The Kathisma Church and Monastery of Mary Theotokos on the Jerusalem-Bethlehem Road: Final Report of the 1992, 1997, 1999 and 2000 Excavation Seasons 9789654067539, 9789654067546, 9654067536

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IAA Reports, No. 69

The Kathisma Church and Monastery of Mary Theotokos on the Jerusalem–Bethlehem Road Final Report of the 1992, 1997, 1999 and 2000

Excavation Seasons Rina Avner

With contributions by

Donald T. Ariel, Ariel Berman, Leah Di Segni, Gerald Finkielsztejn, Yael Gorin-Rosen and Tamar Winter

JERUSALEM 2022

IAA Reports Publications of the Israel Antiquities Authority Editor-in-Chief: Zvi Greenhut Series and Production Editor: Shelley Sadeh Volume Editors: Ayelet Hashahar Malka, Shelley Sadeh Front Cover: The site of Kathisma in the Judean Hills, looking southeast (photograph, Alexander Wiegmann) Back Cover: The palm-tree mosaic in the southeastern passage room of the church (photograph, Nicky Davidov) Cover Design, Production, Layout and Typesetting: Ann Buchnick-Abuhav Illustrations: Ira Brin, Ann Buchnick-Abuhav Printing: Digiprint Zahav Ltd. Copyright © 2022, The Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem POB 586, Jerusalem, 91004 ISBN 978-965-406-753-9 EISBN 978-965-406-754-6 www.antiquities.org.il

Dedicated to my mother and teacher, Tamar Avner, and in loving memory of my father, Elimelech-Ze’ev Avner-Lichtenstein.

Contents

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

vi

PREFACE

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Rina Avner

1

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH— ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

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11

CHAPTER 3: THE ENTRANCE ATRIA AND THE MONASTERY—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

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83

CHAPTER 4: THE MOSAIC FLOORS

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117

CHAPTER 5: THE INSCRIPTIONS

Leah Di Segni

169

CHAPTER 6: ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS AND LITURGICAL FURNITURE

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173

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

Donald T. Ariel and Ariel Berman

189

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

Rina Avner

209

CHAPTER 9: THE GLASS FINDS

Yael Gorin-Rosen and Tamar Winter

229

CHAPTER 10: THE KATHISMA CHURCH IN ITS HISTORICAL CONTEXT IN THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD

Rina Avner

261

CHAPTER 11: SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

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279

REFERENCES APPENDIX 1: A RHODIAN STAMPED AMPHORA HANDLE FROM KATHISMA APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

287 Gerald Finkielsztein

299 301

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Abbreviations

ASOR ACOR BAR BAR Int. S. BASOR BIES CSCO CSEL ESI HA–ESI IAA Reports IEJ INJ INR JGS JJS JPOS JRA JSOT JSP LA NEA OIP PG PO PPTS QDAP RB SBF SEG ZDPV

American Schools of Oriental Research American Center of Oriental Research Biblical Archaeology Review British Archaeological Reports (International Series) Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Bulletin of the Israel Exploration Society (Hebrew) Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium. Louvain. Corpus Scriptorium Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum.Vienna. Excavations and Surveys in Israel Ḥadashot Arkheologiyot–Excavations and Surveys in Israel Israel Antiquities Authority Reports Israel Exploration Journal Israel Numismatic Journal Israel Numismatic Research Journal of Glass Studies Journal of Jewish Studies Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society Journal of Roman Archaeology Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Judea and Samaria Publications Liber Annuus Near Eastern Archaeology Oriental Institute Publications J.-P. Migne ed. Patrologiae cursus completus, series graeca. Paris 1857– 1866 Patrologia Orientalis. Paris–Turnhout The Library of the Palestine Pilgrim Text Society Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine Revue Biblique Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Supplementum epigraphicum graecum. Leiden 1923– Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins

