he t he s helter.

I t r ests upon a s terile s and which i s c overed b y a h ard crust, possibly t he r esult o f t he precipitation o f i ron hydroxide ( Goodyear 1 971:28). T he a lkalinity o f t he d eposit ( pH=7,2) i mproved t he preservation o f t he b one m aterial. No absolute dates a re available f or Layer 6 b ut o n t he grounds o f artefact t ypology a s well a s t he d ates obtained f or t he o ther l ayers i t c an b e a ssumed t hat t he l ayer developed d uring t he e arly Holocene. T he l ayer starts i n B lock C w ith a t hickness o f l ess t han 0 ,05 m b ut i ncreases i n t hickness t o approximately 0 ,3 m i n t he d irection o f b lock I . L AYER 5 A l ight brown c olour a s well a s a s andy s oil t exture d istinguishes t his l ayer ( 0 ,1 m t hick) f rom t he preceding l ayer 6 . T he origin o f l ayer 5 i s possibly more n atural t han c ultural and i t c ontains l ess c ultural m aterial t han any o ther o ccupation l ayer ( Table 2 ). Layer 5 d oes not o ccur i n B lock A . A d ate o f 6270 ± 40 B .P. ( Pta-2550) c omes f rom t he t ransition b etween l ayers 4 and 5 . L AYER 4 T his i s a d ark brown l oam clay w ith y ellow l ines v isible. T he t hickness varies f rom 0 ,09 m i n t he s outhern t o 0 ,4 m i n t he northern c orner o f t he e xcavation. T he l ayer i s r ich i n a rchaeological r emains and b acked artefacts appear f or t he f irst t ime. T he v ariety o f a rtefact t ypes i ncreases. T hese a spects s how t hat t he s helter was i ntensively v isited during t he m iddle Holocene b y p eople who d iffered culturally f rom t he previous o ccupants. L AYER 3 T his l ayer h as a m aximum t hickness o f 0 ,5 m b ut n arrows gradually u ntil i t c omes t o an end 2 m f rom t he s outhern c orner. I t c onsists o f greyish-brown l oamy c lay w ith c harcoal f ragments and white a sh m arkers.

L AYER 2 A characteristic i s t he appearance o f pottery. T he t hickness o f t he l ayer v aries f rom 0 ,4 t o 0 ,2m and t he c olour c hanges f rom a shy o n t he s outhern s ide t o d ark brown o n t he northern s ide. T he r eason m ay b e l eaching b ecause t he d eposit i s w etter o n t he northern s ide t han o n t he s outhern s ide. A d ate o f 1 890± 4 5 B .P. ( Pta-2549) comes f rom t he t ransition b etween Layer 3 and L ayer 2 . L AYER 1 Layer

1

i s

greyish-brown

4 4

i n

c olour

w ith

a sh

and

c harchoal fragments v isible and approximately 0 ,3m t hick. B urnt dung occurs i n places. A t hin l ayer o f hardened dung c overs t he surface. This l ayer r epresents t he youngest p eriod o f o ccupation i n t he shelter and a decrease i n cultural m aterial i s noteworthy. A d ate o f 7 0 ± 40 B .P. ( Pta-2547) close t o t he surface i s e vidence o f t he fact t hat t he shelter was i n use until t he a rrival o f t he f irst p ermanent white s ettlers about 1864. E xcept f or a p enny w ith t he date o f 1 864, t hat was found l ying on t he surface, no o ther m aterial related to t his c ontact period was r ecovered. No m aterial b elonging t o t he I ron Age c ame t o l ight. DATING A

s eries

of

four

d ates

( Table

3 )

on

charcoal

f rom

h earths was supplied by J .C. Vogel ( CSIR, Pretoria). Unfortunately t he commencement o f h abitation at t he shelter could not b e dated, but t he o ther d ates give an acceptable t ime s cale for t he t echnological s equence and enable correlations w ith other s ites t o b e m ade. T he d ate o f 6270 ± 40 B .P. ( Pta-2550) coincides w ith t he f irst appearance o f b acked artefacts i n t he deposit and i s c lose to t he date o f 6300 ± 60 B .P. ( Pta-2952) f or t he f irst appearance o f s egments at Grassridge s helter, Sterkstroom d istrict. A s imilar d ate o f 6400 1 . 75 B .P.(UW-306) d ates t he b eginning o f t he W ilton i ndustry at Boomplaas ( Deacon & B rooker 1 976) b ut i s a lmost a t housand years l ater t han t he appearance o f t he W ilton at o ther s ites i n the southern Cape f or i nstance at Melkhoutboom ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976) and B uffelsk loof ( Opperman 1 978). The upper l imit o f t he t echnological stage w ith s egments h as a d ate o f 1 890 ± 45 B .P. ( Pta-2549) a fter which a n ew cultural e lement i n the form of pot sherds appears. This i s somewhat e arlier than the date o f 1 031 . 150 B .P. ( Pta-44) at Belleview ( Carter 1 977:329) for a l ayer containing pottery and i s c onsiderably o lder t han t he appearance o f pottery i n t he Orange R iver S cheme area at about 7 00 B .P. ( Sampson 1 972: 2 60). The l ate date o f 7 0 ± 40 B .P. ( Pta-2547) r eflects o n t he continuity o f the cultural s equence i nto h istorical t imes. ARTEFACT

D ESCRIPTION

The m aterial culture o f t he prehistoric i nhabitants o f Colwinton s helter, as c an b e i nferred f rom t he artefacts t hey l eft behind, provided t he b asic data f or t his study and e specially t hrows l ight on t he economic activities. Present i n t he deposit are only t hose artefacts t hat were r elatively i mperishable while, w ith a f ew exceptions, t he artefacts o f organic m aterial l ike wood, skin, and grass h ave a ll d isappeared. I t would t herefore b e a m istake to p lace t oo much emphasis on t he v isible b ut i ncomplete culture e lements and t o emphasise d ifferences or s imilarities which w ere not seen a s such by t he original m anufacturers. W ith stone artefacts, where changes i n attributes must be e xplained, t he problem o f d istinguishing b etween f unction and style e xists ( Sackett 1 977, Thackeray A .I. 1 981). F unction i ndicates economic activities which are r elated to t he

4 5

e xploitation o f n atural r esources while t he l atter was c aused by t he i ndividual style o f t he m anufacturer and m ay t herefore h ave a cultural i mplication ( Close 1 978). B ecause t he attributes o f stone artefacts are i nfluenced by both f unction and style i t would be n ecessary f or a study o f t he m icrowear o n t he working edges o f t he artefacts t o confirm t hat any changes i n form and s ize were not accompanied by a c hange i n f unction ( Deacon, J . 1 982:365). Only a f ew artefacts i n t he Colwinton assemblage were h owever e xamined i n t his way. I n t his study no attempt i s m ade during t he analysis o f t he artefacts t o l ink t he observed changes t o f unction or style. T he a ssemblages are only d escribed i n t erms o f a t ypology a s well a s t he metrical characteristics o f some f ormal t ools. HEARTHS H earths are structures which c annot b e r emoved w ithout changing t he original f orm or d estroying i t. B ecause t hey are t he r esult o f human activity which c an normally o nly b e studied on t he s ite, h earths are i ncluded under t he d iscussion o f artefacts. Mapping o f t he position and t he arrangement o f t he h earth e lements was accurately d one. Only s imple h earth c onstructions, o f which 1 2 were i dentified, o ccurred. Characteristic o f t hese h earths i s a concentration o f f lat stones a ssociated w ith e ach ( Fig. 9 ). B etween t he stones ash, charcoal, bone f ragments and i n s ome i nstances pot s herds and stone artefacts were spread. I n most i nstances t he d istribution o f t he stone concentrations was such t hat only a s ection appeared i n t he e xcavation t rench. I t c an b e i nferred f rom t he v isible s ections o f t he constructions t hat t he arrangements were mostly rough c ircles w ith d iameters varying b etween 1 ,5 m and 0 ,6 m . T he n umber o f stones used varied b etween 7 and 2 1. The occurrence o f h earths i n each l ayer was a s follows : l ayer 1 :7 ; l ayer 2 :2 ; layer 3 :2 ; l ayer 6 :1. Colwinton i s t he o nly s ite i n the study area where h earths are associated w ith such a l arge concentration o f stones. At Boomplaas 5 h earths consisting o f a l arge n umber o f stones were found i n l ayer B LD 2 . These h earths are a ssociated with pastoralists ( Deacon et a l 1 978). C harcoal f ragments are f ound w ith t he abovementioned stone structures and a lso throughout t he deposit e specially i n t he s outhern corner where t he deposit i s v ery a shy. I n t he l atter i nstances i t was not possible t o i solate any h earths. A f ew l enticular concentrations o f c harcoal i n t he profiles o f t he e xcavation m ay be t he r emains o f f ireplaces. ARTEFACTS OF

ORGANIC

MATERIAL

Wood Only one wood artefact was f ound i n l ayer 1 ( Fig. 10). I t i s a polished cylindrical object, 40 mm long w ith a d iameter o f 7 mm on t he o ne end and 3 mm on t he other end, A notch was c arved o n t he t hin end. T he t hick s ection s hows a clear break m ark. The r esemblance to a bone point i s striking. Bone

4 6

p o tshe rd Z)

C

G

c harcoa l a nd a sh

1m I

0

F ig . 9 . C olwinton R ock S helter . f eature . 4 7

H earth

1

2

3

6 0

4 5 0 MM

5

11 7 8

1 73 9

1 0

F ig . 1 0 . C olwinton R ock S helter . 1 : W ood a rtefact ( layer 1 ); 2 : B one h ook ( layer 1 ); 3 : B one p oint ( layer 2 ); 4 : B one a wl ( layer 4 ); 5 : P endant ( layer 2 ); 6 : B one b ead ( layer 3 ); 7 -10 : P otsherds 4 8

P reservation conditions f or bone were good i n a ll t he l ayers o f t he d eposit and i t was c lear t hat t he presence o f a small q uantity o f bone artefacts, o f which 2 5 were f ound, m ay b e attributed t o f actors o ther t han s elective preservation. Bone a rtefacts, e specially p oints and awls, l ose t heir e ffect iveness because o f w ear t o a m uch l esser extent t han f or i nstance small s tone s crapers which a re t hrown away a s soon as t hey are not f unctional any more. I n contrast bone points were mostly l ost i n t he v eld or d iscarded when broken. The t urnover i n bone t ools would t herefore h ave b een m uch lower t han i n s tone artefacts. A l ow p ercentage o f bone artefacts characterise also o ther Holocene s ites i n t he C ape Province l ike B elleview ( Carter 1 977), Melkhoutboom ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976), Wonderwerk ( Thackeray, A .I. 1 981) and s ites i n t he r egion o f t he Orange R iver S cheme ( Sampson 1 974:328). A h igher p ercentage o f bone artefacts occurs h owever at coastal s ites f or example M atjies R iver ( Louw 1 960) and N elson B ay c ave ( Deacon, J . 1 982:87). Worked bone i s a lso an i mportant f eature at t he Ngcisininde s ite at Nqamakwe i n t he Transkei ( Laidler 1 937:892). Hooks. Two c omplete and t wo broken hooks were f ound i n l ayers 1 and 2 ( Fig. 1 0). T he s haft l engths are 4 3 mm and 3 7 mm r espectively. The h ook l engths are 1 9 mm and 9 mm while t he h ook openings are 2 mm i n both c ases. The shafts o f t wo hooks s how f ine grooves and d ark colouring. A lthough t he h ooks a re v ery s imilar t o f ish h ooks i t was not c ertain t hat t hey w ere used a s such. Only a few f ish bones were i dentified i n t he d eposit ( G. Avery, p ersonal communication). S imilar h ooks were a lso r ecovered f rom B ellev iew ( Carter 1 977) and Driel ( Maggs & Ward 1 980). At S ehonghong, where a l arge quantity o f f ish bones o ccurred i n t he upper part o f t he d eposit, no f ish hooks were f ound ( Carter 1 977:225). I n t he r egion at t he f oot o f t he D rakensberg and a lso i n t he O range R iver s ystem area a s mall i ndigenous f ish species o f s ardine s ize i s f ound o ver a w ide area ( Jubb 1 967:101). I t was possible t hat f ish o f t his t ype swam up t he Orange R iver and t he K raai R iver and a fterwards i nto t he L angkloof R iver. T he N atal y ellow f ish ( Barbus n atalensis), t hat swims t o t he tributaries o f t he Orange River i n L esotho during t he breeding s eason i n t he e arly s ummer months ( Carter 1 977:225), does n ot o ccur at present i n t he L angkloof R iver. I n t he Colwinton d eposit t he h igh f requency of f rog bones ( Xenopus sp.) i n l ayers 1 and 2 , where t he bone hooks a lso were f ound, i s noteworthy. The f rogs stay i n t he L angkloof R iver and c an b e c aught w ith a f ish h ook. Frogs o f t his t ype h ave l egs w ith considerably more meat ( 0,1kg accord ing t o S ilberbauer 1 981:205) t han t he small f ish B arbus anoplus and would t herefore b e worth t he e ffort t o c atch. At Driel shelter X enopus l aevis o ccurred w ith bone hooks but f ish bones were a lso p resent ( Maggs & Ward 1 980:59). L ine f ishing w as w ithin t he c apabilities o f t he g atherers south o f t he e scarpment and was portrayed rock a rt o f t hat r egion ( Schoonraad 1 962:141). B one

points.

These

are

l ong

4 9

cylindrical

h unteri n t he

polished

bone

points s harpened o n o ne o r both ends. I n s ome e xamples a n arrow f lute, possibly a r emainder o f t he original m arrow c hannel, i s v isible ( Fig. 1 0). I ncluded amongst t he broken points are possibly a lso broken l ink s hafts. A l ink s haft i s a cylindrical r ubbed p iece o f b one, b lunted at both ends, which i s f itted o n t op o f t he m ain a rrow s haft b y m eans o f a h ollow r eed covered w ith s inew ( Schapera 1 960: 1 29). T he o ccurrence o f points was a s f ollows: Layer 1 : 7 broken; 2 complete, e ach w ith a s hallow groove i n t he m iddle f rom p oint t o point ( lengths 8 ,5mm and 8mm, m aximum d iameter 6 mm and 4 mm).

s eems 6 mm).

t o

b e

L ayer 2 : One f luted point. Both ends b lunt and i t unfinished ( length 6 4mm and t he m aximum d iameter

Layer 3 :

5 broken points.

L ayer 4 :

3 broken points.

T he f irst bone point a ppears i n t he d eposit at about 6 000 y ears a go coinciding w ith t he f irst o ccurrence o f s egments. A s imilar observation was m ade at Wonderwerk c ave i n t he northern C ape ( Thackeray, A .I. 1 981:160). I t i s possible t hat s egments w ere u sed at t he points o f a rrows a s composite t ools ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976:19). T herefore t he presence o f b oth s egments and bone arrow points m ay b e s een a s evidence t hat t he bow and a rrow w as u sed i n t he h unting strategy o f t he hunters a t Colwinton s ince at l east t he m iddle Holocene. Awls. Awls a re long b one f ragments w ith s harpened points o f which t he b utt ends w ere l eft u nworked ( Fig. 1 0). Four e xamples w ere r ecovered. Layer 1 . A s harpened f ragment o f a h umerus w ith t he proximal part present ( 93 mm l ong and m aximum t hickness 2 6 mm). A n eedle l ike s harpened bone f ragment ( length 6 3 mm and m aximum t hickness 7 mm).

m aximum

Layer 2 . A t hickness 4 mm).

n eedle

l ike

f ragment

Ornaments

o f

h ave

mm,

b one

L ayer 2 . A p endant m anufactured o ut o f a m edium s ize antelope w ith a h ole t hrough 10). A s imilar o rnament was f ound a t Bonawe. L ayer 3 . A cylindrical bone b ead d iameter 5 mm ( Fig. 1 0) w as r ecovered.

Ostrich

7 3

Layer 4 A s harpened f ragment o f a h umerus w ith part present ( length 1 07 mm, m aximum d iameter 1 3

proximal mm).

and

( length

e ggshell

Only an

o f t he i ncisor t he root ( Fig.

w ith

l ength

1 0 mm

b eads

1 7 o strich e ggshell average d iameter o f

5 0

b eads were f ound. T he b eads 5 mm and o ccured i n a ll t he

l ayers e xcept l ayer 6 ( Table 4 ). Only o ne o f t he b eads was u nfinished. I t i s c lear t hat t he m anufacture o f b eads was not a v isible a ctivity i n t he Colwinton shelter. A lthough D rayson ( 1858) mentions o striches s outh o f t he D rakensberg, i t i s o nly G rassridge i n t he s tudy a rea t hat f alls i n t he normal d istribution area o f t hese l arge b irds ( McLachlan & L iversidg e 1 980). T he l ow f requency o f b eads and t he absence o f o strich e ggshell f ragments confirm t he s carcity o f o striches i n t he v icinity. CLAY

P OTS

W ith t he e xception o f o ne sherd, f rom t he t op o f l ayer 3 and t herefore t oo i solated t o b e r eally meaningful at t his s tage, a ll o ther s herds w ere r ecovered f rom l ayers 1 and 2 . T he d epth under t he s urface o f t he potsherd i n l ayer 3 c oincides w ith a r adiocarbon d ate o f n early 2 000 y ears a go. C lay p ots appeared at H awston i n t he s outhern C ape at 1 900 ± 40 B .P. ( Pta-835)(Avery 1 975:112) and e ven o lder d ates o f 4000 B .P., a lthough questionable, were d etermined f or pot s herds a t Wonderwerk c ave ( Thackeray, A .I. 1 981). At R iversmead ( Sampson 1 974:331) p otsherds a ssociated w ith t he I nterior W ilton w ere d ated t o 2 645 ±95 B .P.(GX-0723). At t he M oshebi s ite pottery was f ound i n u nit 4 o f l ayer 1 and i s a ssociated w ith a d ate o f 2 180 ± 4 3 B .P. ( Pta-319). I t i s t herefore possible t hat pottery c ould h ave appeared i n t he v icinity o f Colwinton at such an e arly d ate. More evidence would be n ecessary t o s upport t his v iewpoint. A possibility t hat m ust a lso b e k ept i n m ind at t his s tage i s t hat t he potsherds i n l ayers 2 and 3 w ere d erived f rom l ayer 1 which h ave t he h ighest f requency o f pottery f ragments. I f t his was t he c ase t hen pottery c ould not h ave r eached t he L angkloof e arlier t han 1 000 y ears a go. A ltogether 1 74 body and 1 8 r im f ragments, a ll u ndecorated were r ecovered ( Table 5 ). A ccording t o R udner ( 1979:11) t he motifs f or pottery d ecoration i n t he study area s hould b e broken p arallel l ines. S uch motifs were observed at C ala o n t he s outhern border w ith t he Transkei ( Hewitt & S tapleton 1 931:61), b ut at Colwinton t he pottery i s more s imilar t o t he Ag-type o f R udner ( Rudner 1 979). T here i s a c onsiderable i ncrease i n t he f requency o f p otsherds, i n t he e xcavation units, f rom t he bottom o f l ayer 2 t o t he s urface o f l ayer 1 where i t d ecreases r apidly. T he f ragments h ave a a verage t hickness o f 7 mm and no s ignificant c hange t hrough t ime i n t he t hickness t ook place. Most o f t he s herds h ave a b lack c olour a lthough s ome are r edbrown or brown i n colour. A r econstruction o f t he pots by u sing t he s herds w as not possible. A m icroscopic analysis t hat g rit w as u sed a s t emper. T he r imforms a re rolled. STONE

o f a f ew f ragments confirmed V ery l ittle g rass i s present.

ARTEFACTS

I ntroduction T he

b ulk

o f

t he

r emains

5 1

o f

h uman

o ccupation

i n

t he

Colwinton rock s helter i s a l arge q uantity o f stone artefacts ( 29 9 64 i n t otal). I t i s i n a ssociation w ith i nformation o n f ood r emains and t he e cological c haracteristics o f t he l ocal environment t hat t he t echnological a spects present i n t his a ssemblage c an b e u sed t o m ake i nferences concerning t he subsistence s ystem o f t he m anufacturers. T he r elationship between stone artefacts and t he n atural r esources which w ere e xploited i s h owever c omplex and t he c auses o f variability i n stone artefact a ssemblages are c ontroversial points b etween archaeologists. T he d ifferences i n opinion f ocus o n t he q uest ions o f whether stone artefacts c an b e used as m arkers t o d istinguish c ulture s ystems, whether t hey c an g ive an i ndication o f e conomic and e cological r elationships and whether t hey c an i dentify a ctivity d ifferences ( for i nstance s easonal a ctivities) w ithin a s ingle c ultural s ystem ( Isaac 1 977:6). So far r esearch i n t he L ater S tone Age s howed t hat t he v ariability i n artefact a ssemblages i s r elated t o t he a vailable n atural r esources and t hat d ifferent a ctivities are r eflected i n t he f requencies o f f ormal t ools ( Deacon, J . 1 972:15, M azel & P arkington 1 978:382, P arkington 1 980:73). T he movement o f h unter g atherers o n t heir annual round d epended o n t he d istribution o f s pecific k ey f ood r esources. I n t he e xploitation o f t hese r esources artefact a ssemblages w ith d ifferences i n c omposition m ay b e d iscarded i n t he v icinity. T he t echniques applied i n t he analysis o f t he Colwinton artefact a ssemblage h ad t he objective o f d etermining t he s equence o f t he t echnological t raditions i n t he a ssemblage and t o i dentify t he activities f or w hich t hey were u sed. I ntensive r esearch d uring t he past f ew y ears, e specially i n t he s outhern and t he e astern Cape, h as g enerated a f ramework f or c ulture d evelopment s ince 20 000 y ears a go. T his d evelopment was b ased o n t he changes i n artefact t ypology c aused b y a daptations t o changes i n t he environment. Arising f rom t his w as t he standpoint t hat t he Robberg, A lbany and W ilton culture c omplexes r epresented p eriods o f r elatively stable ways o f l ife ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976:159). I t was i ndicated i n t he preceding chapter t hat t he climatic f luctuations i n t he s outhern and e astern C ape o ccurr ed s imultaneously i n t he Drakensberg. T herefore i t w as e xpected t hat t he analysis o f t he Colwinton artefact a ssemb lage would i dentify c hanges which would b e comparable t o changes i n t he c ulture s equence o f t hose r egions. A t ypological c lassification was c onsequently u sed t hat m ade comparisons possible w ith t he L ater S tone Age s ites i n t he s outhern and e astern C ape. F requencies o f t he stone artefacts are presented i n T able 6 . T he a rtefacts a re d ivided i nto t hree m ain c ategories n amely, Waste , Utilized and Tools . T he Waste c ategory i ncludes t he u nutilized d iscard m aterial r esulting f rom t he m anufacture o f t ools. I t i s possible t hat s ome o f t he artefacts f rom t his c ategory w ere used f or t asks w ithout l eaving v isible utilization m arks o n t he e dges. T he i dentification o f such artefacts w ill o nly b e possible b y m eans o f m icroscopic analysis. T he s econd c ategory i ncludes t ypes w ith v isible utilization m arks a s well a s t ypes w ith an i nformally

5 2

t rimmed edge or w ith l ight t rimming. i ncludes groups o f a rtefacts which c haracteristic f orms ( formal t ools).

T he t hird c ategory were worked i nto

T ypology Waste.

1 0 mm and

Untrimmed f lakes. T hese artefacts are r epresent 7 9% o f t he Waste c ategory.

longer

t han

A h igh p ercentage o f u ntrimmed f lakes i s c haracteristic o f most o f t he C ape s ites t hat c over t he same p eriod. T he presence o f s uch a h igh q uantity o f f lakes i n r elation t o t he o ther t ypological c lasses c an b e e xplained i f i t i s a ssumed t hat s ome were used a s i mpromptu t ools w ithout l eaving m acroscopic w ear m arks o n t he e dges. Ethnohistorical evidence s hows t hat u ntrimmed f lakes were used t o c ut up game ( Bleek & L loyd 1 911:227). Hornfels f lakes, which w ere worked r elatively s eldom i nto f ormal t ools, were e specially s uitable f or t his t ask. At Colwinton a v isible shift i n t he r aw m aterial preference f rom c halcedony t o h ornfels o ccurred f rom l ayer 6 t o l ayer 1 ( Fig.11). T he suitability o f a r aw m aterial f or t he purposes o f t he m anufacturers and i ts a vailability a re r eflected i n t he r aw m aterial f requencies. C hanges i n t hese aspects m ay b e t he r esult o f s hifts i n a ctivity o r i n environment t hat m ade o ther m aterials more a vailable. I f s uch a c hange t ook p lace at v arious s ites at more o r l ess t he same t ime t hen i t c an b e s een a s a r egional c haracteristic o f t he t echnological s ubstage. T ables 7 and 8 i ndicate t he arithmetic means o f l ength and breadth m easurements and a lso t he m aximum l engths i n t he various l ayers w ith r espect t o t he v arious r aw m aterials. F lakes were m easured i n order t o d etermine v ariability t hrough t ime i f i t w as present ( Fig. 1 2). I t i s noteworthy t hat t he f lakes a re i n g eneral s mall. An observation b y Gould ( 1977:166) i n c onnection w ith t he Australian Stone Age m ay b e worth mentioning i n t his r espect, n amely t hat t he untrimmed f lakes d iscarded at a l iving s ite a ctually r epresent t he s econd stage o f t he t rimming o f a t ool. T he i nitial t rimming t akes p lace at t he s ource o f t he r aw m aterial where t he f lakes w ill b e l arger. T he l ength and breadth w as c alculated by measuring t he l ength and t he breadth o f a r ectangle i n which t he f lake f itted a fter i t was orientated o n graph p aper w ith i ts striking p latform o n a h orizontal l ine. F lakes o f c halcedony a re o n average s horter and n arrower t han f lakes o f h ornfels. T he m ean l engths and breadths r emain c onstant i n a ll t he l ayers. Chunks are broken p ieces o f r aw m aterial w ith m aximum d imensions greater t han 1 0 mm. A s ingle or no f lake s cars o ccur. Chunks were used a s b lanks f or t he production o f a rtefacts. A s hift f rom c halcedony t o h ornfels, s imilar t o t hat observed amongst t he untrimmed f lakes, a lso o ccurs h ere ( Fig.11). Chips are s mall s tone p ieces w ith m aximum d iameter s maller t han 1 0 mm. T hey m ay or m ay not h ave a f lake origin. C hips are mostly waste m aterial produced by t he m anufacturing o f s mall s crapers and s egments. B ecause c halcedony was t he d ominant r aw m aterial f or t hese t ools i t

5 3

U n tr immed f l akes

1 008 0 6 0 -

•

—

4 0 2 0 -

-• -._ •- • • °• •••

. •

0 T

I

1

1

2

0 / 0

1

4

1

5

6

C huncs

1 008 0 6 0-

x ,

4 0A

2 0 • _

. _•

X

•--

•—

1

1

1

_ - ••

• • i

° A

C h ips

1 00 8 0

-

6 0 4 0X

2 0 -

X •

1

2

3

-

• 4

•

r — 1

1

5

6

C o res 1 008 0 x — ——— x H ornfe ls

6 0 -

o C ha lcedony

o

4 0

-

2 0

-

—

x -x —

•-

I P

1

F ig . 1 1 .

•

•

2

"me

• • •••

•

3

C olwinton R ock S helter .

•

4

W aste :

5 4

• .4 1)

« m om , •

• •••

• . ".".4 11

4 R aw m aterials .

O the r '

l e ng ths 1 / - X X-

-

X -

2 0 _ 0

-

-1

-

1

-

-

-

b reak?

1 0

l a yers

4

1

X 1000 B .P . o

1

2

3

4

5

8

8

4

7

x ---x 'Horn fe ls o -o C ha lcedony

b read ths

m m 3 0

S .

X- - - X-2 0 _

0 0

b r eak ?

1 0

l ayers X 1000 B .P .

l I

H o rnfe ls o -o C ha lcedony

F ig . 1 2 . C olwinton R ock S helter . C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he m eans o f f lake l ength a nd b readth .

5 5

a lso

d ominates

t he

c hip

r aw

m aterial

( Fig.

1 1).

C ores. T hese a re s tone p ieces f rom which f lakes h ave b een systematically r emoved. A l arge quantity o f c ores ( 710) w as f ound and d ivided i nto s ubclasses o n t he b asis o f f orm o r s triking p latform ( Table 9 ). T he i dentification o f c ore s ubc lasses m ay r eflect t he t echniques o f f lake m anufacturing b ut e xperimental work w ill b e n ecessary t o s tudy t his a spect. I t was e xpected t hat t he c ores would s how t he s ame s hift i n r aw m aterial t hrough t ime t hat w as observed w ith t he u ntrimm ed f lakes a nd c hunks. T here i s i n f act a s light d ecrease i n t he u se o f c halcedony and an i ncrease i n h ornfels ( Fig. 1 1). S ingle s triking p latform c ores a re c haracterized b y t he r emoval o f f lakes f rom a s triking p latform w hich i s i tself o ften t he s car o f a l arge f lake. Cores o f t his t ype are d ominant e xcept i n l ayer 3 . M ulti-striking p latform c ores are c hunks o f s tone f rom which s everal f lakes w ere struck f rom d ifferent s ides. I n l ayer 3 t he h ighest p ercentage o f c ores i s o f t his t ype.

f rom

C ores f lat

w ith o pposing s triking p latforms h ave f lakes s truck s urfaces at o pposite s ides o f a p iece o f s tone.

O n c ores w ith a djacent s triking p latforms p latforms f orm an angle w ith e ach o ther. Worked o ut f laking f rom t wo B lade c ores t hese w ere o nly

t he

c ores a re s mall and f lat w ith a o pposing s triking p latforms. s how t he f ound i n

s cars l ayer

D ivision o f t he c ores b y h ighest p ercentage f alls i n t he

o f 6 .

b lade

f lakes.

s triking

m aximum

At

r aw m aterial s hows c halcedony group.

o f

C olwinton

t hat

t he

Utilized Utilized/trimmed f lakes. T hese are f lakes w ith e dge d amage, v isible t o t he n aked eye, c aused b y u se. Sometimes i t i s d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween t hese m arks and l ight t rimming. F lakes w ith s hallow n otches a re i ncluded b ut must b e d istinguished f rom c oncave s crapers w here t he t rimming i s purposeful and d istinct. T he f requencies i n a ll t he l ayers are l ow b ut t here i s a p attern v isible i n t he use o f r aw m aterials ( Fig. 1 3). Utilized c hunks s how d amage o n m ostly i n t he f orm o f s mall f lake s cars. t oo l ow t o b e o f s ignificange.

o ne T he

o r more e dges f requencies are

R ubbed s hale. T hese a re t hin r ubbed s hale b lades b lade f ragments. One e xample w as f ound i n l ayer 1 ( length mm, b readth 2 9 mm and t hickness 4 mm). R eamer. One r eamer s iltstone p ebble ( 52 mm l ong, w ith a point w hich w as rounded R ubbing

stone.

T his

5 6

o r 6 2

w as r ecovered. T his i s a 1 6 mm broad and 1 3 mm t hick) t hrough u se a s a r eamer. i s

a round

p ebble

o f

s iltstone

0 / 0

1 00

_

8 0 6 0

4 0

0

-

•

1

2

5

3 l ayers

X -- — X

H ornfe ls

0

C ha lcedony

-0

O ther

F ig . 1 3 .

U tilized :

r aw m aterials .

5 7

6

( maximum o pposite

d imension s ides.

7 1

mm)

w ith

f lat

r ubbed

s urfaces

o n

H ammer stone. T his i s a cylindrical p ebble o f s iltstone ( 50 mm long and d iameter 2 8 mm) t he ends o f which s how bruising. Formal

Tools

S crapers. S crapers a re t he Colwinton artefact a ssemblage. d istinguished i n t his c lass.

most c ommon D ifferent

t ools i n t ypes

t he are

Small s crapers. Small s crapers, w ith a f ew e xceptions s maller t han 3 5 mm i n l enth or breadth, o f which t he working e dges are steeply t rimmed w ith a c onvex f orm, constitute by f ar t he d ominant group n amely 9 0% o f t he s craper c lass and 8 1,2% o f a ll t he t ools ( Fig. 14). T he h igh f requency o f s crapers and t he f act t hat s crapers h ave measurable and n umerable c haracteristics m ake i t i mportant t o d etermine, i n c onjunction w ith o ther i nformation, t he s equence o f t he t echnological substages and t o f acilitate c omparisons w ith o ther s ites. T he use o f t hese s mall t ools was m ade possible b y f ixing t hem w ith m astic t o a h aft ( Deacon & D eacon 1 980:31). T he primary t ask w as t he s craping o f s kins and t he h igh p ercentage o f s crapers a t B elleview and o ther L ater Stone Age s ites i n L esotho was s een by C arter ( 1977:249) a s an i ndication o f s ummer o ccupation b ecause t hat i s t he t ime o f t he y ear when s kins a re i n t he b est condition. T he study o f m icrowear o n t he working e dges o f t ools i s certainly a potential s ource o f i nformation b ut h as, e xcept f or t he work o f B inneman ( 1982), s een v ery l imited application locally. An i ndication o f t he value o f t his t echnique was g iven b y a m icroscopic e xamination o f t he working e dges o f s ome o f t he s crapers f rom Colwinton. W ear m arks are s imilar t o t hose c aused b y s kinworking ( J. B innem an, p ersonal communication). L arge s crapers. T hese are l arge t ools w ith s craper-like c onvex e dge t rimming. ( Fig. 1 5). M aximum d imens ions vary b etween 40 mm and 9 0 mm and t hese artefacts c ould s erve a s h and h eld i mplements. Raw m aterial was i n a ll c ases h ornfels. Double s crapers h ave t wo more or l ess o pposing working e dges. T hese s mall t ools m ust h ave b een h afted and w ere r eversed i n t he m astic a s s oon a s t he o ne working edge b ecame u nworkably b lunt ( Fig. 1 5). Concave s crapers are f lakes or c hunks w ith a steep t rimmed notch. T hese t ools w ere l arge enough t o h old i n t he h and and t he notch i s c onsiderably d eeper t han i s t he c ase w ith a dzes. Only a f ew w ere r ecovered. S egments a re s mall t ools m ade o ut o f c halcedony and h ave s emi c ircular and t riangular f orms. T he c utting e dges are straight while t he b acks a re b lunted. T hirteen s egments were r ecovered f rom l ayers 3 a nd 4 ( Fig. 1 6). I n t he past t he presence o f s egments i n an artefact a ssemblage was s een a s d iagnostic o f a W ilton i ndustry b ut l ater r esearchers a lso f ound t hem i n a ssemblages c lassified a s Smithfield ( Deacon, 5 8

2

1

4

3

8 6

0

5

50 m 7m

9

1 3

1 2

1 1

1 6

1 4 1 5

1 7

2 1

1 8

2 0

1 9

2 2

2 3

F ig . 1 4 . C olwinton R ock S helter . S crapers . 1 -4 : f rom l ayer 1 ; 5 -8 : f rom l ayer 2 ; 9 -12 : f rom l ayer 3 ; 1 3-16 : f rom l ayer 4 ; 1 7-20 : f rom l ayer 5 ; 2 1-23 : f rom l ayer 6 .

5 9

2

0

5 0 m m

4 3

5

6

F ig . 1 5 . C olwinton R ock S helter . 1 : L arge s craper ( from l ayer 3 ); 2 -3 : C oncave s crapers ( from l ayers 2 a nd 3 ); 4 : D ouble s crapers ( from l ayers 6 ); 5 -6 : C ores ( from l ayers 5 a nd 6 ).

6 0

2

1

3

4

5

6

7

1

1 0

0

50 m m

1 5

1 4

dzes ( from l ayer 3 ), F ig . 1 6 . C olwinton R ock S helter . 1 -3 : A oint ( from l ayer 6 ); 4 -5 : B orers ( from l ayers 4 a nd 5 ); 6 : P 7 : B acked f lake ( from l ayer 4 ); 8 -13 : S egments ( from l ayers nd 4 ). 3a nd 4 ); 1 4-15 : K nives ( from l ayers 3 a

6 1

H .J. 1 976). Presumably s egments were mounted o n t he points o f arrows ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976, P arkington 1 980175), a lthough t he wear m arks o n t wo s egments f rom Boomplaas Cave i ndicate a cutting action and not u se as arrow h eads ( Binneman 1 982:266).

s ide w ere

t ed

B acked b lades h as b een b lunted. possibly a lso u sed

( Fig.

B acked 1 6).

f lakes

are b ladelet f lakes o f which o ne long Only f our w ere f ound i n l ayer 2 . They a s arrow h eads ( Goodwin 1 945). are

s mall

f lakes

w ith

o ne

e dge

b lun-

Adzes. Adzes are t ools m ade o n t hick f lakes or f lake f ragments o f which o ne s ide h as steep stepped s econdary t rimming which i s usually s traight b ut m ay a lso b e s lightly h ollow ( Fig. 1 6). A t otal o f 1 02 adzes was r ecovered mostly f rom l ayers 4 -1. A m icroscopic e xamination o f a dzes f rom Boomplaas C ave and t he A lbany Museum s hows t hat t hey were u sed f or working w ith wood ( Binneman 1 982:130, 1 983:93).

o n

t he

Borers are small and n arrow, oblong s ides s ometimes w ith points at both ends

t ools b lunted ( Fig.16).

Knives. T hese are l arge f lakes w ith more o r l ess straight cutting e dges and b lunted o n t he b ack. Some k nives h ave t heir cutting e dges s harpened by r ubbing ( Fig. 1 6).

( 30 1 6).

mm

M etrical

Points. l ong, 1 2

A point i s a c onvergent mm broad) w ith t rimming

f lake o f c halcedony o n t he e dge ( Fig.

analysis

A metrical analysis o f c ertain s ignificant attributes o f t ool t ypes h as a s i ts objective t he i dentification o f t he d evelopement patterns i n t he artefact a ssemblage and a comparison w ith o ther s ites i n t he study area and e lsewhere t hat w ere o ccupied d uring t he same p eriod. I n t he f ormal t ool class at Colwinton o nly s crapers, adzes and b acked t ools o ccurred i n sufficient quantities t o b e o f u se f or m easuring purposes. S crapers S craper d imensions. I n t he d ifferent l ayers t he samples o f s crapers were l arge enough f or statistical m anipulations. T he procedures f ollowed are b ased o n t he t echniques developed by Movius et a l ( 1968) and S ackett ( 1966) a s well a s t he work o f D eacon, J . ( 1972, 1 984) and D eacon, H .J.(1976). T he c onvex working edge was s een a s t he most i mportant part o f e ach s craper t herefore t he m aximum l ength and breadth was c alculated by orientating t he s craper o n graph p aper i n such a way t hat t he l ine p assing t hrough t he ends o f t he c urve o f t he working e dge was b isected b y t he l ine t hrough t he centre o f t he curve. T he l ength and breadth o f t he r ectangle i nto which t he s craper t hen f itted was measured ( Deacon, J . 1 972, 1 984). T he h eight o f t he t rimming o n t he working edge was m easured a s r epresentative o f t he h eight o f t he s craper. B asic statistics applied t o t hese data were t he c alculation o f t he arithmetic means, t he standard

6 2

d eviations, s tandard error o f t he arithmetic m eans a s well as s kewness. The l atter i ndicated t he degree o i J evLation f rom a normal d itribution o f t he observed d ata. I f t he s kewness was 0 t he d istribution h ad a n ormal f orm. D eviations from 0 i ndicate positive o r n egative s kewness ( Downie & Heath 1 974:65) ( Tables 1 0,11,12,13). C hanges t hrough t ime c an b e r ecognised i n t he sets o f observations. The l engths o f t he s crapers d ecrease f rom l ayer 6 t o l ayer 2 a fter which a s light i ncrease occurs. Scraper breadths a s well a s h eights show a decrease f rom t he bottom t o t he t op l ayer ( Fig. 1 7). The f ormula breadth : l ength 1 00 g ives a rough i ndication o f f orm and shows t hat oblong s craper f orms are more c ommon i n l ayers 6 , 5 a nd 1 . Unfortunately C arter ( 1977) does not s upply comparative d ata f or s crapers f rom h is s ites i n L esotho and at B elleview, b ut s crapers f rom t he W ilton Rock S helter ( Deacon, J . 1 972) and M elkhoutboom ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976) i n t he e astern C ape show s imilar c hanges t hrough t ime. The m eans for scraper d imensions f rom t hese s ites h owever are d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he Colwinton s crapers b ecause c halcedony was a lmost exc lusively used i n t he m anufacturing o f s crapers from t he l atter s ite whereas at t he f ormer s ites s ilcrete was used as well as c halcedony. At M elkhoutboom l ayers WBM, M and W c ontain s crapers which were mostly m ade o ut o f c halcedony and are s horter and n arrower t han s crapers f rom l ayers 5 and 6 at Colwinton b elonging t o t he s ame p eriod. S crapers from l ayer 2 o f t he Good Hope artefact a ssemblage ( Natal Drakensb erg) ( Cable et a l 1 980) h ave more o r l ess t he same age as t he s crapers f rom l ayers 3 and 4 at Colwinton b ut are l onger and b roader t han t hose o f Colwinton. A n ext s tep was t o t est t he observed s craper l engths, breadths, a nd h eights f rom e ach l ayer a lternately by means o f a s tatistical t est a gainst t he s craper d imensions f rom every o ther l ayer t o d etermine i f t he samples c ame from t he same o r d ifferent populations. These t ests would i ndicate i f s crapers f rom d ifferent t echnological substages d iffered s ignificantly f rom e ach o ther. B ecause o f t he s kewness o f t he observed v alues f or t he d istributions o f s craper d imensions, an attempt was m ade t o apply l ogarithmic t ransformations ( quadratic i nverse) w ithout g etting t he normality n eeded for t he application o f p arametric t ests. Therefore non-parametric s tatistics were used f or f urther t ests a nd s atistactory r esults were obt ained. The M ann- Whitney U t est ( Siegel 1 956:116) i s o ne o f t he most powerful non-parametric t ests and t he r esults o f i ts application are g iven i n T able 1 4. The r espect t o

s crapers f rom l ayer 6 d iffer s ignificantly, w ith t he t hree observed d imensions, f rom t he scrapers

b elonging t o t he o ther l ayers and m ay b e s een a s d rawn f rom a d ifferent population. S crapers f rom l ayer 5 a nd l ayer 3 h ave no r esemblance w ith s crapers f rom l ayer 1 b ut s crapers f rom l ayers 1 a nd 2 d iffer s ignificantly only i n one aspect, n amely t he breadth d imensions while t here i s no d ifference i n t he l ength d imensions. Layer 4 s crapers do not d iffer from t hose o f l ayers 1 and 2 w ith r espect t o l ength measurements

6 3

n umber

l a yer 4

1 01

2

1

227

3

361

4

1

368

5

1

37 1

1 0

l eng ths

20

30

9 4

4 0

S O mm

l ayer 1

4

2

4

3

i

4

t

5

1 01

i

/

I

I _

1

361

e

368

1

37

r

8

e 1 0

2 27

e

b r ead ths

94

I

I I

20

30

40

50 mm

l ayer 1 01 2 _

2 27

3

361

4

368

6

37

6

94

1 0

2 0

3 0

40

h e igh ts

60 mm

F ig . 1 7 . C olwinton R ock S helter . D iagram f or s craper l ength , b readth a nd h eight . T he h orizontal l ine i s t he r ange, t he v ertical l ine i s t he a rithmetic m ean a nd t he r ectangle i s t he s tandard d eviation .

6 4

b ut d iffer s crapers.

s ignificantly

i n

t his

r espect

f rom

l ayers

5 a nd

3

Position o f r etouch. S econdary t rimming on t he edges o f s craper b lanks h as s tyle i mplications ( Movius et a l 1 968:10). I t does n ot n ecessarily c ause a n ew f orm b ut m akes t he s ides more e ven and f acilitates h afting. I n o rder t o d escribe t he position o f r etouch objectively a grid consisting o f n ine s quares, i nto which t he s craper was f itted, was used ( Deacon, J . 1 972; D eacon, H .J. 1 976). Changes t hrough t ime were observed ( Fig.18). L ong s crapers w ith end r etouch i ncrease i n i mportance f rom l ayer 6 ( 39,4%) t o l ayer 1 ( 85,2%) and r epresent, e xcept i n l ayers 5 a nd 6 , t he dominant group. I n t he l atter t wo l ayers l ong s crapers w ith end and s ide r etouch d ominate b ut d ecrease f rom 50% i n l ayer 6 t o 1 0,9% i n l ayer 1 . I t i s i nteresting t hat s ide r etouch i n t he f orm o f step f laking, e specially o n s crapers i n l ayers 5 and 6 , r esembles t he r etouch o n adzes. A m icroscopic analysis o f wear m arks on o ne o f t hese s crapers c learly s hows s igns o f wood working on t he s ides while t he c onvex e dge was used f or t he s craping o f s kins ( Binneman 1 982:221). I t i s a lso possible t hat t his t ype o f s ide r etouch was a d eliberate attempt t o g ive t he b lank a p articular form i n o rder t o m ake h afting e asier and t hat t he use o f t he s ides f or wood working was opportunistic. L ayers 5 and 6 c ontain o nly 4 % o f t he adzes found. Whether t his l ow f requency i s an i ndication t hat t he s ides o f s crapers were employed as adzes w ill b e d etermined only by a detailed m icroscopic i nvestigation. S imilar t ools were a lso observed i n o ther L ater S tone Age artefact a ssemblages f or i nstance at B yneskranskop ( Schweitzer & W ilson 1 982:48) and t he Good Hope rock s helter ( Cable et a l 1 980:48). S hort, w ide s crapers w ith s ide r etouch a re e specially well r epresented i n l ayers 5 and 2 , b ut i n l ayers 1 and 6 t hese s crapers f orm only a small p ercentage o f t he t otal s crapers. Scrapers w ith any other t ype o f r etouch o ccur w ith a v ery l ow f requency. Form. Although t he observations o f r etouch positions a lso i mplicate t he f orm o f s crapers, t he d ivision o f s craper f orms i nto p arallel s ided, d ivergent, round and w ide groups supplies a m ethod t o i dentify changes t hrough t ime ( Movius et a l 1 968:17; D eacon, H .J. 1 976). Divergent f orms dominate ( Fig.19) w ith t he greatest angle o f d ivergence ( 30° ) i n l ayers 3 and 4 . Often t he d ivergent f orms are deliberately c aused b y s teep r etouch o n t he s ides. R emoval o f t he b ulb o f p ercussion. The absence o f t he b ulb o f p ercussion i s e specially noticeable on s crapers f rom t he o ldest o ccupation l ayers ( Fig. 20). I n s ome e xamples a f lake s car, by which t he b ulb o f p ercussion was r emoved, i s v isible on t he v entral s ide. This t echnique was possibly used, t ogether w ith t he s teep s ide r etouch, t o enable t he p lacing o f t he s craper i n a h aft. I t i s noteworthy t hat t he presence o f b ulbs o f p ercussion gradually i ncreases f rom l ayer 6 ( 21,3%) t o l ayer 1 ( 89,2%). S craper m ass. Two factors i nfluencing t he m ass o f t he small scrapers are t he s izes o f t he s crapers and a lso t he m aterial o f m anufacture. I t c an b e expected t hat t he changes t hrough t ime i n s craper m ass w ill r eflect changes i n style. While d etermining t he s craper m ass t he v arious r aw m aterials were k ept s eparately. A g eneral t endency was f or s crapers t o

6 5

0

r • I

a 03 -C : 3

MO N»

C olwinton R ock S helter .

t 11

r _ T . 4

a m:

33

CI U3

a

a

a

U3

, I f

C l ,

1

a 3

( =

1 ,4

C S

8

6 6

R ock S helter .

