The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning in His Music 1576472027, 9781576472026

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The Key to

BEETH VEN The Key to Beethoven

uilding on the remarkable correlation between key and tonal affect found in Beethoven’s vocal music, this book establishes an understanding of the way in which the composer uses tonality affectively. The historical case for Beethoven’s knowledge of key characteristics is examined, including writings on the topic with which he was familiar, his own views, and items of anecdotal evidence. A complete survey of all the keys employed by Beethoven is undertaken, using historical evidence from contemporary writers, theorists, and composers and Beethoven’s own output to establish a semiology of tonal affect. Novel concepts such as the affective use of modulation, tonicization, and individual chords are introduced and examined, later being applied to five case studies gleaned from Beethoven’s vocal and choral music with orchestral accompaniment. In a departure from the nexus of text and tonality, an instrumental case study—the Tempest Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2—is undertaken, decoding the series of psychological or soul states that are invoked during the progression of this work by applying the semiotic of affect established earlier as the principal tool for deconstructing meaning. This paves the way for a future examination of the nexus between tonality and meaning his instrumental music.

Ellison

B

PENDRAGON PRESS • HILLSDALE NY

Connecting Tonality and Meaning in His Music

PENDRAGON

PAUL M. ELLISON

NORTH AMERICAN BEETHOVEN STUDIES NO. 7

THE KEY TO BEETHOVEN: CONNECTING TONALITY AND MEANING IN HIS MUSIC

To Bill: mentor, inspiration and friend

THE KEY TO BEETHOVEN: CONNECTING TONALITY AND MEANING IN HIS MUSIC

Paul M. Ellison

The North American Beethoven Series No. 7 William Meredith, Series Editor

Pendragon Press Hillsdale, NY

The North American Beethoven Series William Meredith, Series Editor 1. Beethoven’s compositional process William Kinderman 2.1. Letters to Beethoven and other correspondence Theodore Albrecht 2.2 Letters to Beethoven and other correspondence Theodore Albrecht 2.3 Letters to Beethoven and other correspondence Theodore Albrecht 3.1 The critical reception of Beethoven’s compositions by his German contemporaries Wayne M. Senner 3.2 The critical reception of Beethoven’s compositions by his German contemporaries Wayne M. Senner



4. Transcendent Mastery Bathia Churgin 5. Beethoven’s “Orpheus” Concerto Owen Jander 6. Dear Max/Lieber Malcolm William Rudolf

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ellison, Paul M. The key to Beethoven : connecting tonality and meaning in his music / Paul M. Ellison. pages cm. -- (The North American Beethoven series ; no. 7) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-57647-202-6 (alk. paper) 1. Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770-1827--Criticism and interpretation. 2. Tonality. I. Title. ML410.B4E56 2014 780.92--dc23

Copyright 2014 Paul Martin Ellison

Contents Preface

vii

Introduction

1

Chapter One

Beethoven and the Background to Key Symbolism

13

Chapter Two

Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys 43

Chapter Three Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys



137

Chapter Four

Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

177

Chapter Five

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations

223

Chapter Six

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys

263

Chapter Seven Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

297

Chapter Eight The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

361

Conclusion

387

A Key to Beethoven

Select Bibliography

399







v

List of Tables Table One:

Shadow Affective Pairings of Relative Major and Minor Keys

Table Two:

Beethoven’s Affective Use of Tonality in Primary Keys

135

Table Three:

Beethoven’s Affective Use of Tonality in Secondary Keys

175

Table Four:

Numerical Breakdown of Key Usage in Beethoven’s Songs

178

Table Five:

Tonal Plan in Op. 98

267

Table Six:

Definitions of Depictive Harmony by E. T. A. Hoffmann

387

Table Seven:

Comparison of Key Changes in Op. 26, II and WoO 96

393

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46

Preface My interest in the connection between tonality and meaning in Beethoven’s music has occupied me on and off for over almost fifteen years now, beginning with a paper I wrote on the use of key characteristics in Mozart’s Don Giovanni and Beethoven’s Fidelio as part of my graduate work at San José State University. While researching this paper, I observed a remarkable correlation between text and tonal affect, and found myself questioning whether this would hold true for Beethoven’s vocal music, and, if so, might also be applicable to his instrumental repertoire. An initial survey of Beethoven’s complete solo songs proved to be extremely fertile, paving the way for the inception of this volume. A proposal for PhD study at Cardiff University followed, culminated in the award of that degree in 2010 and now in the revisions necessary for the publication of this book. I should like to thank everyone who has helped me along the way, whether in encouraging or critiquing my work (sometimes both), ultimately enabling it to reach its current form. I owe the greatest debt to Dr. Bill Meredith, who has been a tireless source of support in both the genesis of this project and its gradual assembling over the years, making valuable suggestions at every stage of the process. Dr. Rita Steblin’s book A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries has also been crucial to my work, as has Dr. Steblin personally, making herself available on many occasions for both information and support. I should also like to thank everyone who supported my studies at Cardiff University, including Prof. Adrian Thomas, Prof. Robin Stowell, and, in particular, Prof. David Wyn Jones, my thesis supervisor, whose critical eye and advice was particularly useful at the writing stage of this project. I am also indebted to Prof. Barry Cooper, whose detailed insights and encyclopedic were invaluable in enabling the final version of this book to come to fruition. Acknowledgement should also be made of Richard Adamson, Sacha Joggerst, Klass Wisniewski, and Ingrid Yule, all of whom helped me with passages of German that were beyond my comfort level. Thanks, too, to my proofreaders, Bobak Bakhtiari, Ian Dean, Dr. William George, and Dr. John Wilson whose beady eyes helped catch many small errors that I might otherwise have missed. I am also grateful to Dr. Wilson for making an advance copy of his doctoral thesis available to me as I was completing the revisions necessary for this book and for reading the final proof. No one knows this topic more thoroughly that he does and my engaging with his thesis has caused me to look afresh at my own work, sometimes rethinking, sometimes sharpening an argument as I progressed. Finally, grateful thanks are due to Bob Kessler at Pendragon Press for his belief in this project, his patience while waiting the final manuscript, and his steering it through to publication. It is my sincere hope that, rather than vii

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning

representing a culmination, this book will form a stepping stone for further study of the affective use of tonality in Beethoven’s (and other composers’) instrumental works, a field that I suspect will yield a rich harvest.

viii

INTRODUCTION “What Passion cannot MUSIC raise and quell!”1 What led Ludwig van Beethoven to choose a certain key in which to compose a particular work? Were the reasons objective, having more to do with instrumentation, formal considerations, vocal or keyboard range, timbre, ease of performance or even the ability to perform in a certain key, to name but a few? Or rather, did the philosophy and practice of key characteristics prompt him to choose a particular key because of an inherent meaning or meanings he and/ or others associated with it? Is it possible to rationalize the topic of attributing meaning to the keys—which, according to his friend and assistant Anton Schindler, he called “die Psyche der Tonarten” [“the psyches of the keys”]?2 Were there certain keys during that period that had a universal meaning for writers and composers while others had meanings that were contradictory in the literature? Unlike Mozart, Beethoven scholarship has been wary of this topic until quite recently. Yet, as controversial as the subject may be, it has great potential to alter radically the ways in which we hear and interpret Beethoven’s music.

Reclaiming Meaning The contrast between the two schools of thought concerning the topos of musical meaning, usually characterized as absolute and program music, has been succinctly and eloquently framed by Lawrence Kramer, who writes: “On the one hand [music tends] toward the projection of autonomy, universality, self-presence, and the sublime transcendence of specific meaning, and on the other hand toward intimations of contingency, historical concreteness

A Song for St. Cecilia’s Day, John Dryden (1631-1700). Schindler attributed this term to Beethoven, although not with a direct quotation. Anton Felix Schindler, Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven, 2 vols (Münster: Aschendorff, 1860), 2:166, trans. Constance S. Jolly, ed. Donald W. MacArdle, Beethoven as I Knew Him (London: Faber, 1966), pp. 367, 368. Schindler’s comments are often interesting, and to ignore them completely would be foolish. However, they can be unreliable, and need to be treated with caution. A recent article by Theodore Albrecht, “Anton Schindler as Destroyer and Forger of Beethoven’s Conversation Books: A Case for Decriminalization,” in Music’s Intellectual History, ed. Zdravko Blažeković and Barbara Dobbs Mackenzie (New York: RILM, 2009), pp. 169-81, goes someway towards his partial rehabilitation. Albrecht demonstrates that Alexander Wheelock Thayer misheard Schindler when the two met. Rather than telling Thayer he had “vier hundert” (four hundred) conversations books, he actually said “viel über hundert” (much more than a hundred). Albrecht supports this with testimony from the publisher of the second 1845 edition of Schindler’s Biographie, who said that there were only 138 of them in Schindler’s possession. Further evidence from journalist Johann Sporschil attests to the fact that during a move from Baden to Vienna in 1823 all Beethoven’s correspondence was lost. 1 2

1

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning

[…] and the intelligible production of specific meanings.”3 Until recently, postmodern critical musicology was still feeling the effects of the philosophical and intellectual strictures of the positivist/formalist writers, the believers in “absolute music” who eschewed any form of poetic or extra-musical meaning being present in untexted musical language.4 Eduard Hanslick, founder of the so-called absolutist school, denied that music had the ability to express emotions, stating “on the one hand it is said that the aim and object of music is to excite emotions, i.e., pleasurable emotions; on the other hand, the emotions are said to be the subject matter which musical works are intended to illustrate. Both propositions are alike in this, that one is as false as the other.”5 Many significant twentieth-century figures, including Heinrich Schenker, Donald Tovey, and Igor Stravinsky appear, on superficial analysis, to have concurred. Schenker considered that music achieved its objectivity through the formal structures it employed and the God-given organicism that they revealed.6 In the introduction to Der freie Satz, he stated that “the law of organic coherence […] is revealed in the fundamental structure […] in the background, the voiceleading transformations in the middle-ground, and ultimately in the appearance of the foreground.”7 Tovey is on record as believing that, “the names of keys do not represent important aesthetic facts,” which he qualified by noting “This statement is in evident conflict with various attractive and fantastic utterances by Beethoven himself and by other composers.”8 Tovey, it appears, knows best! Stravinsky even went so far as to say that music is, by its very nature, essentially powerless to express anything at all, whether a feeling, an attitude of mind, a psychological mood, a phenomenon of nature, etc. Expression has never been an inherent property of music. That is by no means the purpose of its existence. If, as is nearly always the case, music appears to express something, this is only an illusion, and not a reality.9

He qualified this earlier statement only slightly some thirty years later, noting that Lawrence Kramer, Musical Meaning (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), p. 2. The critical overviews of “Absolute Music” and “Programme Music” by Roger Scruton in The New Grove Dictionary provide a useful introduction to this area. Roger Scruton, “Absolute Music,” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musician, ed. Stanley Sadie, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 2001), i, 36-37; “Programme Music,” xx, 396-400. 5 Eduard Hanslick, Vom Musikalisch-Schönen: ein Beitrag zur Revision der Ästhetik der Tonkunst (Leipzig: Weigel, 1854), trans. Gustav Cohen, The Beautiful in Music (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), p. 9. 6 Heinrich Schenker, Der freie Satz (Vienna: Universal, 1935), trans. and ed. Ernest Oster, Free Composition (New York: Longman, 1979), xxiii. 7 Ibid., p. xxii. 8 Donald F. Tovey, Beethoven (London: Oxford University Press, 1945), p. 8. 9 Igor Stravinsky, with Walter Nouvel, Chroniques de ma vie, 2 vols (Paris: Denoël et Steele, 1935-6), 1:116, trans. Chronicles of My Life (London: Victor Gollancz, 1936), pp. 91-92. 3 4

2

Introduction music is […] beyond verbal meanings and verbal descriptions. It [the previous quote] was aimed against the notion that a piece of music is in reality a transcendental idea “expressed in terms of ” music, with the reductio ad absurdum implication that exact sets of correlatives must exist between a composer’s feelings and his notation. It was offhand and annoyingly incomplete, but even the stupider critics could have seen that it did not deny musical expressivity, but only the validity of a type of verbal statement about musical expressivity. I stand by the remark, incidentally, though today I would put it the other way around: music expresses itself.10

There thus appeared to be little if any concept of extra-musical meaning for such writers, who were still reacting to late-Romantic aesthetics despite the fact that their opinions flew directly in the face of the stated views of composers and theorists of both Classical and early-Romantic periods alike. Joseph Kerman gazed both forward and backward when making a timely reassessment of these philosophies in a 1994 article pithily entitled “Taking the Fifth.” Following a survey of several very technical late twentieth-century analyses of the slow movement of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, he concluded by validating the views of Beethoven’s contemporary, writer and critic E. T. A. Hoffmann, written almost two hundred year earlier. Kerman issued a challenge to the world of musicology: “To attempt to exorcise the primal and the subartistic in the Fifth Symphony is to engage in a cover-up. Hoffmann made no such mistake. The analytical project to mute Beethoven’s insistent evocations of ‘the naked human voice’ memorializes a bizarre moment in the recent academic history of Beethoven reception.”11 Not every writer was guilty of such deception. Several have rekindled an interest in the topic of the affective characteristics of the keys in the twentieth century, and, in doing so have highlighted the importance of this subject for Beethoven. The beginnings of such a re-examination can be seen early in the last century in the writings of Paul Bekker and Hans Boettcher, each of whom believed that keys had meaning for Beethoven, although the views of both writers are somewhat idiosyncratic.12 William S. Newman and Michael C. Tusa approached Beethoven’s music from the angle of a particular key, detailing an affinity for his favored tonality of C Minor.13 Barry Cooper considered possible reasons for Beethoven’s choices of keys in Beethoven and the Creative Process, as did 10 Igor Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Expositions and Developments (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962), p. 114. 11 Joseph Kerman, “Taking the Fifth,” in Write All These Down: Essays on Music (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 215. 12 Paul Bekker, Beethoven (Berlin: Schuster and Leoffler, 1911), trans. M. M. Bozman (London: Dent, 1925); Hans Boettcher, Beethoven als Liederkomponist (Augsburg: Filser, 1928). 13 William S. Newman, “K. 457 and Op. 13—Two Related Masterpieces in C Minor,” Piano Quarterly 57 (1966): 11-15; Michael C. Tusa, “Beethoven’s ‘C-Minor Mood’: Some Thoughts on the Structural Implications of Key Choice,” Beethoven Forum 2 (1993): 1-27.

3

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning

Leo Treitler, who discussed the affective use of tonality in the Ninth Symphony in two significant articles that appeared within the space of two years.14 Still others have examined a complete work for examples of the psyches of the keys, Bruce Clausen’s valuable, in-depth examination of Fidelio being one such study.15 The most significant contributions have been made by Wolfgang Auhagen and Rita Steblin, both of whom researched the history of key characteristics simultaneously, although independently, publishing their results the same year.16 More recently, Paul Reid, in The Beethoven Song Companion, discussed the affective implications of tonality in Beethoven’s Lieder, devoting a section to it entitled “Key Decisions.”17 Most recently, John Wilson has introduced the idea of topics/topoi—first coined by Leonard Ratner in his book Classic Music: Expression, Form and Style—as a means for explaining the rationale behind Beethoven’s (and other composers’) use of key characteristics—in other words, posing the important question “why” as opposed to “if ” with regard to the affective use of tonality.18 In his dissertation he traced the connection between music topics/topoi and key characteristics as it developed in the later eighteenth century, effectively assessing the implications of this rlationship for the analysis of Beethoven’s music.19 For the most part, however, he only considered keys of complete works and movements and examined the use of affective tonality on a more local basis infrequently.

Who Will Enjoy This Book? This book is not only intended for performers, musicologists and music theorists but also for anyone familiar with Beethoven’s music who is interested in a new way of thinking about and listening to his music. The list of affective key descriptions outlined in Chapters Two and Three, and the analytical concepts defined in Chapter Four will prove helpful to the musicologist in attempting to decode the mind-states Beethoven recreates in both his texted and untexted music. Naturally, composers of the period were also free to use the affects of the keys ironically, something that had a lasting appeal to Beethoven. The reexamination of the reception history of Beethoven’s music, which this book will Barry Cooper, Beethoven and the Creative Process (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp. 120-25; Leo Treitler, “History, Criticism and Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony,” Nineteenth-Century Music 3 (1980): 196 and “To Worship That Celestial Sound,” Journal of Musicology 1 (1982): 153-70. 15 Bruce Clausen, “Beethoven and the Psyches of the Keys” (doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California), 1988. 16 Wolfgang Auhagen, Studien zur Tonartencharakteristik in theoretischen Schriften und Kompositionen vom späten 17. bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt a.M. Lang, 1983); Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, 1st ed. (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1983), 2nd edn, 2002. 17 Paul Reid, The Beethoven Song Companion (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007). 18 Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form and Style New York: Schirmer, 1980. 19 John David Wilson, “Topos and Tonality in the Age of Beethoven” (doctoral dissertation, Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Wien), 2012.

14

4

Introduction encourage, will allow writers to connect more fully with its perceived meaning at that time. For music theorists, the understanding of just what role tonal symbolism plays in analysis represents, to some extent, a return home, as music theory reverts to its historical roots and to the intentionality found in the contemporaneous writings of Beethoven’s era. Writers such as E. T. A. Hoffmann and the influential editor of the Berliner allgemeine musikalische Zeitung Adolf Bernhard Marx can again serve as role models in deciding how to discuss music and meaning in the context of musicology and analysis, a topic that more recently has sometimes been ignored or avoided. This book may also interest performers in encouraging the consideration of the thorny issue of transposition—particularly of Lieder— for voices other than those for which they were intended, for it is one on which Beethoven reportedly had strong opinions. It will challenge singers to assess the importance of respecting Beethoven’s—and other composers’—choices of tonality when performing music in a key other than it was originally written. To quote Tovey again, “The character of the keys is […] quite unaffected by transposition.”20 Such a view flies in the face of contemporaneous evidence, and Beethoven, as will be seen, went to great lengths to ensure that his and others’ music was performed in its intended key. This study will demonstrate that keys did indeed have meaning for Beethoven and are a tool used by him to establish the remembrance of individual affective mind states during the course of a work. In his opinion, the transposition of a work to another key will almost always destroy this connection and should be avoided wherever possible.21 The techniques demonstrated in Chapter Eight will be of interest to the performer of Beethoven’s instrumental music in attempting to decode the mind states projected in these works through the use of tonal symbolism and will therefore have an important influence on the manner in which Beethoven’s instrumental works are played. Issues of tuning and temperament, while not considered in detail, are items with which performers need also to grapple when playing instrumental repertoire and can have a tangible effect on the ways the affective use of tonality can be perceived aurally. This book will also encourage a more widespread understanding and acceptance of that fact that equal temperament as it is understood today was not a tuning system with which composers such as Beethoven were familiar. The manner in which the keys were perceived aurally at that time was thus more clearly differentiated than on modern instruments using equal tempered tuning. Readers are referred to a fascinating study recently appeared, Beethovens Klaviervariationen Op. 34/ Tovey, Beethoven, p. 9. However, see the final chapter pp. 399-402 for instances of where Beethoven did transpose his music. 20 21

5

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning

Beethoven’s Variations for Piano, Op. 34, for a discussion of the physical issues of tuning in detail.22 What can the listener gain from these new perspectives? A deeper understanding of Beethoven’s use of key symbolism will help engage audiences in a fuller understanding of Beethoven’s music through an explanation of the way in which he uses tonality as a key to meaning. The list of key characteristics established here will help to describe the mood states so often experienced subconsciously by audiences when listening to instrumental music, while also alerting them to further tone-pictures that may not be so immediately apparent.

Beethoven and His Immediate Philosophical Background Writing in the preface to the first edition of Music and Aesthetics in the Eighteenth and Early-Nineteenth Centuries, Peter le Huray and James Day were unequivocal when they stated, “We find that if there was one point on which every eighteenth-century writer was agreed, it was that music was the art that most immediately appealed to the emotions. Music that failed to engage the emotions […] was of little or no consequence.”23 This can be clearly demonstrated from the assertions of many contemporaneous writers. Daniel Gottlob Türk, in his Klavierschule of 1789, recommended that “whoever performs a composition so that the affect (character, etc.) […] is most faithfully expressed […] and that the tones become at the same time a language of feelings […] he is a good executant” and also noting that “the expression of the ruling sentiment” is “the highest goal.”24 His contemporary Heinrich Christoph Koch, writing in his Musikalisches Lexikon of 1802, stated that “the principal object of music is to stir the feelings,” observing elsewhere that “the expression of the feelings in their diverse modifications is the actual end goal of music, and therefore the first and most important requirement of each piece of music.”25 In the influential treatise Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste, Swiss philosopher Johann Georg Sulzer stated in the entry for “Leidenschaften” [(Emotions)]: “It is the artist’s immediate purpose to excite or to temper the emotions; to illustrate their true nature and expression; and to demonstrate their various good and evil effects as vividly as possible.”26 Mark Lindley, Conny Restle, and Klaus-Jürgen Sachs, Beethovens Klaviervariationen op. 34/Beethoven’s Variations for Piano, Opus 34 (Mainz: Schott, 2007). 23 Peter le Huray and James Day, Music and Aesthetics in the Eighteenth and Early-Nineteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 123. In the interests of length, reputable English translations of foreign language texts will be used, rather than including both the originals and a translation. However, in certain instances, where the translation is in doubt, the original has been consulted and sometimes included. 24 Daniel Gottlob Türk, Klavierschule, oder Anweisung zum Klavierspielen für Lehrer und Lernende […] nebst 12 Handstücken (Leipzig: Schwikert, 1789), p. 347, in Ratner, Classic Music, p. 3. 25 Koch, Musikalisches Lexikon, p. 894, in Ratner, Classic Music, p. 3. 26 The translation is from Music and Aesthetics, p. 123. A more accurate translation would be “passions.” 22

6

Introduction Later he continued: The principal, if not indeed the sole function of perfect musical composition is the accurate expression of the emotions and passions in all their varying and individual nuances. […] Expression is the soul of the music: without it music is just a pleasant toy; with it, music becomes an overwhelmingly powerful language which engulfs the heart. It compels us in turn to tenderness, resolution and courage. It successively arouses our sympathy and our admiration. At times it enhances and exalts the soul; at others, it takes it captive so that it dissolves in languorous emotion.27

Another Swiss philosopher, theorist and composer Jean-Jacques Rousseau concurred: The musician’s art is to substitute for the insensate image of the object the movements that the object excites in the heart of the beholder. Not only will the musician stir up the sea, fan the blaze, make rivulets flow, rains fall and torrents rage, but he will paint the horrors of a fearful desert, he will darken the walls of a subterranean prison, calm the tempest, make the air tranquil and serene.28

However, he added the important and crucial caveat that the composer “will not literally imitate things, but he will excite in the soul feelings similar to those that it experiences when it sees them.”29 It appears that Beethoven himself concurred with this last statement, as can be seen in his much-quoted subtitle to the Pastoral Symphony, “Mehr Ausdruck der Empfindung als Malerei” (More an expression of feeling or sentiment than tone painting). One of the most important decisions for a composer in Beethoven’s time was, in the words of his friend Friedrich Starke, to make “the correct choice of key—so that it fits the piece’s expression.”30 In 1810, the anonymous reviewer of the Pastoral Symphony captured this point completely when observing that it was far from being a representation of “spatial characteristics of the countryside, but much more a representation of emotions that we experience upon seeing things in the countryside.”31

27 Johann Georg Sulzer, Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste. 2 vols (Leipzig: Weidemann, 1771-74), trans. Music and Aesthetics, p. 124. See Ch. 1, pp. 21-28 for further information on Beethoven’s knowledge and use of this treatise. 28 Ibid., p. 110. 29 Ibid. 30 Friedrich Starke, Wiener Pianoforte-Schule (Vienna: Berman, 1819), i, p.12. 31 Anon., “Review,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 12 (1810) 241, trans. The Critical Reception of Beethoven’s Composition by His German Contemporaries, ed. Wayne M. Senner (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), ii: 133. The author of this review is disputed. See n. 1 to this article, p. 140.

7

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning

In an 1847 article in the magazine Caecilia, Joseph Fischhof mentioned a comment Beethoven had scribbled on an early (and now lost) version of the song So oder So, WoO 148. He was discussing Beethoven’s inclusion of a metronome marking for this song: “100 according to Maelzel, but this can apply only to the first bars, for feeling has also its own beat but this cannot be wholly conveyed at this level (namely 100).”32 Here Beethoven wss indicating just how central the conveying of emotion should be in performances of his music. He often referred to himself as a “Tondichter” (tone poet), and held poets in the highest esteem, as can be seen from his letter of August 9, 1812, suggesting that they “should be regarded as the leading teachers of the nation.”33 From the nature of Beethoven’s subtitle to the Pastoral Symphony it can be assumed that tone painting—Malerei—per se will make infrequent appearances in his works but that the expression of Empfindung—feeling or emotion—will be their principal raison d’être. This assumption is also supported by the comment he made at the beginning of the first page of a sketch for this work, “One leaves it to the listener to find out the situations,”34 reinforced by the important qualification he made in a further jotting on the Landsberg 10 manuscript: “All tone painting in instrumental music loses its quality if it’s pushed too far.”35 David Wyn Jones highlights the crucial distinction here of the use of the word Erinnerungen in Beethoven’s original title—Sinfonia caracteristica oder Erinnerungen an das Landleben [Characteristic Symphony or Remembrances of Country Life], which was subsequently used as a subtitle, contrasting it with the final singular usage of Erinnerung, which, as he puts it, suggests “a single vision rather than a number of disparate ones […] a memory not an account.”36 History, it seems, would be destined to repeat itself in twentieth-century musicology, since this debate had already played out earlier in the writings of Immanuel Kant, a lone voice of dissent among writers of his time. In his book Kritik der Urteilskraft [The critique of judgment], Kant discussed music in entirely mathematical terms of the relationship of notes one to another, not unlike some of the analytical systems imposed on music in recent times. In discussing the way music affects the listener, he wrote: 32 “100 nach Mälzl, doch kann diess nur von den ersten Täkten gelten, denn die Empfindung hat auch ihren Takt, dieses ist aber doch nicht ganz in diesem Grade (100 nämlich) auszudrücken.” Joseph Fischhof, “Auffassung von Instrumentalkompositionen in Hinsicht des Zeitmasses, namentlich bei Beethoven’schen Werken,” in Caecilia 26 (1847): 94. 33 The Letters of Beethoven, Emily Anderson, ed. and trans., 3 vols (London: Macmillan, 1961), i, no. 380, p. 384; original in Ludwig van Beethoven: Briefwechsel Gesamtausgabe, Sieghard Brandenburg, ed., 7 vols (Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1996), ii, no. 591, p. 285. 34 “Mann überlässt es den Zuhörer sich selbst die Situationen aufzufinden,” in Dagmar Weise ed., Beethoven: Ein Skizzenbuch zur Pastoralsymphonie op. 68 und zu den Trios op. 70. 1 und 2 (Bonn: Verlag Beethoven Haus, 1961), 2, folio 2r. 35 David Wyn Jones, Beethoven: Pastoral Symphony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 33-34. 36 Ibid., p. 33.

8

Introduction However, consider first of all the mathematical relationship of these vibrations in music and the way they are judged […]. [Music] communicates by means of mere sensations without concepts, and therefore does not, like poetry, leave anything to reflect on. It does this by a balanced mood-combination of these emotions (a combination that can be mathematically subjected to certain rules, since it is based on the numerical relationship of simultaneously—or successively-sounding notes, and thus on the numerical relationship between the vibrations of the air at a given instant). It is on these mathematical relationships alone […] that the satisfaction depends […].37

Such a constrained, clinical manner of describing music was pounced upon by Beethoven’s friend, Amadeus Wendt, who described Kant’s position thus: Those less-favored, to whom musical art is, in the exact sense, only sounding art, create for themselves through pleasing combinations of notes a language that strikes the ear easily and comprehensibly, increases the charm of living, and agrees completely with Kant’s notorious description of music.”38

Wendt then expounded his own view of music’s role—a role far more congruent with contemporaneous thought: musical art […] speaks, like the world spirit, through storm and thunder, as well as in the gentle breezes of spring and in the whispering waves of grain, a magical language, which is only comprehensible to those whose hearing discloses […] the most secret depths of the heart into which no mortal eye can see.39

Later in the same review he stated: “Beethoven remains what a musician should be, a painter of feelings; and, as feeling is generally not without thought, the states of mind that the fantasy of the ingenious composer portrays in notes can also be objectified as pictures.”40 In doing so he deftly combined the ideas expressed earlier of “Empfindung” and “Malerei,” arriving at the hybrid concept of “painting feelings,” a view with which Beethoven agreed. English musician Charles Neate, who was visiting Beethoven in 1815, had occasion to take a walk in the countryside with him near Baden. When Neate mentioned the power of the images he conjured up in the Pastoral Symphony, Beethoven replied “I have

Imanuel Kant, Kritik der Urteilskraft (Hamburg: Meiner, 1790), trans. Music and Aesthetics, pp. 221-22. 38 Amadeus Wendt, “Thoughts about Recent Musical Art, and van Beethoven’s Music, Specifically His Fidelio,” in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 17 (1815), trans. Senner, ii, p. 185. 39 Ibid. 40 Ibid., p. 189. 37

9

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning

always a picture in my mind, when I am composing, and work up to it.”41 Marx also made his opinion clear on Beethoven’s attitude to emotion and its depiction in music: We know also that he not only played his works with sentiment,—as regards tone, and by giving himself up to an indeterminate feeling, but that he often undertook to utter internally-related mental conditions; that he often allowed himself to be influenced and carried away by external influences; that he created life; that he constructed ideally, as a Goethe in words and a Raphael in forms. […] He has frequently given the thought content of his tone structures in writing. The names of the Eroica, and the Pastoral symphony […] are well known. […] When a complete edition of his works was in process, Beethoven had the idea (so writes Schindler) of indicating the thought content wherever he had not yet done so. In single works (for example, the Sonata, Op. 101) the multitudinous and impressive annotations indicate that he was led on by special and powerful mental conditions and representations.42

Beethoven’s student and friend Carl Czerny affirmed this view: It is true that Beethoven became inspired to many of his most beautiful works through his reading matter, or out of visions brought out of his own native fantasy, and that we could only reach the true key to his compositions and their interpretation, through certain knowledge of the circumstances—if this were everywhere possible.43

He added that Beethoven “was not communicative on this subject,—only occasionally, in confidential moods.”44 Composer and writer Karl Ludwig Junker also confirmed that Beethoven “in addition to the execution, has greater clearness and weight of idea, and more expression—in short […] is more for the heart.”45 When contemporaneous reports of Beethoven’s performances of both his own compositions and improvisations are considered, it is apparent that audiences were profoundly moved. This would seem to indicate that Beethoven concurred with the statements discussed above. In 1852, Czerny recalled the effect of one of Beethoven’s improvisations thus: 41 Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Thayer’s Life of Beethoven, rev. and ed. Elliot Forbes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 620. 42 (Friedrich Heinrich) Adolf Bernhard (Samuel Moses) Marx, Anleitung zum Vortrag Beethovenscher Klavierwerke (Berlin: Janke, 1863), trans. Fannie Louise Gwinner, Introduction to the Interpretation of Beethoven’s Piano Works (Chicago: Summy, 1895), p. 87. 43 Carl Czerny, Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Pianoforte-Schule […] Op. 500 (Vienna: A. Diabelli, 1839), iv, p. 62, trans. Interpretation of Beethoven’s Piano Works, p. 88. 44 Ibid., n. *. 45 Karl Ludwig Junker, letter dated 23 November 1791, in Heinrich Philipp Carl Bossler, Musikalische Korrespondenz (Speyer: n. pub., 1791), trans. Henry Edward Krehbiel, in Thayer-Forbes, p. 105.

10

Introduction He knows how to achieve such an effect upon every listener, that frequently not an eye remained dry, while many would break out into loud sobs, for there was something wonderful in his expression in addition to the beauty and originality of his ideas and the spirited style of rendering them.46

Thus, critics and writers alike were of one voice in viewing Beethoven’s music as being suffused with emotion, and the task of this book will be to expand this narrative by considering how he used “the psyches of the keys” to do just that.

Methodology This book begins by weighing the historical evidence that Beethoven both understood and subscribed to the concept of key characteristics. It presents Beethoven’s personal views on key characteristics and his belief in them as expressed in documentary and anecdotal evidence. His familiarity with the opinions of other contemporaneous writers is examined and areas of agreement between them are assessed. The methodology employed here reflects Johann Mattheson’s view: “Indeed all that is played is only an imitation of singing,”47 and Koch’s assumption that “It remains an established fact that vocal music retains a marked and undeniable advantage over pure instrumental music.”48 Thus it will begin by making a detailed examination of Beethoven’s vocal works, designed to establish a connection between the content of the texts he set and the choice of keys he employed to project this meaning. Beethoven’s only completed opera, Fidelio, will not be examined in detail, since it has already been the focus of a study by Bruce Clausen, although many examples will be drawn from it in the effort to establish Beethoven’s modus operandi when choosing a particular key for characterization. Finally all the information thus derived will be applied to an instrumental work, the Tempest Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, in order to illustrate just how significant the consideration of key characteristics can be in the decoding of meaning in untexted music. However, the attempt will not be made to identify a single, pre-conceived laundry list of characteristics by a particular writer with which Beethoven concurred, and then to impose it on his music because this is simply not possible. Such a simplistic stance—a one size fits all approach—has been attempted before on several occasions: with Bach’s music by Rudolf Wustmann, the works of Mozart by Werner Lüthy, and even H. C. Robbins Landon, compiler, Beethoven: A Documentary Study, trans. Richard Wadleigh and Eugene Martzell (Zurich: Universal, 1970), p. 195. 47 Johann Mattheson, Der vollkommene Capellmeister (Hamburg: Herold, 1739), ii, Ch. 12, paragraph 7, in Michael E. Broyles, Beethoven: The Emergence and Evolution of Beethoven’s Heroic Style (New York: Excelsior Music, 1987), p. 115. 48 Heinrich Christoph Koch, Musikalisches Lexikon (Frankfurt a.M.: Hermann, 1802), p. 794, in Ratner, Classic Music, p. 4. 46

11

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning

Beethoven’s oeuvre by Bruce Clausen and Paul Reid.49 Rather, it will attempt to establish the ways in which Beethoven approached tonal variety and affect in his vocal music as a working list, illustrating just how crucial an area key symbolism can be in the analysis of musical meaning. Such a list is not intended to be exhaustive but subject to future refining and development as more of Beethoven’s instrumental works are similarly considered. By way of caveat, it is also important to note that there will be works that, for a variety of reasons, will not fit the parameters of affective tonality outlined in the second and third chapters. With the exception of Kant, all writers contemporary with Beethoven were in agreement that it was the primary function of music to engage the emotions. Some composers relied on tone painting—Malerei—to involve the listener, yet by far the majority depended on conveying feeling­—Empfindung­—in order to achieve this goal, an intentionality to which Beethoven clearly pointed in his subtitle to the Pastoral Symphony. Many contemporaneous descriptions of the emotive power of Beethoven’s performances and improvisations are extant, several of which are well-known, yet it was through his understanding of the power of key symbolism that he was able to give voice to such feelings. To paraphrase Wendt, as a composer, Beethoven was a painter of feelings.50 Recently, many writers have rekindled an interest in this topic, and, in doing so have highlighted the importance of this subject in Beethoven scholarship. Yet much remains to be done. A detailed study of the connection between choice of text and key in Beethoven’s vocal music is clearly called for, with the intention of balancing the opinions of a wide range of contemporary theorists, including Beethoven himself, with the affective connections that are clearly present in his music.

49 Wustmann superimposed Johannes Mattheson’s list on Bach’s music in “Tonartensymbolik zu Bachs Zeit,” Bach-Jahrbuch (1911): 60-74; C. F. D. Schubart’s list of key characteristics was superimposed on Mozart’s music by Werner Lüthy, Mozart und die Tonartencharactaristik (Strasbourg: Heitz, 1931), by Bruce Clausen in Beethoven’s opera Fidelio in “Beethoven and the Psyche of the Keys,” and by Paul Reid on all Beethoven’s songs in The Beethoven Song Companion. 50 Wendt, trans. Senner, ii, 185.

12

CHAPTER ONE

Beethoven and the Background to Key Symbolism When establishing the background to the affective use of key characteristics in eighteenth-century German-speaking lands, several areas need to be considered. The historical case for Beethoven’s knowledge of key characteristics is an important primary area, beginning with his early experiences as a student in Bonn and continuing with the completion of his education in Vienna with Albrechtsberger, Haydn, Salieri and Schenk. His work as a teacher is also significant, including the materials dealing with key characteristics that he used with his most important composition student, Archduke Rudolph. Beethoven’s own views, where known and authenticated, are naturally invaluable, together with various examples of anecdotal evidence that have been sifted and assessed. Important information can also be gleaned from the views of relevant contemporary authors and theorists.

Beethoven as Pupil Beethoven was introduced to the concept of composing music in all the keys by his familiarity with J. S Bach’s Das wohltemperierte Klavier (WTC), which he was assigned to study by his teacher Christian Gottlob Neefe (1748-1798), who began giving him lessons in 1779.1 Neefe himself had obtained this magnum opus from his own teacher, Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1721-1783), himself a student of Bach. It was Neefe who wrote the first public notice about his brilliant pupil in Cramer’s Magazin der Musik, dating from March 2, 1783: Louis van Betthoven [sic], […] a boy of eleven years [sic twelve] and of most promising talent. He plays the clavier very skillfully [sic] and with power, reads at sight very well, and—to put it in a nutshell—he plays chiefly The Well-Tempered Clavichord of Sebastian Bach, which Herr Neefe put into his hands. Whoever knows this collection of preludes and fugues in all the keys—which might almost be called the non plus ultra of our art—will know what this means. […] He would surely become a second Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, if he continued as he has begun.2

Beethoven would have played these preludes and fugues in a well temperament, a tuning system that makes the differences between the keys more pronounced, hence the reason for Bach’s title. While it is beyond the scope of this volume to deal with issues of tuning in detail, it is briefly discussed later in this chapter, pp. 39-41. 2 Christian Gottlob Neefe, “Nachricht von der churfürstlich-cöllnischen Hofcapelle zu Bonn und andern Tonkünstlern daselbst,” in Cramer’s Magazin der Musik, i (Hamburg: Musicalische Niederlage, 1783), transcribed in Ludwig Schiedermair, Der Junge Beethoven (Leipzig: Quelle & Meyer, 1925), pp. 73-82, trans. Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Thayer’s Life of Beethoven, rev. and ed. Elliot Forbes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 66. 1

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The Key to Beethoven

It must have proved invaluable to the young Beethoven to have an intimate knowledge of Bach’s masterpiece at such an impressionable age.3 Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Beethoven’s most important nineteenth-century biographer, emphasized this point: “From Bach’s preludes and fugues, which he was also to play a great deal later in life, he not only derived considerable instruction, but he found, as is evidenced in many of his later works (e.g., the prelude in F minor), a pattern for imitation.”4 Neefe’s prescient mention of Mozart is also significant, as it indicates the esteem in which Mozart was held by Neefe himself, something he passed on to the young Beethoven. In his role as director of the Grossmann-Hellmuth theater troupe, Neefe also exposed Beethoven to Mozart’s newly composed opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail, for which Beethoven might even have played in the orchestra. In his later Bonn years under Joseph Reicha,5 leader of the Bonn theater orchestra, he took part in performances of Figaro and Don Giovanni, becoming familiar, as John Wilson points out, with “north German opera, Viennese Singspiel, Neapolitan and Viennese opera buffa, and French opéra comique.”6 Beethoven’s deep knowledge of Mozart’s music, and in particular his use of tonal affect in Don Giovanni, must have affirmed his understanding of the possibilities for the use of key characteristics as a means of expression.7 Wilson also speculates convincingly that Beethoven might have obtained access to the score of Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte in 1792, prior to his departure for Vienna and before Neefe conducted it in June of 1793, noting too that Schindler’s claim that his admiration of this work was in no small order due to Mozart’s use of key characteristics.8 It is also of interest that Neefe’s song output itself reflects an understanding of the affective use of tonality in the period, no doubt influenced in part by his own knowledge of “The Well-Tempered Clavichord of Sebastian Bach.”9 3 For information on key characteristics in WTC, see Eckhard Roch, “Temperatur und Charakter: Johann Sebastian Bachs Wohltemperiertes Klavier aus der Sicht seines Schülers Kirnberger,” in Musik-Kultur, vol. 10: Bachs Wohltemperiertes Klavier in Perspektive (Essen: Die Blaue Eule, 2002), pp. 29-41. Beethoven continued to play these works later in life, and is on record as having been invited to Baron van Swieten’s apartment next to the Imperial Library to play Bach fugues on several occasions. See Thayer-Forbes, p. 161. 4 Anton Felix Schindler, Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven, 2 vols. (Münster: Aschendorff, 1860), trans. Constance S. Jolly, ed. Donald W. MacArdle, Beethoven as I Knew Him (London: Faber, 1966), p. 67. Beethoven’s study of other Classical piano repertoire at this time must surely have been an equally important foundation for his understanding of the meaning of the keys. 5 Joseph Reicha (1752-1795), cellist and music director, uncle of Beethoven’s friend Anton Reicha. 6 John David Wilson, “Topos and Tonality in the Age of Beethoven,” (doctoral dissertation, Universität Wien, 2012), p. 35. For a full listing of all these works, see Appendix 2, p. 271. 7 For a fuller examination of the use of D Minor in Mozart’s operas see Martin Chusid, “The Significance of D Minor in Mozart’s Dramatic Music,” Mozart-Jahrbuch (1965/66): 87-93. 8 Wilson, p. 35; Thayer-Forbes, p. 367. 9 Thayer/Forbes, p. 66. Many of Neefe’s settings are included in the lists of works by key in Chs. 2 and 3.

14

Beethoven and the Background to Key Symbolism

Beethoven’s in-depth study of Bach must also have contributed greatly to his understanding of key and character, inspiring him to explore this area more fully in his Zwei Präludien durch alle Tonarten, Op. 39, for piano or organ, completed in 1789. For each prelude, he began in C major and adopted a modulation pattern via fifths rather than moving in half steps as Bach did, since this accommodated the single-movement nature of both these works more successfully. Thayer speculated quite reasonably that they were composition exercises for his teacher, yet they were an early example of Beethoven’s practical experience of composing in all the major keys. Significantly, they were written at a time when he had already begun to write songs such as Klage and An Laura in which the incipient understanding of tonal affect can already be seen to have played a part in his choice of keys.10 That Beethoven had been thinking affectively from an early age is clear from an examination his first published composition, the Dressler Variations, WoO 63 (1782), which are based on a March in C minor by Ernst Christoph Dressler (1734-1779). At the end of the set, the ninth variation modulates to the tonic major, an early example of Beethoven’s use of modal mixture for affective purposes, a technique that he would employ often in future years. Several months later, a set of three piano sonatas, WoO 47, followed composed, significantly, in three keys that were to remain extremely important to him: E-flat major, F minor, and D major. The first movement of the second of these sonatas is perhaps the most mature and expressive of these works, comprising a slow introduction, marked larghetto maestoso, followed by an extended allegro assai, adopting the plan he would employ fourteen years later in the first movement of Sonate pathétique, Op. 13, including bringing back the slow introduction, just as he did in Op. 13. Justus Johannes Heinrich Ribock, the amateur flute player and designer who published a set of key characteristics in Cramer’s Magazin der Musik in 1783, commented: “I would like to set F minor as a shade between C and G minors,” characterizing it as more lamenting than C minor, which he considered tender.11 Perhaps Beethoven decided to explore this affect in the second sonata in the group, having already used C minor for WoO 63.

Early Years in Vienna and Studies with Haydn While there is no evidence of his having used any theoretical materials that contained information about key characteristics in his role as Beethoven’s teacher, Haydn did own a copy of Johann Mattheson’s Der vollkommene Capellmeister Ch. 5 provides a more complete consideration of tonal affect in Klage, WoO 113 (pp. 252-53), and An Laura, WoO 112 (pp. 229-30). 11 Johann Justus Heinrich Ribock, “Über Musik; an Flötenliebhaber insonderheit,” Magazin der Musik, ed. Carl Friedrich Cramer, 1 (1783), trans. Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, 2nd ed. (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), p. 111. 10

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The Key to Beethoven

[The complete music director], having been introduced to it by his teacher, Georg Reutter, and used it in his own studies in the early 1750s.12 Charles Burney attested to Haydn’s familiarity with this treatise in his General History of Music, a claim supported by Haydn’s biographers Albert Christoph Dies and Georg August Griesinger, both of whom report Haydn’s comments on aspects of it.13 According to Dies, such was Haydn’s familiarity with it that he expressed reservations about the quality of the musical examples, and even went so far as to rework some of them himself.14 Given such familiarity, it is therefore highly likely that teacher and pupil had conversations about key characteristics. Dies also noted that it was always Haydn’s intention to “touch the heart in various ways” in his works.15 Haydn himself did not leave any written evidence of his opinion as to the meaning of the keys, but his biographer William Gardiner included a list of what he termed “key complexions” that contains many descriptions congruent with the prevailing opinions of contemporaneous writers.16

Beethoven’s Studies with Salieri Richard Kramer has presented convincing evidence that Beethoven’s studies with Salieri took place from 1798-1801.17 Beethoven went to Salieri mainly to receive advice on vocal writing and on the best manner in which to set Italian texts and was assigned the article “Recitativ” from Sulzer’s Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste [General theory of the fine arts] by Salieri during this period.18 Two of the pages from the “Kessler” Sketchbook contain copies Beethoven made of most of the examples that Johann Abraham Peter Schulz (1747-1800)—author of the article—included, many of which are by Carl Heinrich Graun.19 In his article “Constructing Le nozze di Figaro,” Daniel Heartz 12 Johann Mattheson, Der vollkommene Capellmeister (Hamburg: Herold, 1739); trans. Ernest Charles Harriss, Johann Mattheson’s Der vollkommene Capellmeister: A Revised Translation with Critical Commentary (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1981). 13 Charles Burney, A General History of Music, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Period, To Which is Prefixed, a Dissertation on the Music of the Ancients, 4 vols. (London: Printed for the Author, 1776-1789), ed. Frank Mercer (New York: Dover Publications, 1957); Albert Christoph Dies, Biographische Nachrichten von Joseph Haydn (Vienna: Camesina, 1810); Georg August Griesinger, Biographische Notizen über Joseph Haydn (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1810). 14 H. C. Robbins Landon and David Wyn Jones, Haydn: His Life and Music (London: Thames and Hudson, 1988), p. 30. 15 Vernon Gotwals, Joseph Haydn: Eighteenth-Century Gentleman and Genius (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963), p. 125; trans. of Griesinger and Dies. 16 William Gardiner, ed., The Life of Haydn by Marie Henri Beyle [L. A. C. Bombet], trans. C. Berry (London: Murray, 1817; repr. Boston: Wilkins and Carter, 1839), pp. 76-79. 17 Richard A. Kramer, “Beethoven and Carl Heinrich Graun,” in Beethoven Studies, ed. Alan Tyson (New York: Norton, 1973), p. 22. 18 Johann Georg Sulzer, Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste, 2 vols. (Leipzig: Weidemann, 1771-77). 19 Kramer, “Beethoven and Graun,” pp. 26-27. Kramer highlights a clear relationship between a

16

Beethoven and the Background to Key Symbolism

quotes Salieri discussing the custom he himself followed when selecting keys for an opera: “Following the practice of my teacher [Florian Gassmann] I decided first on the key appropriate to the character of each lyric number.”20 Heartz further comments on Salieri’s attitude to tonality: “His first musical thoughts of all, it should be emphasized, were how to stretch the available tonalities over the whole framework so as to match key and textual affect.” It is highly likely that these were among the principles promulgated during Salieri’s work with Beethoven, who thus became the second generation to be exposed to the ideas of Gassmann, thereby reinforcing the practice of tonal symbolism that Beethoven had already been following since his time in Bonn. Given the evidence that Salieri did think affectively as far as his use of key was concerned, the significance of the only list of key characteristics by an Italian theorist at that time becomes all the more important. Francesco Galeazzi included definitions of the keys in his Elementi teorico-pratici di musica [The theoretical and practical elements of music], the most comprehensive eighteenth-century theoretical treatise of the era by an Italian.21 In his introductory remarks he makes clear that he is thinking about vocal works in his descriptions of tonal affect: It is certain that the wise composer begins with the choice of key in order to support the character of the words. […] It is […] undeniable that all the keys of modern music, although they all have the same proportions and intervals, nevertheless have different characters, which is of importance for the composer to know intimately.22

Rita Steblin speculates that, owing to the somewhat idiosyncratic nature of some of his definitions—A minor being a case in point—he probably had specific works in mind.23 Yet in the majority of instances there is clear congruency between his definitions and those of many other contemporary writers. Galeazzi’s descriptions take on an important significance with regard to Salieri’s works and can be clearly seen as being compatible with them on many occasions.24 Salieri’s oratorio La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Christo is a case in point, in which many close matches with Galeazzi’s definitions can be found. passage in Graun’s unpublished cantata Disperata Porcia, example 3 in Schulz’s article, and the end of the recitative “Jehovah, du mein Vater!” in Christus am Ölberge. 20 Daniel Heartz, “Constructing Le nozze di Figaro,” Journal of the Royal Musical Association 112 (1987): 83. 21 Francesco Galeazzi, Elementi teorico-pratici di musica, 2 vols. (i, Rome: Pilucchi Cracas, 1791; ii, Rome: M. Puccinelli, 1796). 22 Galeazzi, 1796, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 103, quoted in John A. Rice, Antonio Salieri and Viennese Opera (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 99-100, with small changes. 23 Galeazzi designates A minor as far more powerful on the affective spectrum than do other writers: “extremely lugubrious and gloomy […] it expresses slaughters, massacres, and funeral dirges.” Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 105. 24 Rice draws attention to many of them. See in particular pp. 99-102.

17

The Key to Beethoven

Beethoven as Teacher Beethoven naturally drew on his own experience in 1809 when selecting materials for the instruction of his only composition student Archduke Rudolph, the youngest son of Emperor Leopold II and brother of Emperor Francis II.25 Much of material contained information on key characteristics. Warren Kirkendale has authoritatively identified the following items that were assigned for this task: Zarlino’s Le istitutioni harmoniche [The harmonic foundations],26 Mattheson’s Der vollkommene Capellmeister, Sulzer’s Allgemeine Theorie, and Kirnberger’s Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik [The art of strict musical composition].27

Beethoven’s Own Views on Key Characteristics The historical evidence for Beethoven’s own views on this subject is somewhat scarce, falling into two categories: primary and secondary factual evidence that comes directly from Beethoven himself, and anecdotal evidence that comes down from a variety of secondary sources. The most significant primary source with a direct link to Beethoven is a letter to his Scottish publisher George Thomson (1757-1851). Written in French in an unknown hand, it is dated February 19, 1813, and signed by Beethoven himself. In it he discusses the keys of some of the folksong arrangements: The last two Airs in your letter of December 21 pleased me very much, for this reason I composed them con amore, particularly the second. You wrote it in (four flats) but as this key seems to me so little natural (peu naturel)28 and so little analogous (peu analogue) to the inscription Amoroso that on the contrary it would change it to Barbaresco, I have treated it in the key that suits it.

The significance of this final sentence should not be underestimated. Here Beethoven directly acknowledged that some keys are more suited to the expression of specific emotions than others, a fundamental tenet in the philosophy of key characteristics. Barry Cooper has identified the song in question as Judy, Lovely, 25 Prince Rudolf Johannes Joseph Rainer von Habsburg-Lothringen (1788-1831), Archduke of Austria, Cardinal Archbishop of Olomouc. 26 Gioseffo Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice: Senese, 1558). 27 Johann Philipp Kirnberger, Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik, 2 vols. (i, Berlin: Christian Friedrich Voss, 1771, ii, Berlin and Königsberg: Decker und Hartung, 1776-79), trans. David Beach and Jurgen Thym, The Art of Strict Musical Composition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982). 28 Anderson has “peut natural” in her version. The Letters of Beethoven, trans. and ed. Emily Anderson, 3 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1961), i, no. 405, p. 406; original in Ludwig van Beethoven: Briefwechsel Gesamtausgabe, Sieghard Brandenburg, ed., 7 vols. (Munich: Henle, 1996), ii, no. 623, p. 320. The translation is by William Meredith, in “Beethoven’s Sonata in A-flat Major, Opus 110: Music of Amiability, Lament, and Restoration,” The Beethoven Journal 17 (2002): 20.

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Beethoven and the Background to Key Symbolism

Matchless Creature, number nineteen in the collection Twenty Irish Songs, WoO 153, and marked Andantino amoroso.29 Beethoven subsequently changed the key to B-flat major, thus clearly documenting his view of this key as being “amoroso,” while also acknowledging A-flat major as being “barbaresco,” thus allying it to the affective praxis in this key defined by Schubart, scion of exponents of key characteristics, as grave-like.30 Theorist Heinrich Christoph Koch defines amoroso as lieblich (lovely), liebenswürdig (kind), and zärtlich (tender), definitions that are all congruent with several views of this key held by other contemporary writers.31 A second primary source also directly attributable to Beethoven is taken from the sketch for his Cello Sonata in D Major, Op. 102, No. 2, dating from 1815. Beethoven jotted a short passage in B minor that failed to make it into the completed work, writing in the margin next to it: “h moll schwarze Tonart” (B minor black/dark key), thus linking this key with writers from Johann Mattheson onwards who characterize B minor in such a manner.32 Galeazzi even went so far as to recommend that it be “banished from the music of good taste.”33 It is surely no coincidence that when Beethoven arranged the Marcia funebre sulla morte d’un Eroe from the Piano Sonata, Op. 26 (original key: A-flat minor), as part of the incidental music to Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96, he chose to transpose it into B minor, thus making it more playable for orchestra while still retaining the all-important affective characteristics of this work.34 These then are the two sole examples of direct, incontestable evidence where both key and character are mentioned simultaneously by Beethoven, thereby illustrating his awareness of tonal affect and connecting him with contemporaneous affective praxes in both of these keys. Each of these incidents—clear examples from Beethoven himself—attest strongly to the fact that he did indeed believe in tonal symbolism. Wilson, when describing the above “fleeting mentions,” notes that they are “a poor guide for reconstructing [Beethoven’s] beliefs in detail.”35 However, as will be seen later, Beethoven’s views as expressed above do not represent the totality of his thoughts on these keys.

Barry Cooper, Beethoven’s Folksong Settings (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), pp. 20-21. “Barbaresco” can be translated in several ways: “barbarous,” “wild,” “savage,” “discordant,” “foreign.” While not a direct match with Schubart, it does form an antithesis to the alternative affective praxis in this key, characterized as heavenly. This book will show that both of these affective praxes were used by Beethoven. See Ch. 2, pp. 116-20 for detailed information. 31 Heinrich Christoph Koch, Musikalisches Lexikon (Frankfurt a.M.: Hermann, 1802), p. 48. 32 This entry is found on fol. 40 of the so-called “Scheide” Sketchbook, which now resides in the Scheide Library at Princeton University, New Jersey, USA. This observation was first recorded by Nottebohm in 1887. Gustav Nottebohm, Zweite Beethoveniana: Nachgelassene Aufsätze (Leipzig: Peters, 1887), p. 326. 33 Galeazzi, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 105. 34 This work will be considered in more detail in the Conclusion, p. 393. 35 Wilson, p. 15. 29 30

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The Key to Beethoven

Examples of secondary evidence—passages in a particular style that Beethoven characterized with affective descriptions without making a direct mention of the connected key—will now be considered. There are several from which to choose. Thayer described a project Beethoven was considering for two operas on mythological themes, Bacchus and Romulus und Remus, and quoted some extant sketches from 1815. One of these—a three-measure fragment—is in F major, above which Beethoven commented: “Throughout the subject must be treated in a pastoral vein.”36 The crucial difference between this type of evidence and that just discussed is that Beethoven did not here directly describe F major as being a pastoral key. Rather, he composed a passage in F major, and stated that the sketch should continue in a pastoral style, thus strongly implying this connection. Other descriptors arrived at in a similar manner include la gaieté (cheerful), a jotting seen on a sketch for the C major slow movement of String Quartet in E-flat major, Op. 127; lustig (happy), and traurig (sad)—an affective characterization of modal mixture—in reference to the Klavierstück, WoO 54 in C minor; pathétique to describe the Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13, billed in its first edition as Grande Sonate pathétique;37 grell (harsh or glaring) in relation to G-sharp major, when commenting on his tonicization of this key in Pizarro and Rocco’s duet, “Jetzt, Alter, hat es eile!” in Act I of Fidelio,38 zärtl (tender) in relation to mm. 65-66 of the finale of the Ninth Symphony,39 and beklemmt (oppressed), indicated in the score above the modulation to C-flat major in the Cavatina of the String Quartet in B-flat major, Op. 130.40 Many anecdotal accounts of Beethoven’s interest in tonal affect and his practice of it both in performance and composition are extant, several of which will be mentioned here. In the first, Johann Baptist Schenk (1753-1836) described his initial meeting with Beethoven in 1792, an occasion when the master improvised: Having struck a few chords and tossed off a few figures as if they were of no significance, the creative genius gradually unveiled his profoundly psychological pictures. My ear was continually charmed by the beauty of the many and varied motives which he wove with wonderful clarity and loveliness into each other, and I surrendered my heart to the impressions made upon it while he gave himself wholly up to his creative imagination, and anon, leaving the field of mere tonal charm, boldly stormed the most distant keys in order to give expression to violent passions.41 Thayer-Forbes, p. 618. Grande Sonate pathétique Pour le Clavecin ou Piano-Forte (Vienna: Joseph Eder, 1799). 38 Mm. 62-64. 39 See Ch. 7, p. 345 for a more detailed discussion of this passage. 40 The fifth movement—Cavatina—mm. 42-44. 41 Ibid., pp. 140-1. It should, however, be remembered that this was not recounted to Thayer until 1830, when Schenk was in his mid-seventies, and thus the accuracy of his recall might be subject to question. 36 37

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Schenk’s description linking the most distant keys to “violent passions” is significant and can be seem in many of Beethoven’s compositions as well as his improvisations. In Op. 110, the “Klangender Gesang”—a title such as this is clearly indicative of extreme emotion—begins in A-flat minor, one of the most remote keys available to Beethoven. Another example can be found in the Credo of the Missa solemnis, where the key of C-flat major is used to project the word “judicare”—here meaning the ultimate divine judgment, the implication of which is surely hyper-emotional for all those being judged. In another anecdote, Friedrich Rochlitz, editor of the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung [General music journal], who met Beethoven on a trip to Vienna in 1822, recounted that while discussing the work of the poet and dramatist Friedrich Klopstock, Beethoven stated: Goethe has killed Klopstock for me. You wonder? Now you laugh? Ah, because I have read Klopstock! I carried him about with me for years when I walked. What besides? Well I didn’t always understand him. He skips about so; and he always begins so far away, above or below; always Maestoso! D-flat major! Isn’t it so? But he’s great, nevertheless, and uplifts the soul. When I couldn’t understand him I sort of guessed at him.42

This remark about the nature of the poet Klopstock’s texts, attributed to Beethoven by Rochlitz, is spurious according to Beethoven scholar Maynard Solomon, yet regardless of its authenticity, the descriptor contained therein does match the characteristics of much of the music that Beethoven wrote in this key. However, John Wilson correctly observes that its veracity is immaterial, since Rochlitz assumed that such a cross-disciplinary comment would easily be understood and deemed believable by his audience regardless. Musicologist Leo Treitler was able to find empirical evidence in the music for this descriptor in the third movement of the Ninth Symphony, where he characterized the modulation to D-flat major at the end of the movement as reflective of just such an affect.43 This designation is also supported by the opinions of several other writers.44 Beethoven also held strong views on transposition. Another of his contemporaries, Ludwig Nohl, described an occasion when Beethoven and Friedrich Starke performed the Sonata in F Major, Op. 17 for horn and piano. When it was discovered that the piano was a half step flat, Starke suggested that he transpose the horn part down by inserting his E crook. Beethoven stated that playing it in E major would spoil the affect, instead retaining the intended pitch by transposing the piano part into F-sharp major “in a wondrously beautiful way; the passages rolled along so clear and fine that one 42 Friedrich Kerst, Beethoven. The Man and the Artist, as Revealed in his Own Words, trans. and ed. Henry Edward Krehbiel (New York: Dover, 1964), p. 59. However, Maynard Solomon has questioned whether Beethoven ever met Rochlitz in “On Beethoven’s Creative Process: A TwoPart Invention,” Music & Letters 61 (1980): 280-82. 43 Leo Treitler “To Worship that Celestial Sound,” Journal of Musicology 1 (1982): 155. 44 See Ch. 3, pp. 141-43..

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couldn’t believe at all that he was transposing.”45 While Starke’s plan would have been far simpler for Beethoven, this illustrates the lengths to which Beethoven would go in order to preserve the affective integrity of a work. A similar occasion, reported by Franz Wegeler, occurred at a rehearsal of Piano Concerto No. 2 in B-flat Major, Op. 19, again necessitating Beethoven’s transposing the whole work into B Major in order to preserve the integrity of the intended key.46 Mattheson was also in agreement with this principle, observing “transposition is not at all to be sanctioned. Unless when used out of dire need, it is a sign of uncouth ignorance and inexperience with the basic rules of harmony (and music).”47 One can almost imagine Beethoven himself making such a statement! The remaining examples of anecdotal evidence come from Anton Schindler, who remains a problematic source at best. He was the author of the first substantive biography of Beethoven, the first edition, Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven, dating from 1840,48 followed by a complete revision in 1860.49 Given the many instances of fabrication and manipulation of facts that have been unearthed over the years, Schindler’s statements need to be treated with extreme caution, and, where possible, verified from other sources.50 Schindler’s first claim is that Beethoven believed strongly in key characteristics. He placed Beethoven on record as saying: “To deny without reason the special character of the different keys was to Beethoven like denying the effect of the sun and the moon on the ebb and flow of the tides.”51 He continued by supposedly quoting Beethoven directly on this matter: “You say it doesn’t matter whether a song is in F minor, E minor, or G minor; I call that as nonsensical as saying that two times two are five.”52 He also recounted Beethoven’s fascination with this topic: It was this branch of music theory that Beethoven most of all enjoyed discussing with cultivated musicians, and he was in awe of what the genius of his great predecessors, Gluck, Haydn, and Mozart had accomplished in the use of tonal coloring to characterize their works. […] one reason for Ludwig Nohl, Beethoven, nach den Schilderungen seiner Zeitgenossen (Stuttgart: Cotta, 1877), pp. 114-15, trans. Thayer-Forbes, p. 526. 46 Franz Gerhard Wegeler and Ferdinand Ries, Biographische Notizen über Ludwig van Beethoven (Koblenz: Bädeker), 1838, p. 36. 47 Johann Mattheson, Exemplarische Organisten-Probe (Hamburg: Schiller & Kißner, 1717), p. 67. 48 Anton Felix Schindler, Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven (Münster: Aschendorff, 1840), trans. Ignaz Moscheles, The Life of Beethoven, 2 vols. (London: Colborn, 1841; repr. Mattapan, MA: Gamut Music, 1966). 49 Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven, 2 vols. (Münster: Aschendorff, 1860), trans. Constance S. Jolly, ed. Donald W. MacArdle, Beethoven as I Knew Him (London: Faber, 1966). 50 Ibid., p. 367. But see Introduction, p. 1, n. 2 for information on a partial rehabilitation of Schindler’s reputation by Theodore Albrecht. 51 Ibid., p. 369. 52 Ibid. 45

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Beethoven’s great admiration of Mozart’s Zauberflöte […] was [his] use here of various keys according to their specific psychical qualities.53

A further claim concerns the content of discussions between Beethoven and August Kanne over key characteristics. Kanne argued that orchestral pitch had been gradually rising and how transposition made no difference to a work, both of which invalidated the concept of tonal symbolism. Each of these points was refuted by Beethoven, who maintained that the rise in pitch had been so small as to be almost unnoticeable, and that the understanding of individual key characteristics had risen along with pitch.54 Schindler’s final anecdote concerns Beethoven’s disapproval of transposing music, a statement clearly supported by Nohl’s account: “If anyone had dared to play even a little song of his in another key in his presence, the malefactor would soon have regretted his mistake. He was incensed when he heard this or that number from a Mozart opera performed in a key other than its original one.”55 Schindler recorded elsewhere that it was Beethoven’s considered opinion that “music has a character of its own that loses its specific quality if it is transposed into another key,” a view supported by the earlier account of his performance with Starke.56

Writers of Treatises with which Beethoven Was Familiar There is clear evidence that at least one volume by each of the following writers was known to Beethoven and used by him in his own studies or teaching. Johann Mattheson (1681-1764) Mattheson’s most important pronouncements on key characteristics can be found in his first treatise, Das neu-eröffnete Orchestre [The newly-opened orchestra].57 While it is not known if Beethoven had access to this publication directly, its inclusion here is important since the views promulgated on keys and meaning were extremely influential on the ensuing generation of writers. Detailed descriptions of key characteristics are given in this treatise that will be considered in Chapters Two and Three. It should be noted, however, that Mattheson stated that these descriptions were subjective, based on his personal experience. It is known that Beethoven owned a copy of Der vollkommene Capellmeister at the time of his death, also having access to a second copy in

Ibid., p. 367. Ibid., p. 368. 55 Ibid., p. 369. 56 Ibid., p. 367. 57 Johann Mattheson, Das neu-eröffnete Orchestre (Hamburg: der Autor und Benjamin Schillers Wittwe, 1713). 53 54

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Archduke Rudolph’s personal library.58 Richard Kramer has established that Beethoven’s use of this treatise can be documented well before that time, as early as 1790 in fact, while he was still in Bonn, a thesis supported by a reference in one of the conversation books.59 In this treatise Mattheson touched only briefly upon the character of the keys “each of which exhibits its special and unique nature,” observing that instruction on the “nature and character of each key, namely whether it is happy, sad, lovely, devout, etc. […] [has been] spoken sufficiently in the said books,” a clear reference to his earlier work.60 Later he mentioned the importance of understanding the temperaments: One of the most important things that a composer and director would have to master [is] the most refined teaching on temperaments […] for no one who is not acquainted with a passion as if he had experienced it himself […] will be skilled at exciting a similar passion in other people’s feelings.61

He also discusses there how a composer should approach the act of composition itself: It is not really necessary that a composer, if for example he wants to write down a dirge, [or] a lamentation […] would begin to cry and weep: yet it is absolutely necessary that he open his mind and heart to the affection at hand to a certain measure; otherwise he will fare badly.62

Somewhat later still he stated “The goal of our musical work […] is pleasing and stirring the listeners,” for “the greatest expressiveness […] stems from the affections and passions, and without these they can no more stand than a carriage without wheels.”63 Kramer also documents a later instance in 1802-03 where Beethoven consulted it again. While involved in the composition of Ne’ giorni tuoi felici [In the days of your happiness], WoO 93, he actually copyied out Mattheson’s half-aria Languisco! e moro! [I languish and die!].64 Kramer rightly observes that there is a similarity in the pathos of the texts, yet, on closer ex58 See Albert Leitzmann, Ludwig van Beethoven: Berichte der Zeitgenossen, Briefe und persönliche Aufzeichnungen (Leipzig: Insel-Verlag, 1921), ii, pp. 379-83. 59 Richard Kramer, “Notes to Beethoven’s Education,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 28 (1975): 92-94. 60 Johann Mattheson, trans. Ernest C. Harris, Der vollkommene Capellmeister: A Revised Translation with Critical Commentary (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1981), pp. 187-88. He is referring to Das neu-eröffnete Orchestre and Grosse General-Bass-Schule (Hamburg: Kißner, 1731). It is not known if Beethoven used either of these volumes. 61 Ibid., p. 262. 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid., pp. 295, 319. 64 Ibid., pp. 631-32. Hess assigns this catalogue number 229 in The New Hess Catalogue of Beethoven’s Works, ed. James Green (West Newbury, VT: Vance Brook, 2003), p. 122.

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amination, the parallels are in fact rather stronger.65 Mattheson’s solo aria is in A minor—for him a plaintive key—and there is a passage in WoO 93 that modulates to A minor at m. 126 at the mention of the word “languir” (languish). Beethoven employed A minor here in a plaintive, sorrowful fashion in a very similar manner to Mattheson.66 Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1721-1783) Kramer has also argued convincingly that Beethoven was familiar with Kirnberger’s Treatise Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik, beginning to study it in 1790, just the same time as he was delving into Mattheson’s treatise.67 One can imagine the scene. Here the nineteen-year-old Beethoven, hard at work on his Joseph and Leopold cantatas, copied at least a single harmony exercise from one of the most influential treatises in the German-speaking world. One pictures him finally acquiring a copy and poring over each page with characteristic teenage enthusiasm, in an effort to see if it could teach him anything or affirm opinions he already had. As Kramer shows, it was a text to which he would return throughout his life, for he cites a second instance of its use, coincidentally around the same time as he was working on Mattheson’s Languisco. In it, Kirnberger defended the practice of unequal temperament and the manner in which it maintained the individuality of the keys. One of Kirnberger’s three requirements for a good temperament was that it should not spoil the diverse nature of the keys. In his critique of equal temperament he argued: Thus nothing was really gained by the twenty-four scales; on the contrary, a great deal was lost. […] the simple diatonic scale as used by the older composers produced various modes, each quite distinct in character. Of these modes, the ones best suited for expression could always be chosen. Equal temperament eliminates this and allows the composer only the choice between the major and the minor mode.68

However, while a specific set of key characteristics does not appear in any of Kirnberger’s writings, he does list the qualities of the church modes as specified by Wolfgang Printz and Johann Buttstett, thus either introducing Beethoven to both the origins and history of key characteristics and the affective potential of the modes or reaffirming knowledge he already possessed.69

Kramer, “Notes to Beethoven’s Education,” p. 96. Beethoven first copied it out note for note, and then, in a second working attempted to add canonic entries to it. In doing so, he anticipated the next chapter of Mattheson. Kramer, “Notes to Beethoven’s Education,” pp. 96-97. 67 Kramer, “Notes to Beethoven’s Education,” pp. 73-74. He points out that a six-volume edition of Kirnberger’s writings was sold at the auctions of Beethoven’s belongings in November 1827. 68 Kirnberger, Strict Musical Composition, pp. 19-20. 69 Ibid., p. 323. 65 66

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Kirnberger also classified the keys by the purity of their thirds, going in to great detail about how they should be tuned. In these descriptions he moved closer to giving information on key characteristics: [the minor mode] is far more suited than is the major mode to the expression of disquieting sentiments and evokes sadness by the minor third from the fundamental tone, while the major third of the major mode arouses joy and liveliness. […] major modes are particularly suited to cheerful, lively, and extroverted carefree melodies; the minor modes, however, are preferable where tenderness, sad and adverse sentiments, caution and indecision are to be expressed.70

He also described modal reversal, stating “it is possible to produce cheerfulness in a melody composed in a minor key and sadness in one in a major key, but this is more forced than if the mode proper to the affection were chosen.”71 Finally he outlined his views on key characteristics: Each major key is also noticeably different from other major keys, just as each minor key is different from all other minor keys. We also see from the works of the great masters that they have been very careful to select for special effects not only the most suitable mode in general but also the most suitable among the twelve keys of that mode.72

As an example of just how important it is to make the correct choice of key, and also as a warning against transposition, he then cited Carl Heinrich Graun’s E-flat major chorus “Mora, mora, Ifigenia” [Die, die, Ifigenia], from the opera Ifigenia in Aulide. In doing so, he revealed something of his views on the characteristics of certain keys: Just try and transpose this chorus into D or F major, and I will ask each person who has merely some discriminating ability: Is not the effect it produces in D major similar to the effect of a student march? Does it not sound like a hunting piece when in F major?73

The image of a march here is congruent with the contemporaneos understanding of D major as being joyful, rousing, and triumphant, while the hunting reference to F major reflects a second affective use in that key (the pastoral use has already been mentioned). These are both clear indications of his belief in key characteristics.74 Kirnberger described the “frightful strength” the original key Ibid., pp. 338-39. Ibid. 72 Ibid., p. 339. 73 Johann Philipp Kirnberger, Vermischte Musikalien (Berlin: Winter, 1769), trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 75. 74 The concept of contrasting affective praxes in individual tonalities and detailed meanings of both these keys will be given in Chs. 2 and 3. 70 71

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of E-flat major inspired, attributing this to size of particular intervals in unequal temperament.75 He continued: “if it were to be transposed to another major key, for example C major or G major, it would lose much of its power,” and in doing so, touched on one reason why this key acquired the character of being heroic.76 He supported his premise with a second example, C. P. E. Bach’s keyboard piece La Xenophon et la Sybille, the first part of which is in the remote key of C-sharp major.77 Perhaps the seeds of Beethoven’s own views on transposition were sown in the opinions expressed by Kirnberger here, yet at no point does the author offer any further concrete images of tonal symbolism. He also alluded to the idea of key characteristics being applied to internal modulations in a work, something that will be discussed more fully in Chapter Four. In the chapter on modulation he stated: It is impossible to explain exactly which features differentiate one key from another; but a trained ear perceives it, and, though it is impossible to establish definite rules, a composer sufficiently equipped with reason and sensitivity will always know which key to choose according to the character of what he wants to express.78

What he described here is none other than the concept of affective modulation.79 Johann Georg Sulzer (1720-1779) A pupil of Kirnberger, Sulzer actively encouraged his teacher to write Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik. He had solicited Kirberger’s teacher’s help with articles for his massive and highly influential Allgemeine Theorie, which was published in two volumes in 1771 and 1774, also involving one of his fellow students, Johann Abraham Peter Schulz. Sulzer’s treatise was so popular that it was reprinted in 1792, fourteen years after his death, and it continued to circulate widely throughout Europe. It was Schulz who wrote the article entitled “Temperatur” that dealt with the character of the keys, and his views correlate closely with Kirnberger’s, even going so far as to quote the same Graun example concerning the evils of transposition.80 While individual affective descriptions are not given, Schulz did comment on the quality of purity held by each key: It is certain that the purest keys are little suited to pathetic expressions; Kirnberger, Vermischte Musikalien, p. 80. While other writers disputed Mattheson’s reasons for assigning key characteristics, few denied the presence of tonal symbolism itself. 76 Kirnberger, Strict Musical Composition, p. 339. 77 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, “La Xenophon et la Sybille,” in Musikalisches Allerley von verschiedenen Tonkünstlern (Berlin: n. p., 1761). 78 Kirnberger, Strict Musical Composition, p. 121. 79 See Ch. 4, pp. 185-86 for further information on the concept of affective modulation. 80 Johann Abraham Peter Schulz, “Temperatur,” in Sulzer, Allgemeine Theorie, ii, 1149-50, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 78. 75

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on the contrary, taking into consideration the special expression of major or minor, they are best used for amusing, noisy and martial expressions, for pleasing, tender and playful expressions, or often for merely serious expressions. The less pure keys are, according to their degree of impurity, always more effective for mixed feelings, whose impact is most forceful in the hardest major and softest minor keys.81

Again, clear connections can be seen with contemporaneous definitions of key characteristics here: for instance, “martial expressions” hints at what will be designated the first affective praxis of C major in Chapter Two.82 In addition to the unequivocal instance of Beethoven’s familiarity with this work—his copying of Schultz’s examples in his article entitled “Recitativ” has already been mentioned—Owen Jander has also pointed out the connection between Mähler’s portrait of Beethoven dating from around 1805 and various articles in Allgemeine Theorie relating to art. Jander noted that Beethoven’s teacher Neefe was familiar with it, having been inspired by his own mentor, Johann Adam Hiller (1728-1804),83 to whom he paid glowing tribute: “he is the well of my musical knowledge […] his readiness to supply me with […] such books as […] Sulzer’s Theorie, wherein art was dealt with along psychological lines of thought […] did more good than any formal instruction might have done.”84 He also felt strongly enough to publish a rebuttal of the article on “Charakter” in Allgemeine Theorie. It seems a reasonable therefore to assume that Beethoven was thoroughly familiar with this treatise from an early age. Georg Joseph Vogler (1749-1814) Abbé Vogler was known personally to Beethoven and moved in similar circles to him from 1802-5, performing on concert programs at which Beethoven was present and his music played.85 While it has not yet been established whether Beethoven was familiar with all Vogler’s theoretical writings on key characteristics, Richard Kramer has shown that Beethoven did make use of his Gründe der Kuhrpfälzischen Tonschule [Musical fundamentals of the Electoral Palatinate school] when writing his Zwei Präludien durch alle Tonarten, Op. 39.86 Another treatise with which Beethoven was familiar, which does Schultz, “Ton,” in Sulzer, Allgemeine Theorie, ii, 1157, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 79. See Chapter 2, pp. 49-53. 83 Owen Jander, “Exploring Sulzer’s Allgemeine Theorie as a Source Used by Beethoven,” Beethoven Newsletter 2 (1987): 5. 84 Paul Nettl, Forgotten Musicians (New York: Philosophical Library, 1951), pp. 253-54. 85 For instance, Vogler’s opera Samori was commissioned by Emanuel Schikaneder and given its première at the Theater an der Wien in May 1804, the same venue that saw the unsuccessful première of Fidelio eighteen months later. 86 Georg Joseph Vogler, Gründe der Kuhrpfälzischen Tonschule: in Beispielen als Vorbereitung zur Mannheimer Monat-Schrift und zu den Herausgaben des öffentlichen Tonlehrers (Mannheim: Selbstverlag, 1778). Kramer, “Notes to Beethoven’s Education,” p. 73. 81

82

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contain information about key characteristics is Vogler’s Choral-System [Choralmethod] dating from 1800, which was found in Beethoven’s Nachlass following his death.87 In a passage discussing temperament, Vogler reflected: How can one achieve an acceptable purity without sacrificing the characteristics of the keys? […] The characteristics of the keys separate into sharp (scharf) and flat (weich) major keys. If A major harmonies were to sound like E[ harmonies, B like A[, then our multifaceted system would be at an end.88

On one occasion in 1804, Johann Gänsbacher described a competition between Vogler and Beethoven at a musical soirée at Joseph Sonnleithner’s home at which each improvised upon the other’s themes.89 Vogler was also acquainted with Schubart—whose writings on key characteristics were destined to become the most widely disseminated of the era—who considered Vogler one of the finest keyboard players in Europe. It thus seems probable that both theorists would have been familiar with each other’s writings, including the passages on key characteristics. As early as 1779 Vogler had given a clear explanation of what the sharp/flat principle was—whereby the affect of sharp keys became brighter, while for flat keys it grew ever darker: “If we go up by fifths through G, D, A, and E, there is always an increase of strength, effect, cutting quality and penetration. If we go down by fifths through F, B-flat, E-flat, and A-flat, all strength is reduced and the impression becomes duller and darker.”90 Justus Johannes Heinrich Ribock (1743-c. 1785) Ribock published a list of key characteristics in Cramer’s Magazin der Musik in 1783.91 In his introductory paragraph, he stated: I wish to set the keys down here according to the rank and quality which they have for me, and herewith invite other observers to share likewise their opinion and the register of their feelings. But how should I make feelings readable! […] One never notices more clearly than on such occasions that the soul is greater than an inkwell. […] Hopefully I will Georg Joseph Vogler, Choral-System (Offenbach am Main: J. André, 1800). Vogler, Choral-System, p. 17, trans. Bruce Edward Clausen, “Beethoven and the Psyches of the Keys” (doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1988), p. 86. 89 This soirée is described in Joseph Frölich, Biographie des grossen Tonkünstlers Abt Georg Joseph Vogler (Würzburg: Thein, 1845). 90 Vogler, “Ausdruck,” in Deutsche Encyclopädie (Frankfurt a.M.: Varrentrapp Sohn und Wenner, 1779), ii, 386, trans. Rita Steblin, “A Polemical View of Key Characteristics and a Bach-SchumannMahler Tribute to C Minor,” in Festschrift for Alexander L. Ringer, ed. Steven Whiting (Urbana, IL: Private Printing, 1991), p. 5. 91 Justus Johannes Heinrich Ribock, “Über Musik; an Flötenlieber insonderheit,” in Magazin der Musik, ed. Carl Friedrich Cramer, 1 (1783): 706-09. 87 88

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be rather understood if I compare keys with colors. […]92

His list, which is certainly idiosyncratic, shows signs of the sharp/flat principle in operation. C major, for instance, is seen as somewhat neutral and “will not express one [affect] that is very strong and marked,” whereas E major shows a certain “hardness,” and the sharper major keys are seen as being similar to E. In contrast, F major is less majestic than B-flat major, and E-flat and A-flat majors are related.93 Unlike Vogler, he also included descriptions of the minor keys. His list is one of the first in which keys are connected with colors, a practice known as synesthesia. This may well have been influential on Beethoven, who, in his own designations of key characteristics described B minor being a “black” key, and A-flat major “dark.” In the same edition of this magazine, Neefe’s review of the thirteen-year-old Beethoven appeared, who must surely have savored it from cover to cover, doubtless thrilled by seeing his name in print. However, there is no record of his having expressed an opinion on this particular article. In all likelihood this is the first instance of Beethoven having been exposed to such a list, at a moment when he was becoming aware of the concept of key characteristics on an intellectual as opposed to a visceral level. Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart (1739-1791) Beethoven’s familiarity with the most famous and influential list of key characteristics by Schubart can be firmly established via several routes. Undoubtedly the most widely-circulated and influential description of the keys, Schubart’s list was published in 1787 and 1789 in the Vaterländische Chronik [National chronicle] and again posthumously by his son Ludwig in 1806.94 Such was the strength of Schubart’s belief in key characteristics that he felt obliged to observe: “In short, musical expression is so precisely determined by means of all keys that, although philosophical critics have not yet given it much importance, it nevertheless far surpasses poetical and pictoral [sic] expression in its precision.” Steblin observes that “The personal, fantastic images which Schubart conjured up for each key were especially appealing to the romantic mind and had a tremendous impact on subsequent publications of key descriptions; even Beethoven and Schumann were moved to comment on Schubart’s views.”95 However, some of these “fantastic images” were clearly problematic for Beethoven, G minor being a case in point.96 Schubart’s definitions were Ibid., trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 109. Ibid. 94 Schubart, “Charakteristik der Töne: Aus meiner Ästhetik der Tonkunst,” Vaterländische Chronik (1787): 55-56, 63-64; “Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst,” Vaterlands-Chronik (1789): 211-15. 95 Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 115. 96 Schubart’s definition reads “Discontent, uneasiness, worry about a failed scheme; bad-tempered gnashing of teeth; in a word: resentment and dislike,” trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 116. The first affective praxis of G Minor that Beethoven employed is congruent with 92 93

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also reflective of the sharp/flat principle, with C major forming an emotional ground zero. Schindler recounted with accuracy that Beethoven owned a copy of Schubart’s Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst [Ideas for an aesthetic of music] in his relatively small library, and quoted Beethoven’s opinions about it. He would […] applaud loudly the learned Schubart for his observations on the characters of the various keys, even though he was not always in full agreement. He generally agreed about the minor keys (on which the Greeks had already done some basic work), but disagreed about some of the major keys, or rather in vocal music he limited their psychical significance according to the tempo of the piece of music and number of voices singing. As for instrumental music, especially quartets and orchestral works, Beethoven generally disregarded Schubart’s characterizations of the keys because many of them were ambiguous or impracticable. He did, however, accept them up to a point in his piano music and trios.97

Despite Beethoven’s expressed reservations, Schindler noted his encomium for Ideen: “Nevertheless…[he]…held Schubart’s book in such high regard he recommended its careful study to those already far advanced in their musical training.”98 Schubart’s list of key characteristics was also included in the first volume of the Wiener Pianoforte-Schule by Friedrich Starke (1774-1835).99 Starke was the horn player already mentioned in regard to Beethoven’s views on transposition—a fortepiano teacher, and a member of Beethoven’s circle. Both Starke and Beethoven also shared a pedagogical connection, having studied counterpoint with Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (1736-1809). Starke met Beethoven around 1812, and they remained in contact until Beethoven’s death. Such was the respect with which Beethoven held Starke’s pedagogical skills that he entrusted his nephew Karl to him for piano lessons. All of Schubart’s key descriptions in the Wiener Pianoforte-Schule were placed directly above the printed scales, visually linking these scales to the affects. For example: “C major is completely pure. Its character is: innocence, simplicity, naivety, children’s talk.”100 After B-flat minor, Starke commented: “From these excellent inscriptions, within which lie much that is certain, we see that the correct choice of the appropriate key for the expression of a piece must be one of the highest considerations of a good composer.”101 Thayer described an entry in a conversation book made feelings of discontent and resentment as seen in Schubart, without the overly-poetic “gnashing of teeth,” while Beethoven’s second affective praxis reflects sweetness and tenderness. See Ch. 2, pp. 111-16 for further details. 97 Schindler-MacArdle, p. 367. 98 Ibid., p. 366. 99 Friedrich Starke, Wiener Pianoforte-Schule, 3 vols. (Vienna: Berman, 1819). 100 “C dur ist ganz rein. Sein Charakter heisst: Unschuld, Einfalt, Nativität, Kindersprache,” trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 115. 101 Starke, i, 12, trans. Charles Howard Jones, “The Wiener Pianoforte-Schule of Friedrich Starke: A Translation and Commentary” (doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1990), p. 107.

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during the month of February 1820 by his friend Joseph Karl Bernard: Starke wants a little music-piece by you for the second part of his Klavierschule, for which he has contributions from the leading composers besides short notices. […] We must give him something. Notwithstanding his great deserts in music and literature he is extremely modest, industrious and humble [….] He understands the art of compiling well. There are now weaklings everywhere even among the strong.102

Beethoven complied, and in Part II of his treatise, Starke included a short biography describing Beethoven as “a star of the first magnitude in the musical heavens.”103 This volume contained the “Andante” and “Rondo” from Beethoven’s “Pastoral” Sonata in D Major, Op. 28, complete with the composer’s fingerings and comments. For Part III Beethoven composed Five Bagatelles, Op. 119, Nos. 7-11, modestly calling them Kleinigkeiten [Trifles], also including some sections of the second movement of Fortepiano Sonata in D minor, Op. 31, No. 2, and an arrangement of the coda from the Third Fortepiano Concerto in C Minor, Op. 37. His acquaintance with Starke and his Wiener Pianoforte-Schule is another significant piece of evidence in establishing Beethoven’s familiarity with Schubart’s list.

Georg Christoph Kellner (1765-1808) Kellner replied to Ribock’s earlier call for other opinions on key characteristics in response to the 1783 article he had written in Cramer’s Magazin der Musik. Kellner posited some questions about just how key characteristics are derived in his opening remarks, making the observation “But—is the key the only thing which determines the character of a piece of music? Do not meter rhythm, [delivery, instrumentation, etc.,] also contribute something?”104 The list he supplied is more structured than Ribock’s and is also reflective of the sharp/flat principle. C major forms the emotional core, with the sharp keys acquiring a sense of gaiety by D major, pride by A major and ending with the “noble and lofty pride” of F-sharp major. The flat keys, meanwhile, grow ever more serious and grand as flats are added, culminating in the “splendid majesty of A-flat major.” Unlike Ribock, he didn’t feel able to categorize the minor 102 The wordplay here is on “schwach” (weak) and “starke” (strong). Beethoven initially intended the first movement of Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 for this publication but later thought better of it. See William Meredith, “The Origins of Beethoven’s Op. 109,” The Music Times 126 (1985): 713-16. Schubart’s description of E “laughing pleasure and not yet complete, full delight” is congruent with this movement. 103 Starke, trans. Jones, p. 384. 104 Georg Christoph Kellner, “Etwas von Toenen und Tonarten,” in Magazin der Musik, ed. Carl Friedrich Cramer, 2/2 (1786): 1185-90, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, pp. 11214. Kellner was identified as the author of this article by Wolfgang Auhagen in Studien zur Tonartencharakteristik in theoretischen Schriften und Kompositionen vom späten 17. bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt a.M.: Lang, 1983), p. 87, n. 2.

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keys. His comment at the convergence of the sharp and flat sides is revealing: “G-sharp or A-flat major form the transition from the striking sharp keys to the milder flat keys,” clearly indicating his adjectives of choice for either side.105 It is again likely that the teenage Beethoven would have continued to follow the publication in which his first review appeared, perhaps hoping to see his name in print again, and therefore have been familiar with this article. Justin Heinrich Knecht (1752-1817) Schubart apparently made a strong impression on the young Knecht during a visit he made to the Lutheran collegiate institution in Eslingen am Neckar. Knecht also knew Vogler and studied with him, adopting some of his teacher’s theoretical ideas.106 Beethoven himself owned a copy of Knecht’s Vollständige Orgelschule [Complete organ school], compiled from 1795-8, in which a glossary of key fingering patterns is listed, describing how hard each major key is and how soft each minor.107 These remarks are supported in his 1795 publication, Kleines alphabetisches Wörterbuch [Small alphabetical lexicon], where noted that “expression is the soul of music,” continuing by itemizing factors that contribute to musical expression, including the hardness or softness of the keys that a composer selects.108 From 1784-85, Knecht wrote a pastoral symphony: Le portrait musical de la nature, ou Grande sinfonie (Pastoralsymphonie),109 set appropriately in the pastoral key of G major that was released by Bosslers, one of Beethoven’s early publishers. Richard Will comments that it has been “long recognized as an important predecessor of the Pastoral Symphony,” similarly containing five movements with descriptive titles, including a third-movement storm.110 However, while it is possible that Beethoven was familiar with this work, there is no conclusive proof.

Francesco Galeazzi (1758-1819) As yet there is no direct evidence of the reception of Turin violinist

Ibid. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musician, ed. Stanley Sadie, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 2001), XIII, p. 690. 107 Justin Heinrich Knecht, Vollständige Orgelschule (Leipzig: Breitkopfischen Musikhandlung, 1795), pp. 11-23. I am grateful to Bruce Clausen for alerting me to this connection. 108 Justin Heinrich Knecht, Kleines alphabetisches Wörterbuch (Ulm: Wohlerschen Buchhandlung, 1795). 109 “The Musical Portrait of Nature or Grand Symphony (Pastoral Symphony).” Knecht dedicated this work to Vogler. 110 Richard Will, The Characteristic Symphony in the Age of Haydn and Beethoven (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 175. 105 106

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Francesco Galeazzi’s Elementi teorico-pratici di musica111 in Vienna, despite its uncanny correlation with Beethoven’s use of key characteristics, nor is there a record of Beethoven and his ever having met.112 However, its importance as the most significant eighteenth-century Italian treatise to emerge on music is enough to warrant inclusion here. The influence of Quantz’ treatise in both Germany and Italy is another possible connection between Beethoven and Galeazzi, most probably in its French translation.113 Galeazzi’s volume is of particular interest because of the close parallels between some of his key characterizations and Beethoven’s use of tonal symbolism. Michael C. Tusa points out that: Of the many theoretical descriptions cited by [Rita] Steblin, those by Galeazzi, however, are close enough to Beethoven’s practices to raise the possibility that the composer knew this treatise. […] An alternative explanation […] is that Galeazzi’s and Beethoven’s views on tonal characteristics were formed by mutual acquaintance with repertoires or traditions that followed these practices, in particular the traditions of Italian opera.114

Galeazzi’s definitions of C minor as “un Tono Tragico” (a tragic key), E-flat major as “un Tono Eroico” (a heroic key), F major as “maestoso” (majestic), F minor as “il pianto, il dolore, l’affanno, l’angoscia” (weeping, grief, sorrow, anguish), and B-flat major as a “Tono tenero, molle, dolce” (tender key, soft, sweet) show a particular congruence with Beethoven’s views. Anselm Gerhard, in his 1998 article “Die Tonartencharacteristik der Beethoven-Zeit aus italienischer Perspektive” [Key characteristics of Beethoven’s time from an Italian perspective] connects many of the specific matches of Galeazzi’s definitions to examples from Beethoven’s music.115 However, several of these definitions are also affirmed by other authors. He concludes by asking if Beethoven had ever read Galeazzi’s descriptions, correctly observing “Wir wissen es nicht,” (We don’t know), a com-

Francesco Galeazzi, Elementi teorico-pratici di musica, vol. 2 (Rome: M. Pulccinelli, 1796). Galeazzi never left Italy, and is on record as neither speaking nor reading German. Angelo Frascarelli speculates Galeazzi’s treatise became known in Germany through violinist Ferdinand Fränz (1767-1833), who encountered it or Galeazzi himself during a visit to Italy. Angelo Frascarelli, “Elementi Teoretico-Pratici di Musica: An Annotated English Translation and Study of Volume 1” (doctoral dissertation, Eastman School of Music, 1968), p. 22. Galeazzi’s treatise is in many European dictonaries puiblished throughout the continent prior to Beethoven’s death. 113 Johann Joachim Quantz, Essai d’une method pour apprendre à jouer de la flute traversiere (Berlin: Voss, 1752). Some connections can be seen with Quantz’s definitions of minor keys and those of Galeazzi. Both designate F minor as being extremely melancholy. Quantz includes A and G minors amongst the most mournful. Interestingly, Galeazzi’s definitions of both these minor keys are much stronger than many of his contemporaries’ descriptions, in all likelihood showing Quantz’ influence. 114 Michael C. Tusa, “Beethoven’s ‘C-Minor Mood’: Some Thoughts on the Structural Implications of Key Choice,” Beethoven Forum 2 (1993): 3, n. 5. 115 Anselm Gerhard, “Die Tonaterncharakteristik der Beethoven-Zeit aus italienischer Perspektive,” Musiktheorie 13 (1998): 253-61. 111 112

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ment that still remains true today.116

Key Characteristics After 1802: Writers Known to Beethoven or Who Wrote About His Music The year 1802 seems to be an appropriate cut-off point here since it marks the commonly accepted end of Beethoven’s first style period. By this time, his philosophy of key characteristics had been firmly established for some years. Authors of lists of key characteristics after this date who do not mention any of Beethoven’s works by name are not included. Ignaz Franz Mosel (1772-1844) Ignaz Mosel was a Viennese composer, conductor and writer known to Beethoven, who wrote him a letter about tempo descriptions and the new metronome.117 Mosel’s Versuch einer Ästhetik der dramatischen Tonsatzes [Essay on the aesthetics of dramatic composition] recommends the study of Schubart: Every musical piece requires, according to the content of the text, its own special key, tempo, rhythm, intervals, accompaniment; nothing is indifferent here. Each of these contributes an essential part to the true expression. For the determination of keys, Schubart’s “Characteristik der Töne” can direct those composers who are not already led by their own proper feelings.118

Thayer reports that Beethoven valued Mosel’s work as a writer on music, although it is not known whether he was familiar with this particular tome or not.119 Anton Reicha (1770-1836) A close companion of Beethoven for many years during their youth in Bonn, Reicha later reconnected with Beethoven in Vienna in 1802, remaining in contact until his move to Paris in 1808. His theoretical textbook Traité de mélodie [Treatise on melody] dates from 1814 and was widely disseminated throughout Europe.120 It contains information supportive of the sharp/flat theory. Reicha listed the major keys from G-flat to F-sharp, describing the sharp side as “brillantes” (brilliant), become more “éclatant” (piercing) as they progress sharpwards. In contrast the flat keys are more “sombres” (somber), becoming more so as they move away from C major. He made a clear differentiation Ibid., p. 261. Anderson, ii, no. 845, p. 727; Brandenburg, iv, no. 1196, p. 130. 118 Ignaz Franz Mosel, Versuch einer Aesthetik des dramatischen Tonsatzes (Vienna: Anton Strauss, 1813), trans. and quoted in Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 162. 119 Thayer-Forbes, p. 662. 120 Anton Reicha, Traité de mélodie (Paris: Scherff, 1814). 116 117

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between F-sharp major and G-flat major, characterizing them as having the most extreme contrasts in the sharp/flat spectrum, and noting that the same is true of C-sharp major and D-flat major. Given Schindler’s comment attributed to Beethoven that the master prided himself on being able to differentiate between these two keys, and also Reicha’s and Beethoven’s past history, it seems likely that this treatise represents the final flowering of views that had been in gestation for many years, including their time in Bonn together, and that he and Beethoven must surely have discussed them, given Beethoven’s reputedly keen interest in tonal symbolism.

Franz Xaver Glöggl (1764-1839) Glöggl was Kappelmeister at Linz Cathedral, and met Beethoven in 1812 when he was visiting his brother Johann. Glöggl’s son Franz recalled that Beethoven and his father met several times during this visit, and that Beethoven composed the Three Equali, WoO 30, at his father’s request. In 1828 Glöggl published a handbook for church music directors in the dioceses of Vienna and Linz, Kirchenmusik-Ordnung: Erklärendes Handbuch des musikalischen Gottesdienstes [Church music regulations: explanatory handbook of musical worship], which included advice on which keys to adopt in order to compose music appropriate to the liturgical seasons.121 Steblin notes that the key descriptions are all taken verbatim from Schubart.122 Karl Ludwig Seidel (1788-1844) Seidel, a philosophy professor in Berlin, reprinted Schubart’s list in the second volume of his Charinomos: Beitrage zur allgemeinen Theorie und Geschichte der schönen Künste [Charinomos: contributions to the general theory and history of fine arts], publishing it in 1828.123 As if to justify Schubart’s findings from contemporaneous music, he added a series of footnotes to this list, citing works from the Classical masters that supported Schubart’s conclusions. Beethoven’s music is mentioned by name: “Resounding in F major and breathing of calmness and comforting peace is the closing song in Beethoven’s Fidelio”124; C minor “full of heartfelt yearning, an expression of exalted love […] in Beethoven’s Christus am Ölberge the first recitative, ‘Jehovah, du mein Vater! o sende Trost und Kraft und Stärke mir,’ begins very characteristically in this key” as well as several other Franz Xaver Glöggl, Kirchenmusik-Ordnung: Erklärendes Handbuch des musikalischen Gottesdienstes (Vienna: Wallishausser, 1828), pp. 8-9, quoted in Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 220. 122 Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 165. 123 Karl Ludwig Seidel, Charinomos: Beitrage zur allgemeinen Theorie und Geschichte der schönen Künste, 2 vols. (Magdeburg: Rubach, 1825 and 1828). 124 He is referring to “Gott, welch’ ein Augenblick” F major. 121

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examples that will be quoted in Chapter Two.125 Wilhelm Christian Müller (1794-1827) Müller, a teacher and writer, maintained a relationship with Beethoven mainly via letter but also visited him in Vienna on occasion. While he did not quote Beethoven’s music by name, and his Versuch einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst [Essay on the aesthetics of music] was not published until 1830 after both his own and Beethoven’s deaths, his love of and familiarity with Beethoven’s music makes the list of key characteristics it contains worthy of consideration.126 Certain decriptions—C major: “Kraft, Majestät” (strength, majesty), G major: “Ruhe, Gleichmuth” (calm, serenity), E major: “Zärtlichkeit” (tenderness), E-flat major: “religiöse Feierlichkeit” (religious solemnity), A-flat major: “tiefes, inniges Gefühl, sentimentale Sympathie” (deep intimate feeling and sentimental sympathy), and D-flat major: “himmlische Verklärung” (heavenly transfiguration)—all match Beethoven’s uses of these keys.127 Müller attributed these differences to the preponderance of unstopped strings in sharp keys, and with the reverse being true in flat tonalities—another instance of the sharp/flat principle in operation. Anton Gräffer (1786-1852) Gräffer, who worked for the publishing house Artaria, knew Beethoven personally and was directly involved in the assembly of the Artaria thematic catalogue of Beethoven’s works in 1819, Catalogue des Œuvres de Louis Beethoven.128 He also served as auctioneer at the estate sale of Beethoven’s belongings held in November of 1827.129 His main claim to fame is that he copied Beethoven’s Tagebuch in 1827, and it was his intention to write a biography of the composer, although a finished version never materialized. He published a list of key characteristics in Über Tonkunst, Sprache, Schrift und Bild in 1830 that comprises a repetition of Schubart’s list for the most part, extended to include more distant enharmonic keys. He also made a point of connecting each key with a particular instrument, and assigning it a color in a somewhat idiosyncratic fashion.

Ibid., pp. 110-13, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, pp. 180-81. Wilhelm Christian Müller, Versuch einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1830), p. 281. 127 This description of D-flat major again supports Rochlitz’ account of Beethoven’s views on this key. 128 Anton Gräffer, Catalogue des Œuvres de Louis Beethoven (Vienna: Artaria & Co., 1819). 129 Rita Steblin, “Reminiscences of Beethoven in Anton Gräffer’s Unpublished Memoires,” in Bonner Beethoven-Studien 4, ed. Sieghard Brandenburg (Ernst Herttrich, Bonn: Verlag BeethovenHaus, 2006), p. 149. 125 126

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The Key to Beethoven

Gustav Schilling (1805-1880) While Schilling’s descriptions of each key are somewhat lengthy, he actually added little if any original material to the debate. For the most part, he contented himself with either paraphrasing or merely repeating the opinions of Schubart and Seidel, giving credit to the former while omitting to acknowledge the latter.130 He did, however, connect various Beethoven works to his key descriptions, the most significant being his mention of the Pastoral Symphony in connection with F major, and the introduction to Florestan’s dungeon scene in the second act of Leonore with F minor.131 Ferdinand Hand (1786-1851) In his Ästhetik der Tonkunst [Aesthetics of music], classical scholar Ferdinand Hand relied on a large amount of literature to explain and justify his view of key characteristics, including many works by Beethoven.132 Specific references by him to Beethoven’s works are included in Chapters Two and Three. Karl Reginald Herloßsohn (1804-1849)133 German writer and journalist Karl Herloßsohn mentioned Beethoven’s music in his Allgemeines Theater-Lexicon, of 1839, singling out in the D minor entry the “Mort de Klärchen” Egmont, Op. 84, and under F minor what he described as “Florestans Kerkerarie” in Fidelio.134 Steblin noted that he elaborated some of Schubart’s definitions.135 Carl Czerny (1791-1857) Beethoven gave Czerny fortepiano lessons from 1801 and held him in sufficient esteem to entrust to him the instruction of his nephew Karl on the fortepiano. From 1816, Czerny hosted weekly concerts at his home that focused exclusively on Beethoven’s fortepiano music, often with the composer himself in attendance. Czerny also produced an edition of Beethoven’s fortepiano sonatas that included fingerings and metronome markings, and, most importantly, a 130 Gustav Schilling, Encyclopädie der gesammten musikalischen Wissenschaften, oder universal Lexicon der Tonkunst, 3 vols. (Stuttgart: Köhler, 1835-36). 131 Schilling, ii, p. 669. 132 Ferdinand Hand, Ästhetik der Tonkunst, 2 vols. (i, Leipzig: Hochhausen, 1837; ii, Jena: n. p., 1841). 133 His actual name was Borromäus Sebastian Georg Karl Reginald Herloß. 134 Georg Karl Reginald Herloßsohn, Allgemeines Theater-Lexicon oder Encyklopädie alles Wissenwerthen für Bühnenkünstler, Dilettanten und Theaterfreunde, 7 vols. (Altenburg: Expedition des TheaterLexicons, 1839). 135 Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 171.

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chapter in his Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Pianoforte-Schule, entitled “On the Proper Performance of all Beethoven’s Works for the Piano.”136 Although Czerny rarely wrote specifically about key affects in general terms, there are a remarkable number of parallels between his comments on individual works and the lists of key characteristics seen in Chapters Two and Three.

Tuning and Temperament While a detailed examination of the issues of tuning and temperament in relation to the audibility of key characteristics in this era is beyond the scope of this volume, a few brief comments will broaden our understanding of how affect was created in the eighteenth century. In his authoritative study Tuning,137 Owen Jorgensen cites an examination of scientific research undertaken by Alexander John Ellis in 1885, and concludes that equal tempered tuning was not employed on pianos in the nineteenth century.138 He continues: A study of instructions for tuning […] for the years through 1885 verifies that essential acoustical information for tuning equal temperament was lacking. This was one reason for the nineteenth century tuners’ inability to tune equal temperament by ear. Other deviation was due to the basic concepts of tuning then in vogue. Nineteenth-century tuning by ear was a highly developed art based on aesthetic judgments for every tone, and test chords were used more than intervals.139

Evidence from contemporaneous publications also supports this premise. Cramer’s Magazin der Musik, which had in the previous year printed Neefe’s first review of Beethoven’s musical activities, reported in 1784 that Muzio Clementi used a tempered system of tuning in which C–E was “ein klein wenig hoch schwebend” (wavering/beating a little high), E–G-sharp “sehr hoch” (very high) and A-flat–C “noch höher” (higher still).140 Given the date and publisher of this report, Beethoven may very well have been familiar with it. However, 136 Carl Czerny, Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Pianoforte-Schule […] Op. 500, 3 vols. (Vienna: Diabelli, 1839), trans. J. H. Hamilton, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School […] Op. 500, 3 vols. (London: Cocks, 1839), later edition and reprint, On the Proper Performance of All Beethoven’s Works for the Piano, ed. Paul Badura-Skoda (Vienna: Universal, 1970). 137 Owen H. Jorgensen, Tuning (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1991), p. 1. This authoritative volume is strongly recommended to anyone with an interest in this topic. 138 Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz, Lehre von den Tonempfindungen als physiologische Grundlage für die Theorie der Musik, 4th ed. (Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1877), On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music. (Fourth German Edition of 1877.) The Second English Edition, Translated, Thoroughly Revised and Corrected … with Numerous Additional Notes and a New Additional Appendix Bringing Down Information to 1885 … by Alexander Ellis (London: Longmans, 1895), p. 485. 139 Jorgensen, p. 1. 140 C. F. Cramer, ed., Magazin der Musik, ii (1784). Also quoted in Hendrik Purwins, “Profiles of Pitch Classes Circularity of Relative Pitch and Key: Experiments, Models, Computational Music Analysis, and Perspectives” (doctoral dissertation, Der Technischen Universität Berlin, 2005), p. 151.