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Preface

The unprecedented finds revealed in the Kathisma excavations constitute one of the most important, and unexpected, discoveries of Early Christian architecture in the Holy Land in recent decades. The site has attracted keen interest not only from the scholarly community, but also from the general public worldwide, and in particular from religious Christians. Diodorus II, the late Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, who visited the site during the excavation, was particularly excited with these finds. The Greek Orthodox church views the site as outright and indisputable proof of the veracity of the ancient Greek tradition, held since the fifth century CE, that the Church of Kathisma commemorates the location where the Virgin Mary rested on her journey to Bethlehem, just prior to the birth of Jesus. In 1992, during construction work to widen part of the old Hebron Road (Road 60) between Jerusalem and Bethlehem, a mosaic floor and a Corinthian capital were damaged. Consequently, I was sent by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) to conduct the first season of excavation at the Kathisma site. The site is located east of Hebron Road and north of the Mar Elias monastery (map ref. 627402/220243; see Chapter 1: Figs. 1.1, 1.4), in an ancient olive grove owned by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Prior to 1967, this area was within the no-man’s land that separated the State of Israel and the Kingdom of Jordan. In the first season (1992; Permit No. A-1895/1992), my two area supervisors, Roni Amir and Ziv Bar-Or, and I discovered that the area to the east of the existing road contained the remains of an octagonal church, and alongside it the remains of a monastery (Avner 1993). At this point we suspected that this was the site of the Kathisma church and monastery. In light of this discovery, it was decided to alter the plan for widening the road to avoid damaging the church. We therefore moved to the west of the existing road, to excavate the area that is today below the western lane of the new road. The second season took place in 1997 (Permit No. A-2753/1997), when a new road was constructed to connect the Har Ḥoma neighborhood with the Hebron Road. The Kathisma site was damaged by the guard at the site when he dug a narrow channel along the eastern side of the site to bury his water hose. As a result, I was sent to conduct another excavation to estimate the damage to the site. During that season I shared the fieldwork with Yuval Baruch, and we extended the excavation area to the east and south to expose the complete plan of the church. When we discovered the niche in the southern part of the church, open to the north and closed on the south, Yuval invited Moshe Sharon to visit the excavation, and he identified it as a miḥrab (Muslim prayer niche). Sharon directed us to the relevant literature concerning Muslims praying inside churches, and for this I am grateful. Toward the end of the 1997 season, we conducted several probes in various parts

viii

of the church. The most important one was in the eastern part of the church, which enabled us to determine that the main apse protruding outside the building was an original part of the church, not a later addition. This was significant for understanding the development of the octagonal martyria in Israel, and the architectural influence of Kathisma on the church on Mount Gerizim and on the Dome of the Rock (Krautheimer 1965:116–117; Avner 2000, 2010; Avner and Puni 2012). The third excavation season took place in 1999 (Permit No. G-140/1999), in collaboration with representatives from the University of Athens and the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem, headed by the late George Lavas (the excavation permit was shared with Irini Rosidis of the University of Athens; see Avner, Lavas and Rosidis 2001). The excavation was funded by the University of Athens and the Greek Patriarchate. Our aim was to complete the excavation in preparation for the development of the site for tourism and pilgrimage. During this season, a Greek inscription was uncovered in a mosaic floor in the monastery, which was read and dated by Leah Di Segni. The inscription testifies to a Christian presence at the site also during the Early Islamic period (see Chapter 5; Di Segni 2003). The fourth and final excavation season at Kathisma, conducted in 2000 (Permit No. A-3276/2000), exposed a limited area in the southern part of the site (Avner 2005). The principal purpose of this season was to confirm our assumption that the large water reservoir, Bir Qadismu, which preserves the name of the site, served as a water reservoir for the monastery in the Byzantine period. The IAA began conservation work at the site at the end of the first excavation season (1992), and the work increased after the second and third seasons came to an end. Evidence of additional mosaic floors was revealed during this work, but the floors were not properly documented, as the conservation work took place after excavation had ceased and the archaeologists had left the area. Nevertheless, the present report refers to these finds. The IAA conservation team was headed by Ghaleb Abu-Diab, in consultation with engineer Yaacov Shaffer, and later with Jacques Neguer. At the end of each season, the mosaics were covered with geo-fabric, and over this was spread ʻArad sand, which is devoid of salt, and local soil. This was done to protect the remains from both natural damage and human destruction––mostly by pilgrims collecting ‘souvenirs’. The present volume is based on the published preliminary reports of the excavation seasons (Avner 1999, 2000, 2005; Avner, Lavas and Rosidis 2001), and on the research for my doctoral dissertation under the supervision of Joseph Patrich (Avner 2004a). The research involved consultations with many scholars: Leah Di Segni, who translated the relevant Greek sources, Amikam Elad, who translated the Arabic sources and referred me to Kaplony’s book (Kaplony 2002), and Rachel Milstein, who introduced me to the discipline of Umayyad iconography that was vital to my research. Over the years, the following researchers have commented on drafts of this manuscript: the late Yizhar Hirschfeld, the