-

I n

C O I

0

0

0

N

4 2

x ---x P resen t

t n

f

o p .

0 1 0

0 •

0

0

N I /

6 7

0

0

c o )

0

0

b ecome

l ighter

1 5). The s ignificance are m ade o ut

f rom

t he

o ldest

t o

t he

youngest

l ayer

( Table

pattern f or chalcedony s crapers i s o f more b ecause m ost o f t he s crapers i n t he assemblage o f t his m aterial.

Raw m aterial. I n t he m anufacture o f scrapers m ainly t hree t ypes o f r aw m aterial were used ( Fig. 2 1). Raw m aterial b elonging t o what m ay b e c alled t he chalcedony group dominates i n a ll t he l ayers and i n l ayer 5 a ll t he s crapers were m ade out o f t his m aterial. The t erm chalcedony i s used f or a ll m aterial o f t he s ilica group, namely c halcedony and chert, which i s a m assive form o f chalcedony, b ecause d istinguishing b etween t he t ypes o f m aterial m ay b e very d ifficult at t imes. Chalcedony i s derived f rom t he Drakensb erg b asalt and was r eadily a vailable t o t he prehistoric artefact m anufacturers. Scrapers o f c halcedony h ave t he t end ency t o b e smaller and l ighter t han t hose m ade o f t he o ther m aterials ( Table 1 5). Hornfels was used f or 1 2,8% o f t he s crapers i n l ayer 6 b ut i n a ll t he o ther l ayers t his m aterial was used f or l ess t han 6 % o f t he s crapers. T he t erm hornfels was o riginaly used a s a group n ame f or d ark c oloured contact metamorphic rocks ( previously k nown a s l ydianite) b ut i s now a g eneral t erm f or a ll c ontact m etamorphic rocks t hat occur i n a ssociation w ith K aroo- d olerite i ntrusions ( Spry 1 969). Tools c lassified a s l arge s crapers were m anufactured e xclusively o ut o f h ornfels. Other p ercentage B acked

t ypes o f r aw o f s crapers.

m aterial

were

used

only

f or

a

small

t ools

Only 2 % o f t he f ormal t ools consists o f b acked t ools, n amely segments, b acked b lades and b acked f lakes. This l ow f requency i s s imilar t o observations at B elleview ( Carter 1 977), Driel ( Maggs & Ward 1 980) and i n t he area o f t he Orange R iver S cheme ( Sampson 1 974). This i s h owever i n contrast w ith s ites i n t he e astern and southern Cape where b acked tools f orm a m uch h igher p ercentage o f t he artefact a ssemblage. I t i s noticeable t hat t hese small t ools f irst appear i n l ayer 4 approximately at t he s ame t ime as t he transition f rom o ne t ype o f s craper t o another. T hese f actors suggest a c hange i n t he c ulture sequence. T he segments are v ery s mall w ith n eat r etouch and are m ade out o f chalcedony. A b acking t echnique was used t o c reate c urved and t riangular f orms. F ew m acro wear m arks are v isible o n t he c utting e dges. Maximum l ength, breadth and h eight o f t he s egments were measured ( Table 1 6) and a lthough t he sample was t oo small for valid i nferences i t was noteworthy t hat t he average l engths were considerably s horter t han t hose o f s egments at B uffelskloof ( Opperman 1 978), W ilton ( Deacon, J . 1 972) and Melkhoutboom ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976). T he breadths and h eights d id not d iffer d rastically. T he b acked c halcedony. The are n evertheless

f lakes and blades were f requency i s very l ow g iven ( Tables 1 7,18).

Adzes

6 8

m anufactured out o f b ut t he measurements

These artefacts h ave t he s econd h ighest f requency o f t he t ool t ypes n amely 7 ,2%. I f t he f unction o f t hese t ools was wood workina ( Parkington 1 980:74; B inneman 1 983:93) t hen t he i mplication i s t hat t he i mmediate environment o f t he rock shelter i n prehistoric t imes i ncluded t rees o r shrubs. Adzes appear i n quantity f or t he f irst t ime i n l ayer 4 and t his coincides w ith t he f irst o bservations o f s egments and small W ilton-type s crapers.

t he

The m etrical m aximum l ength,

analysis o f breadth and

t he adzes h eight o f

i ncludes r etouch.

m easuring

Two adzes f rom l ayer 3 and l ayer 4 s how b acking b ut i n t he o ther e xamples t he s teep s tepped r etouch i s o n o ne s ide only. Sometimes t he r etouch i s s lightly h ollow ( Fig. 1 6). T able 1 9 i ndicates a s light i ncrease i n t he l ength and breadth t hrough t ime. S imilar m easurements o n adzes f rom M elkhoutboom ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976) s how a d ifference i n average l ength w ith t he adzes f rom Colwinton somewhat shorter. This c an b e e xpected b ecause t he m aterials are d ifferent. The r aw m aterial was m ainly c halcedony w ith hornfels a lso present ( Table 2 0). I n l ayers 2 and 3 a f ew adzes were m anufactured out o f s ilcrete. Adzes were f ound at B elleview ( Carter 1 977) and i n t he Orange R iver s cheme area ( Sampson 1 974) b ut no metrical analysis i s a vailable. An i nteresting observation i s t hat t he concave s crapers, which f orm a r elatively h igh p ercentage o f t he t ools at Good Hope shelter and are associated w ith wood working ( Cable e t a l 1 980:14), constitute o nly 1 ,1% o f t he t otal t ools at Colwinton. CONCLUSIONS

F ROM

T HE

ARTEFACT

ANALYSIS

T he a rtefact a ssemblage r ecovered f rom t he Colwinton deposit r eflects c ertain activities which were executed by t he i nhabitants o f t he s helter o ver a t ime span o f probably 1 0 0 00 y ears. B ecause t hese activities were concerned mostly w ith s ubsistence economy, t he artefacts w ith secondary t rimm ing were m ainly f unctional t ypes. Objects l ike ostrich e ggshell b eads, bone o rnaments and o ther pieces are evidence t hat a esthetic v alues e xisted. C hanges t hrough t ime i n t he artefact a ssemblage were observed, i ncluding choices i n r aw m aterials and t he d esign a nd d iversity o f t he formal t ools. Two d istinct c ultural units were d istinguished and t he characteristics o f t hese u nits a s well a s t he processes t hat c aused t hem w ill now b e d iscussed. S tone artefacts c onstitute b y f ar t he greatest p art o f t he a rtefact a ssemblage a nd o f t hese, waste account f or about 95% while t he other 5 % consists o f utilized and formal t ools. Raw m aterials were mostly chalcedony and hornfels, which were both e asily accessible, and a small quantity o f s ilcrete. T ime trends i n t he c hoice o f r aw m aterials are apparent w ith some o f t he artefact t ypes. Untrimmed f lakes, trimmed f lakes and chunks s how a moderate shift f rom c halcedony i n t he o ldest l ayer t o hornfels i n t he youngest l ayer. Formal t ools were m anufactured primarily out o f c halcedony.

6 9

were

The used

quantity and metrical changes o f t he f ormal t ools t o m ake deductions about activities and t o i dentify

t echnological substages i n t he c ultural s equence. I n t his r espect i t m ust b e k ept i n m ind t hat a lthough stone artefacts r ich source o f i nformation o n c an b e a potentially prehistoric activities and t heir attributes h ave a c onnection w ith ecology and economy, i t i s o ften not possible t o m ake d irect i nferences. Typical o f t he f ormal t ools i s a l arge quantity o f s mall c onvex s crapers. The f unction o f t hese t ools was t he s craping o f s kins o f g ame for t he m anufacturing o f c lothes and k arosses ( Deacon & D eacon 1 980). Small s crapers f orm 86,1% o f t he f ormal t ool assemblage and t hat c ompares well w ith t he approximately 8 2 % endscrapers i n t he Later Stone Age a ssemblages f rom Moshebi, S ehongh ong and Belleview ( Carter 1 977). T he deduction i s t hat a h igh p ercentage o f endscrapers i s an i ndication o f s ummer o ccupation b ecause t hat i s t he s eason when t he s kins would b e i n t he b est c ondition ( Carter 1 977:249). Unfortunately t here i s no evidence f or such a supposition and i t s eems possible t hat t he s craping o f s kins was an activity which c ould t ake p lace any t ime o f t he y ear when s kins were available. Antelope were an i mportant source o f f ood and would h ave b een a popular prey i n a ll s easons. T he f ormal t ools f rom l ayer 6 , which was d ated t o t he e arly Holocene, consist, w ith t he e xception o f a f ew adzes and c oncave s crapers, o f r elatively l ong s crapers w ith steep r etouched s ides. These scrapers were possibly mounted at r ight-angles, f or e ffective f unctioning i n a wooden h aft ( Deacon & D eacon 1 980) and t his method i nfluenced t he t echnique o f s craper m anufacture. The f unction o f t hese s crapers must b e deduced i n a ssociation w ith t he f aunal r emains. The l atter were primarily l arger g ame e specially s kins o f t hese a lcelaphines and t he preparation o f t he hat t he antelope was done w ith t he s crapers. I t i s possible t y ears a go warmer c limate i n t he Drakensberg at about 7 000 m ade t he use o f body-fitting g arments, m ade f rom t he s kins o f small g ame, u nnecessary. An analysis o f t he d imensional characteristics o f s crapers i ndicated a d iachronic c hange t hat was supported by t he application o f non-parametric t ests. According t o t hese t ests t he s crapers f rom l ayer 6 are h ighly s ignificantly d ifferent f rom t he s crapers o f t he succeeding l ayers. E xcept f or a s ingle borer l ayer 5 c ontains o nly a f ew small s crapers i n t he f ormal t ool c ategory. Characteristics o f t he scrapers o f l ayer 6 a re s till d iscernible b ut t he s crapers are i n g eneral s maller and a shift i n r aw m aterial f rom 86% chalcedony t o 1 00% chalcedony o ccurs. A possible e xplanation f or t he r eduction i n s ize o f t he s crapers i s t hat t he method for mounting h ad c hanged. For e ffective use i t ight b ecame necessary t o s tick t he s craper w ith m astic at a r o r obtuse angle t o a h aft ( Binneman 1 982:212) which was i n c ontrast t o t he e arlier wood mounted s crapers. The c hange i n t he s ize o f t he s crapers at Colwinton does not correlate w ith a c hange i n t he h unting p attern, a s i s observed at s ome s ites i n t he southern and e astern C ape where a s hift f rom grassveld

7 0

g ame t o f rom t he 1 978a).

small t erritorial g ame o ccurred at t he Albany t o t he W ilton about 7 500 y ears

t ransition a go ( Klein

I n l ayer 4 , at about 6 000 years ago, a f ully m icrolithic t echnique appeared characterised b y t he presence o f a l ow p ercentage o f s mall s egments and a h igh p ercentage o f s mall c onvex s crapers, borers and adzes. T he process which w as r esponsible f or t he e stablishment o f t his t echnological t radition was probably w idespread d iffusion r ather t han l ocal development. The s egments s how a h igh measure o f t echnical ability and s erve a s f urther evidence o f i nfluenc es f rom t he west where s egments appeared approximately a t housand years e arlier i n t he e astern C ape. S egments r epresent a stylistic v ariant i n t he b acked t ool c lass a s a whole and i ndicate t he use o f composite t ools, possibly a rrows ( Phillipson 1 969:197). S imultaneously w ith t he s egments, bone points and awls a ppear i n t he deposit. Bone points c onfirm t hat t he bow and a rrow was used f or h unting d uring t he l ate Holocene and t he b one awls were r elated t o t he processing o f s kins f or c lothes a nd k arosses. The abovementioned t radition continued i n l ayer 3 . T he s crapers s how a h igh d egree o f u niformity w ith l ittle variat ion i n d imensions and much l ess s ide r etouch t han t he o lder s crapers. The h ighest f requency o f a dzes o ccurred t hen w ith t he r atio o f adzes t o s crapers 0 ,14. Possibly t he c onsiderable i ncrease i n a dzes at Colwinton d uring t he l ate H olocene i ndicates a g eneral i ncrease i n wood working. S egments were absent i n l ayers 1 and 2 b ut a f ew b acked f lakes and blades were present. The method f or using t hese m icroliths as c omposite t ools i s not c lear a lthough t he wear m arks o n a s ingle b lade f rom Boomplaas suggests t hat i t was u sed on wood ( Binneman 1 982:266). Goodwin ( 1945:529-43) d escribes how a /Xam B ushman used b acked b lades t o m anufact ure arrow points i n 1 878. Pot s herds and s mall bone hooks, s imilar t o f ish h ooks, appeared i n t he t op t wo l ayers a s i ndicators o f n ew e lements i n t he subsistence system. The d egree o f d ifference b etween artefacts, e specially s crapers, f rom l ayers 1 and 2 and l ayers 3 and 4 i s n ot o f t he same o rder as w ith t he artefacts f rom l ayer 6 . T he t echnology o f t he potter-bearing l ayers i s i n e ssence a c ontinuation o f t he t echnology o f l ayers 4 and 3 w ith t he addition o f a f ew c ultural e lements. The above d iscussion o f t he Colwinton a rtefact a ssemb lage i dentified some o f t he more general activities t hat w ere practised and h as d escribed t he t echnological substages. T his i nformation w ill b e used i n a ssociation w ith d ata o n f auna and f lora to g enerate a model o f t he prehistoric s ubsistence system. F AUNA Animal bone f ragments o ccurred i n a r easonably well preserved condition i n every o ccupation l ayer o f t he rock s helter. The bone m aterial was very f ragmentary a s was a lso t he c ase w ith t he f aunal r emains at o ther South A frican s ites

7 1

d ating t o t he L ater S tone A ge. F actors r esponsible f or t his phenomenon i nclude d eliberate b reaking d uring t he b utchering process a nd attempts t o r emove t he m arrow a nd l eaching, trampling, b urning as well a s pressure b y t he d eposit a fter d iscard ( Klein 1 979:36; Thackeray, J .F. 1 979:24). T eeth, e specially o f t he l arger a ntelope, o ccurred as i solated f inds i n m ost i nstances whereas t he smaller g ame species were o ften r epresented by t he whole upper o r l ower m andible. Noticeable was t he r elatively h igh f requency o f f oot bones i n t he a ssemblage. Bones w ith g naw m arks were s carce b ut bones w ith s igns o f b urning were c ommon. I dentification o f t he f auna i n B lock F was done b y J .S. B rink while t he f aunal r emains f rom t he o ther b locks were analysed b y t he writer u nder t he g uidance o f t he s taff o f t he Archaeozoology D epartment o f t he Transvaal M useum ( Table 2 1). A id was g iven with c ertain problem i dentifications b y J .F. Thackeray f rom t he D epartment o f Archaeology, University o f S tellenbosch, who h elped w ith t he i dentification o f extinct animals. Analysis o f t he m icrofauna was d one b y D .M. Avery o f t he South A frican M useum. M ethodology The t echnique f or analysis i ncluded a d ivision o f t he bone a ssemblage i nto i dentifiable and u nidentifiable f ragments ( Table 2 2). The b locks, b elonging t o e ach l ayer, were k ept s eparately. Bones w ith s igns o f r etouch b y m an w ere r emoved a t t his s tage. T he i dentifiable bones were s ubdivided i nto t hose o f m ammals, b irds a nd r eptiles. The m ammals were t hen d ivided i nto primates, c arnivores, a ntelopes and o ther g ame t ypes a nd rodents. F or t he i dentification o f species and t he determination o f t he m inimum n umbers ( Table 2 1) o f t he m amm als use was m ade o f c ranial f ragments n amely p arts o f t he upper a nd l ower m andibles w ith t eeth a nd a lso i solated t eeth. Other cranial p arts a nd a f ew h orn cores were n ot s uitable f or i dentification. Teeth were d ivided according t o p lace i n t he s et o f t eeth, m ilk a nd p ermanent t eeth. Note was t aken o f t he d egree o f wear on t he t eeth i n a n attempt t o d istinguish b etween o ne o r more i ndividuals i n c ases where a n umber o f t eeth b elonging t o t he s ame species was f ound i n t he s ame l ayer. Modern m aterial was used f or c omparison d uring t he i dentification o f t he species. The m ethods o f K lein and CruzUribe ( 1983) were used t o d educe t he age profiles o f a lcelaphines a nd e land f rom t eeth c rown h eights. I dentifiable post-cranial f ragments o f s ubgroup were d ivided i nto g eneral c lasses B rain's ( 1974) c lassification: B ovid

1 ( small)

0 -23

k g

B ovid

2 ( small-medium)

2 3-84

k g

B ovid

3 ( large-medium)

84-296

7 2

k g

t he b ovidae according t o

: Raphicerus c ampestris, Oreotragus o reotragus, Ourebia o urebi : P elea c apreolus, D amaliscus d orcas, Redunca f ulvorufula, Antidorcas m arsupial i s : Connochaeteg7Alcelaphus, H ippotragus s p

B ovid

4

( large)

2 96-

k g

: T aurotragus o ryx, Cyncerus c affer

T he d egree o f f usion at t he e nd o f l ong bones ( epiphyses) h elped t o d istinguish j uveniles. Where possible t he nonc ranial f ragments were s orted i nto l eft and r ight s ide o f t he s keleton. The h ighest n umbers o f l eft o r r ight s ide f ragments o f e ach p art o f t he s keleton were used t o determine t he m inimum n umbers. I n c ases where i t was not possible t o d eterm ine i f a n umber o f t he s ame s keleton p arts b elonged t o t he l eft o r r ight s ide, t he t otal was d ivided b y t he n umber t hat corresponds t o t he n umber o f bones o f t he s ame t ype, f or i nstance t he t otal o f f irst p halanges o f z ebras was d ivided b y f our. D ISCUSSION

OF

THE

FAUNAL

ANALYSIS

A lthough s mall, t he f aunal l ist contains i lluminating i nformation o n t he s ubsistence s trategy a nd possible environm ental c hanges d uring t he Holocene, a s i t was r eflected i n t he f luctuations i n t he n umbers o f a nimals t hat were p art o f t he d iet. C arnivores f ormed only a small p ercentage ( 6%) o f t he t otal o f i dentified species a nd possibly were not p art o f t he d iet. V isits b y l eopards t o t he shelter, d uring p eriods when i t was u noccupied, a re possible and would e xplain t he r emains o f b aboons b ecause t he l atter a re a popular prey o f t hese primates. Other animal r emains which could h ave a n atural o rigin o r were h unted by t he o ccupants are rock h yrax and porcupines. Rock art i n t he Drakensberg r ange o f Natal and L esotho ( Pager 1 971:19; C arter 1 977:173) d epicts a, H ippotragus s p. There e xist h owever no r ecords t o i ndicate t hat t hese a ntelope were d istributed i n t he Drakensberg during h istorical t imes a nd at present t he s able a ntelope ( Hippotragus n iger) and t he r oan antelope ( H. equinus) c an b e f ound o nly i n t he n orthern p arts o f t he c ountry ( Dorst & D andelot 1 970:204). The b lue a ntelope ( H. l eucophaeus) b ecame e xtinct around 1 800 i n t he s outhern C ape — T-S -k ead 1 982:356). The H ippotraginae t eeth which were f ound i n t he Colwinton d eposit and which were d ated t o b efore 6000 B .P. are proof t hat t his antelope species,H. c f. l eucophaeus i n t his c ase, h ad a m uch more e xtensive d istribution area t han w as previously k nown. I dentification o f H . c f. l eucophaeus was d one o n e cological grounds and a c omparison o f t he l ength o f e ach t ooth w ith d ata s upplied by K lein ( 1974b) i ncluding e xamples f rom K lasies R iver mouth ( J.F. Thackeray, p ersonal c ommunication). B ecause H . l eucophaeus preferred moderately o pen grassl and ( Klein 1 97 21 7 1 and at Colwinton o ccurred a ssociated w ith g rassland s pecies n amely e quids a nd a lcelaphines, i t i s r easonable t o d educe t hat t he v egetation o f t he area d uring t he e arly Holocene was d ominated b y grassland a s i s t oday t he c ase. I nformation s uggests t hat t he t emperature i n t he s outhern h emisphere i mmediately b efore t he m iddle Holocene was 1° - 2° C h igher t han at present ( Lorius e t a l 1 979; F aure 1 981:338). I n t he s outhern C ape t he c limate, about 6 000 y ears a go, was a lso warmer t han at present ( Deacon, J . 1 984).

7 3

A l owering i n t he t emperature would c ertainly h ave i nfluenced t he l ocal v egetation. An i ndication o f s uch a c limatic s hift was observed i n t he analysis o f c harcoal s amples which s howed t hat while t he o ccupants o f Colwinton at c . 6000 B .P. used a c onsiderable p ercentage o f E uryops sp. a s f irewood, t hey s ome y ears l ater used mostly C liffortia sp. ( Tusenius 1 986). The l atter i s b etter adapted t o a c older, moist c limate t han E uryops sp.which i s at present a ssociated w ith warm and arid p arts o f t he Transkei where o vergrazing encourages i ts d ist ribution ( W. Trollope, p ersonal communication). T entatively i t m ay b e assumed t hat t he d isappearance o f H . c f. l eucophaeus and other grassland g ame was t he r esult o f a c hange i n h abitat c aused b y a c hange i n c limate. S maller a lcelaphine t eeth were i dentified a s b elonging t o t he b lesbuck ( Damaliscus d orcas) which a lso o ccurred o nly i n t he e arly Holocene p art o f t he Colwinton d eposit. B lesbuck were r ecently r eintroduced b y t he present o wner o f t he f arm a nd apparently s urvive v ery well i n t he l arge grass c amp were t hey a re k ept a lthough t hey c annot t rek f reely. B lesbuck graze m ainly o n s hort grass and t heir n atural d istribution a reas a re t he r egions w ith sour and m ixed v eld ( Kettlitz 1 967). D istinguishing b etween t he t eeth o f t he b lack w ildebeest ( Connochaetes gnou), b lue w ildebeest ( C. t aurinus) and t he r ed h artebeest TÄlcelaphus b uselaphus) was m ade d ifficult b y t he o verlapping o f t he t ooth l engths o f t he t hree species ( J.F. T hackeray, p ersonal c ommunication). T -tests, applied t o t he t ooth l engths, h owever, i ndicated t hat most o f t he t eeth c ould b e a ssigned t o b lack w ildebeest o r r ed h artebeest. T he t eeth o f t hese antelope a re grouped t ogether a s Connochaetes/Alcelaphus. Although both s pecies d isappeared f rom t he v icinity o f Colwinton s hortly a fter t he m iddle Holocene, t hey o ccurred i n h erds up t o h istorical t imes at t he f oot o f t he Drakensberg ( Von R ichter 1 971a:36). Any f urther general r eference t o w ildebeest w ill i nclude both t ypes o therwise t he species n ames w ill b e used. Both t ypes o f a ntelope were popular prey during t he e arly Holocene and t heir grazing h abits and s easonal b ehaviour would h ave i nf luenced t he s ubsistence s ystem o f t he h unter g atherers. Some e xplanation o f a nimal b ehavior i s g iven b y r ecent r esearch b ut t he possibility t hat i t m ight h ave c hanged o ver 5 0 00 y ears m ust b e k ept i n m ind. Observations o n t he grazing h abits o f b lack w ildebeest s how t hat s ourveld i s not a n i deal h abitat f or t hem d uring t he w inter months a nd i n t he p ast c aused l arge s cale s easonal m igrations t o f ind more n utritious v eld ( Von R ichter 1 97lb:13). T here i s a lso a t endency amongst t he species t o r emain i n a p articular a rea f or a l ong p eriod, e specially where t hey h ave grazed t he grass v ery s hort. I n t his way t hey c reate a s uitable h abitat f or t hemselves and a lso i nfluence t he ecology b y t he c onstantly h eavy grazing o f a a rea ( ibid). S uch c ircumstances s timulate t he population growth which i n t urn l eads t o an e xpansion o f t he o vergrazed area. T he s ocial b ehaviour o f t he t erritorial b ulls i ncludes rolling and d igging up t he ground w ith h ooves and h orns t hus c ausing f urther d estruction o f t he t op s oil ( Von R ichter 1 97lb:15). I f t here are l arge n umbers o f o ther grazers present f or i nstance b lesbuck and z ebra, t hen s weet v eld w ill quickly degenerate i nto s ourveld o r e ven

7 4

b e

d amaged

b eyond

r ecovery.

A lthough t he Langkloof v alley i s 3 5 km l ong, t he bottom o f t he v alley t hrough which t he s tream f lows i s o ften quite n arrow. I t i s, i n t he v icinity o f Colwinton, o nly a f ew h undred metres w ide and t he grazing i s t herefore l imited. F rom t he b eginning o f t he Holocene up t o 5 000 y ears ago t his a rea was c ontinuously v isited b y grazers which were h unted b y t he i nhabitants o f t he Colwinton s helter. I t i s t he opinion o f t he writer t hat grazing h abits previously mentioned and t he s ocial b ehaviour o f t he w ildebeest n ecessitated s easonal m ovements s o t hat t he v eld i n t he L angkloof could g et t ime t o r ecover. The presence o f E uryops sp. a s an i mportant f uel i s possibly an i ndication o f s ome m easure o f o vergrazing. Even i f t he w ildebeest d id not o nly graze i n t he L angkloof b ut u sed t he v alley a s a passage f rom which t hey spread i nto t he s maller v alleys branching out o f t he L angkloof, t heir grazi ng a rea would s till h ave b een l imited. T he most l ogical t ime f or grazers t o l eave t he Langkloof would b e during t he w inter months b ecause grazing would t hen b e g etting s carce. I n t he r iver v alleys s outh o f t he e scarpm ent, m uch b etter grazing was a vailable d uring t his t ime o f t he y ear and t hese areas would h ave b een t he c losest s uitable places f or t he b lack w ildebeest t o spend t he w inter. I n t he e arly s ummer t hey would h ave r eturned t o t he L angk loof. T he h istorical d istribution a reas o f t he b lack w ildeb eest w ere o n t he karoo v eld, sweet v eld, m ixed v eld, s our v eld and m ixed grassveld w ith s hrubs ( Von R ichter 1 971a:36) a nd i t i s t herefore possible t hat s ome o f t hese t ypes o f v eld p robably grew i n t he study area d uring t he e arly Holocene. R ed h artebeest shared t he s ame h abitat w ith t he b lack w ildebeest and b lesbuck. T hey grazed t he young sour grass o nly i n t he spring and e arly s ummer a fter which t hey which t hey t rekked i n s earch o f o ther grazing ( Kok 1 975:155). Amongst t he equid t eeth f ound i n l ayers 5 and 6 , s everal e xceptionally l arge t eeth attracted attention. T hese c ould n ot b e i dentified b eyond d oubt a s b elonging t o E quus c apensis a nd are i ndicated a s Equus. sp. T he e land ( Taurotragus o ryx) o ccupied a special p lace i n t he m ythology o f t he prehistoric h unters o f t he Drakensberg ( Vinnicombe 1 976; L ewis-Williams 1 981) a s i s apparent i n a m ultitude o f r ock p aintings. I n t he B arkly E ast d istrict t his l arge antelope was portrayed more t han any o ther animal ( Lewis-Williams 1 974:96). The popularity o f t he e land a s a p rey i s c lear f rom t he species l ist ( Table 2 1). I t r eplaces i n t he l ate Holocene t he w ildebeest, which t ogether w ith o ther grassland g ame d isappeared f rom t he s cene, a s t he p rimary s ource o f meat. E land a re m ainly browsers b ut a lso e at young grass i n t he e arly s ummer. D uring t he w inter e land s eparate i nto s mall h erds c onsisting o f c ows and c alves w ith t he b ulls o ften s olitary. I n t he Drakensberg t he animals d isperse o ver a l arge area i n s earch o f f ood ( Bainbridge 1 972). I n t he e arly s ummer l arge h erds c ongregate again f or c alving t ime which i s f rom S eptember t o November. T he summer would t herefore b e t he t ime when t he e land c ould b e h unted w ith t he l east e ffort.

7 5

E land r emains o ccurred m ainly l ayers t herefore i t i s possible t hat o f e land were d one a fter 6000 B .P.

i n t he m any o f

l ate t he

Holocene paintings

I n a ssociation w ith t he eland r emains t here a lso o ccurr ed a s ingle b uffalo ( Syncerus c affer). Although b uffalo were present i n t he study area and were hunted i n h istorical t imes b y t he B ushmen ( Macquarrie 1 962) t hese were t he only b uffalo r emains r ecovered i n a ll t he s ites i nvestigated. I t i s possible t hat b uffalo c arcasses were not brought b ack t o t he s helters. S imultaneously w ith t he eland, t he grey r hebuck ( Pelea c apreolus) appeared i n t he deposit a s a popular prey. T he grey r hebuck i s primarily a browser keeping mostly t o t he mountain s lopes ( P. Novelle, p ersonal c ommunication). T his antelope i s adapted t o t he cooler r egions and t he fact t hat i t appeared i n r elativly l arge n umbers i s an i ndication t hat t he c limate during t he l ate Holocene was d ifferent from t hat o f t he e arly Holocene. D uring t he l ate Holocene t he klipspringer ( Oreotragus oreotragus), a small antelope o f t he mountainous p arts, was o ften h unted, a s well a s t he steenbok ( Raphicerus c ampestris) which k ept t o t he valley bottom. B ecause o f t he low b ody weight o f t he grey r hebuck, k lipspringer and steenbok t heir meat contributions are v ery s mall r elative t o t hat o f t he l arger t ypes o f antelope. T hese game animals a lso h ave a m uch lower v isibility i n t he v eld t han f or i nstance t he w ildebeest t he eland and t his m ay e xplain why t he w ildebeest was a s ought a fter prey while available. There are i ndications o f t he use o f t he bow and a rrow s ince t he m iddle Holocene, n amely bone points and s egments which w ere parts o f composite arrow points. The e ffectiveness o f t he arrows was i ncreased by t he application o f poison o n t he points ( Macquarrie 1 962:35). T he s kins o f game were used t o d isguise t he hunters. An account o f an eye w itness e xists o f B ushmen u sing s heep s kins a s a d isguise when stealing t hese animals ( Macquarrie 1 962:34). I n t he Transkei t he f eathers o f an o strich were used as a d isguise according t o a rock painting ( Stow 1 905:82; T hackeray, J .F. 1 983 : 39). Other possible h unting t echniques are given b y ethnographic, s ources, f or i nstance t he r unning i n o f g ame ( Schapera 1 960:133; S ilberbauer 1 981:306), t he use o f s nares f or t he s maller game t ypes ( Lee 1 979:207) and h ooks f or c ertain animals staying i n h oles ( Steyn 1 971:157). T he b ehaviour o f t he eland m akes i t an e asy prey. I n t he past h unters e ven chased t hem t o t heir b ase c amps i n order t o k ill t hem i n a c onvenient place ( Sparrman 1 786:154). T he species l ist s hows t hat a lthough l arge g ame was hunted t hroughout t he t ime o f o ccupation at Colwinton, t he r atio o f l arge game t o small game was b igger d uring t he e arly Holocene t han during t he l ate Holocene ( Table 2 3). T he r atio o f grassveld g ame t o mountain g ame i n t he e arly Holocene i s a lso c onsiderably b igger t han i n t he l ate Holocene ( Table 2 4). T he s hift o f l arge g ame to small g ame was h owever not d rastic and l arge game r emained t he m ajor s ource o f m eat ( Table 2 5).

7 6

B riefly i t c an b e s aid t hat t he Colwinton fauna consists o f t wo d istinct components o f which o ne b elongs t o t he early Holocene and t he o ther t o t he l ate Holocene. T he f irst c omponent i ncludes primarily t he l arger grazers and t he s econd t he browsers and t erritorial game. T he t ransition f rom o ne t ype t o t he o ther s uggests a s hift f rom predominantly grassveld t o predominantly s hrubveld. I t must b e e xpected t hat a change i n environment a lso would h ave c aused s ome c hange i n t he a t Colwinton.

subsistence

activities

D ETERMINATION OF THE P ERCENTAGE AND CONNOCHAETES/ALCELAPHUS

L IFE

o f

S PAN

t he

OF

hunter g atherers

TAUROTRAGUS

ORYX

Only t he t eeth o f e land and w ildebeest were r ecovered i n s ufficient n umbers t o b e u sed i n t he c alculation o f t he age d istribution o f t hese t wo species. The t echnique used f or t he c alculation o f ' percentage l ifespan' i s b ased on t he formula o f K lein and Cruz-Uribe ( 1983). Although t he samples are s mall f or s tatistical purposes and a measure o f s ubjectivity i s i nvolved i n t he determination o f c rown h eights, t he potential value o f t his t ype o f s tudy i s h igh b ecause i t g ives an i ndication o f h unting ability, v iz, whether t he h unters, concentrated o n young, m ature o r o ld animals. C aution i s, h owever, n ecessary when i nterpreting crown h eights b ecause t he wear o f antelope t eeth i s not a uniform process. The t ooth wear o f grazers i s a ccelerated d uring dry p eriods when more h ard p lants and sand are t aken i n w ith s horter grass ( J. B ishop, University o f Fort Hare, p ersonal c ommunication). B ecause i ndividual t eeth w ere measured, t eeth o f t he same species which f ell w ithin t he same 50 mm e xcavation s ub-unit and d iffered by l ess t han 20% o f e ach o ther w ith r espect to p ercentage l ife t imes, were s een a s b elonging t o t he same i ndividual, e xcept where t hey c ame f rom t he same p lace i n t he dentition.

d one

The f or

f ollowing measurements were e land and w ildebeest t eeth.

t aken

and

c alculations

E land Measurement o f t he crown h eight ( mm) o f Pg i , M1 , M2 1 M 3 ( lingual s ide) P4 /M 1 1M 2 1M 3 ( buccal s ide) a s well a s t he m easurement o f t he l engths and breadths o f t hese t eeth w ere m ade.

K lein

C alculation o f and Cruz-Uribe A A M N X Y

= = = = = =

t he age ( 1983),

by u sing a f ormula, f or p ermanent t eeth:

b ased

on

M -2(M-N)(X/Y) +(M-N)(X 2 / Y2 ) where Age ( months) Maximum possible a ge o f i ndividual ( months) Age when t ooth erupts ( months) ( Klein 1 978b) Crown h eight o f t ooth ( mm) I nitial crown h eight o f t ooth ( Klein 1 978b)

Calculation

o f

p ercentage

l ife

span:

A/20 x100

I f i t i s a ccepted t hat t he f irst 30% o f l ifespan ( 20 y ears) o f an e land i s i ts youth animal i s o ld when 80% o f i ts l ife i s past

7 7

t he average and t hat an t hen i t i s

noticeable t hat 54% o f t he e land i n T able 2 6 are m ature animals i n t he prime of l ife. I t s eems a s i f t he h unting apparatus and t echnique o f t he Colwinton h unters, which i ncluded t he bow and arrow, was e ffective enough f or t hem t o s elect f ully grown animals b ut t hat t hey a lso h unted a s ignificant n umber o f young e land ( Fig. 2 2). At K lasies R iver mouth, i n t he bone a ssemblage f rom t he M iddle S tone Age d eposit, t here was a lso a h igh f requency o f r elatively m ature animals present and t his f act i s i nterpreted by K lein ( 1983:125) as t he r esult o f t he driving and t rapping o f h erds o f e land. A l arger sample i s n eeded f rom Colwinton t o m ake statistically s ignificant d eductions. W ildebeest T he crown h eights o f 3 8 a lcelaphine t eeth were u sed t o d educe percentage l ife span and F ig. 2 3, b ased o n t hese c alculations, shows t hat t he Colwinton h unters c oncentrated o n young w ildebeest. T hey were a lso successful w ith m ature animals. An i nteresting observation i s t hat t he cumulative p ercentage curves for t he Colwinton e land and w ildebeest l ifespans h ave a lmost i dentical f orms ( Figures 2 4,25). T his s hows t hat t he hunters during t he e arly and l ate Holocene hunted young a s well a s o lder animals e ffectively. T he method o f h unting during t he e arly Holocene i s unknown. T he r unning i n and k illing w ith spears o f w ildebeest, analogous w ith ethnographical observations ( Schapera 1 960:133), i s o ne poss ibility for t he Colwinton area which i s surrounded b y rock faces and steep mountain s lopes. T here would h ave b een o ther l ess s trenuous t echniques a lso. M ICROFAUNA Very f ew m icrofaunal r emains were f ound, i ncluding i nsectivores, rodents and f rogs ( Table 2 7). I dentification o f t he f irst t wo groups h as b een c ompleted by D .M. Avery b ut analysis o f t he f rogs i s still o utstanding. T he m arsh r at ( Otomys i rroratus) i s t he most c ommon rodent present and could h ave b een t he prey o f an owl ( Tyto a lba) that c oncentrates o n v lei r ats. T he v lei r at and t he star m ole ( Georhychus c apensis) o ccur o n t he b anks o f r ivers. 0 .slogetti ( Karoo r a -t7 i s a dapted t o a cold c limate and o ccurs o nly above t he e scarpment. T his rodent t ogether w ith S aunder's v lei r at, ( 0.saundersae),is a mountain species. The m icrofaunal sample i s t oo s mall t oo g ive an i ndication o f t he structure o f or changes i n t he v egetation. FLORA Charcoal f ragments were t he o nly f orm o f p lant m aterial t hat s urvived i n t he d eposit. B ecause t he charcoal p ieces are d erived f rom prehistoric f ires i t i s a ssumed t hat t he wood was c ollected specifically f or t hat purpose. I t i s a lso possible t hat t he dominant wood t ype i n t he v icinity o f t he s helter was u sed most o ften. Charcoal i nformation o n

i s a potentially paleo-environmental

7 8

i mportant source changes and m ay,

o f i n

V

p ue ia

7 9

P ercentage l ifespan

o . . .

— _ _

.1 »

>MD .

0

i n

I s a mu e gm 9 9 q api !m z

' seagoi ng/ i s eeqepHm%

0

-0 •

02

0 0 0

p ue ie%

8 1

I x 4 O

1 4 1 0

a ssociation w ith i ndications f rom faunal r emains, h elp to r econstruct t he prehistoric v egetation. A m icroscopic e xamination o f c harcoal f rom Colwinton was done by M . T usenius ( 1982,1986). T he analysis d id not r eflect t he v egetation a s such but t he variation i n t he r atios o f wood species t hat o ccur i n t he charcoal s amples do give an i ndication o f t he dynamic changes i n t he plant c ommunity ( Fig. 2 6). According t o t his t he p ercentages o f t he dominant wood t ypes i n t he charcoal f rom l ayer 4 are m arkedly d ifferent f rom t hose o f l ayers 1 and 3 . I n l ayer 4 E uryops sp. f orms 2 7% o f t he wood species present i n t he c harcoal sample and C liffortia sp. 35% ( Tusenius 1 986). T here are various s pecies of Euryops at present i ntruding i nto t he South African v eld and i n t he r egions o f Dordrecht, I ndwe and C ala e specially E . t enuissimus ( harpuisbos) occurs ( Trollope 1 970:75). T he shrub varies i n h eight f rom 0 ,3 t o 2 ,4 m and grows i n o vergrazed v eld where t he grass c over i s t hin. T he plant i s not eaten by stock. F ire h as a d estructive e ffect o n E uryops sp. and m ay b e used t o a id t he r ecovery o f v eld t hat h as b een i nvaded by t his plant ( Trollope 1 970:90). T he h igh p ercentage o f Euryops sp. i n t he Langkloof d uring t he e arly Holocene i ndicates a dry environment w ith a sparse grass c over. L arge n umbers o f grazers could h ave c ontributed t o t his c ondition. R egular burning o f t he v eld by t he prehist oric h unters was probably not practised at t his stage. I n l ayers 1 -3 C liffortia sp. i s much more dominant ( 56%) w ith Euryops o nly 3% ( Tusenius 1 984). C liffortia sp. d oes not grow m uch h igher t han 1 ,2m and i s f ound i n areas w ith a h igher effective r ainfall t han i s n eeded f or E uryops s p. ( W.S. W.Trollope, p ersonal communication). Two species occur i n t he northeastern Cape v iz. C . l inearifolia that normally grows u nder 1 200 m above s ealevel but i n t he deep v alleys i n t he Drakensberg grows b etween 1 8 30 m -2250 m ( Killick 1 963) and C . paucistaminea t hat i s more adapted t o colder conditions t han t he former. C .paucistaminea grows mostly o n t he s outhern mountain s lopes and c an b ecome so t hick t hat animals h ave d ifficulty i n p enetrating i t. F ire m ay d estroy C . paucistaminea b ut o therwise t he plant r ecovers q uickly 1-§tory 1 9527. Animals e at t his plant t o a c ertain e xtent. T he supplanting o f Euryops sp. by C liffortia sp. during t he l ate Holocene i n t he Langkloof i s a s ign o f an i ncrease i n r ainfall. A t hick cover o f t he l atter s hrubs would b e r esponsible f or t he absence of a lcelaphines and other grazers during t his p eriod. Eland are p artial browsers and would not f ind t he environment o f t he early Holocene a suitable h abitat but could now p enetrate i nto t he Langkloof. T he subsistence strategy o f t he hunter groups during t his t ime m ust h ave a dapted i tself i n r espect o f t he types o f animals which b ecame available f or t he hunt, v iz, a s hift f rom grazers t o e land and smaller t erritorial game. SUMMARY AND

DISCUSSION

I n t his s ection s pecific patterns observed i n t he analysis o f t he cultural r emains f rom Colwinton are i ndicated. The a spects which w ill b e mentioned h ave i mplicat ions f or t he study as a whole and t herefore a more d etailed d iscussion o f t hem and a lso t heir position i n t he Later Stone Age archaeology o f South Africa i s l eft f or t he concluding

8 2

c . 6270 B .P .

. d ds

c l ul a

A ds

e upassed

• dds enio i f la

d ds s do i ling

, wns i t .upHat i

c . 70 1890 B .P .