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it should be noted that he left no record either of his views on tuning or of tunings he preferred. Yet it becomes clear that he and his contemporaries were not familiar with what is now known as equal temperament, but rather with what was called well temperament.141 Jorgensen defines well tempered tuning as “an unrestrictive, irregular, circulating temperament containing key-color contrasts that supports the characters of the keys.”142 Well temperament will therefore allow all the keys to be used successfully while preserving subtle nuances between them, thus melding character and application in a seemingly perfect solution. In simple terms, this is achieved through the uneven size of some of the semitones, unlike equal temperament, where all the semitones are the same size. The practical application of this premise means that chords in keys with few sharps or flats have fewer coincident harmonics and will therefore be more naturally “in tune.” The reverse will be true for keys with a larger number of sharps and flats. For these “black note” keys, the major thirds are tuned a little wider, and the minor thirds a little narrower, thus producing more coincident harmonics, and creating a more heightened sense of expression.143 Well temperament is clearly responsible for the establishment of one of the ways in which the key of C major was used to express affective meaning. When Schubart described this key as “completely pure,” it was precisely because of the purity of its tuning and the lack of coincident harmonics.144 It was indeed the most pure or natural sounding key. Later writers talked of F minor with its “purest dominant C major,” (Seidel),145 and “how F minor passes over to its pure dominant key of C major, as out of darkness into the brightness of light,” (Hand).146 Conversely, keys far from C, with many coincident harmonics are not nearly so well “in tune.” As Jean-Jacques Rousseau put it, the black keys “offer great assistance to the musician when he is in want of marked expressions.”147 141 At the Ira F. Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies in San José, California, the replica JeanLouis Dulcken fortepiano (based on an original from c. 1795) is maintained using various well temperaments. In the same way that it is essential to hear Beethoven’s music played on a fortepiano from the period to understand more fully how he wrote for the instrument, so too it is equally important to hear it played in well temperament to appreciate how the characters of the keys would have sounded to him. 142 Jorgensen, p. 10. 143 Robin M. Ryšavy, “Selected Piano Compositions of Beethoven and Schubert and the Effect of Well Temperament on Performance Practice” (doctoral dissertation, University of MissouriKansas City, 1997), pp. 40-41. 144 However, this in no way precludes the establishment of an alternative manner of using C major as a key of triumph and majesty, since, as Mattheson described, “it serves to rouse an army (namely with trumpets, drum, oboes, etc.).” Johann Mattheson, Das neu-eröffnete Orchestre (Hamburg: der Autor und Benjamin Schillers Witwe, 1713), trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 226. 145 Carl Ludwig Seidel, Charinomos, vol. 2 (Magdeburg: Ferdinand Rubach, 1828), p. 111, n. 151, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 180. 146 Ferdinand Hand, Ästhetik der Tonkunst, vol. 1 (Leipzig: C. Hochhausen und Fournes), p. 229. 147 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Complete Dictionary of Music, trans. William Waring (London: Murray and White, 1779), p. 247, quoted in Ryšavy, p. 41.

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Affective differences inspired by key characteristics are therefore enhanced when using a well temperament. Thus, regardless of which particular temperament Beethoven used, his hearing of the characters of the keys would undoubtedly have been more nuanced than the way in which they are heard today.

Conclusion Beethoven claimed to have had a voracious appetite for learning from an early age, something he affirmed in a letter sent to Breitkopf & Härtel in 1809: One thing more: there is hardly any treatise which could be too learned for me. […] Yet from my childhood I have striven to understand what the better and wiser people of every age were driving at in their works. Shame on the artist who does not consider it his duty to achieve at least as much—148

It should therefore come as no surprise that Beethoven acquainted himself with many of the major treatises current at that time, and in doing so became thoroughly familiar with the theoretical background to “the psyches of the keys.” A clear path can be traced of his exposure to and assimilation of the use of affective tonality. At the very outset, during his work with his teacher Neefe, he thoroughly absorbed the WTC, an achievement of immense significance as far as the assimilation of key characteristics was concerned. He was also introduced early on to Mozart’s music, another significant influence on his familiarity with the affective use of tonality. At the same time he began exploring these ideas in his own compositions, his opinions affirmed, in all likelihood by reading lists such as Ribock’s in Cramer’s Magazin der Musik, and by the composition of his Zwei Präludien durch alle Tonarten, Op. 39. By the time he commenced his studies with Salieri, his grounding in the subject was firmly established, visible in particular the early piano sonatas and songs. This knowledge was doubtless affirmed in conversations with his new teacher during the composition of pieces such as Ah! Perfido, where the use of affective tonality for the purpose of characterization can clearly be seen.149 As a composition teacher himself, Beethoven naturally drew on materials familiar to him in his work with Archduke Rudolph, including theoretical treatises by Kirnberger, Mattheson, Sulzer, and Zarlino, all of whom wrote on this topic. However, the clearest evidence is found in his own direct statements concerning the keys of A-flat major, B-flat major and B minor, supported by secondary evidence such as the sketch connecting F major with the pastoral trope, and jottings about C major and minor. Anecdotal evidence, while not always irrefutable, also presents a supporting narrative to his thoughts on this subject, being gleaned from a wide variety of contrasted sources.

Anderson, i, no. 228, p. 246; Brandenburg, ii, no. 408, p. 88. See Ch. 7, pp. 297-301 for a detailed analysis of how keys are used affectively in this work.

148 149

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The Key to Beethoven

In addition to the writings of Vogler and Ribock, evidence was also cited to connect Beethoven to lists of key characteristics by Schubart, Kellner, and Knecht. Finally roles were reversed from 1802 onwards, when many writers used Beethoven’s compositions themselves as evidence to justify their own opinions on the affective use of tonality. The thorny issue of tuning was also briefly considered. In the following chapters, I will explore the keys individually, pooling the information so as to establish a comprehensive list of how Beethoven uses affective tonality in his compositions.

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CHAPTER TWO

Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys A survey of the range of primary keys commonly used by Beethoven will incorporate evidence of key characteristics and style from contemporaneous writers, theorists, and composers, seeking to establish congruency of meaning between these various sources. Works by composers of the period and by Beethoven consistent with meanings of the writer/theorists will be cited in preparation for a detailed survey of the songs and selected vocal music found in chapters four through seven. It is important to note at the outset that the lists of key definitions established in this chapter are by no means exhaustive. Rather, they represent the findings assembled from an examination of Beethoven’s vocal music and later affirmed in the analysis of two instrumental works: the Finale of Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125, and Fortepiano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2. New affective praxes may well be revealed when Beethoven’s instrumental repertoire is examined further.

The Sharp/Flat Principle Two of the most widely-known lists of key characteristics in the eighteenth century by Schubart and Vogler reflect what became known as the sharp/flat principle. Rita Steblin notes that this theory was already in existence by 1713, “as evident from Matheson’s […] censure of ‘those people who believe that a piece in flats absolutely must sound soft and tender, while a piece in sharps must be hard, lively, and joyful.’”1 It became more prevalent as the century progressed with adherants such as Schubart and Vogler affirming this concept in their writing. Increasingly, authors attempted to justify the use of key characteristics through the qualities of stringed instruments in the violin family, whereby sharp keys, which used more open strings, sounded brighter, whereas flat keys used more stopped strings and sounded softer. These affects were enhanced as keys moved farther away from C major. In the chapter entitled “Music” in Vorlesungen über die Ästhetik [Lectures on aesthetics]: Hegel argued: The keys differentiate themselves from one another by their harshness and softness, the major and minor keys, and have a certain character, based on the root pitch upon which they are built, by which each in its Johann Mattheson, Das neu-eröffnete Orchestre (Hamburg: der Autor und Benjamin Schillers Wittwe, 1713), pp. 232-33, trans. and quoted in Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), p. 96.

1

43

The Key to Beethoven

own way once again corresponds with its particular mode of perception, complaint, joy, sorrow, elated excitement, and so on.2

If we can trust Schindler, Beethoven also concurred with this principle: He had no difficulty in distinguishing C sharp major from its enharmonic equivalent D flat major, (and) the ear was only secondary in making the distinction, and that first of all came the feeling for the subtle difference between hard and soft that are respectively the characteristic features of these two keys.3

The “subtle difference” is actually congruent with Beethoven’s use of both these tonalities and encapsulates the sharp/flat principle in a nutshell. In the lists that follow, the sharp/flat principle will be seen to be a dominant force in clarifying how key characteristics are both described and explained.

The Range of Writers’ Opinions A survey of the writings of authors from Jean Rousseau (1644-1699) to Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) reveals just how wide the range of opinions of key characteristics was. However, one early German writer, Johannes Mattheson, was particularly influential in shaping the views of subsequent generations. Beethoven was familiar with his work, and there are many parallels between Mattheson’s key definitions and Beethoven’s practice, as will become apparent in the following analysis. Writers of the generation immediately following Beethoven, such as Karl Herloßsohn and Ferdinand Hand, were thoroughly familiar with his music and frequently referenced it in their descriptions of the keys.

Keys Having More Than One Affective Praxis The apparent conflict in meaning between definitions of keys by different authors has been the source of tremendous skepticism during the past two centuries. Critics who questioned the existence or relevance of key characteristics highlighted the contradictions between the descriptions of various writers. It is thus important to observe at the outset that not all keys have only one meaning. As many detractors have noted, C major—the fundamental “Die Tonarten zu dem Unterschiede der Härte und Weiche, der Dur- und Molltonart, auseinander und haben endlich durch den Grundton, aus dem sie hervorgehen, einen bestimmten Charakter, welcher seiner Seits wieder einer besonderen Weise der Empfindung, der Klage, Freude, Trauer, ermutigenden Aufregung usw. Entspricht.” Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Vorlesungen über die Ästhetik (Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 1838), ii, p. 176. I am grateful to Richard Adamson for translation suggestions. 3 Anton Schindler, Beethoven as I Knew Him, trans. and ed. D.W. MacArdle (New York: Dover, 1996), p. 368. 2

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys

ground zero of music theory—manifests two contradictory descriptions in contemporaneous literature: grandiose/majestic versus the pure/innocent. What critics fail to realize is that two independent ways of using this key were established, some writers reflecting the first (e.g. Galeazzi: majestic), some the second (Schubart: pure). There are also writers who reflected both conventions in their descriptions (e.g. Vogler: “majestic” in 1812, “pure” in 1779). These descriptions should be perceived as two established meanings in their own right, almost as if they are separate keys themselves, and not at all in conflict with each other. The phrase “affective praxis,” will be used to describe the ways in which both individual keys and their subgroups are used to project meaning. These parallel usages were sometimes inherited from generation to generation—D major is an obvious case in point—therefore becoming an established and customary conduit to affective meaning. At other times, they were established by Beethoven himself with little if any precedent—the second affective praxis of B major springs to mind. The term praxis is used in an intentionally wide-ranging manner and not in an absolutist way, with the aim of drawing attention to—whether deliberate or not, widespread or obscure— the manner in which keys are used in one or more ways to express affective meaning. Where two or more contrasted praxes have become established in a key, the historical basis for both of theses praxes can often be traced to the writings of Mattheson. This is true for the following major keys: C, D, E-flat, and B-flat. The remaining dual or multi-praxis keys find their historical roots in the work of other writers and composers, as do the minor keys where two or more praxes can be seen: C, D, E, F, G, A and B minors. Where two praxes do exist, they often manifest highly contrasting characteristics. Schubart addressed such objections directly: If one wishes to raise an objection to these characteristics—that on account of the manifold evasiveness, no key is able to have a definite character—then one must consider that it is the duty for every composer to study closely the characteristics of his keys and only adopt those which are sympathetic to him.4

Ferdinand Hand as much as acknowledged the existence of contrasted praxes in a key in his prefatory remarks to his description of E-flat major, stating that it “incorporates a very diverse expression and can be said to be the most ambiguous key.”5 His subsequent depiction of it—“powerful proclamation and encourC. F. D. Schubart, Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst, ed. Ludwig Schubart (Vienna: Degen, 1806), ed. P. A. Merbach (Leipzig: Wolkenwanderer-Verlag, 1924), p. 265, trans. Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics, p. 120. 5 Ferdinand Hand, Ästhetik der Tonkunst, vol 1 (Leipzig: C. Hochhausen und Fornes, 1837), p. 225,

4

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The Key to Beethoven

agement, as in war marches” and “enraptured love” fell into both the first and second praxes of this key, each of which is outlined later in the chapter.6

Shadow Parallels between Relative Keys There are six pairings of keys where one of the praxes in the major tonality shadows its relative minor affectively (or vice versa). In such situations, shared key signatures, pitches, and coincident harmonics all lead to a closeness of affective connection, supported by ancillary features of dynamics, texture, and harmonic vocabulary. Table One: Shadow Affective Pairings of Relative Major and Minor Keys D[: second affective praxis b[ grief, darkness pain, gloom, grief D: second affective praxis b: second affective praxis tender, yearning love unrequited or ended love (amoroso/Empfindung) E[: third affective praxis c: first affective praxis sogno/dream, sleep, lament, pathos, memories/fantasies of funereal unhappy/failed love, E: third affective praxis c\ gentle night, sleep, penitential lament, sometimes as a metaphor despair for death A[: first affective praxis f: first affective praxis barbaresco, death, deep depression, a key of the grave, extreme grief/despair B[: first affective praxis g: second affective praxis sweet, tender, gentle melancholy, amoroso,7 lovely, kind, tender compassion Such affective pairings allow a prevailing sentiment or mindstate to be projected in the shadow key while still achieving the variety a modulation. An example can be seen in Beethoven’s Concert Aria Ah! Perfido, where the shadow trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 248. 6 Ibid. 7 Beethoven uses the epithet “amoroso” in The Sweetest Lad Was Jamie, Op. 108, No. 5.

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys

pairing of E-flat major and C minor allows the heroine’s ongoing experience of unhappy love to be successfully portrayed during modulations to both relative major and minor shadow keys. The Affective Qualities of Keys8 In the following listing of common practice repertoire by both Beethoven and other composers of the era, the majority of examples comprise pieces where the affective characteristics of the primary tonality in the work or movement in question are congruent with those expressed by contemporary writers and composers. In such cases, however, internal modulations and changes of style/ affective praxis during the course these works have not been taken into account. Where more distant keys are involved that were rarely used as primary tonal centers in the Classical period, shorter sections of works will also be considered to ascertain their possible affective characters. Selected untexted works will also be included where stylistic reasons are present to ascertain congruency with the prevailing affect in a key to a greater degree. Such features include tonality, tempo, performance directions, phrasing, dynamics, texture, harmonic vocabulary, and melodic shape and style. A word is in order here about the categorization of melodic shapes as seen in the work of Deryck Cooke and others, work that is helpful in attempting to decode these secondary features.9 In his book, The Language of Music, Cooke promotes the notion that music is a language that conveys, through specific and identifiable means, a series of emotions to the listener. This is a conclusion he apparently reached without the benefit of studying the view of earlier writers on music. However, such an historical exploration would have supported his findings, particularly relevant being Sulzer’s Allgemeine Theorie. In the article “Ausdruck in der Musik,” Sulzer states that the musician […] will know whether the individual sounds express joy or sorrow; they may even […] be able to identify intense and moderate pain, deep-rooted tenderness, overwhelming or restrained joy. […] Joy is expressed in sonorous tones, unhurried tempi and in limited gradations of pitch and dynamics. Sadness unburdens itself slowly, from the depths of the heart, and is of somber hue. Every emotion, then, has its own character […].10

In his characterization of intervals Cooke was apparently building unknowingly on historical precedent. Zarlino, writing in 1558 did exactly that: “Certain compositions are lively and full of cheer, whereas others on the contrary are somewhat sad and languid. […] Whereas in the first group the major third is often Authors’ comments are listed chronologically, while all lists of composers’ works appear in alphabetical order. 9 Deryck Cooke, The Language of Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1959), p. 113. 10 Sulzer, “Ausdruck in der Musik,” in Allgemeine Theorie, trans. Peter Le Huray and James Day, Music and Aesthetics in the Eighteenth and Early-Nineteenth Centuries, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) p. 125. 8

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The Key to Beethoven

placed beneath the minor, in the second [group] the opposite is true.”11 Kirnberger commented on the affective quality of the minor mode in Der Kunst, deeming it “appropriate for the expression of sad, doubtful sentiments, for hesitation and indecision.”12 He too characterized individual intervals in a similar manner to the way Cooke would later do. Among his definitions are: a rising minor second, “sad”; rising augmented second, “languishing”; rising minor third, “sad, melancholy”; rising minor seventh, “tender, sad, undecided”; falling augmented fifth, “frightening (only when it appears in the bass)”; falling octave, “very restful.”13 Beethoven was familiar with the writings of both Sulzer and Kirnberger. Cooke proceeds to codify the meaning assigned to interval patterns and to identify archetypal melodic shapes employed by composers over the centuries to convey particular emotions. In basic terms, rising patterns exhibit outgoing emotion, while descending ones convey the reverse. Two patterns are seemingly ubiquitous: the major 6–5 motive that Cooke describes as “a simple assertion of joy,”14 which, from this point, will be referred to as a “joy” motive, and its counterpart, the minor [6–5 that he describes as projecting “a burst of anguish.”15 This has variously been described as the Mannheim Seufzer-motiv, the sospiro and the sigh motive. His findings are useful in the attempt to unpack mood-states, particularly when used to support a more extensive regimen of analytical tools featuring tonal affect as its primary vehicle. The works of Bach and Handel, both highly influential composers from the Baroque era, many of whose works Beethoven was familiar with, are included in the following lists.16 When Messiah was examined with a view to including movements in the following lists of key characteristics, almost all the movements were congruent with the definitions found there.17 Similar connections can be seen between many preludes and fugues in both books of J. S. Bach’s Das wohltemperierte 11 Gioseffo Zarlino, Le institutioni harmoniche terza parte (Venice: Senese, 1558), trans. Guy Marco and Claude Palisca, The Art of Counterpoint: Part Three of Le institutioni harmoniche, 1558 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), pp. 21-22. 12 Johann Philipp Kirnberger, Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik (Berlin: Decker und Hartung, 1776-79), ii, Part 1, p. 70, trans. Gretchen A, Wheelock, “Schwarze Gredel and the Engendered Minor Mode in Mozart’s Operas,” in Musicology and Difference, ed. Ruth A. Solie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 202. 13 Kirnberger, Der Kunst, ii, Part 2, pp. 103-04, trans. Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form and Style (New York: Schirmer, 1980), p. 4. 14 Cooke, The Language of Music, p. 143. The archetypal nature of these melodic patterns is indicated by the use of caret signs above them, something that Cooke did not employ. It should be emphasized that they have no intended significance here in reductive terms. 15 Ibid., p. 146. 16 Church officials in Bonn and Vienna—both catholic cities—suppressed Protestant music, so it is not always possible to be completely sure which works of Bach and Handel were known to Beethoven unless there is direct documentary evidence extant. 17 Beethoven was thoroughly familiar with Handel’s masterpiece, originally in Mozart’s 1789 arrangement, K. 572, and copied several of the movements out by hand. Mozart’s score was published in 1803 by Breitkopf & Hārtel and Beethoven finally obtained a copy in 1809. For further information, see Bathia Churgin, “Beethoven’s Handel and the Messiah copies,” The Beethoven Journal 29 (Summer 2014): 4-13.

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Klavier (WTC), works with which Beethoven was intimately familiar from an early age.18 This speaks both to his familiarty with Bach’s magnum opus, and the way in which he assimilated—both consciously and unconsciously—ideas of tonal affect gleaned from the composers he most admired and respected. As a postscript, it is interesting to note that the music of composers from the generation following Beethoven also reflected similar usage of key characteristics. While it is beyond the scope of this book to examine this topic in detail, movements from Robert Schumann’s Requiem, Op. 148 are cited as examples in the lists that follow both here and in Chapter Three, all of which exhibit a remarkable congruency with Beethoven’s practice. Affective Praxes of Primary Keys in Beethoven’s Works Texted and untexted pieces by other composers will first be listed followed by Beethoven’s works. This is not to suggest that Beethoven knew all of the preceding works by any means, although he was surely familiar with many of them, but rather to show the prevailing views of the meaning or meanings of each key that were prevalent at that time. However, this list of music is by its nature representative and likely excludes pieces congruent with the ethos of key characteristics established in this and the following chapter. C Major: two affective praxes19 First praxis: triumph, strength, rejoicing, celebration, freedom, light Person Date Mattheson 1713 Vogler 1778 Galeazzi 1796 Grétry 1797 Vogler 1812 Hoffmann c. 1814

Characteristics rather rude and impudent, suited to rejoicing, joy, rousing an army, with trumpet, drums, oboes splendid grandiose, military, fit to display grand events serious, majestic, tumultuous noble majestic, splendid, full of gravity C major (fortissimo). “Let us dance […] Let us rejoice! […] Hurrah! Hurrah! Dancing and rejoicing! The devil is coming with trumpets and drums!”20

18 Movements that Bach is presumed to have transposed for the final version of WTC and thus not in their original keys have not been included. 19 In the interests of space, few footnote citations will be made for references to key descriptions, unless they comprise verbatim quotations. By far the majority of them are taken from Rita Steblin, to whom I owe the greatest debt. Others are footnoted on an individual basis. 20 E. T. A. Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” in Fantasie- und Nachtstücke (Munich: Winkler, 1960), p. 293, trans. R. Murray Schafer, E. T. A. Hoffmann and Music (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1975), p. 147.

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The Key to Beethoven Gardiner 1817 Beethoven 1823 J. J. Wagner 1823

bold, vigorous, commanding, suited to the expression of war21 la gaieté22 “Of cheerful courage sound the battlesteps Of our army, we are too proud To scorn our enemies, But we measure them. Look! They draw nearer! Hesitantly wave their banners!— Battle song resounds, victory ode Consecrate our army, our blood to our Fatherland!”23 Marches or battleworks Rochlitz 1824 splendid Schrader 1827 lively, gratitude, rejoicing24 Glöggl 1828 for church music expressing praise, triumph or joy Ebhardt 1830 exuberant cheerfulness25 Müller 1830 strength, majesty Gathy 1835 heroic greatness, grandiose Schilling 1835-36 good for a march or battle-song Hand 1837 joy of life with rhythmic liveliness, brightness, light26 Marx 1837-47 bright, triumphant27 Works of other composers

J. S. Bach Cantata 208, Was mir behagt is nur die Muntre jagd aria: “Ein Fürst in seines Landes Pan” Prelude in C Major, WTC, Book II, S. 870 Cherubini Eliza, Act II finale: “Plus de douleur et plus de larmés” Handel Messiah aria: “Why do the nations?”28 Porter added the following comment when reusing Gardiner’s descriptions in his Musical Cyclopedia: “The bold effect is exhibited in ‘The marvellous works,’ and ‘The Heavens are telling,’ in the Creation.” William S. Porter, The Musical Cyclopedia; or, The Principles of Music (Boston: Loring, 1834), p. 215. 22 Cheerful/bright, seen in a sketch for the slow movement of String Quartet in E-flat major, Op. 127. 23 Johann Jacob Wagner, “Ideen über Musik,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 25 (1823), 703, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, pp. 227-28. 24 He singled out Haydn’s “Die Himmel erzählen” for mention in conjunction with his description of this key. 25 He mentioned the chorus “Juchhe! Der Wein is da” (Heyday! The liquor flows) from Haydn’s Die Jahreszeiten. 26 Hand mentioned by name the passage in Die Schöpfung, “Und es ward Light,” noting “The completion of a light-filled existence is marked by Haydn in the famous place in The Creation, ‘And there was light,’” (Hand, Ästhetik, p. 216, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 230). 27 Adolf Bernhard Marx, Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition, 4 vols (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1837-47), trans. Musical Form in the Age of Beethoven: Selected Writings on Theory and Method, ed. Scott G. Burnham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 168, 171. 28 The affect of this movement—a rage aria—is congruent with Handel’s contemporary, Mattheson’s description that it “serves to rouse an army.” 21

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys

chorus: “Let us break their bonds” Saul Dead March29 Haydn Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 prelude: “Die Vorstellung des Chaos” chorus: “und es ward Licht” chorus: “Die Himmel erzählen die ehre Gottes” Missa in tempore belli, Hob. XXII/9 Credo in unum Deum Te Deum, Hob. XXIII/c1 Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. IV in C Major I: Adagio maestoso/Allegro moderato Fortepiano Sonata No. IX in C Major I: Allegro con spirito Mozart La clemenza di Tito, K. 621 overture: Allegro Le nozze di Figaro, K. 492 aria: “Non più andrai”30 Marsch in C, K. 408/1 Symphony No. 36 in C Major, K. 425, “Linz” I: Adagio Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K. 551, “Jupiter” I: Allegro vivace Te Deum, K. 141 Thamos, König in Ägypten, K. 345 chorus: “Schon weichet dir, Sonne!” Vesperae Solennes de confessore, K. 339 I: “Dixit Dominus” V: “Magnificat” Piccinni La buona figliuola aria: “Star trombette” Salieri Axur re d’Ormus chorus: “Ne’ più vaghi soggiomi dell’Asia” chorus: “Qual piacer le nostr’ anime ingombra” Il mondo alla rovescia aria: “Non v’è stato più giocondo” Tarare aria: “Qu’une grande solennité” Schubert Vaterlandslied, D. 287

29 On occasion, Handel transposed this movement in D major, substituting it for the “Dead March” in Samson, the first praxis of this key allowing it to retains its affective integrity. See pp. 63-66. 30 The use of this praxis of C major is subtly ironic here, as John Wilson has shown. John David Wilson, “Topos and Tonality in the Age of Beethoven,” unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universität Wien, 2012, p. 227.

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The Key to Beethoven Works by Beethoven Christus am Ölberge, Op. 8 chorus: “Welten singen” Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 finale: mm. 444-612 Der freie Mann, WoO 117 Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur, Op. 48, No. 5 Der glorreiche Augenblick, Op. 136 chorus “Es treten hervor die Scharen der Frauen,” mm. 31-5131 Egmont, Op. 84 V: “Marcia” Erhebt das Glas mit froher Hand, WoO 19 Fidelio, Op. 72, finale: “Heil sei dem Tag” “Wer ein holdes Weib errungen” Fortepiano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15 I: Allegro con brio Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53, Waldstein I: Allegro con brio32 Leonore Overture No. 1, Op. 138 Leonore Overture No. 2, Op. 72a Leonore Overture No. 3, Op. 72b Kriegslied der Oesterreicher, WoO 122 March for Wind Instruments, WoO 2933 Mass in C Major, Op. 86 Gloria in excelsis34 Missa solemnis, Op. 123 Credo: “lumen de lumine,” mm. 63-64 “Et resurrexit,” mm. 188-93 Overture Die Weihe des Hauses, Op. 124: Maestoso e sostenuto Overture in C Major, Op. 115, “Namensfeier”: Maestoso Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica II: Maggiore Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 IV: Allegro Triumphal March for Tarpeja, WoO 2a

The second praxis of C is used for the opening thirty measures. Kinderman notes that Wilhelm von Lenz described this work as embodying “‘heroic pianistic deeds’ with a ‘symphonic essence.’” William Kinderman, Beethoven (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 108. 33 This also exists in a version in B-flat major, making the connection with the first praxis of C and the second of B-flat—the new C major—even stronger. 34 This reflects the tradition of Christian power and celebration in this key. Robins Landon designated C major as Haydn’s “festival Key,” H. C. Robbins Landon, Haydn Chronicle and Works (London: Thames and Hudson, 1995), II, p. 255. 31 32

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys

A clear precedent for the first affective praxis can be found the tradition of writing quasi-military marches as seen in Italian opera buffa.35 Hoffmann (c. 1814) was right on the mark when he highlighted the connection with trumpets and drums. There was a strong tradition in Vienna of trumpet overtures and sinfonias that reflect this affective praxis of C major, culminating with orchestral works by Haydn, Mozart (“Linz” and “Jupiter” symphonies), and, of course, Beethoven’s First Symphony. The finale of the Fifth Symphony is also reflective of this triumphal praxis, yet this movement is connected with the projection of the ideal of freedom as well. This relationship was observed by Gustav Nottebohm, who found a melody in a sketch for the song Der freie Mann that bears a remarkable resemblance to the first theme of this movement.36 This is but one of several examples that can be seen where this key connects with the narrative of freedom, as John Wilson has pointed out.37 C major is also a key associated with Christian power and celebration. An overwhelming number of masses in the Viennese Classical tradition reflect this affective praxis. For the celebratory text of the Te Deum, the association with C major is even stronger for both Haydn and Mozart, although Beethoven himself did not set it. He did compose a series of works in C major in which the affect reflects the first praxis of triumph, strength and rejoicing in this key. At a certain level his use of C major in this way reflected the orchestral forces available to him and other composers, particularly in regard to brass and timpani, thus accounting for the high number of overtures and symphonic movements that are extant. This affective praxis was also connected with the concept of light; the most famous and oft-quoted example is Haydn’s powerful use of a fortissimo C major harmony in Die Schöpfung to set “und es ward Licht” in the opening movement, a passage that has received a great deal of attention over the years. On a more local level, Beethoven is following this tradition in his use of a C major harmony (also fortissimo) to set the words “lumen de lumine,” in the “Credo” of the Missa solemnis, while on a larger scale, the finale of the fifth symphony fulfills a similar function. Second praxis: purity, innocence, neutrality, an affective tabula rasa Person Date Mattheson 1713 Mattheson 1719 Vogler 1779 Ribock 1783

Characteristics charming, tender somewhat tender, touching pure will not express one [affect] that is strong and very marked

For a fuller account of this tradition, see Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” pp. 225-28. Gustav Nottebohm, Zweite Beethoveniana: Nachgelassene Aufsätze (Leipzig: Peters, 1887), p. 36. 37 See Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” Ch. 12, pp. 220-22. 35 36

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The Key to Beethoven Schubart 1784 Kellner 1787 Knecht 1792 Heinse 1795 Grétry 1797 Beethoven 1802 Weikert 1827 Seidel 1828 Gräffer 1830 Gathy 1835 Schumann 1835 Schilling 1835-36 Hand 1837 Marx 1837-47

completely pure, innocence, simplicity, naïvety, children’s talk happy cheerfulness, gentle seriousness cheerful, pure the original state of nature, lovely innocence of youth, peace, tenderness straightforward38 lustig39 cheerful, pure, innocent, simple pure pure innocence, white innocence, simplicity simple, unadorned simple seriousness innocence, naturalness gentle40

Works of other composers

J. S. Bach Prelude in C Major, WTC, Book I, S. 846 Gluck Orfeo ed Euridice aria: “Che Faro Senza Euridice?” Graun Der Tod Jesu duetto: Feinde, die ich mich betrübt” Handel Messiah Pifa41 Haydn Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 duet: “Von deiner Gut, o Herr und Gott” Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, Hob. XVI/48 I: Andante con espressione L’isola disabitata, Hob. XXVIII/9 aria: “Fra un dolce deliro” La fedeltà Premiata, Hob. XXVIII/10 aria: “Prendi, prendi, o Diana” Stabat Mater, Hob. XX aria: “Fac me cruce custodiri” Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. I in C Major III: Rondo The original word is “franche.” Klavierstück, WoO 54, entitled “Lustig und traurig” (Happy and sad), 1802, identified by Paul Mies, in Die Bedeutung der Skizzen Beethovens zur Erkenntnis seines Stiles (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1925), trans. Doris L. Mackinnon, Beethoven’s Sketches: An Analysis of his Style Based on a Study of his Sketch-Books (London: Oxford University Press, 1929), p. 181. 40 Marx, Musical Form, trans. Burnham, p. 171. 41 Handel didn’t employ one of the three more traditional pastoral keys here (D, F, or G majors), but used the second praxis of C to emphasize feelings of innocence and purity in anticipation of the nativity narrative. The long tonic pedal at the opening is characteristic of the praxis. 38 39

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Mozart Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, K. 545 I: Allegro Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, K. 283 II: Andante Mozart Le nozze di Figaro, K. 492 finale: “Deh signor nol contrastate” String Quartet in G Major, K. 387 III: Andante cantabile Vivaldi Gloria, RV 589 aria: “Domine Deus”42 Works by Beethoven An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 V: “Es kehret der Maien, es blühet die Au” Choral Fantasy, Op. 80, finale: mm. 60-164, 398-444 Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 aria: “meine Seele ist erschüttert,” mm. 197-21143 Der glorreiche Augenblick, Op. 136 chorus “Es treten hervor die Scharen der Frauen,” mm. 1-31 Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 X: Pastorale Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53, Waldstein III: Allegretto moderato44 Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111 II: Adagio molto semplice e cantabile Gegenliebe, WoO 118 König Stefan, Op. 117 chorus: “Ruhend von seinen Thaten” Leonore, Op. 72a, duet: “Um in der Ehe froh zu leben” Leonore Overture No. 1, Op. 138 Andante con moto Neue Liebe, neues Leben, Op. 75, No. 2 Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in E-flat Major, Op. 12, No. 3 II: Adagio con molta espressione String Trio in C Minor, Op. 9, No. 3 II: Adagio con espressione

The second affective praxis differs markedly from the first—owing to the absence of sharps or flats and the premises of well-tempered tuning systems— See n. 22 above. The image of Christ the innocent lamb is enhanced by the second praxis of C major here. 44 This sonata is nicknamed “L’Aurora” in Italy because of the opening of this movement, a moment that has been equated with dawn. I am grateful to John Wilson for pointing this out. 42 43

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The Key to Beethoven

and forms an affective ground zero. Schubart’s description was profoundly influential on the ensuing generation of writers of key characteristics, so much so that many of them quote him directly, as can be observed in the list above. Wilson chronicles its origins in French opéra comique as seen in the works of Grétry and Dazède, touching on the reception history of this repertoire in Bonn and Beethoven’s possible exposure to it.45 The theme of the variations in Beethoven’s Choral Fantasy also epitomizes this affective praxis. Edward J. Dent captured the character of the theme brilliantly—a melody marked forte yet, all importantly, dolce—when he asserted: “It is one of those utterly naïve and childlike tunes such as only Beethoven alone could write—infinitely trivial or infinitely sublime […]. It is a tune which one must receive in a childlike spirit.”46 C Minor: three affective praxes First praxis: lament, pathos, funereal, shadow key to the third praxis in E-flat major Person Date Characteristics Rousseau 1691 complaints, lamentation Lacombe 1758 pathetic Knecht 1792 extreme lamenting Galeazzi 1796 deaths of heroes, grand but mournful, ominous, lugubrious actions Grétry 1797 pathétique Beethoven 1798 pathétique Hoffmann c. 1814 Several C Minor chords (fortissimo) “Can you see him lurking, this pale ghost […] Phantom, why do you ensnare me? […] Everything is dead, dead, dead!”47 Gardiner 1817 complaining J.,J. Wagner 1823 gloomy48 Rochlitz 1824 pathetic Schrader 1827 sounds in deep tones of misery; proclaims rigid, numb grief

Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” pp. 228-31. Edward J. Dent, “Choral Fantasia for Fortepiano Solo, Chorus, and Orchestra, Opus 80,” in The Beethoven Companion, ed. Thomas K. Scherman and Louis Biancolli (New York: Doubleday, 1972), p. 651. While Dent is quite happy to posit a romantic scenario for this work, he is either unwilling or unable to discuss the relevance of key characteristics to his scene. The use of C major in this work is ultimately melded into the first affective praxis of triumph and celebration at m. 445, when the text describes “Großes, das ins Herz gedrungen, blüht dann neu und schön empor” (Something great, which has penetrated the heart, blooms aloft, new and beautiful). 47 Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. Schafer, Hoffmann and Music, p. 147. 48 Wagner, “Ideen,” 704, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 247. 45 46

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Weikert 1827 Ebhardt 1830 Gräffer 1830 Gathy 1835 Hand 1837 Czerny 1839 Berlioz 1843

extremely lamenting feelings, a love-sick person’s sighs extreme misery languishing secular love grandiose grief songs of the grave, pathetic character with pathetic expression49 gloomy

Works of other composers Partita No. 2 in C Minor, S. 826 J. S. Bach Sinfonia: Grave, adagio Benda Romeo et Julie Act III: Funeral Song, “Im Grabe wohnt Vergessenheit” Cherubini Requiem in C Minor “Introitus” Eberl Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 1 I: Adagio Gluck Orfeo Act II, Scene 1: Ballo, Maestoso chorus: “Ah! se intorno a quest’urna funesta” Graun Der Tod Jesu chorus: “Sein Odem ist schwach” Handel Jeptha chorus: “How dark, O Lord, are thy decrees” Judas Maccabeus chorus: “Mourn, ye afflicted children” Messiah chorus: “He trusted in God” Saul aria: “Wretch that I am” Haydn Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 “Der Winter”: Adagio ma non troppo Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 prelude: “Die Vorstellung des Chaos” Mozart Als Luise die Briefe, K. 520 Fantasia in C Minor, K. 475 I: Adagio Kleiner Trauermarsch in C Minor, K. 453a: Lento Masonic Funeral Music, K. 477 Neefe Sechste Serenate

Carl Czerny, On the Proper Performance of All Beethoven’s Works for the Fortepiano, ed. Paul Badura-Skoda (Vienna: Universal, 1970), facsimile reprint of The Art of Playing The Ancient and Modern Fortepiano Works (London: Cocks, 1839), Ch. 2, p. 33. He is discussing the third movement of Sonate pathétique, Op. 13.

49

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The Key to Beethoven Paer Achille Funeral March: Adagio non troppo50 Rossini Stabat Mater aria and chorus: “Inflammatus et accensus” Salieri La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo aria: “Come a vista pene si fiere” Sarti Giulio Sabino Act III, No. 4, Moderato51 Schubert Symphony No. 4 in C Minor, “Tragic” I: Adagio molto Wranitzky Grande Sinfonie caractéristique pour la paix avec la Républic françoise II: Adagio affettuoso, B section

Works by Beethoven Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13, pathétique I: Grave52 Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111 I: Maestoso Leonore, Op. 72a chorus: “Zur Rache, wir mussen ihn sehn” V: Marcia. Allegretto Six Fortepiano Variations on an Original Theme in F Major, Op. 34 Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica II: Marcia funebre, Adagio assai Trauer-Kantate auf den Tod Kaiser Joseph des Zweiten, WoO 87 I: Largo

It is clear that—to paraphrase Leo Treitler’s famous quote—Haydn also used key to project character.53 An excellent example can be heard in the use of the c/C relationship at the beginning of “Der Sommer” (Summer) in Die Jahreszeiten, undoubtedly one of the most famous uses of modal mixture ever. Beethoven was familiar with this Funeral March at the end of Paer’s opera, which employs muted woodwinds. See Janet K. Page, “To Soften the Sound of the Hoboy: The Muted Oboe in the 18th and early 19th Centuries,” Early Music 21/1 (1993), 66-67. 51 Beethoven owned a copy of this opera, and the funeral march has been suggested as a model for the second movement of the Eroica. Wilson notes that Elector Max Franz had a copy in the Bonn Hofkapelle library and that Beethoven himself acquired a copy later, Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 211. 52 Hand characterized this movement as “full of serious and strongly moving feelings,” (Ästhetik, p. 217, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 234). 53 Leo Treitler, “To Worship That Celestial Sound,” Journal of Musicology 1 (1982), 153-70. The quotation is on p. 163. His deliberate use of an uppercase ‘K’ for ‘Key’ speaks volumes here. 50

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The time before dawn, “Die Vorstellung des Chaos,” is depicted by Haydn in C minor (first praxis) and the ensuing modulation to C major ushers in his glorious vision of sunrise. Though many writers described this key, Galeazzi’s definition came the closest to caputuring the way in which Beethoven employed this praxis: the Marcia funebre from the Eroica Symphony is a striking example.54 Second praxis: tender, plaintive, longing Person Date Characteristics Mattheson 1713 extremely lovely, sad, gentle Ribock 1783 tender, womanly Schubart c. 1784 lament of unhappy love, languishing, longing, sighing of the love-sick soul Heinse 1795 tenderly lamenting Beethoven 1802 traurig55 Seidel 1828 heartfelt yearning Berlioz 1830 mélancolies Gathy 1835 unhappy love, Hand 1837 softness […] melancholy, sadness, longing, desire for consolation, painful love Herloßsohn 1839 the sentiment of love, longing, gentle lament

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Partita No. 2 in C Minor, S. 826 Sinfonia: Andante Fugue in C Minor, WTC, Book I, S. 847 Prelude in C Minor, WTC, Book II, S. 871 Cherubini Requiem in C Minor Introitus: “Requiem aeternam” Clementi Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 13, No. 6 II: Largo e sostenuto Handel Saul chorus: “Mourn Israel” Sonata in C Minor, Op. 1, No. 8 I: Largo Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz, Op. 51 II: “Amen dico tibi: hodie mecum eris in paradiso”56 Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Hob. XVI/20 I: Moderato Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Hob. XVI/38 II: Adagio Mozart String Quartet in C Major, K. 157 Francesco Galeazzi, Elementi teorico-pratici di musica, 2 vols. (i, Rome: Pilucchi Cracas, 1791; ii, Rome: M. Puccinelli, 1796), trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 104. See p.56. 55 “Sad,” WoO 54. See p. 54, n. 39. 56 This movement ends appropriately in the second praxis of C major. 54

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The Key to Beethoven II: Andante Symphony No. 26 in E-flat Major, K. 184 II: Andante Neefe Serenate aus Claudine von Villa Bella Sonata No. 5 for Keyboard with Violin in C Major I: Andante

Works by Beethoven Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 recitative: “Jehovah, du mein Vater” Die laute Klage, WoO 135 Fidelio, Op. 72 aria: “O wär’ ich schon mit dir vereint” Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2, No. 1 IV: Prestissimo, mm. 34-5057 Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13, pathétique III: Allegro Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 81a, “Das Lebewohl” II: “Die Abwesenheit” Andante espressivo. In gehender Bewegung, doch mit Ausdruck58 Que le temps me dure, WoO 11659

The use of the second affective praxis of C minor spans the whole period from Mattheson to Berlioz. It is clear that it was familiar to both Bach and Handel. Beethoven’s knowledge and use of it is perhaps best reflected in the second movement of the Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 81a, Das Lebewohl, which Beethoven subtitled “Die Abwesenheit.” In this movement he is able to express “the sorrow of absence,” as Tovey so aptly put it, using this praxis of C minor.60 Just three years after Beethoven’s death, Berlioz expressed similar emotions in the introduction to the first movement of Symphonie fantastique when he used the word “mélancolies” to describe the feelings of the hero. However, 57 The second subject is described by Marx as embodying “quiet, grand resignation.” Adolph Bernhard Marx, Anleitung zum Vortrag Beethovenscher Klavierwerke (Berlin: Janke, 1863), trans. Fannie Louise Gwinner, Introduction to the Interpretation of Beethoven’s Fortepiano Works (Chicago: Summy, 1895), p. 46. At the parallel point in the recapitulation, Beethoven employs the first praxis of F minor. 58 Czerny cautions that the ornamentation should be performed “very softly and tenderly.” Czerny, p. 61. 59 Beethoven composed a sketch of this Rousseau text in 1793 and the setting is a clear match for the second praxis of this key. The fortepiano prelude is particularly felicitous, containing as it does a series of 7-6 appoggiaturas. Beethoven Werke: Lieder und Gesänge mit Klavierbegleitung, XII/I, ed. Helga Lühning (Munich: Henle, 1990), pp. 266. Reid rightly notes the closeness to Schubart’s definition of C minor, Reid, pp. 236-37. 60 Donald Francis Tovey, A Companion to Beethoven’s Fortepianoforte Sonatas, rev. Barry Cooper (London: The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music, 1998), p. 195.

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this descriptor does not appear in his 1843 treatise, where C minor is merely characterized by the moniker “gloomy.”61 Third Praxis: tragic, forceful, dramatic, stormy, Person Date Characteristics Galeazzi 1796 tragic, fit to express grand misadventures Hoffmann c. 1814 Several C Minor chords, (fortissimo) a vision of the devil “Look, he clutches after my heart with his fiery claw. […] this pale ghost with gleaming red eyes ….] Phantom, why do you ensnare me?”62 J.J. Wagner 1823 “Desdemona awoke from her dream; saw her beloved in the height of battle. The enemy’s lance hit only too well, Out of his heart flowed noble blood”63 Schrader 1827 fear, horror Hand 1837 “full of serious and strongly moving feelings, [Beethoven] keeps c minor also for the Allegro” Marx 1837-47 cold, dark, storming thrusts64

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude in C Minor, WTC, Book I, S. 847 Cherubini Requiem in C Minor “Dies irae” Dussek Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 35 No. 3 I: Allegro agitato assai Gluck Orfeo coro: “Chi mai dell’ Erebo” Act II, Scene 1: Ballo, Presto Graun Der Tod Jesu aria: “Ihr weichgeschaffnen Seelen” “Ihr Tränen losen Sünder bebet!” Vivace Handel Jeptha aria: “Open thy marble jaws” Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz, Op. 51 “Il Terremoto”: Presto e con tutta la forza Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 Hector Berlioz, Grand traité d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes (Paris: Schonenberger, 1843), trans. Mary Cowden Clarke, A Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration (London: Novello, 1858), p. 24. 62 Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. Schafer, Hoffmann and Music, p. 114. 63 Wagner, “Ideen,” 704, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 232. 64 Marx, Musical Form, pp. 165, 168, 140. These adjectives are describing the first subject of the first movement of Op. 13. 61

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The Key to Beethoven aria: “Erstarrt entflieht der Höllengeister Schar” String Quartet in C Major, Op. 76, No. 4 “Emperor” IV: Presto Symphony in C Minor, Hob. I/52 I: Allegro assai con brio Symphony in C Minor, Hob. I/78 I: Vivace Symphony in C Minor, Hob. 1/95 I: Allegro moderato Mozart Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, K. 457 I: Molto allegro Fortepiano Concerto in C Minor, K. 491 I: Allegro String Quintet in C Minor, K. 406 I: Allegro Salieri La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo aria: “Come a vista pene si fiere” Schubert Symphony No. 4 in C Minor, “Tragic” I: Allegro vivace Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 Act II finale, mm. 373-92, Presto

Works by Beethoven Ah! Perfido, Op. 65 aria: “Ah crudel! Tu vuoi ch’io mora!” mm. 72-77 Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 aria: “Meine Seele ist erschüttert” Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 Introduction: La tempesta Fortepiano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37 I: Allegro con brio Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 10, No. 1 I: Allegro molto e con brio65 III, Prestissimo Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13, pathétique I: Allegro di molto e con brio Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111 I: Allegro con brio ed appassionato Leonore, Op. 72a chorus: “Zur Rache, wir mussen ihn sehn” Overture to Coriolan, Op. 62: Allegro con brio String Quartet in C Minor, Op. 18, No. 4 I: Allegro ma non tanto IV: Allegro

This work is sometimes known as the “little pathétique.”

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 I: Allegro con brio

There is little precedent for the third affective praxis of C minor in contemporaneous theoretical writings. However, the roots of this praxis can be found in the music of the generation prior to Beethoven. His teacher Haydn was clearly influential. For example, in Die Schöpfung he employed a spectacular modulation from A major to C minor at the words “Erstarrt entflieht der Höllengeister Schar” (Affrightened fly hell’s spirits black in throngs) in Uriel’s aria in Part I, “Nun schwanden vor dem heiligen Strahle” (Now vanish before the holy beams), where he depicted the end of chaos using the third praxis of this key. As can be seen in the list above, Mozart was equally influential. The third affective praxis is often characterized by a fast tempo, a loud dynamic level (or the dramatic juxtaposition of loud and soft dynamic levels), dramatic chordal writing, and, on occasion, the use of the “Mannheim rocket” (as seen in the first movement of Beethoven’s Sonate pathétique, Op. 13. It is perhaps what Joseph Kerman envisaged when he coined the now-famous phrase “C-minor mood,”66 in reference to Beethoven’s early works in this key, a subject taken up and expanded by Michael C. Tusa in his article “Beethoven’s ‘C-Minor Mood’: Some Thoughts on the Structural Implications of Key Choice.”67 D Major: three affective praxes First praxis: triumph, victory, joy, jubilation, human vengeance68 Person Date Characteristics Mattheson 1713 noisy, joyful, warlike, rousing Kirnberger 1769 the effect of a student march69 Vogler 1778 lively Lingke 1779 joyful Vogler 1779 heroic, impudent, joyful Ribock 1783 musketeer-joy Schubart c. 1784 triumph, hallelujahs, war-cries, victory rejoicing, for symphonies, marches, holiday songs and heaven-rejoicing choruses Kellner 1787 joyful dances Lesueur 1787 brilliant Joseph Kerman, The Beethoven Quartets (New York: Norton, 1979), p. 70. Michael C. Tusa, “Beethoven’s ‘C-Minor Mood’: Some Thoughts on the Structural Implications of Key Choice,” Beethoven Forum 2 (1993): 1-27. 68 For a list of vengeance arias performed at the Bonn Hofkapelle see Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 76. He argues that Beethoven may well have been familiar with these works. 69 Found in the preface to Kirnberger’s collection of instrumental pieces Vermischte Musikalien (Berlin: Winter, 1769). He is discussing the effect of transposing Graun’s “Mora, mora, Ifigenia” from his opera of the same name. 66 67

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The Key to Beethoven Knecht 1792 pompous, noisy Heinse 1795 strength Galeazzi 1796 the most cheerful and gay key that music has, tumultuous, fit to express fests, weddings, merry-making, jubilations, exultations, eulogies Grétry 1797 brilliant Callcott 1807 martial Vogler 1812 noisy, lively, suitable for pomp, noise, rumors of war Gardiner 1817 ample, grand, noble, having more fire than C J. J. Wagner 1823 “suited to the joyful noise of a crowd which has been heralded previously by a trumpet”70 Schrader 1827 loud rejoicing, victory, gratitude, noisy, fiery sounds Glöggl 1828 praise, triumph, joy Ebhardt 1830 courage, spendor, majesty and noisy joy Müller 1830 noisy vulgarity Porter 1834 ample, grand, noble, having more fire than C Hand 1837 splendid, grand Herloßsohn 1839 cheerfulness, rejoicing, triumph Works of other composers J. S. Bach Johannes-Passion, S. 245 aria: “Es ist vollbracht” B-section, “Der Held aus Juda siegt mit Macht” Fugue in D Major, WTC, Book I, S. 850 Prelude in D Major, WTC, Book II, S. 874 Mass in B Minor, S. 232 “Gloria in excelsis” “Gratias agimus/Dona nobis pacem” “Quoniam tu solus sanctus/Cum sancto spiritu” “Sanctus/Osanna” Prelude in D Major, WTC, Book II, S. 874 Graun Der Tod Jesu aria: “So stehet ein Berg Gottes” Handel Messiah chorus: “Glory to God” chorus: “Hallelujah” aria: “The trumpet shall sound” chorus: “Worthy is the Lamb” chorus: “Amen” Samson Dead March71 Wagner, “Ideen,” 704, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 152. On occasion, Handel substituted the “Dead March” from Saul in place of this, the original march, transposing it from C into D.

70 71

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys

Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 aria: “Nun scheint in vollem Glanze der Himmel” chorus: “Stimmt an die Saiten” Haydn Symphony in D Major, Hob. I/53, “L’Impériale” I: Largo maestoso Mozart Die Entführung aus dem Serail, K. 384 aria: “Ha, wie will ich triumphieren” Don Giovanni, K. 527 aria: “Madamina, il catalogo è questo” finale: “Già la mansa è preperata” Le nozze di Figaro, K. 492 sinfonia: Presto aria: “La vendetta” aria: “Vedrò mentr’io sospiro” Requiem, K. 626 Sanctus Neefe Hermann und Thusnelda Salieri La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo aria: “Torbido mar che freme” chorus: “Di qual sangue, o mortale” Vivaldi Gloria, RV 589 chorus: “Gloria in excelsis” chorus: “Quoniam tu solus sanctus” chorus: “Cum Sancto Spiritu” Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 aria: “Schweig! Damit dich niemand warnt,” mm. 62-end chorus: “Was gleicht wohl auf Erden”

Works by Beethoven Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 chorus: “Hier ist er”72 Fidelio, Op. 72 aria: “Ha! Welch’ ein Augenblick” “Nun ist es mir geworden,” mm. 71-123 quartet: “Er sterbe” Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 10, No. 3 I: Presto Fortepiano Trio in D Major, Op. 70, No. 1, “Ghost” I: Allegro vivace e con brio Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 “Gloria in excelsis” Sanctus: “Pleni sunt coeli”

D major is used both literally and ironically here. For a full discussion see Ch. 7, pp. 321-22.

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The Key to Beethoven Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 12, No.173 I: Allegro con brio Sonata for Fortepiano and Violoncello, Op. 102, No. 2 I: Allegro con brio Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 36 IV: Allegro molto Violin Concerto in D Major, Op. 61 I: Allegro ma non troppo

Writers are all but unanimous as to the qualities associated with the first affective praxis of this key. It had long been connected with festive, celebratory music employing trumpets and timpani or recreations of these stylistic features on keyboard instruments. Indeed, the use of natural trumpets and of timpani from the Baroque period onwards is undoubtedly a reason for the connection, timpani being tuned to D and A, the tonic and dominant notes of D major. However, none of Beethoven’s later songs uses this praxis as a primary tonality.74 The number of vengeance arias in D major almost forms a sub-group for this praxis, the sense here being of a victor wreaking vengeance over an enemy to emerge triumphant. In assessing the difference between Mozart’s vengeance arias in D major and its tonic minor, Martin Chusid perceptively suggests that where human elements are in play, D major is Mozart’s key of choice, whereas when the supernatural is invoked, D minor is used.75 This is precisely the plan followed by Weber in the aria: “Schweig! Damit dich niemand warnt” (Der Freischütz). As Caspar calls for revenge, Weber modulated to D major, clinching this moment for him.76 Second praxis: tender, yearning love, (amoroso/Empfindung/dolce), shadow key to the second praxis in B minor Person Vogler Czerny

Date Characteristics 1779 enflames the heart 1839 holy, religious77

Czerny described this movement thus: “the whole very lively, gay and brilliant.” Czerny, p. 75. However, there is an extant sketch that does: “Nähe des Geliebten,” a setting of a popular text by Goethe, which dates from 1799. 75 Chusid, p. 91-92. 76 Ombra means shade or shadow, from the Latin “umbra.” The use of the descriptor ombra is a twentieth-century label, first seen in Hermann Abert’s book Niccolò Jommelli als Opernkomponist (Halle: Niemeyer, 1908). See Birgitte Moyer, “Ombra and Fantasia in Late Eighteenth-Century Theory and Practice,” in Wye Jamison Allanbrook et al., eds., Convention in Eighteenth- and NineteenthCentury Music. Essays in Honor of Leonard G. Ratner (Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press, 1992), pp. 288-89. 77 Czerny, p. 91. He is describing the second movement of Fortepiano Trio in B-flat Major, Op. 97, “Archduke,” marked Andante cantabile. 73 74

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys

Works of other composers Cherubini Requiem in D Minor Sequentia: “Pie Jesu” Handel Berenice aria: “Nò soffrir non può il mio amore” Jeptha aria: “Happy they this vital breath” Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Hob. XVI/19 I: Moderato Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Hob. XVI/42 I: Andante con espressione Liebeslied, Hob. XXVIa/11 Missa Sancti Nicolai, Hob. XXII/6 Benedictus Schöpfungsmesse, Hob. XXII/13 Credo: “Et homo factus est” String Quartet in D Major, Op. 1, No. 3 I: Adagio Symphony in D Major, Hob. 1/31 IV: Moderato molto Mozart Don Giovanni, K. 527 canzonetta: “Deh vieni alla finestra” sextet: “Tergi il ciglio” Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, K. 576 III: Allegretto Symphony No. 21 in A Major, K. 134 II: Andante Ries Grande Sonata Fantasie in F-sharp Minor, Op. 26, “L’Infortune” II: Andante Schubert Fantasie, D. 940 III: Con delicatezza Works by Beethoven An die Geliebte, WoO 140 Der Liebende, WoO 139 Fidelio, Op. 72 duet: “Jetzt, Schätzchen sind wir allein,” bb, 95-109 Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, Op. 2, No. 2 II: Largo appassionato Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, “Hammerklavier” IV: Sempre dolce e cantabile, mm. 241-61 Fortepiano Trio in B-flat Major, Op. 97, “Archduke” III: Andante cantabile (semplice)

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The Key to Beethoven Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 Kyrie eleison78 Credo: “Et homo factus est” Sanctus Resignation, WoO 149 Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 1 II: Adagio, molto espressivo String Quartet in A Major, Op. 18, No. 5 III: Andante cantabile String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 95, Quartetto serioso II Allegretto ma non troppo, mezza voce Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 IV: Joy theme, (angenehm) T’intendo si, mio cor, Op. 82, No. 2

A clear alternative to the first affective praxis of D major can be seen here. In his critique of Paul Mies’ Der Charakter der Tonarten: Eine Untersuchung,79 Wolfgang Auhagen identified a second meaning for D major—“der Ausdruck von Schermz, Trauer oder Sehnsucht” (the expression of pain, grief, or longing), mentioning a group of songs in slow to medium tempo that reflect these traits.80 Bruce Clausen was also aware of this usage, hinting at it by pointing out that Beethoven often attached the word amoroso to some of his Lieder in this key, usually in a slow tempo and at a gentle dynamic level. Yet Clausen omitted to formalize his findings and use them in his analysis of Fidelio, since this definition did not appear in Schubart’s list.81 In addition to the term amoroso, Beethoven sometimes added markings of empfindung or dolce to these movements.82 An examination of his songs in D major supports the idea that it is a key of tender love, often paired with its shadow relative key of B minor (second affective praxis). If there is no text to indicate meaning, it is often but not always differentiated from the third affective praxis in this key by the signifier of a simple time signature, 2/4 and 3/4 being most common. 78 At the head of the score Beethoven wrote, “Von Herzen—Möge es wieder—Zu Herzen gehen!” (From the heart—may it return to the heart). While this remark was doubtless intended for the whole work, it is interesting that it appears above a passage in the second praxis of D major— tender, yearning love. This usage is in clear contrast to the dramatic opening of the Gloria. 79 Paul Mies, Der Charakter der Tonarten: Eine Untersuchung (Cologne: Staufen, 1948). 80 Wolfgang Auhagen, Studien zur Tonartencharakteristik in theoretischen Schriften und Kompositionen vom späten 17. Bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt a.M.:Lang, 1983) p. 284. 81 Bruce Edward Clausen, “Beethoven and the Psyches of the Keys” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1988), p. 143. Beethoven sometimes attaches the German equivalent of amoroso, “Empfindung,” to pieces that reflect this praxis. 82 Beethoven marks both the Kyrie and Sanctus from the Missa solemnis “mit andacht” (with devotion).

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Third praxis: peaceful, tranquil, pastoral topos Person

Date

Characteristics

Mattheson 1713 when a flute is used even this hard key can give a special disposition to delicate things J.J. Wagner 1823 joyful peace Schilling 1835-36 satisfaction, calm, peace, innocence Herloßsohn 1839 peace, quietness, innocence

Works of other composers Benda Romeo und Julie Act I: “Eingang” Dezède Julie trio: “Mes enfants travaillons gayment”83 Gossec Symphony in D Major, “Pastorella” I: Allegro Handel Messiah aria/chorus: “O thou that tellest” Haydn Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 aria: “Rollend in schäumenden Wellen” “Leise rauschend gleitet fort” String Quartet in B Minor, Op. 33, No. 1 III: Andante Symphony in D Major, Hob. I/104, “London” IV: Allegro spiritoso Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. VI in D Major IV: Allegro vivace Krommer Sinfonia Pastoralis in D Major Mozart Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, K. 576 I: Allegro Pichl Sinfonia pastorella I: Allegro Rosetti Sinfonia pastoralis I: Grave/Allegro molto Stamitz Sinfonia pastorale, Op. 4, No. 2 I: Presto IV: Presto assai Weber Euryanthe, J. 291 finale: “Fröliche Klänge, Tänze, Gesänge”

Quoted with musical example in Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 99.

83

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The Key to Beethoven Works by Beethoven Andenken, WoO 136 Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 28 “Pastorale”84 I: Allegro III: Allegro ma non troppo Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, “Hammerklavier” III: Molto tranquillo, dolce marcato e sostenuto, Fortepiano, mm. 45-55 Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 Gloria: “Et in terra pax” Benedictus: mm. 79-86, 141-58 Agnus Dei: mm. 96-163 String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131 II: Allegro molto vivace Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 III: Assai meno presto Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 II: Trio: Presto Violin Concerto in D Major, Op. 61 I: Allegro ma non troppo III: Rondo, Allegro

D major is a third key—and partner to the more common, frequently used keys of F and G majors—in which the pastoral trope is recreated by both Beethoven and his predecessors. In his 1787 reponse to Ribock’s article in Cramer’s Magazin der Musik, Georg Christoph Kellner commented that “das sanfte verschwindet” (the gentle has disappeared), implying that D major had previously been thought of in pastoral terms, as is indicated by Mattheson’s description of 1713. Beethoven, however, was still thinking of it in this way when he wrote the Trio of the Ninth Symphony and the second movement of the String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131 some thirty-five years later. This praxis of D major is often, but not always, characterized by some of the traditional signifiers of the pastoral trope: the use of triple or compound time, pedal points and a frequency of thirds and sixths. Beethoven’s use of D major in this way may have had an impact on writers after his death, since the first descriptions that characterize it in this manner come from Schilling and Herloßsohn.85

84 This title was not added by Beethoven himself, but was first seen in a London edition c. 1805. Donald Tovey, A Companion to Beethoven’s Fortepianoforte Sonatas, p. 284, n. 17. 85 See comments above by Schilling and Herloßsohn.

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D Minor: three affective praxes First praxis: melancholy, gentle sorrow, empfindsam (sensitive/sentimental) Person Schubart Knecht Galeazzi Grétry Beethoven Schindler Weikert Ebhardt Gräffer Schilling Hand Czerny Herloßsohn Marx

Date Characteristics c. 1784 melancholy womanliness 1792 gently sorrowing 1796 extremely melancholy and gloomy 1797 melancholy 1823 “the pictured soul-state of a melancholy being”86 1823 “Seelenzustand eines Melancholischen”87 1827 melancholy, gentle sorrowing 1830 gentle sorrow 1830 melancholy 1835-36 melancholy 1837 melancholic depression 1839 melancholy88 1839 deep melancholy, sorrow and pain 1863 deep melancholy89

Works of other composers C. P. E Bach Adagio in D minor, H. 352, Wq. nv 66 Sonata in D Minor, Wq. 57/4 I: Allegro moderato Sonata in D Minor, Wq. 62/4 I: Allegretto Sonata in D Minor, Wq. 62/15 I: Allegro moderato Sonata in D Minor, Wq. 65/24 I: Adagio Sonatina in D Minor, Wq. 107 I: Adagio Trio Sonata in D Minor, Wq. 145 I: Adagio J. S. Bach Prelude in D Minor, WTC, Book I, S. 851 Fugue in D Minor, WTC, Book II, S. 875 Italienisches Konzert, S. 971 II: Andante Clementi Fortepiano Sonata No. 2 in D Minor II: Adagio con molta espressione 86 Kerst ed. Krehbiel, p. 43. He is discussing the slow movement of Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 10, No. 3. 87 “Soul-state of the Melancholic,” Schindler, quoting Beethoven in response to his question, Biographie, p. 222. 88 Czerny, p. 32, discussing the second movement of Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 10, No. 3. 89 Marx, Interpretation of Beethoven, p. 107, again discussing the slow movement of Op. 10, No. 3.

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The Key to Beethoven Cherubini Requiem in D Minor Introitus: “Requiem aeternam” Graun Der Tod Jesu recitative: “Es steigen Seraphim” Handel Imeneo aria: “Di cieca note allor” Messiah aria: “But who may abide,” mm. 1-39; 94-114 Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Hob. XVI/24 II: Adagio Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Hob. XVI/37 II: Largo e sostenuto Fortepiano Trio in D Major, Hob. XV/7 II: Andante Stabat Mater quartet: “Eja Mater, fons amoris” Mozart Fantasia, K. 397 Adagio espressivo Requiem, K. 626 Introitus: “Requiem aeternam” Sequenz: “Lacrymosa”90 String Quartet in D Minor, K. 421 I: Allegro IV: Allegro ma non troppo Schubert Der Tod und das Mädchen, D. 531 Vivaldi Gloria, RV 589 aria with chorus: “Domine Deus, Agnus Dei”

Works by Beethoven Trauer-Kantate auf den Tod Keiser Joseph des Zweiten, WoO 87 recitative: “Er schläft von Sorgen seiner Welten entlanden” Egmont, Op. 84: “Mort de Klärchen” Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 10, No. 3 II: Largo e mesto Serenade for Violin, Viola and Cello, Op. 8 III: Adagio

While many examples of the first affective praxis occur in the work of other composers, Beethoven didn’t employ it that frequently in his own music. Features used to signify this style, often described as Empfindsam, include a (usually) slow tempo, quiet dynamic level, frequent use of the sospiro, a gesture particularly apparent in the “Lacrymosa” from Mozart’s Requiem. Many examples can be seen in the music of C. P. E. Bach, although the empfindsamer Stil can be seen in Note the use of the expressive Mannheim Seufzer motive throughout this movement.

90

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keys other that D minor. The first praxis is epitomized by Mozart’s Fantasia in D Minor, K. 397, and by the slow movement of Beethoven’s Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 10, No. 2, marked “largo e mesto” (slow and sad). Second praxis: gloom, ghostly visions, passive ombra style Person Date Gardiner 1817 Schrader 1827 Anon. 1828 Seidel 1828 Hand 1837

Characteristics doleful, solemn, grand horrible, frightening and deeply moving a ghost must speak in D Minor91 “The moving sounds, which portray so excellently Clärchen’s dying, fade away in D Minor”92 severe, heart-rending pain

Works of other composers Gluck De profundis clamavi Handel Jeptha chorus: “O God, behold our sore distress” Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz Introductione: Adagio maestoso, fortissimo Krommer Symphony in D Major, Op. 40 I: Adagio Mozart Don Giovanni, K. 527 overture, Andante finale: “Don Giovanni, a cenar teco m’invitasti”93 Thamos, König in Ägypten, K. 345 chorus: “Ihr Kinder der staubes erzittert und bebet” Salieri Il pastor fido chorus: “Figlia di Giove” Les Danaïdes overture, mm. 1-11 Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 aria: “Schweig! Damit dich niemand warnt,” mm. 1-1094

Anon. “That Keys Influence Musical Thinking,” The Spectator, 1828. Carl Ludwig Seidel, Charinomos, vol. 2 (Magdeburg: Ferdinand Rubach, 1825-28), p. 110, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 244. 93 Schrader mentioned this very passage by name. J. A. Schrader, Kleines Taschenwörterbuch der Musik (Helmstädt: C. G. Fleckeisen, 1827), p. 156. 94 From m. 11 onwards the tempo and dynamic increase and the second praxis melds into the third praxis of active ombra style. 91 92

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Works by Beethoven Egmont, Op. 84 “Clärchens Tod bezeichnend” Fortepiano Trio in D Major, Op. 70, No. 1, “Ghost” II: Largo assai e espressivo95 Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 Credo: “Crucifixus” Sonata for Cello and Fortepiano in D Major, Op. 102, No. 2 II: Adagio con molto sentimento d’affetto String Quartet in F major, Op. 18, No. 1 II: Adagio affetuoso ed appassionato96

Although the comments of writers seen above all date from the nineteenth century, examples of the second praxis of D minor can also be seen earlier. Gluck, when revising his opera Orfeo ed Euridice for production in Paris as Orphée et Euridice, illustrated the importance D minor held in the ombra tradition by transposing several movements from the first scene of the second act from the original key of C minor. For example, the opening “Ballo,” in E-flat major, that originally ends of V6 of C minor, begins in the same key but is altered to end of V6 of D minor.97 Clive McClelland devotes his doctoral thesis to the study of ombra style in music of the period, supplying a chart of what he terms a “Refined model of ombra characteristics.”98 There he highlights several features that characterize this style, including the use of flat keys (especially minor ones), chromatic harmony, melodic lines containing wide leaps, falling chromatic bass lines, the use of sospiro motives, restless, often syncopated rhythm, strong dynamic contasts ammmmd dark orchestration. He also discusses tempo, pointing out that many of these characteristics overlap with Sturm und Drang style while noting “the principal difference is tempo.”99 His thesis is that the tempo of ombra music is always “slow or moderate, never fast,”100 yet this would seem to exclude such movements as the “Dies irae” from Mozart’s Requiem, or the Schreckensfanfare in Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. As has been shown by John Wilson, “such furioso 95 Czerny described the character of this movement as “ghastly awful, like an apparition from the lower world. During it, we may not unsuitably think of the first appearance of the ghost in Hamlet.” Czerny, p. 87. William Kinderman points out that another Shakespearean connection is actually more likely. Juxtaposed in Beethoven’s sketchbooks for this work are pages with suggested ideas for an opera on Macbeth, set to open with the witches’ scene. William Kinderman, Beethoven (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 157. 96 Karl Amenda reported that Beethoven had the image of the tomb scene in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet in mind when composing this movement. This was confirmed by Nottebohm, who found the phrase “les derniers soupirs” (the last sighs) at the end of a sketch of this movement. 97 Moyer, “Ombra and Fantasia,” 291. 98 Clive McClelland, “Ombra Music in the Eighteenth Century” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Leeds, 2001), p. 216. 99 Ibid. 100 Ibid.

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musical passages should be considered part of a separate but related topos from ombra proper.”101 He cogently notes that in slower tempo ombra movements it is the protagonist’s sense of fear and terror that is being emphasized, whereas in faster tempo movements it is “the kinetic action of the demonic agents” that comes to the fore.102 One way of characterizing these differences is the use of the monikers “passive” and “active” ombra style, “passive” being allotted to this second praxis in D minor, and “active” to the third. It would also be remiss not to point out, as Wilson does, that Beethoven cut his teeth as far as ombra movements were concerned, on Don Giovanni and La grotto di Trofonio, both of which he would have been familiar with from performances at the Hofoper in Bonn.103 Third praxis: Sturm und Drang, storms, rage, vengeance (usually divine), active ombra style Person Vogler Haydn Weber Ebhardt

Date 1779 1791 1816 1830

Characteristics stormy104 stormy105 stormy106 wildness

Works of other composers Benda Ariadne auf Naxos finale107 Boccherini Symphony in D Minor, Op. 12, No. 4, “La casa del diavolo” finale: Allegro assai Cherubini Eliza quartet: “Il veut périr!” Requiem in D Minor Sequentia: “Dies irae” Gluck Don Juan Dance of the Furies Finale: Allegro non troppo Orphée et Euridice “Air de furies” Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 69. Ibid. 103 Ibid., p. 76 and Appendix 2. 104 Vogler composed a storm in D minor in the third scene of his opera Lampedo. 105 Haydn wrote storms in this key at the conclusion of his opera L’Anima del Filosofo and his madrigal, The Storm, Hob.XXIVa/8. When composing the Kyrie for his Missa in Angustiis (Mass in Troubled Times), he chose a tempo of Allegro moderato in D Minor. 106 Carl Maria von Weber, Writings on Music, ed. John Warrack, trans. Martin Cooper (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 161. 107 Wilson points out that Mozart was familiar with this work and that Beethoven played it in Bonn, being exposed to this style at a formative age in his development, “Topos and Tonality,” pp. 76-77. 101 102

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The Key to Beethoven Handel Messiah recitative: “Thus saith the Lord” aria: “But who may abide,” mm. 115-158 Haydn Destatevi, o miei fidi, Hob. XXIVa/2 aria: “Quanti il mar tesori ad una” Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 recitative: “Und Gott machte das Firmament” “Da tobten brausend heftige Stürme,” mm. 13-18108 rage aria: “Rollend in schäumenden Wellen” L’Anima del Filosofo chorus: “O che orrore” Le pescatrici, Hob. XXVIII/4 aria: “Varca il mar”

Il Ritorno di Tobia chorus: “Svanisce in un momento”109 The Storm, Hob.XXIVa/8 Missa in Angustiis, Hob. XXII/11 Kyrie eleison, Allegro moderato Orlando Paladino aria: “Mille lampi d’accese faville” String Quartet in D Minor, Op. 76, No. 2 I: Allegro Symphony in D Minor, Hob. I/26, “Lamentatione” I: Allegro assai con spirito Symphony in D Minor, Hob. I/80 I: Allegro spiritoso Symphony in G Major, Hob. I/92, “Oxford” II: Minore, mm. 40-71 Symphony in D Major, Hob. I/104, “London” I: Adagio Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. VI in D Major II: Un Scherzo all’ antico, Allegro, ma non troppo Mozart Die Zauberflöte, K. 620 aria: “Der Hölle Rache kocht in meinem Herzen”110 Don Giovanni, K. 527 Introduzione, mm. 155-168 duet: “Fuggi, crudele, fuggi” This text ushers in a short orchestral storm in D minor. This chorus is better known today as the motet Insanae et vanae curae (Vane and raging cares), which is a contrafactum, yet it was the original version with which Viennese audiences were familiar. 110 Whenever a character is called upon to sing a vengeance aria, the key employed is D minor, as Martin Chusid has shown, “The Significance of D Minor in Mozart’s Dramatic Music,” in MozartJahrbuch 1965/66, 87-93. 108 109

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Idomeneo, K. 366 aria: “Tutte nel cor vi sento” chorus: “Corriamo, fuggiamo quell monstro spietato” Fortepiano Concerto in D Minor, K. 466 I: Allegro III: Allegro assai Fortepiano Sonata in F Major. K. 332 I: Allegro transition theme, mm. 22-8 Requiem, K. 626 Sequenz: “Dies irae” Schubert Der Winterreise, D. 911, No. 20 “Der stürmische Morgen” Salieri La grotta di Trofonio aria: “Spiriti invisibili” Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 aria: “Schweig! Damit dich niemand warnt,” mm. 11-62 finale, mm. 308-17111 Kampf und Sieg, J. 190 Introduzione112

Works by Beethoven An die Hoffnung, Op. 94 “Und blickt er auf,” mm. 58-62 Concert Aria Ah! Perfido, Op. 65 recitativo: “I fulmini ti veggo già balenar d’intorno,” mm. 40-42 Fidelio, Op. 72 aria: “Ha! welch ein Augenblick!”113 Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 28, “Pastorale” III: Allegro ma non troppo, mm. 94-113 Fortepiano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2 I: Largo—Allegro Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 I: Allegro ma non troppo, un poco maestoso II: Molto vivace IV: Schreckensfanfare

Three descriptors of the third praxis of D minor—Sturm und Drang, rage/vengeance, and active ombra style—are all closely connected. Each shares

Weber added the stage direction “Ein Sturm erhebt sich” (A storm arises) here. Weber described it thus: “The mood of the musical introduction (D minor, strings with four horns, bassoon and timpani) is abrupt—stormy—lamenting—vehemently accented.” Weber, Writings on Music, p. 161. 113 The second part of this aria “Nun ist es mir geworden den Mörder selbst zu morden.” is in D major. 111 112

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syncopated rhythm, chromatic harmony and bass lines, fast tempo, and leaping melodic patterns. Text (where present) and context dictate which style is being employed. Gudrun Busch, who has extensively researched this practice in eighteenth-century opera, dubbed it “D-Moll, der Gewitter-tonart” (D minor, the storm key), because of the frequency with which she found storms set in this key.114 One example occurs after the recitative “Und Gott machte das Firmament” (And God made the firmament) from Haydn’s Die Schöpfung, where the phrase “Da tobten brausend heftige Stürme” (Now furious storms tempestuous rage), ushers in a brief orchestral storm in D minor. Another example can be heard at the conclusion of his opera L’Anima del Filosofo and in the chorus from Il Ritorno di Tobia, “Svanisce in un momento” (Vanishes in a moment.) In Beethoven’s oeuvre, the brief storm following the recitative “I fulmini ti veggo già balenar d’intorno” (Already I see lightning flashing round you), mm. 40-42, in Ah! Perfido is set in this key, as is the Tempest Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2. The praxis of using this key for “rage” arias can be heard in the operas of Haydn and Mozart, culminating in Beethoven’s use of it in Pizarro’s aria “Ha! Welch’ ein Augenblick” (Ha! What a moment) in Fidelio. In a clear connection with this lineage, Anton Reicha described the occasion when he attended a performance of Idomeneo in Bonn with the young Beethoven—an occasion when they would have heard “Tutte nel cor vi sento” (I can feel you all in my heart). This opera apparently made a profound impression on them and dominated their discussions in the following weeks.115 As far as active ombra style is concerned, one of the finest examples is Mozart’s setting of “Dies irae” from his Requiem, a movement that finds its parallel in the “Schrekensfanfare” of the Ninth Symphony—a passage that can perhaps be considered the ultimate ombra moment of the era. E-flat Major: three affective praxes First praxis: majestic, heroic, solemn, hunting trope Person Date Characteristics Mattheson 1719 majestic Reichardt 1774 “in more rapid tempos it has the character of splendor”116 Ribock 1783 noble, ardent Knecht 1792 splendid, solemn 114 Gudrun Busch, “Die Unwetterszene in der romantischen Oper,” in Die ‘Couleur locale’ in der Oper des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. Heinz Becker (Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1976), p. 171. 115 Antoine Reicha, “Notes sur Antoine-Joseph Reicha,” M. S. in Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, 1824, quoted in Lockwood, Beethoven, 59. 116 Johann Friedrich Reichardt, Briefe eines aufmerksamen Reisenden die Musik betreffend (Frankfurt a.M.: n. pub., 1774), in Daniel Gottlob Türk, School of Clavier Playing (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982), p. 526.

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Heinse 1795 Galeazzi 1796 Grétry 1797 Hoffmann c. 1814 Rochlitz 1824 Schrader 1827 Weikert 1827 Andersch 1829 Ebhardt 1830 Gathy 1835 Schilling 1835-36 Hand 1837 Marx 1837-47 Czerny 1839

noble, solemn, magnificent heroic, extremely majestic noble “sweet sounds of horns”117 sharp/crisp solemn, noble and dignified solemn, splendid battle key118 cheerful splendor, solemnity strength military key powerful proclamations, war marches, a manly key, solemn gravity heroic, grand119 noble, heroic120



Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude in E-flat Major, S. 552 Prelude in E-flat Major, WTC, Book I, S. 852 Benda Ariadne auf Naxos overture: Un poco grave Cherubini Eliza air: “Prenez enfin courage” Les Deux Journées air: “Guide mes pas, ô providence” Handel Messiah chorus: “Their sound is gone out” chorus: “But thanks be to God” Haydn Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 chorus: “Hört, hört das laute Getön”121 “Jetzt hat er die Hunde getäuscht” Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Hob. XVI/52 I: Allegro Henneberg Der Stein der Weisen “Hunters’ Chorus” Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. II in E-flat Major I: Allegro con brio Mozart Fortepiano Concerto in E-flat Major, K. 482 Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. Schafer, Hoffmann and Music, p. 147. Johann Daniel Andersch, Musikalisches Wörterbuch (Berlin: Natorff, 1829), pp. 90-93. 119 Marx, Musical Form, pp. 160, 171. He is discussing the first movement of the third symphony. 120 He is describing the first movement of the Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in C Minor, Op. 30, No. 2, where the second subject, a march-like, militaristic theme, appears in E-flat major. 121 This movement begins in D major, modulating to E-flat major at m. 83. Wilson suggests the possibility that this unconventional modulation could have been Haydn joking with the players (who would have had to grapple with a crooks’ change on horseback) by leaving the “French” key for horns (D major) and “emerging victorious in the ‘German’ key.” “Topos and Tonality,” p. 128. 117 118

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The Key to Beethoven I: Allegro Serenade for Winds, K. 375 I: Allegro maestoso String Quartet in E-flat Major, K. 160 IV: Presto Syphonie Concertante for Violin and Viola in E-flat Major, K. 364 I: Allegro maestoso Symphony No. 39 in E-flat Major, K. 543 I: Adagio Vesperae Solennes de confessore, K. 339 II: “Confitebor tibi” Paisiello Il re Teodoro in Venezia122

finale: “D’ordin Supremo” Ries Ouverture militaire, Op. 172 I: Allegro con brio Rossini Guillaume Tell chorus: “Vengeance” Salieri Il pastor fido aria: “Pastori su su”123 La cifra aria: “Deh tergete, sì tergete,” “Giusto ciel!” La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo chorus: “Quanto cost ail tuo delitto” Schubert Jägerlied, D. 204 Stamitz Sinfonia a 8 in E-flat Major, Op. 111, No. 3 I: Allegro assai Weber Euryanthe, J. 291 ouverture: Allegro marcato, con molto fuoco124 Works by Beethoven An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 VI: “Nimm sie hin denn, diese Lieder” “und ein lieben Herz erreichet” Des Kriegers Abschied, WoO 143 Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 XVI:Fianle Es lebe unser teurer Fürst, (Lobkowitz-KAntate), WoO 106 Fortepiano Concerto in E-flat Major, WoO 4 I: Allegro moderato Fortepiano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat Major, Op. 73, “Emperor” I: Allegro

Wilson notes that this work is subtitled a “dramma eroicomico,” Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 135. This is a brisk hunting song where horns are prominently featured. 124 Weber described Euryanthe as a “Grosse heroisch-romantische Opera” on the title page. 122

123

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 7125 I: Allegro molto e con brio Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 81a, “Das Lebewohl” III, “Wiedersehen”: Vivacissimamente Fortepiano Trio in E-flat Major, Op. 70, No. 2 I: Allegro ma non troppo König Stephan, Op. 117 ouverture: presto Missa solemnis, Op. 123 Credo: mm. 20-29, “omnipotentem, factorem coeli et terrae” “Prometheus” Variations for Fortepiano, Op. 35 Introduzione: Allegretto vivace Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in E-flat Major, Op. 12, No. 3 I: Allegro126 String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 127 I: Maestoso Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica I: Allegro con brio Wellingtons Sieg, Op. 91: Marcia

E-flat major has long been associated with the presence of horns—using E-flat crooks initially, and then, following the Eroica Symphony, using instruments pitched in E-flat—connecting it with hunting and the inherent heroism associated with this sport. However, it is only directly named as “eroico” by Galeazzi,127 although Marx and Czerny also use it in reference to specific works by Beethoven in this key.128 Since hunting was an activity limited to the upper classes, including royalty, it goes partway towards explaining the frequency of references to majesty and solemnity seen in the lists of many writers. From there it is but a small step to affirm a connection with militaristic activity. John Wilson points out that of all the tropes in Beethoven’s oeuvre, it is perhaps the heroic with which he has become most closely associated. Yet, as the catalog of works above affirms, this designation has a firm grounding in history.129 Second praxis: love, devotion, the Trinity: symbolized by the three flats found in the key signature This work is titled “Grand Sonate pour le Clavecin ou Fortepiano-Forte.” Czerny described this movement as “majestic […] noble, brilliant,” adding that it should be played “with bravura.” Czerny, p. 66. 125 126

127 John David Wilson, “Of Hunting, Horns, and Heroes: A Brief History of E[ Major before the Eroica,” Journal of Musicological Research 32, 2-3 (2013): 5.

See fns. 121, 122. For a fuller account of this connection, see Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” pp. 125-29 and and Raymond Monelle, The Musical Topic (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2006), pp. 59-71. 128 129

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Person Mattheson Schubart Lesueur Gardiner Schrader Ebhardt Gräffer Müller Hand Czerny

Date 1719 c. 1784 1787 1817 1827 1830 1830 1830 1837 1839

Characteristics beautiful, honest love, of devotion, intimate conversation with God religious character soft, beautiful pious feelings, devotion, love, thankfulness gentle majesty sacred love religious solemnity enraptured love tranquil, earnest130

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Fugue in E-flat Major. S. 552 Handel Messiah duet and chorus: “But thanks be to God” Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz, Op. 51 VII: “In manus tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum” Danklied zu Gott, Hob. XXVc/8 Der erste Kuß, Hob. XXVIa/3 Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 terzett “Zu du, o Herr, blickt alles auf ” aria “Holde Gattin! Dir zur Seite” Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Hob. XVI/45 I: Moderato Harmoniemesse, Hob. XXII/14 Gloria: “Gratias agimus tibi” Mehrstimmige Gesänge No. 12: “Aus dem Danklied zu Gott” Heiligmesse, Hob. XXII/10 Credo: “Et incarnatus est” Schöpfungsmesse, Hob. XXII/13 Benedictus Symphony in E-flat Major, Hob. I/83, “La Poule” II: Andante Meyerbeer Les Huguenots chorus: “Providence, mere tender” romanza: “De mon amour faut-il, triste victime” Mozart Die Entführung aus dem Serail, K. 384 aria: “Ich baue ganz auf deine Stärke” Die Zauberflöte, K. 620 130 Czerny, p. 75. He is discussing the second movement of the Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in G Major, Op. 96.

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aria: “Dies Bildnis ist bezaubernd schön” Don Giovanni, K. 527 aria: “Ah! Che mi dice mai?” Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, K. 281 II: Andante amoroso Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, K. 457 II: Adagio sotto voce Requiem, K. 626 Offertorium: “Hostias” String Quartet in B-flat Major, K. 589 II: Larghetto String Quintet in G Minor, K. 516 III: Adagio ma non troppo Rossini Guillaume Tell aria: “Asile héréditaire” Salieri La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo aria: “Dovunque il guardo io giro” Palmira regina di Persia aria: “Sopra il volto sbigottito” Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 aria: “Durch die Wälder, durch die Auen”

Works by Beethoven An Laura, WoO 112 Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 finale: Allegretto Fortepiano Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 19 II: Adagio131 Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 22 II: Adagio con molta espressione Gottes macht, Op. 48, No. 2 Maigesang, Op. 82, No. 4 Mass in C Major, Op. 86 Credo: “Et incarnatus est” Merkenstein, WoO 144 Sonata in G Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 96 II: Adagio espressivo Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60 II: Adagio, cantabile

The Trinitian symbolism of three flats is one indicator of strong connections between the second affective praxis in E-flat and works with 131 It is telling that Czerny’s characterization of this movement, “This Adagio may be compared to a dramatic vocal scene in which the most heartfelt sensibility manifests itself,” openly draws a comparison with vocal music, Czerny, p. 95.

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texts conveying the love of God. Beethoven’s setting of An Laura, WoO 112, illustrates this particularly well, containing a clear example of a modulation employed for affective means. As the text describes “the bliss of God’s solemn scales,” the musc modulates to E-flat major. Third praxis: sogno/dream, sleep, memories/fantasies of unhappy/failed love, shadow key to the first praxis in C minor132 Person Date Mattheson 1719 Vogler 1778 Vogler 1779 Galeazzi 1796 Grétry 1797 Vogler 1812 Hoffmann c. 1814 Gardiner 1817 J.J. Wagner 1823

Characteristics pathetic, serious, plaintive dark night grave, serious pathétique, gloomy gentle night key E-flat major (forte) “…melancholy?”133 somber “Frightful shadows! Quivering moonlight! Let the earth vanish from me, Let heaven appear upward before me! The soul sighs upward Joyous of home […]”134

Works of other composers Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 19 in B-flat Major, Op. 45, No. 1 II: Adagio patetico Gassmann L’amore artigiano aria: “Occhietti cari del mio Tesoro”135 Gluck Orfeo ed Euridice Act II Ballo: Maestoso Grétry L’amant jaloux air: “Plus de sœur! Plus de frère” ariette: “O douce nuit”136 132 Sogno means dream. John Wilson confirms that for Haydn, the word sogno in a text conjured up the key of E-flat major. “Topos and Tonality,” p. 71.

Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. Schafer, Hoffmann and Music, p. 147. Wagner, “Ideen,” 714, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 247. 135 This aria calls for muted oboes whose timber greatly aids in conveying a sense of melancholy. 136 Wilson cites this work on p. 120 of “Topos and Tonality,” pointing out that Grétry noted the Spanish locale of this opera needed a nocturnal “teinte” (palette), another connection of this praxis with night and darkness. André Ernest Modeste Grétry, Memoires, ou essais sur la musique (Paris: Imprimerie de la République, 1797), vol 1, p. 333. 133

134

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Graun Der Tod Jesu aria: “Ihr weichgeschaffnen Seelen” Handel Messiah aria: “He was despised” Orlando arioso: “Già l’ebro mio ciglia” Hasse Cleofide recitative: “Qual tempesta d’affetti” Haydn Cello Concerto in C Major, Hob. VIIb/5 II: Andante Das Leben ist ein Traum, Hob. XXVIa/21 Die Feuersbrunst, Hob. 29b aria: “All’ kummer Gram und Schmerz” Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 aria and recitative: “Erblikke hier, betörter Mensch,” mm. 1-28; 99-111137 Il mondo della luna, Hob. XXVIII/7 chorus: “O luna lucente di Febo sorella” Missa in tempore belli, Hob. XXII/9 Credo: “Crucifixus” Schöpfungsmesse, Hob. XXII/13 Gloria: “Miserere nobis” Jommelli Vologeso recitative: “Berenice, dove sei?” Mozart Don Giovanni, K. 527 aria: “Mi tradì quell’ alma ingrata” sextet: “Sola, sola in bujo loco” Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, K. 282 I: Adagio Le nozze di Figaro, K. 492 aria: “Porgi, amor, qualche ristoro” Recitative and Aria, K. 431: Misero! o sogno, o son desto? Symphony No. 40 in G Minor, K. 550 II: Andante String Quartet in B-flat Major, K. 458 II: Adagio Neefe An Cidli Ein Traum Selma und Selmar: Eine Elegie Paisiello Il barbiere di Siviglia aria: “Giusto ciel, che connoscete” Il re Teodoro in Venezia aria: “Il sogno di Teodoro” 137 Wilson observes “the pellucid manner in which Haydn highlights the word ‘Traum,’” connecting it to the many expressions of sogno in his earlier operas. “Topos and Tonality,” p. 138.

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The Key to Beethoven Piccinni La buona figliuola aria: “Vieni al mio seno” Salieri Armida aria: “Vieni a me sull’ali d’oro” La grotta di Trofonio aria: “Di questo bosco ombroso” La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo aria: “Tu nel duol felice sei” Schubert Bei dem Grab meines Vaters, D. 496 Ihr Grab, D. 736 Ossians Lied nach dem Falle Nathos, D. 278 Fortepiano Trio in E-flat Major, D. 897 “Notturno”: Adagio Traetta Ifigenia in Tauride chorus: “Dormi Oreste” Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 trio: “Wie? Was? Entsetzen!” Zelter An den Mond

Works by Beethoven Ah! Perfido, Op. 65 recitative: “Ah no! fermate, vindici Dei!” aria: “Per pietà non dirmi addio” “Dite voi, se in tanto affanno” Als die Geliebte sich trennen wollte, WoO 132 An die Ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 I: “Auf dem Hügel sitz’ ich spähend” VI: “Nimm sie hin denn, diese Lieder” An die Hoffnung, Op. 32 Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 IX: Adagio Fidelio, Op. 72 duet: “Wir müssen gleich zum Werke schreiten” Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 81a, “Das Lebewohl” I: Adagio138 La tiranna, WoO 125 Sehnsucht, WoO 134, No. 3 Septet in E-flat Major, Op. 20 I: Introduction, Adagio String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130 V: Cavatina, Adagio, molto espressivo139

Czerny described this movement as picturing “a spirit deeply affected.” Czerny, p. 61. According to Beethoven’s friend Karl Holz, the master was brought to tears when writing this movement and even by its memory. The sketch for this movement is in D-flat major, and it had originally been intended as the third movement of this quartet, (De Roda Sketchbook, f. 24v). 138 139

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Symphony No 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 IV: Adagio ma non troppo ma divoto, mm. 643-46 Tremate, empi, Tremate, Op. 116 “Son queste, amato bene”

Beethoven’s connection with the sogno praxis was doubtless made during his time performing opera in Bonn, as John Wilson has pointed out, and supported by his later studies with Salieri, from whom he chose to receive instruction in vocal writing for the setting of Italian texts.140 Beethoven both adopted and adapted this sogno trope, often not using it strictly in its “dream” sense, but expanding its range to include memories, imagined feelings, and fantasies as they relate to unhappy love, even on occasions where a dream state is not invoked. This trope can be heard to full effect in Ah! Perfido, where he uses E-flat major to signify the imaginings of the heroine as she fantasized about the punishment of her unfaithful lover. Her thoughts reach their climax in this key as she screams, “Oh no! Oh no!,” calling on the gods to spare him. In the ensuing aria, as she implores her lover not to leave, E-flat major is again employed to project her imaginings in an adaptation of the sogno trope. A similar usage of the sogno/unhappy love praxis can also be heard in Als die Geliebte sich trennen wollte, only this time it is used to signify the poet’s longing to eclipse the memory that he once was happy. Finally, Beethoven invoked this praxis in the use of a single chord of E-flat major in the finale of the Ninth Symphony to project the Kantian image “Über Sternen muß er wohnen” (Above the stars must he dwell). This occurs in mm. 643-46, as the chorus sings this text, all set to a single chord of E-flat. John Wilson has highlighted the tradition in Italian opera seria of the aria d’affetto, a genre “which expresses the anguished feelings of spurned love,” an important precedent in establishing a clear signifier for this affective praxis of E-flat major.141 E Major: three affective praxes First praxis: wild, fiery passion, brilliant Person Date Mattheson 1713 Kirnberger 1771 Vogler 1778 Ribock 1783 Schubart c. 1784 Knecht 1792 Galeazzi 1796

Characteristics biting, severing, penetrating roughness, wildness sharp depicts fire best of all hard noisy shouts of joy, laughing pleasure and not yet complete, full delight fiery and wild piercing, shrill, somewhat harsh

Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” pp. 271-72. Ibid., p. 118.

140 141

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The Key to Beethoven Grétry 1797 Vogler 1812 Hoffmann c. 1814 Gardiner 1817 J. J. Wagner 1823 Bührlen 1825 Schrader 1827 Weikert 1827 Gräffer 1830 Hand 1837

bright, vivid very penetrating E major second inversion (forte) “in its gold shine the flames which have consumed me […]”142 bright, pellucid, adapted to brilliant subjects merry143 screaming terror, horror, fire and wildness at fast tempos fire and wildness exuberant joy laughing joy, fire

Works of other composers Handel Messiah aria: “Ev’ry valley” Haydn Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 aria: “Hier steht der Wand’rer nun” “Da lebt er wieder auf ” String Quartet in E Major, Op. 54, No. 3 I: Allegro Mozart Don Giovanni, K. 527 aria: “O statua gentilissima” Neefe Sonata No. 4 for Keyboard with Violin in E Major I: Allegro con spirito Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 aria: “All’ meine Pulse schlagen” Jubel-Ouvertüre, J. 245144 Works by Beethoven Ein Selbstgespräch, WoO 114 Fidelio, Op. 72 overture, mm. 1-4, 47 aria: “Ich folg’ dem inner Triebe” Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1 I: Allegro

Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. Schafer, Hoffmann and Music, p. 146. “Lustig,” Wagner, “Ideen,” P. 713, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 152. 144 Cosima Wagner wrote in her diary that her husband saw E major as conveying a sense brilliance (“Glanz”), an opinion congruent with the first praxis in this key. Cosima Wagner’s Diaries, Volume One: 1869-1877, ed. Martin Gregor-Dellin and Dietrich Mack, trans. Geoffrey Skelton (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovitch, 1978), p. 730. 142 143

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In its first praxis, E major is characterized by a fast tempo and loud dynamic level. Schubart’s description, which picks up on the dynamic level designator, was extremely influential and his descriptions appear in the definitions of several writers. The distinction between the first two praxes in this key is seen juxtaposed in Fidelio, highlighted in the opening twelve measures of the overture where the dual sides of Leonore’s character are depicted. The intensity of her fiery determination to free Florestan (mm. 1-4), marked allegro, forte, with sforzando accents and detaché writing for full orchestra, clearly reflects the first affective praxis in this key, while her warm, tender love for her husband, captured in ensuing measures (and again in mm. 235-47), marked adagio, and piano, with legato slurs, dolce, played only by horns and clarinets reflects the second. Second praxis: love, sometimes hopeless, sometimes tender Person Date Mattheson 1713 Wendt 1815 Schrader 1827 Hauser 1828 Ebhardt 1830 Müller 1830 Potter 1836 Czerny 1839 Marx 1863

Characteristics extremes of helpless and hopeless love emotionally rich145 tenderness, loveliness solemnly-tender moderate ardour tenderness most amiable thoughts146 noble, highly feeling,147 serene, noble148 melting tenderness149

Works of other composers Cherubini Requiem in D Minor Sequentia: “Voca me” Handel Messiah recitative: “Comfort ye” Haydn Cupido, Hob. XXVIa/2 Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 recitative: “Aus Rosenwolken bricht” String Quartet in G Minor, Op. 74, No. 3 II: Largo assai, mezza voce Mozart Così fan tutte, K. 588 aria: “Per pietà ben mio perdona” 145 Amadeus Wendt, “Thoughts about Recent Musical Art, and van Beethoven’s Music, Specifically His Fidelio,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 17 (1815), trans. Senner, ii, 211. 146 Cipriani Potter, “Recollections of Beethoven, with Remarks on his Style,” Musical World 1/7 (1836), repr. Musical Times 10 (1861-62), 151. 147 Czerny, p. 82. He is discussing the Fortepiano Trio in G Major, Op. 2, No. 1. 148 Ibid., p. 34. He is writing of Beethoven’s Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1. 149 Marx, Interpretation of Beethoven, p. 82.

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The Key to Beethoven Die Zauberflöte, K. 620 aria: “In diesen heil’gen Hallen” Neefe Cidli Rossini Guillaume Tell duet: “Sauve Guillaume!” Il barbiere di Siviglia aria: “Una voce poco fa” Spohr Jessonda, woo 53 aria: “Dass mich Glück mit Rosen kröne”

Works by Beethoven Bitten, Op. 48, No. 1 Fidelio, Op. 72 aria: “Gott! Welch Dunkel hier,” mm. 43-47 “Doch gerecht ist Gottes Wille” Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, Op. 2, No. 3 II: Adagio Fortepiano Sonata in E Minor, Op. 90 II: Nicht zu geschwind und sehr singbar vorzutragen, piano, dolce Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 Mass in C Major, Op. 86 Christe eleison Odi l’aura che dolce sospira, Op. 82, No. 5 Opferlied: WoO 126 Op. 121b I: Vivace, ma non troppo. Sempre legato Wonne der Wehmut, Op. 83, No. 1

The second praxis of E major contrasts strongly with the first, the signifiers of its presence—in addition to textual meaning—being slower tempo, legato phrasing, and a quieter dynamic range. It is not often that a clear error of judgment can been seen in the work of a contemporaneous writer, but Hand was mistaken when he failed to recognise the existence of of an alternative affective usage of this key, and actually suggested that Sarastro’s aria in Die Zauberflöte, “In diesen heil’gen Hallen” (In these holy halls), should be “sung with fire and exaltation” rather than “intimate tenderness,” qualities clearly indicated in the larghetto and piano markings Mozart assigned this aria. Third praxis: the invocation of gentle night and sleep, on occasion as a metaphor for death, shadow key to C-sharp minor150 150 Wilson questions whether the inclusion of the death metaphor in this third praxis of E major is warranted, stating that the only mention of it comes from Mattheson’s definition, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 50, n. 12. However, an examination of the text of Abendlied clearly indicates that it is, with phrases such as “wanting only to strive from its cocoon to soar free […] it would like to be among the stars,” and “it gazes upward to where sits the starry judge sits enthroned […] fear can

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Person Date Mattheson 1713 Vogler 1812 Hoffmann c. 1814 J. J. Wagner 1823 Schilling 1835-36 Czerny 1839 Herloßsohn 1839

Characteristics

deathly gloom “Has not E always been chosen in all operas where the Eumenides appear?”151 E major; first inversion (forte) “Courage and strength to him who is destined to reign in the realm of spirits”152 “Let the noise of the hunt be silent, Look the sun is setting […] Dying night”153 pious devotion and solemnity, hallowed love “holy, distant and celestial harmony”154 seriousness and sublimity

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Cantata 53, Schlage doch, gewünschte Stunde aria: “Schlage doch, gewünschte Stunde” Prelude and Fugue in E Major, WTC, Book II, S. 878155 Dussek Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 70, “Le retour à Paris” II: Molto adagio con anima ed espressione Handel Jeptha aria: “Farewell ye limpid springs” “Brighter scenes I seek above” Judas Maccabeus aria: “’Tis liberty, dear liberty alone”156 Messiah aria: “I know that my Redeemer liveth”157 torment it no longer […] with face transfigured it soars upward to the heavenly light,” all overt references to the afterlife. Also in Klage, while there is no direct mention of death in the opening E major section (mm. 1-14), it can be seen as a direct harbinger of the mention of the young man’s death described in the second E minor section as the tomb that hold’s the young man’s ashes is visualized. It should be noted, however, that this is not always the case. 151 Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 252. The Eumenides is another name for the Erinyes, also known as the Furies, godesses who tormented the guilty in Greek mythology. 152 Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. Schafer, Hoffmann and Music, p. 146. 153 Wagner, “Ideen,” 713, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 253. 154 Czerny, p. 98, describing the opening of the second movement of Fortepiano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37. 155 Wilson puts forward a convincing case for this fugue being an influential movement in this tradition, making a specific comparison with mm. 35-39 and the second movement of the String Quartet, Op. 59, No. 2, mm. 37-44, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 61. 156 Wilson points out that, in all likelihood, Beethoven attended a performance of Judas Maccabeus in April 1794 by Gesellschaft der associerten Kavaliere at the home of Baron von Swieten, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 57. The libretto of this song discusses how freedom makes nature appear more beautiful. 157 Mattheson commented further on this key: “under certain circumstances [it] is so biting, severing, sorrowful, and penetrating that it can be compared with nothing but fatal separation of

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The Key to Beethoven Semele aria: “O sleep, why dost thou leave me?”158 Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz, Op. 51 III: “Mulier, ecce filius tuus, et tu, ecce mater tua” Abendlied, Hob. XXVc/9 Auf meines Vaters Grab, Hob. XXVIa/24 Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 cavatine: “Dem Druck erlieget die Natur” Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, Op. 2, No. 3 II: Adagio Fortepiano Sonata in E Minor, Op. 90 II: Nicht zu geschwind und sehr singbar vorzutragen, piano, dolce Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 Mehrstimmige Gesänge “Abendlied zu Gott”159 O fließ, ja wallend fließ in Zähren, Hob. XXVIa/19 Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Hob. XVI/52 II: Adagio160 String Quartet in A Major, Op. 20, No. 6 II: Adagio, cantabile, mezza voce Symphony in E Minor, Hob, I/44, Trauersymphonie III: Adagio Mattheson Die betrogene Staats-Liebe aria: “Itzt will ich bei dir sein” Schumann Requiem, Op. 148 “Agnus Dei”161 Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 aria: “Leise, leise fromme Weise”

Works by Beethoven Abendlied unterm gestirten Himmel, WoO 150 Elegischer Gesang, Op. 118 Fidelio, Op. 72 aria: “Komm, Hoffnung, lass den letzten Stern der Müden nicht erbleichen!”

body and soul.” This is exactly what happened to Jesus! However, Handel’s setting emancipates this meaning, by projecting an overwhelming feeling of confidence, achieved through the exquisite beauty of this bel canto melody. 158 In this aria, Semele expresses her desire to fall asleep. I am grateful to John Wilson for pointing this out. 159 This is a religious text by Gellert that deals with a night theme, and is marked poco adagio. 160 The central B secrion of this movement, mm. 19-32, is in E minor. 161 The connection is strengthened by the fact that at a Requiem Mass, the text of the Agnus Dei is altered to include the alternate phrase: “dona eis requiem” in place of “miserere nobis.” Schumann elected not to use the final petition, “sempiternam requiem.”

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Fortepiano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37 II: Largo, senza sordino e sempre pp162 Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53, “Waldstein” I: Second Theme, mm. 35-42, dolce e legato Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 III: Andante molto cantabile ed espressivo, Gesangvoll mit innigster Empfindung, mezza voce163 Klage, WoO 113 Sehnsucht, WoO 146164 String Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 II: Molto adagio si tratte questo pezzo con molto di sentimento165 String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 127 II: mm. 62-80, Adagio molto espressivo

The origins of this third praxis in E major can be seen in Mattheson’s music and writings.166 John Wilson points to the close similarity of Sehnsucht, WoO 146, with Handel’s aria “O sleep, why dost thou leave me?” from Semele, noting that Beethoven wrote it at a time when he was thoroughly immersed in the study of older music. It is also apparent in works such as Haydn’s “Abendlied zu Gott” and many of his solo songs, and was shared by Beethoven’s contemporary Weber, as heard in Der Freischütz. Reportedly, Haydn let it be known that he wanted the “Adagio”of Symphony No. 44 played at his funeral, an earlier connector of this affective praxis with death. While this wish was not honored, it was performed at a memorial concert for him in Berlin in 162 Czerny admonisheed the performer that this movement must be played with “the most expressive delicacy […] as the key (E major) is so unrelated to that of the first movement. ” Czerny, p. 98. 163 Barry Cooper has identified the thematic similarity between the melodies of WoO 146 and the third movement of Op. 109. Cooper, Beethoven and the Creative Process (Oxford: Oxford Clarendon Press, 1990), p. 62, thus connecting it to the third affective usage of this key. In contrast, William Meredith has noted several writers who have identified the similarity between the second phrase of this movement and mm. 301-04 of Op. 98, although the works are in different keys. William Meredith, introduction to Beethoven’s Immortal Beloved, Solving the Mystery by Edward Walden (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2011), pp. 17-18. 164 Beethoven marks this song “Mit Empfindung, aber nicht zu langsam.” 165 The performance direction translates “With much feeling, but not too slow.” Beethoven’s close friend Czerny recounted that he composed this movement “one evening as he for some time contemplated the starry heavens and thought upon the harmony of the spheres,” an account confirmed by Holz, a violinist in the Schuppanzigh quartet, and friend of Beethoven. Czerny, p. 50. 166 Wolfgang Auhagen discusses this more fully in “Zur Entstehung der Tonartencharakteristik im 18. Jahrhundert,” in Perspektiven und Methoden einer systemischen Musikwissenschaft (Frankfurt a.M.: Lang, 2008), pp. 93-94. Eric McKee identifies a topos that he terms “sacred chorale,” in Beethoven’s oeuvre although he doesn’t make the use of E major an exclusive signifier of it, “E Major and Spirituality in Beethoven’s Instrumental Music,” in Beethoven Studien und Interpretationen, ed. M. Tomaszewski and M. Chrenkoff (Kracow: Akademia Muzyczna, 2003), pp. 125-43). Wilson redefines it (Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 49), although he, too, is unable to use this key as an exclusive signifier.