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late Yoram Tsafrir, the late Zeev Rubin, Jodi Magness, Rina Talgam, Lihi Habas, Elisheva Revel-Neher, Milka Levy-Rubin, and the anonymous reviewers for this publication. I am grateful to the architect Shachar Puni for a brain-storming session that led to a collaborative study on the subject of architectural planning of octagonal churches in the Byzantine period (Avner and Puni 2012). I extend special thanks to my mother and teacher, Tamar Avner, for the long and inspiring discussions during and after the excavations, and for providing me with insights into the history of architecture of the early Byzantine period in the fifth century CE––during which the Kathisma church and monastery were built––and the historical background to that century. My heartfelt thanks are extended to the numerous employees of the IAA who provided help and support in the fieldwork: Ghaleb Abu-Diab (chief conservator), the surveyors Vadim Essman and Avraham Hajian (field plans), Nina Briskina (registrar), Tsila Sagiv, Clara Amit, Nicky Davidov and Sandu Mendrea (field and studio photography), and Alexander Wiegmann (recent drone photography). The small finds were treated in the IAA laboratories by the conservation team: Ella Altmark, Lena Kupershmidt and Viktoria Ziman (metal and coins) and Oded Reviv (stone). Restoration was carried out by Olga Shorr (glass) and Yosef Bukengolts and Roni Gat (pottery). The small finds were drawn by Michael Miles and Carmen Hersch (glass), Irena Lidsky-Reznikov and Noga Ze’evi (pottery) and Tania Kornfeld (architectural elements). The Hebrew was translated by Smadar Gabrieli. Thanks are also due to the publication department: Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz, Shelley Sadeh, Danny Syon, Ann Buchnick-Abuhav, Ira Brin, Natalia Zak, and especially to Ayelet Hashahar Malka, the volume editor, and Zvi Greenhut, the head of the department, who supported, guided, read, commented and helped, particularly in the final stages of writing this report. Unfortunately, two supporters of the Kathisma excavation project who worked to raise funds to develop the site as a tourist and pilgrimage site, Vassilios Tzaferis and Amir Drori, the founder and first director of the IAA, did not live to see the final report. This report is, to a considerable extent, due to their efforts––may they rest in peace. Rina Avner Jerusalem 2022

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 1

I ntroduction Rina Avner

The site of the Kathisma church is located east of Hebron Road (Road 60), the main road from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, near the junction with the road that leads to the modernday Har Ḥoma neighborhood and about 300 m north of the Mar Elias monastery (Fig. 1.1). It lies on the main watershed, opposite Khirbat Ṭabaliya, at the foot of the Ramat Raḥel ridge. Wadi el-Gharbi, a tributary of Naḥal Darga, passes to the south of the site and provides a moderately inclined route leading to the monasteries that existed in the Judean desert during the Byzantine period: Khirbat Abu Ghunneim, Har Ḥoma, Khirbat Luqa, Bir el-Qutt, Turris Ader, the Monastery of Theognius (Khirbat el-Makhrum) and Khirbat Juḥzum. From Khirbat Luqa it was possible to turn north to the wadi that runs parallel to Wadi el-Gharbi, and arrive at the following monasteries: Khirbat Bureikut, the Monastery of Theodosius (Deir Dosi), Heptastomos (Khirbat Jinjas), el-Burj, the Small Coenobium at Ras el-Baquq, and the Laura Sabae (Deir Mar Saba), which is located deep in the desert (Fig. 1.2; see Tsafrir, Di Segni and Green 1994: map of Iudea Palaestine Churches in Byzantine Palestine; for Har Ḥoma, see Zelinger 2022).

sal

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Fig. 1.1. The location of the Kathisma church on the Jerusalem–Bethlehem road.

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Fig. 1.2. The Byzantine monasteries in the Judean Desert.

