The Knowledge Book: Everything You Need to Know to Get By in the 21st Century 9781426201240, 9781426202056, 9781426202650, 1426201249

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I

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

I everything you need to

know to

get

i'

by

in

the 21st centur

foreword ty David Wallechinsl

$35.00 ISA '$44 00 CAN

HliElwi ge

Concise yet

am

book

comprehensive, this

survey of humai

mficant ideas

the ultimate desk reference for inquisitive

is

minds. The Knowledge Book: Everything You

Need

Know

to

to

Get By in the 21st Century

thousands of years of thought and

distills

achievements, explains how they are linked and

why they

are important, and packs everything

into a single, stylish

volume

The book comprises seven sections that

span the range of human knowledge: history, the stars

and

social issues, spirit

modern

life.

planets,

and

life

cultural

on Earth,

soul, the arts,

and

Along the way, this essential family

reference not only summarizes ideas, discover-

and movements,

ies,

it

historically. Sidebars

places

them

enhance the

in

cont

w

text

ant details about particular processe

nd movements, ar 1

nficant individua

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the

k

way

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first

mathem.v

Visually arresting

and encyclope

scope, The Knowledge Book

Need

to

Know

equally vai

everyor

to Get

By

in

everything You

the 21st Century I

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NOLO NQERp DENVER P U3LIC

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the knowledgebook

the

knowledgebook Everything you need to know to get by

PI

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Washington, D.C.

in

the 21st century

"1

Staff at Peter Delius Verlag

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

Authors Corinna

The Knowledgebook

Baum (Psychology), Anke Bremer (Islam). Anja Brug (Visual Arts), Matthias Dell (Film). Dennis (Architecture). Heike Dettmar (Media). Dr. Frank Frick (Chemistry). Anja Fnebner (Modern Life/Health today). Diana Fnedemann (Physics and Technology), Julia Frohlich (Hinduism, Buddhism), Jana Galinowsky (Moden Life/Media). Uwe Gloy (Earth). Victor Habermann (Mathematics), Markus Hattstein (Cultural History, Law. Traditional Religions. Religions of China and Japan. New Religions, Sects). Dr. habil. Christian Jager (Philosophy). Dr. Christiane Jakob (Biology). Gilles Kennedy (Modern Life/Youth Culture), Prof. Ursula Kocher (Literature), Dr. Anna-Carola Krausse (Visual Arts). Christoph Marx (Society and Politics). Martin Mohn (Physics and Technology). Michael Muller (Universe). Alex Radzyner (Economics and Social Issues), Prof. Britta Sweers (Music). Dr. habil. Michael Tilly (Judaism, Christianity). Dr. Melanie Unseld (Music). Dr. Marc Filip Wiechmann (Earth) Clive

Published by the National Geographic Society President and Chief Executive Officer John M. Fahey. Jr. Chairman of the Board Gilbert M. Grosvenor Executive Vice President; President. Book Publishing Group

Nina D. Hoffman

Prepared by the Book Division Senior Vice President and Publisher Kevin Mulroy Director of Photography Publishing and Leah Bendavid-Val Illustrations

Director of Design Barbara Brownell Grogan Executive Editor

Marianne Elizabeth

R.

Koszorus

Newhouse

Mehler

Carl

Academic consultants

Director of Travel Publishing

Lowell Abrams, Associate Professor of Mathematics. The George Washington University; George Allen. Doctor of Chemistry; Dr. Ghazala Anwar. Professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies. University of Canterbury; Dr. Michael Barzelay. Professor of Public Management. London School of Economics and Political Science: Dr. Christopher L. Ca hill. Associate Professor of Chemistry. The George Washington University; Michael Cromartie. Vice President, Ethics and Public Policy Center, Washington DC; Dorothea Diehl, Dipl. Biologist, formerly biologist at the Dr.

Maps

Director of

Dr.

Staff for this book Judith Klein

Project Editor

Jennifer A. Thornton

Managing

Gary Colbert

Production Director

Editor

Museum ment

Phillip

John

T.

L

Chief Financial Officer Vice President

Schlosser

Dunn

Technical Director

Chris Brown

Director

Maryclare Tracy

Manager Manager

Nicole

Elliott

Lubeck;

Dr.

Maria

L. Dittrich,

Assistant Clinical Professor. Depart-

The George Washington University; Dr. Robert P. Donaldson. Professor of Biology. Department of Biological Sciences. The George Washington University: Susan Tyler Hitchcock. Doctor in English. University of Virginia; Ira H. Klugerman, CEO/Executive Producer. Educational Film Center (EFC). Washington DC: Dr. Keichi Kodaira. President of SOKENDAI/Japan; Dr. Susan Norland. Lecturer for German Literature. The George Washington University: Dr. Saulo Rodrigues. Geologist, Center for Sustainable Development, University of Brasilia; Dr. Peter Rollberg. Associate Professor of Slavic and Film Studies. The George Washington University: Dr. Andre Rosowsky, SACLAY/France; Dr. Suwanna Satha-Anand. Professor at the De-

Manufacturing and Quality Management Christopher A. Liedel

for Natural History,

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partment of Philosophy, Chulalongkorn University. Thailand; Dr. Robert W. Turtle. Professor of Law. The George Washington University: Dr. med Anglika Witzel. Medical Doctor Copyright

© 2007

Peter Delius Verlag

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KG. Berlin

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Reproduction of the whole or any part of the contents without written

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Images from: akg-images Berlin/London/Pans. Artifice Images, Astrofoto. big stock photo. Canstockphoto. Claudia Casagranda. dpa Deutsche Presse Agentur, Digitalstock, ESA-European Space Agency, ESO- European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere, fotolia. Interfoto. Istockphoto. Lebrecht Music + Arts. Museum fur Naturkunde Berlin, NASA- National Aeronautics and Space. Photographers direct com, Pixelquelle. Seilnachl. Wikipedia commons, ZAK Archive. Delius Producing. University of Washington; Berliner Verkehrsbetneben (BVG). Stand:10.12.06; Biologiebuch. Linder/Verlag; BMW Motorrad Munchen; Bundesverband WarmePumpe (BWP) e. V.; Canton Elektronik GmbH + Co KG: O Cooling-Station.net; ©Copyright 2007. Lin>rospace AG; ''^Ebay; Firma Cannondalf 'Modell Perpetrator 1; Fachhochschule Lippe und Hbxter. Abt. Physik. Lemgo; Forschunden Research, [email protected]. APHALINE Knu li/te Technology Co.. Ltd; Uwe Gloy; Dr. Hebert; Inc.; Medvedev@pielease; ©Kodak; .La Quinzaine Litteraire"; © 2007 David Lindroth Inc.; Pflanzenhebe.de: ©Phihpps: gszentrum JG Kompetenzzentrum HanseNanoTec. SPM Gruppe von Prof. Roland Wiesendanger. Universilat Hamburg; Georg Mader; National Geographic Society; Georg Oleschinski; pangea.stanford.edu: R.E Wallace/ US. Geological Survey; medienzentrum.klinikum uni heidelberg.de; Mercedes Benz.de; © 2006 MSI Technology GmbH ©Jane Reed/Harvard News Office; Ramgeis: Schieb'.i BektroniactW Geraete GmbH; Dieter Schulte; ©Siemens AG. Munchen/Berhn; Stochastik/ odition.cnn.com: ©Peggy Seeger; ©shure-europe-GmbH; ©solarcosa.de: ©Sony: Dirk Trebbels: ,foto DG Flugzeugbau. Bruchsal; ©www.ddesignmedia.de.; ©www.otis.com; ©www.marineturbines.com; ©www.gloUniversity of Washington; t)Wikipedia/GNU; Wikipedia/©Herrenkn. K hen.com; www.Affenberg Salem.de; www.fzk.de/imvt; www.freigeist.ee; www.e-learning-for kids.org; www.eberspaecher.com/; www. betrotter de; ceo@sharkbay wa.gov au; cs@sues www.itk messtechnik.de; www.hvingonwater.de. wwwmtfoto.dk/malene/Zimbardo/www.prisonexp.org; http://pen.physik.uni-kl.de/medien/MM ame.com. (wn For detailed

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HOW

TO USE THIS BOOK

HOWTOUSETHISBOOK The unique design and organization of

and enjoyment. Opening the book grasp which subject and topic

is

to

this extensive

volume

facilitates its

use

any page, the reader can quickly and easily

being discussed.

Page introductions summarize the topic discussed on the page.

Graphics that range from

engaging images to maps to factual diagrams fill

each page.

Monographic Boxes

Colored Tabs indicate the chapter

dive into a specific

theme

21st Century Boxes

name and

or subject with give up-to-date facts

great detail, enhancing the page's text.

Insider

Boxes provide ing,

regarding the page's

Knowledge interest-

easy-to-remember

facts regarding the

page's subject that intrigue the reader.

subject, linking

it

the present day.

to

Analytical

Boxes

break down a specific

term or concept that integral to the page's

will

subject matter.

is

subject.

5

6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cultural History of the Wold: Stonehenge, cultural

monuments

of the world, p.

one of the most famous

prehistoric

18

12

The Universe: The Orion Nebula,

The

birthplace of many stars, p.

surface

44

Earth: 71 percent of the Earth's is

covered by water,

Foreword

THE BLUE PLANET 16

CULTURAL HISTORY

40 42 44 48 50

THE UNIVERSE

56 58 60 62 64 68

THE EARTH

76

Raw

80 84

The Atmosphere— Earth's Gaseous Shield

The Theater of Our Existence Stars— It Becomes Light Planetary

Systems— Cosmic Carousels

Celestial Bodies of Our Solar System

World

Map

Earth's Origin

Building Materials of Earth— Minerals

and Rocks

The its

History of the Earth— Stations of Life

The Earth

years ago,

irv.Motion

Materials of the Earth

Oceans and Seas

The

Earth: The formation of moun-

tains through subduction, p.

Earth:

70

Our planet reached

present form ca p.

68

30 million

p.

78

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Biology: Beauty

and

often go together

in

functionality

nature, p.

97

Chemistry: The visible process of a

chemical reaction,

p.

134

Physics and Technology: Compo-

nents of a CPU.

p.

184

Mathematics: A graphic produced by a mathematical formula,

p.

209

DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS 90 92 94 96 102 108 116 118 128 130 134 136 140 142 144

—

i

lil Hummingbirds

flap their

wings

per second,

Origin of Life

Growth and Reproduction

The World of Plants Diversity of the

Animal World

Mammals Behavior: Actions and Reactions

Human

Beings

CHEMISTRY Matter—The World of Substances Chemical Substances— Material

in

Flux

Substances of Every Day—Chemistry Determine

Economy and Ecology—An Ongoing The Work

of

Relationship

Chemists

Materials of Tomorrow

,,r-

*T Biology:

BIOLOGY The

p.

80

times

146 148 154 164 170

PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY Basics of Physics

Automotive Engineering Construction Technology

Energy Technology

176

Manufacturing Technology

180 190

Computer Technology Communication and Entertainment Technology

196 198 200 202 204 206 208

MATHEMATICS

107

The Subject of Mathematics Classical

Analytic

Mathematics

Geometry

Infinitesimal Calculus

When Numbers Lie Old and New Mathematics

Biology: The

system,

p.

human

121

circulation

7

8

TABLE OF CONTENTS

.d*Wifc.

•*

sa

-W

Pi Society. Politics,

A z.:

and Law: Peace activists repeatedly draw attention

through spectacular actions,

p.

to their

cause

231

SOCIAL LIFE 210 212 216 222 228 232 236 242 248

SOCIETY, POLITICS, Societies, Dictatorial

Forms Forms

Principles of Political

AND LAW

of State, of

and Government

Government

Democracy

Ideologies

International Organizations

Trends of the 21st Century Justice

and Order— Basis

The Application

of the

of

Law

Law

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL TOPICS

252 254 256 264 270 272

The Business

276

Opening and Running a Business

National Economies

Managing the Economy Globalization

Economics and Business of Business

i Society. Politics, |ll>'

'

>

and Law:

symbol of justice,

II

[HI Mil

fpTvfnf

Society. Politics, in

and Law: The Capitol

Washington, D.C.,

p.

225

p.

242

Justitia,

a

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Philosophy: Rodin's famous thinker

represents contemplation,

p.

287

Religion:

The Jewish holiday of Hanukkah celebrates the miraculous replenishlanterns of the temple in 164 B.C.. p. 300

Psychology: Facial expressions

ment of the

speak a universal language,

p.

MIND AND SOUL 280 282 286 290 296 298 302 308

RELIGION Foundations of Religion and Traditional Religions

Hinduism—A World

Between Unity and

Religion

Buddhism-The Middle Path

to Nirvana

The Religions of China and Japan

Judaism— Life According

to

God's

Commandments

Christianity— From Jewish Sect to a World Religion

Islam— Submission

to Allah

314

New

316 318 322

PHILOSOPHY

326 330 336 340

The Beginning of the Modern Era

344 346 348 354 358

Diversity

Religions and Cults

Philosophy: The Beginning

Knowledge and

Faith

Philosophical Systems and System-Detractors This World and

Beyond— Language

Philosophy at the Turning Point

PSYCHOLOGY The Emergence

of Psychology as a

Science

Foundations of Psychology Applications of Psychology

Psychoanalysis

Religion:

Hindu god Shiva perform-

ing a sacred dance, p.

287

350

9

10

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Architecture: With the Bilbao branch of the

Guggenheim Museum, Frank Gehry p. 411

created an internationally acclaimed icon of modern architecture,

Visual Arts: Vermeer's 'Girl With a

Pearl Earring,'

p.

Literature:

379

Nobel Prize-winning

author Orhan Pamuk,

p.

439

THE ARTS 362 364 366 368 370 372

VISUAL ARTS Prehistoric and Indigenous Art

in

Art

Antiquity

Asian and Islamic Art Art of the Middle

Ages

Renaissance and Mannerism

376

Baroque

380 382 386

The 18th Century The 19th Century The 20th Century Visual Arts: The stunningly realistic

bust of Queen

392 394 396 398 400 402 408

Nefertiti, p.

ARCHITECTURE The Beginning Classical Architecture

Architecture Outside of Europe

Medieval Architecture

Modern Architecture Architecture From Industrial Times Onward Early

Architecture: Chateau built in

de Chambord,

French Renaissance

style, p.

403

366

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Music: in

a

Sun King Louis XIV performs

ballet by

J. P.

Lully. p.

446

Film:

Uma Thurman

in

Quentin

Tarantino's 'Pulp Fiction.' p.

412 414 416 418 422 424

Nutrition

477

and Health: Components

of healthy food.

p.

The Media: Everyone can be a star on the Internet, p. 495

483

LITERATURE The Beginning— Myths and Images Classical Antiquity— Achetype

and Orientation

The Middle Ages— Belief, Love, and Heroism Early

Modernity— Reform and Opulence

Rationality

and Frenzy— From Enlightenment

to

Romanticism

428 430 434

Realism and Naturalism— Precursors to Modernity

440 442 446 450 454 460 462 464

MUSIC

Modern Pluralism— Expression and Deduction and Departure

Objectivity

Middle Ages and Renaissance

Baroque—Absolutist Splendor Classical

Era— Clarity of Form

Romanticism—The View Inward

Modern Music New Music—A Variety

of Possibilities

Music of the World

468

FILM

470

Film-The Seventh Art

MODERN

LIFE

480 488 496

Youth Culture: The More

504

Index

Health Today

The Media—Omnipresent Companions It

Changes, the More

It

Stays the

Modern

Life:

Same

Street dancing

of today's youth culture,

p.

is

part

501

11

12

FOREWORD

and making it available

Selecting relevant information

a wide readership has been the task of book publishers and

to

libraries for centuries.

Why Knowledge? was raised I

in

home

a

with books

in

every

room. Growing up during the Depression, my

parents could not afford to go to university, but they never stopped looking at the world as one great learning opportunity. that

I

my parents gained from

my mother

to

even offered

teach in

me

school.

saw the enjoyment reading, so

to read before

it

I

asked

was

My parents gave me

it

a

most

father slept. At the end of

articles in this encyclopedia, there

"links")

and

usually ending up

I

would read these as

immersed

in

were

we would

referrals to related articles (today

them

I

on weekend mornings while

my mother and my

Decades later, both of my parents have died, and have grown children of my own, yet still enjoy exploring the world of knowledge and

call

well,

a subject far

I

I

I

still

gain pleasure from learning about a vast

range of subjects. I

copy of "The World Book Encyclopedia," and

began reading

upon which my finger had landed.

article

could

tell

you that

knowledge leads truth

that,

is

to a higher

is

power" or that

income, but the

more often than

not.

I

have been

driven by plain, old-fashioned curiosity. "The

Knowledge Book" provides the reader with an overview, a survey course, of the range of hu-

man knowledge.

In

this

age of specialization,

it

reminds us that there are actually a wide variety of subjects that

plunge my finger onto a page and then read the

sible,

I

have been motivated by

the concept that "knowledge

removed from the one with which had started. Sometimes would open a volume at random, I

I

makes

this

it

we can

whole range

study.

Because the book

of subjects easily acces-

introduces the reader to topics that he

FOREWORD

has more impact on our

lives

than what hap-

pened 100 years ago, but the decisions we

make

our daily lives are strongly influenced

in

by the generations that have preceded ours,

whether we realize

it

the ideas that were prevalent

other eras and

in

the events that have taken place

we

the past,

in

are better able to understand aspects of

the present that otherwise

we

about

or not. By learning

seem

baffling,

and

are more easily able to anticipate the trends

of the future.

The present, after

all, is

just a

moving dot on the continuum connecting the past to the future. "History," as Like Copernicus,

own

abilities.

we

all

seek

to better

understand our world and

Knowledge both precedes and

to

improve our

facilitates this quest.

wrote, "is a vast, early-warning system." At least history should be an early-warning system. Un-

fortunately, or

she may know

little

about, but which might

prove exciting to pursue. Wallace, and

I

compiled our

People's Almanac" "a reference

book

Knowledge Book lief

When my first

father, Irving

volume

was

another example of the be-

is

need not be boring. is

it

"The

be read for pleasure." The

to

that history, science, and learning

wrote, "There

of

1975, we said that

in

In

1905.

G. K.

in

general

Chesterton

no such thing on earth as an

uninteresting subject; the only thing that can exist

We

is

an uninterested person."

live in

Norman Cousins

many decision-makers assume

the modern world

so different from what has

is

gone on before that they ignore

history's les-

sons and make avoidable mistakes. While

was

I

was

a high

school student,

my

writing a novel, "The Prize," about

winners of the Nobel

Prize.

He had

father

one year's

little

ters, but

when

it

came time

would earn

tional discoveries that fictional istry,

Nobel Prizes

to invent the fic-

in

his characters

the categories of chem-

physics, and physiology or medicine, he

information overload. Navigating this barrage

and distractions can be

intimidating. Familiarizing ourselves with the

broad range of knowledge can give us the confi-

dence

to

choose which ideas and concepts we

more about. In the words of Dame Veronica Wedgwood, "An educated man should want

to learn

know everything about something and something about everything." The

educated woman. old,

who see no

cause they think I

I

for

an

have met people, young and

point it

same goes

is

in

studying history be-

not relevant to their lives.

agree that what happened yesterday or today

trouble

constructing the plot and creating the charac-

an age of great complexity and

of sight, sound, ideas,

that

In

the information age. knowledge

is

a distinctive element of power.

13

14

FOREWORD

was stumped because he had only the most

forget the people

rudimentary knowledge of these subjects.

motion pictures and those who, over the course

followed with fascination

my

father's systematic

attempt to solve this dilemma.

about the basic principles disciplines.

science and

of

in

he read

First

each

its

each discipline. Then he made

guess as

of

each category.

he studied the current trends

research

in

a calculated

to future discoveries that

would win

the prizes, and then he went back to writing his novel. Eventually every

coveries

search,

one

medium, not

who invented and perfected

men-

to

specific

devices, such as cameras, lights, recording

branches. Next he read about in

of a century, perfected the

tion those

these

of

Then he read about the history

each of the previous winners Finally,

I

way back when who invented

of his fictional dis-

came to pass. Through diligent remy father had learned enough about

equipment, and projectors. Many of these people

when we watch

are no longer alive, yet

these people have

ment

contributed to the enjoy-

all

of our experience.

What goes

for a film, ap-

shopping center

plies as well for a building or a

or a website, not to

a movie,

mention the making of a

a battle, or a philosophical system. In fact,

person who has ever

lived

has

left

law,

each

behind the

subtle legacy of his or her actions and emotions.

Whether we pay attention

to

them

we

or not,

live

subjects he had previously found difficult to

our lives amid the accumulation of these lega-

be able to correctly predict scientific trends.

cies. To not learn

I

never forgot this lesson: that rather than

new

avoid

subjects,

I

could learn about them

about religions other than your

own is an invitation to disaster. Some people seem frightened by the prospect of learning

by starting with the basics and patiently

about belief systems other than their own, as

expanding my explorations.

exposing themselves to a variety of religious and

The world of information, the world edge,

is

human

really a world of

of knowl-

beings. Behind

philosophical ideas

them

will

pollute

or upset their balance.

I

them

believe that the

about other religions

opposite

every movie, song or work of

helps you better understand your own.

torical

event are

human

art,

and every

his-

human ones we see

beings. These

beings, real people just like the

makes

true. Learning

easier to

it

example,

in

confuse

or

every scientific discovery, every engineering feat,

is

It

also

comprehend world events.

many Ameri-

attacks of September 11, 2001,

working, and consulting with others. Think

cans, knowing nothing about the teachings of

about the most recent

Islam,

you enjoyed.

assumed

Most movie fans remember the names of the leading actors and actresses. Students of film

terrorists.

can probably also identify the director and

became

maybe even the

screenwriter.

of their

sands

were involved

of people

bringing that movie to

release lists

in

its

thou-

In reality, in

the process of

audience. The latest

the Harry Potter series, for example,

more than 750 people

in its

credits— and

that does not include people involved ing the film, advertising

it,

in

distributing

operating the theaters that show

it.

market-

it,

and

And don't

For

the United States, after the terrorist

every day, achieved their results by thinking,

film that

if

that

all

Muslims were potential

But for those Americans

who took the

time to learn about the basic tenets of Islam, clear that the ilk

religious billion It

is

9/11

terrorists

it

and others

were extremely rare exceptions

in a

community that encompasses almost

and

a half people.

often said that "a

gerous thing."

In

little

some cases

However, no knowledge at

gerous than "a

more than

a

a

little

little

knowledge

is

a dan-

may be true. much more dan-

this

all is

knowledge," and acquiring

knowledge

is

best. As you read

FOREWORD

With the increasing

speed of communication, various cultures are interacting on a massive scale and working together more than ever before in all fields and of each other this can never be achieved.

these words, consider stopping a

moment and

fully,

contemplating the world of which you are the center. You are probably

that

to build

a globalized

Without profound knowledge

society.

is

surrounded by

a

a

room

I

my readers

will

be inspired to use this as

springboard for their own intellectual pursuits. believe that "The

Knowledge Book" can serve

part of a building. Outside that building

is

as just such a springboard.

and objects. There

is

lows the reader to learn without having to worry

a world of people, animals,

It

is

a tool that al-

a city or a town, a nation, a continent, the Earth,

about being tested afterward. And, what

other planets, our solar system, other solar sys-

as important, because of

tems, and the universe beyond. Then

zoom back

ages the reader

to

its

format,

it

is

encour-

bounce among subjects as

and contemplate the world inside you. Your skin,

his or her curiosity dictates. In reading the

your appearance,

ters

show the

only that part of you that you

world. Inside that skin

complex series aware

is

of unless

course, what

is

of

is

an incredibly

systems that we are

rarely

something goes wrong. Of inside us

is

not just are organs,

in

this book,

just

it

is

worth keeping

as important as knowledge

is,

in

chap-

mind that

the greatest dis-

coveries and accomplishments could not have

been achieved with knowledge alone. As Albert Einstein said, "Imagination

is

more important

but our thoughts, our beliefs, our fears, and our

than knowledge." Imagination

hopes. "The Knowledge Book" can help us better

allows us to

understand the world that surrounds us and the

be,

we surround. have devoted much of my life to studying facts, ideas and concepts, and then presenting

to turn

what

Century: History With the Boring Parts Left Out."

world that

is

the quality that

dream about what the world could

and knowledge

is

the material that allows us

those dreams into

reality.

I

I

have learned

in

such a way

that, hope-

David Wallechinsky

is

the author of "The 20th

15

16

17

From the toric

emergence

of language during prehis-

times to today's increasing tendency toward global-

ization, first,

initial

human

spans across time. At

cultural history

culture acted primarily as a glue to bind

groups together for survival. As the nities

settled

emerged, evidence of accentuated

commu-

political orga-

clear,

as seen with the Egyptian pyramids.

classical era

formed the basis of the Renaissance

nization

The

first

communal

is

that paved the political

way

conventions

for the challenging of social in

and

the Enlightenment, which has

demonstrably affected the way we think of the govern-

ment

today.

In

learning about

human

cultural history,

not only are the links between the past and the present

made

perfectly clear, but also

it

is

helpful to better un-

derstand the various cultures of our contemporary world, of which the distances

creasingly blurred

mediums

of

in

between are becoming

in-

the wake of globalization and vast

communication.

18

THE BEGINNING

Hunting, Fire, and Language

The lie

origins of

some two

human

for survival. Equally important,

early

civilization

million years in the

when Homo

humans

control

fire,

warm

also learned to

which they used

their

caves and to

protection of the African forests to

prepare food,

among other

hunt on the savannas. This transi-

purposes.

past,

tion

habilis left the

to

from a gathering society,

living

and other

plant-

exclusively on fruit

based foods, ers signified

Building of Communities

to meat-eating hunt-

Living within small family

more than simply a

broadening of the human

groups, early

of

together

labor.

people

in

Altamira, Spain

in

according to a division of

communication

into order to organize

Cave drawing

to organize their activities

diet.

Hunting required a group effort

and a means

humans began

hunting

Hunting was mainly

As early humans' range of

ex-

the work of males, while

pression increased through this

females tended the

development

fire

The

of language, their per-

ceptions of the world around them

parties. Thus, the

and the

development

technological developments

also expanded. From the start,

included the production and

observation and interpretation

of

spoken language be-

came

children.

refinement of tools

essential

stone, wood,

earliest

made

were

of

linked.

The human experience

became "understandable" when

and bone.

However, early humans' most

was explained

significant cultural innovation

worldview. Thus

was the

cults

and

used

to tie

creation of a language

through a composition of sounds

in

terms of a specific

emerged

religious

burial rites. Culture

was

communities together.

and symbols. Language enabled people to communicate their

ASIA

thoughts and feelings, and to

ca 1.7 million-

exchange information about

300,000 years ago: "Java Man"

everyday

life.

AFRICA Neolithic axe

Hi

WORLD

ca 1.8 million

and hammer

years ago:

ca 1.8-1 million

Pnmative people

years ago:

(Homo

Development of

erectus)

migrate from

language

Africa

communication

for

ca 6 miiiion years ago:

First

hominoids (Orrorin tugenesis) appear in

East Africa

AFRICA ca 2.3-1.5 Over 6 million years ago:

million years ago:

Homo

First

provable evidence of

hominoids

habilis

stone tools.

uses

AFRICA

First

signs of culture

in

and animal

Africa

ca 1.8 million years ago:

Hominoids migrate

sacrifice

north and east

WORLD

from Africa

WORLD

From ca 2.5

ca 500.000 years

mllllon-10.000

ago: The

years ago: Old

of fire

first

use

Stone Age (Paleolithic)

PREHISTORY

6,000.000

1.800.000

it

1.000.000

THE BEGINNING

Humans

Down

Settle

and thus

their protection also

Evidence reflecting early humans'

was important. Hence,

understanding of the world

In agriculture,

human

early

the invention of a

plow that could be pulled by cattle

settlements arose on strategically

or horses increased productivity.

cludes Stone Age works of art such

advantageous highlands and were

However,

as cave paintings, stone carvings.

soon reinforced with

success within an agricultural

soci-

and small sculptures, as well as

history of early people

ety a reliable irrigation system

was

artifacts pointing to

the existence

and

of religious beliefs

in-

conflicts

with

between settled farmers

and marauding nomadic

burial ritu-

The

is filled

textiles

them extended

beyond a merely functional

well

relation-

people sought

ship. Instead, early

master their environment with

as well as creative

and wooden

as containers

utensils,

made

dams and

as

in

of ceramic

rivers.

larger

Meanwhile,

canals were constructed

order to create vast

fertile flood-

plains. Close observation of the stars,

as well as the cycles of

goods of everyday use. However,

floods

and harvests,

civilization

was achieved

development

art.

such as

and stone, were already common

yet another milestone of

the help of religious and magical beliefs,

first

settlements and early

of water

During the third millennium, woven

demonstrate that early

humans' view of nature and the world around

order to have long-term

states were situated along bodies

Metal Tools and Jewelry

remains largely unknown, these finds

in

needed. Accordingly, the

human

tribes.

Although their exact meaning

als.

to

walls.

19

human

development

led to the

of the first calendar

systems. This marked the orienta-

with the

human

of metalworking

tion of

jewelry and useful

cept of time. From the beginning,

lives within

the concr

A

particularly far-reaching

skills.

development was the Neolithic

At

first,

o

was seen as having

objects were primarily fashioned

this task

religious significance,

UJ

revolution,

which began around

from gold and copper.

Later,

bronze

8000

Abandoning their hunt-

and

make

tools

ing

B.C.

and gathering

lifestyle,

groups of people settled to plant fields

This

new way

and of

were used

and weapons. As a

one spot

ores

in

became

along with

raise animals.

life

iron

some

brought innova-

to

result,

salt. fur. textiles,

agricultural products.

and

region, thus

tant development, as

more

labor,

fication.

and thus

it

enabled

With these agricultural

societies, food reserves

essary for survival

were nec-

in difficult

times,

>cr

o H

cycles observed in

encouraging cultural

the heavens were


-

Alexander's empire

dence. To defend against Persian invasions into Europe,

many city-

states joined together

in

apart

fell

o hFAR EAST

the Athe-

nian Alliance, within which Athens

321-184

exercised strict hegemony. A similar

in

490-479

336-323

550-529 Cyrus

II

371

independence

Thebes

defeats Sparta at

\

B.C.:

the Great

B.C.:

campaigns of conquest by

Leuctra and gains

EUROPE 359-336

control over Philip

Greece

establishes the

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Scientists working

lacking.

is still

many

in

The primordial soup theory

pre-existing

disci-

plines attempted to solve the

ance

mystery of the appearance of

to present

life

on Earth. They have presented

many theories. Since

can only be described by theories, as

to organized living creatures

of

life

life.

The

initial

is

appear-

on Earth would appear

an exception

At that time, physical

3.4-4

theory.

billion

life first

years ago, from which

developed. The "primordial

to this rule.

soup theory" described the mecha-

and

nisms and individual steps

chemical conditions were very

Louis Pasteur

one such

process by

its

in

this

re-creation in labora-

According first

observed bacterial

different

cells

dividing under a microscope,

first

biology has recognized the basic

precept that

life

arises only from

from today.

It

seems the

tory experiments

1953.

in

ory, life

organic molecules were

to

the panspermia the-

on Earth may have arrived

on comets.

produced through the addition of

The Primordial Soup Theory

energy to non-living material about

This hypothesis posits that simple

sugar, fatty acids,

organic molecules were formed

acids— the precursors of proteins.

Flowering

out of chemical reactions

Plants

Gymnosperms Ferns * '

inorganic molecules

in

the primor-

soup

dial sea. Primordial

among refers to

many

and amino

These formed the basis first

for

the

protobionts— antecedents of

true cells. The protobionts took on

shapes

Mosses

early Earth's water containing

Algae

dissolved substances. The mole-

(resembling single-celled organ-

Bacteria

cules were exposed

isms)

Fungi

to high levels of

energy from ultraviolet radiation—

closed, bubble-like

in

which metabolism could

take place.

Microorganisms tw* X *

^

X X

-

— -

;

There are many other theories,

since there

was no

Cnidaria

layer at the

time—and

Worms

discharges. With this energy input,

hydrothermal volcanic vents ("black

Arthropods

they were able to combine and form

smokers") spewing

organic building blocks including

water from the deep ocean

Sponges

«*.

protective

ozone

lightning

Mollusks

including that

life

arose around

particle-rich floor.

Echinoderms

—

Fish

Amphibians

m

Mesc zoic

Pal aec zoic

\ o

o

o

V

P>

r

1

/

c

o —I o

s

r'

i

Aerobic oxygen-process-

Anaerobic (prokary-

ing prokaryote

otic)

host

cell

unique DNA, are surrounded by

of oxygen-producing

photosynthesis

Within

cell.

tions).

cell

A major step forward was the

cesses could take place.

cell,

became the

later

which separated them from the

space

in-

/

Cyanobacteria-like

otes took on the functions of what

cyanobacteria.

environment, creating an internal

survive

dependently and became a single

contemporary bacteria

nucleus, they had a

com-

ment. Gradually, the symbiotic part-

First Cells

prokaryotes were very

similar to

then

from the arrange-

profiting

likely

Prokaryotes-The

cells

munity or symbiosis, with both

sun's energy, carbon dioxide, and

double-layered

membranes,

cell

and reproduce through

way

division in a

Eukaryots emerged through their incorporation of smaller prokaryots.

similiar to bacteria.

the plentiful water supply surrounding them, cyanobacteria

assemble

their

own

began

to

Oxygen—which was poisonous living

Cyanobacteria were the

first to

do

oxygen-producing photosynthesis.

to

cellular

early prokaryotes

use sunlight to

fulfill

began

to

their energy

needs. They carried out an anaerobic

form of photosynthesis,

ing hydrogen sulfide sulfur as a

multi-

all

The

700 Multicellular

life

may

have arisen from

as sulfurous hot springs),

respiration to use oxy-

organisms

ago

in

the

is little

menting

fossil record

docu-

their existence, likely

because they did not have any hard physical components such

oxygen-free habitats (such

and giving off

multicellular

million years

there

Multicellular

those that could retreat into

first

nuclei.

Pre-Cambrian period. However,

Organisms

cess. The only other

or are able via cellular

organisms with multiple

probably appeared around

a waste

product from this pro-

oxidiz-

waste product. This type

have emerged from single-celled

addition to

things— plants, animals,

surviving organisms were

Some

In

and humans— are eukaryotes.

things of the time-

was released as

higher organisms.

single-celled organisms,

nutrients.

Foraminifera are single-celled

as

shells.

However, the imprints of

soft-bodied organisms that can be

shelled organ-

found are mostly

in

the Ediacaran

isms that have

gen

to

produce energy

existed since the

Cambrian period.

through the oxidation of food.

The oldest

known prokaryote

billion

Cambrian

period,

In

the early

many new

spe-

cies developed within the relatively

colonies of single-

fossils

celled organisms,

are stromatolites that are

about 3.4

fauna of Australia.

which daughter

years old.

in

cells did

Stromatolites are calcium

not separate from others after

carbonate deposits which form

division. Multicellular

life

cell

may also

from colonies of cyanobacteria.

short time of

About 400 first

plants

50

million years.

million years ago, the

came

ashore,

making way for the

colo-

nization of dry land by

other organisms.

21 st CENTURY

The First Eukaryotes

BACTERIA have existed

The

years nearly unchanged and have

first

eukaryotes probably

developed about 2

billion

years ago

from symbiotic relationships Imprint of jellyfish-like organism from

among

prokaryotic cells. Equipped with a

Ediacara region

to

countless habitats.

LIVING FOSSILS are species that

have barely changed over millions of years. There are few

the late Pre-Cambrian from Australia's

spread

true cell nucleus, they formed a

foundation for the development of

© see also: Cyanobacteria, Earth Chapter, p. 64

for billions ions of

these

examples of

among higher, more complex

organisms.

r

For centuries,

humans

have used the oldest living

things— bacteria-to

make cheese.

DO

94

GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION

Cell structure

THE INVENTION of the microscope

(early

researchers

to

A CELL

is

living cells. life.

All

the transfer of genetic

te

organisms go through phases of growth and reproduction during

nisms

for

units of

life.

offspring.

humans

to

intervene

reproductive processes of

Chromosomes

is

passed on

cells,

the basic

daughter

to

cells in

are formed from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and

vari-

ous proteins. They contain information about an organism's appearance, character, behavior, and

the

in

This division ensures that their genetic information

the form of chromosomes.

BREEDING and genetic manipulation

The basic mecha-

their lives.

these processes are nearly always the same; they involve the division of

information from parents to their

permit

Heredity

|

GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION

1600s) allowed

examine

the basic unit of

HEREDITY

and division

light

numerous other

many

living things.

© Every

cell

traits that will affect their lives.

contains a complete set of genetic information, which

is

passed on during reproduction.

CELL STRUCTURE AND DIVISION things are

All living

made

of cells,

which are generally orga-

nized into specialized tissues. Plant cells use sunlight to create

> o —I o CD

own

their

^

food.

Biologists view the cell as the basic unit of

life,

because

it

Some

tinction

organisms, such as bacteria, euglena,

up

of only

one

cell,

of

many

A basic

The sperm penetrates the egg

membrane,

humans,

composed

contains the

organism's

Parts of a Cell in

like

of

in

a

Cell division:

helps

The spindle apparatus

chromosomes

divide.

chromosomes. The mitochondria

structures, or dictyosomes, which

powers the

sort

to

The single-celled organism Paramecium is covered with cilia, which

jelly

allow the cell to move.

substance called cytoplasm,

apparatus consists of stacked

are another type of organelle that cell

by producing energy

The

ribo-

all

and store substances such as

proteins

and

lipids.

acids from food

produce the proteins necessary

for

in

Embedded

cell

fertilization.

somes use amino

the form

cell

plants, a wall.

during

for metabolic processes.

material

Cells are sur-

and,

(left)

The nucleus, enclosed by a nuclear

genetic

membrane

'V-

dis-

cells with a true nu-

cells.

rounded by a

.

organ-

without a nucleus (prokaryotes).

referred to as single-celled organ-

isms. Others, including

functions.

made between

cleus (eukaryotes) and those

and are thus

are multicellular, or

cell is

isms that have

and paramecia, are made

-

individual structures or organelles

perform

the sim-

is

plest form of living matter.

-t

essential processes. Lyso-

somes and peroxisomes

digest for-

Growth and Division The growth and reproduction

eign and toxic substances that

division.

might harm the

splitting of the nucleus. This

cell.

The

Golgi

of

organisms takes place through

cell

starts with mitosis, the

It

sepa-

rates the previously doubled

Differences Between Plant and Animal Cells

strands of the chromosomes, so that each

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS: Some organelles are found only (xx)

Chloroplast. or-

ganelle of photo-

synthesis

(p.

100)

(xx)

The

plants

(xx),

others exclusively

in

animals

(xy).

of various

substances.

new nucleus contains a

complete set of genetic information.

The cytoplasm pinches inward,

central vacuole aids cell

growth and the digestion and

age

in

stor-

Rough ER (endoplas-

(xy) Centrioles form a structure that

mic reticulum) helps produce proteins

helps

chromosomes

divide.

dividing the cell into two identical,

smaller daughter

Peroxisome

cells.

The organ-

elles— which have also previously

and membranes.

doubled

in

number—are

tween the daughter cells

Smooth ER helps metabolism and other processes

grow

to

normal size

ble the genetic material

xx) Cell walls,

clei

to prepare

for

divided be-

cells.

The new

and douin

their nu-

the next mitosis.

mainly composed of cellulose,

form

INSIDER

separations be-

tween plant

Cell

KNOWLEDGE

cells.

Peroxisome

BACTERIA ARE PROKARYOTES: genetic data

membrane

lies free in

their

cytoplasm.

'

)

Golgi apparatus

Plasmodesmata con-

nect neighboring cells

Mitochondria

THE PROCESS OF CELL DIVISION from 30 minutes to 2 hours.

lasts

GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION

95

I//

may

HEREDITY

contain the instructions for

blue eye color— or different; for

Parents pass on genetic information to their offspring. This material

is

combined from both parents

in

instance,

sexual reproduction.

one may have

tions for brown eyes for blue. Usually,

Most

living

things produce progeny

during the course of their

These offspring ited

own

Scientific

over the other and

exhibit traits inher-

not

understanding of the

tions

in

of inheritance devel-

the 20th century. The

groundbreaking discoveries of mod-

however;

lost,

appear

oped only

is

pressed or recessive

individual characteristics.

mechanisms

and the other

one gene

prevails

thus called

the dominant gene. The sup-

lives.

from their parents as well as

their

instruc-

in later is

if it

it

trait is

can

genera-

not sup-

pressed again.

Some traits may also be inherited

in

ern genetics are also used for pracapplications, such as the

tical

DNA

is

a very long

molecule with a double helix shape.

breeding of animals and plants.

Pioneers of Genetics

(J

O _i o

Charles Darwin, the originator of

was the

evolutionary theory, to recognize that

first

living things

all

How Does Heredity Work? In

sexual reproduction, germ

cells,

an intermediate form.

both

For example, crossing

Cloning copies an individual organ-

developed from older forms of

life.

They underwent a continuous process of adaptation to their envi-

ronments through changes their genes.

The science

ern genetics began

in

of

or gametes, fuse together.

animals and humans, these are the

egg

cells

and sperm

cells.

mod-

1860, when

other

cells,

gametes contain only

cell

with white flowers can produce a

identified the rules of in-

new

V

contains the usual double set

of genetic information.

James Wat-

Crick from Britain solved the puz-

DNA structure

in

1953.

Genetic information

is

trans-

ferred

in

ized the natural sciences— and

polarized society.

somes, whose coiled

was not

t

disposition

1

two

w w

spiral or helix, with

wound strands

con-

an organism's complete set of

filial

W

R

Which Gene Genes are

Will

Be Expressed?

individual

segments

of

genera

DNA

tion

for specific traits

and eye

within

FOR CENTURIES, people have bred microorganisms

for the

chromosomes. They

production of

wine, beer, and cheese. Genetic technology takes this process a step further

and

agriculture. The manipulation of

genes resulted

in

in

research, medi-

hundreds

affect

w"r

Intermediate inheritance: A redflowered plant

is

crossed with a

all

traits including

appear-

ance and character. Reproduction entails a copy of a

father and a

gene from the

gene from the mother

of

new

products at the beginning of the 21st century. Genes from different species are often combined by inserting a gene from one organism into another. The

enzymes and

coll.

CONTEMPORARY GENETIC TECHNOLOGIES engineer minuscule organisms that produce antibiotics and antibodies

for a great

range of medical purposes. Bacteria can be genetically altered to enable

rIw

such as

color.

host organisms, such as the bacterium Escherichia

W

2™ filial

fur,

tools used by scientists in this process include DNA-splitting

genetic instructions. R

desired abilities or appearance.

Genetic Manipulation and Breeding

gen bonds. These molecules con-

generation

animals and plants.

by manipulating specific genes for practical applications

tain 1"

traits in

the

nected to each other through hydro-

(simplified)

al-

SELECTIVE BREEDING CAN both encourage and

suppress particular

body shape,

cine,

Combination

processes that

internal struc-

DNA molecules take

long, tightly

to

low targeted manipulation of genetic information.

Humans breed animals

identified until the

form of a double

Hereditary

1996 and died

half years.

DNA

and proteins make up the chromo-

1950s. Parental

and a

GENETIC TECHNOLOGY refers

for

of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

ture

generation

six

healthy cloned

in

PEDIGREE PETS are often the products of breeding

the form of long strands

containing individual genes. above: Charles Darwin revolution-

first

pink-flowered plant.

son from the U.S. and Francis

zle of

the sheep, the

animal, was born

single sets of genetic material.

propagated different plant spe-

and

ism's complete genetic data. Dolly

and one

aged

Austrian abbot Gregor Mendel

heritance. Geneticists

Unlike

a plant with red flowers

in

After joining together, the

cies

In

them

pollutants,

and improve the

resistance of varieties of agricultural plants.

white-flowered plant. The offspring's flowers are pink.

*

When two

pink-

flowered plants are crossed, the next generation has

joining together to transfer this

genetic information to the offspring.

The progeny now has two versions

and white

flowers.

Genetically modified corn

plants can better resist

plants with red. pink,

of

each gene, one from each

ent.

par-

These mey be the same— both

to

break down environmental

diseases and pests.

00

I 96

WORLD OF PLANTS

THE

KEY FACTS Plants without seeds

GREEN ALGAE are the ancestors modern plants. THE OXYGEN that humans need survive

primarily

is

Plants with seeds

\

Photosynthesis

|

|

Nutrients

of

THE WORLD OF PLANTS

to

produced by

Plants are the only living things that create their

own sustenance. They use the unique process

of

plants.

photosynthesis to capture and use the sun's NUTRIENTS AND WATER are

trans-

AND STAMENS are

nutritional

In turn,

these autotrophic,

who

foundation for animals and humans,

cannot manufacture their own food. Although plants can be highly diverse

specialized vascular tissues.

PISTILS

phenomena form the

or self-feeding,

ported within the plant through

as an energy source.

light

in

appearance, most

share characteristic structures such as leaves and roots. Over the course of evolution, they have

the key

reproductive organs of a flowering

continually adapted themselves to prevailing environmental conditions.

plant.

©

Plant

life

was already present

in

the oceans

more than 450

million years ago.

THE EVOLUTION OF PLANTS The ancestors to

of today's land plants lived in the

meet challenges such as dehydration

in

oceans and seas. They had

to develop features

order to adapt for survival on dry land.

>-

O o _l o

managed

to obtain

adequate

moisture outside an aquatic

environment and transport

nutri-

ents to each section of the plant.

The First Seeds The (p.

first

seed-producing plants

99) appeared during the third

developmental period. These

differ

Horsetails have simple water

Mosses remain dependent on

from spore-producing vascular

conducting systems.

moisture for reproduction.

plants

in

that the

embryo—together

common

The

buttercup belongs to

the flowering plants group.

with a supply of nutrients— is

make

Fossil findings

it

mosses

possible to

(p.

98),

emerged on coasts

distinguish four significant develop-

and other moist environments. Un-

mental periods

like

Each

new

of

in

plant evolution.

these periods resulted

diversification of plant

in

mosses, these

first

encased

vascular

plants already consisted of true

a

roots

life.

and supportive stems with

water-conducting tissues. They

in

a shell: the seed. From

Around 460 first

the

initial

LION years

During a transitional phase,

ago,

mosses formed

species are thought to have to

seed covering, or gymnosperms,

tages

such as today's evergreens. Lack-

environments. They no longer

ing

encasement,

like within

a

fruit,

matter that

result,

modern mosses can

the conquest of

new

depended on moist environments and

their

embryos

were more protected from adverse

survive

fell

of Fruit

Fruit-forming flowering plants called angiosperms, or plants with

plant

to

the

covered seeds, appeared during

the

the fourth stage of development

in

marshy environment, but instead formed thick

layer that pro-

Development

club-

extensive,

ground did not decay

that would periodically dry up. As a

on land by a waxy

in

Giant horsetails no longer exist today.

ferns,

and

swampy forests. The

bodies of water

life in

Seed-producing

plants enjoyed significant advan-

environmental conditions.

APPROXIMATELY 360 MILgiant horsetails,

adapted

ground

to germinate.

Coal Forests of the Carboniferous Era

period of plant development.

some

freely to the

for reproduction

million years ago,

in

fall

kinds of plants without protective

land plants evolved from

aquatic green algae

seeds

these plants developed various

Protection Against Dehydration

the

their

about 130

lay-

trast to

million years ago. In con-

gymnosperms, angiosperm

ers of peat. Over the course

tects

them from dehydrating.

swamps were covered

Appearance

seeds are sealed inside chambers,

of the Earth's history, these

Vascular

or ovaries.

by

These develop

into fruits

oceans, and marine sedi-

with attractive qualities like flavor

Systems

ments were deposited on

or color, which

During the next developmental

top of the peat layers. H igh

distribution.

stage, the

of

first

plants equipped with

temperatures and pressure gradually transformed

internal

tubes to transport water,

cluding ferns, horsetails, and

in-

Ancient giant tree ferns

Lepidendron trees, which

could grow up to 32

could reach a height of

(10 m)

the peat into coal.

tall:

grow only

ft

today, they

in

the tropics.

almost 100

ft

(30 m). are

now extinct.

promote

fruit— and the

seeds inside-to other

locations. This

is

one reason

enormous success

i

i

see also: Coal. Earth Chapter,

p.

76

|

Physics

and Technology Chapter,

p.

172

their

Animals transport the

of

for

the

angiosperms.

THE WORLD OF PLANTS -

THE ANATOMY OF PLANTS Nearly

vascular plants have the

all

same

basic anatomy: stems, leaves to absorb light and

carbon dioxide, and roots to absorb water and minerals.

The basic components of a seed

nutrients.

plant are the roots, leaves, stems,

upon these reserves

or shoots,

and—at certain times

the year—flowers and

of

The plant

and

flowers

later

to

draws

coating, as

produce

is

sometimes,

the lower surface

to protect the plant

from dehydration and the sun's

fruit.

harsh rays.

fruit.

The Stem-The Support System

Roots-Contact With the

Soil

In

addition to acting as support for

The roots of a plant play several im-

the plant's leaves, flowers, and

portant roles. They provide stability

fruit,

by anchoring the plant firmly in the

water upward into the

ground. The branches of fine root

leaves from which

Flowers and Fruit Biologically speaking, flowers are

The

absorb water and dissolved

hairs

minerals from the plants,

soil.

Some

such as carrots, have

especially thickened roots that are

used

amounts

to store large

of

modified stems whose growth has

the sturdy stem transports

carries nutrients

been

anatomy

limited. Their

highly variable,

.

i

is

Flowers basically

the rest of the

the male stamens and the female

through nar-

tis-

left:

The veins of a leaf comprise the

circulatory system for water

to-

and can become woody.

as

the case of bushes and trees.

and

Leaves-Setting

of

Photosynthesis

The green leaves

of a plant produce

nutrients through the process of

groups are then arranged within a hierarchical system.

can be grouped ries of land plants

The plants

into the catego-

water are former land

in

plants which re-adapted to aquatic life

over the course of evolution.

Land plants can be further divided into

mosses and vascular

plants.

The vascular plants include spore

tained within the leaf

is

consists of a filament and an

anther that holds pollen. After pollination, the ovule ripens

and angiosperms.

bundles to the rest of the

where

it

Water

is

for

person

to

plant,

nourishes individual

ops

ordinary leaves— protect the inner

the seeds to protect and disperse

parts of the flower before

it

opens.

Often strikingly colorful petals

serve to attract insects

in

search of

MOST SEEDED PLANTS share

distributed

in

the

shown

cells.

same

flower tive

in

the illustration. The the plant's reproduc-

is

organ; the

leaves

are

where photosynthesis occurs

often be clearly seen as the veins

to provide

nourishment; and

the stem

the plant's support

on the underside of a

leaf.

The

leaves draw carbon dioxide from

is

system. The roots supply the rest of the plant with

the

through slit-shaped open-

air

ings called stomata. which are pre-

water and

often serve as a storage area for nutrients.

dominantly found on their under-

These stomata usually open

side.

The flower

is

the plant's

reproductive system.

the daytime to release excess The leaves carry out photosynthe-

water and the oxygen produced during photosynthesis. is

stored

in

The carbon

sis to provide

the plant with

nourishment. di-

the plant's cells

The stem transports many substances.

until

is

it

required.

organize a system

naming plants and animals.

seed and the ovary devel-

green and resemble

manner. The vascular bundles can

oxide above: Carl von Linnaeus was the

into a

Anatomy

distributed through the vascular

The

cuticle, or

leaves,

is

upper surface of

often layered with a waxy

Each male stamen

seeds.

The

horsetails, as well as

the seed-producing gymnosperms

contains the ovules that develop

protection for the

the basic anatomical design

in

first

cells.

style con-

nects the stigma and ovary, which

into seeds.

sugar produced by photosynthesis

producers such as ferns, club-

mosses and

100). This occurs

and stigma. The

into a fruit.

The roots draw water and nutrients from the

soil.

The

fruit

surrounds

them. The appearance of the

adapted

fruit is

to the plant's particular

distribution

mechanism

chloroplasts. which are con-

and algae. Mod-

ern plants (other than algae) that are found

(p.

are divided into the style,

provides

which are usually

in

pistil,

nutrients.

light

photosynthesis

the plant's reproductive organs,

ovary,

in

ward in

The sepals-

leaves.

Shoots generally grow

These

nation. Lying within the ring of pet-

specialized forms of

right: Fruit

characteristics.

polli-

occurs

vascular bundles.

shared

nectar and other animals for

als,

sue system called

Biology organizes livingthings into

ductive organs.

comprise several

the plant's

groups on the basis of specific

and

plant. This

row tubes

Classification of Plants

its pistils

depending

on the plant family.

1

flower, with

stamens, houses the plant's repro-

of a Plant

(p.

98).

o — o 00

98

THE WORLD OF PLANTS

SEEDLESS PLANTS: ALGAE, MOSSES, AND VASCULAR SPORE-PRODUCERS Plants that do not produce true seeds use spores to reproduce. Spores typically develop within specialized structures and are

spread primarily by the wind.

Plants without seeds reproduce by

Botanical researchers continue to

(centimeters) high, although they

means

of spores.

study which modern plants are

can spread out horizontally over

isms

their earliest

most

vast areas.

in

Spores are organstages of de-

velopment, which are composed

In

closely related to green algae.

general, algae

water and

live in

of a single cell or a cluster of cells.

carry out photosynthesis

The plants with spores include

the process that powers

al-

gae, mosses, ferns, and horsetails.

100),

(p. all

plant

growth. While their forms

Long-Leaved Ferns Ferns are an especially species-rich

group of plants, characterized by

and structures are

Algae-The Ancestors

| o o —I o CO

All

highly diverse,

modern plants are descended

from green algae, which are fied with

classi-

the lower plants. Algae are

most

that usually have indented

have a stringy or

or feathered edges.

leaf-like ap-

pearance. coastal

organisms equipped with

zones, they

In

their early growth

4

stages, fronds are

In

green monocellular or multicellular cell

very long leaves called fronds

curled up

shape

in

the

of fiddle-

organelles such as chloroplasts,

provide nutri-

heads— resembling

Giant tree ferns grow

containing the pigment chlorophyll.

tion for fish

the upper end of a

heights

in

to

impressive

the rain forests.

violin— that gradually

The green color of brown algae

simply

unfurl.

is

Ferns have a

branching system of

masked by

vessels

brown colored pigments.

in

their

stems and

fronds for transporting water

and other creatures, sometimes

and

forming entire forests on the sea-

called sori, can be

However, excessive algae

floor.

of

within

highly diverse group

environments. They are small and

However,

to disperse

many seed

developed mechanisms

them.

dependent on

water-rich

and

lack true leaves, stems,

for dis-

Hence they take their surfaces,

roots.

in

at-

tracted to specific plants for their

ers.

and fragrance

in

moisture from

ment

Only a small

number

them, and

swim

excre-

from the original plant.

mammals,

fruit

have burrs

stick to

passing

before falling to the ground and

above: Fern leaves with spores

(8 m), primarily in moist envi-

are small, large ones such as

to stimulate bodily excretion.

to the

female

cells

through a film of water. Only a

light

coating of moisture from either rain or

dew

is

usually sufficient.

Mosses also grow

in

dry areas as

traveling great lengths

germinating.

ft

98

required to transport liquids. They

since the male reproductive

Other seeds and

but currently can grow to about

26

to

ft

of species

cells

and hooks that

(30 m) millions of years ago,

giant tree ferns can grow up to

of their flow-

in

ft

used as medicinal plants, such as

are equipped with the simple cells

tion,

far

100

many

where a waxy coat-

Animals often consume a

then deposit the seeds

in

rhizome root system reaches

their

ronments. Horsetails are often

also require moisture for reproduc-

plant's fruits, digest

their reproductive spores, while

temperate-zone forests. Although

nectar as well as for the shape, color,

living

shady and moist habitats

the tropics, but also grow

ing prevents dehydration.

and seeds.

animal species are

spores up to several yards

staunch bleeding or as a diuretic

on

plants have

tributing their fruits

Some

rely

a cone-like

producers attained heights of up to

of plants

They

Some stems have

structure at their tips containing

deep underground. These spore-

have spore packets that dry out

air.

form.

by the wind.

disrupts the ecologi-

Spore-producers such as ferns

spores into the

divided into seg-

(meters) away so as to be dispersed

fertilizer

balance of a body of water.

Mosses are a

flinging their

is

ments, where small spindly leaves

much

Mosses-Little Plants

Seed Plants

stem which

pult the

Ferns are primarily found

Spore-Producing and

wind and water

underside of the leaves and cata-

Mechanisms

and burst open,

seen on the

Horsetails have a hollow, vertical

growth caused by the use of too

cal

Distribution

nutrients. Their spore packets,

Horsetails

they survive a long time

in

a dehy-

drated state. Without a support structure for vertical growth, most

grow no more than a few inches

© see also: Overfertilization, Chemistry Chapter,

p.

136

(30 m)

in

height.

THE WORLD OF PLANTS Ea3R

21 st

SEED-PRODUCING PLANTS

99

CENTURY

PRODUCTIVITY of agricultural plants

The embryo, or young plant, of seeded plants coat. This protects

it

packaged with a supply

is

of nutrients inside

its

is

from dehydration and other environmental hazards.

constantly increased by selective

breeding and genetic manipulation.

WORLDWIDE some 677 million particular animal group, birds, bats,

aptations

and

insects.

tons

of corn are produced per year,

such as

around 41%

the U.S. alone.

in

These ad-

may affect the shape,

GLOBAL DIVERSITY of plant species due to monoculture and

fra-

is

declining

grance, and color of the flowers.

the use of herbicides.

Some species of orchids—the bee

Pollination occurring by a

The apple contains

bee

its

own seeds.

orchid, for instance—even imitate

single of

the form and odor of a female

ing germination

sect

in

in-

order to to lure males to

a highly diverse

and have

parallel

which have a pair of seed leaves

and have a

of plants with covered seeds, called

From Seed

leaf (cotyledon) dur-

and the dicotyledons,

leaf veins,

pollinate the flowers.

Seed plants are

seed

net-like vein structure.

The monocots include orchids,

and widely distributed group of

angiosperms.

In

more than 235.000 species. They

the seeds

to the

use seeds rather than spores for

germinate, while the seeds of the

reproduction. This group covers

latter

two main divisions: Gymnosperms,

seed chamber, or ovary, which

cess called germination. The angio-

are trees such as oaks, as well as

develops

sperms comprise two groups: The

smaller plants such as cabbages,

monocotyledons, which have a

cacti,

or plants with tective cover,

seeds lacking a

pro-

fall

the former group,

ground and

group are protected within a

into a fruit.

such as conifers and

cycads, and the

much

group

larger

Pollination by

Gymnosperm

Wind

or

to Plant

After fertilization, a falls to

seed generally

the ground, absorbs water,

and forms a sprout through a

lilies,

and grasses, as

tant agricultural plants such as corn, rice,

pro-

as impor-

well

and wheat. The dicots

and roses.

Animals

flowers are either

CONIFER SPECIES form the largest group of the

completely male or completely

gymnosperms.

female. Several bundled blossoms

THE SEEDS OF CONIFERS ripen

are actually cones, with each tree

four

Bean months

to three years,

within the

cones

for

depending on the

plant species.

generally having both male and

THE WORLD'S OLDEST ORGANISM

female cones. The open cones of

is

Great Basin bristlecone pine aged

the conifers release the male

the Californian

4,

778 years.

Evergreen tree cones— collections of blossoms-

which the wind carries to

pollen,

release their seeds at the optimal time.

female cones on the same tree or neighboring trees. The seeds

develop after pollination. they are

ripe,

Conifers

When CONIFERS OFTEN FORM extensive

they push open the

scales of the cone and are distrib-

Most are evergreen: That

is,

forests

in

cold climates

they do not lose their leaves

in

and

needle-shaped structure of their leaves reduces surface area

uted by the wind.

-

—

~m Secondary

The

pollination

tect them

systems of

--

—•

Co',

:

-

^ca-s

in

regions.

The

typical

order to pro-

from dehydration. Furthermore a thick waxy coating also covers the

The conifers include the world's largest

angiosperms are more diverse and

giant sequoias, which can reach a height of

can be highly specialized. A single

ference of

flower contains both female —•

leaves.

hilly

winter.

86

ft

plants,

such as

California's

363 ft (110 m) and a trunk circum-

(26 m).

and

male reproductive organs. Each species has

built-in

mechanisms

to prevent self-pollination. After germination, a

With most angiosperm species,

bean plant

forms a sprout with two leaves.

insects

and other animals transport

pollen from

male organs

to

female

reproductive cells and are then

INSIDER

KNOWLEDGE

30 PLANT SPECIES account

for

rewarded

95%

of the world's food supply. Of these,

wheat, corn, and rice alone

make up

for their effort with

nectar. Pollination of

chance

for

is

less a matter

angiosperms than

for

gymnosperms, which depend on

56%. their

FLOWERS adapt tors;

red blossoms are often

nated by for

them

birds,

as the color

to see.

seeds being dispersed

to specific pollina-

sively by the wind.

exclu-

Many species

Most of the evergreen of

polli-

is

easy

flowering plants have adapted to a

planted.

forests in central

Europe and North America were

O O _i O m

100

THE WORLD OF PLANTS

i

LIGHT AND AIR

Cross Section of a Leaf

Plants transform and use the energy they obtain from sunlight. This ability

means that they

A MICROSCOPIC CROSS SECTION shows

create the nutritional foundation

all

for

most other

living things

the essential components of a

leaf.

on Earth. Especially on the leaf's

ine triphosphate (ATP)

and

nicotin-

amide adenine dinucleotide (NADPH), which function as energy carriers.

in

quired for photo-

mata. which open and

synthesis can be

found

and the release of water vapor and oxygen.

order to capture

re-

contains tiny pores or stoclose to regulate the ab-

to-

chloro-

plasts

sorption of carbon dioxide

Leaves usually grow

ward the sun

The

underside, the epidermis

sufficient light for photosynthesis, a

in all

leaf

cells except in the

Chloroplasts are organelles

epidermis.

within plant cells.

The vascular bundles transport fluids through the

response known as phototropism.

cell layers.

The carbon dioxide needed photosynthesis

is

Stomata

for

taken up through

The larger spaces between cells in spongy

Palisade tissue with

the "stomata," which are micro-

column-shaped

Plants use the energy from sunlight

> o o —I o 03

scopic pore-like openings

to produce sugar with water molecules and carbon dioxide.

cells

mesophyll

the

in

tissue allow for

The water necessary

leaves.

for

The

the

cuticle

is

a waxy layer

,

the exchange

covering the epidermis.

process In

contrast to animals, which feed

on other organisms, plants are able to

produce

Nearly

all

own

their

plants can perform photo-

ergy from sunlight into

is

which en-

in

transformed

chemical energy and stored.

and the oxygen produced

rates

off

through the stomata. Largely

due

to this, the climate in

open

green spaces and especially ests

is

in for-

particularly enjoyable. is

The

a result of the

The greenery on Earth absorb

evaporation of water from leaves.

about 200

Forests and parks thus play an es-

tons of carbon

dioxide from the atmosphere yearly, to

produce sugar and many other

Cross section of a leaf

given

is

increased oxygen content and

billion

^W^-rr^

the roots. The excess water evapo-

feeling of fresh air

Photosynthesis

of gases.

transported upward from

from the chemical reaction

nutrients.

synthesis, the process

is

tured within the chloroplasts where it

is

and

used

to split water

molecules

to create the carrier

molecules

independent reaction. The resulting sugar

is

generally stored

of a starch.

Sugar molecules are

transported to the individual cells

struct sugar molecules out of car-

when new energy

bon dioxide during the

various sections of the plant.

light-

and heavily populated areas.

organic substances, while giving off

21 SI CENTURY

oxygen as a waste product from this process. Photosynthesis uses visible light with

CLIMATE CHANGE: The causes of global warming include increasing

wavelengths of

400-700 nanometers. The

process

high levels of carbon dioxide emis-

sions which cannot be completely

has two stages: Reactions which

absorbed and processed by the

ex-

are light dependent and reactions

isting plants.

that are independent of

CLEAR-CUTTING forests has an enor-

light.

mous

Where Photosynthesis Occurs Photosynthesis takes place within chloroplasts, which are found

on animals, plants, and

effect

even the Earth's climate. Forests play an essential role in oxygen pro-

duction

and

the reduction of atmo-

spheric carbon dioxide.

primarily in the green leaves of a plant.

Hundreds

shaped

The Transfer Molecules ATP and

of these lens-

sub-cellular organelles are

within a single plant

cell.

Many flat

NADPH The highly complex process

was

of pho-

disk-like structures, containing the

tosynthesis

green pigment chlorophyll, are

until

stacked on top of each other within

by Melvin Calvin,

each chloroplast. Chlorophyll

the Nobel Prize for Chemistry

is

a

molecule that can absorb sunlight

and capture

its

energy

to

produce

other molecules, such as adenos-

not fully explained

the 1960s.

1961.

In

the

first

It

was deciphered

who was awarded in

stage of photosyn-

thesis-the light-dependent reac-

tion—energy from sunlight

is

the form

ATP and NADPH. These then con-

sential role as the "green lungs" of cities

in

cap-

© see also: Climate Warming, Earth Chapter, pp. 88-89

|

C0 2

Fixing, Physics

and Technology Chapter,

p.

172

is

required by the

BkftaLL

J

o o _l o CO

adapted

is

particular habits.

Some

flat.

M^^^K

all

^^

compared

Fish cal

former inhabit environments rang-

^V"

in tropi-

often brightly colored. The

to

the pike

rivers for the

from the ocean depths (down

13,123

ft,

4,000 m)

or

a typical migratory

salmon

pelvic fins help

for-

dorsal, anal,

GREAT WHITE SHARKS can reach 10-23 length

and more than 3,300

lb

ft

(3-7 m) '

(1,500 kg)

weight.

taneous

RAYS have huge pectoral

merged

ming motion

wing-like fins which

filter-feed

on plankton and other

fish;

tail fins

and simul-

some

are

armed

Sharks

KNOWLEDGE

tiny

amounts

of blood

off by their prey within a large radius.

lay single

is

used

for

fish, in

spite of their

sperm

CLEANER FISH cleanse parasites and

of eggs released

teeth,

which evolved from

rip

an

air-filled

on

swim

buoyancy with

bladder.

their bodies

is

The

lat-

a row of

are fertilized inside a female by a male with an organ called a

gonopodium. After gestation,

organs that sense water currents

bahies can usually swim alone

and detect the proximity

within

skin

of objects,

24 hours.

embedded

Bony

fish

have

with small, overlap-

FISHING with

up

Nutrition and Reproduction Sharks have dominated the world's oceans of years.

for millions

drift

productive since ring

ping bony plates.

out

21 st CENTURY

have thin skin covered with

flesh

with their powerful jaws.

give

formed young. Eggs

birth to fully

protective scales.

the jaw. Sharks

of

dependent

of fish.

and some shark species,

Fish regulate their

Fish

swallow their prey

whole or

is

the seafloor, and other creatures.

are not anchored

chunks

same time. The number

Only a few, including the guppy

their young.

hardened scales,

in

into

upon the species

three-spined sticklebacks

deposits

the water at approxi-

dead skin

off other fish.

fish

her eggs and the male releases

mately the

eral line

Their highly

developed

a river

often an indicator of their

his

eggs with large

A specialized pelvic fin

internal insemination.

in

and any other substances given

Some sharks

yolks, while others give birth to live young.

is

unusual outward appearance.

MALE

SHARKS HAVE EXISTED in nearly unchanged form for the past 300 million years as superb swimmers in the open ocean. Possessed of an acute sense

above: Fish ladder

the body. The female

take on the duties of caring for

sense

locks to helpfish circumvent these

Most fish reproduce outside

SEAHORSES are

with a poisonous stinger.

block

fish lad-

specific feeding habits.

flexing of the body.

Coloration helps rays blend into their surroundings;

dams

fins

they

tiny creatures.

this journey.

Obstacles such as

results from the for-

INSIDER

are the world's largest

(tail)

have

with their heads.

WHALE SHARKS

complete a cycle of

ders function similarly to canal

to

The unique swim-

ward push of the

in

the sea.

later return to

obstacles.

and caudal it.

in

Both species' larvae

these migrations. Today,

maneuver, while the

fish.

help stabilize

of smell, they

eggs, while European eels leave

is

to rivers,

in

it

to

purpose of laying

fresh water to breed

paired pectoral and

^^"

seas are

migrate between fresh

water to other habitats.

Salmon migrate from the sea

ward motion. The

The

fish

salt

such as

steering and

in

to fish

with cartilaginous skeletons.

ing

and

bodies. The fins assist

comprise the overwhelm-

ing majority,

Some

have torpedo-shaped

in

aquatic habitats. Bony

fish

Swift

hunters

105) that breathe

(p.

through gills— are found

its

the flounder,

like

are

Fish— cold-blooded animals

to

bottom-

nets can be highly

some species

(her-

and sardines) form schools of

to several million fish.

THE YEARLY CATCH of global operations

is

fishing

some 140 million

tons.

Fish eat plants, plankton, or other

WORLDWIDE OVERFISHING causes fish.

The placement

of their

mouths

huge declines

in fish

populations.

DIVERSITY OF THE ANIMAL

Tree frogs have sticky toe pads that

AMPHIBIANS

make them

Amphibians are the descendants venture onto shore. They

phase

larval

in

still

lead a double

life,

spending

life

Lurking Dangers

Many amphibian

excellent climbers.

of the first vertebrates to

the water and the rest of their

WORLD

species, such as frogs.

their

on land.

Between Water and Land

move among aquatic

As descendants

and

of

bony

fish that

Kidney

fins,

amphibians show

of both water

The mosi.

traits

and land vertebrates.

striking

morphosis from a

is

their

meta-

year or over the

course of their lives.

swimmer

gilled

,

during the

crawled onto land with strength-

ened

i

terrestrial habitats

may

This

involve journeys

Pancreas

such as a tadpole or larva

Gall bladder

to

an

air-

breathing adult frog or salamander.

Amphibians are cold-blooded; since they cannot regulate their

own body temperature, they

System structures: Yellow— Nervous, Green— Digestive, Light blue— Pulmonary, Violet— Excretory. Orange— Reproductive, Pink— Muscular

sume the surrounding one. Many species spend the winter

The amphibian group includes animals such as salaman

tailed

everywhere except

for

regions. Their long

and powerful

ders and newts, as well as

frogs

the polar

in

tion that

and toads.

It

sala-

skin glands

protect

it

from

predators.

> O _i

C5

the ground or piles of leaves.

is

supplements the lungs.

also equipped with glands that

KNOWLEDGE

INSIDER

must

not dry out— has a breathing func-

pingand jumping.

fire

mander's

holes

in

Their delicate skin— which

hind legs are used for hop-

species such as

tailless

as-

Secretions from the

O

GIANTS AND DWARVES: Japanese giant salamanders range up to 5 (1.5

m)

in

length, while

some

ft

tropical

frog species are less than half an

secrete toxic or

Caudata and Anura

ill-tasting fluids to

INDIGENOUS people use the poison-

Caudata. including salaman-

arrow

Why Frogs Croak

ders and newts, comprise

some 400 species

inch (2.5 cm) long.

deter predators.

living in

their

Frogs have a well-developed

the

sense

Northern Hemisphere and the American tropics. They

hearing— as well as

of

FROG SUNBURN:

make

effective.

Ultraviolet radiation

can damage amphibian

skin.

Males have

a strong voice.

developed mating

have an elongated body, two

frog's toxic secretions to

weapons more

calls to lure

of several miles (kilometers) or

sets of similar legs,

females. Salamanders, on

more. Barriers such as roads

and a long tail. Large

the other hand, are more

can be deadly. Another reason

eyes are also a typical

arrow roughly

4.000 species

Anura—the

partners with

likely to attract

The poison-

The

trait.

frogs

in

the group

odorous substances or bright

rituals

The Amphibian in

the spring. This

lowed by egg-laying, usually

pond. After emerging from the tilized

eggs, larvae—tadpoles,

The eggs are encased In a gelatinous mass.

The with

larva or tadpole breathes gills

and has a

to fertilize

as a cluster

water (pond

eggs

in

tail.

a packet of

sperm

taken up by the female fer-

for internal fertilization

clusters can be very

few weeks.

dramatic change. They de-

large (over

10,000 eggs)

or small;

some

in

cases,

velop legs and lungs as they gradulose their tails

and

only a single egg

externally

laid.

Tadpoles are primarily

is

Some amphibians

vegetarians; salamander larvae

even bear

feed on insects.

Only a few species

live

young.

breed outside the The adult frog has legs and breathes air.

become

superlative

climbers.

in

water, depositing their The

front legs develop; the

eventually disappears.

tail

eggs

in

rotting leaves or

tree cavities.

their

Tree frogs use the sticky pads on

is

a

Frogs and toads undergo an espe-

visible gills.

absorbed through

their toes to

(crested newts). Egg

ally

or are

thin skins.

the

frogs), or

phose

cially

number

the widespread

use of weedkillers and insecticides,

the case of frogs— can metamorinto adults in a

is

which eliminate their food sources

sperm

Life Cycle

is fol-

in

the world's

Amphibian mating

laid

mate

in

amphibians

can be highly complex.

coloration.

The male releases

ians

of

frog's bright colors signal:

"Warning, I'm poisonous!"

and toads— live

BOTH TAILED AND TAILLESS amphib-

the decline

for

00

106

WORLD

DIVERSITY OF THE ANIMAL

REPTILES This group includes snakes, lizards, turtles, crocodiles, and the extinct dinosaurs. Reptiles

permanent basis due make up an

Reptiles

were able

> o o _l o CO

mammals and

all

conquer the land on a

or dehydration. Reptiles

extremely

ancient group of animals, from

which

to

key adaptations.

to several

regulate their

cannot

own body tempera-

ture through their metabolism burn-

birds

seek shade

developed. During the Permian era,

ing calories. Thus, they

which occurred 300 million years

during hot weather and spend

ago, three evolutionary lines

extended periods sunbathing—

diverged:

One became

tortoises;

another became dino-

turtles

and

needing less food than

same

of the

and

quately survive

birds;

and the

third, eventually,

became mammals.

size, in

mammals

it

from drying out:

and

their lungs are strong

and

their

Lizards are

nutrient-poor

of the

most

legs.

visually

Chameleons

when they

approach. At lightning

and

pull their victims

The prey softens

own body

of flesh from dile

They

typically

their eggs,

in

bury or cover

and reduce body

activity

constrictors can survive a year

and geckos have suction cup

walls

and

toes,

as the croco-

150

biologically in the past

million years

due

to the protec-

tion provided by their characteristic

back and

belly shells.

KNOWLEDGE

THE LARGEST

reptiles living today

are the saltwater crocodiles at up

30

ft

(9 m);

on

lb (3

m and

kg).

holder

up

Komodo

land, the

and 110

ft

THE HEAVYWEIGHT

and tortoises have barely

changed

their prey.

prey,

its

dragon at 10

Turtles

around and suffocate

while tearing chunks

INSIDER

to

ceilings.

Turtles and Tortoises

new active agents.

in

cannot chew.

when they sense danger,

venomous varieties, 50 of which are to humans.

MEDICAL APPLICATIONS: Snake venom is used for treatment of diseases and in medical research for

few days

lared lizards flare their impressive collars

THE WORLD'S 3,000 SNAKE SPECIES include 300

constrictors coil

its

50 potentially fatal

underwater.

after a

the water, then the crocodile spins

viewing range of nearly 360°. Col-

their protruding

and wait

speed, they lunge toward the shore

eyes enjoy an almost complete

and

or longer without food.

Boa

for prey to

most diverse species group, even

color,

both

in

water.

vertically oriented nostrils

Today, lizards are the largest and

HUNGER ARTISTS: Boa

jjj

and salt

change

making them nimble climbers on

^*

Crocodiles can be found

Lizards

size.

in

damage

sturdy shells to prevent

one

interesting species.

though they are mostly very small

efficient;

eggs are encased

have four

are particularly striking

succeed on land. Scales on

180

fresh

lizards, all lizards

Numerous adaptations not yet

reptiles

to

With the exception of legless

tion.

they can ade-

regions such as deserts.

developed by amphibians helped

their skin protect

up

live

during cold weather with hiberna-

despite the risks involved. Yet.

saurs, lizards, snakes, crocodiles,

Giant tortoises can

years of age.

to

is

reptile record

the giant tortoise, weighing

880

lbs

(400

kg).

RECORD LONGEVITY: The Galapagos live 180 years.

giant tortoise can

These bony

structures are covered with skin

Snakes

and bone tortoises

THE SNAKE and

is

is

one

of the

most emblematic

of creatures in

perceived to represent both wisdom and

evil.

human

mythology,

plates.

Most land

and freshwater

turtles

can draw their head and legs com-

Indian mythology consid-

pletely within their shells, but ers snakes to be the "bringersof

as the

first

deceiver.

life."

is

the fear

turtles cannot. All

of them.

SNAKES' MOST OBVIOUS TRAIT lack of limbs, so they

move

sea

while the Bible tells the story of a snake

Snakes are widespread worldwide, and so

is

their

with a

slith-

turtles

and tortoises are

omnivorous and

lay their

eggs

threatened with extinction, as

mals, they have developed a keen sense

humans continue to encroach upon

tions

and the

ability to

and temperature

omous snakes use a

sense

pair of hollow

Constrictors can unhinge their jaws to prey.

Snakes shed

m

.^-V-

^^\Ttm '

*

'

habitats.

^^^^K

SAjHI

~f^

Scales of a snake

fangs

nerve

specialized salivary glands.

swallow large

them and destroy their

variations. Ven-

to inject a paralyzing or deadly

venom from

vibra-

^Jr /^

on land. Sadly, most species are

ering motion. Since they hunt other ani-

of smell

CJ25—^SHi

their

skins by detaching the outermost layer,

as they grow continuously.

Crocodiles and Alligators Crocodiles and alligators are the largest living reptiles. Confined to

the

warm

regions of the world, they

spend most water,

of their lives in the

where

they The fer-delance is the most poisonous snake of South and Central America.

The male sand fight viciously

breathe through

females.

lizard will

over

At^ y *

&F

'

/

-43KM

DIVERSITY OF THE ANIMAL

WORLD

107

BIRDS The conquest of the

sets the birds apart from other animals. As they are remarkably adapted

air

for this purpose, they display impressive achievements

Birds

first

reptiles, lar

emerged as

in flight.

Mating and Reproduction

flying

as shown by the spectacu-

discovery of the 150-million-

avian ancestor has evident reptilian

such as claws on

its

wingtips

and a long tail. However, the

feath-

ered characteristic of birds— seen only

in this

and defend

birds maintain

mate and

territory to

year-old fossil archaeopteryx. This

traits,

Most

nest.

They

sing (songbirds) to attract partners or use visual signals such as attractive

plumage. Pair bonds

vary greatly

Some

duration.

in

birds

in

are

limited to the incubation period of

INSIDER

KNOWLEDGE

excellent vision

The early bird archaeopteryx plays both bird

and

are pelicans, swans,

addition to being able to

dis-

most

trait,

reptile traits.

is

highly

fly.

developed

and condors.

in

birds

flight

muscles have adapted

AERIAL ARTISTS: Hummingbirds

from a great height. Beaks display a

their

forms depending on eat-

ing habits: Sharp-edged for raptors,

11 days

fly.

80

flap

times per second.

WHITE STORKS

travel

them

to

to

hatch, the

parents feed the chicks

until

they

Parasitic breeders, lay their

other birds' nests, then

of prey that spot small animals

variety of

ensure a constant

for

as the cuckoo,

for

swimming.

wings

to

20 weeks. When they

learn to

FLYING UNDERWATER: Penguins'

another notable

birds take turns sitting

temperature

THE LARGEST BIRDS capable of flight

In

The parent on the eggs

group of vertebrates-

are also already present.

Characteristic Traits

A domestic chicken hatches from an egg after 21 days.

eggs

such

in

abandon

be raised by unwitting

foster parents.

6.200 miles

(10.000 km) twice a year.

heavily reinforced for woodpeckers,

and tube-shaped birds.

their

humming-

for

the eggs, as with ducks, or are

Feathers are also adapted to

unique

Birds living

lifestyle.

in

cold climates are protected by thick layers of feathers

down. The

Bird Migration The phenomenon of

bird migra-

movement between summer

tion,

and winter

young

bird

observed

nearly

all

is

in

groups

regions.

They are guided by geographical orientation, their ability to

the Earth's magnetic

and genetic

tion,

influences.

Most in

Americas—occur along a

north-to-south axis. Central Eu-

Birds are warm-blooded

and have

and

braltar

Sea

to

Western storks

fly

and the Mediterranean West Africa: eastern storks the Sinai Peninsula, and

The protection

of threat-

tion efforts across several coun-

which

is

a difficult venture to

in

winter.

their

way

to Siberia

eggs standing up—do not build

nests.

All

number

birds lay eggs, but the

varies from

one

to 20.

have long tongues

to sip

nectar.

The eggs are generally white.

the summer,

How Do

many

FOR CENTURIES,

humans

warmer travel

latitudes.

Some

species

up to 6.200 miles

and

of birds

insects,

use their powerful chest

About 8.000 known species of

Some, such as

to

fly.

have

lost

New

the ability

Perching birds, the group

known as passeriformes. which

make up 60

Wnst Bones

W&HanA

,

BtM es

LDifM

muscles

to

propel

3-Digrt

fr

them-

selves forward by flapping their feathered wings,

the African ostrich and the

Forearm Bones Raaiusaid una.

have not been able to dupli-

ing grounds.

kiwi,

bones reduces

2.0tgjt

cate their efficiency. Birds

Zealand

of birds'

their weight.

but

(10.000 km) to reach their winter-

birds exist today.

The honeycomb-like structure

birds migrate the idea of imitating the flight

to

Birds Fly?

Faced have been fascinated with

swallows, and finches, in

Antarctic penguins, which incubate

cold climates

includes species such as sparrows,

coordinate.

above: Brentgeese

some

with dwindling food supplies after

ened species requires conserva-

tries,

108)

over Gi-

the Nile Valley on their way to East Africa.

several years. Others— such as

Hummingbirds (p.

circulation. This allows

as well as during the

cross the Bosporus, the Jordan Valley,

Some

same one for

only a few use the

their

efficient hearts, lungs,

search for food

will

routes:

hatches, and penguins.

species build elaborate nests, but

species to remain active and

has two main migration

rope

camouflage.

as with raptors, owls, nut-

sense

field, imita-

migrations— particularly those the

insulating

plumage on

male birds attracts females, while dull colors offer

habitats, or nondirec-

tional flights of

and

colorful

lifelong,

which

are shaped to provide aero-

dynamic little,

at

lift.

They weigh very

most 33

lbs (15 kg),

and have extremely

light,

hollow bones to better

facili-

tate

flight.

Contour feathers contribute to the aerodynamic shape

Finland on

percent of

all

avian species.

of a bird's wing.

>-

o o —I o CO.

108

MAMMALS KEY FACT '

ALL

MAMMALS gestate

and give

Similarities

mammals,

monotremes,

|

Rodents

Ungulates

|

Elephants

|

|

Sea mammals

|

Carnivores

|

Primates

MAMMALS

birth to living babies.

Only some

Monotremes, marsupials

\

their young

called

lay eggs.

MAMMALS have come

environments; air (i.e., bats,

belong,

are fed by their mother's milk and because

flying

and salt water (i.e., otters, whales, seals), and land (i.e., ungulates and carnivores).

to

squirrels), fresh

EATING HABITS OF

humans

This diverse group, to which

is

classified

mammals

both because the young

hair, fur, or

skin that covers the body

as

to inhabit all

some

egg-laying platypus,

and

"theria," with

and sea mammals. There

MAMMALS-

its

members have

degree. There are two subgroups, "prototheria." or original

mammals such

mammals, which

includes the

as rodents, primates, ungulates, carnivores,

mammals

are around 5,500 species of

existing across the entire world,

including even blue whales and elephant seals thriving on their seasonal visits to Antarctica.

herbivores, insectivores, carnivores,

and omnivores—are

© Mammals got their name because they feed their young with milk from the female mammary glands.

diverse.

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES At

> O O _i o 0Q

first

glance,

or bare:

mammals often show few

and bipedal

that have allowed

Mammals all

external similarities. They can be large or small; furry

or quadrupedal. However, they share a

them

to evolve into

are distinguished from

of

body temperature between 96.8°

lenges. This enables

and 100.4°F (36° and 38°C) and

mammals to sur

they develop their young within the

vive

womb

extreme

made

characteristics have ble for

mammals to

it

protect their

dillos in

geared to

There are

some 5.500

in

the Arctic and arma-

the desert. Their constant is

their constant

ensured by the

their skin covering;

care of the young. This

anteater) Characteristics:

and has short

lays

eggs

also

the strongly marked

glands

reflected

and

social structures with typical

in

hierarchical or territorial behavior

and

(pp.

utilization.

of the

Young

Mammals feed their young in the womb through the

Kidney

m

is

connected with the fetus

through the umbilical cord.

Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulate) Its

weight

lies

on

former, such as car-

nivores and primates, are unable to leave their

its

Essential nutrients

and

while the

home shortly

latter,

and whales,

follow their

um-

Characteristics: Flesh-tearing denti-

Its tail

allows for

swimming.

cord.

almost immediately after

mammals

with milk pro-

Liver

birth.

System structures: YellowNervous, Green— Digestive, Blue-

Pulmonary, Violet— Excretory,

Further Similarities All

The feeding of young

separate meat from bones.

Cetacea (whales and dolphins)

efficient

bilical

Orange— Reproductive. Pink-

mammals' hearts have sepa-

rated ventricles, which efficiently to all

pump

Muscular

blood

the regions of the

have been partly modified or

body. They have a superior sense

duced over the course

of time as

mammary glands after they

of hearing (their hearing structure

with whales, dolphins,

and other

includes the malleus, stapes, and

sea

*

are born

humans) It

has a large

forward-facing eyes.

brain.

re-

duced by their mother's

Primates (lemures. monkeys, apes.

Characteristics:

^j

mothers

Carnivora (carnivores)

Characteristics:

.

after birth,

oxygen are provided to the offspring through the

it

Lung

such as ungulates

middle toe.

tion lets

^.^

Stomach

mammals. The

Gall bladder

The developing baby

a pouch.

Characteristics:

/

Pancreas

placenta, an organ which

in

Diaphragm

can be distinguished from precocial

Marsupialia (marsupials)

grows

^^tV

mammals

legs, small eyes.

Characteristics:

Even though adult animals can appear to be very different from each other, their embryos develop through similar stages in the womb.

116-117).

Generally, altricial

It

is

their efficient food intake

Development

#

a result of

body temperature.

mam-

(platypus, spiny

milk

feed their

vive at the North Pole as

mals arranged within various groups:

Monotremata

to

young. Polar bears can sur-

in

different species of

formed that en-

Mammals use glands

skin; the formation of

Mammals

a strong

mother-child bond

~

insulating effect of their fur, hair, or

Classifications of

ally

courages intensive

body temperature

young for long periods

of survival. Addition-

in

polar bears

in their envi-

is

J

such as

ronment than other animals. Their biological structure

even

creases their chances

is

habitats,

possi-

be more inde-

pendent of changes

0i

environmental chal

before they are born. These

cessful vertebrate group.

time and shield

them from harsh

other animals chiefly by two

features. They maintain a constant

wide range of biological features

an extremely suc-

is

innovation

a fundamental in

the animal

world. This enables babies to

grow quickly and

in-

incus), a

complex

brain,

and jaw

mammals

joints that allow different teeth for-

protective

mations. Their original

injuries

five

limbs

(p.

113). Skin, claws,

hoofs, or horns give

mammals a

mechanism against

and dehydration.

KANGAROOS, KOALAS, AND PLATYPUSES mammals

These early tremes

lay

have unique characteristics that are not seen

eggs through the cloaca, whereas marsupials give

other

in

birth to their

mammals. Mono-

young, which then

climb into their mother's pouch to mature and to suckle milk.

The monotremes and the marsupi-

nests before they use their long,

among the original mam-

als rank

tongue and tubular snout

sticky

mals, which are primarily found

to eat the insects. In

on the Australian continent.

ger,

case of dan-

they raise their spikes.

All

The platypus hunts

rep-

up

monotremes

resentatives of the

Monotremes original

and possibly also the most unusual of

all

the

mammals. They

in

the

they

in

eastern Australia.

only

live

ft

near

and

rivers

breeding burrow

through the cloaca, a cavity into

in

the doors with

In

the case of the red kangaroo,

this suckling stage

can

up to

last

many as 12 young

Marsupials

235

canals open. Depending on the

Marsupials are a group comprising

animals are born during each

mammal

270 types

lays

one or two soft-shelled eggs about two

to four

weeks

after mating.

The koalas, or koala bears, eat only leaves from the eucalyptus tree.

which then are incubated for up

10 days before the young hatch.

to

Afterward the babies nourish them-

dependency threatens their survival today due to the shrinking

selves with the mother's milk, like

eucalyptus forests

of

mammals with

it

mud to keep

which the intestinal and urinary

species the female

is

(30 m) long. Every time

intruders out.

hours;

Papua New Guinea, and Tasmania.

eggs

lay

dawn

fills

mainly active

98

lives

the platypus leaves the burrow,

are loners and are nocturnal or

Monotremes are the most

to

fish. Its

varied

days. As

The number

of

young varies

birth.

in

habitats and behavior patterns.

accordance with the degree and

They

live

duration of protection they receive

nent,

in

on the Australian

conti-

Papua New Guinea. North

in

the pouch. The greater the level

America, and South America. The

of protection.

This

other

all

bill

catch.