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1809, where it most likely acquired the moniker “Trauersinfonie” (Symphony of Mourning). There are other stylistic links in addition to the use of E major that cement this connectedness: it usually appears at a soft dynamic level, and a slow tempo for the invocation of gentle night and sleep (sometimes as a metaphor for death). Frequently it is accompanied by the descriptor “mit Empfindung” or its Italian equivalent. It traverses genres and periods in Beethoven’s output, and is heard as early as c. 1790 in his setting of Hölty’s Klage, and as late as 1824-25 in the second movement of the String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 127, Adagio molto espressivo, mm. 62-80. There is substantial biographical evidence that the stars had held a fascination for Beethoven since his teenage years, when he often spent time in his attic using telescopes to gaze heavenward. As he matured, this image continued to remain a powerful source of inspiration for him, as seen in his transcription of and interest in Kant’s Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels: “‘das Moralische Gesez [sic] in unß, u der gestirnte Himmel über unß’ Kant!!!,” which appears in a conversation book for February, 1820.167 F Major: three affective praxes First praxis: German tradition of calmness, gentleness, peace, pastoral topos Person Mattheson Vogler Vogler Schubart Kellner Knecht Vogler Gardiner Schrader Weikert Seidel Ebhardt Gräffer Gathy Schilling Hand Czerny

Date Characteristics 1713 beautiful sentiments 1778 silent 1779 dead calm c. 1784 complaisance, calm 1787 gentle dignity 1792 gentle, calm 1812 calm 1817 mild, contemplative 1827 gentle, lovely, calm, love, joy, hope, trust 1827 gentle, complaisant, calm 1828 breathing calmness and comforting peace 1830 gentleness, calm 1830 complaisant peace 1835 calm, serenity 1835-36 inner holy peace, comforting solace, joy in nature 1837 peace, joy, contentment 1839 tranquil168

“‘The moral law in us, and the starry heaven above us’ Kant!!!,” Ludwig van Beethovens Konversationshefte, ed. Karl-Heinz Kohler and Grita Herre, 11 vols. (Leipzig: VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1972), 1: 235. Beethoven has the phrase in reverse order from Kant’s original. 168 Czerny, pp. 68, 77, writing of the first movement of Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in F Major, Op. 24, “Spring” and the first movement of Sonata for Fortepiano and Violoncello in F Major, Op. 17. 167

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1839

joyful peace

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Cantata 208, Was mir behagt ist nur die Muntre jagd aria “ Jagen ist die Lust der Götter” Pastorale in F, S. 590169 Weihnachts Oratorium, S. 248 IV: chorus, “Fallt mit Danken, fallt mit Loben” Berlioz Symphonie fantastique “Scène aux champs”: Adagio170 Handel Messiah recitative: “And lo, the angel of the Lord” aria: “And He shall feed his flock” Haydn Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 trio: “Sei nun gnädig” aria: “Der munt’re Hirt versammelt nun”171 aria: “Die düst’ren Wolken trennen sich”172 Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 aria: “Auf starkem Fittiche schwinget sich”173



aria: “Der Sterne hellster” Fortepiano Sonata in F Major, Hob. XVI/29

I: Moderato String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 20, No. 5 III: Adagio Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. I in C Major II: Adagio Mozart Le nozze di Figaro, K. 492 aria: “Deh vieni non tardar” aria: “Se vuol ballare” Mass in C Minor, K. 427 Credo: “Et incarnatus est” Requiem, K. 626 Sequenz: “Recordare” Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K. 551, “Jupiter”

Peter Williams questions whether all the movements are actually by Bach and, if they are, whether they were intended for performance together. The key and pastoral idiom are, however, unmistakable. The Organ Music of J. S. Bach, 3 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), i, 277. 170 Berlioz labeled the main theme of this movement his “Theme of Hope,” (Motive d’espérance). 171 A parallel to this movement exists in the Pastoral Symphony, the final movement “Hirtengesang. Frohe, dankbare Gefühle nach dem Sturm.” In addition to sharing tonal affect, both movements also share a compound duple time signature, pedal points, arpeggios and orchestration, in particular, horn writing. 172 It contains quail calls comprising a g2–g1 octave on the oboe, which Beethoven imitated using both Haydn’s instrument of choice and rhythmic pattern at the end of the third movement in the Pastoral Symphony, although on a different note (d3). 173 It includes bird-like instrumental trills, and vocal imitations of bird-calls on words such as “cooing,” passages that were clearly influential on Beethoven. 169

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The Key to Beethoven II: Andante cantabile Vesperae solennes de confessore, K. 339 IV: “Laudate Dominum” Reichardt Der Fischer Schubert Nach einem Gewitter, D. 561 Pax vobiscum, D. 551 Works by Beethoven Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 XIV: Andante Der Wachtelschlag, WoO 129 Fidelio, Op. 72 finale: “O Gott! welch’ ein Augenblick!” Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, Op. 2, No. 3 IV: Allegro assai, mm. 103-46 Fortepiano Sonata in F Major, Op. 54 I: In tempo d’un Menuetto Mit einem gemalten Band, Op. 83, No. 3 Romance for Violin and Orchestra in F Major, Op. 50: Adagio cantabile Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in F Major, Op. 24, “Spring” I: Allegro String Quartet in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1 I: Allegro Symphony No. 1 in C Major, Op. 21 II: Andante cantabile con moto Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68, Pastoral I: Erwachen heiterer Empfindungen bei der Ankunft auf dem Lande III: Lustiges Zusammensein der Landleute174 V: Hirtengesang: Frohe, dankbare Gehfülte nach dem Sturm Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 III: Tempo di menuetto Twelve Variations for Fortepiano and Cello on “Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen,” Op. 66 Allegretto



F major is one of four pastoral keys used by Beethoven, who also invoked the pastoral trope in G and D majors, and, on occasion, C. The range of this praxis is sometimes expanded from the traditional concept of the pastoral to include the idealization of peasant life, the expression of contentment with life’s situation, and giving thanks for deliverance (sometime prayerfully).175 Again, Beethoven’s music influenced later writers on key characteristics. In 1828, Seidel Schindler commented on this movement: “Could Beethoven have chosen any key but F major as the predominating key to convey most perfectly a sense of bucolic peace for his Pastoral Symphony?” Schindler-MacArdle, p. 369. 175 Wilson drawns attention to a tradition of this key (and of G major) as being involved in projecting the image of the “honorable everyman.” “Topos and Tonality,” pp. 97-98. 174

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singled out the closing song in Fidelio, “O Gott! Welch’ ein Augenblick!” for comment, describing it as “resounding in F major and breathing of calmness and comforting peace,” a movement to which Schilling also directly referred. It is also interesting to observe that while Berlioz did not directly define this key as being pastoral in character in his 1843 treatise, he was clearly aware of this praxis, using F major in the third movement of Symphonie fantastique to depict the “Scène aux champs,” perhaps influenced by his knowledge of the Pastoral Symphony.”176 Second praxis: Non-German tradition of majesty, gravity; the hunt; joy, confidence Person Charpentier Masson J.J. Rousseau Kirnberger Heinse Galeazzi Gardiner Castil-Blaze Gathy Berlioz

Date 1692 1697 1743/68 1769 1795 1796 1817 1821 1835 1843

Characteristics furious, quick-tempered gravity majestic, grave hunting piece joyful certainty, confidence majestic, shrill but not piercing rich, sober majesty, gravity manly vigour energetic, vigorous

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude in F Major, WTC, Book I, S. 856 Dittersdorf Sinfonia in F Major I: Allegro IV: Presto Graun Der Tod Jesu chorus: “Freuet euch alle ihr frommen” Handel Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline chorus: “But their name liveth evermore” Messiah chorus: “All we, like sheep” chorus: “Lift up your heads” Haydn Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 aria: “Auf starkem Fittche” Fortepiano Trio in F Major, Hob. XV/6 I: Vivace Moscheles Grands Variations sur un Thême Militaire, Op. 32 Introduction 176 Berlioz, Grand traité, p. 24. F major is characterised in this treatise as energetic or vigorous, reflecting the second praxis in this key.

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The Key to Beethoven Neefe Vaterlandslied Salieri La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo aria: “Se la pupilla infermata” Schubert Jagdlied, D. 521 Vivaldi Gloria, RV 589 chorus: “Domine fili unigenite” Concerto No. 3 in F Major, Op. 8, No. 3, RV 315, “L’autunno” I: Allegro III: Allegro “I cacciator alla nov’alba à caccia Schioppi, e canni escono fuore” Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 chorus: “Lasst lustig die Hörner erschallen!”

Works by Beethoven Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 Variation 8, Marcia assai vivace, mm. 322-58 Fidelio, Op. 72 aria: “In des Lebens Frühlingstagen,” Poco allegro, mm. 81-136177 Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, Op. 101 II: Vivace alla Marcia Overture to Egmont, Op. 84: Allegro con brio March in F Major, WoO 18, “Für die Böhmische Landwehr” Sonata in F Major for Fortepiano and Cello, Op. 5, No. 1 I: Allegro178 Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 I: Allegro vivace e con brio

While this second affective praxis seems to have had its origins in France, it was also firmly established in German-speaking lands by the early–to-mid eighteenth century, as can be heard in the works by Bach and Handel mentioned above. Kirnberger acknowledges this in his 1769 description, as did the Italian theorist Galeazzi in 1796. Beethoven was clearly familiar with it too, as can be heard in the wide variety of his works reflecting its character. In the years after Beethoven’s death, Gathy and Berlioz were still characterizing its masculine qualities, although both were also familiar with the first praxis of this key. Third praxis: humor, joking, farce Person Masson Kellner J.J. Wagner

Date 1697 1787 1823

Characteristics gaiety lovely smiles “A game of forfeits in a joking mood […]

F minor, the key of the introduction, returns for the final ten measures. Czerny described this work as, “very lively and in the brilliant style,” p. 86.

177 178

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys And when Amor wishes to deceive, He hides in children’s games”179 Müller 1830 pleasant cheerfulness Schilling 1835-36 light joking, good-natured farce Hand 1837 ight joking, good-natured farce, childlike joyfulness Herloßsohn 1839 saucy joking

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Fugue in F Major, WTC, Book II, S. 880180 Dalayrac Azémia “Danse sauvage” Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in F Major, Hob. XVI/23 I: Allegro moderato III: Presto Symphony in F Major, Hob. I/58 III: Menuet alla zoppa181 Symphony in D Minor, Hob. I/80 I: Allegro spiritoso, second theme Michael Haydn Symphony in F Major III: Allegro scherzante Mozart Die Zauberflöte, K. 620 aria: “Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen” Divertimento in F Major, K. 522, Ein musikalischer Spass I: Allegro II: Menuetto, Maestoso IV: Presto Don Giovanni, K. 527 aria: “Notte e giorno faticar” aria: “Ho capito, signor sì” Le nozze di Figaro, K. 492 Cavatina: “Se vuol ballare” Works by Beethoven Fidelio, Op. 72 aria: “In des Lebens Frühlingstagen,” mm. 81-135 “Und spur ich nicht linde”182 Fortepiano Sonata in F Major, Op. 10, No. 2 III: Presto

Wagner, “Ideen,” 714, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 260. This fugue is in the style of a gigue. 181 “Alla zoppa” means limping. 182 Florestan is hallucinating here, as the music projects a dancelike quality and becomes more frenzied as it progresses. 179 180

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The Key to Beethoven Fortepiano Sonata in F Major, Op. 54 I: In tempo d’un Menetto String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1 III: Scherzo String Quartet in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1 IV: Theme Russe, Allegro String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 95, Quartetto serioso IV: Allegro, molto leggieramente String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135 I: Allegretto183 IV: Allegro184 Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 III: Tempo di Menuetto IV: Allegro vivace

Later writers picked up on this affective usage of F major in their comments, and Johann Jacob Wagner’s 1823 definition captures it perfectly. He even mentioned Mozart’s aria “Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen” from Die Zauberflöte” as depicting this key.185 It also seems likely, therefore, that Mozart chose F major deliberately for his aptly-named Ein musikalischer Spass (Divertimento for Two Horns and String Quartet), K. 522.186 F Minor: two affective praxes First praxis: deep depression and extreme grief/despair, shadow key to the first praxis in A-flat major Person Date Characteristics Rousseau 1691 lamentation Mattheson 1713 deep and heavy with despair, fatal anxiety, black helpless melancholy […] causing the listener to shudder with horror Rameau 1722 mournful songs Rousseau 1743 lugubriousness, despair Schubart c. 1784 deep depression, funereal lament, groans of misery, longing for the grave

183 Kinderman notes that it was characteristc for Beethoven to greet adversity with humor, and that this movement was possibly a response to the fact that 1826 has not been a good year for him. 184 This movement is headed “Der schwer gefaßte Entschluß” (The Difficult Decision). Its humourous nature is encapsulated in the quotations printed above the music: “Muss es sein?” and “Es muss sein” that were originally composed as a canon for violinist Ignaz Dembscher, who, upon being asked by Beethoven to pay a fee for the parts of the Op. 131 quartet, asked “Muss es sein?” This incident is described in Thayer-Forbes, pp. 976-77. 185 Wagner, “Ideen,” pp. 714-15, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 260. 186 A musical joke.

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Koch 1787 deep sorrow, the sound of lament Knecht 1792 extreme expression of grief Heinse 1795 complete despair Galeazzi 1796 weeping, grief, sorrow, anguish Grétry 1797 the most pathetic of all Gardiner 1817 penitential, gloomy J. J. Wagner 1823 “Woe is me! Woe is me! Life without life Has been fate’s mocking gift to me, And I sink into the shadows!— Made for weeping and lamenting, and could be illustrated by a weeping willow planted at the grave of one’s beloved”187 Schrader 1827 extremely grievous feelings, emotional shocks, depression, dirge and gloomy melancholy Weikert 1827 extreme grief Glöggl 1828 for services of mourning Seidel 1828 unspeakable dénouement beyond the grave Ebhardt 1830 extreme grief Gräffer 1830 depressed, lamenting longing, grey Schilling 1835-36 longing for the grave188 Hand 1837 melancholic feelings, sadness, extreme suffering

Czerny Herloßsohn

1839

1839

impassioned189

death pangs, quiet misery, despair, deep melancholy

Works of other composers C. P. E. Bach Sonata in F Minor, Wq. 57/6 III: Andantino grazioso Les Langeurs Tendres, Wq. 117/30 J. S. Bach Chorale Prelude “Ich ruf ’ zu dir,” S. 639 Prelude and Fugue in F Minor, WTC, Book I, S. 857 Prelude in F Minor, WTC, Book II, S. 881190 Benda Romeo und Julie aria: “Romeo, wo bist du?”191 187 Ibid., p. 264. This is the same image Beethoven evoked in the third movement of String Quartet in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1, Adagio molto e mesto, although it is unlikely that Wagner was familiar with Beethoven’s remark. See p. 103, n. 195. 188 Schilling and Hand also mentioned the opening of Act II of Fidelio. 189 Czerny, p. 22, writing of the first movement of Fortepiano Sonata No. 1 in F Minor, Op. 2, No. 1. 190 Johann Friedrich Reichardt noted, “ I could not stop playing it and it plunged me into the deepest yet sweetest melancholy. One might well sing words of deep mourning to it: and it must not be played fast.” W. Neumann, H.-J Schulze, A. Glöckner, A. Hartinger and K. Lehmann, ed. Bach-Documente, vol. 3 (Leipzig and Kassel: VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1963-2007), 864, quoted in Matthew Dirst, Engaging Bach: The Keyboard Legacy from Marpurg to Mendelssohn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 25. 191 Wilson speculates convincingly that Schubart might have been influenced by Benda’s operatic oeuvre when making his well-known definition of key, Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” p. 171.

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Graun Der Tod Jesu chorus: “Unsre Seele ist gebeuget zu der Erden” Handel Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline chorus: “Their bodies are buried in peace” Messiah chorus: “Surely He hath borne our griefs” chorus: “And with his stripes” chorus: “All we, like sheep” “And the Lord hath laid on him” recitative: “Thy rebuke has broken his heart” Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz, Op. 51 Fortepiano Sonata in F Major, Hob. XVI/23 II: Adagio Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Hob. XVI/46 II: Larghetto Il ritorno di Tobias aria: “Come in sogno” L’Infeldeltà Delusa aria: “Non v’è rimedio” Symphony in F Minor, Hob. I/49 I: Adagio192 Trost unglücklicher Liebe, Hob. XXVIa/9 Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. III in F Minor I: Allegro moderato, dolce ed espressivo Mattheson Cleopatra aria: “Ach mein Hertz”193 Mozart Don Giovanni, K. 527 trio: “Ah…soccorso! Ah…già seno” Fantasia in F Minor, K. 594 Neefe An Fanny Sonata No. 2 for Keyboard with Violin in A-flat Major II: Molto adagio e mesto Salieri Tarare recitative: “Son aspect est farouche et sombre” Schubert Fantasie, D. 940 I: Allegro molto moderato Grablied, D. 218 Weber Oberon, J. 306 cavatine: “Traure, mein Herz, um verschwundenes Glück!”

R. Larry Todd highlights the expressive appoggiaturas in mm. 10-14 of the opening, noting its similarity to the “Mannheim Seufzer,” the Mannheim sigh motive, an expressive device inherited from the Baroque and used in movements of lament. 193 This is the only time Mattheson used F minor in this work. 192

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Works by Beethoven Fidelio, Op. 72 terzett: “Gut, Söhnchen, gut,” mm. 24-27 “Hohe Leiden tragen” introduction/aria: “Gott! welch Dunkel hier!” Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 10, No. 1 I: Allegro molto e con brio, mm. 117-24 Overture to Egmont, Op. 84 I: Sostenuto ma non troppo String Quartet in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1 III: Adagio molto e mesto194 String Quartet in F Op. 95, Quartetto serioso IV: Larghetto espressivo

All the earlier writers on key characteristics are united in categorizing this key as projecting sorrow, deep depression, and extreme grief. Bach’s famous Prelude in F Minor, S. 881, is a case in point, the opening sospire figures being congruent with Mattheson’s view of this key. Mozart also was clearly aware of F minor’s potency when he used it to project the death of the Commendatore in the opening scene of Don Giovanni, the only time this key is used in the whole work. The falling chromatic scales in this desolate key depict literally the Commendatore’s life-blood flowing from his body, heightening even further the irony of a comic opera beginning with an onstage murder. Johann Jacob Wagner makes a literary allusion to Goethe in his definition of this key, mentioning his novel Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (The sorrows of the young Werther).195 Later writers were able to invoke Beethoven’s music in their descriptions. Seidel described the introduction to Florestan’s aria at the beginning of Act II of Fidelio: “this key clearly depicts for us—even without words—the cold horror of the site and the prisoner’s longing for the grave,” sentiments also echoed by Schilling in his definition found in Universal-Lexicon der Tonkunst.196 Second praxis: stormy, violent, agitated

194 Beethoven inscribed on the final page of a sketch for this movement “Einen Trauerweiden oder Akazien-Baum aufs Grab meines Bruders” (A weeping willow or acacia tree over my brother’s grave). Gustav Nottebohm, Zweite Beethoveniana: Nachgelassene Aufsätze (Leipzig: Peters, 1887), p. 83. Lawrence Kramer astutely observes that “the brother is anyone and everyone, any participant in the Enlightenment idea of the brotherhood of man,” in Chapter Three “The Devoted Ear: Music as Contemplation,” of Musical Meaning and Human Values, ed. Keith Chapin and Lawrence Kramer (New York: Fordham University Press, 2009), p. 65. The image of the willow as a symbol of lament has a long history. Its antecedents include Psalm 137, known both in its own right and as a text set by Renaissance polyphonists (“Super flumina […] in salicibus […] suspendimus organa nostra”). It is also mentioned in Homer and Shakespeare. I am grateful to Prof. Kramer for drawing my attention to some of these references. 195 Wagner, “Ideen,” p. 715. 196 Gustav Schilling, Encyclopädie der gesammten musikalischen Wissenschaften oder Universal-Lexicon der Tonkunst, 6 vols (Stuttgart, Köhler, 1835-38), ii, 749, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 265.

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Person Galeazzi Czerny Berlioz Marx

Date 1796 1839 1843 1863

Characteristics violent transports, agitation stormy197 violent storm-like198

Works of other composers C. P. E. Bach Sonata in F Minor, Wq. 57/6 I: Allegro assai Sonata in F Minor, Wq. 62/6 I: Allegro Cherubini Médée199 Overture: Allegro Clementi Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 13, No. 6 I: Allegro agitato III: Presto Graun Der Tod Jesu aria: “Du Held, auf den die Kocher” mm. 77-82, “und die Sphäre von seinen Fusstritt bebt” Handel Jeptha aria: “Scenes of horror, scenes of woe” Haydn Symphony in F Minor, Hob. I/49 II: Allegro di molto String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 20, No. 5 I: Allegro moderato Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. III in F Minor III: Presto Vivaldi Concerto No. 4 in F Minor, Op. 8, RV 297, “L’iverno” I: Allegro non molto200 III: Allegro201 Czerny, p. 50. Marx, Interpretation of Beethoven, p. 94. 199 Michael Broyles notes Beethoven owned a copy of this opera. Michael Broyles, The Emergence and Evolution of Beethoven’s Heroic Style (New York: Excelsior, 1987), p. 154. 200 The opening quatrain of a sonnet, possibly by Vivaldi or by anonymous author is the inspiration for this movement. Agghiacciato tremar trà nevi algenti Al Severo Spirar d’orrido Vento Correr battendo i piedi ogni momento; E pel Soverchio gel batter i denti. 201 The closing octave of this sonnet is inspiration for the third movement. Caminar sopra il ghiaccio, e à passo lento 197 198

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Works by Beethoven Der Wachtelschlag, WoO 129, mm. 43-47, 67-75202 Fortepiano Sonata in B flat Major, Op. 22, IV: Rondo Allegretto, mm. 77-82 Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, WoO47/2 I: Larghetto maestoso/Allegro assai III: Presto Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2, No. 1 I: Allegro IV: Prestissimo Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57 “Appassionata” I: Allegro assai II: Allegro, ma non troppo Overture to Egmont, Op. 84 II: Allegro String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 95, Quartetto serioso203 I: Allegro con brio IV: Allegretto agitato Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68, Pastoral IV: Gewitter, Sturm

Although there are hardly any mentions of this praxis in the work of contemporaneous writers, some stylistic precursors for it can be seen in the list above. Beethoven made use of this more recent praxis characterized by storminess, not surprisingly at a fast tempo and loud dynamic, and later writers were then able to use his music as an example of how to use F minor in this way. For example, Marx commented on the finale of Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2, No. 1, remarking that “it breathes storm and passion,” later singling out the triplet accompaniment as evoking “a storm like effect.”204 Czerny, musing on the last movement of the Appassionata, Op. 57, stated: “perhaps Beethoven (who was ever fond of representing natural scenes) imagined to himself the waves of the sea in a stormy night, while cries of distress are heard from afar



Per timor di cader girsene intenti; Gir forte Sdruzziolar, cader à terra Di nuove ir Sopra ’l giaccio e correr forte Sin ch’ il giaccio si rompe, e si disserra; Sentir uscir dalle ferrate porte Sirocco Borea, e tutti i Venti in guerra Quest’ è ’l Verno, mà tal, che gioja apporte. 202 Both passages in this song describe storm-like weather. 203 Beethoven himself gave this quartet its designation, indicative of his general concurrence with the characterization of this key. 204 Marx, Interpretation of Beethoven, p. 94.

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[…].”205 Ries’ description of the occasion on which the finale was conceived would seem to bear this out. Beethoven and he had been out walking, and the whole time Beethoven had “hummed, or sometimes even howled, to himself, up and down, up and down, without singing any definite notes.” When they finally returned, Beethoven “rushed to the fortepiano […] [and] stormed on for at least an hour.”206 Marx described the Appassionata, Op. 57, as a “tone picture [which] is, from beginning to end, wrapped as it were in darkness,” characterizing the driving sixteenth-note pattern of this finale as a “stormy accompanying figure.”207 G Major: two affective praxes First praxis: calm, gentle, rustic, pleasant, pastoral topos Person Date Vogler 1779 Ribock 1783 Schubart c. 1784 Knecht 1792 Galeazzi 1796 Vogler 1812 Gardiner 1817 Rochlitz 1824 Schrader 1827 Weikert 1827 Ebhardt 1830 Müller 1830 Hand 1837 Czerny 1839 Herloßsohn 1839

Characteristics naïve actions, innocent rustic pleasures miller-color [white] rustic, idyllic and lyrical, calm, gentle, peaceful, gratitude for true friendship and faithful love208 pleasant and rustic innocent, simple a favorite key for Pastorals, depicting bright landscape painting209 gay, sprightly calming simple, satisfied, childlike, innocent pleasant, rustic rustic charm calm, serenity mirrors rustic life, idyllic pastoral210 gentle, peaceful, idyllic

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Weihnachts-Oratorium, S. 248 II: Sinfonie II: aria, “Schlaffe mein Liebster” II: chorus, “Wir singen dir in deinem Heer”

Czerny, p. 50. Franz Gerhard Wegeler and Ferdinand Ries, Biographische Notizen über Ludwig van Beethoven (Koblenz: Bädeker, 1838), trans. Frederick Noonan, Beethoven Remembered: The Biograpgical Notes of Franz Wegeler and Ferdinand Ries (Arlington, VA: Great Ocean Publishers, 1987), p. 87. 207 Marx, Interpretation of Beethoven, pp. 130 and 63 respectively. 208 Gathy and Schilling replicated Schubart’s definition. 209 Vogler’s own Pastoral Mass in G, dating from 1775, fits this characterization. 210 Czerny, p. 99, writing of Fortepiano Concerto No. 4 in G Major, Op. 58. 205 206

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Bellini Norma cavatina: “Casta diva”211 Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 12 in G Major, Op. 35, No. 2 II: Molto allegro con espressione Fortepiano Sonata No. 14 in G Major, Op. 39, No. 1 II: Andantino ma moderato e con espressione Haydn Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 chorus: “Komm, holder Lenz” aria: “Ein Mädchen, das auf Ehre hielt” Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI/40 I: Allegretto e innocente Gegenliebe, Hob. XXVIa/16 Harmoniemesse, Hob. XXII/14 Agnus Dei Missa in Angustiis, Hob. XXII/11 Credo: “Et incarnatus est” Missa Sancti Nicolai, Hob. XXII/6212 Kyrie Sanctus Agnus Dei: “Dona nobis pacem” Pastorella, Mutter Gottes, mir erlaube, Hob. XXIIId/2 Schöpfungsmesse, Hob. XXII/13 Credo: “Et incarnatus est” Agnus Dei Symphony in G Major, Hob. I/92, “Oxford” I: Adagio IV: Presto Knecht Le portrait musical de la nature I: Allegretto III: Andantino Moscheles La Tenerezza, Op. 52 I: Allegro espressivo, dolce Mozart Die Zauberflöte, K. 620 aria: “Der Vogelfänger bin ich ja”213 Don Giovanni, K. 527 chorus: “Giovinette che fate all’ amore” Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, K. 283 I: Allegro 211 Sarah Clemmens Waltz has pointed out a connection between pastoral keys and the moon, as is the case here. Waltz, p. 13. 212 This mass is intended for use during Advent, making the use of the original pastoral key here entirely apposite, as the church prepares to celebrate Jesus’ birth. 213 J. J. Wagner mentioned this aria by name in his characterization of G major. Wagner, “Ideen,” 715, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 152.

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The Key to Beethoven III: Presto Le nozze di Figaro, K. 492 duet: “Cinque, Dieci, Venti, Trenta” Salieri Il pastor fido chorus: “Spogliamo compagne” duet: “Dove vai? t’arresta” Schubert Im Frühling, D. 882 Weber Kampf und Sieg, J. 190 trio: “Brüderlich, Hand in Hand” Wranitzky Grande Sinfonie caractéristique pour la paix avec la Républic françoise IV: Andante grazioso

Works by Beethoven An den fernen Geliebten, Op. 75, No. 5 An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 II: “Wo die Berge so blau” Bagatelle in G, Op. 126, No. 1: Andante con moto. Cantabile e compiacevole Bagatelle in G, Op. 126, No. 5: Quasi allegretto Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 aria: “Preist des Erlösers Güte” Fidelio, Op. 72 quartet: “Mir ist so wunderbar” Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 28, “Pastorale” III: Allegro ma non troppo, mm. 69-87 Fortepiano Concerto No. 4 in G Major, Op. 58 I: Allegro moderato214 Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Op. 14, No. 2 I: Allegro Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Op. 31, No. 1 III: Allegretto Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96 II: “Romanze,” In gehender Bewegung Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 Präludium, Sostenuto ma non troppo Benedictus: Andante molto cantabile e non troppo mosso Romance for Violin and Orchestra in G Major, Op. 40 Sonata in G Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 96 I: Allegro moderato IV: Poco allegretto, dolce Violin Concerto in D Major, Op. 61 II: Larghetto

The tradition of writing pastoral music in this key traces its roots back 214 Czerny described the opening of this movement as “calm, simple and agreeable, almost in the pastoral style.” Czerny, p. 109.

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to the Baroque period, epitomised in Bach’s famous chorale setting from the cantata Herz und Mund und Tat und Leben, S. 147, “Wohl mir, daß ich Jesum habe” (It is well that I have Jesus).215 Similar features can be heard in the “Sinfonia” that opens the second part of Bach’s Weihnachts-Oratorium, S. 248, and also the last movement, both dating from 1734. These characteristics carried over into early Classical music in the form of the pastoral mass. A famous example is Johann Baptist Vanhal’s Missa Pastoralis in G, where only two out of the eleven movements begin in keys other than the tonic.216 Many traditional signifiers of the pastoral trope can be seen here, including the use of drones, parallel thirds and sixths, and echo effects. Haydn’s use of a pastoral key is particularly apposite in the “Et incarnatus est” of his Missa in Angustiis, as Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem is recalled. Beethoven’s use of this key in the quartet “Mir ist so wunderbar” from Act I of Fidelio merits particular mention. The contrasting feelings each character is expressing are enhanced by the use of G major. Marzelline sings of how she will be happy with Fidelio and Rocco of the joy this couple will share. G major is used here literally as the key of true friendship and faithful love. In contrast, Leonore sings of the danger a relationship will pose for her plan of action, and Jaquino of how Rocco favors Fidelio and not him. G major is thus simultaneously used with ironic intent as Leo Treitler’s words ring ever true.217 Perhaps the most sublime invocation of the pastoral topos occurs in the Benedictus of the Missa solemnis. The Präludium that links the “Hosanna and the “Benedictus” is unique in that it mirrors music intended for the moment of the elevation of the host at earlier organ masses. All the performance directions enhance the mood here: “Sostenuto ma non troppo”and a dynamic range that only rises above piano in m. 103 as Beethoven introduces a brief chromatic passage—a momentary cloud on this pastoral horizon, marked “rinf.” The orchestration reduces drastically from the use of the full ensemble in the preceding “Hosanna” to flutes, clarinets, horns and an exquisite solo violin part, which cascades gently downwards, symbolizing the real presence of Christ descending on the altar. As he did in his earlier Mass in C when setting the Benedictus, Beethoven employed a pastoral key—in this case G major—to depict the triumphal entry into Jerusalem of the prince of peace, in a significant affective statement connecting text, meaning and key. Second Praxis: brilliant, cheerful, lively, humorous 215 This cantata celebrates the feast of the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary to her cousin Elizabeth. Mary was already pregnant with Jesus by that time, and thus the use of a pastoral key and imagery, both of which again anticipate his birth, is entirely apposite. 216 While Bruce MacIntyre questions whether one key has stronger pastoral associations than another, he acknowledges that there is a traditional of the use of G major for masses associated with the Advent and Christmas seasons. “Johann Baptist Vanhal and the Pastoral Mass Tradition,” in Music in Eighteenth-Century Austria, ed. David Wyn Jones (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 126. 217 The ironic usage of tonal affect is discussed in Ch. 4, pp. 180-81.

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The Key to Beethoven Person Masson Mattheson Rameau Vogler Gervasoni Gardiner Ebhardt Berlioz

Date c. 1692 1713 1722 1779/1812 1800 1817 1830 1843

Characteristics , gay, brilliant quite brilliant gay songs livelier [than C major] gay gay and sprightly leaping, joking sense of cheerfulness rather gay

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude and Fugue in G Major, S. 541 Prelude in G Major, WTC, Book I, S. 860 Prelude and Fugue in G Major, WTC, Book II, S. 884 Weihnachts-Oratorium, S. 248 II: chorus, “Ehre sei Gott” Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 12 in G Major, Op. 35, No. 2 I: Allegro Fortepiano Sonata No. 14 in G Major, Op. 39, No. 1 I: Allegro Graun Der Tod Jesu aria: “Ein Gebeth um neue Stärke” Handel Messiah chorus: “For unto us a child is born” Haydn Symphony G Major, Hob. I/54 IV: Presto Symphony in G Major, Hob. I/92, “Oxford” I: Allegro spiritoso Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. VII in G Major I: Allegro con spirito Mozart Don Giovanni, K. 527 Finale: “Wo ist der Schändliche” Idomeneo, K. 366 chorus: “Godiamo la pace” Symphony No. 12 in G Major, K. 110 IV: Allegro Vesperae Solennes de confessore, K. 339 III: “Beatus vir” Vivaldi Gloria, RV 589 duet: “Laudamus te”

Works by Beethoven 110

Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Fidelio, Op. 72 Act I Finale, mm. 192-209 “Noch heute” Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Op. 31, No. 1 I: Allegro vivace Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Op. 79 I: Presto alla tedesca218 III: Vivace König Stefan, Op. 117 III: Siegesmarsch Sonata No. 8 for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 3 III: Allegro vivace219 String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130 IV: Alla danza tedesca

There is a clear and marked contrast in this second praxis of G major with regard to tempo, dynamics and projected affect, a characterization that traverses the period from Masson and Mathesson all the way to Berlioz. Throughout, it remains a parallel praxis to the pastoral trope, which is seen as late as the Missa solemnis in 1823, while this second praxis is found in the fourth movement of Op. 130 String Quartet in B-flat Major as late as 1825. G Minor: two affective praxes First praxis: discontent, despair, and resentment Person Schubart Grétry Galeazzi Marx Schrader Weikert Ebhardt Gräffer Schilling Hand

Date Characteristics c. 1784 discontent, uneasiness, resentment, dislike 1797 the most pathetic after F minor 1796 frenzy, despair, agitation 1824 restless, unsettled passion220 1827 discontent, bitterness, fear 1827 uneasiness, resentment, dislike 1830 despair 1830 ill-will 1835-36 bitter feelings221 1837 discontent and dislike

218 This piece and Op. 130 were the only two works in which Beethoven used this descriptor. It indicates German waltz style. 219 Czerny defined the qualities of this movement as “liveliness, humour, and brilliancy,” p. 81. 220 Adolph Bernhard Marx, “A Few Words on the Symphony and Beethoven’s Achievements in This Field,” Berliner musikalische Zeitung i (1824): 165-68, in Senner, i, 63. He applied this description to Mozart’s Symphony No. 40 in G Minor, K. 550. 221 Schilling also repeated Schubart’s definition of this key.

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1839

uneasiness, resentment

Works of other composers C. P. E. Bach Sonata in G Minor, Wq. 65/11 I: Allegro J. S. Bach Prelude in G Minor, WTC, Book II, S. 885 Berlioz Symphonie fantastique IV: “Marche au supplice” Handel Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline Prelude: Largo Judas Maccabeus ouverture: Andante Messiah chorus: “Behold the Lamb of God” Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz, Op. 51222 VII: “Consummatum est” String Quartet in G Minor, Op. 74, No. 3 IV: Allegro con brio String Quartet in G Major, Op. 76, No. 1 IV: Allegro ma non troppo Symphony in G Minor, Hob. I/39 IV: Allegro di molto Symphony in G Minor, Hob. I/83, “La Poule” I: Allegro spiritoso The Wanderer, Hob. XXVIa/32 Mozart Mass in C Minor, K. 427 chorus: “Qui tollis” Symphony No. 40 in G Minor, K. 550 I: Molto allegro Neefe Der Bauer an Seinen durch lauchtigen Tyrannen223 Salieri La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo overture, allegro assai aria: “Alle’ idea de’ tuoi perigli” aria: “Giacché mi tremi in seno” Spohr Jessonda, woo 53 aria: “Die ihr Fühlende betrübet” Vivaldi Concerto No. 2 in G minor, Op. 8, RV 315, “L’estate” III: Presto224

This movement ends appropriately in the calm peace of G major. Neefe marked this song “Eifrig und mit starker Klavier begleitung (vehemently and with a strong piano accompaniment). 224 These lines form the concluding tercet of a sonnet that inspired this concerto. Ah che pur troppo i suoi timor son veri Tuona e fulmina il Ciel e grandinoso 222 223

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 romance: “Einst träumte meine sel’gen Base”

Works by Beethoven Ah! Perfido, Op. 65 mm. 35-38, “Vedrò le mie vendete” An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 II: “Wo die Berge so blau,” mm. 91-93 Aus Goethe’s Faust, Op. 75, No. 3 Bagatelle in G Minor, Op. 126, No. 2: Allegro Der Wachtelschlag, WoO 129, mm. 55-57225 Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur, Op. 48, No. 4, mm. 14-18 Fidelio, Op. 72, recitative: “Abscheulicher!” Act I finale, mm. 247-64 “Wir beide graben nur des Grab” Klage, WoO 113, mm. 15-17 Mass in C Major, Op. 86 Gloria in excelsis “Domine fili unigenite,” mm. 101-08 Credo “Judicare vivos et mortuos,” mm. 213-216 Agnus Dei “Miserere nobis,” mm. 14-23 “Agnus Dei qui tollis peccata mundi,” mm. 69-82 Sehnsucht, WoO 134, No. 1 Sonata in G Minor for Fortepiano and Cello, Op. 5, No. 2 I: Adagio sostenuto Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica I: Allegro con brio, mm. 65-68 Tremate, empi, tremate, Op. 116 I: “Tolgansi agli occi miei.” mm. 45-49

While the amount of music available in this key in Beethoven’s output is not vast, it does seem sufficient to differentiate the two contrasting affective praxes seen in the theorists’ writings at the time. A characteristic example of the way Beethoven engaged with this side of G minor’s affective potential can be heard in the final (and extra) petition of “Agnus Dei” (mm. 69-82) in the Mass in C, where he conjured up a powerful climax, replete with a dominant minor ninth chord (m. 71) as a way of projecting the weight of humanity’s sin that Christ has to bear.



Tronca il capo alle Spiche e a’grani alteri. Beethoven’s use of G minor here matches Schubart’s description almost exactly.

225

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Second praxis: sweet, tender, gentle melancholy, compassion, shadow key to the first praxis in B-flat major Person Date Characteristics Mattheson 1713 almost the most beautiful key […] tender Knecht 1792 moving Gardiner 1817 meek, pensive, replete with melancholy Ebhardt 1830 compassion Gathy 1835 true bliss of love, tears in utmost simplicity Hand 1837 grace with a touch of sadness, the sublime in Romantic coloring, the tragic-sentimental, melancholy Berlioz 1843 melancholy, soft

Works of other composers C. P. E. Bach Sei Sonate per cembalo (Württemberg Sonatas), No. 4, Wq. 49/1 II: Andante Sonata in D Minor, Wq. 57/4 II: Cantabile e mesto Cherubini Fortepiano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 50, No. 3, “Didone abbandonata” Introduzione: Largo patetico e sostenuto II: Adagio dolente Requiem in C Minor Sequentia: “Inter oves locum praesta” Requiem in D Minor “Pie Jesu”: Adagio, dolceü Graun Der Tod Jesu chorale: “Ihr Augen weint!” Handel Süßer Blumen Ambraflocken Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline chorus: “The ways of Zion do mourn” Messiah aria: “How beautiful are the feet” Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Hob. XVI/2 II: Largo Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI/6 III: Adagio Fortepiano Sonata in G Minor, Hob. XVI/44 I: Moderato Missa Sancti Nicolai, Hob. XXII/6 Agnus Dei Salve Regina, Hob. XXII/b:2

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Stabat Mater aria: “Fac me vere tecum flere” quartet: “Quando corpus morietur”226 Symphony in G Minor, Hob. I/39 I: Allegro assai, piano227 Mozart Die Zauberflöte, K. 620 aria: “Ach, ich fühl’s, es ist verschwunden” String Quintet in G Minor, K. 516 IV: Adagio Rossini Stabat Mater chorus: “Stabat mater dolorosa” quartet: “Quando corpus morietur” Spohr Jessonda, woo 53 aria: “Der Kriegeslust ergeben”

Works by Beethoven An Laura, WoO 112, mm. 33-34 Fortepiano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 49, No. 1 I: Andante Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Op. 79 II: Andante Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110 III: Reprise of “Arioso dolente,” mm. 91-106228 Sehnsucht, WoO 134, Nos. 2 and 4 Sonata in G Minor for Fortepiano and Cello, Op. 5, No. 2 I: Adagio sostenuto e espressivo String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 127 I: Allegro teneramente, mm. 41-70 Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 IV: Choral Recitative, mm. 627-35 The Sweetest Lad was Jamie, Op. 108. No. 5

The second praxis in this key can be most clearly demonstrated by examining two of Beethoven’s settings of Goethe’s famous poem Sehnsucht, WoO 134. In the second version, all the passages in G minor are marked piano,

The last line of this final stanza—“Paradisi Gloria”—is set in the pastoral key of G major, a deliberate recalling by Haydn of Christ’s birth into this mortal life, contrasting it with the wish of humanity to be born to the next life in Paradise with him. 227 This movement is intersting in that the expected dynamic plan is reversed, the first thematic group appearing piano, followed by a forte transition. The first theme makes use of Mannheim Seufzer motifs fom mm. 5-11, where the bass line drops out completely, establishing it firmly in this praxis of G minor. 228 While the “Klagender Gesang” returns in the more gently melancholic key of G minor, William Meredith notes its ability still to achieve a “sobering collapse, a loss of ‘forze,’” in the context of the ongoing A-flat major fugue, and it is again marked “dolente.” William Meredith, “Beethoven’s Sonata in A-flat Major, Opus 110: Music of Amiability, Lament, and Lament, and Restoration,” The Beethoven Journal 17 (2002): 26. 226

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the vocal line—restricted to the range of a fifth—is set above a gentle, 6/8 accompaniment low in the fortepiano’s register. A similar style can also be heard in the G minor sections of the fourth setting, although the range in both voice and fortepiano here is somewhat more varied. Both settings are in marked contrast to the first, which invokes the first praxis in this key, encapsulated in the performance direction, Andante poco agitato. A-flat Major: two affective praxes First praxis: barbaresco, a key of the grave, shadow key to F minor Person Date Characteristics Vogler 1779 Plutonian realm Schubart c. 1784 grave-like, death, putrefaction, judgment229 Knecht 1792 black like the night Galeazzi 1796 gloom, fear, terror Callcott 1807 solemn Vogler 1812 gentle night key Beethoven 1813 barbaresco230 J. J. Wagner 1823 “two lovers who have suffered through a shipwreck, and where the lover has struggled in vain to save his beloved from the wresting waves” “Cäcilia! Cäcilia! Forever separated from the world Enclose yourself in the Redeemer’s peace, By his cross find rest. Celebrate, you sisters! The newly married one, The Bride of heaven, God’s new soul; Throw the veil over her head”231 dignity, solemnity Schrader 1827 dark, ominous, deathly Weikert 1827 dark, gloomy Ebhardt 1830 dark feelings Gräffer 1830 grief, premonition of death, black, the trombone Hand 1837 hovers over graves Herloßsohn 1839 sadness, sorrow

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude in A-flat Major, WTC, Book II, S. 886 Dussek Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 70, “Le retour à Paris” I: Allegro non troppo ed espressivo Gathy and Schilling quoted Schubart’s definition. Written in a letter to his Scottish publisher George Thomson, he described this key as “Barbaresco,” showing his awareness of one of the ways A-flat major could be used affectively. See Chapter 1, pp. 18-19 for full details. 231 Wagner, “Ideen,” 715, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 277. 229 230

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Graun Der Tod Jesu recitative: “Gethsemane! Gethsemane!” mm. 1-8, 26-27 Handel Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline chorus: “Their bodies are buried in peace” Jeptha aria: “Scenes of horror, scenes of woe” “While in never ceasing pain” Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Hob. XVI/20 II: Andante con moto L’isola disabitata, Hob. XXVIII/9 aria: “Se non piange un infelice” La fedeltà Premiata, Hob. XXVIII/10 aria: “Se non si trova, o Dio” She never told her love, Hob. XXVIa/34.4 Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. III in F Minor II: Adagio maestoso Neefe Die Sommernacht Sonata No. 2 for Keyboard with Violin in A-flat Major I: Allegro pathetico Ries Fantasie nach Schillers Gedicht “Resignation,” Op. 109 Rossini Stabat Mater aria: “Cujus animam gementem” Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 trio: “Doch hast du auch vergeben” cavatina: “Und ob die Wolke sie verhülle”

Works by Beethoven Ah! Perfido, Op. 65 aria: “Ah crudel, tu vuoi ch’io mora!” mm. 100-09 Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 duet: “So ruhe denn mit ganzer Schwere” Fidelio, Op. 72 aria: “In des Lebens Frühlingstagen” In questa tomba oscura, WoO 133

The first praxis of A-flat major is one of only two affective usages where direct evidence has come down from Beethoven himself, namely his comment to George Thomson that the melody for Judy, Lovely, Matchless Creature, which was presented to him in A-flat major, was too “barbaresco” for the descriptor “amoroso” assigned to it. Some have tried to play this comment down, passing it off as a humorous aside, given its incompatibility with so many of his works in this key. However, when it is viewed as reflective of an individual praxis, congruent with the opinions of many contemporaneous writers including Schubart, it makes complete sense of the movements in which Beethoven employs it in a “barbaresco” manner. John Wilson supports this conclusion,

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drawing attention to the practice of using this key in connection with issues of death and dying—the Gräbertonart of Schubart—and cites operatic works by Benda and Haydn with which Beethoven was most likely familiar.232 The second excerpt from Graun’s Der Tod Jesu listed above, “Gethsemane, Gethsemane,” illustrates this praxis of A-flat major particularly effectively, while also showing just how powerful a series of modulations made for affective reasons can be. The previous phrase, mm. 24-26 sets the text “Betrübt ist meine Seele” (My soul is sorrowful) for the first time, using the third praxis of E-flat major. The phrase is then repeated in this key, mm. 26-27, before it is completed in the first praxis of F minor, “bis in den Tod!” (even unto death) mm. 27-28.233 Here, Anton Gräffer’s association of colors and instruments with all the keys emphasizes the death narrative in this first praxis of A-flat major, linking it with black—traditionally the color of mourning—and the trombone, an instrument that had long been associated with death and funerals. Second praxis: heavenly, often cantabile Person Date Kellner 1787 Heinse 1795 Vogler 1812 Hoffmann c. 1814 Gardiner 1817 J. S. 1829 Müller 1830 Schilling 1835-36

Characteristics splendid majesty majesty of kings and queens affable A-flat major chord (pianissimo) “I am swimming in an ethereal fragrance. But the fragrance shines in flaming circles, mysteriously intertwining. They are tender spirits, moving their golden wings in magnificently voluminous tones and chords” consolation, hope234 lovely, gentle, delicate, soft, tender, expressing the most refined sentiments tender, most suited to the song of love235 intimate feeling, sentimental sympathy “spirit and soul appear to swing over into the heavenly and spiritual homeland”236

Wilson, “Topos and Tonality,” pp. 170-75. According to Czerny, Beethoven was familiar with this work, having read through a copy of it that Czerny’s father brought him. While he was apparently unimpressed with it on that occasion, he did spend time studying recitative from this and other Graun works when working with Salieri, and using the article “Recitativ” from Sulzer’s Allgemeine Theorie, written by J. P. Schultz. Richard A. Kramer, “Beethoven and Carl Heinrich Graun, in Beethoven Studies, ed. Alan Tyson (New York: Norton, 1973), p. 38, n. 31. 234 Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. Schafer, Hoffmann and Music, p. 146. 235 J. S. “On the Characters of the Keys,” The Harmonicon (1829), 181. 236 Schilling, p. 295. 232 233

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1839 1863

“with all that feeling expression, […] which so noble and beautiful a melody must inspire”237 gentle, dolce

Works of other composers Cherubini Requiem in C Minor Sanctus Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 26 in A-flat Major, Op. 70 “ Le retour à Paris” I: Allegro non troppo ed espressivo Graun Der Tod Jesu recitative: “Wer ist der Heilige,” mm. 12-14 Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Hob. XVI/45 II: Andante String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 20, No. 1 III: Affetuoso e sostenuto, mezza voce Salieri Le donne letterate finale: “Ma voi che ne dite” Schubert Impromptu in A-flat Major, D. 935, Allegretto Schumann Requiem, Op. 148 Sanctus Spohr Jessonda, woo 53 aria: “Bald bin ich ein Geist” duet: “Schönes Mädchen, wirst mich hassen”238 Works by Beethoven An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 III: “Leichte Segler in der Höhen” IV: “Diese Wolken, in der Höhen” An die Hoffnung, Op. 32 “Der Dulder ahnen, daß dort oben,” mm. 17-19 Concerto for Violin, Cello and Fortepiano in C Major, Op. 56 II: Largo Fortepiano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15 II: Largo Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 10, No. 1 II: Adagio molto239 Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13, pathétique II: Adagio cantabile Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 26 I: Andante con Variazioni

Czerny, p. 72, describing Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in C Minor, Op. 30, No. 3: II. Hand mentioned both of these individually. 239 Czerny described this movement as “the expression of deepest sentiment and tenderness.” Czerny, p. 30. 237 238

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The Key to Beethoven Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 27, No. 1 III: Adagio con espressione Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110 I: Moderato cantabile molto espressivo, con amabilità240 Septet in E-flat Major, Op. 20 II: Adagio cantabile Sextet in E-flat Major, Op. 81b II: Adagio Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in C Minor, Op. 30, No. 2 II: Adagio cantabile Sehnsucht, WoO 134, No. 3 String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 74 II: Adagio ma non troppo cantabile String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 127 II: Adagio, ma non troppo e molto cantabile Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67 II: Andante con moto241

Forming a clear affective contrast to the first praxis in this key, this second usage of A-flat major is significant in Beethoven’s output, as can be seen by the scope and extent of the many works listed above. Marx encapsulated it when he described the second subject of the first movement of the Appassionata as “a gentle, exalted song of prophecy […] a song from Elysium, […] everything music be ‘dolce.’”242 Beethoven was doubtless aware of the wonderful affective modulation in Haydn’s Die Schöpfung, where, as the text mentions “der Schöpfers Hauch und Ebenbild” (the Creator’s breath and image’) in Uriel’s aria “Mit Würd und Hohheit angetan,” Haydn modulates to A-flat major. It is interesting to note that in Beethoven’s first setting of An die Hoffnung, Op. 32, at the words “Der Dulder ahnen, daß dort oben,” (the patient sufferer feels that up above) mm. 17-19, he modulates to A-flat major, another small connector between textual meaning and the second praxis of this key. A Major: two affective praxes William Behrend points out that “amabilità” appears on only one other occasion in Beethoven’s oeuvre, in the Bagatelle Op. 126, No. 6, where the direction is Presto—Andante amabile e con moto. William Meredith examines the frequency with which the term appears in many contemporaneous music dictionaries, settling on the definition “with gentle tenderness” in relation to the Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat major, Op. 110. Meredith, p. 18. 241 Hoffmann described this movement as “a charming spirit voice, which fills our heart with comfort and hope, sounds next the lovely […] theme of the Andante […].” “Review,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 12 (1810), ed. Senner, ii, 103. However the first praxis of this key is never far from the surface, as indicated by the brief tonicizations of B-flat minor and F-minor in mm. 2, 4, and 5 of the first theme. 242 Marx, Interpretation of Beethoven, p. 132. 240

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First praxis: innocent love, tender passion, hope, including seeing a beloved again when parting, trust in God (Trinitarian connection of three sharps)243 Person Date Vogler 1779 Schubart c. 1784 Knecht 1792 Galeazzi 1796 Gardiner 1817 Rochlitz 1824 Schrader 1827 Weikert 1827 Gräffer 1830 Müller 1830 Hand 1837 Czerny 1839 Berlioz 1843

Characteristics amorous and tender passion innocent love, satisfaction, youthful cheerfulness, trust in God244 cheerful, bright harmonious, expressive, affectionate, playful, laughing, cheerful golden, warm, sunny friendly love, devotion, gratitude bright, cheerful, satisfaction, hopeful, calm cheerful, innocent love hope confidence, hope245 “with pleasing tranquillity and gentle humour”246 elegant, joyous

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Englische Suite 1 I: Prelude Fugue in A Major, WTC, Book I, S. 864 Prelude in A Major, WTC, Book II, S. 888247 Prelude and Fugue in A Major, S. 536 Berlioz Symphonie fantastique II: “Un ball”: Valse Allegro non troppo Cimarosa Il matrimonio segreto aria: “Perdonate, signor mio” Gugliemi La bella pescatrice aria: “Mi parea che sola sola” Handel Messiah aria: “But thou didn’t not leave his soul in hell” Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz, Op. 51 V: “Sitio” Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 I am grateful to David Wyn Jones for pointing this out. Gathy and Schilling echo Schubart’s description. 245 He wrote of the “heavenly joy” the angels in Die Schöpfung feel for the success of nature’s blossoming in the terzetto “In holder Anmut stehn, mit jungem Grün” (Most beautiful appear, with verdure young). 246 Czerny, p. 66, describing the third movement of Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in A Major, Op. 12, No. 2. 247 This prelude is in the style of a pastorale. 243 244

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The Key to Beethoven recitative: “Erhört ist unser Flehn” aria with chorus: “O wie lieblich ist der Anblick” aria: “In holder Anmut stehn” Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 aria: “Nun schwanden vor dem heilgen Strahle” recitative: “gleich öffnet sich der Erde Schoß” “Auf grünen Matten weidet schon das Rind” Missa in tempore belli, Hob. XXII/9 Gloria: “Qui tollis peccata mundi” Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. VI in D Major III: Larghetto a capriccio Mozart Die Entführung aus dem Serail, K. 384 aria: “O wie ängstlich”248 Don Giovanni, K. 527 duet: “Là ci darem la mano”249 terzetto: “Ah! Taci, ingiusto core” Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, K. 331 I: Andante grazioso La clemenza di Tito, K. 621 aria: “Ah, perdona al primo affetto”250 String Quartet in D Major, K. 155 II: Andante Neefe Dritte Serenate Ries Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, Op. 114 I: Andantino amabile Salieri Il mondo alla rovescia aria: “Pietà, perdono” Schubert Der Zufriedene, D. 320 Kennst du das Land, D. 321 Schultz Der Anger Weber Der Freischütz, J. 277 duet: “Schelm, halt’ fest!”

248 Mozart commented on this aria in a letter to his father dated 26 September 1781: “Now about Belmonte’s aria in A Major, ‘Oh how anxious, oh how passionate!’ Do you know how I expressed it?—even expressing the loving, throbbing heart? With two violins playing in octaves.” The Letters of Mozart and His Family, trans. and ed. Emily Anderson, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1966), ii, no. 426, p. 768; original in Mozart Briefe und Aufzeichnungen, ed. Wilhelm A. Bauer und Otto Deutsch (Basel: Bärenreiter Kassel, 1963), iii, no. 629, p. 161. 249 A major is used literally for Zerlina’s feelings, and ironically for the Don, for whom the concept of innocent love is an oxymoron. 250 Beethoven was familiar with this opera.

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Works by Beethoven An einen Säugling , WoO 108 Choral Fantasy, Op. 80 Variation 6, Adagio ma non troppo Der Zufriedene, Op. 65, No. 6 Dimmi, ben mio, che m’ami, Op. 82, No. 1 Fidelio, Op. 72 duet: “Jetzt, Schätzchen, jetzt sind wir allein” terzett: “Euch werde Lohn in bessen Welten” Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, Op. 2, No. 2 IV: Grazioso Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, Op. 101 I: Etwas lebhaft und mit der innigstern Empfindung Freudvoll und leidvoll, Op. 84, No. 4 Gellert Lieder, Op. 48, No. 6 II: “Früh woll’st du mich mit deine Gnade füllen” Gretels Warnung, Op. 75, No. 4 Kennst du das Land, Op. 75, No. 1 La Partenza, WoO 124 Mass in C Major, Op. 86 Sanctus Sonata for Violin and Fortepiano in A Major, Op. 12, No. 2, I: Allegro vivace III: Allegro piacevole Sonata in A Minor for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 23 II: Andante scherzoso, più allegretto251 Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 1 I: Allegro III: Allegretto con variationi Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Cello, Op. 69 I: Allegro, ma non tanto II: [Trio], dolce String Quartet in A Major, Op. 18, No. 5 II: Menuetto/Trio Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 36 II: Larghetto Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 I: Poco sostenuto

Czerny characterized this movement as “serene and lovely,” p. 78.

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The Trinitarian imagery of this key, with descriptors mentioning trust in God, mirrors its sibling on the flat side with its characterisation of love of God. Each key is equidistant from C major on its respective side of the affective spectrum. Like its sister key, A major is also concerned with love, but of a more human kind, an innocent, tender passion that Schubart goes so far as to characterize as “hope of seeing one’s beloved again when parting.”252 In Kennst du das Land, Beethoven uses A major to express Mignon’s longing for her beloved homeland of Italy in his setting of Goethe’s famous poem, an almost exact match with Schubart’s description. Second praxis: brilliant, joyful, intense feelings Person Mattheson Rameau Rousseau Ribock Koch Grétry Vogler Glöggl Berlioz

Date 1713 1722 1743 1783 1787 1797 1812 1828 1843

Characteristics very gripping, brilliant mirth and rejoicing, grandeur, magnificence brilliant joy, dancing, cheerfulness intense feelings brilliant very penetrating, bright, shiny lively brilliant

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude in A Major, WTC, Book I, S. 864 Fugue in A Major, WTC, Book II, S. 888 Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 4, Op. 10, No. 1 I: Allegro moderato Graun Der Tod Jesu chorus: “Christus hat uns ein Vorbild gelassen” Handel Messiah chorus: “And the glory of the Lord” aria: “But thou didn’t not leave his soul in hell” Haydn Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 terzett: “Der Herr ist Groß” Symphony in A Major, Hob. I/59, “Feuersymphonie” I: Presto Sympony in A Major, Hob. I/87 I: Vivace

Mozart Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, K. 331 III: Alla Turca, Allegretto, mm. 25-32, 56-64, 88-end Schubart, Ideen, trans. Steblin, p. 282.

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Symphony No. 21 in A Major, K. 134 I: Allegro Symphony No. 29, K. 201 IV: Allegro con spirito Violin Concerto in A Major, K. 219, “Turkish” I: Allegro aperto Neefe Sonata No. 3 for Keyboard with Violin in A Major I: Allegro con brio II: Allegro scherzando Works by Beethoven

Aria: Primo amore, piacer del ciel, WoO 92 “Tal amor, piacer del ciel” König Stefan, Op. 117 chorus: “Heil unserm Könige!” Lebensglück, Op. 88 Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 47, “Kreutzer” III: Presto253 Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 I: Vivace IV: Allegro con brio

This alternate praxis is used far less frequently, yet it attracted widespread appeal during the period and indeed for Beethoven himself. The position of A major on the sharp side of the affective spectrum allowed it to be used to characterize music in a bright and brilliant manner at a fast tempo, as seen in the many epithets used to describe it above. Mattheson was more than aware of this when he observed, “It is especially good for violin music.”254 In his cantata Kampf und Sieg, J. 190, Weber wrote a “March of the Enemy,” which he described as “arrogant,” an example of this second praxis of A major being used ironically. A Minor: two affective praxes First praxis: plaintive, sorrowful, tender, feminine imagery Person Date Mattheson 1713 Schubart 1779 c. 1784 Knecht 1792 Heinse 1795 Grétry 1797 Hoffmann c. 1814

Characteristics somewhat plaintive, calm tenderly-languishing, moving pious womanliness, tenderness sorrowful tenderness the most naïve of all A minor (arpeggio dolce) “Why are you fleeing, lovely maid? You cannot

Czerny characterized this movement as “brilliant and fiery,” p. 84. Mattheson, Das neu-eröffnete Orchestre, §20, trans. Steblin, p. 281.

253 254

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The Key to Beethoven Gardiner 1817 Schrader 1827 Weikert 1827 Ebhardt 1830 Gräffer 1830 Gathy 1835 Schilling 1835-36 Hand 1837 Czerny 1839 Herloßsohn 1839 Berlioz 1843

tell what it is that gnaws painfully at your breast […] filling you with sweetest joy”255 plaintive soft, plaintive, expresses gentle sorrow sorrow, tenderness sorrow piety tenderness tenderness, sorrow weak resignation, timid softness plaintive, with great expression256 tenderness, patience, melancholy soft

Works of other composers

C. P. E. Bach La Caroline, Wq. 117/39 Cherubini Requiem in D Minor Graduale: “Requiem aeternam” Gluck Iphigénie en Aulide air: “Cruelle, non, jamais” Handel Imeneo aria: “E si vaga del tuo bene” terzetto: “Consolami mio bene” Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz, Op. 51 Part II: Introduction Baryton Trio No. 87, Hob. XI/87 II: Largo Fortepiano Trio in A Major, Hob. XV/18, II: Andante staccato Mozart Fortepiano Sonata in A Minor, K. 310 III: Presto Rondo in A Minor, K. 511, Andante Rossini Stabat Mater aria: “Pro peccantis suae gentis” Schubert String Quartet in A Minor, D. 804 II: Allegro ma non troppo

Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. Schafer, Hoffmann and Music, p. 146. Czerny, p. 66, describing the second movement of Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in A Major, Op. 12, No. 2. 255

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Works by Beethoven Bagatelle in A Minor, WoO 59, “Für Elise”257 Bitten, Op. 48, No. 1, mm. 27-32 Bußlied, Op. 48, No. 6 Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, Op. 101 III: Langsam und sehnsuchswoll Freudvoll und leidvoll, Op. 84, No. 4, mm. 12-18 Marmotte, Op. 52, No. 7 Mass in C Major, Op. 86 Gloria: “Bonae voluntatis” Credo: “unigenitum, et ex patre natum” Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 12, No. 2 II: Andante piu tosto allegretto258 String Quartet in C Major, Op. 59, No. 3 II: Andante con moto quasi allegretto String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132 I: Assai sostenuto Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92 II: Allegretto

As can be seen above, Classical composers rarely used the key of A minor. Schubart’s characterization of this key—with which Beethoven was familiar— emphasizes the feminine aspects of tenderness that it signifies, so much so that when Beethoven was given a copy of the Scottish folk song The Sweetest Lad Was Jamie, in the key of A minor, he chose to transpose it to G minor to project the sense of sweetness and tenderness in this text but without such overtly feminine connotations. Yet it was precisely these connotations that he chose to highlight when composing the famous unfinished bagatelle in A minor, WoO 59, “Für Elise” in the first praxis of this key. Second praxis: serious, angry, menacing

257 This work may well be connected to Beethoven’s unsuccessful proposal to Therese Malfatti (1792-1851), and the now-lost manuscript of this piece was discovered amongst her belongings by Ludwig Nohl after her death in 1851. The full dedication reads “Für Elise am 27. April zur Erinnerung an L. v. Bthvn” (For Elise, on 27 April, as a remembrance of L. v. Bthvn). Max Unger has speculated that Nohl’s reading of the name “Elise” was mistaken, and that it was “Therese” instead. Thayer-Forbes, p. 502. Other scholars disagree. In 2009, Klaus Martin Kopitz proposed that Elise was actually Beethoven’s friend, soprano Elisabeth Röckel (1793-1883), who later married Johann Nepomuk Hummel. More recently, Rita Steblin put forward a third theory suggesting that Elise was thirteen-year-old child prodigy Juliane Elisabet Barensfeld, who may have had fortepiano lessons from Malfatti. Steblin contends that Beethoven made this dedication as a favor to Malfatti.

Czerny recommended that the performance of this movement be “rather plaintive.” Czerny, p. 66.

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The Key to Beethoven Person Date Rousseau 1691 Heinse 1795 Galeazzi 1796 Schrader 1827 Hand 1837 Berlioz 1843

Characteristics serious subjects lament, grief extremely lugubrious, gloomy, expresses slaughters, massacres, funeral dirges menacing, vehement deformed crudeness tolerably sonorous, mournful

Works of other composers C. P. E. Bach Sei Sonate per cembalo (Württemberg Sonatas), No. 1, Wq. 49/1 III: Allegro assai J. S. Bach Prelude and Fugue in A Minor, WTC, Book II, S. 889 Berlioz Grande messe des morts, Op. 5 Sequence: “Lacrymosa” Czerny Fortepiano Concerto in A Minor, Op. 214 I: Allegro moderato Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No 7 in A Minor, Op. 18, No. 2 I: Agitato assai Hand Der Sieg des Glaubens, Op. 157 Finale of Part One Handel Messiah aria: “Thou shalt break them” Haydn Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 aria: “Seht auf die breiten Wiesen hin!” Mozart Fortepiano Sonata in A Minor, K. 310 I: Allegro maestoso Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, K. 331 III: Allegretto Requiem, K. 626 Sequenz: “Confutatis maledictis” Violin Concerto in A Major, K. 219m “Turkish” IV: Allegro Works by Beethoven Fidelio, Op. 72 duet: “Nur hurtig fort, nur frisch gegraben” Sonata in A Minor for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 23, No. 1 I: Presto III: Allegro molto259 Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 47, “Kreutzer” I: Presto Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Cello, Op. 69 II: Allegro molto Sonata in C Major for Fortepiano and Cello, Op. 102, No. 1 I: Allegro vivace

Czerny stated that the character of this movement is “impassioned.” Czerny, p. 78.

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132 I: Allegro V: Allegro appassionato

A few writers comment on this praxis—a more aggressive or sinister use of this key and in clear contrast to the Schubartian school of thought. There are a small number of instances where this alternative praxis can be found in Beethoven’s output, with some precedent in the works of earlier composers, characterized by a fast tempo marking and loud dynamic level. B-flat Major: two affective praxes First praxis: amoroso, lovely, kind, tender, shadow key to the second praxis in G minor Person Date Characteristics Schubart c. 1784 cheerful love, clear conscience, hope, spiration for a better world260 Knecht 1792 lovely, tender Galeazzi 1796 tender, soft, sweet, fit to express transports of love, charm and grace Anon 1810 contentment, peaceful observation, awakening gentle feelings261 Vogler 1812 “calm; a pleasant key, it might have borrowed a certain special tenderness from E[”262 Beethoven 1813 amoroso263 Beethoven 1824 zärtl264 Schrader 1827 tender, lovely, charming, proclaims joyful gratitude Weikert 1827 lovely, tender, the key of cheerful love Ebhardt 1830 lovely, tender, calm Schilling 1835-36 cheerful love, clear conscience, hope, aspiration for a better world Hand 1837 bright key, expression of cheerful feelings, confident hope Herloßsohn 1839 love, peace, devotion, longing

Gathy echoed Schubart’s definition. Anon., “Review,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 12 (1810), trans. Senner, ii, 135. The author of this review is disputed. See p. 140, n. 1 of the Senner translation. 262 This clearly supports the definition of the second affective usage of E-flat major. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 123. 263 Beethoven’s letter to George Thomson concerning the setting the Scottish folksong Judy, Lovely, Matchless Creature, WoO 153, infers that he considered this key amoroso, which translates as loving, tender, affectionate and kind.See Ch. 1, pp. 18-19. 264 In the finale of the Ninth Symphony, Beethoven described B-flat major as “zärtl” (tender). See Ch. 7, p. 349, n. 53 for further details. 129 260 261

The Key to Beethoven

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Cantata 208, Was mir behagt is nur die Muntre jagd aria “Schafe können sicher weiden” Cherubini Eliza aria: “Lieux sauvages, triste climates” Fugue in B-flat Major, WTC, Book II, S. 890 Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 1, Op. 9, No. 1 II: Allegretto grazioso Fortepiano Sonata No. 8, Op. 23 II: Allegretto moderato con espressione Haydn 7 Letzte Worte Jesu Am Kreuz, Op. 51 I: “Pater, dimitte illis, non enim sciunt, quid faciunt” Armida, Hob. XXVIII/12 duet: “Cara, sarò fedele” Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 aria: “Nun beut die Flur das frische Grün” Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat major, Hob. XVI/49 II: Adagio cantabile Il mondo della luna, Hob. XXVIII/7 duet: “Un certo ruscellato” Orlando Paladino, Hob. XXVIII/11 aria: “Quel tuo visetto amabile” Mozart Don Giovanni, K. 527 aria: “Il mio tesoro intanto” aria: “L’ultima prova dell’ amor mio” quartet: “Non ti fidar, o misera” Fortepiano Concerto in D Minor, K. 466 II: Romanze Requiem, K. 626 Sequenz: “Tuba mirum” Neefe An Cidli Sonata No. 6 for Keyboard with Violin in B-flat Major II: “Alla siciliana,” Andante sostenuto Salieri Falstaff aria: “Ah ch’a idea così gradita” Il mondo alla rovescia aria: “Alle nozze questa sera” La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo chorus: “Santa speme to sei ministra” aria: “Potea quel pianto” Schubert Impromptu No. 3 in B-flat Major, D. 935 I: Andante Schwanengesang, D. 957, No. 3 “Frühlingssehnsucht” Schultz Seufzer eines Ungeliebten

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Works by Beethoven Adelaide, Op. 46 I: Larghetto, dolce e Fortepiano Fidelio, Op. 72 finale: “O welche Lust” “Leb’ wohl, du warmes Sonnenlicht” Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 22 III: Minuetto Fortepiano Trio in B-flat Major, Op. 97, “Archduke” I: Allegro moderato (dolce) Judy, lovely, matchless creature, WoO 153 Missa solemnis, Op. 123 Gloria: “Gratias agimus tibi”265 Credo: “Et vitam venturi saeculi,” mm. 306-78 Sonata in F Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 24, “Spring” II: Adagio molto espressivo266 String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 18, No. 6 IV: “La malinconia,” Adagio, mm. 1-8267 Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60 III: Trio, Un poco meno Allegro Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68, Pastoral II: “Szene am Bach” Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 II: Allegretto scherzando Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 I: Allegro ma non troppo e un poco maestoso, mm. 74-92268 III: Adagio molto e cantabile

Beethoven characterized this affective praxis himself as mentioned earlier. The melody for Judy, Lovely, Matchless Creature, which was presented to him in A-flat major was seen by the composer as too “barbaresco” for the descriptor “amoroso” with which it was supplied. Beethoven therefore transposed it into the key of B-flat major, noting “I have treated it in the key that suits it.”269 A

265 Marked Fortepiano, dolce, [e] cantabile. There is a distinct change in orchestration here, including a tacet indication for the contrafagotto. 266 Czerny described this movement as being pervaded by “a holy calm.” Czerny, p. 69. 267 Tonal symbolism plays in important role in this remarkable opening. The mood state is set in Beethoven’s amoroso key, before “la malinconia” impinges (m. 9). The keys Beethoven uses—C minor (second praxis), B minor (first praxis), E minor (first praxis), C-sharp minor, A-flat minor, F minor, G minor (second praxis), D minor (first praxis), and B-flat minor—match the definitions outlined in this chapter. 268 The “dolce”marking at m. 74 is significant, indicating the first clear hearing of a precursor of the Joy theme of the last movement, in Beethoven’s amoroso key. 269 The Letters of Beethoven, trans. and ed. Emily Anderson, 3 vols (London: Macmillan, 1961), i, no. 405, p. 406; original in Ludwig van Beethoven: Briefwechsel Gesamtausgabe, Sieghard Brandenburg, ed., 7 vols (Munich: Henle, 1996), ii, no. 623, p. 320.

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review of the Pastoral Symphony in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung points to B-flat major as a particularly apposite key in which to suggest “contentment and peaceful observation,” and the “awakening of gentle feelings,” comments congruent with descriptions by other writers. The following description of B-flat by Hoffmann could have been written for—and was, perhaps, influenced by this work: B-flat major (accentuato) How joyful are the meadows and forests in spring! All the flutes and panflutes, which during the winter lay frozen in dusty corners, are awake and are recalling their favorite melodies which they are now trilling as happily as the birds.270

On occasion, Beethoven was not averse to using this praxis ironically, as can be heard in Rocco’s aria aria: “Hat man nicht auch Gold beineben” in Act I of Fidelio. Even a cursory examination of the text indicates that a song that describes happiness as being hard to find without gold does not warrant using a key that projects the lovely, the kind, or the tender! Second praxis: majestic, celebratory, martial: the new C major Person Date Characteristics Charpentier c. 1692 magnificent, joyful Mattheson 1713 very diverting, sumptuous Hawkins 1776 masculine energy Ribock 1783 majesty, powerful-acting without operosity Kellner 1787 condescending greatness, venerable seriousness Heinse 1795 dignity of magistrates Grétry 1797 noble Gianelli 1801 majestic J. J. Wagner 1823 dignified gravity Müller 1830 boldness, dignity Porter 1834 used for grand choruses in The Creation Schilling 1835-36 joyful, spirited rejoicing, boldness, dignified gravity Hand 1837 spirited energy, animation Herloßsohn 1839 jubilation, pleasure Berlioz 1843 noble

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude in B-flat Major, WTC, Book I, S. 866 Cherubini Requiem in D Minor Sanctus Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. Schafer, Hoffmann and Music, p. 147.

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Beethoven and Meaning in Primary Keys Fortepiano Sonata No. 1, Op. 9, No. 1 Dussek I: Allegro non tanto Der Tod Jesu Graun aria: “Du Held, auf den die Köcher des Todes ausgeleert” aria: “Singt dem göttlichen Propheten” Jeptha Handel chorus: “Theme sublime of endless praise” Messiah aria: “Rejoice greatly” chorus: “The Lord gave the word” Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 Haydn chorus: “Ewiger Gott, mächtiger Gott” Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 chorus: “Singt dem Herrn alle Stimmen” chorus: “Vollendet ist das große Werk” Fortepiano Sonata, Hob. XVI/41 I: Allegro Harmoniemesse, Hob. XXII/14 Credo in unum Deum Schöpfungsmesse, Hob. XXII/13 Gloria in excelsis Symphony in B-flat Major, Hob. I/98 I: Allegro Symphony in B-flat Major, Hob. I/102 I: Allegro vivace Theresienmesse, Hob. XXII/12 Gloria in excelsis Die Zauberflöte, K. 620 Mozart aria: “O zittre nicht” String Quartet in B-flat Major, K. 458 I: Allegro vivace assai Symphony No. 5 in B-flat Major, K. 22 III: Molto allegro Symphony No. 24 in B-flat Major, K. 182 I: Allegro spiritoso Sonata No. 6 for Keyboard with Violin in B-flat Major Neefe I: Allegro e con spirito La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo Salieri aria: “Ritornerà fra voi” Oberon, J. 306 Weber ensemble: “Honor and joy to the true and the brave”

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Works by Beethoven Adelaide, Op. 46 II: Allegro molto Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 terzetto: “In meinen Adern wühlen gerechter Zorn und Wuth” Fortepiano Concerto in B-flat Major, Op. 19 I: Allegro con brio III: Molto allegro Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 22 I: Allegro con brio Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, “Hammerklavier” I: Allegro Große Fuge, Op. 133 Fuga: mm. 30-153 König Stefan, Op. 117 chorus: “Heil unserm Könige!” Leonore, Op. 72a aria: “Auf euch, nur will ich bauen” Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 Credo in unum Deum, mm. 1-16, Credo: “Et vitam venturi saeculi,” mm. 379-438 Agnus Dei, mm. 326-49 Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60 I: Allegro vivace Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 IV: Alla Marcia mm. 331-431 Tremate, empi, tremate, Op. 116271 I: mm. 1-34, 57-65 III: mm. 121-33, 160-93, 203-37.

The availability of trumpets in B-flat, which were rare until the 1790s, was influential in the establishment of this particular affective usage. This practice is reflected in Haydn’s choice of this key for two of his “London” symphonies. B-flat major became the new C major for the orchestral repertoire. Beethoven used this key in marches, as seen in the march in the Agnus Dei of the Missa solemnis, and in the finale of the Ninth Symphony: Allegro assai vivace, alla Marcia, m. 331, the so-called “Turkish March.” Both praxes of B-flat major can be heard in the opening of the “Hammerklavier” sonata. The fortissimo pounding chords of mm. 1-4 are clearly second praxis while mm. 5-8, marked piano with a completely contrasted texture reflect the first amoroso trope. Beethoven is not immune to using this praxis of B-flat major ironically, as heard in the “Marsch” in Act I of Fidelio. The choice of a key that projects the majestic, the celebratory, the martial, is entirely apposite for use in such a setting until the ensuing stage While the opening of this aria reflects the second praxis of B-flat major, enhanced by an allegro tempo marking and crescendo to fortissimo, there is a clear melding into the amoroso praxis at m. 18, marked dolce and Fortepiano, for the text “Risparmia o Dio, quell sangue.”

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direction is read, alerting us that it announces the evil Pizarro. Beethoven indicates musically that the use of this key is ironic from the very outset, with pizzicato downbeats deliberately misplaced at the opening of each of its two sections and initial markings of piano and dolce, a result that is anything but majestic and martial. Table Two: Beethoven’s Affective Use of Tonality in Primary Keys

C: two praxes triumph, strength, rejoicing, innocence, neutrality, purity, celebration, freedom, an affective tabula rasa light c: three affective praxes lament, pathos, tender, plaintive tragic, forceful, funereal longing dramatic, stormy (shadow: E[, third praxis) D: three affective praxes triumph, victory, joy, tender, yearning love peaceful, tranquil, jubilation, (amoroso/Empfindung) pastoral topos human vengeance (shadow: b, second praxis)

d: three affective praxes melancholy, gentle sorrow,

gloom, ghosly visions, passive ombra style

E[: three affective praxes majestic, heroic, solemn, love, devotion, the hunting trope Trinity

Sturm und Drang, Empfindsam stor ms, rage, divine vengeance, active ombra style sogno/dream, sleep memories/fantasies of unhappy/failed love (shadow: c, first praxis)

E: three affective praxes wild, fiery passion, brilliant

love, sometimes hopeless, sometimes tender

F: three affective praxes (German tradition) calmness, gentleness, peace, pastoral topos

(Non-German tradition) humor, joking, farce majesty, gravity, hunting topos, joy, confidence

135

gentle night, sleep sometimes as a metaphor for death (shadow: c\, third praxis)

The Key to Beethoven

f: two affective praxes deep depression, extreme stormy, violent, grief/despair agitated (shadow: A[, first praxis) G: two affective praxes calm, gentle, rustic, pleasant pastoral topos

brilliant, cheerful, lively, humorous

g: two affective praxes discontent, despair, resentment (shadow: B[, first praxis)

sweet, tender, gentle melancholy, compassion

A[: two affective praxes barbaresco, a key of heavenly, often cantabile, the grave (shadow: f, first praxis) A: two affective praxes innocent love, tender passion, brilliant, joyful, hope, including seeing a intense feelings beloved again when parting, satisfaction, trust in God a: two affective praxes plaintive, sorrowful, tender, serious, angry, menacing feminine imagery. B[: two affective praxes amoroso, lovely, kind, tender, majestic, celebratory, (shadow: g, second praxis) bold, martial, the new C major

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CHAPTER THREE

Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Introduction The more distant, secondary keys examined in Chapter Three are those that Beethoven employed less frequently, and used only occasionally as the primary tonality for a work or movement. In many instances, the passages cited are internal modulations designed to show that Beethoven’s use of key characteristics extended often to secondary categories of tonal changes, a topic covered more fully in Chapter Four. The charts below follow the format used in the previous chapter. Table 3 (p. 175) provides a summary of the chapter’s findings. C-sharp Major: one affective praxis Hard Person Date Characteristics Kellner 1787 strange Beethoven unknown hart1 Reicha 1814 extremely piercing2 Hand 1837 eccentric, mixes grief and joy to a high degree Berlioz 1843 distinguished Works by other composers3 C. P. E. Bach Musikalisches Allerley, Wq 117/29 “La Xénophon” J. S. Bach Prelude in C-sharp Major, WTC, Book I, S. 848 Schubert German Dance in C-sharp Major, D. 139

“Hard/harsh/severe.” Anton Schindler, Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven (Münster: Aschendorff, 1860), p. 166, trans. and ed. D.W. MacArdle, Beethoven as I Knew Him (New York: Dover, 1996), p. 368. 2 This designation is arrived at by inference. Reicha describes F-sharp major as being very piercing, maintaining that it is very different to G-flat major, which is somber. He then notes “Between the key of C-sharp and that of D-flat, there is the same difference” (Entre la gamme d’Ut\ et celle de Ré[, il y a la même différence). Anton Reicha, Traité de melodie (Paris: Chez l’auteur, 1814), p. 356. 3 The trio from the third movement of Haydn’s Fortepiano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Hob. XVI/36, marked moderato and cantabile does not match with this praxis, nor does Schubert’s song, Der Enfternten, D. 331. This suggests that there is probably a second praxis in this key, although not one that Beethoven used. 1

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Works by Beethoven Leonore, Op. 72a quartet: “Er sterbe,” mm. 61-63 Sonata in F-sharp Major, Op. 78 I: Allegro ma non troppo, mm. 24-34, dolce, molto tranquillo

Beethoven used this extremely remote key hardly at all, as can be seen in the two brief modulations cited above. The first, from the quartet “Er sterbe” in Leonore, did not survive in the same form in Fidelio. Yet it bears brief consideration, used here at a moment of extreme passion as Leonore rushes out to protect Florestan from Pizarro’s vengeance. Beethoven invoked C-sharp major as she shouts at Pizarro to step back, using a key at the extreme end of the affective spectrum to capture the high drama involved. The second example from Op. 78 constrasts markedly with the first however, and seems to capture a far gentler, elegiac mood. If Schindler’s comment can be believed, it is likely that Beethoven differentiated this key from its enharmonic equivalent of D-flat major.4 However, given the lack of extant examples, it is hard to be specific about Beethoven’s views on this key. C-sharp Minor: one affective praxis Penitential lament, despair, shadow key to the third praxis of E major Person Date Schubart c. 1784 Knecht 1792 Anon. review 1802 Schrader 1827 Weichert 1827 Ebhardt 1830 Gräffer 1830 Gathy 1835

Characteristics penitential lamentation, sighs of disappointed friendship and love despair schauerlichen5 depravity, insanity, despair despair despair surrender sighs of disappointed friendship and love

See Ch.1, p. 36 for details of Reicha’s views on the C\/D[ issue and Beethoven’s connection with him. Wolfgang Auhagen in Studien zur Tonartencharakteristik in theoretischen Schriften und Kompositionen vom späten 17. bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt a.M.: Lang, 1983), p. 290, Rita Steblin in A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), p. 146, and John David Wilson in “Topos and Tonality in the Age of Beethoven” (doctoral dissertation, Universität Wien, 2012), fn. 36, p. 16 all support the view that Schindler is to be believed with such a comment. 5 This word can be translated as “terrifying,” “gruesome,” or “eerie.” “Reviews,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 4 (1802), col. 652, in The Critical Reception of Beethoven’s Composition by His German Contemporaries, ed. Wayne M. Senner (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), i, 177. Schindler quotes this very passage verbatim. Biographie, p. 167. 4

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Schilling Hand Herloßsohn Berlioz Marx Marx

1835-36 1837 1839 1843 1859 1863

lamenting melancholy, sighing longing, lament laments, longing and fervent desire tragic heissen6 lamentation7

Works of other composers Graun Der Tod Jesu recitative: “Gethsemane, Gethsemane,” mm. 14-15 Handel Berenice aria: “Avvertite mie pupille” Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Hob. XVI/36 I: Moderato III: Menuetto. Moderato Meyerbeer Les Huguenots aria and chorus: “Sombre et silencieuse” Ries Fortepiano Concerto in C-sharp Minor, Op. 55 I: Allegro maestoso D. Scarlatti Sonata in C-sharp Minor, K. 246 Schubert Der Jüngling und der Tod, D. 545



Works by Beethoven Fidelio, Op. 72 duet: “Jetzt, Alter, hat es Eile,” mm. 65-81 Fortepiano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2, “Moonlight” I: Adagio sostenuto III: Presto agitato String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131 I: Adagio ma non troppo e molto espressivo VII: Allegro

Hardly surprisingly, the first movement of the “Moonlight” sonata features in several of the contemporaneous commentaries. The Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung review from June 30, 1802, remarked how the first and third movements “are “Fervid,” when describing the first movement of Op. 27, No. 2. Adolph Bernhard Marx, Ludwig van Beethoven: Leben und Schaffen (Berlin: Janke, 1859), p. 147, trans. Lawrence Kramer, Musical Meaning (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), p. 36. 7 He is discussing the “Moonlight” Sonata, which he describes as “ein Lied der Klage,” (a song of lament). Adolph Bernhard Marx, Anleitung zum Vortrag Beethovenscher Klavierwerke (Berlin: Janke, 1863), p. 115, trans. Fannie Louise Gwinner, Introduction to the Interpretation of Beethoven’s Fortepiano Works (Chicago: Summy, 1895), p. 115. 6

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written in the terrifying key of C\ minor with consummate reason,” something with which Schindler was very much in agreement.8 Indeed, he described Beethoven’s use of this key as “awesome.”9 He included a direct quotation from this review, commenting: “If one transposes these two movements into the neighboring minor keys of C or D, or into more remote keys, the completely different effect is obvious.”10 Czerny portrayed the first movement as “a night scene, in which the voice of a complaining spirit is heard at a distance,” an extremely perceptive reading of the meaning of this movement.11 Marx described the end of the first movement thus: “and all longing, no matter how high and far it pleadingly gazes, sinks back in lament and dies away in the depths, and with sepulchral voice bids farewell!” Four years later he added “The first movement pictures to anyone who brings a heart to music, most decidedly a song of lamentation and self-denial.”12 The title “Moonlight” was not given by Beethoven himself, but was bestowed by poet Ludwig Rellstab, who, according to Wilhelm von Lenz, described it thus, “a boat, visiting by moonlight the wild places on the Lake of Four Cantons [Lake Lucerne] in Switzerland.”13 However, most writers are not familiar with the text that follows, where the connection between moonlight and death/lament is affirmed: “this adagio is much more a world of the dead, Napoleon’s epitaph in music, adagio on the death of a hero.”14 In making such a statement he went further than any of the writers cited above, the strongest of whom only associate the key with despair or lamenting here. Sarah Clemmens Waltz has connected the Mondscheinsonate with Rellstab as early as 1823, also pointing out that Beethoven’s friend Dr. G. C. Grosheim wanted Beethoven to set Seume’s Die Beterin [The woman at her prayers] to the Adagio sostenuto—and, according to Georg Heinrichs, Beethoven actually agreed, despite failing to fulfil the arrangement. Seume’s text […] deals particularly with the streaming forth of her tears […].15 The anonymous review appeared in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 4 (1802): 650-53, quoted in Senner, i, 176-77. 9 Schindler-MacArdle, p. 369. 10 Ibid. 11 Carl Czerny, On the Proper Performance of All Beethoven’s Works for the Fortepiano, ed. Paul BaduraSkoda (Vienna: Universal, 1970), facsimile reprint of The Art of Playing The Ancient and Modern Fortepiano Forte Works (London: Cocks, 1839), Ch. 2, p. 39. 12 Marx, Ludwig van Beethoven, p. 36; Interpretation of Beethoven, p. 115. 13 “Une barque, visitant, par un clair de lune, les sites sauvages du lac des Quatre Cantons en Suisse.” Wilhelm von Lenz, Beethoven et ses trois styles. Analyses des Sonates de Fortepiano, 2 vols. (Paris: Lavinée, 1855), i, 163. He dated this remark from the early 1830s. 14 Ibid., “Cet adagio est bien plutôt un monde des morts, l’epitaphe de Napoléon en musique, adagio sulla morte d’un eroe.” Timothy Jones describes this movement as belonging “to a long tradition of Trauermusik” in his book, Beethoven: The ‘Moonlight’ and Other Sonatas, Op. 27 and Op. 31 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 78. 15 Sarah Clemmens Waltz, “In Defense of Moonlight,” Beethoven Forum 14 (2007): 23-24. This reference is cited in Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Thayer’s Life of Beethoven, rev. and ed. Elliot Forbes (Princeton: Princeton Unversity Press, 1967), i, 297. 8

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys

She connects depictions of moonlight and lament, offering a convincing affirmation of the enduring connection of title and music.16 Musical signifiers support this designation of C-sharp minor: the funereal dotted rhythm with which the melody opens, the searing minor ninths between melody and bass, and the bass line—not quite the complete falling fourth lamento pattern, but certainly hinting at it.17 John Wilson perceptively notes that “this was not really a literal representation of a funeral march […] but a faint token of one,” pointing out that Beethoven had indeed just written one as the second movement of Op. 26.18 He would of course do so again just two years later in 1804 for the second movement of the Eroica Symphony. The choice of key strongly supports the premise that Beethoven selected flat minor keys replete with appropriate funereal imagery for the literal dead marches (A-flat minor, C minor, first praxis), whereas C-sharp minor was his choice when conjuring up a memory of the every-present fragility of the mortal state. This was something of which Beethoven was keenly aware, as Wilson puts it, “a self-dramatized melancholic fantasy of death’s immanence.”19 D-flat Major: two affective praxes First praxis: maestoso, soft, heavenly Characteristics Date Person unknown maestoso20 Beethoven unknown weich21 Beethoven “In this remote key, Haydn and Beethoven 1817 Gardiner have written some of their sublimest thoughts”22 the voice of sacred solace23 1824 Marx Waltz makes a defense of the famous title although she does not mention several contemporaneous descriptions of C-sharp minor as a lamenting key, merely labeling it as “dark.” Waltz, p. 4. 17 Edwin Fischer posits a connection between this movement and the music that depicts the death of the commendatore in Don Giovanni, even mentioning a manuscript where Beethoven had jotted a few measures of Mozart’s setting, transposing it into C-sharp minor. There is most certainly a marked similarity between them. Edwin Fischer, “XIV. Sonata No. 14 in C Sharp Minor, Opus 27, No. 2 (“Moonlight”) in The Beethoven Companion, ed. Thomas K. Sherman and Louis Biancolli (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1972), pp. 300-01. 18 Wilson, p. 152. 19 Ibid. 20 Friedrich Rochlitz, Für ruhige Stunden, 2 vols. (Leipzig: C. Cnobloch 1828), quoted in Friedrich Kerst, Beethoven. The Man and the Artist, as Revealed in his Own Words, trans. and ed. Henry Edward Krehbiel (New York: Dover, 1964), p. 59. 21 “Soft,” Schindler, p. 166, trans. Schindler-MacArdle, p. 368. 22 Steblin, p. 235. 23 Adolph Bernhard Marx, “A Few Words on the Symphony and Beethoven’s Achievements in This Field,” Berliner musikalishe Zeitung i (1824), 181-84, in Senner, i, 70. He was describing the coda to the second movement (Marcia funebre) of the Eroica Symphony, mm. 209-17.

16

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The Key to Beethoven Schrader 1827 heavenly bliss, sublimity, majesty Müller 1830 heavenly transfiguration Gathy 1835 rapture Schilling 1835-36 heavenly, beautifully decorated Hand 1837 represents beauty, splendor, radiance Berlioz 1843 majestic Marx 1863 quiet, gentle, […] like a prayer which winds itself with fervor out of the deep24

Works of other composers25 Berlioz Grande messe des morts, Op. 5 Sanctus: Andante, un poco sostenuto e maestoso Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Hob. XVI/46 II: Adagio: piano espressivo Schöpfungsmesse, Hob. XXII/13 Christe eleison, mm. 67-84 Schubert Adagio in D-flat Major for Fortepiano, D. 505 Die Sternennächte, D. 670 Ellens Gesang (Raste Krieger, Kried ist aus), D. 837 Jägers Abendlied, D. 368 Schumann Requiem, Op. 148 “Requiem aeternam” “Benedictus” “Lux aeterna” Works by Beethoven Adelaide, Op. 46 Larghetto, dolce piano, mm. 39-48 An Laura, WoO 112, mm. 32-33 Der Wachtelschlag, WoO 129, mm. 26-30 Gesang aus der Ferne, WoO 137, mm. 56-64 Missa solemnis, Op. 123 Credo: “Qui propter nos homines” mm. 86-99 Fortepiano Concerto No. 2 in B-Flat Major, Op. 19 I: Allegro con brio, mm. 41-49

Marx, Interpretation of Beethoven, p. 133. He was describing the theme of the slow movement of the Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57. The title “appassionata” cannot be dated any earlier than the 1838 four-handed arrangement published by Cranz in Hamburg. 25 Bach does not use D-flat major in either book of WTC. 24

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57, No. 2 II: Andante con moto String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130 III: Andante con moto, ma non troppo String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135 III: Lento assai, cantante e tranquillo26 Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica II: Marcia funebre, mm. 209-217 Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 III: Adagio molto e cantabile, mm. 133-36

Although Beethoven never used this key as a primary tonality for a complete work, he did employ it for shorter, internal movements or affective modulations within a movement, certainly with more frequency than its enharmonic equivalent. Yet it seems clear from his manner of usage and the views of contemporaneous writers that it divides into two praxes. None of the earlier writers designated it this way, but several later writers did, in many instances deriving their opinions from Beethoven’s usage. The conversation reported by Rochlitz between Beethoven and himself where Beethoven connected the descriptor maestoso with D-flat major has already been discussed (see Chapter One, p. 21). This comment can be supplemented by Schinder’s report that Beethoven considered D-flat major’s major’s character to be weich (soft).27 This description is supported by William Kinderman’s consideration of the third movement of String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135; he notes that the theme upon which this movement is based, originally intended for the end of the String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131, was entitled “sweet song of peace” in Beethoven’s sketchbook. In the Credo of the Missa solemnis, D-flat major is used for the text “qui propter nos homines and proter nostram salutem descendit de coelis.” Setting this passage using “heavenly” D-flat major to depict the descent to from heaven lends support to the designation of this praxis. Second praxis: grief, darkness, shadow key to B-flat minor Person Schubart Heinse Gardiner Weikert Gathy Schilling Hand

Date Characteristics c. 1784 leering, degenerating into grief and rapture 1795 horror […] demonic 1817 awfully dark, remote, tragic 1827 degeneration into grief and rapture […] dallying tears 1835 grief 1835-36 degeneration into grief and rapture [...], ghostly tones 1837 grief, pathos, gravity

William Kinderman, Beethoven, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 356. Anton Schindler, Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven (Münster: Aschendorff, 1860), p. 166.

26 27

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Works of other composers Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 24 in F-sharp Minor, Op. 61, “Elégie harmonique sur la mort de son Altesse Royale Prince Louis Ferdinand de Prusse” I: Lento patetico senza ornamenti, mm. 113-39 Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Hob. XVI/46, II: Adagio28 Schubert Am Bach im Frühling, D. 361 Memnon, D. 541

Works by Beethoven Adelaide, Op. 46 Allegro molto, mm. 116-19 Gesang aus der Ferne, WoO 137, mm. 56-64 In questa tomba oscura, WoO 133, mm. 6-7 Missa solemnis, Op. 123 Gloria, mm. 273-77, “miserere nobis” String Quartet in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1 III: Adagio molto mesto, mm. 72-83

Only the shortest of internal modulations can be found in Beethoven’s oeuvre that connect with this alternative praxis of D-flat major, yet such brief passages are congruent with the above views that found their origin in the influential Schubart list. The use of D-flat major in the Gloria of the Missa solemnis at the words “miserere nobis” is particularly telling. Thus it seems likely that, as with its dominant key of A-flat major, Beethoven does use this tonality in two very different affective practices. E-flat Minor: one affective praxis29 Black depression, extreme anxiety, terror, despair, Person Date Characteristics Charpentier c. 1692 horrible, frightful Schubart c. 1784 deepest distress, brooding despair, blackest depression Galeazzi 1796 extremely melancholy

28 The coda contains a modulation to the extremely remote key of D-flat minor, a tonality completely off the affective spectrum that no writers have described. 29 Beethoven is not known to have used the key of D-sharp minor (the briefest tonicizations in Ops. 39 and 78 notwithstanding), despite his presumed familiarity with Bach’s Prelude and Fugue D-sharp Minor, WTC Book II, S. 877.

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Hoffmann 1812 Schrader 1827 Gräffer 1830 Gathy 1835 Schilling 1835-36 Czerny 1839 Marx 1856

“If ghosts could speak, they would have to speak in this key, with its rigid, gripping, and convulsive clanging”30 frightful anguish, bitter trepidation, rigid horror, black terror despair the soul’s deepest distress, fear, the most gloomy deepest distress, blackest depression mournful expression31 restless strains of lament32

Works of other composers C. P. E. Bach Sei Sonate per cembalo (Württemberg Sonatas), No. 5, Wq 49/1 II: Adagio J. S. Bach Prelude in E-flat Minor, WTC, Book I, S. 85333 Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 18 in E-flat Minor, Op. 4434 Introduzione: Grave Gluck Orfeo ed Euridice chorus: “Misero giovanne” Cherubini Requiem in C Minor Offertorium: “De poenis inferni”1144 Graun Der Tod Jesu recitative: “Nun klingen Waffen,” mm. 30-3235 aria: “Ihr weichgeschaffnen Seelen,” mm. 15-17, 22- 23, 28-32 E. T. A. Hoffmann, “Review of Christus am Ölberge by Ludwig van Beethoven,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 14 (1812): 6. 31 Czerny, p. 43. He is discussing the second subject of the first movement of Sonate pathétique, Op. 13. 32 A. B. Marx, “Die Form in der Musik,’” in Die Wissenschaften im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, ed. J. A. Romberg (Leipzig: Romberg, 1856), p. 140. 33 It is possible that Bach composed this prelude having learned of the death of his first wife while he was away on a trip. Ledbetter notes that “it has the character of a Tombeau.” The style and texture of this work anticipate the style galant. David Ledbetter, Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier: The 48 Preludes an Fugues (Yale: Yale University Press, 2002), p. 178. 34 This sonata was subtitled “Grande Sonate The Farewell” by the composer and dedicated to Muzio Clementi. 35 This modulation sets the familiar text following Peter’s denial of Christ, “er weinet bitterlich,” aptly depicted in this remote and desparate key. It is highly likely that Beethoven had examined this specific recitative, since Schultz discussed the appropriate way of setting “short exclamatory phrases, and the misuse of melismatic elaboration,” this being one of only a few exceptions to this rule in Der Tod Jesu. See Richard A. Kramer, “Beethoven and Carl Heinrich Graun, in Beethoven Studies, ed. Alan Tyson (New York: Norton, 1973), p. 28. 30

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The Key to Beethoven Haydn Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 aria and recitative: “Erblike hier, betörter Mensch” “Wo sind sie nun, die hoh’n Entwürfe”36 Die Schöpfung, Hob. XXI/2 prelude: “Die Vorstellung des Chaos,” mm. 34-36 terzett: “Zu dir, o Herr, bilkt alles auf ” “Du wendest ab dein Angesicht” Fortepiano Trio in E-flat Minor, Hob.XV/31 I: Andante e cantabile Heiligmesse, Hob. XXII/10 Credo: “Crucifixus” Pinto Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Minor, Op. 3, No. 1 Schubert Am Grabe Anselmos, D. 504 Blondel zu Marien, D. 626 Wind Nonet in E-flat Minor, D. 79: Grave con espressione Spohr Jessonda, woo 53, Overture: Moderato

Works by Beethoven Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 Introduzione Fidelio, Op. 72 terzett: “Gut, Söhnchen, gut, hab’ immer Muth,” mm. 91-92 Ich bin ja bald des grabes Beute” Des Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43 IX: Adagio Die Liebe des Nächsten, Op. 48, No. 3, mm. 12-15 Fortepiano Quartet in E-flat Major, WoO 36, No. 1 II: Allegro con spirito Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13, pathétique I: Allegro di molto e con brio, mm. 51-62 Mass in C Major, Op. 86 Credo: “Crucifixus,” mm. 151-54, 156-58 Septet in E-flat Major, Op. 20 VI: Andante con moto alla Marcia Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica I: Allegro con brio, mm. 322-26, a repeat of the “lament” theme Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60 II: Adagio, mm. 50-64 36 Wilson characterizes this modulation (from E-flat major) as “the startling outbreak into minor for the angst-ridden second part of Simon’s aria,” p. 138.

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The “Introduzione” to Christus am Ölberge contains one of the most extensive uses of this key in Beethoven’s oeuvre, and is discussed in detail in Chapter Seven. Here Beethoven conjured up a scene of the blackest depression and anxiety as he highlighted the deepest fears of Christ the man, preparing for the destiny he believed he was sent to earth to fulfill. Composed contemporaneously, the first movement of the Eroica symphony the third appearance of the “lament” theme occurs in E-flat minor, mm. 322-6, where previously it had appeared in E minor and then A minor. Perhaps this turn to E-flat minor is reflected on the fact that the pain of a loss often gets worse before it gets better, as Beethoven’s use of such a remote key achieves just such an affect. As is the case with other remote tonalities for which there is a usable enharmonic equivalent, some writers disagree on the character of E-flat and D-sharp minors. Gräffer, for example, gives two differing characterizations, whereas all the other writers who mention both keys indicate that they are identical affectively. E Minor: two affective praxes First praxis: Tender lamenting Person Date Characteristics Mattheson 1713 pensive, profound, grieved, sad, yet with hope for consolation Schubart c. 1784 lament without grumbling, sighs with a few tears, imminent hope of resolving in the pure happiness of C major Grétry 1797 a little melancholy Knecht 1792 tender lamenting Gardiner 1817 soft, tender Rochlitz 1824 gently lamenting Weikert 1827 tender, gentle lamenting Ebhardt 1830 tender lament Hand 1839 sad Herloßsohn 1839 gentle lament Works of other composers J. S. Bach Magnificat in D Major, S. 243 duet: “Et misericordia” Field Nocturne in E Minor Handel Jeptha aria: “In gentle murmurs will I mourn” aria: “Farewell, ye limpid springs”

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The Key to Beethoven Giulio Cesare duet: “Son nata a lagrimar” Messiah aria: “Behold and see” recitative: “He was cut off ”37 “For the transgressions of thy people” Haydn Die Jahreszeiten, Hob. XXI/3 aria: “Hier steht der Wand’rer nun” Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Hob. XVI/22 II: Andante, dolce Fortepiano Sonata in E Minor, Hob. XVI/47 I: Adagio

Works by Beethoven An den fernen Geliebten, Op. 75, No. 5, m. 5 Der Bardengeist, WoO 142 Klage, WoO 113 Sehr langsam und traurig, mm. 14-4038 Leonore, Op. 72a recitative: “Ach, brich noch nicht, du mattes Herz!” Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1 II: Allegretto String Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 III: Allegretto Wonne der Wehmut, Op. 83, No. 1 Andante espressivo, mm. 9-10, 13-15

Der Bardengeist is the only example of a complete song by Beethoven in this key. Interestingly, Schubart’s definition, “hope for consolation,” which, it would seem, was influenced by Mattheson, is completely congruent with Beethoven’s usage here. This is, perhaps, another indicator of Beethoven’s familiarity with Schubart, the “required” modulation to C major occurring in mm. 6-7! The trio from the second movement of Op. 14, No. 1, marked Maggiore also reflects the same tonal relationship.

37 The final part of Mattheson’s definition, “though in such a way that there is still hope for consolation” is particularly apposite here. Handel deliberately modulated to keys where there was the prospect of hope—of life after death—rather than remaining in B minor where there was not. 38 See Ch. 6, pp. 252-53 for a full consideration of this song. There are further affective modulations in this passage although the song does conclude in E Minor.