History of R esearch and Identification of the Site A prominent feature on the surface in the southern part of the site is a large water reservoir built of ashlars (Fig. 1.3). In the British Survey Map, it is marked as ‘Bir Qadismu’ (Conder and Kitchener 1883: Sheet 17). The British surveyor, Palmer, related the name of the reservoir to the Hebrew word for holy men (‫)קדשם‬, and in his opinion it referred to a legend that was preserved in travelers’ itineraries from the fourteenth to the nineteenth centuries (Palmer 1881:289). The legend expands on the narrative of the three kings in the Gospel of St. Matthew, who arrived from the east to adore newborn Jesus in the Cave of Nativity in Bethlehem (Matthew 2:1–12). The later legend recounts that when the kings arrived in Jerusalem, the star that led them there was extinguished above Herod’s palace, to reappear above a well halfway between Jerusalem and Bethlehem, at the third mile (Tobler 1854:530–535). Other later traditions were also attached to the well: in the fifteenth century CE it was sanctified by Muslims as the well into which Joseph was thrown by his

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

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Fig. 1.3. The ‘Bir Qadismu’ reservoir in the southern part of the site; looking southeast.

brothers, and in the sixteenth century a willow tree in the field next to it was sanctified, due to a legend that identified the tree as the place where Mary rested on her way to the Temple in Jerusalem. The tree was burned by the Muslim landowner, who was disturbed by the many pilgrims that came to the place (Tobler 1854:534). A well or cistern is also mentioned by travelers in the nineteenth century, among them de Saulcy (1865:146) and Guérin (1868:209), and in modern-day pilgrim guidebooks (Fleckenstein 1990:44). In the Survey of Jerusalem (Kloner 2000:144, Site No. 92), the reservoir was surveyed and attributed to the Byzantine period. Richard von Riess was the first scholar to identify the name of the reservoir ‘Qadismu’ as preserving the Greek name Kathisma (Καθίζμα; Riess 1889), which is mentioned in Byzantine sources and translates as ‘seat’ (from the verb Καθίζω, to sit, to be seated; Liddell and Scott 1995:390). In antiquity, the site was identified as the holy place where Mary sat down to rest in her final stage of pregnancy, shortly before she gave birth to Jesus (Riess 1889; Schneider 1934; Testini 1962:73–77; Charbel 1975; Wilkinson 1977:163; Tsafrir, Di Segni and Green 1994:101). The narrative of Mary’s rest appears in the Gospel of St. Luke, according to which Joseph and his pregnant betrothed, Mary, travelled to Bethlehem to be registered in the census that Emperor Augustus declared (Luke 2:1–7). The earliest source of the legend that expands on this story is told in the Protoevangelium of James (Elliott 1993:63–67), which dates to the second century CE (Cross 1958:711; Gijsel and Beyers 1997:1–4). It relates that Joseph mounted Mary on a she-ass and they made their way from Jerusalem to Bethlehem to be registered in the census. Midway between the two cities, at the third mile, Mary’s expression changed radically, and when Joseph asked her

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for an explanation, she told him that she had had a vision that she was carrying two peoples: the first (symbolizing Christianity) was happy, while the other (symbolizing Judaism) was steeped in sorrow. Shortly after, Mary felt pressure in her womb, as her time was near, and she asked Joseph to stop for a rest. Based on this story, in the fifth century CE, a widow named Ikelia built there, at the third mile, a church and monastery dedicated to Mary Theotokos (God Bearer), named Kathisma (Cross 1958:1346). The identification of Bir Qadismu as the site of the Kathisma church by Riess (1889) relied on seven historical sources that refer to a holy place named Kathisma located at the third mile between Jerusalem and Bethlehem: two relate to liturgy, two are hagiographies, and three are pilgrims’ itineraries. The oldest source that mentions Kathisma is the Armenian Lectionary (Renoux 1969:354–357), which reflects the liturgy of Jerusalem in the first half of the fifth century CE, between the years 417–439 CE (Capelle 1943:19–20; Renoux 1971:181; Wilkinson 1977:213). In the lectionary it is written that on the 15th of August, the Feast of the Theotokos should be celebrated at Kathisma, midway between Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The second liturgical source is the Georgian Calendar (Garitte 1958:301–302), which mostly reflects the liturgy of Jerusalem in the fifth century, but also includes later additions to the liturgy of Jerusalem up to the eighth century (Abel 1924:616; Capelle 1943:1–3; Garitte 1958:23–27; Wilkinson 1977:214–215). In this calendar, the 15th of August is the day of Mary’s death and ascension to heaven, which is celebrated at her tomb in Gethsemane, while ‘the Feast of the Theotokos at Kathisma’ was changed to the 13th of August. Kathisma is also mentioned in two hagiographies of the life of St. Theodosius, also known as Theodosius the Cenobiarch because he was appointed head of the communal monasteries (coenobia) of the Judean Desert, while St. Sabas was placed in charge of the solitary monks of the Judean Desert (Cyr. Scyth. Vita Sabae 115.15–16, pp. 124–125; Di Segni 2005:22, 165, n. 129). Theodosius began his service as a monk in the Holy Land in the Kathisma church and monastery built by Ikelia (Vita Thds.:13–14; Festugière 1963:57– 58; Di Segni 2005:251–252). One hagiography was written by Theodorus, Bishop of Petra, a disciple of Theodosius (De Nicolla 1992), and was based on the obituary he delivered on the first anniversary of the death of Theodosius (Di Segni 2005:254, n. 22). The second hagiography was written by Cyril of Scythopolis (Cyr. Scyth. Vita Theodosii 236.20–25; pp. 262–263; Di Segni 2005:251–252). Flusin suggested that Cyril relied on the treatise of Theodorus from Petra (Flusin 1983:71–72), although Di Segni claimed that Theodorus’s treatise was edited a number of times, and the version we have attests to a late editing that was influenced by the treatise of Cyril of Scythopolos (Di Segni 2005:12, n. 12). Di Segni suggested that the building of the Kathisma church and monastery should be dated around 456 CE (Di Segni 2005:251, n. 3), based on Cyril of Scythopolos saying that Theodosius arrived in Jerusalem in the time of Emperor Marcian (450–457 CE), and Theodorus of Petra who said that Theodosius left his village in Cappadocia to Jerusalem toward the end of Marcian’s reign. Pilgrim itineraries that mention Kathisma include De situ Terrae Sanctae, which reflects the time of Emperor Anastasius I (491–518; Wilkinson 1977:5–6; Limor 1998:172, n. 14). It was written by Theodosius the Pilgrim, who, despite his nickname, apparently