Its flat,

beaver-like

tail

It

lives in

burrows set

flat

strengthened by keratin

plates (the material that produces horns).

due

to their diverse

environments after the continents

protruding from a broad, is

marsupials may have developed differently

mammals.

The platypus has a duck-like

jaw that

in Australia.

and

in

complex self-dug

the riverbanks of

On the other hand, echidnas, known as spiny anteaters.

and South America

broke away from Pangaea. but they display the

Australia.

also

of Australia

same

mammals,

are purely land animals. They have

mals, developed

strong digging claws, which help

same way on

creatures

in

it

to hunt small

the water and

sift

the

them

to dig

up ant and other insect

mam-

or the placental

paws

front allow

The Eutheria

ture nonetheless.

pronounced webbed paddle-like in

biological struc-

in

much

the

the northern conti-

nents, with the result that the

Young mammals drink from teats

animals

their mother's pouch, with

in

both groups are as-

tonishingly similar

in

in

two teats

giving nourishment to two infants at

body shape

same

time. But a few marsupisuch as the opossum, do not have a pouch.

the

and behavior patterns. Examples

als,

include marsupial moles and

moles, quolls. and weasels.

the greater the number of babies

Marsupials are so varied that it

can make describing

features

difficult.

common

However, the pre-

dominant shared characteristic pouch

that can survive.

is

a

which the mothers carry

in

their newly born

Because

a high birth frequency

duration

in

the pouch.

young so that they INSIDER

KNOWLEDGE

supials have a laborious birth.

SPINY ANTEATERS can

since the tiny baby has to climb

years.

dependently from the

birth

to the pouch, using only

fastens

its

and touch. Once its

compen-

sates for a short or less protected

can suckle and mature. Young mar-

of smell

of this,

up

to

49

channel

PLATYPUS MALES have a functional

senses

poisonous spur on their hind

foot.

PETAU P.0IDES can glide up

to

328

(100 m) as a

winged

there,

mouth onto one

in-

live

it

of the

result of their

skin surface.

mother's Kangaroos are great jumpers

in

mammary glands and

the grasslands of Australia by using their

extremely strong hind legs for propulsion and their thick

tails for

remains

balance.

until

the pouch.

©

see also: Pangaea. Earth Chapter, pp.

66-67

it

is

ready to leave

RED KANGAROOS can jump up 10 ft (3 m) high and 30 ft distance.

to

ft

O O _i o m

110

MAMMALS

1

RODENTS AND LAGOMORPHS Despite their external similarities, rodents and lagomorphs have evolved independently of each other. However, they

can be distinguished easily because of the incisors on

upper jaw.

their

The African spring hare

Rodents and lagomorphs inhabit

divers.

the entire planet with the exception

an outstanding jumper due

of Antarctica.

kangaroo-like hind legs. Squirrels

to

is its

are great climbers because of their

Rodents

long

Within the category of

mammals,

tail

that helps

them

to main-

tain balance.

Nocturnal Activity

rodents are the most various with

1,700 species. The acteristic of

all

common

rodents

is

Lagomorphs

char-

their den-

Gnawing

with a pair of chisel-like inci-

sors located at the front of their

a pair of enlarged inupper and lower jaws,

teeth,

cisors on the tition,

The lagomorphs include both

CO

continue to grow throughout their life.

The

chisel

shape

is

formed

through constant wear and

tear,

since only the front portion of the

long-

and small-eared animals

such as the mating

that are similar to guinea pigs like

why

ously, hares

rodents appear chubby-faced.

For the

most part rodents

rabbits

nately,

were con-

protected by a hard layer

is

of enamel.

Rodents do not have

marmots and

bly in groups, e.g..

house mice. Active

at

all

times, day

immediately discernible by a

the late evening

supplies are meager, hares can in

search of food. They frequently

make

lagomorphs.

all

observed today.

in

cover considerable distances

glance at the rabbit's dentition. Like

rarely

mize protection against predators.

difference between the two groups is

en-

hours or during the night to maxi-

If

tooth

is

They often feed

sidered to be rodents. However, the

socia-

live

and

ritual of

dangered hares which, unfortu-

the North American pikas. Previ-

ported by extraordinarily strong

all

social behavior

within their family communities,

rabbits,

is

marked

display

of this group.

chewing musculature, which

active

during the night and dawn. They

eared animals, such as hares and

are a characteristic of the dentition

upper and lower jaws. These teeth

o o —I o

Most rabbits and hares are

food provisions for the cold

winter months.

rabbits have two pairs of small teeth, or "peg"

above: Hares hide during the day

teeth, that rest behind

in

hedges and

tall

grass.

the large incisors on the diet,

pellets that they ingest a

lagomorphs have be-

time. They use burrows or nests to

come

rear their young.

well

adapted

for

a gnawing diet.

Female Ochotonidae (pikas) give birth to an average of 12 young

Inhabiting predominately wet environments,

twice or three times a year.

water. They are very

muskrats feed on plants that grow

in

They

or along

good swimmers.

have

results

a gap between their

in

incisors

and molars.

Rodents feed primarily on leaves, seeds, fruits, roots

and tubers, but a few also feed even on

or night, they

cleft

upper

They have a well-developed sense

birds.

of touch

cept not

in

the

ex-

air.

Their behavioral habits

most fre-

their habitat.

and hearing, aided by the

their living

habits to those of

food primarily early

humans.

The South American capybaras or the European in

and are exceptional swimmers and

and

simi-

almost always colored

camouflage.

rabbits. Their hind legs, totally cov-

ered by

hair,

are usually very long.

Hares can run fast and powerfully at

up to 50

mph

(80 km/h). which

life in

open habitats

semi-deserts and

is

and

particularly im-

portant whenever they try to es-

cape a predator.

Lagomorphs are pure and metabolize

herbivores,

their cellulose-rich

Lagomorphs possess a second pair of incisors. These are developed like

beavers inhabit wetlands

is

reddish or gray-brown to provide the

the

morning and evening hours

fur of wild hares

maximum

of fields, grasslands, plateaus,

mouse, have

The

animals

nose and the lop ears of hares and

facilitates their

adapted

lar

of the young, which are often de-

long sensory hairs around their

the house

forage for

fragil-

from water to high

species, such as

Squirrels

offspring each year. This high birth

frequency accommodates the

mountain tops,

dentiis

each with about nine

ity

The synanthropic

sup-

lagomorphs annually have

litters,

voured by predatory animals and

Their

tion

Due to their short

as well as rhythmic twitching when

in all

habitats ranging

on

other inver tebrates.

lips

(harelips)

several

second

they open and shut their nostrils.

can be found

quently depend

insects or

lifespan,

typically also

and skin folds canine and premolar teeth, which

lagomorphs excrete soft feces

upper jaw. Because of this type of dentition,

diet with the help of intestinal bacteria.

To optimally metabolize this

pegs and hidden behind the on the upper jaw.

front pair

MAMMALS

111

UNGULATES ungulates are hoofed

All

or toes, that are

mammals that feed

on plants and are distinguished by their phalanges,

encased within a hard covering.

the number of their

the continents of the Earth, with

a reduction

the exception of Australia.

phalanges, to varying extents. For

in

instance, horses

Metabolism All

ungulates share the

ticularity that,

in

possess on'y one

same

par-

each

(3.5

m)

vertically

DOMESTICATION means the taming and breeding

from plants on their own.

of animals by

lose. Their digestive

system

among the

largest,

Many hoofed animal

most impressive, and most com-

and

cattle.

can metabolize

herbivores (with the excep-

the cellulose

all

omnivorous pigs and the

insect eating anteater)

better by re-

^

and have

phalanges covered by hooves.

and

pigs,

their pre-

*

sheep, goats,

and

their services

the horse used by a people,

name

their practices

Dairy

cow at pasture

as draft

and

institutions."

and

I

shall

—G. Cuvier

THE HOOFED ANIMALS TAMED by humans and selected through breeding over the centuries (domestication) play an important role today. The close bond be-

tween humans and animals was formed as

digested

early as the last Ice Age.

when

peo-

and use implements. Hoofed animals were

hunted from approximately 15.000 years ago and were in

later (from

9000

B.C.

the Mediterranean area) bred as transport and draft animals as well as for

products such as milk. wool, and meat. The biological prerequisite for domestication

cud.

is

that newborn hoofed animals

adapt themselves to humans through

but

recognizing

Characteristic Features

them as

a fellow species

and

not fearing them.

Horses are cate-

Most hoofed animals have long

gorized as hot

bloods

limbs, which enable

from predators

bloods,

and cold

erence

to their

in

their original

habitat within grasslands

bloods. This classification

their

THE UTILIZATION

of wool

from sheep and

to flee

goats offered people protection against

Arabians).

warm

them

(e.g..

is in ref-

savannas.

In

and

a few groups, the

temperament, not

body temperature.

cows

for milking

ment, animals

in

was

a later develop-

farming retained their

importance

right

up to this century. There

have developed additional physical

are around

450

cattle species in total,

attributes such as horns (for

as well as an ungulate that has

ple, cattle), antlers (for

returned to the sea. the sea cow

harsh weather conditions. Although using

males and sometimes the females

also elephants, rhinos, and giraffes

deer), or

even tusks

exam-

example,

(for

example,

and more than 200 species

of horses.

The oldest instances of the use of implements by man were closely connected with his use of hoofed animals.

LINEAGE: Domestic cattle were descended from the European wild ox. or bison; the pig

was descended from the

wild boar:

and the horse from the Przewalski

horse (also known as the Asian/Mongolian wild horse). (p.

112). Originally they lived on

all

pigs).

Rather than using these

features violently, hoofed animals

INSIDER

KNOWLEDGE

HlGH-PEJlFORMANCE cows can

duce 8 gal (30 1) of milk A HORSE can run up

to

often utilize pro-

daily.

in

one

to intimidate

classified within

two groups:

The even-toed ungulates and

day.

the odd-toed ungulates. The

UNGULATES are the tallest and heaviest land mammals: Giraffes are 13 ft (4 m) high and elephants weigh up to 8 tons. BREEDING PIGS are

mammals

with

and

assess the strength of opponents.

The hoofed animals can be

37 mph

(60 km/h) and cover 25-30 miles

(40-50 km)

them

J

14 young per litter.

first

sub-group includes deer, giraffes,

and hippos, while the second sub-group consists of horses, rhinos,

highly fertile

and

tapirs.

Wool production by sheep became a selection factor

Both even-toed ungulates

and odd-toed ungulates display

> O O _ o CO

Domesticated Ungulates

ple started to settle, cultivate crops,

•»

ani-

mals, such as horses cattle,

chewing

f^ *

The ungulate group includes

many domesticated

peatedly 1»

wool)

They

monly found land mammals. They are

YOU NAME

spe-

ruminants, such as deer

cies are

for the utilization of their products

and

animals.

by symbiotic bacteria, yeasts, and protozoa.

tion of

have been bred (meat. milk,

aided

is

humans.

FOR MORE THAN 11,000 YEARS, hoofed animals

ft

position.

Ungulates are

such as prehistoric horses and European wild bison.

on

leg.

sures the decomposition of cellu-

from a standing

southern France, depict hunting

although they are

as they lack the enzyme which enSpringboks can jump up to 11.5

in

scenes with wild hoofed animals

the current day

toe. or hoof,

vegetarians, they cannot digest the nutrition

Stone Age paintings from Lascaux,

later years.

in

today's breeds only in

112

MAMMALS

ELEPHANTS AND SEA COWS Elephants and manatees are closely related to each other. The elephant living

on land, while sea cows have adapted themselves

Elephants and manatees belong

group

to the ungulate

(p.

etched

Ill),

although elephant hooves have

been reduced

remnants

to vestigial

and the hooves

of

mammal

the largest

is

to living only in water.

in their

memory throughout

an entire

lifetime.

70 years

old

can

Even elephants

find their

way back

Ancestor

to the watering holes of their youth.

manatees have

Three species

receded completely.

This

exist today: the

proboscidean

prehistoric

up

lived

African elephant, the forest ele-

Mammoths

8.000 years ago

to

the

in

grasslands of North America.

phant, and the Asian elephant.

Europe. Asia, and Africa. Different

Elephants

They

Elephants are also called probosci-

Sea cows, found in the Indo-Pacific, spend most of their time drifting in

deans and pachyderms. Both

names >-

o o —I o CO

refer to

two

shallow,

of their charac-

warm

water.

their tusks. Anatomically,

grasslands, savannas,

mountainous areas, and

behind the ears. The skin requires

mammoth species (e.g.. the woolly mammoth) adapted to the coldness of the

ice

dense body

Sea cows, consisting

an

forests.

Sea Cows

teristic features; their pillar legs

and

live in

of

manatees

and dugongs. are closely related

ages through

their

Even today, the

hair.

frozen, well-preserved remains of

mammoths

are retrieved

the

in

to Siberian permafrost, and are later

elephant's trunk

really

is

an elon-

gated nose, although the nostrils lie

and not

high up on the skull

at

the end of the trunk. The extremely strong muscles

in its

the elephant to use

trunk allow

as a

it

fifth

continuous care and cooling, which is

why elephants enjoy bathing

in

elephants. However, they display

few similarities to elephants except

water and mud. Since they do not

for

possess any perspiratory glands,

They have

the short tusks of the dugong. totally

they release their superfluous heat

selves to

only via their large ears. These

of forelegs they

life in

in

museums.

the water. Instead

DNA

Their

could provide clues about the evolution of

Proboscidea order. Cave

paintings from about

adapted them-

have developed

exhibited

depict scenes

11.000

which

in

moths are hunted, but

it

B.C.

mam-

is still

un-

flip-

clear as to whether over-hunting

limb.

The legendary thick skin

the elephant tive

and

is

of

actually very sensi-

extraordinarily thin in

places, including the

some

stomach and

animals have highly sensitive legs

and possess

pillar-

hooves

vestigial

and the base rounded

that have a tissue padding, which

to a

means they can tramp around

cylindrical

with-

have receded,

pers, their hind legs

of their tail like

body tapers a paddle. The

or climatic

end of the

changes toward the ice

ages caused

their

extinction.

body of a mature sea above: Nearly the entire carcass

out making as

much

noise as might

be expected.

L

^^r

Their heavy tusks, which are

transformed upper incisors, can Jfft

grow to up to 11.5

ft

(3.5

m)

Elephants use their trunks

long.

to intimi-

cow

ft

(4

m) long and

of the

weighs up to 1,320

lb

(600

early people after

around 13

is

These mammals swim slowly drift in

for

up

to

as sea cows because of their

selves, but also to dig watering

herbivorous

holes and tear bark off trees. The

graze exclusively

memory of the

elephant has been

*

remove and

sell their

to

of the

species ensured the survival of the elephant under the Endangered Act.

PROTECTION AGAINST POACHING ensured by sawing other measures.

off

young, but underwater. A sea cow is

born after a gestation period

12-14 months. Manatees

tusks

IS

among

in

the shallow

•w.

of tropical seas,

at the

rivers.

remain

to vegetation.

or

mammals, the mothers suckle the

and

21 ST CENTUR

SOME ENCLOSED SANCTUARIES led and damage

life

small groups. Since they are

and bays

experiments: Places

to local overpopulation

by

killed.

waters of the coastal areas

once seen

INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION

utilized

was

either live a solitary

live in

valuable ivory

tusks.

Species

They

cows

can be found

•

in scientific

elephants

diet.

it

on aquatic plants and algae. Sea

of

partly confirmed

kill

20 minutes.

They are sometimes known

mammoth was

or

the water, but can also dive

date enemies and defend them-

legendary

Poachers h jnt and

kg).

mouths

of

MAMMALS

MAMMALS

WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND OTHER SEA Cetacea, or marine living

mammals such

INSIDER

as whales, dolphins, and porpoises, are the planet's largest

forms. They have exceptional sensory abilities and impressive aquatic

KNOWLEDGE

THE LARGEST ANIMAL on Earth

is

the

109

blue whale, measuring up to

skills.

113

ft

(33 m) and weighing 165 tons.

principal propellant,

they use their pectoral

Dolphins have a

fins or "flippers" only for

brain than

The

steering.

face every

a muscle to

be able

ment

to function

and underwater.

sur-

40 percent

humans as

well

larger

as a

velopment of baby

the waters (even fresh wa-

ter in the

case of the

of this planet for million years.

are at

home

river dolphin)

minutes.

day just

to dive

when

like

whales. They relax only

_

half of

their brain

more than 100

These mammals

in all

underwater

for

air within

half

ception of

calf,

about seven lbs

from 5 to 280,000 Hz. The

15 minutes and attains speeds of up to 35 mph (55 km/h).

(50 kg)

cm

communicating

certain the psychological

and physical condition THE MAXIMUM SPEED achievable by dolphins

to

receiving

is

WHILE HUNTING, dolphins can dive down 990 ft (300 m) deep and remain submerged for up to 15

their biological struc-

many marine mammal

gether

in

live to-

group of the toothed whale or

handicapped

is

often used to successfully treat

children.

Mammal

The Dolphin-One Intelligent

known as baleen whales. These

thus

THE CLOSE RELATIONSHIP between humans and dolphins was made famous

whales and humpback whales, have whalebone or baleen instead

in

the series of TV programs and films about Flipper the dolphin. For centuries

the Imraguen people of Mauritania and an Indian tribe

krill

whales prey on

keratifishing with the help of wild dolphins. filter

Toothed

fish or squid;

among

these are the dolphins, pot whales, killer

in Brazil

The dolphins guide the

and

coastal areas. They

whales, and narwhals.

THESE HIGHLY INTELLIGENT, SENSITIVE

MAMMALS

Unlike seals, the streamlined

blubber instead of hair to maintain

the

of

body

hair,

which has

led to

them

being hunted relentlessly by

humans for centuries. On

fish.

they give birth and

fight,

land,

while

are increasingly used for

the strong muscles

therapeutic purposes to treat disabled people or children with behavioral

utilizing

problems. However,

their front flippers. In the water,

influences on the

it

is difficult

human

to scientifically establish a dolphin's positive

body. mind, or

is

ex-

hibited in aquatic shows, which at-

tract

in

they use their back flippers and

spirit.

THE INTELLIGENCE of dolphins

bodies of cetaceans have layers of

and sea cows by their dense coat

have been

fish inside

hand-cast nets and are rewarded with the escaped or discarded

from the water and

to grind smaller fish.

of theirtime on land

live in

are distinguished from cetaceans

toothless whales, such as blue

plankton or

28 mph (35 km/h). They spend

much

that of the toothless whale, also

nous plates allow them to

to long sojourns in

although they can swim as fast as Dolphin therapy

These comb-like

adapted

the water than other cetaceans,

groups.

belong either to the species-

of teeth.

mammal.

Seals

less

DOLPHINS are companionable animals and

extinction today.

of the

The companionable seals are

minutes.

species are threatened by

rich

mammal

apparently uses this to as-

changes

All

with

sonar emitted frequencies

31 mph (50 km/h).

in

hearing.

each other by means of The great killer whale (orca) can

have brought about any particular

ture,

is

mammals communicate

which suck

longer daily.

seem

cetacea

has been established with some

water. Although their evolution as

not

all

per-

degree of certainty that marine

selves completely to a

mammals does

breathing.

The most important sensory

heavier and 1.8 inches (4.5

water

The other

danger and controlling their

swimming and

It

months, grows 110

the

at a time.

takes over the duties of watch-

ing for

pig-

the Earth and have adapted themlife in

seconds

for

dive for

the oceans of

of

is

switched off

they must be able to follow the

les

90%

process.

whales progresses quickly as

herd. A blue whale

air.

POT WHALES exchange

remain mobile 24 hours a

The de-

whales and dolphins have been

condensed

their inhaled air in their breathing

to

rather than their lungs.

is

them

muscle tissue

Contemporaries of the dinosaurs,

living in

THE SPRAY from the whale's blowhole

their

in

ft

fourth brain ventricle that allows

to great depths,

they store

The eyes of seals need

90

them

To allow

down

air-breath-

must

ing animals

both on land

WHALES CAN DIVE up to 8.250 (2,500 m) in 30 minutes.

Dolphins

as

hordes of

visitors.

dolphins thrive only Therefore, these

body temperature and forelimbs

in

However,

open water.

shows

tail like

a rudder. This grouping

includes walruses, bearded seals,

and eared

seals.

Male walruses

can be recognized by

their

of captive

imposing tusks. Diets vary dolphins generate controversy.

between sustenance on mollusks

that have evolved into flippers. Dolphin mother with young

Their hind limbs have receded pletely.

The

tail

or "fluke"

is

com-

their

natural habitat.

in its

(walruses) or fish (seals), while the

sea leopard even hunts penguins.

O O _i o m

114

MAMMALS

PREDATORS: DOGS, CATS, AND BEARS among the mammals. Found thoughout

Predators are the hunters

oped

highly diverse lifestyles

and strategies

Predators comprise carnivores

such as dogs,

cats, bears,

the world, they have devel-

for capturing prey.

lifestyles,

and

the most significant being

dagger-like canine teeth

and pairs

weasels; fish-eating aquatic

mam-

of shearing carnassial

mals such as seals

and

These help predators seize and

also

(p.

113);

panda bears, which feed

most

many food chains

in

teeth.

tear into their prey.

al-

exclusively on plants. They

Predators as Pets

Faster predators can increase

occupy unique niches at the top of

cheek

their

speed while hunting by

mgjusta

which herbi-

vores, such as rabbits, eat grass

Wild predators were the ancestors

plac-

of today's domestic cats

part of their foot on the

and dogs.

Dogs are the descendants

ground. Others, such as martens,

of

wolves which were domesticated

and are

in

turn eaten by predators,

such as foxes.

DO

only half their foot, while

some,

like cats,

Hunting and TearingCharacteristic Traits Predators share only a few biological traits

due

some 10.000

run on their toes.

Mobilization can also be

>-

o o _l o

utilize

Age hunters

accom-

flesh,

111). They were

guarding herd ani-

plished by using the entire foot,

later also for

such as with bears. An outstanding

mals. The fireside-loving cat prob-

sense

are typical of predators.

(p.

used primarily for hunting and

first

Carnassial teeth, which can shear

common

years ago by Stone

ably

of smell leads predators to

descended from the African

wild cat or Indian desert cat in the

their prey. Cats, however, rely

to their diverse

on

Mediterranean region. There

it

most likely frequented human set-

YOUNG LIONS

first

INSIDER

hunt with their mother at 3 months

of age; they hunt successfully on their

own when they

THE FASTEST

to

is

usually dispatched with a powerful bite to the

back of the neck. is

often a group activity; individual animals to rank.

The Hunt

THE LARGEST LAND PREDATOR

/s

Kodiak bear, or grizzly bear, at 10

tire their

the ears, and vocalization. The pack surrounds

its

exhausted prey and several

simultaneously. Group hierarchy determines which animal has

the privilege of eating first.

CATS,

like

the

lion,

are primarily stealth hunters. They sneak up on their prey it.

usingtheir claws to bring

down

the victim. A well-placed bite to the throat or back of the neck usually results

an immediate death.

were

and 1,980

lb

(900

All

predators for the

ft

with

same

prey

and have always hunted them,

kg).

especially wild cats

and bears,

for their pelts. Bears, wolves, lions,

_'

and

tigers

were feared and ad-

their excellent vision; functional

mired

even

evident from the subject matter

in

semi-darkness.

Social organization related to hunting

feeding.

on the soft pads of their paws and pounce on

in

tall

compete

in

prehistoric times, as

is

prey by chas-

packs. Wolves communicate through body movements, positioning of

it

m)

often

the

innate and refined through learning. Depending on the

used. Wolves and jackals are coursing predators, which

favorite pets.

Friend or Foe? g).

20/20 VISION: Cats see 7 times better than humans, even in darkness.

species and habitat of the predator, a wide range of hunting strategies can be

wolves attack

humans'

(10 cm) long and 1.5 oz (45

(3

in

above: Dogs and cats are

75 mph (120 km/h).

Humans

The lioness tears up her prey using her razor-sharp

in

itself.

THE SMALLEST LAND PREDATOR is the European pygmy weasel, 4 in

carnassial teeth.

it

the

PREY

then eat according

ing

is

cheetah, reaching speeds of up

THE HUNT

is

MAMMAL

tlements as a scavenger and effect domesticated

are 2 years old.

throat or

HUNTING BEHAVIOR

KNOWLEDGE

domesticated cats would use this strategy

if

they

ators,

Some

such as

wolves and live

pred-

lions,

and hunt

in

packs. Others, such

to hunt mice.

as martens, leopards,

and brown

is

closely

of prehistoric

cave and rock

The recent reemergence wolves, bears, and lynx

in

art.

of

central

Europe reawakened age-old dread. However, many species are now in

sharp decline as people con-

^ tinue

to create agricultural

and from tats.

their natural habi-

Predation

is

one way

bears, have be-

to control wild herds of

come accustomed

herbivorous animals, such

to hunting

on

their

as deer, and keep them

own. Martens with

from exceeding the

their slender bodies

induced by food supply.

and

flexible

limits

back-

bones penetrate other animals'

Black bears observe a hibernation period

in

the winter,

but wake up occasionally

Young cheetahs must practice before they can hunt successfully.

burrows to trap

and

kill

to eat.

their prey.

*;•'••>:

fc

y

•.gr-'ki

>v

-•*• '

m

grf

\

;v

MAMMALS

r

PRIMATES: MONKEYS AND APES

Cerebral Cortex

Most primates (more than 500 species) have a strikingly enlarged cerebrum gives

them the capacity

to learn

and

to display

115

complex

in

the brain. This

Motor

social behavior.

Activity

Cortex

Auditory

Primates

live in

Madagascar and occupy

the tropical

and subtropical forests and

nearly

Somatosen-

Guenon

all

sory Cortex Olfactory

available habitats there. Lorises

Cortex

savannas

of Africa. Asia,

and

and galagos closely resemble Visual Cortex

Chimpanzee

Orangutan

Gorilla

Mt

Homo sapiens

North and South America.

sloths

This results from their meth-

slow movement. Their powerful

ods of locomotion and gath-

hands give them a secure

ering food, since

most are

A*

Homo

climbers,

neanderthalensis

some

species have adapted to

life

AAl A

*

expectancy of up to

years. Primate mothers

other family

Homo erectus

giving

them

tropical

40 and

members take

kats. in

plenty of time to

learn from their elders.

become

live in

the

and subtropical zones of

South Asia

Africa (meer-

(tarsiers).

A further

differentiation of primates

made

in

found

in

Africa

can be

relation to their global dis-

New World monkeys

Human

monkeys

and

inhabit parts of

Asia.

Brain development: The enlarge-

ment and increased folding of the cerebrum and cerebral cortex, provided greater thinking power.

65

million years ago,

most

Nearly

all

primates enjoy highly de-

veloped social and familial

lives.

a family group or

live in

in

a

harem, comprising one male and

up

Characteristics of

Primates are distinct from other

large brains, which

relatively

enhance

20

in

complex

Tarsiers grow to only 3.5-6 inches (9-15 cm) long—not including tail.

social

others,

human

detail

and

and they

and

in

sharp

three dimensions,

clearly perceive contrast

color. Their

feet— with toes,

in

supple hands and

flexible

thumbs and

sensitive fingertips,

and

facial

Prominent researchers, such

such as chimpanzees,

standpoint

have dry noses, but both share

solve problems such as undoing a

studies.

buckle to open a box and retrieve

nails instead of

cate with

and holding, while varying sets teeth allow

them

to feed

of

on plants

above: Primates swing from rope

rope using their

thumbs.

the daytime— with

such as with

some

and

their ability to

humans

communi-

using symbols

sign language.

in

exceptions

tarsiers. Strepsirrhini.

earlier called prosimians. include

Genealogy Fossil liest

of

Primates

remains indicate that the ear-

primates, living approximately

lemurs—such as the mouse lemur

and meat. to

of smell. Haplor-

claws—are admi-

rably suited for feeling, gripping,

and

fruit,

ated with their smaller body size

flexible

and the

ring-tailed

lemur— lorises.

and galagos (bush-babies). Lemurs live

only on the

Comoro

Islands

and

Adult male gorillas (silverbacks) are true

heavyweights at up

to

600 lb (270 kg).

and

onstrated from a purely biological

as Jane Goodall, have studied the

tend to be nocturnal, a habit associ-

gorillas,

not

orangutans has been clearly dem-

some

are mostly diurnal, or active

may

between humans and great apes

warning of danger or

genetic

rhini

primates,

be universally accepted, the kinship

like

through

and keener sense

living

messages

behavior of chimpanzees, investi-

and

and

H. Huxley,

which led to significant controversy.

gating, for example, their ability to

characteristics. Strepsirrhini

T.

beings were said to

be related to other

behavior. They use their large, forward-facing eyes to see

of evolutionary theory

by Charles Darwin,

(excreted chemicals that can give

lips.

which have wet

emergence

noses, and "haplorrhini," which

"strepsirrhini."

million years ago.

the 19th century, with the

Today, although this theory

expressions involving the eyes and

their

capacity for learning, using tools,

and engaging

They communi-

In

cate through sounds, pheromones

desire for sex), gestures,

Primates

animals because of their

to nine females.

tree-

of today's species existed as

early as

Life

were

dwelling insectivores. The ancestors of

Communication and Social

They

O _i O

are

the Americas, whereas

Old World

primates into the groups

in

gibbons, and great apes), and

tribution:

Modern research divides

upright users of tools.

Asia.

true monkeys,

and marmosets),

Primates evolved from tree-dwelling climbers to

on

the Americas (capuchin monkeys

intensive care of their young. Australopithecus

grip

Association

Areas

haplorrhini, previously

known as

on the ground. They have a life

The

appearance and

in

and South

Africa

monkeys and apes trees but

to their

tree branches

herbivores. As outstanding

first lived in

due

CO

116

BEHAVIOR: ACTIONS AND REACTIONS

LEADING PIONEERS in the field ofani mal behavior: Nikolaas Tinbergen,

Konrad Lorenz, Karl von

Frisch,

BEHAVIOR: ACTIONS AND REACTIONS

and

Ivan Pavlov.

MOST BEHAVIOR and partially

How do animals is

processes

learned.

COURTSHIP, MATING, and care of the

young propagate the species.

members

in

favor the

hierarchy

and

Among

body postures, movements, and vocalization. Animals normally tend

to react to particular stimuli

ball. In

feeding priority.

the same, or different, species. These include reproduction, care of

for individuals of

the young, communication, interaction, nourishment and defense.

with the

1

ANIMAL GROUPS generally strongest

behave, and what governs that behavior? Specific patterns regulate and simplify

partially innate

same

patterned response. A hedgehog confronted by a

the study of behavior, a basic distinction

© Classical research

in

fox, for

made between

is

behavior studied the question of whether behavior

others, patterns set

example,

rolls itself into

a

innate and learned abilities.

innate or learned.

is

COURTSHIP, MATING, AND CARE OFTHE YOUNG All

higher divisions of animals display distinctive behavior patterns (courtship, mating, and

rearing of young)

in

selecting the best partner to produce healthy offspring.

>-

o o _l o CO

Courtship and mating rituals main-

for

complex

social structures,

tain sexual reproduction, the pro-

as family groups, which

creation strategy used by

strong for

all

higher

such

may remain

many

to attract a potential partner.

cific

Searching for a Partner

young, protect them, and transmit For

is

a mate. The goal of courtship

Many species follow

life.

animal groups. Parents feed their

skills.

for

species, behavior

patterns also form the foundation

a highly spe-

courtship pattern. The male's

display serves three purposes:

Each animal species has developed

helps the female recognize him as

unique strategies to help

the

it

search

same

ability

species, assess his desir-

as a mate, and accept or

ject him. Since the labor-intensive

MEERKATS

job of raising the young usually

pairs with their offspring within a

to the female,

larger group.

ELEPHANTS form

close-knit

which

is

stimuli,

nurtured by both parents together.

whose

offspring

may

involve visual

such as combs on roosters,

antlers on deer,

Family Life

of dragonflies

and

and

bright colors

birds. Auditory

cues, such as bird song,

primarily

among

live

the

together for

many years

mammals. Youngsters

or even for

life

are observed

often remain with their parents

even after weaning, since protection by the family group

is

advantageous

Two Barbary macaques mating

falls

her investment.

Courtship

Emperor penguins have only one chick per year,

^AtirT*#

she selects a high-

quality partner

bands of families.

will justify

FAMILY BANDS that

re-

LION TAMARIN siblings also help raise the young. live in

Rr

It

may

also

be used. Other courtship devices

The peacock shows off his feathers peahens.

to attract

include specific odor-producing

for

helpless and depend on care pro-

substances, or pheromones, the still-dependent offspring.

which are used, EXTENDED NURTURING skills.

Human

of the

young allows them

infants, for instance, learn to

to actively learn survival

walk and talk with parental help

many

for

example, by

vided by their parents.

insects.

Care for the Young

and have formative experiences with them. Young elephants also remain with their

mothers and close

gies for finding

relatives for several years, learning effective strate-

and choosing food. Emperor penguin parents take turns caring

for their chicks while

they are very young.

Mating

Nearly

The act

ans, and reptiles limit care of their

of

mating ensures the

young to the selection

successful transfer of sperm to egg. Fertilization

may be

nal. In

inter-

both cases, sperm produced

by the male fertilizes the female's

egg

cells.

These mature

into

em-

bryos inside the mother's body,

the case of laid

A cohesive family unit offers protection and

security.

mammals,

or in

by the mother, as with

amphibians,

reptiles,

and

Young animals are often

or creation

of a suitable place to deposit the

either

outside the body (external) or

invertebrates, amphibi-

all

in

eggs

fish,

birds.

relatively

eggs. This

may be

a hole or nest

that provides protection from pred-

ators

and harsh environmental con-

ditions. Laying a large

number

of

eggs ensures that at least some offspring survive. However, for

mammals, care stantially

of the

young

is

sub-

more demanding and can

continue for several years or more.

BEHAVIOR: ACTIONS AND REACTIONS

K> SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND COMMUNICATION

enced by observing parents and other adults. This

Behavior patterns regulate group interaction and establish ranking order, feeding

priority, territoin

rial

boundaries, intra-group cooperation, and other aspects of

117

community

life.

is

demonstrated

studies of animals raised

which exhibit behavior

tion,

in isola-

distur-

bances, as well as twins reared separately,

who share the same

genes but behave

differently.

Communication communication

Effective is

in

a group

a prerequisite for a functioning

social

Information

life.

is

trans-

ferred using visual, acoustic, chemical,

and even

electrical signals.

Social insects such as ants

and

bees have complex communication Female red deer live

A low-ranked wolf rolls over and presents

herds that sometimes include

in

its

throat. This

is

systems. Bees report the distance

a

sign of submission to avoid a potentially hazardous conflict.

younger males.

to

and

an attractive

direction of

food source, such as a Specific behavior patterns regulate

relationships of the

between individuals

same species to

social interaction. For

simplify

example, a

priority

makes

when

Individual animals signal their rank

of danger. Cooperative behavior

through body language and vocal-

also seen

in

wolves

114),

ization,

recognized system of ranking order

and feeding

Eating Hierarchies

which are recognized by

other group

members.

it

whistles to warn the group

(p.

when

all

combined

in flight

to give

the directions to their hive mates.

members

The speed

of their

movements

indicates the distance, while

effort.

ranking animals display behavior

it

tree

meadow. Returning

worker bees dance

group hunting by

benefit from the

Higher-

or a blooming

is

fruit

deviation from the vertical

shows

Learning Within the Group

the direction. Bees use odors to

meal, which would waste valuable

ing (lions) or aggressive pecking

Social behavior

is

only partially

signal information

time and energy.

(chickens). Lower-ranking animals

inherited, since

it

is

unnecessary

such as baring their teeth and

to fight over every

make submissive INSIDER

KNOWLEDGE

be heard by humans.

SCENT MARKS: Dogs leave messages with their urine— such as "I am

averting their gaze. Conflict

to the hierarchy occur,

even then

transpires

it

in

and

symbolic

both genetic and acquired components.

their

hands are touched.

finches, for instance, have an innate tendency to pick up small sticks, but they

patterns

must

learn to use

them as tools. The many different types of

appear to favor the highest-ranking

learning include practice,

**^™

imitation,

The alpha male may

and

insight,

as

well as learning through suc-

receive the largest

A

most

and

cess and reward.

nutritious share of

the prey. Furthermore,

he

is

A human infant grasps by reflex: a woodpecker displays

generally the only

male that reproduces

acquired tool-using skills.

with several females,

ensuring that the

mum

opti-

genes are passed

to the next generation.

Other behavior patterns clearly burden the individual but benefit

the group. For example, a

marmot attracts

a

predator's attention

©

infants display innate behavior,

when

battles that are usually fought

^^^^

betweer

reflex

in-

without bloodshed.

animal at the expense of others.

Fights

Human

such as smiling and making a grasping

importance of

now assumed to display

However, these patterns are usually refined through learning. Woodpecker

Many group behavior CHOREOGRAPHY: Many bird species

relative

nate and learned behavior. Most behavior patterns are

odors, or pheromones.

perform complex courtship dances.

Innate and Learned Behavior Heated debate continues to inform the issue of the

necessary only when significant

changes

about the type

be found.

is

female'— to inform other dogs.

ANTS communicate by producing

of food to

strongly influ-

gestures, for

instance lowering their head and

HIGH NOTES: Many animal acoustic signals cannot

hiss-

see also: Learning and Behavior

in

a Group. Psychology Chapter, pp. 349.

351

> O O _i o CD

118

*

HUMAN BEINGS

Evolution

-MANKIND stood up smart

first

HUMAN BEINGS

8oo"y systems

|

|

Senses

Nervous system

|

today inhabit nearly

KEY FUNCTIONS are carried out by the circulatory, respiratory, digestive,

immune, and nervous systems.

-

human

humanity

lie in

Humans spread

Africa.

out from

ple

both biologically and culturally.

made and used simstone tools some two

million years ago. at a

when or

Homo

their larger brain

gave

Early tools included

scrapers

very young branch of the verte-

made

other primate species.

from

Homo

stone.

habilis both

hunted animals

the broader category

based on

shared physical and genetic

time

them an advantage over

sapiens— "wise man"— forms a

of the primates (p. 115),

Homo

hominids (such as

habilis)

that continent to settle other regions of the world, evolving

in

Tissues

view open territory and use tools. Early

brates

|

achievements.

for their cultural

HUMAN EVOLUTION

co

Immune system

|

beings share

© Human beings are remarkable

The modern human

Reproduction

variety of cultures.

obesity.

> (3 O _i O

|

it.

WIDESPREAD HEALTH DISORDERS include heart disease, diabetes, and

of

Metabo//sm

many biological traits with other organisms—especially mammals— their unique characteristics make them one of the most successful species on Earth. In a way that no other creature has done before, humans shape their own lives through modifying their environment and the living things in They are distinguished from other animals by their upright gait, their erormous capacity for learning, and their development of languages, writing systems, and a Although

environments on Earth.

The roots

|

HUMAN BEINGS

later,"— Stephen Jay Could,

evolutionary biologist

all

Traits

|

and got

traits.

Fossil finds indicate that the roots

and gathered

clearly differentiate

them from other

The

roots.

species. The early

for

larger

erectus developed

food

and

fruit

Homo some

1.5

In Laetoli,

Tanzania, preserved foot-

prints of Australopithecus afarensis

of

modern humans

lie in

They spread out from

about 100,000 years ago other regions,

in

hominid Australo-

Africa.

this continent to settle

the process push-

the to

climates.

change

because in

zees are now the closest relatives

thinning out of forests and the

ancestry.

In

the basis of

fact

more genetic

common

chimps share

traits with

the ice ages, which led to the

like

orangutans.

of

meat

need

led to the

in their diet

hunting grounds. The

may also have

use of fire

a role

in

played

this migration.

The robustly

apes were at a disad-

built

early hominid species.

humans

in Africa.

They crossed the Arabian Peninsula,

Homo erectus

as

did earlier,

about 100.000 years ago and spread

into Europe, Asia. Australia,

and the Americas, where they coexisted with other early

walk upright,

the

lat-

\

If

oped charac-

food on the

teristics that

ground,

humans for

lankier

Cultural Development

9

sapiens—

v\

%

\

1

—;-

brain

(p.

0.1

123). coupled with a

0.03

The evolutionary history of modern humans includes diverse species which often lived at the same time. above, from left to right: Australopithecus, Homo erectus. Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens.

enabled early humans to

develop language and culture. The four

0.5

most important psychological

Million Years

developments were abstract ing,

think-

plan-making, innovation, and

symbolization.

© see also: Paleolithic Man, Cultural History Chapter, p. 16

human

allowed more time for learning,

H. sapiens

1.0

is

longer dependent childhood that -.

1.5

a

characteristic that

increased folding of the

Australopithecus

2.0

is

The continual enlargement and

H. neanderthalensis

Paranthropus

development

allied to biological evolution.

H. heidelbergensis

H. habilis

Cultural

human

developed from these

H. erectus

several millennia.

hu-

mans— Homo

*l\

H. ergaster

H. rudolfensis

taller,

modern

search for

2.5

apparently emerged only

about 130.000 years ago

European

ter could

3.0

Modern

Neandertals and

Human

3.5

al-

vantage compared

since the

4.0

that this early hominid

ready walked upright.

to a species able to

devel-

show

of Africa into northern

One reason might have

for larger

spread of savannas with isolated

Becoming

Humans

human

been that an increased proportion

stands of trees. Tree-dwelling great

humans

than with other great apes

of global climate

species of early

move out

upright about three million

Europe's Neandertals. Chimpan-

humans on

first

years ago. This apparently occurred

ing out older hominids such as

to

and was

to 2 million years ago,

pithecus began walking

ar

*Vj

HUMAN BEINGS

r&*

*:1*

htf

119

CHARACTERISTIC HUMAN TRAITS modern humans, Homo sapiens, from

Distinctive traits distinguish things.

These include both physical characteristics as well as the

mans walk legs. This

stiffly

hand

supported by

is

the course of

human

evolution.

absorb

The

vertical forces,

'/

legged animals. The big toe has lost

VI

&

!

Unlike chimpanzees,

the gripping function used by the it

now

lies parallel to

The bones

in

it

in all

directions,

larged brain being ac-

commodated behind a

humans can

walk upright and use their hands

high forehead. At the

freely.

same time,

snout observable

ment. Opposable thumbs and a

eyes disappeared, and the nose

is

the most important form of hu-

drastically

WRITING allows humans

to reliably

knowledge, observations, and traditions over

Human

many generations. PREREQUISITES

and

for

spoken language include a

Writing, reading,

and mathematics form a maand education.

Language and Writing into

sound.

It

Is

the basis of

cultural evolution, although exactly It

all

human

when and why

possibly preceded a creative explosion

artistic

hair also

receded to only a few

an omnivo-

rous (both plants and meat) diet with great variety.

physical structures that

it

The unique

is

4000

writing.

B.C..

from the larger human brain with its

enhanced

use of space

in

defined as the transmission of

messages using a

The oldest discovered

recog-

writing samples, dated about

are from Mesopotamia.

make

spo-

the cranium more

higher intelligence and an aptitude for language.

learn

The

lifelong ability to

and a capacity

plex social behavior

to display

were

com-

The

structed mainly from cartilage and

tural evolution of early

for

The key requirements

speech include a movable

crucial

preconditions for the emergence of intellectual

and

cul-

humans has

been traced through the discovery of "cultural" fossils such as tools.

tongue, an arched palate, and an

INSIDER

appropriately positioned larynx.

KNOWLEDGE fertile

about as long

Intellectual and Cultural

as chimpanzees do, but

Development

on average.

Many of the

CULTURE

physical traits just de-

scribed have a direct connection to

is

live

longer

the transmission of infor-

mation through behavior, especially teaching and learning.

the intellectual development of huA COMPUTER at 13.2

childhood lasts longer for

than

it

human earlier

does

for

infants

humans

must be born

at

an

stage of development so

3

lb

billion bits;

a

lb

(6 kg) stores

human

brain at

(1.3 kg) has several billion

the act of labor. For

much

the

Human

sexual behavior

enced not only by

is influ-

instinct but also

same

conscious intentions such as

nificant role in the process.

ment for humans—further

sexuality

stimu-

environment—takes

place after birth.

© see also: Writing. Literature Chapter, p. 412

ex-

pressions of tenderness play a

reason, significant brain develop-

lated by the

bits.

by deliberate choice. Language and

fit

through the mother's pelvis during

possible for people to exchange opinions.

over 1

chimpanzees since

that their large skulls can

it

the

consequently leading to

culture.

mans. For instance, the period of

Language makes

made

which

folds,

HUMANS remain

nized system of symbols. Several high cultures independently developed

forms of

Increased performance resulted

some

cave paintings, jewelry, and musical instru-

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION began supplementing spoken language about B.C. Writing

CO

ken language possible are con-

ments were first observed.

5000

a significant component of human

efficient,

teeth, smaller than those

soft tissue.

40.000 years ago. when

is

vocal cords.

jor part of human culture

evolved remains unclear.

become more

of the great apes, suit

filled

and

to

specific areas.

pass on

O O _i o

behavior.

Human body

prominent.

communication.

SPOKEN LANGUAGE translates thought

Sexua//'ty

brow ridges over the

LANGUAGE

social relationships

the

they are no longer needed for move-

and chin evolved

larynx

in

great apes receded, the

during walking, while the hands

man

>-

the distinct

have evolved spectacularly since

the sole of

the foot form an arch that cushions

and

exploration

with a continually en-

the foot rather than spreading out to the side.

ideal instru-

skull gradually ex-

panded

unlike the arching structure of four-

great apes;

an

manipulation.

broad and tipped forward

to

is

ment for

The

while the backbone forms a double-

S shape

have

ensured that the human

upright on two

posture

a skeleton that has adapted over

is

C' *

and

intellectual

rotating forearm

contrast to other animals, hu-

pelvis

other living

achievements developed through human evolution.

cultural

In

all

sig-

Human

can also affect social

structures within cultures, such as lifelong partnerships.

—

— 120

HUMAN BEINGS

+S

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM-BONES, JOINTS, MUSCLES Humans have

a bony skeleton with movable joints that supports an upright posture. Muscles

make

attached to the skeleton

possible to control precise

it

KNOWLEDGE

.NS.DE R

INSUFFICIENT EXERCISE can lead

back pain and damage

movements.

to

to the verte-

bral column.

MUSCLE CRAMPS Vertebral Column

Nasal bone

.

|T^}- Skull

muscle

^y .—^

Mandible

-'

«-•

'.'.

.

In

muscle

>—

\

•

Sternum

.

Ulna

humans, the

vertebral

M^

MUSCLE ACHES

Back Muscles

vertebrae, which have

cular tissue.

Triceps

spinal discs separating

OSTEOPOROSIS results from the excessive breakdown of bone material.

\

made

bones -^

o —I o m

N

—

Patella

1

Gluteus

—

Tibia

femoris muscl

and

of cartilage

jelly-like center.

cord, for instance from a broken

They work as excellent

vertebra or a ruptured disc, can

shock absorbers when

have very serious consequences,

the spinal column

such as permanent

is

paralysis.

stressed by running,

Gastrocnemius muscle

Quadriceps .

the mus-

in

maximus muscle

Fibula

after exercise are

Abdominals

Hand •

and magnesium.

caused by inflammation

have a

Femur

tassium, calcium,

backbone, consists of 34

muscle

each of them. These are Pelvis .

are usually caused

by a lack of minerals, especially po-

column, also called the

Deltoid

•

•—-'

-

Radlus

Biceps

toid

—.

Rlb

i.

'

Humerus

Clavicle

y^ .;-

Sternocleidomas-

Pectoralis major k

jumpingand

similar

The Joints

1

The spinal

activities. "*

Tibialis anterior

Talus

•

Foot bones «-TJ7

cord—central

muscle

and provides

axis of

The term musculature refers entire set of

sites for

muscle attachment.

attached

to

human

tions

between components of the

skeleton and are specialized for

the nervous

The skeleton supports the body, protects internal organs

The joints are the movable connec-

Hamstrings

to the

system— runs

muscles, which are

the bones.

the specific

canal

joints

The human skeleton comprises

ton are connected at the joints by

within the vertebral

about 208 individual bones and

strands of connective tissue. The

column.

main body

formation between

fulfills

three main functions: sup-

port, protection,

and movement.

It

supports the body and protects the

axis, or axial skeleton,

the brain and the

column. Attached to this

body. An

is

the ap-

inner organs—for instance, the skull

pendicular skeleton— bones of the

cage

arm and

Mus-

and

pelvic (hip) girdles.

bral

column can absorb a great deal

protects the heart

and

lungs.

cles are attached to individual

carries

consists of the skull and vertebral

encases the brain and the

rib

It

injury to

in all

can be moved

directions.

They

are found, for instance,

in-

at the shoulder

allowing the

the

and

arms and

hip,

legs

and

to swivel, swing,

twist.

Hinge joints, such as the

spinal

elbow, can only be

leg as well as the shoulder

The

movements they

make. Ball-and-socket

through a

along a single

verte-

The muscles are

joints

moved

axis. Pivot

make twisting

placed under enormous stress

bones

make movement

possible.

of

sudden and heavy force because

The bone and cartilage of the skele-

of

its

to

during athletic

movements, such

_j

activity.

double S curve.

as those

made

by

the forearm.

Anatomy

of a

Bone The Muscles

THE BONES OF HUMANS AND OTHER are primarily are wrapped

made of calcium in

MAMMALS

phosphate. They

a thin layer of connective tissue

Haversian canal

^

long bones and the soaces

bone

in

outer layer and a spongy inner scaffolding. with blood vessels,

is lo-

than

Artery

in

the mar-

movement

Trabekulae of

Red and white

blood cells and platelets are formed

contract and relax to drive the

Osteon

spongy bone

layer.

600 muscles that can be

consciously controlled. Muscles

cated between the cavity of tubular bones and the spaces of the spongy

Every healthy body has more

spongy

tissue.

and have a compact

called the periosteum,

Bone marrow, laced

Blood vessels oervade marrow inside

body

of internal

and external

parts. Contraction

scious process.

It

is

is

a con-

often accompa-

Bone marrow

nied by the passive stretching of row. shin,

Long bones (such as those and arms)

the skull and

down and

differ

ribs),

from

but

flat

all

in

the thigh,

bones (such as

an opposing muscle (the

Marrow hollow

extensor). Skeletal

constantly break

anchored

reconstruct themselves. Usually, they

can repair themselves quite easily

after a frac-

Spongy bone tissue

ture has occurred. layer called the

and

muscles are

bones by tendons that

move the bones. Regular

physical

training leads to a thickening of Compact bone

A protective

to

flexor

periosteum covers bones.

contains blood vessels and nerves and

is

It

highly sensi-

Periosteum

tissue

the muscle fibers and higher per-

formance

levels,

but does not

in-

tive to pain.

crease the

© see also: Exercise, Modern Life Chapter, p. 481

number

of

muscle

cells.

HUMAN BEINGS

•'

HEART, CIRCULATION, Respiratory

AND RESPIRATION

organs— the lungs— take

oxygen, which

in

is

HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE caused by

hormonal

trans-

stress.

fluctuations, smoking, or excessive

alcohol consumption can lead to heart attack.

ported within the cardiovascular system to

all

parts of the body. HEART ATTACK

risk factors include high

sure, nicotine use, excessive weight,

The heart

the central organ

is

human

of the

body.

circulatory system, distributing

ensures

It

of nutrients

circulate through the

and oxygen

THE SCIENTIFIC NAME

release oxygen and take

and tissues. Consisting

in

and

g)

is

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM DISEASES, are

back to the heart, where

to the heart for

pump

heredity.

a myocardial infarction.

risk

of a heart attack.

of

death

significantly heart attack

and

stroke,

industrialized regions. Blocking blood supply

in

more than 20 minutes during

a heart attack destroys in

some

the brain during a stroke

nervous tissue. Both conditions are associated with the narrowing or

kills

blockage of blood vessels by clots of blood

lungs for oxygen. The pulmo-

by a wall, are subdivided into

common causes

heart muscle. Obstructing arteries or capillaries

the stale blood back to the

The two halves, separated

fist.

cells

flow through the veins

the right chambers

around the size of a clenched

and

Heart Attack-Causes, Frequency, Treatment

carbon dioxide. Deoxy-

genated red blood

an adult's heart weighs

about 9 oz (300

Smoking increases the

sues, the red blood cells

almost exclusively of mus-

is

age,

blood pres-

an unhealthy

tis-

reaches the other organs

cle,

diet, insufficient exercise,

through the aorta. As they

it

that an adequate supply

and protein

cells

> O O _i o

fibers.

nary circulation system

human

The

circulatory

includes the systemic

pulmonary

system

THE CAUSES

oxygenates the blood

of heart disease include a diet with

a high level of unhealthy fats, excessive alcohol

and

and sends

it

back

to

intake, smoking,

circuits.

the

left

chamber.

and

education about these

lic

CD

insufficient exercise. Pubrisk factors

aims to

complement emergency care and treatment.

- ;

-

"

.

Blood and Vessels

fO

-:'=,

Blood vessels such as Le"

pu

monaf)

Pulmonary valw

arteries

Pacemakers provide

and veins are

made up

pulses

of layers of

it

beats

electrical im-

the heart, ensuring that

to in

a regular rhythm.

muscle. They are coated Left

pulmonary

human heart is a high-performance organ beating some 70-80 times per minute. The

with a thin connective

and blood

Red blood

cells ex-

body functions. They take

tissue called epithelium.

change oxygen and carbon

dioxide:

gen from the

in

oxy-

by breathing

white blood cells are the body's im-

through their nose and/or mouth.

mune

The

regulate the flow of

sure that blood clots.

blood through the body.

an average of 9.5-10.5 pints

bronchi that lead to the lungs. Like

The smallest vessels

(4.5-5

the branches of a tree, the bronchi

are capillaries, with no

blood

defenses; and platelets en-

I)

Humans have

of constantly renewing their bodies.

in

ide through their thin

Human

composed

(water, proteins,

is

of

plasma

and chemical

ions)

then enters the trachea,

further into bronchioles,

which bring oxygenated

Respiration

Blood

air

or windpipe, which splits into two

split

muscles, that exchange

oxygen and carbon diox-

upper atrium and the larger lower

miniscule

beings need oxygen to

re-

lease the energy from food they ingest

and provide power

for

all

The

air

alveoli

their lining

branes of

air to

sacs called

alveoli.

pass oxygen through

and

into

the thin

mem-

capillaries.

of the heart

are stimulated by the sinus nodes,

the heart's

air

Muscles of the blood

walls.

Chambers

cells.

vessels promote and

two valved chambers: the smaller

ventricle.

Lung Diseases

own nervous system, The lungs supply the body with oxygen from the

to contract (systolic) (diastolic) in

and

relax

a steady rhythm.

Contractions

pump

blood vessels that carry

it

through-

However, harmful organ-

infect lung tissue

and cause

dis-

ease. Bronchitis only affects the bronchi:

pneumonia

Symptoms

out the body.

air.

isms and pollutants such as dust and smoke can also enter the lungs with

each breath. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi can

the blood into

affects

one

or both

lungs.

of lung disease include a swell-

ing of the bronchi, heavy

mucus production,

and intense coughing. With lung cancer,

Blood Circulation

Humans have

abnormal

a closed circulatory

system: the blood

is

enclosed

within the blood vessels.

side of the heart rich

pumps

The

cells

appear

in

the tissue and

lead to the growth of a malignant tumor.

Smoking left

is

a significant cause of lung can-

cer, in addition to hereditary

reasons.

The red blood

cells

for transporting

oxygen-

blood through the systemic

121

X-ray of the lungs

are responsible

oxygen and carbon

dioxide within the body.

122

HUMAN BEINGS

SENSORY ORGANS The sensory organs are the "antennas" humans use impulses and carried by the nerves

up VISION DELIVERS

information from the environment. This input electrical

to pick

converted into

is

human

to the brain.

mary colors

SOME 80%

red, green,

begins when rays of

Humans

perceive the world through

ber.

The olfactory nerve

cells

of total

human impressions and

measuring 1 inch (25

eyeball,

mm)

information. The

across, distinguishes the three

pri-

and blue and perceives black-white contrasts. Sight

light

from an object enter the eye. Through refraction, an

upside-down, smaller image of the object

is

projected onto the light-sensitive

lo-

cells of the inner lining of the eye, called the retina.

cated there have branches that

senses: sight, smell, hear-

the

six

ing,

touch, taste,

and balance.

protrude into a layer of mucus. Odor

Rod- and cone-shaped

Incoming

Since the sense of balance recent addition,

is

molecules breathed

a

many references

dissolve

in

this

in

with the air

mucus and

light is

refracted

at the cornea, the

ceptors

curved

tect light

front of the eye.

bind to

made

to the five

molecules on the

specific receptor

senses. However, the popular

re-

the retina de-

and produce

nerve impulses. The 7

cone

million

continue to be

in

cells are

sensitive to color: the

120

olfactory cells. This stimulates the

million rod cells are

sensitive to black-and-

produce

cells to

electrical

white contrast.

The lens

signals, which travel over

focuses the light.

the olfactory nerve to the brain's olfactory center.

O o _l o

Humans can

distinguish Light rays

about 10.000 smells.

The

pass

through the

information.

eyeball.

CQ

optical nerve carries impulses from

the retina to the brain to process the

fluid-filled

Taste Taste Smells can activate specific memories and

sense

emotions.

of smell,

With the fingertips,

it

possible to scan the

is

use of the term

"sixth

sense"

mammals,

formed by the

by the visual impression

covers around 30,000-20,000

by food. However,

ability to

hertz.

ear.

Human

is

per-

hearing

Sound waves passing

through the ear canal reach the

taste— sweet, sour,

eardrum, a

bitter,

membrane which

di-

are perceived with taste

waves cause the eardrum

receptor cells. These are

brate,

and the on

tiny

to

vi-

hammer,

resting

buds, which are concen-

and stirrup— strengthen the

trated mainly on the

tion

upper surface of the

The movements cause pressure

ness such as telepathy, or

to

the

to

it

it

into

anvil,

vibra-

movements.

pass to the cochlea, or

fluid-filled

moves,

flavor.

it—the

and convert

waves

stimulated

by food, send impulses to the brain

inner ear. As the fluid

stimulates the cochlea's

and magnetic perception in

humans and

to varying

The Skin as Sensory ursai

ani-

of sensitivity

and other

in

degrees

humans

living crea-

tures. Information

the senses

is

from

communi-

cated and understood with special sensory

TOUCH

is

governed by the body's

X

largest organ, the skin. Stimuli

from contact, pressure and

vibra-

tion activate receptors in

three

layers:

its

\

Excessive noise and ageing

in

in

the loss of hair cells

the inner ear, and lead to im-

paired hearing.

Balance

by a

of balance

fluid-filled

is

regulated

vestibular system

the inner ear. This

system has sensors in

the hair roots that

register the body's tion

and

position

mo-

in

space.

Since the hair cells

fluid,

head

made

is

of several layers of cells.

the epidermis, dermis,

mis, the deepest layer, in

different patterns of The epidermis

is

..Composed

missing

body parts with very thin

of

connec-

tive tissue fibers, the

Touch

at the

The

hair cells transmit

pulses to the brain to

dermis contains blood

skin,

vessels and nerve

eyelids.

liquid pressure.

electrical im-

and hypodermis. The hypoder-

sensed by receptors

is

receptors.

evaluate the position of

folli-

cles of hairs. "Basket cells"

Olfaction Scents

rectly

The process

sure differences, and receptors

in

nerve to the brain's auditory center.

a thick

thickened, dead

cells or receptors.

or olfaction, takes place

impulses

movements cause

such as the

of smelling,

electrical

are surrounded by

mals. Senses are devel-

oped

produce

the head.

di-

The hypodermis con-

under the skin react to presin

the hypodermis sense vibration.

hair

which are carried over the auditory

The sense

ear bones

organized into taste

determine the

These microscopic

vides the middle ear. The sound

and savory-

cells,

cells

can result

basic characteristics of

reference to other forms of awareelectrical

other

detect sound

tions of flavor, as well as

tongue. Receptor

is in

humans and

In

the

salty, fatty,

raised writing system called Braille.

which

tiny hairs.

provides finer distinc-

made

Blind people use their sense of touch to read.

Hearing

affected by the

is

tains small cushions

The skin contains hair

and nuand sweat

follicles

merous glands such as

oil

glands.

and sensory

p.

149

People control their spatial orientation by using their

cells that react to

pressure.

the upper nasal cham-

© see also: Optics, Physics and Technology Chapter,

of fat

sense of balance.

in

HUMAN BEINGS

BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

dian (day and night) rhythm. A por-

produces hor-

tion of the interbrain

human

The

and nervous system are the body's control

The brain contains many

center.

nerve

brain

billions of

neurons and

mones into

cells.

(p.

125). which are released

The

human

brain

is

with 2.8 lb (1.3 kg) for an

THE BRAIN makes up only 2% of total body weight, but requires

neurobiologists.

The brain

encephalcn.

a high-

is

oerformance organ which registers

and processes

all

tion to other

It

is

made up

brain tissue, consisting of

and

glial cells.

The bony

membranes, and

tective fluid all

di-

transfers informa-

areas of the brain.

The cerebellum, located

the sensory im-

20% of the

body's blood volume.

A NEURON

in

reach 3.3

ft

the spinal cord can (1

m)

in

length.

at the

back of the head, coordinates body

pressions arriving through the ner-

vous system.

It

under the

lies

fe-

higher number of convolutions.

the midbrain or mesen-

cephalon, which

a long-standing challenge for

is

adult

brain weighs 2.6 lb (1.2 kg),

adult male brain, yet they have a

brain's internal switching

station

GENDER DIFFERENCE: An male

compared

the bloodstream to regulate

other important body functions.

Understanding the

movements. With the balance

of soft

gan

neurons

the ear.

in

it

Dendrite

or-

helps maintain

the body's equilibrium. Connected

skull, pro-

to the

cranial

shield the brain from

cerebellum

is

the medulla

oblongata, the center for essential

potentially harmful influences.

such as swallowing and

reflexes

vomiting.

It

is

also involved

in

lating heartbeat, breathing,

the circulatory system

(p.

o _l

regu-

o

and

CO

121).

Multiple Sclerosis Multiple sclerosis (MS)

is

system. Neurons

in

in-

the brain and

spinal cord are attacked by the

own immune

body's

age to the nerve

cells.

cells

symptoms such as

Dam-

The

axons.

worsen over time periods that may

disturbances.

vary or gradually

Contemporary ther-

apies can treat only the symptoms,

Structure of the Brain

built

from nerve

cells that

one part

signals from

transmit

of the

another. They comprise a

body to

cell

body.

The axons of a nerve cell are surrounded by a myelin sheath, consisting of a fat-containing sub-

stance supplied by Schwann

cells.

soma, and several connections

fatigue, loss of

and

differ in length.

node

The brain and nervous system are

or

A neuron is made up of a cell body, the soma, as well as dendrites and

vision

^

Neurofibril

produces

coordination, muscle weakness,

symptoms may

r

Neurons-the Building Blocks

an

flammation of the central nervous

called dendrites. Dendrites pick

signals cell

up

and carry them toward the

axons carry data

in

cells

the form

surround axons

a layer of insulation.

where nerve

body, while wire-like fibers

called

Schwann

cells

like

The places

meet are

called

synapses. Electrical impulses are

of electrical impulses toward the

transferred over these gaps with

brain or specific regions of the

the help of messenger substances,

body. Special

or neurotransmitters.

not the cause of the disease.

The brain has two symmetrical hemispheres that are connected

above: Multiple sclerosis can lead

by a bundle of nerve fibers. The

to

left

impaired mobility.

glial cells

called

Functional Areas of the Brain

hemisphere, which includes

the language center,

is

mainly

re-

THE CEREBRAL CORTEX com-

concentration of neurons. The cortex's

The more

increase the surface area, which

folded, that

image-based

processes are carried out right

in

the

cerebral cortex,

is

about

the thickness of an adult's finger

little

and contains the highest

to

The brain parts.

is

is

21 st CENTURY

The

sparked a large debate regarding the existence of

human

free

will.

PROCEDURES FOR RESEARCH

into

the activity of the brain include magnetic

resonance imaging (MRI) and

computed tomography (CT).

is

inter-brain or

into functional

divi-

in-

organs,

vision,

diencephalon

sory organs and the cerebrum.

tion

and hearing. Associa-

areas compare

out unnecessary

and

information, as the

full

of

a

per-

function

Visual association area

infor-

mation, protecting the brain from It

all

Auditory cortex

relevant fields.

regulates the body's

temperature,

fluid levels,

Visual cortex

It

requires the participation of

overload.

*

coordinate the elements of

formance filters

registering

perceptions such as touch,

the interface between the sen-

also

Sensory associa-

receives data from the sen-

cludes numerous functional areas.

MODERN BRAIN RESEARCH has

orga-

muscles. The sensory cortex

sory

organized into lobes and

is

It

cortex controls the skeletal

thoughts, emotions, and action. is

often referred

The motor association

sions.

the center

of consciousness, perception,

It

is

as "gray matter."

nized

divided into several

The cerebrum

Somatosensory cortex

tion area

raises the brain's performance.

hemisphere. The brain's outer

layer, or

Prefrontal cortex

prises cortical tissue, deeply

numerous convolutions

sponsible for analytical thinking. intuitive,

123

and

circa-

© see also: Neuron Net Physics and Technology Chapter, p. 185

|

Does Free

Will Exist?.

Psychology Chapter,

p.

348

Auditory association area

124

HUMAN BEINGS

METABOLISM Humans,

Enzymes

unlike plants, do not produce their

own

nutrition

(p. 100). Instead, they

must obtain food and drink

convert into energy

order to maintain their bodies.

in

Enzymes are

proteins

and are

desig-

nated as biological catalysts since

to

they speed up chemical reactions within the body. To accomplish this,

they reduce the activation energy

Metabolism refers

to the intake,

movement, and chemical

transfor-

mation of nutrients within an organ-

What Happens

to

Our Food?

A piece of food undertakes a

that

must be applied

jour-

involved

ney that starts at the mouth and

most

in

its

Enzymes are

of the body's bio-

chemical reactions.

as the disposal of

ism as well

to set a meta-

bolic process in motion.

In

continues to the esophagus, stom-

digestion, they

are responsible for splitting up and

subsequent waste products. Food is

primarily required as a source

of energy not only to maintain

processes such as moving, thinking,

and breathing, but also

for

ach, and small and large intestines;

as

Throughout

into smaller units that the

this process, individual

organs of the digestive system fulfill

Enzymes play a

glands and organs, such as the

and

salivary glands, pancreas, gall

bladder,

o —I o

and

liver,

fats, proteins,

and carbohydrates body can

absorb and use.

central role

in

metabolism.

specific functions. Other

the growth and renewal of cells tissues.

dissolving large food molecules such

ending at the rectum and anus.

such as hydrochloric

also contribute

to digestion.

CO

Path Through Mouth, Stomach,

stomach churns the

acid.

Large Intestine and Excretion

The

structure

cell

gested, such as

smaller molecules by enzymes.

to the large intestine,

Two

sures 2.5 inches (7 cm)

to six

hours after a meal, the

and Small Intestine

stomach empties

The teeth mechanically break up

the small intestine— 16.5

food inside the mouth, mixing

long— where the main digestive

it

Substances that cannot be

of the food. Proteins are split into

its

contents into

with saliva from the salivary glands.

processes occur.

The flow of saliva may actually be-

bladder dissolves the fats and en-

Bile

The large

intestine

di-

continue

which meain

width.

absorbs water

m)

(5

ft

fiber,

from the

gall

zymes from the pancreas digest the fats, proteins,

and carbohydrates.

Diabetes Diabetes

mon one

is

The end products

one of the most com-

diseases, and of the fastest

is

known as

growing prob-

rived

lems affecting industrialized nations today.

It

from starchy and

sugary foods such as

weakens the body's

productively use sugar.

ability to

of

digestion are sugar de-

bread and cakes; pep-

In

tides

and amino acids

diabetes mellitus, which affects

more than 180

people

million

worldwide, the breakdown and

metabolism

of sugar in the

in

in

eggs and

and

and

function properly. Diabetes can be

may

ject

Many

diabetics

must

themselves regularly with

ficially

produced

in-

components are then

arti-

EATING HABITS: Proteins and

energy

tion. Diets in industrialized

may exceed

fats

15% and 35%,

respectively, of the daily

ra-

into the

body

may not meet

it.

excreted via the rectum and the

anus. The large intestine

is

home

through the walls of the

stomach, and intestines.

small intestine. Sugar,

These organisms feed on the mate-

amino

rial

even

earlier

as a

reflex

from the

fatty acid

and short

molecules pass through

the

villi,

break up starches and animal-

like

protrusions, which increase

produced carbohydrates (glycogen)

its

into smaller

in

the saliva

acids,

surface area to about

(200

sugar molecules.

Swallowing motions push the food mixture through the esopha-

a multitude of tiny finger-

m

2 )

240

and allow greater

effi-

ciency by absorbing more nutrients.

Through the

and secrete vitamins that the

human body cannot

produce by

The bacterium

nutrients are

produces

vitamin

gus

into

the stomach, where

combined with

it

digestive juices

is

passed

to blood vessels for trans-

port to the body's cells.

© see also: Nutrition, Modern Life Chapter, pp. 482-483

itself.

Escherichia coli

villi,

coli.

passing through the intestines

yd 2

regions

that target, while devel

oping regions

remaining waste substances are

to beneficial bacteria like E.

gin

KNOWLEDGE

for

walls from the

Food passes through many stages of digestion on its way through the mouth, esophagus,

smell of food. Enzymes

should account

stomach

from undigested food while the

oils.

absorbed

insulin.

above: Insulin injection

INSIDER

protects the

acid's corrosive effects.

result

problems connected with

ageing.

fatty

The dissolved food

from an unhealthful diet or metabolic

meat,

foods such as butter

the pancreas— does not

present from birth or

fish;

acids from fat-containing

blood-

normally carried out by insulin pro-

duced

from proteins

The mucus-coated stomach lining produces the hydrochloric acid needed for digestion. The mucus

K and

other vitamins.

i

HUMAN BEINGS

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND HORMONES Human

reproduction

Pineal gland

governed by a complex hormonal system and accompanied by

is

typical patterns of behavior.

Hypothalamus

During the process, specific male and female characteris-

Pituitary gland

help stimulate sexual arousal.

tics

125

Thyroid gland Parathyroid

The sex drive ensures the reproduction of

the species.

lated by specific

It

INSIDER

makes

can be stimuFERTILITY

male or female

in

industrialized regions

declining sharply

sexual characteristics, such as a

man's broad shoulders

woman's

or a

While the egg

KNOWLEDGE

(p.

due

personal

to

is

116)

THE BIRTH RATE countries

corpus luteum, which

estrogen and progester-

BIRTH CONTROL PILLS led

The male reproductive organs

reduction

to

a great

many regions.

in births in

as

well

carriers of genetic material.

within the testes

than

250

million

cessful

sperm production, but the

slightly lower

the scrotum

Canals

produce more

ripen

sperm

epididymis

cells daily.

humans, and most other mam-

In

one. These prepare the

in

is

ideal.

The sperm

its

the egg

If

cell

Hormones can have a direct affect on targeted cells or organs, and can also stimulate other

path to the uterus,

an ejaculation

the thickened uterine

occurs. They then pass through

ing break

during menstruation.

within the erect penis to exit the

ters the Fallopian tube

body. Normal body temperature,

body. The

98.6°F (37°C).

ited inside

is

too high for sue-

sperm

cells are

depos-

1

Sperm ductl A t

^V

^4

K -f

»

Irtesu

Jl

Erectile

>B

tissue

^'Anus •

B]

Penis

Prostate

y^^^»' cies Glans

'

^reskin

^Epididymis

tissue,

aroused, blood

causing the penis

spaces to

include the pineal gland, the pancreas,

fertilizes

thyroid,

as well as the

Hormones

influ-

Hormones

ence metabolism, growth, reproduc-

Hormones produced and secreted

tion,

by glands are involved

Organs

processes

in

in

almost

the body. Blood

butes these messenger substances

organs include a pair of

to their sites of action,

bind to receptors on the surfaces

tubes, the uterus, va-

of cells

and cause biochemical

amounts

of sex

hormones

such as testosterone and estrogen are present

where they

ovaries and Fallopian

and behavior, among others.

Differing

all

distri-

The female reproductive

gina, clitoris,

and

adrenal cortex and the cells of the

the egg. a pregnancy results.

Female Reproductive

in

both females and

males. These influence the develop-

ment and functioning of primary

reac-

and secondary sexual

traits.

and two

layers of skin protecting

Before

When

sperm enand

Female Hormones and Menstrual Cycle

the vagina called labia.

Scrotum fills

If

in

the erectile

enlarge and harden.

birth,

THE HORMONES estrogen and progesterone thicken the

about

400.000 eggs develop

ing the menstrual cycle.

The

lining exits

(menstruation) from the vagina in

the ovaries. As hu-

mans

reach puberty,

these eggs cally is

will

if

lining of the uterus dur-

the body through monthly bleeding

fertilization

has not taken place. Menstrua-

tion occurs from the first to the fifth days of the cycle.

follows from the

periodi-

stimulating

fifth

to the 14th day.

hormone (FSH)

when the

surrounded with sev-

follicular

to ripen the follicle

around an egg. The

luteal

follicle

(LH). triggering ovulation

—the egg's release— around the 14th day. The body temperature egg travels toward the uterus. The

phase

pituitary gland releases follicle-

produces estrogen to increase luteinizing hormone

mature. The egg

The

rises,

and the

phase, from the 14th to the 28th day.

eral layers of follicle B

is

addei

cells that provide

nourishment as

Clitons

Vulva

Vaginal entrance

•-

rip-

when the

follicle left

by

the egg becomes the cor-

pus luteum.

It

releases

progesterone and

velop during the female

pares the uterine lining

monthly

for a fertilized egg. or is

cycle, but gen-

full

size

one grows

and

is

from the ovary The vagina leads to the cervix, which is the entrance to the womb where a baby develops.

it

with

ens. Multiple follicles de-

erally only

.

it

otherwise shed. to

released into

the

The menstrual cycle lasts

Fallopian tube

in

a pro-

cess called ovulation.

approximately

28 days.

o _i o CD

Hormone-producing organs

tions.

ovaries and testes.

Urethra

•

,

produce hormones.

the vagina during sexual intercourse.

Pubic bone

to

down, leaving the body

the vas deferens and the urethra

in

organs

lin-

the scrotum, on the outside of the

mals, the testes are located

es

in

the corpus luteum and

a long tube called the until

ized egg.

Female

Male

fertil-

remains unfertilized

temperature within

Testicles

walls of the uterus for

implantation of a

include the penis, testicles (or

and scrotum, as

Ovaries

secretes the hormones

woman.

the ducts that transport sperm,

Pancreas

industrialized

in

Male Reproductive Organs

testes),

Adrenal gland

the uterus, the remaining follicle forms the

about 2.1 children per

is

way toward

its

life

choices and pollution.

breasts.

cell

pre-

:

126

HUMAN BEINGS

T

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM The human body ment. However,

is

its

constantly confronted with harmful bacteria and viruses from the environ-

complex immune system goes

into action

when

recognizes them.

it

The immune system recognizes defective cells to the

membranes

and substances foreign

tain

body and combats them with

o o _l o ca

or anti-

nisms form what

and form the

called the acquired or

of

defense

is

immune system.

against infectious microorganisms.

active

For instance, the skin and the

The system

mucous membranes coating the

immune response

and

genital

tracts prevent most bacteria, viruses,

and parasites from

enter-

The immune system

in

action: a

ing the body.

oils

An immune system can turn

by

recognizing specific

against

markers or antigens

tions.

and

and

produced

saliva

tially

by sebaceous glands. Mucus, tears,

wash away many poten-

harmful organisms. The secre-

tions of

most

of the body's

mucous

when

result. Allergies

reactions by the

isms that succeed

to foreign

penetrating

mecha-

are oversensitive

immune system

substances

in

the envi-

ronment, such as pollen, house-

the body are attacked and con-

sumed

malfunc-

and so-called autoimmune

provide a targeted reaction. Organin

it

disorders, such as diabetes, can

forming antibodies to

sur-

itself

Self-recognition

nisms may stop functioning properly,

ing foreign cells

difficult

dead

to get through the skin's

face cells and the

it

Allergies and

Autoimmune Disorders

an

triggers

on the surface of invad-

macrophage

eliminates an invader— a bacterium.

Invading microbes find

^-M

--

defense mecha-

specific

strategies are innate, or passive,

digestive, respiratory,

>•

enzymes

The body's more

defensive strategies. Non-specific

first line

;m

also con-

bacterial proteins.

and non-specific

a range of specific

^k

^*^^K

hold dust, animal

by white blood cells such

hair, or specific

foods. Specialized defensive cells

THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO)

mates

that

some

as macrophages. The inflammation

esti-

3.1 million people died of AIDS

produced

2005.

in

infects 4.1 million

60% OF ALL HIV-POSITIVE people sub-Saharan

more people.

living

and release

immune

blood

by an

in

the

1980s

that attacks

immune system's this

an incurable disease

and weakens the immune system.

caused by the human immune deficiency cells,

copies

It

is

immune

pieces.

-;

.

an

allergic

cell

is

and broken

These pieces are then

immune

played on the

Protective Vaccination

picked up into

People protect themselves against

dis-

infectious diseases through vaccination.

cell's sur-

In

active immunization, a

virus (HIV), which targets the itself

inside them,

and

selves.

The forma-

tion of

tumors and

the

frequency

tiny

dose of the disease's

infecting

in

agent

of specific defensive cells.

way destroys them. The immune system weakens until—

MHBB

is

reaction to plant pollen.

face, stimulating the production defensive

extreme cases,

a primary infection.

the pathogen

Some of these try to con-

usually years later— symptoms of the disease manifest therm-

al

above: Hay fever

for the first time, this

known as

First,

Is

infectious organism en-

body

ters a

AIDS emerging

in

cells re-

defenses.

IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME)

sneezing— or

the cardiovascular system.

is

AIDS (ACQUIRED

like

Primary Infection

virus that attacks the white

sponsible for

of his-

anaphylactic shock and failure of

macrophages.

worldwide

Africa.

When an HIV is a

of

amounts

tamines, which cause symptoms

microbes increases the production

EACH YEAR HIV

live in

secrete increased

response to invading

in

sume

ides.

cells. In re-

sponse, the body produces

anti-

bodies to combat the pathogen,

kill

them by secreting superox-

infections increase

introduced into the body

as weakened or dead

the invaders through

phagocytosis or to

of

is

e.g.,

the influenza vaccine.

In

passive immunization, a serum

The immune system

drastically. first

^jalfr

recognizes an invading

is

administered that contains

THEVIRUSispassedonin

**

v

body

iJ

pathogen due fluids like blood,

vaginal secretions, -

1 1 ~

j,-

-^

1 .ST^B

milk. Since there

and mother's

is still

no effective

cure— treatments only delay the onset of

to

chemicals pro-

symptoms-methods

that pre-

vent infection, such as protected sex,

remain the best defenses against contracting the disease.

causes AIDS suffering from AIDS

duced on

or protein

markers (antigens)

their surfaces. Other

cells begin to

Woman

immune

KNOWLEDGE

EVERY CELL has distinguishing chem-

primary infection, antibodies and

ical

memory cells remain, enabling the immune system to react more quickly

p.

INSIDER

which cling to the invaders. After a

and

efficiently to

fection by the

© see also: Allergies, Modern Life Chapter,

particular organism.

produce antibodies,

480

same

any new

organism.

or protein tags that

known

mark

it

as

or unfamiliar.

ORGAN TRANSPLANTS: The cells

of a

donated organ are recognized as an

right: Virus that left:

specific antibodies against a

sperm,

in-

infectious organism, so the

immune

response must be suppressed.

HUMAN BEINGS

HUMAN TISSUES AND CELL REGENERATION The

human body has specialized

themselves

cells that organize

down

replaced, although this process slows

cells are continually

Regeneration and Ageing

Cell All

into tissues

and organs. The

cells divide regularly (p.

components

of the

Connective Tissue

(pp.

human body can be

The main functions

defined as various

tissue are to support

of connective

and bind

94) and

are replaced. This process slows

with age.

down as the body changes

All

in

ages, leading to

the appearance and

performance of tissues and organs.

120-122). Skeletal muscles

are attached to bones by tendons

Affected elements include sensory

and permit the body

organs,

to

move.

hormone

levels, elasticity

types of tissues.

other tissues. Connective tissue

Smooth muscles are found

Tissues are groups

can be

walls of the digestive tract, internal

and memory. Medical conditions

of cells with a unified

structure

and func-

liquid (blood), jelly-like

(tendons),

and

and

rigid (cartilage

bone). Typically, the cells of these

tissues

are

lie

relatively far

embedded

apart and

another material.

in

of connective tissue, reaction time,

the

in

organs, and blood vessels. While

such as Werner syndrome,

they contract more slowly than

young people prematurely take on

skeletal muscles, contraction per-

elderly characteristics, support the

sists for a longer period of time.

hypothesis that ageing

is

which

in

genetic.

The areolar or loose con-

or matrix.

nective tissues are the

common human tissues.

most

skin

and organs as

hold

them

them

58 MILLION PEOPLE worldwide died of cancer

2005—70% of these in

connective

in

well

in

developing countries.

> O O —i o

WOMEN MOST COMMONLY develop breast cancer, while men develop prostate or lung cancer.

These connect the as

CANCER PATIENTS are considered "cured" if the

place. Various

types of fibers

disease does not recur for

make

CO

years.

five

highly flexible Early cancer detection techniques, such as breast

and

tear-resistant.

examination, look for changes

Dense connective sue

is

found

in

in

the tissue.

tis-

Cancer

ligaments

as well as tendons, which attach

muscles to bones. Cartilage and Connective and supportive tissues lage,

dense connective

bone constitute special connective

cell division

the body. Bone tissue [

together by fibers or an

120)

is

hardened

I

by deposits of minerals

such as calcium phos-

more than 50,000

phate, yet does not

million cells

200

different

become

I

&

brittle.

nervous, and muscular.

spine, brain,

mal vent

cells multiply within a tissue or it

Epithelial tissue obstructs infec-

body. their

loss of

fluids. Cells of this tissue

organized into layers and

in

the

body

(p.

It

comprises nerve

of a cure.

is

detected, the

Cancer therapy aims

close

it

may be

treated with a mixture of treatradiation therapy, medica-

tions that interfere with cell reproduction (chemotherapy),

and radioimmunotherapy.

and

cells

Muscle Tissue The elongated tissue

organs, as well as

lin-

cavities. Epithelial cells lining

(p.

sponse

cells of

muscle

120) can contract

in re-

to a nerve impulse to

cause

the lungs and intestines form a

movement. This tissue—there are

single layer. Inside the nose, they

about 650 muscles

are present

in

the most

The

by volume. The muscles can be

multiple layers,

combination with nasal

hairs.

in

the body— is

common human

tissue Skin cancer

is

often triggered by excessive sun exposure without adequate

Radioimmunotherapy is a cancer treatment marked tumor cells with high doses of radioactivity.

protection, above:

epithelial tissues of the skin

can

to

abnormally growing cells. Depending on the type

123).

faces and

regenerate rapidly.

forming metastases

surrounding neuroglial cells

together. They cover the body's sur-

in

chance

ments including surgery,

and nerves

organ and pre-

type are lie

a

from functioning properly. They may then

impulses throughout the

tious organisms, protects against

its

may be

or secondary tumors.

kill

transmits tiny electrical Epithelial Tissue

ing

and

asbestos dust, or ultraviolet radiation. The abnor-

of cancer,

its

of this process

THE EARLIER A CANCEROUS GROWTH

Nervous Tissue

and

Nervous tissue

and prevents

cells divide irregularly

and growth. The cause

better the

tissues: epithelial, connective,

injury,

which

travel to other parts of the body, |

Body organs are composed

of four basic types of cells

in

genetic defect or external influences such as a virus.

outer layer of cells. The body's

types.

defined as a malignant tumor

tissue,

(p.

are divided into about

is

destroy healthy tissue. Cancer cells are disconnected from the normal mecha-

tissues that support

loose connective tissue, osseous.

tion, held

CANCER

nisms controlling

(clockwise): adipose, blood, carti-

127

divided into three types: skeletal,

smooth, and cardiac muscle

that targets

€t *r ;

Monographic Boxes For Skin

and

Hair, p.

Doping Analysis,

p.

139

143

Substances With Memory,

p.

144

p.

131

Analytic Boxes Bohr and His Atom Model, Catalysts, p.

135

What Makes

a Plastic Thermoplastic? p.

How

a Semiconductor Works,

Processes Chain,

p.

in

p.

137

138

the Benzene Production

140

^K '

„

*JM

«...

a JS

While the concept of chemistry might

make most

people think of Bunsen burners, explosions, and

scope

liquids in test tubes, the is

far grander.

als,

Chemistry

is

of

what

it

examines

concerned with materi-

the abundant varieties of matter: their creation,

characteristics,

and transformations. Matter

what

is

makes up our

Earth, our environment,

kind

the span of decades chemists have

itself.

come

to

In

understand how matter

they have thus been able to

is

and human-

organized, and

artificially

create

more

chemical materials and products: manure, medicines, plastics, semiconductors,

materials without which

and many other

modern everyday

life

could

not be imagined. At present chemists are developing the materials of tomorrow:

"more

intelligent"

than today's.

more

efficient

and

#< "^ 130

MATTER-THE WORLD OF SUBSTANCES

*\

W*ir

KEY FACTS From matter into elements A MIXTURE can be separated its

IS

Atoms-building blocks of matter

The order of elements

\

A SUBSTANCE that

Early

humans had no

consists of just one kind of atom. is

a system for

ancient Greek philosophers believed that

organizing the chemical elements within a chart of rows

MOLECULES cally

earth.

and columns.

consist of two or

atoms whose

more

until

phenomena

to the acts of the gods.

matter consisted of four elements:

all

modern times that chemical researchers succeeded were able

fire,

water,

air,

The

and

identifying the build-

in

to give order to the various materials in the world

and explain chemical changes between substances.

particles are chemi-

©

FROM MATTER

was not

It

ing blocks of matter. Through this they

bound.

Matter (Latin: "materia." or "material") exists everywhere except

in

an absolute vacuum

(Latin: "vacuus," or "empty").

INTO ELEMENTS

Compounds, mixtures, and elements

An element consists

parts.

The power of chemical bonds

explanation for the existence of a vast array of substances and their trans-

formations. Thus they could only attribute chemical THE PERIODIC TABLE

|

MATTER-THE WORLD OF SUBSTANCES

basic substances by physical

means.

AN ELEMENT

|

into

of

differ by

the ways they are separated into component

atoms and cannot be broken down by

physical or chemical

means.

>DC

tof particles

and

tography, the different solubility

the

o

and with

are directed through a tube into

another container,

fumes condense

liquid state. fluid

The

into a

chroma-

of substances.

The best

resulting

drips into the other

liquid

of

reply to the question Extraction of salt

how mixtures and compounds

crystallizing

container and the ethanol is

thereby separated from

During the

distillation process,

heated. The resulting vapor into its

component

a mixture

achieved by in

seawater.

means, but com-

pounds cannot. INSIDER

differ-

KNOWLEDGE

ent boiling points of both

Kinds of Mixtures

OVER 30 MILLION

water and ethanol.

Mixtures such as wine often have

stances are currently catalogued

different

sub

is

condensed

is

mixtures can be sepa-

rated by physical

the wine. This separation

occurs because of the

differ is that

is

sodium chloride

parts.

In

addition to this

distilla-

tion process, there are other

an outwardly uniform appearance. Another example

is

seawater, which

"I in

the "Chemical Abstracts " database.

ALMOST

12 MILLION of these are

commercially viable chemicals.

As Anton Chekhov said during the

ways

19th century, "For the chemist

parts of mixtures. With

to

separate the component filtration,

consists of salt dissolved it

Alloys

in

water.

such as brass or bronze are

EVERY YEAR, 400,000 new substances are described

there

is

nothing impure on this

Earth." There

may have been

deeper meaning

in

this

is

possible to use the different sizes

a

Russian

author's words but from the scientist's standpoint.

was mistaken. there

is

is

copper with up to one-third part

tin,

Chekhov

added.

between

Diamonds and graphite both come from the

same element:

In

is

copper with zinc

emulsions such as

oil-

wine

heated,

it

substances are elements.

All

of

these

liquid within a

of liquid.

Carbon provides an example of

how elements can take

different appearances. There

Compounds and Elements Although compounds— in contrast

starts to boil

at around 172°F (78°C). After a

to mixtures—cannot be separated

cer-

tain length of time, the boiling point

step up

cannot be further divided

other hand, one can clearly see

drops of one type of

an example of a mixture. is

sulfur,

and

like iron, gold, or

by chemical means.

Separating Mixtures

If

applied. Oxygen

is

hydrogen, just

and-vinegar salad dressings, on the

second type

is

current

carbon.

mixtures and compounds.

Wine

the techni-

in

cal publications worldwide.

material characteristics. Bronze

and brass

For the chemist

a big difference

mixtures of metals with special

212°F (100°C).

into their

component

are two very

common

tions of carbon: tion of

One

forma-

modifica-

carbon can be found

on the neck of a wealthy

woman

(diamond);

a

parts by mechanical

heated, the temperature remains

can be broken down

in their first

constant at 172°F (78°C). Ethanol

further by other

writing (graphite).

will

to

pure alcohol such as ethanol

is

a pure

If

means, most

is

compound, while wine

means. Water, a mixture of both copper

contains a number of substances,

Brass

mostly ethanol and water.

and zinc; bronze and tin.

fumes

that form as wine

is

If

the

heated

of

is

ample,

will

them

separate

oxygen and hydro-

gen when an

attempts at

for ex-

consists of copper into

another helps children

electric

The mixture of oil- and water-based liquids creates

an emulsion.