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Second praxis: a more intense lamentation Person

Date

Mattheson 1713 Galeazzi 1796 Grétry 1797 Potter 1836 Berlioz 1843

Characteristics Something quick might well be set in it, but that does not mean that the key becomes at once joyful Almost banished from the music of good taste, save for modulations the first minor key of nature intense feeling, passion, a decided melancholy pervading the whole39 screamy

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Fugue in E Minor, WTC I, S. 855 Fugue in E Minor, WTC II, S. 880 Handel Jeptha quartet: “O spare your daughter” Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in E Minor, Hob. XVI/34 I: Presto III: Molto vivace (innocentemente) Symphony in E Minor, Hob, I/44, Trauersymphonie I: Allegro con brio IV: Presto Mozart Sonata in E Minor for Fortepiano and Violin, K. 304 I: Allegro 40 II: Tempo di Minuetto41 Works by Beethoven Bußlied, Op 48, No. “An dir allein hab’ ich gesündigt,” mm. 6-19 Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 No. 5, recitativo: Allegro, mm. 13-21 Cipriani Potter, “Recollections of Beethoven, with Remarks on his Style,” Musical World 1/7 (1836), repr. Musical Times 10 (1861-62): 150. He is discussing the Fortepiano Sonata in E Minor/ Major, Op. 90. 40 Mozart composed this sonata immediately following the death of his mother in 1778 for his sister and himself to play. It is the only one of his sonatas for fortepiano and violin in a minor key. 41 In the opening measures of this movement, Mozart employed a bass line that falls a fourth from tonic to dominant, a pattern that has been a figure of lament since the seventeenth century. 39

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The Key to Beethoven Ein Selbstgespräch, WoO 114, mm. 81-92 Fidelio, Op. 72 quartet: “Er sterbe!” mm. 3-18 Fortepiano Concerto in G Major, Op. 58 II: Andante con moto42 Fortepiano Sonata in E Minor, Op. 90 I: Mit Lebhaftigkeit und durchaus mit Empfindung und Ausdruck Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 II: Prestissimo Ne’ giorni tuoi felici, WoO 93 “Veggio languir chi adoro, mm. 68-83, 119-125, 134-60, “[più] barbaro dolor,” 163-93. String Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2 I: Allegro Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Op. 55, Eroica I: Allegro con brio, mm. 284-92 Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 IV: Presto, mm. 878-84, 887-92

As early as 1713, Mattheson observed that E minor could be considered affectively in more than one way, indicating that tempo might be a deciding factor. Yet most contemporaneous writers devoted their attention to its first praxis. Some, such as Schilling, maintained that “its character has by nature only one color,” citing “the concurrence of the most experienced theorists.” Yet both the music itself and the opinions of other theorists present a different narrative.43 Since there are no complete vocal works to consult, one way of considering the affective character of the second praxis in E minor is of a more intense level of lament, seeing whether this is compatible with the shorter passages in this key that occur as affective modulations within songs. The modulation in the first section of Bußlied—“An dir allein hab’ ich gesündigt,” (Against you only have I sinned)—points in this direction. For while the tempo is still fairly slow—poco adagio—the severity of the text, which deals with guilt declaring a curse, indicating a more intense usage of E minor. This also holds true with both the short storm in the fifth movement of Christus am Ölberge and the first movement of the Eroica symphony, where the new melody Beethoven introduces in the development— which has become known as the “lament” theme—first appears in E minor, an extremely remote relationship for a movement whose tonic is E-flat major. Given what precedes it, the descriptor of “gentle lament” (first praxis) doesn’t seem nearly strong enough. On this occasion this view is supported by a faster tempo 42 Owen Jander has shown how the Orpheus myth became connected with this movement, “Beethoven’s ‘Orpheus in Hades’: The ‘Andante con moto’ of the Fourth Fortepiano Concerto,” in 19th-Century Music, 8/3 (1985): 195-212. Czerny supported this premise, stating that “one cannot help thinking of an antique tragic scene,” p. 100. 43 Gustav Schilling, Encyclopädie der gesammten musikalischen Wissenschaften oder Universal-xicon der Tonkunst, 6 vols. (Stuttgart, Köhler, 1835-38), ii, 587, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 257.

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level—allegro con brio—indicative of the intentionality of a stronger level of lamention.44 F-sharp Major: two affective praxes First praxis: brilliant, piercing, hard Person Grétry Reicha Schilling Hand

Date Characteristics 1797 hard 1814 very brilliant, piercing 1835-36 bright, sharp, passionate emotional character 1837 bright, triumphant, festive

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude in F-sharp Major, WTC, Book II, S. 858 Prelude in F-sharp Major, WTC, Book II, S. 882 Graun Der Tod Jesu recitative: “Auf einmal fällt der aufgehaltne Schmerz,” mm. 6-745 Haydn String Quartet in F-sharp Major, Op. 50, No. 4 I: Allegro spirituoso, recapitulation, mm. 147-84 III: Menuetto, poco allegretto46 Works by Beethoven Fortepiano Sonata in F-sharp Major, Op. 78 II: Allegro assai

The first praxis in this key represents the penultimate step of the logical progression of the sharp/flat principle as its journey moves from B major via F-sharp to its ultimate goal of C-sharp major. Thus in this first practice, F-sharp is characterized by brightness, sharpness, brilliance, and even the descriptor “hard” by Grétry, features manifested in the second movement of Op. 78. Again, however, there is little else to compare it with since Beethoven’s use of this key is so infrequent. 44 Connection has been made between the shape of the “lament” theme and two chorale melodies: “Christ ist erstanden” and “Christ lag in Todesbanden” by Martin Geck and Pater Schleung, Geschrieben auf Bonaparte: Beethovens “Eroica”—Revolution, Reaktion, Rezeption (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1989), p. 98. Both of these chorales are minor-key Easter melodies, reflective of the suffering that Christ had to experience prior to the resurrection although neither is in E minor. 45 F-sharp major is reached as the text mentions “ein Dolch” (a dagger). 46 The first movement, in sonata form, begins in F-sharp minor, and F-sharp major is not achieved until the recapitulation. The third is also in F-sharp major, while the fourth, an austere fugue in F-sharp minor, has no change of mode at the end.

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Second praxis: regaining elusive joy, heroic resignation Person Date Kellner 1787 Ebhardt 1830 Gräffer 1830 Müller 1830 Schilling 1835-36 Herloßsohn 1839

Characteristics mixture of noble, strange, lofty pride dark feelings victory over vanished hurdles ambiguous vacillation between heaven and earth47 “[…] the most inner feeling has worked its way up out of pain and violently seizes the joy which has eluded it […]”48 intense passion, heroic resignation, laborious victory

Works of other composers Berlioz Nuits d’été: “Absence” Haydn Fortepiano Trio in F-sharp Minor, Hob. XV/26 II: Adagio cantabile String Quartet in D Major, Op. 76, No. 5 I: Largo. Cantabile e mesto Symphony in F-sharp Minor, Hob. I/45, “Abschied” III: Menuetto. Allegretto. Schubert Die Mondacht, D. 238 Schwestergruss, D. 762, mm. 41-5049 Works by Beethoven Elegischer Gesang, Op. 118: Lentamente e dolcemente, mm. 29-3050 Fortepiano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2, Tempest I: Largo, m. 97-98 Fortepiano Sonata in F-sharp Major, Op. 78 I: Adagio cantabile Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, “Hammerklavier” III: Adagio sostenuto, mm. 125-40

One of the difficulties with both this key and G-flat major is that they occur at the point in the circle of fifths where sharp and flat sides converge. 47 It is interesting to note that neither Gräffer nor Müller distinguished between F-sharp and G-flat majors. 48 Schilling, Universal-Lexicon, ii, p. 729, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 267. 48 Here Schubert sets the actual words of the dead sister’s greeting in F-sharp major, althought the remainder of the song is in the parallel minor. 50 The text during this modulation reads “für den Schmerz! zu helig” (for pain too holy!).

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Mindful of this connection, some writers—Müller for example—equated both keys with the same characteristics, perhaps taking this stance from the potentiality of the keyboard, which uses indentical notes spelled differently to play in both tonalities. Others described each key in a completely contrasted way, relying more on the properties of different instruments to perform in each of them. Schindler attributed to Beethoven the ability to be able to hear the difference between C-sharp and D-flat majors, something confirmed by an examination of Beethoven’s intentionality in his use of these keys in his music. It is probably safe to assume that he also distinguished between F-sharp and G-flat majors, as can be seen by the manner in which he uses each of these keys. However, this is not always as clearcut as Schindler’s claim suggests. The other problem is the small amount of music available in Beethoven’s works for comparison in this remote tonality. F-sharp Minor: one affective praxis Gloom, death both literally and as a philosophal contemplation of mortality Person Date Mattheson 1713 Schubart c. 1784 Knecht 1792 Grétry 1797 Gardiner 1817 Marx 1824 Schrader 1827 Weikert 1827 Ebhardt 1830 Gräffer 1830 Gathy 1835 Schilling 1835-36 Hand 1837 Herloßsohn 1837 Berlioz 1843

Characteristics leads to great distress, more languid and love-sick than lethal; it has something else abandoned, singular and misanthropic about it51 gloom, resentment, discontent melancholy a little hard mournfully grand painfully seething52 bitter laments, melancholy, gloomy depression melancholy, gloomy, discontented melancholy discontent gloomy key, rage, fury, tugging at passion; Othello gloomy serious, gloomy gloomy tragic

51 This encapsulates perfectly the reaction of Haydn and his musicians to their long summer in Eszterháza, depicted in the final adagio at the end of the fourth movement in the Farewell Symphony. 52 Marx, Ludwig van Beethoven, p. 36.

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The Key to Beethoven Works of other composers C. P. E. Bach Betrachtung des Todes, Wq 198/21 Clavier-Fantasie mit Begleitung einer Violine, Wq. 80, “C. Ph. E. Bachs Empfindungen”53 Prussian Sonata No. 6, Wq 48/6 II: Adagio J. S. Bach Mass in B Minor, S. 232 I: Kyrie eleison (second setting) Prelude and Fugue in F-sharp Minor, WTC, Book I, S. 859 Prelude and Fugue54 in F-sharp Minor, WTC, Book II, S. 883 Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 24 in F-sharp Minor, Op. 61, “Elégie harmonique sur la mort de son Altesse Royale Prince Louis Ferdinand de Prusse” I: Lento patetico senza ornamenti Handel Jeptha recitative: “Deeper and deeper still” Theodora aria: “With darkness deep” Haydn String Quartet in F-sharp Major, Op. 50, No. 4 IV: Fuga, allegro moderato Symphony in F-sharp Minor, Hob. I/45, “Abschied” I: Allegro assai IV: Presto Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. 5 in F-sharp Minor I: Allegro IV: Vivace Mattheson Cleopatra aria: “Cleopatra dein’ Glieder Schnee” Meyerbeer Les Huguenots recitative: “Je suis seule chez moi” Moscheles Sonate Mélancolique, Op. 49 I: Allegro con passione, largamente Mozart Fortepiano Concerto in A Major, K. 488 II: Adagio This moniker appears in the autograph, although not in the keyboard arrangement (Wq. 67). The first subject of this fugue combines the sospiro with a descending 5- 4-3-2-1 pattern, bringing out the expressive qualities of this key most poignantly.

53 54

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Ries Grande Sonata Fantasie in F-sharp Minor, Op. 26, “L’Infortune” I: Adagio con espressione/Allegro molto agitato III: Presto, pianissimo Salieri Tarare air: “O mort, termine mes douleurs!” Schubert Fantasie, D. 940 I: Largo55 Schwestergruss, D. 762 Totengräberweise, D. 869 Schumann Requiem, Op. 148 “Dies irae” Weber Der Freischütz finale: “Milch des Mondes fiel aufs Kraut,” mm. 1-40 Works by Beethoven Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 recitative: “Erzittre, Erde, Jehova’s Sohn liegt hier!” mm. 9-10 recitative: Tempo della Marcia: “Umringt von rauhen Kriegern,” mm. 66-76 Elegischer Gesang, Op. 118, mm. 12-16 Fidelio, Op. 72 duet: “Jetzt, Alter, hat es eile,” mm. 42-45, 53-60 quartet: “Er sterbe,” mm. 60-6856 finale: “Bestrafet sei der Bösewicht” Fortepiano Quartet in D Major, WoO 36, No. 2 II: Andante con moto Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, “Hammerklavier” III: Adagio sostenuto. Appassionato e molto sentimento57 Fortepiano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2, Tempest I: Allegro, mm. 99-109, 159-62 Lebensglück, Op. 88, “geteiler Gram,” mm. 58-59 This movement follows without a break. This passage describes Leonore’s invocation of death on Pizarro, again connecting this key with death for Beethoven. Kinderman singles it out for comment, emphasizing Leonore’s range at m. 60 (g\2) and the harmony (a C-sharp major chord on “zurück” [back]), as the main means for her wrenching control from Pizarro, although he doesn’t comment on the significance of the modulation to F-sharp minor and its connection with death for Beethoven. However, he is mistaken in designating the ensuing modulation as G minor, rather than G major (m. 69), clearly an ironic usage on Beethoven’s part, since Leonore is anything but cheerful here. Kinderman, Beethoven, p. 126. 57 Kinderman notes that Lenz described this movement as “a mausoleum of collective suffering of the world,” Kritischer Katalog sämtlicher Werke Ludwig van Beethovens mit Analysen derselben (Hamburg: Hoffmann & Campe, 1860), p. 41, trans. Kinderman, Beethoven, p. 229. 55 56

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The Key to Beethoven Missa solemnis, Op. 123 Gloria, mm. 292-95 “miserere nobis” Vom Tode, Op. 48, No. 3

Beethoven’s perception of the affective qualities of F-sharp minor seems stronger than that of most contemporary writers. In his music it is frequently associated with death, both in the context of life ending violently, and passively in the contemplation of mortality. In doing so he was doubtless aware of the manner in which Handel—one of his favorite composers—often used this key, also in tragic circumstances and again often in association with death.58 The obvious candidate here is Beethoven’s only song in this key, Vom Tode, where the poet passively contemplates mortality and the inexorable approach of death. In contrast, in the duet “Jetzt, Alter, hat es eile” in Act I of Fidelio, Pizarro and Rocco are actively discussing the former’s intention to have the latter kill Florestan; the use of F-sharp minor is particularly apposite when the deed “Morden!” (murder!) is first mentioned. Beethoven tonicizes F-sharp minor— replete with a falling major seventh—as a symbol of discontent (mm. 42-45). Schilling reiterated Schubart’s comments above and then pointed out how well they fit with the use of this key in Fidelio in both in reference to this passage and at other points in the work.59 G-flat Major: one affective praxis Triumph over difficulty, magnificence, a heavenly vision, ecstasy Person Date Characteristics Schubart c. 1784 triumph over difficulty, echo of a soul which has fiercely struggled and finally conquered60 Beethoven 1824 zärtl61 Schrader 1827 splendor, magnificence, triumph, victory Weikert 1827 triumph, victory

58 Hugo Leichtentritt discussed Handel’s use of F-sharp minor in the context of tragedy in “Handel’s Harmonic Art,” Music Quarterly 21/2 (1935): 212. 59 Schilling, Universal-Lexicon, ii, p. 730. He used the phrase “mehreren Stellen” (several points), and while the above example is one of the most distinctive, F-sharp minor is used cadentially just a few measures later in the same movement (mm. 53-60), as the text tells of the need to remove a criminal quickly in the interests of the State’s safety. See also the examples quoted in the list above. 60 Schubart’s definition is almost an exact characterization of Beethoven’s personal situation in 1825, where he was continuing to give thanks for recovery from a serious illness, and even for the continued gift of life itself. Schubart’s views were echoed verbatim by Gathy. 61 “Tender.” This word appeared twice in the original words for the fifth recitative in the finale of the Ninth Symphony, in the key of G-flat major (mm. 65-70), although Beethoven chose to omit them in the final version.

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Gräffer 1830 triumph over conquered passion62 Müller 1830 ambiguous vacillation between heaven and earth63 Schilling 1835-36 more inclined to gloominess, difficulties just over- come, struggles which the soul has endured Hand 1837 less-bright than F-sharp major, pleasant enjoyment of hard-won peace Berlioz 1843 tender

Works of other composers Berlioz Les Troyens duet: “O nuit d’ivresse” Dussek Elégie harmonique sur la mort de Prince Louis Ferdinand de Prusse, en form de Sonate, Op. 61 II: Maggiore, pianissimo e sempre dolce Haydn Harmoniemesse, Hob. XXII/14 Credo: “Et homo factus est” Meyerbeer L’Africain aria: “O Paradis” Les Huguenots duet: “Tu l’as dit” Robert le diable recitative: “L’amour qui m’attendait” Schubert Impromptu in G-flat Major, D. 899 Der Morgenstern, D. 17264 Nähe des Geliebten, D. 162 Wandrers Nachtlied, D. 224 Spohr Die letzten Dinge chorus: “Heil! der Erbarmer” chorus: “Selig sind die Toten” Works by Beethoven Adelaide, Op. 46, mm. 56-62 Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 Introduzione: Adagio, mm. 33-35 Große Fuge, Op. 133 double fugato: meno mosso, mm. 159-232 Gräffer’s description of this key is a paraphrase of his depiction of F-sharp major. Müller’s descriptor here is identical to F-sharp major. 64 This song was left unfinished by Schubert. 62 63

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The Key to Beethoven Leonore, Op. 72a terzett: “Ein Mann ist bald genommen,” mm. 15-30, 54-69 Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, “Hammerklavier” IV: Scherzando grazioso ed un poco più moderato String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130 I: Sotto voce, mm. 55-90 Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60 II: Adagio, mm. 54-61

Unlike writers such as his friend Wilhelm Müller who failed to differentiate between this key and F-sharp major, Beethoven did make this distinction, as did many other writers. He often used this key to depict a heavenly vision, always at a dynamic level of pianissimo. A particularly telling example is the excerpt from Adelaide, when the text describes “Abendlüftchen im zarten Laube flüstern, silberglöckchen des Mais im Grase säuseln” (Evening breezes whisper in the tender foliage, small silver bells of May murmur in the grass), heaven—signified by the metaphor of evening breezes—being the longed for release of the poet’s pain. G-sharp Major: one affective praxis Harsh, glaring Person Date Characteristics Beethoven unknown grell65 Seidel 1828 Rocco shudders, Pizarro rejoices Schilling 1835-36 different expression to A-flat major, Rocco shudders, Pizarro rejoices Hand 1837 changed character from A-flat major, used to set the command for Rocco to murder Florestan Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude and Fugue in C-sharp Major, WTC, Book I, S. 848, mm. 9-15, Works by Beethoven Fidelio, Op. 72 duet: “Jetzt, Alter, hat es Eile!,” mm. 61-65

65 “Grellen Tonarten,” (harsh/glaring keys). Schindler quotes Beethoven thus: “When I make Pizarro sing in harsh keys (even in G sharp major) when he makes his heinous accusations of Florestan to the jailer, I do it to convey the nature of this individual, which is fully revealed in his duet with Rocco. These keys give me the best colors with which to express his character.” Schindler, Biographie, p. 167, trans. MacArdle, p. 369.

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This key—one of the most remote in the tonal system—was rarely used by Beethoven (or anyone else for that matter), and he was actually the only person to comment on it. His opinion comes via Schindler, who quoted Beethoven’s own comment on the use of G-sharp major as being grell (harsh) in Act I of Fidelio: “Jetzt, Alter, hat es Eile!” [Now, old man, we must hurry].66 It seems unlikely that even Schindler would have invented such as obscure a comment as this, which, in this context, also rings true affectively. It again reflects Beethoven’s understanding of the cumulative nature of the sharp/flat principle. G-sharp Minor: one affective praxis Misery, depression Person Date Schubart c. 1784 Schrader 1827 Weikert 1827 Gräffer 1830 Gathy 1835 Schilling 1835-36 Hand 1837 Herloßsohn 1839

Characteristics grumbling, heart squeezed until it suffocates, wailing lament which sighs in double sharps misery misery, a depressed heart lament, heart’s longing a depressed heart, wailing lament, difficult fight, everything struggling with difficulty a difficult struggle67 laboriously laden depressed heart laments, misery, distress

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Fugue in G-sharp Minor, WTC, Book II, S. 88768 Graun Der Tod Jesu recitative: “Gethsemane, Gethsemane,” mm. 16-1969 Schumann Requiem, Op. 148 “Hostias” Weber Der Freischütz duet: “Schelm, halt’ fest!” mm. 61-73 “O wie anders fühlt mein Herz!”

Ibid. Schilling also echoed Schubart’s description verbatim. 68 Bach’s Prelude and Fugue in G-sharp Minor, WTC, Book I, S. 863, and also the prelude to this fugue are not included here since the historical evidence points to their having originally being conceived in G minor. See Ledbetter, pp. 209, 307. 69 This modulation sets the text “Ach seht! Er sinkt, belastet mit den Missethaten,” (Ah look! He sinks, laden with the transgressions), G-sharp minor being completely congruent with the meaning here. 66 67

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Works by Beethoven Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 recitative: “Erzittre, Erde, Jehova’s Sohn liegt,” mm. 12-13 “vom Vater ganz verlassen, und leidet unnennbare Qual” Leonore, Op. 72a recitative: “Ach, brich noch nicht, du mattes Herz,” mm. 15-17 Fortepiano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2, “Moonlight” III: Presto agitato, mm. 17-63. Fortepiano Sonata in F-sharp Major, Op. 78 I: Allegro, ma non troppo, mm. 38-40 String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131 VI: Adagio quasi un poco andante

Beethoven rarely used this key. However, he was familiar with Bach’s Prelude in this key from Book II of WTC and the expressive potential it exhibits through the use of frequent sigh movtives that became characteristic of galant style. Similarly expressive writing can be seen in the sixth movement of the String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131 for instance, marked Adagio quasi un poco andante, replete with sigh motives of its own, often combined with expressive Neapolitan sixths. He also chose to set the second subject of the finale ofthe “Moonlight” Sonata in this depressed and misery-laden key.

A-flat Minor: one affective praxis Deepest depression and misery, funereal Person Date Characteristic Galeazzi 1796 Not in use on account of its overwhelming difficulty Hoffmann c. 1814 “pain which would rend my breast asunder in an effort to escape (mezzo forte)”70 Gräffer 1830 grumbling, misery, blue-black Hand 1837 a laboriously laden depressed heart71 Berlioz 1843 very dull, mournful, noble

70 E. T. A. Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” in Fantasie- und Nachtstücke (Munich: Winkler, 1960), p. 390, trans. R. Murray Schafer, E. T. A. Hoffmann and Music (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1975), p. 146. 71 Hand singled out by name the second movement of Op. 26.

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Works of other composers Graun Der Tod Jesu recitative: “Gethsemane! Gethsemane!” mm. 9-1072 Rossini Stabat Mater aria: “Cujus animam gementem”73 Schubert Mass No. 6 in E-flat Major. D. 950 “Crucifixus” Lachen und Weinen, D. 777, mm. 21-30, 56-59 Schwanengesang, D. 74474 Works by Beethoven An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 III: “Wird sie an den Büschen stehen” Fidelio, Op. 72 Act I terzett: “Gut, Söhnchen, gut,” mm. 101-03 “Ich bin ja bald des Grabes” Act I finale: “O welche Lust,” “O welch ein Schmerz!” mm. 298-300 Act II aria: “In des Lebens Frühlingstagen” “ende schmählich meine Bahn,” mm. 67-69 Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 26 II: Marcia funebre sulla morte d’un Eroe, maestoso, andante75 Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op 110 III: “Arioso dolente,” Adagio, ma non troppo Missa solemnis, Op. 123 Credo: “judicare,” mm. 223-2476

Despite the fact that it is such a remote key, Beethoven adopted A-flat minor for extended passages in several movements. Verses three to five in the third section of An die ferne Geliebte, “Leichte Segler in der Hohen,” are set in this key, a passage of some twenty-eight measures as the poet pours out his true feeling of despair. The complete second movement of Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 26, Beethoven’s first foray into the genre of the funeral march—Marcia funebre sulla morte d’un Eroe—is also in A-flat minor. Perhaps most significantly, the “Arioso dolente” from the Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110, one of The modulation to A-flat minor occurs at the word “sterbende” (dying). “Whose weeping soul,” (the Blessed Virgin Mary, at the foot of the cross). 74 The key signature of four flats indicates frequent use of modal mixture in this song, although it does begin in A-flat minor. 75 The anonymous reviewer of this sonata wrote of a “truly great, gloomy, and magnificent work of harmony, which the composer called ‘Marcia funebre sulla morte d’un Eroe’ in order to lift the player directly to the correct point of view.” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 4 (1802): 651, trans. Senner, i, 176. 76 A chord of A-flat minor is used here to set “judicare” (to judge). 72 73

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the most truly desolate passages Beethoven ever composed, unfolds too in this remote key. B-flat Minor: one affective praxis Heart-rending, deeply-felt pain, discontent, gloom, shadow key to the second praxis in D-flat major Person Date Charpentier c. 1692 Schubart c. 1784 J. J. Wagner 1823 Schrader 1827 Gräffer 1830 Schilling 1835-36 Hand 1837 Herloßsohn 1839

Characteristics gloomy, terrible discontent, suicide, mocking God and the world “Oh! He has abandoned me! He has run away! […] My heart’s ardour He has crushed […] Take me, bury me In the flood, on the beach, Bury me, and curse me […]”77 discontent, grumbling discontent, melancholy extreme heart-rending pain, melancholy murky gloom, discontent gloom, melancholy

Works of other composers J. S. Bach Prelude and Fugue in B-flat Minor, WTC, Book I, S. 86778 Prelude and Fugue in B-flat Minor, WTC, Book II, S. 891 Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 8, Op. 23 II: Minore Graun Der Tod Jesu aria: “Du Held, auf den die Köcher” mm. 58-69, “Wenn ich am Rande dieses Lebens” Handel Messiah recitative: “All they that see him laugh him to scorn”

Johann Jacob Wagner, “Ideen über Musik,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 25 (1823): 717, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 151. 78 An arrangement of this fugue by Beethoven for string quintet c. 1801 can be found in Grasnick 14, now catalogued as Hess 38. See Willy Hess, “Eine Bach-Bearbeitung Beethovens,” Schweitzerishe Musikzeitung, XCIII (1953): 402-05. 77

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Haydn Heiligmesse, Hob. XXII/10 Agnus Dei Schöpfungsmesse, Hob. XXII/13 Gloria: “Et in terra pax” Stabat Mater, Hob. XXa/1 aria: “Pro peccatis suae gentis,” mm. 10-1379 String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 50, No. 3 II: Andante più tosto Allegretto, mm. 25-48 Symphony in B-flat Major, Hob. I/98 I: Adagio Theresienmesse, Hob. XXII/12 Credo: “Et incarnatus est” Salieri La grotta di Trofonio recitative: “Udisti? o incantamenti attendete più forti”80 Schubert Gretchens Bitte, D. 564 Im Walde, D. 834 Impromptu No. 3 in B-flat Major Luisens Antwort, D. 319 Mio ben recordati, D. 688, No. 4 Variation III: Andante Vogler Gustav Adolf och Ebba Brahe Act II, No. 40: mm. 139-47, 155-6081

Works by Beethoven Adelaide, Op. 46, several passages, including mm. 124-33 An die Hoffnung, Op. 94, mm. 1-11 Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 Introduzione, mm. 17-23, 24-27 duet: “So ruhe denn mit ganzer Schwere,” mm. 31-32, 54-55, 66-67 Fortepiano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2, Tempest III: Allegretto, mm. 127-42, 149-62 Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 III: Trio Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110 III: Adagio, ma non troppo82 79 B-flat major is the tonic key of this aria, reflecting its second tradition. The tonal juxtaposition of tonic major and minor enhances the meaning of the text. 80 Rice points out that the timpani are tuned here to a tritone G[-C (“diabolus in musica”), although he incorrectly identifies the key as E-flat minor when it is in fact B-flat minor. John A. Rice, Antonio Salieri and Viennese Opera (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), p. 365. 81 B-flat minor is used to describe the capsizing of the boat carrying the bridegroom Erik, juxtaposing parallel major and minor to convey the affective intent here. 82 Czerny, p. 57, who described it as “very sorrowful.”

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The Key to Beethoven Fortepiano Trio in B-flat Major, Op. 97, “Archduke” II: Trio, Allegro L’amante impaziente, Op. 82, No. 4, mm. 30-41 Mass in C Major, Op. 86 Credo: “Crucifixus,” mm. 141-50 Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 Agnus Dei, mm. 164-85 String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130 II: Presto Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60 I: Adagio

Beethoven’s opinion of this key’s character was somewhat stronger that Schubart’s view. Schubart’s definition, characterized by the mention of “Ein Sonderling” (an eccentric peculiar) seems altogether too specific a poetic reference to be useful. Hand was most likely referring to this specific point when he noted, “B moll hat man oftmals eine zu specielle Bedeutung zugesprochen” (B-flat minor has often been assigned too specific a meaning), although he then went on to paraphrase most of Schubart’s characterization! Gräffer, Schilling, and Herloßsohn added melancholie to their descriptors, yet this lightening of the affect doesn’t seem congruent with B-flat minor as seen in the music of some of Beethoven’s precursors. The B section of Graun’s aria “Du Held auf den die Kocher,” (O hero, by all the quivers) from Der Tod Jesu is an example, telling of the judgement awaiting humanity at the end of life, hardly a feeling of mere melancholy, or the phrase “Vidit Jesum in tormentis” from the aria “Pro pecatis suae gentis” in Haydn’s Stabat Mater. This latter example is made all the more powerful by the contrast with the opening in B-flat major which Haydn used ironically to depict the image of a king taking upon himself the sins of humanity. Beethoven reserved this key for the “Crucifixus” of his Mass in C, for the inserted war trope in the “Agnus Dei” of his Missa solemnis, the nightingale’s warbled death calls in Adelaide, and the weight of the pain of Jesus’ love that he freely gave to humanity in the duet, “So ruhe den mit ganzer schwere” in Christus am Ölberge, none of which seem merely melancholy either. Walter Riezler described the trio in the Fortepiano Trio in B-flat Major, Op. 97, “Archduke,” Op. 97 as “an abyss into whose gloomy depths a ray from the triumphant sun suddenly strikes,” evoking the stark contrast between the canonic opening in B-flat minor, and the ensuing D-flat major waltz.83

Walter Riezler, Beethoven (Berlin: Atlantis, 1936), trans. G. D. H. Pidcock (London: Forrester, 1938), p. 177.

83

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B Major: two affective praxes First praxis: strong, harsh, wild passions Person Mattheson Schubart

Date Characteristics 1713 hard, somewhat desperate in character c. 1784 strongly colored, announcing wild passions84

Galeazzi

1796

harsh, piercing

Grétry

1797

brilliant, exhuberant

Gardiner

1817

keen, piercing

J. J. Wagner 1823 Schrader 1827 Weikert 1827 Gräffer 1830 Müller 1830 Gathy 1835 Hand 1837 Herloßsohn 1839

“And the dance whirls on. Kirmess is not yet over: Clap your hands joyfully […]” “The breaking of wine glasses at a Kirmess”85 noisy and hard, depicts wild passions wild passions untamed passion, wildness overstraining, overexcitement airy elves dancing, wild passion, violent passions, defiant self-confidence wild passions

Works of other composers Graun Der Tod Jesu recitative: “Gethsemane, Gethsemane,” mm. 10-13 Haydn Orlando Paladino, Hob. XXVIII/11 aria: “Chi mi salva o tien nascoso”86 Symphony in B Major, Hob. I/46 I: Vivace III: Allegretto IV: Presto e schezando Neefe Bardale Schubert Die Böse Farbe, D. 795, No. 17

Gathy and Schilling quoted Schubart’s definition. Wagner, “Ideen,” 717, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 294. A kirmess is an annual country festival or carnival of the type often held in northern Germany. 86 This modulation from B-flat major to B major depicts Medoro’s disorientation. I am greatful to John Wilson for pointing this out. 84 85

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The Key to Beethoven Weber Der Freischütz finale: “Die Zukunft soll mein Herz bewähren”87 Oberon finale: “Sterne, schmucken das blaue haus”

Works by Beethoven Bagatelle in B Minor, Op. 126, No. 4, Presto: mm. 52-105 Ein Selbstgespräch, WoO 114, mm. 6-9, 25-56 Fidelio, Op. 72 recitative: “Gott! welch Dunkel hier” “O schwere Prüfung!,” mm. 40-43 terzet: “Euch werde Lohn in bestern Welten,” mm. 33-35 “und scharfem Schmerz!” Ne’ giorni tuoi felici, WoO 93 aria: Adagio, mm. 30-38: “Ah tu mi trafigi il cor”88 Odi l’aura che dolce sospira, Op. 82, No. 5, mm. 11-21 Sehnsucht, Op. 83, No. 2, 1810, mm. 50-60 Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60 I: Allegro vivace, mm. 281-302 Wellingtons Sieg, Op. 91 Schlacht: Allegro

There is a certain logic, implicit in the sharp/flat principle, that can be seen in the definition of the first praxis of B major, namely that the passion and excitement it expresses is more intense than the first praxis of E major. This is supported by the comments of the writers listed above. However, it is appropriate to sound a note of caution since there is only a small amount of music available for examination and that not once does Beethoven use this key in its first affective praxis for a complete work or movement. In passing, it should be noted that Haydn’s use of this key in 1772 as the primary tonality for a symphony was exceptional. Second praxis: an intense, heavenly vision: the sublime Person Kellner Seidel Gathy

Date Characteristics 1787 loftiness 1828 glaring coloring, shining fire-color 1835 moonlight night

87 Here B major conveys the sense of heightened emotion as Max and Agatha become engaged. Its use is clearly a deliberate employment of tonal affect, for only fourteen measures later, C major is achieved as the ensemble sings of lifting their eyes heavenwards in thanks to God, appropriately reflecting the first affective praxis of this key. 88 See also mm. 48-49.

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Czerny 1839 “the religious songs of devout pilgrims […] holy calm and devotion”89 Berlioz 1843 noble, sonorous, radiant Works of other composers C. P. E. Bach Sei Sonate per cembalo (Württemberg Sonatas), No. 6, Wq 49/1 II: Adagio J. S. Bach Fugue in B Major, WTC, Book II, S. 892 Dussek Fortepiano Sonata No. 18 in E-flat Minor, Op. 44 II: Molto adagio e sostenuto Haydn String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 76, No. 6 II: Fantasia, Adagio Schubert An den Tod, D. 518 Am Strome, D. 539 Der Abend, D. 221 Die Betende, D. 102 Nacht und Träume, D. 827 So lasst mich scheinen, D. 877/390 Schumann Requiem, Op. 148 “Sed signifier sanctus” Works by Beethoven An die Hoffnung, Op. 94, mm. 63-65 Choral Fantasy, Op. 80, I: Variation 6, mm. 219-27 Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 Introduzione, mm. 14-16 Elegischer Gesang, Op. 118 Introduction, mm. 17-19, “himmlischen Geistes Heimkehr,” mm. 47-50 Fortepiano Concerto No. 4 in G Major, Op. 58 I: Allegro moderato, pianissimo, mm. 6-8 Fortepiano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat Major, Op. 73, “Emperor” II: Adagio un poco mosso Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, “Hammerklavier” I: Cantabile e molto dolce, mm. 201-13

89 Czerny, p. 103, discussing the second movement of Fortepiano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat Major, Op. 7, “Emperor.” 90 So lasst mich scheinen, D. 727 modulates to B major for stanzas two and four, reflecting the theme of heavenly transfiguration.

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The Key to Beethoven Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 I: Fortepiano, legato, mm. 108-15 IV: “Wo den sanfter Flügel weilt,” mm. 836-41

The sole example of this key as a primary tonality in Beethoven’s output is the second movement of Fortepiano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat Major, Op. 73, the “Emperor,” a movement Czerny was moved to reflect upon in detail (as quoted above). 91 An examination of the small number of instances in which it is heard—often at a slow tempo and quiet dynamic, reflecting textual meaning where present—seems to indicate a sense of heavenly vision, and the sublime, a usage also found in Schubert’s output. It is also essential here to comment on its use in the austere “Introduzione” of Christus am Ölberge, since its arrival at m. 14 is completely unexpected and highly significant. Indeed, it would be hard to imagine a greater contrast as Beethoven traversed the affective spectrum to evoke a brief heavenly vision—adagio, pianissimo, semplice—amid the black depression of this ombra opening. It is also important to note that this is a deliberate use of B major in its own right and not as a visual substitute for C-flat major, something Beethoven could easily have written if that had been his intention. He had in fact already used A-flat minor, C-flat’s relative key, just moments earlier in mm. 7-8! Perhaps the most powerful example of his use of this praxis comes in the finale of the Ninth Symphony, where, as the soloists sing the text “Wo dein sanfter Flügel weilt” (Where your gentle wing rests), mm. 834 to 841, Beethoven invoked B major as a symbol of this heavenly Elysium, reflecting the meaning of the text both with tonality and range as the soprano soloist soars to high B on “Flügel.” B major is something that he already prefigured in the first movement—mm. 108-15, which now appears replete with text, intimating Elysium. This second praxis is a usage Beethoven made his own, although some writers hinted slightly at capturing the “sublime” in their writings without directly naming it, as can be seen in the above list. Sulzer argued that “the sublime is the highest thing that there is in art,” and what could be higher or more profound than the depiction of a heavenly vision of the Deity?92

B Minor: two affective praxes First praxis: black, dark, gloomy Person

Date

Characteristics

91 Czerny, p. 103, who captured it completely: “when Beethoven wrote this Adagio, the religious songs of devout pilgrims were present in his mind, and the performance […] must therefore perfectly express the holy calm and devotion which such an image naturally excites.” 92 Johann Georg Sulzer, “Erhaben,” in Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste (Leipzig: Weidemann, 1771-74), iii, 512, trans. Peter le Huray and James Day, Music and Aesthetics in the Eighteenth and Early-Nineteenth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 138.

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Mattheson 1713 bizarre, morose, melancholy Knecht 1792 gloomy Galeazzi 1796 banished from the music of good taste Beethoven 1815 “schwarze Tonart”93 Gardiner 1817 bewailing Schrader 1827 bitter, gloomy, lament Weikert 1827 gloomy Ebhardt 1830 gloomy character Hand 1837 sounds of hell in ironic derision Berlioz 1843 wild, rough, ominous, violent

Works of other composers C. P. E. Bach Prüfung am Abend, Wq 194/7 Sei Sonate per cembalo (Württemberg Sonatas), No. 6, Wq 49/1 I: Moderato J. S. Bach Johannes-Passion, S. 245 aria: “Es ist vollbracht” Prelude and Fugue in B Minor, WTC, Book I, S. 869 Handel Jeptha aria: “Let other creatures die” Messiah recitative: “For, behold, darkness shall cover the earth” aria: “The people that walked in darkness” recitative: “Thy rebuke hath broken his heart,” mm. 13-1994 “He looked for some to have pity on him” recitative: “He was cut off ” Haydn Fortepiano Sonata in B Minor, Hob. VI/32 I: Allegro moderato II: Presto String Quartet, Op. 33, No. 1 I: Allegro moderato String Quartet, Op.64, No.2 I: Allegro spiritoso Sonata for Two Violins and Bass, Hob. V/3 I: Allegro

“Black key.” This recitative ends with a tierce de Picardie.

93 94

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The Key to Beethoven Hummel Fortepiano Sonata No. 5 in F-sharp Minor II: Largo con molt’espressione Lindpainter Der Vampyr music associated with Count Aubri95 Mattheson Cleopatra aria: “Augen weint für bittre Thränen” Meyerbeer Robert-le-Diable “Valse infernale” Neefe Bardale “Wars nicht, Fanny, der Tag” Salieri Axur re d’Ormus aria: “Idol vano d’un popol codardo” La Passione di nostro Signore Gesu Cristo duetto: “Vi sento, oh Dio” Tarare air: “Fantôme vain! Idole populaire” Schubert Klage, D. 371 Schwanengesang, D. 957, Nos. 7, 13 “In der Ferne” “Der Doppelgänger” Schumann Requiem, Op. 148 “Quid sum miser” “Domine Jesu Christe” Spohr Faust, Op. 60 Act II: Witches’ Sabbath Spohr Jessonda, woo 53 finale: introduction Weber Der Freischütz lied: “Hier im ird’schen Jammerthal” Works by Beethoven Bagatelle in B Minor, Op. 126, No. 4: Presto Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 aria: “Preist des Erlösers Güte,” mm. 107-18 chorus: “Hier ist er,” mm. 59-66 recitative: “Die mich zu fangen ausgezogen,” mm. 22-2596 95 Michael C. Tusa, “Beethoven’s ‘C-Minor Mood’: Some Thoughts on the Structural Implications of Key Choice,” Beethoven Forum 2 (1993): 2. 96 The text here is “Doch nicht mein Wille, nein, dein Wille nur geschehe” (Yet not my will, no,

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Fidelio, Op. 72 duet: “jetzt, Alter, hat es Eile,” mm. 148-51 “Er sterb’ in seinen Ketten” Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96 “Trauermarsch” Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 “Christe eleison,” mm. 82-91, 111-18 “Agnus Dei”97 Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 IV: Fugue, mm. 500-25

One of the works that may have prompted Beethoven to designate B minor as his “schwarze Tonart” is Handel’s Messiah—a work close to his heart— and, in particular, the recitative/aria pairing “For behold, darkness”/“The people that walked in darkness,” both of which are in this key. There, darkness is signified by B minor and light by D major. Beethoven’s intimate knowledge of these movements is unequivocal since he assigned them to Archduke Rudolph to complete the figured bass. One of the most extensive uses of B minor in Beethoven’s works can be heard in the Agnus Dei of the Missa solemnis— Beethoven’s “black” key—mirroring its earlier use in the Christe eleison, where the theological image is again of Jesus the “Lamb of God,” who takes away the sins of all humanity through his suffering and death on the cross. Hand even mentioned this movement specifically, describing it as a hymn of most tender piety.98 Beethoven again emphasized his longstanding interest in the depth of Jesus’ human suffering by the use of B minor in the Christe eleison. As the movement progresses the music becomes more hortatory, with changes of meter and tempo—3/2, Andante assai—both features enhancing the idea of humanity pleading to the second person of the Trinity, the “man of sorrows,” as Jesus is so often described. There is also a short affective modulation to B minor in the Sanctus (mm. 26-27), projecting an awesome feeling of the fear and mystery of this invisible God, reflective of his pain with humanity, and the hurt humankind inflicts upon him. In another example of his use of this key, Beethoven arranged the Marcia funebre sulla morte d’un Eroe from the Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 26—originally in the remote key of A-flat minor—as part of the incidental music to Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96, a tragedy by Duncker in 1815.99 Transposed to B minor, it is your will be done). 97 Warren Kirkendale comments on his use of B minor here, noting that the depiction of it as “schwarze” was not something made by writers such as Schubart. “New Roads to Old Ideas in Beethoven’s Missa Solemnis,” Musical Quarterly 56 (1970): 690-92. 98 Hand, 1837, trans. Steblin, Key Characteristics, p. 298. 99 Johann Friedrich Leopold Duncker (c. 1768-1842), Prussian civil servant.

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an excellent example of his moving a work into a more playable key while still retaining the intentionality of the intended affect.100 Second praxis: unrequited or ended love, shadow key to the second praxis in D major Person Mattheson Rameau Schubart Grétry Gloggl

Date 1719 1722 c. 1784 1797 1828

Characteristics under certain circumstances it can touch the heart sweet and tender patience, calm awaiting one’s fate, mild lament naïve, innocent submission to divine dispensation

Gräffer

1830

submission to one’s fate

Schilling

1835-36 patience, awaiting one’s fate, mild lament

Hand Herloßsohn

1837 1839

quiet expectation and resignation calm resignation, gentle lament

Works of other composers Mass in B Minor, S. 244 J. S. Bach aria: “Benedictus” Fortepiano Sonata in B Minor Clementi I: Molto adagio, e sostenuto III: Largo, mesto e patetico Iphigénie en Aulide Gluck air: “Par un père cruel a la mort condamné” Symphony in B Major, Hob. I/46 Haydn II: Poco adagio Klavier, K. 540 für Adagio Mozart Symphony No. 8 in B Minor, D. 759, “Unfinished” Schubert I: Allegro moderato Zelter

Wonne der Wehmut

Works by Beethoven Andenken, WoO 136, mm. 53-55, 66-68 Der Liebende, WoO 139, mm. 18-21 See the Conclusion, p. 395, for a fuller analysis of the affective quality of the modulations in this movement.

100

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Beethoven and Meaning in Secondary Keys Leonore, Op. 72a recitative: “Ach, brich noch nicht, du mattes Herz!,” mm. 4-8 Odi l’aura che dolce sospira, Op. 82, No. 5, mm. 28-33 Resignation, WoO 149, mm. 12-15 Sehnsucht, Op. 83, No. 2 T’intendo si, mio cor, Op. 82, No. 2, mm. 7-8 Vom Tode, Op. 48, No. 3, mm. 8-14101

An early instrumental precursor of this praxis can be heard in the second movement of Haydn’s Symphony No. 46, written in the style of a pastorale, where the connection with the relative major key of D is affirmed as early as m. 8. Bach also used it in the Benedictus from his Mass in B Minor in a context that seems congruent with this praxis, perhaps reflecting Mattheson’s characterization.102 In Beethoven’s oeuvre, several examples of an affective tradition in B minor occur that are quite different to the first; the texts concern unrequited or ended love, two themes very close to his heart. Many of the songs listed above have B minor as a secondary key as part of a shadow affective pairing. Thus, in the context of the second praxis in D major, Beethoven introduced B minor, coloring slightly the praxis of yearning love with the feeling of unrequited love projected by its relative sibling. C-flat Major: one affective praxis Introverted contemplation, oppression, anguished pensive silence,103 heartbroke. Person Date Characteristics Rochlitz 1810 gekehrten Betrachtung104 Beethoven 1825 beklemmt105

The text here is “eil’ ich zu dem Grabe” (I rush to the grave). It is unlikely that Beethoven ever saw a copy of the Mass in B Minor, although he did attempt to obtain one on several occasions. The last of these was as late as September 9, 1824, when he wrote to Hans Georg Nägeli, asking him to send a copy of his edition (Anderson, iii, no. 1306, p. 1139; Brandenburg, v, no. 1873, pp. 361-62). However, this doesn’t mean that Beethoven was unaware that Bach set the Benedictus was in B Minor, even if he hadn’t seen the music. 103 Gräffer designated C-flat major with the same descriptor as B major, stating that both keys expressed the wildest passions. Unlike Beethoven, who differentiated the extreme sharp and flat keys affectively as far as we can tell, Gräffer’s view was that they merged together. His designation of C-flat major is thus not included here. 104 “Introverted reflection or contemplation.” Friedrich Rochlitz, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 12 (1810), col. 245, quoted in Owen Jander, “The Prophetic Conversation in Beethoven’s ‘Scene by the Brook,’” The Music Quarterly 77/3 (1993): 17. 105 This word can mean oppressed, confined, anxious, constricted or even suffocated. 101 102

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Works of other composers Schubert Schwanengesang, D. 744, mm. 7-8106 Works by Beethoven Ah! Perfido, Op. 65 aria: “Per pietà, non dirmi addio,” mm. 51-55 Fidelio, Op. 72 aria, “In des Lebens Frühlingstagen” “und die Ketten sind mein Lohn,” mm. 63-67 Missa Solemnis, Op. 123 Credo: “judicare” mm. 221-31 Sonata for Fortepiano and Violin in E-flat Major, Op. 12, No. 3 I: Allegro, mm. 95-102107 String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130 V: Cavatina, Adagio molto espressivo: beklemmt, mm. 42-44 Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Op. 68, Pastoral II: “Szene am Bach,” Andante molto mosso, mm. 79-83 Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125 III: Adagio molto e cantabile, mm. 92-98

Beethoven used this key only rarely but with deliberate affective intent. In the “Cavatina” from the String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130, he appended the adjective “beklemmt” to mm. 42-44, designating the affective meaning of this famous passage and perhaps also of this key. If this adjective is applied to mm. 221-31 in the Credo of the Missa solemnis, where Beethoven sets the word “judicare” its meaning certainly resonates completely with the way the “vivos et mortuos”—those being judged—might be feeling at such a profound moment. Owen Jander, writing about the third movement of the Pastoral Symphony, defines C-flat major as projecting a “pensive silence,” posing the question, “Is this all symbolic? I find it hard to imagine otherwise.”108 Again beklemmt is congruent in the context of this passage, evoking the still, deep waters of the brook, perhaps recalling, as Jander suggests, Beethoven’s cryptic annotation to his 1803 sketch for the movement, “je größer der Bach, je tiefer der Ton” (the larger the brook, the deeper the sound).109 It is also significant that Beethoven used such a remote key in Florestan’s aria at the beginning of the second act of Fidelio when setting the word “Ketten” (chains), the symbol of Florestan’s In mm. 7-8, the text describes the swan’s feeling of death, while in mm. 15-16 it is used to project the feeling of “verklärungsfroh” (happy-transfiguration). 107 Czerny directed that this passage be performed, “With great tranquillity, legatissimo, extremely soft and with due expression,” although he incorrectly described it as being in C-sharp major. Czerny, p. 77. 108 Ibid., p. 536. In choosing this definition, Jander echoes Rochlitz’ view of this key. 109 Ibid., p. 516. 106

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oppression and a cental theme of the opera. Yet only fifteen measures earlier he had used the key of B major when setting the word Prüfung (trial or ordeal) to project the strength of Florestan’s emotions. This juxtaposition seems a clear indication of Beethoven’s intentionality in viewing these two keys in a very different light, unlike writers such as Gräffer or Müller.

Table Three: Beethoven’s Affective Use of Tonality in Secondary Keys

C\: one praxis hard

c\: one praxis penitential lament, despair (shadow: E, third praxis) D[: two praxes maestoso, soft, grief, darkness heavenly (shadow: b[) e[: one praxis black depression, extreme anxiety, terror, despair e: two praxes tender lamenting F\: two praxes brilliant, piercing, hard

a more intense lamentation regaining elusive joy, heroic resignation

f\: one praxis gloomy, death both literally and as a philosophical contemplation of mortality G[: one praxis triumph over difficulty, magnificence, heavenly vision, G\: one praxis harsh, glaring g\: one praxis misery, depression

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The Key to Beethoven a[: one praxis deepest depression and misery, funereal b[: one praxis heart-rending, deeply felt pain, discontent, gloom, (shadow: D[, second praxis) B: two praxes strong, wild passions, harsh b: two praxes black, gloomy C[: one praxis introverted contemplation, oppressed, anguished, pensive silence

an intense, heavenly vision: the sublime unrequited or ended love (shadow: D, second praxis)

Conclusion From the evidence presented in Chapters Two and Three, an initial affective hierarchy for Beethoven’s affective use of tonality has been established that will now be tested against empirical evidence in his vocal music in the ensuing chapters. It should now be clear that while there are some keys where composers and writers are in near agreement, other keys are rather more complex, where two or sometimes three parallel but contrasting affective praxes become established over time. In contrast, we have also seen situations where Beethoven himself either instituted a new affective praxis in a key, or followed the lead of a small number of writers in establishing one. The praxis of love— often marked amoroso—in D major, of Empfindung in E major, or of an intense, heavenly vision in B major are three cases in point. Although Beethoven’s direct statements on the concept of tonal affect are somewhat sparse, his comments clearly indicate his embracing the philosophy of the affective character of tonality.

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CHAPTER FOUR

Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality Introduction What empirical evidence connects tonality and affect in Beethoven’s music? The solo songs with piano accompaniment provide the most persuasive repertory in which to explore these links, since there is a close relationship between textual meaning and choice of key. Beethoven’s output in this genre covers all three compositional periods, from early essays under the watchful guidance of his teacher Neefe in 1783 to late works dating from 1822-24. A small number of folksong arrangements in which Beethoven deliberately transposed the melody from the key given to him by George Thomson are also examined.1

Categories for Analyzing the Songs2 Beethoven’s songs have been divided into four categories. This chapter covers shorter songs where there is clear congruency between the choice of primary key and the meaning of the text. However, these songs often contain only one close modulation (to the dominant, for example) that is structural and not necessarily affective. Chapter Five examines songs with a more complex tonal scheme. Where key symbolism is found not only in the primary key but also in secondary tonal areas. Chapter Six highlights a third category of songs where substantial multiple modulations to remote or structurally unrelated keys occur precisely because of the connection between text and key symbolism. Also in this chapter, the small number of simple songs with strophic texts of a narrative quality where there is no connection between text and tonal affect is discussed. In each category, the ironic usage of key is also considered where appropriate. Songs in each chapter are considered alphabetically.

Which Keys Did Beethoven Use in his Songs? I will begin by exploring how the main key in a song is used to project the overall affect. That analysis will be followed by the question of whether or not internal key changes are also used to project meaning. For the remainder of these arrangements, however, the fact that Beethoven did not see these texts or have any clear indication as to their meaning renders their detailed consideration ineligible for use as evidence here. 2 Incomplete songs or songs extant only in sketches will not be considered. 1

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Table Four: Numerical Breakdown of Key Usage in Beethoven’s Songs Number of Songs Primary Key C 8 D 6 E[ 9 E 9 F 7 G 13 A[ 1 A 12 B[ 6 c 1 e 1 f \ 1 g 5 a 2 c/C 1 E/e 1 f/F 1 a/A 1 b[/B[ 1 b/B 1 Multiple keys 3 As can be observed in this table, Beethoven did not use major keys beyond four sharps or flats as primary tonal areas, unless they were part of a mixed modal relationship. The same is true for minor keys. Keys beyond four sharps or flats do occur as secondary keys, and in these cases they were almost always used for their affective qualities. The range of minor keys Beethoven employed was smaller, and there were no songs with primary tonal areas in C-sharp minor, D minor, E-flat minor, G-sharp minor or A-flat minor.3 Remote tonal areas with key signatures of more than four sharps or flats used as primary tonal areas were rare in all of Beethoven’s works, and even modulations to these keys were also infrequent. Boettcher makes the point that for the majority of occasions where minor keys are used, Beethoven does so in conjunction with the tonic major as part of a mixed modal relationship. Hans Boettcher, Beethoven als Liederkomponist (Augsburg: Filser, 1928), p. 125.

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Beethoven’s Use of Tonal Symbolism The way in which Beethoven used keys affectively can be divided into three categories: 1.

Keys where all the authors cited in Chapters Two and Three, including Beethoven, are in agreement on the sole affect conveyed. C-sharp minor is a case in point where the historical and empirical evidence unanimously designates it a key of penitential lament and despair. As early as c. 1784, Schubart used the word “Bußklage” (penitential lamentation)4 in connection with it; ten years after Beethoven’s death, Ferdinand Hand used the phrase “Klage eigener Schuld” (lament over one’s trespasses) to describe this key, even making specific mention of Beethoven’s “Fantasie, Op. 27. 2.”5

2.

Keys where two or even three individual affective praxes were used by Beethoven, a practice that is reflected in the seemingly contradictory views of contemporary writers. C major has already been cited as an example of this practice. Beethoven was clearly aware of both the established praxes in this key, and able to compose music in C using both of them. A clear differentiation between other expressive and characterizing agents, such as movement headings, tempo, dynamics, harmony, phrasing, and melodic shape can be used to assist in differentiating these contrasted affective praxes.

3.

Keys where Beethoven either established a praxis sui generis or built on a lesser-used affective tradition found in pre-existing common practice repertoire. Beethoven often depicted love with a feeling of yearning by using D major, enhanced by the marking amoroso or Empfindung. Another example is the use of E major as the key of gentle night, or sometimes as a metaphor for death. His characterization of B major in depicting a heavenly vision is a third, although Schubert later used this key in a similar manner. Heroism in E-flat major is an example of his building on an affective usage seen in other writers. Galeazzi, for instance, had used this epithet for E-flat in his 1796 treatise, but Beethoven truly established this tradition in many of his middle-period “heroic” work

Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst, ed. Ludwig Schubart (Vienna: Degen, 1806); ed. (Stuttgart: Scheible, 1839) p. 383. 5 Ferdinand Hand, Ästhetik der Tonkunst (Leipzig: Hochhausen & Fournes, 1837), i, pp. 223-24. 4

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Direct Use of Tonal Symbolism The first and most obvious use of tonal symbolism is literally, where the affects seen in both text and music are entirely congruent. This is the usage can be observed most frequently in the majority of Beethoven’s songs.

Concurrent Use of Contrasted Key Characteristics A second technique sometimes employed by Beethoven is the use of two affective praxes successively, in order to elucidate contrasting layers of meaning for a text or to flesh out more fully a personality being depicted. This process is similar to Wagner’s use of more than one Leitmotif at the same time in his operatic writing as a way of enhancing meaning. Thus, for example, the overall affect of a song might employ one affective usage, while an individual phrase of text will suggest a second.

Ironic Use of Key Beethoven’s understanding of the expressive powers and affective potential of all the keys enabled him to employ them in more subtle ways. A third way that they are sometimes used is in an ironic manner, a vital element in his affective toolbox. The analogy with the Leitmotif is again pertinent here, where, through ironic usage, he is questioning or even undermining the individual circumstances of a particular character or text. In fact, it is hard to imagine that a composer with so great a sense of irony as Beethoven would neglect to take advantage of such an important tool. A powerful connection with the listener is established when the text of a song projects one meaning and the tonal affect the complete opposite. The whole gamut of emotions—from humor to heartbreak—can be traversed, depending on the context. His use of irony could occur at any level, whether it was the choice of overall key for a song or the use of a tonicization or modulation for affective reasons. Even a single chord could be used ironically. There is clear precedent in the music of Gluck, Haydn, and Mozart for the ironic use of tonality. Gluck employed this technique with heartbreaking effect in Iphigénie en Tauride, as witnessed in Iphigénie’s air in Act II, “O malheureuse Iphigénie” [O unhappy Iphigenia]. The heroine’s anguish is projected in a breathtakingly beautiful G major aria, positively dripping with irony. Rita Steblin, in her article “Key Characteristics and Haydn’s Operas,” draws attention to several instances of ironic use of key by Haydn.6 As an example she cites Pasquale’s aria “La mia bella m’ha ditto di no” [My beloved has said no to me] in Orlando Paladino. Pasquale (Orlando’s servant) sings this aria in the key of E major, “a key Rita Steblin, “Key Characteristics and Haydn’s Operas,” in Internationaler Joseph Haydn Kongress Wien 1982, ed. Eva Badura-Skoda (Munich: Henle, 1986), pp. 91-100.

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usually reserved for the finest sentiments.” Having had his fun, he then sings his following aria in G major, the appropriate key for him—simple, as befits a plebian character.7 Not only that, but his aria is preceded by a tragic aria for Medoro, one of the leading characters, in the key of F minor: “Parto. Ma, oh dio, non posso” [I go. But, O God, I cannot]. By juxtaposing these unrelated keys, Haydn deliberately trivialized the seriousness of Medoro’s aria with humorous intent. A similar example can be seen in Die Jahreszeiten, where Haydn again used E major ironically in the cavatina “Dem Druck erliegt die Natur” [Distressful nature fainting sinks] to depict how nature is suffering because of intense summer heat and sunlight. In Mozart’s case, an excellent example can be seen in Don Giovanni. Mazetto’s aria in Act I “Ho capito, signor sì” [O yes, I understand sir] is set in the key of F major, depicting feelings of humor or cheerfulness in the third praxis in this key. In actuality this is the exact opposite to the way Mazetto is feeling as Don Giovanni flirts shamelessly with Zerlina, something also reflected in the tempo choice of allegro di molto in alla breve time.

How Beethoven Chose a Primary Key In the 1806 version of Ideen, Schubart dealt with the issue of key selection and how such choices might be made by taking into account tonal symbolism—a clear example that this mode of key methodology was already in existence. In order to make his point, he selected a text connected with the Requiem Mass. A Requiem or music for a funeral must be completely immersed in the color of melancholy. The words “Rest eternal grant to us, O Lord!” must, as it were, seem only to have one expression. The strongly-colored keys, such as A major, E major, B major etc. are consequently impossible for these words. C major and A minor are too light for this theme. So only flat keys are left. These suggest, through their softness, not only sleep, but also through their muffled quality of hollowness, the nature of death. Therefore, for this theme every composer must choose E-flat major8 or C minor, A-flat major or F minor, and at best B-flat major or B [sic] minor.9 Ibid., p. 97. Steblin has D major here. Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, 2nd ed. (Rochester: Uiversity of Rochester Press, 2002), p. 120. 9 “Ein Requiem oder eine Sterbemusik muß ganz in die Farbe der Schwermut getaucht seyn. Die Worte: “Requiem aeternam da nobis, Domine!” scheinen gleichsam nur einen Ausdruck zu haben. In einem stark colorierten Tone, wie in A-Dur, E-Dur, H-Dur usw. können folglich diese Worte unmöglich gesetzt werden. C-Dur und A-Moll sind zu licht für dieses Thema. Es bleiben also nur die mit B markirten Töne übrig. Diese wiegen durch ihre Sanftheit nicht nur in Schlaf, sondern deuten auch die Natur des Todes durch ihre hinsterbende Dumpfheit an. Jeder Tonkünstler muß mithin zu diesem Thema S-Dur oder C-Moll, As-Dur oder F-Moll, höchstens B-dur oder H-Moll wählen.” Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, Ideen, pp. 260-61, trans. this writer. He surely meant “G-Moll” rather than “H-Moll” here, since the quote actually mentioned the use of only flat keys 7 8

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It is possible that Beethoven would have read this advice, given his familiarity with Ideen and there are actually many parallels with his use of these keys. A few instances will serve to affirm these connections; further examples can be found in the listing of works by Beethoven in Chapter Two. While all three praxes of E-flat major can be shown to be congruent with portions of the Requiem text (depending on context), one of Beethoven’s most overt uses of the praxis that affirms the Trinitarian connection is visible in the song An Laura, WoO 112, where, at the mention of “the bliss of God’s solemn scales” Beethoven modulated to E-flat major.10 In C minor, the obvious instance is the slow movement from the Eroica Symphony, the powerfully moving Marcia funebre that reflects the first praxis of this key. A-flat major, Beethoven’s “barbaresco” key, is the chosen tonality for the song In questa tomba oscura, WoO 133. There the ghost of a dead husband implores his wife to let him rest in peace, echoing almost verbatim the Latin quote cited by Schubart. So too in the duet “So ruhe denn mit ganzer Schwere”11 in Christus am Ölberge, Christ sings of finally accepting the judgment of his father that he should die, indicative of a firm connection between this key and death. F minor, universally recognized at that time in its first affective praxis as a key of deepest grief, was selected by Beethoven for Florestan’s aria that opens Act II of Fidelio, as the hero, near to death, bemoans his fate, reflecting Schubart’s characterization of “longing for the grave.” The final reprise of the “lament” theme (mm. 581-87) in the first movement of the Eroica Symphony also occurs in this key, again congruent with the description of “funereal lament” that Schubart evoked. Beethoven’s setting of Adelaide deals with the poet’s vision that flowers will bloom from the ashes on his grave, set in the hopeful key of B-flat major. Such sentiments are echoed in “Et vitam venturi” in the Credo of the Missa solemnis, where the text deals with the expectation of everlasting life. Finally, both praxes of G minor are compatible with passages of the Requiem text. From Beethoven’s oeuvre, the Agnus Dei from the Mass in C Major, mm. 69-82 (first praxis, discontent, despair) and the second and fourth settings of Sehnsucht, WoO 134 (second praxis, gentle melancholy) are illustrative of the suitability of this key in these contexts.

A Classification of Tonal Symbolism Previous work in this field has mainly concerned itself with the topic of key characteristics as relevant to the choice of tonality for a complete work or movement. However, there is also historical evidence of composers ________________ as being appropriate to this text. Both of the previous two key pairings were relative keys a minor third apart, hence the substitution of G minor. 10 See Ch. Two, p. 83 for further examples. 11 See Ch. 7, pp. 311-13 for a more detailed consideration of this movement.

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and theorists thinking in terms of selecting keys affectively within works or movements. Kirnberger made the following observation: Generally all changes must happen gradually so as not to be offensive, and present sentiment must never contrast with the preceding one if we are not to be affected unpleasantly. By the same token the harmony must not be treated in such a manner that the key to which one wants to modulate does not contrast too much with the preceding one, unless the expression of the piece requires such harshness.12

Mozart, writing to his father in a letter dated September 26, 1781, discussed the tonal relations between the two sections of Osmin’s aria in Die Entführung aus dem Serail. In the second part of this aria, “Erst geköpft, dann gehangen” (First beheaded, then hanged), Mozart sought a means to express Osmin’s rage, explaining to his father that: Osmin’s rage will be rendered comical by the use of Turkish music. In composing the aria, I made Fischer’s [the singer’s] beautiful deep tones really glisten […] The passage “Therefore, by the beard of the Prophet” etc., is, to be sure, in the same tempo, but with quick notes—and as his anger increases more and more, the Allegro assai—which comes just when one thinks the aria is over—will produce excellent Effect because it is in a different tempo and in a different key. A person who gets into such a violent rage transgresses every order, moderation, and limit; order, he no longer knows himself. In the same way the Music must no longer know itself. But because passions, violent or not, must never be expressed to the point of disgust, and Music must never offend the ear, even in the most horrendous situations, but must always be pleasing, in other words always remain Music, I have not chosen a key foreign to F, the key of the aria but one that is friendly to it—not however its nearest relative in D minor, but the more remote A minor.13

What is significant here is not the actual key that Mozart used, but that he based his choice of an internal modulation on its expressive, affective potential rather than its formal relationship to the tonic. Had that been his sole intention, he would, in all likelihood, have chosen D minor, the relative of F major for this modulation. In other words, so that the music would not offend he chose not to select an extremely remote key, using instead a key less remote yet still selected Johann Philipp Kirnberger, Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik, 2 vols. (i, Berlin: Voss, 1771; Berlin: Decker und Hartung, 1776-79), trans. David Beach and Jurgen Thym, The Art of Strict Musical Composition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), p. 123. 13 The Letters of Mozart and His Family, trans. and ed. Emily Anderson, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1966), ii, no. 426, p. 768; original in Mozart Briefe und Aufzeichnungen, ed. Wilhelm A. Bauer und Otto Deutsch (Basel: Bärenreiter, 1963), iii, no. 629, p. 161. I am indebted to Prof. Karol Berger for bringing this letter to my attention. 12

ii,

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for affective reasons. It is interesting to observe that he equated affective key choice with tempo, an important connection in supporting the concept of deconstructing meaning via the use of key characteristics. In his remarks, he also opened the door to the possibility of a remote relationship being employed for its affective content, even though he himself chose not to do so because of his caveat that “Music must never offend the ear.” Beethoven, however, entertained no such qualms, if one can believe the quote from Schindler that he attributed directly to Beethoven on his choice of keys in Fidelio: When I make Pizarro sing in harsh keys (even in G sharp major) when he makes his heinous accusations of Florestan to the jailer, I do it to convey the nature of this individual, which is fully revealed in his duet with Rocco.14 These keys give me the best colors with which to express his character.15

A great deal is revealed here about Beethoven’s views on using keys as characters with which to compose and his knowing when to employ the extremes of the affective hierarchy by using obscure keys for their dramatic expressive potential. I will use the term “affective spectrum” to describe this tonal hierarchy from C major to the remotest keys. G-sharp major is just such a case—a key seldom, if ever used in this period. Indeed, it is such a rarity that the only extant contemporaneous comments refer to this specific scene. Kirnberger also discussed the importance of choosing a key according to the affect to be projected: “a composer sufficiently equipped with reason and sensitivity will always know which key to choose according to the character of what he wants to express.”16 Later in the same treatise he suggested: It is also very necessary to consider the character of the most closely related keys to which one modulates, and in which one remains the longest after modulation, hence above all the character of the scale of the dominant and subdominant of each tonic […].17

Koch noted that, in addition to maintaining unity in a work by the establishment of a tonic key in which a piece should begin and end, a composer should have “studied the nature of feelings and their relationships…specific keys are

Beethoven is here referring to the passage in the duet in Act I of Fidelio: “Jetzt, Alter, hat es Eile!” [Now, old man, we must hurry]. There are two brief affective tonicizations of G-sharp major in mm. 62-64, as Pizarro and Rocco discuss Florestan’s murder. 15 Anton Felix Schindler, Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven, 2 vols. (Münster: Aschendorff, 1860), trans. Constance S. Jolly, ed. Donald W. MacArdle, Beethoven as I Knew him (London: Faber, 1966), p. 369. 16 Kirnberger, Strict Musical Composition, p. 121. 17 Ibid., p. 340. 14

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appropriate to different affections and modulation itself affects the listener.”18 Other writers made similar suggestions. Marx, when describing the modulation to E major in the first movement of the “Moonlight” sonata, wrote that it was “consolingly bright” in relation to the tonic key of C-sharp minor, clearly pointing to an affective reason for Beethoven having chosen this key.19 Weber, too, writing in an article about his approach while composing the cantata Kampf und Sieg went further, describing the process he employed when making choices of key: Before turning my attention to details I sketched in my mind a complete plan of the tonal canvas and determined the basic colour of each section. That is to say, I wrote out clearly the sequence of keys, and hence of emotional moods…. Nor was I interested in suggesting cannon or grapeshot fire, or the groans of the dying. My chief aim was to express human feelings….20

This reflects exactly the philosophy Beethoven alluded to in his subtitle to the Pastoral Symphony, “Mehr Ausdruck der Empfindung als Malerei.” Writing of the affective qualities of D-flat major, Schrader characterized this key as proclaiming “heavenly bliss, sublimity and majesty” by quoting the central portion of Raphael’s recitative “Gleich öffnet sich der Erde Schoß” [Straight opening her fertile womb] in Haydn’s Die Schöpfung. Here the regal demeanor of a stag is described, replete with a six-measure fanfare-like introduction. It is interesting to note that Schrader only identified this passage in the following way: “and the recitative in the Creation at the end of which reads: ‘Mit fliegender’ (With flying).”21 He did not even bother to cite its opening title or first line, as would normally be the case, mentioning instead the first two words sung in the key of D-flat, such was his fixation with the local affective change of tonality rather than the home key of the movement.22 I will use the term “affective modulation” to characterize the internal relationship between two keys within a work. This describes a situation where an internal key change is either congruent with the meaning of the text or is Heinrich Christoph Koch, Versuch einer Anleitung zur Composition, vol. 2 (Leipzig: Adam F. Böhme, 1787), pp. 171-73, trans. Nancy Kovaleff Baker, Aesthetics and the Art of Musical Composition in the German Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres, 1995), p. 131. 19 Adolf Bernhard Marx, Ludwig van Beethoven: Leben und Schaffen (Leipzig: Adolph Schumann, 1902), i: 106, trans. Lawrence Kramer, Musical Meaning (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), p. 36. 20 Carl Maria von Weber, Writings on Music, ed. John Warrack, trans. Martin Cooper (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 160. 21 J. A. Schrader, Kleines Taschenwörterbuch der Musik (Helmstädt: Fleckeisen, 1827), trans. Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics, p. 235. 22 Fast, unrelated key changes are a characteristic of recitative and are affective and not structural in function. This movement begins in B-flat major. 18

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employed ironically.23 While this in no way precludes a simultaneous structural function, it adds a new and significant layer of meaning to the consideration of the reasons for key-choice when modulating. Not every key change is affective, however, and modulations can be both affective and structural, or independently affective or structural. I will use the companion term “affective tonicization” for situations where a temporary tonic is chosen because of tonal symbolism, either to enhance the meaning of the text or to treat it ironically. Again, not all tonicizations will be affective. Structural and affective key changes will be clearly connected or differentiated as context dictates. On the few occasions when Beethoven deliberately invoked the affective qualities of the modes, I will employ the term “affective modality.” Such uses offer clear historical precedent to the overall concept of the affective use of tonality itself. Perhaps the best-known example of this practice is the third movement of his String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132, which Beethoven entitled “Heiliger Dankgesang eines Genesenen an die Gottheit, in der lydischen Tonart” (Holy song of thanksgiving by a convalescent to the divinity, in the Lydian mode). Zarlino characterized this mode as inducing “modesty, happiness, and elevation of the souls of the listeners,” making its use entirely apposite here. The central section of the Credo in the Missa Solemnis is another case in point. It is prepared in D minor at the words “et incarnatus est,” mm. 124-25, with a first inversion dominant chord. In the ensuing passage, Beethoven deliberately reverted to the use of the Dorian mode, a fact made clear by his use of the classic Mode I melodic contour—featuring a rising fifth at m. 126. In his recent studies of Zarlino, Beethoven had discovered the definition of Cassiodorus that this mode “imparts modesty and preserves chastity,” hereby making it the perfect choice for the depiction of this passage in the Credo, which describes the theology of the Virgin Birth.24 Finally, in taking this train of thought to its logical conclusion, I will discuss the affective qualities of individual chords themselves. This was precisely what E. T. A. Hoffmann did in an episode from his “Kreislers musikalisch-poetischer Klub” [Kreisler’s musical-poetical club], a short story from his collection Kreisleriana (1815), where the hero, Kreisler (Hoffmann’s alter-ego) entertains his listeners with a series of chords played in total darkness on the bass strings of a damaged piano.25 Often, chords used in this way are very distant from the prevailing tonic and or even completely unrelated to it. While this will not preclude a more traditional analysis of a chord’s function, it does add another 23 There will clearly be significant implications for this concept in non-texted music, where it could be an invaluable tool in the effort to determine meaning. 24 This passage in the Credo deals with one of the most recondite mysteries of Christianity: the fact that God deigned to became man, taking human form. Such was the awe with which it was treated that the whole congregation genuflected at this point to show respect for the mystery of the incarnation. 25 This episode will be discussed in more detail in the Conclusion, pp. 394-96.

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important tool in attempting to decode the meaning of a work. I will employ the term “depictive harmony” in such contexts. A compelling example of just such a usage can be seen in the Credo of the Missa Solemnis, where Beethoven used a chord of C major to depict the image of Jesus as “lumen de lumine” in m. 63, reflecting the first affective praxis of this key as projecting strength and light. There is a direct correspondence with Haydn’s famous use of a C major chord at “und es ward Licht” (and there was light) at the beginning of Die Schöpfung. It is also important to explore the use of chords that deliberately venture outside the affective realm of key characteristics. The diminished seventh chord is an example, being one of the most expressive available to Beethoven—an instance of a depictive harmony that moves out of the normal affective range and into the highly expressive world beyond. A strongly destabilizing affective tool tonally, formed from two conjoined diminished fifth intervals—diabolus in musica squared as it were—it functions as an ultimate expressive tool on the affective spectrum, taking the listener outside the bounds of tonality, if only momentarily. It was one of his favorite affective devices. Two further techniques require specific comment here. On occasion, Beethoven deliberately transplaced a characteristic feature of one affective praxis in a given key to its parallel praxis. While the inclusion of the transplaced feature does not alter the ongoing praxis, which still remains in force, it does have the effect of coloring it momentarily. The fact that such a feature is derived from the parallel praxis in that key is what is of interest, since this has the effect of momentarily diluting the affective differences between both praxes. The second concerns situations where there is actually a transition—sometimes gradual, sometimes abrupt—between affective two praxes within a key, and a clear stylistic change can be observed. To describe such situations I will use the term “affective melding.” It is perhaps fitting to have the doyen of writers on key characteristics have the last word here, for in the overall expressive scheme of things, Schubart remained unequivocal on the importance of key characteristics as expressed in the manner described above: In short, the musical expression is so precisely determined by means of all keys that, although philosophical critics have not yet given it much importance, it nevertheless far surpasses poetical and pictoral [sic] expression in its [capacity for] precision.26

Schubart, Ideen, p. 266, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 120.

26

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Songs Where the Choice of Primary Key is Affective27 Als die Geliebte sich trennen wollte, WoO 132 An die Geliebte, WoO 140 An ein Säugling, WoO 108 Aus Goethes Faust, Op. 75, No. 3 Das Blümchen Wunderhold, Op. 52, No. 8 Das Geheimnis, WoO 145 Der freie Mann, WoO 117 Der Gesang der Nachtigall, WoO 141 Der Jüngling in der Fremde, WoO 138 Der Mann vom Wort, Op. 99 Der Zufriedene, Op. 65 Die Liebe, Op. 52, No. 6 Erhebt das Glas mit froher Hand, WoO 109 Gottes Macht und Vorsehung, Op. 48, No. 5 Judy, Lovely, Matchless Creature, WoO 153, No.19 Kriegslied der Österreicher, WoO 122 La partenza, WoO 124 Lebensglück, Op. 88 Maigesang, Op. 52, No. 4 Man strebt, die Flamme zu verhehlen, WoO 120 Marmotte, Op. 52, No. 7 Merkenstein, WoO 144 Merkenstein, Op. 100 Oh care selve, oh cara, WoO 119 Oh! Thou Art the Lad of My Heart, Op. 108, No. 11 27 The songs are listed alphabetically by title. In the interests of space, no individual footnote citations will be made for references to writers on key characteristics in the following chapters. Readers who wish to refresh their memories are referred back to Chs. 2 and 3 for such details, or to Rita Steblin’s History of Key Characteristics. Information on dating of the songs has been taken from the listing in The New Grove Dictionary of Musicians, Douglas Johnson and Scott G. Burnham, “Ludwig van Beethoven Works,” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musician, ed. Stanley Sadie, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 2001), iii: pp. 126-29. These have been compared with dates in Paul Reid, The Beethoven Song Companion (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), and, where necessary with Douglas Johnson, Alan Tyson & Robert Winter, The Beethoven Sketchbooks, ed. Douglas Johnson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). All translations are mine unless otherwise stated.

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Opferlied, WoO 126 Punschlied, WoO 111 Romance, WoO 128 Ruf vom Berge, WoO 174 Schildering eines Mädchens, WoO 107 Sehnsucht, WoO 134 (four settings) Sehnsucht, WoO 146 So oder so, WoO 148 The Sweetest Lad Was Jamie, Op. 108, No. 5 In the following analyses, the full original song title is given, together with the opus or WoO number, the date of composition and the identity of the author, where known. Details of any character markings, key, time signature, and brief formal plan follow. Beneath this, a more detailed tabular analysis of the text, including affective characterizations of internal modulations and tonicizations, can be found. Where necessary, a synopsis of the text also is provided, together with information on the number of stanzas, including which ones Beethoven actually set. These synopses are particularly useful for strophic settings where the complete text is not given in tabular form. Als die Geliebte sich trennen wollte, WoO 132, 180628 Sehr bewegt, E[, 4/4

Stephan von Breuning AA1BC x 4, coda



Mm. Text/section Key 1-5 Hope’s last glow sinks there! E[ She broke the oaths with her volatile temperament; 5-7 so let me lose with solace always there B[ 7-8 the consciousness that I f 8-10 was once too happy. E[ 10-12 Piano interlude 12-16 What am I saying? No, from these chains can no power save me. 16-18 Ah, even at the edge of despair B[ 18-19 it remains eternal, sweet for f

Affect unhappy love

amoroso, lovely depression, extreme grief unhappy love

ironic (first praxis) depression, extreme grief

28 This poem was adapted from a French text by François-Benoît Hoffman. The translation is anonymous, taken from Ludwig van Beethoven, Songs for Solo Voice and Piano (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1986), p. xv.

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The Key to Beethoven 19-21 21-23 23-27 27-29 29-30 30-32 32-34 34-38 38-40 40-41 41-46 46-48

unhappy love me the memory! E[ Fortepiano interlude Ha, dear hope, return to me; stir up all my fire with one look. Love’s suffering is still so large, B[ ironic (first praxis) he who loves will never f depression, extreme grief find his lot altogether unhappy. E[ unhappy love Fortepiano interlude And you that reward love with vexation, fear not the breast in which your image still lives, you it could never hate, this B[ amoroso, lovely feeling heart; forget, forget? It f depression, extreme grief succumbs to its pain. E[ unhappy love Piano postlude

Synopsis: The poet tells of his lover’s unfaithfulness—encapsulated in the song’s subtitle, “Empfindungen bei Lydiens Untreue” [Feelings about Lydia’s unfaithfulness], and how he longs to lose the memory of his former happiness. In the second stanza, he reconsiders, noting that despite his despair, the memory of his beloved is still sweet. He then bids her return to him, remarking that despite the pain it can cause, one who loves is never totally unhappy. In a final exhortation to his lover, he asks that she not fear the heart that could never really hate her, although it will soon succumb to its sorrow. Commentary: The third praxis in E-flat reflects the poet’s sadness and pain, and his emotions are subtly reflected in various ways throughout the song. F minor is tonicized towards the end of every stanza, followed by a pregnant pause. In each case, the text and music are united by a subtle affective connection. In stanza one, he sings “Bewußtsein” (the consciousness)—the feeling that he was happy. F minor—the key of extreme grief—accurately reflects his current feeling. In verse two, when he sings “bleibt ewig” (remains eternal), F minor highlights his concern that the feelings of despair will negate the good memories, and is thus indicative of his despondency at the possibility of losing them. In the third verse he sings “wer liebt” (who loves), reflecting on the power of the pains of love, while in the fourth he declaims “vergessen” (forget)—the word tellingly repeated to express his fear that he will forget even if he denies that this will happen. This example illustrates how affective tonicization can successfully enhance the layers of meaning embedded in Beethoven’s setting of the song. An-

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other affective connection is heard in the use of c[1 in the fortepiano interludes between the verses (m. 12 for example), which strengthen E[ major’s projection of sadness with adumbrations of its tonic minor (e[), as well as the deeper feelings of depression and anxiety that this key often embodies. This harbinger of Eflat minor achieves its fruition in mm. 42-43 with the phrase “eh’ erliegt es seinem Schmerz” (it succumbs to its pain) as the vocal line falls chromatically to g[1 in a telling example of the affective power of mixed modality. An die Geliebte, WoO 140, 1811, rev. 1814 Andantino, un poco agitato, D, 2/4

Joseph Ludwig Stoll ABB1A1CC1

Mm. 1-3 4-7 8-13 13-25

Key D

Affect yearning love

A

structural

D

yearning love

Text/section Fortepiano prelude Oh, that I, from your silent eye with its love-filled light, the tear from your cheek might drink, before the earth soaks it up! Perhaps it lingers hesitantly on your cheek, and will warmly dedicate itself to loyalty; now I through a kiss receive it, now also is your sorrow mine.

Synopsis: The text describes the beloved’s desire to drink a falling tear from his lover’s cheek before it reaches the ground as a sign of his commitment and fidelity. And, having received the tear through a kiss, he absorbs her sorrows, making them his own. Commentary: Volume XII of Beethoven Werke contains a sketch and three settings of An die Geliebte [To the beloved], WoO 140: a sketch in D major, a transposed transcription in C major, and the second and third versions of the song, again in D. A brief chronology of the background to this song explains why there are versions that, on the surface, seem to conflict with one another affectively.29 Beethoven began by sketching the song in D major,30 transcribing it into C major

29 There seems to be some confusion as to which is which, as far as WoO numbers are concerned, although each is listed clearly in Beethoven Werke as “Entwürfe,” “1. Fassung,” “2. Fassung,” and “3. Fassung.” The sketch and first setting do not get a WoO numbers (the sketch understandably so), while the second and third are both listed as WoO 140. “No. 1,” “No. 2,” and “No. 3” respectively will be added here for the purpose of clarity. 30 Ibid., p. 273.

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for guitar for ease of performance, possibly by Antonie Brentano.31 Both of these versions have minimal articulation and dynamic markings. He then produced another version, WoO 140, for performance on fortepiano, again in his original key of D.32 This version is marked andantino, un poco agitato, and contains a fuller complement of articulation and dynamic signs. Eventually, in 1814, he revised the song a final time.33 In this version, both key and character markings have been retained, but the fortepiano accompaniment has been completely reworked, containing writing that explores the potential of the instrument more fully. The vocal line and affective tonal scheme remain unchanged. Thus the only reason for the C major version is to facilitate performance on guitar. Since the song was transposed solely for reasons of performance, I will focus on the final 1814 version here. D major expresses tender, heartfelt love, tinged with a sense of longing, the second affective praxis in this key. The fortepiano prelude supports this affect, a pianissimo dynamic marking projecting an apposite sense of intimacy. The introduction of a common-tone diminished seventh chord (m. 3) supporting a descending chromatic line (b1-b[1-a1) graphically presages the falling tear and sense of longing. While the sole modulation to A major (mm. 8-12) is structural, in mm. 13-14 Beethoven uses a dominant seventh chord of E minor as a depictive harmony to emphasize the tender, lamenting quality of the lingering tear (mm. 13-14). An einen Säugling, WoO 108, c. 1783 Arioso, A, 3/4

Johann von Döring Through-composed, strophic

Mm. Text/section Key 1-9 Fortepiano prelude A 9-14 Still know you not whose child you are nor who your 14-17 diapers changes, who E 18-25 over you watches, and who it is A that keeps you warm and nurses you. 25-29 Fortepiano postlude

Affect innocent love, trust in God

structural innocent love, trust in God

Three further stanzas, all set strophically. Synopsis: The childlike innocence of the baby in the crib—who has yet to become aware of its mother’s protective presence—is compared to the lives of humankind, who are cared for and protected by God while not always realizing Ibid., p. 130. Ibid., p. 218. 33 Ibid., p. 132. 31 32

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it. As the child grows, its mother’s identity will become apparent; so too as we as humans grow spiritually, God our father will reveal himself to us. Commentary: This song illustrates Beethoven’s early interest in a loving relationship with God, and the role he played in Beethoven’s life, all depicted in A major, with its Trinitarian connection of trusting in God. The sole modulation at m. 14 to E major is structural. Aus Goethes Faust, Op. 75, No. 3, 1809 Poco allegretto, g, 2/4

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Strophic with intro/coda

Mm. 1-4 5-9 10-11 12-14 15-17 17-21 21-29 29-33 34-35 36-38 39-41 41-45 45-53 53-57

Text/section Key Affect Fortepiano prelude g discontent There once was a king who had a big flea, Which he loved not a little, F majestic as if it were his own son. So he c dramatic called his tailor, the tailor arrived: B[ structural “Now measure the squire for g discontent clothes and trousers!” Fortepiano interlude In velvet and silk was he now attired, had ribbons on his robe, F majesty a cross on it as well, and as once c dramatic he was a minister and had a big star. B[ majestic Then his brothers all became great g discontent lords at court. Fortepiano interlude And gentlemen and ladies at court were extremely tormented,

57-59

the queen and her maid

F

majestic

60-62

were bitten and gnawed,

c

dramatic

62-65 65-69 chorus 69-76

and they were not allowed to crush them or scratch them. However we’ll crush and smother them when one bites.

B[ structural g

discontent

However we’ll crush and smother them when one bites,

g

discontent

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The Key to Beethoven 76-79

when one bites.

G

cheerful

79-81

Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: This song tells the story of a king who loved a big flea and dressed it up in velvet and silk as it if it were his own son. It became famous at court, but problems arose when people were bitten, including the queen and her maid who were also not allowed to crush it. The moral of the tale comes at the very end of the song: “Wir knicken und ersticken doch gleich, wenn einer sticht.” Commentary: The key is G minor, which seems particularly appropriate when considering Schubart’s description: “discontent, uneasiness […] bad-tempered gnashing of teeth–resentment and dislike,”—a perfect flea-fit in fact—is reinforced by one of Beethoven’s most graphic musical depictions, that of the jumping insect in the fortepiano prelude. The use of modal mixture at the end is highly successful, depicting the feeling of cheerfulness that ensues after all the fleas have finally been crushed! Das Blümchen Wunderhold, Op. 52, No. 8, c. 1795 Andante, G, 2/4

Gottfried August Bürger ABAB1, strophic

Mm. Text/section 1-16 A little flower blooms somewhere in the quiet valley. It delights eye and heart as happily as the rays of the setting sun. It is more precious than gold, than pearls or diamonds. Therefore it is called “the wondrously fair little flower” with good reason. 16-20 Fortepiano interlude 1-16 A long song could be sung about the power of my little flower: how on body and mind it works great wonders. What no secret elixir can otherwise provide my little flower will do for you, though its appearance belies this fact. 16-20 Fortepiano interlude 1-16 Whoever holds wondrous-fair in his heart becomes as lovely as an angel. I have seen this deeply in both men

Key G

194

Affect calm, gentle, pastoral topos

Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality 16-20 1-16 16-20

and women; for man and woman, old or young, it acts like a talisman attracting irresistibly the most beautiful souls’ homage. Fortepiano interlude Oh, had you only known the one who was once my jewel—death tore her from my hand behind the very marriage altar—then you would understand completely what wondrous-fair can do, and gaze into the light of truth as in the bright day. Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: The poet tells of “ein Blümchen” (a little flower) dubbed “Wunderholt” (wondrous-fair), which acts as a talisman to people of any age and gender who are in distress. Such was its potency that this little flower even gave the poet consolation after the death of his beloved wife. Commentary: The nature imagery of this poem makes the pastoral key of G major particularly fitting. This symbolism has the effect of adding a layer of irony and far more poignancy to the description of the death of the poet’s wife in the fourth stanza. The fact that there are no key changes makes it easier for each of the four stanzas to match the affective qualities of G major here. Das Geheimnis, WoO 145, c. 1815 Innig vergetragen und nicht schleppend, G, 2/4 Mm. 1 2-3 3-6 7-10 10-11 12 13-14

Ignaz Heinrich Carl von Wessenberg AA1BCC, strophic with coda

Text/section Key Affect Where blooms the little flower G calm, gentle that never fades? e tender lament Where shines the star that C purity eternally glows? Your mouth, O Muse, your sacred mouth tells me about the flower and star. G calm, gentle Fortepiano interlude “My mouth can proclaim nothing e tender lament

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The Key to Beethoven 14-17 18-26

that your innermost feelings do not already declare. At heart [they] will glow and bloom tenderly in the soul of anyone who preserves them faithfully. At heart [they] will glow and bloom tenderly.”

C

purity

G

calm, gentle

Synopsis: A metaphorical poem that poses two questions of the muse: where does the flower that never fades bloom, and where does the star shine that glows eternally? The Muse replies that the answers lie deep inside the soul. Happy is the person who tends his feelings faithfully! Commentary: G major is used to characterize the calm and gentle existential feelings. E minor is employed for the interrogative statement with which the song begins. The feeling of tender lament that this key brings to the question hints that the forthcoming answer might not be what the poet longs for. There is an affective tonicization of the subdominant from mm. 3-6, as the lips of the muse are invoked for wisdom, this being an allegory for true purity. The text is treated strophically, and at the same moment in the second stanza as the muse, speaking in the first person, declares: “Verkünden kann es dir nicht mein Mund” (My mouth can proclaim nothing to you), E minor depicts the distress this reply causes the poet, who was naturally hoping for so much more! As C major is tonicized, the muse finally gives an answer: deep inside each one of us resides the feeling of glowing and blooming. This is enriched by the affective realm of C major’s second praxis portraying these feelings as pure and innocent, part of one’s spiritual core and transcending mere surface emotions. Der freie Mann, WoO 117, 1792, rev. 1794 Feurig, C, 2/2 Mm. 1-7 8-9 9-11 11-13 13-15 15-17 17-20

Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel Through-composed

Text/section Key Affect Who is a free man? He who only by C strength, rejoicing his own will, and not a tyrant’s whim, can give laws. G structural He is a free man, d structural a free man. C strength, rejoicing He is a free man, d structural a free man. C strength, rejoicing Fortepiano postlude

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Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

Synopsis: The text outlines the definition of a free man: one who knows his own will and does not have to accommodate a tyrant’s whims. The remaining ten stanzas reflect a series of Enlightenment ideals that were extremely close to Beethoven’s heart.34 Commentary: The two modulations are structural, something to be expected in a strophic song with several verses, where it would be challenging for the affective use of key characteristics within the formal framework of the song to be congruent for each verse. This text again fits the narrative type, listing the different qualities of a “freie Mann” in subsequent stanzas. The quasi-martial quality here reflects celebration and rejoicing at this freedom, affirmed in the melodic patterns that outline notes of the tonic triad, hinting at trumpet calls. Example 1. Der freie Mann, WoO 117, mm. 1-5.

Der Gesang der Nachtigall, WoO 141 Allegro ma non troppo, C, 3/4 Mm. 1-6 7-9 10-11 11-17

Johann Gottfried Herder Through-composed, strophic

Text/section Key Fortepiano prelude C Listen to the nightingale sing, spring has come again! Spring has come again and covers seats of pleasure35 in G every garden with silver almond blossom. C Now be joyful and glad, the burgeoning spring is fleeing fast.

Affect purity, innocence

rustic purity, innocence

Synopsis: Listen to the singing of the nightingale, for spring has returned, covering seats of pleasure with almond blossom. Now be happy and joyful, for blossoming is fleeing. Nine further stanzas describe the effects of spring, with Helga Lühning uses brackets to indicate that three of the original ten verses, three, four, and six—those dealing with the forward-thinking ideas of racial and class equality, ideas likely to be controversial at the time—were removed from the first edition and restored by her. Beethoven Werke: Lieder und Gesänge mit Klavierbegleitung, XII/I, ed. Helga Lühning (Munich: Henle, 1990), p. 7. 35 The original German is “Wohllustsitze.” I am grateful to Paul Reid for this translation, who also points out that Beethoven intended more than one verse to be sung, since he noted in the margin that the first verse was the only one to refer to the nightingale, the rest to spring. Reid, pp. 105-06. 34

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the exhortation to enjoy it while it lasts for it will wither and fade all too soon. Who knows if friendship will endure as long? Commentary: Beethoven uses C major in its second praxis to invoke a pure, naturalistic image of a nightingale’s song. This is done literally in the fortepiano prelude, which Beethoven intended to be performed before the first verse only, at which point the nightingale is depicted directly. There is an affective modulation to the key of G major at m. 10 as the text mentions “und deckt in jeglichem Garten” (and covers in every garden), enhancing the rustic feel here. Eight of the nine stanzas are congruent affectively with G major at this point, each describing some type of naturalistic image. Only in verse eight is there not a match, where the text conjures up the image of “der König der Welt” (the king of the world). Der Jüngling in der Fremde, WoO 138, 1809 Christian Ludwig Reissig Etwas lebhaft, jedoch in einer mäßig geschwinden Through-composed Bewegung, B[ 3/8 Mm. Text/section 1-5 Spring blossoms in nature’s womb, 7-11 with smiling flowers it strews the fields. But for me smile 12-17 valley and hill in vain, there remain in my heart feelings so anxious and painful. 17-20

Key B[ F

Affect amoroso, lovely pastoral, rustic

B[

ironic (first praxis)

Fortepiano postlude

Beethoven set five more verses strophically. Synopsis: Although spring bursts forth, nature’s terrain smiles on me but in vain, for my heart remains anxiety-ridden. Spring cannot heal my grief. If there is no earthly peace then lead me to the gods. Early in the morning I looked for peace, but did not find it flowering. I later sought it at noon in the shade as a gentle breeze fanned me but did not find it there. Now in the evening I sought it in the lonely moonlit grove through the nightingale’s song yet found it not there either. Why are you so sad, my heart? It is the young maiden from home who has ensnared you. Commentary: WoO 138 is of particular interest in that the music was originally intended for the text of WoO 137. It thus affords an unusual opportunity to compare the two texts to see how the choice of key and affect works in each case. In Der Jüngling in der Fremde [The young man in distant parts], the key of B-flat major—Beethoven’s amoroso key—is used in both its literal and ironic

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senses—the ironic meaning occurring when the text mentions “bang” (anxious) and “weh” (painful). Thus while, on the surface, the music exudes a calm simplicity, beneath it there lies a the deeper meaning of longing and unhappiness expressed in the text. Lied aus der Ferne, [Song from far away] which has no catalog number, is the text for which the music of WoO 138 was originally composed.36 Unlike WoO 138, where each stanza conveys a similar affect, this is not the case here. Thus B-flat major cannot function affectively throughout the song. One example should suffice to illustrate how this pairing of text and music is unsuccessful, something that Beethoven himself must have realized. Both the last line of stanza one—the upbeat “dem Nachtigallwäldchen, voll Spiel und voll Tanz!” (a nightingale grove, full of games and dancing)—and the last line of stanza two—the dejected “doch kehret er nimmer befriedigt zurück” (but it returns never satisfied)—are set identically. Friedrich August Kleinschmid Der Mann vom Wort, Op. 99, c. May 1816. Gemäß dem verschiedenen Ausdruck in der Versen Strophic piano und forte, G, 3/4 Mm. 1-2 3-5 5-8 9-13 13-18

Text/section Fortepiano prelude You said, friend, “To this place I will return,” that was your word. You did not come; is this a man on whose word one can rely? Fortepiano interlude/postlude

Key G

Affect ironic (first praxis)

D G

ironic (third praxis) ironic (first praxis)

Beethoven set the next five stanzas strophically. Synopsis: A friend is accused of failing to return when he said he would. Can he be trusted? No greater strength of character can be imagined than a man being true to his word, unlike women, who break theirs. A man’s word, combined with a German handshake, is sacred. Nothing can break it. A man should follow his German ancestors in this practice. Germans are people the world reveres, so shake hands and affirm the desire to be German men. Commentary: While it appears on first reading that the title of this song is ironic, this only holds true for the first stanza, since this verse directly contradicts the title itself, which is about keeping one’s word. Thus, for this stanza 36 The setting of the melody line only for this text is printed in Beethoven Werke, XII/1, 87 (it has no WoO number). The fortepiano part, seen on p. 86 for WoO 138, is identical.

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only, the congruency between the text and the ironic use of G major—the key upon which Schubart bestowed the moniker “gratitude for true friendship”—is particularly felicitous. For the remainder of the song, however, the true meaning of the title holds sway as Schubart’s description functions literally once more. Der Zufriedene, Op. 65, No. 6, 1809 Froh und heiter, etwas lebhaft, A, 2/4

Christian Ludwig Reissig AAB, strophic



Mm. 1-16

Text/section Key Affect v.1 To be sure, luck made me neither A hope, satisfaction rich nor great, but I am contented as if I had the finest lot. v.2 A friend has been given me after my own heart, for kissing, drinking and joking is also his element. v.3 In gladness and wisdom with him have I emptied many bottles; for on life’s journey wine is the best horse. v.4 If this lot should ever become A ironic (first praxis) more dismal, then shall I think: no rose blooms thornless in this world.

Synopsis: Luck made me neither rich nor great, yet I am contented as if I had the best lot in life. I have a friend to share life’s joys, with whom I have enjoyed much wine. If things should ever get worse, I will remind myself that no rose ever blooms without thorns. Commentary: A major is Beethoven’s key of choice for this vivacious paean to hedonism, and the text reflects exactly Schubart’s description of “satisfaction with one’s state of affairs.” This characterization of key is supported by the character indication Froh und heiter, etwas lebhaft (Happy and merry, somewhat lively). In the final stanza, the mention of “keine Ros blüht” (no rose blooms) indicates the ironic use of A major. Die Liebe, Op. 52, No. 6, c. 1790 Allegretto, F, 2/4

Gotthold Ephraim Lessing Through-composed, strophic

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Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

Mm. 1-13

Text/section v.1 Without love who can live? He may remain human but he is still no man. v.2 Sweet love, make my life sweet! Never calm my excitable impulses with a special hindrance.



v.3 Let beautiful women make men languish. Let this not be for ever.

Key F

Affect ironic (first praxis)

Synopsis: The poet asks who can live without love and answers with certainty that this is not possible for a man. Love should never have to calm excitable male impulses, and that if it is women’s lot to make men languish, let it not be for ever. Commentary: Beethoven employs only one key throughout, using it with ironic intent. A busy sixteenth-note accompaniment depicts a frenetic feeling for how life might be for a man without love—driven certainly, maybe even verging on the obsessive-compulsive, and anything but calm. This set of emotions reflects an ironic usage. The note b2—the first note of the song, and a tritone above the tonic—plays an important role here. It has the effect of enhancing the ironic usage of F by counteracting from the outset the supposed sense of calm this key exudes, functioning like a disturbing ripple in the tonal pond. Example 2. Die Liebe, Op. 52, No. 6, mm. 1-2.

Erhebt das Glas mit froher Hand, WoO 109, 1791-9237 Unknown Allegretto, C, 2/2 AA1BB, strophic Mm. 1-4 5-10

Text/section Key Fortepiano prelude C Lift the glass with a cheerful hand and drink yourself into good spirits. If friendship already joined you

Affect strength, celebration

This song is also known as Trinklied, beim Abschied zu singen [Drinking song, to be sung when saying farewell].

37

201

The Key to Beethoven 11-12 13-14 15-16 17-20 21-25 26-33

then destiny is parting, so cheer despite your sorrow and do not offend the friend’s heart. Repeat of mm. 13-16 Fortepiano interlude Now drink, lift the goblet high, you brothers, high, according to the wise custom of loyal friends,

G F C

cheerful, lively joy strength, celebration

C

strength, celebration

34-35

and sing the joyful song.

G

cheerful, lively

36-37

Fate separates us, yet it breaks not

F

joy

38-39

the friendship of true hearts.

C

40-43 44-49

Repeat of mm. 36-39 Fortepiano postlude

C

strength, celebration

Commentary: C major is employed in its first affective praxis, reflected in the use of fanfare-like figures and alla breve time signature, with affective tonicizations of G and F majors to convey feelings of cheerfulness and joy respectively. Example 3. Erhebt das Glas mit froher Hand, WoO 109, mm. 5-8.

“Gottes Macht und Vorsehung,” Op. 48, No. 5, Christian Fürchtegott Gellert 1801/02 Through-composed Mit Kraft und Feuer, C, 2/2 Mm. 1-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-18

Text/section God is my song! He is a God of strength; exalted is his name, and great are his works and all heaven is at his command.

Key C G C a C

Affect majesty, strength structural majesty, strength serious, menacing majesty, strength



Commentary: The first affective praxis in C major is affirmed by Beethoven’s marking Mit Kraft und Feuer (with strength and ardor). This song positively ex-

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Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

udes these feelings, enhanced by a high vocal tessitura and strident piano postlude, replete with sforzando and staccato markings.38 Example 4. “Gottes Macht und Vorsehung,” Op. 48, No. 5, mm. 10-14.

&C

f

ƒ S S œ ú. œ ú. œ ú ú

und

al

-

ú

Sú œ.

le Him - mel sein Ge - biet.

œ

œ.

Sú

œ œ. œ. œ.

œ. Œ œ. Œ w

Beethoven uses the dominant key of G major as a structural support to the strong affective quality of the tonic, and to A minor in its second praxis—serious, menacing—to stress that God’s works are so powerful as to be frightening. Judy, Lovely, Matchless Creature, WoO 153, No. 19, Alexander Boswell 1813 AA1BA1, strophic Andantino amoroso, B[, 3/4 Mm. Text/section 1-8 Fortepiano prelude (sempre dolce) 9-12 Judy, lovely, matchless creature, 13-16 beauty shines thro’ ev’ry feature, 17-30 like yon light, the pride of nature, thro’ the morning dew. Come, then, to your Patrick’s dwelling, all around 31-32 the buds are swelling, 33-40 ev’ry little linnet’s telling, ’tis the time to woo. 41-52 Fortepiano postlude 52-54 54-62

Key B[

Affect amoroso, lovely

F B[

structural amoroso, lovely

F B[

structural amoroso, lovely

E[ love B[ amoroso, lovely

Verse two follows a similar affective scheme. Synopsis: The poet describes Judy’s beauty, bidding her come to his house and respond to nature’s call to be with him. He asks whether her mother would have him deny his feelings, for love is growing in his breast.

38 Fifteen stanzas are printed in Beethoven Werke, XII/1, 54-55, reflecting Gellert’s original. There is not tonal congruency between the music and stanzas two to fifteen, indicating, in all likelihood, that only the first stanza was intended to be performed.

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The Key to Beethoven

Commentary: Beethoven’s letter to George Thomson concerning this song contains one of the few historically verifiable comments he made on key characteristics, indicating his view of B-flat major as amoroso.39 In addition, Beethoven marks this song “sempre dolce,” a marking that lends clear support to his vision of this praxis of B-flat major. Kriegslied der Österreicher, WoO 122, 1797 Mutig, C, 2/2

Josef Friedelberg AA1BB1CC, strophic

Mm. 1-24

Key C

Text/section v.1 A great German people are we, powerful and just. You French, do you doubt it? You French don’t know us well. For our prince is good, our courage is exalted! Sweet is the blood of our grapes and our women are beautiful. How could things go better for us? chorus: How could things go better for us?

Affect martial strength

Beethoven set three more stanzas strophically. Synopsis: The German people are powerful and just. Do you French doubt it? Our ruler is good, our wine sweet, and our women beautiful. How could things be better? We fight not for glory or money, but for peace. We will return home without plundering. Come one, come all to defend the fatherland! Join valiantly in battle however many foe there are. You French, we will never be defeated by you! Commentary: Written just prior to Napoleon’s invasion of Austria to inspire the Viennese volunteer force, this setting clearly reflects the martial, military nature of C major, also revealing the patriotic side of Beethoven’s character. He marked the song Mutig (courageously) using dotted march-like rhythms and melodic lines that again outline the tonic triad in quasi-fanfare style. A rather magniloquent piano postlude concludes the work. La partenza, WoO 124, 1795-96 Affetuoso, A, 2/4

Pietro Metastasio Through-composed

See Ch. 1, pp. 18-19 for further information.

39

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Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

Mm. 24

Text/section Key Behold that fateful moment: A Nice, my Nice, goodbye! How can I live, my love, So far away from you? I shall live always in pain, I shall know no happiness; and who knows if you will remember me!

Affect hope of seeing a beloved again when parting

Synopsis: The text describes the cruel moment of saying goodbye and how painful it will be for the poet to be parted from his beloved, who may well not even miss him. Commentary: Beethoven’s use of A major closely matches Schubart’s description of this key. However, it also shows the ironic usage of the primary affect of A: innocent love and tender passion about to be cruelly separated. These feelings are supported by a vocal line that contains a number of expressive sospira, and also by Beethoven’s use of a diminished seventh (\IVo) in m. 24 for the phrase “Cosi lontan da te!” (so far from you!), highlighting the yearning pain of parting, enhanced by modal mixture with elements of A minor. The pain of parting is echoed in the brief fortepiano interlude at m. 9 with a further diminished seventh (IVo). a\2 features in the vocal line on three occasions, subtly hinting at the second praxis in B minor by tonicizing it briefly. Lebensglück, Op. 88, 1803 Andante quasi allegretto, A, 2/4 Mm. 1-9 10-13 14-17 17-19 19-27

Unknown Strophic with coda

Text/section Key Affect He lives a life blissfully A intense feelings whose heart a heart gains! Shared joy is doubled, shared sorrow vanishes. On flowery paths he wanders E fiery passion in intimate companionship, whose arm golden friendship lent A intense feelings in this brazen age. Fortepiano interlude It wakes the strength and spurs courage for beautiful deeds alone, and nourishes us in sacred fervor for truth and nature.

