The land & the peasant in Rumania the war and agrarian reform 1917-1921

Citation preview

Public at io n s

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C a r n e gi e E n d o w m e n t fo r I n t e r n a t i o n a l P e a c e D ivis io n

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f E co n omics

an d

H is t ory

E C O NO M IC A N D S O C I A L

W O R L D WA R

O F TH E A M E S T J

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H I ST O R Y

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H O TWE L L

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LL D .

Gener a l E d i t ar

R um a n i an S e r i e s D A V I D M I T R A N Y, P H D .

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T HE

T HE P E A S A NT

AND

I N RU M A N I A T HE

WA R

RE F O R M

A ND A G RA R I A N

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DA VID MITRA NY PH D .

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( Lond on )

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( Ec on

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HU M P HRE Y M I L F O R D

O XF O R D U N I V ERS I T NEW

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H A V EN

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U N I V E RSI T Y P RES S

P

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d i n G rea t

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P RO FE S S O R 1

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8 64— 1 9 2 9

E D I TOR S ’

P R E F A CE

the a utumn of 1 9 1 45 when the sci en t ifi c study of the effects of w ar upon modern life p a ssed suddenly from theory to hi story the Division of Economics a n d History of the Ca rnegie Endow ment for Intern a tion a l Pea ce proposed to a dj ust the progra mme of its resea rches to the new a n d a ltered problems which the Wa r presented Th e existin g progra mm e whi ch h a d b een prep a red a s the resul t of a conference of economists held a t B erne in 1 9 1 1 a n d which de a lt with the f a cts then a t h a nd h a d j ust begun to show the qu a lity of its contributions ; but for m a ny rea sons it could no longer be followed out A pl a n w a s therefore dra wn up a t the request of the Director of the Di vi sion in which it w a s proposed by me a ns of a n historica l survey t o a ttemp t to me a sure the economic cost of the Wa r a n d the displa cement w hi ch it w a s c a usin g in the proces ses of civili z a tion Such a n Econo mic a n d S ocia l History of the World Wa r it w a s felt if underta ken by men of j udicia l temper a n d a dequ a te tra in ing might ultim a tely by rea son of its s ci en t ifi c ob liga tions to truth furnish d a t a for the forming of sound publi c opini on a n d thus contribute fun d a ment a lly tow a rds the a ims of a n institution dedic a ted to the c a use of intern a tion a l p e a ce The need for such a n a n a lysis conceived a n d executed in the spirit of hi s torica l rese a rch wa s in cre a sin gly obvious a s the Wa r developed rele a sin g complex forces of na tion a l life not only for the va st process of destruction but a lso for the stim ul a tion of new c a p a cities for production Thi s new economic a ctivity which under norm a l conditions of pe a ce might ha ve b een a g a in to society a n d the surprising c a p a city exhibited by the b elligerent n a tions for enduring long a n d increa sing loss — often while pre sentin g the outw a rd sembla nce of new prosperity— m a de neces sa ry a reconsider a tion of the whole fi e ld of w a r economics A double IN

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viii

EDITOR S PREFACE ’

ob liga tion w a s therefore pla ced upon the Division of Economics an d History It w a s oblig ed to concentra te its work upon the problem thus presented a n d to study it a s a whole ; in other words to a pply to it the tests an d disciplines of history J ust a s the Wa r itself w a s a single event though penetra ting by seem i n gly unconnected w a ys to the remotest p a rt s of the world so the a n a lysis of it must b e developed a ccording to a pl a n a t once a ll embr a cing a n d yet a dj usta ble to the pra ctic a l limits of th e a v a il a ble d a t a During the a ctu a l progress of the Wa r however the execution of this pl a n for a s ci en t ifi c a n d obj ective study of w a r econo mi cs proved impossible in a n y l a rge a n d a uthorit a tive w a y Incident a l studies a n d surveys of portions of the fi eld could b e m a de a n d were m a de under the direction of the Di vision but it w a s impossible to underta ke a genera l history for obvious rea sons In the fi r st pl a ce a n a uthorit a tive st a tement of the resources of b elli gerents bore dir ectly on the conduct of a rmies in the fi eld The result w a s to remove a s fa r a s possible from scrutiny those da t a of the econo mi c life of the countries a t w ar which wo ul d ordina rily in time of pe a ce b e re a dily a va il a ble for in vestiga tion In a d di tion to t hi s d i ffi cult y of consulting documents coll a bor a tors competent to de a l with them were for the most p a rt c a lled i nto n a tion a l service in the b elligerent countrie s a n d so were un a va il a ble for res ea rch The pl a n for a w a r history w a s therefore postponed un til con di tions should a rise which would m a ke possible not only a ccess to essenti a l documents but a lso the co opera tion of economists histori a ns a n d men of a ffa irs in the n a tions chiefly concerned whose j oint work would not b e misunderstood either in purpose or in content Upon the termina tion of the Wa r the Endowment once more took up the origin a l pl a n a n d it wa s found wi th but slight m od ifi ca t ion to b e a pplic a ble to the situ a tion Work w a s begun in the summer a n d a utumn of 1 9 1 9 In the fi rst pl a ce .

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ED ITOR S P REFA C E ’

ix

fi na l

conference of the Advisory B o a rd of Economists of the Divi s ion of Economics a n d History w a s held in Pa ris which li mited itself to pl a nning a series of short prelim i n a ry surveys of speci a l fi eld s S ince however the purely preli min a ry ch a ra cter of such studies w a s further emph a sized by the f a ct th a t they were directed more e s peci a lly towa rds those problems which were then frontin g Eur ope a s questions of urgency it w a s considered b est not to tre a t them a s p a rt of the genera l s urvey but ra ther a s of contempora ry v a lue in the period of w a r settlement It w a s clea r tha t not only co ul d no genera l progra mme b e l a id down a p ri or i by thi s conference a s a whole but th a t a new an d more highly speci a lized rese a rch org a niz a tion th a n th a t a lre a dy existing wo ul d be needed to undert a ke the Economic a n d S oci a l History of t h e Wa r one b a sed more upon n a tion a l grounds in the fi r st inst a nce Until the f a cts a n d less upon purely interna tion a l c o oper a tion of n a tion a l history could b e a sce rt a ined it would b e impo s sible to proceed with comp a ra tive a n a lysis a n d the different n a tion a l histories were themselves of a lmost ba tfli n g intrica cy a n d v a riety Consequently the former Europ ea n Committee of Resea rch w a s di ssolved a n d in its pl a ce it w a s decided to erect a n Editori a l B oa rd in ea ch of the l a rger countries a n d to no m in a te s peci a l editors in the sm a ller ones who should concentra te for the present a t le a st upon their o wn economic a n d soci a l w a r history The nomin a tion of these b o a rds by the Genera l E ditor w a s the fi r st step t a ken in every country where the work h a s b egun And if a n y j ust ifi ca t ion w a s needed for the pl a n of the Endowment it a t once m a y b e found in the lists of those distin guished in schola rship or in public a ffa irs who h a ve a ccepted the responsi bi lit y of editorship Thi s responsibili ty is by no me a ns light i nvolvin g a s it does the a d a pt a tion of the gener a l editori a l pl a n to the va ry ing dem a nds of na tion a l circum st a nces or methods of work a n d the me a sur e of success a tt a ined is due to the generous an d e a rnest c o oper a tion of those in ch a rge in e a ch country

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Once the edi tori a l orga niz a tion w a s est a blished there could b e little doubt a s to the fi rst step which should b e t a ken in e a c h insta nce tow a rd the a ctu a l prep a ra tion of the history Without documents there can b e no history The essentia l records of the Wa r loc a l a s well a s centra l h a ve therefore to b e preser ved a n d to b e m a de a v a il a ble for res ea rch in so fa r a s is comp a tible with publi c interest But t hi s a rchi va l t a sk is a Very grea t one b elonging of right to the governments a n d other owners of hi storic a l sources a n d not to the histori a n or economist who proposes to use them It is a n ob liga tion of own ership for a ll such docum ents a r e publi c trust The colla bora tors on thi s section of the w a r history there fore working within their own fi eld a s resea rchers could o nl y survey the situ a tion a s they found it a n d report their fin di n gs in the form of gui des or m a nu a ls a n d perha ps by stim ula ting a comp a rison of methods help to further the a doption of those found to b e most pra ctica l In every coun try therefore t hi s w a s the point of dep a rture for a ctu a l work ; a lthough speci a l mono gra phs h a ve not been wr itten in every insta nce This fi r st st a ge of the work upon the w a r h istory de a li ng with little more th a n the extern a ls of a rchi ves seemed for a Whi le to exh a ust the possibilities of rese a rch And h a d the pl a n of the history b een li mited to rese a rch b a sed upon offi cia l documents little more could h a ve b een done for once docum ents h a ve b een l a b elled s ecret few government offi cia ls ca n b e foun d with Thus va st s uffi ci en t cour a ge or initi a tive to bre a k open the se a l m a sses of source m a teri a l essenti a l for the histori a n were e ffec t i ve ly pl a ced b eyond his re a ch a lthough much of it w a s qui te h a rmless from a n y point of View W h ile w a r con di tions thus continued to h a mper resea rch an d were likely to do so for m a ny yea rs to come some a ltern a tive h a d to b e found Fortuna tely such a n a ltern a tive w a s a t h a nd in the n a rra tive of those who h a d a mply supported by document a ry evidence pl a yed some p a rt in the conduct of a ffa irs during the Wa r or who .

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EDITOR S P REF A C E ’

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close observers i n pri vi leged positions were a ble to record from fi r st or a t lea st second h a nd knowledge the economi c history of different pha ses of the Grea t Wa r a n d of its effect upon society Thus a series of monogra phs w a s pl a nned consisting for the most p a rt of un offi cial yet a uthorit a tive st a tements descriptive or hi storica l w hi ch m a y b est b e describ ed a s a bout h a lf —w a y b etween memoirs a n d blue books These monogra phs m a ke up the m a in body of the work a ssigned so fa r Th ey a r e not li mited to con tempora ry w a r time studi es for the economic history of the w a r must dea l wi th a longer period th a n tha t of the a ctu a l figh t in g It must cover the yea rs of d e fl a t ion a s well a t lea st suffi ci en t ly to secur e some fa irer mea s ure of the economic displ a cement th a n is possible in purely contempora ry j udgements With thi s ph a se of the work the editori a l problems a ssumed The series of monogra phs h a d to b e pl a nned a new a spect prim a rily with rega rd to the a va il a bility of contributors r a t her tha n of sour ce m a teri a l a s in the ca se of most histories for the contributors themselves controlled the source s This in turn involved a new a ttitude towa rds tho s e two idea ls w hi ch histori a ns ha ve sought to emph a size consistency a n d obj ectivi ty In order to brin g out the chief contribution of e a ch writer it w a s impossible to keep withi n n a rrowly logic a l outlin es fa cts wo ul d h a ve to b e repe a ted in di fferent settings a n d seen from di fferent a ngles a n d sections included which do not lie within the strict li mits of history a n d a bsolute obj ecti vity could not b e obt a ined in every p a rt Under the stress of controversy or a pology p a rti a l Views would here a n d there fi n d their expression But these Views a r e in some inst a nces a n intrinsic p a rt of the history itself contempora ry me a surements of fa cts a s sign ifi ca n t a s the fa cts with which they de a l Moreover the work a s a whole is pl a nned to furnish its own corrective an d where it does not others will In a ddition to this monogra phic trea tment of source m a teri a l a numb er of studies by sp eci a lists is a lr e a dy in prep a r a ti on as

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xii

EDITOR

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de a lin g with technic a l or limited subj ects historic a l or st a tistica l These monogra phs a lso p a rt a ke to some extent of the n a ture of fi r st h a nd m a teri a l registering a s they do the d a t a of history clos e enough to the source to p ermit ver ifi ca t i on in w a ys im p ossible l a ter But they a lso belong to th a t constructive process by which history p a sses from a na lysis to synthesis The process is a long a n d d i ffi cult one however a n d work upon it h a s only j ust b egun To quote a n a pt ch a ra cteriz a tion in the fi r st st a ges of a history like thi s one is o nl y pickin g cotton The t a ngled threa ds of events h a ve still to b e woven into the p a ttern of history a n d for this crea tive a n d constructive work different pla ns a n d orga niz a tions m a y b e needed In a work which is the product of so complex a n d v a ried co opera tion a s this it is impossible to indi c a te in a n y but a most genera l w a the a pportionment of responsibility of editors y a n d a uthors for the contents of the different monogr a phs For the pl a n of the History a s a whole a n d its effective execution the Genera l Editor is responsible but the a rra ngement of the det a iled progra mmes of study h a s b een l a rgely the work of the different Editoria l B oa rds an d division a l E ditors who h a ve a lso rea d the ma nuscripts prep a red under their direction The a ccepta nce of a monogr a ph in this series however does not commit the editors to the O p i nions or conclusions of the a uthors Like other editors they a r e a sked to vouch for the s ci en t ifi c merit the a ppropri a te ness a n d usefulness of the volumes a dmitted to the series ; but the a uthors a r e n a tura lly free to m a ke their individua l con t r i bu tions in their own w a y In like m a nner the public a tion of the monogra ph s doe s not co m mit the Endowment to a greement with a n y sp ecifi c conclusions which ma y b e expressed therein The responsibility of the Endowment is to History itself— a n ob liga tion not to a void but to secure a n d preserve v a ria nt n a rr a t i ve s a n d points of View in so fa r a s they a r e e s senti a l for the underst a nding of the Wa r a s a whole ,

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EDITOR S P REF A C E ’

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present volume c a ll s for speci a l editori a l comment There a re two w a ys to de a l with the problems covered by the Economic There is on the one h a n d a n d Soci a l History of the World Wa r the close a n a lysis of the immed ia te effects the tre a tment of events in their own set ting without reg a rd to their historic a l a ntecedents or their effects upon the subsequent developments of economic or soci a l life ; on the other h a nd there is the purely historic a l tre a t ment which pl a ces the events of the Wa r in the long per s pective of n a tion a l development a n d follows the story through slo w a n d com plic ated processes of recovery The Economic a n d S oci a l History of the World War cont a in s b oth types of a n a lysis ; the strictly limited study of w a r time phenomen a a n d the surveys which present not only the det a i l of co n tempora ry h a ppeni n gs but a n interpret ation of their me a ning Thi s study is of the l a tter type An d the f a ct th a t it is l a rgely a pioneer explor a tion i n a n a re a a s yet not well d efi n e d in either theory or pr a ctice h a s m a de it n e ce s s a ry to describe the historic a l b a ckground of the problem i n a lmost a s gre a t det a il a s the problem itse lf Mr Mit r an y h a s in a truly s ci en t i fi c spir it a ttempted to de a l with the a gr a ri a n problem of south e a stern Europ e a s it h a s sh a ped itself under v a ryi ng pressures of w ar an d politics It is a l a rge c a nva s which h a s here been filled with the fi gur es of those in a rticul a te m a s s es of men an d women to whose f a te the hi s tori a n h a s bee n a s often indifferent a s the poli t ici an h a s been un j ust At l a st i n this volum e the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt spe a ks for himself to the whole world An d his ple a for soci a l economic a n d politic a l j ustice i s in its very n a ture a force which m a kes for pe a ce There i s therefore a n a dded re a son for includi n g in this series the volume which m a kes this a ppe a l in t elli i b l n glish re a ders e to E g Th e

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A U TH O R S P R E F ACE ’

The a gra ri a n reform described in this volum e w a s a result of the World Wa r in the s a me sense a s w a s the Russi a n Revolution The slow a ction of centuries cre a ted the conditions which m a de such a n outcome poss i ble a n d the shock of the Gre a t Wa r sh a t t er e d the soci a l structur e of e a stern Eur ope a t its we a kest j oint In the potency of the i r contribution to th a t effect Wa r an d history perh aps h a d a n equ a l sh a re Inevit a bly however there is more to b e told a bout the slow work of history th a n a bout the st a rk blow of the Wa r For the proper underst a nding of the reform this study therefore h a d to go b eyond the lim its of the Wa r ye a rs Its re a l me a nin g could not h a ve b een m a de cle a r without proj ect i n g the reform a g a in st its historic a l b a ckgroun d esp eci a lly a s writers on south e a stern Europ e h a ve been so engrossed with its politics hitherto a s to give sc a nt a ttention to soci a l h istory For the s a me re a son the study h a d to t a ke i n a num b er of post w a r ye a rs the a pplic a tion of the reform itself took a numb er of ye a rs to complete a n d its effects to b e mea sured with a n y solidity h a d to b e observed over a s long a p eriod a s possible This method imposed itself— p a ra doxic a l though it m a y sound j ust b ec a use in this c a se the effect of the Wa r w a s so deep Where the Wa r merely c a used some tr a ns i ent body to b e set up like the Allied Shipping B o a rd or some existing pr a ct i ce to be tempora rily suspended like the p a rli a ment a ry control of ex n d it ur e i t s effect w a s simple d i rect a n d co extensive in time e p a n d could be pl a ced ni cely within the fr a mework of the Wa r But such limits wo ul d h a ve been a ltogether a rt ifi ci a l a n d dis t or t i n g for the description of a n effect which h as revolutionized the whole soci a l progress of a n a tion The poi n t is still more evident when on e considers not effects but c a uses of w a r Speci a l w a r bo a rds a n d exception a l w a r rules h a ve no pl a ce in the l a tter c a tegory a t a ll They a r e merely a djun cts in the conduct of w a r but a r e neither produced b n or y do they revise the issues whi ch un derlie the c onfl i ct Not s o ,

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AUTHOR S P REF A C E ’

xvi

with the soci a l found a tions of St a tes They a r e b oth the wa rp a n d the weft a s c a uses a s effects from whi ch is woven the p rogress of the n a tions through w ar a n d pe a ce If it is cert a in th a t without the Wa r those sweeping soci a l ch a nges wo ul d not h a ve occur red who could tell if the Wa r itself would h a ve h a ppened were e a stern Eur op e to h a ve h a d a different soci a l history ? There a r e two a spects of this study on which it might be a s well to say a word here One is the mood of the historic a l p a rt of the n a rra tive The picture dra wn in th a t p a rt is s o d a rk — a n a lmost without h lf lights th t it possibly strike the a m a a y y gener a l re a der a s bi a ssed Yet it is j ust a s likely I fe a r th a t those who h a ve b een sp ect a tors of the un bri dl ed m a nn er i n which the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt s power of work a n d gentlen ess of temper were a bused b efore the Wa r m a y ra ther repro a ch me with a pp e a ring to m a ke light of a gre a t wrong by sp e a king of it in too me a sured tones T h e second poin t concerns the st a tistic a l an d sociologic a l m a teri a l used in this study In a letter to his friend S uvor in written in the nineties Chekhov compl a i n ed th a t in Russi a there is a terrible de a rth of f a cts a n d a terrible a bund a nce of Since th a t time the z emstvo w orkers s pecul a tions of a ll sorts h a ve provided Russi a with the most el a bora te a gr a ri a n st a tistics a n d soci a l studies of a n y country the United St a tes excepted But Chekhov s rem a rk a pplies with di s tressing a ccur a cy t o Rum a ni a Her a gra ri a n a n d soci a l st a tistics h a ve never yet b een t a ken seriously by those responsible for the budget of the st a tistic a l services I a m con sci o us therefore of m a ny short comings which might h a ve b een m a de goo d if the me a ns a t the dispos a l of the offi ci als concerned h a d b een equ a l to their a bility a n d goodwill Rese a rch for this study h a ving stretched over a number of ye a rs with severa l spells of work in the fi eld it will b e evident th a t I h a ve received inform a tion a n d a ssist a nce from m a ny more p eople th a n I could publicly th a nk here The kindness of ,

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members of the former Rum a ni a n Government— M Vintil a Br ati a nu M I Duc a M C Argen t o ia n u a n d M G Cipaian u a s well a s of the present Min ister of Agriculture M I Mih a la ch e m a de it possible for me to obt a in help from dep a rtments a lre a dy overburdened with work I owe immens e gr a titude for their unstinted help to my friend Genera l R a du Rosett i son of the distinguished histori a n of the a gr a ri a n question t o Dr Gr An t i pa Director of the N a tur a l Science Museum a n d to Pro fe ssor G Ionescu Sise s ti D i rector of the Institute of Agronomic Rese a rch I a m deeply i n debted to the indefa tiga ble genera l secret a ry of the Rum a ni a n Ac a demy Professor I Bi a nu a n d to the st a ff of the Ac a demy s re a ding room for much courtesy a n d help ; a n d likewise t o Dr Gheron Nett a Director of the Rum a n i a n E conomic Institute a n d his a ssist a nts I h a ve received much encour a gement from my friend Professor Dimitrie Gusti President of the Rum a ni a n Soci a l Institute Profe s sor Al N a st a Director of the Centra l Resettlement Otfi ce a n d his N Ch i toi u h a ve given me a ll the a i d in their a ssist a nt M power I h a ve received a lso most willing help from MM P R os ia d e I Lup a n a n d E F ilot t i of the Ministry of Agriculture ; E M a ri a n a n d F K eme n y techn ic a l exp erts to a n d from M the S am an t a comp a ny My friend M E m a n oil B ucuta never f a iled to reply to a letter a n d to give all the help he co ul d a s did a lso my friend M Aurelin Pop escu now Commerci a l Att a ch é in Pa ris a n d M I Coler editori a l secret a ry of the Adevém l In this country I h a ve received from Mr C S Orwi n Director of the Oxford Institute of Agric ul tura l Economics v a lu a ble a dvice for the solution of cert a i n d i ffi cu l t i es in the tr a nsl a tion of technic a l terms a n d he h a s a lso been kind enough to re a d in proof the ch a pters on Production Dr G P a vlovs k y h a s pre p a red the Index .

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D M .

K I NG S T O N B L O U N T O X F O R D ,

Decemb er 1 929

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C ONTE NTS I NTR O D U CT I O N :

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F oun d a t io n o f t h e r i n ci a l it i es R e l a t ion s e t we en r in ce s a n d c n e 2 1 e r c l a ss Th e e m e r ge n ce of a n u Th e egin n in gs o f s e r f o m Th e l oss o f fr e e om Th e i n c r e a se i n s e r v i tu e s Th e l im i t a t i o n o f t h e r ig t t o l a n Th e r a e o f e om a n l a n

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I II NA T I O NA L I N D E P E N D E NC E AN D T I O N OF THE P E A S AN T S 1 Th e n e w fa c t o r s 2 Th e r e fo r m o f 1 8 6 4 Th e n a t u r e o f t h e r e fo r m Th e b a ck g r o un d o f t h e r e fo r m 3 P r a c t i c a l e ffe ct s o f t h e r e fo r m .

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FO R M PO L I T I CA L H I S T O R Y

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b a sis o f t h e r efo r m L egis l a t i v e e v o l ut io n of t h e p r op osa l s Th e p e a s a n t is t i n t e rl u d e Th e s e c o n d e xp r o p r i a t i on

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C o l on i z a t i on Th e p r o b l e m o f co m p e n s a t ion Th e e xp r o p r ia t i on p r i ce Th e 1 e s ett le m e n t p r i c e Me a s ui e s for t h e p r o t e c t io n o f p r o d u c t i on Th e a s s o c ia t i o n s o f r e s e ttl e m e n t Th e cu lt i v a t i o n of n e w h o l d in gs Me a su r es f0 1 s a fegu a r d in g p ea sa n t p r op er t y C on so li d a t ion Th e m a i n t e n a n c e o f p e a s a n t ho l d in gs I n h e r it a n ce S a l e a n d m o rt ga ge o f ho l d i n gs Th e r e s t 1 1c t 1 o n o f l a r ge p r o p e rt y V a r i a t ion s i n t h e s e v e r a l l a n d l a ws Th e m a i n d iffe r e n ce s N a t i on a l is t t e n d e n c i e s

1

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A PP L I CA T I O N OF THE R E FO R M AN D THE E FF E C T S O F THE R E FO R M ON THE T I O N OF L A ND P R OP E R T Y Th e c h a n ge i n t h e O l d K i n gd o m Th e e xp r o p r ia t ion Th e r e s e ttl e m e n t C r it ic is m s o f a pp l ica t io n Th e e ffe ct s o f r e fo r m i n t h e n e w p r o vm ce s B e s s a r a b ia B u co v i n a

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T r a ns y l v a n i a Th e c h a n ge i n

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t ion a l i t i e s 3 S u mm a r y o f t h e e ffe c t o f t he r e fo r m o n t h e d i s tr i but i o n o f l a n d p r o p e rt y V I I I THE E FF E C T S OF THE R E F OR M ON TH E O R GAN I ZA T I O N OF P A R MI N G 1 C h an ge s in t h e scale of a gr i cu ltu r a l e xp l oi t a t ion s 2 C h a n ge s i n t h e m e a ns o f p r o d uc t i on I X THE E FF E C T S OF THE R E F OR M ON P R O D U C T I O N 1 Th e c h a n ge i n t h e d is tr i bu t i on o f c r o p s 2 P r e s e n t p o s i t i o n a n d t h e fu tu r e o f w h e a t a n d m a i z e W h ea t na

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C re d it e o op e ra t i v e s F e d e r a l s of p o pu l a r b a n k s C e n tr a l of p o p u l a r b a n k s C o n s um e r s co o p e r a t i v e s a n d co op e ra t l ve s o f p r o duce r s Co o p e r a t i v es of p r o d uct ion A gr i cu ltu r a l co o p e r a t io n L a n dh ol d in g s ocie t ies L a n d p u r c h a s e s oc ie t ies A gr icu ltu r a l s ocie t ie s Co o p e r a t i on i n t h e n e w p r o v i n ce s Th e S t a t e a n d e o o p e r a t ion Th e n e w c o o p e r a t i v e c o d e THE E FFE C T S OF THE S T A TE S E C O N O MI C AN D F INANC I A L PO L I C Y U PO N THE W O R K I N G OF THE -

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XI

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R E F OR M

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1

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r e s ou r ces of a gr icu ltu r e Wo r k in g ca p i t a l a s a ffe ct e d by r e fo r m Th e s upp l y of a gr icu lt u r a l c r e d i t

Th e

xx

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XII

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CONTENT S o f a gr i cu lt u r e r r i a n is m ? ‘

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THE S C I A R E F OR M

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u r b a n l ife a n d i n s t i tu t ion s i n t h e Vi l l a ge Th e e con o m i c s i t u a t i on o f t h e p e a sa n tr y Ma t e r ia l co n d i t ion s o f l ife ( a ) H ous i n g ( b) A l im e n t a t io n ( c ) A l co h o l is m H e a lt h a n d Vi t a l s t a t is t ics Cu ltu r a l a n d p s y c h o l ogi ca l c h a n ge s ( a ) E duc a t io n E l e m e n t a r y e d u ca t i on P r o fe s sion a l e duca t ion A du lt e d uca t io n S o ci a l S oc ia l

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C O NC L U S I O N A PP E N D I X I T r a d i t ion a l fo r m s of j oin t l an dho l din g I I Mét a y a ge i n r um a n ia n a gr icu ltu re I I I Th e fi n a n c i a l a cc ou n t s o f t h e r e fo r m .

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B IB

L I O GR A P H Y

INDEX MA P S

P hy Th e

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of

R u m a n ia

t o f t h e r e fo r m on t h e d i s tr i but io n of a r a b l e p r op e rt y

a t en d

E X PL A N A T OR Y 1

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Geograp hi ca l N a mes

N O TE S

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ph i ca l n a m es a r e use d h e r e i n a cco r d a n ce wit h R u m a n ia n Th e p r o v i n c e ge n e r a ll y ca l l e d W a ll a c h i a i s a l w a y s r efe rr e d cu s t o m t o i n R um a n i a n a s flI un ten i a a n d t h i s fo r m i s a d o p t e d i n t h e fo l l owi n g p a ge s Mun t e n i a i n c l u d e d Olt e n i a Mo l d a v i a i n c l u d e d B u co v i n a u n t i l 1 7 7 4 a n d B e s s a r a b i a u n t i l 1 8 1 2 a n d a ga i n b e t w e e n 1 8 5 6 a d 1 8 7 8 D ob r ogea i s h e r e u s e d i n i t s R um a n i a n fo r m a n d n ot i n t h e m o r e h a b i t ua l co rrup t fo r m s Do br ud s h a or Dobr ud j a wi t h t h e Tu r k is h t e rmi n a tio n It w a s a cqui r e d by R um a n i a i n 1 8 7 8 a n d it s s out h e r n p a rt kn own a s t h e Qua d r i l a t e r a l fro m B u l ga r ia i n 1 9 1 3 F or t h e s a k e o f c o n v e n i e n c e a ll t h e n e w t e rr i t o r y b e y on d t h e C a r p a t h ia n s a c qui r e d by R um a n i a a ft e r t h e W a r i s r e fe rr e d t o a s T r a n s y l v a n ia t h ough it i n c l ud e s p a rt of t h e B a n a t ( of Te m e s v ar ) a s we l l a s t h e p r o v i nc e s k n own a s C r i sa n a a n d Ma r a mu r e s Ge o gr a .

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r e a d e r w h o m a y h a v e o cca s io n t o r e fe r t o t h e o r igin a l s ou r ce s wi l l fin d i n t h e m t w o t e r m s w h ic h d o n o t a pp e a r i n t h es e p a ges a n d w h i c h h a v e n o e qu i v a l en t i n E n g l i s h u s a ge I mp r op r i etd r i r e i n R um a n i a n d es ign a t e s t h e o pp o s it e o p e r a t i o n t o e xp r o p r i a t i o n i e t h e p a r c e l l i n g o ut a m o n g t h e p e a s a n t s o f t h e l a n d t a k e n o v e r fr o m t h e l a n d own e r s ; b ot h op e r a t ions we r e To r e n d e r t h e wo r d c a rr ie d out by t h e S t a t e o n a n a t ion a l s c a l e i n t o E n gl i s h a s i m p r o p r i a t i o n wou l d h a v e b e e n t o gi v e a n a lt o ge t h e r n e w s e n se t o a n old t e r m : t o i m p r o p r i a t e m e a n i n g i n E n gl i s h t o p u t t h e p o s s ess i on s o f t h e C h u r c h i n t o t h e h a n d s o f la i ck s ( D r J o h n so n ) Th e r e fo r e i mp r op r i etd r i r e h a s b e e n r e n d e re d he r e a s by a n a l ogy wi t h t h e c l os e r us e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e a ct ion o f p ub l ic a ut ho r i t ie s se ttl e m e n t w h i c h a c qui r e l a r ge o r m e d iu m s i z e d fa r m s a n d s p l i t t h e m i n t o s m a ll h o l d i n gs Coma s a re i n R u m a n i a n d e s c r i b es a n o p e r a t ion w h ic h h a s n o p a r a l l e l i n E n gl is h a gr a r i a n h is t o r y n a m e l y t h e ga t he r in g t o ge t h e r by e x c h a n ge or r ea l l o t m e n t o f a p e a s a n t h o l d in g w h i c h h a d co n s i s t e d o f s e v e r a l i n c l ose d bu t wi d e l y s e p a r a t e d fi e ld s ( a n d n ot be i t n o t e d t h e tr a n s i t io n fr o m s tr i p fa r m i n g in o p e n fi e ld s t o i n c l o s e d fa r m i n g) Comas a re i s n o t n e ces sa r i l y a cco m p a n i e d by a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e s i z e o f t h e h o l d i n s a nd g t h e r e fo r e con so lid a t ion a pp e a r e d t h e mos t sui t a b le w a y o f d es c r i b i n g i t Th e

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EXPL AN ATORY NOTES 3

.

P r on un ci a ti on

.

h e qui va l en t s of a cce n t s a n d ce d i ll a s us e d i n R u m a n i a n o rt h ogr a phy a € h a v e no e qui v a l en t i n E ngl is h — s l igh t l y s h a r p e r t h a n 6 d é l i ke t h e e i n fa t h e r S h ( a s i n s h ou t ) B e l ow

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Tu r k i s h k i lé ) i s a n old co r n m e a sur e e qua l t o 6 7 9 2 6 8 l i tr es i n Mun t e n i a a n d 4 3 0 l i tr e s i n Mo l d a vi a ; fa lce ( fr o m fa lcem l i t e r a l l y t h e q ua n t i t y of gr a ss m ow n i n a 1 43 h a ( a pp r o xi m a t e l y 8 0 p r dj i n i gi v en s p a ce o f t i m e ) on e a n d a h a l f h e c t a r e s ) ; 5 01 2 s q m ( a pp r o x i m a t e l y h a l f a p agan ( fr o m t h e R u s s i a n ) h ect a r e ) ; 1 0 9 h e ct a r e s 2 7 a c r es ; d esy a ti n ( R u s s i a n ) j uga r ( fr o m j uger um) us e d i n A us tr ia a n d H un ga r y ( ka ta s tr a l 5 7 5 4 s q m ( s l igh tl y o v e r 1 3 a c r es ) ; j ock ) 2 4 7 1 a c r e s ( a pp r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 a c r e s ) h ecta re Ch i ld

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I NTR O D U CTI ON W O R L D W A R U PO N A GR A R I A N S T RU C T U R E OF E U R OP E

THE E F F E C

T

OF THE

’

THE

A M ON G the v a rious soci a l effects of the Gre a t Wa r the down f all of the cl a ss of l a rge l a ndowners h as been the most outst a nd ing on the Continent N 0 other effect comp a res with th a t either in intensity or ext ent It h a s b een a ctive throughout the Continent a n d in principle h a s penetra ted even i n to Gre a t Brit a in— the l a st stronghold of l a n d lordism But in Brit a in no p e a s a nts stood re a dy to push it over the b orderline between progr a m a n d policy As a mere dispossession of propertied people the phenomenon h as not been limited to the l a nd After the Wa r we a lth ch a nged h a nds on a n enormous sc a le a n d in a ll the fi eld s of economic Whole sections of the popul a tion for inst a nce were a ctivity ruined by the coll a pse of the Germ a n currency Sim il a rly with the depreci a tion of the L a nc a shire cotton sh a res Dr Hilfer d in g the fi n an cia l expert of the Germ a n Soci a lists s aid a few ye a rs a go th a t never before h a s expropri a tion gone to the lengths t o which c a pit a lists a r e driving it now ; never h a s the s a nctity of contra ct a n d property been so desecr a ted a s durin g a n d a fter the Wa r In the h a nds of the c a pit a lists th i s h a s led to a gig a ntic a ccum ul a tion of priv a te we a lth a n d even of power over public we a lth 1 Nevertheless this v a st a n d merciless tra nsfer of we a lth in the in dustri a l West h a s been t a ken for gra nted by the Very critics who s eemed profoundly shocked a t a p a ra llel process in the a gr a ria n E a st It is true th a t the two processes though a like in kind differed in more th a n one respect In the West we a lth ch an ged h a nd s m a inly a mong indivi du a ls of the s a me cl a ss by spec ul a tion a n d keen competition ; both these methods in the c a pit a list system be i ng perfectly legitim a te me a ns tow a rds a tt a ining the perfectly l a wful end of piling up we a lth In the E a st the tra nsfer of .

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S p ee ch 1 9 23 ) 1

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( Ha mburger

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Ma y

25 ,

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vi

INTRODUCTION

we a lth w a s from one cl a ss to a nother an d it w a s more or less forcibly imposed either by the St a te or by revolution And while in the West the event led merely to a fresh co n centra tion of we a lth in the a gra ri a n countries the res ul t w a s a wholes a le division of the m a in so urce of we a lth a mong those who h a d little or nothing Moreover in industry a n d fi n an ce the event ch a nged the ben efi cia r i es without in a n y w ay a fi ect ing the system where a s in the a gra ri a n E a st the division of l a rge property me a nt a ch an ge likewise from l a rge se a le to pe a s a nt f a rm ing Fina lly while the expropri a tion which Dr Hilfer d in g deplored goes on d a y by d a y on stock exch a nges a n d in the m a rkets the Wa r h a vin g merely sh a rpened its a ction so th a t luck or shrewdness might a t a n y moment turn the sc a les in the Victims f a vour the a gra ri a n expropri a tion h a s been sudden a n d fi n a l le a ving those wh o suffered under it without a n y prospect of a ppe a l On the Europe a n Continent we a lth in the form of l a nd h a s become ra re a n d m a y soon b e unknown Th e Wa r h a s a cted a s a sh a rp dissolvent of a st a t e of things wherein m a ny elements economi c a n d soci a l were a lre a dy workin g a ch a n ge Our ide a s on property— perh a ps the most stubborn of a ll soci a l c a n ons h a ve a ltered considera bly during the l a st h a lf —century There is no doubt wrote Duguit th a t the View which rega rds property a s a subj ective right is b e i ng repl a ced by a conception wh i ch 1 s reg a rds it a a soci a l function Theoretic ally this ch a n ge of outlook m a de gre a ter strides with reg a rd to l a nd ownership th a n other forms of property S oci a l philosophers were continu a lly point i ng out how in a dmissible it w a s th a t l a nd wh i ch w a s not cre a ted by m a n s efforts yet w a s the prim a ry s ource of his exist e nce should be own ed despotic a lly In pr a ctice however the new Vi ew wa s more extensively a pplied in the industri a l fi eld b ec a use the somewh a t brut a l fe a tures of the Industri a l Revolution c a lled for incre a sed public con trol a n d the org a nized pressure of the workers helped to secure i t In a griculture this ph ilosophic a l evolution w a s reinforced l a ter on by pr a ct i c a l needs The cri sis c a u s ed by the exp a nsion of overse a corn growing g a ve fre s h support to P r oud h on s ple a ,

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L e Droi t S oc ia l, le Dr oi t I nd ivid uel ci les Tra n sforma ti ons d e l Eta t ’

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INTRODUCTION

xx vn

th a t a m an who t illed a piece of l a nd should own it O nl y intensive a gricul t ure co uld extra ct from Europe s old soil returns c a p a ble of withst a nding oversea competition ; a n d i ntens i ve a gr i culture on a l a rge sc a le proved unr emuner a tive with p a id l a b our Hence for the s a ke of production the tre n d of Europe a n a rs h a s been tow a rds the a gr i culture durin g the l a st fift ye y division of l a rge est a tes Even a mong S oci a lists those who h a d speci a liz ed in a gra ri a n problems like Dr D a vi d or M Va nder Velde reverted to P r oudh on s distinction b etween freehold a n d possession an d a dvoc a ted th a t in the Soci a list progra m the dem a nd for the n a tion a liz a tion of the l a nd should b e coupled with provisions for its individu a l exploit a tion The View therefore th a t l a rge est a tes should b e divided into sm a llholdings formed the leitmotiv of the a gra r ia n reforms p a ssed in Europ e in pre w a r yea rs But such reforms were few a n d feeble In most Europe a n countries more especi a lly in the E a st the l a nded cl a sses ret a in ed suffi ci en t politic a l i n fl uen ce to obt a in fa vours from the St a te by me a ns of which they co ul d conti nu e to pr ofit from extensive cultiv a tion a n d a t the s a me time w a rd off the pressure of the l a ndless p e a s a nts But the Wa r severed th a t a ncill a ry conn exion b etween l a rge l a ndowners a n d St a te a n d a s a res u l t the flood tide of a gra ri a n reform held up by politic a l devices w a s freed Redistribution of politic a l power it must b e noted a n d in some c a ses revolution preluded the reforms ; even in Victorious countries in spite of the f a ct th a t m i lit a ry Victory often strengthens the power of the ruling cl a sses they h a d to be a dopted There is no doubt th a t i n cert a in a gra ri a n regions the ch a n ge received impetus from the f a ct th a t the bulk of the l a ndowners were not of the s a me n a tion a lity a s the m a ss of the p e a s a nts But the results were not very different where the l a nded cl a ss w a s a utochthonous a s in Russi a a n d old R um a ni a The ch a r a cter of the reforms w a s determ i ned not by n a tion a lity but by soci a l r e la t i on sh i p However conson a nt with economic needs philosophic creeds or a t t imes n a tion a list prej udices they m a y h a ppen to be they a re fir st ly a soci a l phenomenon They m a rk the f a ll of the l a n dlords a n d out of the soci a l c a t a clysm— c a used prim a rily by the Grea t Wa r— the triumph a nt emergence of the pe a s a nts .

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The va rious reforms p a ssed on the Continent a fte r the Wa r represent different st a ges in these two results At one ext reme is Russi a Th a t country h a s done a w a y with l a rge property a ltogether an d with no compens a tion wh a tever to former own ers Then most of the countries b orderin g on Russi a a s well a s Yugosl a vi a a n d Czechoslova ki a h a ve a cted on a sim il a r pri nci p le dividin g the gre ater p a rt of the l a rge est a tes a mong the pe a s a nts ; in their c a se the former owners received com n s a t i on e but a lwa ys less tha n the a ctu a l v a lue of the l a nd p Fin a lly in centra l a n d western Europ e —in Austri a Hun g a ry Germ a ny & c —the reforms h a ve a i med merely a t f a cilit a ti n g the exp a nsio n of p e a s a nt f a rmi n g ; they h a ve ch a nged th a t is the det a ils but not the b a sis of the existi ng a gra ri a n orga ni z a tion a n d the l a nd h a s b een purch a sed for the pe a s a nts a t current pri ces In pointing out these differences Professor Ma x S ering expl a ins th a t the fi r st group of reforms foll owed the Russi a n 1 model while the seco n d followed the Europ e a n If t h is i s me a n t to ii n ply th a t the reforms were moulded by the more or less ci vi lized outlook of the i r m a kers the rem a rk f a ils to reve a l the re a l c a use of the difference The r a nge of e a ch reform w a s determined by the st a te of the a gr a ri a n system which it h a d to correct In centra l a n d western Europe W here preferenti a l me a sures in fa vo ur of the l a rge owners h a d to some extent d efl e ct e d the a ction of eco n omic f a ctors rel a tively mild reforms But in e a stern E ur ope s uffi ce d to redress th a t leg i sl a tive bi a s the l a ndowners h a d ret a i ned a feud a l hold on the soci a l a n d politic a l life of the region a n d only reforms of revolut i on a ry dim ensions could bring th a t st a te of th ings up to the level of the more a dva nced p a rt of the Continent The reforms h a d to retrieve ground in a gre a ter or lesser degree in the me a sure in wh i ch the progress of a gra ri a n conditions h a d b een ret a rded In e a stern Europe the ir t a sk w a s nothing less th a n to complete a t long l a st the demolition of feud alism begun in the West by the French Revolution The m a in post w a r reforms therefore a r e in direct line wi th th e gre a t nineteenth century me a sures which em a ncip a ted the .

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INTRODUCTION

xxix

pe a s a nts The two groups form p a rt of a conti nuous movement only now completed ; yet b etween the two a r e differe n ces a n d even contr a sts which serve to reve a l the st a rtl in g ch a nge which the position of the pe a s a nt h a s undergone i n the i nterv a l The e a rlier reforms were in the m a in the a chievement of the new Libera li sm which w a s moved to work for the em a n cip a tion of the pe a s a nts by f a ctors which were tr a nsformi n g the outlook Their hum a nit a ri a n philosophy depre a n d l i fe of th a t period ca t e d a ll restrictions on p erson a l lib erty ; Constitution a l gover n ment dem a nded the equ a lity of a ll citizens before the la w ; a n d the new economic doctrine required freedom of movement for l a b our a n d c a pit a l a like But in our time the new reforms h a ve been c a rried through si n gle h a nded by the pe a s a nts themselves running ra ther contra ry to prev a iling soci a l a n d econom i c ten d en ci es a n d t a ki n g no a ccoun t cert a inly of economic cond itions One of the chief res ul ts which the middle cl a ss expected from the e a rlier em a ncip ation of the p e a s a nts w a s the rele a se of a supply of l a bour a n d of chea p foodstuffs for the exp a ndin g industri a l cities The new reforms which h a ve given so m a ny pe a s a nts a fresh ch a nce on the l a nd tend t o reduce the supply of l a b our a n d this j ust in those less developed countries which a spire to cre a te a n industry of their own Moreover formerly the town s were gl a d to h a ve the Villa ges behin d them in their fi gh t a ga inst the strongholds of feudalism a s in 1 8 48 for ex a mple ; but b ec a use the present reforms swing the politic a l pend ul um b a ck tow a rds the country side the former a lli a nce h a s given w a y to a cut e a nt a go n ism between country a n d town s The two groups of reforms show e qu ally strong contr a sts in ch a r a cter a s in b a ckground The m a in fe a tures of the nineteenth centur y me a sur es were for the pe a s a nts of a neg a tive ch a r a cter They were freed from feud a l servitudes but they h a d t o pa y compens ation e ither i n a lum p sum or in t a xes a n d a lso they genera lly lost some of the l a nd which they h a d formerly f a rmed a s for inst a nce in E a stern Prussi a where a l a rge rur a l prole t a ri a t o nl y c a me into be ing a fter the reforms — an effect which gra du a lly h a d to b e remedied by successive me a sures for closer settlement Quite otherwise in the twentieth century Wh a t ever privileges the l a ndlords h a d enj oyed h a ve been utterly ,

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swept a w a y without a n y compens a tion while the pe a s a nts h a ve rece i ved most of the l a nd on very e a sy terms everyw here the new reforms h a ve r a ised the pe a s a nts st a tus an d st a nd a rd of living B ut while un der the e a rlier me a sures the p e a s a nts were the losers re a l ben efit s were re a ped by the l a ndl ords Their est a tes were freed from servitudes in a period of exp a nding corn tra de a n d rising l a nd v a lues tra ns a ctions in l a nd were m a de free a n d the w a y opened for the concen tr a tion of l a nded property The new reforms h a ve well nigh ruined the l a ndowners l a ti fundi a h a ve been destroyed a ltogether— a n d the new l a ws con t a in provisions which restrict the s a le of l a nd a n d bar the w a y to a n y rem a king of l a rge priva te est a tes The gulf which sep a ra tes the two rel a ted groups of reforms a ppe a r s very cle a rly when one comp a res the more extreme incidents in e a ch of them M Leroy B e a ulieu observed a s e a rly a Russi a n Revolution might b e the gre a test a s 1 8 98 th a t historic a l event since the French Revolution represent ing in a w a y its counterp a rt a t the other end of Europe 1 It i s very true th a t the Russi a n Revolution which rele a sed the S pri n g of the new l a nd reforms is the e a stern counterp a rt a n d complement of the French Revolution But the sp a n of time which s ep a ra tes the two eve n ts expl ains the gre a t ch a nge in their positive effects B oth of them a r e mileston es in the soci a l progress of Eur op e m a rking the successive bre a kdown of feud al i sm in the West a n d in the E a st But the one took pl a ce on the threshold of the Industri a l Revolution w i th its i mpetuous unch a ining of the forces of production an d tra de The other st a nds a t the b eginnin g of a S oci a l Revolution which will a s impetuously press forw a rd the problem of distribution The one though helped by the m a s s es w a s in the service of th e urb a n middle cl a ss ; duri n g the French Revolution l a nd w a s sold to the pe a s a n ts merely for securing revenue a n d it w as divided i n to sm a l lholdin gs only a s a n a fterthought a n d a s a n a dj unct in the p a rty struggle But the Russi a n counterp a rt h a s turned out a revolution for the pe a s a n ts while the sh a re of the a pp a re n tly domin a n t urb a n cl a ss is second a ry a n d incident a l Noth ing conclusive could b e proved by comp a ring the professed J a cobin individu a lism of ,

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the fi r st with the profess ed B olshevik comm unism of the second As a French writer h a s pointed out the J a cobin s who cl a imed to defend property a n d thre a tened with de a th those who pr opa g ated the a gra ri a n la w th a t is the Communist s h a d in fa ct 1 requisitioned confi scat ed a n d expropri a ted The Bolsheviks procl a imed the extermin a tion of individu a l property but in effect they h a ve contributed to its enormous exp a nsion a n d con solid a tion in Russi a an d in the neighbouring a gr a ri a n countries All things considered therefore the French Revolution i n the West a n d the Russi a n Revolution in the E a st a r e two v a stly dissimil a r specimens of the s a me genus The old worlds which both demolished were a like but there is little in common be tween the new worlds to which e a ch h a s given birth B oth put a n end to a ristocr a tic rule m a int a ined with the revenue of feud a l est a tes But the fi r st prep a red the w a y for the rise oiz the c a pit a list middle cl a ss where a s the second hera lds the politic a l predomin a nce of the working cl a ss The new movement h a vi n g t a ken rise in a gra ri a n regions the difference b etween the two events is best seen in the ir effect on the pea s a nt The fi r st did no more for the pe a s a nt t h a n to rele a se him from his servile fetters But the second h a s pl a ced upon h i s shoulders the m a ntle of power .

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In Rum a ni a it w a s not until 1 9 1 8 th a t the right of the pe a s a nt to t ill h i s own fi eld s fi r st w a s form a lly recog n iz ed through the la w for comp ul sory l a b our p a ssed in th a t ye a r Until then the m a ss of the pe a s a nts h a d i n pra ctice rem a ined bound to the l a nd lords Throughout the evolution of the politic a l r é gime from Turkish suzera inty to n a tion a l i ndepen dence a n d from a utocra tic princip a lities to Con stitution al kingdom the n a ture of the pe a s a nt servitudes h a d rem a ined the s a me ; o nl y the form i n wh i ch they were imposed h a d va ried to fit the lega l system of e a ch period The cre ation of the Rum a ni a n Princip a lities found the Vill a gers a s free j oint holders of the Vill a ge l a nds burdened with no other duties th a n th a t of givin g the Villa ge he a dm a n one tenth of the produce a n d three d a ys s ervice in the ye a r In time however th a t yeom a n st a tus w a s more a n d more ,

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x x xn

encro a ched upon until the p e a s a nts were pressed into serfdom But the i r dec a dence did not follow from the politic a l tri a ls which befell the whole region a fter the coming of the Tur ks Ou the contr a ry e a ch downw a rd step in the p e a s a nts soci a l st a tus corresponded r a ther to some moment of recovery in the coun try s politic a l st a tus The fi r st prince to turn the m a ss of the p e a s a nts into Vi lleins a t the end of the sixteenth century i n Munte ni a Mih w as a iu ) ( the Bra ve who a lso equipped the fi r st profession a l a rmy a n d with its help roused the Rum a ni a n provinces to a l a st flicker of independence b efore they fi n ally succumb ed to the Turks 1Vh e r ea s the fi r st to decree the form a l a bolition of serfdom a bout the middle of the eighteenth cent ury w a s one of the ill reputed Ph a n a riote prin ces Const a ntin Ma vr ocor d a t D ur ing the long period of subj ect i on to the Tur ks the pe a s a nts sh a red in the genera l m i sery but their tria ls were due to chr o n ic la w lessness a n d to spor a dic a buses by the l a n dl ords a n d not to a n y form al depression of their cl a ss Throughout thos e centuries the i r l a nd rights rem a ined i nt a ct Their servitudes i ncre a sed o nl y slightly a s the l a ndlords were kept in check by the ru ling powers But step by step a s the provi nces esc a ped from Turkish rule the pe a s a nts were reduced to such a st a te of serf dom a s they h a d never known b efore The fi rst a cts to prelude the end of Turkish rule a n d its repl a cement by a Russi a n protectora te ( the Tre a ties of Kutshuk Ka in a r d j i 1 772 a n d of a n d the return of n a tive princes ( Convention of I a s sy were followed by a severe incre a se in the p e a s a nts l a b our dues a n d for the fi r st time by the restri ction esp eci a lly of their fi gh t s to l a nd When the provinces recove r ed their politic a l a utonomy ( Convention of Ackerm a nn 1 8 26 a n d Tre a ty of Adri a nople 1 8 29 ) there w a s immedi a tely a h esh i ncre a se in l a b our dues a n d ot h ei servitudes an d a fur ther 1 e st 1 1 ct i on of the pe a s a nt s l a nd rights ; a n d this b eing the fi r st occ a sion on which the boi ar s forming the n a tion a l di va n were allowed to legisl a te they used it to tra nsform their usufructu a ry title to the l a nd into one of full ownership When in the sixties of the l a st century the new St a te a cquired independence the pe a s a nts were form a lly em a ncip ated in compli a nce with the inj unction ,

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of the Gre a t Powers ; but the holdin gs of the pe a s a nts were a g a in reduced to a poin t where they no longer offered su fficie n t me a ns of subsistence while l a bour servitude s were promptly rein troduced in pr a ctice by me a ns of the l a ws on a gric ul tur a l contra cts At the s a me tim e the l a ndlords were rele a sed of all their obliga tions tow a rds the p e a s a nts a n d m a ny of them were a ll owed to ret a in l a nd whi ch w a s by a ncient right the portion of the v i ll a gers If the f a te of the pe a s a ntry b e j udged not by leg a l t ext s but by the mora l a n d physic a l conditions of life on the l a nd then there is no doubt th a t the pe a s a nts re a ched the worst degree of economic a n d soci a l bon d a ge a fter their em a ncip a tion under n a tion a l government an d the form a l rule of Con st it u t i on a l liberties Th e e lement a ry conditions for the re a l em a ncip a tion of the pe a s a nts were cre a ted only a s a result of the Wa r by the a gra ri a n a n d electora l a fter the Rus s i a n Revolution reforms procl a imed in 1 9 1 7 a n d en a cted a fter the a rm i stice The c a se of the Rum a ni a n pe a s a n ts b ec a use it h a ppens to b e peculi a rly fl a gr a n t i llustra tes very well the difference between the two c a tegories of rura l reforms Th e em a ncip a tion of the p e a s a nts in 1 8 6 4 which in fa ct left them in every respect worse off th a n they were b efore but which opened the w a for the y enrichment of the l a ndlords b elonged to the group of me a sures through which lai ssez fa i r e w a s introduced in to a griculture in the fi r st h a lf of the n i neteenth century The new reform the speci a l subj ect of this study belo n gs to the group initi a ted by the War a n d the Russi a n Revolution a n d its effect h a s b een to oust the l a ndlords a n d to le a ve the p e a s a nts in control of a griculture The spe cifi c fe a tures of the Rum a ni a n c a se a lso help to prove the second premiss th a t the m a in spring of the new reforms w a s politic a l a n d th a t it w a s rele a sed by t h e Gre a t Wa r The nineteenth centry reforms were in the West p a rt a n d p a rcel of the tra nsform a tio n of rur a l economics but they were every where pressed by the mon a rchies wh i ch felt the need of cur bing the power of the l a ndlords Even i n Russi a B ut in Rum a ni a a fter the wilting a w a y of the Turkish domin a tion the l a nded cl a ss was the centra l power There w a s no middle cl a ss to counter the wi ll of the l a ndl ords nor a ruler w ith enough ,

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uthority to check it a s the position of the new foreign dyn a sty w a s insecure Hence with every rele a se from foreign control the strength of the l a ndlords incre a sed a n d the bur dens which they l a id upon the pe a s a nts i n cre a sed in the s a me degree It w a s this politic a l suprem a cy of the l a nded cl a ss which m a de p ossible the continu a nce of a servile system un til well on in the twentieth century ; a n d it w a s the sn a pping of this suprem a cy by the Wa r which m a de w a y for the new reform The Wa r h a d not other wise disloc a ted the country s economic a n d soci a l orga niz a tion the whole structure of Rum a ni a n society h a ving rem a in ed a s it w a s b efore there w a s no orga nic re a son for the bre a kin g up of its feud a l a gra ri a n found a tions h a d its chief ben efi ci a r i es b een a ble to preserve them The a nxious efforts which they m a de to r e entrench themselves on the heights of St a te a fter the reform i n order to ret a in a s a dmini stra tors the control they h a d lost a s l a ndlords prove how a bnorm a l h a d b een the gr a nt ing of l a nd a n d lib erty in 1 9 1 7 a

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ngle genera l or p a rticula r one rega rds the post w a r l a nd reforms it i s their soci a l a spect whi ch st a nds out a s a revolution a ry ch a nge which will le a ve its m a rk upon the future history of Europe Nor is th a t outcome of the World Wa r perh a ps w ithout a wider po litic a l s ignifi can ce E a stern E urope h a s h a d a n in or d i n a te sh a re of inv a sions an d w a rs a n d revolutions Thi s expl a i n s in a l a rge me a sure the economic a n d soci a l b a ckw a rdne ss of the region Yet it is p ossible th a t the present forcible redres s c a used by the stress of yet a nother an d fe a rful w ar m a y extra ct some good for the world a t l a rge from the fa ct of its h a ving been ret a rded s o long if wh a t Professor S e ign obos s a id in 1 9 1 9 proves a s true in the futur e a s it h a s proved in the p a st Writing on the Do w nfa ll of Aristocra cy in E a stern Europe he s a id : We seek gu a ra n tee s a g ain s t a return of the w a r spirit Wh a t r egime is more pa cifi c th a n a democr a cy of pe a s a nt proprietors ! Sin ce the world b eg a n no such com munity h a s ever desired or prep a red or commenced a w a r F rom wh a tever

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PROBLEM

HISTORY

C H A P TE R I S OCIAL FREEDOM

AND

POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

As a na tion the Rum a ni a ns ha ve suffered more th a n their norma l sha re of w a rring a n d duress but those frequent politica l storm clouds ha ve not b een without a mea s ure of silver li ning to them More th a n once their sh a dows h a ve given shelter to pop ul a r institutions which might ha ve fa ded bene a th a brighter politic a l sky ; popul a r customs a n d rights h a ve somehow sur vived through a ges when rul ers were wont not to tolera te them beca use in those times either r ul ers could not exist in the Rum a ni a n regions or h a d more tha n their work cut out to keep themselves One ca n illustra te the p a ra dox with a bove the flood of inva ders the m a rvellous fa te of the B ess a ra bia n pe a s a nts in our own time About a century a go Russia tore th a t province a w a y from the body of the Rum a ni a n Princip a lity of Mold a vi a a n d set a bout turning it into a loya l depen dency It h a d a h a rd life un der the wilful rule of the Ts a rs ; but bec a use these princes wo ul d not let an y r a y of light penetra te to the m a sses either by w a y of self government or of educ a tion a whole centur y of a lien di scipline h a s left the li fe of the pe a s a nts un touched They now return to Rum a ni a a s a fter a long win ter sleep with a ll the w a ys which their a ncestors took with them in 1 8 1 2— with a s they still c a ll it their Mold a vi a n l a ngu a ge a n d customs a n d tra ditions And this is but the most recent inst a nce of the curiously double sided fa te which h a s b een the lot of the Rum a ni a n p eople during fift e en centuries a n d more From the time when the Rom a ns bendin g b efore the o n rush of the b a rb a ria ns withdrew their legions from the region b etween the D a nub e a n d the C a rp a thi a ns a b a ndoni ng wha t h a d b een D a ci a Felix a bout A D 270 its inh a bit a nts fell Victim s to a n unbroken ch a in of a li en inva sions a n d in trusions ; more of them prob a bly a n d more v a ried th a n those which h a ve p a ssed over an y other people of Europe Yet in spite of th a t or a s I beli eve la rgely bec a use of th a t the m a ss of the people wa s a ble to preserve its customs a n d w a ys to a n a m a zin g degree The dis t in ct i ve costume whi ch the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt we a rs every d a y ,

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SOCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

is still identic a l from hea dwea r to footgea r with tha t w hi ch common p eople a s shown on the ba s reliefs of Tra j a n s column h a d worn when the Roma ns conquered the region eighteen centur ies a go The Rom a nce l a ngu a ge whi ch they t a lk h a s sur vi ve d a s a mystery isl a nd in the Sl a v oce a n w hi ch surrounds i t a n d which in the politic a l a n d religious a n d other fi e ld s h a s more th a n once submerged the whole region An d so it h a s b een with m a ny customs of the soil a n d wi th the a ncient rights of those who till ed i t As long a s the l a nd w a s a prey to a lien in va ders an d oppressors its rulers were h a rd pressed to preserve their est a te ; they could h a rdly fi n d me a ns to try to in crea se it a t the expense of the m a sses nor coul d they t a ke the risk of rousin g their enmity by such a n a ttempt In the genera l mi sfortunes of the country the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt no doubt h a s h a d to b e a r a he a vy sh a re of misery ; yet h e a t a n y ra te kept the freedom of hi s own person a n d his rights to the use of the l a nd in tim es when in the civi li zed West hi s fell ow p e a s a nts were b ei ng pressed into serfdom Not till the b eginning of the nineteenth centur y when the Rum a ni a ns b eg a n to e n ter upon the ro a d to n a tion a l independence w a s the pe a s a ntry form a lly deprived of its title to the l a nd an d of the right to move on it freely B ut this subj ection which co uld not come b efore h a d fortun a tely come too l a te The system w a s misb egotten when everywhere the towers of feuda lism were tottering or were b eing successfully stormed For a w hi le it w a s a ble to veget a te in th a t uncongeni a l period but not to spre a d solid roots ; a n d it broke down therefore a fter the Gre a t Wa r more speedily an d completely th a n elsewhere under the pressur e of the re a w a ken ed m a sses Th e Mi ddle A ges L an d a n d p eop le As soon a s the Rom a n legions h a d a b a ndoned the forts a n d entrenchments which pro t e et e d the e a stern con fin e s of the Empire the b ar b a ri a n hosts broke through the ga p b etween the Bla ck S ea a n d the Ca rp a thi a ns a n d flooded the pl a ins which stretched b elow the mount a ins to the D a nub e These inva ders seemed a s innum era ble a s they were ins a ti a ble Wherever they p a ssed little wa s left a bove ground of wh a tever they could consume or c a rry a w a y with them ; a n d a n y thing else th a t stood in their w a y merely roused their p a ssion for d es troying a s they p a ssed onw a rds or retrea ted in their ex pe ,

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S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

5

N ot h ing w a s s a fe from them except th a t which w a s too lowly a n d wea k to tempt the greed or pique the temper of these wild nom a d w a rriors Wa lls or princely power co ul d not stem the inva sion ; they only drew upon them the blows of the inv a ders And so the people of the region lost the a r t of livi ng in cities a s well a s th a t of orga nizing in grea ter numbers for b etter governm ent during the m a ny centuries in which the b a rb a ria n inva sions continued Public a n d priva te life in former D a cia w a s reduced t o Very humble a n d sim ple forms a s a mea ns of n a tura l self protection The old poli tic a l hi era rchy a n d orga ns fa ded a wa y a n d so did the inner a rticula tions a n d the outer boun d a ries of the country Its sorely ha ra ssed a n d b a dly reduced inh a bita nts lived in sma ll dis ointed communities more like trib a l groups th a n a nythi ng else j except th a t they ret a ined a sense of their kin ship a n d of common a m Romd n eas ca ( Rum a ni a n a tt a chment to a v a st a n d v a gue T l a nd ) The orga niz a tion of e a ch Vill a ge w a s equ a lly simple Life a n d we a lth of a ll b e i ng equ a lly exposed they a ll h a d to st a nd together ; there w a s no room for stiff hiera rchic a l forms Money eco n omy did not exist ; the di vision of l a bour w a s rudiment a ry ; a n d in gener a l economic a n d soci a l life w a s boun d to b e of the simplest when the Vill a ge h a d a lwa ys to hold itself re a dy to fl y with children a n d ch a ttels b efore some a ppro a c hi ng inva der In the a bsence of el a bora te a n d a ctive centra l a uthorities requirin g considera ble supp lies a n d men for their m a inten a nce the hea ds of the Vi ll a ges di d not a cq uire till l a ter on in the period the power to oppress a n d to pun ish which elsewhere the executors of more ex a cti n g m a sters derived from their functions Th e Ruler s Under the restr a i n ed a n d fra gile rul e of the d omn i ea ch Vill a ge w a s in effect a self —governi ng unit a j ud egti e in ch a rge of a j a de; (j udex ) the most a ctive a uthority of the time 1 The j a d e; un ited in his person a ll the functions of a feuda l lord he led the men of hi s j ud ej i e in w a r ; he j udged a mong them in p e a ce ; he ga thered t a xes for the r ul er or l a ter for the p a ssing

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w e re the ms e lv es di vi d ed i n to th re e cl ss es ( 1 ) t h e cn ezi d es c en d an ts bl c as te h e ld t h e cha rge by ri ght of h ritage a n d the ir childr e n h ad a n e qu a l ri ght t o rule o v e r a pro p orti on t n u m b e r of p e a s n t s ( 2) t h e j u i l cte d or a pp o i n te d h ld t h e office temp or rily ; ( 3) t h va ta ma n i pro b a bly we re b a il iffs a pp o i n te d by cnezi w h o h a d j uri s dicti on o v e r m or e th a n one ud e i e j y 1

Th e j ud efi of t h e o ld n o e

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S O CI AL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

b a rb a ri a n m a sters In retur n for these fun ctions b esides being himself exempted from ta xes he w a s entitled to one tenth of the produce ra ised by the vill a gers a n d h e could cla im from e a ch p e a s a nt three d a ys l a b our in the ye a r He a lso h a d the sole right to mill a n d to sell strong bevera ges But with thi s hi s pri vileges a n d prerog a tives ended fa r short of the point re a ched by those of feud a l lords in the West Th e Ruled The chief difference from the West la y in the st a tus of the pe a s a ntry The pea s a nts were a ltogether free in their p ersons a n d in their possessions They coul d move when ever a n d wherever they liked tied in no w a y to the soil or to the d a h except by the duty of p y i n g a e im a rewa rd in l a bour a n d ! j kin d for services rendered There w a s a lr e a dy however a n exception to tha t genera l rul e Most of the Villa ges h a d a cl a ss of settlers c a lled veci m ( neighb ours ) who h a d prob a bly been m a de prisoners in w a r These people un like the n a tive pe a s a nts were b ound to the l a nd a n d they h a d a lso to l a b our m a ny more d a ys th a n the others for the j ud et Origin a lly thi s servile cl a ss wa s very sm a ll but it a ppe a rs to h a ve grown in time misfortune c a usi n g some of the free pe a s a nts to b a rter their freedom a wa y for a me a sure of protection or rew a rd a n d thus to b ecome veezm tied to the l a nd It w a s a t worst o n ly a mild form of serfdom ; it w a s mitig a ted in effect a n d extension by the custom which p a ssed on its burdens only to the m a le children ( perh a ps bec a use the orign a l veci ni were a ll men c a ptured in b a ttle but their w ives free n a tive women ) ; a n d in the a ll import a nt m a tter of a right to us e the l a nd the veci m enj oyed ex a ctly the s a me rights a s the free pea s a nts 1 .

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ri gi n a d ch a ra ct r of t h e s tatu s of vec n i s still i n dis pute F or a more re ce n t u mma ry of t h e v a ri o u s a rgu me n ts s e e G N L eon I s tor ia E co mi ei P ublice l R omd n i Buc a res t 1 9 24 pp 5 7 7 2 9 8 1 1 0 a n d 1 1 5 20 M L e n divid e s t h e R um i p eas n try i n t thr ee c ategori s ( 1 ) mosnen i or rd zesi w h o own e d l n d a n d w e r fr i th ir p rs n p a yi ng o ly tith e a d a li mite d l a b o ur d ue ; ( 2) cld ca s w h o we fr but h d n o l a n d of th e ir ow n a n d w orke d 3—2 4 d a ys i n r etur fo l n d ; ( 3 ) umd i or veci n i w h o w r e s e rfs with or with o ut l n d owi n g s e rvic e with o ut li m it ; th y c o uld be sold with o with o ut t h e s ta te on which th ey lived but s rfd om did n ot i clud th e ir w ome n d ch ildr e n i n which res pe ct th e y s tood b etter t h an Thi re m i n d t h e s ci l structure till t h e reform of Ma vroco d a t s e rfs e l e wh e re — M A D Xe n o ol i n h i s t o ry of th e A g a r i a n Ques ti on 1 6 H i s 74 rticl on t h e e ( p p oi n ts out th t wh en a se rf purch as e d h i free d om t h e cus toma ry for mul sa id th a t h e w as purch as i g hi m lf fre e of r um d m e with a ll t h e l an d h e p os sesse d i n r e turn J udi cia l d e cis ion s lik ewise s how tha t t h e la n d of a r umd n pa sse d in to for a p y me n t 1

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S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE 7 L an d Ten ur e The tenur e of l a nd w a s reg ul a ted by a ncient customs forming a body of unwritten Rum a ni a n la w (j us E a ch vi ll a ge di sposed of cert a in stretches of l a nd va la eh or um ) whi ch together formed the hotar ( b ound a ry ) a n d were the com mon p a trim ony of the village a s a whole The b ul k of the hotar consisted of me a dows gra zing a n d woo dl a nd a n d these were used j ointly by the whole vi lla ge The a ra ble l a n d w a s divided into a numb er of equa l strips c a ll ed j i rea bi e in Mold a vi a a n d fe in Mun teni a decrea sing in size a s one tra ve lled from the d eln ig pl a ins to the hill s e a ch household b eing entitled to one of these strips Gra z ing l a nd w a s common The j a de; m ay h a ve been entitled to more th a n one strip but there is no evidence tha t there w a s a n y reserved demesne Neither h a d the d amn a n y superior title to the l a nd ; hi s rights consisted in a cl a im to the tithe , a ugmented by vol unt a ry gifts on festive occ a sions There w a s s uffi ci en t l a nd with whi ch to endow new households a n d the strips were indi visible House ga rden pl a nt a tion a n d a r a ble l a nd were reg a rded a s the priv a te possession of the indi 1 vidu a l householder p a ssing in herita ge t o the youngest son Such very bro a dly w a s the structure of e a rly Rum a ni a n society exclusively rura l a n d ega li t a ri a n The b ul k of the p eople were of the s a me origin a n d led the s a me life ; there w a s but the merest cl a ss di vision b a sed less on p ower a n d we a lth th a n on a rudiment a ry division of functions ; a n d a s long a s the supreme hope w a s to esca pe from the da ngers of the time w ith b a re exi stence a ll were u ni ted by the s a me element a ry interest w h ich forb a de riva lry an d strife Nor w a s there a n y re a son to compete for possessions As far a s the ordin a ry needs of life were concerned the pe a s a nts could h a ve l a cked .

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h a n d s of t h e Wi nn i n g s id e n d th e refore th a t t h e s e rf did n ot l ose his l a d Whe n h e so ld h is p e rs on a l free d o m Professor Iorga a dduc e d philologic a l e vide n ce i n a pa pe r s ub mitte d t o t h e In tern atio a l C o gress of Agriculture ( Buc a res t J un e t o s h o w th a t t h e old es t a gr a ri a r égime a mo g t h e R u ma n i a n peopl e w a s th a t of a n a gricul tur a l c ommu n ity The re is in t h e R u ma ni an la n gu age n o w ord of La tin origin t o i n d ica t a b o un d a ry o th r th ma gi n e whi ch r e fe rs t o geogr phic a l a n d n ot t o l ega l li m its Th e L a tin w ord s refe rrin g t o i dividu a l posses s i on fin i s a n d e v en li mes a r e c om pl et ly l ost Th e ir m n in g is c o ta ine d i n t wo w ord s of a li en origin : gran i te?( from t h e G e rm n Gr en ze) which n ow se rv es t o i n dic a te t h e li mi ts of t h e S t te a n d h ta ( from t h e M agya r ) gen era lly u se d in referen c e t o limi ts of prope rty Th e Wo rd cd mp d oe s n ot mean t h e d ete rm in e d esta te of a priv a te o wn er but me re ly t h e a ra bl e soi l u n d e r cultiv ation ( E voluti on of th e Rura l Ques ti on p the

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little if a nything a t a ll They h a d a right pr a ctic a lly to the whole of the l a nd an d to the whole produce of their l a bour Their sup eriors in the Vill a ge only took wh a tever l a nd w a s left over a fter the needs of the householders h a d b een s at i sfi ed a n d they coul d not h a ve a spired to more nor di d they t i ll much on their own for there w a s no m a rket for the sur plus ; a n d wh a t they received in kind from the V illa gers a mply sa t i sfi e d their p erson a l needs At the s a me time the tithe of corn a n d h a y a n d the three d a ys l a b our in the ye a r must h a ve rested li ghtly on the shoulders of th a t free a n d frug a l pe a s a ntry However terrible then life must h a ve been b etween the D a nube a n d the Ca rp a thi a ns under the consta nt dr ea d of bar b a ri a n inva ders there w a s in th a t extern a l inst a b i lity a peculi a r s a fegu a rd for the persona l a n d economi c freedom of the p ea s a nts a g a in st possible intern a l oppressors All efforts to build up power or possessions were so un promising a s not to b e worth whil e And it therefore h a ppened th a t the old sterlin g customs persisted un spo ilt a s long a s for these re a sons there were no scrib es to record them on p a rchment a n d no fun ction a ries to di ct a te thei r enforcement Agra ri a n discords b eg a n to germi n a te b elow the Ca rp a thi a ns only when quieter tim es d a w ned for the region an d the inh a bit a nts could come together to found the Rum a ni a n Princip a lities .

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F oun d a ti on

P r i n ci a li ti es t h e f p

When the tide of b a rb a ri a n in va sions receded two v a ss a ls of the Hun g a ria n king crossed the mount a ins a n d g a thering together the broken ties b etween the isol a ted r ura l groups est a blished the Prin cip a lities of Mold a vi a a n d Mun teni a in the thirteenth a n d fourteenth centuries r e sp e c Whether it w a s the lure of old tra nsmuted memories t ively which set these p eople moving from thei r homes or whether they were simply w a ndering in sea rch of a more fruitful soil on whi ch to settle one does not know ; but it wa s in an y c a se not a mi lit a ry expedition a n d a ll the circumst a nces of th a t a chievement p oint to a p ea ceful progress Neither of the two founders c a me w ith grea t follo w ings an d the Mold a vi a n prince set up his rule a ga inst the will of his Hung a ri a n suzera in so th a t they h a d to rely upon the friendly o

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welcome of the est a blished popul a tions ra ther th a n upon the prowess of wha tever a rmed men they h a d in their tra in It w a s a g a thering of closely kindred cl a ns r a ther th a n a conquest of the we a ker by the stronger a n d pop ul a r tra dition h a s recorded th a t by c a lling the event pithily the d es cd lecar e ( the dismounting ) The new men crossed the C a rp a thi a ns by one of the high p a sses tra velled to where the v a ll ey O pened into the pla in where they c a me upon some of the l a rger Vill a ges a n d h a ving procl a imed their purpose they dismoun ted from their horses a n d settled down a mong the people they h a d come to r a lly The knowledge th a t the fi rst Rum a ni a n St a tes were cre ated in such p e a ceful w a ys is import a nt b ec a use it expl a ins why a ll the essenti a l customs of the people though merely tra dition a l a n d un written were left un touched by the new politic a l m a sters Oi these customs evidently none concerned the people so much a s their right to the l a nd a right whi ch rem a in ed un a ffected by the historic a l events th a t were t a kin g pl a ce N 0 written la w concerning these rights or a n y others existed either before or immedi a tely a fter the found ation of the two princip a lities Their continu a tion is proved thereby a t le a st in a neg a tive w a y for a n y ch a nge would no doubt h a ve been decreed in w riting a s were other m a tters hen ceforw a rd The fi r st written documents belong to the end of the fourteenth century in Mold a vi a a n d the beginn i n g of the fift een t h in Mun teni a ; they were m a inly concerned with con fi r mi n g existi ng rights of j ud eyi e now a va ss a l a ge un der a fi r m er r ul er which it w a s therefore well to h a ve r a t ifi e d by hi m L a ter w ritten j udge ments of the princes dea ling w ith c a ses in whi ch l a nd b elonging to one Vill a ge h a d b een encro a ched upon by a nother show tha t it w a s a lwa ys the people of the in j ured Vill a ge a n d not its j ud ey who ple a ded the cla i m a ga inst the usurper And there is still better proof to b e found a s to the persistence of the old l a nd customs in the oldest kno w n written la ws of the Rum a ni a n people the p m vi le of Va sile Lupu a n d M a teiu Ba s sa r a b neither of which know a nything of l a nd disputes between p e a s a nts in dividu a lly or j ointly a n d j udet but de a l in rega rd to l a nd tenure only w ith bound a ry disputes b etween vill a ges a s a whole There is indeed no record of a n y dispute between Vi lla gers a n d .

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10

S OCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPE ND ENCE

j udet concerni n g the right to the use of the la nd a s long a s the period of n a tive rul e l a sted Up to the end of the seventeenth century the hota r must inv a ri a bly h a ve b een reg a rded a s b elong ing j ointly to the Vi ll a ge communi ty In the me a ntime however a s we sh a ll presently see the ide a th a t the title of the j ud et to the h ota r w a s superior to th a t of the m a ss of the Vill a gers h a d b een ga ining ground a n d it h a d pene t r a t e d a lso into the two old l a ws of V a sile Lupu a n d M a teiu B a s s a r a b But it w a s a s yet strictly li mited by the right of e a ch household to a piece of l a nd a n d by the strict r ul e cont a ined in these l a ws th a t the m a n who tilled the soil w ith his l a b our a n d hi s seed w a s bound to give a te n th of the produce to him who g a ve the l a n d but never more th a n th a t L a nd tenure in s hort continued to rest on the principle th a t a ll the inh a bit a nts h a d a n e qu a l right to the use of the soil a s well a s to the bulk of wh a t they produced with their l a bour But with the foundin g of the two St a tes new a n d more complex politic a l a n d soci a l conditions were cre a ted which b ega n to ea t into th a t j ust a ncestra l system The migra nts from Hung a ry h a d brought with them k n owledge of the feud a l customs whi ch prev a i led in the country from which they c a me ; a n d in a ddition Byz a nt i ne influe n ce w a s introducing in Munte ni a the conception of property a s embodied in the old Rom a n la w Upon the prev a ili ng rel a tions b a sed on equ a l a n d independent rights b etween the loc a l m a gna tes a n d the pe a s a nts there were now being gra fted the rel a tions b a sed on person a l service a n d li egedom between those m agna tes a n d the centra l rulers — a feuda lized superstructur e upon a p a tri a rch a l b a s e — a n d in t i me the new w a s bou n d to a ffect wh a t rem a ined of the old etween r i n ces a n d cn ezi together the documents Rela ti on s b Al p of the fift e enth sixteenth a n d s eventeenth centuries show th a t form a lly the found a tion of the princip a lities in no w a y a ffected the tra dition a l Rum a ni a n la w As fa r a s the letter of the la w w a s concerned ch ezi an d pe a s a n ts kept the st a tus a n d the rel ations in which they h a d formerly stood to e a ch other But in re a lity the n a tur a l b a ckground of their rel a tions h a d inevit a bly shifted If it a s soon a s centra l politic a l rulers h a d come upon the scene took some time before the e ffect of this wrought itself out upon .

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S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

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the sta tus of the pe a s a nts on th a t of the cn ezi it rea cted a t once The centre of gra vity of their cl a ss moved from the Villa ge to the court The c on fi rm a t ion of their existin g rights a n d especi a lly the gra ntin g of new privi leges were henceforw a rd in the h a nd of the prin ces ; while in their turn the princes h a d to depend for pomp a n d power upon the service of the upper cl a ss A new s un h a d risen but its light a n d w a rmth were intercepted by the s a te llites w h os e sh a d ow a lone spre a d ever wider over the Vill a ges Whether the princes brought wi th them knowledge of western feuda l custom or not it wa s in a n y c a se only n a tura l th a t if the rights of existi n g comm unities over their h ota re were respected such l a nd a s h a d not yet been a ppropri a ted should come to b e rega rded a s within the lordship of the pri n ce Likewise those V ill a ges whi ch stood under a tempor a ry a d e; were henceforw a rd j considered a s fa lling withi n the j ur isdiction of the princes a s 1 sa te d omn es ti ( princely Vill a ges ) S e th a t a t le a st two c a tegories of j a d e; no longer owed their st a tus to heredit a ry rights or to the trust of the Villa ge but to the f a vour of the princes Hence forw a rd it w a s the prince who gra n ted the j udeti e over the s a te d omn es ti for a cert a in period or for li fe or more r a rely a s a n heredit a ry gift to those who h a d served him or plea sed him And it w a s the prince who from the w a stes so fa r un a ppropri a ted occ a sion a lly a ll otted to individu a ls or to mon a steries fresh hotar e wi th the right to set up new Vill a ges a n d to exercise heredit a ry u i d e j j e over them These new Vill a ges usu a lly were known by the n a me of the founder— s a tul Albe st ilor s a tul Negr e st ilor & c whi ch is the origin of the present Alb e s ti Negre s ti & c — a n d origin a lly their j ud eyi e could not b e a liena ted from the fa mily of the founder It w a s therefore cle a rly a privilege ra ther th a n a prop erty ; a n d the prin cely m i ce ( deeds of gift ) expli citly prove indeed th a t they g a ve a w a y the j ud efi e of the Vill a ge but not the ownership of its h ota r E mergen ce of upp er clas s With not hi ng a ltered therefore in the outw a rd st a tus a n d leg a l rights of the j ud et subtle ch a nges were nevertheless tra nsformin g them into a n upper cl a ss wi th interests a n d cl a im s a n d customs increa singly divergin g from .

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s a t= villa

O Dens usi a n u, ‘

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( i n Al b a n i an fea t) i s of but M B ogrea tra c es it b a ck

ge

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Thr a ci an origi n i n t h e t o t h e L a ti n fos sa tum .

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pi n i on

of

12

S OCI AL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

those of the common p eople At fi r st p erha ps those ch a nges were more psychologic a l th a n m a teri a l With the cre a tion of centra l a uthorities di spensing j ustice a n d f a vours the j a de; h a d to look to the princes a n d no longer to the p eople for a dva nce ment ; they b ega n to lea ve the villa ge seek ing functions a t Cour t for which there w a s ever growin g opportu ni ty W a rs a n d the frequent ch a nges of rulers offered ch a nces for pr ofi t a ble a d ven tures or intrigues Cont a ct w ith foreign peoples led to cha nges in customs a n d dress a n d thereby to more obvious differences from the common people of the l a nd One ca n well see moreover how the building of a new vi ll a ge held from the pri nce an d n a med a fter its founder must h a ve given hi m a n d hi s f a m i ly a pro r i et a r sense if not a right over the settlement S i mil a rly p y though such gifts of j ud eti e were rel a tively few the c onfi r m a t i on of existing heredit a ry rights were m a ny a n d a s these deeds c a me to b e recorded in writing whi le the rights of the pea s a nts r e m a ined custom a ry this a lso help ed to give a more solemn ring to the titles of the upper cl a ss ; a n d cl a ims p a ssed on merely by word of mouth could more e a sily b e deni ed or g a rbled by those who held power th a n rights l a id down in bl a ck on white Alto gether the new life g a ve the upper cl a ss fresh a mbitions a n d new p owers which they felt less reluct a nt to a buse a s thei r ties w ith the Vill a gers loosened S ome of these a buses were spora dic the successful tricks of individua ls for their own pr ofit a n d to t h e loss of a p a rticula r Villa ge In some c a ses e g they obt a in ed the prin ce s s a nction for selling their j ud eti e or wh a t w a s more serious p a rt of the Vill a ge l a nd which h a d not yet been put into cultiva tion B ut these were isol a ted wrongs a n d their effects not oppressive a s l a nd w a s still plentiful a n d its va lue a ltogether depended on the p eople settled on it who h a d to b e concili a ted A re a l a gra ri a n problem beg a n when the new ruling f a ction set a bout extendi ng its we a lth a n d pri vilege s a s a cl a ss a t the expense of the p ea s a ntry The va riou s functions known a s boi eri i ( Russi a n — b a a olya r ) cre a ted by the new rul e were a boy r ; Sl vonic monopoly of these men who thus c a me to be known a s the boi ar cl a ss On the other h a nd their segreg a tion a s a l a nd o w ning up p er cl a ss w a s furthered by the unea sy e a rly life of the two .

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S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

13

Princip a li ties Inv a sions were now r a rer though not e nded but w a rs for the thr one dr a ined m a ny a Villa ge of its popula tion Pea s a nts from less fertil e l a nds wo ul d move to such emptied villa ges ; a n d gre a t efforts were a lso m a de t o a ttra ct foreign settlers for repop ul a ting old Vill a ges or for building up new ones the prin ces usu a lly exempting these new settlements c a lled for this re a son s lobozi i freedoms ; S l a v s vobod i B ulg of a ll t a xes for a num ber of ye a rs These foreign s lob od en ) im migr a nts were settled a lwa ys with the st a tus of veei m ; more over they c a me from regions densely popul a ted a n d more developed econo mic ally where in consequence the rule of the l a ndlord w a s hea vier a n d the Rum a ni a n l a ndlords now tre a ted them li kewise It w a s inevit a ble th a t gra du a lly th a t sterner tre a tment sho ul d b e extended to the na tive inh a bit a nts 1 L a nd w a s held in these new or repopula ted vi lla ges by the s a me rules a s in the old but the newcomers not unlikely looked upon the j udegfi from whom e a ch received his p a rt a s a dispenser of stra nge possessions w ith power to give or to refus e — in short a s a m a ster a n d so they b eg a n to know him a s the s td d n p = ma ster ; S oci a lly a n d poli tic a lly therefore the boi ar s were dra win g a w a y from the Vill a ge ; a n d the s a me circumst a nces whi ch brought t h is a bout a lso welded them into a n upper cl a ss wi th privileges to defend a n d in cre a sing needs to s a tisfy Th e b egi n n i n gs of serfd om One can give here only the briefest sketch of the motives which impelled the boi a r cl a ss to covet the l a nd a n d the lib erty of the pe a s a nts an d of the me a ns by which they succeeded in gra sping them It w a s not a short a n d sudden process On the contra ry it spre a d over sever a l centur ies The boia r s contin uously ni bbled a t the p a trimony of the vill a gers a s their own needs a n d cha nces slowly rose during the despondent period of Turkish domin a tion but it w a s only a fter the repulse of the Turks when the country enj oyed fresh secur ity a n d when more a ctive rel a tions with the West g a ve v a lue to its sur plus of produc e— then only wa s a fi na l determi ned a ss a ult m a de upon .

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S t An t im , Ch es ti a Td m n ea s ca , p 96 Ou t h e oth e r h a n d , peasan ts w e re fo u n d 1 n G a li ci a go v ern e d a cc ordin g t o t h e j us Pol a n d cons tituted a privil ege d r gi me ( R os etti , P en tru Ce 1

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c ol oni es of R u man i a n va la chor um which 11 ,

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p 73 .

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14

S OCIAL

FREED OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

the l a nd a n d l a bour of the p e a s a ntry well on i n the ni n eteenth century It h a s b een custom a ry with writers on this subj ect to see two periods in the a ction whi ch reduced the Rum a ni a n p e a s a ntry to serfdom The dividing line on t hi s View w a s formed roughly by the Turkish conquest of the pro vi nces the pe a s a nts ret a in in g most of their old rights th a t side of the line when strong n a tive prin ces still ruled over the l a nd but gra du a lly losin g them a fter the line w a s crossed a n d government p a ssed into a li en h a nds a n d dec a yed This re a din g of events wo ul d b e j ust ifi ed in s o fa r a s the p e a s a nts were the likeliest prey for the f a b ul ously corrupt a dministr a tors which under Turkish rul e dropp ed like locusts upon the l a nd When everyd a y life w a s one lo n g a buse it must h a ve b een h a rdest for the p ea s a nt for he h a d li ttle to sp a re a n d could not m a k e good hi s loss from a n y one lowlier tha n hi mself B ut these were the a ccident a ls of the tim e r a ther tha n of hi s st a nding a n d in a n y c a se not the springs of hi s fa ll in st a tus For these one must look to the circumsta nces which sh a p ed the country s soci a l evolution such a s those we h a ve described a s crea ting a n upper cl a ss with ch a ra cteristic a mbitions a n d powers The fi r st form a l inro a d upon the independent st a tus of the p e a s a ntry followed indeed a m a teri a l step in the org a niz ing of the centra l po w er on its m ili t a ry side a n d it w a s m a de when th a t p ower rea ched its highest glory before the Tur ks fin ally crushed i t Th e loss of fr eed om In thr ee highly instructive p a p ers re a d 1 by Genera l B Rosetti before the Rum a ni a n Ac a demy he h a s shown th a t in the second h a lf of the fifteenth century the a rmies were b a sed on the genera l duty of a ll those who o w ned l a nd or h a d a right to use i t to sh a re in the defence of the country ; a n d further th a t the ordna nce services were of the s implest b ec a use the pe a s a nts were obliged to bring their own a rms a n d food w ith them whenever the a l a rm w a s r a ised In other words in a time of continuous wa rfa re the country s defence w a s b a sed on a levé e eh ma ss e th a t is on the goo dwill of the pe a s a nts a n d on their a bility to keep themselves a n d their horses provisioned ; a n d this ,

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ME MOI R S

th e

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or THE

H I S T O R IC A L S E CT I O N

c Wa r was

i n wh i h

S e ri es III t om iv Me m 9 , 1 9 25 —1 5 04 t e a t e a t 1 4 4 h n e G r 5 ma d e b y S f ,

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CI AL FREE D OM AND P OLITICAL DEPENDENCE

15

presumed th a t they h a d to b e a llowed if not the whole a t le a st a wide m a rgin of their tr a di tion a l economi c a n d soci a l i n d ep en dence This mili t a ry system w a s r a dic a lly ch a nged however by M ih a iu the Br a ve ( oi Munteni a 1 5 9 8 Pa rtly b ec a use of the need of opposing a more di sciplined force to the incre a sin g pressure of the Turks a n d p a rtly b ec a use of the roving a mbitions of this wa rrior prince Mih a iu the Bra ve for the fir st time equipp ed a sta ndi ng profession a l a rmy In this the tra ined a n d b etter equipped cn ezi a n d j ud eti no doubt pl a yed a n import a nt p a rt On the other h a nd most of the p e a s a nts were n o longer needed a s willing soldiers but they were needed the more a s compli a nt l a b ourers a s the centra l power now required con le suppli es for its milit a ry est a blishment a s well a s for the s i d er a b p a yme nt of the he a vy a nnu a l tribute to the S ult a n An d so it w a s Mih a iu the Bra ve— the o n ly Rum a ni a n prince to h a ve a chieved the fe a t of bringing a ll the Rum a ni a n l a nds under his sceptre who a t the height of his power bound a ll the p ea s a nts to the l a nd ; though a ccord ing to M P hilli pi d e Mih a iu merely genera lized a n d g a ve leg a l s a nction to a custom which w a s a lrea dy wide spre a d He decreed th a t a ll those who were settled on l a nd whose j ud ette b elonged to a nother individu a l which w a s the genera l rule shoul d b e veci n i ; a n d then it w a s th a t the n a me of r umd n by which the pea s a nt w a s commonly known in Munteni a c a me to me a n the s a me a s weeth In Munteni a serfdom b ec a me the norm a l st a tus of most of the pea s a nts The conditions of the pe a s a ntry h a ve not a lwa ys b een i d e n t i ca l in the two provinces Serfdom spre a d more r a pidly in Mun tenia th a n in Mold a vi a on the other h a nd it woul d seem th a t the Munteni a n weeth never suffered the iniquities of which his Molda vi a n fell ow w a s the V ictim under the i n fl uen ce of the oppressive customs which were pr ofit a bly employed by the neighbouring Poli sh nobles Most of the time there w a s some difference between the position of the pe a s a nts— b oth in la w a n d in pr a ctice— i n the two provinces but this wa s m a i nly in det a ils ; so tha t in such a genera l sketch a s this it is more convenient to trea t the two groups a s one cl a ss e x cept where differences between them become deeper a n d more ch a ra cteristic Even without a genera l decree the reducing of the pe a s a nts ,

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CI AL 111115 1311611 AND P O LITICAL DEPE NDENCE ‘

SO

to the st a tus of veci n w a s procee d in g a p a ce either by f a i r me a ns the p e a s a nt consenting to it or by the use of f a lse witnesses who were m a de to decl a re th a t thi s or th a t p e a s a nt w a s descended of veci n i In Mold a vi a the weeth w a s free to go wherever he liked if he co ul d prove th a t he or his p a rents h a d sometime owned prop erty however sm a ll b ut this proof w a s di ffi cult to give a n d m a de the pe a s a nt s freedom ill usory in pr a ctice Formerly the veci m h a d b een a n exception but t hey formed a m a j ority by the beginning of the eighteenth century a n d dur in g the first h alf of th a t century the bulk of the pe a s a nts fell in to Villein age Th e boi a r s even a ttempted to h a ve a ll the pe a s a nts who h a d lived twelve ye a rs in one of their Villa ges decl a red a s veci m B ut the Prince Co n sta ntin Duc a by no me a ns one of the b est rebuked them severely for even the p a g a ns p urch a se their sl a ves a n d set them free a fter seven ye a rs or sooner ; but you a r e Chr isti a n a n d a not for m a n d he b eing Christi a n lik e you yet you woul d hi p y m a ke him a serf for ever The fi rs t a ct in this process of subj ection w a s a bruptly brought to a n end by Const a ntin Mavr o cor d a t The m a ny t a xes which the Munten i a n p e a s a nts h a d to b e a r d uring the Ph a n a riote r égime were incre a sed considera bly by the a buses of the colle e tors ; there is evidence of this in a decree of Const a ntin Bran c o vea n u who thre a tens with h a nging those co llectors who shoul d t a ke more th a n is written These a buses c a used whole Vi ll a ges to b e broken up a n d fl ee a cross the D a nub e whi ch reduced the sources of public revenue B etween 1 741 a n d 1 746 t ax p a ying fa mili e s left Munteni a out of a tot a l of for in the democra tic a lly org a nized Ottom a n society the rights of l a nd lords over the l a bour a n d person of the pe a s a nts were more libera lly circumscribed This led Ma vr ocor d a t to decree in 1 746 th a t those who return to their l a nds sh a ll b e freed of m md n i e As ruler of Molda vi a Ma vr ocor d at decreed the em a ncip a tion of the veci n i in the northern province a lso in 1 749 S erfdom therefore w a s a bolished e a rlier here th a n in the a dv a nced West ; a n d it w a s a bolished a t the height of politic a l deca dence The ur ba r i a l system ina ugura ted by Ma vr ocor d a t w a s a m ix ed r egime reducing serfdom without a ccording complete freedom It w a s the fi r st though a s yet v a gue en a ctment ,

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S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

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tow a rds the em a ncip a tion of both l a nd a n d pe a s a nts mi tig a ting the p e a s a nts obliga tions but a lso limiting their rights to la n d The system m a de it incumbent upon the l a ndlords to gra nt the pea s a nt c ul tiva tors cert a in portio n s of l a nd— thus recog ni zing the p ea s a nts a ncient rights— a n d a lso tim ber for bui ldi ng a n d fuel In their turn the pe a s a nts were obli ged to pa y the tithe a n d to render cert a in la bour servitudes from eight to twelve d a ys ye a rly the sys tem thus co n secra tin g but a lso d efi n in g a n d lim iting the l a ndlords feud a l rights Moreover a form a l a ct sign ed by a ll the boia r s a n d the chief prel a tes ga ve the pe a s a nt brother in Christ subj ected by a n e vil eust om the right a to purch a se hi s full freedom by a p a yment of ten pi a stres It w a s the first step tow a rds tr a nsforming the title to l a nd into priva te ownership but wi th the m a inten a nce of servitudes in f a vour of the p ea s a n ts It wa s a lso the fi r st a ttempt of the St a te to intervene b etween the two rur a l cl a sses Under serfdom the pe a sa nts were a ltogether dependent on the la ndl ords ; un der the ur ba ri a l system the St a te intervenes wi th precise regula tions B ut these a gents merely used a n d with supervising a gents their powers to c a rry out the wishes of the boia r s a n d to enrich themselves Thus the ur ba ri a l system w a s never more tha n a mil d improvement on the f ull serfdom w hi ch h a d preceded i t Nevertheless the tendency of these Princes whose French educa tion m a de them a ccessible to the hum a nit a ri a n Views of the eighteenth century philosophers w a s to secure the pe a s a nts a ga inst the a buses of the boia rs Const a ntin M a vro oi a r s a d efi ni t i on of veci n cor d a t extr a cted from the Mold a vi a n b which decl a red it to me a n a pe a s a nt who h a s hi s own l a n d which he h a s inh erited with no right to a b a ndon the soil Among the minor a dva nt a ges obt a ined by the pe a s a n ts in the second h a lf of the eighteenth century w a s exemption from tithe for their ga rdens ; orch a rds pl a nted by themselves h a d never been subj ected to tithe Th e i n crea se i n s er vi tud es The efforts of the upper cl a ss to tie the pe a s a nts to the l a nd were n a tur a l enough for the boi a rs li ved L a ter villein a ge a ltogether from the tithes of their vi lla ges beca me the instrument for extra cting without risk of losin g the goose th a t l a id the eggs ever h e a vier dues from the villa gers ,

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S OCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

N ot only h a d the p erson a l needs of the boia r s va stly incre a sed a s cont a ct with Turk ish p a sh a s a n d Poli sh nobles in iti a ted them i nto the de lights of e a stern luxury ; they a lso needed a grea t de a l of money to purch a se from the corrupt a n d frequently ch a ngi ng rulers fa vour s or merely freedom An d now they a lso h a d a m a rket for a n y sur plus corn In the second h a lf of the eighteenth century Turkey in cre a sed the supp lies of corn she h a d b een a ccustomed to dra w from the Rum a ni a n provinces a t prices fi x e d a s it ple a sed the Porte Thi s imposition of co urse a dde d a nother weight to the mi sery of the p e a s a nts who in the b a rg a in were often a bused a n d m a ltrea ted by the a gents ch a rged with the collection of the gra in But to the l a ndl ords it opened a door to e a sy g a in a s wh a t they sold to the Porte h a d b een grown for them with the seed a n d oxen a n d l a b our of their Villa gers About the s a me period J ewi sh immigra nts comin g from Pola nd bega n t o settle in Mold a vi a a n d to te a ch the Molda vi a n l a n dl ords the a r t of m a king veget a ble a lcohol Still s were set up everyw here for the m a king of a lcohol from corn a n d pota toes the l a ndlords eng a ging to th a t end incre a singly in cultiv a tion on their own a ccount Therefore the l a ndlords sought to get from their vi lla gers hea vier service both in its qu a ntity a n d in its ki nd Formerly when the j ud et needed corn merely for his own consum ption wh ich he obt a ined from the tithe a n d ra rely enga ged in f a rmin g on his ow n the servitudes of the p e a s a nts a s their n a me cla cd 1 = ( S e r b tla ka ) implies were used for light l a bour s such a s mow ing a n d e a sy c a rting But now the boia r s wa nted a s much corn a s they could get ; they beg a n to cultiv a te the sp a re l a nds the Vill a gers doing the ploughing a n d s owin g a n d h a rvest ing duri ng the d a ys which they h a d to l a bour for the l a ndlord But for this purpose the old due of three d a ys in the ye a r could n ot h a ve been enough It is likely th a t here a n d there the p e a s a nts were m a de to work more but there is no evidence of it till we come to the middle of the eighteenth century In 1 742 we fi n d the priors of the mon a steries owners of v a st l a nd s successfully dem a nding th a t their vill a gers should work for them twelve da ys in the ye a r ,

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O rdi rily t h na

m a ki n g a fe s tivity

th ri g a t w hich pe s t m e e t t o h e lp on e a mon g th e ms lves cc as i n ; i n g e ra l fri e n dly li ght h e lp th ey give ea ch oth e r

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SOCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

with their h a nds or wi th their c a rts a s the priors m a y w ish There is no corresponding decree for the vi lla ges of lay owners ; contempora ry docum ents show th a t in th e se vi ll a ges six d a ys were served by the p ea s a nts in the ye a r From the middle of the eighteenth century the cl a ims of the l a ndlords for more service bec a me frequent a n d insistent ; a n d from th a t time con ditions di ffered more w idely in the two provinces The Mold a vi a n boia r s h a d occ a sion to lea rn from v a rious cont a cts how the pe a s a nts sl a ved in Pol a nd a n d Russi a ; they dem a nded a n d secured from Gr igor i e Ghik a reputed one of the b e s t princes of the eighteenth century a decree a llowing them to cl a im twelve d a ys service from their Vill a gers ( J a n 1 1 7 Moreover the decree cont a ined a n i n nov a tion which w a s to prove the insidious me a n s for the true ensl a vement of the pea s a ntry Where a s till the n the pe a s a nts service h a d b ee n me a sured by the a ctu a l tim e spent in doing i t this decree now fi x e d the qu a ntity of l a bour which a ccordi ng to its n a ture e a ch p e a s a nt must p erform in one d a y This h a r t ( Turki sh h a r k t ax ) w a s twice or thrice a s he a vy a s th a t which a norm a l m a n coul d do in a norm a l d a y In a country with only the c a ric a ture of government a n d j ustice this w a s a n e a sy w a y of in denturin g the l a bour of the pe a s a nts though the l a ndlords never ce a sed to press for a n increa se in the form a l obliga tions of the Vill a gers E a rly in 1 7 75 the gre a t boia r s led by the Prim a te G a vril Ca li m a ch compl a ined of the lo s ses they h a d suffered through the a boli tion of veci m a n d a sked to b e compens a ted by obliging the p ea s a nts to give them one tenth of their workin g d a ys j ust a s they h a d to give one tenth of their produce It w a s only two a n d a h a lf ye a rs l a ter th a t this dem a nd w a s to some extent gr a n ted the Prince a d di ng to the decree of 1 766 v a rious obliga tio n s which a mounted to fi ve more fi x e d l a bour d a ys a s well a s a n un d e t e r mined n umber of d a ys for the rep a ir of d a ms a n d ditches In 1 8 05 when the Turkish hold on the prin cip a li ties w a s a lre a dy crumbling a w a y the Molda vi a n boi ar s a ctu a lly ende a voured to get from the Porte a revi sion of the pe a s a nts dues In a p etition sent to Const a ntinople by the very humble a n d obedien t Metro t ropolit a n bishops a n d a ll gre a t boi a r s of Mold a vi a they a d mit t e d tha t till then the pe a s a nts h a d worked not more th a n .

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S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE ‘

twelve da ys in the ye a r ; yet they begged th a t the Imperi a l Ottom a n Power should t a ke them under its protection a n d should a uthoriz e them to cl a im one tenth of l a bour d a ys j ust a s they were entitled to one tenth of the produce Poli tic a l circumst a nces did not le a ve the Porte a n opportun ity of de a ling with th a t request but the boia r s obta in ed loc a lly fur ther privileges which brought the tot a l servitudes due from the p e a s a nts to 36— 4 0 d a ys yea r ly a ccording to the estim a te of the exp erienced a n d very conserv a tive boi a r S t ur d z a Wh y the p e a s a nts should h a ve stood such impo sitions though no long er bound to the l a n d m ay b e expl a ined only by the st a te of mora l a n d physic a l l a ssitude into which they h a d f a llen ; a lso a ll the l a n d w a s n ow occupied if not a ctu a lly c ul tiv a ted But th a t they were tempted to fl ee their life of sl a very when they h a d a ch a nce is shown by the re s erva tio n m a de by the boi a r s themselves in 1 8 05 th a t the vill a ges a dj oining Mun teni a a n d the Turkish districts should b e held to o n ly h a lf the l a b our ex a cted from the others Even se the new a rra ngements were in m a ny pla ces p a ssively resi s ted by the Vill a gers a n d could never b e a pp lie d The subj ection of the p e a s a ntry never re a ched such lim its in Munteni a where co n ditio n s were le s s propitious for econo mic development a n d outside i n fl ue n ce s less corrodi n g The pea s a n ts rem a ined veci m till 1 746 a n d it is li kely th a t they h a d gra du a lly b een h a rnessed to more l a bour th a n the tra di tion a l three d a ys B ut on the whole the incre a se w a s not severe We fi n d Alex a n der Ypsil a nti ( 1 774— 8 2) decreeing twelve da ys la bour more a pp a rently under the stimulus of the Mold a vi a n ex a mple th a n under the pre s sure of loc a l needs for the boia r s were permitted to tra nsform into p a yment s the servitudes of which th ey could not m a ke use a n d Pa rt V I of the code of Ga ra d a ( 1 8 1 2— 1 8 ) h a d to provi de p en a lties for those l a ndlords who cl a imed less from their vill a gers th a n the prescrib ed twelve d a ys Contempora ry documents suggest i n deed th a t in the l a st qu a r ter of the eighteenth century a n d the fi rs t of the nineteenth the servitudes of the Munteni a n pe a s a nts were ne a rer to six th a n to twelve d a ys There is no tra ce of a n y cl a im by the boia r s to one tenth of the l a bour d a ys ; nor which is more conclusive th a t a h a r t w a s ever fix ed for the l a bour da ys in the lower Rum a ni a n province ’

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SOCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE Li mi ta ti on of r i gh t to lan d h a d become very he a vy , its

It the burdens of the pe a s a ntry exi stence , a t a n y r a te , h a d been tra dition a l right to the use of a ll the a va ila ble .

s a fegu a rded by the l a nd Th a t right h a d been the found a tion of a ncient custom in L a ter on it w a s con a ll the regions inh a bited by Rum a ni a n s fi r m e d by m a ny pri n cely decrees a n d in identic a l terms by the two oldest written l a ws the p m vi le of Va sile Lupu a n d M a teiu a r i u) of Grigore Ca lim a eh r e a ffi r m e d Ba ssa r a b The l a nd la w ( ur b it a s l a te a s 1 76 8 Ar t XV st a tin g clea rly th a t a pea s a nt who p a id his dues in kind a n d l a bour h a d a right to a ll the l a nd he needed Besides much other evidence there is fi n a lly a petition d a ted 28 t h Febru a ry 1 8 03 from the boia r s of the Mold a vi a n div a n which shows th a t b efore they could let a n y surplus of the Vill a ge bound a ry the l a ndl ords h a d to a sk the Vi ll a gers whether they di d not w a nt it themselves ; a n d f urther to s a fegu a rd them a g a inst r a sh or unf a ir decisions the Vi ll a gers were given a ye a r within which they might cl a im b a ck l a nd whi ch they h a d fi r st refused a n d which in consequence h a d been let to a n outsider Such old Vill a ge pl a ns a s h a ve b een fou n d show th a t everywhere the a ra ble l a nd w a s divided into equ a l strips w ithout a n y dom a in reserve the lord of the Vill a ge b eing evidently only entitled to the use of one or a few of the norm a l strips Hence there is no doubt th a t origin a lly the p e a s a nts were entitled to use the whole extent of the cultiva ble l a nd a n d this right r e m a ined un touched throughout the worst politic a l dec a dence Dur ing th a t period the rulers mostly foreigners were a ppointed by the Porte a n d frequen tly ch a nged ; they h a d no need to a tt a ch the upper cl a ss to them s elves by gra nting them feud a l privileges of lordship over the l a nd 1 But when Russi a a ssumed the pro t e ct or a t e of the Rum a ni a n princip a lities a n d thus prep a re d t h e Th R u m i p pl h d v r k w t h f ud li m f W t r E ur p .

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che i h a d on ly h ad a r e l tiv e i nfl uen ce ; l i k e t h e l te r boi a s th e y w e re m ere ly t h e Pri n c e s a d j ut o s Th t i s why t h e p s ts h a d n e v e r ri en a ga i s t th e ir s e rvi tud es ; for th a t w o ul d h a v e b een re v o lt n ot a g in s t fe ud a l l an dlord s the ms lve s o pp ose d t o t h pri c but aga i s t t h e rul er s o wn m en a n d es ta bli s h men t ( Cf L e o op ci t oi a r s divid e d i n t o p l O3 ) N omi na ll y t h e b grea t a n d s m ll w e re m e re ly a burea ucr tic n o bili ty ; but th ey h a d ga in e d h o ld of t h e la n d a n d on th ei r e st a tes th e y e x e rci se d a l mo t a ut o cr tic p o w e rs Th e cl e rgy w e re e n j o y i n g a n a ut o o mo u s a d m i n is tr a ti on l i k e a m e di e v a l Th e ma ss of t h e p s n ts w e re guild s rvil e u n d e r t h e prote ction of the i r boi a s Th e S ta te o nly h d dire ct c on tro l o v e r t w o r es tricte d s e cti ons o f t h e p o pul a ti on t h e r eh e at w h o w e re y eom e n Th e

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22

S OCIAL FREEDOM AND POLITICAL DEPEND ENCE

end of Turkish domi na tion ( Tre a ties of Kutsh uk Ka in a r d j i 1 772 a n d of J a ssy a n d insisted on the a ppo i ntment of n a tive princes for a fi x e d period of seven ye a rs ( Convention of then only di d the a ncient l a nd rights of the pe a s a ntry su ffer their fi rst diminution The fi r st mea sure for limiting the pe a s a nts right to the use of the l a nd wa s a decree of the Mold a vi a n ruler Alex a nder Mor uzz i who in 1 8 03 a ll owed the l a n dlords to reserve for their own use one fourth of the me a dow l a nd the p ea s a nts gra zin g right s b eing limi ted for e a ch household to sixteen l a rge a ni m a ls in B ess a ra bi a twelve in the Mold a vi a n pl a ins a n d six in the mount a in regions ; a n y h a y they m ay still w a nt the in h a bit a nts sh a ll buy elsewhere ( Art XI X ) This title to a dom a in w a s considera bly extended a fter the Convention of Ackerm a nn 1 8 26 ) which g a ve the Rum a ni a n princip a lities intern a l a utonomy under the j oint protectora te of Russia a n d Turkey a n d the right to b e r ul ed by n a tive princes The fi rst n a tion a l prince to occupy the Molda vi a n throne a fter tha t d a rk p eriod w a s a lso the fir st to gra nt wh a t the Ph a n a riote princes h a d refused to a llow By a decree of l 0t h M a rch 1 8 28 I oni ta S t ur d za severely restricted the pe a s a nts a ncient rights to the unlim ited use of the l a nd In order it s a id tha t the perpetu a l l a n d lord sh all not rem a in without the mea dow a n d a ra ble l a nd which he needs both a ra ble a n d me a dow l a nd including wood cle a ri n s sh a ll b e di vided into g three p a rts a n d two p a rts of a ra ble l a nd a n d me a dows sh a ll b e given to the inh a bit a nts but the t hi rd p a rt sh all b e left w ithout fa il for the perpetu a l l a ndlord This w a s the fir st document to refer to the l a ndlords a s proprietors ; till then they h a d b een known only a s s tdp d m (d omi ni ) which indic a ted a p erson a l rel a tionship b etween them a n d the p e a sa nts r a ther th a n a re a l rel a tionship b etween them a n d the l a nd In Munteni a where conditio n s rem a ined e a sier the rights of the pe a s a nts to use a ll the l a nd suffered no restriction ti ll the coming of the Org a ni c St a tutes of which we will sp e a k presently Rap e of yeoman la nd B esides thus securing a privilege on the ,

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fa r m e rs ( E MI E S ,

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S OCIAL FREE D OM AND POLITICAL DEPENDENCE

23

use of one thir d of the a va il a ble l a nd the boia r s u s ed every mea n s fa ir a n d unfa ir to a cqui re possession of yeom a n l a n d In th e se vill a ges in which the p e a s a nts h a d b een a ble to ret a in the old order gra zing l a nd w a s held in common while a ra ble l a nd w ith house a n d ga rden w a s in th e priva te o w nership of e a ch household Such priva te l a nd by old custom could not b e bought or sold except b etween memb ers of the Vill a ge com muni ty the reizes t ; the m a in problem therefore for a greedy l a ndlord w a s himself to get possession of a yeom a n p a rt by pressure or in trigue or simul a ted gift a n d thus b ecome a r dzes with a right to buy Vill a ge l a n d The rest w a s done for him by the increa sin gly hea vy t a xes a n d other bur dens w hi ch were depressing the pe a s a ntry In Mun teni a indeed it h a pp ened th a t whole yeom a n Vi ll a ges whi ch were un a ble to pa y their t a xes sold themselves to the l a n dl ord together with their l a nd thus be com ing his vecim The r a p e of yeom a n l a nd w a s considera ble in itself but it w a s o nl y a sm all p a rt of the h a rdships which were b ending the b a ck of the Rum a ni a n p e a s a ntry For th a t the two tendencies to in cre a se the vill a gers dues in l a bour an d to reduce their right to the use of the l a nd were m a inly responsible ; their upwa rd curve c a n b e tra ced thr oughout the legisl a tion of the eighteenth century but they only rea ch their ex tre me form a fter the brea king of the Turkish domi n a tion in the fi r st h a lf of the ni neteenth century The we a keni ng of the centra l a uthority a n d the growt h of Austri a n a n d Russi a n i nfl ue n ce reduced the Rum a ni a n provinces to a geogra phic a l expression to a poli tic a l no m a n s l a nd in which the boia r s di d a s they plea sed Mr a n d Mr s H a mmond wrote in their Vi llage La bourer t h a t In Engl a nd the a ri s tocra cy h a d power a n d no privileges ; i n Fra nce the a ristocra cy h a d privileges a n d no power In the Rum a ni a n pro vinces the boia rs h a d b oth power a n d privileges Nomin a lly high function a ries on b eh a lf of the Prince they were i n fa ct the keepers a n d u n co n troll ed defenders of their own interests a s l a ndlords They h a d a pportioned the l a nd a mong themselves According to N S out z o s S ta ti s ti que d e la P ri ncip a ute d e M old a vi e the a vera ge size of a R um a ni a n est a te wa s eighty fi ve times grea ter th a n the a vera ge Engli s h l a rge est a te ; sm a ll properties we r e few a n d in sign ifi ca n t Rea lizing th a t their power depended -

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on their we a lth in l a nd the boi a r s in the a bsence of pr im ogen i ture introduced the custom of delibera te dis inh erita nce ; one or two of the ch i ldren i nh erited wea lth a n d n a me whil e the others were forced into the mon a stic st a te The coun try wrote M ih a il Eminescu in one of his ess a ys w a s but a big est a te a dmini stered like a n est a t e— a complex of l a tifundi a i n w hi ch priv a te la w is pub lic la w the i nh erit a nce of l a nded we a lth the inherit a nce of power in the St a te When the fir st n a tion a l rising in the B a lk a ns the Greek Heta i ma movement broke out on Rum a ni a n soil in 1 8 21 the Rum a nia n p a triot Tudor V l a dim irescu used the opportunity to instig a te a popul a r revolt He thus expl a ined his purpose in a l a pid a ry procla m a tion to the people : No l a ws ca n preven t you from returning e vil for evil If a serpent crosses your p a th hi t it a n d kill i t for if it bites you it will prob a bly end a nger your li fe B ut these dra gons — our ecclesi a stic a l a n d politic a l chiefs— who h a ve devoured our rights how lo ng sh a ll we let them suck our blood how long sh a ll we rem a in their sl a ves ? And to D ervis Pa sh a comm a nding a t V i d in he wrote to a ssur e him th a t our rising is directed o nl y a ga inst the boia r s who h a ve devour ed our rights The fi r st revolt of the Rum a nia n p eople w a s consciously not a ga inst outside po litic a l oppression but a i med therefore a g a inst soci a l a n d economic exploit a tion by the i r own upp er cla ss ,

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C H A P TE R II POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE Th e Orga ni c S ta tutes

Politic a l ch a nges a t the end of the eighteenth century were crea ting new economic condition s on the western shore of the Bla ck S ea ; thes e in their turn c a lled forth soci a l revisions— the whole forming a ch a in of c a uses a n d effect s which supplied a noteworthy ex a mple of how economic pros er it m a y produce soci a l regress y p In the ea rli er centuries a ccord ing to C a rr a not more th a n one fortieth of Rum a ni a n soil w a s under crops Corn w a s too b ul ky to b e tra nsported a cross the rough l an d routes a n d in a n y c a se the surroundin g cou n tries were genera lly self s uffi cin g B ut when the Turks lost Crime a Egypt a n d other pro vinces in southern Europ e a n d northern Afric a they b ega n to dra w l a rge corn supplies from the Rum a ni a n princip a lities reservi n g to themselves a priority of purch a se The frequent Visits by Russi a n a rmies during the con flict s w ith Turkey a lso ra ised the dem a nd for corn Agriculture received a strong im petus much quickened by the Trea ty of Adri a n ople which in 1 8 29 put a n end to th a t Turkish corn monopoly a n d opened the Bla ck S ea to interna tion a l tra de B etween 1 8 31 a n d 1 8 33 the rent of l a nd doubled a n d trebled The grea t fa mine which vi sited Russi a in 1 833 drew a ttention to the a gricultura l richness of the Rum a ni a n provinces Whe a t o nl y b eg a n to b e exported in a ppreci a ble qu a ntities from Munteni a in th a t ye a r J ules de Hage m eist er in a b ook pub lished a t Odess a in 1 8 35 st a ted th a t one chi ld of whea t which sold a t 1 4 pi a stres d uring the Tur kish occup a tion rea ched 21 0 pi a stres in 1 8 33 Pa sture a n d mea dows which not long b efore h a d covered 90 per cent of the a ra ble l a nd were reduced to 32 6 4 per cent by 1 8 60 a n d to b a rely 1 5 % per cent by 1 903 Th a t ch a nge rui n ed c a ttle breeding which h a d been the m a i n st a y of the pea s a nts but it brought gre a t wea lth to a ll who disposed of l a nd a n d l a bour for gro wing corn chea ply a s the l a nd lords were quick to re a li z e especi a lly during the Crime a n Wa r .

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POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE

Th e

ra pid rise in corn a n d l a nd va lues a s well a s the gre a t loss of popula tion resulting from a pl a gue epidemi c in 1 8 1 2 irresistibly tempted them fur ther to encro a ch upon the l a nd rights a n d freedom of l a bour of the p e a s a ntry ; an d the fir st step tow a rds n a tion a l independence w a s to give them power to s a tisfy these a mbitions After some fi ft y ye a rs of efforts to t a ke the pl a ce whi ch T urkey held a s m a ster in the princip a lities Russi a settled the issue in her own fa vour by the Convention of Ackerm a nn ( 1 8 26 ) a n d the Tre a ty of Adri a n ople Her a rmies occupied the coun tries for six ye a rs a n d the a dm inistra tion w a s pl a ced un der the control of a Russi a n Commiss a ry Discontent w a s a t the time deep a n d genera l The sm all educ a ted cl a ss a spir ed to g a in a sh a re of p ower ; the m a ss of the p eople longed to b e rid of the plundering t a xes of the Ph a n a riote r eg ime It w a s in the interest of the newcomer to m a ke herself welcome by a b etter a n d in some degree a utonomous government The r ul ers it w a s decided should now b e elected for life from a mong the le a ding n a tive f a milies by the re spective d iva n s ; a n d these oliga rchi c a ssem blies in which s a t the gre a t boia r s a n d the higher clergy were a lso to m a ke the l a ws of their two countries Mea nwhile Rus s i a a ppointed a s governor of the princip a li ties Count P a ul Kisselev a gener a l e qu a lly a ble enlightened a n d energetic who a t once set to work to endow the countries with fund a ment a l l a ws In deference to the terminologic a l susceptibilities of Russi a s a uto era t the new l a w s were c a lled Org a ni c St a tutes In more th a n on e sense these org a nic l a ws m a rk the b eginning of modern life in the Rum a n i a n provinces Dur ing the long st re tch of Turkish domin a tion the Rum a ni a n Princip a li ties h a d never b een turn ed into mere p a sh a li ks but neither h a d they b een a llowed a n y politic a l will of their own It w a s a h a ph a z a rd r egime during which a utonomous St a te li fe w a s suspended r a ther th a n suppre s s ed The popul a tions h a d no politic a l power a n d t h e tr a n sient rulers h a d but a n indifferent politic a l interest in the country Legisl a tion spora dic a n d ephemera l in the form of princely decree s w a s m a i n ly devoted to secur ing ever more b ene fits for the prince a n d his s a tellites Old rules a n d customs persisted or were ch a nged in ra ndom fa shion a n d b a sic principles ,

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POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S O CI AL DEPENDENCE esc a ped mutila tion sim ply bec a use

27

one troubled a b out prin

no

ciple s a t a ll

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In some such w a y h a d the pe a s a nt s right to the use of a ll the l a nd persisted we ll into the nineteenth century With the fi r st mea sure of independence however the boia r s found the ch a nce of h a vi n g their pri vil eges s a nctioned by the compelli n g a uthority of the la w ; a n d no doubt they a lso thought it tim ely on the threshold of a new Rum a ni a n polity to est a blish a s m a ny of their cl a ims a s they eould — to endow the cou n try a s they put For this they were in a peculi a rly it W ith a modern la w fa vour a ble position Prob a bly they would in a n y c a se h a ve b een given a monopoly of power seeing the Views which S t Petersb urg held on governm ent by the people But moreover they were the only element th a t counted politic a lly a t a ll a n d Russi a w a s a nx ious to propiti a te them lest they shoul d turn their hopes towa rds V ienn a Th e M old a vi a n Orga n i c S ta tute The new fund a ment a l l a ws were dra fted for e a ch province by a Commission of four gre a t boi a r s a n d a fter b ei ng a pproved by S t Petersburg they were submitted to Extra ordi na ry Genera l Assembli es of Revision composed exclusively of gre a t boia r s whi ch g a ve them fi n a l s a nction The Mold a vi a n di va n convened in 1 8 30 to p a ss the Org a ni c Sta tute consisted of forty six grea t boia r s i e a s m a ny a s there were of them represent i ng no on e but themselves a n d of six lea ders of the Mold a vi a n ecclesi a stic a l hi era rchy Yet it is s a ying a gre a t dea l th a t Europe s most re a ction a ry govern ment should h a ve felt c a lled upon to censure— with little effect— the new a gra ri a n r é gime whi ch the fi r st a utonomous Rum a ni a n a ssemb lies proposed to set u p S ection V II of Oh 1 1 1 of the two Org a ni c Sta tutes de a lt comprehensively with principles a n d r ul es of the new rur a l order It h a s a lre a dy b een sho w n how the eighteenth century h a d seen the growth of a tendency to reduce the l a nd rights a n d incre a se the l a bour dues of the pe a s a ntry Wh a t the boia r s could not obt a in even from the dissolute Ph a n a riote princes they now bestowed upon themselves with the reluct a n t support of the protecting Power The Org a n ic St a tutes a me n ded the old l a nd rights in two w a ys b oth to the loss of the pea s a nts A fi r st .

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28

POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCI AL DEPENDENCE

ch a nge of principle upset the whole b a sis of l a nd tenure in the Rum an i a n provinces : where a s the pe a s a nt h a d b een the re a l owner of the l a nd a n d the l a ndlord a s lea der of the Villa ge merely entitled to one tenth of the h a rvest now for the fir st time the lord of the Vi lla ge w a s esta blished a s lord of the l a n d a lso a n d given the title of proprietor It is true th a t the pe a s a nts right to the use of the la n d w a s con fi rm e d ( Art 1 1 8 But the l a ndlord w a s a llowed to reserve for him self one th ir d on the n a rrow est a tes where there w a s not enough groun d to s a tisfy a ll the inh a bit a nts a fter the ex a mple of the tiers s a ge reserved to the l a ndl ords when the villa ge commun ities were broken up in F r a nce And the door w a s opened to further encro a chmen ts by two insidious texts : Art 1 1 8 s a ying th a t the new rules sh a ll h a ve force until it sh a ll b e possible to a rra nge the le a sing of the l a nd by mutu a l underst a nding a n d Art 1 27 th a t a newly m a rried m a n should b e b ou n d to p erform the prescrib ed l a b our dues if h e cl a imed his sh a re of l a nd a n d the proprietor is willi ng to give it The l a ndlord s title w a s thus ex a lted i n to one of full owner ship qua li fi e d a s yet solely by the obli ga tion to let the p e a s a nts ti ll a s much a s two thirds of the est a te ; the p e a s a nt s title how ever w a s reduced to a collective cl a im to the use of not more tha n two thirds of the l a nd with the w a rning tha t even thus restricted it w a s in the givi n g of the l a ndlord The former tithe owners blossom out into fu ll owners of the l a nd ; the former f ull posses sors shrink to little more th a n pri vileged ten an ts B esides b eing re s tricted to th a t collective m a xi mum th e pe a s a nt s sh a re w a s further cut down in di vidu a lly Oi old he h a d cultiva ted a s much a s he w a nted a g a inst p a yment of tithe a n d l a bour dues In 1 8 05 he w a s limited to cert a in fi x e d holdings the Vill a gers being for this purpose divided into three c a tegories r un ta s mi loca s cod e s ( le a ding middli ng a n d t a il end pe a s a nts ) f j —a ccording to the numb er of c a ttle they kept The Org a nic St a tute reduced the holdings provided in 1 8 05 by more th a n 1 h a lf Even if together they did not m a ke up two thirds of the Ki l v rt d th t cc rdi g t r gi p t h d i t h M ld vi ,

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eas a n s

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ti me s more l a n d th a n w a s a llow e d t o th e m by t h e firs t te xt of O rg n ic S t tutes I n 1 8 05 th y re c e ive d en ou gh t o kee p twe lve big a i ma ls i n pl a i n a n d s ix i n t h e m u nta i n o u s region ; n ow the y h a rdl y h a d en ough for fi ve th o ugh c attl e r c ri ng wa s t h e pea sa n t s ma i n s ourc e of re ven u e

1 8 05 the the

r e cc 1 ve d

1 5 t o 31 a

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POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S O CI AL DEPENDENCE

29

est a te the l a ndlords were not b o und to give a n y l a nd b eyond th a t The boi ar s a im to lay hold of the l a nd w a s thus a chieved in a l a rge me a sure La b our Dues They were still more successful in their a im to increa se the l a bour dues of the pe a s a ntry The origin a l three d a ys which the vill a gers worked for the j ud et h a d incre a sed to twelve by 1 8 05 Thi s figur e w a s kept by the Org a nic St a tute But wherea s Mor uzzi s decree referred to or di n a ry d a ys the St a tute s twelve d a ys were with h ar t i e with a fi x e d progra mme of work The fi r st th a t is fi x e d the number of d a ys the second in re a lity the qu a ntity of work with the result th a t the twelve d a ys of the one were fa r from b ei n g equ a l to the dozen d a ys of the other Kisselev hi mself decl a red th a t on e d a y a s fixed in Mold a vi a w a s equ a l to a b out two d a ys in the Ukr a ine a n d e a ch of these equ a l to a t lea st two d a ys re a l work The number of a ctu a l d a ys which the three c a tegories h a d to serve in the ye a r re a ched a n a vera ge of fifty six for the Vi ll a ger with four oxen fi fty eight for the m an with two oxen a n d sixty for the pe a s a n t who h a d no oxen a t a ll According to the v a lues of the time the l a bour servitudes of the three c a tegories were worth resp ectively ’

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1 21 05 39 00

9 9 30 28 00

43 1 5

5 76 0

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tith e e xtr a l a b o ur for t h e m a ki n g ba rns T ot l wh ich divid e d by t h e h oldi n gs th e y w ere e titl e d w orke d fa lce a t th e

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Yet Kisselev h a d fi xe d for other purposes a n d the l a ndlords h a d a ccepted the le a se v a lue of a fa lce to b e 1 8 lei Hence a fter b eing reduced to the st a te of tena nts the pea s a nts were m a de to pa y for their l a nd roughly two two a n d a h a lf a n d three t imes more th a n it w a s worth a t the time ; a n d the poorer they were the more they h a d to pa y for such fi eld s a s were left them S erfd om d i sgui sed a n d oth er b urd ens Perh a ps the l a ndlords were n ot un a w a re of how crushin g these l a b our dues were a t a n y ra te they m a de sure th a t the pe a s a nts co ul d not r un a w a y from them Ar t 1 35 which h a d not existed in the fi r st dra ft con fir m e d the a bolition of serfdom but in pr a ctice serfdom w a s ,

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30

POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S OCI AL DEPENDENCE

revived by the ob st a cles th a t were pl a ced in the w ay of pea s a nts moving from one villa ge to a nother They coul d do so onl y a t the end of a dm inistra tive periods of seven ye a rs ea ch they h a d to give t o the l a ndlord a n d to the Tre a sury one yea r s notice a n d to pa y tithe a n d St a te t a x for a whole ye a r in a dv a nce ( Ar t A p e a s a nt who wished to move in the cour se of a n a dministr a tive p eriod h a d fi r st to pa y the St a te t a x for a ll the ye a rs th a t h a d still to run to the end of the p eriod a n d to the l a ndlord the va lue of his l a bour dues for a whole ye a r It w a s only a fter pressur e from Kisselev th a t some of these condi tions were w a ived for the p e a s a nt who h a d to move bec a use the l a ndlord co ul d not give h im the holding which shoul d b e his ( Ar t Among the second a ry servitudes imposed by the Org ani c St a tutes w a s th a t of the Volunt a ry serva nts Art 72 a llowed the l a ndlords to conscript 1 0 p er cent of the inh a bit a nts on their est a tes ( a n d 20 per cent where their tot a l numb er w a s b elow 200) for u n limited domestic service ; they were to b e a ll owed tim e merely to work their fi eld s These serva nts were exempted from the St a te t a x The pe a s a nts a lso lost the v a lu a ble right to wood for fuel a n d b uilding which they h a d enj oyed thr oughout the worst Turkish time s L a ter in 1 8 44 this right w a s restored to them by the r ul ing Prin ce About the only a llevi a tion which the Org a ni c Sta tutes brought to the lot of the p e a s a nt w a s in the degree a n d m a nn er of t a x a tion The tithe w a s m a int a ined except for g a rden produce But the devouring m a s s of direct a n d indirect t a xes b eque a thed by the Ph a n a riote r egime w a s repl a ced by a single dir ect t a x the bi r a mounting to some 30 lei a nnu a lly for whose p a yment the Vill a ge w a s j ointly responsibl e— a nother me a ns of m a king th e Villa gers police would be run a wa ys themselves This improve ment in the degree a n d n a ture of the St a te t a x a n d not lea st in the m a nner of its collection which went a long w a y tow a rds checking a buses undoubtedly mea nt a boon for the pe a s a ntry With this however the boi a r s were little concerned They them selves rem a ined a s b efore a ltogether exempted from t a xes In a ddition they secured comp ens a tion for themselve s a n d their widows a n d their minor children for renouncing the a busive .

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POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE

31

privilege of possessing s cuteln i ci : men th a t is who were exempted from a ll t a xes to the St a te but l a b oured co n tinuously for the l a ndlords b ein g thus bound to full serfdom in pr a ctice Accord ing to Al Golescu there were in 1 8 28 f a mili es of s cuteln i ci ; they were gra nted to the boia r s in v a ryi ng numb ers a ccording to ra nk a s a perpetu a l right In Mun te ni a the comp ens a tion w a s 60 pi a stres ye a rly for e a ch scuteln i c a n d h a lf th a t sum to the boi ar s widow a n d childr en As th a t compens a tion sw a llowed a bout one fi ft h of the Mold a vi a n a n d one tenth of the Munteni a n budgets a t the time wh a t it c a me to in pra ctice w a s a n indir ect tribute p a id by the pe a s a nts to the boia r s Fin a lly both St a tutes m a int a ined the l a n dlord s monopoly to mill to sell spirits a n d me a t to open sh e ps a n d so on Th e Orga n i c S ta tute i n Muntem a The Russi a n Commissioner found con d itions in Munteni a which in la w an d in pra ctice di ffered a gre a t de a l from those in Mold a vi a Geogra phi c a l posi tion a n d the stimul a ting intercourse with neighbouring countries h a d set a much f a ster p a ce in the economic development of the northern pro vince In Munteni a however l a ndlords f a rming for their own a ccount were few a n d fa r b etween ; a n d this economic b a ckw a rdness tra nsl a ted itself into b etter soci a l con di tions on the l a nd No me a sure h a d come a s yet to c ur ta il the pe a s a nts right to the use of the l a nd ; contempora ry documents indeed show th a t they were b eing urged to plough a s much l a n d a s they could Nor h a d their l a bour dues been weighted wi th u n fa ir reckonings so fa r The twelve d a ys were ordin a ry d a ys ; mostly a lso they were comm uted into a money p a yment gener a lly a t the low ra te of one leu per d a y ; while in m a n y Vill a ges a long the D a n ub e where fl igh t w a s e a sier only six d a ys work w a s a sked of the Vill a gers in the ye a r Ha d the Munteni a n St a tute there fore held to the Mold a vi a n model it would rel a tively h a ve ca used gre a ter d a m a ge in the life of the pe a s a ntry In f a ct the two l a ws differed considera bly in their provisions rel a ting to l a nd rights a n d l a bour dues ; a n d while the Munteni a n St a tute w a s much fa irer in the a s s essment of servitudes it w a s much greedier in the cur ta ilment of the pea s a nts right to l a nd Art 1 40of the Munte ni a n St a tute a cknowledged the pea s a nts right to l a nd a ccordin g to the number of their c a ttle ; but it a lso ,

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32

POLITICAL FREE D OM

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s a id lik e the Mold avi a n St a tute th a t these provisions were to st a nd until the le a sing co ul d b e a rr a nged by mutua l a greement And Art 1 44 opened with the a ssertion tha t j ust a s the l a n dl ord is complete owner of his l a nd 85 0 Here the reserv a tion of two thirds of the l a nd for the use of the pe a s a nts di s a ppe a red a ltogether Moreover the holdings a llotted to the va rious c a te gor i es of vill a gers were sm a ller th a n in Mold a via though the 1 v w a s pro ince rich in extensive pl a in s There seems no other w a y of expla inin g this th a n by a n excessive greed for we a lth for the Munteni a n l a ndlords conti n ued to let to the pe a s a n ts l a nd in plenty on e a sy terms a n d to dem a nd from them much li ghter l a bour dues th a n those of Mold a vi a La b our Dues In Mun teni a a s in Molda vi a the p ea s a nts h a d to give twelve d a ys l a bour in the ye a r a n d here a lso a h a rt w a s now fi x e d for thos e d a ys But in Mun teni a the v a rious l a bour s were defined so fa irly a s a lmost to a pproa ch wh a t a ctu a lly w a s possible To give one inst a nce : while the Molda vi a n rul es a llowed but one d a y for the cultiva tion of twelve p r dj i n i of m a ize eight d a ys were a llowed in Munte ni a for the s a me l a bour ; a n d even this b eing found in a dequ a te w a s improved l a ter Here a lso they rememb ered to reduce proportion a tely the l a b our dues of the Villa ger where there w a s not enough l a n d to give him the whole extent to which he co uld la y cl a im Ag ain in Munteni a the l a ndlord w a s a llowed no more th a n four men from e a ch hundred fa milies to do him p erson a l service a n d here this work w a s usu a lly di vi ded a mong the Villa gers m a king some four teen d a ys service for e a ch which were often comm uted into money For the rest the freedom of movement of the pe a s a nts w a s ,

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M ld vi o

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Mu t n

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e ni a

P a s n ts with 4 o x en P e sa n ts with 2 ox e Pea s n ts with ut o x a

e

n

a

a

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en

( Thi s i n clud e d t h e v a lu e of t h e

d om stic s rvic which i n Mu n te i a wa s di stribut e d a mo n g a ll t h e villa ge rs ) e

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POLITICAL FREE D OM AND SOCIAL DEPENDENCE

33

severely h a mpered a s in Mold a vi a ; somewh a t w ider l a titude b eing a llowed only to the men who could n ot get their full sh a re of l a nd where they lived a n d to those who a cqui red l a nd by m a rria ge or herit a ge elsewhere But Art 1 44 decreed th a t eve n a fter fulfi llin g the prescribed conditions the pe a s a nts could le a ve on ly two a t a time ; Bibescu l a ter interpreted a t a tim e a s mea nin g d uring one yea r so tha t only two pea s a n ts could lea ve e a ch ye a r from one Vill a ge Unlike the Mold a vi a n la w th a t for Mun teni a m a i nt a in ed the pe a s a nts right to wood wherever there were forests on the esta te In other respects the two St a tutes were subst a ntia lly a like The Org a n ic St a tutes ra di ca lly ch a nged the whole a gra ri a n system of the two Rum a ni a n provinces The modern co n ception of property a s a right in itself not qua li fi e d a s b efore by the profession a l use of the obj ect entered Rum a ni a n a gra ri a n la w for the fi r st time An offi cia l report d a ting from 1 8 34 signed by Stir b ey a n d others openly decl a red th a t the purpose of the Org a nic Sta tutes h a s b een to ra ise a t the expense of the Trea sury the rights of property so a s to indemnify the boia r s for the s a crifices they m a de An d a Commission a ppoin ted to con sider the position of mona stic est a tes proposed to Kisselev th a t the mon a steries should renounce for the ben e fi t of the S t a te the sur plus revenue which h a s a ccrued to property from the a pplic a tion of the new la w The pra ctic a l effects of the new r egime were summ ed up by M R Rosetti a s mea nin g for the pe a s a nt on the one ha nd a reduction of t a xes but on the other a grievou s reduction a h n ost to nothing of his old right t o use the l a nd on which he w a s settled ; it me a ns he a vy crippli ng l a b our dues under a hypocritic a l a ppe a r a nce of a llevi a tion ; ob st a cles to hi s lea ving the Vi ll a ge in which he suffers coming very nea r to serfdom ; deni a l of a n y a n d every civil right ; an d fi n a lly a thre a t th a t he m a y lose even the little l a nd th a t w a s left h im After the p a ssing of the Org a nic Sta tutes the holdings were so sm a ll th a t for the fi r st time the p e a s a nts found it necess a ry to rent a dditiona l l a nd beyond th a t to whi ch they h a d a form a l cl a im And this a l though Ki s selev h a d gone to the length of suspending in b oth provinces the enforcement of the two texts a n d h a d begged a n d pres s ed for a mendments ; insisting a bove a ll on the pe a s a nt s as

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old right to use a ll the l a nd on the j ustice of keepin g l a b our dues proportion a te to the holdi n g given to e a ch pe a s a nt a n d on the need to recog ni ze fra nk ly a n d fi n a lly the pea s a nt s complete freedom of movement In a letter to B ut eni ev the Russi a n Amb a ss a dor in Const a ntinople he rem a rked tha t the Assembly of boia r s h a ving constituted itself j udge in its ow n c a use it is only n a tura l th a t it s eeks to exten d its own privileges a t the expense of the others who a re neith er represented nor defended by a nyone Th a t goes so fa r th a t by a n insidious cl a use reg a rd ing l a b our dues they h a ve b ound the Vill a gers to the soil though they a r e free by right a n d every d a y they tend to m a ke of them sl a ves to oppress them the more Kisselev succeeded in securing m a ny improveme n ts of det a il b ut in retur n he h a d to a llow cert a in fun d a ment a l principles to penetra te into the St a tutes which he k n ew to b e wrong w hi ch depressed the p e a s a ntry s st a ndin g a s a cl a ss a n d compromised its whole futur e ; for a fter h a ving fought them for three ye a rs the boia r s a ppe a led to the Ts a r a n d Kisselev h a d to give w a y for p oli tic a l re a sons But wh a t a trench a nt comment a ry on the i ndiscrimi n a te ex a lt a tion of n a tion a l government to see Kisselev an a lien Count a n d gener a l a represent a tive of Europe s most a utocra tic r ul er fi gh t i n g to s a ve some of the birthrights of the Rum a nia n p e a s a nts which a t the fi r st opportunity the n a tive boia r s were r a p a ci Amon g the boia r s themselves not a single voice ous ly usurping w a s ra ised to c a ll a h a lt to th a t cruel despoilin g of their poorest 1 kith a n d kin Revi s i ng th e Orga ni c S ta tutes T h a t the Org a nic St a tutes h a d lowered most p a infully the li fe of the pe a sa ntry w a s ob vious to every ob server More th a n once in their reports the foreign consul s condemned the h a rdships of the new r égime a n d ra ised the w a rning a g a inst the da ngers lur kin g in such a sta te of leg a liz ed misery The w a y in which the pe a s a nts resp onded to the c a ll of 1 8 48 proved indeed th a t discontent w a s deep a n d widespre a d a mong them ; a n d during the j oint Russo Turkish L t r Ki l v b c m R u i Mi i t r f D m i ( S t t l d ) I th t ,

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c a p a city h e i tr duc e d i n 1 8 45 refor m s a i mi g t regul ti g t h e p os iti on of t h e p ea s a ts livi ng on s uch d o ma i n th e ir due a n d th eir rights t o l a n d This me asu re w a s a n i m p orta n t pre c e d e t fo t h e p ea s n t e man cip a ti on of 1 8 6 1 whi ch e m bod 1 e d i t s provi s i ons n

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POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE

occup a tion which followed the protecting a uthorities were a ble to esta bli sh the truth of wh a t their consuls h a d reported As a consequence the Tre a ty which Russi a a n d T urkey co n cluded a t B a lt a Li m a n in 1 8 49 cha rged the n a tive rul ers who were a bout to b e a ppo i nted for a period of seven ye a rs a n d who were to govern in the presence of Russi a n a n d Turkish comm iss a ries with the duty of revising the l a ws governi ng the rel a tions b etween l a nd lords a n d pe a s a nts I n M old a vi a The new Act brought in by Grigore Ghic a in 1 8 5 1 a n d a pproved by the protecting Power s r econ fi r m e d the pe a s a nts right to l a nd a n d j ointly to two thirds of the est a te where there w a s not enough to go round ; a n d it a llotted to e a ch household twenty p mj i n i more gra zing The numb er of l a b our d a ys w a s m a int a ined but the wo r k to b e done w a s d efi n e d more closely a n d a proportion a te a llow a nce m a de to those pe a s a nts who could not get the i r f ull sh a re of l a nd The tithe w a s a b olished except for orch a rds a n d Viney a rds lyi n g outside the pe a s a nt s ga rden Remova l from on e Vill a ge to a nother w a s m a de ea sier An d the m a king of contra cts on terms worse th a n these w a s forbidden The pra ctic a l effects a s est im a ted by Rosetti w a s to increa se the l a bour dues of the fi r st two c a tegories of Vill a gers ; 1 th a t incre a se however w a s worth not more th a n 1 5 lei wherea s the tithe of which the pea s a nt w a s now re le a sed w a s worth 7 2 a n d 5 7 lei a n d twenty more p r aj i n i gra zing a lso represented a rent a l of 5 — 1 0 lei a nn u a lly The poorest section of the pe a s a ntry ben efit e d from a reduction in l a bour dues worth 20— 8 lei from the remi ssion of the tithe worth some 42 lei a n d from the in crea se in gra zing l a nd More th a n th a t the grea ter cl a rity with which the rights a n d duties of the two p a rties were now defined put a stop to m a ny a buses of which the p ea s a nts h a d b een the Victims In this the Munte ni a n a men d ing la w w a s even more efi e ct ive I n Mun ten i a Mun t eni a s new ruler B a rbu Stirbey h a d been one of the m a kers of the Orga nic St a tute He believed th a t the troubles of the pe a s a nts were due merely to the ba d a pplic a tion ,

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P asan ts with 4 o x n from 5 6 t o 6 1 5 d a ys P a sa n ts with 2 o x n from 5 8 t o 6 3 5 d a ys Pe s n ts with o ut o x en from 6 0 t o 5 2 1 d ys e

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POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE

of a n essenti a lly good la w ; a n d in a Memora ndum he wr ote b efore the dra fting of the new la w he a sserted tha t compl a ints h a ve a risen in rega rd only to those things which the Org a nic Sta tute thought b est to le a ve to the free decision of the two p a rties Stirb ey w a s a keen student of a gra ri a n problems a n d while hi mself a big l a ndlord not without goodwi ll for the p e a s a nts His s a yings a n d a ctions therefore m a ke a fa ir guide to the outlook of the Rum a ni a n boia rs a t the tim e The Pre a mble to his new la w insisted th a t the p ea s a nt settled on a nother m a n s est a te is the l a ndlord s ten a nt p a ying rent in the sh a pe of dues in money l a bour a n d kind The l a ndlords were st ill ob liged to give l a nd to the pe a s a n ts but only un til a free economic rela tion ship w a s est a blished b etween the two p a rties Mea nwh ile the need for st a tutory regul a tions rem a i ned hence the new la w It doubled the extent of gra zing to which the pea s a nts were entitled fi x in g it a t one pogon per he a d of c a ttle ; it m a de the conditions e a sier a n d sim pler on which the vill a gers could obt a in a ddition a l l a nd L a bour dues were fi x e d a t twenty two da ys a ll roun d which mea nt th a t the p ea s a nts w ith oxen h a d to l a bour six da ys more a n d the pe a s a nts without oxen four d a ys more th a n under the Org a nic Sta tute s ; but in return the p ersona l service est a b lish e d by custom a t fourteen d a ys in the ye a r w a s a bolished S o w a s t h e tithe from g a rden produce Art 1 44 decl a red the pe a s a nt to b e completely free in hi s p erson a n d possessions a llowing gre a ter l a titude though by no me a ns free choice to the p e a s a nt who w a nted to move from hi s Vill a ge But more th a n thi s Stirb ey could not do for the existin g a rr a ngements a ssured to the p e a s a nt the work a n d to ag ricultur e the l a bour which w a s needed This which it mi ght b e d iffi cult or impossible to secure by other me a ns constitutes the sole energy in this essenti a lly a gricultur a l l a nd ; to deprive a gr i cul ture of it would b e to kill it Th a t mutu a l need Stirb ey thought should govern a ll future legisl a tion a n d the best w a y of s a tisfy ing it would b e to a pply a ll round the sliding sca le provided in Ar t 1 41 of the Org a nic St a tutes It a llowed the pe a s a nt to cl a i m a reduction in his l a b our dues if the l a ndlord were un a ble to give him a ll the l a nd to which he w a s entitled ; should not dues b e ‘

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POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE

37

incre a sed in the s a me proportion if the pe a s a nt a sked a n d the l a ndlord ga ve more l a nd ? Stirb ey seems to h a ve b een a nxious to encoura ge pe a s a nt cultiva tion rightly observing th a t the Org a nic St a tutes h a d ensured to the p ea s a n t me a ns of existence but not for exp a nsion But his logica l a rgumen t overlooked th e fa ct th a t the pea s a nt who l a boured more for a nother must culti v a te less for himself th a t he w a s not helped by b ein g given more l a nd while left with less tim e in which to till it In poi n t of f a ct the new la w g a ve a gre a t fi llip to pe a s a nt a griculture by securing it a ga inst a buses The regul a tions for a pplyin g it supplied printed forms for a greements b etween l a ndlords a n d pe a s a nts a n d it a lso obli ged the l a ndlords to give for e a ch d a y of l a bour a printed receipt to b e held by the p e a s a nt till the ye a rly settle ment By this a n d other such me a ns the new r égime cert a inly helped to improve the m a teri a l st a ndin g of the pe a s an try ; a n d in genera l it introduced into the Org a nic St a tutes a ll the im provem en t s of det a il comp a tible with the essenti a l inj ustice of its principles Th e fir s t s tep to p oli ti ca l r igh ts S t ir bey s rura l la w cont a ine d a n innov a tion of gre a t interest a s b ein g the first step tow a rds the p e a s a n t s poli tic a l enfra nchisement ; besides h a ving immedi a te pra ctic a l va lue for the betterment of his life The la w h a nded over to a Vill a ge council the a dministra tion of the Vill a ge the collection of t a xes a s well a s the ex a m i n a tion of disputes between l a ndlords a n d Villa gers — a ll of them m a tters in reg a rd to which the pea s a nt h a d h a d most of the burdens a n d no n e of the s a ying All offi cia l bus iness w ithin the Villa ge h a d to b e c a rried out through the council The council w a s to consist of a m a yor a delega te of the la ndlord a n d two or four pe a s a nt d eleg a tes two if the num b er of households were below a hun dred four if it were a bove Ma yor a n d pe a sa nt deputies were to b e elected for one ye a r from a mong the pe a s a nts with four oxen or if need b e w ith two oxen by a ll the V ill a gers who p a id the he a d t a x ; they could not sit two ye a rs run n ing In return for their services they were exempted while holdin g offi c e from performing l a bour dues In d a ys when the burdens of the pe a s a nts were l a rgely m a de up from a buses by l a ndlords their men a n d the petty loc a l offi cia ls the crea tion of the Villa ge ,

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38

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coun cil w a s a bra ve a ttempt of the Munteni a n a mending la w to reform a gre a t evil Th e s ta te of th e p ea s a n tr y on th e eve of n a ti on a l i n d ep en d en ce Survey ing w ith one gl a nce the whole of these ch a n ges they show th a t in the forties of the nineteenth cent ury when the Rum a ni a n pro vinces recovered their n a tio n a l a utonomy their p e a s a nt popula tions lost much or most of their soci a l a n d econ omic free dom Though the new a rra ngement w a s clothed in the ordered a rticles of a modern la w it could not for a mome n t misle a d the p e a s a nt s sim ple folk a s they were a s to the re a l me a ni ng of the ch a nge Rumours concerning the ch a n ges th a t were contem pl a ted s uffi ce d to c a use spor a dic loc a l risings in Mold a vi a in 1 8 31 which the a uthorities coul d h a rdly h a ve suppressed wi thout the s a ving presence of Russi a n coss a ck s Elsewhere p a ssive resist a nce del a yed or checked the enforcement of cert a in pro Visions of the Orga nic St a tutes Along the Pruth fi r st i ndividu a l p ea s a nts then fa milies l a ter whole Vill a ges b ega n to cross into B ess a ra bi a then in Russi a n h a nd s B y 1 8 34 th a t migr a tion w a s reported from a ll the frontiers into Tr a n sylva ni a a n d a cross the D a nub e a s well into Tur ki s h territory a n d w a s a ffecting even more dist a nt district s Gole sco writing in 1 8 5 6 st a ted th a t over fa m ilie s h a d crossed into Bulg a ri a S erbi a a n d Tra n sylva ni a s ince 1 8 32 There is rej oicing a mong the pe a s a nts he s a id when the D a nub e freezes for they ca n esc a p e a cross its soli d surfa ce from their sufferings at home A commis sion inqui r ing into the c a uses of th a t flight reported th a t they were i n s uffi ci en t l a nd a n d a buses in the a pplic a tion of the St a tute No remedies however were a pp a rently a ttempted until the protecting Pow ers impo s ed them some fift e en ye a rs l a ter a n d by steeled in misfortune by h a ving a n d by the we a ry p e a s a ntry borne the brunt of the country s prolonged tri a ls settled down under the new l e a d pl a ced upon their s houlders in the fi rst hour of n a tion a l reviv a l Under the new r egime the p ea s a nt for the fir st ti me beg a n to know l a nd hunger With the simple methods of fa rmi ng in use a t the time he needed for himself a n d his c a ttle a good sli ce of l a nd which in m a n y c a s e s he could not now get The l a bour dues were a cru s hi n g burden e s peci a lly a s their perform a nce w a s in .

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POLITICAL FREE D OM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE

39

no w a y a dj usted to rough soil ba d wea ther a n d other a dverse B eing me a sured by work r a ther th a n by tim e they a ccidents were el a stic enough a n d could b e stretched into e n dl ess a buses ; in the m ixed co m mission of 1 8 48 a pe a s a nt deputy told how a fter toiling a whole week w ith his own c a rt a n d oxe n c a rti n g m a iz e for the l a ndlord this w a s credited to hi m a s on e d a y s l a b our The custom a ry tithe h a d b een a sh a re not excessive of some th in g whi ch the pe a s a n t rea lly h a d a n d rel a ted to the conditions in which he foun d himself e a ch ye a r But the he a vy l a bour dues h a d to b e performed in f ull no m a tter whether hi s l a nd a n d his h a rvest were good or ba d The exce s sive l a bour servitudes them selves were bound to ret a rd the pea s a n t s ow n c ultiv a tion a n d h a rvesting ; the more so a s the l a n dl ord would n a tura lly cl a im the b est d a ys for hi mself a n d a s the l a bour dues could not b e commuted without his consent S e th a t the new a rra ngements b a nged the g a te to prosperity in the fa ce of eve n the most c a p a ble It is ch a ra cteristic th a t throughout a n d resourceful pe a s a nt th e se protra cted a gra ri a n deb a tes no one thought of suggesting th a t some crum b of schooling a n d tra in ing should b e provided for the Vill a gers And the m a n y wrongs cont a ined in the letter of the new l a ws were but procre a tors of a multitude of a buses committed whe n a pplyi n g their provisions The sm a ll upper cl a ss to whom the Org a nic St a tutes h a d a ccorded excessive rights a n d privileges h a d in their h a n ds the whole of the primitive a n d corrupt a dmi nistr a tion ; there were therefore no bounds to the n a ture a n d numb er of inj ustices which could b e perpetr a ted a t the expen se of the pe a s a nts The pe a s a nt is the boi a r s c a pit a l a boi a r blun tly excl a imed in the n a tion a l diva n In 1 8 37 the Mold a vi a n ruler himself a gre a t boi a r denounced i n biti n g words the w a y in which the pe a sa n ts were che a ted in the me a surements with the pole a shorter pole frequently bei n g used for the l a nd they received a n d a longer one for th a t which they tilled for t h e l a ndlord The prince h a d to intervene a g a i n in 1 8 44 on beh a lf of the i n h a bit a nts of the mou n t a in regio n s most of them settled on mona stic est a tes who were m a de to pa y a money compen sa tion for l a bour dues a s there w a s n o a ra ble l a nd which they could be m a de to till a difference which the Orga nic Sta tutes h a d over ,

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POLITICAL FREEDOM AND S OCIAL DEPENDENCE

looked Ab out the s a me time steps h a d to b e t a ken a ga i ns t l a ndlords who were trying the new trick so pop ul a r in l a ter d a ys of m a king l a b our contra cts with the p e a s a nts d uri ng the winter months when the pe a s a nt s needs were a t their hi ghest a n d hi s resources a t their lowest ; a n d li kewise a g a inst those who ex a cted he a vy fi n es for stra ying c a ttle even when no d a m a ge h a d b een done The Org a nic St a tutes h a d p ermitted the l a ndlords to cl a im money p a yment when they could not use a ll the l a b our which the vi ll a gers were supposed to p erform ; for such com e n s i a t on a sc a le w a s to b e fi x e d by the Assembly a n d it w a s so p fi x e d a s to b e a r he a vily on the pe a s a nt Simil a r exce s ses were committed with the ch a rges for sur plus gra zing so th a t m a ny pea s a n ts fled the Villa ges for the tow ns Alex a nder Ghic a the Munteni a n r uler endea vour ed to h a ve them mitig a ted but a fter a long fight he h a d to decl a re tha t we sh a ll no longer exp ect from the Assembly the settlement we h a d dem a n ded but will limit ourselves to withh oldi ng a ll offi ci a l interference a n d a i d for the enforcement of a n y a greements b etween proprietors a n d p e a s a nts a n d we w ill a wa rd prop er d a m a ges to inj ured p e a s a nts a s soon a s compl a ints re a ch us Fin a lly the ch a rges for surplus gra zi ng h a d to b e fi x e d offi cia lly in 1 8 44 The ruler a l s o resisted the dem a nds of the l a ndlords for gre a ter powers to prevent the pe a s a nts from moving a w a y ; though the l a ndlords themselves h a d been a rmed w ith a fe a rful mea n s of oppression by Art 1 26 of the Orga nic St a tutes whi ch a llowed them to expel wi th the consent of the loc a l a uthorities troublesome pe a s a nts sim ply by giving them six months notice When he w a nted the pea s a nt s l a b our however the l a ndlord could not only fetch him to work with the genda rme but a lso genera lly h a d him flogged ; a n in dignit y which the p e a s a nts bitterly resented I n the t ime of the Turk s one of them l a mented the sword m a y h a ve k illed but it did not s ti n g like the whip The gre a t s ufferings of the vill a gers were voiced in me a sur ed but a ccusing words by the pea s a nt deputies in the mixed com mission of 1 8 48 S a id Ene the J erkin m a ker : the Orga nic St a tute con fi n ed us on the l a ndlord s esta te a s in a w a lled fortress with iron ga tes so th a t there wa s no w a y by which we could get .

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41

out a n d even if we r a n a wa y a b a ndoning house a n d orch a rd a n d Viney a rd the work of our p a rents a n d our o w n a n d they found our where a bouts they brought us b a ck ch a ined j ust a s if we h a d been sl a ves locking us up in their cell a rs or b a rn s in w i n ter time with no fir e a n d even throwi ng w a ter over us th a t we should freeze th a t our sufferin gs sho ul d frighten the other s ; so th a t m a ny h a ve rem a ined crippled a n d c a nnot feed themselves to d ay And old Lip a n told his own story : Another time m y wife w a s t a ken to cut corn a n d I to mow with the genda rme a fter me a n d the three months old child left under the burni n g s un with flies sucking hi s mouth a n d w a sps a n d gn a ts stinging him— w a s th a t not sl a very p erh a ps ? Sl a very a n d n othing else brethren ! The wife cutting corn from su n rise t ill dinner time a n d not a llowed to Why do the gentle o a n d suckle the child g men s a y it w a s not sl a very for we know it to h a ve b een sl a very th a t sorrow th a t we h a ve sorrowed And yet thes e oppressed pe a s a nts never threa tened or a ttempted violence They were indeed re a dy to a ccept the new order a sking no more tha n a piece of l a nd th a t woul d feed them a n d their c a ttle a n d w illing to pay for it too Oi their old rights they stubbornl y defended only one tha t of ti lling more l a nd a g a inst p a yment of the tithe Though ground down by centuries of misrul e a n d w a nt these pe a s a nts h a d yet le a rnt neither to b eg nor to loot ; a ll they cl a imed w a s the right to work ,

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C H A P TE R III NATIONAL INDEPEND ENCE AND THE EMAN CIPA TION OF THE PEASANTS Th e Nem F a ctor s

The Org a n ic St a tutes m a rked the high tide of rur a l feud a lism in the Rum a ni a n pro vinces Their feud a l web of p e a s a nt servitudes a n d l a ndlords oblig a tions w a s shot with the fi r st inkl ings of la i ssez fa i re pres a ging indi vidu a l property in l a nd a n d free l a b our contra ct H a rdly h a d the Sta tutes b een p a ssed when slowly the re a ction a ry w a ters bega n to recede a n d gra du a lly to open up the bro a d v a ll ey of in dividu a l freedom For l a ws of their kind con fi s ca t in g the l a n d a n d the l a bour of the pe a s a ntry were begotten too l a t e — a lm ost two genera tions a fter the French Revolution Even Holy Russi a w a s b eing stirred by the spirit of the times the new currents of thought were not to b e checked li ke N a poleon s gren a diers by her s n ow b a rriers ; they swelled a n d s urged until in 1 8 6 1 the Russi a n serfs were em a ncip a ted In the Rum a ni a n provinces those currents foun d no c a stle g a tes to force No crowned a utocra t no feud a l b a rons gu a rded the dra wbridge On the contr a ry the poli tic a l imp ul se of the country w a s cutting a re a dy p a th for them With the begin n ing of the century the Vision of government by the people h a d a lso cro ss ed the Rum a ni a n sky The ide a ls set free by the French Revolution coinciding with the crum b ling a w a y of Ottom a n power a w a kened the subj ect B a lk a n peoples to a sense of n a tion a l freedom The fi rst reb ellious movement the Heta i ma w a s org a nized a n d st a rted on Rum a ni a n soil ; a n d its dre a ms were whi s pered a ll over the l a nd The h a ndful of grea t boia r s replete with privileges a n d we a lth h a ving much to lose a n d li ttle to g a in sa w freedom merely a s the endi n g of Turkish ex a ction s by th e intercession of either Russi a or Austri a But the younger a n d poorer gener a tion h a d b een touched with the m a ic w a nd of the spirit of n a tion a lity Under the stimulus of their rediscovered L a tin origin they h a d gone westw a rds every ye a r in gre a ter number s to be educ a ted especi a lly in P a ris ; a n d from there .

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EMANCIPATION

THE PEASAN TS

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43

they returned a ll a fi r e w ith the new lib era l idea s a n d ide a ls Freedom to them me a nt the end of a ll a lien i n terference A protectora te however Christia n a ppe a led n ot a t a ll to them But it w a s cle a r th a t they could n ot h e pe to check the e x pa n si oni st le a nings of the three neighbouring a utocr a t s unless with support from the more dista nt a n d lib era l West The compl a int a g a inst the T urki s h suzer a in a n d the Russi a n protector h a d to b e u s t ifi e d therefore W ith a displ a y of ze a l for liber a l i n stitutions ; j a n d by such liber a l reforms they would h a ve put a mo a t b et w ee n themselves a n d Russi a to whom a s a result of reli giou s a n d soci a l a ffi n it y they felt uncomfort a bly ne a r While trusting to w a rd off externa l d a n gers with help from a bro a d a t home in the a bsence of a middle cl a ss they could not hope to bre a k the a rroga nce of the gre a t boia r s without g a ining the support of the m a sses T a ctic a l needs therefore a s much a s thei r ow n convictions led them to a ppea l to the p eople in their new struggle for n a tiona l self government I n 1 8 48 the c a ll r a ng out to the pe a s a nts to be up a n d to figh t for their own s oil a c a ll they h a d n ot he a rd si n ce the d a y s of S t efa n the Gre a t Brother Pea s a nts th e m a nifesto of the Munteni a n revolution a ry govern ment c a lled them ; it promi s ed them equ a l rights the repe a l of s ervi tudes a n d the free gift of a piece of l a nd th a t would give them susten a nce But they were a lso enj oined to go on working for the boia r s a n d to b eh a ve nicely a n d not a word w a s s a id a bout redressing the wrongs committed by the Org a n ic St a tutes A mixed commissio n consisting in equ a l number s of l a ndlord s a n d pe a s a n ts w a s a ppoi n ted to prep a re the a gr a ri a n reform ; but a s it coul d n ot a gre e — its sittings becomi n g more upro a r ious every d a y— it w a s dissolved a n d soo n a fterw a rds the revolution co ll a psed The revolutiona ries of 1 8 48 were devoted to the ide a l of individu a l freedom in the soci a l a s in the poli tic a l fi eld ; but they h a d little underst a nding for a n d a s a cl a ss prob a bly sc a nt symp a thy with the p a tri a rch a l rights a n d minds of the Vill a gers Their ch a llenge however h a d a t le a s t roused the spirit of the pea s a n ts a n d it h a d b a nded their interests together The brother pea s a nts h a d he a rd the exhil a r a ting promi s e of libe r ty a n d equ a lity ; the fi r st thing which the Commis s ion h a d to concede w a s th a t m a n is free a n d his l a bour s a cred In th a t .