MATTER-THE WORLD OF SUBSTANCES

131

ATOMS-BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER The

first

atoms

modern chemistry was the recognition that Today, it is now known that every element con-

step to

existed.

sists of a specific kind of

atom.

In

the years that followed, atoms

were assumed by scientists to

be round elastic objects that

were uniformly

filled

with matter.

But

later in that century, this

was

definitively refuted

physicist

J. J.

view

when

Thomson showed

that negatively charged particles, electrons, can be separated from their atoms. Furthermore. Henri

Electrons do not rotate

Becquerel was actually able to

exist in orbitals (blue areas) of probability.

observe natural

The

British physicist

examines the structure of the

split.

if

you were to

John Dalton. a science teacher

in

Manchester, promoted the theory matter

indivisible

is

a

and momentum

38 cm

of

an electron can-

piece of tissue

not be simultaneously determined

paper and have

come back and

exactly.

it

wrote Rutherford

From

this perspective, there

are no more electron orbits. Instead

later.

Mainly Empty Space

He concluded that the atoms

At the start of the 20th century.

gold leaf consisted mostly of

bombarded a

Ernest Rutherford At the start of the 19th century.

all

fire

Ernest Ruther-

atom.

that

>

artillery shell at a

hit you."

ford

model, they

tr r-

as

began to understand

atom could be

that the

this

radioactivity.

Through these discoveries, physicists

around the atom. According to

in orbits

composed

atoms. The atoms of

any element are identical

in

thin sheet of gold leaf with alpha

was

particles emitted from a radio-

atoms that could

active element. Almost

ing particles. This led Rutherford

all

of the

particles penetrated the gold leaf

of

with no

deflection: but a few

deflected and

their

mass and chemical make-up.

back.

"It

were

some even bounced

was unbelievable, almost

a

in

the center of these

to the idea that

deflect the incom-

atoms are con-

His

Atom Model

based

is

on a bold hypothesis. From the

Electrons

m

an

The wave function value

yields the probability of

further devel-

an electron

being present within a given small

volume. The region

in

which an

may be found around an

atom has a

was

is

mathematical function—the wave function.

electron

shell. This idea

of electrons

this region

characteristic shape: is

called an "orbital."

re-

searchers. According to them, the

move around the nucleus of an atom

orbit that is identified by

called the orbit's

movement

described and determined by a

core and a negatively charged

shell of

THE BOHR ATOM MODEL

the

structed of a positively charged

oped by Niels Bohr and other

Bohrand

the

same time there

space, but at the

mass

in

empty

an integer

an atom consists of elec-

trons that circle about a nucleus,

"n"

pnmary quantum number.

which

is

made up

of protons

and

perspective of classical physics.

neutrons. Electrons

the electrons that orbit around the

orbits,

nucleus of the atom would release their tion.

energy If

this

in

the form of radia-

was

true, the electrons

would eventually crash

much

like

move

Wave Mechanics and

into the

in fixed

the planets.

Orbitals

Bohr's model for the atom

was

not.

nucleus of the atom. The physicist Niels Bohr

however, able to explain either the

advanced the prop-

osition that this

is

exactly

what

assumption, he developed

own archetype this

electrons or

of the atom. Using

light

physicists ranging from Bohr to

Schrodinger to De Broglie was that

radiated by it

hydrogen atoms that were

in

how atoms are bound

seemed

that for half the time they

an laws of physics, and the other half they would be applying the laws of

electron

photon

radiated.

is

jumps from an If

the electron

tron 'swallowed up" or

orbit with a larger radius to

moves to an

absorbed a photon.

TODAY ONE CAN OBSERVE directly what was once just a logical concept.

New instrumentation and the vast improvement

would be applying the classical

excited state.

When an

I st CENTURY

together. Another problem for

his

model. Bohr could explain the

wavelength of the

structure.

existence of atoms with multiple

electrons do not do. Starting from this

With the use of an electron microscope one can see that the silicon atom has a rough granular

an

orbit with

orbit with a larger radius,

it

a smaller radius, a

means the

elec-

quantum

physics.

atom holds that the

microscopic

tion of individual

atoms.

THROUGH THE USE of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) scientists

Today, the wave mechanical view of the

in

resolution permit the actual observa-

position

can even observe electron clouds inside

an atom.

U

WW — i

132

MATTER-THE WORLD OF SUBSTANCES

THE ORDER OF ELEMENTS It

hangs on the walls

of every chemistry

21" CENTURY

classroom

in

the world: the periodic table.

112 elements, which are arranged according

contains

NEW ELEMENTS can be produced by

currently

It

scientists through the nuclear fusion

to their properties.

j

of atoms; however, they possess a short

People thought about the possibility

elements being arranged

of

in

some

kind of order even before Rutherford

and Bohr developed

models

their

for

able to classify atic order. In

Dimitri

man

them

into a

ascending order

system-

1869, the Russian

Mendeleyev and the Ger-

Lothar Meyer independently

that

each other

of atomic nuclei, based on predic-

columns.

in vertical

In

Mendeleyev

1829, the

In

the spaces under

left

aluminum and

accommodate elements that had

simi-

chemical properties. He called

gases

One

and

and germanium about

100 years

later,

symbol: H) have the simplest struc-

which contained

ture since the nucleus contains

the properties predicted by Mendeleyev, contributed

iodine.

sodium, and

lithium,

J nucleus. Hydrogen atoms (element

The discovery

of gallium

tri-

of the colored

chlorine, bromine,

The metals

of the

table

only one proton. As the atomic num-

immensely

in

atom contains 92 protons and the largest atom found

o

What caught Dober-

einer's attention

middle of the triad

is

Mendeleyev devised a systematic relationship between the Dimitri

the

approximately

the same as the average

mass

in

The number

The Periodic Table Today

was that the

atomic mass of an element

of the

outermost atomic

elements with

termines the chemical properties

their

chemical sym-

and arranges them

rows

properties are arranged

which

vertically. For

example,

of the eighth

main group ("noble

in

also displayed. This

is

is

the

Recognition by the Czars

Mendeleyev claimed that "the

tides (protons)

atomic weight determines the char-

atom. As atoms are

acter of an element." Accordingly,

tral,

he

equal to the number of electrons

new

ele-

being

classified the

elements

in

I

i

«

1 h

2

6.94

i.o

|_j

Lithium

Na 19

3910

0.8

is

Be

K

Mg

::

20

40.08

i.o

ca

Caloum

37

38

85 47

Rb 55 6 ZnS

Every particle that transfers elec-

tion.

To the

trons to a reaction partner

other important type of reaction.

sulfur (S)

zinc (Zn)

and

can be described with a

left

of the arrow are the start

is

said

sulfur, electrons is

an oxidation-

Acid-base-reactions are an-

materials or "reactants," and to the right of the rial

arrow

is

the

final

mate-

Acid-Base Reactions

or the product. Zinc, at the Acids dissolve metals and taste sour; bases feel slippery and taste

same time, with a red-hotwire, immediately

in

produces flames and white smoke.

2Zn

After cooling down, a grayish-white

The

mixture remains. A chemical reaction

ergy

has taken place in

which en-

in

the form of heat

is

released,

which can even be measured with a calorimeter.

Such reactions are

the

air to

+

2

cess: Oxygen from

damp

While acids turn litmus paper red, bases turn

become

that release protons (H*) to other ions or molecules. Bases are substances

coefficient 2

zinc dioxide:

used to denote an oxygen mole-

atoms

zinc oxide molecule that

has

two oxygen atoms. Instead of say-

atoms

react with

one

rust.

If

an example

its

substances

protons are accepted by

the base. The reaction between hydrochloric acid (HCI) and

ammonia (NH 3

)

is

of this kind of reaction:

HCI + NH.

CI

+NH,*

The superscript indicates that the chlorine

becomes an

ion with a single negative

charge and that the ammonia becomes an ion with a single positive charge.

oxygen molecule, amounts of each

substance can be specified

in

units

air reacts with iron to

form

an acid reacts with a base,

that accept protons.

denotes the num-

cule consisting of two oxygen

and a

blue. Acids are

it

2

ber of zinc atoms. The subscript 2 is

bitter.

reacts with oxygen (0 ) 2

— Zn0

ing two zinc

Everyday oxidation pro-

said

is

the reaction

combines with oxygen has always

The reaction between

Aluminum and iron powders produce sparks when burning, hence warmth develops.

a

has a mass

65.4 g and a mole

as the activation energy.

Chemical Equations

in

the water's tempera-

left:

called "moles."

A mole consists

of

6x10^' particles. The equation says

PHpaper

with color indicator for de-

termining the acidity of a solution.

\

)

CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES-MATERIAL

:%?: *%\°*.

'

their electrons to the posi-

Reaction's Coordinate

charged

is

considerably

lower.

The final product is formed with less energy

A

the chloride ions transfer

tively

and the energy

level of the transition

supply of direct current. is

energy,

/AG*

water to

charged and connected to a power

Chlorine

reach the

to

activation energy. Cata-

usage.

o

the "anode." The power

supply

pumps the

trons from the

side reactions. This process

elec-

anode to

chlorine-alkali electrolysis

beginning of the 20th century, after

is

and has

been improved over the decades.

a negatively charged steel

many time-consuming attempts, Fritz

sheet, called the "cath-

of

ode." The electrons (e

Production of Iron and

Ammonia

if

Haber showed that the

ammonium

yield

could be increased

the reaction happened under

Chloralkali-membrane electrolysis: The reaction

products are kept separate with the help

are transferred to water

Another example of the

of a

membrane.

molecules (H.O) so that hy-

path between the discovery of a

through, however, required the

drogen (H 2 and hydroxide

chemical reaction and

use of a special catalyst

)

by Nicolas Leblanc ning of the industry.

was the

begin-

modern chemical

Washing soda

ions (OH

are formed according to

)

the equation:

factories

2H 2

+

steel. Iron

2e-»2 0H-+H 2

increased production enormously.

Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide water)

in

formed from the hydroxide

sodium

in

to bind

ions and the

ninth the cost before the use

cal difficulty lies in the fact that the

become an important

of Leblanc's process.

cathode products of hydrogen and

the machine and industrial age.

caustic soda have to be kept sepa-

New methods of making steel

Reducing Costs and Ecological

rate from the

Damage

chloride

Waste products

in

A techni-

anode product

of

order to avoid undesired

oxygen to the

still

iron ores, did iron

being invented

in

material

iron

the Leblanc process were bad for

in

are

order to

control the carbon content

resulting from

in

as economically

The technical

This allows substances in a reacdifficulty

the environment. Because of this.

in

Leblanc's process was replaced

the simplest reactions

by a different one. Current environ-

is

mental concerns, along with

duction of

effi-

an important reason

Originally,

Iron cast during the extraction of iron

of caustic

soda are used

oxide

in

a blast furnace

be mixed very efficiently.

21 st

the pro-

ammonium,

REACTIONS

IN

CENTURY

MICRO-REACTORS

yield a substantially better product

derivatives are

synthesis of

also used to produce caustic soda

amounts

in

than reactions that take place

in

large agitating tubs. In addition, the

and explosives. The

washing soda was

(sodium hydroxide). Today, gigantic

exhibited

required for fertilizers

chemical substances.

tion to

implementing even

whose

to

develop new production methods for

The micro-reactor has an inner structure of many microchannels.

as possible.

people's health and a burden on

ciency, are

order to

the 18th cen-

when coke was used

within a few years to just one-

ions.

in

increase the rate of the reaction.

furnaces since the

14th century. Only tury,

technical

its

that of iron and

is

has been extracted from

iron ore in blast

The cost of washing soda dropped

is

implementation

external pressure. This break-

difficult

integrity of the

ammonium

process

is

higher

since the reactions can be controlled

from nitrogen and hydro-

in

gen (N 2 + 3H 2 -+

producing chemicals can also be

in-

creased, meaning micro-reactors

will

from iron failed at

first.

2NH 3

At the

rr (to

Energy states during a reaction

rod, called

>

a targeted manner. The rate of

)

be used more and more

in industry.

136

SUBSTANCES OF EVERY DAY-CHEMISTRY DETERMINES OUR

«
*)

effectively

Nitrate

away

an indispensable com-

Nitrate

is

ponent

of fertilizers. However,

nutri-

with rain, excess nitrate seeps

ents from crops.

available to sustain the growth of

plants

in

New

the next harvest. These Today large areas are

nutrients, especially nitrogen,

by using airplanes

to

constantly being devel-

oped

Fertilizers

make this

for

fertilizers

However,

fertilizers

alone are not

ductivity in agriculture.

compounds began

are designed

each crop variety based on the

to

be used

in

organisms harmful to crops.

to fight

ments.

For example, farmers

today include

Chemical

the second half of the 19th century

plants' specific nutritional requireFertilizers

effective.

necessary

is

to

Organization, drinking water

make them

One reason

should contain no more than 50

ppm

this is

(parts per million) of nitrate.

Babies have died because their

that fungi and insects

meals were prepared with responsible for the increased pro-

possible.

At the present time chemically

generated

more

Pest Control

to maintain the agricultural output.

According to the World Health

fertilized very efficiently

spray the crops.

phosphorus, and potassium, had to be returned to the soil in order

easily into the groundwater.

pesticides are

start to resist or

become

insensitive

to the old agents.

A farmer 50 years

ago might use 11

lbs (5 kg) of pesti-

tion of nitrate. is

A further problem

that nitrate, which flushes into

cides on one acre of crops. Using

lakes and rivers, disturbs the

modern agents,

biological equilibrium. Algae

the

a farmer can get

same amount of

begin to grow excessively while

pest control

other water organisms die

calcium, magnesium, sulfur, and

used the "Bordeaux

sometimes trace elements that

mixture" (burnt lime

play a role

in

plant nutrition.

in

well-

water that had a high concentra-

with less than 3.5 oz (100

off.

g).

above: Strong growth of algae

a copper sulfate

Preservatives

ing water

One

of the reasons

common

in

food would

earlier spoil.

repel insects

growth of fungi.

famine was

times

is

that

order to preserve

such as sorbic

important for the

Preservatives

food for a longer time, preservatives

is

health of babies.

INSIDER

and prevent the In

in

overfertilized waters: clean drink-

KNOWLEDGE

"FUNCTIONAL FOOD" refers

to fresh or

processed food with health benefits in

addition to the nutritional content.

acid, nitrites,

vitamin C, and vitamin E are added,

EXAMPLES are yogurts containing and bread

cultures of live organisms,

which prevents the multiplication

Fresh in

fruits

and vegetables are

rich

vitamins, but they perish quickly.

The use of preservatives gives food goods a long shelf life.

many

of pathogens.

The possible nega-

tive effects of

food preservatives

are being debated today.

© see also: Nutrition, Modern Life Chapter, pp. 482-483

with

omega-3

fatty acids

added.

EXPERTS estimate that the world market for functional food is around

80 billion

dollars (62 billion euros).

JE

*.

EVERY DAY-CHEMISTRY DETERMINES OUR LIFE

F

137

PLASTICS EVERYWHERE Upholstered furniture, lacquers and paint. DVDs, casings of household appliances, and airbags

made some

are

for cars

because

plastics are

of the things

cheap and easy

made from

plastics. This

list

could be continued endlessly

to process.

decompose. The most important

Composition Plastics consist of macromolecules.

which are

up from thousands

built

of small groups of

together to

atoms bound

become one

large mole-

examples

of

such plastics are

Polycarbonate

synthetic resins, which are used for lacquers.

Elastomers are poly-

mers that can be deformed

at

room

cule. For this reason, plastics are

temperature through exposure to

called polymers, from the Greek

extreme pressure or tension, but

CDs. CD-ROMs, and DVDs are

used today is

in

numbers so

billion

large

it

35 2001

imagine. The

difficult to

discs produced just

in

would have created a tower about

expressions poly ("multiple") and

then are able to return to their

meros

original

Thermoplastics

("parts").

soften and are moldable

When plastic melts,

it

of elastomers are

and

becomes a

substance that

pliable

when

/s

19.000 miles (30.000 km) high

shape. Typical examples

foam materials

pourabie.

have often been regarded

Plastics

have replaced

traditional materials

tamination of Earth for environmen-

such as wood or metal

However, while this opinion

is fairly

widespread, there are

in

some Shown here in production

losopher Roland Barthes said.

which

leather,

"Plastics are the first magical mate-

use."

polyurethane-

both wind- and waterproof, but

of

One

of

fact huge.

is in

they are is

plastics

is

that they are generally

nonbiodegradable. Because of

this,

the use of recycled plastic products

warmed

up. Polyethylene

a thermoplastic and

most produced

is

also the

plastic in the world.

Other thermoplastics include poly-

instead

a Plastic

Thermoplastic?

encountered on a

daily

is

chains

are

any shape cheaply, primarily

chemical

pounds, as with

is

rubber,

and then remolded.

they

com-

for

slide

temperatures.

of

21 st CENTURY

Recycling Since plastics are frequently used

PPV- FOILS

for mainly short-lived products, the

plastics are a possible

at

made from advanced new and

in-

result

flexible

an increasing disposal

tage of their chemical

only

stability later

source of light.

ELECTRONIC PAPER, which consists of a thin

and

from plastic

becomes plastics

past high

is

problem. Furthermore, the advan-

which means

other

During recycling, plastics are

the finished product.

In

each

called

con-

through weak molecu-

that

is

the case

together

lar forces,

injected under pressure into

mines the form and surface

thermoplastics are

held

ther-

collected, sorted, chopped, melted,

stance. The molecules in

method, the granules of a

moplastic substance are melted

a tool or a mold. The mold deter-

nected to each other by other

into

*s a result the plastic melts.

that their

not

made

the hollow area of what

molecular

threadlike

aluminum

varnish.

The individual molecular chains slide past each other when they are heated if they are not linked with other compounds.

basis melt when heated.

The reason

of polycarbon-

ate are coated with

through injection molding. With

and MOST PLASTICS that are

made

and covers lights.

heat.

of plastics. They can be

when heated, but

and control

above: CDs

roof-

glasses and sun-

as insulate

tributed significantly to the ubiquity

soften

ing, protective

Yet another advantage has con-

this

What Makes

and

well

Thermosetting plastics do not

they change color or generally

stadium and winter garden

Plastics can also

absorb sound as

amides and polycarbonates.

an imperative part of protecting

the environment.

damage from weather

and chemicals.

electricity

Among the many

advantages are

and resistance

and

firm,

out of them are

glasses, headlights,

to

The economic importance

light.

made

things

for signal

their

of polycar-

mechanically

tures. Their primary

lightness

allows sweat to evaporate.

the negative qualities attributed to

is

is

is

that are ready for everyday

this material

many areas because

of their beneficial fea-

voices of praise, as the French phi-

rials

made

the case of thermosetting plastjcs. the molecular chains

are cross-linked and break arbitrarily during heating. As a result the plastic

decomposes.

trash

a disadvantage as

decompose

dumps and

very slowly

flexible

screen

foils, will

clutter roadways.

TECHNIQUES

that use plastics to

produce raw materials with a high

become

For this reason, the recycling of

degree of purity

plastics

economically worthwhile.

© see also: Recycling. Physics and Technology Chapter, p. 179

is

made

replace ink

and paper. in

particularly important.

I l-

they are transparent, inherently

resistant to

talists.

mainly

bonates are widely used because

stable,

as a symbol of waste and the con-

is

of a polycarbonate.

Thermoplastics

Light and Moldable Plastics

one another. Each disc

made up

polyesters.

if

the discs were stacked on top of

will

LU

X

138

SUBSTANCES OF EVERY DAY-CHEMISTRY DETERMINES OUR

LIF

SEMICONDUCTORS FOR COMPUTERS AND MODERN In

the 19th century,

it

was discovered

LIFE

INSIDER KNOWLEDGE

was dependent modern information.

that the conductivity of certain materials

on temperature. Materials with semiconductor properties are the basis of

MICROCHIPS are produced with a in

maximum

8 gal (30

parison,

Computers, mobile phones,

cameras, space

travel,

digital

ductorsare also

Some

known.

medical

important because their conductivity can

of

change

technologies such as computed

the most impor-

by adding impurities.

tomography, and

tant are the

To do

artificial

pace-

rooms

particle

way of com-

of air. By

of city air con-

1)

million particles.

PERSONNEL wear special clothes in more than 50,000 small particles could the clean rooms; otherwise,

donor atoms

this,

15

tains

1)

8 gal (30

in

one dust

of

be discharged per second.

makers would be unthinkable today without parts

made from

semi-

lll-V

semicon-

are introduced into the

semiconductor's crys-

ductors—like

where the varnish

talline structure. This

"doping"

This small

object

a microprocessor, which

is

is

the heart of every computer.

gallium arsenide.

elements

in

It

consists of

the third and

fifth

by firing an ion

beam

can be used to etch away the semi-

achieved

is

layer.

conductor. The higher the energy

take place

in

with which the ions collide against

clean rooms. The concentration

the surface of the semiconductor,

of dust in the air

the deeper they penetrate into

possible.

it.

in

Chip Production and

X o

Way in

If

air-conditioned

and

kept as low as

is

a dust particle settles

the diminutive circuit of a micro-

chip, then

it

not work properly.

will

Semiconductors not only play an

Application

to the Perfect Crystal

Semiconductors are mostly used

These procedures

conductor

onto the semi-

group of the periodic table. LU

dissolves, acids

To manufacture integrated circuits

important role

the form of close-to-perfect crys

and microchips, semiconductors

and information technology, but

They are produced through

must not only be doped, but also

also are used to convert light

tals.

in

microtechnology

piece-by-piece melting of a

How

manufactured bar of

a

Semiconductor Works

semiconductor material. THE ELECTRONIC BAND STRUCTURE

By slow cooling, the Silicon wafers (in foreground) are

semiconductors

atoms get arranged

commanufac-

in

solids explains the properties of semicon-

a

for electronic

ponents and are used

to

ductors. Just as electrons

uniform atomic structure

have energy

and the semiconductor

ture microchips.

is

crystallized.

A

of this "zone-by-zone"

materials conduct electricity better

melting

levels,

in

electrons

in

free

atoms

they do. they

between the bands

of different energy. In a

semiconductor, the highest energy

will

im-

mediately be cap-

solids form

tured again by the

energy bands. Band gaps are present

variant

conductors. At 68°F (20°C) these

Electrons cannot overcome the band gap in insulators. If

of

huge

AE

attraction of

the atomic nuclei. This

level

is

why

xxxxxxxxxx

electric

current cannot flow.

used

is

than insulators, but not as well as

silicon. In

metals. The conductivity of semi-

duce a very

occupied with electrons

to clean

is

strongly

on temperature;

dependent

generally

it

order to pro-

one commonly thinks

logically

it

of crystal, the

on a cold

important material, but

more than 600 inorganic semicon-

i

i

i

i

i

ii

i

mii iii ii nm]

the conduction band.

gaseous

Wl/ililll/lit L Semiconductors have a smaller band gap than insulators. The electrons can be

methods used

to structure

the crystal's

Electrons build an

AE

additional narrow

xxxxxxxxxx

band

in

a doped

semiconductor. iiiii

They can easily

iniiirii

atomic positions have

brought to the con-

reach the conduc-

become

duction band from

tion

the valence band at

contribute to con-

room temperatures.

ductivity.

increasingly

important.

The cleansing and

level is called

carrier surface.

Today, the

of

the most techno-

is

ni

thin layer

pounds are condensed

Upon hearing the word "semicon-

silicon. In fact,

the

semiconductor com-

in-

creases with rising heat.

ductor,"

called

valence band and the lowest unoccupied

energy

conductors

is

band and

transformation of

silicon to single crystals is very

Desired Donor Atoms

provided with tiny structures. The

energy and electrical energy into

A semiconductor

semiconductor layers are covered

each

energy intensive. is

a solid

whose conductivity

can be controlled

over a

wide range. Semi-

conductors are technologically

with photoresist. Then, the for

model

the structures, the so-called

mask,

is

transferred to the semi-

other. Solar cells convert light

into electricity, while light-emitting

diodes convert

conductor through exposure to

use solar

UV

many

radiation or electron

beams. A

electricity into light.

Many common pocket calculators cells for energy,

and

electronic instruments use

chemical bath separates selected

light-emitting diodes for their

portions of the coating. At the place

numerical displays.

© see also: Solar Cells and Electronic Components. Physics and Technology Chapter, pp. 174, 184

• SUBSTANCES OF EVERY DAY-CHEMISTRY DETERMINES OUR

J1 ST

MEDICINES AND COSMETICS Innovative medications play a decisive role

the prevention and treatment of

in

many

MORE

diseases.

trol

More than 80 percent

medicines are generated chemically.

of the active ingredients in

EFFECTIVE medicines

medicines health, but

we still owe them a

to

has been eradicated

parts of the world

in

accumulation of molecules

most

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE

the

in

target with the help of computers.

because of the

discovery of vaccines. Those

in-

AIDS

drugs. Medicines can heal gastroin-

a week, render-

cal

agents that lower the cholesterol

levels of

people

who have cardiovas-

cular disease or are at risk of getting it

The

list

molecules? conceivable that cancers

will

substance

be

advanced

treatable, even in the

and not to similar this

If

is

will likely

bio-

in

the organisms as

of their

decomposition are

distrib-

They also ascertain how

uted.

cause unde-

the substance

is

and

if it

toxic

damages

the organism's genetic make-up.

sired side effects.

>\-

PRESERVATIVE AGENTS and cosmetics are

made up of a base and an active substance.

The active ingredient

for Active Ingredients is

COSMETICS promise beauty; however, in reality their effect is at best temporary, and

the most

the dangers should not be ignored.

important component of every med-

One example

icine.

tract,

which

is

is

Shampoo

a plant ex-

tergents.

of natural origin or

lather is caused by washing deSoap molecules reduce the sur-

face tension of water, which enables water

The ingredient acid

shingles, for

as how they and the products

well

the case, the

therapies.

companies

entirely

and

also probably be devel-

agents change

necessary de-

can go on. For exam-

have suggested

also have

stage, via medicines or other

tical

salicylic

fat to the

gree? Do possible agents bind only

Search

is

in

to the target

pharmaceu-

it

oped soon.

Medical tests are frequently carried

ple,

that

ate molecules, they investigate

will

will

focus. Vaccines against

cervical cancer

example,

out on small animals.

ing surgical treatments obsolete.

Statins are a class of pharmaceuti-

If

scientists have found the appropri-

soluble

significantly by using various

testinal ulcers within

also be

other matters: Are these molecules

fected with HIV can delay the onset of

will

cure multiple sclerosis.

an increased Polio

condiabet-

they can simulate the

tion. Finally,

lot.

to in

soon be available that do not

require injection. There

Medicines do not guarantee eternal

generated genetically. However,

in

aspirin

many active

has been industrially produced for over 100

bubbles

is

it

believed this

to be the

case

in

will

For Skin and Hair

continue

AS WITH MEDICINES there are

the future.

Diseases are caused mostly by

in

cosmetics, for example,

als

invading viruses or by the wrong

cosmetic

is

For

new medicine,

for

shampoos and shower gels the base consists and surfactants, whose

molecules reduce the surface tension of the waFor

ter.

to find a target. This

would be,

water,

exam-

creams and

oils,

a body or viral in

molecule that

is

asso-

is

of small droplets of

oil

dispersed

water that are easier to use and more comfort-

and function

of the outer protective layer of skin, the stratum

less of advertising, the effect

researchers then

collect clues

of

THE EFFECT OF CREAMS influences the condition

directed

directly against this target,

base consists

able than water-in-oil creams.

ciated with the disease.

As the agent

lotions the

waxes, and emulsifiers. Oil-in-water

creams consist ple,

of a

the base, not the active ingredients.

of water, conditioners,

first try

protection materi-

in-

this reason, researchers, during the

of a

active ingredients

light

and vitamins. The most important part

teraction of body molecules. For

development

form and persist.

to

ingredients are pro-

duced by chemical means, and

years.

Even though vaccines have been developed, people in poorer areas still die from smallpox.

tions

is

corneum. Regard-

minimal. Cosmetics are subject to legal

and should not contain any materials that can be taken

restric-

into the

body

through the skin and reach the bloodstream.

as to what

molecules can be bound

INSIDER

KNOWLEDGE

THE DEVELOPMENT of a new medicine takes

12 years on average and

costs around

(593

800 million

U.S. dollars

above: The skin has an acidic epidermis, which can be supported with to

it.

There are usually a

lot

preservative agents.

of possibilities for this. Re-

left:

in

perfumes are synthetically produced

for the

most

part.

searchers test hundreds of

thousands of different

Extensive Tests

Around three-quarters of

Up-and-coming candidates

molecules with the help of found, only

one medicine reaches

MEDICINES

all

the

for

an active ingredient are

first

tested on

cell

cultures

agents get rejected during these als. Clinical trials

tri-

on human beings

begin with the remaining agents,

t

with

around 25 new ac-

ingredients are yearly certified

worldwide.

automation, or they look at the bio-molecules that

the market.

tive

Scents

million euros).

FOR EVERY 5.000 active ingredients

139

CENTURY

the level of blood sugar

ics will

LIFE

come

into contact with the

*

-

target molecule. They then try to duplicate its

form and func-

and animals. tests, the

In

these

pharmaceutical

researchers analyze

how the

during which

first

medicine and is

established.

the safety of the

later

its

effectiveness

LU

X

tutiu *>

si

t*»

-AN ONGOING RELATIONSHIP

A

KEY FACTS Engine of the global economy

Mishaps and insidious dangers

|

ALL INDUSTRIAL SECTORS are today

dependent on products of the chemical industry.

NEW MATERIALS

are needed to de-

AN ONGOING RELATIONSHIP

velop products with improved characteristics

and optimal

SOME CHEMICALS

ECONOMY AND ECOLOGY-

properties.

No

are poisonous,

economy can manage without the products

part of the

explosive, or combustible.

companies generate gross revenues

MASS PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS

segment

is

often linked with environmental

risks.

economy. However, as

of the

place, the

mass production

is

evident from devastating accidents that have taken

of chemicals harbors

ENGINE OFTHE GLOBAL ECONOMY

an increasing number

its

provides

employment

economy

a straight jacket.

in

products supply every branch

of production, including the auto >-

and construction

industries.

people worldwide.

for millions of

Chemistry

in

the Global Market

The country with the highest production of chemicals

The chemical industry

LU

I o

constantly

is

researching and developing

new

In

is

the U.S.

2005, American chemical comAdhesives are an important indus-

panies produced approximately

trial

materials.

In this

way

enables

it

593

euros') worth of chemicals

employed around 880,000 people.

new

Thanks

to

goods,

like

materials,

consumer

shoes and sports equip-

capital goods,

such as

industrial

robots and machines, have a longer lifespan. With the

advent of new

and innovative synthetics,

lighter

other jobs

tries are also

dependent on the

chemical-related

addition, con-

products creates employment

tional arena, the

the U.S.

In

in

in

Dow Chemical (U.S.)

2.

BASF (Germany)

3.

Royal Dutch/Shell (UK, NL)

4.

ExxonMobil

the interna-

dominance

KNOWLEDGE

1.

of

followed by Germany,

is

use

also great.

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY (2005):

sumer spending

other areas.

is

TOP FIVE COMPANIES OFTHE

In

in

their

(U.S.)

5. Total (France)

and France.

Holland, the UK, Japan,

all

over the world.

and more comfortable automobiles can be manufactured. Wooden floors

and

no longer

furniture

Processes

since manufacturers have started

assemble them with solvent-free

adhesives. Materials with

%6^

_

optical properties

mean

large quantities of data

exchanged

at a high

new

that

can be

speed

via

many stages

is

waves.

addition, chemical

light

cals for cellulose processing.

innovations help

In

in

the chemical industry

of production

itself.

from raw material

important customer of the

The reason

for this lies in

the

end product, each of which

to

requires processing. A major production chain begins with chlorine-alkali electrolysis;

another begins with the production of ammonia

product for another important production chain

Benzene it

is first

that are

used

is

crude

(p.

135). The

initial

oil.

converted into cumene. Substances are then developed from

and plastics. Not shown here is benzene can also be converted to ethylben-

for the production of lacquers

the fact that at the

The paper industry requires chemi-

the Benzene Production Chain

FROM RAW MATERIAL TO END PRODUCT: The most chemical industry

to

in

re-

lease any hazardous substances

e-'a

INSIDER

ancillary indus-

in

and

and

chemical industry.

many

material,

private households

improved products to the market.

ment, increase their durability while

J:

billion

businesses to deliver new and

The Demand for New Materials

Large chemical plants are found

(450

billion dollars'

Many

,

of serious dangers.

however, would put the entire global

The chemical industry and

en i-

Chemical significant

© Bhopal and Seveso represent risks faced by the chemical industry; Chernobyl— the dangers of nuclear energy.

"

It

and therefore constitute a

billions of dollars

in

of the chemical industry.

initial

stage,

zene, cyclohexane, aniline,

and chlorobenzene.

reducing the

cost of production processes.

•->

Crude

Football

Miscellaneous

Helmets.

Compared Chemically synthesized colors and

pigments are required by different

to the total value of

Acetone

is

—

Benzene

Cumene

Bisphenol

industries.

A relatively minor. Their

absence, Ethylene

L

Polycarbonate

-}

Phenol

Cracker

Epoxy

_w —>

^

Resins

to football:

Protective

Coatings.

Miscellaneous

Phenolic

Plywood,

Resins

Coatings.

Housings

From benzene

Eyeglasses.

Computers

Resins

r

the end product, the contributed

value of chemical products

*

Oil

Extracted from the production chain

Adhesives

\

V

ECONOMY AND ECOLOGY-AN ONGOING RELATIONSHIP

« 141

MISHAPS AND INSIDIOUS DANGERS Many chemicals have a dark production, especially

side.

Smog and

polluted water are the side effects of chemical

countries with less stringent environmental regulations

in

Even the hardiest of believers

when

force.

that affect breathing,

in

the benefits of applied chemistry are willing to admit that,

in

ritate

ir-

mucous mem-

the

branes, and can lead to

it

comes to chemical plants, safety

Poisinous Dioxins

circulatory disorders.

cannot be guaranteed. However. it

is

widely believed that as

Dioxins are produced from pro-

Grave Long-Term

cesses such as garbage incinera-

Consequences

tion,

we

experience changing global conditions,

our reliance on these tech-

a great concern that

It

is

if

environmental pollu-

est

manufacturing of paper,

fires,

quickly spread

niques

will

grow stronger, making

the situation

still

against the foul-smelling, toxic sludge

Biofilter

more precarious.

in

or exploded,

trophe occurred

KNOWLEDGE |

OUS CHEMICAL MATERIALS: oxidizing, explosive, highly ble,

ful,

inflamma-

irritant,

harm-

its

effects could

damage has

1984 when 30

in

already been done. stances,

all

In

such circum-

countermeasures are

delayed attempts at saving the

from a tank of gas

ation.

of Bhopal.

in

The cloud

the Indian of

gas

city

killed at

1,400 people and more than

100,000 were

duction of chemicals has negative

many booming

economic regions

suffer. In

small quanti-

are extremely toxic.

In

1976, a

cloud from a chemical factory

near the

town of Seveso

Italian

many animals and caused chloracne in about 200 people.

in

is

a collective term used to

of similar chemical structures,

ing into this category include the

hole

Dioxin

fall-

Environmental problems

the ozone layer produced by

age

to forests

because

of acid rain,

and global environmental

pollution

from DDT(dichloro-diphenyl-trichlo-

coun-

in

and humans. Dioxins

describe about

environmentally hazardous

side effects, and

ties in food

which vary

common

210 compounds

in toxicity.

dioxin

is

roethane). This insecticide proved

One more

polychlorinated

dibenzofuran (PCDF) while the

most poisonous

Even without accidents, the pro-

the environment

situ-

CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), dam-

injured.

in

and can be found

killed

tons of methyl isocyanate leaked

least

inflammable, very poisonous,

poisonous, corrosive,

[

in

become known years

chemicals. The most serious catas-

occurred during the transport of

TEN LABELS CHARACTERIZE DANGER-

not detected

after the

fire

and accidents have

INSIDER

time,

product effluents over

its

many years.

Chemical plants have caught

is

the infamous "silver sea" into which a film

factory released

Lethal Clouds of Gas

tion

for-

and diesel trucks. They

is

2.3,7,8-tetra-

chlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD).

above: Chloracne as a result of

being deliberately poisioned with dioxins (Ukrainian President, Viktor Yushchenko).

tries of Asia

above: Air pollution

is

an increasing

Smog over Mexico

City

below: Soil sampling after the Seveso catastrophe

to

be an effective

tool against

the regulations, such as those con-

quitoes and malaria, which

cerning the desulfurization of gas-

nificantly

eous waste, are not as stringent as

of the 20th century.

those

problem:

and South America,

in

Europe and North America.

reduced

It

quantities by farmers, heavily concentrated

cape

into

because

of

weather conditions.

"Summer smog" sult of

chain.

the higher atmosphere

is

formed as a

One negative

sig-

realized in

vast

wound up

in

the food

effect

is

the

thinning of eggshells of birds. Prohibition of

re-

was

only later that DDT, sprayed

waste emitted from

duction and vehicles cannot es-

was

the middle

in

Smog is formed when gaseous industrial pro-

mos-

enforced

in all

DDT was

gradually

industrial countries.

emissions from solvents that

release volatile compounds. Solar radiation

causes these compounds

to react with nitric oxide from

auto fumes to form ozone

Victims of the Bhopal tragedy: The

cloud of poison gas spread

to

a

populated area nearby

and other pollutants 21 st CENTURY THE SAICM (Stategic Approach ternational Chemicals

to In-

Management)

was recently adopted by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).

It

contains guidelines for

reducing the dangers to health and

environment associated with chemicals.

The aim

is to

attain chemical

safety worldwide by 2020.

cr i-

m _

x o

NT**

_*-

,4

KEY FACT and computers

With retorts

Searching

|

for clues

PREPARATIVE CHEMISTS are involved in

the production of new

compounds

from known reactants.

to initially

We

generate molecular

synthesized

in

are surrounded by chemicals, as

demonstrated by our

is

alchemy— chemistry.

world of

and

the lab.

It

now encompasses

them through

daily experience of

smell and taste. The science that studies these substances has

models before the models are elaborated, improved upon,

WORK OF CHEMISTS

THE

COMPUTERS ARE FREQUENTLY used

origins within the mystical

its

the quest and discovery of the chemical struc-

ture of even the minutest quantities of materials with the help of high-tech analytical devices. The

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS

development of new materials or new medicines

identify

materials using various

methods

of separation, correlation,

Instead there

and

an increasing amount

is

© Modern chemistry

measurement.

is

accomplished not only

is

in

labs these days.

development that takes place on a computer.

of

based on the fundamental pillars of theory, experiment and computer simulation.

WITH RETORTS AND COMPUTERS They

still

exist— the researchers

the lab,

in

a professional chemist, however, are a

lot

who

new materials every we might imagine.

synthesize

more

day.

The duties

of

varied than

>or

i-

Work Station-the Lab If

o

we

involved

create a picture of a chemist

at work,

most

of us

think of people

in

will

control engineering,

and

perform numerous calculations.

The

probably

white coats using

in

chemist

responsibilities of a

include participation

in

an addi-

come from

als that

are condensed

so that

it

the retort

a vertical cooler,

in

flows back to the retort.

Chemists

call this

The evaluation of molecular models

procedure

with a

test tubes

and

tional interface

retorts (distilling

glasses) to mix substances

in

a lab.

between research

an

in

efficient

market the products

Simulations Instead

and safe manner

of

and advise them on how the product should be developed

future

in

the

order to promote further

in

A few chemists working sities,

in

univer-

government agencies, and

research departments of private industry

lab.

fit

the classic image of a

chemist at work. They work

in

"preparative" capacity, that

is,

they produce

instruments.

The actual routine

of

chemists

a

new substances

a large repertoire of

One

Experiments

Today, before chemists

can reach

for

the retort

to start producing a

substance, they

marketing success.

chemical

with

methods and

of the

most com-

is

quently puter.

sit

fre-

at the

com-

The researchers

can simulate, ple,

new

for

exam-

the shape of the

sur-

face of the molecules of

A computer-generated molecular model allows

a nonexistent drug on a

the chemist to reach conclusions regarding fac-

computer screen and

tors of the

deduce

its

a substance can react with a bodily

"Every attempt to employ mathe-

simulation that the feasibility of the

need

to

agent

is

accomplish Autoclaves are pressurized contain-

industrial

ers

in

which reactions under ex-

tremely high pressure take place.

chemists

work

in

only after computer

considered because of

ample, the search

order to

this task,

is

increasingly being

of

these methods

is

the con-

new

methods

in

the study of

chemical questions must be considered profoundly irrational and contrary to the

spirit of

have

made

done on a

great advances

methods used

to predict

and properties

in

the

the struc-

of molecules.

chemistry."

and mathematician Auguste Comte from the 19th century shows how

and the vaporized

in

these

containers measures up to 10 gigapascals. This

is

100,000 times

greater than air pressure, but only

V

tants into a solution. The solution boiled

new materials. The pressure

Earth's core.

version of raw materials or reac-

KNOWLEDGE

AUTOCLAVES AND SEALING APPARATUS are used to manufacture

A statement from the philosopher

plants,

is

INSIDER

catalysts

computer. Theoretical chemists

ture

mon

for

pilot

are

matical

said,

synthesize the substance. For ex-

on a large scale. In

is

It

the large investment required to

be applied

man

misjudgment. The great

for industrial chemists. For indus-

have been discovered

topology.

its

properties.

protein.

production procedures that

molecule such as

Hence, they can determine whether

very different from this, especially

try,

computer is an important

task for chemists.

and production. Chemists help client firms to

The Bunsen burner continues to be a part of the standard inventory in a

"reverse flow injection."

of the pressure existing in the

COMPUTER CHEMISTRY develops software that simulates chemical

materi-

scholars can be capable of a gross

reactions

and

their

end products.

* WORK OF CHEMISTS

THE

I

143

SEARCHING FOR CLUES The goal of chemical analysis

sometimes requires the

is

to gain

knowledge

skills of a detective,

what

of

and often the

lies inside

the

air.

chemicals

toxic traces in

in

food,

numerous methods.

utilization of

cine and materials for solar cells

Are there hazardous substances in

a molecule. Achieving this

and

or aircraft engines.

the blood? Did a

when

piece of art date back to

was reputed to?

Is

Solving Crimes

The Beginning: Separation

it

Usually for analysis, a substance

a silicon crystal

An extremely small quantity sperm

enough

perfect

to serve

needs

as a micro-

a

130). Procedures such

chip? Analytical chemists can an-

materials

swer such questions.

as high performance

(p.

chroma-

liquid

tography (HPLC) are used to sepa-

Progress Through Analytics

What the German chemist nius wrote

century

is

in

possibly valid today:

in

ple can

the middle of the 19th

can be easily proved that

advances

Frese-

all

of a

is

be determined with the help

sample.

In this

pumped through

mass spectroscope.

must be

reactions

great

when exact knowledge

new or

cal's structure

It

is

of a chemi-

and composition

is

possessed that improvements can

because the

is

added

into

the liquid using an injection valve.

the mixture

move

molecules

of

in

speeds

at varying

be

made

products such as medi-

in

through the column. The compo-

to

a technique

is

out with the help of automatic

STATISTICS:

In

A mass spectrometer used

2005. authorized labs tested 183,337

samples worldwide. Doping substances were found

2.13%

into a gel

the fragments played

is

usually

packages

we see on

the supermarket.

in

is

unique and

among each same

dis-

person, except

because they

genetic makeup.

above: A cigarette stub from a is

checked by DNA

analysis for any remains of saliva.

rated molecules. Ions of different

in

masses are produced from the

of the total samples.

mixture and are separated with

1988. Ben Johnson ran the 100-meter race in 9. 79 seconds and was found guilty of doping offenses a few hours later. During the Olympics

in

the help of electrical and magnetic

Depending upon the ques-

fields.

tion

Doping Analysis

under investigation, materials

can be

directly

analyzed without go-

ing through the prior stage of chro-

PROHIBITED SUBSTANCES longer period

in

IN

urine than

in

URINE: Traces of drugs lastfora blood.

It is.

however, not always

possible to find an athlete guilty of doping based solely on the

evidence of a prohibited performance-boosting substance

must determine the quantity

analysts

misuse of a massive amount

of a

of

substance

the

in

urine.

example, can be

determined and prohibited. On the other hand, an athlete with a normal intake of caffeine, containing drinks

like coffee, tea. or cola, is

not considered to

be doped.

it

has been introduced

into the body's systen externally

itself

or

through doping

can be determined through medical testing because there are known and established

limits.

However, an athlete

can always claim that

gram

of a

substance

in

a

kilo-

gram

of material. This

ing the presence of

sugar

in

a

detect-

one lump

swimming

The detection

is like

or exceptional

who has been proved

for

it

medical

of very high con-

such as

to deter-

like

to

com-

the results cumulatively

a puzzle.

It

is

through this

method that they are able

to

form a complete answer.

provides additional

regard to

in

can

how atoms

of

a substance are linked to one an-

analytical investigation

pile all

methods so as

to exceed this limit

other. In general,

occur through the use of a doping analysis instrument.

and analyzed components.

21 st CENTURY

is

condition.

Automated

their

of various

the use of a nuclear magnetic

NMR also

mine

of

pool.

resonance (NMR) spectrometer.

An

Various types of materials can be investigated

important information to chemists,

because of a bodily malfunction

of a

billionth

centrations of a substance calls

DISPUTED LEVELS: Whether a substance has been produced by the body whether

capable of detecting a

Doping

doping substance. The

like caffeine, for

matography. A mass spectrometer is

one

method can

particular

THE TREND TO MINIATURIZE has been

embraced by analytical chemistry: Smaller chromatography columns

and portable devices

for investigat-

at best proing materials already exist. In the

vide only part of the total that

is

required.

must often

answer

Chemists therefore

resort to a combination

future, entire analytical labs

could

possibly be placed in a chip that

as big as a

K-

to

the form of a barcode,

in

very similar to what

have the

of

ultimately dis-

is

for identical twins

order to identify the sepa-

in

on the basis

The positioning

of their sizes.

crime scene

International Olympic Committee.

in

which are

under the column.

test tubes

no sport that can be assumed

with

known as

then analyzed

is

various fragments,

This gene code

be free of doping." —Jacques Rogge. President of the

cells— i.e.,

enzymes

nents of the mixture are separated

devices that rapidly switch the

OPEN WORDS: 'There

in

be duplicated

tinct

products of chemical

because the

is

DNA— can in

of

to convict

is

a column at a high

The various kinds

only

enough

material

separated

identified before

they can be improved.

This

rapist.

genetic

The DNA

process, a liquid

pressure. The mixture

improved analytical methods." This

a sam-

"It

chemistry are more

or less directly related to

in

is

polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

rate materials in a mixture or

Elements and compounds

or skin

be separated from other

to

the Lab

in

fingernail.

is

X o

144

MATERIALS OF

TOMORROW

KEY FACTS The performance increases

The miniatures are coming

\

SUBSTANCES OF THE FUTURE include

MATERIALS OF TOMORROW

superalloys. high-performance ce-

ramics, one-atom-thick nanotubes,

and substances

with

shape memory.

Compared

with the substances of today, materials of the future

NANOTECHNOLOGY, materials are modified molecule-by-molecule and

heatproof,

and more

are even developed directly from

materials, a world that

individual atoms.

tures the size of a millionth of a millimeter. Nanomaterials are reckoned to be the bearer of hope

IN

ACCORDING TO RESEARCHERS, nanomaterials are becoming used

in

for

a

many branches

"intelligent."

of industry,

lighter,

more

Science and industry especially are promising a

visible only with the

is

be

will

most up-to-date microscopes as

it

more

stable,

lot

from nano-

consists of struc-

such as electronics, energy technology, medicine, and mechanical

engineering.

wide variety of applications. I

© The prefix "nano" originates from the Greek word "nanos," meaning "midget."

•"

THE PERFORMANCE INCREASES Materials like steel and ceramics are

still

very

BESIDES THEIR VISIBLE SHAPE, memory-metals

much

a hot topic

chem-

today. Their properties are constantly being improved by ists,

while being

fit

to the

and memory-plastics have a permanently memorized build. SHAPE MEMORY MATERIALS are used

most demanding requirements.

modern operating technique

(A

This

O

is

is

a

that uses very

small incisions.

equivalent to the weight of

ten bull elephants on an area

A

the size of a postage stamp.

diseased artery

In

contrast, conventional steel for

automobile bodies can

in key-

hole surgery (laparoscopic surgery), which

stent

is

a

tiny wire net that to allow

expands inside a

blood

to flow.

ubstances With Memory

resist only

700 megapascals. SELF-REPAIRING FENDERS: There's been an accident and the fender got dented.

Another new type of steel can

Wouldn't

be stretched lengthwise by around

90 percent without

rupturing. This

and the memory

in

a crash can be significantly im-

steel

is

created equal. Steel

consists mostly of iron, but differ-

proved upon. Furthermore, the use

of

an auto body by around 20

cent.

The production

search

satellite

is

ers have recently developed steel

mobiles

very

difficult;

therefore

it

will

be

plastics with

shape memory there

its

"eyes" after

it

alloy,

reached

its

the

re-

orbit in

medicine. Supporting wire nettings called

coronary arteries that are constricted by disease. They exof the blood, allowing blood flow to occur.

Researchers

made

with

with prototypes for a

self-folding valvular trans-

it.

plant to enable flow

in

an

artery.

Saving Energy With Ceramic Materials that profit private compa-

which does not rupture even at

nies

tensions of 1,100 megapascals.

sarily benefit

and consumers do not neces-

right:

Earth observation satellite ENVISAT-1

the environment.

and

same

Energy conservationists

from

and environmental

time releasing less carbon dioxide

pro-

fossil fuels

at the

atmosphere. Thanks to

tectionists, however, will

into the

also be satisfied

new superalloys and ceramics,

ability of

if

the

metal alloys

and ceramics

to with-

ate at over

1112°F (600°C) and gas

turbines at over

can be increased

Research

in

more

fur-

would result

efficient

power

stations being put into

The rotor sheets of a gas turbine are equipped operation. This

means

gaining more power

is

2192°F (1200°C).

being carried out inten-

sively to increase the performance

of

earlier times.

They can be

made

break-proof by reinforcing ceramic with carbon fibers. Strengthened

steam power stations already oper-

stand heat and stress

ther. This

with a protective layer of ceramic.

in

shape

The dent could just be heated away.

will still

15 percent manganese con-

silicon content,

in

pand with the warmth

rials, like

and enriched with a 3 percent

ENVISAT-1 could open

reality with

their original

are experimenting with such mate-

take a number of years before auto-

aluminum and

activated by heating.

2002. Such metals are also used

per-

elements. For example, research-

tent

is

stents are placed

of super steel

ent steels use different alloying

with a

the dent just disappeared? This can be a

are also memory-metals. With the help of a special nickel-titanium

of this steel will reduce the weight all

if

MATERIALS WITH SHAPE MEMORY: Alongside in

extreme temperatures.

Not

be great

means the behavior of automobiles

Fiber-reinforced ceramics are

characterized by their stability

it

shape memory materials. Such substances "remember"

this

in

way, ceramics have amazing

properties. Fitted at the nose of a

space

shuttle, they protect

the enormous heat that

duced during

is

it

from

pro-

re-entry into the

atmo-

power stations even more.

sphere of Earth. Ceramics are also

Present-day high-performance

used

ceramics have almost nothing

common

in

with the earthenware of

for wear-proof rotor disks for

brakes due to

its ability

corrosion and abrasion.

to resist

»

™

TOMORROW

MATERIALS TE OF

14 5

THE MINIATURES ARE COMING i

Products It

is

made

with nanomaterials are already being produced.

expected that they

to-day

life in

be used more and more

will

is

to a

Earth. or

The Path to Nanoparticles

meter what the diameter of is

our day-

the years to come.

A nanometer (O.OOOOOOOOl m)

a hazelnut

in

to the

There are two basically different

diameter of

strategies for the production of

Those who produce, analyze,

use controlled structures

in

nanoparticles. The

an

structures

first is

size.

100 nanometers work

currently follows this

the world

it

tively,

followed.

It

method when

miniaturizes microchips. Alterna-

of nanotechnology. In this world,

the classic principles of physics

and chemistry are not necessarily

reduce

The semiconductor industry

order of magnitude of less than in

to

and objects to a desired

objects can be built up

A model of a carbon nanotube: Using carbon nanotubes, complex be made that have a very small surface area.

can

circuits

through the controlled manipulation of individual

is

cules.

A

tool

atoms

used

for

or mole-

doing this

is

many

addition of nanoparticles to

con,

substances. Because of nanotech-

whose

reached

its

miniaturization has physical limits.

>-

The I-

the scanning tunneling microscope.

to-and-fro,

like billiard balls

on a table. into

too time consuming and

is

expensive for industrial mass production. Hence,

spoon coated with

many researchers

effec-

make

au-

tomobile paint and plastic glasses

many different

in

develop-

areas, such

adhesives, higher performance batteries, cells,

unforgeable documents, fuel

and energy converters.

and mirrors that do not

scratch-free

mist up. Through the "Lotus effect,"

nanostructured substances do not allow dirt to gather; this principle

atomic and molecular components

has

of nano-

dently

in

themselves indepen-

the

and businesspeople. Research

led to the creation of self-

cleaning bathtubs and roofing

tiles.

Researchers have already

final structure.

achieved results with nanomateri-

technology exciting for scientists

primarily focused

and heat more

Wafer-thin coatings

ment

is in

as the future production of improved

re-

are looking for ways to get the

to organize

makes the world

flect sunlight

better

use of nanoparticles

Honey

nanoparticles.

this that

radiation

tively.

larger entities. However, this pro-

stick to a

now than

ever before while windshields

cedure

does not

much

UV

can move the atoms

much

effect:

sunscreens protect against

Scientists usingthe scanning tip

They can also merge them

SelMeaning Lotus

nology.

From Sun Protection

is

on nanostruc-

to

als that will

Computers

in

tured surfaces, nanoparticles, and

Nanotechnology has already pene-

mixing nanoparticles with materials

trated a

number

such as

daily

through the controlled

plastics.

life

of

areas within

soon be manufactured

other areas.

In

medicine, there

hope that the surfaces ticles

is

of nanopar-

can be coated with biological

matter

in

such a way that the

nanoparticles can lock themselves

onto cancerous

Properties of Nanomaterials

cells.

Nanocontain-

ers can then be loaded with sub-

The properties of objects

is

of materials often

change

in

an astonishing way when the size

reduced by nanotechnology. For example, a gold coin

thought to be beautiful and precious.

It

is

usually

also has very low chemical reactivity.

stances that

kill

the cancer

cells.

Alternatively, the formation of blood

A gold particle of few nanometers, on the other hand, takes on the color of red

vessels that supply cancerous tu-

wine and can accelerate chemical reactions as a catalyst. The reason

mors can be suppressed.

lies in

the changed relationship between

volume and surface area. Nanostruc-

The tip of a scanning tunneling microscope navigating over atoms.

A nanostructure can be modified a very controlled manner.

INSIDER

For the computer industry, nano-

in

KNOWLEDGE

materials open the door for even

NANOTECHNOLOGY

smaller circuits. Transistors and

an extremely promising technology

simple logical circuits have been

of the future.

objects of the "large world." The larger the surface area, the greater

manufactured recently with carbon

tures have a larger structure tion to their

volumes compared with

is

the possibility of chemical and physical

is

believed to be

in rela-

exchange with the environment.

nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes

IN

2004. there was around 1.6

lion dollars (1.2 million

porting the industry

in

THE EUROPEAN UNION Nanoparticles from crystallized gold

their color

in color,

depends on

but rather their size.

the U.S.

consist of one-atom-thick graphite

sheets that are are not golden

mil-

euros) sup-

gle

seamless

rolled

up

into a sin-

cylinder. Transistors

made from nanotubes can possibly replace transistors made from sili-

is

investing

even more.

THE WORLD MARKET cles for metallics

be 900

for nanoparti-

was estimated

million dollars in

2005.

to

Monographic Boxes Perpetual Motion Machines,

The Twin Paradox,

152

p.

153

p.

From Steam Trains

to Transrapid, p.

Hydrodynamics,

159

p.

157

ISS— International Space

163

Station, p.

Construction of Bridges,

Glass Structures, Elevators, p.

p.

167

168

Dry Cells and Batteries, Oil

165

p.

171

p.

and Natural Gas Production,

Physics of Data Storage, Circuits, p.

Operating Systems,

p.

p.

187

p.

172

188

Boys and Consoles,

189

p.

191

Services, p. Digital

183

185

WWW-World Wide Web, Game

p.

Technology,

p.

173

Analytic Boxes Conservation of Linear

Momentum, The Law

p.

148

of Resistance, p.

150

The Gasoline— Powered Engine, p.

154

155

Electronic Stability Control, p.

Gearbox,

156

p.

Submarines and Archimedes' Principle, p.

Turbofans,

158 161

p.

p.

162

Static Forces, p.

164

Swashplates,

Heat Pumps,

169

p.

Types of Energy Transformation,

p.

170

A Pressurized Water Reactor, The Solar

p.

173

174

Electricity Cycle, p.

Alternative Energy Production

Technologies,

p.

CNC Machines,

175 p.

177

Recycling of Paper,

Components

of a

Virtual Worlds, p.

p.

179

Computer,

Computation

184

of Tones, p.

Transmission of Radio Waves, Digital

Photography,

Loudspeakers,

p.

181

182

Transistor as a Circuit, p. Digital

p.

p.

195

194

p.

190 192

147

PHYSICS AND

TECHNOLOGY Physics tal

is

the science that explores the fundamen-

cause-and-effect relationship

nomena using mathematics and cal

in

phe-

natural

logics. Its theoreti-

models are continuously checked against the

results of experiments.

from

electricity

of relativity.

Research subjects range

and thermodynamics

The findings

to the theory

of physics are used

areas of engineering. This includes the propulsion

in

in all

means

of

vehicles, the structure of buildings,

the creation of energy, production processes, and electrotechnology such as computers and media like

television

and mobile phones. Much

modern world technologies owe

of the

their existence to

the understanding of the principles of physics.

148

BASICS OF PHYSICS

Mechanics

|

Optics

|

Electricity

and magnetism

Atoms and radioactivity

|

|

Thermodynamics

|

Theory of relativity

ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS developed theories about the material world.

BASICS OF PHYSICS

THE REGULARITY of physical processes allows predictions

made about

to

be

foundations of modern technologies. ALL TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS, from

of research, along with the classical research ar-

emerged through interdisciplinary approaches, for example, physical chemistry and biodevelopment of a theory of everything that will unify all the known physical theories is, to this day, an unattained and grandiose dream of physicists. physics. However, the

vantage of physical laws.

THE FORMULATION of a theory of is

New areas

eas, have

pulleys to nuclear fission, take ad-

everything

has led to key innovations that are indispensable

Scientific research within the field of physics

them.

an unattained goal

of physicists.

© Physics deals with the observation and description of phenomena of an inanimate nature.

MECHANICS Many mechanical phenomena were Intensive research

O

is

applied long before they were investigated scientifically.

carried out today

in

many new

areas,

e.g.,

condensed matter physics.

Mechanics studies the movement of objects

them.

and the forces acting on

Among the

changes:

factors that are

momentum and co

and

tain

and

force;

(a

quickly

speed

= Av/At).

In

itself

order to

accelerate a resting object to a cer-

considered are: speed and acceleration; weight

how

scribes

speed

a certain length of

in

time, a force

amount

the object. The

energy. Mechanics

must be applied

(F)

to

of accelera-

depend on the mass

o

also studies periodic motion such

co

as the orbiting of planets, the

object.

motion of a pendulum, and the

greater the force that needs to be

behavior of waves

applied

tion will

>-

in

matter. De-

The heavier the

order to give

in

of the

object, the

it

a certain The Foucault pendulum always

vices that use the basic concepts of

mechanics include

levers,

A

springs, gyroscopes, gears,

to

pulleys,

and pendulums.

pulley reduces the force required lift

a body by increasing the

developed by

moves

is

eration

its

accel-

acceleration,

Newton

Complex Systems

and mass. Newton de-

scribed speed

(1643-1727). He discovered the

that

basic relationship between force.

(v

is

covered

(v)

as a distance

in

a certain time

= Ax/ At). The acceleration

(x)

(a)

rectilinear

motion of objects are circular motion

and other kinds

of periodic

(t):

motion. Calculations are even more

de-

complex

if

ideal conditions are not

assumed and

Conservation of Linear

the

same direction. What

the Earth beneath

it.

called inertia.

is

More complex than the

mechanics was

Sir Isaac

in

which an object opposes dis-

Newtonian Mechanics of

swings

tance the force acts through. The

work done remains the same.

The foundation

acceleration. The resistance with

Momentum

aerodynamic resistance) ered.

of momentum can be seen with a series of pendulums, one Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity. a single ball is raised, swings down and transfers its momentum to the adjacent ball, which in turn passes the momentum onto the next ball. The end ball swings off in the same direction with the same velocity as the first one. That the mass of the balls is the same is shown by the fact that raising two balls simul-

THE CONSERVATION next to the other.

The

example,

friction (for

is

consid-

rotational motion of

in

one second, one joule

is

transferred to the water while

one watt of power

is

generated.

This one joule of energy in

of energy

is

created

the form of potential energy. This

potential energy can, for example,

be converted into kinetic energy by pouring the water through a water

wheel and then to

electrical

energy

with a generator.

three-dimensional objects, such as

If

a gyroscope,

is

also very complex.

it

taneously causes two balls to

swing out on the other side.

An

Mechanical Energy

-

Energy occupies a central

cance

(p.

170)

in

signifi-

many areas of sci-

ence and technology.

In

mechanics,

ideal system, without air

energy

is

the

do a certain

ability to

resistance or friction, would

amount

swing forever.

of

work

sesses energy n

•

1>

ii

ii

ii

ii

till)

This series of pendulums

is

a popular desk toy that can

be used

to

it

(W). is

If

a body pos-

capable of per-

forming work by transferring

its

a vacuum, without

the feather

energy to another body.

demonstrate

laws of physics.

In

ball. If

a

liter

of water with a

of 1 kilogram

is lifted

mass

1 meter high

falls

air resistance,

as fast as the lead

The force of gravity

is

proportional to the mass.

directly

BASICS OF PHYSICS

149

OPTICS Optics

means more than making

better lenses

and encompasses, among other

things, research

on photons, laser beams, and holography.

Doppdbrechung und

von Licht

Polarisation

Wave

A convex lens (magnifying glass)

Geometric optics considers

causes

von Lichi

Doppelbrechun"

Magnification and Inversion

DoppelL

on von Licht

h

nnnelhrechuiu' und Pnlarisalion

v

on

"Iceland spar," a calcite crystal,

double refracting.

It

I

ich

is

beams,

of light

have a

tremendous impact on our

fracted by entering a

is

called the focal distance.

In

wave

optics, the

new medium.

wavelengths of

This effect can be used to create a

the different colors of

magnified image of a small object

wave properties

or a small inverted

image

of a large

Convex lenses have two con-

and the

light

taken

of light are

into consideration. Light

consid-

is

ered to be an electromagnetic wave

vex surfaces. Lenses with concave

consisting of electric and magnetic

surfaces cause

fields vibrating in

diverge

light rays to

object.

Cameras, telescopes, and

ence between

reflects

is

differ-

the length of the

Light

trons

Why

an atom when the

electron

it.

emitted by elec-

is

in

is

jumps from a higher

the Sky Blue?

reaching the

Sunlight

surface goes through

The passage

medium

into

of light

called refraction.

beam

When

changes

at

a light

light to

be

split into

different colors that

This explains just

droplets

in

it

three-dimensional image.

in

a target

comprises.

how water

create the desired images.

rein

eras

make

Cam-

objects appear smaller

amount

of scattering, just like

and microscopes and telescopes

directions.

light,

the

phenomena

that can

been observed. The

all

more that

of

strongly

more

the spectrum

and have

in all

is

The sky appears is

exam-

The

light.

directions, so

light of this

portion of

seen by the eye. blue,

parallel exis-

tence of the two theories

For

scattered 16

shorter wavelengths are scattered

waves or particles?

Neither model can explain

depends on

light.

times more than red

light

let,

the multi-colored occurence of

all

the wavelength of

bombard

electrons

an X-ray tube. Does

in

consist of

microscopes use multiple lenses to

when

created

The

in

ple, violet light is

the brain to form a

the

light to

scatter

the reflection of

electron de-

celerates rapidly. X-rays are

the

fracted by the sunlight, result

atmosphere causing the

Both photos, which the eyes see. are

added together

molein

CO

(light particle)

when an

Earth's

air

cules and water droplets

Photons are also

transition.

emitted

cause

the atmosphere,

lower one.

emitted for each electronic

is

an angle,

will

level to a

One photon

is

Because

direction.

of refraction, a prism

white

energy

strikes the interface

between the media it

from one

another medium

O O _i o z X o

microwaves,

wavelength.

example, when a sheet

pass and partly

space. The

light,

and radio waves

daily

of glass partly allows incidental light to

of single rays that

travel in a straight line until re-

and create images smaller than the

as, for

made up

tance from the focal point to the

object.

causing two images.

life

be

splits unpolar-

ized light into two polarized

The properties

to

light

together at the focal point. The dis-

lens Doppelbret

come

parallel light rays to

Particle Duality of Light

because the eye

is

and not vio-

more sensi-

referred tive to blue.

rainbows.

make

objects appear larger.

to

as waveparticle duality of

light.

above: The sky only appears blue to

Polarized Light, Lasers, and

humankind due

to the

biases of

our perception of light.

Holograms Light its

has other properties besides

wavelength. The electric and

magnetic

fields vibrate in a

plane

low

in

in

is

polarized light the

direction.

made up

A

light of

of long moleal-

a certain polarity to it.

used

Polarizers are used

LCD-screens (pp. 182, 193).

light

with very high intensity. Other

known

© see also: The Eye, Biology Chapter, p. 122

used

to

KNOWLEDGE

THE LIGHT SPECTRUM

human

BEES see see

high-tech applications of

is

greater than

beings can perceive.

red.

ultraviolet light, but

cannot

They can also detect the

direction of polarization of light.

RED LIGHT

is

more

visible in

than other colors due

in

microscopes, binoculars, and eyeglasses.

INSIDER

polariz-

Laser rays are mostly polarized is

is

electric fields are

one

pass through

This property

waves

images.

In

cules that are intended to only

light.

light

generate three-dimensional

ing screen

loupe either collect or disperse

holograms, the interference

between

propagation.

vibrating

like this

In

perpendicular to the direction of

magnetic and

Lenses

optical research are holograms.

dispersion.

to its

a fog

weak

o >

150

BASICS OF PHYSICS

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM and magnetic forces are so closely intertwined that electromagnetism

Electrical

to as

were a single process. Both originate within atomic operations.

if it

when

Electrical current flows

move. Normally, matter

wire

is electri-

because the charges

are balanced and there electrical field acting

trons or protons.

tive

in

a magnetic field or changing

the strength of the magnetic

field

greater the speed of the charges

and the greater the number

Furthermore, an electrical current

no net

is

flowing through a wire

on the elec-

induces a magnetic

In static electricity,

in

glass

ing

the electrons transferring

in

is

rubbed by

silk to

current-carrying wire.

negative charges

is

Magnetism The movement

called

the voltage, or electrical, potential.

trical

Trie

magnetic

gas

to

fields of the

erupt on

sun cause ionized

electrons) of metals

(p.

duce a difference

electrical po-

in

of elec-

charge and

cal current

electri-

generates

magnetic

circular

fields

surface. The arcs follow the

its

shape of the magnetic

around the direction of

fields.

the current flow. The

tronegativity (readiness to release

to >-

by currents

the glass. A mea-

Batteries utilize the different elec-

o

magnetism may be caused in the core. The magnetic fields change directions every 250,000 years. Earth's

magnets around a

Induction and Electric Fields

CO

the vicinity of the wire.

seen by placing small

silk, result-

sure of the concentration of positive or

field

This can clearly be

charges to be separated, as

when

of

charges, the greater the current.

causes positive and nega-

from the

X o

In elec-

tromagnetic induction, moving a

cally neutral

o o

generate electric currents.

charged particles such as electrons

friction

often referred

is

causes charges

171) to pro-

separate and an

to

electrical potential to

be created.

moving charges are ions

(p.

151).

It

believed that the Earth's mag-

is

If

tential.

converts rent.

When

The photoelectric effect light into

an

and

light

semiconductor materials

(p.

is

connected

battery, the terminals apply

electric cur-

Photodiodes use

a wire

to a

an

elec-

to the inside of the wire,

tric field

field

are caused by the motion of

ions

in their

Magnetic

which attracts the electrons. The

184) to

and the sun's magnetic

netic field

fields are also gener-

made from

are

metals.

THE RELATIONSHIP between

electrical current, voltage,

understood with the analogy of a barrel nozzle or valve.

tance

in

the nozzle

is

closed,

high resistance would be

the

ter barrel

is

it

circuit.

The current

opened a

little,

in

means there flow.

in

is

An

an

infinitely

such a

circuit is zero.

a circuit that

is

resistance and causes a low flow of current.

If

will

If

is

an

open, causing a

the nozzle of the wa-

come from

the barrel.

closed, but the circuit has a high

the nozzle

opened wide, a

is

corresponds to a

circuit with a

a large flow of current. With these ideas, cuit

we can

as the voltage divided by the current (R =

experimental fact that the resistance of a

change the

voltage. This gives us

Ohm's

law:

V/l).

V =

tance and creates an electrical

arc.

in

matter are

magnets because

of the

like tiny

charges on

trical

force.

charges called the Lorentz

The force

is

perpendicular to

the direction of the magnetic

and the

field

direction of motion of the

charge. Generators and electric

motors,

among other

devices, are

ily,

eel

of

the atomic magnetic fields can-

based on the reciprocal effects of

themselves

the Lorentz force

out. But in the

case

(p.

170).

permanent magnets,

the spins of the electrons are aligned

lot

such

in

way that a net mag-

small resistance and hence

define the resistance of a

circuit

and a few other

iron

Atoms

the electrons and protons. Ordinar-

a of water flows. This

high enough, the

high resis-

electrical circuit with

one with a switch that

a small stream of water

This corresponds to a switch

and resistance can be

with water that has an adjustable

water because the water does not

to the

infinitely

break

If

filled

is

cores.

ated by permanent magnets, which

he Law of Resistance

the voltage

current overcomes the air resis-

Georg

Ohm

netic field

discovered the

does not change when you

IR.

is

produced.

cir-

A permanent magnet has a north pole and a south pole. At the north pole, the

magnetic

field

magnet while

leaves the

south pole the

at the

magnetic

field

enters

the magnet. Like poles repel

each other while

unlike poles attract

each

Like charges repel each other. The strands of

other.

hair on this

The analogy of a barrel

to explain voltage, resistance,

and

current.

Magnetic

p.

138

|

The Sun. Universe Chapter,

p.

46

woman's head have the same

charge on them.

moving elec-

a force on

© see also: Semiconductor, Chemistry Chapter,

fields exert

|

Composition of Earth, Earth Chapter,

p.

60

static

BASICS OF PHYSICS

151

ATOMS The discovery world.

of

quantum mechanics

The search

for all

in

the 20th century changed the way people look at the

the forms of matter

in

the universe

is still

Isotopes

There

The number

of protons

nucleus determines

its

in

Variants of the

chemical it is.

same element with

number of neutrons

are

The physicist and chemist Marie Curie discovered the radioactive

el-

in

ements polonium and radium.

Different physical

been developed

is

and protons

written next to the

name or symbol.

models have

to describe the

and C-13) and one unstable isotope C-14 decays by emitting an

(C-14).

electron. There are a

C-ll. etc.)

found ated

number

of

in

and gold that are not

nature but can be generthe laboratory.

artificially in

Carbon Dating

Nuclear Fission

Hydrogen: Protium stable

model, an atom consists of a

positively

of

hand, has two stable isotopes (C-12

HI

structure of atoms. According to the shell

of neutrons

an isotope

element's

one stable isotope

only

other isotopes of carbon (C-10.

called isotopes.

The sum

is

gold (Au-197). Carbon, on the other

the

properties and what element

different

being pursued.

As the number of protons and

Every living organism takes

neutrons increases

bon from food and

in

becomes

nucleus, the nucleus

charged nucleus with

Atoms

unstable.

the

the

amount

nucleus nucleus tively

in

circular orbits.

is

made up

Deuterium

uranium—split when bombarded

stable

of posi-

neutrons under specific

charged protons and

neutral neutrons

electrons equals the protons,

conditions

bound together

by nuclear forces. The

number

number

principles of

(p.

the

nuclear fission, H-3

of

is

a

source of energy and

Tritium in

new

$— breakdown

isotopes.

half-life

quantum mechanics.

Radioactivity and Radiation

Cations are positively charged and

Three isotopes of hydrogen are

anions are negatively charged. They

found

in

one

is

protium, which consists of

only

one proton and one

are atoms with missing electrons or

nature. The

most common electron.

Radioactive radiation that consists of particles

and energy

is

by nuclear fission. Alpha radiation

neutrons bound together.

It

can

health even though

it

of electrons

speed.

is

the emission

and positrons with high

Gamma

radiation has the

highest frequency and

is

of

5.730

of C-12 re-

mains constant. The time of death an organism can be calculated

from the

ratio of

C-12 to C-14

in

the organism's remains. Variain

the C-14 content of the

atmosphere make

this

method inaccurate

for

dating certain

time periods.

above: The Shroud of Turin, believed by many to be the burial shroud of Christ, was created in 1300 A.D. according to the pro-

can

be shielded with a sheet of paper. Beta radiation

amount

cess of carbon dating.

have a very harmful effect on

human

dead organ-

produced

consists of two protons and two

with extra electrons.

a

is

the atmo-

ism decays with a

tions

determined by the

ratio in in

years, but the

173).

This process, called

of

same as the

iso-

organisms

in living

sphere. The C-14

of

and the electrons move

orbits that are

by

the most

The isotopes

of

uranium-235 and

plutonium-239 are

utilized

as

fissionable material for atomic

power plants and

for the

manu-

facturing of nuclear weapons.

energetic form of electromagnetic radiation. To shield against rays, very thick

INSIDER

gamma

concrete or lead

Harmful amounts of x-rays are released during nuclear fission.

KNOWLEDGE

THE PROPORTION OF HYDROGEN topes

walls are needed.

in

Other fission products are radioac-

Some of these

iso-

topes disintegrate and release Water vapor in a cloud chamber visible radioactive trail

is

condensed by a

EVERY ELEMENT emits a certain barded by x-rays or electrons.

method

is

used

to

dis-

when bomThis

determine the

ra-

chemical composition of materials.

ATOMIC MODELS are constantly being developed and expanded upon.

the

© see also: Atoms. Chemistry Chapter, p. 131

in-

formation about climatic changes.

dioactive radiation centuries after single ion, leaving behind a

of its path.

iso-

the polar ice caps gives

crete spectrum of light

tive isotopes.

initial

nuclear fission process.

a

of radioactive isotope

with large

nuclei— for example, plutonium or

H-2

The

in car-

ratio of

C-14 to the amount of stable tope C-12

electrons rotating around the

The

air.

o Q Z < to o to > X 0_

152

/?-«

BASICS OF PHYSICS

5*-

THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamics

is

often referred to as "the study of heat energy." However,

it

also studies

al

other forms of energy as well as matter.

A closed system can be an

Entropy

insu-

machine, or the

lated test tube, a

a measure of disorder

is

in

the universe. For example, burning a teaspoon of

entire universe.

gunpowder releases

combustion gases and generates

The First Law

heat. Thus, the particles

A basic assumption of thermody-

distributed

namics

is

become

space and have a

in

Heat Death

that there are different

Since the universe

kinds of energy: kinetic energy, potential energy, chemical energy,

A locomotive engine does not create energy. It transforms one type

internal energy, the

of energy into another.

and so

energy of

These

forth.

o —I o z o

scribe the relationships

but the total

between

energy of an object. The melting of solids

and the evaporation

of

is

each

is

in

to

o

first

When more space

that

co

>

or energy with

its

it

entire space.

Its

to

fill

state of

the

entropy increases

thermodynamics

When

or-

to less order.

i

means

order or less knowledge about the

IT IS

IMPOSSIBLE

to

move

its

own

motion.

construct a perpetual

motion machine according

to

the rules of

can be reversed, but

an input

less

The combustion process

universe.

all

same

with the

can be no

flow.

is

far from

experiencing heat death.

without any external source of energy

is

is

the energy transforma-

above: Even the desert

A PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE operates perpetuates

energy

entropy has

increased because there

it

entropy and

kinetic energy, there

greater variety of speeds. Likewise,

objects. This

n

because

all

life

the

is

tions have taken place and

heat flows from hot objects to cold

first.

and

by thermodynamics.

particles

places restrictions on the

surroundings.

maximum

predicted

The Second Law of

living enti-

chemical

the

would cease. Heat death

made avail-

is

expands

able to a gas,

because the gas goes from more

The second law

of the uni-

uniform. At this mo-

physical processes that create

der

one that does not exchange matter

since

ties

destroyed.

is

became

ment, there could be no

a

uids are examples of internal en-

ergy changing. A closed system

verse

other,

energy can neither be created nor

liq-

This would occur

point.

when the temperature

constant. The

law of thermodynamics

temperature, heat, and the internal

some

amount of energy

closed system

a closed sys-

light,

different forms

of energy transform into

The laws of thermodynamics de-

is

tem, heat death may occur at

this requires

lute zero; however, this point

has

never been actually attained. The lower the temperature, the harder

of energy. However, the

thermodynamics.

necessary steps Perpetual motion with a magnet and an

according

iron ball,

Wilkins,

to

erate

more

for this

entropy.

would gen-

a design by John of

Bishop of Chester, ca 1670.

thermodynamics

a tendency

Perpetual Motion Machines

in

is

it

to go any lower.

The second law is

that there

is

the universe for en-

Significance of Thermodynamics in

Science and Technology

Science and technology frequently

tropy to increase.

refer to the

SCIENTISTS HAVE designed perpetual motion machines for centuries. One ample: A waterfall propels a waterwheel. A

pump

is

ex-

connected to the water-

The Third Law While

it

is

of

possible to attain temper-

wheel and pumps the water back up. Simultaneously, the waterwheel operates a

mill

and supplies

WHY CAN'T such wheel results fall's fall

in

its

own

water.

a contraption work?

the loss of the water-

energy. Trying to use the water-

to operate a

pump

so that the

water would never run out would bring about a greater loss of energy

through

friction. In

the case of other

The

friction of

knowledge and findings

thermodynamics.

for

example,

is

it

atures up to more than a million

know whether

degrees, the lowest temperature

absorb energy.

the motion of the water-

that can be reached

is

-459.67°F

(-273.15°C), or zero on the Kelvin scale.

As

this

is

the coldest possi-

ble temperature,

it

is

called abso-

In

chemistry,

important to

reactions use or In

engineering,

the efficiency of motors and other kinds of thermal engines related to the

is

directly

second law of

thermodynamics.

lute zero. Theoretically, at this

point, matter

is

INSIDER

devoid of any form

KNOWLEDGE

possible machines, devices, and en-

of gines, energy friction

or

is lost

either

because

energy because the particles are

PROBABILITY THEORY and

statistical

mechanics are important

tools

of

because heat must be

not moving. The third law of thermo-

dynamics states that

emitted to the surrounding area.

it

is

impossi-

in

thermodynamics

to

used

understand

the behavior of a system.

ble to reach the temperature of

A perpetual motion machine with balls, a wheel, and an Archimedean screw by

Ulrich von

Cranach

in

1664.

TWO SYSTEMS absolute zero. Experimentally, laboratories have reached a few millionths of a degree

© see also: Probability Theory. Mathematics Chapter,

p.

206

above abso-

are

in

a state of

ther-

mal equilibrium when they have the

same

temperature.

BASICS OF PHYSICS

THEORY OF RELATIVITY Albert Einstein's theories tion of the world.

TIME

changed physics and human percep-

Experiments cannot

is

dependent on the frame of reference.

ACTUALLY, EINSTEIN'S THEORY was confirmed by two clocks, one of which stood

verify all the implications

other was transported

because

of his theories

of the

scope

153

of the predicted effects.

s

x,\

still

while the

a plane.

in

MINKOWSKI developed a

four dimensional coor-

dinate system based on Einstein's theories. In

1905, Albert Einstein published

four major papers

and became a

famous

Among them

physicist.

relativity

the general theory of

1915.

In

published

in

Einstein's

axis.

to

be independent variables that

Einstein considered the light to

Physics.

Space and Time

stant

speed

of

be the greatest possible

A problem facing physicists was

computing the true

in

vari-

ables of both space and time.

whether Newton's theorems

shuttle.

The Twin Paradox

Newton considered space and time

speed, as well as a natural conRelativity of

has three space axes and one time

Approach

could be used to calculate speed.

relativity in

1921, he received the

Nobel Prize

It

Time goes by slower in a space

and the photo-

electric effect. Einstein

and

graphic comparisons.

were works explaining the special theory of

inspiration from philosophy

Light requires approximately

A PAIR OF TWINS are separated from each Earth, while the other travels through to the

speed

She returns

of light.

other.

One

of

them remains on

space on a spaceship

at a

speed close

with the spaceship after a period of two

years. According to calculations using the equations of the theory of relativity,

when she meets

her sister she

THE FASTER the speed Matter with at the

will find

that her sister

of the spaceship, the slower

is

is

older by

40

years.

the progress of time.

o o _l o z I o

mass cannot move

speed

of light, but in this

hypothesis the calculations (p.

eight minutes to travel from the sun

148) were applicable at the

atomic

level. Einstein clarified this

with his work on the photoelectric effect. His

approach was not only

physically abstract, but also

drew

to Earth. This of light

is

means the speed

about 186,000 miles/sec

can be made by assuming a

speed near the speed

The

sister

of light.

who remains on

age

the usual way.

(300,000 km/sec). Hence, a viewer

Earth

on Earth does not see the current

The traveling

sister will

more

because time

brightness of the sun, but instead

will

slowly

goes slower

sees how bright the sun was 8 min-

in

in

age

o

a moving frame

of reference.

utes ago. Einstein used the implications of this to derive transformation

equations between frames

theory of general

relativity,

Einstein described gravitation as

a curve

in

space-time. Objects with

considerable mass,

space and cause

like

a star, bend

light to deflect.

The theory regarding the existence

E=mc An implication ativity is

of black holes

2

of the theory of rel-

and the photoelectric

effect

the relationship between matter

and energy. The famous equation is

E=

mc 2

.

This

means that matter

can be converted vice versa.

energy

mass

into

developed on

was

later

this basis.

A black hole has so

much mass

that

itational field

any

light

its

grav-

prevents

from escaping.

energy and

The source of the sun's the decrease

is

of helium

when

it

is

in

the

formed

Applications and

Scope

from neutrons and protons. The

Einstein revolutionized

energy of nuclear fission

the concept of gravita-

is similar.

The equation became associated with the

development

bomb and

atom

tion

and proved that

the supposed ether, the

nuclear fission technol-

ogy, a field

not work

of the

EinsteM actually did

in directly.

medium through which electromagnetic radiation propagated, did not

above: Albert Einstein writing an

equation for the density of the Milky

Way on a blackboard.

exist.

the pas-

sage of time.

of reference. In his

The example of twins reveals

how speed influences

He also was a

founder of quantum mechanics. Nevertheless,

© see also: Black Holes, Universe Chapter, p. 45

Einstein nius.

was

not an infallible ge-

He spent years

trying to de-

velop a universal theory of matter,

the theory of relativity is

relativity,

and general

the basis of modern

physics as well as the technological

but did not succeed. Einstein's

advances that have characterized

work on the photoelectric

the 20th century.

effect,

154

AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

Automobiles

MOBILITY contributes

to

from a globalized world.

THE TRANSPORTING of both people

and goods continues

to increase.

EVERY VEHICLE contributes

to

round infrastructure through

an its

all-

spe-

characteristics.

cific

INNOVATIONS

in

automotive engi-

other technical areas,

in

Twowrieeters

|

Ra/7s

|

Ship transportation

Wind and waves

|

|

Airplanes

Helicopters

\

Rockets

|

AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING the beginning of the 19th century, success was achieved

In

power and wind energy. The

drawn

carriage. This

first

was the

beating the cruising speed of horse

in

steam engine traveled seven times

public

start of a revolution in

speed that

lenges are the improvement of vehicle safety, usage of alternative

still

faster than a horse-

continues today.

means

of energy

© Means of travel are being increasingly controlled electrically instead of mechanically.

AUTOMOBILES-MOTOR AND BODY

composed

of hollow sections de-

signed for strength,

The automobile combines power vehicle that has had a

of transport, mobility,

and

individuality.

comparable influence on personal and

social

There

is still

no other

life.

and either

is

is

the motor,

to convert thermal

electric or

chemical

energy into kinetic energy. Gasoline

engines are used most

or diesel

frequently if)

o > I

in

automobiles and

commercial vehicles. INSIDER

LOREMO LS the

Transmission and Chassis

aerodynamic characteristics, as

The power transmission

well

lies

It

ITS

ENGINE

100

IS

of weight.

air resistance. is its

a 2-cylinder-Turbo-Diesel its

for the chassis.

All

divider, drive shaft,

bile to

and

as the ignition system, automotive

differential gear.

rotating

movement gen-

erated by the motor

clutch,

maximum

deployed primarily

relayed, dis-

is

(p.

156). The is

applied to the wheels through the

the transaxle, which

2009

with

into production

Loremo AG.

common; however, the opments favor a

happen

is

to

in light of rising oil prices.

finely

is

is

efficient alternatives,

like "Biodiesel." electric drives, or

more

sources of energy.

is

responsible for in

sprayed and then

wheel suspension, suspen-

sion, brakes,

and steering

affect

pumps. This mixture

or,

t

is

led

and compressed

to the cylinder

through the movements of a piston.

A spark plug

the handling of an automobile.

J

the carburetor

the case of petrol motors, within

injection

Body

ignites the mixture as

The

visual effects of

are determined

Diesel motors are efficient

and pow-

the four-stroke motors

In

common today, in

an automobile

large part by

its

injection of the fuel

happen by separate strokes

body work. The structure of the

piston.

Petrol

body also decides the weight and

quicker

number

I

Starting position, intake stroke,

and

compression stroke

and discharge of exhausted gases

sel

erful.

also replacing mechanical controls

and security systems.

turn.

The chassis

motors

of the

allow

a

of cycles than die-

motors, but have lower

effi-

ciency and higher wastage. ,

They are primarily used

for trucks.

The cycle of a four-stroke engine consists of four piston

in

a

movements

cylinder.

of a

in-

safety standards

striving

combustion

hybrid drives, which use

latest devel-

skeletal structure

air in

also

and optional comfort features while

GASOLINE-POWERED ENGINES.

IN

ward.

engines with

modern

It is

the explosion drives the piston out-

The automobile industry to replace traditional

come under

The Gasoline-Powered Engine

transmitting power to the roadway.

bound

starter,

final drive, or

accommo-

ed by the inside and outside wheels

Tires,

However, a change

and

automotive electronics. volved with

mixed with in

which tension applies, such

dates the different speeds achiev-

duringa

THE LOREMO LS goes

the components of an automo-

battery,

commercial

Currently, unitized bodies are

fuel

speed.

in

vehicles, like this sports car.

and regulated through the

and the gears

transmission and the

overall weight.

MPH (160 KM/H) is

and synthetic materials are used

Automotive Electronics

torque produced by the engine

200 LB (450 KG)

passengers.

transmission, power

THE SECRET is minimized wind

is its

steel,

comprises

tributed,

CW=0.2

Along with

the clutch, manual

The

car to get

and reduction

of this

the possibility of using

is

frequently aluminum, magnesium,

between the motor and the steering wheel.

157 miles/gal (1.5 1/100 km) and sells for about $15,000 (11,000 euros).

resistance

its

and

High-performance engines are

KNOWLEDGE

first

as the safety of

rigidity,

The advantage

lighter materials.

whose task

o LU

lightness.

structure

o of a car

chal-

like

materials production.

The heart

New

automobile

in

enginee r ing, as well as the integration of information and communication technology.

neering are based on advances

made

|

and results

Ignition of fuel,

exhaust stroke

power stroke, and

TOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

155

AUTOMOBILES-SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Modern automobiles

and design. They are also able

offer not just comfort, speed,

to

the

fulfill

increasing requirements of environmental compatibility and road safety.

|

Despite the rising density of in

consequences of accidents

traffic,

couple years there have

the last

been fewer accidents resulting

One

serious injuries or death.

reason for this

the effort

is

in

made

for driv-

passengers, and pedestrians.

ers,

and

safety systems. Passive

active

security systems as well as elec-

The most well-known components

tronic vehicle tracking

are safety belts, headrests, airbags.

are being combined with each

and the "crunch zone." which de-

other increasingly to improve

systems

Navigation Systems Navigation systems provide better

The location

orientation.

forms

itself softly in

the case of im-

passenger security

further.

tomobile

pact and hence absorbs the energy.

Even predetermined braking points the steering wheel and pedals.

in

as well as innovative materials

like

laminated glass for the windshield

dio

Help The

in

Navigation

driver

is

made

of

an au-

determined through

many

lites in

space. A computer calcu-

lates the best

way from

its

current

location to the intended location

considerably easier,

Most

with the help of digital cards.

and carbon ture,

fibers

reduce the

in

through assist-

the body struc-

of the navigation

ing systems.

risk

has

made

it

necessary

to

tion:

accidents.

and

Catalysts

traffic

jams

redirect the drivers.