205

The Key to Beethoven 32-35 36-39 40-43 44-47 58-59 60-62 62-65

Luck has achieved a goal, for he E has found a maiden, with whom tender feelings of love A i have linked him. Delighted by her, in her company E he finds his path beautified; the world blossoms, and A everything smiles on him. E a heart gains! Shared joy is doubled, shared sorrow vanishes. Shared joy is doubled, shared sorrow vanishes, f\ shared sorrow vanishes. A Fortepiano postlude

fiery passion ntense feelings fiery passion intense feelings intense feelings

gloom, melancholy intense feelings

Synopsis: This song tells of the joy of intimate friendship, of how pleasure is doubled and pain vanishes, this being made possible through the love of a female companion. Together shared joy is doubled and sorrow vanishes. Commentary: The choice of A major reflects the text’s overwhelming expression of the intensity of the narrator’s feelings here, feelings enhanced by the breathless sixteenth-note motion in the piano accompaniment, as manifested in the second praxis of this key. Most of the key changes in this song are passing affective tonicizations of E, which are reflective of fiery passion being projected. However, as the song draws to a close, Beethoven cunningly uses a further affective tonicization of F-sharp minor in a moment of vivid pictorialism (mm. 58-59), as the text mentions “geteilter Gram” (shared sorrow), supporting it with a \IVº diminished seventh chord immediately afterwards. This chord adds impact to the penultimate statement of this phrase and makes sorrow’s vanishing even more poignant. Maigesang, Op. 52, No. 4, c, 1795 Allegro, E[, 2/4

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ABB1, strophic

Mm. Text/section Key Affect 1-5 Fortepiano prelude E[ love, devotion 5-6 B[ lovely 6-14 E[ love, devotion 14-19 How marvelously nature shines! 19-22 How the sun beams! How the B[ lovely

206

Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality 23-38

meadow laughs! Blossoms burst forth from each branch, and a thousand voices from the bushes, and joy and bliss from every breast. O earth, O sun, O happiness, O joy!

E[

love, devotion

Synopsis: The excitement of nature’s joy bursting forth is used as a metaphor for the intense emotion the poet feels for his beloved. Commentary: The unclouded diatonicism of this song reflects the intensity and purity of the poem’s passion. Stanzas two and three follow the same affective pattern. In each stanza, an affective modulation to B-flat major (first praxis) enhances the loveliness of the image being described: “Morgenwolken auf jenen Höhn” (morning clouds on those heights) in stanza two, and “Morgenblumen den Himmelsduft” (morning flowers the dew of heaven) in stanza three. Man strebt, die Flamme zu verhehlen, WoO 120, Unknown c. 1800 Through-composed, Strophic Andante, F, 4/4 Mm. Text/section Key 1-6 Fortepiano prelude F 6-12 One strives to conceal the flame F that, with those having sentimental, noble souls, steals unnoticed into their hearts; 12-14 Fortepiano interlude 14-18 mysteriously, one closes one’s lips, C but soon one betrays oneself with glances, 18-19 how much one, alas, d 19-22 feels love. F 22-24 Fortepiano postlude The second stanza follows a similar affective pattern.

Affect calmness, peace ironic (first praxis)

ironic (second praxis)

melancholy ironic (first praxis)

Synopsis: Love is concealed by remaining silent but even a glance reveals true feelings. A look is worth more than a thousand words, showing one’s beloved the heart’s true feelings and giving the lover the strength to persist.

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The Key to Beethoven

Commentary: The sense of calm established in the fortepiano prelude makes the ironic use of F major all the more powerful when the voice enters. The image of “Flamme” (flame) highlights this contrast between the ironic use of key characteristics and textual meaning. Marmotte, Op. 52, No. 7, c. 1790-92 Allegretto, a, 6/8

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe AA1BB1

Mm. 1-8

Text/section I have come already through many a land with the marmot, always

Key a

Affect plaintive sorrow



finding something to eat,

9-12

here and there with the marmot.

C-a

innocence/plaintive sorrow

13-16 16-20

Here and there with the marmot. Fortepiano Postlude

Synopsis: Marmotte, the travelling Arab circus boy, recounts his travels with his marmot. Stanza three alludes to his small size, indicating that he is a child, while in the fourth stanzas he asks not to be left empty-handed since he likes to eat and drink.

Commentary: This song comes from Goethe’s Shrovetide Carnival play Das Jahrmarktsfest zu Plundersweilen, begun in 1773 and revised in 1778. A minor is used affectively in its first praxis to express the plight of the Arab circus boy and his marmot. Merkenstein, WoO 144, 1814 No character marking, E[, 6/8

Johann Baptist Rupprecht Strophic

Mm. Text/section Key 1-11 Merkenstein! Merkenstein! E[ Wherever I wander, I think of you. When dawn the rocks 9-12 reddens, in the bushes the B[

amoroso, lovely

11-16

hunting trope, majestic

blackbird sings brightly, and grazing flocks scatter, I think of you, Merkenstein!

E[

A similar affective scheme is followed in stanzas 2-6

208

Affect hunting trope, majestic

Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

Synopsis: The poem describes the ruins of the ancient castle of Merkenstein and its surrounding landscape and the impact its memory often has on the writer. The six stanzas describe the various times of day that he recalls this castle and his desire to be there, conjuring up just what these memories mean to him. Commentary: E-flat major conjures up the poet’s memory of the old ruined castle of Merkenstein as a once beautiful country seat, where pastoral activity, hunting, and country pursuits abounded, reflecting the first affective praxis in this key. The modulation to the dominant emphasizes just how lovely this castle was, the hints of the pastoral achieved through the compound duple time signature and horn-like writing in the accompaniment with which the song concludes. Merkenstein, Op. 100, 1814 Mäßig, jedoch nicht schleppend, F, 3/8

Johann Baptist Rupprecht ABBC, strophic

Mm. Text/section 1-10 Merkenstein, wherever I wander, I think of you. When dawn the rocks reddens, in the bushes the blackbird sings brightly,

Key Affect F pastoral imagery

10-12 12-14

C F

and grazing flocks scatter, I think of you, Merkenstein!

pure, innocent pastoral imagery

A similar affective scheme is followed in stanzas 2-6 Synopsis: see previous setting Commentary: Scored for two voices, this song is composed in the style of a lower Austrian Ländler, evoking appropriate rustic feelings of gentleness and calm. An apposite pastoral trope is evoked by the use of the characteristic devices of parallel thirds and pedals, aptly supported by F major in its first praxis.40 Oh care selve, oh cara, WoO 119, 1794-95 Allegretto, dolce, G, 6/8

Pietro Metastasio41 Strophic

40 The third movement of Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93, a minuet, is in similar style. See also I bin a Tyroler Bua, WoO 158, No. 5; A Madel, ja a Madel ist als wie a Fahn, WoO 158, No. 6; and Ih mag di nit nehma, du töppeter Hecht, WoO 158, No. 8, all in F major in 3/4 time. Reid notes that “The pastoral key of F major is apt […].” Reid, p. 212. Beethoven’s preference was for his second setting, as he indicated in a letter to the poet that summer: “The other one is for two voices and in my opinion is a better work.” The Letters of Beethoven, trans and ed. Emily Anderson, 3 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1961), ii, no. 553, p. 521; original in Ludwig van Beethoven: Briefwechsel Gesamtausgabe, ed. Sieghard Brandenburg, 7 vols. (Munich: Henle, 1996), iii, no. 870, p. 197. 41 I am indebted to Ian Dean for help with the translation of this text.

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The Key to Beethoven

Mm. 1-14 15-17 17-24 24-28 1-12

Text/section Key O cherished forests, G O beloved happy freedom! v. 1 Here if we enjoy pleasure, v. 2 Here everyone possesses little, v. 3 Without guardians or walls, v. 1 deceit has no part in it, for it leads D v. 2 and everyone believes they are rich; v. 3 peace is secure here, v. 1 a contest with love and fidelity. G v. 2 nor, craving more, do they learn what a thing is poverty. v. 3 for the covetous desire of others is not enticed here. Fortepiano interlude O cherished forests, O beloved happy freedom!

Affect innocent rustic pleasures

pastoral

innocent rustic pleasures

Commentary: The key of G major, supported by a compound duple time signature and dolce marking, is used to depict nature images and the innocent, rustic pleasures they inspire, ably supported by D major in third praxis pastoral vein.42 Oh! Thou art the Lad of my Heart, Op. 108, No. 11, 1815 Allegretto più tosto vivace, E[, 6/8

William Smyth Strophic

Mm. 1-26

Key E[

Text/section Oh! Thou art the lad of my heart, Willy, there’s love and there’s life, and glee, there’s a cheer in thy voice, and thy bounding step, and there’s bliss in thy blithesome e’e. But, oh, how my heart was tried, Willy, for little I thought to see, that The lad who won the lasses all, Would ever be won by me.

Affect love, devotion

42 Reid captures the means by which Beethoven achieves the pastoral trope here well although he omits to mention the use of G major. Reid, p. 225.

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Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

Two further verses are set strophically. Synopsis: The text recounts a lively story about how young Willy is the lad who won not only the hearts of all the local lasses, but also our protagonist’s. Her fluttering heart is kept waiting when he appears, and it was not until later when they part in the wood that he declared his love. She declares how proud this made her, invoking the lark to swoop down and tell his mate that he has seen a maiden whose heart is as full of happiness as his own is. Commentary: This song exists in two versions: an earlier manuscript version in F major and the later version from the Gesamtausgabe, which is transposed into E-flat major. The manuscript contains a brief summary of the song’s mood that Beethoven included in the autograph: “Ohne Sorgen einer der alle Sorgen weit wegwirft” (Without worries is one who throws far away all sorrows). Barry Cooper points out that it was Thomson and not Beethoven who transposed the song, one presumes for reasons of range.43 When Beethoven saw the song again and revised it, he did not require that it be transposed back to F, thus giving tacit approval to the new key, which is a better affective match than the original.44 It is of course possible, however, that he did not remember that the song had been transposed. The pastoral trope of the early version morphs into the country/ hunting trope of the mature one, the first praxis of E-flat major, picking up the references to the wood and the lark swooping from the sky to its nest. The brief tonicization at m. 16 is structural. Opferlied, WoO 126, 179845 Langsam und feierlich, E, 2/2

Friedrich von Matthisson Strophic

Mm. 1-11 11-13

Key E

Affect love

B

heavenly

Text/section The flame blazes, a gentle glow shines through the gloomy oak grove, and the fragrance of incense wells up, and the fragrance of incense wells up.

43 Cooper, Folksong Settings, p. 25. In the lower key, the soprano lines does not rise above e[2, whereas in the original key, f2 is reached eight times! Thomson had written to Beethoven on January 1 1816, pointing out that the melodies should be kept within the range c1-e2. 44 Cooper outlines the changes made, which stem from a mistake Beethoven made in the melody. It required a reworking of the harmony that necessitated Beethoven spending a little time with the song. Ibid., pp. 105-06. 45 Several versions of this song are extant, and it is a poem that Beethoven felt the need to revisit many times during his creative life. The first of these, Hess 145 (1794-95), is an earlier and incomplete fragment of WoO 126. A later version, Op.121b (1824), exists in various different scorings. All settings are in E major and reflect the same affective characteristics.

211

The Key to Beethoven 13-28 28-34 34-45

O bend a kind ear to me and let the young man’s sacrifice, O highest One be acceptable to you! Fortepiano interlude Be freedom’s defense and shield your life-spirit gently breathe through air, earth, fire and waters, air, earth,

E

love

45-47

fire and waters!

B

heavenly

47-52

Grant me, as a youth and in old age,

E

love



at your paternal home, O Zeus,

62-68

beauty with goodness! Fortepiano postlude



Synopsis: The poet eloquently and elegiacally describes a young man’s initiation rite, in which he implores Zeus to remain a benefactor to him throughout his life. Commentary: The second praxis in E major—love—suffuses the setting of this text, supported by the character marking of langsam und feierlich (slowly and solemnly). So consuming is the influence of this key throughout the song that the only tonal contrast comprises two brief modulations to B major at mm. 11-13 and 45-47, reflecting on each occasion this key’s second praxis. The reiteration of the final tonic chord five times serves only to highlight this tonal dominance and intensity. Punschlied, WoO 111, c. 1791-92 Feurig, G, 6/8

Unknown ABCC

Mm. 1-4 5-8

Text/section Key Affect Who has not, when warmly from G lively hand to hand the punch goes round the circle, felt joy’s fullest delight, let him D joy move swiftly away.

9-16

We all drink immensely delighted,



as long as punch fills the bowl.

17-24 Repeat of mm. 9-16 25-28 Fortepiano postlude



G

lively

G

lively

Commentary: This song captures the pleasures involved in drinking through the use of G major in its second praxis. Features from the first praxis of this 212

Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

key—the use of compound time and passages in thirds—are transplaced into the second praxis, giving a feeling of lively, somewhat humorous good cheer and camaraderie. Romance, WoO 128, 1798-99 Adagio, G, 4/4

Unknown Through-composed

Mm. 1-4 5-6

Text/section Enjoyment in loving, in need of a tender soul, as you have such power over my heart. From you, alas,

Key G

Affect innocent pleasure

D

love, yearning

7

in wanting to defend myself,

e

gentle lament

8-9

I lose inner peace without finding

G

ironic (first praxis)

happiness. 9-11 Fortepiano postlude



Synopsis: The text describes the power a lover can have over one’s soul. The poet, however, realizes that in defending himself against this power, he will lose inner peace without finding happiness. Commentary: G major is used both literally and ironically in its first praxis as the full meaning of this poem becomes apparent. Ruf vom Berge, WoO 147, 1816 Etwas lebhaft, A, 3/8

Friedrich Treitschke46 AABC + coda, strophic

Mm. Text/section Key 1-4 Fortepiano prelude A 10 If I were a little bird, and also had A two little wings, I would fly to you.

Affect innocent, tender passion ironic

11-12a But because that cannot 12a-14a be, I remain here. 15a-16a Fortepiano interlude 17a-18a 15b-21b Fortepiano postlude

hopeless love ironic hopeless love ironic hopeless love ironic

E A E A E A

This text is an adaptation of an earlier folksong published by Gottfried Herder.

46

213

The Key to Beethoven

Beethoven set five more stanzas, each of which follows the same affective scheme. Synopsis: A little bird, a little star, a little brook, an evening breeze—all describe the ways by which the poet would journey to his beloved if he could. No night passes when he does not think of her, yet while all these images of nature are able to make the journey to be with her, it is he alone who does not, and so he sits and weeps. Commentary: The metaphor of nature imagery depicting a means of journeying to his beloved is embraced by the poet here. Again the familiar theme of desiderium—ardent longing—that so often preoccupied Beethoven, can be found here. On the surface, A major seems to function affectively in a literal way for stanzas one to five, as these idyllic nature images are described. By the fifth verse, however, the true nature of the poet’s predicament begins to manifest itself. As the last stanza arrives, the bitter truth is out, and the use of A major becomes bitingly ironic. However, the tenses used from the outset, introduced by the phrase “wenn ich” and followed by the subjunctive, sow the seeds of doubt from the very first line that all is actually not what it seems. Thus throughout the song A major is used ironically at this deeper level of meaning, and it is this ironic usage that functions as a preparation for the song’s dénouement. Schilderung eines Mädchens, WoO 107, c. 1783 Tempo giusto, G, 6/8

Unknown Through-composed

Mm.

Text/section

Key

Affect

1-4

Shall I describe Elise for you, friend?

G

innocent rustic pleasure

5-8

I would like the spirit of Uz poured

D

structural

9-19

out on me! How on a winter’s night the stars sparkle, so would Oeser paint her glorious eyes.49

G

nature imagery

47

48

Synopsis: The narrator, asking how Elise might be described, uses nature imagery to convey how her brilliant eyes might be painted.50 Commentary: Beethoven’s first song, composed when he was twelve, already shows his awareness of key affects. The original poem in Blumenlese für Klavierliebhaber, 1783, included only two stanzas: the remainder were published in a separate pamphlet of texts. Given that there is an odd number of stanzas, making Elise is a common poetic nickname for a female beloved. Poet Johann Peter Uz (1720-1796). 49 Painter Adam Friedrich Oeser (1717-1799). 50 A synopsis of stanzas three to eleven is not included here. 47 48

214

Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

a performance of all of them challenging to say the least, perhaps this indicates Beethoven’s intention was to set only the first two. In this song, he exploits the nature imagery of this poem, revealing an early understanding of the pastoral topos. The image of “sparkling stars” is depicted through the use of an Italian sixth (m. 13), and a brilliant fortepiano turn/arpeggio in the ensuing measure. This is, however, a gesture too powerful affectively for such a simple setting. It is both indicative of how early a work this is and prescient of what is to come. Four Settings of Sehnsucht, 1807-08

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Introduction: The German word “Sehnsucht” presents a challenge to the translator. Its two component parts derive from “sehnen” meaning to yearn or to crave and “Sucht” meaning an obsession or addiction. Yet “Sehnsucht” itself is more than the sum of these parts, almost suggesting a perverse, sick enjoyment of this state of overwhelming desire for the unattainable. Indeed, on occasion, this word has been left untranslated in English texts. It epitomizes a state of mind that Beethoven so often experienced. The text of Sehnsucht is found in Goethe’s influential novel Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre (1795), which became the prototype for the genre of the Bildungsroman.51 Sung by the young Mignon and Augustin, the old harper, the duet at the end of Chapter XI in Book IV describes how only one who has experienced longing can know the suffering and the intense feeling of isolation it brings. The irony is almost palpable. Here Mignon describes her suffering—a girl who did not get to experience the joy of paternal love. Unbeknown to her, she is actually singing this duet with her real father. Mignon’s “Sehnsucht” is for her father, her native land, and the life that might have been. Setting One, WoO 134, No. 152 ABA1, strophic Andante poco agitato, g, 4/4

Mm. Text/section 1-4 v.1 Only those who know longing understand what I suffer!

Key g

Affect discontent, resentment

51 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, “Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre” in Sämtliche Werke (Leipzig: Tempel, 1795-97). A Bildungsroman recounts the growth journey of a young hero/heroine—a sort of life apprenticeship—where the protagonist experiences a loss which propels him/her on an arduous journey, where the conflict between personal and societal needs is gradually resolved. It concludes with the protagonist assessing his/her new role in the society he/she has rejoined. Goethe originally wrote this poem as a single stanza. It was split into two verses by Johann Reichardt (1752-1814), which led later composers including Beethoven to assume that this was Goethe’s intention. I am grateful to Paul Reid for this information. Reid, p. 249. 52 There seems to be some confusion as to which is which, as far as WoO numbers are concerned. The complete set of four songs is designated WoO 134. For the purposes of clarity here, the four songs will be designated No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 respectively.

215

The Key to Beethoven 5-6 6-7 8-11

v.2 Alas! He who loves and knows me is in the distance. v.1 Alone and cut off c lamentation v.2 I am dizzy, v.1 from all joy, B[ ironic (first praxis) v.2 my insides burn. v.1 I gaze into the firmament g discontent, resentment- in that direction v.2 Only those who know longing understand what I suffer!

Commentary: The character marking of andante poco agitato is significant. Although the dynamic marking is piano at the opening, the qualifier agitato is reflected in the fortepiano accompaniment, whose driving eighth-notes help to convey the intensity of Mignon’s feelings here, indicating that this is the first praxis in G minor. Two affective tonicizations contrast the literal and ironic usage of key symbolism. At m. 5, C minor—the key of lamentation—is aptly tonicized for the words “Allein” (alone), stanza one, and “Es schwindelt” (I am dizzy), stanza two. This key in its first praxis has strong connections with funerals and mourning and thus conveys that Mignon’s yearning is so painful as to leave her devoid of all joy.53 However, for the climax of the song (mm. 6-7), the use of B-flat major—Beethoven’s amoroso key—is bitterly ironic for the words “Freude” (joy) in the first stanza, and “Eingeweide” (insides) in the second, adding power to the desolation of this text. Setting Two, WoO 134, No. 2 ABA1, strophic Poco andante, g, 6/8 Mm. Text/section 1-5 v.1 Only those who know longing understand what I suffer!

Key g

Affect melancholy

B[

ironic (first praxis)

Alone and cut off



v.2 Alas! He who loves and knows me

6-7

is in the distance. I am dizzy, v.1 from all joy, v.2 my insides burn.

53 Rita Steblin points out that “C minor became the conventional key for funeral marches and mourning pieces.” “A Polemical View of Key Characteristics and a Bach-Schumann-Mahler Tribute to C Minor,” in Festschrift for Alexander L. Ringer, ed. Steven Whiting (Urbana, IL: private printing, 1991), pp. 8-9.

216

Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality 8-11

v.1 I gaze into the firmament in that direction. v.2 Only those who know longing understand what I suffer!

g

melancholy

Commentary: Gone is any agitato feeling of resentment from the previous setting, replaced by the melancholy image of Mignon, bereft of energy and totally consumed by her sadness. Beethoven therefore invokes the second affective praxis in this key. Hand’s description seems to capture perfectly the sentiments expressed here: “In this key melancholy unites with joy, and depression with cheerfulness; thus it represents grace with a touch of sadness […] the tragicsentimental.”54 Gathy’s comment that G minor reflects “the bliss of love but also its own tears in utmost simplicity” is also particularly felicitous.55 Examples of subtle harmonic variation, such as the Neapolitan chord in m. 3 on “leide” and “Weite,” only enhance the affect. The tonicization of G minor’s shadow key, B-flat major—heard in the previous song at the same point—is again used by Beethoven here, replete with its painfully ironic overtones. Setting Three, WoO 134, No. 3 ABA, strophic Poco adagio, E[, 3/4 Mm. Text/section 1-3 v.1 Only those who know longing understand what I suffer! v.2 Alas! He who loves and knows me is in the distance. 4-7 v.1 Alone and cut off from all joy, v.2 I am dizzy, my insides burn. 7-11 v.1 I gaze into the firmament in that direction. v.2 Only those who know longing understand what I suffer!

Key E[

Affect unhappy love

B[

ironic (first praxis)

E[

unhappy love

Commentary: For his third setting Beethoven used the key of E-flat major in its third praxis of unhappy love to set this description of Mignon’s internal despair and longing. If anything, this makes the third setting all the more heartrending because, on the surface, it sounds so wonderfully idyllic, so truly delightful. The dynamic marking, by inference pianissimo, produces a piteous intensity, made all Hand, Ästhetik, i, 217, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 275. August Gathy, Musikalisches Conversations-Lexicon (Leipzig: Schuberth & Niemeyer, 1835), p. 66, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 275.

54 55

217

The Key to Beethoven

the more poignant when the vocal line rises to f2 for the word “Freude.” Again the ironic affective tonicization of B-flat major is retained, and at no point is the minor mode even hinted at. The final note in the fortepiano accompaniment, an eighth-note E[1, speaks volumes as to the emptiness Mignon is feeling. Setting Four, WoO 134, No. 4 ABA1 Assai adagio, g, 6/8 Mm. 1-6 7-8 8-10 10-12 13-16 17-19 19-20 21-28

Text/section Only those who know longing understand what I suffer! Alone and cut off from all joy, I gaze into the firmament in that direction. Alas! He who loves and knows me is in the distance. I am dizzy, they burn, my insides. Only those who know longing understand what I suffer!

Key g

Affect melancholy

B[ c g E[

ironic (first praxis) lamentation melancholy unhappy love

c g g

lamentation discontent, resentment melancholy

Commentary: This is the only setting that is not strophic, as Beethoven brings out the subtle differences of affective meaning between the two stanzas. He is able to invoke each affective praxis of G minor, opening and closing with the second, while projecting the discontent of the first at the conclusion of the climactic passage from mm. 19-20. The contrasts between these four settings of Sehnsucht are deliberate, designed to depict the sea of emotions that Mignon experiences, and are yet another example in Beethoven’s output of the recurring trope of yearning love. Sehnsucht, WoO 146, 1815-16 E, 3/4 Mit Empfindung, aber nicht zu lamgsam,

Christian Ludwig Reissig AA1A2, strophic variation



Mm. 1-7

Text/section The silent night spreads its darkness o’er valley and hill, the star of love twinkles gently, undulating in the lake.

218

Key E

Affect gentle night, sleep

Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality 8 9-11 11-13 13-18 19 20-22 22-23 23-28 29 29-31 32-32 33-34

Silent B in the branches are the minstrels E of nature; a secret silence rests. Fortepiano interlude Alas, my weary eyes are not closed in sleep, come relieve my distress, you silent god of rest! Gently dry my B tears, give sweet joy room, E come kindly deceive my longing with a joyous dream! Fortepiano interlude O conjure up before my eyes my sweetheart who flees from me; let me press her to my heart, so that sublime love is ignited! You sweetheart, B you whom I have in mind, how I E long for you; appear, oh, appear and smiling, give me hope! Fortepiano postlude

increased intensity gentle night, sleep

increased intensity gentle night, sleep

increased intensity gentle night, sleep

Commentary: Beethoven scholar Lewis Lockwood discusses sketches for this song, extant from the previous year, which include phrases that are clearly in E-flat major.56 It is revealing to examine the characteristics of both these keys as they relate to this text in order to understand why Beethoven might have made such a change. One obvious reason is that he had used the key of E-flat in the third of his WoO 134 settings of a similar text by Goethe—the only one of these settings for which he chose to use the major mode—and perhaps the word “Sehnsucht” initially triggered this key for him. A more significant reason is the feeling of love and invocation of night and sleep that the poem projects, all strongly suggestive of E major. While E-flat major’s sogno usage would have invoked the dream depicted here, the feeling of unhappy love that would have come with it seems too strong. In contrast, E major in its third praxis is a key Beethoven often reserved for invoking gentle night, as a metaphor for sleep (or sometimes death). As he continued to work on sketching this song it must have become clear to him that this second choice of tonality was a far closer match to the sentiment of the text. There are almost no harmonic excursions outside the realm of the tonic, the See Lewis Lockwood, “Beethoven’s Sketches for Sehnsucht,” in Beethoven Studies 1, ed. Alan Tyson (New York: Norton, 1973), p. 110, fig. S.

56

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The Key to Beethoven

only departures being momentary tonicizations of the dominant. In each instance, they occur on a significant word: “Verstummt sind in der Zweigen” (they have fallen mute in the branches)—a metaphor for his lover’s silence, “Sanft trockne mir die Tränen” (Gently dry my tears), and “Du Holde, die ich meine wie sehn” (You sweetheart, whom I have in mind). It is possible to interpret the use of the key of B major as being indicative of heightened emotions on each of these occasions. It is also possible Beethoven might also be using B major ironically in its second praxis, the hoped for heavenly vision failing to materilize in each instance.57 It is also stating the obvious to say that they are structural modulations to the dominant. Beethoven used the briefest of affective tonicizations at the same point in each stanza to enhance the meaning of the text. B major is tonicized via a dominant seventh chord in the first inversion to depict “geheimnisvolles Schweigen ruht”58 (a secret silence rests)—again alluding to her lack of communication in the first stanza (m. 10); “komm, täusche hold mein Sehnen” (come, kindly deceive my longing) in the second (m. 21); and “ach, erscheine und lächle Hoffnung mirt!” (oh, appear and smiling give hope to me!) in the third (m. 29). Paul Reid points out that comparisons have often been made between the opening measures of this song and the last movement of Piano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109, although he concludes by remarking that these should not be taken too far. In truth, however, the parallels are actually quite strong here.59 So oder so, WoO 148, 1816-17 Ziemlich lebhaft und entschlossen, F, 6/8 Mm. Text/section 1-10 11-13 14-20 20-21

Karl Gottlieb Lappe Strophic

North or south! If only, in a warm breast, a shrine to beauty and the muses, a heaven full of god’s blossoms! Only poverty of mind can winter kill, the north adds power to power, luster to luster. North or south! If only the soul glows! Fortepiano interlude

Key F

calm, stoicism

Affect

C F

structural joy, confidence

F

calm, stoicism

Following stanza six60 20-22

Fortepiano postlude

Six further stanzas are set, each with a similar affective scheme. The italics in each instance are mine. Again all italics are mine. 59 Reid, p. 248. 60 Verse seven in the original poem. Verse three was not included in early versions of this song, in all likelihood because the classist content of the text—“Knecht oder Herr!” (Servant or master)— was seen as challenging. The third line of this stanza also contains two extra syllables. 57 58

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Beethoven’ s Songs and the Affective Implications of Primary Tonality

Synopsis: Each verse juxtaposes pairings of life’s conflicting attributes in a rather matter-of-fact manner: verse one: north or south; verse two: city or country; verse four: poor or rich; verse five pale or ruddy; verse six young or old; and verse seven: sleep or death. Commentary: Depending on the perception of the reader, this poem can be construed as projecting either stoicism or irony. Given the highly contrasted content of the verses, and the fact that they are treated strophically, only the most general of affective connections can be made. It is set in F major, the key of complaisance, and calm. For those taking the first view, this key symbolizes stoicism in the face of life’s onslaughts, while for those who find the philosophy expressed in it ironic, then that too colors the affect of the key here, also making the tonal imagery ironic. Affective melding to the second affective praxis of F can been seen at m. 14, reflecting the meaning of the text. The Sweetest Lad was Jamie, Op. 108. No. 5, 1815 Andantino con moto amoroso felice, g, 4/4

William Smyth AA1BC, strophic

Mm. 1-4 5-8 8-10 10-16

Key g

Affect sweet, tender

B[

amoroso, lovely

g

sweet, tender

Text/section Fortepiano prelude The sweetest lad was Jamie, the sweetest, the dearest, and well did Jamie love me, and not a fault has he. Yet one he had, it spoke his praise, he knew not woman’s wish to tease, he knew not all our silly ways, alas the woe to me!

Beethoven set three more stanzas, each with a similar affective scheme. Synopsis: The song concerns young Jamie, who loved his girl Jeanie dearly. She did not appreciate his feelings and flirted with others, while ignoring him. Soon it was time for Jamie to go to war and, as he left, Jeanie realized all too late that Jamie was indeed her true love, and longed for him to return.61 Commentary: George Thomson gave Beethoven a version of this melody in A minor, but Beethoven chose to transpose it to G minor. The character marking Beethoven set four verses. The affective modulation to B-flat major is ironic in the other stanzas.

61

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The Key to Beethoven

and content of the text may well be the reason for such a move. Schubart describes A minor as showing “pious womanliness and tenderness of character,” sentiments echoed by other writers. Given that Beethoven had already transposed Judy, Lovely Matchless Creature and documented his decision—made for affective reasons—it is most likely he did the same thing here, moving the song from a key frequently connected with feminine imagery to the second praxis in G minor, with its more masculine overtones, and the affective vision of sweetness and tenderness associated with it by many writers. This is enhanced by an affective modulation to its shadow key of B-flat major, supported by the amoroso felice marking found in the manuscript.62

Conclusion All songs covered in this chapter show a clear congruency between their primary key and tonal affect as detailed in Chapters Two and Three. While modulations and tonicizations were seen, these were limited to closely related keys and were sometimes only structural in function. Thus, in almost all instances, the primary conveyor of affective meaning was the tonic key.

62 Cooper mentions the transposition of this song, observing that Beethoven “probably felt that Thomson’s designation “amoroso felice” […] omitted in the printed editions but present in the manuscript copies, was more suited to G minor,” although he declines to say why. Cooper, Folksong Settings, p. 23.

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CHAPTER FIVE

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations Abendlied unterm gestirten Himmel, WoO 150 Abschiedsgesang an Wiens Bürger, WoO 121 An den fernen Geliebten, Op. 75, No. 5 An die Hoffnung, Op. 32 An Laura, WoO 112 Andenken, WoO 136 Ariette, Op. 128 Das Liedchen von der Ruhe, Op. 52, No. 3 Der Bardengeist, WoO 142 Der Liebende, WoO 139 Des Kriegers Abschied, WoO 143 Die laute Klage, WoO 135 Elegie auf den Tod eines Pudels, WoO 110 Feuerfarb’, Op. 52. No. 2 Gedenke mein!, WoO 130 Gellert Lieder, Op. 48, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 Gesang aus der Ferne, WoO 137 Gretels Warnung, Op. 75, No. 4 Ich liebe dich so wie du mich, WoO 123 In questa tomba oscura, WoO 133 Kennst du das Land, Op. 75, No. 1 Klage, WoO 113 La tiranna, WoO 125 Mit einem gemalten Band, Op. 83, No. 3 Odi l’aura che dolce sospira, Op. 82, No. 5 Resignation, WoO 149 Sehnsucht, Op. 83, No. 2 The Miller of Dee, WoO 157, No. 5 Wonne der Wehmut, Op. 83, No. 1

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Introduction In the second category of songs, there is not only a clear connection between the choice of primary key and tonal affect but also a significant affective modulation or tonicization where such a connection can be seen. In all these songs Beethoven used tonal affect to control both the large-scale construction of the songs and also some events at the local level. The songs are again considered in alphabetical order. Abendlied unterm gestirten Himmel, WoO 150, 18202 Ziemlich anhaltend, E, 4/4

Heinrich Goeble1 Strophic variation

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-2 Fortepiano prelude 3-6 When the sun sets and the day inclines to its rest, 6-8 Luna beckons, gently and friendly, 9-12 and the night descends; when the stars splendidly gleam, 13-14 and a thousand sunbeams shimmer: 14-18 the soul feels so great it wrenches loose from the dust. 18-20 Fortepiano interlude 20-24 It gazes so gladly at those stars, as if looking back at its fatherland, 25-26 at those lights far away, and 27-30 forgets all worldly trifles; wanting only to wrestle, wanting only to strive 30-32 to soar free from its cocoon: 32-36 the earth is too narrow and small, it would like to be among the stars. 36-38 Fortepiano interlude

E

gentle night, sleep

D A

tender, yearning hope

E E

wild, fiery passion gentle night, death

D A

tender, yearning trust in God

E E

wild, fiery passion gentle night, death

Also listed as H. Göble or Heinrich Goeble, the pseudonym for Ferdinand August Otto Heinrich, Graf von Loeben. See Theodore Albrecht, “Otto Heinrich Graf von Loeben (1786-1825) and the Poetic Source of Beethoven’s Abendlied unterm gestirnten Himmel, WoO 150,” in Bonner BeethovenStudien, Band 10 (Bonn: Verlag Beethoven-Haus, 2012), pp. 7-32. 2 It is significant to note that Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109 was composed in the same year. 1

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Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations 38-42 42-44 44-48 49-50 50-60 54-56 56-60 60-62 63-66

Whether the earth’s storms rage, or bad luck rewards evil: filled with hope, it gazes upward to where the starry judge sits enthroned. Fear can torment it no longer, no power can it command; with face transfigured, it soars upward to the heavenly light. Fortepiano interlude A quiet premonition creeps up on me from those worlds; not much longer will last my earthly pilgrimage; soon will I have attained my goal,

E

wild, fiery passion

D A

love, yearning joyful, intense feelings

E E

wild, fiery passion gentle night, death

D A

tender, yearning trust in God

67-68

soon will I have risen up to you,

E

wild, fiery passion

68-73

soon will I harvest at God’s throne,

E

gentle night, death



for my sorrows a beautiful reward,

73-74 75-81

for my sorrows a beautiful reward.

c\ lament/pathos E gentle night, death

Commentary: The tempo marking Ziemlich anhaltend (fairly sustained) and quiet dynamic levels support the use of the third praxis in E, invoking gentle night as a metaphor for death. This image is supported at the outset by a description of sunset and confirmed more overtly at the end of the song. Yet Beethoven also invoked another aspect of E major’s character (mm. 12-14), as the dynamic level increases, and the triplet chords in the accompaniment give the impression of a faster tempo. The text here describes stars that gleam and sunbeams that shimmer. This is the first affective praxis, which, as Vogler observed, can depict “fire best of all […] through the intensity of its piercing flames.”3 In the third stanza, which describes storms raging on earth, such is the pull of E major, that Beethoven did not feel the need to revert to more traditionally “stormy” keys such as D minor or F minor in order to depict them, merely satisfying himself with eighth-note figuration in the accompaniment to achieve this affect. Ultimately, however, it is because these storms are already powerless—they can harm the transcendent soul no more—that they are depicted in this manner. As they subside, the marking “liebevoll” (lovingly) in m. 42 and an affective modulaGeorg Joseph Vogler, “Ausdruck, (musikalisch)” in Deutsche Encyclopädie, oder Allgemeined RealWörterbuch aller Künste und Wissenschaften, vol. 2 (Frankfurt a.M.: Varrentrapp Sohn und Wenner, 1779), p. 386, trans. Rita Steblin A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, 2nd ed. (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), p. 121.

3

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The Key to Beethoven

tion to D major project the soul’s yearning for God. The text describes the soul’s gazing hopefully up to the great Judge in the starry sky, with a forte dynamic employed for the first time, invoking the second praxis of A major (joyful, intense feelings). At once, magically, E major returns in its third affective practice as the soul is pictured soaring upward to the heavenly light. A similar affective plan is followed in the final stanza, where dark premonitions—depicted with some mild chromaticism (mm. 57-59)—suffer the same fate as the storms. Nothing can now stop the soul from its heaven-bound journey. In the coda (mm. 73-74) Beethoven invoked C-sharp minor, the shadow key of E major’s third praxis, which is tonicized to set the phrase “meiner Leiden” (my sorrows). Abschiedsgesang an Wiens Bürger, WoO 121, 1796 Josef Friedelberg Entschlossen und feurig, G, 4/4 AA1B, strophic Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-8 9-12

Let no lament resound when the banner leaves from here, no tears fall from eyes that follow it as it goes. It is pride in this symbol and a feeling of civic dignity

G

brilliant, cheerful

C

martial, strength

13-16

that glow on every face.

G

brilliant, cheerful

17-24 24-28

Repeat of mm. 9-16 Fortepiano postlude

G

brilliant, cheerful

Beethoven set five more verses, each following a similar affective scheme. Synopsis: A parting song to rally the troops as they prepared to leave Vienna to fight the French army at Mantua in 1796. Contained in the first edition is a report of this song’s immediate context: the departure of the “Fahnendivision” (Color Division) of the volunteer army, explaining, as Paul Reid notes, the several references to the Austrian flag throughout the song.4 Commentary: The key of G major is used to reflect the cheerful, thankful feelings the Viennese citizenry have for their departing soldiers. Of particular importance is the affective modulation to C major at mm. 9-12, replete with martial dotted rhythms and a melodic line that outlines this triad in quasi fanfare writing to express the feelings of pride and civic duty expressed in the text.5

Paul Reid, The Beethoven Song Companion (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), p. 33.

4

A similar usage can be seen in WoO 117, WoO 122 and Op. 48. No. 5.

5

226

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations Example Five. Abschiedsgesang an Wiens Bürger, WoO 121, mm. 10-16.

The text of each stanza is congruent with the first affective praxis in C major: verse one: see above; verse two: “Unsres Landes Ruhn zu mehren” (Our country’s glory to increase); verse three: “Nie das Glück der Tugend trüben” (Never disturb the luck of the virtuous); verse four: “Edel wollen wir uns rächen” (We wish to avenge ourselves nobly); verse five: “Unser Wien empfängt uns wieder” (Our Vienna will receive us again); verse six: “Ha! Wenn wir zurück sie bringen” (Ha! When we bring it back).

An den fernen Geliebten, Op. 75, No. 5, 1809 Larghetto, G, 6/8

Christian Ludwig Reissig strophic

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-4 5 6-9

G

gentle, pleasant

e G

tender lamentation gentle, pleasant

Once dwelt sweet rest and golden peace in my breast; now is mingled melancholy, alas! since we parted, with every pleasure.

Synopsis: This poem tells of an inner peace that is gone now that lovers have parted, and of how so many things remind the female protagonist of her beloved: the hour of their separation, his lovely image, his beautiful soul, and the breeze ruffling his hair. Yet it is too late for their passion to be rekindled, and should he change his mind, her answer now will be “Auf Wiedersehn!” (Until we meet again!). Commentary: Beethoven set Reissig’s text in a simple, strophic manner, this time from a female perspective. The immediacy of the protagonist’s feelings is emphasized by the use of the first person throughout. Key and affect are well matched here, again in both a literal and ironic usage. G major—gentle and pleasant—is used in a literal sense only in stanza one, “Einst wohnten süße Ruh’ und goldner Frieden in meiner Brust” (Once dwelt sweet repose and golden peace in my breast). Yet even here it is tinged almost immediately by the tonicization of the subdominant in the first measure, as she looks longingly back to 227

The Key to Beethoven

better days in a reflection of innocent happiness. In what is a masterful stroke on Beethoven’s part, E minor is tonicized in m. 5, at the beginning of the second line of each stanza. This is revealed to be no mere structural tonicization of the relative minor, but rather the affective use of a key that symbolizes tender lamentation, and has clear connections with textual meaning in each stanza. In verse one it depicts “Wehmut” (melancholy), in verse two “Abendlied” (evening song), in verse three “banger Sehnsucht” (anxious yearning), in verse four “Freund”—now only a friend and not a lover, in verse five “mein Geist”—a sad spirit, and finally in verse six “melodisch”—the sad melody singing “goodbye.” All of these meanings are reinforced by the use of E minor. An die Hoffnung, Op. 32, 1804-5 Poco adagio, E[, 3/4

Christoph August Tiedge Through-composed, strophic

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-6 You who so gladly on E[ unhappy love 6-7 sacred nights celebrate, f grief, despair 7-9 and gently and softly over grief E[ unhappy love spread a veil 9-14 that tortures a tender soul, c tender, plaintive 15-17 O Hope! Raised by you let C pure, innocent, un- worldly 17-19 the patient sufferer feel that up A[ heavenly6 above 20-21 an angel counts his tears! E[ love, devotion 22-26 O Hope! Raised by you, let B[ kind, tender 26-27 the patient sufferer, f grief, despair 27-33 let the sufferer feel that up above E[ love, devotion an angel counts his tears!

Synopsis: The text addresses Hope in the intimate “du” form, as one who sweetens the bitter pill of grief, allowing the sufferer to feel that he is supported by an angel who counts his tears. The second stanza bids Hope comfort one who, surrounded by desolation, is in mourning. Stanza three asks that, if he confront Fate, let him see Hope in a sunlit cloud. Commentary: The primary key here is E-flat major, used in both its unhappy and love praxes. Initially, the third praxis of E-flat is used, something that is indicated both by textual meaning—“Nächten feierst” (nights’ celebrate) and the affective tonicization of F minor from mm. 6-7, made more poignant by Note the connection between the reference to “daß dort oben” (that up above) and the heavenly second praxis of this key!

6

228

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations a 9-10 appoggiatura on the first beat of m. 8 in the vocal line. This tonicization also reflects textual meaning in stanzas two, “Stimmen schweigen” (voices fall silent), and three, “anzuklagen” (accuse [Fate]). At mm. 9-12 there is an affective modulation to C minor as the sufferer’s pain is voiced: “der eine zarte Seele quält” (that tortures a tender soul) v. 1, “verödet die Erinnerung sitzt” (memory sits desolate) v. 2, and “die letzen Strahlen untergehn” (the last rays set) in the third stanza. Beethoven counteracted the feeling of pain affectively by using a modally mixed modulation to C major (mm. 15-17). Hope, set suggestively to a rising sixth, g1-e2 in m. 14, is characterized as being pure, innocent, almost unworldly in the first stanza. However, while the same affect is conjured up musically in the second stanza, the text does not form such a snug fit: “Dann nahe dich, wo dein,” (then draw near to where), as Hope is invoked to console the patient sufferer. In the third stanza the use of C major beseeches Hope to conjure up a glimpse of heaven in all its purity as the ultimate consolation to the pain of his final days of earth. Again, as is often the case in strophic settings, the first stanza is the most successful affective match. In fact it is possible that Beethoven did not intend the second and third stanzas of Tiedge’s poem to be sung here since they do not fit nearly so well with the affective scheme outlined above.7 An Laura, WoO 112, 1792 No character marking, G, 6/8

Friedrich von Matthisson Through-composed

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

G

calm, pastoral trope

D

peaceful, pastoral trope

G

calm, pastoral trope

E[

religious love

1-4 5-9 10-14 15-21 21-25 26-28

Fortepiano prelude v.1 Joy blooms around you in every pathway, v.2 Your smile, Seraph, will float down, v.1 more beautiful than you ever deemed innocence, the soul’s peace, heaven’s best blessing, v.2 carrying the palm of judgment from the dark valley to that other life v. 1 flow around you like a spring breeze, robed in light until our reunion. v.2 to raise your beautiful soul, where the Judge will weigh our deeds. Fortepiano interlude v. 3 O, then the bliss of God’s solemn scales resounds to you,

7 Reid notes that Beethoven did not include the words of stanzas two and three in his sketches for this song. Reid, p. 63. This might also explain why he revisited this text, setting it again in 1815 (Op. 94).

229

The Key to Beethoven 28-30 30-31 31-33 33-34 35-44 44-47

Fortepiano interlude from each discord free, B[ Fortepiano interlude and the friend at your grave says: g Lucky one! The last of your days G was a sunset in May. Fortepiano postlude

lovely, tender tender melancholy calm, pastoral trope

Synopsis: Laura, who has recently died, is serenaded with wishes of joy and spiritual peace. She will be received by an angel who will lead her into the presence of God the judge. She will receive salvation and the friend at her graveside will take comfort from the fact that on her last day there was a sunset in May. Commentary: The tonality and the 6/8 time signature invoke the traditional pastoral trope as a means of depicting the image of heaven. At the beginning of the third stanza there is an abrupt and dramatic affective modulation to E-flat major (mm. 26-34), as Laura’s heavenly rewards are described in a recitative-like passage—a natural choice of key to express such sentiments. Example Six. An Laura, WoO 112, mm. 26-28.

A rapidly modulating fortepiano interlude, characteristic of stile recitativo, touches on B-flat major, invoking affectively the loveliness of heaven’s rewards. And, as her friend speaks, an affective modulation to G minor projects tender melancholy, as if to highlight the sadness of those left behind (mm. 33-34). As Laura is feted as “Glückliche!” (Lucky one!), the G major pastoral landscape returns, enhanced in m. 39 by a pianissimo marking, the only dynamic indication in the song. Andenken, WoO 136, c. 1808 Allegretto, D, 6/8

Friedrich von Matthisson Strophic

Mm. Text/section

Key



Affect

1-6 6-12

Fortepiano introduction D I think of you when, through the D grove the nightingales sound their chords.

pastoral topos ironic (third praxis)

12-14 14-18

Fortepiano interlude D When do you think of me? A

pastoral ironic (first praxis)

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Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations 18-25 25-27 27-31 31-38 38-40 40-44 45-52 53-55 56-65 66-68 69-78 78-81 81-82

I think of you in the twilight of the evening, by the shadowy spring. Fortepiano interlude Where do you think of me? I think of you with sweet pain, with anxious longing and hot tears. Fortepiano interlude How do you think of me? O think of me until our union on a better star! In each distance I think only of you! O think of me until our union on a better star! In each distance I think only of you! I think only of you! Fortepiano interlude only of you!

D

ironic (third praxis)

D A D

pastoral topos ironic (first praxis) ironic (third praxis)

A A D

pastoral topos ironic (first praxis) ironic (third praxis)

b D

unrequited love ironic (third praxis)

b D D D

unrequited love ironic (third praxis) pastoral topos ironic (third praxis)

Synopsis: Mathisson’s text deals with Beethoven’s favored trope of the distant beloved by means of a series of statements and questions. The statements by the wounded lover are followed each time by a passive-aggressive rhetorical question posed by him to his beloved: “Wann denkst du mein?” (When do you think of me?), “Wo denkst du mein?” (Where do you think of me?), “Wie denkst du mein?” (How do you think of me?). In the final stanza the expected question becomes the desperate exhortation “O denke mein” (O think of me), and is loaded with bitterness, since this union will happen only when the couple is united in death “auf beserm Sterne!” (on a better star!). Commentary: The thoughts of the wounded lover/protagonist are set in the key of D major in its third pastoral tradition, used ironically, while questions directed by him to his beloved are in the dominant, reflecting his hope of seeing his beloved again. This sense of irony here is made all the more poignant by the introduction, an exquisite evocation of the pastoral trope, which sounds so happy and tranquil, comprising a beautiful cantabile melody accompanied by flowing eighth-notes in 6/8 time, above a tonic pedal. The tempo marking of allegretto and the dynamic, which is mainly piano, are both supportive of this. It is not until the affective modulation to the dominant, when the first question is asked, that the listener becomes aware that all is not well, and the ironic usage of D major becomes retrospectively apparent. The use of A major can also be viewed as ironic, if one considers Schubart’s description of this key as depicting the “hope of seeing one’s beloved again when parting.” These lovers are either

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The Key to Beethoven

already parted or were never really together, although the protagonist clearly longs for a reconciliation, as his final phrase “nur dein!” (only you!) depicts— enhanced by a 9-8 sospiro over a tonic chord. The use of B minor (mm. 66-68) is literal, however, reflecting Beethoven’s habit of employing the second affective praxis in this key to express unrequited love. Ariette, (Der Kuss), Op. 128, 18228 Allegretto, A, 3/4

Christian Felix Weisse Through-composed

Mm. Text/section

Key

1-19 I was with Chloe all alone, and A wanted to kiss her; but she said that she would scream, 19-29 that she would scream, it would E be a futile attempt! 19-33 Yet I dared and kissed her, in spite A of her resistance. 34-38 in spite of her resistance. E 39-63 And did she not scream? Oh yes, A she screamed, but only long afterwards.

Affect ironic (first praxis)

fiery passion/ironic (first praxis) ironic (first praxis) fiery passion/ironic (first praxis) ironic (first praxis)

Synopsis: The protagonist is alone with Chloe but afraid to kiss her lest she scream. He eventually plucks up the courage and kisses her many times. So effective was he at winning her over that when her screams finally came it was much later, and they were screams of ecstasy. Commentary: A major is Beethoven’s key of choice, and, given the content of the text, it is used ironically in its first praxis (innocent love and tender passion), marked here by Beethoven piano and dolce, descriptors which further heighten the sense of irony. However, there is little about this somewhat risqué story that is innocent, and while there is amorous passion here, it is anything but tender. At the mention of the threatened scream, there is a affective modulation to E major, used here to evoke a dual his/hers meaning: for him E major is heard literally as the key of wild fiery passion, whereas for her it is heard ironically, since she is trying to spurn his advances. A major returns, again ironically (m. 39), as the final dénouement becomes apparent, and the scream (now ecstatic) is set appropriately high in the tessitura.

In a margin of the autograph, Beethoven jotted “Was für ein Titel?” (What for a title?).

8

232

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations Das Liedchen von der Ruhe, Op. 52, No. 3, Hermann Wilhelm Franz Ueltzen c. 1793, rev. 1795 Strophic Adagio, F, 2/2

Mm. Text/section 1-2 2-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-16 16-21

Key

v.1 In love’s arm one can rest well, F v.2 In love’s arm one can rest well, v.3 In earth’s womb one can rest well, v.4 Ah where indeed shall I yet rest v.1 but also in earth’s womb. d v.2 but it beckons me, alas, in vain. v.3 so silent and undisturbed! v.4 from any kind of trouble? v.1 Whether it will be there or here g v.2 With you, Elise,9 I would surely find v.3 Here the heart is so full of cares, v.4 In love’s arm one can rest well, v.1 that I shall find rest, F v.2 the peace of my life, v.3 there it is troubled by nothing; v.4 but also in earth’s womb, v.1 that I shall find rest, C v.2 the peace of my life. v.3 there it is troubled by nothing. v.4 but also in earth’s womb. v.1 that is what my spirit searches F for, muses and thinks and beseeches providence, which will give me rest. v.2 You are forbidden to me by cruel human opinion, and while blossoming, I fade away! v.3 One sleeps so gently, sleeps so sweetly over into Paradise. v.4 Soon must I rest, wherever it may be, that is all the same for the weary man. Fortepiano postlude

Again the generic use of this name, common in poetry.

9

233

Affect calmness, peace

melancholy, gentle sorrow

gentle melancholy

calmness, peace

purity

calmness, peace

The Key to Beethoven

Synopsis: Ueltzen’s powerful poem describes the bittersweet paradox of being able to find rest both in the arms of a loved one—in this case in the context of a forbidden love—and also in the grave, described here in metaphorical terms as the “Schoß der Erde” (bosom of the earth). Commentary: Throughout, the affective use of key characteristics informs the meaning of this text. It is significant that Beethoven chose to set the line “Im Arm der Liebe ruht sich’s wohl, wohl auch im Schoß der Erde” (In the arms of love one can rest well, and also in the bosom of the earth) not only in F major/D minor (stanza one, mm. 1-4 and stanza two, 22-25), but also in G minor/F major, (stanza four, mm. 26-29), highlighting through the affective use of tonality the inbuilt paradox of this statement. Der Bardengeist, WoO 142, 1813 Mäßig langsam, e, 6/8

Franz Rudolph Herrmann Strophic

Mm. Text/section

Key

1-2 6 6-8 9-11 11-18

Fortepiano prelude e There on the high cliff an ancient bard’s spirit sings; it sounds like the music of an C Aeolian harp in a trembling heavy dirge that tears my heart to shreds. e Fortepiano interlude/postlude

Affect tender lament resolving in the happiness of C pure, innocent tender lament

Verses two to eight follow a similar affective plan, although the modulation to C major sometimes functions ironically. Synopsis: This song recounts the story of an ancient bard’s spirit singing atop a cliff, sounding like an Aeolian harp, akin to a dirge that is heartrending in nature. The song unfolds softly in the twilight’s grey glow, and the bard’s heart floats up to the bright stars in sweet daydreams. His robe wafts in the morning breeze, his song fading only as dawn breaks. In the silence his song is captivating. The poet asks what he seeks among the starry skies, and the bard replies that he looks there for the past, for the golden age of Germany. Yet on it the sun has already set, and in its place the somber night now plants poppies on fathers’ graves. Though Germany once stood bold and unshaken, now the stars pass by frail ruins and the ancient bard still sings his dirge-like song. Commentary: This is the only song by Beethoven that uses E minor as a primary tonality. The sound of the Aeolian harp is depicted with an affective modulation to C major (mm. 6-7). Schubart described “the imminent hope of resolving in 234

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations the pure happiness of C major” in his definition of E minor, a phrase that captures this moment perfectly. Yet ultimately it is E minor that prevails, returning in each stanza to project the affect of tender lament. The affective modulation to C major is literal in verses two, three and eight, and ironic in verses four to seven. Der Liebende, WoO 139, 1809 In leidenschaftlicher Bewegung, D, 6/8

Christian Ludwig Reissig Strophic

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-5 Fortepiano prelude 5-13 What a marvelous life, a mixture of pain and desire, what a new trembling feeling holds sway now in my breast, 13-17 holds sway now in my breast! 18-21 Heart, my heart, what is this pounding? Your peace is interrupted; 21-34 speak, what has happened to you? I have never seen you like this!

D

yearning love

A b

tender, innocent love unrequited love

D

yearning over

Beethoven set two more verses, both following a similar affective scheme. Synopsis: The text, by Reissig, tells of how it feels to be a man in love—the mixing of pleasure and pain, the heart-flutters, the bonds that cannot be severed. An escape from these feelings is all but nigh impossible. Love always draws one back even if the feelings are not reciprocated. Commentary: The most significant pointer here is the initial marking, In leidenschaftlicher Bewegung (In a passionate tempo), which affirms Beethoven’s usage of the second affective praxis in D major, supported a sixteenth-note perpetuum mobile in the accompaniment in a brilliant depiction of a fluttering heart. There is an affective modulation to the dominant from mm. 13-17, the key of tender, innocent love, congruent with the sentiment expressed in each stanza, “waltet jetzt in meiner Brust!” (holds sway now in my breast!) v. 1, “Unschuld aufgeblüht” (innocence blossomed) v. 2, and “auf der Stelle mich zurück” (draw me back to the place) in the third verse. From mm. 18-21 an affective modulation to B minor projects the feeling of unrequited love: v. 1, “Deine Ruh’ ist unterbrochen” (Your rest is interrupted); v. 2, “mit dem Zauberblick voll Güte halt” (with enchanting eyes full of kindness); v. 3, “ewig dieses Herz entgegen” (for ever this 235

The Key to Beethoven

heart beats). B minor colors each of these statements, emphasizing that this love is not reciprocal, something stated directly at the end of the last verse. Des Kriegers Abschied, WoO 143, 1814 Entschlossen, E[, 4/4

Christian Ludwig Reissig AA1BC

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-2 Fortepiano introduction E[ heroic 8 I leave for the field with love aflame, yet I depart without tears; my arm belongs to the Fatherland, 9-11 my heart to my beautiful beloved. B[ majestic, celebratory 11-15 For tenderness must the true hero B[ amoroso, lovely feel, burning with love for a sweetheart, 15-19 and yet for the Fatherland in battle E[ heroic be able to die resolutely! 19-23 Fortepiano interlude/postlude

Verses two to four follow a similar affective scheme. Synopsis: A departing warrior leaves with a strong sense of patriotic love but no tears, for his arm belongs to the Fatherland and his heart to his beloved. He is warmed by thoughts of her back home, giving him strength for the fray. His reward will be his darling’s hand in marriage. Bidding her farewell, he tells her not to cry, for he will be back victorious. Yet if perchance he is killed, his fame will still resound. Commentary: E-flat major is employed here in its first praxis, the use of the first person adding a sense of directness that fits well with its heroic guise. Various ancillary features serve to portray this feeling of heroism: the march-like rhythmic structure in 4/4 time, the character marking of Entschlossen (resolutely), the use of dotted rhythmic patterns, and the interval structure. This is characterized by fanfare-like shapes that are evocative of boldness and affirmation. B-flat major is used from mm. 9-12 in its second praxis to support the affect of the tonic key, signified by the arpeggio pattern in the melody and dotted rhythm in the accompaniment. It then melds into its first praxis—Beethoven’s amoroso key—from mm. 11-15 to evoke the protagonist’s feelings for his beloved. Verses one to three: “für ein Liebchen” (for a sweetheart), “Mädchens Hand” (maiden’s hand), and “Liebchens Hand” (darling’s hand) are all connected with this feeling

236

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations of tenderness. However, in the final stanza it clearly does not match the text as it is used to set “des Gegners Hand” (the hand of the enemy). Die laute Klage, WoO 135, c. 1814-1510 Andante sostenuto, c, 6/8

Johann Gottfried Herder ABA1CDED1E1Coda

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-2 Turtledove, you are moaning so loudly, stealing from the poor 3-6 their only comfort, sweet forgetting sleep. 6-8 Turtledove, I am weeping like you, hiding 9-12 the pain in wounded heart, in locked breast. 12-14 Ah, the sternly apportioning love! 14-15 She gave you a loud lamenting plea 16-17 for consolation, for consolation, 17-21 to me sense falls silent. Oh, the stern apportioning love! 21-22 She gave you a loud lamenting plea 23-24 for consolation, for consolation, 24-28 to me sense falls silent. 28-30 Fortepiano postlude

c

lament

E[

sogno, sleep

c

lament

f

extreme grief

g f A[ c

discontent extreme grief con amabilità lament

f A[ c

extreme grief con amabilità lament

Commentary: The opening pairing of C minor with its shadow key of E-flat major in its third sogno praxis is particularly effective at projecting the on-going sadness in this song. This connection with the third praxis in E-flat major is affirmed again in an affective modulation to set the word “Schlaf ” (sleep) in m. 5, replete with a 9-8/4-3, double appoggiatura. As the sense of pain increases, F minor is invoked to reflect passages of heightened emotion in this desolate text. This is followed immediately by an affective modulation to G minor, projecting the discontent of despair in the first praxis of this key, heightened by the use of a diminished seventh with dominant function on “hart-verteilende” (stern-apportioning). On the two occasions where the text allows a brief respite—“zum Trost” (for consolation)—A-flat major is invoked, replete with a 9-8 melodic appoggiatura on “Trost” itself in brief consoling moments amid ongoing lament.

An earlier version of this song is extant, also set in C minor. Beethoven Werke: Lieder und Gesänge mit Klavierbegleitung, XII/I, ed. Helga Lühning (Munich: Henle, 1990), pp. 275-76.

10

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The Key to Beethoven

Elegie auf den Tod eines Pudels, WoO 110, c. 1790 Author unknown “Stirb’ immerhin, es welken ja” ABCA1 Maestoso, f, 2/4

Mm. Text/section 1-4 4-12

Fortepiano introduction Die anyhow, since so many joys wither on life’s course.

13-21 Often, before they wilt at noon’s sultriness, death starts to cut them down. Also you, my joy! 22-36 For you tears flow, as friends rarely do for friends; the grief around you cannot dishonor my eyes, O creature, created to bring me joy.

Key

Affect

f

extreme grief

A[

key of the grave

f

extreme grief

Four more stanzas are set in similar fashion. Synopsis: You might as well die, since so many of life’s joys wither. Often before they wilt at noon death culls them. For you, my joy, tears flow as friends rarely do for one another. You were created faithful and cheerful to bring joy to me. You were not deceitful unlike many I have known whose souls were as black as your coat. Often when I was tired and disillusioned with people, you cheered me up and reconciled me with people. You cheered my gloomy times. Although you only lived for a short time, you did not live in vain, something that cannot be said for many people. Commentary: Beethoven set four more stanzas in f/A[, although the affective congruency in those stanzas is not as successful as it is in verses one and two, as might be expected in an early strophic song setting. “Doch soll dein Tod” Andante ma non troppo, F, 2/4

CDEC1F

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

37-41 But your death must not distress me too much; 41-44 you were indeed always laughter’s friend;

F

calmness, peace

C

celebration

238

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations 44-52 everything we love is loaned to us; no earthly luck remains unlamented for long. 53-56 My heart does not quarrel with destiny 57-60 because of a pleasure it lost; 60-77 you live on in my thoughts, conjuring up for me happy memories.

F

calmness, peace

d

gentle sorrow

C F

celebration calmness, peace



Commentary: Beethoven used modal mixture to invoke the tonic major as the owner looks back happily on her dog’s life, suffusing this setting with calmness and peace, enhanced by delicate sixteenth-note arpeggios in the fortepiano accompaniment. The one cloud on the horizon, her brief thoughts of quarrelling with destiny (D minor, first praxis) are soon forgotten as the return of “fröhliche Erinnerungen” (happy memories) is projected in the calm and peace of the tonic in its first praxis. Feuerfarb’, Op. 52, No. 2, 1792, rev. 180311 Andante con moto, G, 6/8

Sophie Mereau-Brentano Strophic

Mm. Text/section

Key

1-3 Fortepiano prelude G 3-8 I know a color I am so beloved of, I regard higher than silver or gold; I wear it gladly on my 9-11 brow and vesture and have named D it the color of truth. 12-18 The glowing rose blooms well in G a lovely, gentle form, but soon grows pale. Thus consecrated as the bloom of love; 19 its charm is eternal, C 19-21 but it withers early. G 22 Fortepiano postlude g 22-23 C 23-24 G

Affect rustic, pastoral

pastoral rustic, pastoral imagery

purity, innocence ironic melancholy sequential sequential/pastoral

Beethoven set six more verses, each following a similar affective scheme. An early version of this song is extant, Hess 144 (1792), Beethoven Werke: XII/I, pp. 190-91.

11

239

The Key to Beethoven

Synopsis: Sophie Mereau-Brentano’s text describes the durability of truth, which is likened to a color in the poem, evoking various images from nature that start out whole but soon lose their luster. Thus she talks of the rose withering, clouds darkening the sky, snow becoming tainted, and spring becoming autumn. The color of truth alone remains timeless. Commentary: In m. 19 C major is briefly tonicized with affective significance. This passage serves to support four phrases from the poem: “ihr Reiz ist unendlich” (its charm is eternal) in stanza two; “So trüben auch Unschuld” (so innocence is tarnished) in stanza four; “wohl dem” (happy are those) in stanza six, and “Und habe sie Farbe” (and [I] have the color) in stanza eight. In each case the text reflects the second praxis in C major—purity and innocence. In the fortepiano postlude, the use of G minor reflects the meaning of “welket” (withers) in verse two, “Verleumdung” (defamation) in verse four, and “blitzendes Auge” (blazing eye) in verse six. G minor appears for the final stanza, functioning ironically as a remembrance of these previous negative sentiments, since the final line “Und habe sie Farbe der Wahrheit genannt” (And [I] have named it the color of truth) reflects its immunity from all taint. Gedenke mein!, WoO 130, 1819-20 Andante con moto, E[, 3/4

Author unknown Through-composed

Mm. Text/section

Key

1-3 4-5 5-8 9-13 14-18

Remember me! I think of you! Think of me! I think of you! Ah, ah the pain of separation only hope sweetens. Ah, ah!

E[ c g c E[

Affect

sogno, unhappy love tender, plaintive tender melancholy tender, plaintive sogno, unhappy love

Commentary: Beethoven employed the third affective praxis in E-flat major to convey the affect of unhappy love, combining it with C minor in its second praxis in a somewhat fluid relationship. Both keys seem particularly close in this context, for E-flat major has hardly been established before a half close in C minor is reached (m. 4), enabling Beethoven to continue to project the affect of unhappy love while allowing him to achieve variety through modulation. Sechs Gellert Lieder, c. 1801-0212

Christian Fürchtegott Gellert

12 The songs will be considered in the order suggested by Biermann, the whole cycle being categorised alphabetically under the title “Gellert Lieder” rather than arranging the six songs alphabetically. Four are examined here. However, the numbering found in Beethoven Werke is retained. Joanna Cobb Biermann, “Cyclical Ordering in Beethoven’s Gellert Lieder, Op.48: A New Source,” Beethoven Forum 11 (2004): 162-80.

240

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations In this chapter, four of the Sechs Lieder von Gellert, Op. 48, will be considered. Although the complete opus will not be examined in sequence here, it seems an appropriate time to consider briefly the tonal organization of the cycle as a whole as it relates to the use of key characteristics.13 In the order given in the Henle edition: E—E[—f\—C—C—a/A, three tonal juxtapositions become apparent as being uncomfortable: E and E[, f\ and C, and the repetition of C and C back-to-back.14 It can be argued that each key in this plan is chosen for the integrity and expressive individuality of its own textual and affective connections rather than forming part of a convincing key scheme for the whole cycle, and that therefore the uncomfortable tonal relations of the ordering of the song are of lesser importance. However, Joanna Cobb Biermann argues persuasively for the following ordering: E—C—E[—f\—C—a/A, as seen in the Hoffmeister and Kühnel edition from 1803.15 This has the powerful advantage of highlighting the most significant tonal juxtaposition in the whole cycle from an affective standpoint—F-sharp minor (contemplation of death) to C major (triumph and strength)—clearly an uncomfortable combination yet one with overt symbolic intentionality on Beethoven’s part. This ordering also has the distinct benefit of removing the unnecessary abruptness of the segue between E and E[ for which there is no expressive significance in the ordering of the revised Mollo first edition and Artaria editions while retaining the affective integrity of each individual song. Thus, in this revised ordering, the discomfort of the deliberate tonal juxtaposition of f\ and C is intensified because it is now the only unsettling key change remaining. “Bitten,” Op. 48, No. 1 Feierlich und mit Andacht, E, 2/2

Through-composed



Mm. Text/section 1-8 8-16 17-18 19-26 27-32

Fortepiano prelude God, your goodness reaches so far, as far as the clouds go; you crown us with mercy and hurry to assist us. Lord, my castle, my rock, my shield, hear my plea,

Key

Affect

E

tender, loving

c \ structural B structural a plaintive

13 For a more detailed discussion of this issue, see Paul M. Ellison, “Affective Organization in Beethoven’s Gellert Lieder, Opus 48,” The Beethoven Journal 25 (Summer 2010): 19-31. 14 Beethoven Werke: XII/I, pp. 46-60. 15 Biermann, pp. 162-80.

241

The Key to Beethoven 33-34

mark my word;

e

tender lament

35-42

for I will before you pray!16

E

tender, loving

42-45

Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: This song is a fervent prayer to God, who is addressed as good and merciful, and it implores him to listen to the poet’s words as he prays. Commentary: The tonal symbolism reflects the second praxis of E major—the key of tenderness and love—sentiments reinforced by the marking of Feierlich und mit Andacht (solemn and with reverence), the smooth melodic lines and the quasi-continuo fortepiano accompaniment, which is aptly reminiscent of writing for organ. In mm. 26-32, as the vocal line intones an upper pedal e2 in the chant-like plea “Herr, meine Berg, mein Fels, mein Hort, vernimm mein Flehn” (Lord, my castle, my rock, my shield, hear my plea), an affective modulation to the plaintive key of A minor adds appropriate expressive power and to the prevailing sentiment. “Gottes macht,” Op 48, No. 5: see Chapter Four, p. 203-04. “Die Liebe des Nächsten,” Op. 48, No. 2 Through-composed Lebhaft, doch nicht zu sehr, E[, 2/2 Mm. Text/section 1-11 12-15 16-29

Key

Affect

If someone says: I love God! And E[ failed love still hates his brethren, he makes of God’s truth a mockery and rips it all to nothing. e[ despair God is love and wills that I love E[ religious love and my neighbor as myself.17 devotion

Synopsis: The third song in the cycle is concerned with the hypocrisy of expressing love for God while still hating one’s neighbor. God personifies love and decrees that one should love one’s neighbor as oneself. Commentary: At the opening, as the inadequate love of the man who hates his brother is described, E-flat major is used in its third praxis. This text is Verses two to four do not form an affective match. Stanzas two to fourteen are not good matches affectively.

16 17

242

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations supported via the signifiers of the F minor tonicization (mm. 5-6) and modal mixture (c[1 in m. 9). An affective modulation to the tonic minor—achieved through a diminished seventh chord in m. 12—reflects the changing mood of the text “Spott und reißt sie ganz darnieder” (a mockery and rips it all to nothing), matching Schubart’s description of despair in this key. It is felicitous that E-flat returns—this time in its second praxis—at the words “Gott ist die Lieb” (God is love), a perfect match with this affective tradition. “Vom Tode,” Op. 48, No. 3 Mäßig und eher langsam als geschwind, f \, 3/4

Through-composed

Mm. Text/section

Key

1-7 8-14 15-17 17 18-21 22-29 30-32 33-43 44-49

Affect

My lifespan is passing, hourly I rush f \ mortality to the grave; and what is it that I, b black, gloomy perhaps, that I still have to live unstable highly expressive for? f \ mortality Fortepiano interlude Think, O man! on your death; delay not, for that is one thing you need, delay not, b black, gloomy for that is one thing you need.18 f \ mortality Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: A reflection on the passing of days and the inexorable approach of death, with the timely exhortation not to delay the consideration of mortality. Commentary: Beethoven worked on this text several times throughout his life, although none of the earlier versions was set in F-sharp minor. It is significant that he chose to turn the affective heat up several notches in his final choice of tonality, moving from the keys of D minor and A minor seen in the early sketches to F-sharp minor, several steps to the sharp side.19 It is the sole song in his output to use this key, something that affirms his view of its symbolizing contemplation of mortality. That he should choose an affective modulation to his “schwarze Tonart” is also significant, especially since it is reached on the word “Grabe” (grave), for it affirms yet again the affective nature of the first praxis in this key.20 As this song ends, the tonal range of this song cycle has progressed to This is again a multi-stanza text, and verses two to seven do not form affective matches. An early setting of this text in D minor is printed in Alfred Ebert, “Das Autograph der GellertLieder Op. 48 No. 5 und 6 von Beethoven,” Die Musik 9 (1909/10): 57-59. 20 Indeed it takes on a personal significance, given Beethoven’s encroaching deafness and the proximity of this cycle to the Heiligenstadt Testament, since his own thoughts were often 18 19

243

The Key to Beethoven

its furthest point from C major. Biermann points out that the juxtaposition of these two tonalities has been maintained in every ordering of these songs that has come down to us, and that it is indeed deliberate: The tension created by the deeply earnest admonishment of “Vom Tode” in F-sharp minor (“Denk, o Mensch, an Deinen Tod”), with its piano postlude in the dark, low region of the instrument is released in the beginning of the next song by many contrasting elements: glowing C major (following F-sharp minor), fortissimo beginning (following the piano ending), the upward leap of more than two octaves to the following Lied, and as a topic the turning away from death to the eternal God whom all of Nature praises. (The harmonic distance of a tritone makes the distance between mortal man and God palpable.)21

No acknowledgement is made of the affective significance of these two keys, however, both deliberately selected by Beethoven for their contrasting affective characteristics. While for Biermann F-sharp minor is merely “dark,” it is in reality a symbol here for the contemplation of death, while C major is not merely “glowing” but rather majestic and triumphal.22 The fact that they are a tritone apart—that ancient chasm of Diabolus in musica—enhances these differing qualities, and their juxtaposition draws attention to the stark polarity of these texts, surely Beethoven’s intention here. “Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur,” ABA Op. 48, No. 4 Majestätisch und erhaben, C, 2/2 Mm. Text/section

Key

1-10 11-12 13-14 14-18 18-22

Heaven praises the glory of eternity, C its roar proclaims his name strongly. The round earth praises him, a the seas praise him, B[ listen, O Man, to their divine words! g Who supports the heaven’s uncountable E[

23-27

stars? Who guides the sun from its canopy?

c

Affect strength, tender bold, martial discontent religious love

tender

connected with death during this difficult period in his life. 21 Biermann, p. 172. 22 William Kinderman discusses the juxtaposition of these two songs, describing F-sharp minor as “gloomy,” in Beethoven (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 109.

244

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations 28-36 37-38 39-40 40-42

It comes and shines and laughs at C us from afar, and runs its course like a hero, and runs its course d like a hero!23 C Fortepiano postlude

light, strength active ombra light, strength

Synopsis: Heaven praises the eternal God; the earth and seas praise him. Humankind should listen to their message. It is God who counts the stars, who supports the sun in the heaven as it runs its course heroically. Commentary: The impact of the first C major chord cannot be overstated. It is truly astounding in the same way that Haydn’s use of C major on “Licht” in Die Schöpfung is astounding! God’s all-embracing power literally bursts forth, being more than capable of trampling down the deathly vision of “Vom Tode.” Gellert here paraphrased parts of Psalm 19—a paean of praise to the Almighty.24 The introduction of G minor (mm. 14-18) with its affect of discontent reflects God’s disappointment at man’s inability to listen. The B section opens in E-flat major, tellingly marked pianissimo in m. 19, and reflects exactly Schubart’s description of this key. The affective tonicization of C minor (mm. 23-27) reflects the tenderness of the love felt for this supreme controller of nature, who gives the life-giving power of the sun to humanity. Again it is enhanced by a pianissimo dynamic marking. Such is the awesome power of the sun that Beethoven signified it with the use of D minor (mm. 37-38) in the briefest of active ombra moments, a fully-voiced fortissimo A major chord supporting a rise to e1 resolving onto a sforzando tonic of D minor (and a vocal f1) in the following measure. “Bußlied,” Op. 48, No. 6: see Chapter Six, pp. 280-82.

Gesang aus der Ferne, WoO 137, 1809 Christian Ludwig Reissig Andante vivace, grazioso, B[, 6/8 Intro, ABA Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-12 Fortepiano prelude B[ lovely, tender 12-14 E[ hunting trope/rustic celebration/love 14-23 B[ lovely, tender 23-35 Before my tears of longing flowed, and distance was not enviously keeping my sweet one from me, how my life resembled a blossoming garland, Verses two and three do not form an affective match. Psalm 19, Coeli enarrant, verses one, five and six. This is the same source as Haydn’s chorus “Die Himmel erzählen” (The heavens are telling) from Die Schöpfung, and also in the same key and affective praxis. 23 24

245

The Key to Beethoven 35-37 a nightingale-grove, E[ hunting trope/rustic celebration/love 37-48 full of games and dancing! B[ lovely, tender 48-52 Fortepiano interlude

Poco allegretto, 2/4 53-55 Now longing often drives me out 56-64 to the mountain top, hoping to see the smile of my heart’s desire. 64-68 In this vicinity my languishing gaze seeks but never returns contented. 68-72 Fortepiano interlude 72-76 How my heart beats in my bosom as if you were close. 77-80 O come, my loved one, your young man is here! I sacrifice to you everything that God has blest, for how I love you, more than I have ever loved, 91-102 for how I love you, more than I have ever loved.

b[ discontent D[ grief f

depression

F

joy

B[

lovely, tender

d

anger

E[ F

love, devotion joy

Allegretto vivace, (“Man nimmt jetzt die Bewegung lebhafter als das erste Mal”), 6/825 103-22 O dearest, come quickly to the B[ lovely, tender nuptial dance; for I am already cultivating roses and myrtle for the garland. Come, transform my hut into a temple of peace, 122-24 a temple of bliss; E[ hunting trope/rustic celebration/love 124-26 and be its goddess! B[ lovely, tender 127-30 Come, transform my hut into a temple of peace, 130-32 a temple of bliss; E[ hunting trope/rustic celebration/love 133-38 and be its goddess! Come, B[ lovely, tender transform my hut 138-39 into a temple of bliss, C celebration 139-46 and be its goddess! B[ lovely, tender “One now takes a more animated tempo than the first time.”

25

246

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations Synopsis: Before these lovers were parted, his life was like a garland, like a grove of nightingales full of games and celebration. Now longing forces him up the mountain in the hope of seeing his love’s smile, yet he never returns satisfied. As if she were near, his heart beats fast as he demands she appear, for he has sacrificed all for her and loves her more than ever. He invokes her presence in readiness for their marriage and has already grown the flowers for her garland. May her presence transform his dwelling into a temple of bliss where she reigns as goddess. Commentary: Reissig’s text was set a second time by Beethoven, and renamed Gesang aus der Ferne [Song from far away].26 B-flat major in its first praxis, Beethoven’s amoroso key of love and tenderness, is a direct match for the meaning of the first stanza. This is supported by the elegant, compound duple time signature, marked andante vivace and grazioso. The second section (mm. 53–102) sets verses two and three and captures the clearly contrasted sentiments expressed there. Affective use of key symbolism plays an important role in projecting the meaning of the text as the keys of B-flat minor, D-flat major, and F minor are invoked to depict the lover’s discontent and possible doubt. The third stanza (m. 72) is set in the key of F reflecting its second praxis of joy. However, when he declaims the extent of his sacrifice, the key changes to D minor via an Italian sixth ([VI\6) at m. 81, evoking the deity in order to add weight to the seriousness and intensity of the emotion here. At the mention of the depth of his love, the key changes to E[ in its second affective practice (mm. 87-90). The strength of his feeling is again conveyed in the third stanza as B-flat major returns; the sixteenth-note accompaniment projecting a feeling of celebration as an element of the second praxis of this key is transplaced into the first. Gretels Warnung, Op. 75, No. 4, 180927 Etwas lebhaft mit leidenschaftlicher Empfindung, doch nicht zu geschwind, A, 6/8 Mm. 1-9

Gerhard Anton von Halem AABC

Text/section Key With loving glances and playing A and song, Christel, young and handsome, went wooing. As charming, fresh, and slender was no young man in the vicinity. No,

Affect innocent love, tender passion

26 Beethoven originally composed the music of Der Jüngling in der Fremde to set this text, calling it Lied aus der Ferne, and also using B-flat major, but setting it strophically. 27 An early version of this song is also extant (1795), set in the same key, but marked somewhat less effusively Nicht zu geschwind und mit Empfindung (Not too fast and with feeling). See Beethoven Werke, XII/I, pp. 208-09.

247

The Key to Beethoven 9-14 15-20

there was not one in their number who made me feel that way. He noticed that, alas, and did not slacken until he obtained it all.

20-25

Fortepiano interlude/postlude

E

tender love

A

innocent love/ironic

Two further stanzas are set strophically Synopsis: Gretel delivers a warning to the girls of her village about young Christel, the heartbreaker, who wooed and seduced her, promptly leaving her for someone else. All the girls looked only at him, and soon their flattering words stole him away from her. His loving ways no longer delight her, and she warns the girls whom he is now seeing to beware for the same fate will befall them! Commentary: Beethoven marked the song Etwas lebhaft mit leidenschaftlicher Empfindung, doch nicht zu geschwind (somewhat vivaciously with passionate feeling, but not too fast). A major is used in a literal meaning for the first verse and is heard ironically for stanzas two and three, as Gretel’s innocent love is blatantly betrayed, and she is left bitter and resentful. There is a growing power to this irony as the charming music, which matched the sentiment of stanza one so well, is repeated note for note to express the disappointment of verse two and the bitter recriminations of the final stanza. An affective modulation to E major (mm. 9-14) reflects two praxes in this key. In stanza one, there are dual layers of meaning as it is simultaneously the key of “laughing pleasure […] and full delight” for young Christel, while for Gretel, luxuriating in her good fortune: “Nein, keiner war in ihrer Schar, für den ich das gefühlt” (No, there was not one in their number who made me feel that way), it is the key of tender love. In this way, the subtext so often seen between genders concerning the dichotomy of physical passion versus romance is subtly drawn out by tonal affect. In stanza two, however, its use is both literal and ironic. For Gretel, realizing that Christel has left her: “Bald riß ihr Wort ihn schmeichelnd fort; gewonnen war sein Herz” (Soon their flattering words stole him away; his heart was won) its use is ironic, since she still has tender feelings for him, and these are reflected in its literal meaning. However, by verse three, when she warns ominously “Schaut meinen Fall, ihr Schwestern all, für dieser Falsche glüht” (Watch my downfall, you sisters all, whom that false one is now courting) any feelings of love have evaporated, projected by the ultimate irony of modulating to the key of tender love. Ich liebe dich so wie du mich, WoO 123, 1795 Andante, G, 2/4 248

Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Herrosee ABA1Coda

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-7 8-10 15-28 29-31 31-38 38-40

G

calm, gentle, pleasant

to D

structural

G

calm, gentle, pleasant

C

purity, innocence

G

calm, gentle, pleasant

I love you as you love me, in the evening and in the morning. Nor was there a day when you and I did not share our troubles. Fortepiano interlude And when we shared them, you and I, they became easier to bear. You comforted me when in affliction, I wept during your laments. Therefore may God’s blessing be upon you, my life’s joy. May God protect you, protect you for me, protect and keep us both. May God protect you, keep you for me, protect and keep us both. Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: This poem describes reciprocal love and the comfort of sharing troubles. God’s blessing is sought for the couple that they both be kept safe. Commentary: The primary key of G is particularly congruent with Schubart’s depiction of “every […] satisfied passion, every tender gratitude for […] faithful love,” and the tonicization of the subdominant (mm. 29-31) is affective, evoking feelings of purity and innocence that characterize this love. In questa tomba oscura, WoO 133, 1806 Lento, A[, 2/4

Giuseppe Carpani28 ABA

Mm. Text/section

Key

1-6 7-8 9-12 13-18

In this dark tomb let me lie, When I was alive, ungrateful one, you should have thought of me. At least leave naked shadows to enjoy their peace, and do not bathe my

A[ D[ A[ E

Affect key of the grave grief/darkness key of the grave death

28 Mollo, the publisher, sent Carpani’s text to a large number of Viennese composers, resulting in a total of sixty-four settings by forty-seven different composers being published in 1808, including that of Beethoven. Three were in the key of A-flat major.

249

The Key to Beethoven 19-20 22-27 28-29 30-33 33-37

ashes in futile venom. In this dark tomb let me lie, When I was alive, ungrateful one, you should have thought of me, ungrateful one, ungrateful one!

A[

key of the grave

D[ A[

grief/darkness key of the grave

Synopsis: The spirit of a dead husband addresses his wife from the grave, bemoaning her ungratefulness while he was alive and passionately urging her not to pollute his ashes with crocodile tears! Commentary: The keys of A-flat and E major are well chosen for their affective resonance with this bitter text. It is significant that they are at opposite ends of the tonal spectrum—both four degrees away from C—a metaphor, perhaps, for the state of this marriage, while also illustrating the contrasting nuances of death that each key can supply. The flat side symbolizes the dull pain that the husband endured in life—a life that was more akin to a living death—while the sharp side evokes the sense of peace that he now feels in death by invoking the third affective practice of E major, supported by the lento tempo marking and pianissimo dynamic level. Kennst du das Land, Op. 75, No. 1, 1809 Ziemlich langsam, A, 2/4

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Strophic

Mm. Text/section

Key

1-7 Do you know the land where the A lemon trees bloom, in dark foliage golden oranges glow, 8-9 a gentle wind blows from the blue sky. a 10-11 the myrtle silent and C 11-12 high the laurel F 12-14 stand? C 14-17 Do you know it well? a 18-32 Thither! Thither I would go with A you, O my beloved! 33-39 Do you know the house? On pillars A its roof rests, the hall gleams, the room shines, 40-42 and marble figures stand and look at me: a 42-43 what have they to you, C 43-44 poor child F 44-46 done? C 250

Affect hope of seeing her homeland plaintive, tender purity majestic purity plaintive, tender intense feelings, joyful hope of seeing her homeland plaintive, tender innocence gravity innocence

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations 46-49 Do you know it well? a 50-64 Thither! Thither I would go with A you, O my protector! 65-71 Do you know the mountain, and its A band of clouds? The mule seeks his way in the fog. 72-74 In caves dwells an ancient brood of a dragons, 74-75 the rock face plunges C 75-76 and over it F 76-77 the tide. C 78-81 Do you know it well? a 82-98 Thither! Thither our path goes, A O father, let us go!

plaintive, tender intense feelings, joyful hope of seeing her homeland plaintive, tender purity gravity purity plaintive, tender intense feelings, joyful

Synopsis: Mignon tells of her deep longing to return to her native land with her beloved. She recalls various nostalgic images that make her long for home. The ancient brood of dragons is a metaphor for evil, and Mignon realizes that although life in her homeland will not always be a bed of roses, she still wishes to return. Commentary: This well-known text from Goethe’s Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre is sung by the mysterious young dancer Mignon to Wilhelm, the novel’s hero. As each stanza opens, she poses a question, asking “Kennst du …?” (Do you know …?) as she describes the land of her youth, her conflicting emotions projected by the modal mixing of A/a. Her innocence and purity are depicted in C major, enhancing the symbolic imagery of myrtle (love) and laurel (peace). The most difficult passage to deconstruct is the trio of vocative appellations Mignon utters at the end of each stanza: “Geliebter”—“Besüchtzer”—“Vater” (O beloved— O protector—O father). Here she is trying to express exactly what she feels for Wilhelm. “Geliebter” hints that she is in love with him, perhaps the type of crush that girls of that age sometimes have for older men. Wilhelm was certainly her “Besüchtzer,” having purchased her freedom from a circus troupe that had taken her from her homeland. He is also for her the “Vater”—father figure—she has never known, a fact she already acknowledged in the previous chapter, where she asked him to be her father, and described herself as his child.29 Beethoven used the second praxis of A major—intense feelings, joy—to capture the power of Mignon’s deeply-felt emotions here, indicating this with a tempo increase marked Geschwinder on each occasion. 29 It is also possible that she is speaking to more than one person—a fantasy lover (A major), or that she considers Wilhelm as such, but it is not reciprocated, or to her real father, whom she wishes she knew (A major), who is later discovered to be Augustin, the old harper, who fathered her by an incestuous relationship.

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The Key to Beethoven

Klage, WoO 113, c. 1790 Langsam und sanft, E-e, 2/4

Ludwig Christoph Heinrich Hölty

“Durchaus müssen die Töne geschliffen und so sehr also möglich ausgehalten und zusammengebunden werden”30

Through-composed

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

E

night, sleep, death

c \ E

lament night, sleep, death

E-e

tender lamentation

1-4 4-6 7 9-14 14-15

Fortepiano prelude Your silver shone through green oaks, giving coolness, down on me, O moon, and you smiled peace on me a happy boy. Fortepiano interlude

Sehr langsam und traurig, e, 2/2 “Hier wird die Bewegung nach und nach langsamer”31 16-17 When now your light through the e window 17-19 breaks, it smiles no peace on me, g the young man, it sees my pale cheeks, my eyes e tearfully wet. Soon, dear friend, soon alas,

tender lamentation discontent, resentment tender lamentation

25-26

your silver light will shine

C

purity, innocence

27

on the tombstone

a

plaintive, sorrowful

28-32

that harbors my ashes,

e

tender lamentation

32-41

that harbors the young man’s ashes. Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: This song addresses the moon (intimately in the second person) describing how in better times her light shone down on a happy boy32—the poems’ subtitles are even more revealing: An der Mond [To the moon] or Klage an den Mond [Complaint to the moon]. But now, while she still shines, things have changed, and the youth is sad and unwell. Soon the moon will shed her silver light on the tomb that holds his ashes. “Throughout the tones must be polished, and, insofar as is possible, sustained and legato.” Here the tempo gets slower and slower. 32 The poet, Ludwig Hölty, died aged twenty-seven from consumption (tuberculosis). 30 31

252

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations Commentary: E major, heard in its third praxis, is used in the first section of the song to invoke night and the moon while happy memories of bygone days are recalled. This choice colors the sentiments being expressed by adumbrating the song’s tragic conclusion. An affective tonicization of C-sharp minor in m. 7 paints the word “Kühlung” (coolness) ominously presaging his cold body soon to lie in the grave. Beethoven modulated to tenderly lamenting E minor (m. 14) as the youth recounts how unwell he is. As he refers to himself as “Jüngling” (young man) in m. 19, a brief affective tonicization of the mediant minor, G minor—in its first praxis of discontent, despair and resentment—reveals just how he is feeling, entirely understandable for one so young at death’s door. There is but one brief tonal respite in m. 26, as an affective tonicization of the submediant (C major)—the key of purity and innocence—is used to depict the mention of “dein Silberschein” (your silver light), before the desolation returns, maintained until the end in the forlorn coda. William Wennington La tiranna, WoO 125, 1798 Andante, E[ , 2/4 ABACoda Mm. Text/section 1-8 9-16 16-18 18-22 21-22 22-30 31-35 36-42

Fortepiano prelude Ah grief to think! ah woe to name, the doom that fate has destin’d mine! Fortepiano interlude Forbid to fan my wayward flame, and, slave to silence, hopeless pine. Imperious fair! in fatal hour I mark’d the vivid lightnings roll that gave to know thy ruthless pow’r,

42-50

and gleam’d destruction on my soul!

52-73

Repeat of mm. 9-30

73-78 78-81

hopeless pine! Fortepiano postlude

Key

Affect

E[

unhappy love

B[ B[ b[ E[ c g

celebratory ironic (second praxis) heartrending pain unhappy love forceful, dramatic discontent, resentment

c

forceful, dramatic

E[

unhappy love

Synopsis: The text recounts the lot of a hen-pecked husband bemoaning the fact that he is ruled by La tiranna, whose “ruthless pow’r” is vividly depicted in the B section.

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The Key to Beethoven

Commentary: The affective use of tonality matches the A–B–A formal scheme. The A-section is in E-flat major, reflecting the third praxis of unhappy love in this key, supported by the movement heading andante and dynamic marking of piano, all indicative of the poor man’s acceptance of his fate. In the B section the husband’s anger grows. Sketches for this work indicated Beethoven’s initial idea here was to use the remote key of E-flat minor, yet in the final version he reconsidered, deeming it too strong on the affective spectrum for sentiments such as these.33 Instead he plumped for the shadow key of C minor, in its forceful and dramatic third praxis, a more fitting affective choice. Mit einem gemalten Band, Op. 83, No. 3, 1810 Leichtlich und mit Grazie vorgetragen, F, 2/2

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ABACoda

Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-15

Small flowers, small leaves are strewn for me with a light hand by good young gods of Spring, trifling with an airy ribbon. Zephyr, put it on your wing, loop it around my sweetheart’s dress;

F

pastoral trope

15-27 27-47

and so she steps in front of a mirror, in all her liveliness, sees herself surrounded with roses, herself like a young rose. One glance, beloved life, and I am rewarded enough. May you feel what this heart feels, freely extend your hand to me, and

B[

lovely, amoroso

F

pastoral trope



let this ribbon that joins us be no weak ribbon of roses.

Synopsis: This song is inspired by a painted ribbon. It opens by describing the young gods of the spring strewing flowers and leaves so that the poet can decorate this ribbon. He beseeches the god Zephyr to entwine it with his sweetheart’s dress so that she looks fine.34 He implores her to allow him just a single look, begging her to experience what he feels and to reach out to him so that their bond be not only a weak ribbon of roses.

33 Alan Tyson, “Beethoven’s English Canzonetta,” Musical Times 1536 (1971): 122. This information was gleaned from the Grasnick 1 Sketchbook, which dates from 1798-99. 34 Zephyr (Ζέφυρος) was the Greek god of the west wind.

254

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations Commentary: Beethoven’s key of choice here was F major, evoking the pastoral trope that is supported by a dynamic marking of pianissimo, a character marking of Leichtlich und mit Grazie vortragen (To be performed with a light touch and gracefully), and a limpid fortepiano accompaniment of triplet eighth-notes. There is an affective modulation to B-flat major from mm. 16-27, and in a song such as this, where custom would expect that there be a modulation to the dominant, it is significant that the sole key change is to the subdominant. This is yet further evidence that Beethoven was thinking affectively here rather than in terms of an expected formal structure.35 Odi l’aura che dolce sospira, Op. 82, No. 5, 180936 Pietro Metastasio Andante vivace, E, 3/8 ABABCC Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-10 Soprano: Listen to the breeze that sweetly sighs, as it stirs the branches and passes on, 11-21 if you understand it, it speaks to you of love. Tenor: Listen to the wave that noisily wanders; 22-27 while it groaningly pushes against its banks, 28-33 if you understand it, it complains of love. 34-58 Duet: Whoever feels that emotion

E

love: happy/hopeless

B

strong passion

E

love: happy/hopeless

b

unrequited love

E

love: happy/hopeless



in his heart, knows by experience



whether it be harmful or helpful, if it cause delight or pain.

Synopsis: An exhortation to listen to the gentle, softly-sighing breeze and to the stream that pushes against its banks, for they both speak to us of love. Whoever feels love knows that it is a mixed blessing that can cause both pleasure and pain. Commentary: Odi l’aura che dolce sospira opens with a naturalistic image of a gentle breeze in the key of E major, the high, shimmering thirty-second-note accom35 It is interesting to note that the first ten notes of this melody (mm. 1-3) are identical with the first ten notes of Beethoven’s “Ode to Joy” theme, although the rhythm and key are different. This illustrates just how important tonal choice can be in projecting the meaning of a melody. 36 Ludwig van Beethoven, trans. anon, Songs for Solo Voice and Piano (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1986), p. xi.

255

The Key to Beethoven

paniment, marked pianissimo and andante vivace. This image is strengthened by an affective modulation to B major in recitative style as the word “amor” (love) is first mentioned (mm. 11-21). From mm. 29-33, there is an affective modulation to B minor in its second affective praxis as the text states “se l’intendi, si lagna d’amor” (if you understand it, it complains of love). E major returns in m. 34 at the words “Quell’ affetto chi sentenel petto, saper prova se nuoce, se giova, se diletto produceo dolor” (Whoever feels that emotion in his heart knows by experience whether it is harmful or helpful, if it cause delight or pain). The affect of delight is affirmed by a scalar passage in the right hand of the accompaniment in m. 37. Resignation, WoO 149, 1817 Paul Graf von Haugwitz In gehender Bewegung, D, 3/837 ABA1 Mm. Text/section

Key

Affect

1-4 12-15 16-20 20 21-23 23-26

Fortepiano prelude D tender love Go out, my light! What you are D ironic (second praxis) lacking, that is now gone; in this place you can not find it again! You must now break your bonds. b ended love (second praxis) Once you used to burn so merrily, C light, celebration to burn, c plaintive now the air has been wrestled from G ironic (first praxis) you; when this is gone the flame goes a languishing

26-28 29-45 45-49

it seeks—and does not find— unstable go out my light! What you are D lacking, that is now gone; in this place you can not find it again! You must now break your bonds. Go out my light! Fortepiano postlude

unstable highly expressive ironic (second praxis)

37 This song contains one of Beethoven’s most detailed performance directions: “Mit inniger Empfindung, jedoch entschlossen, wohl akzentuiert und sprechend vortragen” (With intimate feeling, yet resolutely, well accented, and sung as though spoken), trans. Richard Kramer. Kramer notes that Beethoven wrote it on the inside cover of the Boldrini Sketchbook, and that Nottebohm, who personally examined it before its disappearance around 1890, mentioned that “inniger” (intimate) seems to have been added a little later and that it did not appear in the published version of the song. Kramer, “Lisch aus, mein Licht: Song, Fugue, and the Symptoms of a Late Style,” in Unfinished Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 285-301.

256

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations Synopsis: The extinguishing of a light is a metaphor for a love that has ended, hence the song’s title Resignation. Commentary: D major is employed ironically in its second praxis to represent what is missing. True feelings of pain are finally acknowledged at the mention of “Du mußt nun los dich binden” (you must now break your bonds) with an affective modulation to B minor, which Beethoven used to depict love that is over (mm. 12-15). The second stanza ushers in a sudden change of sentiment, as the poet reflects fondly on his former years and describes this flame burning merrily, the first praxis of C major reflecting light and rejoicing here. Following this, an affective modulation to G major (ironic, first praxis, enhanced by E-flats from the tonic minor in a diminished seventh harmony) depicts the flame’s being deprived of air. Another affective modulation to A minor occurs from mm. 23-26 at the words “wenn diese fortgewehet, die Flamme irregehet” (when this [air] is gone, the flame goes astray), matching directly Schubart’s first depiction of this key as “languishing [and] moving.” Then the tonality becomes intentionally unstable (mm. 26-29), in a highly expressive passage that reflects the meaning of the text—“sucht—findet nicht” (it seeks but finds not)—in what can be considered an ultimate affective device transcending key symbolism. At the reprise of the first stanza (m. 32) D major returns, and, in a move of sheer brilliance, Beethoven retained the tonic for the phrase “Du mußt nun los dich binden” (You must now break your bonds) rather than modulating to B minor, heightening to the extreme the sense of the irony at this climactic moment. Sehnsucht, Op. 83, No. 2, 1810 Allegretto, b, 6/8

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Strophic

Mm.

Key

Affect

b

unrequited love

Text/section

1-2 Fortepiano prelude 2-6 What pulls at my heart so? What drags me outdoors and twists and yanks me out of my room, my house?

7-8 How the clouds there are sailing D pastoral trope past the cliffs, 9-11 I long to go over them, I would like b unrequited love to go there very much! Stanzas two to four (mm. 15-49) follow a similar affective plan. 50-58 At once I appear as a glittering B strong, wild passions star. ‘What gleams up there so near and so far?’ And have you, 257

The Key to Beethoven 58-60

with astonishment, gazed on this light; I am lying at your feet, I am happy there! Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: What tugs at the heart so much that it drags the poet outside, so that he can fly like the clouds or a flock of ravens to the place where his beloved lives? Disguised as a songbird he sings to her, and, in his fantasy, she enjoys it. As she wanders during the sunset, he appears to her this time as a star, and as soon as she has seen it, he materializes in person, finally achieving happiness. Commentary: The second song in the Op. 83 set is a rare example of B minor being used as the primary tonality in a work by Beethoven, and fittingly so, for the opening section of the text is intensely disconsolate. Again he used this key in its second affective praxis to project unrequited love.38 The opening phrase, “Was zieht mir das Herz so?” (What tugs at my heart so?), is one of the most painful in the whole song, and this connecting of text and key affect is well matched. At m. 6 an affective modulation to D major—in pastoral guise—invokes the image of sailing clouds as a way for the poet to journey to his beloved. B minor returns at m. 9 as he expresses the impossible desire to go where the clouds are bound, the innuendo being that this cannot be, hence the return to the tonic. The next three stanzas follow the same tonal plan, again reflecting the meaning of the text (mm. 14-23, 26-35, and 38-47). Finally, in his fantasy he appears to her, and as he does so, Beethoven invoked modal mixture with an affective modulation to B major—described by Schubart as “strongly colored, announcing wild passions”—an entirely appropriate move up the affective spectrum that again fits the textual imagery perfectly. The Miller of Dee, WoO 157, No. 5, 1819 Allegro con brio, c/C, 6/8 Mm. 1-6 6-23

Unknown AA1BA2, Strophic

Text/section Key Fortepiano prelude c There was a jolly miller once, Lived on the River Dee; He work’d and sang from morn till night No lark more blithe than he; And this the burden of his song

Affect neutral39

38 This poem should not be confused with the earlier poem of the same name already discussed from Goethe’s Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre.

This key was not chosen by Beethoven.

39

258

Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations For ever used to be: I care for nobody, no, not I, If nobody cares for me. 23-28 Fortepiano interlude 29-36 6-23 The reason why he was so blithe, He once did thus unfold: The bread I eat my hands have earn’d, I covet no man’s gold; I do not fear next quarter day; I debt to none I be, I care for nobody, no, not I, If nobody cares for me. 23-28 Fortepiano interlude 29-36 6-23 So let us his example take, And be from malice free; Let every one his neighbor serve, As served he’d like to be. And merrily push the can about, And drink and sing with glee: If he cares a doit40 for us, Why not a doit care we. 23-28 Fortepiano postlude 29-38

C c

pure, innocent neutral

C c

pure, innocent neutral

C

pure, innocent

Synopsis: The text describes the life enjoyed by this jolly miller, a self-sufficient man not entangled in emotional relationships, who earns enough to support himself and still gives a little to the poor. The final stanza functions as an exhortation to humanity to model itself on this miller’s exemplary life. Commentary: Barry Cooper points out that Beethoven had been given the subject of this song, Thomson having sent him the phrase “The Happy Miller.”41 However, the minor mode of the melody presented Beethoven with a problem. Regardless of where he might have transposed it, achieving an appropriate level of jollity would be difficult given the fact that the he was dealing with a minor key. His solution to this conundrum was to add a modally-mixed interlude to each verse (from m. 29) that contained an affective modulation to C major—a characteristically Beethovenian move! This simultaneously counteracts the af”Doit” means trifle. Barry Cooper, Beethoven’s Folksong Settings (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), pp, 82-83.

40 41

259

The Key to Beethoven

fect of C minor by lifting the spirit of the song while also reflecting the praxis of innocence and purity in this key, entirely fitting for a protagonist so unsullied by the vicissitudes of daily life. There is, therefore, only one affective connection tobe found here for the final eight measures of the song. In this context, C minor can be viewed as a neutral key, and one not chosen by Beethoven. Wonne der Wehmut, Op. 83, No. 1, 181042 Andante espressivo, E, 2/4

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Through-composed

Mm.

Text/section

Key

Affect

1-6

Be not dry, be not dry, tears of

E

tender love



everlasting love! Be not dry!

6-8

Ah! even to the half-dry eye

B

structural

8-10

how desolate, how dead the world

e

tender lamenting

10-11 appears!

G

ironic

12 13-15 16-22 22-23

a e E

plaintive tender lamenting tender love

Be not dry, be not dry, tears of unhappy love! Be not dry, tears of unhappy love, be not dry! Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: Tears of eternal, requited love are contrasted with the tears of an unhappy love now ended. Neither set of tears should be dried. Commentary: E major is used here in its second affective praxis as the key of tender love. Beethoven intentionally employed modal mixture, juxtaposing E major with E minor, the key of gentle lamentation, to depict two contrasted emotional states found here through the affective use of tonality. He added further nuance by using the pictorialism of descending semi-staccato scales to depict falling tears, and text expression in the form of poignant sospiro on the word “nicht.”

42 This song is the first of Drei Gesänge von Goethe, and takes for its inspiration the sorrow Goethe experienced at his separation from Lili (Anna Elisabeth) Schönemann, to whom he was briefly engaged in 1775.

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Songs Containing Significant Affective Modulations Conclusion The primary difference between the songs considered here and those analyzed in earlier is that affective tonality can be seen as functioning both at the local level, in the form of affective modulations and tonicizations, as well as in the overall matching of tonic key and textual meaning for a song. Thus the principal affect of a song is projected by its tonic key, while the more detailed meaning of the text is achieved by the use of local tonal symbolism. This distinction is significant, for it paves the way for considering an affective change of key as a vehicle for projecting meaning, both in texted works and in instrumental repertoire.

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CHAPTER SIX

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys Adelaide, Op. 46 An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 An die Hoffnung, Op. 94 Bußlied, Op. 48, No.6 Der Wachtelschlag, WoO 129 Dimmi, ben mio, che m’ami, Op. 82, No. 1 Ein Selbstgespräch, WoO 114 Freudvoll und leidvoll, Op. 84, No. 4 L’amante impaziente, Op. 82, No. 3 L’amante impaziente, Op. 82, No. 4 Neue Liebe, neues Leben, Op. 75, No. 2 Seufzer eines Ungeliebten, WoO 118 T’intendo si, mio cor, Op. 82, No. 2

Introduction The sixth chapter introduces a final category of songs where Beethoven affirms the connections between text and key symbolism through the use of multiple modulations to remote or structurally unrelated keys. A small group of songs that are settings of simpler, strophic, narrative texts will also be discussed. In this set there are far fewer connections between key symbolism and meaning. Given the strophic nature of these narrative texts, it is unlikely that the affective characteristics of the first stanza would be expected to match the texts in subsequent verses. Adelaide, Op. 46, 1794 Larghetto, dolce, B[, 2/2

Friedrich von Matthisson Through-composed



Mm.

Text/section

Key B[

1-5 5-21

Fortepiano prelude amoroso, lovely Alone your friend wanders in the garden of spring, gently enveloped by magical light that shimmers through swaying blossoming boughs,

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Affect

The Key to Beethoven Adelaide! In the mirror-like stream, in the snow of the Alps, 21-23 in the golden clouds of sinking day, g gentle melancholy 24-27 in the fields of stars, your image F majestic shines, 27-28 Adelaide! C celebration 28-38 In the golden clouds of sinking day, F peaceful, melds to in the fields of stars, your image shines, second praxis, Adelaide! F melds to first praxis 38-41 Fortepiano interlude D[ soft, heavenly 42-48 Evening breezes whisper in the tender foliage, small silver bells of May murmur in the grass, 49-52 waves roar and nightingales sing, A[ heavenly 52-55 waves roar and nightingales sing: b[ discontent, gloom [ 55-62 Adelaide! Evening breezes whisper G heavenly vision, in the tender foliage, small silver magnificence bells of May murmur in the grass, 63-69 waves roar, and nightingales sing: b[ discontent, gloom Adelaide!