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44

NATIONAL IND EPE NDENCE

AND

THE

Commission the pe a s a nts h a d for the fi r st time been given a voice to spea k their pl a int a n d to a sk their due ; a n d for the fi r st time too their deputies spoke not divided ea ch for thi s V ill a ge or th a t d istrict but together for the whole Munteni a n pe a s a n try a s one body B eyond th a t mora l s a tisfa ction they got however no thi n g the revolt c a me to a n end without h a ving brought them even a tempora ry relief from their h a rdships The Eur op e a n Commission which Visited the pri n cip a lities in 1 8 5 7— 8 reported th a t such protection a s the Org a ni c St a tutes a fforded to the vill a gers h a d rem a ined ineffective B ec a use of corruption a mon g o ffi ci a ls the a ction of the Govern me nt w a s p a r a lysed on the l a nd the p ea s a nts were a b a ndon ed to the ple a sur e of the l a nd lords a n d a kind of feud a l r egime w a s reintroduced in Mold a vi a Me a nwhile however p oli tic a l developments which were a d van ci n g the c a use of Rum a ni a n indep endence ple a ded a lso for the b etterment of the p e a s a nt cl a ss The Pa ris Congresses of 1 8 5 6 a n d 1 8 5 8 restored n a tion a l a utonomy to the Rum a ni a n pro vin ces a s a me a ns of stopping Russi a from m a king use of these provinces a s a milit a ry highw a y to Const a n tinople The Gre a t Powers took steps to consolid a te them not only to m a ke of them a n efi ect ive buffer b etween Russi a a n d Turkey but a lso to ens ure the s a fety of the mouths of the D a nub e a n d to en a ble these rich l a nds to develop the corn growing needed for the exp a nd ing towns of the We s t Thi s w a s b ound to open a new m a rket for the m a nufa cture of western industries a n d a new source of food supplies for their workers In 1 8 5 6 the Tre a ty of Pa ris reduced Tur kish r ul e to a nomin a l suzera inty ; the Princip a lities pl a ced under the pr ot ec tion of the Gre a t Powers were to b e governed by n a tive princes popul a rly elected a n d they were to h a ve a Constitution For these s a me re a sons it w a s the wish of the western Powers th a t the popul a tions should a t the s a me time b e given a ch a nce to improve their existence by a reform of a gra ri a n condi tions Th a t w a s the period of the gre a t rur a l reforms S erfdom h a d b een a bolished in Austri a in 1 8 41 in Prussi a p a rtly in 1 8 1 0a n d fi n a lly in 1 8 5 0; in Russi a the em a ncip a tion of 1 8 6 1 w a s b ein g prep a red S erbi a h a d rid herself of the Turkish l a ndlords ; a n d in Bulga ri a though she w a s still a Turkish province conditions on th e l a nd h a d much improved S e h a d the position of the Rum a ni a n

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EMANCIPATION

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THE PEASANTS

45

pe a s a nts who were subj ects of neighbourin g empir es In 1 8 48 the Tra nsylva ni a n Diet a bolished a ll servitudes a n d resettled the pea s a nts without compens a tion ; the st a te of thin gs which preva iled a t the begin ning of th a t ye a r w a s t a ken a s a b a sis for the reform with the result tha t in Tra nsylv a ni a holdings were l a rger th a n those which h a d b een given by the O r g a nic St a tutes in the Princip a lities An imperi a l p a tent fin a lly settled the question in 1 8 5 4 to such good purpose th a t in the commu n es inha bited by Rum a n i a ns 75 per cent of the grou n d w a s t a ken up by holdi ngs up to 5 0 h a The vill a ges were a t the s a me time provided with commons a n d woodl a nds In Bucovin a a lso imperi a l p a tents of 1 8 48— 9 did a w a y w ith a ll servitudes a n d gra nted l a nd to the pe a s a nts ; a s Bucovin a h a d b een a nnexed by Austri a in 1 774 its inh a bit a nts h a d esc a ped the depriva tions of 1 8 05 a n d 1 8 31 so th a t the reform of 1 8 48 put them in posses s ion of the whole s o c a lled rustic a l l a nd which they h a d occupied of old Even the B ess a ra bia n pea s a nts fa llen under the rule of the Ts a r in 1 8 1 2 were b etter off th a n their fellows in the free Princip a lities They too h a d esca ped the kni fe of the Org a nic St a tutes a n d a fter their em a ncip a tion in 1 8 6 1 they received everywhere a g a inst a sma ller compens a tio n hol d in gs th a t w ere la rger th a n the l a rgest distributed a cross the Pruth— 1 1 — 1 8 h a a s a g a inst a m a xim um of 7 in h in Mold vi a an d 5 1 h a a a 3 Munteni a— b esides being provided with common gra zing l a nds ; though it is true th a t this generosity w a s in spired by politic a l motives a n d contra sted strongly with the w a y in wh ich the pe a s a nts were tre a ted in the centra l p a rts of the Empire In the Rum ani a n pro vinces a lone the l a ndlords were still strong enough to b a ul k a n y pl a n of reform The tempora ry rul ers a s we h a ve seen co ul d do nothing more th a n e a se a few of the worst burdens imposed by the Org a n ic St a tutes a n d endea vour to keep closer w a tch on how those l a ws were a pplied a s they were instructed to do by the Conventio n of B a lt a Lim a n The deleg a tes of the Powers to the va rious Europe a n Conferences which dea lt in those ye a rs with the E a stern questio n repe a tedly insisted therefore th a t in the Princip a li ties no progress w a s possible till the rura l problem w a s settled a n d th a t the solution must b e imposed from outside a s the only me a ns of m a king it .

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N ATI ONAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE

46

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ccepted The P a ris Tre a ty of 18 5 6 decided th a t the c on st it u tion a n d l a ws ruling in the two Princip a li ties were in need of reform a n d to th a t end it obliged the Porte by Art 27 to con vene a s peci a l a ssembly in e a ch of the two Prin cip a li ties a di va n a d h oc representing the in terests of a ll the soci a l cl a sse s which were to formul ate a n d submit to the Powers the w ishes of the two countries The a gra ri a n question roused a p a ssiona te deb a te in the Mold a vi a n d iva n which met a t J a ssy in Inspired by the n a tion a l idea l of uni ting the two Rum a ni a n provi n ces the gre a t boia rs w a ived their old a mbition to be rulers of the country ; a n d they still fou n d within themselves enough enthusi a sm to sur ren der their politic a l privil eges But neither the cl a mour from w ithi n nor the hints from without coul d im press them with the inj ustice of their feuda l privileges a s l a ndlords When the a gend a for the work of the diva n w a s rea d there w a s not a single item on it referring to the a gra ri a n problem The diva n included however in a ddition to seventy boia r s a n d eight clerics fi ft een p ea s a nt deputies — sim ple vill a ge lea ders grown wise in misfortun e ; seeing th a t wh a t most a iled them did not trouble the others they t a bled a sob er but movi n g a ddress i n which they described their sufferings a n d their rights a n d put forth the re a son a ble thi ngs which they w a nted They dem a nded the a b olition of bir ching ; the repl a ci n g of a ll dues by a single t a x to b e p a id w ithout exception by a ll the i n h a bit a n ts ; loca l government for the Vill a ge thr ough a n elected co uncil ; but fi r st a n d a b ove a ll the We a b olition of the tithe a n d of a ll dues tow a rds the l a ndlords w a nt to buy our freedom the a ddress s a id th a t we m a y no lo n ger b elong to a nybody but o nl y to the soil so th a t w e too should h a ve a fa therl a nd We do not w a nt to tresp a ss upon one s rights but neither do we wish our own rights to b e an y forgotten As a lw a ys when they h a d a ch a nce of st a ting their cl a ims the pe a s a nts stra ined their rights a n d mea ns to the utmost offering to compens a te the l a ndlords libera lly so a nxious were they to b e fa ir But the l a ndlords a ngrily denoun ced these communistic tendencies a n d in reply to the p e a s a nts dem a nd a

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Mu t i

div n i n terpreted it fro m di s cu ss i ng i nt e rn a l reforms 1

Th e

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EMANCIPATION

OF

THE PEASANTS

47

th a t servitudes should b e a bolished they suggested th a t in th a t c a se their own oblig a tion to give l a nd to the pea s a nts on their est a tes sho ul d a lso b e a bolished— a propos a l which would h a ve reduced the m a ss of the people to l a ndless l a bourers a t one stroke The E urope a n Commission w a it ing in Buc a re s t to receive the conclusions of the two diva ns h a d fi n a lly to report th a t not hi ng h a d b ee n do n e to furt her the solutio n of the a gr a ri a n problem a dding th a t if this reform were to b e left in the c a re of the two interested p a rties it will never b e dea lt with equita bly An d Ta lleyra nd the French deleg a te wrote th a t a solution will not b e a ccepted without con flict u nl ess the principle on which it is b a sed were first to b e procl a imed by the Powers In the Pa ris Convention of 1 8 5 8 whi ch de a lt with the future orga niz a tion of the Pri ncip a lities the Powers embo died this a dvice in Ar t 46 which s a id : All the privileges exemptions a n d monopolies which certa i n cl a sses still enj oy sh all b e a brog a ted a n d the l a ws which regul a te the rel a tio n s of l a n dl ords a n d pe a s a nts sh a ll b e revised W ithout del a y with a View to improving the conditions of the pea s a ntry In spite of this inj un ction cont ai ned in a docum ent which constituted the cha rter of Rum a ni a n na tion a l independence the solution of the a gra ri a n problem w a s held up for a nother six ye a rs ; nor co ul d Ta ll eyr a nd s policy prevent in the end the conflict whi ch it w a s me a nt to a void Th e Refor m of 1 8 6 4 As soon a s the presence a n d pressure of the Powers w a s removed boi a r s of yesterd a y a n d n a tion a list revolution a ries of to d a y found themselves to b e of one mind in wishing to b e a s little troubled with a gra ria n reforms a s they co ul d possibly contrive The fir st n a tion a l a ssemblies p a ssed on the duty of a ttending to Ar t 46 of the Pa ri s Tre a ty to the Centra l Commission— a j oint body consisting of eight members from e a ch province a n d ch a rged with the dra ftin g of bills After t a king a whole ye a r for this prep a ra tory work the Comm ission produced a dra ft b a sed on a View of the p e a s a nt a s a privileged ten a nt of the la nd which he held 1 As a consequence the dra ft wa s .

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r ri an legis l ti on of t h e fir st h a lf of t h e c e tury by tryi ng t circu m v en t a rura l r e l a ti ons hi p which it d a re d n o t or c o uld n o t b o l d ly a b o li s h h d i n d is cr i b b ly c onfu se d t h e s ta tus of t h e R u m n i a n pea s a t M B B oere scu thus d s crib e d it 1

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48

NATIONAL INDEPEND ENCE AND THE

resolutely opposed by the fi r st ruler of R um a ni a l — Alex a nder Cuz a a former offi cer of the civi c gu a rd a n d a m an of the people elected on the underst a ndin g th a t he would b e merely a locum ten en s until a foreign prince coul d b e secur ed a n d by his inti m a te a dviser the p a ssion a tely progressive Mih a il Kog alni cea nu Th a t it w a s possible no longer to j ustify a n d m a in t a in the p e a s a nt servitudes w a s t a citly a ccepted a ll round But when Kog alnice a nu put forw a rd a bill of hi s own whi ch ga ve the ,

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exi s ten ce

Wh a t kin d of m a n i s t h e R u ma ni a n p ea s a n t ?

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I s be f ee or o lon ? Th e a n s

a se

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m phyt e utic

ld e r a tenan t u s ufructu a ry o a meta yer c w e r i s d iffi cult He i s th a t a n d y e t h e is n ot He i s a stran ge a b stra ction create d by t h e O rga ni c S ta tute Th e p ea sa n t i n d ee d i s fre e for h e i s m as te r of h i s own p e rso a d of hi s p os ses s i o s ; h e m a y go wh e r e h e w ts ; h e h n d s ov e r t o h is h e irs h o u se a d y rd g rd en a n d o rch rd Y e t a t t h e s a me ti m e h e i s n ot fr ee for h e i s b o un d t o pe rp etu a l l b o ur for t h e l a n dl ord ; a n d wh en th e re a re n o h e ir s it i s t h e l a n dl ord n ot t h e S t a t e w h o i n h e rits t h e p ea san t s h ou se a d ga rd e He i s se rf i n th t s e se th a t t h e l n dlord p a rtly i n h e rits hi m a h i tes ta t a d th t h e i s so ld with t h e e s ta te ; t h e r es tr icti on s pl a c e d up on h is m o vin g a l m os t a m o un t t o b on d ge But on t h e oth e r h n d h e is n ot a se rf for i n publi c matte rs h e sta d s in d ire ct re l a ti on t o t h e S ta te a n d h e ca n l ea ve t h e es tate on fulfillin g t h e pres crib ed con di ti ons He i s a n e m phyt e utic h o ld e r for h e h o ld s t h e l n d in p e rp e tui ty a n d en j o ys i t s produc e i n r etu n for a n a u a l d ue But h e i s n ot th a t a ltogeth e r s ( a ) i n a dditi on t o t h e a n u a l p a yme n t h e o w es p e rson a l l a b o ur ; ( b ) h e c n d is p ose by w ill a bi n tes ta t on ly p a rt of h is l a n d i e o rch a rd a n d o th e r pl a t a ti o s ; ( 0) h e can in n o c ase e s tr an ge h i s pro p erty dur in g h is lifeti me ; ( d ) t h e l a n dl ord m y e d t h e p a san t s titl e e v en if h e c o ti n u s t o p a y h i s du s He i s a ten a n t a s s t te d in t h e law of 1 8 5 1 b e c a u se of t h e e ase with which h e m i ght be e j e cte d by t h e l n dl ord But for t h e r es t h e h s n on of t h e ch a r cte ri stic s o f t h e r e l t ena n t s ee i g th t ( a ) h is profess i on a l a ctivity is n e ith e r pr o vi i on l n or v olu n ta ry but p erp etu a l a d e c ess ry ; ( b) h is obli g ti on s a r e ren d e re d i n kin d s w e ll a s i n mon e y ; ( 6 ) t h e l a dlord h a s n o obli ga ti on t o k e e p t h e o bj e ct i n a fi t state for t h e purp ose for which it w a s re n te d ; ( d ) t h e p easa t tr a ns fe rs p a rt of h is right s t o h i s h e ir s He i s j oi n t o w n e r i n s o fa r a s b e b s a c om m on titl e t o t h e l n d of t h e e sta te Y e t h e i s n ot th a t b e c a u e ( a ) h e h a s n o ri ght t o di ss olv e th t j oi n t o wn e rs h ip ; a d ( b) b e c a u se t h e l n dl ord ca d e priv e h im aga i n st his will of h is re l titl e He i s a u s u fructu a ry if y o u l i k e a s h e h s t h e right t o us e a n d t o e j o y t h e ob j ce t a n d b e c u se h e h s only a life titl e t o p rt of t h e o bj e ct F i n lly o n c ould s a y th a t h e i s a meta yer colon in th a t h e i s obli ged t o giv e as t h e l a n dl rd p a rt of t h e pro duc e But hi s s t a tu s i s s i mpl e r th a n th a t of a colo ri ht l d h v th e ir ori gi n i n l w an d n o t i n a c on v en ti on b e tw een a n e h s t o t e h i s a g ( ) t h e t w o p rti es ; ( b ) th e y a r p e rp etu a l a n d b e l on g ip so j u e t o h i s h ei rs Till h is e ma n cip ti on t h e p ea sa t c ould n ot se ll h is h ou se n or t h e vi n e ya rd s a n d o rch rd s h e h a d pl n te d e xc e pt wh e n h e w a s e xp ll d fr o m t h e vill a ge for b e i n g tro ubl o m e On t h e othe r h an d t h e l a dlord eould n e ith e r t a k e a w y n or ch a n ge oli ti on d a t h e l a n d which t h e vill ge r s l a b o ure d ( A L GOL E S CO L A b a t h is pl a ur

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EMANCIPATION

OF

THE PEASANTS

49

pea s a nts a ll the l a nd they then occupied the l a ndlords denounced it a s comm uni stic a n d retorted w ith a counter dra ft in which they offered puny holdings sm a ller even th a n those contem pl a ted by the Centra l Commission whi ch the pe a s a n ts were to hold in usufruct The Assembly elected by voters mostly la ndowners— p a ssed the l a ndlords bill Cuz a however —strengthened i n his convictions by a pea s a n t risi n g in 1 8 6 2 refu s ed to s a nction the bill b a s ing hi mself on the cle a r p r ovision s of the Pa ris Conventio n a n d entrusted Kog alnicea nu with the govern ment a n d with the t a sk of introducing a new bill Kog al the pe a s a nts p a st h a s n i c ea n u ple a ded with the Ch a mb er th a t been a nyt hi ng but h a ppy a n d their futur e must b e different ; he w a rn ed his opponents not to think tha t we could with our vote drown the rights of the pe a s a nts for ever ; but a ll to no purpose The mo n strous co a lition of Conserva tives a n d Libera ls so a mended the bill a s to bri n g the proposed holdings down to the siz e of the lowest c r e a ted by the Org a nic St a tutes ; while it incre a sed by on e four th the compens a tion which the pe a sa nts were to pa y for the a boli tion of servitudes Thereupon Cuz a a n d Kogalnice a nu di s solved the Assembly a n d l a unched their reform by mea ns of a princely decree whi ch a fterw a rds wa s con firmed by a plebiscite This h a d been the second opport unity which the Rum a ni a n l a nded cl a ss h a d of legisl a ti n g for themselves They in a ugura ted the return to n a tion a l indep endence by tryi n g to complete the work of spoli a tion b egun with the Org a ni c St a tutes a n d to kill two birds with one stone If they could h a ve shut out the pe a sa nt from a ccess to the l a nd they would h a ve g a ined a hold commensur a tely strong on his l a bour a scheme used with gre a t effect in the Afric a n colo n ies in order to compel the n a tives to work for the whi te pl a nters To s a ve the pe a s a nts from thus b ei n g tot a lly a n d fin a lly despoiled the tempora ry ruler h a d to resort to a coup d eta t All the pri vileged p eople grea t boia r s a n d sm a ller fry looked upo n the reform with h a te or a t le a st with suspicion They fi er cely den ounced however a n y encro a chme n t upon their ow n politic a l rights gra nted them by the Pa ris Con ve n t i on Eighteen mo n ths a fter dissol ving Pa rlia ment a plot drove Cuz a out of the country for ever ,

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AND

NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE

THE

f the Refor m If Cuz a a n d Kog aln icea nu were well primed w ith libera l idea ls they were less well equi pp ed with economic exp erience Their reform promulga ted on 1 4th August 1 8 64 w a s in its pra ctic a l effects to be a r the m a rk of th a t s hortcomi n g deeply If the pe a s a nt problem h a d b ecome urgent in their eyes it w a s prim a rily in its leg a l a sp ect ; j ust a s seventy ye a rs e a rlier the Fre n ch revolution a ry a ssemblies re a ctin g to the cla mour of the p e a s a n ts thought solely of bre a kin g up the seigneuri a l system Nothing coul d h a ve seemed to these men more a bhorrent th a n the l a ck of perso n a l freedom : thei r m a in 1 a mbition w a s to free the p e a s a nt from servitudes To contin ue them would not in a n y c a se h a ve b een comp a tible w ith a system of written Co n stitutio n It w a s for insta nce l a rgely owing to the introduction of w ritte n co n stitutions tha t the p ea s a nts of southern Germ a n y were em a ncip a ted e a r lier th a n pe a s a nts elsewhere a t the end of the eighteenth a n d the b egi nn in g of the n ineteenth centur y Though in Rum a ni a the Constitution w a s not yet down on p a p er it w a s written l a rge in the min ds of the ruling men the revolution a ries of yesterd a y Two hun dred boi ar s do not m a ke a n a tion Kog alnice a n u h a d excl a imed Hence every me a sure which hedged in the person a l liberty of the pe a s a nt w a s broken through by the rura l la w It a bolished a ll restrictions upon his movements ; it did a w a y on e e a n d for a ll with a ll the dues in l a b our a n d k ind tithe included For thi s the l a ndlords were to receive a compens a tion in St a t e bonds representing the tenf old v a lue of the ye a rly servitudes owed by e a ch c a tegory of p e a s a nts w ith 5 per cent interest ; of the tot a l one third w a s to b e borne by the St a te out of p a yments received from the p e a s a nts r e Th e Na tur e

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b egi n n i n g h ad b e n m ad e with t h e e m n cip ati on of t h e gips y s l a v e s w h o b ut f r m d t h bulk f t h e e rv ts i n a ll t h b o i a r h o u s h ld s Th re w e r te ri e f t h m d ivid d i t thre c t gori s th s e b l o gi g t o t h e S t a te t t h m priv t i dividu l s Th fi s t t wo c t gor e s w r free d i 1 8 44 t h e third a t a d t w but gips i es v e r pp a r i n Th e ri g i n f th ir s ta tu i s u k th d of 1 8 5 5 h i t ry xc pt s l v e ( S A l G l co p Rum Th n u m b r f s rvile f mili e s w a s s f llo w s Mu t i priv t e t t e tic st t 0 1 mo 1

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OF

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THE PEASANTS

51

settled on St a te dom a ins whil e the rem a inder w a s to b e p a id off by the pe a s a nts w ithin fift een ye a rs their a nnuities running from 5 1 to 1 33 lei H a vi n g m a de the p ea s a nt free of hi s person the reform next The former serfs were a im ed to m a ke him free in his livelih ood settled a s owners on hold ings which va ried in the two pro vi n ces 1 a n d which were me a sured by he a ds of c a ttle they pos s essed L a nd under this scheme however w a s a llot t ed o nl y to the cld ca s i i e to the men bound to servitudes ; this left outside the scop e of the reform the men who were free from servitudes b ec a use they received nothing more th a n house a n d g a rde n a n d who were obviously in need of l a nd But its m a in sin w a s th a t it a ggra v a ted instea d of redressed the w rong c a used to the pe a s a nts from 1 8 05 onw a rds by the me a sures which h a d gra du a ll y w hi ttled down their a ncient right to the use of the l a nd The pe a s a nts h a d a ccepted the st a te of t hi ngs a n d in the di va n a d h oc h a d cl a im ed n o more th a n two thirds of the l a nd ; their right to this w a s still good la w a n d pra ctice in 1 8 6 4 the l a ndlords h a ving to gra n t holdi n gs to newly m a rried pea s a nts from th a t re s erve— a custom which h a d ensured me a ns of existence to e a ch new genera tion a n d thereby h a d prevented the excessive sp lit ting up of the p a terna l hold ings The new me a sure did in fa ct t a ke over two thi rds of the l a nd but on sm a ll est a tes only where there w a s not enough to go roun d The l a ndlord s p a r t w a s thus s a fegu a rded where the pe a s a nts were too m a n y for the l a n d but the p e a s a nts p a rt w a s not protected with equ a l c a re where it w a s l a rger th a n the a re a i m medi a tely required for the new hold i n gs The exce s s of Villa gers in the fi r st c a se a s well a s the newly m a rried were to b e settled on St a te dom a ins 2 a n d not a s would ,

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52

NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE

h a ve been j ust on the excess of p e a s a nt l a nd where the quot a s set a p a rt for the loc a l vi ll a gers did not m a ke up two thirds of the priva te est a te The surplus on these e st a tes whi ch formed the m a j ority w a s simply a b a ndoned to the l a n dlords ; a n d where a s the l a ndlords were to be p a id for h a ving to forego a busive privileges th a t p a trimoni a l l a nd reserve w a s lost to the pe a s a nts without a n y compens a tion wh a tever This cours e is the more d i ffi cult to a ccount for a s offi ci a l a dvisers h a d pointed out th a t if th a t surplus l a nd w a s to b e left to the la ndlords its v a lue should b e deducted from the indem ni ties they were to receive Thi s serious error in the reform mea nt a double loss to the pe a s a ntry they were deprived of priva te l a n d to which they h a d a title a n d by the s ettlement of surplus vi lla gers on St a te dom a ins a grea t sli ce of the public reserve w a s a lso lost to future genera tions of p e a s a nts The imme di a te loss w a s felt the more a s the govern ments which followed upon Guz a s a bdi c a tion neglected to c a rry out the pro visions of the la w concerning those p e a sa nts who h a d been left without l a n d in 1 8 6 4 Their settlement on St a te dom a in s w a s not b egun till 1 8 76 on the eve of the s e c a lled w a r of indep endence Th e B ackgr oun d of th e Refor m Cuza s gre a t reform h a d not m a tured from ch a nged economic con di tions a n d need s Neither the growth of popula tion nor th a t of towns a n d tra de nor yet the requirement s of the new St a te were pressing for a ch a nge t o intensive c a pit ali st fa rming wi th rel a tions b etween l a ndow ners Rum a ni a n a gricultur e a n d l a bourers b a sed on a w a ge b a rg a in still lingered in a primitive extensive st a ge Such m a nufa cture a s went on w a s from the h a nds of a rtis a ns orga nized in g uil ds ; ,

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fift h of t h e r bl e r a tv s t ri es which c o v e r e d a b o ut o d fore i g m Th m on a te ri es w e re i vit ed t o p ut i cl i m a d m d e th e m i n t o S ta te pr p rty ti o but as th ey r efu s e d t o di cu ss or eg ti a te h pi g t o g i n m ore by f r c m pe —8 i 1 r i upp rt t t d cl r d h qu s ti o cl ose d 8 6 7 A I G o l es 7 2 e e t e e e t h S s f ( pp ) g third s of t h e t ta l a rea i n t h t w o s t t s th t mo nas tic pro p rty c o v e r d t w pr vi n c s f r mi g t h e r ch t Church poss es i n i Chr i s te d om Th e gifts h d b e n f m i n ly i n te d d a s ch rita bl e e d w m n t fo t h ma i ten a n c e of church e h pit l t h e p oo r f r t h upbri gi g of o r ph a n a n d t h e di s t r buti o d s ch ol f l m s i ti m of f mm a s w ll a s fo t h e pro vi i n of h os p ta lity n d sylu m f of tra v ll rs i d stres I c e rt i n c a ses t h e e xc es of re v en u e w a s to be d ed ca t e d t h e pur ch s f s te ri s i J e ru s l e m M u n t Ath s & e f m a s a h o m ge t c a ndl n d o i l a d t h e di tributi o f l m s But t h fore i g m k s h a d oft s ue l yi g h d s on t h e wh o l e of t h re v e u e a n d R u s i a i n t e ve t on h d ce d e d i pre v e n te d t h e R u m n i a n pri n c es from putti g a n n d t o t h at a bu se to

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OF

EMANCIPATION

53

THE PEASANTS

intensive production a n d exch a nge of goods did not exist There w a s no a ccumul a tion of li qui d c a pit a l a n d no e n t r epr e n e ur s urging its use in w a ys th a t wo ul d bri n g in quick returns Cl a ss orga niz a tion outside the owners of l a n d w a s loose ; a n d the budding middle cl a ss h a d not yet the service a n d stimulus of None of the f a ctors in short required for a tr a i n ed element p a ssing from a n a tura l to a c a pit a listic economy were yet m a tur e in Rum a ni a n a griculture The w a y to th a t tra nsition w a s indeed further confu s ed by the reform of 1 8 6 4 The re a sons whi ch c a used Libera l in stitutions to spring up in Rum a ni a overnight h a ve a lre a dy been described This is not merely a fi gur e of speech for the dra ft of the origin a l con stitution copied from the B elgi a n model w a s produced within twen ty four hours when the Ra dic a l le a ders le a rnt th a t the stern Hohenzollern prince h a d eschewed the Austri a n police a n d w a s driving po s t h a ste tow a rds the c a pita l I n the West the system of production d e fi n e d a s c a pit a lism h a d conquered the eco n omic fi eld b efore the cl a ss connected with it broke throug h the old politic a l restra ints a n d privileges ; Libera l i n stitutions fo llowed in the w a ke of economic c a pit a lism In the b a ckw a rd a gra ri a n countries th a t process w a s reversed ; a Lib er a l org a niz a tion of the St a te w a s a dopted under the stimulus of cont a ct w ith western Europe a n d this open ed a n d cle a red a w a y for the reform of the economic org a n i z a t i on When individu a l freedom a n d equ a lity before the la w found their w a y i n to the poli tic a l re a lm the servitudes which still subj ected the pe a s a nts to the l a n dlords could not survive in the soci a l sphere Public rel a tions c a nn ot be segmented i n to w a tertight comp a rtments— not lega lly th a t is ; In Rum a ni a therefore the freeing of the gipsy sl a ves a n d the em a n cip a tion of the pe a s a nts h a d to b e hitched on to the round a bout of poli tic a l reform Yet em a n cip a tion though a ccomp a nied by a d i st ribu tion of l a nd tra n sformed the soci a l structure without a ltering very much the economic w a ys of the rur a l world ; a n d especi a lly it left the n a rrower eco n omic problem of production a lt ogether untouched Nothi n g could better revea l the n on economie springs of the reform tha n its a uthors complete neglect of the future of a gri culture Ha d it been otherwise they might h a ve followed one or an

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NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE

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THE

two possible courses One of them might h ave b een th a t fa vour ed by the l a ndlords : t o em a ncip a te the serfs wi thout giving them l a nd which would h a ve left a sm a ll numb er of well to do p e a s a nts a s a rur a l middle cl a ss but the rest with no other choice th a n to become w a ge l a b ourers This would a lso h a ve forced the l a rge owners to equip themselves with their own live a n d dea d stock As thin g s were a griculture w a s ca r r i e d on not merely with the pe a s a nts ha nds but a lso with their ploughs a n d te a ms ; most of the l a nd fa rmed in Molda vi a by its own ers a n d the whole of such l a nd in Munteni a w a s tilled by this ki nd of a ll inclusive servile l a bour Such a n a ttempt a t putting a griculture upon the ro a d to c a pit a listic production h a d it b een politic a lly possible would still h a ve h a d to overcome the l a ck of li quid c a pit a l ; there w a s none worth S p e a k i ng of in the country a n d the little th a t coul d b e obt a ined elsewhere w a s used up in the a mbitious modernizin g of the urb a n centres Neither were men to b e foun d with a n interest in such a tech ni c a l ch a nge a n d the a bility to conduct it The l a nded cl a ss a n d in genera l the thin upp er l a yer of the popul a tion w a s soon a bsorb ed in the m a chinery of the new St a te The politic a l fi eld offered them rich opportunities of s a ti s fying m a teri a l a n d other a mbitions a n d to w n life invit ed them with its western re finements If the l a n dl ords were a n xious to incre a se their revenue they were n ot a t a ll a nxious to ch a nge t h e prev a iling system of production which requir ed no expert supervision but merely the drivi n g whi p of b a ili ff a n d gend a rme Nor w a s there a n y other group of men c a p a ble of a cting a s entrepreneurs in a new a gra ri a n system the i n terpol a tion over a period of sever a l centuries of a n a lien a dmini stra tion between the few l a ndlords a n d the p e a sa nt m a s s a n d the b a ckw a rdness of economic life h a d left no room for the growth of a n a tion a l middle cl a ss Altern a tely a second li n e of policy might h a ve chosen to fa vour a system of sm a ll cultiva tion It might h a ve h a nded the l a nd over to the p e a s a n ts on the b a sis of their old rights a ccording to their powers of working with a modera te compen s a tio n for the l a ndlords H a ving to h n d money for p a ying th a t compens a tion a n d for m a int a ining the St a te the pe a sa nt proprietors could not h a ve f a iled to develop their cultiv ation for which in such circumsta nce s they would h a ve h a d a mple .

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THE PEASANTS

scope The reform of 1 8 6 4 however incli n ed tow a rds neither l a rge nor sm a ll cultiva tion sim ply bec a use it w a s not concerned with productio n a t a ll Those who h a d the pe a sa n ts c a use a t he a rt went to the length of a coup d eta t in order to c a rry through their em a ncip a tion a n d they a lso endowed them w ith a piece of l a nd But the holdings of the thr ee c a tegorie s the n resettled respectively which me a nt th a t of the a ver a ged 6 44 a n d 24 h a former serfs o n ly some of the fi r st ca tegory a s A V Millo h a d conclusively s hown h a d a n y ch a nce of buil ding up a n eco n omic self supporting holding at a ll As for l a rge sc a le cultiva tion its p erm a nent interests were not necess a rily identica l w ith the gre a t moment a ry a dva nt a ges which the l a ndowners undoubtedly got from the reform Th a t the intere s ts of l a rge property a n d l a rge se a le c ultiv a tion could a t tim es even con flict wi th e a ch other w a s to b e shown by the l a ter evolution of Rum a ni a s a gra ri a n problem The obvious truth w a s th a t politic a l circumst a nce s h a d dict a ted the ch a nge a n d the soci a l ide a ls set free by the French Revolution h a d spurred i t e m In a circula r i s sued during the a gr a ri a n deb a te Kog alnice a nu h a d urged priests a n d pe a s a nts to pra y th a t God m ay help them to level up society to lo w er the highly pl a ced a n d to r a ise the humble As the spri ng s of the reform so its flow It m a de the pe a s a nt a free m an but it did not m a ke hi m a n independent producer If freed him of his di s a bilities a s a citize n but on the s a me principle it a lso deprived h im of the lega l s a fegu a rds which h a d protected him a s a l a bour er It set him up a s full owner of a piece of l a n d but not of a piece big enough for him to live by with the prev a ili ng a gricultur a l methods ; nor did it give h im the tra i ni ng a n d me a ns by which he might h a ve got from his holdin g a ll th a t his household needed S e th a t M Ga r ofli d h a s been a ble to sa y th a t i n 1 86 4 only the j uridica l problem of the pe a s an t who becomes free in la w w a s solved ; economic a lly only the est a tes were em a ncip a ted The l a tter result w a s not a cciden t a l Eco n omic developme n t w a s h a mpered bec a use most of the l a nd the country s only we a lth w a s tied One fi ft h of the whole a ra ble l a nd belonged to the dedic a ted mona steries ; of the rest two thirds w a s either in the possession of the serfs or reserved for their descenda nts while the rem a inder included exten sive est a tes of the princes a n d of la y ,

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56

AND

NATION AL INDEPENDENCE

THE

endowments so th a t only a minim a l extent of l a nd w a s a va il a ble for commerci a l tra ns a ctions Kog alnicea nu hi mself in plea di ng for the reform a s a l a ndowner who c a res for the p a trimony of my children emph a sized the need of em a ncip a ting the l a rge prop erty from the servitude of h a vin g to reserve two thirds of its extent And thus we will est a blish in Rum a n i a a b solute western property in the pl a ce of Sl a voni c property The l a ndlords indeed were rele a sed from a ll the servitudes which h a d qu a lified their title to the l a nd includin g th a t of h a ving to give preference to their own Vill a gers when lettin g the l a ndlord s thir d of the est a te ; a rele a se which w a s to b e viciously exploited by them for screwin g out of the vill a gers b oun d to their plots onerous terms for the le a se of a ddition a l fi eld s Simil a rly the l a ndlords now esc a ped the el a bora te a dm in i s t r a t i v e interference which h a d co n trolled the i r rel a tions with the pe a s a n ts till then Prob a bly one of the re a sons which h a d gui ded the a uthors of the reform w a s the expect a tion b a sed on the most up to d a te economic doctrine th a t a free a gric ul tur e would prove a progressive a gricultur e In the West indeed em a ncip a tion mea nt a loss for the p e a s a nts but a t le a st it op ened the door to improved f a rming But the Rum a ni a n l a n dl ords h a d neither the knowledge nor the me a n s nor indeed the inclin a tion for tech n i ca l development a n d they coul d not therefore dispense with compulsory l a bour Wh en it w a s seen th a t to a bo lish the present s ervitudes coul d no longer b e a voided they concentra ted their efforts upon h a ving the p e a s a nts e n dowed with a s little l a nd a s possible Their c a lcul a tions proved p a infully right For when the p e a s a nt economic a lly u n pro vided a n d soci a lly unprep a red w a s turned a drift on the s ea of la i ss ez fa i r e the l a ndl ords fo und it e a sy to p ull h im into the b a ckwa ters of a servil e economy L a bour dues a bolished a s a leg a l system continued a s a n a g a in economic pra ctice ; but they were no longer compens a ted with In a ddition the p e a s a nt now h a d to fi n d a right to us e the l a nd re a dy money for p a ying the indemni ty a n d the St a te t a x As moreover he h a d no politic a l s a y wh a tever in a country a d ministered by corrupt o fficia ls a n d j udges a s soon a s he w a s freed from his ch a ins the p ea s a nt found himself being sucked down into a whirlpool of r a v a ging economic a n d politic a l forces ,

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EMANCIPATION

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THE PEASANTS

57

which he could neither gra sp nor control ; a n d to whi ch in the fir st ye a rs N a t ure a dded her p a rching wr a th a s if to try the p a tient tiller of the soil to the utmost in his new free ,

,

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d om P r a cti ca l Efi ects .

form The c um ul a tive effect of wha t

e Re t h f

o

.

erroneous in the reform of 1 8 6 4 a n d of wha t w a s m a de worse by unfa ir a pplica tion w a s to depress the pe a s a ntry to a level of const a nt misery Genera lly the Rum a ni a n a uthorities h a ve n ot troubled to fi n d out the effect of the m a ny rura l mea sures they h a ve en a cted But in t hi s c a se a soli t a ry exception the very who h a d a cted a s neutr a l ch a irm a n of the a ble Ion Ionescu mixed commission in 1 8 48 w a s deputed to m a ke a deta iled inq ui ry He did n ot come to de a l with more th a n three districts but these were picked out by h im a s typica l of di fferent regions a n d his thr ee full report s form a n inv a lu a ble guide a s to how the reform w a s a pplied a n d wh a t c a me of it In more th a n one w a y wh a t w a s done or not done in 1 8 64 closely resembles the fa ults of commission a n d omission of the presen t reform a n d on e m a y therefore expect th a t some of the consequences will be a r the s a me likeness An d further but for the shortcomings of the system est a bli shed in 1 864 R um a ni a s a gra ri a n problem might h a ve evolved in a w a y which wo ul d not h a ve led a s it inevit a bly did le a d to the need for those revolution a ry ch a n ges which took pla ce in 1 9 1 7— 21 There is therefore more tha n one good rea son for noting br i efl y wh a t h a ppened on the l a nd a f ter Cuz a s reform h a d b ecome la w L a nd te n ure in genera l w a s given a f a t a l turn in 1 8 64 : more tha n h a lf the a ra ble l a nd w a s fi n a lly given up to a sm a ll group of l a ndlords Moreover m a ny ba d a buses were committed when dividing a n d tra nsferring the pe a s a nt holdings In more th a n one pla ce the serfs were evicted before the la w c a me into force or were tra nsformed by t h e s a le of a sm a ll plot into proprietors 1 no longer entitled to be resettled Elsewhere they were duped into refusi n g to be resettled p a rtly by fa lse promises p a rtly by b eing m a de to fe a r the compens a tion they might h a ve wa s

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th r w ere ly th u h wly rri d w r i clud d i te rv i ng it w r p ibl th dd d p p l ti xi t W th o ut

A gr i cultur al Romd n d i n J ud e tul eh ed i n ti In 1 8 5 9 e e se fs , i n 1 8 6 4 o n o g the ne ma e in the e e n e ea s as if oss e for e e os e a e to t h e o u a on t o e o ng ( pp 1 5 8 1

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58

NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE

to pa y When it c a me to mea suring i t w a s done en bloc for the l a nd due to a ll the serfs of one Vill a ge ; the l a ndlord s or the St a te s p a rt th a t is wa s settled a t once but the p a rcellin g ou t of the i n dividu a l p e a s a n t plots w a s in m a ny pl a ces not done by 1 8 68 though the p e a s a nts were p a ying their ann ui ties in f ull a lre a dy a n d this led to much friction in the vill a ge a n d to i1 1 different cultiva tion V ery freque n tly it would seem good l a nd which the pe a s a nts h a d b een t illin g w a s t a ken a w a y a n d ba d l a nd substituted for their new holdings ; some of the fi e ld s given them were so ba d th a t the pe a s a nts p a id the comp ens a tion with out t a ki n g over their new property or they left it unt illed a n d rented their old plots on he a vier terms th a n before Often too the pe a s a nts were given plots which h a d no ro a ds le a ding to them The l a ndlords a lso sa w to it th a t of the p e a s a nts to b e res ettled on their est a tes a s few a s possible were cl a ssed in the higher c a tegories a n d a s m a ny a s possible in the lowest so th a t rel a tively less l a nd w a s t a ken from them a n d to th a t extent more from the St a te dom a ins ; which w a s a de spoilin g of the p ublic we a lth a n d a further curt a ilment of a n essenti a l l a nd reserve 1 The fi r st visible effect of these m a lpra ctices w a s gre a tly to reduce the extent of l a nd which the p e a s a nts h a d in use ; a p a rt 2 from the fa ct th a t much of it w a s now worse in qu a lity Withi n one yea r so Ionescu a sserts the terms for the lea sin g of p r i s oa se nts a surplus f ields doubled a n d trebled therefore the pe a s h a d ; ( ) took little or none of them a n importa nt c a use of: the he a vy f a ll °

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di stributi n b n f ir t h e rel a ti b tw een t h e v a ri u s c tegori es S ta t d o ma in s But f t h e s h uld h v e b e n on priv a te e t t s s i m il r t o th a t o n t h t t l u m b r r ese ttl d th r w e re i Put 21 % on S ta te d om a i ns a n d 1 3 % on priv a t e s t a t es of t h fi rs t c t go ry with l d for h u a n d g rd 1 8 94 3% Me h e d m t i fi s t c a te g ry 1 0% a d i l t c t g ry Ha d

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fa lc i n 1 8 6 4 r c iv d a b ut Putn a t h s r f h d i n u e i 1 8 5 9 Thi s h a pp d n t ly on priv te e sta tes ; a t B e i tia S t te d oma i n t h d w rke d b f r a bo ut d d w r ow g v e p ogo s r bl l

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.

EMANCIPATION

OF

THE PEASANTS

59

sowi ngs The short a ge of gra zing l a nd especi a lly w a s to b ecome severe Both the otherw ise rea ction a ry proj ect of the Centra l Commission a n d Kogaln i cea n u s fi r s t dra ft co n templ a ted the cre a tion of vill a ge commo n s but inste a d the fi n a l la w g a ve the p e a s a n ts individu a l gra zing plots These were ploughed up soon to dis a ppe a r a ltogether lea ving the pea s a nt s with the a ltern a tive of p a ying the l a ndlords wh a t they a sked for gr a zing or of getting rid of their c a ttle Usu a lly they h a d to do both Oxen they h a d to keep for ploughing a n d c a rting ; but a fterw a r d s Vill a ges were found with 420 households a n d o nl y two cow s or others in which children of ten a n d twelve ye a rs did not k n ow 2 how cow s milk t a sted The res ul t for a time w a s a genera l 3 decline of a griculture To t h is the ba d droughts a n d t h e fa rm ing la n d lor d s fea r th a t he woul d not b e a ble to get la bour fr om the new p e a s a nt proprietors b oth contributed Ionescu however gives inst a nce a fter in st a nce to show th a t where rel a tions between l a n dlord a n d pea s a nts h a d been good cultiva tion w a s found ea sier better keener now th a n when it h a d b een done with ser vile la bour After the reform the price of whe a t rose ra pidly a n d l a n d lords a n d ten a nts were extendin g their cultiva tion Yet a t the s a me time the price of a gricultura l l a bour fell by one fourth t o one h a lf Instea d of b eing st a tutorily fi x e d a s b efore the price of l a bour w a s now open to fl uct ua t e with supply a n d dem a nd the sequence of ba d h a rvests the in suffi ci en cy of their holding s a n d the n eed for c a sh to pa y a nn ui ties a n d t a xes which in gen era l h a d doubled forced the p ea s a n ts to sell their l a bour with a growing pra ctice a mong l a ndlords a n d ten a nts to m a ke contra cts in wi n ter t ime— a n d c a used the ch a nge to weigh in

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—7 P a t n 1 4 a 0 ; M eh ed i n ti , pp 4 78 4 8 5 , pp ( e mo e an t he w o p a y fo r g a z n g t en ea s of a of e i h a y , s a l on e r ( o n e s , eh ed i n ti , p .

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60

NATION AL INDEPE NDENCE

AND

THE

‘

hea vily a ga in st them Thos e of Meh edin t i were a ble to pa y their a nnuities in full in the fi r st ye a r but soon they w a llowed in d iffi cult i e s a n d by S eptemb er 1 8 67 they were in a rre a rs with a lmost h a lf of their a nnuities Ionescu records a s noteworthy the solit a ry c a se of a pe a s a nt who h a d b een a ble to pa y off in a lump sum the whole a mount of his i n demnity In Munteni a especi a lly b esides the incre a se in the p a yments in l a bour a n d kind the l a ndowners i n cre a singly ind ulged in the h a bit of a skin g r us etur i i e gifts of chickens eggs a n d other products from f the p e a s a nts hous ehold Altogether the p ea s a nts were being severely pressed by circumst a nces ; a n d for re a sons presently to be mentioned by the l a ndlords a lso The rura l la w con fi r m e d wherever they h a d existed the rights of the vill a gers to wood for fuel a n d bui l di ng but a ll a ccounts a gree th a t in pra ctice it w a s deni ed w ithout compens a tion M a n y writers a ccuse the l a ndlords of h a ving used unfa ir me a ns for brin gin g the pe a s a nts in thei r power When the la nd w a s redistributed for ex a mple they shut off the vi llagers from their w a tering pl a ces ; or they ret a in ed on the edge of the Vill a ge a fi eld into which the c a ttle of the Vill a gers were b oun d to st r a y extra cting there a fter he a vy fi n es from the o wn er s In one Vill a ge they even took the well a n d spring th a t were within the Vill a ge a n d ga ve drink ing wa ter for men an d b ea st s a n d for the w a tering of the ga rdens ; a fterw a rds dem a ndin g twelve d a ys l a bour from e a ch ma n for the w a ter he drinks in the Villa ge All these burdens f a ir a n d unfa ir grew more oppressive a s bold ings were split up a mo n g descend a n ts of their fi r st owners Formerly if the lots were restricted a t le a st the rem a in der up to two thirds of the e st a te w a s reserved for the newcomers a mong the p e a s a ntry N ow the lots were rest r icted w ithout there being reserve a v a il a ble a n d ne w comers h a d to be provided from an y wh a t the pe a s a nts h a d by dividi n g the holdings The former individu a l limit h a d been a perm a nent st a n d a rd the n ew in d ivi du a l limit w a s a tempora ry m a ximum A writer who ex a mined in det a il budgets of the three c a te or i e s of pe a s a nt s resettled in 1 8 6 4 c a me to the conclusion g th a t a fa mily belongi n g to the fi rs t c a tegory— possessi n g four oxen a n d one co w— w orking a ll of them children included very .

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EMANCIPATION

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h a rd wi th the a i d of a fa rm h a nd a n d living misera bly with me a t on not more tha n fourteen d a ys in the yea r— sueh a f a mily if there were no untow a rd a ccidents could muster a surplus of The other two c a tegories a bout 1 00 lei a t the end of the ye a r co ul d in the best circumst a n ces not esca pe without a d efi cit of some 200 1ei ye a rly Among the va rious rea so n s for this c a l a mity w a s the worki n g of the indemnity : a s it w a s p a id for the a bolished servitudes not for the a mount of la nd received its incidence w a s in inverse ra tio to the me a n s of the three c a tegories of pe a s a nts Other writers rec a lli n g boyhood memories or genera l ob s erva tions they h a d m a de confi r m th a t since they h a ve become pro r i e t or s a n d free citizens the p e a s a nts h a ve f a llen i n to poverty p I h a v e co l l e c t e d i n v a r iou s p l a ce s fa c t s s a y s I on I on e s cu wh ic h s h o w t h a t a m a n c a n n o t p a y w i t h s u c h l a b ou r a s h e c a n p e r fo r m i n a y e a r e v e n t h e i n t e r e s t on t h e b o rr o w e d c a p i t a l ; fo r i n t e r e s t l ik e ca p i t a l i s p a i d i n l a b ou r Me n h a v e d ie d w it h ou t b e in g a b l e t o p a y o ff t h e i r d e b t ; bu t t h e i r wi d ows a n d c h i l d r e n a re fo r ce d t o l a b ou r a n d t o p a y 1 i i h i n h r t d n t n e e v e n t h ou gh t h e y m a y h a v e e o g -

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Spea king ge n era lly one ca n reduce to three the motives which led to the em a ncip a tion of the p ea s a nts in the West There w a s fi r st the tech ni c a l motive derived from the te a ching of the Physiocra ts which dem a nded the economic em a ncip a tion by a bolishing a ll servitudes of both soil a n d l a b our The second motive w a s hum a nit a ria n inspired by the s a me philosophic a l sources which deprec a ted a ll restra i n ts on person a l freedom a n d required the person a l em a ncip a tion of the pe a s a nts An d thirdly there wa s the politic a l motive ple a ding for the a b olition of a ll politic a l a n d j udicia l cl a ss pri vileges b eca use they were incomp a tible W ith the philosophy of the modern St a te a s b a s ed on equ a l constitution a l rights If one surveys the Rum a ni a n em a ncip a tion in the light of those propositions one fi n d s th a t the economic motive counted only p a rti a lly There w a s a desire on the p a rt of the l a ndlords for free tran s a ctions in l a n d prop erty but there w a s no dem a nd a t a ll for a tec h nic a l ch a nge in the system of cultiv a tion which h a d been the m a in i n centive in the West Economic a lly therefore the pea s a nts were exp ected to continue in the s a me rela tionship in which they h a d stood before ,

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62

N ATIONAL I NDEPENDENCE

to the soil a n d its owners But to wh a t extent coul d their persons a n d their cl a ss b e s a fely m a de free if their l a bour w a s to rem a i n tied ? In comp a ring the pl a nta tion systems of Rom a ns a n d Americ a ns of the Ancient World a n d the N ew Max Weber s a ys th a t in both c a ses it w a s foun d th a t sl a very w a s pr ofi t a ble o nl y when h a ndled with the most rigid disciplin e a ssoci a ted with ruthless exploit a tion Muta ti s muta n d i s this e vidently is true of a n y system of production which is not b a sed on a free l a bour contra ct As the Rum a ni a n reform em a ncip a ted the pe a s a ntry poli tic a lly merely in form— bec a use the electora l l a ws deb a rred them in pra ctice from a ll fra nchis e— it w a s question a ble whether the t h ird wi n g of the reform— p ersona l em a ncip a tion— co ul d rem a in unclipped in the h a nds of a l a nded cl a ss which possessed a mo n opoly of politic a l power a n d w hi ch desired to ret a in control of the pe a s a nts l a bour It co ul d not h a ve been d iffi cult to fore see th a t either the old a gricultura l system or the new p erson a l freedom of the p e a s a nts would h a ve to give w a y The em a n cip a tion of 1 8 6 4 w a s a n ur gent reform a n d the h a ndful of m en who sponsored it h a ve a cquired l a stin g merit by seeing it t h rough in the fa ce of such wide a n d Vi olent obstruction It does not detra ct from the person a l side of th a t a chievement to The reform c a nnot b e a dmit th a t pr a ctic a lly it w a s a f a ilur e In the s a id to h a ve brought economic improveme n t in its w a ke West a s Signor Ruggiero h a s poin ted out in his E ur op ea n L i ber a l i s m the innov a tions of the new economic r a tion a li sm co n sisted e s s e n ti a lly of s im plifi ca t i on s But in Rum a ni a the customs which followed the reform bein g devised m a inly for elud in g it w er e more mix ed a n d complex th a n the former tra dition a l rel a tion s hips on the l a nd The technique of pr od uct ion a ga in w a s h a r d ly a ffect ed More p a lp a ble still were to prove the soci a l shortcomings of the ch a n ge An idea l reform would h a ve m a de the pe a s a n ts both economic ally a n d politic a lly independent The reform of 1 8 6 4 did neither It did not give them s uffi ci en t economic strength to s t a nd up a ga in s t poli tic a l inequ a lity ; nor di d it give them s uffi c i e n t politic a l power to with s t a nd economic oppression Subsequent hi s tory a ppe a r s to j ustify M Dobr ogea n u Gh er ea s bitter epigra m— th a t the reform of 1 86 4 c a rried in its womb the terr ible ye a r .

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C H A P TE R

IV

THE NEW STATE AND THE NEW SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 91 7 ) I N Ma y 1 8 6 6 when Prince C a rol of Hohenzoll ern mou n ted the throne the young Rum a ni a n Sta te a cqui red re a l i n d e p en dence Nomi n a lly it rem a ined under Turkish suzera inty until 1 8 77 But from 1 8 66 onwa rds no outside f a ctor dict a ted wh a t l a ws shoul d b e m a de or w a tched how la ws were a pplied At l a st the new ruling cl a ss found itself in undisturbed tete d tete w ith the m a ss of its people ; a n d from th a t moment the pea s a ntry w a s shut out from a ll di rect sh a re in Rum a ni a s politic a l life Its l a st ch a nces— until 1 91 7— o i p a rticip a ting in the country s govern ment h a d been in the mixed commission of 1 8 48 the di va ns of 1 8 5 7 a n d the plebiscite of 1 8 6 4 Now the victors in the n a tiona l struggle h a d the ir ha nds free to proceed to settle the soci a l contest— a contest which they h a d w a ged sin ce discoverin g th a t corn could not merely b e e a ten but co ul d a lso be sold In Rum a ni a the n ew rulin g cl a ss still consisted in the m a in of l a nded people with a sprinkling of urb a n tra ders a n d memb ers of the libera l professions The revolutio n a ry idea s of 1 8 48 which preluded the movement for independence h a d foun d a n echo not a mong urb a n tra di ng a n d m a n ufa ctur ing cl a ss— for th a t cl a ss w a s sm a ll a s yet a n d consisted m a inly of stra ngers— but they hit the e a rs of members an d scio n s of the l a nded cl a ss who resented the politic a l m on oply of the two score grea t boia r s a mo n g themselves Soci a lly however gre a t an d sm a ll l a nd owners were welded together by property a n d its interests by the conditions of their life a n d its dependence on tithe a n d l a bour dues After a spirited b eginnin g therefore the revolutiona ry government of 1 8 48 h a stened to dissolve the j oin t a gra ri a n com mission when the sittin gs beg a n to get troubled ; a n d therea fter resettlement w a s not a ga in mentioned by the revolution a ry lea ders When l a ter on the pea s a nt deputies c a me forw a rd with their grieva nces in the Molda vi a n diva n of 1 8 5 7 they were fa ced with the disple a sure a n d resist a nce of sm a ll a n d l a rge owners a like a n d the gre a t ide a of n a tion a l union a lmost foundered on ,

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THE NE W STATE

64

AND

THE

the rock of the a gra ri a n question Hence the Grea t Powers h a d to dem a nd a settlement of th a t question so a s to give the new St a te a fa ir ch a li ce of sta bi li ty ; yet even left w ingers of the Libera l group still di d not thin k th a t rura l reform w a s urgent They severely deprec a ted the r a ising of th a t question a n d w a nted to begin ra ther with other reforms— w ith the mora l improve ment of offi cia ls with gua ra ntees for tra de wi th credit i n ’

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Al l were fe ud a ls , a n d a ll w a nted free tr a de , sums up M Ga r oflid The corn tr a de w a s br ingin g r a pidly incre a sing r ofi t s , a n d l a nd v a lues were keeping p a ce with them Th e p .

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Bl a ck S ea w a s now O pen ; a Europe a n Commi s sion w a s m a kin g the mouths of the D a nube s a fely n a viga ble ; in 1 8 6 0 the fir st ra ilwa y w a s built by a n English comp a n y a cross the Dobrogea to link up the D a n ub e corn ports to Consta n t a With the a dvent of Prince Ca rol a n en lightened a n d c a p a ble ruler ro a d a n d ra il tra nsport were energetic a lly developed ; he a lso i n a ugura ted a determined commerci a l poli cy b a s ed on tre a ties of commerce in which a dva nt a ges were secured for Rum a ni a n corn Spurred on by the high profi ts th a t co ul d b e m a de by exportin g gra in the l a n downers stra ined every me a ns to extend its cultiv a tion 1 They w a nted more l a nd a n d l a bour ; a n d they w a nted freedom to tra de But for the re a sons mentioned in the previous ch a pter they were not yet re a dy to a dmit free productio n Hence their bitter oppo s ition to the reform of 1 8 6 4 ; a n d thei r immedi a te efforts to mend the bre a ch m a de by foreig n pressur e in the feud a l w a ll a s soon a s the fi r st effects of the reform a ppea red to j ustify their fea rs The a bsence of a ll a gr a ri a n method from the a n a tomy of the reform n a mely queered it s progress from the very ye a r of its birth The yea r s work w a s to b e ca rried on in 1 8 6 4 on the strength of the old a rra ngements but in most pl a ces the p ea s a nts ,

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P e rce n tage of tota l a re a 1 9 90 39 8 6 -

V lu a

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Le i

xp orts

N E W SERFDOM ( 1 8 64— 1 9 1 7 ) 65 refused to plough the l a n dl ords l a nd a n y more Offi cia l a ccoun ts rendered to Pa rli a ment in 1 8 6 5 a dm itted the gra ve momen t a ry distur b a nce of the whole n a tio n a l economy p r oduced by the ch a nge in the na ture of the former rel a tion s b etween l a n dlords Sw a yed in turn by resentmen t for thei r former a n d pe a s a nts oppression a n d by exult a tion in their new freedom a n d p r operty the p ea s a nts were not in a mood w illi n gly to continue s ervi n g their old m a sters or to hire themselves out a s w a ge e a rn ers j u s t when they h a d become free owners But the pea s a nts pre possession w a s soon cut short by their needs They needed more l a nd urgently a n d now they a lso needed money ; a s their plots tied them to the Villa ge they were a ltogether dep e n den t for the s a tisfa ctio n of both needs on the loca l l a n down ers Mon ey how ever they h a d none ; the only thin g they h a d in a bun d a nce to proffer in p a yment for a ddition a l la nd w a s thei r l a b our a n d it w a s inevit a ble th a t the terms of such re n ting s houl d b e h a rder now th a n under serfdom when they h a d b een a rmed with a right to cl a im l a nd The other side of the picture w a s the l a ndlord s doubt whether he would get a ll the l a bour he needed a t the proper time During serfdom he h a d b ee n a ble to hold the pea s a nts to i t u n der threa t of their forfeiting a ll cl a im to l a nd N ow the p e a s a n ts were free to give their l a bour or to refuse i t b a cked a s they felt themselves to b e by their own bit of l a nd ; a n d th a t m a de the l a n dlords feel th a t the b ottom h a d b een knocked out of the system which h a d kept them in a life of e a s e They fe a red the ch a n ge the more a s l a nd va lues a n d a n d ple n ty r ofi t s from corn were risi n g excitingly f a st ; a n d town life w a s p m a king much he a vier dem a n ds on their time a n d purse th a n h a d the p a tri a rch a l existe n ce a t their country se a ts Wh a t they needed w a s e a sily st a ted : more money wi th less trouble from their est a tes Politic a lly tha t tra nsl a ted itself into a n a nxiety to prevent more l a nd from getting into the h a n ds of the p e a s a n ts ; a n d a bove a ll to m a ke sure th a t the supply of l a b our woul d fl o w a s depend a bly a s it did b efore the em a ncip a tion The co n sequence wa s a lrn ost fa ted Guz a s reform h a d ch a nged l an d tenure without reformin g the coun try s a gra ri a n economy ; a gric ul tur e therefore found itself un a ble to st a nd solidly on these mix ed founda tions a n d lea ned b a ck upon its old ’

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66

THE NEW STATE AND THE

feud l servile supp orts The two tenden cies which the l a n d lords h a d nursed during the p eriod of their p olitic a l impotence a n d of n a tion a l insecurity now come freely to the surfa ce a s g ui ding a im s of the i r legisl a tive a cti vity in the young St a te which they domin a ted ; the Sta te itself b eing the l a rgest l a ndowner a n d a lw a ys in need of funds The fi rs t of these two a ims w a s served by the rules they a dopted for the s a le of the St a te s extensive dom a ins And the seco n d w a s m a sterfully a chieved by me a ns of the l a ws on a gricultura l contra cts which revived the old con di t i on s in a ll but their j uridic a l form It is from the l a tter th a t Rum a ni a s a gra ri a n system derived the origin a l tra its th a t h a ve distinguished it during the fi r st h a lf century of her indep endence ; for with mil d a llevi a tions the r egime which those l a ws crea ted styled by a S oci a list critic the neo serfdom 1 — h a s preva iled up to the Gre a t Wa r L a n d P oli cy after 1 8 6 4 The l a ndlords h a d not b een a ltogether u n successful in their efforts to keep the size of the holdin gs dis tributed to the p ea s a nts in 1 8 64 a s low a s possible ; a n d wh a t they fa iled to get into the la w they were a ble l a rgely to put through i n its a ppli c a tion The m a in s ins of th a t reform in reg a rd t o l a n d tenure h a d been to a b a ndon to the l a n dl ords the surplu s p ea s a nt reserves le a ving m a ny pe a s a nts tempora r ily without l a nd ; a n d secondly to h a ve a bolished w ithout com p en sa t i on the right of newly m a rried pe a s a nts to a holdi ng Articles 5 a n d 6 provided th a t l a nd for these two c a tegories of p e a s a nts w a s to b e provided on St a te dom a ins a n d the need of the fir st group w a s cle a rly urgent Yet nothing w a s done tow a rds c a rrying out the la w till Rum a ni a w a s fa ced with the prospect of In the fi rs t d a ys of Octob er 1 8 76 the Rum a ni a n Premier wa r tra velled to Liva di a to negoti a te the conditions on which his country might co opera te with the Russi a n s in the imp endi ng c a mp a ign a ga inst Turkey On the 27t h of the s a me month the Government issued a n order interpreting Articles 5 a n d 6 of th e la w of 1 8 6 4 In the follo w ing Ma y R um a ni a procl a imed her independence ; the a rmy w a s mobilized a n d a s the country side seemed luk e w a i m the Gove i nm ent thought it pl ud en t to let it b e known th a t l a nd would b e given to those t a king p a i t in the a

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N E W SERFDOM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 91 7 ) 67 w a r Fin a lly instruct i ons for the a ctu a l a pplic a tion of the two a rticles were given in the sprin g of 1 8 78 a fter h a v i ng left newly m a rried couples to exist a s l a n dl ess l a b our ers d uri n g thir teen yea rs The new holdings were on the a vera ge somewh a t l a rger th a n those of 1 8 6 4 but still withi n the limits of th a t la w As before the a ppli c a tion of the me a sure g a ve occ a sion for fresh misca rri a ges whi ch in this c a se a la w of Febru a ry 1 8 8 7 tried to 1 correct ten ye a rs l a ter The a ttitude of the ruli ng cl a ss tow a rds the p ere n ni a l l a nd hunger of the pea s a ntry need however not b e inferred indirectly from thei r remissory completing of the la w of 1 86 4 Offi cia l policy w a s ope nl y a n d directly expressed in the series of l a ws for the s a le of the m a n y ext ensive dom a ins which the secula riz a tion of mona stic a l est a tes h a d procured to the St a te a n d which were disposed of in ever growing numbers whenever the Tre a sury h a d a ga p to fill The trend of the l a ws a uthorizing these s a les un mi sta k a bly f a voured the p a ssing of the l a nd into the h a nds of the sur feited l a rge owners r a ther th a n into those of the l a nd hungry p e a s a ntry A fi rst s a le of sm a ller dom a ins wa s decreed by a la w of J uly 1 8 66 It a llowed the l a nd to b e divided out into sm a ll lots of 3— 25 h a but the s a le w a s to b e conducted by public a uction i n Buc a rest a n d the purch a se price h a d to b e p a id in ful l within one month There is no evidence th a t a n y l a nd w a s sold to pe a s a nts on the strength of t hi s la w ; most of the est a tes in fa ct were sold un d ivided Two yea rs l a ter the la w of J uly 1 8 6 8 decreed a fresh s a le of St a te dom a ins a n d to m a ke biddin g ea sier the a uctions were to b e a lso held in J a ssy a n d Cra iov a B ut on this occ a sion the mind of the la w m a kers w a s a llowed to a ppe a r without a veil Purch a sers of whole est a tes were to b e a sked to p a y one t hi rd of the price w ithin one month while the rem a inder w a s to b e p a id off in twelve a nn uities c a lc ula ted a t 6 p er cent in terest a n d 6 per cent c a pit a l But a n y one buyi n g sm a ll lots of 3—25 h a — the only kind tha t c a me into question .

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Buca r st 1 907 p 37 a ffir ms th t m a n y of those titl e d l d r c ive d the ir h o ldin gs e ven th en aft r m ore t h n f rty ye r ; but th y w e r e m a d e t o pay t h e a nn uiti s a d e v en t h e l a n d t a x for th e m 1

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68

THE NEW STATE AND THE

for the p e s ts h a d to pa y within one month the whole v a lue of his purch a se The fi r st sign of a ch a n ge of mind more fa voura ble to the pe a s a nts is to b e foun d in the la w of August 1 8 76 p a ssed on the eve of the w a r of indep enden ce From th a t d a te l a n d could b e a uctioned in the chief district to w ns a s well ; it could b e divi ded i n to lots from 24 h a upw a rds a lw a ys t a ki n g into a ccount the dem a nds of rur a l inh a bit a nts of Rum a ni a n stock ; a n d for such lots only one thi rd of the price w a s to b e p a id a t once a n d the rem a inder within twenty ye a rs in h a lf ye a rly a nn ui ties a t 6 per cent interest Aga in there is no evidence th a t a n y p e a s a n ts were a ble to purch a se l a nd un der this la w ; a n d the fa cilities which it seemed to offer them were in eff ect n ullifi e d by other conditions dem a n ded by the la w of April 1 8 8 1 a fter the w a r w a s over The promi s e m a de by the Government d urin g the c a mp a ign of 1 8 77 8 h a d not b een kept but it h a d a roused the expect a tions of the l an dless p ea s a nts The new la w a llowed dom a ins th a t were put up for s a le to be sold in sm a ll lots a t a fi x e d price but o nl y if the offers received covered the whole of the e st a te ; moreover the la w i n dic a ted th a t the sm a ll er dom a ins should b e sold in lots from 25 to 1 30 h a the l a rger dom a ins b ei n g indic a ted for pe a s a n t holdings which m a de it even more d iffi cult to s a tisfy the other con di tion An d i n a ddition the buyers of s uch s m a ll plots were to b e collectively re s po n sible for the whole purch a se price It is interesting to note th a t this i s the only la w for the s ettling of p e a s a nts on the l a n d m a de by the Lib er a l P a rty the exponen t of the u n diluted n a tion a li st ide a l If one look s a t the la w of 1 8 8 4 together w ith its a mend ments of April 1 8 8 6 one ca n discern some of the c on fli ct ing te n d Intent a pp a rently upon e n c i es in t h e l a nd policy of the St a te s temmi n g the growth of l a tifundi a th a t la w decided th a t St a te dom a ins of more th a n li a should be sold in i n dividu a l plots not exceeding 5 h a e a ch a n d o nl y to Rum a ni a n cultiva tors vill a ge te a cher s a n d the personnel of vill a ge churche s a t twenty times the a ctu a l re n t a l v a lue The a me n dments of 1 8 8 6 m a de a v a il a ble for the s a me cl a ss of purch a sers two thirds of the dom a in s of one to ten thou s a nd h a a n d one fourth of the a re a on dom a ins b eyond th a t size ; but if the reserved p a rt in thes e —

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69 N E W SERFDOM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7 ) ca tegories were not sold off in sm a ll plots it could b e sold in lot s of 5 0 to 400 h a There is here a recognition of the need to m a ke a t le a st some of the St a te l a nd a v a ila ble for the p e a s a nts ; but the policy of extreme p a rcella tion w a s co n tin ued with rega rd to them no one b eing a llowed to buy more th a n two plots of 5 h a e a ch where a s the l a rge owners were permitted to roun d off their possessions with a s much a s 400 h a a t a time Altogether a s a result of these l a ws 6 41 St a te dom a ins p a ssed into the h a nds of l a rge o wners a n d 39 in to those of p ea s a nts up to 1 8 8 6 ; the h a sold to 760 buyers fi r st group covered together i e a n a vera ge of 200 h a p er buyer a t a n a ver a ge price of £1 3 h a a n d some though some of the s a les rose to a hect a re of the prices were a s low a s £5 per hec ta re L a n d P oli cy S econ d P eri od An outbre a k of pe a s a nt risings from the sprin g of 1 8 88 to th a t of 1 8 8 9 in v a rious p a rts of the country st a rtled the new St a te out of its d a y dre a m of smug prosperity The p e a s a nts were more violen t in their a ctions th a n d efi ni t e in their a ims yet there w a s much to b e le a rnt from the destructive bitterness with w hi ch they a tt a cked the pos s ession s of l a rge tena nts whil e a ctua lly protectin g from h a rm those of the few owners who were still fa rming their own la nd And it w a s even more instructive to see the pe a s a nts rise not in the poor mount a i nous districts but in the rich a n d underpop ul a ted pl a in quite close to the c a pit a l Something h a d ch a n ged a fter a ll in Rum a nia n a gric ul ture a fter 1 8 64 ; but less in the m a nn er of cul tiv a tion th a n in the mode of m a n a gement Every ye a r more la ndow n ers a b a ndoned the country side a n d h a nded over their est a tes to ten a nts but in Rum a ni a w ith r a re exceptions these were not profession a l fa rmers tra ined for it a n d equipped with a ll the stock it needed R a ther were they fa rming specul a tors renting for short periods a t exorbit a nt rents who h a d to m a ke s ure in the few yea rs a t their dispos a l of such a wide m a rgin of returns a s would give them a good pr ofi t wh a tever the n a tura l risks of the tra de Devoti n g themselves to the higher function of orga nizing th e new St a te to their Views the Rum a n i a n upper cl a ss left it to despised a liens — Greeks J ews Armeni a ns— to perform the meni a l t a sk of coining ever more money for them by wringing the strength out oi s oil an d l a bour ers The w a y in ,

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70

THE

THE NEW STATE AND

which the p e a s a nts discrimi n a ted in their a tt a cks of 1 888 — 9 showed th a t the c a nk er of a bsent ei sm w a s b eginn in g to tell ; it h a s never ce a sed spre a di n g till the post w a r reforms Absen t ei sm found its n a tur a l medium in the rich whe a t growing regions of the pl a in High rents m a de it impossible for the pe a s a nts to compete or keep p a ce with the movement there An inqui r y of the Min i stry for Home Aff a irs proved th a t it w a s in such districts where l a nd w a s especi a lly de a r tha t most of the p e a s a nts were to be found who h a d let their own holdings ; a n d th a t in such regions rents for l a nd le a sed from pe a s a nts were lowest a n d the period of the le a se longest sometim es runni ng to ninety n ine ye a rs which in R um a ni a w a s a n extreme exception Often too the pe a s a nts were tempted or driven to enter in to a new le a se with a fresh ten a nt wh i le the old le a se w a s still running ; a custom whi ch w a s known a mo n g l a rge o w ners a lso Other fi gur e s proved th a t sm a ll holdings were more num erous in the mounta i n ous districts where corn growin g w a s li mited th a n in the fertil e pl a ins ; their a vera ge numb er b ein g 38 8 5 3 in the twelve mount a inous districts but o nl y 27 45 3 in the twenty lowl a nd districts of the t hi rty two in which the cou n try w a s 1 divided These a n d other f a cts might h a ve continued to b e ignored h a d not the risings of 1 8 8 8 9 given w a rnin g th a t the prosperity of a gric ul ture h a d not incre a sed the well b eing of the p e a s a ntry The la w which w a s brought in by a Conserv a tive Government in April 1 8 8 9 w a s the fir st to try to s a tisfy the p e a s a nts need for l a nd It a llowed a ll the rem a ining St a te dom a in s ( 8 76 w ith a n a re a of h a ) to b e sold to Rum a ni a n cul tiva tors but o nl y in lots of 5 1 0 a n d 25 h a The two l a rger c a tegories were to b e sold by a uction a n d the lots co ul d b e resold by their purch a sers a fter h a ving b een fully p a id up The b ulk of e a ch est a te w a s to b e reserved for lots of 5 h a to b e sold di rectly without a n y prep a yment the cost to b e covered by a nn uities of 6 p er cent in terest a n d c a pit a l ; no individu a l might buy more -

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i l r t tes i n cludi g m uch w ood l a n d 24 h N R Ca p i t a e a n u pl i v r i r c V nd rv e lde h as p o i te d o ut h t it r l b erv ati on t h t s ma ll h o ld in gs p r r ricultur l r i

s t s t h e a e a ge s z e of a ge es a I n t h e fi rs t i e in th e a n t h e a e a ge s z e o s e t o was 6 6 1 5 h a , R ap e r t ul A s up m R ecen s d md n tului F i s a l d i n 1 905 ( M ’ i s a ge n e a o i n L e S o i a li s me ct l A gr i cultur e t a e g on s ) oo e ag a e om n a e i n t h e 1

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NE W

SERFDOM ( 1 8 64—1 91 7 ) 71 th a n one of these lots nor could they b e estra nged during a p eriod of thirty ye a rs ( a ccording to Ar t 1 32 of the Con stitution ) The evident purpose of the la w w a s to s a tisfy a s l a rge a n um b er of pe a s a nts a s possible but in m a n y c a ses the results were un sa t is fa ctory Exemption from prep a yment indiscrimin a te gr a n ting of lots together with the a b sence of a ll obli ga tion for the purch a ser to settle on it a n d cultiv a te it c a used much of th a t l a nd to p a ss into the Wrong h a nds Moreover the pe a s a nts h a d b ought n o l a nd a t a ll on the strength of tho s e l a ws up to 1 8 8 1 a n d even the la w of th a t ye a r h a d a ttra cted no more th a n pe a s a n t purch a sers pur ch a sers who bought together 23 06 9 h a a n d who bought l a rger lots a mounting together to 8 228 h a ; but on a ccou n t of the e a sy conditions of the la w of 1 8 8 9 the dem a nd for 1 l a nd fa r exceeded the a v a il a ble a re a Its a ppli c a tion therefore ca used much friction until a Libera l Government so a mended the la w in Ma y 1 8 96 th a t St a te l a nd could b e sold no longer except in lots of 5 h a only preference b eing given to pea s a nts who h a d no l a nd a t a ll a n d then to those who b esides house a n d g a rden did n ot own more th a n 4 h a Th a t these ch a n ges were dict a ted by the pressure of soci a l co n ditions r a ther th a n by a n y eco n omic policy is shown by the curious provision th a t wo uld be purch a sers should b e entered on a list from which the a ctu a l recipients of holdings were to b e chosen by a dr a w The pea s a nts m a de such a rush to buy l a nd under this la w th a t excessive prices were offered for the la rger plots sold by a uctio n which a fterw a rds m a n y were un a ble to a even in ye a rs of good p y h a rvests The la w of M a rch 1 8 9 9 therefore a uthorized the Government to reduce a s from the d a te of the s a le the price of lots of 8 — 25 h a sold on the b a sis of the la w of 1 88 9 ; a n d the rem a ini ng a nn uities were to b e p a id at 4 per cent interest within sixty ye a rs The l a rge purch a sers h a d a lre a dy benefi t e d from a simil a r generosity in 1 8 7 9 when m a n y of them were remitted a rre a rs of p a yment while b eing a ll owed to ret a in the est a tes a n d even to buy further l a nd from the Sta te a few ye a rs l a ter ,

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L ots

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5 ha 10 25

w ere purch a s e d by

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ma ki n g

ha

38 6 ha

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THE NE W STATE AND THE

72 Al together ,

including the reform of 1 8 6 4 pea s a nts receiv ed or purch a sed l a nd to the extent of h a ; of these c a me from Sta te dom a ins Duri ng the s a me sp a ce of time the St a te sold h a to l a rge own ers These fi gur e s do not however give a true picture of the progress of l a nd tenure in th a t p eriod Lots were sold without discrim in a tion to stop the cl a mour a n d m a n y got into the h a nds of people who did not cultiva te them but let them to petty loc a l o ffi cia ls or to public a ns for the a mount of the a nn ui ty At B aiceni to give a n ex a mple in the district of Ja ssy a n est a te sold in 1 904 o nl y fi ft y fi ve purch a sers settled on their lots while eighty six were a bsent ; a n d of the l a tter fi ft y two let their l a nd to others When the a uthorities i n tervened it w a s not to c a ncel such ill used s a les but merely to h a nd over to the fi sca l a uthorities the le a si ng of plots b elo n ging to a b sentee owners by a uction ; with such results a s th a t ex em plifi e d by the ten a nt who in 1 906 held in le a se a closed group of ove r hundred such plots a t a bout h a lf the loc a l rent a l v a lue The prohibition to sell w a s e a sily ci rcum vented by long le a ses All these me a sures therefore f a iled to solve the a gra ri a n problem ; nor does the evidence suggest th a t they were mea nt to a chieve th a t St a te l a nd w a s put on s a le whenever the Trea sury w a s in a rre a rs a n d with a m a rked preference for l a rge purch a sers When discontent on the l a nd grew Violent enough to give w a rning th a t something must b e done for the p e a s a nts the ruling powers a ltogether ign ored the evident lessons of the reform of 1 8 64 a n d went on di stributing to a s m a ny p ea s a nts a s possible plots of l a nd from which they could never get susten a nce for themselves a n d their f a mili es In a ll th a t sp a n of time only 38 6 pea s a nts a cquired sound hold h a The a vera ge i n gs of 25 h a e a ch a mounti n g in a ll to resettlement lot ( including a l a rge numb er of plots s uffi ci en t for house a n d ga rden a lone ) h a d b ee n of 3 8 7 h a ; the a ver a ge lot sold to the p e a s a nt s h a d risen to only 4 8 8 h a As M Ga r ofi i d h a s s hown in det a il in his v a lu a ble Ch es ti a Agr a r d it w a s impo s s ible for a fa mily to live from a holding of 5 11 a The distributing or s a le of l a nd to the pea s a nts h a d b een a soci a l a n d politic a l ra ther th a n a n economic me a sure ; it never a ltogether f reed them from the need of selling their l a bour ,

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NEW

S ERF D OM

—1 1 8 64 91 7 ) (

73

Agr i cultura l Con tra cts Na tur a l co n ditions— a n conti n ent a l clim a te — in Rum a nia n a gricultur e dem a n d

Th e la ws

on

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extreme 1 Could a spurt of intense l a bour duri n g a short p eriod of tim e the pe a s a nts b e expected to devote it to the l a n dlords r a ther tha n to their own holdin gs ? It w a s e a sy enough to get the p ea s a nts to eng a ge their l a bour ; the l a nd reform h a d left them hungry a n d a ba d drought h a d left them st a rving But the l a n d lords h a d no security th a t a rra ngements m a de in efi ect u n der duress would b e c a rried out A S en a te resolution of J a n ua r y 1 8 65 s a id th a t to le a ve them to b e enforced in c a se of need by ordin a ry j u d ici a l methods would upset a griculture i n a very d a m a ging m a nn er Whi le the p a rties were a t la w the fi eld s would rem a i n untill ed ; moreover it w a s little good obt a i ni ng d a m a ges a ga inst a resettled pe a s a nt a s hi s house a n d la nd a n d essenti a l stock could not b e sold for debts Above a ll duri n g the a gricultura l sea sons one co uld not fi n d other men whom one might eng a ge a t the expense of those under contra ct In these words the pre a mble to the la w of 1 8 72 g a ve the true re a son for the legisla tion th a t w a s dem a nded a s soon a s the reform of 1 8 6 4 w a s p a ssed Rum a n i a n a griculture h a d not rea ched the st a te when it might work w ith free l a bour ; a s l a te a s 1 88 2 this w a s a dm itted in the st a tement of motives for the la w of th a t ye a r After decl a ri n g tha t it w a s yet prem a ture to pla ce a gricultur a l contra cts un der the j urisdiction of the common la w its a uthors a sserted their b elief th a t the country still needs a sp eci a l la w for developin g its productive forces our a gric ulture which is yet i n a rudiment a ry st a ge with undevelop ed me a n s of production still need s a speci a l protection which sh a ll a ssist a n d sust a in it in its efforts to b ecome prosperous In reply to a n inquiry from the Government the district councils were una ni mous in urging th a t a gricultura l contra cts should be left to b e enfo rced by a dministra tive orga ns a n d mea ns A bill giving effect to this recommen d a tion w a s introduced in D ecemb er 1 8 65 a n d bec a me la w in Ma r ch 1 8 6 6 — one mon th a fter the forced a b dic a tion of Cuz a its pro visions h aving been stiffened in t h a t sh or t i n t er va l .

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ricul tur l l b ours Th e pra ctic e is s a id

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ldi rs h ve c ti u d e v a fte r

In 19 12

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74

THE NEW STATE AND THE

This la w on a gricultur a l contra cts wa s the fi r st of a series which s a nctioned rel a tionshi ps on the l a nd differing little in pra ctice a n d in effect from the r egim e of the Org a nic Sta tutes They ch a nged the trend of the St a te s interference from the protection of the p ea s a nt s l a bour whil e he w a s tied to the l a nd to the conscription of his l a b our now th a t he w a s free to move The fi r st cl a use of the reform of 1 8 6 4 h a d decl a red a ll l a b our servitudes a b olished ; two yea rs l a ter they were revived by the fir s t N a tion a l Assembly composed in t h e m a in oi the new n a tion a list a n d a nti b oi a r elements The la w a llowed l a ndown ers a n d their ten a nts to commute into l a bour ob li g a tions a n s um y owed to them by the villa gers for a dva nces in money a n d in k ind or a s rent for l a nd Debts tow a rds money lenders public a ns & c were a lso p a ssed over in pr a ctice to l a ndown ers or ten a nts a n d were by them tr a nsformed likewise into l a bour dues Such obliga tions formed a privil eged cl a im second only to ra tes a n d t a xes L a bour contra cts co ul d be concluded for p eriods of not more th a n fi ve yea rs ; they could b e coll ective but though the la w forb a de j oint responsibility ( Art it w a s in fa ct frequently stipul a ted a n d the j udici a ry enforced i t In m a ny c a ses the pe a s a nts were m a de j oi n tly respo n sible for the l a bour of even those of them who r a n a w a y or fell sick The enforcement of these contra cts a s well a s of fi n es a n d p ena lties a risin g from them were entrusted wholly to the loc a l a dm in istra tive org a ns ; a n d there w a s no a pp e a l from the i r decisions ( Ar ts 30a n d Wh en a p ea s a nt f a iled to c a rry out his contra ct it w a s the duty of vill a ge m a yor a n d coun cil fi rst to urge h im to p erform his l a b our ob lig a tions ( Art if th a t were of no a v a il then the Vill a ge m a yor using the executive me a ns a t his dispos a l will a t once bring the defa ulter to the l a bour for which he h a s con tra cted or he m a y eng a ge other l a b ourers a t the exp ense of the defa ulter ( Art The l a st provision w a s done a wa y with by the a mending Act of 1 8 72 the r a pp orteur a dmitting th a t no sp a re men could b e found during the a gricultura l se a sons In s tea d the Ch a mber a dded to Art 1 3 a cl a use which instructed the Vill age council if the debtor w a s reca lcitra nt to obt a in a t once from the district sub prefecture a t the exp ense of the defa ulter s the milit a ry a ssist a nce necess a ry for constra ini ng .

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NEW SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7 ) 75 the Vill a gers who a r e ob dur a te or h a ve run a w a y Until then the only me a ns by which run a wa ys co uld b e induced to surrender w a s to p ersecute their fa mil ies ; n e w direct a ction with the a i d of the mili t a ry w a s s a nctioned by P a rli a men t The other ch a nge m a de in 1 8 72 w a s to a ll ow pe a s a nts contra cting a s a group to b e m a de j oin tly responsible this b eing dem a nded by the Lib era ls on lai ssez fa i r e grounds The Vill a ge m a yor w a s obliged to est a bli sh the defa ult a n d to a pply the me a sur es of constra in t on the very d a y when the compl a in t a g a inst the l a b ourer h a s b een lodged ; if he fa iled in thi s he w a s li a ble to a fi n e of 5 0— 1 00 lei a n d a lso to the p a ym ent of d a m a ges to the suffering p a rty Some mitig a tin g ch a n ges were m a de by the new la w of Ma y In genera l its text w a s clea rer a n d more d efi ni t e 1 882 Contra cts it decreed were to refer to gen uine a gricultura l work o nl y to b e performed in the pl a ce where the contra ct w a s ma de The Vill a gers were for a n d they were to b e renewed e a ch ye a r bidden to contra ct for more l a bour th a n they a n d their f a mili es co ul d rea son a bly perform Frid a ys a n d S a turd a ys were re s erved for the pe a s a nts own needs ; they could not b e pursued for refusing to work for the employers on those two d a ys Enforce ment w ith the a i d of soldiers wa s a b olished a n d j o int responsi bili t y w a s n o longer p erm itted When a V illa ger f a iled to c a rry out his ob liga tions the m a yor will urge him to do the work ; if he refuses still the m a yor could eng a ge other men a t loc a l r a tes a n d sell such of the defa ulter s possessions a s were not protected by la w in order to defra y the cost The price from which th a t forced s a le would st a rt w a s fi x e d by the creditor If other l a bourers could not b e found the employer coul d cl a im d a m a ges through the Courts The a nx iety c a used by the risin gs of 1 8 8 8— 9 led the people in power to think of modifying the la w of 1 88 2 but quiet being restored the ch a nge w a s a llowed to w a it till the la w of Ma y 1 8 93 Popul a tion w a s r a pidly in crea sing a n d some of the l a rge f a rmers were introduci n g m a chines ; the need for compulsory l a bour w a s dimi ni s h ing He n ce b esides two minor but useful m od ifi ca t ion s— gra zing contra cts were to sp ecify the size of the l a nd a n d not merely the numb er of a nim a ls a n d gifts or p a ym ents in kind were forbidden if they were not the produce of the rented la nd— the new la w w a s ,

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76

AND

THE NEW STATE

THE

rem a rk a ble esp eci a lly for its fa mous fi n a l a rticle ( Ar t 44) which a llowed the two p a rties it they so w ished to b a se thei r l a bour contra cts on the comm on la w The new text a bolished execution of contra cts in the p erson of the p e a s a nt a uthorizin g it in hi s p ossessions In th a t st a te the legisl a tion concerning a gric ul tura l contra cts rem a ined till 1 907 If one surveys the position of the p ea s a nts under the l a ws on a gric u l tura l contr a cts one discovers th a t it cont a ins a ll the m a teri a l elements which ch a ra cterized their st a tus b efore em a ncip a tion The fi r st essen ti a l a sp ect of serfdom bond a ge to the soil w a s in p a rt cre a ted by the reform of 1 8 64 itself when it decreed th a t the new holdings were i n a lien a ble ; thi s w a s con fi r m e d by the Constitution of 1 8 66 for a p eriod of t hi r ty ye a rs which in 1 8 77 w a s prolonged for a nother t hi rty two ye a rs Th a t restriction a lso w a s a pp lied to plots b ought a t the s a le of St a te dom a ins Neither could b e sold except to a p ea s a nt a n d no p ea s a nt could buy more th a n 5 h a of such l a nd includ ing wh a t he a lre a dy possessed No stra nger co ul d penetra te in to the m a ss of the resettled pe a s a ntry a n d the pea s a nts could n ot exp a nd b eyond the limits fi x e d for them Sm a ll prop erty w a s thus immob iliz ed a n d individu a l possessions hedged in withi n But though he w a s a ppointed limits a s under feud a l tenure tied to his in a dequ a te plot the Vill a ger or other memb ers of his household might still h a ve w a ndered a w a y in se a rch of b ett e r w a ges for their sp a re l a bour This w a s a lre a dy forest a lled in 1 8 66 by Art 2 of the la w on contra cts w hi ch decreed th a t only the resp ective co m mune m a y lega lize the contra cts of inh a bit a nts within its j urisdiction ; it m a y lega li ze the contra ct of a stra nge l a bourer only if he produces a ce r t ifi c a t e from the commune in which he resides showing th a t he is free to enter into such e on tra cts The commu n e w a s inva ri a bly the loc a l l a ndo w ner ; if he w a nted a pe a s a nt s l a bour he merely h a d to see th a t he w a s not c er t ifi ed And if in spite of th a t the p e a s a nt r a n a w a y the la w of 1 8 72 g a ve the l a ndowner soldiers for whom the fugitive h a d to pa y with which to bri n g him b a ck The second burden of serfdom compulsory l a bour w a s revived in pra ctice by the l a ws on a gricultura l contra cts As a conce s sion t o the new democr a tic f a ca de it w a s m a de i n cum .

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NE W

SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4 1 9 1 7 ) 77 bent upon the Village m a yor to b egin by urging the pe a s a n ts who were di s inclined to work for the l a ndlords but ultim a tely it c a me to the pe a s a nt l a bouring under the gu a rd of he a vi ly The e n fo r cin g of l a bour a rmed foremen a n d Vill a ge o ffi ci a ls contra cts with the a i d of the milit a ry w a s form a lly a bolished in 1 8 8 2 but there is n o doubt th a t it continued in use for m a ny ye a rs a fter Fi n a lly the third compou n d of the s ervile sta tus p a yments in l a bour a n d in kind w a s the very essence of the methods encour a ged by the l a ws on a gricultura l cont r a cts With ra re exceptions the Villa gers p a id for a ddition a l l a n d or for lo a n s of money in l a bour or i n produce The exception a l r egime of the a gricultura l co n tra cts w a s devised to secure to l a ndowners a n d their tena n t s the l a bour they needed a n d its conditions therefore nece s s a rily discoura ged progress tow a rds money tra nsa ctions b etween a gricultura l employers a n d l a b ourers Th a t rea ctiona ry trilogy w a s a ptly rounded off by the fi n a l No other j urisdiction sa id th a t text a rticle of the la w of 1 8 66 no other a uthority wh a tsoever except those n a med in the prese n t la w m a y i n terfere in the proced ure rel a ti n g to contr a cts for a gricultura l l a b our B efore his em a n cip a tion the ill use d pe a s a nt could m a ke some sort of a ppe a l to the country s ruler Now he w a s ruled by a democratic hiera rchy but for him Constitution a n d Supreme J ud i cia r y w a s to b egin a n d end with the Villa ge m a yor Th a t mea sure p a ssed without a single voice b eing r a ised in the new n a tion a l Pa rli a ment to protest a ga in st such m a s s outl a wing of the p e a s a ntry Lega lly a n d Vi ewed a s a whole the l a ws on a gricultura l co n tra cts could fa irly b e described in the word s of M Ghere a a s the con fi r m a t i on of the old servitudes in contra ctu a l fo r m Even so their full effect can b e j udged onl y by pl a cing their text s a g a inst the b a ckgrou n d of Rum a ni a s public life i n th a t period It is ch a ra cteristic of the power a n d temper of the new rulers th a t their legi s l a tion comp a red b a dly with th a t decreed by B a rbu Stirbey under serfdom in 1 8 5 1 D a m ages for fa iling to perform co n tra cted l a bour were a lrea dy k n own a n d it is likely th a t obdura te pe a s a nts were h a ndled somewh a t roughly but it w a s left to the new la w form a lly to provide th a t he might b e constra ined ma n u mi li ta r i ; a n d while the older text enj oined —

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THE NE W STATE

78

AND

THE

fa ir d ea ling upon both p a rties a like the new l a ws so dr a stic for the p e a s a nts cont a ined no s a nctions wh a tever for a n y fa ilur e of the l a ndlords to keep their p a rt of the b a rga in L a ndl ords a n d their ten a nts were in truth a noin ted a s a bsolute potent a tes of the Vill a ges on their l a nds ; a ll they h a d to do w a s to get a m a n subservi ent to them elected a s m a yor The milit a ry comm a nders ch a rged with quelling the rising of 1 88 8 — 9 did their duty sternly but in their Reports they a dmit th a t the a dm ini stra tion is c a llous tow a rds the p e a s a nt th a t ba d fa ith is ra mp a nt th a t the re a l la w is dict a ted to him by those who h a ve j oined h a nds for 1 the purpose of exploitin g h im Ta x collectors a lso were frequently the nominees of l a ndlords a n d these men by pressing mercilessly for the p a ymen t of ta xes when the pe a s a nts resour ces were most stra in e d left them with no other choice tha n to b orrow from l a n dl ord a n d ten a nt pledgin g in retur n their la bour in a dv a nce The report of a n inqui ry conducted by the J a ssy District Counc il in 1 8 62 pointed out th a t onerous l a b our c on tra cts were often forced upon employers a s much a s upon l a bo ur ers by the ruthless collection of t a xes for the p ea s a nts try to borrow a nywhere a n d a t a n y price a n d the cultiva tors fea ring to see their l a b ourers co n tra ctin g with two m a sters a r e oblig ed to a ssign them a ga in a b ove their c a p a city to l a bour Contra cts m a de in such circumst a nces were op en t o every kind of a buse The evidence th a t in genera l they put the v a lue of l a nd a n d corn high a n d th a t of l a bour low is c i rcum sta nti a l In the l a st qu a rter of the nineteenth centur y the tithe rose every where but especi a lly in the corn gro w in g districts from one in h y e to one in one I h a ve kno w n sob er ha rd workin g p ea s a nts writes M R a du Rosetti him self a l a ndow ner who l a boured fi ft e en ye a rs to pa y off a debt they contra cted in the winter 1 8 6 6 —7 for m a ize w hi ch they h a d borrowed to feed thei r fa milies They found it h a rd enough to c a rry out such he a vy M ih il E mi cu i rticl R ur l H pit l ( r pri t d i h i C ll t d ,

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c o m pl i d th at u n d r n a t n a l s e lf go v e rn me t m ore li c e c e w s giv e n t o a bu s iv e i dividu l s th n t h ey h d e j y e d b f re He cit es t h e c a s e of h d e xpl it d t h e p a san t s o gross ly th t t h e div a n of a n A u tri n citi en w h Grigore Ghic h a d f rbidd h i m f e v r a ft r t buy or r n t l n d or e ve n t o be m e i dividu l h d n w b c om e a gr t l d own e r h e h d Th t h e l nd a b a ili ff 0 n d a t n ght h e h a d th e m s ur t h e p e as n ts t a k e n t o t h e fi ld s i n cr te s lik e d ogs r o u n d e d with b a rb e d fen c es so th a t the y s h ould n ot r un a wa y Wor ks

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SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7 ) 79 oblig a tions a n d a lso cul tiva te prec a riously their sm a ll holdin gs How could they h a ve thought of t a kin g on more l a n d to fa rm The system w a s in itself suffi ci en t to check a ll efforts of the pe a s a nts to i mprove themselves ; in fa ct they were depressed ever lower by the a buses which it m a de possible Thr ough the in strument of the l a ws on a gricul tura l contra cts the Constitution a l gu a ra ntees for person a l lib erty a n d for the s a nctity of domic ile could b e set a side for 95 per ce n t of the popula tion a t the will a n d whi m of a vill a ge m a yor ; a n d this not in exceptiona l circumsta nces but in everyda y life in m a tters a risin g out of the d a ily work — the o n ly me a ns of sub siste n ce of the people Ra dishchev s a id of sim il a r conditions in Russi a For our l a ws the pe a s a n t is dea d Yet a ll these me a sures were a pprov e d by the new n a tion a list Liber a ls s ome of the h a rshest like th a t of 1 8 72 which ordered the mili t a ry enforcing of con tra cts— were a ctu a lly in iti a ted by them a n d ca rried in the fa ce of Conserva tive dis a pprova l The o n ly possible w a y to expl a in tha t conduct is by their a nxiety to prevent the rur a l m a sses from ga ining economic a n d politica l strength a n d comp eting for i n fluence with the new a n d n a rro w mid d le cl a ss which ruled in to w n a n d St a te A congeries of fa cts a sserts the Conserva tive M Ga r ofli d poin t s to the const a nt tendency of th a t o lig a rchy to im pede the form a tion of a rur a l mid dl e cl a ss The mist a kes of 1 8 6 4 m a y h a ve bee n a n d no doubt were l a rgely due to i n ex p er i ence a n d to the w a y in w hi ch the Ra dica l le a ders were engrossed with the p oli tic a l a spect of pe a s a nt em a ncip a tion The whole problem rea ppe a red however in 1 88 9 a s sta rkly a s a genera tion e a rlier yet no b etter solution w a s a ttempted th a n the old one of putt ing off the cl a mouring pea s a nts w ith a piece of l a nd th a t could never become a f a rm The Conserva tives who fa vour ed the crea tion of a r ur a l middle cl a ss h a d in 1 8 89 provided for holdi n gs of 1 0 a n d 25 h a ; but the foll owin g Libera l Governm ent c a ncelled th a t provision a n d reduced a ll holdings to b e sold from St a te dom a ins to 5 h a e a ch The genera l conditions on whi ch the St a te s dom a ins were sold we re strongly coloured with th a t stepmotherly bi a s ; a n d a ll a venues of esc a p e i nto soci a l a n d economic in dep en dence were b a rred to the p e a s a nts by the l a ws on a gricultur a l contra cts Nor were a n y other elements th a t .

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THE NE W STATE AND THE

80

might h a ve roused the coun try side suffered to t a ke soli d roots on the l a nd Foreigners a n d n a tive J ews who were excluded from a ll offi cia l functions a n d from m a ny lib era l professions were permitted to rent enormous stretches of l a nd on sp ecul a tive terms which inevi t a bly m a de of them tra n sient exploiter s of soil a n d l a b our They were not a llowed however to buy a fa rm a n d settle on i t for this w hi le m a kin g them c a reful cultiv a tors might possibly h a ve m a de them ch a mpions of a n a dolescent a gricultur e With the impecunious p e a s a nts b ound to the l a nd a n d p ossi ble fa rmers b a r red from it the a gra ri a n sy stem fell in to a p eculi a r co m pound of serfdom a n d c a pit a li s m ; from it l a ndlords a n d their ten a n t s s ecured a ll the a dv a nt a ges of both while the pe a s a n ts w ere s a ddled with a ll the burdens of both From serfdom the l a n dlord s h a d a ll the fa cili ties of servile l a bour without a n y of the feud a l oblig a tio n s tow a rds it ; whi le from c a pit a li sm they h a d the freedom to b a rga in with l a bour w ithout the restra i n t of a free l a bour m a rk et The pe a s a nts however were subj ected to servi le l a b our wi thout its counterp a rt in l a nd rights ; a n d from c a pit a l ism they h a d a ll the tri a ls of w a ge e a rner s without b eing re a lly f r ee to tra de their l a bour s where they willed One cl a ss s a ys M Ghere a h a d a chieved for itself roses without thorn s whi le the thorns a n d the thorns a lon e— were left for the p e a s a nts It w a s n a tur a l therefore th a t em a ncip a tion a n d l a nd reform s hould h a ve no effect on the org a niz a tion of Rum a n i a n a gr i cul ture L a ck of ca pit a l a n d tra ining for a new technique m ight h a ve b een m a de good within a short sp a ce of tim e B ut wh a t interest h a d l a ndlords a n d t en a nts in ch a n gin g a system w hi ch g a ve them such a monopoly of control a n d pr ofi t a s they h a d not e n j oyed even under serfdom a n d which they co ul d never hop e to ret a in in a full fledged c a pit a list r egime ? Neo serfdom left the l a n dlords free to occupy them s elves w ith politics or ple a sures For it a ttra cted ten a nts a n d a l s o g a ve them the mea n s thereof who without knowledge or equipment could a fford to offer exo r bit a nt rent s the l a nd co n tinuing to b e tilled by the pe a s a nts All th a t these s ui gener is fa rmers h a d to do w a s to drive the p e a s a nt a s h a rd a s his mort a l fra me w ould st a n d The l a ws on The a gricultur a l contr a cts supplied a p erfect device to th a t end -

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NEW SERFDOM ( 1 8 64—1 91 7 ) 81 ret urn to b e expected from a n est a te used formerly to b e ca lcu l a ted a ccordi ng to the num b er of s ervile l a bour d a ys which the l a n dl ord w a s entitled to cl a im ; now a n est a te s rent w a s dict a ted by the rel a tion b etween give a n d t a ke in the loca l contra cts Not the f a tness of the l a nd but the swe a t of the p ea s a nt deter min ed the huge pr ofi t s tha t were m a de And the pea s a nts toiled Ma y God n ever a n d sighed their helpless sorrow in the s a ying : la y upon a ma n a s much a s he ca n b e a r Th e P ea s a n t s B ur d ens Rum a n i a s a gr a ri a n policy foll owed during the fir st h a lf century of her n a tion a l i ndependence two p a ra ll el lines— the endo wment of the pe a s a n ts with plots of l a nd — which a ppe a r wholly to the impressment of the i r l a bou r n a d contra dict e a ch other In rea lity they were corolla ries a n d they support Lori a s genera li z a tion th a t the condi tions which c a used the b indi ng of l a bo ur in fa vo ur of the est a te were free la nd a n d sc a rcity of l a bo ur The tendency to reduce the l a nd a v a il a ble for the pe a s a nts if successful to the end might h a ve res ul ted in free l a bour But in the me a sure in whi ch it fa iled the other tendency g ai ned strength th a t of tying the pe a s a nt to the v ill a ge one completing the other so a s together to give to the tra din g corn grower a suffi ci en t supply of l a bour It w a s the Rum ani a n pe a s a nt s refus a l to li ve without l a nd th a t c a used him to live without freedom Consciously or not the older Russi a n revolution a ries h a d summed up soun dly the soci a l a n d economic essenti a ls of the pe a s a nts c a se in their motto : L a nd a n d Lib erty ( Z emlj a i Volj a ) S oon the Rum a ni a n a s well a s the Russi a n pe a s a nts were to m a ke a bid for both of them Those with whose fa te we a r e concerned were ne a ri n g the b ottom of their cup of e a rthly misery It w a s genera lly a greed tha t a ll those p a rts of the l a ws on a gric ul tura l contra cts which were designed in f a vour of the pe a s a nts a r e fa llen into disuse M S eb a stia n Mor uzi who wr ote these words in 1 907 w a s spe a king from in tim a te knowledge h a vi n g himself b een severa l times Lib era l prefect of v a rious coun ties Wh a t Vill a ge m a yor indeed would d a re to i nspect closely the boia r s a ccount books ? Wh a t m a yor cl a im s respect for the two d a ys left weekly for the p erson a l needs of the villa gers ? Or a bove a ll wh a t m a yor insists on the f a ir ’

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NE W STATE

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me a surement of the l a nd given for l a bo ur or sold for money ? 1 The minor improvements decreed in 1 8 93 were never a pp lied When the la w of 1 8 82 put a n end to the milit a ry execution of contra cts the result wa s a lessening of bruta li ty s a ys M Ra du Rosetti but on the other h an d a n incre a se in fra uds The Sta te itself which forty yea rs e a rlier h a d b ecome owner of one fourth of the a r a ble a re a one third with the l a nd of endowments a n d other institutions ) h a d done nothing to b etter the li fe of the p ea s a nts on its l a nds Ra ther di d it welcome every opportun ity of ra ising rents a n d its revenue a n d th a t ex a mple w a s followed by in st it u tions under its control ; so th a t pe a s a nts on these publi c est a tes s a id M Spiru H a ret— a former Lib era l Mini ster of E duc a tion a n d fa mous for his a gra ri a n a ctivities a r e a t lea st a s b a dl y off a s th ose on the est a tes of the worst of the l a rge l a ndlords From 1 8 62 to 1 9 05 the a re a un der cul tiv a tion h a d risen by 8 3 per cent while the popul a tion h a d i ncre a sed by o nly 5 4 per cent ; yet the price of la bour h a d rem a ined sta tion a ry b ec a use of th e depen dent position in which the p ea s a nt h a d b een pl a ced a s a la bour er In the sixties the price of l a bour w a s double wh a t it h a d b een during the r égime of the Org a n ic Sta tutes b eca use of the ra pid exp a nsion in the cult ure of m a ize a n d whea t ; tha t exp a nsion continued ra pidly but a high offi cia l a ffir m ed in 1 8 93— a n d — th a t a n investig tion of l a bour repe ted th i s in 1 9 0 M o r u z i a 7 a M contra cts on va rious esta tes showed tha t the ra tes still p a id were those fi x e d a bout 1 8 66 And the m a j ority of them never re a ched even the poverty level of the custom a ry w a ges An i nquir y con ducted by the Min istry for Home A ffa irs showed th a t out of la bour contra cts for 1 906 chosen a t r a ndom only 39 7 per cent were concluded a t the custom a ry w a ges ; others were lower in v a rying degrees 1 3 2 per cent showing w ag es upw a rds of 75 p er cent b elow the usu a l ra tes They a lso showed a widespre a d custom to reckon the working month a s of thirty two d a ys Most contra cts h a d pen a lizing cla uses intended to press for more l a bour ; some contra cts in the district of Teleorma n stipula tin g ’

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cc ordi ng t o M Serba n of t h e c a ses of c on tra v en ti on s t o t h e la w on a gri cultura l c on tra cts which c me b fore t h e c ourts i n 1 9 1 3 8 1 7 or (i n 1 9 12 8 95 h a d b e n c o mm itte d by o wn e rs a n d ten a ts 224 or 1 8 7 9 % by vill a ge or 73 ffi ci ls a n d o n ly 1 5 1 or l 2 6 7 % by p ea s a n ts ; th o ugh of c o urs e t h e n u mb e r of p ea sa n ts pa rti e s to s uch c on tra cts wa s i n fin ite ly greate r th an th a t of th e ir em pl oye rs 1

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NE W S ERF D OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7 )

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tha t the f a ther of a f a mi ly who h a d living with h im m a rried sons or da ughters who h a d not contra cted for a gricultur a l l a bours sh a ll be him self excluded from a ll contra ct Under the old r égime the a uthorities h a d to enforce upon the pe a s a nts the obliga tion to l a bour for 6 —24 da ys for the la ndlord ; under the new r egime of free l a bour the pea s a nt h a d b ecome so dependent on the l a ndowner th a t the legisl a tor h a d to intervene in order to ensure th a t two d a ys were left e a ch week for the pea s a nt s own ‘

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The price of l a nd on the other h a nd h a d risen fa nt a stic a lly The severe a gra ria n crisis b etween 1 8 75 a n d 1 8 9 0h a d c a used the price of corn to fa ll some 30 per cent in Europe ; to th a t corre But in s po n d e d a f a ll in the v a lue of the l a nd a n d of its rent a l Rum a ni a a contra ry phenomenon occ urred during th a t period : frequently by f ully a continuous a n d ra pid rise in l a nd rents 1 00 per cent in the centur y s l a st qu a rter without a n y corre sp e nding rise in producti vity At the s a me time however the Government h a d to help the pe a s a nts with food every few ye a rs In this a s in m a ny other respects this wa s a p a ra llel to the Russi a n situ a tion After the em a ncip a tion of the p ea s a nts in 1 8 6 1 Russi a n whe a t exports rose so ra pidly th a t they domin a ted the western m a rkets But a t the s a me time the Governm ent h a d to devote i n cre a sing sums to the relief of st a rving p ea s a nts ; from a ye a rly a ver a ge of 8 00 roubles in the sixties reli ef rose to a n a vera ge of a bout one a n d a h a lf million up to 1 8 90 to ni n eteen millions b etween 1 8 90— 1 900 to 1 1 8 million roubles in 1 901 5 Reli ef w a s di stributed in the sixties to eight dep a rtments in the seventies to fift een in the eighties to twenty fi ve in the a fter 1 900 to thirty one n ineties to twenty n ine The only possible expl a n a tion for such discrep a ncy in the progress of the Rum a ni a n r ur a l cl a sses is th a t the grea t a n d a bnorma l incre a se in the revenue of l a ndlords a n d ten a nts w a s obt a ined by depress ing the revenue of the p e a s a nts by mea ns of the l a ws on a gri cultura l contra cts ; a n d th a t is c on fi r m ed by the fa ct tha t in sp a rsely popul a ted districts where l a b ourers could not b e con scripted but h a d to be a ttra cted the rent of the l a nd rose not a t a ll or but sli ghtly B etween 1 8 70 a n d 1 906 th e rents p a id by 6 7 6 per cent of the p e a s a nt tena nts h a d risen b y 1 00 per cent ; ,

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THE NE W STATE AND THE

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those of 1 3 8 per cent of them by more th a n 300 per cent a n d those of 3 3 per cent by over 5 00 per cent For the la nd held i n m é t a y a ge w hi ch they c ul tiva ted w ith thei r own seed a ni m a ls a n d im plements the pe a s a nts were foun d to b e p a yin g one h a lf to two thi rds of the h a rvest a n d a v a riety of a ddi tiona l ch a rges in l a b o ur a n d in kind They found it increa singly diffi cult to compete for l a nd a n d bec a use of their l a ck of tra ini ng a n d me a ns they coul d n ot get out of it a v a lue th a t wo ul d correspond to the compulsory l a bour they h a d to give for it which thus b ec a me doubly onerous for them 1 Under the pressure of such ci rcum st a nces the pe a s a nts were driven to borrow from the l a ndowners a n d ten a nts M D Nen i tes cu decl a red th a t a n offi cia l i nquir y co n ducted in 1 901 esta b lished th a t for such lo a ns 6 0 p er cent h a d come to b e reg a rded a s a frien dl y interest ; but th a t some times the l a ndlords took from the p e a s a nts 1 25 25 0 36 5 a n d even 5 28 per cent in the form of l a bour dues To these conditions h a d to b e a dded the burden of dis crimin a ting t a x a tio n ; the r a ti n g census of 1 905 — 7 est im a ted the revenue of p ea s a nt l a nd four times higher th a n th a t of l a rge o w ners In the deb a te on a bi ll introduced in M a rch 1 907 to equ a lize the t a x a tion of pe a s a nts a n d l a rge owners the Mi ni ster of Fina nce m a de it cle a r th a t it w a s not intended to rai se the l a nd t a x p a id by the l a rge owners but merely to reduce to the s a me level the t a x p a id by the p e a s a nt proprietors ; a n d even then m a ny deputies could only vote for the bill by tre a ding on our he a rts When the pea s a nts did put in a compl a in t which w a s seldom they were genera lly less fortuna te th a n those of F ant ana B a nului ( Dolj county ) These h a d bought some of the l a rger plots from the St a te a t exorbit a nt price s a n d b eing u n a ble to .

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ccordi ng t o a n ffi ci a l publicati on Th e R i s e i n M oney a nd M ta ya ge R en ts producti on h ad i n t h e sa me p eri d f ll en r ath e r th an i n creas ed b e c a u se of ba d cultiva tion l ck of m a ure & 0 A v e r ge pr oducti on i n h e t oh t re s p r h e cta r e M a i ze Wh e t 1

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l rge ly pr duc e d by t h e p ea s an ts wh ea t by t h e l a rge cultiv a t ors On e mu s t a l t a k e i to a cc ou n t th t t h e p sa n ts w e r gi ven t h e w o rst l a n d a n d l eft with t h e w or s t ti me for th e ir o w n w ork so

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N E W SERFDOM ( 1 86 4—1 91 7 ) 85 their a nnuities were thre a tened by the Ministry of Fin a nce a p y w ith forcible e vi ction ; a petition sent by them to the S en a te rem a ined un a nswered for two ye a rs until a cha nce enco unter on the S ena te steps with the l a te D imitrie S t ur d za led to the l a tter s effective intervention on their b eh a lf Genera lly the pea s a nts too trod on their hea rts a n d suffered in silence U s ed up in strength a n d riddled with dise a se exploited a n d derided they seemed to h a ve fa llen too low even for protest or revolt Wa r s an d Revoluti on s In the sprin g of 1 907 distur b a nces broke out in northern Mold a vi a At fir st the a tt a ck w a s concen tra ted a g a in st the J ewi sh inh a bit a nts a n d looked like one of the endemic a nti S emitic riots whi ch h a ve frequently been engineered in E u m a ni a n p olitica l li fe a s a m ea n s of frightening the Government or How fa r the pe a s a nts h a d c onversely of cowi ng the Opposition a h a nd in th a t b eginni ng one c a nnot s a y ; there a r e mi lit a ry a n d like th a t on the little m a rket town of a dmi ni str a tive reports Bivol a ri ( Ja ssy county ) whi ch a ssert th a t the s a cking of the pl a ce w a s the work of imported rowdies a n d th a t fa r from a iding in thi s loc a l a n d neighbouring pea s a nts g a ve a sylum to the J ewi sh Victims B ut wh a tever the men a n d the motives which st a rted the a git a tion once the country side w a s roused the pe a s a nts h a d a terrible a ccount of their own to settle All the pe n t up desp a ir of a bre a dless a n d rightless popula tion broke loose upon the la nd The spirit of the pe a s a nts h a d b een stun g not a little by the stories which h a d re a ched them a bout the Russi a n risin g of 1 905 ( itself a consequence of the Russo J a p a nese Wa r ) Ever since the a ppe a r a nce of Russi a n a rmi es a s lib er a tors from the Turkish yoke the R um a ni a n pea s a nts like the Russi a ns be lieved the Ts a r to b e devoted to thei r inter ests a n d they rem a ined sensitive to every h a ppeni ng th a t a ffected the pe a s a ntry in the neighbour ing empire Their em a ncip a tion in 1 8 6 4 followed the Russi a n em a n cip a tion of 1 8 6 1 a n d there is e vidence th a t when they rose in 1 88 9 they h a d been c a rried a wa y by a rumour tha t the Ts a r h a d ord ered the big est a tes to b e divided a mon g them Sim il a r rumours m a y h a v e helped to r e use the pea s a nts in 1 907 but their revolt spra n g from issue s th a t la y deep a n d were Vit a l for themselves Recently this h a s been confessed by the l a test le a der of th a t Pa rty which h a s ,

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THE NE W S TATE

86

AND THE ‘

domin a ted Rum a ni a sin ce her in dependence None of these [ a gra ri a n] reforms wr ote M V intil a Brati a nu in 1 926 h a d s uffi ci en t l a sed the needs of the pe a s a nt cl a ss ; a n d the s a tis e y fa ction of those n eeds h a ving b een del a yed p a rticul a rly in the p eriod from 1 8 90 to 1 907 we were fa ced in th a t l a st ye a r with a gr a ve intern a l crisis From on e end of the coun try to the other the p ea s a nts vented their a ccumula ted a nger upon dwelli ngs a n d belo n gings an d occ a sion a lly a lso upon the p ersons of l a ndlords a n d ten a nts c a refully discrimin a ti ng b etween the few who h a d tre a ted them well a n d the m a ny tow a rds whom they h a d no re a son to b e tolera nt The worst excesses a s it h a ppened occurred in districts which h a d few J ewi sh inh a bit a nts or none a t a ll which b elied the supposed origin of the revolt The outbrea k a pp a rently took the ruling cl a ss by sur prise It sc a red them a n d it e nr a ged them The rising w a s unorg a nized a n d in m a ny p a rts w a s uickly checked by a little re a so n in g with q vi ll a gers ; yet so gre a t w a s the p a nic of the l a ndlords th a t some a mong them thought of a ppe a li ng for the help of two Austri a n a rmy corps But the Rum a ni a n milit a ry proved equ a l to the t a sk by themselves The S econd Army Corp s ordered the r epr es sion to b e c a rried through to its end— shooti n g the villa gers a n d burning their houses — even where the rising h a d subsided Gun s were in some pl a ces brought into a ction a ga inst groups of p e a s a nts a rmed with forks a n d scy thes who were completely surrounded Altogether a bout ten thous a nd pe a s a nts were put to dea th ; the re a l number m ay never become know n a s the 1 offi ci a l dossiers of these repris a ls h a ve dis a pp e a red The p ea s a nt rising s a ys M V intil a Brati a nu roused the conscience of the po litic a l p a rties There were two memora ble sittings of the Ch a mb er on the 9 t h a n d 1 3th of M a rch when the p oli tici a ns vied with e a ch other in b e a ting their bre a sts a n d con fessing their sins A Roya l m a nifesto expressed the desire of H M the King for reform a n d P a rli a ment p a ssed a series of l a ws c a ncelling others but recently ena cted mea nt to constitute comprehensive a gra ri a n policy which should a ssist a n d a .

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D b a te i n t h e Ch a mb er 23r d of May 1 925 Th e o rd e r of t h e S e c on d Ar my Corps I t h as b een w a s th e n re a d by G e n r l A v e re s cu hi ms e lf M i n i s te r of W r t t h e ti m e xpl a n ti on of t h e me rciles s re pri s l s th a t a n e ighb ouri ng s u gge s te d a s a p os s ibl e m pir e h ad threa te ne d t o i te rv en e i f t h e ri s i n g w as n ot qu e lle d a t on c e 1

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NE W SERFD OM ( 1 8 6 4— 1 9 1 7)

87

encour age the pea s a nt a s a fa rmer a n d protect him a s a l a bourer The la w on a gricultur a l contra cts of 23r d Decemb er 1 907 a bruptly broke a w a y from its predecessors whi ch h a d protected the employers a n d devoted itself to protecting the l a bourers It l a id down a numb er of principles w hi ch were to put a n e n d to th a t intermixing of lea sin g a n d l a bour a rra ngeme n ts which con fused the p e a sa nt a n d m a de hi m a n e a sy prey to every a buse ; a n d simil a rly to pro visions for mixed p a yments in money a n d l a b our a n d produce in one a n d the s a me contra ct Henceforwa rd every opera tion w a s to b e settled in a sep a ra te contra ct for whi ch offi ci al forms were provided When the contra ct w a s one of m é ta ya ge the h a rvest w a s to b e divided up within fifteen d a ys ; so a s to put a n end to c a ses like th a t reported from Dolj where the 1 906 m a iz e crop w a s sti ll in the fi eld s in M a rch 1 907 the pe a s a nts not b eing a llowed to t a ke their only food home b ec a use they h a d some remna nt of debts to pay Now if the l a ndlord del a yed longer th a n a llowed by la w he wa s li a ble to a fi n e ; if the pe a s a nts took the crop a wa y too e a rly before h a ving c a rried out a ll their obliga tions they were li a ble to imprisonm ent up to one ye a r District Commissions consisti n g of two delega tes of the l a ndow ners a n d two of the pea s a nts under the ch a irm a n s h ip of the di strict a gronom were to fi x a minimum w a ge b a sed on the a vera ge of the l a st t h ree ye a rs but wherea s previous l a ws h a d b een a b solute this w a s a pplic a ble o nl y to written co ntr a cts but not to verb a l a greements or to a greements m a de within thir ty d a ys b efore the l a bours to whi ch they referred ; a n d the Commissions were a lso to fi x a m a ximum rent which w a s not to exceed by more th a n one thi rd the rents p a id for simi l a r soil by the l a rge tena nts in th a t region Thi s put no restra int upon the specula ting ten a nts who coul d contin ue to p a ss on every increa se in rent upon their pe a s a nt sub —tena nts The food given to l a bour ers w a s to conform to the st a nd a rd la id down by the Mini stry of Hea lth S chool chi ldren were to b e employed no longer in fi eld work unless in exception a l c a ses an d un der specifi ed con .

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The s a me la w tried to meet the grea t need of the pea sa nts for gra zing by instituting commu n a l gra zing l a nds The Libera ls .

88

THE NEW

S TATE

AND THE

w a nted to oblige the l a ndowners to supply l a nd for comm un a l gra zings but the Conserva tives led by Ta ke Ionescu opposed this on the groun d tha t it would b e a n exprop ri a tion in d isgui se These commons were to b e cre a ted for e a ch Villa ge the l a nd being suppli ed from St a te dom a ins or b ought from loc a l l a nd o w ners owni ng more th a n 300 h a a t m a rket v a lue plus 1 0 per cent a n d the l a ndo w ner rem a inin g owner of the subsoil The cost w a s to b e defra yed by the comm un e from gra zin g ra tes p a id by the vi ll a gers for e a ch he a d of c a ttle none of them bein g entitled to keep more th a n six big a nim a ls on the village common To a ssist in a b etter distribution of sea son a l l a bour the la w a lso set up a n a gricultur a l emplo ment bure a u The whole of y th a t medley of St a te a ssist a nce in tervention a n d control w a s to be in the h a nds of three speci a l org a ns : ( a ) District Com missions de a ling with w a ges rents & c ; ( 6 ) district a gro noms ; a n d ( c) a Supreme Agricultura l Council composed of fi ve members a ppointed for fift e en ye a rs who were to supervi se the genera l a pp lic a tion of the la w a n d to control the di s trict ,

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A second set of l a ws endea voured to s a tis fy in some me a sur e the l a nd hunger of the pe a s a ntry Gre a t hopes were pl a ced on the la w which crea ted the Rura l O th ee ( Ca sa Rur a lci ) h a lf of whose c a pit a l wa s to b e supplied by the St a te whi ch w a s given Its m a in purpose a thirt y ye a rs monop oly for its oper a tions w a s to f a ci lit a te the p a ssing of l a nd b elongin g to l ar ge own ers into the h a nds of p ea s a n ts the otfi ce either buyi ng itself or Once more the limit of p e a sa nt a cting merely a s intermedi a ry lots w a s fi xe d a t 5 h a a n d in the hi lls a t 3 h a though one p erson might buy a s much a s fi ve such lots o n ce the dem a nd for single lots w a s fu lly sa t i s fi e d An import a nt pro vision w a s th a t decl a ring the lots of 5 h a to be indivi sible the other heirs b eing com p en s a ted in money the Rura l Offi ce w a s entitled to gra n t lo a ns for this a n d other purposes This cl a use w a s j usti fied by excessive division which h a d crea ted cra zy holdings such a s some th a t were two metres wide a n d 700 metres long tra cks a n d dividi ng m a rks swa llowing up a s much a s 30 p er cent of their a re a The Rura l Otfi ce wa s a lso ch a rged with encoura ging a n d supervisin .

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NEW SERFDOM ( 1 8 64—1 91 7 ) 89 a better cultiv a tion of the l a nd b ought from it or through i t a n d further with encour a ging the growt h of co opera tive pur ch a se a n d m a rketing a mong the p ea s a nts Another la w decreed th a t St a te dom a ins a s well a s est a tes of c ul tura l reli gious l hi a n t h r O i c a n d other endo w ments co ul d b e le a s ed to pe a s a nt p p not by a uction but on the b a sis of rents co oper a tives only fi x e d by the distri ct commissions a n d the Supreme Agric ul tur a l Council Fi n a lly a n a ntitrust la w forb a de a n y individua l to r ent whether him self or through intermedi a ries more th a n h a existing contra cts b e i ng a llowed to run till 1 9 1 2 ; in h a a ra ble 1 905 a single f a mily w a s renting in Mold a vi a l a nd a n d a ltogether h a in cludi n g woodla nd However soun d the theoretic a l b a sis of most of these me a sur es in effect they were fa ted to di s a ppe a r w ithout tra ce i n the qui cks a nd of Rum a ni a s public life Most of them depended to a n extreme degree for their success on the ini ti a tive a n d super vision of public a uthorities a n d th a t left little prosp ect th a t the poor a n d disfra nc hi sed pea s a nts would ga ther in even a sm a ll portion of the fruits promised them by the l a ws of 1 907 One can predi ct with cert a i n ty a French writer ventured to sa y a t once th a t these texts w i ll bring nothing but di s a ppoin tment ; for they tend to repl a ce by a r t ifi cia l a n d h a sty combin a tions a n a tura l evolution w hi ch coul d resul t o nl y from a profound ch a nge in the h a bits of the ruling cl a ss 1 Indeed the new la w on a gricultura l contra cts w a s delibera tely ignored a s M V Br ati a nu a dmitted in 1 91 3 Diffi cult i e s were encountered in cre a ting the Vill a ge commons ; the Report of the Supreme Agricultura l Council for 1 9 1 2—1 3 showed th a t comm ons covering a tota l a rea of h a up to Octob er 1 91 3— h a d b een est a b lished on a ll St a te dom a in s a n d on 73 per cent of the esta tes b elonging to va rious institutions but o nl y on 26 p er cent of the priv a te esta tes either b ec a use their owners were holding b a ck or bec a use the l a nd they offered w a s too ba d or too de a r Four hundred a n d four of the offers received h a d to b e rej ected b ec a use of the excessive price dem a nded a n d of these 90per cent were those of priva te l a ndowners ; some comm unes were a ble t o '

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P oi ns a rd , La P r od ucti on , le Tr a va i l et le P r ob leme ’ e déb ut d u XX S i ecle , a s , 1 907 , 7 62 1

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s oci a l

d e ns tous les P a ys

THE NE W STATE

90

AND THE

esta bli sh gra zings at one fourth or one fifth the price fi r st a sked for them Wh ere commons h a d been esta bli shed the p ea s a nts frequently found it im possible to c a rry out the obliga tion of growing fodder on p a rt of them b ec a use the soil w a s too poor for th a t purpose Up to 1 9 1 3 the Rur a l O th ee pur ch a sed h a but of these o nl y h a h a d b een p a rcelled ( in lots ) a n d o nl y h a h a d b een sold to pe a s a nts the rem a inder b eing merely lea sed to them or fa rmed for its own a ccount by the O th ee a n d of the lots of 3—5 h a sold only 1 33 went to p e a s a nts who a lre a dy h a d more th a n 4 h a of the i r ow n so th a t medi um property received a s little encour a gement a s b efore Its mortg a ge lo a ns to p ea s a nts a moun ted in 1 9 1 2 to lei a n d in 1 9 1 3 to lei The Otfi ce itself a t an y ra te did so well out of these tra ns a ctions th a t its 5 00 lei sh a res h a d risen to lei by the middle of 1 9 1 2 The Sta te itself w a s slow in a pplying the cl a u s e whi ch ordered th a t its dom a in s should b e le a sed to pea s a nt co opera tives an d continued to f a rm them for its own a ccount Nothing then more positive c a me of the h erce rising of 1 907 th a n a revised a n d enl a rged edition of the exist i ng a gra ri a n l a ws The men who were to interpret a n d a pply them rem a ined the s a me a n d beyond a p a ssing flush the temper a n d h a bits of Rum a ni a n public li fe were h a rdly a ffected by the pe a s a nts show of de s p a ir Occ a sion a lly some poli ticia n felt moved to confess th a t in the words of the mythic a l Meck le n bur gh ia n Con st it u tion— Everything rem a ins a s it w a s But none of the politica l groups showed signs of h a ving come to reg a rd rura l reform a s In a peculi a rly a gra ri a n an d pe a s a nt coun try a concern of its own the l a st issue th a t seemed c a p a ble of enlistin g po litic a l ze a l w a s the problem of the pe a sa nts fa te How str a nge it is e g th a t the wise King C a rol ( 1 866 who h a d the welf a re of the p eople truly a t hea rt should not h a ve used his gre a t i nfl uen ce to bring a bout a solution of the rura l problem ; u n less it b e th a t he knew th a t like Cuz a he would b e fa ced with the ruthless opposition of a ll politic a l fa ctions Only some mysterious re a son could expl a in the b a ffling f a ct th a t in the four crowded volumes in which a n Eyewitness m a king use of the ki n g s priv a te correspondence a n d person a l notes h a s minutely describ ed the -

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N E W SERFDOM ( 1 8 6 4—1 9 1 7 ) 91 fir st fift e en ye a rs of Ca rol s reign the pe a s a nt question is remem 1 b ered in not one sin gle lin e At the b egin ni ng of the second dec a de of the twentieth century Rum a ni a n a gricultur e w as r a pidly recovering from the shock of 1 907 a n d from a series of ba d h a rvests Exports were rising a n d l a n dl ords a n d their ten a nts very li kely looked forw a rd t o an ot h er p eriod of rich pr ofi t s wi th the help of the pe a s a nt s c a p a cit y to work much a n d live on little a n d of the St a te s compl a cency towa rds doin gs on the la nd In other words the rura l world w a s returni ng to norm a l B efore however it could rega in to the full its lop sided st a bility a g a in a ch a in of externa l events followin g e a ch other in quick succession buffeted it a b out with such incre a sing Violence a s fi n a ll to knock R um a n i a s y a gr a ri a n system out of the p erverse b a l a nce in w hi ch it h a d b een kept for a century The fir st link in th a t cha in w a s forged by the B a lk a n W a rs of 1 9 1 2— 1 3 As R um a ni a w a s expectin g to b e dr a wn in to them a t an y moment the mor a le of the m a sses w a s prep a red for the effort by the usu a l promise tha t l a nd would b e distributed a fter the pe a ce Rum a ni a s p a rt in the second B a lk a n Wa r proved a mere excursion a cross the D a nube with o nl y p a rt of her forces but th a t short expedi tion h a d an un expected e fi ect on her soldiers H a vi n g come to h a te so to spe a k these pe a s a nts a n d sons of pe a s a nts rem a ined to envy They sa w th a t in Bulg a ri a only a short dist a nce from their ow n pl a ces there w a s a country whi ch knew not wha t l a rge property a n d m a sterful l a ndlords were ; in which every pe a s a nt h ad his holding a n d the Vill a ges were better built a n d the fi eld s b etter tilled th a n their own After the retur n from B ul g a ri a the l a te Ionel Br ati a nu recog ni zed in a letter p ubli shed in L I n dép end an ce Rouma i n e the need for l a nd reform ; a n d his then le a der D i mitrie S t ur d za referring to the poor response of the l a ndowners to the dem a nd for l a nd for Vill a ge common s decl a red tha t their b a ckw a rdness j ust ifi ed the a pp lica tion of the expropri a tion principle The dre a d word w a s spoken a t l a st Till then the ruling cl a ss h a d fa vour ed r a ther th a n di scoura ged the growth of l a rge property a n d h a d ’

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en Kon i g Ka r la A us d em L eb S affe , fo me o to

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Pri n c e C a rol

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1 8 9 4 1 900 -

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Th e

92

THE NEW STATE

fegu a rded it by Ar t 1 9 of the Constitution whi ch forb a de expropri a tion except a n d solely for the requi rements of publi c tra nsport pub lic he a lth a n d the defence of the country The le a der of the a ll powerful Libera l Pa rty now a dmitted th a t those restrictions might h a ve to go How fa r were S t ur d za s words a progra m a n d not merely a sentiment ? B efore thi s query co ul d b e properly propoun ded the exist ing o rder of things sust a in ed a fresh a n d more for mi d a bl e shock One ye a r a hn ost to the d ay a fter the sig n ing of the Pe a ce of B uc a rest the Gre a t Wa r broke out It threw Rum a ni a s r ul ers i nto a welter of h a rro w ing hopes a n d fe a rs Dur in g the two ye a rs which it took them to m a ke up thei r minds how to get the b est without risking the worst expropri a tion a n d resettlement freely re a ched the e a rs of the w a iting p e a s a nt soldi ers Promi ses were fl e a ting in the a ir but no one thought of bringin g them to e a rth a n d imp atience w a s met with the usu a l : a fter the Wa r An d then— before the rocks of w a r coul d b e s a fely rounded— the Russi a n Revolution burst upon them Ki ng a n d Governm ent a n d P a r li a ment were sur prised on the edge of i t in their refuge a t J a ss ca u h t in between the Germ a n gun s a n d the Russi a n y g red fl a gs The King j our neyed to the front a n d there solem nl y a nnounced th a t the f a therl a nd s soil would there a fter b elo ng to those who till ed i t The wheel of History h a d s w un g ro und once ag a in the coun try wa s in dire need a n d the pe a s a nt w a s restored to his old yeom a n st a nding "

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PART II THE NEW LAND REFORM

C H A P TE R

V

THE LAND LAWS P O L I T I CA L

H I S T OR Y

T H O U GH R um a ni a seemed to develop stea dily from ye a r to ye a r the p ea s a nt problem never cea sed to ra ttle omin ously a t the g a tes of the young St a te In a lmost every one of its sessions Pa rli a ment h a d to p a ss some me a s ure of a gra ri a n reform but these c a nnot be a dj udged to h a ve been more tha n p a lli a tives As M S t ur d z a poin ted out in 1 907 a ll the gre a t ch a nges in the soci a l st a tus of the p ea s a nts h a d been m a de pe a cefully by the instrum ent of the la w Yet a t no time a fter 1 8 64 did R um a ni a s rulers t a ke their own legisl a tive efforts seriously enough to try to mea sure the results We the le a ders decl a red one of them M Bibi ces eu h a d not suffi ci en t curiosity to fi n d out the precise res ul ts of th a t work on w hi ch we h a d b a sed such gre a t hopes There were no st a tistics no inquiries no groun d b ook no soci a l rese a rch ; nor in these circum st a nces a n y considered policy of a gra ri a n reconstruction A sound remedyi ng of the pe a s a nts troubles woul d h a ve dem a nded their endowment wi th l a nd with tra in ing a n d with credit— a bove a ll with l a nd to which the other two co ul d b e o nl y a ccessories But except the h a ndful of S oci a lists— who of course were thin king of tra ns ferring property to the St a te r a ther th a n to the p ea s a n ts neither of the two politic a l p a rties which sh a red the p ower b etween them a dm itted the prin ciple of expropri a tion The Conserva tives represented by tra dition a n d membership the big l a nded property Even those a mong them who s a w the cra cks in the a gra ri a n structur e merely thought of how to p a tch it up so a s to strengthen the l a ndowners They a dvoc a ted fi scal me a sur es which should force the l a ndowners to retur n to the country a n d f a rm their est a tes a s well a s to m a ke them co opera te for credit purch a se a n d s a le For the pea s a nts they merely pro pounded freedom to sell a n d mortga ge their holding s— a freedom which would soon h a ve sifted them into well to do pea s a nts a n d l a ndless l a bour ers : the fi r st to strengthen the cl a ss of l a nded ,

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96

THE LAND LAWS

cultiva tors the second to provide this cl a ss w ith plentiful h a nds These Views were el a bora ted a s l a te a s 1 9 1 4 in a Memor a ndum of the Union of Agricultura l Syndic a tes a n orga ni z a tion of l a rge owners which considered th a t by a boli shi ng in a lien a bili ty a process of selection will b e set going a mon the pe s nts a a g whereby the l a nd of those who a r e idle will b e concen tra ted in the h a nds of those who a r e in dustrious Thus a mid dl e siz ed property will b e crea ted in the h a nds of the more in telligent pea s a nts a n d we shoul d h a ve likewise a cl a ss of fr e e la bour er s The St a te shoul d a ssist this evolution wi th credits ena bling the more c a p a ble p e a s a nts to purch a se middl e sized holdi ngs from the l a rge est a tes Soon a fter the risin g of 1 907 the Conserva tive Government of M Grigore Ca n t a cuz in o pl a yed with the ide a of expropri a ting in full a ll the mortm a in est a te s in order to fore st a ll a dem a nd for a wider expropri a tion The n a tur e of the compens a tion w a s not mentioned But the idea encoun tered much opposition a n d w a s soon a b a ndoned Am ong the Liber a ls the a gra ri a n element w a s in a minority a n d it h a d m a inly a c a pit a list interest ; in gener a l th a t p a rty s tendency w a s merc a ntili st A m a nifesto of May 1 8 8 8 even deni ed the existence of a n a gra ri a n problem Th a t View co ul d no longer b e m a i nt a ined a fter the distur b an ces of the followi ng ye a r a n d the fi er c e rising of 1 9 07— the yea r a fter the trium ph a nt fortieth j ubilee of the St a te s existence But in 1 909 one of the Lib era l le a ders form a lly a nnounced his P a rty to b e opposed to a ll ide a of expropri a tion Spe a k ing in the Ch a mber d uring the deb a te on the Speech from the Tlno n e he decl a red th a t expropri a tion w a s a g a in st their poli tic a l creed ; a n d th a t the country s a gricultura l structure could not b e ch a nged by revolution a ry methods Two yea rs l a ter a Pa rty m a ni festo insisted th a t by the reforms they h a d a pplied sin ce 1 907 the Libera ls h a d b een trying to uproot from the p ea s a nts minds precisely the f a lse a n d d a ngerous belief th a t it w a s the St a te s function to provide them with l a nd In 1 9 1 2 the P a rty s fore most pea sa n t i st Spiru H a ret wrote th a t if it were i n his power to reform Rum a ni a s country side he would h a ve the pe a sa nt s th a n a s owners of their holdings And a s ten a nt s r a ther M V intil a Br ati a nu con fi rm e d these v a rious st a tements in a ,

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THE LAND LAWS

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p a mphlet publi shed in 1 9 1 3 when he denoun ced a s dem a gogic even pre mises for the expropri a tion of mortm a in est a tes The tur ni n g poin t c a me a few months l a ter a fter the return from Bulga ri a Ionel Br ati a nu s public letter in the semi offi cia l I n d ep en d a n ce Rouma i n e conceded th a t it might b e neces sa ry to expropri a te the l a rge owners so a s to endow the p ea s a n ts with 1 l a nd Wh a t a pp a rently w a s contempl a ted a t the t ime w a s the h a In the followi n g ye a r expropri a tion of est a tes a bove ha M V intil a Br ati a nu dem a nded the expropri a tion of to b e p a id by the pea s a nts a t the r a te of lei per hect a re withi n fifty to sixty ye a rs The se c a lled Conserva tive Demo cra tic group led by Ta ke Ionescu a ccepted the prin ciple of such a reform but the Conserv a tive P a rty rem a in ed O pposed to i t In 1 915 a fter the outbrea k of the Gre a t Wa r a few Con serva t i ve s un der M M Ca n t a cuzin o seceded from the lea dershi p of M Al ex a nder Ma rghilom a n a n d likewise a ccepted the principle of expropria tion ’

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c on v ers i on of M I on e l Brati n u an d h is P a rty t o t h e id ea of s w e pin g l n d pl e a n d fra n chi s e r efo r ms w as t oo s udd e n n o t t o c a u se so m e s urpri s e a n d t o m k e p as k th e m e lv e s h ow a m e r e mil it ry e xcu s i on a cr oss t h e D a n ub e c ould so gr ea tly di stu b a s ettl e d outloo k Th e foll owi n g i s t h r e p orte d hi story of t h e e pi sod A C ons e rv a tiv e G o v e r nm en t u d e r Titu M io e s e u h a d b een i n p o w e r for fe w m o th s wh en R u m n i n t e r e d t h e s e c o d B lk an w a r i n 1 9 1 3 Th e Lib ra l P a rty n d t h e Brati a n u fa m i ly h a d a lw a y s c ons id e r e d it a s on e of th ir pri v il ge s fr o m t h e ti m e of t h e formation of t h e n ati on a l S tate t o pre id e o v e r a ll t h e i mp rtan t e v en ts which forme d t h e m il ston es of t h e coun try s hi story I n 1 9 1 3 th e refore I o e l Brati a u cla i me d p ow e r e ithe r for a Libe ra l go v rnm n t or f r a n ation a l coah t i n go v e r m en t u d e r h i s pr mi e rs hip Kin g C r o l re pli d th a t h e c o uld n ot di s m i s With o ut gr o u n ds a go v rnm e t which w as n ew t o offi e n or a sk M Ma io ese u t h o f R u ma ni a s a c a d e mi c lif t o s e rv e u n d e r a re l a tiv ly y u g p oli gr a d o ld m a t i ei n I e l Brati an u ppa re tly took thi s r fu s l s o d ee ply t o h e a rt — a s a re b uff t o h i s fa mi ly a n d t o h i P a rty th a t h e d e p a rt e d t o t h e h e a d qu a rt e rs of o e of t h e a r mi es i n t h e fi eld a s c a pta i n o f a rtill e r y fully i te d i ng fr om th r e t o a nn un c h is r e ti re me t from p olitica l life I t w as in th a t s ta te of d es p on d n t i n dign ati o th a t h e w as fo un d by M C on ta n tin S t e re t h e for e m s t p eas n t i s t th e re tic a and at th e ti m t h e é mi n en e e gri se of t h e Libe ra l Pa rty Wh y r es i gn b e c a u s e y o u c a nn ot ga i n fa v o ur with t h e K in g 2 s ugges te d M S te re S ta y an d b c om e t h e fa v ourite f t h e p e opl B y di stributin g l an d an d v otes a ta tes m an c ould g i a p opul arity which n o m on rch m i ght with s t n d Th e a dvic e w as t k en n d M S te r e w a as k e d t o pre p re drafts for t h e t w o r for ms Wh a t t t h e on e h ow v r w s a gr a t en d i n it e lf t o t h e oth r w s m r ly m a ns t o a n e d Th e dr fts o f M S te re w er th o u ght t o r dic a l a n d w re s v er ly e xpur ga te d Y e t the ir ess ce w s s till suffi ci t ly evolu t i o a y i n t h e e y es of t h e fi n e but v e ry c n se rv a tiv m o a rch He to o k fr ght a d ga v e M Brati an u t h e go v e r n m en t t w a rd s t h en d of t h e y ea r pres u m a bly on t h e u n d r ta n di ng th at t h e r for m s w o uld be s h lv e d ; as i d e d th e y w e re u ti l 1 9 1 7 —Thi s i s t h e s tory a s priv a te ly t old by M C S te re h ims e lf 1

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THE

96

LAND L AWS

cultiva tors the second to provide thi s cl a ss with plentiful h a nds These views were el a bora ted a s l a te a s 1 9 1 4 in a Memora ndum of the Uni on of Agric ul tur a l Syn dic a tes a n orga niz a tion of l a rge owners whi ch considered tha t by a b olishi n g in a lien a bili ty a process of selection wi ll b e set goin g a mo n the pe s nts a a g whereby the l a nd of those who a r e i d le w ill b e concentra ted in the h a nds of those who a r e in dustrious Thus a middle siz ed prop erty wi ll b e cre a ted in the h a nds of the more i ntelligent pea s a nts a n d we should h a ve li kewise a cl a ss of fr e e la bour er s The St a te should a ssist this evolution with credits ena bling the more c a p a ble p e a s a nts to purch a se middle siz ed holdi ngs from the l a rge est a tes Soon a fter the risin g of 1 907 the Conserva tive Government of M Grigore Ca n t a cuzin o pla yed w ith the ide a of expropri a ting in full a ll the mortm a in est a tes in order to fore st a ll a dem a nd for a wider expropri a tion The n a tur e of the compens a tion w a s not mentioned But the idea encoun tered much opposition a n d w a s soon a b a ndoned Among the Libera ls the a gra ri a n element w a s in a mino ri ty a n d it h a d m a in ly a c a pit a list i n terest ; in gener a l th a t p a rty s tendency w a s merc a ntili st A m a nifesto of Ma y 1 88 8 even denied the existence of a n a gra ri a n problem Th a t View could no longer b e m a int a ined a fter the di stur b an ces oi the fo llowi ng ye a r a n d the fi er ce rising of 1 907— the ye a r a fter the trium ph a nt fortieth j ubilee of the St a te s existence But in 1 909 one of the Lib era l le a ders form a lly a nnounced his Pa rty to b e opp osed to a ll ide a of expropri a tion Spe a kin g in the Ch a mb er during the deb a te on the Speech from the Throne he decl a red th a t expropri a tion w a s a ga in st their poli tic a l creed ; a n d th a t the country s a gricultura l structure could not be ch a nged by revolution a ry methods Two yea rs l a ter a Pa rty m a ni festo insisted th a t by the reforms they h a d a pplied sin ce 1 907 the Libera ls h a d been trying t o uproot from the p ea s a nts min ds precisely the f a lse a n d da ngerous belief th a t it w a s the St a te s function to provide them with l a nd In 1 9 1 2 the Pa rty s fore most pea sa n t i st Spiru H a ret wrote th a t if it were in his power to reform Rum a ni a s cou n try side he would h a ve the p e a sa nts th a n a s owners of t heir holdi ngs An d a s ten a nts ra ther M V intil a Br ati a nu con fi rm e d these va rious st a tements in a ,

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THE LAND LAWS

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p a mphl et published in 1 9 1 3 when he denoun ced a s dem a gogic even pre mises for the expropri a tion of mortm a in est a tes The tur ning poin t c a me a few months l a ter a fter the return from Bulga ri a Ionel Br ati a nu s publi c letter in the semi offi eia l I n d ep en d an ce R ouma i n e conceded th a t it mi ght b e n ecess a ry to expropri a te the l a rge own ers so a s to endow the p ea s a nts with l a nd 1 Wh a t a pp a rently w a s contempl a ted a t the tim e w a s the h a In the followi n g ye a r expropri a tion of est a tes a bove ha M V intil a Br ati a nu dem a nded the expropri a tio n of to b e p a id by the pea s a nts a t the ra te of lei p er hect a re withi n fi ft y to sixty ye a rs The s o c a ll ed Conserva tive Demo cra tic group led by Ta ke Ionescu a ccepted the prin ciple of such a reform but the Conserv a tive P a rty rem a ined O pposed to i t In 1 9 1 5 a fter the outbre a k of the Gre a t Wa r a few Conserva t i ve s un der M M Ca nt a cuz in o seceded from the lea ders hi p of M Alex a nder Ma rghilom a n a n d li kewise a cce p ted the prin ciple of expropri a tion ’

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c on ve rs i on of M Ion e l Brati a u an d h i s Pa rty t o t h e id ea of s we epi n g l d pl e a n d fr a n chi se r e fo r ms w as t oo s udd en n t t o c u s e s m e s u pris e a n d t o m k e p as k th e ms lv es h ow a m e r e m i li ta ry e xcur s i n a cr os s t h e D a ub e c o uld so gr ea tly di s tu b a settl e d outlook Th e fo ll owin g i s t h e re p orte d hi story of t h e e pi sod A Cons rv a tiv e G o v e rnm e n t un d e r Titu Ma i ores e u h a d b e n i n p o w e r for fe w m on th s wh en R u m a ni a e tere d t h s e c on d B a lk an w ar i n 1 9 1 3 Th Lib r a l P a rty s on e of th i r privi l ge s fr o m t h e a n d t h e Br ati a n u f m i ly h a d a lw a y s c ons id re d it ti me of t h e forma ti on of t h e n a ti o a l S t te t o pr s id e v er a ll t h e i m p rtan t e v ts which f rm e d t h e mi l ston es of t h e c o u try s hi story I n 1 9 1 3 th e refore I o e l Brati a u cl ai me d p owe r e ith er for a Lib era l gove rnm e t or for a n ati ona l c a liti on go v rn me t un d e r h i s pr mi e rs hip Kin g C a rol re pli ed th a t h e c o ul d n ot di s mi ss With out grou n ds a go v rnm en t which w a s n e w t o office n or a sk M Ma i r es eu t h e gr n d old ma n of R um ni a s a c a d e m ic life t o s e rv e u n d e r a re l tiv e ly y o u n g p o li t ie i n I e l Brati n u a pp a ren tly took thi s refu a l s o d ee ply t o h ea rt — a s a bufi t o h is fa m il y an d t o hi s P a rt y— th a t h e d e p a rte d t o t h e h a d q u a rt e rs of on e of t h e a r mi es i n t h e fi e ld a s c a pta in o f a rtille ry full y i n ten din g fr om th e r e t o a nn o un c e h is re t ire me t from p olitic a l life I t w as i n th a t s tate of d es p o d e t i n dign ati on th a t h e w as foun d by M C o s t a n tin S t e r e t h e f re m os t p ea s t i s t th eor tici d at th e ti me t h e emi n e n c e gri s e of t h e Lib e ra l Pa rty Wh y r es i gn b e c a u s y o u c ot g i n s u gge s te d M S te r e fa vo ur with t h e Kin g S t y a n d b e c o m t h e f v o ur te of t h e p eopl B y di stributin g l d d v otes a stat s ma c oul d ga i n a p pul rity which o m on a rch m i ght with ta d Th dvic e w a s t ke an d M S t re w a s a s ke d t o pre pa re drafts for t h e t wo refor ms W h t t o t h e on e h ow e v e r w s a grea t en d i n itse lf t o t h e oth e r w s m r ly a m ns t o n en d Th e dr a fts of M S te r e w e r e th o u ght t oo ra dic a l a n d w r s v e r ly e xpu g te d Y t the ir ess n c w s s till uffi ci en tly e volu t io a y i n t h yes of t h e fin but v ery c o s e rva tiv e mo a rch He too k fr ght a d g v e M Brati an u t h e go v rnm e t t ow a rd s t h e en d of t h y ea r pr es u m a bly on t h e un d r tan di ng th at t h e ref rms w ould b s h e lv e d ; a s i d ee d th e y w e re u t 1l 1 9 1 7 — Thi s i s t h e s tory a s priv a te ly told by M C S te r hi ms e lf 1

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98

THE LAND LAWS

In the me a nwhi le the Lib era l Pa rty h a vin g b een c a lled to p ower in Decemb er 1 9 1 3 they proceeded to elect a Constituent Assembly with power to revise the a rticles of the Constitution restricti n g expropri a tion a n d the fra n chise The new Assemb lies met in J une 1 9 1 4 a n d a ppointed two p a rli a ment a ry Commi ssio n s to work out propos a ls for the two reforms S oon a fterw a rds the Wa r broke out a n d the Constituent Assemblies were not a g a in convened to tulh l their fun ctions till thr ee ye a rs l a ter The Commission for l a nd reform a ccording to one of its members met twice during th a t i n terva l but n o work w a s don e a t a ll In 1 9 1 4— nothing ; in 1 9 1 5 — nothing ; th a t w a s a ll its prep a r a tory work Rum a ni a entered the w a r in August 1 9 1 6 From th a t moment m a ny n e w truth s a n d doubts b eg a n to work upon the p e a s a nts minds As everywhere they were extolled a s heroes in speeches a n d a rticles w hi ch left a bitter t a s te when tested by the re a li ties of their existence The a dva nce into Tra nsylva ni a h a d the s a me e ffect on the outlook of the Rum a ni a n soldiers a s h a d the a dv a n ce into Bulg a ri a in 1 9 1 3 The physic a l s ufi er in gs whi ch they h a d to unde r go were perh a ps u n p a ra lleled in a n y other the a tre of w a r ; a n d a s fa r a s thes e m en co ul d see a n d j udge m a ny of their sufferings were due to the f a ilure of their betters a s le a ders a n d a dministr a tors Moreover these doubts a s to the fi t n e ss of those who r ul ed them w ere fostered for the i r own con venience by the Germ a n a n d other m ili t a ry who occupied two thirds of the coun try for n e a rly two ye a rs Knowin g the the a nt a gonism whi ch divided the rur a l cl a sses i n Rum a n i a Germ a ns c a me prep a red with l a rge qu a ntities of procl a m a tions printed in ba d Rum a ni a n wi th w hi ch they a pp a rently i ntended to bre a k in c a se of need the cou n try s power of resist a nce The Germ a ns s a id th a t m a nifesto h a d come to free the p e a s a nts from their bonda ge to the boia r s a n d to di stribute the l a nd a mo n g them It invited them to rise a n d to ch a se a wa y their l a ndlords a n d rulers M a rsh a l M a ckensen did not fi n d it nece ss a ry to m a ke use of this di s rupti n g instrument but the se n timent therein cont a ined no doubt found other ch a nnels of expression during the prolonged cont a ct between the foreign troops a n d the Rum a ni a n pea s a ntry In Mold a vi a w here the ,

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THE LAN D LAWS

99

Rum a ni a n Government a n d a l a rge p a rt of the pop ula tion h a d t a ken refuge the old cl a ss di sti n ction contin ued to filt er through even in the emergency legisl a tion destined to ea se the stress of the moment In 1 9 1 7 the Governm ent found it nece s s a ry to decree the compulsory cultiva tion of l a n d a ccording to a n est a b li s hed pl a n ; l a ndowners a n d their ten a nts fa ili n g to c a rry out these oblig a tions were thre a tened with a fi n e where a s pea s a n ts refu s i n g to la b our were li a ble to b e cour t m a rtia lled a n d im prisoned from one to three ye a rs All these incidents a n d i nfl uen ce s which were ferme n ti n g the pe a s a n ts disconte n t were given sub sta nce by the sudden colla pse of l a ndl ordship in Russi a It h a s a lr e a dy bee n men t i on ed how sensitive R um a ni a s p e a s a n try w a s to h a ppeni n gs in the n eighbouring Empire ; how the Russi a n em a n cip a tion of 1 8 6 1 w a s foll owed by the Rum a n i a n in 1 8 6 4 a n d the Russi a n revolution of 1 9 05 by the risi n g in Rum a ni a in 1 907 I n 1 9 1 7— 1 8 th a t in fl uen ce m a de itself more directly felt th a n it h a d ever done b efore The Rum a n i a n front in Mold a via n a mely w a s held j ointly by Russi a n a n d Rum a ni a n forces the units of the two The r a n k a n d fi le of the Rus s i a n a rmies b eing interspersed reg iments like the bulk of the Russi a n a rmy a t once took m a tters into its own h a nds when the news of the Revolution re a ched them They beg a n to org a n iz e s oldiers councils a n d the Rum a ni a n soldiers could he a r them a rguing for the possession of the l a nd Such discussions touched to the qui ck wh a t w a s still the Ruma ni a n pe a s a nts most i n gra ined beli ef None of the cha nges which h a d a ltered the system of l a nd tenure duri n g the previous century co ul d era dic a te the pe a s a nts tra nsmitted convi ction th a t they h a d a right to the use of the l a n d on which they were settled The persistence of the system of sh a re cultiv a tion h a d help ed to keep a live th a t b elief a s in a ppe a ra nce it conti n ued with merely a ch a n ge in the respective portions the old tithe system ; where a s a mo n ey w a ge system would h a ve m a de a cle a n bre a ch b etween property a n d l a bour As things were the pe a s a nts took it for gra nted tha t when they h a d not enough la nd the l a n d of th e St a te or of the l a ndlords h a d to b e used to meet their n eeds ; this bei n g on e of the re a sons why m a ny p eople h a d opposed the custom of pl a c a ting the pe a s a nt s w ith ,

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1 00

THE L AND LAWS

occ a sion a l gra nts of l a nd Now the Rum ani a n sol di ers a n d p ea s a nts s aw the Russia n soldiers a b a ndon their regiments especi a lly when Comm uni st a git a tors bega n to a rrive a n d trek home to t a ke possession of the l a nd Nor di d the Com muni sts a llow the lesson of this ex a mple to si n k o f itself into the he a r ts of the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nts With un restra ined revolutiona ry zea l they b eg a n to a ddress their inciteme n ts to the Rum a ni a n popul a tion a s well a n d to terrorize the Rum a ni a n a uthorities Russi a n regim ents gone red p a ra ded the streets of J a ssy ; the prison w a s broken into a n d R a kowsky a n d other Communists of Rum a ni a n origin were set free ; a n d still more d a ring a cts were b ei n g prep a red when a t the eleventh hour they were forest a ll ed by the Roy a l Procl a m a tion which initi a ted the gre a t reforms The dra m a tic story of th a t historic a ct h a s been tersely told by Professor N Iorga in 1 925 when he rose in the Ch a mb er to protest a g a inst the suspen sion of a n Opposition deputy from B ess a ra bi a M Ion Buzdug a n In 1 9 1 7 M B uzdug a n w a s serving in the Russi a n a rmy a n d a fter the fir st revolution b ec a me a commiss a r with one of the reg i ments on the Mold a vi a n front At the risk of his life s a id M Iorg a h e u s e d t o s py u p on t h e m e e t in gs o f t h e B o l s h e v i k c om m i tt e e a n d e v e r y n igh t h e c a m e t o r e p o rt t o m e for h e h a d l e a r n t t h a t t h e B o l s h e v i k s w a n t e d t o c a p tu r e t h e K in g i n J a s s y M D ue a i s h e r e n ow On e Th ur s d a y n igh t h e s a i d t o m e : It i s t e rr ib l e t h a t a n y o n e s h ou l d ca p tu r e R um a n ia s K in g b e l o v e d by h i s p eo p l e i n t h e ce n tr e of h is o w n C a p i t a l W h a t s h a l l w e d o I n d ee d w e we r e a ll a s k in g ou r s e l v e s wh a t w e s h oul d d o A n d of a ll t h es e t h in gs M B u z duga n wh om y ou h a v e su sp e n d e d k e p t m e in fo r m e d He us e d t o com e t o m e e v e r y n igh t a t t h e r i s k o f h i s l ife t o gi v e m e a n a cc ou n t o f w h a t w a s h a pp e n i n g w h i l e I i n m y t ur n p a ss e d on t h e i n fo r m a t ion t o t h e A m e r ic a n Min i s t e r Mr A n d r e w s A n d o n a S a tu r d a y a t 1 1 o c l oc k Mr A n d r ews t o l d m e t h a t Th a n k s t o t h e p e r s on w h o b r ough t y o u t h e in fo r m a t io n a n d t o m y in t e r v en t ion t h e d a n ge r i s ” r emo v e d I n fa c t o n S un d a y t h e K i n g w a s n o l on ge r i n J a s s y H e I ca n be o f n o us e h e r e ; I a m goin g t o t h e fr on t a m on g m y said t o m e A n d h e we n t wi t h a p r oc l a m a t io n His Ma j e s t y wil l p a r d on s o l d ie r s m e fo r s a y i ng i t — i n t h e w r i t in g o f w h i c h I a m p r ou d t o h a v e c o ll a b o r a t e d : It w a s w r itt e n by m e i t w a s w r i tt e n i n t h e s tr e e t t h a t p r ocl a m a t io n wh i ch p l e d ge d l a n d t o t h e so l d ie r s a n d t h e r igh t t o v o t e .