< o to > X

the toxicity of

to increase the safety

harmful fumes from an internal combustion engine.

Active Safety Systems

systems of

much

automobiles through innumerable

In

improvements.

as possible active security systems

For example, the electronic vehicle

order to avoid accidents as

O _i o z X a

best route.

reduce

and the environment.

they warn about

above: On-board computer is equipped with GPS and shows the

en-

sure the protection of both drivers

systems "react"

to the latest traffic radio informa-

of injuries during

The increasing density of vehicle traffic

ra-

communications with 24 GPS

(Global Positioning System) satel-

relieved of

important tasks, or at least they are

is

0-

are used, which include braking

tracking system helps to drive

Passive Safety Systems

and steering aids as

reverse:

Passive safety systems are

ing systems.

employed

has been

to

minimize the

in

well

as warn-

The greatest progress the area of electronic

If

an obstacle signal

goes

is

Electronic Stability Control

with

crossed, a warning

off.

can even warn

It

of tailgating, other vehicles

spots,

in

minimum distance

a

in

blind

and deviation from the

boundaries of a lane. Cruise control ESC ELECTRONIC STABILITY CONTROL) i

sors constantly register

if

is

an active safety system. Different sen-

The efficiency of passive safety

helps to maintain a selected speed.

a wheel threatens to lock up or spin. A microcomputer If

evaluates data and ing assistants.

If

in

cases of emergency seizes control or activates the brak-

there

is

a risk of skidding, the wheels are braked indepen-

dently of each other until stable traction

wheels during braking and carries out

full

is

established again.

ESC

braking automatically

if

locks the

there

is

an

front of the car,

brakes and if

changes lanes

a slower vehicle

the lane

it

later

is

in

accelerates again

Jj

ulation triggers

A steering angle sensor

the brakes on

controls the automatic

individual wheels

guidance.

briefly

•

£

braking assistant increases the

Exhaust emissions are

ties in

dangerous

situations.

sponsible for climate change and increased health risks for

humans

and animals. Legal regulations enforce environmental protections

Wheel speed sensors

Power-management system individually

•

two-wheelers.

is

forces can be dangerous for a two-

centripetal force acts on every

body that changes the direction

moving

means

in.

The

inertia of

wheeler that

it

mass

is

moving fast since

changes the balance

a force perpendicular to

the direction of motion must act

als,

of forces.

it

On

motion

is

is

(p.

lighter.

materi-

make the

Disk and

brakes have been

154). The

wheel through a chain or wheel

drum

made more

safe.

have been available for

for bicycles

the past few years. Apart from

easing stress on the body, suspensions improve contact between

an axle and gears, as

drive to

a centrifugal force to the

with an automobile. Before the circular

New

Saddle, fork, and body suspensions

transmitted to the rear

a right turn, the rider experiences left.

frames

usually powered

combustion engine

power

for the rider.

such as plastics strengthened

with carbon fibers,

the case of motorcycles, the

the steering of

all

comfort

of the gear ratio.

(10 km/h), centripetal and gyro-

in

rear wheel

body, adjustable fork

and body suspensions, and hydrau-

complex matters of physics.

tires

motion reaches the rear

wheel, the torque of the motor

and the road. These technolo-

gies have been used for in

is

some time

motorcycles. Computers on

raised or lowered by either a trans-

motorcycles have increased the

mission or gear box.

safety of the rider.

Gearbox THE NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS per minute of a motor If

is

changed

in

the gearbox.

a small gear on the input shaft seizes a larger gear on the output shaft, the

rotational

speed

is

diminished (low gear).

the rotational speed

is

If

the large gear seizes a smaller one.

increased (high gear). The rotational motion

is

then

transmitted to the wheels from the gear box.

THE CLUTCH transfers the tional

gear box. This

the forces of

enough,

its

rotation stabilizes

because

is like

a toy top.

tum. The

made,

for

example, by nudging

ues to

rotate. In a spinning wheel, the rotational axis

to the road.

about

its

is

vertical. it

a toy top spins fast

momen-

Small disturbances to the top's motion

with a finger are resisted,

When the top slows due to friction,

vertical axis.

If

of the conservation of angular

axis of rotation

it

is

and the top contm

horizontal

The gyroscopic effect contributes

above: Motorcyclist leans into the curve.

done by two

and

parallel

friction.

On

releas-

ing the clutch, the disks are sep-

arated from each other and

power

is

not transmitted to the

gear box. The gears can be shifted during this time.

begins to wobble or "precess' to stabilizing a two-

wheeler, but plays a far lesser role than the centripetal forces drive a two-wheeler.

is

disks that are held together by

Gyroscopic Effect From the point of view of physics, a wheel

rota-

motion of the motor to the

in

The clutch allows the gears

to

be changed. mJ/

helping to

The clutch on a motorcycle operates acsame principles as the

cording to the clutch

on a

car.

Different-size gears translate

the motion of the motor into fast or

slow rotations.

AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

157

RAILS There are more than 621.373 miles (1 million km) of track worldwide for surface and under-

ground railroads. Trams are used

for

passenger

Vehicles that ride on railways are

more economical than road because

cles

friction is

for transporting goods.

at regular distances

bed, while steel

,1

vehi-

and

£

L


X 0_

which generally do not take any

French landscape

From Steam Trains

O z X o

357 mph

or

(575 km/h).

In

it

makes speed

regulation inaccurate

and complex.

158

,?-*£

AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

SHIP TRANSPORTATION The transportation of goods by ships

sea

at

is

increasing.

Therefore, constant technical innovations are needed to

improve security as well as

Globalization

the increase

the speed and stability of the ship.

responsible for

is

in

profitability.

the

traffic of

goods

Container ships are cargo ships

between the continents. Cargo

that carry

shipping has been registering

size containers.

steady growth rates for years be-

relatively flat,

cause the sea route

is still

the most

O

truck-

in

They are wide and

which means they are

or 14-

cylinder diesel motors that provide

and

a power of over

Maximum demand: The

cargo of more than

shows that cargo shipping

was widespread first

in

slim hull of a cruise liner guarantees speed, mobility,

low draft, and high capacity.

100,000 hp

each. With a peak

archaeological evidence >C3

goods

They are equipped with 12-

goods and heavy

individual items. Historical

of their

very large and stable, but also slow.

economical means of transporting large quantities of

all

Engines

8,000 containers,

the

millennium B.C.

The core

of every

motor ship

they can

engine.

achieve aver-

there are gas turbines and

In

is

the

addition to diesel motors, electri-

IE

o

Ship Construction

age speeds

Shipyards

of

in

Europe,

are responding to the

o

of shipping

(29mphor

demand

companies

the

same as

it

from the

motor to the propellers through the ship's drive shaft.

bulk of dry goods or

largest

container ships

was

in

the world, the

manufactured goods.

Colombo Express, put into service in 2005. It can load up to 8, 750 containers.

2,000 years ago. The shape of the hull

directly transferred

of the engine

load carries the

One of the

However, the main problem of is

is

The power

46.3 km/h). Their

for fast,

safe cargo and passenger ships.

shipbuilding

around

25 knots

North America, and Asia

cal motors.

Bulk carriers are used to transport unpackaged

below the waterline determines

bulk cargo such as coal

Submarines and Archimedes' Principle

and wheat. Tankers are used

DIVING

IS

BASED ON

a simple law of physics concern-

ing objects put in water.

The philosopher Archime-

to transport bulk

liquids like

and

petroleum

chlorine.

des discovered over 2,000 years ago that the Totally different princi-

upward force a

liquid or

a gas exerts on an object

equal to the weight of the volume of by the object. force

The upward force

and Archimedes'

is

principle

is

displaced

fluid

called the buoyant

is

sometimes called

the law of upward thrust. In

must pump air into its tanks and squeeze out the water.

IF

ples are used for the

can

construction of speed-

water.

A 20,000-TON HEAVY submarine floats

then the weight of the displaced water tons (top

water.

in

is

20,000

illustration).

the

If

submarine plunges under

travel over land

as well as

boats where the aim is

order to surface, a submarine

Hovercrafts float on a downward stream of air produced by fans and

the maximization of

speed, rather than of load capacity. The hull is

shaped

to traverse

the waters quickly with

An exception

is

found

in military

ships, such as aircraft carriers

and

nuclear submarines, which use gas turbines.

Gas turbines provide jet

propulsion and are used because

the water, then the weight

submarine was

of the

creased. This placing the

is

air

done in

by

a

illustration).

of

a sub-

water displacement.

Speedboats, lift

Full

tank

21 st

themselves out of

CENTURY

the water during high

REMOTE-CONTROLLED

speeds. Motorboats

sails will pull

come

in

a variety of

50% on

fuel

gliders with

container ships, saving

and increasing speed by

10%. sizes

1

tances without refueling.

in fact,

Displaced water

F,= 20,000 tons

the ships need to travel long dis-

in-

re-

marine's tanks with water, (bottom

minimum amount

and have engines

that are inboard, out-

DRIVE GENERATORS USING power from water current are ecological

~1

F = 35,000 tons

board, or a hybrid of

the two.

and

significant in inland navigation.

N

Efc

NGINEERING

moving over to one side

WIND AND WAVES

This procedure

Ships, boats, or recreational boats that use wind energy, currents,

move need

to

and muscular strength

to

Multiheel ships

take optimal advantage of the laws of physics as a prerequisite.

of the boat.

known as

is

like

159

hiking.

catamarans or

trimarans naturally have a high stability of form.

Sailboats lost their importance

in

international trade at the beginning

Wave and Muscular Power

of the industrial revolution.

Other nonmotorized water sports

Steamships replaced them be-

are surfing, wind surfing, and kite

cause they were less dependent

surfing,

as well as paddling canoes

on the weather, could embark on

and rowboats. The wind delivers

a voyage quickly, and required less

the required power through the

wind surfing and

manpower. Sailing remains a very

sails during

popular form of recreation.

through the kites during

Physics of Sailing

the direction of

The surfer determines

surfing.

Sailboats

move from power

supplied by wind energy.

the wind reaches the

from the

sail

back, a net force on the

from the difference

in

wind

is split

wide type of

called tacking. In tacking, the boat

they

45°

wind

time and

sails

into

two currents by the

then changes

direction.

boat nears

target through

The same aerody-

namic

principle that gives airplanes

160) drives sailboats. The

lift

(p.

air

flowing over the windward side faster than the air flowing

over the leeward side. This results

more pressure on the leeward

side.

opposite to the wind by a process

from the sides, the

of the sail.

in

Through

the stern

to the

its

regular wind

for a

The

roll

position.

hull.

to the upright

The crew

a small boat

can contribute

sail

With the wide hul

back easily

to

in

its stability

direction of their boards so that

they constantly remain on the slope of the wave, neither overtaking the

wave nor navigating through

by

(Greek: 'hydro' or 'hydr~ for

concerns

Heeling and Stability

THREE TYPES OF HULLS: wide displacement

'liquid")

itself with

narrow semidisplacement

Airflow hitting the sail sideways

causes the ship

to

tilt

along

SHIPS with a planing

its

It

and

is

made

have the fastest speeds.

A trimaran

with extremely lean hulls

completely

lift

a ship

its ability

resist heeling.

THE SHAPE

of the hull of a boat limits its speed because it produces bow and wake waves during motion. A ship cannot move faster than the bow and wake

to

maximum speed a

waves, which disperse

There

boat can achieve

Longer ships achieve higher speeds of

is

called the

ships

between

weight and

whose bottom

makes up to

rapidly.

ing occurs

when a boat skims

Special hulls are developed

enable a boat to do

are long and

weight have

The

With an increase

drift is

determined by the angle the

makes

sail

relative to the direction of

the wind.

If

the angle of attack

wrong, then the

sail

begins to

and the wind power stops. boats can move

in

is

flutter

Sail-

a direction

tilting,

stability of weight. in

the keel generates a

to

keep the ship

Smaller sailboats primarily stability of form.

upright. rely

on

They do not have

a keel, but a centerboard

and a

flat hulls lift

this.

They

with a wide

themselves from

the water at high speeds because of the

torque that opposes this motion

and tends

They

stern.

the angle of

over

forces produced hydrodynami-

lift

percent of the overall

ex-

the surface of water as a result of

cally.

30-50

can be

of the hull

ceeded only through planing. Plan-

to

created that

hull.

is

stability of form. Sailing

aerodynamics and forces

speed of the

because they generate longer

hull

THE SPEED a difference

place each boat within a particular class.

can almost

from the water.

itself

Hydrodynamics

waves. The

stability of

hull,

and planing hull.

centrifugal

stability of

refers to

hull

hull,

distur-

can lead to capsizing.

The

sailboat.

>-

and

phenomenon

forces during tacking.

moves the

currents

the behavior of bodies in water.

loads,

is

it.

o HYDRODYNAMICS

bances, unbalanced

pressure, a force

O

The

riding.

'water"

worse by sea

in

wave

always sailing close to the wind.

called heeling

The differences

also true for conven-

tional surfing or

maneuvers and by

longitudinal axis. This

this difference in

is

surfers control the speed and

sail

shape

moves

stabilize the

fins at

power. This

sail results

the pressure

caused by the wind. If the wind reaches the

Woods during a competition in Sydney: Two motion and the rest is body control.

Surfer Rebecca

movement through

body weight and muscular

their

When

kite

the

dynamics

of the heel

and

bow waves.

Freight

and passenger ships have

mostly

flat hulls.

them

This enables

to carry large loads,

makes them

slow.

but

160

AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

HOW PLANES was as

It

FLY became

as 1903 when the dream of flying

late

a reality with the

first

airplane of the Wright brothers. With inland flights, intercontinental flights, and

the transport of goods, the

amount

of flying

has increased

rapidly.

Steering

pressure underneath the wing to

be greater than the pressure above

Once

the wing because of Bernoulli's

the plane

which states that an

principle,

increase

velocity occurs with a

in

decrease

in

pressure. This pro-

duces a net upward force that called the

lift.

The force of

>-

O o

is

What Flying wings with

shaped in

like

no

tail

off

and

a triangle are currently

development.

steered with the

A plane can rotate around

help of a rudder,

ailerons, rudders,

ailerons.

air resis-

lifting

its

three axes with the help of

elevators.

these

pilot controls

stick,

and

during the approach while landing

and balances out the undesired

wheel or side

called the drag.

pedals

for

also helps get the airplane

directions can either be transmitted

the rudder also steer the wheels

mechanically through control rods

of the plane

the ground

is

the angle of attack

wing

of the wings, or the angle the air.

stick,

the rudder. The

pilot's

and bowden cables

or with

electrical fly-by-wire

system.

yaw, which ailerons.

an

a side effect of the

The control pedals

for

on the ground.

of the airplane

and

airplane around

movement around the

air.

is

Elevators are part of the

Ailerons regulate the

LU

Therefore, a

and

and

The

devices through the control

Increasing the angle of

Airplanes are heavier than

air,

is

control

presents to the oncoming

X o

the

elevators,

is

tance opposing the motion of the plane

in

that

is,

its

tail

rotate the lateral axis,

elevators control

the pitch of the plane.

force

greater than the weight of

O >

the plane must be provided.

Liftoff Airflow tion

which of

is

produced during the mo-

of an airplane on the runway, is split

by the curved wings

an airplane. The upper

attack

increases the slice of air

the wing

is

hence

hitting,

creasing both the

airflow

lift

in-

and the drag

travels a different path than the

Accelerating the speed of the

lower airflow because of the shape

plane or increasing the speed of

of the

upper side of the wing. The

velocity of airflow

is

greater on

crease the

the upper side of the wing than

on the lower

side. This

the airflow with propellers lift

will in-

more than the drag.

The magnitude

causes the

air-

of the

lift

depends

The airflow

on the angle of attack and speed.

when

is split

it

hits the wings.

The upper airflow has a longer path

to follow

than the lower one. This creates a difference

airplane

is

longitudinal axis of the airplane.

This

pressure so that the

in

"sucked" upward.

movement

of the airplane.

is

called the rolling

They are present

The angle of attack of the wings is

regulated with the elevators.

In

certain planes, additional small

on the exterior of the wings and

rudders are used to help stabilize

can be moved upward or downward

the smoothness of

its flight.

independent of each other. This

causes the

lift

of the

change. The plane

21 st CENTUR

wings to

rolls

toward

ACCORDING port

the direction of the wing with the smaller

SUPERSONIC

lift.

The rudder controls the move-

ment

of the flight

cal axis. This

to

around the

movement

is

estimates, airtrans-

by the year 2015.

will triple

vertical take-off

planes

are being planned as air taxis for

business

flights in

America.

verti-

called

FLYING

WINGS may revolutionize avi-

ation technology with fuel savings of

the yaw of the airplane. Pilots steer with the control sticks, control wheels,

ate

numerous

It

is

fas-

and pedals and must oper tened perpendicularly to the

controls.

of the plane,

© see also: Flight of Birds, Biology Chapter,

p.

as on a boat.

It

tail is

used

around 25-35%, higher payloads,

and longer ranges airplanes with

in

comparison

to

tails.

107 .

JTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

161

PROPULSION AND SPEED themselves

Light gliders carry jet

aloft with rising air. In order to propel

engines are required. Supersonic flight

fly

used only

in

heavy and faster airplanes.

the military.

interceptor aircraft. There are naval

and

Gliders, paragliders.

hang gliders can

is still

aircraft carriers that bring military

for

aircraft to all parts of the world.

long stretches without

Supersonic Flights

using an on-board source of power. In order to gain

use

height, gliders

columns of warm

rising

air

Ciders are lightweight and do not carry more

knows as thermals. These

than two

They are used

pilots.

for recreation

Sonic and Supersonic Speed

When an

Unlike civilian air transportation,

dium,

pressed matter.

military aircraft often travel at

faster than the

supersonic speeds, which are

and

for aerial photography.

mountain and as

of

waves

lee

make

in

tight turns

the downwind side of a mountain.

around

Gliders require an external power

sideration

source that can give them height to start with.

used

stationary motors airplanes.

Some

own engines.

some

an

winches with

and powered

if it

is

it

to trans-

lands outside of

Some

glid-

wings

in their

and adjust

must be jettisoned before

land-

ing to avoid stress on the frame.

and the distance

thermal

in

Military Aircraft

so

Military aircraft are

columns. However, they should not

port,

since greater weight

means faster speeds. time

is

This

spent

in

is

sound It is

ated.

specified

units called

in

speed

aircraft

speed

is

of

sound

of

moving

in.

sound and

Military jets achieve

air

Mach

out

good

the

is

for trans-

air

warfare operations. Combat

surface or

and rear of the plane and result,

an

overlay of shock

waves

along the

path of a super-

flight

is

formed

sonic plane. These waves are not

equipped with

air-to-

air-to-air missiles.

speeds

a

of

human

CO

reach above: A low-pressure zone

is

formed at the middle of a plane in flight, causing the condensation

engines are used.

of water.

Camouflage

flights

planned with

through a network of radar

stations. Further camouflag-

consider-

ing

is

accomplished by using

radar-absorbent materials

Turbofans

which convert electromagnetic

turbojet

are a kind of

and function

cording to the recoil ple. Air flowing into

pressed

in

it

ac-

princiis

com-

mixed with fuel in the combustion chamber and ignited. It expands due to the

The turbine extracts en-

heat and accelerates out.

ergy for the compressors

Air

is

ations of

It

is

mixed

aircraft

with fuel in a combustion

chamber and

Afterburners give additional thrust to

of stealth

supersonic jets.

o

1112 F(600°C).

The surface

to nearly

into heat.

and

radar camouflage.

several stages

and heated up

energy

optical,

acoustic,

ignited

is

broken up

into triangles that

Dur-

INSIDER

deflect radar signals in-

KNOWLEDGE

ing the burn, the flow rate of

the gases increases and

stead of reflecting them

SHARK SCALES served as models

the gases go through a

back

for

tur-

bine. This generates the en-

ergy for the compressors

the airplane, things.

among

is

other

oretically,

The gases are emit-

force

of

number

pressed

air is

in

com-

the compressor.

planes designed for fuel

ciency.

By copying

its

of

ways to de-

none have been proven Bypass of the air stream makes the engine quiet

The exhaust gases are discharged to the rear, and this

and

force drives the airplane.

efficient.

5%

effi-

surface

up

to

were achieved.

there are a

tect stealth aircraft, but

expulsion

pushes the airplane. Incoming

accomplished with

stealth technology. The-

ted through a nozzle, and

the

to the sender. This

structure, fuel savings of

in

to work. There

is

the

SPACESHIPONEgets aloft with the help of an airplane and can achieve a height of 62 miles (100 km) with rocket propulsion.

example,

camouflaged

It

is

the

first

manned privately funded spacecraft in

possibility, for

of locating

o

ear they are perceived as

(iron ball paints),

TURBOFANS

o

a single or double bang.

or special high-performance jet

They

_i

LU

3. In order to

Military flights are

fl O

sound waves, but when they reach

normal

in

can be deployed as bombers or as

mals. Gliders should be able to

in

shock wave.

reconnaissance, and to carry

aircrafts are

ther-

used

in

move

the

around Mach 2 and a few models reach

sound

The pressure builds up

at the tip

about

745 mph (1,200 km/h) air.

the

Mach 1 is

speed

of

propagate outward. As a in

moves

a plane

Spherical shock waves get formed

the speed of the aircraft divided

by the

If

this region, creating a

Mach numbers. The Mach number is

a me-

in

past the front the plane has cre-

in air.

supersonic speeds, afterburners

they can ascend quickly

little

how easy

airfield (out landing).

ter

light

light

is

the glider's center of mass. The wa-

gliders have their

covered, gliders should be

be too

circle

a thermal. Another con-

to provide extra weight

optimal relationship between the loss of height

so they can

ers have water tanks

order to have an

In

in

port the glider

Commonly

for starting are

when

speeds faster than the speed

windward side of a

at the

moves

the sound waves cannot

air.

can occur as slope winds

object

produces a front of com-

it

the world.

It

has a unique

ing" reentry system.

"feather-

o > -

162

f, -

The largest part of the rocket consists of its

ways of generating

The payload

fuel tanks.

the thrust. Chemical

is

propulsion

combustion chamber

We/ght/essness

at the bottom.

ever,

currently

common, using solid or fluid fuel.

at the

and the

tip.

it

m

Starting the Rocket

of Earth, they

combustion chamber, and tnen

Rockets carry

of

combustion gases are discharged

and components

is

ignited

a

under high pressure through a nozzle.

In

in

the ISS

means many experiments can be

the case of a

for

geosynchro-

nous space stations.

overcome the

fluid

satellites, astronauts,

In

order to

up

must achieve speeds

to approximately

(28.800 km/h). which

20 times the speed

18.000 mph is

more than

of sound.

of the

main engine and boosters.

There

is

a second smaller engine

over this huge engine. Cargo Cruise missiles are

unmanned

kg) of explosives. They

992

map-based systems, the Global

Position Sys-

and radar systems mean that cruise missiles can be targeted with

great accuracy. With a flight attitude of only

49

ft

(15 m)

to

328

ft

(100 m)

above the ground, they are almost invisible

to

radar.

cruise missile

is

The fastest

The space shuttle launches rocket and lands It

like

a

like

an airplane.

consists of the orbiter vehicle,

main engine, and ers.

solid-fuel boost-

The space shuttle can accom-

modate

eight people

29 tons

of payload.

and up

to

tucked away at the rocket.

The boosters

minutes after the into

Space shuttles

fall

start.

the

are used for research missions

off five

space, for control of space stations.

They fall

the sea and are salvaged

for reuse. At

68

tip of

as well as for setting up and

in

repair-

ing of satellites.

an elevation of around 21 st

miles (110 km), the main

CENTURY

the BrahMos.

manufactured by companies India

is

Space Shuttle

lbs

can be fired from submarines, ships, planes, and

land. Inertial guidance systems,

(GPS),

rockets that can transport up to

The

lower portion of a rocket consists

gravitational pull

Guided Missiles (450

carried out; how-

requires a lot of support materials for the scientists.

The

appropriate fuel

O -

has been occupied since 2000.

lifts off.

is

i

main rockets, as

for the

the thrust

force of gravity, the

tem

ft

(73 m) wide. The solar panels have a span of 240

(35.6 m) long supply

will

support, electricity supply, and secu-

WILL BE THE LARGEST research laboratory

117

a

life

2007. the entire space station was 146

and 240

for working. Forty installa-

massive payload. Liquid

stronger than the

rocket

the main

there

and areas

propellants are used

speed because of a If

for

when

rockets

rocket with a high

thrust.

high, IT

c

discharged from a

in

rockets that are attached

.

1

October 1998. The ISS consists of dif-

modules by 2010. Important components of the

all

ISS are systems for position control,

Rocket propulsion

in

space shuttle and unmanned launch vehicles

tion flights with the

After ignition, the contents

magnitude.

began

of the ISS

ferent modules, such as areas for living

chamber.

opposite direction with

a force of the

and oxidizers are

In

and Russia, and

engine

is

rocket.

The main engine

also separated from the

in

travels at

2.8 times the speed of sound.

disinte-

grates to a significant extent Earth's atmosphere.

The

in

ION

THRUSTERS accelerate ionized electrical field and use

gas with an

the recoil for propulsion. Before the

gas leaves the rocket,

it

must be

satellite

neutralized.

Guided missiles can be equipped with

many different payloads.

from simple explosives

weapons.

to

is

brought to

small rocket.

its final

When

orbit by a

SOLAR SAILS made from Mylar use the capsule

nuclear

opens, the in

satellite is

released

space.

© see also: Humankind Conquers the Solar System. Universe Chapter, p. 55

the radiation pressure of the sun for

propulsion

in

space.

164

CON*

Structural

CONCRETE AND STEEL will continue as the most important construction materials

in

ROADS are

the 21st century.

and civil engineering

|

Mechanical and

serial construction

|

Skyscrapers

|

Ecologically freindly

houses

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

highly stressed

People have always had to protect themselves from the elements

structures.

ECOLOGICAL BUILDING combines

ning,

men and women occupied caves and

traditional construction materials

building of houses from materials found

and modern housing

bricks. Centuries ago,

technology.

new

in

order to survive.

An increasingly sedentary way

tents.

of

In

the begin-

life

led to the

nature and, later on, from manufactured materials like huge structures were erected without detailed calculations being carried in

construction materials and technological advancements,

THE TECHNOLOGY of construction

out. Today,

considers the building, building

calculating static equilibrium, facilitate the construction of highly customized buildings.

and construction

site,

the software for

like

materials.

Technical development, urban development,

and space

constraints affect architecture.

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Single family houses, apartment buildings, office towers, and concert halls are

> O O

form

of structures that

the

correspond to their different functions and requirements.

Foundation

designed to absorb the load and

ning and construction of structures

Structural engineering begins with

stress of the structure.

located on Earth's surface. High-

the building site and ground. The

also perform a protective function

Structural engineering

CJ

all built in

rise buildings

such as

the plan-

is

office

towers

building site

and ground must

The walls

against external elements and

o >

Paris

outer shell of the building, including

side to create

the roof

(S)

The Centre Georges Pompidou

sound. After the completion of the

in

in

has the framework on the

more

out-

interior space.

certain cases, internal

construction begins, which includes

Requirements relating to the

the positioning of nonsupporting

ity

of the structure

stabil-

and protection

Q.

partition walls

*.^»

X Q.

used

is

for

the

mass

production of log cabins

and

for

timber-framed

of their porous nature,

and

provide good sound protection. Clinker bricks can bear

more

fire;

however, they offer

they can be manufactured

cabins are very thick,

ous

so they rarely need

for facades.

ing roof

in vari-

against

rain.

However, a straw roof needs a

slope of 45%, so the rainwater can drain

colors, they are primarily

material. However,

effects are achieved only through

they are rarely built these days

a combination of materials.

because

amount

of the large

of

of

wood, even

composed

of reinforced concrete.

is

stability

Wood

is

because they weigh

less.

often used for ecologi-

houses

friendly

(p.

Multistoried buildings with a

169).

mod-

ern look can be constructed enout of wood.

used above: Six-storied wooden house

additional insulating

off.

made

rest of the building

tirely

Straw provides good insulation and protection

is

when the

cally

inadequate heat insulation. Since

houses. Modern log

the support of almost every slant-

Laminated beams provide higher of

a load and provide better protection

against

tech-

wood. Today, the construction of

addition to this, they are nonflam-

mable, are capable of storing heat

Wood Wood

construction

niques that advocate the use of

in

Steinhausen, Switzerland

Natural Stones

sawing of stone

With properties similar to those of clinker bricks, natural

is

very time-

consuming, stone houses have

stones

wood needed. Timber-framed

are frequently used for facades

been replaced by

natural construction elements that

houses are more economical and

and

Dry-stone walls, on the other hand,

Wood,

clay,

and bricks are

possess good insulating properties.

practical.

They are durable throughout the

ing

framework made out

year because of their

tal

and diagonal beams. The

ability to

They consist of a support-

spaces can be composition

filled

internal spaces. Since the

carving, chipping,

brick houses.

have also become popular.

and accurate

of horizoninter-

up with a

made from

clay

and

sand, bricks, or plaster. Timber

framed construction

is

used

for

the renovation of historical buildings.

It

cause

is it

coming

is

into

vogue be-

ecologically friendly.

Wooden columns can be sheathed with

siding, while the

spaces between the outer walls can be tion.

Such

internal

filled

and

with insula-

lightweight structures

are very easy to build.

Bricks and Concrete Blocks Natural stones and bricks have a Brick walls today are very

erected manually.

seldom long record

in

the history of con-

struction. Bricks

have been used

Clay as a construction material

is

good

for air conditioning.

framed buildings that use clay are regaining popularity.

Hence, timber

NSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

167

PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION Modern architecture

is

and glass. Experimentation with

Concrete and steel

new construction elements such as steel, reinforced concrete, new materials with different properties is an ongoing process.

defined by

Steel and Prestressed Concrete

continue

will

as the most important construction

In

materials of the 21st century. Con-

are

crete

is

water,

produced from cement,

and gravel or sand

granulations.

Its

in

primarily for

properties can be

is

example, aluminum powder.

and

light

There

is

density. Other properties are

is

and

concrete

is

elasticity.

its

poured over the surface for an extra floor. Concrete

its

Normal

is

Concrete's importance

neering

steel

and heat.

However, special insulating con-

been developed.

comes from

its

reinforcing steel di-

Any shape can be created with concrete, a property used by the architect Antonio Gaudi to good effect.

ever, since concrete

has poor

tensile strength,

frequently

it

is

fe

used

for large

of

normal concrete with the high

tensile strength of steel. Simultaneously, concrete serves to protect

the steel from corrosion because

window

fronts,

is

waterproof

tration

a

GLASS FACADES do not supply any support

and composition.

tension

to the

framework

like

an

outer shell.

o >

In pre-

if)

is

are stable and resistant

to

extreme

set

in

concrete. This

sig-

nificantly increases the material's

strength

MODERN GLASSES

the right concen-

in

stressed concrete, steel under

structural feature.

structure. They cover the supporting

O O _i o z o LU

and concrete.

the high compressive strength

it

INSULATED GLASS

improves the bonding be-

steel

Reinforced concrete combines

engi-

in

especially

reinforced with steel.

modern

some

Putting a corrugated surface on the steel bars

high compressive strength. How-

sounds, but not so good at protect-

crete has

and the

in

called rebar. This usually has a

tween

good at insulating

ing against vibrations

areas that are

in

ameter of 0.2-0.5 inch (4-12 mm).

compressive strength, tensile strength,

use

called ferroconcrete

countries,

heavy, normal,

concrete based on

the concrete,

into

bending force. Reinforced concrete

There are many different kinds of concrete.

embedded

subjected to bending pressure or a

various

changed by adding other materials, for

reinforced concrete, steel bars

compared

with normal

reinforced concrete.

pressure, for example, people can walk on glass roofs.

Many office

towers have an inner framework that sup-

ports the facade

made

Construction With

out of glass.

Prefabricated Components

Glass Structures UNTIL A FEW YEARS AGO, windows were the points of entry for heat and sunlight in

houses. Today, insulating glass enables the use of glass on a large

scale, without in

it

Hence, the use of glass Glass

is

used

in

construction

in ceilings,

stead they are erected

offers a broad

spectrum

of pos-

of glass

do not provide any support;

buildings within a structural framework

fabricated concrete walls

and commercial complexes, indus-

the case of glass

trial units,

in-

in-

and soundproof walls.

They are also used

for

road divid-

canals and conduit systems,

are inserted directly

the

and construction time. The manu-

supporting

facturing of construction

a disadvantage of this type of construction

components are used, the

in

tion of individual

installa-

components

compo-

nents improves quality; however,

and bridges. When prefabricated

the

that

is

final

it

reduces variance

product.

is

21 st CENTURY

coordinated with the construction of the entire structure at the build-

TRANSLUCENT CONCRETE

ing site. While building a side, the

duction. The inclusion of transparent

domes, the sheets

in

pre-

for the construction of residential

ers,

made out of

purpose of providing an attractive front to the structure and to

sulate the building. In

in

now

facades, staircases, and balconies.

FRONTAL FACADES that are made out

steel for the

A factory made with steel and

forced concrete elements are used

leading to a waste of energy. Procedures have been developed

the past decade that improve the thermal insulation properties of glass.

sibilities:

Prefabricated concrete or rein-

wall

and

roof

components are put

materials allows

is in

pro-

new architectural

uses. steel structure.

together along with the window

and door openings. Even wood used

is

for construction with prefabri-

cated components. The glass

dome of

On the whole, the use

ing in Berlin

because

it

is

crete, itself

of prefabri-

the Reichstag build-

cated materials

SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE is more fluid than conventional con-

cost-effective

reduces labor costs

and

is

capable of reinforcing

without the use of vibrators.

PREFABRICATED STRUCTURAL components enable factory halls to

be completed

in

floors

and

a few days.

168

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

SKYSCRAPERS Height

comes

with

its

1853, THE ENGINEER Elisha Graves Otis introduced

IN

the

Skyscrapers combine height's popularity with economics.

own

set of dangers: thus safety

is

tal

an

first

safety elevator with a brake system

Palace

in

New

THE FASTEST ELEVATOR

ongoing and important concern.

the Crys-

in

York. is

the Taipei

38 mph (61.2 km/h) and a height

101

at a

of 1.667

speed of

ft

(508 m).

ALL SKYSCRAPERS have a system consisting of multiple Like with a timber-framed building (p.

166). a supporting framework

coordinated elevators.

is

and horizontal

girder

beams. As

bles

The

steel

frame as a

rule consists

of vertical, horizontal,

and cross-

sectional steel girders to which pre-

WITHOUT ELEVATORS stories.

DUETO A COMBINATION tems and

Vertical

supports

come

in

sev-

eral types: steel frames, con-

cores, tube within tube

The building of the investment company Lloyds of London.

.ign,

and mega-structures.

ie steel frames, vertical

jmns Skyscrapers are constructed on a steel frame with economics

with

immovable

space

is

of usable floor

used

cabin. For a short

span of time, safe

operation

is

to

possible with only one of

these cables. Furthermore, there

is

also a

mechanical brake system,

which

is

automatically activated

speed

limit is

exceeded and

if

if

the

there

is

wall

Tower

building.

safe elevators.

supports.

In

in

the Emirates

like

Dubai require

fast

and

the case of tube

possible

supporting cost.

support a

to ten cables are

tion of the

In

available at the

minimum

the saf-

means of mass transportation. Up

central por-

in

designed so that a maxi-

amount

use geared traction machines

the cabins. They operate with the help

of safety sys-

units, elevators are

High buildings

mum

lift

units are placed in the

mind. The geometry of the buildis

high-rise buildings

a power failure.

Q.

ing

in

of friction via a traction sheave.

external wall panels are added.

Reinforcing Systems

impossible to imagine buildings higher than a few

operated with an electric motor to

est

o LU

is

it

Modern elevators

cast reinforced concrete units and

o o

o to >

Elevators

di-

load vertically to the ground.

all

ca-

far

as possible, the vertical columns rect

suspended from multiple suspension and are secured with a brake system.

Elevators are

constructed with vertical columns

the building envelope

is

created

cylinders, controlled by a computer.

as a tubular cross-section. These

to adjust the actual position of

are considered to be the safest

the building.

the case of extremely

supporting frameworks for

high buildings, resisting

skyscrapers.

There are additional safety measures as

the horizontal load from wind

gency

well. Elevators

and emer-

exits are put in place

as well

Safety of Skyscrapers

as operated

the height of the building

Skyscrapers also need to withstand

forced shells. The control panels of

increases, the force of the

extraordinary loads,

those

aris-

the elevators are placed behind

wind increases exponentially,

ing from natural catastrophes,

fire,

thick steel walls to protect

is

a special challenge. As

not linearly.

It

must be

and attacks from

like

terrorists. Fire

in

fire-resistant rein-

them

from malfunctioning. There are also

spaces between the

precisely determined for

control regulations require that the

air

the proper design of the

basic support construction be able

prevent the spread of

structure.

to withstand the heat of a fire for

floors to

fire.

two to three minutes. Steel Frame

In

regions prone to earth-

Construction

quakes, skyscrapers need to be

Skyscrapers are predomi-

able to compensate for unpredict-

nantly built on a skeletal

able vibrations. They are con-

structure

made

structed on an elastic foundation

of steel.

that vibrates along with the earth

The 1,053-ft (321-m) hotel

without breaking. A newly devel-

in

Dubai has

The world's highest buildings:

Tai-

pei 101, Petronas Towers, Empire

Burj al-Arab

oped system detects visi-

P

ble supports.

....,

MhkfaUM

oscillations

and

State Building, Jin

Mao

Building,

Chrysler Building, Eiffel Tower

uses hydraulic

© see also: Chrysler Building. Architecture Chapter,

p.

409

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

ECOLOGICALLY FRIENDLY HOUSES Alarming reports about global warming, which

and gas prices have

led to energy-saving

is

21 ST CENTURY

caused by C0 2 emissions, and increasing

concerns

in

169

oil

A FLOATING ZERO EMISSION

was introduced

the field of house construction.

in

HOM OME

November 2005.

THREE RENEWABLE ENERGY sources. Solar energy with photovoltaic

Conventional houses have a yearly

Insulation and Construction

ported with an architectonic design

heating requirement ranging from

Materials

of the living spaces.

25,360-95,100

Btu/ft 2

kWh/m 2 Houses that

(80-300

Most

than 25,360 Btu/ft 2 (80

kWh/m 2

homes

from wood because

require less

).

eco-friendly

cially

)

it

are built

of

good design

room

has espe-

large glass

ward the south.

good insulating properties.

^^^^

are referred to as low-energy

An example

continued energy supply.

giving the living

is

MICROFILTRATION

windows facing tothe case of

In

less than three liters of fuel per

suffices to generate a

square meter and generally have a

comfortable room tem-

heating requirement of less than

12,680

purifies dirty

can be drained

water

into the wa-

The bedrooms,

perature.

with small windows,

).

Passive-energy houses have a

face to the north. Most

yearly heating requirement of less

eco-homes use solar

2

O

energy and photovoltaic

than 4,750 Btu/ft (15 kWh/nr).

equipment on the Plus-Energy Houses

In this

The surface covering insulates the eco-home; windows allow the sun's rays to enter.

large

Plus-energy houses use photovoltaic

it

passive-energy houses, this kind of solar heating

kWh/m 2

so that

ter system.

houses. "Three-liter houses" use

Btu/ft 2 (40

cells,

heat pumps, and pellet fuel ensure a

is It is

energy can be given to a public

because

power supply system.

rial.

o

case, the direc-

tion of the roof's surface

equipment and produce more

energy than they use. The surplus

roof.

toward the south.

also environmentally friendly is

it

a renewable raw mate-

For the roof and outer walls,

Housing Technology In

o

addition to solar technology, ven>-

Plus-energy houses and other eco-friendly

homes

attribute their

good energy balance to excellent insulation

insulating elements like cellulose

tilation

made from

heating systems that use geother-

and housing technology

scrap paper or

hemp

178) can be included.

(p.

systems with heat recovery,

air to the required level.

mal energy, rainwater harvesting

Triple-glazed insulating

windows

as well as architecture that favors

allow sunlight to enter, but at the

the use of alternative energy

same time,

sources (pp. 174-175).

released. This effect can be sup-

prevent heat from being

units,

and solar water heating are

cal building

attempts to find the

important components of eco-

best possible way of saving energy

homes. Wastewater recovery

and using renewable raw materials.

sys-

tems use heat from 6,0 'C

wastewater to heat up

6

Heat Pumps HEAT PUMPS can make use of water, earth, In

air.

fresh water.

4

and sun as sources

of energy.

a closed system, a refrigerant absorbs the heat from the environment

in

a compressor.

In this

sure reduction occurs

heat

is

The pressure

of the

refrigerant

is

increased by

process, the temperature increases more. Finally, pres-

when the vapor goes through the expansion

released to the surroundings

liquefied

gaseous

in

valve.

The

the condenser. The freezing agent

is

once again and can reabsorb heat. In

I

Ecological Building

an

evaporator. A temperature difference of about 16°F (9°C) can cause the liquid refrigerant to vaporize.

the condenser, the refrigerant re-

leases heat to water to

make heat

not restrict

the

itself to

-2

energy balance of -4

houses. The entire

"life

cycle" of a building

must

y7.0

cal building begins with

above: Trie infrared scan reveals points, colored

procurement

in red,

of basic

water.

construction materials

and the manufacture

where heat

components used

acts as

of

ergy of the refrigerant, which

building.

stored

in

the tank. About

75%

comes from the environment and 25% from the of energy

compressor's power supply.

It

in

boat.

takes into

consideration both the use and

reuse of building materials.

The recycling and

restora-

tion of construction materials In

the evaporator, the refrigerant ab-

sorbs heat from the ground surface.

after the demolition of a

house

is

also a goal. Ecologi-

is lost.

below: "Living on water"— This zero emission

a house-

A compressor increases the enis

2

Ecological building does

be considered. Ecologi-

and hot

x

The ventilation system heats fresh

home

-6

170

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

Energy production

ENERGY

IS the basis of

FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PHYSICS, is

a complex pro-

Since the discovery of

cess of manifold changes.

and of the aims

Alternative energy sources

|

followed by coal and electricity during the industrial revolution.

added

In

use make

for its

developments that promote the use

of

impetus

primarily for heating, transportation, electrical production

niques a necessity.

©

is

one of the leading issues facing the

and the operation

new techconsumed

for

renewable energy sources. Energy

the implementation of various tech-

The energy supply

in-

the 1950s, nuclear power was

to the mix. Today, dwindling reserves of fossil fuels are providing the

nological

become

sources of energy included wood and water power,

efficient. Early

into effect.

THE CHARACTER of the energy carriers

Nuclear technology

|

technologies for the production and use of energy have

fire,

creasingly more complex and

TECHNICAL SYSTEMS put these changes

Fossil fuels

|

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

the industrialized nations.

the use of energy

Energy transport and storage

|

existence of

is

of machinery.

future.

ENERGY PRODUCTION 500-

Energy

is

not actually "produced," but merely transformed.

transformation of kinetic energy into

electricity,

One example

of this

is

the

according to the principle of induction.

> o Energy can be present forms. For example,

o LU

chemically

made

in

it

in

Energy Efficiency

energy transformers. Energy pro-

various

can be stored

gasoline and then

duction refers to

when energy from

a natural resource (such as coal)

available for use through the

process of combustion. A pendulum

is

converted into a form that can be

used by the general public

easily

According to the

first

law of thermodynamics (p.

152), the

of energy

in

amount a closed World

already set

in

motion has kinetic

(such as

o

energy, while a tensed spring has

to >-

potential energy. Electricity

I

system remains con-

electricity).

The resulting energy can then

stant

Germany

spite of transfor-

in

During the past is

be employed

consid-

ered one of the most refined forms

tion,

for a particular applica-

such as to start up and run a

mations.

a system

If

(such as a laboratory

predict that

Q. of energy, since

it

can be trans-

ported efficiently and

is

used

computer. Technological devices that are

for

a wide variety of applications.

Energy Production and Use

to

produce

in

machine, or the

couples

outside,

the production of elec-

and furnaces

(for

the pro-

duction of heat). Devices that use

all

technological devices that produce

energy include electric motors,

or use energy can be viewed as

lights,

and ovens.

it

will

increase even

more

rapidly

Earth's atmosphere)

does not release any energy to the

(for

world energy con-

the future.

energy include generators, thermo-

tricity),

From the perspective of physics,

commonly used

flask, a

40 years,

sumption has more than doubled. Experts

its

total

decrease; that

used up or

energy cannot

is, it

destroyed, but rather transformed

movement and

into

heat. Similarly,

energy cannot be produced from

cannot be

nothing, but can be only converted

lost.

When any amount

of gasoline

used, the energy contained

is

is

not

into a

form that

(such as

is

useful to people

electricity).

Types of Energy Transformation GENERATORS-PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION:

When

a wire

is

held against the positive

side of a magnet, the positive tive

the magnet

its

phase windings

ELECTRIC MOTOR: A motor operates

Turning ring with

permanent magnets

site

and nega-

is

it

becomes

magnet

polarized.

now turned and

The

effect

is

is

is

like

a generator, only

in

the oppo-

applied to a spool of wire, produc-

magnetic properties. Inside the spool

second magnetized spool. Because the alternating

is

a

cur-

the inner magnet or spool

is

forced to change direction repeatedly and thus turns. This motion

is

changes

its polarity,

then transferred to gears where

and negative charges within the wire

switch sides: electricity

or a

rent constantly

held with

negative side toward the wire, the posi-

tive

sense. An alternating current

ing an electrical field with

charges inside the wire move away

from each other as If

Stators with three-

it

is

used

to run a device,

such as an

electric vehicle.

Cables of the

starting to flow!

battery

heightened when the wire

is

wrapped around a spool and the magnet

is

Squirrel-cage rotor

anchored

within the spool

and

Magnet

rapidly ro-

tated-this

is

WIND GENERATORS: The is

rotor of a windmill

turned by the wind. The rotor

is

con-

nected to an axle, which also turns, and on

how generators

the end

work.

field of

erator.

is

a magnet within the magnetic

a spool of wire: an electrical gen-

A transformer converts electricity to Coil

a desired voltage.

Rotor head

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY TRANSPORT AND STORAGE A

demand,

this

fulfill

KNOWLEDGE

INSIDER

communications-based society demands universally available energy.

highly mobile

In

order to

a wide variety of technical devices are used.

171

ENERGY STORED

100G0F0IL.

IN

REPRESENTS 1 kilowatt-hour or 3600 kilojoules

Energy

where

is it

energy. Radiation energy

not always available

is

needed, and thus

must

it

is

be transported. An example of this can be seen

in

ity

intended to

tively easily

pendulum

slowed by

EQUALS the solar power of 1 hour

air resistance,

IS

some

of energy, however,

is

ENOUGH

Energy Storage

IS

Aside from making

USED up

in

3 minutes by a

CAN BE produced by a person in 100 hours on a home e/erc/se machine

storing energy can also

not so simple.

produce 200 hours of

continuous-flow water heater

it

easier for transport,

other kinds

to

an energy-saving bulb

light with

rela-

in

summer

giving off heat.

over power lines. The

transportation of

in

on a square meter of ground

electric-

can be moved

energy found

is

serve many house-

holds. Electricity

to

through dissipa-

lost

tion; a

a power plant that

produces large amounts of

EQUIVALENT

1,200 granola bars

Toothed gears can transport kinetic energy, as Sunlight, for instance, rectly

cannot be

di-

captured and transported. To

solve this problem, engineers

easier to transport. For instance,

sunlight

is

used

to split

water into

perhaps

to a city. There, the hydro-

gen can be used to run stalled

in

fuel cells

way

a vehicle. By

in-

of these

transformations, solar energy can

created by this process

be used to operate a

in

is

trans-

and wherever tricity in

is

>-

C5

of additional possibilities. For

example,

batteries or dry cells, or as a

if

energy

is

used

to

lift

water with a pump, the result

charge within a capacitor. Transforinto

usage

electricity

O

and back from other

stored potential energy

forms of energy offers a multitude

pressurized containers,

Va OF THE DAILY

a U.S. household, not counting

needed. Elec-

can be stored galvanically

mation

car.

it

IS in

heating

ergy for use whenever

hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen

ported

for other rea-

sons, such as saving en-

must

convert the energy into a form that is

be useful

shown by this enormous generator component for a future wind power facility.

in

the form

of increased water pressure.

Transporting Energy To transport

cables

in

O copper

electricity,

When

wire),

some

Superconductors

rent,

in

applications of this principle are

at

temperatures

far

below zero.

In

addition, the production of super-

conducting alloys titanium)

is

(like

conductors are used to build highly sensitive

and

measurement devices

friction-free

housings for gen-

erators and flywheels, as well as

in

is

cur-

effi-

-297°F(-183°C).

COMMON FORMS

of

the

same

space,

possible.

amount

energy storage include batteries and dry

devices, electrical energy

of energy.

is

stored

in

cells. In

these

a chemical form. Previously, relatively

low-performance nickel-cadmium batteries were widely used. These batteries are

now being outlawed

in

many

countries because of their environmen-

ciently transported to the desired tally

destination

(p.

harmful components.

150). Negative

Positive

electrode

pole

RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES

are be-

Energy Loss During

coming increasingly popular

Transformation

Lithium-ion batteries,

Regardless of the form

energy

in

used

which

is

to

transported, the second

power laptops and

cell

mance. The next generation

the energy

(p.

some

are currently

of

ful

power-

units. All

rechargeable batteries must be

can be transported

charged using devices specially de-

same time

the kinetic energy

through

among the most

mobile energy storage

152). For instance,

signed for them.

using gears, belts, or chains. However, at the

of these

devices— lithium polymer batteries-

energy transformations (almost) always involve a loss of

instead.

commonly

phones, offer especially good perfor-

law of thermodynamics states that

kinetic energy

barium, and copper, which becomes a superconductor at

in

Dry Cells and Batteries

is

converted

and lower

so that power can be

communications technology. above: A mixed oxide of yttrium,

constantly improving the

more energy

into a different state.

niobium-

very expensive. Super-

hour.

AA-size batteries store a limited

hindered by the fact that super-

conducting properties only occur

is

one

order

they conduct electricity without losing energy. However, technical

for

making longer running portable devices

of the electrical

to a higher voltage

with no electrical resistance. Thus,

BATTERY TECHNOLOGY capability to store

to a loss in energy.

Low-voltage electricity

Superconductors are substances

this

(in

minimize these losses, energy

transformed

is

friction into

>-

4.000 mA/h can Q.

energy to heat. Therefore, to

with a capacity of

volts,

"uses" electricity by

itself

converting

cell

power a 60-watt device

the resistance of the

conductor leads

The wire

a dry

electricity

flows through a conductor

case a

CAPACITY: With an operating potential of 15

the form of high-tension

wires are used.

O

is

a portion of

converted

unwanted heat

If

not. they

come overloaded and

\t

Negative pole

even explode.

catch

may fire

beor

172

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

COAL, OIL, AND NATURAL GAS As energy sources, trialized world.

the

demand

fossil fuels

PRODUCTION

form the backbone

However, the technical efforts required to satisfy

for

these resources are constantly increasing.

oil

and 95.3

m

3

1

BARREL (BBL) = ca 42

)

was used as

Earth

sive use

oil

The

fuel.

of fossil fuels

from the inten-

as an energy

source began during the industrial revolution.

Today coal, natural gas.

and especially

oil

tion of

economies.

industrial

all

These substances are used

many

heat and producing

Oil

has by

Oil

electricity.

fuel,

Before

formed ever,

for

oil

in

the Magellan Strait, Chile

and Natural Gas Production

into

their

oil

and natural gas on land and

combined reserves Based on

at sea.

should

tons).

the chemical indus-

USING PIPES equipped with diamond-tipped

last for

another

heads,

drill

it's

refined. In a

natural pressure

is

often

enough

to bring

up the

oil.

crude a

Tree Store?

oil,

branches each year using C0 2 water,

approximately

44

stores

(20 kg) of

lb

CO. while also giving In

it

off

oxygen.

order to convert Germany's en-

tire

current CO- production (some

200

lighter

and

tar.

first,

deep

the depos-

pumps or injec-

Later,

procedures as the reserve

depleted. Even with the latest technology, an

is

then

cannot be

ploited:

distillation be-

the

and heavier com-

oil

oil

ex-

fully

some 20-40% remains

of

the

in

ground. Pipelines or tanker ships transport the natural

To improve engine per-

and

oil

gas to refineries

where they are processed

,

and nutrients from the

During this process,

soil.

its

oil is

fields lying

followed by complicated special

ponents: gasoline, diesel, heating

(40 kg) of leaves and

lb

The resulting

separated through

tween

An average tree produces about

88

oil.

billion

may be needed,

field

How Much C0 2 Does

(160

tions of water or natural gas

removed from

refinery, sulfur is

oil

oil

40 to 50 years.

under the surface of the Earth or the sea can be exploited. At

usable energy, how-

re-

Producing countries estimate

at approximately 1.2 billion barrels of

this figure, the supply

heat source, and

can be used or trans-

must be

it

serves of

far the greatest impor-

raw material try.

Q-

platform

TENS OFTHOUSANDS OF PRODUCTION FACILITIES worldwide tap the Earths

Oil

i

production with

ing fueling vehicles, generating

tance as a

o

oil

for

different applications includ-

Production and Use

LU

= 300 lbs

I)

decreasing reserves cannot continue for long.

form the founda-

o _i o z o

(159

gal

oil.

THE MIRACLE OF RISING ancient times,

in

billion ft3 (2.7 billion

of natural gas per year.

(136 kg) of

Even

some four

of fossil fuels worldwide:

million tons of

of the indus-

formance and reduce wear, various substances are added

further so as to

to gasoline.

make

the

product useable.

Coal, on the other hand, often

before

it

component

rated into their

substances.

is

it

natural

gas are purified and sepa-

can be used. With so-

called "cracking" techniques,

and

In refineries, oil

needs only a mechanical cleaning

million tons per year) into

wood and oxygen. 254,827

ft

2

(66 million hectares) of forest

would be needed.

In reality,

the

country has only about

38.610

ft-

forested.

on land and

in

above:

(all

plants

power

However, this process

ve-

larly,

uneconomical.

85-98

movement

ergy into

is

complex and currently

Natural gas contains

gines. for instance, convert this en-

per-

electricity

(p.

154). Simi-

production

in

many

same amount of fuel. These power plants are therefore highly efficient

and reduce the

power plants begins with the com-

of fossile fuels. This

bustion of fuel. The energy stored

as

filtering

consumption

total

is

as important

the emissions, as the

the water) stores

approximately 2.5

CO^each

hicles.

for instance to

technically

The world's

entire plant biosphere

also possible to produce liquid fuel

from coal,

billion

tons of

year.

Smoke from

the

RWE

company's Neurath power plant

cent methane, along with other hy-

within the fuel

drocarbons, carbon dioxide, and

verted into heat, which turns water

sometimes helium. For easier transport and for use as a fuel,

compressed and

into it

partly liquefied.

steam. The high pressure gen-

turn a turbine. tion

ing this compression

produces

many

for

is

purposes, includ-

The turbine's

house

effect.

"PEAK OIL"

is

the point at which

production reaches

principle of induction (p. 170). Thus,

"

lomesor

;

swimming

ru>

oil.

or natural

gas must undergo numerous trans-

pools.

ormations before

rm of

Energy Production

:ity

it

can be used

electricity.

production, excess heat

is

The chemically stored

also given off. This heat

transferred to other locations, for

gasoline and

other fuels

and used

is

in

released

various

ways. Combustion en-

in

During elec-

energy

in

the

rota-

through the

the energy from coal.

into

atmosphere, causing the green-

used to

then drives a generator, which electricity

combustion releases C0 2

ble level

its

can be

oil

highest possi-

and then begins

Experts expect Peak

i^Tj^f:

Huge power shovels used in brown coal mining can remove up to 240,000 tons of coal and rock each day.

released and con-

erated from this process

The heat produced dur-

process can be used

"5V

is

is

to decline.

Oil to

be

reached between 2007 and 2020.

From

that point on.

oil

prices

will rise

sharply.

OIL IS

THE PRICE LEADER amongen-

ergy resources:

When

oil

the prices for natural gas

prices

rise,

and coal

also increase.

example

to heat buildings. This pro-

cess of power-heat coupling or cogeneration

makes

better use of the

AN ENERGY CRISIS LOOMS: Rising prices and energy shortages cause difficulties for

ture:

tively decline.

© see also: Fossil Resources. Earth Chapter, p. 76

business and agricul-

standards of living

will

reac-

ENERGY TEC

NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION In its

early days, nuclear technology raised

dangers were recognized.

Nuclear technology

hopes

of unlimited energy. Soon, however,

nevertheless remains a

It

component

of the

derived from this heat

based on

is

its

potential

energy supply.

then used

is

»

to drive turbines

the fact that the splitting (fission)

amounts

of energy

151). To

(p.

rgpwz

initi-

is

with neutrons.

When

«

•

a neutron hits an atomic nucleus at just the right speed,

it

Reactor types can be differentiated

^33r

proton neutron

causes

1

Types of Reactors

s

•

TH

such as uranium or plutonium.

bombarded

"

^#

ate this process, fissionable material,

and generators.

\a

of atomic nuclei releases large

„

—

based on the materials used

3

— *&

rods, coolant,

as the organization of the

well

BtiOfl

for

Nuclear Fusion

and moderators, as

a nuclear fusion process, such

In

fis-

as that which occurs within the

sion process. Boiling water reactors

sun, small atomic nuclei

the nucleus to break apart. The

Diagram of a chain reaction

have only one cooling

in

nuclear fission

breakup produces smaller atoms, additional free neutrons

cycle:

the

same water that cools the

reactor

also drives the turbines

the form

in

and energy. The released neutrons

of steam. Pressurized water reac-

can then

tors,

split

other nuclei, thus

unleashing a chain reaction.

deuterium and

together. This can only

when

and secondary

material

is in

a

(e.g.,

fused

happen

plasma state

an extremely hot temperature,

at

since the nuclei repel each other

on the other hand, have sepa-

rate primary

tritium) are

at lower temperatures. This pro-

circula-

O O _J o

cess could theoretically be used tion systems. In "fast breeder"

Technical Operation In tor.

reactors, liquid

used as a coolant. During the

the core of a nuclear reac-

a process of controlled atomic

fission

sodium metal

takes place. The fissionable

on Earth to release enormous

is

amounts

fis-

entists

find a controlled fusion process,

"breeds" additional fissionable ma-

which produces more energy than

terial,

connected together

more energy from a given amount

bundles.

In

to

sion process, this type of reactor

material takes the form of fuel rods in

of energy. However, sci-

have not yet been able

consumed

is

thus obtaining significantly

is

It

estimated that another 50

years

order to slow the neutrons to the

of uranium. Pebble-bed reactors,

appropriate speed, moderators,

which use helium as a coolant,

such as water or graphite, are used.

have spherical units of fissionable

to create the plasma.

is

needed

until this

technol-

ogy has matured sufficiently to be

used

for electricity production.

The concrete sarcophagus around Control rods slow

Reactor Block 4 of the Soviet nu-

down

or stop the

chain reaction

which exploded in 1986. The accident exposed millions of people to

energy arising from nuclear fission

and thousands

is

died.

collected

in

above: Experimental plasma

when needed. The

clear power plant in Chernobyl,

radiation,

material instead of rods.

ity

for

nuclear fusion

in

facil-

Germany

Risks of Nuclear Technology

The

the form of heat by a

coolant substance. Kinetic energy

different types of reactors pres-

ent various kinds of hazards. With

generate poses dangers for thou-

sands of years.

boiling water reac-

A Pressurized Water Reactor

tors, a

defect

in

the

turbine housing can

THE FIRST REACTOR type

was placed

;'

this

Reactor housing

spite of

the

all

allow radioactively

nuclear energy

contaminated water

tinue.

from the primary

into

Secondary

operation

in the late 1950s Today, some 250 power plants and 600 ships (including subma-

In

risks,

the use of

10-16 ft (3-5 m) truck reinforced concrete walls

in

Future of Nuclear Power

•

coolant circula tion

system

Containment

cir-

will

Research

more

is

probably con-

being conducted

effective safety

culation system to es-

nisms and more

cape

of fissionable material.

mecha-

efficient utilization

structure

rines) are

equipped with pres-

surized water reactors. This

makes these

into the environ-

ment.

reactors the

In

pebble-bed

is

wide. Their average electricity

heated to more

production ranges from one

than 1832°F

to two gigawatts.

(1000°C).

The newly

developed European Pressurized Reactor. EPR. which

is

scheduled

in

operation

to

in

be placed

2010.

is

If it

comes

into contact with ter,

it

wa-

THE HALF-LIFE of a material time

it

ity to

be released. The

is

the

takes for half of its radioactiv-

is

nium-238

over four

is

half-life

30 years,

cesium-137

of

while ura-

billion years.

can abruptly va-

MEASUREMENT of radioactive decay porize

a pres-

and cause an

Generator Primary coolant

surized water reactor.

INSIDER KNOWLEDGE

reactors, the helium

most common type world-

circulation

explosion. Even

when

system

Condensor Primary water

pump

Electrical

power

grid

done with a Geiger counter. The measurement unit is the becquerel: is

reactors are function-

lBq

= decay of 1 nucleus per sec.

ing properly, the ra-

GRAY

(GY)

dioactive waste they

the emitted energy of radioactive decay.

© see also: Atoms. Chemistry Chapter, p. 131

is

the

One Gray

is

measurement

for

one Joule per kg.

o

174

ENE

SOLAR TECHNOLOGY The sun's radiation can be transformed

energy-

into useful

without the release of harmful emissions. Developing solar

technologies

is

now the

subject of intense research.

technology

is

make this energy

to

useful to people. to

make use

were possible

If it

of the sun's entire

energy output, around 2.500 times more energy would be available than

is

used around

the world today. 10. 7

The Pros and Cons

of Solar

Technology >C5

O X o LU I-

O z < o > I

(J O

O

com-

role

Research and development aim at making computers more

puters play

in

a single

also high-end.

COMPUTER COMPUTE TECHNOLOGY

INSIDER

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER The spectrum of computer types

components

selection of

in

broad, but

is

its

components are few

basic

in

KNOWLEDGE

THE PERFORMANCE of processors

number. The

has been doubling

a computer determines the efficiency of the system.

itself

businesses and

their

way

homes

into

components

of the computer's

all

the early

in

communicate

each

with

other.

1980s. The architecture of various

BIOS (Basic Input Output System)

computing systems was different

present

in

a small chip

is

the moth-

erboard and

back then, but

is

a

small program

they have

many similarities with

in

volumes of data quickly

The

that provides

access to the

the

programs or games) Data

is

ple conductors.

is

of informa-

bus can transfer

in

a local area network (LAN) or the ternet,

modems and

In-

network cards (p.

186).

computer. Even the processor, the

Large computers are used by big

central

companies and government agen-

puter,

cies as high-performance central

board, which

computers that can be accessed multaneously by

many

users. Even

of the

same components as

computing

is

is

is

unit of the

com-

are achieved by using compact

components, which are often more

is

carries out

most

a

"mobile" processors that perform during low current consumption.

PC cards allow expansion cards

efficiency of

quickly

is

available to the processor

loaded

the main

in

ory.

programs that need

If

the main

memory

motherboard, through which almost

mem-

role in

Cable connection

the history of the development of the

between the individual elements

duced by Apple

Inc. in

the

first intro-

nections,

many different devices

is

small,

and supplied

to

be more easily attached. Even

more miniaturized than laptops are handheld computers, personal

the computer

with power.

to process large

digital

computers (PDAs), and

mobile telephones.

of a

Computer Tower: casing for

•

•

CD-ROM

all

components

device, such as a graphical tablet for

the user to draw on. was

to With universal serial bus (USB) con-

can be connected

Components

computer. The use of a graphical input

operating time

and

printed circuit board called the

PLAYED a decisive

much

laptops are equipped with special

computing operations, hence

made

Hard drive

drive a

1980s and

Flash with

memory chip

BIOS

only later by other companies. Apple

computers were superior sonal computers

in

the

to other per-

Motherboard

field of graphiVentilator for cooling

cal processing for a longtime. At pres-

ent.

Apple

Inc.

the circuit board

can continue to claim

superiority in the field of personal

computing. They recently brought out the

Mac

mini; a

16.5

x

16.5

x

memory

•

5.1 cm) and

all

Processor

."

the funcThere are different

tions of a normal computer. Adjust-

ments

Sound card

desktop computer

with a size of only 6.5 x 6.5 x 2 inches (

Internal

to their operating system

and

hardware make Apple computers less susceptible to system crashes.

Graphic card

.

connections

for

the

monitor, keyboard,

Power connection with transformer

X o

efficient battery. In order to

the most important determinant

be is

normal components.

O

as possible without recharging,

the entire system. Data that has to

A central element of computers

an

achieve as

cooled by a fan.

of the character

Elementary Components

INC.

as possible. The small dimensions

A further requirement for mobility

attached to the mother-

The processor

si-

personal computers.

APPLE

ers have to be as small and light

costly than

as for personal

these use the

Miniaturized Systems for

Mobile Computers

a

To be transportable, laptop comput-

are attached to the bus

use as typewriters and recreation.

MHz

3800 MHz

rate

order to connect a computer to

cards with a high-performance with realistic images.

1993 -Cyrix 486-33-100

MHz

significantly de-

pendent on the amount

In

games

The transfer

within the system

unit of time.

cations as well

1985 -Intel 80386-12-30

2007 -Intel Pentium 4 Prescott-

nents of the

3D-microchip provide even real-time

video

run slowly.

necting device consisting of multi-

today. Personal

used primarily

(i.e.,

MHz

1999 —Advanced Micro Devices K7 Athlon-500-1200 MHz

tion that the

for office appli-

to

components through a bus, a con-

hardware compo-

High-end graphic

will

exchanged between the

computers of

computers are

18

every

24 months. 1971 -Intel 4004-0.1

Computers made

181

mouse, loudspeaker, network cable, external drives. ory.

USB-mem-

and much more.

CO

o

to

'J,

182

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES Input and output devices enable people to

how

chines

still

Output Devices

huge ma-

buttons were used to input num-

is

the monitor.

bers and mathematical operations

with graphical displays of results. Editing text

observing sets of control

ple,

borrowed from

lights.

a "monitor"

It

was

and

and Output Devices

presents the user

t

I

while the outputs were followed by

was years before

pictures, for

Normally, the user sits near the

computer and interacts with only

exam-

the screen, mouse, and keyboard,

would be impossible without

using only

the monitor. The bulky cathode

air traffic control

ray

clearly. Teleprinters

on the screen,

o o

tion of the keyboard.

input

and output devices was

rected toward

_ I-

Q z < o > I

(LCDs).

The continued development

ers

to

"sandwich" of polarizing

di-

making the comput-

more ergonomic.

adapted

i.e.,

The amount

through

of light passing through a

of

and

more

liquid crystals is

applying an electric

tors,

were optimized

in this

way because

for

simulators.

in

virtual

a pseudo-environment,

as for instance

simulators

in flight

for pilot training.

field.

simula-

In

The operating

instruments and display devices,

thinking patterns. Less fatigue, pre-

and simple operations

in

computers generate

events

filters

determined by

human movement and

cise control,

example,

limitations of a monitor are broken

displays

light in liquid crystal

for

the perception of the user. The

Diodes constantly generate

probably

of their senses.

such as the movement of icons

tubes are increasingly being

served as models for the introduc>-

seme

Actions take place symbolically,

stations to represent outputs

more

determining

Simulators: Complex Input

The most important output device

the 1960s. Levers and

in

critical in

can work with the computer.

effectively a user

Computers were

communicate with the computer's processor. These devices are

huge amounts of data had

to

be

replaced with flalscxeens.

which are available to a

Other output devices are oud-

real cockpit,

l

entered as quickly and as simply

speakers^which have been part

as possible.

of

Input Devices

net can be considered to be an

The most important input device

output device that contains

a

output devices. Simulators are technically complex but are effec-

standard equipment since the

1990s, and the griDtez The

pilot in

serve as input and

tive learning tools

Inter-

because of their

0_

is

the keyboard^ which enables an

operator to type give the tions.

the case of a

mouse, a

Virtual

differently in every coun-

Touch pads and trackballs have

CYBERSPACE scenarios

the motion of the casing by the user.

Two perpendicular axes,

to

which perforated discs are

fas-

tened, rotate with the

The

light of

ball.

sensor.

If

an axis

of light that falls

is

rotated, the ray

on the sensor

interrupted again

light"

as a

is

and again. The

sensor sends the state "no

light

"light" or

digital signal to

the

signals received from the two

axes, the mouse's pointer on the

screen

is

virtual

worlds as

re-

as possible by way

Headphones produce 3D sound effects.

use the movements that

The goal

The movement of the users

computers and tamper-proof computer terminals

in libraries

ums. Public computers

or

like

muse-

those

is

to

moved.

people normally engage

in

(running, grasping, looking

around) as input to be

inter-

preted and responded to

provided at railway stations and

movie theaters

to

buy tickets use

with actions world.

in

the virtual

The input and output

touch screens instead of a key-

should encompass as many

board. The touch screens give

senses and movements as

very clear

on how

and

explicit instructions

possible.

to operate the computer.

Game pads

have been developed

as input devices, especially

for

Force feedback: Motors are

placed ple, in

certain

gaming consoles.

information

is

Optical

in joysticks, for

exam-

order to simulate the

sense of touch.

recorded through

scanners, and acoustic information

above: Mechanics of a computer

are also used for the operation of phonetically controlled computers.

inductive mats on the floor use the position of the foot

as

is

captured

through cameras.

device. They are used for laptop

through microphones. Microphones

mouse

and

alistically

of computers.

computer. From the number of light

Worlds

are

the mouse, another important input

a diode shines through the

holes of the discs onto a

the entertainment industry.

used to represent nonexist-

_I

mechanical

moved through

ball is

in

The characters are arranged

ing

In

Simulators are also widely used

possible connections.

instruc-

been developed as alternatives for

The Mouse

many

reality.

characters and

computer many

somewhat try.

in

accurate simulation of

input.

Visors have monitors instead of lenses.

OMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

STORAGE MEDIA The security of data nication.

is

What

There are a variety of

and properties

of

modern age of commudifferent physical phenomena

important

in this

matter that are used

for this

The smallest memory

unit

is

a

Is a

bit

Megabyte?

and can have two values

be represented by two charges (positive and negative).

purpose.

the characters of a PC-keyboard.

all

this

purpose 8

256 is

In

and

(0

1) that

can

order to represent

characters need to be encoded. For

are called a byte since (2 s =

bits

256

to 255).

or

A megabyte

1 million bytes. However, since com-

High technological standards are

(DVDs) have been available and

set for data storage. Increasingly,

are more efficient. High-Definition

1 megabyte = 2 20 = 1.048,576 bytes

DVDs (HD DVD) and

the units used for computers. Around

larger quantities of

data must be

of time.

The medium of storage has

and

tion

up to 50

offer

many sys-

hard disk drives with a

tems—all this at an attractive price.

GB memory

connection

(p.

181). Hard disk

Standard Mobile Storage Media

all

Floppy disks and Zip disks (flexible

special reading devices.

have been replaced to a

large extent by

with read-only

A 1 GB memory chip can

can be saved

memory (CD-ROMs).

USB mem-

memory (mem-

and reprogrammed) and have

Since 1996. Digital Versatile Discs

many gigabytes and

capacities of

a

USB

connection. They are small

and simple

MANY PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

memory size

to handle.

save information.

produce

O

several times higher In

the search for

Storage Media With Special

storage media that can withstand nuclear attacks, data has been

the primary storage or main

is

only temporarily saved for quicker

implanted into bacteria as

if it

was

genetic information. The data can

processing. Even graphic and video

be read unmodified even after hun-

order to represent a 'zero' or

cards have their own main memory.

dreds of generations of the bacte-

BIOS, by contrast,

ria. It

/s

that storage material

"640 KB should be enough -Bill Gates,

for everybody."

manent memory

is

in

a kind of per-

which the man-

remains to be seen

if

this

ambitious research ever results

in

founder of Microsoft. 1981 ufacturer stores important system

Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) photo of a hard disk with grooves for magnetic data storage

a marketable product.

data. This data cannot nor-

mally be modified by

Physics of Data Storage

the users.

Memory

that allows only the

HARD DISK can be compared

next to

one another. The

to a

huge

field of

aligned bar

magnets placed

polarization of the smallest magnetic units (north or

reading but not the saving of data

is

called read-

south) represents the digital status "zero" or "one." The smallest storage units of a

USB memory

either

ROM

stick are tiny transistors (electronic switches, p.

conduct or block currents. Information

as indentations called lands and

one-bit land

optical disks, a laser

which

is

pits

is

stored

in

184) that

the surface of a CD-

and scanned by a

laser

beam. A

has a width of around 300 nanometers (three ten-thousandths

a millimeter) and can contain one is

used

bit of

information.

In

of

the case of magneto-

only

memory (ROM). On

the other hand, hard disks

and USB memory

use

sticks

CD-ROMS and DVDs

random-access memory (RAM)

common medium

are the most

of storage.

that can save data.

to modify the magnetic state of the data medium.

a ferromagnetic material sealed beneath a plastic coat.

Development

of

More

ideas for data storage are being

A Japanese

research group hangs optical storage

plastic balls of

its

hopes on

medium

which

in

500 nanometer di-

ameters are provided with a

fluores-

cent colorant. A section of the is

KNOWLEDGE

MAXIMUM CAPACITY and novel

efficient materials

actively researched.

an

INSIDER

New Storage

Technologies

USB memory stick

co

o co > o_

'one."

A

a

DNA molecules and

translated into

must

THE PRESUMPTION in

will

Tasks

memory of the motherboard, data

of materials can be

Using this method

than a DVD's.

In

have two forms

store the

equivalent of two million pages of text.

ory that can be electrically erased

to

of high quality video

one megabyte.

computer systems without any

ory sticks use flash

compact discs

used

seconds of

USB

drives can be connected to almost

disks)

in

with a faster access time are

as possible, allow for quick access, for

of pure text. 7

storage. Multi-sided devices in

and be connectable

powers of two.

in

uncompressed music, or a quarter-second

be as compact and transportable

memory comes

2.000 pages

(BD) were developed as competi-

securely stored over a long period

to

puter

Blu-ray Discs

183

modified during saving

way that the colorant

ball

in

such a

lights

up dur-

ing reading—every ball

is

a

bit.

of different stor-

age media: 3.5 INCH DISC: 1.4

MB

100

to

750

MB

CD-ROM: 650

to

900

MB

ZIP DISK:

FLASH MEMORY CARD (COMPACT DISC): 4

DVD:

4.

MB to 16 GB

7 to 17

GB

BLU-RAY DISC (BOTH LAYERS): up

to

50 GB USB STICK (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS 16 MB to over 100 GB

STICK):

184

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS Electronic

components are the basic elements

inside

computers and

many

munications. Highly complex circuits are combinations of

The electronic components used

components are assembled. Each

a computer have different operating voltages.

In

component

the operation of a

currents can

damage the

such a diode

is

to the

directly

device.

it

flow,

tance of the

containing the

From the Enormous

tronic

assembled with tweezers.

Knowledge

components designed

field of

In

Older components have contacts

the form of small legs, which are

for dif-

in

the

stuck to the circuit board through

power electronics, compo-

nents with high voltage and current

Components

of the function of individual

understanding of electronic (LEDs) and

in

circuits.

of a Processor

components

is

Diodes exist as light-emitting diodes

other forms. Diodes allow current to enter

in

one

direction but

Diodes are also used

and connected by

o >

decrease voltages, as

in

function.

in

automated assembly

nology called surface mounted de-

development, control, and repair of

vices (SMDs).

SMD components,

which were developed

more components

in

order to

lines. In

fit

fine tools, soldering stations,

soldered directly to the surface of a

testing devices.

printed circuit board. Printed circuit

Electronic

components are very

fluctuations.

sensitive to static charges

called electronic sensitive devices

do not just

If

but can also

limit current,

order to bal-

in

components.

(ESD). Technicians

is

responsible.

will

often stand

on a grounding mat and wear shoes

after switching off the monitor, the display

with metal strips. ESD-safe

and ESD-safe bags are required

devices mostly takes place

shipping such components.

in fully

TRANSISTORS are mostly made up of (p.

silicon

Voltage

germanium

or

is

applied to the

transistor

138) and replaced triode

vacuum

tubes.

If

a transistor

is

connected to a light-emitting di-

ode

in

initially

and

is

circuit.

an

electric circuit,

current flow

comparable

to a closed

If

will

not

a voltage

is

resistor

then

let

it

100 ohm

applied at

the base of the transistor, the transistor

Now To do this a component

is

named

tor.

after

the circuit that

function-a

its

resis-

A high resistance, as long as

the voltage does not change,

will

ratings are used.

On the other

hand, components

in

signal

and

communication electronics operate at voltages well under

100

it

circuit,

becomes conductive.

corresponds to an open current flows, and the

ode emits

light.

represent a digital value ("zero" its

conductive

and non-conductive

states. This

volts

means

it

corresponds to the

lower the voltage so that the diode

Corresponding

operates properly. The combination

eas of application, components

This

have different forms and dimen-

a hundred million transistors

of current, voltage, is

the basis of

all

and resistance

electronic circuits.

sions.

to the different ar-

A switch used

in

an

di-

A transistor can

or "one") through

and currents under one ampere.

electric

smallest logical unit i'

.vhy

(p.

183).

there are more than

a computer processor.

in

A

battery supplies the operating

voltage. In

the manufacture of computers.

foam

Production Technology

The mass production of electronic

Transistor as a Circuit

into

and are

boards are used to mechanically support and electrically connect

a transformer. Transistors can be used as ampli-

few more seconds, the condenser

can be inserted

mag-

and measuring and

-°">^5„

law, p. 150).

the

components, technicians work with

and power regulation and are

be used to change voltages. Condensers can store a charge

flickers for a

used

is

its

computer and communication tech-

Inductors consist of a wire wrapped around a

fiers or to store information. Resistors

ance out voltage

components

board determine

A new

nifying glasses,

posttoformacoil.Theycan modify the flow of alternating voltage and increase or

wires.

into a circuit, are

for voltage protection

made from semiconductors.

The arrangement and linking of the components of a computer circuit

holes, soldered to the other side,

very important for an

not the other. They transform alternating current, for example, into direct current.

in

about new types of components.

class of

Electronic

of sig-

nal technology are frequently

The ongoing miniaturization

to the Tiny

ferent kinds of operations.

the resis-

diode must be increased (Ohm's

o o —I o z i o

(kilograms), while the sen-

and precise switches

sitive

printed circuit boards.

There are different kinds of elec-

will

reduce the current circuit

of

pounds

computer technology has brought

order to

In

made up

If

connected

main power source,

melt down immediately.

>-

many

required as higher

is

itself is

many smaller components and

light-emitting diode, for example,

less current

example, a large number of

for

in

the technology of com-

in

electronic elements.

power system can weigh several

© see also: Silicion Wafer. Chemistry Chapter, p. 138

for

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

185

CIRCUITS circuits

made from metal

have replaced mechanisms

Electronic circuits

in

many

areas. Innovative

simulate the way the brain processes information.

board looks

At first sight, a circuit

potentiometers with a variable re

controls on a

audio system.

hi-fi

In

sistance or any element with a

addition, there are options for set-

components. There are, however,

changeable value) or

ting different

regularities that

interrupt the individ

like

3 colorful

chaos of electronic

all

circuits follow.

The operating voltage comes from a voltage source that

can be a

paths

inboxes and outboxes for data

with

ing unit

phone

shooting Contacts on the

circuit is deter-

on a is

Neural Network

cellular

an exam-

The human brain

ple. For trouble-

and computer technology.

The function of a

cir-

a technician. The receiv-

(for

example,

in

parameters on

cuits that die accessible only to

ual conducting

power supply or battery. There are

signal

to

in

expect to gain

surements can be made

lower surface of an IC

mined by the type and size of the

at points

base.

The precision of a

integrated into the circuit without

able deviations) of the ratings of

a

tions

it

is

If

change

some

during opera-

possible to modify the

of

of

potentiometers protrude out

an opening on the cabinet. An

example

function of the circuit (for example,

The knobs

function.

in

in

tables.

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

the volume and tone

is

(ICs)

are components that

contain a multitude of smaller circuits.

AND, OR, NAND, NOR, AND XOR are perform logical operations

PROCESSORS are

in

logic gates

and

a computer.

them.

in

in

have become

other

in

microcircuits are connected to

same ment

that the information be

and

disturb a trans-

the goal

in

electrical fields

logically,

but rather on the basis of

and

error.

abilities

and

They also use probapproximations.

are used

in

economics and

prognosis.

this

above: Microscopic picture of

reason, controls and redundancies

nerve

cells

are part of planning an information

transmission system. Redundan-

Circuits A CANDY VENDING MACHINE dispenses a packet of bubble buyer has inserted a coin choice.

AND

gum

only

if

the

pressed the button after selecting his or her

These actions are performed by an integrated

gives 5 volts to each of two pins of an

AND logical gate of the

integrated circuit.

Since both of the pins are getting a high input, the conditions 1 AND 2 are both high;

and the output of the gate, a

used to disburse the bubble with a dollar

as coins

OR

bill,

as a

pin or both pins

an OR bill.

In

third pin,

gum from

logical gate

produces 5

the drawer.

can query

if

the

If

This signal

is

payment can be made

amount was

an OR gate a high output occurs

have a high

volts.

if

one

means the

shaking"

standbys and duplicates. A few

data starts only after the receiver

transfer of

systems repeat a received message

has signaled readiness. This helps

so that the sender knows that the

to

paid EITHER

pin or the other

secure a good transfer of data.

transmission has taken place

For example, a printer gives the

without errors. Such a transmis-

computer the message "online"

sion, however, gets delayed

unnecessary data

is

and

before data

is

sent. With the

message "Paper

sent.

Modern technology appends

tray

empty" the

interrupted so that

transfer

is

no data

is lost.

input.

XOR GATES are OR gates that gates exclude the

data communications, "hand-

cies are additional, not required,

control information to the data

NAND

In

The machine

circuit (IC).

AND

allow the fulfillment of exactly

case, and

NOR

one

gates exclude the

condition.

OR

case.

Through the coupling of different logical gates,

IC

an

can carry out

increasingly complex queries.

packets that enable the receiver to

make

21 st CENTURY

sure that the message was

received without errors by a analysis.

An example

of this

built-in is

the

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP/IP) used on the Internet,

which

is

part of a suite of conven-

THE ASCENDANCY OF ROBOTS subject of

many movies.

nance, however, science

and standards used

to trans-

Circuit with

is

used

for email,

an

OR gate

file

transport protocol, and the

World Wide Web.

© see also: Nerve Cells, Biology Chapter, p. 123

in

the

probably remain

21st century. net-

artificial intelligence is

the beginning stages.

THE CREATION of artificial

gence

is

Their domi-

THE DEVELOPMENT of neural

still

mit data. TCP/IP

will

fiction in the

works and tions

X o

the develop-

meteorology for simulation and

each

a computer chip.

is

ANN. ANNs do not work

ANNs

mission, for example, the resistance

and

means

of

trial

correctly transmitted.

of long cables

after the

time. Simultaneous pro-

the technology of signal transmis-

fully

> O O

computations occur at the exact

the information

produced by other devices. For

Numerous

one computation

cessing

is

brain pro-

other. Parallel processing

age. An important requirement of

sion

a way that

in

way the

computer systems process tasks serially,

and

of information

signal electronics

very important

similar to the

cesses information. Traditional

The generation, processing, trans-

Many factors can

especially efficient ICs that have

an extremely large number of circuits

Signal Transmission

and storage

brain.

neural networks (ANN)

process information is

fer,

useful knowl-

correct volt-

buttons or keys), the changes are

circuit de-

pends on the tolerances (accept-

the components.

whose

ages are recorded

some

edge from research on the Artificial

components used.

efficient

puters available today. Scientists

mea-

circuits,

more

is

many ways than any of the com-

that

adaptive

is

is

intelli-

multifunctional

far away.

and

o

186

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

steering point. Even

THE INTERNET-STRUCTURE

network "Internet"

is

an abbreviation

of "Interconnected Network," stand-

ing for a global network of interconnected Its

In

computer networks.

main uses are communication and information storage.

1958. the

U.S.

wanted

to develop

a technology that would allow

many

geographic area

home,

a

like

computing power

Computers connected

of

or group of buildings.

to a

The Internet-A Decentralized

mainframes.

of four universities

network

in

were

1969

and the Advanced Research

Computer Network The Internet transfers data ets; that

Proj-

is,

ects Agency Network (ARPANET)

transmitted

was

units.

set

in

operation. Additional

pack-

in

the information to be is

These

tion

divided into small

can be transferred ("routed")

1

>-

o o

network

be sent from the sender to the

to the

the 1970s, and the pro-

tocol that defined the

way mes-

services, such as email

the transporting of

files,

ceiver like

sages were sent was improved.

New

o

in

in

many

and

ble

were devel-

between a

client

is

no single ca-

and the host

system. Rather, there

is

a complex

is

The data from the

who makes the

final

connection

end users. The connection

is

amalgam

made

of the

by a

modem, an

words "modulation"

modem

and "demodulation." The

1981 213

converts the

1989 80,000

puter into acoustic signals (analog

or

million

in

other digital data formats

(ISDN). Every

2003 172

data of the com-

modem) for the telephone network

1991: 375,000

1998 over 30

digital

computer

the

Inter-

unique

Inter-

in

million

net

is

identified with a

400 million net Protocol

(IP)

address

made up

of four bytes of data, so that

component can range from

A host-computer provides a service

255. For example, one of the

(e.g.,

a

cesses

Web it

page),

and a user

ac-

from a distant place. The

oped. The emergence of special

system of computers and nodes

information

data networks, to run

through which the data finds

a multitude of networks before

parallel to

the telephone network, allowed

o

quicker transfer of data.

In

way.

1972, a

Nodes are computers

grammed as

a router.

So

its

reaches

pro-

that a

each

Structure and Devices

computers that of Wikipedia

its

is

forwarded through

target.

A gateway

is

it

offer the contents

a

60.230.200.100. it

to

has the address

UJ

in

In-

transferred to the provider

1969 4

re-

the circuit-switching technology

vider for a fee.

ternet

network

of hosts on the Internet:

different ways. Un-

of telephones, there

available by an Internet pro-

between a PC and the telephone

KNOWLEDGE

can

individual packets

made

with the

INSIDER

2007: over

computers were connected

the Internet can con-

other ways.

NUMBER

users to simultaneously access the

a part of the

tinue to function because informa-

in

office,

fails,

if

In

order to

make

easy for non-experts to use the

Internet, a

name

is

assigned to

node that serves an entrance to an-

the address. The Domain

Name

other network so that different net-

System (DNS) translates the name

incoming data, every data packet

works are connected. For example,

of the

a diverse family of technologies

contains the target address as the

a company's computer network can

that enabled the setting up of local

first bit

new technology was developed

un-

der the term "Ethernet." Ethernet

area networks (LANs). A LAN

is

is

a

computer network covering a small

knows where

to forward the

of information.

Through

this

be connected to the

Internet.

The

computer

(e.g.,

www.

wikipedia.net) into the IP address.

This way. the router can find the

principle of intelligent nodes, the In-

connection between the Internet

correct host without having to

ternet works without a central

and

the

individual users

is

frequently

IP

address.

have servers and routers, and the data packets are transmitted through cable and satellite connections. The connection between the computer and the main host is usually through the telephone network. The individual computers are connected to it with modems and routers.

Internet service providers local

router

know

V^."

OMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

187

THE INTERNET-SERVICES The Internet

who wants

(p.

much more than

Numerous

puters.

The

is

ARPANET

send an email.

186) was to organize the data

computer. He did not suspect how quickly his invention would spread.

exchange between the connected

ARPANET implemented

computers.

and com-

protocols and services are available to a user

to chat, search for information, or

service of the

first

a network of cables

Bulletin

gan

in

board systems (BBS) be-

1979 on the

Internet

in

order

send messages along with up-

the Transmission Control Protocol

to

(TCP) that determines uniform data

loading and downloading software.

formats as well as enables radio

From sorting

of the contributions

USENET

published on BBSs, the

emerged

with tens of thousands of

There are different ways of connecting a computer

and

newsgroups. The Internet Relay

to the Internet:

and

cable, with a wireless local area network (WLAN),

With

modem

with Bluetooth.

Chat (IRC) was introduced towards the end of the

change

text

1980s

messages

The character

order to ex-

in

in real time.

of the Internet

changed fundamentally

Backbones

backbones are a

Internet

collection of connections

individual networks.

tific

large

between

They consist

more

the Internet so that

company can

public access to the Internet.

made

now

of

computer centers

different

in

Because

vertisement, the Internet

became

over

mass medium. Communication tween

individuals, sales,

and

IP

of the

THE

be-

Youflib

hands

of private providers.

portant Internet backbone

the

An

im-

is

the

of radio

divided into small units

and

and

the

Amsterdam

Exchange (AMS-IX) and

Internet it

is

in

ments

of lower transfer rates.

The rapid transfer

ing

transmission of data.

THE WORLD WIDE WEB in

Web pages

and

of films

pages are

In

satellite

attractive-

for

and entertainment

Extensible

industry.

sible

2005, there were 11.5

Web pages

in

billion

re-

is

a service offered by the Internet. Important elements

are images,

text,

and hyperlinks

built

HTML (XHTML), which

Markup Language (XML)

the

Web

Web

pages. The successor to

Web

HTML

New programming

structuring language. of multimedia

and interaction with the

clips of

moving graphics

lan-

user.

to

pages.

accessible to the public. ESS

motely through telnet (teletype

MMl»uch«

in

1971. The

Current Developments MS

File

Transfer Protocol (FTP) enables

Electronic

payment procedures

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WMmno St

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MtSWM

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oa oa OQ oa

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files to

be transferred between

allow the Internet to be used as fcrd«n.™i*J

computers and

is

widely used

today.