0 c e

13

d ds e upassed

A ds s n tn i 4 3 r • • I

d -46 c 0

u l ds euJoinja

8 3

c hapters, where a s ummary o f and conclusions t ions o f t he v arious s ites a re presented.

o n,

t he

observa-

Some r econstruction o f t he environment o f Colwinton, a s i t c hanged d uring t he past 8 000 y ears, was possible w ith t he a id o f c harcoal s amples and f aunal r emains r ecovered f rom t he d eposit. T he environment d uring t he e arly Holocene was dry and warm w ith a predominantly grass c over. I n c ontrast t he l ate Holocene environment was w etter and c ooler w ith more s hrubs and l ess grass. T his d ivision i s j ust a broad f ramework i n which s hort t erm f luctuations o ccurred t hat c an o nly b e i dentified t hrough m ore and l arger c harcoal s amples i n a ssociation w ith r adiocarbon d ates. T he s equence o f f our r adiocarbon d ates s hows t hat t he o ccupation o f C olwinton s helter t ook p lace at t he b eginning o f t he Holocene and t hat t he s ite was r egularly v isited by hunter g atherers up t o h istorical t imes. Unfortunately t here a re not enough d ates t o i dentify l ong breaks i n o ccupation. T here was a lso no v isible d iscontinuity i n t he stratigraphy t o suggest non- o ccupation. I n t his r espect a rock s helter ( Ravenscraig) i n t he adjacent Sterkspruitkloof a s w ell a s t hree o ther s ites ( Bonawe, T e Vrede and G rassridge) a t t he f oot o f t he e scarpment g ave evidence, b ased o n r adiocarbon d ates, o f l ong h iatusses i n o ccupation d uring t he l ate Holocene. I t w ill t herefore not b e surprising i f f urther d ates, e specially f rom t he t ransition o f l ayer 4 t o l ayer 3 , i ndicate a s imilar break a t Colwinton. B reaks o f s hort d urat ion b ecause o f t he mobility o f h unter g atherers c ertainly t ook p lace b ut a re s eldom r eflected i n t he archaeological r ecord. T he t ime d epth o f t he Colwinton d eposit, which c overs a lmost t he whole o f t he Holocene, c ontrasts w ith s ites i n t he a djacent Orange R iver S cheme area w here a ll t he d ated cultural r emains are y ounger t han 4 000 y ears ( Sampson 1 972,1974). An e xplanation f or t his m ay b e a d ry c limate t hat l imited o ccupation o f t he i nterior country b y p eople d uring t he e arly Holocene ( Deacon, J .1974). T he subsistence s ystem o f t he e arliest i nhabitants o f Colwinton was t o a l arge e xtent f ocused o n t he h unting o f l arger grassland g ame and i t i s possible t hat t he arrival and d eparture o f e specially t he a lcelaphines d etermined t he presence o f p eople i n t he s helter. T he L angkloof h as a l imited grazing area and i t was possibly a lso t he r oute a long which t he g ame t rekked f rom t he f oot o f t he e scarpment i nto t he Drakensberg i n o rder t o utilize t he grass v eld o f t he valleys branching o ut o f t he L angkloof. A r econstruction o f t he s easonal movement o f w ildebeest and o ther g ame d uring t he e arly Holocene i nto t he L angkloof i s, o n t he b asis o f present k nowledge, not r eally possible a lthough t he grazing h abits o f w ildebeest and t he r elatively s mall grazing a rea suggest s uch a p attern. T heir o ccurrence above and b elow t he e scarpment n evertheless i ndicates s imilar h abitat c onditions i n b oth e cological r egions. T he e arly Holocene h unters would h ave f ound t he h unting o f grazers o n t he valley b ottom o f t he L angkloof l ess t ime c onsuming and e xhausting t han would h ave b een t he c ase at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment b ecause t he area i s e nclosed b y s teep

8 4

mountain s lopes which observation posts.

h indered

e scape

and

provided

g ood

T he h unting o f l arge grazers c ontinued at C olwinton until t he l ate Holocene and t heir d isappearance f rom t he d iet o f t he o ccupants o f t he rock s helter c oincided w ith a c hange i n h abitat a pproximately 6 000 y ears a go. D uring t he l ate Holocene t he e land and t he grey r hebuck b ecame t he primary s ources o f meat w ith e land t he b iggest s upplier. T he i ncrease i n t he presence o f grey r hebuck i s f urther c onfirmation t hat t he c limate was w etter a nd c ooler t han b efore. I t c an b e e xpected t hat t he c hange i n g ame h unted h ad an i nfluence o n t he subsistence s ystem o f t he i nhabitants o f t he L angkloof. A c onstant f actor t hat p layed a role i n t he hunting s trategies o f b oth e arly a nd l ate Holocene h unters was t he enclosed h unting a rea. H unters o f t he f irst p eriod w ere e lsewhere, b ecause t hey c oncentrated o n h erd game, v ery mobile o ver l arge areas, whereas t he l ate Holocene b ands i n t he e astern and s outhern C ape b ecame attached t o v egetation p atches where t hey g athered p lant f ood and s nared s mall g ame ( Deacon, H .J. 1 983b: 1 93). T he l atter b ands, c haracterised b y a m icrolithic t echnology and bone a rrow points, appeared i n t he L angkloof b efore t he d isappearance o f t he grassveld g ame. I t was t he r estricted t errain t hat m ade i t possible f or t hem t o h unt grazers and l ater e land whilst i n o ther a reas t heir s ubsistence s ystem h ad a s i ts b ase s mall g ame and p lant f ood. H erds o f e land, d isbanding during w inter i nto s maller h erds and s preading o ver a w ide area i n t he Drakensberg, m ade i t d ifficult o r i mpossible f or t he hunters o f Colwinton t o e xploit t heir m ain s ource o f m eat d uring t hat s eason. Concent rating o n t he s maller t erritorial g ame would not y ield n early t he same quantity o f m eat u sed d uring t he s ummer. S upplementary m eat r esources could, h owever, b e r eached d uring t he w inter m onths b y e xploiting t he c oncentrations o f g ame i n t he r iver v alleys a t t he f oot o f t he e scarpment. T he d istribution o f s mall bone h ooks i s, o n present k nowledge, l imited t o t he Drakensberg. At Colwinton o nly a f ew f ish b ones were f ound i n a ssociation w ith t hese i mplements ( G. Avery, p ersonal c ommunication). T he p latanna ( Xenopus s p.) stays i n t he water and could b e brought i nto t he s helter b y a b ird o f prey. I n such a c ase o nly young f rogs o f t he species would b e t he v ictims ( R. v .d. B erg, p ersonal c ommunication). T he c atching o f f rogs i s a n i nterest ing possibility t hat d eserves f urther i nvestigation b ecause t hese amphibians a re potentialy a source o f protein f ood. A lthough c lay pot f ragments appear i n l ayer 2 f or t he f irst t ime, t he f requency o f s herds i n l ayer 1 i s c onsiderably h igher. I t i s a possibility t hat a ll t he pot f ragments w ere d erived f rom l ayer 1 and were d ownwards d isp laced d ownwards t o l ayer 2 t hrough t rampling or b urrowing b y rodents. I n t his c ase t he o ccupants o f Colwinton s tarted t o use c lay p ots f rom about 900 y ears a go. I n t he absence o f o strich e ggshell c ontainers, p ots would h ave an i mportant f unction i n t he h ouseholds o f B ushman b ands. T he

stone

artefact a ssemblage

8 5

o f

Colwinton

s hows

p at-

t erns i n t he frequencies o f f ormal tool t ypes and t heir d imensions t hat changed t hrough t ime. T he r aw m aterials were hornfels and chalcedony which were both r eadily available. T he o nly formal t ools t hat o ccurred i n t he e arly Holocene d eposit were convex s crapers w ith steep s ide r etouch and a h igh b ack. T he c haracteristic form o f t hese s crapers was probably t he r esult o f t he h afting t echnique v iz, l ike t he adzes and axes t hat a re still i n use i n Africa t oday ( Deacon, H .J., p ersonal communication). W ith t he arrival o f a new t echnological tradition 6 000 years a go, a considerable s hortening o f t he scrapers t ook place. The f act t hat s crapers were now mounted i n m astic m ight h ave b een t he c ause o f t his change i n d imension. T he appearance of small s egments and adzes, as characteristic elements o f a n ew t echnology, t ogether w ith a s ignificant change i n s craper d imensions, are t he v isible r emains o f a considerable culture change t hat t ook p lace i n South Africa f rom 7 000 years a go. T he above d iscussion o f Colwinton rock shelter g ives evidence o f t he subsistence s ystem of i ts o ccupants d uring t he Holocene. Evidence exists f or considerable s hifts i n t he v egetation and game population t hrough t ime and i t i s a lso evident t hat cultural change t ook place. A s hortcoming i n t he d ata i s t he absence o f archaeological proof f or t he u se o f plant f oods. Although plant surveys i ndicate r elatively f ew plant f ood r esources, t hey must h ave played a role.

8 6

6

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

OBSERVATIONS

A T

B ONAWE

R OCK

SHELTER

I NTRODUCTION The f arm Bonawe ( 31 ° 20 ' 3 7"S 2 7° 46 ' 30" E ) i s s ituated i n t he foothills o f t he D rakensberg e scarpment, 7 k m w est o f E lliot ( Fig. 1 ). T he s helter ( 1 500m above s ea l evel) i s a v ery w ell s ecluded c ave, i n t he s andstone o f t he Molteno F ormation, and l ies a gainst t he northern s lope o f a kloof t hat t erminates i n t he w est i n undulating grassland. The s helter i s 7 0 m l ong, t he d epth i s 1 1 m i nside t he dripline and t he h eight o f t he roof i s approximately 2 m . T he f loor i s c overed w ith sand and d ung and r ises gradually t owards t he s outhern s ide. Evidence o f t he p ast use o f t he shelter as a s tock p en are walls o f p acked s tone t hat enclose t he northern and southern s ections which a lso c ut o ff t he t alus s lopes. T est p its i ndicate t hat t he northern s ection o f t he d eposit c ontains no cultural m aterial and t here i s t he possibility t hat i t h as an a lluvial origin. T he southern s ection c onsists o f a t hick brown d eposit w ith abundant f aunal r emains v isible o n t he surface. I n t he past, a s tream o f water f lowed d own a c hute over t he m iddle o f t he roof o f t he s helter and t hen down a rocky d onga. A previous owner o f B onawe d iverted t he stream t o a s mall d am built on t op o f t he roof o f t he s helter. T he o verflow now pours d own d irectly i n f ront o f t he s outhern s tone wall c ausing t he l ower p art o f t he d eposit t o b e wet and muddy and t he t op p art to b e d amp. I n spite o f t he p resence o f t he s tone wall t here i s no v isible d isturbance i n t he e xcavated p art o f t he d eposit. A f ew f aint p aintings c an b e s een low d own o n t he s outhern s ide. A small rock s helter approximately 400 m t o t he w est, h igher up t he s lope o f t he h ill, h as an i mpressive p anel o f paintings, s ome o f w hich are still w ell preserved. H uman f igures a s well a s a v ariety o f animals are d epicted. S uperimpositioning o f p aintings i s c ommon. T his p anel i s r eminiscent o f t he rock a rt o f t he B arkly E ast r egion and i s t he s outhernmost o ccurrence o f t he D rakensberg t ype o f art f ound i n t he study a rea. S everal s maller rock s helters t hat o ccur i n t he h ills s urrounding B onawe a lso contain p aintings, but are not o f t he s ame standard or quantity ( Fig. 2 7). No open a ir s ites b elonging t o t he L ater S tone Age were f ound i n t he surroundings o f t he shelter, nor on t he plains t o t he w est, a lthough a s earch o f at l east 5 km was conducted i n d ifferent d irections. I ndications are t hat human o ccupation o f t he a rea d uring t he H olocene was l imited t o t he r ock s helters i n t he s andstone outcrops o f t he f oothills. C oncentrations o f artefacts belonging t o t he Upper P leistocene o ccur at m any l ocalities i n t he open air. T hese a rtefacts w ere m anufactured o ut o f h ornfels and h ave a brown p atina a s a r esult o f prolonged e xposure. T he k loof i n which t he rock s helter i s located is e xceptionally r ich i n v egetation w ith dominant t ypes being B uddleja auroculata, D iospyros d ichrophylla, R hus v iminalis, M yrsine africana and R hamnus prinoides.

g rows

Commonly f ound m ostly i n t he

i s t he e xotic t ree, Acacia mearnsii, v icinity o f t he d eep erosion d ongas.

8 7

t hat T he

8 8

( rock s helters

f ood p lants v iz. a rgentea a re i n e xploitation a rea

W atsonia m eriana, H ypoxis m ulticeps and H . abundance. A l ist o f f ood p lants i n t he o f t he s helter appears i n T able 1 .

T he s helter g ives g ood p rotection a gainst w ind and r ain t hroughout t he y ear and t he f loor i s f airly d ry. T he s outhern s ector r eceives t he afternoon s unshine d uring summer. W ater i s present i n t he p ool d irectly i n f ront o f t he s helter e xcept i n v ery d ry t imes. T he w estern a spect i s v ery l imited o wing t o t he presence o f a h ill d irectly i n f ront o f t he s helter. T he s uitability o f t he s helter a s a d welling p lace i s m anifested by a w ell d eveloped d eposit which c ontrasts w ith o ther s ites i n t he v icinity w here o nly t hin d eposits o ccur. A lthough t he B onawe s helter i s s ituated i n t he H ighland s ourveld a t t he f oot o f t he D rakensberg, i t i s o nly a f ew k ilometres f rom a l arge b asin o f m ixed grass i n t he upper r eaches o f t he T somo R iver. T his g rass i s a lso t o b e f ound o n t he b anks o f t he M zwazwa, a s mall s tream t hat f lows t hrough t he p lains w est o f t he s helter. A ccording t o t he owner o f B onawe h is s tock a re able t o g raze t he v eld until about J uly a fter which t hey r eceive s upplementary f odder ( D.Fletcher, p ersonal c ommunication). I n t he p ast t he m ixed grass areas would h ave s erved a s a r efuge f or g razers s earching f or b etter grazing d uring t he l ate s ummer m onths. Bonawe i s a lso l ocated o pposite B arkly P ass t hrough w hich a ccess c ould b e o btained i nto t he L angkloof v alley where Colwinton i s s ituated. T he t wo s helters, l ying o n a north-south t ransect t hrough t he e scarpment, a re 2 3 k m apart and h ave a d ifference o f 3 30 m i n h eight above s ea l evel ( Fig. 4 ). I t i s c lear t hat t he B onawe s helter could h ave b een a s uitable c amping s ite f or t he B ushman b ands f rom t he L angkloof w ishing t o e xploit t he c oncentration o f g ame d uring t he l ate summer and w inter m onths. I t was t herefore t o b e e xpected t hat grassveld g ame would r epresent an i mportant c omponent o f t he f aunal r emains a t B onawe. EXCAVATION T he e xcavation was c arried o ut d uring J anuary 1 980. F or t his purpose a g rid o f 1 m s quares w as c onstructed i n t he s outhern s ector o f t he s helter ( Fig. 2 8). T he g eneral m ethodology f ollowed w as t he s ame a s at C olwinton rock s helt er. Square A 3 w as e xcavated f irst i n order t o g et a p icture o f t he s tratification, c ultural content and d epth i n t he d eposit. D ue t o t he i ncreasing d ampness o f t he s oil, t he r ecognition o f m icrostratification w ithin t he m ain o ccupation l ayers b ecame v ery d ifficult. T herefore 50 mm units w ere u sed t o r emove t he m aterial. After c ompletion o f t he e xcavation t he s ides dried o ut and a c learer u nderstanding o f t he s tratigraphic b uild-up was p ossible. T he m uddy c onditions i n t he d eeper part o f t he d eposit obscured t he v isibility o f f eatures a nd objects. I t w as a lso not p ossible t o f ollow t he n ormal procedures o f s ifting. To p revent t he l oss o f s mall a rchaeological objects a ll m aterial w as washed i n s ieves c overed w ith a f ine w ire g auze. T he water i n t he p ool i n f ront o f t he s helter w as u sed f or t his purpose. Sorting o f t he m aterial w as d one at t he U niversity o f F ort H are. C ultural

m aterial

w as

present

8 9

i n

v arying

d ensities

• ••

• / ' • ••

0 . •

z

• . :

s tone w a l l • e xcavat io

3m r ock

F ig . 2 8 .

B onawe R ock S helter .

P lan a nd s ection .

9 0

t hroughout t he d eposit. F aunal r emains were well preserved t hroughout c onsidering t he w etness o f t he d eposit and t he r elatively l ow pH o f t he bottom p art. I n a ll t he b locks t he rock b ottom was r eached at a d epth o f approximately 2 m . STRATIGRAPHY Owing t o t he wetness o f t he d eposit, i t was only possible t o i dentify t he t hree m ain stratigraphic units w ith s ome d egree o f c ertainty during t he e xcavation. After the d rying out o f t he walls o f t he e xcavation, stratigraphic subdivisions o n t he b asis o f colour changes were c learer and i t was possible t o c ombine t he arbitrary u nits t o s ome e xtent i n correlation w ith t he substrata. However i t i s clear t hat i n s ome c ases t he arbitrary d ivisions c ut t hrough t he sub l ayers and t hus c ontain m aterial b elonging t o more t han one n atural l ayer. I n considering t he analysis o f t he archaeological m aterial, use i s m ade o f arbitrary units ( comb ined f or statistical r easons t o 0 ,1 m units or l arger), together w ith r espective i ndicators o f t he m ain l ayer and o f t he approximate sublayer t o which i t b elongs. T he principal subdivisions are t he

stratigraphic f ollowing:

units

( Fig.

2 9)

w ith

L AYER 3 . T his u nit r epresents t he e arliest o ccupation o f t he s helter and h as a uniform t hickness of 0 ,8 m . Predominantly i t h as a l ight brown colour w ith a clay t o sand c lay t exture and i s m uddy ( pH=6.6). L ayer 3 c consists o f d ark brown t o greyish brown clay and i s 0 ,2 m t o 0 ,4 m t hick. I t r ests upon b edrock and contains t he r emains of t he e arliest h uman h abitation h aving a r adiocarbon d ate o f 8040 ± 100 B .P. ( Pta-1709). This d ate shows t hat t he occupation o f Bonawe started at about t he s ame t ime a s at Colwinton on top o f t he e scarpment. L ayer 3 b i s l ighter i n colour, c layey and approximately 0 ,2 t o 0 ,5 m t hick. L ayer 3 a i s 0 ,2 m t hick, l ight brown and h as a s and c lay t exture. A r adiocarbon d ate o f 2 960 ± 60 B .P. ( Pta-3499) i s a ssociated w ith t his l ayer. L AYER 2 . T his i s a greyish brown sand clay l ayer approximately 0 ,4 m t hick w ith a pH o f 6 ,9. Charcoal f ragments are spread t hroughout. No subdivisions were possible and t he l ayer was r emoved i n 0 ,05 m u nits. Although t his l ayer i s still w et i t i s no l onger m uddy. A s ingle s egment w as r ecovered f rom t he t op p art. A d ate o f 2 830 ± 60 B .P. ( Pta-3497) i s a ssociated w ith t his l ayer. L AYER 1 . T his i s t he most r ecent l ayer and consists o f d amp s and c lay s oil 0 ,6 m t hick w ith a pH o f 7 ,5. T hree subl ayers a re d istinguished, v iz, l ayer l c, 0 ,15 - 0 ,4 m t hick, c haracterized b y a d ark brown colour w ith white ash spots and c harcoal f ragments. T his sublayer t erminates i n b locks A4 and B 4. L ayer l b, 0 ,2-0,4 m t hick, h as a brown t o l ight brown c olour and h as a r adiocarbon d ate o f 2 250 ± 80 B .P. ( Pta1 711). C lay pot f ragments appear i n t he t op p art. L ayer l a i s d ark brown, f airly d ry and h ard w ith a t hickness o f 0 ,05-0,25 m . D ATING Four r adiocarbon d ates were samples. F rom t hese d ates i t b ecame

9 1

d erived f rom c lear t hat t he

charcoal o ccupation

d a tum

A

a pp rox ima te d a tes B .P .

. . .. •c harcoa l

•w h ite a sh

•O

•

l c

d ark b rown l o in ' . •

.

2 200

• __-----•-- •

•

• •2

b rown s and c l iy • • • •

• •

• •• •

_ - -_b lack

3 a_

2 800

3 000 A n: -

l i gh t b rown c l ay

h ear th 7—

(I) s tone

8 000

g rey c l ay , b l ack

c le a nd c harcoa l \ \\

\\\\\

3 c

, r ock Im

F ig .

2 9 .

3b

B onawe R ock S helter :

9 2

S ection .

o f t he s helter stretched over nearly a ll o f t he Holocene w ith a l ong i nterruption d uring t he m iddle H olocene. T he e arliest d ate o f 8040 ± 100 B .P. ( Pta-1709) coming f rom close t o bedrock, i ndicates t he b eginning o f o ccupation o f t he shelter. T he stone artefact a ssemblage a ssociated w ith t his date i s c learly part of t he e arly Holocene t echnological s ubstage t hat o ccurred o ver a w ide area i n South Africa. T he date o f 2 960 ± 60 B .P. ( Pta-3499) comes f rom approximately 0 ,4 m h igher up i n t he d eposit t han the former d ate. R elative to t he apparent speed w ith which t he r est o f t he d eposit was b uilt up, as is suggested by t he subsequent d ates, i t s eems a s i f a break i n o ccupation o f s everal t housand years t ook p lace b etween t he f irst t wo d ates. T he Holocene character o f t he cultural m aterial a ssociated w ith t he d ate o f 3000 years a go i s confirmed by t he o ccurrence o f s mall s crapers and t he f ragments o f bone h ooks. T he l atter artefacts are s imilar to t he bone hooks t hat w ere found at Colwinton i n a v ery l ate Holocene context. A date o f 2 830 ± 60 B .P. ( Pta-3497) confirms t he l ate H olocene origin o f l ayers 2 and 3 and i ndicates t he rapid b uild up o f t he d eposit s ince t he previous d ates. T he date of 2 250 ± 80 B .P. ( Pta-1711) comes f rom a d epth o f approximately 0 ,4 m under t he surface, while potsherds start t o appear at 0 ,3 m . T here m ay, t herefore, b e a correlation w ith t he f irst o ccurrence o f pottery at Colwinton s hortly after 1 9 00 years a go. T he youngest t hree radiocarbon dates group t ogether and w hen s een i n association w ith t he e arliest d ate i t i s f airly c ertain t hat t here w ere t wo o ccupation p eriods i n t he p rehistory o f t he s helter. T he f irst was a short p eriod of h abitation d uring t he e arly Holocene f ollowed by a long break d uring t he m iddle H olocene and t he s econd was when t he hunter g atherers r eturned d uring t he l ate Holocene. Small s egments h ave a h igh f requency i n artefact assemblages dating t o t he m iddle Holocene i n t he northeastern C ape and t heir v irtual absence i n the B onawe a ssemblage m ay be a f urther i ndication o f non o ccupation d uring that t ime. ARTEFACT

D ESCRIPTION

HEARTHS Characteristic o f t he e xcavated d eposit was t he absence o f h earth f eatures such a s were f ound at Colwinton. I n most i nstances t he possibility o f a h earth was suggested by a more or l ess c ircular c oncentration o f ash and and charcoal a ssociated with f ragments o f b urned bone. Only b y way o f e xception was a s ingle f lat stone f ound i n association w ith a h earth. T he n ature of t he d eposit and t he f act t hat h earths u sually o ccurred o nly p artially i n a b lock, m ade i t d ifficult t o d etermine t heir s izes. I t s eems h owever t hat t hey never h ad a d iameter l arger t han approximately 0 ,8 m . F ragments o f c harcoal d erived f rom h earths o ccurred t hroughout t he d eposit. ARTEFACTS

OF

ORGANIC

MATERIAL

Bone

9 1

A ltogether 5 9 bone a rtefacts were r ecovered, r epresenting 0 ,7% o f t he t otal a rtefacts. D espite t he l ow p ercentage i t i s c lear t hat b one a rtefacts and e specially b one points w ere o f m ore i mportance t han at C olwinton. S mall b one h ooks a lso h ave a r elatively h igh f requency. H ooks. T hese are f ragile a rtefacts s imilar t o f ish h ooks, b ut i t h as not b een e stablished w ith c ertainty w hether t hey w ere u sed a s s uch. No f rog b ones, as w as t he c ase at C olwinton, w ere f ound i n a ssociation w ith t he bone h ooks. T hese a rtefacts o ccurred a s e arly a s 3 000 y ears a go a t B onawe w hile at C olwinton t hey w ere l imited t o t he l ast 2000 y ears. Most o f t he s pecimens h ave broken t angs which i s t o b e e xpected o f s uch d elicate objects. T he f ollowing h ooks w ere f ound: L ayer l c ( 0,6-0,65 m ). H ook w ith t ang broken. L ayer 2 ( 0,75-0,8 m ). Hook w ith b arb and t ang broken ( Fig. 3 0). L ayer 2 ( 1,05-1,1 m ). A t ang o nly. L ayer 2 ( 1,1-1,15 m ). T wo h ooks w ith t angs broken. L ayer 2 ( 1,15-1,2 m ). A h ook o f l ength 3 5 mm, l ength o f b arb 1 5 mm and m aximum t hickness 1 mm. A lso a h ook w ith t ang broken. L ayer 3 a ( 1,3-1, 4 m ). Two h ooks w ithout t angs. B one points. Bone p oints o f v arious f orms a nd i n d ifferent stages o f m anufacture w ere f ound. A s was t he c ase w ith t he h ooks t he m ajority o f t he p oints w ere broken. S ome o f t he p oints c learly s how a n otch a round t he b utt e nd which m ade s napping e asier. T rimming o f t he points w as f inished o ff b y p olishing. Twenty n ine points and f ragments w ere f ound.

w ith o ne ( Fig. 3 0)

L ayer 1 ( 0,2-0,5 m ). S even broken points. L ayer 2 ( 1,7-1,75 m ). A c ylindrical s harpened point b lunt end ( length 69 mm, m aximum t hickness 5 mm)

L ayer 2 ( 1,05-1,1 m ). A n o val s haped point w ith o ne ( length 7 3 mm, m aximum t hickness 5 mm)(Fig. 30). L ayer 2 ( 1,05-1,1 m ). Two p oints. One w ith b arbs and s harpened s ides ( length 5 0 mm, b readth 5 mm and t hickness 2 mm) ( Fig. 3 0); Another o ne w ith a s hallow groove d own t he m iddle ( length 9 0 mm, breadth 6 mm, t hickness 5 mm). L ayer 2 ( 1, 05-1,10 m ). T he t ang o f a point w ith parts o f t he b arbs r emaining. L ayer 3 a ( 1,30-1,35 m ). A p oint o f l ength 62 mm, m aximum t hickness 4 mm. B lunt at o ne end. L ayer 3 a ( 1, 20-1,35 m ). F ive b roken points. L ayer 3 b ( 1,30-1,35 m ). A f lat point o f l ength 6 2 mm, and m aximum t hickness 4 mm. b lunt

end

A ll

t he

points

O rnaments.

T he

o ccur

o nly

f ollowing

i n

a l ate

p endants

H olocene

w ere

c ontext.

f ound:

L ayer 2 ( 1,80-1, 85 m ). T he i ncisor o f a m edium l arge antelope w ith a round h ole t hrough t he root w hich w as r ubbed f lat ( Fig. 30). An a lmost i dentical p endant w as f ound a t C olwinton. L ayer 2 ( 0,70-0,75 m ). A l ong o val s haped p endant

9 4

1

3

2

9

4

5

1 0

6

1

7

1 2

1 3

50 mm

F ig . 3 0 . B onaue R ock S helter . 1 -6 : B one h ooks ( from l ayers 2a nd 3 a ); 7 : T ooth p endant ( from l ayer l b ); 8 -12 : B one p oints ( from l ayers l c, 2 a nd 3 a ); 1 3 : B one p endant ( from l ayers l c ).

9 5

o f r ubbed 1 7 mm and

b one w ith a h ole at o ne end ( length 9 2 mm, t hickness 4 mm). L ayer 2 ( 0,95-1,00 m ). A l ong o val s haped w ith s napped o ff point ( length 66 mm, breadth 1 1 t hickness 3 mm).

t he

breadth p endant mm and

A wls. T hese t ools h ave s harpened points b ut o ften f orm o f t he o riginal b one f ragment at t he b ut end. L ayer l b ( 0,05-0,55 m ). One m aximum t hickness 8 mm). L ayer 3 a ( 1,20-1,25 m ). An awl ( length 9 1 mm and t hickness 6 mm).

broken awl

r etain

( length

60

mm and o ff

t hat

O ther b one a rtefacts. d id not h ave a t ypical

S everal f orm.

w ith

t he

point

s napped

bone artefacts w ere

f ound

L ayer 2 ( 1,05-1,10 m ). A f lat polished f ragment at both ends ( length 3 4 mm, breadth 6 mm and 3 mm). L ayer 3 a ( 1,20-1,25 m ). A r ib f ragment w ith l ong striations. L ayer 3 a ( 1,35-1,40 m ). A pointed s harpened bone ( length 4 9 mm, breadth 6 mm and t hickness 4 mm; a cylindrical polished f ragment ( length 3 1 mm and t hickness 4 mm). L ayer 3b ( 1,40-1,45 m ). A cylindrical f ragment s napped at both ends ( length 3 4 mm, breadth 6 mm and t hickness 3 mm). f ractured t hickness

Ostrich e ggshell b eads O nly o ne o strich e ggshell b ead w as f ound i n l ayer l c ( 0,55-0,60 m )(diameter 4 mm). A s ingle o strich eggshell f ragm ent i ndicates t hat t hese o rnaments were not m anufactured l ocally and were possibly brought f rom t he w est where o striches w ere c ommon. P OTTERY P otsherds o ccur t o a d epth o f about 0 ,55 m ( Table 2 8), while a d ate o f 2 250 ± 80 B .P. ( Pta-1711) w as obtained f or a c harcoal sample f rom a d epth o f 0 ,65 m . A r easonable d eduction i s t hat pottery a ppeared b etween 1 600 and 2 000 B .P. i n t he v icinity o f B onawe. S uch a d ate would correlate w ith t he arrival o f pottery a t C olwinton s hortly a fter 2 000 B .P. T he 1 58 potsherds a re a ll s mall f ragments w ith an a verage m aximum d iameter o f 2 5 mm p er f ragment. T he colour i s mostly b lack a lthough a f ew s herds h ave a brown o uter surface. T he potsherds a re w ell b aked and i n s ome specimens a grit t emper i s v isible. Average t hicknesses v ary b etween 7 mm and 8 mm. N o c hange t hrough t ime i n quality o f m anufacturing or t hickness was p erceptible. T he s herds are a ll undecorated. Twenty r im f ragments i nclude 1 7 rolled and 3 f lat f orms ( Fig . 31) STONE

ARTEFACTS

A rtefact

i nventory

Analysis o f t he s tone artefact a ssemblage w as d one f ollowing t he s ame p rocedures t hat w ere used f or t he Colwint on a ssemblage. A t otal o f 8 4 67 s tone artefacts w ere

9 6

50 mm

F ig . 3 1.

B onawe R ock S helter .

F ragments o f c lay p ot r ims.

9 7

i dentified o f w hich 7 8 23 ( 92,3%) w ere c lassified a s w aste, 4 7 ( 0,6%) a s utilized and 5 97 ( 7%) a s f ormal t ools ( Table 2 9). T he f requencies o f t he stone artefacts a re s urprisingly low c onsidering t he environment, t he s ize o f t he s helter, t he t ime d epth and a lso t he q uantity o f a ssociated f aunal m aterial ( Fig. 3 2, T able 3 0). T he f requency o f o chre f ragm ents i s g iven i n T able 3 1. T he dominant w aste c lass i s t he untrimmed f lakes ( 82,5% o f t he t otal w aste), m ade m ostly o f h ornfels f ollowed by c halcedony and a l ittle s ilcrete ( Fig.33). N o s ignificant s hift i n r aw m aterial p reference w as observed i n t he m ain e xcavation units or s ubunits. I n t ables 3 2 and 3 3 t he means f or t he l engths and breadths o f f lakes are g iven. No t ime t rends o ccur ( Figures 3 4, 3 5). T he class o f utilized f lakes i s not s een a s f ormal t ools and i s s hown a s a s eparate c lass. I n l ayer 3 ( 1, 20-2,10 m ) and l ayer 1 ( 0,10-0,80 m ) h ornfels dominates w hile l ayer 2 ( 0,80-1,20 m ) c ontains an e qual n umber o f utilized f lakes o f h ornfels and c halcedony. Cores o ccurred i n s ufficient n umbers t o b e d ivided i nto groups. I n l ayer 3 t here are e qual n umbers o f s ingle striking p latform and m ulti striking p latform cores, w hile i n l ayers 2 and 1 m ulti-platform c ores predominate. A lso p resent are a f ew c ores w ith o pposite and c ircular s triking p latforms. C halcedony was u sed m ostly a s r aw m aterial f or c ores i n l ayers 1 and 3 c ( Fig. 3 6). I n t he c hunk c lass o f l ayers 3 and 2 h ornfels predominates b ut i n l ayer 1 e qual n umbers o f c halcedony and h ornfels c hunks a re p resent ( Fig. 3 7). C hips h ave t he s econd h ighest f requency and i n t his group h ornfels w as t he m aterial o f w hich m ost o f t he c hips w ere m ade i n a ll s ubunits e xcept i n 3 c(2, 0-2,1 m )(Fig. 3 8). T he f ormal t ool c ategory c onsists m ainly o f s mall convex s crapers ( 98%) and s mall b acked b lades ( 1,7%)(Fig.39). Other f ormal r etouched t ools n ecessary t o i dentify t he t echnological s ubstage are a lmost absent. Only o ne s mall s egment, t wo a dzes and o ne b orer c omplete t he f ormal artefact group. T he i nventory i ndicates t hat t he r ange o f a ctivities practised a t B onawe w as m ore l imited t han at C olwinton. T here i s, f or i nstance, v ery l ittle s ign o f woodworking, v iz. a dzes and c oncave s crapers, a lthough t he w ell protected k loof h ad a v ariety o f i ndigenous t rees. A n i mportant a ctivity e xecuted i n t he s helter, a ccording t o t he f ormal t ools, w as t he s craping o f s kins. M etrical

analysis

o f

t he

f ormal

t ools

I n t he f ormal t ool c ategory o nly s crapers o ccurred i n s ufficient q uantities t o b e used i n m eaningful m etrical analysis. To ensure c ompleteness t he d imensions o f t he b acked t ools w ere a lso m easured. T he t echniques u sed are t he s ame a s t hose a lready d iscussed i n t he analysis o f t he Colwinton a rtefact a ssemblage. S crapers

t he

S craper d imensions. F or t he m etrical analysis o f s crapers, t he 0 ,05 m units ( combined a s 0 ,1 m u nits)

9 8

3 20

9

3 00 _

2 80

_

2 60 _ 2 40 _

2 20

_

n umber o f a r tefac ts

2 00 _

1 80 1 60

1 40 1 20

1 00

_

8 0

_

X

\

5 0

°

4 0

_

2 0

b reak 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

I 8

I 9

I 1 0

I 1

I 1 2

X1 0 00B .P .

H onawe

0

C o lw in ton 0

F l avensc ra ig

0

• G rass r idge A_ . _ ._ e

' F e V r ede

F ig . 3 2. N umber o f a rtefacts p er b ucket t hrough t ime a t n orthe astern C ape s ites.

8 0 • ••

X,

—

7 0 X— —

. 0*

8 0

5 0

4 0

3 0

2 0

1 0

.A . l ä

l b

l c

2

3 I a

— •A •

3 b

l a ye rs X— . x

h ornfe ls c ha lcedony

. 4 k .

F ig . 3 3 .

O ther

B ona w R ock S helter .

U ntrimmed f lakes :

1 00

r aw m aterials .

C I 3 r e

0 3

e a

0

X

C ha lcedony

. 1 3

0

. 03

0

X 1000B .P .

0

0

a r n

0

0

X 1000B .P .

E 0 E

1 01

1 00 90 80 7 0 60 5 0403 02 0—

X

. 4 1— •

1 0—

3i b

X — — X H ornfe ls 0

-0 C ha lcedony ' O ther

F ig . 3 6 .

B onawe R ock S helter .

C ores:

1 02

r aw m aterials .

3 i c

o h 1 00

9 0

8 0

7 0

8 0

5 0 I t 4 0

3 0

2 0

1 0

A

l b

l a

2

l c

A . 3 .

3 b

l a ye rs xH o rn fe ls C ha lcedony A —A O the r

F ig . 3 7.

B onawe R ock S helter .

1 03

C hunks :

r aw m aterials.

A 3 c

1 00

9 0

8 0 „

7 0

„ N r.

6 0 • X

5 0 ,

4 0

3 0

,

2 0

1 0

-

II ' l k •

l b

1a

l c

2

•• • • "

A

3 a

• • • ••• • • •

•

3 b

l a yers x -x H o rn fe ls 0 -0 C ha lcedony kr Anthe r

F ig . 3 8 .

B onawe R ock S helter .

C hips :

1 04

r aw m aterials

3 c

2

1

5

3

4

6

7

0

5 0 n l in

8

9

1 0

1 1 2

1 4

1 5

1 6

1 7

1 9

20

2 1 2 2

F ig . 3 9 . B onawe R ock S helter . S crapers : 1 -4 : f rom l ayer l a ; 5 -7: f rom l ayer l b ; 8 -10 : f rom l ayer l c; 1-13; f rom l ayer 2 ; 1 4-16 : f rom l ayer 3 a ; 1 7-19 : f rom l ayer 3 b ; 2 0-22 : f rom l ayer 3 c .

1 05

which w ere arbitrarily i dentified i n t he t hree m ain o ccupation l ayers, w ere u sed. I n order t o g et a b igger s ample t he 0 ,05 m units i n the b ottom p art o f l ayer 3 w ere c ombined a s a 0 ,4 m u nit. T he arithmetic m eans o f t he l engths, breadths, h eights and breadth : l ength x 100 f or t he s crapers o f e ach unit are g iven i n T ables 3 4,35,36,37. I t i s particularly t he l engths t hat s how c hange t hrough t ime ( Figures 40,41). T he s crapers o f t he o ldest s ubunit, l ayer 3 c ( 1,70-2,10 m ), are r elatively l ong and h eavy ( Table 3 8), whereas s crapers o f t he s ucceeding units up t o l ayer 1 ( 0,60 ,7) are s horter. S ubsequently, s crapers t end t o b ecome longer a gain. As a r esult o f t he skewness o f t he d istributions o f t he l ength, breadth and h eight v alues t he M ann-Whitney U t est w as u sed t o t est t he v alues f rom t he d ifferent s ub units a gainst o ne another ( Table 3 9). T his s howed t hat units l a ( 0,20-0,30 m ),lb ( 0,30-0,40 m ), l c ( 0,400 ,50 m ) and l c ( 0,50-0,60 m ) b elonged t o t he s ame p opulation. T hese u nits r esemble w ith l ayer 2 ( 0,90-1, 00 m ). L ayers l c ( 0,60-0,70 m ) t o 3 b ( 1,60-1,70 m ) b elong t o another g roup and l ayer 3 c ( 1,70-2,10 m ) t o a t hird group. I nterestingly t he most r ecent units, l a ( 0,20-0,30 m ) t o l c ( 0,50-0,60 m ), s how s ome r esemblance w ith t he o ldest units 3 b ( 1,60-1,70 m ) and 3 c ( 1,70-2,10 m ). B ecause o f t he l arge t ime g ap t hese s imilarities d o not i ndicate t echnological affinities b ut are c aused b y c hanges i n style. B ecause t hese c hanges a lso o ccur at o ther H olocene s ites, which are g eographicaly f ar a part, t hey c annot be s een i n t erms o f a m ere r eaction t o l ocal environmental f actors b ut r ather f orm p art o f a n atural d evelopment process i n t he broad t echnological unit t o which a ll i ndustries d uring t his p eriod i n S outh A frica b elonged. R etouch positions. Long s crapers w ith end r etouch predominate i n a ll t he units. T he f requency o f s crapers w ith end and s ide r etouch i s g enerally t oo l ow t o r ecognise meaningful t endencies ( Fig. 42). T he f requencies o f s crapers w ith o ther t ypes o f r etouch are a lso v ery low. I n l ayers 3 b ( 1, 50-1,70 m ) and 3 c ( 1,70-2,10 m ) t he s ide r etouch o f s crapers s how a c haracteristic steep s teplike f laking. Forms. P arallel-sided s craper f orms are d ominant i n a ll t he u nits e xcept i n l ayer 1 ( 0,20-0 m ) and l ayer 3 b ( 1, 401 ,0 m ) w here d ivergent f orms are predominant w ith an average angle o f d ivergence b etween 1 0 and 3 0 ( Fig. 4 3). R emoval o f t he b ulb o f p ercussion. I n a ll t he units most o f t he s crapers s till h ave t heir b ulbs o f p ercussion. T here i s no t ime t endency v isible amongst s crapers f rom which t he b ulb o f p ercussion h as b een r emoved ( Fig. 44). R aw m aterial. T he m aterials u sed f or t he m anufacturing o f s crapers w ere h ornfels and c halcedony. I n l a, l b ( 0,30 -0, 40m) h ornfels d ominates b ut i n t he o ther units c halcedony was t he p referred m aterial. T here i s a t ime t rend v isible where t he o ldest and youngest units o f t he d eposit h ave r elatively m ore h ornfels r aw m aterial t han t he units i n b etween, b ut b ecause o f t he low f requency o f t he h ornfels s crapers, s uch an observation i s not r eally s ignificant ( Fig. 4 5). T he h ornfels s crapers are i n g eneral l arger and h eavier t han t he c halcedony s crapers ( Table 3 8). B acked

artefacts.

T hese

1 06

artefacts,

apart

f rom

t he

L ayer a nd d epth ( m)

n umber

t

l a(0,2-0,3)

1 4

l b(0,3-0,4)

1 0

l c(0,4-0,5)

13

l c(0,5-0,6)

30

l c(0,6-0,7) l c(0,7-0,8)

38

4

l c(0,8-0,9)

II

49 43

2 ( 0,9-1,0)

49

2 ( 1,0-1,1)

59

2 ( 1,1-1,2)

52

3 a(1,2-1,3)

49

3 a(1,3-1,4)

e s

3 b(1,4-1,5)

3 1

3 b(1,5-1 16 )

2 1

3 b(1,6-1,7)

1 0

I

3 c(1,7-2,0)

I 0

20

9

30

40

l eng ths

3 0.m

1 0

20

b readths

F ig . 4 0 . B onawe R ock S helter . D iagrams f or s craper l ength a nd b readth . T he h orizontal l ine i s t he r ange; t he v ertical l ine i s t he a rithmetic m ean a nd t he o pen r ectangle i s t he s tandard d eviation .

1 07

n umber

l a yer _and d ep th ( m)

1 4

l a(0,2-0,3)

10

l b(0,3-0,4)

1 3

l c(0,4-0,5)

30

l c(0,5-0,6)

38

l c(0,6-0,7)

49

l c(0,7-0,8)

•43

l c(0,8-0,9)

49

2 ( 0,9-1,0)

59

2 ( 1,0-1,1)

52

2 ( 1,1-1,2)

49

3 a(1,2-1,3)

85

3 a(1,3-1,4)

3 b(1,4-1,5)

E h -

5 1

2 1

3 b(1,5-1,6)

10 3 b(1,6-1,7) • 3 c(1,7-2,0)

412 -

9

1 0

20

30 m m

h e ights

F ig . 4 1. B onawe R ock S helter . D iagram f or s craper h eight . T he h orizontal l ine i s t he r ange, t he v ertical l ine i s t he a rithmetic m ean a nd t he o pen r ectangle i s t he s tandard d eviation .

1 08

0f

I t

9 0 _ 0 8 0

-

7 0

_

6 0

-

5 0

40 • 3 0

2 0

_ ee.

1 0

-

.— . iTb

1 i

• •- • A •1 c

-

3 ▪ a

2

-

A ,• 3 b

3 c

l a ye r

_ __,D e nd e nd a nd s i de 4 1 6 --A . o ther

F ig . 4 2 . r etouch .

B onawe R ock S helter .

1 09

S crapers :

p osition

o f

0 / 0

80 _

7 0

60 _

— x •

° •

— . .

K

4 0 .

-x

40

30 . . ,

2 0

•A

1 0 A

• • • • • • • . .A

l a

1b

t c

2

3 a

3 b

l ayers 0

0 P ara l le l D ivergen t O ther

F ig . 4 3 .

B onawe R ock S helter .

S crapers :

1 10

p lan f orm .

3 C

0 /0 1 00

9 0

8 0 70

80

5 0 40

30

_ 2 0

x ,

1 0

• % . • N .

1 8 l a yers 0

P resent , e (A bsent

F ig . 4 4 . B onawe R ock S helter . p ercussion p resent/absent .

1 11

S crapers :

b ulb o f

%

l o o 90

—

8 0

_

0 7 0

.

60

. ,

5 0

_

4 0

„

3 0

,

2 0

,

1 0

/X

% ‘ \

/

/ ,

_

•

* .e .,.

.

.

. _ __

. . . „ .. . . .,

11 8

/ /

lb

l ie

X . .

I

x ' . .

__ •— . •-Ä — •

3 8

.A

r 3b

31e

l aye rs

x - --x H o rnfe ls 0

oC ha lcedony

A— . — .A O the r

F ig . 4 5 .

B onawe R ock S helter .

1 12

S crapers .