Allegro molto, B[, 2/2 70-72 73-77 78-81 81-101 106-9 110-11 112-15 116-19 120-21 122-33 134-46 147-50

Fortepiano interlude B[ bold, martial Someday, O miracle! a flower will Fortepiano interlude from the ashes of my heart. Clearly will it shimmer on every purple leaf: Adelaide! Adelaide! E[ love, heroism Adelaide! B[ bold, martial [ Someday, O miracle! b heart-rending pain someday, O miracle! D[ grief, darkness [ will bloom e black depression on my grave a flower from the ashes b[ pain, gloom of my heart. Clearly will it shimmer on every purple leaf: B[ bold, martial Adelaide! Adelaide! E[ love, heroism

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Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys 150-62 163-66 167-81 171-76 177-81

Clearly will it shimmer on every B[ bold, martial purple leaf, Adelaide! Adelaide! b[ pain, gloom Adelaide! B[ bold, martial, [ Fortepiano interlude B amoroso, lovely Adelaide!

Synopsis: A series of nature images is invoked to represent the vision of the poet’s distant, unattainable lover, Adelaide, culminating with the powerful emotive icon of a flower that blooms from the ashes of his heart on which will shine her name. Commentary: Matthisson’s four verses are written in what is known as the Sapphic stanza: four lines of eleven syllables are followed by a fifth line—an Adonic—containing five. This poetic structure is particularly significant when considering that the name “Adelaide” itself forms the Adonic. Matthisson repeated the Adonic only four times, yet Beethoven evoked it fourteen times, almost to the point of obsession. This poem resonated deeply in Beethoven’s heart, yet it was some years before he finally got round to writing to Matthisson to thank him for it, offering an apology for the delay.1 In this letter he expressed gratitude for “ihrer himmlische Adelaide” (your heavenly Adelaide), and heaven imagery is reflected in several choices of internal key relationships.2 This song is a further example of the recurring trope of the distant or unfulfilled beloved in Beethoven’s oeuvre. In 1805 the anonymous reviewer in the Berlinische musikalische Zeitung commented on the “due carattere” (two affections/ emotional states) it depicted, and made a point of highlighting “unique, meaningful modulations” it contained, an insight that affirms Beethoven’s use of tonal symbolism.3 The “due carattere” are, of course, the two praxes of B-flat major, signified by, among other things, the contrasted tempo markings of larghetto dolce e piano and allegro molto, the tessitura of the vocal line, and the style of the fortepiano accompaniment. The primary key of the first section is B-flat major, fittingly here Beethoven’s amoroso key, introduced in a tender fortepiano prelude. The key changes to F major at m. 24, an affective modulation that reflects the second praxis of this 1 It is interesting to note that this song was performed the very last time Beethoven appeared in public as pianist, on January 15, 1815, in a performance with Fritz Wild in the presence of Empress Elizabeth of Russia, the wife of Alexander I. 2 Ludwig van Beethoven: Briefwechsel Gesamtausgabe, ed. Sieghard Brandenburg, 7 vols (Munich: Henle, 1996), i, no. 47, p. 52; trans. The Letters of Beethoven, trans. and ed. Emily Anderson, 3 vols (London: Macmillan, 1961), i, no. 40, p. 41. 3 “Review,” Berlinische musikalische Zeitung 1 (1805), 9-10, trans. The Critical Reception of Beethoven’s Compositions by his German Contemporaries, ed. Wayne M. Senner (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), I: p. 220.

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key projecting majesty, one that is particularly suited for the phrase “im Gefilde der Sterne” (in the fields of stars). This affect is aptly projected by a flourish of throbbing fortissimo chords in the accompaniment that emphasize the vastness of God’s grandeur. An affective modulation to D-flat major follows (m. 39), an example of tonal symbolism expressing the soft, heavenly “Abendlüftchen” (evening breezes). The ensuing heavenly image of the nightingale’s song is introduced in A-flat major (second praxis), before an affective modulation to B-flat minor conjures up the poet’s eventual demise. Although death is not directly mentioned at this point in the text (mm. 52-55), its unspoken presence functions as a harbinger to a more extended passage—also in this key (mm. 12433)—where the poet’s grave is mentioned by name. This connection is formed through the use of the gloomy key of B-flat minor. The final painful cries of “Adelaide” are also set this key, replete with reiterated sospira in the fortepiano accompaniment. Even here, Beethoven uses a brief moment of modal mixture to project a feeling of hope in m. 67, where the vocal line employs a major joy motive in stark contrast to the surrounding minor sospira. All at once, everything changes. The allegro molto tempo heralds the second praxis of B-flat major, almost like a triumphal march, as the poet tells of how his earlier yearnings with reach their successful culmination after his death in the image of a flower blooming on his grave, “shimmering” the name “Adelaide!” The same reviewer saw this extreme contrast almost as a parody, although, with Beethoven’s use of the second praxis of B-flat major, it seems more like a vision.4 The poet’s dreams will only be fulfilled beyond the grave, and it is this fervent vision that inspires both poet and composer. A brief affective tonicization of E-flat major reflects the heroism of his finally achieving the much-desired union with Adelaide, although only in death. Yet even now, in the intensity of this vision, doubts surface thick and fast, and Beethoven used B-flat minor, D-flat major (second praxis, forte), and E-flat minor (mm. 112-133) to project these rapid changes of mood. Yet they too pass, and the mood of the opening of this section returns, reflecting the poet’s confidence that his vision will one day be a reality, and with it, the tonic in its second praxis is restored. E-flat major is achieved again (mm. 147-50) as the vocal line rises to a fortissimo g1 here, aptly reflecting the heroic associations of this key. The poet’s doubts are almost gone, only briefly returning before the climax of the song in mm. 167-71. As these pass, so too does Beethoven’s use of the bold, martial tradition of B-flat major, replaced in an instant with the loveliest of fortepiano postludes in the amoroso praxis of the tonic and a fervent calling of the beloved’s name one last time, that echoing the first time it was whispered (mm. 14-15).

Ibid., p. 221.

4

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Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98, 1816

Alois Jeitteles

Beethoven’s first fully-fledged song cycle is of a dimension quite beyond anything else he composed for solo voice and fortepiano, comprising a series of six poems of different meters, unified by a cyclical structure where the opening melody returns at the conclusion.5 The cycle concerns a poet separated from his beloved, speaking of happiness, sorrow, and a hoped-for eventual reunion. These poems contain extensive use of nature imagery, which may explain Beethoven’s attraction to the set. Table Five outlines the complete tonal plan of the cycle. Table Five: Tonal Plan in Op. 98 Song Title

Primary Keys

1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6:

E[ G/C/G A[/a[ A[ C E[

“Auf dem Hügel sitz’ ich, spähend” “Wo die Berge so blau” “Leichte Segler in der Höhen” “Diese wolken in der Höhen” “Es kehret der Maien, es bluhet die Au” “Nimm sie hin den, diese Lieder”

1: “Auf dem Hügel sitz’ ich, spähend” Strophic Ziemlich langsam und mit Ausdruck, E[, 3/4 Mm. 1-9 9-11 11-19 19-21 21-29

Text/section Key Affect On the hill I sit gazing into the blue, E[ sogno, unhappy love misty land, looking toward the far pastures where I found you, beloved. Fortepiano interlude Far am I parted from you; separating us are mountain and valley between us and our peace, our happiness and our sorrow. Fortepiano interlude Ah, can you not see the gaze that hurries so ardently to you,

For further information on the form and thematic transformations in this work, see Christopher Reynolds, “The Representational Impulse in Late Beethoven. I: An die ferne Geliebte,” Acta musicologica 60 (1988): 43-61.

5

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The Key to Beethoven 29-31 31-39 39-41 41-49 49-57

and the sighs, they are blown away in the space that separates us? Fortepiano interlude Will nothing reach you any more then, nothing be love’s messenger? I will sing, I will sing songs that tell you of my pain! Fortepiano interlude For, at the sound of songs, every space and every time recedes, and a loving heart reaches what a loving heart has blessed! Fortepiano interlude

E[

love and devotion

E[ to G love/devotion to pastoral

Synopsis: The poet reminisces as he looks toward the meadow where he first met his beloved. Unfortunately, she cannot see his glances, and he wonders what will be the messenger to convey his feelings? To console himself he gives voice to his sadness through the medium of song, through which he promises to reach her. Commentary: The tempo, character indication, and dynamic marking are all signifiers of the sogno praxis of E-flat major as projecting unfulfilled love, as the poet invokes the memory of where he first met his beloved.6 Perhaps most significant in this regard is the falling chromatic line in the vocal part, first heard in m. 6, which includes g[1—part of the parallel minor—as the verses progress, a fact that is so often indicative of this praxis. This praxis is also reflected in the fortepiano interlude at mm. 9-11— marked to be played expressively by Beethoven in both German and Italian (ausdrucksvoll, espressivo) and also decrescendo. As the verses progress, the sogno praxis in E-flat becomes ever more apparent, with the inclusion of more overt diminished seventh harmonies (mm. 16, 26, 36) when the text gradually becomes more bitter. Finally, in verse five, the mood lifts, and E-flat major is used for the first time in its second praxis—the signifier of love—as Beethoven sets what could be considered his personal emotional credo: “und ein liebend Herz erreichet was ein liebend Herz geweiht!” (and a loving heart reaches what a loving heart has blessed). The poet’s heartbeat quickens as the tempo is ratcheted up nach und nach geschwinder and, at long last, there is a crescendo to forte from m. 45, all means by which his passion is projected.7

John Wilson draws the connection between this usage of E-flat major and the aria d’affetto, noting that the range of the song frequently emphasizes the tetrachord B[ to E[. Wilson, p. 121. 7 Joseph Kerman proposed that this final stanza was added by Beethoven himself, and the affective analysis outlined above supports this assumption. See “An die ferne Geliebte,” in Beethoven Studies, ed. Alan Tyson (New York, Norton, 1973), pp. 123-57. More recent authors have challenged this theory. 6

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Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys Example Seven. An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98, mm. 6-7.

2: “Wo die Berge so blau” Strophic Poco allegretto, G/C/G, 6/8

Mm. 57-70 70-85

Text/section Where the mountains so blue look down out of misty grey, where the sun fades, where the cloud moves over, I would like to be! There in the still valley suffering and sorrow are silent; where, quietly in the rock, the primrose

Key

Affect

G

ironic (first praxis)

C

purity, innocence

meditates, the wind blows so softly, I would like to be! 86-91 There to the thoughtful forest, love’s G ironic (first praxis) power drives me by inner pain, 91-93 by inner pain. g discontent 93-100 Ah, I would not be drawn from here, G ironic (first praxis) could I be, dearest, by you eternally! 100-03 Fortepiano interlude G to A[ ironic (first praxis) to heavenly

Synopsis: The poet dreams of places he might be together with his beloved eternally. In his mind, he journeys first to the misty grey mountains and thence to the silent valley below. Yet these musings remain but dreams as his inner pain forces him off alone to the forest, and he muses he would never be drawn there were they together forever. Commentary: The transition is seamlessly achieved through two tonic chords (m. 53), functioning as implied augmented sixth chords, but with B[ and C\ 269

The Key to Beethoven

omitted, which, in retrospect, effect a modulation to G major (m. 54). Dual layers of meaning can again be observed here when Schubart’s definition of this key is examined. The first is literal: “everything rustic, idyllic and lyrical,” the second ironic: “every calm and satisfied passion,” a description of exactly the situation that the poet wishes were the case. The compound duple meter, and the pianissimo dynamic are both signifiers of the ensuing pastoral scene. From mm. 72-85, there is a modulation to C major, reflecting the praxis of purity and innocence. The key line here is “schweigen Schmerzen und Qual” (suffering and sorrow are silent). It is as if the protagonist is longing for an emotional ground zero, a time before he was burdened by the feelings that now permeate his breast. In the third stanza, G major returns, and, as if to wrench the music out of the stasis of verse two—both literal and emotional—the tempo increases nach geschwinder to ziemlich geschwind, as he recounts setting off to contemplate love in the forest. Not just love, however, but also “innere Pein” (inner pain) are contemplated, tellingly depicted by an affective key change to G minor—the key of discontent and resentment—supported by markings of sforzando and poco adagio and diminished seventh harmony. Yet the former affect is restored for the final phrase as he dreams of never leaving if he could be with his beloved forever. 3: “Leichte Segler in der Höhen”

Strophic

Allegro assai, A[/a[, 4/4 Mm. 104-11 112-13 114-21 122-23 124-31 132-33 134-41

Text/section Key Affect Light sailing clouds in the heights A[ ironic (second praxis) and you, little brook small and narrow: can my beloved you espy, greet her from me a thousand times! Fortepiano interlude See her walking then, you clouds, thoughtfully into the quiet valley, let my image appear before her in the airy hall of heaven. Fortepiano interlude If she stands near the bushes, now a[ deepest depression, misery fallow and bare in autumn, cry to her what has happened to me, pour out, little bird, my torment! Fortepiano interlude a[ deepest depression Quiet west winds, as you blow

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Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys 142-43 144-53 153-55

carry to my heart’s choice my sighs, that disappear as the sun’s last ray. Fortepiano interlude Whisper to her my love’s imploring, let her, O small, narrow little brook, in your waves truly see my tears without number. Transition A[ heavenly Fortepiano with vocal upper pedal point

Synopsis: The third song again uses nature imagery—in this case the light clouds and the narrow brook—to function as a messenger to the poet’s beloved. If they find her, he asks that they pour out his torment to her. He asks the wind to deliver his sighs to her and whisper his declaration of love, and that the small brook let her see his countless tears in its ripples. Commentary: The affective tonal structure of this song is complex. In A-flat major there are two contrasting affective praxes, both of which were familiar to Beethoven. In the first it serves as the key of darkness and, on occasion, the grave, while in the second it is heavenly, sweet, and tender. It is hard to imagine a starker contrast. In the present context, its use in stanzas one and two reflects the second praxis, heaven itself being directly mentioned—“in dem luft’gen Himmelssaal” (in the airy hall of heaven). Yet this use conceals beneath it a layer that reflects the poet’s true feelings as seen in the darkness of the first praxis, feelings that are simmering just beneath the surface and are about to be unleashed through the vehicle of an affective modulation to A-flat minor (verses three to five). All of the pent-up emotion and irony burst forth at this point as the level of expression zooms off the affective spectrum. As this emotional dam breaks, the poet asks the little bird to pour out his torment; this eruption is depicted in a striking manner in mm. 129-31 with diminished seventh and Neapolitan harmony making it powerfully expressive. A similar affective scheme is followed in the next two verses. At m. 150 “meine Tränen” (my tears) Beethoven added more weight to the sentiment by employing more forceful root position chords. The poet’s sense of desolation is now truly complete.

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4: “Diese Wolken in der Höhen” Strophic Nicht geschwinde, angenehm und mit viel Empfindung, A[, 6/8 Mm. 155-64 164-66 166-75 175-77 177-88 188-89

Text/section Key Affect These clouds in the heights, these A[ ironic (second praxis) birds happily migrating will see you, O beloved. “Take me with you in airy flight!” Fortepiano interlude These west winds will act playfully around your cheek and breast, and tousle your silky curls. “Oh to share with you this pleasure!” Fortepiano interlude From these hills to you the little stream busily hurries.— “if her image is reflected in you, flow back then without delay! yes, without delay! c tender, longing

Synopsis: Just as a storm can quickly dissipate, so too tears are dried and the images of clouds and brook resurface once more. Together with small birds and the wind, all are able to touch his beloved in some way. If her image is reflected in the brook, he urges it to flow back to him as soon as possible. Commentary: A-flat major returns in a seamless connection with the previous song, manifesting the same tonal symbolism. The second praxis in A-flat major is again simultaneously contrasted with the deeper layer of sadness lurking just beneath the surface. 5: “Es kehret der Maien, es blühet die Au” Vivace, C, 4/4

Strophic

Mm. Text/section 190-203 Fortepiano interlude 202-7 May returns, the meadow blossoms, the breezes blow so gently, so lukewarm, 208-10 the babbling brooks now run; 210-14 the swallow returns to the hospitable roof, so busily she builds her bridal chamber,

Key C

Affect innocence, purity

a F

gentle melancholy pastoral images

272

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys 214-18 219-21 221-25 226-28 228-32 232-36 236-39 239-43 244-46 247-50 250-54 254-56 256-57

love shall dwell therein. C Fortepiano interlude Busily she brings from here and there many soft pieces for her bridal bed, many warm pieces for the little ones. a Now the couple live so faithfully F together, what winter has separated, now May unites, those that love spring C he knows how to unite. Fortepiano interlude May returns, the meadow blooms the breezes blow so gentle, so mild, only I cannot leave this place. a When spring unites all things that F love, only for our love no spring appears, and tears are all its prize, C yes, all its prize. c Fortepiano interlude

innocence, purity

gentle melancholy pastoral images innocence, purity

gentle melancholy pastoral images innocence, purity tender, plaintive

Synopsis: All of nature is renewing itself in springtime. The swallows blissfully reunite after winter to build their warm, downy nest. Only the poet and his beloved cannot be united. Yet even in this naturalistic idyll, or perhaps because of it, his true feelings emerge, as the poet describes his own dissatisfaction, observing that it is only for his love that no spring appears. Commentary: The scene is being set for a depiction of the month of May, replete with naturalistic imagery, including bird-calls and pedal points reminiscent of the “Szene am Bach” in the Pastoral Symphony. This forms the transition into the fifth song, where the poet recounts how all of nature is renewing itself in the springtime. Beethoven selects C major to emphasize the purity and innocence of this renewal, supported by F major to project a more traditional pastoral trope. As the poet sings of the running, chattering brooks—a positive, happy image—his sad yearning resurfaces, brought out initially by the use of A minor (mm. 207-10). The verse continues and the keys of C major and F major alternate. Yet it is only when he describes his own dissatisfaction—“nur ich kann nicht ziehen von hinnen” (only I cannot leave from here)—that A minor returns (mm. 244-46), with ritardando and espressivo markings enhancing the yearning sense of tender sorrow. As the stanza draws to a close, his bitterness resurfaces as he observes that it is only for their love that no spring appears “und Tränen sind all ihr Gewinnen” (and tears are all its prize). The first time this phrase is sung (mm. 250-54), it is in C major, as if the poet is actively willing all the positive feelings he has just described to support him. Then at once 273

The Key to Beethoven

reality sets in, and the phrase is repeated, this time in C minor, projecting the affect of tender longing (mm. 254-57). Here Beethoven used his favored device of modal mixture to bring out the depth of this mood change. 6: “Nimm sie hin denn, diese Lieder”

ABA1

Andante con moto e cantabile, E[, 2/4 Mm. 258-65 266-69 270-71 272-76 277-80 280-83 283-95

Text/section Fortepiano introduction Take them with you, these songs that I sang to you, beloved, sing them in the evenings again to the sweet sounds of the lute. When twilight’s red then moves to the calm, blue lake, and its last ray ceases to glow behind those mountain tops; and you sing what I have sung, what artlessly has sounded from my heart, conscious only of its longing.

E[

Key

Affect sogno, unhappy love

B[ E[

lovely sogno, unhappy love

c

lament, pathos

B[ E[

lovely sogno, unhappy love

Synopsis: The poet offers his beloved “diese Lieder” (these songs) and hopes she too will sing them. It is made clear that they will never again be together, for he hopes that she will sing them as the sun is setting behind the mountain peak—carrying them with her until her death. Commentary: The home key of E-flat major returns once more in its sogno praxis as the poet imagines being joined to his beloved through music. To imbue the death metaphor with a deeper sense of pathos, there is an affective modulation to its shadow key of C minor (mm. 277-80), as the climax is reached. Yet, as the poet sings “hinter jener Bergeshöh” (behind that hilltop), the consoling key of B-flat major appears (m. 281), concluding the death metaphor and indicative of the better place the poet now has reached. Ziemlich langsam und mit Ausdruck, 3/4

Return of theme from first song

Mm. Text/section Key 295-97 Fortepiano interlude E[ 297-342 Then, in the presence of these songs, E[ what separates us so far yields, and

274

Affect love, devotion love, devotion, melding to heroic

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys

a loving heart obtains what a loving heart has blessed.

Synopsis: In the face of these songs, all that has kept them apart melts away, and a loving heart achieves what it has been dedicated to. Commentary: The opening theme of the cycle now returns in a moment of heartrending intensity as the third affective practice of E-flat major melds into the second, reflecting love and devotion, and the gift of song to the beloved takes on a power all of its own. The tempo quickens, reaching allegro molto e con brio as their love is affirmed in now heroic E-flat major (first affective praxis), albeit over death’s divide. The final phrase of the vocal line rises to a register rarely used in the cycle but now sung forte several times, emphasizing this newfound joy with the major third g1-e[1, both supportive of heroic E-flat major here. An die Hoffnung, Op. 94, 1815 Poco sostenuto, various, 2/28

Christoph August Tiedge Recitative and da capo aria

Mm. Text/section Key Affect Recitative 1-5 Fortepiano prelude b[ discontent, gloom 11 If there be a God? Will he one day fulfill what my longing 11-19 weepingly promises itself ? unstable highly expressive Whether this mysterious being will reveal himself at all before any world court? 20-26 Mankind must hope! He would not ask! D triumph

Da capo aria 27-34 34-36 36-39

You who so gladly celebrate on G sacred nights, and gently and softly over grief spread a veil that tortures a tender soul, O Hope! Let the patient sufferer, uplifted C by you, feel that up above, an angel G counts his tears! O Hope!

calm, gentle, pastoral topos

pure, innocent calm, gentle

This is the only one of Beethoven’s songs to end in a different key. It begins in b[ and ending in G.

8

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The Key to Beethoven 39-41 Let the patient sufferer, uplifted by you, C pure, innocent 41-46 feel that up above, an angel counts his G calm, gentle tears. 46-47 Fortepiano interlude E[ sogno, unhappy love 48-49 When loved voices, long since died away, are silent; 50-51 when, beneath dead branches, b[ discontent, gloom 51-52 in desolation f desolate 52-53 memory sits: c pathos 53-54 then approach, approach C triumph, strength 55-56 where your forsaken one mourns, g discontent and, surrounded by the gloom of midnight, 57-62 leans upon sunken urns. And if he d rage, stormy look up, his fate to denounce, when, in his final days, 62 the last rays sink, V[9 of g highly expressive 63-65 then let him, at the edge of his B heavenly vision 65-68 earthly dreams, behold the C triumph celebration radiance of a cloud’s edge, light from a nearby sun, 69-71 behold the sun! G calm, satisfied passion 72-88 Da capo reprise of mm. 29-46 89 O Hope!

Synopsis: If God exists, will he one day fulfill human longing; will he show himself to humanity—mankind can but hope. Hope sweetens the bitter pill of grief, allowing the patient sufferer to feel supported by an angel who counts his tears. Hope brings comfort to the desolation of one in mourning. If the patient sufferer confronts Fate in his final days, let him see Hope in a sunlit cloud. Commentary: A recitative marked poco sostenuto (mm. 1-26) in the remote key of B-flat minor prepares the listener for the profound theological nature of the first vocal entry: “Ob ein Gott sei?” (If there be a God?). Paul Reid rightly notes just how close a fit this is to Schubart’s characterization of this key: “mocking God and the world.”9 At no point from mm. 10-20 does a key establish itself, as these existential profundities are contemplated. Beethoven realized the need to step beyond the traditional boundaries of key symbolism, using tonal instability as the ultimate affective tool with which to deal with a question so profound. Paul Reid, The Beethoven Song Companion (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), p. 65. 9

276

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys The mood changes as D major is established and the poet declaims “Hoffen soll der Mensch! Er frage nicht!” (Mankind must hope! He would not ask!), in a dramatic forte outburst. The affect is reinforced by the key of triumph and rejoicing which Reid describes as “the clarity of D major.”10 As the aria itself begins (mm. 27-46), the poet addresses Hope in the second person, as one who sweetens the bitter pill of grief, allowing the patient sufferer to feel that an angel will count his tears. Beginning in m. 27, G major is established, exuding affective qualities of calm and gentleness indicative of the pastoral topos. The key change serves as an emotional counterbalance to the tonal instability that has gone before, during which two brief affective tonicizations of C major highlight the innocence of “der Dulder” (the patient sufferer). Another passage of recitative follows from mm. 47-62; once again the emotional content of the text changes as it tells of bereavement and loss, and summons Hope to approach where the bereaved one mourns. E-flat major, the key of unhappy love, is used from mm. 47-50. B-flat minor returns briefly (mm. 50- 51) as the text tells of “ausgestorbnen Zweigen” (dead branches), this image enhanced by the use of diminished seventh harmony. At once the tonality changes to F minor—indicative of despair (mm. 51-52)—including an affective sospiro at the mention of desolation before cadencing in C minor at m. 52. From an affective standpoint, this is undoubtedly a remarkable passage. Each of these keys is used briefly to emphasize an individual nuance in the text, nuances which are themselves enhanced by the use of other expressive devices. As the poem exhorts Hope in the second person, “nahe dich, nahe dich” (approach, approach), there is an affective modulation to C major, reflecting its first praxis of triumph, strength, and light. The line rises in a declamatory style (g1-c2-g1g1-e2) outlining the C major triad in fanfare-like fashion almost in the manner of a deus ex machina. However, at the mention of “Verlaßner” (forsaken one), a chord of A-flat major in first inversion is introduced. It functions both structurally and affectively—becoming a Neapolitan sixth chord in the desperate key of G minor—as the location of the mourner is described. It is simultaneously an example of depictive harmony, the connotations of gloom and death connected with A-flat major enhancing the meaning here. At m. 58, D minor—used here as the key of rage in its third praxis— ushers in an angry condemnation, beginning with a unison pianissimo and building to a dramatic sforzando on “anzuklagen” (to denounce). The harmony becomes deliberately unstable once more at this, the dénouement of the song. Beethoven conjured up a dominant minor ninth of G minor (V[9) to depict “die letzten Strahlen untergehn” (the last rays sink), again illustrating skill in managing such affective chromaticism at the moment at which the outcome of the story could go either way. All at once in m. 63 everything changes, as the Ibid.

10

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The Key to Beethoven

planned cadence in G is evaded with a resolution to the remote key of B-major, a completely unexpected move on Beethoven’s part as this affective rollercoaster ride continues. This gesture invokes the second affective praxis in this key, as the text describes a transcendent vision of Hope. Beethoven avoided G major here, which, from an affective viewpoint, would be far too weak because the protagonist has been through the gamut of emotions and his heart is still beating fast! As the emotional temperature subsides, C major returns in its soothing first praxis, heralding “das Leuchten eines Wolkensaumes” (the radiance of a cloud’s edge) and the sense of celebration that Hope will indeed prevail. The da capo reprise from mm. 72-88 is an exact repetition, and the shortest of codas is added as the poet whispers “O Hoffnung!” (O Hope) one last time. Bußlied, Op. 48, No. 6, 1802

Christian Fürchtegott Gellert



The contrast between the two sections of this song—the last in the Gellert Lieder—reflects closely the structure of Psalm 51, Gellert’s inspiration here, where verses one to eight deal with the penitent sinner, and verses nine to twenty with assurance of salvation.11 “An dir allein hab’ ich gesündigt” Poco adagio, a, 3/4

ABA1



Mm. 1-5 6-19

Text/section Against you, against you only have I sinned, and have often done evil before you. You see the guilt that declares

a

Key

Affect plaintive, sorrowful

e

intense lamentation

20-32 33-35 35-47

a curse on me; God, see also my suffering, my wretchedness. You are my plea, my sighs are not hidden and my tears are before you. Ah a plaintive, sorrowful God, my God, how long should I suffer? How long will you withdraw yourself from me? Lord, treat me not according to my sins, repay me repay me not according to my d gloom guilt. I seek you; a plaintive, sorrowful let me find your face, O God of forbearance and patience.

Psalm 51 (50 in the Latin Vulgate), Miserere mei, Deus. (Have mercy upon me, O God).

11

278

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys Commentary: Ferdinand Hand actually mentioned Bußlied by name, suggesting that “The feeling of repentance cannot find a more appropriate voice than it does in ‘An dir allein hab’ ich gesündigt.’”12 From mm. 8-15, there is an affective modulation to E minor—in this case in its second praxis of intense lamentation—where the text describes the poet’s suffering in strong terms. This is made more potent by an affective sospiro, c2-b1, to depict the word “Jammer” (wretchedness). “Früh woll’st du mich mit deine Gnade füllen” Strophic Variation CC1C2Coda Allegro ma non troppo, A, 3/4 Mm. Text/section 48-51 Fortepiano introduction 52-55 56-59 Early may you fill me with your grace, 60-63 God, Father of mercy. 63-76 Make me rejoice for your name’s sake; you are a God who gladly helps.

Key A E A E A

Affect trust in God tender, loving trust in God tender, loving trust in God

E A

tender, loving trust in God

94-97 me on the right path. E 97-108 He hears my cry, the Lord hears A my prayer, and takes my soul to himself.

tender, loving trust in God

108-11 The Lord hears my cry, and takes 111-13 my soul to himself.

victory, rejoicing trust in God.

In your way again let me happily walk 77-80 80-94

and teach me your holy law, your holy law, to do daily what is

well-pleasing in your sight; you are my God, I am your servant. Lord, my protector, hurry to my aid and lead

D A

Commentary: Beethoven employed a mixed modal relationship in this song to reflect the contrasting affects in the text—plaintive sorrow versus trust in God. The modulation to D major (mm. 108-11) is affective, signifying the sense of “victory-rejoicing” characterized by the first affective praxis in D so aptly described by many writers.13 This is clearly sybolized in the triumphant forte arpeggiation in the right hand of the fortepiano (mm. 110-12). Ferdinand Hand, Ästhetik der Tonkunst (Leipzig: Hochhausen, 1837), i, 219, trans. Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, 2nd ed. (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), p. 287. 13 See Paul M. Ellison, “Affective Organization in Beethoven’s Gellert Lieder, Opus 48,” The Beethoven Journal 25 (Summer 2010): 30. 12

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The Key to Beethoven

Der Wachtelschlag, WoO 129, 1803 Larghetto, F, 2/4

Samuel Ferdinand Sauter Through-composed

Mm. Text/section Key Affect 1-4 Fortepiano prelude F pastoral imagery 11 Oh! It sounds forth there so beautifully: Fear God! Fear God! The quail calls to me in my ear. 11-14 Sitting in the green, surrounded by d gentle sorrow stalks, she cautions the listener 15-22 in the shady field: Love God! C pure Love God! He is so kind, so gentle. 23-26 Again sounds her jumping call: A[ heavenly, con amabilità 26-30 Praise God! Praise God! He is D[ heavenly able to reward you. 30-45 See the wonderful fruits in the field, A[ heavenly, con amabilità take it to heart, inhabitants of the world: Thank God! Thank God! 36-37 who nourishes D[ heavenly 37-43 and sustains you. A[ heavenly, con amabilità 43-45 Fortepiano interlude f stormy 45-47 When the Lord of nature frightens you with the weather: Beseech God! 48 Beseech God! g discontent 49-51 He calls you, he will spare the land. B[ lovely, kind 51-54 Fortepiano interlude 55-56 g discontent 56-57 When threats from warriors make you anxious: 58-61 Fortepiano interlude unstable highly expressive 61-67 Trust in God! Trust in God! See F pastoral imagery he is not absent long! 68-75 When the Lord of nature frightens f stormy you with the weather: Pray to God! Pray to God! 76-79 When threats from warriors make b[ discontent, gloom you anxious: 79-80 Trust in God! Trust in God! B[ lovely, kind 81-102 See he is not absent long. Beseech F calm, peace

280

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys God! Trust in God! See, he is not absent long! 102-07 Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: The text describes the quail’s cry and its many possible interpretations: “Fürchte Gott!,” “Liebe Gott!,” “Lobe Gott!,” Bitte Gott!,” and “Traute Gott!” Commentary: The first cry of “Fürchte Gott!” (Fear God) is harmonized by a B-flat minor chord: d[1–f1–b[1 in the context of F major, a powerful example of depictive harmony and a harbinger of the force of nature yet to be unleashed later in the song. Example Eight. Der Wachtelschlag, WoO 129, mm. 6-8.

At the moment when the poet’s cries morph into “Liebe Gott!,” (Love God!) an affective modulation to C major characterizes purity and innocence as the poet describes God as “so gütig, so mild” (so kind, so gentle). An affective modulation to A-flat major follows (m. 23), which is reflective of the second “heavenly” praxis in this key as the quail’s cry is reinterpreted as meaning “Lobe Gott!” (Praise God!) The ensuing description of the fear of natural disaster is presaged by a mini-storm, which rages affectively in the fortepiano accompaniment in the second praxis of F minor, the same key as the storm in the fourth movement of the Pastoral Symphony.14 As the poet states that God will spare the land, there is Beethoven was also involved in composing the first sketch for the second movement of the Sixth Symphony, “Scene am Bach,” at the time he composed this song, a movement which contains bird-calls in the coda. He used the same three-note dotted figure to depict the quail in both works. He was doubtless familiar with Haydn’s use of the same figure in the terzett in Die Jahreszeiten “Die düst’tren Wolken trennen sich” [The cloudy welkin now clears up], mm. 38-39, that is also played on the oboe. See David Wyn Jones, Beethoven: Pastoral Symphony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 23-24. 14

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The Key to Beethoven

an affective modulation to B-flat major, emphasized by a tonic pedal (mm. 5154), Schubart’s key of “hope, [of] aspiration for a better world.” Quasi-recitative writing returns in the key of G minor (mm. 56-58), where the text tells of dangers from warriors inciting fear, matching Schubart’s description almost exactly. Example 9. Der Wachtelslag, WoO 129, mm. 56-57.

An unstable choromatically rising sequence from mm. 58-61 heralds a climactic moment as the cry of “Traute Gott!” (Trust God!) is heard high in the register. The last verse is then reprised, set differently this time, though again employing stormy F minor to conjure up the image of the lord of nature. The contrast of the sospiro and joy motives to set the final two of the quail’s cries is highlighted as they are juxtaposed at the end of the song (mm. 94-97), all in the context of the tonic key. This is another sensitive example of Beethoven’s understanding of the affective power of modal mixture. Dimmi, ben mio, che m’ami, Op. 82, No. 1, 180915 Allegro moderato, A, 4/4

Unknown ABA1B1

Mm. 1-5 5-8

Key A

Affect tender passion

E

fiery passion

Text/section Tell me, my darling, that you love me, tell me that you are mine, and I will not envy the gods their divine power.

Ludwig van Beethoven, trans. anon, Songs for Solo Voice and Piano (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1986), p. xi. Scholars have speculated that this song was inspired by Therese Malfatti (1792-1851), with whom Beethoven was infatuated at the time.

15

282

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys 9-12 12-14 14-19 20-28 29-32 32-35 36-39 39-45

With a single glance, dear one, with a smile you open before me the paradise of my happiness. Tell me, my darling, that you love me, tell me that you are mine; with a single glance, dear one, with a smile you open before me the paradise of my happiness. With a single glance, dear one, with a smile, you open before me

A

tender passion

F C A

joy, confidence celebration, rejoicing tender passion

D

love with yearning

A

tender passion

D A

love with yearning tender passion

the paradise of my happiness. 45-48

Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: The poet emphasizes his abiding love for his “darling,” asking that if she will only affirm her love for him, the gods’ divine power will be as naught! With merely a smile she is able open paradise for him. Commentary: The overwhelming nature of the poet’s feelings attains an almost breathless quality by the mere repetition of the text, a quality that is reinforced by the perpetuum mobile of the fortepiano accompaniment for everything but the short quasi-recitative from mm. 9-12. This section leads into an unexpected affective modulation to C major, prepared with an affective tonicization of F major in mm. 13-14 as the second theme is introduced. Sixteenth-note motion and an increase in dynamics indicate the second praxis of F major, and the first of C here, both indicative of the poet’s excitement.16 Ein Selbstgespräch, WoO 114, c. 1793

Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim

No character marking, E, 2/4

Sonata Form

Mm. 1-6 6-9 10-12 12-16 16-20 20

Text/section I, who in flighty spirit have, until now, been the enemy of love, and gladly would remain so for ever, I, alas, I believe, alas, I believe that I am in love. Fortepiano interlude I, who Hymen

E

Key

Affect fiery passion

B A E

strong, wild passion tender passion fiery passion

This melody is somewhat reminiscent of the main theme both of Gegenliebe, WoO 118, and of the finale of the Choral Fantasy, Op. 80, both of which are congruent with this praxis of C major.

16

283

The Key to Beethoven 21-22 22-24 25-56 57-81 81-92 93-99 100-05 106-45 154-60

otherwise denigrated f\ and made a jest of love, am E now in a constant exercise of wavering, in a constant exercise of wavering B I believe that I am in love with Doris. I, who Hymen otherwise denigrated and made a jest of love, am in a constant state of wavering, I believe that I am in love with Doris. For alas! since I saw her, no other G beauty seems attractive to me. Alas, this tyrant over my inclinations, I believe completely that I love her. e I believe completely that I love her, E that I love her. B Reprise of opening fourteen lines E Fortepiano postlude

gloomy fiery passion strong, wild passion

cheerful, lively

tender lament fiery passion strong, wild passion fiery passion

Synopsis: The poet describes his internal emotional struggle between beong the enemy of love and its captive. Previously he had prided himself on his humorous dismissal of the state of being in love as something of no personal relevance. Now, alas, he is in love with Doris, who rules as tyrant over his feelings. Commentary: While neither tempo nor dynamic indications are given in the manuscript, the rhythmic construction clearly dictates a fast speed congruent with the first praxis in E major. Beethoven perfectly conjured up the unsettled feeling of being in love for the first time. This agitated state of affairs is reflected in the détaché style of the fortepiano accompaniment, which projects an apposite feeling of jitters. It is interesting to observe how Beethoven selects keys with widely differing affective power as appropriate to the text, the gradation on the affective spectrum here being from G major (cheerful, lively) to B major (strong, wild passion), with gently lamenting E minor invoked to project just how strong is the feeling of concern that Doris could hold such sway over him. Freudvoll und leidvoll, Op. 84, No. 4, 1809-10 Andante, A, 2/4 Mm. 1-4 11

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe AA1BCC1

Text/section Key Fortepiano prelude A Joyful and sorrowful, thoughtful to be; longing and anxious in constant anguish, a

284

Affect innocent love sorrowful

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys 18-19 20-29 30-31 31-43 43-46

sky-high rejoicing, C saddened to death; happy alone is A the soul that loves. Joyful and sorrowful, thoughtful to be; longing and anxious in constant anguish; a happy alone is the soul that loves! A Fortepiano postlude

celebration, rejoicing innocent love

sorrow innocent love

Synopsis: This text compares the two contrasting sides of romantic love: the heights of ecstasy and the depths of despair. Commentary: There are at least three extant versions of this song with fortepiano accompaniment: a draft in the key of G major (Hess 94) with a comment “one tone lower”; an early version in A major with a simplified accompaniment and no fortepiano introduction; and the final version, containing an introduction and fully independent accompaniment. The song also appears in Beethoven’s Incidental Music to Egmont (No. 5) in A major with elements of both fortepiano versions in the orchestral accompaniment. A major and A minor are juxtaposed affectively: the key of innocent love being contrasted with the sorrow of its tonic minor. Modal mixture was also planned in the draft, although between G major and minor. It seems that Beethoven thought better of the contrast between the affects of calm gentleness and discontent and resentment of this earlier version, preferring instead the symbolism latent in the juxtaposition of A major/minor, which forms a closer match with the text. Interestingly the third key in both versions (B-flat major in the first and C major in the second) is equally successful affectively, the second praxis of B-flat and the first of C being similar in nature. Beethoven highlights the contrast between major 6 – 5 joy motive and minor 6 – 5 sospiro (mm. 7-8 and 14-15), a detail strongly supportive of the tonal affects already described.17 L’amante impaziente, Op. 82, No. 3, c. 1809 Allegro, E[, 6/8

Pietro Metastasio Through-composed

Mm.

Text/section

Key

Affect

1-2 12

Fortepiano prelude What is my sweetheart doing? Why does she not come? She wants to see me languishing like this?

E[

ironic (first praxis)

17 Carat signs here and elsewhere in this book are used above Arabic numbers to emphasize melodic archetypal patterns and have no significance in reductive analytical terms.

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The Key to Beethoven 13-20

O how slowly the sun runs its course! Every moment to me seems like a day,

B[

ironic (second praxis)

21-33

every moment to me seems like a day,

E[

ironic (first praxis)

34-35

to me seems like a day.

e[

black depression

35-51

Ah! What is my sweetheart doing? Why does she not come? She wants to see me languishing like this?

E[

ironic (first praxis)

52-54 54-57 58-60 61-64 65-67 67-74

Why does my sweetheart not come? Languishing, languishing, she wants to see me like this? Why does my sweetheart not come? Languishing, she wants to see me languishing, like this? Yes, she wants to see me languishing like this!

B[ E[

ironic (first praxis) ironic (first praxis)

B[ E[

ironic (first praxis) ironic (first praxis)

e[ E[

black depression ironic (first praxis)

Commentary: Numbers 3 and 4 of Op. 82 are two different settings of the same text: L’amante impaziente [The patient lover]. The first is marked Arietta buffa, an ironic setting of this text, while No. 4 in contrast is marked Arietta assai seriosa. It is interesting to see how the affective use of tonality forms a vital tool in Beethoven’s composition of two contrasting settings of the same text. While it is tempting to think that Beethoven is using the third praxis of E-flat major (sogno or unhappy love), in reality an ironic usage of the first praxis is found here. The title “Arietta buffa,” with its comic implications, the Allegro tempo marking, and forte dynamic all support this conclusion. The sense of irony is compounded from mm. 13-20 with an affective modulation to B-flat major, where the affect of the cheerful second praxis is used ironically to depict the protagonist describing how each moment seems an eternity while he waits for her to come. Finally the comedy ceases, and, in a momentary reality check in E-flat minor (mm. 33-35 and 65-67), feelings of black depression, extreme anxiety, and despair are brought to the fore as the reality of his sweetheart’s non-appearance hits home. L’amante impaziente, Op. 82, No. 4, c. 1809 Andante con espressione, B[, 6/8

286

Pietro Metastasio ABCB1A1

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys Mm. 1-5 5-6 6-9 9-10 10-13 13-20 21-22 23-27

27-29 30-41 42-44 45 46-50

Text/section Key What is my sweetheart doing? Why B[ does she not come? She wants to see me languishing g like this? O how slowly the B[ sun runs its course! Every moment to me c seems like a day, seems like a day g yes a day. What is my sweetheart E[ doing? Why does she not come? She wants to see me languishing like this? e[ O how slowly the sun runs its B[ course! Every moment to me seems like a day, every moment to me seems like a day. c What is my sweetheart doing? b[ Why does she not come? She wants to see me languishing? She wants to see me languishing like this, G[ languishing, b[ like this! B[

Affect ironic (first praxis) tender melancholy ironic (first praxis) forceful, dramatic discontent, resentment unhappy love

black depression ironic (first praxis)

forceful, dramatic heart-rending pain

extreme irony discontent, pain ironic (first praxis)

Commentary: This time the same text is set as an Arietta assai seriosa. Initially, B-flat major is used ironically at a slower tempo with an air of seriousness. The sense of irony is heightened by an early affective tonicization of G minor at the word “languir” (languishing), m. 6, in an example of what might be described as tonal text expression. A passage of recitative then interrupts the flow of the song (mm. 8-14), touching briefly on C minor (drama) and G minor (discontent), before abruptly reaching E-flat major (m. 14) in its third praxis of unhappy love. This analysis is confirmed by dynamics, tempo and modal mixture in the vocal line as c2 is altered to c[2. By m. 30, the remote key of B-flat minor is reached as the depth of the protagonist’s feelings flood to the surface. Thus the hopeful irony of B-flat major heard at the outset dissolves into the desolation of its modally-mixed sibling for the reprise of the melody. In a moment of extreme irony, G-flat major is briefly tonicized (mm. 43-44), again setting the word “languir’” in a moment that is as far away from its literal meaning imaginable. At the close, the voice gently sobs a bitter sigh of “così” (like this), poignantly accompanied by C-flat major and B-flat major harmony juxtaposed above a tonic pedal before finally coming to rest on an open B[ octave in an image of profound desolation and emptiness.

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The Key to Beethoven

Example 10. L’amante impatiente, Op. 82, No. 4, mm. 46-50.

b 6 &b 8 œ

‰ Œ

f

bœ œ J

sì,

‰ Œ

co - sì,

‰ œ sì,

‰ Œ

bœ J

co -

b 6 & b 8 ≈ œœ œ. œ. ≈ b œœ b œ. œ. ≈ œœ œ. œ. ≈ b œœ b œ. œ. ≈ œœ œ. œ. ≈ b œœ b œ. œ. π dim. œ œ œ œ œ œ ? b b 68 œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ b &b œ

‰ Œ.

∑

sì!

b & b ≈ œœ œ. œ. ≈ œœ œ. œ. ? b b œœ

œ ‰ œ

œ ‰ œ

∑ ‰ Œ.

Neue Liebe, neues Leben, Op. 75, No. 2, 1809 Agitato, C, 6/8

Mm. 1-6 6-8 8-10 10-16 16-21 21-23 23-32 33-35

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Shortened sonata form

Text/section Key Affect Heart, my heart, what does this C ironic (second praxis) mean? What disturbs you so much? What a strange, new life! I recognize you a plaintive no more. Gone is all that you loved, d anger gone why you yourself were C ironic (second praxis) troubled, gone your industry and peace. Ah! How came you only to this? G ironic (first praxis) Fortepiano interlude Does youthful bloom shackle you, this lovely figure, whose gaze is full of fidelity, goodness, and infinite power? D triumph

288

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys 35-41 If I rush to escape her, I encourage G her to flee, I am led back 42-44 in a moment, alas my path a 44-45 leads me back to her, C 46-47 to her. G 51-56 Heart, my heart, what does this mean? c 57-60 Heart, my heart what does this mean? C What disturbs you so much? 61-64 What a strange new life. I recognize a you no more. 64-66 Gone is all that you loved, d 66-70 gone why you yourself were C troubled, gone your industry and peace. 70-73 Fortepiano interlude F 73-77 Alas! How came you only to this? C 77-85 Does youthful bloom shackle you, F this lovely figure, 85-123 whose gaze is full of fidelity, C goodness, and infinite power? If I rush to escape her, I encourage her to flee, alas, in a moment my path leads me back to her. And with this magic thread, which cannot be torn, the dear maiden holds me fast against my will; I must now live in her way in her magic circle. 123-25 The change, alas, how great! d 125-35 Love! Love, let me go! C

ironic (second praxis) plaintive sequential ironic (first praxis) lament ironic (second praxis) plaintive anger ironic (second praxis) ironic (first praxis) ironic (second praxis) ironic (first praxis) ironic (second praxis)

anger ironic (second praxis)

Synopsis: A whirlwind love affair is completely out of control, and a heart no longer appreciates what it used to enjoy. All is subsumed by this infatuation with a young woman from whom it is just not possible to part. The final desperate cries of “Liebe, laß mich los!” (Love let me go!) ultimately go unheeded. Commentary: Two versions are extant for Beethoven’s setting of Goethe’s poem Neue Liebe, neues Leben. Since there are significant differences between them as far as key characteristics are concerned, it is useful to consider both of them here, although only the later setting is analyzed above.18 Each setting is in C major, and initially it does not seem obvious why. How can a passion so 18 The early version, WoO 127 is in Beethoven Werke: Lieder und Gesänge mit Klavierbegleitung, XII/I, ed. Helga Lühning (Munich: Henle, 1990), pp. 38-39.

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The Key to Beethoven

overwhelming, so all-embracing be set in such a simple key? Would not E major—the key of fiery passion or tender love, or even B major—one more notch up the affective spectrum—be more appropriate? That age-old paradox of head versus heart—as the poet longs for the time when his feelings were simple and under his control—provides a clue to this seeming dilemma. Sadly for him nothing could be further from the truth, and the irony is truly palpable. Beethoven’s two settings of the phrase “Ach wie kamst du nur dazu?” (Ah! How came you only to this?) make for interesting comparison. The first time the text is set in each version of the song, it is in G major, the key ironically questioning the sentiment the text expresses. However, when it reappears later in the song, the two versions diverge. In WoO 127, Beethoven briefly adopted the key of F minor (mm. 66-73) to project the power this girl holds over the poet, mourning his heart’s lost innocence. F minor is not used in the later version, however. Rather, C major returns in a langsam passage of quasi-recitative from mm. 73-77 with a far simpler accompaniment, ensuring that not a word will be missed.19 Mention should also be made of mm. 51-55 in the later version of the song, which function as a short development section. Beethoven subtly suggested the tonic minor through inclusion of A-flats, eventually settling on an Italian sixth chord in m. 55, while the vocal line questions appositely “was soll das geben?” (what does this mean?). This forms an exact match with Schubart’s definition of C minor. Seufzer eines Ungeliebten, WoO 118, 1794-9520 Double Lied

Gottfried August Bürger

Recitative: “Hast du nicht Liebe zugemessen?” Through-composed Moderato, c, 4/4 Mm. Text/section 1-5 Have you not attributed love to the life of each creature? 6-7 Why am I alone forgotten, you, too, my Mother? 8-9 You! Nature! First Aria: “Wo lebte wohl im Forst”

c

Key

Affect lament

g

discontent, resentment

B[

majestic

Through-composed

Andantino, E[, 3/4

There are also sonata form implications here as this passage now forms the recapitulation of the second subject. 20 When considered as a whole, Seufzer eines Ungeliebten and its sequel Gegenliebe bear a marked resemblance to an operatic Scena, replete with passages in recitative and contrasted aria styles. 19

290

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys Mm. 9-17 17-29 30-32 32-33 34-39 39-60 60-62 62-63 63-69 69-70 71-83 83-86

Text/section Key Affect Fortepiano prelude E[ unhappy love Where did there live in forest and heath, in air and sea a beast that was never loved? Everything is loved B[ ironic (first praxis) except me, c lament yes everything except me. B[ ironic (first praxis) Although in the grove and meadows, E[ unhappy love tree and shrub, moss and herb form pairs through reciprocated love, yet no bride marries me, c lament yet no bride. E[ unhappy love For me sprouts the sweetest of all c lament desires, honeyed fruit never ripens into pleasure, for alas! I lack reciprocated love, f deep depression which only one can give me. c lament If I knew … V of c/C lament/innocence Fortepiano interlude

Commentary: The pairing of the shadow keys of E-flat major in its third praxis and C minor in its first praxis projects the depth of the poet’s feeling of unhappiness at being the only creature who is not loved. At first, C minor is merely hinted at (mm. 11, 19). Not until mm. 32-33 is it affectively tonicized, adding weight to the words “außer mir” (except me), following an affective modulation to B-flat major (m. 30) that is highly ironic. As the protagonist becomes more despairing, any pretense of irony is dropped, and there is an affective tonicization of the desolate key of F minor at the mention of “Gegenliebe” (reciprocated love), his sole desire, returning to the shadow key of C minor (m. 71) as the feeling of lament is maintained. This time C minor is employed far more extensively, strengthened by a German sixth that accompanies the phrase “gewähren kann” (can grant me), replete with sospira motives in the following measures. The transition into the ensuing aria is deftly handled, as neighbornote E-naturals are introduced above an extended dominant pedal (V of c/C), anticipating the affective modulation to C major that is about to occur. ABA1CABA1C

Second Aria, “Wüßt ich” [Gegenliebe] Allegretto, C, 2/4

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The Key to Beethoven

Mm. 87-114 102-03 103-14 114-30 130-60 148-49 150-60 160-62 162-64 165-77 177-82

Text/section If I knew that you love me and value me a little, and of what I feel for you a hundredth part you felt; that your thanks would meet my greeting halfway, and your lips would give and gladly exchange a kiss, then, oh heaven, my heart would ignite beside itself! Body and life I would not let you demand in vain! Reciprocated favor heightens favor, love is nourished by reciprocated love, and that which was a little spark, amid the ashes flares up into a blazing fire. If I knew that you love me and value me a little, and of what I feel for you a hundredth part you felt; that your thanks would meet my greeting halfway, and your lips would give and gladly exchange a kiss, then, oh heaven, my heart would ignite beside itself! Body and life I would not let you demand in vain! Reciprocated favor heightens favor. Fortepiano interlude Love is nourished by reciprocated love and that which was a little spark, amid the ashes flares up into a blazing fire. Fortepiano postlude

Key C

Affect innocence, purity

F

ironic (first praxis)

G

cheerful

C

innocence, purity

F C

ironic (first praxis) innocence, purity

a tender F ironic (first praxis) C innocence/purity



Commentary: The construction of the main theme—“Wüßt ich, daß du mich lieb” (If I knew that you love me)—with its stepwise motion, steady tempo, and the emphasis on the major third symbolizing pleasure and happiness—all these features support the tonal affect of the second praxis of C. All this projects an almost child-like innocence and freshness.21

This melody was reworked in the Choral Fantasy, Op. 80.

21

292

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys Such is the pervading nature of this affect that Beethoven consciously avoids any significant modulations here, instead affectively tonicizing F major with ironic intent on two occasions to inject a sense of urgency and excitement into this setting. Example 11. Gegenliebe, WoO 118, mm. 86-94.

T’intendo sì, mio cor, Op. 82, No. 2, 1809 Adagio ma non troppo, D, 2/4

Pietro Metastasio Through-composed

Mm. 1-2 3-7 7-8 9-15 16-17 17-26 27-31 31-32 32-42 42-43

Key D

Affect love with yearning

b G

unrequited love ironic (first praxis)

a D

angry love with yearning

B[

ironic (first praxis)

a D

angry love with yearning

Text/section Fortepiano prelude I understand you, yes, my heart; beating so wildly I know that you want to complain that you are in love. Ah! Be silent about your pain! Ah! Suffer your torment: be silent, do not betray my emotions. I hear you, yes, my heart, beating so wildly. Ah! Be silent about your pain! Ah! Suffer your torment: do not betray my emotions! Fortepiano postlude

Synopsis: The poet addresses his heart ironically, bidding it be quiet and conceal that it is in love. Let it suffer its torment in silence lest it betray his emotions. Commentary: D major is used in its second praxis here, the markings of pianissimo and Adagio ma non troppo both supporting this conclusion. An affective tonicization of B minor occurs from mm. 7-8 at the words “soche ti vuoi lagnar” (I 293

The Key to Beethoven

know that you want to complain). This is another instance where Beethoven’s used of B minor—shadow key of D major—in connection with unrequited love. From mm. 9-13, the affective modulation to G major is ironic since the feeling here is anything but “calm, satisfied passion.” A minor is briefly tonicized (mm. 16-17) as the poet expresses to the heart his angry directive: “sofri il tuo martir” (suffer your torment). D major returns from mm. 17-26, and the combination of this key, the sequence of sforzando markings, and the rising vocal line combine to portray the strength of the emotions that the poet is trying to suppress, yet to which he will doubtless succumb. The unexpected modulation in mm. 27-30 to B-flat major (the key of “cheerful love and a clear conscience”) again displays ironic use of key symbolism. The falling chromatic line in the voice (mm. 31-33) is heightened by a Neapolitan pivot chord ([II in A minor) when this key is briefly tonicized affectively (m. 32), while the voice again exhorts the heart to “soffri il tuo martir.” This is a brilliant example of the ironic use of depictive harmony—in this case a chord of B-flat major—supporting such a painful text. All in all, this song is a masterpiece of the use of irony suffused with rampant emotion. Example 12. T’intendo sì, mio cor, Op. 82, No. 2, mm. 31-32.

294

Songs Containing Affective Modulations to More Distant Keys

Songs Where There Is No Connection Between the Text and Key Symbolism Mollys Abschied, Op. 52, No. 5 Urians Reise um die Welt, Op. 52, No. 4 Strophic songs having a narrative text that requires the setting of a series of stanzas are often those for which there is not a connection between words and key. The narrative nature of these texts precludes their having affective subtleties that function internally for each verse. However, on occasion Beethoven is able to use tonal symbolism in such situations successfully, as seen above in Das Geheimnis and Der Liebende. Mollys Abschied, Op. 52, No. 5, c. 1795 Adagio con espressione, G, 4/4

Gottfried August Bürger AA1BC, strophic

There are three clear affective connections with the text of stanza one. These include the ironic use of G major, the tonicization of A minor in mm. 4-5 (reflective of the sorrow Molly feels as she bids her lover farewell), and the chromatic flourish in the fortepiano postlude, which introduces a brief moment of mixed modality. However, the use of A minor affectively is not reflected in the meaning of stanzas two to seven. Strophic Urians Reise um die Welt, Op. 52, No. 4, before 1793 Matthias Claudius In einer mäßigen geschwinden Bewegung mit einer komischen Art gesungen, a, 3/4

This is a strophic, narrative story, which makes it hardly surprising that one tonal affect would not be able to depict the differing sentiments found in each of the fourteen verses. Conclusion In reviewing the above analysis of key symbolism and meaning in this final category of songs, it is clear that a remarkable parallel is found between textual content and tonal affect in almost all instances. The empirical evidence outlined in Chapters Four, Five, and Six strongly supports the historical findings 295

The Key to Beethoven

of Chapters Two and Three. In both primary choices of key and also for internal modulations and tonicizations, Beethoven usually employed tonality for its affective associations. The links are evident throughout his whole compositional career from the early Bonn settings to works completed in the last years of his life. They are also apparent in the whole gamut of his song output, ranging from short, strophic settings to his most extensive essay in this genre, the song cycle An die ferne Geliebte.

296

CHAPTER SEVEN



Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Concert Aria Ah! Perfido, Op. 65 Oratorio Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85 Mass in C Major, Op. 86 Elegischer Gesang, Op. 118 Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125, Finale

Introduction Do the extensive relationships already established between key characteristics and the meanings of a text extend beyond the songs to larger vocal genres in Beethoven’s works? Here five contrasted works from all three compositional periods are examined to illustrate how useful, is not necessary, it is to apply these ideas more widely. Beethoven employed tonal symbolism in these works in a variety of different contexts: • for characterization (Ah! Perfido) • for affective interplay between minor/major pairings in the same key (Christus am Ölberge, Ninth Symphony: Finale) • to support and challenge the Austrian traditions of mass composition (Mass in C) • for remote tonal juxtapositions to enhance textual meaning (Elegischer Gesang) • for the extended use of depictive harmony and the affective use of modality (Ninth Symphony: Finale)

Ah! Perfido, Op. 65, 1796

Pietro Metastasio

As would be expected from the history of the use of key characteristics in opera, tonal symbolism plays an important role in Beethoven’s operatic and quasi-operatic works. In his 1988 dissertation, “Beethoven and the Psyches of the Keys,” Bruce Clausen clearly demonstrated that Beethoven employed keys for symbolic purposes in Fidelio. That study can be extended here with an examination of a concert aria from Beethoven’s first period.1 Ah! Perfido 1 Bruce Edward Clausen, “Beethoven and the Psyches of the Keys” (doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1988). However, in light of the identification of multiple praxes in several keys outlined in Chapters 2 and 3, a further study of Fidelio would be useful.

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The Key to Beethoven

is scored for soprano solo and small orchestra, and comprises several sections juxtaposing recitative and aria styles in the manner of an extended operatic scena. In this aria, key characteristics serve as a vehicle for portraying the split personality of the heroine as she vacillates between her need for vengeance and her sadness at being abandoned. B-flat major (second praxis) and G minor (first praxis) are used to help express her desire for vengeance, while E-flat major in its dark third sogno praxis, combined with its shadow key of C minor (first praxis), is employed extensively to recount her experience of unhappy love. Recitativo: Ah! perfido Allegro con brio, 4/4 Mm. 1-8 8-14 15-16

Various keys

Text/section Key Instrumental introduction C Ah, faithless, false-hearted cruel G traitor, you are leaving? Are these your final farewells? a

Affect strength, triumph ironic (second praxis)/ structural ironic (first praxis)

Andante quasi Adagio, 4/4 16-18 Where was ever known tyranny more cruel? d

anger

19

B[

bold, martial

B[

bold, martial

B[

bold, martial

c

forceful, dramatic

g

discontent, resentment

g d

discontent, resentment stormy

Go villain!

Allegro assai, 4/4 20-23

Go, fly from me, you will not escape the wrath of the gods!

Andante grave, 4/4 24-29 30-34 35

If there is justice in heaven, if there is mercy, they will conspire each the more to punish you! As a fleeting shadow, present wherever you go, I will see my revenge;

Allegro assai, 4/4 36-39 I rejoice in imagining that; 40 already I see lightning flashing round you.

Allegro con brio, 4/4 41-42 Instrumental interlude d stormy 42-44 g discontent, resentment 45-45

Oh no! Oh no!

298

E[

sogno, unhappy love

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies Adagio, 4/4 46-50

Stop you avenging gods!

E[

unhappy love

51-55

Spare that heart, hurt mine! If he

f

despair



is not what

55-59

he was, I am what I was;



c

plaintive, tender

59-61

for him I lived, for him I wish to die!

g

tender melancholy

Synopsis: The heroine rails against the lover who has abandoned her. While he can flee from her, he will not escape the wrath of the gods. He will be punished in heaven and she will be there to see vengeance exacted. Yet almost at once, she relents, calling upon the gods to spare him and punish her instead. Commentary: The connection between key characteristics and meaning is particularly rich here. Each of the many expected key changes of this accompanied recitative has affective significance. The orchestral introduction (mm. 1-7) adopts the first praxis of C major, allegro con brio, replete with martial rhythms to convey strength and triumph, as the heroine reaches deep inside herself to find the inner resources to deal with her plight. When the heroine begins to sing at m. 8, the music modulates from C to its dominant, G, a key normally reserved for cheerful or humorous emotions. This change can be heard as ironic (that is a depiction of what is missing) while still acknowledging its function at a structural level as Beethoven prepared to modulate from G to A minor. At m. 17, an affective modulation to D minor projects her anger at how cruel his treatment of her has been, followed by a modulation to B-flat major (second praxis) as she channels this feeling to invoke the wrath of the gods upon her lover. Finally, an affective modulation to C minor (mm. 30-34) reveals the true extent of her anger, ushered in via a dramatic tremolando diminished seventh chord. As she proclaims “I fulmini ti veggo già balenar d’intorno” (already I see lightning flashing round you), the orchestra enters fortissimo in D minor in a short storm-like passage. Yet as quickly as a storm can pass, so too her mood changes, and in a complete volte-face she calls on the avenging gods not to carry out her longed-for judgment but to spare him and take her in his place. This is presented in E-flat major in its third praxis, before a cadence in G minor at m. 60 as she states “voglio morir per lui!” (I wish to die for him!), using G minor in its second praxis of tenderness. As is clear from this set of keys she is an emotional rollercoaster as she vacillates between extremes of mood, states of mind captured effectively by Beethoven through the affective use of tonality. Aria: Per pietà, non dirmi addio Adagio, 3/4

E[

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The Key to Beethoven

Mm. 1-8 9-19 20-23 23-25 25-29 29-33 33-45 46-47

Text/section Instrumental introduction For pity’s sake, do not bid me, do not bid me farewell, parted from you what will I do? You know it, beloved of mine! I shall die of grief, beloved of mine! I shall die of grief, I shall die of grief, you know it, beloved of mine! I shall die of grief, die, die. For pity’s sake, do not bid me farewell, parted from you, what will I do? You know it, beloved of mine, I shall die of grief,

Key E[

Affect unhappy love

B[

ironic (first praxis)

b[ B[

heart-rending pain ironic (first praxis)

e[ E[

black depression unhappy love

f

extreme grief

48-51

die of grief.

E[

unhappy love

52-55 You know it, beloved of mine, C[ oppressed anguish/ heartbreak 56-71

I shall die of grief, die.

Allegro assai, 4/4 72-79 Oh cruel one! You see that I should die! Have you no pity for me? 80-81 Why do you reward the one who 82-87 adores you so harshly? Più lento, 4/4 87-98

Tell me, if in such distress I do not deserve pity?

E[

unhappy love

c

lamentation

f c

extreme grief lamentation

E[

unhappy love

Allegro assai, 4/4 99-100 Instrumental interlude E[

heroic

100-09 Ah, cruel one! You see that I should die! 110-11 Have you no pity for me,

A[

key of the grave

f

extreme grief

112-22 no pity for me? Why do you reward the one who adores you so harshly?

E[

unhappy love

E[

unhappy love

Più lento, 4/4 122-33 Tell me, if in such great distress I do not deserve pity?

300

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies Allegro assai, 4/4 134-39 Tell me, if in such great distress, 140-41 if in such distress,

E[ f

142-43 (distress) A[ 143-52 distress I do not deserve pity?

E[

heroic extreme grief key of the grave unhappy love

152-55 Tell me, A[ key of the grave 156-57 if in such great distress unstable extreme emotion 158-60 I do not deserve pity?

E[

unhappy love

160-63 Tell me, A[ key of the grave 164-65 if in such great distress unstable extreme emotion 166-84 I do not deserve pity?

E[

heroic

E[

unhappy love

E[

heroic

Adagio, 4/4 185-90 Tell me, if in such great distress I do not deserve pity? Tempo primo, 4/4 191-95 I do not deserve pity? 195-204 Instrumental conclusion

Commentary: In the above aria, Beethoven employed E-flat major in both its third and first praxes, alternating between them to project the heroine’s constantly fluctuating mood-states that seesaw between imagined self-pity and heroic victimhood. The shadow pairing of E-flat major in its third praxis and C minor in its first is used extensively, a pairing that is particularly effective at conveying her feelings of desolation. As thoughts of her impending grief-stricken death begin to overwhelm her, an affective modulation to E-flat minor (mm. 29-33)—the key of black depression is used to emphasize the depth of her emotional state. By means of contrasted key characteristics, Beethoven is cunningly able to bring out differing nuances of the same text. Thus he set the phrase “Tu lo sai, bell’ idol mio” (You know it, beloved of mine) in E-flat major (mm. 42-45) emphasizing the unhappy nature of their love, repeating it a few measures later in C-flat major—a key off the affective spectrum—in a remarkable twist of tonal symbolism that highlights the full depth of her oppressed anguish. Beethoven continued to use the tonic key of E-flat major in its dual role, yet ultimately it is as heroic victim that our heroine is last seen, from mm. 166-84 and again at mm. 191-204, a fact affirmed by the unequivocal orchestral ending in E-flat major’s heroic vein. Franz Xaver Huber Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85, 1803 Christus am Ölberge is Beethoven’s only completed oratorio. It provides an extended example of how Beethoven used tonal symbolism in a complete choral work in both its overall architecture and at the local affective level. The interplay 301

The Key to Beethoven

of the mixed modal pairings of e[/E[ and c/C traverses the affective spectrum, allowing both the heroic qualities of E-flat major and the triumphant, martial character of C major to function successfully in a work that opens appropriately enough in the remote key of E-flat minor. No. 1, “Introduzione” Grave, 4/4

e[–G

Mm2

Text/section

Key

Affect

1-2

Rising Arpeggio, establishing tonic

e[

black depression

Adagio, 6/8 3-6 Ia3 e[ black depression 7-8 Ib a[ deepest depression, funereal 9-13 Ib (varied) e[ black depression 14-15 II E death, paradise 15-16 B heavenly vision 17-21 Tremolo chords b[ discontent, gloom 19-20 Ia (varied) 22-23 Ia (varied) e[ black depression 24-27 Ia b[ 27-32 III (sequential) various 33-35 II (varied) G[

discontent, dread triumph over difficulty

36-38 Ib e[ black depression 39-41 Ib a[ deepest depression, funereal 43-46 III (sequential) various 47-49 Ib (varied) c lament 50-55 Transition to recitative G pastoral trope

Commentary: The choice of E-flat minor in the opening “Introduzione,” where Beethoven set the stage for the epic drama of Jesus’ ensuing passion, is of immense significance. It is one of the more extensive uses of this remote and desolate tonality in his oeuvre and the intentionality of his choice of key here is profound as the composer prepared for what Christians see as the greatest tragic moment in the history of humankind—namely the death and resurrection of Measure numbrs are assigned for each of the six movements and are not restrated for subsections. 3 The themes in the introduction are numbered I, II, III. 2

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Jesus Christ.4 Beethoven’s use of E-flat minor also allowed him to juxtapose the parallel key of E-flat major with ease to depict Jesus the hero in what is the first of two significant examples of mixed modal affective pairings in this work, the second being c/C. The work opens with a unison theme, in 4/4, marked grave and piano. A stark tonic chord is ominously outlined in a rising unison arpeggio, colored by the apposite use of trombones, somewhat in the manner of a death-knell.5 Sospira motives are enhanced by an affective tonicization of the yet more remote tonality of A-flat minor (mm. 7-8), making this sense of desolation even stronger.6 A return to the tonic, leading to a powerful climax in m. 12, rounds out this stark opening. Yet even here the feeling of hope is not completely lost as the unexpected use of B major as early as m. 14 makes clear. The tolling timpani e[1s morph into d\1s, the third degree of B major. Again the choice of tonality here is highly significant affectively. B major reveals a tantalizing glimpse of the dénouement of this journey, as its second praxis offers a transcendent heavenly vision of the sublime, marked piano and semplice, affirming that God is ever present in his son’s suffering. Almost immediately, E major is briefly tonicized above a B pedal, used here in its third praxis—as a metaphor for death and paradise, both soon to be Jesus’ lot.7 B major returns at m. 15, sharing yet another brief glimpse of the promise of heaven. Yet this foretaste seems only a mirage, as the six ominously-tolling eighth-notes reappear, this time notated as d\1 as the two sides of the affective spectrum are again juxtaposed. A tremolo, fortissimo diminished seventh chord abruptly shatters the affect and establishes the key of B-flat minor—symbolizing discontent, dread, and gloom (m. 18).

He also uses E-flat minor extensively in the slow movement of the Fortepiano Quartet in E-flat major, WoO 36, II: Allegro con spirito. 5 Trombones have long been associated with death and mourning. Warren Kirkendale discusses their use in the Missa solemnis in his article “New Roads to Old Ideas in Beethoven’s ‘Missa Solemnis,’” The Music Quarterly 56 (1970): 665-701. 6 Beethoven had already used A-flat minor extensively in the second movement of the Fortepiano Sonata Op. 26 Marcia funèbre sulla morte d’un Eroe, exploiting the affective power of its tragic, funereal qualities the previous year. He would also use it for the “Klagender Gesang” (Lamenting song) of Op. 110. 7 It is clear that this is not an enharmonic proxy for C-flat major—a structural third-related moment—but rather an intentional use of B major for its distinctive affective qualities. Beethoven was more than capable of notating this passage in an extreme flat key, as has already been seen in mm. 7-8, where he used A-flat minor, C-flat’s relative sibling. 4

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The Key to Beethoven

Example 13. Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85, “Introduzione,” mm. 16-17 (keyboard reduction).

b & b b b b b 68 ## œœ œ œ œ œ œ pπ n ? b b b b 68 # n œœœ ‰ ‰ Œ . bb J

b œœ. & b b b b b œ ≈

œœ. œœ

œ. ? b b b b œ. ≈ œ bb œ

œ œ œ œ œœ œœ œœ œœ b œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ n œœœ œœœ œœœ œœœ n œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ƒ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

≈ ≈

At m. 32 the tolling timpani return, this time intoning a series of six b[s to usher in another significant affective modulation as Beethoven—in another brief moment of respite—allowed a transient glimpse of the bigger picture. For while Jesus’ death is inevitable, he will also vanquish the grave and rise again. For two measures, a glimpse of this heavenly vision materializes as an affective modulation to G-flat major projects the feeling of triumph over difficulty described by Schubart as the “echo of a soul which has fiercely struggled and finally conquered.”8 The remoteness of this key underscores the uniqueness of the victory here, a victory won once and for all time. From m. 45 the tonality transitions towards the more traditionally tragic key of C minor, introducing the second affective mixed modal pairing in this work: c/C. Yet the immediate tonal goal here is not C minor but G major, as a diminished seventh in m. 49 affectively tonicizes this key. There is an extended passage of six measures of G major harmony, pure and unclouded by anything else. It is no coincidence that Beethoven chose this pastoral key—replete with characteristic thirds, sixths, and a 6/8 time signature, for it recalls the baby Jesus—the child in the manger—in a brief but poignant vision of the hope of Bethlehem before the march to Calvary continues.

C. F. D. Schubart, Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst, ed. Ludwig Schubart (Vienna: Degen, 1806), original text and translation in Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, 2nd ed. (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), p. 117.

8

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Recitative: “Jehovah, du mein Vater” Adagio, 12/8

Various keys

Mm. (Jesus) 55-57 57-58 58

Text/section

Key

Affect

Jehovah, you my father, O send comfort and power and strength to me. Instrumental Interlude: Ia

G

pastoral

c

lament

59

It approaches now, the hour of my

E[

unhappy love

60 suffering. e[ 61 Instrumental Interlude: II

black depression

Allegro, 4/4 61-64 65-67

For me, chosen already before the B[ world, at your behest, from chaos was called. Instrumental interlude C

bold, martial triumph, strength

Maestoso, 4/4 68-70 Instrumental interlude C triumph, strength 70-71 f extreme despair 71-73 I hear your Seraph’s thunder voice, D triumph, vengeance Allegro, 4/4 74-75 she demands 75-77 in man’s stead before your judgment to place himself.

g C

discontent triumph, strength

Maestoso, 4/4 77-81 Instrumental interlude

f

extreme despair

81-83

O Father! I appear at your call.

A[

gloomy, grave-like

83-84 85-86

I wish to be the reconciler, I atone, I alone for Mankind’s guilt.

b[

discontent

f

extreme despair



Adagio, 4/4 87-88 How could this race, 89-92 fashioned from dust, withstand a judgment which presses me, your son, to the ground?

V of c structural d gloom

Adagio agitato, 4/4 94-95

Ah, see, how

305

V7 of D[ grief/darkness

The Key to Beethoven 96-97 97-102 103-05

dread, how fear of death seizes my heart with force! I suffer greatly, my Father! O see! I suffer greatly, have mercy on me!

b[ c

dread, deeply felt pain pathos

g

despair, resentment

Commentary: Jesus, in childlike voice, addresses God as both “Jehovah” and “Vater,” imploring him to send comfort, power, and strength. It is not yet clear that the key of G major will become the dominant of an affective modulation to C minor, a modulation that will only become apparent at m. 57, as f1 is reached on the word “Stärke” (strength) and the harmony becomes a dominant seventh (V7 of c).9 Seidel actually mentioned Christus am Ölberge when describing C minor, also mentioning the G major connection that is so apposite here: The minor key of c, in its clarity, and with its pure and gentle dominant G major, is at the same time full of heartfelt yearning, an expression of exalted love, a sighing to the Father of Light. […] in Beethoven’s Christus am Ölberge the first recitative, “Jehova, du mein Vater! o sende Trost und Kraft und Stärke mir,” begins very characteristically in this key.10

Further affective highlights include mm. 60-61 where, as Jesus reflects on the approaching hour of his sacrifice, Beethoven again conjured up the black depression of E-flat minor. From m. 72, Jesus recalls the Seraph’s thundering voice that demands his sacrifice, doing so in D major, which reflects both triumphal and vengeful aspects of this key, anticipating the very purpose that his death will serve. A few measures later, A-flat major (mm. 81-83) references simultaneously both praxes in this key: death and the grave, both of which seem imminent for him, and heavenly, calm inner peace, feelings that are present deep within his soul as he ponders his impending death. Aria: “Meine Seele ist erschüttert” Allegro, 4/4

c

Mm. Text/section (Jesus) 105-13 Instrumental introduction

Key

Affect

c

stormy, forceful

In the first version of the work, Beethoven included a stage direction for Jesus to be kneeling at this point (“Christus fällt nieder auf die Knie”), a stance clearly connected with G major, recalling the gesture of the shepherds at the manger in Bethlehem. 10 Karl Ludwig Seidel, Charinomos: Beitrage zur allgemeinen Theorie und Geschichte der schönen Künste (Magdeburg: Rubach, 1825 and 1828), ii, 110, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 180. Schilling writes more extensively of this passage, although, for the most part, paraphrasing Schubart, again mentioning this recitative by name. Gustav Schilling, Universal-Lexicon der Tonkunst (Stuttgart: Köhler, 1835-38), ii, 266-67, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, pp. 233-34. 9

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies 113-16 116-17 118-23

My soul is shattered from the torments, from the torments that threaten me. Terror seizes me, and my frame trembles and shudders horribly.

f c

agitated forceful, dramatic

123-25 Like a fever, 126-30 fear seizes me, over the nearby

E[ f

dark, unhappy agitated

131-44 grave, and from my countenance blood drips down instead of sweat.

e[

despair

Instrumental interlude Father! Deeply bowed and wretched your son implores you! Your power makes everything possible, take this cup of sorrow from me, take this cup of sorrow from me! My soul is shattered from the torments that threaten me,

E[

love, devotion

c

forceful, dramatic

f

agitated

145-48 149-62 163-70 171-78

179-84 and from my countenance drips e[ despair 185-88 instead of sweat, f agitated 189-97 instead of sweat, blood. c forceful 197-201 Instrumental interlude C pure, innocent 202-11 Father! Deeply bowed and wretched your son implores you! 212-26 Your power makes everything c forceful, dramatic possible, take this cup of sorrow from me, 227-29 take, f agitated 229-44 take this cup of sorrow from me! c forceful, dramatic

Commentary: Both of the significant mixed modal relationships of this work—e[/E[ and c/C—play out affectively in this movement, which opens in C minor as Jesus describes his natural human fear and trepidation in the face of his ensuing fate. Yet E-flat minor is never far from the surface: when he sings: “die Angst beim nahen Grab, und von meinem Antlitz träufert statt des Schweisses Blut herab” (fear over the nearby grave, and from my countenance blood drips down instead of sweat), it returns again in order to emphasize “Grab” (grave). At m. 145 the mood changes as the orchestra anticipates the new E-flat major theme that will set the text “Vater! Tief gebeugt und kläglich fleht dein Sohn hinauf zu dir” (Father! deeply bowed and wretched your son implores you). Here Jesus the son places his fate in his father’s hands, using the intimate “du” form in a passage of deeply personal conversation with the God,

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The Key to Beethoven

whom he was accustomed to address as “Abba.”11 E-flat major is used in its second praxis as the key of love and devotion (mm. 145-62), or as Schubart put it, of “intimate conversation with God”—an exact match with the sentiment expressed here. When this passage returns in the recapitulation (mm. 197-211) it does so in the tonic major, again anticipated in the orchestra, emphasizing Jesus’ purity and innocence as reflected in the second praxis of this key. There is a brief affective tonicization of F minor (mm. 227-28), as Jesus implores his father to take this cup from him, followed by a strong return to C minor (m. 229), indicating that he already knows the answer to his own question. What is seen here is a brief but understandable moment of fear and anger at his fate as Jesus’ human nature is emphasized. No. 2, Recitative: “Erzittre, Erde, Jehovah’s Sohn liegt hier!”12 Allegro, 4/4 Various keys Mm. Text/section Key Affect (Seraph) 1-6 Instrumental introduction A intense feelings 6-8 Tremble, earth, Jehovah’s son lies here!

Poco adagio, 4/4 9-10 12-13 13-15

his face pressed deep into the dust, by his father completely forsaken, and suffers endless torment. The good one! He is ready

f \ g \

gloom, discontent misery, depression

E

tender love

Più moto, 4/4 15-16 to die the martyr’s death, f \ contemplation of mortality 17-19 so that mankind, whom he loves, G pastoral trope Allegro, 4/4 20-22 will arise from death, and live forever.

D

triumph, victory

Commentary: The extraneous character of the Seraph—a non-biblical angelic figure who fulfilled the dramatic need of a female heroine for Beethoven—is introduced here characterized by the second praxis of A major projecting the intense feelings of this moment. In this movement, a wide range of keys is traversed in a short period of time, each with clear affective significance. At m. 8 the tempo marking changes to poco adagio, the dynamic level reduces to piano, “Abba” (‫ )אבא‬is the intimate form of addressing God in Aramaic. English equivalents would be “dad,” “daddy” or “papa.” 12 Modern German does not use a possessive apostrophe here but nineteenth-century German did, hence its inclusion. I am grateful to John Wilson for this information. 11

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

and a falling diminished seventh arpeggio ushers in an affective tonicization of F-sharp minor, a key of gloom and discontent, as the Seraph describes the image of Jesus “sein Antlitz tief in Staub gedrückt” (his face pressed deep into the dust) in a telling moment of text depiction. The affective meter is turned up sharply in the ensuing measure with a tonicization of G-sharp minor at the words “vom Vater ganz verlassen, und leidet unnennbare Qual” (by his father completely forsaken, and suffers unending torment). An affective tonicization of E major follows, reflecting its second praxis of tender love at m. 14. As the Seraph describes Jesus’ readiness to die a martyr’s death, the mood changes again at the phrase “zu sterben” (to die), where F-sharp minor is again tonicized. When she speaks of his love for “die Menschen” (humankind), G major is tonicized in a brief moment of pastoral repose, again with the thirds so characteristic of this topos heard in the accompaniment. The key characteristic and mood then abruptly change to depict the dramatic phrase “vom Tode auferstehen und ewig leben!” (from death will arise and live for ever). D major, in its first praxis of victory and triumph is used, with a tempo change to allegro, an increase in dynamic level from forte to fortissimo, and a rising figure in the orchestral accompaniment. These musical symbols brilliantly anticipate the moment of resurrection, ironically an event not described in the libretto. Aria: “Preist des Erlösers Güte!”

G

Larghetto, 3/8 Mm. Text/section (Seraph) 23-26 Instrumental introduction 27-34 Praise the liberator’s goodness, Mankind, praise his grace! 35-37 He dies for you out of love, 38-39 for you out of love, 40-48 his blood redeems your guilt. Mankind, praise his grace! Allegro, 4/4 (Seraph) 49-65 Instrumental introduction 65-77 O hail to you who are released, to you peace beckons if you are trusting 78-82 in love, in belief and in hope, trusting 82-83 in love, 84-95 in belief and in hope, if you are trusting in love.

309

Key

Affect

G

calm, gentle

a C G

sorrowful innocence calm, gentle

G

calm, gentle

D

love

G D

calm, gentle joy

The Key to Beethoven 95-100 101-3 103-5 106-18

But woe to those who dishonor the blood that flowed for them, the curse of the judge will strike them, damnation is their lot.

d a e b

(Chor der Engel, Seraph) 119-21 Instrumental interlude G 121-22 O hail C 122-48 to you who are released, to G you peace beckons 149-52 if you are trusting in love, C 153-59 in belief and in hope. To you G beckons peace if you are trusting in love, 159-62 if you are trusting in love, C 163-65 in belief and in hope. G 165-69 But woe to those who dishonor E[ 169-71 the blood that flowed f 172-77 for them. Damnation is their lot. g 177-203 But hail to you who are released, to G you peace beckons if you are trusting in love, in belief and in hope. 204-5 But woe E[ 206-10 to those who dishonor the blood f 211-16 that flowed for them, the curse of c the judge will strike them, 216-23 the curse of the judge will strike them! g 224-29 Damnation is their lot, E[ 230-35 damnation is their lot, c 236-39 damnation is their lot. E[ 240-53 The curse of the judge will strike them. g 254-62 damnation is their lot. unstable

anger, stormy angry sequential black, bitter calm, gentle pure, innocent calm, gentle purity, innocence calm, gentle purity, innocence calm, gentle dark, unhappy despair discontent calm, gentle

dark, unhappy violent, agitated tragic, forceful discontent, despair dark, unhappy tragic, forceful dark, unhappy discontent extreme emotion

263-96 But hail to you if you are trusting G calm, gentle in love, in belief and in hope, to you blessedness beckons, O hail to you.

Commentary: The gentle, pastoral-style orchestration with an emphasis on woodwind and strings and use of a tonic pedal enhance the affective qualities of G major in this movement. The pastoral imagery is certainly appropriate for a depiction of Jesus, the innocent lamb, whose blood will be unjustly spilled. The momentary affective tonicization of the subdominant in m. 49 strengthens this image by reflecting the innocence of the second praxis of C major. Several significant affective modulations occur, the first to D minor—anger, Sturm und Drang—as the text declaims “Doch weh! die frech entehren das Blut das für

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

sie floss” (But woe to those who dishonor the blood which flowed for them). The key change is paired with a fortissimo dynamic marking and scored for full orchestra. Then, as the text mentions damnation (“Verdammung ist ihr Los”), Beethoven’s rarely-used “black” key of B minor is invoked in its first praxis. The music reaches a fortissimo climax in m. 116 as the Seraph’s part rises to b2 above an expressive Italian sixth harmony. At the climax of the entire movement, mm. 254-62, an unstable, fortississimo diminished seventh chord emphasizes this text one final time in an extraordinary passage off the affective spectrum. The climax only serves to enhance the contrast at m. 265 as G major returns in its final appearance, again marked by pastoral orchestration and crowned by a gentle halo of triplet quarter notes for the flute. No. 3, Recitative: “Verkündet, Seraph, mir dein Mund” Various keys No marking, 4/4 Mm. (Jesus) 1-3 3-4 5-7

Text/section

Key

Affect

Does your mouth, O Seraph, announce to me my eternal Father’s mercy? Does he remove the fear of death from me?

F

calm, peace

d a

melancholy menacing

(Seraph) Thus speaks Jehovah: “Before the holy secret of unstable absolution is fulfilled, so long the human race remains condemned and deprived 12-13 of eternal life.” c 14 Instrumental interlude A[

projecting God’s voice

funereal grave-like

Commentary: The Seraph solemnly intones the words of Jehovah in an oracular utterance that reflects many characteristics of the ombra tradition of opera. Particularly noteworthy is the combination of the use of trombones, the unstable tonality, and the bold harmonies. Each chord is dramatically emphasized by a sforzando marking as the roots fall by thirds—alternatively major and minor (a–F–d–B[–g–E[–c–A[–f)—powerfully recreating the divine presence and the voice of God. An affective modulation to funereal C minor in m. 12 reflects what the outcome for the human race will be if Jesus does not fulfill his destiny. Duet: “So ruhe denn mit ganzer Schwere” Adagio molto, 3/4

13

A[

There is an extant sketch for this movement in A major. Possible reasons for Beethoven’s changing the key to A-flat major are discussed in the Conclusion, pp. 393-94. 13

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The Key to Beethoven

Mm. Text/section (Jesus) 15

Instrumental introduction

Key

Affect

A[

the grave/heavenly

16-17 D[

grief/majesty

17-22 A[ 22-23 So let it rest then,

the grave/heavenly

24-25

with complete heaviness, on me my

D[

grief/majesty

26-29 29-30

Father, your judgment. Pour over me the stream of suffering,

A[ f

the grave/heavenly extreme grief

31-32

only do not be angry with Adam’s children,

b[

discontent

33-35

with Adam’s children.

A[

the grave/heavenly

(Seraph) Shaken, I see the 35-37

exalted one in death’s

D[

grief/majesty

38-42 42-43 44-45 45-46 46-47

suffering wrapped. I tremble, and am myself encircled by the grave’s terror that he feels, and am encircled by the grave’s terror

A[

the grave/heavenly

f unstable c f

despair extreme emotion funereal despair

47-52

that he feels.

E[

heroism/darkness

(Seraph/Jesus) Great are the torments of fear and terror that the hand of God pours upon him/me, 52-53

yet greater still,

A[

the grave/heavenly

53-54

yet greater still

D[

grief/majesty

54-55

is his/my love

b[

discontent

56-57 with which his/my heart the world A[ the grave/heavenly surrounds. to [VI 57-59 Instrumental interlude E fiery passion 59-60 e[ A[

60-62

Great are the torments, the fear, the terror

62-64

that the hand of God pours upon him/me, E[

64-65

yet greater still,

312

A[

black depression the grave/heavenly heroism/darkness the grave/heavenly

65-66

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies yet greater still D[ grief/majesty

66-67

is his/my love

b[

discontent

68-75 with which his/my heart the world A[ the grave/heavenly surrounds. 75-79 Instrumental postlude 79-83 V of f extreme grief

Commentary: The two sides of Jesus’ person, the human and the divine, are pointedly depicted through the use of key characteristics: Jesus the man fearful of death versus Jesus the Son of God calmly contemplating the very reason for which he was sent to earth. The frequent tonicization of D-flat major only serves to enhance the characterization already projected by the tonic. Kingship is reflected in Schrader’s image of majesty, and Beethoven’s own attribution of maestoso to describe this key, juxtaposed with Schubart’s image of degeneration into grief. Beethoven used B-flat minor on two occasions (mm. 55 and 67) to set the word “Liebe” (love), indicating through tonal affect just how much pain this love would cause Jesus. The passage from mm. 57-59 is of particular interest. A perfect cadence in A-flat major is evaded on the first beat of m. 57, as a chord of F-flat ([VI) acts as surrogate for the tonic. A striking unison orchestral interlude in E major ensues. Beethoven employed a fortissimo dynamic and staccato phrasing, with sforzandos displacing the metrical accent, all designed to depict the fieriness and intensity of Jesus’ agapic love for humankind in the first praxis of this key. The nine-measure instrumental postlude acts as a transition to the following movement, ending on the dominant chord of F minor while simultaneously projecting a final flash of despair, enhanced by three sospira, before Jesus final embraces his fate.

Example 14. Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85, “So ruhe denn mit ganzer Schwere,” mm. 57-60 (keyboard reduction).2

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The Key to Beethoven

No. 4, Recitative: “Willkommen, Tod!” Andante con moto, 3/4

Various keys

Mm. Text/section (Jesus) 1-3 Instrumental introduction 4-6 Welcome, death, for, on the cross,

Key

Affect

F

calm, inner peace

7-10 11-16 16-19 20-22

B[

kind, tender

G

calm, peaceful

C G

triumph, strength brilliant, cheerful

for the salvation of mankind I bloodily undergo! O in your cool cave be blessed, you whom eternal sleep holds in his arms, you will awake joyfully to happiness.

Commentary: Beethoven depicted Jesus’ acceptance of his fate by using F major affectively as a means of projecting his newfound sense of calmness and inner peace. This acceptance is affirmed by Beethoven’s setting of “Kreuze” (cross) to a 6– 5 “joy” motive in a major key rather than the expected sospiro. The affective modulation to G major (mm. 7-10) strengthens the feelings of calmness and peace by using a second pastoral key. As Jesus describes the blessed souls who slumber, a halo of strings plays tremolo e pianissimo; as he tells of their awakening, the opening ritornello is repeated (mm. 17-19). This time it reflects the first praxis of C major—the key of triumph and strength—with an appropriate crescendo to fortissimo before ending in the second praxis of G. Chorus: “Wir haben ihn gesehen” Alla marcia, 4/4 C Mm. Text/section Key Affect (Chor der Krieger) 23-26 Instrumental introduction C strength 26-27 d structural (sequential) 27-29 e structural (sequential) 30-34 c funereal 34-40 We have seen him going to this C strength mountain, 40-55 he cannot escape, for him judgment G ironic (second praxis) waits, yes for him judgment waits. 55-60 Instrumental interlude c funereal 60-64 We have seen him, A[ grave 65-66 escape, escape B[ martial 67-97 escape he cannot! Yes for him the C/c strength/funereal judgment waits.

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Commentary: The martial style, combining detached quarter notes with dotted rhythms, suggests the first praxis of triumph and celebration in C major. The reduced orchestration and dynamic level, however, reveal a graphic depiction of the soldiers’ stealth in their manner of conducting the search for Jesus.14 The affective modulation to G major (m. 44) conveys an ironic usage of the second praxis of this key, for the mood is anything but cheerful. In m. 44, Beethoven modulated to G major, which functions as a dominant preparation of funereal C minor in the instrumental interlude. The movement ends with another balancing act of C major and minor, which may reflect the ironic triumph that while Jesus the man’s ultimate fate will be personal (ending in his death) it will at the same time win for humanity the gift of eternal life. This is significant in part because Beethoven has mainly self-identified with Jesus the man rather than Jesus the son of God. No. 5, Recitative: “Die mich zu fangen ausgezogen” Various keys L’istesso tempo della Marcia, 4/4 Mm. (Jesus) 1-5 6-8 8-11 11

Text/section

Key

Affect

Those who have come out to capture me now approach. Instrumental interlude My Father! O let the hours of suffering in quick flight go by me,

F

inner calm, peace

g compassionate a sorrowful, tender C

majestic, triumphant

Allegro, 4/4 12 let them fly C majestic, triumphant 13-18 quickly, as the clouds that a e ironic (second praxis) storm-wind drives, be drawn to your heaven. 18-21 Instrumental interlude (storm) 22-25 b black, gloomy Adagio, 4/4 26-29 Yet not my will, no, your will be done.

b

black, gloomy

Beethoven’s original text was changed here by Breitkopf & Härtel from “Schlag links den Weg nur ein, er muss ganz nahe seyn” (Just turn into the left-hand path, he must be quite near) to the version which appears above: “Entfliehen kann er nicht, seyn wartet das Gericht” (Escape he cannot, judgment awaits him). The earlier version made it quite clear that the soldiers were stalking Jesus. This change was made against Beethoven’s wishes, as the letters Tyson quotes make clear. Alan Tyson, “The 1803 Version of Beethoven’s ‘Christus am Oelberge,’” The Musical Quarterly 56 (1970): 580-81.

14

315

The Key to Beethoven

Commentary: Both sides of Jesus’ personality are again visible, his words indicating that while his divine nature has now finally accepted his lot, the human side of his persona has yet to do so. This request is solemnly declaimed (mm. 9-12) in the sorrowful key of A minor accompanied by a halo of tremolo strings. A brief affective modulation to C major (first praxis), enhanced by diminished seventh harmony, looks ahead to his victory triumphantly as the phrase “der Leiden Stunden bei mir vorüber” (the hours of my suffering past) is declaimed. As he sings “dass sie fliehn, rasch, wie die Wolken, die ein Sturmwind treibt” (let them fly quickly as the clouds which a storm wind drives), a short storm depicts ironically this metaphor that signifies his forthcoming passion. The irony that this storm is very short-lived is extremely consequential, for it signifies that Jesus’ suffering will be anything but. A huge storm would have been needed to complete the metaphor and literally “blow away” the many hours of suffering ahead of him; the fact this storm is intentionally short in length and light in key—not a fully-fledged D or F minor offering—and set in the lamenting key of E minor speaks volumes. It collapses, in fact, almost before it begins as it moves to Beethoven’s “schwarze Tonart” (m. 22) when Jesus, still with his human nature on display, finally accepts “Doch nicht mein Wille, nein, dein Wille nur geschehe” (Yet not my will, no, your will be done). The choice of B minor signifies both the intensity of his feelings and his expectation that the suffering will be profound. Tempo della Marcia, 4/4 Mm. Text/section Key Affect 29-34 Instrumental interlude various chromatic rising sequence Allegro molto, 4/4 (Chor der Krieger) 35-43 Here he is, the condemned one, D ironic (first praxis) who boldly named himself to the people the king of the Jews, 44-48 here he is, the condemned one, who e structural/sequential boldly named himself to the people 48-52 the king of the Jews; seize him and D ironic (first praxis) bind him, 53-54 and bind him, A joyful, intense feelings 54-58 seize him and bind him! D ironic (first praxis) (Chor der Jünger) 59-66 What is the meaning of this tumult? It has happened because of us! 66-76 Surrounded by rough soldiers what death will befall us? (Chor der Krieger) 77-85 Here he is, the condemned one who

316

b

black, gloomy

f \

gloom, discontent,

D

ironic (first praxis)

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies 86-91 91-101

boldly named himself to the people the king of the Jews! Here he is, the condemned one, who boldly named himself to the people the king of the Jews; seize and bind him,

e

structural/sequential

D

ironic (first praxis)

(Chor der Jünger) 102-15 Have mercy, oh, have mercy, it has happened because of us!

D

ironic (first praxis)

(Chor der Krieger) 115-21 Here he is, the condemned one, seize him and bind him.

E[

ironic (first praxis)

(Chor der Jünger) 122-61 Have mercy, oh, have mercy, it has D ironic (first praxis) happened because of us! Oh, what will befall us? (Chor der Krieger) Seize him and bind him, who boldly named himself the King of the Jews.

Commentary: The Chor der Krieger returns with shouts of “ergreift und bindet ihn” (seize and bind him) as the key of D Major is employed to double effect. Here the “king of the Jews” is being arrested. Thus, at the literal level, D major—the key of victory—is used with biting irony since his fate now seems all but sealed, and victory/vengeance appears to be firmly in the hands of his foes. This contradiction is compounded by a unison fanfare-like figure for the orchestral bass (mm. 51-58), which Beethoven revealed is ironic by adding destabilizing sforzando markings on the weak beats of the measure. However, at a deeper level, this is precisely what was ordained in order for Jesus, the son of God, to win the ultimate victory over death. D major functions as a tonal Leitmotif here, subtly revealing the eventual outcome. The Chor der Jünger appears for the first time, questioning what is happening and how they will be affected. Italian sixth harmony again ushers in Beethoven’s “schwarze Tonart” of B minor (m. 60). The affective heat is turned up with a modulation to F-sharp minor at m. 66—the key of discontent, gloom, and death—as the disciples fear for their lives. The Chor der Krieger returns, this time in the key of E-flat major, where the sense of double meaning is even more pronounced. On the surface, this heroic key is used ironically, yet at the deeper level, its meaning is literal as Jesus’ ultimate victory is anticipated, all the more importantly because the account of the resurrection is not directly recounted anywhere in the work. Significantly, the destabilizing sforzando markings are now missing, replaced by a fortissimo dynamic (m. 115), and the fanfare passage for the voices is inverted. 317

The Key to Beethoven

Both symbols hint that the affect at the deeper level will ultimately prevail. No. 6, Recitative: “Nicht ungestraft soll der Verwegnen Schar” Various keys Molto allegro, 4/4 Mm. Text/section (Peter) 1 Instrumental introduction 2 3-5 They should not go unpunished, the audacious mob, 5-7 you the exalted one, you my friend and master, 7-8 Instrumental interlude 8-9 they seize with impudent hands! Poco adagio, 4/4 (Jesus) 9-12 O let your sword rest in its scabbard, if it were the will 12-13 of my father 13-14 from the power of my enemies to Allegro, 4/4 15 rescue me,

Key

Affect

C strength G lively

C

strength

F majesty C strength

G

calm, peace

C d

purity divine vengeance

d

divine vengeance

16-17

Instrumental interlude B[

18-19

then would legions of

bold, martial

E[

heroic

20 angels E[

heroic

Andante cantabile, 2/4 21-25

be prepared to save me.

B[

bold, martial

Commentary: Peter—the beloved disciple—finally makes his appearance and in angry mood, prepares to assert his strength to save his master, depicted by Beethoven in C and G majors. There is an affective tonicization of D minor in its third praxis, as the issue of divine intervention is mentioned (m. 13), enhanced by a sforzando marking. Two measures later, both tempo and key change—allegro, E-flat major—to depict the troop of heroic angels that God would send to achieve this rescue. Terzetto: “In meinen Adern wühlen gerechter Zorn und Wuth”

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Allegro ma non troppo, 4/4

B[

Mm.

Key

Affect

B[ F

ironic (second praxis) ironic (second praxis)

Text/section

26-27 Instrumental introduction 28-29

29-32 E[

ironic (first praxis)

33-34 B[

ironic (second praxis)

(Peter) 34-36 In my veins gather 37-38 righteous anger and rage,

F

ironic (second praxis)

38-40

righteous anger and rage;

E[

ironic (first praxis)

41-53

let my vengeance be cooled in these audacious ones’ blood!

B[

ironic (second praxis)

You must not seek revenge, I have taught you only one thing, to love all mankind and forgive your enemies!

B[ F

amoroso peace

(Jesus) 53-55 56-69

(Seraph) 69-72 Notice, O mankind, and listen: F peace 73-74 Instrumental interlude g tender only a God’s mouth makes such holy teaching of the love of neighbor,

E[

love and devotion

80-94 only a God’s mouth makes such holy teaching, notice, O mankind and listen! (Seraph, Jesus)

B[

amoroso

94-104 O children of men, understand this holy law, love the one who hates you, only so will you please God!

B[

amoroso

75-79

(Peter)

In my veins gather righteous anger and rage. B[

ironic (first praxis)

Più Allegro, 4/4 (Peter) 105-07 Let my vengeance be cooled is) 107-11 in these audacious ones’ blood,

319

B[

ironic (second prax-

c

ironic (third praxis)

The Key to Beethoven 112-14 let my vengeance be cooled.

g

ironic (first praxis)

B[

ironic (second praxis)

(Jesus) You must not seek revenge, (Peter) 115-17 in these audacious ones’ blood. (Jesus) you must not! Un poco Adagio, 4/4 (Jesus) 118-24 I have taught you only one thing, F to love all mankind and forgive your enemies!

peace

(Seraph, Jesus, Peter) B[

amoroso, tender

B[

amoroso, tender

143-47 love the one who hates you, only thus can you please him,

E[

love

148-50 can you please God. 151-59 Instrumental interlude

B[

amoroso, tender

B[

martial

125-38 O children of man, grasp this holy law: love the one who hates you, only thus can you please God, Un poco più lento, 4/4 139-43 only thus can you please him, A tempo, 4/4

Molto Allegro, 4/4 (Chor der Krieger) 160-67 167-69 170-76 176-78

Up, up, seize the traitor, stay here no longer, away now with the transgressor, away with the offender, hurry him to justice, stay here no longer, hurry him to justice! Instrumental interlude

sequential d vengeance d sorrow

(Chor der Jünger) 178-82 Oh! We will on his account be hated and persecuted. (Chor der Krieger) 182-83 Away now with the transgressor!

d

Sturm und Drang

(Chor der Jünger) 183-85 Instrumental interlude c lament

320

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies 185-88 We shall be bound, martyred and condemned to die .

(Chor der Krieger) 189-95 Up, seize the traitor, stay here no longer! (Jesus) 196-98 My agony is soon over,

c

forceful, dramatic

c

ironic (first praxis)

199-211 the work of redemption finished, the power of hell is soon completely overcome and vanquished. (Chor der Krieger)

E[

heroic

211-14 Up, up, seize the traitor!

E[

ironic (first praxis)

e[

extreme anxiety

E[

heroic

E[

ironic (first praxis)

(Chor der Jünger) 214-17 Oh, we will be hated and persecuted on his account. (Jesus) 217-19 My agony is soon over. (Chor der Krieger)

Stay here no longer!

(Chor der Jünger) 220-22 We shall be bound, martyred and e[ condemned to die. (Jesus) 223-58 The work of redemption finished. The power of hell is soon completely overcome and vanquished.

extreme anxiety, depression

E[

heroic

E[

ironic (first praxis)

E[

ironic (first praxis)

C

triumph, rejoicing

(Chor der Krieger)

Stay here no longer! Away with the evildoer, drag him quickly to judgment!

(Chor der Jünger)

Oh, we will, on his account, be hated and persecuted.

Maestoso, 4/4 259-66 Instrumental introduction (Chor der Engel)

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The Key to Beethoven 266-71 271-72 272-76

Worlds sing thanks and honor to the sublime son of God, worlds sing to the sublime son of God.

Allegro, 2/2 277-410 Praise him aloud, you choirs of angels in holy tones of jubilation. Worlds sing thanks and honor to the sublime son of God. 411-16 Praise him aloud in holy tones of jubilation, 417-31 in holy tones of jubilation!

G C

brilliant, cheerful triumph, rejoicing

C

triumph, rejoicing15

F

majestic

C

triumph, rejoicing

Commentary: The initial understanding of the tonal depiction of the character of Peter is of a “rage” aria in the wrong key. Yet, in actuality, the second praxis of B-flat major is being used ironically by Beethoven, for the outcome of this moment is also predicted, and Peter will calm down. The use of D minor—traditionally the key for such arias—would not have achieved this effect nearly so well. As his temper abates, the orchestral accompaniment does likewise, appearing completely transformed at Jesus’ entry “Du sollst nicht Rache üben” (You must not seek revenge) where B-flat major is melded into its amoroso praxis. The real reason Beethoven chose this key now becomes literally apparent as he sings of his universal message of love for all mankind in the amoroso key of tenderness and affection. The ensuing trio (from m. 94) pits contrasted emotions against one another as the Seraph and Jesus sing of loving the one who hates you while Peter still fumes in righteous anger. B-flat major in its first praxis can thus be interpreted both literally and ironically, the ironic usage having the effect of taking the edge of Peter’s anger. In m. 159 the Chor der Krieger begins an imitative chorus, marked Molto Allegro, singing “Auf! auf! ergreifet den Verräter” (Up, up, seize the traitor). Soon its members become angry, and the key changes to D minor (m. 170) in a passage that reflects the Sturm und Drang nature of the third praxis in this key. This melds into the first praxis of D minor—projecting sorrow—as a new theme is introduced telling of the fears of persecution shared by the Chor der Jünger.

Local tonicizations do not effect the meaning here.

15

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Example 15. Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85, “In meinen Adern,” mm. 17882.