The email service also

nated

in

1971.

In

that

a market place. Along with origi-

same year,

material goods

making

and services

avail-

able for purchase, Internet sites

Ray Tomlinson developed a small

are increasingly making products

program

available to an online user for a fee

in

messages

order to send electronic to other

users of his

and securing their

credit card or

::-'.,-

:

Li_

**—"—"-'

«;es9i

«i

•

SjV*

tatUffl'4

network) developed

is

expandable and corresponds to the Exten-

is

guages enable the representation

in

as well as the

on the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), which combines

The Adobe Flash animation software enables

75 languages

to other servers,

accessing other services such as email or newsgroups.

text with extra information to create the

the advertis-

included

Computers can be operated

FTP protocol.

WWW-World Wide Web

possibility of

ness of the Internet

and

transfer under the

file

replay, a buffer temporarily

sounds increases the

above: Fiber optic cable

and

ferred. In order to avoid interrup-

the

largest in the world.

ADDITIONAL SERVICES of the Internet are email

PM3CNTA

Screenshot of YouTube

saves the data and bridges mo-

is

hyperlinks.

trans-

10 gigabytes per second. The

Europe

Inter-

net pages through the specification of colors,

streaming, the transmissions are

tions

in

billion

).

Geneva, Switzerland, and spread world-

in

THE FORMATTING LANGUAGE HTML creates

and video data since 1995.

EuroRing with capacities of up to

most important exchange point

addresses from around 4 32 )to340sextillion(2 128

wide within few years.

tainment became the most popular

In in

o LU of

chal

maintained by national organiza-

Today they are mostly

(2

expand the number

will

WWW was developed at the research institute

CERN

fonts,

tions.

re-

o

enter-

have enabled the real-time transfer

backbones were

protocol

o

oo

a

applications. Streaming processes

ginning. Internet

has been developed to

With the abolition of the ban on ad-

data at very high rates.

the be-

of participants,

place the current IP (IPv4). This

get by without an

Internet presence.

countries to each other and carry In

(IPv6)

hardly any

of optical fiber cables that con-

nect the Internet exchange points

and

private

business contacts are

Wide

Web. The Web gave the nonscienInternet

increasing

the Internet Protocol version 6

Increasingly

1991

in

with the release of the World

number

personal bank information with secret encoding.

s

00 11

s

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ii

t?0

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18

14 04 0? 14 07

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1

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oo oo oa OO

A screenshot of an email account: Along with personal emails, unsolicited emails sent to large numbers of people (spam) also circulate.

be

oo >-

188

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

OPERATING SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES Programming languages

control

computers by creating operating systems and application

programs. The operating system determines the character of a computer.

Computers can only perform a

when they have been

function

grammed

to

do

Programming

so.

languages follow a

processor requires

own

pro-

strict logic

programming languages can be executed by

many programming languages composed

Viruses and Trojans

different types of

According to Greek mythology, the

are mathematical and logical functions that are

its

assembly

language. Higher-level

and

use formalized commands. Basis of

individual

processors. Compilers of

complex algorithms.

the building of a

these programs

order to get behind the defensive

into

>-

O

Programming Languages

the

HTML

text

from Internet sites

formatting language

is

of

in

a

in

referred to as "trojans"

when they

dam-

deliberately do

187).

(p.

age to a user's computer along-

High-Level

computing and the assignment

memory space

grams are

computer code.

or

written in

A processor receives instructions for

O LU

The source

wooden horse

wall of the city of Troy. Today, pro-

assembly language

Assembler, Interpreter, and

Odysseus commissioned

warrior

are used to translate

programming

language. Assembly languages are

into

computer code

bier. Its

via

disadvantage

the assem-

is

side an apparently harmless pro-

Programming Languages

easy to learn and are translated

that every

Today, high-level

gram. Programs that establish

programming

unauthorized access to personal

languages are exclusively used

passwords

data and

for

words

the development of application pro-

are

code

or

"spyware."

called

Viruses are programs that can be

OPERATING SYSTEMS control access to

O

Mac OS X

CO

Spctlfwr

SUnvOluma '

1

«6 t"j imci

received

ware components of a computer.

are high-level languages that can

THEY ARE THE PREREQUISITE

be used

for the execution of

application programs.

Con Duo

Linux.

Mac

OS, Micro-

Wtrrw*

The virus

and damages the system.

inadvertent user to expensive dial-up

language,

only. In a declarative

system from an

a

Dialers are programs that link the

are suited for special applications

WtCli«7UMl OMJSOUM ULidnr- *t>

infects

languages

in

attachment.

e-mail

for a variety of applica-

tions. Domain-specific

WELL-KNOWN FAMILIES are soft Windows, and Unix.

Sonwirr-AiiiMlifHrung

Pro»»o>

grams. General-purpose languages

to the hard-

numbers.

HO

conditions are defined that need

In formal urn en

The operating system 't*Mn-.

veloped

for the

Mac OS X was

specially de-

Macintosh computer by Apple,

Inc.

be

to

above: Announcement from a

satisfied by the program.

virus protection website

Object-oriented languages execute

against the

commands for virtual

W32. Blaster

Operating Systems

A

objects.

warning

new computer worm

few innovative languages do not LINUX

is

an open source operating system because the user has source code,

access

to the

written.

The user can modify

appended

that can be

free of cost. Live

CDs

to

it.

in it

function with

which programs have been

or write additional

command

inputs

consisting of text. Instead, they

programs

function with symbols, which

Linux programs are distributed

mouse

are accessed with

with software distributions are avail

on the screen.

clicks

able for operating systems, and can be started directly

system

duced

in

Examples

use open source systems.

MICROSOFT WINDOWS

is

to the

market

in

OS/2 and Mac OS.

It

1985 as an add-on to MS-DOS.

proprietary to this day.

C++

the most frequently used operating

the world, overtaking

was Its

(Hypertext

is

language, which

intro-

source code remains

The manufacturing company. Microsoft Corporation,

Languages

of

a popular high-level

object-oriented

is

used

for

programming

or

database and back-end applica-

has continued to expand and develop Windows, and added applications to the tions. JavaScript

is

programs, and players

for

expands the scope for

the Internet. For instance,

it

the addressee and automatically

VjJHgows

above: Tux, the penguin, the

is

mascot of the LINUX

operating system, left: Bill

Gates, the

adjust the display to

make

it

compatible with this configuration. JavaScript

is

not to be confused

founder of Microsoft, presents the

new Windows XP.

with Java, another complex object-

a formatting language for

marking up texts

for

the creation

Web pages (p. 187).

Preprocessor (PHP)

is

Hypertext a language

gaining popularity because

it

ments dynamic websites and

impleis

especially suitable for database applications.

INSIDER

KNOWLEDGE

make

^

FUNCTIONS common to many programming languages include:

LOGICAL SEQUENCES of events and

consequences CONDITIONAL QUERIES, idle

loops,

and

time

THE PROCESSING of properties of objects like size

ACCESS

to

and position

external functions like the

hard disk or the Internet

oriented language used to

© see also: Internet. Media Chapter, pp. 494, 495

is

programming language,

is

of possibilities

the hardware configuration of

Microsi-V

HTML

a language that

can execute programs that query

entertainment media.

pages.

not a

existing product suite, like

Internet browsers, email

Web

Markup Language)

but

of

from the CD. Firms and private users are increasingly deciding to

Java applets for

1

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

PROGRAMS

APPLICATION

GAME CONSOLES traditionally are and video games.

A basic knowledge of application programs and data formats is

a key qualification today.

programming

and computers with a

skills

THERE

Computer games require high lot

A CORRELATION between the develop-

coin slot machines.

GAMEPADS are Proflciency

grams

ment

the office

for

for

using computer pro-

in

many jobs.

a require-

is

personal

In

email has replaced letters

life,

and

The growing importance

clopedias.

of the Internet

"open source'' program that

is

able to the user free of cost.

Open

Game Boys are developed only for games and game consoles.

are miniature

source applications are programs

means that dealing

modify the program. There

Game Boys and Consoles

an

is

increasing trend toward the use of

input devices for consoles that

are developed for individual games.

avail-

that allow experienced users to

search engines have replaced ency-

DEPENDING on the software, a computer can do a

open source programs.

variety of things,

services. Stationary consoles like PlayStation, Wii.

as the output device. Handheld consoles

'"n 1

—

1

^^

programs used

«»—- o

Programs

1

fc r

for photo, video,

Hr£f

*3S

1

l:

in

suites or co lections.

games via the

programs, and website

general knowledge. large

number

of

In

addition to a

programs that are

simple to operate, there

number

a part of

of complicated

sive professional

is

generators. Simple programs are readily available today, free of cost,

tial

cost. Furthermore, consoles

need

cameras and

video cameras, and the operations are intuitive.

and expen-

ity

professional programs require

software

like

the

and

skill.

do not

is

that

one loses the flexibil-

of being able to

add a

variety of

Some

cars have

flat

screens for game con-

soles as a standard feature. They are stalled

in-

on the back of the front seats.

high-performance programs are Office Applications

Programs

for

available free of cost as "freeware."

the office consist of

the case of photo or image ed-

In

programs, the programs

word processors, spreadsheets,

iting

presentation aids, and databases.

due to various compression

The market leader Office,

is

niques, color depths, and resolu-

Microsoft

but there are a

number of

competitors. OpenOffice.org

is

differ

tech-

an

tion.

As

is

the case with sound edit-

ing, quality

depends

directly

on the

storage size of the image. There is

a difference

"lossy"

The fundamental objective of video editing a

film.

It

is

to

usually includes the ability to import

between

compression techniques

and those that do not lose data. For video editing,

it

is

important to

determine whether the videos need to be

saved

in

sequences of com-

plete images, or

Video Editing

quality

in

whether only a few

of

and export video and cut and

facili-

for the postproduction inclusion

background music. Complicated programs are capable of working with mul-

tiple

images and soundtracks, which can be set over one another

in

sequence.

Additional functions

.

«**

k ^L^S

Many games can be

played re-

quirement of any special configuration.

Many

Internet

games

run

across platforms on PC. Mac. and other systems. There are also con-

key images and the differences be-

sole games, which require special

hardware that

saved

(p.

194).

cific

for

Computer Games-Challenges for

Computer Systems

During the 1980s, players

is

available with spe-

home computer

in

order to navigate

the insertion of titles.

day,

all

participants

sit

To-

at their

own

computers, which are linked to one another

via a

Internet).

or professional usage.

components, such as CPUs

quently shared a keyboard on a

and control a common game.

are available for private

demand

games on personal

computers has fueled advances in

camera movements and

Video editing programs

manufacturers. The

running

and video cards.

fre-

in-

clude those pertaining to

PS

aries.

on the computer without the

produce a finished version of

nation of individual scenes as well as transition effects. Programs also

soundtrack and

processors and display

cards has obliterated these bound-

tween those key images must be

paste sections of video. Standard tools facilitate the separation and recombi-

tate separate editing of the

level of

network (possibly the

Games were

to a great extent

due

21 st CENTURY 3D-SIMULATI0NS require

high-

performance of the processor,

memory storage, and display card. COMPUTER GAME DESIGNERS

often

purchase up-to-date hardware. restricted

to the low

memory capacity of the computers. Today, the increased performance

to

o

With

GNU Image

X o LU

hardware. One disadvan-

into their

peripheral devices.

Manipulation Program (GIMP)

programs.

of

ini-

have an operating system up-

to

tage, however,

On the other hand,

is

O

in-

the lower

intensive training

a large

multiuser

They can also be

WLAN. One

loaded

become

Internet.

the advantages of consoles

with the purchase of with websites has

Consoles can play DVDs and

other services and

tegrated into the Internet via

tools, layout

the office co me

and Xbox use the television

Game Boy. Sega Game Gear,

the

for PCs.

provide

also includes animation

It

like

an increasing compatibility with PCs. Consoles use the same

is

music and video formats that are used editing.

^3J '

i^ »—-

be-

equipped with an integrated display and small dimensions.

Atari Lynx are

However, there

and sound/tone processing and

i^

-.

and

Multimedia software consists of

games

one of them. Consoles are designed for games and provide only a few other

ing

Multimedia

„Wow." *«*.«.•«

television

ment of video games, computer games, and

memory.

of

IS

189

BETTER HARDWARE

facilitates the de-

velopment of more complex games.

COMPUTER GAMES

are a drivingim-

petus for better computers.

> I 0-

190

COMMUNICATION AND ENTERTAINMENT TECHNOLOGY

KEY FACTS Landline telephony DIGITALIZATION

mation

the coding of

/s

numbers

into binary

lj to replace

and

(0

analog systems.

NEW MEDIA forms

Ceil

|

phones and multi-purpose devices

Radio

|

|

Television

|

Photo and video

Audio devices

|

infor-

allow even private

individuals to publish their creative

COMMUNICATION AND ENTERTAINMENT TECHNOLOGY

output.

technology has replaced analog technology

Digital

tography, movies, and music. There

new media

between various media. Multifunctional devices can be used

formats.

is

MINIATURIZED DEVICES are univer-

take photos, record short movies, play music, and

sally used.

©

The word

"digital"

comes from the

Latin

word

to

be added

to landline telephones.

Many

tury,

homeowner can

to a

means

of

and cable

ability to replicate

TV.

control yan alarm

nologies of

>

Today, instead of analog

home

referred to as

wire wrap connections,

used at

Home"

"Smart

or "Intelligent

House" technologies.

distribution

text

message,

Tones

of

for

designing telecommunication instruments

language and tones. Technically,

it

points, which are similar

is

the

limit the

amount

reduced to that of

tween 300 and 3400

A

p

is

possible to operate

is

be transmitted, the frequency range

is

be-

Hertz.

Analog signal

./

3

FOR DIGITAL TELEPHONES,

V"

the sound waves are ana-

and translated

lyzed

Os and

Is.

These are then

transferred

as

impulses or as

"light"

light"

into a

sequences of

digital signal, in

1111 1110 1101 1100 1011 1010 1001 1000

auto-

boxes are

digital control

send a

a calendar.

0000

mation are sometimes

c/>

in

call,

human speech, which

0111 0110 0101 0100 0011 0010 0001

This and similar tech-

one. The end of the

entry

a

voice/telephone networks with a very high quality. However, to

lance cameras.

nication used by every-

make

Computation

AN IMPORTANT CRITERION

now

with the help of surveil-

commu-

to

services

system at a distance

the telephone has

radio, television, pho-

for finger, "digitus."

of data that has to

evolved from a privilege

o

new

providers are

offering a telephone connection, Internet access,

During the course of the 20th cen

o

make an

Digital

Since the 1990s, digital technology has enabled

in

an increasing trend towards eliminating the boundaries

LANDLINETELEPHONY O O

telephony as well as

in

INFORMATION AND ENTERTAINMENT continue to go hand in hand with

states

electrical

in

and "no

fiber-optic

cables.

-1

-

c

>0>-IOOOOO*-IOO«-I*-I»-

c

Tc c) c3 C -
-

o o

to

loud noises. Another example of

tempt to achieve similar sound fects in a

encoding.

perceive soft sounds immediately

on

noise masking

realms of day-to-day existence. Min-

MP3

For example, our hearing does not

Virtual Dolby Digital,

become mo-

and has penetrated

in

simulate sounds as effec-

terference.

Audio technology has

5.1 has five

frequency speaker called a

dig-

format. Concepts like "duration of play in minutes"

Digital

loudspeakers with one low

MP3

audio players that use the

ital

Dolby

Today,

has been taken over by

this role

"firm-

ware" to Dolby Surround to

possibility of

available

is

available everywhere.

adds hardware and

1979. the invention of the Walk-

man opened up the

of

(e.g..

available

is

and GarageBand.

o >

rf^

I

Monographic Boxes Axioms,

p.

199

Computing Laws, Vectors

in

p.

201

Physics, p.

203

"Integral Calculus" in Ancient Times, p.

Mathematics With Computers,

p.

205

209

Analytic Boxes Number Systems,

p.

198

Construction of a Right Angle,

p.

200

Cartesian Coordinate System,

p.

202

7ooa ItOtOlDO

H001CID

J -8- ~J.-

.

>v*

r*?

--S>"

'

"run."

line is

called the "limit" (Latin: border) of

tion of the slope

t

and the

tangent

the slope of the secant and

V

fix,

"rise"

of the

between the points should be as

required for the calcula-

P

The slope

precisely as possible, the distance

zero. However, since the distance

slope.

fix)

a straight

order to measure the steepness by

Derivative

is

in

tangent of the circular orbit at the point of release.

Boundary Value, Tangent,

the slope of graphs of functions.

The term slope

hammer moves to the

The tangent can be determined using vector-based calculus.

concerned with

is

release, the

path corresponds

of a

in

in

this

business economics.

Through the help of culus, a

differential cal-

company can determine

its

marginal costs by taking the derivative of its total costs

as a function

of quantity produced. This

means

Royal Society of London accused

companies can determine how

far

Leibniz of stealing the idea. However,

costs can be reduced— through

infi-

s

function.

A

tiny triangle

from what

can be

we know

today, this

was

nitely

small steps— without endan-

not the case. in

gering

profit.

p

INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS

to

nected. The fundamental princi-

Newton's Approach

Calculus

to Infinitesimal

ples of differential

spective.

Newton approached the matter from a completely different per-

and simultaneously provide a

The problem that interested him was determiningthe instantaneous

speed

method that

tion to

He

an

small

The time

line.

which the speed of the body so short that the change

is

".

in

a

observed

tion of

position dis-

f(x)-dx.

appears. Thus, the slope or the derivative is

of the position graph

speed

is

= F(b)

f(x)dx

Above

interval in

is

summa-

This

number

of areas:

provable by taking

The symbol

is

there are the following

which F'(x)=

ix

On the

integral of f from a to b.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS

integral of

Then

f(x).

find

for a given function f

the given function

f.

F

is

the

of the function at a

and

integral calculus, the

the graph

an

is

calculated by adding

number

infinitely large

nitely

area under

of

the

rectangle

width. is

The width of each

equal to the distance

one

i.e..

is

Strips

by

Ax.

The area

calculated as its

each rectangle

of

width multiplied

its

height, which

is

the value of

During ancient times, Archimedes

the function at at an appropriate

developed a method of integration

value of

r

dx = F(l)-F(0)=±l

3

is:

-i(y=±

In

.

object by a force acting over a dis-

tance force

inte-

F whose derivative

^

is

equal to the product of

and distance when the force

a constant:

*

is

calculus

W= sl

f.

ARCHIMEDES used area and volume.

1

W = Fs. When the

force varies over the distance,

used with formula:

is

s2 1

F(sj ds.

METHOD OF EXHAUSTION

Tsh

Pv£

is

is

a process for calculat-

ing areas by inscribing large

^**""/~mS

many

areas of physics. For example,

to 1,

AKw;.

in

the mechanical work done on an

order to

m

used

is

the

requires the primitive or indefi-

nite integral

between two neighboring x-values.

infi-

small areas.

Many Narrow

same

definite integral

F, for

As an example, consider the function f(x)=x 2

f.

2

Integral calculus

b.

grate this function from In

is

derivative

Applications

in-

difference between the values

is

its

called the definite

structions: Find a function

such that the derivative of F

.

The value of the

word summa. The entire

Latin

Newton

sought

F(x)=j- x 3 This formula

is

with the difference quotient.

of integration

a long drawn-out "S" from the

right,

is

is

F(a).

infinite

expression

During integration, a function F

is ro-

calculated with integral calculus.

the limit of the

is

an

-

a plane figure

if

tated about an axis. The volume

the instantaneous

of the body.

Sir Isaac

emerge

a

is

differentiable function.

also considered a point to be

infinitely

as long as F

valid

posi-

be the result of a constant accel-

eration.

is

^^^

Solids of revolution

of calculating integrals

an accelerated body. He sup-

of

posed the curved graph of a body's

integral

calculus establish this connection

While Leibniz searched for mathematical solutions to mathematic problems geometrically.

and

this

numbers of polygons.

approach

for calculating

x

that niz

was

in

The following equations

A=f(x,)-\x.A=f(x 2 )-±x.

modern times.

The area under a curve cannot be

The total area

is

ing the individual strips

formula

ing out Ax:

the graph

is

curvilinear.

To do the calculation, one can

assume

x-axis.

Since

it

is

•

(

and

f(xj +

f(x ) 2

+

divided into

many

by inscribing

line

that region.

in

Archimedes

lived in the third

century B.C.

"Integral Calculus" in Ancient

...)

Times

THE AREA UNDER A PARABOLA can be approximated using the integration

as Ax gets smaller. As Ax ap-

proaches zero, the

easy to

sum becomes

the integral of the function

of a rectangular

surface, the area under the curve

polygons

factor-

method

of Archimedes.

out (see main

compute the area

K ^v! »«>'l

The sum becomes more precise

first

that the curve does not go

below the

A = Ax

HE CALCULATED the area of the region between a parabola and an intersecting

1 *-

obtained by add-

calculated with a simple geometric if

Mile

are valid for the individual strips:

later generalized by Leib-

and Newton

x.

The width

text). In this

mains

in

f(x)

of the

can be factored

squares of numbers

re-

the formula for the area. Archimedes arrived at the value j- for the

area under the parabola from

Primitive and Definite Integral Leibnitz

of the inscribed rectangles

way only the sum

f(x).

is

rectangles with

and Newton

developed the idea

to

1 (see example

in

AREAS UNDER CURVED LINES: Areas under curved lated exactly.

In

main

text).

lines could not

be calcu-

a very special case. Hippocrates determined the area of a

crescent formed by a semicircle and a quarter-circle with a

trick in

the

fifth

cen-

that the derivative of

tury B.C.

the integral of a func-

area of the crescent was ex-

tion

F leads back

original function

that the

actly equal to that of the right

C

to the

He showed

triangle that

F'(x)

subtended the

f:

quarter

= dF(x)/dx = f(x).

circle,

hence

-j-

a-b.

The function F is the

a\ primitive or indefinite

c

integral of the function f.

In this

way, the two

The approximate calculation of an area under a curve through summation of rectangles.

205

branches of

A

B

The blue surfaces together are exactly as large as the

infinitesi-

mal calculus are con-

ange

triangular surface.

or-

o

W 20£ 06

WHEN NUMBERS

LIE

Mathematical

statistics

Probability theory

|

STATISTICS describes the connections

between large sets of data.

STOCHASTIC PROCESS

changes

a sequence of

is

which chance plays a

in

PROBABILITY expresses the

role.

relation-

WHEN NUMBERS

LIE

Of course, numbers themselves cannot

If

the fault

ship between certain specified

events and

all

PROBABILITY THEORY

is

matic study of random

that certain events

the mathe-

will

occur while forecasts can be

are applications for mathematical statistics

phenomena

along with the likelihood of their

scientific

occurrence.

©

numbers

result in

study of social relationships and

Stochastic analysis

used

is

model processes

to

in

made with

almost

in

human

make

pro-

o

making these

society.

in

which data

Numbers

presented always requires an interpretation and un-

is

derstanding of the information as well as presentation, a scale for the data

predictions.

the

in

nature and society.

The way

jections that forecast the final vote quite precisely. Statistics

regarding the probability

a certain degree of confidence. There

Lying With

After the close of polls during an election, pollsters

delivers the necessary tools for

made

the natural sciences as well as

all

MATHEMATICAL STATISTICS c/)

misunderstandings or even harm,

events with numbers. Predictions can be

statistics help to describe

possible events.

lie.

with the presenter or interpreter of the statistics. Properly used, probability theory and

lies

neutral

its

social relevance. In a graphical

must be decided upon. This means a

and value-free presentation

of the data

is

totally

almost impossible. Depend-

ing on the selection of the scale for plot-

UJ

X

Age

22

Frequency

1

20

70

Generation and Capturing

16

43

47

of

Children

Adolescents

Adults

Seniors

Otol3

1410 17

18K59

60+

ting the data

Data

After the data

is

created.

In

collected, a rough

axis, a socially impor-

like

unemployment

or

the gross domestic product, can look 480

list is

on an

tant parameter,

like

doing so, the char-

it

follows a

flat

curve or a steep

>

curve.

acteristics of units in a population Initially

a rough

data

created,

is

division

list

and then a tabular into groups is made.

Descriptive statistics

is

concerned

with the representation of collected It

often deals with very large

quantities of information about dividual events, which are rized

This

data

in-

summa-

according to certain variables. is in

through a

ages

of

people

in

a

city. In

05

06

the

sample. Each characteristic

such as an individual's age

Number of armed robberies

Ann

five

one can use a representative

200

tion

listed,

and scaling,

2002

03

04

05

06

occur. Hence, the next step

is

inhabitants of the village

the

Frequency

in this

case means i.e.,

number

in

to

differences are a

a

certain age group, then feature

creation of a frequency table.

actually counted

summaries are used. An important parameter of

the

statistics

is

value of the data, which

of times

the

is

mean

the aver-

statistical

frequency ing

Developing Nations

measure

mean

if

there are 3,050 inhabitants

city is f

in

i85o

is

cellular

is

many

impor-

reasons.

usually

a graphic.

manu-

telephones can-

not promise the cus-

tomers that the battery it

The percent of people

emission of CO ?

in

individual continents

produces

exactly

70

will last

hours. How-

the total population of the world at different

standard

points of time can be represented with side-by

ever, by using

side bar diagrams.

deviations after

suffi-

in

2000 through the illustration of

a pie chart, the data becomes

Evaluation of Data

One to

cient testing of the

of the goals of statistics

is

summarize data with a minimal

loss of information.

interested

Ji^

gives

For instance, the

in

clearer.

sum

the standard deviation.

facturer of a battery for

the

Frequency tables, however,

it

from the

The square

This value

= 3^5 = 0.01541. This

in

up.

tant for

are not generally used to present

presented

of spread, the deviations

in

corresponds to 1.541 percent.

the data. Instead

of

another

root of the

fre-

quency of 70 year-olds

In

value are squared and

occasionally interest-

is

and meaningful. For example,

years old, the relative

emissions

actually

is

measure

spread.

added

a village and 47 of them are 70

By representing the

it

of the individual values

a characteristic occurs. The relative

36.2%

the last

the increase can ap-

be very sharp while only 2%. pear

in

in

years: According to the presenta-

years, can obviously repeatedly

the absolute frequency,

graphic display.

04

created by truncating part of the graph.

order to represent the

clearly, often

03

are identified— for example, the

case of a very large population,

data.

2002

showing the raw

A wrong impression can also be

in

the

If

one

number

is

of

only

age

of the information collected.

Frequently, individual data

numbers vary

mean

value.

greatly from the

These observed

battery, the

producer can say with

a high degree of confidence that

the lifetime of the battery

is

70

hours, give or take five hours.

WHEN NUMBERS

LIE

207

PROBABILITY THEORY Probability theory

is

the mathematical study of processes with

random

output.

used to plan

is

It

complex processes and estimate costs.

Probability theory

disciplines in

one

is

of a

few

of

KNOWLEDGE

INSIDER

INTUITIVE ESTIMATIONS of

trie

applications right from the start. actually

tions

are frequently wrong.

developed from ques-

about chance

in

is

used

for

gambling.

people estimate the answer

is

to

50 percent

a probability of

(0.5),

as there are three favored out-

comes (numbers two,

be

and

Probability Distributions

four, or six)

possible outcomes.

six

around 50%.

In their

calculation,

casual

one particular

the chance that

birthday

insurance, for

will

In this

be duplicated.

Calculation of Probability theory, an event

a collection of specific possible

to cover

occurrences called out-

the expenses of the

in

century by

is

In

Galton

occurring

if

it

left

has to be

a

model

multiple Balls are

Each

ball falls either to

the

or to the right. Since there are

eight rows of obstacles, there are

28 =

the subevents are

dependent on each other or

the 19th

dropped onto the obstacles at the

become complex

these cases,

determined

In

Sir

events

for

the outcomes are part of sub-

events. is

The device developed

top. if

In probability

all

times consecutively.

Calculations

example, should

must be

that

probable.

t

not be too high,

assumed

is

it

the possible outcomes are equally

estimations, people consider only

The cost of accident

enough

appear with the toss of a die" has

around 5%. The actual probability of future

events have to be estimated.

but

will

the

some pair of students in a class of 23 students will have the same birthdays? Most

decision-making

the consequences

if

is

probability that

Generally speaking, probability theory

What

possible outcomes.

The event "an even number

probability of an event occurring

•••••••

that event by the

in

number of all

mathematics that

was oriented toward practical

It

outcomes

256 ways for a

most

not.

of the balls

ball to fall, but

fall

into

one

of

the more centrally located com-

drawing cards successively from

partments. The probabilities can insurer.

The

insurer

is

risk to

comes.

the

the mathe-

matical probability of an

accident occurring. insurer

If

a single deck, the probability of

the probability of an event

drawing a particular card keeps

occurring, the basic calcu-

the

knows that the

order to assess

In

lation

is

to divide the

number

increasing as the size of the deck

in

coeffi-

the generalized binomial

theorem.

diminishes, becoming zero once

the card

prob-

be calculated from the cients

above: The Galton board demon-

actually drawn. However,

is

strates the probability distribution

with throwing a die multiple times,

The chances of winning

in

a

game

of dice can be calculated with the

each

help of probability theory.

ties

in

an accident happening

one year

yearly will

is five

pendent events occurring

to

be at least

five

The

bilities.

percent of the

a six twice

No average cost of an accident.

infallible

roulette

is

system of winning

has ever been discovered.

4--4-=^< which b o jo

is

in

a waiting room

might be calculated to be 0.5,

probability of throwing

around 2.8 percent.

each other

as long as there are two seats

is

found by multiplying the proba-

percent, then the

premium paid by the insured

the case of independent events

having a probability of 50%.

other, so the probabili-

remain the same. The

probability of several indeability of

in

the throws are independent of

available. However, there are

additional influencing factors.

For example, sit will

they

where the two people

depend on whether

know each

or not

other.

Limits of Probability

Probabilities

in

Theory

Modern Physics

The use For

atoms and

cal physics is

of probability

particles smaller than atoms, the deterministic rules of classi-

do not

apply.

An electron moving around the nucleus of an atom

considered to be both a wave and a particle

chanics. The motion and location of the electron

in is

the theory of

quantum me-

determined by

its

quantum

mechanical wave function. The wave function of an electron only describes the probability of finding an electron at any particular point functions of

all

in

space. The wave

subatomic particles

theory

in

cially in

science, espe-

economic

social questions,

highly refined

cause

this

is

and

developed. This

or

is

well

be-

branch of

are used to calculate the probabilities of various nuclear

and atomic events.

mathematics larly

is

useful for

particu-

making

responsible decisions. Graphical representation of the wave

Some

function of an electron in a hydrogen

atom. The probability of finding an electron at a particular location

probabilities

cannot, however, be calculated accurately.

diminishes with increasing distance

from the nucleus.

The

probability that

two

Stochastic methods are used to

bility

people

© see also: Orbit Model. Chemistry Chapter, p. 131

will sit

down

next

make weather

forecasts by calculating, for example, the proba-

of rain.

in

o

208

ATHEMATICS

OLD AND

The domino principle

Modern mathematics

\

MATHEMATICAL PROOFS describe the

OLD AND NEW MATHEMATICS

steps that connect the proposition

being proved to a set of axioms and/ or already proven propositions.

A

based on pure thought

logical proof

the foundation of mathematics. At the

is

EXPEDIENCY selects the method used

to

statements are generally accepted truths. For

prove a proposition, but

intuition often plays a role.

ematics over whether

COMPUTERS can process

there were strong

formalized

steps (algorithms). However, they

are not generally used as a

movements

to

in itself

has always been a

this reason, there

time, proven

conflict in

math-

or a tool for science. In the beginning of the 20th century,

reduce mathematical objects to their fundamental characteristics,

other words, to achieve the highest possible level of abstraction. Simultaneously,

in

means

an end

is

it

same

has made

life

more and more demands on mathematics.

for proof.

©

Understanding and

remain the most important

tools of

mathematics.

A mathematician is not satisfied when a statement applies to hundreds, thousands, of cases. A mathematical statement should be valid for all conceivable cases.

or millions

creativity

J

THE DOMINO PRINCIPLE

O X I
--

H LU o o

important features of a democratic

system today are the control of the larly

met together

in

the market-

exercise of state power, the guaran-

Democracy place to discuss and decide on all

public affairs

and

to sit

tee of fundamental and minority rights,

in

and the

right to

judgment. They also gave this

cal participation for

form of government their name:

(p.

democracy, the "rule of the people."

ular

all

equal

the age of media:

in

didates George W. Bush

the presidential election of 2000, the can-

In

and Al Gore courted the

voters through television.

politi-

citizens

222). The last criterion

Athenian Democracy

partic-

in

was not implemented

many

in

states until the 20th century.

THERE WAS NO PARLIAMENT and no fifth

century.

All

free citizens of

parties

in

the Athenian democracy of the

Athens— not including women and slaves—exer-

cised direct legislative, governmental, and judicial power, as well as control

Origin of Parliamentary Systems

The

start of

modern democracy

in

the assemblies. Public offices were allocated only for a limited time either by vote or by drawing

lots.

reaches back to the 13th century

when the

nobility in

England forced

Areopagus

Government

Homicide

Committee of 50councilmen

the king to accept the instituting of a Parliament. This later

was

divided

court

The Assembly:

into

the aristocratic upper house

the assemblies.

center of

power in

Each of the ten 9 Archons

10

6.000 Judges

Council

and a lower house where elected

which

commoners met.

cisions were

(lper

(50 per

(600 per

made accord-

Phyle)

Phyle)

Phyle)

The Parliament slowly evolved from a council to an independent arbitrator. In

1688. the king was

all

ing to the

de-

the Parliament

became the

and

of

Strategists

500

Phyle (tribe or clan)

chose 50 representatives by lottery.

maThrough an election

jority:

Through a

Prytanies (delegalot

voting

tions from the ten

Open Town Meeting

took place by raising

generally deprived of power,

Council of 500:

Set the agenda for

All

tribes):

Athenians over 20 years old

prepared

the assemblies.

hands. Constitution of Cleisthenes

actual

507

B.C.

sovereign of politics with the right In

the beginning of the parliamen-

tary system, the ruler (here Eliza-

beth

I

of England) was no longer

make solitary decisions, rather was made dependent on

able to

but

having the consent of Parliament.

to legislate laws.

Over time, the

upper house increasingly

lost signif-

most part had weak parliaments,

had

remained bound, as

were allowed

it

had been

for

to wait until to

1944

before they

have a say

in

the

icance and the elected lower house

varying lengths of time, to property

composition of the parliament,

assumed more and more

and

women

authority.

English parliamentarianism be-

class. Universal suffrage

troduced

first in

France

in

was

1852,

in-

in

Liechtenstein were denied

the right to vote

until

1984.

216

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

DICTATORIAL

KEY FACTS Dictatorship

A DICTATORSHIP of power in the

is

hands of a

Leninism

|

Stalinism

|

|

Maoism

Military dictatorship

|

\

Fascism

National Socialism

|

DICTATORIAL FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

few.

TOTALITARIAN DICTATORSHIPS attempt

Theocracy

|

the concentration

even people's

to politicize

A dictatorship

the rule of an individual or small group. Throughout history, numerous and varied

is

private lives.

forms of CADRE PARTY had a

LENIN'S

influence on the

communist

decisive

cist state organization with

ous

antiquity,

power-mad

tyrants, oppressive

do-gooders, and nationalist military cliques have existed. A characteristic of the 20th century was

world.

NATIONAL SOCIALISM combined

power has been exercised. Since

dictatorial

many

the attempt of

dictatorships not only to secure their

own

authority, but to

do

it

in

the

fas-

of

murder-

some

Millions of people

racial hatred.

name

large-scale social Utopia that sought to fundamentally revolutionize society as a whole. fell

victim to these ambitions.

The term dictator comes from the Latin

dictare, to "order" or "dictate."

DICTATORSHIP-NATURE AND VARIANTS 5 < _i O z
-"

historical

process

in

ILU

which the power of the state would

CJ

be automatically transferred to the

to

proletariat

o

socialist press

to the great influence

the Soviet party had from the very

to

o

in

revolution.

letariat."

ist

commu-

the "Communist Interna-

in

Lenin founded the Union of Social-

< Q Z
-"

Emblem In this

to protect

224

PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY

BASIC FORMS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE Modern democracies can be divided into presidential and parliamentary systems In the former, the people elect the head of state; in the latter, parliament does.

In

representative democracies,

other primarily

the people do not vote directly on political

ample,

issues as they did. for ex-

in

ancient Athens

(p.

in

government.

of

the form of the

relationships between parliament,

and head

administration,

of state.

215).

Rather, the people elect represen-

Parliamentary Democracies

tatives to state bodies provided for

In

in

make As a

political

rule,

decisions for them.

the representatives are

own con-

responsible only to their

parliamentary systems of govern-

ment

the constitution, where they

those

like

many, and is

in

England, Ger-

the head of state

Italy,

elected by parliament, which can

also force his resignation. The gov-

Heads of state democracies, British

sciences, but must stand for In

5 < _i o z

election by the people at regular

parliamentary democracies such

as Germany, the head of govern-

ment must justify his

ernment

rein-

tervals.

Two basic forms have

oped

the various representative

devel-

therefore dependent on

is

in

democracies that




head

of

government

president,

merely underdeveloped. in

who

is

is

either a

or— as

elected,

England and the Netherlands-

KNOWLEDGE

TIMES OF PRONOUNCED POLITICAL

DISAFFECTION, the direct

a more

call for

democracy becomes

louder.

THE FREE PARLIAMENTARIAN must often

o

little

power.

accompanied by close

usually

the majority

RULERS are

the reigning

the confidence of parliament, which

CO

o

parliamentary

queen, have very

political

policies to

parliament.

in

like

in

practice give

in to

party

discipline.

ENGLISH MONARCHS have not used their right to dissolve Parliament for

'±1

O o

Corruption

and

to

democratic states

Mwai

a monarch,

inscrutable decision-making

structures are characteristic of in Africa.

many nominally

who

chiefly fulfills

centuries.

representative and ceremonial

Kenya's president.

Kibaki, dissolved his cabinet in

functions.

2005.

Especially

in

federally structured

states, citizens at the regional level

Presidential Democracies

Authoritarian Democracies

In

IN

THE 1990S,

of

Europe

particularly in Africa, Asia,

(e.g.,

Russia),

as well as former communist states

many technically democratic systems

with authoritarian tendencies were formed. tions

and have democratic

tion in citizens'

civil

rights

of

government

Though they guarantee

of

which a

stricted,

dition

may

like in

the U.S., parliament, or

the legislature, and the government are clearly separate from each

institutions,

and

control of governmental

power are generally

free democratic structures are missing outside of parliament out

rule.

can introduce a

bill

to parliament

with sufficient signatures of a specific matter.

in

support

The govern-

ment and parliament can

also

poll

the public about important

the protection against state intervenother.

A state executive

directly by the

living civil society

as a

ment

systems of govern-

free elec-

insufficient.

FREQU ENTLY,

presidential

can develop. Freedom of the press can be

As most of those states were former dictatorships,

re-

this con-

represent just a short transitional stage on the way to developing

democracy.

elected

is

people and functions

subjects and topics through

refer-

endums, though such decisions

as both head of state and govern-

are not always binding for the

ment. He

government.

is

legislature

independent of the

and cannot be voted

out of office by

it.

In

turn,

he cannot

dissolve the legislative branch. In

many countries there

is

a mixed

form of presidential and parliamentary democratic elements. In

France and Finland,

for instance,

a directly elected president and a

prime minister are dependent on the confidence of parliament and

share the powers of government.

Direct Democracies In all In "defect"

representative democracies

democracies, demonstrators against governmental policies are not

a/ways protected against repressive measures by the state (Russia pictured).

there are limited forms of direct citizen participation (p. 223).

Directly elected presidents of state,

such as Nicolas Sarkozy in France, have enough authority to make independent decisions.

PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY

THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT Characteristic of the U.S. governmental

power by an individual group

tion of

President, rule

The

U.S.

is

pr.sed of

is

system

IN

THE

U.S.

a resistance against too great an accumula-

is

or person. Despite the politically strong position of the

divided. For instance, only

Congress may formally introduce

a federal state com-

50

individual states.

1787 provides

Constitution of

powers and

is still in

The

Control of Power

for a

An important

composed

power

lies in

the structure of

the executive branch,

lies

with the President, the legislative with Congress,

limitation

to the President's

force today

222). The executive power

legislation.

Institutionalized

republic with strict separation of

(p.

of the

Senate and the House of Represen-

Presidential Election The President is elected

niOM*^««- va "ato,v

heads. The

political

campaign

within the party, the

an

candidate

is

is

U.S. President

once a year in

may only address Congress

his "State of the Union."

he

is

also

commander

the armed forces. He of the White

advises him

The constitution of 1787 begins

"We the people.'

with the words

tatives.

and the highest judicial

chief of

is in

It

charge

gress. Electors

is

part

strands and achieve his

these

will.

the executive. The legislative

The President can be removed from

branch alone, composed of the

through impeachment

by Congress, which

tatives,

passes

Con-

in

in

most states are

bound

to vote for their

commitments. As

all

electoral votes

to the majority

fall

elected candidate,

ity

Q

< to

o

it

of a state's

is

o 0_

possible

and

of the electoral votes

comes

O o

be-

President without winning

en

the majority of the nationwide

and can de-

bills

has representatives

that a candidate receives a major-

Senate and the House of Represen-

must determine

5


mgthe peace and coming

if

and,

necessary, sets courses of

forcing the peace are increasingly be-

blurred.

tary .

mines UN

troops are allowed to take

mili-

measures against troublemakers and

experts support the buildup of civilian

infra-

structures.

i

f

world peace

is in

jeopardy

action that can range from eco-

nomic boycotts ments.

It

has

to military

five

engage-

permanent mem-

bers (the U.S.. Russia. Great Britain,

UN soldiers safeguarding the Jordanian border.

challenges of the 21st century

more

effectively (pp.

236-239).

The subjects include an expansion of the Security Council, thority for the

more au-

General Secretary,

the formation of a world environ-

Israeli-

France, and China)

and ten mem-

bers elected for two years. The

five

mental organization, and an

autonomous UN

military.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

233

THE EUROPEAN UNION Following the Second Worid War. the European states interwove politically and

economically more and more with each other. Today, the EU union of autonomous states that

many

makes

a close

is

cross-border decisions

in

areas.

common

lution to introduce a

was groundbreak-

currency ing. In

in

11 EU

ber states.

mental

2002, the euro

replaced the local currencies

government

countries.

mem-

of the

It

sets funda-

goals

political

and appoints the head of the 25-person "Euro-

The euro

pean Commission" with

pean

I

The

ahead and a

also pushed

common continent both politically and economically. The goal

was

wars impossible

in

Europe. The

step

1951 when

first

policy

make

to

the future

West Germany and France, created a

common market for coal and

steel. In

lives of

the people

goal. Also,

and other obstacles

to

is

the

currency in 18 Euro13 of which belong to the EU.

official

countries.

the approval of the

"European Parliament." which

sometimes "Council

is re-

and the European Parliament, can

elected every five years.

Among other things,

of Ministers."

the Commis-

pass laws. The "European Court of

sion monitors the implementation

Justice" acts as a judicial organiza-

and proposal

tion that

ensures the observance

of these

passed laws.

of

EU laws. Only the

"Council of the European Union" or

member

the

is

supported

in

con-

living

the different states

THE

a

is

member state special rights.

is

an EU

All

EU

Ztftttzi

currently, the

We

close to

in* it

Wit lifa

everyone belonging to a

WORLDS LARGEST DOMESTIC MARKET EU

includes

490 million

an unlimited

o

inhabitants.

STATES WANTING MEMBERSHIP must meet political

and economic requirements.

citizen with

THE EU also sees

have

citizens

at the municipal level

to a Political

Union

which they

in

A milestone on the way

residence

EU countries and voting

all

Breakthrough

right of

itself as

a community of

in

in

rights

In

(Maastricht Treaty). With

was

it.

the EEC

THE UNITED EUROPEAN MOVEMENT has been a great success so far. Only West

Character and Institutions The EU has developed

into a con-

Germany. France. Belgium,

further devel-

into

the close

political

and

federation of states, each retaining

economic union of today. The

reso-

own

its

individual character.

is

It

neither a federation with an inde-

pendent central power (p.

like

the U.S.

225) nor an international organi-

zation,

in

which sovereign govern-

ments work together

like

the

UN

Italy.

Luxembourg, and the Netherlands took part

the first steps toward unification

other,

oped

H

EU Expansion

live.

In

free-trade zone

2004. Poland joined the EU.

the country

to a united

Europe was the 1992 treaty on EU

almost

Britain in

1973. Greece

Austria. Finland,

in

nomic

in

1989-1991 presented

were set up

for

to-

gether at the European level to

the EU

all

The possible admittance of Turkey

democratically clarify issues of

the

common interests. In many areas, the member states have voluntarily

disputed for

most

is

fiercely

many

different reasons.

conferred— partially or totally— legisinstitu-

The European fam-

tions they created. is

the

ily

of nations gained

additions

European Council, consisting marily of the

heads

of state

in

1995.

the EU with the

and eco-

mem-

constitutional system, as well as a functioning ability within

the EU.

In

2004. ten new coun-

at once: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania. Poland. Czech Re-

pri-

and

and Cyprus.

In

2007. Romania and

Bulgaria were added. Negotiations with further aspirants are

gain international clout and to

The highest EU authority

and Great

those former Eastern bloc states seeking

public. Slovakia. Hungary. Slovenia, Malta,

the EU

Ireland,

1986. and

in

in

autonomous, but join

lative authority to

Denmark.

and Sweden.

A stable democracy, a

tries joined

The member states remain

joined:

to unify the whole continent ideologically as well. Political

criteria

bership:

the 1950s and 1960s. But one after the

1981. Spain and Portugal

THE COLLAPSE OF communism chance

In

West European states

all

market economy and competitive

(p. 232).

principle

o

27 states and

shared democratic values. trade for other industrial sectors.

Q Z < cn

formed and. through various

barriers

in

states. Job creation

ditions

dismantled customs

in-

questions that directly affect the

Economic Community (EEC' was trea-

the

in

were decided upon.

and an alignment of the

1957. the European

ties, steadily

and cooperation

Besides that, the EU handles

in

six countries, including

foreign security

areas of the judiciary and ternal affairs

in

was taken

was

union

political

and 2007.

in

2004

in

preparation.

O O

234

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

NATO-DEFENSE ALLIANCE AND CRISIS MANAGER

Communism NATO sees

Until

1990 NATO was

Today

its

focus

communist Eastern

a defense alliance of Western nations against the

bloc.

the prevention of conflicts and military reaction to crises.

lies in

1989-1991.

in

its

Today,

most important

tasks, alongside mutual defense, to

be worldwide deployment

for

peace and defense against In

1949, the

U.S.,

many European gether to form

Canada, and

came to-

nations

NATO

action). In

independently take the measures

(North Atlantic

military

and

political

defense. Later,

Spain also joined. until

1990 was to

Its

and

Turkey,

prime goal

deter communist

Union and

its

Q

tary

is

divided according

aims

its

and a

240), for

in-

is

body,

the military.

up

being

built

up

that can be quickly

and

organization.

cultural cooperation along with

UN

232). A rapid reaction

corps

political

selves to political, economic, and

is

(p.

into a mil

The supreme

of the alliance

(p.

stance, on behalf of the

flexibly dis-

patched

made

to the

crisis regions

of the world.

of

also

the defense of certain values. Articles of Treaty,

present,

NATO members

pledge to in

mutual assistance. With member-

The goal

From the outset, the member

which

have remained unchanged to the

Z X 0. O co o _l X -

3

•

AT THE TURNING P0IN1

2

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE

that, since antiquity, discourse

One

most successful innovations

of the

the humanities and cultural sciences

in

was

Foucault's

cerns,

discourse analysis. This has had a great influence on the history of modern systems of thought. ity,

among other things,

nutrition,

knowledge come as

edge

For example,

and Punish," Foucault's work about the development of a

"Discipline

disciplin-

ary society, moves from the public torturing and execution of the assassin

Damien

in

1757

to the

self-discipline of the

jects

impose on themselves

creates the space for

inter-

other forms of submission.

in

the

Science and

first vol-

Progress

History of Sexu-

he describes how

Others have also exam-

psychoanalysis bor-

ined the historical

rowed from the con-

development of

fession techniques

foundations of the modern penal system.

all

connection to power.

ume of "The ality,"

all

body. This control that the sub-

the effect of knowl-

in in

certain

be regarded

to

now he became

true,

ested

made

sexual-

and hygiene. They

work towards ously examined what

has

up around the body that con-

built

science.

"A

In

of the Catholic

History of Scien-

Church and simi-

tific

Thought:

El-

0-

O O

Since the 1940s, an attempt was

advanced the idea that the

epis-

larly

invested

ements

it-

of a His-

science, however, until researchers began to carry out experiments.

the other hand, Aristotle proposed

remained the subject of abstract

templated psychological questions

that body and soul belong together,

philosophical speculation. At that

since ancient times. Plato, for exam-

forming one unified

time, however, interest grew

It

is

evident that people have con-

entity. Until

the

in re-

C/)

Q.

believed that the body and the

ple,

soul were two separate systems.

On

other aspects of

questions l-*miLfu

1887

life.

traits of individuals

founded the "American Jour-

G. Stanley Hall

personalities

Psraouwc,

nal of Psychology."

People

and

tried,

example, to "read" the character

for IN

human

searching

Enlightenment, psychological

from their physi-

cal peculiarities,

such as

facial pro-

People also began to focus on

LEADING WORKS BY STANLEY HALL: "Adolescence"

files.

and "Aspects

the development of children, which

of Child Life

HALL PARTICIPATED can

IN

scientific journals

and Education."

THE FOUNDING

of four Ameri-

on psychology.

first

ence and psychology laboratories were established the United States, G. Stanley Hall

chology

352).

Much

led to the

is

into a recognized sci-

numerous countries.

in

viewed as a pioneer

in

the

field. In

In

attention

was

ern psychology

paid

first

experimental psy-

He founded the American Psychological Association

in

1892,

which today remains the world's largest organization of psychologists, as well as the country's

first scientific

of Psychology." Within his

cused

largely

on

cognition.

a branch of the

The

was

in

birth of

mod-

human

behavior

in

1879 when

development

of social

child

publication

own

in

the

is

largely

associated with the discipline of sociology

(p.

351). Also during this pe-

German researcher Wilhelm M. Wundt founded the

world's

first lab-

oratory for the "investigation of psychological

phenomena"

at the Uni-

versity of Leipzig. Psychology

became an

soon

established science.

1881,

professor of psychology and pedagogics at Johns Hopkins

Baltimore. Here he created the country's

lab.

became

first

out experi-

human

natural sciences.

psychology, which today

DURING THE LATE 19TH CENTURY, psychology developed

first

study

gradually

to the subject of

G. Stanley Hall-Pioneer of Psychology

in

to

nings of developmental psychology

groups and communities. This then

University

ments

to carry

edition of the "American Jour-

nal of Psychology."

he became the

researchers

can be seen as the earliest begin-

(p.

Cover page of the

Weber was among the

Ernst H. Assoc,

riod,

psychological disturbances be-

gan increasingly

to

be viewed as

ordinary disease processes and

subjects for scientific study.

the "American Journal

field,

research, he studied multiple topics but

fo-

and adolescent development.

Experimental Breakthroughs Psychology's path to becoming a

some time

HALL STUDIED

for

joint research.

He was

with Wilhelm M.

Wundt

in Leipzig,

carrying out

modern science reached a

mile-

also interested in the then-modern theories of psychoanalysis (pp.

358-361) and

renowned

thinkers

Sigmund Freud and speak

at a

University

in

stone with the use of invited

such

Carl G.

scientific

as

Jung to

methods such as laboratory

experi-

mentation. Instead of relying on

conference at Clark

subjective reports of individuals'

Massachusetts.

thoughts, feelings, and experi-

ences, or simple observations of Gathering of psychologists at Clark University, 1909. Front: S.

Freud, G. S. Hall, C. G. Jung. Rear: A. A.

Brill. E.

Jones. S. Feren.

their behavior,

19th century

re-

searchers carried out experiments

Wilhelm M. Wundt founded the world's

in

an attempt

valid data.

to obtain universally

As a

result,

psychology

first

laboratory for psycho-

logical research in Leipzig in

1879.

THE EMERGENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

I

MODELS OF HUMANITY human

Psychologists study tives.

347

The Skinner Box

behavior from a variety of perspec-

Over the course of time,

five

BEHAVIORIST

fundamental points of view

B.

became famous

have emerged about the nature of humanity.

ments with

SKINNER

F.

When

same time

the animal presses the lever at the

as tne g ht g° es on tne food dispenser opens and a food pellet drops out lj

for his experi-

-

rats in the "Skinner

box" (although Skinner used In

psychology, different explana-

tions

may be

Why

so? Over the history of the

different to study

the term "operant conditioning

as

chamber"). The box contained individual nerve signals.

Behind

is

each of these methods

field,

ent "model of humanity" that de-

methods have been used

human experience and

Some

havior.

far

a lever that

problem or phenomenon. this

same

offered for the

elements as

their smallest

researchers have

befo-

scribes

and

a differ-

how and why people

they do. what role tal

lies

is

the box

why

havior while others have included

each

studies of the subject's thought

main schools

processes

Some

in their

the

and

produce explanations by observing people within their environments.

it

same time as

the

into

and

touches

dis-

is

box.

This

raises the likelihood that the

other. In

all.

there are five

animal

of thought.

more

will

A Pure Bundle of Nerves Biological psychology

that

all

ac-

tions can be explained by natural,

down psychological processes

organic processes. According to this is

it

must press the le-

The box is sometimes equipped with an electri-

order to get food—with-

fied wire grid.

out any interference from the

assumes

human thoughts and

in

touch the lever

often. Gradually, the rat

learns that

ver

Others have focused on breaking into

If

goes on. food

light

to

rat placed in

individuals are different from

considerations.

psychologists have tried to

lever.

the device at the

played by men-

pensed

cused exclusively on observable be-

A

naturally sniff

will

touch the

act as

biological processes,

was connected

a light source.

cal

phenomenon, adherents

model do not view

food pellet

flow of electricity. In this

press the lever

show

case, the reward

the

that specific behaviors

When

it

of this

as a whole,

External Stimuli vs. Thoughts

cerns the

itself

human

with the

way

in

of behaviorism con-

cerns

exclusively with

p.

(p.

an

apply what they have learned

the past, to completely

new

a.

compared the

brain with a

com-

puter that constructs a model of

in

humanistic model sees people

predominantly as active beings

engaged

of information as possible.

When

also takes individuals' personal life

In this

on the work of Sigmund

(p.

358). For them,

for action in their

possibilities

minds. Thus,

These often

in

different viewpoints are

competition with each

other. However,

and are

to apply

filled

with subconscious

desires, which they cannot fulfill

because of societal

restrictions. Accord-

be-

7 -

ing to this theory,

human behav-

V""^

which they

are rewarded.

it

also possible

is

more than one model

to

a particular case. For example, a psychologist

may

explain the origin

of a child's fears using

while interpreting the

attempts

to learn to

humanism,

same

child's

walk accord-

ior reflects

ing to behaviorism.

the constant

schools are influential

struggle

of psychology today.

All

of these in

the

field

The opposite of behaviorism

21 SI CENTUR'

is

According

cognitivism. Followers of

importance on

the

cognitivist point

human thought

cessing within the brain pro-

cesses, contending that people actively

to

of view, information pro-

they can use this aspects

work through various

human

histories into account.

beings are creatures of conflict

the cognitive school place central from this network of knowledge to

the endless pursuit

Driven by the Subconscious

people are faced with a new situation,

in

Adherents of psychoanalysis base

do things

for

the outside world. The brain stores

as many experiences and pieces

human

reduce this innate tension. The

prob-

lematic situations.

their ideas

process data and transform

occurs between the stimulus and

PURE FORM, the behaviors: is an extremist position that is no longer held among modern psyIN ITS

model

chologists.

the response. Stored experiences influence

human

behavior.

TODAY'S BEHAVIORISTS do not

reject

thought processes as the subject of past experiences help act appropriately

in

them

to re-

the present.

it

into

new

humans

information. Therefore,

are not only passive receiv-

ers of stimuli, but agents

who can

study and experimentation.

between an

individual's personal

needs and the demands placed

above: Craik's metaphor for the

brain—a computer's hard

drive.

actively plan

based on

and make decisions

their past

experiences

on them by

society.

Many human

actions arise from the desire to

HUMANIST THEORIES concentrate on potential: A person's ability

human

to strive

and

to

toward self-actualization

make

the most of his or her

individual possibilities.

Hi

> O _i o x o >-

electric shock.

348). People can successfully

Freud

what

people learn to

when

goes on.

349).

havior. Mainly,

(1914-1945)

learns to

ward process (see Learning,

chiefly responsible

for

One of its found-

light

it

food, but the delivery of re-

is

and processes information from

ers Kenneth Craik

itself

view, external stimuli are

brain absorbs, stores,

the environment.

The school

can be physically observed.

which

not

consis-

of self-actualization. This view

biological events within a person.

cognitivism. which mainly con-

is

is

rewarded with a

the lever shuts off the

but as a multitude of individual

Another school of psychology

the rat

if

tently

simply a change within the

considering a complex psychologi-

Computer Model

Pressing

researcher. These experiments

can be learned through a

model, learning, for example,

brain's networks of neurons.

Kenneth Craik's Brain-

Over a certain period of time,

348

I

FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Thinking

Learning and

|

memory

|

Motivation

and emotion

Power

\

|

Development

|

Personali

PSYCHOLOGY describes, explains,

FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

and predicts human behavior.

NEWBORN BABIES already have unique personalities and differing

Psychology studies how people think and

temperaments.

interested

MEMORY stores

information within

meaningful patterns that makes easier

to

It

is

discovering processes shared by people as a whole, for instance the development of

each

it

them

other and give fe

what motivates them and how they behave.

particular skills during childhood, as well as the factors that distinguish individuals from

remember.

PLAYING WITH CHILDREN for

in

feel,

distinct personalities.

An additional

field of

study

is

human

How

interaction:

peoplt communicate, what kinds of groups they form, and the causes of aggressive behavior.

beneficial

both their cognitive and social

development.

©

Psychological processes cannot be directly observed. For this reason, precise descriptions are important.

REASONING, THINKING, AND DECISION-MAKING making judgments are closely related processes both of them is the collection and processing of information.

Solving problems and Central to

> o o —I o n: o >

Thinking

a.

solve problems, plan, and

is

a constantly active

process. People are always taking

in

information and facing the need to

quickly

and

nitive strategies to rapidly

process

organized

and placed

system

ing.

For example, a person

allergic to citrus fruits

ensure that important facts are

easily retrievable

is

ing knowledge. This

the incoming stream of information to

information into categories allows

information

when needed.

may

who

people to apply information from prior

experiences to entirely new

situations

pro-

vides the information with mean-

people use cog-

reliably,

has never eaten one. Organizing

New

within the context of related exist-

decisions. To carry out these tasks

thinking.

Making Decisions into specific categories

make

human

of

is

place

and hence make quick

decisions based on relatively few details.

Each individual has a

unique method of categorization

a lemon into the mental category

that reflects his or her experiences,

"Warning—Allergy," even

expectations and predispositions.

if

he or she

At times, a person's categoriza-

HUMAN FREE WILL

is

once again a subject of

controversy.

system may even influence

the absorption of

FREE WILL means, above freely

tion

all,

and consciously make

new

information.

that people can

People, for example, often pay

decisions.

exclusive attention to information

Artifical Intelligence

Computers that can simulate com"FREE WIL": Probably an despair."

avoid

illusion to

that supports their

—Janosch

own opinions

(confirmation bias).

plex

(Al).

such as Tony Blair base their on a belief in their strong force of will. Politicians

exists

human thought and

between

storing to

Some modern

free

will

was understood

experts believe that

orchestrated by unconscious activity

in

to

human

the brain while free

will is

be limited

behavior

an

to

lift

one

of their

hands

at

them. Readings reflected observable

an

arbitrary

moment decided

activity in

One example

of this

it,

carried out the act of raising their hand.

OTHER SCIENTISTS STRESS that the decision-making process includes a series of steps occurring on

various levels. The conscious decision should be

understood as the

final

a limitation on free

will,

accessible

when

priately. Ideally,

an

should be

Al

soning can often solve problems

more

humans, and thus apply information suitably to

effectively.

existing

new

situa-

Repressing this

"inner monologue," on the other

Al

An expert system

that has stored

is

an

knowledge

hand, has a negative effect on

about a highly specialized area.

problem solving, even

Through a special questioning

when the

solution

does

not directly require the

can assist

human

process,

it

experts

making decisions.

in

stage of a complex processbut not a contradiction.

individual a type of robot, controlled exclusively by uncon-

scious brain activity?

is

egories similar to those used by

use of language.

is

an

it

talk through the steps of their rea-

Language, right: Is

and assigning meaning

needed and can be used appro-

tions.

the brain even before the subject consciously

it,

so that

able to construct a system of cat-

"thinking out loud." People

illusion.

by

the

who

is

As evidence, they point to the Libet experiment. During this study, participants were asked

double-sided.

is

is

in

form of language or symbols-

language.

The influence between the two by external factors.

of gathering

information— for example,

Language and Thinking

Will Exist?

ALREADY DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT,

Intelligence

Artificial

They are capable

lives

A close connection

Does Free

human thought processes

are called

in

turn,

preconditioned

on human thought.

above: The main characters the film

'Al: Artificial

in

Intelligence"

are humanoid robots.

— OUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

I

LEARNING AND

MEMORY new

Learning refers not only to storing information and gaining experiences.

In this

process,

memory

skills,

of different

but also accumulating

plays a central role.

Memory: A Three-Level System

Learning takes place through a

number

mechanisms.

Memory gathers,

stores,

calls information

on three different

The

and

re-

Learning Through Conditioning

levels.

One basic learning mechanism

memory, which temporarily stores

is

ing.

During this process, a connec-

tion

is

memory, the second

made between two triggers or

strated this

in

sensory

the 19th

captures

level,

information and prepares

Pavlov demon-

mechanism

first level is

input from the senses. Short-term

the principle of classical condition-

stimuli. Biologist Ivan

it

Why Punishments Do Not

for

Leaming by imitation: People learn most social rules through copying

storage

others' behavior.

term memory, which represents

in

Help

long-term memory. Long-

For a long time physical punish-

people's knowledge about them-

century through his experiments with a dog. Before feeding the dog.

they

will

tend to repeat

it.

If

there

selves and the world, stores

ment was viewed as a

useful child-

rearingtool. However,

it

bell.

is

The dog gradually learned that hearing the

sound of the

food. Eventually, the

bell

meant

reflex of saliva

can

later

dog reacted

to

production. Condi-

disappear

if

will

display the

behavior less often. As a

rule,

the

faster the reward follows the behavior,

one

the two stimuli

are separated from each other.

the stronger the learning effect.

An

the sound alone with the natural

tioned responses such as this

no reward, they

especially effective result

seen when a behavior

is

rewarded

is

a person does not

they

will

win at a

game

A more active form of learning

(e.g.,

contains personal experiences,

come. This occurs, among other

emotions,

skills,

and

tion storage takes place

when

works are formed, connecting

ments

of

operant conditioning), based on

the work of B.F. Skinner.

In

this

net-

the negative behavior rather than

ele-

the desired alternative. Parents

knowledge

to

each

other.

who spank example

thus, the child cannot learn

such as mind mapping help

Physical

information

in

BIOFEEDBACK

to store

is

a

new form

Imitation

of

the

nection between his or her behavior

recognize connections.

and

can solve an unfamiliar problem

its

consequences.

rewarded

for

If

people are

a certain behavior,

by thinking

insight, or

it

processes, such as changes

not between the negative feelings

through, rather than

in

i"

"Professor Lampel" insisted on

draconian physical punishment.

———

The Act of Remembering and

mental path to the appropriate

Forgetting

information. Thus, forgetting does

Remembering can be described as

various possibilities

a process of finding

and

can consider various

information. This

easiest

solutions and evaluate

the circumstances of storage and

each one's chances

remembering are

(trial

and

error).

They

for

success. Once identified,

the solution can

be applied to similar situations

in

the future.

To learn complex social rules

and behaviors,

people (especially

chil-

dren) seek role models

lar.

and

imitate. In addition

known

individuals.

Therefore,

if

is

retrieving

when

models may be from

sports,

books or movies.

mean

has been completely

lost,

itself

that the knowl-

but rather that the actual

path to

it

has faded.

simi100

a

nervous while studying for

an exam, they may

actually be able to recall

the stored knowl-

edge more during the

effectively 8

0.3

test.

Remembrance

For knowledge to

remain

in

memory,

2

24

5

hours

it

is

necessary to repeat

it

often. This rehearsal

serves to solidify the

days Interval

The Forgetting Curve: People exposed information forget a great deal of first

role

not always

edge

student was already

who they can observe

to

particular behavior.

above: Wilhelm Busch's character

direct them.

Humans

randomly trying out

A case in which rewards at irregular intervals can present a significant potential for addiction: A woman gambling in Las Vegas.

and a

blood pressure, and consciously

ability to

a child

person applying the punishment,

perceive unconscious biological

One important aspect of human

in

that he or she connects to the

conditioning that allows a person

Learning Through Insight and

it.

punishment also evokes

strong negative feelings

long-term memory.

an

of the correct behavior:

MODERN MNEMONIC TECHNIQUES

gambling) more frequently.

is

a child for an inappro-

priate action are not providing

of chance,

learning

because the

punishment focuses attention on

21 st CENTURY

process, a person recognizes a con-

mainly

reasons,

rules. Informa-

with technical support to learn to (or

now rec-

generally does not

lead to the desired behavioral out-

is

called instrumental conditioning

it

It

know when

they tend to pursue the behavior

Learning Through Rewards

mation for an unlimited time.

at irregular intervals. For example, if

is

infor-

ognized that

he would consistently ring a

349

hour.

it

to

new

during the

What remains after eight hours in memory.

usually stays

> O O _i o X o > to 0.

'

350

I

FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

Locus of Control

What sets human behavior in motion and keeps it going? The concept of motivation explains why people strive to achieve particular goals. People are motivated by multiple factors, above

Internal

passed the

"I

all

emotion.

1

Human

s

behavior

is

The Origin

influenced—

test

Because emotions such

as well as motivated— by a variety of factors. While

some

tions" are biological

promote

as anger,

"motiva-

and

trigger

may be

and maintain

tors of

human

ous

emotion

such as

reduced by a corre-

Emotions are most

ated with this reduction

is

in

me"

associ-

tension.

However, people eat not only to sat-

people tend

to

own

ascribe the

such as a

skills (internal

test,

locus

through facial expressions. all

humans speak

communicated is in this way that

strive for greater

the

same

It

control).

Emotions are an innate characteris-

perhaps

tic of

human

being

and, therefore,

simpler such as a

can be found

thought or memory.

the world. Correspondingly, there

The next step

are also universal facial expres-

language.

is

a sub-

trigger.

al's personality plays

It

is

an important

role.

Among other things,

of self-confidence determine, for

depends on

example, whether they

the value an individual places on

own performance. People

and insulted

in

feel

response

in

identified by

all

people,

regardless of language or national-

Their value system and level

vary greatly from person to person. it

and can be

here that the individu-

However, the strength of this moti-

every person

in

sions that express basic emotions

jective evaluation of the emotional

achievements.

vation or "need to achieve" can

his or her

outside factors (external locus of

effectively

sponding behavior, such as eating. for action

like

instigated

is

by something such as

The motivation

enough"

to their

the

a situation, or

sion arises to satisfy a drive, like

0-

levels. First,

hunger, are also called "drives."

is

because teacher doesn't

smart

results of activities,

vari-

Within an organism, a form of ten-

hunger, that

failed the test

of control) while others point to

The Origin of Motivation

>

Some

actions.

Emotions arise on

o o

be-

havior, they are motiva-

either conscious or unconscious.

Biological motivations,

1

affection can both

directly

survival, others are

learned. Thus, motives

z

and

fear,

|

because

I'm not

0)

because

got lucky'

failed the

-|

>

passed the

"1

test

1

studied hard"

Emotion

of

because

test

£

External

ity.

fundamental emotions

Eight

grouped

been

angry

to a prov-

joy

into

opposing pairs have

identified by researchers:

and sadness; anger and

fear;

surprise and anticipation; accep-

lacking self-confidence tend to give

ocation or dismiss

up on a task much sooner than

ant. Purely physical reactions,

tance and disgust.

such as a pounding heart and

tions can be

rapid breathing, can also contrib-

or combinations of these basic

ute to strengthening emotions.

fundamental types.

people with a strong belief their

own

in

abilities.

People's levels of motivation

it

as unimport-

All

other emo-

seen as variations

are also connected to their beliefs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

concerning

External incentives also act as a

motivator for a certain type of be-

the causes of events.

havior or action.

Do things tend pen because

DURING THE 1950S, American psychologist Abraham Maslow in his paper "A Theory of Human Motivation"

to hap-

Maslow viewed self-

presented the thesis that people are motivated by two isfy their

hunger, but also for social

own

individual skills,

different

systems

of needs.

or

induce a person to overeat while an

factors such as

random

balance. A growth need, on the other hand, spurs

chance? These

beliefs

people to

external stimulus

may also serve as

a motivator, such as especially delicious. tors

if

a cake looks

These motiva-

can induce people

to eat

even

have an important con-

they are not hungry. A similar phe-

nomenon occurs when in

participants

a competition see the prizes

advance. The tangible sight potential reward motivates

in

of a

them

improve their performance.

nection to a person's

work

their motivation to

the form of a pyramid diagram.

logical,

goals and believe

the

in

future success. People

who blame a effort

on

Mastery

• •

Respect

needs comprise the base,

bottom.

command

more

readily

own poor

will

give

motivates them to continuously

luck

was

bad

Friends

bio-

level

Family

•

Spouse

•

Lover

or Safety

needs Security

•

Stability

•

Freedom from Feai

attention until they

fulfilling

$fc

Physiological

higher-

Food

•

Water

•

Shelter

•

Warmth

needs.

up

than those

believe that

Lower-level

*r

Belonging -Love

are satisfied; only then can one

failed

their

In this

model, the more primitive, mainly

toward their personal

who

strive for

Fulfilment

Esteem

Achievement Recognition

self-esteem as well as

success, which

People

Self-

•

a hierarchy of needs, which he presented

performance

Motivation for Achievement

Creativity

and work

Maslow then concluded that all people have

work toward to

of their potential

Actualizatlon Pursue Inner Talent

toward goals, thus reaching a higher stage.

in if

of his hierarchy. Self-

as hunger, drives a person to restore their internal

make use

the highest level

A deficiency need, such

and emotional reasons. Stress may

because of external

actualization as

j^r

of one's

Someone who

is

physically satisfied, feels safe,

ships can then work on building self-esteem

and has a functional network of relationand achieving recognition at work and the

social environment.

involved.

^

PSYCHOLOGY

S OF

I THE POWER OFTHE SITUATION behavior depends above

Human

themselves

in (social)

situations.

on where

all

IN

Group membership,

THE MILGRAM EXPERIMENT, obedience

to authority

individuals find

was more pronounced as the

distance from the victim increased.

role

SOME 2,000 PEOPLE

expectations and the presence of authorities influence people's

and

professions

reactions and opinions about others.

of varying ages.

levels of

education

participated in these experiments.

The "punishment" of inmates

Humans life,

are social beings.

In daily

they constantly find them-

selves

in

situations of interaction

bers identify with the group and one another. Generally, individual

and strangers. Psychologists who

cording to the group's expectations.

tions

in

percep-

social situations study,

among other things, group dynamics, role

expectations, prejudices,

and the power of authority.

Groups also tend

to

have specific

norms, such as rules that are

common

goal through which

mem-

MORE THAN ANYTHING of

People often behave

so by an authority figure (the researcher).

conformity

cases

in

of unity, other group

members are

perceived as more competent, and also

if

the group faces a

raised the question

to offer unconditional obedience.

potentially deadly electric

in

Germany

ELSE, the events of Nazi

how people can be induced

THE MILGRAM EXPERIMENT showed that ordinary people are

where the group has a strong sense

Groups are often created around a

Authorities and Obedience

expected of an individual member.

with their group, especially

Groups and Role Expectations

reflected extreme brutality.

bers take on diverse roles or functions within the group that are ac-

human behavior and

the

in

Buchenwald concentration camp

mem-

with other people, both friends

study

shock to another person,

CERTAIN CONDITIONS have been blindly

obey

son

know when

to

were easy. society

difficult or

and

If

is

willing to give a

they are instructed to do

situations,

is

it

placed

in

likely to

hard for a per-

withdraw compliance, particularly when the

to

the authority figure

trust

ambiguous

if

make people more

identified that

authority. Especially in

because the

steps

first

seen as the legitimate representative of

is

him or

her,

then people

will

follow

more

readily

Q.

Observations have shown that

people tend to

fold

when faced

The setup of the Milgram the

is in

subject

fellow

members agree about

a solution to a problem, ual

will

an

dent"

(A) in

tion, (S)

whether they would have made a in isolation.

same room as the When the "stu-

test

(S).

the next room gives

the wrong answer to a ques-

individ-

often agree, regardless of

different decision

ex-

periment: the researcher (E)

with

social pressure from their group.

When

punishes him with an should be

electric shock.

It

noted that A

an

is

actor,

and

the shocks are fake.

This

behavior reflects two fundamental

human

In

1971, Stanford University psy-

chologist Philip

volunteers

needs: The need to belong

and the need

Experiment

to test one's

own

per-

ceptions, thus reducing uncertainty.

many people witness progress but do not

the

weeks

life.

$15

of the

enough to

into "prisoners"

housed

It

for

take the

others

effects of social roles on behavior.

were

seems

to

is

usually

idea of what might be expected

from the new person. However, these kinds of prejudices are highly stable.

the person shows unex-

If

pected behavior,

it

may be ascribed

to other causes: for instance,

John

is

convinced that Anna

one person

especially intelligent, he

initiative:

her poor

if

is

may blame

of the

experiment was to examine the

After participants

to the

emergency

situation.

per day for

The aim

(...)."

in

depend on the nature

dents needed for psychological

1-2

come

effect also

following

advertisement: "Male college stu-

study of prison

a crime

aid of the victim. However, this

Zimbardo recruited

with

were divided

will

then offer

exam performance on

unfair testing methods, rather

than adjusting his original view.

their help.

and "guards." they in

a

prison-like

INSIDER

Judging Others

KNOWLEDGE

university building. Although the

experiment was supposed to

two weeks,

was stopped

People often judge

AUTHORITARIAN SYSTEMS arise when

others at

people transfer their rights of action

last

after six

first

sight

using stereotypes based

to

days due to alarming behavior on

Group norms often affect what people wear. Even without an explicit dress code, group mem

both sides. The "guards" used

bers tend to dress similarly.

on the characteristics of

ANONYMITY tends

it

harassment techniques that

bor-

dered on sadism. This experiment illustrated

the power dynamics of

clothing,

appearance or

a leader or organization.

probability that a

The Bystander Effect

behavior. Even before getting to

to favor

aggressive behavior;

e.g..

group

will

turn into

a "lynch mob" increases with the size

Numerous studies have shown

know anything about

that a person's sense of individual

observer may mentally assign him

AGGRESSION between

or her to a particular category. This

groups

categorization process serves to

have

a person, an

more the

of the gathering.

social situations.

above: Very quickly, participants lost their

between

responsibility tends to

decrease as

sense of the boundary role-playing

and

reality.

> o _J o X o >

responsibility lies within the authority figure.

ambiguous task.

The Stanford Prison

351

the size of the group increases. This helps explain cases

in

which

quickly give the observer a rough

to

is

different

easiest to resolve

if

they

work together toward a

common goal.

352

I

FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Each phase

of

such as childhood, brings new challenges. People develop basic

life,

skills

such as

abstract thinking and the use of language.

H Age

Stage

0-2

Sensorimotor

grows rapidly during this time.

Abilities Simple cognitive and

is

rnotor-

It

also important for the child to

standing of the outside world

change during the various stages

skilts

take advantage of these 2-4

Preoperational

critical

of development.

Language teaming, discovery of self-concept along with indi-

phases. During these periods,

children go through four

All

vidual experiences

5-7

Preoperalional-lntui-

First

children

judgments and conclu-

show optimal readiness

sions about experiences, not

tive

to gain a particular

verbalized

new

skill.

If

The Competent Baby

stages of mental development. The order of these stages

is

At birth, infants already possess a

always the

wide range of 7-11

Concrete Operational

First logical

the

operations though

ability is

not acquired at this

same, although the pace

they

time, the child

12-15*

Formal Operational

Logical

and abstract

will

have

difficulty

opment may be

During

different.

(in

thinking,

drawing of conclusions, hypo-

catching up

thetical positioning interpreting

the sensorimotor period (0-2

later.

yrs).

is

Cognitive Development

to exist

As they grow, children develop

ceived at the

associated with

the mastery ofspecifi c thinking

skills.

>-

fact they are legally blind)

even

if

from the

all

the

start.

They prefer pleas-

ant sensations, such as sweet

they cannot be per-

moment (object

tastes,

per-

and

try to avoid

unpleasant

stimuli like loud noises

o o

o.

Although

have blurred eyesight

Jean Piaget's modi 5/ of cognitive dew-

elopment, each stage

o >-

initially

other senses are well-developed

infants learn that objects continue In

abilities.

of devel-

onty about concrete things

their capacity to think abstractly,

and create a mental

manence). Thus, the

child

can be

said to have an inner representa-

During early childhood, a range of

solve problems

factors can affect development.

picture of the world. Jean Piaget's

tion of the object.

the preoperational phase (2-7

Malnutrition

months

of

in

life,

an

infant's first

research shed significant

for

example, can

these processes. Above

was

have a long-term impact on their

interested

in

how

light

all,

on

Piaget

children's

in

The next step

is

even

if

From

social

beings.

Even

prefer

human

voices to

birth,

are

newborns other

sounds and are more interested

yrs),

in

faces than other views. At only a

which children learn that objects

retain their identities

and harsh

humans

lights.

week

they

old,

a baby can identify

its

mother's voice and distinguish her

mental

abilities

thought processes and their under-

since the brain

change

externally, e.g., children

from other people. Infants are born

now know that a ON AVERAGE,

girls

enter puberty two years earlier

than boys. IN

RECENT DECADES, adolescents have been reach-

ing sexual maturity earlier

ages

in

and

initiating

sexual activity at

the industrialized nations.

into

not

that a political opinion

will

Thus, they are immediately ready

also imagine a situation from an-

to

other person's perspective. During

environment and learning from

to rely

heavily on concepts than on

own

interacting with

their

above: A newborn interacts with its

more

begin

their experiences.

the concrete operational stage

their it is

with the ability to communicate.

a dog. At this time they can

(7-11 yrs), children begin

HOMOSEXUAL EXPERIENCES in adolescence are uncommon, even among heterosexuals. During the process of identity formation,

cat cannot turn

mother by responding to her

voice.

perceptions. They realize,

often for

take shape.

example, that a particular vol-

ume of liquid does

Puberty

because

it

not change just

has been poured

a

into

different container (conservation of

DURING ADOLESCENCE, young people break away from their parents, become independent, and begin making their own plans for the future. This process has no fixed

beginning or end point.

It

depends,

among other factors, on

people must complete to reach adulthood

AMONG THE MOST

in their

the tasks young

particular culture.

significant challenges for

Identities, life.

Each

own

their

and planning of

social

the adolescent gains the

for their future

path

of

an independent

roles.

Gender Role Acquisition

identity.

tv.een mother

shifts

above

all.

toward the peer group, relationships within

also change, which can lead to disagreements. However, superficial as-

pects of youth culture, rather than representing true intergenerational conflicts.

first

sexual experience usually, but not always, occurs within a

romantic relationship.

and

orms a foundation

within their peer group.

arguments between parents and adolescents usually focus on

above: The

an emotional bond bechild. This

7.

children

begin to realize that the volume of

a with

social contacts

social identity takes place,

home

development begins

Starting at around age

does not change when it poured from one container into

liquid

is

another.

The development

As a young person's orientation the parental

and

Social Development and

in

Social

and take on new social

ability to

pose hypothetical questions.

AFTER MOVING OUT of the parental home,

young adults focus on other

the

yrs),

and sexual

these challenges helps the young

person construct his or her own

final period,

solve abstract problems

adolescents are moving out of the parents'

home, developing

volume). During the

formal operational phase (11+

cial relationships.

on

is vital

for a

for later so-

Parental atten-

harmonious

ent-child relationship.

It

par-

helps the

der-related behavior patterns at a

very early age.

On one hand,

takes place through rewards

this for be-

establishment of a stable bond

havior seen as gender appropriate

that lays the groundwork for

and on the other hand through

creased cooperation

in-

in later child-

hood. Children begin to learn gen-

imi-

tation.

Same-sex parents also serve

as

models.

role

FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

f

PERSONALITY: WHAT

version tend to be calm, careful,

IS IT?

re-

from others on the basis

Individuals differ

patterns of personality characteristics

and

of their skills,

unique

as well as

their self-concepts.

A person's self-conception formed from innate

served, and withdrawn.

moody

neuroticism (emotional stability or

People react differently to situations mainly because they have

instability), extroversion,

dif-

openness

anxious aggressive

rigid

sober

since they do not

what makes a human

being an

is

indi-

impulsive

includes unique psycho-

It

optimistic

situation or the

calm

energetic

and conscien-

individual's

Introvert

Extrovert

tiousness.

self-concept

In

is,

an

individual's

self-concept, characteristics

and

turn,

each of

these basic

they

fail

explain

many

Hans Eysenck

vivacious

balanced pensive

carefree leading

defined individual personalities

Stable

using a matrix of op-

and cannot accurately

posing

Characteristics as Markers of

predict behavior. They merely

Personality

act as possible metaphors to help

Early theories regarding personality

understand the complexity of

proposed categories of traits into

human

extroverted

distin-

the ideal self and the real self

do not agree,

guishes two main pairs of oppo-

can lead to and emotional

this

internal conflicts

disturbances.

and

Self-Conception A person's behavior can be very

stability/neuroticism. According to this,

ferent

an individual's personality can

dimensions

is

connected

be described by their position along

behavioral

these two dimensions. Another

people with a high

model uses

key qualities (the

five

sion

which are exhibited to

"big five"),

varying extents by different people:

will

traits.

more

to a set of

Thus, for example, level of extrover-

likely

be

talkative,

depending on the

For instance, a father ful,

in

appearance, attitudes,

values, the

may be

his children, but selfish

People with a lower

dent on the situation

in

depen-

which they

tic,

thus

what

UNDERSTOOD to bea

IS

personal characteris-

a part of personality. But

is

and how can

intelligence

is

measured?

it

be

The block test: An example from HAWIE. the Hamburg-Wechsler Intelligence Test for Adults

It

logical

izing objects In sists of it

is

space. Because

it

it

is

that assess each of these abilities.

behavior.

On the other

shape

its

will

disregarded or re-interpreted to

make them more

their

effects on

be more

ences may be completely

it

positive. In

general, people with

to

be happier and

more with

satisfied life.

personality

behavior

and

is self-

can

conception, or the thus be calculated his or her

of the tion.

in

comparison with

norm group: that

same age and Since

level of

intelligence

depend on verbal

is,

skills,

perception of

people

oneself.

educa-

does not language

Extroverts enjoy being in the center of things

and

independent intelligence tests have

In the mosaic problem, subjects are asked to assemble blocks into a given pattern as quickly

been developed, which present tasks

as possible. This tests their perceptual organiza-

surround themselves with other people while introverts tend to be withdrawn. Most people lie

tion skills.

somewhere between

in pictorial

form.

more

accurate self-concepts tend

that influences

A

an

people tend to distort

information so as to support their

Another factor

indeterminable.

(IQ)

writer's

self-conception. Negative experi-

positive.

can be estimated by tests

person's intelligence quotient

and increase the

control over the situation.

con-

often believed that a person's pre-

However,

Emails help reduce uncer-

tainty

patterns of experience,

them

such a great variety of abilities,

cise intelligence

tions.

which then influence

so that

reasoning and visual-

opinion by email, while extroverts

ideal self,

environment, altering

such as

instability

prefer to express differences of

to maintain their inner picture of

actively

also refers to nonverbal skills

ESCAPE INTO EMAIL: People who tend toward emotional

pears that specific situa

prehend language and ideas. Furtherit

perceive each

tions activate different

capacity to absorb knowledge, com-

more,

and

ap-

hand, people also

Intelligence refers to the

will

attractive

generally seek face-to-face conversa-

sive in another context. In fact,

individual traits are highly

level of extro-

help-

and aggres-

open, adventurous, and sociable.

more

other.

affectionate and attentive with

Testing Intelligence INTELLIGENCE

o X o >

CENTURY

dif-

situation.

are expressed.

relatively stable

> O O _i

if)

people are

Social Situations and

agreeable they

and

introversion/extroversion

introverted/

ATTRACTIVENESS: The more similar If

sites:

traits:

and stable/neurotic.

21 st

personality.

which people could be classified.

One well-known model

chologist

laid-back

kinds of reactions

extended period of time.

order

British psy-

open-minded

controlled reliable

remain stable over an

skills— which

In

talkative

amicable

to

ity.

sociable

meticulous

into account,

reflect real-

genial

thoughtful

logical traits—that

does not

necessarily

to experience, agreeableness.

passive

vidual.

tion

changeable

unfriendly

A personality

ferent personalities.

self-concep-

excitable

pessimistic reserved

take the social

ences. However,

sensitive

afraid

However,

such

with social experi-

Unstable

range of personali-

is

qualities,

as temperament, combined

Categorizations of this kind

can indeed describe a

ties.

353

the two extremes.

0-

I

354 APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Bringing up a child

Everyday

\

life:

work

Mental illnesses and

\

their diagnosis

|

Types of treatmi

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY focuses on a

APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

child's upbringing within the

family,

as well as education and

and at

training in school

work.

Psychology plays a role FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY evaluates the reliability of witnesses

defendants

interested

and

THE DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT clinical psychologists. Various

of therapy

may be

of everyday life—starting from birth. Psychologists are

determining what kinds of child-rearing practices are optimal for a young person's

what conditions help employees

enthusiastically;

of

unemployed people can successfully come

carried out by

is

many aspects

development; how school lessons can be structured so that students

in court.

mental illnesses

in

in

forms

psychology

is

to

comfortable

feel

terms with

the care and treatment of the mentally

will

and

learn effectively

the workplace; and how

in

their situation.

The best-known area

of

ill.

used.

© Psychologists concern themselves not only with individuals, but also with organizational structures, such as companies.

FAMILY AND SCHOOL: BRINGING UP A CHILD

School: Learning and

Upbringing

A

child's upbringing

process

> O O _l o X o >

A

0-

takes place both within the family and at school. An important aspect of this

the reaction of parents and teachers to specific behaviors.

is

Schools are responsible, above for

imparting knowledge. However,

they also play a role child's upbringing begins

and provide

as soon

little

control

all,

the child's

in

general upbringing. Students must

or support to their chil-

learn to integrate themselves into

forms of education often depend

dren, on the other hand,

the classroom community and

on language, the parents' reactions

are said to employ a per-

follow group rules.

missive parenting style.

insight of psychology that

as he or she

is

born. While later

sounds, and eye

to a baby's smiles,

contact play an important role

Especially positive

in

One important

ing generally applied

is

is

now

be-

the fact that

effects on a child's

students are more motivated and

babies learn that specific behaviors

development are seen

learn

such as smiling or crying result

when the parents

are actively involved

infancy

(p.

352). At a very early age.

certain consequences.

in

These expe-

offer

together to find solutions.

opportunities for the

parents are unable to

recognize and respond to a child's

In this

needs, he or she

ous parenting

not be able to

will

develop a reliable control system. In

that case, the baby observes no

connection, or only a

between

its

weak one,

own behavior and the

parents' reactions.

age-appropriate challenges. This

of social behavior.

may use

process, they styles,

involves both positive feedback

vari-

which can be

for appropriate

distinguished based on their levels of support

and

control. In

an

style,

is

for

themselves. One spe-

challenge for today's teachers

adapting their approaches to

students' specific needs and their increasingly diverse backgrounds.

Providing individual attention to

as negative feedback for any unde-

each

sirable actions

tant during the learning phase.

parents exercise

child

is

also especially impor-

E-Learning

provide

little

support

INTERACTIVE MEDIA are gaining

parents

is

passing on values, role expecta-

both inside and outside

and

trust.

Children reared

using in

an

them

individually

determine the pace

often aggressive and

simple programs for learning the

of self-confidence. This is

of

of

that students can

of their progress. In addition to

alphabet, for example,

complex

is

is

authoritarian style are

tend to have lower levels

Communication with parents

One advantage

of school.

because they have

subject levels.

they enjoy fewer experi-

fully

of success.

Parents

who take a

more

programs

gain knowledge about a certain

independent action, so

ences

"tutorial"

allow students to independently

limited opportunities for

key importance for a child's healthy

at

When

various

learning

the user success-

answers a question, the

program provides positive feedback before moving on.

When •

Answers are offered

in

multiple choice format.