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THE LAN D LAWS

1 01

Russi a a n d Rum a ni a were prep a rin g to t a ke t h e offensive in a l a st a ttempt a t checking the coll a pse of the e a stern front ; a nd some gestur e therefore w a s a lso needed for the p urpose of ra ising the mora le of the di scoura ged Rum a ni a n troops — to inspire them to this new effort j ust when the insi di ous B olshevik cry of p ea ce a n d l a nd w a s runn in g like w ild fir e a long the lines King Ferdin a nd Visited the front e a rly in April a n d spoke to the troops which were being reorg a ni zed in Vie w of the comi n g offensive a s follows S o n s of p ea s a n t s w h o w i t h y ou r ow n h a n d s h a v e d efe n d e d t h e so i l on w h i c h y ou we r e b o r n on w h i c h y ou r l i v e s h a v e b e e n p a sse d I y ou r K in g t ell y ou t h a t b e si d e s t h e gr e a t r e com p en s e of v i c t o r y w h i c h w i l l a ssu r e fo r e v e r y on e o f y ou t h e n a t i on s g r a t i t u d e y ou h a v e e a r n e d t h e r igh t of b e in g m a st e r s i n a l a rge r m e a su r e of t h a t so i l u p on wh ic h y ou fough t L an d will be gi v en y ou I y ou r K in g a m t h e fi rst t o s et t h e ex a m p l e ; a n d y o u wi ll a l s o t a k e a l a r ge p a rt i n p u b l i c a ffa i r s ,

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Then a n d l a ter the Ki ng insisted in priv a te convers a tion tha t the initi a tive for the l a nd reform h a d come from him I wa nt it to b e known he s a id e g to the vetera n j ourn a list M Cost a for u th a t a s rega rds the gra ntin g of l a n d to the pe a s a nts the ide a w a s mi ne I le a ve a ll modesty a side a n d sa y O penl y th a t the merit is mine Two months l a ter the principles of the reform h a d b ecome p a rt of the co untry s la w F i xi ng the B a s i s of th e Refor m In hi s S ozi a li s mus a n d S ozi a le F r age Professor S om ba r t rem a rks th a t people sometimes point out how grea t soci a l reforms were a dvoc a ted by b ourgeois ide a li sts forgetting tha t those reforms woul d never h a ve b een c a rried out without the pressure of the cl a ss interested in them In Rum a ni a the l a nd reform m a y b e s a id to h a ve b een brought a bout by the p oten ti a l pressure of a p e a s a ntry roused by the Wa r a n d by the B olshevi k revolution Though the principle of the reform h a d by most people been a ccepted before its d im en sions a n d ch a ra cter were determined by the events of 1 9 1 7 1 8 One might put it p a ra doxica lly a n d sa y th a t it w a s j ust the extreme vi olence of the Russi a n revolution th a t s a ved the pe a ce in Rum ani a a s in other neighbourin g countries ; th a t the horror of wh a t w a s h a ppeni ng next door c a used Rum a ni a s ,

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1 02

THE LAND LAWS

rulers a n d l a n dl ords h a stily to surrender thei r s hi rts when in less stormy times they might h a ve b a rg a ined h a rd for a button 1 Much e nli ghtenment on this p oint m ay b e g a in ed from the conditio n s under which the a ctu a l bill c a me into b eing The p e a s a nt m a sses most of them b ein g un der a rms spectra lly domin a ted the situ a tion like th e ghost in Ha mlet ; but though they imposed the reform they h a d no voice wh a tever in the m a king of i t They were not cons ulted when it w a s b eing dr a fted In 1 8 5 6 in the d i van a d h oc which w a s to prep a re the w a y for independence e a ch cou n ty h a d a p e a s a nt a mo n g its deleg a tes But the Constituent Assembly of 1 91 7 a fter h a lf a century of independe n ce h a d a mong its members not a single p e a s a nt who ,

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dire ct i nfl ue ce of t h e R u i n e v n ts on t h progr ess of t h ref r m i R u m i a h a r p ea te dly b en a d m itte d by R u m n i p h t i c i a s of ll c o l o ur s I n a di s cr e t w a y i n k ee pi n g with t h e p p r s s e m i o fii i l s t tu s thi s w s a t on c e con fes e d by t h e I n d ep en d n ce R ouma i n e i i t s l a d e r of 22 d Ma y 1 9 1 7 Th e l ea d r b g n by yi n g th t it h a d b e e th o ught wi se r ot t o a tte m pt a n y e x t e ns iv e r eforms dur i g th W But it h a vi g b ee n pro v e d by our e aste rn n e i ghb o ur th t o e ca s olve v n duri g t h W r i n fi n i te ly m or d ffi cult n d c ompl e x pr bl e ms a n u d ers ta di g c m e b o ut s p n t n u s ly b tw e n our S o v re i gn a n d t h G v e r m e t a n d t h a s b d e cid e d th at t h e a gr ari a a n d e l ctor l r eforms m u st ot be d e l a y e d a y l on ger a t l ea s t i n s o f r a s r ega rd s th e ir i rti on i to o ur C o s t tuti o An d t h e p a p e r a dd d a s e nt e n c e up on which M I e rga s s t o ry fo r m s a s u gges tiv e c o mm n t ry Th e r f r m s it s a y s wi ll b l i k e t h e p a ct of a n ew a lli a nce b etw een t h e dyn sty d t h e p eo pl e b etwe n t h e ruli g cl as s an d t h e w orki g cl asses S pea kin g i n t h Ch m b er t J ass y i J uly 1 9 1 7 Dr N Lupu th n a l e a d r of t h e n e wly for m e d L b ur gr o up c om pl a i n e d th at othi ng h ad b een d o e dur i g t h thre e y ea rs s in c e t h e C ons titu en t A ss m bly w a s fi r s t c o v e d i n 1 9 1 4 ; th o u gh by p a ss i g t h e r efor m b efore e n te ri n g t h e fr y w e s h ould h a v e put on e m ore m or a l c o victi on i to t h e s oldi e r s kn a p sa ck d M rch 1 9 1 7 t h e grea t R u s s i a n r e v o luti on h d a n d i f on 2m A n d th e n h e a dd e d c ourse of hi story I d o ubt if w e w ould h a v n o t br o k en o ut which bru s q u e ly up s t t h d o e a ythi g v en n ow I n t h e exp os ed e motifs t o t h e n e w C ons tituti on priv a te ly circul a ted t o m mb e rs of P rli a men t i n 1 9 23 M Ch ir cul scu t h e r pp ort e ur j u ti fi d t h e ch a n ge s by blu n tly s ta ti n g th a t th e y h a d t ch o os b e tw e e C o s tituti on or a U n it a ri a n d e l g ti on fr o m U S A vi ite d R u m a n i a i n 1 9 24 t o R e v o luti on Wh i n quire i t t h c mpl a i ts of the ir co r e li gi on i sts M Ale x a n d r Cons t an t i n ese u t h e Lib e ra l M i i st r of Agriculture to ld th e m t h t t h e gra ri a n r efor m h a d b n n cess ry wh en d efen di g t h e refor m b for t h C u c i l of t w rd o ff B l s h vi s m Lik e wi s t h L gu of N a ti on i M rch 1 9 27 M T i t ule s u th n M i i st r for F or i gn Aff ir s i n i s te d th a t t h e r eform h a d b n a n i n stru men t f s o ci l d fe c e To m i n t i n s oci a l o rd r i n C e tr l E ur op e R u m n i a i m p s d up on h e r l a d o w n rs s c r ifi c s with o ut p ra ll e l i hi s tory I t h d b ee n a c a se of s vi ng t h e pri n cipl e of i n dividu l prop erty it lf A m or c om pre h e s iv e vi e w w a s e xpre ss d i n a n a rticl e which pp ea r ed i n I t s id th t t h e a gra ri a a d p olitic l t h e Buc a re t A d evé ul on 25 t h A u gu s t 1 9 24 re for m ori gi a lly a dv c t d by t h S oci li sts h a d b een o pp ose d as m uch by t h e Lib r l s a s by t h e C n e rv tiv e a d th a t th y h a v e b e n r al i d i n ful l m s ure th nk s o n ly t o t h Wa th a k s t o t h u n i on [ with t h e n ew pr vi n c es som of w h om s ] a d t h n k s t o t h e gr ea t a gr a ri n t r a s n d p litic a l c o n d ti h d b e tt r a gr ri a for m t i on which t oo k pl c a r o u n d us duri g t h e Wa r 1

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THE LAND LAWS

1 03

might sp e a k for hi s fell ows i n this deb a te th a t concerned them most of a ll There were some progressive deputies of the third college a n d a bout ten of them broke a w a y from the Libera l P a rty a n d formed them s elve s i n to a L a bour group 1 These deputies considered the Governm ent s propo s a ls i n a dequ a te but none of them w a s consulted b efore the pre limin a ry bill w a s dr a fted a n d they fi n a lly voted a ga inst it Nor did the bill issue from the expert l a bours of the sp eci a l P a rli a ment a ry com missio n s Its m a in principles represe n ted a b a rga in b etween the two big p a rties worked out in priva te b etween Ion Br ati a n u a n d Ta ke Ionescu Th a t is a s it a lw a ys h a s b een bitterly rem a rked a deputy Th e d e t h r on e m e n t o f t h e n a t io n a l P r in c e Cu z a i n 1 8 6 6 t h e Con s t it u t ion of 1 8 6 6 —t h e s e we r e t h e r e su lt s o f a b a r ga in b e twe e n t h e p a rt ie s Th e l a w s o n a gr i cu lt u r a l con tr a c t s o f 1 8 6 6 a n d 1 8 7 2 ; t h a t o f 1 8 8 2 ; t h a t C a r p of 1 8 9 2 a n d fi n a lly M B r at ia n u s l s t la w o f 1 9 07 a ll h a v e of P r esu lt e d fr o m a b a rga in b e t w e e n L i b e r a l a n d C on s e r v a t i v e p o l i t ici a n s a n d a ll t h e se b a r ga i n s w e r e m a d e a t t h e e xp e n s e o f t h e p e a s a n t s a n d s o far fr o m t h e i r h a v i n g gi v e n t h e i r con s e n t t o t h e m t h e y w e r e m a d e w i t h o ut t h e i r b e i n g e v en l i s t e n e d t o w i t h ou t t h e i r b e i n g e v e n c a l l e d i n In this c a se P a rli a ment a ry commissio n s a n d Pa rli a ment were merely a s ked to register the new b a rg a in which w a s submitted to them with the intim a tion th a t the a greeme n t b etween the p a rties must n ot b e touched To simpli fy the discussion the two Pa rli a ment a ry commis sions a ppointed i n their tur n s ub commis sions from which by a useful coi n cide n ce two well know n professors of Buc a rest University memb ers of the m a j ority were left out— the deputy B a sile seu a n d sen a tor Di s s e s cu both of whom h a d l a id before the Ch a mb er dr a fts of their own for the a gra ri a n a n d politic a l reforms This method of work w a s r e fl ect e d in the b a sis on which the discussion proceeded As the proposed reform w a s intended to effect a ch a nge in l a nd tenure i t s pra ctic a l extent might h a ve been determined with some degree of sci en t ific a ccura cy by c a lcula ting either the a re a th a t could b e m a de a va il a ble or the a re a th a t would b e requir ed for providing a give n num b er of .

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Th e y w e re R a dic l s r th e r th a n S ci li ts but th y a d o pt d th t a me a pp ren t ly i n t h h op e th a t th e ir gro up m ight a ct as a bridge b e twe t h R us i a re volu t i on r i es a n d t h e R u m a i n boi a s tow ard s wh m t h e R u s i a n s d s pl a ye d a c on te m ptuo u s h tre d 1

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1 04

THE LAND LAWS

pe a s a nts with hol d ings of a given size Th e prot a go n ists how ever followed neither of these two lin es in their a rgument They simply contended a round a figur e a t whi ch the a re a to b e expropri a ted w a s to b e mech ani c a lly a n d a rbitra rily fix e d The Libera ls who in 1 9 1 4 w a nted to expropri a te h a in 1 9 1 7 stood for The Conserva tives considered ha h a would b e a s much a s they coul d a llow an d th a t thre a tened to c a use a popul a r a git a tion if the Government went f a rther Th e L a bour group dem a nded the expropri a tion of a ll est a tes b eyond a m a x i m um of 1 00 h a per own er a vi ew whi ch l a ter on b ec a me the st a ndpoint of the Pe a s a nt Pa rty formed a fter the Wa r According to the c a lc ul a tions of Dr Lupu the a pplic a tion of this propos a l would h a ve m a de it possible to endow a ll p e a s a nt cultiv a tors wi th holdings of 5 h a e a ch l a rge property b ei n g left with a tot a l a re a of hect a res ; the Govern ment s re os a l left in its possession h a p p The Government found itself in a qu a nd a ry A Constituent Assembly required a quorum of two thirds but the Government s supporters were fi ve short of th a t numb er a s some of the mem bers of Pa rli a ment h a d rem a ined b ehi nd in occupied territory This a n d other circumst a nces were used by the Conserva tives a s b a rga ining points whereby they forced a compromi se whi ch fi x e d the a re a to b e expropri a ted a t h a Moreover they forced the Governm e n t to a b a ndon its intention of expr o r ia t in e subsoil too ; though thi s w a s l a ter c a rried t hr ough t h g p in the Constitution of 1 9 23 Even se a Conserva tive le a der M Argen t oi a n u ( now a le a din g member of the Liber a l P a rty ) denounced the la w a s b e ing b a sed on a sentiment of cl a ss struggle But I t is a la w of p ersecution directed a ga inst a whole cl a ss the m a ss of the people a ccepted it a s one of the fi r st signs of gr a ce a mong the men who ruled the coun try ; a n d M Mih a la ch e the present le a der of the Pe a s a nt P a rty a dmits th a t n ot wi t h st a n d ing its shortcomings the reform of 1 91 7 c a used a true w a ve of 1 rej oici ng a mong a ll of us who were figh t in g a t the front L egi s la ti ve E voluti on of th e P r op os a ls Duri ng the preli min a ry discussio n s four dr a fts were p rep a red by the Governm ent in tur n .

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011

19

Th e m o d ifi ca t ion

th J uly

19 17,

of

the

publi s h e d

C o s tituti on n

in t he

pr

ul t d by

wa s om ga e M on i tor ul Ofi cia l No 93 .

d e cre e No 7 21 of 20t h J uly 1 9 1 7 the

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THE LA ND LAWS

1 05

a ll

of them b a sed on the compromise re a ched with the Conserva t i ve s They v a ried however from e a ch other in form a n d in det a ils which showed tra ces of the pressure exercised by v a rious vested interests ; so th a t the fi n a l wording a s the Prime Minister not very eleg a nt A few of the ch a n ges helped a dmitted w a s to simpli fy a n d to improve the text but the bulk of them c a used much un e a sin ess a mong the more progressive elements in P a rli a ment The origin a l text of the underst a nding conceded th a t i n a ddition to re a sons of public utility the expropri a tion of a ra ble l a nd is a lso a dm itted in the following me a sure a n d co n ditions for the pur pose of exten di ng the a re a of pe a s a n t property in l a nd The me a ni ng of this w a s cle a r a n d fra nk ; there w a s no pretence th a t the tra nsfer of l a nd to the pe a s a nts could be bra cketed with the severa l me a sures of public utility mentioned in the Constitution It w a s left for a ll to underst a nd wh a t mos t p eople knew th a t it w a s r a ther a c a se of politic a l neces s ity The fi n a l dra ft however ste a lthily a voided the point a n d m a de use of a new po litic a l notion by s a yi ng th a t for re a sons of n a ti on a l uti li ty the a re a of pe a s a nt l a nd property is enla rged by the expropri a tion of a ra ble l a n d in the following mea sures a n d conditions The new text like the old a rticle of the Constitution which it wa s me a nt to repl a ce a ga in lim ited the right of expropri a tion in genera l to fi x e d prop erty a n d then for s e cifi c re a sons only The Professor of L a w in the Buc a rest p Uni versity M B a sileseu found it especi a lly unp a rdon a ble th a t a n Assembly elected on the b a sis of a three cl a ss fr a nchise should thus hedge in the rights of fut ure Pa rli a ments which woul d b e elected by uni vers a l fra nchise Another ch a nge concerned the f a te of the sub soil The origin a l dra ft h a d s a id not hi n g a bout this presum a bly me a n ing tha t it should b e trea ted like the surfa ce to which it belonged B ut the fi n al te x t exempted from expropri a tion h a of l a nd est a blished to b e a r oil without indi ca ti ng how a n d by whom the oil b ea rin g ch a ra cter of th a t l a nd wa s to be determ i ned Nor did it gra nt simila r preferenti a l trea tment to la nd cont a i ni ng other minera ls The ch a nge w a s genera lly reg a rded a s a con cession to the Conserva tive Ca n t a cuzin o f a mily who owned e xtensive properties in the more renowned oil fi e ld s ,

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1 06

THE LAND LAWS

A further point a g a inst which much criticism w a s di rected w a s the decision to t a ke individu a l est a tes a s the u n its to which expropri a tion should b e a pplied ; a n a rra ngement which w a s considered to b e ba d la w a n d worse pr a ctice Expropri a tion could j uridic a lly a ffect the rights of ownership of a cert a in in di vidu a l but not the obj ect to which those rights referred a n d which w a s not a j uridic a l entity Moreover the propos a l w a s deprec a ted a s introducing a h a ph a z a rd element into the criterion of expropri a tion ; fa vouring those who h a ppened to own a 11 h e r of est a tes a s a ga inst other s who owned a simila r or lesser extent in one comp a ct property a n d b ein g even more p a tently unfa ir to j oint owners of a n est a te who were preven ted by leg a l circumst a nces from dividi n up the propert y The L a b o ur group therefore a n d a few other memb ers of P a rli a ment unsuccessfully urged th a t expropri a tio n should b e a pplied t o e a ch subj ect in a n equ a l me a sure a n d not to the v a rious a n d v a ryi n g obj ects which formed hi s possessions More di s turb in g th a n a ll these det a ils w a s the genera l in d e fi n it en e s s which p erme a ted the proposed texts They di d not in truth constitute a reform but merely the enun ci a tion of the p r inciples on which the reform w a s eventu a lly to b e c a rried out None of the elements of the reform w a s fi n a lly fi x e d The tot a l extent h a to b e expropri a ted from the a re a priv a tely owned w a s indeed prescribed but not the a ction itself ; a n d this w a s m a de worse by the err a tic gr a mm a r of the form u la — evidence of a n une a sy birth After emph a tic a lly a ffir m in g th a t the pe a s a nt property i s a ugme n ted by the text v a c a n tly ch a nged its mood a n d tense in the next p a ra gra ph when it c a me to s a ying how th a t incre a se w a s to b e brought a b out a n d — though the there wi ll be expropri a ted a nnou n ced th a t fi r s t opera tion could cle a rly only follow from a n d a fter the seco n d The compl a int then m a de th a t this w a s a promise of reform r a ther th a n the reform itself a ppe a red j ust ifi e d for t h e will b e expropri a ted w a s m a de dep endent on a sp eci a l expropri a tion la w to b e p a s s ed within six months a fter the end of the Wa r a n d — th a t w a s the er ux —w ith the two thirds m a j ority required for a mendme n t s to the Constitution Wh a t thi s a mounted to in pr a ctice w a s th a t the decision m a d e in 1 9 1 7 t o .

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LAWS

THE LAND

1 07

c a rry through a sweeping l a nd reform w a s left to b e c onfi r m e d by a second decision a fter the Wa r The s a me v a gueness per me a ted other essenti a l pro vision s of the text For inst a nce expropri a tion w a s to b e a pplied a ccor di n g to a progr essive sc a le but this sc a le w a s not determined a n d m a de know n And the fi xi n g of the compens a tion to b e p a id to the l a n down er s w a s to be ultim a tely left to the J udi cia ry— a n a rra ngement which thre a tened to prove a s el a stic in t ime a s it w a s in sub s t a nce Ag a in nothing a t a ll w a s s a id a bout the price whi ch the pe a s a nts would h a ve to pay for the l a nd There w a s merely the King s promise m a de a t the front th a t he would give them l a nd like S tefa n the Gre a t which litera lly interpreted wo ul d h a ve me a n t without a n y p a yment a t a ll For a ll these re a sons M Ga r ofli d ch a rged the work of the Constituent Assembly with h a vi n g b een not a piece of s ci en t ifi c reform but merely a n electora l m a ni festo It could not b e s ci en t ifi c— i n the a b sence of a ground book of ex a ct st a tistics on the d istribution of property— to p a ss a s la w a me a sure a pplic a ble to a st a te of things which w a s unknown to us Memories oiz how interest in the pe a s a nts a lw a ys sl a cke n ed a fter the emergency by which it w a s a roused h a d p a s s ed were not c a lcul a ted to a ll a y the suspicions entert a i n ed by tho s e who criticized the Governm ent s formul a e It h a d been d iffi cult enough to get the reform a ccepted even in 1 9 1 7 when Rum a ni a s rulers were b esieged on a ll sides by spirits in revolt Wo ul d it b e po s sible to repe a t the fe a t a fter the Wa r wi th a uthority a g a in in norm a l con trol of events a t home a n d a bro a d ? Wh a t woul d h a ve rem a ined of the Rum a n i a n reform a n d of so m a ny others— ii the Allied Victory h a d b een followed by the success of their intervention in support of counter Revolution in Rus si a ? Or a ltern a tely wh a t if the Ce n tr a l Powers h a d c a rried the d a y in which c a se no new pro vinces imp a tient of a ch a nge wo ul d h a ve b een a dded to Rum a ni a ; a n d power would inevit a bly h a ve fa llen to the Conserva tive le a ders M Ma rghilom a n a n d M C a rp whose rooted distrust of Russi a h a d c a u s ed them to oppose Rum a ni a s entry into the Wa r a n d whose a tt a chmen t to l a rge property w a s unsh a k a ble The critics h a d the shock of seeing their fe a rs come true ,

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THE LAN D L A

1 08

WS

fortun a tely but for a p a ssing spell when the l a tter a lterna tive a n d its consequences were re a lized a fter the second Russi a n revolution The e a stern front coll a psed a ltogether a n d in M a rch 1 9 1 8 R um a ni a w a s forced to a ccept the sep a ra te p e a ce of Buc a rest ; M Ma rgh ilom an a s the o nl y st a tesm a n lik ely to meet with some condescension from the Centra l Powers h a vin g in the me a ntime been entrusted w ith the governm ent M Marghilom an proceeded to dissolve the Constituent Assembly a n d to hold new elections The Conserva tive lea der h a d a lwa ys opposed the ide a of expropri a tion At the beginning of the new p a rli a me n t a ry period he therefore took it upon himself to indica te the lines they proposed to follow with reg a rd to a gra ri a n policy He b ega n by decl a ring th a t notwithst a nd ing the ch a nge in Article 1 9 of the Constitution the reform w a s not yet m a de The whole a gra ri a n problem must b e t a ken up a new from the beginning The Conserv a tive Pa rty would propose a n a gra ri a n reform whi ch would a llow the p e a s a nts without brut a lly despoili n g the l a rge owners to a cqui re fresh l a nd a n d gra du a lly to form a rur a l middl e cl a ss which is indisp ens a ble to the coun try s soci a l b a l a n ce The country however w a s a t the time thro w n wholly upon its own b a dly depleted resources a n d these were limi ted a lmost a ltogether to wh a t a griculture coul d give Therefore the Government beg a n by r e editing a n d system a tizin g the me a sures for the compulsory cultiva tion of the soil which h a d b een in force in Mold a vi a in 1 9 1 6 —1 7 The destruction c a used by the Wa r a n d the burdens imposed by the sep a ra te Tre a ty of Pe a ce decl a red the Mi nister of Agriculture were so hea vy th a t i t wi ll b e indi s pens a ble for us to produce in the country the l a rgest possible a mount of the things we require : hence the necessity of a gener a l pl a n of cultiva tion We must try to produce the utmost possible qu a n tity a n d to export the utmost possible qu a ntity ; hence the need for comp ul sory l a bour At the s a me tim e the new legisl a tive me a sures ende a voured to protect the p e a s a nts by provi di n g th a t t h ey should fi r st till their own l a nds a n d only a fterw a rds th a t of the l a rge owners It a lso tried to ensure fa ir me a surement a n d p a yment for the p e a s a nts l a bour ; a n d while obligin g the pe a s a nts to work for the l a rge f a rmers it a lso obliged the l a tter on their p a rt to lend to the pe a s a nts such m a chines a n d implements ,

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THE

L A WS

L AN D

1 09

they h a d In S eptember of the s a me yea r the Govern ment followed this up with its ow n propos a ls for l a nd r e form Their a uthor M Ga r ofl id a s Mini ster of Agriculture w a s known fir mly to believe i n the necessity for reducing the l a ti fun di a for soci a l a s well a s for economic re a sons a n d of extend in g the middle sized p e a s a nt property ; a n d a lso th a t semi feud a l rel a tions must fi n a lly b e repl a ced by money rel a tions on the l a nd M Ga r ofiid h a d a cknowledged on an e a rlier occ a sio n a n d he repe a ted this in introducin g his new bill th a t one could not re a ch those ends without the expropri a tion of the l a rge e st a tes But he a n d his Governm ent considered tha t in the a bnorm a l circum st a nces in which the St a te then found itself such a n expropri a tion would b e bound up with tech ni c a l a n d fi n a n cia l d iffi cult i e s which risked upsetting the whole economic life of the country profoundly The reform they proposed therefore w a s li mited to a bill for the compulsory lea s ing of l a n d to the pe a s a nts or for a genera l re di stribution of the a s M Ga r ofl i d put i t In M Ga r ofl id s mind this a pp a ren tly w a s a ll otment of l a nd to b e the fir st ph a se of a sed a te a gra ri a n reform In the second ph a se the l a nd w a s to b e expropri a ted a n d le a sed to pe a s a nt The thir d a n d fin a l ph a se w a s to est a bli sh the co oper a tives p e a s a nts a s full owners of in di vidu a l lots The whole propos a l seemed a b a l a nced scheme for the progressive reform of Rum a ni a s a gr a ri a n structur e a n d m a y h a ve deserved a f a ir tri a l ; but to M Ga r ofl i d the ch a nce of propounding it c a me too l a t e — when the a gra ri a n problem w a s a bout to solve itself by bursting the shell of neglect in which it h a d b een a llowed to fester There is some doubt a s to the a re a which M Ma r ghilom a n s Governm ent intended to expropri a te M Ga r oflid it woul d seem con sidered th a t they ought to ca rry out the expropri a tion of ha a s promised in the a me n dm ent to the Constitution Other mem b ers of the Governm ent me an t to lea ve un touched est a tes up to h a ; the two figur e s being of course i ncomp a tible with e a ch other But the propos a l w a s not in a n y c a se destin ed to t a ke effect a n d a cur ious f a te reserved to M Ga r ofiid thr ee ye a rs l a ter the t a sk of a pplying a la w r a dic ally di fferin g from his own w ar tim e proj ects as

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THE LAND L A WS

1 10 At

the end of Octob er 1 9 1 8 the resist a nce of the Centra l Powers broke down an d M a rsh a l M a ckensen a n d his tr 00ps of occup a tion h a stily left Rum a n i a M Ma rghilom a n resigned a n d w a s repl a ced by a tr a nsition a l Government under Genera l Co a nd a The elections held by the Co n serva tive Governmen t during the enemy occup a tion were decl a red illeg a l P a rli a ment w a s dissolved a n d a ll the l a ws it h a d p a ssed bec a me in con se quen ce null a n d void Hence the a gr a ri a n r egime a utom a tic a lly reverted to the position in which it w a s left in 1 9 1 7 It only rem a ined to en a ct the principles then i ntroduced into the Constitution by me a ns of a sp eci a l la w within six months a fter the e n d of the Wa r w ithout its h a vi ng b een m a de cle a r whether th a t del a y w a s to b e counted from the end of hostili ties or from the leg a l termin a tio n of the Wa r through the sign ing a n d r a tify i n g of a tre a ty of pe a ce But once a g a in the will of the st a tesmen w a s rushed by the stormy flood of events The e n d of w ar w a s no longer the self —glorifyi n g p a r a de of Victorious a uthority W hich it h a d been formerly I n ste a d a uthority found itself f a ce to f a ce with a popul a tion exh a usted a n d re s tless growing more imp a tient with Government a s the me a ns for s a tisfyi ng its needs a pp e a red s a dly in a dequ a te The thre a ds of the s a cred union sn a pped ; politici a ns a n d mili t a ry tried to p a ss on to e a ch other the respon s ibility for the m a ny f a ilures a n d excessive sufferin gs of the Wa r In Rum a ni a Gener a l Averescu then worshipp ed by his s oldiers r a ised a Cromwelli a n voice a g a in st politic a l i n effi ci e n cy a n d corruption which for a moment thr e a tened to r a lly a ll th a t he a ving discontent to a n a ss a ult upon the old order of things All a round in Hu n g a ry in Austri a in Bul g a ri a not to spe a k of Russi a the m a sses were in ferment a n d the mon a rchs in flight In the n eighbouring provinces i n h a bited by Rum a ni a n s revolution a ry a ssemblies were t a ki n g power i n to their own h a nds b e n t a s much upon soci a l a s upon n a tio n a l reforms They fou n d themselves a t the cross ro a ds in the progress of their politic a l desti n y a n d were in s e a rch of a n ew a llegia n ce to w hich to pin their hopes a n d f a ir expect a tio n s A syrup of deferred promises would h a rdly h a ve s tilled even for a moment the popul a r thirst for a better existence On the d ay a fter th a t on w hich the gener a l Armistice w a s signed therefore King Ferdin a nd issued .

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THE

LA WS

L AND

111

fresh procl a m a tion in whi ch he solemnly r ea ffi rm e d the pledges he h a d given in 1 9 1 7 C i r cum s t a n ce s s a i d t h e r o y a l m e s s a ge h a v e a ga i n gi v e n Me t h e p oss i b i l i t y of fulfi llin g wh a t I p r om is e d a n d wh a t i n m y h e a rt I h a v e My G o v e r n m e n t wi l l r e a l i z e t h e C o n s t i t u t i on a l n e v e r ce a se d t o d es i r e r e fo r m s wh i c h will s e cu r e t o a ll ci t izen s u n i v e r s a l suffr a ge a n d t o t h e p ea s a n t s t h e o w n e r s h ip o f h a fr o m l a r ge p r i v a t e p r o p e rt y a s we l l a s t h e d om a i n s of t h e C r own of t h e S t a t e a n d of t h e c h a r it a b l e B y m e a n s of t h es e r e fo r m s w e wil l e n s u r e t o a ll t h os e w h o e n d o wm e n t s l a b ou r a s ocia l a n d m a t e r ia l e x is t e n c e m o r e j u s t a n d m o r e p l e n t ifu l My G o v e r n m e n t wi l l w i t h ou t d e l a y t a k e t h e n e ce s s a r y m e a su r e s for b r in gi n g t h e se r efo r m s i n t o e ffe ct i n t h e o ld K in gd o m a n d i n B ess a r a b ia It is Ou r wi ll t h a t t h e gi v e n wo r d s h a l l be k e p t a

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The roy a l procl a m a tion correctly referred to the old Kingdom a n d o nl y in a ddition to Bess a r a bi a w h ich in the me a nwhile h a d procl a im ed its uni o n with Rum a ni a ; but not to Tra nsylva ni a a n d the Bucovin a whose rel a tions with the motherl a nd were not yet determined On D ecemb er 1 a revolution a ry Tra nsylva ni a n Assembly met a t Alb a Iuli a a n d procl a imed the indep endence of the provin ce At the s a me time it p a ssed a Ch a rter cont a i n i n g the pri n ciples on which it wa n ted Tra n sylva n i a to b e govern ed in future Among these the wish for a r a dic a l l a nd reform took pride of pl a ce Th a t hu n ger for l a nd a mo n g the popul a tio n s of the new provinces a dded to the other circumst a nces helped to stimul a te the Rum a ni a n Government into prompt a ction They k n ew th a t they could not do otherwise th a n co n cur in the Tra nsylva ni a n dem a nd even if such a l a nd reform h a d not in a n y c a se b een desira ble a s a me a ns tow a rds curt a ili n g the power of the a lien upper cl a ss in the new provinces a cross the C a rp a thi a n s Without w a itin g therefore for the moment when a j oin t Pa rli a ment coul d be ga thered together the Governme n t brushed a side the stern form a lities which it h a d itself prescribed in the Con stitution a l a mendment of 1 9 1 7 a n d decided to en a ct the me a sur es for the c a rrying out of the l a nd reform by me a n s of a s o c a lled decree la w— th a t is a roy a l decree h a ving force of la w under the reserve of its subsequent r a t ifi ca t i on by P a rli a me n t The fi r st decree la w promulga ted on l 6 t h D ecember 1 9 1 8 w a s b a sed very l a rgely on a dra ft prep a red under the c a re of M Fotin Enescu a former director gener a l of the Popul a r B a n ks ,

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1 12

LAND L A WS

Minister of Agriculture in the J a ssy Ca b inet of Genera l Co a nd a The decree signed by M Duc a a s Min ister of Agr i cul ture l a id down the norms a ccording to which the l a nd w a s to b e expropri a ted a t once a n d tra nsferred to pea s a nt co op er a t i ve s speci a lly est a blished for th a t purpose B oth these v a st opera tions were c a rried out dur ing the win ter of 1 9 1 8 1 9 a n d the following sprin g A series of decrees la w one for e a ch pro vince— b eginnin g w ith th a t for B ess a ra bi a pro m ulga t ed on 22n d December 1 91 8 — extended the reform to the new provi nces With va ri a tions a d a pted to loc a l con di tions Th e P ea s an ti s t I n ter lud e With the issui ng of these decrees a n d their bre a t hl ess a ppli c a tion l a rge sc a le property irretriev a bly p a ssed a w a y in Rum a ni a It onl y rem a ined to cl a ssify the leg a tees a n d to portion out the herit a ge a mo n g them The p er form a n ce of this second a ct of the l a nd reform fell to the lot of the Co a lition Government which M V a id a V oevod formed from the new poli tic a l groupings from Tr a nsylva ni a a n d B ess a ra bi a Thi s w a s Rum a ni a s fir st a n d from the youn g Pe a s a nt P a rty p a rli a ment a ry Government the new currents h a vi ng g a in ed a l a rge m a j ority in the fi r st elections whi ch were held un der uni vers a l suffra ge in Octob er 1 9 1 9 If the decree la w of D ecem b er 1 9 1 8 represented the o nl y possible formula at the tim e a s M Mih a la ch e a dmitted in View of the composition of Pa rli a ment a n d of the country s situ a tion the un ion with B ess a ra bi a a n d the other provinces a n d the coming of univers a l fr a nchi se h a d strengthened the curre n t in f a vour of the r a dic a l a n d full resettlement of the pe a s a ntry By a greement a mong its mem bers the Ca b inet entrusted indeed the dr a ft ing of the la w of resettlement to the Pe a s a nt P a rty which h a d a b sorb ed some of the keenest memb ers of the ephemer a l J a ssy L a bour group a n d whose le a der M I Mih a la ch e w a s in ch a rge of the Mi ni stry of Agriculture The new P a rty e a gerly seized this O pportuni ty for fulfilling its progra m M Mih a la ch e s bill bore signs of h a ving b een more c a refully worked out th a n the origin a l legisl a tion It proceeded in m a ny det a ils w ith gre a ter c a ution a n d a b etter gr a sp of the working of economic f a ctors ; a n d its whole structure rested not on a b a rg a in b etween vested interests a n d as

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THE

LAN D L A

WS

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politica l opportuni sm but on a cle a r cut soci a l conce p tion of a p ea sa n t i st persu a sion Ou r agr a r ia n legis l a t ion s a i d M Mih ala ch e is in sp i re d by t h e i d e a l t h a t bur coun tr y i s a p e a sa n t coun t r y t h a t i s a c oun tr y wh os e e con o m i c l i fe mu s t be b a s e d o n a gr i cu lt u r e wi t h s m a ll p r o p e rt y a s i t s t yp i ca l a gen t a n d a t t h e m os t a l im i t e d e x t en t of m i dd l e s i ze d p r o p e rt y ; la r ge p r o p e rt y b e in g a b o l i s h e d a n d r e d uce d m e r e l y t o c e rt a i n m o d el fa r m s wh i c h s h a ll s e r ve s o l e l y for e xp e r i m e n t a l p u r p os es a n d a s s c h o o l s for t h e s m a ll cu l t i v a t o r s It i s tr ue t h a t t h is i d e a l i s l a ugh e d a t by t h e S oci a l is t s a n d tr e a t e d wi t h con t um e l y by t h e p r es i d en t o f t h e A gr a r i a n C omm i tt ee [ M Ga r ofi id a l s o P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n ion o f A gr a r ia n S y n d i c a t es ] ; b u t i t i s a n a t u r a l i d e a l for a n y coun t r y w h i c h i s s t i l l fa r fr o m b e in g i n dus t r ia l i ze d An d b e fo r e com in g t o t h a t dis t a n t S ocia l is t h e a v e n of w h i c h M Ga r o fl id t oo h a s a vi s i on t h e cou n tr y mu s t fi rs t p a s s u n d e r a ph a se u p on w h i c h a ft e r t h e W a r e v e r y a g r i t h e s ign of t h e P ea s a n t cul tu r a l coun tr y i s n o w e n t e r in g t h r ough t h e b r ea k i n g u p of t h e l a r ge e s t a t e s fo r t h e ben e fi t o f t h e p e as a n t s M Ga r ofli d obj ected th a t it w a s not a question of discuss ing the phi losophy of property or of m a k ing com p a risons with the West but simply th a t in a n a dolescen t society the role of the l a rge own er a s in iti a tor could not b e de ni ed M Mih a la ch e a greed th a t cert a in elements a mong the l a rge o w ners could perform f unctions whi ch were not a s yet within the me a ns of the sm a llh olders B ut he went on to sa y here is the fund a ment a l difference b etween you a n d ourselves tha t we w a nt to reserve to l a rge property this role of s chool of mod el fa r m a lon e this a n d nothi ng more— three four ten a t the most in one coun ty— a n d consequently a ll the excess of la rge ab ove wh a t i s s tr i ctl n eed ed or th a t r o er t e y f p p y p urp ose mus t b -

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i n ull ’ Mih alach e s

exp r op r i a ted

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bill proposed in fa ct to expropri a te e a ch in dividu a l o w ner down to a limit of 1 00 h a He a n d his friends reg a rded this propos a l a s the key of their bill the exp os e d e motifs devotin g fi ve of its seven p a ges to it Th is w a s the b a sis of the Bess a ra bi a n reform a n d M Mih a la ch e contended th a t a s it h a d b een gener a lly a greed th a t the legisl a tion of the v a rious p a rts of Gre a ter Rum a n i a must b e un ifi e d one should not m a ke a n exception with the b a sis of her new a gr a ri a n structure He a lso urged th a t it would b e d a ngerous to a llow the feeling to grow up on the l a nd th a t the B ess a ra bi a n p e a s a n ts were .

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I

L AND \ L A WS

THE

1 14

resettled more generously by revolution th a n the pe a s a nts in the Ki ngdom by Constitution Ab ove a ll M Mih a la ch e insisted th a t the a rbitra ry lim its within whi ch the reform h a d b een corseted a t J a ssy were un tena ble Of the hi storic rights of the pe a s a nts no a ccoun t h a d been t a ken a t all The new legisl a tion merely continued the emergency r e settlements of 1 8 8 1 a n d 1 8 8 9 in spir ed by the s a me sh a llow ide a th a t p e a ce co ul d b e secured by cre a t ing a fresh b a l a nce b etween l a rge p roperty a n d sm a ll Elsewhere the reform h a d been fra med within soci a l criteri a which pur sued a n end c a ref ull y weighed th a t of reduci ng the l a rge est a tes a n d especi a lly of cre a t ing economic a lly V i a ble pe a s a nt holdings Nowhere h a d the reform b een b a sed on a purely mech a ni ca l c a lcula tion It w a s a piece of stra nge irony th a t in Rum a ni a whi ch h a d neither ground b ook nor st atistics one sho uld h a ve h a d the p eculi a r ide a of b uildi n g up a whole legisl a tion upon someth i ng which did not exist or which existed onl y in a n unreli a ble st a te Under such condi tions indeed it w a s techni c ally im possible to keep the h a Wh a t then expropri a tion ex a ctly to the fi gur e of would h a ppen a sked M Mih a la ch e if th a t fi gur e shoul d b e exceeded ? The possible consequences were re a li stic a lly sug gested by a circ ul a r which the Union of Syndic a tes of Molda vi a n L a ndowners sent to its members We l a ndown ers decl a red th a t document a r e fi rmly determi ned to O pp ose by a ll me a ns a n d especi a lly by im pe a c hi ng b efore the Court of C a ss a tion a ll those provi s ions of the decree law of 1 9 1 8 of the law for com mun a l gra zings a n d of a n y future la w or decree whi ch m a y with the letter of the Constitution reg a rdi ng the con fl i ct expropri a tion of l a nd An d in order to r e consecr a te the int a ngible right of property we dem a nd th a t a la w sh a ll b e p a ssed which sh a ll punish with h a rd l a bour for lif e whosoever sh a ll spe a k of expropri a tion a g a in The Union imposed a levy upon its members in support of the a ction contempl a ted in th a t On e notes this outburst merely a s ill ust 1 a t in g how c i rcula 1 sh a rply the temper of the l a ndowners h a d veered round a fter the \Va r The essenti a l principles of M Mih a la ch e s bill were the s a me a s those of the B ess a r a bi a n la w p a ssed un a nimously by P a rli a .

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LAN D LA

THE

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115

ment a short whi le e a rlier But a s soon a s the Pe a s a nt bill bec a me pub lic the new democra tic fa ca de colla psed a t its touch a s quickly a s h a d the ide a of n a tion a l u ni ty in 1 8 5 7 when the a gr a ri a n question w a s forced to the a ttention of the Mold a vi a n di van The bill h a d b een a dopted by the C a binet a n d h a d for sever a l weeks been a wa iti ng the a pprova l of the K ing in order to b e brought b efore Pa rli a ment Me a nwhile however deleg a tions of l a rge o w ners were denouncin g it to the Mon a rch a s a b i ll th a t would despoil the proprietors an d destroy a griculture ; a n d the Opposition intrigued so in fi uen t ia lly th a t during a ll those weeks the Mini ster of Agriculture wa s un a ble to see the King Fin a lly the Government tried a bold c a rd On M a rch 1 2 its followers introduced the me a sure in the Ch a mb er a s a priv a te members bill Foreseeing the possible consequences of th a t step M Mih ala ch e w a nted it to b e kno w n th a t if this P a rli a ment or this Government h a s to le a ve it will b e b eca use of a conspira cy of the whole oli ga rchy from a ll politic a l p a rties They were not merely di s a pprovin g the provisions of the bill ; they were a lso a fr a id of lettin g the new P a rty a chi eve a popul a r success so e a rly in its c a reer The cert ifi ca t e of a bility for the new Pa rties would a t the s a me time h a ve been a sentence a g a in st those who h a d ruled the coun try hitherto M V a id a Voevod s Government h a d a t th a t moment b een only three months in power It disposed of a comfort a ble m a j ority in b oth Cha mbers The Premier himself w a s in London working to obt a in from the British Government the recogni tion of B ess a ra bia s union with Rum a ni a But in spite of the Premier s a bsence a n d of the strength of his followin g the Govern ment w a s in fa ct di smissed on the d a y which followed the introduction of the a gra ri a n b ill in the Ch a mb er a n d repl a ced by a Governm ent un der Genera l Averescu Th e S econ d E xp rop ri a ti on The coup a ga inst the Va id a V oevod Government w a s c a rried to its extreme conclusion when M Mih a la ch e s pl a ce a s M inister of Agric ul ture wa s t a ken by M Ga r oflid The t a sk of completin g the second a ct of the reform w a s d a shed from the h a nds of the Pe a s a nt le a der to b e p a ssed into those of the a cknowledged spokesm a n of the gre a t l a nd owners Three yea rs e a rlier he h a d ch a rged the J a ssy reform with .

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I

2

THE LAN D LAWS

116 ‘

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h a ving b een a n electora l m a nifesto ra ther th a n a considered p iece of legisla tion N ow he decl a red this electora l m ani festo to b e s a cred a n d he used it a s a shield wherewith to w a rd off the more r a di c a l dem a nds of the pe a s a nts All his li fe M Ga r ofii d h a d condemned a s uneconomic the system of sm a ll p e a s a nt holdings Now he w a s c a lled upon to cre a te m a ny more of them a n d he fr a nkly recognized th a t his own bill w a s a compromis e b etween differing soci a l requirements The det a il s of the second a ct of the reform were cont a in ed in M Ga r ofiid s law promulg a ted on J uly 1 7 1 921 a n d in the corresponding l a ws for e a ch of the new provinces Their m a in concern w a s W ith the r ul es a n d me a ns for the resettl e ment of the pe a s a nts B ut they a lso extended the b a sis of expropri a tion thus a dm itting by implic a tion th a t some of the criticisms levell ed a g a inst the me a sure of 1 91 7 h a d b een ust ifi e d by events The j Premier h a d rep ea tedly decl a red th a t he wo ul d not a llow l a nd to b e expropri a ted b eyond the limits fi x e d in 1 9 1 7 but l a ter he h a d to a b a ndon th a t st a ndpo i nt The fi r st expropri a tion h a d f a iled n a mely to det a ch from the l a rge priva t e est a tes the h a dem a nded by the Constitution a n d h a d f a llen h a To m a ke good the short of th a t figur e by some d efi ci en cy the new la w a dopted the principle th a t expropri a tion should b e a pplied to e a ch own er indi vidu a lly a n d not to e a ch of his severa l est a tes— a principle which h a d b een ur ged not only by the politic a l Opposition but on theoretic a l grounds by a Congress of Rum a ni a n a gra ri a n economists a s well For the s a me purpose the la w expropri a ted cert a in a ddition a l c a tegories of owners The new b ill further a dmitted th a t it would b e im pra ctic a ble to le a ve the a mount of compens a tion to b e p a id to the owners to b e fi x e d by the J ud i ci a r y a n d itself therefore l a id down the b a sis on which it w a s to b e c a lcul a ted Fin a lly the bill a b a ndoned the method of h a nding over the l a nd pro vision a lly to a s s oci a tions of resettlement fi r st a n d decreed th a t individu a l lots were to b e distributed forthwith to t h e pe a s a nts though the necess a ry me a surements were fa r from being fi n ish ed M a ny of the evils in the a pplic a tion of the reform m a y b e tra ced to this decision which w a s not dem a nded by t h e p e a s a nts There h a d b een compl a ints a g a inst the a dministr a tion ’

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THE L AN D L A WS

117

of some of these speci a l a ssoci a tions but not a g a inst the system a s such Other sensible in tentions or provisions — a s for inst a nce those contempl a ting a much needed conso lid a tion of the sc a ttered p e a s a nt fi eld s— h a d li kewi se to b e dropped b eca use of the restlessness on the l a nd or merely b ec a use the va rious politic a l groups were using the reform a s a stick with which to b e a t e a ch other In 1 922 M Mih a la ch e compl a ined th a t their prop a ga nd a concerning the reform h a d a cquir ed the ch a ra cter of a n a uctio n e a ch P a rty trying to outbid the other in criticizing wh a t h a d been done an d in promising wh a t they themselves might do if they c a me to power ; so a s l a ter to b e a ble to cl a im the credit for h a ving given l a nd to the new pe a s a nt voters Dem agogic press ure from some of hi s own p a rtis a ns thus forced a conserva tive Mini ster of Agriculture to go f a rther in cert a in di rections th a n even his Pe a s a nt predecessor would h a ve gone Even s o M Ga r oflid s bill h a d a n une a sy p a rli a ment a ry c a reer Aga inst Constitution a l pra ctice it w a s fir s t p a ssed through the S en a te in M a rch 1 9 21 a n d by the Ch a mber only in J u l y during an a ll night sitting when the left wingers of the m a j ority h a d to b e thre a tened or c a j oled a n d Libera l a n d S oci a list votes c a lled to the rescue B y th a t time the a ttitude of the v a rious p a rties tow a rds l a nd reform h a d re a ched a more or less st a ble position The Pe a s a nt P a rty a s we h a ve seen stood for the expropri a tion of a ll est a tes down to a li mit of 1 00 h a a n d th a t View they reitera ted in the progra mme of 1 9 22; model f a rms a lone b eing tre a ted a s a n exception They a lso promised a revision of misc a rri a ges in the a pplic a tion of the reform a s well a s me a sures which should prevent the reform i ng of l a rge est a tes The ultim a te a im of l a nd reform a s seen by them w a s the tr a nsfer of the l a nd to those who tilled i t in the form of holdings li mited in gener a l by e a ch f a mily s power of working The other p a rties formed a grou p whose a gra ri a n policy w a s sh a rply O pposed to th a t of the Pe a s a nts while showin g b a rely a n y differen ce a s b etween the memb ers of the group Its most consistent ingredient w a s a determined obj ection to a n y fur ther tra nsfer of l a nd from the l a rge to the sm a ll owners by me a ns of St a te a ction Genera l ,

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118

THE LAN D

LAWS ’

Averescu indeed when a ddr essing his People s Lea gue in 1 920 h a d promised to the p e a s a nts holdings of 1 0 h a e a ch without st a ting how th a t w a s to b e done ; but nothin g w a s he a rd otz t hi s when the Genera l c a me to power in 1 921 The legisl a tion then p a ssed by his Government settled in f a ct the perm a nent outline of the a gra ri a n reform except for cert a in minor det a ils In its a pplic a tion i t is true the la w suffered consider a ble ch a nges a t the h a nds of the Lib er a l Governm ent which took p ower e a rly in 1 922; a n d in the 1 9 25 progr a mme of his P a rty a s well a s in t h e progra mm atic decl a r a tion he m a de when he c a me to power for the second tim e in 1 926 General Averescu in hi s turn promised his p a rtis a ns a revision of the Lib era l revi sions On the l a tter occ a sion he further a nnounced a completion of the reform in the wooded regions a n d in the districts li a ble to fi ooding ; but none of these intention s were c a rried out a s Gener a l Averescu w a s never more th a n a locum ten en s for the Lib era l Pa rty Dur in g the p a st few ye a rs criticism of the reform h a s never ce a sed to provide a d a ily topic for controversy in Pa rli a ment a n d in the Press As the l a ws incre a sed in a ge th a t criticism w a s ever directed less a ga inst their texts a n d more a ga inst a lleged a buses in the w a y in which they h a d b een a pp lied From t hi s one m a y deduct with some degree of s a fety the trend of Rum a n i a n l a nd p olicy in the immedi a te future Of the two po litic a l group s which sh a re in fl uen ce a t present the Lib era l Pa rty would no doubt oppose a n y a ttempt to t a mper w ith the essenti a ls of a reform who s e p a ternity they cl a im ; though p a tern a l pride would not b e the sole motive for their opposition The N a tion a l Pe a s a nt P a rty on the other h a nd contempl a tes reforming so m a ny of the institutions a n d customs now prev a iling in Rum a ni a th a t they woul d h a rdly choose to use up their strength in a t once t a ckling a n issue which is a s complex a s it is controversi a l To be consistent with their ste m a n d relentless criticism they m a y ende a vour to correct the grosser f a ults of omission in the expropri a tion of the l a rge e st a tes ; they would fi n d it less e a sy to a mend mi s c a rri a ges in the distribution of hol di ngs w hose poss ession h a s in a wa y been legitimiz ed by the p a ss a ge of ye a rs Moreover the principle s of the reform h a ve p a ssed into the ,

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THE

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Constitution a n d the Constitution c a nnot be a mended until the Kin g comes of a ge I n their bro a d essenti a ls therefore the new l a nd l a ws a r e li kely to rem a in the found a tion of Rum a ni a s a gr a ri a n structure a t le a st during the lifetim e of the next genera tion or two ,

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C H A P TE R THE NATURE GE NE R A L

OF

VI

THE REFORM

L E G I S L A T I VE P R O V I S I ON S

the ye a rs b efore the Wa r the ide a of expropri a tion in Rum a ni a w a s b a rely discussed pr a ctic a lly— a s a mea sure to b e considered for its economi c a n d soci a l e fi e ct s— but on the whole the chief a rg uments centred round the question of how far a forcible tr a nsfer of l a nd woul d b e ust ifi e d by the letter of the j Constitution Th a t deb a te w a s brought to a n a brupt end by the events of 1 9 1 7 Even b efore the Wa r the old conception of prop erty b a sed on Rom a n la w w a s gra du a lly b eing displ a ced everywhere by a nother more in keeping with the soci a l philosophy of our time Incre a singly under the pressure of philosop hi c a l a n d p olitic a l criticism property w a s comin g to b e looked upon less a s a n a bsolute individu a l right a n d more a s a soci a l fun ction This evolution w a s spurred on by the n a ture of the l a st Wa r which forced every comb a t a nt St a te to c a ll upon a ll the resources of its n a tiona ls Th e gre a t e a se with W hich there a fter e a ch St a te curt a iled the prop erty rights of its citizens whenever its needs were pressing w a s in fa ct a t a cit a n d u n ivers a l recogn ition of the new conception of property In It a ly it received more form a l s a nction in the sh a p e of a decree which a uthorized the expropri a tion of l a nd not c ul tiva ted by its owner T h e Constitution of Republic a n Germ a ny w a s the fi r st to procl a i m the new View a s 1 5 3 which s a id : Property a n est a blished principle in its Art c a rries duties with it Its use sh a ll a t the s a me time b e a service for the genera l good ; a n d Ar t 1 5 5 : The c ul tiv a tion a n d exploit a tion of the soil is a duty of the l a ndowner tow a rds the community The Russi a n revolution h a d in the me a ntim e p ulled the old conception out by its roots especi ally in reg a rd to l a nd property a n d this w a s bound to h a ve a stro n g rep ercussion in the neighb ouring pe a s a nt countries In Rum a ni a the new viewpoint w a s put forwa rd tersely by the pe a s a nt le a der M Mih al a ch e when introducing his a gra ri a n bill in 1 920 L a nd he s a id could b e reg a rded no longer a s a IN

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THE NATURE

OF THE

1 21

REFORM

source of rent but a s a d efini t e a n d lim ited me a ns for employin g the l a bour of a c a tegory of citiz ens whose regul a r occup a tion w a s the tilli ng of the soil An d in a speech delivered in 1 921 he completed the idea by a dding th a t whether l a ndlord or p e a s a nt we b elieve th a t if the owner does not fulfi l the soci a l a n d economic duties incumb ent upon property he must b e tre a ted a s a specu l a tor a n d a ll such p eople should b e expropri a ted It w a s from a simil a r point of View th a t the principles of the R um a ni a n reform were b orn They resemble in a striking degree the pro gra m a dopted by the Russi a n Ca dets a fter a he a ted deb a te w a t their eighth Congress in Ma It a s then a greed th a t 1 917 y a ll excess of l a nd property b eyond a workin g norm which w a s to b e fi x ed by loc a l comm ittees should b e expropri a ted for the ben efi t of p e a s a nt cultiva tors Priva te owners were to b e compens ated a ccording to the norm a l revenue of their est a tes St a te dom a i ns were to b e broken up a ltogether In Rum a ni a both fa cets of the new conception of property were to b e found in a decree issued a s e a rly a s August 1 9 1 7 It imposed upon the pe a s a nts the comp ul sory p erform a nce of a gricultura l l a bours a n d it imposed upon the l a n dl ords the duty of cultiv a ting their l a nd In the Minute w ith which he submitted the decree for sign a ture to the Kin g the Minister of Agricultur e s a id th a t property considered a s a soci a l function must serve common interests a n d s a tisfy the needs of the whole n a tion a l com munity These new idea s a n d the events which helped them a long beyond doubt pl a yed a l a rge p a rt in prep a ri ng the w a y for reform In its essence one must note the new conception of property for use represents wh a t w a s but common pra ctice in the Rum a n i a n provin ces before the est a b lishment of the n a tion a l St a te B oth in the principles it en a cted a n d in the ch a nge it c a used in the distribution of l a nd property the Rum a ni a n reform restored therefore in a l a rge mea sure the a gra ri a n conditions which pre v a iled b efore the Org a nic S t a tutes undermin ed them ,

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THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

S E C TI O N I E X PR O P R I A TI O N A Th e F i rs t E xp r op r i a ti on The a gr a ri a n reform received its fi r st legisl a tive expression in the sh a pe of successive decrees la w for the Old Kin gdom B ess a ra bi a Bucovin a a n d Tra nsylva ni a 1 The decree law concerning the reform in the Old Kingdom dea lt merely with the mea sur es for expropri a tion le a ving resettlement to b e de a lt with l a ter by a speci a l la w Th a t dissection of the legisl a tive me a sur e m a de it possible to el a bora te the la w of resettlement with more leisure a n d c a re a n d to sub mit it direct to Pa rli a ment Politic a l c ircum st a nces m a de it necess a ry to h a sten wi th the fi r st p a rt of the reform a t le a st so a s to forest a ll the suspicions of the pe a s a nts Of the four decrees la w by me a ns of which the reform w a s introduced in the severa l provinces th a t concernin g Bess a ra bi a w a s the simplest a n d most r a dic a l me a sure I n deed the origin a l proj ect worked out by the S fa t ul Tarii w a s even more ra dic a l excepting Vineya rds orch a rds a n d other pl a nt a tions l a ndowners were to b e left with only 5 0 h a of a ra ble l a nd e a ch where a s the fi n a l decree r a ised th a t lim it to 1 00 h a The reform in the Old Kingdom w a s more modera te a n d th a t for Bucovin a held a n i n termedi a te po s ition In the Old Kingdom too the minim um th a t could not b e expropri a ted w a s 1 00 h a but expropri a tion w a s a pplied on a progressive sc a le which left to the l a rge est a tes 5 00h a a ra ble l a n d in a ddition to Viney a rds pl a nt a tions forests a n d l a nd unfi t for c ul tiva tion The text of the decree la w for the Old Kingdom w a s c a tegoric a l a n d precise a n d therefore e a s ily a ppli c a ble The purpo s e of the reform w a s describ ed v a riously in the s ever a l a ct s Th a t for the Old Kingdom p a id less a ttention to the needs of production th a n for inst a nce did the Tr a nsylv a ni a n .

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Dc cre e Ia w c o n c e r n i n g e xpr o pri a ti on fo r r e a son s of n a ti on a l ut i lity No 36 9 7 , M on i to r ul Gh ota l No 21 5 of D e c e m b e r 1 6 , 1 9 1 8 D e cree la w for t h e a gra ri a n r efor m i n B e s s a r a bi a N o 3 7 9 1 p a s s e d by t h e S fa t ul Tarii publi s h e d i n t h e M on i to r ul Ofic ia l D e cree la w fo r a grar i a n r efor m i n Buc o vi n a No 220 o f D e c e m b e r 22 1 9 1 8 on i tom l Ofici a l No 1 1 3 of S e pte m b e r 7 , 1 9 1 9 D e cree No 38 7 1 publi s h e d i n t h e la w fo r a gra ri a n re fo r m i n Tra n s ylv a n i a B a n a t, a n d t h e H u n ga ri an l a n d s N o 39 1 1 , by t h e Gre a t Na tion a l Co u n cil on A u gu st 1 2 1 9 1 9 , publi s h ed i n t h e a d o pte d on i tor ul Gh ela l No 1 1 7 of S e pte m b e r 1 2, 1 9 1 9 1

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OF

THE NATURE

1 23

THE REFORM

decree The l a tter sinned by the excessive v a gueness of its pro vi sions most of which though r a dic a l in prin ciple were f a cult a tive in a ppli ca tion or studded with numerous exceptions The Tra nsylv a ni a n decree however w a s b a sed on a wider economic sta n dpoint where a s the other t h ree decrees were more n a rrowly Art 1 of the Tra nsylv a ni a n decree e vi a gr a ri a n in outlook d en ce d the legisl a tor s c a re for production by decl a rin g th a t the p urpose of the reform w a s to m a ke the sm a ll owners economic a lly a utonomous to cre a te a middle siz ed property a n d model f a rms a s well a s to fur ther the interests of industry a n d of industri a l workers Sp eci a l a ttention w a s p a id to the problem of housing a n d g a rdens for industri a l worker s ; Ar t 9 cl a use 2 a llo w ing the e xp ropri a tion for this pur pose of even commun a l pl a nt a tions a n d gra zings Th a t wider outlook w a s n a tur a l enough in a pro vince in which in dustry w a s much more developed th a n in the other p a rts of Rum a ni a Anxiety for the problem of production w a s a lso shown by the provision of the l a st cl a use of Art 39 th a t l a nd might b e t a ken b a ck from those who should prove inc a p a ble of worki n g it Ar t 2 cl a use 1 6 expropri a ted a ll the l a ndo w ners who h a d purch a sed the i r properties a fter J uly 31 1 9 1 4 a n d who were not themselves c ultiva tors Art 36 provided th a t a n y l a nd rem a ining a fter the needs of the pe a s a nts h a d b een sa t i sfi e d might b e used for the est a blishment of mid dl e sized holdings a n d of model fa rms The economic Viewpoint a pp e a red likewise in the provision of the Tra nsylva ni a n decree which exempted a p a rt of the est a te from expropri ation for the b enefit of a son studying a griculture ; a n exceptio n which l a ter w a s a dopted in the Old Kingdom a s well Further in the provision which a llowed ea ch l a n downer t o choose the p a rt which w a s to b e left h im ; this w a s copied in the decree for Bucovin a a s well a s in th a t for B ess a ra bi a in which w a s the proviso th a t the l a ndowner s choice should not depreci a te the rem a inder of the est a te In the decree for the Old Kingdom it w a s l a id down th a t expropri a tion w a s to t a ke a ccount of the economic conditions of the esta te a n d th a t the expropri a ted p a rt a s well a s the p a rt w hi ch rem a ined to the l a ndlord should a s fa r a s possible b e consoli d a ted ( Ar t Production w a s h a rdly t a ken into a ccount in the decree for .

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THE

1 24:

OF

NATURE

THE REFORM

the Old Kingdom u nl ess in the v a gue st a tement of Art 10whi ch s a id th a t the Sta te coul d reserve p a rt of the ex propri a ted a ra ble l a nd a n d devote it to some pur pose of genera l interest Ar t 46 of the B ess a ra bi a n decree wa s more definite a s it prescrib ed the est a blishm ent of a numb er of institutions destin ed to guide a n d stimul a te production a n d it a lso decided the a re a which w a s to be a llotted to them Thi s useful provision woul d seem to h a ve been due to the presence in the B ess a ra bi a n legisl a tive b ody of a num ber of a gric u l tur a l experts who fought h a rd to in troduce this a n d sim i l a r points i n the origin a l dr a fts The right of the St a te to reserve a n extent of l a nd for gener a l needs w a s l ikewise recogniz ed in the decree for Bucovi n a Perh a ps the most convincin g proof of the pra ctica l an d cooler spirit which presided a t the el a bora tion of the Tr a n sylva ni a n reform w a s its a uthors decision to c a rry out expropri a tion and r e settlement gra du a lly a ccording to loc a l needs a n d dem a nds ; though of course a ll the expropri a ble a rea w a s pl a ced from the outset a t the dispos a l of the St a te The decree for B ucovin a permitted the l a ndo w ner to continue to use the l a nd unt il it w a s a ctu a lly t a ken over In the Old K i ngdom an d in Bess a ra bi a where the politic a l a tmosphere w a s more feverish the whole of the expropri a ted l a nd w a s t a ken over a t once In the Old K i ngdom the decree la w prescrib ed the tot a l expropri a tion of (a ) the a ra ble l a nd on St a te dom a ins a n d on the est a tes of public a n d priva te in stitutions ; ( 6 ) the whole extent of est a tes b elonging to foreigners a n d to a b sentees All those upon whom the double l a nd t a x p a y a ble by l a ndowners living a bro a d h a d b een im posed during the previous fi ve ye a rs were now considered a s a bsentees From priva te est a tes the reform expropri a ted h a a r a ble l a nd on a progressive sc a le a s given in the t a ble on p 1 25 which exempted properties of not h a or more more th a n 1 00 h a while reducing those of to 5 00 h a All l a nd includ ing gra zing a n d p a sture which w a s fi t for culti v a tion w a s considered a s a ra ble l a nd One of the chief ch a r a cter i st ics of this decree w a s th a t it expropri a ted the est a tes a n d not their owners so th a t a proprietor of severa l est a tes could ret a i n from e a ch of them the exempted quot a of 100—5 00 h a in a ddi ,

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THE NATURE

OF THE REFORM

1 25

tion to forests pl a nt a tions a n d non a r a ble l a nd Moreover a l a ndowner f a lli ng under this c a tegory w a s permitted to ret a in his severa l quot a s in one sin gle est a te if the l a tter were situ a ted in one of the s e c a lled regions of colo ni z a tio n In the c a se of e a ch of the p ar ticip a nts w a s entitled to ret a in a j oint est a te so th a t in this c a se the decree ex pr opr i a full individu a l quot a a ted individu a l own ers where a s in gener a l it w a s to b e a ppli ed to e a ch property T t l r Ex mpt d qu t E x mpt d qu t -

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H e cta res 1 00 0 1 09 0 1 17 2 1 24 9 1 32 0 1 38 6 1 44 7 15 0 5 15 5 9 1 60 9 1 65 7 201 7 224 8 241 2 25 3 7 263 6 27 1 8 27 8 8 28 4 9

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In Bucovin a a s in the other new provinces the b a sis of the reform w a s more r a di c a l The decree for B ucovin a expropri a ted in full : ( a ) est a tes of foreigners i e of those inh a bit a nt s who were not Rum a ni a ns or who were not citizens of the country on August 1 1 91 4 ; ( b) mortm a in est a tes ; ( 0) the est a tes of a bsentees ( outside the b oun d a ries of Grea ter Rum a ni a ) ; ( d ) the est a tes of indi vidu a ls h a ving lost their civil rights ; ( e) est a tes f a rmed out durin g nin e consecutive ye a rs b efore 1 9 1 9 This l a tter provision did not exist in the decree for the Old Kingdom a n d m a rked a more r a d ic a l tendency In the s a me w a y the expropri a tion sc a le w a s more r a dic a l th a n in the Old Kingdom everyt hin g a b ove 25 0 h a being expropri a ted Moreover if neither the owner nor his p a rents h a d b een cultiva tors he w a s not a llowed to ret a in more th a n 4 h a Further expropri a tion .

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1 26

THE N ATURE

THE REFORM

OF

pp lied to e a ch individu a l proprietor so th a t even if he o wned severa l est ates he could not ret a in more th a n 25 0 h a a ltogether As in the Old Kingdom the decree expropri a ted a r a ble l a nd gra z ing a n d p a st ures It exempted fa rm ya rds country houses ga rdens Vin eya rds a n d industri a l est a bli sh ments together with the a rea of l a nd they requir ed Comm un a l property w a s to b e expropri a ted a fter reserving the a re a necess a ry for Vill a ge gra zin gs a n d for other commun a l needs Expropri a ted forests b eca me the property of the S t a te ; li kewise l a nd un fit for c ultiva tion The Bess a r a bi a n reform displ a yed a ch a r a cteristic levelli ng tendency It expropri a ted in full : (a ) former St a te dom a ins ; ( b) former Cro w n dom a ins ; ( 0) a ll mortm a in est a tes ; ( d ) est a tes b elonging to the towns beyond the a re a needed for town pl a nnin g pur poses ; ( e) est a tes of foreigners— i e of a ll those who on J a nu a ry 1 1 9 1 9 eight d a ys a fter the promulg a tion of the decree h a d not decl a red for Rum a ni a n citizenship ; (f) est a tes which h a d been f a rm ed out during fi ve consecutive ye a rs B oth the l a tter provisions indic a te how much more r a dic a l w a s the B ess a ra bi a n decree a s comp a red with th a t for Bucovin a Mon a steries W ere a llowed to ret a in h a for e a ch monk a s well a s ga rdens a n d Viney a rds From priva te property the decree ordered the expropri a tion of h a everything a bove 1 00 h a a ra ble l a nd b eing t a ken a w a y without exception If th a t h a the me a sure were not to produce the gross tot a l of decree a llowed expropri a tion to go even b eyond the lim it of 1 00 h a V iney a rds g a rdens a n d speci a lized model f a rms were exempted As in Bucovi n a the decree expropri a ted ea ch in di vidu a l own er down to the limit of 1 00 h a without reg a rd to the numb er of properties he p ossessed J oint properties were tre a ted Wa terw a ys a s if they were in the possession of a single o w ner a n d l a nd un fit for cultiv a tion p a ssed to the St a te In Tra nsylva ni a the r a dic a l ch a ra cter of the reform w a s s uffi ci en t ly pronounced but it w a s softened by a whole series of exceptions a n d f a c ul t a tive provisions The decree expropri a ted in full : ( a ) the est a tes of foreigners i e those who on the strength of a sub sequent n a tion a lity la w would opt for foreign citizenship ; est tes of public n d priva te institutions whose residence w a s a a b ( ) wa s

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OF

THE NATURE

THE REFORM

1 27

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outside the country s frontiers ; ( c) est a tes h a ving a speci a l interest from a sci en t ifi c point of Vie w The text di d not expla in wh a t it reg a rded a s of speci a l interest from a s ci en t ifi c p oint of View Other c a tegories of propertie s might b e e x a use 2) n a mely : ( a ) properties in f l Art 2 cl u l r o r ia t e d ( p p which h a d p a ssed i nto the h a nds of their present owners a fter l st November 1 9 1 7 on the strength of the or d in a n ces of the former Hun g a ri a n Gove r mn en t s restrictin g the tr a nsfer of re a l est a te ; ( b) properties b elongi n g to priv a te or public i n st it u tions even if their residence were within the frontiers of Gre a ter Rum ani a except when these properties served dir ectly educ a tiona l s a ni t a ry phi l a nthr opic or a rtistic a s ci en t ifi c economic n a tio n a l pur pose This comprehensive ex ception w a s improved upon by the subsequent cla use whi ch decl a red th a t such exceptions m a y even b e cre a ted without s a ying how why a n d by whom A second exception to t hi s cl a use exempted from the expropri a tion of mortm a in est a tes the forests mo unt a in p a stures a n d gra zings b elonging to comm unes a n d to the s o c a lled frontier comm u ni ties or those w hi ch were the j oin t property of v a rious groups of p e a s a nts A third exception referred to endo w ments ; a fourth to forests which were used for fuel ; a fi fth to l a nd b elongin g to religious or educ a tion a l a ssoci a tions It is di ffi cul t to see wh a t w a s not exempted The a rticle further permitted the tot a l expropri a tion 1 of properties a bove 20 j ugar s which since J ul y 31 1 9 1 4 h a d p a ssed otherwise tha n by inh erit a nce into the h a nds of owner s who h a d not till then occupied themselves with a griculture Cl a use 3 of the s a me a rticle further a llowed the tot a l expropri a tion of a ra ble l a nd : ( a ) from properties of more th a n 30 j uga r s in rura l commun es a n d more th a n 1 0 j uga rs in urb a n communes which h a d b een let on lea se during twelve consecutive ye a rs with a numb er of exceptions ; ( b) from a n y kind of est a tes everything b eyond 5 00 c a d a stra l j uga r s Below 5 00 j ugar s the l a nd wa s to be expropri a ted b eginn i n g with a quot a of 20 p er cent which could b e repe a ted t ill the exempted min imum of Th G r m xpr i j k h fr qu tly b r d r d i t E gli h y k which i u k w i E gli h gr ri hi t ry t rm f m u m t Th .

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1 28 200

THE NATURE rs u a j g

OF

THE REFORM

re a ched In brief expropri a tion d efinit e ly a pplied in f ull to foreigners o nl y a n d to in stitutions whos e residence w a s outside Rum a ni a On the other h a nd Art 4 of the decree decl a red th a t in those communes where the l a nd w a s not s uffi ci en t for the purposes of the reform a n property might b e y e xpropri a ted i e even those with a lesser a re a th a n the mi n im um of 200 j uga r s The first cl a use a ll owin g the expropri a tion of prop erties of less th a n 200 j uga r s did not indic a te how fa r this mi ght go ; the second cl a use fi x ed a m i nim um of 5 0 j uga r s but only for urb a n communes without i ndic a ting why it l a id down no cle a r li mit for the rura l communes Art 4 then h a d the foll owing severe provision I f t h e h ou s i n g p r o b l e m c a n n o t be so l v e d w i t h t h e a i d of t h e a r e a m a d e a v a i l a b l e t h r ough t h e s e e xp r o p r ia t i on s o n e m a y p a s s a c co r d i n g t o n e e d t o a n a dd i t i on a l e xp r o p r ia t i o n of o t h e r a r e a s a s well n a m e l y i n r u r a l co mmun e s t o l a n d s i tu a t e d w i t h in a r a d iu s of a t t h e m os t 6 00 m e tr e s fr o m t h e e d ge o f t h e co m m u n e ; a n d i n t h e ur b a n com m u n e s a s we l l a s in m i n in g a n d i n d us tr ia l ce n tr e s a n d h e a lt h r e s o rt s wi t h i n a r a d ius o f m wa s

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The text did not in dic a te whether the 6 00 metres were to b e me a sured once a n d for a ll on the b a sis of the st a te of thin gs existing a t the time when the decree w a s promulg a ted Its v a gueness might h a ve m a de it possible to encro a ch upon suc metres It w a s only with d iffi cult y cessi ve r a d ii of 600 or th a t in 1 928 the represent a tives of the n a tion a l min orities induced the Mi ni stry of Agriculture to a dopt the fir st in terpret a tion It should b e a dded th a t the W hole of Ar t 4 coul d b e a pplied o nl y by the he a d of the a gricultura l dep a rtment in a greement with the he a ds of the dep a rtments of industry fi n a n ce a n d soci a l r e form As in Bucovin a a n d in Bess a ra bi a the Tra nsylva ni a n decree The a pplied expropri a tion not to properties but to proprietors decree permitted the expropri a tion of fa ctories works a n d of a n y est a blishments a n d rights connected with the expropri a ted l a nd Thi s provision w a s not introduced in the decree for the Old Kingdom with the result th a t in certa in c a ses the owners refused to h a nd over v a rious inst a ll a tions found on the ex propr i W a ter rights excise rights a n d a n y other roy a lties a ted a re a en e fi t of the St a te The a n d privileges were expropri a ted for the b .

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THE NATURE

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1 29

THE REFORM

decree exempted from expropri a tion Vi neya rds orch a rds a n d commun a l gra zin gs except W hen needed for housing purposes B Th e S econ d E xp rop r i a ti on The expropri a tio n of the l a rge priva te property on the b a sis of the decree la w fell short by some h a of the required a re a of h a A new me a sure of expropri a tion bec a me therefore necess a ry This w a s e n a cted in the Old Kingdom a t the s a me t i me a s the det a il ed resettlement by the so c a lled Ga r oflid la w of 1 9 21 The la w consisted of two p a rts the fi r st b eing entitled Expropri a tion a n d the second Resettlement The m a in cha r a cteristic of M Ga r oflid s expropri a tion mea sur e w a s the a b a ndonment of the mech a ni c a l expropri a tion sc a le As th a t sc a le took no a ccount of economic c i rcumst a nces it thre a tened to destroy even the few ra tion a l a gricultura l under t a kin gs which Rum a ni a posses s ed ; a n d b ec a use it ignored loc a l con di tions it h a d t a ken a w a y in s uffi ci en t l a n d where the dem a nd for it w a s considera ble an d in other p a rts too much of it so th a t gre a t extents rem a ined uncultiva ted The new la w introduced It l a id do w n a m a ximum a n economic criterion of expropri a tion region a l l imit for all est a tes but took c a re not to destroy the more progress i ve a gricultura l exploit a tions a n d breedin g st a tio n s And it likew ise took into a ccount the loc a l dem a nd for l a nd a n d a lso the f a ct of a l a ndown er b e i ng him self a cultiv a tor or not These considera tions a ppe a red cle a rly in Art 8 of the 1 9 21 la w It left to those l a ndowners w h o possessed their own de a d stock who occupied themselves with c a ttle breedi ng or who c a rried on a gricul tur a l i ndustries a l a rger unexpropri a ted a re a —1 00 200 300 5 00 h a They were grouped in to c a tegories a ccording to the situ a tion of the est a tes in highl a nd or hi lly or pl a in regions ; a n d secondly in rel a tion to the loc a l resettlement dem a nds— whether considera ble middling or sa t i sfi ed L a nd owners W h o did not possess a proper equi pment in de a d or live stock were a llowed to ret a in under s imila r conditions o nl y 1 00 1 5 0 200 or 25 0 h a In the second pl a ce the la w a dopted a soci a l criterion in th a t it took more l a nd in those districts where the dem a nd for l a nd on the p a rt of the p e a s a n ts w a s grea ter As the a va il a ble a re a w a s sm a ll er in the mount a inous a n d hill regions Art 1 6 invited l a ndowners in s uch r e ions to g ,

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1 30

THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

llow the whole of their est a tes to b e expropri a ted offerin g them in return one a n d a h a lf tim es a s much l a nd in the coloniz a tion regions Ar t 6 8 of the ordin a nce of execution cla ssifi e d a s hi gh l a nd est a tes the properties situ a ted in the hi gh regions where the growing of cere a l crops w a s incident a l ; a s hill est a tes the proper ties situ a ted in the hilly region s in which orch a rds a n d V iney a rds were the norm a l pl a nt a tions a n d whose a ra ble a re a w a s less th a n 40 p er cent of the tot a l a re a of the est a te less forests Prop erties entering i n neither of these two c a tegories were con s i d er e d a s lowl a nd est a tes The seco n d import a nt ch a r a cteristic of the 1 921 la w w a s the exten sion of the b a si s of expropri a tion Ar t 6 reg a rded est a tes a n d p a rts of est a tes situ a ted in the s a me commune or in neighb our ing communes a n d b elonging to the s a me owner a s forming one si n gle property No l a n downer therefore coul d ret a in more th a n the m a ximum l imit of 5 00 h a a r a ble l a nd n o m a tter how m a ny prop erties he possessed There would seem to b e a contra diction b etween t hi s genera l provi sion a n d the text of Ar t 4 which exempted from expropri a tion prop erties of less tha n 1 00 h a a ra ble l a nd ; so th a t a l a ndo w ner possessing let us sa y ten or more prop erties of less th a n 1 00 h a e a ch mi ght presum a bly keep a ll of them if they were not situ a ted in the s a me commune or in neighbour ing comm u n es The a uthorities entrusted with the a pplic a tion of the la w a pp a rently in terpreted the lim it of 5 00 h a a ra ble l a nd for one individu a l l a ndo w ner a s Thi s limit domi n a ted the text of Ar t 1 0 whi ch decreed a bsolute the so c a lled co ordin a tion of the expropri a tion me a sur e i e the reduction of e a ch indi vidu a l s possessions to the s a me a b solut e limit which a pplied to his c a tegory no m a tter how l a rge the numb er of p a rts which constituted them The la w m a int a ined the full expropri a tion of foreigners a n d with one single difference b etween the two a bsentee owners c a tegories While exempting from expropri a tion priva te country houses a n d p a rks pl a nt a tions Viney a rds woodla nds a n d i n d ust r i a l est a bli s hments it obliged foreign ow n ers to sell those obj ects with i n three yea rs from the promulg a tion of the la w ; no such obliga tion w a s imposed upon Rum a ni a n a b sentee owners The s a me Art 7 e xpropri a ted in f ull est a tes which h a d been let a

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THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

1 31

on le a se continuously b etween April 23 1 9 1 0 a n d April 24 1 924 Lik ewise a ll l a nd lea sed in emphyteusis or sim il a r titles were expropri a ted in full for the ben efi t of the users The la w a lso extended the purpose of expropri a tion a dding to the origin a l intentions th a t of cre a t ing comm u n a l gra zin gs a s well a s the s a tisf a ction of gener a l economic a n d cultur a l needs ( Ar t It d ated the begin ni n g of the reform from Decemb er 1 5 1 9 1 8 th a t bein g the d a te on which the St a te w a s considered to h a ve a cquir ed the title to the l a nd ( Ar t All tra nsfer of l a nd a fter August 1 5 1 9 1 6 w a s decl a red i n va lid except l a nd sold not l a ter th a n Febru a ry 1 1 921 to pe a s a nt Popul a r B a nks or to individu a l pe a s a nt culti co O per a tives va t or s up to 1 0 h a e a ch ; a s we ll a s l a nd sold for buil din g or fa ctories The l a nd thus sold w a s not i ncluded in the In 1 9 24 this a rticle suffered a h a to b e expropri a ted ( Art m o di fi ca t ion w hi ch recognized the v a li di ty of s a les m a de to pe a s a nts a fter Febru ar y 1 1 921 a n d un til J a n ua r y 1 1 924 up to 5 h a e a ch on condition th a t l a nd sold in th a t w a y shoul d b e deducted from the p a rt which the l an do wner w a s to ret a in Ar t 1 3 considered a s a r a ble l a nd for the purpose of the la w a ll l a nd which up to its promulg a tion h a d b een used for cultiv a tion for gra z ing a n d for p a stur es a s well a s a ll l a nd li a ble to floodin g but whi ch w a s used for c ultiva tion or for gr a zing V iney a rds orch a rds a n d other pl a nt a tions l a id out up t o J a n ua r y 1 1 9 1 7 a s well a s l a nd a rt ifici ally irriga ted woo dl a nds & c did not enter in to the c a lcula tion of the la w B ut Art 1 4 expropri a ted in full ponds a n d river b eds b a rren l a nd & c w ithout reg a rd to their extent for the pur pose of their b eing dra ined or a fforested by the communes or by the St a te The 1 921 law a dopted the idea of gra du a l expropri a tio n The p a rt w hi ch w a s to rem ain the ow ner s w a s to b e determin ed at once but the rem a inder w a s to b e t a ken over o nl y when it could be tra nsferred without del a y to the pe a s a nts Any sur plus of expropri a ted l an d coul d b e let on le a se to the origi na l owner for a period of three ye a rs if it w a s not dem a nded by the p e a s a nts themselves ( Ar t C Th e Mech an i s m of E xp mp ma ti on The st a rting point of the expropri a tion process in a ll the pro vinces w a s the l a ndow n er s ,

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1 32

THE NATU RE

OF

THE REFORM

decl a ra tion cont a ini ng a ll the det a ils referring to hi s prop erty The a ctu a l execution w a s then c a rried out by a numb er of com missions whose composition a n d functions va ried in keepin g with the stronger or milder ra dic a l tendencies of the resp ective me a sures In the Old Kingdom the provision a l t a k ing over of the l a nd w a s entrusted to loc a l comm issions consisting of the district j udge of the interested l a n downer a n d of a delega te of the p e a s a nts Its l a b ours were revised by county comm issions whi ch consisted of a j udge a deleg a te of the Centr a l Resettlemen t Otfi ce two represent a tives of the l a ndo w ners a n d two of the p e a s a nts These co mmissions determined the a ctu a l a rea to be t a ken over a n d they estim a ted the compens a tion One co ul d a pp e a l a g a inst decisions of the county commissions to region a l commissions These were presided over by a president of the region a l Cour t of App ea l or of the loc a l Tribun a l a n d in cluded a deleg a te of the Centr a l Resettlement Offi c e one of the Superior Agric ul tur a l Council one represent a tive of the l a ndowners a n d one of the p e a s a nts These co mmi ssions determi ned fi n a lly a ll the a spects of the issue except the compens a tion with reg a rd to which a n ultim a te a ppe a l w a s possible b efore the Cour t of Appe a l Where the fi n a l me a sur ement est a b lished somet hi ng different from the origin a l indic a tions of the l a n downer the whole work of expropri a tion w a s revised in rel a tion to the correct a re a In B ess a ra bi a the decree la w entrusted the work of expropri a tion to commissions consistin g of a j udge a delega te of the speci a l institution known a s Our O th ee a n a gric ul tur a l expert a delega te of the a gricultura l dep a rtment a deleg a te of the l a ndowners a n d fi ve delega tes of the pe a s a nts The ch a irm a n of the commission The a rr a ngement w a s to b e chosen from a mong its members g a ve a prepondera nt infl uen ce to the p e a s a nt deleg a tes All the work of expropri a tion w a s centra li zed a n d executed by Our O th ee Appe a ls were to b e he a rd by a Centra l Comm ission a n d were to be settled in 8 — 1 5 d a ys the interested p a rties not b eing leg a lly represented The whole proced ure w a s dra stic a lly simple a n d expeditious In Bucovina the decree est a bli shed loc a l commissions a s in the Old Kingdom a n d a Centr a l Commission a s in B ess a r a bi a .

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OF

THE NATURE

THE REFORM

1 33

The loc a l comm issions comprised two in t ellectu a ls one of whom w a s chosen a s ch a ir m a n by a dr a win g of lots the m a yor a l a nd owner a n d two pe a s a nts F in a l a pp ea ls were hea rd by the Centra l Agra ri a n Commission consistin g of twenty two memb ers a mong whom were three l a ndowners a n d six p ea s a nts In Tra nsylva ni a loc a l commissions consisted of a j udge the offi c i a l a gricultur a l exp ert the owner of the est a te a n d two pe a s a nt delega tes They h a d to try to bring a bout a n a greement between the interested p a rties with reg a rd both to the a re a to b e expropri a ted a n d the comp ens a tio n to b e p a id for i t The work of the loc a l commissions w a s revised by county com missions a n d fi n a l a ppe a ls were t a ken to the Superior Council for the Agra ri a n Reform co n sisting of a president a Vice president twelve memb ers a n d twenty four a ssist a nt memb ers Like the Centra l Commission in Bucovi n a the Tra nsylva ni a n Superior Council worked in the m a in through sub committees It w a s di stin guished however from the institutions of a ppe a l in the other provinces in th a t it consisted a ltogether of nomin a ted members a ppoi n ted by the Governi n g Council of Tra nsylv a n i a This a g a in shows how the va rious a rra ngements reflected the circumst a nces from which they h a d issued The whole procedure of expropri a tion w a s therefore in its genera l lines simil a r in the va rious provinces a n d the org a ns entrusted with the execution of the me a sure were built upon the s a me principles In the Old Kin gdom a n d in B ess a r a bi a however the centra l org a n for the a pplic a tion of the reform w a s a St a te institution In Buco vin a an d in Tra nsylva ni a the work w a s pl a ced in the h a nds of two priva te b a n ks the Region a l B a nk of 1 n Cern au ti a d the Agra ri a n B a nk of Cluj In the Old Kin gdom the legisl a tor h a d before h im the un s a tisfa ctory results obt a ined by the Rura l Ofii ce est a bli shed in 1 907 At the s a me time it w a s thought useful to lin k up the execution of the reform with a democra tic institution known to the pe a s a ntry n a mely the Centra l Offi ce of the Popul a r B a nks a n d of the Pe a s a nt Co ,

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D e cree l w for t h e cr a t i on of t h e Agra ri n B n k d sti e d t o a pply t h e gr ri a n r ef r m Tra sylv an i t h e B t a n d t h H u g ri n di stricts ( No 4 1 6 7 M i to ul Oflci a l No 1 25 S e pte m b r 21 1 9 1 9 S t tut e of t h e R egi o l B n k of C e r au ti rga n i d for t h e a pplic tion of t h e a gr ri a n ref rm M o i tom l Oficia l No 1 30 S e pte m b e r 27 1 9 1 9 1

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1 34

THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

oper a tives which functioned a t the tim e a s a section of the M inistry of Fin a nce A decree la w tra nsformed it into a n a ntono mous institution a tt a ched to the Min istry of Agricultur e It w a s to consist of fi ve sections : 1 ) the Centr a l of the Popula r B a nk s ; ( 2) the Centra l of Pe a s a nt Co opera tives of Production a n d Con s umption ; ( 3) the Centr a l of Co op era tives of Lea sing ; ( 4 ) the L a nd Mortg a ge Credit O ffice ( 5 ) the Sur vey Ofii ce Th e fi r s t two sections were to conti n ue the work of rur a l co oper a tion on a bro a der b a sis The other three were to a pply the a gr a ri a n reform In B e s s a ra bi a the centra l org a n for the execution of the reform w a s a St a te institution known a s Our Offi ce to whi ch were entrusted the s a me functions a s those performed by the Centra l Offi ce in the Old Kin gdom The law decl a red the B ess a ra bi a n institution to b e a bran ch of the Cen tra l R e settle ment Offi ce a t B uc a rest In Bucovin a the reform w a s pl a ced in the h a nds of a privi lege d priv a te institution the Region a l B a n k w hi ch w a s entitled to c a rry out a ll t h e techni c a l a n d fi n a n cia l op er a tio n s conn ected with the a gr a ri a n reform The b o a rd of directors included memb ers a pp o i nted by the Minister for Bucovi n a a n d delega tes of the co O p era tives of the v a rious n a tion a lities in the pro vin ce The Centra l Government h a d a right of control In Tra nsylv a ni a the execution of the reform w a s entrusted to the newly cre a ted Agra ri a n B a nk in which the St a te p a rtici p a ted with c a pit a l a n d a lso with represent a tives on the bo a rd of d irectors The Agr a r ia n B a n k w a s a lt oget h er a priv a te in stitution h a vin g no connexion wh a tever with the Centra l Res ettlement O th ee where a s the Region a l B a nk in Bucovin a w a s considered to b e a ffi li a t e d to th a t o th e e though this w a s merely a m a tter of form In reg a rd to the institutions entrusted with the techni c a l execution of the reform the origin a l legisl a tion therefore differed considera bly in the four provin ces The difference w a s due p a rtly to loc a l needs a n d even more to loc a l idios yncr a sies a n d to the desire of the new provinces to keep thi n gs in their own h a nds The subseque n t l a ws p a ssed in 1 9 21 m od ifi e d only sli ghtly the procedure of expropri a tion a n d the org a ns ch a rged with ,

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THE NATURE

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THE REFORM

1 35

c a rrying it out in the Old Kin gdom The la w for the Old Ki n g dom m a int a ined the Cen tra l Resettlement Otfi ce a s the m a in But Art 37 of the a uthority for the executio n of the reform la w a s subsequently m od ifi e d by a nother la w published i n the Jll on i tom l Ofici a l No 1 6 4 of Octob er 28 1 9 22 m a de cert a in import a nt ch a nges in the composition a n d a ctivity of the Agra ri a n Committee the highest a uthority in m a tters of a gra ri a n reform The membership of the Committee w a s reduced from eighteen to twelve six memb ers formin g a quorum Its president w a s the Minister of Agricultur e himself The Agra ri a n Committee w a s to sit i n ca mer a without c a lling the p a rties working solely on the b a sis of the dossiers referrin g to the v a rious c a ses brought b efore it Appe a ls co ul d b e lodged b efore the Agra ri a n Com mittee by either of the interested p a rties a s well a s by the Ministry of Agricult ure The a rra n geme n t by which the Agr a ri a n Committee w a s to work b ehi n d closed doors w a s n o doubt due to the gre a t But it w a s severely n um b er of c a ses wi th which it h a d to de a l criticized fi r st b ec a use it took a w a y from the Committee the a pp e a ra nce of b eing a n imp a rti a l Cour t so necess a ry for givi n g a uthority to decisions which were b ound to b e disliked by one side or the other ; a n d secondly b ec a use the Committee coul d not in such circumst a nces h a ndl e its work with a f ull gra sp of the det a ils of e a ch c a se from a n a gra ri a n p oint of View especi a lly a s with on e exceptio n a ll the Committee s memb ers b elonged to the j udici a ry More im port a nt were the ch a nges m a de in the procedure which h a d been origi n a lly devised for the new provi n ces The m a in pur pose of these ch a nges w a s to uni fy the procedure by bringin g the whole execution of the reform within the pur view of the Centra l Resettlement O th ee The institution n a med Our O th ee w a s a b olished by the a mendment to the B ess a ra bi a n la w published in the Mon i tor ul Ofici a l No 1 2 of J a n ua r y 1 8 1 9 21 ; a n d a subsequent a mendment publi shed in No 6 8 of th a t o ffi ci a l j ourn a l on M a rch 25 1 925 extended the a uthority of the Agra ri a n Commi ttee to B ess a r a bi a a s well The Tra nsylv a ni a n la w prom ulga ted on J uly 30 1 921 tr a n s ferred the functions of the Agra ri a n B a nk to the Centr a l Resettlemen t Offi ce a n d the a mendment published on S eptember 20 1 922 completely .

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1 36

THE N ATURE

THE REFORM

OF

m o d ifi e d

the j udici a l p a rt of the procedure of expropri a tion Th e s a me t hi ng w a s done for Buco vi n a by the la w published in the Mon i tom l Ofici a l on J uly 30 1 921 w ith the a mendment pub li sh e d on April 20 1 9 24 To these l a ws were gra du a lly a dded a num b er of ordin a nces whi ch m a de the a ctu a l procedure conform to the a bove ch an ges in the origina l legisl a tion .

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S E C TI O N A

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Th e Di s tr i b uti on

R E S E TT L EME N T

TH E

H i n s o ld f g

The resettlement of the p e a s a nts w a s a rra nged in the new provinces sim ul t a neously wi th the det a ils of the expropri a tion O n ly in the Old Kin gdom w a s it left to P a rli a ment to work out a t a l a ter st a ge a det a iled resettlement la w The prin cip a l question which the r e settlement l a ws h a d to decide referred to the siz e a n d n a ture of the holdin gs which the p e a s a nts were to receive In B ess a ra bi a it w a s decided to dis tribute full hold ings of 6 — 8 h a coloniz a tion holdin gs of 8 — 1 0h a a s well a s so c a lled complement a ry lots The siz e of the l a tter w a s not determined which m a de their distribution a problem of p eculi a r d iffi cul t y in the a bsence of a n y intention to prescrib e a t the s a me time the consolid a tion of existin g pe a s a nt holdi ngs A second issue which cre a ted considera ble discussio n in B ess a ra bi a li sh em en t of a n order of preference a mong the w a s the est a b cl a im a nts to l a nd Ultim a tely the economic point of View pre v a iled a n d the decree la w l a id down the fo llowin g order of preference : Those holdings were to be completed which did not a ( ) a mount to a minimum of 6 — 8 h a Full holdings were to be distributed to the p e a s a nts living on the est a te a n d who h a d no l a nd a t a ll Full holdings were to be distributed to l a ndless p e a s a nts 0 ( ) living within a ra dius of 5 versts Complement a ry lots to the pe a s a nts livi n g w ithin a r a dius d ( ) of 5 versts The pe a s a n ts in this c a tegory could be tra nsferred to the third c a tegory if they ceded to the St a te their exist i ng properties This w a s a b eginning tow a rds consolid a tion a n d the only one a ttempted .

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THE NATURE

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THE REFORM

1 37

The B ess a ra bi a n la w reserved eight holdin gs of 25 h a e a ch for the crea tion of tra ini ng coll eges for te a chers a pea sa n t holding for e a ch Villa ge school two holdings of 7 h a e a ch for e a ch regi ment residing in the provin ce to serve both for the i n struction of the soldiers a n d for supplying their food a n d h a for v a rious est a blishments of a ge n era l a gricultur a l interest The decree la w for Buco vin a prescrib ed the s imult a neous c a rrying out of expropri a tion a n d resettlement Resettlement w a s to b egin on the b a sis of individu a l dem a nds j ust a s expropri a tion w a s set going on the b a sis of the l a n do w ner s decl a ra tio n ; the a rr a n gement h a d the a dva nt a ge th a t it est a blished the re a l d em a n d for l a n d in the v a rious loc a lities Lik e the B ess a ra bi a n decree it cre a ted three c a tegories of resettlement lots but not in the s a me sizes : f ull lots of 4— 8 h a coloniz a tion lots of 5 h a ha a n d complement a ry lots which could not b e of less th a n a n d were to b e given to the pe a s a n ts ow ni ng less th a n 4 h a Full holdin gs were to b e distributed to those p ea s a nts who h a d no l a nd a t a ll or to those who h a ving only some l a nd were willi n g to cede it to the St a te a n d to receive a colo ni z a tion hold ing in ste a d Like the s imil a r B ess a r a bi a n a rra n gement this w a s a mild a ttempt a t consolid a tion Rura l school s were to b e endowed with one holdin g a n d vi ll a ge priests with two holdings e a ch I n Tr a nsylv a n i a a s in the other two pro vinces the decree la w fores a w the distribution of full holdin gs of coloniz a tion holdings a n d of complement a ry holdings without determining their siz e It decl a red i n ste a d th a t the holdings would be given in a ccord a nce with loc a l circumst a n ces a n d with the c a p a city of the cl a im a nt s to work them As reg a rds the order of preference in which the l a n d w a s to b e distributed the Tra nsylv a n i a n decree sought to h a rmoni z e the eco n omic with the n a tio n a l point of View It therefore ga ve prefere n ce to loc a l residents to those who h a d suffered through the Wa r to w a r inva lids c a p a ble of working the l a nd themselves I n ge n er a l those pe a s a nt s who h a d bee n mobiliz ed received prefere n ce The pe a s a n ts own ing more t h a n 5 c a d a stra l j uga r s were n ot e n titled to receive l a nd until the dem a nds of a ll the other c a tegories h a d been sa t i sfi e d Those owning less th a n .

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1 38

THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

5 j uga r s

were to receive suffi ci en t l a nd to bring thei r holdi n gs up to th a t figur e The decree a lso entitled a gric ul tur a l l a bourers a n d serv a nts to resettlement a s well though these h a d no me a ns of tillin g the l a nd Expropri a tion a n d resettlement were to go h a n d in h a nd in Tra nsylv a ni a only a s much l a nd b eing t a ken over a s w a s a ctu a ll y requi red a t the mome n t The l a nd w a s to b e tra nsfe rred to the pe a s a nts a t once under a system of s o c a lled comp ul sory le a ses the fi n al me a surement a n d resettlement to follow a fter the necess a ry preli min a ry work h a d b een con cluded As a n exception however the Tra nsylv a ni a n decree p ermitted the immedi a te division a n d distribution of l a n d wh ere the two interested p a rties could re a ch a direct a greement ( Art without a n y fur t h er expert a d vice a n d decision The titles of the resettled p e a s a nts were to be inscribed in the groun d b ooks which a lre a dy existed in Hunga ry b efore the Wa r The decree la w for the Old Ki ngdom did not concern itself with resettlement unl ess one excepts a ge n era l in dica tion a s to the order of preference to b e followed cont a ined in Art 38 Th e v i ll a ge a s s ocia t ion s s h a l l i n c l u d e w i t h in t h e l i m i t s o f t h e e s t a t e t h e p e a s a n t cu lt i v a t o r s w h o d o n ot p os ses s s uffi c i e n t l a n d of t h e i r ow n p r e fe r e n ce b ein g gi v e n t o t h os e w h o h a v e t a k en p a rt i n t h e W a r a n d t o t h ei r su cc e sso r s Th os e gu i lt y of d e s e rt ion or o f i n sub o r d in a t i on dur i n g t h e W a r s h a l l be e x clu d e d fr om t h e s e a ssoci a t i on s .

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The 1 921 la w for the Old Kingdom devoted its whole second p a rt to the a rra ngements for the resettlement of the p e a s a n ts Art 78 determined the following order of preference : (a ) those those mob ili z ed in the w a r of mobilized in the Wa r 1 91 6— 1 9 ; 1 9 1 3 ; ( 0) w a r widows for the i r children ; ( ( l) sm a ll cultiv a tors w ar an d w ithout l a nd ; ( e ) cultiv a tors owning less th a n 5 h a f orph a ns The next a rticle l a id down a second order of preference for tho s e fa lling within one a n d the s a me c a tegory : ( a ) w a r inv a lids ; ( b) pe a s a nts who h a d previously l a boured on the est a te ; ( 0) p e a s a nts who h a d their own stock a n d a settled f a rm ; ( d ) those h a vi n g more children a n d ( e ) those older in ye a rs If the a v a ila ble a re a were to b e in s u fficient for a ll those within a c a tegory w h o fulfille d the s a m e conditions the distribution w a s to b e settled by dra wing lots ( Art The la w for the Old Kingdom recog .

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THE NATURE

OF THE

REFORM

1 39

ddition a l a rge num ber of rur a l inh a bit a nts a s b eing entitled to receive l a nd n a mely : priests te a chers a n d a ll lesser offi ci a ls residing i n rur a l commu n es the holders of a gricultur a l degrees of wh a tever kind on condition th a t a ll these should reside on the l a nd a n d cultiva te their holdings Artis a n s like c a rp enters t a ilors bl a cksmiths fid dl er s & c who h a d not previously occupied themselves W ith a griculture public a n s a n d merch a nts a s well a s a n y inh a bit a nts who used to own l a n d but h a d sold it were not entitled to b e resettled u n til the cl a ims of Inv a lid a ll the other c a tegories h a d b een s a t i sfi e d ( Art offic e r s received preference for ordin a ry holding s of 5 h a ; they could receive a s much a s 25 h a in coloni z a tion regions a fter the resettlement of the p ea s a nts h a d b een fi n i sh ed on condition th a t they cultiv a ted the l a nd themselves ( Art Where there w a s not enough l a nd to go round some of the pe a s a nts were to b e settled in the coloni z a tion regions the choice of those who were to go b eing m a de if possible by mutu a l a gree ment or otherwi se by the loc a l committees On the l a rger hold ings formed on the expropri a ted a re a there were to b e est a blished model fa rms for the ben efi t of holders of a gricultura l degrees a n d of in va li d offi cer s who undertook to cultiva te the l a nd in a c cor d a nce with conditions imposed by the Centra l Resettlement From a n y surplus l a nd rem a inin g a fter the Otfi ce ( Ar t work of resettlement under the a b ove conditions h a d b een fi ni sh e d a second holding could b e sold a fter the p a ssing of a period of three ye a rs to those who h a d a lre a dy received one on the strength of the a gra ri a n reform Preference w a s to b e given to those pe a s a nts who possessed stock who h a d a l a rger f a mily a n d who p a id a gre a ter p a rt of the cost in a dv a nce Art ( The la w for the Old Kin gdom went fa rther th a n a n y of the others in a llowi ng other c a tegories of rura l in h a bit a nts b esides pe a s a nts a cl a im to l an d Where a s the origin a l decree h a d i n deed spoken of pe a s a nt cultiva tors the resettlement la w wi dened the expression to Rum a ni a n in h a bit a nts who cultiva te the l a nd A la w of M a rch 1 5 1 9 27 incre a sed still further the n umb er of non pe a s a nt cl a im a nt s to l a nd by a llowi n g holdings of 25 j ugar s in Tra nsylva ni a a n d of 25 h a i n the Old Kingdom B ess a r a bi a a n d Bucovin a to offi cers decor a ted with the order

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1 40

THE N ATURE

THE REFORM

OF

of M ih a iu the Bra ve the hi ghest Rum a ni a n milit a ry decora tion L a ter still holdings i n B ess a ra bi a were a ttributed to the former memb ers of the Council of the L a nd the a d h oe B ess a ra bi a n Assembly which h a d procl a im ed the union with Rum a ni a ; a n d l a n do w ners whose d a ughters m a rried offi cers of the Rum a ni a n a rmy were a llowed to ret a in a n a ddition a l quot a b eyond the genera l m a ximum of 1 00 h a These a rra ngements h a ve b een severely criticized from a n economic point of View in a ddition to the f a ct th a t they g a ve to non cul tiva tors l a nd for whi ch its previous owners h a d received merely a nomin a l compens a tion B Th e M ech an i s m of Res ettlemen t In the Old Kingdom the la w fi x e d the size of the f ul l resettlement holdings a t 5 h a a n d of the coloniz a tion holdi n gs a t 7 h a b esides buil di ng lots a n d commu n a l gr a zin gs In a ddition of course there were to b e distributed complement a ry lots which could not b e sm a ller th a n 5 h a to p e a s a n ts owning less th a n 5 h a a fter t a king in to a ccount the l a nd which they were likely to i n herit in a di rect l i ne ( Ar t V ill a ge a rtis a ns who occupied themselves with a gricul tur e a s well were entitled merely to a bui ldi ng lot a n d up to 1 h a a ra ble l a nd Building lots were to b e of s m a n d were not q included in the extent of the holdings Buildi n gs found on the expropri a ted l a nd were prefer a bly to b e s old to the commun a l or county a uthorities or to the p e a s a nt co oper a tives ( Art As a n exception to the genera l trend of the a gra ri a n legisl a tion Art 1 02 a ll owed the cre a tio n of 1 0 h a holdin gs in the mount a i n ous a n d hilly regio n s a s well a s in those with a dense popul a tion a n d of f a rms of 5 0h a in the other regio n s A decision of the Agra ri a n Committee w a s req uired to th a t e n d These lots could include buildings found on the expropri a ted l a nd Their tot a l extent could not exceed one eighth of the a re a expropri a ted In e a ch commu n e a list of those e n titled to receive l a nd w a s dra wn up by a committee consisti n g of the m a yor the priest the he a d m a s ter a n d four pe a s a nt deleg a tes Appe a ls w ere u e d by a dist r ict committee which included the loc a l m a gis d j g tr a te a n d a n a gricultura l expert a s delega te of the Centra l Re s ettlement O th ee In b oth c a s e s deci s ions w ere t a ken by The whole procedure w a s m a de a s a m a j ority vote ( Art ,

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THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

1 41

expeditious a s possible the period of a ppe a l from decision s of the loc a l committees b eing of fi ft e en d a ys a n d decisions of the di strict committees h a ving to b e given within twenty d a ys App ea ls were a llo wed from the di strict committees to the Agra ri a n Comm ittee The a ctu a l division a n d di stribution of the holdi n gs w a s c a rried out by the org a ns of the Centra l R e settlement Otfi ce B efore this p a rcell a tion the Agra ri a n Committee h a d to re s erve from the expropri a ted a re a : ( a ) the l a nd necess a ry for ge n er a l public a n d educ a tion a l interests ; ( 6 ) l a n d for the cre a tion or completion of Villa ge gr a zings ; ( c) the l a nd necess a ry for the est a blishment of new Vill a ges or for the widening of existi n g Vill a ges for ro a ds & c a s well a s for a fforest a tion in the coloniz a tion regions or on l a nd unfit for cultiva tio n or gra zi n g ( Art If the cre a tion of those reserves reduced the a re a a va il a ble for resettlement the n umb er of the holdi ngs to b e di stributed w a s to b e restricted in the s a me pre portion C Commun a l Gr a zi ngs a n d Woodla n d s 1 ) Gr a zi ngs The conception whi ch in the p a st h a d genera lly a ni m a ted the Rum a ni a n legisl a tor under the im pression crea ted by the pr ofi t able deve lopment of corn growing w a s th a t a n y l a nd t a ken a w a y from the cultiva tion of cere a ls w a s an economic retrogression In the discussions of the J a ssy reform one could discern the persistence of th a t outlook a n d the text of the reform itself contempl a ted the r e settl ement of the p ea s a nts o nl y on a ra ble l a nd so a s to m aint a in the a gricultur a l st a nd a rd of the country Likewise the decree la w of Decemb er 1 9 1 8 provided for the di stribution of a ra ble l a nd but m a de no mention of gra zings In the moun t ainous regions where corn gro wing w a s not possible it w a s a llowed by Art 1 7 of the decree to expropri a te l a nd for gra zing a n d p a sture ; but th a t obviously w a s not looked upon a s economi c a lly necess a ry but merely a s a wa y of comp ens a ting the pe a s a nts of those regions for not receiving prop er a gricul tura l l a nd And in consequence a ci rc ul a r issued on April 25 1 9 1 9 by the Mini ster of Agricultur e interpreted Art 1 7 a s me a ning th a t expropri a tion could in no c a se b e a pplied to properties of less th a n 1 00 h a which wa s the genera l minim um l a id down by the la w ,

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1 42

OF

THE NATURE

THE REFORM

In the follo w ing yea r M Ga r ofli d h a d to give w a y to the p ea s a nts insistent dem a nd for gra zing a n d to en a ct a speci a l la w published in the M om tom l Ofici a l No 1 38 of S eptemb er 27 1 9 20 Those who h a d insisted on the need for such a me a sure p ointed out th a t it w a s more useful to cre a te gra zin g for a whole — 8 p e a s a nts vill a ge th a n i ndi vidu a l holdi ngs for The whole 7 b progress of c a ttle bree di n g d epen d ed on them If the bree di n g st a tions which the reforms w a nted to encour a ge were to stimula te by thei r ex a mple a n d not merely to c a use envy they h a d to exist side by side w ith vi ll a ge gra zin gs Without such common l a nds the development of fodder crop s w a s not possible : they co ul d not b e grown on the sc a ttered p e a s a nt fi e ld s whi ch were not fenced in to protect the crops from the i nr o a ds of ani m a ls J ust in the higher regions where the keep i ng of c a ttle pl a yed a more import a nt p a rt th a n cultiv a tion i n the pe a s a nt economy most of the communes di d not possess vi ll a ge gra zi n gs The 1 920 la w a llowed in the moun t a in ous districts the expropri a tion of l a nd eve n b elow the limit of 1 00 h a for the cre a tion of com m un a l gr a zings a n d extended th a t provision to the hill region a s well Its purp ose w a s s a id to b e the completion of the p ea s a nt economy by en a bli ng pe a s a nt cultiv a tors to keep two oxen a n d a cow in the lowl a nds a n d in the hi lls ; a n d in the moun t a ins where re a ring c a ttle wa s the pe a s a nts m a in occup a tion fi ve l a rge a nim a ls in a ddition to wh a t they could gra z e on the Al pine p a stur es Thi s speci a l la w w a s reg a rded in p a rt a s merely r e editing the pro vi sions concernin g commun a l gra zings of the la w on a gricultura l contra cts of 1 908 a s it a ffected in the fir st pl a ce those l a ndown ers who h a d a t th a t t ime fa il ed to give from their est a tes the a re a requir ed for comm un a l gra z ings Art 1 2 a llowed the expropri a tion e ven of forests if the purpose of the la w co ul d not b e a chieved otherwise The critics of this la w compl a ined of the m a ny exceptions which confused its provi sions a n d th a t this w a s m a de worse by the unsymp a thetic interpret a tion given to its texts by the Art 1 3 for inst a nce indi c a ted th a t the a uthorities concerned a re a to b e expropri a ted w a s to be c a lcul a ted either by t a king the numb er of the he a ds of f a milies in e a ch commu n e a n d a llowing three l a rge a nima ls in the hills a n d six l a rge a nim a ls in the .

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OF

THE NATURE

THE REFORM

1 43

mount a ins for e a ch household ; or a ltern a tively by t a ki n g the a ctu a l numb er of a ni m a ls a n d a llowi ng for three he a ds of c a ttle Sub seque n t 1 h a in the hi ll s a n d 2 h a in the mou n t a i n s instructions of the Min istry of Agriculture decreed th a t o n ly the second criterion w a s to b e used though the e ffect of the Wa r h a d evide n tly b een to reduce the e x isti n g num b er of a ni m a l s b elow the pre w a r level A second circul a r instructed the o ffi cia ls con cerned W ith the a pplic a tion of the la w to t a ke i nto a ccou n t not the tot a l numb er of the inh a bit a nts of a commune but only those who h a d b een inscribed in the resettlemen t lists This It g a ve w a s cle a rly in dir ect confl ict with the text of the la w in suffi ci en t gra zing even for the existing inh a bit a nts of a com mu n e a s M Mih a la ch e compl a ined ( speech on J un e 29 inste a d of b eing far sighted e n ough to le a ve a m a rgin for new comers a mong the pe a s a nt cultiv a tors The 1 921 la w for the Old Kingdom further extended the provision for communa l gra z ings by its Art 23 It a llowed the expropri a tion in the mount a ins of l a nd fi t o nl y for gra zing or h a y down to a lim it of 25 h a In the mount a ins a n d in the hills the expropri a tion w a s fur ther permitted of clea ri ngs of less th a n 20 a n d of 1 0 h a a s well a s of the in terme di a ry surf a ce if there should b e two or more such clea rings a t a m a ximum di st a nce of 200 metres from e a ch other Fi n a lly the s a id a rticle suggested th a t in the a bsence of a n y expropri a ble property the pe a s a nts might crea te from their own holdings a commun a l gra z i ng if the m a j ority of the inh a bit a nts a greed to do s o In B ess a ra bi a the decree la w provided for the completion of commun a l gra zings a t the s a me time a s the distribution of i n di vidu a l holdings to the pea s a nts the B ess a ra bi a n legisl a tor show ing much underst a ndi ng of the im port a nt role which gra z ings pl a y in a country of pe a s a nt cultiv a tors Tra nsylva n i a a n d Bucovin a were on the W hole a lre a dy provided with commun a l gra z i ngs b efore the present reform Ar t 24 of the Tra nsylva ni a n la w permi tted the expropri a tion of existing commu n a l gra zings in so far a s they were in excess of the norm a l needs of the Villa gers Gra zings were to b e cre a ted or completed on the b a sis of the numb er of households ; Art 26 a llo win g for e a ch household up to 1 0 j uga r s in the mount a ins 5 in the highl a n d districts a n d ,

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1 44

THE NATU RE

OF

THE REFORM

up to 2 in the lowl a nds Where c a ttle breedin g w a s the m a in occup a tion of the Villa gers the la w a llowed up to 22 j uga r s in the mount a ins a n d up to 1 0 in the highl a nd districts ( 2) F or es ts In the Rum a ni a n provinces a s elsewhere forests h a d origin a lly b een commun a l prop erty from w hi ch the inh a bit a nts of the neighb ouring vill a ges h a d s a t i sfi e d their needs for fuel a n d bui ldi ng m a teri a l The fi r st me a sure to restrict these commun a l rights to the equ a l use of the a v a ila ble timb er w a s a decree of Mor uz i of Novemb er 28 1 7 9 2 con fir m e d two ye a rs l a ter by Mih a iu S ut z u On the pretext th a t the pe a s a nts were destroying the forests the boia r s dem a nded an d the Prin ce gra nted th a t they should h a ve the right to gu a rd a n d to protect young forests a n d pl a nt a tio n s a n d they were a lso a llowed the sole right of keeping sheep a n d pigs in them a right which they were entitled to sell The pe a s a nts were a llowed to t a ke freely only : ( a ) de a d wood from a n y forest ; wood for fuel from a n y where e xcept from pl a nt a tions a n d young timb er ; ( c) a n y buildi ng timber for the needs of their own household ; ( d ) a n d fi n a lly t imber of a n y kin d a n d from a n y forest for s a le a s lo ng a s they g a ve the l a ndlord a tithe of one in ten a s they g a ve the l a ndl ords in the lowl an ds from corn a n d h ay It wi ll b e seen th a t the l andlords were o n ly gra nted the title of protectors over the forests on b eh a lf of the St a te wi th cert a in privileges in retur n though restricted were still a n d th a t the p e a s a nt rights su fficient to s a tisfy a ll their needs in wood for b uil din g a n d fuel These rights were reduced a lmost to nothi ng by the Org a nic St a tutes of 1 8 29 which tra nsformed the l a ndlords from gu a r di a ns into proprietors of the forests Art 1 29 of the Mold a vi a n St a tut e h a s the right to the use of decl a red th a t the l a ndowner a lone mills ponds forests a n d such things It w a s the o n ly mention of forests in the Mold a vi a n St a tute a n d it summ a rily swept a w a y An a lmost a ll the a ncient p e a s a nt rights to the use of tim b er identic a l text w a s cont a ined in Art 1 46 of the Munteni a n St a tute S ome of the p e a s a nt rights were however m a int a ined in Art 1 40 which s a id th a t on those est a tes which h a d forests the l a ndowner s should a llow the serfs to t a ke wood for fuel from the wood s a n d cop s es which he himself will indic a te a n d solely -

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THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

1 45

for their own indi sp ens a ble needs in the w a y in which this h a s been done hi therto Dur ing the short w a ve of reform which preceded the I n d ep en dence the pea s a nt rights to wood were restored by the Mold a vi a n la w of Mih a iu S t ur d z a in 1 8 44 a n d by the Mu n teni a n la w of B a rbu Stirbey in 1 8 5 1 B oth a llowed the pe a s a nts to t a ke de a d wood for fuel a n d a n y kind of tim ber for buildi n g a n d worki n g from the pl a ces indic a ted by the l a ndlords a g a in st a ye a rly p a ymen t of 6 lei per household These renewed privil eges did not sur vive the gre a t reform of 1 8 6 4 Ar t 9 of the rura l la w decl a red th a t the right possessed by the Mold a vi a n pea s a nts to the use of a n d by timber a ccordin g to Art 44 of the Mount a in L a w those on the M unteni a n est a tes in Virtue of Art 1 40 of the la w of April 23 1 8 5 1 sh a ll b e secured to them undim inished for the futur e After fi ft een ye a rs the l a ndowners sha ll b e entitled to dem a nd the freeing of the forests from t hi s servitude by frie n dly a greement or by decision of the Courts It is genera lly a dmitted th a t a fter the reform the p ea s a nts were denied a ll rights to timber nor wa s a n y me a sur e p a ssed dur ing the prescribed period of fift e en ye a rs to regula te the p e a s a nt rights to wood On the contra ry a new Forestry Code went b eyond even the Org a ni c St a tutes a n d completely stopped the p e a s a nts a ccess to wood thus fi na lly a brog a ting a right which h a d persisted through centur ies of foreign domi n a tion Neither the decree la w of 1 91 9 nor the la w of 1 921 m a de a n y a ttempt to de a l with thi s old w rong a n d with the needs of the pe a s a nts for t imber especi a lly under the circ umst a nces cre a ted by the a gra ri a n reform The Pe a s a nt Pa rty a lone pressed thi s question a n d pledged itself to cre a te commun a l woodla nds in a ddition to commun a l gr a zings when it sho ul d h a ve a n o or pp t uni t y of do i ng so The more ra dica l B ess a r a bi a n reform expropri a ted a ll forests a n d woodl a nds whenever the St a te sho uld fi n d it fin a n cia lly possible to t a ke them over ( Art The Tra nsylv a n i a n decree likewise a llowed the expropri a tion of forests a n d woodl a nds wherever thi s should b e deemed to b e i n the economic interest of the popul a tion It permitted even the cutting do wn of forests when this should b e dem a nded by a genera l economic interest ,

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1 46

THE N ATURE

OF THE

REFORM

From the l a ws p a ssed in 1 921 the Tra nsylva ni a n la w w a s the o nl y on e to concern itself with the expropri a tion of forests in its Ch a pter III entitled Commun a l Woodl a nds Articles 32— 7 of the la w de a lt with the me a ns for the cre a tion or completion of commun a l woodl a nds t a ki n g for this pur p ose fi rst the woodla nds a v a il a ble on those est a es w hi ch h a d b een expropri a ted in full t Wh ere this did not suffi c e the la w permitted the expropri a tion of forests b elonging to institutions a n d to priva te individu a ls down to 1 00 c a d a stra l j uga r s in the lowl a nds a n d to 200 in the mount a ins Fina lly the la w a ll owed the expropri a tion in c a se of need of com mun a l forests or of forest properties with a com m un a l ch a r a cter when their a re a exceeded the limi t l a id down in the la w ( 3 —5 c a d a stra l j uga rs p er household a ccording to the gre a ter or lesser a gricultura l ch a ra cter of the region ) The neglect of this problem by the a gra ri a n l a ws for the other three p a rts of the coun try w a s m a de good by a provi sion in tro d uce d in Ar t 1 32 of the new Co n stitution promulg a ted on M a rch 29 1 923 which decreed the expropri a tion of forests i n the rest of the country For the c a rrying out of this constitution a l provision a L a w for the s a tisfa ctio n of the norm a l requi rements in timber for fuel a n d buil ding of the rur a l popula tion in the Old K ingdom B ess a ra bi a a n d Bucovin a w a s p a ssed in 1 924 a s publi shed in the M on i torul Ofiei a l No 1 40 of J uly 1 1 924 The la w consisted of seven ch a pters a n d ni neteen a rticles It pro vid e d for the cre a tion of commun a l woodl a nds on the b a sis s m of m p er household in the lowl a nds s q q in the hills a n d 1 h a in the mount a in s The St a te w a s obli ged to pl a ce a t the dispos a l of the popul a tion the t i mb er which it p ossessed within a r a dius of 20 km from the centre of the commune Where such St a te forests did not e xist or were required for some genera l pub lic interest the la w a llowed the expropri a tion of forests b elongin g to public or priva te institutions a n d situ a ted like w ise within a r a dius of 20 km from the centre of the communes And when th a t too did not suffi ce priva te forests s itu a ted within th a t ra dius could b e expropri a ted Institutions a n d priva te owners were a llowed to ret a i n a s well The expropri a tion wa s m a de in f a vour of the a t le a st 1 00 h a Sta te ,

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OF

THE NATURE

THE REFORM

1 47

The exploit a tion of such commu n a l woo dl a nds w a s to b e m a de u n der the control of the St a te prefera bly through pea s a nt Wood for fuel a n d for building w a s to b e sold by c o op er a tives the St a te to the pe a s a nts a t prices fi x ed in a ye a rly t a riff which w a s to b e the s a me for St a te forests a n d for expropri a ted forests Ch a pter V I of this speci a l la w dea lt w ith the a dm i n i s tra tion of commun a l forests in Tra nsylva ni a a s well a s W ith th a t of communa l a n d c o opera tive forests in Bucovin a D Colon i za ti on All the four decrees la w co n templ a ted the settlement in undeveloped regions of pe a s a nts who h a d no l a nd a t a ll a n d of those who h a d in suffi ci en t l a nd a n d were willin g to exch a nge it for a fu ll holding elsewhere In the Old Kingdom coloniz a tion w a s de a lt with in det a il in Ch a pter XV Articles 1 1 4— 1 9 of the la w of 1 9 21 It entru s ted the whole work of coloniz a tion to the Centra l Resettlement Otfi ce which w a s to t a ke the necess a ry steps for the cre a tion of new Vill a ges or for the enl a rgement of existin g vill a ges The la w fores a w the gra nting of colo n iz a tion holdings up to 7 h a This me a nt th a t they could be of only 5 or 6 h a a n d the a rra ngement w a s severely criticized the Pe a s a nt P a rty insisting th a t the more c a p a ble pe a s a nts would either not a gree t o b e settled in l d b e un a ble to m a ke good on such a new region on 5 h a or wo u These undeveloped regions gener a lly h a d rem a ined a holding so bec a use of their less fertile soil Hence the Pea s a nt P a rty a dvoc a ted the gr a nting of coloniz a tion hold i ngs of 1 0—25 h a a ccordin g to the size of the household a n d to the equipment it possessed a n d this wa s to b e exclusive of comm un a l gra z ings For the a ssist a nce of the new settlers the Centra l Resettle ment Otfi c e w a s to est a blish depots of bui lding m a teri a ls imple ments a n d seed ; it wa s to gra nt credi ts a n d to execute the t e ch ni c a l works necess a ry Likewise it w a s to supply pl a ns for rur a l buildings a n d est im a tes of their cost eventu a lly giving a ssist a nce for their execution The s ums requi red for the est a blishment of such sm a llholdi n gs were to be a dva nced by the St a te h a lf of the expen s es rem a ining to b e p a id by the colonists w ithin a period of forty yea rs which w a s to begin to r un fi ve ye a rs a fter their settlement ; the other h a lf w a s to rem a in a ch a rge of the St a te For the rest the genera l provisions of the la w in so fa r a s they ,

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2

THE

1 48

NATU RE

OF

THE REFO R M

were not in con fli ct wi th the a rticles of this sp eci a l ch a pter a pplied to coloniz a tion a s well Th e B ess a r a bi a n decree la w a lso m a de provision for coloniz a tion After a discussion a s to the b est w a y of est a blishing such s ettlements preference w a s given to the crea tion of whole vill a ges ra ther th a n of isol a ted f a rms a s b eing more in keeping with the customs of the Rum a ni a n p eople a s well a s with the cultura l a n d a dministra tive needs of the moment

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S E C TI O N 3 TH E P R O B L E M OF C OM P E N S A TI O N In the discussion of the a gra ri a n reform the problem of compens a tion pl a yed a prominent role Ap a rt from politic a l conditions the economic position of l a ndowners tow a rds the end of the Wa r— when the short a ge of l a b our of live stock a n d of im plements b ec a me a cute — ca used most of them to resign them selves willin gly to the necessity of giving up their l a nd If they showed a n y resist a nce it w a s merely in a n a ttempt to obt a in a s l a rge a price a s possible for it The Constitution s a id th a t t h e price w a s to b e f a ir a n d p a id in a dva nce a n d th a t it w a s to b e fi x e d by the j udici a ry But in t hi s respect opinion v a ried gre a tly a n d p erh a ps not hi ng shows the ch a nge in the politic a l b a ck ground so cle a rly a s a comp a rison b etween the ide a s w hi ch the rulers of Rum a ni a h a d in their minds with reg a rd to compens a tion b efore the Wa r a n d the a ctu a l a rra ngemen ts they m a de in .

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1 91 7

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When in 1 9 1 4 M V i n til a Br ati a nu a dvoc a ted the expropri a tion of h a he me a nt the p e a s a nts to p a y for the l a nd lei p er h a ( i e a bout £40 in gold v a lues ) a t the r a te of Simil a rly M Ta ke Ionescu only a ccepted the ide a of expropri a tion in 1 9 1 4 on co n dition th a t the l a ndown ers should b e p a id in c a sh 1 e in gold As the tot a l cost would h a ve a mounted to some three milli a rd gold lei th a t condition m a de the reform im pr a ct i c a ble After the outbre a k of the Wa r M Ta ke Ione s cu a pp a rently a greed to the a rr a ngement by which the expropri a ted owners were to b e p a id in St a te bonds Dur ing th a t short i n terv a l the whole a ttitude of public opinion tow a rds property a ltered ra pidly Everywhere the St a te h a d felt itself entitled to t a ke wh a t it needed from the p ossessions .

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THE NATURE

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THE REFORM

1 49

of its citizens for the pursui t of the Wa r ; a n d in the degree in which th a t need c a used it to m a ke gre a ter dem a nds on the m a ss of its subj ects the m a ss a cqui red a proportion a te cl a im on the goodwill of the St a te If the right of the St a te to cre a te t a xes for the levelli ng of priva te we a lth w a s t a citly a ccepted a ll round how much more w a s it in its right to t a ke over p a rt of the we a lth in l a nd from a few of its citizens for the purpose of solvi n g thereby soci a l a n d economic problems on which the very existence of the St a te p erh a ps depended ? The form of th a t imposition w a s di c The mere reduction of t a t e d by the n a ture of the problem la t ifun d ia r y l a nd property could h a ve b een a chieved by a pro a t c a se however there woul d h a ve been In th re ssi ve l a nd t a x g no a ssur a nce th a t the l a nd wo ul d b e a cqui red by the pe a s a nts As this w a s the very a im of the reform for soci a l even more th a n for economic rea sons expropri a tion a sserted itself a s the only me a ns of a tt a ini ng th a t end If the reform w a s in the fi rs t pl a ce a me a sure for the a ssis t a nce of a v a nquished soci a l cl a ss then the m a in point which requi red to b e kept in mind in fi x ing the compens a tion w a s th a t 1 it should be j ust for the p e a s a nts Wh a t w a s soci a lly j ust in this c a se a ppe a re d economic a lly wise The n a tur e of the compens a tion w a s bound to h a ve a determining effect on the success of the new pe a s a nt proprietors to b e settled on the expropri a ted l a nd For a num ber of re a sons the price of l a nd a t the time of the reform w a s exceedin gly high in rel a tion to the exception a lly hi gh price of a gricultura l produce a t the end of the Wa r I t compens a tion were to h a ve been p a id in a ccord a nce with th a t price the l a n d would h a ve b een a cquired by the pea s a nts on conditions th a t must h a ve become oppressive when the price of a gricultura l produce b eg a n to fa ll The new sm a llholders would in such circum st a nces h a ve become bonded to the St a te a n d the l d h a ve sw a llowed the whole net profi t of the i r a nnuities wo u cultiv a tion It w a s essenti a l therefore so to fi x the price th a t its p a yment should fa ll lightly on the shoulders of the new pe a s a nt proprietors The legisl a tor h a d two a ltern a tives before hi m : either to fi x the price very low or to m a ke the St a te t a ke ,

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S ee a ch a r a cte ri s tic di s cu s s i on R om d n es c, un e 23 a n d 24, 1 9 1 7 1

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u e by Dr

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L e on

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the

N ea mul

150

THE N ATURE

OF

THE REFORM

p a rt of it upon itself The a rra ngements a dopted in the Rum a ni a n reform were in f a ct b a sed upon b oth those possibilities The im p osition of a t ax on c a pit a l which in the c a se of l a nd property would inevit a bly h a ve t a ken the form of a tr a nsfer of p a rt of the prop erty to the St a te w a s discussed in the Wa r period in most of the belli gerent co untries In Rum a ni a the a mendment to the Constitution of 1 91 7 a n d t h e subsequent decrees la w which re a lized the reform contempl a ted no connexion wh a tever b etween the a gra ri a n problem a n d the fi n an ci al problem The a gr a ri a n reform imposed itself quite a p a rt from a n fi n a n ci a l need y of the St a te ; in fa ct it w a s cle a r from the b egin ni ng th a t the St a te would h a ve to b ea r some of the cost of the reform Hence the needs of the p e a s a nts coincided on th a t poin t with the diffi cult i es of the St a te The problem re s olved itself therefore in to fin ding a method which should t a ke a ccoun t of those im pecuni a ry circumst a nces of both St a te a n d pe a s a nts whil e b a sin g compens a tion on a criterion th a t woul d b e a s f a ir a s possible a n d genera lly a pplic a ble The m a rket v a lue of l a nd did not offer reli a ble guid a nce b ec a use of the specul a tive a n d s oci a l elements w hich entered in its form a tion ; n or did the rent a l v a lue of l a nd especi a lly in Rum a ni a where a t a n y r a te b efore 1 907 it rose a b ove the v a lue of the revenue th a t could b e obt a ined un der norm a l conditions from the respective est a tes Those c a ses in which la n d ow m er s or ten a nts invested p a rt of the re a li zed pr ofit s in improvements which would a t le a s t h a ve m a i nt a ined if not incre a sed the re a l v a lue of the l a nd were very r a re in deed ; so th a t the a nnu a l pr ofi t s were genera lly hi gher th a n would nor m a lly b e a chieved by the us e of the instrument of production These circum st a nces a n d the a ctivity of the entrepreneur lik ewi s e m a de it d iffi cult to b a s e the estim a te on a thi rd possible formul a on the Germ a n theory of utiliz a tion v a lue me a n ing the v a lue th a t could b e obt a ined by using the obj ect properly The only w a y to a ppro a ch a s ne a r a s possible to re a lity in Rum a n i a wa s to b a s e the s iz e of the compens a tion on the net v a lue of production All theory however went by the bo a rd in the summer of 1 9 1 7 Circum s t a nces were such th a t the St a te could not dem a nd much from the pe a s a nts a n d could offer very little itself to .

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OF

THE NATURE

THE REFORM

15 1

the l a ndowners Spea king in the Ch a mb er M Ta ke Ionescu a ddressed a n a ppe a l to the l a ndowners to b e a r well in mi n d the n a tur e of the vote th a t w a s b ei n g a sked of them : Th a t i s w h y s in c e Augu s t 1 9 1 4 I h a v e b e e n s a y ing t h a t it wil l n o l on ge r be p os s ib l e t o pa y in ca s h a n d t h e r e fo r e t h a t o ur e xp r o p r ia t ion wi l l h a v e t h e c h a r a c t e r a l so of a s p o l ia t io n o f a c o n fi s c a t io n — if y ou l i ke — o f a r e du c t i o n o f we a lt h Th a t i s t h e t ru t h a b ou t t h e e xp r o p r i a t ion wh ic h w e a r e p r o p os in g t o y ou It is a s we l l t h a t w h e n v o t in g up on t h e m e a su r e w h i c h w e a re s u b m i tt in g t o y ou t h e l a n d own e r s s h ou l d k n o w t h a t t h e y a r e v ot in g n ot m e r e l y fo r a t r a n s fo r m a t ion of v a l ue s bu t a t t h e s a m e t im e for a r e du ct io n of v a l u e s A Th e E xp r op ma ti on P r i ce Even so the fi xi n g of the comp ens a tion proved a thorny problem especi a lly in the Old Kingdom where the price of l a nd a s well a s its revenue v a ried gre a tly from region to region a n d from ye a r to ye a r S ci en t ifi c inquiries on the va rious f a ctors determini n g the va lue of l a nd did not exist There w a s no m a p of the country s rura l economy in rel a tion to its geology or of the soil s fertility In co n sequence the a uthors of the decree la w were forced to give a n el a stic construe tion to the text of Art 1 8 which indic a ted the w a ys a n d me a ns for estim a ting the va lue of the l a nd a llowing a lmost a n y f a ctor to b e t a ken into a ccount for th a t purpos e — s a le price regiona l rent a l estim a tes m a de by credit i n stitutions the net revenue per h a expert estim a tes of the qu a lity of the l a nd the l a nd t a x & c & c The only settled indic a tio n w a s tha t the price to b e fi x e d w a s in no c a se to b e higher th a n twenty times the region a l rent a l fi x e d in 1 9 1 6 for a ra ble l a nd a n d fift e en times for gra zing ( the origin a l dra ft h a vin g t a ken the rent a l fi x e d in 1 907 which of course would h a ve b een lower ) But the division of the country into regions a n d the fi x in g of the region a l rent a l by the Superior Agricultura l Council h a d not followed a u n it a ry a n d scienti fic method Loc a l circumst a nces especi a lly the rel a tions b etween l a ndowners a n d pe a s a nts frequen tly c a used est a tes of a simil a r n a ture a n d qu a li ty to b e cla s sifi e d in di fferent c a tegories A Memora ndum of the Mold a vi a n L a ndowners pub lished in 1 920 a sserted th a t no l a n dow n er h a d ever let l a n d to the pe a s a nts a t the fi x e d region a l rent except in return for l a b our the price of which w a s likewise fi x ed r egion a lly B efore 1 907 the l a nd w a s given to the p e a s a nts in retur n for l a bour The r eform la w of .

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152

THE NATURE

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th a t ye a r dem a nded two sep a r a te contra cts for l a bour an d for l a nd with v a lues c a lcul a ted in money When the contra cts were signed in the a utumn the r a tes for l a bour were 35 — 40 per cent lower th a n when the l a bour w a s a ctu a lly p erformed a n d the rent a l w a s fi x e d a ccordi ngly low The Comm i ssions whi ch fi x e d those r a tes did not concern themselves w ith the a ctu a l v a lue of the l a nd but merely with the rel a tion b etween price of l a nd a n d cost of l a bour on the b a sis of the exch a nge th a t h a d b een custom a ry in the region When the l a nd w a s let for money the rent w a s 70— 8 0 per cent higher or even double the regiona l rent On the other h a nd m a ny spokesmen of the p e a s a nts a sserted th a t the region a l rent w a s seldom obt a i ned in pr a ctice a n d th a t e g none of the p e a s a nt co oper a tives of le a sing whi ch genera lly p a id high prices h a d le a ses a t the region a l rents but a lw a ys b elow them As a result the policy l a id down in Art 1 8 cre a ted a s much diss a tisfa ction a mong the pe a s a nts a s a mong 1 the l a ndo w ners The multiplying of the region a l rent by twenty corresponded to a c a pit a liz a tion a t 5 p er cent P a ym ent w a s to ensue a s soon a s the fi n a l me a surement of the expropri a ted a re a h a d b een determined The origin a l a greement a rrived a t in 1 9 1 7 be tween Libera ls a n d Conserv a tives a pp a rently contempl a ted the expropri a tion of h a wh ile the rem a ini ng ha were to b e purch a sed by the St a te a t 1 0 p er cent a b ove the 2 expropri a tion price th a t difference rem a ini n g to b e p a id in c a sh The revised dra ft of the constitutio n a l a mendment a b a ndoned th a t ide a a n d the decree la w provided th a t p a yment w a s to follow in St a te b onds b e a ring 5 p er cent interest a n d p a y a ble in fift y yea rs This interest w a s a pp a rently to b e int a n gible even if the St a te might l a ter b e a ble to convert on b etter terms Institutions were to be p a id in perpetu a l bonds The St a t e w a s to t a ke upon itself up to 35 per cent of the expropri a tion price i n order to lessen the burden of the resettled p e a s a nts This w a s con s idered good policy not only a s a me a ns for giving the p e a s a nts a ch a nce to m a ke good but a lso b ec a use it dis ,

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bill pre pa re d by t h e Pe sa n t P a rty i n 1 9 20 prop os e d t o b a se t h e price on t h e This a v e r a ge b e tw e n t h e e s ti ma t e s of t h e t a xi ng a uth o riti es a n d t h e r e gi on a l r e n t w o uld h a v e s implifi d t h e wh l e probl m 1

Th e

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S ec B as iles e u, op

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ci t

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p 85 .

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OF

THE NATUR E

THE REFORM

15 3

tributed a mong a ll the soci a l cl a sses the cost of a reform con And thir dl y s id e r e d esse n ti a l for the welf a re of the coun try it w a s thought j ust th a t the pe a s a nts should not pa y the whole price a s they received only the surfa ce wh ile the subsoil p a ssed into the possession of the St a te If the est a te concerned w a s mortg a ged the creditor w a s to receive th a t p a rt of the debt which a tt a ched to the expropri a ted a re a in expropri a tion b onds ret a ined from the compens a tio n due to the proprietor Until the fin a l tra nsfer of the l a nd the l a ndowners were to receive for the expropri a ted a re a a rent a l in a ccorda nce with the regiona l t a riff or the rent indic a ted in lea ses where such le a ses existed a n d the a greed rent w a s less th a n the region a l rent In B ess a ra bi a the price of the l a nd w a s c a lcul a ted on the b a sis of the rent obt a ined by the owners in the period 1 9 1 0— 1 4 Th a t rent w a s c a pit a liz ed a t 5 % per cent the di fference of per ce n t corresponding to the hi gher returns on money in th a t provi n ce For those est a tes which h a d not b een let out the B ess a ra bi a n decree took the net pr ofi t reduced by h a lf one h a lf of the pr ofi t representing a ccord ing to the B ess a ra bi a n legisl a tor the va lue of the person a l work a n d the remunera tion a s entrepreneur of the former own er B oth fa ctors were to b e corrobora ted by me a ns of v a rious criteri a of eva lu a tion w hi ch were n a med in the decree a n d were sim il a r to those l a id down for the Old Kingdom In gener a l the price of the l a nd w a s fix e d by the Courts a t 8 00 1ei per h a not without m a ny protests from the pe a s a nts who insisted th a t the l a nd h a d been given them by the Revolution The St a te w a s to t a ke upon itself 25 per cent of the expropri a tion price Here the St a te s sh a re w a s sm a ller but it w a s d efi n it ely fi x ed wherea s the sh a re in the Old Kingdom w a s l a id down a s a m a ximum lim it P a ym ent w a s to follow a s i n the Old Kingdom in b onds bea ring 5 per cent a n d p a y a ble in fi ft y yea rs Mortg a ges were to b e p a id off from the b onds to which the l a ndowner w a s entitled a n d in the order of their inscription If such debts exceeded the v a lue of the bonds which the l a ndowner w a s to receive the rem a in i ng debt w a s to b ecome a ch a rge upon th a t p a rt of the property which the l a ndo w ner ret a ined In Bucovin a the price wa s to be est a bli shed a fter a numb er .

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15 4

THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

of criteri a t a ken a t their pre w a r st a nding Rent w a s to b e one of them a n d w a s to b e multipli ed a s in the Old Ki ngdom by twenty The decree for Buco vin a h a d two i n terestin g differences in th a t it l a id down the pos sibility of the l a ndown ers bein g p a id in c a sh a s well ; it did not indic a te when a n d how this w a s to b e done a n d it is more th a n prob a ble th a t in f a ct no c a sh w a s p a id a t a ll In the second pl a ce the l a ndo w ners were to receive not St a te bonds but sp eci a l l a nd b onds a pp a rently gu a ra nteed with the expropri a ted l a nd The b onds were to b e a r i n terest a t 5 p er cent In Tra n s ylva ni a the price w a s to b e estim a ted with the help of va rious f a ctors sim il a r to those indic a ted in the other decrees But the commissions were not bound by a rigid li mit determi ned by the re a l or region a l rent but were left a gre a ter l a titude th a n elsewhere in fi xin g the price As a s a fegu a rd the decree merely s a id th a t if in consequence the price were to b e fix e d excessively high or exceedingly low it could b e m od ifi e d in Virtue of strong re a sons App e a ls reg a rding the expropri a tion price were settled ultim a tely by the Court of Appe a l P a yment w a s to follow in Tra nsylva ni a more promptly a s the l a ndowner w a s entitled to it a s soon a s his l a nd h a d b een decl a red expropri a ted If the price w a s not fi n a lly fi x e d the l a ndowner w a s to receive a corre Th s on d in e n ce a nk dv p yment from the Agr ri n B a a a a a p g p e a s a nts could therefo r e b e convinced th a t a ll connexion b etween the former owner a n d the expropri a ted l a nd h a d ce a sed where a s the p a yme n t in the Old Kingdom of rent during the intermedi a ry period v a guely m a int a ined the title of the l a nd owner The rent due for the l a nd which h a d not b een fin a lly tra nsferred to the pe a s a nts w a s to b e p a id by them to the Agra ri a n B a nk The 1 921 la w introduced cert a in ch a nges in the m a tter of compens a tion The r a pid f a ll of the Rum a ni a n exch a nge h a d c a u s ed the compen s a tion previously fixed to lo s e the gre a ter p a rt of its re a l va lue When Ge n era l Averescu c a me to power therefore he a greed to ra ise the compens a tion to sixty times the regio n a l rent fi x e d in 1 9 1 6 Opposition from within a n d from out s ide his p a rty forced the G overnment t o compromise a t forty times the rent fix e d by the region a l commissions in 1 9 1 6 -

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THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

15 5

for the period 1 91 7— 22 this b ein g the m a x imum limit The con cession w a s criticiz ed a s ra ising excessively the burden s th a t woul d f all upon the St a te ; a n d bec a use it gra nted a d efini t e compens a tion for a loss c a used by tempora ry circumst a nces At tha t tim e the Liberal Pa rty still hoped th a t the exch a nge could b e rev a lorized a n d they preferred a n a rra n gement by which the l a ndowners wo ul d h a ve b een given in return for the fa ll in the exch a nge a hi gher interest for a cert a in period or a p a rt p a yment in c a sh L a nd fi t only for gra zing a n d expropri a ted for the pur pose of communa l gra z ings w a s to b e p a id a t b est with twenty times the region a l rents for th a t period The l a tter provision orch a rds a n d other pl a nt a tions a s well a pplied to Vin ey a rds — 6 of the 1 921 la w determined the methods of Art ticles 6 A r 9 7 ( p a yment which with i n signifi ca n t exceptions rem a ined the s a me The second ch a n ge of a s those est a blished by the decree la w import a nce m a de by the 1 9 21 la w w a s th a t it incre a sed the sh a re th a t w a s to be b orne by the St a te a t 5 0per cent of the expropri a tion price in View of the higher level a t which it w a s t o b e c a lcul a ted The third ch a nge referred to m a tters of pro ,

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The price w a s to be fi x e d by the District Commissions b oth p a rties h a vin g the right to a pply to the Courts of Appe a l A confi denti a l cir cul a r of the Ministry of J ust ice h a d given the Courts of Appe a l freedom to go b eyond the region a l t a ri ffs in fi x in g the price of l a nd S ome memb ers of the Courts took a dv a nt a ge of this permission others stuck to the letter of the decree la w of 1 9 1 8 ; with the res ul t th a t prices v a ried gre a tly from one district to a nother To st 0p this confusion the united Opposition sub m i t t e d in December 1 920 a bill to suspend a ll a ppe a ls i n m a tters of compens a tion till the p a ss ing of the fin a l la w Not w it h s t a n d ing a protest to the K ing from the Union of Agricultur a l Syndic a tes the 1 921 la w did in fa ct remove the m a tter of compens a tion from the j urisdiction of the Courts The J ud ici a r y h a d not the me a ns of inquirin g in to the det a ils of e a ch c a se ; a n d the procedure origina lly fi x e d by the Constitution for occ a sio n a l expropri a tions thre a tened when a pplied to a n a tion a l expropri a tion to sw a mp the Courts for m a ny ye a rs to come under a flood of such a ppea ls V a rious l a ndo w ners took the m a tter to the ,

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15 6

OF THE

THE NATURE

REFORM

Court of Ca ss a tion ( the Rum a n i a n supreme Court ) a skin g it to condemn the ch a nge a s a bre a ch of the Constitution But i n a test c a se introduced by the M i nistry of Agricul tur e a f ull b ench of this Co urt decided on April th a t it h a d no j ur i s di c tion a n d sent a ll the c a ses to the Agra ri a n Commi ttee a s the highest a uthority 1 n m a tters of expropri a tion The decrees la w further cont a ined a num ber of provisions referrin g to the position of ten a nts a n d to the p a ym ent of crops fo und on the expropri a ted sur fa ce The decree for the Old Kingdom c a ncell ed the le a se of a ten a nt in so fa r a s it referred to the expropri a ted l a nd If th a t a re a exceeded a qu a rter of the whole est a te the ten a nt w a s entitled to give up the whole le a se The s a me provision w a s included in the decree for Bucovi n a The Tra nsylv a ni a n decree only mentioned the c a ncelli ng of the le a se in so fa r a s it concerned the expropri a ted a re a Accor d in g to the decrees for the Old Kingdom Bucovin a a n d Tra nsylvani a the crops found on the expropri a ted p a rt were to b e t a ken over by the p ea s a nts In B ess a ra bi a such a provision would h a ve been s u er fl uous a s the l a nd w a s in f a ct a lre a dy in the h a nds of p the pe a s a nts when the decree w a s promulg a ted In Bucovi na the l a ndowner w a s entitled to the refun d of exp enses m a de w ith the expropri a ted crops A simil a r provi sion g a ve much trouble in the Old Kingdom either b ec a use the p a rties coul d not a gree or b ec a use the pe a s a nts h a d not the me a ns wi th which to pa y for the crop A sub sequent m odifi ca t ion a ll owed a sh a ring of the crop between l a ndo w ners a n d pe a s a nts a s in the custom a ry m é t a y a ge system Likewise the Tra nsylva ni a n owners were entitled to comp ens a tion for exp enses i ncurred The s a me a rr a ngement w a s to b e followed for the p a yment of stock t a ken over by the new sm a llholders The price of the woodl a nds expropri a ted in Vir tue of the sp eci a l la w for the Old Kingdom B ess a ra bi a a n d Bucovin a w a s to be c a lcul a ted a n d p a id in a w a y sim ila r to th a t for the a ra ble l a nd The respective provisions were cont a ined in Ch a pter III of the speci a l la w of 1 9 24 In B essa 1 a bia the resettled B Th e Resettlement P r ice p e a s a nts g a ve in 1 e t ur n for the document 1 e cogni z ing the ir title to the l a nd a nother by which they un d e1 t o ok to pay the a nnuities ,

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OF

THE NATURE

157

THE REFORM

These were c a lcul a ted a t 5 per cent interest a n d 1 per cent Fa ilure to pa y within a given period a mortis a tion a n d expe n ses c a used the hol d ing to p a ss for tempora ry a dministra tion to Our O th ee In c a se of continued fa ilure to pa y the holdi n gs were to b e sold a t publi c a uction to c ul tiv a tors only Until the full pa y ment of the price the l a nd w a s un s a le a ble In Buco vin a the exp enses for p a rcell a tion a n d a dministra tion were a dded to the origin a l price On the other h a nd the St a te took upon itself 5 0 per cent of it a s in the Old Kingdom The p e a s a nts could pa y in whole or in p a rt the rem a ining a mount becoming a mortg a ge p a y a ble in fifty ye a rs a t 5 p er cent Even if p a id in full the holding could not b e sold or mortg a ged during a p eriod of ten ye a rs In Tra nsylva ni a the holdin g could in a n y c a se not b e sold till .

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The 1 921 la w for the Old Kingdom a llowed the pe a s a nts a period of twenty ye a rs for the p a yment of the price on condi tion th a t they p a id a t the outset a t le a st 20 p er cent of the sum The Agra ri a n Committee w a s empowered to w a ive this condition in the c a se of poor pe a s a nts ( Art Pa yment for the com muh a l gra zin gs cre a ted by the L a w of 1 9 20 w a s to b e m a de under the s a me conditions by the communes concerned On t a king power Genera l Averescu issued a decree la w in M a rch 1 920 which pro vided th a t the pe a s a nts were to pay o nl y the origi n a l cost while the in terest w a s to b e borne by the St a te Afterw a rds the Government discovered th a t the bur den would b e excessive a n d the promise w a s rescin ded Everywhere therefore the pe a s a nts p a id for the l a nd less th a n the price received by the former owners This w a s a ccepted by a ll Pa rties a s inevit a ble The onl y ch a nge which the Con s er va t ives proposed through M Ma r h ilom an in 1 9 20 w a s one g of proportion not of division They w a nted the pea s a nts to pa y the whole of the price fix ed on the b a sis of the decree la w of 1 91 8 a n d the owners to receive a fa ir compens a tion fix ed by the Courts ; the difference rem a in ing to b e b orne by the St a te It is cle a r however a s the p e a s a nts form the bulk of the t a xp a yers th a t the m a j or portion of th a t p a rt of the expropri a tion price whi ch in form h a s b een remitted them by the St a te w ill in fa ct ,

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15 8

THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

still b e p a id by the p ea s a nts themselves Most of wh a t they g a in on the a nnuities they wi ll lose on a nnu a l t a xes .

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S E C TI O N

4

M EAS U RES

P R O D U C TI O N A Th e A ssoci a ti on s of Resettlemen t ( Ob ii t To s a fegu a rd s ) the continu a tion of the a gricultura l work notwithst a ndi n g the disturb a nce w hi ch w a s b ound to b e c a used by the a ppli c a tion of the reform a n d by the gener a l short a ge of live a n d de a d stock the l a nd though expropri a ted a t once wa s not h a nded over in the Old Kingdom direct to individu a l pe a s a nts Inste a d usin g a s a model the ge n era lly successful p e a s a nt co O per a tives of le a si n g it w a s decided to tra nsfer the l a nd in e a ch commun e in the fi r st pl a ce to speci a lly cre a ted obs tii i e a ssoci a tions of those p e a s a nts who c a me within the purview of the pro vision for the gra nting of l a nd It is interestin g to note th a t a s i mil a r prop os a l though me a nt in pra ctice to go fa rther h a d b een m a de by the l a ndowners themselves Fe a rin g prob a bly th a t they might b e un a ble a fter the expropri a tion to secure enough l a b our or only on he a vy conditions the Molda vi a n l a ndowners proposed in 1 9 1 9 th a t there should b e formed on e a ch est a te a n a ssoci a tion of production The l a ndowner w a s to bring the rem a inder of his est a te a n d such stock a s he h a d a n d the p e a s a nts theirs s o th a t nothing should rem a in untilled The a ctu a l legisl a tion contempl a ted merely the est a blishment of Vill a ge a ssoci a tions modelled on the co op era tives of le a sing e a ch p e a s a nt cultiva ting a n individu a l p a rt for a d ura tion of some three to fi ve ye a rs so a s to g a in a respite for the gra du a l c a rrying out of the res ettlement with due reg a rd to economic considera tions The experience of the Rura l Offi ce cre a ted in 1 907 h a d shown th a t the settlement of new cultiv a tors could not b e m a de hurriedly S ome of such Vi lla ge a ssoci a tions were in f a ct cre a ted on the strength of the 1 9 1 9 decree la w by the Centra l Resettlement O ffice They were governed by the la w for Fopu la r B a n ks a n d V ill a ge Co oper a tives They took over the ex ro r ia t e d l a nd a s soon a s it w a s det a ched from the resp ective p p est a te E a ch a ssoci a tion w a s in the ch a rge of a n offi cia l expert who divided the fi eld s a mong the pe a s a nts a n d who h a d to see to it th a t the necess a ry seed a nim a ls a n d m a chin es were forth .

TH E

F OR

P R O T E C TI O N

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THE NATURE

THE REFORM

15 9

coming a n d properly used The a ssoci a tio n s thus a cted a s a ch a nnel for the di stribution of the me a n s of production th a t were l a cki n g a fter the Wa r a s well a s a n instrume n t for the economic The somewh a t a n d technic a l educ a tion of the new sm a llh olders ch a otic st a te of thin gs which followed the expropri a tion in B ess a ra bi a brought out the a dva nt a ges of the system used in the Old Kin gdom In the province a cross the Pruth the resettle ment a uthorities found it b eyond their p owers to keep in touch with the individu a l pe a s a nts especi a lly during the e a rly period of the reform In View of these obvious a n d considera ble a dva nt a ges the a rr a ngement by which the l a nd w a s h a nded over to such a ssoci a tions until the completion of the me a surement a n d of the form a li ties of s a le w a s con fi rm e d by Ar ticles 66— 8 of the L a w of 1 9 21 w ith cert a in im port a nt m o difi ca t i on s The texts concerned contempl a ted giving to these bodies the ch a ra cter of a ssoci a tions for a gricultura l exploit a tion They were to be dire cted by a n a dministr a tor a ppointed by the Centr a l Resettlement O th ee a n d by two deleg a tes elected by the pe a s a nts These ch a nges were m a de bec a use i n m a ny of the a ssoci a tions formed on the strength of the decree la w the di recting offi cia l experts h a d a bused their powers a n d the pe a s a nts h a d h a d no me a ns of controlling them Th a t incre a sed the suspicion entert a in ed by some of the p ea s a nts th a t they h a d b een freed of the l a ndlords o n ly to be brought under the tutel a ge of the St a te There is genera l a greement th a t if the pe a s a nts compl a in ed of the m a nner in which some of the a ssoci a tio n s were a dministered they did not obj ect to the system itself This w a s a lso the O pinion of the m a j ority of the a gricultur a l counci llors when they were consulted by M Ga rofli d in 1 9 20 an d it wa s then a greed to ch a nge the n a me a n d the workin g of the a ssoci a tions But the politici a ns h a d discovered a fresh opportunity for p osing a s the protectors of the pe a s a nts a n d they m agn ifi e d the spora di c compl a ints into a gener a l griev a nce Under pressure from his own chief Genera l Averescu M Ga r ofl id h a d fin a lly to d rop the whole system ; the Libera ls a fterw a rds concurring After 1 921 the l a nd w a s h a nded over to indi vidu a l pe a s a nts a s soon a s it w a s t a ken from the l a ndowners .

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THE

1 60

NATURE

THE REFORM

OF

f the Nem Hold i ngs Some wise a n d in p a rt dra stic pro visions for the a dva ncement of cultiv a tion were l a id down by Articles 1 37—41 of the la w of 1 921 The Cen tra l Resettlement Office wa s empowered to devise a n d im pose me a ns for the b etter cultiva tion of sm a llholdings for the best p ossible use of the comm un a l gra zin gs a s well a s for the m a rket ing of the sm a llh olders produce All recipients of hol di ngs situ a ted a t a dist a nce gre a ter th a n 1 5 km from their pl a ce of r e s i d en ce w e r e obli ged to move within three ye a rs to the com mune to which the new holdi ng b elonged F a ilure to ob serve these obliga tions mi ght involve the loss of the holding a t the dem a nd of the Resettlement Offi ce a n d upon a decision of the loc a l tribun a l ; the holder recei ving b a ck wh a tever p a rt of the price he h a d p a id a lr e a dy B

Th e Culti va ti on

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S E C TI O N A

5

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M EAS U RES

Con s olid a ti on

T H E S A F E G U AR D I NG PR O P E R T Y

OF

F OR

P EASAN T

The pieceme a l di stribution of pe a s a nt property m a de of consolid a tion a me a sur e dest i ned in the words of M Mih a la ch e to revolutionize our whole system of dw a rf property He brought ex a mples from a trip through Tr a n syl v a ni a to show th a t the p e a s a nts were not a g a inst it on prin ciple They disliked it where it h a d b een a bused in order to deprive t hem of their good l a nd but wherever it h a d b een c a rried out f a irly the p e a s a n ts were a sking for a second consolid a tion M Mih a la ch e i n sisted th a t such a complex oper a tion shoul d b e c a rried out on the b a sis of a proper sur vey a n d ground b ooks neither of which exi sted in Rum a ni a Ou the other h a nd the reform offered a unique opportunity for initi a ting a process of consolid a tion The me a surement a n d distribution of fi eld s h a d in a n y c a se to b e undert a ken on a l a rge sc a le ; a n d whe n the Sta te c a me with a gift in its h a nds it w a s in a better p osition to impo s e a re a rra ngement of fi eld s upon the pe a s a nts w ithout rousing their suspicions For these re a sons the bill prep a red by M Mih a la ch e provided in Art 7 1 the consolid a tion of holdings but hesit a ted to m a ke it compulsory Existing hold ings a n d the expropri a ted a re a were to b e p ooled together a n d fresh comp a ct holdings given from .

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OF

THE NATURE

THE REFORM

1 61

this to a ll those entitled ; but for t hi s the con sent of one h a lf of the pea s a nt owners w a s necess a ry in e a ch vi ll a ge M Ga r ofli d li kewise introduced the pri n ciple in Ar t 1 36 of his la w rem a rking th a t consolid a tion which elsewhere h a d b een a n im provement for cultiva tion in Rum a ni a would me a n a n ew a griculture But he a dmitted th a t the problem w a s a s complex a ltogether a s it w a s import a nt a n d he therefore a greed to de a l wi th it i n The bill w a s prep a red a n d the dra ft is a pp a r e n tly a speci a l la w to b e found in the a rchives of the Ce n tra l Resettlement O th ee But politici a ns in tervened once a g a in a n d b a rred a me a sure whi ch they fe a red might m a ke them unpopul a r with the pe a s a nts The question h a s rem a ined in a bey a nce to this d a y In B ess a ra bi a the problem w a s discussed in the a gra ri a n com mission a ppointed by the Council of the L a nd to prep a re the reform but the deputies could not b e i n duced to a dopt i t In its comm en ts upon the fi r st reform bill the Society of Agr on om s i n sisted on the e n ormous im port a nce of the problem a n d on the uni que opportu n ity w hi ch they now h a d of solvin g i t F a ilure to legisl a te such a me a sure must b e a ttributed solely to the a nxiety of po li tici a ns to do nothing th a t might m a ke them unpopul a r on the l a nd ; though it would b e d iffi cult to prove th a t the p e a s a nts were re a lly a g a in st it B Th e M a i n ten a n ce of P easa n t Hold i ngs I n her i tan ce Th e excessive splitti n g up of p e a s a nt holdin gs h a d b een l a rgely c a used by the complete equ a lity a mong the sever a l heirs t o a l a nd property i n Rum a ni a n civi l la w Hen ce the recogni tion of the need to consoli d a te the sc a ttered p e a s a nt fi eld s g a ve rise to the complement a ry dem a nd for a m ea s m e which should check i n the future th a t di sintegr a ti n g process The former a gr a ri a n l a ws h a d m a de the pe a s a nt holdin gs in a lien a ble but h a d done nothing to prevent their b eing broken up The a b sence of a n industri a l outlet for the pop ul a tion a n d the fa n a tic a tt a chment of the p e a s a nts to the l a nd h a d in consequence led to the con t in uous division of the p e a s a n t hold i ngs The 1 921 la w for the Old Kin gdom decreed by Art 1 26 th a t a r a ble l a nd could n ot b e divided by inh erit a nce b elow 2 h a in the lowl a nds a n d 1 h a in the mount a ins a n d hill s The s a me pro vision w a s l a id down by Ar t 9 5 of the la w for B ucovin a In .

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15 69 69 -

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1 62

THE NATURE

THE RE F ORM

OF

Tra nsylva ni a the indivisible m in im um w a s fix ed a t 2 j ugar s ; the B ess a ra bi a n la w s a id nothin g a b out this No restriction w a s pl a ced up on the division of f a rm y a rds kitchen g a rdens Vin ey a rds pl a nt a tions & c Experts considered th a t 3 h a w a s the sm a ll est a re a on which m a chines a n d implements coul d b e r a tion a lly used ; a n d th a t w a s the mini mum which the b ill of M Mih ala ch e h a d proposed to decl a re indivisible In the second pl a ce Art 1 27 g a ve e a ch l a n down er the right a s a n exception from the Civil Code to le a ve the property to one of his heirs a lone the others bein g comp en s a ted by the new owner in money Pro vision w a s m a de for the fi xin g of the comp ens a tion in such a w a y a s to prevent excessive obli g a tions b eing incurred by the new o w ner If the test a tor fa il ed to indi c a te a n heir in this m a nner a n d the division of the holding wo ul d c on fl i ct with the provisions of the pre vious a rticle the la w em powered the j udici a l a uthorities to desig n a te a mon g the heirs one who should t a ke over the holdin g on the co n ditio n s fi x e d by this Article Thirdly sm a llh olders were empowered by Ar t 1 34 a s a n exception to the Civil Code to le a ve the i n di visible m i nim um to a single heir even if its v a lue exceeded th a t in di vi d ua l s proportion a l sh a re a n d without oblig a tion for test a tor or heir to contribute the difference in money Art 1 33 a llowed a n y l a ndowner in the Old Ki ng dom a n d in Bucovin a to decl a re indivisible a n a re a up to 5 0 h a of his property which thus woul d b e i nh erited under the conditions l a id down in this eighteenth ch a pter of the la w An obli g a tory min imum of 2 h a a n d a f a cult a tive m a x i mum of 5 0 h a were thus brought by the la w into ent a il in the Old Kingdom a n d in Bucov in a The Tra nsylva ni a n fi gur e s were the s a me but referred t o c a d a stra l j uga r s S a le an d M or tgage of He ld i ngs All the previous a gr a ri a n l a ws h a d ende a voured to protect the pe a s a nt prop erty by m a kin g it ina lien a ble The pe a s a nts consequent in a bility to sell or buy ch a i n ed them to their hold ings which were continuously d iminished in size by inherit a nce ; a s a result their l a bour lost v a lue with the lo s s of mobility a n d a ll selection a mong the p e a s a nt cultiva tors wa s checked The new a gra ri a n l a ws a b a ndoned a system which ens ur ed .

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THE NATURE

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1 63

THE REFORM

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noth ing but the pe a s a nts p overty Holdings a s we h a ve seen co ul d not b e broken up b elo w a cert a in minimum whi le they coul d b e left a s a whole to one only of the heir s They could henceforw a rd b e bought a n d sold— a fter a cert a in period a n d on cert a in conditions While a boli sh in g in a li en a bility so a s to give free pl a y to a n a tur a l selection a mo n g cultiv a tors the legisl a tor w a nted to ensur e th a t sm a llhol di n gs would rem a in in the possession of the cla ss for which the reform h a d b een en a cted The s a fegu a rd of the origin a l la w b eing deemed in suffi ci en t a new me a sure w a s promulga ted in M a rch 1 925 which g a ve the St a te a right of pre emption on hold ings secured under the l a test reform a s well a s on a ll those purch a sed in e a rlier ye a rs from the s a le of St a t e dom a in s or through the Rura l Office If the St a te did not exercise its right then the pe a s a nts were free to dispose of the i r lots on the follo w in g con di tions l a id do w n in Art II pu ch a sers h a ve to b e Rum a ni a n citizens cultiv a tors a Th e r ( ) or gra dua tes of a n a gricul tura l school residi ng a n d c a rryin g on a gricultur e in the comm une in whi ch the holding is situ a ted ; holdings could be sold a n d b ought only to the f ull exte n t in which they were origin a lly obt a ined ; ( 0) they could onl y b e sold fi ve ye a rs a fter their own ers h a d obt a ined the fin a l title deeds which followed the p a yment of the price in full ; l a 2 a a a the purch a ser shou d not own more th n r ble 5 h d ( ) property constituted on the b a sis of the present a n d previous l a nd l a ws ( Ar t 1 22 of the 1 9 21 la w h a d fi x e d this limit a t 25 h a in the highl a n d a n d hill regions a n d a t 1 00 h a in the pl a in ) The St a te s right of pre emption w a s to b e exercised through the Centra l Resettlement Offi c e The l a nd thus obt a in ed w a s to be given to pe a s a nts who h a d not yet b een res ettled in the order in which they were i nscribed in the resettlement lists The s a me la w provided th a t house g a rden a n d f a rm y a rd up to a m a ximum of 1 h a — co ul d not b e touched They could not b e mortga ged a n d they could not on a n y ground b e seiz ed a n d sold by a th i rd p a rty The rest of the holding up to 25 h a could be mortg a ged only wi th the Centr a l Resettlement Offi ce the Popul a r B a nks or some other credit institution a uthorized .