R aw m aterials .

s crapers, h ave t he h ighest f requency i n t he f ormal t ool c ategory. Only o ne s egment ( chalcedony) was f ound ( length 8 mm, breadth 5 mm, and t hickness 1 mm ) . T his s egment i s c onsiderably s maller t han t he average f or t he C olwinton s egm ents. T he d imensions o f t he o ne c halcedony b acked f lake ( length 1 6 mm, breadth 5 mm and t hickness 2 mm ) are a lso s maller t han t he average f or C olwinton. T en b acked b lades w ere r ecovered ( Table 40). F our w ere m anufactured o ut o f h ornfels and s ix o ut o f c halcedony. T he mean l ength o f t he b lades i s h igher t han f or t he C olwinton b lades b ecause o f t he i nfluence o f t he l ong h ornfels b lades. Movius ( 1968) d istinguished s everal stages i n t he m anufacturing o f b acked b lades and i t s eems a s i f t he B onawe s pecimens r epresent s uch stages. S everal o f t he b lade s egments s how c lean break m arks a t e ach end. O ne b lade h as a s errated e dge. B acked b lades b elong t o t he b acked artefact c lass. r eason why b lades h ave a h igher f requency t han s egments be f unctional, i .e. t he a ctivities p ractised n eeded s pecific a rtefact t ype. CONCLUSIONS OF

THE ARTEFACT

T he m ay t his

ANALYSIS

T he preceding artefact analysis c reates t he i mpression o f a s pecific a ctivity orientation. S mall c onvex s crapers f orm 97% o f t he f ormal t ool c ategory. T his p ercentage i s c onsiderably h igher t han w as t he c ase at t he o ther H olocene s ites i n t he e astern C ape ( Deacon, J .1972; D eacon, H .J. 1 976), L esotho ( Carter 1 977) and i n t he area o f t he Orange R iver S cheme ( Sampson 1 974). S crapers are a ssociated w ith t he s craping o f s kins t herefore t heir h igh f requency s hows t hat t his w as o ne o f t he m ajor a ctivities practised a t t he s helter. T here are c hanges t hrough t ime i n t he s craper d imensions and t he d ifferences b etween t he s craper populations w ere s hown t o b e s ignificant by m eans o f t he M ann-Whitney U t est. A ccordingly t he s capers o f l ayer 3 c ( 1,70-2,10 m ) b elong to a s eparate p opulation, t he s crapers o f l ayers 3 b ( 1,60-1,70 m ) t o l c ( 0,60-0,70 m ) t o a d ifferent p opulation and a t hird population i s r epresented by s crapers f rom l ayers l c ( 0,50-0.60 m ) t o l a ( 0,20-0,30 m ). T he m ean l ength o f s crapers f rom l ayer 3 c ( 1,70-2,10 m ) i s a lmost i dentical w ith t hat o f s crapers f rom l ayer 6 a t C olwinton. More h ornfels w as u sed a t B onawe b ut t he f requency o f s crapers i n l ayer 3 c is t oo low f or m eaningful d eductions. A lthough t he f ollowing unit, l ayer 3 b ( 1,60-1,70 m ), s till e xhibits t ypological e lements o f t he e arliest t echnological s ubstage, s mall end s crapers s tart t o o ccur w ith g reater f requency, t ogether w ith s mall b acked t ools, a s ingle b orer and a f ew a dzes t ypical o f t he f ollowing l ayers. S craper d imensions s how a s imilarity w ith t he s crapers f rom l ayers 3 and 4 f rom C olwinton. T he a lmost t otal absence o f s egments and a g reater p resence o f b acked b lades m ay be an i ndication o f a specific f orm o f p rojectile h unting and i t a lso r eflects t he f act t hat m ost o f t he d eposit i s younger t han 3 0 00 y ears. T he i mportance o f p rojectile h unting i s confirmed b y t he p resence o f a c onsiderable n umber o f b one p oints. O f i mportance i s t he observation t hat f ishing, i ndicated b y s mall bone h ooks, w as p ossibly p ractised f rom t he b eginning o f t his t echnological s ubstage. A lthough no o strich eggshell b eads o ccur i n t hese units o ther f orms o f

1 13

ornamentation l ike p endants presence o f b one artefacts d eposit.

o f bone and t eeth w ere u sed. T he i s l imited t o t he l ate H olocene

T he s crapers f rom l ayers l c ( 0,50-0,60 m ) t o l a ( 0,200 ,30 m ) are s een a s b elonging t o t he s ame population. T he s crapers a re s omewhat longer t han t hose o f t he preceding l ayers. T he d imensions o f t he c halcedony s crapers f rom t hese s ubunits a re c omparable w ith d imensions o f s capers f rom l ayers 1 a nd 2 f rom C olwinton t hat w ere m ade f rom t he s ame m aterial and b elong t o t he l ast 2 000 y ears. T he possibility o f a n ew e lement i n t he s ubsistence s ystem i s t he appearance o f p ottery i n t he t op p art o f t he d eposit ( layers ( 0,50-0,60 m ) t o l a ( 0,20-0,30 m )). B riefly, i t c an b e s aid t hat t he c omposition o f an artefact a ssemblage r eflects r elated a ctivities, f ocused o n k ey r esources. An i mplication is t hat t he h igh p ercentages s crapers t hat o ccur t hroughout t he B onawe a ssemblage are an i ndication t hat t he s ame r esource, n amely g ame, w as e xploited t o a h igh d egree d uring t he b uild-up o f a ll t he o ccupation l ayers. T here e xists v ery l ittle i ndication o f t he m ethod by w hich t he artefact assemblage c ould h ave c ontributed t o t he e xploitation o f p lant r esources. R esearch i n t he s outhwestern C ape s howed, h owever, t hat i n t he c ase o f s craper d ominated a ssemblages p lant f oods p layed a l ess i mportant role i n t he d iet ( Mazel & P arkington 1 981:16). I n t his c ontext t he h igh f requency o f t he l arger g ame t ypes i n t he l ist o f s pecies s uggests t hat t his could h ave b een t he c ase at Bonawe. F AUNA B one f ragments are f ound i n a w ell preserved s tate i n a ll t he e xcavation units. T he r elatively h igh f requency o f f oot b ones, as w as t he c ase at Colwinton, w as noticeable. T his t endency h as a lso b een observed i n t he bone a ssemblages f rom o ther s ites i n t he s outhern C ape ( Klein 1 978a). A lthough t he q uantity o f b one m aterial i n r elation t o stone a rtefacts w as l arger t han a t any o ther s ite i n t he s tudy area ( Table 4 1) t here w as no s ign t hat c arnivores or rodents h ave m ade a s ignificant c ontribution t o t he b one a ssemblage. T he analytical procedures which w ere f ollowed are t he s ame a s f or t he C olwinton f auna, w ith t he e xception t hat t he m inimum n umbers o f s pecies w ere c alculated w ithin 5 0 mm units. T hese n umbers w ere combined t o r epresent l arger u nits, as i s s hown i n t he t ables. T he f auna o f B locks A3 and B 3 was i dentified b y J .S. B rink and t hat o f B locks A4 and B 4 by t he writer w ith t he a ssistance o f J . F. T hackeray. T he animals t hat o ccur i n t he species l ist ( Table 4 2) are r epresentative o f s ome o f t he g ame t hat m ay b e e xpected i n t hat t ype o f environment. SPECIES

L IST

Animal r emains t hat m ay b e p resent i n t he d eposit because o f n atural a gencies are l eopard, j ackal, rock h yrax and porcupine. P igs, e specially t he warthog, w hich i s t ypical o f a s avanna environment, a re w ell-represented and w ere, d espite t heir d angerous d isposition, o ften t he

14

s uccessful p rey o f t he o ccupants o f t he s helter. Q uagga and z ebra w ere h unted t hroughout and a s a t C olwinton a o f h orse ( Equus s p.), r epresented by b igger t eeth t han t hat o f o ther e quidae, w as p resent i n t he area u ntil about m iddle H olocene t imes. T he c ontinued p resence o f t he r emains o f e quidae t ogether w ith t hat o f w ildebeest i n t he d eposit, i s an i ndication o f s ome m easure o f s tability i n t he v egetation t hat l asted t hrough t he H olocene. T he grassland c haracter o f t he r egion i s a lso c onfirmed b y t he p resence o f s pringbuck, b lesbuck, s teenbuck and oribi. T his i s an observation t hat c ontradicts t he r econstruction b y A cocks ( 1975) o f t he v egetation o f t his a rea being b ushveld. A lthough grazers are v ery w ell r epresented i n t he s pecies l ist i t i s not o nly t he grass p lains t hat w ere e xploited b ut a lso t he m ountainous a reas ( Table 4 3). T he p resence o f a c onsiderable n umber o f grey r hebuck, a f ew k lipspringer and a m ountain r eedbuck i s e vidence o f t his. E land are p oorly r epresented i n t he e arly p art o f t he d eposit and appear o nly a t about 3 000 y ears a go a s was observed i n t he C olwinton d eposit. When comparing t he f requencies o f t he m inimum n umbers o f t he s maller grazers w ith t hat o f t he l arger g razers i t i s c lear t hat, a lthough t here i s a v isible s hift f rom l arge g ame t o small g ame, t he l arge g ame r emain t he p rimary s ource o f m eat ( Table 44). T he prehistoric h unters o f B onawe c oncentrated o n w ildebeest. T hey r epresent 5 3% o f a ll i dentified antelope i n t he f aunal a ssemblage and g rey r hebuck ( 17%) i s t he s econd m ost p opular antelope. Only 2 ,7% o f t he antelope are e land. I n t he l ate H olocene p art o f t he a ssemblage w ildebeest f orm 5 1,7% o f a ll t he antelope. At C olwinton t here i s a lso a l arge g ame c omponent p resent, e specially i n t he o lder o ccupation l ayers, b ut h ere w ildebeest c onstitutes o nly 1 2% o f a ll t he antelope and t here i s a lso no c lear s election o f a particular g ame t ype. I t m ay b e assumed t hat a g roup o f h unters c oncentrating t o a h igh d egree o n o ne s ource ( wildebeest) would b e s ensitive t o t he b ehaviour o f t hat particular animal. T he prehistoric p atterns o f s easonal m ovement p atterns o f w ildebeest are u nknown b ut o n t he b asis o f s tudies o f animal behaviour and h istorical s ources hypothetical r econstructions c an b e m ade. I n t he p ast t he q uality o f grazing d uring t he w inter w as a c ause f or l arge s cale s easonal m ovements o f b lack w ildebeest ( Von R ichter 1 971a, 1 971b). R ed h artebeest a lso g raze s our grass o nly w hen i t i s i n a young stage ( Kok 1 975). At t he f oot o f t he D rakensberg, f rom t he T somo R iver t o t he Mooi, B oesmans, and K lip r ivers i n N atal t he l arge b asins o f m ixed g rass i n t he c atchment areas f ormed a r efuge f or t he w ildebeest and a lso t he o ther g rassland g ame d uring t he w inter m onths ( Drayson 1 858: 1 10: M ann 1 859). T he r eminiscences o f o ne o f t he o ldest i nhabitants i n t he M aclear d istrict m ention t he m ovement o f w ildebeest d uring t he l ate s ummer m onths ( April-May) t o t he v icinity o f t he N xu R iver w here s uch a b asin o f m ixed grass grew. D uring S eptember-October t hey r eturned a gain t o t he

15

grass

p lains

( I.J.

B rummer,

p ersonal

communication).

T he hunting o f h erd g ame d emands a h igh d ecree o f mobility o f t he h unters w ho s ometimes h ave t o walk long d istances w hile t racking ( Lee 1 979:219). I t i s e specially i n t he s ummer m onths t hat t he g ame would b e spread o ver a l arge area a t t he f oot o f t he e scarpment and would t herefore b e more d ifficult t o h unt. T he presence o f s uch a h igh p ercentage o f w ildebeest r emains a s w ell as t he r emains o f o ther l arger g rassland animals i s p roof t hat a concentration o f t his g ame o ccurred i n t he v icinity o f B onawe. S uch a g athering t ook p lace on t he p lains o f t he M zwazwa s tream close b y and o n t he b anks o f t he T somo R iver d uring t he l ate summer and w inter. T he presence o f h erd g ame i n t he v icinity o f C olwinton, until about 6 000 y ears a go, i s e vidence o f t he movement o f g ame f rom t he f oothills t hrough B arkly P ass i nto t he L angkloof d uring t he e arly H olocene. I t s eems logical t hat t his m ovement would h ave t aken p lace d uring t he early s ummer and t he f ollowing m onths b ecause t he c arrying c apacity o f t he grazing l and i s t hen t he g reatest. I n t he l ate s ummer t he grazers r eturned t o t he area at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment. I t i s unlikely t hat t he e nvironmental c hanges t hat o ccurred d uring t he l ate H olocene o n t op o f t he m ountain w ere not m anifested i n t he f oothills. D uring t he e arly H olocene o nly e quidae, b lesbuck and w ildebeest w ere hunted but i n t he l ate H olocene browsers l ike t he e land, g rey r hebuck, d uiker and steenbuck appeared. T he e nvironment was probably c haracterized b y m ore s hrubs and b ush a lthough grassveld still predominated. A c alculation o f t he species d iversity i ndex s hows t hat t he v ariety o f g ame i ncreased w ith t ime ( Table 4 5) a lthough t he f requencies w ere r elatively l ow. A n approximation o f t he m ass o f g amemeat i n t he s pecies l ist i ndicates t hat c onsiderable m ore m eat w as c onsumed d uring t he l ate H olocene at B onawe t han at Colwinton ( Table 46). D uring t he e arly H olocene i t w as s omewhat l ess. T he quantity o f a rtefacts at C olwinton i s h owever f our t imes t hat at B onawe. T he v ariety o f f ormal t ools i s h igher a t C olwinton b ut t he m ass o f b one p er stone artefact i s m uch lower t han at B onawe. I t i s t herefore c lear t hat d ifferent a ctivities w ere p ractised at t he t wo s ites. B onawe, as a w intercamp, w ith a l arge g ame c oncentration close by, possibly h ad a t wofold f unction. I n t he f irst i nstance, i f i t w as a b ase c amp f or hunter b ands d uring t he w inter t hen t he availability o f a l arge q uantity o f m eat m ight h ave considerably l essened t he need f or p lant f oods. I t h as b een observed t hat t he ! Kung h ave a d iet o f 9 0% meat d uring s uccessful h unting s easons ( Lee 1 979: 2 05). T he f ormal t ools o f t he B onawe a ssemblage c onsist a lmost entirely o f s crapers i mplying f urther domination o f animal products. S econdly, i t i s p ossible t hat B onawe at t imes s erved a s a m eat-processing c amp w ith dressed s kins a s a byproduct. T he ! Kung, w ho a re b ig g ame h unters, m ake b iltong because i t i s t he e asiest w ay o f t ransporting m eat ( Lee 1 979:223). A lso t he G /wi organise h unting t rips o f a w eek or t wo f or b iltong d uring M arch t o J une ( Silberbauer 1 981:214). T he b iltong i s t hen t aken t o a b ase c amp w hich i s located i n another p art o f

1 16

t heir

t erritory.

T he preceding d iscussion does not i mply t hat Bonawe shelter was never v isited d uring t he s ummer months b ut the most productive t ime would h ave been d uring t he summer and w inter.

rock t hat l ate

T he hunting strategy o f t he L ater Stone Age i nhabitants o f Bonawe d iffered considerably f rom t hat observed at L ater Stone A ge s ites i n the s outhern and e astern Cape. I n t he h eterogeneous environment o f the f ynbos r egion, t he hunter gatherers d eveloped a t endency d uring t he Holocene t o become attached t o v egetation patches that s upplied a stable f ood source and a lso s mall game as a s upplement ( Deacon, H .J. 1 983b: 1 93). T he shift i n hunting f rom l arger t o smaller game was i n t he above- mentioned areas associated w ith a c hange i n t echnology as is r eflected i n t he A lbany and Wilton i ndustries ( Klein 1 974a: 2 76; D eacon, H .J. 1 976). A lthough a d elayed, but equivalent change i n the t echnology m ay be observed at Bonawe, t he focus o f t he hunting strategy r emained o n the l arger g ame. T he social organisation o f t he hunters that v isited Bonawe i s at present still a m atter o f speculation b ased o n analogies f rom ethnological r ecords. During t imes o f m eatprocessing t he groups possibly c onsisted of m en o nly ( Silberbauer 1 981:214). I n this r espect t he ! Kung m ight s erve as an e xample because they a lso hunt b ig g ame a lthough i t is r elatively s carce and t hey use p lant food as the b asis o f t heir d iet ( Lee 1 979; M arshall 1 976). METRICAL

ANALYSIS

OF

ALCELAPHINE

TEETH

W ildebeest/hartebeest w ere by f ar t he most i mportant prey and t heir t eeth are v ery well r epresented i n t he d eposit. A total o f 1 21 i dentifiable a lcelaphine t eeth was found b ut o f t hese only / 3 4, m , , M2, M3and P4 M 1 1 12 M 3 w ere u sed f or measuring purposes. Procedures used t o d educe t he percentage l ifespan f rom t he crown h eights h ave a lready been e xplained i n t he d iscussion o f t he Colwinton f auna. T he percentage l ifespan as d epicted i n F ig. 46 shows t hat t he i nhabitants o f Bonawe concentrated on w ildebeest b ut t hat m ature animals w ere a lso hunted as was the c ase at Colwinton. MICROFAUNA R emains o f Otomys i rroratus ( vlei rat) w ere f ound i n a ll t he o ccupation 7 5 117 Es - a nd T rT aTEates t he presence of a r iver or a stream ( Table 2 7). C ryptomys h ottentotus ( mole rat) and G eorhychus c apensis ( star m ole) h ave h igh minimum n umbers i n l ayer 2 . Mystromys a lbicaudatus ( white tailed rat) l ives i n a grassveld environment and a lthough t he s ingle specimen f ound i n l ayer 2 i s i nsufficient for any d eductions i t still f its the v iewpoint t hat t he past environment o f Bonawe shelter was m ainly grassveld. FLORA

form f rom

P lant m aterial was preserved i n t he d eposit o nly i n t he o f c harcoal. A microscopic analysis o f c harcoal s amples l ayers 1 and 3 i dentified n ine wood t ypes v iz. c f.

1 17

c o 0

c n a u

. 4 • •• •

( N ) L LJ

c r

r

0

i saat ie wey/ i saaqappm ,Z

0

l saaqalie t i/ i s aaqap i!mz

1 18

C eltis, P rotea sp. cf. L eucosidea s ericea, A cacia, c f.clausena, R hus spp. M aytenus7Pterocelastrus, c f.Euclea/Diospyros and O lea - TTüsenius 1 984). T hese t ypes a re, w ith t he e xception o f P terocelastrus, C lausena and O lea, p resent i n a s urvey o f t he m odern v egetation in t he v icinity o f t he s helter. C eltis and M aytenus are b ush r elics t hat t oday grow i n the protected k loofs. A cacia i s f ound c lose t o r iver b anks. A considerable c hange i n t he p ercentages o f t he wood t ypes f rom l ayer 3 c ( early H olocene) t o l ayers l b, 3 a and 3 b ( late H olocene) i s apparent ( Fig. 47). T he wood o f h ardy R hus and O lea w as u sed m ostly a s f uel by t he e arliest i nhabitants o f t he s helter. T hey are w ell adapted t o w arm dry c limates and w hen their p ercentages d ecreased considerably d uring t he l ate H olocene t he wood o f a g reater v ariety o f t rees w as used f or f ires. T his i mplies t hat t he environment o f B onawe w as c ooler and w etter d uring t he past 3 000 years t han b efore. T he v egetation, h owever, r emained p redominantly g rassveld a s i s r eflected i n t he h igh p ercentage o f grazers i n a ll t he e xcavation units c overing t hat p eriod. SUMMARY AND D ISCUSSION O ccupation o f a dvent o f w armer H olocene.

t he B onawe rock s helter started w ith t he c limatic c onditions d uring t he e arly

I dentified s pecies o f woody p lants f rom c harcoal s amples i n t he d eposit s how a considerably lower d iversity d uring t he e arly H olocene t han d uring t he l ate H olocene. T he s ignificance o f t his i n t erms o f c limatic c onditions i s d ifficult to e xplain, a lthough i t at l east i mplies a c hange i n climate. C harcoal i dentification i n association w ith t he g ame species t hat o ccurred i n t he r egion s uggest a t t his stage t hat t he v egetation pattern d uring t he e arly H olocene w as open grassveld w ith R hus and O lea i n t he k loofs w hile d uring t he l ate H olocene m ore miTed b ush a ppeared. At present, t he grassveld o f t he r egion consists o f s ourveld w ith a l arge patch o f m ixed v eld c lose t o t he s helter. T he l atter i s o f i mportance i n j ustifying t he hunting s trategy f ollowed by t he o ccupants o f t he s helter. T he s eries o f four r adiocarbon d ates s hows t hat t he d eposit h as an early and a l ate H olocene c omponent s eparated by a long o ccupation h iatus i n t he m iddle H olocene. I t w as i n t his p eriod o f nono ccupation t hat t he v egetation s hift t ook p lace. O f s ignificance i s the f act t hat t he d ates prove t hat B onawe and C olwinton w ere c amps w ith c ontemporary h abitation and i t w as t herefore p ossible f or t he s ame b and t o u se both s helters. T he s ubsistence s ystem o f t he B onawe h unters h ad grazers e specially a lcelaphines, as i ts b ase. I n t he l ate H olocene a g reater v ariety o f g ame, i ncluding springbuck and grey r hebuck, w ere a lso h unted. T he presence o f t he h erd g ame i n t he e arly H olocene context i s a r eflection o f t he l ifestyle o f t he p eople who concentrated o n t hese animals 7 - 8 000 years a go o ver a l arge p art o f S outh A frica. T hey w ere able t o h unt t hem d uring t he w inter w hen t he g ame g athered c lose t o B onawe, b ut w ere a lso c apable o f h unting t hem at any o ther t ime o f t he y ear. T he s ubsistence strategy o f t he l ate H olocene b ands w as h owever d ifferent. T he r eason

19

L ayers l b ,3a ,3b C .2250-2960 B . P .

n =64

9 3Z 270

16

_ 9h_ 3 17 0

8 ,2 r

I1

L ayer3C

e .8 040

48'

B .P . 3 7 7s,

n =5 4

3 . 1

1 C.

c o

C / )

C . 3

C l )

CC

F ig . 4 7 . B onawe R ock S helter . I dentified s pecies o f w oody p lants f rom c harcoal s amples ( according t o T usenius 1 986 ).

1 20

w hy t hey could e xploit t he l arger g ame m ust h ave been b ecause o f t he particular c ircumstances a t t he s ite. T he concentration o f g ame d uring t he w inter i n t he l arge m ixed v eld patch at B onawe, s upplied t he p rehistoric hunters w ith a c onvenient s ource o f m eat t hat t hey could e xploit w ithout t he h igh m easure o f m obility o ver l arge areas t hat normally i s a ssociated w ith t he hunting o f t hese animals. V arious a spects p oint t o t he p articular f unction o f B onawe as a b iltong c amp d uring t he l ate H olocene. I f t he q uantity o f stone artefacts i s s een a s a m easure o f t he i ntensity o f o ccupation, t hen t he 1 7 artefacts p er b ucket i n comparison w ith t he 6 3 artefacts p er b ucket f rom C olwinton are a r eflection o f s poradic v isits b y s mall b ands. B oth t he m ass o f bone p er stone artefact and t he m inimum n umbers o f g ame species h unted are, h owever, c onsiderably h igher t han at C olwinton. P resumably t he process o f m aking b iltong t ook p lace o utside t he s helter, w here t he m eat would h ave b een s uspended f rom t he t rees, l eaving m uch o f t he bone o utside. P lant f ood i s r easonably abundant i n t he e xploitation area o f t he s helter b ut no s uch r emains w ere p reserved i n t he d eposit. S een i n t he l ight o f t he f unction o f t he s ite, p lant f ood was p erhaps not o f m uch i mportance. No bone artefacts w ere f ound i n t he o ldest part o f t he d eposit b ut t he f requencies i n t he l ayers w here t hey d id o ccur are h igher t han at C olwinton. O f special i mportance are bone points and h ooks because t hey are d irectly r elated t o t he s ubsistence s ystem. B oth t ool t ypes appear about 3 000 years a go. I f t he h ooks w ere i ndeed u sed f or f ishing t hen t he M zazwa stream about t wo k ilometre t o t he west and t he T somo R iver would h ave g iven t he opportunity f or t his. T he f ew long bone awls w ere p robably u sed f or s ewing skins. R ock p aintings o f p eople w earing k arosses m ay b e s een i n t he D rakensberg ( Harding 1 950; W alton 1 951; V innicombe 1 976:250). C lay pot f ragments are found i n t he d eposit t o a d epth o f 0 ,55 m and w ere i ntroduced i nto t he area s ome t ime after 2 000 years a go. T hese f ragments are undecorated and are s imilar t o f inds at C olwinton. I t i s c lear f rom a comparison o f t he b one artefacts, p ottery and t he t ypology o f stone a rtefacts t hat t here e xisted s ome connection between t he i nhabitants o f B onawe and C olwinton. Small c onvex s crapers t otally d ominate t he f ormal t ool c lass. T his m ay b e e xpected at a s ite where t he working o f m eat and skins a s a b y-product f ormed t he m ain a ctivity. I t i s noticeable t hat t he s ame pattern o f c hange i n the l engths o f s crapers o ccurs a s at C olwinton w ith t he longest s crapers i n t he o ldest l ayer 3 c after w hich a d ecrease i n s ize t akes p lace up t o l ayers l a and l b where t he youngest s crapers s how s ome i ncrease i n l ength. T he low f requency o f t he m icroliths, i .e. b acked b lades and a s egment, was c aused by t he f act t hat t he l ate H olocene artefact a ssemblage o f B onawe r epresents o nly t he l ast phase o f a t echnological s ubstage t hat started a t o ther s ites i n t he e astern and s outhern C ape about 4 000 y ears e arlier and are c haracterised t here by m uch h igher f requencies o f b acked t ools ( Deacon, J . 1 974). R aw m aterials f or s tone artefact m anufacturing w ere c halcedony

1 21

and

h ornfels w hich w ere

r eadily

obtainable.

I n s hort i t m ay b e s aid t hat t he f aunal r emains o f B onawe t ogether w ith t he artefact a ssemblage s upport t he v iewpoint t hat t he s helter a cted a s a l ate s ummer o r w inter b iltong c amp. I t i s l ikely t hat t he b ands t hat v isited t he s helter w ere e ssentially m ountain d wellers w ishing t o r eplenish t heir w inter s upply o f m eat.

1 22

7

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

OBSERVATIONS A T

TE

VREDE

R OCK

SHELTER

I NTRODUCTION The T e Vrede rock s helter ( 28 ° 0 9 ' 5 0"E; 31 ° 1 2 ' 1 5" S) i s a l arge c ave ( 1 400 m above s ea l evel) l ocated o n t he s outhern f oot o f t he Drakensberg e scarpment, 1 3 km west o f U gie ( Fig. 1 ). T he s ite i s about 40 km north-east o f Bonawe a nd i s p laced i n such a way t hat part o f , t he Drakensberg a s w ell a s t he plains at t he foot o f t he e scarpment could b e e xploited by t he occupants i n t heir food-finding routine. A s w as t he c ase at Bonawe, T e Vrede a lso l ies c lose t o a r iver v alley ( the W ildebeest or Nxu) where w ildebeest, according t o t radition, used t o gather during t he w inter. At about 1 850 o nly o ne B ushman b and was operating i n t he area b etween t he T somo and t he W ildebeest r ivers ( Macquarrie 1 962)(Fig. 2 ). I t w as t herefore possible at t his stage t hat t he b and could h ave v isited t he areas o f both Bonawe and T e Vrede during t he w inter. T he b and was acquainted w ith t he surroundings o f B onawe b ecause t hey crossed t he Tsomo R iver on t heir stock t heft e xpeditions. The aim o f t he excavation i n t he T e Vrede s helter was t o determine whether t he pattern o f h unting w ildebeest and other grazers t hat t he occupants o f Bonawe f ollowed was j ust a local adaptation o r was practised o ver a l arger area at t he f oot o f t he mountains. For s uch a c omparison a small excavation could provide sufficient data. T he c ave i s formed i n sandstone ( Clarence Formation) w ith an o pening o f 2 8 m , a depth o f 2 6 m and a roof h eight o f 3 m at t he dripline on t he southern s ide. D uring t he rainy s eason a stream o f water plunges over t he roof o f t he c ave on t he northern s ide and f lows away i n a d eep d onga. A previous o wner t ried t o enlarge t he c ave with a bulldozer and pushed s everal l arge rocks from t he f loor i nto t he donga d estroying i n t he process a s ection o f t he deposit. Fortunately i n t he s outhern s ector o f t he c ave part o f t he deposit was p reserved. T he c ave provides good protection i n a ll weather c onditions. A f ew rock paintings o ccur o n t he a bout 1 00 m above t he c ave a panel o f p aintings m ay b e s een against t he roof

northern rock face and well-preserved eland o f a small s helter.

T he s helter has an e astern aspect o ver a broad grassy p lain t hrough which a perennial s tream f lows. I n h igh r ainfall p eriods t he v icinity o f t he stream becomes m arshy. T he grassveld o f t he r egion i s c lassified a s H ighland s ourveld and Dohne sourveld ( Acocks 1 975). Mixed grass grows o n t he p lain i n f ront o f t he shelter and a lso on t he b anks o f t he W ildebeest R iver and i t i s grazed i nto t he w inter months b y s tock ( M. Botha, personal communication). I n t he k loofs close by a variety o f t rees and o ther p lants o ccur i ncluding F icus i ngens, Protea l acticolor, D iospyros l ycioides, Rubus sp. and L eucosidea s ericea. Common f ood plants are H ypoxis sp. and Watsonia s p. T able 1 g ives a l ist o f a f ood p lant survey i n t he e xploitation area o f t he shelter and i ndicates a greater v ariety o f potential f ood plants t han i n both t he Langkloof a nd S terkspruitkloof valleys.

1 23

E XCAVATION T he excavation at T e Vrede t ook place f rom 2 2 t o 2 8 January 1 981. A datum point w ith a b ase l ine f or a grid was c onstructed i n t he southern s ector o f t he c ave ( Fig. 4 8). T he e xcavation was l imited t o a 2 s q m t est p it which g ave some i nformation o n t he stratigraphy, cultural content and t he d epth o f t he d eposit. Stone artefacts, bone f ragments and c harcoal were r ecovered by using a f ine s ieve. STRATIGRAPHY I t was possible d uring t he excavation t o d istinguish f our h orizontal stratigraphic units ( Fig. 4 9). T he r ange o f t hese l ayers i s u nknown because o f t he small s ize o f t he e xcavation and t herefore use was m ade o f 0 ,05 m units during r emoval o f t he m aterial. T he cultural f inds i n t he 0 ,05 m u nits were l ater p laced i n groups t hat a pproximated t he stratigraphic d ivisions. L ayer 4 . This i s a grey brown sandy l ayer and i s t he e arliest o ccupation l ayer w ith a t hickness t hat v aries b etween 0 ,25 and 0 ,1 m . Stone artefacts are present but i nclude a lmost no f ormal tools. Bone fragments are absent. T he f ormation o f t his l ayer t ook place at t he end o f t he P leistocene. Layer 3 . This i s a dark brown loam w ith b lack and white a sh m arkers. Radiocarbon dates from charcoal samples t aken out o f t he e xcavation profile i ndicate t hat t he o ccupation r esponsible f or t his l ayer commenced more t han 1 0 000 years a go and ended about 8 000 years ago. Bone artefacts

f ragments are plentiful were f ound only 1 72 were

and a lthough formal t ools.

3 4 18

stone

L AYER 2 . This i s a r elatively s oft l ayer o f grey brown t o l ight brown l oam w ith white a sh and charcoal v isible. T he t hickness varies b etween 0 ,2 to 0 ,35 m . Formal t ools, i .e. s crapers and adzes, are common. L ayer 1 . This l ayer, w ith a m aximum t hickness o f 0 ,4 m i n t he s outhern end, d iminishes quickly i n t he northern s ection. Characteristic i s a compact orange t o r ed o xidised d eposit w ith a sh and charcoal. I t i s covered by a brown l ayer o f surface m aterial. A f ew s egments were found i n t his l ayer. D ATING Only t wo d ates were r eceived f rom charcoal samples t hat were r emoved f rom t he excavation profile. T he o lder d ate o f 1 0 000 ± 1 20 B .P.(Pta-3203) i ndicates t hat t he shelter w as a lready i nhabited for a c onsiderable t ime at t he onset o f t he Holocene. T he t ime depth i s a lmost t he same a s at Ravenscraig rock s helter which i s l ocated i n t he Sterkspruit k loof. Entrance i nto t he Sterkspruit k loof i s possible f rom t he d irection o f Ugie by means o f t he B aster Footpath which was used i n t he past by f armers moving t heir stock t o t he B arkly E ast d istrict. A

date

o f

8 100 ± 8 0

B .P.

( Pta-3204)

1 24

coincides

w ith

t he

s ands tone

0 2 4 l i m 1 1 = 1

F ig . 4 8 .

0

0 om C 1 0 1 13 1 1 0

T e V rede R ock S helter .

1 25

P lan a nd s ection .

T e V rede R ock S helter .

o o

0 c o

1 26

o o o

o ,

a ppearance o f t he f irst d iagnostic artefacts i n t he deposit. A lthough t here are no f urther d ates h igher up i n t he deposit t he position o f t he l atter d ate at a d epth o f 0 ,4 m i ndicates t hat t he shelter was probably not i nhabited l ater t han t he middle Holocene. ARTEFACT

D ESCRIPTION

HEARTHS One h earth, consisting o f t hree l arge stones a ssociated w ith c harcoal and bone f ragments, o ccurred i n l ayer 3 (0,951 ,00 m ). T he presence of t wo o ther h earths, w ithout stones, i s s uggested by t he l enticular a sh and charcoal c oncentrations v isible i n t he profile. ARTEFACTS

F ROM

ORGANIC

MATERIAL

B one A s carcity o f bone artefacts i s noticeable. A polished s hort cylindrical pointed f ragment, possibly an arrow point w ith a c lear snap m ark on t he one end was f ound, a s well a s an e longated b ead 8 mm long and w ith a d iameter o f 4 mm ( layer 1 (0,25-0,30 m ). T he small a ssemblage o f bone t ools i s a r eflection o f t he early Holocene origin o f t he greatest part o f t he deposit. F ew bone artefacts were f ound i n an e arly Holocene context at o ther northeastern Cape s ites. Ostrich

e ggshell

A lthough s everal b eads L ayer L ayer L ayer L ayer Layer STONE

b eads

no o strich eggshell f ragments o f t his m aterial were f ound a s 1 1 2 2 2

( 0,40 ( 0,45 ( 0,60 ( 0,65 ( 0,70

0 ,45 0 ,50 0 ,65 0 ,70 0 ,75

m ): m ): m ): m ): m ):

1 2 1 2 2

( diameter ( diameter ( diameter ( diameter ( diameter

were r ecovered, f ollows: 5 4 4 4 4

m ) mm and mm) mm and mm and

4 mm) 4 mm) 3 mm)

ARTEFACTS

Artefact

i nventory

A t otal o f 1 2 425 stone artefacts was f ound i n about 2 c u m o f t he d eposit ( Table 4 7). Waste artefacts c onstitute 9 8% o f t his total, utilized 0 ,6% and f ormal t ools 1 ,4%. I n t he waste c ategory unretouched f lakes predominate ( 56,1%). T he m aterial i s primarily hornfels except i n l ayer 4 ( 1,10 1 ,30 m ) where chalcedony was preferred. Arithmetic means f or l ength and breadth d imensions o f t he unretouched f lakes are g iven i n T ables 4 8 and 4 9. Chips are t he s econd most c ommon waste c lass w ith hornfels t he most i mportant m aterial. F lakes w ith e dge damage r esulting f rom usage or l ight r etouch h ave a low f requency ( Table 50). Chunks constitute 3 ,1% o f t he waste. I n every l ayer hornfels predominates a s raw m aterial e xcept i n l ayer 4 ( 0,9-1,3 m ) where c halcedony was t he preferred m aterial. Cores are f ound i n sufficient n umbers t o b e classified i nto subclasses. S ingle striking p latform cores w ere d ominant, except i n l ayer 4 , w ith multiplatform cores a lso well r epresented. I n l ayers 1 and 4 chalcedony w as

1 27

m ainly used b ut i n l ayers 3 and 2 h ornfels. T he waste c ategory s hows a general s hift f rom t he use o f chalcedony i n t he p eriod before 10 000 years ago t o h ornfels t hereafter. Small c onvex s crapers h ave t he h ighest f requency i n t he f ormal t ool class ( 72,1%)(Fig. 5 0). I n comparison w ith t he artefact a ssemblages from Bonawe and Colwinton rock s helters, t his i s a considerably lower p ercentage but i t compares well w ith t he percentage o f s crapers at Ravenscraig. Large c ircular s crapers f rom l ayers 1 , 2 and 3 , which were probably h eld i n t he h and, o ccur r elatively f requently ( 7,5%)(Fig. 5 1). T he f unction o f t he l atter t ools i s not b eyond doubt f or t he s craping o f s kins o f b ig game b ecause t hey are not found a t Bonawe where l arge grazers were h unted a ll t he t ime. Hollow o r c oncave s crapers a re present i n a v ery l ow f requency i n contrast to adzes, which are a lso s een as wood working t ools and which h ave t he s econd h ighest f requency amongst t he f ormal t ools ( Table 5 9). B acked t ools i nclude f ive s mall s egments ( Fig. 5 1). I t i s c lear f rom t his superficial examination o f t he artefact l ist t hat i n spite o f a much smaller e xcavation, a l arger v ariety o f a rtefacts i s present t han at Bonawe. Noticeable i s t he fact t hat i n t he early Holocene a rtefact a ssemblage at t he T e Vrede shelter, a lmost no artefacts o ccur i n an e arlier t han 8 000 years c ontext. T here i s a lso a d ecrease i n t he utilized c ategory. T he question arises as t o what t he i nhabitants used as t ools. I t i s possible t hat unretouched f lakes, wood or b one t ools were used but no evidence i s a vailable i n t his r espect. A microscopic e xamination o f t he unretouched/ unutilized waste f or w ear m arks w ill b e necessary. I t i s possible t hat t he artefact a ssemblage i s t oo small and t hat a b igger e xcavation w ill r eveal s ome formal t ools. Metrical

analysis

o f

t he

stone

artefacts

Attributes o f s crapers, s egments and a dzes and t he data w ere u sed f or s tatistical a ccording t o procedures a lready d escribed.

were measured m anipulations

S crapers S craper d imensions. For t he purpose o f t he analysis t he s crapers w ithin t he 0 ,05 m units were r egarded a s groups. T he arithmetic means o f t he l engths, breadths, h eights and breadth : l ength 1 00 s how c lear c hanges t hrough t ime ( Tables 5 1, 5 2, 5 3, 54). The l engths o f s crapers r emain more or l ess constant from t he earliest units where t hey o ccur up t o l ayer 1 (0,40-0,45 m ). Afterwards s crapers b ecome considerably s horter ( Fig.52). T he observed changes t ook place r elatively quickly and m ay b e compared w ith observations at t he Colwint on and Grassridge rock s helters where c omparable changes h appened about 6 000 years a go. Noteworthy i s t he f act t hat s egments o ccur s imultaneously w ith t he change i n s craper attributes at T e Vrede. M ann-Whitney U t ests ( Table 5 5) s how t hat t he s crapers f rom l ayers 1 (0,25-0,30 m ) t o 1 (0,40-0,45 m ) w ere drawn f rom t he same population and t hose f rom l ayers 1 ( 0,45 -0,50 m ) t o 3 ( 0,75-0,85 m ) f rom a s econd population. T he m asses o f s crapers d iminish i n r elation t o t he decrease i n s craper d imensions t hrough t ime ( Table 5 6).

1 28

1

2

5

3

7

6

9

8

1 0

1 3

1 2

1

1 6

1 5 1 4

4

0

5 0mm

F ig . 5 0 . T e V rede R ock S helter . S crapers . 1 -7 : 8 -13 : f rom l ayer 2 ; 1 4-16 : f rom l ayer 3 .

f rom l ayer 1 ;

-

O U

< E \ 2

6

7

8

1 0

1

1 2

0

5 0 M tn

F ig . 5 1 . T e V rede R ock S helter . 1 -4 : S egments ( from l ayer 1 ); 5 : B orer ( from l ayer 2 ); 6 -8 : A dzes ( from l ayer 1 ); 9 -12 : l arge s crapers ( from l ayers 1 a nd 2 ).

1 30

Position o f r etouch. W ith f ew e xceptions, s crapers w ith end and s ide r etouch predominate i n t he e arly u nits f rom l ayer 3 ( 0,80-0,85 m ) t o l ayer 1 ( 0,40-0,45 m ). T he s ide r etouch i s s teep and s teplike and i s s imilar t o t hat encount ered at o ther s ites w ith e arly Holocene d eposits i n t he n ortheastern C ape. I n t he younger u nits a fter l ayer 1 ( 0,45 0 ,50 m ) t he s crapers a re mostly l ong w ith end r etouch. A f ew d ouble a s well a s s hort w ide s crapers a lso o ccur. Form. D ivergent f orms a re t he most c ommon b ut p arallel f orms a lso o ccur w ith a r elatively h igh f requency. S ome c ircular f orms a re present. W ide f orms are o nly f ound i n t he younger u nits f rom l ayer 1 ( 0,40-0,45 m ) and h igher. Absence o r presence o f b ulbs o f p ercussion. A t ime t rend c an b e observed i n t he absence or presence o f t he b ulbs o f p ercussion o n s crapers. T here i s a h igh p ercentage o f b ulbs o f p ercussion absent o n s crapers i n t he o lder l ayers w ith a gradual i ncrease up t o l ayer 1 ( 0,40-0,45 m ) a fter which t hey d ecrease a gain. T he r emoval o f b ulbs o f p ercussion f rom s craper b lanks was a lso observed a t Colwinton i n l ayers 5 and 6 . T his t echnique probably f acilitated t he h afting o f s crapers. Raw m aterial. Some s hifts i n r aw m aterial preference are a pparent t hat c oincide w ith t he d ivision o f s crapers i nto t wo groups. F rom l ayer 3 ( 0,80-0,85 m ) t o l ayer 1 ( 0,45-0,50 m ) c halcedony i s u sed i n most o f t he units b ut h ornfels i s a lso w ell r epresented ( Table 5 7). T he c ontribution o f h ornfels d iminishes swiftly i n l ayer 1 ( 0,40 - 0 ,45 m ). S crapers o f h ornfels a re l arger and h eavier t han t hose o ut c halcedony ( Table 5 6). A ccording t o t he present s tate o f k nowledge b oth s tone t ypes a re d erived f rom s ources i n t he v icinity o f t he s helter. B acked a rtefacts. A t otal o f f ive s egments was f ound. T he r aw m aterial i s c halcedony. M easurement o f t he l engths, breadths and t hicknesses ( Table 5 8) s hows t hat t he s egments a re o n a verage s horter t han t hose f rom Colwinton rock s helt er. Adzes. Adzes a re t he s econd most c ommon f ormal t ool ( 12,1%) and a re t ogether w ith h ollow s crapers a ssociated w ith t he working o f wood. T hese t ools start t o appear i n t he younger u nits a fter 8 000 years a go. No t ime t rends i n d imensions o r r aw m aterial w ere observed ( Tables 5 9 a nd 60). C ONCLUSIONS

F ROM

T HE ARTEFACT

A NALYSIS

T he T e Vrede d eposit h as, d espite t he s mall s ize o f t he e xcavation, a h igh stone a rtefact d ensity o f 3 27 a rtefacts p er b ucket. T his f actor i ncreases t he s ignificance o f t he c onclusions. I t i s i n c ontrast t o Bonawe where r elatively f ew a rtefacts w ere f ound ( 17 p er b ucket). A l ow f requency o f bone artefacts was e xpected a t Vrede rock s helter b ecause bone artefacts c haracteristically s carce i n L ater S tone Age s ites i n n ortheastern C ape d ating t o t he e arly Holocene.

1 31

T e a re t he

a t

12

E

0 3

0 1

0 1

I r e

P .

• 4 0

4 0

4 0

t o

C

e4 idet

. 1, o n 4

^ 0 3

1

I

e

i n e

0

0

i n • • 0

I

0 H

t o I

i n 0

i n c p

0 C 9

1 32

3 (0,75-0,8)

0 I

i n • •

2 (0,7-0,75)

I n e

g

2 (0,65-0,7)

1 (0,35-0,4)

1 (0,3-0,35)

1 (0,25-0,3)

L aye r a nd d ep th ( m)

J .

T he l ist o f s tone artefacts s hows t hat t he T e Vrede rock s helter w as i nhabited f or s everal t housands o f years f rom t he end o f t he P leistocene by a group o f p eople who m ade none o r v ery f ew f ormal t ools. I n t he T e V rede stone a rtefact a ssemblage f rom t he i nitial o ccupation u ntil about 8 0 00 y ears a go t here are no t ools d iagnostic o f a t echnological s ubstage. T here i s h owever a s teady i ncrease i n t he p ercentage o f h ornfels untrimmed f lakes. T he e arliest t echnological t radition i n t he d eposit o f t he Ravenscraig rock s helter, Sterkspruit k loof, c ontains a q uantity o f s mall c halcedony b ladelets t hat d iminish quickly i n t he e xcavation u nits and a fter d isappearing a ltogether o nly waste m aterial o ccurs f or a c onsiderable t ime. I t i s possible t hat a s imilar s ituation e xists a t T e Vrede and t hat a more e xtensive e xcavation w ill a lso r eveal b ladelets. H igh b acked s crapers w ith s teep s econdary t rimming o n t he s ides appear at T e Vrede a s a t B onawe a fter about 8 000 B .P. and i t i s possible t hat s imilar s crapers were i ntroduced at C olwinton a t about t he same t ime. S crapers t hat a re t ypical o f t his e arly t echnological s ubstage d o not s how c lear d imensional c hanges t hrough t ime b ut at m id Holocene t imes, l ayer 1 ( 0,45-0,50), a sudden c hange t o s maller s crapers w ith a low f requency o f s ide t rimming t ook p lace. A f ew small s egments appear at t he same t ime. I t i s o bvious t hat t he cultural m aterial t hat a ppears i n l ayer 1 (0,45-0,50 m ) and l ayer 1 ( 0,40-0,45 m ) r epresents t he i ntroduction o f a t echnology t hat i s t ypical o f t he l ate H olocene i n t he northeastern C ape. S even l arge c ircular t rimmed s crapers i n l ayer 1 ( 0,45-0,50 m ) suggest a s pecific a ctivity. Adzes t hat w ere used f rom s hortly a fter 8 000 y ears a go i ndicate woodworking. Although t he e xcavation i s m uch s maller t here i s a h igher f requency and v ariety o f f ormal t ool classes present at T e Vrede t han at Bonawe. A p ossible e xplanation m ay b e t hat Bonawe was a b iltong c amp a nd T e Vrede a b ase c amp. T he o ccupation o f t he T e Vrede s helter s hows a h igh m easure o f c ontinuity t hat ended at about t he m iddle Holocene. An absence o f r adiocarbon d ates m akes a c omparison w ith t he o ccupation h iatus d uring t he m iddle Holocene at B onawe d ifficult b ut i t s eems, when c onsidering t he actefact t ypology, t hat Bonawe was abandoned e arlier t han T e Vrede. The artefact a ssemblage o f T e Vrede s hows l ong p eriods o f s table t echnological p atterns i nterrupted b y s hort p eriods o f c hange. I t i s i nteresting t o observe t hat e ach p eriod o f c hange was a ccompanied b y a c onsiderable i ncrease i n t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts. T he t otal a rtefacts f rom t he e arliest o ccupation t o about 8 0 00 y ears a go r emain r elatively l ow b ut s imultaneously w ith t he appearance o f t he f irst s crapers i n l ayer 3 ( 0,80- 0 ,85 m ) a d rastic i ncrease i n a rtefacts t akes p lace. I t i s noteworthy t hat t here i s a lso a s harp r ise i n t he n umber o f a rtefacts at t he t ime when s mall c onvex s crapers and s egments a ppear. T he r easons f or t his m ay b e c omplex but possibilities are a c hange i n t he f unction o f t he c ave or i n t he s ocial organisation o f t he c ave dwellers.