"hands off approach

GAME

Tasks are appropriate for the target learners and relevant to their environment

in

the form of recognition, respect,

INTERACTIVE MEDIA

importance as learning aids utilized

development.

behavior as well

cial

a high level of control

Parenting Styles for

the lesson

_^^-^_^_^

authoritarian parenting

over their children, but

An essential task

providing

child to face everyday

and rules

tions,

in

answers

same time

stand connections, giving him or

if

when they

and have the chance to figure out

Group work has been accepted as a successful model for classroom learning. Students work

However,

effectively

support while at the

riences help the child to under-

her a feeling of security and control.

more

the user chooses the right

answer, immediate positive

feedback

is

given.

APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

\

EVERYDAY

WORK

LIFE:

ADVERTISING

mecha-

Psychologists have interested themselves with the

living,

designed in

to attract attention,

so

customers' minds.

"KEY STIMULI" are triggers that create positive

nisms of the working world. Through their work, people not only earn a

fe

that the product stays

355

associations with the product.

but also strive toward personal goals.

ADVERTISING DOES INFLUENCE consumers, but the actual decision to buy remains theirs alone. j

The well-being of is

j

employees

its

just as vital to a

company's

Small children do not yet recognize the methods

used by advertisers

success as an appropriate business structure and division of labor.

Stress and harassment

How Does

in

the workplace, on the other hand,

ADVERTISING

are counterproductive.

uct.

Advertising Influence

AIMED,

IS

it

is

Satisfaction on the Job

a purchase. To achieve

Contented workers perform more

dition, advertising

effectively,

actively

engaged

in

the workplace,

and have fewer absences. Numer-

faction.

the feeling that pay

is

is

appropriate

making potential buyers aware

foremost this,

in

their

advertising

messages are repeated

when

more

effectively

to link the product to

motivated and feel more responsi-

ages, beautiful scenes, evocative music, etc.

ble for the

of a prod-

minds when the time comes to make

seek

in deci-

often.

In

ad-

it

connected

is

good

to

an emotion

(p.

feelings, through the

349). Advertisers thus

use of humor, sexy im-

is

to

have

celebrities,

who

function as role models for

o

the target consumer group, present the product.

to performance. While underpay-

ment

nearly always leads to

0-

decreased motivation, pay raises by themselves do not automatically

produce job satisfaction.

Workers' levels of motivation tend to rise

when

their

are recognized,

achievements

when they take on

increased responsibility, and

when

they see future prospects for them-

Taylorism In

the late 19th century.

lor

W. Tay-

F.

workers' productivity at a given rate of pay.

many

while each worker

monotonous

ments

in

Also central to business success

whether the manager

in

activity. Plan-

the hands of man-

that

is

stress.

Research has shown

One

ity

what makes a good boss

identifi-

cation with their job decreased,

is

not

to react appropriately to a range

of situations.

treating

ens

the good of the company.

Higher workloads also negatively

Most importantly,

employees

their

fairly

these reasons. Taylorism was

commitment to the com-

pany as well as their confidence

in

is

matched

to a worker's skills. To re-

this burden, both institutional

measures (such as alteringjob quirements) and individual

the fear of

re-

initia-

favor of a

Stress and Harassment

One

of the greatest

the workplace

more

'Modern Times'

tives (skills training or relaxation

Both under- and overloading at

work can lead

therapy) can help.

Harassment

to stress. In other

an imbalance. This can be seen,

harms not for

example, when the time available

is

disproportionate to the volume of

cases,

it

problems

is

stress. In

can even lead

in

the workplace

only the targeted person,

but the organization as well, since it

can lead

to

absences, decreased

motivation and productivity, and

even the loss of the employee.

in

extreme

to physical

and mental disorders. However, stressful

KNOWLEDGE

Harassment consists

of hostile at-

PRINCIPLES OF advertising are based

tacks from colleagues or superiors

on theories of learning

over an extended period of time.

(p.

349).

PRE-EMPLOYMENT TESTS are designed, and often administered,

Workplace

bullies

may openly and

directly insult their victim or

use

by psychologists.

subtler methods, such as isolation IN

ASSESSMENT CENTERS, everyday

or spreading rumors. Often, harass-

job situations are simulated. Manag-

above: Charlie Chaplin as a facin

people's minds, advertising must

duce

significant sources

losing one's job.

INSIDER

what people perceive as worker

example,

the manager's authority.

later

'humanized" workplace.

tory

for

words, stress tends to arise from

strength-

affected employees' health. For

in

most

of workplace stress

along with their motivation to work

corrected

These include,

of the

in

work, or assigned tasks are poorly

support from a spouse or partner.

able to

their personality, but his or her abil-

performance. As

a result, workers' sense of

for

prominent

personal resources for managing

motivate employees to work toward

the form of bonus pay-

for higher

is

is

to itself.

small steps

was given a

agement. Money was used as a motivator

draw attention

specific goals.

ning and organization remained exclusively

To ensure that a product

advancement.

The work process was

divided up into

single,

selves, such as the potential for

An Effective Leadership Style

developed a system to increase

depends on

ment

> o

company's success.

satis-

One important aspect

at

all,

Consumers?

uses the insight that people tend to remember something

ANOTHER TECHNIQUE ous factors contribute to job

of

sion-making processes are more

Employees who participate

tend to be more

first

them.

Then, consumers should remember the product as long and as positively

as possible, so that

I

to influence

their individual assess-

of a situation as well as their

ers aiming for leadership positions

are tested

in this

manner.

ment

only stops

when the company

takes measures to combat

it.

356

APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

I

MENTAL ILLNESSES AND THEIR DIAGNOSIS People with mental illnesses display disordered forms of thought and behavior. These symptoms

can be acute enough to

make

patients a danger to themselves or others.

$

Mental illnesses can be caused by a

-a^

A special type of depression

combination of various factors such

bipolar disorder,

stress, In

and the

that they are

ception

is

such as trauma or

of

V

social environment.

many cases,

rm

patients are aware

ill;

in

moods

sive

as: Physical (genetic) disposition to illness, triggers

others, their per-

%u

too distorted to assess

the severity of their condition.

is

,

in

which depres-

phase

alternate with a

manic euphoria.

When a defendant appears before the court, psychologists are often

Eating Disorders

p

^K^V4R^3fl

w

The number

of patients

asked to

diagnosed

with eating disorders has ing

in

been

ris-

recent years. These afflictions

1

Schizophrenia

o o _J o X o >Q.

An Its

common effects

sufferer

day

is

often

disorder

is

Beautiful Mind"

depression.

can be divided between anorexia,

accompa-

nied by paranoia, as the

Depression >-

is

film "A

in

memorably depicts.

may be so acute that a

activities

which the affected person sub-

jects himself or herself to extreme starvation,

unable to pursue every-

viduals feel extremely sad while

and has a negative

Of Sound Mind?

often

lacking self-confidence and motiva-

then

and

engage

mind.

It

can sometimes

tion. Fortunately,

lead to suicide as depressed indi-

be treated

depression can

relatively successfully.

ANXIETY DISORDERS occur approximately twice as often

in

women

as

men.

in

MORE THAN 14% OF ALL PEOPLE

themselves of the

THE MOST

COMMON

of

of his or her ac-

tions—mostly

connection with a

step

heights or of specific animals. is

among the

most prevalent anxiety disorders; one famous acrophobic was Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

disorders, or phobias, only

point of irrationality. Specific

phobias are directed at a particular object, animal, or situation

(e.g.,

heights or spiders). Social phobias involve particular situations of action,

is

It

symptomatic

for

human

predispose a person to eating disor-

order. In this

phobics to attempt to

of anxiety disorder

is

a panic

dis-

syndrome, the sufferer has sudden

attacks of high-intensity fear. For no obvious rea-

son,

the

affected

will

has

little

person

chance

these that are above: Psychiatric

facility

Personality Disorders

include genetic inheritance,

the example set by the

Each person has a set

parents' eating habits

traits that

and

his or her personality.

social pressures

In

of

make up

While healthy people

be thinner.

flexibly to

different situations

and tasks while

schizophrenia,

earlier called de-

adapting them-

mentia praecox,

selves to the chang-

inter-

avoid the feared object or situation at any cost.

A SPECIAL TYPE

common

goals. Therapy undertaken against

the fear of

such as the fear of public speaking or approaching a

stranger.

crimi-

ill

they are willing to work

can react

varying intensities. These are considered

when they reach the

when

with the therapist toward

Schizophrenia in

to a psychiatric institu-

However, mentally

nals tend to profit from therapy

Anxiety Disorders fears

usually involuntary com-

of success.

to

MANY PEOPLE SUFFER from

is

the patient's

of

in

serious mental illness— the next

factors have been identified that

The more

sound

pronounced

developing the condition. Factors

phobias include the fear of

Fear of heights, or acrophobia,

A number

or of

is

incapable of understanding the

eating binges and

present, the greater the risk of

develop a pho-

the person

tion.

or using laxatives.

ders.

bia over the course of their lives.

If

bulimia. Bulimics

excess food afterward by vomiting

whether he or she

consequences

only

view of the future.

certify

"compos mentis,"

mitment

in

try to rid

is

experiences

a

ing conditions of

sufferers lose the ability to

everyday

function

life,

people

effectively in the

with personality dis-

everyday world.

orders cannot. They often have great

For many, the con-

culty interacting with

tent of their

thoughts

diffi-

other people. People

is dis-

racing heartbeat, shortness of breath, or sensa-

rupted. They

tion of dizziness.

may

with a narcissistic per-

suffer from delusions-

A TRAUMATIC SITUATION such as an accident, rape, or war can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder.

Symptoms

of this condition include night-

mares, intense fears, and constant matic event disorder also

falls

in

reliving of

the trau-

the patient's mind. Obsessive-compulsive

within the category of anxiety disorders. Compulsively repeat-

ing an activity can help reduce fear

and

anxiety.

Fear creates physical symptoms, which are interpreted by the affected person as signs of potential danger. This, in turn, leads

The "vicious

to

increased

circle of fear":

fear.

The sufferer

falls into

a spiral which

is difficult to

escape.

Anorexics often have

ideas or beliefs that do

dis-

torted bodily perceptions. In

not correspond to facts

spite of their

emaciated phy-

or reality, although they

sique, they believe they are of

may be

normal weight or even

passionately con-

fat.

vinced that they are true. Par-

anoid delusions are the most com-

sonality disorder, for example,

mon

want

type. Schizophrenia

is

usually

to

be admired. Those with

treated with a combination of psy-

a paranoid personality disorder

chotherapy and medication.

are mistrustful.

APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

3
-

O O —i o X o

Effectiveness of Therapies

THERAPY SHOULD ALSO HELP the

more

com-

munication. During therapy,

DISORDER-SPECIFIC THERAPIES are

wrongly believe that

be successfully treated with a combination of cognitive

or nonverbal

ior,

INSIDER

the affected person. For example, Depression can often

is

also seen as including

thought patterns or mistaken

ideas that

dynamic.

Communication

interactive system.

faulty

members.

as possible. Relaxation tech-

0_

j58

PSYCHOANALYSIS

The origins of psychoanalysis

HUMAN BEINGS

|

Mind and personality

|

Motives of actions

Psychoanalysis as th

\

are characterized by

conflict in their lives

and are con-

PSYCHOANALYSIS

stantly forced to balance internal

demands.

and

external

THE

HUMAN PSYCHE

Psychoanalytic theory starts with the assumption that the is

made up of

are constantly interacting and even

human psyche has

with each other.

One

three levels, which

key ideas

that not

all

scious levels. The dynamics between

regions and contents of the psyche can be accessed by the conscious mind. Instead a person

re-

them are

mains unconscious of them,

unconscious, preconscious, and con-

intricate.

PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY

is

it

yet they exert a strong influence

Unresolved conflicts, which can result

con-

tinuously being developed further to

improve the methods

in conflict

on

of

its

his or her

is

thoughts and behavior.

mental disturbances, are revealed and then processed

in

during psychoanalytic therapy.

employs.

©

Psychoanalysis

tries to

shed

light

on the content of the unconscious.

THE ORIGINS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS the late 19th century,

In

Sigmund Freud developed a theory about the human psyche

that

in-

cluded unconscious processes. The content of the unconscious, he postulated, has a significant

O O -i o :c o >-

influence on an individual.

Born

in

grew up

Moravia in

in

1856, Freud

for

example.

Jung and Alfred

C. G.

Adler founded their

Vienna where he studied

own psychoana-

(/)

0_

medicine. in

the

city

He was soon recognized

lytic

as a leading neurologist.

tion of Austria, Freud

schools. After the Nazi occupa-

and

his family

was from

To continue his education, Freud

immigrated to London.

studied with Professor Charcot

there that psychoanalysis spread

Paris.

in

There he learned the tech-

It

Sigmund Freud (1865-1939) developed psychoanalysis as both

out into the world.

a theory about the

nique of hypnosis, which was being Psychoanalysis compares

used as a new treatment ria.

for hyste-

consciousness

Returning to Vienna, Freud

opened

his

own medical

of which

He

ysis" in

human most

iceberg,

hidden underwater.

Topological Model

which consisted of himself and four other Viennese physicians.

In

1911,

conscious, the preconscious, and In

the psychoana-

used the term "psychoanal-

the International Psychoanalytic

lytic

1896.

Association arose from this organi-

mains hidden, just as an iceberg

Parallel to his re-

most

view,

of the psyche re-

search into the unconscious mind,

zation. Already at

he founded the "Psychological

various branches broke off from

small part of the content

Wednesday

Freud's view of psychoanalysis—

that determines

Society"

in

1902,

an early stage,

floating

in

mental

human

of three levels: the

the unconscious.

human mind

for treating

disturbances.

According to Freud, the

mind consists

of psychoanalytic techniques.

first

an

practice

and began working on the develop-

ment

is

to

and a technique

of psychosexual development.

Although there

is

no direct access,

they can be uncovered by using certain psychoanalytic techniques

such as hypnosis and dream

inter-

water. Only a

human

perception and behavior

The Case of Anna

is

0.

available to the con-

scious

Anna

0.

is

mind—only the tip

often viewed as an important

starting point for psychoanalysis. Josef Breuer. a physician

and

succeeded

Anna

curing

in

friend of Freud. 0. (the alias of

of the iceberg. Although

the majority water,"

it

Bertha Pappenheim) of various symptoms,

enormous

including partial paralysis, visual distur-

a person.

bances, and a tendency to fall into trances. In

"under-

influence on It

contains

hidden fears, repressed

An

exhibition on psychoanalysis in Vienna, marking the 150th anniversary of Freud's birth.

addition to medication with morphine,

the treatment consisted of a "talking cure." reuer hypnotized his patient and 3k freely— what

Freud

let

her

later called "free

With this therapy, her physical

symptoms, which Breuer believed were

psychological

in origin,

disappeared. Later

investigations showed, however, that 0.

lies

exercises an

was probably

"talking cure."

conflicts,

and traumatic

experiences, as well as innate drives and instincts. This content

is

organized

in

pretation layers

(p.

361). The middle

level— the preconscious— is partly

one can concentrate

according to the various phases of

accessible, as

development. The lowest level— the

in

unconscious— is unavailable

the conscious mind. The precon-

order to bring

its

contents into

Anna

not entirely healed by the

person and includes genetic

traits,

to the

instincts,

and the milestones

scious contains fears, personality traits,

and repressed

conflicts.

PSYCHOANALYSIS

I

359

STRUCTURE OF THE MIND AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERSONALITY human

According to Freud, the

personality consists of three components:

id,

ego, and superego. Maturity

is

viewed as a series of

stages associated with specific developmental tasks.

impulses. The

The "structural model" stands at

satisfaction of

the center of Freud's theory of

ego, on the other hand, represents

personality. In

it,

psyche: the

"id,"

human

Constrained by

the "ego," and the

"superego." These forces are constantly interacting

and can

conflict.

reality,

it

and even pun-

that controls, warns,

ishes an individual.

conscious thought and action.

three forces are

distinguished within the

its

/-•f

Freud explained the interaction

governs

an

of these three forces through

interactions with the environment,

analogy: The ego can be repre-

conscious thought, and acts of

sented as a rider on horseback,

will.

as the horse, and the

The ego serves as a mediator be-

with the

tween the other two forces—the

superego as the

id

riding instructor.

An Ego, and Superego

Id,

The

id is

id

where impulses from

which drive impulses

drives or instincts— needs, feelings,

into action.

human psyche operates

encompasses

with-

The goal of the

id is

be put

It

a person's values,

"FREUDIAN SLIPS" show what the unconscious has

ally

effective

"IN SPITE

a view of mentally healthy behavior:

infancy the oral phase.

actions

in

which the ego succeeds

in

harmonizing impulses from the

revenge with castration. Feeling

id

and standards

guilty

of the superego.

re-

OF

all

by Freud as the

into the unconscious.

dreams maintain

their relationship with the great

mother and

Freud believed that people are

with his father. ther's value

sexuality alized

their practical insignificance,

traction to his

capable of having sexual experi-

ences starting from

pathway

and fearing punishment, the

boy increasingly represses his

to say.

DREAM INTERPRETATION was seen most

mouth, which

Developmental Theory

serving as an internal power

the direct

erogenous zone is the is why Freud called

infant's

With this model, Freud formulated

boundaries, and morals while

out any regard for morality, logic, or order.

will

The superego can also

be seen as the conscience.

and desires— are located. This part of the

and the superego—and decides

'

is

birth,

understood

in

way as the pursuit

at-

identifies

He adopts the

fa-

system and moves

whereby

away from the mother. Before pu-

a gener-

berty, a child also

"latency period."

of plea-

goes through a

in

which interest

sure. According to Freud's theory of

in

bodily sources of pleasure tends

psychosexual development, person-

to

be dormant and repressed. The

interests of life."

sexuality,

ality,

Freud used hypnosis

uncover memories of re-

to

pressed childhood experiences.

to reveal the contents of the

scious. Through hypnosis, early childhood experiences that have within the unconscious

uncon-

been buried

conflicts

velopmental phases.

son cannot move past one of these

In

the "oral" is

is

the "genital phase."

If

a per-

phases, this "fixation" has an effect

suckling at the mother's breast.

on personality. For example, people

During this time, a baby develops a

with an "oral" personality have a

sense of basic

weakness

trust.

Between the

first

and

life,

a child's focus of

can be revealed

and resolved.

TONGUE

ment

for

sources of oral

gratifi-

can be uncovered. The subject remembers and relates

them during hypnosis sessions. Thus, unconscious

SLIPS OF THE

endpoint of psychosexual develop-

together during a series of four de-

phase, an infant's main pleasure

Access to the Unconscious FREUD DEVELOPED SEVERAL methods

and the body mature

third year of

pleasure shifts to the are no accident, according to Freud. Instead, they are a

message from the unconscious.

If

someone mishears,

arrives late, gets lost,

oversleeps, or forgets or loses something, conclusions can be drawn about

repressed desires, feelings of

guilt,

free association, subjects are

aggressive impulses, and so forth. During

asked

comes

to say everything that

even

if it

to mind,

appears to be nonsense.

ery thought

is

Ev-

anal zone:

He

or

she be-

gins to exert conscious control over the evacuation process. During this

"anal phase," the child

promptly followed by

another, thus showing which ideas

learns social rules of behavior

are connected or associated.

and how

to han-

dle conflict. This

is fol-

DREAMS ARE the disguised fulfillment of

hidden desires arising from the

according to Freud. state, the

ego

is

In

lowed by the "phallic

the dreaming

weakened, but

is still

capable of disguising the nature of an actual wish. With the help of interpretation, the

dream's true or latent con-

phase," child

in

Scrooge McDuck, according to Freud's theory, is a classic example of an anal personality: greedy, miserly,

id,

which the

obsessed with

order,

and hungry

for

wealth and power.

develops a gender

identity

and discovers the opposite

sex, at first through play. During this

phase, a

phenomenon occurs

that

cation such as eating, drinking, and

smoking. They seek security by clinging to others or avoiding

new

tent can be revealed.

Dreams can forms— in to

often take bizarre

this way, the

Freud called the Oedipus complex.

experiences. A fixation at the anal

A boy unconsciously desires

his

phase can be expressed as

mother and views

as a

ness or an excessive love of order,

greedi-

ego attempts

disguise their true content.

rival,

his father

fearing that he

may take

o o

as well as compulsive behavior.

> 0.

360

PSYCHOANALYSIS

MOTIVES OF ACTIONS The motives of human therefore unconscious.

into consciousness,

from entering

niques: defense

the

order to prevent the

In

Dreams

Observable

activity are rooted in

id

and are

Behavior

impulses

id's

people develop various tech-

mechanisms.

r

Compensation Denial

Freud

assumed

Medication

Defense Mechanisms

that people are

Emotional Isolation

directed, drive

is

above

all,

People attempt to prevent the many

by drives. A

a basic need that continu-

impulses originating

the

in

id

Fantasizing Identification

from

Injection

ally arises. fulfilling

since

its

coming

People can postpone

consciousness, either

Isolation

Projection

because they seem unacceptable-

a drive, but not indefinitely, intensity continues to

into

Rationalization

Reaction

they do not meet the superego's

in-

Regression

crease. The is

most important

standards—or they are not compati-

drive

the libido (sex drive), which

Displacement Sublimation

ble with reality. For this purpose,

is

Turning Back the

o o

oriented according to the various

defense mechanisms are brought

developmental stages:

into play.

phallic,

and

viewed the

o >-

genital

(p.

oral, anal,

359). Freud

human psyche as

"process," which

energy from the

is

find

Only

ways

Conscious awareness forms only a small part of the

to redirect the id's im-

inner conflict. However,

when

if

human

mechanisms prevent unconscious and preconscious

psyche. Defense

material from entering a

person's consciousness.

pulses, enabling a person to avoid

a

maintained by

libido.

Clock

These defensive systems

defense

mechanisms are used too

regularly

still

emerge as Freudian

slips or in

person's entire personality, this

is

if)

Q.

objects or ideas are associated with

the libido do they ful to first

and too

often,

arise

361).

mechanism

target of interest for a baby's

a meaningful object

is

repression: A

into

awareness. However, they can

in

(p.

359). Regression often

a

manner associated

earlier

with an

developmental stage.

In-

stead of consciously addressing

feelings

A person engaging

ents, the greater the children's

in

rationaliza-

attempt to justify behavior

however, not their true motives.

THE STRONGER THE TRAUMA experienced by par-

one area by

in

another. For example, a

may try to overcome

through outstanding achieve-

ment

in

another

nism

of

displacement can be seen

when impulses

A Lasting Legacy Symptoms

of the

trauma

are unconsciously passed on to children and grandchildren, especially that case,

etc..

without

understanding their meaning. They seek to support their parents by offering their

own

pain to remedy their elders' suffering.

AN INDIVIDUAL'S

LIFE

STORY

her parents' past, which

generation as

is

is

All

S

serve to bury un-

often passed on to the third

well. In therapy, patients

own

the unconscious: thus,

natively, imitating

allowing the person

another person's

way

life

must

there-

histories, but

to avoid facing

of thinking

and behaving can

ciated conflicts out

feelings of inferiority.

of fear of the conse-

When someone

quences. However,

imi-

the conflicts are not

tates not merely a particular trait, but

completely eliminated by

another

these actions: they remain

own and The defense mechanism of

others' experiences.

sublimation allows sexuality Victims of war, torture,

and

violent

from extreme traumatization.

crime suffer

and

resolving the asso-

those of their parents and/or grandparents, so that they can learn to distinguish between their

of these de-

fense mechanisms

pleasant events within

other people. Alter-

help protect against

thus strongly tied to his or

fore not only reconstruct their

man may

family at home.

when

young people

conversation,

in

are directed toward

vent his anger on his

by attributing their

fears to objects or

are keenly aware of gestures, references, breaks

The mecha-

n the office, a

desires, guilt, or

by Holocaust survivors, can

In

field.

after a dispute with his boss

In

projection, people

own unconscious

the experiences are hushed up or considered taboo.

with

of his

a different object. For instance,

deceive themselves

continue to affect the second and third generations.

man

because

mental anguish.

The traumatization of Holocaust survivors continues to cast its shadow over the third generation.

EXTREME TRAUMAS, such as those experienced

needs

over-satisfying

feelings of inferiority

small stature

through logical reasons— which are

with

in

this

CHILDREN OF OFFENDERS suffer from

their par-

attempts to balance a weakness

"immature" substitute behavior.

tion will

symptoms are associated of shame and guilt.

identification.

compensation, a person

In

the problem, he or she reverts to

TRANSGENERATIONAL INHERITANCE: Symptoms of trauma are passed on through the generations.

ents' actions: their

known as

reaction to a frustrating

experience: The person behaves in

come

pulses so that they do not

within the infant's perception.

dreams arises

person suppresses unwanted im-

the mother's breast— thus,

becomes

(p.

neuroses can thus

The most common defense

the person. For example, the

libido is it

become meaning-

expressed

in

active to

be

and continue

to

have a variety of influences

a socially acceptable

form, such as dancing.

on an individual's behavior.

PSYCHOANALYSIS

I

361

PSYCHOANALYSIS AS THERAPY According to psychoanalytic theory, incompletely processed conflicts are the cause of mental disturbances. The

aim

of therapy

The psychoanalytic view of mental illness

holds that the use of de-

fense mechanisms ally reflects

a disordered process.

However, a person to

(p.

360) gener-

is

considered

have an established neurosis

only

when a

certain line

is

crossed

and the disordered behavior affects his or her professional activity.

and

social

A neurosis can be seen as

is

and resolve them.

to reveal

repressed impulses from entering

personality elements responsible

conscious awareness, the psyche

for

produces neurotic symptoms. One

of a disorder.

example of this

is

seek a path

patient

consciousness

into

of having dirty hands. To

or her

combat

person washes his

hands again and again.

Unresolved conflicts within the

an acquired disorder, the result of

asked to express every-

is

thing that

by evoking a constant sensation

this feeling, the

During f therapy session, the

compulsive wash-

ing: Repressed feelings of guilt

the provoking and maintaining

mind

in

comes

into his or

Self Psychology

her

the 1960s. U.S. neurologist

In

an unrestrained manner.

Heinz Kohut founded a school of

association" technique,

thought called "self psychology."

the patient thus takes on the active

This view considers people within

speaking

the context of their entire individ-

In this "free

role,

while the analyst

ual

merely asks clarifying questions,

development

incomplete repression by the ego of

psychosexual development process

impulses from the

(p.

id.

To prevent the

359) can also lead

to psychologi-

offers interpretations

and seeks

an atmosphere

to create

in

viduals.

which

cal disturbances, mostly in

sion—that

is.

back

falling

to the affected

phase

indi-

The development

of the

dependent on

signifi-

self is highly

cant persons

the form of regres-

relation to oth-

in

than as isolated

ers, rather

in

who

childhood,

to the child a

sense of

own value so

o >

that a strong self can emerge.

c/)

his or her

Q.

of

re-

tectively

deceive themselves, pre-

pressed or unresolved

tending that they are better or

childhood experiences

more capable than they really are.

can express themselves in

If

roses: these include

they are unable to maintain this

self-image, they

so-called psychoneu-

pression.

may fall

into a de-

therapy, the focus lies

In

all

on the development of the

forms of

Psychoanalysis According to C.

bias,

Freud's couch

hysteria, pho-

sis

compulsions, and

some time.C. G.Jung developed his own

the analyst

he called

"analytical

and the

be no direct eye on a couch while behind him, so as to encourage

that there

sits

is

individual's network of re-

to

lationships. This

is

reflected in the

complex bond between analyst

and

patient.

The Psychoanalytic

Method

the patient can speak

freely.

above: Receiving recognition and

psychology" or the "psychology of

Psychoanalysis's aim

complexes." Jung divided the un-

patient gain deeper insight into

ground, representing a kind of

in

the context of his or her suffering.

"blank wall" upon which the patient

the development of a strong

The analyst seeks to help free the

can project

patient from unexamined or uncon-

his or her

scious barriers of self-defense

members). This so-called

mechanisms and

ence process

conscious into two forms: per-

self

London: Classical psychoanaly-

free association.

After working with Freud for

theory, which

demands

in

contact. Thus, the patient lies

character neuroses.

G.Jung

is

The analyst remains

to help the

in

the back-

protection from important people a child's

life

are important for self.

sonal and collective. Here, the personal unconscious roughly cor-

responds

to Freud's idea of the

unconscious, which contains the individual's forgotten or repressed

thoughts and feelings. The collective

resistance. This

allows for a restructuring of the

is

Its

is

shared by

content

is

all

of humanity.

independent

Many

basic

themes can be found, ple, in

legends and

life

human for

exam-

fairy tales.

MEDIUM-LENGTH

or short-term thera-

pies are mostly preferred by today's

psychoanalysts. investi-

gating the effectiveness of psycho-

similar across diverse cultures

analytic treatment.

and time periods. Some examples

THE COUCH

these

archetypes

include

characters such as heroes and

monsters. above:

C. G.

is

a key

transfer-

element

in

ev-

paid to the relationship between

aims to bring past

conflicts that

were experienced as traumatic

into

resolved

in

a

manner appropriate

to the now-adult patient. During this

process, a great deal of resistance IS

OUT. Today, patient

and analyst engage FREUD

IN

in

must be overcome, which takes up

dialogue.

EVERYDAY LANGUAGE: the

Oedipus complex, unconscious,

Jung 1 1875-1961)

history (such as family

consciousness, so that they can be

NEUROSCIENTISTS are also

These so-called archetypes are

of

life

from

analyst and patient. Psychoanalysis

of a

person's culture, ethnicity, or history.

21 sr CENTURY

significant people

ery analysis. Thus, special attention

unconscious, on the other

hand,

o

must communicate

People with weak selves often pro-

development. These

>-

o o —I

pression, Freudian slips, etc.

re-

Repressed feelings of guilt can be the cause of compulsive washing.

a large portion of the psychoanalytic

process. Classical psychoanal-

ysis continues for a period of three to five years. Today, however,

shorter psychoanalytic therapies

are increasingly being used.

362

I Monographic Boxes Cave Painting,

of

364

366

Portraiture, p.

Army

p.

Tomb Guards,

p.

368

Illuminated Manuscripts,

Leonardo da

p.

370

p.

374

373

Vinci, p.

Michelangelo Buonarroti, Caravaggio,

p.

376

Rembrandt,

p.

378

The Inventor Goya,

p.

of the Caricature, p.

380

382

Vincent van Gogh,

p.

385

Paul Cezanne,

p.

386

Pablo Picasso,

p.

388

Everything

is

Pretty— Pop Art,

p.

390

Analytic Boxes Contrapposto,

p.

367

One-Point-Rendering of Depth,

p.

lllusionistic

375

A Masterwork Poses Riddles, The Constructed

The Work

Picture, p.

of the Painter, p.

To the Point— Pointillism, Collage, Assemblage,

Ready-Made,

p.

387

p.

and

p.

381

383 384

377

363

VISUAL ARTS Art

always a mirror of the times

is

emerged. Therefore, the

pictorial

in

which

works of

it

earlier

eras enable an informative insight into the contemporary world of the

people they

lived,

saw

artist:

They show us how the

what was important

their world.

In

comparison

representations of the world

modern very

art of the

opaque and

sarily

to

in

them, and how to the

obvious

historic pictures, the

20th century can often seem

inaccessible.

follow any fixed

rules

It

does not neces-

any more: Abstract

figures or distortions of everyday objects are often

used to confound our viewing habits and conventions of "beautiful art." They

show us the world

in

such a fashion as to reinvigorate our perception of it

and thus

inspire our imagination

and

thinking.

I

364

I

PREHISTORIC AND INDIGENOUS ART

300,000 years ago

Prehistoric art (ca

to

ca 3,000 B.C.)

|

Indigenous art (ca 60.000 years ago to the present)

TWO MILLION YEARS AGO. humankind created the

first

PREHISTORIC AND INDIGENOUS ART

completely

crafted stone artifacts.

ARTISTIC

WORKS

and of

of prehistory

ing there,

linked to religion.

THE ABORIGINES tain

in Australia

human life known today have come from eastern Africa. Apparently originathumankind later came to settle wide areas across Europe and Asia. Over time, people

The oldest traces

indigenous peoples were closely

of

even reached Australia and America, where the art of the indigenous groups preserved a very

main-

early

one of the oldest enduring

codex of forms. The major themes of their

artistic creations include religious

cultures of the world.

animals, and various depictions of their everyday

INDIGENOUS ART influenced modern painting and sculpture.

get an idea about early

human

© To a certain extent, prehistoric art

By studying their works,

lives.

experiences, possible to

is

it

cultural history.

lives

on within the

art of indigenous peoples.

PREHISTORY Everyday

life

and

religion

shaped

ing the Neolithic period, artistic

prehistoric art.

When

people settled

permanent

in

villages dur-

work became more refined through new techniques.

CO h-

< —I


pieces of carved bones dating

years old, were found

and the

B.C.

earli-

around 75,000

CAVE PAINTINGS

in

South

Europe date

in

from the Upper Paleolithic period (ca

30,000-11.000

ROCK PAINTINGS depict

men

in

B.C.).

the Sahara

with cattle herds,

Africa.

Continuous

of people

artistic activity

(Homo sapiens sapiens)

began during the Upper

35,000

period (ca

Paleolithic

B.C.).

Everyday Life and Rituals Animals were predominant

in

above: The "Venus of Willendorf" from

Stone. Bronze, and Iron Age art

because

of their special

economic

and

ritual significance. In addition,

recalling the one-time fertility of

numerous "Venus"

the desert.

(ca

30.000-20.000

right:

gest the veneration of a female

B.C.).

The 'Lion

Man

of

Lonetal" from Germany; fertility idol

that

embodies the

nurturing roles of

Cave Painting

figurine

figurines sug-

Drawing of a bison from Spain, ca 15.000-12.000 B.C.

Lower Austria;

of oolitic limestone

women

figurine of mammoth ivory

as both

(ca

35.000-30.000

B.C.).

and as gatherers.

child-bearers

spread to Asia Minor, the Balkans, PICTURES OF ANIMALS were created with paints

made from

minerals and charcoal, or chiseled into

cave walls with the help of engraving outline drawings

and deer, as

mammoths,

lions,

and bears,

and

vivid

manner.

in

a powerful magic inherent

well

A climate change

in

example, the working of bronze

period starting

20.000

style of in

in

reflect a belief

the animal images.

in

the Mesolithic

a gradual transformation

as

a remarkably nat-

THE CAVE PAINTINGS quite possibly in

and Europe.

After

B.C.. for

The

and multicolored paintings de-

pict horses, bison, cattle,

uralistic

tools.

1500

Early Technologies

Cattle herd village:

from the

testimonies to prehistoric worldly wisdom.

in

(ca

the Neolithic period.

Tassili

Plateau

4000-2000

the

life-

Humans

ways to begin farming and breeding livestock.

als

They developed

and improved

burial ritu-

their hunting

reached a high ship

and

in

level of

craftsman-

the Nordic Circle culture

of northern Europe. At the

time

behind their nomadic

left

near a

the central Sahara

in

humankind that continued

gradually

rock painting

Perhaps they are cosmic or seasonal symbols, or

B.C. led to

in

same

Asia Minor, the Hittites

began producing

iron,

which

signals the transition from the prehistoric era to ancient history

and

classic antiquity.

B.C.).

cutting tools. They also artistically

decorated their weapons, domestic articles, jewelry,

and

ritual objects.

From the beginning of the Neolithic period, diversely decorated pottery

emerged. Starting around the time of the

Natufian Culture (ca 11.000

Rock painting of cattle herds from a cave dwelling and ritual site in Lascaux, France, dating from the Magdalenian period (ca 15.000-13.000 B.C.).

new methods developed

in

of

B.C.).

workmanship were

the Fertile Crescent

gion of the Middle East that later

re-

The sun chariot of Trundholm, Denmark, dates from the Nordic Bronze Age (ca 1400 B.C.).

r

PREHISTORIC AND INDIGENOUS ART

A

365

INDIGENOUS ART The

artistic

forms through which indigenous peoples expressed

themselves are directly tied

to

gious functions. Their roots

lie

Ritual

and everyday objects day the great

trate to this

ancestor worship,

deep

skill

and

Nok Culture (500 B.C-200 present-day Nigeria. They

Sub-Saharan Africa

art.

items for everyday use

and

were primarily

A.D.) in

may be

idealized beauty, like the terra-cotta

in

and bronze busts

Alongside

like

who

bowls,

stools, ritual objects in-

cluding ancestor figures

first

regarded as elegant expressions of

Sculptural works predominate

combs, and

The

evil spirits.

sculptures were produced by the

of

indigenous people.

sub-Saharan African

reli-

in history.

and warding off

illus-

rites,

of the Yoruba.

south between

lived further

the 10th and 14th centuries A.D.

Some examples of African

burial

handicrafts are the plain,

pro-

Totem

duced. Most important

utilitarian pottery of

were masks, which

Mesozoic

were fashioned

weights of the West African

in

sity for

use

tion rites,

magic

in

textiie art of

and

in

Australia

produced only a few tically

artis-

fashioned pieces.

Among these are weapons

like

elegant

the boomer-

ang, shield, and spear.

The

in

wooden Kwele mask

tjuringa. a geometrically

right: Inuit

mask from Alaska

the form of a cormorant 19th c) |

sometimes painted,

which

is

of the

most sacred objects

original art.

central Africa

the

vital

It

is

in

believed to

energy or

<


tions of his figures, like with

Surmounting

painted splendor, the

sation

empha-

sized by strong

tall.

contrasts of

gloomy darkness and ghostly, lurid bright-

ness. The mannerEl ists' itly

Greco's paintings

like

"The

goal had explic-

Resurrection" (1584-1594) are

been

emblematic of modern

to not

art today.

create a deceptively real picture

space where the viewer imag-

Michelangelo's world famoninstant during which

God gave

had been alien

to painters of

the Renaissance. (p.

In

the Baroque

376), from about 1600. the

'Jam' records the Ufi

ned he could enter

© see also: Copernicus Worldview

intellectual worlds created by the

mannerists reached their zenith.

„

RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM

375

One-Point Perspective-Rendering of Illusion istic Spatial Depth IN

ONE-POINT PERSPECTIVE the

lines of geo-

metric forms or spaces (3) converge at one

makes a

vanishing point. The resulting grid spatial representation possible

conforming

to the natural optical law that things

smaller the greater the distance

THE GOTHIC

appear

(2).

371) "importance-through-

(p.

size" perspective

was surmounted

by the

introduction of one-point perspective. One-

point

perspective

artistic

need

because of

accommodated the

for precision in rendering and. its

mathematical

calculability,

Virtuosic contact with perspective:

"Lamentation Over the Dead Christ"

complied with the non-material claim of the

man

Renaissance

to

(painting by Andrea Mantegna, ca

approach the world

1490)

through intellectual achievement. IN

ANOTHER POSSIBILITY OF CREATING DEPTH is

provided by aerial perspective. This style,

where objects sity of

color

in

Leonardo da

(1).

was named by

I-

provides proof not only of his virtuosity as a




376

BAROQUE

Baroque

FROM ROME, cism, the

in Italy

Baroque art in the European courts

|

|

Baroque

style

THE CHURCH AND THE ROYAL HOUSES used Baroque art to shape their

The term Baroque ning

public images.

STILL LIFES, landscapes,

and

and confessional

every-

is

used

in

art history to cover a

affiliations of

day scenes became independent

ecstatic

painting.

COMMONERS

saw the development

©

In

art of the Italian

to

Baroque

Baroque was closely

imbue the Catholic

in

a single epoch. Begin-

a Europe wracked by religious wars

in

the Catholic countries, there was a tendency toward

art,

classic elegance, Protestant Holland

of a middle-class realism.

naturalism and idealism merge into a world of opulent images.

COMMISSIONED BYTHE CHURCH-BAROQUE were meant

In

monumentalism. While absolutist France preferred

collectors

also appeared as and commissioners of art.

wide variety of styles

the individual countries

genres

art

Baroque genn

|

the 17th century, separate genres of the Baroque style developed according to the national

in

between the Protestants and the Catholics.

The

Holland

in

BAROQUE

spread

across Europe.

in

Baroque

the center of Catholi-

IN ITALY

tied to the Counter-Reformation. Magnificent

works

of

new persuasive power.

faith with a

I-

< _i


Art

reality

into his

sensuousness.

opening of

and

vision

merged.

and architecture had become

a Baroque synthesis of the arts.

The development

was

of art

in

Rome

closely tied to Gianlorenzo

Bernini,

who was

expression, narrative intensity, and

celebrated during

A great innovator

in

painting, Caravaggio for his

was known

use of dramatic

He had

the art of

lighting.

a lasting influence on art-

ists of later

generations, including

Baroque

Artemisia Gentileschi, one of the

Ceiling painting in the Jesuit

Sant'lgnazio Church,

Rome

his lifetime

(fresco

by Andrea Pozzo, 1688)

In its effort

ings vivid

began

in

to

make

and

as the 17th century's

Michelangelo

(p.

374). Also univer-

few female painters known today

became

"

(stucco sculpture

by Egid Quirin Asam, 1717-1725)

MICHELANGELO MERISI DA CARAVAGGIO, born 1571 in Milan, died 1610 in Port'Ercole, Italy.

Church

the 17th century to rely

OPPOSITION TO THE STYLIZATION of mannerism,

IN

Caravaggio consciously employed a powerful and

on the seductive and suggestive effects of art. As a result,

Assump-

Bavaria: "The

from that time period.

Catholic teach-

attractive, the

in

tion of the Virgin

life-like

Rome

realism.

THE "CARAVAGGISTS" imitated Caravaggio's style, above all the contrasts between light and shadow.

a major artistic center.

"Sick

Dramatizing the Faith

Bacchus"

(self-portrait

as Bacchus,

detail,

ca 1593)

Since the High Renaissance (p.

373), artists had been creating

vivid

worlds outside of their

own

Caravaggio

ex-

HIS UNSTABLE LIFESTYLE

perience, such as the mythological Elysian Fields.

In

the Baroque,

art scene.

bibli-

Known

to

made Caravaggio the Tenfant terrible" of the Italian

have been involved

in

various brawls, he

was

in

trouble

more than once.

with the law

traditionsand stories

CARAVAGGIO'S "CHIAROSCURO"

were now above: "Susanna and the Elders"

dramatized with

(painting by Artemisia Gentileschi,

breathtaking,

matic contrasts between of

Italy.

As

if lit

full

of pathos

left:

and

"Apollo

and Daphne"

spotlight, the figures

led art onto

emerge out

ture by Gianlorenzo Bernini,

backgrounds.

sally gifted like

or-

whom

he put on canvas without any

1622)

idealization.

ceiling

new paths outside

of dark

dinary people as models,

(sculp-

surprising effects.

On the

(Italian: "light-dark") painting, with its dra-

and dark, also

Caravaggio often employed

1610)

dynamic realism

up by a

light

His secular por-

trayals of biblical stories

the great Renais-

earned

him high admiration, but also

fresco of the Jesuit

sance

Sant'lgnazio Church

decisive role as the architect for the

artist,

Bernini played a accusations of profanation.

in

Rome, Andrea

"Judith

renovation of Saint Peter's Basilica.

Beheading Holofernes'

(painting by Caravaggio,

Pozzo incorporated the architectural

©

As a

sculptor,

he created statues

ca 1598)

distinguished by their dramatic see also: Baroque Architecture. Architecture Chapter,

p.

404

|

The Counter-Reformation. Religion Chapter,

p.

305

BAROQUE

BAROQUE ART In

THE EUROPEAN COURTS

IN

addition to the Church, the ruling houses of Europe

They used the

art.

377

fine arts as a

means

emerged as

significant

commissioners

of

of glorifying their power.

monitored adherence to a

classi-

cally influenced style.

Baroque Opulence Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens

was

a complete anti-classicist.

He

defined his work with exaggerated,

dynamic, full-bodied figures and 'Et in

Arcadia Ego' (painting by

Nicolas Poussin, ca

1638-1639)

"The Newborn" (painting by Georges

de La

reminiscent of Venetian painting

Tour,

ca 1640s)

sweeping Imagery

Louis XIV and dependent on the

Courtly Elegance-the

with colors

New

Royal Image

Nobles were usually presented

in

373) from the 16th century.

an Idealized form, equipped with

Rubens staged mythological and

the attributes of their power.

scenes as a feast for the

Anthony van Dyck developed a

(p.

Parallel to the

made

compositions

if)

of the Italian Baroque.

Baroque

patronage of the court,

classicism developed a clear, calm

manner

of representation that

was

state's art.

it

was the

biblical

most important authority on

Not only a school, the academy

new archetype

senses. As a highly sought-after artist,

the English king Charles

he had a flourishing work-

irr

with his portrait of I.




as clearly inspired

by classic antiquity, are the works

neo-

DER KNOWLEDGE

of the Italian sculptor Antonio

just

an alternative aes-

Canova. His tranquil sculptures of

KNICK-KNACKS: The discovery of

thetic direction to

Princess Pauline Borghese clearly

porcelain promoted the

distinguish themselves from the swirling figures of

Baroque and

Rococo. The princess, a sister of

mass

pro-

duction of decorative sculptures.

JACQUES-LOUIS DM\D just barely

escaped execution by the guillotine during the revolution.

Napoleon Bonaparte, caused a THE LOUVRE, the former French

scandal by modeling

in

the nude.

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres Valpincon"

also followed a firm set of rules.

(by Jean

The harmonious outline of a

Auguste

figure

was. to him, the decisive element

residence,

became

museum after the Ingress approach

the

first

royal

public

revolution.

is

similar to

that of a draftsman, his pictures

Dominique Ingres.

1808)

in

creating perfect beauty out of

the perfect

line.

Even though

impress viewers through his

fine,

lustrous painting style.

The Constructed Picture Form analogy: The fanning of the swords

DESPITE ITS FORCEFUL GESTURES, the

s:e-e =c:-ra-; strar z~

because the painting

stiff

is

'"3

reflects the stag-

gered arrangement of hands raised to take the oath. s

composed

using a grid of verticals, horizontals,

and diagonals that

restricts

the

action of the figures. The use of the triangular form

is

conspicuous. This

triangle directly blocks the

movement

dynamic

of the diagonals with a

countermovement that brings static rest. This pattern

repeatedly

The

in

it

to a

can be found

the picture.

paralleled diagonal positioning of the

legs results pattern.

in

A

•

a spatially-confined scissor

'Oath of the Horatii" (painting by Jacques-Louis David. 1784)

© see also: French Revolution. Society. Politics, and Law Chapter, p. 214

shield-like triangle

As a counterpoint to the a pyramidal form

compositionally holds the

triangle,

men

encloses the women.

together.

382

THE 19TH CENTURY

KEY omanticism (1790-1830)

PHOTOGRAPHY and other

Realism (1840- 1880)

|

Impressionism (1860- 1880)

|

Post-Impressionism (1880-1910)

THE 19TH CENTURY

innovations led to the development of a

|

technical

new repertoire of imagery.

PARIS became the trend-setting art

made

Technical progress and extensive realignment of society during the 19th century

lasting

metropolis of the world.

WITH THE BIRTH OF THE AVANT-

GARDE,

I-

all

and

clerical ties, artists

were free

and the

role of the artist.

to follow their individual convictions

artistic ideals. Their

movements emerged with Thus art became a commodity on

creations reflected this, and divergent style

increasing rapidity, replacing or running parallel to each other.

the open market.

circles

and schools.

tf>

patrician

and

academies.

LIKE-MINDED ARTISTS formed

u

to people's view of the world, but also to the arts

Liberated from

artists

tional art

art

opposed the tradipromoted by the numerous

changes not only

© An unprecedented diversity of styles dominated the arts at the end of the 19th century, marking the start of modern

Romanticism introduced into the arts. Set free artists realized their

composed monumental,

also used landscapes to express

ROMANTICISM and emotion

subjectivity, intuition,

from the traditional repertoire

own

of imagery,

ideas.

< —I


art.

in

384). The Frenchmen Eugene

painting "Liberty Leading the

and Theodore Gericault

People" by Delacroix.

standing of art and shapes the im-

age

of the brilliantly creative artist

who takes

inspiration

FRANCISCO DE GOYA Y LUCIENTES, born 1746 Fuendetodos, died

from within.

IN

FORM AND CONTENT,

in

the wide variety of his work

be ass/gned

to

any particular style.

artists preferred land-

GOYA'S VISIONARY MOTIFS and expressive painting

scape paintings because they

gave modern art significant

expressed moods especially

(painting by C. D. Friedrich,

1818)

inspiration.

well.

These were often communicated "The Wanderer above a Sea of Fog"

in

Bordeaux.

broke with the conventions of his time and cannot

Atmospheric Landscapes Romantic

1828

to

Francisco Goya

(self-portrait,

1815)

the viewer through figures portrayed

from the back.

Goya

"The Wanderer

In

Above the Sea of Fog" by the GerIn

the late 18th century, Romantic

artists started to radically challenge

classicism's

(p.

381)

faith in reason.

man

BASED ON ROCOCO,

painter Caspar David Friedrich,

developed a

the viewer feels the effects of the

tain

emotion, painters did not just depict what they

saw

in

front of

panorama.

Friedrich's

classified

landscapes often

that

is

AS PAINTER TO THE SPANISH

war against Napo-

COURT, he created but

leon, they occasionally

not

always

produced pictures with

drew a dark

vision of

realistic

flattering

portraits of the rulers.

took on a patriotic tone. With the advent of the

it

similar to Romanticism.

solitude. In reaction

to the

cannot be

as belonging to any

certain style, even though

convey world-weariness, longing

and

Goya

language of

imagery with his colors and

vastness and grandeur of a moun-

originality

Emphasizing the importance of

lively

He also

socially critical content. Particularly in his prints,

human

error

and

he

political evils.

tranquil Biedermeier period in

the mid-1800s.

"THE THIRD OF MAY 1808: THE EXECUTION OF THE DEFENDERS OF MADRID"

shows the

Romanticism

away

in

finally

died

Germany.

brutality of the

gripping intensity to the picture.

generpl condemnation of In a

Leading

Delacroix,

1830)

the

all

(painting by E.

above: right:

Constable and Joseph

The Third of May 1808" (painting, 1814) The Sleep of Reason Brings Forth Monsters'

(1797-1798)

Mallord William Turner

© see also: French Revolution. Society, Politics, and Law Chapter, p. 214

light

in

Spain and the

and color impart a

The painting has become a

military force.

Rapture of Colors

The Englishmen John "Liberty

Napoleonic occupation troops

powerlessness of the victims. The dramatic use of

THE 19TH CENTURY l\

383

REALISM The painters of realism broke away from nature, unembellished,

The revolutions of 1848

in

all biblical,

mythological, and literary models. True to

and committed, they reflected upon everyday

thus rejecting art that was based

they sought to depict as honestly as

Euro-

reality.

pean countries and advancing

possible. Although attempts to

only on imaginary worlds. However,

industrialization worldwide led

portray reality have occurred

they never sought to simply imitate

to great

upheavals

in

throughout art history since the

society.

reality

since that would have been

New Technology-New

easier with photography, which had just recently

Perception

been invented.

The invention

Instead, painters like Gustave

Courbet. Adolf von Menzel, Jean-

ity,

Francois Millet, and Honore

world.

Daumier wanted

J.

to illustrate

but also their perception of the

Speed

in

color,

worlds of

life

and

first

non

labor.

been handled at most

time

intensely

made use

light

and

phenome-

of this

\-

rural

in

his painting of the

Great

Western Railway. Turner's shim-

Previously, these subjects

Gustave Courbet's 'Burial at Ornans" from 1849 depicted for the common people and their daily lives on a monumental scale.

who was

optical laws like the

between

relationship

chose motifs

taken from industrial and

blurs firm contours.

M. W. Turner,

interested

social conditions within their art. In particular, artists

of the locomotive

not only changed people's mobil-

mering, almost abstract style of

had

painting broke

small,

in

away from the con

384

THE 19TH CENTURY

I

THE BEGINNING OF MODERN ART-IMPRESSIONISM The Impressionists

led art

down new

created landscapes flooded with

paths. With brilliant colors and loose brush strokes they

light

and portrayed

of reality,

life in

modern

the

large

The capturing

were regarded

at best as sketchy "im-

impressions

pressions," but not as

artists

finished works of art.

city.

work

of direct

demanded rapidly.

sensory

that the

The colors were

only roughly mixed beforehand

and A play of light and

then, with quick, short brush-

Reality of the

Moment

However, the superficial style of painting

tentional.

was

in-

The Impres-

Saint-Lazare

strokes, applied to the canvas.

air:

"The Gare

Paris" (painting by

Claude Monet, 1877)

Lacking details and contours, an Impressionist painting viewed up

particularly his paintings of

close appears to be a carpet of

women

sionists

wanted not only

colors

to paint

what they saw,

distance, however, a clear picture

was

but also

how they saw

materializes. With their brush-

(p.

it.

in

in

turmoil.

Viewed from a

naked

outside of a mythological

context. Even though his "Olympia"

inspired by a painting by Titian

373), Manet's picture

showed a

c/)

K-

Although Impressionists are

strokes, the Impression-

Instead of staying

in-

real

woman,

a well-known prosti-

rr




cluded

among the

realists (p. 383),

in

their pictures

contained no

overtones.

the second half of the

In

19th century, painters

political

Claude

like

the studio,

ists

tently painted

air painting), to

capture as

Pissarro,

itself

in

Edgar Degas, Alfred

to

Camille

in

their

in all

and

self-confidently displayed her

effect

ture

Manet was not

typical statue

part

"

freed his figures from

poses and,

in

the true

sense of the expression, took them

Impressionists, he

off their pedestals. His

shared the

ghers of Calais"

anti-

was the

Auguste Rodin had on sculp-

when he

Although Edouard

of the inner circle of

(bronze replica

the Parisian boulevards, pleasure

likelihood,

nakedness.

as painting.

Manet and Rodin

"The Burghers of Calais

paintings, capturing the bustle of

who openly

tute

Equally revolutionary

and Berthe Morisot turned

more cheerful subjects

visible the

nature, (en plein

Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Sisley,

made

painting process

they consis-

is

"The Bur-

realistically ani-

of the sculpture by Pierre-Auguste

gardens, and day excursions out

Renoir,

academic

1884-1886)

ideals of his colleagues.

Often his work provoked a scandal,

to the countryside.

mated and conceived without any heroic glorification.

To the Point— Pointillism GEORGES SEURAT further developed

the Impressionistic way of painting

in

the

mid-1880s, dissolving not only forms, but also colors. Seurat divided the color of

an object, the so-called

local color, into

sisting of the primary colors.

on the palette but

in

many

little

The mixing of shades

points, or dots, solely con-

of colors

no longer took place

the eye of the observer where the points were blended

in

the retina to the desired hue.

above: Seurat's sketch explains his pointillist

Breaking with tions, their

all artistic

new way

purely as possible the visual im-

conven-

of painting

pression, play of

light,

method

of painting. The

finished painting also con-

and atmo-

sisted of many individual

was

not understood at

public or art critics.

by the

sphere. Renoir even painted the

pictures,

large-format view of "Moulin de

first

These

portrayed with loosely dabbed color

Galette" entirely at the open-air

and random snapshot-like

details

cafe

©

see also:

shown

How

in

points. la

"The Circus" (painting by

Georges Seurat. 1891)

the painting.

Eyes Function, Biology Chapter,

p.

122

^

THE 19TH CENTURY

POST-IMPRESSIONISM

VINCENT VAN GOGH, born 1853

1890

Post-Impressionism marked the beginning of classic modern art,

when

themselves

artists freed

stressed the inherent laws of

of exact replication

in

Zundert. died

Auvers-sur-Oise.

POWERFUL STYLE

HIS

and

in

was not meant

of painting

1880. a long

art.

expression of his state of mind.

came to

tradition

to

reproduce visual impressions but rather was an

whom

AFTER A QUARREL with Paul Gauguin, with After

385

he occasionally worked, the psychologically unsta-

an end and a new era began with

ble artist cut off a part of his ear.

post-Impressionism. Ground break-

"Self-portrait with

bandaged ear' (1889)

ing post-Impressionists like Paul

Vincent van Gogh

Cezanne. Vincent van Gogh. Paul Gauguin. James Ensor. and Edvard

Munch broke tion

BEGINNING AS A REALIST, van Gogh created dark-toned pictures

with natural reproduc-

and color as

well

and workers

as with the

paintings brighten. Inspired by the works of the Impressionists, he developed

a language of imagery using vivid colors. His work

used since the

rules of perspective

ulus for Expressionist artists

Renaissance. In

'The Kiss' by Gustav Klimt from

rendering of

illusory

(p.

was

an important stim-

later

387).

AFTER A BOUT OF MENTAL ILLNESS, about which nothing to

doing so they turned away

from the

reality

1908

is

this

one of the best known

virtually

pulsates and vibrates

in

"Starry Night." Swirling spirals

appear to

was

be communicated through the

day

to

make

of painting itself,

i.e..

field.

The

>

forms. Not the "what" but rather

is

and the way

was applied

paint

to the

canvas, which are the primary tools of painting itself.

From Impression

to Expression

While Cezanne analytically reduced the world to

its

component

parts.

"Starry Night" (painting,

1889)

Van Gogh. Ensor, and Munch worked spontaneously, guided by their emotions. With bold brush-

strokes, distorted forms,

and

ings.

above

all

the South Sea

pic-

tures, often contained symbolic

"unnatural" colors, they created

allusions. His

works thus showed

a closeness to the Symbolists,

INSIDER

KNOWLEDGE

NO ARTIST was reproduced more Vincent van Gogh.

were fascinated by foreign

cultures,

above

all

de s/ec/e (French:

Gustav Klimt's "The

on the other hand,

which Munch also belonged.

traces of art nouveau.

Kiss."

clearly carried

whose

Symbolism-Pictures In

of the Soul

the search for a "deeper truth"

found not only but above

in

all in

the fine arts.

the applied arts

in

the Orient. The

beyond the visual world, the

such as

interior design, tableware,

symbolists explored the depths of

jewelry,

and typography.

art history. artists of early

modernist art also

developed an attraction to the exotic.

The

artists in the

time of

imperialism were primarily

THE SEVERELY DISABLED ToulouseLautrec lived on the margins of society in

a world of pimps and prosti-

in

the "primitive" cultures of

Africa or the

sought

innocence

was

naturalness and

in Tahiti,

lacking

in

which he

the art and

human

soul

Sigmund Freud

in

their pictures.

later

termed

felt

lives of

world-weary Europeans. The clear

oppressive scenarios of various

In

are the dominating

themes

emotional states.

comparison, the world of

and death

cally

of the stylisti-

numerous

artists.

Gauguin's paintings appeared to

and often dream-like

be a harmonious paradise. Warm,

worlds

lines, (II)

by Paul Gauguin. 1899)

in

the pictures

Lautrec revolutionized

poster art. His works

were already a coveted collector's item during

bright colors, designs with flowing

above: "Motherhood'

With easily distinguish-

able forms and strong colors, Henri Toulouse-

heterogeneous

forms of Japanese woodcuts also inspired

this

"the unconscious." Eros, fear,

South Seas. Gauguin

purity,

the

inter-

tutes despite his aristocratic origins.

ested

and rounded,

distinct

forms

of Odilon

Bocklin,

Redon, Arnold

and Franz

(painting

impart both a balance and unity to the pictures.

"turn

decorative ornamentation was

As early as the mid-19th century,

GAUGUIN settled in Tahiti and became one of the first dropouts

fin

of the century").

were popular around 1900 and to

often in the 20th century than

Foreign Worlds

artists

who

general feeling of insecurity at

the

But Gauguin's paint-

von Stuck. Their dark

moods

© see also: Sigmund Freud. Psychology Chapter, p. 358

his time (poster for the

choral singer Aristide Bruant. 1892).

mirrored the

|

Art Nouveau. Architecture Chapter, p.

409

< U5

color choice

the main focus.

i-

the result of

picture

made

the sky

o->

suggestive effect of the

through the choice of colors and

the "how" of a painting was

known,

be an energy-

laden force

means

is

van Gogh increasingly intensified his use of color and brushwork. The canvas

works of art nouveau.

employed by the Impressionists. Instead effect and expression

of farmers

Dutch homeland. Only after he moved to Provence did his

in his

386 THE 20TH CENTURY

KEY FACTS Roads

MODERN ART in

above

is

imperceptible

THE ARTIST

is

all

reality.

themes,

and

styles,

THE VIEWER

is

IN

The

categories. to

make

aside

Surrealism

|

Pop Art

|

|

Contemporary art

all

all

the previously arranged

modern world

generations. To understand the

artistic

in its

artistic traditions of

the pre-

entire complexity, artists set

conventions and turned to the abstract. Subjective expression and creative

earlier artistic

innovation superseded the mastery of the craft. By using "non-artistic" materials, the traditional

millions are

repertoire of painting

exchanged worldwide, while the search for every

Constructivism

20th century broke with

artists of the

ceding

what they see.

THE ART MARKET

|

limits of

stimulated

interpretations of

Expressionism

|

THE 20TH CENTURY

considered autono-

mous; there are no more

the abstract

to

interested

new talented

"What

artist continues.

©

is

now

art?"

and sculpture expanded

to include

even more new categories. The question

received a radically different answer.

The foundation of modern art was

20th century.

laid in the first half of the

ROADS TO THE ABSTRACTCUBISM, FUTURISM, AND FAUVISM Experiments with form and color led

in

the early 20th century to ever

more abstract

discoveries

(/)

1-

in art.

Visible reality

was

analytically dissected or translated into highly emotional paintings.

< The post-Impressionists

(p.

Cubism

385)

broke with the rules of traditional

>

painting.

They were followed by a

generation of artists

new

styles of art,

painting,

who

created

new manners

of

and new ways of seeing.

Cezanne clung to the one dimen(p. 388) and Georges

Pablo Picasso

Braque created

new

style:

1907 an

in

entirely

cubism. Inspired by Paul

Cezanne, they divided the world

Whereas

into individual facets.

sional point of view, Cubists, on

the contrary, showed their subjects

from different viewpoints and fused them

into

'Still Life

With Violin" (painting by

Georges Braque, 1911)

one fused form.

Thus they destroyed the

pictorial

space based on a central perspecPAUL CEZANNE, born 1839 in

France and died there

in

ILLUSORY DEPTH replaced

in

Aix-en-Provence

1906.

flat

in

interest him.

but rather their geometric structure. IS

KNOWN

Western

Renaissance.

In its

was not based on appear-

ance but on knowledge character of things.

as the "Father of the Modern."

of the

In this

way,

the Cubists combined several

"The Dance"

(first

version, painting

by Henri Matisse, 1910)

viewpoints into a single perception,

Bowler Hat" (sketch, 1885)

"Self-portrait with

in

place rose a free artistic construction that

THE OBJECTS THEMSELVES did not

had prevailed

art since the

forms

Cezanne's paintings.

HE

tive that

which

Paul Cezanne

in reality

the viewer could

only see individually by walking

completely absorbed with move-

ment—up to the

polished surface.

around an object. CEZANNE'S PAINTINGS are marked by strong structures, calm

and

lines,

finely

blended, subdued colors.

ART SHOULD NOT COPY NATURE, but rather form a "harmonious nature;"

i.e.,

an independent world, subject to

laws. In order to lytical

way:

approach

this inner structure,

He reduced the

its

own

parallel to

laws, like nature

Cezanne proceeded

in

has

its

an ana-

visible reality to basic two- or three-dimensional

geometric forms. From these building blocks, he created a composition that

was

loosely connected to visible reality. However,

exclusively requirements

Fauvism Futurism

posed by the painting

in its

construction

it

followed

CEZANNE STROVE

to create a per-

constructed

picture.

He

desired to convey to the viewer

through his paintings an "idea" (but not a copy) of nature.

and movement

well

space played

in

paintings,

of

what

is

and GinoSeverini piled different tives

modern,

abstract art.

poetically than Futur-

ism, with

inclination

its

towards

and phases

Matisse, founder and chief representative of the French group of artists

perspec of

movement on each other. Boccioni ap-

known as "Fauves"

"wild animals"), created bold

picturesque worlds of clear, rhythmic forms

in

dark,

unmixed

colors.

plied this principle

of simultaneous-

ness also ture. His

figure

"Unique Forms of Continuity in

to sculp-

"Mont SainteVictoire" (painting by

C6zanne 1902/1906)

Matisse treated the theme "move-

ment" more

technical apperance, would have.

central roles. In their

as speed

painting "The Dance," Henri

Through

these efforts, Cezanne formed the

whole basis

For the Italian Futurists the

dimension of time as

Umberto Boccioni

itself.

fectly

In his

walking

seems

Space" (bronze

sculpture by Umberto Boccioni, 1913)

"

THE 20TH CENTURY

EXPRESSIONISM

Collage, Assemblage, and

387

Ready-Made

The Expressionists conveyed subjective experiences and perEVERYDAY ITEMS BECOME WORKS OF ART:

sonal feelings through strong colors and exaggerated forms.

They wanted

to

communicate emotionally

In

1912, Braque and Picasso glued

newspaper clippings on their paintings and thereby invented the

with the viewer.

as "collage" (French:

"to glue").

art form

Photo montages were developed

in

known

the 1920s:

these pictures consisted entirely of fragments of photos. The Dadaist Kurt Schwitters combined abstract painting with every-

Simultaneously with the French

day objects

Fauves, the artist community "die

Brucke" formed

in

Germany and a

artistic

while later "der Blaue Reiter."

artists

plified

ism was one of the dominant art

Germany. However, after

1933, National Socialism caused

resentatives,

leading rep-

Its

such

Max

as

Beckmann, Oskar Kokoschka, Marc Chagall, the painters

them works

"fitting together").

greatest popularity

(p.

390) of the 1960s.

in

It

and sim"Girls'

ers around Ernst Ludwig

all

Jewish

Kirchner wanted to free them-

were

saw as

they

to art object:

ety by using "primitive" forms

made by

and

Marcel

champ, "ecstatic

Artists

Du-

direct" read their manifesto;

"degenerate." The Nazis removed

works from

>

(ready-

they wanted to express an

museums and

destroyed or sold them overseas.

<


BAROQUE-ABSOLUTIST SPLENDOR

KEY FACTS Baroque (1600-1750)

Courtly musical culture

|

\

Opera

Cantatas and oratorios

|

|

Instrumental music

IMPORTANT INSTRUMENTAL FORMS

BAROQUE-ABSOLUTIST SPLENDOR

of the Baroque: concerto grosso, suite,

and

trio

OPERA SERIA flected the

sonatas.

(serious opera) re-

pomp

The music

of the

Baroque

era,

named

after the elaborate architectural style of the period, re-

of absolutism.

music and the new form of opera were arnew genre of oratorio was also grandiose, but was based on biblical themes. As George Frederick Handel composed choral and other pieces in London, Johann Sebastian Bach wrote almost 300 sacred and secular cantatas—a new form of church music— in Germany.

flected the splendor of absolute rule. Ambitious court THE FUGUE was seen as the musical

representations of earthly power. The

tistic

depiction of a divine order.

FUGUE SUBJECTS were melodic, rhythmic themes that master per-

formers turned upside-down and inside-out.

Baroque splendor: opera seria— Baroque instrumental music: concerto grosso.

COURTLY MUSICAL CULTURE European courts developed a magnificent

components

opera, and orchestral music were fixed

3

The focus on music Renaissance courts

like

Mantua

and Ferrara greatly aided

its

music during the Baroque

into

the 17th century as a fixture of

absolutist court ceremonies includ-

devel-

era. Ballet,

an absolutist demonstration

of

occupation with music continued

the Italian

in

style of court

opment. New forms such as opera

ing feasts, dances, parades,

emerged and orchestras became

hunts—even the church and stage.

and

of power.

singers and musicians performed increasingly magnificent works as

composers discarded the speech rhythms previously used

in

church Trie

composers

professional, allowing

compose

for a specific

instruments

in

number

Demands made

to

sicians grew

of

ensembles. This

in

proportion to the

di-

JEAN-BAPTISTE LULLY, born 1632 died

1687

dance rhythms.

Versailles

in

Florence,

in Paris.

became the

for courtly

and song.

Louis XIV, court music experienced

sic

and dance,

mous to

in

artists

to France at the age of

la

musique instrumental du

most

conducted with

baton, reflecting the opulence of the

He used

Court of Versailles. cate the

initial

ton on the

but one time he

floor,

his foot instead.

heal

to indi-

beat by hitting the bahit

The wound did not

and inflammation

set

in.

Lully

died a few days later of gangrene.

if

they wanted to

themselves with

addition to the court

Jean-Baptiste

Lully,

his court.

composer

the French

harpsichordist and

composer

beth Jacquet de

Guerre was con-

la

Elisa-

nected with the Court of Versailles.

at the Court of Versailles. In

Petits Violons. a well-known elite orchestra. In

was appointed "Surintendant de

Many fa-

Lully

compose and perform according

affiliate In

15 as a page. He had an unparalleled career

which he himself

understood they had

to Louis's tastes

Jean-Baptiste Lully

MUSIC-MAKING WITH DEADLY CONa long, heavy, lavishly decorated

participated as a dancer.

Jean-Baptiste Lully

KNOWLEDGE

SEQUENCES:

opulent stage spectacles with mu-

LULLY CREATED comedic ballet-a mixture of

1656, he founded the

music from the

reflected the splendor of the Court of Versailles.

EDUCATED AS A DANCER AND VIOLINIST, LULLY came

the 17th century.

in

17th century onward. Under

an upswing. The "sun king" loved

ballet,

music

INSIDER

stylistic role

THE GRACIOUS MAGNIFICENCE of Lully's music

comedy,

Court of Versailles was the cen-

ter of

Versailles as Model

model

Italy,

for

by performing mu-

versity of their duties. Professional

pre-

music

influential

roi."

1661. he

one

positions

in

of the

court

music at Versailles. To accommodate the tastes of the dance-obsessed Louis XIV. Lully collaborated with poet

and playwright Moliere

to reform the

court ballet.

BEGINNING

IN 1673. a

new opera was

created for Versailles each year.

These

lavish stage

works combined

music and dancing with magnificent stage sets, and resulted lar

works of

in

spectacu-

art.

Courtly music entertained as festival music (above: at the

Louis XIV as character 'The Rising

Sun"

in 'Ballet

of the Night,'

1654

seph

II

to Isabella of

Parma), dance music for

church music for worship, and stage music

balls,

for

1760 wedding of Jo-

outdoor music

the opera

and

for hunting,

ballet.

BAROQUE-ABSOLUTIST SPLENDOR

BAROQUE OPERA The

opera house opened

first

mentum

for the

new genre

in

of

were especially fond of

Italy

opera houses were

in-

little

most

do with the

to

They developed

had

of which

plot of the play.

into

sing-

ers portrayed individual characters plot

different opera styles quickly

formers traveled extensively throughout the land.

independent

works of musical theater. The

and the

Many

built in Italy.

developed, as groups of opera per-

termedia: Musical interludes for theatrical works,

1637, creating mo-

in

sung drama called opera.

The Renaissance courts of northern

Venice

was accompanied

Opera Seria and Opera Buffa Two

mam types of opera

evolved:

opera seria ("serious opera") and

by

Naples (above: Teatro

music especially composed

new genre was

for

it.

A

born: opera.

opera buffa ("comic opera"). The first

evolved from the Venetian op-

it

made an

in

di

San Carlo

in

Naples)

became

European opera production

for

decades.

impression on the

Neopolitan Opera School, which

MONTEVERDI, born 1567

included Alessandro Scarlatti

1643

among

its

students.

Opera seria

was

The cast was

some form

Mu-

volved

in

sically,

opera seria alternates be-

tween

recitatives

is

considered the

"II

died

opera

first

ritorno d'Ulisse in patria"

HIS STYLE of composition

in-

of intrigue.

Italy,

(1639-

1640), "L'incoronazione di Poppea" (1642)

in

each work— usually two couples

Cremona,

the history of music.

LATER OPERAS:

histori-

similar

in

Venice.

in

HIS "ORFEO" OF 1607 in

usually based

on ancient mythological and cal plots.

the center of Italian op-

the 18th century. Opera seria at the Neapolitan Opera School defined

18th cen-

eratic traditions. In the

tury

era

is

marked by "monody."

Claudio Monteverdi

and arias

Claudio Monteverdi

(ensembles). Recitatives are spo-

The masque evolved as a

particu-

English form of opera

larly

early 17th century.

It

the

in

combined

dancing, spoken dialogue, and

The

singing.

was Henry

first

English opera

Purcell's "Dido

and Ae-

neas" (1689). composed school. Purcell.

girls'

made

who was

organist at Westminster

subsequent semi-operas,

form.

musical excerpts depicting b the

pearing

first,

in

Venice

opera remained an exclu-

sively courtly

in

form of entertain-

.^..^

&>&«£

!§&#*

celebrate the wedding of the Duke

1607. Opera enjoyed a

wider audience after the mercial opera house

in

in

V.

-

i.h

,

.

if

introduction

of

pizzicato

and

form of opera.

HE COMPOSED LATER OPERAS to the city in

in

Venice after moving

1613. He held the position of "Maestro

Italy.

wrote

many sacred and

books Title

secular songs, and

many

of madrigals.

page of

"Orfeo," Venice.

1609

edition

Jean-

Baptiste Lully developed a dition in

France

in

new

first

opened

tra-

the 1670s. How-

1752

Pergolesi's opera "La Serva Pa-

drona," a serious fight erupted be-

com-

tween the followers of

in

buffa and those of the French tradi-

Italian

1637. Venetian opera was

hugely successful, and soon more

tion,

opera

which was called querelle des

bouffons (war of the comic actors).

miere

in

2006.

di

Capella" at the Cathedral of San Marco, where he

and developed independent

traditions outside

tn

the string sections. He shaped the develop-

of a new, definitive

Modern production of the opera Venice

-




=— ==T 0— bb =—fe-r—cb

ments, great jumps

violin solo that

their excep-

in register,

KNOWLEDGE

CONCERTS WERE SPECTACULAR violin strings snapped

events where

or entire instruments were broken. It is

fab

perfor-

similar to a singing scene.

INSIDER

or even improvise

tional abilities: technical refine-

__>.

first

vio-

natural for

works at

structured to

III

The

at Milan's La Scala opera

were also simultaneously compos-

them

I

*

Louis Spohr for his

mance

Since most virtuoso performers

ers,

ir

S2I

devoted public (caricature,

for his

Hungary, Britain, and Switzerland.

said that

if

Paganini's E-string

broke during a performance, he

would continue playing on the other

i

it

speed, and

brilliance.

Of course,

performers also paid particular

o c/)

repertoire of that time. This enor-

Sigismond Thalberg— a contempo-

who

m

three strings until he

had

finished.

456

ROMANTICISM-THE VIEW INWARD

ROMANTIC OPERA Opera

19th-century

in

Italy

IN ITALY

was overshadowed

replaced the generation of Rossini,

and

Bellini,

by the bel canto form until Giuseppe Verdi Donizetti.

He brought dramatic

individual

characters to the operatic stage: Othello, Macbeth, and the courtesan Violetta.

The compositions of Gioacchino

Bel Canto

Rossini reinvigorated the form of

The melody

opera, especially opera buffa.

"beautiful singing")

This form

common to

19th-century

in

Vincenzo

Rome. The

ville"

prompted a

Vincenzo

for his

tri-

Bellini be-

came known

signifi-

cant parts for

of

col-

Themes taken from everyday tines sic

rou-

and customs were set to mu-

and portrayed

in

different

ways

ranging from the realistic to the

valleria

cagni ended

a duel with knives,

in

which the score was

a finale

which was rather

given no quarter.

unusual since

tic

decided how they

Norma was a role for prima donnas such as Maria Callas. Bellini's

Rusticana" by Pietro Mas-

oratura singers,

singers at that time

primarily

to the operatic stage by us-

dramatic. The verismo opera "Ca-

Bellini

wrote more

i

"The Barber of Se-

o

dominated

the Italian music scene.

"The Barber of

second production

it

life

ing literary realism as a blueprint.

was the most

composers and

the 1816 premiere of Ros

Seville" in

bel canto (Italian:

important aspect of the opera for

opera became obsolete with

sini's

real

in

It

was

clearly identifiable as a depic-

tion of the

gloried in realis-

acoustic elements, discordant

then bohemian

confusion, and singing parts that

canto dominated

dissipated into spoken parts.

notable

lifestyle

echoes

Paris. Lyrics with

in

in

of bel

as

this opera,

is

Puccini's body of oper-

in

operas "La Soninterpreted their parts.

nambula" and "Norma.

Gaetano

Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti,

and other

Working with

Giacomo

realistic portrayals.

Puccini's "La

atic

Boheme"

works including

terfly,"

"Tosca."

GIUSEPPE VERDI

the soprano Giuditta Pasta. She

1901

Milan,

VERDI

WAS INVOLVED

a celebrated prima

donna

b.

1813

Busseto.

Italy, d.

Italy.

politically with the Italian

movement.

throughout Europe, and her impres-

unification

sive vocal ability set the standard

WELL-KNOWN OPERAS:

for the challenging

But-

bel canto

composers collaborated with

was

"Madame

and "Turandot."

"Rigoletto,"

"II

Trovatore,"

"La Traviata," "Aida," "Don Carlos," "Otello," "Pal-

soprano roles

staff of bel canto opera.

Photographic

Verdi's

The

portrait, Paris,

ca

1870

Newer Style

bel canto generation

Giuseppe Verdi

was sepa-

rated from Giuseppe Verdi by only a

few short years. Verdi wrote his

composing career was short yet brilliant: he wrote 39 operas between 1810 and 1829. Rossini's opera

few operas

the bel canto

in

first

style,

VERDI ROSE TO FAME from a humble background. Despite being rejected by the conservatory, he received private musical instruction through the support of a patron.

but with his third opera,

The success

of his third

pulted him straight to the top of the

"Nabucco," he began

umphant tour

to

the major Euro-

all

to develop his

own

melodramatic approach.

audiences responded favorably

He aimed

to the opera's

new

liveliness

and

KNOWLEDGE

to

VERDI (VITTORIO EMANUELE RE walls in Italian cities in the

began

1840s.

from "Nabucco" was used as a na-

anthem by the

on the walls alluded

hoped would

1848 revolutionary

uprising.

and the period

of his

greatest success began.

plots. in

opera

to resonate with

the audience as the story line

and

their fate

became

graffiti

to Vittorio

D'ltalia.

Sardinia-Piedmont,

IN ITALY'S

Verdi withdrew to his estate Sant'Agata.

easier to understand.

Italian

Risorgimento. However, the

Emanuele Re

of Italian opera composers.

success: His wife and children died

more responsive

absorbing

The characters

was daubed on many

A popular composer's slave chorus

tionalistic

AFTER PARTICIPATING

make stage

productions more vivid

ing scores

D'lTALIA)

his

and dramatic by compos-

tuneful melodies.

INSIDER

in

n 1839.

pean opera houses, where

to

His family did not share

opera "Nabucco" (1842) catalist

Verismo

the king of

who many

unify the country.

Italian

opera composers of the next Today, Verdi's operas constitute

hundred years continued down

this

path blazed by Verdi, trying to bring

© see also: Realism, Literature Chapter, p. 428

some

of the

most beloved opera programs

(above: "La Traviata" at Salzburg Festspiele, 2005).

ROMANTICISM-THE VIEW INWARD

I

ROMANTIC OPERA

IN

457

GERMANY AND FRANCE

Meyerbeer and Wagner are the complete opposites

composers

of

of great

Romantic opera:

Meyerbeer represents grand opera, while Wagner idealizes music drama.

Paris

became one

of Europe's

important centers for opera

1800s.

It

was here

in

most

Venice before arriving

the

1831. where a distinct middle-class

in

consciousness

that Italian

emerged

composers first developed grand opera: Gaspare

1807 was

to Paris in

(p.

The grand

1824.

Between 1820 and 1890 1821 Weber: "Der Freischutz"

Giacomo Meyerbeer (born Jakob

Li-

also

in Berlin)

have been influenced by

1831 Meyerbeer: "Robert der Teufel"

Comique

1837 Lortzing: "Zarund

As an alternative to large scale

Zimmermann"

as Charles Gounod's "Faust" and

in Paris.

Flying

in

Paris from about

1859 Gounod: "Faust"

1850.

Monumental stage presentations,

These productions had intimate

multiple story lines, scenes with

plots

segments, dramatic turns,

1849 Meyerbeer: "Der Prophet"

Ambroise Thomas's "Mignon." developed

ballet

1843 Wagner: "The

such

lyrique,

Dutchman"

Meyerbeer and the Grand Opera

to

Notable Premieres

and was followed by

grand opera, drama

Meyerbeer were hugely successful

appears

corresponded perfectly with

public tastes

Drama Lyrique and Opera

operas of

456)

ebmann Mayer Beer

in

the successful "Les Huguenots."

1830.

of

while Rossini brought

canto

le

Diable." Meyerbeer's first opera

Revolution

a sensational success.

Italian bel

required of productions. "Robert

Paris,

after

the July

Spontini's opera "Die Vestalin" of

Pans

in

1865 Wagner:

"Tristan

O 3

und

Isolde"

1875

concerned with individuals

Bizet:

"Carmen"

1882 Wagner:

and featured sentimental melodies.

"Parsifal"

1884 Massenet: "Manon" bel canto.

Meyerbeer studied

and varied orchestration were now

in

In

the

half of the century,

first

opera comique

RICHARD WAGNER born 1813

1883

in

Venice

total

ters.

MAJOR WORKS: 'The Ring Cycle.'

with his wife Cosima,

und

Isolde" in

lyrique

changed the older

form. From about 1850.

1872

a 2000 production

themes and

Richard Wagner HIS career

his wife. Paris.

to

in

1833 as chorus master in Wurzberg.

evade

his creditors

Minna, after which they

Wagner had

court conductor

in

lived in

his first operatic

and

flee to

1864 when Ludwig

II

in

Isolde."

deep

fi-

ing

Germany

and

Nature and

its

fairy

more

qualities like

and thunder-

forests

storms inspired many musical

nancial support for him

imaginations. to

Richard

in

for its treat-

tempestuous

Munich

to

and provided

in

of legends

tales.

of Bavaria brought

him

E. T. A.

Hoffmann

work on his operas.

The

love affair with his

Cosima von

later wife.

wrote "Undine" based on the story of a seductive water

Bulow. began around the

nymph who falls

same

with a mortal

time.

The

first

pro-

ductions took place Bayreuth

in

in

brought into

1876. order.

The Festspielhaus Bayreuth was cording

to

encom-

passed themes of the power of

love

of the supernatural,

in its

Wolfs Gorge scene.

Wagner

started

Romantic opera with

ment

in

Maria von We-

"Carmen."

Germany Romantic opera

became known

WAGNER'S SUCCESS oegan

this opera. Carl

Wagner's Musical Drama

(especially with Mathilde

works such as "Tristan und

in

such as love be-

ber's opera "Der Freischutz"

such as

Bizet's

and fled to Switzerland. Wagner's love affairs greatly influenced

in

the leading singer

which Wagner actively participated, he was pursued by the authorities

Wessendonck)

or dra-

of devotion,

tween a human and a water nymph

composing

in

1849.

in

Paris,

in

the latter half of the 1800s.

in

and the fear

Romantic Opera

success with "Rienzi" and became

Dresden. After Dresden's May Uprising

lyrical

In

London with

impoverished conditions

cities,

matic characters, such as

George 1839. he was forced

it

incorporated more serious

by the Berlin State Opera (Harry Kupfer)

WAGNER BEGAN

European

such as Palais Gamier in

enon

However, the influence of

drama

'Die

Meistersinger." 'Parsifal." 'Tannhauser'

right 'Tristan

ground by featuring

and cheerful, sentimental charac-

the composition of

work of art.

Wagner

its

Many opera houses were

constructed

spoken dialogue, musical numbers,

MUSIC DRAMA focused on a

to hold

died

in Leipzig,

above:

453) was able

(p.

in

built ac-

One

themes

in

and

love

dis-

works "The

He employed musical memory motifs,

in

which already played a big

German

Romantic era was that the resolution of a plot could only be

achieved through the phenom-

role

Weber's work. Wagner subsequently developed these into his

A.

4&

idea of leitmotif "leading motif."

WF^i

His opera aesthetic

was

based upon the exposition of ancient legends, which

he attempted to transfer to opera through the

drama.

of the central

of the

Wagner's

music philosophy.

his

Dutchman" and "Lohengrin."

form of music

is

human

Flying

Forest ranger

Max

deals

with the devil to win a

marksmanship contest

in

Weber's "Der Freischutz."

rs 458

ROMANTICISM-THE VIEW INWARD

ROMANTIC SYMPHONY Symphonic form was the subject of much disagreement in the 19th century. Conservative advocates of absolute music were outraged at the new direction of the symphonic poem.

Mendelssohn composed 12-string symphonies, deliberately scoring these

for smaller orchestras.

wrote

five

He

more symphonies,

he experienced

it

borrowed so heavily from Beethoven

it

Hans von Bulow

"Beethoven's Tenth."

phonies

in

quick succession.

influ-

enced by the musical characteristics

1876. Ultimately,

Brahms composed three more sym-

between 1824 and 1837.

Both these compositions were

in

that conductor

nicknamed

including the "Scottish" and the "Italian,"

Karlsruhe

in

in his travels.

Program Music and the

"Symphonie Fantastique"

Symphonic Poem

Beethoven's Successor: Brahms

literature of great

Johannes Brahms was generally

themes and music

in

Romantic

which a symphony "told" a story

O

Berlioz

J/5

gigantic orchestral apparatus

regarded as being the symphonic

era inspired the development

2

(caricature, 1846).

successor to Beethoven, and this

of

put pressure on him to achieve

dramatic symphony was given

picted episodes from the

narrative content through a written

artist.

evoked

criticism with his

Beethoven's Ninth Symphony (p.

great results with his composition.

451) wielded great influence on

composers

in

considered

it

the 1800s. the

of the classical

final

His First

Symphony was 21 years

program music,

in

the making;

it

finally

premiered

Berlioz's

is

1830

Hector

"Symphonie Fantastique."

development

an

of

life

movement

first

de-

scribed the burgeoning love of a

an idealized

(alias Berlioz) for

woman

(alias Harriet

The second

wife).

TONE POEM COMPOSITIONS were so popular in the 1800s that only a few symphonies were composed in the

how any com-

showed her of another

ous musician

ment had

and Schumann were independent

tradition of the

the popular

Haydn's and Mozart's symphonic

promenade concerts

the

single-movement

nist

in

which the protago-

wished to have his lover

murdered and was brought court.

The

final

into

movement was

overture than the multi-movement in

symphony.

It

was the basis

for

com-

London, achieved wondrous symph-

forms and embellished them

the

The third move-

grotesque witches' Sabbath.

Louise Antoine Julien, founder of

that they adopted

in

jeal-

city for

a distant thunderstorm

the fourth,

symphonic tone poem, more

the

portending disaster, followed by

Franz Liszt developed the genre of

Schubert, Mendelssohn Bartholdy,

flee

phonies by Dmitri Shostakovich and

Romantic Symphony Romantic composers such as

arms

man. making the

solitude of nature.

Hartmann.

movement

at a ball— in the

next two centuries, such as 15 sym-

eight by Karl Amadeus

in

The

21 st CENTUF

phonic after this monumental work.

composers

its

premiere, the program de-

Smithson, Berlioz's intermittent

progress— could write anything sym-

Early

the settings of the music. For

young musician

Some

poser—in the sense of musical

Early

through program notes describing

which the

program. One example

symphony, while

others questioned

in

Fantas-

tique" introduced program music,

passions and of the

"Symphonie

Berlioz's

The close relationship between

above: Original manuscript page

municating extra-musical content

ony performances.

with Romantic tonal language.

through plays, novels, and poems.

The symphonic poem became

New German School and Brahms's

successfully independent from

Followers

the symphonic tradition, which

One

of the bitterest

disagreements

in

music history broke out

in

the middle of

the 1800s between conservatives and progressives. The musicians of the future, including Franz Liszt

German School" although

and Hector

there were no

Berlioz,

were referred

German composers

in

to as the

"New

this group.

The

cornerstone of their aesthetic was considered to be program music (symphonic poetry) and Richard Wagner's music drama. Johannes Brahms was

named head of the opposition

^M ^/JL ^ji

V

^^K

his

party;

music was considered to be

ditional. critic

the "New

.fl

between

German School" and

advocates of absolute music. The

poems

could

convey non-musical content

made

idea that symphonic

them

especially attractive to the

la-

national music

movements

of the latter half of the

(p.

1800s.

Bedrich

"absolute music."

the great cycle of tone

poems

"Ma

to

Vlast" from

1872

1879,

which he conveyed the need

"Eduard Hanslick instructs Richard

Wagner as one composes.

"

459)

Smetana composed

beled compositions by Brahms as

in

^^

of a fight

tra-

Eduard Hanslick, Viennese

and musical aesthetician,

was the subject

Brahms was close to Robert and Clara Schumann. His friendship with Clara lasted until her death

for

an expression of national

independence.

in

1896.

a

ROMANTICISM-THE VIEW INWARD

459

NATIONAL MUSIC The rediscovery

songs and dances unlocked new sources

of folk

were also imbued with a

The

political

landscape

changed dramatically

in

of musical inspiration.

statement: a desire for national independence.

political

Europe

tional

after the

Opera

tion of the

Prague. Construc-

in

opera house, which

Napoleonic wars. Many regions

contrast to other locales

were more inclined to national inde-

was supposed

the Habsburg

pendence, such as

in

hereditary lands of

Bohemia and

Moravia, as well as

in

result of

These

its

They

to

perform Czech

was financed

repertoire only, city's residents.

by the

Antonln Dvorak's

"Rusalka" premiered here

Russia as a

in

Prague

in

1901.

in

democratic reform.

political

movements sought

means

national roots as a cultural

for establishing their identity.

In

and

of the

independence

to the

in

New American Music genre

the 1920s.

lost their

Habsburg

its

opera

in

his earliest years,

pianist Isaac Albeniz led

Russia, an

zenith with operas by Bedfich

tone language was already under

way by the 1830s. Mikhail

Europe.