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

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never visited the Holy Land. The source that Theodosius the Pilgrim relied on tells of a holy rock on which Mary sat, at the third mile, midway from Jerusalem to Bethlehem. The rock was defiled by one named Urbicius, who dared to saw off an altar from the holy rock and tried to transport it to Constantinople. Urbicius loaded the altar onto a carriage harnessed to oxen, which miraculously stopped at St. Stephen’s Gate in Jerusalem and refused to continue. The altar was then transported to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, where it was placed behind the tomb of Jesus and used to perform the Eucharist (Geyer 1965:123; Wilkinson 1977:70–71). Mango suggested that the Urbicius who defiled the rock should be identified as the philanthropist and patron Urbicius, mentioned in ‘The Chronicle of Edessa’, who donated generously to the Church of Mary Theotokos in Edessa. According to Mango, the same Urbicius built a church in Constantinople that was dedicated to Mary Theotokos (Mango 2000:20, nn. 26, 27). If so, then the altar sawn from the stone at Kathisma was probably meant for Urbicius’ church in Constantinople, and for unknown reasons, the monks in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher managed to stop this and assume control of the altar. In an itinerary written by the Piacenza Pilgrim around 570 CE (Wilkinson 1977:6–7), the author confused at least two other traditions with those of Kathisma: that of the Tomb of Rachel, and that of the rock from which Mary drank while resting during the flight to Egypt (Wilkinson 1977:85; Avner 2007:548–550; 2011:27–28). The last pilgrim to refer to the Kathisma church was the Russian Abbot Daniel, who visited the Holy Land in 1108/1107 CE (Raba 1986:12, n. 12). The Abbot Daniel saw the ruins of a splendid church on the third mile. He related this church to the vision of the two peoples that Mary saw before she sat for a rest mid-way to Bethlehem (Abbot Daniel:38–39; Raba 1986:48–49). The Abbot Daniel located the rock on which Mary sat close to the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. Thus, it is evident that the site at the third mile was in ruins by the beginning of the twelfth century, and the tradition relating to the location of Kathisma had moved to Bethlehem. However, in another paragraph, Abbot Daniel describes the location of ancient Bethlehem as “an uninhabited and desert mountain … a little in front of the actual place of Christ’s nativity, and there, at the present day, is a stylite and the resting stone of the holy Virgin” (Abbot Daniel:40; Raba 1986:49). Therefore, although Mary’s resting place had been relocated to the vicinity of the Church of the Nativity, a memory was still retained of a holy stone associated with Mary Theotokos outside the city. The possibility of two monasteries named Kathisma was first raised by Capelle (1943), based on a commentary by Theodorus of Petra, who stated that Theodosius joined the ‘Old’ Kathisma (παλαίον) monastery. However, following a comparison between the Armenian Lectionary, the Georgian Calendar and the sermons written in the fifth century CE for ‘the Feast of the Theotokos at Kathisma’, Capelle concluded that an extensive renovation was undertaken in the Kathisma church shortly after Theodorus of Petra completed his hagiography of Theodosius, about 500 CE. He proposed that this renovation was so extensive that it was considered a ‘renewed foundation’ of the church, which justified a new ‘dedication feast’ (dedicatio) to be celebrated at Kathisma at the beginning of December. This feast is marked in the Georgian Calendar, but not in the earlier Armenian Lectionary (Capelle 1943:32–33).