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M 2

THE

1 64

OF

NATURE

THE REFORM

by the St a te B eyond 25 h a the p e a s a nt owners could disp ose of their prop erties a s they lik ed In B ess a ra bi a resettlement holdings could b e sold to cul t i va t or s only None of them were a ll owed to own more th a n 20 h a a r a ble l a nd Th e R es tr i cti on of L a rge P r op er ty The essenti a l a im of the reform h a d b een to tra n sform l a nd tenure from a system of l a rge prop erty into one of sm a llholdi n gs To prevent the reviva l of l a rge prop erty the St a te reserved to itself a right of pre emption on a ll l a nd s a les i nvolving more th a n 5 0 h a This provision w a s interpreted by its a uthor M Ga r ofl i d a s referring to tra ns a ctions which concern ed a n a re a of a t le a st 5 0 h a M a ny direct s a les of lesser lots p a ssed therefore un ch a ll enged Subsequently thi s interpret a tion w a s ch a nged by M Al Const a ntin escu to me a n th a t the St a te s right c a me into pl a y whenever a n y l a nd w a s to b e sold from a n est a te of more th a n 5 0 h a no m a tter how much or how little of it w a s up for s a le Th a t wo ul d a ppe a r to b e the current interpret a tion of the Sta te s right It will b e noted th a t the me a sur e only me a n s a lim it a tion of s a le not a limit a tion of p ossession a s w a s a pplied to p ea s a nt prop erties formed from resettlement holdings The St a te s right of pre emption on l a n d for s a le revives in f a ct the old p ea s a nt right of p r oti mi s which g a ve the vi llagers the fi r st cl a im to a n y l a nd from the vi lla ge h ota r whi ch the l a nd lord w a nted to let or sell Within the l imits a n d conditions l a id dow n in these l a ws prop erty is gu a ra nteed by Ar t 1 7 of the new Rum a ni a n Con st it u tion Expropri a tion is p ermitted for rea sons of public utili ty Expropri a tion a lone a fter f a ir a n d preli min a ry comp ens a tion is s p ecifi ca lly p ermitted in the interests of publi c tra nsport public hea lth milit a ry a n d c ultur a l works a n d of works requi red by the direct genera l interests of St a te a n d public a uthorities Other c a ses of public utility w ill h a ve to b e determin ed by sp eci a l l a ws voted with a m a j ority of two thirds .

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S E C TI O N 6 V A R I A TI O N S I N T H E S E V ERA L A GRAR I AN L A W S The en a ctment of the reform through the instrument of four — one for the Old Kingdom a n d one for e a ch of the if erent l ws a d f .

OF

THE NATUR E

1 65

THE REFORM

three new provin ces — w a s in the fi rst pl a ce the result of politica l c ircum st a nces which did not synchr onize Though p a ssed in every c a se by pe a ceful me a ns the reform spra n g in two of the pro vinces a t le a st from a revolution a ry st a te The ch a ra cter a n d lim its of the reform were i n such circumst a nces dict a ted by the moment a ry situ a tion an d were p a ssed i nto la w by speci a l revolution a ry a ssemblies All th a t could b e done l a ter by norm a lly elected Pa rli a ments w a s to el a bor a te the det a ils keepi n g l d or a s they h a d to keep to the origi n a l a s close a s they co u principles The B ess a ra bi a n reform w a s decided upon by the a d h oc revolution a ry a ssembly known a s the Council of the L a nd org a ni zed in Octob er 1 9 1 7 A few months e a rli er the principle s of the proposed reform h a d b een a dopted for the Old Kin gdom by the Pa rli a ment a t J a ssy The Tra n sylv a ni a n reform di d not m a teri a liz e till D ecemb er 1 9 1 8 when a revolution a ry a ssembly a ssum ed power in Tr a n sylv a ni a a fter the colla pse of the Austro Hunga ri a n Empire The reform for Bucovin a a lone w a s a dopted during norm a l conditions a fter the end of the Wa r The v a ri a tion in t ime a n d politic a l circ umst a nces therefore expl a i n s why the reform w a s set going by different l a ws for the v a rious p a rts of new Rum a ni a In the second pl a ce these v a ri a tions were dict a ted by the considera ble difference in the a gra ri a n con di tions of the severa l Provin ces Tra nsylvani a h a d never b een linked up politic a lly with the Rum a ni a n provi nces a n d h a d followed a rur a l evolution of its ow n Bucovin a p a ssed to the Austri a n Empire in 1 774 a n d B ess a ra bi a to the Russi a n Empir e in 1 8 1 2 b efore the em a n cip a tion of the serfs whi ch b ein g c a rried out v a riously in these severa l countries destroyed the former uniformity in the rura l structure of the Rum a ni a n l an ds The upshot w a s a consider a ble difference in the di stribution of property a s well a s in the l a ws governi ng l a nd tenur e in the severa l provinces When the pe a s a nt le a der M Mih a la ch e a s Minister of Agriculture first brought h i s bill b efore the C a binet in 1 9 20 he intended a pplyin g one a n d the s a me me a sure to the whole of the cou n try But it b ec a me clea r durin g the Ca bin et discussion th a t by ena cting one principle for the whole co untry its a pplic a tion would h a ve to b e v a ried by innum era ble instructions so a s to a d a pt it to the needs of the .

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THE NATURE

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s e v e ra l p rovinces It w a s therefore concluded th a t it woul d b e sim pler a n d more pra ctic a l to prep a re a t the outset a bil l for e a ch of the new pro vinces in contin u a tion of the decrees law pr om ul g a ted for e a ch of them a s soon a s the Wa r w a s over The Tr a nsylva ni a n reform w a s ini ti a ted by the resolution which the N a tion a l Assembly of a ll the Rum a ni a ns of Hunga ry a dopted a t Alb a J ul i a on D ecemb er 1 1 9 1 8 Point 5 of Ar ticle III dem a nded a ra di c a l a gra ri a n reform Th e expropri a tion of a ll properties exp eci a lly of the l a rge est a tes B y a b olishing the ent a iled est a tes on the b a sis of th a t expropri a tion a n d by reducin g the l a tifundi a a ccordi n g to needs the p e a s an ts sh a ll b e en a bled to a cq uir e a t le a st a s much l a n d ( a ra ble gra z ing wood l a nd ) a s they ca n cultiv a te with the help of the ir f am ilies The guidi n g principle of thi s a gra ri a n policy is on the one h a nd the promotion of soci a l leve lling a n d on the other h a nd the fur ther ing of production On the b a sis of this revolution a ry deci sion a Comm ission a pp ointed by the Tra nsylva ni a n Dir ectora te dra fted the text of the decree la w which introduced the reform into Tr a n sylva n ia The subsequent m odi fi ca t i on s of the Tr a n sy l v a ni a n me a sure were likewise dra fted by a Commission composed of Tra nsylv a ni a n deputies Although these dr a fts went fa rther th a n the reform for the Old Kingdom they did not s a tisfy a more r a di c a l group of Tr a nsylv a ni a n deputies who formed in 1 920 a short lived N a t i on a l R a dic a l P a rty The progra mm e of the Old N a tion a l P a rty w a s itself revised in 1 920 w ith rega rd to l a nd reform on the pri n ciple th a t l a nd must b elong to those who cultiv a te i t to the tot a l exclusion of rent without l a b our The Pa rty pledged itself not to a ll ow a n y ch a nges to b e m a de in the reform to the detriment of the pe a s a ntry either with reg a rd to the extent or to the price of the expropri a ted a rea when the reforms for Tra n s ylv a ni a a n d Bucovi n a sho uld come before the legisl a tive a ssemblies for revision Moreover the P a rty dem a nded for the Old Kingdom a new la w more in keeping with the needs of the p e a s a nts a n d with the democra tic Views which h a d i n spired the reform in the new provinces The fi r st dr a ft prep a red for Tra n sylv a ni a by M Ga r ofl i d under the in fl uen ce of these ra dic a l tendencie s evoked a protest from the n a tion a l min orities a g a inst its dra stic provisions A second dra ft a s .

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THE NATURE

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1 67

presented to the S ena te proved more tolera ble But whe n it c a me before the Ch a mb er the Minister in ch a rge under pressure from the Tra nsylva ni a n deputies a ccepted sever a l new a rticles which a ga in widened the powers of the L a w In B ess a ra bi a the reform b ega n a s p a rt a n d p a rcel of the Russi a n Revolution From J uly 1 9 1 7 onw a rd s the p e a s a nts bega n to la y h a n ds on the l a rge est a tes These spora dic a ctions b ec a me genera l in October a n d by the end of the ye a r two thirds of the l a rge property h a d b een seized a s well a s much of the live Oi the two currents which then tra versed the a n d de a d stock revolutiona ry movement one w a nted a ll l a nd to b e given to the p ea s a nts without a n y p a yment a t a ll An a rticle procl a iming its Views decl a red th a t henceforw a rd this gift of God shoul d neither b e sold nor bought but free for a n y m an to use li ke the w a ter a n d the a ir This point of View w a s r a ised into a form a l dem a n d by the fi r st Pe a s a nt Co n gress held a t the b eginni n g of May 1 9 1 7 The Pe a s a nt Group incli n ing soci a lly Leftw a rd s w a s on the whole a verse to uni on with Rum a ni a a s it mistrusted the soci a l outlook of the poli tici a ns who ruled the Old Kingdom The secon d cur rent w a s represented by the N a tion a l Mold a vi a n P a rty whose progra m h a d a n a tion a li st r a ther th a n a soci a l bi a s B y a n inversion of the usu a l run of prej udices the l a rge l a nd own ers h a d b ecome n a tion a list an d stood for union wit h Rum a ni a hoping thereby to s a ve their prop erties But in the third mon th of the Revolution the N at i on a l P a rty w a s a lre a dy forced to a dopt a r a di c a l a gra ri a n progr a m a s the pea s a nts did not underst a n d a utonomy without l a nd I n M a rch 1 91 8 the v a rious groups voted fi r m ly for union with Rum a ni a but a dded the condition th a t the g a in s through the Revolution should be resp ected This condition w a s w a ived a t the end of Novemb er a fter the Council of the L a nd h a d fi n a ll y p a ssed the a gra ri a n law for B ess a ra bi a The la w w a s r a t ifi e d by the decree la w of December 22 1 9 1 8 Oi the seventy three Articles composin g the me a sure p a ssed by the Council of the L a nd fourty seven Articles were m odifi e d by the la w for Bess a ra bi a a dopted by the Rum a ni a n Pa rli a ment in 1 9 20 In keeping with these circumst a nces the Bess a ra bi a n reform p a ssed through three st a ges At fi rst the l a rge prop erties were ,

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THE NATURE

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completely swept a w a y by the Revolution w ithout a n y compens a tion S ubsequently the le a ders of the Council of the L a nd suc ce e d e d i n getting 5 0 h a retur ned to e a ch owner Fin a lly un der pressure from the Old Ki ngdom whose rulers were a nxious to est a bli sh some equi librium between the v a rious reforms the exempted minim um w a s w ith d i ffi cul t y r a ised to 1 00h a for e a ch owner The genera l compens a tion w a s fi x ed by the Courts a t 8 00 lei per h a A Memor a ndum of the B ess a r a bi a n Cultiv a tors O wni ng More th a n 25 issued in 1 921 dem a nded for its a uthors equ a lity of tre a tment with the l a ndown ers in the Old Kingdom Th a t dem a nd w a s reitera ted by a Congress of B ess a r a bi a n owners held a t Chi s in au in Febru a ry 1 9 23 ; by th a t time it h a d become a ltogether im pra ctic a ble In B uco vin a the ch a nge to the new r egim e h a pp ened qui etly a fter the end of the Wa r A genera l Congress of the pro vin ce met on N ovem ber a t Cern a u t i a n d voted the uni on of the province with Rum a ni a This decision w a s t a ken uncondi tio n a lly a n d the Co n gress m a de no a ttempt to procl a im a t the s a me tim e the soci a l principles on which the provi nce w a s to b e governed in the futur e The reform w a s ini ti a ted by a decree la w of 1 91 9 when the province stood u n der the in fl uen ce of the D emocra tic Uni onist Pa rty led by M I Nistor The fi n a l La w of J uly 1 921 p a ssed by the Government of Genera l Averescu m o difi ed the pro visions of the decree in f a vour of the l a ndo w ners ; it reduced the e xtent to b e expropri a ted a n d h a rdened the procedur e of expropri a tio n a n d resettlement A comp a rison Th e M a i n Difi er e nces b etween th e S evera l L a ws of the la w of the Old Kingdom with the l a ws for the new Provinces shows the following m a in differences b etween them 1 The a gra ri a n la w for the Old Kingdom expropri a ted in full through Art 7 o n ly the a ra ble l a nd of crown dom a i ns of the Rura l O th ee a n d of a ll public a n d priva te institutio n s The la w for Tra n sylva ni a m a de a distinction b etween publi c a n d priva te institutions Art 6 expropri a ted in full the whole of the proper ties belonging to institutions which pursue a public i n terest such a s corpora tions endowments churches a n d mon a steries universities a n d schools hospit a ls loc a l a uthorities & c ; where a s Art 7 expropri a ted in full only the a ra ble p a rt of l a nd ,

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THE REFORM

1 69

properties b elongin g to institutions w ith a priva te i nterest such a s b a nks lim ited comp a n ies profes s ion a l s y ndica tes 10111 12 holdings & c It so h a ppened th a t in Tra n sylva ni a the property b elongin g to institutions w a s a n import a nt f a ctor a n d covered a b out 40 per cent of the whole a re a The expropri a tion of l a nd b elo n gin g to churches a n d schools di d not a ffect merely the gre a t est a tes of the Ca tholic bishoprics but a lso the lesser properties of the va rious religious commun ities The fir st cl a use of Ar t 6 exempted from expropri a tion a m a xim um of 32 j uga r s from the a ra ble l a nd of the p a rishes ; 8 for the p a rish priests ; 1 6 for the schools In a ddition the la w a ll owed 1 0 uga r s for the gener a l needs of e a ch j church a n d 5 for the tra in ing fa rms in forestry a tt a ched to the public schools The la w further exempted from expropri a tion 200 j uga r s for e a ch a rchbishopric 1 00 for e a ch b ishopric a n d 30 for e a ch m on a stery It is not yet possible to know ex a ctly how much l a nd h a s been expropri a ted from the possessio n s of the Tra nsylva ni a n churches but the tot a l extent must b e con s id era b le a s the four tee n Luther a n p a rishes of the Br a s ov district a lone h a ve lost j uga r s of their l a nd Ap a rt from the c ul tur a l co n sequences of this loss the me a sur e w a s criticiz ed bec a use much of the church est a te h a d b een constituted p a rtly by free contributions in l a nd from the memb ers a s w a s often the c a se with the Luthera n comm unities for the purpose of cre a t ing a n est a te from the revenue of whi ch the work of chur ches a n d schools could b e supported but which rem a ined in the use of the pe a s a nt members themselves The la w a lso a ffected the commun a l properties of the v a rious n a tion a l communi ties in Tra nsylva n i a These properties con sisted of considera ble p a stur es a n d forests for gener a l use the revenue formin g the budget of commun a l orga ni z a tions a n d a ctivities The la w a llowed the expropri a tion of such comm un a l p a stur es in so fa r a s they exte n ded b eyond the a vera ge l a id down by the law for e a ch household In a ddition to the properties of n a tion a l commu ni ties there were in Tra nsylva ni a a num ber of other forms of j oint properties formed either d uring the process of consolid a tion or by co opera tive purch a se & c Genera lly the p a rt of e a ch memb er of ,

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1 70

THE NATURE

OF

THE

R EFORM

these a ssoci a tions w a s registered sep a ra tely but the obj ect w a s used j ointly In a ddition there were the properties of the former frontier regiments All these kinds of j oint holdi n gs c a me un der the provisions which rel a ted to commun a l properties Th a t is t o sa y they could b e expropri a ted if the i r a re a were l a rger th a n t h e needs of the members a s estim a ted in the provi sions of the la w 2 The la w for the Old Kingdom expropri a ted in f ull the est a tes which h a d b een le a sed out a n d cultiv a ted by ten a nts from April 23 1 9 1 0 till April 24 1 920 without interruption Art 8 of the Tra nsylva n i a n la w expropri a ted o nl y the a r a ble l a nd whether rura l or urb a n of priv a te owners whose prop erties h a d b een le a sed out during a period of ten a gricultur a l ye a rs b etween 1 9 04 a n d 1 9 1 8 ; exempti n g from expropri a tion 30 c a d a str a l j uga r s from properties situ a ted in rura l communes a n d 1 0 from pro p er t i e s in urb a n communes The la w for the Old Kingdom a pp a rently went f a rther th a n the Tra n sylv a ni a n la w But where a s the l a tter ex empted from the effect of this provision only the properties of min ors the fi r st exempted the prop erties of women a s well of publi c offi ci als a n d of offi cer s on a ctive service The p eriod inscrib ed in the la w for the Old Kingdom moreover though shorter h a d to b e con t in uous a n d r a n up to the time of the reform ; where a s the Tr a n s lva ni a n a rr a ngement left room for such ill ogic a l possibili tie s y a s for inst a nce the expropri a tion of a n est a te which h a d b een let to a ten a nt up to 1 9 1 4 but w a s a ft erw a rds cultiv a ted by it s owner till the expropri a tion It would seem th a t the l a ndowner who h a d bought a property in 1 9 1 4 a n d h a d since f a rmed it h imself could nevertheless b e expropri a ted b e ca use the property m a y h a ve b een let on le a se by i t s previous owner b etween 1 904 a nd 1 9 14 The efforts m a de by represent a tives of the n a tion a l minorities during the discussion of the la w to h a ve this cl a us e a mended rem a ined un s uccessful Oi gre a t import a nce in this connexion is the di fference be tween the me a ning a ttributed by the la w for the Old K in gdom to the term let on lea se a n d the interpret a tion pl a ced upon it in Tra n sylva ni a Art 1 7 of the ordina nce for the a pplic a tion of the reform in the Old Kingdom expl a ined th a t the provision for the expropri a tion of est a t es which h a d b een let on le a se did not ,

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THE NATURE

THE RE F ORM

OF

1 71

pply to those est a tes which h a d b een let by their owners di rect to the pe a s a nts The Tr a n sylva ni a n la w di d not m a ke this very n a tur a l con cession In Bucovina the a gra ri a n la w expropri a ted in f ull the a ra ble l a nd of rura l est a tes which h a d b een let on le a se during more th a n ni ne yea rs th a t is over ten h a rvests a t le a st b etween J a n 1 a

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Old Kin gdom by its Art 8 expropri a ted the a r a ble l a nd b eyon d 1 00 h a of priva te est a tes which were let on le a se a n d cultiva ted by ten a nts on April 23 1 920 A simil a r pro vision a pplied to the Tra nsylva ni a n est a tes let on le a se on Ma y 1 1 9 21 n a mely to wh a tever exceeded 5 0 c a d a str a l j uga r s in the highl a nds a n d in the hi lls a n d 1 00 in the pl a ins 4 The la w for the Old Kingdom expropri a ted the a r a ble l a nd of p riva te est a tes cultiva ted by their o w ners b eyond the foll owing a re a s 1 00 h a in the highl a nds a n d in the hills 1 5 0 h a in the pl a ins where the dem a nd for l a nd w a s gre a t 200 h a in the pl a ins where the dem a nd for l a nd w a s mode ra te : a n d 25 0h a in the pl a ins where the dem a nd for l a nd w a s s a tis fied .

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Those o wners who on Febru a ry 1 1 921 h a d considera ble investments in live a n d de a d stock in a gric ul tur a l b uil di n gs or in inst a ll a tions for a gricul tur a l industries were a llowed to ret a in instea d of the a bove quot a s 1 00 200 300 a n d 5 00h a resp ectively The Tr a nsylv a n i a n la w m a de no di stinction b etween the owners who cultiva ted their own est a tes a n d those who in the s a me conditions possessed considera ble investments in live a n d dea d stock It o nl y took a ccount of the regions in which the est a tes were situ a ted a n d it expropri a ted them b eyond the followi ng a rea s 5 0 c a d a str a l j uga r s in the mount a ins ; 1 00 c a d a str a l j uga r s in the hill s ; 200 c a d a stra l j uga r s in the pl a i n s where the dem a nd for l a nd w a s moder a te ; a n d 5 00 c a d a str a l j uga r s in the pl a ins where the dem a nd for l a nd ,

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THE

1 72

NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

The Agra ri a n Commi ttee w a s entitled however to keep the exempted quot a do w n to 200j uga rs for purposes of coloni z a tion It would seem th a t in fa ct 200 j uga r s w a s the a re a norm a ll y exempted in Tra nsylva ni a It is true th a t the Tra nsylva ni a n la w ( Art 22) likewise p ermitted the exemption of 5 00 j ugar s from model fa rms but only in the regions where the dem a nd for l a nd w a s moder a te or s a tisfied ; a n d this w a s t o b e a n exception requi ring in e a ch c a se the consent of the Agra ri a n Commi ttee Moreover this co n cession w a s rescinded for a ll pr a ctic a l pur poses by a decree of the Minister of Agricultur e of S eptember 20 1 9 22 It instructed the a uthorities concerned to a pply in Tra nsylva ni a the genera l norms of the la w ; the o w ner of a model f a rm coul d receive wh a t exceeded those norms a n d up to 5 00j uga r s merely on le a se The effect of these differences between the two l a ws w a s the more w eighty a s most of the Tra n sy lva n ia n l a nd w a s cla s sifi e d a s belonging to mount a in or highl a nd regions where a s in the Old Kingdom most of the a re a w a s lowl a nd The la w for Bucovin a distin guished b etween l a ndo w ners who a t its promulg a tion or on August 1 1 9 1 4 h a d i mport a nt a gr i cul tura l e s t a blish em en t s breedin g f a rms or a gric ul tur a l industries a n d those l a ndowners who did n o t p ossess such i nvestments The l a tter were to be expropri a ted of their a ra ble l a nd b eyond 1 00 h a ; the former were to be expropri a ted a ccordin g to a pro a ll the prop erties re ss i ve sc a le which reduced e g to 1 00 h a g between 1 00 a n d 1 05 h a those between 200 a n d 21 0 h a to 1 6 5 h a those b etween 300 a n d 320to 201 h a those b etween 400 those b etween 5 00 a n d 5 25 h a to 241 h a a n d 420 h a to 224 h a a n d those a bove 600 h a to 25 0 h a The la w for B ess a ra bi a expropri a ted from priva te est a tes a ll the a ra ble l a nd a b ove 1 00 h a 5 The a re a of the e s t a tes to b e expropri a ted w a s a ssumed by the la w for the Old Kingdom to b e th a t which they leg a lly h a d on August 1 5 1 9 1 6 ( the d a te when Rum a ni a entered the Wa r ) ; a ll tra nsfers of l a nd m a de a fter th a t d a t e were considered inv a lid for the purposes of the a gra ri a n reform The Tr a n syl va ni a n la w w a s b a sed on the leg a l position of the est a tes on Decemb er 1 1 9 1 8 ; a n d the law for Buco vin a on their leg a l position on S eptember 6 1 91 9 ,

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OF

THE NATURE 6

THE REFORM

1 73

The siz e of the typic a l resettlement holding w a s fix e d a t a m a xim um of 5 h a in the Old Kingdom with 7 h a for colo ni z a tion holdings in B ess a ra bi a they were of 6 a n d 8 h a in Bucovin a of 4 a n d 6 h a ; while in Tra nsylva ni a the m a ximum w a s of 7 j uga r s a n d of 1 6 for coloniz a tion purposes 7 There w a s a cert a in di fference b etween the a uthorities ch a rged with the a pplic a tion of the seve r a l l a ws The la w for the Old Kingdom ( Art 1 04) entrusted the work of e xecution to ( a ) loc a l committees a n d ( 6 ) district comm ittees ; w ith p owers for the Centra l Resettleme n t Offi ce to provoke a fresh decision of the di strict comm ittees if the r e settlement li sts a ppe a red to b e in a ccura te Article 1 01 of the Tra nsylv a ni a n La w cre a ted three a ut h or i ties for the c a rrying out of the resettlement : ( a ) loc a l com mi tt e es di strict comm ittees a n d ( c) county committees Like the Tra nsylva ni a n la w th a t of Buco vi n a est a bli shed thr ee resettlement a uthorities with however a Region a l Com mission inste a d of the county comm ittees 8 The origin a l l a ws for the Old Kingdom Buco vin a a n d B ess a ra bi a left the forests untouched They were expropri a ted however by the speci a l la w of J uly 1 1 924 The expropri a tion of forests for the p urpose of crea tin g or complet ing comm un a l forests w a s in the Tr a n sylva ni a n c a s e decreed by Ar t 32 of the la w down to a n exempted quot a of 1 00 j uga r s in the lowl a nds a n d highl a nds a n d 200 in the moun t a in s In the Old Kingdom the expropri a ted o w ners were t o ret a in from e a ch forest a mi ni m um of 1 00h a so th a t a pp a rently the s a me own er could ret a in a s m a ny quot a s a s the severa l wood l a nds he possessed Moreover youn g pl a nt a tions or l a nd which w a s under process of b ein g a fforested were exempted from e x propri a tion in the Old Kingdom 9 In reg a rd to compe n s a tion the la w for the Old Ki ngdom fi x e d a s m a xim um the regiona l rent a l for the period 1 9 1 7— 22 multip lied by forty The Tra nsylva ni a n la w took a s guidin g criteri a the rent a l the l a nd t a x & c for the fi ve ye a rs before 1 9 1 3 c a pit a lized a t 5 per cent The compens a tion co uld in no c a se exceed the price of l a nd in 1 9 1 3 ; or in the c a se of forests the a vera ge price in the quinquenni a l period be for e 1 9 1 3 For the .

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1 74

THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

purp oses of the la w one Hunga ri a n crown w a s t a ken a s equ a l to one leu ( their v a lue a t pa r b eing a bout the s a me ) As a n ex c ep tion two cro w ns were t a ken a s equ a l to one leu for the p a yment of l a nd expropri a ted for the cre a tion or completion of commun a l .

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The method of p a yment w a s in Tr a nsylva n i a the s a me a s in the Old K ingdom An exception w a s m a de only for l a nd ex pr opr i a t e d on the strength of Art 9 of the Tr a nsylv a n i a n la w down to 5 0 j uga r s or in the c a se of non cultiv a tors even to 1 0 j uga r s for the s a tisf a ction of speci a l c a tegories of cl a im a nts a n d of Art 1 4— for the solvi n g of the housin g problem The price in these two c a ses w a s to be p a id in c a sh In genera l therefore the Tr a nsylva ni a n la w offered in pa y ment twenty times the pre w a r rent a l ; the la w for the Old Kingdom gra nted forty tim es the rent a l o ffi cia lly fi x e d in 1 9 1 6 w hi ch no doubt w a s lower th a n the m a rket v a lue N 0 such a rra ngement for the fi x in a ni a of rent existed in Tr nsylv h a d a g a n d this w a s one re a son why P a rli a ment rej ected the propos a l m a de by the Tra nsylva ni a n Minorities th a t the expropri a tion price sho ul d b e c a lcul a ted in the s a me m a nner a s in the Old Kingdom 1 0 The Tr a nsylv a ni a n la w h a d some sp eci a l pro visions con cernin g the le a sin g of l a nd Ar t 45 decided th a t l a n d whi ch h a d not b een expropri a ted could not b e let on le a se fer less th a n seven ye a rs preference h a ving to b e given on equ a l conditions to loc a l cul tiv a tors a n d to co op era tives of le a sing ; Th a t a pplied even to properties of no more th a n ten j uga r s The St a te reserved for itself the s a me right of pre e mption a s in the Old Kingdom for a ll s a les of l a nd in volvin g more th a n 5 0 j uga r s ; except when the tr a ns a ction took pl a ce a mong close rel a tions Likewise the St a te h a d a right of pre emption on a ll holdings a cquired through the a gra ri a n reform ( la w of M a rch 1 1 If the Centra l O th ee m a de no use of th a t right on beh a lf of the St a te within sixty d a ys the holdi ng could b e sold priva tely on the following conditions : ( a ) the p ur ch a ser h a d to b e a Rum a ni a n citiz en a n d to cultiva te the soil h imself ; ( b) or he must hold a n a gricultur a l degree a n d reside in the commune in which the holding w a s situ a ted ; ( 0) the s a le could not t a ke pl a ce unt il fi ve .

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THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

1 75

e a rs a fter the p a ym ent of the full resettlement price ; ( d ) the y pur ch a ser must in no c a se own more th a n 25 h a a ra ble l a nd i ncludin g the a re a to b e sold These provisions resembled those l a id down in the Old Kingdom Na ti ona li s t Ten den ci es i n th e Reform S ome provisions of the reform a pp e a r to h a ve been devised a ga inst the interests of non Rum a n i a n l a ndowners The followi n g a r e the m a in inst a nces 1 1 Art 7 cl a use ( 0) of the Tr a nsylv a ni a n la w expropri a t ed the whole a ra ble l a nd of priva te est a tes purch a sed b etween August 1 1 9 1 4 a n d J uly 30 1 921 the d a y on W hich the la w w a s prom ulg a ted Are a s up to 1 00 c a d a stra l j uga r s were exempted if purch a sed by priests te a chers or their depend a nts ; if pur c h a sed for the s a ke of more intensive cultiv a tion from l a nd — such pur ners who sold their est a tes i n th a t s a me period ow ch a ses being expropri a ted in a ccord a nce with the provisio n s of Art 8 App a re n tly the me a sur e cont a ined in cl a use ( 0) of Ar t 7 w a s di rected a g a inst w a r pr ofi t e er s but it w a s a pplied in Tra nsylva ni a only 1 2 Cl a use ( d ) of Art 7 a llowed the tot a l expropri a tion of l a nd 1 9 1 7 on the a cquired by their new own ers a fter Novemb er 1 strength of the w ar me a sur e decreed on th a t d a te by the then Hunga ri a n Governm ent E a ch s a le of l a nd h a d to b e s a nctioned by a speci a l commission ; the decree g a ve the Min istry of Agric ul ture a right of pre emption w ithin the condi tions of the intended contr a ct on a ll l a nd for which p ermission to sell The me a sure w a s a pplied to t hir ty fi ve h a d b een refused coun ties of which a ll but one were l a rgely Slov a k or R um a ni a n It w a s excused a s b eing a imed a t w a r pr ofi t e er s ( j ust a s the R um a ni a ns a fterwa rds excused the me a sur e described in the previous p a ra gra ph ) a n d a s a me a s ure which l a ter w a s a ppli ed to a ll Hunga ry ; but the Hun g a ri a n figures show th a t it w a s a pplied with gre a ter severity in Tr a nsylv a ni a th a n elsewhere in Hung a ry The effect of the a b ove pro vision w a s to rescind the a ction of the former Hung a ri a n Government wherever it m a y h a ve pur sued n a tion a list ends ; the a pplic a tion of the Rum a ni a n text w a s a ccordin gly m a de fa cult a tive b eing left to the discretion of the Agra ri a n Committee 1 3 Art 1 0 of the Tra nsylva ni a n la w expropri a ted the l a nd ,

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1 76

THE NATURE

OF

THE RE F ORM

of colonists settled a fter 1 8 8 5 up to the li mi t of the hol d ings a ll otted by the reform to cl a im a nts in the respective districts This me a sur e w a s di rected a ga in st the Hun g a ri a n p ea s a n ts wh o since the eighties h a d purch a sed from the Hun ga ri a n St a te holdin gs of a bout 1 6 j uga r s e a ch a n d settled on them it w a s to b e a pplied even to settlers who h a d b een n a tives of the pl a ce The purpose w a s to a cquir e l a nd for di stribution to Rum a ni a n p e a s a nts a n d thus to bring the a vera ge holdings of the di strict to a b out the s a me level The settlers woul d seem to h a ve been left with 4— 7 j ugar s ea ch A num b er of them a ppe a led to the Le a gue of N a tions which a pproved a compromise ultim a tely offered by the Rum a ni a n Government on the strength of whi ch the settlers were to receive gold fra ncs in ste a d of th e expropri a tion price of gold fra n cs for the j uga r s of l a nd they h a d lost Such a me a sure a ppli ed to sm a llh olders who owned much less th a n the mi ni mum genera lly exempted from expropri a tion could h a ve h a d onl y a n a tion a list 1 4 The reform l a ws de a lt very severely with a bsentee owners Art 7 cl a use of the la w for the Old K i ngdom expropri a ted thei r whole prop erty ; though cl a use (g) a llowed the St a te to restore to them forests Vin ey a rds coun try houses a n d p a rks if the owners dem a nded it an d the Agra ri a n Commi ttee a pproved i t ; pro vided th a t such prop erties were not requi red for some public in terest of a n economic s a ni t a ry or cultur a l n a tur e Here the la w m a de a cle a r distin ction b etween foreign a bsentee o w ners who were obli ged to sell such exempted heredit a ments w ithin a period of three ye a rs a n d Rum a ni a n a bsentee owners upon whom no such oblig a tion w a s i mposed The la w for B ucovin a Ar t 5 expropri a ted in full the l a nd Art 6 of the a bsentees who owned more th a n 25 h a Tr a nsylva ni a n la w likewise decreed the tot a l expropri a tion of est a tes belonging to a b sentee owners who p ossessed more th a n This exemption w a s in troduced in the l a ws for 5 0 j uga r s Bucovin a a n d Tra nsylva ni a in f a vour of p ea s a nts who h a d tempora rily migra ted to Americ a The chief difference b etween the severa l l a ws la y in the d efi ni tion of a b sentees The la w for the Old K ingdom tre a ted a s a b sentees tho s e l a ndowners who h a d h a d to pa y during the fi ve ,

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THE NATUR E

THE REFORM

1 77

ye a rs whi ch preceded the promulg a tion of the reform the double l a nd t ax in Virtue of the specia l fi s ca l la w for h a ving lived unin terruptedly a broa d during th a t period The B ucovini a n la w reg a rded a s a bsen tees those l a ndowners who in the period from August 1 1 909 to August 1 1 9 1 9 h a d duri n g fi ve con secut i ve ye a rs sp ent more th a n six months ye a rly outside the bounda ries of Gre a ter Rum a n i a or of Austri a without impera tive re a sons ; an d those l a ndowners who without bein g a bsent on some offi cia l mission di d not reside withi n the frontiers of Gre a ter Rum a ni a from November 28 1 9 1 8 a n d till the prom ulga tion of the la w The l a tter a rr a ngement formed likewise the b a sis of the Tra nsylva n i a n d efi ni t i on the respective p eriod run ni n g from D ecember 1 1 9 1 8 when Tra nsylva ni a procl a im ed its union with Rum a ni a to M a rch 23 1 921 on which d a y the law w a s submitted to P a rli a ment 1 5 A speci a l group of l a ndowners a ffected by the provision of the Tra nsylv ani a n reform rel a ting to a bsentees were the s o c a lled opt a nts i e H ung a ri a n inh a bit a nts of Tr a nsylv a ni a who a fter the w a r Opted for Hun g a ri a n citiz enship Art 63 of the Tre a ty of Tri a non g a ve them one ye a r within which they mi ght do so If they m a de use of th a t right they h a d to tra nsfer their residence together with thei r a llegi a nce but were entitled to ret a in their immova ble prop erty in Rum a ni a n territory The Tra nsylv a ni a n le a ders who h a d de vised the fir st tenour of the reform h a d b een c a ref ul to le a ve the wo ul d be opt a nts ou tside its scop e their property rem a ining to b e tre a ted a s the Tre a ty of pe a ce which w a s then under discussion might decide The Tri a non Tre a ty h a vi ng p ermitted them to ret a in their immova ble property this right w a s a cknowledged by the a uthor of the 1 921 la w M Ga r ofli d by mea ns of an offi cia l interpret a tion issued on November 4 1 921 It expl a in ed th a t the cl a use rel a tin g to the expropri a tion of a bsentee o w ners di d not a pply to those who h a d been a bro a d on offi cia l duty a n d t o foreigners This resp ected the letter a n d spirit of the Tre a ty ; nor w a s it a n y more th a n f a ir a s H ung a ri a n n a tion a ls h a d b een refused Vis a s for enterin g Rum a ni a from the time of the dissolution of the H a psburg Mon a rchy till the sprin g of 1 9 21 a f a ct est a blished by the Collection of documents rel ating to the c a se of the opt a nts ,

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1 78

THE N ATURE

OF

THE REFORM

issued by the H unga ri a n Foreign O ffi ce In J uly 1 922 however M AI Const a nt i nescu a s Minister of Agriculture in the followi ng Libera l Govern ment issued a new ordi n a nce whi ch decl a red th a t a n a bsentee is one who w a s a bsent from D ecember 1 1 91 8 till M a rch 3 1 921 wh a tever his n a tion a lity or present domicile Thi s completely reversed the former in terpret a tion a n d c a used the opt a nts to be expropri a ted of a ll their prop ert y Their c a se w a s thereupon t a ken by the Hung a ri a n Governm ent to the Le a gue of Na t i on s in whose a nn a ls it is li kely to rem a in f a mous for the protra cted a n d eloquent a rgum ents to whi ch it g a ve rise The c a se h a s b een before the Council of the Le a gue sin ce the spring se a son of 1 9 23 but h a s not yet b een solved 1 6 Foreign o w ners who were n ot a bsentees were ex pr Opr i a ted of a ll their property in the Old K i ngdom a n d B ess a r a bi a whether they were a liens by birth by m a rri a ge or from a n y other re a son As Art 7 of the old Rum a ni a n Constitution di d not permit a li ens to own rura l property such c a ses coul d h a ve a risen only through a t a cit disreg a rd of the Constitution On the other h a nd Ar t 1 1 of the Constitution pla ce d i or eign citizens on a n equ a l footing w ith Rum a ni a n citizens in the eyes of the la w an d an at discri in ting legisl tion in gener l w ith th m a a o n fl i e d a c c t y principle Moreover it w a s a rgued th a t the a mendment to Art 1 9 of the Constitution p a ssed a t J a ssy referred merely t o ld a r a ble l a nd a n d th a t in consequence foreign l a ndown ers co u not leg a lly be expropri a ted of a ll their rura l possessions A con cess s i on in th a t sense w a s m a de l a ter a pp a rently a t the i nst a nce of M Ta ke Ionescu a s w a s mentioned under poin t 1 4 The l a ws for Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovin a tre a ted foreigners in the s a me w a y a s Rum a ni a ns expropri a tin g them p a rti a lly if they did not fa ll under the c a tegory of a bsentees in genera l a n d of opt a nt s in sp eci a l In pra ctice some foreign owners h a d the ben efi t of a fa voured tre a tment It would a ppe a r th a t while M Ta ke Ionescu w a s trying to obt a i n the consent of the Western Powers to the union of B ess a ra bi a w ith Rum a ni a he w a s prev a iled up on by the French a n d British Governm ents to promise full p a yment to a few of their subj ects who h a d a cquired through m a rri a ge est a tes in B ess a ra bi a The a rra ngement wa s kept secret but it .

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OF

THE NATURE

THE REFORM

1 79

exists in w ritin g It is cert a in th a t under it a num b er of French a n d British citizens h a ve received the full va lue of their 1 expropri a ted est a tes not through the open a n d successful of intern a tion a l principles but th a nks to those a ffi r m a t i on governments a bility to use a s a lever Rum an i a s moment a ry need of diplom a tic support 1 7 The c a se of southern Dobroge a i e of the st r ip of terri tory k n own a s the Qu a dril a ter a l whi ch Bulga ri a ceded to Rum a ni a a fter the second B a lk a n Wa r of 1 91 3 is in a c a tegory of its own Most of the l a nd a ccordin g to Ottom a n la w a n d custom w a s form a lly the property of the St a te It w a s held by the pe a s a nts in a kind of emphyteutic tenure known a s mi r te which h a d often left a holding in the h a nds of the s a me f a mily for centuries a g ai nst a n a nnu a l p a yment in kind Only a n inconsidera ble p a rt of the l a nd w a s held in freehold a n d w a s known a s mulk After the a nnex a tion of the district M Al Const a ntinescu a s M in ister of Agricultur e in the then Libera l Government p a ssed a la w on April 1 1 9 1 4 dem a nding a ll l a nd owners to prove their titles a n d then to sur render to the St a te one third of the l a nd to which they h a d thus est a b lished a cl a im or to pa y its v a lue in c a sh It will b e seen th a t the me a sur e w a s modelled on the a rra ngement m a de in Rum a ni a when the serfs were em a ncip a ted when two thi rds of the est a te w a s reserved for the pe a s a nts while one third bec a me the prop erty of the l a ndlord In this c a se the Rum a ni a n St a te considered itself a s h a ving a cquired the title of ownership formerly en o e d by the Ottom a n j y a n d l a ter by the Bul g a ri a n St a te ; though B ulg a ri a h a d c on fi r m e d b efore the a nn ex a tion the title of the holders The a pplic a tion of th a t me a s ure w a s interrupted by the outbrea k of the Grea t Wa r In 1 921 the government of Genera l Averescu on the sugges tion of M I Ca ma r ases cu who wa s Prefect of the district p a ssed a fresh la w w hi ch upset the me a sur e of 1 9 1 4 The rights of the inh a bit a nts were recogni zed in f ull provided th a t they could prove their title ; a dem a nd which w a s complic a ted by the f a ct th a t m a ny title deeds deposited with the R um a ni a n a uthorities .

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M

S ee t h e p a p e r re a d by i s s Lucy T e xtor C ongress, R ichm on d , ir gi n i a , an uary , 1 9 25 1

V

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N2

b efore t h e A glo Ame rican H i storic a l n

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1 80

THE NATURE

and

OF

THE REFORM

conveyed by them together with m a ny other t hi ngs to Moscow for s a fekeeping W hen the Centra l Empires in va ded Rum a ni a could not now b e recovered The Libera l P a rty h a vin g ret urned to power M Const a ntinescu c a me in 1 9 22 with a new la w which a brog a ted th a t of 1 921 a n d reverted to the me a sure he h a d p a ssed in 1 9 1 4 The a rr a n gements for the provin g of titles were somewh a t sim plifi e d but those holders who p a ssed the test successfully h a d to sur render one third of their hol di ng ; p a ym ent in c a sh w a s no longer a llowed a s the l a nd w a s w a nted for coloniz a tion Holders who could not prove their title to l a nd previ ously considered a s the prop erty of the Ottom a n a n d Bulg a ri a n St a tes risked losing their entire holdings Protests a g a inst this me a sur e were num erous even from the ra nks of the Libera l Pa rty It w a s p ointed out th a t it would b e d iffi cul t to a pply it : in the Dur o st or county most of the hol di ngs were sm a ll ; in the coun ty of Ca li a cr a they were medium siz ed but were genera lly held on a f a mily b a sis The p a rtition would be a complic a ted a ffa ir a n d the cre a tion of 1 0 h a holdin gs a s contempl a ted by the la w would require a n el a bora te process of consolid a tion Moreover there w a s no loc a l dem a nd for resettlement We need a Rum a ni a n gu a rd there w a s the expl a n a tion of Dr N Ha sn a s dur in g a deb a te in the Sen a te on M a rch 4 1 926 Oi the popul a tion 45 per cent were B ul ga ri a ns 35 p er cent Turks a n d the rem a inder Rum a ni a ns a n d others The me a sure h a d a purely n a tion a list pur pose On coming into power in the a utum n of 1 9 28 the N a tion a l Pe a s a nt P a rty set a bout redeeming a promise m a de in opposi tion M I Mih a la ch e a s Minister of Agriculture issued a st a te ment to the effect th a t the whole question of l a nd tenure a n d expropri a tion in southern D obroge a would b e revi sed so a s to meet the j ust compl a ints of the Bulg a ri a n a n d other sm a llholders In December 1 928 M Mih a la ch e a ppointed a commission to de a l with this problem The Rum a ni a n l a nd l a ws h a ving b een a ppli ed extensively in provinces like Tra nsylva ni a a n d B ess a ra bi a in which a l a rge p a rt of the popul a tion wa s non Rum a n i a n it h a s not unn a tura lly b een widely a ffirmed or a ssum ed th a t one of the m a insprings of ,

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THE NATUR E

OF

THE REFORM

181

the reform h a d been a desire to use it for na tiona list ends And it would b e e a sy to support such a View by culling from speeches a n d a rticles a whole list of st a tements of the kin d m a de by M Oct a vi a n Gog a in 1 920: We rega rd the a gr a ri a n reform a s the most potent in strument in the Hum a niz a tion of Tra nsylv a ni a It is not a mere ch a nce th a t M Goga a Tra nsylva n i a n himself h a s since t urned in enmity from his Tr a nsylva ni a n f r iends a n d j oined h a nds with the poli tici a ns of the Old Kin gdom Among these ra ther th a n a mong Tra nsylva ni a n a n d B ess a ra bi a n le a ders were to be found the men who sa w eye to eye w ith M Goga on tha t point But put in t hi s w a y the a rgument is both ex a ggera ted It is a genera lly a scert a in a ble fa ct th a t a rdent a n d out of focus n a tion a lists m a ke indifferent soci a l reformers In Rum a ni a those few politici a ns who spoke in the s a me temper a s M Gog a were out of tune with the grea t p urpose from which the reform spr a ng To sa y th a t they w ished for such a sweepin g reform b ec a use they would use it to a n a rrow n a tion a list end is cle a rly p a ra doxic a l ; the truth be ing r a ther th a t b ec a use the reform w a s a ccomplished they strove to m a ke the most of it to th a t end And b eing men w ith in fluen ce in the country they provoked some of the di s crim in a ting texts of which mention h a s been m a de b efore There a r e in this connexion a few points which it is useful to cle a r up In the fir s t pl a ce there is nothin g to w a rra nt the View th a t the reform could h a ve stop p ed short a t Tra nsylva ni a It is a nother question— which will b e discussed in the next ch a pter whether its a pplic a tion there w a s j ust ifi e d by the e x isting distribution of l a nd property or not ; but it w a s cert a inly un a voida ble in the politic a l con di tions which preva iled a t the end of the Wa r J ust a s the Russi a n Revolution of which the B ess a ra bi a n reform w a s p a rt a n d p a rcel im posed the reform up on the Old Kin gdom so it would h a ve b een out of the question to distribute l a nd to the pe a s a nts in two th irds of the country a n d deny it to them in the rem a inder And further it is a stra nge f a ncy to suppose th a t the Rum a ni a n l a ndowners voted the reform a t J a ssy in 1 9 1 7 for the purpose of drivi ng a n a tion a list wedge into the neighb ouring foreign pop ul a tions If they were so s a n gui n e a s to look forw a rd to a d a y when with th a t reform they might cut off the hea ds of the Hung a ri a n l a ndlords the o n ly .

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1 82

THE NATURE

OF

THE REFORM

thing of which they could b e cert a in a t the time w a s th a t they must b egin by dec a p it a ting themselves Indeed it is s a fe to say th a t the B ess a ra bi a n a n d Tr a n syl v a ni a n le a ders woul d h a ve c a rried through a bro a d l a nd reform even if no one h a d thought of it in the Old Kingdom Th a t a lso suggests why the l a ws of those two provin ces were di fferent a n d more d ra stic th a n the one p a ssed in Old Rum a ni a If the l a tter went a s fa r a s it did though gra nted by K i ng a n d P a rli a ment themselves is it to b e wondered a t th a t m a tters went much f a rther in Tr a nsylva ni a a n d B ess a ra bi a where Dyn a sty a n d Government h a d foundered a n d where the reform w a s c a rried on the crest of a revolutiona ry w a ve ? It is prob a ble enough th a t the reform would nevertheless h a ve turned out more mildl y in the two provinces if the l a rge owners h a d b een of the s a me stock a s the m a ss of the pea s a nts there Yet it must b e noted th a t the outlook of the Tra nsylv a ni a n lea ders is more ra di c a l in every other resp ect an d not merely in m a tters of l a nd reform th a n is th a t of the p olitici a ns in the Old Kingdom— l a rgely no doubt a s the result of the st a te of suppressed opposition in which they h a d been kept by the former Hung a ri a n r égime ; j ust a s the B ess a ra bi a n le a ders who were b orn a n d bred un der a utocra cy struck still more to the Left in their fi r st a ct of freedom p a ssing a reform which w a s much more stringent th a n th a t of Tr a n sy l v a ni a j ust a s the l a tter exceeded in strin gency the reform of the Old Kingdom The m a nner in w hi ch the reform w a s executed will b e dis cussed in subsequent ch a pters ; a n d one hopes th a t it m a y soon b e possible to express its n a tion a li st effects in precise figur e s Until then it is but true to say th a t the rea l c a rriers of the reform the m a ss of p ea s a ntry were concerned merely with gettin g the l a nd a n d c a red little whence it c a me A sm a ll minority a mong the ruling cl a ss especi a lly in the Old Kingdom were a nim a ted by n a tion a list prej udices a n d instilled them into the reform a s far a s they could Yet the differences b etween the sever a l l a ws b eing so much fa inter an d fewer th a n their simil a rities the worst th a t could s a fely b e a ffi rm ed is th a t one edge only of a very big piece of soci a l legisl a tion h a s been t a inted with a n a tion a list bi a s .

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PART III THE APPLICATION OF THE REFORM AND ITS RESULTS

C H A P TE R

VI I

THE EFFECTS OF THE REFORM ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAN D PROPERTY S E CTI O N TH E

CHANGE

1

T H E OL D K I NG D O M

IN

TH E

discussion a n d the legisl a tive evolution of the reform a s well a s the l a ck of a ll system a tic inquiry a n d the a rit hm etic a l b a sis of execution— a ll produce the unmitig a ted impression th a t the a gra ri a n problem w a s never considered in its m a ny economic complex ities Onl y the soci a l a ngle of the problem w a s t a ken a ccount o i i e the pe a s a nt s hunger for l a nd a n d in consequence the solution contempl a ted never went b eyond a wish to meet th a t dem a nd by tra nsferrin g a cert a in extent of l a nd from the big own ers to the pe a s a nts Restricted within th a t simpler fra me the reform h a s h a d a revolution a ry effect M B a sileseu in pressing for a generous solution urged his fellow deputies in 1 9 1 7 to b e qui te cle a r th a t wh a t we a r e do ing to d a y is a re a l revolution— the upsettin g of one st a te of thi ngs which we repl a ce with a tot a lly different st a te of things M Ga r oflid the a uthor of the la w of 1 921 though not a ltogether in sym p a thy w ith it coul d not refra in from excl a imin g with a me a sure of pride in introducing his bill th a t this is the mightiest soci a l revolution ever recorded in hi story I t le a ves in the sh a dow even the historic a gra ri a n revo lut ion c a rried through in Fr a nce a fter 1 793 for n ot wit h st a n d ing the Gre a t Revolution l a rge prop erty still ret a ined in Fr a nce 30 per cent of the l a nd In Rum a ni a l a rge property a b ove 1 00 h a h a d covered 48 69 per cent of the a ra ble a re a ; a fter the reform its sh a re fell to 7 78 p er cent a ccording to offi cia l ,

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It is essenti a l whenever usin g a gra ri a n st a tistics in this study to w a rn the re a der tha t they a r e merely a ppro xim a te Especi ally is this necess a ry in the c a se of figur es rel a tin g to l a nd property a s Rum a ni a h a s no ground book a n d a s very few est a tes h a ve ,

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186

OF

THE EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

THE

surveys a n d pl a ns of their own The distribution of l a nd prop erty w a s in f a ct merely guessed a t un til in 1 9 05 M R Capit an ea n u of the Min istry of Fin a nce extra cted from the a v a il a ble fi s ca l d a t a an estim a te of the extent of l an d which w a s owned by l a rge o w ners a n d by pe a s a nts Then only w a s the excessive spre a ding of l a rge prop erty re a li zed a n d the in tense deb a te which prep a red the groun d for reform b eg un In 1 906 Dr Cre a ng a compiled in his turn st a tistic a l t a bles on the d ist ribu tion of l a nd property in Rum a ni a which h a ve since b een used by a lmost every writer a n d sp e a ker on the subj ect But M Ga r ofli d a n d others m a int a ined th a t neither of the two sets of fi ur es w a s g quite reli a ble those of the Ministry of Fin a n ce a ttributing to the pe a s a nts the possession of h a more th a n the fi gur es of Dr Cre a ng a Nor were these serious differences composed on the occ a sion of the reform The Centra l Resettlement Offi ce e g h a less to l a rge prop erty th a n the g a ve in i t s st a tistics figur e s of the Ministry of Fin a nce Usin g therefore the va rious fi gur es with a cert a in a ppr oxi m a tion one fi n d s th a t l a nd property w a s distributed in 1 9 05 a ccording to the figur e s of the Ministry of F i n a nce a s follows .

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C tegori e s a

E

xten t

of

tota l

Cl as s

of

prop erty 40 29 % 1 1 02% -

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l a rge

1 0 4 3% la t ifun d iary 38 26 % -

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T ot a l

1 0000%

1 00 00 -

This t a ble m a kes a n a ttempt to system a tize the cla s sifi cat ion of the v a rious prop erties In common us a ge however properties below h a were a lw a ys rega rded a s sm a ll est a tes which sug gests a somewh a t medieva l notion of siz e The a bove tot a l refers only to the a r a ble s ur fa ce To this would h a ve to b e a dded h a viney a rds a n d orch a rds b elonging in a consider a ble ,

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LAN D PROPERTY

OF

DISTRIBUTION

187

degree to sm a ll owners ; a n d h a forests a n d w a stes which with insignifi c a nt exceptions were in the possession of l a rge owners Up to 1 907 therefore p e a sa nt fa milies representing 92 per cent of the pop ul a tion o w ned 40 29 per cent of the a ra ble a re a ; medium sized owners repre s enting 4 01 per cent of the popula tion det a in ed 1 1 per cent ; a n d l a rge o w ners with properties a b ove 1 00h a h a d i n their h a nds 48 6 8 per cent though they themselves only formed 0 5 6 per cent of the coun try s popul a tion The moder a te reforms a dopted a fter the rising of 1 907 some wh a t a ltered the proportion of the l a nd held by the two extreme cl a sses of own ers— those with prop erties of less th a n 1 0 h a a n d those o wn in g more th a n 1 00h a The tot a l effect of these ch a nges w a s a s follows : .

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prop e rty up t o 1 0 h a which i n 1 907 a moun ted t o Th ere w ere a dd e d S a l es thr ou gh R ura l O ffic e C omm u n a l gra i n gs e sta bli s he d by t h e law on agricultur a l c n tra cts of 1 9 08 ins be t w eeh 1 907 1 8 S l e s fro m S t te d o ma Dire ct purch a se s from l a rge o wn ers b e tw een 1 907 1 8

To t h e

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H e cta res

H cta res e

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—

th t prop erty of 0—10 h a c ov ere d a t t h e b eginn in g of t h e l n d refor m a tota l a rea of

So

a

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a

l a rge pro pe rty a b ov e 1 00 h a which in 1 9 07 c ov e re d a tot a l a r a bl e a r ea o f Th ere w e re d e ta ch ed a s s h own a b ov e dur i n g t h e peri od

E

0111

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1 907—1 9 1 8

th a t i t s tota l a re a reform b egan

So

To reform

m up,

su

wa s

w as

at

mo men t

the

Wh e n

th e

l an d

r ble l a nd a t the beginning of the distributed a s follows a a

Pr op e rty up t o 1 0 h a Pro pe rty from 1 0—1 00 h a Pro p rty a b o ve 1 00 h a

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188

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

on the strength of the decree the followi n g res ul ts

Fr

d oma ins Fr om Crown d oma ins a n d From fore ign o wn e rs F rom a b s en tee own e rs Fro m priva te o w e rs om

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la w

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50

As the a mendment to the Constitution dem a nded the exprop ri a h a from priva te owners a lone the fi r st res ult tion of fell short by a bout Thi s d efi h a of the req uired a re a ci en c w a s m a de good through the second expropri a tion decreed y by the la w of 1 921 On the streng th of the two legisl a tive me a s ures for the expropri a tion of l a nd the a re a given in the t a ble b elow w a s det a ched from the a ra ble l a nd owned by l a rge proprietors in the Old Kin gdom : .

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t t e xpr o pri a te d o n b as i s of a gr ari an No

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Tota l a rea e xpr o pri a te d

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priva te own e rs From S ta te d m a i ns F rom mortma in es ta tes F r om fore ign o wn rs From a b s en tee own r F ro m

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After sett ing a side the v a rious extents required for comm un a l forests commun a l gra zi n gs & c the use to which the e x pr o l on ria t e d a nd w a s put showed the foll owing di stribution p S eptemb er 1 1 9 27 .

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Di stribute d t o i dividua l ow rs C omm u na l gra z i gs For sts a d mi n i stere d by t h e S ta te a b ut t o b e a ll tt d L n d u ns uit bl e f r di stributi on R e s e rv s of gene ra l i te re s t n

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43

DISTRIBUTION

OF

LAN D PROPERTY

1 89

The B ess a ra bi a n la w specifi ca lly provided ( Ar t 44) th a t a certa in a re a should b e set a side from the expropri a ted l a nd for v a rious public requi rements In the la w for the Old Kingdom there wa s Sta te needs but by a n oversight no a v a gue reference to d efi n it e provision w a s m a de for the i r s a tisfa ctio n The omission h a d to b e m a de good by a dmi ni str a tive me a sur es a n d a tot a l a re a of h a a s shown in the a bove t a ble w a s reserved for v a rious public needs— such a s the extension of town s a n d vi lla ges the buildin g of ro a ds a n d r a ilwa ys the est a bli shment of m ilit a ry shooting ra nges of a eropl a ne fa ctories & c For these reserves the St a te p a id the s a me compens a tion a s for l a nd di stributed to the pe a s a nts The tra nsfer of the expropri a ted a re a produced the follo wi ng ch a nges in the extent of l a nd held by the v a rious c a tegories of o w ners .

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prop erty up t o 1 0 h a co v e ri ng there we re a dd e d thr ou gh t h e r for m To

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Pro pe rty of 1 0 1 00 h a rema i n e d u n ch a ge d W ith a n r of Fr om prop rt y b o ve 1 00 h a t h e refor m d ta ch e d h l e a vi n g it with —

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These offi cia l figur es a r e not a ccepted a s correct by every body Durin g the discussion of the la w M Mih a la ch e quoted M Ga r ofi i d a s m a int aini ng th a t the two expropri a tions woul d h a a r a ble l a nd ; le a ve in the h a nds of the l a rge owners Mih a la ch e himself cited figur e s which showed th a t on a modera te c a lcul a tion the l a rge owners would ret a in a t le a st ha representing 1 3 6 per cent of the a r a ble surfa ce Wh a tever the precise fi gur e s neither p a rty w a s fully s a tisfied wi th the e xt ent of the expropri a tion M Ga r ofl id spea k ing in the Ch a mb er decl a red th a t the l a rge own ers did not obj ect to the prin ciple of the expropri a tion but condemned its extent The reform h a d gone too far a n d th a t w a s the more unfortun a te a s l a rge prop erty h a d to pl a y a more import a nt role th a n b efore a fter a reform which m a de extensive cultiv a tion no longer p ossible To b e economic a lly pr ofi t a ble a n a gricultura l exploit a tion shoul d ret a in a t lea st 200 h a in the densely pop ul a ted regions 300 h a in regions less densely popula ted a n d 5 00 h a .

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THE

1 90

OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

THE

in regions sp a rsely pop ula ted Otherwise the result would b e dis a strous economi c a lly a s est a tes too reduced in e xt ent coul d b e used o nl y for intensive a gric ul tur e But in our soci a l a n d economic circum st a nces the regions of intensive a gricultur e a r e very restricted All those sm a ll est a tes wi ll gra vit a te tow a rds sm a ll property an d will dis a ppea r in less th a n a genera tio n The Memora ndum of the Mold a vi a n L a ndown ers pointed out th a t a ll the c a lcul a tions necessit a ted by the la w h a d b een b a sed on the st a te of things existing in 1 9 1 6 a n d they therefore cl a im ed th a t l a nd bought by the p e a s a nts b etween 1 9 1 6 an d 1 920 shoul d b e included in the a rea to b e expropri a ted The spokesmen of the p e a s a ntry m a i nt a in ed on the contra ry tha t the reform w a s w a nting in f a irness tow a rds the p ea s an ts M B a sile se u compl a in ed th a t no a ccount h a d b een t a ken of the pe a s a nts historic rights From 1 8 6 4 to the end of the Gre a t Wa r a n a re a of h a h a d b een distributed on v a rious occ a sions to pe a s a nts Assum in g tha t the a ra ble sur fa ce w a s on th a t d a te h a the pe a s a nts woul d b e entitled a ccording to old custom to two thirds of th a t a re a i e to a b out h a Inste a d of which the reform only g a ve them little 1 more th a n h a lf of th a t extent The Pe a s a nt P a rty a s we h a ve seen in a n e a rli er ch a pter w a nted to a pply in the Old Kin gdom the s a me norm a s the B ess a ra bi a n law a n d to expropri a te a ll the a ra ble l a nd up to a limit of 1 00 h a per owner ; they estim a ted th a t they woul d obt a in thereby 6 h a more th a n w a s secur ed through the Ga r ofli d la w not including forests a n d l a nd li a ble to fl oo di ng Altogether their propos a ls woul d h a ve expropri a ted a ccordi ng to their own estim a te not more th a n h a together with common gra zings Here a g a in there is much dis a greement a s to the fi gur e s co n cerned ; but i n his Memora ndum to the King M Ga r ofli d m a int a ined th a t the Pe a s a nt propos a l would le a ve ‘

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rgu m nt i s me ti on e d he re a s s how in g h ow u n c mpromi s in gly e v en a l ea r n d s pokes ma n of t h e pea s n ts fe lt i n 1 9 1 7 But M B s iles u s fi gur es refe r onl y t o wh a t t h e p e s n ts h d r c e iv d s i n c e 1 8 6 4 ; th e y d o n o t i n clud e wh a t t h e p ea s a n ts purch a se d d re ctly s i c e th a t d te n or th a t p ea s an t pro pe rty wh s e o wn e rs for v ri o u s re as n s w e re n ot f u n d t o be e ntitl d t o r e c e ive l n d i n 1 8 64 a n d on s ub s e qu e t E ve n a cce pti g M Mih a la ch e s fi gure it h as b e en seen th a t t h e t ota l s o cc as i ha re ta n e d by t h e l rge ow n rs did n ot e xc e d a fte r t h e re for m a ra bl e a re ha which is v e ry fa r from M Bas il scu s i mpli ed s urplu s of a b out 1

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DISTRIBUTION

OF

LAND PROPERTY

1 91

merely h a 1 e 4 6 per cent of the a r a ble l a nd in the h a nds of the l a rge o w ners a n d M Mih a lach e concurred in th a t estim a te The pe a s a nts spokesm a n moreover m a int a i ned th a t the reform w a s bound to err on the side of the l a rge o wners a s it w a s b a sed on their own decl a ra tions ; in his speech in the Ch a mb er in 1 921 M Mih a la ch e mentioned the a dmission of M E n asescu a l a rge owner himself th a t m a ny decl a ra tions were incorrect a n d th a t a s a res ul t there were est a tes left a fter the h a where a s a ccordin g to the expropri a tion of an d la w they could not h a ve b een l a rger th a n 5 00 h a In the Old Kingdom res ettlement B The Res ettlemen t bega n on the strength of a decree la w fi r st through the ch a nnel of the a ssoci a tions of resettlement the whole opera tion bein g The a fterw a rds revised a s soon a s the a gr a ri a n la w w a s p a ssed la w est a bli shed a preferenti a l cl a im to resettlement in the order of the c a tegories mentioned below : -

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War inv a lids Minor children of soldiers killed in the w a r a n d w a r orph a ns b orn not l a ter th a n 1 903 p ossessing a gricultura l equipment V ill a ge priests a n d te a chers 9 2 9 Those h a vi ng t a ken p a rt in the c a mp a ign 1 9 1 6— 1 8 Those h a ving t a ken p a rt in the c a mp a ign 1 9 1 3 9 9 Childr en of soldiers kill ed in the w a r who were not of a ge a t the time of the reform a n d who do not own a gricul tur a l equipment 7 Sm a ll cultiv a tors without l a nd of the i r own 8 Cultiv a tors owning less th a n 5 h a l a nd 9 Wa r orph a ns who were not of a ge on August 1 5 1 9 1 6 1 2

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the b a sis of this preferenti a l order t a bles of those entitled to receive l a nd were dra wn u p in e a ch comm une by a loc a l com mission These t a bles were revi s ed by di strict commissions a n d a ppe a ls provoked by th a t re vision were fi na ll a dj udged by the y Agra ri a n Committee As a result of th a t prelimin a ry opera tion indi vid uals were registered a s being entitled to receive l a nd Oi th a t number individu als received up to S eptember 1 1 927 .

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1 92

THE EFFE CTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

THE

holdings coverin g a tot a l a rea of 04 h a ; in a ddition there were a llotted to them 8 7 h a a s comm un a l gr a zings The det a iled a pp lica tion of the l a w s genera l principles w a s even more sternl y criticized Wh en so m a ny p ea s a nt cultiv a tors h a d to b e left without l a nd it w a s felt to b e wr ong in prin ciple a n d economic a lly un r ofi t a b le th a t l a nd should b e given to p a rtis a ns a lso to b i nd them to the soil a s well a s to petty o ffi ci a ls a s e a te Ra i lw a ys to those on the St L nd used a i n g th a t w a y w a s clea rly lost for the new conception of property of production Moreover these holdings were often severa l kilo metres dist a nt from the st a tion where their owners were a t work a n d where a s in western Eur op e the a ll otments of workers took a sub ordin a te pl a ce in their a ctivity the Rum a ni a n r a ilw a y worker & c still h a d the p ea s a nt ment ality in him He thought fi r st of his l a nd a n d therefore li ved in the V illa ge spendin g hi s lim ited leisure in j ourneying to a n d fr o a n d in tilli ng hi s fi eld To th a t doub ling of hi s a ctivity a n d the resultin g f a tigue a n imp ort a nt offi cia l h a s a ttributed m a ny of the frequent a ccidents on the Rum a ni a n ra ilw a ys ; he pointed out th a t the a rra ngement a lso m a de it impossible to move the r a ilw a y workers a n d lesser o ffi ci a ls a bout a ccording to their a bili ty a n d to the needs of the service Much criticism h a s been likewise directed a g a i nst the gra nting of l a nd to gipsies who h a d served in the Wa r b ec a use they very r a rely eng a ged in a gricultur e a n d merely b ec a me Fin a lly M Ga r ofii d criticized a b sentee owners on a sm a ll sc a le the bri n ging of mount a ineers into the lowl a n ds who never b ec a me good cultiv a tors thus restrictin g the a re a a v a il a ble for the re a l f a rmers It is the s a me policy of settlement whi ch h a s impoverished the l a rge vill a ges of the pl a in situ a ted on the St a te s dom a ins when these est a tes were broken up to b e di vided into lots of 5 h a Most critics wh a tever side they represent a gree in decl a ring th a t the hold ings di stributed were too sm a ll In 1 8 6 4 some a ccount w a s t a ken a t le a st of the me a ns of production owned by the v a rious pe a s a nts who received l a nd who were divided into three c a tegories a ccording to the num b er of dra ught a ni m a ls they possessed Subsequent r e settlements on St a te dom ai ns gra nted stereotyped holdings of 5 h a e a ch wi th the excep tion of the -

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DISTRIBUTION

LA N D PROPERTY

OF

1 93

me a sure of 1 8 8 9 which a lso provided lots of 1 0 a n d 25 h a h a were di s tributed in lots of less Altogether a fter 1 8 6 4 h a in l a rger holdings As the th a n 1 0 h a e a ch a n d only pe a s a nt holdings were divisible w ithout li mit by succession or s a le they were split up in tim e to a degree which m a de of most of them mere a llotments The followin g t a ble i n di c a tes the ch a ra cter a n d distribution of pe a s a nt holdings shortly b efore the Wa r .

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E xt t i en

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40 29

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P er

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1

The a gra ri a n la w for the Old Kin gdom ende a vour ed to check th a t pul veriz a tion of property by fi x in g the minimum holding to b e distributed to those w ithout a n y la nd a t a ll a t 2 h a B ut so a nxious were the a uthorities to s a tisfy a s m a n y cl a im a nts a s possible th a t in pra ctice th a t provision w a s di s rega rded a n d m a ny lots of a lesser size were distributed Rum a ni a n a gricultur a l economists genera lly a gree th a t 5 h a a r e not suffi ci en t for a pea s a n t f a mily M Ga r ofl id sets the lowest limit a t 7 h a ; a n d while th a t would ensure the existence of a p ea s a nt fa mily it would not exh a ust its l a bour power Th a t a ccording to M Ga r ofli d wo ul d require for a f a mi ly of four p erso n s a holdi n g of 1 5 5 — 1 6 h a — w hi ch one a ssumes to refer to the conditions which preva iled a bout 1 907 when his b ook w a s written a n d which im posed upon the pe a s a nts a p r imitive exte n sive cultiv a tion The eco n omic siz e of a pea s a n t holding v a ries i n deed wi th the qu a lity of the l a nd its situ a tion a n d the kind of fa rmin g for which it is used In Germ a ny R os ch er pl a ced the minimum a t .

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1 94

OF

THE EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

THE

6— 7

morgen l a nd of good qu a lity a n d 24 morgen l a nd of medi ocre qu a lity ; the gre a t It a li a n a gricultura l in qui r y of 1 8 79 8 2 con cluded th a t hold ings should v a ry b etween 7— 1 5 h a ; in Fr a nce S o uch on in L a P r op ri é té P a ys an n e suggested a min i mum of 5 5 h a even for prolifi c cultures while Ca z i ot in L a Terre d la F a mi lle P a ys a n n e suggested 8 20 h a a ccordin g to region fertility a n d ch a ra cter of the crops In Rum a ni a the Pe a s a nt Pa rty proj ect h a d in View indivisible minimum holdings of 3 h a in the highl a nd s 5 h a in the lowl a n ds a n d 1 0 li a in the regions to b e newly settled The reform did not of course distribute onl y complete hold i n gs but a l s o m a n y s o c a lled complement a ry lots to p e a s a nts a lr e a dy owning less th a n 5 h a l a nd Accordi n g to loc a l needs a n d po s sibilities the siz e of the lots thus distributed w a s fi x e d by the Centr a l Res ettlement O th ee b etween 0 5 a n d 5 h a S o fa r no fi gur es exist to s how how m a n y lots of the v a rious kinds were given a n d to wh a t c a tegories of pe a s a nts so th a t it is not yet possible to know how the p e a s a n t properties a r e cla ssifi e d a t 1 present Cr i ti ci s m of App li ca ti on Writin g in 1 91 9 M Ionescu Sise s ti urged the n eed of a pplying with impl a c a ble fa irness t hi s decisive me a sure The re a l kernel of the problem lies in this much more th a n in the principles a n d det a ils of the la w Our a gra ri a n pro blem for h a lf a century h a s been one long story of good in tentions If some of the prin ciples a dopted by the a n d mediocre execution legisl a tor for the tra nsfer of l a nd were not of the b est for soci a l s election a n d economic development it is genera lly a dmitted th a t their a pplic a tion w a s more d efi ci en t th a n the principles them Th a t w a s p a rtly due to the politic a l c i rcumst a nces of the s elves p eriod ; for the rest to the l a ck of re li a ble st a tistic a l m a teria l a n d —

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n tte mpt t o s cur so m i dicati on of t h e n e w s ta te of thin gs from t h t n ts of l o c l public ti on s m re ly e d e d i n t h c pture of a tra ge e x mpl e of l o c l publi h d s ta ti s tic I n 1 9 28 t h Ch m b e r of C o mme rc e of B otos n i i n M o ld vi y a r b k with l a b ra t c n m ic fi g u e re f rri g t o t h fo ur c ou ti s of Botos i D o roh i Falt i n i a d H ti Th e ye a r b o k c on ta i n e d th re e ta bl es n t h e d is t r i bu ti o of l n d ith e r f which w a s c om p tibl e with t h e th r t w o Th e third ta bl e en t a ge v u m b r w r i v ri p rc f h n o o t h a o u s c t gori es o f pro p rty a n d t h t g th y r e pres nte d fr m t h tot l n u m b e r of l n d own e rs i n t h e fo ur c o u ti es but ttr buti g t h l e s t p ibl a re t t h n u m b e r of o w e rs i ch c a tegory e v n by the t h e m i n i m u m t ta l fa r e xc d e d t h e t ta l a rea of t h e fo ur c o u n ti es a s giv e n i fi t t a bl 1

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DISTRIBUTION

LA N D PROPERTY

1 95

of a per s onnel prep a red technic a lly a n d mora lly for the proper execution of s uch a n extensive reform The t a s k im po s ed upon the coun t i y s j udici a l a n d a gricultura l a uthorities w a s t 1 uly imm en s e In most c a ses a ll the three exp r opri a tion a uthorities were c a lled upo n to give a decision co n cerni n g the p 1 oper ties whi ch were exprop r i a ted ; a bout of which c a me up for a second t i me before the expropri a tion bodies The fi r st d iffi cult y w a s crea ted by the exceedin g h a s te of the reform Court a n d po litici a ns who h a d been in refuge a t J a s sy retur ned to Buc a rest in N ove m ber 1 9 1 8 Within ten d a ys a n e w Governm en t w a s formed— on the 1 s t of December a n d eighteen d a ys l a ter the decree for the a ppli c a tion of the reform w a s i s sued In the fi r st d a y s of J a n ua r y the expropri a tion commissions w ere The fi r st po s t w a r C a binet of M Io n el Brati a nu a t work rem a in ed in power ten months ; durin g th a t period fi ve sixths of the a re a to be expropri a ted h a d been t a ke n over Th a t feverish h a ste h a s been severely criticiz ed a n d m a de responsible for much th a t is f a ulty in the reform Even the Pe a s a nt Pa rty proposed th a t expropri a tion shoul d proceed only gra du a lly a n d step by s tep with resettlement ; expropri a tion should in their O pinion h a ve been procl a imed a t once in pri nciple but a p eriod of fi ve or even ten ye a rs sho ul d h a ve been set for the a ctu a l t a king over of the l an d The Government defen ded the li ne they a dopted a s c a lcula ted to prevent the pe a s a nts suspectin g th a t the provision of the Constitution might rem a in a de a d letter S ome a gricultura l exp erts i n deed be lieve th a t the ra pid a pplic a tion of the reform h a s h a d a s a lut a ry effect by enlisti n g a t once a ll the me a ns a n d e n ergy of the pe a s a n ts in the service of a gric ul tura l r e con st r uc tion The l a rge owners needed cre di t a n d the l a bour of the pe a s a nts n either of which they could h a ve got e a sily a s lo n g a s the fa te of the reform rem a ined uncert a in ; so th a t a t a given moment the interests of Sta te la n do w ners a n d pe a s a nts coincided this a lone m a king possible the quick execution of such a r a dic a l me a sure A second a n d considera ble d iffi cult y w a s c a used by the i ma de qu a te mea n s a va il a ble for the me a surement of the l a nd There w a s no gr oun d book a n d h a rdly a n y priva te est a te pl a ns The number of tra ined surveyors w a s very lim ited a n d a surveying o2 .

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1 96

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

THE

school h a d to b e im pro vised for the occ a sion Simil a rly the a v a il a ble sur veying instrum ents were a ltogether in a dequ a te for the needs of the reform a n d a s they were costly an d the St a te w a s short of money a n e ffort h a d to b e m a de to m a nufa cture them on the spot In the Old Kin gdom the det a iled me a sure ment for resettlement pur poses w a s a lmost everyw here m a de with the ch a in a n d o nl y occ a sion a lly by mea ns of a n a lytic a l p a rcell a tion The results were boun d to show errors Th e me a ns for choosing the l a nd to b e expropri a ted were a s rudim ent a ry a s those for its me a surement The loc a l com missions who were the chief f a ctor in m a kin g th a t choice did not h a ve a t their dispos a l a n y det a iled a n d precise m a teri a l concern i n g the n a tur e a n d qu a lity of the l a nd in their di stricts B eing in a gre a t hur ry they h a d inevit a bly to rely in m a ny c a ses on the st a tements of the p a rties interested a n d so it c a me a bout th a t much a ra ble l a nd w a s exempted a s gr a zin g or a s b eing li a ble to floo d ing As a consequence the fi r st expropri a tion di d not secure the h a dem a nded by the Constitution while some of the l a nd expropri a ted w a s of little use Th e genera l figur e s given a b ove show th a t of the a re a t a ken over ha were a ltogether un fi t for cultiva tion a n d th a t gives some po i nt to the compl a i nt of Dr Lupu th a t cert a in l a ndown ers h a ve given b a rren a n d stony w a stes whil e ret a in in g the fertil e soil for themselves The need of c a rryin g out in grea t h a ste a technic a l work of a l a sting ch a r a cter n a tur a lly str a ined to the utmost the coun try s resources in perso n n el a n d m a teri a l a n d the gre a t d efi ci en cy of m a teri a l pl a ced a corre s pondin gly gre a ter bur den on the personnel The merits of their unusu a l p erform a nce therefore The res ul ts of their work form a v a lu a ble a r e the more enh a n ced found a tion for the eventu a l est a blishment of a sur vey The work w a s b egun in 1 9 1 9 with twenty surveyi n g te a ms ; their num ber re a ched 300 eng a ged in fi eld work by 1 9 25 a ssisted by a n o th ee e s t a bli s hment of a b out 200 c a lcul a tors a n d dra ughtsmen The l a nd w a s di vided up in a provision a l m a nn er on the strength of the decisions of the lower a uthoritie s a n d w a s h a nded over to the pe a s a nts to b e used fi r s t through the a ssoci a tions of r esettlement a n d then in individu a l holdings on a prel i min a ry .

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DISTRIBUTION

OF

LA N D PROPERTY

1 97

resettlement The fi n a l resettlement w a s c a rried out in the me a sure in which the technic a l work a dva nced The develop ment of this work a ppe a rs from the followin g fi gi ue s : .

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‘

19 19 a 1 9 20 1 9 21

rea

meas ur e d

ha

and

pa rc e ll d o ut e

ha

1 922 1 923 1 9 24 1 9 25

T t l

ha

o a

.

tota l e xpropri a te d a rea w s with t h e rea t o be e xpropri a te d i n D obrog

Th e

a

,

a

ha

.

ha

.

ha

.

S o uth e r n

ea

T ot l Mea ure d till a

s

5

192

i n i g t o be me as ure d p a rc e ll e d ut Pa rc ll d out ti ll 1 9 25

R e ma To be e

n

ha

o

e

h i n i ng t o be mea ure d a d p a rc e ll e d out Th e l a t es t fi gu es of t h e S urv e y Dir e ct o ra t e c on c e r ni n g t h e w o rk e x e cut e d by 1 9 28 a r e c on t a in e d i n t h e fo ll o win g t a bl e o rga ns fr o m 1 9 19 till D c e m b e r 3 1 R e ma

s

n

a

r

e

M

i

R e g on

O ld Ki gd n

Tr

ans

Be

o

ure d a rea H e cta res

,

.

it s

,

ea s

H e ct res

H e cta res

a

m

ylvani a

r bi a

ssa a

Buc ovi n a T ota l

Bec a use of the h a sty a ppli c a tion a g a in the org a ns entrusted with it h a d to b e gre a tly decentra lized The execution of the me a sure w a s prim a rily in the h a n ds of speci a l loc a l bodies whose composition a n d fun ctions h a ve b een describ ed in the previous ch a pter The procedure under the Duc a decree w a s simple a n d expeditious The loc a l commissions h a d the ch a ra cter of b odies ,

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1 98

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON THE

whose t a s k it w a s to bring a bout a n underst a n di ng r a ther th a n a j udgement — the j udge b eing more in the position of a friendly a rbiter These commiss i ons i n most c a ses in f a ct re a ched a frien dl y a greement ; a s the extent to b e expropri a ted w a s rigidly fi x e d the respective provisions were e a sy to a pply a n d discussion centred m a i n ly roun d the choice of the spot where the l a n d w a s to b e t a ken Appe a ls from these decisions were a s a result few a n d most of them were settled in f a vour of the pea s a nts The Ga r ofli d la w however by introducing more complex economic criteri a of expropri a tion required a ppropri a tely l a rger a n d more el a bor a te org a ns of a pplic a tio n a n d li ke wise more el a bora te courts of a ppe a l However well intentioned the new commissions m a y h a ve b een their decisions were ra ther in the n a ture of a j udgement a fter ple a dings by both sides e a ch of cours e putting forth a n extreme c a se ; a n d where in the fi r st c a se the decision h a d ge n er a lly me a nt a n a greement in the s eco n d it frequently disple a sed both p a rties to the c a se The second system produced a l a rge crop of a pp ea ls a n d most oi them were settled in f a vour of the l a ndowners Th a t disclosed a s i n ifi ca n t ch a nge of p s ychology : in the former p eriod public g symp a thy w a s on the side of the p e a s a nts who h a d suffered so long ; a fter the fi r st expropri a tion symp a thy veered to the side of the dispossessed owners especi a lly a fter the colla pse of the exch a n ge While expropria tion on the whole proceeded smoot hl y the second p a rt of the reform h a s given rise to m a ny a buses a n d to consequent 111 f e elin g The li sts of those entitled to receive l a nd were prep a red by loc a l committees who would seem to h a ve b een to a n unfortuna te degree imposed upo n by the more greedy a n d vociferous vill a gers The re a l conditions were d iffi cult to est a b lish b ec a use the t a x a tion registers were not up to d a te Expropri a tion a ppe a ls moreover were dea lt with by the county tribun a ls but in the c a se of resettlement a ppe a ls the loc a l j udge considered the issue on the s pot a ssisted by experts a n d deleg a tes of the p a rtie s s o th a t the proceedings were no lon gel conducted in the j uridic a l a tmosphere which surrounded the cou 1 ts The j u di ci a l p a i t w a s n ot s uffi cien t ly sep a ra ted from the a dmi ni str a tive p a rt in the seco n d c a se Mor eovei the fi n a l a uthority the Agra ri a n .

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LA N D PROPERTY

OF

DISTRIBUTION

1 99

Committee worked b ehi nd closed doors the p a rties not b ei ng presen t a t the proceedi ngs ; a n d in quiries on beha lf of the Committee were conducted in a simil a r executive m a nner by — a ll of which w a s a t to offic i a ls of the Mini stry of Agricultur e p le a ve in the minds of those d i ssa t i sfi e d with the decision a suspicion tha t there m a y h a ve b een something wro n g in the p rocedure Whether delibera te fra ud or unfortun a te error the list of compl a ints a ga inst the det a iled a pplic a tion of both p a rt s of the reform is very formid a ble An y on e m a y co llect from the Pa rli a ment a ry deb a tes a whole volum e of well documented c a ses a n d high offi ci als do not deny th a t a good m a n y of these 1 compl a ints must be j ust ifi e d The only excuse which one of them represented a ttempted w a s merely to insist th a t such fr a uds only a percent a ge of the whole mea sure— W h a t elsewhere m a y h a ve been 1 per cen t is perh a ps 1 0 per cent here The Pe a s a n t Pa rty especi a lly h a s b een unsp a ring in its denunci a tion of such a buses a n d h a s pledged itself to redress them when com ing into power Ag a inst such a n i n tention a ll Rum a ni a n a gricultur a l experts seem to b e united They a dmit th a t mist a kes h a ve been m a de but contend th a t they were inevit a ble in such a h a sty To try to a mend a pp lic at ion of an imm ense me a sur e of reform them would b e useless a s errors a n d fra uds would b e a s possible now a s they were a few ye a rs a go a n d a revision of the reform would at the s a me time b e economic a lly ruinous a s it would me a n a prolonged st a te of insecurity for the whole a gric ul tura l industry Yet security a n d st a bili ty a r e essenti a l if a gric ul ture is to a dv a nce technic a lly Agricultur e h a s suffered during the p a st ten ye a rs j ust beca use it found itself in an un st a ble period of tr a nsition To cre a te a nother such period through a n a ttempt to revise the a pplic a tion of the reform would b e dis a strous The reform w a s c a rried out on a soci a l politic a l b a sis which politici a ns co n tinued to keep to the fore But the technic a l experts being interested merely in the economic a spect they a r e a ll of them a ga inst a n a ttempt a t revision y ,

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c ompr he ns iv e t bl e on p 227 s ho ws e g t h e c uri ou s fa ct th t ma n y pr per ti es b o v e 25 0 h still xi st i n B ess r bi th ou gh t h e B ss ra bi a n la w w s s upp ose d t e xpro pri t e e v rythi g a b o v e 100 h 1

o

Th e

e

a

a

o

a

a

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e

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e

a a

n

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,

a,

a

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a

,

e

a

a

200

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

THE

While doin g full j ust ic e to the st a ndpoint of the a gric ul tura l — exp erts summ a riz ed a bove from st a tements hea rd from m a n y of them in a hn ost identic a l words— o n e must record the fa ct th a t the a ppli c a tion of the reform h a s left b ehin d in a lm ost every Vill a ge one or more disputes which in cert a in c a ses h a ve devel oped into conflicts Whether a revision is pra ctic a lly possible except in a restricted numb er of fl a gra n t c a ses must rem a in questiona ble M N egur a decl a red in the Ch a mb er in Ma y 1 9 24 th a t the Agra ri a n Com mi ttee h a d to de a l w ithi n a period of twelve months with 5 00 a pp e a ls a g a inst expropri a tion decisions an d a g a inst resettlement decisions— which worked out a t a r a te of s ome 200 c a ses e a ch d a A decision to re ise v y the a pplic a tion of the reform woul d b eyond doubt c a ll forth a n a v a l a nche of compl a ints At best therefore the re vision would b e a very long a ffa ir ; a n d the experience a lr e a dy m a de with procedure suggests th a t it would be hum a nly imp ossible to dispense pondered j ustice especi a lly a s m a ny ii not most c a se s if they were to b e h a n dled w ith c a re wo uld necessit a te a n exp ert inqui ry on the spot .

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S E C TI O N II TH E E F F E CTS A

B es sa r a b ia

OF

T H E R E F O R M I N T H E NE W P R O V I NC E S

The distribution of l a nd property in Bess a r a bi a w a s a ffected a s in the w hole of the Russi a n Empire by the reform s of 1 8 6 1 6 when the p e a s a nts were em a ncip a ted a n d provided with l a nd in the collective form of the mi r a n d a fter w a rds by the so c a lled Stolypin la w of 1 906 which w a s intended to further the e s t a bli s hment of indi vidu a l p ea s a nt holdin gs The l a tter purpose w a s fi n a n ce d by the Pe a s a nt B a nk cre a ted in 1 8 8 2 ; to it were tr a n s ferred in 1 906 considera ble Crown dom a in s which were to b e sold to the p e a s a nts To check the spec ul a tions of intermedi a rie s a n uk a z e of Novemb er 1 908 crea ted a gra ri a n commi s sions whose function w a s to f a cilit a te the tra nsfer of e s t a te s from the l a rge owners to the Pe a sa nt B a n k a n d there a fter from the Pe a s a n t B a nk to the pe a s a nts The tot a l a re a of B e ss a ra bi a a ccording to the figure s of the Russi a n Centra l St a tistic a l Committee w a s of dessi a t ines Oi these .

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DISTRIBUTION

OF

LAN D PROPERTY

201

dess i e 43 per cent belo n ged to priva te own ers ; dess i e 48 6 per cent were n a dyel l a n d a llotted to the p e a s a nts when they were em a ncip a ted or through the Pe a s a nt B a nk under simil a r s a fegu a rds reg a rding mortg a ges debts & c ; wh i le St a te Chur ch a n d other institutions possessed dess i e 8 2 per cent The genera l distribution of l a nd property b efore the a gra ri a n reform a ccordi ng to offi cial Rum a ni a n st a tistics m a y b e see n 1 i n the t a ble b elow .

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Nu mb e r of Tot l a r Pr p rti s H ct r s a

C teg ri a

o

o

es

Nobl e Pri es ts Priv t M rch a ts 81 0 i d vidu l Pea an ts prop erti es F ore ign rs Va ri o u s L rg o w n e r s

e

e

A

ea

e

a e

v e rage a r H ct res e

c t f t ot a l a r e a

P er

ea

a

en

.

o

s

a e

1

.

i

n

n

e

a

.

s

e

a

2

.

O

O ~

P P

I J C

3

0 1

~

J i t h ld i o n

o

n

e

gs

land S t t d o m a i ns Church es a n d Mon a steri es T w prop e rt i s Priv a t e i ns tituti ons Na d y e l a e

o

n

e

1 00 0 -

It wi ll b e seen th a t B ess a ra bi a h a d a gre a ter va riety of c ategories of pr operties a ccording to the soci a l st a ndi n g of their own ers th a n the other p a rts of new Rum a ni a If one excepted the so c a lled n a dyel l a nd the l a rgest c a tegory w a s th a t of noble h a prev a lent m a inl y in the est a tes W ith a tot a l a re a of centre a n d in the north of the province Their tot a l numb er w a s which ga ve a n a ver a ge of 5 5 5 4 h a p er est a te ; though in the northern region they re a ch ed a n a vera ge of h a in the Tighin a coun ty The other c a tegories of priv a te properties were much sm a ller l a rge property not belongin g to the nobility b eing represented by 275 est a tes wi th a tot a l of and an a ver a ge of 6 1 6 3 h a A speci a l c a tegory which pl a yed a n import a nt p a rt in the discussion s on the compens a tion to b e p a id ,

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Giurge a i n

B uleti n ul S ta t isti

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19 1 9 , No 2, pp 324—7 .

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THE

202

OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

THE

for the expropri a ted l a nd w a s th a t of the foreign o wners ; they held thir teen est a tes covering a tot a l a re a of h a with a n a ver a ge extent of 6 ha A noteworthy f a ct w as the sm a ll numb er of pe a s a nts who owned individu a l hol di n gs They were merely possess ing a tot a l a re a of h a which g a ve a n a ver a ge of 1 7 5 per owner This pe a s a nt property w a s to b e found especi a lly in the southern districts which corre s ponded to the lesser a re a held by est a tes of nobles a n d a lso with the numerous colo ni es of foreign cultiv a tors est a bli shed in the southern region a t v a rious periods The a vera ge of 1 34 h a per pea s a nt own er in the county of Cet a te a Alb a shows how prosp erous some of these colonies were The n a dyel l a nd w a s the l a rgest kind of property w ith h a divided into properties the l a rgest a vera ge being a ga in found in the coun ty of Cet a te a Al b a with 5 ha per property ; the a vera ge p er p e a s a nt f a mil y w a s 7 08 h a Ta ken a s a whole l a nd properties were distributed a ccording to their siz e a s follo ws ,

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T t l re H cta res o a

a

e

a

c nt of tot l rea

P er

e

a

.

a

Nu m b e r o w n e rs

of

c e t of ow n e rs

P er

n

.

1 0094 ,

Expropri a tion w a s a pplied in B ess a ra bi a to l a ndowners h a w a s t a ken This a re a from whom a tot a l a re a of w a s put to the following use ,

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2 3

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4

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F or

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r es ttl e me nt e

Fo r e s t s

L a n d u fi t f di stributi on ed R s e rv es for ge e ra l n

or

n

e

T ta l o

ne

s

-

24

The B e s s a ra bi a n la w determined the following c a tegories of cultiv a tors a s b eing entitled to receive l a nd 1 ) cultiv a tors who lived on the est a t e a n d owned less th a n the a re a fi x e d for a resettlement holding in th a t region

DISTRIBUTION ( 2)

OF

LA ND PROPERTY

cultiva tors who lived on the est a te a t a ll

203

own ed no l a nd

an d

;

cultiva tors wh o lived wit h in a r a di us of5 k m fr om the est a te a n d h a d less l a nd th a n the fi x e d r e s ettlement hold i ng ; a di us of 5 km from the w a cultiv tors who lived ithin r 4 a ( ) esta te a n d own ed no l a nd a t all The list of those entitled to receive l a nd w a s to b e est a bli s hed by loc a l com missions on the b a sis of the a b ove norms a n d to be fi n a lly settled by the Centr a l Commissio n which a lso determined the size of the resettlement holdi ngs In re a lity no resettle ment lists were dra wn up a t a ll but the a uthorities concerned s imply confi rm e d in their possession those who h a d seized the l a nd In Bess a ra bi a one m a y sa y th a t a ll the pe a s a nts were resettled the size of the lots b ei n g empiric a lly determined by loc a l reserves a n d needs They v a ried w ith these loc a l circumst a nce s b etween 1 — 6 h a As a result were resettled Rum a ni a ns other n a tio n a li ties ( 3)

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ha

individu a ls who received a ltogether to the revolution of 1 91 7 the pe a s a n ts owned ,

Up

H ct r es e

Purch a e d

and

s

di tribute d by t h e P s

e asa n

a

t Ba n k

Tota l

The refo r m procured the following incre a se in the l a nd pea s a nts F r m priv t w r r bl l d L d pu ch d by t h P tB k b ut t y t a e o

o

an

r

ne s , a a

as e

e

e

an

ea sa n

a 11

no

,

e

by L d r rG r Bul ri co l i sts L d t ri r i wn rs r u drc u l r dw y Bui di l d rd r rly b l g g priv ate o wn ers Po d s a d w a te rw y s

19 17 d i s t r l but ed o f fo m e an e ma n a n d ga of m o n a s e an e s a n d fo e gn o A ea n e o mm n a oa a s l n g a n an d ga en s , fo me n

n

an

on

e

e on

in

r

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)

to

a

Tot l

1

a

1

P V S yn a d in o, I n s emn d ta tea R efor me i A gra r e p .

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204

THE EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

THE

The l a nd reform c a used the followi ng ch a nges in the d ist ribu tion of rura l properties H e cta res

H e cta res

-

-

24

T ot a l

-

24

-

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Accordin g to the ground book the tot a l a re a of the province covered h a B efore the reform the l a nd w a s di vided a mong properties of whi ch b elonged to the St a te to Churches a n d to other in stitutions The distribution of these properties a ccording to siz e w a s a s follows .

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Among the 25 7 l a rge est a tes there were 6 3 with a n extent of more th a n h a e a ch covering together 30 21 p er cent of 35 h a w a s expropri a ted from the province An a r e a of 7 5 6 1 l a ndowners a n d used for the following purposes -

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LA N D PROPERTY

205

rese ttle me t Co mm u l gra z i gs Comm u l fo re ts F or ests r m i i g t o be di stribute d L n d unfi t fo di stributi on R e s e rv e s for ge n ral n ee d s

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The la w for Bucovin a est a blished the followin g order of preference a mon g those cl a imi ng l a nd p e s nt cu tiv a tors w a r i nv a lids ( or their f a m i lies ) who l a 1 a ( ) h a d less l a nd th a n the siz e of the lot fi x e d for their comm une ; pe s nt cultiv tors who served or h a d served in the a rmy a a a 2 ( ) a n d who h a d less l a nd th a n the t y pic a l lot ; ( 3) pe a s a nt cultiva tors with less l a nd th a n the typic a l lot a n d whose possessions h a d b een d a m a ged in the w a r ; ( 4) the Orthodox p a rishes ; ( 5 ) r ur a l schools ; ( 6 ) pe a s a nt cultiva tors w a r inva li ds ( or their f a mi lies ) who h a d no l a nd a t a ll ; ( 7 ) pe a s a nt cultiva tors who served or h a d served in the a rmy a n d h a d no l a nd ; ( 8 ) p e a s a nt c ul tiv a tors whose possessions h a d b een d a m a ged in the w a r a n d who owned no l a n d a t a ll The list of those entitled to receive l a nd w a s est a b li shed by va rious com missions on the strength of the a bove indi c a tions a n d the Region a l Commission fi x e d typic a l lots v a rying b etween h a As a result there were inscribed on the list ,

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th a t t h e tot l a rea llotted t o the m w s 80 Ah a rticl e i n E oo mi a N ti ona ld A u gu s t 1 9 27 ga v e t h e f ll o wi g n u m b e rs of n on R u m i a s s h a vi g r c e iv e d l n d R uth e i s G erm n s H u ngari a ns 8 6 8 ; Je w s 4 93 ; Gips i e s 406 ; R u ss i a s 9 8 ; oth er n a ti on a liti es so

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206

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

OF

ON

THE

The effect of the l a nd reform w a s to ch a nge the di stribution of property in Bucovin a a s follows : H e c t a r es

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The modern a gra ri a n structure of Tr an syl its origin in the reform which follo w ed the revolution

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v a ni a h a d of 1 8 48 S erfdom h a d been ge n era l in the Hun g a ri a n l a nds A cert a in mitig a tion of its h a rdshi ps b eg a n w ith the p a ssing of Tr a n syl v a ni a under the r ul e of the H a psburgs in 1 69 1 E a rly in 1 71 4 the Diet which met a t Sibiu a dopted regula tions under pressure from V ienn a which forb a de the l a n dl ords to force the serfs to l a bour more th a n 208 d a ys ye a rly for them A further step w a s m a de by the letters p a tent issued by M a ri a Theres a in 1 769 forbiddin g the imposition of un fa ir t a xes a n d fi n e s a n d limit ing corpora l pun ishment to twenty four bir ch strokes for men a n d twenty four strokes of the wh ip for women a t the most Most of these regul a tions seem to h a ve b een di sreg a rded by the l a nd lords Their a ttitude provoked the a nger of J os eph 1 1 who in 1 765 wrote in a Memor a ndum th a t politics ca n h a ve one foun d a tion o nl y a n d th a t is the people t h e m a sses— for they supply the soldiers a n d pa y the t a xes Hence it is the mi ssion of the St a te a n d of the ruler especi a lly to protect the p eople a g ai nst the pri vileged cl a sses One should not skin 200 pe a s a nts for the s a ke of a l a zy l a ndlord This w a s followed by a decree given in 1 773— J os eph II tra velled a gre a t de a l— whi ch a t Sibiu a llowed the serfs to m a rry without p a yment of a t a x to le a rn h a ndi cra fts a n d to move a bout freely Life co uld not h a ve im proved much a t a n y ra te for the Rum a n i a n serfs a s they a ttempted Their lea ders Hori a Closca a desper a tely futile risi n g i n 1 78 4 who h a ve rem a ined legend a ry in popula r a n n a ls a n d Cri s a n were broken on the wheel As l a te a s 1 8 47 a la w w a s p a ssed i n Tra n sylva ni a regul a ting the dues in kind a n d l a bour which the serfs h a d to pa y : tithe from fi eld a n d ga rden from fl a x an d .

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DISTRIBUTION

LAN D PROPERTY

207

wool & c a n d a ye a rly service of fift y two d a ys with oxen a n d 1 04 da ys with their h a n ds from those who h a d the use of a norm a l holdin g ; the zi ler i who h a d but a house a n d g a rden were to give eighteen d a ys l a bour a n d the pe a s a nt s who h a d not eve n a house six d a ys M a ny histori a n s reg a rd th a t la w a s the m a i n loc a l c a use of the revolt which followed The n a tiona l a s s embly which g a thered a t Alb a J uli a in 1 8 48 decl a red th a t the Rum a ni a n na tion con s cious a t l a st of the i n di vidu a l rights of m a n dem a n ds the immedi a te a bolition of serfdom without a n y p a yme n t from the s ervile pea s a n ts The reform which followed a bolished serfdom compen sa tio n bei n g p a id by the St a te — a n d ga ve the servile pe a s a nts t h e ownershi p of some of the l a n d which they h a d b een cultiv a tin g Considera ble co n fusion a n d friction a rose out of the v a riety of titles to the l a nd a n d a whole series of l a ws begi n n ing with th a t of 1 8 8 0 e n de a voured to regula te l a nd tenure a n d to reorg a n iz e it on a more eco n omic b a sis by s egr egr a t ion on the one h a n d a n d by consolid a tion on the other Pa stur es a n d forests were i n volved in th a t regroupi n g But while the centr a l ide a of the me a s ure w a s sound e n ough its a pp lic a tion w a s b a dly Viti a ted by a buses a t the expen se of the former serfs who were given ba d l a nd in exch a nge for goo d On a ll these occ a sions the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nts a ppea r to h a ve suffered a dditiona l losses through n a tion a l d iscri min a tion The fa mous Memora ndum a ddressed to the Emp eror in 1 8 92 det a iled some of their compl a in ts showing how they h a d been deprived of a ncient rights especi a lly in reg a rd to gra zing a n d wood a n d how m a ny l a wsui ts between l a ndlords a n d former serfs a ris ing out of the reform of 1 8 48 were still b efore the Cour ts a fter the p a ssi n g of forty four ye a rs At the wish of the Hung a ri a n Governme n t the Memora nd um w a s return ed from V ienn a unopened but its a uthors were tried a n d sent to prison It is undoubtedly true th a t u n til l a tely the H ung a ri a n S a xon a n d other vill a ges were better pro vided with gra zin g a n d forests th a n most of the Rum a ni a n Villa ges ; the gra z ing a n d wood rights of the former serfs h a vi ng been tra ns formed in to comm u n a l rights on the occ a sion of these reforms The distribution of property a fter these ch a nges w a s est a b lish e d for the fi r st time in 1 8 95 The st a tistics g a thered in th a t -

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208

THE EFFECTS

OF

ON THE

THE REFORM

ye a r offered evidence of a considera ble disproportion between the a re a occupied by sm a ll cultiv a tors a n d th a t in the h a nds of l a rge owners Ca tegori e s

9 9 01

5 2 34

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47 6 6 -

Holdings of less th a n 5 c a d a stra l j uga r s m a de up therefore 5 2 02 p er cent of the tot a l rur a l prop erties but covered merely 5 8 4 per cent of the tot a l a re a ; while properties a bove 5 00 j uga r s m a de up only 0 1 9 per cent of the tot a l but covered 32 29 p er cent of the l a nd The considera ble difference b etween the a ver a ge extent of the two middle c a tegories showed th a t the a scent w a s not gr a du a ted thr ough a ch a in of well b a l a nced medium sized fa rms The st a tistics of 1 9 1 5 indic a ted a slow improvement in the distribution of property Sm a ll prop erty h a d ga in ed in th a t period of twenty ye a rs 2 26 of the tot a l a re a a s in dica ted in the t a ble below -

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The l a test fi gure s referring to the situ a tion b efore the reform were those collected by the S ecret a ri a t of the s o c a lled Governin g Council ( the Provision a l Governm ent of Tra nsylva ni a ) in 1 9 1 9 The t a ble b elow is b a sed on them a n d gives the n umb er of properties in the v a rious c a tegories a n d the tot al a re a occupied by e a ch c a tegory -

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Afte r Liviu s L

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DISTRIBUTION 0

Ca te gor l es

LAND PROPERTY

OF

T ta l T ot a l r n u m b e r of o ccupi ed prope rti es o

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5 2 34

5 4 60

5 8 75

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There w a s a s triking incre a s e by per ce n t of the tot a l extent of l a nd in the posse s sion of sm a llholder s between 1 9 1 5 an d 1 9 1 9 I n so fa r a s these figure s were correct th a t i n cre a se must h a ve been due to the rel a tive well b ei n g of the pe a s a nts dur i n g the Wa r a n d to the l a nd purch a s e s they m a de in con s e u n ce Possibly l ndowner e a s in Hung a ry a s in other countries q exploited the high price of l a nd a n d forced their ten a nts to purch a se or to quit L a rge ow n ers in Hun g a ry occupied a privi ledged politica l a n d soci a l position yet on e note s th a t here a s elsewhere they were const a ntly losi n g ground The reform a pplied in Tra nsylva ni a a fter the union of the pro 03 h a vi n ce with Rum a ni a expropri a ted a tot a l a re a of from est a tes situ a ted in communes The ex pr o pr i a t e d l a nd w a s put to the following use : .

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F or ese e me n om m n a g az in gs om m n a fo es s

r u l r t wC p F ore s ts n p oss e ss i on of t h e S ta t e t o be di s tribut d L an d unfi t for r ese ttle me t R ese rv s fo g e r l e e d s w

i

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The Tra nsylva ni a n reform la w fi x e d the followi n g order of preference for the distribution of l a n d 1 ) w a r inva lids he a ds of f a milie s ; or the widows a n d f a mi lies of those killed in the Wa r ; ,

1

15 69 69 -

Afte r

Livius La za r P

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21 0

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

THE

2) demob ilized soldiers who were he a d s of fa milies 3 ) w a r inv a li ds without f a mily 4) demobilized soldiers without f a mily 5 ) those mob i lized by order of the Governing Council 6 ) he a ds of f a milies who h a d not been mobili zed 7) 8)

men wi thout fa mily a n d who h a d not been mobilized ; returned emigra nts Ou the b a sis of these indic a tions t a bles of those entitled to receive l a nd were dra wn up by loc a l committees ; they were revised if compl a i n ts h a d been lodged by di strict co mmissions a n d fi n a ll y by county com m i s sions The l a tter a lso determin ed the com mun a l needs in gr a zing a n d woodl a nd The size of the lots to b e distributed in e a ch region w a s fi x e d by the county commission s a n d v a ried between 1 — 7 j uga r s Altogether indi vidu a ls of whom were Rum a ni a ns and of other n a tion a lities were found to b e entitled to l a nd Oi these were re s ettled till S eptember 1 1 927 Rum ani a ns a n d other n a tiona lities Tot a l They received a ra ble l a nd coverin g 96 h a to which were a dded 43 h a a n d comm un a l woodl a nds commu n a l gra zin g s 24 h a m a ki n g a tot a l a lloc a tion of 63 h a Ara ble l a nd w a s distributed here in a much lower a vera ge th a n in the Old Ki n gdom but gra zing w a s given more generously ; th a t w a s in keepi n g with the highl a n d ch a ra cter of the pro vince a n d the predomin a nt position of c a ttle breedi n g in its economic .

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The effect of the reform on the distribution of l a nd a mong the va rious c a tegories of owners h a s been a s follow s a ccordin g to the o ffici a l fi gure s of the Centra l Resettlement Offi ce ,

( ) a

f

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LA N D PROPERTY

OF

DISTRIBUTION

21 1

m

H e ct r

a es

Prop erty up t o 1 0 h E xpropri te d a r ea

a

.

a

5 6 45 -

Prop e rty of 1 0—1 00 h a rema i ne d u ch n g d with Prop erty a b o ve 1 00 h a Expro pri te d .

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uti on of La n d a mong th e D Th e Cha nge i n the Di s tr i b Na ti on a li ti es The Rum a ni a n l a nd reform h a s proved a

var i ous

.

thorny bra nch of the minorities problem in the new St a te Its rulers fi r st l a id themselves op en to a suspicion of h a ving pursued n a tion a list ends through h a ving en a cted l a ws differing from e a ch other for the severa l p a rts of the country The repro a ch The situ a tion in the severa l a s we h a ve seen is v a lid only in p a rt provinces a t the end of the Wa r m a de th a t differenti a tion un a void a ble a n d to some extent a t a n y ra te it c a me a bout in dependently of the wi ll of the rulers Nor is it e a s y to a ccept a s ust ifi e d the suggestion m a de by some critics th a t the v a gue j ness of the Tr a nsylv a ni a n la w w a s deli bera te a n d w a s me a nt to le a ve the offi ci a ls with a free h a nd to do the kind of th ing for which the legisl a tor s could not O penl y a ssume responsibili ty Whet her delib era te or not however the l a ck of precision i n m a n y cl a uses of t h e Tra nsylva ni a n la w no doubt ga ve u n desira ble .

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b v e fi gu es like all th ose giv en i n thi ch a pt r t o illu tra te t h e re s ults of r r w ere s uppli e d by t h e C n tr l R es e ttl e m n t Offi ce a d h a v the refor e ch a ra ct r I t m u s t be r m rk ed h ow v r th t th ere h v e u n d o ubt dly b een quite a n u m b e r f c s s i which l d w s e xpro pri a te d i n Tr n sylv n i fr m prop rti e s of l ss th a 200 j ug s which c rres p d r u ghly t o 1 00 h Th r i s m ean s of e ta bli s hi n g y et h w m y s uch pr o p rti e w e r e to uch d by t h r f r m a d h w m uch l d th e y l t thr u gh i t But t h e fi gur e i t h e t bl a b o v which g iv e t h e t o ta l a rea c o v re d by pr p e rti e s of 1 0 1 00 h a a h vi ng r m i d u ch ged c t be m r e th a n a ppro xi m tely c rr e ct a n d m u t b a g ra l sti m a te r ath e r th n a re a l c a lcul ati on of t h e a ctu a l s ta te of thi n gs M ore ov r t h e t bl e cre di ts s ma ll prop erty with ll t h e l an d e xpropri a te d Whe reas in f ct s h own hi ghe r up o v e r h a w e re s till in t h e h a n d s of t h e a uth oriti e s a t t h en d of 1 927 a n d s o m e h w re res rve d or unfi t for di s tributi on 1

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21 2

EFFECTS

THE RE F ORM

OF

ON

THE

l a titude to those who h a d to a pply a sweeping reform in gre a t h a ste in a provi nce whose mixed popul a tion s h a d not b een on the best of terms with e a ch other The repro a ch levelled a ga inst the a uthors of the reform th a t they h a ve a llowed their n a tion a l bi a s to a ppe a r more st a rkly in the execution of the mea sure must rem a in un a nswered un til the d a y when the a uthoritie s ca n supply fi gur es det a iled a n d d efi ni t e enough for a n imp a rti a l observer to check the st a n dpoint of the reformers a n d of their critics As fa r a s B ess a ra bi a is concerned o n e might t a ke it for gr a n ted th a t n a tio n a l di s crim i n a tion could h a ve occurred merely in a very limited degree a s the l a nd w a s in fa ct t a ken over an d divided by the p e a s a nts themselves S ome fi ft y thou s a n d a cre s of l a nd were lost to Germ a n a n d B ul g a ri a n coloni s t s ; th a t prob a bly h a ppened b efore the reform a s a re s ult of some Russi a n Wa r me a sure b ec a use those colonists b elonged to enemy n a tions Discrimin a tion must h a ve occurred a s a m a tter of f a ct in southern Dobroge a where the reform w a s m a i n ly concerned with coloni zing the a re a expropri a ted for the h a which were ben e fi t of the Rum a n i a n St a te Oi the h a ve b een distributed t o fa mili es a v a il a ble some up to the end of 1 927 The la w pre s cribed th a t the St a te s third should be t a ken over on the b a sis of speci a l rules co n cerning the me a surement a n d the divi s ion of the l a nd But the deputy M P e n cov a s s ert ed in the Ch a mb er on J ul y 28 1 9 29 th a t those rules h a d not yet bee n dra fted the ver ifi ca t i on of the deeds not yet fi n i sh e d a n d the l a nd not yet surveyed but th a t nevertheless t h e S t a t e s third w a s being forcibly t a ken over by the loc a l From this a l a rge num b er of l a wsuits expensive a n d a uthorities dil a tory h a s re s ulted between owners a n d St a te S ome of the coloni sts c a me from the Old Ki n gdom but a n other p a rt were V l a chs from M a cedoni a brought over in pursu a nce of some extra v a g a n t n a tiona li s t idea One suspects th a t the temper of these M a cedoni a n h a lf nom a ds w a s not c a lcul a ted to reconcile the e s t a bli s hed popul a tion to the loss of s ome of their l a n d ; a n d the qu a rteri n g of the newcomers upon the loc a l Bulg a ri a n p ea s a nts often for severa l ye a rs bec a use of the a b sence of credits for building a n d fa rmi n g h a s c a used serious friction a n d even bloodshed Worse still m a ny of these people c a me without ,

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LA ND PROPE R TY

21 3

being a sked a ttra cted by the rumour of free l a nd a n d squ a tted in groups on l a nd th a t no one h a d a s signed to them The director of the Centra l Resettlemen t Offi ce found during a tour of inquiry in the a ut umn of 1 9 27 tha t a bout one h a lf of the colonist s h a d come without the s a n ction of the O th ee a n d th a t most of the s e h a d settled in districts where there w a s n o surplus l a nd a va il a ble In southern Dobroge a therefore a somewha t ir ra tion a l scheme of colon iz a tion h a s been m a de wor s e by its erra tic a pplic a tion a n d psychologic a l f a ctors h a ve deep ened the feeling a mo n g the minorities th a t they were bei n g deprived of some of thei r l a nd b ec a use of n a tion a l prej udice The m a in fi eld to which the contention refer s however w a s Tra n sylva n ia There the extent of the reform h a s been con le a n d in th a t province the number a n d inextric a ble sid er a b a dmixtur e of n a tion a lities gives the m i norities problem intern a t i on a l import a n ce To cle a r the i s sue in so fa r a s this is pos s i b le before the det a iled a ccounts of the reform a r e closed one mu s t begin by looking into the distribution of l a nd a mong the va rious na tio n a lities before the reform One of the circumst a nces which offered a serious d iffi cult y to the redistribution of l a nd so a s t o meet the needs of sm a ll cultiva tors w a s the l a rge a re a which in one form or a nother w a s for pra ctic a l purposes t a ken out of the re a l est a te m a rket a s sho w n by the follo w ing fi gur es ,

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S ta t e d o ma i ns C o m m u n a l pro pe rti e s n d o w m e n ts , chur ch e s , s ch oo l s S o ci eti es a n d c orp o ra ti ons o i n t pro p e rti es o f t h e i n h a bita n ts m u n es n ta i l

E

J

co

m

E

Pri v te pro p rty a

60 95

e

-

Well over one third therefore of the tot a l a re a w a s in the h a nds of loc a l bodies in stitutions a n d v a rious org a niz a tions ; a n d given the politic a l a n d soci a l subj ection in which the Rum a n i a n popul a tion w a s held in Hung a ry b efore the Wa r it is not i m prob a ble th a t the bulk of such possessions must h a ve belonged to n on Rum a ni a n bodies The fi gure s comp iled in 1 9 1 9 by the provisiona l Tra nsylva ni a n -

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214

THE EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

THE

Government g a ve the tot a l a rea of the tra nsferred districts a s of j uga r s of which were a ra ble soil The tot a l w a s divided b etween Rum ani a ns a n d the other n a tio n a li ties i n h a biting Tra nsylv a ni a a s foll ows ,

.

Prop e rt y Tota l n u mb e r b e l o w 1 00 of p o pul a ti o j ugars

N ti on lity a

a

Pr p e rty a b v e 1 00

T ot l prop rty

j uga r s

j ugars

o

o

n

a

e

u i s O th r n ti on liti es

R m an e

an

a

a

Therefore the Rum a ni a n popul a tion owned little more th a n 1 j ug a r per he a d where a s the other n a tion a l groups possessed ne a rly 6 j uga r s for e a ch of their memb ers More import a nt w a s the fa ct th a t a mong the proprietors owning more th a n 1 00 j uga r s e a ch there were o nl y 209 Rum a ni a n s with a ltogether j uga r s an d a mong the 1 1 90 1a n d ow n er s with more th a n u a r s 27 o n ly were Rum a ni a ns j g In other words cl a ss di visio n in Tra nsylv a ni a h a d l a rgely coincided with n a tion a l di vision Any me a sure a ltering the soci a l st r ucture of the country w a s bound to a ffect on e n a tion a lity more th a n a nother a n d no l a nd reform coul d h a ve a voided h a ving a lso a n a tion a list effect Even if a simila r reform h a d been a pplied by a Hunga ri a n Govern ment they could not h a ve prevented it from fo llo w ing n a tion a lly the s a me trend— i e of t a king the l a nd m a inly from M a gy a r S a xon a n d other such owners a n d of tr a n sferring it l a rgely to Rum a ni a n p e a s a nts Th a t st a te of thi n g s could h a rdly h a ve resulted a ltogether from the worki n g of norm a l economic fa ctor s Without going f a rther into the history of the a bu s es committed du r ing the proce s s of consolid a tion a n d on other occ a sions one ca n fi n d tra ces of the c a u s e s which g a ve n a tion a l colour to the distribution of l a nd in the s ettleme n t policy pursued by Hung a ry b efore the Wa r I n florin s w a s cre a ted for the 1 8 9 4 a s ettleme n t fund of purpose of s ettling pe a s a n ts on est a tes in those districts of Tra n sylv a n i a which h a d a co n sidera ble non M a gy a r popul a tion It w a s estim a ted th a t in 1 9 1 1 the fund h a d properties v a lued a t more ,

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OF

DISTRIBUTION

LA N D PROPERTY

21 5

th a n fi ori n s in va rious Tra nsylva ni a n di stricts Bec a use of the politica l friction which th a t policy c a used the Hunga ri a n Government tra nsferred the posse ss ions a n d the a ctivities of the settlement fund to the so c a ll ed Altruist B a nk It is a ffir m e d th a t the offers of Rum a ni a n pe a s a nts inh a biting neighbouri n g communes were disreg a rded on pri n ciple whe n St a te dom a ins were p a rcelled out or when est a tes were sold through the Altrui s t B a n k a n d Hunga ri a n settler s were brought from elsewhere The Rum a ni a ns defe n ded themselve s a s be s t they could by following a simil a r policy of a cquisitio n through speci a l b a nks In Ma y 1 91 3 i n a speech delivered a t Cluj Cou n t Stephen B et hlen spoke a nxiously of the m a ny l a rge Hunga ri a n est a tes which were being bought by Rum a n i a n s He estim a ted their purch a ses a t some flori ms ye a rly He promised th a t if they should come into power the Co a lition which he fl or i n s ye a rly for purposes of represen ted would give settlement It w a s to b e expected th a t the memory of th a t competition in which the Rum a ni a ns were bound to b e a t a dis a dva nt a ge might in fl uen c e those offici a ls a n d priv a te indi vidu a ls in whose h a nds la y the execution of the new reform It w a s of course fooli sh to punish the present citizens of Rum a n i a for the misdeeds of their former rulers ; a n d even more so to puni sh Hung a ri a n s m a ll holders for the policy of m a gn a tes who h a d shown little kindness to the m a ss of their own kinsmen But the wisdom of forgetting the p a st h a s seemingly not been a ble a ltogether to restra in those who a pplied the new reform This is evident e g from the w a y in which they de a lt with the j oin t properties which formed a va lua ble fe a ture in Tra nsylva ni a s a gra ri a n economy There were severa l kinds of j oint hol d ings in Tra nsylva n i a One group included those est a blished in cer t a in frontier regions during the reign of M a ri a Theres a ( 1 740 when those regions were milita rized a n d the i n ha bit a n ts of the respective communes were bou n d to cert a in mili t a ry services The Tra nsylv a ni a n milit a rized territory est a blished in 1 76 4 ra n from the Iron G a tes to the bound a ry of Bucovin a a n d w a s divided into fi ve regiment a l districts Two of the regiments were Rum a n i a n a n d three were regime n ts of Sz eklers In return for their milit a ry services the .

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21 6

THE EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

THE

inh a bit a nts of these frontier regions received l a nd a n d forests for j oint possession a n d use the title to them being ra ther di fferent in the c a s e of noble s from th a t a llowed to former serfs In a dditio n these mili t a rized popula tio n s h a d the use of the com m un a l woodl a nds a n d p a stures When for v a rious re a sons they did not use these j oin t possessions themselves the l a n d w a s let a n d the rent p a id into the commun a l tre a sury or into a j o i nt fund in the c a se of possessions of the severa l mili t a ry di stricts L a nd prop erty w a s gra du a lly in di vidua liz ed through a num ber of leg a l me a sures even in these frontier regions but a cert a in proportion of j oint holdings rem a ined in bein g a n d were a dmi ni s t e re d by speci a l org a ns ; e g the j oint property of the co m m un i ties of the former seco n d R um a ni a n frontier regiment a t N a s a ud the Szekler frontier communitie s a s well a s the Ca r a severin community in the B a n a t A second kind of j oint property w a s th a t cre a ted during the proce s s of consolid a tio n within the l a st fift y ye a rs Pe a sa nts inh a biting a cert a in commune a n d belong ing to the s a me n a tion a l group i n m a ny c a ses surrendered some p a rt of their individu a l holdings a n d a cqui red inste a d a s h a re in a common gr a zing or p a stur e This w a s merely a community of use a s the title of e a ch member w a s sep a ra tely regi stered It h a s been est im a ted th a t a bout 30 per cent of the Tr a n syl v a ni a n popul a tion h a d a s ha re in one or the other of these j oint holdin gs N eve r t h eless it w a s fi r st inte n ded to tre a t the s e j oint properties a s l a rge est a te s b elonging to priv a te institutions a n d in consequence to expropri a te them completely Only the fi erce resist a n ce of tho s e co n cerned preve n ted th a t intention from b ei n g c a rried out In the end however some of the j oin t holdi ngs even those belo n gi n g to Rum a n i a n comm unities h a d to s uffer There h a ve been sugge stio n s th a t the T r a n sy lva n i a n intellectu a ls were e s peci a lly i n censed a ga inst the S a xo n University a n d th a t in order to b e a ble to deprive it of i ts considera ble possessions they did not he s it a te to p a s s decisio n s which d a m a ged the inter e s ts of Rum a ni a n j oint properties a s well Though M Ga r ofli d h a d form a lly recognized i n Pa rli a ment th a t the possessions of the S a xon Univer s ity represented a commun a l property which should h a ve exempted its forests from expropri a tio n the Uni ,

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OF

DISTRIBUTION

LAN D PROPERTY

17

ver s ity lost j uga rs woodl a nd a n d gra zi n g in the T a lmesch 1 district The a gra ri a n la w for Tra nsylv a ni a expres s ly exempted from expropri a tio n by Ar t 24 cl a use 2 ( c) the commun a l p a stur es a n d by Art 32 ( c) the woo dl a nds belo n gi n g to the communi ties of the former s e co n d Rum a ni a n fro n tier regime n t During the a ppli c a tio n of the reform the j oint a t N a s a ud propertie s of the B a n a t fr on tier reg imen ts were lik ewi s e a lto gether exempted from expropri a tion On the other h a n d the Agra r i a n Committee decided to expropri a te in full a n d without compens a tion wh a tever the j oint prop erties of the Szekler an y frontier communi ties on the ple a th a t the l a n d w a s St a te property which h a d b een given to the Sz ekler commu n itie s for use in return for cert a in ser vices As those services we 1 e no lo n ger per fm m e d the St a te w a s entitled to cl a im b a ck i t s possess i ons One might perh a ps a dm it the va lidity of th a t a rgument but then it a pplied w ith equ a l fO1 c e to the Rum a ni a n 2 frontier commu n ities The s pokesmen of the n a tiona l minorities in Tra nsylva ni a were loud in a sserting th a t the n a tion a list bi a s w a s shown especi a lly in the m a nn er in which the reform w a s a pplied They decl a red th a t in m a ny c a ses even sm a llh olders were expropri a ted for the buildi n g of schools or churches i e of Rum a n i a n schools a n d churches a n d th a t they were given in exch a n ge either the expropri a tion price or a piece of ba d l a nd The S a xon People s Council for Tra nsylv a ni a— a t its plen a ry meeting Novemb er 1 8 1 9 22— p a ssed a resolution which decl a red th a t a fter cr i t i ci z ing cert a in provisions of the origin a l bill they h a d loy a lly a ccepted the la w in its fi n a l form But they dem a nded th a t the la w sho ul d b e re s pected by the a uthorities a s well 3 As to the a ll eged corruption of o ffi ci a ls o n e c a n only sa y th a t it cut both w a ys A corrupt offi cia l w a s if a nyt hi ng more a men a ble to the w ishes of a rich l a ndowner th a n to those of a poor pe a s a nt Among the c a ses brought before Pa rli a ment there were quite .

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1

Vi

F ritz

F rit enna , 3

z

Coun er t Con n e r t

D c e mbe r

S ee

ticl e i S i eben bzl gi sch D ut ch es T Zur F ra ge d er Agr rre fo r m i n S i b ’

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ar ‘

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a

e

r

e

s

bla tt A u gu s t 24 1 9 22 en b ti r gen Na t ion a n d S ta a t a ge

a

e

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1 9 27 , p 26 2 K ron s ta d ter Z ei tung, o e m e 21 , 1 9 22 A n m e o f fl a gr a n t m s a a o n o f t h e e fo m a re es e on p p 25 6 — 6 4 of t h e 1 m por t a n t z Co n n er t i n t h e e e e Na tion a n d S ta a t e

pplic ti r publi s h d by H rr F rit

in th e

n

.

r

N v

b r d crib d r vi w

u b r

.

i c rri ages a rticle

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.

21 8

THE EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

THE

num b er showing tha t rich H ung a ri a n l a ndown ers h a d been a ble to ev a de the provisions of the l a n d l a ws The Tr a n syl v a ni a n deputy M Io a n I a cob a speci a list on the subj ect w rote in the b ook he published in 1 9 24 th a t the Rum a ni a n l a ndown ers were subj ected to a rigorous expropri a tion where a s the T r a n syl v a n i a n counts a n d b a rons those gre a t m a gn a tes of the l a n d ( a ll of them M a gy a rs ) h a ve a lr e a dy reconstructed their dom a ins by other me a n s The time w ill come when I sh a ll publish some st a tistics of th a t s a d st a te of a ffa irs If the fi gur es or r a ther estim a tes publi s hed so fa r ca n b e a ccepted it would seem th a t the minorities were b etter tre a ted when it c a me to resettleme n t To the Americ a n U ni t a ri a n delega tion which Vi sited Rum a ni a in 1 924 M AI Const a ntinescu a s Mini s ter of Agriculture decl a red th a t non Rum a ni a n p e a s a nts h a d received l a nd in Tra n s ylva ni a There m ay b e a mi s underst a nding a t the b a sis of the s t a tement which a pp e a red to this end in the Commissio n s Report A det a iled list of those entitled to receive l a nd i n Tra nsylva ni a published by the Buca rest A rgus on D ecemb er 26 1 923 ga ve the fol lowing a

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figur e s : P er

u i a ns H u ga ri a s Saxo s S rb s Cr oa ts J ws O th er n a ti ona liti

( r o u ghly )

R ma n n

.

75

16 6

n

n

e

c en t

,

330

e

es

T ot l a

It will b e s een th a t the figur e of repre s ented the tot a l numb er of i n dividu a ls b elonging t o n a tion a l mi n orities who h a d been found to b e entitled to receive l a nd No a uthorit a tive d a t a a r e a v a il a ble s o fa r to s how how m a ny of them h a ve a ctu a lly received l a nd a n d how much of i t A S a xon writer Herr M Englisch a ffi rm e d th a t the S a xon communitie s in the Né sn e rga u u a r s of which lo s t through expropri a tion were j g w ere commun a l l a nd were church property a n d p riva te property At the resettlement 1 34 cl a im a nts belonging to these communities received together 1 77 5 j uga r s M de S z as z .

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OF

DISTRIBUTION

LA N D PROPERTY

21 9

quote s from a Hung a ri a n public a tion the followi n g number s h a ving received l a n d in fi ft een counties of Tr a n s ylva ni a : ,

( ro u ghly )

c t

P e r en 72 9 14 7 8 3

.

-

-

-

4 1 -

Tota l

1 00 0 -

This wo ul d show th a t of those en titled to b e resettled a l a rger percent a ge a ctu a lly received l a n d up to 1 925 a mo n g the mi n orities th a n a mong Rum a ni a ns It does not cle a r up the que s tion a s to whether the resettlement li st s were dra wn up f a irly ; n or doe s it indic a te how much l a nd w a s give n to the v a riou s n a tion a l groups Only det a iled figur es wi ll m a ke it po s sible to check the a ssertions of one side a n d the deni a l s of the other th a t the a gra ri a n reform w a s perme a ted by a n a tion a list bi a s It is a s well to remember a t the outset th a t the w hole reform spr a n g from a revolution a ry temp er ; th a t it w a s a pplied in a region whi ch h a d b een the very centre of the n a tio n a l friction wh ich provoked the Grea t Wa r ; a n d th a t it w a s c a rried out dur ing a period when E urope a n n a tion a lism w a s celebra ti n g one of its supreme orgies even in the more m a ture a n d sed a te West Wh a tever the ex a ct figur es they wi ll n ot a ffect the conclusion th a t bec a use of the w a y i n which l a n d w a s pre viously distributed the reform h a s reduced the extent of l a nd in the h a nds of the minorities ; but tha t for the s a me rea son it h a s incre a sed a mo n g the minorities the number of pe a s a nts who ow n some l a nd of their own M Io a n I a cob who h a d been ra pporteur of the la w for Tra nsylva ni a in 1 921 compl a ined in his book th a t the a gr a ri a n reform not only did no h a rm to the min orities element but on the contra ry it strengthened it For if its pra ctic a l effect h a s been to reduce the est a tes of a few hundred Hu n g a ri a n m a gna tes it h a s given l a nd to thous a nds of Hung a ri a n pe a s a n t s From a gen era l st a ndpoint the truth cert a inly is th a t the l a nd reform h a s in a l a rge me a sure di ssolved the provoki n gly a r t ifi cia l n a tion a l b a rrier which formerly sep a r a ted rich a n d poor a mong the rura l popul a tions of Tra n s ylva ni a a n d Bes s a r a bi a ,

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220

THE EFFECTS

OF

S E C TI O N S U M M AR Y

ON

THE REFORM 3

THE

.

T H E E FFE C T OF T H E L AN D R E F O R M D I S T R I B UTI O N or PR O P E R TY

OF

THE

ON

The followi ng t a ble gives the tot a l a re a expropri a ted in Gre a ter Rum a ni a on the strength of the four sep a ra te a gra ri a n l a ws : P R OVI N C E

O ld Ki gd n

H e cta r

o

m Tr a ns y lva n i a l

H ct r

es

e

a es

27 27 , 38 6 9 4 68 10 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

18

-

Buc ovi n a

B

H e cta res

H e cta res

56

-

60

-

50 24

-

-

e ss a

r bi a

64 63

-

T ot l

a

a

H e cta res 20

5 3 67 -

-

69 54

-

-

60

-

07

-

-

-

T ot a l

-

43

-

03

-

35

-

44

-

24

-

17 87 48 25

62 99

05

Not a ll of th a t a re a h a s b een h a nded over to i n di vi du a l s m a llholders A considera ble p ortion of it h a s been used for the est a bli shment of commun a l gra zi n gs a n d woodla nds a s well a s for the cre a tion of a l a nd reserve from which public needs such a s the bui lding of ro a ds town exten sions model fa rms & c —might be sa t i s fi e d The foll owing t a ble show s the extent of l a n d devoted to these v a rious p urposes .

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In

In

Buc vin a

B es a r bi

o

Di str but d t o t h p s a t C mm un l gra z i g C mm u l w odl d d mi n i t r d by F r t S t t a d re m i n i n g t o be di tri bute d L d u fi t for rese ttl me n t rve s f g n r l n d s R i

n

o

a

o

na

o es s a

e

e

o

.

an

e se

To t a l

a

n s

s

an

s

n

a

s

5

a

s e e

a

e

ea

s

n

-

90

-

00

-

84

-

60

-

43

-

03

-

35

-

24

e

or

e

e a

e x pro pr i a t c d

ee

LAN D PROPERTY

OF

DISTRIBUTION

221

The work of resettlement showed the followi ng summ a ry results on S eptemb er 1 1 927 ,

N o of peas a ts e n titl e d to la d .

n

n

No

p

.

of

ea sa n

A

ts

g

ttl d e

O ld Ki gd n

g en fo es

z n

H ct r

m

-

Tr ylv an i a Buc vi n a B ra bi

-

-

a

-

Tota l

-

e

04 96 25 50 75

-

a

H e ct res

a es -

ea

iv s r ts

a

ea s a

H e ct res o

r

A

a

o

a

In the In ans In o In es sa

ea

iv e n s di stribute d c m m u n l to p n ts gra i g Ar e a

re

se

r

a

87 43

-

85

-

15

-

-

-

24 72

96

The ch a nge in the distribution of l a nd a mong the v a rious e d in t h e t w o t a b le s b elow c a t egor i e s o f ow n er s i s summ a r ily d es cr i b

fo e the R fo m

Be

e

r

r

Pr ope rty up t o h ct r s e

1 00

h ct r

a e

e

a es

H e ct res

c t

a

O ld Ki gd

In t he I n e ssa I n T a ns o In

n

en

.

om

B ra bi a r ylva n i a Buc vi n a T t l

12

o a

The a r a ble a re a of the follows

country

wa s

l property La rg prop erty T t l

therefore divide d

S ma l

e

1 00 00 -

o a

f

for m

A ter the Re

Pro p rt y up t o h ctare s e

1 00

e

H e cta r

O ld Ki gd

In the I n es s a I n ra n s In o

n

B ra bi T ylv n i a Buc vi n a

a

a

T ot l a

om

es

ce t n

.

Prop e rty a b o v e h e cta res H e cta res

1 00

c t en

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222

OF THE

THE EFFECTS

REFORM

ON

THE

The a ra ble la nd of the whole coun try is therefore divided follow s S ma ll

as

pro p t y L a rge pro pe rty er

To t l

1 00 00

a

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( a ) One of the fi rs t poin ts whi ch a rise out of these fi gur e s is

th a t not a ll the p ea s a nts who were found to b e e n titled to receive l a nd were a ctu a lly provided w ith it Not w ithst a nding the r a di c a l extent of the expropri a tion of the individu a ls whose n a mes were pl a ced on the resettleme n t li sts over were a ltogether left out of this whole s a le distribution of l a nd It should of course b e remembered th a t preference w a s give n to those pe a s a n ts who h a d n o l a n d a t a ll Hence it is prob a ble th a t m a n y or most of those who rem a in ed outside the reform owned some l a n d of their ow n though not enough for indepen dent fa rm ing ( b) The more fortun a te two third s of the cl a im a nts who received some me a sure of l a nd di d not get a s much a s w a s origi n a lly i n tended to give them It is prob a ble th a t in a m a j ority of c a s es the min imum lot fi x e d by the v a rious executive org a ns h a d i n pr a ctice to b e reduced Dr Aurel V l a d a sserts th a t none of the holdin gs distributed in Tr a nsylva ni a w a s l a rger th a n 3 j uga r s The o ffi ci a l sum m a ries cited a bove show th a t a n a ver a ge of 2 65 h a a r a ble l a nd w a s distributed p er he a d ; to which would h a ve to b e a dded a n individu a l a vera ge of 0 6 1 h a in the sh a pe of commun a l gra zi n gs a n d 0 35 h a a s comm un a l wood l a nd s ( c) Rum a n i a s l a nd problem h a d been a compoun d of two oppo s ite evil s— o u the one side excessively l a rge est a tes a n d on the other side exces s ively sm a ll p e a s a nt holdin gs The reform h a s remedied only one of the s e two a spects of the problem : l a rge prope r ty h a s been a boli shed But sm a ll p r operty h a s not b een r a i s ed to a level w here it might become eco n omic a lly a ut onomous N 0 fi gur es h a ve been collected a s yet to show the new d is t r i bu tion of pe a s a n t property It is cle a r th a t the reform h a s in cre a sed the numb er of fa milies o w n ing l a nd but not in the s a me propor tion the number of those who could derive a n existence from .

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OF

DISTRIBUTION

LA ND PROPERTY

223

their holdings a lone M a ny l a ndless l a bo urers h a ve been m a de poor ow n er s but n ot independent cultiva tors Even less h a s the reform cre a ted th a t medium sized property which by genera l a greement could initi a te a n a dv a nce in tech n ique duri n g a period 1 a of tr nsition cert in me a sure the reform h a s a ggr a v a ted the n a d I a ( ) uneconomic org a n iz a tion of sm a ll property in Rum a n i a The reform h a s n ot been complemented by a sim ult a neou s proces s of conso lid a tion ; hence the reform h a s multiplied in tho s e c a ses in which the cl a im a n ts were entitled merely to a ddition a l l a nd a n d not to a fu ll new holdi n g the number of sm a ll fi eld s which ge n era lly form a pe a s a nt property The ge n er a l l a nd problem h a s therefore not been fi n a ll e ( ) y solved Nor could the dem a nds of those who h a ve rem a in ed a ltogether l a ndless or of tho s e with i n s uffi ci en t holding s be met through a new expropri a tion In a nswer to a question put to him in the Ch a mber on Decemb er 1 2 1 9 27 M Ar ge n t oia n u the Minister for Agriculture replied th a t the St a te h a d no further reserve for those who h a d rem a ined wi thout l a n d On the other h a nd in the a utumn of 1 928 a cir cul a r from the Ministry of Agriculture i n structed it s subordin a te a uthorities to h a sten the execution of those expropri a tion c a ses which h a d rem a i ned pe n d ing s o th a t the cl a im a nts might be a ble to t a ke over the holdin gs to which they were entitled Th a t me a n s th a t a cert a in exte n t of l a nd st ill rem a ined to b e tra nsferred from the l a rge owners to the pe a s a nts Moreover it wo ul d s eem th a t by cir cum venting the provision of the reform l a ws a number of l a rge est a tes h a ve been reconstituted— either by purch a se u n der a fi ct it i ous n a me or by puttin g together p a rt s of a n est a te belonging to members of one fa mily or by successive s a les to the s a me individu a l of lots of less th a n 5 0 h a e a ch from the s a me 2 e s t a te Offi cia ls of the Min i stry of Agriculture con fi r m ed th a t in the stepp e regio n of the B ar ag a n n ewly formed est a tes ca n .

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Na tio a l Pe a san t G o v e rn me n t is en d ea v o ur in g t o m k e good th t d e fic i en y by m eans of a n A c t p a sse d i n 1 9 29 which c an c e ls t h e r s tricti on t o e ll h oldin gs o bt i e d u n de r t h e l n d re for m S uch h o ldin gs ma y n ow be s old fr e ly t o p eas n t cultiva tors up t o n a r a of 25 h e cta res pe r i n dividu a l Th S t t e h as a ri ght of p e e m pti on o n a ll s a l s of 5 0 h th e re a d m o re ; h r s em t o be g p i n t h l w which onl y l ega l pro c ee din gs c o ul d fill but o ffi c ia ls of t h e C en t r a l Offi c e a re d o ubtful wh e th e r s uch pr o c ee di n gs c oul d s ucc ee d 1

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224

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

THE

b e found ru n ning up to h a Yet t a ki n g together these two c a tegories of est a tes which m ay still b e a v a il a ble the tot a l a re a c a nnot be otherwise th a n in sign ifi ca n t in rel a tion to wh a t wo ul d b e n eeded to s a tisfy the rem a in in g pe a s a nt dem a n d for l a nd One might a d d to the two sources of l a n d n a med a bove a third — n a mely volunt a ry s a les from the rem a inin g l a rge est a tes Either bec a use they m a y b e a fra id of a further expropri a tion on a ccount of the growi n g politic a l s trength of the Pe a s a nt current or b ec a use they fi n d l a rge sc a le c ul tiva tion un der the new conditions un pr ofi t a ble m a ny l a rge owners h a ve been selling the l a n d which the reform left them ; especi a lly a s the pe a s a n ts seem willing to pa y a lmost a n y price for such l a nd a s still comes into the m a rket being a fra id perh a ps to lose the l a st ch a nce of getting l a nd in their ow n loc a lities With the a ssist a n ce of dummy bidders the l a ndowners force up the price a n d m a ke it d iffi cult for the Cent r a l Resettlement O th ee to compete The A urora st a ted on F e br ua r y 4 1 926 th a t in the Ilfov coun ty a lone n i n eteen e s t a tes h a d so fa r b een sold to the pe a s a nts a t fa bulou s price s ra ngi n g from lei p er h a upw a rds The Ce n tra l Offi ce wo uld seem to h a ve purch a sed u n til the end of 1 928 on the strength of the St a te s right of pre emption a b out h a a t a n a ver a ge price of lei per h a a n d a bout r s a t a n a ve r a ge price of 8 000 1ei u a er u ar i n a ddition ; j g p j g to buildi n g s mills & c The bul k of th a t l a nd h a s b een h a nded over to pe a s a nt co oper a tives of le a si n g a n d purch a se (f Altogether the exten t of l a rge property still a va il a ble for eventu a l tra n s fer to the pe a s a n ts is very reduced Nor co ul d it for the time being b e subj ected to further expropri a tion The expropri a tio n la w h a s a constitution a l ch a r a cter a n d provision s of the Con s titution c a n not b e ch a nged until the King come s of a e As Ki n g Mih a iu is seven ye a r s old eleven ye a rs must p a ss g before the Con stitution could b e touched No n e of the present p olitic a l p a rties would thi n k of bre a king th a t rule ; the Pe a s a n t le a der s who a r e pledged to a bolish l a rge sc a le property a lto gether con s ider the i s s ue a s shelved for the time b ei n g Wh a t t hey might a ttempt i s to revise the grosser a buses in the a pplic a t io n of the la w For the re s t the Pe a s a nt spokesmen hop e to of s olve the a gr a ri a n problem r a ther by the i n t en sifi c a t i on ,

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DISTRIBUTION

OF

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225

griculture a full fl ed ged system of co opera tion a n d the development of loc a l i n dustries using a gricultura l a n d other r a w m a teri a ls a va il a ble on the spot a n d the s urplus of pe a s a nt l a bour (g) Until such a comprehensive progr a m ca n b e a pplied the l a n d problem will rem a in a cute a n d begins to b e a r fruit For the m a ss of the pea s a nts still reg a rd it a s a duty of the Sta te to pro vide them wi th l a nd whenever they need i t The l a st expropri a tion i n their opinion h a s merely recognized a n d ap plied th a t a ncient right a n d in a ddition h a s freed them of cert a in obliga tions tow a rd s the l a ndlords On e of the Villa ge elders of B u s et g a ve it a s his View th a t the l a nd would h a ve b een his eve n w ithout the reform for if he ga ve h a lf of the crop he could a lwa ys t a ke from the est a te a s much l a nd a s he w a nted to till And it w a s fa irer in th a t w a y a s everyo n e took a ccordi n g to the numb er of souls in his fa mily a ccordi n g to needs a n d to powe r a n d not a s is b ei n g done now fi ve hect a res to e a ch a n d 1 The new gen era tio n h a s n ot the le a st doubt everyo n e a like th a t in their turn they will receive l a nd They therefore look lo n gingly a t every piece of l a nd still a va il a ble Nor a r e tho s e pea s a n ts who a lre a dy h a ve been given somet hi n g a n d who form the m a ss of the Vill a gers a ltogether s a t i sfi e d They h a ve the owner s egoism towa rds their own piece of l a nd but look with the covet ing eyes of l a ndles s serfs upon the l a nd of the boi a r This a ttitude h a s not been a ssu a ged by the gra n ti n g of l a n d to offi cia ls to gipsies a n d to others who a r e not cultiv a to r s For the pea s a nts will not a dmit tha t l a n d h a s been given a s a r e com p ense for bra very i n the Wa r but ra ther in recogn itio n of the a ncient pe a s a nt right to the l a n d on which they live The Wa r h a s been merely the occ a sion but not the c a use for the d is t r i bu tio n of l a nd M St a hl j ustly rem a rks th a t wher e the use of l a bour in a c a pit a list form on a mo n ey w a ge b a sis is n ot wide s pre a d the tiller of the soil a lw a ys looks upon himself in a con fused w a y a s h a vi n g a title to the l a n d The pe a sa n t con siders th a t is th a t he h a s a right to a piece of l a nd which should provide a

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ll o wi n g qu otati ons ar from ma u cript n ot s m a d e by M H n ry S t hl i n 1 9 27 dur i ng a s oci ol gic a l i n quiry u n d r t h e l ea d rs hip of Pr fesso r Di m itri e G u ti n d ki n dly c omm u ic t d by t h e l tt r 1

Thi s

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226

THE

EFFECTS

OF

him

THE RE F ORM

ON

THE

with the me a ns of existence And the fa ct th a t economica lly the old servile tithe system p a ssed into the present d a y méta yage system— which a ppe a red to the pe a s a nt to i nvolve merely a ch a nge in the siz e of the resp ective sh a res but no ch a nge of form— h a s help ed to perpetu a te th a t propriet a ry outlook of the p ea s a nts tow a rds the l a n d As long a s a n y l a nd rem a in s in the h a nds of l a rge owners— a n d especi a lly in the h a n ds of o wners l a rge a n d sm a ll who do not cultiva te it themselves— the p e a s a nts relentless cl a im to the l a nd will not b e subdued .

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C H A P TE R THE EFFECTS

V III

THE REFORM ON THE OR G A NI ZA TION OF FARMING

OF

W H E N p a ssing to a n estim a te of the effect the reform pro d uce d on the economics of Rum a ni a n a gricultur e one must begin by pressi n g the point th a t the recent legisl a tive ch a n ges were not conceived either in their origi n or in their texts or in their a pplic a tion a s a reform of a gricultur e They were di s cu s s ed a n d decreed a s a reform of l a nd tenur e a n d such con se u en c es a s followed from them in Rum a ni a n a gric u l tur e a re q i n direct a n d on the whole still rudi ment a ry I n such circum s t a nce s a n a ttempt to prep a re a s ci e n t ifi c survey of the y eco n omic effects of the reform would be prem a ture Yet it is de s ira ble to try a t le a st to di scern the ir begi n ni ngs in order to rou n d off the picture presented so fa r But it will b e cle a r from the n a ture of the c a s e th a t a n y views put forw a rd in the ch a pters w hich follow must b e t a ken a s t e n t a t iv e a s indic a ti n g tenden cie s ra ther th a n settled curren ts ; a n d a s continui ng the illustra tio n of some of the con fli ct in g s oci a l tendencies a n d policies out of whi ch the Rum a n i a n a gra ri a n problem h a s issued Even l a ter w hen time h a s cry s t a lli z ed the new ch a ra cter of Rum a n i a n a griculture it will still rem a in d iffi cult for a number of re a son s to provide a n a ccura te s tudy of the economic effects of the g r e a t l a nd reform There is in the fi r st pl a ce the obst a cle c a used by the a bsence of comprehensive a n d reli a ble st a tistic a l m a te r i a l As Lev a s seur s a id in a s peech b efore the S oci ét é N a tio n a le d Agri cult ur e a s reg a rds reli a bility a gricult ur a l s t a ti s tics a r e the mo s t frequently compl a ined oi I n Rum a ni a a g r icultur a l st a tistics h a ve been neglected in a m a nner which m a y well d r ive the s tudent of eco n omics to desp a ir Rum a ni a h a s no ground book ; the figur e s concerni n g the distribution of p r operty a re collected by loc a l o ffici a ls vill a ge m a yors & c from the st a teme n ts of the p a rtie s co n cerned from t a x a tion return s or from le a s e s a n d a cts of s a le The s a me method is ,

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ORGANIZATION

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FARMING

used for mea suring the distribution of the v a rious crops a n d their The d a ta is t a ken from questionn a ires com a nn u a l production l by vi l ge in the c a se of pe a s a nt cultiv a tors a n d e t e d l a o ffi i a l s c p by the fa rmers themselves in the c a se of fa rms a bove 1 00 h a For these re a so n s one fin d s frequent discrep a ncies between the figur e s given by v a rious a uthorities — or even by severa l Govern ment dep a rtments — on a p a rticul a r point When the difference is serious speci a l a ttention will be dra wn in this study to the fa ct But in genera l we sh a ll h a ve to a ssume th a t while the figures a r e a pproxim a te they a r e rel a tively true enough to a llo w v a lid conclusions to be dra wn concern i n g tendencies in Ruma ni a n a griculture before a n d a fter the reform A second a n d more disconcerting d iffi cult y for such a study of effects is presented by the sequence or even concurrence in t ime of the Wa r a n d of the reform In the c a se of Rum a ni a especi a lly where two thirds of the country h a d during a pro longed period been un der enemy occup a tion a n d where much of the offi cia l a rchives were lost du r i n g the Rum a ni a n ret r e a t a n d then a g a in during the h a sty dep a rture of the enemy — i t is a n a ltogether impossible t a s k to try to dise n t a ngle with a n y precision t h e effects of the reform from the effects of the Wa r One fi n d s a good illustra tio n of this d iffi cult y in Yugosl a vi a where one self cont a ined a dmini stra tive district the old S erbi a n Kin gdom did not come within the scop e of the a gra ri a n reform a t a ll a s the l a nd w a s in the h a nds of the pe a s a n ts a lre a dy Yet in th a t district production suffered a serious decline a s m a y b e seen from the followin g figures : .

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r a cultiv te d i n h e cta r es A

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Pr ducti on i n quin t a l s o

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Producti o n i n q ui n ta l s

The tot a l decrea se in the a rea cultiva ted with these fi ve crops a mounted the refore to h a a n d the f a ll in production .

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230

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

THE

quint a ls On the other h a nd the figur es for Cro a ti a Sl a voni a show a n unexp ected rise

to

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a nd

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1 9 1 1 —1 4

H e cta res

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Yet in Cro a tia a n d Sl a voni a the l a nd reform w a s not only a pplied on a very wide sc a le but it w a s a lso mis a pplied wi th the re s ult th a t m a ny progressive l a rge fa rms were completely d isorg a nized a s I h a d occ a sion to see during my j our neys ; w hi le m a ny of the n ewly resettled pe a s a n ts n eglected their holdi ngs being in doubt whether they themselves woul d b e fin ally c o n fi r m e d a s owners Only the h a voc c a used by the Wa r a mong the m a nhood a n d possessions of the S erbi a n p e a s a ntry could expl a in this p a ra dox Fin a lly a thi rd d iffi cult y springs from the economic poli cy a dopted by the Governments which rul ed in Rum a ni a from the end of the Wa r till November 1 928 For re a sons a n d by me a ns wh ich will be described in a l a ter ch a pter those Governm ents devoted the resources a n d fa vours which the St a te coul d com m a nd to the crea tion of a n a tion a l industry Agricultur e w a s st a rved of a ll support j ust in th a t period in which it h a d to try both to overcome the destruction c a used by the Wa r a n d the inevita ble tempora ry disturb a nce c a used by the reform I n other words some of the phenome n a which wi ll b e noted in the follow ing cha pters — a s fa r a s possible st a tistic a lly— a r e not the effects of the reform On the contra ry they m a y b e s a id to be the pro duct of circum s t a nces which prevented those effects from worki n g themselve s out in a norm a l economic evolution The upshot of the reform h a s b een Vitia ted by Rum a ni a s a ttempt to c a rry thr ough s imult a neously two different a n d in p a rt c on fl i ct i n a n sform a tr g tions of her economic life : in a griculture a ch a nge from l a rge to s m a ll ownership a n d productio n ; a n d a t the s a me time a subst a nti a l tra n s fer of the n a tion s c a pit a l a n d energies from To which must b e a dded a s a s upple a griculture to industry ,

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OF

ORGANIZATION

FARMING

231

ment a ry complic a ting fa ctor the a dvent of severa l new provinces differing from the Old Ki n gdom a n d from ea ch other in economic equipment a n d needs One other word ma y b e a llowed by w a y of introduction in order to defi ne the st a ndpoint of thi s study The Rum a ni a n reform h a s not rem a ined unnoticed by we s tern econ omists If its principles a n d progress h a ve b een somewh a t severely tre a ted by them tha t is no doubt bec a use in ge n era l they h a ve di s cussed it merely from the a ngle of production ; a n d th a t in a per i od when the problem of a gricultura l s uppplie s w a s grea tly worrying some of the Continent a l St a tes But for this circumst a nce it should h a rdly h a ve been n ecess a ry to point out th a t in Rum a ni a a n d in e a stern Europe genera lly— the reform impo s ed itself a s a pressing soci a l need Its whole structure a n d progress mu s t b e studied therefore a s a m a ny s ided soci a l reform a n d economic critici s m must b e tempered by t a king into a ccount the wider fa ctors which c a used the reform a n d which the reform in its turn is me a n t to correct Nor is the economic a spect of the question simply a m a tter of gross production a n d of a surplus for export In a griculture sm a ll sc a le a n d l a rge sc a le cultiva tion do not differ solely in the technique of production but even more profoun dly in the ends of production L a rge fa rms a n d sm a llh oldings e a ch h a ve crops a n d products which a re peculi a r to them which a re b est pro d uce d i e in the i r respective type of a gricultura l un dert a king A cha nge from one dim ension of farm to a nother genera lly involves a cha n ge of the whole ch a ra cter of fa rming S o th a t before one a ttempts to c a lcul a te the effect of the reform on production a s such one must endea vour to clea r the w a y by a process of elimin a tion It is necess a ry to fi n d out in wh a t mea sur e a n d in wh a t m a nner the system of production h a s a ltered : fi r s t a s reg a rds the siz e of a gricultur a l undert a kin gs ; secondly a s reg a rds equipment a n d technique ; a n d thirdly a s reg a rds the n a ture of the products to which they a r e devoted Only by a prelimin a ry discussion of these delibera te ch a nge s in the orga ni z a tion of production will the fi n a l estim a te of the effect of the reform on volume a n d qu a lity of the produce con duce to a true conclusion ,

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232

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

S E C TI O N

CHANGES

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TH E

S CA L E

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ON

THE

1

A G R I C U L T U R A L E X P L O IT A TI O N S

If one Views the Rum a ni a n l a nd reform from the a ngle of a gricultur a l economics its s i n ifi ca n ce woul d seem to b e a bove g a ll a v a st exp erim ent in tr a nsition from l a rge sc a le to sm a ll sc a le cultiva tion As such the experiment m a y co n t a in va lu a ble lessons for rura l economics in gen era l But if thes e lessons a r e not to be misinterpreted one must fi r st a ttempt to est a blish the extent to which the revolution a ry ch a nge in the distribution of prope r ty h a s a lso me a nt a ch a n ge in the units of fa rming a n d therefore in the methods of fa rming On e of the domi n a nt ch a ra cteristics of Rum a n i a s a gr a ri a n structure before the Wa r w a s the wide discrep a ncy between the a re a owned by l a rge proprietors a n d th a t covered by l a rge sc a le a gricultura l exploit a tion s The respective distribution of proper ties a n d f a rms a ccord ing to c a tegories m a y b e seen from the 1 following t a ble ,

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D i s t r 1 but ion of pr o p e rt y i n 1 8 9 6 1 902 1 905 ( a ra bl e gr a z i n g a n d ,

Di stributio f l d a m ong f r ms i 1 9 1 3 ( wi t h o ut p stur s pl a t ti o s nd b a rre n l n d ) n o

a

,

b r re n l d ) an

a

ce t t ota l

T ot l

e

n

,

a

n

n

ce t t ota l

P er of

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1 00 0

a

a

a

P er of

051 13638 0 1 1 9 3

n

a

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an

n

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1 00 0

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h a bet w een the t w o The difference of ne a rly column s i s due to the a bse n ce from the a gricultura l st a tistics of h a of b a rren l a nd a n d of ha a bout of perm a nent gra zings The l a tter especi a lly belo n ged a lmost completely to l a rge owners ; in 1 9 1 0 only h a 1 e 2 4 per M i i try f Agricul t ur Ag i ull i i { R p li P i md l ului C ult i v l i 1 9 1 3 .

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°

1

n s

Buc a r s t e

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o

1 9 15

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or

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ar

za rea

c

n

a

n

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ORGANIZATION

OF

233

FARMING

cent of the perm a nent gra zin gs belonged to sm a ll owners Hence 6 1 7 p er cent of the a ra ble a re a w a s occupied by properties below 5 00 h a a n d 38 3 per ce n t by prop erties a bove 5 00 h a Agricultura l exploit a tions of less th a n 5 00 h a covered however 8 1 3 p er cent of the tot a l a ra ble l a nd a n d those of more th a n 5 00 h a only 1 8 7 per cent of th a t a re a Th a t difference w a s not c a used by the division of l a rge est a tes into a num ber of f a rms in keepin g with the needs of sound a gricultur a l pr a ctice Ou the contra ry Rum a ni a n f a rming dis pl a yed a n excessive concentra tion of a gricultura l u ni ts Proper ties a n d f a rms a bove 1 00 h a were distributed in the following proportions a ccordi ng to number .

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Ca tegori es

Nu mb e r of pro perti es

Nu mb e r of fa r ms 1

With the exception of the fi r st c a tegory therefore in which the number of fa rms w a s higher th a n the number of properties the in verse rel a tio n w a s found throughout Rum a ni a n a griculture in a me a sure whi ch rose with the extent of the exploit a tion This a nom a ly could only a rise from the fa ct th a t some of the l a rger fa rms were formed by putting together a number of n eighbouring properties inste a d of the l a rge est a tes being divided up into a number of sm a ller fa rms This p eculi a rity of Rum a ni a n fa rming is even more striking when comp a red with co n ditio n s in Grea t Brit a in a n d the United St a tes both of them reputedly countries of l a rge sc a le a griculture Where a s one found in E n gl a nd est a tes a bove a cres with a n a ver a ge of a cres there were o n ly 6 03 f a rms a bove a cres — with a n a vera ge of Rum a ni a n properties a cres or 5 20h a a bove 5 00 h a numbered with a n a vera ge extent of h a which ne a rly equ a lled the a ver a ge of the Engli sh properties ; but Rum a ni a n fa rms a bove 5 00 h a were with a n a ver a ge of h a th a t i s more th a n double the E n glish ,

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C Ga rofl i d , Ch es ti a A gr a r a , pp 1 6 4— 5 '

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234

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE REF ORM

ON

THE

ver a ge ( And the Engli sh figur es prob a bly included p a stur es where a s the Rum a nia n fi gur e s did not ) One might ext end the comp a rison to the Uni ted St a tes where f a rms a bove 1 00 h a h a d a n a ver a ge extent of only 208 h a M Ga r ofii d mentioned the c a se of a h a est a te in the county of I a lomi t a ; it w a s divided into thr ee fa rms but the thr ee were worked j ointly The expl a n a tio n of th a t sta te of things must b e sought for in the considera ble proportion of l a rge property whi ch w a s let to ten a nts In 1 9 1 7 the deputy M M Ca rp a ffi r m e d in the Ja ssy Pa rli a ment th a t 6 4 per cen t of a ll a ra ble l a nd a bove 1 00 h a w a s let out— a percent a ge which in cert a in coun ties rose to 72— 75 per cent a n d in one coun ty to over 9 2 per cent More d efi n i t e a n d det a iled fi gur e s concerni ng the a re a let out from the v a rious c a tegories of properties were suppli ed by the a gra ri a n inquiry which w a s instituted a fter the risi n g of 1 907 At th a t time the a rea held in ten a n cy in the four Rum a ni a n provinces w a s a s follows a

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A

Ca te gori es

of

M ld vi

r

fa ms

o

a

a

r ea h e ld by ten a n ts

Mu t

n e ni a

Olt e n i a

D o broge

a

u

R ma n

i

a

St a tistics collected in 1 91 3 showed th a t of the tot a l a re a cultiv a ted in th a t yea r 6 0 p er cent w a s fa rmed by own ers a n d 40 per cent by ten a nts .

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F r h ld l d ee

o

an

Leas e h ld o

a nd

meta ya ge '

These proportions va ry with the v a rious geogra phi c a l regions Cultiva tion by ow n ers prepondera ted in the highl a nds where sm a ll holdings were more num erous where a s tena ncy w a s ,

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M $e r ba n .

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ci t

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p 29 .

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Mi n i stry

of

riculture

Ag

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op

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ci t

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p 28 .

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ORG ANIZATION

OF F A RM

IN G

235

more widespre a d in the pl a ins where l a rge est a tes under cere a l crops predomin a ted a s m a y be seen from the following t a ble ,

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Pe rc ent R eg

M ld vi o

a

an

a ge o f

cultiv a te d a rea

F ree ho ld

i on

hi ghla d s n

D o brogea M u n te ni n highlads Lowl d s of S iret a d Pruth L owl d s of t h e D a ub e n

a

.

an

n

an

n

The ten dency of Rum a ni a n l a n downers to let out their l a nd is con fi r m e d from a different a ngle by the rel a tive growth of the va rious cl a sses forming the rura l popul a tion There a r e un fortun a tely no fi gur es which might en a ble us to follow th a t evolution gra du a lly The only reli a ble st a tistics before those of 1 91 3 a r e those collected by D M a r ti a n in the A n a lele S ta ti s ti ce for 1 8 60 The l a tter referred only to Mu n te n i a a n d Olt en i a a n d the comp a rison therefore h a s to be limited to those two provinces The confrontin g of the two sets of figur e s reve a ls a decline in the proportion of owner c ultiva tors notwi th s t a n ding the severa l distributions of l a nd from 1 8 6 4 onw a rds a n d a gre a t increa se in the proportion of ten a nt cultiv a tors : .

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C a te gori es

19 13 1

O w r cultiv t r ne

a o s

T n ts Tot l u mb e r h e a d s ( rura l ) e

an

a

n

of

fa m

ily

( P ercen t a ge = t h a t o f tota l

n

u m b e r of rura l h ead s of f

a

mi li es ) .

These da t a do not s uffi ci en t ly j ustify the conclusion th a t there h a d been a concentr a tion in l a nd property during th a t period especi a lly a s genera l conditions a n d the methods of cl a ssific a tion M i i try f Agricultu p i t p 29 1

n s

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r e, o

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Ib id , op ci t , p 1 2 3 Th e fi rs t fi gur e i n s o mn i s e on e o s g en i n t h e o g n a and t h e i as Th e fi gur e s e e se , o es on to the a e een o e e f o m t h e e a s of t h e o g n a a e 2

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th rd h v b c rr ct d r

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thi c lu

rr u ly iv ri i l a s h r u d w h ich c rr p d pe rc e tage s d t il ri i l t bl .

n

,

236

THE EFFECTS

h ad

THE RE F ORM

OF

ch a nged Cert a in figur es a va il a ble for the follo w ing comp a rison : .