Glinka,

and the

Spain,

U.S..

in

1526.

In

Smetana. including "The Bartered

the course of

were legendary, despite

Czar" (1836) and "Ruslan and Lyud-

ness.

musical culture was regarded

19th century as a possible of asserting national

Bohemian

in

Bride"

the

means

autonomy.

in

1866 and

"Dalibor"

At

in

only subjects from Russian

significant.

work

opera "Libuse," which dramatized

formed on opera stages, and Glinka

for the

1881 opening of the Na-

Modest Mussorgski,

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Cesar Cui, Alexander

per-

other fields and had

little

above: Isaac Albeniz

(1860-1909)

operas

to music. spe-

He influenced Modest

Mussorgsky,

training. llya

Repin

known as the "Mighty

who went on

to

for voice

com-

and

pi-

Handful." broke through the harmonic im-

Russia during the 1860s. Mily Balakirev headed the group.

possible

in

cal

"Songs and Dances of Death."

of idealized folk

in

Song Collections

Musicians

in

music canon. Thus, collections

in

the

songs were as-

1800s and were

adapted by composers.

the Romantic

i

sion. Yet collec-

'

and

ting folk

mythological subjects for

Mussorgsky's "Boris Go-

"Prince nic

and Igor,"

Europe

Borodin's

"In

down

orte

folk

music

.^nlonl)Yorak. 0/

I ging. as many

and "Sadko" by

A

1898

Feodor Chaliapin sings the role of Boris Godunov Mussorgsky s eponymous opera.

*&£>.

the later

proved challen-

L

Rimsky-Korsakov. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. painting from

in

the

Steppes of Central Asia" by Borodin

Valla.

1800s. Writing

and sympho-

poems such as

songs

spread across

operas. These included

right:

M m

of national expres-

Russia. They researched Russian folk songs.

dunov"

the classi-

in

era regarded folk song

that an independent form of music

selecting national

ex-

rhythms did not necessarily lend

as a primitive form

was

song

melodies and

themselves as songs

sembled

passe of the Western musical tradition to develop a national body of work

MANY WERE CONVINCED

Falla.

rent variations of a folk isted, typical folk

ano including "The Nursery" and

Folk FIVE, also

his

the

professional

The Five THE

in

Other Spanish

life.

der Dargomyzhsky,

pose song cycles

Modest Mussorgsky, painting by

years of his

dies and instrumentation. Alexan-

Guest" (1872), put Russian prose

cialists in

The high point of

"Suite Iberia" written

nados and Manuel de

folk song-like melo-

in his

music

folk

composers included Enrique Gra-

further reinforced the Slavic ele-

ment through

Spanish

"Rusalka" (1856) and "The Stone

Borodin

MOST MEMBERS of this group, set up around 1860 as the first Russian conservatory, were

last

is

Fe-

who encouraged him

piano compositions, proved

and mythology were

history

FIVE: Mili Balakirew,

musical

first,

1868. Smetana composed the

the legendary founding of Prague,

national music reached

THE

national school of composition. into his

the revival of a pan-Slavic

history,

his blind-

A meeting with composer

lipe Pedrell,

mila" (1842), launched the Russian

of

of 12. His piano skills

with his two operas "A Life for the

to incorporate

monarchy

rest

He went to South America

age

at the

Spanish an unset-

between the

traveling

life

attempt to create an independent

and published American folk songs. She was an avant-garde composer

National Opera-Prague

Italian

From

influ-

tled

Ruth Crawford-Seeger collected

folk songs.

Bohemia and Moravia

response to the enormous

ence of

Music

offered several possibilities such as national opera

Spain: Isaac Albeniz

National Opera-Russia

ft down in

\

.

were passed

a

only by

So while

diffe-

.

»

Antonin Dvorak used Slavonic musical

oral tradition.

et»

themes as

'Slavic

inspiration in his

Dances."

m o

"

460

J]

^

MODERN MUSIC KEY FACTS Music around 1900

END OF MAJOR-MINOR TONALITY: atonality and 12-tone. THE ORCHESTRA of the era: large

and

late

Music after 1900

|

'

free

Romantic

diverse.

MODERN MUSIC

Musical movements near the turn of the century were aesthetically diverse and somewhat contra-

GROUPS OF COMPOSERS: Second

dictory. Late

Viennese School, Les Six

Romantic music was quite

of Impressionism

FOLK SONG ANTHOLOGIES HAVE

were also quite popular—especially

in

World War

I.

At the

same

France— in the 1890s.

sionism provided the stimulus for a musical development toward atonality.

ethnographic claims.

France, neoclassicism SCANDAL: Schonberg's concerts

influential until

assumed an important

role.

In

time, the ideas

addition, expres-

In

post-World

War

I

Arnold Schonberg introduced his 12-tone tech-

in

nique

Vienna, Stravinsky's "The Rite of

Spring" in Paris.

public

in

Severs/

1923.

in

trends existed simultaneously around the turn of the century.

stylistic

MUSIC AROUND 1900-DEPARTURE AND UPRISING

was combined

with unusual exotic

content: Strauss effectively linked

The decadent,

fin-de-siecle

consciousness created a

exotic sounds. Impressionism

cult of

beauty and a search

for

the exotic sensuality of the music

experimented with new tonal colors.

opera "Salome" (1905)

his one-act

with the eroticism of

Salome's "Dance of the Seven Ve//s

shocked audiences. Never before had a soprano danced so seductively in such a scanty costume.

also influenced music

Herod's decadent court.

associated the turn of the century

and was expressed

Similarly, Igor Stravinsky

with the fear or expectation that

the search for a more

used a variety of orches-

the late Romantic period would

sensual sound. The size

tral

finally

come

to

an end at the same

of the orchestra, prising

in

com-

many instruments

The 19th century passed down

available offered

the great legacy of the concept of

opportunities to explore

School

(p.

Mannheim

expanded

new

in

music.

Hungary

Much

inspired the

own

to

in

in

size

and

GUSTAV MAHLER, born 1860 mia, died

its

1911

in Kaliste.

for the large

orchestras of the late Romantic era

its

Bohe-

Vienna.

in

HE WROTE HIS SYMPHONIES

apex and

and

often included vocal parts.

Europe around 1900:

MAHLER INCORPORATED

composed numer-

Richard Strauss

folk

music elements

as his symphonic themes.

research

ous symphonic poems, such as

of this material

composers

to

research folk music.

tonal colors. This exploration

more nuanced sounds. This

evolution reached

folk

Like Bartok, Leos Jana cek went on several trips

many

452), the orchestra had

increasingly

end point

such as

"Petrushka" and

this led to increased possibilities for

in his

"The Firebird."

Large Symphonic Works

the symphony. Since the

sound colors

early ballets

more than 100

musicians, and the

traveled

Salome and

Many composers and musicians

time as the 1800s.

Bela Bartdk and Zoltan Kodaly

"Thus Spake Zarathustra"

in

As director of the Vienna State Opera, Mahler was one of the leading conductors of his time.

1896

in their

while the symphonies of Gustav

works.

Gustav Mahler

Mahler translated philosophical interpretations of the world into

LA

MER

music. Claude Debussy created

nature paintings

i^.

in

shimmering

A£

•

4

* J*V

\fe)J

signed and went to

New

Budapest, and Hamburg.

Opera

in

1897.

In

1907. he

style of

only. His

MAHLER MARRIED the composer Alma

Edward Elgarand Ralph their

an Impressionist

representation of nature.

re-

York. His heavy workload as director relegated his

composition time to his vacations

own i

Leipzig.

director of the Vienna State

songs and nine symphonies. His tenth symphony remains unfinished.

Vaughan Williams defined

\\.

VIENNA, but spent much of his time as a conductor trav-

Impressionist-a reference to the

Britain,

-3t

IN

Olomouc, Kassel, Prague,

formalism, which were labeled as

style of painting at the time. In

ap| fM

MAHLER STUDIED eling to cities like

He was appointed colors of sound, free from musical

PL*

body of work includes orchestral

Schindler

in

1902. She stopped writing

music after she married. They

had two daughters: Maria,

who

died at a young age. and

Anna, who became a sculptor.

Symphony is known as the "Symphony

Mahler's Eighth set the force of the

music

in

sea

to

"La Mer" by using Impres-

sionist coloring.

in

Sound and the Exotic The celebrated around the turn

also

of a Thousand" cult of

beauty

of the century

© see also: Impressionism, Visual Arts Chapter, p. 384

(left: re-

hearsal for premiere

in

1910).

MODERN MUSIC

MUSIC AFTER 1900

ARNOLD SCHONBERG'S students included Alban Berg and Anton von Webern.

the 1920s, avant-garde tendencies gained

Until well into

increasing acceptance not without protest

COMPOSITIONS by the Second Viennese School were

the face of conservative forces-

in

461

not received well by the public.

and even public scandals.

The Second Viennese School's influence remains noticeable. The systematic composition of serial Pi blic concerts, in

ers from the

which compos

Second Viennese

in

1913 by the scan-

in

basis of Stravinsky's music

frequent

was

with a nearly brutal tone

1907-1908

traditional

Vienna, and socialized with a circle of

in

like-

minded people including Alban Berg and Anton von Webern.

harmonies

Opera After 1900

behind to venture into atonality,

(left).

ARNOLD Schonberg was a charismatic teacher

language.

left

463) invokes aspects of the 12-tone tech-

The Second Viennese School

combined

tional rhythm,

Schonberg, who

(p.

nique developed by Schonberg

penetrating, unconven-

its

scandals. Arnold

in

music

dalous "The Rite of Spring." The

School introduced their works, resulted

was followed

Richard Wagner

caused

was

great indignation

tial

From around 1920,

in

jazz influenced Euro-

still

THE SCHONBERG

harmony

457)

new

1918. Schonberg founded the So-

Performances.

Its

members performed weekly musical works

century.

composed from the time

Claude Debussy con-

pean composers such as Ernst Krenek (photo: a scene

around 1907, and explored

ciety for Private Musical

composers

1

broke with major-minor

circle

(tonality)

atonality. In

the most influen-

of opera

the

(p.

Mahler— including

of

the newest sounds and techniques.

In

the Schonberg circle began composing

1923, in

the

12-tone technique.

from "Sonny Strikes Up," 1927).

right:

Alban Berg

(left)

and Anton von Webern

(right).

among conservative members of the public.

Scandal

in

Paris

Russes impresario Igor Stravinsky, a

composer from

in

Pans, hired

St.

Petersburg

who

Rimsky-Korsakov. The

first

which Stravinsky wrote

for

successes because of the exotic

and

on the themes

fasci-

nating sensuality of sound. This

his

when he wrote

opera "Pelleas et Melisande"

Romantic

numerous operas

of beauty

atic philosophy

or-

built

of past

artist

and ugliness

and

(pp.

444-446) rang

music took place alongside

of the times: the cult in

Alexander

SCHONBERG published special programs

his place in the world in

Franz Schreker's "Der

feme

for his concerts to explain

the system on which he based

Klang."

much

of this

debate was

the question of the relationship

partments

between the sexes. 1920 and 1923. This

idea that the foundation of a composition

is

is

Fashioned from the 12 tones of an octave, no note could be repeated

until all

preordained tone row. The basic arrangement

can be varied

according to a number of ples:

retrograde

tones are played inversion with the

(3), in

first

intervals,

(2). in

princi-

where the

tones and/or

as they relate to the pre-

ceding tone, are played inverted. Retrograde inversion retrograde

(2)

Historicism, Historical

the development of neoclassicism in

In

searching for new sound possibil-

ities,

many people

rediscovered

music of the past: research

into

medieval music became a central

reverse order:

all

up de-

Consciousness, Neoclassicism

which, beginning

tone,

to set

study of music

based on the

a tone row rather than a melody.

of the tone row (1)

for the

from around 1900.

principle of musical arrangement. "Composition

in this

centu-

reconstructed music of the

UNIVERSITIES started

the others were sounded

perfor-

his music.

Twelve-Tone Music

with 12 Tones" (dodecaphony). between

in

Middle Ages (pp. 442-444) and the

Zemlinsky's "The Dwarf," or the

Pervading

Schonberg developed a new

in

Renaissance

chestra,

and a

time

out from modern stages. The return

of the late

the 20th century.

opposed Wagner's oper-

ries,

first

sounds

the

sciously

base and harmonic

mance. For the

founded

for the

structure. Impressed by the sensual

Nadia Boulanger was one of the most influential music professors of

of their mixture

erotic,

und Isolde" but with a less

ballets

company were sensational

at newly

departments

study of music, but also

opera

tradition. His

a direct response to Wagner's

traditional tonal

had studied instrumentation with

theme, not only

from the older

"Tristan

young, unknown

without being able

university

was

Sergei Diaghilev. the Ballets

ballet

1902— yet

in

to completely separate himself

(4)

combines

and inversion

(3).

Stravinsky

(left)

arrived in Paris

1910 and collab orated with many notable musicians, artists, and dancers from Russia

in

of the time, including Pablo Picasso, Vaslav Nijinsky,

Jean Cocteau

(right).

and

France.

Composers looked upon

18th century French and sic

as well as on

Italian

antiquity.

mu-

462

NEW MUSIC-A VARIETY OF

N

POSSIBILITIES

J1

KEY FACTS

New Music (1930s

to

present)

Music and Fascism

|

Music after 1945

|

PERSECUTION, MURDER, AND EXILE

NEW MUSIC-A VARIETY OF

and after World War reenormous changes to musical life in Europe and the U.S. during

II

sulted in

POSSIBILITIES

"NEW MUSIC" utilized a wide range and concepts.

of styles

The musical culture

ELECTRONIC MUSIC provided new possibilities for

War

generating sound.

MODERN MUSICAL THEATER

II.

of Europe, North

many regions determined what was to be considered beautiful and who was permitted to compose and perform. After 1945, when the war

Political ideologies in

of artistic value, as well as

broke

America and elsewhere changed dramatically during World

ended, composers revived and pursued avant-garde ideas from the turn of the century.

with traditions regarding scene, plot

and music.

New Music

utilized

new principles

for artistic creation,

new sounds, and new listening habits.

MUSIC AND FASCISM The power larly

of

music and

its

great influence

was

consistently used for political

means. Music regu-

helped reinforce ideologies and communicated them to the public.

o The

fascist regimes of the

Germany 1933-1945

20th

The

century aimed to manipulate music for their

own

political

doctrine to determine ex-

actly

ends. They followed

which composers were

in

Germany

from the early 1930s caused

ous upheaval

al-

lowed to continue to write and publish

racial-ideological doctrine

of National Socialism

seri-

music. Jewish

in

musicians were forbidden to work:

music, what they composed,

works by Jewish,

and which works were performed.

politically undesir-

compos-

able, or overly avant-garde

Cellist

Pablo Casals boycotted

Germany between 1933 and 1945 then went into exile after Francisco

ers were boycotted: and

composers

USSR: Shostakovich

such as

Soviet politics under Josef Stalin

tholdy and Gustav Mahler were

not only set guidelines for the cre-

libeled in

ation of artistic works, but also

by government hacks. Countless

punished anyone who dared

musicians

deviate from them.

went

Dmitri Shostakovich to try

was allowed

out relatively inoffensive

avant-garde methods of composing, but his

in

1936

after a

performance of

criticized severely in

the

well as

music of the avant-garde.

Shostakovich was aware

government's newspaper Pravda.

of the implications, as

During the rule of Stalin, this clearly

colleagues were convicted as crimi-

meant the composer had

nals or deported.

some

of his

He withdrew

his

into exile to

Steiner, Franz

Waxman.

gang Korngold,

Composition "After Auschwitz" After World

War

II.

artistic

debate

exile

and

war.

Erich Wolf-

Dimitri Tiomkin,

and

phony

to

conform

Sym-

his Fifth

Sym-

to the party line.

in

Theresienstadt

The concentration camp Theresienstadt. near Prague,

was used

by Nazi rulers to convince foreign

time experiences including Karl

observers that the camps were run

Amadeus Hartmann. who spent

according to humanitarian

Nazi Germany's

in

Arnold Schonberg, "A Survivor from

and Benjamin

ples. In pursuit of this

Warsaw"

Britten,

whose "War in

1962.

The composer Lenie Alexander

leadership tolerated a

her compositions: Nazi

Chile, but after in exile in

support

Paris

for

because

concerts were

in

lived

of her

Some imprisoned

composers wrote works for the limited possibilities in

the camps. The

notable artists and musicians con-

exile

Germany for

1973 she

life:

were performed.

fined in the

used themes from her double

many of

princi-

propaganda,

organized, operas and operettas

1947.

in

camp

certain cultural

who wrote

Requiem" was premiered

1939 she fled phony and composed

Music

wrote pieces based on their war-

in

recently completed Fourth

Many composers

policy of "internal emigration,"

Miklos Rozsa.

some compositions.

escape Nazi

the

KNOWLEDGE

MANY OFTHE MOST SIGNIFICANTCOMPOSERS and musicians in post-1930 Hollywood were smong those who fled the Nazi regime for refuge in the U.S. They included Max

in

Spain.

country and

fled the

1933-1945 INSIDER

Shostakovich used Jewish themes

in

music histories written

erupted over the topics fascism, of favor.

fallen out

Franco seized power

Bar-

prosecution.

The 1938 exhibition 'Degenerate Music" in Dusseldorf featured works by persecuted composers as

opera "Lady Macbeth of Minsk"

he was

Mendelssohn

Felix

for

camp

(Viktor

Ullman

one) used the minimal opportu-

nities available to create a fairly re-

fined musical

life

in

Theresien-

stadt. despite the conditions.

above: Theresienstadt (1945)

Salvador Allende.

© see also: Fascist Regimes Under Stalin and Hitler, Society. Politics, and Law Chapter, pp. 218. 221

NEW MUSIC-A VARIETY OF

POSSIBILITIES

463

I

MUSIC AFTER 1945 New Music

Common

includes a variety of compositional forms and styles.

to

all is

the search for

new

principles of tone

and

arrangement.

The years after World War

II

extra-musical elements. The rela-

pro-

duced many compositional meth-

tionship between space and

ods which distanced themselves.

was

at least

in

part,

from the composi-

tional principles of previous centuries.

With the advent of electronics,

the production of sound

sound

also re-interpreted, which

Electronic Music

called into question the previously

Electronic

accepted distribution of space be-

around 1950 with the launch of

tween stage and audience.

the magnetic cassette recorder,

was no

pitch, duration, loudness,

Serial

longer limited to traditional instru-

Music

and

artic-

Many compositions were so

ulation.

noise-intensive

methods

Arnold Schonberg's 12-Tone Tech-

complex, however, as to be nearly

461) was refined

unplayable. The logical extension

nique

of playing

(p.

in

the

such as the prepared piano. New

1950s

by serial music. This con-

methods

cerned

itself

of musical notation were

created, for

example graphical

resentation,

in

treatment

rep-

order to do justice to

was

for all

acted, and aleatoric (chance)

12 tones of an

octave, but with the "equality of

elements

mance techniques and understand

heinz Stockhausen). including

in

all

a composition" (Karl-

sic,

which

chance

relied heavily

headed

a studio

sounds

etition of

in

mu-

with the

upon

Maderna were started a studio

in

in

Milan

in

Paris

1975.

in

electronic music

interpreters onstage.

compositions

and

its

The inven-

tion of the synthesizer facilitated

the performance of

live

electronic

music.

technical achievements of New Music.

FOR LIBRETTI musical theater often relied on

active

rep-

and others.

Lutostawski.

sounds and

Cologne

From the early 1960s, composers

by Pierre Boulez, Witold

MUSICAL THEATER worked

in

from 1953. and Pierre Boulez

ex-

sequences and

for the

Stockhausen

Karlheinz

combined the expanded repertoire of perfor-

composi-

of electronic parts of

1951, Luciano Berio and Bruno

electronic music, from which a

corresponding precision was

not only with equal

developed

which allowed the pre-production

tions.

ments. Instruments employed new.

music

above: Pierre Boulez conducts a inter-

preting classical works by von Buchner. Gogol.

Shakespeare, and others.

New Sound Sources, and Modes War

After World

Romanian-German composer Adriana Holszky composed numerous works that experimented

Intervals,

re-

Pahs in 1984 at IRCAM (Institut de Recherches et de Coorhearsal

in

dination Acoustique-Musique). II,

Pierre Schaeffer

developed a principle of composition

with musical theater form.

known as "musique concrete"

which,

Modern Musical Theater

in

imitation of the style of

"found art" using ordinary objects to create artistic works, utilized the

MODERN MUSICAL THEATER was shaped

by experiments with total concepts

and means of production. These included using no Ligeti's "Le

Grand Macabre") and varying cast

sharply reduced casts Mauricio Kagel's "Match" (

plex casts (Karlheinz Stockhausen's "Licht"

COMPOSERS of politically outspoken zoni

in

Nono

"Atomtod"

in "Al

in

in

plot or

sizes. in

absurd plots (Gyorgy

Composers wrote

1965. Hans Werner Henze in

Czech composer

1965) and extremely com-

John Cage, considered the chief life.

Alois

representative of experimental

Haba

re-

quired specially constructed instru-

1978-2005).

"El

nature and everyday

in

for

musical theater included Giacomo Man-

gran sole carico d'amore"

acoustic possibilities of objects

found

Cimarron. 1970." and Luigi

1975.

ments, such as a quarter-tone

music, explored conventional tening practices,

lis-

among others.

pi-

ano, for his music. He divided the

philosophy. Characteristics of mini

octave not into 12 half-tone steps.

malism include meditative music-

but into

still

smaller intervals called

making and

listening as well

micro intervals. Olivier Messiaen

slightly perceptible

used modes, or

sound

six-

and ten-step

scales, as the basis for his sitions.

He

changes

as in

within the composition.

compo-

also used real birdsong,

which he recorded himself, as an

element

in his

compositions.

Minimalism In

the U.S. around 1965. minimal-

ism as a style was

made famous

1997

was

and

Philip Glass.

It

influenced by the Fluxus move-

ment

© see also: Fluxus. Visual Arts Chapter, p. 390

and

by composers includ-

ing Steve Reich 'Le Grand Macabre' by Gyorgy Ligeti at Salzburg Festspielen

initiated

in

art

as well as East Asian

Finnish

composer Kaija Saariaho

conversation with

Kremer in 1996.

violinist

Gidon

in

o

464

^

-h

MUSIC OF THE WORLD

KEY FACTS Middle East

POLYPHONY beyond Western music: songs in Georgia. Pygmy songs. Mbira playing in Zimbabwe, gamelan

India

|

East Asia

|

Africa

|

Americas

|

|

Australia

Fusion

|

MUSIC OFTHE WORLD

music.

Every culture MUSIC

many

IS

AN IMPORTANT element

is

acquainted with music, and music plays a part of every creation

found

makes

THE PENTATONIC SCALE

musicians. Although music

five

a whole-

is

tones

As a

result,

quarter tones over harmonic sounds. And not every audience applauds at the end of a concert— or

in

many cultures.

tone series of

story.

musical practices and experiences vary greatly. Several cultures prefer clamorous sounds and

trance ceremonies.

THE OCTAVE INTERVAL

is

in

a distinction

between

and popular music,

classical

is

a universal

phenomenon,

or

between amateur and professional

often derives

it

its

meaning

primarily

in

the context of the performance.

(e.g., c-d-e-g-

a).

Music traditions

in

the Middle East, India. China. Korea. Japan,

and Indonesia are hundreds or even thousands of years old.

MUSICAL TRADITIONS OFTHE MIDDLE EAST Music has a contradictory status of music, but others

see

it

in

the Islamic world.

Some

extremely devout sects disapprove

as an indispensable way of worshipping their creator.

ifi

Music

Early Islam

in

The spread of Islam

heavy promotion of the arts and

its

the seventh

in

sciences.

century had a great effect on music in

Classical Arabic Music

the Arabic world. Although the

music developed

Qur'an expressly prohibits music,

Classical Arabic

Islam viewed music as one of the

the royal courts and was very

may have

forbidden pleasures. This

been due by

to the value placed

on

pagans and handed down

same time as

although contemporary classical The Arabic oud

it

instrument

at the

in

is

the

music

main stringed

the Middle East.

is

loists or

pre-lslamic music.

sical

of Arabic

music

court of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid

in

the eighth through to the 12th century can be credited to the

The melodic

small ensembles. The clas-

song

is

recitation

Qur'an over loudspeakers

closely related to po-

(786-809). His

Baghdad

nowned

for its

royal court

was

etry,

re-

which enjoys a place of honor

Islamic culture. Despite the elab-

in

orate word ornamentation, the

splendor as well as

transmission of the text

a.

of the in resi-

f

octave into 24 quarter tones.

world

IMPROVISATION AND VIRTUOSITY are key as-

ropean colonial powers,

pects of performance; a performance

los,

was

always

tic

sounds

of the Islamic world.

harmonic

recitation. In Islam.

Qur'an recitation ered music; the

heavily influenced by Eu-

and

one of the most characteris-

base of Qur'an

violins, cel-

is

not consid-

strict recitation

and tempo serve only to enrich the

i

cludes

-'.

many pieces

in-

and oboes were incorporated

of music. into its

B

is

rules for scale formation, pitch

jwF J

is

TV

Maqam scales form the

the focus. Since the Arabic musical

CLASSICAL ARABIC MUSIC subdivides the

Km

Recitation of the Qur'an

played and/or sung by so-

dential quarters, on the radio

The flowering

^k

in

elitist,

LJttJ

ORAL TRADITION PREDATES a notation tem written in the ninth century.

of the Qur'an.

fast recitation

is

A simple,

the most typical.

sys-

above: Believer reading the Qur'an

Sufi Traditions

Music

k*.

message

musical traditions.

tion

performed in a wine hall; illustrafrom the "Maqamat" of al-Hariri. is

Classical Forms of Arabic Music

A great

variety of musical traditions

and concepts

exists

world despite

some

in

the Arabic

toward

hostility

music by orthodox Islamic sects, A KEY ASPECT OF CLASSICAL ARABIC MUSIC which cludes

is

based on melodic and rhythmic

maqam

scales

(plural:

is

the construction of the melody,

maqamat) which, as

root tone

The harmonic base

principles. in

sic

and Islamic mystics view mu-

as a form of service to God.

Western music, have a

upon which a seven-tone scale

Moreover, the various

Sufis

in-

maqamat

In ritual

celebrations held at the

is built.

are each char-

shrines of great Sufi saints, followArabic influence

is

pervasive

in

the

motif and accen-

ers aim to achieve a unity of body

Sahara, yet the Berber and Tuareg

tuated central tones. Musicians memorize the

and music during trance ceremo-

observe

acterized by special changes

in

scales, which serve as the basis for improvisation after

many years of

training.

nies.

The whirling dervishes

The rebab. a bowed lute, is played throughout the Middle East, India, and Indonesia.

Of the Sufi traditions that

origi-

Morocco and

and

nated

in

Religion Chapter, pp.

308-313

far

Pakistani Qawwali music

is

the best

known. The Qawwali form involves a

this type of music.

have spread as

© see also: Islam,

of Tur-

key and Syria are a typical example if

many older traditions.

Egypt,

as Pakistan,

lead singer to

and

a choir taking turns

perform messages of love and

peace.

Music of the World

465

MUSICAL TRADITIONS OF INDIA AND EAST ASIA The musical cultures of Asia are

among

the oldest

in

the world.

In

many

regions,

complex

reli-

gious and classical music traditions developed unique aesthetics.

The holy scriptures of Hinduism

in-

its

own

ministry of music by

was

the guqin. This seven-stringed lute

was played

clude texts on music. A properly

1000

sung note—or sound— is considered

aging discussion about the effect of

men as

an indication of cosmic

music on humankind.

and was long

The subcontinent of

creativity.

India

was

B.C. that

In

Chinese

music, pentatonic scales are pre-

cul-

by scholars

and noble-

early as the third century

Instrumental music

circles.

Chinese Opera

restricted to courtly

often used programmatic

ferred, although

the Islamization

turally divided with

already encour-

in

China

Musical drama has existed China

in

in

various forms for at least

titles,

2.000 years. Performances of Beiof the north in the 14th century.

such as "Soft Yellow Willows." and

As

a result ancient Vedic cult music exists

today only

classical

the south while the

in

music of the north

known throughout the music

is

closely

the goal of the composition

bound

captive,

India

in

it

is

feelings asso-

opera started

formed stories of

intrigue

phone

is

made

The development of classical Japain

nese music was greatly influenced

the form of a dragon.

by China and Korea. Orchestral

singing that

system

holds the highest honor.

as

is.

in

China

court music called

the West, subdi-

vided into 12 halftones. Typical

in-

struments are the pipa. a pear-

masks and costumes, were

O to z>

Gagaku

wind instruments as well as percussion groups. A collection of gongs, drums and wooden clap-

("ele-

pers communicated the atmo-

gant music") dates back about

1.500 years. Japanese music the-

sphere,

shaped

China's musical inheritance also exin history.

China had

lute:

ory also divides the octave into

the two-stringed

upright violin called the erhu:

and

halftones but lights in a

CLASSICAL INDIAN CONCERTS

typically feature

three instruments: sitar (and/or singing), tambura

and

tabla. /s

south Indian counterpart

is

THE SOLOIST

IS

a long-necked the veena.

ACCOMPANIED

which a base tone

is

lute. Its

shamisen

lute,

and the ambiguous

zither-like koto.

Korea

also has an orchestral court music

which

is

characterized by a

the best-known sitar

restraint in expression. However,

player of classical Indian music.

A GAMELAN ensemble at the Paris World Exhibition (1889) inspired

Claude Debussy and others. EGYPTIAN FEMALE singer

music

is

known as the raga is

subdivided into

100 its

("color, passion").

22

in

It

has the

Its

foundation

same scale as an

is

a scale

is

Each raga

is

related to a specific emotion

ORDER TO CONVEY the characteristics of each raga

one

hour, which

explores is

all

clearly

linist

expressed emotions.

SHANKAR instructed George and collaborated with vio-

Harrison

Yehudi Menuhin.

INDIAN MUSIC CHARTS are domi-

nated by

film hits

from Bollywood.

facets of the scale

in

Indonesia

Many and

a particular time of day. or to a season.

first

communicated through

is

octave, but

assigned a specific scale with central notes and

specific melodic phrases.

cian

The

shruti (roughly quarter tones). There are approximately

ragas. each of which

own

(feeling),

IN

based upon improvisation.

big-

its

quite passionate, as

"pansori." a form of epic poetry. plot

heavily

Umm

Kulthum (1904-1975) was the

RAVI

Classical Indian Music is

a visual

gest singing star of the Arabic world. folk

INDIAN MUSIC

is

the strident tones of the

tradition is

above: Chinese opera spectacle.

breathy sound of the shakuhachi

plucked continuously.

RaviShankar(b. 1920)

audience

music de-

more subtle and clamor-

tones of the

by the tambura. on

classical

any

unfamilianty with the text.

ous sound. This includes the

flute,

THE NORTH INDIAN SITAR

its

12

mood and dramatic situa-

despite

tion

tends far back

and comedies. The

accompanied by stringed and

their

xylo-

among

and also

deities,

singers' characters, identified by

Japan and Korea

This

metal

the 18th cen-

musicians per-

love stories

to language,

in

tury. Professional

monarchs and

world. Indian

many countries

in

to

ciated with these images.

is

dance, and gesture. While the sitar holds audiences

mood and

depict the

was

jing

to the listener, the musi-

a prelude that can last as long as

highly appreciated by the audience.

The

tabla player intro-

duces the feature which its

is

piece,

distinguished by

clear,

rhythmic base

visitors to the islands of

Bali

Java

have been fascinated by

the gamelan ensembles playing there.

These percussion

or-

woodblocks, cymbals, and melodic instruments are also played

played not only

chestras comprise sev-

and

bronze instru-

to

eral

ments: huge

in

these orchestras. The music was in

in religious

court ceremonies

worship, but also

accompany the shadow pup-

pet plays of "Wayang

Kulit."

hanging gongs of a

(tala).

diameter of up to

about 3

ft

(1 m), small

Zen Buddhist thought serves as the basis for meditative playing on the Japanese

horizontal

The tabla played

(left) is

in pairs.

rangi (right)

is

always

The sa-

gongs and

numerous gamelans. or

shakuhachi bamboo flute.

xylo-

generally

accompanied by

singing.

phones size.

of every

Drums,

bells.

A,

466

J

MUSIC OF THE WORLD

ORAL TRADITIONS numerous cultures, music is handed down orally, like in many African regions with their rhythmically complex music. Much of Native American and Aboriginal music is related to religion. In

They were also journalists that ported and

re-

commented upon

events of their times. African music

exceptionally

is

Native American Music

complex and

its

transmission

means this complex-

ity

tradition of oral

must be committed

to

One example

is

Zimbabwe.

is cyclical,

It

Many groups

of Native

Americans

believe music has supernatural

memory.

powers. As

many songs

ceived either

the mbira music of

in

are con-

dreams or visions,

ceremonial actions unfold only

meaning

through vocalization. Drums that

that

involves regular repetition of

it

certain melodic

and rhythmic

pat-

Three drummers

terns or motifs. A second mbira in-

in courtly attire at

mbira. Likewise, the

first is

in-

West African griots. are plucked with thumbs

strument strings

and

the most important

for

semble playing

of the

drum

in

of Benin, Nigeria, 17th century)

en-

Ewe people

Ghana

is

superimposed with numer-

cyclically applied patterns to

form complex rhythmic structures. A

An African saying holds that for

repeated rhythmic phrases that are

a library burns griots

is

an

and

libraries in their

vast knowledge. This caste of professional musicians

created with continuously

integral part of

everyday

component

a key

was em

nies, in

is

ployed through the end of

with ancestral spirits.

nomadic Pygmies Africa

A San Bushman from the Hung clan (Botswana)

symbol

cans

the southwestern

in

for Native Ameri-

above: Music accompanies

most all activities of Native American cultures (war dance of the

passed

unknown composers, and instrumental

communicate through

WORLD MUSIC: The

designation in

the

1980s to music of indigenous cultures, and in the 21st century to music fused together from different global styles.

Unusual Singing Techniques

Many the

cial

for

cultures have developed spe-

singing techniques. Yodeling,

example,

is

practiced by cul-

Alpine regions

tures living

existence. Since no dis-

rope as well as those

is

Pueblo).

techniques.

very foundation of their

tinction

made between

in

in

Eu-

in

Georgia

and Pygmies. Overtone singing

is

a

Some

harps were developed out of

hunting bows (Kundi

amateurs and professionals, each

historical events, family

stories

and genealogies.

voice

is

equally valuable

in

these

musical ceremonies.

One of is

characteristic

much

African music

the "talking drum."

Since the meaning of a word,

African cultures,

of

life.

above:

Members

drums are used

in all

areas

of a South African Zulu tribe

many West

particular feature of

music

in

West-

ern Mongolia and the neighboring

sists of

the base tone accompanied

Monks

in

Tibet use

a similar technique

The composition of overtones gen-

to

erates a tonal color which helps the

dinarily

listener distinguish

between a

violin

depends upon

the singers produce two or more

messages can

the

Congo).

by additional vibrating overtones.

and a piano.

its

bow harp from

area of Tuva. An audible note con-

African languages,

pitch,

In

in

song

In

produce extraor-

deep bass

voices.

overtone singing,

lines simultaneously, in

which

The mbira's metal keys of different lengths are

be transmitted over

they deliberately amplify individual

played by both thumbs.

great distances using

overtones through certain

drums

tongue and throat positions. The

This Zimbabwean instru ment accompanies bal-

with variable

lip.

re-

lads.

pitches.

al-

The

rainforest, reinforcing

cen-

U.S., is

old.

of Central

music with the god of the

musical bow.

down

made

their polyphonic vocal

holds a single-stringed

turies, griots

is

ceremo-

of trance

which contact

the 19th century at royal

tribal courts. For

cultural

MUSIC: oral transmission (often

given by the music industry

life

music

religious rituals. Mbira

flute.

over long periods of practice), im-

special singing,

played on metal bells. African music

Africa,

down. West African

resemble

is

the

FEATURES OFTRADITIONAL/FOLK

provisation,

focus

in

KNOWLEDGE

INSIDER

in

Sub-Saharan Africa

dies

is

more than 1.000 years

ous

man who

these ceremonies

The flute-playing Kokopelli figure, a

Its

forefingers.

every old

of the

most ancient instruments played

terwoven with the patterns of the The kora

ritually

One

blessed beforehand.

a state ceremony (court of the Oba

then plays variations, which are

accompany pow-wows are

sult is

an ethereal vibrating sound.

© see also: Indigenous Religions in Africa. Religion Chapter, p. 283

MUSIC OFTHE WORLD

FUSION STYLE AND WORLD MUSIC

World Music The global domination of Western

Change

a

is

fundamental aspect

temporary fusion of many

of living musical traditions. Globalization contributes to the con-

distinct regional styles.

pop and rock music exercised a great deal of influence upon

many

regional musical traditions. Musi-

was the and

cologists remain

root of "rock

hand,

Central and South

sic

other hand,

the most impor-

On the one

many traditional forms

America is

disagreement

over the consequences.

roll."

Cuba

in

of

mu-

have disappeared; while on the

new forms

have emerged as a

result.

tant center of Latin

Flamenco was the

American music. Here, left:

Besides the blues, marching bands were African rhythms

the forerunners of early jazz bands. right: Spirituals

traditions.

of African tradi-

tions mixed with Euro-

pean dances North America In

to

form the

rumba, habanera and the son. The

the U.S., the musical traditions of

instrument known as the ma-

rattle

slaves transported from Africa

racas descended from the Native

merged with European lar,

and

earliest Jazz,

military music.

folk,

popu-

American

One

of the

has a base rhythm (known as clave)

examples was the blues.

which emerged

the south-

in

ern U.S. at the end of the 19th cen-

tradition. African

Salsa ("sauce") developed as a mix-

sia

Cuban and Puerto Rican rhythms such as "Big Band" jazz in

world.

ture of

the Latino neighborhoods of

tets

New

par-

pri-

Roman,' f rom lndjg

Migrants CO

The end of the 20th

of the sex-

century saw a growing

and septets that

formed

in

1920s Ha-

vana included

guitars,

tions.

During the 1940s, the piano placed guitars

in

re-

r

mambo orchestras were the

samba emerged

from the melding of Portuguese

and African music The "Buena

album Cuban son music

Vista Social Club"

of 1999 featured

from the 1930- 1940s. worldwide

boom

in

It

triggered a

Cuban music

and promoted the popularity of above:

anema,

Compay Segundo

the

neighborhood of

Brazilian

1960s

ments such as improvisation

and

"call-and-

response."

in

Ip-

music connected

with jazz to form

Bossa Nova. The Argentine tango

emerged as tury, utilized African ele-

a mixture of Euro-

pean immigrant music (An

found

in

rhythm and blues.

the musical style which

with

Cuban habanera and

as well as

digital

styles of fusion in

were

fre-

the western-ori-

African

Romani and Jewish Music

When from

the

India

Roma

people emigrated

about 1,000 years ago,

they adopted, and then trans-

formed, elements of regional musical traditions belonging to nearly

every country from Pakistan and Egypt to eastern Europe and Spain. all

these

melodies)

ent traditions held

in

common

south

m

percussion.

dalusian flamenco and Italian

differin-

cluded a high degree of virtuosity Argentine tango

These elements can also be

fiddle

quently found

The elements that

which the lead

singer and choir alternate.

Swedish

Salvador de

the black quarters of Rio de Ja-

in

world music.

in

then spread throughout

neiro. In the

West African kora and the

ented world music scene.

Brazilian

It

These included experiments

with the

These new

salsa music.

Bahia.

of

samples and synthesized sounds.

the big bands.

forerunners of globally popular

The

amalgam

radically different musical tradi-

contrabass and trumpets.

These

the Arab

York.

instru-

ments

and

music

upon which the rhythms of all

mary

gypsy music with

styles from Andalu-

ticipating instruments are

based. The

result

of the blending of Span

ele-

ish

ments

are a mixture of English sacred

songs and African

and

emerged around the early 1900s in the brothels and bars of the dock areas of Bue-

nos

and a great deal

of passion. Jewish

'

h

klezmer music was one example

when the wedding music

of East

Carnival in Brazil influenced the

continuing development of new

European

shtetls arrived in the U.S.

Aires.

with

its

emmigrants.

forms of Brazilian samba.

467

468

Monographic Boxes The Influence of Capital, Stars, p.

p.

471

473

Science-Fiction, p.

474

Politics in Films, p.

475

Analytic Boxes Cinematographe &

Co., p.

Computer Generated

470

Films, p.

477

FILM At the

end

of the 19th century, the pioneers of

screened their

tion pictures

first

mo-

short films to the

fascination of the world. But at that time no one

was able of the

Since

to predict that film

most

media

influential

the 20th century.

in

as a scientific feat

film started

ment has remained Early innovations

would develop as one

closely linked to technology.

such as the invention of sound

films boosted the potential of the

public attractions

develop-

its

and

movie theaters as

lucrative sources of income.

The advancements that have been made

in

the

re-

cent past have been even more astounding, leaving

some people

to

wonder

called "unfilmable." into

if

anything can

be

Cinema has grown dramatically

an industry worth

billions

filmmakers continue to stand as ing

still

and young medium.

upon

billions.

Yet

artists in this excit-

470

FILM-THE SEVENTH ART

Invention

Birth of film industry

|

Silent films

|

Sound

|

films

War period

Post

|

Modification

|

Blockbuster

|

|

Outlook

THE LUMIERE BROTHERS exhibited films to the

time

in

paying public for the

"THE JAZZ SINGER," film,

FILM-THE SEVENTH ART

first

1895.

came

to

trie first

the theaters

sound

The of

AFTER WORLD WAR industry

II,

became one

camera and

the U.S. film

century.

most

of the

films worldwide.

© Cinema

ously worked on

Human

the

in

air at

long history. The

reality

have a

camera obscura

developed by the Arab Abu

is

the end of the 19th century.

the discovery of stroboscopic fects.

It

is

A number

Ali Al-

human

magica invented

the 17th cen-

sumerism had formed

fl

movement.

'-*

showed their

||

This

The invention of flexible

ready employed as an

a

light

Lumiere showed a moving picture

source

with the cinematographe Parisian

tus enabled the pro-

be too laborious due to

Emile Rexnaud.

50

Hall in Berlin, but that

"phenakistoscope" or

Another important innovator

Many technical

achieve-

of

mm

rolls.

cinema

is

The

had contributed to making cinema

proved to its

real birth

double

a

reality.

The cinematographe can

be understood as the perfection of

date

many technical developments.

considered to be

was Eadweard

Muybridge,

mented the ments

the

ments and various other factors

"praxinoscope" used by Charles-

of film

in

Grand Cafe to a paying

audience.

devices

in

like

film that

December 28, 1895, when the

jection of images.

cant for the emergence of cinema.

roll

projection.

in

inside the appara-

al-

attraction at fairs

1889. However, the

of

Cinematographe & Co.

who docubodily

move-

humans and

THE CINEMATOGRAPHE

of the

Lumiere brothers had both camera and projector

In

one. while Edison's Kinetoscope served only the playback function. A filmstrip

in

the

animals through his still

typical

35-mm format was

directed at an object with a jerky move-

series of photos.

ment and exposed. Oskar Messter perfected the film transport in 1896 through

Edison and Other

this

his

Maltese cross, which decisively reduced the flickering of images. Later on technology became standard

in

projectors.

Forerunners Aperture or window, which each frame

The inventors exhibition

of the first

machines

drew upon these

passes by when screened of film

for a split

second

Drums for the storage of the film tape

pio-

neering achievements. Trie

Lumiere Brothers

cre-

ated glowing excitement during the

first

screenings

of their shorts such as *U Arrivee d'un Train en

left: In

the beginning, the screenings of the

Lumieres were exclusively

Thomas

Alva Edison

showed the

first

films in Crank with interlocking

1893

with his Kineto-

scope that was intended

Gare de La CiotaC (1895). for

ences (advertisement. 1896).

upper class audi-

in

the 1890s, which worked without

films with

bioscope

The American George Eastman

in

Ed/son invented the Kinetoscope

the laterna mag-

In

ica.

The Pioneers

pro-

German

Skladanowsky Brothers

brothers Louis and Auguste

pression of

signifi-

cities,

the Wintergarten

creating the im-

celluloid in

the

become

widespread. The

vidual images, thus

was

in

this invention could not

indi-

projector technology, respectively.

very

unti ef-

eye can

forerunners of modern camera and

he patented

cul-

of inventors simultane-

of 12 images per second, during

tury are considered to be the early

duced the perforated

interests

way that moving pictures blurred the borders between high

caused by a frame rate

no longer recognize

was

move

pictures did not learn to

which the

the 19th century

and economic

the shortened form of the term -cinematography' (Greek: 'recorded movements").

Hasan around 980 and the laterna in

political,

technical development by combining and enhancing existing inventions.

attempts to create a photo-

mechanical image of

this

in

of the 20th

no other art form had before. The development of cinema

like

ambitions alone, but rather social,

was

It

Through the constant improvement

TEAMWORK

IN

its

led by artistic

life.

and popular entertainment.

ture

Cinematography was

came to

shape the world

cultural

cinema became the most important medium

projection techniques,

played large roles.

TH E 1980S AN D 1990S, expensively

produced blockbusters determined

INVENTION

It

was not

influential in the world. IN

moving screen pictures revolutionized

first

1927.

in

for only

one

mechanism for the movement of the images.

viewer. At

the time of industrializa-

Initially It

tion

when mass

was

projections were

made

at the

only later that the standard of

con-

© see also: Photography and Video. Physics and Technology Chapter, p. 194

speed of 16 to 40 images per second. 24 prevailed.

FILM-THE SEVENTH ART

BIRTH OFTHE FILM INDUSTRY After the

as a

excitement surrounding the optical sensation, cinema began to establish

initial

new

was

Technical progress

aspect

in

medium

artistic

which economic interests played a major

in

only one

tacles.

made

Exclusive screenings of motion varietes

in

soon yielded a

own

Cinema

ents

professional film industry.

became an economic factor.

be cru-

to

mass

turning films into

cial in

ing pictures as a popular art form.

pictures

role.

Economic factors proved

the development of mov-

itself

spec-

The Lumiere brothers had

their films according to their

direction, but

1897

in

had sold the

pat-

Corkscrew curls as brands: Stars

showman

to the

Charles Pathe. As the founder of the French film industry, he wielded

Art for the

Masses

The Lumiere Brothers used

cinematographe only everyday

to

Georges Me//es made use of techniques in "Le Voyage dans la Lune"

their

document

(1902) that are

still

in

use today.

operator Georges Melies, on the

of studios. His fairytales, horror,

other hand, understood the poten-

and ghost

tial

new technology

of the

illusions.

called

to create

films, in

were based on

stories

sequential shooting. His film "Le

Voyage dans

Melies created the so-

magic

wide

trade

film

la

Lune" became a

cinema milestone

which Active

settings arose from the backdrops

first

in

1902 as the

long film of around 15 minutes.

THE FIRST AMERICAN MOVIE THEATER

opened

in

1902

in

Los Angeles.

FILM DISTRIBUTION began which trol

made

it

in

1904.

in

the world-

the outbreak of

until

Screen darlings

World War

make the

The French theater

life.

considerable influence

was

I.

Pathe's service

was

to

Variete-Attraction that

originally reserved for very

ing.

It

directors,

who

churned out ten new films weekly

profits.

The temporary "nickelodeons" were

removed from film theaters in 1905; cinema with Wurlitzer organ. 1920.

many

initial

years of American cinema were characterized by

legal disputes that dealt with patents (for film material, etc.)

the control of the film industry. A trust was founded Picture Patents

them

Company (MPPC)

Edison's) were bundled.

in

New

in

1909

York, in which

The MPCC's monopolistic

all

patents (among

position led to a flurry

200

film

theaters

form of long films led to an increased of viewers of independent

productions.

Many independent

companies started geles after

the

MPCC

felt less

to

located

in

film

heroine. Increasingly,

way

in

first

was the

use of editing

Edwin

S. Porter

New

York

1903

first

to

in

the U.S.

make

artistic

his films.

in

known authors such as Gerhart Hauptmann. The auteur film, director

was

Denmark was the

has

born.

first film

significant film-producing

country

in

jjFpi

full

in

which the

creative control,

From 1910 onward, the

stars arrived on the scene,

such as the actresses Asta Nielsen

in

Europe. Modeled on

film

production

in

Europe and Mary Pickford

the U.S. Even they were a sign of the growing

company

in

power and profes-

sionalism of the film industry.

Denmark, the Nordisk

Films Kompagni. It

created a furor

1906

in

with Viggo

Larsen's adventure "L0vejagten."

the center of American cinema. Italian film

influenced

In Italy, historical

was cli-

ideal conditions for film

1912

together with well-

western, "The Great

After France.

most

film.

making. By 1914, Hollywood became

"Quo

topics were preferred,

which led to the making of early

monumental

films, while

the

comedy

genre established

itself

German

film art:

The doppelganger theme

"The Student of Prague" (1913) was

many in

France. Films began

to

boom

later film epics.

1

in

other countries with na-

tional peculiarities.

filmmakers

started to work

National Idiosyncrasies

this

and the

influence of

here. Furthermore, the

The monumental

in

move to Los An-

1910 as the

mate offered

Vadis" of

of the hero

in

Belgium and France.

founded a

QVO V/DIS?

mostly love stories

ened the happiness

and thereby

FOUNDING OF HOLLYWOOD: The most

weapon of the anti-trust movement was innovation. The new

melo-

with the Motion

of lawsuits.

number

in

Pathe's example, Ole Olson

effective

first,

20th

bought cameras and projectors and operated

Porter

COURT: The

century. At

of the

of the

which a rogue threat-

filmed the

IN

decade

the company-owned studios. Pathe

Train Robbery," in

The Influence of Capital

first

dramas were made,

possible to better con-

screenings and

end

only at the

aspects of shoot-

all

employed

Film industries started to be built

CINEMA

halls

company, Societe Pathe

Freres. covered

stereotyp

in

ensured cinema were sold out.

ical roles

few

viewers accessible to a broader public. His

like

Mary Pickford (above in "Little Annie Rooney" from 1925; right in "Coquette," from 1929) were marketed through targeted advertisement and press.

in

Germany

intensified through lighting effects.

in

skillfully

471

472

FILM-THE SEVENTH ART

m

Jm-

THETRIUMPHANT PROCESSION OF SILENT FILM While the European film industry plunged into ety of genres as

new

allies

were

Hollywood experienced a blooming

crisis.

of a vari-

artistically tested.

AG

Film

(UFA).

capital of this

A

third of the basic

company came from

the

boom time

the state, which wanted to use this

by D. W. Griffith

new medium

Civil

to

spread

The influence

of politics

distinct in the

1920s

its

ideology

was more

in Italy

Russia, where cinema

of silent films, led

and

War epic. "The

his three-hour

Birth of a

Nation" (1915).

and

was used

Multiplicity of Genres

as a propaganda tool of the fascist

The

and communist governments.

nence

the U.S.. the film companies

In

was

Nevertheless. this period

U.S. did not

owe

preemi-

its

the world of film to the war

in

and the decline

No One Likes Sound Films

European

of the

can be said today with certainty

"It

lost their artistic

independence

a different way. although

it

in

was

the very opponent to the film

film culture alone.

Hollywood's

in-

dustrially organized studios put

an

emphasis on economic growth and

that the continuous usage of dia-

logue

Like

trust (p. 471) that led the

is

the wrong way." wrote the

German

Siegfried Kracauer.

critic

many

of his contemporaries,

he saw the power of images being

business. The huge pop-

threatened by the talkies. Similar ularity of

the movies

skepticism accompanied nearly

led to quick growth of

every technical innovation. During

branches that could

the

introduction

of television,

by the racism of the white American

only be financed through

video recorder, or

digital technol-

middle class.

borrowed money and

ogy, the

Double-edged milestone: The epic "The Birth of a Nation" was marred

stock markets.

World War

I

marked a

ing point in the film industry.

number

The

film

vard"! 1950), Billy Wilder

companies, there-

of films

produced

in

Europe

Politics in the Theater

The influence industry grew.

companies

in

of politics In

in

the film

1917. private film

Germany joined

gether under the

name

fore,

came under the

control of big

drastically.

to-

Universium

compa-

nies.

As a consequence,

films

were lacking

Sergei Eisenstein

intellectual

quality or revealed racist tendencies.

The entire

was more

was

also

U.S. film industry

or less

under a cloud

of self-censorship.

made use films

films

and

A great variety of

genres emerged: Comedies starring

given shape.

The Spaniard

Luis

Bunuel along with the painter

Charlie Chaplin, adventure films

vador Dalf film.

A

and Buster

subconscious and dreams were

starring Douglas Fairbanks, or

melodramas

(pictured)

Keaton.

of the popularity of long

stars.

Swanson

ria

"The Battleship Potemkin."

in

memori-

alized silent movie stars like Glo-

worked with new editing techniques, which were perfected by The Russian Revolution

decreased

of theater

above: With "Sunset Boule-

The most important

radical turn-

end

predicted.

Sal-

made the first Surrealist

"An Andalusian Dog" (1929).

starring Greta Garbo.

was

radically different idea

pur-

sued by the Communist film avantgarde

in

the Soviet Union. The

fo-

cus here was not on sentimental, but rather

critical

France. Abel

hour-long

viewers. In

Gance made the

monumental

leon" (1927-1928). tive visual style

Paramount has produced more than 2.000 films since 1914.

film

whose

was marked

eight-

"Napoinnovaby the

use of a hand-held camera.

PARAMOUNT WAS BOUGHT by Gulf + Western after the end of the studio era and taken over by the media concern Viacom

In

addition,

Rene

critical films ("poetic realism"),

UNITED ARTISTS WAS FOUNDED in 1919 by Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford. Douglas Fairbanks, and

which

David Wark

Renoir produced expressive socio-

brilliantly

played with the pos-

sibilities of silent

cinema. The most

important aesthetic contribution Asymmetric walls and somnambulistic design masterpiece. "The Cabinet of

Dr. Caligari"

in

Robert Wienes' Expressionist

(1919).

was made

by

Visual Arts Chapter, p.

387

|

of the

German 1920s,

Expressionist in

which the

Literature Chapter, p.

430

Griffith.

METRO-GOLDWYN-MAYER (MGM) was originally divided into three studios. MGM was sold repeatedly later.

cinema

© see also: Expressionism.

1994.

in

and Jean

Clair

A cooperation agreement was

made

with

Sony

in

2004.

L FILM-THE SEVENTH ART

473

SOUND FILMS AND THE LARGE STUDIOS Classical Hollywood

cinema reached

heyday during World War

its

II.

after both

filmmakers and

actors had fled Nazi Germany.

The introduction of sound technology

in

Power

KNOWLEDGE

4SIDER

1927 fundamentally

changed the

THE EIGHT LARGEST STUDIOS raked

film industry. Entirely

in

new genres arose, musical.

like

the film

Many actors were

at the

earned 1.7

In

the mid-to-late 1930s, sound

films

were produced

over his

two or three

U.S.

1946. Hollywood

War

films in

he made

100 films-'Casablanca" being

most famous work.

and

is

the end of World

considered the peak of "The Jazz Singer" from

Hollywood's power. Five large studios

(MGM. Warner, Paramount.

sound

the

first

still

reflected

the late 1930s.

in

much

cinema became more

color,

the technical requirements

last

cheaper productions. These films"

European cinema entered

ond

gave the studios a

full

power

many

in

1933 and

WWII

in

1939. Many

the late 1920s

in

in

alism. Alfred

German

artistic content.

An exception was the singular

"B-

style.

work-

achievement of Orson Welles's

Kane" (1941).

"Citizen

MARY PICKF0RD earned $10,000 per week ERR0L FLYNN became an overnight adventure

role in the

military films

sequently shaped

Germany

genre

this

Marlene

made a

career

in

Hollywood after

her sensational success as Lola

in

"The Blue An-

Dietrich

1930 and attained

gel" in

Enforced conformity and racial

of the

convention

in

Nuremberg

ensured that the best

including director

world fame.

Stars

film

MASS HYSTERIA: Rudolph

to the U.S.. Fritz

Lang, script

through his

films,

writer Billy Wilder, producer Erich

Pommer. and actor Peter

Lorre.

The

triggered

in

Valentino did not

become

1926. As a

generation of stars

his funeral, a

"latin lover."

who became

mass

hysteria

he belonged

a role

was

to the first

model through

tar-

Nazis exploited the pop-

geted promotion. For example. Humphrey Bogart was

ularity of films to their

neither particularly good looking nor an extraordinary actor.

advantage by making anti-Semitic

ganda

and propa-

films in

which

they also appealed to

However, an entire generation of

to

German audience

make

sacrifices for

the good of their country. In

addition,

seem-

men

could identify with his

IMAGE PROBLEMS: When Mary roles other than the innocent it

Pickford started to act

girl

ment films were made

signaled the end of her career. Later, the ironic

association of an actor with his screen image

was

simpler.

The actor Marlon Brando characterized the sex symbol as an older

man

was atone

in

1996

in

"Don Juan de Marco." which he indeed

time.

Greta Garbo. the "divine." played aloof characters life. She quit the film business when she was just 36 years old.

her entire

that suggested an ideal

in

toward the end of the

ingly apolitical entertain-

'

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THAT EASY: With a simple

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IT IS

onto a hard drive at no cost. The person

The English band called

this portal.

Meeting Like-Minded

the

songs were

Piracy and Data Theft

MySpace community, the

of the

the media and businesses, do

all

million

Internet.

wide are assumed to be members

quire a certain online notability

scrutinize

2005 470

on the

Pirated copies are offered for purchase.

be placed online. Of course, many

editorial

80% of transfers

to

loaded by users worldwide. 20 times more than

million users world-

site

have

up

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can determine which contents can

those belonging to

to piracy;

a year.

the two preceding years.

most well-known

e.g..

billion

never have met without the Internet.

have their say. No editor-in-chief

websites,

$18

FILESHARING-the exchange of files-consti-

images, and films online.

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revenue annually due

billion in

the film industry about

and controls access. Any-

authority that administers the content

one can upload

THE MUSIC INDUSTRY worldwide loses about

no central

is

495

Life."

continues to be a quasi legal black

is

"

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a star: Whoever

can release self-made

w shes

films

Internet sites like YouTube.

on

'A

496

YOUTH CULTURE-THE MORE

CHANGES, THE MORE

IT

Upsetting quo

YOUNG PEOPLE gions

left

in

spirit

Baby-boomers

|

\

Generation x

Disco

|

|

me

Generation

\

Millennial

\

Global youth

YOUTH CULTURE-THE MORE IT CHANGES, THE MORE IT STAYS THE SAME

and entered

the early 20th century.

QUALITY OF LIFE improved with better living conditions

Modern

industrialized re-

in

the workforce

schooling

|

STAYS THE SAME

IT

and youth consumer-

ism became an expression of identity.

Each generation

NEW GENERATIONS became politically

aware and received the

MUSIC became

radically.

the significant

personal choice of each generation to

express

its

1900s were

the

vote.

ality

sense of alienation.

of

young adults poured

energy into creating a new identity as social values

its

polarized by two World Wars. Attitudes to established religion and politics changed

Young people chose new fashions,

and an authentic

identity.

The 20th century was born

a

in

The symbol

spirit

and

sport, leisure pursuits,

of

each new generation was

politics in a bid for individu-

GEORGE GERSHWIN

Youth culture was recognized as an observable fact

1900s. Young people were frequently perceived as

in

was a

the early

classical

ACCOMPANIED BY

anti-social,

since they questioned the established order.

BROTHER

HIS LYRICIST

hit

songs, symphonies,

IRA.

and

piano pieces.

OPERA "PORGY AND BESS" song "Summertime."

HIS

Jazz Generation

of youth culture

(born Jacob Gershowitz)

composer who explored jazz.

Gerschwin wrote

The phenomenon

choice of music.

its

of significant social change.

UPSETTING THE STATUS QUO

CC

in

IS

known

for the

iconic

LL)

Q

O

emerged

in

wake

the

of

schooling laws passed

mandatory

most

in

Jazz

many

in-

1900s. Young people became

grouped by age

similarity

by their ability to work or

in

in

first

of the century's

cultural upheavals.

George Gershwin (1898-1937)

Women

put aside their lace-up boots and

dustrialized countries during the early

was the

and not

Films were

made

sound— many

with

of these gangster films reflecting

factories

urban disorder— and

agriculture.

Financial Independence

Ragtime

hobble skirts as hemlines climbed.

women

started

EDWARD KENNEDY ELLINGTON iker.

ing the

band "The Washingtonians"

house band

home. Dancing became so fashion-

A

prolific

concert

able that

and England, the labor laws

of the first

changed

to take children

and youth

out of the workforce at a time

more families began

verse

when

to live in single

dwellings and social values

became

concentrated on the home. Quality of

life

improved dramatically

industrialized world,

and

far

in

it

and scores

known by a mon-

New York

in

1923. He

later

start-

headed the

from 1927.

composer, he also wrote

hall

virtuosos,

Washington, D.C. before

for

the

for films.

ELLINGTON MADE MANY recordings and

company

in

1917— which

dance

floor.

did ognizable through pieces including "Mood

A new,

haunting sound became popular the U.S. as African-American

bringing gospel

and the

Indigo," "Sophisticated Lady."

Mean A Thing

(If It

"Ain't Misbehavin',"

tightened racial segregation laws,

from

at the Cotton Club

in

in

toured worldwide, becoming instantly rec-

workers migrated north, fleeing

the

many jazz

heralded the production

sneaker— by the Con-

not slip on the

in

like

As a teenager. "The Duke" played piano

being paid for work outside the

Within countries such as the U.S.

was,

to Jazztime

"It

Don't

Got That Swing)."

and the song most

sociated with his jazz orchestra of years, "Take the

Duke

blues.

Ain't

Ellington

A

as-

50

Train."

(1899-1974)

being under-age workers, valued for their paltry financial contribution

to the family

began in

economy, children

to be considered valuable

worked at part-time jobs and

territory.

groups

in

in

products.

passed

to

the U.S. rippled throughout the

background

economies, urban decay,

lasted until the early 1930s.

owed war debts

clubs and theaters

and rhythm.

fell.

The

a destabiliza-

making process political

at

in

all

most economies, massive

the decision-

tion of

levels of

migration,

and increased

Youth was at a premium.

power.

©

poverty.

hair.

(1919-

Prohibition

and singers performed ingly racially

for increas-

mixed audiences. jazz,

equals of men, mirroring their acquisition of the right to vote

in

Initiated

aware and involved

her

1933) meant that dance bands

Feminism also benefitted from

WWI saw

in

performing with

experimented with music emerging

as female singers became the

aftermath of

gardenias

for

from African-American harmony

or strug-

the prices of commodities

socially

Many

in

gled with hyperinflation, even as

regions

And as laws were

became

crisis following

and extensive unemployment that

money

enable younger people

to vote, they

the global financial

broke the color divide as musicians

of failing

started to open up markets to

new

Jazz played

entire world, creating a

shared

They became consumers:

Their weekly spending

The spread of the blues mirrored

in

also received pocket money. They

congregated

Night Life

1929, when the Great Depression

themselves. Young people

who was known

The Depression

1920. Female singers fronting blues and jazz

combos included

Ella Fitzgerald

and

see also: The Great Depression, Literature Chapter,

p.

234

Billie

Holiday.

by the

1929 stock market saw the

crash, the Great Depression

unemployment of one-third of the labor force (16 million) in the U.S.

"

YOUTH CULTURE-THE MORE

THE MODERN SPIRIT Authority lay crumbling

World War

I.

in

STAYS THE SAME

IT

497

Short Hair and Powdered Knees

the waves of social unrest following

Established truths were questioned

"Flappers" described the bright young

in society,

things of the Jazz Age as they danced the

education, and the sciences as young people turned

religion,

CHANGES, THE MORE

IT

Charleston, bobbed their strings of pearls

increasingly to music.

swung

hair,

long

and wore clothes that

re-

vealed their backs, knees powdered with

Popular music lar

was

primarily popu-

dance music, and,

to the

in

dancing,

was used

in

in

the

epitomized by female stars of the silent

new

Bow and

screen such as Clara

generation chasing an individuality

Brooks,

that previous generations barely |

they typified glamour

I.

Roaring Twenties. Their social defiance was

folk

to define a

Disillu-

men

World War

contrast

music accompanying

rouge and turned-down stockings. sioned with the slaughter of young

who dressed

Louise

flapper style

in

in

the

1926.

film "A Social Celebrity" in

recognized. Louise Brooks

right:

Dance Halls The "war

end

to

all

wars" was over:

Mood"

sports. Hits such as "In the

WWII brought an end

decorum.

to

LU

and hand

in

hand with the ending

of old certainties

came

a

new

Celebrating the repeal of Prohibi-

alien-

tion:

A

constitutional

amendment

outlawed alcohol between 1919 ation linked to a

sense of carefree

and 1933

in

the U.S.

youth.

in

disrespect,

World War held

in

in

dance

halls

and

First

abeyance

Frank

"01'

formed

romance was

Blue Eyes" Sinatra per-

Never Smile Again,"

"I'll

Swing and Big Band

from the piano.

Women

with finger-

costume jewelry,

somber wartime elegy

"We'll

Again." Shoulder pads

and narrow

Hemlines climbed ever higher and

waved

trousers were increasingly worn by

chunky shoes, or strappy sandals

for

both genders as dance music broke

danced the boogie-woogie.

for military use.

the 20th century were about to

contact and resembled contact

hair

in

women,

leather

LOUIS

ARMSTRONG

started outplaying with a

New

tial

element of improvization

solos with his

into his

trumpet

Risk-Takers and

/

Romance

and seams were

legs to

mimic unavail-

with

illicit

able stockings.

.,

sensory experiences and experi-

-*£\

Christian Dior's

New Look

materials

turned to a pre-

1932. popular music had

war silhouette

its first

of pinched waist

overt reference to

marijuana use with the

and

recording of

_-.

with the Silver Trumpet.

Louis Armstrong (1933-1971) was loved for the golden tone of his trumpet playing.

tra.

for the jitterbug

dance craze as

his instrument,

he

Don his orches-

Middle-class families

younger

drivers.

Frank Sinatra

New music

reached broader audiences through radio and 78 rpm records.

The

composers including Copland and

Hollywood, also increased familiar-

film

in

the

1943

"The Stage Door Canteen' with

the film 'Double

in

Dynamite' (1951)

well as

premiered many works for clarinet by

Bartok. and appeared

1947.

speed was a drug available to

defying race laws forbidding his employment of black musicians. As a virtuo-

in

skirt

owned automobiles, and

the 1930s. Clarinetist Benny Goodman, known as "The King of Swing"

music

by

Redman and

UPBEAT MELODIES AND IMPROVISED ORCHESTRATION FOR BIG BANDS made Swing a sophisticated version of Dixieland and one of the catchiest styles of

full

"Reefer

Man"

Swing

re-

such as alcohol and drugs— in

band the All-Stars.

THE KING OF JAZZ was also known as the 'Man

on

rationed

painted on the back of

mented

Orleans.

-SATCHMO" ARMSTRONG introduced the essen-

sic technician

was

'

marching band from

Professor." provided

Meet

hips defined a masculine silhouette

Young people craved intense

and 'The

air.

Heaven," and Vera Lynn sang the

free from strictures about physical

in

the

Bing Crosby crooned "Pennies from

through the second decade of

jazz

in

heard on radio. Big band leaders

the

directed their jazz orchestras

and senseless destruc-

The freedoms that the

trombonist Glenn Miller's big band

slaughter,

such as William "Count" Basie

in

positions of

authority as linked to lawlessness,

tion.

Me" by

Against a background of global

succeeding two decades.

manifest themselves

especially

Young people were often

regarded by those

Tree with Anyone Else but

were played

fun and socializing. The emphasis

was on novelty—and

and "Don't Sit Under the Apple

ity

film industry, firmly

based

with English-language

in

lyrics

worldwide. Younger generations

singer Peggy Lee.

THE EXPIRY DATE of the right

and

on many

Ira

hit

Gershwin:

2019-2027 in

original copy-

pieces by George

2007 in

the EU,

the U.S.

identified with child acting stars

such as Shirley Temple ahead of Benny Goodman 1909-1986) and his Big Band 1

8ING CROSBY'S 'White Christmas'

was

listed

by the

2007 Guinness

the advent of widespread public

Book of Records as the

television ownership.

record worldwide.

best-selling

Q

O

498

THE

MORE

IT

CHANGES, THE MORE

STAYS THE SAME

IT

BABY-BOOMERS Rock and

roll

TRUMPETER MILES DAVIS was a major

formed age-based groups. As incomes and people began to own

homes and

DAVIS SPEARHEADED COOL jazz in the 1950s and jazz-rock fusion in the 1960s.

more

credit rose,

cars.

"KIND OF BLUE" by Davis

album

The 1950s generated a sense upward

mobility.

of

Youth culture was

defined by music, fashion, and

atti-

Cinemas and coffee houses

tude.

attracted youngsters to play juke

boxes, sip soft drinks, and form

attachments

to

propelling sales to

new

Mass production and

ties

technological

the best-selling jazz

veered away from team sports

on the individual

to focus

marketed

of Frisbee,

in

Miles Davis

games

(1926-1991)

1958, and

in

Rock'n' Roll and Soul

Hula-Hoop contests around the

age of the American way of

life.

ROCK AND ROLL meshed

The

black musical styles and rhythms, country, and blues

sharper rhythms. The electric guitar created a radical sound

into harder,

nuclear arms race was aimed at

heights.

Is

of all time.

driving the family car. Leisure activi-

BBQ. The decade defined the im-

consumer brands,

figure in

the development of jazz.

symbolized generational identity as youngsters

songs such as Chuck Berry's

combating perceived threats to a

new generational

fast-burgeoning affluence.

claiming a significant counter-cultural force. Early soul music

Motown sound

the LU

identity.

a

The frenzy

decade

later.

of fans at concerts erupted into riots prolaid

the basis for

Ray Charles and James "Godfather

of Soul"

Brown were among the many singers adapting gospel, rhythm, and blues

Films and Frenzy

New

literary styles

form a new musical

featured writers

including Allen Ginsberg and Jack

Q O

Kerouac. Films such as the

1954

tainer ever. With a turned-up collar, tight-fitting

women

formances, an array of glittering out-

in

Capri pants and twin-sets lyrics of

Around the Clock" by

fits,

"Rock

Bill

a

Haley and

pants, and,

in later per-

The King of Rock and

Roll

Race

relations erupted as the Civil

Rights

Movement demanded

just society for tion

Germany and the Netherlands

Movement

Rights

all.

was banned

schools

in

a

Racial segregain

public U.S.

1954, yet public segre-

gation continued. Self-determina-

and

tion, ethnic identity,

was banned

media reports

of youth riots

recording competence circulated

the

new music, sung

by

non-violence.

the singer visited by millions. Elvis

was the

first

popular music

superstar.

and Buddy

records and concert venues. Rock

Holly.

reign of King

and

roll

TV one year

later,

confirming the

promoting

priorities of

roll.

Beatniks

Later,

baby-boom

tive beliefs

ies

at

age

35. the youngest ever recipient.

The

1968

in

tling

debate and spotlighted

generational

chasms

in

and expressed

anxiet-

about the Cold War. The Beat

Ginsberg's

censored

after

1956 book "Howl" was

for alleged obscenity.

Nearly every

communities. above: Martin Luther King,

black turtle-

movement was recognized

star-

emer-

gence of rock

all

in

neck sweaters protested conserva-

the

generation.

His public assassination

associ-

ated with the early days of rock and

was featured on prime-time

1964

in

Edward— were

political

He received the

Nobel Peace Prize

militarized

Mem-

a memorial to

is

Elvis, Little

charismatic speeches of the Rev. Jr.

Tennessee,

phis,

in

Richard, Jerry "The Killer" Lewis,

debate were symbolized by the

Martin Luther King,

Graceland, his residence

in Brit-

cinemas. Growing technological

ish

Cruel."

in

after

made

huge impact with songs such as

"Hound Dog" and "Don't Be the Comets. The film Civil

was

regarded as the most popular enter-

"The Blackboard Jungle" had young

screaming the

to

style.

ELVIS PRESLEY (1935-1977) a. LU

in

Over Beethoven" (1956) that declaimed a

"Roll

and

household now owned a car as automobile sales boomed

Jr.

(1929-1968)

PHi

roll

affected young people

worldwide.

It

reflected

unrest and changing innovations catered to this

youth market. Girls

in

new

Televisions were present

swinging

living

dresses, bobby-sox, and pony-tails

went

to

dances with boys

cut hairstyles and blue

in

denim

jeans, popularized by actor

Dean

in

crew-

the film "Rebel Without

a Cause" (1955).

Young people

most

rooms, and programs such as

cultural expectations in

the face of the myth of

"Lassie" and "The Lone Ranger"

suburban delights and

attracted a loyal following. The gen-

materialism. Young peo-

eration

James

in

when in

gap was

fully

Elvis Presley

apparent

1956, with the proviso only

torso be

ple

appeared on TV

shown on screen

his

to censor

became

alienated

from mainstream goals.

Teddy Boys— named their coats,

which

for

re-

Television

listened to radio chart listings of

recording artists.

Many started

his allegedly lewd hip

movements.

Teenagers flocked to hear

his

sembled those worn the 1910s during the

© see also: The Beat Generation, Literature Chapter, p. 437

in

lifestyle

as

became a major component of 1950s it became the dominant mass media.

THE

MORE

IT

CHANGES, THE MORE

IT

STAYS THE SAME

499

GENERATION X Music played a special

1960s. Young people rejected conventional ideas

role in the history of the

and experimented with sexuality and drugs.

The

Colonized states attained indepen-

racial discrimination.

dence and China pursued a

1964 "The Times They

cultural

Are A-Cnangin'" warned of

revolution while Western society

was marked

a generational exclusion

by internal dissension.

Popular music politicized

many

following the assassina-

young people as they protested conformity rest,

urban

in

tion of U.S. President

an era of student un-

riots,

and liberated

F.

commentary

sex.

them

Revolutionary freedom

behavior resulted from the marketing of the birth-control

pill in

1960.

Civil rights

groups at a demonstration at the

in

1963. promoted

films "A

Hard Day's Night" (1964)

the sexual self-awareness of

and "Help" (1965). seemed

women. Wearing skirts so

threatening to moral order than

short

less

that governments redefined chil-

the Rolling Stones, and their

dren's clothing for tax purposes,

revolutionary

teenage

girls

went

song

"I

security necessary

at concerts. Yet the early Beatles,

with their

mop-top haircuts

the

in

The musical "Hair" became

stock.

a hippie love-in. Film censorship

new movie code

ment. The assassinations

emerged

mature spectators after Elizabeth

nedy and

Taylor played

in

ginia Wooif?"

The Beatles released

rights activist

Martin Luther King shook any com-

with a

"Who's Afraid of

The

diversity of

"Let

cade,

when the

rights

movements would be met

The summer of

love

was 1967, in

San

It

anti-war

extreme violence by authorities.

WOMEN'S CLOTHING STYLES became

early

Motown

bands such as The Supremes. with

Queen

laying

liberation.

HEMLINES soared

extreme heights

to

music and art were offset and

Fashion

inspired by recreational drug use.

hegemony

that questioned the

of

the Christian religion. Youth group-

IN

THE RUSH

New

York state

in

August 1969. Performers of rock,

long hair

in T-shirts

and

Mods old

with

army

jackets rode motor scooters: rockers rode motorbikes

in

and blues were my-

leather clothing; skinheads had

thologized

the eponymous film

short hair and huge boots; barefoot

commemorating one influential

ever documented

tended the to

of the

most

gatherings of music

initially

Hippies

at-

modest festival

hear legendary performers

such as Janis

Joplin.

Santana. Joan Bae:

in

The Who.

'We

Overcome." and Jimi Hendrix

Shall play-

Women

hippies had tie-dyed T-shirts. The

Who sang about "My Generation" as the electric guitar became the

most prominent instrument

of a

counter-culture. In

the midst of

bikini

replaced the one-piece swimsuit.

Men

sported wide shirt collars or the no-collar Bea-

and turtleneck

sweaters. Flowery patterns decorated every hippy, with bolder patterns for psychedelic

turned to musicians for insight. protest

personified: spare, literary texts on

topics of social injustice, war.

and

mini-skirt

and smock

dress and innovated shopping customs.

THE BOB REPLACED the beehive, worn

long,

ionable

Made

franchisement. young people

rigid

moral and economic systems.

One-piece tights replaced stockings and the

thetics political disen-

Bob Dylan's ballads were above: Hippies protested

wore trouser-suits. mini- and micro-

skirts.

Quant created the

and new

and PVC in

hair

was

textiles included syn-

for go-go

boots

made

fash-

Nancy Sinatra's "These Boots Were

for Walking."

was popular for a

Disposable paper clothing

time.

Supermodel Twiggy defined the look of the 1960s mod-style with her boyish figure and short haircut.

in

became bou-

caftans and afghan coats. Designer Mary

ing a controversial variation of

'The Star Spangled Banner."

freedom, both genders became

tle-style jacket, flared trousers,

heavy

folk, country, in

for fashion

creasingly style-conscious as clothing shops tiques.

ings were also diverse.

Woodstock was a three-day music

in

the

Carnaby Street was the pinnacle of fashion London in the 1960s.

and heavy with influences from Asia

Woodstock

freer

black, feminist dec-

laration "Respect" in 1967. Psychedelic

along with women's

mini-skirt revolution.

of Soul Aretha Franklin

down the

Vir-

and gay

DESIGNER CLOTHING became more accessible and less expensive.

music included the

Beach Boys and

for

Be" on the cusp of a new de-

placencies about the seriousness of social upheaval.

Musical Renaissance

the

festival held in

and Wood-

No (Satisfaction)."

into frenzies

four-member Beatles

group—making

Francisco, Monterey,

an-

Move-

over musicians—called Beatlemania for the

in

of politician Robert Ken-

the year of music festivals

Can't Get

(1942-1970)

LLI

Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C.. 1963.

"The Feminine Mystique." written by Betty Friedan

writer Jimi Hendrix

of a liberal section

of the Civil Rights

sexual

in

"Blowin'

became the

the Wind"

Changing Times

Left-handed guitarist and song-

John

Kennedy. Dylan's social

-«?

in

by

cr LU

Q o

500

YOUTH CULTURE-THE MORE

CHANGES, THE MORE

IT

STAYS THE SAME

IT

DISCO QUEENS AND SPACE Space exploration became a global competition, while students protesting war and inequality were met by violent responses in France, Mexico, and the U.S.

social

Space and Screen

played out

Six months after an astronaut

fixation

walked on the moon,

icons. Family musical acts

eyes

all

in

smaller countries as a

on youth

idolized musical

were pop-

such as the Jackson Five with

searched the skies as the space

ular,

race intensified and satellites trans-

Michael Jackson, the Osmonds, and

formed communications. Television

sitcom TV's "Partridge Family" with

attracted vast audiences. "Roots,"

David Cassidy. Teenagers listening

an epic drama about

to the "Top Ten"

audiences of more than

100

million,

Sexes,"

in

had

slavery,

U.S.

and "The Battle

ratings created of the

which tennis player

ket.

Songs such as the Beatles'

"Lucy

Billie

commercial music

an ever-younger mar-

in

Disco

the Sky with Diamonds"

The (LSD) drew attention to recreational

Jean King beat Bobby Riggs, cap-

50

tured about voting age cr ID

abortions

O

rest

Q

The

million viewers.

was lowered

became

to

were

Ne/7 Armstrong: Astronauts

the heroes of teenage boys.

18 and

and

Hendrix, Morrison,

Joplin died

from extreme drug use.

legal. Social un-

Science

continued with anti-war pro-

tests, while anti-nuclear

drugs, while musical icons Presley,

came

and green

fiction

popular.

and horror The trend

Ethnic diversity

films be-

of jogging

embraced funk

music and the reggae of Bob Marley.

film

"Saturday Night Fever"

propelled disco dancing into the

mainstream

after

Swedish group

ABBA won

the Eurovision Song

Contest

space-age jumpsuits

in

and stacked

Disc

silver boots.

jockeys (DJs) playing records

in

discos attracted hordes of youths

movements

created a market for running shoes.

the environ-

prioritized

ment. Divorce became more com-

mon. Young people embraced

Staying Alive

technology and the foundation of

As escalating

the computer industry

was

ocratic

laid.

conflict

between dem-

and communist systems

The

electric guitar

reached a zenith in

and platform shoes

Rory Gallagher, and Jimmy Page.

boots with seven-inch heels. At

Synthesizers created a

new sound.

Super groups such as Led Zeppelin, Frank Zappa, Queen, and Pink Floyd

ANTI-WAR PROTESTS

1960s through

the U.S.

in

the West escalated from

the 1970s.

NATIONAL GUARD troops shot several stu-

THE LAST

U.S.

combat troops

left

became more spectacular and

rock

bands played arenas to thousands

dents to death at Kent State University

in

Vietnam

1973; marines and advisors remained

1970. in

until

micro-shorts called "hot pants"

with artists including Eric Clapton.

of fans.

or designer

home. Bee Gees and Donna Sum-

mer songs played on cassette 1979 disco

tapes. The definitive

number

"Y.M.C.A." by the Village

People was embraced by a

rising

gay rights movement.

Fans of the hard rock band above: John Travolta

AC/DC wore

school uniforms, while

film

in

the

1977

'Saturday Night Fever"

David Bowie and Elton John "wan-

nabes" copied their glam rock

style.

1975.

The many anti-war protests occuring on college

campuses

often turned violent.

Shock Therapy Aggressive rock called punk erupted

Protesting the Vietnam

War

from an underground scene

in

the

mid-1970s. The Ramones debuted POLITICAL ACTIVISM put pressure on U.S. authorities to end the war east Asia. Popular opinion

was

polarized;

of authority that escalated hostilities

war brought the horrors of the dal

and

social

on presidential decree. The first televised

conflict into every

problems

in

politics.

South-

young people protested a structure

home. The "Watergate" scan-

U.S. President Richard Nixon's resignation in

sioned young people about

in

1974 further

disillu-

Returning American militaryfaced serious

adjusting to civilian

life.

in

the U.S. The Sex Pistols used

their

songs "Anarchy

in

the UK"

and "God Save the Queen"

mock

to

the government and monarchy

amidst widespread unemployment Mick Jagger led the Rolling Stones

and class tensions. The coarse

lan-

EARLY YOUTH PROTEST centered

guage and sexual references used

on college campuses as young

in

men

national scandal.

fled

the U.S. to avoid the

draft. Public

tion of the

Buddhist

moral condemna-

war was strong

monks

their

TV debut

in

1976 were a

people identified with this harder

after

Vietnam and

anti-war protesters in the U.S. set themselves on

fire.

INSIDER

Many young

rebellion against the status in

with a derision for the status quo.

quo

and commercialism. They wore ripped clothes, safety pins

in

noses

KNOWLEDGE

SUNSHINE POP DUO: The Carpenters had

best-selling

songs

in

the 1970s.

MORE YOUNG PEOPLE smoked, though banned TV and

advertisers voluntarily

radio advertising in 1971.

and cheeks, spiky right: U.S.

troops in Vietnam

colors,

hair in Day-Glo

and chains. The

SONY PAIDOFF designer Andreas Pavel "dress-tofor allegedly inventing the

shock" concept was born.

two years before

its

1979

Walkman debut.

YOUTH CULTURE-THE MORE

CHANGES, THE MORE

IT

GENERATION ME

The ultimate "Material

the generation gap wider, as rap singers focused attention on inner-city poverty

and

lyrics

into

Girl,"

Madonna's

adolescent

thrilled

girls

wearing the singer's signature under-

wear and

lingerie

as outerwear. Girls ad-

Personal computers and arcade

line style

games

cade's signature shoulder pads and

wore leg warmers and floppy sweatshirts.

running shoes.

Young people dropped the expensive

cally

created the

hermeti-

first

sealed teenage worlds

in

the

1980s, with popular video games

opted headbands and gym clothes, or

watch as a status symbol and wore

Young people's moral indignation

such as Pac-Man and Super Mario Bros.,

complete with the de-

resurfaced.

colored plastic Swatch watches

was provoked by the

It

lets.

movement for nuclear disarma-

even as the emergence of

ors

HIV/AIDS instigated concern about links with sex

ment, particularly after significant

in

Power and Poverty

and

Band

g^k

Its

dressed"

the board-

in

South Africa

radicalized

many

as glasnost thawed

members "power in

The

apartheid system

ceil-

rooms of Western corporations.

Aid to support

aid to Ethiopia.

rights

into

the Soviet-Western

office environ-

ments by adopting a more mascu

The Market for Music Yet the

1980s was

a

decade

for

mega-

wattage shows. U2, Prince, Guns

Walkman

issued

clothing products.

their

n'

for

doping and drug abuse. Popular

films kept

pace with

political devel-

opments. Imaginary wars

in

the

"Star Trek"

metal rock bands played on sets

took the place of the fast melting

that cost millions of dollars to build.

Cold

and "Star Wars" series

War between East and West.

all-night

tal

to hold

dance "raves" that law enfor drugs. Paren-

censorship was organized into

the Parents Music Resource Center

THE STREET SUBCULTURE of hip hop combined rap music acrobatic dancing and graffiti art. above: Urban teenagers spun on dancing competitions.

the music and

Roses, Metallica, and other heavy-

forcement raided labels,

in

backs and turned

with

the U.S.

in

minimum

flips

during break-

in

the mid-1980s as the

drinking age

was

raised

to 21. Allegedly illegal rave parties in

the

UK were banned

the early

in

Prince blended disco, funk,

rock

in

'Sign

'o

the Times'

and

in

1987.

1990s. Emerging forms of communication including the fax ma-

Rap, Hip Hop, and Break-Dancing

chine and the early mobile

telephone helped young peo-

RAP BLENDED POETIC word-play chanting with a strong beat. Gangsta rap

was born

with

ple disseminate informa-

the album "Straight Outta Compton" by

NWA. Young people took

commentary on gang

to

NWA's

lifestyles,

tion

events. The

glorification of prison experience.

"Walk This Way" by Run-DMC tracted young white people and a

new vocabulary and

in

in

with the song

1986.

It

also at-

(VJs)

dialect materialized.

for

teenage boys became a major

and the

vinyl

LP

1983. DJs

became video jockeys

as

MTV launched

influential

Street fashion copied the loose garments worn by basketball stars such as

Michael Jordan, and athletic shoes

CDs

started to replace the cassette tape

on the other hand, were outraged by rap's

CROSSOVER RAP became popular

first

police

harassment, urban poverty, and drug use. Authorities,

about raves and other

social

its

channel showing mu-

sic videos for

young people

in

1981, creating a vast merchan-

expense item. dising market for products associabove: Rapper/actor right:

Will

Smith

cade, leading people to

ated with popular music. Watch-

was the best-seller of the demoon walk and wear one white glove.

Michael Jackson's album

'Thriller'

MTV was a rite of passage for many teenagers and a cause for ocing

LU U.

sports industries were criticized

hours at stadium rock concerts

that evolved into electronic

models

ents. Role

of

Acid house parties provided

replaced the

up independent recording

artists started

and endorsed

col-

encouraged the

casional moral panic by their par-

excess, as dedicated fans stood

stalemate.

THE GHETTO BLASTER, with heavy bass beat. as portable music player for break dancing events.

RAP AND HIP HOP

flashy fabrics,

"

young people with locations

videos,

and

It's

various artists called

took the struggle for

ing

brace-

Fashion designers, using strong

Madonna and Rosanna Arquette in their 1985 film 'Desperately Seeking Susan

sin-

Christmas?" by a group of

movement

through the glass

1984

"Do They Know

gle

The women's

women's

brightly

like

"Yuppie" market to shop to excess.

continuing worldwide poverty. Teen-

schools.

agers bought the

liberation

wrist

nuclear power plant accidents, and

and widespread drug

use by young people

501

about sex shocked older generations

and feminists but

rising crime.

STAYS THE SAME

1980s

Styles of the

Young people's ease with fast-developing technology opened

IT

1980s yeans came

in

acid-washed,

stone-washed, and ripped

styles.

D

O

502

THE MORE

IT

CHANGES, THE MORE

STAYS THE SAME

IT

MILLENNIALS Electronics revolutionized the world of

technology spread

Digital

convergence

trends ever faster.

made the

young people

in

the 1990s. Digital TV channels and online

Wired youth shaped popular culture.

1997. Although football

per-

sonal computer the ideal entertain-

was the

ment center and

sport of the decade,

a personal show-

case. Young people set up personal

web pages, shared website

young people were quicker to copy the

links

and started designing images. Ca-

fashion style of the

fes attracted young people again-

young golfing global phe-

this

time to surf the

1990s as

web

nomenon. Designers

the mid-

in

were also aware of the

Internet use exploded in

accessibility

LU

fastest-growing

and

popularity.

Violence spilled over into rap

when

Tupac Shakur was shot dead

in

marketing power of rap

top artist

and hip hop. Tommy

1996.

Youth Marketing

figer

Hil-

gave free clothes to

Many music video channels were

brands included Sony, Coca-Cola.

young rappers and used young ac-

2

launched on

Adidas, Nokia, and McDonalds.

tors in his advertising,

CZ LU

advertisers their main avenue for

a o

all

continents, giving

becoming "TEENYBOPPER" appeared

selling products to ever-younger

customers. Fashion houses were

eager to

symbol

make their products the

for

youth on TV. Successful

made

Extreme sports

wear the leader

in

ing market. Tiger

color

and age

one

sports-

the youth cloth-

of the biggest youth

brands

in

golf

when

he won the Masters Tournament

GRUNGE mixed punk and rock from

the Northwest

The main bands were Nirvana and Pearl Jam.