1 33

F AUNA The preservation o f bone fragments was good d own t o l ayer 3 ( 0,90-0,95 m ) where s igns o f bone deterioration appeared. No i dentifiable bone was r ecovered f rom l ayer 4 . The bone r emains were i n a v ery fragmentary condition. T eeth, h owever, are well preserved and could b e used f or t he i dentification o f species and t he determination o f t he m inimum n umbers o f animals present. Analysis of t he bone a ssemblage was d one by t he writer according t o principles used w ith t he assemblages f rom t he Colwinton and Bonawe s ites ( Table 6 1). As was t he c ase at other s ites, a r elatively l arge n umber o f footbones was r ecovered. T he r atio o f t he m ass o f unidentified bone t o stone artefacts i s considerably l ower t han at Bonawe and Colwinton ( Table 6 2) but t his could b e t he r esult o f s elective preservation e specially i n l ayer 4 . The species l ist g ives a good i mpression o f t he subsistence system o f t he i nhabitants o f t he T e Vrede shelter. The animals are r epresentative o f the t ype o f environment i n which t he shelter i s l ocated. The l ist o f m inimum n umbers s hows t hat grazers were preferred a s prey. A f ew antelope, characteristic o f t he mountain s lopes, are also present. Rock hyrax and b aboons s till occur i n t he r egion. Their r emains i n t he deposit m ay have a n atural c ause or t hey might h ave b een t he prey o f h unters. T he most sought a fter prey according t o t he r emains i n a ll t he l ayers were w ildebeest/hartebeest ( 41%), f ollowed by b lesbok ( 31%). T hese antelope are a ll grazers and t heir presence i ndicates a grassveld environment a s i s at present t he c ase at T e Vrede. The h igh m inimum numbers o f a lcelaphines must b e s een a s a r eflection o f t he l arge herds o f t hese animals t hat o ccurred during certain t imes o f t he y ear i n t he v icinity. A t radition mentions t he l arge n umbers c f w ildebeest i n t he d istrict and a r iver, a f ew k ilometres away f rom t he shelter, was named a fter t hem. S easonal movements o f w ildebeest have, according t o observations d uring t he second h alf o f t he n ineteenth century, t aken place b etween t he sourveld and t he m ixed v eld i n t he W ildebeest R iver b asin. T e Vrede t herefore i s l ocated i n t he w intering area o f t hese animals and t his would b e t he b est s eason, a s at B onawe, t o h unt t hem. Equids are o ften f ound w ith w ildeb eest and t heir l ow f requency i n t he bone a ssemblage m ay b e t he r esult o f sample s ize. Two i ndividuals o f H ippotragus sp. o ccur only i n an e arly Holocene context a s at o ther northe astern Cape s ites. T he grey r hebuck and t he klipspringer are u nderr epresented i n t he species l ist b ecause t hey must h ave b een abundant o n t he nearby mountain s lopes. They o ccur t here even t oday. I t i s c lear t hat t he grassy plains e ast o f t he s helter were t he m ain exploitation area. T he i nhabitants o f T e Vrede c ould w ith moderate e ffort obtain a l arger supply o f meat by h unting mobile h erd g ame t han by c oncentrating o n small t erritorial g ame ( Table 6 3). T ables

64

and

6 5

s how

t hat

1 34

no

s ignificant

shift

i n

t he

h unting p attern t ook p lace during t he m iddle Holocene. The l arger g ame, e specially a lcelaphines, r emain t he most i mportant s ource o f f ood c onfirming t he observations m ade at B onawe. M ICROFAUNA M icrofauna were only f ound i n l ayers 1 and 2 ( Table 2 8). C ryptomys h ottentotus i s t he most c ommon rodent and s hould be abundant i n t he m arshy a rea i n f ront o f t he shelter. T he p resence o f a f ew v lei r ats and mole r ats r eflect t he e nvironment. S UMMARY

AND

DISCUSSION

T e Vrede rock shelter i s l ocated at t he foot o f t he e scarpment adjacent t o a p atch o f m ixed grass t hat grows i n t he b asin o f t he W ildebeest R iver. F aunal r emains i ndicate t hat t he v egetation r emained grassveld t hroughout t he t ime t hat t he s helter w as occupied. Only t wo r adiocarbon d ates are available. According t o t hese t he o ccupation o f t he shelter started at t he end o f t he P leistocene and a lthough t he top part o f t he deposit i s u ndated i t c an b e deduced f rom f aunal and t echnological d evelopment t hat t he shelter was abandoned e arly i n t he l ate Holocene. T he sample o f faunal r emains i s small b ecause o f t he l imited s ize o f t he e xcavation. The species l ist s hows, h owever, t hat l arge g ame f ormed t he b asis o f t he meat d iet t hroughout t he t ime t he s helter was o ccupied. A s ituation v ery s imilar t o t he one at Bonawe existed where t he c oncent rations o f game during t he w inter on t he m ixed veld c lose t o t he shelter were v ery convenient f or hunters o f both p eriods t o e xploit. I t i s possible t hat T e Vrede was more a b ase c amp t han a b iltong c amp l ike Bonawe f or the l ate Holocene mount ain dwellers. F rom T e Vrede t he hunters c ould r each t he game i n t he m ixed v eld patch w ithout l eaving t he mountain area. B onawe, h owever, i s approximately 8 km away f rom t he c losest p oint o n t he e scarpment. T he m inimum n umbers o f game species a nd t he r atio o f bone t o stone artefacts i s considerably l ower t han at Bonawe. A h igher d iversity o f f ormal t ools also s uggests a l arger variety o f activities t han at Bonawe. T he e arliest o ccupation m aterial at T e Vrede b elongs t o a t echnological s ubstage t hat has no d iagnostic t ools. I t i s o nly about 8 000 y ears a go t hat s crapers o f t he e arly Holocene t ype s tart t o appear r egularly. T he pattern o f c hange and development i n t he t echnology a s observed at Colwinton and B onawe i s a lso d iscernible i n t his a rtefact a ssemblage. Bone artefacts are r are and t his c onfirms t he predominantly e arly Holocene context o f t he deposit. I n short i t m ay b e said that t he T e Vrede rock s helter was s uccessively o ccupied by groups o f people w ith t wo d ifferent c ultural traditions a s i s r eflected i n t he t echnological r emains. Both e arly and l ate Holocene o ccupants e ffectively e xploited t he grazers o f t he area m ainly b ecause o f t he c oncentration o f g ame i n a l imited area during t he w inter.

1 35

8

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SHELTER

OBSERVATIONS

A T

T HE

RAVENSCRAIG

ROCK

I NTRODUCTION The Ravenscraig rock s helter ( 27 ° 4 7 ' 30"E ; 3 1 ° 00 ' 4 5" S ) ( 1850 m above sea l evel) i s t he northern most o f f our rock s helters located within about 1 km o f e ach other i n t he sandstone rock-faces on t he western s lopes o f t he Sterkspruit k loof o n t op o f t he Drakensberg e scarpment ( Fig.1). T he s ite c onsists o f t wo sections namely a rock o verhang 30 m l ong and 1 6 m deep i nside t he dripline, which e xtends on t he northern s ide i nto a c ave 20 m deep and 1 0 m w ide ( Fig.53). T he entrance to t he c ave was c losed o ff w ith a stone wall by t he owner o f t he farm. A collapsed stone wall 5 0 m away f rom t he s helter shows t hat t he s ite at o ne t ime served as a k raal. The whole •f loor surface o f t he shelter and c ave i s c overed by a ashy deposit t hat gradually s lopes i n t he d irection o f t he Sterkspruit 1 00 m away. The d eposit appears t o b e u ndisturbed but t here are i ndications t hat t he roots o f a n earby poplar grove are penatrating i t. T he shelter and e specially t he c ave gives good protection i n a ll w eather c onditions. A f ew faint paintings are v isible against t he f ront roof s ection o f t he shelter. Some h uman f igures wearing k arosses are depicted on t he s ide o f a l arge rock i n f ront o f t he s helter. A small panel w ith well preserved e land p aintings appears on t he rock f ace about 1 5 m north o f t he shelter. A l arge s helter 500 m t o t he south, used at present as a sheep k raal, contains t he r emains o f paintings but m any have b een d estroyed by activities i n t he kraal. T he s helter has a southern a spect o ver t he Sterkspruit v alley which has a grassland plain a s i ts bottom. T he v eldtype i s Themeda-Festuca grassveld ( Acocks 1 975). I dentified grass t ypes are Themeda t riandra and Eragrostis c aesia. Small t rees o ccurring i n t he v ici i TTE-y are Leucosidea s ericae and Rhus sp. Other i dentified f ood plants are g iven i n Table 1 . One f actor t hat i nfluenced t he choice o f R avenscraig s helter for an e xcavation was t he fact t hat t he S terkspruit valley i n which t he shelter i s l ocated c an b e r eached f rom t he area o f t he Te Vrede shelter by means o f a mountain pass. I n prehistoric t imes t he movement o f p eople and g ame b etween the r egion at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment and t he mountain could h ave t aken place a long t his route. A p attern o f s easonal movement o f Later Stone Age b ands t hat i ncluded both s ites i s a possibility and evidence o f s ummer o ccupation at Ravenscraig s helter would support t he h ypothesis. A second f actor i s t he a ssumption t hat s imilar c onditions f or f ood r esources existed i n t he parallel l ying L angkloof and Sterkspruit v alleys and i t was e xpected t hat s ubsistence s ystems o f t he same k ind w ere practised by t he o ccupants o f Colwinton and R avenscraig. I t has a lready b een s hown t hat t hese shelters, at l east d uring h istorical t imes, c ould h ave b een part o f t he annual e xploitation area o f o ne b and. T he i nformation f rom both s ites t herefore m ight b e c omplementary t o each other. T he s ingle t est p it i n t he R avenscraig deposit however s howed t hat t he t ime depth at t he s ite was considerably greater t han at Colwinton, v iz. f rom

1 36

p ossibly 1 3 000 B .P. t o h istorical t imes. The surface o f t he d eposit i s a lso so l arge t hat a t est p it o f 1 s q m p erhaps d id not give a r epresentative sample o f i ts c ultural c ontents. For t his a b igger e xcavation w ill b e n ecessary. The f aunal and artefact a ssemblages t hat were r ecovered were l arge enough t o give an i ndication o f changes i n t he s ubsistence system t hrough t ime and a lso t o enable a c omparison w ith t he subsistence systems at o ther s ites. E XCAVATION T he t est p it o f 1 s q m was excavated f rom 1 4 t o 2 6 January 1 981 ( Fig. 5 3). Use was m ade o f 0 ,05 m units while r emoving the m aterial a lthough f ive a lmost horizontal s tratigraphic l ayers, d istinguished on t he grounds o f c olour c hanges, were observed. I t was possible t o group t he e xcavation units i n every l ayer so t hat l ittle overlapping w ith t he adjacent l ayers o ccurred. The excavation was stopped a t a d epth of 2 ,5 m when a hard apparently sterile d eposit was r eached. Cultural m aterial was present t hroughout. STRATIGRAPHY B ecause o f t he small s ize o f the excavation no s ubdivisions were m ade i n t he m ain o ccupation l ayers. T he n ature o f t he occupation l ayers i s such t hat t hey probably o ccur o ver a wide area ( Fig. 5 4). L AYER 5 . This i s a dark brown l ayer ( 0,45 m t hick) with roof s palls. Bone m aterial i s well preserved. T he bottom p art c ontains a l arge number o f c halcedony bladelets and small c ores s imilar to that a ssociated w ith t he Robberg I ndustry ( Klein 1 974a; D eacon, J . 1 982, 1 984). A radiocarbon d ate of 1 0 200 ±100 B .P. ( Pta-3451) f rom burned bone i s a ssociated w ith t he end of t he bladelet-bearing deposit. L AYER 4 . This l ayer i s 0 ,5 m t hick and has a grey brown c olour. A r adiocarbon d ate s hows t hat t he l ayer was f ormed a round 1 0 000 ± 80 B .P. ( Pta-3194). Much l ess c ultural m aterial i s present than i n t he previous l ayer ( 59 artefacts p er b ucket) ( Table 66). L AYER 3 . This i s an orange brown sand deposit ( 0,5 m t hick). T he l ayer i s d ivided i nto t wo by a d ark brown horizon t hat m ay b e an i ndication o f an o ld f loor surface. A s ingle s egment was found i n t he t op part o f t his l ayer. A s harp i ncrease i n cultural m aterial f requencies i s noticeable ( 169 a rtefacts p er bucket). L AYER 2 . This l ayer i s a grey brown sand deposit, 0 ,4 m t hick. A f urther i ncrease i n t he density o f archaeological m aterials o ccurs which m ay i ndicate more f requent occupation ( 210 a rtefacts p er bucket). A radiocarbon date o f 3045 ± 50 B .P. ( Pta-3450), f rom a bone sample, i s a ssociated w ith t he e nd o f l ayer 2 . L AYER 1 . T his i s a soft, d ark brown l ayer ( 0,45 m t hick) with a h igh a sh and charcoal content. T he d ifference w ith l ayer 2 i s m arked. A r adiocarbon d ate o f 460' 1 ' 45 B .P. ( Pta-3192) for t he bottom part o f l ayer 1 s uggests a l ong occupation h iatus b etween l ayers 1 and 2 . Pottery f ragments are found i n t his

1 37

e xcavat ion c »

. •

o •• t n•

a ) 0 C . 3

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C A 0 0. 0 3

C • 1 L C ) b i ) 4 1 4 4

1 38

d a tum

a pp rox ima te d a tes B .P .

s oft d ark b rown l o am •

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C 14 g rey b rown l o am

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g rey b rown l o am

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5

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r i

11 1,1 L i t - '1 1111111i'. _ 3 _ _ _ II g rey b rown 1 , t1 1 11 ;1 1 ; -I 1 04 77 lo t , 1111111111,1

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t 1 111 0,11 0

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1 d ark b rown w ith r oo f s pa l ls ! II I " I II fp f I I p I 11 1 1,111 1 1 1 1 t1 _ 1 . . .J 1 .11 11111 1 11 1 ,111111'1 ,111

lm

F ig . 5 4 . S ection .

R avenscraig R ock S helter .

1 39

l ayer. A sharp decrease i n t he place ( 71 artefacts per b ucket).

artefact

f requencies

t akes

D ATING Four radiocarbon dates are available f or Ravenscraig shelter. An early d ate of 1 0 200 21 00 B .P. ( Pta-3451) c ame f rom a sample o f burned bone f rom a depth o f about 2 ,18 m b elow t he surface. This dates t he end o f an i ndustry which i s characterised by small blades. A s imilar i ndustry was found at S ehonghong where i t was dated t o about 1 3 000 y ears a go ( Carter 1 977:162). From a h earth about 0 ,5 m higher i n t he deposit c ame a charcoal s ample which was dated t o 1 0 000 ± 80 B .P. ( Pta-3194). T he small t ime d ifference o f 200 r adiocarbon y ears f or t he accumulation o f 0 ,5 m o f r eflects a r apid build up t hat i s unusual. Checking e arliest date i s necessary and i t m ust at t his stage a s a m inimum age .

d eposit o f t he b e s een

T he t op o f l ayer 2 i s dated t o 3 040 ± 5 0 B .P. ( Pta-3450) o n a bone sample. Of i mportance i s t hat a break i n o ccupation o f s everal t housand y ears f ollowed during which t ime v ery l ittle deposit was formed naturally o r t hrough c ultural activities. The bottom part o f l ayer 1 h as a r adiocarbon date o f 4601 : 45 B .P. ( Pta-3192) and i s a ssociated w ith pottery. ARTEFACT HEARTH

D ESCRIPTION

F EATURES

Only o ne r ecognizable h earth structure consisting o f stones, charcoal and a sh was found ( layer 2 ( 0,70-0,75 m ). Ash and charcoal f ragments were present i n a ll t he l ayers. ARTEFACTS OF ORGANIC

MATERIAL

Bone Bone f requency.

artefacts, m ainly arrow points, occur w ith T he f ollowing examples were f ound:

L ayer 1 ( 0,25 - 0 ,30 snapped o ff at both ends mm).

point

Layer 1 ( 0,30 -0,35 broken o ff ( length

m ): A cylindrical polished f ragment ( length 4 5 mm, m aximum d iameter 5

m ): A b lunt butt o f a point w ith 50 mm, m aximum d iameter 4 mm).

L ayer 1 ( 0,35 - 0 ,40 m ): A complete point w ith s harpened ( length 7 0 mm, m aximum d iameter 6 mm)(Fig.

point

Layer 1 ( length

( 0,04 - 0 ,45 m ): T he b lunt b utt 50 mm, m aximum d iameter 40 mm).

L ayer 2 ( 0,55 d iameter 5 mm). Layer 2 ( length 2 2 mm, Layer

- 0 ,60

m ):

A bone

b ead

( 0,55 - 0 ,60 m ): A s harp m aximum d iameter 3 mm).

2 ( 0,65

- 0 ,70

a l ow

m ):

1 40

o f

a

( length

s napped

A cylindrical

both 5 5)

polished

ends

broken

9

o ff

t he

mm,

point

f ragment

4

2

3 5

0

5 0 Mm •

F ig . 5 5 . R avenscraig R ock S helter . B one p oints a nd f ragments o f p oints . 1 -4 : f rom l ayer 1 ; 5 : f rom l ayer 2 .

1 41

s napped mm).

o ff

a t

b oth

Layer 2 ( 0,70 l ength. T he ends d iameter 6 mm).

ends

( length

5 0 mm,

m aximum

d iameter

5

- 0 ,75 m ): A point w ith a f lute d own t he are s napped o ff ( length 87 mm, m aximum

T he l ow f requencies o f o strich e ggshell a re s imilar t o observations at s ome o ther s ites i n t he study a rea ( Table 6 7). P OTTERY I n l ayer 1 ( 0,15-0,55 m ) 74 pot s herds were f ound. T he m ean m aximum d iameter f or t hese f ragments v aries b etween 2 5 and 4 1 mm. T he m ean t hickness o f t he f ragments r emains c onstant ( 7-8 mm) e xcept i n l ayer 1 ( 0,50-0,55 mm) where a f ew t hick, b adly b aked f ragments o ccur. T he c olour i s normall y b lack w ith s ome r ed sherds present. T he potsherds are, e xcept t hose mentioned above, w ell f ired w ith a grit t emper v isible i n s ome i nstances. No d ecoration o ccurs. One f ragment s hows a s ection o f a bored h ole. Twelve r im p ieces were f ound ( Fig. 5 6). STONE

ARTEFACTS

Artefact

c lassification

T he stone artefact a ssemblage r ecovered f rom 2 ,5 s q m o f d eposit c ontained 1 0 6 33 a rtefacts. O chre f ragments ( 13) are ommitted. I n T able 6 8 e ach l ayer i s l isted w ith i ts 0 ,05 m e xcavation u nits. Waste m aterial a nd utilized a rtefacts c onstitute 9 7,5% o f t he assemblage and t he f ormal t ools 2 ,5%. Small and utilized f lake b lades o ut o f c halcedony a re d iagnostic o f a l ate P leistocene t echnology b ut are i ncluded h ere w ith t he waste and utilized c ategories b ecause t hey s how no f ormal t rimming. I t i s noticeable t hat t he b eginning o f h uman h abitation i n t he Ravenscraig s helter w as accompanied b y a l arge n umber o f artefacts ( 1109 i n l ayer 5 ( 2,45-2,5 m )). T he a rtefacts d ecrease t hrough t ime until t he f irst a ppearance o f f ormal t ools when an i ncrease i n t he n umber o f a rtefacts o ccurred ( layer 4 ( 1,70-1,75 m )). Untrimmed f lakes a re t he d ominant waste class ( 57,6%) and w ere m anufactured m ainly o ut o f h ornfels except i n l ayer 5 ( 2,00-2,50 m ) where c halcedony was preferred. T he arithmetic m eans o f t he l ength and breadth measurements o f u ntrimmed f lakes a re g iven i n T ables 6 9 a nd 7 0. F lakes w ith e dge d amage a s a r esult o f u se or l ight r etouch were m anufactured m ostly o ut o f c halcedony, e xcept i n l ayer 5 where hornfels was u sed m ainly. C hips h ave t he s econd h ighest f requency i n t he waste c ategory ( 21,9%). L ayer 5 h as an e xceptionally h igh n umber o f c halcedony c hips. T his i s probably t he r esult o f t he b lade m anufacturing process. Cores o ccur i n sufficient n umbers t o b e d ivided i nto s ubclasses. S ingle p latform cores a re t he most common f oll owed by m ultiplatform c ores e xcept i n l ayer 5 where t he proportion i s r eversed. Core r awmaterial i s m ainly c halcedony. C hunks were predominantly o f c halcedony e xcept i n l ayer 1 .

t he

T here i s s ufficient evidence t hat t he m anufacturers artefacts preferred chalcedony a s r aw m aterial d uring

1 42

o f t he

1 43

R ock S helter .

f ormation o f l ayer 5 ( 2,00-2,50 m ). I n the other l ayers an e qual amount o f hornfels was used h owever. A s imilar observation was a lso m ade at t he T e Vrede rock shelter where c halcedony was preferred f or t he m anufacture o f artefacts i n t he p eriod before 1 000 years ago. Small convex s crapers f orm 6 8,8% o f t he formal t ool a ssemblage ( Fig. 5 7). T his i s c onsiderably l ess t han f or i nstance t he percentage o f c onvex s crapers a t Colwinton and B onawe but i s closer t o t he 7 1,7% o f t he T e Vrede s helter. Hollow s crapers and adzes ( Table 6 8) o ccur i n equal p ercentages ( 9,5% and 9 , 9%) and t his r eflects t he measure o f use o f wooden artefacts. Adzes were m anufactured o ut o f c halcedony and hornfels but t he f requencies o f t his t ype o f a rtefact are t oo low to observe changes t hrough t ime i n t he use o f r aw m aterial. T he f ew b acked a rtefacts ( one s egment and f our b lades) were l ess t han was e xpected from a d eposit t hat c ontains m aterial dating t o t he m iddle Holocene. As was t he c ase at T e Vrede t he n early s crapers and o ther formal t ools b efore 10 noteworthy. M etrical

analysis

o f

t otal absence 000 years a go

o f i s

s crapers

T he procedures used f or t he measurement o f t he s craper a ttributes and f urther statistical m anipulations were d iscussed i n chapter 5 . S craper d imensions. The arithmetic means for t he s craper l engths, breadths, t hicknesses and breadth : l ength 1 00 are g iven i n T ables 7 1,72,73 and 74. A f luctuation i s apparent i n t he units o f e ach l ayer, b ut when e ach l ayer i s s een a s a w hole t he scraper d imensions d ecrease f rom t he oldest t o t he youngest l ayer ( Fig. 58). A d ecrease i n t he l ength measurements i s observed f rom l ayer 2 ( 0,75-0,85 m ) b ut from l ayer 1 ( 0,15-0,85 m ) s crapers become considerably s horter a nd l ighter ( Table 75). T he mean l engths o f s crapers i n l ayers 4 , 3 and 2 show a h igh degree o f s imilarity w ith t hose o f s crapers o ccurring i n an e arly Holocene c ontext at o ther s ites i n t he northeastern Cape. T he values for t he r atio breadth : l ength 100 i ndicate t hat t hrough t ime t here was a s hift f rom long s crapers t o broad ones. Mann-Whitney U statistics were u sed t o t est t he scraper d imensions o f e ach excavation unit a gainst every o ther. T he r esults s how t hat t he scrapers o f l ayers 4 , 3 and 2 b elong t o t he same population ( Table 7 6). T he scrapers from l ayer 1 s how a h igh degree of variability and s ome o f t he s crapers f rom t he t op 0 ,3 m have d imensions t hat are v ery s imilar t o t hose o f l ayer 2 . The sample i s t oo small, h owever, t o d etermine whether there i s more t han o ne population i n l ayer 1 . Position o f r etouch. S crapers f rom l ayers 4 , 3 and 2 are mostly l ong w ith steep s ide r etouch . F rom l ayer 2 ( 0,75-0,80 m ) long s crapers i ncrease i n q uantity and predominate i n l ayer 1 . S hort, wide s crapers o ccur m ostly i n t he l ater part o f t he s equence. Form.

Parallel

s ided

s craper

1 44

f orms

dominate

i n

l ayers

4

3

2

6

5

4

7

1 2

1

1 0

1 3

1 4

1 5

5 0 MM

0

F ig . 5 7 . R avenscraig R ock S helter . S crapers . 1 -6 : f rom l ayer 1 ; 7 -12 : f rom l ayer 2 ; 1 3-15 : f rom l ayer 3 .

1 45

0 ,15-0,45).

l a yer a nd d ep th ( m )

0 1

i n

I n

• r s .

* f

I n I n

i n

t r . )

I n L f l

0 ,6-0,65)

T

N

I n

r -

r -

0 ,75-0,85)_

C • 1

I

i n a a ) 0 )

a )

a a

a

N

C . 1

C4

I n

1 46

I 0

4 (1,55-1,75)

3 (1,3-1,35)

3 (1,25-1,3)

3 (1,15-1,25). ,

3 (1,1-1,15)

I

3 (1,05-1,1)

• 0

• •

4

I .

^

4 . . ••

-

a nd 3 , but i n l ayers 2 and 1 t hey a re mostly d ivergent. f orms appear r egularly f rom l ayer 2 ( 0,75-0,80 m ).

W ide

B ulb o f p ercussion. T here i s a n i ncreasing f requency o f b ulbs o f p ercussion o n s crapers f rom l ayers 3 t o 1 . A s imilar t ime t rend was a lso observed amongst s crapers f rom o ther s ites i n t he study a rea. Raw m aterial. S crapers o f t he Ravenscraig a rtefact a ssemblage -- JJ7J — J ith a f ew e xceptions m anufactured o ut o f c halcedony ( Table 7 7). A f ew h ornfels s crapers d id not h ave a s ignificant i nfluence o n t he m easurements o f s craper d imensions. C ONCLUSIONS FROM T HE ARTEFACT

ANALYSIS

Stone artefacts o ccur t hroughout t he d eposit b ut bone t ools a re l imited t o l ayer 1 and t he t op part o f l ayer 2 . The f requency o f bone artefacts, c onsidering t he small a rea e xcavated, i s h igh compared w ith f inds at o ther s ites i n t he s tudy a rea. B one points d ominate t he assemblage o f bone a rtefacts. T hese a re t he o nly d irect e vidence o f t he h unting t echnique u sed b y t he o ccupants o f t he s helter. O strich e ggshell b eads a re all c omplete s pecimens and no s ign o f t he l ocal m anufacturing o f b eads was f ound. T heir presence must b e a scribed t o c ontact w ith a reas, possibly t o t he west, w here o striches o ccurred. C lay pot f ragments h ave a h igh f requency a nd t heir a ppearance i n l ayer 1 , j ust b efore 5 00 y ears a go, c oincides w ith t he b eginning o f o ccupation o f t he s helter a fter a h iatus i n h uman h abitation o f s everal t housand y ears. T he a rtefact a ssemblage s hows t hat t here i s a s equence o f various t echnological substages present i n t he d eposit. C haracteristic o f t he artefacts u sed by t he e arliest i nhabitants a re t he h igh n umbers o f c halcedony b ladelets r emoved f rom s mall b lade c ores while f ormal t ools a re v irtually absent. T he u ses o f t hese b ladelets a re s till obscure b ut t hey a re probably r elated t o s imilar a rtefacts i dentified i n t he southern C ape ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976: 6 , D eacon, J . 1 978, 1 984) and i n L esotho ( Carter 1 977) and b elong t o t he p eriod of about 1 6 0 00 y ears a go. Utilization m arks o n t he s harp cutting e dges o f s ome o f t he b ladelets w ere observed. I t i s possible t hat t hey were u sed a s p arts o f c omposite t ools, f or i nstance i n a groove i n a p iece o f wood. D uring t he existence o f t he above m entioned t echnological s ubstage o ther f ormal t ools, e specially s crapers, were a lmost absent. Even a fter t he d isappearance o f t he b ladelets, s crapers r emained absent until about 1 0 000 y ears a go ( layer 4 ( 1,70-1,75 m )). C halcedony was preferred a s r aw m aterial b y t he e arliest o ccupants o f Ravenscraig. T he s crapers t hat were r ecovered f rom t he t op p art o f l ayer 4 a nd a lso i n l ayers 3 and 2 i nclude c haracteristic d ivergent f orms w ith steep s ide r etouch. S imilar s crapers w ere a lso f ound a t o ther s ites i n t he study a rea i n an e arly H olocene c ontext. F rom l ayer 2 ( 0,75-0,85 m ) end s crapers b ecame more i mportant and d ominate i n l ayer 1 . I n t he l ight o f t he d ate o f about 460 years a go f or t he bottom o f l ayer 1 , t ogether w ith a d ate o f 3 000 y ears a go f or t he t op p art o f

1 47

l ayer 2 , i t b ecomes c lear t hat a break o f s everal t housand y ears o ccurred i n t he o ccupation o f t he s helter. Observations at o ther s ites i n t he s tudy area s how t hat a fter t he appearance o f s egments at m iddle Holocene t imes, h igh b acked s crapers w ith steep s ide r etouch c ontinued t o b e m anufactured f or s ome t ime as c an b e s een a t R avenscraig w here a s ingle s egment was f ound i n l ayer 3 ( 1,05-1,10 m ) t ogether w ith s uch a rtefacts. T he l ate d ate at t he t op o f l ayer 2 , where s ome o f t hese h igh b acked s crapers a re still. present, m ay b e e xplained i n t his way. T he break i n o ccupation i s s ignificant b ecause t he possibility o f s imilar breaks w as a lso observed a t G rassridge, T e Vrede and Bonawe s helters, a lthough d id not c oincide. No wood artefacts w ere f ound b ut t he presence o f h ollow s crapers, i n e arly Holocene c ontext, and a dzes i n a l ate Holocene c ontext, s uggest t he working o f wood. T he f requency o f s tone artefacts d ecreases progressively i n l ayer 1 while t hat o f pot s herds i ncreases. A possible e xplanation i s t hat i ron a rtefacts w ere u sed b y t he i nhabitants. Although no i ron artefacts w ere f ound a t t he s ite, I ron Age groups were a lready p resent i n t he e astern C ape about 1 000 years a go ( Maggs 1 977:177). F AUNA Well preserved b one m aterial o ccurred t hroughout d eposit. Analysis o f t he bone a ssemblage was d one b y w riter ( Tables 7 8 and 7 9).

t he t he

W ith t he possible e xception o f b aboons and rock hyrax, a ll t he o ther g ame was probably t he prey o f t he p eople w ho o ccupied t he s helter. T he r emains o f m ainly g rassveld animals, i .e. w ildebeest/hartebeest ( Alcelaphus/Connochaetes), an e quid ( Equus s p.) and t he b lue antelope ( Hippotragus sp77 a re f ound o nly up t o l ayer 3 w ith a s ingle T iiidebeest i n t he bottom p art o f l ayer 2 . T he f act t hat a d ate o f about 3 000 y ears a go was r eceived f or t he t op o f l ayer 2 m ay i ndicate t hat t he d isappearance o f grazers f rom t he S terkspruitkloof c oincided w ith t he d isappearance o f s imilar g ame f rom t he L angkloof s hortly a fter t he m iddle H olocene. I n t he L angkloof t hese g ame t ypes v anished at a t ime when t he environment w as b ecoming w etter and C liffortia sp. b ecame an i mportant plant i n t he v egetation. A m icroscopic analysis o f c harcoal s amples f rom t he Ravenscraig d eposit s howed t hat t he c harcoal i n l ayers 4 and 2 c ame m ainly f rom E uryops s p. s hrubs ( Tusenius 1 986). I t s eems a s i f a c orrelation m ay e xist b etween t he d omination o f E ryops s p., c haracteristic o f a d ry environment w ith a n o vergrazed grass c over, and t he presence o f grazers i n t he area. I n l ayer 1 t he charcoal i s m ainly d erived f rom L eucosidea s ericea, w ith C liffortia s p. and E uryops s p. a lso present t o a l esser e xtent. T his e xplains t he presence o f e land t hat browse mostly l eaves b ut a lso graze young grass i n t he early s ummer and f orm 6 7% o f t he antelope d uring t he t ime o f t he b uild up o f l ayer 1 . T he m eat c ontribution o f t he e land i s o f course much greater t han t hat o f t he grey r hebuck and klipspringer t hat w ere a lso h unted ( Table 8 0).

1 48

A c hi-square t est s hows t hat no s hift i n h unting strategy f rom b ig g ame t o a s mall g ame h unting p attern t ook p lace b etween t he e arly and t he l ate Holocene ( Table 8 1). A v ery s ignificant s hift f rom grazers t o m ountain g ame, h owever, o ccured ( Table 8 2). T he h unting p attern o f t he Ravenscraig h unters d uring t he e arly Holocene a s i t i s r eflected i n T able 7 8 i s s imilar t o observations a t Colwinton, B onawe and T e Vrede f or t he s ame p eriod. T he f ocus o n grazers, t hat h ad t o move d uring t he w inter t o t he f oot o f t he e scarpment f or grazing a s was t he c ase at Colwinton, i mplies a s imilar s easonal movement f or t he h unters o f t he Sterkspruit k loof. Movement was possible t hrough t he B arkly P ass t o t he v icinity o f Bonawe or t hrough t he B aster Foot P ath t o t he area o f T e Vrede. D uring t he l ate Holocene l arge h erds o f e land would h ave g athered i n t he e arly s ummer. T his i s t he s eason f or t he c ows t o c alve and t he e arly grass o n t he b anks o f t he S terkspruit would h ave ensured t he presence o f e land i n t he v alley. S ummer o ccupation o f t he Sterkspruit rock s helter c an b e d educed f rom t he high p ercentage o f e land i ndividuals o n t he species l ist. A lthough t he f aunal s ample i s v ery s mall t he same hunting p attern a s at Colwinton c an b e observed n amely mostly young e land w ith m ature animals a lso present ( Table 8 3). FLORA Charcoal f ragments a re present t hroughout t he R avenscraig d eposit and t heir i dentification ( Tusenius 1 986) m akes i t possible, t ogether w ith t he d ata f rom Colwinton, t o r econstruct t o s ome e xtent t he environment o n t op o f t he e scarpment f or t he past 1 2 0 00 years. The d ominant woods t ype used a s f uel b y t he i nhabitants o f t he Ravenscraig s helter ( Fig. 5 9) i mply a t l east t hree m ain c limatic p eriods. B efore 1 0 000 y ears a go L eucosidea s ericea and E uryops s pp. are present i n a lmost equal q uantities i n t he c harcoal s amples. A fterwards t he f ormer d ecreases r apidly while E uryops s pp. i ncrease c onsiderably. T his change i n woody p lants m ust b e s een a s a r eflection o f t he amelioration i n c limate at t he end o f t he P leistocene. A warm d ry c limate r eplaced t he previous c ooler w etter o ne. A gradual d ecrease i n E uryops a ccompanied by a s imultaneous i ncrease i n woody p lants l ike C liffortia s pp., P asserina spp. and L eucosidea s ericea, t hat are not adapted t o dry warm climates, s uggests t hat t he c limate was s ystematically b ecoming c ooler and w etter. T he c limate d uring t he past 600 years i s s uch t hat E uryops h as a l ow presence i n t he charcoal samples which i s d ominated by L eucosidea. T he present state o f k nowledge i ndicates t hat a t Ravenscraig t he e nvironment 10 000 y ears a go c hanged f rom c ool and w et t o o ne which was warm and d ry and b ack a gain t o cooler and w etter c ircumstances s ometime b efore 600 y ears a go. T his i s a s cenario t hat a lso f its t he d ata f rom Colwinton w here a d ry warm environment b efore 6 000 years a go i s s uggested and a c ooler w etter o ne at 2 0 00 y ears a go.

1 49

L ayer 1

L ayer 2 t . 3040 B .P .

C . 460 B .P .

nl e6 0

n= 6 0

4 3 ,3

8 ,3 3 ,3 7

r1 70%

56 .7 ,1

L ayer 3

n =6

=6 0

n 6 7 1 a. a.

c o

C . )

r -1 . P asser ing s pp

L eucos idea s er icea

i

L ayer 4

M M

C ,

L ayer

C ,'

5

I i= 6 0

1 . W1

2 5 ,5

c a

L eucos idea

N

298 7 .

C I . CL N I n

'

i h W- I

F ig . 5 9 . R avenscraig R ock S helter . I dentified w oody p lant s pecies f rom c harcoal s amples ( according t o T usenius 1 986).

1 50

S UMMARY

AND

DISCUSSION

T he 2 ,5 m deep d eposit at t he Ravenscraig rock s helter g ave evidence o f patterns o f change i n t he environment, types o f g ame and t he t echnology o f t he i nhabitants for a long p eriod f rom t he end o f t he P leistocene up t o t he very l ate Holocene. W ith t he r econstruction

a id o f c harcoal o f t he environment

and f aunal analysis a o f t he shelter i s proposed

t hat not o nly s upports t he observations at Colwinton b ut a lso h as a greater t ime depth. The environment i s characterised by a r elatively c ool and wet c limate w ith grassveld at t he end o f t he P leistocene. Drier, warmer conditions w ith grassveld d eveloped during t he beginning of t he Holocene and continued up t o 3 000 years ago. D uring t he past 1 000 years t he c limate was a gain cooler and wetter w ith l ittle grass and a v ariety o f s hrubs. Four r adiocarbon dates s how t hat t he e arliest i nhabitants s tayed i n t he shelter b efore 10 000 years a go and t hat a long h iatus i n o ccupation o ccurred during t he late Holocene. I t i s o f s ignificance t hat t here i s some o verlapping w ith t he dates o f Te Vrede b ecause i t i s possible t hat t he same b and could h ave visited both s helters. Bands o f h unters l eaving t he Sterkspruit k loof by means o f t he B aster F oot P ath P ass h ad to move through t he surroundings o f T e Vrede. D uring t he end o f t he P leistocene and t he early Holocene t he hunting f ocused m ainly on w ildebeest, an equid and t he b lue antelope. T he Sterkspruit k loof h as, s imilar t o the L angkloof, a l imited grass cover and was probably u sed as a p assage f or grazers coming f rom t he plains at t he foot o f t he e scarpment. T he hunting o f h erd game possibly r equired c onsiderably l ess e ffort h ere t han i n t he w ide open r egion f rom which t he game c ame. D uring t he past 1 000 years t he scene i n t he S terkspruitkloof c hanged c onsiderably. E land was now t he preferred prey w ith grey r hebuck and k lipspringer a lso present. Arrows w ith bone points and bows were used as part o f t he hunting equipment. The h igh f requency o f e land r eflects possible summer o ccupation o f t he shelter b ecause t hese antelope c oncentrate i n l arge h erds at t he beginning o f t he summer s eason and i t i s unlikely t hat such a l arge n umber o f eland c ould b e k illed from a s ingle c amp during t he w inter. T he h unters o f Ravenscraig could s upplement t heir meat s upply i n t he winter, a s was t he c ase at Colwinton, by e xploiting t he game concentrations i n t he m ixed veld patches at t he f oot o f t he mountain range. T he W ildebeest R iver and t he T e Vrede rock shelter are o nly 4 5 km southeast o f Ravenscraig and t he former s ite gave evidence o f possible w inter o ccupation. T he stone a rtefact a ssemblage s hows t hat t here i s a s equence o f t hree Later Stone Age t echnological substages present i n t he deposit. The e arliest o ccupation i s c haracterised by c halcedony b ladelets b ut contains no f ormal t ools and i s a l ocal expression o f a t echnological s ubstage t hat e xisted o ver a wide g eographical area about 1 8 000 t o 1 2

L 51

0 00 years a go. S imilar c ultural e lements w ere a lso i dentified i n t he s outhern Cape ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976:6; D eacon, J . 1 978, 1 982, 1 984) and i n L esotho ( Carter 1 977). Only R avenscraig i n t he study a rea g ave evidence o f t his t echnology and a lthough i t m ay a lso b e present at T e Vrede, a m ore e xtensive e xcavation w ill b e n ecessary t o d emonstrate t his. C halcedony and h ornfels were t he m ain r aw m aterials w ith c halcedony s omewhat more d ominant i n t his e arly p eriod. T he t echnological substages t hat f ollow a re a lso p resent i n t he rock s helters a lready d escribed. T he s ame p attern o ccurs at R avenscraig, n amely l ong c onvex s crapers w ith s ide r etouch during t he e arly Holocene and a s ignificant c hange i n t he d imensions o f s crapers at about t he m iddle H olocene. A s ingle s egment, a lso f rom t his p eriod, i ndicates i n a ssociation w ith s crapers and an i ncrease i n t he f requency o f a dzes, a change i n a ctivity. F rom r adiocarbon d ates i t m ay b e d educed t hat t he accumulation o f l ayer 2 a t R avenscraig and l ayers 4 and 3 a t Colwinton t ook p lace o ver t he s ame t ime p eriod. I n t he Colwinton a ssemblage t here a re c onsiderably more b acked t ools present t han w ere f ound a t R avenscraig but t he s crapers f rom l ayer 2 a t t he l atter s ite s how more s ide r etouch t han t he l ate Holocene s crapers f rom Colwinton. Layer 1 i n t he Ravenscraig d eposit r epresents t he l ast 8 00 y ears o f t he o ccupation h istory o f t he s ite. T he cultural m aterial o f l ayer 1 o f Colwinton i s s imilar i n t he presence o f u ndecorated pottery and bone a rtefacts and i n t he s tone a rtefact t echnology. Ravenscraig rock s helter i s an i mportant s ite w ith t he potential, o n a ccount o f i ts t ime d epth, i ntensive o ccupation and good preservation c ircumstances f or b one m aterials, t o s upply i nformation o n a w ide r ange o f c ultural a spects, e specially c oncerning e arly Holocene h abitation. F or t his a m uch more e xtensive e xcavation w ill b e n ecessary.

1 52

9

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

OBSERVATIONS A T

GRASSRIDGE

R OCK

SHELTER

I NTRODUCTION The Grassridge rock s helter ( 3r 34 ' 1 5" S ; 2 6° 5P 1 0" E ) ( 1 500 m above sea l evel) i s l ocated i n t he foothills o f t he Stormberg e scarpment, a southwestern e xtension o f t he Drakensberg r ange, on t he farm Uylhoek approximately 2 5 km s outhwest o f Dordrecht i n t he Sterkstroom d istrict ( Fig. 1 ). T he shelter i s f ormed i n t he sandstone o f t he C larence Formation t hat r epresents t ogether w ith o ther rocks o f t he K aroo S upergroup, n amely t he Molteno and t he E lliot Formations, t he g eological s equence i n the area ( Eales & Booth 1 974). T he location o f t he s ite at t he b ack o f a well protected kloof, w ith a s outhwestern aspect, m ade i t a shelt ered c amp t hat was o ften v isited i n prehistoric t imes by b ands o f h unter g atherers, a s c an b e s een f rom a m ultitude o f Later Stone Age artefacts d istributed o ver t he t alus o f t he deposit. M iddle Stone Age artefacts are f ound c lose t o t he dripline. T he shelter i s 4 5 m broad, 1 0 m deep w ith a roof h eight o f 7 m at t he drippoint. A small p erenial stream f lows down t he rocks d irectly west o f t he shelter. The f loor o f t he shelter i s covered w ith d eposit t hat i s d eepest on t he western s ide. A f ew faded paintings are v isible on t he e astern s ide o f t he shelter wall and i solated paintings o ccur against t he l arge rocks i n f ront o f t he shelter. The r ainy s eason i n t he area i s f rom October t o March w ith a annual average o f 624,2 mm r ecorded at W illow Park, 1 0 km north-east o f Grassridge ( Weather B ureau 1 965). T he s ummers a re m ild and t he winters very cold w ith t emperatures a s l ow a s 10 d egrees C . Frost i s c ommon i n t he w inter. A survey o f t he vegetation o f t he area by t he D epartment o f Botany o f t he University o f Fort Hare showed a w ide v ariety o f plants. The v eld t ypes are r epresentative o f a t ransition b etween dry Cymbopogon -Themeda v eld and H ighland s ourveld ( S. Russel, p ersonal communication). Grasses i nclude H yparrhenia, Cymbopogon, Aristrada c f.diffusa and Merxmuellera 7 Danthonia). Trees and s hrubs growing i n t he k loof i n which t he shelter i s l ocated i nclude: R hoicissus m icrophylla, Grewia o ccidentalis, Olea a fricana, C lutia pulchella, K iggeleria a fricana and D iospyros l yciorges. Although G rassridge i s s ited i n a grassland environment i t a lso l ies o n t he edge o f a Karoo-type r egion. T he game i ncluded grazers a s well a s smaller t erritorial species and o striches. The s easonal b ehaviour o f t he grazers m ust have b een d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he game f urther t o t he e ast. Dry Cymbopogon - Themeda v eld and Stormberg p lateau sweetveld r emain n utritiou s t hroughout the year and it was possible for grassveld game t o graze over a w ide area w ithout having t o move during t he w inter t ime to b asins o f m ixed grass a s was t he c ase at t he f oot o f t he Drakensberg. The t racking o f h erd animals i n such c ircumstances would t ake much more t ime and e ffort t han t he hunting o f t erritorial small g ame a lthough t he meat y ield i s m uch h igher. P resumably t he subsistence s ystem o f t he i nhabitants o f Grassridge d iffered considerably f rom t hat o f t he hunters f urther t o t he e ast where i t was

1 53

r elatively

e asy

t o

concentrate

on

e land

i n

t he

summer

and

a lcelaphines i n t he w inter. I n t his r espect, i t was possible f or t he faunal r emains o f t he Grassridge d eposit t o b e used a s a c ontrol f or observations at t he s ites a lready d iscussed. B ecause Grassridge i s l ocated i n a r egion bordering o n t he i nterior plateau and t he c atchment area o f t he Orange R iver i t was anticipated t hat t he s ite would s upply i nformation which would m ake i t possible t o connect t he s ites i n t he Orange R iver S cheme area ( Sampson 1 970) and t hose o f t he Drakensberg e scarpment. A ccording t o r adiocarbon dates t he l atest part o f t he d eposit falls entirely i n t he t ime r ange 7 000 t o 6 000 years a go. I t s eems t herefore as i f t he build up o f t he a pproximately 0 ,7 m t hick Holocene part o f t he deposit t ook p lace over about 1 000 years. Compared t o s ites l ike Colwinton and Bonawe t his was r apid. A rock s helter on t he f arm Merino Walk, 1 5 km north o f Grassridge, was e xcavated by S ampson ( 1970) as part o f an archaeological r esearch project o n s ites i n t he area o f t he Orange R iver S cheme. A lthough t he artefact a ssemblage i s s mall, t he description of i t s uggests t hat t he s ite was o nly o ccupied during t he m iddle Holocene. T he r easons f or t he absence of h abitation at both G rassridge and Merino Walk are obscure y et possibly i nclude a c ombination o f s ocial and environmental factors. E XCAVATION T he e xcavation was c arried out during 2 5 June t o 1 9 July 1 979. An area o f 6 s q m was excavated i n t he western s ection o f t he deposit ( Fig. 60). Except i n t he c ase o f t he t est p it ( B1), where 0 ,05 m units were used, t he stratigraphic l ayers w ere f ollowed while r emoving t he m aterial. T he contents o f t he t est p it were not i ncluded i n t he subsequent analysis o f t he archaeological f inds. Although t he d eposit proved t o b e o nly 1 ,5 m t hick t here was a considerable t ime depth present i n t he cultural m aterial which i ncluded t ypical M iddle Stone Age artefacts a s well a s Later S tone Age artefacts. A s equence o f f ive Later Stone Age o ccupation l ayers f ollows upon t hree M iddle Stone Age l ayers w ithout any non-occupation d eposit b etween t he two. The f act t hat s uch a break d id o ccur i s suggested by t he h ard n ature o f t he o lder d eposit while t he Holocene d eposit i s l oose w ith an a shy appearance. Stone a rtefacts o ccur, i n a ssociation w ith b one, i n both c omponents o f t he deposit. I n the l ate P leistocene part, t he preservation o f bone was more s elective and rotten p ieces o f bone as well a s b etter preserved m ixing o f artefacts c an P leistocene/Holocene t ransition. and m aterial w ill b e d iscussed i n

o nes were r ecovered. Some b e observed at t he Only t he Holocene d eposit t his c hapter.

STRATIGRAPHY F ive o ccupation Holocene d eposit ( Fig.

l ayers 6 1).

were

d istinguished

i n

t he

L AYER LBS. T his i s a brown t o b lack l ayer o f f ine s and sandwiched b etween h ardened a sh horizons at t he bottom and t he t op. T he t hickness i s 0 ,05 m near t he shelter wall but i t i ncreases t o 0 ,2 m i n t he d irection o f the dripline.

1 54

•. 1. ; : • : * . 4; • .

. 2 C.

• 1 • t

•

4 : ) ^ U

v z )

••

t z t

1 55

O 0 e v t o

0 0

0 0 r e t o

0 0 a t c o

I

0

t o e a )

•

I I r t

•

•

II II %

01

•

I I

•

1 • =

I

/

•

•I

o

•

•

‘ 1 •

•

0

E

•

• ..

•› . -

I

• C C

• .