The passage from mm. 176-81 is then repeated a whole step lower in C minor, in its first praxis of lamentation (m. 183) as a variant of this new theme is used to project the fear the Chor der Jünger have of martyrdom. This melds into the third praxis of this key at m. 189 as the Chor der Krieger reiterate their demands to seize Jesus and take him away. A “fpp” marking in m. 196 projects an abrupt change as Jesus’ declaration “Meine Qual ist bald verschwunden” (My agony is soon over), accompanied again by the characteristic tremolo halo of strings, indicates an ironic usage of the first praxis of C minor. Here he is already anticipating his resurrection. As soon as the word “Qual” has passed, this anticipation is affirmed by a modulation to the heroic key of E-flat major as he sings “der Erlösung Werk vollbracht” (the work of redemption finished), and a powerful climax is reached. Such is the subtlety of Beethoven’s writing here that for the words “und besiegt” (and conquered) the line reads g[1-g[1-g1, recalling the third of the E-flat minor “Introduzione,” now gloriously vanquished in the affective triumph of its major sibling. Elements of E-flat minor are again present—in mm. 189-91 and 195-97 as the Chor der Jünger holds on stubbornly to its fears of being hated and potential martyrdom. Yet on both occasions it is trampled by the tonic major, initially in mm. 218 and 223, but ultimately in a resounding heroic climax beginning in m. 247. It should come as no surprise that E-flat major is used here for Beethoven saw Jesus as the ultimate heroic figure, transcending time and space, making it completely fitting for him to use his heroic key, enhanced by double layers of meaning: heroism and love of God. The celebration for Jesus the conquering hero then resounds in triumphant C major. It would be hard to imagine a passage more magniloquent than the orchestral introduction to the chorus “Welten singen” (Worlds sing). Martial dotted rhythms abound, marked maestoso, for fortissimo full orchestra. This serves as an introduction for the angelic choir—now anything but angelic—who sing in bombastic homophony of giving thanks and honor to “dem erhab’nen Gottessohn” (to the sublime son of God). A final fugal chorus follows in a traditional “cum sancto spiritu” moment where the triumphal affect of C major is maintained throughout despite brief structural tonicizations.

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The Key to Beethoven

Mass in C Major, Op. 86, 1807 Beethoven used tonal symbolism in the Mass in C Major both to support and challenge the prevailing Austrian tradition of mass composition.16 In his review of 1813, E. T. A. Hoffmann found fault with the work because it followed too closely the meaning of the words, which he thought should only provide a general stimulus.17 Beethoven, in contrast, adopted exactly the reverse paradigm: his choice of affect was closely stimulated by textual meaning, making it the driving force behind the composition of this work. For reasons of tradition and tonal symbolism, C major was Beethoven’s key of choice for his first mass. The dichotomy of the contrasted praxes associated with this key made it well suited to his first setting of this text, a work he deemed “especially close to my heart.”18 Early in his review, Hoffmann stated, “the entire Mass expresses a childlike optimism that by its very purity devoutly trusts in God’s grace, and appeals to him as to a father who desires the best for his children and hears their prayers.”19 While he did not mention C major directly in the context of this statement, his words are remarkably congruent with Schubart’s description of this key. When he considered the Sanctus later in the review, he mentioned the listener’s expectation of a grand, expansive movement and then observed how true to the ethos of the complete mass Beethoven was in his setting, describing it as “gentle and moving, in A major.”20 His longest affective comment was reserved for his discussion of the Agnus Dei—set by Beethoven in C minor. There he identified “a feeling of profound melancholy which does not rend the heart, however, but comforts it and dissolves into unearthly ecstasy like sorrow from another world.”21 Kyrie eleison C/E/C Andante con moto assai vivace quasi Allegretto ma non troppo, 2/4

16 Detailed information on the tradition of Viennese mass writing can be found in Bruce MacIntyre, The Viennese Concerted Mass of the Early Classic Period (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1986). 17 E. T. A. Hoffmann, “Messa a quattro voci coll’ accompagnamento dell’ Orchestra, composta da Luigi van Beethoven,” in Musikalische Schriften, Hoffmanns Werke, ed. Georg Ellinger (Berlin: Bong, 1894), xiii, 133, in James Garratt, Palestrina and the German Romantic Imagination (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 54. 18 The Letters of Beethoven, trans. and ed. Emily Anderson, 3 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1961), i, no. 169, p. 192; original in Ludwig van Beethoven: Briefwechsel Gesamtausgabe, ed. Sieghard Brandenburg, 7 vols. (Munich: Henle, 1996), ii, no. 331, p. 18. 19 E. T. A. Hoffman, “Review of Beethoven’s Mass in C,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 15 (1813), cols. 389-97, 409-14, quoted in E. T. A. Hoffmann’s Musical Writings: Kreisleriana, The Poet and the Composer, Music Criticism, ed. David Charlton, trans. Martyn Clark (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 329. 20 Ibid, p. 336. 21 Ibid., p. 337.

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Mm. Text/section Key Affect 1-21 Kyrie eleison. C neutral, pure 22-33 Kyrie eleison. e tender lament 33-36 Instrumental interlude E loving 37-46 Christe eleison, 47-48 eleison, f \ structural (sequential) 49-50 eleison, Christe, A trust in God 51-53 Christe unstable intense emotion 54-58 Christe eleison, E loving 59-60 Christe eleison, f \ structural (sequential) 61-62 eleison, Christe, A trust in God 63-65 Christe eleison, unstable intense emotion 66-68 eleison. E loving 70-75 Kyrie eleison, 76-78 eleison. e tender lament 79-101 Kyrie eleison, C neutral, pure 102-07 Kyrie eleison, e tender lament 108-32 Kyrie eleison. C neutral, pure

Commentary: Beethoven himself clearly stated his affective intentions for this Kyrie in a letter to Breitkopf & Härtel, dated January 16, 1811: “The general character of the Kyrie […] is heartfelt resignation, deep sincerity of religious feeling […] yet without […] being sad. Gentleness is the fundamental characteristic of the whole work.”22 It is ironic to note that the affects just described are wholly congruent with the second praxis of D major, precisely the key he used in his later setting of “Kyrie eleison” in the Missa Solemnis! In the first mass, C major can be seen as being used in a neutral manner as the purest of the keys, as is sometimes the case with its second praxis.23 This neutral quality is enhanced by a steady tempo marking, gentle dynamic level, and reduced orchestration, all of which convey a reverential, introspective atmosphere. In theological terms the use of this praxis is also indicative of the purity of God the Father. The modulation to E minor at m. 22 is both structural and affective. Structurally it prepares for the use of E major for “Christe eleison.” Affectively, it brings out a different side of this text, emphasizing that these words represent humanity, only too aware of its sins, pleading with God for mercy in the gently-lamenting key of E minor.

Anderson, i, no. 294, p. 309; Brandenburg, ii, no. 484, p. 176. I am grateful to Michelle Fillion for pointing this out. 23 He also used C major neutrally at the beginning of the Credo. 22

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The Key to Beethoven

For “Christe eleison” the affective use of the mediant key of E major also represents a break from tradition, as Beethoven used tonal symbolism to capture humanity’s loving invocation for mercy to Jesus the Son, the second person and, according to theological tradition, most tender member of the Trinity. Yet E major is not only reserved for supplication to God the son. Beethoven retained it for the initial reprise of the first Kyrie theme at m. 70, which functions as a transition back to the tonic, almost as if testing God the father to see if a more loving approach to the petition for mercy in E major might be more effective. This represents another break from tradition. The expected reprise in the tonic is heard at m. 84. Gloria in excelsis Allegro, 2/2

C

Mm. Text/section Key Affect 1-17 Gloria in excelsis Deo! C triumph, strength 18-24 Et in terra pax hominibus C purity, innocence 25-40 bonae voluntatis, a plaintive, sorrowful 41-48 laudamus te, benedicimus te, C triumph, strength 48-50 adoramus te, B[ amoroso, lovely 50-67 glorificamus te! C triumph, strength 67-88 Gratias agimus tibi propter magnam F calm, peace gloriam tuam. 89-93 Domine Deus, rex coelestis, d gentle sorrow 94-96 Deus pater omnipotens. F calm, peace 97-100 Deus pater omnipotens. F majesty 101-08 Domine fili unigenite Jesu Christe! g discontent, resentment 108-10 Domine Deus, E[ love of God 111-18 agnus Dei, filius patris, B[ amoroso, lovely 119-21 patris, F calm, peace 122-28 Domine Deus, agnus Dei, filius B[ amoroso, lovely 129-38 patris. F calm, peace

Commentary: In a clear differentiation from the Kyrie, Beethoven reinforced tradition by invoking the first praxis of C major in the opening of the Gloria, as had so many composers before him. An affective modulation to A minor (mm. 25-40) suggets that humanity’s level of “bona voluntas” is not enough to deserve the “pax in terra” that God is offering. The connection with plaintive, melancholy A minor suggests that humankind should raise its level of “Freundlichkeit” (kindness) or “Gefälligkeit” (goodwill) for one another to a place of “Brüderschaft” (brotherhood), an Enlightenment ideal that remained dear to Beethoven throughout his life, reaching its climax in the Ninth Symphony. At mm. 48-50, a brilliant 326

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

example of affective text depiction at “adoramus te” is achieved through tonal symbolism, as the music literally bows down from C major in an affective gesture to the loving key of B-flat major, reflecting the action of humanity in adoration of its maker.24 An affective modulation to F major at m. 73 emphasizes the calm and security that mankind feels knowing that such largesse—“magna gloria”—is bestowed upon humanity, recalling affects heard in the Sixth Symphony.25 A short affective tonicization of D minor (mm. 89-93) is perhaps indicative of human sadness at not being worthy benefactors of such a gift. God’s omnipotence is reflected in a short affective modulation to F major, now majestic in its second praxis. Jesus is mentioned by name for the first time at m. 105 in the phrase “Jesu Christe” with an affective modulation to G minor, the forte marking indicating the first praxis: feelings of discontent and resentment that Jesus often inspired when challenging the status quo and those in authority. As the phrase “Domine Deus” is introduced (mm. 108-10), a brief affective tonicization of E-flat major projects love of God in the second praxis of this key. In the ensuing phrase, as Jesus is acclaimed as “Agnus Dei,” Beethoven’s amoroso key is used to personalize the feeling of love and tenderness that Christ personifies. Andante mosso, 3/4 Mm. Text/section 139-54 Qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis.

Key f

Affect extreme grief

155-79 180-213

A[

heavenly

c

lament

Qui tollis peccata mundi, suscipe deprecationem nostram. Qui sedes ad dexteram patris, miserere nobis!

Commentary: The central section of the Gloria, “Qui tollis peccata mundi,” is set in F minor—a plea to God to absolve the sins of mankind by granting mercy. The fact that human beings are expected to earn this absolution is made all the more obvious by the connotations of F minor with its “groans of misery” and extreme grief. As God is implored to “suscipe deprecationem nostram,” an affective modulation to A-flat major emphasizes the heavenly, loving role this key can play. Imitative choral lines literally reach up to heaven with high A-flats to offer “peccata nostra” to him for forgiveness in another masterful moment of affective text depiction.26 The heavenly key is again employed in a further text depiction to set the words “ad dexteram patris” before a plea for mercy (m. 181), this time in the lamenting key of C minor. This is reflected liturgically during mass with a bow honoring these words. Beethoven had made sketches for the Pastoral Symphony as early as 1803, and this connection should come as no surprise. 26 This reflects Schiller’s and Beethoven’s vision of the “lieber Vater” (loving Father) who dwells “überm Sternenzelt” (above the stars). 24 25

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The Key to Beethoven

Allegro ma non troppo, 4/4 Mm. Text/section Key Affect 214-51 Quoniam tu solus sanctus, tu C triumph, strength solus Dominus, tu solus altissimus Jesu Christe! Cum sancto spiritu in gloria Dei patris, 252-57 in gloria Dei patris, amen. G structural 258-60 Tu solus Dominus, E structural (sequential) 261-62 tu solus altissimus A structural (sequential) 263-64 Jesu Christe, D structural (sequential) 265-66 Jesu Christe. G structural (sequential) 266-314 Quoniam to solus sanctus, tu C triumph, strength solus Dominus, tu solus altissimus Jesu Christe! Cum sancto spiritu in gloria Dei patris, amen, 315-20 amen, unstable extreme emotion 321-27 amen. Quoniam tu solus sanctus, C triumph, strength 328-29 tu solus Dominus, a structural (sequential) 330-33 tu solus altissimus, Jesu E[ heroic 334-41 Christe, cum sancto spiritu in C triumph, strength gloria Dei patris, amen, 341-51 amen, C purity, innocence 352-53 amen, C triumph, strength 354-67 amen, C purity, innocence 368-79 amen. C triumph, strength

Commentary: The final section of the Gloria erupts in a blaze of fortissimo orchestral power as wind and brass reaffirm the triumph and strength of C major in its first praxis, again reflective of the Austrian mass tradition. At m. 314, as cries of “Amen” re-echo,27 Beethoven pushed tonal affect to the extreme by invoking a bass line that falls in thirds in a tonally unstable passage that culminates with a chord of G-flat major, a tritone away from the tonic. Perhaps he was attempting here to depict the vastness of the glory of God by deliberately moving outside the realm of tonal affect, in fact literally as far away as he could go. This resolves gloriously onto a dominant seventh in last inversion in the tonic, marked fortissimo for the full ensemble. An affective modulation to E-flat major (mm. 330-33) reflects its first heroic praxis for the words “tu solus altissimus,” where these words are declaimed fortissimo in a quasi shout prior to the tonic ending. Yet it should not be forgotten that, at a deeper level, inside this fortissimo passage lies the quiet core of the second praxis of this key, the key of love, devotion, and intimate conversation with God. There follows the tonic ending, “Amein” (‫ )אןמ‬means “so be it” in Hebrew.

27

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

albeit not the expected one, where both praxes of C are justified as a metaphor for affirmation via the Hebrew word “Amein.” Thus shouts of affirmation (352 and 368) are anticipated by gentle settings of the same word, reflecting two sides of God’s nature: triumphant and innocent. Credo in unum Deum

C

Allegro con brio, 3/4 Mm. Text/section Key Affect 1-8 Credo, C neutral 9-16 credo in unum Deum, patrem omnipo- C triumph, strength 17-21 tentem, factorem coeli et terrae, G brilliant 22-23 coeli et terrae, F sequential 24-34 visibilium omnium et C triumph, strength invisibilium, et in unum 35-38 Dominum Jesum Christum, B strong passions 39-41 filium Dei d active ombra divine intervention 42-49 unigenitum, et ex patre natum, a serious 50-53 ante omnia secula. G/g brilliance/discontent 54-56 Instrumental Interlude E[ divine love 56-59 Deum de Deo, lumen de E[ heroic 60-63 lumine, Deum de Deo, f stormy 64-68 lumen de lumine, Deum verum G brilliant de Deo vero, 69-79 genitum non factum, F majestic, joyful consubstantialem patri, per quem 80-81 omnia, per quem omnia, f stormy 82-92 omnia facta sunt. G brilliant 93-102 Qui propter nos homines et propter C innocence, purity nostram salutem 102-09 descendit de coelis, C triumph, strength 110-18 qui propter nos homines et propter c lament, pathos nostram salutem descendit, 118-24 descendit c forceful, dramatic 124-30 de coelis. E[ love

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The Key to Beethoven

Commentary: The opening subtly reveals Beethoven’s possible issues with what might be termed the “certainty theology” of the Roman Catholicism. The word “Credo” is repeated three times, piano, with minimal orchestration in the expected key for a Viennese mass setting in C but not using that key’s expected style or praxis. Here the second praxis of C major again functions as a neutral key affectively, allowing Beethoven to work through any possible doubts. Suddenly these are subsumed by a thundering fourth repetition of “Credo,” replete with full orchestra, which affirms both Beethoven’s acquiescence to this theology, and his understanding of the traditional role of C major’s first praxis in the Austrian mass tradition in such a context. Its impact is, of course, all the more powerful for being thus delayed. Augmented sixth chords were some of the most powerful affective harmonies available to Beethoven. In mm. 35-36 he used a German sixth to set the words “dominum Jesum,” as if to emphasize the power of Jesus’ role in God’s scheme of things, a power enhanced by the key to which this harmony enables modulation: B major, heard here in its first praxis and reflective of strong, wild passions. This roller-coaster ride through unexpected tonalities continues with an affective modulation to D—not major but minor (mm. 39-41)—reflective of the active intervention of the Divine in the affairs of humanity, precisely what Jesus’ coming to earth is designed to do according to Christian theology, all this in a Viennese setting of the creed in C major. So much for tradition! At m. 42 the affective modulation to A minor, second praxis, at the words “filium Dei unigenitum” reflects the seriousness of the divine schema and the place that God’s only son plays in it. G major, in its second praxis, affirms a sense of wonder at the brilliance of God’s plan for Jesus’ birth since before time (“ante omnia saecula”), and yet there is a sting in the tail. The unison melody that ends this phrase falls not to the expected B but to B[ (m. 53). This is perhaps reflective of the discontent that Jesus will experience in his life on earth as he atones for the sins of humanity through his crucifixion on Golgotha. Yet this divine action is undoubtedly heroic as affirmed by Beethoven’s use of E-flat major at m. 54. The phrase “Deum de deo, lumen de lumine” is introduced with three piano open fifth harmonies on the tonic chord of E-flat, reflecting the second praxis of this key. At the entry of the text, however, the music melds into the first heroic praxis, replete with strong tremolos and sfozandos. The ringing affirmation “Deum verum de Deo vero” is initially heard fortissimo in G major, indicative of the second praxis of this key in a moment of brilliance to describe the Godhead, modulating to F major to depict the majesty of God the father for the phrase “genitum non factum, consubstantialem patri.” Beethoven then invoked modal mixture at m. 80 with the briefest of modulations to his storm key of F minor in a moment that is reflective of the raw power of the moment of creation, made all the more effective for having been set up in F major.28 The It is almost as if Beethoven anticipated the “Big Bang” theory of creation here.

28

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

brilliance of God’s creation—“per quem omnia facta sunt”—shines through immediately following in a climactic moment in G major (second praxis). Beethoven affectively juxtaposed both praxes of C (mm. 93-109), the second stressing Christ’s innocence as he came to atone for the sins of humanity, while the first emphasizes the majesty of God the Father, whence he came. C minor is then briefly invoked to project Christ’s selfless suffering—“qui propter nos homines” before melding into the third praxis of this key (m. 118), scored for full orchestra, fortissimo and projecting the dramatic nature of this event in the human narrative. The sudden piano marking and change of orchestration at m. 124 supports an affective modulation to E-flat major in its second praxis, indicative of love (the love that was present in heaven whence he came) and enhanced by the affective tonicization of Beethoven’s amoroso key of B-flat in mm. 126-27. Adagio, 2/4 Mm.

Text/section

Key

Affect

131-42 Et incarnatus est de spiritu sancto E[ love, devotion ex Maria virgine, 143-50 et homo factus est. Crucifixus etiam b[ deeply-felt pain pro nobis, 151-54 crucifixus etiam pro nobis e[ despair 154-56 sub Pontio Pilato, chromatic extreme emotion 157-58 passus, e[ extreme anxiety, despair 159-63 passus et sepultus est, E[ unhappy love 164-70 passus unstable extreme emotion 171-81 et sepultus est. E[ unhappy love

Commentary: Two layers of meaning can be construed in Beethoven’s use of tonal affect here. Schubart’s definition of E-flat major as “the key of love, of devotion, of intimate conversation with God” rings completely true, yet this passage simultaneously reflects the sogno praxis of unhappy love. Both praxes are supported by pizzicato string orchestration and delicate vocal writing. However, as the tenor soloist intones the final phrase, the pain of the incarnation is brought out by an affective modulation to B-flat minor, which Beethoven invoked to depict the opening of the “Crucifixus,” increasing the projection of pain by employing E-flat minor affectively in m. 151. He also showed his contempt for the governor here by invoking a chromatic scale to set the words “sub Pontio Pilato.”

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Example 16. Mass in C, Op. 86, Credo, mm. 153, 155, vocal parts.

b & b b 42

(Bass) r r œ b œ . œ œ b œr œr n œr ≈ ? œ œ . b œ œ n œr b œr n œr R R RÔ R R ÔR p sub Pon - ti - o Pi - la - to, sub Pon - ti - o Pi - la - to

(Sop, Alt, Ten, unison)

While such a depiction was customary in the Viennese mass tradition, Beethoven evidently felt that the affect projected by B-flat minor was not strong enough to convey the level of his disdain, choosing to heighten his setting affectively by the use of a descending chromatic scale. Here the paradox of Christ’s death is brought out in the musical setting as major and minor modes are mixed from mm. 157-63. This text is repeated forte with tremolo strings and unstable diminished seventh harmony (mm. 164-68) to depict extreme emotion, nothing less than the death and burial of God’s only son. Only then does E-flat major return (m. 171) for the phrase “et sepultus est,” affirming the reciprocity of the love between father and son, replete with a final acknowledgment of the pain Jesus went though in the sogno chromatic angst of the tenor line. Allegro, 4/4 Mm. 183-86 187-92 193-212 213-16 216-17 218-19 220-21 222-29 230-34 235-38 239-40 241-45 246-50 251-57

Text/section Et resurrexit tertia die secundum scripturas. Et ascendit in coelum, sedet ad dexteram patris, et iterum venturus est cum gloria, judicare, judicare vivos et mortuos, cujus regni non erit finis, cujus regni non, non, non erit finis, non, non! Et in spiritum sanctum dominum vivificantem, qui cum patre filioque procedit, qui cum patre et filio simul adoratur, et conglorificatur. Qui locutus est per prophetas, qui locutus est per prophetas,

332

Key D G

Affect triumph, victory brilliant

C

triumph, strength

g a G C G G

discontent structural structural structural brilliant calm, gentle

a g F f F

structural structural majestic stormy, agitated gravity

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies 258-62 et unam sanctam catholicam et apostolicam ecclesiam. 263-64 Confiteor unum 265-68 baptisma, in remissionem peccatorum, 268-76 et expecto resurrectionem 277-79 mortuorum.

Lydian

religious matters29

G c

calm plaintive, tender

C c

triumph, strength funereal

Commentary: Beethoven reserved the first use the key of D major in the Credo for the phrase “et resurrexit,” providing a brief yet apposite excursion into the traditional key of triumph and victory. C major is again used in martial guise for the phrase “et ascendit in coelum” (mm. 193-212) as the brass re-enter to add appropriate weight and depth to this statement. In his encounter with one of the most challenging concepts in the Credo—the vision of judgment, “judicare vivos et mortuos”—Beethoven engaged his full arsenal of chromatic harmony, using a diminished seventh chord in m. 213 and a German sixth at m. 215, all in the context of G minor. This combination of symbols is reflective of the sense of discontent that the final judgment will bring to sinners. By m. 230, as the words “Et in spiritum sanctum” are heard, there has been an affective modulation to G major, in its first praxis of calm and gentleness. This reflects the contrast between the stern first person of the Trinity—Adonai the Judge—and the gentler Holy Spirit. Other affective highlights include an allusion to the Lydian mode (mm. 258-62), used affectively at the mention of the universal church to form a connection with the past, and the use of plaintive C minor (second praxis) for the phrase “[confiteor unum] baptisma,” reflecting the theology of baptism being the atonement for original sin. Vivace, 4/4 Mm. Text/section Key Affect 280-301 Et vitam venturi seculi, amen. C triumph, strength 302-04 amen, a structural 305-11 et vitam venturi seculi, amen, A trust in God 311-14 amen, f \ structural 314-15 amen, B structural (sequential) 315-16 amen, E structural (sequential) 316-17 amen. A structural (sequential) 317-20 Et vitam venturi seculi, amen. 322-68 Et vitam venturi seculi, amen.

D C

triumph, victory strength, rejoicing

Zarlino characterised the Hypolydian mode as “dealing with the glory of God and eternal happiness.” Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 26. 29

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The Key to Beethoven

Commentary: The final fugue, “et vitam venturi,” while beginning as tradition dictates in the first praxis of C, moves affectively to A major (m. 307), aptly evoking the tonal symbolism of trust in God while also foreshadowing its use in the ensuing Sanctus. D major is then invoked for only a second time in this movement, powerfully emphasizing that the gift of eternal life represents God’s ultimate victory, mm. 317-20. Sanctus A Adagio, 4/4 Mm. Text/section Key Affect 1 Instrumental introduction A trust in God 2 b darkness, gloom 3-4 A trust in God 5 Sanctus 6 sanctus, b darkness, gloom 7-8 9-12 12-17

sanctus Dominus Deus Sabaoth, Deus Sabaoth, sanctus Dominus Deus Sabaoth!

b[ a/A d

discontent, gloom plaintive/trust in God ombra

Commentary: The Sanctus breaks with precedent in that it does not begin in the expected tonic key but in A major, a move made for affective reasons as Beethoven shone a new light on this familiar text. A major, with its Trinitarian key signature of three sharps, seems particularly appropriate for the threefold invocation “Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus.”30 This key also emphasizes heavenly things, captured by Schubart as “trust in God” and by Hand as “true heavenly joy.” The scoring here is of the utmost delicacy: clarinets, bassoons, horns, violas, and cellos combine, with the continuo organ deliberately omitted, in an ethereal four-measure introduction, marked adagio and piano. This projects Isaiah’s vision of God as a gentle, innocent, loving deity beyond all knowing. Yet already in the second measure, B minor is introduced in a brief affective tonicization, symbolic here of darkness and the paradox of God’s nature. This enigma is affirmed by the introduction of B-flat minor at m. 7. It is as if Beethoven were trying to move as far away as possible from the innocent loveliness of A major and depict the influence of God in all human experience, good and bad, and found it necessary to strain the tonal system to achieve this goal.31 This striving to realize Isaiah’s vision continues with a modally-mixed cadence in A minor/major (mm. 9-10) on the word “Sabaoth,” reaching A major at m. 10 as the orchestration 30 This threefold Latin invocation is found in Isaiah 6:3, again in threefold form as ‫שודק שודק שודק‬ (Kadosh, kadosh, kadosh). 31 This dramatic affective tonal contrast manifests a similar relationship with that seen between the tonic of E-flat major and the key of the “lament” theme, E minor, in Beethoven’s Eroica symphony.

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

expands to include distant timpani rolls that reveal a momentary glimpse of God’s grandeur.32 An affective modulation to D minor (second praxis)—V-[VI at m. 12—conjures up another image of the Divine: that of supernatural being, achieved via the affective use of Beethoven’s ombra key. Allegro, 4/4 Mm. 18-20 21-25 25-27 28-33 33-41 41-46 46-48

Text/section Pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria tua, pleni sunt coeli et terra, et terra, pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria tua. Osanna in excelsis, osanna in excelsis, in excelsis!

Key D b D A A D A

Affect triumph, victory darkness triumph, victory brilliant, joyful trust in God triumph, victor y brilliant, joyful

Commentary: In the ensuing allegro, the image of the all-powerful God whose glory extends throughout the universe is projected via D major’s tonal symbolism in a characteristically festive declamation for the whole ensemble at the words “pleni sunt coeli.” A major returns structurally for the “Osanna” (m. 33), gently projecting trust in God, but it seems that the need and desire for D major’s affective qualities took control of Beethoven, and he found himself unable to resist them for long. Thus the key of triumph and victory returns at m. 44, achieving an all-embracing climax at m. 45. The concluding perfect cadence in A major cadence at mm. 46-48 is effectively placed structurally in that it represents both a return to the tonic and an affective reaffirmation of the second praxis of A major, brilliance and joy, heard earlier at m. 28. Benedictus qui venit Allegretto ma non troppo, 2/4

F

Mm. 1-15 16-23 23-25 25-35 36-40 41-48

Key F C d C C C

Text/section Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini, benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini. benedicus qui venit, qui venit in nomine Domini. Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini, Domini. Benedictus qui venit in nomine

Affect calm, pastoral, pure, innocent gentle sorrow pure, innocent triumph, rejoicing pure, innocent

32 “Sabaoth” derives from the Greek word σαβαώθ (sabaōth), and thence from the Hebrew ‫תואבצ‬ (səbā’ôt) meaning “hosts” or “armies.” These have variously been interpreted by scholars, ranging from the armies of Israel to the hosts of heaven, and by extension, the stars and the universe. This last interpretation indicates just how significant this vision was to Beethoven.

335

The Key to Beethoven 49-55 55-60 61-62 63-66 67-69 70-71 72-73 73-75 75-77 77-79 79-82 83-84 85-89 90-94 95-127

Domini. Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini, benedictus qui venit in nomine Domine, qui venit in nomine Domini, qui venit in nomine Domini, in nomine Domini, nomine Domini, in nomine Domini, qui venit in nomine Domini, benedictus qui venit, benedictus qui venit, qui venit in nomine Domini, benedictus qui venit, qui venit in nomine Domini. Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini. Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini.

F

calm, pastoral

B[ g d D F C C F g F C F F F

amoroso, lovely sweet, tender gentle sorrow love calm, pastoral triumph, rejoicing pure, innocent calm, pastoral sweet, tender calm, pastoral pure, innocent calm, pastoral majesty, martial calm, pastoral

Commentary: The use of F major, supported by a steady tempo of allegretto ma non troppo, the a cappella opening for solo quartet, and the lyrical solo cello obbligato line, facilitates entry into an idyllic pastoral realm. The delicate orchestration, at times enhanced by pedal points, projects the pastoral trope here. The text describes Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem on what became known as Palm Sunday, yet by setting it in the pastoral key of F, Beethoven shared his personal vision of Jesus as the prince of peace, rather than of a grand, heroic leader who might appositely have been depicted in C or E-flat majors.33 Yet, just briefly we do get just a glimpse of Jesus the heroic leader, a reminder of how he was viewed in his own time, depicted through the melding into the second praxis of F major at m. 90. Allegro, 4/4 130-45, Direct reprise of mm. 33-48 Agnus Dei c/C Poco andante, 12/8

33 St. John 12:13. Clearly the vision of the prince of peace was important to Beethoven, since his second setting of the Sanctus in the Missa solemnis is in the pastoral key of G Major.

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Mm.

Text/section

Key

1-3

Instrumental introduction

c lament

3-8

Agnus Dei qui tollis peccata mundi,

8-10

Instrumental interlude

10-12

Agnus Dei qui tollis

E[

Affect

heroic, triumphant

12-13 qui tollis c lament 13-14

peccata mundi

D

triumph, victory

14-23

miserere nobis!

g

discontent, despair

24-26

Agnus Dei qui tollis,

c

lament

26-29

qui tollis peccata,

f

extreme grief

29-35

peccata mundi, miserere nobis!

c

lament

36-37 Dona, G calm 38-39 dona, C innocence, purity

Commentary: The traditional change of mode at this moment in the mass is layered with the secondary twist of affective connotation in the lamenting key of C minor.34 The image of Christ portrayed here is the dual role of sacrificial lamb—C minor—versus triumphant hero—E-flat major—whose death on the cross absolved humanity’s sins for all time. Following a brief return to the tonic (m. 12), D major is tonicized for the briefest moment (mm. 13-14), again emphasizing the victory of the lamb. At m. 14 there is an affective modulation to the dominant minor, introducing the all-important petition “miserere nobis,” and the tonal symbolism of discontent and despair makes this moment particularly powerful. Traditionally, an Agnus Dei setting contains three such petitions. A structural and affective modulation back to the tonic ushers in the second at m. 24. This time Beethoven added emotional weight to the phrase “qui tollis peccata mundi” with an affective modulation to F minor, moving one step further along the affective spectrum, with the implication that humanity’s sins seemed just too heavy for Jesus to bear. G major is briefly tonicized affectively from mm. 36-37 as the first tentative petition of “dona” is heard, ushering in an affective modulation to C major (m. 38). Allegro ma non troppo, 4/4 Mm. 40-65 65-69 69-82

Text/section dona nobis pacem. Agnus Dei qui tollis peccata mundi, misere nobis.

Key C c g

Similar changes of mode can be seen in many masses of the period.

34

337

Affect innocence, purity lament discontent

The Key to Beethoven 82-85 Dona, G calm, gentleness 86-123 dona nobis pacem, C innocence, purity 124-27 pacem, E tender, loving 128-47 dona nobis pacem, C innocence, purity 148-51 pacem, E tender, loving 152-65 dona nobis pacem. C innocence, purity

Commentary: The initial pleas for peace stress the affect of C major’s second praxis of purity and innocence, including the use of a depictive harmony of E major (tender, loving, m. 52, and echoing the Christe eleison). Beethoven then broke with Viennese tradition again by setting a fourth petition of Agnus Dei (m. 65), using tremolo strings and, from 73, syncopated orchestral sforzandi. This passage commences in C minor but modulates to discontented G minor (m. 69), where a V[9 harmony is introduced (m. 71), as if to emphasize the weight of this sin affectively in a brief Sturm und Drang vision of surprising power and impact. The choir then utters despairing, gutterally-muttered invocations for mercy (mm. 77-82), piano and low in their register, still in the lamenting key of C minor, as if all had been in vain. Then all at once, in a moment of unutterable beauty, the solo clarinet ushers in an affective tonicization of the pastoral key of G major in a reprise of “Dona nobis pacem” before settling in C major and radiating innocence and purity. Once more Beethoven broke with tradition affectively, since he could easily have invoked the first martial praxis of C major as had so many composers before him. Andante con moto, tempo del Kyrie, 2/4 Mm. Text/section 166-82 Dona nobis pacem.

Key C

Affect neutral, pure

Commentary: In a final moment that reaffirms the primacy of C major in its second praxis as an appropriate depiction of the text “Dona nobis pacem,” Beethoven reintroduced both the thematic material and affect of the first Kyrie, bringing the work to a satisfying cyclical conclusion.35 Elegischer Gesang, Op. 118, 1814

Ignaz Franz Castelli

Unique in Beethoven’s oeuvre and dating from late in his second period, the Elegischer Gesang is a work in which the affective use of tonality plays a significant role. This work exhibits a series of what seem on the surface to be unusual key relationships, particularly striking in a composition of only eighty-five measures. 35 Haydn had already used a similar procedure in his early Mass in F and the Missa Sancti Nicolai and it was common elsewhere.

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

On the surface, the juxtaposition of F\–d and d–B seem somewhat surprising until tonal symbolism is taken into account. They then reveal themselves as affective tools that manifest extreme sensitivity to the meaning of the text Beethoven is setting. The song is scored for four-part chorus (or possibly soloists) and string quartet. The poem is an ode to Baron Pasqualati’s “verklärte” (transfigured) wife Eleonore by Ignaz Franz Castelli, intended to be sung on the third anniversary of her death.36 Mm. 1-11

Text/section Instrumental introduction

Key Affect E night/death

12-16 f \ death 17-19 B heavenly vision 19-20 E night/death 21-26 Gently as you lived have you passed,37 26-28

too holy

c\

lament

29-30 for sorrow, F\ regaining elusive joy 31 too holy unstable extreme emotion 32-34 for sorrow! Let no eye shed, d gentle sorrow 35-36 let no eye shed g gentle melancholy 37-38 tears. F calm, gentle 39 Let no eye weep unstable extreme emotion 40-43 for the heavenly spirit’s homecoming, A trust in God 43-47 let no eye weep d gentle sorrow 47-52 for the heavenly spirit’s homecoming, B heavenly vision 52-67 for the heavenly spirit’s homecoming. E night/death Gently as you lived have you passed, 68-69

gently as you

B

heavenly vision

70-71 lived A tender passion 72-85 have you passed. E night/death

Synopsis: see above. Commentary: Beethoven employed the third praxis of E major—gentle night as a metaphor for death—as the primary tonality of this work. This usage is affirmed by the level of detail contained in the score. The opening character indication is langsam und sanft (slowly and gently), each instrument carefully marked Baron Johann Baptist Pasqualati von Osterberg (1777-1830), a wholesale merchant, music lover, amateur pianist and composer. His wife Eleonore died in childbirth in 1811. 37 The original German has “vollendet,” from the verb “vollenden” meaning literally “to complete,” “to finish,” “to perfect.” Rather than use “died” here, I have chosen “passed” as capturing more fully the multiplicity of these various meanings. 36

339

The Key to Beethoven

mezza voce. This is supported by espressivo markings in m. 15 and a sotto voce direction as the choir enters, all designed to enhance the tonal symbolism here. During the extensive introduction for strings, Beethoven used a iv6 chord in m. 5, an example of depictive harmony, and indicative of the feminine presence being honored here. A further tonicization of the dominant key of B major (mm. 6-7) provides the briefest of glimpses of the second praxis in this key—a heavenly vision of the sublime. F-sharp minor is also tonicized momentarily in mm. 1314, its projection of death a further brief acknowledgement of the reality of the grieving Baron’s pain. A second affective modulation to B major (mm. 17-18) foreshadows the sentiment expressed in mm. 47-52 in this key’s second praxis, as the voices sing of her spirit’s homecoming. At m. 29 Beethoven employed both text depiction and an affective modulation to bring out the meaning of “für den Schmerz! zu heilig” (for sorrow too holy), where, rising to the first forte of the work, “Schmerz” is set to viiº in F-sharp major. The description by Herloßsohn—“intense passion, heroic resignation and laborious victory”—could have actually been written to describe this very passage.38 D minor is used affectively two times (mm. 32-34 and 43-47), on both occasions reflecting the first praxis in this key of gentle sorrow. The affective modulation to A major at m. 40 as the choir sings “ob des himmlischen Geistes Heimkehr” (for the heavenly spirit’s homecoming) affirms symbolically the feeling of trust in God, the soprano line projecting a major 6–5 on “himmlischen Geistes,” redolent of the joy felt here. This heavenly homecoming is reiterated more deeply by an affective modulation to B major in its second praxis of heavenly vision (mm. 47-52), the effect of which is both elegiac and transcendent. The opening text is reprised at m. 61, again marked sotto voce, in a varied setting that relives the opening affective symbolism in the tonic key.

Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op 125: Fourth Movement: Allegro assai, 1824 The analysis of the fourth movement of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony here—a major work from late in his third period—includes for the first time in this study extended examples of untexted music, pointing to its ultimate goal: applying tonal characterization to untexted music.39 In the symphony as a whole, the choices of the parallel keys of d/D are made by Beethoven for affective reasons. This is also true of the last movement. D minor, the key of ombra in so many situations, is chosen for the Schreckensfanfare, projecting horrific images of the supernatural: a vision of all hell literally Karl Herloßsohn, Allgemeines Theater-Lexikon, 7 vols. (Altenburg-Leipzig: Expedition des TheaterLexikons, 1839), original text and translation in Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 170. 39 Ch. 8 will comprise an analysis of a complete work in this manner, Fortepiano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2. 38

340

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

breaking loose that sweeps away the intense emotion of the third movement in an ultimate cleansing of the tonal/affective pallet. This then undergoes a gradual metamorphosis into D major—the key of joy and jubilation as Schiller’s text introduces Beethoven’s vision of “Freude” for humankind. The projection of joy is paramount here, for it is part of Beethoven’s great existential dream that ends with a search for the God beyond the stars. As early as 1787, Kant had remarked that “the entire pursuit of reason is to bring about a union of all the ends that are aimed at by our inclinations, into one ultimate end—that of happiness.”40 Kant’s statement epitomizes the credo both of this work and of the composer himself, achieved here via a narrative—the transformation of D minor into D major—that forms both the inner core of this movement, and a resolution of the larger tonal conflict in the work as a whole. In untexted music, other musical symbols become more important in supporting the use of key characteristics to decode meaning. Here the opposing affective polarity of d/D is epitomized by the struggle between the minor [ 6– 5 sospiro and the major 6– 5 “joy” motive, a conflict that begins in the first movement and achieves its ultimate resolution in the finale. Other keys also have significant affective roles to play in this movement. B-flat major—seen in both praxes—is the most important secondary tonal area, replacing the traditional role of the dominant key of A major. B major is also used briefly in its second praxis in a highly evocative depiction of Elysium, God’s dwelling place beyond the stars. The vast literature on this work includes several conflicting interpretations of the form of the final movement. Describing it in a letter to his publisher, the firm Berhard Schott Söhne, Beethoven wrote: “[it] concludes with a Finale (in the style of my fantasia for piano with chorus, but on a far grander scale) with vocal solos and choruses.”41 In this analysis, the particular discussion at hand is not concerned with form but rather the use of keys and how they project meaning.42 My analysis takes as its starting point the formal scheme proposed by Nicholas Cook in his monograph Beethoven: Symphony No. 9.43 There he describes it as “a cantata constructed round a series of variations on the ‘Joy’ theme,” a view that seems fully congruent with what Beethoven himself wrote.

Immanuel Kant, Werke: Akademie-Textausgabe (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1968), iii, p. 520, in James Parsons, “The Eighteenth-Century Lied,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Lied, ed. James Parsons (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 44. 41 Anderson, iii, no. 1270, p. 1114; Brandenburg, v, no. 1787, p. 278. Schotts published Op. 125 in August 1826. 40

A comprehensive discussion of form in this movement can be seen in James Webster,

42

“The Form of the Finale of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony,” Beethoven Forum 1 (1992): 25-62. 43 Nicholas Cook, Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 34-37.

341

The Key to Beethoven

Fourth Movement: Finale Friedrich Schiller Presto, 3/4 d/D First Schreckensfanfare, mm. 1-7

d

The finale opens with a passage that could be considered an ultimate moment of ombra writing in the period—the so-called Schreckensfanfare. Naturally it appears in the third praxis of the key of D minor, as Beethoven conjured up this Dantean nightmare of the plight of humanity without joy—a horrific vision of Tartarus.44 He hinted at the meaning here when he wrote over a sketched recitative that was intended to follow this passage “No this would remind us too much of our despair.”45 The sospiro b[2–a2 is used by Beethoven with twofold affective power here since it is heard in both vertical and horizontal forms. Vertically, it is part of a chord derived from the combination of the triads of D minor and B-flat major—the two primary keys that play out affectively in this work—heard above a common-tone F pedal. b[2 is therefore both the root of the B-flat major triad, clashing with the fifth of the D minor chord, and simultaneously being part of a melodic sospiro. As a verticalization, the minor second b[2-a2 projects a more searing pain than its horizontal counterpart, yet their combination creates an intensity as yet unheard in the Western canon. Example 17. Symphony in D Minor, Op. 125, fourth movement, m. 15.46

ƒ œœœ œ &b Woodwind, brass œ and timpani ƒ œ œœ ?b i/VI

œœ œœ œœ œœ œœ

b (6

œ œ

Reduction of Liszt transcription.

Œ −-

5)

This name was aptly coined by Richard Wagner in “Zum Vortrag der neunten Symphonie Beethovens,” Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtungen, ed. Richard Sternfeld (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1912-14), ix: p. 241. The connection between the choice of D minor and the Dorian mode, used for the famous All Souls’ Day sequence “Dies irae, die illa” is also significant. Zarlino described it as “somewhat sad and suited to serious words,” affects clearly compounded here by this vivid text and its use over the centuries. Beethoven was familiar with the requiem text, and had plans to set it that sadly never materialized. 45 Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Thayer’s Life of Beethoven, rev. and ed. Elliot Forbes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 892. 46 I am grateful to Prof. Richard Taruskin for the idea of using the Liszt piano transcription for Examples 17-19 as a means of achieving clarity. The reduction is my own. Richard Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music, Vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 678. 44

342

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Thus Beethoven set up at the outset the musical means whereby the ultimate triumph of joy over pain—good over evil—could be realized through the emancipation of the D major 6–5 “joy” motive to be heard later in the movement, a victory symbolized in the tonal move from the nether regions of D minor’s ombra world to the realm of joy and jubilation projected by D major.47 First Instrumental Recitative, mm. 8-16 d Beethoven used D minor here in its first affective praxis, projecting feelings of sorrow and melancholy. In the score he indicated the vocal quality of the solo line featuring only cellos and basses: “In the manner of a recitative, but in time.”48 [6 features prominently, on the final occasion becoming the all-important affective sospiro motive in m. 15. Earlier sketches of this movement, first transcribed by Gustav Nottebohm and revised by Hermann Deiters, reveal the fact that Beethoven had originally intended these instrumental recitatives to have texts. While the final versions differ melodically from the sketches, these texts provide a remarkable insight into Beethoven’s intended meaning and are therefore worth quoting.49 The planned text of the first recitative read “No this would remind us too much of our despair,” indicative of his intended meaning—despair—in the preceding Schreckensfanfare.50 Second Schreckensfanfare, mm. 17-25

V9 (of g) –V7 of B[

A further searing dissonance is again invoked for the first reprise of the Schreckensfanfare—a second more chilling vision of Tartarus—invoking despair with a dominant ninth in the first affective praxis of G minor. This chord is all the more potent for remaining unresolved in this key, still grounded by a D pedal. It trumps the first Schreckensfanfare affectively through its inbuilt searing minor ninth (d-eb3, m. 17). Yet contained within this collection, like a seed poised to germinate, is the major third, D-F\, as yet completely cloaked in dissonance. The resolution when it comes is a complete surprise: a dominant seventh of B-flat major.

47 Stephen Hinton discusses this idea in his article “Not ‘Which’ Tones,” Nineteenth-Century Music, 22/1 (1998): 61-77, although he does not make the powerful connection with tonal symbolism.

“Selon le caractère d’un Recitativ mais, in tempo.” Thayer-Forbes, pp. 891-94. 50 “Nein diese…erinnern an unsre Verzweifl.” Gustav Nottebohm, Zweite Beethoveniana: Nachgelassene Aufsätze (Leipzig: Peters, 1887), p. 189; trans. Thayer-Forbes, p. 892. 48 49

343

The Key to Beethoven

Example 18. Symphonyin D Minor, Op. 25, fourth movement, mm. 16-18.

&b

? b ƒœ

V

ƒ b œœ # œœ

Reduction of Liszt transcription.

Woodwind, brass and timpani

œœ œœ

œ #œ

V9 (of g)

Second Instrumental Recitative, mm. 25-29

B[

Affirming a complete affective contrast—a welcome antidote to the preceding discord—the second instrumental recitative is set in the celebratory key of Bflat major, second praxis. The sospiro motive, b[-a now shows incipient signs of emancipation, as it is allowed to function as a 4-3 dissonance above an assumed dominant harmony in m. 27 before the line cadences on B[ Memento of First Movement, mm. 30-37 d (V6) The opening of the first movement, mm. 30-38, is recalled, fleshed out this time as a dominant chord in first inversion—a reminiscence of where this titanic struggle began.51 Yet at no point is a D minor tonic chord heard, giving this V6 harmony the sense of a depictive chord of A major with its affective connotations of trust in God, enhanced by the gentle dynamic marking of pianissimo. This reminiscence breaks off after eight measures, interrupted by the ensuing diminished seventh chord.52 Third Instrumental Recitative, mm. 38-47 unstable–a Beginning on an unstable diminished seventh harmony, this recitative modulates affectively to the plaintive sorrow of A minor (first praxis) at m. 43. Beethoven’s original text read: “O no not this something else pleasing is this what I ask,” indicating a rejection of the first movement as seen in this cameo appearance.53

In the original, C\ was not present. It should be noted that none of these reminiscences is a direct repeat of passages in the earlier movements. 52 The opening chord of the first movement in Op. 31, No. 2 has similar affective implications. 53 “O nein dieses nicht etwas anderes gefällig ist es was ich fordere.” The lack of punctuation in these quotations and their translations reflects Beethoven’s originals. Thayer-Forbes, p. 892. 51

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Memento of Second Movement, mm. 48-55 a–F The reminiscence of the second movement opens in the second affective praxis of A minor— menacing, but not as strong as the D minor of the original— representing a slight softening on the affective spectrum. It then modulates to F major, in preparation for the fourth recitative. Perhaps this is indicative of Beethoven’s projecting humor into this situation, as he seemed to struggle with exactly how to proceed? Fourth Instrumental Recitative, mm. 56-62 F–B[ The affect of F major is maintained in the ensuing recitative, culminating on V7of B-flat major to enable a transition into the ensuing cameo from the third movement. Beethoven’s original text read—“nor this either it is but sport … something more beautiful and better,” indicating his dissatisfaction too with the memento of the second movement.54 Memento of Third Movement, mm. 63-64 B[ Beethoven retained the amoroso key of B-flat major for the briefest reminiscence of the third movement. Unlike the previous mementos, this one appears in the key in which it was originally heard, perhaps reflective of the importance for Beethoven of maintaining the integrity of the affect here. Fifth Instrumental Recitative, mm. 65-76 G[–f\ This recitative opens in G-flat major at a piano dynamic level. That brief heavenly vision evaporates into the deathly gloom of F-sharp minor in m.71, followed by an affective modulation to C-sharp minor as the feeling of discontent rises. The original text in the sketch for this recitative stated, “nor this it is too tender tender for something animated we must seek.”55 In making such a statement, Beethoven again affirmed the quality of the first praxis of B-flat major, his beloved amoroso key while simultaneously rejecting it as a way forward. Prefiguring of Joy Theme, mm. 77-80 A/modal The anticipated resolution of this recitative in C-sharp minor is evaded by Beethoven (mm. 75-76), and A major briefly functions as substitute tonic (mm. 77-80), supporting the most explicit prefiguring of the Joy theme to date. Yet the feeling here is actually of the transposed Mixolydian mode because, although the G\s of the tonicization are cancelled, the melody is heard over an “auch dieses nicht ist nur Possen … etwas schöners u. bessers,” Thayer-Forbes, p. 893. Ibid. “auch dieses es ist zu zärtl zärtl etwas aufgewecktes muss man suchen.” Thayer-Forbes, p. 893. 54 55

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A pedal in the horn projecting the expectation of the continuation of A major at m. 81. This archaism is one of several in this movement that connect and ground it with the past, something Beethoven considered essential in assembling this grand existential vision for humanity.56 Zarlino (an author with whom he was familiar) characterized the Mixolydian mode thus: “suited to words that are cheerful,” adding for the Hypomixolydian mode that it “fills the souls of the listeners with joy.” Given that it is difficult to analyze modal ambitus in passages such as this, both definitions seem appropriate here, since it is Joy that is about to be born in this work. Final Instrumental Recitative, mm. 81-91 D The final recitative echoes the opening instrumental recitative at m. 8, only this time in D major. Beethoven’s intended text here read “This is it Ha now it is found I myself will sing it,” thus connecting D major’s affective qualities to the newly discovered Joy theme.57 The orchestra assumes the role of the continuo in m. 91, giving the most affirming of V-I cadences that is absolutely unequivocal in its meaning. The moment has come. “Freude” is born! Joy Theme, mm. 92-115 D The Joy theme is introduced instrumentally in full for the first time, simplistic in its unison scoring, played piano by the cellos and basses. The key is D major in its second praxis, reflective of love and tenderness, even of fragility. Variation 1, mm. 116-39 D The Joy theme grows, nurtured in the second praxis of D major. On its second hearing, in two subtle yet telling moments, B minor is affectively tonicized (mm. 126-27, 134-35) as Beethoven’s black key provides a brief memento of the pain of its gestation. Yet this is immediately counteracted by an affective tonicization of G major (mm. 128-29, 136-37) that reaffirms the calm reality of the present. Variation 2, mm. 140-63 D The Joy theme is heard a third time, marked piano and dolce, again indicative of D major’s second praxis. A similar tonicization of B minor occurs at mm. 150-51 and 158-59, a little stronger affectively since it includes the added coloring of A similar technique is used in the “et incarnatus est” of the Missa solemnis. “Dieses ist es Ha es ist nun gefunden Ich selbst werde vorsingen.” Thayer-Forbes, p. 893. Thayer quotes Schinder’s description of Beethoven’s entering the room one day when working on this finale, “…he exclaimed ‘I have it! I have it!’ With that he showed me the sketchbook bearing the words, ‘Let us sing the song of the immortal Schiller Freude,’ whereupon a solo voice began directly the hymn, to joy.” Thayer-Forbes, p. 891. 56 57

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a diminished seventh chord in mm. 151 and 159. Again it is counteracted by a tonicization of G above a D pedal in mm. 152-54 and 160-61. Variation 3 and Extension, mm. 164-207 D–A The Joy theme, finally triumphant in its newfound maturity, is reprised by the full orchestra, forte, replete with sturdy dotted rhythms in the string accompaniment as it now manifests characteristics of the first praxis in D major. As a new closing passage is heard, the music seems to gain a rhythmic and tonal momentum all of its own, careering helter-skelter towards the dominant as if, unsure of its ultimate goal, it threatens to derail itself. For Beethoven, something was still missing, and the mood changes as the doubts linger. The tempo slows dramatically with a sequential passage affectively tonicizing two of his most painful keys, the “schwarze Tonart” of B minor at m. 204 and desolate E-flat minor at m. 205, one atop the other. This affective conflict epitomizes the ensuing crisis of meaning in the movement as a whole. There is one more valiant attempt to hold the movement on its course with a perfect cadence in A major (m. 207) but it is deliberately sabotaged, destabilized by its placement on beats two and four of the measure. d Third Schreckensfanfare, mm. 208-15 The gates of hell literally flood open once more as a third Schreckensfanfare comes crashing in (m. 208), again set in the ombra praxis of D minor. And what a reprise it is—a Schreckensfanfare cubed—as, against all odds, Beethoven trumped the affective intensity of the two previous occurrences. Remarkably, the first chord in m. 208 is a combination of a D minor triad and a diminished seventh chord on its leading tone C\—a collection containing all the notes of D harmonic minor—in what can be considered the ultimate depictive harmony of the era. This is as frightening as it gets—it is off the affective meter—and a chord of which Mahler or Schoenberg might have been justly proud!

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Example 19. Symphony in D Minor, Op. 125, fourth movement, m. 208.

&b

?b ƒ œ

Reduction of Liszt transcription.

œœœ ƒ # œœœœ œœ

œœœ œœœœ œœ

Full orchestra

(V)

o7

i/vii

œ œœ

œœœ œ

b ( 6 - 5)

Recitative: “O Freunde”: Recitativo, 3/4

d–D

Mm. 216-21 223-29 230-36

Key d A D

Text/section O friends, not these tones! But let us more pleasant ones intone and more joyful.

Affect sorrow hope celebration, joy

Commentary: Finally Beethoven shared what he has been looking for all along and expressed himself with words as the baritone soloist specifically rejects “diese Töne” (these notes) epitomized by the sospiro in m. 220 as being incapable of characterizing joy, namely the hellish Schreckensfanfare that preceded it and the ombra tonality of D minor. There is an affective modulation to A major, and with it comes a feeling of hope—the affect Müller attributed to this key, “But let us more pleasant ones intone.”58 The modulation to D major at m. 230 is again affective “und freudenvollere” (and more joyful), comprising an extensive melisma where f\1 and f\ feature prominently, dispelling completely any lingering sense of D minor’s baleful power and establishing through tonal symbolism the affective realm of celebration and jubilation in the tonic major. Variation 4: Allegro assai, 4/4 D

Mm. 237-68

Text/section Joy, beautiful spark of the gods, Daughter of Elysium, We enter, fire-imbibed, Heavenly one, your sanctuary. Your magic powers re-unite

“Sondern lasst uns angenehmere anstimmen.”

58

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Key D

Affect pleasant, loving

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

What custom has kept strictly separate; All men become brothers Where your gentle wing abides.

Commentary: The expected D major cadence at the beginning of this variation is evaded, with Beethoven supplying only V and omitting I. Thus the reprise of the quasi-Mixolydian introduction (m. 237) is completely unexpected and has the effect of emphasizing the significance of the use of affective modality here, something that connects Joy’s long-awaited arrival with times past. Beethoven added the direction “angenehm” (pleasant or pleasing) by hand in the autograph score above the vocal line in m. 241, matching well the affect of the second praxis of D major here.59 The fact that there are no strong perfect cadences to articulate the tonality also speaks to this love usage of D. Variation 5

D

Mm. 269-78 279-80 281-96

Key D

Affect tender, yearning love

b/A D

darkness/hope ironic (second praxis)

Text/section Whoever has the great good fortune To be a friend’s friend, Whoever has taken a loving wife, Adds his to our jubilation! Yes—whoever can call even one soul His own on this earth! And whoever was never able to, creeps Tearfully away from this covenant!

Commentary: Verse two details the litany of those who will be part of this vision. Further down the list is “Ja wer auch nur eine Seele sein nennt auf dem Erdenrund!” (Yes—whoever can call even one soul his own on this earth!) depicted through an affective tonicization of B minor that reflects the position here of one who almost did not make it—B minor’s darkness—but then did— A major’s hope (mm. 279-80). In the final line of verse two, D major is used with biting irony for the line “Und wer’s nie gekonnt, der stehle Weinend sich aus diesem Bund!” (And whoever was never able to, creeps tearfully away from this covenant!) since, for these people, the feeling here is anything but loving. Schiller’s existential vision is not quite universal, it seems.

59 Jonathan Del Mar includes this direction in the new Bärenreiter edition, Ludwig van Beethoven, Symphonie Nr. 9 in d-moll (Basel: Bärenreiter, 1999), p. 225.

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The Key to Beethoven

Variation 6 D Mm. Text/section Key 297-307 Joy is drunk by every creature D At the breasts of nature; All the good ones, all the evil ones Follow her rose-petalled path. Kisses gave she to us and vines, 307-08 A friend proven in death. b/A 309-20 Pleasure was to the worm given D And the cherub stands before God. 321-24 And the cherub stands before God, D 325-30 stands before God. A–] III

Affect pleasant, loving

darkness/hope pleasant, loving melding celebration, jubilation joy, brilliance/majesty

Commentary: Similar tonicizations of B minor and A major in verse three project the sentiment of the phrase “einen Freund, geprüft im Tod” (A friend proven in death) mm. 307-08. A crescendo into the phrase “und der Cherub steht vor Gott” (and the cherub stands before God) instigates affective melding between the second and first praxes of D major as dynamics and texture build. At m. 330, in a moment of ineffable power, the expected perfect cadence is brilliantly evaded by substituting F major (] III)—fortissimo, molto tenuto—for the word “Gott” to portray the awe-inspiring majesty and grandeur of the Deity in a stunning use of depictive harmony.60 One reason that this is so powerful is because the second praxis of F major has not appeared nearly as often as the first in this work. However, there is also a double layer of meaning here since immanent in this majestic chord is the F major that projects calm and peace, heard perhaps in the echo as it is released. It is indeed an all-embracing vision of the Deity, reflecting both the views of those who are wont to project God’s power and grandeur while not ignoring attributes of calm and peace. No other tonal combination could have achieved such an affect. It is a move is completely unexpected, shockingly powerful in fact, and achieved by the use of depictive harmony. Variation 7: Allegro assai vivace alla Marcia, 6/8,

B[

Mm. Text/section Key 331-42 Instrumental introduction B[ 343-67 Instrumental Variation 368-70 E[

Affect martial heroic

Cooper points out a similar usage of this depictive harmony in Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 113. In the eighth movement, a fortissimo chord of F major, scored in almost identical manner, is used to set the word “Gott.” Cooper, Creative Process, p. 64. Similar F major sonorities have also been identified by William Kinderman in the Credo of the Missa solemnis. “Beethoven’s Symbol for the Deity in the Missa Solemnis,” Nineteenth-Century Music 9 (1985): 106-07.

60

350

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies 370-74 B[ 375-99 Joyful as his suns are flying Through the heavens’ splendid plan Run, brothers, your course 400-02 Joyfully as a hero to victory. E[ 403-15 Run, brothers, your course B[ 416-18 Joyfully as a hero to victory. E[ 419-31 Joyfully as a hero to victory. B[

martial

heroic martial heroic martial

Commentary: In a moment of Shakespearean brilliance, recalling, for instance, how the comic and tragic can coexist in plays such as King Lear, Beethoven realized that the only way to follow the transcendent ending of the previous variation was to revert to the comical. Again he does so by affective means. The F major chord of m. 330 functions structurally too, preparing for the unison B[s, punctuated by rests which follow. Confusion appears to reign. Key, affect, tempo, and style are all in doubt. And then, as the expanded percussion section enters, its “Alla Marcia”nature is revealed—an exotic variation of the Joy theme in the style of Turkish Janissary music set in the martial tradition of the B-flat major (second affective praxis). This is entirely appropriate affectively as the imagery of the returning hero is depicted by Schiller: “Laufet, Brüder, eure Bahn, Freudig wie ein Held zum Siegen” (Run, brothers, your course, joyfully as a hero to victory,).61 There is a brief affective tonicization of E-flat major—in its appropriately heroic first praxis—for the words “ein Held” (mm. 401 and 417). Instrumental Double Fugue: mm. 431-542 B[–B/b–D An extensive double fugue follows based on variants of the Joy theme and Turkish march theme, which are combined at the outset. The progression of keys used: B[–F–G–c–E[–f–A[–b[–G[–b–e–b (with a prolonged f\ pedal)– B–b–D, suggests a gradual emotional intensification, culminating in a climactic fortissimo passage in the “black” key of B minor replete with off-beat sforzandos. This symbolizes perhaps the dénouement of a military excursion, settling on a dominant pedal and leaving the outcome of this battle in limbo, making it unclear whether the hero has triumphed or not. The texture reduces drastically at m. 525. The affective modulation to B major suggests its second praxis of an intense, heavenly vision—anticipating the return of the Joy theme symbolizing the hero’s triumph, as its first three notes—d\2–e2–f\2—are gently played on the oboe. Yet the vision is clouded as the same motive returns in B minor—d2–e2–f\2—pianissimo at m. 535. Perhaps the battle ended tragically? The tension is palpable. Yet this was no mirage, for D major is cunningly regained on a second inversion tonic A clear affective parallel exists with the Agnus Dei of the Missa solemnis, which, too, contains an interruption of a peaceful vision by images of war, in the self-same key.

61

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The Key to Beethoven

harmony in m. 541, as the same motive is repeated, this time at its original pitch, only to be triumphantly subsumed in the reprise of the full Joy theme. Variation 9

D–G

Mm. Text/section Key Affect 543-63 Joy, beautiful spark of the gods, D victory, joy Daughter of Elysium, We enter, fire-imbibed, Heavenly one, your sanctuary. Your magic powers re-unite 564-66 What custom has kept strictly separate; b/A darkness/ intense feelings 567-70 All men become brothers G brilliant 571-74 Where your gentle wing abides. D victory, joy 575-90 Repeat of mm. 559-74 590-94 Instrumental Coda D–G joy/brilliant



Commentary: This is the ultimate victory procession, marking the return of the Joy theme—now gloriously transformed in honor of the hero’s triumphal homecoming—in the first praxis of this key. The text of verse one is repeated with an affective tonicization of B minor for the phrase “Was die Mode streng geteilt” (What custom has kept strictly separate). This tonicization emphasizes the pain of separation and estrangement; A major’s immediate tonicization again forms a perfect antidote to B minor (m. 566) as intense feelings of fraternity that follow division are affirmed. G major is also tonicized in its second praxis at mm. 568-69, indicative of the excitement that will ensue in this long-awaited Elysium once war and strife have ceased. Chorus 1: Andante maestoso, 3/2

G–C

Mm. 595-610 611-21 622-24 625-26

Key G



Text/section Be embraced, you millions! This kiss for the whole world! Brothers! Above the starry canopy Must a loving Father dwell.

Affect gratitude, serenity

F/modal majesty/humility F majesty C strength, purity

Commentary: An unexpected and overwhelming stylistic change occurs at m. 595 preceded by a crucial silence marked by Beethoven with a fermata. The use of G major, marked andante maestoso and fortissimo, affectively recaptures the sentiments expressed by Schubart some forty years earlier. His final comment is telling: “What a pity that because of its seeming lightness it is so greatly

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neglected today.”62 Beethoven, it seems, understood this perfectly, for here we have an abundance of weight and dynamic intensity, while still retaining the affect of gratitude and, in Müller’s designation, a sense of serenity. The semi-emancipated “joy” motive features prominently (although not yet in the tonic), frequently highlighted with its own fortissimo marking, as it affirms the overwhelming scope of the spreading of this vision of joy to “Millionen!” and “der ganzen Welt!”63 Having fully connected with all of humanity’s present, Beethoven here connected with the historical and religious traditions of the past as he invoked the image of a God beyond the stars. His study and preparation for the Missa solemnis helped him affirm a connection with Gregorian chant, and here there is an unmistakable reference to the Mode II “Gloria Patri” melody for the phrase “Brüder—überm Sternenzelt” (Brothers! Above the starry canopy), aptly ending at the moment where the chant mentions “Patri” (“Vater” in Schiller’s poem), God the father.64 Zarlino characterized the Hypodorian mode as “tearful and humble,” in this case tears of joy, and an awestruck humility in another use by Beethoven of affective modality. This melody is reprised rather in the manner of a migrating cantus firmus in the soprano from mm. 619-22, with the neo-modal style permeating the lower voices (in particular the bass from mm. 619-25). The whole passage, however, falls under the wider umbrella of F major in its second praxis of majesty. At the end of the following phrase “Muss ein lieber Vater wohnen” (Must a loving Father dwell), an affective modulation to C major combines both meanings of this key to depict both God’s strength and purity. Chorus 3: Choral Recitative Adagio ma non troppo ma divoto, 3/2

g–A[9

Mm. Text/section Key Affect 627-28 Instrumental interlude g/C sweet, tender65/pure, innocent 629-30 g sweet, tender 631-32 Do you fall low g/C sweet, tender/pure, innocent 633-35 you millions? g sweet, tender 636-37 Do you sense your Creator, B[ amoroso 638 world? C strength, power 639-40 Seek him above C purity, innocence Schubart, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 270. Beethoven withholds its full emancipation until m. 843, when it appears in D major in a series of ecstatic affective outbursts. Here it is only in the subdominant. 64 Benedictines of Solesmes, Liber Usualis (Tournai: Desclee, 1959), p. 14. 65 Mattheson, who designated G minor as transposed Dorian mode in his 1713 treatise, uses the word “tender” and describes it as “almost the most beautiful key.” Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 273. Its modal connection makes this choice particularly apposite here. 62 63

353

The Key to Beethoven 641 the starry F majesty 642 canopy! D triumph, victory 643-46 Above the stars must he dwell, E[ heroic/love of God 647-49 Instrumental interlude unstable extreme emotion 650-54 above the stars must he dwell. A[9 extreme emotion

Commentary: In this most remarkable of passages Beethoven attempted the impossible in trying to capture in music a vision of the ineffable God.66 In so doing, he fused old and new in an effort to depict God’s all-encompassing transcendence. The use of the epithet “ma divoto” is significant, as he was wont to add this phrase at transcendent moments connected in some way with the Deity.67 At m. 638 an unprecedented suspension of tonality occurs. Each subsequent chord is stretched out in time and endowed with individual affective qualities in order to do full justice to the emotional intensity of the text in what is an extended passage of depictive harmony. This passage commences with a fortissimo chord of C depicting the interrogative “Welt?” in a brilliant juxtaposition of unrelated chords—here indicative of God’s majesty and power—the tonal jolt from B[ to C projecting the interrogative mood. At once the affect changes with the words “Such’ ihn überm,” the dynamic reduces suddenly to pianissimo and the register drops as the other side of the Deity’s nature is projected through the second praxis of C major: God as the ultimate fount of purity and innocence. A crescendo into a depictive chord of F major for “Sternenzelt!” at m. 641 reflects the second praxis in F of majesty and gravity. In the following measure, Beethoven juxtaposed it with a chord of D major to convey triumph and victory. By preceding D with ]III, Beethoven doubled its affective power here as he groped to convey musically this distant yet omnipresent Deity, judiciously adding the trombones for this very chord. “Über Sternen muß er wohnen” is declaimed fortissimo in stile recitativo on a chord of E-flat, used depictively to convey the triumphant and heroic nature of God.68 Such is the sensitivity of the scoring that all the bass instruments are omitted, with the high registers of the ensemble alone used in a brilliant piece of affective text depiction. Yet present in this earth-shattering chord is the still, small voice—signified by the second praxis of E-flat—that affectively portrays humanity’s love and 66 Warren Kirkendale draws a clear parallel between the opening instrumental introduction to this passage and the Präludium to the Benedictus of the Missa solemnis. This highlights the religious significance that Beethoven placed on this text. Kirkendale, “New Roads,” p. 687. 67 The same direction, in German is used at the beginning of the Sanctus of the Missa solemnis— “Mit andacht.” 68 Amazingly, even Schenker was moved for a brief moment, as he allowed himself to consider meaning: “to be sheltered by the Creator, how it makes man thankful and fortunate. To be one with the Creator, to revere his merciful hand in love and awe, such a dithyramb is strong enough to express the fortune of the children of earth.” Heinrich Schenker, Der freie Satz (Vienna: Universal, 1935), trans. and ed. Ernest Oster, Free Composition (New York: Longman, 1979), p. 333. William Kinderman posits the thesis that this chord is symbolic of God, connecting it to similarly-scored chords of E-flat in “Beethoven’s Symbols for the Deity in the ‘Missa Solemnis’ and the Ninth Symphony,” Nineteenth-Century Music 9 (1985): 115-17.

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devotion for their heavenly Father, present perhaps in the echo on the half-note rest of the following measure. Yet somehow even this stunning vision of the Godhead apparently left something wanting for Beethoven. Once more he girded himself to attempt the impossible, trying to convey this ineffable vision of the God beyond the stars— struggling to seek him out in music one more time. At m. 647, g2 is reharmonized using a pianissimo diminished seventh chord above E—the ultimate embracing of diabolus in musica69—which morphs into a minor ninth chord over A as the chorus enters in m. 650.70 Beethoven’s entire affective paintbox is employed to conjure up a moment of such sublimity. Tremolo strings shimmer angelically in awe beneath the choral repetition of this starry vision, the whole marked sempre pianissimo, breaking all norms of tessitura with a sustained g2 for the sopranos. A land beyond tonality is the only place to be in the presence of such an aweinspiring vision “über Sternen.” As Treitler rightly points out, this is indeed “the dénouement of the entire symphony.”71 However, he might have gone on to say that, in some sense, it marks the pinnacle of Beethoven’s entire creative oeuvre. And yet, given the nature of the text, it remains mysterious, forever the great existential question. Remarkably, this lone depictive harmony is able to capture all this and more.72 Double Fugue: Allegro energico e sempre ben marcato, 6/4,

D–G

Mm. Text/section Key Affect 655-62 D joy, jubilation (Sop.) Joy, beautiful spark of the gods, Daughter of Elysium, We enter, fire-imbibed, Heavenly one your sanctuary. (Alto) Be embraced, you millions! This kiss is for the whole world! 663-66 (Bass) Joy, beautiful spark of the gods, A brilliant, joyful Daughter of Elysium, (Alto/ Be embraced, you millions! Tenor) 667-77 (text as above D joy, jubilation The forbidden diminished fifth—the devil in music—appears twice in a diminished seventh chord. I refrain from labeling it “dominant” because of the suspension of tonality here; as yet it is a harmonic entity in its own right. It only becomes dominant after the fact in m. 655, with the reestablishment of D major as tonic. 71 Leo Treitler, “To Worship That Celestial Sound,” Journal of Musicology 1 (1982): 169. 72 Beethoven invokes the same chord at similar moment in the Sanctus of the Missa solemnis, as he attempts once more to depict Isaiah’s vision of God, the Lord of Hosts (Isaiah 6. 3). 69

70

355

The Key to Beethoven 678-85 distributed between voices) A brilliant, joyful 686-88 B strong, wild 689-90 E fiery passion 691-96 D joy, jubilation 697-702 A brilliant, joyful 703-13 various sequential/structural 714-17 A brilliant, joyful 718-29 D joy, jubilation 730-44 Do you fall on your knees, you millions? unstable extreme emotion Do you sense your Creator, world? Seek him above the starry canopy! 745-53 Brothers! A brilliant, joyful 753-57 Above the starry canopy A trust in God Must a loving Father dwell, 758-62 a loving Father dwell. G calm, gentle

Commentary: At this point the halls of Elysium are indeed reached in a riotous fortissimo D major double fugue, a massive dithyrambic paean to the Deity that combines the “Seid umschlungen” and “Freude” themes. All elements coalesce here to promote an atmosphere of truly uninhibited joy. Yet the question mark still remains, and the fugue suddenly implodes at m. 730. Could it be that this wondrous vision has not yet been heard and understood by all humanity? As the text of chorus three is repeated, an angular unison theme appears, punctuated with rests, and outlining two consecutive diminished triads—F\-A-C (mm. 730-32), and B[-C\-E (mm. 733-35). This passage is tonally unstable and therefore highly (and deliberately) affectively disruptive, signifying extreme emotion. The implication of affective instability is to express a feeling of disbelief and incredulity that anyone could fail to fall on their knees in awe and not sense the presence of their Maker. And, in a final attempt to convince these doubters, the phrase “Brüder! überm Sternenzelt muß ein lieber Vater wohnen” (Brothers! Above the starry canopy must a loving Father dwell) is reworked in a manner totally contrasted to its earlier hearing at mm. 611-26, as if set in another language, in an attempt to make the message fully comprehensible. This time it is set homophonically in A major (m. 745), appropriately projecting the joy and brilliance of the second praxis in this key. This melds into the first praxis at m. 753 as the dynamic level drops to piano, the gentle orchestration projecting a sense of calm trust and faith in that “lieber Vater.” An affective modulation to G major at m. 758 at the repeat of the words “lieber Vater wohnen” projects an overwhelming sense of gentleness and calm—a vision of heaven’s paradise where this unseen God forever dwells. First Coda: Allegro, ma non tanto, 2/2

G–E

Mm. Text/section 763-64 Instrumental 765-75 Daughter of Elysium!

Key G D

356

Affect calm, gentle joy, love

Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies Joy, daughter of Elysium! 775-83 Daughter of Elysium! A 783-831 Thy magic powers reunite, D What custom has kept strictly separate. All men become brothers, Where thy gentle wing abides. Thy magic powers reunite, What custom has kept strictly separate. All men become brothers, 831 All men! E

innocent love joy, jubilation

fiery passion

Commentary: An affective modulation to D major depicts the image of Joy’s persona as “Tochter aus Elysium!” It appears initially in its second praxis of love, and the solo quartet sings sempre pianissimo of “Freude, Tochter aus Elysium.” The innocence of this love is reflected in an affective modulation to A major at m. 775 in an almost Mozartian moment, as Beethoven embraced yet another style with which he was more than familiar—that of the operatic finale of his youth. However, by m. 783, D major has melded into its first praxis of joy and jubilation, before an unexpected affective modulation to E major at m. 831. Vocal Cadenza: Poco adagio, 2/2

E–D

Mm. Text/section Key Affect 832-35 All men become brothers E warm, tender, loving 836-41 Where your gentle wing abides, B heavenly vision, the sublime 841 abides, b gloom, doubt 842 abides. D love

Commentary: The marking poco adagio heralds a repeat of the phrase “Alle Menschen werden Brüder,” the sentiment of which is reflected in the second praxis of E major: warmth and love. At m. 834 an affective modulation to B major ushers in a sublime vision of the ultimate Elysium, that heavenly place where Joy’s gentle wing rests. Initially it seems to be an all-embracing affirmation, yet the question mark still remains, as B major morphs momentarily into its minor sibling (m. 841). While a structural argument could be made that this occurs solely to smooth the transition back to D, it is also a strong affective statement in its own right. Is it in Elysium that Joy’s gentle wing rests? Does Elysium exist, and can so overwhelmingly transcendent a vision be attained? B minor conveys affectively that these doubts are still present, and yet they are immediately subsumed by a second inversion D major chord, in its second love praxis, indicating that it is love that will be the answer.

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Coda: Part Two: Poco Allegro, stringendo il D tempo, sempre più Allegro, 2/2, Mm. Text/section Key Affect 843-55 Be embraced, you millions! D joy, jubilation 856-60 This kiss is for the whole world! A brilliant, joyful 861-77 Brothers! Above the starry canopy D joy, jubilation Must a loving Father dwell. Be embraced! 878-84 Be embraced! This kiss is for the e intense lament whole world, 885-86 the whole world, d active ombra 887-92 the whole world! This kiss is for the e intense lament whole world, the whole 893-94 world, d active ombra 894-919 the whole world! D joy, jubilation Joy, joy, beautiful spark of the gods! Daughter of Elysium!

Commentary: The joy motive here receives an ecstatic apotheosis, leading into the final jubilant outburst of the last vocal statement of the Joy theme. From m. 878 the message of “Diesen Kuß” is reinterpreted affectively in E minor, as Beethoven equated the Christian theology of unearned redemption with this freely-given kiss. The sense of lament projected by E minor’s tonal symbolism (second praxis) perhaps conveys the pain of God’s ultimate sacrifice of his son in order to bestow it. The weight of worldly angst is compounded by the brief re-emergence of D minor (m. 885, third praxis) on the words “ganzen Welt” replete with ombra connotations of divine intervention in worldly affairs. The whole section is repeated at m. 887 before the key turns back to D major. As the word “Elysium” is heard for a final time (m. 917), an A major (4-3) chord is used depictively to capture that distant place for which all humanity longs, and which will only be achieved through the trust in God which this harmony projects. For an instant, the forces are reduced and a subito piano enhances the impression of a moment suspended in time. Then the vision is shattered at m. 918 as the final triumphant proclamation of joy ensues: D major, maestoso, with grand dotted rhythms, thirty-second-notes in the strings, sforzando markings—the cries “Gotterfunken” resounding in a fortissimo panoply of joy and brilliance.

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Vocal and Choral Music with Orchestra: Five Case Studies

Orchestral Closing: Prestissimo, sempre fortissimo, 2/2,

D

920-40 The apotheosis of D major: twenty uninterrupted measures of the tonic, in a blaze of joyous glory!

Conclusion In this chapter I set out to examine the broader application of tonal symbolism to larger vocal works. In each case study, clear empirical evidence for its hermeneutic usefulness was evident. Each work also manifested varying usages of key characteristics as a vehicle for projecting meaning. In the concert aria Ah Perfido, the affective use of tonality was employed extensively to characterize the heroine’s moods, the sogno tradition of E-flat major being particularly important. In Christus am Ölberge, the affective interplay of the mixed modal pairings of e[/E[ and c/C allowed Beethoven to open the work in the deeply pathetic key of E-flat minor yet end it triumphantly in C major. Neither of these pairings alone would have been able to achieve such a range. The Mass in C Major conveyed how Beethoven used key characteristics both to reinforce the Austrian mass tradition in his very choice of key for this setting, while breaking with it by composing the Sanctus in a key other than the tonic, again for affective reasons. Powerful examples of text depiction through tonal symbolism were also present. Beethoven’s setting of the Elegischer Gesang illustrated how remote and unexpected tonal juxtapositions such as F\–d are used affectively to express textual meaning. Lastly, in the finale of the Ninth Symphony the first extended application of tonal symbolism to passages of untexted music was undertaken, paving the way for the work of the following chapter. Further uses of tonal affect in this movement were seen in the melding of the two contrasted praxes of D major and the use of affective modality. Also revealed was the momentary suspension of tonality as Beethoven made extensive use of depictive harmony in mm. 638-54 to convey abstruse meaning. Thus the affective use of tonality has been shown so far to be a powerful multifaceted tool in the expression of the varying texts found in these works. It is now time to apply the semiotics of tonal symbolism to a work that is completely without text.

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CHAPTER EIGHT

The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study Introduction Having established that Beethoven employed key characteristics as one of the major signifiers of affective meaning in his vocal works, it is important to test this theory in untexted instrumental music to gain a sense of its wider application. In the music studied thus far, I have focused on key characteristics and supported their use with other musical elements that help create the semiotic web of meaning for each work. With the absence of text as a window to meaning in purely instrumental works, other symbols of musical language will be considered more fully here to establish a more comprehensive picture. These include stylistic topoi, tempo, movement headings and descriptive titles, interval structure, melodic archetypes, use of dissonance, dynamics, articulation, harmonic language, register and phrasing. By combining all of the above elements, it is possible to decode the series of psychological or soul states that are invoked during the progression of an untexted work. It is important to note that the readings in this chapter are hardly the only possible interpretation of meaning in this sonata. Music by its very nature defies any such definitive reading—in this sense it is indeed a language beyond words. If the meanings attributed to it are too concrete, it then becomes an attempt to turn “Ausdruck der Empfindung” into “Malerei,” something Beethoven has indicated was not his intention in his now-famous quote.1 However, through an “Mehr Ausdruck der Empfindung als Malerei” (More an expression of feeling than pictorialism) is Beethoven’s subtitle to the Pastoral Symphony. Other readings of this piece have been made, many of which have been consulted prior to the undertaking of this particular analysis, including Theodore Albrecht, “Beethoven and Shakespeare’s Tempest: New Light on an Old Allusion,” Beethoven Forum 1 (1992): 81-92; Barry Cooper, Beethoven and the Creative Process (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp. 177-96, a revised version of “The Origins of Beethoven’s D Minor Piano Sonata Op. 31, No. 2,” Music & Letters 62 (1981): 261-80; Kenneth Drake, The Beethoven Sonatas and the Creative Experience (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2000), pp. 169-82; Timothy Jones, Beethoven: The “Moonlight” and Other Sonatas, Op. 27 and Op. 31 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 103-14; Lawrence Kramer, “Primitive Encounters: Beethoven’s ‘Tempest’ Sonata, Musical Meaning, and Enlightenment Anthropology,” Beethoven Forum 6 (1998): 31-65; Donald F. Tovey, A Companion to Beethoven’s Piano Sonatas, ed. Barry Cooper (London: Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music, 1999), pp. 121-29; Scott Burnham, “Singularities and Extremes: Dramatic Impulse in the First Movement of Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata,” in Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata: Perspectives of Analysis and Performance, ed. Pieter Bergé (Leuven: Peeters, 2009), pp. 3959; Robert Hatten, “Interpreting Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata through Topics, Gestures and Agency,” in Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata, pp. 163-180; William Kinderman, “The First Movement of Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata: Genesis, Form and Dramatic Meaning,” in Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata, pp. 213-234; William Rothstein, “Riding the Storm Clouds: Tempo, Rhythm, and Meter 1

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examination of the use of tonal symbolism in combination with other signifiers, it is possible to decode aspects of meaning in a similar manner to many theorists of Beethoven’s time, as explored below.

Background The view of untexted music as a vehicle for communication is reflected in the opinion of C. P. E. Bach who, in his autobiographical sketch of 1773, revealed that his chief goal in recent years had been “playing and composing as vocally as possible for the keyboard,” in order to achieve “the noble simplicity of melody […] I believe that music must, first and foremost, stir the heart.”2 This goal was affirmed by Koch, who quoted Sulzer in his famous Versuch: In the sonata a composer can strive to create a monologue in tones of sadness, grief, tenderness or of joy and delight, or sustain a sensitive dialogue in impassioned tones of equal or contrasting character, or simply depict powerful, stormy, contrasting, or light, soft, fluent, and pleasing emotions.3

In his Klavierschule, Türk also affirmed these sentiments, remarking that: “The composer is therefore in no instrumental composition less restricted—as far as character is concerned—than in the sonata, for every emotion and passion can be expressed in it. For the more expressive a sonata is, the more the composer can be heard, as it were, to speak […].”4 Earlier in the same treatise he remarked that an “instrumentalist plays best who comes closest to the singing voice or who knows how to bring out a beautiful singing tone. When it comes to true music, what are all of these motley passages against a melting, heart-lifting, genuine melody!”5 In making such comments, these writers were not merely discussing interpretation (as achieved by a bel canto line) but rather implying that instrumental music is as imbued with meaning as is song. Sulzer was also right on the mark when he observed: ________________ in Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata,” in Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata, pp. 235-271; and Steven Vande Moortele, “The First Movement of Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata and the Tradition of TwentiethCentury ‘Formenlehre,’” in Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata, pp. 274-293. 2 C. P. E. Bach, “Autobiografie,” in Charles Burney, Tagebuch seiner musikalischen Reisen (Hamburg: Bode, 1772-73), III, p. 209, trans. William J. Mitchell in C. P. E. Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments (New York: Norton, 1949), p. 16. 3 Heinrich Christoph Koch, Versuch einer Anleitung zur Composition (Rudolstadt and Leipzig: Böhme, 1782-93), III, 315, in Michael Broyles, Beethoven: The Emergence and Evolution of Beethoven’s Heroic Style (New York: Excelsior Music Publishing, 1987), p. 10. 4 Daniel Gottlob Türk, Klavierschule, oder Anweisung zum Klavierspielen für Lehrer und Lernende […] nebst 12 Handstücken (Leipzig: Schwickert, 1789), p. 390, trans. Raymond H. Haggh, School of Clavier Playing (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982) p. 383. 5 Ibid., p. 318.

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The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

Clearly in no form of instrumental music is there better opportunity than in the sonata to depict feelings without words. […] The sonata […] assumes all characters and every expression. By the sonata the composer can hope to produce a monologue through tones of melancholy, grief, sorrow, tenderness, or delight and joy; […] or depict emotions [that are] violent, impetuous, and contrasted.6

He might have been discussing this very sonata when making such a statement, for a progression of feelings—anger and dark depression, with glimmers of hope, and an ultimate grudging acceptance—form the emotional journey undertaken by Beethoven here. The Tempest Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, was chosen for this purpose because there are a number of helpful indicators to meaning embedded in the text. Extensive sketches are available that reveal some of Beethoven’s initial thought processes as the sonata took shape, including the changing of both the intended key and many of the internal modulations, for affective reasons. The first movement contains passages of quasi-continuo writing and an actual instrumental recitative, a genre that requires performer and listener alike to imagine text, as we saw above in the finale of the Ninth Symphony. From his study of the sketchbooks, Barry Cooper observes that this sonata was most likely begun in May of 1802. While Beethoven already had some ideas sketched, it was fleshed out in its final form during that summer.7 The work acquired the soubriquet “Tempest” from one of Schindler’s anecdotes suggesting that Beethoven connected this work with Shakespeare’s play, The Tempest. In English-speaking countries this title survives, while in Germany it is known as Der Sturm.8 On the surface this would seem to make it too easy a candidate for such an analytical exploration, yet anecdotes such as this and Czerny’s, which concerns the last movement, will actually not factor into this analysis. What is beyond dispute is that this work is tumultuous in both style and impact. However, it is not an example of “Malerei,” as seen in the storm of the Sixth Symphony, however, but rather of “Empfindung”—a series of powerful, stormy mood-states coming from deep within Beethoven’s psyche. Musical meaning is Johann Georg Sulzer, Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste (Leipzig: Weidemann, 1771-74), ii, pp. 688-689, in William S. Newman: The Sonata in the Classic Era (New York: Norton, 1983), p. 23. 7 Cooper, Creative Process, p. 178. 8 Beethoven’s purported response concerning the background to these sonatas was “Lesen Sie nur Shakespeare’s Sturm” (Just read Shakespeare’s Tempest) in Anton Felix Schindler, Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven, 2 vols. (Münster: Aschendorff, 1860), trans. Constance S. Jolly, ed. Donald W. MacArdle, Beethoven as I Knew Him (London: Faber, 1966), p. 406. This comment concerned both this sonata and the “Appassionata.” Schindler responded thus “It is, therefore, to be found in that play. But where? Questioner, it is for you to read, to ponder and to guess.” Schindler-MacArdle, p. 406. Theodore Albrecht points out that by 1840, the date of Schindler’s first biography, the publisher Cranz had already added the title “Appassionata” to Op. 57 two years earlier, continuing “so the subtitle ‘Tempest’ fell exclusively to Op. 31, No. 2.” (Albrecht, p. 1). Thus it would seem that this name was acquired by default. 6

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The Key to Beethoven

conveyed in a series of remembrances of psychological states of being, a succession of soul-states that capture the passions of the composer, projecting them onto the listener as remembrances of similar situations in their own lives. Sulzer described exactly this sequence of events: “each emotion is expressed by particular sounds, each of which awakens in the listener’s heart the original experience which gave rise to it.”9 Cooper’s in-depth analysis of the extant sketches for this sonata reveals that Beethoven’s first thoughts were for a sonata in A minor.10 He posits that the reason the key was changed concerns the overall key structure in an intended group of three sonatas. Later sketches reveal plans in the set for a sonata in C major. Cooper writes: […] when planning a set of three sonatas, Beethoven was customarily guided by certain principles for creating maximum contrast between them; one of these principles was that of the three works one should be in a minor key and that there should be at least one flat key and one sharp key in the set. Thus if the first sonata was to be in C major it would rule out A minor for the minor-key one […].11

Another reason for this change is the affective power of the newly chosen key of D minor. The projection of anger and rage would not have been as powerfully affective in the more sorrowful A minor, but they form a perfect match with this traditionally stormy key. D minor in its third praxis was the key in which Handel composed his powerful recitative/aria pair “Thus saith the Lord”/“For he is like a refiner’s fire” in Messiah; of Haydn’s “Rollend in schäumenden Wellen” in Die Schöpfung and the chorus “O che orrore” in L’Anima del Filosofo; the key of the statue scene in Mozart’s Don Giovanni and the “Dies Irae” in his Requiem. Beethoven was thoroughly familiar with all these works. He would later use this key in Pizarro’s aria “Ha! welch ein Augenblick!” in Fidelio, for the “Crucifixus” of the Missa Solemnis, and for the first movement and the opening of the Finale of the Ninth Symphony, all of which are associated with pain, despair, or anguish. In another of Beethoven’s sketches for the first movement of this sonata, a more extensive working out of the opening material (which would actually become the transition theme in the final version) can be seen.12 Later in this sketch there is a passage in D major that was intended to be placed immediately Sulzer, Allgemeine Theorie, “Musik,” trans. Music and Aesthetics, p. 133. I am indebted to Prof. Cooper’s detailed consideration of the sketches for this work, both in Creative Process, pp. 177-196, and in the earlier article in Music & Letters 62 (1981): 261-80, which made available material crucial to some of the affective arguments posited here. 11 Cooper, Creative Process, p. 180. 12 Ibid., p. 181, Ex. 12.3. 9

10

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The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

prior to the recapitulation, clearly in the key’s second praxis and already characterized by a dolce marking. However, in the final version of the work, D major is found hardly at all, such was the depth and pathos of the emotions being conveyed. The key of F major in the sketch for the coda, planned in 6/8, was also discarded. This sketch also reveals that B-flat major was the intended key for the second theme at this stage, indicated the phrase “erster Teil in B.” Again, the power of the emotion expressed can be proffered for the change to the dominant minor in the final version of this theme. B-flat major eventually found its place as the key of the second movement in the final version of the sonata. The overall tonal structure of this sonata is revealing. The first and third movements are both in D minor. In both movements the second subject is in the minor dominant, a technique sometimes found in sonata form movements of the early Classical period but here a choice clearly made for affective reasons. At no point did Beethoven introduce F major (III), the more common tonality for a second subject in a minor-key sonata form movement in D minor. He also avoided D major (I) in the recapitulation for none of the three praxes in this key would have been appropriate for the mood state he wanted to project there. Rather, he employed two affective praxes of D minor here, contrasting its stormy anger and flirtations with quietus, heard in the thematic construction of the first movement (third praxis), with the more gentle melancholic pain—a falling into eventual acceptance—for the first theme of the third movement (first praxis). The second movement, however, is the exact antithesis emotionally, set in Beethoven’s amoroso key of B-flat major, indicative of cheerfulness and hope for the future.

First Movement: Largo/Allegro, 2/213 d The first movement is in sonata form, categorized by James Hepo-

koski as “Type 3 (‘textbook’)…laid out in unusual expositional, developmental, and recapitulatory spaces.”14 The inclusion and placement of the opening largo arpeggio in a sonata-form movement for connotative purposes is affirmative of the highly volatile mood shifts. The positioning of such arpeggios at the beginning of the exposition, development, and recapitulation is significant, achieving maximum impact at these three focal structural points in the movement. Three of the themes—the first subject (mm. 2-3), the second subject (mm. 44-45), and the closing (mm. 77-79) show variants of the descending minor scale 5–4–3–2 –1 as an essential element in their construction, indicative of incoming painful emotion in Cooke’s formulation/theory. 13 It is recommended that the reader have access to a score of this sonata when reviewing the following analysis. 14 James Hepokoski, “Approaching the Tempest through Sonata Theory,” Journal of the Society for Music Theory, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 183.

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The Key to Beethoven

Example 20. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, first movement, mm. 2-3.

&b C

Allegro

? C b

^

5

^

3

^

2

^

1

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ . . p œ. œœ. œœ. œœ. #œ

Cooke’s more detailed comments are particularly pertinent to this movement: “The essential feeling of the descending minor 5–3–1 progression is of a passive falling away from the joy of life, in various degrees, the ultimate one being to reject life altogether in favor of death.”15 If the existence of only two affective modes—major and minor—is acknowledged, then this movement speaks volumes, for at no point is the major mode strongly established. Yet how much more compelling the concept of contrasting affect becomes when the differences between not only the mode but also the characteristics of each individual key are understood.

Exposition, mm. 1-87 Imagine, for a moment, your presence at the occasion in 1802 when Beethoven performed this sonata at the home of Count Browne,16 an event recorded for literary posterity by Ferdinand Ries. What would your reaction be to this opening gesture? The immediate questions that arise concern the identity and affective qualities of the opening key, the nature of the largo arpeggio, and what both are attempting to project. In all likelihood you would equate it with the beginning of an operatic recitative: the rolled chord a classic preparation for just that. Robert Hatten even describes it as a “recitative chord.”17 You might also assume that Beethoven was following the contemporary practice of “preluding”—improvising a link between the previous piece on the program and this sonata, as was common at the time. You would doubtless react emotionally to this pianissimo first inversion A major chord, dreamily prolonged by the sustaining pedal and the fermata on its final note, allowing it to create for you a soul-state of calm, peace, maybe even prayerfulness and more. Perhaps you would even relate it to other works you were familiar with in this key: the Cooke, p. 137. Count Johann Georg Browne-Camus (1767-1827), Imperial Count and Russian miltary officer. 17 Robert Hatten, “Interpreting Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata through Topics, Gestures, and Agency” in Bergé, p. 166. 15 16

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The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

innocence of Mozart’s Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, K. 331, first movement; or the graceful “Rondo” from Beethoven’s own Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, Opus 2, No. 2, which also opens with a rising arpeggio; or even the second part of the Bußlied, the last song in the Gellert Lieder from earlier that year, which speaks of trust and hope in God. As you listen, this single chord would speak to you, creating an aura all of its own. And until the beginning of the ensuing allegro, this chord is its own unique context, replete with all the connotations already mentioned and doubtless others. What is clear is that there is not the merest hint of the stormy anger that is to follow. This chord is immediately juxtaposed with agitated and insistent eighthnote motion in the allegro that follows. One of Beethoven’s sketches for this work reveals that his initial plan was to begin the whole movement on a resolute ascending D minor arpeggio, a classic “Mannheim rocket.”18 Yet he thought better of it and broke with tradition, using a dominant chord to begin a sonata form movement for the first time, although this function only becomes clear in retrospect. Whereas the sketch was affirming overt emotions of anger and rage, this one—reflecting the association of A major with trust in God—is already suggestive of outgoing hope. The fact that it begins on C\1, with the softer, gentler quality of a first inversion harmony so characteristic of recitatives, is significant, for it reflects a feeling of heartfelt intimacy. Thus the opening measure comprises two distinct elements: a rolled quasi-continuo chord, and a rising arpeggio from a–c\1–e1–a1, the last note of the former serving as the first of the latter. Example 21. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, first movement, mm. 1-2.

&b C

Largo

~~~~~~~

π ? C # úúú b w # ww °

# œ.

œ.

U

ú.

U

úú .. ú.

*



This passage is Beethoven’s reworking of his original D minor idea, now transformed dynamically, tonally, and emotionally. Yet there is surely a level of ironic usage evident, which is revealed as soon as the allegro begins, and the intensity of the projected anger becomes apparent. It is almost as if the realization sets in that this prayer will fall on deaf ears, for this moment is suddenly shattered by descending 5–4 –3–2 –1 pattern beginning on a1, which is indicative of incoming 18 Cooper, Creative Process, p. 180, ex. 12.3. This “Mannheim rocket” finds its place in the mature version of the sonata in the left hand at mm. 21-22. Had he retained this, a parallel could be drawn with the opening of the finale of Mozart’s Fortepiano Concerto in D Minor, K. 466.

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The Key to Beethoven

painful emotion. It is only now that the tonic key of D minor is finally established. Not only is this descending scale pattern decorated to include a series of poignant sospira, greatly increasing its affective potency, but it is also repeated a second time in D minor, and then a fourth higher in G minor, reflecting that key’s first praxis of discontent. The first allegro ends with an adagio, ushered in by an Italian sixth ([VI\6), and a searing g\1-a1 sospiro over a sforzando second inversion D minor chord. The prayer indeed remains unanswered. A second largo arpeggio follows, this time unfolding a first inversion C major chord, in another example of depictive harmony in the second praxis of this key— as the opening arpeggio is transposed to project outgoing feelings of purity and innocence—perhaps even archetypal innocence—still in a prayer-like guise. Example 22. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, first movement, mm. 7-8.

&b C

Largo

~~~~~~~

π ? b C úúúw ww °

œ.

œ.

U

ú.

U

úú .. ú. *

The return of the ensuing allegro again implies a similar ironic usage, for the overall mood is anything but calm. It touches momentarily on F major, used structurally as part of a rising sequence F—g—d/[II6—\viiº—\ivº, reaching a powerful climax at m. 13, in a cadenza-like passage, on a D minor six-four harmony, now in its third praxis.19 A falling D minor arpeggio is then painfully embellished with a series of heartfelt melodic anticipations and sospira, followed by a series of three further sospira, each tellingly marked sforzando, ushering in a rising chromatic scale. This is indicative of an increase in emotional intensity while presaging the power of the tempestuousness to follow. Beginning in m. 21, the turbulent transition in the guise of a “Mannheim rocket” theme projects stormy feelings of inner rage (D minor, third praxis). It is significant that Beethoven reserved the use of a clear forte root-position tonic chord until this moment as a way of increasing D minor’s affective power. The transition is a study in Beethovenian mood-swings so characteristic of the composer. An initial violent fortissimo arpeggio (mm. 21-22) is juxtaposed with a supplicatory sospiro (m. 23), marked piano illustrating perfectly the quasi-operatic dialogue between contrasted mood-states of rage and sadness. 19 In the second sketch there are several measures in F major, which Beethoven clearly considered inappropriate in the mature version, in all likelihood for affective reasons.

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The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

Example 23. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, first movement, mm. 21-22. Allegro

&b C

Ó.

∑

œ p 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 fœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œw œ œ œ œ œ œ ?b C œ œ ú . . & b #œ

3

3

œ

3

œ

3

œ

3

ú

3

3

ú

3

3

? b œw œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œw œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ This pattern is maintained until m. 28. Ultimately, the level of rage becomes all-consuming, as the dynamic level builds, sforzando diminished seventh harmony is added (mm. 38-40), and rapid tremolo triplet eighth-note figuration maintained throughout. In Christian Gottfried Krause’s view, all three are symbols of “malediction.”20 All at once the anger dissipates with an affective modulation to A minor (first praxis) at m. 41 as the restless second theme is introduced.21 In this guise A minor is a more gentle, sorrowful key, yet even in an affectively weaker tonality and at a lower dynamic level, the preoccupation is still with painful emotion. This not experienced as strongly perhaps, but keenly felt nonetheless. There is no sense of lyrical variation in the construction of this theme, nor is there the expected affective contrast of the relative major here. This is because the mood Beethoven wished to project in the sonata does not warrant it, as evident in an examination of its construction (right hand, mm. 44-45), which reveals a decorated version of the same falling minor scale pattern. An ostinato-like left hand continually returns to f1-e1—the sospiro motive—compounded by rueful sospira in the ornate right hand melody, all of which affirm the ongoing sorrow of A minor.

Christian Gottfried Krause, Von der musikalischen Poesie (Berlin: Voss, 1752), trans. Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form and Style, (New York: Schirmer, 1980), p. 4. “Malediction” is defined here as being depicted by tremolo and many dissonances. 21 The original key Beethoven planned for the second theme was B-flat major, which would have been groundbreaking at the time. However, affectively it would have broken the hold of the minor mode too soon. The use of B-flat major for the second subject of a sonata form movement can later be observed in the first movement of the Ninth Symphony, a work that bears many similarities to this one. 20

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The Key to Beethoven

Example 24. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, first movement, mm. 4445.

^ ^ ^ ^ 4 3 2 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ &b C p œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ #œ ?b C œ œ 5

^

1

nœ œ œ

Œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

The restless second subject builds dynamically, melding into the second praxis of A minor, preparing the way for an angry outburst at m. 55. Sforzando Neapolitan harmonies—which incorporate the sospiro b[-a melodically—are pounded out, in combination with an ascending chromatic scale. Another mood swing is ushered in as D minor is briefly tonicized affectively in its first praxis of melancholy at m. 61, a feeling supported by A minor (m. 62). The combination of a Neapolitan chord and a plaintive piano sospiro evoke a more gentle sorrow.22 The closing theme, first heard in m. 55, is ominously repeated deep in the bass register, again in D minor (third praxis). In sonata form it is highly unusual to return to the tonic at this point, as it is destabilizing tonally, and that surely was Beethoven’s point, such is the affective pull of D minor’s anger here. He seemed just unable to resist. In m. 68, the emotion builds to what Robert Hatten describes as an “offbeat fortissimo ‘shriek’…the most extreme moment of Sturm und Drang style yet heard,”23 placed at the upper extreme of the keyboard (he doesn’t mention the significance of D minor’s third affective praxis). It is worth noting here that Gudrun Busch dubbed D minor “der Gewitter-tonart” (the storm key) because of the frequency with which she found storms set in it in her extensive research into eighteenth-century opera.24 In m. 75 the second part of the closing is introduced above a dominant pedal, again in A minor (first praxis)—an affective modulation again projecting the mood-state of gentle, sorrowful melancholy. It is enhanced by a series of falling five 5–4–3–2 –1 patterns alternating between the hands in a passage of voice exchange that relentlessly project incoming painful emotion. As this passage is repeated, Beethoven added to the poignancy of the moment by delaying the accompaniment by a beat, creating a syncopated effect that enables a series of plaintive suspensions. 22 This interval of the minor second—with all its suggestive Phrygian connotations—plays a distinctly expressive role in this movement and is designated by Kirnberger as sad. Kirnberger, p. 356. 23 Hatten, p. 170. 24 Gudrun Busch, “Die Unwetterszene in der romantischen Oper,” in Die ‘Couleur locale’ in der Oper des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. Heinz Becker (Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1976), p. 171.

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Example 25. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, first movement, mm. 7982.

&b C

p ? b C Œú Œ ú. b &

ˆ5ú

ú

n œœ 4ˆ

sus.

ú

ˆ

úú5

n œœ œ ˆ4

sus.

œ ? b œ œ œ œ nœ #œ œ ˆ1

œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ nœ #œ œ œ œ œ

œœ ú

ˆ3ú

sus.

œœ œ

sus.

ú

sus.

ú

ˆ3ú

ú ú

# n œœ ˆ2

ˆ2

sus.

n œœ nœ

œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

This theme ultimately ebbs quietly away, collapsing into a series of octave As in m. 87, a complete cleansing of the affective palate in preparation for both the reprise of the exposition and the ensuing development.

Development, mm. 87-144 The largo arpeggio first heard in m. 1 returns, now expanded to three times its original length, projecting three different depictive harmonies, all played pianissimo: D major, first inversion—reflecting its second praxis of outgoing yearning love; a diminished seventh on B\—an unstable harmony indicative of extreme emotion and signaling a change of mood; and F-sharp major, second inversion (second praxis). Gustav Schilling, writing in the 1830s appositely characterizes F-sharp major thus: “the most inner feeling has worked its way up out of pain and violently seizes the joy which has eluded it.”25 The outgoing, dreamlike nature of this passage again suggests prayerfulness, with the merest hint of an answer through the brief mirage-like glimpse of intense joy projected by F-sharp major. The affect here is greatly enhanced by this chord’s placement heavenward in the register, the use of the pedal, and the pianissimo dynamic level. Alas, this moment is all too short, for at once the storm-like “Mannheim rocket” theme returns, again fortissimo and this time in F-sharp minor. Here Beethoven employed modal mixture to convey discontent and gloom, the mood-swings alternating between piano sospira and tumultuous forte “rockets.” A climactic moment is reached at m. 121, and D minor (third praxis) is again used to project Gustav Schilling, Universal-Lexicon der Tonkunst (Stuttgart: Köhler, 1835-38), ii, 728, trans. Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, 2nd ed. (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), p. 267. 25

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The Key to Beethoven

anger. A variety of expressive devices converge to amplify the sense of rage here: a driving dominant pedal, searing octave g\1–a1 sospiro, and a fortissimo dynamic. The recurring d2–f2 minor thirds here are marked sforzando, strongly reaffirming the tragic quality of this interval, unanimously considered as being indicative of sadness by contemporary writers. The retransition at m. 134 employs the falling minor pattern 8–7–6–5 above a dominant pedal. However, in a crucial difference Beethoven employed \7, which incorporates the exotic augmented second, indicating, perhaps, fear of the unknown. Example 26. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, first movement, mm. 3435.

wˆ8 ? b C ww ?b C w w

# wwˆ7 w

ww6ˆ w

w w

w w

#œ œ

wˆ5 w w

Beethoven repeatedly relies on the symbolic significance of the sospira here, thereby reinforcing the tonal affect (D minor, first praxis) to perpetuate residual feelings of melancholy following the feelings of rage that have just abated.