ON

1 905

C a tegori es

THE

m a ke possible 19 13

1

Nu m b e r of cultiva tors O wn e r s Ten ts ( mo e y or meta ya ge) ’

an

n

During th a t short period therefore the numb er of owner cultiva tors incre a sed rela tively more ra pi d ly th a n the num b er of ten a nts In genera l however Rum a ni a n a gricultur a l st a tistics rel a t ing to in dividu a l ye a rs a r e not reli a ble m ateri a l for comp a ri son The gre a tly v a rying clim a tic a n d economic conditions frequently induce st a rt ling ch a nges from ye a r to ye a r in the a re a cultiva ted a n d consequently in the a mount of l a nd rented by the p e a s a nts In this p a rtic ul a r inst a n ce the 1 91 3 fi gur e rel a t in g to own er cultiva tors w a s u n doubtedly i n fl uen c e d by the tra n sfer of l a nd to the pe a s a n ts a fter the risin g of 1 907 As i n teresting a s the r a pid rise in the numb er of te n a nts from 1 8 6 0 to 1 9 1 3 w a s the contr a ry tendency in the number of a gricultur a l l a bourers The tot a l a rea brought u n der the plough a n d the cultiv a tion of whe a t incre a sed enormously dur in g th a t sp a ce of time Yet the proportion of a gricultura l l a bo urers a mong the tot a l number of he a ds of rur a l hou s eholds o n ly rose from 1 1 9 per ce n t to 1 3 6 p er cent —a much slower gro w th th a n th a t of the rura l popul a tio n a s a whole ,

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NU M B E R

OF

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L A B O U RERS ( AN D O T H E R

P R OF E S S I O N S )

2

Of /0

11 9 13 6 -

This curious st a gna tion w a s by no me a ns due— a s the un initi a ted p erh a ps might b elieve— to the extensive use of el a bora te m a chines ; quite the co n tra r y Pl a cing the ra pid i n cre a se in the number of ten a n t s side by s ide with the slow incre a se in the numb er of l a bourers one discovers a further ch a ra cteristic of the Rum a ni a n a gr a ri a n s ystem Not only w a s a considera ble .

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Mm is t ry I bid

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OF

ORGANIZATION

FARMING

237

proportion of l a nd let out from the l a rge est a tes but moreove r much of it w a s let to sm a ll c ultiva tors In the a gricul tura l sta tistics for 1 9 07 publi shed by M L Golescu the a re a let to s m a ll cultiv a tor s from properties a bove 1 00 h a w a s given a s h a to which h a d to b e a dded gr a zings a b out h a m a king a tot a l h a — th a t me a n t a bout 48 per cent of a ll the a ra ble l a nd owned by l a rge proprietors M S erb a n cites the following t a ble from the Rep or t on the App li ca ti on of ,

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th e L a w

m cultum l Con tr acts g ’

on A

H e cta res

L n d le t t o p s n ts 0 1 a mo y r t L n d le t t o p e s ts i n meta y ge Gr i g l t t o p s n ts by t h h a Gr in g l t t o p s ts by h e d s o f c a ttl ( n o of i m ls ) a

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ea a

H e ct res a

H cta res e

H cta res e

ne

1

en

’

a

a

a an

az n

e

az

e

ea

a

e

ea a n

e

an

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a

a

These figur e s o n ly referred to l a nd let to the pe a s a nts on the b a sis of written a n d duly registered contra ct s but not to such l a nd a s w a s let merely on a verb a l a greement — a widespre a d custom which en a bled l a rge owners or ten a n ts to impose upon the pe a s a n ts higher prices th a n those offi cia lly fi x e d Ara ble l a nd a n d gr a zing let to the pe a s a nts by verb a l a greeme n ts rose in cert a in ye a rs to h a ; a n d to this would h a ve to b e a dded perm a nent a n d a r t ifi cia l p a stures In 1 9 1 0 a lone when the num b er of written contra cts w a s the a uthorities were a ble to tra ck 8 6 4 verb a l a greements ; but a l a rge n umber rem a i n ed undiscovered freque n tly with the conniv a nce of the pe a s a n ts themselves who were a fra id of being refused l a nd in the future if they disclosed the h a rd b a rg a ins which l a rge owners or ten a nts h a d extr a cted from them The st a te of things thus reve a led in the offi ci a l reports w a s con fi r m e d by a priva te inqui ry conducte d by M $ er ba n m a i n ly in 1 9 1 1 He investiga ted in det a il the situ a tion on twenty e s t a tes from va riou s p a rts of the cou n try a n d representing v a rious ki n d s of a gricultura l undert a kings a Crown dom a in ,

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Op

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238

THE EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

THE

being included a mong them He foun d th a t of these est a tes only three did not let l a nd to the pe a s a nts— a n d two of them were f a rmed on progressive li nes quite exception a l in Rum a ni a n a griculture Of the tot a l a re a of h a covered by these h a w a s a ra ble l a nd From t hi s the pe a s a n ts est a tes h a in méta yage a n d h a on the b a sis of: rented a gricultur a l contr a cts ; i e a ltogether h a or 47 31 per ce n t of the tot a l a ra ble l a nd The fi r st two t a bles given in this section h a d shown th a t 1 9 6 per cent out of a tot a l a re a of 38 2 per cent covered by est a tes a bove 5 00h a were worked in fa rms of a lesser size ; a n d a s the c a tegories of fa rms betwee n 1 0 a n d 5 00h a were on the whole i n sign ifi ca n t in number a n d exten t it followed th a t h a lf of the l a rge property a bove 5 00 h a w a s before the w a r f a rmed in sm a ll holdings up to 1 0 h a e a ch This genera l con elusion coincides with tha t re a ched by M $ er ba n s speci a l investig a tion M G M a n tu h a s st a ted th a t the extent of the cultiv a ted a re a rose but little between 1 906 a n d 1 9 1 5 but th a t the a rea in the h a nds of the sm a ll cultiva tors incre a sed from 6 5 per cent to 73 88 per ce n t of the a r a ble l a nd These fi gur es a re not e a sy to check ; but it is prob a ble th a t pe a s a n t cultiv a tion inc r e a sed subst a nti a lly a fter the rising of 1 907 p a rtly through the a pplic a tion of the legisl a tive me a sur es describ ed in Ch a pter I V a n d p a rtly through the volu n t a ry a ction of the l a rge owners a n d ten a nts S ome of them must h a ve found th a t f a rming no longer a ttra cted them whe n the new l a ws in a ugur a ted a stricter supervision of the w a ges which the pe a s a n ts received for their l a bour a n d of the prices they p a id for the l a nd they rented Thi s forced m a n y l a ndowners e ither to sell out or to cultiva te more intensively them s elves by investing more c a pit a l whi ch very few of them were in a position to do In Rum a ni a the move 1 ment w a s not so a ccentu a ted a s in Russi a especi a lly a s the legisl a tion of 1 907 rem a ined on the whole a de a d letter But one ca n tra ce a simil a r effect of the 1 907 rising in the figur e s give n by M M a ntu a s we ll a s in the growing ch a nge from metayage to money rent for l a nd t a ken over by pea s a nts from l a rge owners .

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u i h d

tr

ri i p t w

cres pa sse d by pur ch as e tolypi n l egi s l at i on but a lso l d

I n R ss a , a f e t h e s ng of 1 9 05 — 6 , s ome ea s a n s n o t o n e a se o f t h e S a n s of t h e o t he a e s a n d t h e fa i n t h e en 0 1 a n se in a se of t h e g 1

i nt bec u

ri

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ly b c u ll r t

a

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ORGANIZATION

239

OF P ARMIN G

This a ppe a rs from the t a ble M S erb a n quotes from the Rep or t i ca ti on o th e L a w on Agr i cultum l Con tr a cts a n d even on th e A l pp f more cle a rly from the t a ble below which refers to fa rms of less th a n 1 00 h a : .

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Ar ea

rea cultiva te d A

h e ld on mo e y re n t n

in meta ya ge ’

In a study of Rum a ni a s a gra ri a n problem recently published in the second issue of the Agra m a P r obleme— the Bulletin of the Intern a tion a l Agricultur a l Institute in Moscow the a uthor M Tim ow ch a r a cteristic a lly dra ws from the a bove t a ble the con elusion th a t c a pit a list fa rmin g w a s on the incre a se in Rum a ni a Th a t of course is in keeping with the strict Comm uni s t View th a t a n y pea s a nt who owns l a nd is a c a pit a list A more c a tholic rea di n g of rura l economics will see in these fa cts ra ther the tra ce of a contra ry development— the gro wth of pe a s a nt f a rmin g a t the expense of the c a pit a li st fa rmer Th a t a pplies with speci a l force to Rum a ni a where the l a rge sc a le tena nt seldom h a d either knowledge or equipment for f a rm i ng a n d litera lly brought n o other contribution to the process of production th a n the c a sh or credit he could comm a nd M Tim ow s Vie w might h a ve h a d s ome found a tion if the ch a n ge h a d been solely one from rent in k ind to rent in money But th a t w a s o n ly one side of the evolution The second a n d evidently the more s ign ifi ca n t side w a s a ch a nge from l a rge sc a le to sm a ll sc a le renting a ch a n ge which incre a sin gly excluded the c a pit a list Moreover M Tim ow h a s dra wn his conclusion from the fi gur e s without t a k ing suffi ci en t l a ccount some of the peculi a r cir cum st a nces which into y u a lifi e d those fi gur es a n d ga ve them their true me a ning The q money rent mentioned in the contra cts w a s genera lly merely a nomin a l f a ctor used a s a me a ns of me a surement a n d tr a ns formed in pra ctice into l a bour oblig a tions which in their turn M i i t y f Agricultur p i t p 35 ’

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240

ON

THE REFORM

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE

were reckoned on a money b a sis Th a t a rr a ngement w a s m a de necess a ry by the legisl a tion of 1 907 which dem a nded sep a r a te co n tra cts on a money b a sis for l a b our a n d for rentin g ; but the mut a tion w a s a llowed by the la w on Agricultur a l Contra cts a n d the Supreme Agric u l tur a l Coun cil itself st a ted th a t it w a s a dopted by m a ny l a rge cultiv a tors a s a n a rr a n gement more 1 fi l pr o t a be to them To c a rry on the a rgum ent a s to the rel a tive p a rt pl a yed by l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiv a tors in Rum a ni a n a gric ul ture one m a y note the figur e s given b elow which show the distribution of cultiva tors fa rming for their own a ccount without reg a rd to the form of their te n ure .

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Pe rc t ge fr o m t t l en a

C ategori es of f rm e rs

Nu m b e r

a

o a

With

B oth the tot a l a n d the rel a tive number of sm a ll cultiv a tors w a s therefore overwhelming a n d fa r in excess of the simil a r rel a tion Accord ing to fi gur es cited in i n other Europe a n countrie s Rum a ni a n st a tistic a l public a tions th a t rel a tion w a s elsewhere a s follows ,

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I n R u ma n i a fa r me rs b e l o w 5 h a I n Ge r m a n y fa r m e r s b e l o w 5 h a I n H u n ga ry ( up t o 5 7 h a ) I n F ra n c e ( up t o 5 h a ) I n B e l giu m ( up t o 5 h a ) I n D e n ma rk ( up t o 5 h a ) I n n gl a n d ( up t o 8 h a ) I n H o ll a n d ( up t o 5 h a ) ,

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/

O

8 1 00 7 6 40 7 2 70 7 1 29 68 9 1 53 50 5 1 48 46 70 -

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( 1 9 1 3) ( 1 9 07 ) ( 18 95 ) ( 1 8 9 2) ( 1 904 ) ( 1 903 ) ( 1895 ) ( 18 9 5 )

v a lidity of thi s comp a ri s on is only rel a tive a s a ll these countries Hung a ry excepted were countries of intensive cultiv a tion in which a l a rge n umb er of s m a ll cultiv a tors w a s in keepi n g Th e

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Sec M

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2

Se rb a n

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lemele P rob

Mi n i stry of Agriculture

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S oc i a le si A gra re, 19 14 p 35 p 15

n oa s tr e .

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ORGANIZATION

OF

241

FARMING

with the n a ture of their a griculture itself ; where a s Rum a ni a n a griculture w a s prim itively exte n s ive A bro a der cl a ssi fic a tion of Rum a ni a n fa rm s m a y be seen in the followi n g t a ble .

Ca tegori es

r

Nu mb e r

fa ms

of

Dwa rf h oldi ngs b e l ow 2 h a S m ll h oldin gs 2 1 0 h a M ediu m h o ldi g 1 0 100 h a La rge fa r ms bo v e 1 00 h a —

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a

P rc en tage

—

s,

a

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1 00 0 1 -

F our fift h s of the Rum a ni a n cultiv a tors f a rmi n g for their own -

ccount therefore held less th a n 5 h a ; 4 7 per ce n t a lone fa rmed more th a n 1 0 h a a n d o n ly 0 3 per cent fa rmed over 1 00 h a We fi n d in this c a se t h e u s u a l geogra phic a l v a ri a tion sma llholders predomin a ting in the highl a nd s a n d the a ga in l a rger fa rmers in the lowl a n d s where cere a l crops were grown Another a spect of this point n a mely the exte n t of a ra ble l a n d which w a s in the h a nd s of the s e v a riou s c a tegorie s of fa rmers ca n be followed in the t a ble b elow : a

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P erce n t ge A v r ge of t ot l of t h e r c ategory a

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or 45 7 per cent of a ll the l a nd cultiva ted which ga ve a n a vera ge of 4 42 11 a per fa r m in this c a tegory— the most n umerous bei n g ne a r the lower limit Altogether therefore fa rms with less th a n 1 0 h a r epr e Mi i try f Agricultu p it p 1 9 ,

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242

OF

THE EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

THE

sented no less th a n 9 5 3 p er cen t of the tot a l number of f a rms a n d covered 5 5 4 of the tot a l a r a ble l a nd Fina lly one might go a s tep further a n d note from the t a ble b elow the proportion of freehold a n d le a sehold l a n d in e a ch c a tegory of fa rms -

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The two modes of tenure were n ot equ a lly distributed in the v a rious c a tegorie s of fa rm s The bulk of the sm a ll exploit a tions consisted of freehold l a nd where a s the l a rger fa rms were to Above 1 00 h a a consider a ble extent composed of rented l a n d the rented a re a exceeded th a t held in freehold .

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The s a me phenomenon is illustra ted perh a ps more cle a rly by the next t a ble which shows wh a t p ercent age of a ll the freehold l a s ehold ( a ra ble ) l a nd w a s r ble l nd h t of l the le n d w a a a a a a ) ( included in the m a in c a tegorie s of a gric ul tura l un dert a k in gs : ,

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ORGANIZATION

243

FARMING

Here a ga in the distribution va ried a ccordi n g to regions In the Mold avi a n lowl a nds 60 6 per ce n t of the a re a occupied by f a rms a bove 5 00 h a w a s re n ted a n d i n the Munteni a n lowl a n ds 5 2 7 per cent These region a l peculi a rities m a y b e followed in the ta ble below which gives the re gion a l percent a ges of the a re a cultiv a ted by its owners .

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There w a s therefore a gre a t simila rity in the co n ditions which prev a iled i n the pla i n s of the severa l provi n ces a s well a s in their moun t a inous regions The difference between highl a n ds competition for l a nd in the a n d lowl a nds a rose from th a t corn growi n g districts to which a ttention h a s been dra w n before There is no m a teri a l to show from which c a tegories of property the ten a nted l a nd w a s obt a in ed But a comp a rison with the di stribution of property m a ke s it cle a r th a t the bulk of the l a n d rented by the sm a ll a n d medium sized fa rmers c a me from the l a rge ow n ers a n d not from the mutu a l lettin g of l a nd a mo n g sm a ll a n d medium sized owners S o th a t the pre s e n t o r g a ni z a tion of Rum a ni a n a griculture does n ot re fl e ct the prese n t d i st r ibu tion of property but on the contra ry there is a considera ble tra n s fer of l a n d from the l a rge owners to the medium sized a n d 1 especi a lly to the sm a ll cultiva tors The Rum a n i a n a gra ri a n problem consequently resolved it s elf l a rgely in to the need for est a bli shi n g a more direct con n e x i on betwee n ownership a n d f a rming on the l a nd In spite of t hi s no a gricultura l census h a s been u n derta ken so fa r to a scer M i i try f Agricultur p i t p 30 ,

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OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

THE

ta in the precise efl e ct s of the reform in th a t respect A grea t de a l m a y nevertheless b e le a rnt from the figur es prep a red for the purp ose of this study from the fi sca l census for 1 927 of the 1 a Ministry of Fin nce They show th a t in the lower c a tegories of prop erty o nl y a very sm a ll proportion of the l a nd is now let out the bulk being therefore used by the own ers In the hi gher c a tegories the proportion of l a nd let out is still considera ble It is unlikely however th a t such l a nd is sti ll rented by spee n l a ting c a pit a list ten a nts of the kind who fl our i sh e d before the reform but r a ther by p e a s a nts who work the l a nd in meta yage Its p ersist a nce w a s est a bli shed by the in qui ry which the Mi n istry of Agric ul tur e co n ducted in 1 922 into the extent of the v a rious sy s tems of cultiva tion in use .

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In s upport of the point m a de b efore it shoul d b e noted th a t sh a re cultiva tion w a s previously unknown in Molda vi a where a s renting on a l a rge sca le w a s widespre a d ; a fter the reform of the l a nd ret a ined by the l a rge owners much w a s let i nste a d to p e a s a nts in méta yage h a which the inqui ry of 1 9 22 foun d to h a ve Th e been worked in meta yage fa r exceeded the a re a let out in 1 927 ; a ccordi n g to the fi s c a l ce n su s the l a tter re a ched a tot a l of only 11 a The expl a n a tion of this a pp a rent discrep a ncy is no doubt th a t in 1 922 a p a rt of the expropri a ted l a nd h a d not yet been tra n s ferred to the pe a s a nts in a fi n al form but w a s used by t hem tempora rily in meta yage ( a n a rr a n gement to which refer ence h a s been m a de in Ch a pter V I in the section on compens a ,

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245

FARMING

tion ) Sh a re cultiva tion w a s still extensive in Munte ni a where it predomin a ted before the reform a s well It h a d decre a s ed gre a tly in Olt eni a where l a rge ow n ers a n d pe a s a nts a lwa ys reputed to b e more enterpris ing th a n other s ections of the country h a d quickly orga ni zed their fa rmi n g on a n a utonomous footi n g a s w a s most pra ctic a l a fter the reform In Tra n s ylv a ni a a n d in Bucovin a the a pplic a tion of the reform w a s still in pro gress in 1 922 a n d sh a re cultiva tion w a s correspondingly preva lent The lowest percenta ge w a s found in Bess a ra bi a ; there the reform h a d been quick a n d dra stic le a ving the former l a nd owners with merely 1 00 h a e a ch Sh a re cultiva tion— which of course mea nt cultiva tion by the pe a s a nts w a s used therefore on h a in 1 9 22 or on 1 1 per ce n t of a ll the cultiv a ted l a nd An a re a a bout h a lf a s l a rge w a s rented by the pe a s a n ts on the b a sis of a n nu a l l a b our ha contra cts c a lcul a ted in money The rest of the c ul tiva ted in 1 922 consisting m a inly of the sm a ll a n d medium sized pe a s a nt property w a s fa rmed by its owners The figur es obt a ined from the fi s ca l census for 1 9 27 showing the distribution of a ra ble l a n d a mong the v a rious c a tegories of properties a l s o indic a te how much of th a t l a nd w a s let out in e a ch c a tegory ( see Ta bles pp 246 Oi the sm a l lholdings up to 5 h a which covered a lmost h a lf of the a r a ble l a nd in the Old Kingdom h a rdly a n ything w a s let a t a ll of the sm a ll properties up to 1 0 h a which a mong them i n cluded a lmost two thirds of a ll the a ra ble l a nd only 1 44 p er cent w a s let out a n d of the medium sized property only a mode ra te proportion But of the l a rger properties a bove 5 0h a a s much a s 28 7 per cent of thei r a ra ble l a nd w a s let out I n every c a tegory the percent a ge of the l a nd let out w a s gre a ter th a n the percent a ge of its owners which suggests th a t it w a s the l a rger properties which in e a ch c a se were not fa rmed by their owners themselves The position a fter the reform is m a de cle a rer by the t a ble on 2 4 8 which summ a rizes the proportion of a ra ble let out in the p four m a in provin ces Everywhere therefore a hn ost the whole of the a ra ble l a nd held by sm a ll owners w a s worked directly by them ; where a s the ,

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THE

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RE F ORM

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248

OF

THE EFFECTS

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THE REFORM

THE

l a rger proprietors still let out a considera ble proportion of their est a tes especia lly in the Old Kin gdom a n d in Bucovin a ,

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The comp a rison with the pre w a r situ a tion suffers to some extent from a diff ere n ce in the n a ture of our m a teri a l The t a bles which h a d been give n on ea rli er p a ges to show the distribution of le a sehold b efore the reform referred to the extent of l a nd rented by va rious c a tegories of cultiva tors ; where a s the figur e s of the Min istry of Fin a nce for 1 927 refer to l a nd let out by the v a rious c a tegories of l an down ers But by t a k ing for the period before the reform the p ortion of the cul tiva ted a rea which w a s re n ted a n d for t h e period a fter the reform th a t portion of the cultiva ted a re a which w a s let out one is e n a bled to est a blish a s uffi ci en t l close comp ri s on of the a re a which in the two a y p eriods w a s fa r med not by its owners themselves but by 1 n te a nts While spe a king on the l a n d problem in the Sena te on M a rch 6 1 907 M D A S t ur d z a a former le a der of the Liber a l Pa rty decla red th a t the l a rge ow n ers held ha i e 48 6 9 p er cent of a ll a ra ble l a nd a n d th a t they were letting out f r om the s e h a i e 6 0 2 per cent M Coles cu s figur e s for the s a me ye a r g a ve h a a s be ing rented by p e a s a nts -

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i cid e t l ffe cts f t h e refor m h s b ee t h e di a ppea ra c f l rge w er liv e d a broa d 1 1 1 9 26 t h e u m b er of o wn ers 1 i g a br a d a n d e s t a t e s wh r a of t h l n d th ey h ld w a s foll ows th h O ld K i gd m 5 6 9 o w e rs h oldi g Tr ylv n i B e a r bi 407 1 48 Buc o vi n T ot a l h ld m gs h vi ng b een m e re ly 20 h it i s cl e r th a t ma n y of t h Th e a v e ra g s i h d pr o b a bly m i gr t e d but m ea n t t o re tur o w n rs w e r e p a s a t s w h 1

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249

FARMING

from est a tes of more th a n 1 00 h a which mea nt th a t only some h a were let to l a rge ten a nts As not a few of these ten a nts r e let some of the l a nd to the pe a s a n ts it is re a son a ble to a ssume tha t on the whole the pe a s a n t s h a d been rent i ng Th a t a bout two mi llion h a a r a ble l a n d from the l a rge e s t a tes is j ust a bout the a re a which the reform h a s t a ken from est a tes a bove 1 00 h a i n the Old K i ngdom ; hence to th a t extent the ch a nge in ownership h a s not mea nt a n y ch a n ge in the cl a ss of h a a r a ble the users In the Old Kingdom only the other distributed to the pe a s a nts h a ve re a lly p a ssed from l a rge sc a le to sm a ll s c a le cultiva tors ; with such a dditio n a l l a n d a s the l a rge ow n ers m a y now be lettin g to them The extent of a ra ble l a nd fa rmed out a fter the reform ca n be de r ived from the figur e s of the fisc a l census for 1 927 The census employed a different sc a le of c a tegories so th a t l a rge property will be t a ken to in clude a ll properties a bove 5 0 h a F rom these ha h a were let out of a tot a l of which mea nt 28 7 per cent The drop from 60 2 to 28 7 per cent ( which would b e grea ter still if the cen sus fi gur e s too h a d referred to prop erties from 1 00 h a upw a rds ) in the a re a n ot fa rmed by the o w ners of l a rge a n d medium properties themselves represents one of the direct e ffects of the reform Further M S t ur d z a put the a r a ble a re a covered by properties up to 1 0 h a at h a a n d th a t covered by properties of 1 0— 1 00 h a at h a ; he did not st a te how much of them w a s let out but by a pplyi n g to them the percent a ges est a b lished for their c a tegories in the 1 927 census h a a ppe a r to h a ve been let out from the fi r st a n d h a from the seco n d of the two c a tego r ies n a med a bove Together these m a ke up a tot a l of h a i e 31 42 p er cent of a ll the a r a ble l a nd a s h a vin g been fa rmed out before the reform ; in 1 9 27 the tot a l fa rmed out was h a or 8 4 per ce n t Therefore the drop from 31 42 to 8 4 p er cen t of a ll a ra ble l a nd let out in the Old Ki n gdom con s titutes one of the d efi ni t e a n d s ign ifi ca n t effects of the reform The proportion is more fa voura ble sti ll when the new provinces a r e i n cluded Inform a tion on this point is not a va il a ble for a ll of them M P V S yn a d in o who dislikes the reform h a s given figur es for Bess a ra bi a to show tha t before the reform the .

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THE RE F ORM

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THE

p e a s a nts used to rent a bout 40 p er cent of the ha exprop r i a ted from the l a rge owners a n d h a lf of the ha t a ken from mon a steries a n d foreig n owners whi ch gives a tot al h a or a lmo s t 42 per ce n t of the l a nd t a ken from of some the s a id c a tegories ; to which if on e a dds the h a foun d a t the time of the reform in the h a nd s of the Pe a s a nt B a n k a n d h a expropri a ted f r om colonists b elo n gin g to ex enemy n a tion s it follows th a t of the h a n ow dist r ibuted to the B e ss a ra bi a n pe a s a nts 11 a or fully 5 0 per cent h a d b een f a rmed by them even before the reform The fi gur e s of the Mini s try of F in a n ce give h a a s h a ving b een let out in 1 927 from the h a a ra ble covered by Bess a r a bi a n prop erties a b ove 5 0 h a or 1 6 8 p er cen t ; a n d the tot a l a re a then let out w a s h a or merely 3 4 p er cent of a ll the a ra ble l a n d of the province In the whole of Gre a ter Rum a ni a h a were let out in 1 927 or 23 64 per cent of the h a a ra ble l a n d i ncluded in properties of more th a n 5 0 h a From a ll prop erties l a rge a n d s m a ll h a were let out ; which in other words me a nt th a t of a ll the a r a ble l a nd merely 6 p er cent w a s not fa rmed by the ow n ers themselves From wh a t h a s b een s a id in the foregoin g p a ges it is cle a r th a t the gre a t extensio n of l a rge property before the reform h a d not me a nt th a t fa rming on a l a rge sc a le w a s wi despre a d The gre a ter p a rt of the a rea covered by l a rge est a tes w a s let out a n d the bulk of it w a s let to p ea s a nt s Together with such l a n d a s they themselves owned the p e a s a nts f a rmed for their own a n d possibly three qu a rters of a ll a ccount a t le a st two thirds the a ra ble l a n d in the Old Kingdom The comp a ri s ons a ttempted a bove show th a t the tr a nsfer of l a nd is much reduced in the new The reform h a s led to wh a t one m a y c a ll s t a te of things a n d th a t is a process a s ymbio s is of owner s hip a n d cultiv a tion which is a lw a ys a dopted when encoura gin g a more in tensive st a nd a rd of a griculture While the reform therefore a s described in the previous ch a pter h a s c a used a n e n ormous ch a n ge in the distribution of property it h a s not on the strength of the f a cts a n d fi gur es d iscus s ed in thi s s ection c a used a n y subst a nti a l ch a nge in the .

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FARMING

org a niz a tion of fa rmi ng a s w a s re a dily a n d ra shly a ssumed by most we stern critic s Th a t is the fi r s t proposition which it is necess a ry to keep i n mind in trying to deter mine wh a t effect s the reform h a s h a d on production The reform s m a in result in th a t respect h a s b een to produce a n a pproxim a tio n b etween the distribution of property a n d the di stributio n of a gricultura l undert a kings in the sphere of l a rge sc a le cultiva tion a s well a s in th a t of pe a s an t fa rmin g a consequence which m a rks a grea t The pe a s a nt who ow n s a dv a nce on the e a rlier conditions a tolera ble holding h a s a b etter ch a n ce a n d a gre a ter stimulus to cultiv a te effi ci en t ly th a n h a s the p e a s a n t who rents th a t l a n d from ye a r to ye a r a n d h a s to b a rter h is b e s t l a bour for it This a sp ect of the ch a nge h a s been welcomed even by Professor Ma x S er i n g who i n other respects h a s frow n ed s everely on the post The pl a cin g of the e a ste r n Europe a n a gra ri a n w a r reforms structure upon a s ystem of p ea s a nt ow n ers hip he co n sider s is n ot merely a n a dv a nce on wh a t existed before but a l s o in itself a n im rovement on conditions in western Europe where the p a gr a ri a n system is b a sed upon pe a s a nt te n a n cie s supporti n g a mostly unproductive cl a ss of l a rge l a ndowners The pr e d om in a nce of p e a s a nt ownership though it m a y h a ve dra wb a ck s for the present permits us to hop e th a t in the me a sure in which educ a tion fa rmin g a n d comm unic a tions gra du a lly i mprove dur ing the next few dec a des the pe a s a nts h a rd work will ra ise 1 a griculture to a fl our i s hi n g s t a te These considera tions a pply not le s s strongly to such l a rge s c a le property a s is left in Rum a ni a The figur e s we h a ve cited show th a t the bulk of the l a rge owners a r e a t present fa rmin g their l a n d themselves which mea n s a r a dic a l bre a k with the p a st Through the new conditions of ownership a n d of l a bour which it h a s brought a bout the reform h a s opened the w a y tow a rds gre a ter economic a utonomy a mong the v a rious cl a s s e s of fa r ming Hitherto a cra mping in terdependence of l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiv a tors h a s b een one of the domin a nt tra its of R um a n i a s a gr a ri a n system The pea s a nts were to a n oppressive degree dependent on the l a rge owners or ten a nts for l a nd ; a n d the l a rge cultiva to r s a lmost a ltogether depe n ded on the pe a s a n ts for —

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25 2

OF

THE EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

THE

me a ns of production Now the l a rge fa rmers h a ve little or no surplus l a nd to give a n d the sm a ll cultiva tors a s they progress in technique wi ll h a ve no stock a n d l a bour to sp a re The two kin ds of fa rmin g a r e being thrown b a ck upon their own resour ces a n d th a t must gr a du a lly le a d them to org a niz e their production a fter the m a nner which h a s b een found b est for their kind in the regions where a griculture st a nds on a high level of a chi evement For hitherto the work ing a rra n gements in Rum a ni a n a griculture h a ve been s o peculia r th a t the reform notwi thst a n d ing its va stness h a s c a u s ed a s till lesser ch a nge in the me a ns of cultiva tion th a n it h a s in the sc a le of cultiv a tion .

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S E C TI O N

CHANGE

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T H E M EANS

PR O D U C TI O N The circum st a nces discussed in the previous sectio n est a b li sh e d the f a ct tha t a l a rge proportion of the big est a tes h a d a lw a ys b een in the h a nds of sm a ll cultiv a tors a n d th a t i n c on s e u e n ce the l a nd reform h a s c a used a much lesser ch a nge in the q orga niz a tion of f a rmin g th a n in the di vision of prop erty To complete th a t picture one must go fur ther a n d con s ider besides the ch a nge in the size of f a rms the ch a nge in the methods of fa rmi n g ; the tra n sformi n g effect of the l a nd reform will then a ppe a r still more reduced Duri n g the discu s sion of the reform its critics frequently a rgued th a t if l a rge property w a s useless l a rge sc a le cultiv a tion w a s still necess a ry ; especi a lly in a country with so b a ckw a rd a n The a rgument touches on the perenn i a l a griculture a s Rum a n i a s a n d seemingly inexh a u s tible questio n a s to the respective merits of l a rge a n d sm a ll sc a le cultiv a tion Though ra ised a lre a dy in the eighteenth cen tury by the Physiocra t s— w hen the Ac a demy of Arra s offered a priz e for the a blest reply to the question Which i s the be s t rep a rtition of the soil ?— the problem is fa r from h a vi n g been solved The Physiocra t s of course were prot a gonists of l a rge sc a le production ; though there were e x ce p tions eve n in their own c a mp The old Libera l school took the s a me s t a n dpoint ; a n d so did a number of Con s erv a tive w riters l a rgely for politic a l re a s o n s If Ad a m Smith J e a n B a ptiste S a y TH E

IN

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25 3

FARMING

R a u an d

other econ omists drew a ttention to the import a nce of s m a llholders it w a s to point out th a t they g a ve a l a rger tot a l output th a n the big fa rmers though they a dm itted th a t the net output of the l a tter might be higher ; a circumst a n ce from which in their opinion s ociety derived considera ble economi c a n d soci a l a dv a nt a ges ,

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y s P h ilippo vi ch w h o t o a l a r ge e x t en t con su m e s h i s o w n p r o d u ce mu s t co n s i d e r a b o v e a ll h i s t o t a l ou t p u t Th at howe v e r m a y be sa i d t o be a p o in t wh i c h con ce r n s t h e n a t ion s e co n o m y e a s we ll i t i s t o i t s i n t e r e s t t h a t a s l a r ge a n ou t p u t a s p o s s i b l e s h ou l d b o b t a i n e d fr o m t h e s o i l r a t h e r t h a n t h a t t h e d iffe r e n ce b e twe en co s t o f p r o du c t i on a n d ma r k e t p r ice wh ic h co n s t itut e s t h e n et r e tu r n s h ou l d be r e d u c e d Th a t i s w h y t h e old P opula t i on i st s l ik e S ii s s m ilch a n d S on n e n fe l d s p r a i se d s m a ll p r o p e rt y a s fa v ou r in g t h e i n c r e a s e o f p o pu l a t io n w h e r e a s l a r ge p r o p e rt y con tr i bu t es t o d e p o pu l a t i on j u s t b e ca u se a wi d e e x t en t o f la n d i s d i s tr i b u t e d a m on g a s m a l l n u m b e r o f o wn e r s Th e

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In genera l economists looked a t the issue from the a n gle of industry a n d of the r a pidly growi n g i n dustri a l centre s which requ i red a generous supply of che a p corn ; a n d there is no doubt th a t their a ttitude w a s l a rgely in fl uen c e d by wh a t the n s eemed a n un a lt e r a ble a n a logy between industry a n d a griculture They took it for gra nted th a t the conce n tra tion a n d mech a niz a tio n which were giving such m a rvellous results in one field of produc tio n would a chieve the s a me wo n ders whe n a dopted in the other For both re a so n s M a rxists a n d Soci a lists in gener a l not o n ly a greed with them but went even further a n d plunged for a progr a m of n a tion a l own ership a n d l a rge sc a le cul tiva tion by a rmies of l a bourers ( Co m mu ni s t M a n ifesto ) on the a ssumption th a t the pe a s a nt produced m a in ly for himself but the l a rge est a te m ai n ly for the m a rket Two developmen ts h a ve in the m a in help ed to i n v a lid a te these a ssumptions in the fi eld of Europe a n a gricultur e The fi rs t h a s been the f a bulous exp a nsion of corn growin g in the Vir gin l a nds a cross the se a s which h a s put the Eur op ea n corn grower out of competitio n Th a t w a s j ust the fi eld in which l a rge sc a le fa rmers coul d show cert a in a dva nt a ges over the sm a ll fa rmers a n d the consequence h a s been th a t since the severe a gricultur a l ,

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25 4

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

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crisi s in the seventies of l a st century m a ny l a rge est a te s a n d fa rms h a ve p a ssed into the h a n ds of sm a ll o w ners a n d ten a nts Nor h a s th a t ch a n ge me a nt a loss to the n a tion a l economy of the v a rious countries For the second developmen t the progress in the science of a gricultur e h a s shown th a t the l a ws of in dustri a l production do not a lso hold good for the productio n of food stuffs In a griculture production follows a n a tur a l process which does not a llow a n in d efi n i t e division of l a bour but o nl y a n a ccumul a tion of l a bour ; a n d this form of intensifying production h a s been proved to bring in return s which for a number of re a sons di mi n i s h in the proportion in which the siz e of the a gric ul tura l undert a king incre a ses a s illustra ted by the s o c a ll ed circles of Th ii n en More recen t i n qu i ries h a ve shown th a t this is true not o n ly of the tot a l output which w a s often conceded but a lso of net p r oduction It might be useful to quote here one inqu i ry bec a use of its cle a r results a n d of the gre a t comp etence of its The director of the Swiss Pe a s a nt S ecret a ri a t Professor a uthor Ern e s t L a ur who is a member of the Le a gue of N a tions Com m itt ee on Agricultur a l Questions h a v i ng worked out returns on c a pit a l for va rious c a tegories of S wiss f a rms over a p eriod of h a s obt a i n ed the follow i ng a vera ges in twe n ty ye a r s ( 1 901 Swiss fra ncs : .

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This i s not the pl a ce to j oin issues with the prot a go n ists of one or the other school especi a lly a s the theoretic a l b a sis of the discu s sion is not yet s uffi c i en t ly stren gthened with experime n t It is undeni a ble however th a t c a pit a list society h a s regula rly followed the dict a tes of its economic intere sts — i n the mech a nized nineteenth century more th a n ever— a n d th a t it wo ul d inevit a bly h a ve steered t owa rds a concentra tion of prop erty a n d production if it h a d found th a t form a s pr ofit a ble in a griculture a s it did in ,

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ORGANIZATION

25 5

FARMING

OF

i n du stry St a tistics show inste a d th a t everywhere the trend h a s bee n a w a y from the l a rge unit of production— a unique inst a n ce of the devi a tio n of a whole industry from the despotic progress of the l a rge economic unit in the c a pit a list er a But in Rum a ni a th a t evolution h a s b een a ltogether differe n t very l a rge a gricultur a l undert a kin g s persisted a n d prospered On the f a ce of things it w a s therefore pl a usible to a rgue th a t they persisted bec a use they still h a d a function to fulfi l ; even if the a rgument in f a vour of l a rge owners a n d cultiv a tors w a s qu a li fie d by a reference to the b a ckw a rd st a te of the country s It w a s implied th a t wh a tever economic progress a griculture the pe a sa nts might a chieve in a ne a r or mo r e di s t a nt future they h a d s till to b e guided tow a rds it by the l a rge cultiv a tor s And tho s e who m a de use of thi s a rgument for the purpose of opposing exprop r i a tion or of ple a din g for a limited reform b a sed it on the p a rt which the l a rge cultiva tor s h a d pl a yed in ope n i n g up Rum a ni a s unploughed soil All the economic prosperity a n d the civiliz a tion of Rum a ni a a ffi r m e d M Ga r ofli d w a s due to the l a rge cultiv a tors ; it w a s they who a fter the Trea ty of Adri a nople a n d l a ter a ft e r the denunci a tion of the t a riff convention with Au stri a forced the pe a s a nts to ch a n ge from p a stora l to a gr icul tura l pursuits A n other economist who t a kes a symp a thetic interest in the pea s a nt s priva tely a dmitted th a t t h e much a bused ten a nts h a d been a n import a n t a ge n t in such progre s s a s Rum a ni a n a griculture h a d m a de though the contr a ry Vie w 1 n s h a d ge er a lly been expres ed for soci a l or n a tiona list prop a ga nd a The ten a nts he pointed out were en tr ep r en eur s whose o n ly interest w a s to obt a in the gre a test net return from the l a n d they rented Hen ce their c a pit a l investme n ts we n t into productive cha nnels— de a d a n d li ve stock selected seed & c —a n d they super vised cultiva tion themselves often livi n g throughout the period of a gricultura l l a bours in a pea s a nt hut The l a rge owners on the contra ry led a p a tria rch a l life ; their m a in i n vestmen ts were in roomy cou n try houses a n d other a menitie s for their priv a te life a n d most of their time w a s spent a w a y from their est a te s not i n freque n tly a bro a d Ten a n ts who a fter ye a rs of .

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25 6

THE EFFECTS

THE RE F ORM

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h a rd work h a d become owners themselves not seldom fell into the s a me w a steful w a ys A Conserva tive writer M R Ma n d r e a put the a rgum ent for the l a rge cul tiva tors on a wi der b a sis a n d m a int a ined th a t the whole system they represented could not yet b e dispensed w ith for re a sons of St a te We b elieve th a t a t present l a rge property is still the only productive f a ctor in our country Extensive fa rming w a s still needed for the p a yment of in dispens a ble imports ; a n d though two thirds of the l a nd w a s in the h an ds of sm a ll cultiv a tors yet the only produce th a t is exported the o n ly one which ca n comp ete in the foreign m a rkets is sti ll the produce of the l a rge est a tes a lo n e The pe a s a nt l a nds were misera ble their cultiva tion primitive a n d their produce when they h a d a surplus u n s a le a ble unless mix ed with corn from the l a rge fa rmers M Ga r ofli d used a simila r a rg u ment in the Memora n dum of the L a rge Cul tiva tors presented to the King in 1 920 It beg a n by pointing out th a t the org a nism of the St a te w a s m a i n t a i n ed with resources obt a ined from exp orts a n d th a t in Rum a ni a such resources could b e supplied by a griculture a lone In the West it h a d b een possible for the l a nd to p a ss without d a n ger to the p e a s a nts : economic exp a nsion cre a ted town s which offered a m a rket for a gric ul tura l produce while exports were kept up by industry In Rum a ni a however condition s limited export for a long time to a gricultura l r a w m a teri a ls but their export w a s pr ofi t a ble o n ly a s long a s t hey were produced e xte n sively S o fa r the profession a l tra ining a n d the economic impulse of the pea s a nts h a d not re a ched a point where sm a ll cultiva tion might t a ke the pl a ce of the l a rge extensive cultiva tion in supplying a surplus for export Even the defenders of l a rge cultiva tion in Rum a ni a there fore did n ot cl a im for it a n enduring superiority They sup ported it with the historic a l a rgument of its useful p a st a n d with the politic a l a rgument of its immedi a te s ervices to the St a te But whe n it c a me to the technic a l a rgumen t they merely dem a n ded a st a y of execution until sm a ll cultiva tion should h a ve fi n i s h e d i t s a pprenticeship This discussion on the rel a tive merits of l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiv a tion in Rum a n i a h a s more th a n O n ly by a mere theoretic a l v a lue for the purpose of our study ,

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ORGANIZATION

25 7

FARM I NG ’

elucid a tin g the ch a ra cteristic a spects of Rum a nia s former a gr a ri a n struct ure which a r e in themselves of gre a t in terest for the r ura l sociologist c a n one help the re a der to a proper under st a ndi n g of the new reform O nl y a study of those e a rlier condi tions could expl a in how such a revolutiona ry redi stribution of property— revolution a ry in extent a n d in speed co uld pos si bly h a ve come to p a ss without upsettin g for a prolonged period the economi c a ctivities of the co untryside The former orga ni z a tion of Rum a ni a n a griculture di spl a yed fe a tures which h a d not existed a t a ll or h a d long dis a ppe a red elsewhere For tha t re a son the weighin g of the respective merits of l a rge a n d sma ll cultiva tion coul d not in this c a se be me a sured by the usu a l st a nda rds Neither form of f a rming w a s com p a ra ble to its western co unterp a rt B oth of them were still tethered to a primitive technique sm a ll cultiva tion being exte n sive an d l a rge cultiva tion la t i fun di a r y An ill um ina ting di scussion of the l a tter form of exploita tion which ga ve Rum a ni a n a gricult ure its distin ctiveness is to b e found in M Ga r ofi i d s Ch es ti a A gr a r d ( 1 9 20 edi tio n pp 1 63 M Ga r ofli d st a rted by e s t a blish ing th a t where a s elsewhere l a nd properties were being broken up Rum a ni a displ a yed a co n tr a ry phenomenon Concentra tion of a gricultura l exploit a tion is growi ng a n d l a rge sc a le fa rm i ng is overcoming sm a ll c ul tiva tion We h a ve here a pec uli a r economic org a ni z a tion 1 which ena bles excessively l a rge exploit a tio n s to b e profi t a ble The a dva n t a ges of la t ifun di a ry exploit a tion were rooted i n the bel a ted unfolding of Rum a n i a s a gra ri a n problem a n d not a s might seem a t a dist a nce in the superior out fi t of the l a rge sc a le producer F or in the fi r st pl a ce la t ifun d ia r y exploit a tion w a s not j ust ifi e d by a better o r g a niz a tion for production The few fa rmers who a bout the turn of the century a ttempted to c a rry on such a n exploit a tion wi th the usu a l c a pit a list me a n s especi a lly in the steppes of the I a lomit a a n d Brail a counties fa il ed in fa ct b a dly Nor w a s the succe s s of th a t system in Rum a ni a expl a i n ed by a gre a ter fertility of the so il ; the much higher fertility of the ,

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I t h uld be ot d th a t M G ofl id s b oo k w a s ori gi a lly publi s he d i 1 9 08 We h a ve p i te d out th t a fte r t h e ri i g of 1 907 t h ge e ra l te d e cy t w a rd s t h e brea k up of l rge e sta t s b eg t o m k e it elf fe lt i n R u m a i a a w e ll a d i n a v e ry pr ou n c ed d gre e i t h e n e ighb uri ng R u ss i an e m pir 1

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25 8

OF

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THE REFORM

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THE

virgin Americ a n soil h a s not produced a nythi ng s imi l a r Nor fi n a lly w a s it expl a ined by the che a pness of rent The a ver a ge revenues given in M R Ca pit an ea n u s Recen sd md n tul F i s ca l ( Fisc a l Census ) 1 905 were .

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Rent therefore decrea sed with the gre a ter extent of the property but the difference w a s not suffi cie n t ly gre a t to expl a in the a dva nt a ges enj oyed by la t ifun di a r y cultiva tion None of these fa ctors offered a clue to its existence in Rum a ni a n or did they m a ke cle a r the re a so n why the te n dency of a ll Rum a ni a n l a rge sc a le cultiva tion w a s to i n cre a se its revenue by concentra ting exploit a tion a n d not by ra is ing production T 0 get to the bottom of th a t economic p a ra dox one must begin by noting tha t the essenti a l fea ture of fa rmin g on such a l a rge sc a le w a s the perform a nce of a gricultur a l l a bour s a t a gre a t dist a nce The possibility of such l a bour s expl a ins the existence of la t ifun di a r y fa rmin g Now this phe n omenon w a s peculi a r to Rum a ni a n a gric ulture ; it a pplied not only to the a re a exploited on a l a rge sc a le but like wise to the l a nd which the pe a s a nts rented from the l a rge property a n d even to a con sid er a ble p ort i on of their own sm a ll property frequently situ a ted a t a dista nce of severa l kilometres from the V i ll a ge As th a t form of cultiva tion involved a n enormous wa st a ge of t ime this h a d to b e compens a ted by a n excessive num b er of te a ms the va rious l a bours h a ving to b e p erformed within li mited p eriods In 1 900 the num b er of dra ught a nim a ls employed on the l a nd w a s oxen horses together a ni m a ls which g a ve a n a nd a ver a ge of one a nim a l to 2 79 h a of cultiv a ted a re a ; a n d reckon in g four a nim a ls to e a ch te a m the proportion w a s one te a m or plough to 1 1 1 6 h a Tha t coin cided with the num b er of ploughs working In the opini on of h a in 1 9 05 Kra fft the economic m a rgin in a three fi eld system woul d b e three ploughs to 1 00 11 a It is true th a t in a system of sm a ll holdings the numb er of cultiva tors determ ines the numb er of ploughs a n d te a ms but in Rum a nia their excess w a s due n o doubt a s much to the gre a t dist a nce a t which the l a bours h a d ,

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FARMING

to be performed In Fra n ce e g where sm a ll culture pr e d om i ma ted a n d where the a vera ge size of a holdi n g w a s a bout the s a me a s in Rum a ni a the a vera ge worked out in 1 8 92 a t one a ni m a l to 6 5 h a ; a n d th a t w a s gener a lly considered excessive It is a lso true tha t one must t a ke into a ccou n t the qu a lity of the a ni m a ls ; but the poor qu a lity of the Rum a n i a n stock w a s off s et — 1 2 ce n tim etre s deep a s n 1 0 by the light n a ture of the ploughi g —25 centimetres in Fr a nce Moreover the rel a tively a g a i n st 20 l a rge number of te a ms in Fra nce w a s due to her intensive a gri culture which required rep e a ted l a bours ; though the element a ry ch a ra cter of Rum a n i a n fa rming w a s in its turn p a rtly o ffset by the widespre a d cultiva tion of corn which c a used a grea t rush of c a rting dem a nd ing m a ny te a ms in J uly Ta kin g a ll in a ll there is no doubt th a t the excessive n umber of te a ms in Rum a ni a a nce for the dist w a s due to la t ifun d i a r y cultiva tion to m a ke u p And a s a ll a gri a t which the v a rious l a bours we r e c a rried out cultura l economists a gree th a t l a bours performed even a t a modera te dist a nce a r e a pt to sw a ll ow up the whole profi t it is undeni a ble th a t la t ifun d ia ry cultiv a tion is uneconomic a n d th a t it forms a n imp a ss a ble obst a cle to the in t en sifi ca t ion of fa rming For in the me a sure in whi ch fa rming becomes more intensive the va rious a gricultur a l l a bo urs become hea vier a n d more frequent the contin uous c a re of the crop a necessity a n d the m a sses to be tra n sported more bulk y Hen ce such in t en sifica t ion w a s b a rred a s long a s f a rm i ng w a s c a rried on a t a gre a t dist a nce i e a s long nom a d cultiva tion a s M Ga r ofli d c a ll ed i t a s th a t form of which kept men a n d be a sts during weeks on end in the fi e ld s continued The obnoxious effects of th a t form of cultiva tion were indirectly est a b li s hed by cert a in hypothetic a l c a lcul a tio n s u n der ta ken by M Ga r ofli d If th a t form of cultiva tion h a d dis a ppe a red a n d the a ver a ge num ber of a nim a ls h a d become the s a me a s in a n i m a ls would h a ve been s uffi ci en t for the needs Fra nce of Rum a ni a n a gric ul ture Th a t would h a ve me a nt a n economy of a n i m a ls which were s imply used to overcome the dist a nce a n d would a t once h a ve set free either for crops or for c a ttle breeding the whole of the a re a used for the feeding of tha t excess of tea ms The whole system w a s m a de worse by the long ,

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ON

THE

sh a p e of most Rum a ni a n est a tes a h er it a ge from the old p a stora l fa rm On a n a vera ge est a te of h a the di st a nce from the home fa rm to its extremities woul d h a ve been a bout 1 2 5 kilo metres Assum ing th a t no more th a n 8 kilometres h a d to b e covered for e a ch kind of l a bour th a t the norm a l speed of a n o x te a m is 2—2 5 kilometres per hour a n d th a t the summ er d a y l a sts a b out fourteen hour s— it woul d a pp e a r th a t with modera te h a lts for resting a n d feeding there could ha ve been left onl y four to fi ve worki ng hours e a ch d a y One must a d d to th a t the Very ba d st a te of the ro a ds so th a t the a ni m a ls— a s a n e a rlier economist M M a ior h a d pointed out— a rrive h a lf tired a t the pl a ce where they h a ve to begin their l a bours These conclusions were evidently a pplic a ble to a ll a gr i cul t ur a l l a bours performed under such condi tions How then could the system persi s t ? It is profit a ble only b eca use the whole of such l a bour is performed with the a nim a ls the implements a n d the h a nds of the pe a s a nts Th i s is the tech n i ca l mea n s of r od ucti on of l a rge sc a le cultiv a tion ; a n d the whole loss resultin g p from the un economic org a niz a tion of l a bour fa lls ent i rely upon the p e a s a nts The pe a s a nts were in need of l a nd a n d the l a rge cultiva tors entered into a gricultur a l contra cts onl y with those p ea s a nts who h a d te a ms of thei r ow n The inquiry conducted by the M ini stry of Agriculture in 1 8 99 est a blished th a t 9 2 per cent of a ll the dra ught a nim a ls b elonged to the p ea s a nts a n d 8 p er cent to the l a rge c ul tiva tors ; while 9 3 7 per cent belonged to the pe a s a nts a n d 6 3 per cent to the l a rge cul tiv a tors a ccord i n g to the st a tistics of 1 903 Likewise the inquiry of 1 907 found th a t the p ea s a nts owned 92 6 7 of a ll the ploughs a n d 95 8 per cent of a ll the c a rts while the l a rge f a rmers owned merely 7 4 per cent of the ploughs a n d 4 2 per cent of the c a rts As therefore most te a ms a n d im plements b elonged to the pe a s a nts the loss resultin g from their u n economic use fell i n the s a me proportion upon the pe a s a n ts too On a n y kind of c a lcula tion it w a s evident th a t l a rge sc al e cultiv a tion would h a ve dis a ppe a red long a go if it h a d b een c a rried on with its own tea ms As the l a rge c ultiva tors exploited te a ms of four h a they woul d h a ve requir ed ox en e a ch on the a vera ge of one a nim a l to 2 7 h a Reckoning ,

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ORGANIZATION

26 1

FARMING

OF

the cost of upkeep for a team together w ith in terest on c a pit a l 1 lei yea rly the tot a l ye a rly cost would h a ve b een at 8 5 1 lei On the other h a nd the cost of the v a rious l a bours for the cultiva tion of the a b ove a rea including the ca rt ing of the crops to the ra ilw a y st a tion a mounted a t the ra tes curren t when M Ga r ofli d s book w a s written to 41 lei per so th a t the tot a l outl a y of l a rge cultiv a tion for l a bour ha re a ched lei The difference b etween the two gross sum s would h a ve been nea rly equ a l to a ll the ren t a l v a lue of the No doubt if the l a rge a re a covered by l a rge sc a le c ul tiv a tion f a rmers h a d kept their own te a ms they would h a ve reduced the tot a l num ber M Ga r ofli d poi ted out th a t the c a rtin g of the n crop which r equi 1 ed the m a xim um of l a bo ur i n the mini mum of time determines the number of te a ms a n d the a re a they work An d he de monstra ted by c a reful c a lcula tions tha t if the l a rge fa rmers h a d kept te a ms of their ow n merely for the or d in a ry l a bours c a rting being done with a d di tion a l hired te a ms the cost of the c a rting a lone woul d h a ve been a bout 24 lei per h a ; where a s un der existing con di tions the la t ifun d ia r y form of c ul tiva tion could only a fford a bout 6 lei for th a t purpose The difference would h a ve s uffi ce d to sw a ll ow up its whole pr ofit s Indeed c a rting with their own te a ms would a lone sufii ce to destroy the excessively l a rge undert a kings a s the rem a ining n g the other l a bour s a t contra ct r ofi t of 9 34 lei per h a reckoni p ra tes is not suffi ci en t to cover interest on c a pit a l pr ofi t a n d risks And if th a t were true of whe a t it w a s truer still of b a rley a n d o a ts a s the cost of production w a s a bout the s a me where a s the gross va lue per h a of the produce w a s much lower I i nevertheless our soil produced milli ons of hectolitres of corn in such uneconomic conditions of l a bour it is beca use the whole loss resultin g from their cultiva tion fell upon the pe a s a nt The origin of la t ifun d ia r y cultiva tion resided in the rel a tive prosperity of the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nts till a lmost the end of the eighteenth centur y a prosperity which found expression a bove a ll in the a bun d a n ce of live stock Ha d the introduction of corn growing not found the pe a s a nts thus e quipp ed w ith te a ms a n d ploughs la t ifun d iary cultiva tion co uld not h a ve come into being ,

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26 2

THE EFFECTS

THE R E F ORM

OF

ON

THE

L a ter in their fooli shn ess a n d greed the l a rge owners a n d ten a n ts overre a ched themselves a n d a lmost destroyed the te a ms whi ch supported their exploit a tion by con st an tly r a is ing the price of gra z ing But the me a sur es for the est a blishment of comm un a l gra zings which were me a nt to help the p e a s a nts re a lly s a ved the extensive cultiv a tors ; they c a me in the ni ck of time to en a ble the pea s a nts a nim a ls to exist a n d in their tur n to keep la t ifun di a r y cultiv a tion goin g The system of c ul tiva tion by contra ct ing with pe a s a nts who own ed their own te a ms w a s so old a n d widespre a d th a t the problem of di st a nce never troubled the l a rge fa rmers They left a ll the l a bour s in the c a re of the e a sa n t s ust a s they left the soil i n the c a re of n a ture Th a t st a te p j of mind w a s ill ustra ted by the c a se of a cul tiva tor who fa rmed a n est a te 20 k i lometres long He h a d contra cts with Vi ll agers living a t both ends of the est a te a n d in order to gu a rd his crops a g a inst pil ferin g which w a s e a sier ne a rer the home of the l a bourers he g a ve to e a ch of the two Vill a ges l a nd a t the other extremity of the est a te ; so th a t the villa gers h a d to tra vel a bout 40 kilometres to a n d from their l a bour s It will b e seen th a t the s e l a rge a gricultur a l un dert a kin gs were comp a ra ble only in p a rt to big industry N 0 big industry coul d ra ise its pr ofi t s by deb a sing its equipment a s a m a tter of con t i n uous policy But in the la t ifun di a ry f a rms the instrum ent of production w a s not owned by c a pit a l a n d th a t di ssoci a tion en a bled the one to m a ke a good living from the depreci a tion of the other The la t ifun d ia ry fa rm h a d the form of a c a pit a list undert a king of productio n but not its ends The exp a nsion of a l a rge industry w a s limited by the possibil ities of the m a rket ; th a t of a la t ifun d ia ry fa rm w a s limited solely by the degree to which the i n strument of production could b e depreci a ted Hence these u n dert a king s could a dopt the purest system of exte n sive cultiv a tion a s their pr ofi t s incre a sed a rithmetic a lly with the a rea of the exploit a tion In contra st to the evolution of f a rming everywhere else Rum a ni a n fa rmi n g w a s a ctu a ll y showing a tendency tow a rds concentra tion The numb er of the l a rge c a pit a list fa rms decrea sed from 1 904 to 1 906 but the tot a l ha to a re a they exploited incre a sed from The system cre a ted a n d the a ver a ge extent from 35 7 to 470 h a ,

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ORGANIZATION

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26 3

FARMING

cl a ss of c a pit a list entrepreneur s a s one m a y see from the fa ct tha t ten a nt fa rmi n g rose in direct rel a tion to the size of the undert a king This is shown by the fi gur es for 1 9 05 rel a ting to fa rms a bove 1 00 h a

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The cre a tion of enormous trusts proved th a t the system w a s 1 f pro it a ble It multiplied its pr ofi t s not by ra ising the produc t ivi t y of the soil or by cre a ting a ccessory a gricultur a l under t a ki n gs either of which wo uld h a ve required much c a pit a l a n d effort but solely by the stringent restriction of outl a y a n d the co n sta nt depression of the va lue of l a bour In yea rs of crisis no a ttempt w a s m a de to meet the situ a tion by improving produc tion but simply by reducing expenses a ll round e s peci a lly for l a bour In 1 8 94 a n d the followin g ye a rs when the f a ll in corn prices c a used a serious fa ll in pr ofi t s the conditions of a gr i cul tur a l contra ct s bec a me suddenly a n d m a teri a lly h a rder Sin ce 1 8 5 0 the rent of l a nd h a d risen tenfold a n d more but the price of l a bour h a d rem a ined st a tiona ry As productio n di d not keep p a ce W ith the incre a se in rent th a t incre a se could h a ve t a ken pl a ce only a t the exp ense of l a bour With b etter production rent might h a ve b een a s high w ithout such a severe depreci a tion of l a bour s rew a rd But in Rum a ni a n a gricultur e a s M Ga r oflid s a id rent did not represent merely a compens a tion for the use of the l a nd The soi l like the l a b ourer w a s being swe a ted Together wi th corn we a lso export soil— therein li es the whole secret of our a gricul tur a l system which en a bles us to compete with the corn produced by western a gricultur e with the help of m a nures This sketch of a system whose cur ious structure a n d workings would deserve a more det a iled description is fully supported by the genera l figur e s of Rum a ni a s a gricultura l st a tistics ; a s we ll a s by the more instructive though p a infully few specia l inqui ries One of the best w a s the inquiry m a de by M Serb a n Th t f t h br th r F i ch r i M ld vi r t d d h i 1 9 03 .

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26 4

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON THE

into the det a iled orga n iz a tion of twenty est a tes imm edi a tely before the Wa r ; incomplete d a t a referrin g to eighty other est a tes b eing used in checking the conclusions The est a tes were chosen by M S erb a n so a s to represent a va riety of geogra phi c a l regions a n d of types of f a rmin g ; they included one big Cro w n dom a in a n d two model est a tes a n d a ltogether they were of a b etter cl a ss th a n the m a j ority The a re a f a rmed by the owners themselves w a s a bove the genera l a vera ge a n d so w a s the qu a ntity a n d qu a lity of the live a n d de a d stock Where a s these est a tes e g in cluded merely 2 per cent of the tot a l a re a covered by l a rge property they possessed 1 0 per cent of the number of motor ploughs in the country One c a n not give more th a n a s umm a ry of the res ul ts a rrived a t by M er b a n s inqui ry here It est a bli shed th a t the tot a l S c a pit a l invested in these undert a kin gs a ver a ged 9 4 01 lei per h a ; thi s fell much below the mi ni m um of a num ber of Germ a n inqui ries which fo und a vera ges runn in g from 206 25 lei to 1 032 5 0 lei per h a The Rum a ni a n figur e w a s divided a s follows : 26 1 5 lei for li ve stock 27 41 lei for de a d stock ( t a ken a t its origin a l cost ) a n d 46 44 lei workin g c a pit a l ( c a sh o nl y ) representing respectively 2 62 p er cen t 2 75 p er cent a n d 4 6 5 per cent of the tot a l c a pit a l va lue of the un dert a king These proportions were inverse to the norms preva ilin g elsewhere the va lue of live stock in the more develop ed countries bein g genera lly twice a s high a s th a t of the de a d stock a n d the working c a pita l 1 Ag a in the b uildin gs on the a bout one h a lf of the re a l e s t a te a b ove est a tes represented 8 6 p er cent of the tot a l re a l est a te ( l a nd a n d bui ldings ) which comp a red b a dly with the Germ an fi gur e s of 25 — 5 0 per cent The v a lue of i mprovements on the Rum a ni a n est a tes only a mounted to 0 3 per cent of the rea l est a te It must be repe a ted th a t M S erb a n h a d picked out exceptio n a l est a tes a s his figur e s a r e hi gher th a n those of other i nquiries ,

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M ld vi

t t dir e ct cultiv ti on w as more ge r l n d th e y dis pl y ed i n c ons qu e n c e a b e tt r quip m n t I n M o ld vi t h e v a lu e of t h e dr a u ght a im ls w s 21 76 l i p r h a a d i M u n te i o n ly 8 7 2 l i Thi s w as con fi me d by t h e high e r pr p orti o f w orki ng c a pita l i M u te i a ; it did n t pr v e a more a ctiv e e xplo itati o but 0 1 t h e c tra ry a gre a te r re li a n c e o n hired tea m a n d i mpl e m n ts wh n ce re s ulted a grea te r ee d for c as h 1

Ou t h e

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ORGANIZATION

26 5

FARMING

As reg a rds l a bour M Serb a n est a blished a n a vera ge of 1 0 5 perm a n ent l a bourer s for e a ch hun dr ed h a of cultures F 0 1 purposes of comp a rison one must t a ke into a ccoun t the qu a lity of th a t l a bour ; the execution of the va rious l a bours for the grow i n g of one h a of whe a t required 6 737 d a ys ( oi ten hour s ) in Germ a ny a n d 1 0 2 d a ys in Rum a ni a Ou the modera te a s s ump tion therefore th a t the qu a lit a tive rel a tion of Rum a n i a n to Germ a n l a bour w a s a s 8 : 1 0 the Rum a n i a n a vera ge fell to 8 4 p erm a nent l a bour ers for 1 00 h a a s a g a in st a Germ a n a vera ge of 1 6 5 7 The Rum a ni a n fi gur es rem a ined even below those c a lcul a ted by Th a er for Germ a ny more tha n a hundred ye a rs a o A n d in f a ct cert a in l a rge est a tes were found by M S erb a n g to b e worked with 4 22 perm a nent l a bourers for 1 00 h a of cultiva ted s urfa ce In la t ifun d ia r y cultiva tion the fa rmer h a d no interest in employi n g more l a bour if thi s r a ised production merely by a n a mo unt equ a l to the cost of th a t a ddition a l l a b our ; nor h a d he a n y interest in repea tin g l a b ours solely for the p ur pose of distributing hi s fi x e d ye a rly outl a y over severa l of them Th a t would h a ve brought h im no speci a l pr ofi t though it cert a i n ly woul d h a ve b een a g ai n to n a tion a l economy Fin a lly on none of these est a tes w a s an y use b eing m a de of the fa rmya rd m a nure Ar t ifi cia l m a nures were qui te unknown These f a cts a n d figur es indubit a bly proved th a t the l a rge f a rms were poorly equipp ed with de a d stock a n d worse still wi th live stock ; a n d th a t in gen era l they were being worked on a low m a rgin of c a pit a l the a vera ge level fa lli ng much below a r a tiona l minimum To m a ke the picture more a ccura te one woul d h a ve to go beyond fi gur es a n d describ e how grossly in a dequ a te the f a rm buildin gs e g genera lly were As much of the h a rvest w a s sold a t once no effort w a s m a de to buil d prop er a n d s uffi cie n t b a rns ; a n d a nim a ls were a s a rul e poorly housed n ot w it h st a nd ing the severity of the Rum a ni a n cli m a te M Ser ba n s pra ctic a l inqu i ry produced therefore the s a me conviction a s M Ga r ofl id s theoretic a l d iscussion : th a t if the la rge f a rmer s ca n nevertheless m a int a i n themselves this can b e expl a ined o nl y by the gre a t disproportion in economic strength by the a i d of which they ca n a dv a nce their i nterests a n d exploit in the worst sense of the word the me a ns of production— the workin g .

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266

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

THE

powers of the pe a s a nt cultiva tors The m a ss of those l a rge fa rms do not represent org a nized economic v a lues ; a n d for th a t re a son they a r e a n obst a cle to effective progress M S erb a n a ttempted a lso the more d iffi cult t a sk of studyi n g in figur e s the org a niz a tion of the sm a llholders C a lcul a tion s were h a mpered by the f a ct th a t the p e a s a nts di d not use their stock solely for themselves th a t the a re a which they c ul tiv a ted v a ried from yea r to yea r a n d th a t often they possessed dra ught a ni m a ls a n d implements without owning a n l a nd a t a ll In y their c a se therefore a n y inquiry into indi vidu a l households would h a ve been too v a gue M S erb a n chose inste a d six groups three from Munteni a a n d three from Mold a vi a— which together included seven l a rge a n d fi ve sm a ller vill a ges ; a s well a s one ex a mple from the mou n t a ins The d a te of this inqui ry is some wh a t e a rlier ; hence the figur es mentioned b elow should b e reg a rded a s mi nimum v a lues where a s the fi gur e s rel a tin g to the l a rge fa rms represented r a ther m a xim um v a lues M S erb a n worked out a ver a ges for thes e groups a n d obt a ined the following results : ’

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Worki ng

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la d o f buildi n gs

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e of

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pe r h a

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Liv st ck D ea d s to ck e

o

c a pi t a l

He concluded therefore th a t the

ver a ge c a pit a l investments of the sm a l lholders were much higher th a n those of the l a rge fa rmers This w a s especi a lly so for live stock the v a lue of which w a s a bout ni n e times higher ( including the v a lue of the dr a ught a nim a ls which of course were a lso used for l a bour on the l a rge fa rms ) The v a lue of de a d stock a n d of buildi n gs w a s likewise hi gher if not i n the s a me proportion The a ctu a l c a sh which in th e c a se of the l a rge f a rmers h a d a mounted to 44 lei per h a w a s only 8 5 0 lei per h a with the pe a s a nts ; they h a d no outl a y for w a ges a n d for the hire of te a ms Moreover the v a lue of live a n d dea d stock w a s a bove the minimum indic a ted in the Germa n inquiries a n d ne a rer their middle a vera ges ; a n d in the c a se of ,

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ORGANIZATION

26 7

FARMING

the pe a s a nts the rel a tive higher va lue of live stock th a n of de a d stock w a s in lin e with the norm a l conditions ruli n g genera lly in the more developed countries These severa l studies showed th a t before the reform the pea s a nts owned the invested c a pit a l of Rum a ni a n a griculture whi le the l a rge ow n ers a n d ten a nts held the liquid c a pit a l Hence the two c a tegories complemented e a ch other i n m a ny respects a n d indeed constituted only j ointly a full a gricultura l un it This proposition is supported by the fi gur e s obt a ined in the two inquiries described a bove The a vera ges resulti n g for e a ch of the two c a tegories of cultiva tors differed co n sidera bly from the a vera ges for the country a s a whole secured by a quite different method But if one took the two c a tegories together a n d worked out j oint a ver a ges for both of them the a ppr ox im a tion between the fi gur es of the speci a l i n quiries a n d the n a tio n a l a ver a ges w a s rem a r k a bly close Conserva tive a n d Ra dic a l economists w ere therefore genera ll y a greed th a t it w a s econ omica lly u n sou n d to co n tinue the system of la t ifun d ia r y cultiva tio n In 1 908 M Ga r o fl id h a d written th a t the very n a ture of the system excluded a n y improve me n t in production or the est a blishme n t of a cce ss ory a gricultura l u n dert a kings ; a n d th a t it w a s comp a tible only with the cultiv a tion of two or th r ee cere a l crops e a s ily s tored a n d e a sily sold It prevented speci a liz a tio n a n d it dem a nded the growi n g of the s a me pl a nt in a ll the regions a n d in a ll the soils And in 1 9 20 in the Memora ndum a l r e a dy quoted he a ga in a dmitted th a t with the bri n gin g of the a va il a ble l a nd under the plough the fu n ction of extensive cultiva tio n h a d bee n co n summ a ted Extensive l a rge sc a le a griculture h a d born e a ll the fruits of which it w a s ca p a ble Begi n n i n g with the twentieth century its p a rt in the evolution of our n a tio n a l econom y h a d come to a n end a s the shepherds h a d become cultiv a tor s A ch a nge in the a gricultura l system w a s i n dispe n s a ble but for th a t end the l a tifundi a h a d to be reduced U n der the existin g s ystem the pe a s a nts h a d no ch a nce a n d the l a rge cultiva tors no interest i n ra i si n g productio n M Ga r ofli d s fi n a l conclusion therefore w a s th a t th e crisis in Ruma ni a n a griculture expressed a problem of production .

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268

THE EFFECTS

OF

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THE REFORM

THE

ra ther tha n one of the distribution of property ; a n d on the stre n gth of th a t conclusion he ple a ded a ga inst the extermi n a tion of the l a rge owner But j ust a s hi s e a rlier conclusions h a d been ignore d by Rum a ni a s old rulers so hi s ple a w a s f a t a lly destin ed to meet with li ttle respo n se from the cl a ss which h a d become poli tic a lly in fluen t ial a fter the Wa r To the a rgument th a t l a rge sc a le cultiv a tion w a s st ill necess a ry M Mih a la ch e the Pe a s a nt le a der retorted th a t they h a d their own exp erience of severa l centur ies to look b a ck up on a n d th a t they coul d not overlook it a n d pa y a ttention r a ther to wha t w a s h a pp enin g elsewhere They could not ignore wh a t h a d been i n the p a st a n d t a ke in to a ccoun t wh a t might be in the future The p a st hi story of l a rge c ultiva tion in Rum ani a is for us one more re a son why we should a bolish it a ltogether with the excep tion of the strictly essenti a l model fa rms We c a nnot a ccept the li a bili ties of l a rge property a s a ssets when we a r e a bout to buil d up a new a gra ri a n regi me The b etter equipment of the p e a s a ntry h a d been mentioned by Ion Ionescu a s ea rly a s 1 8 6 9 He found e g dur in g hi s inquiry in to the Putna coun ty th a t the p e a s a nts h a d ten times a s m a ny dra ught a nim a ls a n d ploughs a s the l a ndlords S ince th a t d a te cultiva tion in genera l an d l a rge sc a le cultiva tion in p a rticul a r h a s exp a nded enormously but the supply of the tech n i ca l equi pment h a s rem a in ed a s much in ch a rge of the pe a s a nts The estim a te of 1 8 9 0 a ttributed to the pe a s a nts 9 2 a s b efore p er cent of the big a nim a ls 92 6 per cent of the ploug hs a n d 95 7 per cent of the c a rts in the whole c ountry The census of ag ricultur a l m a ch i nes a n d i mpleme n ts t a ken by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1 905 est a blished a sim ila r or worse prop ortion : .

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Pe a s n ts a

Pl ou gh H rr o ws C a r ts Cutti g m chi s S e d cl a n i n g m chi n e s s

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There were in the co untry

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OF

ORGANIZATION

26 9

FARMING

seven m a chines for the spre a din g of a r t ifi cia l m a nur es a ll 1 belongin g to the l a rge own ers M S erb a n est im a ted the tot a l va lue of the dea d stock in 1 91 3 a t a bout lei or 38 8 8 lei per h a of cultiv a ted l a nd The census t a ken in 1 900 est a blished a simil a r rel a tion with rega rd to a n im a ls It found them to b e distributed a mong the va rious c a tegorie s a s foll ows : ,

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L rge o wn ers S m ll wn e rs P s ts with o ut l d a

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St a tistics of a gricultur a l buil d ings h a ve never b een collected The 1 9 1 2 census merely st a ted th a t there were in the rura l com munes b ui ldin gs of which were i n h a bited Their a vera ge va lue w a s estim a ted by M $ er ban a t 100 lei per h a of a r a ble l a nd not i ncludin g pub lic elev a tors ste a m mills sug a r distilleries & c Another i nquiry M S erb a n conducted into the equipment of fifty est a tes v a rying in size a n d kin d an d in cludin g t oget h er 3 per cent of t h e la rge property foun d th a t the tot a l outl a y for buildin gs h a d a mounted to 6 5 70 000 1e i or 6 3 62 lei per h a We h a ve seen from the inquiries to which we referred e a rlier in thi s section th a t the superiority of the sm a ll owners held good in reg a rd to bui ldin gs a n d to a gricultur a l c a pit a l a s we ll In every respect therefore the mea n s of productio n in Rum a ni a n a griculture were a bsolutely a n d rel a tively to a n overwhelmin g degree in the h a nds of the pe a s a nts an d not of the l a rge cultiva tors All these circum st a nces rendered the question of productivity in Rum a ni a n a griculture extremely p erplexing In genera l p ea s a nt f a rming ga ve lower a vera ge returns th a n l a rge sc a le cultiva tion S eeing th a t the bulk of the l a rge f a rms were worked .

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M E Giur gea p o in ts o ut i n h i s s tudi es on B ess a ra bi a ( B uleti n ul S ta ti s ti c 1 9 1 9 2) th a t l a rge pr op e rty pre v a il e d i n th e n o rth e r n c o u n ti es H o ti n a n d B al ti wh e re a s .

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ricultur a l m chin es w er mos t u m er u s i n t h e s uth e r c u ti es Ti ghi n a n d C ta t Al ba T s m e e xte n t thi s m a y h a v e b n d ue t o t h e m re l v l li e of t h e b o ve all t o t h pre se ce of e xt ns ive F r en ch a d G erma n p eas n t gro u n d but c o l oni es i t h e so uth e rn c o u n ti es ag e

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270

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

THE

by the pe a s a nts with their own te a m s a n d implements how w a s it th a t the s a me men using the s a me methods obt a in ed worse results for themselves th a n when they worked for employers ? The question is e vidently still more im port a nt for the futur e of Rum a ni a n a gric ulture th a n it h a s b een for its p a st ; it is therefore worth our wh ile to consider br i efly the re a so n s which c a used th a t di fference in the returns of l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiva tion in order to see whether they were of a p erm a n ent ch a ra cter or were merely the a ccidents of tempora ry a n d remedi a ble co n ditions O n ce more it is necess a ry to m a ke some comm ent fir st on the v a lidity of the figur es which w ill b e given b elow A dist i no tion b etween the returns of l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiva tors w a s not m a de in Rum a ni a n a gricultura l st a tistics b efore 1 904 From th a t d a te the fi gure s rel a tin g to fa rms of less th a n 1 00 h a were registered sep a ra tely from those concerni ng fa rms of 1 00h a a n d more No a ccur a te estim a te of the productivity of sm a llholdi ngs a s su ch i e of holdings up to 1 00 h a is therefore p ossible Nor a r e the fi ur e s a ble even ith th t li it tion ltogether reli W m a a a g Those which refer to pe a s a nt c ul tiv a tion were coll ected by village The o ffi ci a ls inevit a bly in a somewh a t rough a n d re a dy f a shion figur e s for l a rge sc a le f a rm i ng were b a sed on retur ns supplied by the f a rmers themselves a n d it h a s b ee n a lleged th a t they frequently decl a red a higher production for the pur pose of obt a in ing l a rge credits a n d a sm a ller a re a for the p urpose of p a yin g less l a nd t a x But such a s they a r e these a r e the b est st a tistics a v a il a ble In the West the production of sm a llh olders h a s b een every where showi ng higher proportion a l returns th a n th a t of the l a rge f a rmers But in R um a ni a dur ing the dec a de which preceded the Gre a t Wa r l a rge fa rms g a ve a ye a rly a vera ge per h a which w a s higher th a n th a t of sm a llh ol di n gs by 1 3 1 per ce n t in the c a se of whe a t 1 8 6 5 p er cent of rye 1 5 9 per cent of b a rley 1 9 4 per cent of o a ts a n d 1 9 5 per cent in the c a se of m a iz e The opposite t a ble s give in det a il the a vera ge production of l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiv a tors per li a in hectolitres for the ye a rs 1 9 06 to 1 9 1 5 Sm a ll cultiva tion produced 25 3 hectolitres more buckwhe a t in the second period ; 74 3 metric quint a ls more fla x in the first ,

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ORGAN IZATION

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FARMING

period ; 8 7 h undred more c a bb a ge he a ds in the second period ; 1 6 7 metric qui nt a ls more of other veget a bles in the second period One poin t which strikes one a t o n ce on look ing through this t a ble is the considera ble va ri a tion in returns from ye a r to ye a r which h a ppe n ed to both c a tegories of fa rm ing a like Remember -

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Cr op 1

1 909 1 1 9 1 0 1 9 1 1

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19 1 1— 15

M i u diff r c n

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19 1 1—15

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Ba rl e y

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ing the

methods of c ultiva tion described in the preced in g p a ges when it w a s s a id tha t the crops were left to the c a re of n a ture it is e vident th a t such wide discrep a ncies were due to clim a tic conditions which took no a ccount of the size of fa rms But given thi s primitiveness in the nurtur e of the crops a n d the fa ct th a t the bulk w a s ra ised in the c a se of l a rge cultiva tion a s in the c a se of sm a ll by the s a me men wi th the s a me a ni m a ls a n d i mplements — how once more —is the difference in results to b e expl a ined ? ,

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S ta ti s ti ca

A gri cold p e A n i i 1 9 1 1 — 1 5 ,

Buca re s t

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272

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

THE

The only possible expl a n a tion is th a t the p e a s a nts were economi c a lly a n d soci a lly l a bouring under such oppressive di s a dva nt ages th a t they could use only a residue of the fa ctors of production in their own in terests Their fir st a n d most serious dis a dv a nt a ge la y in the qu a lity of the l a nd whi ch they till ed for themselves When describ ing the reform of 1 8 6 4 we quoted the e vidence of Ion Ionescu a s s howin g how on b eco m ing full proprietors the l a ndlords took l tiva tin g t ill a w a y the good fields which the pe a s a nts h a d b een c u then a n d g a ve them inste a d the poorest l a nd on the est a te There is not a w riter on a gricultura l economics who does not produce some fresh ex a mple of th a t form of a buse The truth of the compl a in t w a s proved by the ki n d of l a nd whi ch the l a nd o w ners offered in pursu a nce of the la w of 1 907 for the cre a tion of V ill a ge commons The tide of publi c sentiment w a s begin ning to turn in the pe a s a nts f a vour yet the l a nd proffered w a s so ba d th a t much of it h a d to b e refused outright whil e most of it proved too poor to b e pl a nted wi th fodder crops a s the la w dem a nded The l a nd let to the pe a s a n ts w a s a lw a ys the worst a n d a s they never got it for more th a n one ye a r there w a s no inducement to improve it It w a s the custom of l a rge o w ners a n d ten a nts to give l a nd in mé ta yage for m a ize a n d other crops w hich required hoeing a n d ridging a n d on the l a n d thus cle a red of weeds to pl a nt whe a t for their own a ccount the ye a r a fter Th e ba d qu a lity of the l a nd w a s m a de worse by the disj oin ted n a ture of the pe a s a nt holding s Most of them consisted of a num b er of strips sc a ttered in different di rection s ; a n d the pe a s a nts showed a determin ed bi a s for life in comp a ct Vi ll a ge s especi a lly in the pl a i n whi le their fi eld s usu a lly la y severa l kilometres Fin a lly a m a j ority of the a w a y from the house a n d f a rm y a rd pe a s a nt holdings were too sm a ll to form soun d econ omic units It is true however th a t pe a s a n t cultiva tion w a s a s a r ul e eve n more c a reles s th a n th a t of the l a rge fa rmers B ec a use their holdi ngs were genera lly insu fficient the pe a s a nts depended for their existence on getting more l a nd from ten a nts or l a ndowners in return for a contra ct to l a bour for them In Munte n i a 30 1 per cent of the pe a s a nts were left with less th a n forty seven da ys for their own l a bours a n d in Rum a ni a 8 5 per cent with only .

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twenty seven d a ys a n d 25 per cent with forty two d a ys in the yea r The a vera ge p ea s a nt holding of 3 42 h a pl a nted with the custom a ry p ea s a nt crops requir ed a minim um of 78 8 9 d a ys l a bour a lone for the cere a l crops without t a king i nto a ccount the c a re of a n im a ls 85 0 Now the cerea l s ystem in such a n uncert a in clim a te a s Rum a n i a s gives to a gricultura l l a bour s a concen tr a ted ch a ra cter dem a n din g i e the gre a test possible L a rge a mo unt of l a bour in the shortest possible sp a ce of t i me owners a n d ten a nts were a ble to mobi lize the whole vill a ge when the moment w a s propitious for the perform a nce of this or th a t l a bour for which the Vill a gers h a d contra cted By the time the l a nd of the l a rge fa rmers w a s tilled the we a ther h a d a s likely a s not ch a n ged for the worse And eve n if hea ven w a s ki n d the pe a s a nts c a me to their own field s with tired h a nds a n d tired b ea sts so th a t their work w a s do n e in a hurry with such droop ing strength a s w a s left in them Moreove r in such a hot clim a te a few d a ys gener a ll y su ffice to ripe n the co r n a n d a few more to over ripen it ; l a te cutti n g therefore a lw a y s mea n t a con sidera ble w a st a ge of seed estim a ted by a recent inquiry to re a ch a lmost 30 per cent of the tot a l cr 0p One must remember a lso the perpetu a l st a te of underfeedin g a n d of chro n ic ill he a lth i n which mo s t of the pe a s an ts lived in order to weigh rightly wh a t e ffect the pl a cing of the ir own work a t the t a il end of e a ch sea s on s l a bours h a d upon their fa rming The n umber of in dividu a ls c a p a ble of work between fift een a n d sixty yea rs w a s a s follows per rur a l i n h a bit a nts -

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According to a b ility a n d power of work M serb a n h a d put the effective work ing d a ys of a Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt a t 1 1 5 per ye a r which multip lied with the a bove proportion g a ve a tot a l of effective workin g d a ys in the ye a r This comp a red with the Germ a n pea s a nt s working co n tribution of 200 da ys ye a rly or a tota l of d a ys which for Fra nce even re a ched d a ys All these circum st a nces wa rra nt the conclusion th a t the .

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274

THE EFFECTS

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THE REFORM

ON

THE

inferior production of the pe a s a nts w a s a ttribut a ble m a inly to re a sons which h a d little to do with the typ e of the a gricultura l u n it One fi n d s the fir st proof of this in the more c a ref ul perform a nce of a gricultur a l l a bours before the reform of 1 8 6 4 which w a s supposed to h a ve a dva nced Rum a ni a n a gricul ture but which h a s cert a inly completed the ruin of the p e a s a n ts In hi s three c a reful a n d det a il ed inqu i ries I on Ionescu repe a tedly mentioned with regret the deteriora tion of a gricul tur a l methods Up to th a t time of course there w a s little else beyond pe a s a n t cultiva tion ; yet Ion Ionescu a ffi rm e d th a t genera lly the corn w a s very cle a n beca u s e of the h a bit of a ltern a tin g whe a t o a ts a n d other corn crops with m a iz e whi ch clea n ed the groun d of weeds a s m a ize required c a reful hoeing a n d ridgin g He referred to the pe a s a nts tra dition a l conviction th a t only whea t whi ch h a d we ll ripened should b e used for seed It w a s speci a lly selected a n d left to st a nd longer before being cut And the whe a t thus selected w a s tre a ted with speci a l c a re when it w a s cut a n d tied a n d thr eshed a n d c a rted But extensive c ul tiva tion for imm edi a te pro fit by ten a n ts holdi n g the l a nd on short le a ses corrupted those time honour ed h a bits Whe a t w a s sown over enormous extents a n d ye a r a fter ye a r on t h e s a me surfa ce without a n y m a nur i n g a t a ll It is import a n t to note therefore th a t the differen ce b etween the output of l a rge a n d sm a ll c ul tiv a tion a t present is much n a rrower th a n the difference between the erstwhile productivity of the R um a ni a n soil when it w a s a h n ost wholly in the h a nds of the pe a s a nts a n d the res ul ts obt a ined a fter a p eriod of extensive cultiv a tion on a l a rge sc a le Dr M a ior wrote in his M a n ua l d e Agri cultw d Nati on a le? ( 1 8 9 5 ) th a t the productio n of whe a t h a d fa llen from a n a vera ge of 20 hectolitres per h a to 1 5 a n d l a ter to 1 2 1 3 h e ctolitres There w a s moreover a s imil a r decl ine i n the rel a tion between the qu a ntity of seed used a n d the tot a l crop Once upon a time the crop h a d given 24 times the qu a ntity of seed but the return h a d f a llen to 1 5 times a n d fi n a lly to 4 04 time s when Dr M a ior w a s writ ing Furthe r the lo s s in qu a n tity w a s a ccomp a nied by a loss in the qu a lity of the produce With few exception s the la t ifun d ia r y l a rge sc a le cultiva tion w a s the purest Ra ubwirtsch a ft To complete the picture of its i n fl uen ce 0 11 rura l life one should a lso .

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mention the decline or dec a y of m a ny by products of a gricul ture Not o n ly h a d nothing been done by w a y of impro ving life on the l a nd sin ce 1 8 6 4 but once W idespre a d a n d flourishi n g domestic industries like the keeping of bees a n d the growing of silk worms — h a ve tot ally dis a ppe a red The qu a lity of a nim a ls declined to such a poin t th a t four six or even more oxen were n eeded to pull a li ght plough Another set of fa cts which tend to est a b lish the incide n t a l ch a ra cter of the d efici en ci es observed in pea s a nt fa rmi n g con I n the sists of sign ifi ca n t exceptions in Rum a ni a itself neighbouring Rum a ni a n provinces now u ni ted W ith the mother country where the pea s a nts were economic a lly more in d e pen dent their f a rming w a s correspondin gly better Especi a lly in Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovin a the pe a s a nts were genera lly better 0 6 even on sm a ll er holdings th a n the a ver a ge in the Old King d om The fl our ish in g colonies of S a xon a n d S ua bia n pea s a n ts in Tra nsylva n i a a n d the Germ a n French Bulg a ri a n a n d other colo n ies in southern B e s s a ra bi a a n d Dobroge a offer convincing illustra tions of wh a t pe a s a nt f a rmin g might a chieve eve n i n the e a stern regio n s their productio n being fully equ a l to th a t of the l a rge cultiva tors Nor were such exceptions l a cki n g in the Old Ki n gdom itself The fi gures from which the a bove t a ble w a s compiled show th a t in cert a in districts of the Munteni a n high l a n ds the differe n ce in the a vera ge production of whea t w a s negligible fa lling to 0 7 hectolitres in the Pra hova county a n d to 0 1 in Muscel In 1 9 07 pea s a n t fa rmi n g g a ve a higher a vera ge production ; but 1 907 w a s a n a b n orm a l ye a r in which a con s i d er a b le p a rt of the l a rge est a tes rem a ined untilled The s a me phenomenon repe a ted itself in 1 9 1 3—1 5 a n d in 1 9 1 9 a ll of them ye a rs of a bnorm a l condition s on the l a nd bec a use of w a rs a n d of the reform These periodic a l exceptions therefore a r e n ot va lid evidence for estim a ting the productivity of the two forms of cultiva tion But they a r e a ll the more striking a s a n illustra tion of the helpless st a te in which l a rge sc a le cultiva tion fou n d itself when circumst a nces deprived it of the pea s a nts a ssist a nce Less hypothetica l were the ex a mples describ ed by Dr N Lupu dur i n g the discu s sion of the reform a t J a ssy They showed th a t the pe a s a nts co ul d e a sily outstrip the a chievements of the -

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ON

THE

l a rge cultiva tors when they j oined h a nds for co opera tive fa rming The co opera tive which took over the Bordeiu V erde est a te w a s a c a se in point The former l a rge ten a nt h a d p a id a rent a l of lei ; the pe a s a n ts offered lei ye a rly In spite of th a t high rent they did extremely well B uil di ngs m a chin es im plements a nim a ls were more num erous a n d of better qu a lity th a n before The co opera tive w a s a ble to invest i n Wa r Lo a n a n d h a d reserves a mounting to lei T h a t ca n n o t be e xp l a i n e d e x c e p t by a n e n o r mou s i n c r e a s e i n pr o d uc t ion t o t h e h ec t a r e I n d e e d a cco r d in g t o fi gur e s wh i c h h a v e b e en c h ec k e d t h e h igh e s t a v e r a ge o b t a i n e d by t h e l a r ge r cu lt i v a t o r i n t h e b es t y e a r s w a s 24 11 1 p e r h a w h e r e a s i n t h e b es t y e a r s t h e co op e r a t i v e r a i s e d on t h e s a m e e s t a t e 40 11 1 p e r h a Th e co o p e r a t i v e s i n c r e a s e d t h e n u m b e r a n d i m p r o v e d t h e b r e e d o f a n im a l s N e igh bo ur i n g l a n d ow n e r s we r e b r in gin g t h e i r m a r e s a n d h e ife r s t o be s e r v e d i n t h e s t a b l e o f t h e p ea s a n t co o p e r a t i v e s 1 -

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In brief it will be seen th a t the pe a s a n ts h a d h a d none of the qua lifi ca t ion s requir ed for good f a rmi ng They h a d neither ge n era l educ a tio n nor speci a l tra i n ing ; they were u n derfed a n d overworked ; they we re bur dened exces s ively with t a xes a n d impositions but a ided sc a ntily or not a t a ll with credits & c ; a bove a ll they were left with the worst l a nd a n d with the worst time for tilli n g it An d when a ll th a t is s a id it sti ll rem a ins to b e poi n ted out th a t a comp a ri s on of l a rge sc a le production is boun d to b e mi sle a ding if it i s limited to cerea l crops The s e form a s p eci a lity of the l a r ge f a rmers especi a lly in a s ystem of exten sive cultiv a tion But on a n equ a l a re a the qu a n tity of a ni m a l a n d d a i r y product s which the sm a ll cultiv a tors put on the m a rket more th a n m a kes up for a n y deficiency in their corn crops In Rum a n i a indeed the growth of l a rge sc a le cultiva tion h a s not me a nt the developmen t of a gric ulture a s a whole but merely the one sided exp a nsion of whea t a t the expense of rura l a ctivities tra dition a l a n d ben efi c en t The ch a n ge depressed the economi c po s ition of the pea s a nt a n d soci a l a n d politic a l oppres s ion tot a lly r uined him But it w a s a n inferiority of the pe a s a n t s cl a ss ra ther tha n of his type of holding There is no re a so n w h y the l a test s oci a l a n d politic a l reforms when they get fa irly u n der M i t ul Ofi i l J uly 27 1 9 1 7 p 37 4 ,

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ORGANIZATION

277

FARMING

should not h a ve the contra ry effect The pe a s a nt does not k n ow wh a t it me a ns to stop working He is a ll the while seeking to cultiv a te the gre a test possible extent of l a n d bec a use he only k n ows extensive cultiva tion It is merely the l a ck of k n owledge th a t prevents hi m from putt ing the s a me a mou n t of l a bour i n to a sm a ller extent of l a nd so a s to obt a in from it l a rger return s ; for th a t is the problem which concerns him a bove a ll th a t he should b e a ble to extra ct from his l a nd the food which he needs for h imself his fa mily a n d his a nim a ls Even the exponen ts of n a tion a list economics a gree th a t in this c a se the p a st should not b e a llowed to prej udge the future The Libera ls opposed the p a rtition of the l a nd precisely on the ground th a t sm a ll cultiva tion w a s less produ c tive ; but in the S en a te in 1 923 M Vi n til a Brati a nu expressed his con viction th a t a fter a few yea rs when p rop erly settled a n d equipped the sma ll holders w ould produce more th a n h a d the l a rge cultiva tors in the p a st It is indeed doubtful a p a rt a ltogether from the effects of the l a nd reform whether la t ifun d ia ry cultiv a tion could h a ve l a sted a n y lo n ger We h a ve expl a ined the circumst a nces which h a d e n a bled it to comm a nd the pe a s a nts l a bour a n d why this w a s esse n ti a l for its existence a s ne a rly a ll the instruments of production were in the pe a s a nts h a nds This situ a tion which h a d never been di fferent thr oughout the history of Rum a n i a n a griculture w a s a ccentu a ted by the Wa r whose effects m a de the l a rge cultiva tors still more dependent on the pe a s a nts me a ns of production The loss in l a bour a n d implements a n d a n im a ls c a used by the War w a s boun d t o a ffect in the fi r st pl a ce those cultiva tors who h a d no equipment of their own un less they were in a position to conscript for their own use such mea ns of produc tion a s were still a va il a ble And we h a ve seen tha t in f a ct the fi r st thing which the Ma r gh ilom a n Government did a fter the Pe a ce of Buca rest w a s to obli ge the p e a s a n ts to work for the l a rge fa rmers Such a n imposition w a s no lo n ger possible a t the en d of the Wa r I n a ddition to the loss of m en there w a s a ge n era l lo s s in worki n g power The rem a inin g l a bourers were no lo n ger c a p a ble of the s a me effort a s before As everywhere else the n a tion s m a nh ood w a s phy s ic a lly a n d nervously tired a n d the

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278

THE EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

THE

m a sses were in a mood whi ch suffered no fur ther ob liga tions w ithout a dequ a te rew a rd Th e loss in work i ng a nim a ls w a s even more severe ; they were gre a tly reduced in n umbers especi a lly in the regions whi ch h a d b een un der enemy occup a tion an d they were b a dly we a kened thr ough poor feeding dur ing the Wa r The num ber of horses w a s reduced by h a lf th a t of the l a rge horned a nim a ls a n d of pigs to two t hi rds a n d the num ber of sheep to one h a lf The new pro vin ces h a d suffered less a s they h a d rem a ined outside the ba t t lefi eld s The Wa r h a d pl a yed a s i mil a r h a voc w ith m a ch i nes a n d im plements which h a d been used with little ca re a n d without bein g renewed dur ing the period of hostilities All over the coun try old im plements long di s c a rded were summ a rily rep a ired a n d pressed in to ser vice a g a in ; a s h a d b ee n the c a se w ith the prim itive a ll wooden plough from Bucovin a whi ch w a s on Vi ew d uri ng the p a st w inter in the modest but excellent exhi bition a rra nged by the Socio logica l Semin a r of Buc a rest Uni versity For whil e a fter the Wa r the need for n ew m a ch inery w a s gre a t even the most esse n ti a l implements were not e a sy to repl a ce Their price h a d in cre a sed considera bly a n d on the other h a nd the f a ll in the exch a nge a n d the gener a l short a ge of money a mong l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiva tors a like not to sp ea k of a short sighted t a riff policy h a mp ered the purch a se of these foreign products The l a rge o w ners especi a lly who h a d lost much l a n d but got little money in return found the problem of equi pment d iffi cult to solve This w a s even more true of a gric ul tur a l m a chines To the d i ffi cul t i e s a lre a dy mentioned there w a s a dded th a t of personnel mostly foreigners who h a d been employed to drive a n d rep a ir such m a chin es but who h a d b een sc a ttered by the Wa r Even when credits could be obt a ined the fa rmers fe a red to inc ur foreign debts bec a use of the continuous depreci a tion of the currency To some extent the d efi ci en cy w a s m a de good by production from the fa ctories which were a h ea d y in Tr a n sy l va ni a But the t a bles b elow— the fi r s t of which gives comp a ra tive fi gures of a gricultura l m a chines imported b efore a n d a fter the Wa r a n d the second the size of th a t production— show th a t the repl a cement of the de a d stock a dva nced slowly ; especi a lly if one t a kes into a ccount th a t the post w a r figi u e s refer to a t erritory .

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OF P ARMIN G

ORGANIZATION

279

to a popula tion t wice a s l a rg e — which included Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovin a where the use of m a chin es a n d implements w a s more developed— an d to a n a gricultura l situ a tion in which the in troduction of intensive fa rming h a d become impera tive a fter the a gra ri a n reform :

and

IMP OR T

OF

A G R I CU L TU R AL I M PL EME N T S

Y r

Qu n tity i

ea

a

I N T E R N A L PR O D U CTI O N

Nu mb e r of Fa ctori s e

K gs

n

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ld

Le i

1

A G R I C U L TU R A L M A CH I N E S I M PL EME N T S V lu

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V lu

M A CH I N E S

OF

a

HP

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A ND

t he

e of

V lu a

Nu m b e r

e of

F ctori es 2 Producti on a

A ND

of

w ork rs a d e mpl o y ees e

n

G old Le i

Genera lly spe a king therefore beca use of the loss in l a bour in a ni m a ls ,a n d in implements la t ifun di a r y cultiv a tio n could no lo n ger h a ve disposed of the che a p pe a s a n t la bo ur a fter the Wa r

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2

p t ct ri

v lu c lcu t d v r r t d lt ith thi t bl pr duc th r d b id pl t r l r r th u d rt k v v lu pr ducti which r r ricultu l

ma chi

-

xc pt th i mpl eme nts a l on e e

e

p u d ricultur al whol e chi a d

Th e os w a r a es a re a la e a t t h e a e a ge a e of 8 00 le i t o t h e o Th e fa o e s e a w in s a e o e o e goo s es es a g nes a n d m e me n s n e Th e gen e a fi gure s efe t o ese a i n gs a s a i ose gi i n g t h e a nes e of o on , e fe t o a g r a ma .

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28 0

THE EFFECTS

On

THE REFORM

OF

ON

THE

the other h a nd it wo ul d h a ve fo und it extremely d i fficult to a cqui re a n inventory of its own with the prev a ili n g hi gh prices a n d short a ge of money Even without the a gra ri a n reform th a t typ e of cultiv a tion would h a rdly h a ve been pr a ctic a ble a g a i n At the end of the Wa r l a rge sc a le cultiv a tio n foun d itself a lm ost who lly divested of live a n d dea d stock a n d w a s in d a nger of being un a ble to plough the l a nd it possessed More th a n one R um ani a n economist considers th a t the imm edi a te tra nsfer of l a nd to the p e a s a nts h a s s a ved R um a ni a n a griculture from dis a ster In the fa ce of a host of n a tur a l a n d a r t ifi cia l obst a cles which will be discussed l a ter ou the sm a ll cultiva tors h a ve b een a ble to revive a gricultur a l p r oduction in a rel a tively short sp a ce of tim e Moreover they h a ve succeeded in these few ye a rs in restoring the country s live stock a lmost to its pre w a r s i z e a n a chieve ment which would h a ve been a ltogether b eyond the powers of the l a rge sc a le cultiv a tors Hence one is led to the conclusion th a t the incre a se in sm a llh old ings w a s a s j ust ified for economic a s it w a s nece s s a ry for soci a l re a s o n s Unfortun a tely no inform a tion wh a tever h a s so fa r b een collected from which one might dr a w a sci en t ifi c conclu sion con cern in g the effects of the a gra ri a n reform on the tech ni que of the v a rious kinds of fa rmin g One must b e s a t i sfi e d with such indic a tions a s per s on a l observa tion a n d convers a tions h a ve b een The reform found the l a rge cultiva tors a ltogether a ble to give u n prep a red for the t a s k with which it presented them But j ust a s the p e a s a nt em a ncip a tio n i n the West provoked a n a ll round improvement in a gricultura l methods so in this c a se such l a rge property a s rem a i n s a n d w hich i s f a rmed to a l a rger extent th a n before by the o w ners themselves di s pl a ys a m a rked tende n cy to i n ten s ify its production The higher cost of l a b our & c a s well a s the l a ndowne r s n a tura l a nx iety to recover a t le a st some of the revenue they used to derive from the lost a rea by higher returns from such l a nd a s is left them h a s provoked in most c a ses a more c a reful tilli ng of the soil The depreci a tion in the v a lue of a gricultura l products a s comp a red with th a t of m a nufa cture s likewi s e m a de it n ece ss a ry to produce rel a tively more of the former The r e i s a lso the fe a r lest the new spirit which is a bro a d a n d the n e w currents w hich domina te public ,

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ORGANIZATION

OF

28 1

FARMING

life should no longer tolera te the retention of l a nd property in inc a p a ble or indifferent h a nds A suggestive a rticle publi shed in the F r a n kfur ter Zei ti mg on Novemb er 9 1 927 describ ed how a simil a r fe a r h a s brought b a ck the noble l a ndo w n ers in B a den not o n ly to residence on the l a nd but to fa rming with their own h a nds All these circum st a nces combi n ed to confront the l a ndowners w ith a tot a lly new problem a problem which seem s to a d mit of no other solution beyond either improving cultiva tion or sellin g out While the pe a s a nts were pro vided even if somewh a t i n a d e with me u a t el a ns to cultiv a te the l a nd which w a s give n them q y they h a d n ot the mea ns a n d even less the tra ini n g for the kind of intensive fa rming which the i r new st a te a n d the country s needs dem a n ded How the policy of the governing cl a ss took a w a y from them a ll incentive to fresh effort will b e discussed l a ter on For the moment one m a y note the st a tement of M Io n escu Sise s ti now di rector of the new Institute of Agro nomic Resea rch th a t the pe a s a nts work a s we ll a s they did before the reform or r a ther th a t they do not work worse Th a t would seem to b e genera lly true of Munte n i a a n d Olt e ni a a s well a s of the new provinces but le s s true of Molda vi a There the cultura l level h a s been lower a n d a lcoholism higher on the l a nd a n d w ith the dis a ppe a ra nce of the dri ving power of the l a rge ten a nts the pea s a nts a r e a pt to fa ll into sl a ck w a ys Everywhere M Ionescu Sise s ti a ffir m s one ca n est a blish a p a ra llel b etween the gra de of culture of a group of Vill a gers a n d the qu a li ty of thei r fa rming ; a circumst a nce which suggests th a t the p a rti a l decline in the qu a lity of pe a s a nt cultiva tion m a y b e due not to the reform but ra ther to the fa ilure of Rum a ni a s former rulers to educ a te their m a sters Another inform a nt put it th a t m a n y pe a s a nts fa rm better n ow th a n b efore while some of them fa rm worse ; this being esp eci a lly true of wh a t one m a y c a ll the m a rgi n a l ben e fi ci a r i e s of the reform a rti s a ns a n d others m a ny of whom h a ve l a nd of their own now but no oxen The fa cts discussed in this a n d the previous section help us to put the economic sense of the reform in its proper perspective To sum up 8 3 3 per cent of the rura l householders were cultiva ting on their own a ccount ; a n d sm a ll cultiva tion produced a bout .

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28 2

THE EFFECTS

THE REFO R M

OF

ON

THE

three tim es a s much a s l a rge sc a le cultiva tion On both coun ts therefore the p e a s a nts formed the pre —domina nt fa ctor in Rum a ni a s a gric ul tura l system They domin a ted the orga niz a tion of production still more The custom of c ul tiva tin g with a ni m a ls a n d implements a n d seed b elonging to the pe a s a nts which h a d been univers a l during serfdom h a d rem a in ed a lmost int a ct a fter their em a ncip a tion a s well the tithe h a vin g merely ch a nged into m ét a y a ge i e a sh a ri n g of the crop s The p e a s a nts 1 e ce ive d a piece of l a nd a n d m retur n cul tiv a ted a nother p i ece of l a nd for the ten a nt or owner or they g a ve him p a rt of the produce a s they h a d done when they were his serfs L a ndowners a n d l a rge ten a nts supplied neither a n im a ls nor implemen ts nor a dequ a te c a pit a l the ten a n t t a kes to fa rming o nl y with a w a lking stick the pe a s a nts used to sa y a n d only a di s cipli n a ri a n sort of gui d a n ce In no economi c sense therefore were the l a ndowners es s enti a l fa ctors in the a gr a ri a n system a n d th a t expl a ins how it w a s possible to expropri a te them so dra stic a lly without wrecking the wheels of production This w a s merely repe a ting the experien ce of the French Revolution Ma x Weber rem a rks in his Wi rtschaftsges chi chte th a t the Revolution foun d it possible to expropri a te the l a nd lords bec a use the French l a ndlord w a s not a fa rmer but a courtier seekin g a c a reer i n mi lit a ry a n d civil fu n ctions upon which he h a d in a w a y a monopolistic cl a im Therefore no org a niz a tion of production w a s destroyed by th a t a ct but merely If one le a ves out courtier every word of a rent rel a tionship th a t 1 em a r k a pplies with equ a l fm c e to the Rum a ni a n l a nd reform B ec a use the est a tes of Rum a ni a n l a ndown ers unlike those of most Czech a n d Polish o w ners were not org a ni zed a s units of production— bec a use in other words the c a pit a list division b etween l a bour a n d the instrum en t of production h a d h a rdly begun in Rum a ni a n a gricultur e — the di sturbing e ffects which the reform might otherwise h a ve h a d rem a ined rel a tively insigni fic a nt When the pe a s a nt w a s m a de a n in dependent f a rmer he w a s not quite helpless a lthough the St a te m a de no a ttempt wh a tever to see him st a rted on h i s new venture w ith The a gra ri a n reform in brief h a s me a nt a proper equipment a n enormous leg a l ch a nge but only a very moder a te economic -

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ORGANIZATION

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FARMING

ch a n ge Production is on the whole c a rried on by the s a me men with the s a me me a n s a s before Bro a dly s pe a ki n g it h a s been not so much a ch a n ge from l a rge sc a le to sm a ll sc a le f a rmin g a s a ch a nge from f a rming by sm a ll ten a nts to f a rming by sm a ll The siz e of the holdings now corresponds a lmost ex a ctly ow n ers to the methods of fa rmi n g wrote a contributor to the Russi a n volume edited by Prof Max S ering While in 1 9 1 6 l a rge l a n d ownership went together with sm a ll sc a le fa rmin g now system of tenure a n d system of cultiva tion a r e in h a rmony with e a ch other There is in such a n evolution s m a ll m a tter for the gloomy forebodings which m a ny western critics of the reform en tert a ined ; a n d equ a lly sc a n t re a son for expecting th a t a mere ch a n ge in the form of tenure wo uld produce a sudden flowering of fi n e The reform w a s bou n d to a gricultur a l methods a n d h a rvest s h a ve a good a n d immedi a te psychologic a l effect c a lcul a ted to overcome the nervous exh a u stion left by the Wa r a n d we sh a ll see how this h a s indeed contributed to the recovery of produc tion ; a n d secur ity of tenure h a s a lwa ys been fou n d to i n duce I n the me a sure in which a n y a more c a reful tilling of the soil fresh tendencies a r e discernible a t a ll they serve to con fir m th a t exp erience There is evidence th a t the l a rge fa rmers a r e a dopti n g more intensive methods of cultiv a tion in the endea vour to b a l a nce higher costs with higher return s ; a n d th a t more i mten sive methods a r e employed by the pea s a nt fa rmers a s well The a dv a nce is slow a n d somewh a t err a tic which is in the n a ture of the c a se b eing the result not of a system a tic policy but r a ther of the energy a bi lity a n d mea n s of in di vidu a l pe a s a n ts a n d of loc a l va ri a tion s in le a dership a n d opportu n ity It is therefore prob a bly true to say th a t formerly there were more differe n ces b etween va rious regions where a s n o w the difference s a r e r a ther between Vill a ges a n d i n dividu a l pe a s a nts the gre a ter freedom of movement encoura ging a n a tura l process of selectio n ; a n d a s a gener a l observ a tion th a t more intensive method s a r e S pre a di n g a ll round a mo n g the pe a s a nts so to a utom a tic a lly spe a k bec a use of the sm a llholders well known i n clin a tio n towa rds r a isi n g crops which require more effort but yield stronger h a rvests ,

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CH APTE R IX OF

THE EFFECTS

THE REFORM S E C TI O N

CHANGE

TH E AN Y

IN

ON

PRODUCTION

1

T H E D I S T R I B UTI O N

CR O S P

OF

tt empt to estim a te the effect of the l a n d reform on production is further compli c a ted a s we h a ve p ointed out by the ch a nge which h a s t a ken pl a ce in the distribution of crops The pe a s a nt em a ncip a tion h a s everywhere h a d the effect of incre a si n g the cultiv a tion of industri a l crop s a n d gra sses a n d of other crops which a r e pr ofit a bly grown on a sm a ll sc a le an d a r e b etter a d a pted to a rur a l economy b a sed l a rgely on the keeping of a nim a ls In Rum a ni a a fter the a bortive em a ncip a tion of 1 8 6 4 whi ch freed the l a nd but left the pe a s a nts tied to it a gricult ure showed two ch a ra cteristic a n d concord a nt tendencies Whe a t c ul tiva tion exp a nded ra pidly a n d th a t w a s a ccomp a ni ed by a fur ther decline in c a ttle breeding The tot a l a re a cultiv a ted in cludi n g h a i n 1 8 62 to gra ssl a nd rose from h a in 1 9 00 a n d whe a t cultiv a tion from h a in 1 8 62 to h a in 1 9 00; i e a n i n cre a s e on 1 28 per cent in whe a t c ul tiv a tion a s a g a in st a n incre a s e on 8 3 per cent i n the tot a l a r a ble a re a At the s a me time the n umber of oxen fell from 70 2 to e a ch hundred inh a bit a nts in 1 8 60 to 37 7 in 1 9 1 1 a n d the number of pigs from 27 8 to 1 2 8 It w a s to b e expected th a t when the em a ncip a tion of the pe a s a nts w a s completed a fter the Grea t Wa r a n d 90 per cent of the a ra ble l a nd p a s s ed into their h a nds those two tendencies would be rever s ed : th a t a reduction in the a re a under whe a t would b e a ccomp a nied by a n i n cre a sed in terest in c a ttle breedin g m a ize b a rley a n d of the crop s which the pe a s a nts prefer r ed i n d ustri a l crops & c a s b ei n g more suit a ble for cultiva tion on a s m a ll sc a le a n d bec a use they yield l a rger gro s s retur n s Le a ving a side for the moment the question a s to how fa r such a ch a nge served the interests of Rum a n i a n a griculture a s a

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EFFECTS

OF

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THE REFORM

28 5

PRODUCTION

whole it is cle a r tha t it w a s indispens a ble for the pe a s a nts themselve s As the pe a s a n ts keep proportio n a tely a much l a rger numb er of a ni m a ls they co ul d not like the l a rge fa rmers put one h a lf or even two thir ds of the l a nd under whea t ; quite a p a rt from the obst a cles which the n a rrow a n d sc a ttered fi e ld s frequently m a king up the pe a s a nt holdings pre s ent to such a co urse The pea s a nts require for their kind of fa rmi n g a l a rge proportion of fodder crops or of crops like m a ize & c which le a ve a residue for the feeding of a n im a ls The person a l n eeds of their households li kewise require a grea ter v a riety of crops To this a lso a s the Rum a n i a n pe a s a nt is l a rgely a veget a ri a n ten ds the evolution of the loca l m a rket If the growin g of m a iz e th a t w a s due to the a n d whe a t w a s so wi despre a d hitherto cou n try s soci a l structur e a s much a s to the prev a ili n g system of cul tiva tion With fift y four in h a bit a n ts to the squ a re kilometre a n d 8 0 per cent of them livi n g on or below the poverty line the m a rket for the more r efi n e d products of a gricultur e w a s extremely lim ited But w ith the betterment of the pe a s a nt s st a nda rd of living a fter the Wa r a n d with the rel a tive growth in the urb a n popula tion through the a ddition of the n ew pro vi nces a gre a ter dem a nd for g a rden a n d d a iry produce h a s been crea ted To such considera tions of consumption m a y b e a dded others equ a lly weighty rel a t i ng to the tech n ique of production The pe a s a nts fi n d a more ra tion a l employme n t for their live a n d de a d stock a n d especi a lly for the surplu s l a bour of their fa milies in the r a is ing of more profit a ble i ndu s tri a l cr0ps such a s suga r beet tob a cco & c It is indeed a domin a nt imp ul se w ith sm a llh olders to fi n d out w a ys a n d me a n s for employin g to the f ull the workin g powers of their household They fi n d therein one of their m a in a dv a nt a ges in competition with c a pit a li st f a rmin g Th a t peculi a r a dv a nt a ge of the sm a ll holders becomes a ccentu a ted in the me a sur e in which the cost of l a bour rises a n d the incre a se in the size of fa rms m a kes super vision more d iffi cult Sm a ll cultiva tion therefore st a nds to g a in over l a rge with a ll cr 0ps requiri n g more intensive l a bour ; a n d a coroll a ry of this proposition is the cert a in exp a nsion of such crops wherever l a rge property is broken up a n d p a sses into the h a nds of sm a llholders C a reful c a lcula tions m a de by Th a er a

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28 6

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

Kra fft a n d others show th a t the ch a n ge from a n extensive three fi eld system to a more intensive crop rot a tion necessit a tes a n incre a se of a bout 70 per cent in m a nu a l l a bour Simil a rly the tra nsition to industri a l crops a n d to m a rket g a rdeni ng wo ul d cl a im a fur ther in cre a se in m a nu a l effort M $er ba n c a lcul a ted tha t in Rum a ni a the c ul tiva tion of one hect a re of m a iz e n e c es s it a t e d a bout three t i mes a s much l a b our a s one hect a re of whe a t Likewise the interesting study of Dettweiler on m a n u a l l a bour in a griculture est a blished th a t a n ordin a ry mixed f a rm under gra ss a n d cerea ls needed 6 49 p erm a nent l a bour ers per 1 00 h a but th a t a middle sized f a rm w ith one fi ft h of its a re a under beet would require 1 6 8 3 l a bourers for the s a me a cre a ge From a different a n gle the s a me point h a s been proved by cert a in Germ a n region a l c a lcula tions ; they fou n d th a t the numb er of p erm a nent a gricultura l l a bourers per 1 00 h a v a ried b etween 1 2 5 4 in E a stern Prussi a 20 5 9 in B a v a ri a a n d 32 38 in the Rhinel a nd— three region s which di spl a y a typic a l tra nsition from l a rge fa rms to s m a ll hol di n gs a n d from corn gro w ing to d a iry fa rming a n d m a rket g a rden in g Dr Felix B orn em a nn h a ving inquired into the det a iled orga n iz a tion of twenty two Germ a n pe a s a nt fa rms together covering a n a re a of 1 40 h a found th a t ninety three p erson s were employed on them ( mem ber s of the household a n d wa ge e a rners ) i e 6 6 4 workers per 1 00 h a This fi gure of course w a s exception a lly high a n d sug gested a considera ble w a st a ge of l a bour But the i n qui ries rel a ting to l a rge fa rms prob a bly listed i ndividu a ls who per formed solely a gricultura l l a b ours where a s some of the persons included in the a bove figur e no doubt g a ve a t le a st p a rt of their time to dome s tic work On e should perh a ps m a ke some a llow a n ce too for the time a n d energy which the pe a s a nts themselves s pe n d in rep a iring building s fe n ces c a rt s a n d most other thing s w he n the l a rge f a rmer s w ould h a ve a bout hou s e a n d f a rm recour s e to m a so n s a n d other a rtis a n s For a ll the s e re a sons sm a llholders everywhere di s pl a y a ch a r a cteristic preference for crops w hich dem a nd intensive l a bour but yield l a rger return s To some extent th a t w a s a lre a dy notice a ble in Rum a n i a before the reform The p e a s a n t s choice w a s then cr a mp ed by excessive dem a nds m a de on their l a bour ,

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EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

28 7

under the old contra ct system But the following t a ble shows th a t in 1 9 1 1 there w a s a sign ifi ca n t difference between l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiva tors in the division of the a re a s under va rious crops : .

F rm b v s a

a

1 00

o

h e cta r

e

es

F rm b l a

1 00

s

e ow

h cta res e

W he a t B a r le v

O t M i

a s a ze

C er ea ls tota l 01 1 a n d e

t xtil e pl a ts P t to s n d puls e I n du stri l a nd oth e r pl a nts Of th s to b a cc o M rk et g rd n i n g Fo dd e r crops n d h a y O rch a rds & c o a

e

n

a

a

e e,

a

a

e

a

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,

tra ce the phenomenon in the Agr i cultura l S ta ti s ti cs for 1 91 1 — 1 5 which cont a in on p iii a t a ble sh ow mg the a re a covered by va rious crops in the periods 1 906— 1 0 a n d 1 91 1 — 1 5 The comp a rison is useful bec a use the lin e dividing the two periods roughly coincided with the modera te incre a se i n sm a llholdi n gs a fter the rising of 1 9 07 the ye a rly a ver a ges sho w ing the following ch a nges : One

ca n

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.

,

1 906 — 1 0

1 9 1 1— 15

C e r e ls 011 b ri g a n d te xtil e pl n ts Pu ls I dus tri l a d the r pla nts A rti fici l gr a z i g Nat u l Vi e y rd s Plu m orch a rd a

-

ea

n

a

e

n

a

n

o

a

n

s

ra

n

a

s

T ot l

1 00 0

a

-

1 00 0 -

Besides a n a vera ge i n cre a se of h a in the c ul tiv a ted a re a there wa s a decline in the a re a under cere a ls a n d n a tura l gra zin gs while the more profit a ble crops — industri a l a n d leguminous a s .

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M $ e r ban .

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op

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ci t

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p 28 .

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28 8

OF

EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

well a s a r t ifi cia l gra zings— showed a proportion a l incre a se The following figur es referring to cert a in sp ec ifi c cr 0 ps cle a rly bring out the di fferen ti a tion between l a rge a n d sm a ll fa rms .

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1 9 1 1— 15

S ma

T b a cc o o

,

m u s ta rd

,

chic ory

,

&c

ll ha

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.

L gu mi ou s d tub rs M rke t ga rden ing e

n

an

e

a

19 19

L gu m i u a n d tub e rs I du stri a l crops e

no

s

n

None of the crop s requiring intensive cultiva tion a n d sp eci a l c a re a ppe a r to h a ve b een in fa vour with the l a rge fa rmers But quite a p a rt from tech n ic a l co n sidera tions a ch a nge in the rep a rtition of crops w a s needed for a progressive r e orga n iz a tion of Rum a ni a n a gricult ure In her c a se thi s w a s not merely the a utom a tic consequence of t h e tr a nsfer of l a nd from l a rge to s m a ll owner s Nor w a s it cl a imed solely by th e i n tere st s of the new p e a s a nt proprietors ; n or brought a bout a ccide n t a lly by the St a te s interference Price restrictio n s export duties a n d other extra neous fa ctors pl a yed their p a rt i n c a using the a re a under wh e a t to be reduced a s will be shown l a ter on when discussing the cou n try s eco n omic policy But the import a nt poi n t is th a t the n eed s of more p r ogressive f a rming urgently dem a n ded the a doptio n of a system of crop rot a tio n The follo w ing comp a r a tive fi gur e s for 1 91 1 i n dic a te how u n s a ti s fa ctory h a d b een the a lloc a tion of the cultiv a ted a re a in R um a ni a n a gric u l ture .

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an

s

C rea l s

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u

R ma n

I du tri l pl t

Pul e d v g t bl e e a

n

s

a

an s

s

F dd r o

e

crops

ia

G rm y e

an

From the time when the Crimea n Wa r opened a w ide ro a d for the export of Rum a ni a n corn a n d thereby stimul a ted a ch a nge from a qu a si p a s tor a l to a cere a l ph a se whe a t growing ,

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M Se rb a n .

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op

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ci t

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p 23 .

.

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

sprea d ra pidly a n d somewh a t one sidedly from the fi gur es b elow :

as

-

1 8 40 a

Fr om

In

,

m ay

28 9

b e j udged

b o ut

18 62 to 18 66 1871 18 67 1 8 76 1 8 72 1 8 90 18 8 6 1891 1 8 95 1 8 96 1 900 1 909 19 13 1 9 14

h a on w h ich nothing but There were fa rms of whe a t w a s sown ; a n d frequently the l a rge cultiva tors grew whe a t on the s a me l a nd durin g severa l ye a rs in succession For these rea sons most Rum a ni a n a gricultur a l economi sts consider th a t whea t h a s re a ched the m a xim um extensio n— a bout one third of the a ra ble a rea — comp a tible w ith a r a tion a l exploit a tion of the soil ; a n d th a t he nceforth a n y incre a se in the tot a l crop must come not from a w ider a cre a ge but from more in tensive fa rming a n d stronger retur ns Qui te a p a rt from the l a nd reform therefore the scie n t ifi c problem of m a in t a ini ng the fertili ty of the soil a s well a s the economic requir ements of the home m a rket necessit a ted a fresh tra nsition from the cere a l ph a se to a system of crop rot a tion The l an d reform h a s merely quickened this second a n d b el a ted development in the country s a gricultur a l orga niz a tion B efore noting this p a rticul a r a spect of its effects one must t a ke i n to a ccount the slight re a rr a ngeme n t in the di sposition of the l a nd which the a ddition of new provi nces with differing geogra phic a l ch a ra cteristics c a used to the Old Ki ngdom An indic a tion of th a t ch a nge c a n b e seen in the t a ble on p 29 0 It wi ll be seen th a t within her new frontiers Rum a ni a h a d a lesser percent a ge of c ul tiva ted l a nd a n d proportion a tely more forest p a stur es & c ; a s is n a tur a l bec a use of the more moun t a in ous ch a r a cter of Tr a nsylv a ni a a n d Buco vin a The gre a ter percent a ge of fa llow wa s prob a bly a tempora ry phenomenon .

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1

N

Xé n op ol, La R i ch es s e d e la Rouma n i a

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U

290 EFFECTS OF THE

ON

REF ORM

O ld Ki gd ‘

n

o

PRODUCTION Gre a te r R u m i a

m

an

1 9 15

1 9 22

Ar e a i n

Are a

ccupi e d by

h e cta res

o

Cr op s Fa ll ow Vin e ya rd s a n d P1um o rch a rds Mea dows Pa s tur es F or ests R iv e r s Buildi ngs r oa d s a n d oth e r b a rre l d ,

of

,

Ar ea i n

tota l a rea

h e cta res

n

an

1 00 0 1

1 00 0 -

-

dur ing the a pplic a tion of the l a nd reform The t a ble on p 29 1 shows in det a il the provinci a l va ri a tions in the use of the l a nd A genera l picture of the two periods of tr a nsition in Rum a ni a s a gricultur a l org a ni z a tion ; to whi ch we h a ve referred is presented in the follow ing t a ble .

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Use

1 2

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3

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4

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of

l an d H e cta re s

C ultiv a te d a rea Vi ney a rd s a nd plu m orch a rd s Gra i n gs P e rman en t gr a z i ngs F o r e s ts Wa te rw a y s r oa d w a ys a n d bu i ld i ng l a n d S urf a c e u n utili e d

H e cta r es

2

19 9 1

7

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41 6 8

41 8

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1 23 4 20 -

z

-

9 7 24 1

13 78 1 8 44

24 29 17 8 2

3

5 6

H e cta res

-

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-

-

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28 7 9 -

10 27 -

z

Withi n the new frontiers a ra ble l a nd h a s lost some of its im p or t a nce a t the expense of p a stures a n d forests a n d for this re a son the p ercent a ge under cere a l crops rem a ins the s a me ( the 1 9 1 2 figur e does not include f a llow while th a t for 1 9 23 does ) B ut the effect of the pe a s a nts a dvent is clea rly discerni ble in the ,

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I on e s cu S i s esti S tr uctu e A gra i re 1 9 22 p 7 3 1 8 6 0 a n d 1 9 1 2 i n clud e fa ll o w f l o o l w 1 8 6 0 an d 1 9 1 2 with ut F i gure s for 1 8 60 a n d 1 9 1 2 after M $ rh an p 5 7 Those for 1 9 23 from B uleti n ul G

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S ta ti s ti c. 19 24, No 2

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EFFECTS

OF THE

REFOR M

ON

PRODUCTION

m .

h a

m a m

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29 1

292

EFFECTS

OF THE

REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

rel atively ra pid e x p a nsion of a rt ifi ci al gra zings notwithst a ndin g a sim ul t a neous a n d consider a ble a d di tion to n a tur a l gr a zings a n d p a stures ( the fi ur e for 1 9 1 2 it sho u l d b e noted in cludin g g fa llow ) Ar t ifi ci al gra zin gs an d fodder crops a r e stea dily in cr e a s ing a s shown by the figur es b elow ,

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H e cta res 1 9 23

1 924 19 25 1 9 26 1 9 27

1 9 27

they covered 5 27 per cent of a ll the a ra ble l a nd The s a me effect in the second pl a ce is Visible in the r ed i st r ibu tion of crops The tim e w hi ch h a s el a psed from the b eginning of the reform is too short to h a ve a ll owed a n y fund a ment a l ch a nge to h a ve t a ken pl a ce in the n a tur e of the crops ; the pe a s a nts l a ck of knowledge a n d tra in in g forb a de a n y sudden tra nsform a tion But 1 its b eginnin gs a ppe a r sufii ci ent ly d efin e d in the opposite t a ble For the tim e being cere a l crops would seem to ret a in a s l a rge but not a sh a re of the a r a ble l a nd a s they occupied b efore without a const a nt proportion a l diminution : In

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1 9 06 1 9 1 1— 15 1 9 21 1 9 22 1 9 23 1 9 24 1 9 25 19 26 1 927

F rom t h e S ta ti s ti ca A g i cola a R omd n i ei p e A i i 1 9 1 1 1 5 1 9 1 8 a n d t h e S ta ti s ti ca Th e t a bl e h a s b een w ork e d o ut a s a n i ll u s tra ti on of A gr i colci p e A n a l 1 9 26 1 9 27 utili za ti on of t h e so il but it ca lay o cl i m t o c mpl te t h e n w tr n d i n t h B s id s t h e d fi cie cies t o which a tten ti on h a s b e en dr wn R u m an i an a ccur cy f t h e v a ri o u s ite ms a gricultur a l s ta ti s tic s s u ff r fr o m a t oo fr e qu n t r egr o upi n g H ea d i n gs d o pte d for on e p e rio d n o l ong r m an quite t h e s a me i n t h e n e xt a n d c ompa ri ons a re th e re by ren d e re d d iifi cult a n d ten tativ e In t h e a b o v e ta bl e t h e which r ef rs t o t h e tota l a r ea cultiva te d i n 1 9 1 1 —1 9 1 5 i n clud es n tur a l fi gur r i n gs o n a r a bl e l n d wh e r ea s t h e c o rres p o n di n g fi gur e for 1 9 26 d oe s not i n clud e a z g h a fa ll o w n a tur a l gra z i n gs but i n clud es "

1

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e

a

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n

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EFFECTS

PRODUCTION

r

r

e

e

r e

r

e

A P P B P P

293

294

OF THE REFORM ON

EFF ECTS

PRODUCTION

The decline of the a rea under cere a l crops 1 8 t o o regul a r not to suggest a settled tenden cy It tells however o nl y p a rt of the story a n d a more signifi cant ch a nge is reve a led by the di spl a ce ment in the r a nks of the princip a l crops a s shown by the t a ble below .

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°

VVh ea t

I da i ze

3 8 4%

4 1 49,

30 4% -

37 5 %

29 4 %

4 0 3%

-

-

-

-

Wh ile the a re a under whe a t h a s b een subj ect to m a rked oscill a tions a n d a fter a tempora ry recovery is a ga i n in declin e the a re a under m a iz e h a s exp a nded ste a di ly from ye a r to ye a r : ,

,

II e ct a r es

One can discern i n these severa l t a bles unmi st a k a ble signs of th a t incipient reorg a n iz a tion of a gricult ure which a s we h a ve suggested w a s to b e exp ected from a n in cre a se i n pe a s a nt fa rming Industri a l crops m a rket g a rdeni n g & c a r e rel a tively g a ining ground ; the progress in c a ttle breedi ng a n d d a ir y f a rming is indic a ted by the exp a nsion in gra zings a n d fodder crops a n d not less by the ch a nge in the d istribution of the princip a l cere a ls M a ize h a s been for a long tim e the st a ple food of the p e a s a nt p opul a tion but onl y in the Old Ki n gdom an d its l d not b e expl a ined on tha t m a int a ini n g now its i mport a nce cou score a lone j ust when the consum p tion of W he a ten bre a d is r a pidly sprea ding to the Villages But m a iz e is equ a lly im port a nt a s a fodder c ro p a n d the f a ct th a t its cultiv a tion cont i nues so extensively is fur t h er i e vi d en c e for the likely development of c a ttle breeding The ar gument is j ust ifi e d by the serious f a ll in whea t growing ; so th a t the rel a tive const a ncy in the position of ,

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OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

295

comp a rison w ith the declin e of whea t must in a cert a in me a sure b e counted a s a nother step a w a y from the cerea l ph a s e in which Rum a ni a s a griculture h a s lingered hi therto In the li ght of thi s incipient tra nsform a tion one is tempted to r e fl ect on the cl ai ms M Ga r ofli d put forwa rd on b eh a lf of the l a rge fa rmers th a t a t lea st they deserve credit for h a vi ng forced the pe a s a nts to ce a se being shepherds a n d become cultiva tors Th a t perh a p s they di d yet in a period when Eur op ea n corn growin g w a s a lre a dy losing to overse a s com petition— a competition which in the end is forcing the Europ ea n f a rmers to become shepherds a ga in In Rum a ni a th a t interme di a te st age extolled by M Ga r ofii d ruined a whole cl a ss exh a usted the soil a n d destroyed a flour i sh ing bra nch of f a rming whi ch un der the wi ng of the new reform the p ea s a nts a r e now strugglin g to revive Whe a t growing is not likely to prove more p op ul a r w ith them th a n with the pe a s a nts of western Eur op e mai z e, in ’

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S E C TI O N

2

P O S ITI O N A ND T H E F UTU R E OF W H E A T A ND M A I ZE (a ) Wh ea t From the genera l problem of Rum a ni a n agri cul tura l production the declin e of whea t gro w ing h a s b een sin gled out for speci a l a ttention no doubt b ec a use whea t formed the b a ckbone of Rum a ni a s export a n d w a s therefore the element by which Rum a ni a s a gric ul t ur a l prosperity w a s comm only me a sured a bro a d Hence the dis a pp ea ra nce of Rum a ni a n whe a t from the western m a rkets h a s c a used much a pprehension con cern ing the effects of the reform on Rum a ni a n a gricultur e a s a whole Whe a t gro wing a n d the export of whe a t will prob a bly not pl a y the s a me predomin a nt role in Rum a ni a n economi c life a g a in a n d it is therefore of gener a l i nterest b to survey the r i efl y cir cum st a nces on whi ch th a t a ssum ption is b a sed Whe a t h a s been subj ect to a ll the conditions w hi ch h a ve c a used an a ll roun d declin e in Rum ani a s h a rvests In a d di tion however whea t growing h a s b een a ffected by a numb er of s ecifi c circ umst a nces fi r s t of a ll by a consider a ble reduction in p the a rea under this cr 0p In the Old Kingdom b efore the Wa r whea t h a d sprea d itself out ov er ne a rly two fi ft h s of the culti TH E P RESEN T .

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29 6

OF

EFFECT S

va t e d a

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

re a but in Gre a ter Rum a ni a a t present its c ul tiva tion covers less th a n 30p er cent of the a re a brought ye a rly un der the plough We h a ve pointed out in the precedi ng p a ges th a t in genera l the pe a s a nts give preference to cr 0p s whi ch dem a nd gre a ter l a bour on a lesser a re a ; m a ize & c is rel a tively ga i ni ng groun d at the expense of whe a t Whe a t moreover is diffi cult to grow on the exiguous strips which compose most of the p e a s a nt holdings To the decline b oth in whe a t sowi n gs a n d h a rvests the e xh a ustion of the whea t l a nds by the w a nton exploit a tion of the former l a rge cultiva tors h a s further contributed Cert a in region a l va ri a tions in whe a t gro w ing a r e expl ain ed by loc a l circum st a nces In Molda vi a where the win ter l a sts longer spring whe a t must b e so wn during a short p eriod tow a rds the end of M a rch or the beginn i ng of April whi ch in volves gre a ter risks th a n in other regio ns a n d with other crop s Wh ea t used to b e grown there m a inly by l a rge f a rmers on their own a ccount a n d the f a ll in its cultiv a tion is consider a ble On the other h a nd in Munte n i a a n d Olt en ia whe a t ca n b e sown tow a rds the end of Febru a ry : in these regions whe a t w a s cultiva ted l a rgely in meta yage a n d figur es c a lcul a ted a n d priva tely comm uni c a ted by M Emil M a ri a n show th a t the a re a under whe a t h a s rem a ined pra ctic a lly unch a nged in the va rious coun ties since 1 8 76 There h a ve b een va ri a tions from ye a r to ye a r but not over longer periods An a ddition a l set of fa cts which a ffected th e gro w in g of whe a t spra ng from the p e a s a nts stra in ed cir cumst a nce s a fter the Wa r Out of their p overty they h a d then to rebuild the i r economy a n d a lso to pa y for the l a nd they h a d received a t the resettlement Now seed for a hect a re of whe a t costs a bout lei whi ch mounts up with clea ni ng to lei a n d w ith lei per interests of 30—40 per cent on thi s money to 11 a a sum which is frequently beyond th e me a ns of the p e a s a nts or in a n y c a se a sum which they a r e disincli ned to la y out They prefer to sow m a ize which gives them food for themselves an d for the ir a nim a ls a n d the seed for which o n ly costs a bout 1 5 0 1 6 016 1 p er h a At the s a me time the pe a s a nts h a ve been tempted by the disorg a niz a tion of ra ilwa y tra nsp ort to employ their te a ms for c a rting the h a rvest & c inste a d of sowin g a utumn ,

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EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

29 7

PRODUCTION

h a a ut umn whe a t which forms the m a in wh eat cro p whe a t a s a g a in st sprin g whe a t in 1 927 the l a tter m a in ly in B ess a ra bi a ; they could obt a in from c a rti ng high pr ofi t s a n d re a dy c a sh e n a bli ng them to meet the higher cost of keeping a ni m a ls The Rum a ni a n ra i lw a y system w a s designed to li nk up the town s an d not in the fir st pl a ce to t ap the richest a gricultur a l regions an d the effect h a s b een to tempt the pe a s a nts i n emergencies w ith opport u ities for s a fe a n d e a sy g a in which n di sturbs their fa rm ing a n d m the s a me me a sur e the temper of the economists concerned w ith the furthera nce of a griculture These conditions a r e prob a bly of a l a sting n a tur e They m a ke it unlikely th a t the a re a un der whe a t wi ll ever re a ch its former proportion qui te a p a rt from the in fl uen ce of more tra nsient fa ctors to which we sh all presently refer conn ected with the st a te of the m a rket a n d w ith o ffici a l policy Oi the twelve a n d a h a lf mi lli on h a a r a ble l a nd the pe a s a nts now hold some eleven million h a But a mong the pe a s a nts only those ca n grow whe a t who own more th a n 3 5 h a In the present orga niz a tion of the i r household a n d fa rm ing the pe a s a nts require 1 8 hectoli tres m a iz e for their own foo d 8 — 1 0 hectolitres for birds a n d f a rm y a rd a nim a ls a n d 700 chi le for 2 oxen— a tot a l qu a ntity for which the 3 5 h a j ust suffi ce If one divides the expropri a ted a rea by the number of pe a s a nts who h a ve received l a nd the a vera ge holding distributed works out a t a bout 3 5 h a e a ch a n d if to th a t a re a one a dds the l a nd distributed in former re settlements the conclusion is th a t a n a rea of roughly h a is di vided into very sm a ll holdings on which it is not pra ctic a ble to grow whe a t The rem a ini ng h a a r a ble l a nd a b out equ a l the a re a which h a s in f a ct been put un der whe a t Hence the a rea whi ch can b e devoted to whe a t grow ing is likely to rem a in sta tion a ry while intern a l requi rements a r e gre a tly incre a sed In some of the new provinces especi a lly in Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovin a the pop ula tion e at bre a d a n d pot a toes but m a ize not a t a ll Together with the growth of urb a n centres th a t circumsta nce dem a nds a h igher contribution in whe a t from the Old Kin gdom a s Tra nsylva ni a a n d Buco vi n a could not s a tisfy their own needs even before the Wa r a n d h a d to dra w supplies from other p a rts of the Austro Hung a ri a n -

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298

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION

mon a rchy More im port a nt still is the effect of ch a nges whi ch ar e t a kin g pl a ce in the h a bits of pe a s a nts in the Old Ki ngdom The long p eriod sp ent in the a rmy h a s a ccustomed m a ny of them to e at bre a d an d being on the whole b etter off a fter the reform their im proved st a nda rd of li vin g fin d s expression in a ch a nge from a m a iz e to a whea t di et The fi gur e s b elow p ur port to in dic a te the intern a l consumption of the prin ci p a l cerea ls but they a r e a pprox im a te to a degree b eing obt a in ed sim ply by the deduction of exports from the tot a l pr od uct i on (in clusive imports ) .

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1 9 20—4

19 1 0— 1 5

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1 27 0 11 1 82 0 48 0 49

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In the followin g t a ble a n a ttempt h a s b een m a de to work out more a ccura tely the figur es for whe a t by deducti ng from the tot a l intern a l consumption the qu a ntity estim a ted to h a ve b een used a s seed ( a t 1 8 0 kilogra m per in quin t a ls : ,

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The figure s h a ve only rel a tive v a lue for in yea rs of rich h a rvests the unexported sur plus a pp e a rs fi ct it i ously a s p a rt of the fi gur e representing the intern a l consum ption Thi s expl a ins the hi gh figur e s for 1 9 26 On the other h a nd 1 9 24 g a ve a very poor whe a t crop ; whe a t h a d to be imported prob a bly in the follow in g spring a n d th a t im port went to swell the a lre a dy l a rge tot a l for 1 9 25 Whe a t imports were a s follows ,

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EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

299

The consum ption of whea t is sm a ll in comp a rison with th a t of other countries a s the p ea s a nts in the Old Kingdom m a inly In the c a se of m a iz e it is im possible to sep a ra te the ea t m a ize qu a ntity used a s food from th a t used a s fodder The genera l consumption of cerea ls 1 s considera ble being p a ra lleled only by th a t of Hun ga ry ; therefore the new h a bit of e a ting brea d i s 1 likely to a bsorb a n y futur e in crea se in the whe a t h a rvests Th a t phenomenon is being experienced in other countries a s we ll even in the Fa r E a st in Chin a a n d especi a lly in Ja p a n Whe a t exports to the F a r E a st h a ve in cre a sed on a n a vera ge te n fold since the b eginnin g of the cent ury Dur ing the eleven ye a rs before the War Indi a exported a n a vera ge of 45 million bushels ye a rly but a fter the Wa r it fell to 1 3 millions a s a result of gre a ter home dem a nds ; an d consum ption it is considered is 2 likely to keep p a ce w ith the rise in production The ch a nge in Rum a ni a is illustra ted more tellin gly even th a n in figur e s by the a ppe a ra nce in a hn ost every V ill a ge of a t le a st one b a ker where a s formerly bre a d coul d o nl y b e got from tow n A lo a f of brea d w a s gener a lly the tre a t which the pe a s a nt brought his fa mi ly when he went to m a rket The popula tion of the new provin ces on the other h a nd will not t a ke to m a ize ,

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ve rage cons u m pti on per h ea d of c ere l s i cludin g qu a n titi s u se d for s eed a s fodd e r 1 920—9 i n qu i n t a ls 1

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in t he ea oo of t h e I n e n a o n a ns e of Ag u r e ) Th e a e s os es e a n n a on a e fe e n es : R ma n a a n d ugos la vi a con s m e a goo ea of ea a n d m a ze ; ea ; i n o an ga a ess m a z e a n d m o e ma ze i s of n o m or an e , r y e om i n g fi r s t a n d a f e ea ; i n ze os o a a ea a n d r e ar e ons m e a o e al ze os o a a an d o an a r e g ea ons m e s y o a oes , as fo o of a n d a s fo e , en e e ons me ess e ea s 9 I nd i a as a P r od ucer a nd E xp mter of Wh ea t, W ea S e s of t h e oo R esea ns e , S a mf o n e s 1 927 ( a fo n a ) , -

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ric ltu t bl di cl c rt i ti l pr r c u i J u d d l wh t i Bul ri l i r wh i i p t c c t r it wh t C ch l c u d b ut qu ly C ch l v ki P l d r p t t d dd r h c th y c u l c r l h t tudi F I titut t rd U iv r ity C li r i J uly .

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300

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

even i n t imes of stress After the di s a strous f ai l ure of the 1 928 h a rvest in m a ny p a rts of B ess a ra bi a the Rum a ni a n Red Cross set up c a nteens in the distressed a re a a n d di stributed to the V ill a gers free of ch a rge the tr a di tion a l mamali a g (p olen ta ) but l a ter brea d h a d to be substituted a lthough the cost w a s t w ice a s high bec a use the pop u l a tion though f a mi shed coul d not b e induced to eat m a ize In genera l the intern a l consum ption of whe a t before the Wa r w a s estim a ted a t to w a gons 8 0 p er cent of which were consumed i n the to wn s Now the intern a l requir ements h a ve b een estim a ted in a Memora ndum of the Cerea l d e S tudi i E con omi ce a t w a gons i e a p ro portion of 1 3 where a s the pop ul a tion h a s i ncre a sed merely a s 1 2 If the popula tion of the Old Kin gdom shoul d come to con sum e whea t a t the s a me ra te a s the i nh a bit a nts of the new provin ces intern a l requirements wo ul d rise to w a gons ye a rly plus w a gons for seed ; w hi ch me a ns th a t the pre w a r export co ul d not b e equ a lled un til the h a rvest re a ched w a gons ye a rly The problem of in tern a l supplies is a ggra v a ted by the fa stidi ousness of the town speople who insist on the whitest of W he a ten bre a d Even imm edi a tely a fter the Wa r W hen whe a t a n d fl our h a d to b e im ported on credit a n d when Fr a nce Germ a ny an d other co untries restricted the consum ption of white flour restrictions were imposed in Rum a nia only upon the producers but not a t a ll upon the consum ers To meet the growin g intern a l dem a nd in the fa ce of a tendency to diminish supplies the Governm ent resorted from the begin nin g to me a sur es c a lc ul a ted to bring them pop ul a rity by keep i ng the price of whe a t low J ust when Rum a ni a needed to i ncre a se her exports for purposes of reconstruction a n d when Rum a ni a n whe a t could h a ve found a re a dy outlet in the depleted m a rkets of Centra l Eur op e the Rum a ni a n Governments prohibited the export of whe a t a n d of whe a t fl our The neighbour in g countries Yugosl a vi a Hung a ry Bulg a ri a— h a d a lesser production yet none of them resorted to sim il a r prohibitions In the second pl a ce the Governments fi x e d m a ximum prices for whe a t a n d a s this h a d the effect of deterri ng the f a rmers from sowin g whe a t the a uthorities fi n a lly resorted to a system of requisitions Any .

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OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

301

rticle li a ble to b e requisitioned tends to dis a pp ea r from the m a rket a n d a s a ll these restrictive me a sur es were a pplied to whe a t a lone they crea ted a psychologic a l preference for other crops which did not expose the fa rmers to the co n st a nt i n t er fe r ence of the a uthorities Afterw a rds when the export of whe a t w a s left free the Governm ent ende a voured to ensure a plentiful intern a l supply by imposing high e xp ort t a xes This effectively ruined a ll the ch a nces of the whe a t export the more so a s prices were fa lling r a pidly from yea r to ye a r a n d Rum a n i a s restrictive me a sures coin cided with the speci a l efforts m a de by Fra n ce Germ a ny It a ly a n d other countries towa rds the r a isi n g of their Nor h a d the Rum a ni a n me a sures a n y own whe a t production other effect beyond dimin ishin g the supplies which re a ched the m a rket As a consequence in t ern a l w h ea t prices rose ever hi gher even if the rise w a s usu a lly one ye a r l a te keeping step in ea ch c a se with the ch a nge in o ffici a l restrictions As might h a ve been expected restrictions on whe a t c a used its price to rem a in a bsolutely or rel a tively below th a t of other cere a ls in 1 9 1 6 whe a t prices were 33 35 per cent higher th a n m a ize but in 1 924 only 1 7 35 per cent O a ts a n d b a rley fetched during the fi r st fi ve ye a rs a fter the Wa r higher prices th a n whe a t This le d to a con s i d era b le w a st a ge of the more v a lu a ble corn ; l a rge a n d sm a ll cultiva tors preferred to use whe a t on their own fa rms for the feeding of a nim a ls In the town s too bre a d being chea per th a n m a ize or other foodstuffs chi ckens a n d eve n pigs a n d horses were fed on bre a d During the p a st few yea rs on a ccount of low prices a n d indi fferent qu a li ty whole c a rgoes of whe a t h a ve gone t o Denm a rk a s fodder These disturbin g c ircum st a nces were a ggra va ted by the severe money crisis a n d the consequent high r a tes of in terest Whe a t growers were un a ble to obt a in from the offi cia l prices even the equiva lent of the money invested in seed a n d l a bour In a n interview publi s hed in the Buc a rest P la tus on November 1 1 1 923 the dir ector of a big Tr a nsylv a ni a n flour mill a dmitted th a t things h a d come to such a p a ss tha t they were a ble to buy whe a t a t a lmost a n price if they p a id re dy c sh Sm ll tr ders a a a a y an d specul a tors used to a ssemble a t country st a tions a n d buy whea t from the pea s a nts by the s a ck a t prices which g a ve them no a

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302

EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

more th a n lei per w a gon Wh en its restrictive mea sures h a d completely unb a l a nced the cultiva tion of whea t the Governm ent tried to countera ct them by other offi cial decrees In 1 9 21 it w a s decided th a t whea t wi th a weight of more th a n 76 kilogra ms per hectolitre a n d only 1 per cent imp ur ities should b e exempted from req uisition a n d from exp ort restrictions But such a qu a lity w a s extremely r a re a n d a bove the li mit fix e d before the Wa r a s entitling to exemption from requisition S ome of the l a rge cultiva tors m a y p ossibly h a ve rea ched i t but it w a s most improb a ble th a t the pe a s a nts who coul d not a fford selected seed would come a nywhere ne a r it The decree w a s in d a nger of b eing interpreted by them a s one more fa vour for the boia r s a n d of m a kin g them still more 1 reluct a nt to grow whea t L a ter on the Governm ent offered a prem i um of 200 lei for e a ch hect a re sown w ith whe a t but th a t represented merely a sm a ll p a rt of the loss which whe a t growers were sufferin g through price restrictions a n d export t a xes a n d the me a sur e w a s therefore fa ted to rem a in ineffective The A rgus c a lcul a ted th a t with a normal h a rvest whe a t in 1 924 ga ve a ret urn of a bout lei per h a which w a s the s a me a s other crops ; wherea s i n the a bsence of restrictions whe a t co ul d give a return of 4 0001e i to the lei of other cere a ls It will be seen th a t the declin e in whe a t growi ng c a nnot b e a ltogether a ttributed to the tr a nsfer of l a nd from l a rge to sm a ll cultiv a tors a fa ct whi ch a l a ter ch a pter dea ling wi th the The re a gr a ri a n policy of the St a te will bring out more cle a rly is much j usti fic a tion for the poin t of View of the Rum a ni an writer who a ccu s ed the St a te of h a vin g trea ted whe a t a s The upshot o i a ll thes e circum st a nces is a phil a nthropic crop th a t a n indi fferent h a rvest ca n h a rdly s a tisfy the coun try s own needs This w a s the c a se in 1 928 when immedi a tely a fter the h a rvest the flour mills of Tra nsylva ni a bought w a gons of whe a t from Hung a ry The obst a cles the Sta te pl a ced in the w a y of whe at gro w in g .

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A cc o rdi n g t o t h e F r a n kfur ter Z ei tun g for Ma y 9 , 1 9 25 , t h e a v e ra ge w e i ght pe r h e cto litre of wh ea t w a s 7 4 6 k g i n t h e ld Ki n gd om, 7 3 7 i n B es sa ra bi a , 7 6 2 in Tr a nsylv an i a a nd 7 5 2 i n Buco vin a , givi ng a n a v erage of 74 9 for t h e whol e c oun try 1

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EFFECTS

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THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

303

were the more unfortun a te a s whea t co uld m a int a in itself in Rum a ni a o nl y by mea ns of more i ntensive methods a n d returns M H a rold Wright mentioned in hi s book on Popul a tion th a t dur ing the fi r st ye a r of the Wa r the a re a under whea t in cre a sed by a b out a cre s Wh e a t growin g h a s m a de such ra pid strides in Americ a a n d Ca n a da th a t some of the i nf erior qu a lities a r e now used by the C a n a di a n f a rmers for the f a tteni n g of c a ttle in preference to the more export a ble cerea ls li ke o a ts a n d b a rley M Ionescu Sise s ti h a s c a lcul a ted th a t with the present cost of production a n d a ver a ge retur ns the Rum a ni a n f a rmers suffer kg the production rem a in s b elow a loss whenever per h a Th a t however me a ns a continuous loss the a vera ge norm a l production bein g a t present b elow k g per h a a n d a b out 900 k g p er h a in the c a se of pe a s a nt cultiv a tors The remedy in his Vi ew w a s to tur n from whe a t growin g to the production of high qu a lity a n im a l d a iry a n d ga rden produce M Ga r ofli d too w a rned the country some yea rs a o th a t they must f a mili a rize themselves with the ide a th a t soon g Rum ani a m a y no lon ger coun t a mong whe a t exporting countries And if America n whea t supplies contin ued to in cre a se the repl a cement of whea t by m a ize w a s in his op i nion not necess a rily a gre a t loss The b est use to b e m a de of the excess of fodder produced by the pe a s a nt holdin gs w a s to devote it to the bree di ng a n d f a tteni ng of c a ttle Though representing the l a rge fa rmers M Ga r ofii d a dm itted th a t pe rh a ps the o nl y me a ns of r a is ing Rum an i a n a gricult ure might b e to repl a ce the export of whe a t a n d o a ts a n d b a rley by the export of me a t a n d f a ts ( b) Ma i ze Both from the point of vi ew of extension a n d of production m a ize growing rem a i ns the chief cr0p of Rum a ni a n a gricultur e Its prominent position is not merely a ccident a l but the res ul t of a soil a n d clim a te fa vour a ble to its growt h M a iz e requi res a rich soil a n d a w a rm clim a te from sowin g to h a rvest ing with r a in d uring the period of veget a tion an d a dry a utumn to f a cili ta te ripening a n d h a rvesting Such conditions a r e seldom encoun tered elsewher e in centra l a n d western Europe an d m a ize is h a rdly to be found except in the Neck a r v a ll ey a mong Vi nes Ma ize for fodder which is ha rvested green is A gu O ct b r 1 2 19 23 .

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304

OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

ex tensively grown in Germ a ny of cour se much of the seed for it b eing imported from the B a n a t M a ize w a s introduced in Rum a ni a in the eighteenth cent ury through It a li a n an d Turkish tra ders It soon bec a me a fa vourite with the p e a s a nts displ a cing a h n ost completely within a short sp a ce of time the growi ng of mi ll et which h a d from olden da ys b een the m a in ingre di en t in the pe a s a nts nour ishment Since it s introduction m a iz e fl our h a s formed the bulk of the pea s a nts ,

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The a dv a nt a ges which the pe a s a nts fin d in m a iz e a r e m a ny a n d v a ried It is well a d a pted to Rum a ni a s soil a n d clim a tic conditions In norm a l ye a rs a n d when c a refully grown m a iz e gives a richer h a rvest th a n a n y other cere a l It is a much s a fer cr0p th a n whea t a s it requir es o nl y a bout h a lf the qu a ntity of w a ter needed by whe a t so th a t it resists drought better an d longer th a n other cere a ls ; only once dur ing the p a st fi ft y yea rs di d the m a ize cr 0p fa il a ltogether a n d m a ize h a ve to b e i mported from Americ a The l a bour it requi res especi a lly sowi ng does not interfere a s reg a rds tim e wi th other a gric ul tur a l l a b ours M a iz e needs only a sm a ll qu a ntity of seed in proportion to the a cre a ge the cost be ing a bout 1 5 0 1 6 0 lei per h a ; a n d there is a further s a ving in th a t it is sown six months a fter whea t N 0 other pl a nt produces within such a short period of veget a tion so much c a rbohydra tes sug a r a n d f a ts in a s re a dily digestible a form The m a ize porridge a n d the m a iz e c a ke supply the pe a s a nt with a complete foo d comprisin g st a rch sug a r Its compo s ition in t hi s resp ect is more a lbum inoids a n d f a ts s a tisfa ctory th a n th a t of whe a t which cont a in s o nl y 1 9 per cent fa ts while m a ize cont a ins 4 4 per cent The prep a r a tion of the mamaliga is a t r iflin g l a bour comp a red with the b a k ing of bre a d ; it ca n b e cooked e a sily a n d freshly over a n y kind of fi re which is of gre a t im port a nce to the pe a s a nts who often h a ve to work fa r from home living with w ives a n d chil d ren for da ys a n d sometim es weeks in a n d a bout their c a rts M a ize st a lks a n d le a ves supply a much better fodder th a n stra w ; it serves to feed a ll the a n im a ls from oxen to chickens ; it f a ttens pigs b etter th a n a n yt hing else And wh a t rem a ins over a fter foddering the a nim a ls with the st a lks m a kes a fuel ’

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EFFECTS

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305

which is especi a lly va lu a ble in the timberles s Rum a ni a n pl a in Fin a lly m a ize growi n g h a s a useful pl a ce in crop rot a tion Though a cere a l it is trea ted like a root a n d the hoei n g it requi res prep a res the groun d for whe a t a n d other cere a l crops The rot a tion m a ize whe a t w a s the fi r st s tep in the improvement of Rum a ni a n a griculture The m a in dis a dva nt a ge of m a iz e growi ng is th a t it dem a nds a gre a t de a l of l a bour in hoein g a n d ridging Th a t is why the l a rge fa rmers seldom grew it except in méta yage ; a n d in e a stern Ga li ci a e g before the Wa r m a ize w a s the o nly crop cultiva ted in méta yage ( na sp uken ) This dra wb a ck does not however deter the pe a s a n ts a s so fa r they do not count their own l a bour a mong the f a ctors which determine how fa r a crop is r ofi t a b l e p or not Another dis a dva nt a ge of a soci a l n a ture h a s been the endemic preva lence of pella gra a mong the Rum a ni a n pe a s a ntry a ttributed to the consum ption of m a iz e In so fa r a s th a t w a s true it w a s no doubt due to the fa ct th a t the qu a lity of the m a iz e h a d been a llowed to degener a te B e s ides this the p e a s a nts sold the best a n d con s um ed the wor s t of wh a t they re a ped As long as often of poor qu a lity w a s a h n ost the only food of a popula tion on a low level of physic a l fi t n es s it w a s likely enough to produce ba d consequences To d ay the pea s a nts still li ve m a i n ly on mamaliga but from a ll a ccounts pella gra h a s pra ctic a lly di sa ppea red o wing to a gener a l improvement in their sta n d a rd of living B ec a use m a ize pl a ys only a negligible p a rt in the food of the urb a n pop ul a tio n the Gover mn en t s di d not inconvenience its cultiva tion a n d export with a ll the he a vy restrictions which they imposed upon whea t This helped to m a int a in the pop ul a rity of m a ize with the pea s a nts a s proved by the figures for the fi r s t few ye a rs a fter the W a r : .

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Duri n g the wor s t period of reconstruction therefore the a re a ,

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306

EFFECTS

OF

THE

R EFORM ON

PRODUCTION

under m a ize rem a ined a h n ost st a ble where a s the a re a under other cere a ls w a s fi r st restricted a n d then gra du ally extended from ye a r to ye a r The pe a s a nts th a t is fi r st di rected the i r efforts to the reviva l of m a ize growing a n d o nl y a fterw a rds took steps to i n cre a se the other crops From the figur e s given in the preceding section one ma y s a fely deduce the fa ct th a t m a iz e is if a nyt h i ng g a ini ng ground a n d th a t it is li kely to rem a in by fa r the most impo rt a nt crop in Rum a ni a n a griculture As a food it m a y gra du a lly b e repl a ced by whea t in some me a sure but th a t will prob a bly b e more th a n compens a ted by a gro w ing dem a nd for it a s fodder through the development of c a ttle breeding ,

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S E C TI O N TH E

E FFE C T

OF

3

T H E RE F O R M

ON

PR O D U C TI O N

’

Rum a ni a s a gricultura l production registered a serious decline The c ultiva ted a rea a ft er the Wa r from every point of View diminished ; tot a l production a s well a s the yield per h a fell ; the qu a lity of the produce w a s a lso worse As th a t and decline occurred duri n g the period which s a w the a pplic a tion of the l a nd reform it w a s simple enough to a ssum e th a t the fi r st w a s the result of the second ; especi a lly a s most critics took it for gra nted th a t the ch a nge h a d me a nt a tra nsfer of l a nd from well equi pped l a rge fa rmers to a m a ss of un prep a red p ea s a nt cultiva tors How little found a tion there w a s for such a n a ssum ption h a s been s hown in the precedin g ch a pter It w a s seen th a t the l a rge f a rmers h a d depended a lmost completely on the te a ms a n d im plements a n d l a bour of the pe a s a nts ; a n d th a t w a s b ound to b e st ill more so a t the end of the Wa r Cert a in writers therefore hold th a t fa r from depressin g pro duction the reform h a s a ctu a lly s a ved it The a gra ri a n reform h a s s a ved our a gricultur a l production s a ys M Ionescu Sise s ti a n d h a s protected us a g a i nst the i rremedi a ble colla pse of our n a tion a l e conomy Only by offering the pe a s a nt the l a nd for which he w a s cra ving h a s he been in duced to m a ke a n effort b eyond m a n s n orm a l powers The writer fi n d s support for his view in the s ign ifi ca n t fa ct th a t the a re a which h a s rem a ined ,

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THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

307

untilled from expropria ted l a nd is much sm a ll er th a n th a t from 1 l a nd not li a ble to expropri a tion Ta king a ll the a r a ble l a nd the p a rt un cultiva ted a mounted to 24 21 per cent where a s from the expropri a ted l a nd 1 6 93 per cent rem a ined un t illed in 1 919 The w riter a ppe a rs to overlook the a n d 1 2 8 6 p er cent in 1 9 20 ob vious retort tha t it w a s j ust the expropri a tion which m a de it di ffi cult for the l a rge cultiva tors to secure the nece s s a ry l a bour for their fa rms but this merely qua lifi e s w ithout inva lid a ti n g the truth of the observa tio n It w a s not a n isol a ted experience The Polish l a ndowners ruined by the deva st a tion of the Wa r Ap a rt from a re most of them u n a ble to f a rm their est a tes mea sures of l a nd reform therefore it w a s found necess a ry to p a ss speci a l legisl a tion for pl a ci n g th a t surplus a re a in the form 2 of compulsory lea ses a t the dispos a l of the pea s a nts When tryi ng to discover the re a l re a sons for the fa ll in production on e is fi r st of a ll f a ced a s w a s pointed out before with the insoluble d iffi cult y of how to disent a ngle the effects of the reform from the effects of the Wa r The l a tter m a de them selves felt in most of the civi li zed countries s a ys the report of a n inquiry m a de by the Intern a tion a l Institute of Agriculture Essenti a lly the present crisis is a m a rketin g crisis In m a ny countries the prices of a gricultura l products do not cover the cost of production nor compens a te for the considera ble in cre a se in the prices of m a nufa ctured goods Cert a in genera l proposi tions m a y s a fely b e l a id down however S eeing th a t the a gricul tura l d efi cien cy b ec a me mitiga ted a s the Wa r ye a rs receded it is re a sona ble to a ssum e tha t to some degree it represe n ted And a s th a t improvement bec a me a consequence of the Wa r a cce n tu a ted a s the a pp lic a tion of the reform a dv a nced it is e vident tha t not a ll the trouble could h a ve been c a used by the reform itself N evert h eles s there is no doubt th a t d uring the fi rst ye a rs production w a s dist urbed by the a pp lic a tion of the reform But here a ga in we a r e fa ced with a com plica t in g circum st a nce which m a kes it im possible to re a ch a n y nice conclu s ion Duri n g the period of tra nsition a gric ulture w a s a bnorm a lly h a rra ssed by t h e economic po licy of the Govern ’

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Refor ma A gra f a si P r od uc ti un ea , 1 9 25 , p 23 G Da s z i ns k a Go li ns k a , La Réfor m e A gra i re eu P ologn e, '

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308

EFFECTS

OF THE

REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

ments who ruled Rum a nia during the ten ye a rs a ft er the Wa r Th a t policy to be det a iled l a ter must for ever lea ve open the question a s to whether th a t a gricultura l dec li n e would h a ve come to p a ss a t a ll or with such Virulence h a d the St a te n ot shown itself conspicuously indifferent to the recovery of the coun try s p a ra mount industry S ome of the most severe effects of the Wa r h a ve been men t i on e d in discussing the ch a nge in the techni c a l me a ns of produc tion Two thirds of the more fertile l a nd of Old Rum a ni a rem a ined for two ye a rs under the occup a tion of a n enemy despera tely in need of food stuffs From December 1 1 9 1 6 till April 4 1 91 8 the Centra l Powers took a w a y tons of cere a ls fodder a n d oil be a ring seeds ; including in th a t tot a l tons of whe a t a n d tons of m a iz e They were a lso a ble to c a rry a w a y a h n os t the whole of the 1 9 1 8 h a rvest Munteni a w a s completely denuded of supplies a t the end of the Wa r ; o a ts a n d b a rley h a d to be brought in from Mold a vi a a n d whe a t for consum ption a n d seed from a bro a d 1 The loss in men a n d a ni m a ls in m a chines a n d implements woul d h a ve been s uffi ci en t severely to disturb a gricultur a l production esp eci a lly a s economic condition s a t the end of the Wa r m a de the repl a ce ment of the destroyed m a teri a ls d iffi cult a n d often impossible Everywhere one ca n still see old a gricultura l im plements which h a d been long disc a rded summ a rily mended a n d brought into us e a g a in H a ph a z a rd cultiv a tion dur i ng the Wa r even more c a reless th a n before it h a s left b ehi nd rich crops of weeds At the end of the Wa r moreover there w a s a serious short a ge of seed a s the needs of the country a n d the enemy requisitions h a d used up a ll the supplies of corn ; whea t a n d flour h a d to b e imported in 1 91 9 even for intern a l consum ption To a ll the s e circum st a nces one must a d d the coll a pse of the tra nsport sy s tem ; ro a ds a n d r a ilw a ys a r e not eve n yet in a fit st a te to cope with a norm a l h a rvest a nner in which the reform w a s The m A r ea t i v a t e d a T h e C u l ( ) The Govern a pplied m a de the a gricultur a l confusion still worse .