I

I S : 7 3

C O 1 id 0

0 C . 3

. = , I,,. . . _ a s ,g , • . -: . . 3 I • = , , . ‘ [ „ ; •. , . , .; •, o

•

‚ V o

—

i

i

I

e

• 0

0 2

• • •>

• •

.

6 %

I=

t

1

iI

9

• e a

0

C O >. • -= I n •

• O

•

>:

C L I . >

.. • ••. . • . •

\ I ‘ i ll C C

I

C O

1

U )

C

j n

t:«g •

1 56

F ig . 6 1 .

1 'I • 00 . Ii • • =

G rassridge R ock S helter .

i t

R elatively

l ittle

c ultural

m aterial

was

found

( 116

artefacts

p er bucket)( Table 1 23). Two r adiocarbon dates c ame f rom s ame depth i n t his l ayer namely 6890 ± 80 B .P. ( Pta-2719) 6 850 t 1 00 B .P. ( Pta-2949). L AYER

AS.

This

l ayer

i s

0 , 03

m t o

0 ,15

m t hick

and

t he and

consists

o f fine l oose ashy sand separated f rom l ayer LBS by a hardened ash l ayer. An i ncrease in archaeological m aterials occurs ( 213 artefacts p er b ucket). A d ate f rom a charcoal sample shows t hat t he l ayer accumulated about 6300 1 ' 60 B .P. ( Pta-2952). L AYER

HSK.

abundant

This bone

f requency

o f

i s

a d ark

f ragments, stone

h igher t han t he i ntensification c ause o f t his.

brown

sand

s tone

artefacts

l ayer

( 0,2

artefacts

( 246

and

artefacts

f requency o f stone o f v isits t o t he

m t hick)

with

charcoal.

The

p er

b ucket)

i s

artefacts i n l ayer AS. shelter m ay have b een

An t he

L AYER B R. This l ayer, approximately 0 ,15 m t hick, consists o f a d ark brown sandy l oam w ith white ash patches. A broken t hin brown l ine, possibly t he r esult o f a break i n occupation, serves as a m arker t o d istinguish i t from t he previous l ayer. A d ate

o f

artefact L AYER

6280 t70 d ensity

VB.

This

B .P.

i s i s

2 76 t he

( Pta-2713) artefacts youngest

comes per

part

from

t his

l ayer.

The

b ucket. o f

t he

deposit

and

has

a

d ate o f 6090 ± 80 B .P. ( Pta-2970). This l ayer consists o f grey brown compact l oam w ith a m aximum t hickness o f 0 ,25 m and occurs only in b locks B 11, B l, B 2 and C 2. The h ighest n umber o f stone artefacts are found in t his l ayer namely 308 artefacts p er bucket. DATING The

d ates

i ncluded in m inimum date

are

derived

from

charcoal

s amples

and

are

t he d iscussion on t he stratigraphy. A s ingle o f 3 6 3 80 ± 870 B .P. ( Pta-2714) was received for

t he Middle Stone Age occupation o f t he shelter. A compact d eposit o f 0 ,7 m t hick shows t hat t he shelter was occupied f or a considerable t ime during t he Late P leistocene. The duration o f t he h iatus a fter t he l atest Middle Stone Age occupation until t he arrival o f t he f irst L ater S tone Age i nhabitants almost 7 000 y ears ago i s unknown. The shelter must have r emained uninhabited for t housands o f years during t he

coldest

p eriod

o f

t he

l ate

Pleistocene.

The d ates o f t he Holocene deposit are i n stratigraphic sequence and indicate t hat t he shelter was only occupied for a r elatively short p eriod o f 1 000 y ears during t he early Holocene. The absence o f h abitation during t he l ate Holocene i s s ignificant when i t i s compared with t hat o f other sites i n t he study area where s imilar breaks occurred during t he l ate Holocene. ARTEFACT

DESCRIPTION

HEARTHS One arranged

hearth i n

t he

consisting f orm

o f

out

o f

a semi-circle

1 57

nine was

stone

found

in

fragments l ayer

LBS.

Associated w ith o ccurred in a ll f ires w ithout t he ARTEFACTS B one,

OF

s hell

i t was bone, ash and c harcoal. t he l ayers and i s evidence o f t he construction o f f ormal h earths.

ORGANIC and

C harcoal use o f

MATERIAL

ostrich

e ggshell

b eads

Bone artefacts occur i n l ow f requencies at a ll t he s ites i n t he s tudy area e xcept at B onawe ( Elliot d istrict) where a r elatively l arge n umber o f bone artefacts was f ound. T he Grassridge deposit y ielded, r elative t o t he stone a rtefacts, a very small p ercentage o f bone t ools. T he f ollowing examples were r ecovered:

b lunt

Layer b utt

VB. A c ylindrical sharpened bone point w ith a ( length 1 24 mm, m aximum d iameter 6 mm) ( Fig. 6 2).

L ayer HSK. A cylindrical m aximum d iameter 7 mm.

1 2

mm

Layer AS. A r ectangular a nd t hickness 5 mm.

An e nd ( length

awl

An m aximum

awl w ith t he proximal t hickness 8 mm).

8 8

w ith mm,

part

o f

m aximum

bone

L ayer LBS. t hickness o f 1 mm.

A bone

s haft,

p endant,

m arrow

t hickness

A sharpened d iameter 3 mm).

a nd

t he

l ink

r ing

An awl w ith a break m ark m aximum d iameter 8 mm).

l ength

c avity

2 9

3 2

mm,

mm

a nd

breadth

v isible

a t

( length

1 65

t he

o ne

mm

a nd

5 mm).

p art

s liver

l ength

present

( length

w ith

at

3 8

mm

a d iameter

t he

b utt

end

and

o f

1 8

m aximum

mm and

( length

2 7

a

mm

Two ornaments o f f reshwater m ussel were f ound n amely a p endant ( maximum d iameter 7 mm) i n l ayer AS and an o val p endant ( 18 mm l ong and 1 4 mm broad) i n l ayer LBS ( Fig. 6 2). A l arge quantity o f o strich e ggshell b eads was f ound, ( Table 8 5) o f which 1 51 were u nbroken specimens and 5 75 were broken o r unfinished. The mean d iameter o f t he b eads i n a ll t he l ayers was 5 mm, e xcept i n l ayer B R where i t was 4 mm. Ostrich e ggshell b eads h ave a v ery l ow f requency at t he o ther s ites i n t he s tudy area. These s ites are concentrated i n t he e astern p art o f t he r egion and i t i s c lear f rom t he absence o f o strich e ggshell f ragments t hat t he b ead m anufacturing was c arried out e lsewhere. A t otal o f 4 707 o strich e ggshell f ragments was f ound i n t he L ater Stone Age l ayers at Grassridge, however, i ndicating t ogether w ith t he l arge n umber o f unfinished b eads, t hat b ead m anufacturing was an i mportant activity i n t his s helter ( Table 86). STONE

ARTEFACTS

Artefact

c lassification

1 58

4

2

3

5

6

0

5 0 m in

7

F ig . 6 2. G rassridge R ock S helter . B one a rtefacts . 1 : P oint ( from l ayer V B ); 2a nd 3 : A wls ( from l ayers A S a nd L BS ); 4 : L inkshaft ( from l ayer H SK ); 5 : S hell p endant ( from l ayer A S); 6 : P endant ( from l ayer A S); 7 : P oint ( from l ayer V B ).

1 59

Grassridge i s e xceptionally r ich i n s tone artefacts o f which 5 3 801 were r ecovered f rom approximately 4 C u m o f deposit ( Table 8 7). The definitions and procedures used i n t he analysis o f t he m aterial h ave b een previously d escribed. O chre f ragments are excluded f rom t he artefact i nventory. Artefacts i n t he waste c ategory c omprises 99% o f t he t otal, utilized 0 ,1% a nd formal r etouched artefacts 1 %. Untrimmed f lakes and chips are by f ar t he most n umerous i n t he waste c ategory. Hornfels was m ainly used f or both artefact t ypes f ollowed by chalcedony. The arithmetic means f or t he l ength and breadth m easurements o f u nretouched f lakes are g iven i n T ables 8 8 and 8 9 . Cores o f t he s ingle p latform t ype d ominate w ith chalcedony b eing t he m aterial mostly used. Most chunks were a lso m ade o ut o f c halcedony e xcept i n l ayer LBS where h ornfels was m ainly used. Small convex s crapers dominate t he f ormal t ool c ategory ( 84%) and i t i s i nteresting t o note t hat at Colwinton s crapers a lso c onstitute 84% o f t he f ormal t ools ( Fig. 6 3). L arge f requently c ircular s crapers were m ade o ut o f h ornfels, while c halcedony was used f or t he small convex t ypes. B acked t ools i ncluding s egments, a f ew b ladelets and t wo f lakes f orm 4 ,6% o f t he t ool c ategory. I t i s c lear t hat s egments played a more important role h ere t han at t he s ites f urther t o t he e ast. C halcedony was used f or a ll t he b acked t ools ( Fig. 64). Other t ools t hat m ay b e e xpected t o b e f ound i n a W ilton t ype o f i ndustry a re present, b ut i n l ow f requencies. Borers ( 2%) m anufactured out o f c halcedony a re presumably c onnected w ith t he m anufacturing o f ostrich e ggshell b eads while adzes ( 2,5%) possibly i ndicate woodworking ( Fig. 64). The s ingle bored s tone o f s iltstone h as a d iameter o f 90 mm, t hickness o f 3 5 mm and a h ole w ith a d iameter o f 2 1 mm. Bored stones s erved as weights used on d igging s ticks f or g athering u nderground plant f oods ( Goodwin 1 947). I n l ayer VB t here o ccurs a s ignificant i ncrease i n t he f ormal t ools r elative t o t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts. This l ayer has even more f ormal t ools t han t he previous l ayer B R f rom which t he h ighest f requency o f a rtefacts were r ecovered. T he r elatively h igh frequency o f s crapers i n l ayer VB m ay b e t he r esult o f an i ncrease i n s kin processing activities i n t he shelter. M etrical

analysis

o f

t he

s tone

artefacts

Only t he s crapers were n umerous enough s tatistically s ignificant changes t hrough measured attributes, b ut t he m easurement s egments a re a lso g iven.

t o d etermine t ime i n t he f or adzes and

S crapers S craper d imensions. A s ample o f 443 s crapers ( shorter t han 3 5 mm and 84,9% o f a ll t he f ormal t ools) was measured. The d ata given i n Tables 90,91,and 9 2 show c hanges t hrough t ime f or t he l engths, breadths, h eights. A decrease i n s ize o ccurs f rom l ayer LBS up t o l ayer B R b ut i t i ncreases a gain i n l ayer VB. ( Fig. 6 5). T he r atio breadth x100 l ength i ndicates t hat oblong s crapers d ominate i n t he o lder l ayers

1 60

A N !

2

7

6

5

4

3

1

1 0

1 3

1 4

1 5

1 7

1 6

0

1 2

1 8

5 0 !MU

F ig . 6 3 . G rassridge R ock S helter . S crapers. 1 -4 : f rom l ayer V B ; 5 -6 : f rom l ayer B R ; 9 -12 : f rom l ayer H SK ; 1 3-15 : f rom l ayer A S; 1 6-18 : f rom l ayer L BS .

1 61

2

7 9

1 0

1

F ig . 6 4 . G rassridge R ock S helter . 1 -6 : S egments ( from l ayers V B a nd B R ); 7 : B orer ( from l ayer L BS); 8 -9 : A dzes ( from l ayer V B ); 1 0-11 : L arge s crapers ( from l ayers V B a nd B R ).

1 62

l e ng th n umber V B

_

B R

_

35 87

1

H SK A S

1 04

_ 1

L BS _

1 13

1 20

110

30

5 1

11 1 1

b read th V s

35

B R

87

F I SK A S

_

I

I --

1 13

L BS

5 1

1 0 1

2' 0

30 m m

h e ig th V B B R

35

_

87

H SK A S

1 04

_

1 13

L BS

5 1 1 1 0

r 20

1 omm

F ig . 6 5 . G rassridge R ock S helter . D iagram o f s craper l ength , b readth , a nd h eight . T he h orizontal l ine i s t he r ange, t he v ertical l ine i s t he a rithmetic m ean a nd t he o pen r ectangle i s t he s tandard d eviation .

1 63

while shorter broader t ypes are i mportant i n t he younger l ayers ( Table 9 3). I t i s i nteresting t o note t hat t he means o f t he l ength measurements f or s crapers f rom G rassridge r esemble t hosw observed f or s crapers f rom Colwinton. This i s d ifficult to e xplain b ecause s crapers f rom t he f ormer s ite r epresent a p eriod o f 1 000 y ears and f rom t he l atter s ite more t han 6 000 y ears. Non-parametric Mann-Whitney U t ests applied t o t he l ength, breadth and h eight s tatistics show t hat t he s crapers c ame f rom t wo d ifferent populations ( Table 9 4). There i s n o s ignificant d ifference b etween t he s craper attributes o f l ayers AS and LBS b ut t hose f rom l ayers VB, B R and HSK c learly b elong t o another group. R etouch position. S crapers w ith end r etouch i nc rease gradually f rom l ayer LBS ( 35,7%) t o l ayer VB ( 67,2%) b ut s crapers w ith s ide and end r etouch d ecrease f rom t he e arliest t o t he l atest l ayer ( 57,1% t o 5 ,2%). S ide r etouch o n s crapers o f t he l atter t ype i s o ften steep and step l ike. S imilar s craper r etouch i s a lso a c haracteristic at other n ortheastern Cape s ites i n e arly Holocene d eposits. S hort and w ide s crapers h ave a l ow f requency i n l ayers LBS and AS b ut a re o nly s econd i n n umber t o endscrapers i n t he o ther l ayers. Double s crapers a re o nly present i n t he l atest t hree l ayers. Forms. D ivergent f orms a re dominant i n l ayers, b ut d ecrease f rom 8 5,7% i n l ayer LBS t o l ayer VB. S hort w ide f orms i ncrease however t hrough 7 ,1% t o 24,1%.

a ll t he 3 5,3% i n t ime f rom

Absence/presence o f b ulbs o f p ercussion. A t ime t rend i s apparent i n t he absence or presence o f b ulbs o f p ercussion. S crapers f rom l ayer LBS h ave a l ow f requency o f b ulbs o f p ercussion ( 28,6%) and t hey gradually i ncrease up t o l ayer B R ( 72%). Raw m aterial. C halcedony was used m ainly f or t he m anufacturing o f s crapers b ut hornfels i s a lso present ( Table 95). S crapers o f hornfels are i n every i nstance l arger and h eavier t han t hose o f c halcedony ( Table 9 6). B acked

artefacts

T he s tatistics o f 2 1 s egments f ound i n t he o ccupation l ayers are g iven i n Table 9 7. T he r aw m aterial i s c halcedony and t he s egments are well m ade. T he s egments are o n average shorter t han t hose o f Colwinton and s how l ittle v ariability. Adzes. Adzes ( 2,5% o f t he f ormal t ools) and h ornfels . T he means o f l engths, r etouch are given i n Table 9 8. CONCLUSIONS

FROM

T HE

ARTEFACT

are m ade breadths

o f and

c halcedony h eights o f

ANALYSIS

B one artefacts d id not p lay an i mportant role i n t he m aterial c ulture o f t he L ater Stone Age o ccupants o f G rassridge shelter. T he f ew e xamples t hat were f ound r eflect s ome a spects o f t he subsistence system. Bone points i ndicate t hat t he bow and a rrow was used a s h unting apparatus. Awls

1F L i

s how t hat s kin products, possibly c lothes, were m anufactured. T he f ew o rnaments o f s hell a nd bone and t he multitude o f o strich e ggshell b eads i ndicate t hat p ersonal adornments were o f s ome i mportance. T he L ater Stone Age o ccupation l ayers i n t he G rassridge d eposit h ave an e xceptionally h igh f requency o f stone artef acts ( 232 artefacts p er b ucket). Although t he artefact a ssemblage r epresents t he activities o f only 1 000 y ears t he t otal n umber o f a rtefacts i s m uch more t han at Colwinton o r B onawe. An analysis o f t he artefact a ssemblage suggests a p eriod o f change f rom a rtefact t ypes c haracteristic o f t he e arly Holocene i n t he northeastern C ape t o l ate Holocene t imes. S crapers f rom l ayers LBS and AS a re l ong, d ivergent w ith s teep s ide r etouch while i n t he f ollowing l ayers endscrapers a s w ell a s s hort w ide o nes a re common. Small s egments a re o ften f ound f rom l ayer H SK upwards. A s ingle s egment i n t he t op part o f l ayer LBS m ay b elong t o t he same t ime p eriod a s l ayer AS i n which c ase t he f irst appearance o f s egments 6 3 00 years a go corresponds w ith a d ate o f 6 279 ± 4 0 B .P. ( Pta-2550) f rom Colwinton f or t he b eginning o f a t echnological t radition t hat m anufactured s imilar s egments. This i s a lmost 1 000 years l ater t han t he f irst appearance o f s egments i n t he Cape Fold Mountains. Adzes, used f or woodworking, b ecome more c ommon f rom l ayer H SK upwards. This i ncrease c oincides w ith a d ecrease i n l ong d ivergent s crapers w ith s teep s ide r etouch. T he o ccurrence o f a b ored s tone suggests t he m anufacturing and u se o f d igging s ticks f or which t he adzes c ould h ave b een used. Although no r emains o f p lant f oods were r ecovered f rom t he d eposit t he b ored s tone m ay b e s een a s an i ndication t hat i t i ndeed f ormed p art o f t he artefact s ystem l inked w ith t he d iet. T he v alue t hat t he Grassridge artefact a ssemblage h as f or t his study l ies i n t he f act t hat i t c onfirms t hat t he s ame t echnological s hifts o ccurred s imultaneously i n t he sweetveld and s ourveld r egions o f t he northeastern C ape, b ut t hat i t i s o nly a t Grassridge where a l ink c an b e e stablished b etween a s ignificant c hange f rom b ig game t o s mall g ame h unting. F AUNA T he preservation o f bone m aterial was v ery good t hroughout t he Holocene p art o f t he deposit. Small f ragments c haracterised t he bone a ssemblage, a s was t he c ase at t he o ther s ites, while t he t eeth o f t he l arger a nimals were f ound mostly i solated ( Table 9 9). I n t he l ight o f t he f act t hat t he G rassridge deposit r epresents o nly 1 000 years o f c ultural a ctivity, t he m inimum n umbers o f a nimals i n c omparison w ith o ther northeastern C ape s ites, are e xceptionally h igh. T his i s, when s een i n a ssociation w ith t he h igh f requency o f stone a rtefacts, a r eflection o f r elatively i ntense o ccupation. I dentification o f t he animal species and determination o f t he m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals present was d one by J . B rink ( Table 1 00). T he

Holocene

f auna

i s

1 65

quite

d iverse,

i ncluding

c arnivores, browsers r eflects t he variety

and grazers. T he o f animals ( Table

h igh 4 5).

d iversity i ndex T he c arnivores

and t he primates were probably not p art o f t he d iet t hat m ight have i ncluded t he rock hyrax ( Procavia c apensis) and t he porcupine ( Hystrix a fricae-australis). T he aardvark ( Orycteropus afer), warthog ( Phacochoerus a ethiopicus) and h ares ( Lepus c apensis and Pronolagus c rassicaudatusT were c ertainly t he prey o f t he h unters. T he f irst t hree are f ound o n t he open grassveld while P . c rassicaudatus o ccurs i n t he k loof i n f ront o f t he shelter. I t i s i nteresting t hat i n t he G rassridge f auna t he grassland f auna i s not a s well r epresented a s o ne would e xpect i n t his t ype o f environment. Even i n t he o ldest l ayer, LBS, browsers and s maller t erritorial g ame i s wellr epresented. The small g ame h unting strategy i s e specially noticeable i n t he l ater part o f t he d eposit ( layers HSK, B R and VB) ( Table 1 01). These antelope i ncluded s pecies f ound o n t he mountain s lopes i .e. P elea c apreolus ( grey r hebuck), R edunca f ulvorufula ( mountain r eedbuck), Oreotragus o reotragus ( klipspringer), Raphicerus sp. ( steenbok) and grassland s pecies n amely Antidorcas m arsupialis ( springbok) and Damaliscus dorcas ( blesbok). I n spite o f t he l arge meat y ield o f a f ew e land ( Taurotragus o ryx) a nd w ildebeest ( Alcelaphus/Connochaetes) i t was t he small g ame t hat c ontributed most o f t he meat ( Table 1 02). I n l ayer LBS h owever t he l arger game l ike e land, w ildebeest and t he z ebra were t he l argest suppliers o f meat. Of t he t otal i dentifiable Later S tone Age antelope 32% were grey r hebuck and o nly 4 % e land and 6 % w ildebeest/hartebeest. Most o f t he g ame animals are mountain species ( Table 1 03). T his i s v ery d ifferent f rom t he s ituation at t he o ther s ites f urther t o t he e ast at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment, where b ig g ame and e specially w ildebeest w ere t he m ain source o f meat. T he v alidity o f t he supposition t hat i n t he s ourveld r egion o f t he northeastern Cape a subsistence strategy was f ollowed t hat f ocused o n t he l arger grazers, i s supported b y t his e vidence. T his s ourveld a daptation d iffered f rom t hat o f t he f ynbos r egion observed i n t he southern Cape ( Deacon, H .J. 1 983b:193). Apparently t he s ubsistence system o f t he i nhabitants o f Grassridge f its b etter i nto t he l atter model where p lant food and s mall game provided t he d ietary n eeds. T he d istribution o f b ig game m ade t he h unting more opportunistic t han i ntentional i n character. A t otal o f 4 7 07 ostrich e ggshell f ragments was r ecovered. Large quantities o f o strich eggshell f ragments c haracterise s ites i n and bordering on t he K aroo and r eflect t he i mportance o f t hese l arge eggs a s a s ource o f f ood. T he brooding t ime o f ostriches i s f rom F ebruary t o November and i t would h ave b een d uring t his p eriod t hat t he e ggs were g athered ( McLachlan & L iversidge 1 980). T he o ccurrence o f Ovis aries i n t he t op p art o f l ayer VB presents a problem c onsidering the currently accepted t ime o f t heir i ntroduction i nto s outhern Africa ( Schweitzer & S cott 1 973). At t his stage, t he presence o f s heep t eeth a f ew c entimetres b elow t he surface o f t he deposit must b e r egarded a s t he r esult o f modern a ctivities.

1 66

SUMMARY AND

DISCUSSION

T he Grassridge d eposit contains a stratigraphic s equence o f c ultural m aterial t hat b elongs t o a s hort p eriod d irectly b efore t he m iddle Holocene. A s eries o f f ive r adiocarbon d ates supplies a c hronology f or a process o f swift c hange, w ithin 1 000 y ears, f rom a t ypical e arly Holocene t echnology t o o ne which was characteristic o f t he m iddle and l ater Holocene. M aterial b elonging t o e arlier t echnological s ub-stages o f t he Later Stone Age, which, f or i nstance, i s p resent at Ravenscraig and T e Vrede rock s helters, i s absent. A lthough t here are s igns t hat some d estruction o f t he t op p art o f t he deposit t ook place, i t still d oes not e xplain t he absence o f a lmost 6 000 years o f occupational r emains. I t s eems a s i f t he s helter, e xcept f or t he M iddle S tone Age o ccupation, was u sed o nly f or a r elatively s hort p eriod d uring t he early and m id Holocene. The r easons f or t his a re n ot c lear but a s more i nformation f rom dated South African s ites w ith deep stratified deposits i s b ecoming k nown, more c omplex patterns o f o ccupation and non o ccupation a re r evealed. I t i s now r ealised t hat prehistoric h uman populations were not proportionally d istributed t hrough t ime a nd space. P alaeodemographic i nformation f rom s ites i n t he s tudy a rea confirms t his observation. O f i mportance i s t he f act t hat a ll t he s ites e xcavated during t he r eseach process w ere i nhabited during t he e arly Holocene and t hat e ach one, e xcept Colwinton, gave evidence o f a long o ccupation break d uring t he l ate Holocene. Although Grassridge i s s ituated i n a predominantly grassland environment t ypical grassland g ame was not e mphasised. G ame t ypical o f t he mountain s lopes was o ften h unted n amely P elea c apreolus, R edunca f ulvorufula and Oreotragus oreotragus while Antidorcas m arsupialis and A lcelaphus/Connochaetes t hat o ccurred o n t he grassy p lains w ere not a s well r epresented a s would b e e xpected. I t i s c lear t hat t he specialization r eflected i n t he f aunal m aterial f rom T e Vrede and Bonawe d id not t ake p lace at G rassridge. The r eason i s t hat at Grassridge no c oncentration o f g ame s imilar t o t hat o f t he m ixed veld a reas o f t he s ourveld, occurred during t he w inter months. G rassland game k ept t o t he grass p lains about 5 km west o f t he s helter. T he p urposeful hunting o f t hese antelope o ver a w ide area c ould o nly h ave b een successful t hrough t he application o f m uch t ime and e ffort. I n t he c ase o f Grassridge t he small t erritorial animals o n t he mountain s lopes c lose b y, u ndoubtedly supplied a convenient and a ssured s ource o f meat. I n a s maller area such a s t his plant f ood would a lso h ave p layed an i mportant role i n t he d iet. Changes i n t he t echnology at G rassridge e xhibit t he same s hift f rom an e arly Holocene t echnological s ubstage t o a l ate Holocene o ne which was a lso d escribed f or o ther s ites i n t he s tudy area. I n s hort i t c an b e s aid t hat t he Grassridge s helter f urnished i mportant evidence t o show t hat t he h unter g atherers i n t he sweetveld r egions m ade adaptations t hat d iffered f rom t hose o f t he sourveld. . The shift i n t he h unting s trategy f rom l arger t o small game occurred s imultaneously

1A7

w ith o ther

a t echnological change t hat s ites i n t he study area.

1 68

h as

b een

observed

a t

t he

1 0

S UMMARY

I n t he preceding chapters t he e xcavations at s ites l ocated i n t he v arious ecological r egions o f t he study area were d iscussed. I n t his chapter a ll t he r elevant d ata are s ummarised in o rder to t est t he hypothesis presented and to i ndicate p atterns o f change during t he Later Stone Age o f t he northeastern Cape. ENVIRONMENT I t i s possible by means o f f aunal r emains and charcoal analysis f rom s ites above and b elow t he escarpment t o c onstruct a broad framework f or t he c limatic and vegetation c hanges t hat took p lace during t he Holocene. I t i s c lear t hat t he h igh mountainous areas r eflect c hanges more c learly t han t he r egions at t he foot o f t he e scarpment. The p attern i s m uch t he s ame at d ifferent s ites and m ay b e r epresentative o f c limatic c hanges o ver a l arge area o f South Africa. Towards t he end o f t he P leistocene t he climate o f t he Drakensberg was r elatively cool and wet w ith grassveld on t he f loors o f t he broader valleys. I n t he v icinity o f R avenscraig, according t o charcoal analysis, mostly Euryops and L eucosidea s hrubs grew o n t he mountain s lopes. The c limate d uring t he following 6 000 y ears was considerably d rier on t op o f t he escarpment and possibly at i ts f oot w ith grassveld and m ainly E uryops s hrubs at Ravenscraig and Colwinton and a lso grassveld b elow t he mountain w ith trees i n t he k loofs. The r esemblance b etween t he areas above and b elow t he e scarpment d uring drier warmer t imes was p erhaps greater t han during cooler wetter p eriods. A dry early Holocene c ontradicts the v iewpoint o f Carter ( 1977) o f t he existence o f a w et p eriod a t B elleview s helter during t his t ime. Cooler wetter c onditions appeared about 4 - 3 000 years ago and t his i s r eflected i n t he o ccurrence o f Cliffortia ( dominant at Colwinton) a nd L eucosidea s ericea ( dominant at Ravenscraig). Grassland was now l imited t o t he area at t he f oot o f t he escarpment where a l arger variety o f tree t ypes was a lso present. Here t he grassveld was m ainly sour w ith p atches o f m ixed g rass. This f actor was o f i mportance f or t he s ubsistence system o f t he Drakensberg bands b ecause t he grassland game grazed t hese p atches during t he w inter and t heir l ocation was t herefore predictable. D ATING A s eries o f 20 r adiocarbon d ates was r eceived f rom t he f ive e xcavations. T hese d ates s how t hat t he s ettlement o f t he Drakensberg region by Later Stone Age p eoples started at t he end o f t he P leistocene and continued up t o h istorical t imes. T he n umber o f d ates i s i n f act not enough t o i dentify c onfidently patterns o f h uman d istribution b ut i t n evertheless i ndicates t hat some o f t he shelters were i nhabited s imultaneously. For i nstance occupation at Bonawe and Colwinton o verlaps a s at Ravenscraig and T e Vrede. A ll t he s ites were i nhabited during t he e arly Holocene and a ll, e xcept Colwinton, h ave i dentified i nterruptions i n o ccupation at t he b eginning o f t he l ate Holocene. The r easons f or t hese h iatuses i n habitation by mobile h unters i n a l arge area are c omplex. I t i s h owever i nteresting t hat a lthough more t han 50

1 69

r adiocarbon dates are available f or t he Later Stone Age i n t he r egion o f t he Orange R iver S cheme, L esotho, s outhern Natal and t he northeastern Cape t here are no dates f or t he m iddle Holocene ( Fig. 6 6). This b y i tself i s no d efinite proof o f t he absence o f human groups about 4 000 y ears ago i n t hese areas b ut i t i dentifies a problem t hat m ay b e i nvestigated i n t he f uture. S UBSISTENCE F aunal

r emains

confirm

SYSTEM

evidence

c oncerning

t he

provision

o f food and prove t hat t he subsistence system of t he Later Stone Age h unters occupying t he northeastern C ape Drakensberg was focused o n t he hunting of l arger g ame as t he m ain s ource o f meat. A s imilar hunting pattern was f ollowed up t o about 7 000 years a go i n t he e astern and southern C ape b ut was r eplaced by a subsistence strategy e xploiting vegetation patches f or plant food and s mall t erritorial g ame ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976, 1 983b). An eastern border for t he l atter system i s possibly i ndicated at Grassridge s helter w here t he b ig g ame hunting pattern g ave way t o one c oncentrating o n small game at about 6 3 00 y ears ago. It i s clear t hat a c onsiderable cultural d ifference m ust have e xisted b etween t he e arly Holocene h unters and t he l ate Holocene hunter gatherers n ecessitating an explanation f or why t he l ate Holocene b ands o f t he Drakensberg apparently k ept on f ollowing t he e arlier h unting p atterns. Observations at s ites i n t he v arious grassland r egions o f t he study area s how t hat t he h unting o f l arge g ame was e specially i mportant i n veld d ominated by t he present day H ighland sourveld, Dohne sourv eld and F estuca v eld. Evidence has b een found i n t he present study t hat s hows t hat t he d istribution of v eld types played an i mportant role i n t he subsistence system o f t he h unter g atherers. EARLY

H OLOCENE

D uring t he e arly b eest, z ebra/quagga, a lmost e xclusively i n

Holocene grazers l ike w ildebeest/harteb lesbuck and b lue antelope were h unted t he Sterkspruitkloof and t he L angkloof

a s well a s o n t he plains at t he foot o f t he e scarpment ( Fig. 6 7). I t i s c lear t hat comparable h abitat c onditions were present o n t he t op o f and b elow t he mountain t hereby m aking i t d ifficult to r econstruct a pattern o f seasonal movement o f game b etween t he t wo r egions. The l imited grazing i n t he mountain valleys and t he grazing habits o f t he w ildebeest a re at present t he only argument i n favour o f such movements. At t he f oot o f t he e scarpment t he m ixed grass p atches i n t he r iver b asins supplied w inter grazing i f i t i s assumed t hat t he prehistoric grassveld pattern d id not d iffer s ignificantly f rom t hat o f t he present. The e arly Holocene h unters were adapted t o f ollowing mobile h erd game o ver l ong d istances and probably f ound t he long n arrow k loofs i n t he Drakensberg, which s erved a s passages f or g ame, very convenient when h unting. The artefact densities p er bucket a re m uch h igher i n t he e arlier Holocene d eposits o f t he mountain s ites n amely Colwinton, R avenscraig and T e Vrede t han at Bonawe. I t s eems logical to i nfer t hat t he Drakensberg c arried t he h ighest population d ensity during t his t ime and t hat t he area at t he f oot o f t he mountain was v isited o nly t o supplement t he meat s upply during t he w inter.

1 70

S ource C able

( 1980)

( 1977)

Carter

Malan

( 1 952)

S ampson

( 1974)

n umber o f d a tes 1 5

S i te

A bb rev ia t ion

B orcherd 's S helter U mbel' B elli

BOR

M u me lebl S ehonghong M elikane MileyL ew

M OS

Rose Cottage

R C

S EH MAL BEL

G len E lliott

Z aayfonteln I lversmead B lydefontein

GLE Z A R IV BLY

Colwinton Ron awe Te Vrede R avenscraig Grassridge

COL BON TV PG GR

10

c 2

^

c

C 1 C C

0

c

B C LN B OAHBON TMOS iBEL I GH

z 7 oLlzu

I R G

5 -

1

c l : r J

c c

c C C 0

c

c c

c

>

c

2

3

c

c

4

5

6

. X1000 B .P .

U M .

7

8

9

1 0

Possible proof r atio o f bone mountain s ites.

of t o

t he f unction o f stone artefacts

B onawe i s t he much t han i s t he c ase

greater at t he

Grassridge, west o f t he m ain s tudy area and i n t he t ransition r egion b etween Cymbobogon-Themeda and H ighland s ourgrass, w ith r ainfall 1 00 - 200 mm lower, presents a d ifferent picture. H ere, w ithin a f ew h undred y ears, t he emphasis s hifts f rom a b ig game t o a small game hunting p attern. Although Grassridge i s a lso s ituated at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment t here are no patches o f m ixed grass where t he grassland g ame could concentrate during t he w inter. T his s ite h as, i n contrast t o Bonawe, t he h ighest artefact f requency p er b ucket b ut t he lowest bone p er artefact r atio. I t i s c lear t hat t he occupants o f Grassridge followed a d ifferent s ubsistence strategy f rom t hat o f t he b ands i n t he Drakensb erg and t he sourveld r egions. M IDDLE

AND

L ATE

HOLOCENE

D uring t he m iddle Holocene a n ew t echnological substage appeared i n t he study area t hat was elsewhere a ssociated w ith a more t erritorial subsistence system. T he b ig game h unting pattern o f t he e arly Holocene was now continued o n t op o f and b elow t he e scarpment ( Fig. 6 7). Presumably t he l imited areas o f t he Drakensberg v alleys and t he m ixed veld r egions lower down r epresented patches f or t he hunter b ands where b ig game had a much h igher m eat y ield t han small game. T he h igh artefact density p er b ucket i n deposits i n t he Drakensberg b elonging to t his period, i n contrast t o t he low a rtefact density p er bucket at Bonawe, m ay i ndicate a h igher population c oncentration i n t he mountain a lthough a h igh a rtefact d ensity d oes not n ecessarily correlate w ith population n umbers. A f urther s ign t hat t he m iddle and l ate Holocene i nhabitants o f t he r egion w ere primarily mountain dwellers i s t he f act t hat t he writer could not d iscover, d espite a s earch o ver a c onsiderable area, any open a ir s ites a t t he f oot o f t he e scarpment. A fter t he d isappearance o f t he grazers, t he n umbers o f e land and grey r hebuck i n t he Drakensberg valleys i ncreased and t he b ands o f h unter g atherers c ontinued to exploit t he ' patches' o f t he Langkloof and t he S terkspruitkloof a s well a s t he m ixed veld patches at Bonawe and T e Vrede ( Fig. 6 8). T he h igh m inimum n umbers o f g ame species, l ow a rtefact d ensity p er b ucket and t he r elatively h igh bone p er artefact r atio at Bonawe m ay be r egarded a s evidence t hat t he l ate Holocene mountain dwellers used b iltong c amps t o r eplenish t heir meat stock f or t he w inter months. I n addition t hese b ands h unted m ainly e land, grey r hebuck and k lipspringer i n t he Drakensberg. E land was by f ar t he m ain s ource o f meat and at Colwinton s upplied 60% o f t he meat m ass and at Ravenscraig 88% ( Tables 2 5, 80). P lant food d id p lay a role i n t he d iet o f t he l ate Holocene b ands o f t he Drakensberg a s c an b e d educed f rom observations at S ehonghong ( Carter 1 977) and h istorical s ources ( Shepstone, J . 1 849, Macquarrie 1 962). No p lant r emains, except t he charcoal o f woody plants, were f ound h owever. T he presence

use o f

o f water food r esources i s i ndicated small bone h ooks at Colwinton and

1 72

by t he Bonawe.

42,e

T E V REDE f l z1 9

r e 1 , 1

G RASSR IDGE

2 9 ,8%

I i = 14 2 2 0 ,4 % 1 7 ,8';

s e F l

. 1 42

77

I

e

11 3 1Y R AVENSCRA IG 2 1 52

9 f l = 1

2 15 /

1 3 , 52 1 0 ,5

50 1

40

1 3 0NA WE I i= 10

1 0

. C OL

W IN I ON

n =24

1 6 ,72 8 ,3 1

18 1

/

. 3 g f e

> .

0 1 O . 0

E3

4 . 6.

3 1

;

1 0 8 . .

J2 0 3 N

w i ldebeest

4 , f 2

0 0 3

= C O

2 0 3

‘ , . . . a " c m . = — . . 0 . I M

•▪ 01

. : . ; J i g

X L . 1 = A m a l 0 . . . M 0

X e s = e l 0 5 0 3 l ' " e . . e a

.J g t s 0 J o = 5 0 t . . 0 1

1 . .• a s . . e . . . . = M S

= . . — 0

F ig . 6 7 . P ercentages o f i dentified e arly H olocene f auna f rom n ortheastern C ape s ites. 1 73

3 64

T E V REDE

2 131 A31

C r .

RAVENSCRAIG

nie

2 2, 2Z

4321

B ONA WE n = ”1 l it

23 Z

f l a r, 1

r-

Z 2 3/

1

COL WINTON

2 34Z

r i= 91

V t

c V t

r 4 Z

s teenbuck

c =

m ounta in r eedbuck

c 1 3

g rey r hebuck

6

F ig . 6 8 . P ercentages .of i dentified l ate H olocene f auna f rom n ortheastern C ape s ites .

1 74

A lthough v ery f ew f ish bones were l arge n umber o f f rog bones ( Xenopus f ood r esource. Observations among t hat t hey k illed 97 b ullfrogs i n f ood ( Silberbauer 1 981:205).

f ound i n a ssociation, a sp.) s uggest a potential modern G /wi B ushmen s how a f ive month p eriod f or

I t i s c lear from t he above d iscussion t hat a lthough t he e arly and l ate Holocene i nhabitants o f t he study a rea t raditionally f ollowed d ifferent strategies for s atisfying t heir f ood needs, i n both p eriods t hey m ade use o f t he r esource potential o f specific p atches i n t he r egion. T heir s ubsistence system was w hile t he r esources o f p eriods o f s carcity.

c entred o n mountain t he lowlands were

f ood r esources utilized during

T ECHNOLOGY More d irect i nformation c oncerning t he activities o f t he L ater S tone Age b ands o f t he Drakensberg i s derived f rom t he c omposition o f t he artefact a ssemblages f rom t he d ifferent s ites i n t he area. T he h ighest number o f a rtefacts o f organic m aterial are o strich e ggshell b eads which w ere f ound only at Grassridge i n l arge q uantities. The f ew f ound at s ites f urther t o t he e ast w ere c ertainly not m anufactured t here, a s c an b e deduced f rom t he absence o f o strich e ggshell f ragments i n t he deposits. D ue t o t he l ack o f ostrich e ggshell containers i t c an b e e xpected t hat c lay pots p layed an i mportant role i n t he h ousekeeping o f t he h unter g atherers a fter pottery r eached t he northeastern Cape about 1 000 y ears ago. T he pots w ere p robably bowl-shaped w ithout any d ecoration. Fragments h ave b een f ound i n f airly h igh f requencies. T he o ccurrence o f bone artefacts i s l imited t o l ate Holocene c ontexts and r epresents o nly a small percentage o f t he t otal artefacts at e ach s ite. T he same types o f bone a rtefacts, i .e. p oints, h ooks, awls and ornaments ( pendants), a re f ound above and b elow t he e scarpment and m ay b e s een a s t he h eritage o f b ands w ith t he same t radition moving o ver b oth areas. The method o f h unting b ig game during t he l ate Holocene w as w ith poisoned a rrows a nd bows. At Grassridge where p rimarily small g ame was h unted, b one points are v irtually a bsent a lthough s egments, r elative t o t he n umbers f ound at t he e astern s ites, h ave a h igh f requency. T his i s evidence o f t he use o f t he bow and arrow possibly i n a ssociation w ith s nares f or t he small t erritorial antelope. T he development o f t he stone artefact t echnology i s c haracterised i n t he study a rea by a s equence o f d ifferent s ubstages and t he d istinction b etween t he stages i s b ased o n t he absence or p resence o f a rtefact c lasses and t he metrical f eatures o f s crapers. T he utilized p robably o nly a t

e arliest substage, c haracterised by non-utilized and b ladelets o f c halcedony but no f ormal tools, h ad a l imited d istribution area b ecause i t i s f ound Ravenscraig and T e Vrede. At present i t i s t he

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e arliest proof o f t he d istribution o f Drakensberg o f t he northeastern Cape m aximum.

groups o f a fter t he

p eople i n t he l ast glacial

An i ncrease i n population density i s r eflected i n t he l arge n umber o f s ites at which t he subsequent t echnological s ubstage i s found. I t i s i nteresting t hat i nitially no a rtefacts w ith s econdary r etouch are found i n t his s ubstage and t hat i t i s only at c . 8 000 years a go t hat l ong h igh b acked s crapers w ith steep t rimmed s ides and a t riangular s ection start to appear. T his observation, b ased o n t est pits at t wo s ites, i s possibly t oo l imited to d etermine whether t here were f ew or no f ormal t ools present. T he p articular t echnique o f s craper m anufacture probably h as i ts o rigin i n t he hafting method. I t i s r easonable t o i nfer t hat t he near absence o f small g ame i n t he e arly f aunal a ssemblages i ndicates t hat i t was m ainly t he skins of b ig game t hat were processed with t hese s crapers, for i nstance t o m ake k arosses. Apparently t he p eople o f t his period d id not wear t he bodyf itting g arments, m anufactured out o f t he s kins o f small g ame, a s are mentioned i n h istorical s ources ( Shepstone, J . W. n .d.). S crapers b elonging t o t he t hird t echnological s ubstage a re g enerally s horter w ith r etouch l imited t o o ne end. T hese s crapers d iffer f rom t he e arlier s crapers i n s ize and r etouch amongst o ther attributes. T he d ifferences m ay r esult f rom s crapers b eing f ixed t o a h aft by m eans o f m astic ( Deacon & D eacon 1 980:31). Small b acked t ools form a very low p ercentage o f t he a rtefact assemblages i n t he northeastern C ape and h ave t he h ighest f requency at Grassridge. I t s eems a s i f t he hunting o f s mall game m ay b e l inked w ith b acked t ools, presumably mounted at t he points o f arrows, while t he h unting o f t he l arger g ame is a ssociated w ith bone points and f ewer s egments. T he absence o f a dzes at Bonawe, while t hey were r elatively well r epresented at t he o ther s ites, i s a f urther r eflection o f t he f unction o f t he s ite. Raw m aterial f requencies give s ome i ndication o f t he preferences o f t he m anufacturers and a lso which m aterials w ere present i n t he area. T he m ain r aw m aterials were c halcedony and h ornfels and both c ould b e obtained w ith l ittle e ffort i n t he v icinities o f a ll t he rock s helters. A moderate shift i n r aw m aterial usage from chalcedony t o h ornfels was observed b efore and a fter 1 0 000 y ears a go. C halcedony however was m ainly used f or the m anufacturing o f f ormal t ools a lthough at Bonawe a h igher p ercentage o f h ornfels t han at o ther s ites was used. I f t he pattern o f t echnological change i s s een i n r elation t o t he change i n environment and t he subsistence s ystem at t he various s ites t hen i t i s apparent t hat t here i s no d irect connection b etween t hem. Although equivalent c hanges i n t he southern Cape are s een as a daptations t o a c hanging environment, t he c ause and effect l ink b etween environment and t echnology h as not y et been proved ( Binford 1 968:321; D eacon, J . 1 978, 1 982, 1 984). The r eplacing o f o ne t echnological s ubstage by another t ook place i n t he

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D rakensberg about 6 000 years a go whereas i t t housand years l ater t hat t he environmental s o c ritical t hat t hey i nfluenced t he g ame and s ystem.

was at l east a changes b ecame t he subsistence

T he d istribution o f t he t echnological s ubstages o f t he e arly a s well a s t he l ate Holocene c an best b e explained, g iven t he present state o f k nowledge, a s t he product o f d iffusion waves ( Deacon, J . 1 982:477) which d id not r each t he northeastern, e astern and southern C ape s imultaneously. T his m ay b e t he r eason why s egments appeared l ater i n t he n ortheastern Cape t han i n t he areas f urther t o t he west. I t i s r emarkable t hat t he appearance of a n ew t echnological s ubstage was accompanied by a c onsiderable i ncrease i n stone artefacts p er b ucket, i ncluding f ormal t ools and waste m aterial i n t he e xcavation units. T he i mplication o f t his must b e s een i n t erms o f a new c ultural d ispensation and not merely a s a c hange i n population d ensity. W ith a c hange i n social organisation for i nstance i f groups b ecame more t erritorial, t he activities i n t he s helter c ould h ave changed and t hat c ould have stimulated t he production o f artefacts. I n s hort i t c an b e said t hat a h igh measure o f t echnological and t ypological h omogeneity was observed b etween artefact a ssemblages b elonging t o t he same t echnological subunits t hat succeeded e ach o ther i n t he study a rea. T he particular activities at Bonawe are r eflected both i n t he artefact a ssemblage at t he s ite and i n t he faunal r emains. S OCIAL

ORGANISATION

I t i s v ery d ifficult t o m ake meaningful d eductions c oncerning t he s ocial organisation o f t he Drakensberg B ushmen when t he n ature o f archaeological d ata i s considered. Taking i nto a ccount t he ethnohistorical observations i t i s n evertheless possible to g ive s ome i ndication o f a spects such a s population d ensity, s ize o f t erritories, group s izes and d ivision o f l abour. S uch r econstructions m ay be valid at l east f or t he youngest part o f t he l ate Holocene. Wright ( 1971) r eached t he c onclusion, a fter studying h istorical sources, t hat t he t otal n umber o f B ushmen i n t he Drakensberg during 1 840 - 1 870 was not more t han a f ew h undred. I n t he area b etween t he Tsomo and t he M zimkulu r ivers, i ncluding t he plains and h ills at t he foot o f t he e scarpment as well a s parts o f t he Drakensberg ( 30 0 00 s q km), o nly t hree k nown b ands were operating i n 1 850 ( Fig. 2 ). Apparently t heir numbers d id not e xceed 200 and t he s ize o f t he t erritory a ssociated w ith e ach b and was an average o f 1 0 000 s q km. This sounds e xcessively h igh compared t o modern ethnological observations and probably i ncludes t errain o f which t he B ushmen h ad s ome knowledge but d id not v isit r egularly. The population numbers were apparently l imited by t he productivity o f t he mountain valleys and t he m ixed grass p atches o f t he f oothills. From h istorical sources i t i s c lear t hat t wo o f t he b ands l ived m ainly i n t he Drakensberg while t he t hird p eriodically f requented t he Ngeli Mountains. T hey a lso o ccasionally v isited t he f oothills.