KURT COBAIN

of the

band Nirvana became

the musi-

cal idol of the decade.

GRUNGE FASHION was an

anti-elitist

plaid shirts, ripped jeans,

and Doc Martens shoes.

assortment of

in

IN

Alternative

metal and punk, and added a driving bass, strong

melodies and social apathy. Many bands spurned the mainstream labels and

and

indie (independent)

scene. Live concerts gave birth to

THE EARLY 2000. young people

lack of social

engagement advocated by grunge

detachment and "whatever" singing

made vocalists the

lyrics,

artists, their slovenly

social values

and adopted

the singer as the leader of

an authentic,

musical death

in

decrease larity

YOUTHS

2000s were

the

in

called the

iPod Generation.

"mosh

ences

in

stage,

and crowd

pits" in front of

surfing, in

the

which

to the eating disorders anorexia

bulimia.

Many

and

young

disillusioned

people dived blindly into a sea of

people were encouraged when East

spectators and hoped to be carried

and West Germany reunited

along on their upstretched arms.

start of the

The Backstreet Boys were one

of

cial

at the

decade. Protest and

tension

was seen

in

ra-

inner cities

many bands to seize the marketing

based on urban youth's anger and

opportunities presented by the turn

alienation.

of the century, presenting a line-up

was the

of energetic smiling

males that the

The voice of the

streets

voice of rap, dressing

in

sports clothes and rejecting the

older generation would approve as

glamor associated with

idols for their pre-teen children.

allegiance

was on

rock.

Group

display with a sud-

stylings of their vocabulary.

The

intensity of the

prophets of their generation.

DJs

became

influential in electronic

music, synthesizing and sampling older recordings. The

den increase

in

body decorations

including tattoos, body piercings.

UK band

Oasis fronted the Britpop phenomenon, techno

was

influential,

and

Germany's Rammstein represented industrial rock.

The new metal

anti-elitist

movement.

band Korn was one

of the first to

His

1994 marked the in

hours on

daily.

the alleged levels of

appearance, and the

THE MAIN ARTIST was Kurt Cobain. who fronted the band Nirvana. Fans despaired of contemporary

six

'screen time "

favored non-commercial recording labels. The establishment deplored the

drug use employed by grunge

the late

in

those aged

old.

used an average

was joined by the grunge

to

the fad of densely packed audi-

1994.

Grunge Scene GRUNGE ROCK mixed

10-12 years

the process.

Rock Diversifies

Kurt Cobain of the group Nirvana committed suicide in

1960s and applies

Woods broke the

barrier

rock

U.S.

in

market

grunge's popu-

worldwide.

exploit the potential of ing,

downloaded in

download-

donating 25 cents per song to children's charities

1999.

The crowd-surfing craze of being carried by specta-

packed concerts was banned after deaths tors at

resulted.

This diversity of musical styles

was

reflected

in

fashion, the

decade

With increased tolerance for homosexuality,

of the

supermodel and heroin chic

as "zero size" anxieties were linked

some

countries have

legalized same-sex marriage.

THE MORE

IT

CHANGES, THE MORE

STAYS THE SAME

IT

503

GLOBAL YOUTH Consumerism and

global youth culture

became hyper-connected and were The emerging reliance on the Internet

and

its

panic about a

an

Y2K computer

to

in the new century. Young people embrace new technologies.

Eminem, who

influenced a large

new group

parodied on TV. particularly

in

cameras, and Internet connection

merged

groups that sang, danced, and set

new

calls

and

to

it

out with the

Tim-

who performed

so many young people expressed

famous. Other crossover stars

so much about themselves, so

were boy band Menudo star Ricky

fast, to

Wants.'

in

more than 12

home emulating her dance moves. The Spice

practiced for hours at

the late

home

sold

and more personal with MP3s and

mil-

Spears epitomized the dance-pop songs beloved of young teens,

lion units.

who

One More Time"

..Baby

1990s

and boy bands offered a manufactured

with their friends. Girl groups

prepubescents could

iPods, the iconic

symbol of the de-

identify with. Japan's

and copyright industry was obliged to accept

downloading when

the weekly Top

BOY BAND GURU Lou Peariman

ings. Authorites

was

about cyberspace

creation of

the

for

many boy bar ;

English-

first

1999 was the

best-selling

debut ever by a

panic

Shakira combined

artist.

fluences from

Hisin-

many countries and

languages to become Colombia's top

artist.

40 and

other

on many

and

home computers.

It

made

belly

danc-

ing a part of her "wild-pop " snows.

as war had done half a century

rat-

expressed concern activity

above: Shakira

world depressed young people,

previously. Populations

industrialized

parental controls were placed

eluding the Backstreet Boys,

in

its

sales were considered eligible for

answer to the ubiquitous boy band was SMAP.

responsible

whose

language CD

cade. The entire music production

Girls

also encouraged teenyboppers to practice lip-synching at

line-up of friendly singers that

ever smaller, more portable,

became

Puerto Rico after she

Martin,

so many.

albums soared as electronics be-

TEEN QUEEN Britney Spears attracted attention to the new market for preteen

sold-out concerts

in

came "

deepening

the U.S. and

and blogging. Never before had

hit

Teen Pop when her debut album

in

"Latin Explosion" included Selena

Downloading of songs and entire

girls

century, reflecting

spreading multiculturalism. The

texting,

chatrooms, such as MySpace.

beriake from N Sync. Christina Aguilera spelled

artists

the beginning of the

and singer-actress Jennifer Lopez,

present an ac-

MANY ARTISTS WENT SOLO such as Justin

in

Latino influence

Dense networking included phone

Music

Latin

The popularity of Hispanic increased

emailing, instant messaging,

GROUPS WERE ENCOURAGED

Girl

one hand-held device.

two electronic devices every

cellular

ceptable image for the parents of young teens.

A

into

"Superconnector" teens used at

day.

fashion trends.

:

in "real"

were

TEEN POP PRODUCERS divided boys into bands into

together

time. Cellular phones, digital

least

and girts

and playing

the

animated sitcom "The Simpsons."

century. Youth marketing targeted

games

online

of

pers. Youth culture superstars

virus

new

of socializing

bility

white youngsters to dress as rap-

unfulfilled

just before the birth of the

first

ultra-successful

ever-increasing

possibilities created

became synonymous

often the

aged

was

those

in

the

in

in

economies

new

the postrapidly

century, while

developing countries were

whose album "Millennium" sold

feared at one point that young

more than 1 million copies

in its first

week

overwhelmingly young. Given their

people would no longer be able

of sales

to distinguish

between

virtual

interconnected nature, they often

and

global youth, creating a worldwide

Pokemon animation from Japan

youth market with formidable pur-

came

a

hit

be-

the world over, producing

many

shattered the sense of prosperity that followed the

fall

of the Berlin

1990. The USSR dissolved

chasing power. Consumerism

trading cards and thousands of

Wall

products.

and capitalism was observed as

billion

(564

Connectivity

mil-

Broadband connecprovided on-

lion-752 million euros) annually by

tivity

the mid-2000s. Sagging, the art of

line

wearing loose pants that revealed

with the

underwear hibited by ists

was

yet stayed up.

many

schools.

continued to

Rap

sell well,

communities

they craved as

art-

joined by

i

see

well

and

of the

World Trade Center

2001. wars

and

Iraq,

tilities in

in

in

Afghanistan

and ongoing hos-

many

parts of the

speed of

communication

pro-

political

economic systems. The bombing

Virtual

clothing products generated sales

million-$l

in

the more rewarding of

people. Hip-hop fash-

grew to such a market that

$750

a global-

countries

formed the attitudes and values of

of

in

Baby Consumers Terrorist actions in

ion

issues

ac-

ceptable by older generations.

many young

same

ized marketplace.

real-world social relationships.

Soy bands were deemed

face the

Game console

wars resulted

and television exemplified the

ion

among producers.

multi-faceted success of hip-hop.

as the capa-

also: Digital Technology. Physics

Diddy's business ventures into fash-

from fierce competition

and Technology Chapter,

pp.

192-194

LU

or LU

Q

O

504

INDEX

INDEX Analog Technology 192-194 Anarchy in the UK (by The Sex

1984 (by George Orwell) 435 2001: A Space Odyssey 474 30

St.

Athenaeum Pistols)

51 Pegasl 49

399

Anasazi

Anaximander 22

ABBA 500 Abbey of St. Denis 401 Abbot Laugier 406 The Abduction from the Seragilo (by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) 450, 453 Aborigines

Abraham

284

(from the Bible)

311

Absolute Zero 43, 53 Abstract Art 387-388,

391 436 Abu Bakr, Caliph 309-310 AC/DC 500 Absurd Theatre

148

Acceleration Acid Rain

X LU O

Acropolis

358

AEG

Hall)

346

Austin. John

Animal Farm (by George Orwell) 435 Anions 151 Anna Karenina (by Leo Tolstoy) 428 AnnaO.. Case of 358 The Annals (by Quintus Ennius) 41

Australia 229,

356

Turbine Factory

474 The Aeneid (by

409 417-418

Virgil)

Aeschylus 22, 416 Aestheticism 430 Aesthetics 332,

Nauman)391 Anti-Authoritarian

503

475

356-357 Apocalypse Now 475 Apo//o and Daphne (by

Balkans 27 The Ballet of the Night (by Jean-Baptiste

Aquinus,

Thomas 324

Archaeology

406 in his

Art

the Younger)

Ellington)

496 Akio Morita Al

The

261

gran sole carico d'amore (by

Luigi

Nono)463 Al-Aqsa 240

409

Alceste (by Christoph Willibald Gluck)

453 462 Algebra 199, 202, 209 Algeria 38 Alhambra 398 Al-Hanri 421 bin Abi Taleb, Caliph

(by Christoph Willibald Gluck)

Aromatherapy 486 Art Deco 409

Allah (see Islam)

438 480

ArtNouveau385, 430 Art Nouveau Architecture 409 Arthritis 481 Arthropods 103

Allende, Isabel

Artificial Intelligence (Al)

Allergies 126,

Artificial

Alpha Centauri Galaxy 47 Alpha Males 117 Al-Qaeda 240-241 Althusser, Louis 340,

342

Amaterasu 296

Amazon 276 America (See United States of America) American Journal of Psychology 346 Ammonia, Production of 135 Amnesty International 235, 237

378

348

Neural Networks (ANNs)

185

Ascetism 290, 294 Aspects of Child Life and Education (by G.Stanley Hall) 346

Asramas 288 Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions to Aid Citizens (ATTAC)

235 The Assumption of the Quirin

Asam) 376

Asteroids 50,

54-55

307

301

456

Giacomo 404

Virgin (by Egid

rich

356

Botticelli)

372

Black Smokers 65 Black Square (by Kasimir Malevich)

388

Venus (by Sandro Bismarck. Otto von 34 Black Death 31 Black Dwarf 45

Birth of

Black Friday

36

Black Holes 45,

153

The Blackboard Jungle 498

Smetana)459

340

Barthes, Roland

Blair,

497

214

Prime Minister Tony 228

475 336

Blaxploitation

Bloch, Ernst

Bather of Valpincon (by Jean Auguste

Blow Up 475

Dominique Ingres) 381 Batman AIT Batteries 150, 171

Blowin'

Bauhaus388, 409

Boccaccio, Giovanni

Beach Boys 499 The Beatles 499-500 Beaumarchais 425 Beauvoir, Simone de 437 Beckett, Samuel 436 Beckmann, Max 387

Boccioni,

Becquerel, Henri

131

in the Wind (by Bob Dylan) 499 Bobo Dioulasso, The Old Mosque of

399 422

Umberto 386

Boddhisattvas 292, 295 Boeing 274 Boethius 323 Bofill, Ricardo410 Bogart.

Humphrey 473

Bohr. Niels

131-132

Bokassa. Jean-Bedel 216

Bee Gees 500 Beethoven, Ludwig van 450-451, 458 The Beggar's Opera (by John Gay) 453 Behaviorism 347, 357 Behrens. Peter 409 Being and Nothingness (by Jean-Paul

335 Being and Time 338

347

334

Nietzsche)

Baptist Denomination 305,

Bastille

Armstrong, Louis 497

309

The Birth of a Nation 472 The Birth of Tragedy (by Friedrich

Basie, William "Count"

453

Alexander, Lenie

Bipolar Disorder

The Bartered Bride (by Bed

Armide

Alexander the Great 23

The Bible 25, 29, 246, 298, 300, 302306, 310-311, 414-415 The Bicycle Thief 474 Biedermeier 33 Big Bang Theory 42-43

The Banquet of the Officers of the St. George Civic Guard (by Frans Hals)

Arhats

201

391

Bhagavad Gita 415

BIOS 181, 183

Barozzi,

Arithmetic

Betty (by Gerhard Richter)

Biological Psychology

Argentina

339, 346, 416, 425

160

Bernando 475 Chuck 498

Honorede428 501 Bangladesh 268 Aid

Rossini)

220 292-293

Ludwig

Berotlucci,

Band

Baroque 31, 374-380, 382 Baroque Architecture 403-406

Monkeys 495

(by Ernst

Balzac.

The Barber of Seville (by Gioachino

79

Arctic

446

Bar Mitzvah

Aristophanes 22 Aristotle 22, 61, 242, 320-324, 338-

Albers, Joseph

Ali

378

Arche 318 Archimedes 158, 205 Arctic

Lully)

Balance Sheet 279

Aguilera, Christina

Duke

Scene 387

Bhikkhunis294

459

Balakirev, Mily

Gianlorenzo

328

Berlioz, Hector 458 Bern Cathedral 407 Bernini, Gianlorenzo 376, 379 Bernini. Giovanni 404

Berry,

448

Baha'i314

Collection in Brussels (by David Teniers

Ain't Misbehavin' (by

Kirchner)

Bernoulli's Principle (by Titian)

Anura 105

African Architecture

456

395

126

Bacteria

Archduke Leopold Wilhelm

AIDS 39, 126, 139, 266, 268, 501

Avalanche 71 Avant-Garde Architecture 409 Averroes 323 Axioms 199

Berlin Street

Bhagwan 314-315 Bhakti 289

299

265-266,268

Aida (by Giuseppe Verdi)

334

Bacon, Francis 31, 391

Arabesque 398

399 503

Benzene 140 Beowulf 418-419

The Antiquities of Athens (by James Anti-Semitism

-:

Benjamin, Walter 336 Benn, Gottfried 434

Bezos, Jeffrey 276

406

I:

Belshazzar's Feast (by Rembrandt) 378 Benedictine Order 26

Back Problems 481 The Backstreet Boys 502-503

23-24, 30, 35, 37-39, 216217, 220, 235, 237, 240-241, 260,

Africa 18,

373 Vincenzo456 Giovanni

Bach, Johann Sebastian

376 Apple Inc. 181 Aqueducts 397

Afghanistan 232, 239, 241,

Bellini,

Antibodies

Bernini)

335

Bellini,

432 431

372-373

Movement 231

126 Antigens 126

Guy de Maupassant) 429

Ser//n Alexanderplatz (by Alfred Doblin)

Auto-da-Fe (by Elias Canetti)

Babylon, City of

(by

Berkeley. Bishop George

265 233, 260

Bacchus and Ariadne

Anxiety

Aelita

Austria 36,

Ami

Bergson, Henri

Langshaw 337

79

Antonioni, Michelangelo

355

429

Austen, Jane

Bel

Belgium 259

323-324 Roman Emperor 24-25

Anglicanism 307

Stuart)

Adolescence (by G. Stanley Adorno, Theodor W. 341

331

Augustus, Statue at Prima Porta 367 Auschwitz 221

Angiosperms 96-97, 99 Angkor Wat 399

Anthro/Socio. Rinde Spinning (by Bruce

Acupuncture 487 Adam and Eve 311 Adam, Robert 406 Adenauer, Konrad 255 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) 101

Advertising

Augustus,

Andronicus. Lucius Livius 417

Antarctic

139

August Wilhelm and

Augustine. Saint

Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury 323

Active Ingredients

Adler, Alfred

Anaximenes22 An Andalusian Dog 472 Andersen. Hans Christian 427

Anorexia

85 396

(by

Friedrich Schlegel)

Atman 286. 289 Atmosphere 84 Atolls 82 Atomtod (by Giacomo Manzoni) 463

500

Mary's Axe 411

H

Bolivar,

Bolivia

Bollywood 477 Bolshevism 218 Borchet. Wolfgang Boris

Satre)

(by Martin Heidegger)

Simon 33

220

Gudunov

(by

435 Modest Mussorgsky)

459 Boromini, Francesco

404

u INDEX

375

Bosch. Hieronymus

Carboniferous Era 66. 96 Cardiovascular System 480

Sandro 372 Boulee, Etienne-Louis406 Botticelli.

Bourgeois Tragedy Bowie. David 500

(by George Bizet) 457 Carmina Burana (by Carl Orff) 443 Cartels 271 Carthage 24

Brahma 287 Brahman 286

500 Caste System 288 Cat's Eye Nebula 45 Catalhoyuk 394 Catalysts 135 Cassidy. David

Brahmin 288 Brahms. Johannes 458 Bramante. Donato 402 The Brandenburg Concertos

i

b\

Johann

Sebastian Bach) 448-449 Brando. Marlon 473 Braque, George 365, 386-387 Brazil 220. 262.265. 267 Brecht. Bertolt 433. 435-436 Bridges 165 British Empire 407

Brown, James 498 Brunelleschi. Filippo402

The Buddenbrooks

431

384

guste Renoir) Burial at

Ornans

(by

Gustave Courbet)

Burj

Dubai 411

Edmund 228 Burkina Faso 399 Burroughs. William 437 Burke.

Byron. Lord George Gordon

426

400 26-27, 245

Byzantine Architecture

Byzantium 22. Cabinet of Dr.

Caligari,

Caesar, Julius 24 Calatrava, Santiago

The 472

411

Calculus 204-205 Calder. Alexander 389

Academy Caliphate 309 Calligraphy 369 Calvin. Melvin 100 Cambrian Era 66 Camerata 445 California

Campanella.

of

Science 411

cer)

Canticle of the sisi)

399

Ceramics 144

123

385-386

CFCs 85. 141 CGI 477

475 Chagall. Marc 387 Chambers. William 407 Chansons 445 Chaplin. Charlie 472 Charlemagne. Holy Roman Emperor 27 Charles. Ray 498 Chateau de Chambord 403 Chateau Vaux-le-Vicompte 405 Chaucer. Geoffrey 419 Chiaroscuro 376 Chichen Itza 399 Children's and Household Tales {by Hans Christian Andersen) 427 Chile 220. 265 China 20-21. 28. 35. 38-39. 212. 217. 219. 232. 236-237. 239. 260-262.

389 399

25-29. 282-283. 285. 302-307.311.499

Christianity

420

Canto Generate (by Pablo Neruda) 438 Canyon (by Robert Rauschenberg). 390 Capitalism 218. 503

The Capitol Building 406 Captain Blood 473 Caravaggio 376-378 Carbon Dating 151

448

408-409

Prime Minister Winston 222 Churrigueresque 405 Cicero. Marcus Tullius 321. 417 Cimino. Michael 476 Circular Flow Model 257 Churchill.

Circumcision

The Circus Citizen

283

(by

Georges Seurat) 384

Kane 473

Policy (CAP)

267

36. 38, 214. 216-219.

The Communist Manifesto (by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels) 230. 333. 343

III

Current Accounts

Cusa. Nicholas of

Comparative Advantage 265 Compensation 360 Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (by Robert Venturi) 410 Composition VII (by Wassily Kandinsky)

Cyanobacteria 65 Cybernetics 339 Cyprus 233. 259

387-388 Compounds 130 Compus Mentis 356

391

Cuba 255 Cuban Missile Crisis 37 Cubism 386. 388 Curie, Marie 151

Communitananism 228

258 325

Czech Republic 233 Czechoslovakia 218 D'Alembert, Jean Baptiste

le

Ronde 32,

329

Computerized Numerical Control Machines 176 Computers 201. 209. 490-491, 494-

495

DAnnunzio. Gabriele 434

Dadaism 36, 387. 389-391. 432 The Daffodils

(by William

Wordsworth)

427

Concave Lenses 149 Concept Notation (by Gottlob Frege)

337

Lama 293. 295 Dali.Salvadoir389 Dalai

Dalibor (by Bed rich Smetana)

Conceptual Art 387. 391 Concrete Art 388

Dalton. John

459

131

Congo 232 Conifers 99

The Dance (by Henri Matisse) 386 Dante ANghieri 420. 422 Darfur217 Dargomyzhsky, Alexander 459 Dark Matter 43 Dark Star 474

Conservatism 228 Constable. John 382 Constantine Emperor 25

Darwin, Charles 34, 95. 115 Das Jahr (by Fanny Hensel) 454 Das Kapital (by Karl Marx) 333

349

Conditioning

Confucianism 21, 296-297, 322 Confucius 297. 415

I.

Constellation

47

David Copperfield (by Charles Dickens)

409

428

Contamin. Victor 408

480

Chrysler Building

447

Constructivist Architecture

455 de Troyes 419

tian Bach)

deU'Arte

Communism 230

156

Cenrtifugal Force

Christ (see Jesus Christ)

(by St. Francis of As-

Immanuel

(by Frank Stella)

Chromosphere 46

Sun

(by

Commonwealth 226

Chretien

419

Reason

24

Chopin. Frederic

Chau-

330 Crosby. Bing497 Kant)

Celts

Christmas Oratorio (by Johann Sebas(by Geoffrey

Critique of Pure

Colosseum 24. 397 Columbus. Christopher 30 Column Varieties 396 Comets 50, 54-55

138

Cholula. Great Pyramid of

The Canterbury Tales

Cologne Cathedral 407

Ctesiphon

Cholesterol

431 Canova. Antonio 381

501

427

Crystals 62.

Chirico. Giorgio di

Canetti, Elias

Taylor

Common Agricultural

265-266.269-270.485

Camus. Albert 335. 437 Canada 229. 234. 267 Cancer 127

Samuel

43

Commedia

Chinese Architecture 399. 407. 411

Tommaso 31

357

Cells

Chabrol. Claude

383

Calder)

Command Economy 254-255. 270

Ceres 48 Cetacea 113 Cezanne. Paul

The Burghers of Calais (by Pierre-Au-

Red Disk (by Alexander 389 Critique of Judgement (by Immanuel Kant) 330 Critique of Practical Reason (by Immanuel Kant) 330 Crinkly With

434 93-95

Church (by Andrea Pozzo) 376

Cerebral Cortex

472

Cretaceous Era 67

475

Coleridge,

(by Michelangelo)

373-374

Celan. Paul

315. 322. 335. 500 Bulgakow. Michail 438

Bufiuel. Luis

The Creation of Adam

Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon 477 The Crucible (by Arthur Miller) 436 Crystal Palace 408

Centre Pompidou 410 Centripedal Force 156

Bulimia

284

Cobam. Kurt 502 Coca Cola 273 Codex Justinianus 245 Codex Manesse 419-420

Cold War 37-39. 234, 239. 498.

Central American Architecture

233-234 356

318

Creation Myths 282,

Caudata 105

Buddha 21. 290-292. 294. 322 Buddhas 294 Buddhism 21, 282. 289-295. 297.

Bulgaria

Cratylus

Cold Matter Scenario

Cenozoic Era 67

Thomas Mann)

(by

227

Cognitivism 347,

Ceiling Painting of the Sant'lgnazio

Bronte Sisters 429 The Brothers Karamazov (by Fyodor Dostoevsky) 428

419

Covalent Bonds 133

Coal 76

Catullus 417

Ceaucescu, Nicolae 217

121

449

Crab Nebula 45 Craik. Kenneth 347

396-397

Cations 151

CCTV tower 411

Benjamin 462 Brokeback Mountain 475

Samuel

238

Huntington)

Couperin. Francois

Courtly Novel

(by

Coffy

Mas-

411

Cour d'honneur 405 Courbet. Gustave 383

CATIA Software 411

cagni)456 Cave Painting 364

Britten.

Bronchitis

401 306-307

les Ciencies

The Clash of Civilizations

Clinton, Hilary

Cavalleria Rusticana (by Pietro

502

de

Rights

Classical Architecture

Cathedral of Amiens Catholicism 304.

i

Movement 499 Clair, Rene 472 Clapton, Eric 500 Civil

Carmen

425

Bowling for Columbine 476

Britpop

Ciutat de les Arts

Continental Drift

David (by Michelangelo) 372. 374 David, Israelite King 298. 303 David. Jacques-Louis 381

69

Contrapposto 367 Convergence Theory 244 The Conversation Alb Convex Lenses 149 Cooper. James Fenimore 426 Coppola. Francis Ford 475 Coquette 471 Corbel Architecture

Day. Doris

141 De Architectura (by Vitruvius) 402 De consolatione philosophiae (by Boethius) 323

399

DeStijl409

LeCorbusier 409-410 Corelli. Arcangelo 449 Corneille. Pierre

Dead Poets Society 476 Dean, James 498 Death of a Salesman (by Arthur

425

Corner Counterrelief (by Wladimir

Tatlin)

Miller)

436 Debussy. Claude 460-461 (by Giovanni Boccaccio)

388

Decameron 422

278 Cosmetics 139 Counterpoise 372 Corporation

Counter-Reformation

475

Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT,

Declaration of Independence 32.

404

Deconstructivism 411

214

505

506

INDEX

The Deer Hunter 476 Defense Mechanisms 360-361

Don Giovanni (by Wolfgang Amadeus

425

Don Juan de Marco 473 Don't Be Cruel (by Elvis Presley) 498

Empiricism 326. 328 Encyclopedic (by D'Alembert and Denis

Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree with Anyone Else But Me (by Glen Miller) 497

Diderot) 32, 329, 424 Endosymbiont Theory 93 Endothermic Reactions 134 Energy Efficiency 260. 274. 411

Defoe, Daniel

Degas, Edgar 384 Degenerate Art 387

Eugene 382

Delacroix,

343 273 Democracy 33, 38, 212, 215-216, 222,254,488 Democritus 318 Dendrochronology 87 Denmark 233, 259 Denovian Era 66 Depression 356 Der blaue Reiter, 387 Deleuze, Gilles Dell

Der femer Klang

(by Franz Schreker)

461

450

von We-

(by Carl Maria

Empire Hardt)

Donne, John 423 Donnizetti. Gaetano 456 Doping 143 Doryphoros (by Polykleitos) 367 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor

428

Drawing from Life at the Royal Academy (by Thomas Rowlandson and Augustus Pugin) 381 Dream Novella (by 430 Dreams 284, 359

(by Antonio Negri

(by Friedrich Kittler)

342

Sonata

Durer, Albrecht 29, 372,

449 Dewey, John 336 Dharma 286, 292 Diabetes 124 Diadochoi 23 Dialectics 318, 332-333, 341

The Diary of a Madman (by Lu Xun) 433 The Diary of Anne Frank 435

408 Antonin 459

Dwarf Planets 48 The Dwarf (by Alexander Zemlinsky)

396

377

Flaubert. Gustav

428

Jean-PaulSatre)

Henry 177

251 401 Forum 397 Fossils 76, 93, 96 Foster, Norman 411 Forensics

Fortification

406

Esther (by George Friedrich Handel) Estonia 233-234

448

Foucault. Michel 250, 340,

Dylan,

Bob 499

329, 424 Dido and Aeneas (by Henry Purcell) 447 Die Brucke (architectural group) 409 Die Brucke (magazine), 387 Die Fischerin (by Corona Schroter) 453 Die Meistersinger(by Richard Wagner) 443, 457 Die Vestalin (by Gaspare Spontini) 457 Die Weber (by Gerhart Hauptmann) 429

E. coli

124

Dieting (see Nutrition)

Umberto 340 The Edda (by Snorri Sturluson) 418 Eden Project 411 Effi Briest (by Theodor Fontane) 428

Euro Zone

Ego 359

European Union 232-233, 255, 262, 265, 267 Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) 240

Free Will

Evaporation 152

Frege. Gottlob 337,

Dickens, Charles

428

Et in Arcadia

Diderot, Denis 32,

Differance School Digital

Technology

192-194

25

Diocletian

Diodes 184 Diogenes 321 Dionysus 216 Dioxins

497

141

240 and Punish

(by Michel Fou-

500

Discours de

la

methode

(by

Rene Des-

326

cartes)

Euclid

Discrete Mathematics

The Divine Comedy

(by

199 Dante

Alighieri)

422

407

Greco 374 Nino 87

Divine Rule

Electronic Music

463

Divorce

Electronic Sensitive Devices (ESDs)

Dix, Otto

Hafiz)

421

184

389

know 501

they

Aid)

it's

Christmas? (by Band

Doblin, Alfred

132

166

Edward 460 Ellington, Edward Kennedy "Duke" 496 Elgar,

432

Doctors Without Borders

155

Electrosmog 190 Elements 130, 132-133 Elevators

Dbbereiner, Johann

235

Doesburg, Theo van 388 Doge's Palace, Venice 401

Doha Development Round 267 Domestication 111, 114 Don Carlos (by Giuseppe Verdi) 456

Elvis Presley

416 259

Frankenstein (by Mary Shelley) Frankfurt School 341

Europa 53 European Economic Community (EEC)

233

Franklin, Aretha

498, 500

499

of Prussia

II

Free Association 358,

118-119

348 339

French Architecture 400, 403, 405.

408

484 335 Exoplanets 48-49

French Revolution 32-33. 214 Frescoes 371

Exothermic Reactions 134

Freud,

Exoticism

407

Sigmund 346-347, 358-360 148, 152

Friction

Expressionism 36, 365, 387,

389-391

Frieda n, Betty

Friedrich,

House Poe)426

Fall

of the

435

of Usher (by Edgar

255

492

Fugues 449 Functionalism 410 Fusion 44, 46, 173

432 409-410

Futurist Architecture

Futuristic Manifesto (by Filippo

Tom-

maso Marinetti)432

499

Fassbinder, Rainer Werner

Fathers

F.

Caspar David 382

Futurism 36, 386,

Water 409 Falstaff (by Giuseppe Verdi) 456 Fascism 216, 220-221 Falling

Fashion

499

Friedman. Milton

67 Eyck, Jan van 375 Extinction

The

427

32 361 Free Market Economy 254-255, 270271 Frederik

Existentialism

Allen

Electronic Stability Control (ESC)

DNA 95,143 Do

Anne 434 221

Frankel, Ernst

Friends

133

The Diwan (by

Frank,

445

Fahrenheit 415 (by Ray Bradbury) Fahrenheit 9/11 476

Electronegativty

212 500

93-94

Exercise 481,

153 399 El Cimmaron, 1970 (by Hans Werner Henze)463 El Escorial 403

220

Frank Zappa 500

Evolution 95, 102,

Castillo

28

Franco. General Francisco 36,

Euripides 22,

Einstein, Albert

El

265 Franciscan Order

Euridice (by Giulio Caccini)

Eclecticism

El

221

200

Eukaryotes

EBay 270

342-343

Fountain (by Marcel Duchamp) 387 Four Noble Truths 291-292

France 28, 31-33, 35-36, 214- 216, 221, 224, 229, 231- 234. 240, 255.

186

Etruscans 24 Etzioni,Amitai228

356

Eating Disorders

El

(by Nicolas Poussin)

Ethnic Cleansing 217,

Bernd 476 Eiffel Tower 408 Eiffel, Gustave 408 Eightfold Noble Path 291-292

cault)342 Disco

50

Earthquakes 74-75 Easter Island Moais 365 Easy Rider 475

Eichinger,

Direct Action

Discipline

Ethernet

Egypt 20-23, 38, 212, 217 Egyptian Architecture 395

I

Dior, Christian

44

Eco,

Marlene473 343

Dietrich,

Earth

Ego

377

Eagle Nebula

415

311

437 Movement 390 Trie Flying Dutchman (by Richard Wagner) 457 Flynn. Errol 473 Foerster, Heinz von 339 Fonda. Pete 475 Fontane. Theodor 428 Trie Flies (by

Ford,

Eschenbach, Wolfram von 419 Essai sur /'Architecture (by Abbot Laugier)

Dyck, Anthony van

436 321

Epic Theatre

396 Erhard. Ludwig255 Erin Brockovich 475 Eris 48 Ernst, Max 387, 389

461

Diamonds 77

Enzymes 124, 126

Erechtheion

Dutert, Charles

496

Fluxus

Epidaurus. Theater of

375 Durrenmatt, Friedrich 436 Dutch Architecture 403 Dvorak,

396

460

496

World War 36, Fission 151, 173 First

Five Pillars of Islam

Descartes,

(by Giuseppi Tartini)

Trie Firebird (by Igor Stranvinsky)

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (by David Hume) 328 Ensor, James 385

Devil's

Trill

401-405. 407-

FmdeSiecle430 Financial Ratios 279 Finland 224, 233, 259

Fitzgerald. Ella

Epicurus

Derrida, Jacques

333

Five Classics (by Confucius)

Dukkha 291 Duns Scotus, John 325

457

212-213

Johann Gottlieb 331 Fidelio (by Ludwig van Beethoven) 451 Film Noir474

Ennius, Quintus416

343 Rene 31, 326-328

Der Prophet (by Giacomo Meyerbeer)

Fnedan)499 284

Fichte.

408

Entasis

457

406

Fetishes

Feudalism 28,

England (See Great Britain) The Enlightenment 29. 32. 214. 222, 229. 243-245, 330-331. 341. 346. 348. 406

The Dual State (by Ernst Frankel) 221 Dualism 326-327 Duchamp, Marcel 387

ber)

Federal Style (architecture)

The Feminine Mystique (by Betty

English Architecture

Arthur Schnitzler)

and Michael

343

Engels, Friedrich 34.

Driving the Spirit Out of the Humanities

Der Freischutz

x LU Q

Mozart)

and Sons

475

(by Ivan Turgenev)

428

Eminem 503 Emotions 350 Empedocles 318

Fatwa 313 Faust (by Charles Gounod) 457 Faust (by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)

The Emperor's New Clothes (by Hans Christian Andersen) 427

Fauvism 386-387

426

Gabriel, Archangel

308

Gainsborough, Thomas 380 Galaxies

42-43

Machines 408 Rory500 Trie Gambler (by Fyodor Dostoevsky) 428 Gance. Abel 472 Galerie de Gallagher,

I INDEX

Gandhi 476

The Grapes of Wrath (by John Stein-

Ganesha 287 Garbo. Greta

beck)

472-473

The Gare Saint-Lazare Claude Monet) 384

Paris (by

409

Gauguin. Paul 385

411

General Agreement on

Tariffs

and Trade

Forum (GATT) 267 The General Theory of Employ inr terest and Money (by John Maynard Keynes) 254 Generators 170 Genetics 95

Genghis Khan 27 GenjV Monogatari

(by

Murasaki Shikibu)

421 Geometry 198-200. 202-203. 209 George. Stefan

Gravity

489. 496 The Great Depression 258. 262. 496 The Great Gatsby (by F. Scott Fitzgerald)

Gears 156 Gehry. Frank

410 43-45. 54. 153 Great Britain 35-36. 215. 221. 224. 226-228. 231-232. 245. 250. 255. 259. 262. 264. 268-269. 407-408. Graves. Michael

in

Gas Giants 53 Gaudf. Antoni

434

430

Geothermal Power 175 German Architecture 403. 405. 409 German Democratic Republic GDR

263. 266. 272. 489 Germinie Lacerteaux (by Edmond and Jules de Goncourt) 429 Gerschwin. George 496

Grosz. George

389

Group of Eight (G8) 258. 266 Grunge Rock 502 Gryphius. Andreas 423

264-269 Gluck. Christoph Willibald 453 Gobekli Tepe 394 God Save the Queen (by the Sex 500

155

Globalization 258.

Godel. Kurt

209

The Godfather 475 Goethe. Johann Wolfgang vo" 421.

424-426. 453-454 423 Goncourt. Edmond and Jules de 429 Gone With the Wind 473 Goodall.Jane 115 Goodman. Benny 497 Google 273 Gordimer. Nadine 439 Gorgias 318 Gorky. Maxim 435 Gospan 255 Gothic 371, 375 Gothic Architecture 401. 403. 407 Goldsmith. Oliver

Gdtz von Berlichingen (by Johann Wolfgang von Goethei 426

Fyodor Dostoevsky)

//

Principe (by Machiavelli)

//

ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (by Claudio

Giuseppe Verdi) 456 Homer) 22. 416

Trivatore (by

Iliad (by

408

325

447

Monteverdi) //

Illumination of Manuscripts

95

428

Gesu 404

370

The Imaginary Invalid (by Moliere) 423

David

Imaginary Numbers Imitation

201

349 35

Imperialism

Impressionism

410

209

384-386

In

the Line of Fire

In

the

476

Mood (by Glen

Miller)

497

Himmler, Heinrich

ncome Statement 279

409

Histories (by Tacitus) 417 A History of Scientific Thought

81 Jonathan Swift)

chel Serres)

ndia 20-21. 23. 35.

(by Mi-

342

cault)

Hit

Hitler.

209 99 Gyroscopic Effect 156 97.

Haba. Alois 463 Habeas Corpus Act 245 Habermas. Jurgen 341

421

Hagenau. Reinmar von 419 Hagia Sophia 398. 400 Hagley Hall

406

499 312-313 Halakha 300 Haley. Bill 498 Hair Hajj

A Hard Day's Night (by The Hardin. Garrett 271 Hardouin-Mansart. Jules Hardt. Michael 343

Goya 382

Hare Krishna 314

Grameen Bank 268 Grant. Cary 475

Harry Potter

(film)

Time

(by Britney

503

Beatles,

473-474 221

Adolf 37. 216.

Hobbes. Thomas 213, 242. 325 Hoffmann, E. T. A. 454. 457 Hofmannsthal. Hugo von 430-431

nformation Age 490-493 nformation Technology 273.

Hogarth. William

380 426 Holiday. Billie 496 Holly. Buddy 498 Holograms 149 Holy Roman Empire 27 Holy Roman Empire Architecture 400 The Holy Trinity (by Masaccio) 372 Holz. Amon 429 Homer 22. 416-417 Hopper. Dennis 475 Hopper. Edward 389

ngres. Jean Auguste

Holderlin, Friedrich

nquisition

nfrared Radiation

Horkheimer. Max 341 Hot Spots 69

Hound Dog (by Elvis Presley) 498 The House of Spirits (film) 476 The House of Spirits, (book by Isabel

405

J.

K. Rowling)

Human.

All

Too

Human

353

nternational Exposition

(by Friedrich Ni-

268 nternational

Space Station

nternational Style

422

(ISS)

163

409-410

nternet 38. 264. 270. 276. 489. 491.

494-495. 502-503 Backbones 187 Invasion of the Body Snatchers 474 onesco. Eugene 436 onic Bonds 133 ons 150 ran 217 nternet

raq 217. 232. 239.

503

240

Republic Army (IRA)

shmail

240

135

Mill (by Adolf

von

311

shtar Gate of Babylon

347. 357.

408

nternational Monetary Fund 266.

The Iron Rolling Menzel) 383 saac 311

334 Humanism 30-31. 325. Humboldt Library 410 Hume. David 328 Hungary 36. 233

Dominique 381

merest Rates 256-259

ron. Production of

etzsche)

Hunting 114. 117

ntelligence 119.

rish

Hubble. Edwin 42

411

55

304

reland 233.

HTML 188 Hubbard. L Ron 315

477

Harry Potter, (books by

Al-

lende)438 Houses of Parliament 407 Howl (by Allen Ginsberg) 498

499

34 148 nflation 255-256. 258-259 nfluenza 126 ndustrial Revolution nertia

Horace 417

405 Hall of Supreme Harmony 399 Hall. G.Stanley 346 Halley's Comet 54 Hamas 240 Hammurabi. Code of 242. 246 .Hamsun. Knut429 Handel. George Frideric 448 Hanseatic League 28 Haplorrhini 115 Hall of Mirrors

213

nduction 150. 170

ndus Valley Architecture 395

Hitchcock. Alfred

Guthrie. Francis

Gymnosperms

342

Me Baby One More

Spears)

38-39. 212. 217. 232. 239. 261-262. 264-267. 485 ndiana Jones 476 ndie Rock 502 ndividualism

The History of Society (by Michel Fou-

"n" Roses 501 Guru Granth Sahib 289 Gurus 288. 315 The Gutenberg Galaxy (by Marshall McLuhan) 342

439

In

442 221 Hinduism 282. 286-289. 314 Historicism 407

Guernica (by Pablo Picassot 388

Hafiz 310.

Godard. Jean-Luc 475

499-500 454

Hermeneutics 338, 341 De Herrera. Juan 403 Herzl. Theodor 299 Herzog. Werner 475 High-End Technology 180 Hilbert.

The Hadith 308 Pistols)

Hellenism 367. 396 Hemingway. Ernest 431-433

Idiot (by

II

Hildegard von Bingen

427 Guns

Global Positioning Syste^ GPS,

The

Hieronymus Bosch) 375

High-Tech Architecture

404 343

Gulliver's Travels (by

459

Id

Guattan. Felix

Gilgamesh, Epic of 414 Gin Lane (by William Hogart- 380 Ginsberg. Allen 437. 498 Girl With a Pearl Earringiby Jan Ver-

Glinka. Mikhail

234 359-360 Idealism 332 Iceland

Guarini. Guarino

Gulf Stream

Boarding School (by Laszlo Moholy-Nagy)387 Giza. Great Pyramid of 395 Glaciers 71 The G/eaners (by Francois Millet) 383

429

Ages 65

the Steppes of Central Asia (by Alexander Borodin) 459

Guimard. Hector

meen 379

Ice

421 427 Heinrich, Mann 431 Helix Nebula 45

Heredity

258

Never Smile Again (by Frank Sinatra)

Heine. Heinrich

Grimm. The Brothers 427

The

499

497

Heike Monogatari

Herachtus 318 Herculaneum 406.

(Satisfaction) (by

Rolling Stones)

Hensel. Fanny

409

115

Ibsen, Henrik

Greenspan. Alan 256 Griffith. D. W. 472 Gropius. Walter 388.

H.

Cant Get No

/

338

Heidegger. Martin 335.

Hell (by

T.

Hydrodynamics 159 Hypnosis 358-359

/'//

Hendrix. Jimi

Guggenheim Museum 411

Girls'

Huxley.

Hegel. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 39.

Greenhouse Effect 50. 84. 269 Greenpeace 235. 237. 266

108 Ghana 269 Ghazals421 The Gherkin 411 Gestation

Husserl.

159

Heeling

238 Edmund 338

Huntington. Samuel

331-332

434 The Grear Train Robbery 471 Great Wall isuperclusten 43 Great Wall of China 399 Greece 21-24. 27. 212. 215. 220. 234 Greek Architecture 395-396. 402. 406 Greek Theater 416-417 Greek Tragedy 416 Green Politics 231

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 256-

218 German/a (by Tacitus) 417 Germany 34. 36-37. 215-216. 220221. 224. 227-228. 231. 233 240. 245. 248. 255. 258-259. 261.

Hasidism 301 Hauptmann. Gerhart 429 Haydn. Joseph 450-451. 458 Hayek, Friederich A. 255 Healing 283. 285. 302 Heart Problems 121. 480 Heat Death 152 Heaven's Gate 476

507

395

slam 27-28. 38-39. 282-283. 299.

308-313 slamic Architecture

398

sotopes 151 srael 39. 232. 239. 260

X _J a

508

INDEX

Mean a Thing (by Duke 496 Italian Architecture 397. 402

The Kitchen Maid

Luther. Martin 305.

Klee, Paul 387,

233. 240 Iwan 398

342 409 Khmt, Gustav 385 Kluge. Alexander 475

Le Voyage dans la Lune 471 League of Nations 247 Leatherstocking (by James Fenimore Cooper) 426

Ma

296 Izanami 296

Kmart Group 277 Knossos Palace 395

Led Zeppelin 500 Ledoux. Claude-Nicolas 406 Leibniz. Gottfried Wilhelm 31, 204205. 326-327

It

Don't

Elling-

ton)

Italy

28-29, 34. 36, 220. 224. 228.

Izanagi

Chardin)

Kittler. Friedrich

Kohut. Heinz

Lenin

Jarry. Alfred

Jaspers. Karl

Krishna 287.

JavaScript

Kristeva. Julia

500

James, Henry 428 James. William 336 Jank. Christian

407

Japan 20. 28. 35. 37. 238. 240, 261, 265, 267, 269. 503

436 335 188

Jaws 476

496

The Jazz Singer 470. 473. 496

Thomas 406

Jefferson,

Jehovah (see Judaism) Jehovah's Witnesses 314 Jesus Christ 25. 298, 302-303. 306307,

311

Pope 307 500 Jones, Inigo 403 Joplinjanis 499-500 Joseph 311 Joyce,

II,

II.

Habsburg Emperor 32

340. 343

Let

Judging 351

Beheading Holofernes vaggio) 376

Judith

Jung, Carl G. 346, 358,

(by Cara-

361

The Jungle Book (by Rudyard Kipling)

433 434 51. 53

Jiinger, Ernst

Jupiter 47,

Jurassic Era (see Mesozoic)

Jurassic Park

All

Lewis. Jerry

325

269

Li

Chen 476 287 Kalila wa Dimna 421 Kami 296 Kandinsky. Wassily 387-388. 409 Kaige. Kali

Immanuel 32. 243. 330-331 Karma 286 Keaton, Buster 473 Kenya 224 Kant.

Kerouac, Jack 436,

498

Imre434

L Arrivee

d'un Train en Gare de La Cio-

de

447

Little

254

Lamentation Over Christ (by Andrea Mantegna) 375 The Lamentation Over Christ (by Giotto di Bondone) 371 The Lamentation Over Christ (by Tilman Riemenschneider) 371 The Landlord (by Harold Pinter) 436 Lang,

Fritz

473-474

498

The Last Supper

(by

Leonardo da

Vinci)

373 475

Last Year at Marienbad ATA

Latency Latin

233-234

436

498-499 401

(Jr.)

Rudyard 433 Kirchner. Ernst Ludwig 387 Kisch. Egon Erwin 433 The Kiss (by Gustav Khmt) 385

Richard

Trie Law of Peoples (by John Rawls) 242 Le Figaro 432 Le Grand Macabre (by Gyorgy Ligeti)

463 Le Misanthrope (by Moliere) 423 Le Moulin de la Galette (by Pierre-Auguste Renoir) 384 Le Vau. Louis 405

30 Magga 291 Magic 283-284. 292 Magellan, Ferdinand

(by

Wolfgang Amadeus

450

Field 61 Magnetism 133, 150-151, 157, 168169, 183 The Magnificent Seven 474 Magnus. Albertus 324 Magntte. Rene 389 Mahabharata 287. 415

Mahfouz, Naguib 439 Mahler. Gustav 460. 462

Norman 435

Maimonides, Moses 323

Malle, Louis

Borchert)

498

Lohengrin (by Richard Wagner) 457

Man

435

With a Movie

The Mandarins of Paris (by Simone de Beauvoir)

437

Mandeville, Bernhard

Passo)

432

Mann, Thomas 431. 434 Mannerism 374-375. 402

Manon

(by Jules Massenet) 457 Mantle 60. 68 Manufacture 176

Marcus Aurelius 321

503

Lord Chandos Letter (by Hugo von Hofmannsthal) 430 Trie Lord of the Rings All

213 214

LuXun433

in

Lully,

475-476

321

the Sky with

Beatles)

Diamonds

500

Jean-Baptiste

446

Lumiere Brothers 470-471 Lunar Eclipse 52 Lung Disease 121

415 Lutfallah Mosque 369 Lun-Yu.

431 Marilyn

Monroe

(by

Andy Warhol) 390

Marinetti. Filippo

Louis XIV, King 31.

Lucy

Marcuse. Herbert 341 The Mare (by Mendele Mocher Sforim)

Tomaso 432 Marker, Chris 476 Marley. Bob 500

150 Peter 473

Lorentz Force

Lucretius

328

Manet. Edouard 384

Mao Zedong 38. 219

Louis XVI. King

Camera 476

Mana 284 Mandalas293

409

Lopez. Jennifer

421

475

Lone Ranger 498

Loos, Adolf

Basra)

Manhattan Transfer (by John Dos

339

Lucas, George

402

giano) 374 Magazines 490-491

The

Lovejagten All

359

America (see South America)

Latvia

of Lonetal

Zones 80 LMVH Group 277 Local Area Networks (LANs) 181, 186 Locke. John 32. 229. 328

Trie

456 Madness and Civilization (by Michel Foucault) 342 Madonna 501 Madonna of the Long Neck (by Parmi-

Malta 233. 259 The Man Outside (by Wolfgang

Littoral

Lorre, in Paris

Laurentian Library

King's College Chapel

230

Lassalle, Ferdinand

(by Jurgen Haber-

Annie Rooney All The Little Mermaid (by Hans Christian Andersen) 427 The Little Organ Book (by Johann Sebastian Bach) 448

Little

409

Macroeconomics 255. 257. 259 Madame Butterfly (by Giacomo Puccini)

Makamat (by Al-Hariri of Malevich. Kasimir 388

388 43

Franz 455,

Logic

Language 119, 337, 340-341, 348 LaoTzu, 297 Larsen, Viggo 471 Las Meninas (by Diego Velazquez) 377 Lasers 149

360

364 458 Lithosphere 69-70 Lithuania 233-234

462

Last Tango

King Ubu (by Alfred Jarry) King, Billie Jean 500

Man

Lion

Mackintosh, Charles Rennie

Mailer,

The Linguistic Turn mas) 341 Liszt.

Shostakovich)

382

459 holy-Nagy)

233

Macbeth (by William Shakespeare) 422 Macedonia 23 Mach Speeds 161 Machiavelli. Niccolo 29. 325

Magnetic

Eugene

Light-Space Modulators (by Laszio MoLight-speed

Bed rich Smetana) 458

Vlast (by

Maastricht Treaty

Mozart)

Libuse(by Bed rich Smetana)459 Licht (by Karlheinz Stockhausen) 463 Lichtenstein. Roy 390 Liebig. Justus von 136 A Life for the Czar (by Mikhail Glinka)

La Traviata (by Giuseppe Verdi) 456 Lacan, Jacques 340. 342 Lady Macbeth of Minsk (by Dmitri

Khomeini, Ayatollah 217 Kierkegaard, Saren 335 The Killing Fields 476

377

Delacroix)

Libido 118. 125. 352.

La Dafne (by Jacopo Corsi) 445 La Mer (by Claude Debussy) 460 La Mettrie, Julien Offray de 329 La Nina 87 La Roche. Sophia von 429 La Serva Padrona (by Giovanni Battista

Lassie

King, Martin Luther

(by Julien Offray

428

Pergolesi)

Liberia

325

Luxemburg 233 Lynn, Vera 497

The Magic Flute

228-229 239

Liberty Leading the People (by

Monteverdi) 447 La Boheme (by Giacomo Puccini) 456 La Comedie Humaine (by Honorede Bal-

Kew Gardens Pagoda 407 Keynes, John Maynard 254-255 Khamseh (by Nizami) 369

KimJong-11217 Kind of Blue (by Miles Davis) 498 King Charles I Cby Anthony van Dyck)

498

421

Bai

Liberalism

Trie

431

424-425

The Beatles)

Kurosawa. Akira 474 Kyoto Protocol 85, 89,

Laissez Faire Kafka, Franz

(by

Leucippus 318 Leviathan (by Thomas Hobbes) 213.

Lagomorphs 110

Kabbalah 301

Be

It

288 KuKluxKlan(KKK)240 Kundera, Milan 438

zac)

Judaism 21, 28, 37, 298-302. 311 Judd, Donald 391

Kipling,

457 Lessing. Gotthold Ephraim

L'incoronazione di Poppea (by Claudio

James 432

Kertesz.

Leoninus442 Les Demoiselles a" Avignon (by Pablo Picasso) 388 Les Huguenots (by Giacomo Meyerbeer)

289

470 L'Homme Machine la Mettrie) 329

John. Elton

Joseph

218. 230. 333 Leonardo da Vinci 29. 373. 375. 402

tat

John Paul

36

Lenin, (Vladimir llyich Ulyanov) 216.

Kshatriya

Jazz 467.

x Q

361

Kokoschka. Oskar 387 Koolhaas, Rem 411 Koonirg, Willem de 390 Korea 37 Korea. North 217. 219. 239. 255 Korn 502 Kosher 301 Kosovo 232

Jackson, Michael Jainism 21, 289

LU

(by Jean-Baptiste S.

380

(by

The

Marquez. Gabriel Garcia 438 Marriage 288. 313 The Marriage of Figaro (by Pierre Beaumarchais) 425 The Marriage of Figaro (by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) 450. 453 Marriage of the Virgin (by Raphael) 375

Mars

47.

50-51. 55

Martin. Ricky Marvell,

503

Andrew 423

Marx. Karl (Marxism) 34. 218-219.

230. 333. 341. 343 Mary, (mother of Jesus)

311

J INDEX

Mascagni. Pietro 456 Maslow. Abraham 350 ''

-51

r

.

Miller.

Glen 497 Henry 437

Millet.

Francois

Miller.

--'

The Naked and the Dead Mailer)

Milosevic. Slobodan 217.

Madonna) 501 333 Mathematics 318

Minimalism 391. 463 a von Barnhelm (by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing) 425

|

Material

Girl (by

Materialism 329.

Matisse. Henri 365.

Maupassant. Guy de 429

Mausoleum 399 Maya 286 MBAs 273

of Qin Shi

Huang

Di

475 House of 30 Medicine Sans Frontiere 235

289-293

Mona

423

Mendelssohn Bartholdy.

Felix

(by Gottfried

Wilhelm Leib-

Piet

Monet. Claude Mongolia 27

388 384

Mercalli Intensity Scale

Monotremes 109 Marsupials 109 Monroe Doctrine 35 Monroe. Marilyn 475 Mont Sainte-Victoire (by Paui Cezanne)

Mercury 48. 50 Mesa Verde 399 Mesopotamia 20-21. 212. 395 Mesozoic Era 67. 69 Messiaen. Olivier 463 Mess/ah (by George Friedrich Ha

386 Montesquieu. Baron Charles de Secon-

Metallic

Monticello

Bonds 133

Metallica 501 Metamorphoses (by Ovid) 417 Metamorphosis 103 The Metamorphosis (by Franz *

-

Meteorites 51

Meteors 54

Methane Hydrate 77 Methodism 305. 307 Metropolis 474 The Metropolis and Mental Life GeorgSimmel) 336 Metternich. Prince von 33 Mexico 267 Meyer. Lothar 132 Meyerbeer, Giacomc Michelangelo 29. 372-373. 376. 402 Microchips 138 Microsoft 188. 271. 273 Mid-Atlantic Ridge 69 Middle East 20-23. 27-28. 30. 35. 38 Middle East 260 Mid-Oceanic Ridge 68. 72. 83

A Midsummer Night's Dream (by William Shakespeare 422 Mies Van der Rohe. Ludwig 409-410 Mignon (by Ambroise Thomas) 457 Mihrab398 Milgram Experiment 351

Way Galaxy

43.

47-48

John Stuart 229

Millau Viaduct

411

Millennium Bug 180 Millennium Development Goals (MDG)

268 Miller.

Arthur

436

Ellington)

496

37. 216.

(by

Gauguin) 385 Amadeus 450-451.

(by Paul

MTV 501 Mudras 293 27.

308-313 255

123 War and Democracy

in

the

Age of the Empire iby Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt) 343 Munch. Edvard 385 Musica enchiriadis 442 Musicals

463

Muslims (see Islam)

Georges de

la

Orff. Carl

Tour)

391 83. 148. 153. 163.

Sir Isaac

Ethics (by Aristotle)

330

471

(by Albert

Camus)

136

Nixon. President Richard

Pachyderms 112

455 500 Pagoda 399. 407 Painting Number 7A (by Jackson lack) 390 Paganini. Niccolo

Utamaro Kitagawa)

Pakistan 38. 220. 232.

Nominalism 244 Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) 265. 268 North American Architecture 399 North American Free Trade Area

Palazzi

Nouveau Realisme 387. 390

Nuremberg Trials 37 The Nursery (by Modest Mussorgsky)

459 Nutrition

482-483. 487

Pol-

368

NMR Spectrometer 143

N.W.A. 501

456

Ozone Layer 84-85

Pair of Lovers (by

500

Number Theory 198-199 Numerical Analysis 199

Verdi)

Amos 439

Page. Jimmy

Mythos 414

Nabucco (by Giuseppe NADPH 101

and Development (OECD) 268 Organon (by Aristotle) 339 Orion Nebula 44 Osama Bin Laden 241 Osho 315 Otello (by Giuseppe Verdi) 456 Ottoman Architecture 398 Ottoman Empire 27 Ovid 417 Oxfam 266

Nirodha 291 Nirvana (band) 502 Nirvana (Buddhist ideal) 290. 292,

North Pole 47

335

443

Organization for Economic Cooperation

Oz.

(NAFTA) 267

220 Mussorgsky. Modest 459 Mussolini. Benito 36.

The Myth of Sisyphus

(by

66

Orfeo ed Euridice (by Christoph WillibaldGluck)453

Nietzsche. Friedrich 34. 334. 338 The Night (by Max Beckmann) 387 The Night Watch (by Rembrandt) 378 Nighthawks (by Edward Hopper) 389 The Ninth Symphony (see Ode to Joy)

Nitrates

Multiple Sclerosis

342

Orfeo (by Claudio Monteverdi) 447

278

294

Muller-Arnack, Alfred Multitude:

Jean-Jacques

320

453. 458

Muhammad

(by

Nibelung Tradition 418

436

the Life of Ivan Denisovitsch

The Order of Things (by Michel Fou-

204-205. 327

Mother Courage and her Children

Mozart, Wolfgang

19

Newspapers 490-491

Nielsen. Asta

Motherhood

394

389

Nicolai. Friedrich

in

Ordovician Era

Barnett

Mosques 398

428

435 One Hundred Years of Solitude (by Gabriel Garcia Marquez) 438 One-Point Perspective 375 One-Way Street (by Walter Benjamin) 336 Ontology 319. 323 OPEC 260 Orbit 50-51 Orbitals 131

406

York Stock Exchange

Nichomachean

122 271

(by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn)

cault)

The New Heloise Rousseau) 425

Newton.

Jacob van Ruisdael)

Olympia (by Edouard Manet) 384 On the Road (by Jack Kerouac) 437

One Day

46

Moore. Charles 410 Morisot. Berthe 384 iVIormonism 305. 314 Morrison. Jim 500 Mosaics 370 Moses 298. 311

Bertolt Brecht)

155

220. 489

343

Objectivity

260

Mill (by

Oliver Twist (by Charles Dickens)

437

Neutron Stars 45

377 Newman.

(Crude) 76.

Oligopolies

(by Jean-Paul Satre)

The Newborn

406

Mood Indigo (by Duke Moon (Earth's) 81 Moons 50-53

431

Milky

447

Oil

Olfactory Cells

Neoplatonism 321. 323-324 Neptune 48. 51. 53 Nervous Disorders 480 Netherlands 224. 233. 259 Neurons 123 Neuroses 360-361

New New

dat32. 222 Monteverdi. Claudio

448

Oe/7-de-Boeuf 405

The Old

Naumburg Cathedral 371

Neutrinos

Odoacer 26 Odyssey (by Homer) 22. 416 Oedipus Complex 359

379

Neolithic Buildings

Monopolies 271

75

221

Neolithic Revolution

Monism 327

462 Mendelssohn. Moses 330 Menzel. Adolf von 383

Beethoven) 451

428

Negri. Tonio

(poem by Friederich von and symphony by Ludwig van

Ohm 150

Neoclassicism 381. Neo-Gothic 407

Monasticism 294

454 458

Naturalism

324-325

to Joy.

Schiller

NATO 232, 234 Natural Gas 76

Nazism

Mondnan.

Ode

33-34

National Socialism (See Nazism)

Nationalism 217,

of

Octavian (see Augustus)

424

Navigation Systems

Lisa (by Leonardo da Vinci)

Monadology niz) 327

Henry 426

Lessing) 330.

381

David)

Ockham. William

Nash. John 407 Nasser. Gamal Abdel 38 Nathan the Wise (by Gotthold Ephraim

Nausea

373

Memory (in materials) 144 Memory 349 Mendeleyev. Dimitri 132

Mill.

sen, by Moliere)423

Moliere

Megabyte 183 Melies. Georges 471 Melting 152 Melville.

(by Palestrina)

502

Obedience 351 Oceans 64. 80-81

NASA 180

163 Mixed Economy 254-255. 270 Mixtures 130 Mnemonics 349 Moby Dick (by Herman Melville) 426 Modernist Architecture 410 Moksha 286

Streets

Meditation

Nanomaterials 145 Napoleon 472 Napoleon Bonaparte Naruda. Pablo 438

Missiles

Medici,

(by William Burroughs)

Nam June Paik 391 The Name of the Rose 476

423

398

Minerals 62-63. 77

368.

McLuhan. Marshall 342

Mean

Minaret

Minnesang419 Missa Papae Marcelli 444

386

477

Matrix

Milton. John

247

Oasis

Oath of the Horatii (by Jacques-Louis

Naked Lunch 437

383

The Master and the Margarita chail Bulgakow) 438 Master Builder {by Henrik Ibsen 429 Match (by Maurico Kagel) 463

Norman

(by

435

509

Palazzo

239

402 Poli

404 394 69 239-240

Paleolithic Buildings

Paleozoic Era 65-66. Palestine 23. 39.

Palestrina. Giovanni Pierluigi

da 444

Canon 294 Palladianism 402-403. 406 Pali

Palladio.

Andrea

402-403

Pamela (by Samuel Richardson) 425 Pamuk. Orhan 439 Panchatantra 421 Panel Paintings 371

Pangaea 66

X LU Q

510

INDEX

Pantheon 400 Papacy 304

The Pilgrimage Watteau) 380

Paradise Lost (by John Milton) Paraguay 216 Parenting 354 Paris Metro 409

423

Pink Floyd

Shonagon) 421

Pinter.

500

Harold

220 436-437

495

Parmenides 318 Parmlglano 374

Pissaro. Camille

384

160-162 PKK 240 Planet cf the Apes 474

278

Planetry Nebula

Planets

45

48-49

Plasma Screens 193

Passat Winds 87 Passos, John Dos 432

Plateresque

403

319-321. 338. 346 Pneumonia 121 Plato 22, 48.

92 Pathe, Charles 471 Pathogens 126 Pasteur, Louis

Poe, Edgar Allen

Poetry

and Experience

Dil-

they)

349 408

Political

37 Sanders 336, 339 Pelagic Zones 80 Pelleas et Melisande (by Claude De-

Politics (in philosophy)

Pearl Harbor

Peirce, Charles

461

Peloponnesian War 23 Pennies from Heaven (by Bing Crosby)

497 Pensions 263 Pentecostal Church 314 Pepsi 271

419

Percival fby Chretien de Troyes)

255

442 152

Jason 390 Polycarbonate 137

398 of Memory (by

The Persistence

Salva-

389 304

Petrarch, (Francesco Petrarca)

Petrushka (by Igor Stranvinsky) (by Plato)

319

The Robbers

Quo Vadis 471 Quran 308. 310-313. 421. 464

Robert Andrews and His Wife (by Thomas Gainsborough) 380 Robert le Diable (by Giacomo Meyer-

fby

341

Postmodernism 391, 437

379

Prayer

282

Rauschenberg. Robert 390 The Raven fby Edgar Allen Poe) 426 Raves 501 Rawls, John 242, 341 Reagan, President Ronald 255 Realism 383, 388, 390, 428 Reclining Girl fby Frangois Boucher)

380 87

and Prejudice

(by

Jane Austen)

429 Soup Theory 64-65, 92 501

Prince (popstar)

Mathematica

459

(by Alfred North

388 Pickford, Pier

Mary 471, 473

Man

496 360 Prokaryotes 93-94 Proof 208

Regression

Projection

Reincarnation 286, Relativity,

404 485

Pilgrimage 288.

Protagoras 318 Protectionism 261, Protestantism 305

265

431

361

359 Puccini, Giacomo 456 Puja 288. 293 Puberty 352.

312

Pilgrimage Church of Wies 400,

405

(by

Stones 499 Roman Arches 397 Roman Architecture 397. 402 Romanesque 370-371 Romanesque Architecture 400-401 Romania 217, 233 Romanticism 33, 382. 389. 426-427 Rome 24-26, 212. 245 Romeo and Juliet (by William Shakespeare) 422 Rolling

Rome—Open

City 474 Romulus Augustus 26 A Room of One's Own (by Virginia Woolf)

Rossini, Gioacchino

255

456-457

Rousseau. Jean-Jacques 32. 214. 329.

331.425-426 J. K. 439

Rowling,

Royal Pavilion

407

Rubens, Peter Paul 377-379

Ruminants 111

Run-DMC501

149

Prohibition

498

Rosh Hashanah 301 Rosselini. Roberto 474

Don Redman) 497

Refraction

410

Roosevelt, Franklin D.

149

Probes 55

Psychoanalysis 340-341, 347, 358.

Pilasters

fby

384

429

Red Army Faction 240 Red Brigade 240 Red Cross 235 Red Dwarf 44 Red Giant 44-45 Redman, Don 497 Redshift42 Reefer

420 207

Proust, Marcel

401

Pilates

Whitehead) 339

323 386-

Haley

Rodschenko. Aleksander 388

Recycling 137,176, 179

Pre-Cambrian Period 65, 93

Proslogion (by Anselm of Canterbury)

Picasso, Pablo 365, 377, 379,

Bill

and the Comets) 498 Rocks 62-63 Rocky 476 Rococo 369, 380-382, 405-406

Over Beethoven fby Chuck Berry)

410

Reformation 29, 31

352

Rocketry 55 Rockin' Around the Clock (by

Rodin, Auguste

Probability

Renzo 410. 411

Rocha. Glauber 475 Rock 'n' Roll 467. 498-499

415

The Philosophy of Money fby Georg Sim-

Piano.

179

Roll

Lady

287.

Reflection

Piaget, Jean

214 425

(by Daniel Defoe)

Robocop 476 Robotics 177

88

Printing Press

201

457

Robinson Crusoe

42-44

Philosophical Investigations (by Ludwig Wittgenstein) 337

Pi

beer)

160-162

Principia

Phobias 356, 357 Photons 149 Photosphere 46 Photosynthesis 44. 97, 100-101

Schiller)

Robespierre. Maximilien de 32.

Radio 488-489. 492

Ramayana

Prince Igor fby Alexander Borodin)

mel)336

von

427

Center 410 Rabula Gospel Illustrations 370 Racine, Jean 425

Radioactivity 151, 173.

(by Friednch

Roll

Primordial

Macedonia 23

408

Queen's House in Greenwich 403 Qume, Willard339

Rogers, Richard

Phases (Oral, Anal. Genital) 359 Phenomenology 319, 332 Phenomenology of the Spirit fby Hegel) of

460-461

500 366

Bust

Rammstein 502 The Ramones 500 Rap 501 Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus Peter Paul Rubens) 377 Raphael Sanzio 373 Rashomon 474 Rastafari 314

Pride

II.

Nefertiti.

Rambo 476

Precipitation

332

River Severn Bridge

(rock band)

Pdppelmann, Mattaus 405 Porter. Edwin S. 471

Phagocytosis 126

Philip

Queen Queen

Rama 287 Ramadan 312

Pragmatism 336

422 460

The Ring Cycle (by Richard Wagner) 457 The Rite of Spring (by Igor Stravinsky)

383

Poussin, Nicholas 377,

Petersen, Wolfgang 476

499

Rainforests

Postmodernist Architecture 410 Post-Structuralism 340, 343

The Pest fby Albert Camus) 437

456

415 The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (by Samuel Taylor Coleridge) 427

406 Pop Art 387, 390-391 Pop Music 503 Pope, Alexander 423 Pompeii, City of

Poster for the Choral Singer fby Aristide Bruant) 385

Persian Architecture

457

Rig-Veda

Raging Bull 475 Rain, Steam, and Speed— The Great Western Railway (by J. W. M. Turner)

99

Porty, Richard

Persia 23, 27

Phaedo

Pollination

Portrait of a

132

Perpetual Motion

Peter, Saint

320

Politics (by Aristotle)

Gerhard 391

Rigoletto (by Giuseppe Verdi)

Radiometric Dating 60

Henry James) 428 Portrait of Giovanni AmolHni and His Wife (by Jan van Eyck) 375 Portugal 30, 220, 233 Portuguese Architecture 405

447

Permian Era 66 Permoser, Balthasar405

Dali)

320, 322, 325,

338-341

Portland Building

Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista

Perotinus

242

Pollock,

Periodic Table

Richter,

Quarrelling Peasants in a Tavern fby Jan Steen) 379

Radiation (cosmic)

Liberalism (by John Rawls)

Paxton. Joseph

245

Rienzi (by Richard Wagner)

R. R. Donelly

Wilhelm

338 Poland 233

381

dor

425

(by

265

Richardson. Samuel Richter Scale 75

426

Poetics (by Aristotle) 417.

Pauline Borghese (by Antonio Canova)

Perestroika

Ricardo. David

Quant. Mary

403

Place de Voages

419

bussy)

Rewarding 347. 349

45

Pitch

Wagner) 457

The Partridge Family 500 Parzival (by Wolfram von Eschebach)

Pavlov, Ivan

Pulp Fiction 477

Punishment 349 Punk 500 Purcell. Henry 447 Pure Mathematics 209 Pyramids 395 Pythagoras 198. 200. 318

Pinochet, Augusto

Parthenon 396

Q

(by Sei

Piracy

Partnership

Cythera (by Antoine

Pulsar

Parliament 215

Parsifal (by Richard

x

Book

Pillow

to

Rusalka (by Alexander Dargomyzhsky)

360

291-292

459 Rusalka (by Antonin Dvo ak) 459

Theory of 153

439

Rembrandt 378-379 Renaissance 29- 31, 371-376, 386

Ruslan and Lyudmila (by Mikhail Glinka)

Renaissance Architecture 402-405 Renoir. Jean 472. 473

Russell. Bertrand

Renoir, Pierre-Auguste

384

Repression (psychological) Resident Evil 477 Resistance, Law of

360-361

459 339

Russia 36. 217. 224. 230. 232. Rutherford. Ernest 131-132

Rwanda

217.

260

239

150

Respect fby Aretha Franklin) 499 Resurrection

Rushdie. Salman

303

The Resurrection fby

El

Revolution Architecture

Greco) 374

406

Sachs. Hans 443 Sade. Marquis de

Sadko

459

329

(by Nicolai Rimski-Korsakow)

INDEX

Saint-Saens, Camille

455

Shaft 475 Shah Namah (Book

Salat312 Salinity

80

Salome

(by Richard Strauss)

Salon Music Salvi,

460

454

Fir-

dausi)421 Shakespeare. William 422. 425

Samatha 293 Samsara 286, 291-292 Samudaya 291 San Vitale400 Sangha 292 Santa Maria del Flore 402 Santa Maria Novella 402

Mosque 398

Sheik Loftallah

Special Economic Zones

423

Sarkozy. French Prime Minister Nicolas

224

475-476 326-327 Spontini. Gaspare 457 Spores 98 Spielberg. Steven

Spinoza. Baruch de

296 286-287

Shinto Shiva

261

The Spice Girls 503 Spiderman 477

Sherman. Cindy 391 TheShi'a309. 312 Shntes(see the Shi'a)

St. Paul's

Saturday Night Film Saturn 53 Saudi Arabia 241 Saul, Israelite King 298 Saussure, Ferdinand de 340

Sikhism 289

die)

439

Satellite

Shuttle

338-339 500

Scandinavia 223, 255. 263

463 474

J.

Schelling. Friedrich

331

Schiller, Friedrich

Schizophrenia

von

338

458

Schumann, Clara (nee Wieck) 455. 458 Schumann, Robert 455. 458 Schwarzenegger, Arnold 476 Sch witters. Kurt 387 Science of Logic (by Hegel) 332 Science-Fiction 474 Scientology 315 Scorsese. Martin 475 Searle, John Rogers 337 The Second Sex (by Simone de Beauvoir) 437 Second World War 37-38. 55 Sedimentation 63 Seghers. Anna 435 Sei Shonagon 421 Seleucus 23 Self-Portrait With Bandaged Ear fby Vincent van Gogh) 385 Bowler Hat (by Paul

Cezanne) 386 Self-Portrait With His

Pug

(by William

380

Self-Portrait (by Francisco Goya)

Semiconductors 138

342 384

Seurat. Georges

The Seven Samurai 474 Severini, Gino 386

408 Sewage system 395 Sex Pistols 500 Severn, River

Sex, Lives,

and Videotape 477

Sexual Desire (see Libido) Sexuality 352,

Sforim,

372

382

359-360

Mendele Mocher 431

Tacitus

501

Stars

Skandhas291

Stealth Technology

Skinner Box Experiment 347

Steel

F.

349

347.

Steen, Jan Stella,

Sleep 486 The Sleep of Reason Brings Forth Monsters (by Francisco Goya) 382

379

Stern. Sir Nicholas

Still Life

Taoism 21, 297, 315, 322 Tartini, Giuseppe 449

With Violin (by Georges Braque)

Tartuffe (by Moliere)

386

Tatlin,

321

Stoicism

233-234

Stonehenge 394 Straight Outta

Social Contract (by Jean-Jacques Rous-

Strauss. Richard

seau) 331 Social Market Economy 255, Socialism 218, 230

Stravinsky, Igor

Stress

334

Stuart,

115

486

48-49. 55 Sole Proprietorship 278

298 Aleksandr 435 King

Somalia 239 Sonatas 451 Song of Roland 418

340 James 406

(by

Modest

Mussorgsky) 459

Duke

Ellington)

496 Sophocles 22. 416 Sorokin. Vladmir 438 The Sorrows of Young Werther (by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) 425-426 Soul Music 498 South Africa 265 South America 30. 35-36. 38-39 South American Architecture 395. 399.

The Terminator 476

Submarines 158 Sudra 288

Amata 394 Army (see Mausoleum Shi Huang Di) Testament (by Lenin) 218

Sufism 311, 315

Textile

Ahmet Mosque 398 Summa Theologica (by Thomas Aquinas) 324 Summer, Donna 500 Summertime (by George Gerschwin) Sultan

(by

216

(by Alexander Dargo-

The Student of Prague All Stupa 399 Sturges. John 474 Subduction 69-70

46

Sophism 318-319 Sophisticated Lady

501

Structuralism

52

Solar System

405

(by N.W.A.)

460 460

The Stone Guest myzhsky) 459

Soderbergh. Steven 477 Soft Willow Whispers 465

Israelite

Compton

Stroessner, General Alfred

Soda Ocean 64

295 259-261 Taxi Driver 475 Taylor, Elizabeth 499 Taylor, F. W. 272, 355 Techno Music 501-502 Tectonics 68-71 Telescope 48 Television 489, 492-493, 500 The Tempest (by Giorgione) 373 Tempietto San Pietro 402 Temple, Shirley 497 Temples 396 Ten Commandments 243, 246 Tenno 296 Taxes 254,

The Stranger (by Albert Camus) 437 Strauss. Claude Levi 340

Strepsirrhini

423

Wladimir388

Tattvas

Smetana, Bed rich 458, 459 Smith, Adam 255. 270 A Social Celebrity 497

Solomon.

269

With Oysters (by Pieter Claesz)

233-234, 259

263

496

241 Tannhauser (by Richard Wagner) 457 Tantrism 292, 295, 315 Tao Te Ching 297

379 391

Slovenia

Solar Flares

Take a Train (by Duke Ellington)

Frank

Still Life

433 485 Taipei 101 (building) 411 Taj Mahal 398 Tai Chi

Taliban

Slovakia

Solar Eclipse 46,

161

144

Skladanowsky Brothers 470 Skyscrapers 408, 410 Slavic Dances (by Antonin Dvorak) 459

Socrates 319,

385

43-44 206

Statistics

417

Tagore, Rabindranath

Starry Night (by Vincent van Gogh)

384

(by Hector Ber-

Tableau No. IV (by Piet Mondrian) 388

501

Star Wars 476,

Songs and Dances of Death

340

Semprun, Jorge 434 Sensualism 328 Serres, Michel

Star Trek

Symphonie Fantastique

351

Star Clusters 47

497

Sydney Opera House 410 Symbolism 292 lioz)

476 452

Skalds 418

Solzhenitsyn,

Self-Portrait (by Albrecht Durer)

Semiotics

Stanford Prison Experiment

Skinner. B.

Schonberg. Arnold 460-463 Schopenhauer. Arthur 334. 335

Hogarth)

melshausen) 423 The Simpsons 503

Sisley. Alfred

Schloss Neuschwanstein 407 Schnitzler, Arthur 430

Self-Portrait With

Stamitz, Johann

Nancy 499 Sinus 47

331

Schleiermacher, Friedrich 331.

Schubert, Franz

Stallone. Sylvester

Simplicius Simplicissimus (by Grim-

Sinatra,

426-427

Cathedral

Simmel. Georg336

Sinatra. Frank

356

Schlegel. Friedrich

66

Silurian Era

Sawm 312

Schaffner, Franklin

55

de 474 Bacchus (by Caravaggio) 376 Siddhartha Gautama (see Buddha) Siegel, Don 474

55

Schaeffer, Pierre

St. Ivo della

Shunyata 295

266

458 Symphony of a Thousand (Eighth Symphony) (by Gustav Mahler) 460 The Symposium (by Plato) 319 Synagogues 300 Syon House 406 Syria 23

Sick

The Satanic Verses (by Salman Rush-

462

(by Arnold

Schonberg) 462

405 St. Peter's Square 403-404 St. Sernin 400 The Stage Door Canteen 497 Stalin, Joseph 37, 217-219, 230

Sica. Vittono

Shostakovich. Dmitri

388-390

SWOT Analysis 276

Satre, Jean-Paul 335.

Jean Paul 437

Surrealism

A Survivor from Warsaw

Switzerland

Sapienza Church 404 St. Matthew Passion (by Johann Sebastian Bach) 448 St. Pancras Station 408

Sartre,

Supremes 499 Surface Mounted Devices (SMDs) 184

Susanna and the Elders (by Artemisia Gentileschi) 376 Swanson, Gloria 473 Swashplates 162 Sweden 227, 231, 259, 263 Swift, Jonathan 243 Swing 497

503

Spears. Britney

Mary 427

Sheridan, R. B.

500

Travel

Space-Time 153 Spain 30, 36, 217, 220, 233-234. 240 Spanish Architecture 398, 403, 405 Spanish Colonial Architecture 405

The Shana 39. 246. 313 Shelley.

Supersonic Speeds 161 Supply and Demand 270

Soviet Union (See USSR)

Space

Shakira 503 Shakti 287

Nicolo404

409

Soviet Architecture of Kings) (by

496 The Sun 44, 46

Sunnah 246, 308 Sunnis 309, 312-313 Sunset Boulevard 472 Sunspots46 Supercluster 43 Superconductors 171 Superego 359 Supernova 45

511

Terra

Terracotta

of Qin

Workers (by Alexander Deineka)

389 Thales 22, 318 Thatcher, Prime Minister Margaret Theater of the Absurd 436 Theaters 396 Theatre d'Anatomie

255

406

Theocracy 217 Theodosius 25 Theory of Communicative Action (by Jurgen Habernas) 341 A Theory of Human Motivation (by Abraham Maslow) 350 A Theory of Justice (by John Rawls) 242,

341 Thermoplastics 137

X LU Q

512

INDEX

These Boots Were Made for Walking Nancy Sinatra) 499 The Third of May 1808 (by Francisco Goya) 382

Twiggy Fried-

Tintoretto (Jacopo

Bob

Comin) 374

384 403

(by

John

229

Ulm Cathedral 407

Virgil

55 432

The Unbearable Lightness of Being (by Milan Kundera)438

The Torah 298, 300, 302, 310-311 Torquato Tasso (by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) 426 Tosca (by Giacomo Puccini) 456 Totalitarianism 216, 220-221 Totem Poles 365 Tourists II (by Duane Hanson) 390 Tower of Babel 395 Toy Story

336

Commons

(by Gar-

184 Trauma 356, 360 A Treatise Concerning

Human Knowledge

(by

36

Heures du Due de Berry

the Brothers Limburg) Trial (by

(by

370-371

404

Franz Kafka)

Triassic Era 65, Trinity

Bishop George

431

67

University of Virginia

406

334 1989

(by Cindy

391

Sherman) 391

Upanayana 288 Uranus 53 Uruguay Round 267

USSR 255, 260 USSR 37, 214, 218, 221, 234, 239, 503 Uthman, Caliph 309-310 Utopia (by Thomas Moore) 423 Utzon, J0m 410

306

und Isolde (by Richard Wagner) 461 Tristan (by Thomas d'Angleterre) 419 Triumph of the Will 473 Triumphal Arch 397 Trompe-l'Oeil 405 Tropic of Cancer (by Henry Miller) 437 Tropics 86 Trotsky, Leon 333 Troubadours 419 Truffaut, Francois 475 Tsunami 75 Turandot (by Giacomo Puccini) 456

Vaishya

Turbofans 161

Venus 47-48. 50, 53 Venus of Willendorf 364

Tristan

457,

Turgenev, Ivan

428

288

Leonardo da

Vinci)

402

Antonio

449

Volcanoes 62-63, 70,

473

150

Vanvitelli, Luigi

32,

266, 267 World Wide

Wrap

Walk This Way (by Run-DMC) 501 Walter, Johann 444

228

The Wanderer Above a Sea of Fog (by Caspar David Friedrich) 382 War and Peace (by Leo Tolstoy) 428 War Requiem (by Benjamin Britten) 462 Warhol, Andy 390

Lynn)

The Wealth of Nations (by

Adam

Vaughan-Williams, Ralph

397

The Vedas 286-287 Vegetarianism 483 Velazquez, Diego 377 Venezuela 220, 260 Venturi, Robert 410

460

480-481

Web 38,187

Project for

Christo

German Reichstag (by

and Jeanne-Claude) 390

Wren, Sir Christopher 405 Wright Brothers 160 Wright, Frank Lloyd 409 Writing rida)

and Difference

(by

Jacques Der-

343

Wundt, Wilhelm M. 346 Wuthering Heights (by Emily Bronte)

X-ray 46, 55,149,

497 Smith)

255 Weber, Carl Maria von 457 Weber, Ernst H. 346 Weber, Max 272 Wedding at Cana (by Paolo Veronese)

151

Y.M.C.A (by The Village People) 500 Yaw 160-162 Yimou, Zhang 476 Yin and Yang 297

Yoga 288. 485

Yom Kippur 301 Yugoslavia 217, 238 Yunus, Mohammed 268

453 477

476

Welfare State

Vau, Louis Ie405

Health Organization

Trade Center Attacks 39, 503 Trade Organization (WTO) 264,

429

Warsaw Pact 234 Water Power 175 Wave Mechanics 131 Wayne, John 475 We'll Meet Again (by Vera

Weir, Peter

Vatican State 217

Bank 258, 266, 268 Economic Forum 266

Wagner, Richard 453, 457-458, 461 Waiting for Godot (by Samuel Beckett)

Weinstein, Bob and Harvey

404

335

Von Trier, Lars 477 Voodoo 314 Voyager 55

436

429

Woolworth Building 407 Wordsworth, William 427 The World as Will and Representation, World World World World World

Weill, Kurt

Van Gogh, Vincent 385

Wood, Grant 389 Woods, Tiger 502 Woodstock 499 Woolf, Virginia

443 72-73, 82, 89

Vogelweide, Walther von der 419,

373

Valentino, Rudolph

Vault

Joan Miro) 389 (by

Walzer, Michael

Untitled,

the Principles of

Man

232-233, 239,

Untitled (by Donald Judd)

328

Treaty of Versailles

The

(by

268-269

etzsche)

Transistors

Fountain

Space

Unpicture (by Kurt Schwitters) 387 Untimely Meditations (by Friedrich Ni-

Column, 367 Transcedence 282

Trevi

in

499

271

II

329-330

35-39. 214-215, 221, 223-225, 227-234, 239, 248-249, 255, 258-269, 272273, 276, 487, 489, 493-494, 496-

Trajan's

Tres Riches

111-112

United States of America 32,

327 Trade 257-258, 261-268, 275 Trade Unions 262, 266 The Tragedy of the

247,

Woman (by Willem de Kooning) 390 Women and Bird in the Moonlight (by

Voltaire, (Frangois-Marie Arouet)

United Nations 37, 222,

ruch de Spinoza)

Berkeley)

Voltage

Umberto Boccioni) 386 410

Tractatus theologico-politicus (by Ba-

Hardin)

Unemployment 255, 256, 258-259,

Unique Forms of Continuity

wig Wittgenstein) 337

rett

Vivaldi,

Ungulates 108,

Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (by Lud-

406

182

402

Uncle Tom's Cabin (by Harriet Beecher Stowe) 428 Undine, (E. T. A. Hoffmann) 457

Unite d'Habitation

Traces (by Ernst Bloch)

IX. Duke of Aquitaine 419, 443 Wind Power 175 Wittgenstein. Ludwig337 Wolf, Konrad 474

William

188

Vitruvian

499

339

The Wilton Diptych, 371

Vishnu 287 Vitamins 136

Vitruvius

262

477

Viruses

Woolf?

Virginia

445

Willaert

417-418

Virtual Reality

Umar, Caliph

Topology 199

493

Virginia State Capitol

Tomlinson, Ray 187

Tolstoy,

500

The Violin (by Man Ray) 389 Vipassana 293

Joyce)

IV

Wilhelm II, Kaiser 36 Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) 426 Wilhelm Meister's Travels (by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) 426

The Ugly Duckling (by Hans Christian Andersen) 427

James

and Blue

473

Wilder, Billy

Roman 397

Village People

Violence

Tomb Raider 477

427 434 Leo 428 R. R.

J.

408

The

Ulysses (by

Ernst

Toller,

Who's Afraid of Wiener. Norbert

Video Gaming 189, 494 Vietnam 37. 219, 231. 237

Yellow,

Newman) 391

(by Barnett

U2 501 UFA 472-473

309-310 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UN-FCCC) 269 UN's Declaration of Human Rights 222

Tolkien,

The Who 499 Who's Afraid of Red,

Vietnam War 500

Ultraviolet Radiation 46,

373,

Toledo, Juan Batista de

x LU a

("by

White Dwarf 45 Whitehead, Alfred North 339

Age 33

Victorian Architecture

153 of Government

Villa.

294

Titian (Tiziano Vecelli)

Victorian

460

25

456

Verhoeven, Paul 476 Vermeer, Jan 379 Versailles Palace 405 Vertov. Dziga 476 Viaducts 397

463

499

Twin Paradox

Locke)

499

Tipitaka

Law 245

Twelve-Tone Technique 461.

Two Treatises

The Times They Are A Changin' Dylan)

Joseph Mallord William 382-

Twelve Tables Bre-

334

by Richard Strauss)

Tiberius

Verdi. Giuseppi

Henry James)

428 Turner,

Thus Spake Zarathustra, (symphonic

poem

(by

383

Thomson, J.J. 131 The Threepenny Opera (by Bertolt cht and Kurt Weill) 433. 453 Thus Spake Zarathustra, (book by Nietzsche)

233-234, 240

Turkey 27, 217,

The Turn of the Screw

329

Thiry, Paul-Henri

rich

(by

263

The Well-Tempered Clavier (by Johann Sebastian Bach) 448-449 Welles, Orson 433, 473 Wenders, Wim 475 West Roman Empire 401 West-6st//cher Diwan (by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) 421 Westworks 400 Whaam! (by Roy Lichtenstein) 390

Whales 108, 113

Zakat312 Zar und Zimmermann (by Albert

457 Zen 293 ing)

Zeno321 Ziggurat395 Zimbardo. Philip 351 Zimmermann, Dominicus 405 Zionism 299 Zizek, Slavoj

Zola,

343

Emile429

Zweig, Stefan

434

The Zwinger 405

Lortz-

I

DAVID WALLECHINSKY

is

the authur or co-author

Almanac

of 19 books, including The People's

20th Century: History With the Boring

series, The

20 Worst

Parts Left Out, and Tyrants: The World's Living Dictators.

He has

a personal library of

25,000 volumes. Wallechinsky

is

the vice presi-

dent of the International Society of Olympic

and the author

Historians

of the leading refer-

ence books about the Olympics, The Complete

Book of the Summer Olympics and The Complete Book of the Winter Olympics. He

is

also a con-

tributing editor of Parade Magazine, for

which he

reports on government spending, dictators, and

the state of the nation,

among

other topics. An

enthusiastic traveler, Wallechinsky has jour-

neyed from Hong Kong he was the

first

isit tribal

Westerner

all

train,

and

more than 50 years

Yunnan Province. He has also

50 states of the United States.

Published by the National Geograi^

1145 l?th Street N.W: Washington, D

Visit

in

by

villages in the "forbidden zones" of

China's western ted

to Portugal

us online at

www.nationalt;;

cover design: Melissa Farn jacket design: Jennifer F

By learning about the ideas that were prevalent in

the past,

we

in

other eras and the events that have taken place

are better able to understand aspects of the present which otherwise

and we are more

easily able to anticipate the trends of the future. The present, after

dot on the continuum connecting the past to the future."

seem

all, is

baffling,

just a

moving

-David Wallechinskyjrom the Foreword

THE RANGE OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE FROM THE BIRTH OF THE PLANET TO THE COMPLEX WORLD OF THE 21ST CENTURY, HERE The Knowledge Book: Everything You Need

to

Know to

Get By

in

the 21st Century

is

IS

A

WORLD OF INFORMATION

organized into seven lavishly illustrated

sections that are complemented by fact boxes, cross-referencing, and sidebars. Whether read straight through or browsed, the result

is

a lively look at the past, the

present— and the

future.

US. $35 00/ $44 00 CAN

ISBN

I

978-1

781426"201240