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d cripti

y ccup ti o s e t t riculture duri b oth i n thi s eri es

o a on o f t h e e n e m F or a e s d e la R ouma n i e ; a n d on t h e s a e of a g L A gr i cultur e Rouma m e p en da n t la Guer r e— 1

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G A n t i pa , L Occup a ti on 11 i li 1a i r e n on es S s es , g t h e Wa r , G .

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EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

309

ment decreed the immedia te expropri a tion of l a rge prop erty a n d the whole oper a tion w a s c a rried out duri n g the winter 1 9 1 8 1 9 This h a sty a pplic a tion of the fi r st p a rt of the reform m a de it impossible to tra nsfer the l a n d to the pe a s a nt s with the s a me speed Oi the h a expropri a ted durin g the fi r s t ye a r ha over h a rem a ined in the h a nds of the St a te ; h a rem a ined were rented by the former o wners while uncultiva ted the St a te h a ving to pa y for them a ye a rly re n ta l of lei The l a ndo w ners were not u n willi ng a s they got a s a fe i n come w ithout a n y trouble a n d effort ; in Dobroge a e a nd rem a ined they received the full region l rent though the l a g untilled where a s the unexpropri a ted l a nd could not be let even h a were a t h a lf the region a l rent In Const a n t a county t a ken over by the St a te but only h a could b e distributed to the pe a s a nts a n d th a t W ith grea t d iffi cult y In his Memora n dum to the King M Ga rofli d estim a ted a t six to seven hundred million lei the lo s s resulting from th a t unutilized a re a I n genera l the mech a n ic b a sis of the expropri a tion h a mpered production in the fi r s t two ye a rs i e j ust when the former owners h a d to reorg a niz e their exploit a tions bec a use no one knew precisely how much l a nd would be left him ; a n d this w a s m a de worse by the continuous t a lk of a second expropria tion which a s we know w a s in fa ct decreed The j oint effect of the Wa r a n d of the a pplic a tion of the reform is seen in the following fi gur e s rel a ting to the a re a under whe a t ,

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1 9 14 19 18 1 9 19

or a ccordi n g to the kind of fa rms 1 9 1 9 — 20

La rge fa r ms V i ll ge a sso ci ti on s S m ll fa r m rs a

a

a

e

Comp a red with the a vera ge of t h e preceding fi ve ye a rs the a re a cultiv a ted in 1 9 1 9 dropped by a bout h a in the Old Kingdom Hence the loss coul d h a ve been due only in a minor ,

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31 0

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

p a rt to the reform a s merely a bout one fourth of it concerned the expropri a ted l a nd : -

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H e cta res

Cultiv a te d a rea b fore t h e War Ar ea l eft f llo w duri ng 1 9 1 9 A r ea e xpro pri te d m 1 9 1 9 P rt of it which re ma i n ed u n til l ed m 1 9 19 Pa r t which re ma i ne d u till ed m 1 9 20 e

a

24 2 1

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The decline in the cultiva ted a re a w a s in a ny c a se short lived The t a ble below suggests th a t the f a rmers themselves did a ll th a t dep ended on them tow a rds the recovery of a griculture : -

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Y r ea

O ld K i gd n

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m

Bes s a ra bi

a

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na

Tr a ns ylv a n i

a

R um a n

ia

It is interesting to n ote how the cultiva ted a re a w a s distributed b etween l a rge a n d sm a ll property in the severa l provinces : ,

Bessa ra b ia

T ot a l

B ucovin a

T

ot a

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OF

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THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

31 1

Tra n sylva n i a S ma ll P

r p e rty

Tot l

o

a

T ta l o

Ruma n i a l

l Prop erty S ma l

Peasan t Co o p e r tiv es

Fa ll ow

T ot a l

a

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One should p erha ps expl a in th a t most of the l a nd listed a s bein g exploited by pe a s a nt co opera tives w a s re a lly in the h a nds of the tempor a ry vill a ge a ssoci a tions formed to t a ke up expropri a ted l a nd un t il its fi n a l me asurement into indi vidu a l lots ; therefore the const a nt fa ll of the fi gur e s in tha t column indica tes the pro gress th a t w a s being m a de with the mea surement of the holdings a n d not a decline of a gricultur a l co oper a tion In 1 9 22 the cultiv a ted a re a still rem a ined a bout 1 0 per cent below the pre w a r a vera ge By 1 925 the pre w a r a re a w a s equ a lled a n d the exp a nsion slowed down but h a s not come to so tha t in extent a t a n y ra te the reform would seem to a n end be furthering the exploit a tion of the soil The dem a nd i s still considera ble a mong the pea s a nts but there is rel a tively little l a nd left th a t mi ght be brought under the plough The chief a va il a ble l a nd reserve consists of some ha Th t bl c mpil d fr m t h y rly t ti tic f t h Mi i try f Agricultu -

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Th e fi gur es for 1 9 24 an d 1 9 25 d o n u e i n t h e gen e a o a

i cl d d

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e

n ot

ea

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i n clud

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fa

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s o

llo w ;

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af e r

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ll o w l a d n

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was

31 2

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

lluvi a l soil in the low lying regions a long the D a nub e Dn y est r a n d Pruth This l a nd is lia ble to flooding a n d in 1 9 1 2 a la w provided for the recl a imin g of the l a nd by me a ns of a system of d a ms ; work begun on the strength of those preli mi n a ry studies w a s interrupted by the Wa r Th e a gra ri a n l a ws ga ve the owners a respite of ten ye a rs dur ing which they might c a rry out the work on their own a ccount ; otherwise the l a nd is to b e t a ken over by the St a te A commission of experts a ppoin ted by M Mih a la ch e wh en he took over the Ministry of Agriculture in 1 928 reported th a t onl y a little h a d b een do n e so fa r a n d th a t the work l a cked a b a sis s uffi ci en t ly s ci en t ifi c to ensure its reli a bility a n d perm a nence New pl a n s a r e being dra wn up for the e a rly recl a iming of wh a t i s boun d to prove a n extremely fertile a ddition to the country s a r a ble l a nd ( 6 ) P r od ucti on The decli ne of productio n h a s unfortun a tely proved more persiste n t The cultiv a ted a re a n ow exceeds the pre w a r extent but a s the yield per hect a re is gener a lly les s the tot a l h a rvest rem a ins d efi cien t in th a t proportion Cert a in peculi a r circumst a nces h a ve contributed to th a t u n fortun a te result In cert a in p a rts of the country to begin with the ra infa ll wo uld seem to h a ve ch a nged in the post w a r ye a rs The a vera ge r a infa ll for the hun dred ye a rs b efore the Wa r h a d re a ched 6 05 millimetres Durin g the fi r st fi ve ye a rs a fter the Wa r the gener a l a vera ge r a in f a ll a moun ted to o nl y 5 6 5 millim etres I n 1 9 24 the a vera ge w a s only 5 40 millimetres In th a t ye a r the Bl a ck S ea b a sin recorded a ra infa ll of merely 38 8 millimetres t h e b a s in of the Dn y e st r 378 millim etres a n d the b a sin of the Pruth 341 millimetres These qu a ntities h a rdly Autum n h a s become a dr y s uffi ce d for a mediocre h a rvest se a son r a in being recorded m a i n ly a t the end of sprin g a n d in summer In 1 928 there w a s h a rdly a n y r a in from the e n d of Ma y till the snow se a son The u s u a l direct ste a mer t r a ffi c from V ienn a to Giurgiu could be m a int a i n ed o n ly by repe a ted tr a ns fers into bo a ts with a lesser dra ught a n d for a time it w a s fe a red th a t the t r a ffi c would h a ve to be stopped a ltogether One re a son for the ch a nge is prob a bly the merciless cutting down of forests especi a lly during the W a r There i s a gre a t difference in the ra in f a ll received by the v a rious regions which ra nges from m illi a

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EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

31 3

metres in the highl a nds to 8 00millimetres in t h e h ills a n d less th a n 400m illi metres in the lowl a nds but so fa r no s ystem of irr ig a tion h a s been devised to dra w a dva nt a ge from the s e v a ri a tions Moreover while the qu a n tity of r a infa ll might b e suffi ci en t it genera lly is concentra ted on a sm a ll number of d a ys 6 5 8 in the ye a r This rel a tive dryness is e nh a n ced by the a ction of the s trong north e a sterly wi n ds which sweep a cro s s the fl a t corridor b etween the Dn y est r a n d the C a rp a thi a n s L a tely the wi n ters h a ve been m a rked by severe cold setting i n b efore the f a ll of the snow As a conseque n ce a bout one mi llion hect a res h a d e g to b e ploughed a n d so w n a fresh in the spring of The s e cl im a tic co n dition s expl a in some of the a pp a rently c a reless h a bit s of the pea s a nt s It is a n old tra di tion a mo n g them to le a ve in the a utum n the fi e ld s i n s uffi c i e n t l cle a ned a n d h a rrowed bec a use y in the a bse n ce of pl a n t a tions there is thus a better cha nce of holdin g the snow on their fi eld s It often h a ppe n s tha t whe a t sown between m a ize a n d kept b a ck by the m a ize h a rvest is in the sprin g more forwa rd th a n whea t sow n i n time a n d properly c a red for Another circum st a n ce of a genera l ch a ra cter which h a s a ffected a gricultur a l production a fter the Wa r is the short a ge of l a bour on the l a nd Oi the resettled p e a s a nts m a ny a re reluct a nt to e n g a ge a s l a bourers provided th a t they ca n get s uffi cie n t susten a n ce out of their own holdi ngs with the help of c a rting & c The younger me n on the other h a nd who h a ve rem a ined with out l a nd migra te to the town s to seek domestic or in dustria l work The census a ttempted two ye a rs ago h a d to b e scra pped a s its res ults were obviously f a lse but even without a me a s ure ment in figur es one can est a blish everywhere a r a pid growth in the urb a n popul a tion ; a n d the short age of l a bour during the period of a gricultur a l a ctivities le a ves n o doubt th a t there is a s light movement of popul a tion a w a y from the l a nd To some extent this m a y be induced by the ch a nge in the succe s sion l a ws which prohibit the sp litt ing up of pe a s a n t holdi n gs below a mini mum of 2 h a ; younger sons h a ve therefore a lesser ch a nce of inheriti n g a n y l a nd a t a ll ,

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di cu ss ion of t h e re la tion b etw een clima te a n d v egeta ti on i n R u m n i a se t h e p p e r r a d by M J ean C m a sesc u b e fo re t h e I n te rn a ti ona l Agricult ura l Co gres s h e ld a t Buc res t in J un e 1 9 29 1

F or a

a

s

a

e

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a

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e

n

ar

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31 4

EFFECTS

OF THE REFORM ON

PRODUCTION

of the circum st a nces w hi ch h a ve i nfl uen ce d production a dversely m a y b e a ttributed dir ectly to the reform S ome milli on hect a res h a vin g p a ssed in to the h a nd s of sm a ll own ers it might h a ve been ex pected in the Old Kin gdom a t le a st th a t they would stra in their powers in order to get more out of th a t a re a th a n h a d its former l a rge owners These hopes h a ve not b een a n d could not b e re a lized so fa r For if extensive cultiv a tion g a ve such poor results when a pplied on a l a rge sc a le its a chi eve ments were boun d to be still fra il er when the system w a s a pplied over a m a ss of sc a ttered fi eld s Of course such results a s used to b e obt a ined by ten a nts a n d b a ili ffs through putt i ng the screw on the p e a s a nts will henceforw a rd not b e obt a in ed But in the Old Kingdom a t an y r a te one co ul d h a rdly sp e a k of a decli ne in knowledge brought into the servi ce of a gricultur e ; though the l a ck of a cert a in g uid a nce which used to b e exercised by the l a rge cultiva tors no doubt m a kes itself felt All these however a re tempora ry effects due not so much to a n y deficiency in the new methods a s to the surviva l of the old ones A less tra nsitory dra wb a ck to the reform springs from the distribution of l a nd not to those best a ble to cultiv a te it but to the p ea s a nts who most suffered in the Wa r The principles of the reform a n d prob a bly still more the a buses committed dur i ng their a pp lic a tion h a ve moreover pl a ced fa irly considera ble extents of l a nd in the h a nds of a rti sa ns gypsies petty offi cia ls & c thereby a ggra v a ting th a t defect More serious still the reform h a s inevit a bly increa sed the ch a otic sca ttering of the p e a s a nt fi eld s ; in the a bsence of a ll me a sure of conso lid a tion a ddition a l fi eld s were given where l a nd w a s a v a il a ble a n d not where the recipient a lrea dy perh a ps h a d some l a nd of his own Th a t me a ns not merely a w a st a ge of tim e a n d a n uneconomic repetition of the va rious l a bours but a lso a considera ble w a st a ge of l a nd The lines of dem a rc a tion between these innumera ble sm a ll fi eld s a re a lleged in cert a in pl a ces to occupy a s much a s 30 per cent of their tot a l extent ; a n d they a r e a lso hotb eds of weeds a s the people concerned a r e not a nxious to remove the only things which m a ke the bound a ries conspicuous Wh a tever the p a rt gre a t or sm a ll pl a yed by e a ch of these fa ctors — most of which a r e tra nsitory— production still l a gs S ome

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EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

31 5

behind the pre w a r level In comp a rin g the two p eriods one must b e c a reful to keep in mi nd the ch an ge whi ch h a s t a ken pl a ce in the di stribution of the va rious crops ; for a s the t a ble 1 below shows the extent of e a ch of the fi ve princip a l cerea l cro p s is at present va stly different though the a re a they j ointly cover is simi l a r to the correspondi ng pre w a r a re a : -

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A

v e r a ge a r ea

O ld Ki gd n

A

o

m

B ess ra bi a

2

a

v e r a ge a r e

O ld K i gd n

o

m

a

a a

Buc o vi

a n s y lva n i a

r

h

T ot l

na

a

h ec t r es

1 9 23— 27 , i n

Bess r bi a

!

h e cta res

1 909 — 1 3, i n

a

Tr

ansy

lv a i a i Buc vi n

o

na

To t l

I

a

.

The post w a r a vera ges show a decrea se of over h a in the a re a under whe a t h a for rye a bout h a for h a for o a ts a n d of ne a rly m a ize ; a n d a n increa se of over h a for b a rley The in cre a se of the tot a l a re a under the fi ve crops in the Old Kingdom a h n ost ex a ctly equ a ls the a re a they occupied in the two countie s of southern Dobroge a D ur ost or a n d Ca li a cr a a cqui red in 1 9 1 3 It is more di ffi cult to expl a in the considera ble drop in Tra nsylva ni a unless the fi gur es of M J a sn y refer to a somewh a t l a rger territory tha n th a t occupied by the present Rum a ni a n province perh a ps b ec a use p a rt of the B a n a t went to J ugosla vi a With the a id of the s a me sources one ma y a ttempt a genera l Th fi t p rt f t h t bl rticl f N J y i Wi t ch ft d i t Ki l ft r t h N v mb 30 1 9 28 ; t h c d p rt fr m t h t ti tic f t h M i i t y f Agricultur -

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e s e on

With out t h e Qu a dril a te ra l

e

a

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e a

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e s a

a sn

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s o

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r s

n s r

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31 6

OF

EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

comp a rison of the tot a l production of these s a me p eriods : A

ve r

a

O ld Ki gd n

ge

o

p r oducti on

m1

1 9 09 — 1 3

Bess a r a bi

tons

In

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Tra ylva n i

crops in the ,

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a

T ot l

ylv a i a Buc o vin a

Tot a l

ns

a

fi ve

a

Buc o vin

a

T ot l a

A

v e rage producti on

O ld K i gd n

o

m

Be

1 9 23— 7

r bi a

.

Tr

ssa a

t on s

In a ns

.

n

T o ta l

For purposes of genera l comp a rison a third t a ble is given b elow showing the a vera ge yield p er h a of the princip a l crop s during the fi ve ye a rs before Rum a ni a entered the Wa r a n d during the fi ve more or less norm a l a gricultura l ye a rs a fter the W a r In the a bsence of figur es for the pre w a r y ield in the new provinces the comp a r ison i s limited to the Old Kin gdom : ,

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If the s e figur es could be t a ken to represent a n orm a l a n d st a ble rel a tion the fa ll in the a vera ge yield would j ustify some concern B ut a s to the effect of the reform on a gricultur a l productio n production figure s a re in our c a se not reli a ble e n ough unles s c a lcul ated over very long period s The crops were a n d a re left with the re s ult a ltogether a t the mercy of a n err a tic clim a te th a t their yield oscill a tes viole n tly from ye a r to ye a r a n d h as ,

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t he

Qu a dril a te ra l

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OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

31 7

neve r yet risen a b ove a very low level Am on g the following Europ e a n countries Rum a ni a took the lowest pl a ce b efore the Wa r when her a gricultur e w a s thought to be fl ouri sh in g : .

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A

v r

e a ge

yie ld

in

qui nt l

1 9 1 1— 1 4

a s.

Wh e a t

The Rum a ni a n fi gur e s refer to the period 1 9 1 1 — 1 5 Ha d we t a ke n the figur e s for 1 9 1 1 1 4 a s in the c a se of the other countries the Rum a ni a n a vera ges would h a ve dropped to 1 1 3 1 0 1 a n d 9 3 ; while if we h a d considered the p eriod 1 9 10—1 3 they would h a ve risen to 1 3 2 1 0 7 a n d 9 8 The ye a r 1 9 1 0 n a mely g a ve a bum per crop wi th a whe a t a ver a ge of 1 5 5 quin t a ls per h a w hi le the 1 9 1 4 yield w a s merely 6 0 quint a ls per h a a level to w hi ch production h a s not descended even in the worst ye a r a fter the Wa r As a further illustra tion of how d iffi cult it is to dra w genera l conclu s ions from short period a vera ges we give below cert a in —7 a n d 1 9 23—7 a ver a ges for the periods 1 9 20 .

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ve rage yi ld e

io

R eg 1

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u

2 R ma n .

ia

o

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quin t l s a

Wh e a t

n

m 1 9 20— 7 1 9 23— 7 1 920— 7 1 9 23— 7

per h a i n

9 0 8 7 8 5 8 4

B rl e y a

f

i

a ze

7 5 7 4 7 9

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M i

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1

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8 0

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The a vera ges for the whole period a r e in genera l higher th a n the a ver a ge s for the more norm a l period 1 9 23— 7 The conclusion would seem to be th a t production is gettin g worse in the mea sure in which Wa r d a m ages a r e m a de good a n d the disturb a nce c a used by the a ppli ca tion of the reform becomes a ttenu a ted— which obviously is a n impossible p a ra dox The correct expl a n a tion ,

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31 8

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

would seem to be ra ther th a t in the second set of a verages the ye a r 1 924 in which the h a rvest fa iled b a d ly pl a ys rela tively a l a rger p a rt ; whe a t a vera ges fell to 6 8 a n d 6 1 rye to 4 1 a n d 5 6 b a rley to 3 6 a n d 3 6 o a ts to 5 4 a n d 4 9 m a ize a lone keep ing a norm a l level with 1 0 9 a n d 1 0 9 q uint a ls per hect a re M a ize w hi ch h a ppens to b e the spe cifica lly p e a s a nt cr 0p is the only crop in the a bove t a ble which m a int a ined its a vera ge a fter the Wa r ; which a ppe a rs to inva li d a te the ide a th a t pe a s a nt cultiva tion is responsible for the genera lly lower yields There is however one other possible in terpret a tion of the f a ct th a t the a ver a ges for 1 9 20—7 i n clud i ng the worst period of reconstruction a r e better th a n the a ver a ges for 1 9 23—7 Dur i ng this stretch of time the tot a l cultiva ted a re a h a s stea d ily incre a sed a n d the incre a se w a s limited exclusively to pe a s a nt fa rmi ng ; hence it might be a rgued tha t a vera ge yields fe ll lower in the me a s ure in which pe a s a nt fa rmin g exp a nded As the a rgument is a s li kely but we doubt a s not to be r a ised it is a s well to refer to it here there is a n y subst a nce in it For if it were correct then we shoul d h a ve to fi n d lower a vera ge yields recorded j ust for those crops the cultiva tion of which is extendi ng where a s in rea li ty the very opposite h a ppens to be true In the c a se of none of the other cere a l crops h a s the cultiva ted a re a i ncre a sed a s const a ntly a n d consider a bly a s i n the c a se of maize ; yet m a ize we h a ve seen is precisely the crop wh ich a t the s a me time h a s best m a in t a in ed its yield M Crum Mih é ile s cu of the Min istry of Agric ul ture h a s worked out a t a ble w hi ch shows th a t in the two ye a rs 1 9 26 a n d 1 9 29 which g a ve good h a rvests a fter the Wa r the peculi a r ,

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Com p a re d with = 1 00 r a v e r a e r w e ) g p -

a

1 9 26

1 9 29

C om pa re d with a ve r

a

of

1 9 23— 7

1 9 26

ge

= 1 00)

1 9 29

pe a s a nt corn crops h a ve equ a lled or even surp a ssed the pre w a r yield ; a n d in a genera l w a y the t a ble p roves th a t the lower yi eld -

EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

31 9

is not a settled phenomenon The t a ble comp a res the yield of the 1 926 a n d 1 929 h a rvests fi r st with the pre w a r a vera ge a n d secondly with the a vera ge of the period 1 9 23—7 It will h a rdly b e possible to a ppra ise the pe a s a nt s a chieve ments or fa ilures under the new system until they h a ve h a d a ch a nce to a cquire equipment a n d to dispose of their produce without impedi ments from the St a te but ra ther w ith such a ssis t a nce in the w a y of credits tra nsport fa cilities tr a ining a n d rese a rch & c a s their role in the country s economic life entitles them to receive For a prel i mina ry e stim a te one must a w a it the coll ection of figur e s sho w ing the contribution of the va rious c a tegories of fa rmers to a gricultura l production An a ttempt to di fferenti a te the production of l a rge a n d sm a ll fa rmers w a s m a de by the M inistry of Agriculture in 1 928 but the results turned out to be pl a inly erroneou s The va rious fi gur es given here m a y of course be t a ken to be genera lly a pplic a ble to p e a s a nt fa rming which now represents a bo ut 90 p er cent of the tot a l cultiva tion Det a i led t a bles gi ving the extension of the va rious crops their tot a l a n d a vera ge production their distribution a mong the severa l pro vinces & c w ill be found on pp 332— 7 They a r e not such a s to need further elucida tion a n d we w i ll not bur den the text by repe a ting them here Their most ch a ra cteristic fe a tur e is the stea dy incre a se of the a rea under a r t ificia l gra sses a n d other fodder crops Y r Cultiv t d r ( h ct r ) .

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a es

1 9 23 19 24 1 9 25 1 9 26 1 9 27

There is a s imila r exp a nsion a mo n g semi fodder crops — o a ts b a rley & c a n d a bove a ll m a iz e Likewise a n incre a se in commerci a l cr0ps m a rket ga rdenin g & c This gr ea ter va riety besides the technic a l a dva nt a ges which h a ve a lre a dy been di s cussed h a s the merit of reducing the risks connected with the former one sided growin g of cere a ls a n d it should thereby help to m a int a in more ste a dy genera l ret urns As reg a rds in dividu a l crops whea t gro w in g w a s a ffected by the ch a n ge to sm a ll cultiva tion by the fi sca l a n d customs policy -

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320

OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

of the St a te a s well a s by unpropitious we a ther ; the three a utumns of 1 921 3 were exception a lly d r y which interfered with the sowi n g of a utumn whe a t a s the p ea s a nts show a bi a s a g a inst sowi n g i n the dry between S t M a ry s d a ys Rye w a s a lre a dy losing grou n d b efore the Wa r In the Old Kin gdom it covered h a in 1 8 96— 1 900 merely ha during the period 1 9 094 3 a n d fell to h a by 1 9 1 5 It s hows no sign of improving B a rley lost its fa vour a ble position in the m a rket b etween 1 924— 6 but recovered l a ter ; comp a red with a n a vera ge a rea of less th a n h a in the ye a rs before the Wa r its cultiv a tion re a ched a n a vera ge of h a in the Old Kingdom in the period 1 923—7 O a ts exp a n ded ra pi dl y a fter the reform till 1 9 24 then beg a n to decline w ith a sli ght recovery i n 1 928 M a iz e h a s c a ptured the interest of the pe a s a nts a n d a t present occupies one h a lf a s much l a nd a g a in a s whe a t M a ize i s a lso the crop whi ch h a s b est m a i nt a ined its yi eld especi a lly if one t a kes into a ccoun t the pe a s a nt custom of so wing be a n s between m a ize a custom exercised m 1 927 on a bout one fifth of the tot a l a re a under m a ize ; pumpkin s a n d melons a r e likewise extensively grown a s s ubsidi a ry crops w ith m a ize Thi s does not me a n th a t the yield is a nyt hi ng like s a tisfa ctory yet Rum a n i a is now the l a rgest m a iz e grower in Europe but the methods of cultiva tion a r e still those in use a hundred yea rs a go The m a ize va rieties h a ve been a llowed to degenera te a n d whil e tech n ic a lly selection is e a sy it is d iffi cult in pra ctice without pr e per guid a n ce a s m a iz e bei n g a self fertilizer the selection must be c a rried out by a ll the fa rmers of a region I n ste a d of fi n d in g two cob s on e a ch stem a s is norm a l elsewhere the Rum a ni a n crop gives a n a vera ge of one cob to e a ch two stems k g per h a The a vera ge yield moves a t pre s ent round kg where a s the Americ a n m a ize growers obt a in from upw a rds Before the Wa r Rum a ni a found it so e a sy to di s pose of crops produced with the swe a ted l a bour of the pe a sa nts th a t her only concern w a s how to incre a se her h a rvests World conditions h a ve grea tly ch a nged since the n M a rkets a r e ove r fl ow in g a n d it is only now th a t those in who s e h a nds lies t h e guid a nce of Rum a ni a n a griculture b egin to re a lize th a t qu a lity mu s t come fi r s t a n d ,

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OF THE REFORM ON

EFFECTS

PRODUCTION

321

qu a ntity where it m a y Everythi ng rem a in s to b e done in th a t direction Whe a t still cont a ined in 1 927 im pur ities a vera ging 8 27 per cent for the whole country though it is true th a t gr a in from Dobroge a with 34 1 0 per cent im pur ities w a s l a rgely responsible for th a t ba d a vera ge The b est corn c a me from Tra nsylva ni a with 2 44 per cent impurities in the Old King dom the b est res ul ts were obt a in ed in the lowl a nds of the B a ra ga n an d Buge a c with only 2 62 p er cent im purities a n d the worst in the Mold a vi a n Bess a ra bi a n pl a in w ith 6 1 0 per cent Rye provided the l a rgest proportion of foreign m a tter with 3 9 p er cent a ctu a l im pur ities which re a lly c a use the qu a li ty of fl our to deteriora te only a mounted to a bout 1 1 p er cent However a cert a in im provement is t a king pl a ce The a vera ge weight of whe a t in 1 9 27 w a s 77 3 k g p er hectolitre From 295 s a mples obt a ined by the Centr a l Agronomic a l St a tion the whea t crop w a s cla ssifi e d a ccordi ng to qu a lity a s follows E xc ll t c r w ighi g v r 8 0 k g p hl 1 2 0% V ry g d c r 78 8 0 35 6 .

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oo

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o n

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o n

er

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G ood c orn Mediu m qu a lity P or qu lity o

o

7 6—78 7 4—7 6 74

33 4 9 7 9 3 -

-

b e l ow

a

-

1

In other words a bout one h a lf of the h a rvest w a s of very good qu a lity ; a n d a b out one third of good qu a lity the p ercent a ge of poor qu ali ty corn w a s sim ila r to the p ercent a ge of corn of very good qu a li ty in the precedi ng ye a rs The proven a nce of the corn a ccordin g to qu a lity w a s a s follows -

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,

V ry e

E xc

i on

R eg

ell en

t

G ood

G ood

M di cr e

o

e

Poor

Trans ylvani n pl a in Trans ylvan i n hi ghl an d s Da n ub e l owl a n d s M un teni an highl an ds Mold avi an hi ghl an ds Moldo Bessa ra bi an pl a i n B a ragan a n d Bu gea c D obrogea a a

-

Thi s a n d t h e foll owi n g ta bl es from a s tudy on Th e Qu ality of Com i n t h e Agri cultur a l Yea r 1 9 26 7 by t h e Dire ctor a n d S t a fi of t h e C en tra l A gron omi c S ta ti on B uleti n ul A gr i cultur i i S e pt —O ct 1 928 1

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322

EFF ECTS

OF THE

ON

REFORM

PRODUCTION

The b est qu a lity c a me fr om the m a in corn growi ng di stricts the p oorest from the Moldo B essa r a bi an lowl a nds whi ch in fa ct suffered fr om the worst drought The followin g two t a bles m a y b e of i nterest a s sho win g fir st the v a ri a tions in weight of the 1 927 s a mples from the severa l d istricts a n d second a com p a rison of the a verage weight per hectoli tre dur ing the ye a rs -

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1 9 22—7

We ight p er

hl i n k g i n 1 9 27 .

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M xi m um

D istrict

Mi

ni

a

m um

Tr a ns ylv an i an pl in Tr ans ylv n i an highl an d s D a n ub e l owl a ds M u n ten i highl an ds M old vi a highla n ds Moldo B essa ra bi a n pl in B a ragan a n d Bu ge a c pl a in D o brog a a

a

n

an

a

n

a

-

e

A

v erage w e ight i n

k g per hl .

Di trict

dur i n g

.

1 9 27

s

1 926

1 9 22— 7 1 925

1 9 24

1 9 23

1 9 22

ra ns ylv an i a n pl a i n Tr an sylv an i an hi ghla n ds D a n ub e l owl d s M u n ten i an hi ghla n d s Mo ld vi n highla n ds M old o B es sa ra bi a n pla in B r ga n n d Bu gea c pl a in D o broge

T

an

a

a

-

a

a

a

a

The 1 927 h a rvest showed a n a ll round im provement in the qu a lity of the prin cip a l cere a l crops which in some me a sur e m a de good the d efi cien cy in qu a ntity : -

,

We i ght p e r

hl i n k g .

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Wh ea t 1 9 27

1

1 9 26

"

1 927

1 9 26

S ta ti s ti ca A gr i cola p e A n a l 1 927,

1 927

Pa rt I

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1 9 28

1 926

.

1 927

1 9 26

OF

EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

323

There is every rea son to hop e th a t with better opport uni ties the pe a s a nts will henceforwa rd perform the va rious a gricultur a l l a b ours more c a refully a n d a t the proper time But t hi s wo uld not suffi ce to stop the downwa rd trend of the a vera ge yield There is a s grea t a need for the use of selected seed with a choice of the va rieties best suited to the Rum a ni a n soil a n d clim a te ; a n d a still gre a ter need for a more merciful exploit a tion of the soil At present some twelve tons of selected whe a t seed a r e put on the m a rket ye a rly by priva te fa rms a n d some 5 5 0tons of whe a t The a n d 6 00 tons of other cere a ls from the St a te s model f a rms seed select ing st a tions of the N a tion a l Agricultura l S ociety a n d of the higher Agricultur a l S chools a r e ende a vourin g to produce new v a rieties best fi t t e d for the coun try s condi tions Excelle n t work is bein g done by the S é m anta a priva te comp a ny formed whose seed s e lecting st a tions a re bringin g i n a fter the Wa r cre a sin g supplies e a ch ye a r i nto the m a rket a s well a s producing new v a rieties ; e g a s the new m a ize v a riety Regele Ferdin a nd which would seem to give a much richer y ield in d ry yea rs th a n the Americ a n a n d other v a rieties S o fa r of cour se the supply of selected s ee d is still t riflin g a n d the seed used by the pe a s a nts genera lly consists of a bewi lderin g m ixtur e a s one m a y see in loo k ing over a whe a t fi eld before it is cut The use of m a nure is h a r dl y known ex tra ordin a ry a s this st a tement m a y soun d The l a rge f a rmers never kept enough a nim a ls b efore the Wa r to produce f a rm y a rd m a nur e in us a ble qu a ntities ; a n d the inqui ry of M S erb a n cited in a n e a rlier ch a pter est a bli shed in f a ct th a t none of the est a tes which he investiga ted a n d whi ch were of the best m a de a n y use of fa rm y a rd m a nure The pe a s a nts though h a ving it h a ve never lea rnt its use their a nim a ls a r e in f a ct n ot kept under shelter u nl ess in very ba d we a ther a n d such fa rm ya rd muck a s then g a thers is genera lly burnt or left to rot a t the edge of the village or a t b est used a fter s un a n d r a in h a ve worn out its goodness— s o in di ffer ent h a s extensive cultiva tion m a de every one to the needs of the soil E qu a lly ra re is the use of a r t ifi cia l m a nur es The monogra ph prep a red by the Interna tion a l Institute of Agriculture on the use of a rt ifi cia l m a nur es g a ve the yea rly consum ption before the Wa r ,

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324

EFFE CTS

OF THE REFORM ON

PRODUCTION

tons of phosph a tes an d 1 77 tons of p ot a sh The b ook g a ve no figur e s referring to the p ost w a r ye a rs Intern a l production a n d consumption from the M ar as e s ti fa ctory w a s a s follows as

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S up e rph os ph a t es

I tern a l output

Tota l c

n

o ns

u mpti

on

The s a me comp a n y im ported 1 20 tons of pot a sh s a lts in 1 926 Customs returns indi c a te th a t 6 1 5 tons of phosph a tes were im p orted in 1 9 25 which should b e a dded to in tern a l consum ption ; while in the s a me yea r tons of phosph a tes produced in Rum a ni a were exported The im port of Chili s a ltpetre a mounted .

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I n 1 9 21 t o 1 922 1 923 1 9 24 1 9 25

tons

58 1 09 16 1 745

35 3

A mmonium sulph a tes a r e used on a rel a tively l a rger sca le a s well a s cya n a mide of c a lcium The l a tter is produced in a Tra nsylva ni a n fa ctory with a c a p a city of tons ye a rly ; the present output is a b out tons most of which is exp orted The output of a mmoni um sulph a tes coul d re a ch tons but only 905 tons were produced in 1 926 Hence even this in cipient production is still much higher th a n the dem a nd One mi ght mention th a t in the opin ion of M Ionescu Sise s ti expressed before the Agricultur a l Congress Rome 1 927 the soil of the steppe region is still so rich th a t its fertility would not b e ra ised by tre a tment with che mic a l m a nur es Thi s woul d refer to a bout one third of the a ra ble a re a the chief problem of th a t region is w a ter supply The rem a ining two thirds of the a ra ble a re a a r e in need of m a nuring In the li ght of a ll these circumst a nces one m ay sum up the re a sons for the decline of production a s being fi r st d a m a ge a n d di sorg a niz a tion c a used by the Wa r whi ch h a ve not b een m a de ,

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OF

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ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

325

good dur ing the fi r st dec a de of pe a ce ; in a me a sure th a t dis org a niz a tion h a s b een rendered more a cute by the a pp li ca tion of the reform a n d in a much gre a ter me a sur e the work of recon struction h a s been prevented by the St a te s policy Hence the drop in tot a l a n d a verage production w a s in no w a y a n un na tur a l phenomenon The dra wb a cks which in this resp ect might b e a ttributed dir ectly to the reform a re a less economic cultiv a tion of the cere a l crops t hr ough the sp littin g up of the l a nd a n d from the s a me c a use gre a ter w a st age in h a rvest ing the crops This d efi ci en cy will h a ve to be m a de good by b etter org a n iz a tion ; but it fa des into signifi ca n ce comp a red with the genera l evils which rem a in to b e reme di ed a s spri nging from a ntiqu a ted methods Wh a t the a n d from a n utter l a ck of c a re for the soil s fertil ity so il can give is shown by the perform a nce of Va rj a s a commune in B a n a t where by experimentin g with the most suit a ble v a rieties the best dist a nce for pl a ntin g the seed & c the loc a l kg pe a s a nt fa rmers h a ve c a used m a ize to yi eld up to p er hect a re But th a t is a remote ide a l The reform of l a nd tenure h a s been c a rried to a very fa r poin t but the reform of a griculture is not even begun ( c) Th e New P r ovi n ces In considering the effect of the reform on production a somewh a t sh a rp li ne must b e dra wn between the Old Ki ngdom a n d the new Provin ces especia lly B ucovin a a n d Tr a nsylv a ni a In the Old Kin gdom the reform coul d not h a ve a dee p infl uen ce on a gra ri a n economy a s the dispossessed l a rge owners a n d cultiv a tors were doin g nothing to improve the soil a n d its output or the live a n d de a d stock The s itu a tion w a s different in Bucovin a a n d Tr a nsylv a ni a a n d in the l a tter province more especi a lly in B a n a t M Gar ofli d a s Minister of of Agricul tur e re a dily a dmitted this Aft er sp e a king in his ex os e d e motifs to the Tr a nsylv a n i a n la w on the norms of p expropri a tion he a dded W e s h a ll m a k e ce r t a in e x c e p t ion s i n t h e a pp l i ca t ion of t h o s e e x pr o T h e r e a r e i n T ra n s y l v a n ia in t en si v e a gr icu ltu r al pr ia t i o n m e a su r e s un d e rt a k i n gs— tr u e a gr icu ltu r a l fa ct o r i es It wou l d be a gr e a t l o ss t o o ur n a t i on a l o r a n i za t ion i f w e s h ou l d d es tr o y t h e m ; a n d t h e s tr i c t g a pp l i ca t ion o f t h e n o r m s m en t io n e d a b o v e wou l d d e s tr o y t h e m W it h a v i e w t h e r e fo r e t o p r o t e c t i n g t h e m I h a v e p r o v id e d t h a t t hos e l a n d o wn e r s m a y be a llowe d t o r e t a i n up t o 5 00 j uga r s ’

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326

EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

Th e

ow ners or ten a nts of these l a rge fa rms usu a lly l ived on the sp ot Most of them p ossessed a dequ a te a gric ul tur a l knowledge a n d c a pit a l The fa rms were prop erly equipped with b ui ld ings a n d m a chi nes ; the live stock w a s num erous a n d of good qu a li ty a n d cultiva tion w a s b a sed on a sound v a ri a tion a n d rot a tion of crops In p r a ctice the a ppli c a tion of the reform went f a rther th a n M Gar ofii d fi r st intended a n d there is no doubt th a t m a ny of those l a rge fa rms h a ve b een thereby irrep a r a bly d a m a ged V a lu a ble m a teri a l h a s b een destroyed a ltogether F a rm b uil di ng s a r e f a lling to pieces where they h a ve not been pulled down by their o w ners a n d the m a teri a l sold M a chin es tra ctors & c esp eci a lly the hea vy ploughs a r e useless for the sm a ll holdings a n d m a ny of them were simply a b a ndoned a tot a l loss A com p a ny w a s formed a fter the reform for the export of unus a ble l a rge m a chines Grea t d a m a ge h a s a lso b een done to c a ttle breeding whi ch in Tra n sylva ni a h a d been fur thered in a syste m a tic m a nner The province wa s di vided i nto breedi n g districts e a ch of them speci a lizing in a breed b est a da pted to loca l clim a tic an d other conditions ; the co opera tives or i ndivi du a ls wh o kept bull s h a d to conform to the a rr a n gement no other breed being a llowed in the di strict A consider a ble p a rt of th a t breeding m a teri a l w a s supp lied by the l a rge owners Now th a t whole orga ni z a tion h a s sim ply v a ni shed F i ne a nim a ls h a d to b e sold to the butcher The production of me a t a n d d a iry products h a s li kewise depreci a ted in qu a lity or in qu a ntity with the dis a ppe a ra nce of these l a rge fa rms ; some of them li ke the est a te of Count Csk oni cs a t Jim bolia were org ani zed to supply a whole ch a in of towns wi th p a steur ized an d b ottled milk Even now the o n ly decent supply of milk butter & c to re a ch Buc a rest comes from Sibiu The Tra nsylva ni a n critics a dmit therefore th a t in the Old Ki ngdom the reform m ay a ctu a lly h a ve h a d a good i n fl uen ce on the l a rge f a rmers ; it h a s in duced them to f a rm b etter for fe a r of a new expropri a tion a n d it h a s a lso en a bled them to do s o by le a ving them often 5 00 h a a ra ble l a nd But they a ssert th a t i n Tra nsylva ni a the m a x imum left h a s seldom exceeded 1 25 h a which mea ns th a t the destruction h a s b een gre a ter j ust where the economic org ani z a tion w a s better They .

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OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

327

consider th a t a different system should a t le a st h a ve b een a ppli ed round the m a in towns so a s to ens ure a plentiful supply of good an d che a p food stuffs for the urb a n pop u l a tion The a uthors a n d supporters of the reform do not deny either th a t well orga n ized l a rge fa rms h a d existed in Tra nsylvani a or th a t the a cti vity of these fa rms h a s been crippled by the reform Yet they h a ve a two fold reply to m a ke to the critici s ms summ a riz ed a bove In the fir st pl a ce they poin t out th a t o n ce l a nd w a s gra nted to the p ea s a nts in the Kin gdom a n d in B ess a ra bi a it w a s imp ossible to tre a t those of Tra nsylva ni a less we ll The a rgument is of cour se un a nswera ble There is no doubt th a t a n y a ttempt to m a in t a in the l a rge Tra n s ylva ni a n e st a tes in a pro vince e a ten up with n a tion a li st a n imosities would h a ve me a nt the risk of a still more destructive expropri a tion by popula r Violence There is one reserve however to be m a de on t hi s p oint If the expropri a tion of the l a rge est a tes w a s un a voida ble the expropri a tion of sm a llh olders is inexcus a ble Herr F ritz Conn ert in hi s a rticle gives ex a mples of Tra nsylva ni a n pe a s a nts who h a ve been deprived of some of the ir l a nd though thei r sm a ll or medi um holdings were b elow the 1 00 h a gen era lly fi x e d a s the utmost limi t in every p a rt of the coun try An d these were intelli gent prosperous fa rmers who could serve a s model to the new holders ; themselves a n d their holdi ngs representin g j ust th a t typ e of rur a l middl e cl a ss the a bsence of which is deplored by a ll a gricultur a l a uthorities in the Old Ki ngdom The second a rgum ent in reply to the Tr a nsylva ni a n criticism ques tions the a bili ty of the l a rge est a tes to keep goin g in the ch a nged economic a n d soci a l con di tions a fter the Wa r Formerly the l a n d lords controlled the politic a l m a chine ; a ll legisl a tion a s well a s its a pplic a tion w a s subservient to their interests An a rticle in the A rgus ( Novemb er 1 8 1 922) contended th a t l a nd t a x w a s p a id in Hun g a ry on the b a sis of a sur vey m a de a hundred ye a rs e a rlier The consequence wa s th a t a hen l a id enough eggs to pa y the t a xes of a big est a te Count B es a n o w ned j uga r s a n d p a id a bout four shillings ; B a ron Kor a n yi a former Minister of Fin a nce p a id somet hi ng inca lcul a ble but much less th a n a bout a f a rthi n g per j uga r a n d so on Aga in the la w on a gricultur a l l a bo ur w a s a pplied by the p r etor ( the sub prefect ) ,

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328

OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

who de p ended a ltogether on the good will of the loc a l l a ndlord a l a bo urer stood no ch a nce of gett i ng other work in the neighb our hood if he left a ga in st the w ish of his employer At present the whole leg a l a n d soci a l situ a tion is a ltered ; m a ny l a bour ers moreover h a ve got some l a nd of their own Even a less r a di c a l reform woul d h a ve m a de the former l a b o ur rel a tions impossible a n d it is u nli kely th a t the l a rge est a tes would h a ve contin ued to pa y with a higher w a ge b ill a n d a di minished hold on the l a b our su p ply The a rgument merely describes a l a bour evolution whi ch is b eing exp erienced throughout a gricultur a l Eur ope If it m ay fa irly b e a pplied to Tr a nsylva ni a it must be infi ni tely more fi tt in g for B ess a ra bi a The Bess a ra bi a n l a ndo w ners h a d nothi n g li ke the equi pment of the Tra nsylv a ni a n a n d the B ess a ra bi a n pe a s a nts were much less tra ct a ble a fter the Wa r tha n the others To st a te therefore a s does M P V S yn a di n o in hi s a rticle th a t the a vera ge cultiva ted a re a h a s fa llen by 4 4 per cent fr om h a in 1 9 02—1 1 to h a in 1 9 20—4— a n d a vera ge production ( whea t rye b a rley o a ts an d m a ize ) by 1 6 5 per cent — from tons in 1 902—1 1 to tons in 1 920—4 is to show th a t the post wa r output is not a s good a s the pre w a r output ; but it by no me a ns proves th a t things wo ul d h a ve been b etter if the l a nd h a d been left in the h a nds of the l a rge owners Quite a num ber of circumst a nces which h a ve nothi ng to do with the sc a le a n d techn ique of f a rmin g h a ve contributed to th a t decl ine ; a n d it is worth while noting th a t B ess a ra bi a which b eyond doubt h a s suffered most from the fa ults of omission a n d commis s ion in the St a te s p olicy is a lso the province in which tot a l a n d a vera ge production h a s most f a llen off from its pre w a r st a nding The t a bles of a vera ges revea l indeed the in teresting fa ct th a t in a lmost every c a se the a vera ges rel a ting to the Old Kin gdom a r e higher th a n the a ver a ge s for the whole country w hi ch me a ns th a t the a ddition of the new provinces h a s i n fl uen ce d the a ver a ge eld unf B ess a ra bi a especi a lly rem a in s in every c a se a vour a bly i y b ehind the n a tiona l a vera ge Tra nsylva ni a h a s in most c a ses hi gher a vera ges th a n t h e whole of the country while Buco vin a h a s the highest of a ll often exceeding the n a tion a l a vera ges by .

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OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

329

fully one thi rd The a vera ge production per h a of the fi ve pri ncip a l cere a l crops dur ing the p eriod 1 9 20—7 wa s a s follows in qui nt a ls -

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B ess a r a bi a h a s h a d ba d luck b oth with the we a ther a n d with the a dmini stra tion It w a s the province whose a griculture most needed c a re during the period of reconstruction a s fa rming h a d b een disorga ni zed worse th a n elsewhere by the forcible t a kin g over of the l a nd a n d a ll its tra nsport a n d tra de li nk s cut off with the severa nce from the Russia n Emp i re Yet from the time of its union with Rum a ni a up t ill the end of 1 928 the provi nce h a d been left to its own devices The fa ilure of the 1 928 crop pro d uce d fa mi ne con di tions in l a rge a re a s of the province But it is more d iffi cult to expl a i n the gre a t di fference in the returns from Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovin a The two provi nces h a ve simil a r geogra phi c a l fe a tures a n d they h a ve b oth b een un der Austro Hunga ri a n a dm inistra tion But the a gra ri a n situ a tion i n the pro vinces differed in two respects ; in Bucovin a l a ndownership w a s nicely gra du a ted with a good proportion of medium a n d sm a ll property a n d the reform h a d only to b e a pplied on a limited sc a le ; Tra nsylv a ni a however h a d a hi gh percent age of l a rge property a n d in consequence the reform wa s a pplied on a more thorou hgoin g sc a le Are the b etter retur ns g in Bucovin a due to a he a lthier distribution of property of old st a nding or a re the in ferior returns of Tra nsylva ni a due to the grea ter encroa chment of the reform ? The a nswer wo ul d b e instructive from more th a n one point of View if it could b e given reli a bly but for this we shoul d need more det a il ed m a teri a l th a n we possess Ne vert h eles s the post wa r difference is p erh a ps s uffi ci en t l y expl a in ed by the pre w ar a ver a ges Accordin g t o the t a ble used in his a rticle by M Ja sn y Tra nsylva ni a produced be fore the Wa r tons of whe a t rye b a rley o a ts a n d m a iz e h a which ga ve a n a ver a ge of 1 1 9 quin t a ls per h a ; on Bucovin a produc e d tons on h a which mea nt a n a ver age of 1 2 1 quin t a ls per h a Aga in in the t a ble given on a n ,

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330

OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

e a rlier p a ge an d showing the a ver a ge y ield of whea t b a rley an d o a ts in ten Eur ope a n countries durin g the period 1 9 1 1— 1 4 Austri a ( whi ch i ncluded Bucovin a ) h a d for the t hr ee cere a ls together a n a vera ge of 1 4 2 qui nt a ls per h a a n d Hun g a ry ( which in cluded Tra nsylva ni a ) of 1 3 1 quint a ls the figur es for the p eriod 1 9 06 —1 0 b ein g 1 3 8 an d 1 1 5 qui nt a ls per h a ; or if we t a ke the two p eriods together the Austri a n a ver a ge w a s 1 4 0 a n d the Hung a ri a n 1 2 3 q uin t a ls The di fference b etween the a ver ages of the two countries in the p eriod 1 906—1 4 w a s therefore 1 7 quint a ls ; the difference between the a ver a ges of Tr a nsylva ni a a n d Bucovi n a in the period 1 9 20—7 h a s b een 1 6 qui nt a ls The fi r st fi gur e s refer to whole countries a n d to three cere a l crops the secon d figur e s merely to isol a ted provi nces a n d to fi ve crops but the a pproxim a tion is too ne a r not to h a ve some me ani ng in it In wh a tever w a y the reform m a y h a ve a ffected the a gricul ture of the two provi n ces it h a s not a ltered the rel a tion of their a ver a ge production ; an d a s the reform we n t a gre a t de a l f a rther in one provi nce th a n in the other its effects a r e not gre a tly elucid a ted by a difference in a vera ge yield which rem a ins much a s it w a s b efore M J a sn y 5 t a ble it is true woul d give merely a negligible di fference of 02 q uint a ls per h a in f a vour of Buco vin a a pp a rently for 1 909 it woul d a llow a n a ver a ge of 1 2 3 for the Old Kin gdom— i e 0 2 more th a n Buco vi n a a n d 0 4 more th a n Tra nsylva ni a— which contra di cts the more specifi c fi gur es of the in terna tion a l t a ble a s well a s genera l experience This simply proves tha t a lmost a n y con elusion might fi n d support in fi gur e s rel a ting merely to a few crops an d a few ye a rs At a n y r a te the effect of the reform on Tra nsylva ni a n production coul d not h a ve b een so di s a strous a s the destruction of a few model f a rms m a y suggest a s the a vera ge Hun g a ri a n yield w a s little a bove the Rum a ni a n b efore the reform a n d a s i t too h a s declined a fter the w a r Production in the new provinces h a s cert a i nl y gone down but how gre a t a sh a re c ircumst a nces un connected with the reform m ay h a ve h a d in brin gin g this a b out will a ppe a r in dis cussing offi cial policy The slow execution of the reform woul d cert a inly seem to b e resp onsible for a tra nsitory decli n e of the cultiva ted a re a in Tra nsylv a ni a a n d of its output a s ne a rly one ,

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OF

EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

331

million h a expropri a ted l a nd were still let out to improvi sed ten a nts in 1 9 24 Other d a m a gin g effects h a ve b een of a loc a l a n d peculi a r n a tur e A Tr a nsylva ni a n deputy compl a ined in the Ch a mber ( April 1 2 1 9 27 ) th a t the inh a bit a nts of cert a in com mun es in the S a tu M a re district were un a ble to ra ise a n y crops bec a use of the incre a se in wi ld a ni m a ls The communes in ques tion a r e sur roun ded by forests which used to b elong to the K a rolyi f a mi ly ; they were then hun ted regula rly a n d the l a n d lord w a s obliged to in dem ni fy the p ea s a nts for a n y depred a tion of their crops But the expropri a tion h a s tra nsferred the forests to the St a te ; wil d life h a s increa sed a n d the p ea s a nts a r e receivin g no comp ens a tion a t a ll for the d a m a ge c a used to their crops Still more peculi a r w a s the c a se brought to the notice of He a sserted th a t the Ch a mb er by Dr N Lupu (Ma y 24 the p e a s a nts in the M a ra mur e s county were in despera te str a its a n d h a d co n st a ntly to a pp e a l for gifts of foo d The region h a d a lw a ys been poor but the present trouble w a s due to the pe a ce s ettlement Wh en the new frontiers were dra wn a hundr ed moun t a in s 10p es with p a stures used a n d owned by the neighb our in g communes were left to Cz echoslov a ki a N ow these p eople h a ve no me a ns of m a kin g a living ; the num b er of a nim a ls h a s fa llen to one fo urth a s the Villa gers sold them to buy m a iz e The only conclusion emerg ing with a n y cl a rity from a ll these fa cts a n d a rguments i s the unhelpful one th a t the problem of the reform s effect on the a griculture of the new provin ces a s of the Old Kingdom bristles wi th complexities The industry is p a ssin g through a period of tra nsition in whi ch the a ction of the reform h a ppens to b e intermin gled with the a cti vity of other forces Only in the long r un a n d other th ings b eing equ a l— a s the set economic phr a se goes — would it b e possible ne a tly to disent a ngle the fir st from the rem a inder .

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THE AR E A UNDE R CE R E AL CR OP S 1 9 20—7 ( i n m illi on h ect a r e s ) A ra ble a f e a th v w u Are?c ult u .

M a lz e W h ea t Ba r le y

c

e rea ls

Oa t s O th

e r c e r ea ls -

J

TOTAL

P R ODU C TI O N

OF THE CHI E F CE R E AL CR OP S I N 1 9 20—7

( in milli on

q ui n t a ls )

A V E R A GE

PR O DUCT I ON

OF THE CHI E F CE R E A L CR OP S I N 1 9 20— 7

( i n m i lli on q ui n t a ls )

1 5 69 69 -

EFFE CTS OF THE REFORM ON PRODUCTION

338

S E C TI O N THE

( )

E F F E CT

T H E RE F O R M

OF

4 ON

P R I C ES

EXPORT

A ND

E xp or t

The lower y ields in Rum a ni a n a gricult ure m a y p o ss ib l y b e a ttributed to the l a nd reform but the reduction of the a re a under cere a ls is p a rt of a tendency common to the W hole of Europ e Thegeogra phic a l re di stribution of a gricultura l production w a s brought out by the d a t a cont a ined in the volum e on Agr i cul tura l Questions from a n I n tern a tion a l Poin t of V iew published by the Intern a tion a l Institute of Agricultur e on the occ a sion of the economic conference held a t Geneva in Ma y 1 927 P r ofit ing from the disturbed st a te of Europe dur i ng the Wa r a n d from the high prices then r ulin g the overse a countries h a ve extended their a griculture a t the s a me tim e impro ving its equipment a n d techni que An i n d ex figur e b a sed on the pre w a r a ver ages di sclosed the follo w in g ch a nge s in the production a n d export of the m ai n cere a l Cl ops during the period 1 921 — 5 : a

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‘

W HE A T E xp rt o

Producti on

E ur p ( with ut Ru ss i a ) Ru ss i a o

88 51 1 32 1 37 1 37

o

e

N orth A me ric a S uth A me ric a A u s tra li a o

( i n cl fl our ) .

35

4 24 1

E ur p ( with ut Ru ssia ) R uss i a o

o

e

North A me ric a N orth A me ric a

All the Am eric a n export we n t to Europ e even to Soviet R fissia

,

and

qui nt a ls

.

B AR L E Y Producti on

E ur p ( with ut Ru ssi a ) Ru ia o

88 46 1 17 24 8 1 01

o

e

ss

No rth A m e ric a S o uth A me ric a

u s tra li B fore t h e Wa

A 1

a,

e

r,

qui nta l

s

— ; i n 1 9 21 5

,

qui nta l s

.

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

E u p ( with ut R u i ro

e

ss a

o

uss i a No rth Am e ric a S o uth A me ric a F a r E as t

ON

PRODUCTION

339

)

R

Austra li a n production showed E a stern countries incre a sed

a

fa lling off but th a t of the ,

Fa r

.

M A I ZE

E u p ( with ut R u i ro

ss a

o

e

u si a No rth Am eric a Ce tra l America S o uth A m eric a F ar E a s t Afr ic a R

)

s

n

,

In Austra li a m a ize grow in g is in sign ifi ca n t Rum a ni a s co n tribution weighs but lightly in the s c a le of world production Yet she genera lly h a s a n impo r t a n t export a ble sur plus bec a use of the sm a ll density a n d fruga l h a bits of her popul a tio n Her pl a ce in the list of export ing cou n trie s is therefore higher th a n in tha t of pr o d uci ng co untries C or n growing for export did not a ssume a n y import a nce t ill the middle of the ni n eteenth century Unti l the begin nin g of th a t century the popula tion w a s sp a rse a n d foreign tra de w a s a m onopoly of the Porte In th a t ph a se Rum a ni a n a gricul ture h a d a pre domin a ntly p a stora l ch a ra cter Freedom of tra de w a s obt a i n ed through the Tre a ty of Adri a n ople a n d the Crime a n Wa r brought Rum a n i a n a gricultur e into prominence From th a t time o n w a rds her cor n exports never ce a sed to grow until the Wa r E n emy requisitio n s a n d w a r d a m a ge pl a ced the country in the position of h a ving to im port cor n a n d flour in 1 9 1 9 In th a t ye a r a gricultura l export w a s nil It resumed its course i n 1 920 but w ith co n sidera ble differences in qu a ntity a n d in ki n d from the pre w a r export The export of cor n h a s gra du a lly been r i si ng but with st 1 o n g va ri a tion s from y ea 1 to ye a r in keepi n g with the va ri a tions in production a ba d h a rve s t re a cting u n fa voura bly on the export z2 -

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340

OF THE REFORM ON

EFFECTS

PRODUCTION

of the following yea r Price condi tio n s a n d esp eci a lly the fi s ca l p olicy of the Rum a ni a n governme n ts h a ve however h a d a strong i n fl uen ce on the export of a gricultura l products a fter the Wa r ; a n d the ch a nge in the distribution of crops h a s b een responsible for p a ra llel ch a nges in the n a ture of exports Rum a ni a s corn export a moun ted in the twenty fi ve yea rs b efore the Wa r to 5 4 per cent of the tot a l h a rvest During the p eriod 1 920—4 it re a ched a ye a rly a verage of w a go n s ( whea t a n d fl our b a rley o a ts a n d m a ize ) i e a bout 1 6 5 per ce n t of the produc tion of these four cere a ls The ba d h a rve s t of 1 9 24 brought the export down to w a gons in 1 9 25 it improved in 1 926 to w a gon s ( including w a gons mill et a n d w a gons be a n s ) ; a n d the bumper m a iz e crop i n 1 9 26 en a bled the 1 927 export to re a ch the exceptio n a l fi gur e of w a gons the highe s t level si n ce the Wa r a n d equ a l to Rum a ni a s pre w a r export The decline of the Rum a ni a n corn export is d ue therefore in the fi rst pl a ce to a fa ll in her own productio n a n d in the second pl a ce to a redistributio n of the world s productio n a n d tra de In point of productio n Rum a ni a ret a i n s a prominent po s ition with reg a rd to ma ize b eing third in the list a fter the United St a tes a n d the Argentine ; she t a kes fift h pl a ce a mo n g the producer s of b a rley a n d o a ts ; but o nl y seventh pl a ce a mo n g the producer s of whe a t if we consider merely the countries which h a ve a n export a ble surplus a n d f a lls to the ten th pl a ce if we include Sp a in a n d It a ly who co n sume the whole of their own production Gene r a lly spe a king therefore one might s a y t h a t Rum a ni a h a s m a int a ined her po s ition a mong produci n g countries i n respect of m a ize o a ts a n d b a rley but h a s lost it in the c a se of whe a t Her export a ble corn surplus is gre a tly reduced in comp a rison with th a t before the Wa r Th a t is due p a rtly to the a ddition of 1 the new provinces B efore the Wa r a pp a rently Tra n sylva ni a tons ) a n d o a ts tons ) h a d a sm a ll s urplus of whe a t but w a s s hort of b a rley tons ) a n d m a ize tons ) which me a n s th a t sh e j ust a b out covered her needs in corn ; a n d .

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L

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M ich l

Wa s hi ngto n

ae

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Agr i cultura l S ur vey

,

19 24

.

f

o

E urop e

( Th e

D n ubi a n B a s i n ) Pa rt a

,

I,

EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

OF

PRODUCTION

341

this w a s a l s o the c a se with Bucovi n a As the production of both provi n ces h a s fa llen off a fter the Wa r the d efi ci en cy h a s h a d to b e m a de good from the surplus of the Old Ki n gdom During the period 1 902—1 1 the a vera ge ye a rly corn production of B e s s a r a bi a tons from which a ccording to M S y n a d in o wa s tons were a va il a ble for export Duri n g 1 9 20—4 the a ver tons Putting the intern al a e production a mounted to g needs of the province a t to n s — in View of the i n cre a sed p opul a tion since 1 9 02—1 1 a n d of the l a rger number of a nim a ls the new pe a s a nt holders kept— M S yn a di n o concluded th a t during the period 1 920—4 B e s s a r a bi a offered for export only w a go n s of corn a s comp a red W ith in the period 1 9 02— 1 1 During the period 1 9 1 1 1 5 the Old Kin gdom produced tons ( whe a t o a ts b a r ley a n d m a iz e ) a n a ver a ge of tons i e ye a rly ; a n d duri ng 1 9 23— 7 a n a vera ge of tons less yea rly The a vera ge ye a rly export of the four to n s this cere a l s during the period 1 9 1 1— 1 5 re a ched me a ns th a t the surplu s in the second period w a s of no more th a n ton s or ra ther one mil lio n to n s m a king a llow a n ce a bout for the gre a ter inter n a l dem a nd During this period therefore the Old K ingdom a n d B es s a ra bi a — the two provinces which h a ve l a gons of w a corn s ui u s could not sp a re more th a n p corn in round fi gur e s for export a n d this roughly coincides with the a ctu a l a mounts th a t were sent out of the country a s m a y be seen from the t a ble b elow .

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In

qui n t ls a

1 9 20—4

19 1 1— 15

T ot a l

The Violen t oscill a tion of the cor n export i s illustra ted in the di a gra m on p 342 Among Europe a n countries exporting corn before the Wa r Rum a ni a took seco n d pl a ce a fter Russi a Through the Virtu a l .

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342

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

THE E X

PO R T

ON

PRODUCTION

OF COR N

( i n m illi on t on s )

‘

( Afl er G I ones cu S i sestz .

-

EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

343

dis a ppe a ra nce of Russi a for the time b eing from the m a rket Rum a n i a h a s a dva nced to the fir st pl a ce in Europ e without however being a ble to keep proportion a tely in step with the a dv a nce in the export of the overse a countries The followin g t a bles show the interesting ch a nges of po s ition which h a ve t a ken pl a ce since t h e Wa r in the export of the m a i n cere a l crops : ,

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Wh ea t

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en

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an

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o

o

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os

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a

c

n

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a

a

a

O

a

a

a

n

e

x

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d

a

v

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Pe ri od 1 9 21 5 C n da M U ite d S tat es Ar ge n ti e Q A u s tr a li a U I n di a C H u nga ry x R u ss i Y u g la vi a B ul ga ri a R u ma n i a

P eri od 19 09 1 3 R u ss i w Arg ti n w Ca n d a U n ite d S t tes w o R um ia c I di a q A u str li a Bulga ri a o S e rbi

a p

Pe ri d 1 9 21 5 1 C a ad a w Ar gen ti n e n U ite d S ta tes R uma n ia A l ge ri c R u ss i —

o

n

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n

s

a w n

a

c :

a

Pe ri o d H

U

1 9 21 — 5

ited S ta te s R uss ia C an ad a H u n ga ry Pol a n d Ar gen ti n e R um n ia n

t b

l

O b

G

7

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a

4 B a r ley .

Peri od 1 909 1 3 r R u sia o R u m an i a w In di h Un ited S ta tes n o Al ge ri c C n d q F r n ch M or occ o Tu n i s i a A rge n ti ne —

Peri o d

U

s

na

a

n

a,

a

a

ited S ta te s R um ia Ca d a R uss ia I di a F re ch M orocc o C e ch os l o v a ki a Ar gen tin e Pol an d Al geri a H u n ga ry n

an

g

b

1 921 —5

n

a

z

e

o o

o c

l

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y l

b

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344 5

EFFECTS .

OF

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

Ma i ze

P eri od 1 909 1 3 w A rge ti n e w U n ite d S t te s w R u m ia a R u ss i a g Bul ga ri a m S e rbi g S uth Afric a —

n

a

an

a

o

These t a bles show th a t Rum a ni a h a s m a in t a in ed second pla ce in the export of b a rley with a n incre a sed tot a l ; she h a s kept the fourth pl a ce in the export of o a ts but with a reduced qu a ntity ; she h a s ret a ined the third pl a ce in m a iz e export w ith a reduced qu a n tity ; but s h e h a s dropped severely in the whe a t t a ble from fi fth to tenth pla ce a n d from to w a gons yea rly More s ign ifi ca n t still she h a s b een outdist a nced in whe a t export by her neighbour s — Hung a ry Yugosl a vi a a n d Bulg a ri a Bulga ri a a n d Yugosl a vi a suffered a s much a s R um a ni a or more through the Wa r ; a n d Yugosl a vi a too c a rried out a n extensive l a n d reform gre a tly mis a pplied ; thei r b eing a ble to better Rum a ni a s whea t export could therefore only be expl a ined through the restrictive policy a dopted by the Rum a ni a n Governments for the purpo s e of a cc umul a ting che a p i n tern a l supplies ,

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xp o rt e d qu a n t i t ies w r o t e M I on e s cu S ise st i cou l d h a v e b e en l a rge r i n s p it e o f t h e p r es e n t l owe r e d p r o duc t ion i f t h e o ut fl ow o f t h e a v a i l a b l e s u r p l u s t ow a r d s e xp o r t we r e s t i m u l a t e d by m ea n s o f P ro of t h a t w e a re n ot d oing t h is m a y be foun d a pp r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e s i n t h e fa c t t h a t o ur i n t e r n a l co n su m p t io n r e c k on e d p e r h e a d a pp e a r s t o be h igh a lt h ough o ur p o pu l a t i on i s fr uga l a n d t h e s e e d r a t i on gi v e n t o o ur a n im a l s i s v e r y r e d uce d i n r e l a t io n t o t h e m a n n e r i n wh i c h a n i m a l s W e d o n o t c o n s u m e w e wa s t e a r e fe d e l s ew h e r e The ye a rly consumption of cere a ls per hea d wa s 41 7 kg du r i n g the period 1 920—4 which includes food for men a n d a nim a l s a s well a s seed ; in the s a me ye a rs it w a s 308 k g in Pol a n d 31 9 in Czecho s lova ki a 339 in Bulg a ri a 348 in Yugo sl a vi a a n d 47 1 in Hung a ry Hung a ry w a s the o n ly country to exceed the Rum a ni a n a vera ge but she exports a l a rger numb er of fa ttened a nim a l s Intern a l consumption h a s been quicker in ‘

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1

P a rti c ip a rea Romd n ie i la P r od uc gi unea si Comer gul

M

on d i a l d e

Cerea le, 19 28 , p 28 .

.

EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

345

re a ching the pre w a r level th a n either productio n or export The a vera ge consumptio n during 1 9 10— 1 5 w a s 49 0k g per i nh a bi t a nt ; this w a s equ a lled by the fi gur e for 1 925 Rum a ni a s corn export h a s fa llen therefore from a ye a rly a ver a ge of 40 8 per cent of the tot a l h a rvest ( whe a t b a rley o a ts in 1 923—7 a n d the a n d m a ize ) in 1 9 1 1 — 1 5 to 1 8 7 per cent proportion of whe a t in those fi gur e s from 1 6 7 per cent to 2 2 per cent The genera l fa ll i n corn export is a ccomp a nied by a ch a n ge in the kind of cere a ls exported This is s een in the follow i n g t a ble referring to the export of the four m a in cere a l cr 0 ps -

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Pe rc t ge of th ir producti en a

P rc en tage of tota l e xp ort

e

e

on

19 1 1 — 15

1 923— 7

1 9 1 1— 15

1 923— 7

Whe a t h a s been repl a ced by sprin g cere a ls— b a rley m a iz e o a ts a n d even millet which we re a llowed to b e exported a n d brought higher returns with less effort a n d expen s e The m a ize export repre s ented 9 per cent of the world trade in 1 9 25 8 6 per cen t in 1 9 26 a n d 1 5 4 per ce n t in 1 9 27 when Rum a ni a c a me n ext a fter the Ar gent i ne These ch a nges in the n a ture of the a gri cultura l export a re concomit a nt with the va ria tion i n the distributio n of crop s described e a rlier in this ch a pter Indeed one ca n tra ce the effect of the tra n sition to sm a ll sc a le fa rmin g more cle a rly in the ch a n ge of export s th a n in the ch a n ge of crops The two t a bles on pp 35 5 6 which give the qu a ntity a n d the v a lue of a ll Rum a ni a n exports during the ye a rs 1 9 1 9 to 1 9 26 supply a ll the det a ils to illustra te th a t tra nsform a tion Here we wi ll merely give a t a ble showing the proportion of the v a rious products in the v a lue of exports duri n g 1 921 to 1 926 in comp a rison with the corresponding figur e s for 1 9 1 3 ( see p The export of live stock w a s va lued a t in 1 9 1 3 ; it re a ched $ 6 5 mi llions in 1 923 over 1 4 millions in 1 9 24 a n d n e a r ly 20 mil lions in 1 925 Comp a red w ith a percent a ge of of the ,

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346

OF

EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

tot a l v a lue of exports which a nim a l products of a ll kinds r epr e s ented i n 1 91 3 this c a tegory rose during 1 9 21 — 6 to a n a ver a ge va lue of 1 4 31 per cent — a signifi ca n t incre a se The percent a ge o scflla t e d b etween 8 7 in 1 9 23 a n d 20 8 4 in 1 9 25 ; a n d it is worth ,

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-

Products

1 9 24

Liv e s to ck A i m a l fo od s t ufi s n H d es a n d s ki n s Woo l A n m l w as t C rea ls V ge ta bl es s eed s a d fodd r Vegeta bl e o ils Ti m b r d d eriv a tiv e o s pr duct 01 1 O th e r products ‘

5 73 22 4 1

3 02

18 5 2 18 5 3 4 92

1 00 00 1 00 00

1 00 00

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,

35 19 6 1 6

-

02 06 49 6

0 32 0 26 082 4 3 90

16 5 13 1

1 9 25 12 13

4 7

5 11

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0

-

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09

10 19 2 62

7 0

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1 3 33 06 3 0 23 0 16 0 49 38 3 1

-

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9 06 2 93 0 27 1 10 03 0 5 0 48

-

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04 1 7 05 04 02 67 0

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-

-

I 1 925 14 5 0 4 52 05 8 05 5 0 69 25 22

8 10 4 20 0 42 0 39 041 36 9 5

21 5 0

1 5 03 25 00 5 00

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1 00 00

noti n g th a t it fa lls a n d rises with s ome regul a rity i nversely to the rise a n d fa ll of the p ercent a ge for cerea ls The export of a nim a l product s th a t i s now pl a ys a compen sa tory p a rt to the export of corn which ill ustra tes in a concret e m a nner the suggestion we m a de before th a t the risks of a griculture wo ul d b e les s ened by the gre a ter va ri a tion in the n a ture of fa rmi n g The lesser decre a se in the v a lue of a gricultur a l exports a s seen in the t a bles on pp 35 5 6 comp a red with the sh a rper drop in tot a l qu a n tities suggests moreover th a t the ch a nge in the v a rieties exported h a s not been u n profi t a ble in itself But in genera l there is no doubt th a t Rum a n i a h a s lost the pl a ce which she occupied in i n tern ation a l tra de before the Wa r The fi r s t volume of the 111 emom ndum on th e Ba la nce of E xtern a l Tr a d e 1 9 1 3— 25 published by the Le a gue of N a tions st a te s th a t the tot a l v a lue of intern a tio n a l tra de h a s i n cre a sed during th a t period by 5 per cent At the s a me time Rum a ni a s sh a re i n it h a s decre a s ed by on e h a lf a lthough the country s In 1 9 1 3 exports a mounted a re a a n d popul a tion h a ve doubled to $ 1 30 millions equ a l to 0 71 per cent of the world tra de ; in 1 9 25 this sh a re h a d f a lle n to 0 47 per cent Imports represented .

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OF

EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

347

per cent in 1 91 3 a n d 0 46 per cent in 1 9 25 of the world s tra de The s a me conclusion is dra wn from the fi gur es in dic a ti n g the va lue of: Rum a ni a s export per he a d of popul a tion From $ 1 6 9 8 per he a d in 1 91 3 it h a s f a llen to $ 8 23 in 1 9 25 Rum a n i a p a ssing from the eleventh to the twe n ty fi r st pl a ce a mo n g Europ ea n exportin g countries ; a n d if for a precise comp a ri s on with 1 9 1 3 the fi gur e $ 8 2 3 is divided by the index 1 5 75 r epr e s enting the depreci a tion in the purch a sing power of the doll a r the v a lue of exports would be merely $ 5 2 0 per he a d of popula tio n World tra de in short h a s in cre a sed by 5 per cent where a s R um a ni a s sh a re of it is 3 5 times sm a ller An d th a t is not a genera l phenomen o n a mong the cou n trie s of s outh ea stern Europe Hu n g a ry e xported $ 1 8 per hea d in 1 9 1 3 a n d $ 1 7 in 1 925 ; Bulg a ri a 33 7 a n d $ 8 a n d Yugosl a vi a — though exception a lly h a rd hit by the Wa r — h a s incre a s ed i t s export s from $ 3 5 in 1 9 1 3 to $ 1 2 per he a d in 1 925 O n ce a ga in one must dra w a ttention to the f a ct th a t Yugosl a vi a h a s c a r ried out a l a n d reform a s extensive a s Rum an i a s which h a s n ot preven ted a n increa se in her exports One might a lso note the obviou s ly gre a ter powers of recovery of a country of pe a s a nt holders such a s B ulg a ri a in comp a rison with for in s t a nce Hu n g a r y a coun try in which l a rge est a tes predomi n a te Up to a poin t the f a ll in Rum a ni a s corn export m a y b e l a id directly a t the door of the l a nd reform The corn tr a de especi a lly for export w a s bound to suffer more th a n production from the brea k up of the l a rge est a tes with their centr a lized a dmini stra tion with est a blished conn exions with tra ders b a nks a n d shippi n g fi r m s The division of the h a rvest a mong a l a rge n um ber of s m a ll f a rmers h a s m a de its collection storing a n d tra n sport more d iffi cult a n d more costly th a n it w a s b efore ; likewise more d iffi cult to estim a te the a va il a ble qu a ntities quickly a n d in consequence the sur plus th a t might b e offered for export The s a me ci rc umst a n ce h a s reduced the uniformity of the product the p e a s a nts usi n g the more expensive selected seed even less th a n the l a rge fa rmers The l a rge c ultiva tors too usu a lly s upply a mixture of va rietie s a n d primitive me a n s of h a rvesti n g a n d h a ndling a r e c a using a considera ble percen t a ge of impurities to a ppe a r in the pe a s a n t corn Though Rum a n i a s 05 8

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348

OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

soil a n d c lim a te can produce the b est whe a t in Europe with which a lo n e the Russi a n could compete the denomin a tion oi D a n ubi a n origin h a s a cquired a derog a tory mea n ing in the intern a tion a l corn tra de ( 6 ) Th e Va lue an d P r i ces of Agr i cultur a l P r oducts The d r op in the va lue of Rum a nia n exports is in p a rt due to the fa ct th a t the price of a gricultura l products h a s i n cre a sed less th a n th a t of industri a l good s The genera l n a tur e of Rum a ni a s exports a n d imports h a s rem a i n ed the s a me a s before the Wa r but n ot w it h s t a nding— or ra ther bec a use oi the drop in the va lue of exports more h a s prop ortion a tely to be sent a bro a d th a n before Where a s 3 7 tons of exp orts corresponded to on e ton of imports 1 e fi ve tons b efore the Wa r a fter it the rel a tio n ch a nged a s were exported for e a ch ton imported Durin g the pre w a r ye a rs the a ver a ge v a lue of exports w a s estim a ted a t $ 28 per ton 1 a n d of imports a t $ 1 05 which ch a ra cterizes the difference b etween the n a ture of the goods bought a n d those sold Th a t rel a tion of va lues w a s upset a fter the Wa r to Rum a ni a s dis a dv a nt age During the period 1 9 1 9— 23 the a ver a ge v a lue of export s rem a ined unimproved a t $ 28 p er ton but the va lue of imports h a s more th a n doubled rising to $ 25 0 per t on Durin g the following ye a rs 1 924— 6 the a vera ge va lue of exports rem a i ned a bout the s a me a t $ 29 per t on while the modera tion in the price of industri a l goods brought the v a lue of im p orts down to $ 1 60 per ton 2 The gro s s va lue of the a gricultura l production h a s been ,

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v r

xp rt v lu c r ti i cr which br u ht C l w

t d

it r

o a e of o n w a s e s m a e a t $ 28 pe r t o n i n 1 9 1 4 ; os e Th e a e a ge e t o $ 9 5 i n 1 9 15 , a n n e a s e h as o g t h e gen e a a e a ge for t h e pre w a r oi ul S ee L o e s on , Com er l E xter i or a l Romai n i ei I na i n te si d up ci R d zb e a s t o $ 32 M ond i a l, 1 9 28 , p 5 64 2 en a e o f R ma n a n o on i n 1 9 23 h a s ee n g A n e s ma e of t h e o a — 2 1 9 25 s N o 1 M I I Ge orgi a n u i n t h e A n a lele S ta ti s tice s, i E cono mi s , vol , , 1

y r

ti

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‘

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t

t t l v lu

u

i

pr ducti c

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-

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by

r l v r

.

viii

b

.

( in mi lli on le i )

ricultur l productio n Ti b r pr ducts Liv t ck a d a i m l p o d uct s M i r l pr ducts I dus tri l producti on le i 29 which t h e a ctu a l fi n i s h ing c on tributi on ma d e by i n du try w a s

1 Ag m e 2 e s o 3 4 ne a .

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.

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5

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n

a

o

n

n

a

i

o

a

,

s

Le i

iv

.

EFFECTS

OF

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

estim a ted on the b a sis of intern a l wholes a le prices million lei )

as

349

follow s ( in

Ce r a ls Al i m e n t a ry cro p s I du tri a l crops N a tura l a d a t i fici a l gr asses O rch rd a d vi n eya rd e

n

s

n

a

s

r

s

n

Tota l

N 0 offi cia l figur es a r e a va il a ble to show the ye a rly i n cre a s e in the v a lue of live stock & c Exports a mou n ted to millio n s ( without a n im a l products ) i n 1 923 i e a bout 1 0 per cent of the gro s s v a lue of the h a rvest ; the improvement in 1 927 w a s exceptio n a l due to the l a rge m a iz e crop of 1 9 26 In the yea rs a fter the Wa r the m a rket v a lue of a gricultur a l products though higher th a n b efore the Wa r h a s not r isen i n the s a me degree a s the va lue of industri a l a n d m a n ufa ctured good s Agricultura l indu s try h a s thereby everywhere been pl a ced a t a dis a dv a n t a ge which is one of the m a in c a uses of the severe a gricultura l cri s is now experienced by most Europe a n a n d over s e a countries How much worse therefore must the situ a tion be for the Rum a ni a n fa rmers who h a ve been prevented from obt a i n i n g eve n the rel a tively low prices ruling in the world m a rket s ? They h a ve n ot h a d like f a rmers elsewhere a n opportu n ity of l a yi n g a side h a nd s ome pr ofi t s duri n g the Wa r ye a r s ; a n d price a n d export r estrictions export t a xes a n d other governm ent me a sures s poilt their ch a n ce s of m a king the mo s t of the boom which followed immedi a tely upon the Wa r Hence they h a d n o r eserve of pr ofi t s to e n a ble them to hold out in the ba d ye a r s th a t were to come The t on v a lue of a gricultura l exports we h a ve seen rem a ined the s a me a s before the Wa r b ec a use the difference w a s a bsorbed by export t a xes ; a n d a s the pre w a r v a lues were n a tura lly those ruling in the world m a rkets it h a s me a nt th a t po st w a r prices h a d to be lower th a n world p r ices by a t le a s t the a mount of the export t ax if Rum a ni a n corn & c w a s to re a ch those m a rkets a t a ll The a ccomp a nyi n g di a gra ms show indeed th a t the intern a l p r ice s of whe a t a n d m a ize a s in fa ct of a ll other ,

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35 0

Th e

EFFECTS

p r i ce

of

w

OF

h ea t pe r

THE REFORM

ON

WH E AT P R I CE S q ui n t a l i n go l d fr a n cs ,

,

PRODUCTION

in th e

p r i n ci p a l

m a r ke t s

EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

35 1

MAI ZE P R I CE S per

q ui n ta l

,

i n go l

d fr a n c s

,

i n th e

p r i n ci p a l

m a r ke t s

( After G I anes cu S zlsesti .

-

35 2

OF

EFFECTS

ON

THE REFORM

PRODUCTION

crops h a ve bee n lower th an in a n y other of the world s m a rkets ; a n d not merely in the importin g Europe a n m a rkets which woul d h a ve been n a tura l but a lso i n the overse a s exporting m a rkets The price fix ing a n d t a x a tion policy of the govern ment w a s bound to discoura ge production Ta ken in conj unction with the violent fl uct uat ion s in the exch a n ge it w a s even more likely to confuse a n d h a mper exports F reque n tly indeed expor ts moved inversely to production which o nl y a genera l confusion of prices could expl a i n a s ex em plifi ed in the w a steful home use of whe a t a n d W he a ten bre a d When e g a t the end of August 1 9 21 the export t a x of lei p er w a go n of whea t w a s repl a ced by the s o c a lled con t in gen t a t i on system i e the ra tio ni ng of the qu a ntities a llowed to be exported prices fell sh a rply a n d the effect might h a ve been di sa strous but for the simult a neous fa ll in the ra te of exch a n ge by a bout 1 00 per cent B a rley sold e a rly in August a t lei per w a gon a t lei when the export restrictio n s were fi rst imposed a n d a g a in a t 25 0001e i in S eptem b er In the followi n g a utumn j ust the opposite took pl a ce Deluded by the high price of corn due to the low exch a n ge Government impo s ed a n export t a x of lei p er w a gon S oon a fterw a rds the exch a n ge rose a n d prices of corn fell to such a level th a t tow a rds the middle of August 1 922 the exp ort t a x a bsorbed a bout h a lf the v a lue of the corn in the producer s h a nds Ha d the exch a nge co n ti n ued to rise it might soon h a ve The incident di s clo s ed a b s orbed the whole v a lue of the cor n wh a t f a nt a stic effect s could result from a high fi x e d t a x when a t a x sliding with the v a lue of cor n might h a ve a chieved some The opposite t a ble giving the prices of the four m a in s t a bility c r op s in the princip a l Rum a ni a n port s s hows how strongly they oscill a ted from qu a rter to qua rter Before the Wa r Rum a n i a n whe a t n a tura lly s old a t w orld prices In 1 9 24 the w a go n of whe a t a t Cra iov a on e of the chief collecti n g ce n tre s w a s lei while in Pa ris it w a s worth lei Altogether the de a rne s s of a gricultura l products in Rum a ni a w a s merely a pp a re n t b ec a use of the continuous fa ll in t h e exch a nge Where a s before the Wa r the w a gon of whe a t Swi s s fra ncs M Ga r oflid c a lcul a ted th a t h a d a v a lue of tow a rd s the middle of 1 9 22 it v a lued only 700 Swiss fr a ncs ; ’

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EF FECTS

OF

THE REFORM

ON

35 3

PRODUCTION

while the cost of production h a d rem a ined a s high a s before i n gold va lues Another con sequence of th a t offi ci a l interference w ith the m a rket w a s th a t dur i ng the fi rst ye a rs of the exception a l r egime whe a t prices were a lmost level with those of m a ize a n d b a rley B y some writers this w a s fa lla ciously a ttributed to excess .

.

( In

go

ld fr n c s ) a

Mi

Whe a t

a ze

of world production ; but Rum a ni a w a s a closed m a rket yet interna l whe a t prices were lower by h a lf th a n those ruli n g in the world m a rkets In October 1 923 indeed Rum a ni a n whe a t sold a t 45 0001e i while Americ a n whe a t offered a t a bout 9 0 000 1e i a t Const a nta Nor did these circumst a n ces st a bili z e the in tern a l m a rket Bec a use of the short a ge of money a n d of export pr oh i bi tions for white fl our Rum a ni a n mills only purch a sed wh a t they strictly needed a t the tim e The s a me re a sons forced cultiv a tors to offer a s much a s they possibly could ; with the result th a t a t a cert a in moment in 1 9 23 whe a t a ctu a lly fell by a bout lei below the in a dequ a te m a ximum prices fi x e d by the Govern ment There is no s a ying of course whether the economic a n d fi sca l policy of Rum a ni a s governments would h a ve b een different without the reform But fa ced with such a policy the l a rge culti -

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1 5 69 69 -

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A a

35 4

OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

ON

PRODUCTION

coul d h a rdly h a ve survived i t unless p ermitted to go to the uttermost li mit in squeez ing the soil a n d swea ting the p e a s a nts All improvement in a gricultur a l methods a n d equi p ment would h a ve been out of the question In f a ct those b etter equi pp ed f a rms in the K ingdom a n d in Tra nsylva n i a w hi ch spent rel a tively more on l a bour a n d on the upkeep of live a n d de a d stock would h a ve b een the fi r st to succum b For a time corn production m a y h a ve kept up the flour ishin g a ppea ra nces of the p a st L a rge owners a n d ten a nts coul d not h a ve show n the i r resentment in the form of p a ssive resist a nce which the wellnigh self —suffi cin g pe a s a nts can a fford to pra ctice Through their efforts the export of corn mi ght h a ve risen to b etter fi gur es without necess a rily implyi n g a b etter yield Exports from ba d cultiva tion a n d in spite of ba d policy co ul d only h a ve b een r a va gin g in the extreme In the st a te in which the Wa r left the country such exports would h a ve been sucked out of the very m a rrow of the soil a n d of those who till ed it to the l a sting impoverishment of both There is a t lea st h 0p e in the new a gra ri a n org a ni z a tion Though it h a s not b een pr olifi c in the a dverse conditions which h a ve s ur rounded its inf a ncy it m a y b e a r the seed from which a re a l a gric ul tur e will spri n g In c an a se it c a nnot f a il to de a l more kindly W ith the so i l a n d its y l a bourers va t or s

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THE EFFECTS

OF

C H A PTE R X THE REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY

S E C TI O N 1 TH E E FFE C T S OF T H E R E F O R M O N L IV E S T O C K T HE re a ring a n d breed ing of a nim a ls a cqui red a much gre a ter im p ort a nce in R um a ni a n a griculture a fter the reform th a n it ever h a d before It is the bra nch of rura l economy which more th a n a n y other fa vour s sm a llh olders ; a n d to them a n im a ls a r e va lu a ble b oth a s a help in cultiva tion a n d a s obj ects in the production a n d s a le of which the pe a s a nts ca n e a sily hold their own a ga in st competition from l a rge producers The fodder crops grown by sm a llh olders in connexion w ith the live stock industry introduce a gre a ter va riety in f a rmin g a n d the n a ture of their cultiva tion helps to cle a r the soil of weeds a n d to prep a re it for cere a l crops Rum a ni a s a gricultura l production moreover ca n no longer b e m a int a ined on a com pe t it ive ba si s without the regul a r use ofma n ur es gw h ich give s a d d it i on a lva lue t o n um er ous live stock B efore the dispossession of the pe a s a nts the re a ring a n d breedi ng of a ni m a ls formed the m a in source of we a lth for the Rum a ni a n Princip a lities The ir a nim a ls were fa mous for num ber a n d fi n e qu a lity Among the Greeks of the E a stern Empir e owner of rich herds Va la ch i an wa s synonymous with Rum a ni a n horses were sung in the Niebelungen S a g a ( Pa rt XXII verse a n d Germ a ny for a long t i me bought them a s remoun ts for her c a lva ry ; he n ce the old n a me of W a ll a ch given to geldings fi r st a ppea ring towa rds the middle of the sixtee n th century Mold a vi a n m a res were introduced into Denm a rk for the improvement of the n a tive breed The Turks gre a tly a ppreci a ted Rum a ni a n horses a n d Mold a vi a s ye a rly tribute included forty good Mold a vi an horses They even h a d a proverb th a t there is noth ing to be a t a Persi a n p e a s a nt a n d a Mold a vi a n horse Almost a s reno wned were Mold a vi a n horned c a ttle which used to b e exported to a ll the neighbouring coun tries But w ith the growing encro a ch ment of the l a ndlords upon pe a s a nt l a nds the a re a under gra ss const a ntly lessened while the economi c import a nce a cqui red by corn growing a n d the politic a l infl uen ce a cquired by corn growers c a used the neglect of th a t br a nch of .

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35 8

THE EFFECTS

THE

OF

rur a l economy whi ch h a d m a de the prosp erity of the pe a s a nts For the p e a s a nts it b eca me incre a singly d iffi cult to keep good a n im a ls a n d the new extensive f a rmers h a d no interest in keeping them The St a te took so little interest in the m a in te n a nce of the former we a lth in live stock th a t a dva nt a ges were secur ed for the export of corn in the tra de convention concluded with Austro H un ga ry while the export of a nim a ls formerly so ex tensive an d pr ofit a ble w a s a t the s a me tim e restricted The consequent st a gn a tion or r a ther rel a tive decline in the qu a ntity of li ve stock is m a de evident by the t a ble b elow though it c a nnot a lso show the much gre a ter rel a tive decli ne in the qu a lity of the stock : Ox d Bu ff l H r .

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en an

o s es

a oes

P e r 1 00

P e r 1 00 i nh a b .

h e cta r es a r a bl e

P er 1 00 i nh a b .

T ot a l n um b er

4 1 06

33 34 -

( Af te r M Se rb a n .

,

op

.

ci t

,

p 1 20) .

Notwithst a nding this decline in c a ttle re a rin g Rum ani a still took a high pl a ce a mong Europe a n countries wi th reg a rd to the numb er of a nim a ls But the qu a lity of her live stock w a s poor a s m a y b e inferred from the followin g t a ble in which the proportion of a n im a ls is given side by side w ith the proportion of gra ss an d p a stur e ,

.

,

,

i n h a bita n ts

F or

C o u n try

Y r H r ea

Ox

o s es

( Afte r

Dr

.

en

N D Cor n é tea n u) .

.

Y r

S h ee p

ea

.

Ar a

bl

e

Gr as s Pa stur e

REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY

35 9

The co untry therefore h a d a l a rge qu a ntity of a nim a ls but devoted a sm all a rea to their feed ing ; the Villa ge commons were of poor qu a lity a n d most of the ye a r the a n im a ls h a d to sub si s t on stra w a n d m a ize st a lks Moreover most of the l a rge a nim a ls were dra ught a ni m a ls a n excessive number in fa ct beca use the preva ili ng customs forced the pe a s a nts to supply working te a ms a n d bec a use the c i rc umst a nces in which the work w a s performed a n d the poor qu a lity of the stock m a de it necess a ry to employ a proportion a tely l a rge number of a nim a ls The distribution of live stock b efore the reform w a s rem a rk a ble for the enormous di sproportion in the number of a nim a ls owned by ea ch of the two c a tegories of cultiva tors Immedi a tely before the Wa r the pea s a nts owned 8 5 per cent of the tot a l number of horses 8 7 per cent of a ll the horned a nim a ls 76 per cent of the sheep a n d 8 3 per cent of a ll the pigs In Munteni a the number of tra ction a n im a ls the p ea s a nts o w ned re a ched 92 per cent of the tot a l The tot a l num ber of own ers w a s in 1 9 1 6 w hi ch me a nt th a t 6 9 per cent of a ll the households owned a nim a ls a s comp a red w ith 6 7 p er ce n t in 1 900; on the l a nd this percent a ge of co urse w a s higher a bout 8 3 per cent of a ll the households the num b er of rura l owners bein g in 1 9 1 6 The other side of the picture w a s represented by the considera ble extent of gra zin g a n d p a sture in the h a nds of the l a rge owners : a ccording to the 1 9 1 1 st a tistics they held h a W hile h a were owned by the pe a s a nts A gre a t de a l of these pe a s a nt gra zin gs were of the poorest qu a lity The reform h a ving given the pe a s a nts l a nd for cultiva tion it a lso incre a sed the num ber a n d size of commun a l gra zing s thereby em a ncip a tin g the pe a s a nts from their depen dence on the l a rge ow ners a n d tena nts But in this c a se a lso the reform h a s not moved b eyond the fi r st step of gra nt ing l a nd As the pe a s a nts knowledge a n d experience is gre a test in connexion with the keeping of a ni m a ls the best w a y to intensify production would h a ve been to encour a ge a n d give scop e to th a t speci a l a bili ty The pea s a nts a s cultiv a tors pr efer m a iz e a n d b a rley to whea t a n d from th a t st a ndpoint too element a ry economic co n sidera tions should h a ve s uggested th a t it w a s prefera ble not to let those r a w m a teri a ls b e e xported a s such but r a ther tra ns ,

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36 0

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE

formed into me a t a n d f a ts Ofii cia l policy however h a s rem a in ed a s indifferent a s before to the f a te of this potenti a l s our c e of we a lth N ot h in g h a s been done so far for the gro w ing of fodder crops on the l a nd set a side for the keep ing of c a ttle Most of these fi e ld s a r e buried in weeds There i s h a rdly a n y clover to b e seen a n d beet a n d tur nips a r e equ a lly r a re Alm ost nothin g is kno w n a bout the prep a r a tion of fodder a bout the i mport a nce of a regu la r feeding tim e or a bout the gr a d a tion of food a ccordin g to the a nim a ls Gra ss a n d p a sture rem a in the b a ckbone of c a ttle re a ring in Rum a ni a a n d the l a nd reform h a s rightly pro vided considera ble l a nd for this purpose But very little of it h a s been sown with gra ss a n d most of these fi eld s which h a d b een formerly under m a ize h a ve not b een levelled yet No a rra nge ments a r e in force to regul a te the se a son a l use of such gra z ings Th a t indi fference is proving e s peci a lly costly to Tra nsylva ni a a n d Buco vin a both of them well a d a pted a n d a ccustomed to c a ttle breeding In some p a rts of these provin ces cultiva tion is in f a ct subordin a te ; b etween them they h a ve gra ss a n d p a stur e covering a bout 2 5 million h a They still h a d a useful a mo unt of breeding m a teri a l a t the e n d of the Wa r but the destructive price a n d t a riff policy the Rum a n i a n governm ents a dopted h a s thre a tened rui n to the live stock industry of the new provinces a s th a t of the 01d Kingdom w a s ruined b efore I f nevertheless the country h a s b een a ble to m a ke good within a few ye a rs the decre a se in live stock c a used by losses a n d over consumption during the Wa r th a t is a ltogether due to the efforts of the pea s a nts This is a dmitted by every one The l a rge owners a n d ten a nts h a d neither the experience n or the me a ns in c a pit a l buildings gra zi n g & c of rebuilding the country s depleted stock The Old Kingdom a lone is supposed to h a ve lost over six hundred thous a nd hors es a n d more th a n a million horned a ni m a ls during the Wa r The followi n g t a ble indic a tes these losses a s well a s the r a pidity with which they were repl a ced in the Old Kingdom : .

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1 900

19 16

1 9 19

1 921

1 927

REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY

The ye a rly incre a se in the two periods 1 900—1 6 shown below : Y rly i cr ea

n

36 1 1 9 21 —4

an d

is

ease

1 900— 1 6

H or s s H orn e d Pigs e

an

i m ls a

( d e cre a s e )

It should b e mentioned th a t the post w a r fi gur e s repre s ent o nl y e s tim a tes— a n d those for the fi r s t pe a ce ye a r prob a bly a rough e s t im a t e as a census of a nim a ls h a s not been t a ken sin ce the Wa r Nor h a s their di stribution a mong the v a rious c a tego r ies of l a ndowners been t a ken a ccou n t oi though it is cle a r th a t the proportion owned by the pe a s a nts must be even gre a ter th a n before The tot a l num ber of a nim a ls a ccording to the offi cia l St a tistics of Domestic Anim a ls h a s ch a nged a fter the reform a s follows -

g

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H r

o s es

published in the B uleti n ul Agri cultur a l a N o 2 the tot l number of domestic a nim ls in the a ( provinces composin g Gre a ter Rum a ni a ch a nged a s follows : According .

t o fi gur es

,

B

r t h e War Aft r t h e War M in u s d iffe re n c e e fo e e

All Europ e a n countries h a ve seen their live stock reduced through the Wa r For purposes of comp a rison we give b elow the fi gur e s for the s a me p eriods rel a ting to three of Rum a ni a s neighbour s B f r th M i u di ff r c Aft r t h .

’

e o e

e

e

Wa r

n

e

Wa r

1 1

R C S .

.

t e re

,

B uleti n ul A gr i c ultur ei , A

pril —J un e

.

1 9 27

.

s

e en

e

36 2

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE

It would seem th a t Rum a ni a st a nds a lone a mong the countries which h a ve been involved in the Wa r in h a vin g been a ble to incr ea se her live stock b etween 1 9 1 9 a n d 1 925 by 42 per cent ; thereby coming ne a rest to m a king good the Wa r d a m a ge Among sixty ni ne countries compili ng a nim a l st a tistics Rum a ni a took twelfth pl a ce in 1 925 with 79 2 a nim a ls to the squ a re kilo metre Denm a rk b ein g fir st with 1 48 Urugu a y second with 1 43 a n d Engl a nd third with 1 39 Th e number of domestic a ni m a ls in proportion to the siz e of the country a n d of its p opul a tion h a s undergone the following ch a nges : .

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H o rs e s P er inh a b .

sq

P er

P er

P er

sq

.

km

i nba h

.

43 1

.

i nh a b .

200 21 0 15 4

37 1 26 1

9 42 98 9 2 74 1

-

-

A11

P er

.

km

.

P er

sq

P er

P er I

.

km

inh a b

.

1

sq

i nh a b

.

.

km

.

13 0 10 0 10 4

28 5 1 75 1 76

-

P er

.

km

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43 0 57 0 4 39

sq

P er

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7 03

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648 47 8

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species of a nim a ls except horses were continu a lly decrea sin g in number b efore the Wa r In the fi r st p e a ce ye a rs the pe a s a nts m a de a strong effort to m a ke good the Wa r losses with considera ble success but the movement lost impetus a fter a few ye a rs a n d a fresh decline set in in ste a d From 1 926 to or 3 31 per 1 9 27 horses o nl y incre a sed in num b er with ce nt The number of oxen h a s never ce a sed to di mi nish since 1 922 ; from 1 9 26 to 1 9 27 it w a s reduced by or 5 4 pe r cent Sheep decre a sed by or 4 7 1 per cent Pigs o nl y lost or 2 9 per cent The numb er of a ni m a l un its fell from 29 to 28 per squ a re kilometre a n d from 5 01 to 478 per thous a nd inh a bit a nts The st a gn a tion in the keepi n g a n d breeding of live stock is ,

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rom t h e 1 9 1 6 c e s us of d omes tic a n i ma ls ; th os e fo 1 9 23 fr m t h o ffi ci a l s ta ti s tic s for t h e y ea r ) Th e fi gure fo 1 900 w a c om pil d i n N v e m b e r b efo r e t h e l a m bin g s ea son th a t l m b s ; a s t h b solute i n crea s e for 1 9 1 6 c o m pil d a fte r l a m bi g i clud e d th e re w as i n r ea li t y a re l ativ e d creas e w a s m e re ly ( Th e fi gur e s for 1 900 a n d o

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REFORM

ON RUR AL

ECONOMY

36 3

doubtedly d ue a b ove a ll to the price a n d t a riff poli cy pur sued by the St a te since the Wa r Whil e the Mi n istry of Agricult ur e w a s stri vi ng to im prove the stock a n d obt a i n ed a credi t of le i for bu y ing bull s from Switzerl a n d other dep a rt ments a dopted a policy whi ch rendered the breedi ng a n d fa tten ing of c a ttle a ltogether un pr ofit a ble Their line of poli cy w a s to keep the cost of livin g low ; to th a t end the export of a nim a ls w a s a llowed only with speci a l permi ts which merely led to a n a busive t ra ffi c in such permits a n d to excessive sl a ughteri n g of young stock From J une 1 9 23 the export of live stock w a s left fr ee but a t ax of lei w a s imposed on e a ch l a rge horned a nim a l irrespective of its weight which t a x w a s l a ter reduced to lei Under the system of p ermi ts the export t a x h a d a moun ted to a bout lei per a nim a l The export of pigs a n d fowl w a s still prohibited Ani m a ls destined for export h a d to pa y 5 0 per cent a b ove the ordin a ry freight on the r a ilw a ys The fi r st effect of these me a sures w a s to check the export of li ve stock j ust dur ing the ye a rs when the price of me a t w a s much higher in a ll the neighbouring countries The Tra nsylva ni a n breeders were especia lly h a rd hit ; b e fore the Wa r they u s ed to send a b out 1 0 per cent of thei r stock ye a rly to V ie nn a a n d Pr a gue The position in the Old Kin gdom w a s a lmost piqu a nt Rum a ni a h a d never ce a sed to compl a in a g a inst the t a riff b a rrier with which Austri a Hung a ry shut off the im port of a nim a ls a n d me a t ; yet a s soon a s she w a s freed of th a t obstructio n Rum a ni a proceeded to set up a simila r b a rrier herself a g a inst her own li ve stock industry Still more stra nge w a s the policy which permitted the export of bra n a n d 0 11 c a kes in return for a t a x of no more tha n lei per w a gon ; a ni m a ls th a t is were forcibly kept in the co untry but their food w a s a llowed to go a broa d A Tr a n s yl va ni a n breeder a sserted in a n interview with the Ad evér ul th a t foreign c a ttlemen were buyi n g ( S eptemb er 25 a n i m a ls in Yugosl a vi a where the duties were ten tim es lower a n d then f a ttenin g them on Rum ani a n fodder The effects of these restrictions were r efle ct ed in the export fi gur es shown in the t a ble on the next p a ge he a d of l a rge c a ttle were exported dur in g the fir st qu a rter of 1 9 23 W hen export permits were requir ed ; during the fir st qu a rter ,

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364

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE

of 1 924 when export w a s fr e e subj ect to the t ax of lei p er a nim a l the num ber of horned a nim a ls exported fell to In 1 9 1 1 Hung a ry exported oxen a n d p ig s v a lued at 1 6 mill i a rd lei In 1 9 23 Grea ter Rum a ni a ‘

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exported a nim a ls to the v a lue of 5 — 6 milli a rds a n d in 1 924 of only 1 milli a rd 1 If one reckons tha t with 5 kilogra m corn one ca n produce 1 kilogra m me a t whose export v a lue is double it is e a sy to esti m a te the potentia l income w hi ch w a s sa cr ifi c ed by th a t restrictive policy Its second effect w a s inevit a bly to depress i ntern a l prices to such a n extent a s to m a ke the fa tteni ng of c a ttle un pr ofit a ble In fa ct f a ttening w a s a b a ndoned by most growers a s is proved by the extra v a ga nt sl a ughtering of c a lves l a mbs a n d sucki n g pigs ; during the w i nter 1 9 27— 8 I pur ch a sed suckin g pigs in Rum a ni a a n d Yugosl a vi a a t h a lf a crown a piece Thi s f a ct a n d its serious consequences were emph a sized a t the meeting of the Agricult ur a l Syndic a tes in J une 1 9 25 when it w a s poin ted out th a t the export t ax a mo unted to 25 lei p er k g of b eef a n d 31 1e i per k g of por k which w a s j ust a b out the v a lue of the me a t itself Intern a l consum ption not u n n a tur a lly i ncre a sed under such conditions ; it rose from 1 1 per cent to a bout 1 8 p er cent of the stock ye a rly In 1 9 23 on e million l a rge horned a nim a ls were killed out of a tot a l stock of The tot a l number of a n im a l s killed in publi c sl a ughter houses dur ing 1 9 25 oxen or 1 9 34 per cent of the s tock ; wa s sheep or 1 4 1 3 per cent ; a n d p ig s or 1 5 5 per cent of the stock These figur e s do not include a ni m a ls k ill ed by p ea s a n ts for their own consumption The me a t consum ption w a s estim a ted in 1 9 25 a t 5 1 35 k g per ur b a n inh a bit a nt a n d 3 5 0 k g per rur a l inh a bit a nt In itse lf th a t incre a se in home consumption is desira ble b oth for the a dva nt a ge of the in d ust r y a n d for the b etter feeding of the rur a l popul a tion But A rgu N v m b r 1 9 1 924 .

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REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY

365

present it represents a consider a ble w a st a ge a s a l a rge number of a nim a ls a r e kill ed very y oung which is bound to compromise future ch a nces of export under a w iser policy The possibility of exporti n g a n im a ls a n d me a t especi a lly to the B a lk a n countries is still considera ble Even Pol a nd is exporting c a ttle to Greece tra nsporting them a cross Rum a ni a where they a r e shipped a t Const a n t a Through Tra n sylva ni a a n d Bucov in a a g a in Rum a ni a is fa voura bly linked with the m a rkets of Centra l Europ e which once preferred to b e supplied from those two provinces I f we were to put a griculture on the o n ly ro a d which could a t present le a d to its in t en sifi ca t ion — th a t of breedin g a n d fa ttenin g c a ttle — w e could very soon s a tisfy the requi rements in a nim a l products of a ll the Centra l Europea n countries 1 Rum a ni a enj oys a privileged position a s long a s Russia c a nn ot supply these countries with fodder a s she did b efore the Wa r The l a nd reform a n d the consequent reduction in corn growin g h a s helped Rum ani a to a void the crisis through which the corn exporting countries a r e genera lly p a ssin g The l a rger losses i n popul a tion a n d the reduction in purch a sing power whi ch the belligerent countries h a ve suffered coupled with the ex tension of the a re a un der cere a ls in the overse a countries h a ve resulted in the overproduction of c orn which is responsible for the present crisis The num ber of a nim a ls on the other h a nd h a s m a teri a lly diminished everywhere whil e the cons um ption of me a t is in crea sin g A re a sona ble economic policy— which would h a ve t a ken a ccount of the genera l declin e in live stock a n d of the power of a b sorption of the neighbouring m a rkets might h a ve turned to gre a t a dva nt a ge this pl a cing of Rum a ni a s a gricul ture upon the shoulders of the pe a s a nts at

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S E C TI O N THE

E FFE C T

OF

T H E RE F O R M

2 ON

R U RA L

I N D U S TR I ES

( a ) Domes ti c I n dus tri es The Rum a ni a n St a te from the ye a r of its esta blishm ent in 1 8 6 6 up till the t ime of the l a nd reform h a d shown itself indifferent if not a ctu a lly hostile to the f a te of the industries the pea s a nts pra ctised in their homes The chief .

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Art icl e

by C

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Garofli d , A gus , Ma y 1 2, 1 927

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THE

36 6

EFFECTS

OF

THE

mbition of the n ation a l le a ders h a ving b een to cre a te a na tion a l fa ctory industry they showered privileges upon a ll those who m a de a ttempts in th a t direction a t the expense of the older but sim pler a cti vities Domestic in dustries were excluded from the ben efi t s of the la w for the encour a gement of n a tio n a l industry which gra nted m a n y tra nsport customs a n d other f a cilities R a w m a teri a ls destin ed for l a rge sc a le industry were exempted from customs dutie s but those im ported for the use of domestic industries did not enj oy the s a me f a vo ur S imil a rly the com m e r ci a l tre a ties concluded by Rum a n i a o nly protected the l a rge sc a le industries Why not gra n t domestic industry the s a me protection ? protested Dr An t ipa ii it fi n d s it possible to m a int a in itself when pl a ced on a n equ a l footing w ith l a rge sc a le industry ? The sm a ll industries h a ve a pl a ce of their own to 1 l fi l in our soci a l a n d economic life As l a te a s 1 921 when a con gress of l a rge sc a le m a nufa ctur ers prep a red a pr oj ect of expropri a tion for the ben efit of in dustry a n a rticle h a d to be a dd e d a pp a rently in response to offi ci a l w ishes which specifi cally excluded domestic industry from a ll sh a re in the prop osed a rr a ngement N ot till J uly 1 9 23 w a s the fi r st a ct of gra ce shown to domestic industry when Articles 34 a n d 35 of the fi s ca l law p a ssed i n th a t ye a r a llowed cert a in reductions a n d exemptions from t a x a tion Th a t disreg a rd for domestic industry is the more diffi cult to underst a nd a s in Rum a ni a such a ctivities were needed on the l a nd for more th a n one rea son A p e a s a nt holdin g 5 h a spends a bout sixty d a ys in f a rm i ng them with the prev a ilin g system of cultiv a tion a s Dr Cor n atea n u h a s c a lc ul a ted in det a il M Alim an est ea n u h a s a llowed 1 20 d a ys for a ll the work which a p e a s a nt h a s to do so th a t even t a king into a ccount the un consciona ble numb er of religious a n d other holid a ys the p e a s a nt h a s a surplus of 1 5 9 worki n g d a ys for which he must fi n d a n occup a tion There is room for much improvement in the methods of fa rming a n d every s tep forwa rd wi ll t a ke up more of the pea s a nt s time But there a re on a n a vera ge four months in the ye a r when snow a n d cold stop a ll work in the fi eld a n d which the pe a s a nt a n d his fa mily must spend in demora lizi n g idleness a

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lemele Gr An t ipa , P r ob .

tiei p op or ului R omci n p

evolu

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ON RUR AL

REFORM

ECONOMY

367

unless they ply some h a ndicra ft F ur t h er a l a rge num ber of pe a s a nts own merely 2— 3 h a which a re not s uffi ci en t for their They depend therefore on some a dditio n a l income upkeep which they could only get from domestic industry if it h a ppen s tha t there is no f a ctory m i ne or qu a rry in the neighbourhood It li es within the power of domestic industry therefore to solve the problem of existence for a num b er of pe a s a nts a n d to give to most of them the me a n s for a b etter st a nd a rd of livi n g N a t ion a l eco n omy too would sta nd to ben efit enormously from n g winter months could development which during the lo an y h a rnes s the pe a s a nts l a bour power to some productive work The soci a l a n d mora l a spects of the problem a r e n ot less impor t a nt for the n a tion s progress The a ssoci a tion of f a rming with some h a ndicr a ft one a lter n a tin g with the other is to b e found in m a ny p a rts of Europ e in Switzerl a nd B elgium S ax ony & c In the Rum a n i a n regions it is of old st a n di ng especi a lly in the highl a nds where sometimes whole Vill a ges a r e in w in ter a n d dur ing spells of ba d we a ther e n ga ged in the m a nufa cture of a ll kin ds of wooden a n d e a rthe n a rticles which they sell to tra ders or t a ke into the neighbouring fa irs In genera l Vi ll a ge in dustries h a ve developed in Rum a ni a o ut of home in dustries a n d h a ve o nl y r a rely been tr a n spl a nted from the town s The m a nufa ctured obj ects va ry from mere The Tra nsylva ni a n S pokes to el a bor a te music a l instruments Villa ge industries especi a lly those plied by m en a r e more v a ried but those of the Old Kingdom pl a y a more i mporta nt p a rt in n a tiona l production A lmost 7 5 per cent e g of the butts which the m a kers of wine an d spirits a n d even the town merch a nt s requir e a r e supplied in the Old Kingdom by the villa ge c a sk m a kers of Munteni a a n d southern Mold a vi a The northern Molda vi a n districts put on the m a rket l a rge qu a ntities of the long co a rse spun overco a ts ( s uman ) worn by the pea s a nts both the cloth a n d the t a iloring being done in the Vill a ges Inform a tion concerni ng Tra nsylv a ni a n Villa ge tra des w a s co n t a ined in the st a tistics on house a n d vill a ge i n dustries ( Ha us un d Volks i n d us tr i e ) published by the Hung a ri a n a uthorities a few months b efore the outbre a k of the Wa r These st a tistics disti n guished b etween tra des pli ed profession a lly i e solely with .

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368

THE EFFECTS

THE

OF

the intent of selli ng the a rticles a n d the more p eculi a rly domestic industries when the a rticles were m a nufa ctured for household use a n d were o nl y occ a sio n a lly sold The following figur e s for 1 9 1 0 refer to the districts now included within Tra nsylva ni a ,

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Nu m b r of p erson s

e n ga ge

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Nu m b r of p e rsons e ga g d i n a gricul tur e a d ga rd e n i n g

As

e

n

pri n cip l o ccup ti on a

d i n d omes tic i n d ustri es As

a

a

ccess ory o ccup ti on a

e

Wo men

n

1

Wome n

The l a rge number of women recorded a s eng a ged in some a ccessory occup a tion w a s due to the wide m a rgin a llowed by these st a tistics ; M An a st a siu considers th a t m a ny of the occup a tions noted in them did not fi ll even thi rty d a ys of the ye a r s work a n d th a t in consequence they could h a r dly b e counted The t a ble it should b e a mong regul a r a ccessory occup a tions noted did not include tin kers w in dow menders a n d other itinera nt tra ders who were counted sep a ra tely The l a rgest proportion of Vil l a ge tra ders w a s in the coun ty of Turd a Arie s where out of a tot a l work ing p opul a tion of men were enga ged in some tra de a s a m a in occup a tion a n d a s a n a ccessory occup a tion— the tot a l of representing 7 1 per cent of the working m a le popul a tion The county in cludes the f a mous moyi workers of wooden obj ects with whom a griculture is the a ccessory occup a tion a s they c a nnot m a ke a living out of the poor soi l of the high district in which they live After working a certa in qu a n tity of obj ects they lo a d them into c a rts or on the b a cks of horses a n d Vi sit f a irs a n d Villa ges until they h a ve disposed of their goods Genera lly they returni ng with a lo a d of a r e sever a l weeks a w a y from home whe a t m a ize or rye Another intere s ting group of itinera nt tra ders a r e the Rum a ni a n tinkers from the cou n ty of S oln oc Dob ac a whom one meets on every ro a d up a n d down the country These men m a nufa cture only a sm a ll p a rt of their goods a t home a n d the bulk on the w a y a ccordi n g to loca l dem a nd The l a nd is worked by the memb ers of the f a mily who .

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ON RUR AL

REFORM

36 9

ECONOMY

rem a in a t home wi th the help of those tra ding when one of the more im port a nt fi eld l a b ours is to be done On e might mention a lso the women eng a ged in we a ving a n d embroideri n g i n the county of Sibiu which h a s the l a rgest num b er of them ; some of them used to t a ke their goods a s fa r a s B ohemi a or a ctu a lly settled there for a while renting a room a n d a loom Bucovin a h a s the usu a l run of vill a ge tra des The m a king of sheep skin j erkins (coj oc) is widely pra ctised The B ess a ra bi a n women spend most of their winter time in we a vi n g c a rpets Men s co a ts now come mostly from fa ctories There a r e in B ess a ra bi a a num ber of Vi ll a ge presses for extra ct ing oil from fl ax a n d s un fl ow er seeds In the st a tistics for the Old Kingdom a ccessory rura l occup a tions belongin g to industry commerce a n d tra nsport a r e grouped together Accordi ng to M An a st a siu the rel a tion 1 e the b etween industri a l a n d commerci a l occup a tions w a s persons enga ged in rura l industries were fi ve times a s numerous The tot a l numb er w a s in 1 9 1 3 a s those e n g a ged in commerce a s foll ows : ,

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Tota l n u m b er of w orkin g p ersons i n t h e vill ages

Nu m b e r of Vill agers en gag d i n som e a cc e ss ory o ccup a ti on e

Wome n

Women 2

These figur es do not in clude the vill a gers who were enga ged in mining a s a n a ccessory occup a tion nor those with whom a gri culture w a s the a ccessory occup a tion V illa ge industries a r e more developed in some of the counties especi a lly in Muscel Pra hova a n d B a cau a ll of them b elonging to the mount a inous a n d hill regions Their ch a ra cter is sometimes determin ed by the n a ture of loc a l productions c a sk m a king bein g n a tura lly in dem a nd in the Vine growing districts ; in other c a ses the industry is tr a di tion a l a s the highly fi n i sh e d m a n ufa c ture of embroidered cloths a n d g a rments in Muscel The use of n a tiona l costumes h a s b een brought into fa shi on a g a in a n d ,

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Th se a re t h e s u ms of t h e d eta il d fi gu e s giv en by M A n s t as iu o fo t h w orki g p o pul a ti on a d giv es on p 6 6 t h e t ot l s w omen a s engage d i n a cc essory o ccup ati ons e

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p 58 .

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He me n

370

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE

there a re severa l societies now a ctin g a s distributors for this domestic industry An a ttempt is a lso bein g m a de to develop the m a nuf a cture of n a tion a l modern fur ni tur e a n d of pottery but m a ny of the obj ects thus put on the m a rket a r e rough a bomin a tions which h a ve nothin g of the usu a l pe a s a nt t a ste a n d workm a nshi p a bout them Am ong the more c ur ious in dustries one m a y mention the m a n uf a ctur e a t Sl avut a ( Dolj county ) of the t a ll a n d n a rrow rect a ngul a r w a ttle c a ges in w hi eh the pe a s a nts store their m a ize to dry they a r e m a de in wi nter a n d t a ken in c a rts a bout the neighbour i ng districts Th a nks to th a t i ndustry the Villa ge is one of the we a lthiest a n d b o a sts three e o Op era tive b a nks The co unty of N ea mt h a s a l a rge Vill a ge industry for the m a nufa cture of pe a s a nt overco a ts whi ch successf ully compete w ith f a ctory products At Clej a ( B a c au county ) some of the villa gers m a nufa ctur e an d sell stra w h a ts In the s a me coun ty the vill a gers of N a di s h a ve sp eci a lized in the m a nufa ctur e of the cob zci a music a l instrument simil a r to the Russi a n b a la la i ka a r e m a de e a ch ye a r ; b efore the Wa r they used to b e Some sent a s fa r a s Russi a The res ul t is th a t the Villa ge h a s well b ui lt houses a ll of them nicely fenced i n 1 The highl a nd Villa ges a r e a ll of them older th a n those in the lowl a nds a n d this expl a ins why vill a ge industries h a ve a more tra dition a l ch a ra cter in the highl a nds The lowl a nd Vi lla ges b esides b eing of more recent origin often h a d to be a b a ndoned or moved to other p a rts durin g the stormy p eriods of Rum a ni a s history Moreover d urin g the m a n y w a rs a n d milit a ry demonstra tions which took pl a ce on Rum a ni a n soil un t i l the l a st qu a rter of the ni neteenth century the lowl a nd vill a gers were frequently obliged to pro vide tra nsport for the v a rious a rmies ; c a rt i ng h a s rem a ined the m a in a ccessory occup a tion of the lowl a nd p e a s a nts in winter tim e a n d h a s c a used them to neglect the more st a ble Villa ge industries The existence of num erous Vi ll a ge i ndustries h a s en a bled a dens er popul a tion to li ve in the highl a nds th a n could h a ve existed on the produce of the soil This h a s its import a nce for corn growing in the pl a in a s pe a s a nts from the h ills a n d from the mount a inous districts a fter fi ni sh in g their own limited .

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O A An as t as i u, p 6 9 .

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ON RUR AL

REFORM

ECONOMY

37 1

gric ul tur a l l a bo urs come dow n in the sum mer in groups to help a s l a b our ers in h a ym a kin g a n d h a rvesting No inform a tion is a v a il a ble from which one might estim a te the in fl uen ce of the l a nd reform on domestic indu s try a s a whole As the p e a s a nts t a ken a ltogether h a ve more l a nd th a n they h a d b efore a n d a s they a r e developin g more intensive crop s they must give proportion a lly more tim e to a gricultura l work a n d h a ve less t ime to sp a re for a ccessory occup a tions ; but their time is ye t fa r from bei ng full y cl a imed by fa rmi ng The effect upon in divi du a l domestic industries v a ries from pl a ce to pl a ce In some c a ses the reform h a s f a cili t a ted the supply of r a w m a teri a ls such a s timber a n d hides a n d the Villa ge industries using them h a ve pr ofi t ed by it In other c a ses esp eci a lly in the c a se of m a te ri a ls coming from a bro a d the supply h a s b ecome more diffi cult o wi ng to the fa ll in t h e exch a nge hi gh customs duties a n d cha nged rel a tions between the v a lue of a gricultura l a n d in dustri a l products The high price of cotton e g h a s c a used home we a ving to b e neglected in m a ny p a rts It is onl y now tha t a uthorities a n d economic experts ar e b eginn in g to discuss a con st r uct ive poli cy for the encour a gement a n d developme n t of domestic industries Agri cultur a l I n d us tr i es The domin a nt role a gric ul ture pl a ys in Rum a ni a s economic life is only shown the more cle a rly by a considera tion of the coun try s industry B efore the Wa r of cour se industry w a s a ltogether in signi fi can t the tot a l mech ani c a l p ower utili zed i ndustri a lly a moun ted to merely 1 37 h p per squ a re kil ometre The a d d ition of Tr a nsylv a ni a h a s r a ised th a t a ver age to 1 6 1 h p ( it is merely 0 27 h p in B ess a ra bi a ) by 1 923 But the distribution of power a mong them shows th a t most of the in dustries depend on a gricult ure for their r a w a

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E

ngin e e

rin g

Ti m be r a d pa p e r Ch emi c ls Food s t ufi s Te xtil e Ta nni n g Potte ry F l ur Mi l ls Prin tin g & 0 n

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372

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE

m a teri a ls According to a t a ble published in the A rgus on Octob er 21 1 9 23 the l a rge sca le i ndustries used at th a t time h p distributed a s in the foregoing t a ble It woul d be interesting to work out in deta il the extent to which Rum a ni a n in dustry depends on a gricultur e but the m a teri a l for such a study is not yet a v a il a ble The tri a ls thr ough whi ch Rum a ni a n industry h a s p a ssed sin ce the Wa r suggest th a t the undert a ki n gs whi ch a r e using a gricultur a l ra w m a teri a ls h a ve the b est ch a nce of surviving a n d prosperin g The two t a bles below give some indic a tion of the development since the reform of the fa ctories which a re eng a ged in the tra nsform a tion of a gric u l tur a l r a w m a teri a ls .

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TH E

F O OD A R TI CL E S I N D U S TRY

IN

1 91 5

C a pita l in land buildi ngs a n d i ns ta ll a tions ,

,

N a ture

of

Min e ra l

In

du stry

w a te rs

Bre w eri es S pirits a n d ch a m pag e Di still eri es ( a lc oh ol ) Cho col a te a n d s w eet s C offee ( chicory ) M a t a n d v egeta bl e preser v es Gluc os e Vi n ega r S te m b a k e ri e s F l o ur produc t C orn cl ea i n g F l o ur milli n g D a iri es Vegeta bl e oils n

e

a

s

n

T ota l I n du stri es n ot c om n g u d r t h la w of i

n

16

e

e

S u ga r fa ctori es

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T ot a l 1 1

of

Th e fi gure s fo r 1 9 1 5 1 9 1 2 for t h e a e

F bru ry

r

r on ly t o f ctori es e nj oyi ng t h e a dv an t ages e n c o ur a ge me n t o f n a ti o a l i n du s try e fe

a

n

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of

t h e la w

REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY

II

.

THE

I N D U S TR

Y

IN

373

1 9 26

Na tur e of I n du stry u r ctori es F l our m i lls Al c o h o l fa ctori es Bre w e ri es Cho c ol te an d s wee ts Di st i ll e ri es M t pres erves Fruit pres e rv es V geta bl e ils F l our products D a i ri es Bi s cuit fa ctori es V i n ega r Cofi ee s ub s titutes C orn cl eani n g S tea m b k e ri es

S ga fa

a

ea

e

o

a

T

o ta1 1 926

The progress m a de by these industries is s a tisfa ctory but it is ,

over sh a d ow e d

by t h e gr owt h of co oper a t ive pea san t un d er t a k in gs -

S E C TI O N THE

E FFE C T

OF

.

3

T H E LA N D R E F O R M

ON

T H E CO O P E R A TIV E -

M O V EME N T ( a ) Hi story of the M ovemen t Through the tra nsform ation of .

l a nd tenure in Rum a ni a into a system of sm a llholdin gs the whole me a ning of the problem of co opera tion h a s ch a nged It h a s now to b e rega rded not merely a s a me a ns of gi vin g a i d to i ndividu a l f a rmers but a s a n essenti a l complement to the reform Experience h a s proved th a t everywhere the pe a s a nt fa rmer is a ble to hold hi s ow n in the process of production It is o nl y when he emerges from it a n d enters the m a rket th a t he fin d s himself a t a di s a dv a nt a ge in competition wi th the l a rge producers a n d a t the mercy of tra ders a n d other in terme di a ries The ini ti a tive of the Americ a n a n d Ca n a di a n fa rmers h a s shown ho wever th a t -

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374

THE EFFECTS

THE

OF

opera tion ca n free the sm a ll f a rmer from th a t subj ection to the m a rket In the more progressive pe a s a nt coun tries co opera tion h a s brought wi thin re a ch of the sm a llh olders those a d va n t a ges whi ch l a rger f a rmers m a y h a ve h a d in m a tters of p ur ch a se a n d s a le a s well a s in m a tters of production Those who fought for the Rum a ni a n l a nd reform h a d cle a rly in their mi n ds the problem which they would h a ve to f a ce a fter its a chi evement The p a rcella tion of the a ra ble l a nd s a id M Mih a la ch e in introducing his Reform Bill in 1 920 does not do a wa y with the ide a of j oint cultiva tion when the technique of f a rmin g dem a nds i t But it b egins by cre a tin g those individu a l rights whi ch a r e the cement of a ll l a sting a ssoci a tion If in Rum a ni a rura l co opera tion l a cked V it ality hi therto th a t no doubt w a s due i n the m a i n to the oppressive economi c a n d soci a l conditions un der whi ch the pe a s a nts lived For the p a st shows th a t a mong the Rum a ni a n people the spirit of co O p er a tion h a s a t a ll t imes been strong a n d w idespre a d Even now a ncient forms of economic a ssoci a tion a r e still to b e foun d a mong the rur a l inh a bit a nts of the Rum a ni a n l a nds In va rious p a rts of the C a rp a thi a ns the pe a s a nts who enga ge in the re a ring of sheep still do so l a rgely on a j oin t b a sis Th ey keep their a nim a ls together eng a ge shepherds for a ll of them j ointly rent j ointly p a stur es in the moun t a ins a n d in the D a nubi a n lowl a nds whither they send the sheep for the winter All expenses a r e b orne in co mm on a n d the produce is sold a s a whole pr ofi t s b eing sh a red between them a ccording to e a ch p a rtner s contri but i on in a nim a ls or in speci a l ser vices Any tra vell er in the Ca rp a thi a ns must h a ve come a cross one or more of the tdr le the log huts in which the shepherds spend the whole summ er gra zin g the sheep a n d m a kin g cheese Likew ise one fin d s n umer ous a n d old comp a ni es — th a t is a ssoci a tions of fi sh erm en in the regions of the D a nub e a n d of the Bl a ck S e a where the c a tching of l a rge fi sh necessit a tes the working of a numb er of experienced a n d well equipped men together Ta sks a n d pr ofit s a r e divided a mong them a ccor ding to e a ch m a n s experience a n d It is interesting to note th a t a lm ost a lw a ys these a bility a s soci a tions do not rest on a written a greement but simply on mutu a l trust a n d the s a credness of the given word co

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REFORM

ON RUR AL

ECONOMY

375

From the description of the old Vill a ge orga ni z a tion in the fi r st p a rt of t hi s study one could see how much of it rested on j o int ownership a n d j oint use Tra di tion a s much a s economic a dv a nt a ge pl a ys a gre a t p a rt in the const a nt dem a nds of the pe a s a nts for villa ge gra zin gs ra ther th a n for individu a l gra ss fi eld s Alm ost everywhere the soci a l duty of helping one s neighb our still fi n d s expression in the 0161 05 when the vi ll a gers work together for e a ch other in t urn ; a n d in the sezcitor i held of a wi nter ni ght when under the st imulus of the s i nging a n d j okin g of the young m en the women a n d gir ls of the Villa ge di ligently c a rry out together some piece of h a ndi work The evolution of rur a l life a fter the em a ncip a tion of the serfs di d not offer a congeni a l soil in w hi ch those old tr a ditions could strengthen a n d develop Economic a lly the pe a s a nts were contin uously depressed a n d their soci a l role in the country s life w a s a ltogether n ulli fi e d The l a ck of educ a tion me a nt a l a ck of a ll cont a ct with the doin gs of the West ; a n d the towns which elsewhere h a d formed the ch a nnel thr ough which the idea of were not rip e for such co oper a tion re a ched the country side The excessive che a pness of living right a function in Rum a ni a up to the Wa r left no inducement for the est a blishment of co opera tives of consumption ; a n d in the a bsence of l a rge sc a le industry the a rtis a ns were never driven by competition into a ssoci a tin g with e a ch other Th a t no doubt is the re a son why the prop a g a nda b egun by M P S Aur eli a n a bout 1 8 70 under the stim ul us of western experiments for the est a b lishment of c o oper a tives i n the to w ns fell on de a f e a rs A few co oper a tives of a rtis a ns were set up in some of the town s between 1 8 8 2 a n d 1 8 92 but none of them could t a ke root In Buc a rest a n d else where it w a s for some ye a rs a fa shion for cert a i n luxurious grocery stores to p a ra de the l a bel of co opera tives though they h a d nothing of the co oper a tive system in thei r org a ni z a tion a n d working Quite different of course w a s the position in the Villa ges Owing to the i ncrea s ing misery of the pe a s a nts the co oper a tive ide a seemed to offer a w a y of s a ving them from utter ruin — an opportuni ty which unfortun a tely the uneduc a ted a n d im poverished pe a s a nts were h a rdly c a p a ble of using un a ided The co opera tive ide a penetra ted into the Rum a ni a n ,

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376

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE

provinces by w a y of the S a xon coloni sts in Tra nsylva ni a B eing in close cultur a l cont a ct With Germ a ny they were from the b eg inn ing informed of the c o opera tive a ttempts con n e ct e d with the n a mes of S chulze a n d of R a iffeisen a n d followed them up with simil a r experiments in Tr a nsylvan i a from 1 8 5 2 onw a rds It w a s the ex a mple of one of these S a xon co Opera tives of cre d it which induced a disti ngui shed Tr a nsylva ni a n lea der Vi sa r i on Ro m a n to cre a te a t R as in a ri in 1 8 6 8 the fi r st society for deposits a n d lo a ns Without b eing itself a strictly co opera tive undert a king thi s w a s the precursor of the m a ny s o c a lled popula r b a nks which l a ter spre a d over T r an s lva ni a a n d y Rum a ni a In 1 8 72 the R as in a ri society a n d other simi l a r i nstitutions were a tt a ched to the b a nk Al bin a the fir st Rum a ni a n b a nk to b e founded in Tr a nsylva ni a The b a n k un der the directorship of Rom a n a cted a t fi r st a s a gui de a n d supporter of the sm a ll credi t societies so th a t ni neteen of them h a d come into b eing by the end of 1 8 72 The b a nk however b eing a comm erci a l undert a ki n g di slik ed the tendency a mong the credi t co opera tives to em a ncip a te themselves ; i t therefore withdrew its support thereby c a usin g the coll a pse of the subordin a te institutions The l a st of them the S ociety of Sibiu closed down in M a rch 1 8 75 An other such popul a r b a n k how ever the Aurora of Na s aud est a blished in 1 8 73 i ndependently of the centra l b a n k w a s a ble to survive a n d to prosper ; on the eve of the Wa r it h a d members a bout p a id up c a pit a l a n d a s much a g a in reserves The Aurora possesses historic import a nce for the Rum a ni a n co opera tive movement bec a use it served a s a model for the est a b lishment of the rura l co oper a tive b a nks in the Old Ki n gdom from whi ch the whole co oper a tive s ystem a s it now exists h a s sprun g The desp a ir to which their ever growin g m isery w a s dr ivin g the pe a s a nts vented itself in the risings of 1 8 8 8 a n d 1 8 9 1 In thei r need the pe a s a nts h a d sold themselves h a nd a n d foot to the l a rge o wners a n d ten a nts pledging their l a bour for yea rs in a dva nce Such money a s they sti ll coul d obt a in in t i mes of stress they h a d to get from public a ns a n d usurers a t ra tes of interest which not infrequently rose to 5 00 per cent The fi r st to re a lize the need of doing something to im prove the p e a s a nts m a teri a l situ a tion .

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ON RUR A L

REFORM

377

ECONOMY

were the Villa ge te a chers E duc a tion w a s like good seed sc a ttered on b a rren rocks a s long a s the pea s a nts li ved in such utter misery After the rising of 1 8 8 8 the rur a l te a chers beg a n in their pro fes si on a l g a theri ng s openly to spe a k of the need of setti n g going a movement for self help a mongst the pe a s a nts They were a s good a s thei r word a n d some of them soon l a id the founda tion of the co opera tive movement not without con sidera ble risk a n d d a nger to themselves from the mistrustful a uthorities Some of the pioneers h a d to pa y for their in iti a tive with p ersecution a n d im pri s onment With inform a tion obt a ined from Tra nsylva ni a a n d gui ded by the st a tutes of the Auror a the fi r st popula r b a nk in Rum a ni a the Dum itra w a s founded in the vi ll a ge of D a r a in October 1 8 91 It beg a n w ith a memb ership of thir ty four a n d a c a pit a l of 1 27 lei sterling ) A seco n d popul a r b a nk w a s formed in M a rch 1 8 92 with thirty nin e memb ers a n d a c a pit a l of lei sterling ) ; it w a s fo llowed in the s a me ye a r by fi ve others There a re a few points of interest to b e noted in conn exion wi th these fi r st co opera tive a ttempts The fi r st org a niz a tions were those designed to supply credit in the form of popul a r b a nks Th a t wa s the form which h a d b est succeeded in Tra nsylva ni a a n d its w a s most i n keeping with the needs of the Rum a ni a n p e a s a nts a t the time Truly c o oper a tive a ction w a s h a rdly me a nt ; it w a s merely a me a sure of self defence a g a inst usury Th a t wa s in deed a bout the onl y kind of a ction which the pe a s a nts an d their friends the Vill a ge te a chers co ul d then undert a ke with their own me a ns The second poi nt of interest is th a t a ll of the e a rly popula r b a nk s were est a b lished in mount a in districts ; tha t is where the pe a s a nts were rel a tively better off an d enj oyed a less dependent soci a l st a ndi ng th a n their fellows lower down in the cornl a nds Thirdl y one m a y note tha t the fi r st co opera tives beg a n w ith an extremely lim ited memb er shi p a n d c a pit a l ; this indic a tes the diffi cult ie s w ith which they h a d to contend due either to the poverty or to the di strust of the p a rticip a nts Yet thi s point m a y serve a s a n ex a mple of the decisive p a rt whi ch self help pl a ys in co opera tion It is ch a r a ct e r i st i c th a t oiz those fi rs t seven co oper a tives only one w a s una ble to sur vive— an d tha t w a s the one which beg a n with the .

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378

THE EFFE CTS

THE

OF

l a rgest memb ership a n d the l a rgest c a pit a l The others h a ve p ersisted to the present d ay an d a r e a mong the most prosperous p op ul a r b a nks After a short period of st a gna tion the movement recovered its im petus a n d fr om 1 8 9 6 developed a p a ce Its growth w a s especi a lly ra pid b etween 1 900 a n d 1 902 th a nks to the enli ghtened encour a gement of two Mini sters of E duc a tion Dr C I st r at i a n d M Spiru H a ret Re a liz ing the economi c a n d soci a l blessin gs which the movement mi ght brin g to the p ea s a nts I st ra t i a n d H a ret used their a uthority for protectin g the vill a ge te a chers a g a inst p ersecution on a ccoun t of their co op er a tive a ctivities They took steps in f a ct t o a ssist them therein They entrusted one of the te a chers with m a ki ng the principles a n d methods of c o oper a tion kno w n a mong vill a ge te a chers a n d sever a l young te a chers were sent to study the co opera tive movement in v a rious foreign countries Th a t fi rst period saw the est a blishm ent of 7 1 ] popul a r b a nks inside ten ye a rs on the ini ti a tive a n d with the me a ns of the vill agers D uring this period were l a id the founda tions of the co oper a tive ess a ys which were promising to tra nsform Villa ge li fe even in the uncongeni a l con di tions whi ch preva iled b efore the reform ( b) Th e L ega l S ta tus of Co op em ti ve S oci eti es The fi r st lega l provisions referring to co O pera tive societies were cont a ined in the Commercia l Code of 1 8 8 7 They were neither suffi ci en t ly d efi ni t e nor su fficiently simple so th a t m a ny of the e a rly c o oper a tive credit a ssoci a tions kept to the form of simple mutu a l a ssoci a tions a n d did not register a s co op er a tive comp ani es in the sense of the Commerci a l Code The ra pid growt h in the n um ber a n d memb ership of the p opul a r b a nks m a de it necess a ry to give them the possibi lity of org a nizi n g themselves lega lly on a b a sis which shoul d b e system a tic a n d a t the s a me tim e sim ple enough to b e a d a pt a ble to the circumst a nces of v a ryi ng in st it u tions Th a t leg a l b a sis w a s supplied by the La w of M a rch 28 Co n cerning Rur a l Popul a r B a nks a n d their Centr a l 1 9 03 The m a in purpos e Ofii ce which w a s the work of M C Stere of the la w w a s to co ordin a te the movement a n d link up the popul a r b a nks a mong themselves I n re ality its m a in effect w a s to pl a ce the whole movement under St a te control The newly .

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ON RUR AL

REFORM

ECONOMY

379

est a blished Centra l O th ee w a s not so much a j oin t institution of the popula r b a nks a s a St a te orga n iz a tion dest i ned to control to guide a n d to pro vi de wi th funds the popula r b a n ks in the Vill a ges For this pur pose the St a te pl a ce lei a t the dispos a l of the Centra l Offi ce The new la w a ll owed thr ee typ es of pop ul a r b a nk s which were 1 A type of i ndependent b a n ks ( Article not b ound to a ssum e a n y of the est a blished co opera tive prin ciples w hi ch were a llowed 2 A type of a pproved b a nks ( Ar ticle to work with the Centra l Offi ce on fulfilli n g cert a in conditions such a s the obli g a tion under whi ch its memb ers were to reside in the commune in which the b a nk w a s est a b lished or a t most in neighb ourin g communes 3 A t yp e of b a nks whose c a pit a l did not consist of sh a res the members b eing j o intly a n d fully responsible for a ll the The Centra l O th ee w a s entitled a ctivities of the b a nk ( Ar ticle to a dva nce to this typ e of b a n k the necess a ry working c a pit a l a fter s a tisfyi ng itself th a t the members possessed s uffi ci en t me a ns to cover a n y eventu a l risks I n thei r c a se the Centra l O th ee coul d im pose cert a in norms for the a dm inistra tion of the b a nk The la w it m a y seem w a nted to f a vour the l a st type of b a nks a s Article 9 provided th a t they sho ul d b e exempted from the p a yment of the busin ess t a x provided they fulfilled the followin g con di t ion s z— (a ) the memb ers should b e j ointly a n d fully responsible ; ( b) a t le a st 5 0 per cent of the net a nnu a l nd a n d th a t fund shoul d pr ofi t s shoul d go to cre a te a reserve f u n ot in c a se of liquid a tion b e di stributed a mong the members but used for purposes of commun a l utili ty ; (c) the a d ministra tion of the b a n k with the exception of b ook keeping should b e volunt a ry As the la w however exempted from the business t a x a ll b a nks whose c a pit a l w a s less th a n lei ( those with a l a rger c a pit a l p a ying o nl y h a lf the business t ax ) a n d a s a ll b an ks were exempted from st a mp duty for a ll tra ns a ctions not exceedi ng 300 lei it does not a ppe a r th a t the la w w a s speci a lly bent on encoura ging the crea tion of b a nks of the R a iffeisen or of a simil a r ty e The only a dva nt a ge reserved for popul a r b a n ks p of th a t typ e w a s a gra nt of 5 0 per cent from the pr ofi t s of the ,

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38 0

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE

Centra l Offi ce in proportion to the tra ns a ctions whi ch h a d t a ken pl a ce between it a n d the p a rticul a r b a nk ; but tha t w a s a n in different concession in comp a rison with the other a dva nt a ges in which a ll the b a nks sh a red I n fa ct the a mendment in troduced i n 1 9 08 equ a lized the situ a tion of the v a rious typ es of b a nks ; it pro vided th a t a ll popula r b a nks of wh a tever kin d whi ch did not ch a rge a higher ra te of interest th a n 1 0 per cent for members a n d 1 3 per cent for non memb ers were to b e exempted from the p a yment of the bus iness t ax The a uthor of the la w a dmi tted in introducin g his Bill th a t these provisions a r e p erh a ps not such a s would encoura ge the cre ation of nothin g but mutu a l societies in the strict sense of the word The la w concernin g pop ul a r b a nks di d not la y do w n a n y norms reg a rding the composition of the bus iness c a pit a l except in the c a se of those b a nks whose c a pit a l w a s not formed of sh a res For the rest the la w left in force the provisions of the Comm erci a l Code ( Articles 225 a n d which l a id do w n th a t no memb er of a co oper a tive society m a p a rticip a te with more th a n lei y or hold sh a res of a nomin a l v a lue a b ove th a t sum ; they a lso decided th a t the nom i n a l v a lue of e a ch sh a re coul d not b e gre a ter th a n 1 00 1ei or sm a ller th a n 25 lei The a bsence of sp ecifi c di r ec tions h a d this res ult : th at in most c a ses the prin ciple of j oint a n d unl imited soli d a rity of the members w a s not a ppli ed It seems th a t in consequence the popul a r b a nks di d not ende a vour to s a tisfy a s fully a n d a s che a ply a s possible their memb ers need for credit but r a ther pur sued the a ccumula tion of pr ofit s Sub sequent m o d ifi ca t i on s an d a mplifi ca t i on s of the law extended its provisions to co opera tives of production an d of consumption a s well a s to pe a s a nt co opera tives for the holding Until the end of 1 91 8 the whole movement a n d purch a se of l a nd w a s under the guid a nce of the centra l org a n iz a tion kno w n a s the Centra l Offi ce of the Popul a r B a nks a n d V ill a ge Co opera tives The decree la w of Ja nu a ry 3 1 9 1 9 enl a rged a n d tra nsformed this institution in to The Centra l Offi ce of Pe a s a nt Co opera tion The new institution consisted of fi ve sec a n d Resettlement tions Th r ee of them were to guide a n d control the co opera tive moveme n t : the Centra l O th ee of Popul a r B a nks ; the Centra l Offi ce of V ill a ge Co oper a tives of Production a n d Consumption ; ,

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REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY

38 1

d

the Centra l Offi ce of V ill a ge Associ a tions a n d of Agricultura l Exploit a tions The other two section s were ch a rged with the execution of the a gra ri a n reform : the D irector a te for L a nd Questions a n d Mortga ge Cre di t a n d the Directora te of the Survey E a ch of the fi r st three sections w a s a utonomous with its own c a pit a l a n d a n a dministra tive council h a lf of whose mem b ers were a ppointed by the St a te a n d the other h a lf elected for thr ee ye a rs by a congress of the co opera tive societies I n their tur n e a ch of the th ree section councils a ppointed two represent atives to a genera l council which co or di n a ted the work of the whole institution The Co opera tive Code of J uly 1 2 1 928 a bo lished the Cen tra l offi ce of Vi ll a ge Associ a tions a n d Agricultura l Exploit a tions le a ving only two Centr a ls : the Centr a l of the Popul a r B a nks a n d the Centra l of the Co opera tives the l a tter includi ng the fun c tions of the a bolished section The j oinin g of the co op era tive movement a n d of the techni ca l a n d fi n a n ci a l execution of the l a nd reform into one St a te org a niz a tion h a s b een rega rded a s a fresh proof of the St a te s i n tention of keep ing the whole c o O pera tive movemen t under its control The ca pit a l of the severa l centra l offi ces is of mixed origin yet these offi ces l a ck re a l fin a n cia l a n d a dm ini stra tive a utonomy a s they a r e dependent on the support of the Na tion a l B a n k a n d b eca use the a ppoi ntment of their personnel is in the h a nds of the St a te These circumst a nces perh a ps expl a i n why a genu ine co oper a tive movement h a s not yet developed in the Old Kin g dom numeric all y the growth of c o opera tive societies h a s b een r a pid enough The protection of the St a te h a s not encoura ged th a t spirit of enterprise a n d in iti a tive which would a spire of its own strength to the solving of those problems which a re f a cin g the movement i 0 T h e C re d t Co op em ti ves The obj ect of the la w of 1 903 ( ) w a s to encour a ge the found a tion a n d development of the b a nks by two methods : ( 1) by mea sures exempti n g them from the ordi n a ry lega l obli g a tions ; ( ii ) by the setting up of a credit orga ni z a tion which wa s to b e a t the s a me time a supervisory body Among the fi rst there should b e mentioned 1 S im plifi ca t i on of the form a lities for the est a blishment of

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38 2

THE EFFECTS

THE

OF

such b a nks : the founders merely h a d to deposit the terms of con st it ut i on with the j ustice of the pe a ce w ithout p a yment of a n y t a x or initi a l ch a rges ( Ar ts 4 a n d 2 Recog n ition of e a ch popula r b a nk a s a tr a di ng comp a ny with limited or un li mi ted li a bili ty j oin t a n d severa l or otherwise on a sh a re b a sis & c ( Ar t 3 Recognition of the b a nks a s corpor a te b o dies ( Ar t 3 ) consequent powers of purch a se of re a l an d p erson a l property 4 Exemption from st a mp duties ( Art reduction of the cost of leg a l proceedi ngs ( Art cert a in fa cili ties with res pect to the c a rrying on of cre di t opera tions (Ar t 5 Exemption from the t a k i ng of sp eci a l li cences The sup ervisory institution contempl a ted by the law took the n a me of Centra l O th ee of the Pop ul a r B a nk s It w a s a St a te institution intended to a ssist the popula r b a nk s a n d to a ct a s a check upon them The Ofii ce w a s pl a ced under the m a n a ge ment of publi c offi cia ls but a n a d ministra tive council w a s shortly a fterw a rds set up in a ddition whi ch by the f a ct of rem a in i ng i n office for seven ye a rs offered a gu a ra ntee of cont inuity a n d wa s secured in some me a sur e a g a in st poli tica l infl uen ce a lthough most members of the Council were nominees of the Government The Min ister of Fin a nce h a d a right of veto The Centra l Offi ce a s a credi t institution h a d a t its di spos a l a fun d of 20 000 000 1ei provided by the St a te a n d a current a ccoun t w ith the Na tion a l B a nk These resour ces coul d b e used to a ssist Villa ge b a nks but not indiscrimi n a tely The law itself m a de no distinctions con cerning the grounds of exemption from the ordin a ry lega l obli ga tions referred to a bove But it wa s intended th a t o nl y those b a nks shoul d enj oy the cre di t of the Centra l Offi ce which offered exception a l gu a ra ntees or conformed more closely to the The la w enumera ted a ll the conditions whi ch co oper a tive ide a l a pop u l a r b a nk must s a tisfy before rel a tions with the Centr a l Offi c e ca n be est a bli shed For ex a mple membership a n d the gra nti n g of lo a ns must b e restricted to p ersons residing in the s a me commun e ( or with the a uthoriz a tion of the Central O th ee in a neighbo urin g commun e ) a n d p ersons who were a lre a dy memb ers of a nother b a nk could not b e a dmitted to memb ershi p ; the interest ch a rged wa s not to exceed a cert ain r a te fi x e d by the ,

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REFORM

ON RUR AL

ECONOMY

38 3

Centra l Offi ce ; the memb ers of the a dm i nistra tive boa rd were to b e j ointly a n d severa lly li a ble ; no m odifi ca t ion of the rules coul d b e m a de W ithout the s a nction of the Centra l Offi c e & c The existence of a n initi a l c a pit a l w a s not m a de a n essenti a l condi tion The Centra l B a nk h a d power to a dva nce c a pit a l provided th a t there were a mong the members of the b a nk twenty fa rmers residi ng in one a n d the s a me commune an d h a vi ng a ssumed full j o int an d severa l li a bili ty The obj ect of this provision w a s to encour a ge b a nks which a pproxim a ted to the R a iffeisen typ e Such b a nks h a d only b een est a blished in Villa ges in which there were a number of p e a s a nt proprietors a n d in 1 9 1 8 there were only forty six of them In its supervisory c a p a city the Centr a l Otfi c e w a s c a lled upon to exercise a contin uous control over a ll the popul a r b a nks without m a ki ng a n y di stin ction between thos e with which it The b a nks were a lr e a dy h a d busin ess rel a tions a n d others exp ected to communic a te their st a tutes a n d their b a l a nce sheets These powers of inspection were very wi de the Centra l Offi ce being even entitled to ch a nge the m a n a gin g bo a rd .

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Nu m b r of b a n k s e

Y r

ea s

Co

M mb r e

s

e

hip

R es e

rv es

opera tive a gricultura l credi t wa s thus org a niz ed by la w in two gra des : the pop ul a r b a n ks a n d the Centra l Otfi ce Two ye a rs l a ter a n a mending mea sure of M a rch 1 5 1 9 05 a uthorized -

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38 4

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE

the popul a r b a nks of a p a rticul a r di strict to combine i nto federa tio n s or uni ons I n thi s w a y three gra des of a gricultur a l credit were cre a ted : pop ul a r b a nks federa tions an d the Centra l O ffice The Centra l Offi ce w a s to de a l exclusively w ith the uni ons or federa tions of popul a r b a nks Genera lly sp e a kin g a grouping by di stricts w a s fo llowed I n Virtue of the decree la w of J an ua ry 3 1 9 1 9 the Centra l Offi ce b ec a me the fi r st section of the new Centr a l Offi ce of Pe a s a nt Co opera tion a n d Resettlement The development of the p opula r b a nk s s 1 nee the p a ss ing of the L a w of 1 903 is shown in the t a ble on p 38 3 popul a r b a nks were workin g with the At the end of 1 9 27 Centra l Offi ce The tot a l memb ership of included .

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1913

1 9 27

Fa r me rs Ar tis a s n

Offi c i a ls

Bu i n es s men L an d o wn e rs S ch ool m a s te r s a n d pri e s ts s

ccording to the num ber of their memb ers the b a nks which h a d sent in their b a l a nce sheet for 1 927 were divided a s follows

Cla s si fi e d

a

,

-

98 7

with l ess th an

98 8 1 72

b r

1 00 m e m e s 1 00—200 mem 200— 300 300—5 00 5 00 .

b e rs

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me m b e rs with m ore th an Th e b a nk s with a li mit d m e m b rs hip pre d omin a te d a n d th a t rega rd t o th e ir p a id up c a pita l 21

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e

e

,

w as

:

-

B a nk s

Pa id

-

up

c a pita l

Lei Up to

From

Ab ove

From

View of their in dividu a l sh a res

REFORM ON RURA L ECONOMY

38 5

members of the popul a r b a nks were distributed a s follows a t the end of 1 923 M mb r C pit l S h r T t l C pit l e

a

e s

a

a es

o a

a

a

1 00 00

1 00 0 -

It will b e seen th a t the members who contributed up to 5 00 lei formed 73 2 per cent of the tot a l memb ership but held merely 1 8 1 8 per cent of the tot a l c a pit a l where a s 26 8 per cent of the members w ith sh a res a bove 5 00 lei held 8 1 8 2 per cent of the tot a l c a pit a l Th a t unequ a l distribution w a s i nterpreted by P e a s a n t i st critics of the R um a ni a n c o oper a tive movement a s showin g th a t a lthough nomin a lly on e h a lf of the rura l popula tion belo n gs to the popul a r b a nks the imm ense m a j ority of the members onl y p a rticip a tes with infi ni t esim a l sh a res — with the fi r st p a yments they m a ke on becomin g members for the purpose of obt a inin g a lo a n Hence one c a n not say seriously th a t co opera tion h a s t a ken root a mong our rur a l pop ul a tion a s one might be led to do from a s uper fi cial gl a nce a t st a tistic a l 1 da t a I n reply it h a s been po i nted out th a t the unequ a l distribution of c a pit a l sh a res w a s a n a tur a l con s equence of the poverty in which the b ulk of the pe a s a ntry lived hitherto Further it w a s considered n a tura l tha t in the b a ckw a rd st a te of rur a l life c onfi d en ce in b a n ks should grow but slowly an d th a t most of the members should therefore contribute little e ven if they coul d h a ve contributed more N evert h eless it is a d mitted a s striking tha t for a n equ a l a moun t of c a pit a l contributed by the two extreme ca tegories there should b e one hun dr ed mem bers in the lower to one member in the higher c a tegory The co opera tive movement woul d seem to h a ve incre a sed in fa vour since the War whether due to the gre a ter con fi d en c e of the pe a s a nts in it or to their grea ter a ffl uen ce a fter the a gra ri a n r e -

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Ma d gear u a nd Ml a d ena t z Refor m Coop era pi ei p ,

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38 6

THE EFFECTS

THE

OF

form The numb er of members holding less th a n 5 00 lei c a pit a l decre a sed while th a t of members holdi n g more in cre a sed ; the ten d en cy therefore b eing for a m a j ority of the members to control a m a j ority of the c a pit a l The fo llowing t a ble shows th a t ch a nge to h a ve begun before the Wa r a n d to h a ve become a ccentu a ted a fter it .

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1 9 09

P e rc en t ge of m em b ers with l ess th n 5 00 le i c a pita l P e rc en tage of c a pita l h e ld by t hem Pe rc en t ge of m m b rs with 5 01 2 000 le i c pit l Pe rcen tage of c pita l h e ld by th e m

19 10

19 1 1

19 13

1919

1 9 20

1 923

a

a

a

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e

a

94 9

94 6

93 4

9 19

83 0

81 1

732

48 04

4 6 44

43 5 4

40 9

26 1 6

22 24

18 8

17 0

18 9

26 8

73 8 4

77 7 6

8 1 82

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-

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-

-

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-

-

e

8 1

a

-

a

3

5 19 6

5 6 46 -

59 1 1

-

-

The p ercent a ge of memb ers contributing b etween 5 00 a n d lei incre a s ed 5 25 times within a period of fourteen ye a rs during the s a me period the p a rt of the tot a l c a pit a l held by them only i n cre a sed 1 5 times whi ch me a ns 3 5 tim es less th a n the incre a se in their number The tendency therefore is cle a rly tow a rds a concen tra tion of memb ership in a mid dl e c a tegory a s there w a s a simult a neous decre a se in the percent a ge of mem bers contributi n g between lei Deposits showed an d simil a r differences in the s ize of the co n tributions a n d a simila r im provement since the Wa r They a mou n ted to lei o n 3 l st D ec em b when the Centra l Offi ce published the l a st er 1 923 report b a sed on the norms in use since 1 904— a sum equ a l to the tot a l c a pit a l of the popul a r b a nks a lthough interest on deposits w a s merely 8 per cent when the interest w h ich could b e obt a ined for priva te lo a ns w a s a nyt hing from 20 to 30 per cent D ep osits were distributed a ccording to indi vidu a l a mo unts a s follows : -

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D e p os it rs o

S

i

ze o f

d p s it e

o

Tota l a m u n t of d e pos i ts o

Le i 1 to 5 1 1 01

50 100 5 00

5 01 and

upw rd s a

100 00

REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY

38 7

These figur e s indic a te a p erceptible decre a se i n the percent a ge of sm a ll depositors a n d a considera ble i n cre a se in the bigger depo sits On December 31 1 920 the num ber of those who 1ei did not re a ch even 9 per cent of deposited more th a n the tot a l numb er of depositors the sum s deposited by them bein g 5 6 1 3 per cent of the tot a l ; a t the end of 1 9 23 the n umb er of such depositors w a s over 22 per cent a n d the sum of their deposits 7 1 6 9 per cent of the tot a l From a tot a l of lei outsta nding lo a ns on December 31 1 923 lei h a d been lent to v a rious lei to i n dividu a l pe a s a nts The co op er a tives a n d sum of lei lent to the pe a s a nt co opera tives is rel a t i ve ly modest but it is equ a l to the St a te s co n tribution to the Ce n tra l of the popul a r b a nks On the other h a nd the sum of lei lent to the p e a s a nts is considera ble especi a lly a s it represe n ts re a lly a b a l a nce the tot a l sum of the tr a n s a ctions c a rried out by the b a n ks dur ing 1 9 23 a mounting to lei Lo a ns were cla ssifi e d a s below a ccording to the security on which they were gra nted ,

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Lo Lo Lo Lo

a ns

ans a ns

a

p ers o a l s e curity on bills o f e xch a ge on pl d g s o n m o rtg g s n

a ns on

n

e

e

a

e

ccord ing to the p ersons ben efi t in g L oa ns L oa ns

t o me m to

n on

-

b e rs

m e m b e rs

The m a j ority of the lo a ns were gra n ted a ga inst bills of exch a nge a n d would seem therefore to h a ve b een t a ken up by cultiv a tors l a cking working c a pit a l Th a t view i s con fi r m e d by the use to w hi ch the money w a s put ,

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d a d forage F o p urch a se of liv e s t ck a n d i m ple m e ts F or r en t F or l n d p urch s F or oth e r purp os s F o r foo

n

r

o

a

n

a e e

1 00 00 -

The rem a inder of 438 lei simil a rly dist ributed h a d been gra n ted in previous ye a rs The bulk of the lo a ns therefo r e were ,

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0 c

2

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THE

38 8

OF

EFFECTS

THE

t a ken up for productive purposes a n d on ly rel a tively a sm a ll a mount for consumption The tot a l num b er of borrowers w a s in 1 923 They were cla s sifi e d a ccordi ng to the siz e of their lo a ns a s follows ,

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.

B or ro wers

S i ze

lo

of

T ota l a mo un t of l oan

an

Le i U p t o 100 1 01 5 00 5 01 3 000 and

upwa rds

1 00 0

7

1 00 00 -

Most of the b orrowers 70 7 per cent took out lo a ns of less th a n 1 000 1ei a n d only 5 9 per cent l a rger lo a ns of 6 000 1ei a n d more Thi s suggests th a t the sm a ll pea s a nt un dert a kings a r e run W ith a minimum of c a pit a l ; but it is prob a ble th a t the p opul a r b a nk s were una ble to s a tisfy a ll the dem a nds of their p e a s a nt customers Lo a ns a r e not e a sily gra nted a n d the b a nks a lmost a lw a ys give less th a n the b orrowers dem a nd b ec a use of in suffi ci en t c a pit a l Subsequent ye a rs h a ve sho w n a n im provement in th a t respect The tot a l a mount lent re a ched lei on Decemb er lei being lent to co opera tives a n d 1 9 25 31 lei to indi vidu a l pe a s a nts On the s a me d a te the tra n sa ctions of the b a nks re a ched a tot a l of lei The tot a l c a pit a l of the b a nks incre a sed m a teri a lly from lei a t the end of Decemb er 1 923 to lei on 47 D ecemb er 31 1 925 Likew ise deposits rose from lei to lei dur ing th a t p eriod The f a ct th a t c a pit a l a n d deposits for fr uct ifi ca t i on together represent 63 p er cent of a ll li a bilities proves th a t the popul a r b a nks were e x istin g on the i r own resources Lo a ns ra ised by the popul a r b a nk s from v a rious institutions were distributed a s foll ows on Decemb er 31 1 923 : -

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From t h e C en tra l From

the

Fe d e r a ls

F rom v a ri ou s b a n k s

a nd

i stituti ons n

REFORM ON RUR AL E C O NOMY

389

Loa ns from the federa ls of popul a r b a nks represented 8 5 per cent of the tot a l which shows th a t the connexion between the b a nks a n d their federa ls is b ecomin g closer ; this must tend to i ncre a se the a utonomy of the movement The development is encoura ged by the Centra l ; it gra nts lo a n s di rect to the popul a r b a nks in exception a l c a ses onl y its usu a l policy b eing to pl a ce a t the di spos a l of the feder a ls the fun ds which they m a y need I n 1 9 23 the pr ofit s of the popul a r b a n ks a mounted to lei ; the a vera ge di vidend p a id by them w a s 6 per cent which w a s more th a n modest considering the st a te of the money m a rket a t the time Th e F ed er a ls of the P op ula r B an ks Most of the popul a r b a nks of a district a n d some of the other co opera tives a re grouped in federa ls whi ch a ct a s a lin k between the co opera tive societies The federa l b a n ks control an d g ui de the a n d the Centr a ls i n dividu a l societies supply them w ith credits a n d look a fter co opera tive prop a ga nd a They a r e a d mini stered by a bo a rd elected a t the gener a l meetin g of the a ffili a t e d societies The development of the federa ls is shown in the followin g t a ble .