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Two observations o f t he b and o f Mdwebo show considerable v ariation i n s ize. D uring June 1 846 h e h ad approximately 30 men w ith h im e xcluding women and children, whereas i n O ctober o f t he same year h e h ad 1 3 men and 4 women w ith c hildren ( Uys 1 846: 106; Shepstone, J . W. n .d.). S imilar f luctuations i n group s ize characterize modern B ushman b ands a lthough t he need f or t he social b enefits o f l arger groups s uch a s for i nstance i nitiation, m arriage, d ancing and trade ( Yellen 1 976:61; L ee 1 979:365) a lso plays an i mportant role and c annot b e attributed o nly t o e cological f actors. Conflict i s a m ajor c ause o f t he d isbanding o f groups ( Lee 1 979:366) so i t i s i nteresting t hat i n E ast Griqualand t he T hola b and and t he b and o f Mdwembo l ived i n enmity a lthough t heir t erritories were bordering o n e ach o ther ( Lochenberg 1 850). S exual d ivision o f l abour o ccurred amongst t he Drakensberg B ushmen w ith men b eing t he hunters and women t he g atherers ( Macquarrie 1 962). Amongst present-day h unter g atherer groups t he same d ivision i s still operative ( Marshall 1 976:96; S ilberbauer 1 981:26) and t he pattern c ertainly i s valid f or t he youngest part o f t he Later Stone Age. The role o f l eadership i n B ushman b ands i s not strongly emphasised a lthough l eaders are acknowledged ( Lee 1 979:343; S ilberbauer 1 981:167). F luctuation d uring t he year i n t he s izes o f t he l ast t hree B ushman b ands i n t he Drakensberg s hows f urthermore t hat t heir l eaders d id not e xercise c entralised authority. Although t he social organisation o f t he Drakensberg B ushmen b etween 1 840 and 1 850 c ame under i ncreasing pressure f rom e xternal factors i t i s possible o n t he b asis o f present knowledge t o s ay t hat t heir b asic b ehavioural patterns still r esembled t hose o f o ther B ushman groups e lsewhere i n t he country.

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1 1

CONCLUSIONS

T he r esearch r esults f rom f ive a rchaeological s ites i n northeastern C ape P rovince, t wo o n t op o f t he Drakensberg e scarpment and t hree at i ts f oot, h ave b een d iscussed i n d etail i n t his s tudy. T he s ites a re l ocated i n a r egion t hat w as t raditionally k nown f or i ts h erds o f grassland g ame on t he p lains and considerable n umbers o f g ame i n t he m ountains. I t i s t herefore i n t he c onsideration o f t he subsistence s ystem o f t he h unter g atherer b ands t hat o ccupied t his a rea d uring t he e arly and l ate H olocene t hat t his study m akes i ts m ajor c ontribution. On another l evel t he r esearch s erved a s a r econnaissance o f t he s equence o f t he t echnological s ubstages i n t he L ater S tone A ge o f t he n ortheastern C ape. T he r elationship b etween environment, i nfluencing t he subsistence s ystem, and the t echnology, p lays a p rominent role i n S tone Age studies, and t he r esults o f t his s tudy c ontribute t o a b etter u nderstanding o f t his p roblem. T he c ultural s equences at R avenscraig, T e V rede and S ehonghong i n L esotho a re p roof t hat t he s ettlement o f groups o f p eople i n t he D rakensberg t ook p lace t owards t he end of t he P leistocene s imultaneously w ith t he appearance o f p opulations i n t he C ape F old mountains. As m ore s ites w ith sufficient t ime d epths are b eing s tudied i t i s b ecoming c lear t hat an u nparalleled population growth s tarted about 1 5 000 y ears a go i n t he e scarpment area. An i mprovement i n c limate a fter t he m aximum c old o f t he l ate P leistocene ( c. 1 8 000 B .P.) m ay b e o ne o f t he f actors w hich encouraged i t. I n t he D rakensberg t he c limate w as s omewhat c ooler and w etter 1 2 10 000 y ears a go t han d uring t he w arm and d ry e arly Holocene and i s p erhaps c omparable w ith t he c limate o f t he most r ecent part o f t he l ate H olocene. At t he s outhern f oot o f t he D rakensberg and a lso i n t he area o f t he O range R iver S cheme i t would h ave b een even d rier and warmer t han i n t he m ountains d uring t he e arly and the m iddle Holocene ( 10 000 - 5 000 B .P.). T his m ay e xplain why t he population c hose t o c oncentrate i n t he h ighlands. T he preference o f t he D rakensberg a s a h abitat f or t he hunter g atherer b ands l asted t hroughout t he Holocene, w ith a possible break o f a f ew t housand y ears i n t he l ate Holocene, and t he i ntensity o f o ccupation i s r eflected i n t he l arge n umber o f rock a rt s ites and s ites w ith long cultural s equences. L arger g ame r emained t he primary m eat s ource i n t he m ain study area e ast o f G rassridge and t his c an b e s een a s t he r esult o f l ocal h abitat c onditions. N arrow v alleys i n t he mountain r ange s erved a s p assages f or g ame and t he p atches o f m ixed g rass a t t he f oot o f t he m ountain r ange, where t he g ame c ould g et g razing i n t he w inter, p rovided a predictable l ocality f or g ame t hat h unters c ould e xploit w ith r elative e ase d uring t he e arly a s w ell a s t he l ate H olocene. T he c ontinuation o f a s ubsistence s ystem c entred on b ig g ame, as c an b e s een f rom observations at D riel s helter ( Maggs & W ard 1 980), stretched o ver a d istance o f at l east 5 00 km i n a northeasterly d irection f ollowing t he D rakensberg

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and t he sourveld at i ts foot. The h unting o f l arge grazers at t he end o f t he Pleistocene and t he b eginning o f t he Holocene confirms a pattern t hat has a lready b een i dentified i n t he eastern and southern Cape f or t his p eriod ( Deacon, H .J. 1 976; D eacon, J . 1 982, 1 984). The m aintenance o f a s imilar subsistence system o ver a l arge area during t he l ate Holocene provides a meaningful new d imension t o t he study o f t hese systems. I t contrasts with observations i n t he southern and e astern Cape where, when a more c losed v egetation c over appeared c . 8 000 years ago, t he grazers d isappeared and subsistence strategy focused on p lant f ood and s mall t erritorial g ame ( Deacon, H .J. 1 983b). E lsewhere during t his period bands i n g eneral l imited t hemselves t o small areas o r patches and were not adjusted t o t he hunting o f mobile h erd g ame. Accordingly, i n areas where t hese animals were present, f or i nstance Grassridge or i n t he r egion o f t he Orange R iver S cheme, t hey d id not try t o h unt t hem i n l arge n umbers b ut r ather r estricted t hemselves t o t he more stable small game. A ccording t o t his study t he l ate Holocene b ands o f t he Drakensberg e xploited t he b ig game potential o f t he r egion b ut r etained t heir characteristic s ocial organisation b ecause o f t he unique h abitat with h unting p atches. I n v iew o f t he f act t hat i t was t he Drakensberg v alleys and t he m ixed grass patches l ower d own which were exploited by t he l ate Holocene population, i n accordance w ith t he proposed model ( Fig. 6 9), t he i mpression i s created o f a v ery l ow population d ensity i n t he r egion a s a whole. I t would t herefore be m uch more r ealistic t o c onsider t he population n umbers i n r elation t o t he s izes o f t he above mentioned k loofs and v egetation patches. A model which proposes t hat t he prehistoric i nhabitants o f t he Drakensberg m aintained a subsistence system t hat c entred on mountain food r esources and i n t imes o f s carcity supplemented t heir stock by e xploiting f ood r esources at t he f oot o f t he e scarpment, i s a t estable a lternative t o t he model o f l inear movement i n t he subsistence system o f b ands t hat i ncluded s easonal transhumance f rom t he Drakensberg i n t he summer t o t he c oast i n t he w inter ( Carter 1 970; C able 1 982). S ite l ocalities and f aunal evidence i ndicate t he v alidity o f t he f ormer. Considering t he l arge variability t hat c haracterises t he seasonal b ehaviour o f modern B ushman b ands, l inear movements o ver long d istances s eem u nlikely ( Yellen 1 977:61; S ilberbauer 1 981:246). I t i s not surprising t herefore t hat both r esearchers ( Carter 1 970; C able 1 982) were u nable t o f ind s uitable s ites i n t he t ransitional areas b etween t he e scarpment and t he c oast t o prove t heir hypothesis. N aturally t he subsistence model proposed i n t his t hesis i s, o n t he b asis o f present knowledge, o nly valid for t he Drakensberg area. I n o ther r egions t he adaptations o f h unter g atherers m ay h ave b een d ifferent. I n t he western C ape D e H angen ( in t he mountains) and E lands B ay ( at t he coast) supplied d ata, b ased o n animal and p lant r emains, t hat c an b e i nterpreted a s evidence o f summer and w inter o ccupation r espectively ( Parkington 1 972). T he t wo s ites a re a pproximately 60 km apart and i t i s possible t hat B ushman b ands moved b etween t he mountains and t he coast.

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E cological r egion

M odel a ccording t o C arter ( 1970 ) a nd C able ( 1982)

T hemeda-Festuca

S ummer o ccupation b y l arge

M odel o f t his s tudy

M ountain v alley s ettlement p attern

b ands

H ighveld S ourveld w ith m ixed g rassveld p atches

E xploitation o f m ixed g rassveld p atches i n w inter

V alley b ushveld

P assage o f

T hornveld

s mall b ands

N gongoniveld

F orest a nd t hornveld

W inter o ccupation

o f t he c oastal r egion

b y s maller b ands

F ig . 6 9 . T he a nnual m ovement p attern o f L ater S tone A ge h unter g atherers a ccording t o C arter ( 1970 ), C able ( 1982 ) a nd t his s tudy .

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C ircumstantial e vidence suggests t he c ultural u nity o f t he L ater S tone Age population o f t he Drakensberg i s f ound a t present i n t he t echnological and t ypological c oherence t hat w as observed amongst t he d ifferent a rtefact a ssemblages. T he d eduction o f s ocial and l anguage groups f rom t he c haracteristics o f artefact a ssemblages i s s till an u nrealised i deal f or South African archaeologists and i t would b e unrealistic t o m ake such an attempt g iven t he l imited observations i n t he study area. T he f act t hat t he t echnological d evelopment i n t he stone a rtefact a ssemblages o f t he study a rea w ent t hrough s imilar s ubstages a s i dentified f or t he L ater S tone Age o f t he e astern and s outhern C ape i s a n i ndication o f a broad t echnological u niformity. T he d iffusion waves r esponsible f or t he d istribution o f t he t echnological s ubstages a pparently r eached t he Drakensberg e scarpment a t l east 1 000 years l ater t han t he C ape Fold mountains a nd w as unrelated t o environmental c hanges. An e xample o f h ow t he movement o f c ultural e lements u nder S tone Age t ribes c an t ake p lace b y m eans o f d iffusion i s g iven by t he r esearch o f B irdsell ( 1973) o n t he spread o f i nitiation r ites amongst t he A ustralian Aborigines. A lthough t here i s a t echnological r elationship b etween t he stone a rtefacts f rom t he Drakensberg s ites and t he artefact a ssemblages f rom t he e astern and s outhern C ape, t he l ocal environment a lso c learly i nfluenced t he a ssemblages f rom t he study a rea a s c an b e s een i n t he f requencies o f t he a rtefacts and t he c hoice o f r aw m aterials. T herefore, t he t erms Robberg, A lbany and W ilton w ere not u sed i n t he study area and r eference i s m ade i nstead t o t echnological substages i n t he s uccessive p eriods. T he s mall c halcedony b ladelets and c ores t hat c haracterise t he o ldest t echnological s ubstage i n t he s tudy area w ere a lso observed at a f ew s ites i n t he s outhern C ape ( Klein 1 974a; D eacon, J . 1 978, 1 982, 1 984) and at S ehonghong ( Carter 1 977), b ut w ith o lder d ates. T he d istribution o f t he e arliest L ater S tone Age populations i s t o a great e xtent u nknown at present but considering t he l ocalities o f t he k nown s ites t hey must h ave spread q uickly o ver a l arge a rea at t he end o f t he P leistocene. H unters o f h erd game d uring t he e arly Holocene a re s upposed t o h ave h ad a v ery mobile e xistence c overing l arge areas and i t i s t herefore u nderstandable t hat t heir c ultural r emains w ere f ound i n a ll t he s ites e xcavated. E arly H olocene d eposits i n t he mountain s ites are d eeper w ith a h igher d ensity o f a rtefacts and a re m ore n umerous t han i n t he f oothills. Consequently i t i s j ustifiable t o r egard t he mountains a s t he area w ith t he h ighest p opulation concentration d uring t his period. Artefact a ssemblages d isplaying a s imilar t echnology a re w idespread i n s outhern Africa. A lbany a ssemblages i n t he s outhern and e astern Cape d ate t o b etween 1 2 000 and 8 0 00 y ears a go and i n t he area o f t he Orange R iver S cheme s imilar a ssemblages a re k nown a s t he Lockshoek i ndustry ( Sampson 1 974). E quivalent t echnological s ubstages w ere a lso observed i n t he e astern T ransvaal ( Plug 1 981), i n Natal at t he Good

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H ope s helter ( Cable et a l P omongwe ( Sampson 1 974).

1 980)

and

even

i n

Z imbabwe

at

D iffusion w aves c arrying a n ew t echnology c haracterised b y m icroliths, s mall s crapers h afted w ith m astic and bone points r eached t he s tudy a rea c . 6 0 00 y ears a go. T he q uantity and q uality o f d ifferences b etween t hese and t he e arly Holocene t echnology a re such t hat a n ew c ultural mode i s suggested i nvolving t he s ocial l ife, h unting s trategy and c lothes. Apparently t his s ystem, w ith t he a ddition o f a f ew n ew e lements l ike pottery, c ontinued until h istorical t imes. S mall b acked t ools, i n c ontrast w ith t he s outhern and e astern C ape s ites, f orm o nly a s mall p ercentage o f t he artefact a ssemblages. On t he o ne h and t his m ay b e c aused b y l ong g aps t hat e xisted i n t he stratigraphic r ecord while o n t he o ther h and i t i s possible t hat m icroliths a re c onnected w ith t he h unting o f small game and a ccordingly p layed a m inor role i n t he l argest p art o f t he s tudy a rea. Apart f rom t he d ifferences i n r elative f requencies o f artefacts and a lso t he r aw m aterial u sed, w hich c an b e expected c onsidering t he n ature o f t he environment, t he a ssemblages o f t he D rakensberg a re, t echnologically s peaking, c lose t o t he W ilton Complex ( Sampson 1 974). R egional t erms l ike Coastal W ilton, I nterior W ilton, M atopan, P fupian, Z ambian W ilton and Nachikufan g ive an i mpression o f t he w ide d istribution o f t his t echnology. I t was a lso i dentified i n t he northern C ape ( Humphreys & T hackeray 1 983), i n L esotho ( Carter 1 977) and i n Natal ( Maggs & Ward 1 980, C arter 1 982). T he grouping o f t he artefact a ssemblages o f t he Drakensberg a s a t echnological s ub-subu nit w ith a l ocal i ndustrial n ame w ill b e j ustified o nly when m ore c larity i s r eached c oncerning t he b orders o f t he r egion t hat w ill b e i nvolved. D etailed studies o f m any more s ites t han were e xcavated i n t his project, w ill b e n ecessary. R eferences i n h istorical s ources i ndicate t he e xistence o f a s ocial n etwork i n t he Drakensberg o f t he n ortheastern C ape, N atal a nd L esotho i nto which a ll B ushman b ands w ere i ntegrated. A t entative p icture o f t he l ate H olocene B ushman b ands o f t he D rakensberg m ay b e t hat t hey f ormed p art o f a s ocial p attern t hat was c haracterised by t he hunting o f b ig g ame, by t ypical rock a rt and possibly by t heir o wn d ialect or l anguage. T his study was o nly a r econnaissance o f an a rea w ith a unique a rchaeological p otential e specially a s f ar a s m an:animal r elationships d uring t he L ater S tone Age a re c oncerned. Nevertheless i t g ives a n ew p erspective o n t he v ariety o f s uccessful h uman adaptations t hat t ook p lace d uring t he prehistoric p ast o f South A frica.

1 83

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Acknowledgement i s due t o the University of Fort Hare f or f unding t he f ieldwork on which t his study is b ased; t o Prof. H .J. D eacon f or h is i nvaluable advice at all l evels o f t he project; t o Dr. J . D eacon who r ead and commented on an e arlier d raft o f t his book and D r. A . T hackeray f or checking o n t he r eferences. I

am

a lso

i ndebted

t o

Mr

J .

B rink,

Mrs

I .

P lug,

Dr.

J .F.

T hackeray and Mrs E . Voigt f or specialist advice on t he faunal analysis; Mr N . Gunter f or advice on the l ithic r aw m aterial i dentification; Dr. B . R ussel, Mr S . Russel and Mr D . v an d er Z ee f or botanical surveys; M iss M . Tusenius f or c harcoal i dentification; Mr S . V ince and Mr J . van V uuren f or computing assistence and Dr J .C. Vogel for radiocarbon d atings. I am gratefull to t he f ollowing farmers f or their h ospitality and co-operation: August Beckman, M anie and M eisie B otha, D . Dobrovsky, J . H artley, Arnold and Olga H echter, P ieter and S arah Nel and M . van Zyl.

t he

F inally, u nfailing

this study support o f

would not h ave been possible w ithout my w ife Magda and my children.

1 84

A P P E N D I X

X X

8 -rei z s uat tel l

UO1U p iT03

D C

3 , 4

X X

X

> I N

X

I X D

0

a2 pT i s su ri 9

D C

X D C D C D C

X D C X

f ruit e dible

b B o s r a m

f ruit e dible

f ruit e dible f ruit e dible

f ruit e dible f ruit e dible

X

m edicine f or m edicine

D C D I D C

b erries e dible b ulb e dible b ulb e dible f ruit e dible

X

r oots e dible

X

t ea f or t onic

ai

b G l i e s a s f l k W i l d o e n

r a H 0

U 1 -

r e

1 4

c d

0 c d

W atsonia m eriana

2aJ

B linkblaar

N H H t l . . 5 4 A r i 4 1 ,4 N U ) P I c o > 4

R hoicissus r homboideus R hus d entata

t r l a l u l W i z ) . 4 4

a fricana

a ) . 4 4 t i l e l a . )

e laria a fricana

2'

u l c d 3 4 P P 4 a l p ,

m ulticebs

o o

1

O O 0

0

H r e r e 0 1 . 0 W W 0 . l a . 0 . 0 t e 1 : 3 W 0 . G r d H 4 1 0 a l W 0

C ussonia

O

A rtemisia

r e

W ( 2 . 0 N r -1, 4 r a j ] 4 4 0 W I t i p o u 3 U 3

G ifwortel

a ) a

W 3 -1 • , I a l a l r e . 4 1 4 4 N c a H r e r e 0

K ruisement O lienhout

f f h b t o e s a y

A ristea a n

ap ai

4 D .

l U

a res u og

: « 12 4

T able

2 .

L ayer

Colwinton number l ayer

6 9

2 3 4 5 6

66 74 1 26 7 5 69 4 79

T able

L ab

3 .

No.

n umber

Shelter.

buckets/

1

Average

rock

o f

Number

f requency artefacts

o f

o f

artefacts

p er

number bucket

artefacts/

2 2 42 6 6 1 1 1 2 2 9 artefacts

R adiocarbon

Date

dates

B .P.

+

p er

3 3

456 2 75 1 28 8 34 0 29 9 64

98 8 5 88 2 5 2 9

bucket

f rom

s ites

o f

63

i n

COLWINTON Material

t he

northeastern

L ayer b elow

and t he

Cape

d epth s urface

P ta-2547 P ta-2608 P ta-2549 Pta-2550

7 0 9 20 1 890 6 270

Pta-1711 P ta-3497 P ta-3499 Pta-1709

2 250 2 830 2 960 8040

Pta-2970 P ta-2713 P ta-2952 P ta-2949 Pta-2719 Pta-2714

6090 6 280 6 300 6850 6 890 3 6 3 80

± 80 + 7 0 + 6 0 +100 + 80 ±870

GRASSRIDGE charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal

AS LBS L BS KGS

Pta-3192 P ta-3450 P ta-3194 Pta-3451

460 3040 1 0 000 1 0 200

± 4 5 ± 5 0 ± 8 0 ±100

RAVENSCRAIG charcoal bone charcoal bone

1 2 4 5

0 ,3 0 ,5 1 ,6 2 ,18

m ) m ) m ) m )

P ta-3204 P ta-3203

8100 1 0 1 00

± 80 ±120

TE VREDE charcoal charcoal

3 (4 0 ,35 3 ( 11: 0 ,5

m ) m )

4

+ ±

± ± + 4

bucket

40 5 0 4 5 40

charcoal charcoal charcoal charcoal

1 2 3 4

(± (± (± (±

80 6 0 60 1 00

BON AWE charcoal charcoal charcoal c harcoal

l c 2 3 a

(± 0 ,37 (± 0 ,87 (± 0,11

m ) m ) m )

3 c

( ±1/5

m )

1 86

VB BR

0 ,08 m ) 0 ,35 m ) 0 ,5 m ) 0 ,85 m )

(± 0,15 (± 0 ,15

m ) m )

(± 0,5 (± 0 ,6 (± 0,6 (± 1,2

m ) m ) m ) m )

(± (± (± (±

Table 4 . Colwinton e ggshell b eads. L ayer

f

1 2 3 4 5

T able L ayer 1 2 3

Rock

M ean ( cm)

3 6 4 1 2 1 6

5 .

Colwinton

Shelter.

d iameter o f b eads

Frequencies

Unfinished

5 4 4 5 5

Rock

Shelter.

Body

F ragments 1 52 2 1 1

ostrich

b eads

1

F requencies

o f

Rim

potsherds f ragments 1 6 2

1 87

of

T able 6 .

C olwinton R ock S helter .

I nventory o f s tone a rtefacts

W ASTE

c .70 B .P . 1 f

c .920 B .P . 2 f

c .1980 B .P . 3 f

U ntrimmed f lakes C hunks C hips C ores

1 934 1 04 2 3 4 9

9 1,7 4 ,9 1 ,1 2 ,3

5 363 2 78 4 21 1 00

8 7,1 4 ,5 6 ,8 1 ,6

4 678 3 07 5 53 2 35

8 1 5 ,3 9 ,6 4 ,1

7 949 6 24 1 860 2 24

7 4 ,6 5 ,9 1 7,5 2 ,1

2 110 1 00 ,0

6 162

1 00 ,0

5 773

1 00 ,0

1 0657

1 00 ,0

T otal w aste U TIL IZED U tilized f lakes U tilized c hunks H ammerstone G rindstone T otal u tilized

1 2 8 0 3 2 0

1 5 1 00 ,0

1 4 2

8 2 ,4 1,8

1

5 ,9

1 7

1 00 ,1

5 0 6 1

5 7

8 7,7 1 0 ,5 1 ,8

1 00 ,0

c .6270 B .P . 4

3 7 6

8 4 ,1 1 3 ,6

1

2 ,3

4 4

1 00 ,0

F ORMAL T OOLS

B acked t ools S egments F lakes B lades B roken s egments T otal b acked t ools

2

1 4

0 ,4 1 ,4

5 1

1 ,1 0 ,2

8 1

1 ,9 0 ,2

1

0 ,2

1

0 ,2

1 ,7

5

1 ,8

7

1 ,5

! o i ñi1 s ingle

1 01 8 6 ,3 2 1 ,7 3 2 ,6

2 21 6 1 0 6 6

7 9 ,8 2 ,2 3 ,6 2 ,2 2 ,2

3 49 7 1 0 1 2 5

7 8 ,4 1 ,6 2 ,2 2 ,7 1 ,1

3 57 9 8 1

8 3,6 2 ,1 1 ,9 2 ,6

T otal s crapers

1 06

2 49

9 0 ,0

3 83

8 6 ,0

3 85

9 0 ,2

S crapers

L arge B roken 0 ouble C oncave

O ther t ools A dzes B orers K nives R eamer G round s hale P oints O ther t ools T otal o ther t ools T otal f ormal t ools T otal a rtefacts

2

1 ,7

4 1 2 1 1

9 0 ,6

3 ,4 0 ,9 1 ,7 0 ,9 0 ,9

9 7 ,8 17 1 00 ,1 2 242

1 8 3

6 ,5 1 ,1

2

0 ,7

2 3 2 77 6 456

8 ,3 1 00 ,1

1 88

5 2 1 1

1,7 0 ,2 0 ,2

1

0 ,2

5 5 4 45 6 275

1 2 ,3 9 9 ,8

1 0

2 ,3

2 4 4 2

5 ,6 0 ,9 0 ,5

2

0 ,5

3 2 4 27 1128

7 ,5 1 00 ,0

T able 6 .

( continued ) C olwinton R ock S helter .

6

5 %

W ASTE

I nventory o f s tone a rtefacts

%o f t otal a rtefacts

T otal %

f

f

U ntrimmed f lakes C hunks C hips C ores

1 301 5 6 4 07 2 6

7 2,7 1 454 3 ,1 1 72 2 2,7 1 92 1 ,5 7 6

7 6,8 2 2679 9 ,1 1 541 1 0 ,1 3 456 4 ,0 7 10

7 9 ,9 5 ,4 1 2,2 2 ,5

T otal w aste U TILIZED U tilized f lakes U tilized c hunks H ammers t one G rindstone

1 790

1 00 ,0 1 894

1 00 ,0 2 8386

1 00 ,0

1 00 ,0

1 00 ,0

1 48 1 7 1 2

8 5,1 1 0 ,1 0 ,6 1 ,2

1 00 ,0

1 68

1 00 ,0

T otal u tilized

5

5

1 00 ,0

3 0

3 0

9 4 ,7

0 ,6

F ORMAL T OOLS

B acked t ools S egments F lakes B lades B roken s egments

1 3 5 4 2

0 ,9 0 ,3 0 ,3 0 ,1

T otal b acked t ools

2 4

1 ,6 8 1,7 1 ,8 2 ,3 2 ,6 1 ,1 8 9 ,5

S crapers S maIr-i rngle L arge B roken D ouble C oncave T otal s crapers O ther t ools A dzes B orers K nives R eamer G round s hale P oints O ther t ools T otal o ther t ools T otal f ormal t ools T otal a rtefacts

3 5 1 2 3 8

8 9,7 2 ,6 5 ,1 9 7,4

1

2 ,6

1 3 9

2 ,6 1 00 ,0

1 834

8 9 2

8 4 ,8 1 ,9

5 5

4 ,8 4 ,8

152 2 6 3 2 3 6 1 6

9 6,3

1 262

1 01 4

3 ,8

4 1 05

3 ,8 1 00 ,1

2 029

1 02 1 0 5 1 1 1 4 1 24 1 410 2 9964

1 89

0 ,1

4 ,2

7 ,2 0 ,7 0 ,3 0 ,1 0 ,1 0 ,1 0 ,3 8 ,8 9 9,9

0 ,4 4 ,7

Table 7 . Colwinton Rock Shelter. U ntrimmed chalcedony f lakes ( unbroken): f requency (0, arithmetic m eans f or l ength, breadth and m aximum l ength.

Mean

l ength

M ean

breadth

Mean maximum l ength

L ayer

f

mm

mm

mm

1 2 3 4 5 6

5 6 1 17 66 1 68 1 2 5 2

1 8,7 2 1,2 1 9,6 2 2,0 2 0,0 2 0,0

1 6,1 1 8,5 1 7,4 1 9,9 1 8,7 1 9,8

2 1,1 2 5,7 2 3,0 24,7 2 3,2 24,2

T able 8 . C olwinton Rock Shelter. Untrimmed hornfels f lakes ( unbroken): frequency ( f), arithmetic m eans f or l ength, breadth and m aximum l ength.

Mean

l ength

M ean

breadth

Mean maximum l ength

L ayer

f

mm

mm

mm

1 2 3 4 5 6

42 2 00 1 34 2 38 3 6 9 8

2 2,3 24,5 2 2,7 2 4,4 2 5,7 2 0,3

2 1,9 2 1,8 2 0,4 2 2,0 2 5,0 2 1,2

2 5,9 2 8,6 3 4,2 2 7,9 3 1,9 2 5,9

1 90

C O 0 P t

A

% . 0 0 A

A

C D C D 0 %

A

I -

A

0

‘ £ ) C r l cj V-1 Q c

4 1

C • 1

a e

% c ar , ▪n

c s 4 c 0 r A

A

P t

% .0

a

C O C C ) 0 A

A

A

P ‘

C • 1 C f l 0

C D

a v 4

t ^ 1 C O c 4 c s 1 t 4 1

1

CA

c h q D A O D

U l

1 4 1

C Y )

-

A

p l C h C D A

A

A

C h

A

C D C D

C ` l

C V

C h C h

O C A

C ) m 43 / 1

•

A

C A C n

I N .

e

m

)

CA

e

m

a

m

C Y1

m

CZ )

*4-

1 -" 1 4 r ) 20 0 r— I

3- 0

C r ) C N 1

4

a a a a a a a A

s ubclasses.

C,1

A

V D 0

c n

A

CI

a P e

C D

N 4 4

i n c n

3- V D C D

• • 0

0 C D P 4

C D V D c n A a

A

\

c n

A

C D C D A

A

A

C D

A

C ,1 C 9 • . 1 c 9 C Z )

•t L t • 4

2

O

H t i • C I O

r 1

0

01

p0 0 0

o Q4J

4 4

4

4 4 4 . J 4J

1 4 1

4 1 9 4 r 4 1 4 t i 0 4 P i . H C M bO b O O b 0 b 0 0 0 . 4 4 ' , I . 4 i

O t o > 4 • ,-1 1 4 4 . r i

• . b 4 4 )

d

( I ) a ) ) ) 0

4 4

1 4 • , 4 C l ) 4 4 1 4 C O 4 . 1 a l 4 1 1 4 • 4 -1 c d ( 1 I-4 ( 1 ) C O C . ) b o 0 c d H 1 4 • F 4 0 < 1 0

B lade c ores

c : h

9 1

W orked o ut

helter. C olwinton R ock S

v 4

1 91

c d 0

T able 1 0. Colwinton ( f), arithmetic mean ( S7) and s kewness.

L ayer 1 2 3 4 5 6

f 1 01 2 27 3 61 3 68 3 7 94

Rock

( 7),

x ( mm)

1 2 3 4 5 6

f 1 01 2 27 3 61 3 68 3 7 94

L ayer

f

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 01 2 27 3 61 3 68 3 7 94

4 ,4 4 ,9 4 ,0 5 ,0 6 ,6 6 ,0

S

1 4,6 1 5,6 1 6,1 1 5,9 1 6,2 1 7,7

Rock

( 7),

SR

S kewness

0 ,4 0 ,3 0 ,2 0 ,3 1 ,1 0 ,6

1 ,2 1 ,2 1 ,2 1 ,0 1 ,8 0 ,7

Shelter. S craper breadth: ( 7), s tandard d eviation ( S),

x ( mm)

T able 1 2. Colwinton ( f), arithmetic m ean ( Si) and s kewness.

Scraper l ength: f requencies deviation ( S), standard error

S

1 6.1 1 5,5 1 4,1 1 5,7 1 9,5 2 2,0

Table 1 1. Colwinton Rock c ies ( f), arithmetic mean error ( Si) and s kewness.

.L ayer

Shelter. standard

3 ,5 4 ,0 4 ,6 4 ,2 4 ,8 4 ,1

Shelter. S craper standard d eviation

x ( mm)

S

4 ,3 4 ,5 4 ,9 5 ,4 6 ,9 8 ,0

1 ,8 1 ,7 2 ,4 2 ,1 3 ,2 2 ,9

1 92

SR 0 ,4 0 ,2 0 ,2 0 ,2 0 ,8 0 ,4

f requenstandard

S kewness 1 ,9 0 ,5 1 ,4 1 ,0 1 ,3 0 ,7

h eight: f requency ( S), standard error

SR 0 ,2 0 ,1 0 ,1 0 ,1 0 ,5 0 ,3

S kewness 3 ,1 1 ,1 2 ,1 1 ,3 1 ,6 0 ,7

Table 1 3. Colwinton Rock Shelter. Scrapers: frequencies ( f), arithmetic mean ( 7), standard standard error ( Si) and skewness.

Layer

Breadth Length x 100: deviation ( S),

f

x ( mm)

S

1 2 3 4 5

1 01 2 27 361 368 3 7

94,9 1 08,7 1 18,8 1 08,5 8 9,5

2 6, 9 49, 4 3 7, 6 43,9 3 4,6

2 ,7 3 ,3 2 ,0 2 ,3 5 ,7

2 ,0 6 ,8 1 ,1 5 ,3 1 ,4

6

94

86,1

3 2,2

3 ,3

2 ,2

Table t ests

SR

1 4. Colwinton Rock Shelter. on pairs of s craper s amples.

1

2

1

0 0

3

B BUB

2

Matrix

4

B UB H B

B UB B UB

0 BUB

B UB 0

0 BUB

3

Skewness

of

Mann-Whitney

5 HB BUB

6

BUB BUB

B B

B UB BUB

B UB B UB

0 0 B UB 0

BUB BUB

0 BUB

BUB BUB

BUB B UB

B UB B UB

BUB BUB

0 BUB

BUB BUB

B UB B UB

B UB B UB

B UB B UB

0 BUB

4

BUB 0 HB BUB

5

N .B.

I n

every

l ower

block,

l eft

upper

= h eight,

l eft

lower

= l ength, r ight

upper

= breadth

BUB

B UB

BUB

0

r ight x 100

l ength 0 : D ifference B : D ifference HB : D ifference B UB

: D ifference

not s ignificant s ignificant at 0 ,05 significant at 0 ,01 s ignificant

at

0 ,002

1 93

U

confidence confidence confidence

l evel level l evel

= breadth,

Table 1 5. Colwinton s craper m ass.

L ayer

Rock

C halcedony s crapers

Hornfels s crapers

f

f

Mean m ass ( g)

1

9 6

1 ,2

2

2 13

1 ,5

3

3 37

4

3 49

5

3 4

2/5

6

8 0

4 ,5

T able 1 6. m ean ( T),

L ayer

2

and

f

M ean m ass

f

( g)

( g)

1

1 ,5

2

1 ,6

1 2

1 ,7

1

1 ,2

1

0 /4

1 ,5

1 0

3 ,6

9

2/8

5

3 ,4

1 ,8

1 2

5 ,0

7

3 ,2

0

0 /0

8 ,2

0

0 ,0

0

0 ,0

6 ,8

1

5/ 5

0

0 ,0

3 1 3

S egments:

7-16

5

5 -

( mm)

5

2 -

r ange,

a rithmetic,

1 1,6

3 ,4

9

6 ,7

2 ,0

4

2 ,6

0 ,8

( mm)

8

8 -14

1 0,9

1 ,8

8

5 -

9

7 ,1

2 ,0

8

2 -

4

3 ,1

0 ,8

4

L ength B readth

( mm) ( mm)

1 94

o f

M ean mass

2 ,9

5

( mm)

m eans

Other

R ange

( mm)

H eight

H eight

M ean mass ( g)

3

B readth

Frequencies

S ilcrete s crapers

C olwinton Rock S helter. s tandard d eviation ( S)

L ength

L ayer

Shelter.

T able 1 7. Colwinton Rock Shelter. l ength, breadth, h eight: f requency ( 7), s tandard d eviation ( s).

L ayer

1 -4

L ength

( mm)

B readth H eight

( mm) ( mm)

f

Range

5

1 5-25

Backed f lakes ( Layers 1 -4): (0, r ange, arithmetic mean

1 8,4

3 ,7

5

7 ,

9

8 ,2

0 ,7

5

3 -

5

3 ,4

0 ,8

T able 1 8. Colwinton Rock Shelter. Backed blades: breadth, height: f requency ( f), range, arithmetic s tandard d eviation ( S).

L ayer

2

L ength B readth H eight

( mm)

4

( mm) ( mm)

Range

X

1 2-15

13,3

1 ,3

4

3 -

7

4 ,3

0 ,3

4

2 -

2

0 ,2

0 ,0

T able 1 9. C olwinton Rock S helter. Adzes: l ength, breadth and h eight o f r etouch.

L ayer

f

l ength, m ean ( R),

Length

arithmetic

Breadth

m eans

mm

mm

Height o f r etouch mm

1

1 4

3 1,8

2 1,0

6 ,0

2

l g

2 8,5

1 9,1

5 ,9

3

5 2

2 7,7

1 8,6

7 ,1

4

2 4

2 5,3

1 8,8

6 ,1

2 5,5

1 7,3

5 ,8

5 6

4

o f

1 95

Table

20.

L ayer

Colwinton C halcedony F

1

3

%

Rock

Shelter.

Adzes:

r aw material.

H ornfels

S ilcrete

Other

F

F

F

%

7 5,0

1

2 5,0

5

2 7

2

1 0

5 5,0

3

2 8

5 3,9

4

2 0

8 3,0

4

1 7

2 5,0

1

2 5,0

1 6

/8

3 0,8

%

Total %

F

%

4

1 00,0

3

1 6,7

1 8

1 00

8

1 5,4

5 2

1 00,1

2 4

1 00,0

4

1 00,0

10

/1

5 6

1

2

1 96

5 0,0

T able 2 1. The minimum n umbers o f i ndividuals are r epresented at C olwinton Rock S helter.

L epus p ronolagus h are F elis l ibyca w ild c at Canis c f m esomelas j ackal P anthera p ardus l eopard P apio u rsinus c hacma b aboon Procavia c apensis r ock h yrax L agomorpha - general Hystrix a fricae-australis p orcupine Equus c f quagga quagga Equus c f z ebra z ebra Equus s p Phacochoerus aethiopicus warthog Syncerus c affer b uffalo A lcelaphus/Connochaetes h artebeest/wildebeest T aurotragus oryx e land h ippotragus s p H ippotragus c f l eucophaeus antelope P elea c apreolus grey r hebuck D amaliscus dorcas b lesbuck Raphicerus c ampestris s teenbuck Oreotragus o reotragus k lipspringer B ovidae-general small small-medium l arge-medium l arge

by

which

t he

f auna

t otal

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

1

1

2

-

-

-

4

4

2

4

1

-

1

1 2

1 1 1

6 -

1 3 2

7 -

-

-

3 7 3

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

2

-

-

2

-

-

-

1

1

2

4

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

-

2

7

5

8

2 2

4 -

3 -

7 -

4 2

1 -

1 -

2 0 2

-

-

-

2

-

1

3

5

7

2

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

1

2

1

2

3

-

-

-

6

7

4

8

3

-

1

7 1 7 7 1

6 1 1 3 2

8 2 0 5 4

3 1 6 5

1 1 1

1

1 97

1 3

2 8

2 3

2 5 6 6 2 1 7

Table 2 2. f ragments.

Colwinton

L ayer

Mass

Rock

( g)

Shelter.

Mass

o f

Mass ( g) bone/bucket

u nidentifiable

Mass ( g) bone/stone

1

1 3

2 90

1 92,6

5 ,9

2

1 1

655

1 76,6

1 ,8

3

2 0

7 32

2 80,2

3 ,3

4

2 6

5 98

2 11,1

2 ,4

5

4 643

6 2,7

2 ,5

6

6 3 77

92,4

3 ,1

Total

T able small

8 3

artefact

2 95

2 3. Colwinton t o l arge game.

Rock

Shelter.

Ratio

o f

L ayer Grey r hebuck, blesbuck, k lipspringer, steenbuck E land, wildebeest/hartebeest, blue antelope, buffalo, Equus sp. Chi- s quare = 6 ,04. confidence l evel.

Table 2 4. grassveld

bone

The

r atios

d iffer

Colwinton Rock Shelter. t o mountain game.

m inimum

1 -5

5 6

( 55,5%)

45

( 44,6%)

o f

L ayer

1 -5

6 8

( 67,3%)

3 3

( 32,7%)

Chi- s quare = 7 ,04. confidence l evel.

s ignificantly

r atios

d iffer

1 98

o f

6

3 ( 18,8%) 13

( 81,3%)

at

m inimum

E land, grey r hebuck Equus s p., wildebeest, buffalo, b lesbuck, b lue antelope, s teenbuck The

L ayer

s ignificantly

Ratio

n umbers

t he

0 ,05

n umbers

Layer

o f

6

3 ( 18,8%) 1 3 at

( 81,3%) t he

0 ,05

Table 25. ( calculated

Colwinton fauna. Mass on 5 0% o f l iving m ass). Approximate l iving/mass

L ate

M ass ( kg)

of

meat

Holocene

3 ,5 3 50,0 8 5,0 750,0

6 4,75 1 2 25,0 42,5 3 75,0

1 80,0 6 50,0 2 20,0 2 2,0 8 0,0 1 2,0 1 6,0

1 2 60,0 6 1 75,0 440,0 2 97,0 4 0,0 3 6,0 1 76,0 1 0 1 31,25

Approximate ( 1980)

mass

The t he

l iving

weight o f t he b lue s able antelope.

according

antelope

Early

o f meat ( kg)

D assie E quidae W arthog B uffalo W ildebeest/ H artebeest E land B lue antelope G rey r hebuck B lesbuck S teenbuck K lipsringer Total

was

1 99

to

Mass

game

species

Holocene

o f meat ( kg)

5 25,0

7 20,0 3 25,0 1 10,0 1 1,0 40,0 8 ,0 1 7 39,0

Die

t aken

from

Nasionele

as

t he

s ame

Parkeraad

as

t hat

o f

T able 2 6. c alculated

L ayer

Colwinton Rock Shelter. f rom t ooth c rown h eights.

D epth

Tooth

( mm)

L ength

P ercentage

B readth

( mm)

l ifespan

Crown height

A ge months

o f

e land

% L ifespan

( mm)

1

0 ,20-0,25

RM 2

36,0

2 8,6

2 1,2

79,5

3 3,1

1

0 ,20-0,25

RM 3

43,2

1 8,1

3 1,0

5 1,5

2 1,5

1

0 ,20-0,25

LM 2

3-4 ,5

2 6,0

3 1,9

3 8,4

1 6,0

2

0 ,35-0,40

RM 3

43,8

1 7,4

43,9

30,3

1 2,6

2

0 ,40-0,45

L P4

2 7,0

46,8

1 9,5

2

0 ,40-0,45

RM 2

1 2,3

1 23,4

5 1,4

2

0 ,45-0,50

RP 4

1 0,5

1 12,4

46,8

2

0 ,55-0,60

L i l

l

3 0,0

2 8,0

1 2,3

1 44,0

60,0

3

0 ,75-0,80

RM

2

34,2

1 6,7

3 8,9

3 2,2

1 3,4

4

0 ,85-0,90

LM 2

2 6,5

16,1

2 1

88,5

36,9

4

0 ,90-0,95

LM 3

1 8,5

2 0,4

94,1

3 9,2

5

1 ,05-1,10

RP 4

1 5,0

7 7,4

3 2

5

1 ,05-1,10

R P4

2 0,5

6 7,6

2 8,2

2 7,0

1 7,2

2 00

/9

/3

T able 2 7. M inimum t on, B onawe and T e Avery).

n umber i nsectivores Vrede rock s helters

Colwinton

1

2

3

and rodents f rom Colwin( identification by D .M.

Bonawe

4

l a

lb

l c

Te

2

3 a

3b

Vrede

1

2

I nsectivora C rocidura f lavescens r ed m usk shrew

1

Rodents M ystromys a lbicaudatus white t ailed r at Otomys i rroratus v lei r at

1

1 13

2 2

Otomys s aundersiae S aunders' v lei r at

5

1

Otomys s loggetti r ock k aroo r at

3

2

4

1

2

Total

1

2

1

1

1

9

2

2

Cryptomys hottentotus common moler at Georychus c apensis C ape mole-rat

1

4

1 1

1 5

1 1

3

1

1

1 32

4 0

1 7

3

2

2

2 01

1 0 2

1 6

1 1

3

1 1

4

T able

2 8.

L ayer

and

B onawe

d epth

Rock

S helter.

f

F requency

B ody

o f

potsherds.

f ragments

R im

f ragments

( m)

l a ( 0,15-0,20) l a ( 0,20-0,25) l b ( 0,25-0,30) l b ( 0,30-0,35) l b ( 0,35-0,40) l b ( 0,40-0,45) l b ( 0,45-0,50) l b ( 0,50-0,55) l b ( 0,55-0,60) Total

3 2 5 9 9 9 1 7 2 7 5 5 4 1 58

3 2 4 7 5 9 1 4 2 6 4 6 4 1 38

2 02

1 2 4 3 1 9 2 0

e l

-4 0 •

1 ,

0

0 3

CO

4 1 b

U 44

vi

w a d

N

e.b

vi

•

l et

o

I l k

I N

r.

o

0

CO• 0,

0 4 • • -4 C h t a .

ul 00 r, , C )▪ N 00

O CD

c n s r , 4

( * I 0

In

• •

a.

0

Ln In

0

CD

0 0

0 0

el el

in 0,

0 0

• I

e3 In

0 •

O

N

C Y , . 1 3 In

a

o

4 1

a e e n i n 0 %

0

•

CO

• 4

0

.

0 0

. 4

0 0

c n

in

0

0

0 0

0 0

ul

c0

i n 4

-4 Cf l

0 .

In in N r,

•

o

0

0 -

0

•

Ch

in v 3 1 7 in

•

.

in

i n

• 4 1

,0 a,

. 4 0 e I

N C r .

c r . N

C r %

0 w a l

CO

0

in

B acked T ools

2 03

O ther T ools

in

U tilized f lakes

B onawe R ock S helter.