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The hypothesis of two monasteries named Kathisma was put forth again by Milik (1959:572) and accepted by others (Wilkinson 1977:163; Shoemaker 2003:32, nn. 59–60). However, given Capelle’s decisive arguments for rejecting this (1943), and the credibility of Cyril of Scythopolis (Di Segni 2005:3, 7–10, 30), who refers to one monastery named Kathisma, it is difficult to accept the existence of two monasteries of this name in the Byzantine period. If the hagiography written by Theodorus from Petra is later than that of Cyril of Scythopolis (Di Segni 2005:12, n. 12), then it is possible to suggest, following Capelle, an extensive renovation in the mid-sixth century CE. In 1934, Schneider suggested that Kathisma should be identified at Khirbat Abu Bureik, on the ridge of Kibbutz Ramat Raḥel, based on fragments of slabs and a limestone capital he had found on the surface (Schneider 1934). Therefore, when Yohanan Aharoni excavated at Ramat Raḥel (1959–1964) and exposed the remains of a monastery and a basilical church, they were identified in the excavation report as Kathisma (Testini 1962:73– 77). During the renewed excavations at Ramat Raḥel, coins dating to the sixth century CE were discovered below the floor of the same basilica, and the excavators rejected the identification of the basilica at Ramat Raḥel as Kathisma (Lipschits et al. 2009:77). In the years prior to the renewed excavations at Ramat Raḥel, the Kathisma church was generally identified with the basilica that Aharoni excavated there (see above), although a few scholars continued to support Riess’s identification (e.g., Charbel 1975; Fleckenstein 1990:44). Following the preliminary publication of our excavations near Bir Qadismu (Avner 2005), Riess’s identification was again accepted (Tsafrir, Di Segni and Green 1994:101–102). The significance of the Kathisma church and monastery extends well beyond the archaeological research. Kathisma played a role in the initial stages of Mary’s worship and its influence is still felt today. For example, the determination of the 15th of August as the date of Mary’s Assumption,1 which is celebrated in the Eastern and Western Churches alike (Jugie 1925:340.40–341.10, 341.35; 1926, 1944; Verhelst 1999; Avner 2011:27, n. 108); and the candle procession that was established by Ikelia at Kathisma to celebrate the Presentation in the Temple, an event in which Jesus was recognized for the first time as the redeemer by the elderly Simon and by the prophetess Anna (Luke 2:22–40; Lampe 1961:1434). The date for this feast was determined according to the Jewish law relating to the purification period of a woman after childbirth (Exodus 13:2; Leviticus 12:8), and therefore it is also celebrated as the Feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary (Hesychius, Homily I; see Aubineau 1978:24–42; Marinone 1992; Allen 2011:80; Avner 2011:22–24). This feast, which was shared by Jesus and Mary and originated at Kathisma, was included in the calendar of feasts of the Jerusalem church, adopted by the Constantinople Calendar, and eventually accepted by the Roman Catholic church (Di Berardino 1992; Allen 2011:78, n. 55). Today, it is known in the Catholic church as ‘Mary’s Candle Mass’ (Cross 1958:226; Marinone 1992).

The possibility that the 15th of August was originally chosen as the date for ‘the Feast of the Theotokos at Kathisma’ under the influence of the Jewish calendar, was explored in the PhD dissertation of Verhelst (1999), and brought up again by the author (Avner 2015). 1