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R es er

At

ves

D e pos its i n t h e b a nk s

Ba l n ce s h ee t to t a l a

the end of 1 923 there were in the whole country 44 county a n d 9 region a l federa ls To the federa ls were a ffili a t e d .

39 0

THE EFFECTS

THE

OF

p opul r b nks th a t is a lmost 9 0 per cent of the b a nks work ing wi th the Centra l a s well a s 5 8 c o opera tives for the holdi ng or purch a se of l a nd a n d 726 v a rious co oper a tives On Decemb er 3 1 1 925 there were 5 0 county a n d 9 region a l feder a ls with popul a r b a n ks 49 l a nd co opera tives a n d 6 5 3 v a rious c o oper a tives a ffi li a t e d to them Whil e therefore the number of a ffili a ted co opera tives h a s decrea sed the numb er of a ffili a ted popul a r b a nks h a s in cre a sed with more th a n 5 00 The tra ns a ctions of these federa l s a mounted in 1 925 to lei ; their a ssets a n d li a bili ties a t the end of 1 9 25 8 9 0lei a consider a ble i ncre a se from the to lei a t which they stood a t the end of 1 923 As the bulk of the a ssets consisted of lo a ns gra nted t o co oper a tives a n d of a dv a nces a g a inst crops th e feder a ls wo u ld seem to h a ve b een fulfillin g the f unction for which they were cre a ted On the other h a nd by fa r the l a rgest item on the li a bili ty side represented lo a ns obt a ined from the Centra l whi ch im pli es th a t the federa ls were not yet self —supporting but served r a ther a s outposts of the Centr a l to f a cilit a te its fi n a n ci a l rel a tions w ith the l a rge numb er of p opul a r b a nks Thi s View is supported by the in a dequ a te c a pit a l of the federa ls a s well a s by the sm a ll siz e of the deposits they received The two items a mounted a t the end of 1 923 to lei which w a s merely a bout one seventh of the lo a n s contra cted by the federa ls from the Centra l The a ctivities of the federa ls im proved so much th a t the sum of the lo a ns they gra nted re a ched lei a t the end of 1 9 25 Th a t improvement w a s due a bove a ll to the in cre a se in lo a ns contr a cted from the Centr a l which re a ched 8 44 674 9 1 3 1ei ; there w a s a slight incre a s e in the p a id up c a pit a l to 48 5 49 346 1ei but a decre a se in deposits which fell to lei P r ofi t s a t the end of 1 925 were however 2 5 gre a ter a s com p a red with 1 923 a mounting to lei Th e Cen tr a l of th e P op ula r B a n ks The la w of 1 9 03 cre a ted a Centr a l Offi c e of the Popul a r B a nks a n d V ill a ge Co op er a tives I n 1 9 1 9 the offi ce w a s merged a s a p a rent b ody to the movement into a new a n d bro a der institution c a lled the Centr a l Offi ce for Co op er a tion a n d Resettlement which consisted of fi ve sections The fi r st of them is the Centra l of the Popul a r B a nks whi ch a

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REFORM ON RUR AL E C O NOMY

39 1

guides controls a n d fin a n ce s the cre di t co oper a tives ; a lmo s t a ll the rur a l a n d urb a n popula r b a nks a n d their federa ls b eing connected with it The Centra l is a n a utonomous incorpora ted in stitution It w a s origin a lly a tt a ched to the M inistry of Agr icul ture but wi th the cre a tion in 1 923 of a Min istry of L a b our S oci a l Insura n ce a n d Co opera tio n the Centra l of the Popul a r B a n ks a s well a s the Centr a l of the Co opera tives of Production a n d Consumptio n bec a me sep a r a te sections in the new dep a rt ment Urb a n a n d rura l co Opera tion were lin ked up a t the s a me time The Centra l is the orga n thr ough which the St a te p a rticip a tes in the co opera tive credit movement It is a dm inistered by a b o a rd of fourteen members seven of whom a r e elected for three ye a rs by the congress of popul a r b a nks a n d their federa ls the others b eing nomin a ted by the Na tion a l B a nk a n d v a rious Mini stries Properly spe a king the Centra l is a Centra l Credit B an k for the p opul a r b a nks a s well a s for the other groups of co opera tives which it fi n an ces through the intermedi a ry of their own Centra ls It works through the district or county federa ls a n d its a ctivities O nl y in the c a se of c o a r e strictly limited to credi t oper a tions opera tives speci a lly est a blished for the purch a se of l a nd does the Centra l supply credit direct in the form of mortg a ges The b a l a n ce sheet of the Centra l closed on Decemb er 31 1 9 23 w ith a tot a l of 5 8 9 700 773 1ei a n d two ye a rs l a ter with a tot a l of lei Its c a pit a l consi s ted of lei contributed by the St ate of contributions from the popul a r b a n ks a n d their federa l s a mounti n g to lei i n 1 923 a n d lei in 1 925 ; reserves a mou n ted to lei in 1 9 25 so th a t the tot a l c a pit a l of the Centr a l w a s lei A l a rge p a rt of it w a s imm obilized a s of a t the e n d of 1 9 25 the a ssets lei were in public stock lei in bui lding s a n d lei in furn iture a ltogether 39 344 6 1 3 1ei The Centra l c a rried out in the m a in curre n t a ccou n t tr a ns a ctions with the feder a ls These a mounted to lei in 1 925 b a sed prob a bly on the credit gra nted to the Centra l by the N a tio n a l B a nk The Centr a l w a s in pra ctice little more th a n a n i n termedi a ry between the N a tion a l B a nk a n d the c o op era tives One effect of th a t excess of bure a ucr a tic links w a s -

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392

THE EFFECTS

OF THE

th a t lo a ns gra nted by t h e N a t ion a l B a nk a t 3— 4 per c en t r ea ch e d the popul a r b a nks a t 1 2—1 3 per cent Effective lo a ns gra nted to popul a r b a nks onl y re a ched lei in 1 925 a lm ost all of them a g a inst mortg ages Th a t proves th a t the Centra l suffers from a short a ge of c a pit a l a n d c a nnot a dequ a tely feed the c o oper a tive movement The a bove figur e s show th a t the co op era tive cre di t move ment is growing a p a ce though the figur es rel a tin g to c a pit a l a n d to b a l a nce sheets must be corrected w ith the index representin g the depreci a tion of the Rum a ni a n exch a nge Wh il e the currency lost 9 75 per cent of its v a lue from 1 9 1 8 to 1 926 i e w a s reduced to a v a lue forty t imes sm aller the c a pit a l of the pop ul a r b a nks onl y doubled dur ing th a t period w hi ch me a ns th a t it in cre a sed by 1 00 p er cent where a s it should h a ve incre a sed by per cent The incre a se in c a pit a l followed a norm a l a scent The numb er of b a nks h a vin g risen by 30 per cent a n d the memb er ship by 5 0 p er cent it w a s but n a tur a l th a t their c a pit a l shoul d i ncre a se by 1 00 p er cent Th a t w a s in gener a l the rel a tion in which the three f a ctors progressed since 1 904 The considera ble incre a se in the tot a l of the b a l a nce sheets is expl a ined in the fi r st pl a ce by the gro w ing need for productive credi t a mong the new pe a s a nt proprietors a n d i n the se cond pl ace by the fa ll in the exch a nge whi ch in fl uen ce d the size of the i ndi vidu a l lo a ns The we a kne s s of the credi t c o opera tive s is cle a rly di sclosed by a comp a rison of their work ing c a pit a l in 1 9 1 3 an d 1 927 .

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( In

thous an d lei ) 1 9 27

P a id up c a pita l R se rv e S urplu s -

s

e

T ota l c a pita l D e pos its O th e r lia b ili ties T ota l b orrow e d fu n ds ’

The rel a tion b etween the b a nks c a pit a l a n d borrowed fun ds w a s therefore 3 9 : 1 in 1 9 1 3 a n d 1 : 1 4 in 1 927 Or t a ke the follow in g ,

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figur e s

.

REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY

393

1 9 13

Le i

A v e ra ge

v a lu e

i n di vidu a l s ha re Ca pita l per m e mb e r B orrow e d fun ds p er me m b e r Tota l w ork i ng c a pita l p r mem b e r

183 1 98 51 249

of

e

This comp a rison proves th a t fin a n ci a lly the cre d it co oper a tives a r e much we a ker th a n b efore the Wa r especi a lly if on e t a kes into a ccount not o nl y the dim inished purch a sin g power of the lei but the wider functions which the co opera tives h a ve to fulfi l a fter the l a nd reform An ot h er fe a t ure w hi ch di scloses t h e w ea k n e ss oft h e co oper a tive movement is the in a dequ a te connexion b etween the popul a r b a nks a n d the c o opera tives of production a n d consum ption The 25 000 0001ei the p opul a r b a nks pl a ced a t the dispos a l of the v a rious co opera tives shows the l a tter to b e still in a n embryonic st a ge -

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d ) Con s umers Co op em ti ve S octettes an d Co op em ti ve S octettes for P r oducti on A gre a t va riety of co oper a tive societies h a s come into existence a n d multip lied in Rum a ni a n country di stricts ’ These include consum ers societies , societies for j oint s a les or pur ch a ses , for workin g of forests , mi nes or qu a rries , Vine growing societies , co opera tive b a keries , d a i ries a n d societies for fi sh i n g or m a rket ga rdeni ng , & c Lega lly they h a ve the s a me st a n di ng a s the popul a r b a nks , a s the provisions of the La w of 1 903 were extended to them in 1 9 05 As reg a rds direction , control a n d credi t , they depended unt i l 1 9 1 9 on the Centra l Uni on of the Popul a r B a nks I n th a t ye a r a Centra l of the Co oper a tive S ocieties for Production a n d Distribution w a s set up a s an a utonomous section of the Centr a l Offi ce for Co oper a tion a n d ’

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Resettlement Its orga niz a tion resembles th a t of the other Centra ls From th a t time these co opera tives multiplied ra pidly These groups of co opera tives h a ve h a d a chequered c a reer a s some of the societies were st a rted wi thout s uffi ci en t explor a tion of the fi eld of a cti vity into whi ch they ventured a n d of the economic problems they woul d h a ve to fa ce As a res ult qui te a number of them were un a ble to keep going a n d closed down not o nl y losi n g c a pit a l thereby but a t the s a me time sh a king the con fi d en ce of the pea s a nts in the movement a s a whole .

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39 4

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE

N om in a lly there were 75 5 such co op er a tives in existence a t the b eginning of 1 9 1 9 but two thi rds of them were in li qui d a tion or we a kened to such a n extent by the Wa r th a t they soon h a d t o close down With the end of the Wa r however a n d with the b eginning of the reform the movement entered upon a p eriod of r a pid development I n 1 91 9 there were founded 230 new consumers societies wi th members a n d 1 6 milli on lei p a id up c a pit a l ; 400 more st a rted li fe in 1 920 with mem bers a n d 4 5 million lei p a id up c a pit a l The t a ble b elow gives the number a n d distribution of these co op er a tives a t the en d of 1 921 -

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Nu m b e r of

Ki d n

s o f so

ci t y

so

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M mb r

ci eti es

e

G ood s so ld

e s

Di tributi on a n d j o i n t s le s F or s t w o k m g D iri s M ill s B k ri s F i s hi ng M i i g a d qu rryi g M i s c ll o u s s

a

e

a

a

r

e

e

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n n

n

e

ane

a

n

T ota l s

These figur es refer to the whole country I n the Old Kingdom there were societies a t the en d of 1 921 with members a n d a t the end of 1 9 24 with members The m a in ch a ra cteristic of the post w a r evolution would s eem to b e the preference which most vi ll a ges show for a mixed typ e of co oper a tive society b elonging in principle to the of production but enga ging a lso in common c o oper a tives purch a se s b ec a use of loc a l needs sm a llness of a va il a ble me a ns Comm on purch a ses a n d d iffi c ult y in fi n d i n g suffi ci en t le a ders include mo s t of the implements a n d m a teri a ls required for production— m a nure seed s m a chines a n d implements fodder which the l a rge f a rmers obt a in through their a gricultura l &c syndic a te s , but a l s o frequently the kind of household a rticles which genera lly fa ll within the scope of consumers co operatives

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REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY

39 5

Sim il a rly j oint s a les a r e often combined W ith the p a rti a l prep a ra tion of the produce for the m a rket a s i s the ca se with fruit drying & c These co opera tives therefore e n ga ged in s a tisfying pra ctic a lly a n y a n d every need of the Vill a gers a n d this is no doubt the re a son t the ir type is so pop ul a r with the p e a s a ntry The Centra l of the co O p era tives of production a n d consumption h a s dra wn up a form of St a tutes a dopted by a ll the s e co op era tives which m a kes it obliga tory for them to distribute a bonus to the purch a sing memb ers ; it imposes the cre a tion of reserve funds for cultura l a n d soci a l purposes a s well a s the est a blishment of a n indivisible a n d untr a nsfer a ble fu n d which sh a ll ensure the continuity a n d a utonomy of the s ociety The Centra l is a lso a ctin g a s a wholes a le distributing society which m ay h a ve co n tributed to the success of these mixed co op er a tives a s it would seem th a t most of the co oper a tives were forced to close down before the Wa r j ust b ec a use of the a bsence of co opera tive di stributi n g centres To fa cilit a te di stribution the Ce n tra l usu a lly depo s its considera ble supp lies with the more import a nt co oper a tive societies Fin a lly the Centra l h a s a cted a s a n i n termedi a ry for the s a le a n d especi a lly for the export of the produce which the a ffili a t e d villa ge co oper a t ives a r e getting together The development of this mixed typ e of co opera tive society h a s the a dva nt a ge of m a king u n n ecess a ry the est a blishment of a whole numb er of sm a ll c o oper a tives in the s a me pl a ce Their popula rity is proved by the fa ct th a t there were of them in existen ce in 1 9 24 b esides 200 i n B ess a ra bi a a n d 6 00 in Tr a n s yl v a ni a From the b a l a n ce sheets which of these c o opera t ive s supplied to their Centra l it a ppe a rs th a t their membership rose from in 1 921 to in 1 924 Their c a pit a l incre a sed d uring the s a me p eriod from lei nomin a l an d lei p a id up to lei a n d lei These sums indic a te a considera ble incre a se in the sub scribed c a pit a l a n d a t the s a me time in the proportion of p a id up c a pit a l from 7 4 per cen t in 1 9 21 to 8 2 p er cent in 1 924 At the s a me time by D ecemb er 31 1 924 these c o O pera tives set a side reserves a moun ting to lei a n d a fund for cultur a l a n d soci a l purposes of lei Their tran s a ctions incre a sed ,

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39 6

OF

THE EFFECTS

THE

even more r a pidly B etween 1 9 21 a n d 1 924 the v a lue of goods pur ch a sed rose from lei to lei an d the v a lue of goods sold from lei to lei Even a ssuming th a t the f a ll of the exch a nge h a s doubled the price of goods it still a pp e a rs th a t the tota l business tra ns a cted in 1 924 w a s twice a s l a rge a s th a t of 1 9 21 The b a l a nce sheet of these c o opera tives closed on Decem ber with a tot a l of lei The m a in a ssets were goods pur ch a sed on comm ission representing a v a lue of lei ; the chief li a bilities were debts a mo unting to lei a sum which suggests th a t the co opera tives still suffered from i n suffi ci en t mea ns of their own ( e ) Th e Co op em ti ves of P roducti on The mi x ed c o opera tives of p urch a se a n d s a le a r e a ssoci a tions of producers e a ch of the members h a ving a n a gricultura l exploit a tion of his own Those bra nches of a cti vity which require a l a rger c a pit a l a grea ter division of l a bour a n d so on h a ve led to the est a bli shment of re a l c o opera tives of production S ome of these societies especi a lly those for the exploit a tion of forests h a ve p rogressed rem a rk a bly well while others h a ve h a d a less s a tisf a ctory hi story Th e development of the c o oper a tives for the exploit a tion of forests a fter the Wa r bids fa ir to equ a l the success of the L a nd Holdi ng S ocieties b efore the Wa r I n the View of cert a in R um a ni a n w riters their im port a nce re a ches b eyond the economi c .

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Th y h

l v e d i n our h ighla n d d is tr i ct s t w o p r ob le m s on e Th e p e a s a n t s u s e d t o be r o bb e d of t h ei r s oci a l a n d t h e o t h e r n a t ion a l p os ses sion s a n d t he i r l a b ou r e xp l oi t e d by fo r es t r y com p a n ie s wo r kin g a ll a l on g t h e C a r p a t h i a n Mou n t a i n s ; t o d a y t h a n k s t o t h e fo r es tr y co o p e r a t i v e s t h e p ea s a n t s a r e r e ga i n i n g t h e i r a nci en t r igh t s o f o wn e r s h i p a n d t h e y fi n d i t p o s s i b l e t o e m e r ge fr o m s e r fd o m a n d t o b e com e m a s t e r s Mo r e o v e r t h ose r a p a ci ou s t im b e r com o f t h ei r p r o p er t y a n d l a b ou r p a n ie s we r e l a r ge l y i n fo r e ign h a n d s Th r ough t h e fo r es tr y co o p e r a t i v es t h e r e fo r e t h e p ea s a n t s a r e fi n d i n g t h e m e a n s o f r e s t o r in g t o t h e cou n t r y a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e o f gi vi n g t h a t i m p o rt a n t a n a t i on a l p os s ess i o n 1 b ra n c h o f our n a t ion a l e con o m y it s R um a n i a n c h a r a c t e r a ga in ‘

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Unfortun a tely some of these c o O pera tives a r e not a ffilia t e d with a Centra l so th a t the figur e s which follow do not include -

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N G h i ule a A soci a tii le Td r d nesti , p p 1 8 5 6 .

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REFORM ON RU RAL ECONOMY a ll

of them the 730forestry oper a tives in existence in 1 921 o nl y 347 wi th a membershi p of comm uni c a ted their b a l a nce sheets to the Centra l ; in 1 9 24 the tota l n umb er w a s 8 43 of which 476 wi th a memb ership of supplied b a l a nce sheets These fi gur es show a n incre a se in the numb er of co op er a tives a proportion a l incre a se of those a ffili a t e d to the Centr a l a n d a rel a tive i ncre a se in memb ers hi p from 1 00 for e a ch society in 1 921 to 1 22 in 1 9 24 The tot a l b a l a nce sheet of the 476 forestry co opera tives lei on Decemb er 31 1 924 The fully a moun ted to p a id up c a pit a l on th a t d a te w a s lei a n d reserves lei The work of the co opera tives depended a gre a t dea l however on fi n an cia l support from the Centra l a n d other credit institutions to which the co oper a tives owed lei ; of the l a tter sum lei w a s due to popul a r b a n ks a n d their feder a ls The a ssets of these co opera tives co n sisted of inst a lla tions m a chin es tools & c v a lued a t lei of re a l est a te v a lued a t lei of current work v a lued a t lei an d especi a lly of timber— st a nding a t the m ills or in w a re houses v a lued a t lei Assets further included lei a dv a nced by the co O per a tives a s deposits Other v a rieties of co Oper a tives of production included a t the end of 1 924 the following .

Oi

39 7

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p r tiv p r tiv p r tiv b k ri p r tiv l p r tiv d ri ricultu l p r tiv p r tiv xpl ita ti on p r tiv p tt ry v ri u p r tiv

25 fi s h in g c o o e a es 26 mi ni n g c o O e a es 21 c o o e a a e es e 26 co o e a e fl our mi ls 22 co o e a e a i es 24 a g r a co o e a es 9 co o e a e s for t h e e o 1 co o e a e o e , a nd 8 8 a o s co o e a es -

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m in e r a l

w a te rs

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these 242 co opera tives 1 32 with a membership of comm un ic a ted b a l a nce sheets whi ch a mou n ted a t the end of 1 924 to lei Their c a pit a l w a s lei a n d reserves lei They h a d debts a mountin g to lei a t the Ce n tr a l a n d lei outst a nding with merch a nts a n d b a nks Assets consisted of m a chines tools inst a ll a tio n s & c v a lued a t lei re a l est a te lei m a nu -

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398

THE EFFECTS

fa ct ur e d

goods

OF

THE

lei other goods

lei

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an d raw

m a teri a ls lei The Centra l of the V illa ge c o opera tives of consum ptio n a n d production h a s v a ried a n d extensive a ctivities It a cts a s the b a nker a s well a s the wholes a le purch a ser a n d s a lesm a n of the a ffili a ted societies ; it procures supplies i n emergencies for loc a l a uthorities a n d for the a rmy ; it builds houses for the coloni sts who a r e b ein g settled in the front ie r regions ; it exports corn & c & c The Centr a l pl a ys thereby a n import a n t p a rt in the country s economic life Its b a l a nce sheet re a ched the formid a ble sum of 1 9 9 lei a t the end of 1 9 24 though c a pit a l a n d reserves merely a mounted to 1 75 000 0001ei The Centra l therefore still domin a tes the whole a ctivity of the co oper a tives of production a n d consumption A r i cultur a l Co o em ti on Agricultur a l c o oper a tion a s f g p such h a s been i nfl uen ce d by the a gra ri a n reform more th a n a n y other bra nch of the c o opera tive movement The m a in groups of c o—opera tives f a lling withi n this section were the l a ndh ol d i ng a n d l a nd pur ch a sing societies They expressed the pe a s a nts gre a t need of l a nd whi ch w a s ch a ra cteristic of the pre reform conditions a n d they fl our i sh e d especi a lly a fter the rising of 1 907 when the new legisl a tion imposed upon St a te a n d corpora tions the duty of letting their est a tes to pe a s a nt co op era tives o nl y It w a s in the n a tur e of things th a t there shoul d b e much less scop e for this type of co opera tion a fter the reform L a rge property is reduced to a sh a dow a n d is s o to spe a k on its tri a l ; few l a nd owners therefore let their est a tes a n d the l a n d which comes in to the m a rket for s a le is in signi fi ca n t in extent The reform is on the other h a nd responsible for a new typ e of a gricultura l co O pera tives It w a s to be hop ed th a t h a vin g secured l a n d a n d economic a uto n omy the pe a s a n ts wo ul d j oin together for the purpo s e of mutu a l help in production a n d s a le It so h a ppens th a t the impetus for this development h a s b een given by the reform itself though not directly or delibera tely It will b e remembered how the l a nd expropri a ted in Vir tue of the decree la w of December 1 9 1 8 w a s h a nded over not to in dividu a l pea s a nts but to the s o c a lled a ssoci a tions of r e settlement They were v ill a ge a ssoci a tions modelled on the l a nd h oldin g .

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REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY

39 9

opera tives a n d were me a nt to c a rry on for a few ye a rs o nl y until the in di vidu a l holdings could be me a sured a n d distributed For politic a l re a sons these a ssoci a tions were a lre a dy disb a nded in 1 9 20 a n d the l a nd divided a mong the pe a s a nts But durin g their short existe n ce these a ssoci a tions h a d pl a nned a n d in p a rt re a lized v a rious a rra ngements for the furtherin g of their inter ests Some of them h a d purch a sed m a chines or h a d contr a cted for the supply of implements a n d seed s others h a d m a de a rr a nge men ts for co opera tive selling or h a d est a bli shed breedi n g When these a ssoci a tions were broken up s t a tions a n d so on their members found themselves in a qu a n d a ry It w a s not a lw a ys e a sy to divide the m a teri a ls which h a d b een a cquir ed j ointly a n d for j oint use ; a n d in some c a ses the former a ssoci a tes re a lized th a t it wo ul d not b e to their a dv a nt a ge to in terrupt the M a ny requests for a dvice a ctivities they h a d st a rted in common re a ched the Centr a l w ith the res ul t th a t wherever possible the bre a k up of a n a ssoci a tion of resettlement w a s m a de the occ a sion for the est a blishme n t of a n a ssoci a tion w ith a co Opera tive ch a ra cter free of a ll conn exion w ith the l a nd reform This typ e of society received the n a me of fa rmi n g co opera tives Co op em ti ve L an d h old i ng S oci eti es The fi r st co oper a tive l a ndh olding societies were formed on the b a sis of the ordin a ry la w ; cert a in sm a ll a ltera tio n s i n troduced in 1 904 into the Code of Procedure a n d into the la w of docum ent a ry evidence f a cili In t a t e d the form a tion a n d the working of these societies M a rch 1 908 a cl a use w a s a dded to the Act of 1 903 on popul a r b a n ks by which a ll the privileges gra nted to popul a r b a n ks were An import a n t step a lso secured to these l a ndh olding societies w a s t a ken in 1 9 08 when a new a ct provided th a t l a nd belonging to the St a te or to corpora te bodies could onl y b e le a sed to co oper a tive l a ndh ol di ng societies un less it h a d been shown on inquiry th a t it wa s impossible to form s uch a society Since the St a te owned a l a rge n umber of est a tes a n d the property held in mortm a in w a s a lso very co n sider a ble circumst a nces fa voured the development of these societies Fin a lly the new reform l a ws ( except th a t for B ess a ra bi a ) la y down the r ul e tha t the rem a i ni ng l a rge est a tes m a y not be let out for more th a n seven ye a rs a n d th a t under equ a l con di tions preference must b e give n to pe a s a n t co

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THE

400

EFFECTS

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THE

op era tives or to agr on om s But though the la w f a c ili t a tes the form a tion of these societies it does not le a ve them to work without control a s the risks of inexp erience a n d a buse a r e too gre a t Every co oper a tive l a ndholding society therefore must h a ve its rules a pproved by the Centra l B a nk a n d is for the whole p eriod of its existence li a ble to i nsp ection by th a t body ; while the provisions in respect to societies to which the Centra l B a nk gra nts lo a ns a r e even more strin gent The Centra l h a s the right to a ppoint a n a gricul tura l exp ert a s a dministr a tor of the undert a king a n d to introduce into the rul es of the societies an y m od ifi ca t i on s th a t m a y b e thought necess a ry While the l a nd is held j ointly cultiv a tion is a lw a ys indi vidu a l ; excepti n g occ a sion a l reserves for the gro w ing of fodder or seed The m a n a gement of the fa rmin g is entrusted to a n a gric ul tur a l exp ert a s a dmini stra tor ; the rot a tion of crops is fi x e d by these experts on the most economi c lines ; the a ssignment of portions of l a nd is decided by lot the a re a of e a ch b eing in rel a tion to the working c a p a city a n d the numb er of persons in the fa mily of the member The m a x im um a ccorded to one member h a s b een 1 0 h a The j oint purch a se of a ll f a rm requisites such a s seed live stock m a chines is a lso usu a l These co opera tives whi ch combine individu a l i niti ative of the members with expert control h a ve proved not only the me a ns of brin ging a b out a n improvement in the econo mic position of the sm a ll cultiva tors but a lso an excellent instrument for tra ini ng them profession all y The considera ble exp a nsion of co opera tive l a ndh oldin g a ctivities before the Wa r is shown in the t a ble on p 401 The rent p a id by the member s is fix e d a nn u ally a n d is c a lcul a ted to cover a ll expenses a n d to lea ve a sur plus a s reserve Aft er the l a nd reform the a ctivi ty of these societies w a s necess a rily cur t a il ed I n a ccord a nce wi th the la w of J uly 1 9 28 the m a n a ge ment a n d supervision of the c o opera tive l a ndh olding societies h a ve been removed from the Centra l of Pop ul a r B a nks a n d given t o a newly formed Centra l of Co opera tives S oci eti es for Co op em ti ve L a nd p ur cha s e L a nd purch a sin g co oper a tives were fi r st m a de the subj ect of legisl a tive provisions in M a rch 1 908 Their constitu tion a n d working a r e governed by the s a me rules a s those for l a ndh olding societies Their p urpose co

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REFORM ON RUR A L ECONOMY

Y r

401

M mb r

ea s

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u l r e ts a

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is to purch a se e st a tes or p a rt of est a tes a n d then divide the l a n d a ccor d ing to e a ch one s a bility to buy a mong the members A recen t me a sur e pro vi des th a t n o di vision of the l a n d sh a ll t a ke pl a ce except in a ccord a nce with a scheme a pproved by the Cen tra l These c o Opera tives h a ve necess a rily a tra nsitory ch a ra cter a s they ce a se to exist when the price h a s been fully p a id a n d the l a nd divided up a mon g the memb ers The memb ers pa y for their sh a res in a nnuities c a lcula ted to extinguish the purch a se price within a given num b er of ye a rs Until the li quid a tion of the society the est a te purch a sed by it is considered a s undivided a n d ca n b e used to gu a r a ntee lo a ns a n d other oblig a tions There is no mea ns of j udging how much l a nd h a d p a s sed i n to the h a nds of pe a s a nts through the i n strument of such societie s Their a ctivity w a s h a mpered by l a ck of credit ; therefore it w a s usu a l for the pe a s a nts fir st to re n t a n est a te a n d by a ccumul a ting ro fi t s to try l a ter to buy i t U to the end of 1 4 the n umber 9 2 p p ’

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i n t r ti ng a rticl e publi sh ed i n No 2 f A g a P bleme M Ti m v s es i n t h e r pid xp ns i on of th ese so ci ti s a pro f of t h e c on ti n u ou s d v l p m e t of t h e pr o c e ss of d 1fl t i t i on [ m on g t h p s ts ] thi s i s con fir m d by t h e reducti o of t h e a v e r g p h d i n t h r te d r D o n ot t h e f cts s upp rt r a th e r t h e c on tr ry i nf r c ? Th re ducti o of t h e i dividu a l a v e r g s ugg sts t h e gro wi n g i n tru s i of t h e vill g prol t ri t mon g t h e ma of fa rm i ng p s n ts i e pr o c ss o f l e v lli n g n d n o t of diff r ti ti Thi s e fi ect mor o v r h s p r m n t ch r cter F or t h m re l an d i s b s rb d by vill a ge prol t ri s th ro u gh t h e me n s f l a n d h ldi g a n d l d purch as i n g co op r tiv es t h e l ess l n d r m i s t o be s n a ppe d up by t h w lthi r p s a ts th o e kul ks so u pl eas an t t o t h ye s of Comm u i s t th e oretici a s 1

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402

THE EFFECTS

OF

THE

of l a nd purch a sing societies liquid a ted w a s fift y three wi th members a n d they h a d pur ch a sed h a a t a price of lei The reform l a ws g a ve the St a te a right of pre emption on a ll l a nd s a les invol ving more th a n 5 0 h a in the Old Ki ngdom a n d 25 h a i n Tr a nsylv a ni a The intention a pp a rently w a s th a t l a nd obt a ined in th a t w a y should then b e pl a ced a t the di spos a l of l a nd pur ch a sing co opera tives but the fin a n cia l c ri sis h a s pre vented the St a te from a pplying th a t poli cy on a l a rge sc a le Nevertheless the movement is rem a rk a bly a ctive in vi ew of the sm a ll num b er a n d siz e of the est a tes whi ch a r e put up for s a le -

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Pur ch

Th e A gr i cultum l Co op er a ti ves

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This typ e of society in a ugu ra ted a fter the a gra ri a n reform is me a nt to do for the p e a s a nts wh a t the a gricultur a l syndi c a tes are doin g for the l a rge fa rmers in Rum a ni a a n d elsewhere Their a ctivity is v a ried developin g in one direction more th a n i n a nother a ccording to ci rcum st a nces I n f a ct these co op era tives a r e supposed to s a tisfy every need of the sm a ll c ultiva tor in the w a y of buying a n d selli ng But in a ddition they a r e concerned with the im provement of the l a nd a n d of the methods of f a rmin g with i nsur a nce a n d bookkeeping a n d wi th a n y a n d every oper a tion destined to contribute to the Hence these co opera tives h a ve a dv a ncement of a griculture a t the s a me t i me profession a l commerci a l a n d cult ur a l ends in view There w a s nothing lik e them b efore the reform except where l a ndh oldi ng co opera tives fulfi lle d some of these func tions I n the st a te of economic depende n ce in which they then lived a n d l a boured the pe a s a nts were not a ble to org a ni z e themselves Now th a t 9 0 per cent of the l a nd is in the h a nds of the p e a s a nts these a gricultur a l societies m a y b ecome the chief fa ctor in the solving of the tech n ic a l a n d economic problems ra ised by such a v a st extension of sm a ll sc a le a griculture ,

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REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY

403

Though the ch a ra cter a n d a ctivity of t h is type of society comes very nea r to th a t of the l a n d hol di ng co opera tives the la w provides a ltogether speci a l rules for its govern men t Th e fir st a gric ul tur a l co oper a tive w as foun ded e a rly in 1 9 21 an d wa s soon followed by others their n umber incre a sing a s shown below -

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ci ti es e

71 1 65 222 65 9 8 25

With

members the tot a l p a id up c a pit a l on D ecember lei The b a l a nce sheet tot a l w a s 31 1 9 24 w a s lei The a cti vi ty of these societies is on a modera te sc a le so fa r Th a t is not sur prisi ng seein g th a t their Centr a l h a s no c a pit a l of its own the fi n a n ce s it requi res bein g obt a ined from the Centra l of the Popula r B a nks The budget of t hi s Centra l is entir ely contributed by the St a te Like the pop ul a r b a nks these societies a r e grouped in federa ls a t the end of 1 924 there were nin e of them Wi th 45 3 a ffilia t e d societies a n d a p a id up c a pit a l of lei i i B a n th e New P r ovi nces ss ar a b the m t on e i A t C o o e (g) p time of B e s sa r a bia s un ion w ith Rum an i a the co opera tive societies of th a t provin ce were govern ed by the Russi a n Co op era tion Code of M a rch 20 1 9 1 7 w hi ch h a d removed the restrictions a n d the St a te control imposed by the l a ws of 1 8 7 1 1 8 9 5 a n d 1 904 After the un ion these societies cont i nued to work independently of the movement in the Old Kingdom Some new co opera tives were however est a blished on the b a sis of the pro visions r uling in the Kingdom a s a result of pr opa g a nd a c a rried on by the centra l offi ce s of Buc a rest which set up region a l bra nch office s a t Ch i s in au Accordin g to the study of MM Ma d gea r u a n d Mla d en a t z the number of credit co opera tives on J a nn a ry 1 1 9 20w a s 446 D a t a could b e ga thered only from 339 of t h em w ith members giving a n a vera ge of 6 74 8 per society It woul d seem th a t 78 per cent of the rura l popula tion took p a rt in the co opera tive movemen t The volume Coop er ati a i n Romé n i a I n tr egi td published by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1 920 ga ve the D d 2 -

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THE

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EFFECTS

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following est im a te of the number of B ess a ra bi a n societies : 28 in 1 904 ; 25 3 ( 245 cre di t ) in 1 9 1 0; 35 7 ( 349 cre di t ) in 1 9 1 4 ; a n d in 1 9 1 9 429 of whi ch were credit societies 9 cre di t unions 6 03 consumers co opera tives a n d cons umers u ni ons D uring a n d a fter the Wa r therefore tr a ding oper a tions exceeded credi t opera tions ; the co opera tives pl a yed a n im port a nt p a rt during the Wa r in supplyin g the a rmy especi a lly with bre a d The tot a l membership w a s given a s a bout The tot a l of the b a l a nce sheets w a s : credi t societies 5 2 6 00 0001ei ; cre di t union s lei ; co n sum ers societies lei ; consum ers unions lei There a r e in Bess a ra bi a 25 Germ a n co opera tives of con sum p tion with memb ers g a thered into one un ion ; a n d a uni on of J ewi sh c o opera tives including 40 credit societies w ith memb er s 70 3 per cent of whom a r e merch a nts a n d a rtis a ns Tra n sylva n i a T r a n sy lva ni a n co O pera tives f unctioned on the b a sis of the Hun g a ri a n la w XXIII of 1 8 9 8 All the societies could a ffili a t e to the Centra l Credi t Co opera tive S ociety of Bud a p est obt a ining in return cert a in exemptions from t a x a tion a n d r a tes The Bud a pest Centr a l supplied credi t a n d con tro lled the a cti vities of the a ffilia t e d societies Publi c a ut h or i ties h a d a right of co n trol over them which expl a ins why the R um a ni a n i n h a bit a nts preferred the limited comp a ny form of a ssoci a tion On the strength of th a t la w 6 75 societies a ffili a t e d to the Centra l were founded in Tra nsylva ni a with a memb ership of I n 1 9 1 8 their c a pit a l w a s 1 7 mill ion Hung a ri a n a bout crowns reserves 5 5 mill ions ; deposits 8 8 millions ; a n d credits from the Bud a pest Ce n tra l 23 mill ions Rum a ni a n st a tistics g a ve the number of societies on J a n ua r y ] 1 921 a s n a mely 45 9 credit societies 1 9 6 co O pera tives of production 37 7 con sumer s societies 25 societies for j oi n t s a les a n d 620 credit a n d s a vi n g societies After the union with Rum a ni a a number of new popul a r b a nks were foun ded grouped round five centra ls I n 1 920 the legisla tion va lid in the Old Kingdom w a s extended to Tr a n sylva ni a I n th a t ye a r the consumers societies con n ected with the Centra l H a n gya of Bud a p e s t founded a Cen tra l of their own a t Aiud under the n a me of Centra l of the H a ngya ,

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opera tive Societies The progress of the a ffilia t e d societies is shown in the followi ng t a ble : -

1 9 20

Nu m be r of so ci ti es M em b ers hip C a pita l R es e rv es Tur no v e r e

I n dditio to the popul r b a nks

a ffi li a t e d

to the B uc a rest Ce n tra l there were a t the e n d of 1 923 two other group s of credit co O per a tives in Tr a n sy lva n i a A group of 330popula r b a n ks with members a ffilia t e d to the Co opera tive Al li a nce of Cluj lei a t the e n d of 1 923 they h a d a p a id up c a pit a l of lei ; lo a ns h a d been gra n ted to the a n d deposits lei The second group consisted of 1 8 2 a moun t of S a xon R a iffeisen societies with member s a ffili a ted to the S a xon Union a t Sibiu The tot a l c a pit a l w a s o n ly lei but reserves a moun ted to l 8 o5 45 4 lei a n d deposits to lei U p to the end of 1 9 23 they h a d gra nted lo a ns a mou n ting to lei The S ua bi an u n ion a t Tim i s o a ra in cluded t h ir teen societies w ith memb ers B ucovi n a Co opera tion w a s governed by the la w of 1 8 73 whi ch a llowed the movement complete freedom of a ction I n Bucovina there were four co opera tive groups The Rum a ni a n group consisted of 1 5 6 co opera tives a ffili a ted to the Centra l Office a t Buc a rest They h a d memb ers a c a pit a l of lei a n d deposits lei The tot a l a mount of the lo a ns gra nted by them re a ched lei The Germ a n group h a d 6 7 co opera tives a ffili a t ed to a Centra l of the Germ a n Cr e d it S ocie t i es a t Cern au t i The i r membership a t the end of 1 9 23 was their c a pit a l lei deposits lei a n d lo a ns gra nted re a ched lei The Ruthe n i a n Group consisted of 41 credit co opera tives a ffi lia t e d to a Centra l of the Rutheni a n S ocie ties ( In 1 928 the Rutheni a n u ni on w a s in liquida tio n ) They h a d members a tot a l c a pit a l of lei a n d deposits lei Lo a ns gra nted in 1 9 23 a moun ted to lei The Poli sh Group consisted of 1 2 R a iffeis sen S ocieties a n d on e Schulze Delitzsch a ffili a t ed to a Centra l of a

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OF

THE EFFECTS

THE

Polish S ocieties with memb ers a ltogether Their tot a l c a pit a l w a s lei deposits lei an d loa ns were gra nted for lei These va rious societies which di d not work with the Centra l Otfi ce of Buc a rest r a ised the tot a l num b er of cre di t co oper a tives by 78 9 membership by b a l a nce sheets tot a l for 1 9 23 by 1 5 3 25 0 1 5 2 1ei a n d the sum of the lo a ns gr a nted to in di vidu a l p e a s a nts a n d their a ssoci a tions by lei ( Comp a r a tive t a bles for the sever a l br a nches of the move ment a r e given on pp 41 2 ( h ) S ta te a nd Co Op em ti on To sum up the la nd reform h a s given imm ense scop e to co opera tion in Rum a ni a n a griculture a n d the opportu ni ty is b ein seized e a gerly enough by the g p e a s a nts a n d by the lea ders of the movement I n contra st however to thi s re a l em a ncip a tion of the p e a s a nts t hr ough the a boli tion of l a n dl ordship a more el a b or a te St a te control h a s been imposed upon their a ssoci a tions th a n they ever suffered b efore No other question is so a rduously deb a ted within the movement a s th a t of its rel a tions w ith the St a te It is a dmitted a ll round th a t c o oper a tion would not h a ve re a ched its present extent h a d it not enj oyed the fosterin g c a re of the St a te to It is a degre e unp a r a lleled in an y other country of the world cle a r indeed th a t a t present the movement could not d isp ense with the help of the St a te without risking the dis a pp e a ra nce of some of its members Yet thi s prosp ect does not di sm a y the lea ders There mu s t b e somethin g seriously wrong w ith the system when even one of its chi ef executive offi cials— M T Man d r u director of the Centr a l of Agricultur a l Co oper a tives openly decl a res th a t progress depends on one essenti a l condi tion The St a te sh all no longer use a r t ifi cia l me a ns for keep ing a live societies without vit a lity or ini ti a tive for they compro mi se the 1 whole movement Such a st a tement gives sub st a nce to the wi de s pre a d con vi c tion th a t offi cia l tutel a ge h a s a cted a s a di sguise for politic a l interference The fi r st ess a ys of co O pera tion were viewed with suspicion an d hostility by Lib era ls a n d Conserva tives a li ke .

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REFORM ON RURAL ECONOMY

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Afterw a rds some of the Libera l le a ders beca me its w a rm sup p orters — Dr C I st ra t i M Spir u H a ret a n d l a ter M I Duca But the nomin a ted person nel of the v a rious bo a rds is itself evidence th a t politic a l bi a s h a s not been foreign to the i r a ppo i nt ment ; a n d with a p a rtis a n a dm inistra tion it is not d iffi cult to b elieve wh a t is w idely a sserted th a t politic a l a llegi a nce frequently determin ed the success of an a pp lic a tion for a lo a n or for such other fa vours a s the co opera tives coul d dispense The critics of the present system further point out how a ltogether out of proportion h a s b een the rel a tion b etween the con trol the St a te h a s cl a imed a n d the a ssist a nce it h a s gr a nted Every a ctivity of the co oper a tive societies is subj ect to cl ose ofli ci a l control a n d is dependent on the fi n a n cial support of the Centra ls which a r e themselves tied to the N a tion a l B a nk Yet in 1 923—4 the tot a l credits a llowed by the B a nk to the co op era tive movement a s a whole a mounted merely to 600 million lei where a s priv a te b a nk s received some 7 5 00million— though the c o O per a tive movement is supposed to s a tisfy the needs of a cl a ss of producers who h a ve in their h a nds 90p erz cen t of the l a nd a n d of the me a ns of production These criticisms therefore rest a s much on groun ds of principle a s on grounds of circum st a nce The intervention of the Sta te m ay gra du a lly lose its politic a l bi a s in the mea sur e in which the gre a t publi c institutions ce a se to b e the monopoly of one poli tica l p a rty But it is cle a r th a t the le a ders of the co opera tive movement obj ect to Sta te tutel a ge on principle a n d not merely bec a use of the politica l colour it wea rs a t the mome n t The 1 921 Report of the Uni on of Ra iffeisen Societies of Sibiu denou n ced the c o oper a tive l a ws of the Old Kin gdom a s mos t rea ctiona ry a n d the s a me org ani z ation whi ch stood outside poli tic a l squ a bbles lodged a compl a int a ga inst those l a ws with the Intern ation a l Co opera tive Alli a nce I n a gu a rded opini on on the whole position Mr Di a rmi d Coffey a t tha t time Libra ri a n of the Dublin Co O pera tive Libra ry considered it likely th a t the movem ent in Rum ani a h a s not the spont a neity which should ch a ra cteriz e true co opera tion a n d th a t it must le a n he a vily on 1 St a te in stitutions The st a ndpoint of the co opera tive le a ders w a s formul a ted before the Ch a mber by one of the pioneers of .

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408

THE EFFECTS

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OF

the movement M St a n Mor are scu He pointed out th a t origin a lly the la w concerning pop ula r b a nks h a d left un touched the pri n ciple of the movemen t s a utonomy To th a t ph a se of the lega l r égim e corresponded the most fl our i sh in g period which Rum a ni a n co opera tion h a s known from its foun d a tion to the present d a y O ffi c i a l t utel a ge m a y h a v e h a d it s u s e ful n e ss b u t t o d a y i t h a s be com e a n o b s t a c l e i n t h e w a y o f t h e n o r m a l d e v e l o p m en t o f co op e r a t ion a n d i t s a b o l is h m e n t i s a n i n d i s p e n sa b l e con d i t io n fo r p r o r es s Th e g Co O p e r a t i v e m o v e m en t d e m an d s t o be gi v e n i t s fr e e d om a n d t o be r e l ie v e d o f e x e cu t i v e con tr o l r e m a i n in g l i k e t h e co m p a n ie s wi t h l imi t e d l ia b i l it y o n l y u n d e r t h e c on tr o l o f t h e j ud ici a r y N o t h in g t o d a y c oul d j u s t i fy t h e m a i n t e n an ce o f t h e c o o p e r a t i v e m o v e m e n t i n t h e p o s i t ion o f a m in o r p l a ce d un d e r a gu a r d ia n e s p e ci a ll y a ft e r t h e un ion wi t h t h e n e w p r o v i n ce s w h en s id e by s i d e wi t h t h e con tr o lle d co o p e r a t i o n i n t h e O l d K i n gd o m w e h a v e t h e a u t o n o m ou s c o op e r a t i o n o f B e ss a r a b i a T r a n s y l v a n i a a n d B uco v i n a Rightly or wr ongly the le a ders of the movement seem to fe a r th a t offi cia l interference whi ch hi therto h a s been used for politic a l ends might in futur e be m a de a n instrum ent of fi n an ci a l exploit a tion Th a t suspicion fi n d s some support in the fi n an cia l policy which h a s ruled in Rum a ni a since the Wa r an d which h a s been j ust ifi e d ex a ctly in its rel a tion to co O pera tion by a wr iter who h a s ende a voured to endow the pr a ctice of the rul ers with Rum a ni a in his View is still in the ph a se a theoretic a l a pology of s truggle a ga inst destructive c a pit a l — i e foreign c a pit a l a n d the b a ttle c an onl y b e won by the cre a tion of a n a tion a l c a pit a l Could this be a chieved direct thr ough co opera tion a n d not through c a pit a li st b a nks ? The writer a cceptin g the M a rx i a n di a lectics resolutely a nswers No The soil is therefore not yet ripe for re a l co opera tion It is a delusion to thi n k th a t one coul d org a n ize c o opera tion with pe a s a nts who h a ve b a rely emerged from feud a l servitude a n d who n a tur a lly l a ck those spiritu a l qu a lities out of which co opera tion blossoms These qu a lities a r e produced only by a prolonged a n d r a cki n g tri a l a t t h e h a n d s of c a pit a lism on ly in the school of c a pit a list production Ca pit a lism mu s t come fi r st co O pera tion a fterw a rds The one 2 will bring the other ,

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Buc a re t N o v e mb r 25 1 9 25 l ti n Coop era ti e Romd nd ? 1 9 25

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REFORM ON RUR A L ECONOMY

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Th is is not fa r from the con viction of the opposite c a mp th a t the one inten ds to b a tten on the other Hence they c a nn ot b elieve th a t a politic a l m a chine which h a s b een ope n ly under the i nfl ue n ce of b a n king fi n a n ce durin g the l a s t d e ca d e could be a trust worthy foster mother for the c o opera tive ide a l There a re s ome who b elieve indeed th a t the fe a r of their bei n g successful pl a yed its p a rt in the h a sty a bolition of the vi lla ge a ssoci a tio n s in Th e r e is n o d oub t e x c l a im e d t h e P ea s a n t l e a d e r M Mih a la c h e t h a t co op e r a t ion a s w e un d e r s t a n d it w i l l h a v e t o wa ge a h e v y b a ttl e wit h t h e fo r ce s o f ca p it a l ism For it is t h e pu r po se o f suc h co o p e r a t i o n co m p l e t e l y t o e m a n c i p a t e t h e s m a l l p r o du ce r fr o m t h e d o m i n a t ion of c a p it a l a n d s o t o se cu r e for h i m t h e wh o l e pr o fi t s o f h is l a b ou r The l a n d reform therefore besides h a ving set new problems for co op era tio n to solve is a lso ch a n gi n g its whole b a ckgrou n d Those who spe a k for the new pe a s a n t proprietors seem i n tent upon tra nsforming i n to a movement wh a t hitherto h a s been 3 l a rgely an orga niz a tion rticl i t h bl r vi w S i t t d Md i Cluj J u ry 6 1 9 24 S .

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D c b r N v b r P s n t Pa rty for t h e fi s t time c me i n to po we r d p licy t o th i r a nd t on c e se t t o w o rk t o a d pt t h e c o u n try s e c n m ic l w s vi e ws A n e w Co o pera tiv C d pr p re d u n d e r t h s up rvi i n of t h e Mi n is te r f L a b o ur a n d Co o pe ra ti n M I o R aduc a n u— h ims lf n o ld l d r f t h e mo v e m e t w as p asse d i n t h e u m m r of 1 9 29 M R aduc n u j us t ifi d t h e e a rly r f r m of t h e C od e in troduc e d by t h e Lib r l G ov e rn me t in J uly 1 9 28 on t h e gro u n d th t it w a s i m bu e d as m uch a s e v e r with t h e id e of S t t e c o tr o l which it e xt e d e d t o t h e a ut on o mo u s co o p e r a tiv e gr o up s i n t h e n w pr o vin c e s Th e s tr n u o u s o pp os iti on o f t h e R a ifi e is en so ci e ti es of Tra ns ylva ni a onl y ga in e d th e m a r s pite of t n ye a r s within Whi ch the y h ad t o a d a pt themse lv es t o t h e lega l s yste m en a cte d for t h e O ld Kin gd m M R aduc a u a ls o c o te d e d th t t h e a pp a re tly fi n e fi gur es r l ti n g t o t h e co o p ra tiv e m o v e me t w e r e i n fa ct hi di n g a tr pl e cr is is mo l te ch ni c l n d m t e ri a l P a rtly as a r es ult of t h e Wa r n d p a rtly of t h e c on omi c con diti ns pr v a ilin g a fte r i t t h e m v e m t h d ttr cte d m y pe pl e w h o c a r d onl y fo t h g i ns th y c o uld m a k e t h ro u gh i t ; man y s ci ti es w r e i n ffi ci e t ly r un ; an d i nfl t i n h d s h a k e n t h e e c on om ic s tr e n gt h of t h e m o v e m n t j u t i n t h e p e ri o d wh e n it s h uld h v e pl a ye d a n i m p orta t p a rt i n t h e pr ogre ss o f t h n e w p e a s a n t f r me r s To th t w kn ss of t h e co o p e ra tiv es t h e S t a t r e pli d n t with m ore ge ne ro us a id but with s te r r on trol Th e n e w C ode w as d e vis d t o create a l ega l fr m e Withi n which t h e mov e m en t mi ght e v o lv e free ly Th t l ega l fra me s a id t h e exp se d e motifs t o t h e e w C ode ( from whi ch thi s s u mma ry i s m a d e ) s h o uld b e s uffi c i e t ly w id e t o offe r t o t h e co o p e r tiv es t h e fr e e d om of m o v e me n t whi ch e v e ry e c on omic en te rpri s e n ee d s if it i s t d e v e l op in t h e presen t e c on omi c world But a t t h e s a me tim t h e l ega l pro vi s i ons m u s t be s ufii ci t ly d fi n i t e t o m a k e s ur e th a t a s oci e ty c a lli n g itse lf e full y con o p r a tiv e for ms t o t h e e o o p e ra tiv e id ea a n d is cl e a rly di ffe re ti a te d fro m othe r kin ds o f Th l a w s fir s t t w o ch a pte rs th e re fo re i n dic a te th t with i n i t s m ea ni n g c o mp n i c o p e r tiv s a r e s o ci e ti es for m e d by an un li mi t e d n u m b e r of p pl e for t h e re a liz a ti on of c ommon e n ds by mea ns of a c om mo e c o om ic e n te rpris e 2

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41 0

THE EFFECTS

OF

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C d l v it v y p r tiv th u h t tut r ph c l t ri l l t ctiviti b l th u v t u r r xc iv d v i rc C d cil t t i r i ti ci ti C d i t i pr vi i cc rd which c pit l h r ut qu l but it l rl y d w xi u r ly pr vid th t rul ch ci ty h l pr crib y p rt b r t k b hi h t l t ci ti b d td u t d r p ib l ty th i b r C d l w t bl t p r tiv w th h r c pit l h r c u d r ci ti l k ly r u t bl c rt i p r tiv pr ducti with du tri l ch r ct r d r t bl c pit l pr v t udd d cr c pit l C d l w ci ti d w tr xc y r duri wh ch b r ith r w rd r h p r w rk ci ti C d l w th t t th r t tut th t th y l w rk ith b r But pr v t th r b i d uc dd ti l b r r l t c t ut r v l t c t u d ci l ctiviti t c t d tr tiv b rd t tut pr id th i r u r ti p rt it di id d p id c pit l xc di xi u ch ki d p r tiv by N ti l whi r d r di tribut d b r cc r p rt wh ch ch pl y d r l ti rplu b r l p yd p rt th th ir pr p rti l h r r ut c tribut d b r but u t dd d l y r rv H th rt cc rd c tributi l b u c u pti w r t v r r r td b i tribut d divid d c pit l p r tiv ulti t ly u d r c tr l r l ti wh ch b r h v qu l v t wh ch l ct r th lv c tr l p r l Lik v ry th r c ic v t p r ti d tr rc T i rv d by Fdrl c c pti F d r l pu ly p r tiv wh b r p r tiv ci ti H c th u h tt ch v rwh i p rt c r l r ti p r ti pr j ct y c t i v ry l it d pr v i c tituti r i ti ctivity d r l Th y c ith r l pr vi i ctiv ty d r l ut c c r d l ly w th ti y d ci t d p r tiv C d l v d r l lt th r r d cid thr u h th ir t tut r phic l xt t th r p r ti which c v r wh l c u try w ll ki d p r tiv which th y wil cc pt b r vi w utu i With r i l d r l b k r upi t th r v ri u p r tiv ith ti l wh l l ci ty upplyi p r tiv p ci lly by p rt with d d tic ith ti l d r l d p l ricultur l pr duc ru t c l ct d th u h l c l r i l p r tiv But r p t ut r th pr v d l l r c ry u cti th r ti p d t il d ch wh ch w uld r ly cr p ch k i d r r r C d b li v th t d r l r ti ut k cl r b tw c ic ci l ctiviti H c id by id ith d r l which pu ly c ic ci ti C d c t pl t tti p r tiv U U pl c x rci c pu ry u cti l l tr l v r ci ti dditi th r t tut c t pl t uch th r ctiviti pr t ti v t i t r t t ch ic l l l pr vi i p r iv

Th e Co Op em ti ves Th e n e w o e ea es t o e e r co o e a e t o fix ro g its S a es t h e ge og a i a a n d m a e a i mi s of i t s a es I n t h e e i ef at t h e R m a ni a n m o e m en s ff e s f om a n e ess e i i s on of fo es , t h e o e fa i a es t h e fus on of t w o or mo e of t h e e x s n g s o e es Th e o e m a n a ns t h e o s on a a a s a es m s o i ng t o be e a ; n o on e a s o n a ma o in g a the m m , me e e s of ea g so e s a l es e h ow m an e in g t h e a s a m e m e m a y a e up fift y g es imi Th e s o e es m a y be a s e on t h e li mi e or n li mi e es ons ii of e r me m e s Th e o e a l o s t h e es a is h me n of co o e a es i a s a e a a , t h e s a es of o r se n a m e , a s a fo m of a ss o a on i e t o be m o e s i a e for e a n co o e a es of o on s a a a e , n ee ing a mo e an i n s a e a a To e en a s en o e a l o s so e es t o la y e ea s e i n a a the o n a e m , n ot e ee d in g t e n n o m em e m a y w d a ea s , ng i I n o e n ot t o a m e t h e em t o s a e o of t h e s o e es t h e o e a lo s in ei S a es a t h e la w m ay a s o o e w n on m e m e s e en s i s f om e n g m a e a s o r e of a i on a p rofi t for t h e m e m e s Of t h e g oss p r ofit s , a t e as 1 0 p er en m s go t o es er es ; a t e as 5 p er e n t o a f n for so a a es ; a t t h e m os 1 0 p er en for t h e a mi n i s a es e oa , if t h e S a ov e for e r e m n e a on ; up a a , n ot a of as a v en for t h e a e n ee n of co o e a e the a on a Ofii ce ; g t h e m a m m fi x e d for e a l e t h e e m a in e is t o be a s e a m on g t h e m em e s a o di n g t o t h e i ea has a e i n t h e ea i z a on of t h e s u If n on m e m e s a s o la e s a a in is , e o o on a s a e f o m t h e n e t pr ofi t s m s in n o ase be d is t o t h e mem e s, i ng e m s be a e fu l t o es e es o, a o i e to M Ra i d ucan u, on ons i n ne e a o r, ons m on , & c , e e a lmos e m un e a e , a ll t h e profi t s e n g di s e as en s t o a a Th e co o e a es ar e ma e n e t h e on o of t h e gen e a m e e n gs , i n i t h e mem e s a e e a o es , a n d i e m se es t h e f om a m on g e e m a n a gi n g an d on o li n g e s onn e Th e F ed era ls mo e m en , co o e a on n e e s t o c on cen e e e o e e on om a t e i t s fo the e e a s e e a is es In our on e on , t h e h s en d is s e e re en e , a n d s i m ply a co o e a e ose m e m e s a re t h e co o e a e s o e es o g we a a an e t o t h e fed e a o ga ni z a on of co o e a o e e lmi n g m o o n o ur on a ns im e on , o ga n z a on o e onl e o i s ons for t h e ons ’ and a i n t h e ge n e a of t h e fe e a s e om e w o s ons of t h e la w i Th e a i o f t h e fe e a s m s be on e n e s o e s a s f i n g t h e n ee s of t h e a sso a e co o e a es es t h e Th e o e e a es t h e fe e a s a oge e f ee t o e e o g e S a e ei o e a ons , ma y o e t h e o e o n a e en of , as geog a e l a e as t he n of co o e a es a s m em e s e t h e e g on a fe e a an s , g o n g oge e r e l es I n our , t he f ng t h e for s a ll t h e es ; w a n a on a o es a e so e a o s co o e a us e ; w w a y of i m o s , a ll t h e goo s for om es co o e a es , es e a ro g i & c , ol e e i s os a of a g e, f n a o n a fe e a s for t h e a o o i e an w e e ea , t h e la w m s d o n o mo e o a or e g on a co o e a es t h e e ga f a me n e e ssa for t h e f n oni n g of es e o ga ni z a ons , a n d n ot t o im ’ i o me e am an d o e t h e l f e o f t h e fe e als os e e a e s e mes on s m s a fe e a o ga ni z a Th e Un ion s Th e f a m e s of t h e n e w o e e e e s e w e es en e , s ma e a e a out e ee n e on o m a n d so a a a es t h e on e m s o e es , t h e o e re a re t o b e e on o m t h e fe e a s n e ni on s se g up o f Co o e a o n ega con om ls o f n a e to e e se as a Th e ni o n s a r e , i n t h e fi rs t o o e t h e a fii li a t e d s o e es o eo es as t h e on e m a e s o e a ei S a es m a y on , In a e o s o n for c o o e a t n e a a n d ega a i d , on o f t h e m o e m e n s n e e s s , -

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REFORM ON RUR AL ECONOMY 41 1 prop agan d a n d te a chi n g a n d n y oth e r a ctivity c n c e rnin g t h e cul tur a l s id e of co o p e r a ti on i n t h e r e i on i n qu e ti on We see in t h e orga ni z ti on of s uch un i ons g a s t h e o r gan s of s e lf go v e rnm e n t of t h e m o v m en t t h m ea n s of crea tin g a r ea l co o p e r a tiv e lif e Th e l w s e ts n o geogr phic a l limi t t o t h e c ons tituti n of t h e Un i ons N or d oes it ma k e t h e orga n iz a ti on in to Uni ons c om puls ory as n ot ll t h e cc op e r a tiv s m y be a bl e a t pr esen t t o f c e t h e o utl a y in v o lv e d But if a m a j ority of o o p r tiv es i n a c e rta i n r e gi on d m d i t t h e N ation a l Offi ce m y m a ke a ffili a t ion com puls o ry for a ll co o p e r a tiv es in th a t r egi on Th e Cen tra l Co op em ti ve B a n k Th e old C n tra ls fi n n c d an d c on troll e d by t h e i n g an d c S ta te w e re i n th ir tur n e x e rci in g t h e d o ubl fu cti on of fin tro lli n g t h e c o o p e ra tiv e s The ir a ctivities cen tralize d a n d bur a ucra tic w e re o me wh a t mi x d a n d dis c on ten t with th e ir c on duct w a s Wides pre a d Th e n e w C od e a tte m pts t o se gre ga te t h e fun cti ons of t h e c en tra l b di es C tra l I n pl a c e of t h e C n tra l of t h e P o pula r B a nk s t h e n e w Co d e se ts up Co o p e ra tiv e B a nk I t is t o en j oy wid e a uton o m y but a s it c ann t for t h e time b e i n g dis p ens e with S tate s upport i t s S ta tute s re qui re t h e a ppro v a l of t h e G o v er m en t Th e C en tra l B a n k s c a pita l is t o c ons is t of 5 00 milli on le i c on tribut e d by t h e S ta te a d o f s o ci a l p a rts of le i ea ch e v e ry a ffi li a t e d co o p e ra tiv e h a vi n g t o t a k e up a t l eas t o e so ci a l p a rt Th e B n k is t o gra n t cre di ts i n wh a te v e r fo r m t o t h e a ffi li a t e d s o ci e ti s a d t o c a rry o ut on th e i r b e h a lf a n y an d e v e ry b a n ki n g o p e r a tion Th e b oa rd of m a n a ge m e t Will c ons is t of t h ree d e l ga tes of t h e S t t e on e of t h e Na ti on a l B a n k an d fi ve de lega tes e l e ct d by t h gen ra l mee ti ng of t h a ffi lia t ed s o ci e ti e s A t t h e gen e ra l m eetin g t h e v oti n g p o w e r of t h e S ta te is li mi te d t o on e thi rd of a ll t h e votes c a s t a t t h e m eeti n g Dis putes b etw een t h e S tate an d t h e C e n tra l B n k ar e t o be settl e d by a n a rbitra l c m mis s i on pr es id e d o v e r by a m e m b e r of t h e s upre me C o ur t Th e D i ecti g Co op em ti ve B od i es Th e t as k of guidi n g an d co ord in tin g t h e a ctiviti e s of t h e v a ri o us bran ch es o f t h e m ov m n t is en tru s te d t o a G en e r l C o u n cil o f t h e Co o p e r a tiv e M o v e men t I t c ons is ts of fif t een m em b ers of wh om s ix a re t o be e l cte d by t h e gen e r a l c on gr es s of t h e co o p e r a tiv e s o ci ties fi ve a re a pp oi n te d by t h e go v e rn m e n t on e is d e l e g t e d by t h e s upre m e C o ur t while t h ree a e t o be c o opte d fr om a m o g r e c ogni z e d e xp erts on co o p e ra tiv e qu es ti ons Th e fun cti ons of t h e G en e ra l C ou n cil a re c a rri e d out thr ou gh t h e N a ti n a l Ofii ce of t h e Co o p e r tiv e M o v e m e n t Th e Office will gui d e an d c on tro l t h e a ctivi ty of t h e Uni ons l ay in g d ow t h e rules for t h e c o tro l of co op era tive socie ties A t t h e sa m e time t h e Offi ce se rv es a s a c o ur t of a pp e l fro m d cis i ons t a ken by t h e Un i ons F in lly t h e Offi ce wil l re pres e t t h e in te re sts of t h e mo v e m en t in i t s re l ti ons with t h e p oli tic l p o w r W r e ga rd t h e N a tion a l Offi ce s a c n tr l of t h e Co o p e ra tiv e Uni ons When w e h a ve Co op erative Uni ons i n t h whole co un try t h e N at1on a l O th ee w ill dis ppea r t o be re pl ce d by a Ce ntr l of t h e Un i on s Th e e w C o d e h as b een a cc e pt d by t h e co op e r tiv e o rga n i ti ons of t h e n a ti on a l mi n orities in t h e e w pro vi n c es whi ch h d hith e rt o prefe rre d t o c n ti n u e w o rki n g on t h e s tre gth of t h e pr e w ar l w s Now t h e H un g ri a d G e r ma n c c o p e ra tiv s a r e re pre en te d on t h e G en er l C un cil a d thu s t h e proc ess of u nifyi ng t h e c o op era tiv e s ys t e m is a ctiv e ly u n d e r w a y Mean wh ile a Co ope rative Cen tra l for I m port a nd E xpe rt h as b een fo u de d With fi n ci l a i d fro m t h e C en tra l B a n k I t is a limi te d c om p an y i t s m e m b e rs c ons is ti n g o f th ose c o o p e ra tiv e s o ci e ti es whi ch d es i r e t o c rry o ut j o i n t pur ch ases an d t o a rr a n e g for t h e j oi n t s a l e of th e i r pro duc e Th e C en tr a l u n d rta k es a n y c omm e rci a l o p e ra ti o fa lli n g withi n t h e n ee ds of i t s m e m b e rs I t h a s b egu n t o w ork a t on c e for t h e sa l e of th is yea r s a bu d a t h a rv est an d for s upplyi ng t o t h e p e as n ts agricultura l ma chi n s a n d i mpl e me n ts a s w e ll as se l e cte d se e d & c a

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C H A P TE R X I THE EFFE CTS OF THE S TATE S ECONOMIC AND F I NAN GI AL POLICY UPON THE WORKING OF THE REFORM the prelim in a ry rem a rks to Ch a pter IX it w a s pointed out how d ifficult it w a s to estim a te the effects of the reform on production bec a u s e of the v a riety of other a gents whi ch side by side with the reform a cted a n d re a cted upon the coun try s rur a l economy There were in the fir st pl a ce the consequen ces of the War Th ey were not peculi a r to Rum a ni a but a uni vers a l phenomenon which s a ddled every coun try w ith the a rduous problem of reconstruction Reconstruction me a nt in the m a in the renew a l of the fa ctors of production— hum a n a n d mech a nic a l— destroyed or d a m a ged i n the servi ce of the Wa r ; a s well a s a p a rti a l re a d a pt a tion of the economic m a chi n e to a ltered conditions of supply a n d dem an d In Rum a ni a the l a nd reform ch a nged the whole structur e a n d direction of rur a l lif e a n d re a da pt a tion bec a me a s l a rge a p a rt of the problem of reconstruction a s renew a l The whole t a sk therefore w a s hea vier a n d more complex th a n elsewhere comp a ra ble r a ther to the problem of reconstruction in Russi a th a n to th a t in western Eur ope Such a s it w a s the recovery of a griculture w a s the pivot on which the whole problem turned ; b ec a use a gricultur e h a d b een a n d w a s boun d to rem a in the coun try s chief fi eld of production if one excepts a mi nor contribution from the oil a n d b ec a use i n d ust 1 y a griculture a lone w a s c a p a ble of givin g a sur plus wherewith to pay for the considera ble imports ur gently requir ed to renew the me a ns of p1 od uct 1 0n In the proportion in whi ch th a t t a sk rested upon a pa 1 t icula r bra nch of i n d ust i y th a t bra nch p a te n tly deserved a ssist a nce a n d encour a gement from those who directed the cou n try s policy In thi s p a rticul a r c a se such goodwill w a s a l s o c a lcul a ted to h a ve inestim a ble psycho logic a l v a lue a s a stimulus to the millions of new pe a s a nt owners to set to work with a will a n d get the utmost out of their new holdings IN

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

41 5

To fulfil th a t function the l a nd reform would h a ve h a d to b e complemented by a helpful a gra ri a n policy If a gric ul ture w a s to c a rry the St a te on its shoulders it would fi r st h a ve to be helped itself on to its feet a ga in Rum a ni a s i n tern a l re s ources were exceedingly low a t the end of the Wa r a n d n othing in the w a y of bountif ul fa vours could h a ve been expected by a n y cl a ss of producers But a s the a i d which the St a te could give the fa rmers w a s sc a n ty a ll the mo r e c a use w a s there to remove out of the i r w a y a nything which might h a mper their o wn effort to m a ke good Then o n ly would the l a n d reform h a ve h a d a cle a r ch a n ce to prove wh a t forces good or evil it w a s bri n ging in its tra in Th a t test w i ll never be a ppli c a ble n ow to the fi rst dec a de of the new a gra ri a n r egime I n stea d of pursuing these s imple ends which in this c a se were truly obvious offi cia l policy h a rnessed itself to the a mbitious ide a l of a chieving na tion a l self suffi ci en cy Not o nly di d it strive to conj ur e up a n a tion a l industry— which it w a s cle a r could not h a ve sa t i sfi e d the country s immedia te needs let a lo n e give a surplus wi th wh ich to pur ch a se in di s pens a ble goods from a bro a d— but it tried to re a ch th a t di ffi cult go a l without a n y foreign help Ta king through ourselves a s its motto it a ttempted to cre a te a n a r t ifi cia l industry wi th such me a ns a s could b e squeezed out of a worn out co untry a n d moreover a t the s a me time to rev a loriz e the exch a nge The inevit a ble result w a s a h a rrowi ng stringency of money B eing the only fi eld of production whi ch coul d sp a re a n y me a ns a t a ll for the c a rrying out of the se pl a ns a griculture w a s m a de the Cinderell a of the industri a l a n d fi n a n cia l fi eld s of a ctivity in which a n extreme economic n a tiona lism w a nted to ra ise its fl a g And a s in its new st a te a gricultur e rested more th a n ever on the sho ul ders of the pea s a nts it w a s the pe a s a nts who a fter h a vi n g been subj ected to the l a ndlords were presently subj ected to i n dustry a n d fi n a nce In such conditions the f a rmin g cl a ss could not rise to the grea t occ a sion the l a nd reform offered it I n fa ct it foun d it h a rd even to re a ch its former prec a rious st a te a n d rep a ir the d a m a ges which the Wa r h a d done to its m a teri a l eq ui pment The p a ra doxica l policy which produced th a t situ a tion must there fore be described however br iefly if the birth a n d i nfa ncy of ,

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41 6

OF

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

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Rum a ni a s new a gra ri a n org a niz a tion is to b e presented in true light

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S E CTI O N RE S O U R C E S

THE

1

A G R I C U L TU R E

OF

Worki ng Cap i ta l of Agr i cultur e a s afi ected by th e Refor m After the Wa r a n d with the b eginning of the l a nd reform a gricultur e found itself fa ced with exception a l cir cum st a nces Its t a sk w a s formid a ble indeed H a ving a lw a ys been underc a pit a lized it w a s b ound to feel the effects of the Wa r even more th a n it did in other countries But in a ddi tion Rum a ni a n a griculture w a s now prim a rily in the h a nds of sever a l milli on sm a llholders who h a d to fi n d a t one a n d the s a me time mea ns wherewith to orga ni ze their fa rms a s well a s re a dy money for he a vier t a xes a n d especi a lly for p a yi n g for the l a nd they h a d received The l a rge own ers in thei r tur n if they w a nted to st a y on the l a nd h a d to meet the new situ a tion by reorga ni zin g their f a rms for intensive cultiva tio n with equi pmen t of their own This a t a tim e when they h a d suffered thr ough the reform a co nsider a ble loss in revenue receiving in retur n b onds on a very low sc a le of compe n s a tion a n d which a t o n ce lost h a lf of their nomin a l v a lue when offered on the Stock Exch a nge The compens a tion a llowed by the decree of Decemb er 1 91 8 w a s below the a ctu a l v a lue of the expropri a ted l a nd but w a s still subst a nti a l enough After the second expropri a tion it b ec a me merely n omin a l The index h a d in deed b een ra ised from twenty to forty times the rent fi x e d in 1 9 1 6 i e the a mount of the compens a tion w a s doubled but in the me a ntim e the currency h a d depreci a ted to of its nomin a l va lue From d a t a collected from tribun a ls in the Old Kingdom it a ppe a r s th a t during the period 1 9 1 1 1 6 whole est a tes were sold a t a n a ver a ge of 9 8 8 lei per h a in the lowl a nd s a n d 68 4 lei per h a in the hills— which w a s equ al roughly to £39 1 08 0d a n d 1 The compens a tion gra n ted to the ex pr o £27 1 03 0d a t pa r to r i a t e d l a ndowners in the Old Kingdom v a ried from p lei the a vera ge being a bout lei p er hect a re ; a n d Vi p A g i ld M rch 1 9 21 V O P p vici Lup Th e

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41 7

ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

only h a lf of thi s a t the fi r st expropri a tion This wa s worth a b out £ 20 tow a rds the middle of 1 9 1 9 not more th a n a bout £6 1 08 0d a t the time of the second expropri a tion in the sum mer of 1 9 521 a n d soon a fterw a rds when the b onds were h a n ded over less th a n £2 ; the a ctu a l va lue b eing a bout £2 1 03 0d a t the r a te a t which the Rum a ni a n exch a nge h a s now been st a bili zed or roughly one pound per a cre Th a t how ever w a s the nomina l compen s a tion ; the a ctu a l a mount the l a ndowners received w a s st ill less For the bonds in which th e St a te p a id them never rose a bove 6 1 on the Stock Exch a nge a n d fell to a n a vera ge of 5 0 As the price h a s been c a lcul a ted a t forty times the rent fix ed in 1 9 1 6 a n d cur rency h a s depreci a ted to of its gold va lue it me a n s th a t the nomin a l va lue of the bonds represen t a n d their a ctu a l m a rket v a lue merely of the ye a rly rent for one hect a re fi x e d offi cia lly in 1 91 6 And further the ye a rly rent represe n ting norm a lly of the obj ect s va lue it follows th a t the compens a tion given to the l a ndown ers or a bout 3 2 per cent of the w a s equ a l to 1 pre w a r v a lue of their la nd The St a te w a s a dmittedly short of resour ces a n d it is no concern of ours to inqui re whether it could h a ve t a ken a gre a ter bur den upon itself Wh a t we a r e trying to cl a rify in thi s ch a pter is the St a te s a ttitude tow a rds the a gri cul tur a l cl a sses a n d the point is therefore not whether the St a te could h a ve offered a fa irer price to the l a ndo w ners but whether it tre a ted other cl a sses a n d groups who h a d some cl a im upon it with equ a l stringency The o nl y other mea sure comp a ra ble in ch a ra cter a n d sc a le to the l a nd reform w a s the expropri a tion so to spe a k of the owners of Russi a n rubles a n d of Austro Hu n g a ri a n crowns ; a n d they one must note were given twice the m a rket va lue of the obj ect they h a d to sur render The tra ns a ction cost the St a te ne a rly 7 5 milli a rd lei 2 the nomin a l .

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rticl qu t d b r t t th t B r bi B r w rth r v u r c y rly c p ti iv b ut wi r c which will iv y rly i c

e o e e fo e , s a es a in es sa a a th e p 9 of t h e a om e n sa o n w a s fi x e d a t 75 0 le i p er h a efo e t h e War on e h a w a s o S w ss f a n s a n d ga e a n e t e en e of 42— 5 f a n s ea ; t h e o m e n s a on g e n t h e S a e e es e n s a o 7 S ss f an s , ea n o me of g e a 7 e n m es 2 Th e s a m n g a n d w r a a of A s o n ga a n n o e s , a o in g t o th e ea of S a i n e ma n w a s t o b e on e a t on e , w a s n ot eg n a e in the s m m e of 1 9 1 9 an d n ot a e out i A gus 1 920 Th e mi ni e e e of t h e n s ta m o ess , a n d t h e re pr e h e nmb le e a i n g of t h e m eas r e of uni fi ca t i on for g 1

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41 8

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

OF

va lue of the cur rency b eing less th a n 1 4 milli a rd lei According to estim a tes d a ting b a ck to 1 9 24 cited by M Ci or i ce a n u the tot a l price of the expropri a ted a ra ble l a nd w a s sli ghtly a b ove 1 5 mi l li a rd lei a n d together with forests expropri a ted l a ter in Tra nsylv a n i a a bout 1 7 m illi a rd lei The Centra l Resettlement Offi ce puts the cost of the a r a ble l a nd a t o nl y 1 2 milli a rd lei lei ) ; the a ctua l va lue b ein g ( 6 mi llion h a a t a n a vera ge of a bout 1 45 milli a rd lei ( estim a ted a t the moder a te a ver a ge of 8 00gold lei per Th e St a te in other words spent 75 milli a rds in buy ing b a ck 1 4 milli a rds worth of notes a n d it offered 1 2 milli a rds for l a nd worth 1 45 mil li a rd lei I n the fi r st c a s e moreover it a ctu a lly spent 75 milli a rds without a n y further profi t to itself ; in the second c a se it h a s i ncurred merely a lo ng term debt of 6 mi lli a rds one h a lf of the price b ein g p a id by the pe a s ants— a n d it h a s got in retur n a ll the mi nera l we a lth of the subsoil a s well a s hect a res l a nd reserved for public pur poses a t the expropri a tion price of one pound a n a cre Agricultur e w a s urgently in need of c a pit a l in the fi r st ye a rs of p e a ce h a vi ng to m a ke good the d a m a ge c a used by the Wa r a n d to equip itself for the more in tensive ph a se in whi ch it w a s entering Most of the l a rge ow ners a s we h a ve seen h a d to .

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rly t w ye rs ( Dr Netta p 46 4 ) ga v e ri se t o an e xtens ive c o tra b an d i n th es e d e pre ci a te d n otes A b out 4 m illi a rd s A u stro H un g ri an crowns w e re pres n te d for s t m pi n g i n A u gu s t 1 9 1 9 but a b o ut 8 5 m ill i a rd s fo e xch an ge i n A ugus t 1 9 20 More ov r t h e r te of e xch a nge w a s u nr ea son a bly a d u j ust ifi a bly ( Dr Cio ic a u) fi x e d a t 40 100 p er c en t a b o v e t h e m rk t v a lu e A u s tr o H u ga ri an crowns = 0 5 0 l i R o ma no fi rubl es 1 le u L w fi rubl e s = 0 30 l i wh i l e n otes i ss u d by t h e C e n tra l Po we rs duri ng th ir occupa ti on thr o u gh t h e B a c a G e n ra l a w e re v lu e d a t par V lu e d a t Withdr a w n

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T ot l c ommo ly o ffer d for thi s e xce ss of ge e ros ity i s th a t t h e S ta te Th e e xpl a a ti wi s h d t o d ea l lib er lly with t h e p pul ti on of t h e ew provi n ces Y t n o s uch lib er lity h s b n e vi c e d i n t h e trea tm e n t of own e rs of l d i n t h e n e w pro vin c es as th t v o uch afe d t o t h e o w e rs of b a n k n otes I t i s pro b a bl i n fa ct th t a t t h e tim e t h e ra te f xch a g w s fi xe d t h e bulk of t h c n c lle d tes w r e i n t h e p ossess i on n ot f b a nk s a d m a n y mo re i n t h e p s s s i o of b a n k s i n t h e O ld o f i n dividu a l s but Ki gd o m th an i n t h e n e w pro vi c e s ( S e Dr X e n ofon N etta P olitic a Mon e t t a a rticl e i n B ul ti ul I n s tit utului E con m i c Romd n es c S e pt O ct 1 9 28 R man i i —6 i que d la R ouma n i e P ri s 1 9 27 l Dr I i o icean u La Dette P ub d C 6 3 a 4 ; pp a

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY

41 9

purch a se a new everything in the w a y of live a n d de a d stock But the compens a tion they were to receive from the St a te for the expropri a ted l a nd w a s m a de over to them very slowly The form a lities for securing the bonds were comp lic a ted ; two ye a rs a fter the fi rst expropri a tion the own ers h a d not received even The fi r st bonds were not issued till a p a yment on a ccount November 1 922 though bea ring a coupon for Ma y The b onds a r e p a ya ble with in fi fty ye a rs No sinking fund h a s been provided so fa r a n d no a mortiz a tion dra w h a d t a ken pl a ce un til the end of 1 9 28 Accord ing to the D irector of the Centra l Resettlement Offi ce Professor A N a st a the tot a l cost of the 2 expropri a ted a re a would b e a pproxim a tely a s follows : h t l i O ld Ki gd m .

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estim a te communic a ted by the Centra l Resettlement Offi ce h a at puts the tot a l cost a t lei lei ) Until the end of J une 1 929 bonds h a ve been issued for In a ddition bon ds to the va lue of a bout 6 00 mi lli on lei h a ve been issued to cover mortga ges of the Rur a l Credit Institute of Buc a rest a n d the Urb a n Credit Institute of J a ssy 3 An

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Pa yme t fo t h e fir s t e xpro pri a ti on i n t h e Old Ki ngd om w s uth ri e d by t h e M in ute No 6 25 of t h e C bin e t Co u c il publis h d i n t h M n i t m l Ofi cia l of April 6 by t h e M i ute No 5 1 7 publi s he d o 1 9 22 p a ym en t f r t h e se c on d e xpro pri ti M rch 27 1 9 27 Th s me Mi n ute uth ri d p yme t fo t h e lan d e xpropri te d i bi a p a y m e t w a s a uth ri z d by t h e C a bi e t M in ute N o 1 45 9 B ucovi na F o B es s publi s h d n July 3 1 9 23 ; f r T a ns ylv n i by t h e M i ute No 9 2 publi s h d on Jan ua y 3 1 1 9 24 Pa ym t f t h e fores ts xpr pri t d i n Tr ylv a i a a nd B u o vi a w s a uth ori e d by t h Ca bi n t M in ute No 3322 publi s h d No v m b r 7 1 9 26 B y a rr n ge me t with t h M i ni s try of F in a n c t h C tr l R es ettl e m n t O ffi c w as tr sf r n c of t h e b on d s t o t h xpropri a te d o wn e rs s w ll a s e tru s t d wi th t h with t h e c lle cti thr o u gh t h e u s u a l fisc l ch nn l s of t h e p a ym e ts which t h e p a an ts h a d t o m k Th e o wn ers re ce iv d 8 0 per c e t of t h e s um a s soo a s t h e price w s ettl ed d t h r e m i n d r a ft r t h fi l m ea s ur e me n t of t h xpro pri ate d l n d ; i n t res t a t 5 p c en t w s c a lcul a te d h we ve r from t h d ay wh e t h e l a d w a s t ke o v r H lf of t h e c pita l w as t o be pa id by t h e S ta te t h oth r h a lf by t h e pea ts ; i n te res t w as a ltogeth r a ch a rge upon t h e S ta te 1

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put v lu of b o d s i ss u e d up t t h e en d of 1 926 t 1 1 mi ll i a rd le i Th e s e did n ot i clud p y m ts f t h e B e s a ra bi an es t t es xpr opri te d fr m t h e v lu e of which w a s fi x e d a t b o ut on e m illi rd l i F r e n ch n d Briti h citi e p ymen t b e in g ma de i n 4 per c n t c ons olid t d b o ds of a tota l v lu of 3

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420

E FFECTS

OF

THE STATE S

The tot a l v a lue of b onds issued up till the end of J un e 1 9 29 w a s therefore less th a n the money p a id in c a sh to the holders of foreign notes in 1 920 Expropri a tion bonds were neither exempted from t a x a tion nor qu a lified to b e a ccepted a s security by the N a tiona l B a nk li ke other St a te p a pers ; a dis a bility which h a s a ffected their m a rket v a lue The newly settled pe a s a nts were to pa y one h a lf of the price of the l a nd plus sur veyi ng expenses a bout 200 lei per h a ( The St a te h a d a dva nced a bout 8 00 million lei for purposes of survey i ng ) Thes e sums co ul d nomin a lly b e cl a imed a t once but pro vid e d the new holders p a id one fi ft h of the s um on receivin g the l a nd they co ul d pa y the other four fi ft h s within twenty ye a rs Accordi n g to the estim a tes of the Centra l Resettlement Offi ce quoted a bove the tot a l a mount to b e p a id by the pe a s a nts woul d be on e h a lf of the price of the a r a ble l a nd i e a b out 6 milli a rd lei plus a b out 1 2 milli a rd lei sur veying costs Until the end of 1 928 they h a d b een debited with lei The governm ents h aving a dopted a strongly defl a tioni st policy they were a nx ious to bring b a ck into circula tion the notes which the p ea s a nts were supposed to b e hoa rding ; a n d lik e a ll Ch a ncellors of the Exchequer the Mini sters of Fin a nce were bent upon incre a sing a s much a s possible the immedi a te revenue without troubling a bout the e ffect of such a course upon n a tion a l economy a n d upon subsequent budgets Hence the sub ordin a te loc a l a uthorities were in structed to m a ke prop a g an da a mong the pe a s a nts for the im m e di a te p a yment of the full price of the l a nd they h a d received Whether the pe a s a nts were re a lly ho a rding money is a n O pen question but offi cial prop a ga nd a cert ain ly met with considera ble success It w a s of cour se to the a dva nt age of the pe a s a nts to pa y their debt while the currency w a s so depreci a ted but psychologic a l motives prob a bly infl uen ce d them more th a n fi n a n cia l c a lc ul a tions P a st experience h a s m a de the pe a s a nts extremely reluct a nt to incur debts a n d they do not feel secure until the pr e per p a pers i e the title deeds a r e in their h a n ds Hence a l a rge number of them m a de the effort to pa y the price in full a s m a y b e seen from the t a ble a t the end of the volume U p to the end of 1 9 25 the pe a s a nts h a d p a id nea rly one a n d a h a lf milli a rd lei It seems prob a ble th a t p a yments ,

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY

421

kept p a ce w ith the debitin g of the pe a s a n ts a t le a st un til 1 9 25 ; the position of the fa rmers w a s then getting ste a dily worse The la w obli ged the governm ents to devote a ll moneys thus collected from the pea s a nts to the a mortiz a tion of expropri a tion bonds In fa ct no pa yment of this kin d h a d bee n m a de up to the middle of 1 9 29 The position therefore of the a gricultur a l industry with rega rd to a va ila ble c a pit a l w a s br i efl y t his : b oth la rge a n d sm a ll fa rmers were in need of a ll possible resour ces a s m a ny of them were a bout to st a rt fa rm ing on their own a ccoun t a n d a ll of them h a d some short a ge of stock a n d equi pme n t to m a ke good The former l a ndowners however were recei vin g the sum s due to them from the Sta te but t a rdily a n d in d e pr e ci a ted b onds ; whi le the pe a s a nts were pressed to p a rt with their money j ust when they most needed i t Nor w a s this money retur ned to the industry a s the legisl a tor h a d i ntended th a t it should be Hence durin g the fir st ten ye a rs the St a te h a s a ctu a lly turned the reform into a source of revenue ; it h a s h a nded out lon g term bonds for wh a t it h a d to pay whil e it h a s c a shed rea dy money for wh a t it h a d to receive — the opera tion h a ving the effect of a forcible lo a n limited to the a gricultur a l industry The in come which the Sta te derives from the sub soil h a s compen s a ted in p a rt the sm a ller sum which the St a te h a s to defra y by wa y of interest on the bonds a n d the fir st might h a ve come ne a r to b a l a n cing the second if the St a te s possessions h a d been properly a dmin istered At a n y r a te even ii: the expropri a ted own ers h a d sold all their bonds— which they could not h a ve done without severe loss— it is evident tha t the li quid c a pit a l they might h a ve c ollected would h a r dl y h a ve exceeded the s ums which the pea s a nts h a nded over to the St a te At b est th a t is one section of the fa rmin g commun ity might h a ve b a l a nced a t a gre a t s a cr ifi ce the c a pit a l outl a y of the other section ; in re a lity the working out of the pr o cess of compens a tion h a s prob a bly resulted in a diminution of such liqui d c a pit a l a s the a gricultura l i ndustry possessed ( For det a iled figure s s ee Appendix III ) Th e S upp ly of Agr i cultur a l Cr ed i ts The de preci a tion of the cur rencies h a s en a bled owners of re a l est a te to rid themselves e a sily of mortga ges a n d other debts Rum a ni a n l a ndow ners h a ve ben e fi t e d a s h a ve la n d on e r s else w wh er e from tha t condi ,

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422

EFFECTS

OF THE

STATE S

1

tion yet much of their a dva nt a ge w a s lost thr ough untow a rd events They did not to begin wi th h a ve th e opportun ity en j oyed by the f a rmers of other coun tries of m a k ing money duri n g the Wa r During the fi r st two ye a rs of the Wa r the frontiers were closed a n d during the other two ye a rs two thi rds of the l a nd w a s in enemy occup a tion whil e in the other t hi rd production a n d m a rketing were str i ngently controlled by the Gover n ment I n both p a rts of the country li ve a n d de a d stock deteriora ted The indebtedness of the l a rge owners w a s w iped out a fter the Wa r but so w a s their revenue Few of them possessed a n y c a pit a l v a lues b eyond l a nd a n d thi s they lost a ga in st a nomin a l compens a tion For the l a rge fa rmers it w a s even more di ffi cult to complete their stock th a n it w a s for the p e a s a nts The pe a s a nts were not gre a tly in debt but neither h a d they a n y c a pit a l Their possessions m a y h a ve represented a considera ble sum in the present depreci a ted cur rency but they h a ve not a corre s on din revenue a n d st i l l less reserves in c a sh After the W ar p g m a ny of them h a d to get l a nd most of them h a d to get some stock ; a n d if they got the one che a ply they h a d to pa y he a vi ly for the other so th a t a ltogether they h a d a di ffi cult t a sk b efore them requi rin g fa ir fa cili ties in reg a rd to credit a n d genera l conditions If the pec uni a ry needs of sm a ll a n d l a rge f a rmers were gre a t the possibili ty of s a tisfyin g them w a s in versely limi ted The short a ge of money w a s gener a l a n d the gu a ra ntees which fa rmers could o ffer were in a dequ a te Th e l a rge own ers h a d rel a tively little l a nd left which might constitute a b a sis for cre di t a n d in ,

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by An tim i n Ch es tia S ocia ld p l an d prop erty w a s burd en d b efore t h e War with t h e foll owi ng mortgage d e bts lei Priv a te mortgage s Cre dit i ns tituti ns M ortga ges with out i nteres t T ot a l Th e y rly i n t e re s t a mo u n t d t o 26 mi lli on le i To th a t w e re a dd e d ta x es a n d i n te r es t on curre t d e bt s s o th a t a lt oge th e r a gricul tur e h a d t o p a y y ea rly i n t a x es an d in te r es t le i i e 26 04 per c en t In t h e vi e w le i o ut of a t ot a l i n c ome of o f c e rt in R u m a n i n e c on o mi s t s t h e l a n d ow n e r s w e r e r a pidl y a ppr oa chi n g t h e p o in t wh re the y w ould h a v e h a d t o sell out ; an d th a t h a d some p a rt in t h e e ase with whi ch th e y a cc e pte d t h e r efo rm i n 1 9 1 7 le i y a rly dur in g T ot l d educti ons fro m l a n d t a x a mo u n te d t o le i t h e t ota l i n teres t 1 9 23—7 ; a ll o w an c e s for mortg g d e bts w e re m e r e ly p a y a bl e be i ng le i ( Dr Cre an ga Ven i turt le si A ve ea Romd i ei M a r i p 1

A cc ordi n g t o S

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Ne n i te scu ( cite d

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AND

ECONOMIC

FINANCIAL POLICY

423

the fir st ye a rs a fter the Wa r the prob a bility of a second expropri a tion we a kened th a t b a sis still more Sm a llholders were in a still worse position a s the la w forb a de them to sell or mortg a ge the lots received through the l a nd reform The whole en ormous a re a tra nsferred to the pea s a nts w a s thus removed from us e a s a b as is for credit a n d this in a country in which l a nd pl a yed a more import a nt role a s a credit fa ctor th a n tra de a n d indu s try t a ken together a n d a t a time when a griculture w a s quite peculi a rly in need of credit Moreover the reform h a d rendered equ a lly di fficul t the obt a in ing of credi ts on produce As the pea s a nts corn i s not st a nd a rdized it c a nn ot b e stored in eleva tors ; e a ch lot is stored sep a ra tely in the flim sy b ui l di ngs or open ya rds of coun try st a tions a n d credit oper a tions a r e of co urse not possible on the strength of such in di vidu a l a n d uncert a in w a rehousin gs The m a in di ffi cul t y a rose however not from the speci a l ci rcumst a nces of a gricultur e but r a ther from the fi n an cia l a n d economic policy of the Sta te Even b efore the Wa r the n a tion s c a pita l wa s b a rely s uffi ci en t to fi n a n ce a gric ult ure a n d the element a ry industry then i n existence O nl y a sm a ll por tion of the publi c lo a ns could b e covered a t home N ot w it h st a n di n g the crisis from which a ll the bra nches of production h a ve suffered economic a ctivi ty comp a red to the size of the popul a tion is gre a ter in new Rum ani a th a n it w a s in the Old Kin gdom New industries a n d tra des h a ve S prun g up the exch a n ge of goods b etween the severa l pro vin ces is more v a ried a n d in consequence the genera l requir ements in mon ey a n d credit a r e proportiona tely higher th a n they were in 1 9 1 4 Yet the a ctu a l supply both n a tion a l a n d foreign h a s been much sm a ller bec a use un til the end of 1 927 the govern ments pur sued a poli cy of reva loriz a tion In 1 9 1 4 the Old Ki n gdom h a d a p a per circul a tion of 5 00 million gold lei for a pop ula tion of eight mil lions which a llowed 63 gold lei per inh a bit a nt At the end of 1 928 the tot a l p a per circula tion w a s 21 mi lli a rd lei worth in round fi gur e s 66 0 mi l lion gold lei The num ber of inh a bit a nts being now eighteen millions it follows th a t the circul a tion a mo unted to 36 5 gold lei p er inh a bit a nt The p a ra llel is not complete wi thout t a king into a ccount the los s in the pur ch a si n g power of the Z estim a ted a t a bout 80 per en cent To bring the p a per circ ul a tion not only up to its e a rlier .

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424

OF

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

numeric al equ a tor but to its pre w a r pur ch a sing power the country woul d h a ve needed 8 2 gold lei p er inh a bit a nt a n d for the whole popula tion milli on gold lei or 48 mi lli a rd p a per lei In the second pl a ce the St a te pressed these dimi nished resour ces into the service of a policy a imi n g a t the ra pid develop ment of new in dustries a n d a t the n a tion a liz a tion— in a politic a l sense— oi e xistin g in dustri a l u n dert a ki ngs The b a nk s were forced to use their resources to tha t end The c a pit a l invested in l a rge sc a le industry v a ried a s follows : -

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I n go ld le i 1 901

1

1 9 15 1 9 26

1

All the big b a nks , a n d the publi c exchequer , pl unged knee

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deep into

th a t industri a list cur rent At one moment Messrs Mar m oros eh Bl a nk Co a lone controlled two fift h s of the coun try s industry But none of the b a nks took a dir ect interest in f a rmi ng enterprises Nor were indi vi du a l i nvestors tempted to do s o The insecurity of l a nd prop erty a n d the St a te control of a gri cul tur a l m a rketing on the one h a nd coupled w ith the f a vour s gra nted to b a nking industry a n d tra de c a used in the supply of c a pit a l a regula r fi igh t from the l a nd Alm ost a ll the bills discounted by the N a t i on al B a nk were industri a l a n d com A former m er ci a l while a gric ul ture w a s st a rved of credi t Governor of the B a nk M Or omolu a dmi tted thi s hi mself in 1 925 In his report to the Bo a rd of Governors he rem a rked th a t Rum a ni a h a d a Na tion a l B a nk to help tra de a n d a S ociety for Industri a l Credit to help i n dustry but no orga ni zed a gricultura l credit on a simil a r sc a le though the bu lk of the producers were f a rmers The credit a t the dispos a l of f a rmers nowhere c a me ne a r wh a t they needed for reconstruction a n d for the improvement of production Rum a ni a possessed only one in stitution of agr icul tura l credit for l a rge owners the First Rur a l Credit S ociety of Buc a rest Until 1 9 24 its tra ns a ctions were b a sed on mortgages ; in th a t ye a r a b a nking section w a s a tt a ched to i t Mortg a ge lo a ns r f r ly t t h i du tri i t h O ld Ki gd m j yi g Th fi t t w fi gu l I du try f th L w f t h E c ur g m t f N ti th b fit .

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re s

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on a

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n

ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY

425

were given by me a ns of bonds on rur a l property ; in 1 925 the tota l issue a mounted to lei Lo a ns gra nted by th a t Institution a n d its bra nches in 1 9 26 a moun ted to 48 4 000 0001ei the ra te of in terest b eing 1 2 p er cent In a ddition in 1 9 25 the St a te cre a ted with the a i d of the Na tio n a l B a nk the Lending B a nks Aga inst Gu a ra ntees w hi ch never disposed of import a nt resour ces the lo a ns outst a n di ng in 1 9 26 a mountin g to lei In 1 923 the St a te h a d cre a ted likewise with the support of the Na t1 ona l B a nk a S ociety for Industri a l Credit In 1 9 24 its tra ns a ctions re a ched one milli a 1 d lei those of the Len di ng B a nk s on ly a bout 9 5 lei For the fa rms which exi sted b efore the Wa r a sum of 600 a bove l 00 h a million gold lei w a s provided by mortga ge lo a ns a lone up to 1 9 1 3 while to d a y the whole of the a gricultur a l industry is a ble to obt a in from mortga ge b a nks co opera tives an d other a gricultura l in stitutes no more th a n 4 25 mi lli a rd p a per lei th a t is 1 00—30 m illi on gold lei ; oi: this 3 m illi a rds is obt a ined through rediscoun ts from the Na t i on al B a nk Mortg age bond s h a ve up to now b een 1 impossible to pl a ce on the m a rket Th e sm a ll c ul tiva tors depended on the c o O per a tive Popula r B a nks Thes e were suppli ed w ith funds from a centra l in st it u tion est a blished w ith St a te a ssist a nce the l atter b eing in its turn a ssisted by the N a tion a l B a nk The cre d its which the N a tion a l B a nk a llowed to the whole co opera tive movement did not exceed 600 mi lli on lei in 1 923—4 According to the Buleti nul Agri cultur ei for April— J une 1 927 ( p the cre di ts gra nted by Pop ul a r B a nk s to the pe a s a nt f a rmers in 1 9 25 a mounted to a little over 2 gold lei per h a which included in vestment credits a s well a s workin g credits Al together the credit offered t o a gric u l ture by the v a rious pub lic a n d semi public in stitutions h as not exceeded 3 per cent of the pre w a r tot a l 2 Thi s a ssertion wo ul d certa in ly a ppe a r to hold good for Be s s a ra bi a Investments lo a ns & c of all the B ess a ra bi a n b a nks h a d a moun ted to 5 03 million rubles in 1 9 1 3 equ a l to 45 milli a rd p a per lei ; a t the end of 1 9 27 they were merely 1 — 1 2 milli a rd lei ; the pe a s a nts who now hold ne a rly a ll the l a nd a r e supplied by the Pop ul a r B a nk s .

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M

C S t oi cescu, i n t h e a nch es ter Gua r d i a n s R uma n i a n S up lemen t p S Ti mov, i n Na A gr a m om F rame, No 9 , 1 9 25 .

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Ma y

1 9 27

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426

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

OF

In 1 91 3 there were 337 b a nks with a ssets of 29 mil lion gold lei m a kin g a n a vera ge of 962 lei per he a d of inh a bit a nt At present the numb er of b a n k s is 5 5 7 with a ssets of 632 milli on lei or 21 1 1ei p er inh a bit a nt ; this sum in cludes 35 6 million lei worth of corn di stributed in 1 925 — 6 for food a n d seed bec a use of the f a ilur e of the h a rvest which w a s a me a sur e of tempor a ry a ssist a nce so th a t the a ssets a ctu a lly a v a il a ble for b a nking tra ns a ctions were 1 only 8 7 lei per he a d of inh a bit a nt The situ a tion w a s h a r dl y b etter in other p a rts of the country The di rector of a big b a nk in the once prosperous B a n a t decl a red to a corresp on dent of the B uc a rest P lutus ( N ovem ber 6 th a t Rum a n i a n pe a s an ts— some of them worth million s— ar e d a ily coming to me to dem a nd credits of 20 lei for some wh a t longer terms a n d we c a nn ot do it B ec a use of th a t neglect of a gricultur a l cre di t l a rge f a rmers were forced to b orrow from priva te b a nk s a t 25 — 30 per cent interest whil e the p e a s a nts were a b a ndoned to the usur ers to whom they h a d to pa y a n y thi ng up to 1 00 per cent The predica ment in whi ch f a rmers l a rge a n d sm all found themselves w a s disclosed in a n i nterview w ith M I Proh a sk a the dir ector of the gre a test B a n a t fl our mill publi shed in the P lutus of Novemb er 1 1 1 923 : To d a y he s a id w e ca n buy whe a t a t a n y price — I a m giving a w a y a profession a l secret — provided we pa y in c a sh so gre a t is the short a ge of money a mong fa rmers A la w for the crea tion of a n Agricultur a l Credit Institution w a s p a ssed by the N a tion a l Pe a s a nt Governm ent in the sum m er of 1 9 29 The ini ti a l c a pit a l is to b e of 5 00 million lei one h a lf of whi ch is to b e subscribed by the Sta te with permission to increa se the c a pit a l gra du a lly to fi ve milli a rd lei by issui ng bonds Lo a ns a r e to b e gra nted on mortg a ge for shorter or longer terms ; the la w a llowing the mortga ging a lso of l a nd di s tributed under the a gra ri a n reform It w a s hoped to st a rt the new institution in the a utumn of 1 929 ,

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1

Te ofil I o n c u, Cr ed i t ul i n B as a ra bi a ‘

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Dr ep ta tea ,

Buca res t

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J an ua ry 1 3

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY S E CTI O N

427

2

B U R D E N S OF A G R I C U L TU R E r a a a x a a i Di ect t xes on ru l property were m a de T t on r ( ) un iform for the whole country by the la w of 1 923 which a lso est a blished an income t ax for the fir st tim e The a sse s sments m a de on rur a l property on th a t occ a sion were to rem a in v a li d dur ing the quinquenni a l period 1 9 23—7 The b a sis of a ssess ment w a s to b e either the rent a l va lue p er hect a re or the t a x a ble in come of the property B ec a use of the conditions then preva ili ng the Mi ni stry of Fin a nce decided th a t the a ssessments shoul d not exceed cert a in modera te limits In f a ct the a ssessmen t of th a t ye a r fi x e d the t a x a ble revenue of the ha lei th a t is 220 lei p er h a or 4 40 a r a ble l a nd a t in gold lei a s a ga i nst the pre w a r estim a te of 30 1ei per h a In Vir tue of the fi scal la w p a ssed in Decemb er 1 926 the b a sis of a ssessment w a s r a ised a s from 1 927 to three times the t a x a ble i ncome fi x e d in 1 923 The t a x a ble income of the va rious c a tegories of l a nd w a s estim a ted a s follows : THE .

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E xt t en

Gra ss l a d s Ma rk et ga rdens O rch rd V i n ya rd Forests i n e xpl o itati on O th e r t x bl e prop erties Ar a bl e l d n

a

s

e

s

a

a

an

T ot l

200 00

a

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The sm a ll property gives the highest t a x a ble revenue per h a of a r a ble l a nd with a n a ver a ge of 224 lei for the whole co untry .

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Prop e rti es up t o 5 a bo ve 5

ha

le i

A more det a il ed segrega tion in to c a tegories is not possible for t x bl e i n c om e of for sts i n c o urs e of e xplo ita ti on i s d ue t o t h e a ss e ss men t Tran s ylv n i a a n d 1 45 le i i n Buco vi n a — r t Which i s a ltog th er i ne xplic ble wh en c omp red with t h e l i fi xed i n t h e O ld K i n gd om a n d t h e fix ed i n B ess a ra b i a 1

Th e low a a a t 7 5 le i i n

e

a

a

a

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a

e

a e

e

428

EFF ECTS

OF THE

STATE S

the whole coun try b ec a use the t a bles for Tr a nsylva ni a were set up in j uga r s a n d those for the other pro vin ces in hect a res so th a t the c a tegories do not coincide For t hi s re a son the figur e s for Tra nsylv a ni a h a ve b een left out of the t a ble below whi ch gives the t a x a ble income per h a of the v a rious c a tegories of property in the Old Kingdom B ess a ra bi a a n d B ue ov in a : ,

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Prop e rt i es up t o 5 of

5 to

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ha

le i

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10

of

10 50 of 5 0 25 0 o e 25 0 h a

v r

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63 01 08

Me dium sized property of 1 0—5 0 h a g a ve the lowest t a x a ble income which is expl a ined by its being situ a ted in the less fertile regions of the hills These low a ssessments c a used the revenue derived from the l a nd t ax to rem a in on a very moder a te sc a le L a nd f a rmed by its owner w a s t a xed a t 1 2 per cent l a nd f a rmed by ten a nts at 1 4 p er cent a n d l a n d whose owner li ved a bro a d a t 24 per cent The gross yield of the t ax w a s a s follows : -

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T ota l

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The net yield w a s still lower for mortg a ges for la rge fam ilies w a s a s b elow :

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cert ai n a llow a nces were m a de & c Th e a llow a nce for mortga ges as

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T o ta l

The t a ble indic a tes the li mited size of the mortga ges rest ing on l a nd p roperty a s mortg a ges on the expropri a ted a re a were p aid ,

ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

429

off in expropri a tion bonds V ery stri king is the c a se of Bess a ra bi a where mortg a ges were pra ctic a lly w iped off no doubt b ec a use the lending in stitutions resided in the former Russi a n Empire A second Ca tegory of a ll ow a nces ben e fit e d the l a ndo wners who were not li a ble to in come t ax h a vin g a n a nn u a l in come of less th a n lei ; they were entitled to deductions r a nging from 1 0to 20per cent a ccordi ng to the num b er of their children Fin a lly l a ndo w ners whose property did not brin g in more th a n lei ye a rly in come were entitled to a n a llow a nce of 25 per cent The a vera ge income h a ving b een a ssessed a t 220 lei per h a it followed th a t most of the pea s a nts with holdin gs up to 1 0 h a could cl a im tha t a llow a nce— in fa ct out of or 8 1 p er cent The a moun ts deducted on these two grounds were a s fo llows : .

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L ei

Le i

The tot a l a mount of these deductions w a s 1 38 5 8 6 45 01ei lea vin g lei This sum w a s a ppor a net yield of the t a x of t i on e d b etween v a rious public a uthorities a s fo llows ,

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Lei

T ot a l

The yield of the t a x represented 1 7 per cent oizthe t a x a ble va lue a r a ther hi gh proportion but the burden w a s not severe a s the t a x a ble v a lue h a d been a ssessed with grea t indulgence M Ionescu Sise s ti considered th a t dur ing 1 923—7 the St a te cl a im ed only one fi ft h of wh a t the l a nd t a x mi ght h a ve yielded Revenue from l a nd t a x w a s est im a ted a t million lei in the 1 9 27 budget an d a t million lei in the 1 928 budget It would h a ve been useful for the p urpose of thi s study to .

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430

OF

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

comp a re the incidence of t a x a tion a s b etween a griculture an d in dustry Without such a comp a riso n it is not possible to j udge whether the sm a llness of the l a nd t ax w a s trul y a fa vour shown to the f a rmers or merely p a rt of a generally over lenient fi scal policy B ut such a comp a rison is notoriously h a rd to m a ke a n d in Rum a ni a s c a se it c a nn ot even b e a ttempted b ec a use only a sm a ll portion of the public revenue h a s b een derived from dir ect t a x a tion Moreover in a country w ith a lax a dmin i stra tion the collection of t a xes m a y a ffect the i r incidence a s much a s or more th a n the a ssessment of those t a xes One ca n therefore merely note two f a cts mentio n ed by M An a st a siu in hi s a rticle on the di rect t a x a tio n of lim ited comp ani es 1 He st a tes th a t the di rect t a x a tion le vi ed upon the co opera tives of production in the Old Kingdom represented 5 6 per cent of their c a pit a l a n d th a t levied upon l a rge industri a l undert a kings a b out 2 3 per cent ( 4 per cent in Tr a nsylva ni a ) ; though the w riter is c a reful to point out th a t the va lidi ty of the comp a rison depends on too By m a ny elements to b e a ccepted a t its fa ce v a lue (pp 605 putting side by side va rious figur es he est a blished however a nother s ign ifi c a n t f a ct During the fo ur ye a rs 1 923— 6 the currency h a d lost a bout 38 per cent of its in tern a l p urch a sin g p ower ; dur ing the s a me period the c a pit a l of limi ted comp a ni es in the county of Ilfov ( which in cludes Buc a rest the se a t of most Rum a ni a n comp a nies ) h a d a lmost doubled Yet the a mount of income t a x those comp a ni es p a id decre a sed dur ing th a t interv a l in a bsolute a n d especi a lly in rel a tive v a lues One would a ssum e wrote M An a st a si u th a t the collecting a ut h or i ties wo ul d try their h a rdest to check a n a buse tolera ted by the The truth is j ust the opposite The a ssessment commissions fi s ca l a uthorities of Buc a rest h a ve indeed instituted num erous t a x a tion a ppe a ls dur ing 1 927 an d 1 928 but o nl y a g a inst sm all indi vidu a l fi r m s or minor li m ited comp a ni es ; they did not lodge a single t a x a tion a ppe a l a g a inst a n y limited comp a ny wi th more th a n 1 00 million lei c a pit a l ( p M Ionescu Sise s ti gives fi gur e s sho w ing th a t the yield of the 2 l a nd t a x a ccorded with its a ssessment .

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I n B uleti n ul I n s ti tutului E con omi c Romd nes c Nov —De c 1 9 28 Rep a rti fia P rop i etd fi lor A gr i cole p 185 ,

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

431

Before discuss i ng im port a n d export duties w hi ch h a ve constituted the m a in tribute levied on a griculture during the p a st few ye a rs brief reference might be m a de to a nother peculi a r t a x which is imposed solely upon the rura l popula tion a n d in fa ct only upon the pe a s a nts Though servitudes were a bolished long ago one of them h a s rem a ined in bein g to the prese n t d a y n a mely the obli g a tion of rura l in h a bit a nts to give fi ve d a ys ser vice for the upkeep of publi c ro a ds If a pe a s a n t h a s n o a nim a ls he works with h i s h a nds otherwise he h a s to give fi ve d a ys work with hi s c a rt a n d oxen L a ndowners residing in the towns pa y 30 lei ro a d t a x there a n d nothing else in the country no m a tter how m a ny a n im a ls they m a y keep on their est a tes It m a y h a ppen tha t some p e a s a nts c a n not or will not perform th a t servitude ; in order to con stra in them to it a dep a rtmenta l decision of the a uthorities co n cerned fi x ed the equiva lent of fi ve d a ys m a nu a l l a bour a fter the Wa r a t 1 5 0 lei a n d of five d a ys 1 l a bour wi th the ox c a rt a t 5 00 lei plus a h ue of 5 0 lei During subsequent ye a rs the money v a lue of the ser vitude ro s e to 6601ei for fi ve d a ys m a nu a l l a bour lei w ith one ox lei with two oxen lei with four a n d lei w ith six oxen The a vera ge pe a s a nt holder own in g 5 h a l a nd a n d two oxen m a y h a ve h a d to pa y therefore merely 1 00 lei in l a nd t a x during the period 1 923—7 but unl ess he performed the work he would h a ve h a d to pa y lei a s ro a d t a x which a mo unted to a t a x of 440 lei per h a le vied only upon hi s cl a ss S ome i llumin a ting f a cts concernin g thi s pe a s a nt servitude c a me to li ght durin g the sitting of the Ilfov County Counc il on the 1 7t h of Febru a ry The Prefect of the coun ty expressed the wi s h on b eh a lf of the new Pe a s a nt Governm ent th a t p a rt of the debt the pe a s a nts h a d in curred on a ccoun t of the roa d servitude shoul d b e remitted He b a s ed his propos a l on two re a sons He fi r st rem a rked th a t the county s fi n an ces were fl our ishi n g a n d th a t in con s equence they need not be guided by the a ttitude of other counties which im plied th a t the Governm ent s generous suggestion w a s not extended to the whole country An d secon dl y he poin ted out th a t o ften the obliga tion h a d rem a i ned unperformed through no fa ult of the ,

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b efore t h e Ch a m b e r J une Buca res t F bru a ry 1 9 1 9 29

S a e men of M S ee Drep ta tea ,

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23, 1 9 21

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432

THE STATE S

OF

EFFECTS

p e a s a nts but through l a ck of wor k it b ein g diffi cult to obta in supplies of gra vel Hence it wo ul d seem to b e the rul e to ch a rge the pe a s a nts with the money t a x even when they a r e willi n g to p erform the work but there is no need for it In other words a n obli g a tion to p erform cert a in publi c work whe n needed of cour se a ppea rs to h a ve b een tra nsformed sirn ply thr ough a dep a rtment a l decision into a perm a nent t a x with a cl a ss incidence The di scussion fur ther di sclosed how he a vy w a s the burden which th a t obliga tion l a id upon the pe a s a nts The Prefect s propos a l n a mely w a s th a t a rre a rs d a ting from the p eriod 1 9 08 — 20 a mounting to lei should b e c a ncelled a ltogether ; whi le of the a rre a rs from the e a r s 1 921 — 7 a moun tin g y to lei one h a lf sho ul d b e remitted The fi gur e s a r e reve a lin g in deed For they show th a t some pe a s a nts— qui te a numb er in f a ct a s the fi r st s um must h a ve i ncluded a propor tion of gold lei h a ve been un a ble to pa y thi s imposition througho u t a period of twenty ye a rs ; a n d th a t in one county a lone a n d th a t one of the richest a rre a rs from t hi s obli g a tion grew w ithi n seven ye a rs to the formida ble sum of seventy millions notwithst a n d in g the l a nd reform The Ilfov Coun ty Coun cil a dopted the Prefect s suggestion a n d it a lso s li ghtly reduced the money v a lue of the ro a d servitude for the curre n t ye a r But seeing th a t a Pe a s a nt Governm ent h a d come in to power in the a utumn of 1 928 the surpris i ng thin g is th a t neither the Prefect n or a n y of the elected Coun cillors thought of sug est in g th a t this mediev a l s e rvitude shoul d b e a b oli shed a lto g gether Though during 1 9 29 a p ea s a nt in the county of I lfov owning 5 h a l a nd a n d two oxen would h a ve to pa y only 29 7 lei in l a nd t a x 1 he h a d to pa y in a ddition 5 0 lei a s the equiv a lent of the ro a d servi tude B etween themselves these two t a xes would levy over 400 lei a n d there a r e a good m a ny others ,

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( b) Ta r ifi s

The r e a l fi sca l contribution which a gric ul tur e h a s m a de tow a rds the needs of the St a te h a s b een not the t a x on 2 gricult r l l nd but the export a x s a ys M Ionescu Sise s ti t ua a a ‘

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thr e efold ta x a bl e v a lu e of 1 923 i e 6 6 0 lei p h a m ultipli ed by 5 i mp os e d a t 1 2 per c en t 396 min u s t h e a ll ow a n c e of 25 per c en t 29 7 lei 1

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Rep a r ti fi a P rop r i etd ti lor A qn cole, p 1 8 5 ’

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

433

To which one must o nl y a d d th a t import duties pl a yed a s efi ec tive if less spect a cul a r a p a rt in h a mperi n g the progress of fa rmin g The stringency of c a pit a l a n d credit described a b ove left the fa rmers to their own devices in the ph a s e of r econ st r uc tion Th a nk s especi a lly to the efforts of the pe a s a nts the live stock w a s reple ni shed ra pidly enough It w a s obviously more di ffi cult for the fa rmers to equip them s elves wi th m a chines a n d im plements a dequ a te in qu a ntity a n d qu a lity for i n tensive fa rming Even b efore the Wa r the equipment of I mp or t Duti es a griculture h a d been of the poorest The crea tion of m a ny n ew sm a llh oldin gs mea nt th a t much more h a d to b e done th a n merely to m a ke good the War d a m a ge ; th a t i s if l a rge a n d sm a ll f a rmers were to h a ve the me a ns for incre a sing production The governments however were b ent upon protecting n a tion a l industry in this ca se rea lly consisti n g of one f a ctory onl y the Re s i t a which h a d b een n a tion a lized in a politic a l sense under Libera l a uspices Home productio n could not in a n y c a se s a tisfy Nevertheless high import a ll the urgent needs of a griculture duties were pl a ced on a gricultur a l m a chin es a n d im plements Ploughs h a d to pa y on a n a vera ge 20— 30 per cent of their v a lue a n d in genera l a gricultur a l m a chines p a id a n a ver a ge of 1 20 1e i per k g while li ght motor c a rs a n d comm erci a l vehicles which a r e not m a nuf a ctur ed in the coun try a t a ll were o n ly im posed with a b out 0 60 lei per k g The t a ble on p 434 comp a res the import duties imposed in 1 91 6 a n d 1 927 on a gric ul tur a l m a chines with tho s e levied on motor c a rs On e should perh a ps point out th a t if the comp a rison is to b e re a l one must t a ke into a ccount comm erci a l vehi cles ra ther th a n lux ury c a rs for priva te use One will note further the enormous incre a se in the duties on a gricultura l m a chin es— fi ft e en fold in the c a se of ploughs— whi le the duties on commerci a l vehicles a n d the li ghter priva te c a rs h a ve been reduced by on e h a lf to one thi rd The result w a s th a t during 1 9 25 — 6 when Rum a ni a n im ports re a ched the highest fi gure recorded up to th a t d a te the im port of motor c a rs ( 1 0 mi lli on doll a rs ) far exceeded the import of a gricultura l m a chines ( less tha n 3 milli on doll a rs in 1 925 an d less tha n 6 million s in 1 926 ) ,

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15 69 69 -

434

OF

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

As the p ri ces of a gricultur a l m a chin es a n d implements a s of a ll industri a l products stood a t a very hi gh level a t the end of the ,

,

Ta x p e r 1 00k g

AG

R C U L UR AL

G old lei G o ld lei

I MP L E ME N TS

T

I

.

Pick a x es H oes s cyth es S p d e s grubb i n g a x es p i k e s Fork s Pl ou gh s b a rro ws rolle rs ridge ploi1 gh s e xtir p a tors grub bi g a x es c ompl ete ly fi t te d up a n d the ir a ccessori es Pl a n ti ng bi di n g t h re s h in g a n d h a rrow in g ma chin es ; gr p e crus hi g m a chin e s a n d fodd e r pre ss e s w ork e d by h nd S tea m pl o u gh s or pl o ugh s m o v e d by gas o e l e ctricity fe rtili z e r s c a tte r in g m chi n s ; h r v es tin g a n d m ow in g m chi n es ; sorte rs s ow i n g m a chin es fo dd e r pres s es m o v e d by c a ttl e or e n gi n e ; d a i ry m chin e ry w e i ghin g m o r e th a n 25 k g ; fo dd e r bin din g m a chin es With i ron fra m es ; p ota to n d b e etroot h a rv es tin g ma ch i n es ; ma iz e t h res hi g m a chi es with en gin e ; c e rea l h a rro ws wi th e n gin e ; vi ne y a rd w a te r in g ma chin es Thr e s hin g m ch in es worke d by h a d or c attl e Thr es hi n g m a chin es w ork e d by engi ne ( a ) t h e dr u m 8 00 mm l on g ( b) t h e dr u m m o r e th a n 8 00 mm l on g ,

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CA S :

Pa ssen ger c rs with op kg (a ) un d er a

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( b) ( c) 1 200 ( d ) a b ov e

c oa ch work

en

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1 , 5 00

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P a sse nge r c a rs with cl ose d c oa c h work ( c o upé p a rtiti on ) kg ( a ) u nd r

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— 1 200 b 1 0 0 0 ( ) ,

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( c) 1 200 1 5 00 ( d ) m o r e th an 1 ,

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Wa r the a ddition of such he a vy duties m a de their pur ch a se well nigh impossible especi a lly for the millions of sm a ll pea s a nt t m i m l t i fi which i M i i m u m d M x im u m t r iff Th r i ,

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

435

f a rmers who h a d in their h a nds 9 0 per cent of Rum a ni a s a ra ble l a nd As recently a s the end of 1 928 when the prices of m a n y industria l products h a d reverted to the pre w a r level or h a d even fallen b elow it ret ail prices for a gricul tur a l implemen ts a n d m a chines were still exception a lly high in Rum a ni a a s m a y b e 1 seen from the followin g t a ble : ’

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ric ultur a l i mpl e me ts ( A v e ra ge typ es )

Ag

n

so

P os t w -

ar

pric

es

rtin g ma chi n es -

These prices refer in the m a in to the products of Americ a n in dustry wh ich predomin a te in the Rum a ni a n m a rket a n d whi ch rela tively h a ve more ra pidly a ppro a ched to pre w a r prices th a n corresponding English a n d Germ a n products One might mention a lso the duty of 28 lei which fa rmers h a ve to pa y for e a ch im ported s a ck which me a ns a bout 5 0 per cen t of its va lue a s the price of the obj ect a t the frontier is 5 5 — 70 1ei As the a nn u a l req uirements a moun t to some s a cks t hi s duty a dds some 5 0 mi lli on lei ye a rly to the impositions which lture h a s to support a gric u E xp or t Duti es Most of the belligerent coun trie s a dopted mea sures a fter the Wa r tendi ng to modera te intern a l con sum p tion wh ile i ntensifying exports The governm ents concerned were n a tur ally a nx ious to nurse their depleted supplies a n d a t the s a me tim e to recover a t the e a rliest possible moment a fa vour a ble b a l a nce of tra de Th e Rum a ni a n Govern ment fol lowed a contra ry li ne of a ction Its chief a mbition w a s to ensure a libera l a n d che a p supply of food for the urb a n popula tion In pursu a nce of th a t policy the St a te h a d recourse to a v a riety of mea sures— c ontrol of ret a il prices restriction or pro hi bition ,

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Flugul Cy F

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Buc a r s t e

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436

OF

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

of exports imposition of hea vy export duties— a ga inst which the Centra l Union of Agricultur a l Syn di c a tes protested in a Memo r a n d um in 1 921 It w a rned the Governm ent a ga inst the effect of such a policy on production a n d ur ged instea d the followin g me a sures : complete freedom for in tern a l corn tra de ; export should b e free on p a yment of a t ax ; a bonus for whe a t grow in g a s lon a s whe a t export w a s t a xed the necess a ry sum s to b e g obt a ined from the proceeds of the export t ax The whole w a s to form a tra n sition a l progr a m whi ch a fter a ye a r w a s to give w a y to a r égime freed of a ll restrictions a n d control The Views of the Agricultur a l Syn di c a tes fa iled to infl uen ce the St a te s policy After a short period duri ng whi ch the export of a gricultur a l products w a s a ltogether prohibited the St a te introduced in 1 9 20 the so c a ll ed system of c on t in gen t a t ion i e a r a tioning system w hi ch permitted producers a n d tr a ders to export cert a in qu a ntities on p a yment of a low t ax if they suppli ed a t the s a me time a determin ed qua n t iy for in tern a l consumption Th a t system merely led to a n a busive t ra ffi c in export permi ts whi ch w a s demora lizing tra de a n d a dmini stra tio n Even the b a nks in a Memora ndum presented to the Government in 1 921 ple a ded for its repl a cement by a system of export t a xes however much they di sli ked all interference with tra de M a ize rem a ined subj ect to the con t in gen t a t ion system till 1 922 an d whe a t ti ll 1 924 The free export of oil b e a ring gra in s w a s not a llowed till 1 925 But b eginni ng with 1 922— 3 the con t in gen t a t ion system w a s a b a ndoned in prin ciple in fa vour of high export duties B y this me a ns the St a te hoped to prevent a n excessive export of food supplies a n d consequently a rise in the cost of livi ng a n d to secur e simult a neously fresh reve n ue for the Tre a sur y The t a ble on pp 437 8 gives the full li st of export t a xes p a y a ble for the princip a l cere a ls As the duties were a ssessed on qu a ntity they equ a lled on occ a sion through the pl a y of the exch a nges 5 0 per cent of the v a lue of the produce To ob vi a te possible losses to the Tre a sur y fi om the continuous f a ll in the currency the s e t a xes were m a de p a y a ble from the middle of 1 922 m st a bilized 101 e1gn exch a nges on the b a sis of: a s noted in the l a st column of the t a ble We h a ve a lre a dy mentioned the exp 01 t t a x of 1 0 000 lei a fter ,

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY Product

ta x a ti o

n

D a te

of

d cree e

437

Ta x i n le i 8

Wheat 1 0 000

M i

a ze

1 0 000

1 0 000

1 0 000

.

d

438

OF

EFFECTS

Pro duct

D a te

of

THE STATE S

d e cree

Ta x i n le i

1 0 000

w a rd s reduced to lei per he a d of l a rge horned a nim als Sheep p a id 400 lei per he a d Qu a lity c h eese p a id 45 lei p er k g a n d dried frui t 20 per cent a d v a lorem It i s suggestive tha t whe a t p a id lei per w a gon but whi te fl our which h a d a much gre a ter v a lue only lei bec a use ste a m mill s were considered a s p a rt of the n a tion a l industry Petrol of wh a tever strength only p a id lei per w a gon The receipts from customs duties a r e shown in the t a ble below :

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I m p ort duti es 1 9 22 A 1 9 23

pril—S pt e

E xp rt duti o

es

V ri u o

a

s

T ot a l

.

1 924 1 9 25

,

( fir s t

1 9 26

m on th s

se

v

8 6 7 , 08 2

en

Export t a xes brought therefore consider a bly hi gher revenues th a n import t a xes from the time when the c on t in gen t a t i on system w a s a b a ndoned In 1 9 26 customs duties produced 9 milli a rd lei— i e more th a n one t hi rd of the St a te s tot a l one h a lf w a s the yield from export r e ve n ue and a bout t a x es As the bulk of the exports consisted of corn a n d a gri cultura l products the bulk of the export t a xes w a s in ly p a id by a griculture which is confirmed by the customs e vi t a b returns ’

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

E xp rt t x o

a

439

Pe rc en t ge of ta x es fr m v lue of a gricultur l xp r t

es on

a

ricultur a l produc e

ag

o

a

a

e

o

For 1 925 a n d 1 926 figur es a r e a v a il a ble o nl y for some of the princip a l a gricultur a l exports 1 9 25 1 9 26

These t a xes represented a very hi gh percent a ge of the tot a l 1 v a lue of the a gricultura l export Dur ing 1 923 a n d 1 924 for whi ch the fi gur e s a r e fi n a l the revenue which the St a te derived from these t a xes w a s a b out six times higher th a n the tot a l a mount of the l a nd t ax Two ch a ra cteristics of the a bove t a ble of export t a xes should be speci a lly noted The ch a n ges in the v a riou s r a tes it will b e seen were frequent ; a n d moreover they were not decreed sim ul t a neously for a ll kin ds of gra in Ta ke n together with the frequent a n d considera ble v a ri a tions in exch a nge these circum st a nces m a de a ll tr a ns a ctions for futur e deli very a sheer g a mble a n d a ltogether rendered the corn tr a de ch a otic The tra de in fa ct w a s a hn ost w iped out there were m a ny fa ilures a mong old est a bli shed fi r m s None of the fl our mi lls worked f ull time ; those put up for s a le co ul d fi n d no purch a sers The effect w a s boun d to b e mercilessly expressed in the fi gures rel a ting to a gricultur a l exports Dur ing the h a lf ye a r which fol lowed the imposition of the 45 0001ei t a x no whea t w a s exported a t a ll Considering th a t in 1 925 when the country h a d plenti ful stocks exports suffered a further serious decli ne it seems cle a r th a t the phenomenon w a s c a used by a bnorm a l conditions in the corn .

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E xp t duti or

e s on

man ufa ctur ed

pr ducts o

cul tu a l i n du s tri es ) re pres en te d d uri ng t h e t h e v a lu e of th os e e xp rts 1 9 22 1 28 per c en t 1 9 24 7 4 6 p er c en t r

o

( man y

sa me

the m t h e produc e of a gri p eri od a m uch lo w e r p erce n tage of of

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1 926

3 8 5 per -

1 923 1 925

cen t

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7 3 9 per 6 29 p er -

c en t c en t

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440

OF

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

tra de ra ther th a n in corn growing The im position of exp ort duties re a cted more di rectly on f a rmers producin g for the m a rket th a n on those who like most of the pe a s a nts produced prim a rily for their own consum ption ; until 1 9 27 therefore the pe a s a nt fa rmers would seem to h a ve been less severely hit by the export t a riff This a ssum ption m a de by severa l Rum a ni a n writers m a y h a ve merely th e a ppe a ra nce of truth It is true th a t corn exports c a me m a inly from the l a rge f a rms but i ntern a l requi re ments in corn a n d especi a lly in a nim a l an d d a iry products were sa t i sfi e d m a i nl y by the p e a s a nts ; an d the t a riff poli cy w a s of course designed chi efl y for the purpose of depressin g the in terna l price of a gricult ura l produce In Tr a nsylva ni a 6 5 per cent of the horned a ni m a ls were mil ch cows givin g mil k va lued a t 1 0 milli on lei Tra nsylva ni a exported in 1 921 kg butter kg cheese ; in 1 924 the export w a s 70 k g butter and Yet the im port of foreign cheese did not a n d 1 5 0 k g cheese dimin ish the duty of 24 lei per k g b ein g more th a n offset by the burdens which Rum a ni a n fa rmers h a d to be a r Condensed mi lk for export w a s t a xed with 401ei per kg while Dutch con 1 d en se d milk sold a t 39 lei per k g in H a mbur g At a n y r a te the St a te s fi sca l policy w a s reversed in 1 927 The l a nd t a x a ssessments a s we h a ve mentioned were incre a sed threefold while exp ort duties were reduced a s b elow ( decree of -

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J a n ua ry 2 1 927 ) ,

C e re a ls l gu mi n ou s a n d W h e t fl o ur La rge h orn e d a n i m a ls Pi gs S h ee p ,

e

0 11

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b ea ri ng se ds

w agon

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e

a

per

h ea d

300 1 00

In View of its higher v a lue whe a t p a id rel a tively un der the new t a riff a lower t a x th a n other cere a ls Customs receipts a ssumed from th a t d a te a more norm a l a spect in the di stribution of import a n d export duties ,

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( m m illi a rd le i )

1 9 28

( s i x mon t h s ) 0 36 0 05 -

-

1

Fr om a n a rticl e i n t h e A rgus J un e ,

24 , 1 925

.

ECONOMIC AND FINANCI AL POLICY

441

B ut a griculture w a s che ated of the be n e fit s which the ch a nge w a s supposed to give it bec a use in the me a ntime the exch a nge h a d risen w h ile the price of a gricultur a l products in foreign m a rkets h a d f a llen In rel a tion to the tot a l extent of the a ra ble a re a the b urden the a gricultura l in dustry h a d to b e a r in export duties during 1 9 24— 5 w a s in effect equ a l to a t ax of 325 lei per h a An a rticle from the pen of a pro minent a gricultura l expert publi shed in the A rgus of October 1 7 1 9 23 m a i n t a i n ed th a t f a rmers h a d to disburse over 40 per cent of the tot a l v a lue of their productio n in dir ect a n d i n di r ect t a xes while h a ving themselves to be a r a ll the costs a n d risks of th a t production M a nufa ctur ers tra ders b a nkers & c p a id t a xes on their net i ncome but the f a rmer s compl a ined the wr iter h a d to give the St a te a h n ost h a lf the v a lue of their gross revenue without reg a rd to the h a rvest s return per h a a n d to cost production In fa ct a s a nother writer pointed out the a gricul tura l producers were doubly hit by the St a te s t a riff poli cy : while it prevented them from selling to the best a dva n t a ge wh a t they produced it forced them to use the products of a n excessively protected n a tiona l industry The St a te derived therefore the fur ther a dv a nt a ge th a t by depressing the cost of livin g it co uld continue to underp a y its offi cia ls a s well a s to buy che a ply supplies for the a rmy ( 0) Tr a n sp or t Rum a ni a s tr a nsport system h a s never been a dequ a te for the needs of her a gricultur e Roa ds a n d ra ilw a ys a r e much below the requir ements of a n i ndustry whose tr a ding ch a nces depend on the possibili ty of tra nsportin g gre a t b ul k s a fely a n d che a ply within a short sp a ce of tim e Mo s t of the co untry ro a ds a re mere tra cks built a n d sum m a rily m a int a in ed by compulsory p e a s a nt l a b our In ba d we a ther they quickly b ecome unus a ble except for slow a n d he a vy ox c a rts Figures obt a ined from the Ministry of Publi 0 Works a t the end of 1 928 put the tot a l length of cla ssifi e d ro a ds at kilometres Oi these kilometres were i n rel a t ively good con d ition ; kilometres were fi t to b e used only in dry we a ther ; a n d kil ometres were n a tura l ro a ds with out a n y h a rdened surfa ce a t a ll Only kilometres in the first c a tegory h a d a proper m a c a d a mized surf a ce None of these ,

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442

OF

EFFECTS

ro a ds

fit

THE STATE S

for the present d a y fa st an d hea vy mech a ni ca l t r a ffi c Since the Wa r a lmost nothi ng h a s been done to improve the qu a ntity a n d qu a lity of the ro a ds ; in f a ct even the few princip a l a rteri a l ro a ds like th a t whi ch run s a long the hi ghl y industri a li z ed Pr a hova v a lley h a ve been a llowed to f a ll in to di s rep a ir The new provin ces h a ve received even less a ttentio n O nly now ten yea rs a fter the Wa r h a s the construction of a ro a d been undert a ken to lin k up J a ssy the Mold a vi a n c a pit a l with B ess a ra bi a I n the l a tter province the condi tio n of the ro a ds a ltogether prevents a n a d we a ther reg u l a r t r a ffi c a s soo n a s the b y sets i n When a n e w Government c a me into power in the a utumn of 1 928 the Minister for B ess a r a bi a went on a tour of i nspection but a fter only a few ra in y d a ys in a n exception a lly dr y ye a r he w a s un a ble to pursue hi s trip a n d h a d to turn b a ck As most of the bridges on these ro a ds ar e built of wood they a r e now in a st a te of dec a y ; on m a ny of them onl y h a lf the width is used for t r a ffi c Some of the bigger bridges destroyed dur i ng the Wa r a r e not yet rebuilt The D ep a rtment estim a ted th a t 600milli on 1e i were needed ye a rly to keep the existin g ro a ds in toler a ble rep a ir a n d 1 20 million s for the bridges The a ctu a l budget a llow a nce is 6 0—70 millions for the ro a ds a n d 20— 30mi llions for the bridges The ra ilw a y system w a s pl a nned to lin k together the prin c i a l towns a n d to serve cert a in str a tegic ends but not the p needs of the country s m a in a gricultur a l regions The l a ck of double tra cks a n d of si d ings b esides the in a dequ a cy of the roll in g stock pro vided even b efore the Wa r the spect a cle of moun ds of s a cks filled with corn st a cked under the open sky in ra ilw a y y a rds The ra ilw a ys suffered severely in the Wa r a n d the coun try s At the s a me s ub s eque n t economic policy del a yed their recovery time the dem a nd m a de upon them h a s grown w ith the a d d ition of the new pro vinces a n d the exp a nsio n of the urb a n centres An i n quiry which the A rgus co n ducted in the sprin g of 1 9 24 in to the ret a il price s of a gricultura l produce disclosed differences of 40 to 200 per cent between towns which sometim es were merely 1 — 30 40 kilometres dist a nt from e a ch other If a griculture were to depend for the tra nsport of its produc tion solely on the r a ilw a ys it is doubtful if even the in tern a l 1 3 19 24 d Ju A rgu M y 28 a re

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

443

m a rkets coul d be properly served River tra nsport on the D a nube a n d to some extent on the Pruth somewh a t relieves the situ a tion which is o nl y s a ved however by the pe a s a nt c a rts In the neighb our hood of m a rkets an d of the ports from which gra in is shi pped a gricul tur a l a n d other products a re c a rried a hn ost ex elusively in ox c a rts Dr Za h a r e an u c a lc ul a ted th a t in 1 923 the r a ilw a ys could pl a ce not more th a n w a gons a t the dis pos a l of a gricul ture which w a s a ltogether in suffi ci en t A n or m a l h a rvest of 1 4 mi llion tons woul d le a ve a surplus of a bout 7 million to n s for export but the r a ilw a ys could not possibly c epe with such a qu a ntity Nor woul d there be a dequ a te a ccommod a tion for storing it In 1 926 when production a n d export improved the ra ilw a ys proved un a ble to tra n s port the whole of the h a rvest surplus from the i n terior to the port s during the a utumn When the export se a son w a s a h n ost over the Rum a ni a n St a te R a ilwa ys were a ble to rent from the Germ a n Polish a n d Czechoslov a k ra ilwa y a uthorities freight w a gons whose delivery b ega n e a rly in D ecember a n d whi ch were to b e used solely for the export tra de Th a t bel a ted a rra ngement w a s in a n y c a se but a p a rti a l solution a s ra i lwa y engines were equ a lly l a cking 1 One must keep in min d th a t for purposes of export r a pidity of tra n s port pl a ys an im port a nt p a rt in determining the prices which the a gricultur a l produce of a coun try secures B esides sufferin g from th a t d efi ci en t r a ilw a y service a gri cultur e w a s burdened with a n unfa voura ble freight t a riff In fa ct a gricultur e w a s a bout the only industry which p a id the full ta riff on the Rum a ni a n ra ilwa ys Accordi n g to the L a w for the Encoura gement of N a tion a l I n dustry a ll f a ctorie s a n d works to w hi ch the ben efi t s of th a t la w h a d b een a ccorded a n d this me a nt a hn os t a ll comp a nies employing more th a n fift y workers p a id only h a lf the ordin a ry freight t a ri ff both for their own good s a n d for m a chines & c which they imported During the brief two weeks sp ell of M B a rbu S t i r bey s Government in the sum mer of 1 927 the oil comp a nies secur ed the s a me privi lege for the tra nsport of their products The timb er industry a lr ea dy e n j oyed such fa voured tre a tment Agricultur a l products a lone p a id the full t a riff Agric ul ture w a s represented by one member only on .

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M a n ch es ter Gua rd i a n Commer cia l

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D ce m b r 23 e

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1 9 26

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444

EFFECTS

OF

THE STATE S

the governing bo a rd of the Rum a ni a n St a te r a ilw a ys whil e i ndustry a n d fi n a n ce h a d ten Th a t w a s not a ll Everywhere else the ra ilw a ys especi a lly when o w ned by the St ate concede lower freights for goods going a bro a d ; but in Rum a ni a a gri cultura l produce dest ined for e x port w a s a ctu a lly ch a rged double the or di n a ry t a riff a fter the Wa r One of the i nciden t a l effects of th a t stra nge freight policy w a s to pl a ce a t a dis a dva nt a ge the Tra nsylva ni a n fa rmers a s their produce h a d a rel a tively long l a nd j ourney to m a ke before re a ching the ports ,

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S E C TI O N M E R C A N TI L I S M

OR

3

A GRAR I AN I S M ?

T H I S brief out lin e of a griculture s resources a n d bur dens n a tur a lly invites the question : w a s the St a te s unhelpful conduct the co n sequence of a n error of j udgement or the opera tion of a delibera te policy ? One w a n ts a n a nswer to thi s question if merely in order to supply a conclusion to the hi storic a l sketch of the a gra ri a n problem cont a ined in the fi r st p a rt of the study ; a n d wh a t th a t a nswer must b e ca n h a r dl y b e doubted when the events of the l a st dec a de a r e Viewed a ga in st the b a ckgroun d of the pre reform p eriod On the one side w a s a griculture : even with its a ctu a l primitive equi pment a n d methods it m a in t a i ned the b ul k of the p opul a tion a n d supplied two thirds of the exports dur ing the tryi ng a n d two thi rds of the publi c revenue ; yet period of reconstruction a griculture w a s h a mp ered on a ll sides by fi na n cia l a n d a dmin istra tive obst a cles On the other side w a s industry : h a rdly s ign ifi ca n t so fa r— ii one excepts mi ni ng a n d rur a l industries a n d prob a bly bringing no pr ofi t to n a tion a l economy ; yet every other a ctivity a n d comfort of the n a tion w a s sub ordin a ted to the fostering of its prec a rious life All the e x cep t i on a l l a ws p a ssed dur ing a n d a fter the Wa r h a ve been openly designed for the protection of b a nking i ndustry a n d tra de The impetuous wooing of industry a fter the Wa r represented a ph a se widely different from the former encour a ement of industry E a rlier a spira tions a imed a t nothi ng more th a n the est a blis h ment of an industry ca p a ble of tra nsform ing the co untry s ’

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

445

m a teri a ls Thi s desir e w a s never a ltogether free from a n undercurrent of fe a r lest in dustri a l development should h a mper a gricultur a l production a n d r a ise the cost of livin g Legisl a tion w a s devoted prim a ril y to the interests of corn growi n g a n d the fi r st commerci a l tre a ties to the interests of corn export The fi r st la w for the encour a gement of n a tio n a l industry w a s a dopted in 1 8 8 7 ; but in 1 8 9 1 a le s s protectionist t a riff repl a ced th a t of 1 8 8 6 ; th a t of 1 906 revertin g to stronger protectio ni st me a sures I n 1 9 1 4 there were a bout 8 5 0 est a bli shm ents enj oyi ng the b e n e fi t s of the la w for the encour a gement of n a tion a l industry Their production h a rdly a ppe a red in the export t a bles At home a fter thirty ye a rs of pri vileges they were still in c a p a ble of holding their own a ga inst foreign competition w ithout the s upport of hi gh protective t a riffs The v a lue of the r a w m a teri a ls used in industry in 1 9 1 5 w a s raw

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N a tive m a teri a ls F or eign m a teri a ls

lei— lei—

Oi

80 per 20 per

cent cent

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the c a pit a l invested in these St a te encoura ged undert a ki n gs dur ing 1 9 1 5 40 per cent w a s a bsorbed by a gricultura l a n d a llied industries Hence a t the end of the fi r st long period of encoura ge ment the a cti vities of Rum a ni a n industry rem a ined closely dependent on the development of a gricultur a l productio n Nor h a s th a t st a te of things essenti a lly a ltered since the Wa r The figur es rel a ting to the use of mech a nic a l power cited in the previous ch a pter showed th a t the industries relying on a gri c ul tur a l r a w m a teri a ls still predo mi n a ted Yet the ch a ra cter of Rum a ni a n in dustry— whi ch woul d be a point of i n terest in a discussion of its Vi a bili ty— is not wh a t chi efl y concerns us here Our a rgum e n t is concerned in a genera l w a y with the determined effort m a de to widen the sphere of industri a l a ctivity a fter the Wa r a n d wi th the fa ct th a t this effort spra ng from soci a l ra ther th a n from eco n omic c a uses a circum st a n ce whi ch helps to ex pl a in much of the recklessness di spl a yed in th a t a ttempt Thr ough the l a nd reform s a ys a Rum a n i a n wr iter the hitherto wea lthy cl a ss who h a d been dependen t upon a griculture w a s diverted for a liveli hood to other pur suits Thi s cl a ss politic a lly predomin a nt w a s left with no other a lterna tive th a n to turn its -

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446

EFF ECTS

OF

THE STATE S

ttention to the development of industry Wh a t is more n a tur a l therefore th a n th a t it shoul d b egi n to f a vour industry even a t 1 a u l the expense of gric ture through every me a ns a t its di spos a l This ob serv a tion a pplies not only to the expropri a ted l a ndown ers but equ a lly to the enterprising cl a ss of ten a nt fa rmers who possessed money a n d grea t drivi ng power It so ha ppened more over th a t on b eing di smi ssed from a gricultur e these c a pit a lists a n d entreprene urs h a d a p a th tow a rds industri a l an d b a nki n g pur s ui ts out re a dy for them through the a ction of politic a l events The Virtu a l expropri a tion under the gui se of n a tion aliz a tion of foreign owned undert a k ings in the new territories ga ve them the opportunity of compens a ting themselves in the industri a l fi eld for the in fl ue n c e they h a d lost on the l a nd Th e num ber a n d the c a pit a l of li mited comp an ies grew very r a pidly : a

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Nu m b e r

Ca pita l

Am ong the be n efit s most of these un dert a k ings enj oyed un der the L a w for the Encoura gement of N a t i on a l Industry were the follow ing : s a le of f a ctory sites a t a dva nt a geous prices free a ccess to w a ter p ower ; exemption from customs duties for m a chi nery p a rts a n d a ccessories ; v a rious reb a tes on t a xes ; reduction in freight r a tes to industries importing more th a n 5 0 per cent of their r a w m a teri a ls ; preference in the distribution of public con tra cts After the Wa r to these spe cifi c fa vours were a dded the prohibition of export of r a w m a teri a ls a n d the fi x in g of m a ximum prices for fuel ; not to spea k of high protective duties a n d of v a rious credit privi leges Yet a ll the s e a ttentions f a iled to m a ke industry prosperous even in the best post w ar ye a rs D a t a a v a i l a ble a t the M i nistry of Industry a n d Commerce showed th a t I du try d M uf ctur i t h M h s t Gu di Rum i A ticl ,

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S upp lemen t,

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19 27

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ar

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an s

ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

447

l a rge proportion of undert a kings h a d b een un a ble to m a ke ends meet : a

Nu m b e r of u d rt kin gs n

e

S ufi ered

a

929

fif t h of t h e 1 t r fi s o p

on e

-

l oss es

86 176

b a l an c e s h ee ts cl -

os e

d with a l oss

or

witho ut

From 1 926 onw a rd s Rum a ni a a lso experienced for the fi r st time the pl a gue of unemployment especi a lly in the engineering in d ust r y The remedies which a writer in the Buc a rest A rgus sug gested for it a r e instructive a s a revel a tion of the outlook presiding over th a t i ndustri a l effort The Government a lone he s a id It c a n supply a remedy for this exception a lly gra ve situ a tion should to begin wi th prohibit for a t le a st six months the import of a ll a n d a n y met a l goods which ca n be produced a t home ; priva te firm s should b e obliged to buy their m a chi nery from Rum ani a n fa ctories when prices a r e equ a l a n d publi c a uthorities should b e forbidden to im port a n y goods which could b e m a nu 2 fa ct ur e d in the coun try This determin a tion to crea te a n a tion a l industry c a lled for a fi n a n ci al po licy a d a pted to the purpose F a ilur e to i ntroduce a n effective t a x a tion system when it coul d h a ve been done during the Wa r a n d the fin a n cin g of the Wa r by me a ns of p a per money h a d a lre a dy sh a ken the found a tions on a n d Tre a sur y bonds which the country s fi n an ce s rested The n a tion a liz a tion of economic life a fter the Wa r proved to b e the stra w which broke the b a ck of the leu Such a n enterprise coul d obviously not b e fi na n ce d with foreign money a s most pub lic a n d priv a te under t a kings h a d been fi n a n ce d b efore the Wa r ; every intern a l r e source w a s therefore mob ili zed to a ssist in c a rryin g it out The mir a ge of n a tion a l self suffi ci en cy a ppea rs to h a ve b een so be witchin g a s to convince st a tesmen a n d business men th a t an exten s ive industry could b e cre a ted without c a pit a l a n d the cur rency at the s a me time reva lorized in to the b a rga in Foreign holders were bought out a t a lm ost a n y price The Tre a sury the b a nks a n d individu a ls did not hesit a te to a ssume he a vy ob liga tions tow a rds them in strong foreign currencies The report of the Deutsche B a nk on the s a le of the S t e a ua Rom an a sh a res A rgu S pt m b r 1 5 1 923 Ib id M rch 7 1 9 28 ,

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448

OF

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

fra nkly a dm itted th a t gre a ter profi t s were m a de from th a t tra ns a ction th a n from ten ye a rs of norm a l b a nkin g As the exch a nge continued to fall however these foreign ob liga tions thr ea tened to ruin a ll who were boun d by them Fin a lly when p a ym en t co ul d no longer b e postponed the St a te in tervened a n d concluded on their beh a lf long term a rra ngements in re a lity comp ul sory if costly mora tori a — w h i ch alt oget h er rui ned the n a tion s money a n d credi t In a ll these specul a tions a gricultur e h a d neither p a rt nor pr ofi t ; a s it h a d nothi ng to do with the bitter a n d d a m a ging wr a ngle concernin g the tre a tmen t of foreign c a pit a l whi ch ensued from th a t poli cy Agricultur e w a s in a ll these in cidents a mere spect a tor but a sp ect a tor who w a s ultim a tely m a de to pa y for the broken gl a ss B y mea ns of a v a riety of fi s ca l a n d restrictive me a sures the f a rmers were prevented from r a isin g the price of their produce in the s a me me a sure in which the currency h a d depreci a ted Th a t con s tr ic t ion o f p r ices r e duce d t h e fa r m e r s i n co m e i n suc h a w a y a s t o fo r ce t h e m t o con sum e t h e wh o l e o f t h e i r profi t r en oun ci n g a n y i m p r o v e m e n t o f s t o c k o r fr e s h c a p i t a l i n v e s t m en t s B e ca u s e of t h e l o n g p r oce s s o f p r o du c t io n a n d o f t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e fa r m e r s e ll s h i s p r o du ce t h e l a b ou r a n d wo rr y of a w h o l e y ea r a r e s t a k e d u p o n t h e c h a n ce s of o n e m a r k e t d a y a n d h e s t a n d s t o l os e fr om e x c h a n ge v a r ia t ion s m o r e t h a n a ll o t h e r p r o duce r s A gr i cu ltu r a l p r o duct ion i s i n co m p a t i b l e wi t h a fl uct ua t i n g e x c h a n ge Yet in s pite of the coll a pse of the exch a nge the country s r ul ers did not a b a ndon the belief th a t in the end they coul d force the foreign v a lue of the leu to conform to its in tern a l p urch a sing p ower they rem a ined therefore consistent in their in tent to keep food plentiful a n d che a p by checking the export of a gricultura l produce while impeding the coming in of foreign goods a n d money It w a s ch a ra cteristic of th a t a ttitude th a t no restrictions wh a tever were im po s ed on the consumption of bre a d a s reg a rds either qu a ntity or qu a lity in the ye a r a fter the Wa r though whe a t a n d flour h a d to be imported on borrowed doll a rs a n d pounds ; a n d it w a s still more ch a r a cteristic th a t when a fterw a rds a gricultur a l exports were prohibited or restricted this a pplied not only to whe a t a n d me a t but a lso to o a ts a n d b a rley to millet a n d — c a vi a re Th e Governm ent s restrictive mea sur es .

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C Ga rofi id , .

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rticl e i n B uletin ul I

mlui

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c

E conomi Romd n es c,

Fe bru a ry 1 924

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

449

nevertheless f a iled to a chi eve a n y of the re sults they were in tended to produce The expensive n a tion a li zed industry is lea di ng a di sench a nted exi stence ; protection from foreign com petition h a s not presented it w ith a c a p a cious interna l m a rket The leu h a s ultim a tely h a d to b e st a bilized a t a lower r a te th a n either leva or d i n a r— though Bulga ri a a n d S erbi a h a d been d a m a ged severely by the B a lk a n W a rs a n d the Gre a t Wa r— no doubt b ec a use the two neighbour i n g Sl a v countries preferred to e ncour a ge export r a ther th a n to restrict i t Nor h a s the Tre a sury ult im a tely derived a n y ben efit fr om th a t poli cy For by de press ing production a n d exports the export duties a s well a s a ll other t a xes though very hi gh h a ve yielded little where a s lower t a xes might h a ve produced a l a rger revenue in more a ctive economic conditions Le a st of a ll di d the St a te s policy succeed in kee ping prices low Low prices di scoura ged production ; t h is c a used in cert a in ye a rs a short a ge of a gricultur a l supplies in which c a se the St a te s control of prices w a s b ound to become in op er a tive All th a t it a chieved w a s to reopen the doors to the spec u l a tion a n d pr ofi t e erin g which h a d flourished elsewhere during the Wa r Moreover the che a pness of food soon bec a me a n illusory boon for the urb a n popul a tion a s the l a ck of exports an d the depreci a tion of the cur rency m a de a ll imported m a nuf a ctures very de a r When these two restrictive me a sur es— e xport a n d price con trol— f a iled to work effectively the St a te di d not hesit a te to h a ve recourse to more dra stic me a ns of constr a int for the s a tisfa ction of genera l or public n eeds I n the win ter of 1 920 the a uthorities requi sitioned from the more successful fa rmer s w a gons of whe a t to be distributed for seed to those who h a d none When i n 1 922 the a rmy could not obt a i n whe a t a t the controlled price of 24 000 1ei per w a gon it proceeded to requisition wh a t corn it needed H a ving le a rnt a lesson from the experience of the Soviets or p erh a ps merely for re a sons of conveni ence it di d not however requisition the corn di rect from the pe a s a nts but from millers a n d corn merch a nts They were obliged to sur ren der 20— 30 per cen t of the whe a t they h a d collected —a n d for whic h they h a d p a id lei— a t the fi x e d m a xim um price of lei per w a gon Such requi sitions h a d perh a ps even a more disturbin g effect on production a n d tra de th a n the other me a sures esp eci a lly ‘

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1 5 69 69 -

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45 0

OF

EFFECTS

THE STATE S

in a psychologic a l sense ; export t a xes a n d controlled prices were a t le a st known qu a ntities but the system of requi sitions left f a rmers a n d tra ders a t the mercy of every i nterference in a coun try ridden with unr estra ined petty offi cia ls Th e cum ul a tive a ction of t hi s m ul tiplicity of restrictive a n d oppressive mea sur es inevit a bly h a d the effect of b ewilderin g the a ctivities of a gric u l tur a l producers a n d of gra du a lly depress ing the whole rura l in dustry The p a ssive resist a nce l a rgely premedi t a ted a dopted by the pe a s a n ts who refused to grow whe a t could not s a ve a gricultur e from being pen a li zed for the ben efi t of the other bra nches of economic a ctivity C a pit a l drew a n excessive retribution for its services i n the sh a p e of in terests w hi ch doubled the origin a l debt withi n thr ee ye a rs ; a s di d in dustry in dem a n di ng for its products a much hi gher rel a tive price th a n b efore the Wa r Accordi ng to the c a lcul a tions of M D Gheorghi u D irector of Customs the a ver a ge price p er hectolitre of whea t in the period 1 906— 1 4 w a s lei equ a l to 1 8 44 lei per 1 00 kg In 1 927 1 00 k g of whe a t were worth 8 5 0 lei i e a bout 26 5 0 gold lei a n incre a se of a b out one third We h a ve given when discussing the r e equi p ment of a gricult ure with m a chin es a n d im plements the cost of some of these goods Unfortun a tely the onl y a va il a ble Rum a ni a n index numbers those collected by the A rgus do not extend to m a chi nes a n d such other goods a s constitute the pe a s a nts m a in purch a ses ; a p a rt from food clothi ng w a s the only other genera l group included Nevertheless these fi gur e s bri n g out well enough the di screp a ncy b etween the prices of a gricultur a l produce a n d those of m a n uf a ctur ed goods ,

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20 1 928

1 00 1 00 1 00

G e e ra l a v e ra ge n

1 00

ch an ge i n t h e figur es of t h e l a s t c olu mn m ay be d ue t o s eas on a l v a ri ti ons it pr o b bly i s n o t u c onn e cte d with t h e a cc ss i on of a P ea s an t G o v e rnm e n t i n t e y Nove m ber 1 9 28 a n d t h e c ons e qu e n t re v e rs i on i n t h e S ta te s e c on omic p o licy 1

Th e

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ECONOMIC

FINANCIAL POLICY

45 1

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Rum an i a s popul a tion consists l a rgely of fruga l a n d a hn ost self s uffi cin w a s only to be expected th a t the pe s nt holders it a a ; g di sproportion in v a lue between wh a t they produced a n d wh a t they got in exch a nge for it would inj ect i nto the rur a l m a ss a considera ble dose of indi fferentism— a phenomenon whi ch t a ught the Soviet Gover mn en t too a costly lesson J ust when every thin g h a d to b e rebuilt in a gric ul ture the pe a s a n ts were reduced to poverty a ga in ; an d such s a vings a s they h a d were buried a s is the Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt s h a bit in se a led bottles to s a ve the p a per money from deva st a tion by mice There w a s no in duce ment for them to use these s a vi n gs for the purpose of in crea sing productio n when they were forced to sell their produce a t h a lf its re a l va lue while being m a de to pa y more th a n rea l va lue for such necess a ries a s they h a d to buy As long a s the St a te s fi n a n cia l a n d economic policy rem a in ed so one sidedly unpropitious its in fl uen ce w a s bound to frustra te the good work which the a gricultura l dep a rtments a n d their p ersonn el were doing They coul d h a ve little ch a nce of instillin g a new spirit of enterprising optimism into the country side a s long rightly or wrongly felt themselves to b e a s a s the pe a s a nts persecuted a s before ; a n d the pra ctic a l work of a s sisting a n d tra ini n g t h e fa rmers w a s necess a rily cut low to fit the stinted resources wh ich the Government pl a ced a t their dispos a l Agric ul ture h a s n orm a lly received no di rect m a teri a l a ssis t a nce from the Sta te in the sh a pe of subventions or bounties An exception occurred when the prohibition of export s c a used a s e rious decli ne in whe a t gro w i ng a n d the Gover n ment offered Th a t b onus di d not a bonus of 200 1e i for e a ch h a under whe a t represent more tha n a fra ction of the loss which the fa rmers were sufferin g through the v a rious restrictive mea sures a n d t a xes Ab out h a lf a milli a rd lei w a s p a id by the St a te in th a t form without its b ein g a ble thereby to check the effects of the obst a cles which it w a s pl a cing a t the s a me time in the w a y of whea t grow ing a n d tra de Nor h a s a gric ul ture b een f a vour ed like i n dustry with l a ws for its protection a n d encoura gement M Ga r ofl i d it is true ena cted a la w in 1 920 for the e n cour a ge ment of mech a ni ca l cultiva tion ; it exempted from export a n d price restrictions a quot a of 5 00 k g per h a of whea t grown ,

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45 2

EFFECTS

OF

THE STATE

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with the a id of m a chines an d it exempted a gricultur a l m a chi n es from the p a yment of im port duties But the me a sure w a s a bro g a ted in the followin g ye a r by M V Brati a nu on the ground th a t it interfered wi th hi s t ari ff a n d export p oli cy A number of fa rmers who h a d a lre a dy t a ken a ction on the strength of M Ga r oflid s la w obt a ined from the Courts d a m a ges a ga inst the Government ; with others the Governm ent h a d to m a ke an onerous compromise so th a t the i n cident c a used a loss to the St a te without a n y a dva nt a ge to a gricul tur e An other me a sur e discussed a fter the Wa r con templ a ted the est a blishm ent of a system of elev a tors a n d st a nd a rdiz a tion of corn ; it woul d a void the gre a t loss resulting from the present system of piece me a l tra di ng a n d especia lly the useless a n d w a steful overl a ppin g of tra nsports but so fa r nothi ng h a s b een done to c a rry out the ide a The st a nda r di z a tion of cere a ls w a s de a lt with in a bill which the Libera l Governmen t p a ssed in the sprin g of 1 927 The me a sure w a s denoun ced by the Opposition a s insin cere an d in con sequent Wh en the Lib era ls s a id M Mih a la ch e a t l a st thought of legisl a ting for the ben efi t of a griculture they b ega n wi th tra de a n d not wi th production We a r e not suffering from a com m e r ci a l crisis but from a crisis of production The problem of production must b e solved fi rst The indirect a i d which the St a te h a s given a gricult ure con sists in the m a i n ten a nce of s chools model fa rms a n d experiment a l st a tion s The budget of the Mi n i stry of Agric ul tur e a n d Dom a i n s lei or 2 72 p er cent of the a mounted in 1 925 to St a te s tot a l budget In 1 9 27 the p ercent a ge rose to 3 5 8 p er cent the correspon ding sum b eing employed a s follows ,

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P er F or

ricultura l t chi g d r es rch m d l S ta te fa r m s breedin g sta ti ons d m i i tr ti on f S ta te forests pplica ti of t h e gr ri n r for m s t te fi s h er i e s pi ng o th e r s e rvic es a n d b oo k k ea

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1 2 78 1 0 68 1 9 36 229 9 24 26 28 0 7 13 -

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The size of this budget ha rdly corresponded to the im port a nce of the agricultur a l industry or to the m agnitude of the problems ,

ECONOMIC

AND

FINANCI AL POLICY

45 3

w hi ch the l a nd reform h a d ra ised Moreover it wo ul d seem tha t sometimes gra n ts form a lly m a de h a d fa il ed to m a teri a lize For i nst a nce the Govern ment m a de a pr ofi t out of the whe a t which it requisitioned in 1 920 a t contro lled price s a s the corn w a s p a id b a ck in kind by those who h a d received it a n d wa s sold by the Governm ent a t world prices ; a mi n ute of the Cou n cil of Min i s ters a ssigned the rofi t then m a de to b e used for a gricultur a l educ a p tion but nothi ng w a s a ctu a lly given Another Ca bin et mi nute dest ined to the s a me purpose the considera ble surplus w hi ch the Comm ission for the regul a tion of the corn tra de h a d re a lized but the gra nt w a s never p a id The l a rge sum s collected in export t a xes h a ve not been used in the interests of a gricult ure We h a ve a lre a dy mentioned th a t money whi ch the pe a s a nts p a id in a d va nce for the l a nd they h a d received w a s not used a s it w a s me a nt to be for the c a nce ll a tion of expropri a tion bonds but w a s sw a llowed up in the genera l budget of the St a te Since the Wa r the budget of the Mi ni stry of Agriculture h a s not exceeded gold lei spent l a rgely on a dmi nistra tive a ctivities ; until with the a dvent of the Na tion a l Pe a s a n t Governme n t the gold lei the entire s urplus of 1 929 budget re a ched gold lei bei n g spent in direct pra ctica l a ids to the fa rmers It is indeed d ifficult to di scover wh a t steps of a n y im port a nce the St a te h a s effectively t a ken durin g the l a st dec a de with a View to completing the l a nd reform with a n a gra ri a n reform ; un til one comes to the foun ding of the In stitute for Agronomic a l Rese a rch in 1 9 27 the cre a tion of M C Gar ofii d Th a t neglect h a s told upon Rum a ni a n a gricult ure the more a s it coincided wi th the strenuous efforts other co untries m a de for the purpose of improv in g the equipment a n d output of f a rmi n g Th a t friendly competi tion in the furthera nce of a gricultur e h a s not been limited to the big a n d resourceful coun tries Even i n such a poor coun try a s B ulg a ri a the Sta te found me an s to purch a se through the Agri cultura l B a nk m a chin es va lued a t 5 0 million leva whi ch it distributed to the pea s a n ts a t four fi ft h s of the origin a l cost n t he a llowing them three yea rs in which to the price I a p y a utum n of 1 927 the Czechoslov a k Minister of Agric ul tu re M S r din k o expounded his Gover mn en t s a gric ul tur a l progra m .