N

1 ,1 r " 1

N

• . C O ei

▪

e

•

T otal A rtefacts

I nventory o f s tone a rtefacts.

s a, U 44

In CO

o

e 4 1

in

>4

CO In

4 .

•

43

.0

F ormal T ools

1 ✓,

In

. 4 "

T otal

0

▪

r41

,0 s e '

el

•

0 3

,7

rt

9 1

sr ,

1 b

• •

C i

"

•

f • -•

C O

rs 1

N.

9 9 1

Ni

0 0 4 4

9 4

0 91

,0

4 , 1 .0 •

Cm

l b

9 1 .0

44

r,

rl

rn

rl

If l

f,

CO

I ,

•

•

• -

•

4. 4

. 0

0 •

R I

44

, 1

N

w1

9,

C I , r l 0 0 •

•

C, I 0

IA

0 ( "I

9,

N

N

0,

•

0

In

9,

91

rl N N. .

0

0

o o

o o

r • i .

0 ,

.1 -4

,

9 1

N .

9 1

in

c o .

0 .

o c r i

o o

11

0

cc

C O

C -) .

c c

. 4

N . -4 '

44

9 1

c o

C A i n . / .

C 9

9 -1

4

0 0

0 , C N I . /

0 0 0 •-I

i n

00

rl

C D . 0 0

4 4 t r i C O

•

,0

0 0 C i • •

1Z,

0)0 In

• -•

0 . C D 0 . 4

•

0

C O

rl

el

I \

00

N. '-4

0%

•

r n

N . 9 -1

1 8 %

9 4

,0

9 1

91

0

a

CD

0

0

0

a

0

C O

0

0

C N 1

C O

0 ,

0 , e

CO

a

w

•

• /

0 9 .

w

1 1,

0 , N .

4 /-1

O N C I , i n I .

•

0

co e

9 1

o

,0

00

P1

OD

cs i

. 9 •- •

c0 C ')

-1

•

•

-4

CD

CO

9 1

0

CO

C A

CO

0,

c

•

rd

0

o

c n 0

e l

•-4

c -I

in

N

. w . , d

P 4

4, 4

. 1

t ii

. » U

( 1 i d

> .

1 .

. 1A . . i 4

v ) 4 .

0

0 1 a . 1 4 • r l

ac . . . . ) c)c .J

9 1

t ",1

41

V I

c c

4 3

4 1 A

0 ,

0 9 4

• 9 4

Q N H

. 1 H

U

2 04

,C ) cn

N .

T otal A rtefacts

rl

F ormal T ools

•

9 4

T otal

•

9 1

4 . 4

R i

r-1

O ther T ools

• i n

00

f q

H

0 ,

,1 0

B acked T ools

( Continued).

a

0 N • - . 1cc

1

Ch

o

0

9 1

•

in

CD

o ( . 1 N .

1 . 44

e,1

N .

r1 .

14

4 ,

0,

a 94

9 1

U tilized f lakes

B onawe R ock S helter.

00

I n e l N . " 4

0 4 4 E .

c f l 0

. 4 )

e l N

0 ▪

N I CO i n

C4 .

N ON I n

N. V D

e c o

o ., e . N g " . N . . . • C I e l 4 4

a

O e

c o

0 4 . . i n

. 1 .

.. C le •C Y, • . g i c i ,4 I l e e 0 C O 4 .

A

. . . . . -,

• C l c ) e l 4 4

7 • 0

A

A

7 N

w

0 . I

N . . 7 . a ) .4

7 c 0 e h

i n

i n t h

e h

.

0

0 • ,

0 . .

a N

0 0 . •

t n s t

i n

. 4.

.

. 1

0

a

a

0 0 . 1

a 0 .

0 .

0 P .

0 e. . . .

P .

I n

i n

0

0

0

w

w

A

0

0

0

0

.4

.4

r • •

.4

N r • •

0

.

a

i n c 0 e l N

, 4

0

.

I ,

e n . 1 • 7

i n

.

i n

U l

o

w

w

a

o

. 1 N .

0

0.

0.

o

0

. .4

.

.

mi

c o

O N

i n

a A

0

ON

C M 4 4


4

1

. 1 4

0 ( 4 0 01 U4

PI

0 H ,

4

0

• O N

N 0

V .2 : 3

A rtefacts

C D 1 . 4

.

O ther T ools

. . . I n 4 n

4

C D C D C ) . 4

CD

.4

cm Cm 03 vl

A

l e

.4 >I 1

CD 44

In Cm

A

e t

e t

o

OD ,t .4 r4 . 4 2. el Ul .4 CV

in

en se

se v0 . rl .4

O

0

C) o .4

vl vl r s4

el .4

CD .4

0

A

00 u s-

C ` 4

C .4

e e n n

o

,t

• -4

en

-

0

CD

e t

0 0 in in

sr r4 -4

.4

, C ) 0,

CO 02 rq es r4

03 0

rl >4

c s i

0

0

•

A

A

C )

W I

i n

C )

•

0

0 4

0 2

•

A

CD rs OD

e4 ^. rl st .4 ,t

r4

r4

rs vl vl en • •

P 1 C) >4 1 0 in N .4 . OD C) 44 C . ) el

e •

C M

C M

, t

, f

d r .

•

CD

0

CD CD .4

.4

rn

0

CD

vl vl

CD CD .4

c s t 00 .4

40 In

• -4

03

cm en ,4

2

0

A

ul rl cm rl r4 el ul

rl CD

CD CD .4

, 4 3

el r4 st ti

H 03

.4

vl

D >4

1 CD VD C) 44 eV

r, t

r4

u

.

r r, A

0

0

0 0

C O

OD

CO Cm Cm st el st se

.4 el 0 vl r4 rl rs CD .4

C )

en .4

In rl r -4

A

rl 02 CD

ul .4 CT ,/ CO e4 o2

CD CD .4

A

0

.

CD

o

03 .

e

.4 00

et

.

e

.

rl .4

.4

CD

C2 .

0

CD CD . 4

CD

0 3

C) r4

40

03

e s t

CD

vl

m

A

CD CD

un

40

.4 Cm

Ch

4

• -4

6 4

.

eV -4 m CO Ch .4

C D 0

r4

in

2 18

1 . 4 4 1 0 . 3 1 1 4

T otal F ormal T ools

4 .4 rl

p c e rs

CD

T otal U tilized W aste

V rede R ock S helter.

C )

A 0 i n

0

c o

•••I

( ContinuPd).

0

A

0 1

• 0

rl

o

T able 4 7.

c s 1

0

v2 40 e

o

0 0

C s i

T otal W aste

o f s tone a rtefacts.

rs e e s .

.4

en

rs el .4 cm Ch rl Cm r4

rl

CD

e s i e t

CT

e t

CD >4 1 CD cm

o .4

.4 r,

r4 el

1 0 .

• 4 C O CO

If O l

0

0,

0

C

n

a ,

C

D

CO /0 4 1

00 st

N

j r 0 4 / 1 1 , ,

m st

I ,

N

in es In

rs

4 0 -

40 / 1

4

0 0 4

( f l

40 / 1

0 1 / 4 1 . 0 e, In

.

ON

I

In

ON

Ob

(1 4. / 4 r1 4. / ,

I r .

in

st N .4

ON

e1 4I r1 / 41 /

.

e 4 C9

ON

ON

C A • ' , .4

e l m . 7

. 4 e4

• • 4

N

0 . 1

o f s tone a rtefacts.

4 (1,25-1,30)

T l W t o a s e

0 0 0

0

In

In

d l T l U i t z e o a 0

0

0

0 .

0 4

0 4

r 4 / 1 4e l

i n

V D 4 '

e t

0 4 4 4

40 / 1

0 4

el

e J

L r%

. V

a

V rede R ock S helter.

0

• I

I n

ON C

N

ON

N

0 4 • 4

• 4

f A t a c s r e CD

4 4 / 1

i n r,

. 4 03

40 / 1

40 / 1

•

8 ä 0 0

.

C T el

0 4 4

In C O CO

0

O N

CO

40 / 1 40 / 1

0

. 4 .4 • . 0

C1 4 / • 10 4 0 4

4 4 / 1

H

I n

In

r n

el el

0

0 0

I n

L ayer a nd D epth

E 4

0

4 1

• 1 : 4 in •0 P3

O Z 3 • 41 / 1 > 4 / . 4 1 N N

T otal e ormal T ools

4 (1,05-1,10)

4, 4

0 4

( Continued).

S a p r s c r e

• 4

0 4

T able 4 7.

In

94

2 19

T able 4 8. T e V rede Rock S helter. f requency ( f), m eans o f l ength l ength ( mm).

L ayer and

1 2 3 4

d epth

( 0,30-0,55) ( 0,60-0,85) ( 0,85-0,95) ( 0,95-1,30)

f

L

204 64 44 30

1 2 3 4

d epth

( 0,30-0,55) ( 0,60-0,85) ( 0,85-0,95) ( 0,95-1,30)

T able 5 0. r ials. L ayer

and

Te

d epth

f

Shelter.

Chalcedony

1 8,8 2 2,9 1 7,0 20,0

U ntrimmed h ornfels ( L), breadth ( B)

B

2 3,8 2 2, 0 2 1,5 2 2,7

Rock

m aximum l ength

1 4,4 1 7,2 1 3,9 1 6,0

L

4 14 469 1 79 5 3

Vrede

B

1 4,9 1 9,3 1 4,5 1 7,8

T able 4 9. T e V rede Rock S helter. f requency ( f), means o f l ength l ength ( mm).

L ayer and

Untrimmed c halcedony f lakes: ( L), b readth ( B) a nd m aximum

f lakes: a nd m aximum

m aximum l ength

2 2,7 2 1,8 2 2,4 2 0,5

Utilized

2 8,3 2 5,4 2 5,7 2 6,5

f lakes:

Hornfels

r aw

m ate-

Total

( m) 1 ( 0,20-0,30) 1 ( 0,30-0,35)

0 5

0 ,0 8 3,3

0 1

0 ,0 1 6,7

0 6

0 ,0 1 00,0

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4

3 3 4 1 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 1 3 1

6 0,0 1 00,0 5 0,0 2 5,0 0 ,0 3 3,3 3 3,3 1 4,3 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 3 3,3 1 00,0 5 0,0

2 0 4 3 2 4 4 6 0 2 2 2 0 1

4 0,0 0 ,0 5 0,0 7 5,0 1 00,0 6 7,7 6 6,7 8 5,7 0 ,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 66,7 0 ,0 5 0,0

5 3 8 4 2 6 6 7 0 2 2 3 3 2

1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 0 ,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0

( 0,35-0,40) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,65-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,80) ( 0,80-0,85) ( 0,85-0,90) ( 0,90-0,95) ( 0,95-1,00) ( 1,00-1,05)

2 20

Table 5 1. Te Vrede Rock S helter. S craper l ength: f requency ( f), arithmetic m ean ( 7), s tandard d eviation ( S), s tandard e rror o f t he m ean ( S7), s kewness.

L ayer

a nd

d epth

S 7

( m)

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3

( 0,25-0;30) ( 0,30-0,35) ( 0,35-0,40) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,65-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,80)

1 8 9 9 1 6 1 7 6 6 6 8 1 8 1 1

1 5,8 1 1,2 1 5,3 1 2,2 2 1,3 2 2,0 2 4,2 2 5,2 2 4,5 2 4,1 2 3,0

* T able 5 2. T e Vrede R ock S helter. ( f), arithmetic mean ( 7), standard o f t he m ean ( Si), s kewness.

L ayer a nd

d epth

f

( m)

1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3

S kewness

mm

( 0,25-0,30) ( 0,30-0,35) ( 0,35-0,40) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,65-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,80) ( 0,80-0,85)

x

5 ,6 1 ,6 5 ,1 2 ,4 9 ,1 8 ,6 7 ,3 5 ,7 8 ,2 4 ,8 5 ,0

0 ,1 0;6 1 ,7 0 ,6 2 ,2 3 ,5 3 ,0 2 ,3 2 ,9 1 ,1 1 ,5

1 ,2 0 ,2 1 ,1 0 ,5 0 ,7 0 ,7 0,6 -0,6 1 ,9 1 2,5 0 ,3

S craper breadth: f requency d eviation ( S), standard e rror

S

S7

S kewness

mm

1 8 9 9 1 6 1 7 6 6 2 0 8 1 8 1 1 0

1 5,1 1 4,1 1 5,4 1 4,4 1 9,5 1 5,5 1 8,8 2 0,0 2 0,8 1 7,3 1 8,8 0 ,0

2 21

3 ,0 2 ,7 2 ,6 3 ,0 8 ,0 3 ,1 4 ,6 4 ,1 3 ,2 2 ,6 2 ,1 0 ,0

0 ,7 0 ,9 0 ,9 0 ,8 2 ,0 1 ,3 1 ,9 1 ,7 1 ,1 0 ,6 0 ,6 0 ,0

0 ,4 0 ,5 0 ,2 -0,2 1 ,5 0 ,5 0 ,2 0 ,0 2 ,0 -0,0 0,9 0 ,0

Table 53. Te Vrede Rock Shelter. S craper h eight: f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( R), s tandard d eviation ( S), s tandard e rror t of t he mean ( Si), s kewness. L ayer and

d epth

f

( m) 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2

x

S

S R

S kewness

mm

( 0,25-0,30) ( 0,30-0,35) ( 0,35-0,40) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,65-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,80)

1 8 9 9 1 6 1 7 6 6 6

8

1 8 1 1

4 ,9 3 ,9 5 ,7 4 ,5 6 ,5 5 ,3 7 ,1 8 ,3 9 ,5 9 ,2 7 ,3

2 ,3 1 ,1 1 ,6 1 ,6 1 ,6 1 ,2 2 ,6 2 ,3 5 ,0 3 ,0 1 ,6

0 ,6 0 ,4 0 ,5 0 ,4 0 ,4 0 ,5 1 ,1 1 ,0 1 ,8 0 ,7 0 ,5

0 ,6 -0,6 1 ,2 1 ,1 -0,6 2,0 -0,9 1 ,5 1 ,0 -0,2 0 ,0

b readth T able 5 4. T e Vrede Rock S helter. S craper l ength x 1 00 : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean O r), standard deviation ( S), s tandard error o f t he mean ( SR), s kewness. L ayer

and

depth

f

x

S

S R

1 06,0 8 1,1 9 8,9 86,2 1 11,1 1 40,9 1 27,3 1 25,9 1 16,3 1 40,9 1 22,2

3 3,8 1 3,5 2 4,8 1 5,9 3 0,2 4 2,9 2 0,0 1 4,1 2 2,8 2 7,9 2 2,5

8 ,0 4 ,5 8 ,3 4 ,0 7 ,3 1 7,5 8 ,2 5 ,8 8 ,1 6 ,6 6 ,8

S kewness

( m) 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2

( 0,25-0,30) ( 0,30-0,35) ( 0,35-0,40) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,65-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,80)

1 8 9 9 1 6 1 7 6 6 6 8 1 8 1 1

2 22

1 ,4 -0,5 0 ,7 0 ,3 0 ,1 0 ,3 1 ,1 0 ,3 0 ,6 0 ,7 0 ,6

2

e s . C O

0

C 1

2 ' I n C D

1 , 1 4

0

0

0 0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0

0 p a

- r 1 4 1 4 1 4 1

2 p a 2 2 222 2 P C 1 P : 1 P a p a 1 Z 1 : 4 1 t : g P

-

0

0 0

0 0

( 4

4 1 ( 1 )

0

22

S I • e 1 4 1

• aa

O8

s c 4

2, 02

a

P a 0

0

0 0

0 0

0

o

I N

0 0

0

4.1

I n

0

•

0

41

0

1 0 1 4 1 4 1 4

4 . 0

. 4 1

e d

e o

2pa 2pa

0 S r,

f j

u 1 . U • e i e l 4 1 . 4 1 4 4

g a

p a

0 P2 0 P2 0

og e O g 7 , 4» , { a s

0

e s .

0

0

4 1 U

1 I n

4 1 U

4 1 U

5 1 5 1 5 1 4 . k 4

4 w o

4 1 U 4 1

4 . w

4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1

P : 1 0

I n

0

0

0

I n

0

0 0

0

0

c a • n/a n

0

10

I P a O 0 P

0

0

10

2 0 P : 1

f d i n c e c o n e C D rI

0

O

P a

0

10

P I 0

0

0

0 0 O

0

• •• •• •

0

C•1

C D

•- I

0

0

•• ••

I I

I n

4 ,1 C D

r- I

C 1 0

C D

1 0 C i 0

3 ( 0,75-0,80)

• C D

2 ( 0,70-0,75)

•

1

2 ( 0,65-0,70)

i n

2 ( 0,55-0,60)

e s .

1 ( 0,50-0,55)

1 ( 0,40-0,45)

1 ( 0,35-0,40)

1 ( 0,30-0,35)

C D

1 ( 0,20-0,30)

4 4

a a

I l k

0

I

Table

5 6.

L ayer

and ( m)

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3

Vrede

R ock

d epth

( 0,20-0,30) ( 0,30-0,35) ( 0,35-0,40) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,65-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,80) ( 0,80-0,85)

Table

5 7.

L ayer

a nd

depth

( m)

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3

Te

Te

( 0,20-0,30) ( 0,30-0,35) ( 0,35-0,40) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,65-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,80) ( 0,80-0,85)

Table 5 8. f requency t hickness,

Shelter.

: m ean m ass

C halcedony f x

H ornfels f x

Other f

1 5 9

2 0 1 0 4 2 2 4 3 9 6 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 ,5 0 ,7 1 ,9 1 ,0 2 ,6 1 ,5 3 ,5 7 ,2 3 ,6 5 ,0 3 ,2 3 ,2

8

1 6 1 3 4 4 2 5 9 2 2

Vrede

S crapers

Rock

Shelter.

4 ,1 0 ,0 1 ,8 0 ,0 1 2,3 4 ,5 7 ,1 4 ,7 9 ,5 4 ,6 4 ,7 5 ,7

S crapers

: r aw

( g).

x 1 ,5 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0

m aterials.

C halcedony

H ornfels

Other

Total

1 5 9 8 1 6 1 3 4 4 2 5 1 0 2 2

2 0 1 0 4 2 2 4 3 8 6 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 8 9 9 1 6 1 7 6 6 6 8 1 8 8 3

8 3,3 1 00,0 8 8,9 1 00,0 7 6,5 6 6,7 6 6,7 3 3,3 6 2,5 5 5,6 2 5,0 6 6,7

1 1,1 0 ,0 1 1,1 0 ,0 2 3,5 3 3,3 3 3,3 6 6,7 3 7,5 4 4,4 7 5,0 3 3,3

5 ,6 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0

1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0

Te Vrede Rock Shelter. Segments ( all l ayers) : ( f), arithmetic m ean ( 7) o f length, breadth and s tandard d eviation ( S), e rror o f t he m ean ( SX), r ange.

L ength ( mm) B readth ( mm) Thickness ( mm)

5 5 5

8 ,4 7 ,0 3 ,0

24

0 ,9 0 ,8 0 ,8

S i

R ange

0 ,5 0 ,4 0 ,4

6 -12 5 -7 2 -4

T able 5 9. T e Vrede R ock S helter. Adzes : arithmetic mean l ength, b readth, t hickness and h eight o f s econdary t rimming. L ayer

1 1 1 2 2 2

and ( m)

( 0,30-0,35) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,65-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75)

Table

6 0.

L ayer

and

1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

d epth

T e

L ength

6 4 4 2 2 3

Vrede

d epth

( 0,30-0,35) ( 0,35-0,40) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,65-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75)

f

( m)

Rock

B readth

T hickness

H eight o f s econdary t rimming

MM

MM

MM

MM

2 6,8 2 3,0 2 7,5 2 5,5 3 4,0 2 8,3

1 8,6 1 8,8 1 8,8 1 6,5 2 0,5 1 7,3

1 0,0 1 0,5 7 ,8 9 ,5 6 ,5 8 ,0

5 ,6 5 ,8 5 ,3 8 ,5 3 ,5 6 ,3

Shelter.

A dzes

: r aw

m aterials.

Chalcedony

Hornfels

Total

5 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0

1 0 3 4 0 0 2 0 3

6 0 4 4 0 0 2 2 3

8 3,0 0 ,0 2 5,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 1 00,0 0 ,0

2 25

o f

1 7,0 0 ,0 7 5,0 1 00,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 1 00,0 0 ,0 1 00,0

1 00,0 0 ,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 0 ,0 0 ,0 1 00,0 1 00,0 1 00,0

r 1 R I 4 0 H

r • I

. 7 .

v I

C V

c Y 1

c ,1 c • I

c h

r 4

C h r , , 4 r q

• . . . . " . • P 4 C D •r n P I • , ) C D I c ) t n 4 0 C : 3 1 a l . 1 0 C l ) •. . . , a l U . t

i ndividuals

C I +

/1 •V ) 0 4 r > • . , P I 0 I 0 t r ) o r • • v 4 A C O 0 44 •• . . . 4 O U r n

V rede R ock S helter ,

•• r c l 0 0 r d r i 4

a ) H

U ) 0 7 1 . 0 4 . ) 0 4 a ) •

. v 4 • 0

• t i 0 c d

a ) 4 H 0 r d H

• ) a ) > , r d 4

t l ) H ( 1 ) 0 a ) ç

0 0 0 a i d c t i

c d U C d • , I > M u 0 ) 4

0 0 0 0 0 c d c _ ) O M. . . b a m C Z 0 m a ' a i * , 1 c o O u ) ) 4 ( I ) a c l i W

. 0 r d H 4 1 / U • i

d r : 1 a . ) 4 i ) 4 4 1 . z 4 )

) ) o t i )

• c o G I 0 c n r I o _ s 4 c i ) a ) U N

a ) c d c d c d a ) ( D P P U .0 , r ) 4 . i 4 . ) I I a u 0 1 1 0 0 ' 0 N a c u › , H 0 r d H a ) r l r c l H 4 1 a l

2 26

. 0 4 c n

o reotra

0 0 e l • 4 0 4 1 e l

1 (0,25-0,55)

g 0

2 (0,55-0,75)

0 3 1 a ) . 0

u )

c d

h 4 C ) • . 0 M D 0 C -I r d r

4 I c d 1 4 C V N c a . c a 4 V ) " X i 0 0 . • r i a ) , I > N — I 0

u M I 4 , 4 c d

r 4 r d P 1 / 0 P C O a ) W s b k

O E 0 0 e l 4 1 a l E l I H H H H c d 4 H 1 8 1

a ) E l I 0 t ) 0 N c d

a ) b 0 N c d

Table 62. f ragments. L ayer 1 2 3 4

and

Te

d epth

Vrede

Rock

( m)

Shelter.

Mass 3 9 1 6 2

( 0,25-0,55) ( 0,55-0,75) ( 0,75-0,80) ( 0,95-0,125)

T able 6 3. T e Vrede species ( calculated

Approximate ( 1980).

T able

64.

l iving

Te

Vrede

Mass

( g)

o f

( g)

bone

bone/artefact 0 ,8 2 ,4 4 ,9 4 ,3

R ock Shelter. F auna : mass on 5 0% o f l iving mass).

o f

m eat

Mass o f meat ( kg) l ate Holocene

f rom

game

Mass o f meat e arly Holocene

3 ,5 3 50,0

5 ,25 0 ,0

1 ,75 1 75,0

1 80,0 650,0 2 20,0 2 2,0 8 0,0 1 6,0

3 60,0 6 50,0 0 ,0 1 1,0 1 20,0 8 ,0 1 1 54,25

7 20,0 3 50,0 2 20,0 1 1,0 2 40,0 0 ,0 1 7 17,75

mass

Rock

according

Shelter.

to

Ratio

Die

o f

Nasionale

s mall

Layer K lipspringer, grey W ildebeest, e land, E quus sp.

unidentified

6 15 002 6 19 3 10

A pproximate l iving mass ( kg) D assie E quidae W ildebeest/ h artebeest E land B lue antelope Grey r hebuck B lesbuck K lipspringer

Mass

r hebuck, b lesbuck H ippotragus sp.,

t o

l arge

1

2 -3

7 ( 36,8%) 1 2

6 ( 54%)

2 27

game.

L ayers

5 ( 45%)

Chi-square = 0 ,006 ( Ho : r atio i n l ayer 1 = r atio i s maintained with a 9 5% confidence l evel).

Parkeraad

i n

( 63,2%)

l ayers

2 -3

Table 65. Te grassveld g ame.

Vrede

Rock

Shelter.

R atio

o f

Layer Grey r hebuck, e land, k lipspringer Equus s p. b lesbuck, Hippotragus sp., w ildebeest

Chi-square = 1 ,51 ( Ho maintained with a 95%

T able 6 6. bucket.

•L ayer

: r atio i n confidence

R avenscraig

N umber

1 2 3 4 5

o f

Rock

buckets

6 7.

Layer

and

Rock

4

Number

unbroken

o f

( 0,20-0,25) ( 0,25-0,30) ( 0,30-0,35) ( 0,35-0,40) ( 0,40-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,60-0,65)

i n

of

l ayers

2 -3

artefacts

Ostrich

e ggshell

Number

broken

b eads.

M ean d iameter mm 5

1 6 5 5 8 4

2 28

per

7 1 2 10 1 69 5 9 1 61

4 3 3 3 1 1

i s

Artefacts/ bucket

( m)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 -3

1 7

Number

F requency artefacts

t o

2

7

Shelter.

Shelter.

game

L ayers

9 97 2 7 36 3 5 51 7 69 2 5 80

R avenscraig

d epth

1

l ayer 1 = ratio l evel).

1 4 1 3 2 1 1 3 1 6

T able

mountain

• •

• 0

A 0

0

•

U l

, C ) 4 ,.

r 4 r 4

4

I n 0

r ,

A

-

A

0

• e e c y ,

4 ,4

0

C h C D C O r n e i %

A

0 0 e n 0

o f s tone a rtefacts.

4 4

0 0 . • 0 0 u l 0 4

0

• 4

0 1

• s t ^ 4 e l

r 4 5 C O

0

• I n

0 4

0

C D

V)

C D

4 7 r e.) C O 4

0

s i

• I

in

a

0

i n 0 e V 0

u l e l

0 4

4 4

1 1 e l I A • 0

40

, 1 2

.

0 A

A

c o

C h e l . 4

r ,

•

0

0 rl

e 4 e l , 7

01

If l

0

•

0

0

t r i

0

r s 4

• 4

I n

e n 4. c 0

o

C I c 0

40 / 1

0 . 4

r s I

0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

• • 1

0 .4

U

e s i 0 0 1

4 1

4 : 1 e l

0 4 . 4 t 4

0

0

o

0 0 • • 0 0 0 0

r 4 r s i

r . 1

( -4 i r e

0 1

0

( 1 . 1 e N

I n

u l 1 4 ( 9 A C n

C h

A

•

A

r A C 1 1 r 4 -4

• 4

0 4

0 . 4 e s

1 / 1

, /

r 1 0 . 4 0 -1

S n

,

4

t1 rn . • r n e l e l C )

o

0 0 1

0

0 0 1

4 4

• 1

^.

".

0 1 1

T otal B acked T ools

U tilized U tilized c ores U tilized s mall b lade c ores

T otal W aste

T otal u tilized

2 29

A rtefacts

r 4 r 4

O ther T ools

44

( m )

0 . 4

T otal s crapers

C) 1,

a nd d epth

4 )

o 0 4

0

0

0

0

e l e l

0

C D •

C D

0

r n

0 ,

. 6 4

I n

4 « ,1

0 0 . 0 0

0 C h ^ . C )

e i

r ^ ) In 4 r 1 I n

e n

r n r, 4 4 6 4 , 4

r,

C .

0

v )•

r i r n

0 0

, 4

I n

e V

e n I n

r i I %

0

0

O h • u D r,

I n

I n

C D

0 C D 4 A

A

r , O h

1 4 1

h,

• • 1 1 C ) m e l C D r 1 C D 6 4

rl

•

R avenscraig R ock S helter:

• • 14 . 1

•

,0

6 4

m

rn • •

( ^ 4

•

t h I 0

0

0

A

C D

0 0

• •

0 0

• 4

1 1

I n

, 0

I n

1 7 4

I n• V D e t

u p r , C h 0 3 A

•

I N

V ,

r 4

C D c o

0 0 . 1 4 4

•

0 0 • • 4

1 C D u D C D

4 . 4

I n

0

r,

N .

A

1

A

A

0 , 0

0 ,

• I N

c m V D 4 r i s 4 D r 4

I n

V D / 4 1 0

F . . , D . I

N . • . 1 m . , 0 0

C n

r n O D u i . . C D

m . 4

6 . 4

• I

C D

00 C ,

A

h .

m ‘ 4 0

A

U ,

C . -

C D

• 1 4

( 4 e

• I

r ,

U l u i 1 . 4

. A r , r s 4 4

0

0 ,

C 4 . 4 4

r i

1 "..

N I O h

r,

r 4 . 4

• I

C ) 6 4

-1

4

I n . $ N . .1I n c r , , 0

c 0 e V

F-

C -

N I

r n 0 4 0

2 30

0

0 0

O ther T ools

V I

d c

T otal s crapers

T otal U tilized

U tilized s mall b lade c ores

U tilized f lakes U tilized c hunks U tilized c ores

T otal W aste

0 4 .

T otal B acked T ools

0 C .)

C O 4 . )

o

, 0 0 A

A

Cr,

C J

r n t n

.

0. .

i n

. I r • •

A

A

4 0

,t )

0

A

L i , r • •

4 ,.

0

A

v 4

0 0

r s l • • •

fn

0 0

0 4

v P 4

r • 4 V) C `4

a rtefacts.

r s 1 C h A

•

C 4 0 0 4 V ) t r %

e n

VD

A

A

N

U i

Ui

0 0

.

0 0

4 P 4 ( I

4.1

. 4 0

0

0

I N

c s i

0 0

4 4

s l)

O .

0 l h

I A

3 r • 4 r,4 e n

0

0

0

-1 0

t r %

0

0

0

0

0

0

N

N

I - 0 4 4 r s e

P 4

o

0 . 0 1 ,-

0

c r s

0 0

0 . 0 e n

0 . 0 0

0 • . 0 0

c n

0 . -4

0

v .

cf l

0

c s 4 e n e n

I f i

0

C O

N

0

0

0

I s 1 s .

N N

0 0 P -4

• « . 4

U i

1 ,-

e V

e t

C % ,0 . 4 r n

0 0

•

t r %

c o

c s .

c v

. -4

• s n

4 ) 1 , . .

. 4•

i n

e C P 4

0 0

c n

N

. 4

, . 0

i n - c ,4

0

I n

i n

0

0

• . 1

v .

e n

1 ,1

•

v s

A

•2

A

o

(" 1

A

0 A

A

A

A

0 U i

N .1 N 4 , (V •-.

0

0

0

0

. 4

4 c s i

0 0

c 0

0 . 0 0 • -4

0 .

. 4

t e l C r e

o

t e l V 0

e n

r s i

U i• 0 ,

WI

c r ,

CI

rf l

CO

r • • •

C I . 0

r ,4

e n

C J

0 4 4 0 O H

T otal U tilized

VD

b lade c ores

0

0 0 . . 0 0 . . r n

VD

T otal W aste

o

• • 4, 4 4

0

e n

0 3 r - e n 0

U ntrimmed f lakes

( Continued)

L r t

1 ,

e s e

b lade f lakes

R avenscraig R ock S helter:

•

e .

M I . 3 9 3 t . a C 4 14 1

g i )-41) 4 ) . f l C O

2 31

U M

. 4 0 3 U

O

f )

0

0

e ,

0

,0

4 , e l

9 1 4 1 0 0 4

5 .4) 4 1 1

• 1 1 I

o .

0 0

a l

4 . ) U N I

i n

44

. 4

•

. 0 4

0 1 .1 0 1 4

1 4 1 3 e l . 0 I + . 0

4 4 4 C O 4 1 4 u 4 . 1 u

0

. 1 . 1 1 0 1 6 0 ,1. 1 : 1 0 1 ) U t i 3 C 1. 1 : 1 V I c r i

c o

9 3

4 ) 4 0

°. 13ä a

U l 4 1 t 4

AAA

00

0 F . F . H

. -. 0 1 ,. 4 4 / .

I N 0 . 0

. 4

03

I

0

en en • •

4 › ...

• C .4

.

c t 0

•

0

.

0

e • I

0

•

0

0

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e 4 . 1 e 4 e 4 0 2 4 , 1 4 . 1 4 . 3 4 . 1 . . 1 M = M M 4 3 1 3 9

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ü bO il t o a t

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2 32

i n

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4 4 4

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H

N

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C U

. .

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e-I

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,

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in i e a . : 1 0

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( Continued).

en

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l a

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T otal A rtefacts

• •

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N1 1

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4,

T otal B acked T ools

4

a

B acked t ools

• • •• • •

a .

0 0

. -4

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0 , 0,

T otal U tilized

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c h .

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b lade c ores

. I

0 N

a i s c h 4 , . . . .

U tilized small

0 0 0

In

• -. 1

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( Continued).

R avenscraig R ock S helter:

I N t

0 0 44 , 4

0 0 ( • -•

1 -4

4

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U l 1 . 4

C h C O . 4

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O t

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0 2 r l e l v l o p u l c 4

N

4 0 r , V D

u l , . UI 7 1R M

N

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4 e

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0 0 < 0 1 ri 4 .4 V D r 4

C h 0 3 r l 4 C h . 4 0 e l e l C h vl e l r 4 4 V D r 4

r y 1 1 / 1

C D c CO . 4

1 00,0 1 0190

4

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0

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l e 4

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4 2 r 4 C O . 4 . 4

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VD

C D

, t i n

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4

T otal s crapers

. 13

a l a 4 4

-a

T otal U tilized

ß . l a 4 / 1 • > .

a 4 1 4 0 3 . 4 . .

a 1 4 4 1 . 4 e . 4

T otal s acked T ools

tr l

T otal W aste

0 3

C D r 4 C ) 1 N u l

a nd d epth ( m )

( Continued).

R avenscraig R ock S helter:

N • 4 4 u l

T able 6 9. R avenscraig Rock Shelter. Untrimmed chalcedony f lakes ( unbroken): f requency ( f), arithmetic mean o f l ength, breadth and m aximum l ength.

L ayer

1 2 3 4 5

and ( m)

D epth

( 0,10-0,55) ( 0,55-0,95) ( 0,95-1,55) ( 1,55-2,00) ( 2,00-2,50)

f

Mean

66 2 77 1 67 7 2 2 22

and

d epth

f

( m) 1 2 3 4 5

Mean

2 1,2 1 6,7 1 9,1 1 5,3 1 8,0

Table 70. R avenscraig ( unbroken): f requency and m aximum l ength. L ayer

L ength ( mm)

Rock ( f),

1 07 2 16 1 54 1 41 1 99

Maximum Length ( mm)

2 4,6 1 9,7 2 2,5 1 8,8 1 8,2

1 7,6 1 5 18 1 9,2 14,8 1 7,6

Shelter. Untrimmed hornfels f lakes arithmetic mean o f l ength, breadth

Mean

l ength

Mean

( mm)

( 0,10-0,55) ( 0,55-0,95) ( 0,95-1,55) ( 1,55-2,00) ( 2,00-2,50)

B readth ( mm)

breadth

( mm)

2 1,3 2 7,0 2 3,0 3 7,1 2 7,5

1 9,0 2 5,5 2 2,7 3 2,5 2 4,3

Maximum l ength ( mm) 2 3,4 3 4,9 2 7,4 4 3 11 3 1,1

T able 7 1. R avenscraig Rock Shelter. Scraper l ength: f requency ( f), a rithmetic mean ( X), standard d eviation ( S), standard error o f t he m ean ( SR), s kewness.

L ayer

and

d epth

f

( m) 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4

( 0,15-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,85) ( 0,85-0,90) ( 0,90-0,95) ( 0,95-1,05) ( 1,05-1,10) ( 1,10-1,15) ( 1,15-1,25) ( 1,25-1,30) ( 1,30-1,35) ( 1,35-1,40) ( 1,55-1,75)

x

S

SR

Skewness

mm 8 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 9 9 7 7 6 1 7 7 7 7 1 0 1 0 1 8 5

2 0,5 1 5,2 1 4,8 2 0,2 2 0,2 2 1,6 1 7,7 2 5,6 2 4,5 2 3,3 2 2,6 2 3,4 2 3,0 2 6,8 2 5,1 2 4,3 2 4,6

5 ,1 4 ,4 2 ,7 8 ,2 7 ,3 6 ,0 5 ,4 3 ,9 4 ,8 5 ,1 4 ,0 5 ,4 4 ,3 5 ,3 3 ,6 6 ,2 9 ,4

2 35

1 ,8 1 ,3 0 ,8 2 ,4 1 ,4 2 ,0 2 ,1 1 ,5 2 ,0 1 ,2 1 ,5 2 ,0 1 ,6 1 ,7 1 ,2 1 ,5 4 ,2

1 ,9 1 ,6 -0,1 0 ,7 0 ,9 0 ,5 0 ,6 0 ,0 -0,8 0 ,3 -0,4 -1,3 0 ,5 -0,8 -0,9 -0,3 0 ,7

Table 72. Ravenscraig Rock Shelter. quency ( f), arithmetic m ean ( X), s tandard error o f t he mean ( Si), s kewness.

L ayer and

s r c

d epth

S kewness,

mm

( m) 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4

Scraper breadth: f redeviation ( S), s tandard

( 0,15-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,85) ( 0,85-0,90) ( 0,90-0,95) ( 0,95-1,05) ( 1,05-1,10) ( 1,10-1,15) ( 1,15-1,20) ( 1,25-1,30) ( 1,30-1,35) ( 1,35-1,40) ( 1,55-1,75)

8 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 9 9 7 7 6 1 7 7 7 7 1 0 1 0 1 8 5

1 6,4 1 4,0 1 3,8 1 6,8 1 5,2 1 7,3 1 5,7 1 9,0 1 8,0 1 6,4 1 6,3 1 7 /1 0 1 6,9 1 9,8 1 7,1 1 8,3 1 5,2

3 ,7 3 ,1 3 ,9 4 ,9 3 ,4 4 ,0 2 ,7 3 ,4 3 ,1 3 ,2 2 ,2 1 ,8 2 ,0 2 ,9 3 ,4 3 ,2 2 ,3

1 ,3 0 ,9 1 ,1 1 ,4 0 ,6 1 ,3 1/0 1 ,3 1 ,3 0 ,8 018 0 ,7 0 ,7 0 ,9 1 ,1 0 ,8 1 ,0

0 ,9 1 ,4 0 ,3 1 ,9 0 ,4 0 ,9 1 ,4 -0,2 0 ,6 -0,9 1 3,0 -0,8 0 ,8 -0,6 1,0 0,1 2 ,3

T able 7 3. R avenscraig Rock S helter. S craper h eight: f requency ( f), a rithmetic mean ( 7), standard deviation ( S), standard e rror o f t he m ean ( Si), s kewness. L ayer

and

d epth

S i

1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4

( 0,15-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,70) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,85) ( 0,85-0,90) ( 0,90-0,95) ( 0,95-1,05) ( 1,05-1,10) ( 1,10-1,15) ( 1,15-1,25) ( 1,25-1,30) ( 1,30-1,35) ( 1,35-1,40) ( 1,55-1,75)

S kewness

mm

( m) 8 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 9 9 7 7 6 1 7 7 7 7 1 0 1 0 1 8 5

6 ,3 3 ,6 4 ,3 7 ,1 5 ,4 6 ,2 5 ,6 7 ,1 6 ,8 9 ,5 7 ,7 9 ,0 6 ,7 9 ,2 9 ,4 8 ,0 1 1,4

2 36

2 ,0 1 ,2 1 ,7 4 ,4 2 ,4 1 ,4 2 ,7 2 ,1 1 ,2 3 ,6 4 ,5 2 ,0 1 ,5 2 ,1 2 ,0 3/0 5 ,6

0 ,7 0 ,4 0 ,5 1 ,3 0 ,1 0 ,5 1 ,0 0 ,8 0 ,5 0 ,9 11 7 0 ,8 0 ,6 0 ,7 0 ,6 0 ,7 2 ,5

4 ,0 2 ,7 -0,2 2 ,5 1 ,0 -0,2 1 ,6 -0,3 -0,7 0 ,8 1 ,1 -0,5 0 ,3 -0,3 0,9 0 ,4 0 ,5

breadth T able 7 4. R avenscraig Rock S helter. S craper l ength x 1 00 : f requency ( f), arithmetic mean ( 3 E), standard deviation ( s), s tandard error o f t he mean ( S7), skewness. L ayer

a nd

d epth

f

x

( m)

S

s 7

S kewness

m m

1 ( 0,15-0,45) 1 ( 0,45-0,50)

8 1 1

8 1,9 94,6

1 9,4 2 9,6

6 ,9 8 ,9

1 ,3 0 ,2

1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4

1 2 1 2 2 9 9 7 7 6 1 7 7 7 7 1 0 1 0 1 8 5

9 3,7 9 2,0 8 1,7 84,7 9 5,9 7 5,1 7 4,3 7 2,7 7 4,6 7 8,9 7 5,4 74,9 6 8,1 7 8,3 6 6,6

2 4,1 3 3,5 2 7,1 2 8,4 3 2,9 1 3,9 8 ,3 1 7,7 1 8,6 3 1,2 1 5,0 7 ,4 1 0,6 1 4,8 1 7,4

7 ,0 9 ,7 5 ,0 9 ,5 1 2,5 5 ,2 3 ,4 4 ,2 7 ,0 1 1,8 5 ,7 2 ,3 3 ,3 3 ,5 7 ,8

0 ,4 0 ,6 1 ,2 2 ,2 0 ,7 0 ,5 1,0 -0,3 0 ,3 2 ,1 1,1 -0,4 0 ,8 0 ,3 0 ,3

( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,85) ( 0,85-0,90) ( 0,90-0,95) ( 0,95-1,05) ( 1,05-1,10) ( 1,10-1,15) ( 1,15-1,25) ( 1,25-1,30) ( 1,30-1,35) ( 1,35-1,40) ( 1,55-1,75)

T able

L ayer

7 5.

and

R avenscraig

d epth

Rock

S helter.

f

( m) 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4

( 0,15-0,45) ( 0,45-0,50) ( 0,50-0,55) ( 0,55-0,60) ( 0,60-0,65) ( 0,70-0,75) ( 0,75-0,85) ( 0,85-0,90) ( 0,90-0,95) ( 0,95-1,05) ( 1,05-1,10) ( 1,10-1,15) ( 1,15-1,20) ( 1,25-1,30) ( 1,30-1,35) ( 1,35-1,40) ( 1,55-1,75)

S crapers:

Mean

mass.

Mean

m ass

( g) 8 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 9 9 7 7 6 1 7 7 7 7 1 0 1 0 1 8 5

2 37

3 ,1 1 ,0 1 ,1 2 ,6 2 ,2 2 ,4 2 ,6 4 ,1 4 ,2 4 ,4 3 ,6 4 ,1 3 ,7 6 ,0 4 ,8 5 ,1 4 ,3

s craper s amples.

0

0

2 2a 1 0 p

C e l

,

0

4 1

0

0

0

0

0 0

0 . 02g0

0

0 0

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0 a l 0

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0 1

p a 0

0

0

2 p a n a

0

0

P a

0

0

V I $ 4 t o

n a

P a 0

0

4 ,a g og , 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

n a

c f l

0

0

0 0

0 0 O 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 O 0 0 I 1 1 . 1 . 4 O 0 0 1 4 4 4 4 1 1 4 1

0

0 0

p a c o p a

o o

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

P a 0 0 12

0 0

• • 0 C Q

0

0

0

0 1 0

0

0 0 , 0

• A, 0 r -4

U l

0 •4

r 4 1

2 38

3 ( 1,30-1,35)

▪ 0,

3 ( 1,25-1,30)

3 ( 0,95-1,05)

• •

2 ( 0,85-0,90)

0 L e l

2 ( 0,75-0,85)

2 ( 0,55-0,60)

0

1 ( 0,45-0,50)

T able

7 6.

R avenscraig R ock S helter.

0

g o a 0

0 00

0

•

. •

2

4 (1,55-1,75)

0

0

0

0 0 1

1 0

0 0

0

1 0 . 2 =00

0e

0

0

0 0

M I

0 e a

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0

0 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

4 4 . 4 4 1 S I 1 / >

0

3 (1,35-1,40)

▪ p • 0 • •. I

0

1 0

1 0 0

0

0

1 0 1 0 C O C O 0

,2 C O 0 0 4

0 0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0

1 0

1 0 . 0 200 1 0

0

0

• • • U ( J O O 0 • S I 4 1 • x l 4 41 4 . 4 1 4 4 9 4 O 0 0 O 0 0 • C I

0 0

0 0

0 0

I r I 0

0

0 C I R I

R I

0 0 • 0 0

0

o f

U SJ

0

1 0

O f t

0

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

0

1 0

C O

1 0

0 0

10

0

r n

0

0

1 0 1 0 0 2 0

0

1 ( 0,50-0,55)

0

2 c o

0

0 0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0

0

0

I n 0

0

0

0 0

0 0

C O

0

10

0

0

0

00

0 0

1 0

0 0

1 0

0 0

1 0

C O 0

0

1

• 1

•

t n

e l

▪ U O 5

0 0 5

I S I 0 0 0 0 5 14

0

C O 0

0 0

0 0

C O 0

0 0

C O

0

0 0 0 3 0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0 0

C O

0

0

0 0

1 0

1 0

C s i

0 0

2 39

t n

••

••

1 0

O

0

0

C O 0

0

1 0

0

10

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 C O 1 4 C O

1 ( 0,45-0,50)

0

1 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

0 0

2 ( 0,90-0,95)

0 1

1 0

0

2 ( 0,70-0,75)

c o

1 0 1 0

D O

1

O e 0g e 2 0 • r i l • 4

1 0 1 0 l C O C O e

2 ( 0,60-0,65)

1 0 1 0

1 ( 0,15-0,45)

3 (1,25-1,30) 3 (1,15-1,25) 3 (1,05-1,10)

R avenscrai2 R ock S helter.

1 0

1 0

0

U

'333 e o , 92 4 • N • p l 4 4 4

0

• 1 1

0

4 1 . 3

0

•• • • •

U l 0

1 0 • -I

1 0

••

3 7:1

••

1 0

T able

7 7.

L ayer

and

Ravenscraig

depth

Rock

Shelter.

Chalcedony

S crapers:

r aw

Hornfels

Other

f

f

materials.

Total

( m)

f

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

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