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The Excavations The site covers c. 14 dunams (1.4 ha; over 140 × 100 m). Most of it was exposed east of the Jerusalem–Bethlehem road (Areas A–D), and a small part lay west of the road (Area E; Plan 1.1; Fig. 1.4). The five excavation areas (A–E) were opened during the first season (1992), and architectural complexes were uncovered in all five areas. In Areas A and B, remains of a large octagonal building with mosaic floors were revealed. The discovery of an apsidal chapel facing northeast and incorporated within the overall plan of the large octagonal building, led to the conclusion that we were excavating a church similar in plan to the one excavated by Schneider on Mount Gerizim (Schneider 1951; Magen 1993a; 2008a:258–263). To the north of and abutting the church building were remains of rooms and a peristyle atrium, and another atrium was identified west of the church. Sections of walls and mosaic floors around a stone-paved court were exposed south and southwest of the church, as well as plastered installations related to water supply. The architectural remains around the church are attributed to a monastery that was built next to it. Unfortunately, the poor preservation did not enable a full reconstruction of the plan of the monastery. The excavations in the first and second seasons concentrated mainly on the church.

Area B Area A

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Plan 1.1. The excavation areas.

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Road

60

Fig. 1.4. Aerial view of the site of Kathisma in the olive grove; the Bir Qadismu reservoir and the ancient road to the south; looking east.

The remains of the church and the monastery were exposed to a depth of 1.5 m below the modern surface. Five strata were identified in the church, numbered from bottom to top, which revealed the history and development of the church from its construction to its abandonment. The earliest remains, Stratum I, are dated to the fifth century CE based on the mention of the Kathisma site in the Armenian Lectionary (417–439 CE), and predate the construction of the church by Ikelia in c. 456 CE (Stratum II). In Stratum III, dated by numismatic and ceramic evidence to the second half of the sixth century CE (see Chapters 7, 8), extensive renovations took place. The pillars that supported the ceiling and apparently also the roofing above the inner octagon were replaced and the bema in the east was extended westward into the area of the ambulatory. New mosaic floors were laid over the earlier ones throughout most of the church. A floor of marble or colored stones was laid opposite the bema, and in the western entrance room a marble floor was installed. In Stratum IV, dated by numismatic finds to the Umayyad period (eighth century CE; see Chapter 7), the southern entrance room was divided into two rooms of different sizes, and a niche was set in its northern wall, facing the ambulatory, which is interpreted as a miḥrab (prayer niche). New mosaic floors were laid in the ambulatory, and in the outer octagon in the southern rooms, the southern chapels, and the apse of the northwestern chapel. Lacunae in the mosaic floors of the two northern chapels were repaired. In addition, the main apse of the church on the east was canceled by a building that was erected around it and over its eastern wall. A mosaic inscription to the southwest of the church (in Room 10) testifies to a Christian presence at the site in the Umayyad period. In Stratum V (eighth or ninth century CE) two walls were built around the rock at the center of the church, and the building that canceled the apse was enlarged to the northwest. Coins found below a mosaic floor in

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

9

one of the monastery’s rooms (Room 17), southwest of the church, testify to construction works in the monastery during the ninth century (see Chapter 7). The site was apparently abandoned in the tenth century CE, which accords with the testimony of the Russian Abbot Daniel, that the site was in ruins at the beginning of the twelfth century. Excavation Methodology All five excavation areas were opened during the first season. Work in Areas A–C continued for three seasons, Area E was closed after the first season, and Area D was reopened in the fourth season. All the excavation squares in the five areas were on the same grid. In the first season, each area (with the exception of Area E) was initially opened with five contiguous squares (5 × 5 m) on an east–west axis; excavation then continued in all directions from the initial squares, and Areas A, B and C were joined. In Area E, the excavation squares were opened according to the archaeological remains that were disturbed by the mechanical equipment. In Areas A, B and C, the architectural remains were contiguous, but there was no continuity with Areas D and E. Each area was given its own sequence of loci and basket numbers, but as the excavation progressed, the loci numbers were united for all areas. In the second and third seasons, 24 probes were carried out in the church and in the building that canceled the main apse to the east (Probes 1–24; see Chapter 2: Plan 2.1: Sections 1-1–24-24); another eight probes were made in the remains outside the church. Most of the probes reached the bedrock on which the church was founded. The probes were of limited area, so as to minimize damage. Their aim was to reach the earliest construction phase of the church and clarify if all the features were part of the original plan or if some were later additions, such as the main apse that protruded eastward, the chapels, etc. The probes uncovered a sequence of mosaic-floor beddings, sometimes with the mosaic itself lost (see Table 2.1). Finds beneath the floor beddings established their date, and when no finds were recovered, the beddings were attributed according to the relative stratigraphy. The relationship between the beddings in the various probes could not be determined with certitude. Each floor was given a locus number, and capital letters were added to distinguish the various bedding layers of each floor, so that the top bedding layer has the suffix A, the layer below it, B, and the lowest layer has the suffix C. The fills below and above the floors were assigned locus numbers beginning with 900. During the conservation work, which took place between excavation seasons, the edges of the mosaic floors were reinforced, and some mosaic floors were excavated and removed. The finds were collected by the conservators and documented after the fieldwork. All the coins were cleaned in the laboratory, and all are listed in the report in order of loci (see Chapter 7: Table 7.1). The catalogue documents the identified coins, and the discussion focuses on the coins that were found in dated archaeological contexts. The pottery was sorted on site and all the diagnostic sherds were collected; those that were found in dated contexts are published here (see Chapter 8). Most of them originate in the