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45 4

EFFE CTS

OF

THE STATE S ’

b efore P a rli a ment summin g up the requi site conditions for the progress of a griculture under three hea ds : A hi gher st a nd a rd of c ul ture on the l a nd The techn ic a l a meli ora tion of the soil a n d A che a p supply of a gricultur a l credi t Ag r a ri a n poli cy in Rum a ni a h a s m a de a b egin ni ng only w ith the l a st p a rt of th a t soun d summi ng up ; the second h a s not b een considered so fa r ; while the fi r st h a s b een wi dely discussed but b a rely a ttempted Occ a sion a lly one met in villa ges or m a rket to w ns with spora dic cultur a l e xp erim ents ; they were due how ever not to a n y set n a tion a l pra ctice but to the priva te ini ti a tive a n d ze a l of indivi du a l schoolm a sters or a gricultur a l offi ci a ls The st a nd a rd of a bility a n d of devotion to work to b e found a mong the perso n nel of the a gricultur a l services is excellent ; unfort un a tely it h a s so far served onl y to em p h a siz e the short comin gs of a policy whi ch h a s fa il ed to give these Virtues the scop e for an d the me a ns of ra ising the f a rmi ng communi ty The form a l a ction t a ken to th a t end h a s b een qui te el a bora te A system of di strict committees a ppoin ted by the Mini stry of Agriculture w a s set up a fter the War to a ssist the Mini stry in c a rryin g out schemes for the improvement of a gricultur e These commi ttees of a n offi cia l ch a ra cter h a d no ch a nce of fulfilli ng in their p a rticul a r sphere of a ction an intention whi ch w a s contra di cted by the St a te s genera l economic policy A fresh scheme w a s in a ugura ted in 1 925 i nvolving the est a b lishment i n e a ch coun ty of a Ch a mb er of Agricultur e modelled on the Ch a mbers of Comm erce with a mixed membership of elected an d a ppointed members ; the Ch a mbers a r e entitled to elect the i r own members of P a rli a ment They were to co opera te in a n a dvisory c a p a city with the Ministry of Agriculture in the p romotion of b etter fa rming bein g free to undert a ke a h n ost a n y a ctivity to th a t end provided they could fi n d the me a ns therefore a n d kept w ithin the la w S ome of these Ch a mbers h a ve done thei r b est to prove the useful p a rt they coul d pl a y in the sol ving of a gricultur a l problems Unfortun a t ely the Ch a mb ers of Agric ul ture were from the outset turned into p a rty instruments whi ch sp eedily lost them their reput a tion a n d rendered them useless a s critics In Novemb er 1 928 the Min istry of Ag riculture a n d reformers ,

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new group of Commi ttees for the im provement of production a n d the ha rmoni zin g of St ate a ction with priva te ini ti a tive The system consists of a Centra l Com mi t t ee un der the Cha irm a nship of the Minister of Agricultur e a n d inclu di ng his subordi n a te he a ds of dep a rtments re re p sen t a t i ves of other economic services a n d dep a rtments of Agri cultura l Credit I nstitutions of the Ch a mb ers of Agriculture & c The decisions of the Centra l Committee a r e to b e a d a pted to loc a l con di tions by County Committees a tt a ched to e a ch Ch a mb er of Agriculture ; w hi le Comm un a l Co m mittees of a simil a r mixed composition a r e to c arry out the v a rious pl a ns The success of the work which lies a n d decisions on the spot a ll in the future will depend on two conditions : on the a b i lity of these Comm ittees to s a fegu a rd their profession a l ch a ra cter a n d on the i r functio ni n g un der the a egis of a more helpful St a te policy The l a tter con dition is being r a pidly fulfille d by the new N a tion a l Pe a s a nt Governm ent a s a result a s M Mih a la ch e put it not of p a rty bi a s but of economic logic D urin g 1 9 29 th a t Governm ent p a ssed a L a w for Agricultur a l Credit destined t o fa cilit a te the est a bli shm ent of cre di t institutions devoted to a gricultur e with the help of foreign c a pit a l a L a w for Element a ry Agricult ur a l E duca tion a n d for p op ula r educa tion me a nt to educa te the a gric ult ura l m a sses professiona lly ; a L a w for Higher Agric ul tur a l E duca tion me a nt to produce exper ts in the technic a l a n d soci a l problems of a gricultur e a n d scientists for rese a rch ; the Co Oper a tive Code to which refere n ce h a s been m a de in cha pter X ; the L aw for the Improvement of the D a nube regions li a ble to floodin g which wi ll m a ke possible the exploit a tion of immense St a te properties ; a n d the L a w for the Free S a le of Pea s a nt Property destined to help the cre a tion of e conomi ca lly soun d hol d ings In a ddi tion the Govern ment is now consider in g a bill for the cre a tion of a proper rur a l s urvey a n d of ground b ooks ; a bill destined t o f a cili t a te the consoli da tion of pe a s a nt holdings ; a bill for a gricult ura l insur a nce a nother de a lin g w ith irriga tion a n d other me a sur es of a pra ctic a l n a tur e The p riv a te a gra ri a n org a ni z a tions like the Agric ul tura l Syndic a tes an d their Un ion a n d the p a rties representing the p ea s a nts never h a d a n y ill usions concernin g the effect of the i nstituted a a gricultur a l

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45 6

OF

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THE STATE

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economic a n d fin an cia l policy describ ed in the precedin g p ages In 1 9 20 a Congress of Agriculturists h a d a lre a dy put fo r wa rd a considered progra m for the guid a nce of a griculture in to more i ntensive a n d productive ch a n nels 1 Th ere w a s in th a t pro gra m of cour se no suggestion of restriction or control of production except i n so fa r a s it a dvoc a ted the fixi ng of leg a l st a nd a rds a n d obli g a tions for the cul tiva tion of the l a nd A second congress of Agricul tur ists convened by the Centra l Union of Agricultur a l S y ndic a tes in Novemb er 1 9 23 a dopted resolu tions i nsist ing a b ove a ll on the necessity of not i nterferi ng with the m a rketing of a gricultur a l produce They dem a nded the improvement of tra nsport support for export by me a ns of tra de conventions a n d a he a lthy budget b a sed on the incre a se of di rect t a x a tion As re g a rds the a ttitude of poli tic a l p a r ties the Lib era l Pa rty gui ded by the l a te Ion C Brati a nu a n d a fterw a rds by his brother M V intil a B r é t ian u h a s b een in a position to d ict a te the economic a n d fin a n ci al policy followed un til the end of 1 928 Genera l Aver escu s People s Pa rty a t its Congress in 1 925 pledged itself to distribute to the pe a s a nts who h a d r e cei ve d l a nd m a chines a n d i mplements needed for more r a tion a l fa rmin g thus recogniz ing tha t the reform la w which it prided itself in h a ving p a ssed in 1 921 h a d not solved the a gra ri a n pr oblem B ut when the P a rty c a me into power a g a i n in 1 926 none of these good intentions were rememb ered The Pe a s a nt Pa rty s a gra ri a n progra m published in 1 924 cont a in ed a n el a bora te pl a n for givin g a gricultur e the pl a ce of honour it deserved in the coun try The progra m recog n ized th a t t hi s involved for the fa rmers duties a s well a s rights ; it expected the St a te to help in cre a ting a n a gra ri a n conscience by educ ation a n d speci a l org a n iz a tion but it considered th a t in its tur n the St a te h a d a right to expect from those to whom the l a nd h a d been entrusted proofs of their willi n gness a n d c a p a city for work ing it prop erly The Pa rty looked to co oper a tion to enla rge a n d improve the economic a cti vities of the rura l popula tion As reg a rds indu s try it a dmitted th a t it shoul d b e encour a ged in so fa r only a s it w a s b a sed on the l a bour an d r a w m a teri a ls which d t il i Vi wA g i l Buc r t J u ry 1 1 9 21 S .

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ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL POLICY

45 7

the coun try itself could provide Th a t poin t of View w a s closely rel a ted to th a t of the N a t ion a l ( Tra nsylva n i a n ) Pa rty In 1 927 these two p a rties a m a lga m ated a n d the new groupin g kno w n a s the N a tion a l Pe a s a nt Pa rty c a me to p ower in November 1 928 The new Minister of Agriculture M I Mih a la ch e promptly r e 1 a sserted the Pa rty s a gr a ri a n creed in a pre s s in terview Our Government he decl a red is not the enemy of indu s try On the contra ry we beli eve th a t the interests of the two br a nches of n a tion a l economy complement e a ch other in the h appiest possible w a y But th a t di d not a pply to industries which h a ve been a ble to exi st o nl y out of the St a te s budget a n d from the f a vours conti nuously gra nted them by governm ents These a r e d efi ni t ely p a ra sitic a l in dustries a n d they w ill h a ve to dis a ppe a r The present Government h a s no i ntention of cont inui n g the culp a ble support whi ch the industries h a ve been a ccustomed to receive Its support will b e dir ected tow a rds a gricul tur e We a r e determin ed to m a ke a griculture the pivot of our whole economic lif e by crea t ing sour ces of a gricultur a l cre di t by profession a l educ a tion a n d by e ffective a id for the a gricultura l industry An d in f a ct the Governm ent of M I uli u M a ni u h a s a t once set to work to rec a st the whole econo m ic legisl a tion a n d policy which h a ve dur ing the preceding ten ye a rs been built upon the n a tiona list doctrin e of economic self s ufficien cy The tendency expounded in M Mih a la ch e s decl a ra tion h a s since been reinforced by the cre a tion of a non p a rty Agra ri a n Le a gue i n M a rch 1 929 More th a n twenty ye a rs a go the fa r seei n g st a tesm a n Peter Ca rp a ttempted to org a nize the l a n d owners in a n Agricultur al S ociety for the defence of a gra ri a n i n terests but the Society fa iled to a chieve its purpose m a inly bec a use it h a d left out the sm a ll fa rmers a n d bec a use the n a rrow politic a l life of the tim e impeded a suffi ci en t concentra tion upon professiona l interests The new orga niz a tion a ppea rs a nxious to put to pr ofi t the lessons of th a t ea rlier fa ilure It wo ul d seem to h a ve sprun g up a lmost spont a neously In 1 927 a n Agra ri a n Cultura l Associ a tion w a s fo unded in J a ssy for the pur pose of cc ordin a t i ng the work of a gric u l tur a l societies a n d institutions in the northern Rum ani a n provin ces In October 1 928 it w a s .

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45 8

EFFECTS DE THE STATE S ’

decided to e x tend the a ctivity of the Society to the whole country a n d the new progr a m of the Associ a tion procl a imed a mong other t hi ngs its in tention of worki ng towa rds the crea tion of a n a gra ri a n i n roup Pa rli a ment whi ch shoul d in clude a ll r epr e g s en t a t i ve s of a gric ultura l in terests without reg a rd to their p oli tic a l colour with a View to their p erm a nent coll a bora tion To some e xtent a ga in the im petus h a s come fr om the ini ti a tive of a group of p ea s a nts from southern Tr a nsylv a ni a who orga n i z e d themselves into a profession a l society a n d sought the a d vi ce of le a din g a gricultur ists a s to the best w a y of a chi evin g their purpose The new Agra ri a n Le a gue a ims a t bringing w it hi n its r a nks a ll those connected wi th a gricul tur e from l a ndo w ner to l a bour er wi thout reg a rd to their politica l a llegi a nce a n d solely for the fur therin g of profession a l in terests The in a ugur a l meet ing of the Lea gue w a s held in Buca rest on 1 0t h M a rch 1 929 It elected M C Ga r ofli d a s fi rs t President of the Lea gue a n d p a ssed the followin g resolution : The Le a gue is desti ned to en cour a ge to support a n d to rea lize the rights too often overlooked of the n a tion s most powerful group of producers The Agra ri a n Lea gue is det a ched from politic a l p a rty interests a i ming a t fulfillin g the re a l economic interests of the country whi ch a r e our s a lso The S a xon member of Pa rli a ment Herr Fritz Con ne r t a pp a rently g a ve the Le a gue a motto when he s a id S a lva tion wi ll come from ourselves let the St a te merely refra in from puttin g ob st a cles 111 our w a y The st a ge thus seems set for the b a l a ncing out of merc a ntil e a n d a gr a ri a n tendencies Th e likelih ood is th a t i ndependently of the coming a n d going of p a rty g overnment the economic experiment a ttempted duri ng the l a st dec a de wi ll not b e r e — at a n ar tl a le e a n sc t a g in r te on such extensive e d a a a y p p y bec a use th a t experiment h a s f a iled a n d p a rtly b ec a use the m a j ority which h a s suffered from it is now roused t o orga niz e itself in self —defence One m a y now exp ect therefore to see Rum a ni a n a griculture enter d efi n it ely up on its new ph a se The two m a in tra nsform a tions which it h a s undergone h a ve both been h a stened in their contem p or a ry developmen t through the a ction of w a r The Crim e a n War offered to corn growers opportun ities which induced the Rum a ni a n fa rmers ,

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to a b a ndon qu a si p a stora l a griculture The pr ofit s which then could b e m a de from corn growing especi a ll y when undert a ken on a l a rge sc a le tempted the politica lly domin a nt l a ndowners to extend their possessions a n d to conscript the pe a s a nts l a b our ; a n d b thei r h a ndlin g of the po li tic a l m a chi ne they were a ble to y contin ue m a kin g l a rge pr ofi t s even when overse a competition brought ruin upon the corn growers of western Europ e The Gre a t War initi a ted a new ph a se It broke the privileges of the l a nded cl a ss forcing them to h a nd over their l a nd a n d poli tic a l p ower to the pe a s a nts Th a t p a rtition of the l a nd cre a ted condi tions which were boun d a t l a st to bring a b out a tr a nsition from extensive corn grow ing to intensive crop rot ation But the r e form w a s not a llowed to run its norm a l course After the Wa r the cl a ss whi ch h a d del a yed the p a ssing of extensive corn gro w ing bec a use they derived a liveli hood from i t a g a i n c a used a del a y in the progress of a gricultur e by g u i di n g a ll the resources of the St a te tow a rds industri a l a ctivities i n which they were seeking new fortun es Th e l a nd reform therefore whi ch opened the w a y for the tra nsition from e xtensive to intensive a griculture w a s m a de to r un side by side under unequ a l conditions of com petition with a n efi or t to ch a nge the pur ely a gra ri a n ch a ra cter of the country into th a t of a n a gra ri a n i ndustri a l one The e ff ects of the reform were in th a t w a i n terfered with a n d di s y t or t e d by a n a spir a tion for economi c self sufli ci en cy which in a n a gr a ri a n country inevit a bly a ssumed a merc a ntil e bi a s The fir st ten ye a rs of the reform co ul d in those circumst a nces h a rdly b e a ccepted a s ofi erin g a true rea din g of its ul tim a te develop ment They h a ve to b e rega rded ra ther a s an economi c in terlude ; whil e the policy whi ch h a s ch a ra cterized them sho ul d b e properly considered to h a ve sprun g not so much from the competition of two economic impera tives a s from the struggle of two soci a l cl a sses for predomin a nce— cl a sses w hi ch through the peculi a r a ction of the l a nd reform h a ve b een r a nged a lmost without inter mixing on opposite sides of the line dividing a gricul ture from 1 industry -

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ur v e y of t h e n ew a gra ri an curr en t a n d of t h e P ea s n t G o v e rnm en t s vi e ws a n d p olicy s ee t h e s pe ci a l s uppl e m en t on R u ma ni publi s he d by t h e Ma nches ter Gua rdia n i n No v e mb e r 1 9 29 1

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THE REFORM

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ch a ra cteristic of the a gra ri a n problem in e a stern Europ e th a t it w a s comm o nl y spoken of a s the Pe a s a nt Question a n d not like the Western problem a s the L a nd Question The ma j or fa ctor in the equ a tion w a s the a gent not the obj ect ; a n d the issue hovered over the fi eld of soci a l policy ra ther th a n over th a t of economic org a ni z a tion Oi course th a t poi nt of View w a s n ot un a nimously held Mr Con a ch er rem a rks with j ustice th a t both o w ners of corn l an ds a n d the inh a bit a nts of to w ns comm only conceive of a gra ri a n l a nd a s b ein g im properly dea lt with if disp osed of in such a w a y a s to end a nger its pr ofit a b le exploit a tion under c a pit a list methods for meetin g a dem a nd from elsewhere The l a nd hun gry pe a s a nt on the other h a nd reg a rds l a n d a s the chief form a n d sour ce of we a lth which shoul d b e equ a lly distributed even if such distribution were to le a ve e a ch sh a reholder a mere subsistence The a gr a ri a n question genera lly resolves itself into a con fli ct b etween these points of 1 View In e a stern Eur ope where the p e a s a nts formed the m a ss of the n a tion a gra ri a n me a sures especi a lly if undul y del a yed h a ve been a pt to ride roughshod over mere economic postul a tes with a n e a se h a rdly to b e im a gined in western a gricultur e a n d not a t a ll in the fi eld of c a pit a li st i ndustry B etween the a gra ri a n problems of e a st a n d west la y i ndeed a world of difference There w a s a mere difference of degree i n rega rd to techni que but the difference in the economi c a n d soci a l o r g a niz a tion of a griculture w a s f und a ment a l A s i mple qu a nti t a t i ve comp a rison between the productive c a p a city of western In the a n d e a stern f a rming could n ot bring out th a t v a ri a tion view of the Russia n z emstvo st a tistici a ns a n d agron om s whose extensive a n d orig in a l l a bour s h a ve yielded a n i nv a lu a ble m a ss of sociologic a l m a teria l one must reg a rd the two a s dist i nct economic types — the c a pit a list type a n d th a t of the w a geless f a mi ly economy Neither the criteri a nor the psychology of ,

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EFFECTS

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THE REFORM

46 1

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modern economies with its b a ckgroun d of w a ge l a b our offer the me a ns for ga in i ng a true i nsight in to the n a ture of the fa mil y Wi rtschaft ; a n d modern economi cs c a nn ot therefore la y down a n a gr a ri a n po licy which sh a ll b e univers a lly v a lid The usu a l purpose of a pra ctic a l a gra ri a n poli cy writes M Tseh a j a n ow is to produce a s hi gh a rent a s possible Th a t is the sole a im of c a pit a list a griculture But i n a gra ri a n coun tries w ith a den se popula tion the pra ctic a l st a tesm a n mu s t n ot hesit a te to pla ce other ends a n d other criteri a in the foreground a s his fi r st duty is to secure for the bulk of the pop ul a tio n the hi ghest possible st a nda rd of livin g a n d the gre a test po s sible gross income He will h a ve inevit a bly to correct the economic techni c a l st a nd point wi th the soci a l a n d in m a ny respects the a gra ri a n problem 1 will b ecome for h im a problem of popul a tion If such w a s the correct a ngle from which in ea stern Eur op e a gr a ri a n problems h a d a t a ll t i mes to be Viewed th a t a ngle w a s bound to become more a cute un der pressure from the popula r dem a nds whi ch a rose out of the Wa r Such in deed w a s the ch a ra cter of the ensui ng l a nd reforms th a t to a ppra ise them j us tly one must reverse the order of v a lues suggested in M Ts eh a j a n ow s p hr a se The reforms left e a stern st a tesmen with the t a sk not of correcting the e conomi c techni ca l st a ndpoint with the soci a l but ra ther of correcting the soci a l st a ndpoint wi th the economic technic a l Thi s t a sk however w a s delib era tely ignored for rea sons describ ed in the precedin g ch a pter As a consequence nothi ng h a s m a teri a lly ch a nged on the economic tech n ic a l s ide of a griculture The whole weight of the reform h a s been a llowed to fa ll on the soci a l side ; a n d in th a t field one must therefore expect to fi n d most of its modifying effects The one e fi e ct th a t st a nds out from a ll others is of course the Vi rtu a l oblitera tion of the l a n ded upper cl a ss The whole sa le expropri a tion of t h a t cla ss h a s been describ ed in Ch a pter VI I in whi ch it h a s been sho w n th a t well ni gh all the a r a ble l a nd a n d a consider a ble extent of p a stur e a n d forest h a ve p a ssed in to the h a nds of the pe a sa n ts L a nd property therefore is no lo n ger a v a il a ble a s a source of rent or of soci a l i n fl ue n ce Considerin g ’

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462

SOCI AL

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POLITICAL

the domin a nt p ower whi ch l a ndowners were a ccustomed to wield durin g neo serfdom a n d the pe a s a nts utter st a te of dep endence the soci a l ch a nge w rought by the reform is equ a l to nothi n g less th a n a rur a l revolution One coul d not descri b e th a t effect w ithout gre a tly un derr a tin g its re a ch merely a s a ch a nge in the rel a tive st a ndin g of the two rur a l cl a sses For in truth the pe a s a nts h a ve now b een left a h n ost a lone in the fi eld a s undi s They h a ve conquered the coun try side put e d m a sters of it decisively for the ir ow n cl a ss Such soci a l differenti a tion a s m a y in the cour se of time develop a mong the rur a l p opul a tion co ul d occur only wi thi n the pe a s a nt cl a ss itself an d not a b ove or a g a in st i t The in substa nti a l remn a nt of rel a tively l a rge owners coul d no longer fur ther their profession a l i nterests by oppressin g or oppo sing the pe a s a nts but o nl y on the contra ry by r a llying them by serving them a s lea ders in a comm on c a use The new Agra ri a n Le a gue represents the l a ndowners fir st thoug ht of a ssoci a tin g the p e a s a nts with themselves The lin e of soci a l contest h a s shi fted from the Villa ge a n d now runs ne a r the boun d a ry between l a nd a n d town between agricul ture a n d i ndustry Concerni ng the soci a l eff ect of the reform on the l a nded cl a ss there is therefore li ttle to b e a dded to wh a t h a s b een s a id so fa r : the work of di ssolutio n c a rried to gre a t lengths by the reform is b ein g completed of their own wi ll by these elements themselves m a ny of whom h a ve sold out a n d emb a rked upon industri a l a n d profession a l c a reers All di scussion concerning the effects of the reform on rur a l lif e a n d people must of necessity concentra te on the pe a s a nts for whose ben efi t indeed the reform As rega rds the life of the towns it is a ltogether w a s m a de impossible to disent a ngle the repercussion of the reform from the gener a l effect of post w ar condi tions ; except in rega rd to cert a in peculi a r phila nthropic a n d cultur a l a ctivities which h a ve pl a yed a n import a nt p a rt in the welfa re of the urb a n popula tion a n d on which the eff ect of the reform h a d b een so deep a n d di rect a s to j ustify a brief description of it ’

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46 3

1

U R B AN L I F E

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I N S TITUTI O N S

Dr G Ca r anfil h a s estim a ted th a t a l a ndow ner whose property w a s worth one milli on lei in 1 9 1 3 woul d h a ve b een left with only gold lei at the b egin n in g of 1 924 t a k i ng depreci a tion of mon ey a n d loss of a ccoun t of expropri a tion purch a sin g power— a n d gold lei in J a nu a ry 1 9 28 i e w ith 1 5 per cent of hi s origin a l c a pit a l One millio n lei i n vested in the b est cl a ss of sh a res a n d bonds woul d h a ve b een worth only gold lei in 1 924 a n d gold lei in 1 928 i e 2 9 per cent of the origin a l c a pit a l These figur e s c a n not of course do more th a n indica te a tendency but withi n these rel a tive limi ts they a r e prob a bly correct a n d a fir st gl a n ce a t them might suggest th a t the l a nd h a s k no w n how to preserve its subst a nce a t the expense of the town But we h a ve seen th a t in rea lity l a ndowners a n d f a rmers were given no such opportun ity ; they were on the contra ry prevented from m a king norm a l pr ofi t s out of their tra ns a ctions with the ur b a n pop ul a tio n Th e offi ci a l economi c a n d fi n a n ci a l policy left the f a rmers in a n impecu ni ous st a te ; a n d in a coun try lik e Rum a ni a the a ffl uen ce or poverty of the fa rming communi ty n a tur a lly a ffects the wel fa re of all other forms of economic a ctivity But if gen era l poli cy a n d not the l a nd reform w a s responsible for the depression of the f a rmers one must wi th still gre a ter rea son a ttribute to the s a me c a use the di sc om fi t ur e of the urb a n tra ders a n d in Thi s is proved in deed by Dr Ca r a nfil s figur es They ve st or s show th a t the genera l run of the people who i nvested in the f a voured new industri a l enterprises found themselves worse off a t the end of the fir st experiment a l dec a de th a n di d the non fa voured fa rmers ; those indeed who merely fa iled to derive a n income from such in vestmen ts were the fortuna te few One m a y set a ga in st this the a dva nt a ges which townspeople h a ve derived from th a t policy Until two ye a rs a go Rum a ni a w a s fa r a n d a w a y the che a pest country in Europe to live i n To this the reform m a y b e s a id to h a ve contributed indirectly but only in one sense It is doubtful whether the St a te s policy A rgu M rch 29 1 928 1

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S OCI AL AND

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would h a ve b een t h e s a me if a gricultur e h a d rem a in ed under the i n fl uen ce of the powerful l a nded cl a ss As it w a s fa r from the p ea s a nts di ct a ting their prices to the towns— a s h a ppened in m a n y p a rts of centra l a n d western E ur ope it w a s the towns which were en a bled to ext ra ct a tribute from the country side Whether the ur b a n popul a tion derived a l a sting ben efi t from the St a te s e conomic policy is a nother m a tter It coul d not a lto gether prevent a rise in the cost of a gric ul tur a l products it merely del a yed it ye a r by ye a r ; a n d th a t tra nsitory che a pness of food stuffs w a s offset by the dea rness of the hea vily protected m a nufa ctured goods Th e truth is th a t t a ken by themselves ret a il in dex numbers tell nothing of the a ctu a l conditions of living until tra n sl a ted into re al w a ges a n d s a l a ries Thi s w a s 1 n do e by M Mih a il Ma n oil es cu In 1 923 he di sclosed a situ a tion which w a s ba d a t the tim e a n d w hi ch h a s never ce a sed to grow worse The occup a tion census of 1 9 1 3 showed th a t persons or 1 8 5 per cent of the tot a l popula tion in the 01d Kingdom were living in the town s In Grea ter Rum a ni a the l a rger p ercent a ge of urb a n inh a bit a nts a n d ur b a n occup a tions in Tra nsylva ni a a n d Bucovi n a is offset by their lesser p ercent a ge in B ess a ra bi a so th a t in genera l the v a rious proportions rem a in much the s a me In 1 9 1 3 therefore in the a b ove tot a l w a s included : i e 43 per cent employers a n d their f a mili es ; 1 e 25 per cent s a l a ried employees a n d their f a milies ; i e 23 p er cent workers a n d their f a milies ; .

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while the rem a inder 9 per cent were a lso employees such a s domestic serva nts a pprentices & c Hence 5 7 per cent of the urb a n popul a tion were w a ge e a rners In a lm ost a ll the Europ ea n cou n tries the re a l w a ges of these section s of the p op ul a tion h a ve risen a fter the Wa r I n Rum a ni a a ccordin g to the index of the Mini s try of L a bour ( J a nu a ry 1 923) the w a ges of workers in priv a te u n dert a kings h a d risen to sixteen times the pre w a r level ; re a l a s the ret a il i n dex of necess a ries w a s 34 44 ( J un e w ages rem a ined in f a ct 5 3 per cent lower th a n b efore the Wa r The situ a tion w a s much worse for St a te employees e s peci a lly A rgu J ul y 23 1 9 28 ,

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THE REFORM

46 5

for those in receipt of s a l a ries The memora ndum submitted by the Society of Engi neers in M a rch 1 923 st a ted th a t the nomin a l w a ges of r a il wa ym en were nineteen times the pre w a r level but the s a l a ries of ra ilw a y in spectors o nl y 3 1 5 hi gher whi ch mea nt th a t their re a l s a l a ries were 8 9 per cent lower This l a tter figur e w a s prob a bly a pp lic a ble to a ll civil serva nts Their life through out these yea rs h a s been truly a m a rtyrdom Amo n g the p a tients of di spens a ries an d s a n a tori a for the tub erculous St a te em a t of a n a th other l o e es formed a l a rger percent a ge y p y th n occup a tion Such a p a uperizing sc a le of remun era tion h a s been possible b ec a use of the a bsence or the system a tic destruction of workers orga ni z a tions ; a n d a lso b ec a use of the hybrid ch a r a cter of much of the l a bour employed in industry a n d mi ning In the Old Kin gdom a m a j ority of the unskill ed workers were pe a s a nts who took up industri a l work dur ing the periods when fi eld work w a s Most of the skill ed workers were foreigners a t a st a ndstill Rum a ni a n workers were in a mi nority a mo n g i ndustri a l l a b our in Tra nsylva n i a the bulk of them were pe a s a nts without l a nd either bec a use they c a me from a l a rge f a mily or b ec a use they h a d b een forced to sell out ; they were employed especi a lly in min i ng a n d t imber fellin g L a nded pea s a nts a lso were to be found in the timber industry working in comp a n ies th a t is in tea ms who co n tra cted together for a d efi ni t e piece of work a n d di vided the pr ofi t a mong themselves ; they usu a lly spent a b out four months in industri a l work Dur in g the fi rst ye a rs a fter the Wa r numb ers of vill a gers were a ttra cted to the town s by the new industri a l enterprises then st a rted During th a t period a gri culture suffered from a short a ge of l a bour being un a ble to offer w a ges a n d genera l conditions a s a ttr a ctive a s those of industry V ery soon however a num ber of fa ctories h a d to reduce their a ctivi ty or to close down a n d the resulting u n employment checked the exodus to the town s A proportion of workers would a ppe a r in fa ct to h a ve retur ned to the l a nd 1 .

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i bility of in du stry t o offe r a livi g t o t h e w orke rs it firs t a ttra cte d h as i n cr s d t h e n u mb e r of e migran ts n otw ith st di g t h e o b sta cl s pl c e d i n th ir way by R u m i n a uth oriti es a d by s om of t h o ve r ea c o u n tri s Th re w re fe w R u ma n i an mi gr an ts fr m t h e O ld Ki n gd om b fore t h e War But Tr ns ylv a ni a ga v e a c o ns id e r a bl e n u m b e r m os t of th e m p asan t s w h o fir s t tri e d th e ir luck i n i n du s try 1

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466

S OCI AL

AND

POLITICAL

R a pid depreci a tion in the purch a sing p ower of the cur rency h a s evidently h a d more to do with the tri a ls of the working a n d s a l a ried cl a sses th a n a n y excessive incre a se in the cost of food stuffs The declin e of a gric ul tura l production a n d consequently of exports h a s cert a inly contributed to th a t depreci a tion But in how fa r the l a n d reform could be held respon sible for th a t decli ne a n d thus indirectly for the di ffi cult y which most towns people h a d of m a king ends meet must b e left to the re a der to conj ecture from the a rgume n ts of e a rlier ch a pters There h a ve been a numb er of c a ses however in which town s or urb a n i nstitutio n s h a ve sufi ere d a loss of revenue through the l a nd reform which h a s a ffected the public service they used to render Quit e a n umb er of the Tra nsylva ni a n towns e g owned stretches of a ra ble l a nd on their b orders a n d these properties h a ve b een expropri a ted like those of individu a l own ers The town of Timi s o a ra to give a n ex a mple own ed c a d a stra l r s ; a ll of this l a nd w hi ch la u a b eyond r d us of one k m from a a i j g y the b a rriers of the town i e a r s h a s been expropri a ted u j g at lei per j uga r The loss in revenue h a s of cour se to b e b a l a nced through an incre a se in ra tes a n d t a xes The outst a n d ing c a ses in this ca tegory of sufferers a r e cert a i n prom i nent cultura l a n d ch a rit a ble e n d own m en t s It h a s b een a plea si n g custom with old Rum ani a n fa mili es to m a rk the fa vour s a n d a lso the tri a ls of fortun e by l a rge he a rted ch a rity ; a n d a s a ll their we a lth consisted of l a nd their ch a rity took the form of gifts in l a nd to churches mona steries hospital s & c The l a nd of churches a n d mon a steries in the Old Kingdom w a s a lre a dy sec ul a rized in 1 8 63 The chief rem a ining e n d owmn en t s were those concerned with the m a inten a nce of hospit a ls a s the Endowment of Ci vili a n Hospit a ls a n d th a t of the Brancove a nu Ho spit a ls of B uc a rest ; the E n dowment of the S a int Sp i ridon .

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m i gr a te d t o A me ric a R u m a n i a n e m i gr a n ts n u m b e r e d for t h e fi r s t h a lf y ea r of 1 9 24 w e r e , by c o m p a ri son , a s fo llo ws Fr o m Tr a n s ylv an i a

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OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

46 7

Hospit a ls a n d Alm shouses of J a ssy & c ; to which shoul d b e a dded the Rum a ni a n Ac a demy whose a ctivities were supported m a inly from the revenue of l a nd property Thes e institutions h a ve b een expropri a ted of a ll their a ra ble l a nd receiving a s compens a tion untra nsfera ble p erpetua l bo n ds be a ri n g 5 per cent interest which mea ns a fix e d ye a rly in come equ a l to a b out 1 /1 6 t h of the revenue they derived from their a r a ble l a n d in 1 9 1 6 without t a k i ng i n to a ccount the f a ll in the purch a sing power of the money Th a t consequence of the reform is the more unfortun a te a s hospit a l a ccomm od a tion h a s a lwa ys b een in a dequ a te a n d a s no public funds h a ve b een pl a ced a t the di s pos a l of these endowments to en a ble them to close the ga p in their priva te resources Indeed they h a ve b een held to the ob li ga tion of m a int a ini ng out of their funds the clin ics a tt a ched to the fa cul ties of medicin e though these were St a te institutions The following extra cts from the i ntroduction to the 1 927 budget of the S t Spiridon Endowment of Ja ssy give a restra ined picture of the effects of expropri a tion on its a cti vities The S t Spiridon Endowm e n t h a d under its c a re ni ne hospit a ls one m a ternity cli ni c a n orph a n a ge a n a sylum for old people seven chur ches a n d thr ee Cloisters Its fun ds collected over a period of 1 70 ye a rs consisted of l a nd prop erties The revenue h a d been suffi ci en t b oth for upkeep a n d im provements bec a use the rent from those esta tes h a d risen w ith every rise in the cost of livi ng Ha d the endowment rem a ined in possession of its esta tes the ye a rly revenue from them wo ul d h a ve a mounted i n 1 9 27 to a t le a st lei The expropri a tion bonds yield a fi x e d revenue of lei ye a rly Since 1 91 9 a n effort h a s been m a de to intensify the exploit a tion of the Endo w ment s forests but this expedi ent could not b e pressed further without depreci a ting the c a pit a l itself The 1 9 1 6 budget a mo unted to gold lei or roughly to p a per lei ; the 1 927 budget w a s only lei ,

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trus t e e s h a v e b e e n fo r ce d by ci r cum s t a n ces t o i n tr o duce t h e s y s t e m o f p a i d h os p i t a l s e r vi ces b u t on l y t h e s u r i c a l s e r vi ce s a r e m a d e g us e of by p a t i e n t s w h o c a n a ffo r d t o p a y F or t h e r es t w e ge t o n l y p o o r p a t i e n t s w h o h a v e t o be a tt en d e d gr a tui t ous l y i n a cco r d a n ce wi t h t h e i n t e n t ion s o f t h e foun d e r s B e ca u s e o f t h e i n s uffi ci e n t r e v e n ue t h e ‘

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11

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468

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL E n d o w m en t ca n n o t p a y i t s e m p l o y e e s a li vi n wa e s o t h a t i t ca nn o t g g c l a i m fr o m t h e m d e v o t e d s e r v i ce I f so m e goo d e m p l o y e es s t i ll r e m a i n i t i s o n l y b e ca u s e t h e y h a v e b e e n m a n y y e a r s i n i t s s e rvi ce Ma n y o f t h e m ca n n o t be p e n sion e d b ecaus e t h e E n d owm en t h a s n o m ea n s o f p a yi ng b o t h s a l a r i es a n d p e n sion s Th e h e a d s of m e di ca l s e r vi ces a r e so b a d l y r e mun e r a t e d t h a t onl y o n e of t h e m w h o h a s fou r a w a r d s for l e n gt h o f s e r v i ce r e ce i v e s i n a ll wi t h v a r iou s b o n us e s 4 220 le i 4 8 0d ] m on t hl y ; t h e o t h e r s b e gi n a t 3 5 5 01ei A ssi s t a n t s se rv a n t s 8 3 0d ] & c a r e s o b a d l y p a i d t h a t w e c a n o n l y h a v e t h e wo r s t t yp e of n u r s in g p e r s on n e l a n d e v e n such w e c a n n o t fi n d H o s pi t a l buil di n gs h a v e fa llen i n t o suc h a s t a t e o f di s r e p a i r t h a t t h e y a r e a d i s gr a ce t o o ur u t o d a t e p S ta t e Th e E n d o w m e n t fo un d i t s e lf i n a m o s t a w k w a r d p o s i t i on w h en fo r e i gn gue s t s ca m e t o Vi s i t i t s l a r ge s t h os p i t a l t h e C e n tr a l H os pi t a l Th e foo d s e r v e d t o t h e p a t i e n t s i s o f i n fe r i o r qua l i t y W e ca n n o t p u r c h a s e e v e n h a l f t h e m e d i ca m e n t s a n d s u r i ca l m a t e r i a l s r e qu i r e d s o t h a t g t h e d oc t o r s a r e on l y t oo j ust ifi e d w h e n t h e y c om p l a i n o f t hi s s ta t e o f t h i n gs Thi s i s t h e s itua t ion i n w hi ch t h e E n d owm e n t h a s b e en pla ce d t h r ough t h e e xp r o p r ia t io n b e s i d e s t h e fa ct t ha t t h e S t a t e h a s i m p ose d u p on us t h e o b l iga t ion o f m a i n t a in in g t h e cl in i cs a tt a c h e d t o t h e fa cul t y A s w e c a n no t k e e p go i n g wi t h suc h a bu d ge t un l e s s t h e of m e d ic i n e S t a t e t a k e s up on i t s e l f t o m a ke goo d t h e l o ss i t h a s ca u s e d w e s h a ll be fo r ce d t o c l os e t h e c l i n i cs a n d s o m e o f t h e h o s p i t a l s ,

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The m a inten a nce of the clini cs cost the Endowm ent 8 623 494 1ei in 1 925 tow a rds w hi ch the Ministry of Educ a tion contributed one milli on lei In 1 927 the Endowment further received a sub lei from the Mi nistry of Publi c Hea lth a n d ve n t i on of lei from the J a ssy muni cip a lity The Buc a rest Endo w ment of Civili a n Hospit a ls h a s h a d to f a ce the s a me d ifficult ies It h a s reduced the num ber of b eds to 5 0 a n d then to 20 in e a ch of its cli n ics ; it dem a nds from a ll its p a tients a fee of 1 40 lei p er d ay which is much a b ove the e a rn i n gs of workers or of j un ior clerks a n d a ddi tion a l fees for sur gic a l opera tions its buildings a r e in a st a te of dec a y The Endowm ent h a s b een criticized for h a ving rein vested its fun ds wi th un i n effi ci en t i n gener a l in oil sh for a res a n d l r ofi t a b e res ul ts p a dm i n istra tion ; but b e th a t a s it m a y it coul d only h a ve a ggra va t e d a situ a tion the origin of whi ch la y in the l a nd reform The Pe a s a nt le a ders h a ve shown themselves unrepent a nt in t h is reg a rd They dem a n ded the tot a l expropri a tion of a ll endow ments a n d the m a inten a nce of h OS pit a ls & c out of publi c fun ds Their one a nxiety w a s to a bolish l a ndlordism a n d in their view ,

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EFFECTS

OF THE REFO RM

46 9

the Endow ments h a d pressed the pe a s a nts a s h a rd a s a n y money gra bbing ten a nt During the deb a te in the Ch a mb er in 1 921 M Mih ala ch e s a id : We c a nnot a llow a phil a nthropic institution first to c a use di se a se a mong the people of this coun try by we a keni ng them a n d then to t a ke in one here a n d there to nurse in its hospit a ls The Rum a ni a n Ac a demy is the coun try s highest cultura l institution enga ged in m an ifold a n d indi spens a ble a ctivities The Ac a demy t hr ough the v a rious sections publi she s origina l studies which woul d not fin d a comm erci a l publisher ; it h a s in its keepin g Rum a ni a s most import a nt li bra ry ; it h a s m a in t a ined out of its fun ds two a gricultur a l schools a n d other educ a tion a l h a l a nd which the Ac a demy possessed a ctivities Oi the h a h a ve been expropri a ted 1 Most of b efore the reform h a w a s formerly let to pe a s a nts on generous the l a nd condi tions ; a s a consequence the Ac a demy h a s received a sm all er compens a tion th a n n eighbouring individu a l owners The expropri a ted a re a woul d h a ve brought in a t current prices lei ; the fi x ed ye a rly interest on the a revenue of perp etu a l bonds a moun ts to lei From the rem a ini n g l a nd the Ac a demy derives a n income of a bout lei ; the recent Eli a s bequest brings in 1 8 00 0001ei y ea rly ; the Ferdin a nd Found a tion contributed one milli on lei e a ch ye a r but in 1 926 this w a s commuted into one fi n al gift of 5 million lei For the m a inten a nce of the Libra ry the Mini stry of Educ a tion contri butes a subvention of lei ye a rly Roughl y therefore the Ac a demy s yea rly income re a ches a b out 5 m illion lei Th a t sum h a s not en a bled it to c a rry on its former a ctivities It could not pa y its employees s a l a ries comm ensura te with the rise in the cost of li vi n g It could not m a int a in its buil din gs in proper condition ; the Aca demy h a s onl y recen tly b een a ble to build through the Eli a s b equest a fir e proof repository for its i mport a nt a n d irrepl a ce a ble coll ection of m a nuscripts docum ents a n d old books Rea di n g a ccommodation is pit ifully in a d equa t e in rel a tion to the im porta nce of the Libra ry a n d to the growing numb er of rea ders M a ny useful studies sub mi tted to the Ac a demy a r e w a it .

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Th w r ki d y pr p r d a d mi n i s tr tiv e s ta ff 1

es e

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purpos e of thi s study by t h e A c a d e my s ’

470

S OCI AL AND POLITICAL

in g in

va in to b e published The sum formerly sp ent on publi s hi ng wa s gold lei th a t of recent ye a rs onl y a b out 1 200 0001ei or gold lei ; the proportion b ein g still worse if one t a kes into a cco unt the rel a tively hi gher cost of p a per a n d print i ng One must a lso rememb er th a t i n the me a nwhile the coun try h a s doubled its size a n d pop ul a tion The Libr a ry is sufferin g severely ; the ga p c a used by the Wa r in the supply of essenti a l foreign public a tions c a n not now b e m a de good nor ca n new foreign b ooks be a cqui red regul a rly b ec a use of the depreci a ted exch a nge Th e ye a rly expendi ture on the Libr a ry formerly a mounted to gold lei a n d now to p a per or a b out gold lei Fro m 1 928 onw a rds notwithst a ndi ng the severe r est ri c tion of its a ctivities the Ac a demy h a s h a d no prosp ect of b ein g a ble to b a l a nce its budget .

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S E C TI O N S O CI A L

E FFE C T S

IN

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T H E VI LL AGE

I f you ‘ 1 8 72, you ‘

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consider the m a tter ca refully w rote Ion Ghi ca in will observe th a t it w a s a lw a ys only one cl a ss of our people which a roused sym p a thy a t home a n d a bro a d— the cl a ss of those who tilled the soil ; for they a lone h a ve followed the p a th which Providence h a s tra ced for m ank ind : to live by the s we a t of one s brow Thirty fi ve ye a rs l a ter a fter the despera t e rising of 1 9 07 on e of the big l a ndowners M I B ibiceseu r e c a lled with much une a siness how the pea s a nts h a d toil ed to protect the new St a te in time of stress a n d to m a in t a in it in pe a ce ,

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i t wi t h t h e d e ep e s t s o rr ow w e h a v e n o t s h o w n t h e se peo p h g ra t i tu d e o r a ffe c t io n Th e n e w i n s t i t u t i on s h a v e gi v e n us r ig h t s ; t h e y cou l d n ot i n s t i l i n t o us s e n t im e n t s le t a l on e d e m oc r a t i c S o t h a t w e ha v e b e e n s a t is fi e d s en t i m e n t s a n d a s en s e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w i t h e n j o y i n g t h e p o s i t i o n s w e h a d a c qu i r e d m a k i n g us e of t h em for t h e c o n s t a n t i m p r o v e m e n t o f o ur c o m fo rt s b u t t h e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r n ee d s h a v e b e e n t h e l a s t o f our ca r e s if i t h a s b e e n on e a t a ll I l oo k i n t o 1 s my c o n s cie n ce a n d a ck nowl e d ge a n d co nfe ss m y e l f gui lt y ‘

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J ust when the new St a te s fi r st sp a n of life 1

Pr efa ce t o I n

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b out to clos e

OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

471

a hn ost a

century a fter the restor a tion of a utonomous govern ment a n d a fter h a lf a centur y of n a tiona l i n dep endenc e— the deputy M D P a t ra sca n u sp ea king in the Ch a mber a t J a ssy thus a ssessed the gift which th a t politic a l rena scen ce h a d brought to the pea s a nts : .

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Con s e que n tl y of a ll t h e c oun tr i e s i n h a b i t e d by R um a n i a n s i t i s i n Th e u lt i m a t e c o n c l u fr e e R um a n i a t h a t t h e p e a s a n t i s t h e wo r s t o ff s i o n i s s t i l l m o r e p a i n fu l : t h e l o n ge r o n e o f t h e co un tr y s p r o v i n ce s h a s b e en s e p a r a t e d fr om i t t h e m o r e i t h a s e s ca p e d o ur r es tr ic t i v e a g r a r ia n l a ws a n d t h e b e tt e r i s t h e con d i t i on o f it s p e a s a n t s W h a t a t e r r i ble d i sco v e r y for us l 1 ‘

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When the pe a s a nts l a nd rights were for the fi rst tim e restricted by Mor uz zi in 1 8 05 the num b er of big a ni m a ls for which they could cl a im gra zing w a s li mited to 1 6 in B ess a ra bi a a n d 1 2 in the Mold a vi a n lowl a nds the men with only 4 oxen formin g the lowest c a tegory B y the time the pe a s a nts were em a ncip a ted in 1 8 64 those w ith 4 oxen h a d b ecome the le a di ng c a tegory ; in 1 906 in some of the counties only 1 7 per cent of the households possessed domestic a ni m a ls while in other coun ties a s m a ny a s 32 pe r cent of the households h a d no l a rge a nim a ls a t a ll not even a mil ch cow But while the pea s a nt wa s impoverished the country Rum a ni a in cre a si n gly en a pp a rently incre a sed in subst a nce j oyed the reput a tion of b eing an eminen tly a gra ri a n country r ofi t from i t S a ys M Iorg a : a n d of deriving gre a t p ’

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Our

u ltu r e b e fo r e t h e r efo r m o n l y e x i s t e d t h r ough a n i n j us t i ce t h r ou gh a s o c i a l e vi l w hi c h h a s n ow b e e n r e m o v e d T e a r s n o t I n o r d e r t h a t a c e r t a i n qua n t i t y o n l y d r o p s o f r a i n wa t e r e d t h e fu rr ows a t a gi v e n t i m e i n t h e wo rl d s o f R um a n i a n co r n s h ou l d be fo un d m a r k e t s a w ho l e p op ul a t i o n un t i l a s h o rt t i m e a go h a d t o l a b ou r fo r ci b l y a lm o s t un d e r t h e w h i p ; a m a n s o w n fi e ld s r e m a i n i n g t o be A n d a l a r ge p a rt o f t h a t ca r e d for l a s t a n d w i t h t h e l ea s t a d v a n t a ge e n o r m ou s su r p l u s w hi c h w e e xp o rt e d ca m e fr o m t h e d e p r i v a t i o n o f t h e p r o duce r s t he ms e l v e s We we r e s e ll i ng t h e b r ea d w h i c h w a s d e n i e d t o 2 w h m t hose o a d e it ‘

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This wa s

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pe e ch i n t h e d e b t o t h e bill for c L mi Buc res t S e pte mb er 23 1 9 1 8 A rticl e i n P lums N o v m b e r 26 19 23

1

in

liter a lly true : a t the s a me time a s the big corn export being b uilt up the consum ption of m a ize the pea s a nt s was

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m puls ory

ricultura l l a b o ur s

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re ported

47 2

S OCI AL

AND POLITICAL

st a ple food fell from 230 kg p er hea d of pop ul a tion in 1 8 90 to 1 46 k g in 1 9 03 Ex a ctly the s a me thing w a s h a ppenin g in the neighbour i ng Russi a n Empire ; the formida ble growt h of the corn export a fter the em a ncip a tion of the serfs in 1 8 6 1 w a s a ccomp a ni ed by a ste a dy decre a se in the a vera ge i ntern a l consumption Such a n emin ently a gra ri a n country Rum an i a will never b e a ga in Professor Iorg a a ssures us : the free sm a llholders will work less for others a n d will ea t more themselves One can di stingui sh in bro a d lin es three m a in p eriods in th a t downw a rd trend in the st a tus of the pea s antry 1 Dur ing the fi r st the pe a s a nts enj oyed on the whole yeom a n freedom an d rights to the l a nd until the fir st w a s form ally cur t a iled by Mih a iu the Bra ve tow a rds the end of the six teenth centur y 2 Th e second p eriod l a sted t ill the form a l em a ncip a tion of the serfs in 1 8 64 ; w ith a period of tra nsition from 1 746— 9 onw a rds when the pe a s a nts servi le ties b ega n to loosen a n d the l a ndlords ende a voured i nste a d to strengthen the i r ow n title to the l a nd 3 The third period coincided w ith the form a l reign of constitution a l lib erties when a s a consequence the t a sk of constra ining the pe a s a nts wa s t h rown upon the a dm ini 1 s t r a t i ve m a ch i nery During the fi r st period the free p e a s a ntry h a d the use of all the l a nd a n d if their servitudes gra du a lly incre a se d it w a s onl y in so fa r a s this w a s required to meet the person a l needs of the l a nd lords ; until with the cre a tion of a st a nding a rmy the pe a s a nts were c a ll ed upon to procur e suppli es r a ther th a n to supply soldiers This st a te of things which m a de the pea s a nts servil e l a b ourers bec a me perm a nent wi th the loss of a utonomy when the p e a s a nts were seldom c a lled upon to figh t but h a d to work a ll the more to s a tisfy dem a nds from the ever ch a ngin g pr i nces ,

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xc l t th u h u rtu l l hi t ry p t i t i Pri cip liti r i t r u d ti di r c c id r bl but li ht d pt divi i ti which r lly r M Ch e ba p

t ly p ri d

r ph di id r u d ti d y ubd vid d y r r c t r rch h v pr rr d c rr ct

v es na e i n h i s e e l en o g , n fo , , un fi ni s h e d m onog a e a s a n s n o t wo ma n e o s : ( 1 ) f om t h e fo n a on of s o of t h e t h e ega a s ; s i n g t h e fir s t i n a es t o 1 8 6 4 , a n d ( 2) f o m 1 8 64 t o o ur ow n t he — 9 t o o ur ow n — a s Th e o m 1 74 6 f n o ( a ) f o m t h e fo n a on t o 1 74 6 9 , a n d ( b ) to ese a we a e efe e in t h e g o f e en ffe e n e i s n ot ons e a e , me i s fo m a mo e o e s on i n a a o 1

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EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

473

from the luxur ious boi ar s a s well a s indi rectly from the suzer a in Porte When the p e a s a nts bur dens b ecomin g un b e a ra ble c a used them to migra te in l a rge num b ers thereby dim inis h ing the resour ces of the Tre a sury Ma vr o cor d a t b ega n the movement for the dim inution of servitudes which ended with the complete e m a ncip a tion of 1 8 6 4 The boia r s countered th a t tendency with successful efforts to reduce the pe a s a nts rights to l a nd a n d to tra nsform their own usufructu a ry title into on e of proprietors h ip The tendency in the words of M Ch eba p w a s to enl a rge the lib erty of the pe a s a nts up to their full em a ncip a tion a n d to restrict their rights to l a nd up to the full em a ncip a tion of the 1 Under the r e gime of the est a tes of boi ar s a n d mon a steries Org a ni c Sta tutes the indivi du a l holdings b ec a me so sm a ll th a t for the fir st tim e the pea s a nts found themselves un der the necessity of lea sin g from the l a ndl ords a ddition a l l a nd beyond th a t to which they were lega ll y entitled In the me a s ure there fore in which the l a n dl ords were losin g the right to comm a nd the pe a s a nts l a b our they were given me a ns of a dva nt a geously b a rga ini ng for it When the p ea s a n ts were em a ncip a ted in 1 8 6 4 though it h a d to be done by a coup d eta t the l a ndlords succeeded in fur ther c urt a iling the l a nd rights a n d in n a rro w i ng the l a nd reserve of the pe a s a nts a process whi ch they a fterw a rds ne a rly completed when they bought up the St a te dom a ins During the thi rd period moreover when the pe a s a nts were constitution a lly a ltogether free the l a nded cl a ss besides b eing owners of the l a nd h a d a lso a cqui red un controlled m a stery over the government of the new n a tion a l St a te They were provided thus wi th a fresh in strument for securing the p ea s a nts l a bo ur thr ough the use of fi sca l im positions a n d of a d ministra tive me a sures ; these c ulm i n a ted in the l a ws on a gricul tura l contra cts which so diluted for the pe a s a nts the wi ne of freedom th a t it w a s to them sc a rcely more tolera ble th a n the bitter w a ters of serfdom It wi ll b e seen th a t throughout th a t evolution the one con sta nt a nxiety of the upper cl a ss h a d been to m a ke sure th a t the pea s a nts would work the l a nd If they encro a ched increa sin gly upon the pea s a nts l a nd rights it w a s solely a s a me a ns of a cquiring a hold on their l a bour The la n dl ords a ction never ,

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R egi ma l L egi i A gr a re

p 28 .

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474

S OCI AL

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POLITICAL

te nded like the English enclosures to drive the pe a s a nts a w a y so th a t the l a ndl ords might extend their own f a rmin g On the contra ry their a im w a s to obvi a te a n y need of doin g so by tyi n g the cultiva ting pe a a nts to the vi ll a ge J ust a s genuin e s feud a lism w a s un know n i n the old Rum a ni a n provin ces so modern Rum a n i a h a s never know n a genuine c a pit alist a gri cultur e The l a nded dignit a ries of the old oli ga rchi c a l pro vinces b ec a me the l a nded offi ci a ls a n d profession a l politici a ns of the new democr a tic St a te ; hence the la rge l a ndow ners h a ve never h a d the opportunity of b ecomin g a producin g cl a ss but h a ve rem a ined a ben efi ci a ry cl a ss They w a nted from their la nd a rent a n d not pr ofi t s requi ring the investment of c a pit a l a n d a person a l effort It w a s not to their interest therefore th a t the pe a s a nts shoul d b ecome l a ndl ess a n d perh a ps a b a ndon the Vill a ge but r a ther th a t they sho uld be held to the tilling of the l a nd This led m a ny i nfl ue n t ia l l a ndow ners to put forw a rd a curious propos a l a fter the rising of 1 907 They re a lized th a t the existing a gra ri a n system could not l a st much long er ; but they did not w a nt either to p a rt wi th their l a nd a n d thus m a ke room for independent pe a s a nt fa rming or themselves to emb a rk upon intensive c a pit a li st f a rming In ste a d they ur ged a s a me a ns of solvi ng the a gra ri a n problem a return to feud a l a gric ul tur e they proposed th a t l a ndowners sho ul d be obli ged to let the pe a s a nts fa rm in m é t a ya ge a ll the a re a beyond 25 0 hect a res 1 from every est a te The produce w a s to be h a lved The propos a l w a s ch a r a cteristic of the n a ture of Rum a ni a n l a n d lordism ; it would in effect h a ve revi ved the servitude upon the est a te a n d for the pe a s a nts the oblig a tion to pa y tithe only th a t now they were me a nt to pa y one h a lf inste a d of the tra di tion a l tenth The security a n d regul a rity of the p ea s a nt s contribution w a s in consequence the one purp ose w hi ch i n fl ue n ce d the policy of the upper cl a ss throughout those sever a l periods the difference b etween one period a n d a nother resulti n g merely from the me a ns employed to prevent the p e a s a nts from becom ing tr uly a n d fully em a ncip a ted As long a s the pea s a nts were i i ee of the l a nd their l a bour w a s tied ; when their l a bour h a d to b e freed the l a nd w a s tied ; a n d when a t long l a st through the l a test reform both l a nd ,

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C Ga r ofl id , Ch es lie A grarci , p 4 2 .

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OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

475

l a bour were fi n ally freed the m a rket w a s tied In the light of its own a nte cedents the post w a r eco n omic poli cy of di scrimin a tion a g a inst a gricul tur e now ca rried on a lmost wholly by pe a s a nts is more e a sily un derstood ; a n d one ca n underst a nd a lso why the pe a s a nts though in possession of the l a nd h a ve not felt th a t now their ex istence is secure but in s te a d h a ve thought it timely t o orga n iz e themselves for soci a l a n d politic a l a ction The c a uses from which the pe a s a nts di s a bilities spra ng were m a nifold As a husb a ndm a n he suffered from n ot h a ving enough l a nd for extensive fa rmi ng a n d not enough tra ining a n d resources for inten sive fa rming At the s a me tim e he w a s a s a citizen the Victim of bi a ssed legisl a tion a n d even more of m a la d m in i st ra tion of la w a n d j ustice Oi these four groups of dis a bili ties weighi n g upon the pea s a nts the l a nd reform co ul d remove only the fi r st a n d th a t merely i n principle for even if it took all the l a nd a wa y there w a s not enough of it to en a ble a ll pe a s a nt households to live from exte n sive f a rmi ng Correspondingly more weight a tt a ched to the remova l of the dis a b ili ties comprised in the second a n d thi rd groups ; yet the supply of educ a tio n a n d working resour ces is a t best in the embryoni c st a ge while dis crim in a ting legisl a tion though somewh a t ch a n ged in a spect rem a ined a s burdensome a fter the r efo1 m a s it w a s b efore it As reg a rds a dm ini stra tive mora ls they h a d little ch a nce of im provin g durin g a tim e when offi ci a ls could not possibly live on the s a l a ries which the St a te p a id them ; a n d when e very institution an d section of the comm uni ty— Cour t an d Uni ver sities a rmy an d schools— w a s dra w n into the politic a l co n test betwee n the old rulin g groups a n d the new popul a r forces 1 Th e E con omi c S i tua ti on of th e P ea sa n tr y Once more one must regret the a bsence of co or d in a ted inqui ries into the effects of the reform Sociologic a lly tested m a teri a l on the ch a nges th a t a r e t a king pl a ce in vill a ge life is non existent there b eing o n ly spora di c observ a tions a llowin g glimpses into odd sections of the new h a bits an d trends We c a nnot therefore hope to do more in the brief sur vey w h ich foll ows th a n point out incipient v a ri a tions which a ppe a r lik ely to become perm a nent ch a nges It would b e n a tura l to t a ke it for gra nted th a t such a ra dic a l l an d reform would im prove to a s imila r degree the life of the an d

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476

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POLITICAL

p eople for whose ben efit it w a s en a cted were it not for the experience of the reform of 1 8 64 when a gre a t constitution a l a dv a nce w a s n ullifi e d by me a ns of retrogressive l a ws a n d the i r a busive a d mini str a tion The in di gence under whi ch the pe a s a nts l a b oured b efore the reform of 1 8 6 4 w a s tr a nsformed a fter it in to a st a te of chro ni c poverty From tha t st a te they could h a r dl y f a ll lower u nl ess their holdi ngs h a d b een t a ken a wa y from them Yet therein lies the chi ef di fference b etween the reform of 1 8 6 4 a n d th a t of 1 9 1 7— 21 : the fi r st left the pe a s a nts w ith less l a nd tha n they h a d b een a ccustomed to till— a s h a pp ened almost everywhere when the pe a s a nts were em a ncip a ted— whi le the second h a s given them p ossession of a lmost a ll the a va il a ble a r a ble l a nd The a nn ui ty they h a ve to pa y for it h a s b een esti m a ted by M Ga r ofli d to b e equ a l to merely ten d a ys l a bour in the ye a r Moreover the reduction in the size of the p e a s a nt holdi ngs in 1 8 6 4 w a s m a de the mea ns for the conscription of p e a s a nt l a b our to the detrim ent oiztheir own c ultiva tion wherea s in the present c a se the dis a ppe a r a nce of l a rge property h a s a lso done a w a y with the me a ns a s well a s the occ a sion for th a t exploit a tion of pe a s a nt l a bour For the fir st tim e therefore since the spre a d of whe a t growi ng in Rum a ni a the pea s a nts h a ve g a in ed th a t freedom of a ction wi thout w hi ch a n i mprove ment in their own fa rmi ng coul d not even begin It is true th a t rel a tively few pe a s a nts h a ve been endowed with economic a lly self cont a ined hol d ings but a dm ittin g th a t in consequence they m a y not b e economic all y a s a utonomous a s they co ul d wi sh it is nevertheless beyond a doubt th a t they a re in a v a stly better p osition th a n they were b efore Other things b ein g equ a l a given a gricultur a l pop u l a tion ca n obt a in thr ough pe a s a nt f a rmi n g a much richer gross production th a n under a system of extensive l a rge sc a le fa rming ; a n d ii in a ddition they ca n in the fir st c a se ret a in for themselves a l a 1 ger sh a re of the produce of their l a bour th a n when the l a ndlords h a d to b e p a id from it it is e vident th a t the pe a s a nts st a nd to b ene fit under such a 1 efor m a s the present both from a n a b solute a n d from a rel a tive incre a se in r et ui n s from the l a nd For re a sons d esc1 ibe d l n the preceding ch a pters the l a nd 1 e fo1 m h a s not so i a 1 b een a ccomp a nied by a n in c1 ea s e in a gri ,

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477

THE REFORM

cultur a l production The onl y question therefore is whether the new a gra ria n r egime h a s given the pe a s a n ts a rel a tively l a rger sh a re of the produce The truth is however th a t l a rge property an a n d f a rmin g now pl a y an a ltogether sub or d in a te p a rt y a dv a nt a ge which the pe a s a nts m a y hope to derive must be obt a i ned not a s a cl a ss from the other section of the rura l com munity but r a ther a s a professiona l group from other industries Rum a ni a n a griculture is now pra ctic a lly i d en t ifi e d a n d tr a des wi th pe a s a nt fa rming a n d wh a t we h a ve s a id concern i ng the fa te of a gricultur e d urin g the fir st dec a de of the reform describ ed therefore on genera l lin es how the pe a s a nts fa red in th a t period The y suffered not only th rough a n un friendl y po licy but a lso through the inst a b ility a n d inconsequence of m a ny me a sur es t a ken un der pressur e from some interested group Too few of their grieva nces were redr essed for them to h a ve re a ched a h a ppy economi c a n d soci a l position M Ga r ofli d h a s indeed m a in t a ined th a t they were worse off th a n b efore He h a s pro d uc e d fi gur e s to show th a t before the Wa r the income of a middling pe a s a nt household fa rmin g 5 h a w a s 6 8 5 lei a n d th a t of a t a il end household fa rming 3 h a 41 8 lei ; in 1 922—3 these two c a tegories h a d incomes of a n d 9 48 0 1e i where a s to equ a l their pre w a r income the a moun ts shoul d h a ve been an d lei The in comes of these c a tegories h a d thus fa llen by 25 per cent Considering th a t it w a s a fa ll from such mea n tot a ls a s 68 5 a n d 41 8 gold lei re a lized under the h a rd r egim e of neo serfdom wh a t h a s been the use of the a gra ri a n revolution which rui ned the l a rge owners without bringing relief to the pea s a nts 1 M Ga r ofli d b a sed his c a lc ul a tion on the m a rket prices of the prin cip a l cere a ls so th a t prob a bly the fi gur es wo uld b e less unfa vour a ble if the m a n y other products w hi ch the pea s a nts put on the m a rket were included ; moreover to simplify his problem M Ga r oflid delibera tely left rent out of a ccount But tha t is j ust the princip a l relief which the reform h a s brought to the pea s a nts On the b a sis of the cu s tom a ry méta yage condi tions they would h a ve h a d to pa y for the expropri a ted six milli on h a a ra ble l a nd one h a lf of the produce r a ised with their o wn seed besides other sm a ll obli g a tions in l a bour a n d in kind ,

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Articl e i n A rgus , J uly 26 , 1 923

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478

S OCI AL AND POLITICAL

The v a lue of these subsidi a ry oblig a tions w a s equ a l a t le a st to the ten d a ys l a bo ur whi ch a ccording to M Ga r ofii d n ow suffi ce for the p a y ment of the a nnui ty a n d to the a mount of the l a nd t a x up to 1 9 27 Therefore th a t h a lf of the produce whi ch formerly would h a ve b een the l a ndown ers sh a re roughl y three milli on tons ye a rly at the a vera ge yield of k g per h a is thr ough the resettlement a cle a r g a in for the pe a s a nts As the tot a l num ber of pe a s a n t fa mili es is j ust over three millions one can estim a te in a rough a n d re a dy fa shion th a t thr ough the fa ct of b eing owners a n d no longer ten a nts e a ch pea s a nt k g corn to its household h a s been a ble to a d d ne a rly ye a rly stock of food Duri n g the controvers y whi ch c a lled forth M Ga r ofli d s a rticle it w a s pointed out by M Man oil es cu th a t a pe a s a nt household spent on a n a vera ge not more th a n one fi ft h of its income on m a nufa ctured good s a n d th a t i n consequence it w a s a ffected only to tha t lim ited fra ction by the excessive dea rness of industri a l products ; hence he concluded th a t spea k ing bro a dly the income of the p e a s a nts h a d incre a sed 30 times but their cost of li ving o nl y 1 3 tim es 1 M Ma n oile scu s poin t w a s qui te j ust i fi e d w ith two reserva tions Dur ing th a t period m a ny new f a rmste a ds were cre a ted or old o n es e nl a rged b esides which the Wa r d a m a ge h a d to b e m a de good a ll thi s ent ailin g a higher expenditur e on industri a l products th a n M Ma n oile s cu a llowed for ; secondly like M Ga r ofli d he h a d b a sed his estim a te of the pe a s a nts income on the only a v a ila ble Rum a ni a n in dex num b ers whi ch rel a te to ret a il prices a n d these were of cour se much higher th a n those which went i nto the p e a s a nts pockets M Ga r oflid a lso referred in the a bove mentioned a rticle to the position of the l a ndless p e a s a nts In the purely a gric ultura l regions with a dense popul a tion the bre a k up of the l a rge est a tes h a s restricted the dem a n d for l a bour ; for thi s re a son a n d b ec a use the medium s ized f a rms can a fford to pa y onl y reduced w a ges in rel a tion to the reduced prices obt a in a ble for the i r crops the — Ha d it a ver a ge d a ily w a ge does not exceed 1 5 20 lei a n d food kept level with the rise in the cost of livin g it should h a ve b een three times a s high M Ga r ofli d w a s wr itin g a t a time when the big f a rmers were compl a ining of a short ag e of l a bo ur during the Articl i A rgu J uly 1 6 1 9 23 ’

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479

THE REFORM

gricultura l se a son hence his figur e s were prob a bly subj ect to con sidera ble v a ri a tions in sp a ce a n d in time Four ye a rs l a ter in severa l pl a ces we foun d in fa ct th a t the cost of l a bour a n d c a rting w a s a bout the s a me a s before the reform the lesser dem a nd b eing b a l a nced by a le s ser o ffer on the p a rt of the new pe a s a nt proprietors In the a bsence of system a tic eviden ce a ll di scussion of the pe a s a nts m a teri a l position a fter the reform is bound to m ove specula tively from one side to the other following the writer s bi a s a n d the isol a ted observa tions on which he relies The figur e s quoted in the section on e o O pera tion showing the percent a ge of members with l a rger sh a res in the Popul a r b a nks to h a ve in cre a sed wo uld j ustify the View th a t the p e a s a nts a re better off ; whi le the contra ry a ssum ption could fi n d equ a lly strong support in the fi gur e s mentioned in the previous ch a pter wi th reference to a gricul tura l t a x a tion which showed th a t in the coun ty of Ilfov m a ny pe a s a nts h a d during a ll those ye a rs been un a ble to — a n inst a nce which w a s by no me a ns isol a ted a the ro d a t ax p y Only a full st a tistic a l inquiry coul d est a blish whether these a pp a rent contr a dictions were due to v a ri a tions from district to di strict or between one section of the pe a s a ntry a n d a nother Al s o we should then fi n d out the re a sons which h a ve c a used the pe a s a nts to get in to debt a g a in an d perh a ps d iscover whether the worst sufferers h a ve b een the newly settled p ea s a nts who h a d to orga ni z e a f a rmste a d in a dverse c i rcumst a nces or the old sm a llholders who m a y h a ve lost the use of some of the l a nd they fa rmed before Whil e the reform h a s m a de little ch a nge in the mode of f a rming a n d in the cl a ss of fa rmers it h a s withi n the s a me cl a ss tra nsferred a gre a t de a l of l a nd from some h a nds into others To some extent there h a s been a ch a n ge of persons but prin ci a ll a ch a n ge in the a re a f a rmed by e a ch household F a m ilies p y with grown up sons for ex a mple woul d hold more th a n b efore wh ile famil ies without sons would hold less F a mili es who before m a y h a ve h a d no me a ns of buyi n g l a nd h a ve now p erh a ps a tolera ble holdi ng of their own while well to do pe a s a nts a o customed to rent a d di tio n a l fi eld s from the l a rge owners a r e prob a bly un a ble to get s urplus l a nd a n y more This d ispl a ce a

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48 0

AND

S OCI AL

POLITICAL

ment in the occup a tion of l a nd h a s in cert a in villa ges completely upset the former st a te of thi ngs a n d m a ny sm a llholders h a ve been left with excessive me a ns of production for whi ch they a re trying to find employment Th is no doubt is one of the re a sons why sh a re culti va tion is still so preva lent a n d especi a lly why the l a nd which c a me into the m a rket a fter the reform h a s fetched such exorbit a nt prices The highest prices were p a id not where the l a nd w a s b est but in the hill regions where the popula tion wa s most dense ; a n d sometim es in pl a ces th a t were only 5 0 km a p a rt from e a ch other the prices would v a ry by a s much a s 1 00 per cent The pe a s a nt does not wi lli ngly move a wa y from his Vill a ge a n d l a nd is the o nl y form of in vestment he a ppreci a tes B eing a ccustomed to extensive f a rmin g he va lues more l a nd a n d not better i mplements & c ; a ni m a ls in the Old Kingdom a r e kept only in such numbers a s the holdin g c an feed B a nks a n d other c a pit a li st undert a kings ha ve not yet won the pe a s a nts con fid en ce Hence the price of la nd rose continuously un til two ye a rs a go ; since then it h a s tended to declin e in some p a rts by a s much a s one h alf bec a use of the short age of money Am ong the p e a s a nts who a n d bec a use of the a gricultur a l crisis b ought l a nd severa l ye a rs a go when there w a s li tera lly a rush for it m a ny a r e un a ble to pa y th e debts incur red to th a t end ; especi a lly in the hill regions where the l a nd w a s more expensive but less productive On the whole the reform h a s h a d within the m a ss of the pe a s a ntry a levelling effect which will prob a bly l a st a s long a s the coun try rem a ins a gra ri a n Wh a t is left of rel a tively l a rge property if purch a sed or distributed woul d a d d not even h a lf a hect a re to ea ch of the existin g pe a s a nt holdin gs while l a nd s a les a mong pe a s a nts a re a n uncomm on event If in the li ght of a ll these fa cts a n d considera tions one is to ventur e a n y a nswer a t a ll to the question whether the pea s a nts a r e m a teri a lly better off a fter the reform it is perh a ps s a fer to dissect the reply s omewh a t in thi s m a n ner 1 As a cl a ss the pe a s a nts a r e enormously ben efi t e d h a ving secured a lmost a ll the a ra ble l a nd a t a nomin a l price a n d in consequence a monopolistic control of a gric ul ture 2 As fa rmers in their profession a l c a p a city th a t ga in is more p otenti a l th a n a ctu a l ; a s fa rmers the p e a s a nts a r e prob a bly ,

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OF THE REFORM

EFFECTS

48 1

not better situ a ted th a n before They h a ve h a d to suffer from price a n d m a rketing restrictions ; from the hi gh cost of money of im plements & c ; from the ba d st a te of ro a ds a n d ra ilwa ys ; from a n excess of costly form a lities a n d a dmin istr a tive a buses 3 But for the time b eing production for the m a rket in rega rd to whi ch the pe a s a nts h a ve b een a t a di s a dva nt a ge t a kes o nl y second r a nk in their economy production b eing m a i nl y for perso n a l consum ption As the pe a s a nts themselves produce most of the thi ngs which they consume they a r e a s priva te house holders more comfort a bly provided with necess a ries bein g in a position to ret a i n for their own use a l a rger sh a re from the produce of their l a bour It is not im prob a ble indeed th a t if they h a ve been un a ble to im prove thei r equi pment a n d h a ve foun d it d iffi cult to m e et t a xes an d other im positions this h a s p a rtly been due to their h a ving used the new surplus in the fir s t pl a ce for the increa se of their own domestic a llowa nce a n d not 1 for the purpose of enl a rging their tra ding a ctivities In brief a n d spe a king genera lly the pe a s a nts h a ve disposed of l a rger suppli es th a n b efore ; they h a ve b een short of mon ey b ec a use they did n ot sell more ; a n d they did not sell more b ec a u s e they h a ve e a ten more Ch a pters IX to XI h a ve expl a ined why the output of a gricul ture did not re a ch the p oint where it might h a ve s a t i sfi e d the bod i ly needs of the p e a s a nts without dim inishin g the surplus a va il a ble for the m a rket 2 M a ter i a l Con di ti on s of L ife It is the more unfortun a te th a t one c a nnot est a bli sh st a tistic a lly the a dva nce the reform s e t goi n g in Vi lla ge li fe a s the e lements of th a t improvement coul d not of course b e u n iformly distributed either over the whole country side or over a ll the a spects of the life of a n indi vidu a l household There is no d iffi cult y therefore in picking out isol a ted circum st a n ces w hi ch wi ll support equ a lly well wholly contra dictory Views Direct cont a ct with the Villa ge however sets a ll doubt a side The fir st blossoms of a b etter life a r e Visible to every one who p a sses through the vill a ge street or sits in a .

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Pr ofe ss or s A I Ch upr ov a d A S Postni k ov cite d by Profess o r Koss i ns k y i n th i s s ries es t bli s he d th t i n R u ss i a t h e creati o of p e a s n t fa rms a d t h e i n cre ase i n th ir yi ld fir s t of a ll res ul te d i n i n crea s e d c ons umpti on a m on g t h e p ea s an t s W h o h a d for m e rly s uff e r e d fr o m a s h or ta e of fo o d Th e p ea sa n ts g fi rs t sa t i s fi ed th e ir own n ee d s b for e th e y tur n e d th e ir a tte n ti on t o t h e m rk e t 1

Th e

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48 2

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p ea s a nt p a rlour a n d who remembers th a t one must exp ect nothing b etter tha n poverty where bl a ckest misery reigned onl y a few ye a rs b efore More sign ifi can t st ill th a t ch a n ge in the a spect of Vill a ge life obviously r e fl e ct s a ch a nge in the whole outlook of the pe a s a nt His e vident a n xiety to ra ise hi s st a nda rd of li ving fin d s expression a s keenly in the dem a nd for schools a s in a b etter provi sion for hi s bodily comforts ( a ) Housi ng The reform h a s h a d a twofold cfi e ct on rura l housing It h a s a dded very considera bly to the sp a ce a va ila ble for pe a s a nt fa rmste a ds a n d it h a s initi a ted a n improvement in the buildings foun d thereon Rum a ni a n Vill a ges a r e divided into two di st inct typ es In the highl a nd a n d hill regions following the confi gur a t i on of the l a nd the vill a ges a r e frequently composed of sc a ttered f a rm stea ds ; in the pl a i n a n d often even in the va lleys le a di ng to i t the Vill age s ettlement is comp a ct stretchin g sometim es for one or more k ilometres on b oth sides of the high ro a d side streets being found only in the l a rger V ill a ges The fa rmstea ds them selves likew ise displ a y two m a in t y pes The typ e foun d i n S a xon Vi lla ges a n d in those in fluen ce d by them shows a group of buildings m a ssed round a rect a ngul a r y a rd w hi ch they shut in completely a n d which is closed tow a rds the street with a hig h The typic a l Rum a n i a n fa rmste a d like the a n d m a ssive g a te S ax on h a s the house tow a rds the street but the other buildi ngs a re sc a ttered roun d the f a rm y a rd a n d the whole is gener a lly 1 f n i n a e c sep a ra ted from the street merely by low w ttle g g g The problem which the reform h a d to solve in thi s conn exion differed in the v a rious provinces In the new provin ces especi a lly in Tra nsylva ni a the reform found the Rum a ni a n pe a s a n ts who formed the poorer section of the popul a tion ill pro vided with ,

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m a k es t h e foll ow i n g B a u i n h is a rticl e on Villa ge B i logy ( p c omm n t Dr Lup as xpl i n s thi s d ifi er ences a s foll ows Th e R u mani n i s ot afr a id thi n g t o hid e from t h e p s e r by n d bu i lds h is h o u se He h s o f h i s urr u di gs with a n o p e b lcon y givi n g it a gay a n d fri e dly a p e ct j u st b e c u se h e fee ls hims lf Th e oth r n ti n liti es a lw y s s h o w a r t irin g a n d u nfri e n dl y te n d e n cy a t h om e which s h ws th a t th e y f e l th e ms lv s t o be li en t o thi s regi on One c n i m agin th a t t h e S a x on a n d M gy r v ill ge rs h a d a S a x on or a M gy a r write r r e torti g e g t o s hut th e ms e lv s i n for prot cti on a g i ns t t h e d o ubtful h a bits of t h e R um n i a ns but th t t h e R u man i an p ea s ts c o uld ff ord t o live with o p n far mste a d s b ec a u se th e y h a d n othi ng t o f a r fro m the ir more civili ze d n i ghb ours There i s n o li m it t o t h e i n ge n uity of n a ti o a li s t s ci ol ogi s ts 1

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48 3

THE REFORM

f a rmste a ds ; these were either in s uffi ci en t in size or b a dly pl a ced in m a rshy or rocky ground on the edge of the Vi ll a ges Most of the vi ll a ges a re m ixed but e a ch n a ti on a lity li ves in a qu a rter of its own so th a t even where better l a nd w a s a va il a ble the S a xon The a n d M a gya r Vill a gers sold prefer a bly to the i r own kinsmen reform la w for Tra nsylva ni a a s we h a ve seen permitted the expropri a tion of l a nd situ a ted wi thi n a ra diu s of 600 m etres from the e dge of a V illa ge for the cre a tion of new f a rm s te a ds In the Old Kingdom the fa rmste a ds suffered from overcrowdi n g B eca use of loc a l circ umst a nces the pe a s a n ts genera lly refused to sell the l a nd they owned round the Villa ge ; newly m a rried couples were a ccommod a ted with a house in the p a re n t a l y a rd w ith the result th a t in some pl a ces the y a rd w a s crowded out with the households of two or three gen era tio n s The reform h a s provided a dequ a te sites a t the two e n d s of existing Vill a ges or sometimes it h a s est a blished new settlements a t some cro s s ro a ds In a d di tion cert a i n a re a s h a ve been reserved for the needs of future genera tions All this forms a n im port a nt soci a l a spect of the l a nd reform The serious p a rt of the rura l housing problem in the Old Kingdom la y in the qu a lity of most pe a s a nt houses I n this r e spect the reform could exercise a di rect a melior a ting in fluence only where new Vill a ge settlements were set up but indir ectly through the genera l a dva nce in the st a te of the pea s a n ts it h a s given a stimul u s tow a rds a n a ll round improvement in Vi lla ge bui l di ng The tot a l number of rura l bu i ldings a n d households ( lega lly m a rried ) w a s a s follows ,

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12

484

AND

S OCIAL

POLITICAL

No pe a s a nt li ved in a rented cott a ge Every f a mily h a d its own house which it bui lt a lmost a lw a ys itself with such m a teri a ls a s it could a fford Most houses consisted of a rough wooden fra me fi lle d in wi th soil a n d pl a stered w ith cl a y mixed with m a nur e a n d short lengths of str a w ; the roof w a s gener a lly covered w ith th a tch or wooden sl a bs The w a lls were lim ew a sh ed i nside a n d outside usu a lly every spri n g These houses h ad no foun d a tions the floor like the w a lls b eing of b ea ten cl a y Most houses consi s ted of two rooms one serving a s a f a mi ly bedroom an d the other b eing reserved a s a p a rlour w ith in b etween a sm a ll h a ll in whi ch stood the op en hea rth Design a n d m a teri a ls were extremely primi tive a n d a s a rule in s a ni t a ry An i nquir y undert a ken by the Mini stry of Agriculture in 1 906 est a blished th a t the rura l h a bit a tions were di vided in to 3 8 p er cent undergrou n d hovels 26 5 per cent s in gle roomed cott a ges 5 0 6 per cent with two rooms 1 4 6 p er ce n t w ith three rooms a n d 4 5 per cent houses wi th more rooms According to buildin g m a teri a ls these houses were di vi ded a s follows of brick or stone of wood on stone founda tions of w a ttle m a tt ing covered with cl a y a n d were o nl y of cl a y .

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The l a st two c a tegories were considered by Rum a ni a n experts Their preva lence would seem to b e a modern a s unh ygienic phe n ome n on which a ppe a red with the loss of the pe a s a nts timb er rights ; for in hi s monogra ph on Mehedi n t i published in 1 8 5 9 Ion Ionescu s a ys th a t in the Villa ges of th a t co unty 901 houses were built of bricks of wood a n d on ly 6 03 of b e a ten cl a y Most of the houses listed by the inquiry of 1 906 h a d tiny wi n dow s which not un freque n tly were fi x e d a n d di d not open a t a ll The census of 1 9 1 2 found th a t the Old K i ngdom or d ei e th a t is h a lf buried one roomed hovels b s till h a d with no windows a n d a low roof of the kind in which the i nh a bit a n ts of the D a nubi a n steppe used to live during unsettled .

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48 5

THE REFORM

times b ec a use the low d a rk roofs of these dug outs h a d a b etter ch a n ce of esc a pi n g the eye of m a ra u d ing in v a ders It is ch a ra c t eri st i c th a t a la w of 1 8 94 prohibited the co n structio n of such huts a n d ordered the destruction of those a lre a dy existing givin g their owners a respite of fi ve ye a rs — which e x pire d i n 1 8 99 And it is equ a lly ch a r a cteristic th a t these huts were most numerous i n the fertile regions the coun ties of Dolj a n d Rom a n a ti h a d Vill a ges in whi ch such huts formed the m a j ority of the h a bit a tion s The 1 9 1 2 census a lso fo und inh a bi t ed b a rns a n d st a bles I i n evertheless these miser a ble h a bit a tions looked a ttr a ctive to the p a sser by th a t w a s due to the pe a s a nt s inn a te sen se of proportion a n d to the fa ct tha t he only used such m a teri a ls a s co ul d b e found where he li ved so th a t the house ble n ded h a rmoniously w ith its surroun di n gs The more solid a n d hygie n ic houses which a r e b eing built a t present a r e not a lw a ys a n a esthetic improveme n t on the old especi a lly when they a r e covered with gl a rin g tin sheets But the use of brick w a lls is spre a ding a s well a s of wooden fl oor s a n d w indows a r e m a de on a more gene rous sc a le It is a genera l tra it of pe a s a nt b uil di ng th a t every a dva nce i n well bein g fi n d s expression fi r st in more solid a n d sp a cious fa rm buil din gs The pe a s a nt th a t is invest s a bove a ll in the buildings with the help of whi ch he m a kes h i s income a n d is more modest with the house in which he spends i t a tendency which is more m a rked a s the p e a s a n t a s cends i n t h e sc a le of we a lth ; so th a t it is e a sier to detect the well b eing of a Vill a ge from its fa rm buildings ra ther th a n from its houses The vill a ges of Tra nsylva ni a h a ve much b etter houses a n d buil dings In 1 920 the province h a d dwellin gs w ith a n a ver a ge of fi ve inh a bit a nts ; or 1 7 5 per cent were built of stone or 22 8 per ce n t of brick a n d or 5 1 3 per cent of tim ber In the Old Kin gdom the problem ca n be solved only gra du a lly a n d the st a te of t hi ngs est a b li shed by post w a r inquir ies is still extremely ba d On a n a ver a ge there a r e fi ve persons to e a ch room in some vill a ges even six a n d the rooms a r e such tha t they give 4—5 cubic metres p er p er s on i n stea d of the 25 metres requi red by hygie ni c st a nd a rds The Centra l Resettlement O th ee is a ctively e n ga ged wherever pos -

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48 6

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sible with a dvice a n d help in the form of credits in the en o ur a i n g g of hi gher st a nd a rds in the new houses th a t a r e b eing ,

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During a di scussion in the Rum a ni a n Ac a demy a t the b egi nnin g of the centur y on the incre a se of pel la gr a the Prim e Min is ter M D A S t ur d za st a ted th a t from the a ccounts of centr a l a n d coun ty a uthorities it w a s evi dent th a t m a ize h a d to be distributed every two ye a rs to destitute p e a s a nts I n o ur cou n tr y fa m i n e i s c o n s t a n t fo r i t p r e v a i l s n ot onl y w h en t h e p e a s a n t h a s n o t h in g t o e a t bu t a l so w h e n h e i s fo r ce d t o e a t m oul dy m a i ze B e fo r e Go d t h e r e i s n o e x cu se for t hi s : t h a t o ur o wn k it h a n d k in t h a t p a rt o f our s o ci e t y w h i c h wo r k s for us a ll a n d p r o duce s t h e c ou n tr y s w e a lt h s h ou l d h a v e t o be g i t s d a i l y foo d a n d t o s ub s i s t m a i nl y 1 o n a foo d w h i c h i s p oi s o n .

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The Rum a ni a n pe a s a nt it h a s b een s a id is born a veget a ri a n Th a t w a s true enough if it referred to soci a l cir c um st a nces r a ther th a n to person a l t a stes Th a t h a bit w a s a bove a ll the result of necessity a n d in p a rt the inj un ction of the Church The fi sh d a ys prescrib ed by the Church num bered 1 94—200 d a ys ye a rly which most p e a s a nts scrup ul ously obser ve d wi t h out however b eing a ble to a d d more th a n once in a while fi sh fresh or s a lted to th a t diet But a s from a ll a ccoun ts the p e a s a nts me a tless d a ys were usu a lly 300 in the ye a r penur iousness cle a rly di ct a ted them a s much a s religious observ a nce Only in reg a rd to b eef did p erson a l t a ste pl a y a p a rt in the composition of the pe a s a nt s diet Most pe a s a nts a r e a ni m a ted by a feelin g a ki n to worship for the b o vi ne species The e x is their comp a ni on in work a n d the ide a of e a ting his flesh is repugna nt to m a ny pe a s a nts Even in hospit a ls they often refuse to touch b eef a n d those who do it a s indeed most of the town speople a lw a ys refer to it a s cow fl esh Th a t the pe a s a nts h a d to sub sist on a n i n suffi ci en t qu a ntity of food cle a rly a ppe a rs from the decli ne in the consumption of m a ize from 230 k g in 1 8 76 to 1 46 k g in 1 903 p er he a d of popul a tion without th a t f a lling off b eing compens a ted by the ea n u a ddition of ot h e r i n gr e d i e n t s to the pe a s a nt s diet Dr A Ur b indeed in his P robleme S oci a le th a t the qu a ntity a ffi r m e d ‘

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th e R uma n i a n A ca d emy , vol

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xx iii

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pp 334 .

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EFFECTS

OF

48 7

THE REFORM

ni m a l products consum ed by the pe a s a nts h a d con t in uously a n d incre a sin gly di mi ni shed since 1 8 60 M V intil a Br ati a nu st a ted in 1 91 4 th a t there were Vill a ges without one single mil ch cow ; when milk w a s needed for medic a l purposes it h a d to be brought from the neighbourin g towns Wh a t in such circum st a nces must h a ve b een the qu a lity of the food given by the l a rge owners a n d fa rmers to their l a b ourers m ay b e inferred from the decl a ra tion of Dr B a la sia n somet ime chie f medic a l offi cer of the county of Ilfov He rel a ted how he h a d seen p e a s a n ts r un a w a y from the fi eld s thus losing the money due for their l a bour bec a use they co uld no longer st a nd the food The 1 9 07 la w on a gricultura l contra cts ga ve the district medic a l o ffi c er s the right to prescrib e a st a nd a rd for the food which l a bourers received in the fi eld s But the law a dded th a t medic a l officers or Vill a ge m a yors coul d intervene for such a pur pose o nl y a n d this a t the speci a l request of the d i s sa t i s fi e d pe a s a nts n ulli fi e d the pr a ctic a l v a lue of the provision bec a u s e of the degree in which the pe a s a nts were dependent on the loc a l l a nd lords Moreover the law only provided for c a ses i n w hi ch the food w a s unfi t for h um a n cons umption ; it did not concern itself wi th c a ses when the food w a s merely in s uffi cien t Dur ing the yea rs of the Wa r the food of the rur a l pop ul a tion bec a me still worse th a n it h a d been before A l a rge num ber of men were conscripted for m ilit a ry duties eve n before Rum a ni a entered the Wa r a n d th a t a ffected the qu a ntity a n d qu ality of a gricultur a l work At the end of 1 9 1 6 two thir ds of the country w a s occupied by the Centr a l Powers who dur ing the fo llowing two yea rs requisitioned a ll the a v a ila ble supplies le a vi n g the popul a tion b a rely enough for keep i ng a live The unoccupied section of the coun try w a s crowded w ith the a rmy a n d a m a ss of civi li a n refugees so tha t the in dividu a l food a llow a n ce w a s sc a rcely better th a n in the occupied territory The popula tion continued to suffer severely un til the 1 9 1 9 h a rvest M Gl av a n e m i found extreme sery in the Mehedin t i county : M a ny g pe a s a nts s a id th a t on festive d a ys when they coul d not go to work an d get food a s p a rt of their wa ges they a t e only once a d a y so tha t the children might h a ve m a iz e when the old people were a t work of

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48 8

S OCI AL

AND

POLITICAL

The reform h a s exercised a more r a pid a n d d irect in fl uen ce on food th a n on housin g It w a s n a tura l th a t the pe a s a nt shoul d seek to reli eve hi s gre a test w a nt fi r st The two thi n gs whi ch he di d a t once were : fi r st to repl a ce in p a rt hi s m a ize di et wi th W he a ten bre a d a n d secon dl y to stop e a ting m a ize whi ch w a s un fi t for food A memora ndum of the Cercul de S t udii Econ e 1 i m ce st a ted th a t till 1 91 6 the home con sum ption of whe a t a mounted to w a go n s ye a rly 8 0 per cent of whi ch were used in the town s le a vi ng a ye a rly a vera ge of 1 5 k g of whe a t for e a ch rura l inh a bit a n t After the Wa r a re a a n d popul a tion of the country h a d doubled but whe a t con sum p tion h a d trebled a n d the fa ct th a t the pe a s a nts oi Tra nsylv an i a a n d Buco vin a a t e more bre a d th a n they produced coul d not a ltogether a ccoun t for th a t r a pid i n cre a se in whe a t consumption The ch a nge whi ch is t a kin g pl a ce in the h a bits of the p e a s a nts in the Old Kingdom is demonstra ted concretely by the a pp e a r a nce of a b a ker in a h n ost every vill a g e — a n occup a tion whi ch formerly w a s unknown outside the town s — a n d even of two or thr ee in the l a rge villa ges The extent of t hi s ch a ng e v a ries from pl a ce to pl a ce but l a ndow ners of my a cqu a in t a nce a ssert th a t there a r e V ill a ges where formerly m a iz e a lone w a s consumed but in which the regul a r diet now in cludes a s much bre a d a s .

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The proof th a t the p e a s a nts no longer consum e ba d m a iz e li e s in the pra ctic a l di s a pp e a r a nce of pella gra The pre w ar inquir ies h a d in gener a l est a b lished th a t the pe a s a nt s diet w a s d e fi ci en t in a lbuminoids th a t it cont ai ned a minim um of fa ts a n d a n excess of c a rbohydra tes During the l a st few ye a rs a num b er of inqu i ries m a de by me d ic a l students under the dir ection of Professor Me z in ces cu h a ve est a blished a m a rked i mprovement i n the feedin g of the rur a l popul a tion The sixt y i nquir ies r e l a t in g to v i ll a ges in the severa l geogra p hi c a l regions h a ve con cluded th a t the lowl a nd Vill a ges enj oyed a more a bun d a nt food supply th a n the Vi ll a ges in the hills a n d moun t a in s these l a tter being on ne a rly the s a me level This observ a tion is suggestive bec a use the lowl a nd Villa ges whi le situ a ted on the most fertil e s oil h a d b een before the reform a mong the poorest The fi gur e s ry 20 1 9 23 R p rt d i t h A gu J -

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OF

EFFECTS

48 9

THE REFORM

collected d uring these inquir ies in a number of vill a ges for e a ch of the regions g a ve the follow in g d a ily individu a l a vera ges ions

A

R eg

F ts

lbumi n o ids

Tota l c l ori es

H ydr o c a rb ons

a

a

Lo wl an d H ighl an d A

v e ra ge for t h e thr

ee

r gi ons

1 24 2

1 40 7

e

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Dr Lupu found during a n inqu i ry he m a de in 1 906 into the di et of 40 f a mili es consisting of 1 8 0 indivi du a ls th a t the indi vidu a l a vera ges did not exceed 73 40 gra mmes of a lbuminoid s a n d 27 8 4 gr a mmes of f a ts hydroc a rbons a lone being up to norm a l I t a ppe a rs from these inquiries concludes Dr B a nu who cites the re sults of those conducted a fter the Wa r th a t during th e l a st ten yea rs the nourishment of the pe a s a nts h a s improved which is very prob a bly due to the b etter m a teri a l situ a tion res ulting from the l a nd reform 1 One m a y n ote e speci a lly the consider a ble rise in the proportion of f a ts which shows th a t besides e a ting more whe a t the pe a s a nts h a ve b egun to consume a re a son a ble proportion of the a ni m a l food stuffs pro d uce d on their holdin gs These welcome im provements ca n of course not be t a ken to mea n th a t the food of the pe a s a nts is now a dequ a te in qu a ntity a n d qu a lity or th a t they could uproot in the present gener a tio n s the ill effects of a lifetime of st a rva tion Dr A Ur be a n u records in his recent book th a t one ba d h a rvest suffi ce s to c a use a r e currence of pella gra From this he dr a ws two conclusions : fi r st tha t physiologica lly the power of resist a nce of the pe a s a nt is still very low— which unfortun a tely is o nl y wh a t could b e expected ; a n d seco n dly th a t p ell a gra is not due to the e a t ing of mouldy m a ize but is the consequence of the pe a s a nt s org a n ic e xh a ustion Pella gra in his opinion will rea pp e a r a s long a s the pe a s a nt s nouri s hment is biologic a lly in a dequ a te in dependent of the fa ct of whether he e a ts ba d or good m a ize or whether he repl a ces m a iz e wi th whe a t Dr Ur bea n u j ustly a dded th a t this .

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49 0

AND

S OCI AL

POLITICAL

problem h a d a cul tura l side to i t The life wh ich the pe a s a nts h a ve led for s evera l genera tio n s— m a n wi fe a n d children a ll working excessively in the fi eld s a n d comi ng home to a l a rder whi ch besides m a ize fl our con t a ined only a few veget a bles a n d perh a ps a little cheese — through such a li fe the pe a s a nts h a ve lost the a rt of cooking To help them to a knowledge of how to choose a n d prep a re their food therefore is biologic a lly a s im port a nt a p a rt of the problem a s to h a ve en a bled them to a cqui re l a rger s upplies ( 6 ) A lcoh oli s m Indigence is a pt to c a use those who suffer from it to forget or to b ecome indifferent to the he a lthy pur poses to which grea ter a ffl uen c e shoul d it come their w ay might b e usefu lly a pplied One effect of the in cre a se in the me a ns a t the dispos a l of the p e a s a nts h a s b een a corresponding growt h in the co n sumption of a lcohol The a lcoholiz a tion of the Rum a n i a n vill a ges whi ch h a d a lre a dy gone fa r b efore the Wa r b eg a n in the eighteenth century The Porte h a ving prohibited the export of corn from the Rum a ni a n provinces the sur plus whi ch it di d not cl a i m itself beg a n to b e used by the l a ndlords in distilleries whi ch g a ve b oth fodder for the fa tte n ing of a ni m a ls a n d spir its For these spirits a n outlet h a d to b e found The l a ndlords O pened pub lic houses in the vill a ges on their est a tes obli gi n g the Vi ll a gers to buy a cert a in qu a ntity e a ch yea r ; sometim es l a bourers were p a id in spirits L a ter the export of corn w a s left free but drinking h a d become a h a bit a n d pot a toes repl a ced corn a s r a w m a teri a l for distilli ng while the m a ki ng of spirits from plums a t home The St a te m a de no e ffort to check s pre a d a mong the pe a s a nts the growing production a n d consum ption of a lcohol After the rising of 1 9 07 the numb er of public houses in rura l a re a s w a s leg a lly restricted to one for e a ch 1 00 inh a bit a nts i e roug hly for e a ch 20 households After the Wa r a la w a llowed pe a s a nts in the wine growi n g districts to prep a re a n d ret a in for person a l consumption wine a n d spirits from their own vin eya rds a n d orch a rds Th e opening of new pub lic houses w a s if a nyt hi ng encoura ged M V intil a Brati a nu st a ted in the ewp osé d e motifs to his la w for the restriction of the m a nufa cture of a lcohol th a t i n every one of the provinces the number of public houses h a s .

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EFFECTS

OF

THE REFORM

49 1

been a llowed to grow under pretext of in cre a sing tr a de conducted by Rum a n i a ns overlooking the grea t h a rm th a t w a s b eing c a used to the Rum a ni a n p eople in f a ci lit a tin g the spre a d of a lcoholi sm To sum up we could sa y th a t since the end of the Wa r we h a ve pursued r a ther a policy for the a lcoholiz a tion of the country 1 The n umber of fa ctories a n d distill eries for the production of a lcohol re a ched 1 5 9 by 1 926 ; most of them were e n j oyi n g the protection of the la w for the enco ur a geme n t of n a tion a l industry which en a bled them e g to im port their m a chi n ery duty free & c A la w p a ssed in 1 9 24 li mited the num ber of f a ctories to those a lr e a dy in existence but it did not lim it the qu a ntity or the strength of their output This st a te of things w a s bol dl y curbed by M V intil a Brati a nu in 1 926 though a s Mini ster of Fin a nce he ri s ked losing resources thereby j ust when the Tre a sury w a s b a dly depleted The 1 927 la w obli ged a ll a lcohol fa ctories to orga nize themselves i nto a s y n di c a te which w a s to control production a n d s a les The Mini stries of Fin a nce of Industry a n d of Agriculture were e a ch to h a ve o n e deleg a te on the b o a rd of directors N 0 new distil lery could there a fter b e est a blished ; tot a l production w a s fi x e d for p eriods of three ye a rs b eing reduced from period to p eriod a n d e a ch fa ctory w a s a llotted a m a ximum ye a rly production All s a les h a d to b e m a de through the S y n d i c a te a lcohol co ul d not b e sold of a strength exceeding an d it h a d to b e a rom a tiz ed before b ei ng put on the m a rket Fin a lly the duty on such a lcohol w a s r a ised from 1 1 to 1 04 lei per k g while frui t or win e a lcohol on ly p a id 1 0 lei per k g As a res ul t of the la w the ye a rly production of industri a l a lcohol fell from w a gons to 5 8 0 in 1 9 28 Another result h a s been the s pre a ding of cl a ndestine m a nuf a ctur e of a lcohol a n d of the discovery duri n g 1 9 28 th a t wood a lcohol w a s m a king its a ppe a r a nce in the dr inks put on the m a rket The growing co n sum ption of a lcohol is in a w a y evident from the incre a se in the revenue derived from i t : ,

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1 9 26 m m l i on le i )

il

2 1 2

rticl e by Dr Al x F ir st ni e mon ths

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1 1 , 1 9 25

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492

AND

S OCI AL

POLITICAL

The cons umption of a lcohol in degree dec a litres -

was

1 920 1 1 9 21 — 2 1 9 22— 3 1 924 -

The consum ption p er he a d of p op ula tion reduced to 1 00 a lcohol w a s a s follows °

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O ld Ki gd n

13 16 13 18

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Tra ns ylv n i a B ess ra bi a a

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Buc ovin a

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5 6 1 6

The effect of M Brati a nu s Act on the production a n d con sum p tion of industri a l a lcohol is shown in the t a ble b elow : ’

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( ih

Pr oducti o

litres )

C ons u mpti on

n

The consumption p er he a d of popul a tion of the sever a l k i nds of bevera ges v a ried a s follows ,

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( in

litr

es

)

Wi n e

These fi gur es do n o t include the m a ny other v a rieties of spirits put on the m a rket The pea s a nts fa vourite drink is the gfui ca a bra ndy di stilled from plums with usu a lly a strength of Its cons umption v a ries with the ye a rly output of the plum orch a rds but it is Ib id 1 9 28 N o 3 B ul ti ul S t ti ti 1 9 25 No 4 .

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49 3

THE REFORM

beyond doubt l a rger th a n th a t recorded in the offi ci a l fi gur e s a s it is impossible a dequ a tely to control a ll the priv a te stills of which there a r e s a id to b e nea rly The con sum ption of th a t spir it in the vi lla ges fa r exceeds tha t of win e a n d beer a n d is the more h a rmf ul a s most of these home brewed bra ndies a ccord ing to the result of offi cia l tests cont a in d a ngerous chemic a l impurities The number of licensed houses w a s a s foll ows ,

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I n 1 9 26

Public h o u s

Urb

ur a l b oro ugh s R

Provi n c e

es

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b rou gh s O ut lic o

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e nses

T ta l o

1

I

The tot a l fi gur es work out a t one licensed house to a bout 35 0 inh a bita nts But the a ctu a l num ber of public houses is cert a inly much gre a ter m a ny of them bein g c a rried on without a licen s e but w ith the conn iva nce of the loca l police The i nquiry con ducted by the Ministry of L a bour e a rly in 1 929 into the s a le a n d cons u m ption of a lcohol in the industri a l centres of the J i u v a lley in Tra nsylva ni a found e g 35 unli censed houses in one pl a ce a t P et r osa m a n d a bout 30 a t V ul c a n At the a n ti a lcoho lic co n gress held a t Buc a rest in 1 9 26 it w a s st a ted th a t there were public houses in the country i e roughl y one to e a ch 1 00 inh a bit a n ts whi ch is a b out the proportion tha t one meets w ith in most pl a ces The dri nk problem is gra ve in Rum a ni a It me a ns th a t some w a gons of corn a r e d a ily tra nsformed into a lcohol a n d disp e n sed in tha t d a m a ging form to a pop ul a tion whi ch succum bs to it the more e a sily a s it is undernourished a n d wea kened by dise a se According to Dr Gerot a the ye a rly consum ption per hea d of popul a tion w a s 28 2 litres of a lcohol a n d 1 2 47 k g of me a t ( 35 6 k g in the to w ns a n d 2 77 k g on the l a nd ) ; milli on lei were spent in 1 9 24 on a lcohol a n d mi llions on .

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B uleti n ul S ta ti s ti

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1 9 28 ,

NO 3 .

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494

AND

S OCIAL

POLITICAL

me a t Drun kenn ess is a pp a lli n gly frequent The exp os ed e motifs to M Brati a nu s bill mentioned th a t p e a s a nts bought a lcohol of 9 6 a n d w a tered it down to h a lf strength for person a l consum ptio n a n d a lso th a t sp i rits of 9 6 were bein g consumed In 1 925 Dr Obrej a st a ted th a t divi ded by t h e number of a dult inh a bit a nts the a ver a ge ye a rly consum ption of a lcoholi c drinks a mounted to 1 5 0 litres per i n di vi du a l Since the Wa r the pe a s a nt women h a ve a b a ndoned their former restra in t a n d ca n be seen openly drin king in the licensed houses of v ill a ges a n d m a rket towns The problem ca n of co urse not b e solved by fi s ca l me a sures a lone ; the whole soci a l a n d cul tura l b a sis of pe a s a nt li fe will h a ve to progress t o a h a ppier st a ge b efore the hold which drink h a s g ai ned on the vi ll a ge could b e sh a ken Offi cia l poli cy ca n contribute in m a ny w a ys to th a t end by curbin g a ll sorts of a buses which the d rink tr a de h a s hitherto b een a ble to perpetra te unmolested On i n qui ry into the c a uses of l a bour un rest a mong min ers in the Ji u v a lley in the wi nter of 1 928 — 9 the L a bour Min istry foun d e g th a t debts contra cted by the mi ners a t public house s were r e t a in e d from their w a ges which in consequence dwin dl ed e a ch week The s a me inquir y e s t a blished the existence of a l a rge numb er of unlicensed pub lic houses The M inister of L a bour in the new P e a s a n t i s t Government M I R aduc a nu besides t a kin g steps for ending such a buses a tt a cked the problem di rectly by est a blish i n g in the v a rious centres with the a i d of the mini ng comp a nies 1 r a a d e a ch houses in which cup s of t e a a e sold t bout ea t 4 During the fi r st four d a ys the six t ea houses sold cups of t ea An a rticle in the Drep ta tea of Febru a ry 1 5 1 929 a ffi r m e d th a t the u nr est in the v a lley with its const a n t thre a t of strikes fa ded a w a y when t ea b eg a n to t a ke the pl a ce of The gra vi ty of the problem a p a rt from Vit a l issues m a y a lcohol b e g a thered from the s t a tement of the Dir ectora te of the Gen d a r m er i e th a t 24 per cent of the crim es committed in rur a l d istrict s during 1 9 1 8 — 23 were a ttribut a ble di re ctly to a lcoholi sm In 1 929 the new P e a s a n t ist Government decreed th a t publi c houses should b e closed on S unda ys a n d holi d a ys ; it is instructive t o fi n d tha t t h is wise mea sure w a s welcomed by the pea s a nts the mselves .

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EFFECTS

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S E CTI O N HE A L TH

49 5

THE REFORM 3

V IT A L S T A TI S TI C S

A ND

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Wh a t h a s b een s a id hitherto concerni n g the pe a s a nts housi n g food a n d dr in k is sufficient to suggest tha t on e c a nnot expect their he a lth to be fl our i shin g The effect of the reform in th a t respect h a s not so far been very m a rked but there a r e m a n y re a sons why progress should h a ve b een slow duri n g the few ye a rs which h a ve el a psed s ince the en a ctment of the new l a nd l a ws Rum a ni a is fa r from being confronted a s yet w ith the prob lem of over popul a tion She only h a s a bout fift y seven inh a bit a n ts to the squ a re kilometre a n d her a gricultur a l production is c a p a ble of exp a nding considera bly The flight from the l a n d keeps within modera te limits ; there is not s uffi cien t in dustry to give employment to a l a rge number of people a n d the pe a s a nt s The ye a rly incre a se of a tt a chment to the soil is very s tro n g the rura l popula tion still exceeds the numb er of those who le a ve the vill a ge Emigra tion on the p a rt of the rura l elements w a s o nl y men a n d 431 women in 1 9 26 a n d these b elon ged m a inly to the n a tion a l min orities Wh a t effect the new a gr a ri a n legisl a tion will h a ve on the n a tura l in cre a se of the rur a l popula tion ca n only be v a guely forec a sted on the b a sis of soci a l experience The ch an ges in the condition s of beque a thing pe a s a nt l a nd described in Ch a pter V I will prob a bly le a ve young er so n s little prospect of becoming themselve s owners of holdi n gs however sm a ll a n d wi th the dis a ppe a ra nce of l a rge properties a gricultur e wi ll b e a ble to give employment o nl y to a restricted number of l a bourers On the other h a nd it h a s been esta bli shed in Fr a nce a n d elsewhere tha t sm a llh olders tend to lim it the siz e of their f a milies Agric ul tur a l l a bourers show no such restra int b eing hopeful of deriving in old a ge a i d from the l a bour of their children but the pe a s a nt who a cquires a piece of l a nd seems a n xious to a void the spli tting of hi s property a mong severa l sons ; a p a rt from the r est ict ive infl uen ce which a rise in the st a nd a rd of living genera lly exercises on the num ber of chi l d ren The fa ct of the l a n d reform h a vin g been del a yed ti ll now h a s left free pl a y to the n a tura l incre a se of the rura l popula ,

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49 6

SOCI AL AND POLITICAL

tion a n d it will b e i nteresti ng to see how fa r a n d how qui ckly th a t incre a se wi ll be checked by the resettlement of the pe a s a nts The new distribution of property a s res ulting from the reform is b ound to le a d to the gr a du a l in t en sifi ca t ion of Rum a ni a n a griculture a n d a s the sm a lln ess of the holdi ngs limi ts the use of m a chines more intensive a gricultur e will in the fi rst pl a ce me a n an incre a se in the use of h a nd l a bour The pe a s a nt house holds a s we h a ve seen still h a ve a good dea l of l a bour to sp a re enough to b a l a nce the requi rements of intensive cultiva tion ; so th a t a ltogether it seems re a sona ble to a ssume th a t the l a n d wi ll b e a ble to m a int a in the present p op ul a tion in a hi gher st a nda rd of li vin g without the need of emigra tion from the vi ll a ges but a lso w ithout much room for a n in cre a se in the num ber of cultiva tors The numb er of m a rri a ges showed a conti nuous a n d hi gh proportion a l in cre a se ,

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1 905 1910 19 15 19 18 19 19 1 9 20

In r ia

i n h bitan ts

1 3 4 per 16 0

1 9 00

a

-

18 4 14 3 17 6 22 0 25 0 -

-

-

-

country registered a n exception a l increa se in mar in rura l districts followed by a ste a dy declin e

1 9 20 the es

g

,

1 922

1 9 21

1 9 20

ur a l commu n es U rb an c omm u s R

ne

This phe n omenon a pp e a rs sti ll more clea rly from the figur e s below rel a ting to the Old Kingdom a lone a n d le a ve no doubt th a t the incre a se w a s directly a ttribut a ble to the l a nd reform ,

R 1 9 13

ura l M rri a ges i n t h e O ld K ingd

1 9 14

a

1 9 15

19 1 8

19 19

o

A

m

vr

e a ge

1 9 20

Observa tions h a ve est a blished th a t genera lly the num ber of m a rri a ges is di rectly proportion a l to the output of a griculture The number of divorces incre a sed in the s a me me a sure a s th a t of m a rri a ges .

E F F ECTS OF THE I n th e

O ld Ki gd n

49 7

REFORM o

m

The tot a l number of divorces in the whole of the country wa s in 1 920 Divorces were much less frequent in the country .

ur a l c omm un e s ( pe r 1 0 000 i nh a bita n ts ) R

7 6 1 08 -

Urb

an

c ommu n es 20 0 21 5 17 0 -

-

88

-

The number of births per following va ri a tion :

inh a bit a nts showed the ,

,

And in a bsolute figures for the whole of Rum a ni a R

Urb

ur a l c omm u n es

an

c omm u n es

The a vera ge ye a rly i n crea se in the rura l popula tion in the ye a rs b e fore the Wa r w a s 20 per thous a nd inh a bit a nts a n d in the ur b a n popul a tion only 7 4 per thous a nd R um a ni a h a d the second hi ghest percent a ge of bir ths in Europe 36 6 per thous a nd inh a bit a nts comin g a fter J ugosla vi a whi ch h a d 38 6 per thou s a nd Thi s hi gh proportion of births w a s offset by a n equ a lly high proportion of dea ths ,

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,

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1 901 — 5 1 9 06 — 1 0 1 9 1 1—15 19 1 8 19 1 9

1 920

25 25 24 45 33 26

4 ( per 1 000 8 4 -

-

7 7

0

i n h a bitan ts )

49 8

Still

S OCIAL -

b i rths

an d

AND

POLITICAL

in f a nt mort a lity showed

a

high degree of

fr e

u en c : q y S till

-

births

( p er

1 00

birth s )

Wh ol e

c oun try

I nf a nt mort a lity

wa s

as

follows per

in h a bit a nts

,

Up t o 1 1 9 01

yea r

Up to 1 8

30 4 30 6 31 5 32 8 10 4 22 4 30 9

56 53 56 57

-

1 905 1 9 10 19 15 19 18 19 19 1 9 20

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

yea rs 7

3 1 1

42 7 46 1 5 6 33

-

-

-

-

-

Genera l mort a lity of the rura l pop ula tion in the post w a s a s follows

Y r

20—4 0

ea s

a

-

bov

wa r

e

40

In Vill a ges infa nt mort a lity showed the follo w in g proportions per i n h a bit a nts : 0— 5

yea rs

5 — 1 5 /1 8

yea rs

T ot a l

the beginning of the century infa nt mort a lity in the fir st month a fter birth w a s higher by 6 per cent on the l a nd tha n in the towns a n d in the fir st ye a r a fter birth by 2 per cent

At

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te r Dr

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G

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OF

EFFECTS

49 9

THE REFORM

Com p a red with the mort ality of c hil dr en in the fir st ye a r a fter b i rth in the neighbour in g pea s a nt countries the Rum a ni a n figure referring to the period 1 8 95 — 9 w a s much h igher : Rum a ni a 21 5 per cent Bulga ri a 1 5 0 per cent Serbi a 1 6 1 per cent V ery signi fi c a nt in the light of the hi story of the l a nd problem is the fo llowi ng t a ble cited by M B ibice s cu on p 21 of hi s book : M O T IT Y o CHI L D RE N I N H F I S T Y E AR AF T E B I TH ,

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AL

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r

R

R

E

ura l c om m un e s P er c en t

U rb

16 0 179 18 0 17 7 21 6

1 8 8 0—4 1 8 8 5 —9 1 8 90—4

R

c omm u P er c en t

an

n es

.

.

1 8 70—4

R

26 24 23 24

-

4

0 5

0

From the tim e of the p ea s a nts em a ncip a tion to t he end of the century the mort a lity of chi l dr en under one ye a r therefore a s ste a dily incre a sed in the vi ll a ges a s it decrea sed in the to w ns Accor di ng to Dr Gli c sm a n the hi gh frequency of infa nt mort a lity on the l a nd w a s due l a rgely to the pe a s a nt wom a n s excessive l a bour durin g the period of pregn a ncy a n d feedi ng to her insufficient nourishm ent to the l a ck of pr e per medic a l M a ny b a bies were born a ttend a nce a n d to soci a l prej udices p rem a turely a n d were under weight There were m a ny c a ses of a sphyxi a tion thr ough whooping cough the b a bies being left a t home a lone while the mothers worked in the fi eld s A loc a l inqui ry into the c a uses of rura l mort a lity conducted j ust before the Wa r a n d referring to a di strict with inh a bit a nts ( the l a nd belongi n g to fi ve owners ) confi r m e d the excessive mort a lity a mong children of one a n d two ye a rs of a e but it a lso c a me to g the conclusion th a t most of them could h a ve been s a ved The inquiry extended over thr ee ye a rs between 1 9 1 0—1 3 During th a t period there were births ; 45 5 b a bies di ed in their first ye a r th a t is 1 7 per cent an d mort a lity of children up to the a ge of two yea rs a ccounted for one third of a ll the de a ths The c a uses of de a ths a mo n g chil dren up to three ye a rs of a ge were 344 di se a ses of the bre a t h ing orga ns ; 1 5 4 g a stro enteritis ; 21 2 inn a te debility ; 1 6 4 tet a nus ; 1 22 epidemics ’

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5 00

S OCIAL AND POLITICAL

The gre a t number of ch ild dea ths thr ough tet a nus a phenomenon unknown in more developed countries is a proof of the degree of misery an d i gnora nce which preva iled on the l a nd Frequently the wom a n g a ve birth lying on t h e groun d on some stra w or in the fi eld s During b i rth the wom a n w a s considered un clea n a n d for thr ee d a ys she a n d her child were a ppro a ched by no one s a ve the midwi fe when there w a s one or some old wom a n of the f a mily Mother an d chi ld were then w a shed with holy w a ter a fter w hi ch they were considered to be cle a n a g a in Dr Gli csm an sta tes th a t he m a de a n effort to a ct preventively in two com munes by v a ccin a ting newly born b a bies a g a inst tet a nus but th a t he w a s forced to a b a ndon the a ttempt bec a use it w a s strongly O pposed by the loca l priest He a dded th a t there w a s one sin gle m idwi fe for a ll the inh a bit a nts w hi ch me a nt th a t pregn a nt women h a d li ttle ch a nce of gettin g expert help even when they wished it The effect of the a bsence of me di c a l a ttend a nce m a y b e seen from the follo w i ng figures rel a tin g to the ra te of mort a lity l a tion of the Old Kin gdom a n d to p a tients a mong the rur a l pop u up to the a ge of ni neteen ye a rs ,

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An other in dex to the hea lth of the popula tion m ay b e foun d in the t a ble b elow giving the n umber of suicides between 1 9 1 9 ,

and

1 9 25

:

R ur a l

OF

EFFECTS

5 01

THE REFORM

Most of the s uicide s on the l a nd were a ttributed to drink a n d 1 pella gra We sh a ll h a ve a ga in to refer to the St a te s he a lth pok e y whi ch is no doubt p a rtly responsible for the high ra te of mort a lity Preventive a ction is needed a bove a ll a n d a ction of a soci a l n a ture more th a n of a medic a l kin d We c a n not here a rgue the point a t length though it is a poin t whi ch peculi a rly concern s o ur study but will merely refer i n brief to pella gr a which is undoubte dl y a soci a l m a l a dy ; a n d to cert a in fa cts est a b li s hed by the a rmy a uthorities whi ch offer rem a rk a ble evidence in support of the View th a t soci a l r a ther th a n biologic a l condi tion s a re re s ponsible for the b a d he a lth of the pea s a nt popula tion Pell a gra whi ch a mong Tra nsylva ni a n pe a s a nts is known a s poor m a n s sickness w a s un known in the Rum a ni a n pro vinces notwithst a ndi ng frequent fa min es a s long a s millet whe a t a n d b a rley formed the b a sis of the people s food The disea s e a ppe a red with the cultiv a tion of m a iz e a n d spre a d with i t M a iz e w a s i ntroduced in the Rum a ni a n pro vinces a bout 1 700 a n d it bec a me r a pi dl y popul a r with the pe a s a nts j ust bec a use a s a n a utumn crop it withstood the clim a te b etter th a n the frequently fa iling summ er crops But it must b e rememb ered th a t the ch a nge from millet to m a ize coincided with the lowering 2 n of the pea s a ts sta tus a n d well b ein g B ul ti ul S t ti ti 1 9 27 N o 2 .

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ci l ri i

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di

br u ht by Dr Cr i ht by i t r ti c p ri wi h di v l l pr y v ry t p di th r xi t c t b c th r v ri ti li d i w d tic c rt t w li c u try li lik pp r c di pp r c l pr y di v l E ur p c p i t p l r N rth I t li p try u G c y th r l t d r r t l pr y p ci di di cl ly lli d ppr ch th r pt th ir i plic ti ti u utriti th u h rv rv u u cti thr u h utriti th ir cu u ti i cu bl ch r ct r th ir tr i ib l ty by t c y pt ct b lik th r u t r l ti b tw c u t r l l pr y i putrid t xic ch r ct r l f ood j u t li d p l r it putrid t xic ch r ct r i br d p rrid c u d t d ly day id d b tt d by th r c diti Th id th t p rt u u l c c it t p v rty h r hip L pr y iddl but wh l v ry c it ily h k by ti l li Wh c diti ch d v r littl Th t h pp i u i with p ll r tr l dr r

s eas e i s e g on i n h i s Hi s tor y of Th e so a o g n of t h e o g o ut E p id emi cs i n B r i ta i n ( 1 8 9 1 , pp 1 07 w a y of a n n e es n g om a son t ‘ me e a e os Th e a i n g y e s of ei e s e n e a t on e i me a n d se as e s , or a sen e a t a n o e , a r e a re fl e x of t h e a a ons i n t h e fe of t h e p e o plc in foo a n d ’ a ges o m es o mf o dr nk o n f e or o n fe , a n d t h e e e a an e Th e a sa ea a n e of e i n me e a an d os o e was a Th e e la g a ase i n o n o a an of t h e e a sa n ( an d of R ma ni a , a s o n a n d s om e o e imi e a ea s ) i s t h e n ea es a ffi n i ty t o e os a m on g t h e s e es o f Th e t w o sea ses s ease a are o se e i n t h e i ns i d uous a oa of ei sy m m om s , i n e a ng t h e ss e n on ro g t h e n e es or t h e n e o s f n ons o g th e n on , m la n g a n d n r a e in e a a e a n d in e ans m ss ii i n h er i ’ an e S m oms a n d e ffe s e i n g a e e e m s a ls o b e a e a on e een t h e ‘ a ses Th e m os gen e a e xpr es s mn for e os i s a s e m or o a a e o f an i ma s a s for t h e a l e e la g a , i s a se mi o or a a e of t h e [ m a z e ] ea or o fr om d ay t o e a nd , an d a ge , ons me s e a i ‘ a e e o e on ons ese a i ng i n gs a re for t h e m os a the s a on o m a n s of o e and a ds s [ e os ] w a s a m or bus mi ser i a e of t h e M e A ges , on t h e o e n ot a e o mm on on e ; an d w a s eas s a e n off ’ fe t h e n a on a en t h e on ons a n ge e e so e a is a en ng in R m an a e a g a , a f e t h e an e fo m 2

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5 02

SOCI AL

AND

POLITICAL

The fi r st c a ses of pell a gra were not recorded till a b out 1 8 30 in 1 a i a a n d 1 8 5 0 n Mold v in Mu teni a After th a t the di se a se spre a d both in a b solute num bers a n d in proportion to the siz e of the popula tion .

1880 1 8 98 1 8 99 1 9 00 19 01 1 9 02 1 903 1 9 04 1 9 05

6 8 7 0 77 8 1 105 2 -

-

-

According to Professor B a b e s there were p a tients i n 1 9 1 1 in 1 91 3 a n d a b out j ust b efore the Wa r The a ver a ge mort a lity from pell a gra w a s 5 p er cent There is no doubt th a t the incidence of the dise a se h a s dimi nished consider a bly a fter the Wa r a n d Professor B a be s h a s poin ted out in bringing the following t a ble to the a ttention of the Rum a n i a n Ac a demy th a t the l a rgest num b er of p a tients w a s found in the coun ties in which m a ize w a s more extensiv ely cultiva ted ,

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19 12

1916

1 9 14

19 18

1 9 19

1 9 20

1 922

1 921

It is interesting to note the st a tement of Professor B a b e s th a t ,

cc rdi g to Professor V B b s t h e di seas e i s c tr cte d dur in g t h e w in ter but m kes i t s a ppea ra c e with i ts ch r ct ri s t c r s h with t h e s pri g s un Pr ofes or Ba b es m d a n e xp e ri m e t with whit mi c e W t ll w e re fe d on m i ld e we d ma iz e ; t h e re c ov e r d but th os e which w er e e xpos e d t o shad a n i ma l s which w e r e k e pt i n t h fl ec t s t h e p ti t i n thre e w a ys it a tta cks t h e s ki n t h e t h e s un s uccu m b e d Pe ll a gr diges tiv e o rga s a n d t h n erv o u s s y ste m c a u i n g a bur n in g sens a ti on i n t h e thr oa t pa i ns i n t h s tom a ch a d a n a b n or ma l n e rv o u s s tate Af te r B ibices e u p 22 1

A

o

n

a

n

a

a

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on

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a a

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OF

EFFECTS

5 03

THE REFORM

pell a gra is prev a lent a mong the colon ies of Rum a ni a n emigra nts in the south western regions of the United St a tes The soci a l origins of the pop ul a tion s ill he a lth is a lso con fi rm e d by the serious extension of tuberculosis We will mention onl y the e vidence obt a ined a few ye a rs a go d uring a n inqui ry un dert a ken a mong the schoolchil d ren of Cluj by Professor I uli u Ha ti ega n He found th a t a mong the 291 b o a rders of a gir l s second a ry school o nl y 1 37 displ a yed no e vident signs of tuberculosis ; but 92 5 per cent of the girls rea cted positively to the Pirquet test Alm ost a ll the pupils b elonged to country districts In a University Hostel for women students to which a dm ission w a s gr a nted a fter a medic a l ex a min a tio n onl y 47 8 9 p er cent of the 1 1 9 bo a rders di spl a yed no e vident signs of tub erculosis ; a n d from 36 4 men a n d women chosen a t r a ndom from the students of Cluj Uni versity only 1 47 were free from a ll symptoms In 1 9 23 de a ths from tuberculosis re a ched in Rum a ni a 37 per inh a bit a nts a s a ga inst 30 in Hunga ry an d 9 9 in the U ni ted S t a tes On a nother occ a sion Professor B a be s reported th a t the a vera ge percent a ge of youn g men found un fi t for m ilit a ry ser vice increa sed a s follows -

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1 8 9 0—92, 5 6 per cent 1 8 93—9 6 , 7 0 per cent 1 8 9 7, 8 3 per cent

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It is possible of course th a t the l a rger number of rej ections ma y h a ve been due to stricter st a nda rds But cert a in conclusive e vidence w a s obt a ined from the ex a min a tion of recruits 20—1 ye a rs of a ge born in 1 8 9 3 An a nthropometric study 1 m a de by M Nicol a e Ta ba covi ci sometim e chief of the st a tistic a l service in the Rum a ni a n Wa r Offi ce found th a t the a vera ge height of those ex a min ed w a s 1 6 5 cm which w a s equ a l to the a ver a ge Eur ope a n height a n d th a t this siz e w a s s uffi ci en t l y we ll represented with 8 02 per cent of the me a sured recruits But the eviden ce a ssumed a n a ltogether different a spect when the height w a s rela ted to the chest me a surements of these men a rel a tion which forms a reli a ble index to the physic a l st a te of a ,

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A rh i va p en i m

§

ti i n 1a si R eforma

S ocia li

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vol

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1 , 1 9 1 9 , p p 21 7 — 23 .

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5 04

SOCIAL

AND

POLITICAL

p opul tion The men were di vided i to th ee groups those a

n

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r

:

whose chest me a surement w a s less th a n ha lf their height those in whi ch it w a s equ a l to it a n d those in which it w a s a bove it A c omp a rison w ith corre sponding B ulga Ii a n figur e s ga ve the fo llowi ng r e sult s f G RO UP ,

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u Bu

c t

P e r en 1 6 28 3 41

i

R ma n a lga a

ri

2

3

c t

P er en 6 35 18 88

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c t

P er en 7 7 37 77 7 1

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The num b er of those wh ich fell below st a nd a rd therefore wa s considera bly gre a ter in Rum a n i a M Ta ba covi ci did not press the p oint th a t Bulga ri a w a s a country of sm a llh olders but he brought out further signifi ca n t fa cts ; of the ex a min ed recruits 8 8 8 8 p er cent c a me from r ur a l districts Accordi ng to their height the rur a l recruits ga ve a much gre a ter percent a ge in the lower groups These inqui ries entitle us to conclude th a t from the p oin t of View of height our rur a l pop ul a tion is in a st a te of considera ble i nferiority a s comp a red with the ur b a n popula tion This res ult w a s the more serious a s the rur a l in h a bit a nts formed more th a n four fi ft h s of the coun try s pop ul a tion M Ta ba covi ci therefore m a de a n a ttempt to tra ce the c a use of th a t physic a l d e fi ci e n cy excluding for ob vious re a sons a ll p ossibility of inn a te h s i olo ica l d iffe r en ce s b etween the ur b a n a n d rur a l groups or p y g between the va rious geogra p hi c a l regions Workin g on the hypo thesis th a t the distribution of property a mong the i nh a bit a nts of a coun try is the best index to their economic well b ein g he group ed for e a ch coun ty : the recrui ts whose height r em a ined below 1 65 cm an d ( b) the rur a l inh a bit a nts own in g less th a n The res ulting figur e s est a blished a r e 2 h a of l a nd e a ch m a r k a bly close correl a tion b etween the two f a ctors a s is shown by the a ccomp a nying di a gra m The p a ra ll elism of the corre sp e nding curves is st a tistic a lly evident a n d in consequence the re a son for the uns a tisf a ctory height of our rura l popula tion must b e s ought in the uns a tisfa ctory di stribution of l a n d property M Ta ba covi ci priva tely informed us of a further experiment on s imil a r lines m a de a t the Wa r Offi ce in 1 9 1 6 the m a teri a l of which unfortun a tely w a s lost w ith m a ny other documents duri ng the retre a t In the second c a se the urb a n recruits were ,

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5 05

elim i n a ted from the test a n d the rem a in der were ex a mi ned w ith a View to est a blis hi n g a ccordin g to coun ties three sets of f a ctors : ( 1 ) Physic a l d efi ci en cy a s resulting from the u n s a tisf a ctory rel a tion between height a n d chest mea surement ; ( 2) the pre va lence of tubercul a r a rthr itis a n d ( 3) in suffi cien t pe a s a nt property The resultin g cur ves a ccordin g to M Ta ba covici ( b elow 2 displ a yed an even closer p a ra llelism th a n the di a gra m here r e ,

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produced ; a n d in the c a se of one coun ty a pp a rently B ac au a ll those rej ected on medic a l gro unds from one p a rticul a r cl a ss of recruits belo nged to th a t section of the pe a s a ntry which o w ned less th a n 2 h a l a nd The a vera ge length of a pe a s a nt s life in most civilized cou n tries a ccordi n g to Dr B a be s w a s 5 0 ye a rs before the Wa r where a s in Rum a n i a it w a s onl y 30 ye a rs As there exi s ts a rel a tion betwee n mort a lity a n d morbidity we a r e e n titled to s t a te th a t the Rum a ni a n pe a s a n t is much more u n h e a lthy th a n the pe a s a nt of a n y other civilized country 1 M Mih a la ch e h a s a s serted th a t d uring the Wa r the Rum a ni a n soldiers more e a sily fell victim s to epidemics th a n the Rum a ni a ns of B ess a ra bi a a n d 2 a Tr nsylva ni a After the Wa r the pe a s a nt nour i s hed him self better especi a lly qu a ntit a tively a n d there is a n incipient im provemen t in hous ing But w a r exh a ustion a n d the spre a d of a lcoholi sm h a ve not yet a llowed the im proveme n t in m a teri a l con di tion s to be a r p a lp a ble res ul ts a n d to this must be a dded ,

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5 06

SOCI AL

AN D

POLITICAL

the a pp a lling incre a se in sexu a l di se a ses The num ber of i n h a bit a nts receivi ng me di c a l tre a tment for syphili s w a s .

1 9 12 1 9 14 19 16 19 18 1919 1 9 20 1 9 21 1 9 24 1 9 25

These figure s by no me a n s give a n a ccur a te pictur e of the preva lence of th a t dise a se me di c a l offi cers st a te th a t in cert a in villa ges h a lf the popula tion is infected with it a n d the socio logic a l i n quiry conducted l a st ye a r by the semi n a r of Professor D Gusti est a bli shed th a t 75 per cent of the inh a bit a nts of the Fundul Moldovei a Villa ge of Bucovin a re a cted positively to the W a sserm a nn test A very p a inst a kin g inquir y w a s conducted by a group of Tr a nsylv a ni a n doctors into the prev a lence of sy hili s p in a b out fift y Vill a ges b elonging to four different coun ties Blood tests were m a de from every sin gle f a mily a n d the resul t w a s th a t in cert a in Vill a ges the percent a ge of those inf ected w a s 1 n a s high a s 25 while the genera l a vera ge w a s 1 0 per ce t Dr L e on t in M unte a nu a fter keeping under observa tion over a p eriod of 26 months sol di ers qu a rtered in Ora de a M a re W a sserm a nn tests proved th a t ( Tr a nsylva ni a ) a n d m a kin g syphilis i nf ection incre a sed with the length of mi lit a ry service He found a mong fi r st ye a r soldiers 3 437 per cent infected with syphi lis a n d a mon g second ye a r soldiers 5 1 31 p er cent whil e a mong those who h a d signed on a g a in a n d h a d served more th a n two ye a rs the percent a ge w a s 8 722 In the second pl a ce he found th a t the tot a l num b er of those inf ected rose from ye a r t o ye a r 1 923—24 2 5 per cent 1 924 —25 3 5 per cent 2 — 1 925 26 4 1 5 per cent The provi s ion which the St a te m a de for the prevention a n d curing of dise a se never h a d b een a nyt h ing but tri fling yet even ,

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OF

EFFECTS

THE REFORM

5 07

th a t w a s reduced a fter the Wa r The proportion whi ch ex pen di tur e for pub lic hea lth represented in the tot a l budget of the St a te w a s 4 per cent i11 1 908 3 4 in 1 9 1 1 2 5 in 1 9 1 4 in 1 9 20 in 1 924 in 1 925 2 5 in 1 926 2 7 in 1 9 27 a n d 2 9 in 1 9 28 The percent a ge of the l a st few ye a rs w a s in re a lity still sm a ller b ec a use sep a ra te a ccoun ts h a d been est a bli shed for the r a ilw a y budget One must a lso rememb er th a t this decre a se coincided with the limit a tio n of the a ctivities of hospit a ls kept up by priv a te endowment These functioned a lm ost exclu s ively in the tow ns while pub lic expenditure w a s devoted m a i nly to he a lth services in the country di stricts It is therefore im porta nt to note th a t exp enditure on pub lic he a lth b esides being reduced w a s a lso redi stributed in a w a y w hi ch still more deprived the rura l districts of medi c a l a n d s a nit a ry a ssist a nce B efore the Wa r a n d during the fi r st p ost w a r ye a rs the public he a lth s e rvices were centra liz ed in the Genera l S ani t a ry Dir ectora te but in 1 924 they were tra ns ferred to a n ewly constituted Ministry of He a lth The e ffect of th a t ch a nge on the di stribution of the Dep a rtme n t s budget m a y 1 b e seen in the t a ble below : .

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Ce n tra l a dm i ni s tr a ti on

As long a s the old org a ni z a tion l a sted therefore the centra l a dministr a tion used up an d of the tot a l budget but with the crea tion of the Mi n istry a bout w a s spe n t on centra l a dministra tion le a ving the a ctive services which h a d in their c a re a popul a tion twice a s l a rge a s before correspondingly depleted of resource s It is not surprising th a t a s offi cia lly a dmitted in 1 923 of the 8 70 rur a l he a lth di visions onl y 409 h a d perm a nent me di c a l he a ds whi le 1 6 4 of the positions were v a c a n t 8 3 were occupied by medic a l students a n d 21 7 h a d provisio n a l incumbents Whi le in the town s the profession w a s seriously overcrowded the a uthorities could not fi n d a pplic a nts even for Dr AI P Ili rticl i A u J u ry 3 1 1 9 26 ,

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S OCI AL

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POLITICAL

the r ump services m a int a ined in the co untry di stricts One of the re a sons for th is w a s di sclosed by the r app or teur of the 1 9 29 budget of the Mi nistry of He a lth He told the Ch a mber th a t a t the end of 1 928 the Min istry h a d unp a id estim a tes a moun ting to 1 90 000 0001e i le ft over from previous budgets ; these in cluded tra nsport a llow an ces to rur a l me d ic a l offi cers some of them d a ting b a ck to 1 9 26 ; a llow a nces for the m a intena nce of p a tients ; for fuel & c The 1 929 budget coul d o nl y provide lei for the p a ym ent of those a rre a rs thi s being an a moun t for which j udgement h a d been obt a in ed in the Cour ts a g ai nst the Min istry 1 Therefore not even the poor nomin a l s um s in scrib ed in the budget h a d in f a ct b een forthcoming When the centra l a dm ini str a tion enj oyed such f a vour ite tre a tment it w a s not un n a tura l th a t c a ndida tes for the neglected fi eld posts should b e sc a rce ; especi a ll y a s those who would h a ve liked to devote themselves to the urgent work th a t is to b e done in the Villa ges found their usefulness cra mped by a n excess of duties a n d a n i n suffi ci en cy of me a ns The m a n y leg a l provisions concernin g public hea lth a r e rendered senseless by the pra ctic a l im possibili ty of c a rry ing out their intention ; medi c a l offi cer s a r e oblig ed to est a bli sh a n d isol a te cont a gious c a ses but hospit a ls or i n firm a ri es for their isol a tion do not exist Moreover neglect from the centre e n gendered indifference in the bra nches to j udge from the circul a r which the M i nistry of He a lth h a d t o issue in J un e 1 927 The Mini stry s inspectors it compl a in ed h a d found th a t m a ny of the rura l he a lth ofli c er s were not li ving a t their offi cial pl a ce of residence but congreg a ted in the town s a n d some of them even in the c a pit a l The Ministry ordered them to settle forthwith a t the pl a ces to which they were a pp ointed Wh a t a rura l me di c a l o ffi c er is expected to p erform a pp e a rs from the fi gur es which Dr Gli cs m a n rel a ted in 1 920 concerni ng the county of Mehedin t i For a popul a tion of there were 8 district hospit a ls but two of them were closed ; there were 4 hospit a l doctors an d one district doctor who h a d a lso periodic a lly to inspect the com munes ; further 5 0 se ca lled s a nit a ry a gents for 1 7 1 communes The county h a d no in fi r m a r ies The tot a l a n d 21 midwives u ry 9 1 929 A d vé ul J .

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EFFECTS OF THE REFORM 5 09 num ber of tra ined midwives w a s in the towns a n d in rur a l districts or one to 6 2 rur a l comm un es —a commune genera lly includi ng severa l Vill a ges I n 1 924 the number of bir ths w a s in the town s a n d in the vill a ges which mea nt th a t one midwi fe h a d theoretic a lly to a tte n d yea rly to 39 5 child b i rths spre a d over a l a rge a re a 1 The situ a tion would seem to b e b etter in Tra nsylva ni a where a ccording to M Enesc u there w a s in 1 920 one doctor to i n h a bit a nts one mid w ife in to one chemist to a n d one hospit a l to h a bit a nts Infa nt morta li ty h a s rem a ined a t the s a me high level for the l a st 20 ye a rs or more For pur poses of hygie n e s a ys Dr Ba nu we h a ve neither org a niz a tion nor a n y system a tic policy And the cur a tive servi ces on the l a nd work u n der such limit a tions of personnel a n d equipment th a t the pea s a nt h a s only a n a rrow ch a nce of recovering from the m a la di es which he is not helped to a void ,

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S E CTI O N C U L TU R A L E d uca ti on

A ND

4

CHANGES

P S Y CH O L O G I CA L

in tense a ctivi ty in a ll fi eld s of educ a tion h a s b een m a ni fest in Rum a ni a since the Wa r The country side is di s pl a yi n g extr a ordi n a ry keenness for more a n d b etter schooli ng a n d public a uthorities h a ve m a de pr a iseworthy efforts to open the doors of educ a tion to the m a sses who h a ve a cqui red l a nd a n d politic a l power ; they h a ve rel a tively done more for educ a tion th a n for a n y other fi eld of soci a l policy S uch a n effort w a s more th a n c a ll ed for by the hi gh percent a ge of illitera tes which the country st ill h a d The census of 1 8 99 the fi r s t to be more c a refully conducted found th a t 78 per cent of the i nh a bit an ts a b ove 7 ye a rs of a ge co ul d neither rea d nor write the number of women illitera tes rea chi n g 90 per cent The 1 9 1 2 censu s est a b lished th a t of the in h a bit a n ts a bove 8 ye a rs of a ge 393 per cent coul d rea d a n d write a n d 6 0 7 were illite ra tes The proportion for the rura l districts a lon e w a s wor s e Dr G B u citi g r p rt f Dr T I cu f t h Mi i try f H lth 1 9 26 An

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AND

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the tot a l num b er of i llitera tes rea c h ing 6 7 4 p er cent a n d a mong women 8 42 p er cent Oi the severa l pro vin ce s Olt eni a h a d the worst figur e with 71 2 per cent rur a l illitera tes while Dor odg e a though economic a lly b a ckw a rd h a d the b est fi gur es with 75 2 p er cent illi tera tes in 1 8 9 9 a n d 5 4 8 per cent in 1 9 1 2 ( 608 per cent of the rura l popula tion in In hi s b ookl et on the a ctivity of the Ministry of Educ a tion Dr C An gelesen st a ted th a t on the e ve of the Wa r the num ber of illitera tes w a s 43 per cent in the Old Kingdom 40 p er cent in Tra nsylv ani a 6 0 per cent in Bucovin a a n d 94 per cent in B es sar a bia As the figur e for the Old Kin gdom is much b elow th a t est a bli shed by the census of 1 9 1 2 one ca n reg a rd the a bove percent a ges a s o nl y a ppr oxi m a tely a ccur a te th a t for B ess a ra bi a 1 seem ingly a ppl yi ng merely to the Rum a ni a n in h a bit a nts of th a t provin ce ; Hun ga ri a n st a tistics g a ve in 1 9 1 0 the percen t a ge of illitera tes in th a t Kin gdom a s 338 a n d Austri a n st a tistics for the s a me yea r g a ve the percent a ge for B ucovin a a s Spe a k i ng genera lly more th a n h a lf the popul a tion w a s illitera te when the new St ate w a s formed a fter the Wa r E lemen ta r y Ed uca ti on Th a t circumst a nce is especi a lly sur prisi n g in View of the f a ct th a t element a ry educ a tion w a s m a de free a n d compulsory in Rum a ni a a s e a rly a s 1 8 6 4 these prin za C But u c i les b eing inscrib ed into the Constitution of 1 8 66 p the a uthor of th a t la w coul d do no more th a n procl a im the pri nciple ; a s b uil din gs a n d te a chers could not b e cre a ted by d ecree his la w very n a tura lly a dded th a t a ttend a nce a t schools Sin ce then schools h a ve w a s oblig a tory wherever schools e x ist not come into b eing in s uffi ci en t num bers to m a ke of th a t Constitution a l prin ciple a re a lity In 1 8 8 4 the coun try h a d rura l schools with pupils boys a n d 473 gi rls ) a n d tea chers The num ber of urb a n schools w a s 1 65 w ith .

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ms tv o s ta ti s tic s of 1 9 05 e l e m e n t a ry e duc a ti o n

Th e

la w for

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bl e t o r d a d write a m N ti ona lity G e r ma n s P o l es J e ws R u ss i ns ( Littl e ) R u ss i a n s ( Gr a t ) n

ea

a

a

a

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cit d i n t h e exp ose d e motifs t o t h e n e w v ll owi g p erc e t ges of th ose b i n g g t h v a ri o u s n a ti on a liti es of B es s a r a bi a N ati on a lity Women B ul g ri ns Turc 529 Ukra i i n s 24 1 M old a vi a ns 11 5 Gips i es 21 1 '

and

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OF

EFFECTS

5 11

THE REFORM

pupils a n d 5 1 6 te a chers On the e ve of the Wa r in the situ a tion of element a ry educ a tion wa s a s foll ows .

1 3,

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ve ra ge n u m b r of pupils p r s ch oo l A

Number

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of

Nu mb e r of Nu m b e r of r gi s tere d t a che rs pupils s ch ools e

C omm u

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1 91 2

ve rage n u m b e r of pupils pe r tea che r A

There were in a ddi tion 25 6 priva te element a ry schools in the town s fun ctioni ng w ith the permission of the Min i ster of Educ a tion These schools notwithst a nding their overcrowdin g were fa r from bein g a ble to a ccommod a te a ll the childr en of school a ge a s ma be seen from the follow n fi i u r e s giving the position y g g in 1 922 ,

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Ma ny of the registered pupils however did not a ttend school either b ec a use their p a rents foun d a pretext for keepi n g them a t home or bec a use the condi tions of the buil din gs & c prevented the regul a r functioning of the school so th a t it is s a fe to sa y th a t in 1 9 22a b out h a lf of a ll the chil dren of school a ge were receiving no tui tion a t a ll O nly a bout h a lf the schools h a d buildi ngs of the ir own while the rem a inder were c a rried on in rented houses whi ch were unfit for the purpose The bulk of the schools h a d o n ly one room a n d duri n g the wi nter m a ny could not hold their cl a sses bec a use of l a ck of fuel The num ber of chi ldren who were un a ble to g a in a dmitt a nce incre a sed therefore in proportion to the num ber of those registered especi a lly in the rura l d istricts The numb er of pupils who fi ni sh e d their element a ry schoolin g w a s in f a ct much sm a ller th a n those registered B etwee n the census of 1 8 99 a n d tha t of 1 9 1 2 pupils took their ,

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Chi ldr n of s ch oo l ge

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ye r a

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in

rura l schools a n d in ur b a n element a ry schools The increa s e in the tot a l numb er of pupils registered m a y b e see n from the t a ble b elow .

Pup i ls r gis te r d in e l m n t r y s ch ools e

Po pul a ti on

e

e

e

a

Pe r c en t or 19

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19 25 4 0 5 0 5 7 88 83 1 00 10 5

The s t a te of eleme n t a ry educ a tion in 1 9 23— 4 b efore the p a ssing of the new la w w a s a s foll ows in the Old Ki ng dom Num b er of school s Numb er of te a cher s Number of childre n of school a ge Number of regi s tered pupils Number of pupil s who took the cer t ifi ca t e A new la w on element a ry educ a tion w a s prom ulga ted on It ch a n ged the a ge for compulsory school 24t h J uly 1 9 24 a ttend a nce from s eve n to five the fi r st two ye a rs h a vi n g to b e s pent in a ki n derg a r t e n a n d it extended the d ur a tion of a tten d a nce a t elem e n t a r ys ch ools from four to seven ye a rs During the ,

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l a st thr ee ye a rs genera l te a chi ng w a s to be comb ined with tra in ing in h a n di cra fts for which purpose workshops of va rious k in ds were set up a ll over the coun try For the c a rry ing out of thi s progra m a n a vera ge of new tea chi ng posts were cre a ted ye a rly from 1 922 un til 1 926 the ye a r Dr An gelescu wr ote hi s report while the number of school buil di ngs w a s a lmost doubled during th a t tim e : ,

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1 9 25 — 6

T ota l Angeles cu w a s hopeful th a t if t hi s e ffort were kept up , in fi ve or s ix ye a rs room woul d h a ve been fo un d for every chil d of school a ge , a n d illitera cy woul d then speedi ly di s a ppe a r The budget which the St a te pl a ced in 1 900—1 a t the dispos a l of the

Dr

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Mini stry of Educ a tion represented 1 0 per cent of tot a l ex pen di tur e ( the Ar my receivi n g 1 9 4 per between 1 901 — 8 it fell to 9 5 per cent a n d in 1 909— 1 0 to 7 p er cent rem a ini n g at t hi s level up to the War In 1 923 the Ministry received 7 3 p er cent of the budget an d in 1 926 it re a ched 2 643 1 1 4 2401ei or 1 02 per cent of the tot a l budget 1 In its turn the Ministry a llotted 5 9 per cent for elementa ry educ a tion in 1 900 5 6 per cent in 1 9 1 6 a n d a bout 44 per cent in 1 926 Aga in from the a moun t a llotted for element a ry educ a tion 69 per cent w a s spent on urb a n schools a n d 31 per cent on rur a l schools i n 1 8 6 5 ; in 1 89 5 — 6 the rur a l schools received 5 2 per cent a n d the urb a n 48 per cent ; in 1 9 1 0 the proportion wa s 6 5 per cent a n d 35 per cent a n d in 1 9 24 roughl y 74 per cent an d 26 p er cent I n proportion to the siz e of the popul a tion a n d to the n umb er of pupils the yea rly s um s the St a te s p ent on element a ry educ a tion a moun ted in the period .

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rea lity th a t p erc en ta ge w a s s ubstan ti a lly l ow e r a s i n 1 9 26 t h e ra ilw a y bud get which s h ow e d a he avy d efi ci t w as i sol a ted from t h e gen era l budget 1

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S OCI AL

1 914—1 5

POLITICAL

2 5 gold lei 1 924, 46 25 lei

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per inh a bit a nt a n d 22 gold lei per pupil a n d in p er inh a bit a nt a n d 460 lei per registered pupil the a vera ge expenditur e h a vin g thus been reduced by roughl y one thi rd In 1 91 0 the Un ited St a tes were spen d in g lei per pupil Engl a nd 9 1 6 0 Germ a ny 5 2 20 B ulga ri a 26 4 0 Sp a in a lone with 1 25 0 lei h a ving a lower a ver a ge of expenditur e per pup il th a n Rum a ni a The most strikin g a spect of th a t post w a r development is the sh a re whi ch the pe a s a nts h a d in m a k i ng it possible The St a te w a s not in a position to supply the fun ds for the c a rr in g out of y the construction progra m described a b ove a n d the Mi nister of E duc a tion a ppe a led therefore for priva te a ssist a nc e— not to the we a lthy people of the coun try but to the m a ss of the p e a s a ntry The response wa s such th a t w ithin four yea rs a ll the schools were rep a ired a n d schools were newly b ui lt or ra di c a lly rep a ired together with severa l thous a nd houses for the he a d te a chers M a ny vill a ges a n d sometim es in di vidu a l pea s a nts offered l a nd for the school ; they contributed re a dy money or p a rt of their produce most of the Vi lla gers concerned helped in the a ctu a l construction m a king bricks cuttin g tim ber c a rting s a nd a n d bui ld i ng the w a lls Th e S t a t e c o n tr i bu t e d fr e e t i m b e r fr o m i t s fo r e s t s for a v a l u e o f Th e Mi ni s tr y a l m os t t w o m i ll i a r d s fo r t h e c o n s tr u c t io n o f t h e s e s c h o o l s o f E d u ca t io n t h e co un t y a n d co m m u n a l a u t h o r i t i es h e l p e d t h e p oo r e r Th e l a r ge r p a rt o f t h e c o mm u n e s wi t h s e v e r a l h u n d r e d m i ll i o n le i mo n e y h owe v e r s a y s D r A n ge le s cu w a s co ll e c t e d fr o m t h e p e a s a n t s i n t h e fo r m o f v o l un t a r y gi ft s o f m o n e y w hi c h u p t o t h e p r e se n t h a v e r e a c h e d o v e r on e a n d a h alf m i ll i a r d le i gift s i n k in d a n d i n l a b ou r wi t h t h e i r o w n h a n d s a n d wi t h t h e i r ca rt s co n t r ibut e d fr e e t o t h e co m mun e s fo r t h e b ui l d i n g of t h e s c h oo l s 1 Thi s movement begun by the pe a s a nts of the Old Kingdom There s pre a d to the new provi nces i n 1 9 23 a n d to the towns is no doubt th a t the initi a tive c a me from the pe a s a nts themselves who soon a fter the distribution of the l a nd b eg a n to send in requests for the cre a tion of schools offering to supply the l a nd a n d to put up the b uil ding a t their own cost if the Ministry would only provide them with a te a cher In the county of Const a n ta ldi ng the M nistry contributed merely lei for the bui i e g 1

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A cti vi ta tea

M i n i s terului

I ns tr ue fiun ii , p 1 0 .

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OF

EFFECTS

5 15

THE REFORM

of element a ry schools the County Council lei a n d the pe a s a nts themselves 1 2 0000001ei Or t a ke the suggestive c a se of the commun e of S om a rtin ( county of F agara s Tra nsylva ni a ) with a mixed Rum a ni a n a n d S a xon popula tion of some 300 fa mili es As for some rea son it w a s not found possible to build a new school the p a rish meetin g un a nim ously decided on the propos a l of the S a xon priest in Octob er 1 928 to close the com mun a l publi c house a n d to use the buildi ng for school purposes Side by side with the buildi ng of P r ofessi on a l E d uca ti on element a ry schools the Ministry a pproved the construction of 5 4 tra inin g schools for te a chers 48 second a ry schools 37 tr a de schools a n d 20 commerci a l schools In their c a s e a lso priva te i niti a tive h a rnessed itself to a t a sk which the public a uthoritie s h a d no me a ns of fulfillin g the f unds being collected by speci a l loc a l com mittees who in a lmost every c a se moreover supervised the a ctu a l building so a s to s a ve the cost of contra ctors a n d other intermedi a ries B esides element a ry schooling the rura l popul a tion needs a bove a ll tr a in in g in a gricul tur a l methods a n d in h a ndicr a fts for the win ter mo n ths The more wide a w a ke pe a s a nts woul d seem to underst a nd t hi s very well Those of eight Villa ges in the county of Gorj led by their m a yors a n d priests petitioned in 1 91 5 for the crea tion in one of their commun es of a n a mb ul a nt h a ndicra fts school W e t h i n k t h e t im e h a s c om e for t h e son s of p e a sa n t s t o be gi v e n b o t h h a n d ic r a ft a n d a gr i cu ltu r al tui t io n for m a n y of t h e m h a v e go d h o l d i n gs of la n d a n d s h ou l d t h e y t i l l it r a t ion a ll y k nowi n g a l so s o m e t r a d e w h ic h t h e y m igh t ca rr y o n i n win t e r a n d w h e n t h e we a t h e r i s ba d t he y c o ul d e a r n goo d mon e y t o m a k e t h e i r life e a s i e r A s t h e s e co n d a r y s c h o o l s a r e o f n o us e t o t h e p e a s a n t s i t wou l d b e a go o d t hi n g t o a b o l i s h t h e m a n d us e t h e m on e y a ll o tt e d t o t h e m i n t h e b u d ge t fo r t h e e s t a b li s hm e n t i n t h e i r p l a ce o f a s m a n y a m bu l a n t h a n d i c r a ft s c h o o l s w h e r e v e r a d i l ige n t p o pu l a t ion h a s t h e d es i r e t o l ea r n t h es e h a n d i c r a ft s kn o w i n g ful l we l l t h a t t h a t i s t h e on l y m ea n s o f b r i n i n g g a b o ut a m o r e p e a ce fu l e x is t e n ce a n d on e wi t hou t wa n t 1 Steps for the s a tisfa ction of such wise desires were only t a ken recently w ith the esta blishment of the h a ndicra ft schools to which reference h a s been m a de Agricultura l tea chin g a s such ,

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Cite d i n

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POLITICAL

is only j ust b eginning to receive a ttention a s m ay b e seen from the follo w in g t a ble gi vi ng the a gricultura l schools of all kin ds ,

S ch oo ls

H i gh e r a gric ultur a l s ch ools S e c on d a ry a gricultur a l s ch ools viticultur a l s ch oo ls Lo w e r a gric ultur l s ch ools viticultur a l s ch ools h orticultura l s chools a picul t ur a l s ch oo l s E lemen ta ry a gricultur a l s ch oo ls viticultur a l s ch ools h orticultura l s ch ools h a n dicr fts s ch ools Wi n te r s ch o ls A gricultur a l a ppre hip s ch ools n tic es G irls d omes tic s ci en c e s chools a

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Accord i ng to st a nd a rds these schools were group ed into 3 high schools of University st a nd a rd ; 3 second a ry schools ; 47 lower schools ; 1 3 element a ry schools ; 1 winter school ; 1 8 a pprenticeship schools Nine lower a n d two element a ry schools were m a int a in ed by priva te institutions the rem a inder were St a te sup p orted The two points worth noting a r e fi r st the a b sence of a gricult ur a l te a chi ng till in keeping with the Ra ubwirtsch a ft whi ch h a d b een the rule in R um a ni a n fa rming ; a n d secondly the efforts m a de in recent ye a rs to wi den a gricul tur al educ a tion Oi the 47 lower schools 1 1 were est a blished in 1 9 23—4 The ,

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ricultura l te chi n g h a d b e n d e cree d as ea rly a s 1 8 64 y et it w as n egl e cte d i n k e pi n g with t h e S ta te s gen e r a l p o licy i n f v o ur of t h e tra d e s ch ools es t a bli s h ed m uch l a t r 1

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Nu m be r of s ch oo ls 19 19 1 9 28 At t h e e n d S oo s

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OF THE

EFFECTS

REFORM

5 17

higher schools a ct in effect a s tra ini n g schools for the te a c h in g personn el of the others The second a ry schools a r e supposed to supply experts for experiment a l st a tions a n d te a chers for the element a ry schools ; the course involves three ye a rs of school work a n d one ye a r of pra ctic a l work The lower schools prep a re their pupils for the m a na gement of sm a ll fa rms or for subordin a te positions on l a rger undert a kings ; the cour se l a sts three ye a rs followed by one a n d a h a lf ye a rs of pra ctic a l work The schools of Tra nsylva n i a a n d Buco vina h a d till 1 923 a course of o n ly two ye a rs The element a ry schools wi th a curriculum extending over two ye a rs were introduced in 1 901 with a view to tra ini ng sons of pea s a nts in ra tiona l fa rmin g Th is type of school a ppe a rs to b e on the decli ne a s most of the pe a s a nts send their b oys to school in the hope of the ir obt a ini n g a fterw a rds some post a n d they therefore prefer to enter them into the h igher gra de schools Now a fter the extension of element a ry educ a tion over seven ye a rs the l a st three of which a r e to in clude element a ry tra i n ing in a gricul ture the speci aliz ed element a ry schools will h a ve no useful f unction to perform Fin ally the schools for a pprentices a tt a ched to the St a te s model f a rms a r e b a sed m a i nl y on pr a e tic a l work theoretic a l te a chi ng b ein g limi ted a n d spora dic The cour se extends over th ree ye a rs Altogether the orga niz a tion an d extension of a gricultura l te a chi ng b ore no rel a tion to the techn i c a l needs of the in dustry The figur es given l a ter on show th a t the whole system h a rdl y touched the pra ctising pe a s a nt f a rmer ; there w a s only one winter school of the k ind so successfully a ctive elsewhere a n d a mbul a nt te a chi ng by lectur e a n d demonstra tion w a s o nl y b egun in 1 924 The tot a l te a chin g st a ff includi n g th a t of the priv a te schools num b ered 407 in 1 924 ; of these on ly 29 0 were perm a nently provided for in the budget the rem a inder bein g extra ordi n a ry a ppo i ntments m a inl y a t the lower gra de schools which coul d b e confirmed or termin a ted The num ber of pupils w a s during the session of 1 922 3— or 39 4 per school a n d 1 3 per form — a n d 35 4 who h a d p a ssed on to pr ctic l work th t a a a was ; or 1 90 per cent more th a n in 1 9 1 3— 1 4 ( in the Old K ing dom ) a n d or 40 per cent more th a n in 1 920—1 A good test for the pra ctic a l usefulness of these schools is supp lied by the survey .

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whi ch M Ernest Grinte s cu D irector of Agricul tur a l Educ a tion h a s prep a red to show the c a reers t a ken up by those who fi n i sh ed the v a rious cour ses The t a ble below only refers to those schools whi ch kept such a record 1 .

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