Recapitulation, mm. 145-228 The inclusion of fully-fledged instrumental recitative is reserved for the opening of the recapitulation, purposely placed at this the traditional structural climax of sonata form.26 Following the unfolding of a depictive V6 (A major, first praxis)—this time clearly functioning as a dominant and conveying the affect of tender passion—a solo melodic line is declaimed in stile recitativo, marked con espressione e semplice. This melody is replete with implied expressive suspensions whose harmony, while assumed and not fleshed out, remains in the realm of D minor (first praxis). In two articles “Beethoven’s Compositional Models for the Chorale Finale of the Ninth Symphony,”27 and “The First Movement of 26 These instrumental recitatives have naturally been the subject of much speculation, as Scott Burnham has noted. The spectrum of views ranges from Marx’s reading of them as “music that would like to become speech,” to Riezler’s view of them as “A form that originally had significance only when allied with a text is gradually so permeated with music that it no longer requires the support of words.” Burnham, “Singularities and Extremes,” in Bergé, pp. 46-47. William Rothstein even supplies them with an Italian text, Rothstein, “Riding the Storm Clouds,” in Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata, pp. 240-41. 27 William Kinderman, “Beethoven’s Compositional Models for the Choral Finale of the Ninth Symphony,” in Beethoven’s Compositional Process, ed. William Kinderman (Lincoln: University of

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The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata: Genesis, Form and Dramatic Meaning,” William Kinderman appositely identifies the intentionality of the similarities between these two instrumental recitatives, noting that “this affinity is hardly accidental, since it is grounded in the tonal symbolism of the key and in the treatment of musical character.”28 From the viewpoint of key characteristics, this proves to be spot on, for in both situations—sonata and symphony—we feel a memento of the extreme emotion projected by the turbulent third praxis of D minor, viewed in the respective recitatives through the lens of the first praxis. Czerny also felt moved to comment on the function and interpretation of this recitative, observing that it “must sound like one complaining at a distance.” His description is once again congruent with the first praxis of this key.29 Measures 148-54 follow a similar plan to the exposition, yet with one significant affective difference. This time C major becomes V6 of F minor (first praxis) rather than of F major. The inclusion of an instrumental recitative in this deeply lamenting key greatly increases the emotional intensity here, including as it does, a d[2–c2 sospiro above an implied second inversion dominant seventh chord. A rising sequence of affective tonicizations follows in another angry build-up: F-sharp minor—thoughts of death (suicide), G minor—discontent and resentment (first praxis), and finally the returning tonic, reached via two consecutive diminished seventh chords—both indicative of extreme emotion—and concluding with a falling minor third, f3–d3 in m.170 tellingly marked sforzando. The return of the second subject in D minor (first praxis), again marked piano, is stronger affectively than the more gentle A minor of the exposition, something which Beethoven clearly anticipated in the overall affective architecture of the movement. However, the affective impact of the searingly dissonant d2 upper pedal in mm. 189-92 as the closing theme is recapitulated, combined with a melding into the third praxis of this key, creates a moment of pathetic climax that is breathtaking in its daring and expressive power.30 The remainder of the movement gradually unravels emotionally. The reprise of the closing theme projects feelings of gentleness, sorrow, and melancholy, as D minor melds affectively into its first praxis (mm. 201-05). In a brief coda lasting only twelve measures, the closing theme is heard deep in the bass, now a distant rumble, before the final two pianissimo tonic chords are introduced. These harmonize a falling minor third, encapsulating in a moment the Nebraska Press, 1992), pp. 161-62. 28 William Kinderman, “The First Movement of Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata: Genesis, Form and Dramatic Meaning” in Beethoven’s Tempest Sonata, p. 213. 29 Czerny, p. 43. 30 The upper range of Beethoven’s fortepiano is also an issue here. His instrument did not have the required b[2 in order to transpose this theme up from A minor in the exposition to D minor in the recapitulation, so he chose to create the d2 to upper pedal instead, rather than moving this melody down an octave. In doing so, he achieved a moment that is extremely powerful expressively. Some would argue that the missing notes should be supplied now that they are available, while others choose to embrace the expressive nature of Beethoven’s solution, unusual as it was for that time.

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The Key to Beethoven

forlorn sorrow that has pervaded the entire movement just beneath the surface. Absent now is any thought of a tierce de picardie—an expressive device Beethoven considered joyful—that had been part of his original conception in the second sketch.31 Rather, a mood of deep sorrow prevails to the end. The fact that it is one of Beethoven’s shortest codas should not be surprising, for the issues of this movement have been worked out earlier. All that remains is the restless affective winding-down in the first praxis of D minor (mm. 217-27), heard as a distant rumbling in the bass.

Second Movement: Adagio, 3/4

B[

The key originally intended for the second theme of the first movement achieves its final blossoming as the primary tonality for the second movement. B-flat major, Beethoven’s amoroso key, is as lovely and cheerfully optimistic as D minor is angry in its stormy negativity. Now, for the first time in the whole work, an extended passage in a major key is finally experienced. In that respect it is the complete affective antithesis to the first movement, where no major key was ever firmly established. Rather, the tables are reversed as Beethoven relied on modal mixture to create affective remembrances of the emotional states of the previous movement by incorporating elements of B-flat minor, rather than fully embracing the pain intrinsic to that key. The use of modal mixture naturally connects with the intended affective impact of this movement, projecting its striving for the positive, the lovely, the cheerful. Yet, in realistic as opposed to idealistic human terms, it is impossible for the memories of anger and grief to be eradicated completely and not impinge on the present from time to time. It is the collective experience of the past that makes the present what it is. Here, Beethoven captured the perfect affective means by which to achieve this truism. This movement is a sonata form without development, categorized by James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy as Type 1 in their groundbreaking volume on sonata theory.32

Exposition, mm. 1-42 Though the affect of this movement is completely different, Beethoven again emphasized the importance of stile recitativo at the opening of the second Beethoven himself commented on the widespread use of the tierce de picardie in Archduke Rudolph’s Book of Instruction: “Many assert that every minor piece must end in the minor. Nego! On the contrary I find that in the soft scales the major third at the close has a glorious and uncommonly quieting effect. Joy follows sorrow, sunshine—rain.” Friedrich Kerst, Beethoven: The Man and the Artist, as Revealed in his Own Words, trans. and ed. Henry Edward Krehbiel (New York: Dover, 1964), p. 26. Given these sentiments it is clear why he avoided its use here. 32 James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy, Elements of Sonata Theory: Norms, Types, and Deformations in the Late-Eighteenth-Century Sonata (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 344. 31

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The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

movement. An arpeggiated chord of B-flat major is used to introduce the opening theme, heard in fragmented quasi-recitative form in mm. 2, 4, and 6.33 In some ways this opening can be seen as an affective antidote to the recitative in the first movement, since, whereas the first movement focused around a sad minor third, f–d, this movement focuses around a major third, b[–d, indicative of joy, and supported by the tonal affect of B-flat major’s first praxis. The fact that this chord is a tonic chord used in root position reinforces the strength of this affect here, a further contrast to the opening of the first movement. A subtle affective tonicization of C minor in its second praxis occurs at mm. 6-7, prepared by a sforzando diminished seventh (viiº) indicative of intense emotion. This is combined with a double appoggiatura to project the feeling of tender lament and unhappiness, echoes if you will of the deeply-felt emotion of the first movement. Almost immediately, F major is tonicized in m. 7-8—an antidote to this remembered pain—reasserting a feeling of calmness and peace, as if to remind us “that was then: this is now.” B-flat major then returns (m. 8); however, it is not long before another cloud appears on the horizon. In m. 11, [6 is heard as an upper neighbor-note, morphing into a V9 chord in m. 12, and followed immediately by a sforzando sospiro. Example 27. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, second movement, mm. 11-12.

? b b 43 úœœ .... œœ b œœ p ? b b 43 ú. ú. °

œœ

œ œ. œ œ

&

b œœ œ

°

Œ

b œœ S œœ

úœ ‰ Œ J œœ .... œœ œœ

°

°

Elements of modal mixture here conjure the parallel key of B-flat minor, a tonality characterized by heart-rending, deeply felt pain. However, it is significant that Beethoven deliberately avoided using the minor tonic chord either here or at any point in the movement.34 The “joy” motive g2–f2, marked forte in the upper 33 Cooper points out that these are the only two movements in Beethoven’s fortepiano sonatas to begin with arpeggiations. Cooper, Creative Process, p. 192. 34 D[ can only be seen as part of several diminished seventh harmonies throughout the movement (mm. 15, 57, 68, and 199), and intentionally never in the context a B-flat minor chord.

375

The Key to Beethoven

voice, attempts to reassert its primacy in mm. 15-16, but its affective power is tempered somewhat by 6 being harmonized by a diminished seventh chord (]viiº). Example 28. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, second movement, mm. 15-16.

j b œ & b 43 œJ œ ? b 3 Jœœ b 4

‰ ‰

fú Œ Œ

b œœœ. J b œœ. nœ J

‰

‰

pú Œ

. œœœ J œœ. œ J

Œ

œœ œ J. j œ œ.

‰ ‰

‰ ‰

The combination of this motivic “joy”/sospiro interplay and the juxtaposition of the tonal symbolism of B[/b[ is indicative of the contrasted mood-states that play out in this movement. Every time it seems that the “joy” motive has the upper hand, the sospiro intrudes on the affective landscape, reflecting the deeper emotional pain—never far from the surface—that is experienced in the first movement. The transition is heralded by a drum-motive in m. 17, which emphasizes a tonic pedal (mm. 17-22). This is an example of affective transplacement, where one attribute from the second praxis of B-flat—martial orchestration transferred to the keyboard—is transferred into the amoroso world of the first. Example 29. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, second movement, mm. 17-19.

j b Œ ? & b 43 œœ ‰ Œ œ f 3 3 3 ? b b 43 œj≈ œ œ j≈ œ œ j≈ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ÿ ÿ

œœ œœ # œœ # œœ œ œn œ n œ j ‰Œ œ ÿ

Œ

œœ œ J‰

Œ

‰≈ œ œ j≈ œ œ j≈ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ÿ ÿ 3

3

3

The affective significance here is important in that this element of boldness and strength, taken from the parallel tradition, adds a sense of determination to B-flat’s first praxis. At m. 23 there is an affective modulation to the peaceful

376

The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

calm of F major (first praxis), projecting a brief moment of gentle, outgoing joy. Yet even here chromatic melodic decorations, combined with sospira, hint at the same painful mood-state introduced earlier. Affective transplacement is continued, this time between the two praxes of F major, as the drum motive becomes a dominant pedal, combining feelings of peace and strength. C major is affectively tonicized in its second praxis from mm. 27-30, indicative of a naïve, innocent hope, with elements of its first praxis transplaced too as the drum motive continues its dominant pedal role. This passage culminates in a falling major third: e1–c1 indicative of the incoming transient joy perpetuated throughout the movement. The second subject is introduced at m. 31 in F major, played piano, and enhanced by a dolce marking poignantly congruent with the calm nature of the first affective tradition in this key. The drum-motive pedal point returns in the short closing/retransition (mm. 38-42), again manifesting characteristics of the second praxis of the tonic, transplaced into the first, thereby adding supportive affective weight to a fragile, newfound joy. Yet this feeling is tempered once more by painful diminished seventh harmony (mm. 39-42) including the use of a melodic augmented second (g[1–a1) above the F.

Recapitulation, mm. 43-103 Modal mixture plays a larger role in the recapitulation, as darker feelings begin to surface more frequently, foreshadowing the forthcoming sorrow of the last movement. As early as m. 45, g[ is introduced, and repeated in the following measure as a sospiro in the bass. The desolate key of E-flat minor is tonicized affectively from mm. 47-48, enhanced by another sospiro motive in the bass, and modal mixture empowers a purposeful resolution to E-flat major in m. 49 as a counterbalance to the negative emotion of its minor peer. As the second part of the theme is varied (mm. 51-58), the negative mood-state intensifies. This is projected by the implied tonicizations of B-flat minor and G minor (mm. 53-57), and a ]ivº chord, introduced in a moment of true affective conflict, to harmonize the 6–5 “joy” motive.35

Tonic chords are again consciously avoided by Beethoven in both of these keys.

35

377

The Key to Beethoven

Example 30. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, second movement, mm. 57-58.

j fú b 3 œœ b & 4 J ‰ Œ

pú . œœ. f b œœœ œ ‰ œœœœ ‰ Œ J ‰ J J. p b œ ? b b 3 ® œœœ® œn œ œ œ œ œ œ œb œ œ ® œœœœœ ® œ œ œ œ œ b œœ 4 œœ œ œ œ œ œœœœ œœ n œ œ œ œœ œ

j œœ œœ j œ

In a further example of affective transplacement between praxes, the transition’s drum-motive again reappears to assist in bolstering the affective influence of amoroso B-flat (m. 59). Its power is felt immediately as E-flat major is affectively tonicized (mm. 60-64), with the drum motive forming a brief tonic pedal, introducing an element of the first praxis of this key, before a return to the tonic at m. 65. The ensuing dominant pedal projects the strongest expression of the search for outgoing joy, set in Beethoven’s amoroso key. The drum motive facilitates the transplacement of B-flat major’s martial praxis, combined with a rising melodic line that crescendos to forte for only the third time in this movement. As the closing begins (m. 80), the affective polarization between elements of E[/e[ and B[/b[ continues to play out. The drum-motive projects a B[ tonic pedal, attempting to ground things firmly in the tonic. It soon morphs into a dominant pedal of E-flat minor, tonicized via a series of emotionally charged diminished seventh harmonies in the right hand (mm. 81-84) that outlines a dominant minor ninth in E-flat minor. Significantly, the ninth, c[2 (m. 84), is marked sforzando. Such a shift again projects the power and immediacy of negative mood-states—in the case of E-flat minor, black depression and despair—yet it is significant that Beethoven again carefully avoided resolution to the tonic minor chord of E-flat (i). He even went so far as to spell the resolution of a[1—the seventh of this dominant minor ninth chord—as f\1 (a chromatic lower neighbor-note to g1) rather than g[1, which would be the third of the tonic minor triad (mm. 84-85). Thus he signaled semiotically that hope will indeed prevail against these feelings of depression. At m. 90 the coda begins with a final reprise of the first theme in the tonic. The emotive struggle for primacy between the sospiro and “joy” motives plays out one last time (mm. 93-97), with the joyous mind-state prevailing as hope is sustained. A new theme is introduced in m. 98, where the use of c[1 fleetingly suggests E-flat minor’s despair once more, all heard above the now-sustained B[ pedal.

378

The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

Example 31. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, second movement, mm. 98-99.

œ œ b & b 43 œœ œ œ bb œœ œ b œ œ. œ bœ ? bb 3 ú . 4 ú.

?

œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œJ

ú.

ú. ú.

In the end, the feeling of joy prevails, as emphasized in the final measure, with a synoptic descent from d3–b[2, as c3 forms a poignant expressive appoggiatura above the delayed low B[.

Intended Third Movement

D

Beethoven originally intended this sonata to have four movements. The

sketch for the third movement was a minuet in D major, which would have modulated to the mediant key of F-sharp minor. He rejected this movement completely, due, in all likelihood, to the affective qualities of its intended key. It seems he felt that neither an extended movement nor even a theme in D major anywhere in the sonata would fit affectively with the prevailing ethos of the work.36

Third Movement: Allegretto, 3/8

d

Another familiar anecdote, this time from Czerny, has long been connected with this movement, which Cooper dismisses convincingly. The story tells of Beethoven improvising the first theme of this finale after having heard a horseman galloping by his window.37 Czerny not only asserted the wrong year (it was 1802, not 1803) but was also unaware that several sketches for it were already in existence. Both facts completely debunk this tale as fiction.38 In fact, the carefully chosen tempo and dynamic markings also emphasize the spuriousness of Czerny’s anecdote. In clear contrast to the allegro/presto storminess of the first 36 F-sharp minor, however, would have been wholly congruent with the affective ethos of the sonata. 37 Carl Czerny, On the Proper Performance of All Beethoven’s Works for the Piano, ed. Paul Badura-Skoda (Vienna: Universal, 1970), facsimile repr. of The Art of Playing The Ancient and Modern Piano Forte Works […] Op. 500, Chs. 2 and 3 (London: Cocks, 1839), p. 54. 38 Cooper, Creative Process, pp. 194-95.

379

The Key to Beethoven

movement, this movement is marked allegretto, an intentionally slower speed. Beethoven again used Type 3 sonata form.39

Exposition, mm. 1-94 At the outset D minor is established in its first praxis—that of gentle, melancholic sorrow—played piano, in contrast to the dramatic anger expressed in the first movement. The arpeggio connection with the first two movements is retained but this time it is part of a perpetuum mobile that projects ongoing, restless sorrow throughout the movement. Cooke describes this shape—an arched 5–3–2 –1 minor—as conveying “the feeling of a passionate outburst of painful emotion, which does not protest further, but falls back into acceptance—a flow and ebb of grief. Being neither complete protest nor complete acceptance, it has an effect of restless sorrow.”40 In doing so, he captures the mind state of this moment perfectly. A Neapolitan chord (m. 10, interestingly in root position) and two falling chromatic scales, from a2 (mm. 23-25) and d3 (mm. 27-29), also enhance this affect.41 The opening motive returns forte, now in the bass at m. 30, as it takes on a more angry character, repeated four times before there is a complete change of mood. As if to form an antidote to the mind states projected by D minor, a rising arpeggiated dominant seventh harmony ushers in a burst of energy in the form of a strident rising C major arpeggio supported in unison octaves, which clearly echoes the first praxis in this key of triumph and strength. It is as if Beethoven were replenishing himself for the fray that is about to ensue. At m. 43 the second theme is introduced in A minor, cunningly begun off-beat at a forte dynamic for maximum affective impact. It opens with a series of reiterated series of 6–5 sospira figures culminating in a descending 5–4–3–2–1 pattern, indicative of incoming painful emotion, a powerful combination of two expressive melodic devices.42

Hepokoski/Darcy, p. 344. Cooke, pp. 137-38. 41 See Cooke, p. 165 for his description of the descending chromatic scale. 42 See Cooke, pp. 146, 133. 39 40

380

The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

Example 32. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, third movement, mm. 43-51.

& b 38

mœ œ

mœ m œ œ

m œ œ œ

m mœ œ œ

œ œ

f S œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ ? b 38 n œ # œ n œ # œ œ # œ n œ œ n œ # œ œ # œ n œ œ &b

œ

œ.

œ.

m œ nœ

œ.

œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ? nœ #œ b dim.

# œ. œ

œ.

œ nœ œ

n œ. œ

j œ.

œ œœ œ

Such is the depth of the pain that Beethoven is projecting here, he found it necessary to ornament 6 with trills and hemiola rhythmic patterns, repeating the sospiro six times (mm. 43-47). This is a mood-state that projects waves of anguish. The inclusion of these attributes supports emotive power of A minor in its second praxis. Realizing that a single statement will not suffice, he repeated this melody four times (mm. 48-66), driving home the painful intensity of feeling. An unexpected first inversion dominant seventh chord in D minor (m. 91) completes the exposition, having the dual role of transitioning into both the repeat of the exposition and the beginning of the development. The fact that it includes reiterated b[1-a1 sospira highlights the stronger affective qualities of the tonic key.

Development, mm. 95-215 A second diminished seventh chord—\viiº in G minor—marks the beginning of the development, projecting powerful emotion while simultaneously enabling an affective modulation that conveys the discontent and resentment of G minor’s first praxis. This mood state is affirmed by rising arpeggios played forte from mm. 99-102. A parallel passage in A minor, second praxis (mm. 103-106), heightens the emotional intensity. This concludes at a forte dynamic level in preparation for the brief reappearance of the first theme in D minor (m. 115), ushered in by another diminished seventh (\viiº) now forte in the third praxis of this key. Similar passages follow in C minor (dramatic, forceful, m. 118), and B-flat minor (discontent, m. 127), again achieved via a diminished seventh harmony that projects extreme emotion. These

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The Key to Beethoven

tonal changes, indicative of an increasing level of pain on the affective spectrum, culminate in A-flat major (first praxis, the key of the grave), significantly marked with the first fortissimo in the movement (mm. 145-49). It is also no coincidence that this key is a tritone away from the tonic. A subito piano marking ushers in a false recapitulation in B-flat minor, hauntingly projecting feelings of discontent and dread of what the future might hold, still several affective notches up the affective spectrum from the tonic. Beginning in mm. 163-68, the harmonic intensity increases as a diminished seventh chord (repeated twice), followed by a German sixth chord ([VI\6, repeated four times) all project a state of stormy emotion. This build-up culminates on a dominant chord of D minor, now using the third praxis of the tonic key, as the anger initially seen in the first movement returns with a vengeance. Above the tonic/dominant alternation, Beethoven employed a series of four searing a2-g\ 2 sospiro motives, each marked sforzando, tellingly placed in a register that enables the projection of extreme rage, crafting the climactic moment of the development (mm. 169-173). All at once the intensity breaks as this soulstate passes—indicated by a subito piano—melding to the first praxis of D minor in a passage of gentle sorrowing. A diminution of the second theme is worked in, now in the tonic (mm. 175-80), the subdominant (mm. 183-88), and then in the tonic again at the higher octave (mm. 189-98). Finally, a cadenza-like passage for the right hand, introduced by a forte dominant seventh chord (mm. 199-214), based on a decorated \viiº—the notes of the chord outlined with a sforzando marking— ushers in the recapitulation in a further burst of extreme emotion.

Recapitulation, mm. 214-399 The restless, gentle melancholy of D minor’s first praxis is reflected in the reprise of the first theme (mm. 215-29). However, it is in the transition that the core emotional content of the recapitulation occurs. At m. 232 a Neapolitan chord in the tonic pivots onto ii in B-flat major in what comprises the sole extended passage in a major mode in this movement. It is marked piano and briefly recalls the cheerful soul state of the second movement in Beethoven’s amoroso key. However, the sixteenth-note perpetuum mobile ensures that it remains but a restless and fleeting memory. Following a perfect cadence in B-flat major (mm. 241-42), modal mixture is again invoked as the parallel minor reappears for a repetition of the opening motive. This is played forte in the bass, enabling an affective modulation to F minor in its second praxis via a sforzando dominant chord (m. 246). The forte dynamic marking and detaché phrasing enhance the inherent qualities of storminess in a bold arch-shaped unison arpeggio.

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The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

Example 33. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, third movement, mm. 247-50.

œ bœ œ 3 œ b bœ & 8 œ bœ œ œ bœ œ œ œ bœ œ œ b œ b œ b œ f œ œ´ b œ´ œ´ ? b 38 œ œ b œ œ b œj œ b œÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ œ ÿ

œ

œ

r œ ÿ

Similar passages follow in C minor (mm. 254-61) and G minor (mm. 262-69), enabling the level of emotion to abate slightly prior to a move back towards the tonic. Yet all at once, in another abrupt mood change, an Italian sixth ([VI\6) heralds the reprise of the second subject at m. 271. Affectively, it protects more intensity here compared to the exposition, for the characteristics of D minor’s third praxis are combined with the sequence of six searing ornamented sospira (mm. 271-75), again replicating the hemiola rhythmic pattern of the exposition. This culminates in a falling 5–4–3–2–1 pattern indicative of incoming painful emotion. Example 34. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, third movement, mm. 271-79.

& b 38 ? b 38

m m œ œ œ œ

m œ

m m œ œ œ œ œ

m œ

œ œ

f S œœ œ # œ œ œœ œ# œ œ œœ œ # œ œ œœ œ œ œ œœ œ# œ œ œœ œ œ œœ œ œ œ #œ

m j œ œ œ œ œ œ # œ . . . . . decresc. p œ œ œ œ œœ œ ? b œœ œ # œ œ # œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ &b œ

œ.

œ.

The first appearance of the second theme is combined with a decrescendo and staccato phrasing, as if to indicate acceptance, only to be immediately counteracted by the repeat of all six excruciating sospira motives. Again marked forte, these are now reinforced in broken octaves (mm. 279-83) as the theme is reiterated three more times. The fleshing out of these conflicting emotions is almost tangible. 383

The Key to Beethoven

In stark contrast to the ending of the first movement, the coda that follows is extensive. Beethoven has yet to resolve the climactic passage of the development (mm. 169-73), an event necessary to achieve even the slightest sense of acceptance and closure. It is introduced by a diminished seventh (\viiº) that ushers in an affective modulation to G minor, the reiterated e[2-d2 trill-like sospiro of mm. 319-22 indicating the level of anguish still remaining. The move to the climax is prepared by an affective modulation to A minor/major. The mode is left deliberately ambiguous until m. 335, indicative once more of the emotional ambivalence present here: the intensity of painful feelings versus the desire for some form of emotional closure. Beginning in m. 335, the first subject is repeated in varied form, reflecting a gradual rise to a2 above a reiterated dominant pedal in preparation for the crucial climactic resolution. The dynamic indications are significant here. One would expect a gradual crescendo to m. 350, yet at m. 347 just the reverse is the case, as a decrescendo to pianissimo is indicated. This has the effect of enhancing the power of the climax (mm. 350-58) when it finally arrives. The searing a2-g\2 sospiro of mm. 169-173 is now resolved, becoming a repeated a2 upper pedal; each note is marked with a sforzando and placed on the last beat of the measure as the first subject is played fortissimo beneath, using the third praxis of the tonic key. This is no joyful resolution, however, for the tonic major is never employed as Beethoven had originally intended in the sketches. Rather, a tone of angry acceptance prevails, depicted affectively by the use of D minor. No sooner has this dénouement passed than the remainder of the first subject is played out, again invoking the same restless sadness of the exposition. The falling chromatic scale heard twice in the exposition (mm. 23 and 28) is now repeated three times (mm. 373-84). The final repetition is extended to encompass a compound falling compound minor third f3-d2, encapsulating the very interval that is so significant in this movement. This interval is characterized by Cooke as a combination of “stoic acceptance [and] tragedy,” precisely the affects projected here.43 Example 35. Fortepiano Sonata, Op. 31, No. 2, third movement, mm. 381-84.

& b 38 & b 38 ‰

œ RÔ

œ ƒ œ

œ œ bœ œ #œ nœ nœ bœ œ #œ nœ #œ nœ œ bœ œ 3

3

3 œ œ b œ œ # œ n œ n œ b œ3 œ #œ nœ #œ nœ œ bœ œ

Cooke, p. 90.

43

384

The Tempest Sonata: An Instrumental Case Study

This passage is enhanced by the dynamic markings for each of these scales. The first two are marked sfzorzando, and—significantly—the third fortissimo, in what is only the second use of this dynamic level in the movement. To emphasize its import and affective power, the fortissimo is doubled an octave lower in the left hand. The fact that Beethoven chose to incorporate a chromatic scale here at this climactic moment is significant, since its use highlights the tragic character of the falling minor third.44 All that remains is for the first praxis of D minor to be regained. This return is achieved by a series of V-I alternations that project a ultimate feeling of acceptance, a soul state depicted in the simple pictorialism of a falling D minor unison arpeggio played piano (mm. 397-98). Anger has finally been transformed into sadness and weary acceptance.

Conclusion Beethoven’s affective use of tonality plays a crucial role in the projection of meaning in this sonata. Deep-seated and ongoing anger is rendered by the affective use of D minor in its third praxis in the first movement; cheerful hope is clouded by the remembrance of pain in Beethoven’s amoroso key of B-flat major in the second movement; and the angry struggle to achieve a grudging acceptance of the tragic soul-state developed in the first movement—a restless sorrow that must be endured—is achieved by the use of D minor in both praxes in the final movement. Anger finally morphs into sorrow and acceptance in the coda. The direct knowledge of whatever situation or tragedy might have inspired such emotions in Beethoven is ultimately secondary to the fact that this sonata is about the communication and expression of such intense feelings. Indeed, in line with the writings of Enlightenment eighteenth-century critics, music connects composers to their audiences through these shared emotional states. Such a sharing—vividly depicted here through the use of key symbolism— transcends the personal experience of the emotions.45

See Cooke, p. 165 for a characterization of the falling chromtic scale. It is interesting to note that parallels could be drawn between the emotions expressed in the sonata and the circumstances of Beethoven’s personal situation in 1802, as expressed in his Heiligenstadt Testament. 44 45

385

CONCLUSION A Key To Beethoven

Key Characteristics and Incipient Romanticism The fact that Beethoven was a pivotal composer in Western music, defying traditional categorization and uniquely bridging the gap between Classical ideals of clarity and the freedoms of the Romantic imagination, has long been an established view—an impression enhanced by the use of tonal symbolism in his music at both the larger and local levels. The appeal of such symbolism to the Romantic imagination was strong, and important authors such as E. T. A. Hoffmann were greatly influenced by the Schubart’s work, as seen in the posthumous reprint of his work in Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst in 1806. The vivid poetic definitions found there proved to be accurate harbingers of the workings of the later Romantic imagination. Beethoven’s Sonata pathétique (written in 1798-99) is a case in point. Schubart described the key of C minor key with these words: “Declaration of love and at the same time the lament of unhappy love. All languishing, longing, sighing of the love-sick soul lies in this key.”1 This poetic description was written some fifteen years earlier than this sonata, yet its congruence with the pathos depicted in the first movement speaks both to the movement’s emotive power and to Schubart’s perceptive prescience. In his discussion of the “Introduzione” to Beethoven’s Christus am Ölberge in 1812, Hoffmann wrote of E-flat minor: “If ghosts could speak, they would have to speak in this key, with its frigid, gripping and convulsive clanging,” revealing his familiarity with Schubart’s work by directly plagiarizing a sizeable part of his description.2 This connection is significant in two regards: Beethoven, the composer, being both aware of and in agreement with many of Schubart’s definitions, particularly in regard to vocal repertoire, writing music in which the beginnings of Romanticism are apparent, and Hoffmann, the reviewer, lifting the self-same definitions in order to assess the Romantic content of Beethoven’s music. The fact that so many writers of the ensuing generation paraphrased or even plagiarized Schubart speaks strongly to his power and influence on the early Romantic mind. Hoffmann’s 1810 review of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, also in the same vein, expressed similar sentiments and made the connection to Romanticism explicit: “Beethoven’s music moves the lever controlling horror, 1 C. F. D. Schubart, Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst, ed. Ludwig Schubart (Vienna: Degen, 1806), original text and trans. in Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, 2nd ed. (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), p. 116. 2 E. T. A. Hoffmann, “Review of Christus am Ölberge by Ludwig van Beethoven,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 14 (1812): 6, trans. Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 250. The final sentence of Schubart’s definition of E-flat minor reads “If ghosts could speak, their speech would approximate this key.” Steblin, History of Key Characteristics, p. 249.

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The Key to Beethoven

fear, dread, pain and awakens that interminable longing that is the essence of Romanticism.”3 Wendt also echoed this perspective: We might call him the musical Shakespeare by virtue of the fact that it is just as possible for him to describe and express in notes the deepest abyss of the struggling heart as the sweet, loving magic of the most guiltless soul, the harshest deepest pain as delight that rejoices to the height of heaven, the most sublime as the most lovely.4

A further powerful example of early Romantic imagery can be seen in an episode from Hoffmann’s “Kreislers musikalisch-poetischer Klub,” a short story from his 1815 collection Kreisleriana.5 In it the hero, Kreisler (Hoffmann’s alter-ego) entertains his listeners with a series of chords played in total darkness on the bass strings of a damaged fortepiano. Here he indulges the reader in a series of vivid descriptions of depictive harmonies, and, in doing so, provides strong support for such a concept through this imagery. Hoffmann’s definitions are listed here in Table Six, together with comments relating them to Tables Two and Three.6 Only specific comments that are congruent with Beethoven’s opinions as previously established in these chapters are included here. It is also significant to note that Hoffmann specified dynamic levels for each of these depictions, sensing how important they were for the establishment of soul-states.

Hoffmann, Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 12 (1810), trans. The Critical Reception of Beethoven’s Compositions by His German Contemporaries, ed. Wayne M. Senner (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), ii, p. 97. 4 Amadeus Wendt, “Thoughts about Recent Music Art, and van Beethoven’s Music, Specifically His Fidelio,” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 17 (1815), trans. Senner, ii, p. 189. 5 E. T. A. Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” in Fantasie- und Nachtstücke (Munich: Winkler, 1960). 6 See Chs. 2, pp. 135-36 and 3, pp. 175-76. 3

388

Conclusion

Table Six: Definitions of Depictive Harmonies by E. T. A. Hoffmann7 Key

Description Comment

A[ major chord (pianissimo)

Invisible wings […] an ethereal fragrance […] tender spirits

A[ minor chord (mezzo forte)

[…] pain which would rend my breast asunder […].

clear parallels with the second praxis of this key

moving their golden wings […]. matches deepest depression and misery

E major second in- […] the burning ray that has match with the first praxis: version (ancora più forte) penetrated my breast! wild, fiery passion E major first inversion […] in its gold shine the (forte) flames which have consumed me […]

burning flames are congruent with the first praxis of this key

A minor (arpeggio dolce)

a reworking of the sentiments of feminine imagery found in Schubart’s description of the first praxis of this key

Why are you fleeing, lovely maid? […] You cannot tell what it is that gnaws painfully at your breast […] filling you with sweetest joy.

B[ major (accentuato) How joyful are the meadows a close description of and forests in spring! All the flutes and panflutes Beethoven’s amoroso key, […] are awake and are re- the latter part being almost calling their favorite melodies a direct depiction of the which they now trilling as end of the third movementare happily as the birds. of the Pastoral Symphony

7 Hoffmann, “Kreislers musikalische-poetischer Klub,” trans. R. Murray Schafer, E. T. A. Hoffmann and Music (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1975), pp. 146-47. Schafer compares Hoffmann’s descriptions with Schubart’s list of key characteristics in a negative way, emphasizing the lack of congruency. Had he examined the definitions of other writers, he would have found a far greater number of matches. C major is again a case in point, where he identifies the second praxis in this key—the only one Schubart describes, failing to cite the definitions by Vogler and Müller, which reflect the first praxis of this key and are both compatible with Hoffmann’s vision.

389

The Key to Beethoven E[ major (forte)

Go after him!8 […] Green9 is matches the sogno his coat, like the dark wood. praxis of unhappy His yearning words are the love in this key sweet sounds of horns. […] Do you hear the sound of horns, full of […] melancholy?



C major (fortissimo) Let us rejoice! […] Hurrah! Hurrah! Dancing and rejoicing! […] trumpets and drums! Several C minor chords (fortissimo)

clear match with the first praxis, reflective of the long association trumpets and drums have with C major

Can you see him lurking, the connection with this pale ghost […] Phantom, aspects of C minor, why do you ensnare me? […] in its first praxis is Everything is dead, dead, dead!10 unmistakable



Although these descriptions may seem fantastical to modern readers, they are an example of an early Romantic continuation of the kind of descriptions articulated by Schubart. They reveal the ways in which the early Romantic mind worked with respect to the affective qualities of individual chords. It was the self-same mindset that Beethoven often reflected in his music.11

What Beethoven Would Not Do in a Key The strength of the arguments already made in favor of Beethoven’s knowledge and use of key characteristics can also be supported by an examination of the premise of key characteristics in reverse, namely what Beethoven would not do in a key. What might on the surface seem akin to a type of unnecessary reverse Robin Ryšavy makes the connection between Hoffmann’s description of E-flat major and the first movement of Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, “Das Lebewohl,” Robin M. Ryšavy “Selected Piano Compositions of Beethoven and Schubert and the Effect of Well Temperament on Performance Practice” (doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 1997), p. 48. 9 The color green was emblematic of the anti-Hapsburg sentiment prevalent at the time, seen in the desire for an ideal world—a place removed from the reality of the time. This enhances the congruency of Hoffmann’s description with the sogno praxis of E-flat. I am grateful to Prof. David Wyn Jones for pointing this out. 10 The affective spectrum can again be seen functioning in Hoffmann’s characterization of ghosts. C minor is suggested here for their appearance, and E-flat minor for their speech, as stated in Ch. 2, p. 56 and Ch. 3, p. 145. 11 Hoffmann’s descriptions of the chords of F major, B-flat major seventh, and G major seventh are not congruent with semiotic of tonal affect as established in this book and are therefore omitted. It would be unlikely for there to be a complete match here. 8

390

Conclusion

psychology can actually serve as a useful vehicle for the further justification of the presence of key characteristics in his music. The familiar premise of course goes as follows: all the major and minor keys project the same series of emotions, and that there are thus only two commonly-accepted modes for affective symbolism in music: major symbolizing gaiety, and minor symbolizing sadness. (It does also allow for occasional examples of modal reversal.) Beethoven should therefore have been comfortable writing the “Introduzione” to Christus am Ölberge in C minor, or even A minor, so that Christ’s triumphant victory could be anticipated in the parallel major modes of either C or A. By the above reasoning, each would achieve an identical affect, since all that would needed in such situations is modal mixture between any minor key and its tonic major. However, not only did Beethoven appear to feel that A minor (in either praxis) was too light a key on the affective spectrum to project the necessary sense of deep pathos needed here, but even his favored lamenting key of C minor was not considered sufficient unto the task of introducing the account of the last days and the imminent death of Jesus. Rather, he opted instead for E-flat minor, one of the most remote and powerfully desolate tonalities available to him, in one of the most extensive passages he ever composed in this key. Thus, when the totality of Beethoven’s key usage is examined, there are no examples of the following: pastoral movements in E major; funeral marches in A minor; love duets in D-flat major; heroic climaxes in A major; settings of the “Ode to Joy” in F major; grand, tragic symphonies in E minor; ombra movements in A minor or triumphant finales in B major. The fact that such compositions do not exist is indicative of the philosophy of affective tonality at work.

Settings of the Same Text in Different Keys On three occasions, Beethoven set a text twice using different keys. I will examine two of them here to show how a composer of Beethoven’s skill and inventiveness was able to bring out differing nuances of meaning on both occasions through the use of affective tonality.12

An die Hoffnung, Op. 32 and Op. 94 Beethoven’s first setting of this text, dating from 1804-5, uses E-flat major as its primary tonality throughout. Its three stanzas are set strophically. Ten years later he returned to this text once more, composing a far more extensive work that opens with a recitative in B-flat minor, followed by a full da capo aria in G major. It is instructive to compare how tonality is used affectively in each setting. 12 Two contrasted settings of L’amante impaziente, Op. 82, Nos. 3 and 4 have already been considered in Ch. 6, pp. 287-90.

391

The Key to Beethoven

A complete review of both songs furnishes only two phrases where identical keys are employed. The first—“Wenn, längst verhallt, geliebte Stimmen schweigen” (When loved voices, long since died away, are silent)—is set in the sogno praxis of E-flat major each time, although more forcefully so in the second setting with an ensuing modulation to B-flat minor. The second—“dann nahe dich” (then approach), repeated for emphasis in the second setting—is set each time in C major. While the character of the second setting is unequivocal, reflecting the affect of strength in the first praxis of C major, the first setting is more of a grey area, for it is not clear whether it reflects the first or second praxis of C. The second praxis is congruent with the meaning of stanza one—“O Hoffnung” (O Hope)— but the first praxis—“dann nahe dich” (then approach)—is more suited to stanza two. The third stanza—“dann laß ihn um den Rand des Erdentraumes” (then let him, at the edge of his earthly dreams)—remains inconclusive. Neither praxis seems to fit, yet music and dynamics are identical for all three. There is a strong possibility that Beethoven only intended to use the first stanza of Op. 32 and thus had not considered the affective implications of stanzas two and three. Paul Reid notes that he only included the words of stanza one in his melodic sketches for this song.13 In both settings, all the remaining phrases use different keys. First, it should be noted that the second setting includes an introductory five-line recitative not present in the first. When the texts match again (m. 4 in setting one, m. 28 in setting two), Beethoven nuanced the meaning differently. In setting one—E-flat major, sogno—the first key change occurs at the words “der eine zarte Seele quält” (that tortures a tender soul), an affective modulation to C minor that projects feelings of heartfelt yearning. In the second setting, this phrase is emotionally subsumed in the opening key of G major, projecting feelings of calmness and gentleness. It is not until the mention of “der Dulder” (the sufferer) that C major is introduced in its first praxis (m. 35). This has the effect of highlighting a significant topic in the song, namely the feelings of “der Dulder.” By the time the sufferer is mentioned in the first setting, there have been modulations to C minor (mm. 9-14) and C major (mm. 15-17), before A-flat major is arrived at (in its second, heavenly praxis) to capture the meaning of “daß dort oben” (that up above). This serves as an example of tonal text depiction. By using G major for a long period in the second setting, Beethoven was able to nuance the text differently, empowering the word “Hoffnung” (hope) with a quiet confidence by subsuming it into an affective world of calm and gentleness. Comparisons between the second and third stanzas of each setting are less decisive, because of the strophic nature of the former, along with the strong possibility that Beethoven may not have intended to have these stanzas performed. Paul Reid, The Beethoven Song Companion (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), p. 63. If this is the case, this might well have been a reason for his revisiting this text a second time: namely a desire to set stanzas two and three with appropriate affective sensitivity.

13

392

Conclusion

Merkenstein, WoO 144 and Op. 100 The two settings of Merkenstein both date from within a year of each other. The first, in E-flat major, is set for solo voice and projects the hunting trope as found in the first praxis of this key, capturing the regal majesty of this ancient building. Beethoven achieved this expression by using a compound duple time signature and a short passage of horn-like writing in the accompaniment (mm. 13-16). In the second, the pastoral trope is emphasized by the use of F major, replete with parallel thirds and pedal points. The modulation to C major evokes a feeling of purity. Thus, in these two simple settings Beethoven was able to evoke two contrasted images of the natural beauty of this ruined castle.

Occasions Where Beethoven Altered His Original Choice of Key Sometimes Beethoven reversed his initial decision about tonality of a work for affective reasons. Barry Cooper has pointed out that Beethoven would change his mind while working on individual compositions in his sketchbooks.14 He draws attention to the A-flat major duet in Christus am Ölberge, “So ruhe denn mit ganzer Schwere” [So let it rest then with complete severity]. Beethoven’s original intention was to use A major, the key of cheerful, innocent love for most writers. He also scribbled the comment “or E major.” While it would certainly be possible to use the affects of A major (first praxis) or E major (second praxis) to depict Jesus, the innocent lamb, being led to the slaughter, his eventual choice was A-flat major, a half-step lower.15 The reasons for such a dramatic change become clear when examining the affective character of A-flat major and the frequent use of its subdominant, D-flat, which is tonicized almost immediately. This decision enabled him to capture the layered meaning both these keys can achieve. Thus in A-flat major, the first praxis—a key of the grave—can coexist with the second—a heavenly key—as if one tradition is viewed through the affective lenses of the other. In a similar vein, the first praxis of D-flat major—soft, heavenly—can co-exist with the second of grief and darkness. How much more powerful is the choice of A-flat here, since the dual layers of meaning fit this text perfectly. This passage tells of God’s judgment resting heavily on Jesus’ shoulders—and that although he is enveloped in death’s suffering, his agapic love for humanity will allow him to transcend his lot, rise from the dead and ascend into heaven.16 Perhaps this deeper meaning occurred to Beethoven as he approached the movement a second time, leading him to the selection this final choice.17 Barry Cooper, Beethoven and the Creative Process (Oxford: Clarendon Press: 1990), p. 123. Wielhorsky Sketchbook, SV 343 (Moscow) p. 134. Alan Tyson also lists this in “The 1803 Version of Beethoven’s ‘Christus am Oelberge,’” The Music Quarterly 56 (1970): 571. 16 Full details of both affective praxes in A-flat major may be found in Ch. 2, pp. 116-20. 17 Cooper also considers the sketches of the song Sehnsucht (WoO 146), which are discussed in Ch. 5, pp. 220-22. Cooper, Creative Process, p. 123. 14 15

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The Key to Beethoven

On other occasions when he felt obliged to make arrangements of his music for a different medium, a change of key was often necessitated for practical reasons. One example is his arranging of fortepiano music for string quartet. Beethoven was reluctantly persuaded to arrange his Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1 for string quartet.18 In his letter to Breitkopf & Härtel of 13 July 1802 he commented on his distaste for this practice: The unnatural mania, now so prevalent, for transferring even pianoforte compositions to stringed instruments, instruments which in all respects are so utterly different from one another, should really be checked. […] one must either be the composer himself or at any rate possess the same skill and inventiveness [to do this]—I have arranged only one of my sonatas for string quartet, because I was so earnestly implored to do so; and I am quite convinced that nobody else could do the same thing with ease.19

Although he argued that the difference between instruments made such arrangements undesirable, contrasts in tonal symbolism must surely have been another reason for such feelings, since it necessitated transposing the sonata from E major to F major in order for him to avail himself of the open C strings on the viola and cello, the crucial dominant note of F/f. Leaving the arrangement in E major would have deprived him of the depth of texture that the cello low Cs provided, thus necessitating the transposition. The affective disparity between the original key, E major (second praxis) and the transposed key, F major (first praxis), is certainly large, exacerbated by the key of the second subject. Here it became necessary to transpose B major into C major, thereby necessitating the traversing of a vast gulf on the affective spectrum. The affective differences are also huge in the second movement, when the tender lament of E minor in the sonata is forced to morph into the extreme grief of F minor in the quartet, a huge emotional shift. In the third movement, affective modulations in the central section (mm. 54-59) contrast Beethoven’s black key of B minor in the sonata with C minor of the quartet, again with significant affective implications. Despite receiving many requests for such arrangements, this was the only time he acquiesced, and his belief in the integrity of tonal symbolism must surely have been a deciding factor in his declining any further such arrangements.20 The transcription became String Quartet in F, Hess 34. The Letters of Beethoven, Emily Anderson, trans. and ed., 3 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1961), i, no. 59, pp. 74-75; original in Ludwig van Beethoven: Briefwechsel Gesamtausgabe, Sieghard Brandenburg, ed., 7 vols. (Munich: Henle, 1996), i, no. 97, p. 116. 20 The possibility that this work was originally intended for string quartet was first raised by Nottebohm in 1887, Gustav Nottebohm, Zweite Beethovenia: Nachgelassene Aufsätze (Leipzig, Peters, 1887), p. 47. Michael Broyles reexamined the arguments supporting Nottebohm’s thesis and concluded that the evidence was not convincing. Michael E. Broyles “Beethoven’s Sonata Op. 14, No. 1—Originally for Strings?,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 23 (1970): 405-19. 18 19

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Conclusion

On other occasions where Beethoven needed to transpose his music, he was able to take affective considerations in account. He composed the Marcia Funèbre of his Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat major, Op. 26, in 1800-1801, publishing it in 1802. In 1815 he decided to reuse it when he composed several movements for the drama Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96, by Friedrich Duncker, transposing his new arrangement into B minor. While the original and new keys are poles apart on the circle of fifths, they are actually quite close affectively. Beethoven not only managed to find a new primary tonality suited to the pathos of this music, but also one where the affective succession of modulations in the new key closely reflected sentiments appropriate to the music. Table Seven illustrates how the series of tonal relationships first seen in the sonata is transposed in the march.

Table Seven: Comparison of Keys Changes in Op. 26, II and WoO 96 Marcia funèbre, Op. 26, II C[ a[

b

D

a[ A[

deep heartbreak depression

black, gloomy

triumph, joy

deep heavenly, depression con amabilità

Trauermarsch, WoO 96 b D

d

F

b

black, tender passive majesty, gloomy yearning ombra joy

B

black, heavenly gloomy vision

The very fact that he chose to transpose a movement of such pathos into B minor, rather than A minor, for example, speaks volumes for his understanding of the affective power of both these tonalities. The reasons for this transposition were practical for he needed to find a key that was suitable for wind ensemble while still retaining an appropriate level of pathos on the affective spectrum. For this task he chose his black key, which, while not quite as emotionally powerful as the remote key of A-flat minor, nevertheless projects appropriately strong tonal symbolism. Another example can be seen in the Hochzeitslied, WoO 105 (1819). Beethoven composed two versions of this work in January 1819. The first is a C major setting for solo voices and unison chorus; the second is transposed to A major and scored for solo voice in bass clef and four-part men’s chorus. Originally, the C major setting was considered by scholars to be the second of

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these two versions, but recent research has shown that it is actually the first.21 From the viewpoint of key symbolism, this makes complete sense. Beethoven set this celebratory text in C major, reflecting the first praxis in this key, as indicated by the character marking “Mit Feuer, doch verständlich und deutlich” (With fire but coherently and plainly). The affective characteristics of celebration and rejoicing are clearly congruent here. In choosing A major to transpose the song, in all likelihood for the practicality of the performing ensemble he had available on this occasion (a chorus of four-part men’s voices), he was able to match the affects of the original with the second praxis of this key, expressing brilliant, joyful, intense feelings—an exact complement for the text at hand. As a side note, it is interesting to consider the comments that Hess observed on the back of the last page of the autograph of the C major version. There are three attempts at transposition: the first into B-flat major and two further attempts in the bass clef to B-flat and A major, clearly indicating his search for a key that would match the tonal affects of the original version.22 Both of these keys would have worked. In the end, his decision must have been made on vocal range rather than tonal affect.

Critical Findings This study has highlighted a vital part of Beethoven’s compositional process that has remained under-appreciated until recent times. By analyzing the composer’s use of key characteristics, we can observe a syntax of affective tonality that decodes projected mood-states through deconstructing the intended meaning of each of the keys. In doing so, tonality can be seen as a window into the representation of feelings. As Wendt has perceptively put it, “Beethoven remains what a musician can and should be, a painter of feelings.”23 The clear historical case for Beethoven’s knowledge of key characteristics and connection with tonal symbolism can be made by examining his statements on this topic alongside the many materials with which he was familiar where key characteristics are discussed. As a student, Beethoven was familiar with treatises where key characteristics were discussed, and he proceeded to reveal this understanding by his own use of tonal affect in some of his earliest works. In his own teaching as well, Beethoven utilized treatises that contained information about this topic with his composition student Archduke Rudolph. This syntax of tonal affect has been assembled by reviewing writings on key characteristics from Beethoven’s time, comparing them to examples of works by his contemporaries, and then to his own vocal music. The descriptions 21 Leilani Lutes, “Beethoven’s Re-uses of his own Compositions, 1782-1826” (doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1975), p. 373. 22 Ibid., p. 377. 23 Wendt, Critical Reception, ii, p. 189.

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of keys where all writers were in agreement have been cited, and Beethoven’s establishment of new affective praxes in certain keys has also been also detailed. Beethoven’s use of tonal symbolism in an ironic manner has been detailed and examples of its use in his music discussed. The simultaneous use of differing praxes in a single key has been deconstructed, and the rich opportunity it affords to explore layers of meaning revealed. Beethoven’s understanding of the varying power of individual keys on the affective spectrum has also been illustrated, as certain keys were perceived to have insufficient power to convey the gravity of particular emotional states. By far the most compelling proof can be seen in the empirical evidence, found in a detailed examination of the repertoire of solo songs with fortepiano accompaniment. With the exception of a small number of strophic songs, a clear connection between text and affect is evident. The new analytical terms needed to explain such connections, including “affective spectrum,” “affective modulation,” “affective tonicization,” “depictive harmony” and “affective modality,” have been introduced, explained, and demonstrated. It is important to note, however, that these in no way preclude the use of tonality in a structural manner or assume that every modulation made in Beethoven’s music was made ipso facto for affective reasons. Changes of key can either be simultaneously affective and structural or independently affective or structural. This proposed syntax of tonal affect has been tested against a series of five case studies, comprising vocal music that incorporates orchestral accompaniment in Chapter Seven, including Christus am Ölberge, the Mass in C major, and the finale of the Ninth Symphony. Finally, all the foregoing information has then been brought into play to reach this book’s ultimate goal, namely a demonstration of how the affective use of tonality can be applied to an untexted instrumental work, in this case the Fortepiano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2, as a tool for deconstructing the mood states found within. A wide range of ancillary features has also been considered here as a means of supporting the practice of tonal symbolism, including tempo, movement headings and descriptive titles, interval structure, melodic archetypes (as seen in the work of Deryck Cooke), dissonances, dynamics, articulation, harmonic language, register and phrasing. This has been done in order to achieve a fuller analysis of the sonata’s possible meanings, although it is important to note by way of disclaimer that it does not, by any means, represent the last word. While it remains beyond the scope of this volume to examine further untexted works using key characteristics as a vehicle for decoding meaning, it is hoped that this study has paved the way for others in this regard, and that the information found therein will encourage further consideration of the affective use of tonality in all of Beethoven’s music and the works of his contemporaries. Research into key characteristics necessitates a journey back in time, past the positivists and formalists, beyond Hanslick even, to Beethoven and his genera397

The Key to Beethoven

tion, in order to examine and understand once more the legacy of the eighteenth century, namely the philosophy of affective tonality as espoused by both composers and theorists of the Baroque and Classical periods. In doing so it has provided a key to the decoding of meaning of Beethoven’s music.

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Index of Beethoven’s Works INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC WORKS FOR ORCHESTRA ALONE Symphony No. 1 in C Major, Op. 21, 96 Ballets Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Op. 43, 55, 62, Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 36, 66, 123 81, 83, 86, 96, 146 Symphony No. 3 in E-flat Major, Eroica, Marches Op. 55, 52, 58, 59, 81, 113, 141, 143, March for Wind Instruments, WoO 29, 52 146, 147, 150, 182 March in F Major, WoO 18, 98 Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60, 83, 131, 133, 146, 158, 164, 166 Triumphal March for Tarpeja, WoO 2a, 52 Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, Op. 67, 3, Overtures 52, 53, 63, 120, 387 Leonore No. 1, 52, 55 Symphony No. 6 in F Major, Pastoral, Op. Leonore No. 2, 52 68, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 38, 96, 97, 105, 131, 132, 174, 185, 273, 281, 327, 361n1, Leonore No. 3, 52 362 Leonore No. 4 Symphony No. 7 in A Major, Op. 92, 70, Overture in C Major, “Namensfeier,” Op. 123, 125, 127 115, 52 Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93, 96, Overture to Coriolan, Op. 62, 62 98, 100, 131 Die Weihe des Hauses, Op. 124, 52 Symphony No 9 in D Minor, Op. 125, 20, 21, 43, 68, 70, 77, 78, 87, 115, 129n264, Symphonies 131, 133, 143, 150, 156n61, 168, 171, Eroica Symphony. See Symphony No. 3 in 176, 297, 326, 340-59, 364, 369n21, E-flat Major, Op. 55 372-73, 397 Pastoral Symphony. See Symphony No. 6 in Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria, F Major, Op. 68 Op. 91, 81, 166 WORKS FOR ORCHESTRA AND SOLO INSTRUMENTS for fortepiano Fortepiano Concerto in E-flat Major, WoO 4, 80 Fortepiano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15, 52, 119 Fortepiano Concerto No. 2 in B-flat Major, Op. 19, 22, 83, 133, 142 Fortepiano Concerto No. 3 in C Minor, Op. 37, 32, 62, 93

Fortepiano Concerto No. 4 in G Major, Op. 58, 108, 150, 167 Fortepiano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat Major “Emperor,” Op. 73, 80, 167, 168 for fortepiano, violin and cello Concerto in C Major for Violin, Violoncello and Fortepiano, Op. 56, 119

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The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning for violin Romance in F Major for Violin and Orchestra, Op. 50, 96, 108

Violin Concerto in D Major, Op. 61, 66, 70, 109

CHAMBER MUSIC WITH FORTEPIANO duos Sonata in F Major for Fortepiano and Violoncello, Op. 5, No. 1, 98 Sonata in G Minor for Fortepiano and Violoncello, Op. 5, No. 2, 113, 115 Sonata in D Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 12, No. 1, 66 Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 12, No. 2, 123, 127 Sonata in E-flat Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 12, No. 3, 55, 174 Sonata in F for Fortepiano and Horn, Op. 17, 21 Sonata in A Minor for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 23, No. 1, 123, 128 Sonata in F Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 24, “Spring,” 96, 131 Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 1, 68, 123 Sonata in C Minor for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 2, 120 Sonata in G Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 30, No. 3, 111 Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 47, “Kreutzer,” 125, 128

Sonata in A Major for Fortepiano and Violoncello, Op. 69, 123, 128 Sonata in G Major for Fortepiano and Violin, Op. 96, “Archduke,” 83, 108, 131, 164 Sonata in C Major for Fortepiano and Violoncello, Op 102, No. 1, 128 Sonata in D Major for Fortepiano and Violoncello, Op. 102, No. 2, 19, 66, 74 Twelve Variations for Piano and Violoncello on “Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen,” Op. 66, 96 quartets Fortepiano Quartet in E-flat Major, WoO 36, No. 1, 146 Fortepiano Quartet in D Major, WoO 36, No. 2, 155 trios Fortepiano Trio in E-flat Major, Op. 12, No. 3, 81 Fortepiano Trio in D Minor, Op. 70, No. 1, “Ghost,” 65, 74 Fortepiano Trio in B-Flat Major, Op. 97, “Archduke,” 68, 164

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Index of Beethoven’s Works CHAMBER MUSIC WITHOUT FORTEPIANO String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 130, 20, 86, 111, 143, 158, 164, 174 String Quartet in C-sharp Minor, Op. 131, 70, 139, 143, 160 String Quartet in A Minor, Op. 132, 127, 129, 186 Große Fuge, Op. 133, 157 String Quartet in F Major, Op. 135, 100, 143 Three Equali, WoO 30

quartets String Quartet in F Major, Op. 18, No. 1, 74, 100 String Quartet in C Minor, Op. 18, No. 4, 62 String Quartet in A Major, Op. 18, No. 5, 68, 123 String Quartet in B-flat Major, Op. 18, No. 6, 131 String Quartet in F Major, Op. 59, No. 1, 96, 100, 103, 144 String Quartet in E Minor, Op. 59, No. 2, 93, 148, 150 String Quartet in C Major, Op. 59, No. 3, 127 String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 74, 120 String Quartet in F Minor, Op. 95, Quartetto Serioso, 68, 100, 103, 105 String Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 127, 81, 93, 94, 115, 120

septet Septet in E-flat Major, Op. 20, 86, 120, 146 sextet Sextet in E-flat Major, Op. 81b, 120 trios Serenade for Violin, Viola and Cello, Op. 8, 72 String Trio in C Minor, Op. 9, No. 3, 55

MUSIC FOR KEYBOARD ALONE miscellaneous Bagatelle in G Major, Op. 126, No. 1, 108 Bagatelle in G Minor, Op. 126, No. 2, 113 Bagatelle in B Minor, Op. 126, No. 4, 166, 170 Bagatelle in G Major, Op. 126, No. 5, 108 Bagatelle in A Minor, WoO 59, “Für Elise,” 127

Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, WoO 47, 15 Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 2, No. 1, 60, 105 Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, Op. 2, No. 2, 67, 123, 367 Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, Op. 2, No. 3, 90, 96 Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 7, 80 Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 10, No. 1, 62, 103, 119 Fortepiano Sonata in F Major, Op. 10, No. 2, 73, 99

sonatas Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, WoO 47, 15 Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, WoO 47, 15, 105

421

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 10, No. 3, 65 Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13, pathétique, 15, 20, 58, 60, 62, 63, 119, 146, 387 Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 14, No. 1, 88, 148, 394 Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Op. 14, No. 2, 108 Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 22, 83, 105, 131 Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 26, 19, 119, 160n71, 161, 171, 395 Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 27, No. 1, 120 Fortepiano Sonata in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2 “Moonlight,” 139, 160, 179, 185 Fortepiano Sonata in D Major, Op. 28, “Pastorale,” 32, 70, 77, 108 Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Op. 31, No. 1, 108, 111 Fortepiano Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2, “Tempest,” 11, 32, 43, 77, 78, 152, 155, 163, 363-85, 397 Fortepiano Sonata in G Minor, Op. 49, No. 1, 115 Fortepiano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53, Waldstein, 52, 55, 93 Fortepiano Sonata in F Major, Op. 54, 96, 100 Fortepiano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57, No.

422

2, “Appassionata,” 105, 106, 120, 142 Fortepiano Sonata in F-sharp Major, Op. 78, 138, 151, 152, 160 Fortepiano Sonata in G Major, Op. 79, 111, 115 Fortepiano Sonata in E-flat Major, Op. 81a, “Das Lebewohl,” 60, 81, 86 Fortepiano Sonata in E Minor, Op. 90, 90, 150 Fortepiano Sonata in A Major, Op. 101, 10, 98, 123, 127 Fortepiano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106, “Hammerklavier,” 67, 70, 133, 152, 155, 158, 163, 167 Fortepiano Sonata in E Major, Op. 109, 90, 93, 150, 220 Fortepiano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110, 21, 115, 120, 161-62, 163-64 Fortepiano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 111, 55, 58, 62 variations Nine Variations on March by Dressler, WoO 63, 15 Six Fortepiano Variations on an Original Theme in F Major, Op. 34, 5-6, 58 “Prometheus” Variations for Fortepiano, Op. 35, 81 miscellaneous Klavierstück, WoO 54, 20 Zwei Präludien durch alle Tonarten, Op. 39, 15, 28-29, 41

Index of Beethoven’s Works

VOCAL MUSIC

MASSES AND ORATORIO Christus am Ölberge, Op. 85, 37, 52, 55, 60, Missa solemnis, Op. 123, 21, 52, 53, 65, 68, 62, 65, 108, 117, 134, 146, 147, 149, 70, 74, 81, 108, 109, 111, 131, 133, 142, 150, 155, 157, 160, 163, 164, 167, 297, 143, 144, 155, 161, 164, 171, 174, 182, 301-23, 359, 387, 393, 397 186, 187, 325, 346n55, 351n60, 353, 355n71, 364 Mass in C, Op. 86, 52, 83, 90, 109, 113, 123, 127, 146, 164, 167, 168, 170-71, 182, 297, 324-38, 359, 397 WORKS FOR STAGE incidental music Die Ruinen von Athen, Op. 113, 350n59 Music to Goethe’s Egmont, Op. 84, 38, 52, 72, 74, 98, 103, 105, 285 Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96, 19, 108, 171, 172, 395 Triumphal March for Tarpeja, WoO 2a, 52

opera Leonore, Op. 72a, 55, 58, 62, 133, 138, 148, 157, 160, 173 Fidelio, Op. 72, 4, 11, 20, 37, 38, 52, 60, 65, 67, 77, 78, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92, 96, 98, 99, 102, 108, 109, 111, 113, 117, 123, 128, 131, 132, 139, 146, 149-50, 155, 156, 158, 159, 161, 166, 171, 174, 175, 182, 184, 297, 364

WORKS WITH INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES Trauer-Kantate auf dem Tod Kaiser Joseph, WoO 87, 58, 72 for solo voices Ah! Perfido, Op. 65, 42, 62, 77, 78, 86, 87, 113, 117, 174, 297-301, 359 Ne’ giorni tuoi felici, WoO 93, 24, 150, 165 Primo amore, piacer del ciel, WoO 92, 125 Tremate, empi, Tremate, Op. 116, 87, 113, 134

for chorus König Stefan, Op. 117, 55, 81, 111, 125, 133 for chorus and soloists Choral Fantasy, Op. 80, 52, 55, 56, 98, 123, 167, 283, 341 Der glorreiche Augenblick, Op. 136, 52, 55 Elegischer Gesang, Op. 118, 92, 152, 155, 167, 297, 338-40, 359

423

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning WORKS WITH PIANO songs Abendlied unterm gestirten Himmel, WoO 150, 92, 224-26 Abschiedsgesang an Wiens Bürger, WoO 121, 226-27 Adelaide, Op. 46, 131, 134, 142, 144, 157, 158, 163, 164, 182, 263-66 Als die Geliebte sich trennen wollte, WoO 132, 86, 87, 189-91 An den fernen Geliebten, Op. 75, No. 5, 108, 148, 227-28 An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98, 55, 80, 86, 108, 113, 119, 161, 267-75, 296 An die Geliebte, WoO 140, 67, 191-92 An die Hoffnung, Op. 32, 86, 119, 120, 228-29, 391 An die Hoffnung, Op. 94, 77, 163, 167, 27578, 391 An ein Säugling, WoO 108, 123, 192-93 An Laura, WoO 112, 15, 83, 84, 115, 142, 182, 229-30 Andenken, WoO 136, 70, 173, 230-32 Ariette, Op. 128, 232 “Auf dem Hügel sitz’ ich, spähend.” See An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 Aus Goethes Faust, Op. 75, No. 3, 113, 19394 “Bitten,” Op. 48, No. 1. See Sechs Lieder von Gellert, Op. 48 “Bußlied,” Op. 48, No. 6. See Sechs Lieder von Gellert, Op. 48 Das Blümchen Wunderhold, Op. 52, No. 8, 194-95 Das Geheimnis, WoO 145, 195-96 Das Liedchen von der Ruhe, Op. 52, No. 3, 233-34 Der Bardengeist, WoO 142, 148, 234-35 Der freie Mann, WoO 117, 52, 53, 196-97

Der Gesang der Nachtigall, WoO 141, 197 Der Jüngling in der Fremde, WoO 138, 198 Der Liebende, WoO 139, 67, 173, 235-36 Der Mann vom Wort, Op. 99, 199-200, Der Wachtelschlag, WoO 129, 96, 105, 113, 142, 280-82 Der Zufriedene, Op. 75, No. 6, 123, 200 Des Kriegers Abschied, WoO 143, 80, 23637 “Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur,” Op. 48, No. 4. See Sechs Lieder von Gellert, Op. 48 Die laute Klage, WoO 135, 60, 237 Die Liebe, Op. 52, No. 6, 200-01 “Die Liebe des Nächsten,” Op. 48, No. 2. See Sechs Lieder von Gellert, Op. 48 “Diese wolken in der Höhen.” See An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 Dimmi, ben mio, che m’ami, Op. 82, No. 1, 123, 282-83 Ein Selbstgespräch, WoO 114, 88, 149, 166, 283 Elegie auf den Tod eines Pudels, WoO 110, 238-3 Erhebt das Glas mit froher Hand, WoO 109, 52, 201-02 “Es kehret der Maien, es bluhet die Au.” See An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 Es lebe unser teuer Fürst (Lobkowitz-Kantate), WoO 106, 80 Feuerfarb’, Op. 52. No. 2, 239-40 Freudvoll und leidvoll, Op. 84, No. 4, 123, 127, 284 Gedenke mein!, WoO 130 Gegenliebe, see Seufzer eines Ungeliebten Gellert Lieder. See Sechs Lieder von Gellert, Op. 48 Gesang aus der Ferne, WoO 137, 142, 144, 245-47

424

Index of Keys/Modes “Gottes Macht und Vorsehung,” Op. 48, No. 5. See Sechs Lieder von Gellert, Op. 48 Gretels Warnung, Op. 75, No. 4, 123, 247 Hochzeitslied, WoO 105, 395-96 Ich liebe dich so wie du mich, WoO 123, 249 In questa tomba oscura, WoO 133, 117, 144, 182, 249-50 Judy, Lovely, Matchless Creature, WoO 153, No.19, 19, 117, 129n263, 131, 203-04 Kennst du das Land, Op. 75, No. 1, 123, 124, 250-52 Klage, WoO 113, 15, 93, 94, 113, 148, 25253 Kriegslied der Österreicher, WoO 122, 52, 204 L’amante impaziente (Arietta buffa), Op. 82, No. 3, 285-86 L’amante impaziente (Arietta assai seriosa), Op. 82, No. 4, 164, 286-88 La partenza, WoO 124, 123, 204 La tiranna, WoO 125, 86, 253-54 Lebensglück, Op. 88, 125, 155, 205-06 “Leichte Segler in der Höhen.” See An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 Maigesang, Op. 52, No. 4, 83, 206 Man strebt, die Flamme zu verhehlen, WoO 120, 207-08 Marmotte, Op. 52, No. 7, 127, 208 Merkenstein, Op. 100, 209-10, 393 Merkenstein, WoO 144, 83, 208-09, 393 Mit einem gemalten Band, Op. 83, No. 3, 96, 254-55 Mollys Abschied, Op. 52, No. 5, 295 Neue Liebe, neues Leben, Op. 75, No. 2, 55, 288 “Nimm sie hin den, diese Lieder.” See An

die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98 Odi l’aura che dolce sospira, Op. 82, No. 5, 90, 166, 173, 255-56 Oh care selve, oh cara, WoO 119, 209-10 Oh! Thou art the Lad of my Heart, Op. 108, No. 11, 210-11 Opferlied, WoO 126, 90, 211-12 Opferlied, Op. 121b, 90 Punschlied, WoO 111, 212-13 Que le temps me dure, WoO 116, 60 Resignation, WoO 149, 68, 173, 256 Romance, WoO 128, 213 Ruf vom Berge, WoO 174, 213-214 Schildering eines Mädchens, WoO 107, 21415 Sechs Lieder von Gellert, Op. 48, 52, 83, 90, 113, 123, 127, 146, 149, 150, 156, 173, 202-03, 241-45, 278-79, 367 Sehnsucht, Op. 83, No. 2, 166, 173, 257258 Sehnsucht, (Four Settings), WoO 134, 86, 113, 120, 182, 215-18 Sehnsucht, WoO 146, 93, 115-16, 218-20 Seufzer eines Ungeliebten, WoO 118, 55, 283n16, 290 Six Songs by Gellert. See Sechs Lieder von Gellert, Op. 48 So oder so, WoO 148, 220 T’intendo si, mio cor, Op. 82, No. 2, 68, 173, 293 The Miller of Dee, WoO 157, No. 5, 259-60 The Sweetest Lad was Jamie, Op. 108, No. 5, 115, 127, 221-22 Urians Reise um die Welt, Op. 52, No. 4, 295 Wonne der Wehmut, Op. 83, No. 1, 90, 148, 260-61

425

Index of Keys/Modes A-flat major first praxis, 19, 30, 46, 116-18, 131, 136, 181, 182, 238, 250, 277, 300, 301, 304, 306, 311, 312-13, 314, 382, 393 second praxis, 33, 37, 330, 118-20, 136, 237, 264, 266, 270-72 (ironic use), 280, 306, 312-13, 327, 389, 392, 393, 395

(ironic use), 230, 236, 245-47, 274, 333, 365, 374, 254-55, 263-66, 280, 282, 287 (ironic use), 291 (ironic use), 293 (ironic use), 300 (ironic use), 314, 319, 320, 322 (also ironic), 326, 327, 331, 336, 341, 345, 353, 354, 364, 365, 374-78, 382, 385, 389 second praxis, 30, 132-35, 136, 193, 236, 244, 253 (also ironic), 264, 266, 286 (ironic use), 290, 298, 299, 304, 314, 318, 319-20 (ironic use), 322 (ironic use), 341, 344, 350-51, 376, 378, 396 structural use of, 193 B-flat minor 46, 162-64, 176, 246-47, 253, 264, 266, 275, 276, 277, 280, 281, 287, 300, 302, 304, 305, 312, 313, 331, 332, 334, 374, 375, 376, 377, 381, 382, 392

A-flat minor 21, 141, 160-162, 168, 176, 270-71, 303, 305, 389, 395 A major first praxis, 120-24, 136, 192, 200 (also ironic), 204, 213-14 (also ironic), 22426, 230-31 (ironic use), 232 (ironic use), 235, 248 (also ironic), 250-52, 279, 282, 283, 284, 285, 324, 325, 333, 334, 335, 339, 340, 344, 345, 348, 349, 350, 356, 357, 358, 366-67 (also ironic), 372, 393 second praxis, 124-25, 136, 204, 250-51, 281, 308, 316, 335, 350, 352, 355, 356, 358, 395-96 structural use of, 191, 328, 333

B major first praxis, 165-66, 173, 175, 176, 189, 190, 220, 222, 255-56, 258, 283, 284, 329, 330, 356 second praxis, 45, 166-68, 279, 176, 179, 211-12, 276, 278, 302, 339, 340, 341, 351, 357, 395 structural use of, 220, 241, 260, 333

A minor first praxis, 25, 125-27, 136, 147, 181, 208, 242, 244, 250-51, 252, 256-57, 260, 272-73, 278, 284, 285, 288, 292, 295, 298-99 (ironic use), 309, 315, 316, 326, 334, 340, 344, 364, 369, 370, 389 second praxis, 127-29, 136, 202-03, 293, 310, 311, 329, 330, 345, 38-81 structural use of, 332, 333

B minor first praxis, 19, 30, 168-72, 176, 243, 310, 311, 315, 316, 317, 320, 334, 335, 346, 347, 349, 350, 351, 352, 357, 394, 395 second praxis, 46, 172-73, 176, 205, 23132, 235, 256-58, 293 structural use of, 357 C-flat major 21, 168, 173-75, 176, 300, 303, 395

B-flat major first praxis, 19, 34, 46, 129-32, 136, 182, 198-99, 203-04, 206-07, 208, 216-17

426

Index of Keys/Modes C major first praxis, 20, 28, 37, 41, 45, 49-53, 135, 179, 187, 196-97, 201-03, 204, 226-27, 238-39, 239-40, 241, 244-45, 246, 25657, 264, 276, 277, 278, 283, 285, 298, 299, 304, 314-15, 316, 318, 321-22, 323, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 352, 353, 354, 359, 377, 380, 389, 392, 395-96 second praxis, 30, 32, 40, 45, 53-56, 134, 135, 148, 179, 181, 195-96, 197-98, 207 (ironic use), 208, 209, 228-29, 234-35, 249, 250-51, 329, 332, 340, 252-53, 259-60, 269-70, 272-73, 275, 277, 280, 281, 288 (ironic use), 291-92, 307, 308, 309, 310, 318, 324, 325, 326, 328, 329, 330, 331, 335, 336, 337, 338, 352, 353, 354, 368, 373, 377, 392, 393 structural use of, 220, 332

D-flat major first praxis, 21, 37, 141-43, 175, 185, 264, 266, 280, 312-13, 315, 393 second praxis, 46, 143-44, 175, 246-47, 250, 264, 304, 312-13, 393

C minor first praxis, 20, 34, 46, 56-59, 135, 141, 181, 182, 216, 237, 274, 276, 277, 289, 290, 291, 298, 299, 300, 302, 304, 305, 311, 312, 314, 315, 320, 321 (ironic use), 323, 324, 327, 329, 331, 333, 337, 389, 390n10, 391 second praxis, 59-61, 135, 228-29, 245, 256-57, 272, 273, 275-76, 333, 375, 389, 392 third praxis, 61-63, 135, 193, 253-54, 287, 298, 299, 306-7, 310, 319 (ironic use), 321, 329, 331, 381, 383 used neutrally, 259-60

D major first praxis, 26, 63-66, 135, 335, 275, 276, 279, 288, 304, 306, 308, 309, 316-17 (ironic use), 332, 333, 334, 335, 337, 347, 348, 350, 352, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 395 second praxis, 46, 66-69, 135, 176, 179, 191, 213, 224-26, 235, 256-57 (also ironic), 283, 293, 309, 325, 336, 346, 348, 349 (also ironic), 350, 357, 36465, 371, 395 third praxis, 14n7, 69-70, 135, 199 (ironic use), 210, 229, 230-31, 239, 258 structural use of, 214, 249, 328 D minor first praxis, 71-73, 135, 239, 280, 311, 320, 322, 326, 327, 335, 336, 339, 340, 343, 348, 370, 372, 373, 374, 380, 382, 385 second praxis, 38, 73-75, 135, 233, 278, 304, 334, 335, 364, 365, 368, 373, 395 third praxis, 75-78, 318, 135, 225, 245, 246, 276, 277, 288, 289, 298, 299, 310, 315, 318, 320, 322, 329, 330, 342, 345, 347, 358, 364, 365, 367, 368-69, 370, 373, 374, 381, 382-83, 384-85 structural use of, 196, 314

C-sharp major 27, 137-138, 153, 175

D-sharp minor, 144, 147

C-sharp minor 46, 138-141, 175, 179, 225-26, 252-53, 339, 345 structural use of, 241

Dorian mode 186

427

The Key to Beethoven: Connecting Tonality and Meaning E-flat major first praxis, 26, 34, 78-81, 135, 179, 20809, 236, 245-46, 264, 266, 275, 303, 352-6, 285 (ironic use), 286 (ironic use), 300, 301, 312, 317 (ironic use), 318, 319 (ironic use), 321 (also ironic), 323, 329, 330, 350, 351, 354, 378, 389, 393 second praxis, 37, 81-84, 135, 182, 203, 206-07, 210-11, 242, 244-45, 246, 268, 274-275, 307, 308, 319, 320, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 336, 337, 354 third praxis, 46, 84-87, 135, 181, 189-90, 217-18, 219, 228, 237, 242, 253-54, 267-68, 274, 275, 276, 277, 286, 287, 291, 298, 299, 300, 301, 304, 307, 310, 331, 332, 359, 392 E-flat minor 144-47, 175, 191, 242, 254, 264, 286, 287, 300, 302, 303, 304, 306, 307, 312, 321, 323, 331, 334, 347, 359, 377, 386, 389, 390n10, 391

second praxis, 147, 148-51, 175, 278, 279, 315 (ironic use), 316, 358 Structural use of, 314, 316, 317 F-flat major 313 F major first praxis, 20, 37, 38, 94-97, 136, 198, 201 (ironic use), 207-08 (also ironic), 209, 220-21, 233-34, 238, 274, 338, 254-55, 264, 272-73, 280-81, 289 (ironic use), 292 (ironic use), 311, 314, 315, 319, 320, 326, 327, 334, 336, 339, 352, 365, 373, 375, 377, 393, 394 second praxis, 26, 30, 34, 97-98, 136, 193, 202, 220-21, 246-47, 250-51, 264, 266, 283, 318, 319 (ironic use), 322, 326, 327, 329, 330, 332, 336, 350, 352, 353, 354, 377, 395 third praxis, 98-100, 136, 181, 345 structural use of, 203, 329

E major first praxis, 30, 87-89, 135, 166, 205-06, 224-25, 232 (also ironic), 282, 283, 284, 312, 313, 356, 357, 389 second praxis, 37, 89-90, 135, 176, 21112, 213-14, 229-30, 241-42, 248, 25556, 260, 279, 308, 309, 325, 326, 338, 357, 393, 394 third praxis, 46, 90-94, 135, 179, 218-20, 224-26, 250, 252-53, 298, 302, 312, 339, structural use of, 192, 327, 333

F minor first praxis, 21, 34, 37, 38, 41, 46, 100103, 136, 181, 182, 189, 190, 228-29, 237, 238, 246-47, 276, 277, 290, 291, 299, 300, 301, 304, 307, 308, 310, 312, 313, 327, 330, 337, 373, 394 second praxis, 103-06, 136, 181, 225, 280, 281, 282, 310, 316, 329, 330, 332, 382

E minor first praxis, 147-48, 175, 192, 195, 22728, 234-35, 242, 252-53, 260, 284, 325, 394

F-sharp minor 153-56, 175, 206, 241, 243-44, 284, 308, 309, 316, 317, 339, 340, 371, 373, 379 structural use of, 325, 333, 345

F-sharp major first praxis, 151, 175 second praxis, 33, 152-53, 175, 339, 371

428

Index of Keys/Modes G-flat major 152, 153, 156-58, 175, 264, 287 (ironic use), 302, 304, 328, 345 G major first praxis, 33, 37, 106-10, 136, 181, 19496, 197-98, 199 (ironic use), 210, 213 (also ironic), 214, 227, 229-30, 239 (also ironic), 249, 256-57 (ironic use), 260 (ironic use), 269-70 (ironic use), 275, 276, 277, 278, 288-90 (ironic use), 293 (ironic use), 295 (ironic use), 302, 304-6, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 314, 318, 332, 333, 337, 346, 356, 392 second praxis, 110-11, 136, 194, 202-03, 212-13, 226, 284, 288 (ironic use), 292, 298-99 (ironic use), 314 (also ironic), 315, 318, 322, 329, 330, 331, 332, 352 structural use of, 196, 202-03, 298-99, 328, 332 G minor first praxis, 111-13, 127, 136, 182, 193, 215-16, 218, 237, 244-45, 252-53, 276, 277, 280, 282, 287, 290, 298, 304, 306, 310, 320 (ironic use), 326, 327, 329, 330, 332, 333, 337, 343, 368, 373, 381, 383, 384

second praxis, 46, 114-16, 136, 182, 21617, 218, 221-22, 230, 239-40, 233-34, 264, 287, 299, 315, 319, 336, 339, 353 structural use of, 332 G-sharp major 158-59, 175, 184 G-sharp minor 159-60, 176, 308, 309 Hypodorian mode 352 Lydian Mode 186, 333, 335 Mixolydian Mode 345, 349, 350 Unstable tonality 187, 257, 275, 276, 277, 280, 282, 301, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 325, 328, 331, 332, 339, 344, 354, 356, 371

429

Index of Names

[Note: Beethoven has been omitted, given that references to him are pervasive] Albrecht, Theodore, 1n2, 361n1, 362n8 Albrechtsberger, Johann, 13, 31 Andersch, Johann Daniel, 79 Auhagen, Wolfgang, 4, 33n104, 68, 93n166, 138n1 Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, 27, 71, 72, 101, 104, 112, 114, 126, 128, 137, 145, 154, 167, 169, 362 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 13, 13n1, 14, 15, 48-49, 50, 54, 57, 59, 61, 64, 71, 79, 82, 91, 95, 97, 99, 101, 103, 106, 109, 110, 112, 116, 121, 124, 128, 130, 132, 137, 144n29, 145, 147, 149, 151, 154, 158, 159, 160, 162, 167, 169, 172, 173 Beethoven, Karl, 32, 39 Bekker, Paul, 3 Bellini, Vincenzo, 107 Benda, Georg Anton, 57, 69, 75, 79, 101 Berlioz, Hector, 57, 59, 60-61, 95, 97, 98, 104, 110, 112, 114, 121, 124, 126, 128, 132, 137, 139, 142, 149, 152, 153, 157, 160, 167, 169 Bernhard, Joseph Karl, 32 Biermann, Joanna Cobb, 241, 244 Boccherini, Luigi, 75 Boettcher, Hans, 3, 178n3 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 140, 151n43, 204 Boswell, Alexander, 203 Brentano, Antonie, 192 Breuning, Stephan von, 189 Browne-Camus, Count Johann Georg, 366 Broyles, Michael, 104n199, 394n20 Bührlen, Friedrich Ludwig, 88 Bürger, Gottfried August, 194, 290, 295 Burney, Charles, 16

Burnham, Scott, 361n1 Busch, Gudrun, 78, 370 Buttstett, Johann, 25 Callcott, John Wall, 64, 116 Carpani, Giuseppe, 249 Cassiodorus, Flavius Magnus Aurelius, 186 Castelli, Ignaz Franz, 338 Castil-Blaze, François-Henri-Joseph, 97 Charpentier, Marc-Antoine, 97, 132, 144, 162 Cherubini, Luigi, 50, 59, 61, 67, 72, 75, 79, 89, 104, 114, 119, 126, 130, 132, 145 Chusid, Martin, 14n7, 76n110 Cimarosa, Domenico, 121 Claudius, Matthias, 295 Clausen, Bruce, 4, 12, 12n49, 12, 12n49, 68, 297 Clementi, Muzio, 40, 59, 71, 104, 172 Cook, Nicholas, 341 Cooke, Deryck, 47-48, 365-66, 380, 384, 397 Cooper, Barry, 3, 19, 93n163, 260, 350n59, 361n1, 362, 364, 379, 393 Cramer, Carl Friedrich, 15, 30, 40 Czerny, Carl, 10, 39, 57, 71, 79, 81, 82, 89, 91, 94, 101, 104, 105, 106, 118n233, 119, 121, 126, 128, 140, 145, 167, 168, 362, 373, 379 Dalayrac, Nicolas, 99 Darcy, Warren, 374, 380n39 Day, James, 6 Dean, Ian, 209n41 Deiters, Hermann, 343

430

Index of Names Del Mar, Jonathan, 349n58 Dent, Edward J, 56 Dazède, Nicolas, 56, 69 Dies, Albert Christoph, 16 Dittersdorf, Carl Ditters von, 97 Döring, Johann von, 192 Drake, Kenneth, 361n1 Dressler, Ernst Christoph, 15 Duncker, Johann Friedrich Leopold, 395 Dussek, Jan Ladislav (Václav Jan Dusík), 61, 84, 91, 107, 110, 116, 119, 124, 128, 130, 132-33, 144, 145, 154, 157, 162, 167 Eberl, Anton, 57 Ebhardt, Gotthilf Friedrich, 50, 57, 64, 71, 75, 79, 82, 89, 94, 101, 106, 110, 111, 114, 116, 126, 129, 147, 152, 153, 169 Ellis, Alexander John, 39 Ellison, Paul M, 241n3, 279n13 Field, John, 147 Fillion, Michelle, 325n21 Fischer, Edwin, 141n17 Fischhof, Joseph, 8 Friedelberg, Josef, 204, 226 Galeazzi, Francesco, 17, 17n23, 18, 19, 34-35, 45, 49, 56, 59, 61, 64, 71, 79, 81, 84, 88, 97, 98, 101, 104, 106, 111, 116, 121, 128, 145, 149, 160, 165, 169, 179 Gänsbacher, Johann, 29 Gardiner, William, 16, 50, 56, 64, 73, 82, 84, 88, 94, 97, 101, 106, 110, 114, 118, 121, 126, 141, 143, 147, 153, 165, 169 Gassmann, Florian, 17, 84 Gathy, August, 50, 53, 57, 59, 79, 94, 97, 98, 114, 126, 142, 143, 145, 153, 159, 165, 166, 216

Gellert, Christian Fürchtegott, 202, 241, 245, 278 Gerhard, Anselm, 35 Gervasoni, Carlo, 110 Gianelli, Pietro, 132 Gleim, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig, 283 Glöggl, Franz Xaver, 36, 50, 64, 101, 124, 172 Gluck, Christoph Willibald, 54, 57, 61, 73, 74, 75, 84, 126, 145, 172, 180 Goeble, Heinrich, (sometimes Göble) See Heinrich, Ferdinand August Otto, Graf von Loeben Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 103, 124, 193, 206, 208, 215, 250, 254, 257, 260, 284, 288, 289 Gossec, François-Joseph, 69 Gräffer, Anton, 37-38, 53, 57, 71, 82, 88, 94, 101, 111, 116, 118, 121, 126, 145, 147, 152, 153, 156, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165, 172, 173n103 Graun, Carl Heinrich, 16, 26-27, 57, 61, 64, 72, 85, 97, 102, 104, 110, 114, 117, 118, 119, 124, 132, 139, 145-46, 151, 159, 161, 162, 164, 165 Grétry, André-Ernest-Modeste, 49, 53, 56, 64, 71, 79, 84, 88, 101, 111, 124, 125, 132, 147, 149, 151, 153, 165, 172 Griesinger, Georg August, 16 Gugliemi, Pietro Alessandro, 121 Halem, Gerhard Anton von, 247 Hand, Ferdinand, 38, 50, 53, 57, 59, 61, 64, 71, 73, 79, 82, 88, 90, 94, 99, 101, 106, 112, 114, 116, 121, 126, 128, 129, 132, 137, 139, 142, 144, 147, 151, 153, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165, 169, 172, 179, 217, 279, 334,

431

The Key to Beethoven: Connection and Tonality Handel, George Frederick, 48, 50, 54, 57, 59, 61, 64, 67, 69, 72, 73, 76, 79, 82, 85, 88, 89, 91-92, 95, 97, 102, 104, 110, 112, 114, 117, 121, 124, 126, 128, 132, 139, 147-48, 149, 154, 155, 162, 169, 171, 364 Hanslick, Eduard, 2, 397 Hapsburg-Lothringen, Prince Rudolph Johannes Joseph Rainier von (Archduke Rudolph), 13, 18, 24, 171, 374n31, 396 Hasse, Johann Adolf, 85 Hatten, Robert, 361n1, 366, 370 Haugwitz, Paul Graf von, 256 Hauser, Johann Ernst, 89 Hawkins, Sir John, 132 Haydn, Joseph, 13, 15-16, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 61-62, 63, 65, 67, 69, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, 85, 88, 89, 92, 93, 95, 97, 99, 102, 104, 107, 109, 110, 112, 114-15, 117, 119, 120, 121-22, 124, 126, 128, 130, 132, 133, 139, 142, 144, 146, 148, 149, 151, 152, 153n51, 154, 157, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 172, 173, 180, 185, 187, 245, 364 Haydn, Michael, 99 Heartz, Daniel, 17 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 43-44 Heinrich, Ferdinand August Otto, Graf von Loeben (Heinrich Goeble), 224 Heinse, Johann Jakob Wilhelm, 53, 59, 64, 79, 97, 101, 118, 125, 128, 132, 143 Henneberg, Johann Baptiste, 79 Hepokoski, James, 365, 374, 380n39 Herder, Johann Gottfried, 197, 237 Herloßsohn, Karl Reginald, 38-39, 59, 64, 69, 70, 71, 91, 95, 99, 101, 106, 112, 116, 126, 129, 132, 139, 147, 152, 153, 159, 162, 164, 165, 172, 340 Herrmann, Franz Rudolph, 234 Herrosee, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm, 249

Hiller, Johann Adam, 28 Hinton, Stephen, 343n46 Hoffmann, E T A, 5, 49, 53, 56, 61, 79, 84, 88, 91, 118, 125-26, 132, 145, 160, 186, 324, 387-90 Hölty, Ludwig Christoph Heinrich, 252 Huber, Franz Xaver, 301 Hummel, Johann Nepomuk, 51, 54, 69, 76, 79, 95, 102, 104, 110, 117, 122, 154, 170 Jander, Owen, 28, 150, 173n104, 174 Jeitteles, Alois, 267 Jommelli, Niccolò, 85 Jones, David Wyn, 8, 390n9 Jones, Timothy, 361n1 Jorgensen, Owen, 39-40 J S, 118 Junker, Karl Ludwig, 10 Kanne, August, 23 Kant, Immanuel, 8, 12, 87, 94, 341 Kellner, Georg Christoph, 32, 53, 63, 70, 94, 98, 118, 132, 137, 152, 166 Kerman, Joseph, 3, 63, 268n7 Kerst, Friedrich, 374n31 Kinderman, William, 143, 155n56, n57, 244n22, 354n67, 361n1, 372n27, 373 Kirkendale, Warren, 18, 303n4, 354n65 Kirnberger, Johann Philipp, 13, 18, 2527, 48, 63, 87, 97, 98, 183, 184 Klopstock, Friedrich, 21 Knecht, Justin Heinrich, 33-34, 53, 56, 64, 71, 78, 87, 94, 101, 106, 107, 114, 116, 121, 125, 129, 147, 153, 169 Koch, Heinrich Christoph, 6, 11, 19, 101, 124, 184, 362 Kopitz, Klaus Martin, 127n257 Kramer, Lawrence, 1, 103n194, 361n1

432

Index of Names Kramer, Richard, 16, 17n19, 24, 25, 29, 118n233, 145n35 Krause, Christian Gottfried, 369 Krehbiel, Henry Edward, 374n31 Krommer, Franz, 69, 73 Lacombe, Jacques, 56 Huray, Peter, 6 Lappe, Karl Gottlieb, 220 Ledbetter, David, 145n33 Leichtentritt, Hugo, 156n58 Lenz, Wilhelm von, 140 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 200 Lesueur, Jean-François, 63, 82 Lindpainter, Peter Josef von, 170 Lingke, Georg Friedrich, 63 Liszt, Franz, 342, 344, 348 Lockwood, Lewis, 219 Lühning, Helga, 289n18 Lutes, Leilani, 396n23 Lüthy, Werner, 12, 12n49 MacIntyre, Bruce, 109n216, 324n15 Mahler, Gustav, 347 Marx, Adolf Bernhard, 5, 10, 50, 53, 61, 71, 79, 81, 89, 104, 105, 106, 111, 119, 120, 139, 140, 141, 142, 145, 153, 185 Masson, Charles, 97, 98, 110 Mattheson, Johann, 11, 12n49, 16, 18, 19, 22, 22n47, 23-25, 43n1, 44, 49, 53, 59, 63, 69, 70, 78, 82, 84, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 100, 102, 110, 114, 124, 125, 132, 147, 148, 149, 150, 153, 154, 165, 169, 170, 172, 353n64 Matthisson, Friedrich von, 211, 229, 230, 263, 265 McClelland, Clive, 74 Mereau-Brentano, Sophie, 239 Meredith, William, 18n28, 93n163

Metastasio, Pietro, 204, 209, 255, 285, 286, 293, 297 Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 82, 139, 154, 157, 170 Mies, Paul, 68 Monelle, Raymond, 73n131 Moscheles, Ignaz (Isaac), 97, 107, 154 Mosel, Ignaz Franz, 35 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 12, 12n49, 14, 23, 41, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59-60, 62, 65, 67, 69, 72, 73, 74, 76-77, 78, 79-80, 8283, 85, 88, 89-90, 95-96, 99, 100, 102, 103, 107-8, 110, 112, 115, 122, 124-25, 126, 128, 130, 149, 154, 172, 180, 18384, 357, 364, 367 Müller, Wilhelm Christian, 37, 50, 64, 82, 89, 99, 106, 118, 121, 132, 133, 141n17, 142, 152, 153, 157, 158, 165, 348, 353, 389n7 Neate, Charles, 9 Neefe, Christian Gottlob, 13, 14, 30, 57, 60, 65, 85, 88, 90, 98, 102, 112, 117, 122, 125, 130, 133, 165, 170, 177 Newman, William S, 3 Nohl, Ludwig, 21 Nottebohm, Gustav, 53, 343, 394n20 Paer, Ferdinando, 58 Page, Janet K, 58n50 Paisiello, Giovanni, 80, 85 Pasqualati von Osterberg, Elenore, 339 Pasqualati von Osterberg, Johann Baptist (also Baron Pasqualati), 339 Pfeffel, Gottlieb Konrad, 196 Piccinni, Niccolò, 51, 86 Pichl, Václav (Wentzel), 69 Pinto, George, 146 Porter, William, 64, 132 Potter, Philip Cipriani Hambly, 89, 149

433

The Key to Beethoven: Connection and Tonality Printz, Wolfgang, 25

Sauter, Samuel Ferdinand, 280 Scarlatti, Domenico, 139 Schafer, R Murray, 389n7 Schenk, Johann Baptist, 13, 20-21 Schenker, Heinrich, 2, 354n67 Schiller, Friedrich, 327n25, 341, 342, 351 Schilling, Gustav, 38, 50, 53, 69, 70, 71, 79, 91, 94, 97, 99, 101, 103, 111, 118, 126, 129, 132, 139, 142, 144, 145, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 159, 162, 164, 172, 306n9, 371 Schindler, Anton, 1, 1n2, 14, 22-23, 31, 44, 71, 138, 142, 153, 158n65, 159, 184, 362 Schoenberg, Arnold, 347 Schrader, J A, 50, 56, 61, 64, 73, 79, 82, 88, 89, 94, 101, 106, 111, 116, 121, 126, 128, 129, 142, 145, 153, 156, 159, 162, 165, 169, 185, 313 Schubart, Christian Friedrich Daniel, 29, 30-32, 35, 41, 45, 53, 56, 59, 63, 71, 82, 87, 89, 94, 100, 106, 111, 113n225, 116, 117, 121, 124, 125, 127, 129, 143, 144, 147, 148, 153, 155, 159, 162, 164, 165, 172, 179, 181, 205, 231, 235, 243, 245, 249, 257, 270, 276, 282, 290, 304, 308, 313, 324, 331, 334, 352, 387, 389n7, 390 Schubert, Franz, 51, 58, 62, 67, 72, 77, 80, 86, 96, 98, 102, 108, 119, 122, 126, 130, 137, 139, 142, 144, 146, 152, 155, 157, 161, 163, 165, 167, 170, 172, 174, 179, 187, 194, 200, 222 Schulz, Johann Abraham Peter, 16, 28, 118n233, 122, 130 Schumann, Robert, 31, 49, 53, 92, 119, 142, 155, 159, 167, 170 Scruton, Roger, 2n4 Seidel, Karl Ludwig, 36-37, 53, 59, 73, 9697, 101, 103, 158, 166, 306 Shakespeare, William, 351

Quantz, Johann Joachim, 34 Rameau, Jean-Philippe, 100, 110, 124, 172 Ratner, Leonard, 4 Reicha, Anton, 36 Reicha, Joseph, 14, 78, 137, 151 Reichardt, Johann Friedrich, 78, 96 Reid, Paul, 4, 12, 12n49, 220, 226, 276, 277, 392 Reissig, Christian Ludwig, 198, 200, 219, 227, 235, 236 Rellstab, Ludwig, 140 Reutter, Georg, 16 Ribock, Justus Johannes Heinrich, 15, 30, 33, 53, 59, 63, 70, 78, 87, 106, 124, 132 Rice, John A, 163n80 Ries, Ferdinand, 67, 80, 105, 117, 122, 139, 154-55, 366 Roch, Eckhard, 14n3 Rochlitz, Friedrich, 21, 50, 56, 79, 106, 121, 143, 147, 173 Rosetti, Antonio, 69 Rossini, Gioachino, 58, 80, 83, 90, 115, 117, 126, 161 Rothstein, William, 361n1 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 7, 41, 56, 97, 100, 124, 128 Rudolph, Archduke of Austria. See Hapsburg-Lothringen, Rudolph Johannes Joseph Rainier von Rupprecht, Johann Baptist, 208-09 Ryšavy, Robin, 390n8 Salieri, Antonio, 13, 16-17, 51, 58, 62, 65, 73, 77, 80, 83, 86, 87, 98, 102, 108, 112, 119, 122, 130, 133, 155, 163, 170 Sarti, Giuseppe, 58

434

Index of Names Smyth, William, 210, 221 Solomon, Maynard, 21, 21n43 Sonnleithner, Joseph, 29 Spohr, Louis (Ludwig), 90, 112, 115, 119, 146, 157, 170 Stamitz, Johann, 69, 80 Starke, Friedrich, 21-22, 31 Steblin, Rita, 4, 17, 31, 34, 43, 127n257, 138n1, 180, 333n28 Stoll, Joseph Ludwig, 191 Stravinsky, Igor, 2 Sulzer, Johann Georg, 6, 16, 18, 27-28, 47, 118n233, 168, 362 Taruskin, Richard, 342n45, Thayer, Alexander Wheelock, 14, 15, 32 Thomson, George, 18, 117, 177, 204, 211, 221 Tiedge, Christoph August, 228, 275 Todd, R Larry, 102 Tovey, Donald, 2, 5, 60, 361n1 Traetta, Tommaso, 86 Treitler, Leo, 4, 21, 21n44, 58, 109, 355 Türk, Daniel Gottlob, 6 Tusa Michael C, 3, 34, 63, 170n95 Tyson, Alan, 315n13 Ueltzen, Hermann Wilhelm Franz, 233 Unger, Max, 127n257 Vande Moortele, Steven, 361n1 Vanhal, Johann Baptist, 109 Vivaldi, Antonio, 55, 65, 72, 98, 104, 104n200, n201, 110, 112, 112n224 Vogler, Georg Joseph (Abbé Vogler), 28-

29, 45, 49, 53, 63, 64, 75, 84, 87, 88, 91, 94, 106, 110, 116, 118, 121, 124, 129, 163, 389n7 Wagner, Johann Jacob, 50, 56, 61, 64, 69, 84, 88, 91, 98-99, 100, 101, 116, 132, 162, 165 Wagner, Richard, 342n43 Waltz, Sarah Clemmens, 107n211, 140 Weber, Carl Maria von, 62, 65, 69, 73, 75, 77, 80, 83, 86, 88, 92, 93, 98, 102, 108, 113, 117, 122, 125, 133, 155, 159, 166, 170, 185 Wegeler, Franz, 22 Weikert, Heinrich, 53, 57, 71, 79, 88, 94, 101, 106, 111, 116, 121, 126, 129, 143, 147, 153, 156, 159, 165, 169 Weisse, Christian Felix, 232 Wendt, Amadeus, 9, 12, 89, 388, 396 Wennington, William, 253 Wessenberg, Ignaz Heinrich Carl von, 195 Will, Richard, 33 Wilson, John David, 4, 14, 19, 21, 53, 56, 74-75, 79n121, 81, 84n132, 85n137, 87, 93, 118, 138n1, 141, 146n36, 268n6, 308n11 Wranitzky, Paul (Pavel Vranický), 58, 108 Wustmann, Rodolf, 12, 12n49 Zarlino, Gioseffo, 18, 48n11, 186,

435

Index of Subjects 309, 311, 316, 332-33, 340, 342, 344, 346-47, 355, 368, 369, 371, 373, 37677, 381-82, 384 direct use of key symbolism, 180, 183, 184 Empfindsamer Stil, 72-73 enharmonic equivalency, 44 Enlightenment ideals, 197, 385 folksong settings, 210-11, 221-22, 26062 Heiligenstadt testament, 385n45 history of writing on key characteristics, 23-39, 182-83, 385, 389, 396 improvisation, 10, 20-21, 29 intervals, 40, 47, 48, 292, 342, 343, 372, 373, 374, 377, 384-85 ironic use of key, 180, 186, 195, 199-200, 205, 207-08, 213-14, 216-18, 220, 232, 239, 248, 256-57, 286, 287, 28889, 291, 293-94, 298-300, 314, 315, 316-17, 320, 349, 367, 397 “joy” motive, 48, 282, 285, 314, 341, 343, 358, 375, 376, 377 key used for characterization, 183, 297, 299-301, 340, 359 “Mannheim rocket,” 367, 368, 371 mixed modality (modal mixture), 15, 20, 26, 178, 178n3, 194, 205, 239, 250-51, 258, 260, 282, 309, 268, 285, 287, 295, 297, 302, 303, 307, 323, 332, 334, 340, 341, 359, 371, 374-78, 382, 384, 391 modality, 342n43, 354 multiple affective praxes in keys, 44-47, 176, 179 Neapolitan chords, use of, 217, 277, 294, 296, 368, 370, 380, 382 ombra, 74-75, 77-78, 168, 311, 337, 340, 343, 344, 348

affective melding, 187, 221, 236, 264, 275, 322, 323, 330, 331, 336, 350, 351, 357, 359, 370, 373, 382 affective modality, 186, 297, 345, 349, 353, 359, 397 affective modulation, 27, 186, 189, 212, 224, 230, 235, 243, 256, 258, 261, 265-66, 279, 286, 299, 304, 327, 337, 340, 348, 357, 369, 382, 397 affective spectrum, 176, 184, 284, 290, 301, 302, 303, 337, 345, 382, 390, 391, 397 affective tonicization, 186, 189, 190, 202, 205, 224, 228-29, 245, 261, 253, 308, 337, 351, 375, 377, 397 affective transplacement, 376, 377, 378 augmented sixth chords, use of, 215, 247, 269, 290, 291, 293, 311, 320, 330, 333, 368, 382, 383 Austrian (Viennese) mass tradition, 297, 324, 326, 328, 330, 332, 334, 338, 359 cantus firmus, 353 characterizing agents for musical expression, 179, 184, 189, 341, 361, 362, 397 choice of key, 181, 183, 184, 263 chromatic scale, 268, 294, 331, 368, 370, 380, 384-85 classification of tonal symbolism, 177, 180 color and keys, 30, 37 depictive harmony, 186-87, 192, 272, 277, 281, 294 (ironic use), 297, 340, 342, 344, 347, 350, 353-55, 358, 359, 367-68, 371, 372, 388-90, 396, 397 deus ex machina, 277 diabolus in musica, 244, 355 diminished seventh harmony, 187, 192, 205-06, 243, 277, 299, 301, 303-05,

436

Index of Subjecsts sonata form, 283, 288, 290n19, 365-85 song cycle, 268-76 sospiro, 48, 266, 277, 279, 282, 285, 291, 303, 313, 314, 341, 342, 343, 344, 348, 368, 369, 370, 371-72, 373, 376-78, 380-83 structural modulation, 186, 191, 197, 220, 397 Sturm und Drang, 74, 75, 77, 310, 320, 322, 325, 338, 370 synesthesia, see color and keys tierce de picardie, 374 tonal symbolism, 27, 324, 327, 358, 359 tonal text depiction/expression, 287, 327, 354, 359 transplacement of affective character- istics, 187, 212-13, 376, 378 transposition, 21, 22, 26-28, 191-92, 211, 221-22, 260, 393-94, 395 tuning and temperament, 5, 13n1, 14n3, 25, 39-41

philosophy of key characteristics, 7, 31, 123, 176, 187, 391 philosophical background to key characteristics, 1-4, 6-11, 362-63 preluding, 366 range of Beethoven’s fortepiano, 373n30 recitative (stile recitativo), 276, 277, 282, 283, 287, 290, 298, 299, 305, 308, 311, 314, 315, 318, 343, 344, 345, 346, 348, 353, 354, 362, 366, 367, 372-73, 374, 375, 392 Requiem Mass, 92, 181 Schreckensfanfare, 74, 340, 342, 343, 345, 347, 348 sigh motive, see sospiro shadow pairings of keys, 46-47, 68, 84, 90, 114, 143, 173, 216, 237, 254, 291, 294, 298, 301 sharp/flat principle, 29, 30, 31, 33, 36, 37, 43-44, 151, 159, 166 sketches of Beethoven’s works, 8, 54n39, 60n59, 66n74, 74n96, 86n139, 103n194, 191-92, 211n45, 219, 229n7, 254, 281n14, 311, 327n24, 343-46, 365, 367, 376, 379, 393

437

The Key to

BEETH VEN The Key to Beethoven

uilding on the remarkable correlation between key and tonal affect found in Beethoven’s vocal music, this book establishes an understanding of the way in which the composer uses tonality affectively. The historical case for Beethoven’s knowledge of key characteristics is examined, including writings on the topic with which he was familiar, his own views, and items of anecdotal evidence. A complete survey of all the keys employed by Beethoven is undertaken, using historical evidence from contemporary writers, theorists, and composers and Beethoven’s own output to establish a semiology of tonal affect. Novel concepts such as the affective use of modulation, tonicization, and individual chords are introduced and examined, later being applied to five case studies gleaned from Beethoven’s vocal and choral music with orchestral accompaniment. In a departure from the nexus of text and tonality, an instrumental case study—the Tempest Sonata in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 2—is undertaken, decoding the series of psychological or soul states that are invoked during the progression of this work by applying the semiotic of affect established earlier as the principal tool for deconstructing meaning. This paves the way for a future examination of the nexus between tonality and meaning his instrumental music.

Ellison

B

PENDRAGON PRESS • HILLSDALE NY

Connecting Tonality and Meaning in His Music

PENDRAGON

PAUL M. ELLISON

NORTH AMERICAN BEETHOVEN STUDIES NO. 7