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probes inside the church and in two rooms outside it. The entire glass assemblage was cleaned and sorted in the laboratory (see Chapter 9). No glass was discovered in the probes. The plans are oriented according to the central longitudinal axis of the church, with the main apse of the church, which is in the east, at the top of the plan.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 2

The Octagonal Church—Architecture and Stratigraphy Rina Avner

Introduction The church uncovered in Areas A and B was octagonal in plan, 41.5 m long on the east– west axis and c. 36 m wide north–south (Figs. 2.1, 2.2; Plan 2.1). The plan was based on three concentric octagons, with a rock at the center. The inner octagon at the center of the church was separated from the middle octagon (the ambulatory) by a system of pillars. The ambulatory was separated by walls from the outermost octagon, which was divided into rooms. The church was entered through rectangular rooms on the northern, western and southern sides. On the eastern side of the outer octagon was a bema that opened eastward, to the main apse (sanctuary) of the church. The external wall of the apse was polygonal on the outside, protruding eastward from the octagonal outline of the church. On each of the remaining sides of the octagon—the southeast, southwest, northeast and northwest—was a chapel comprising a rectangular hall with an apse at the narrow end closest to the east. Each chapel had two openings, one in the center of the narrow wall opposite the apse, the other in the center of the long wall facing the ambulatory. The apses of the chapels were located in four of the corners of the outermost octagon; the remaining four corners between the entrance rooms and the chapels were occupied by small, irregular, trapezoidal shaped rooms. The outer walls of these rooms met at an obtuse angle of 135° (i.e., the angle of a regular octagon), while on the inside the edges of the mosaic floor indicate that the inner face of the external walls was rounded. These rooms had openings in the inner walls that crossed the octagon, and they functioned as passages between the entrance rooms and the chapels on either side. The western entrance room had two such passages that allowed access to the northwestern and the southwestern chapels. The northern and southern entrance rooms had only one passage to an adjacent chapel—the northeastern and the southeastern respectively. The architectural remains of the church were poorly preserved, and the plan was reconstructed according to the partially preserved outermost walls, and inside, by the surviving rooms in the outermost octagon and mainly by the preserved edges of the floors. In the northern part of the church, the outermost octagon was damaged prior to excavation by mechanical equipment.

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Fig. 2.1. General view of the church during the 1999 season; looking east.

Fig. 2.2. General view of the Kathisma church at the end of the 1999 season, with the ‘holy rock’ at the center; looking southwest.

13

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

1

10

W

2

3A W

1

W104 W 11 9

10

P2

4

10

11 W

W

4

24

3

4

24

12

W

5 11 W

10

W

7 11 W

3 1A

23

23 P23 16 22 1 22 W P 22

0

1

13

10

W164

W

10

W 11 0

P10

P6

6

W308

35

W141

W2

P4

P1

W125 W126

1

P2

W113

2

2

W138

W139

W352

4

W302

5

4

W

W 11 2

W

3

35

W122

8

P1

18

W140

5

W

W

W127

35

1

3

3

P7

P3

38

7

6

W

7 16

9

W350

W

W129

18

W354

W103

1 P2

9

P1

6

5 P5 5

19

W128

0 P2

W105

0 13 W

4

W

21

12 W108

1 11

W 19 30 1

P12

W

20

12 P9 9 W109

6 10 9

21

11

P11

12

20

W

11

W

W

1

8

P8

W25

8

W25

15

14

P15

P14

1

15

16

16

15

14

P = Probe

W

P16

W32

P1

W 17 4

7

17

3

W28

W

13

13

Stratum V

W 15 2

Stratum IV Stratum III

P13

Stratum II W26

Stratum I 0

Plan 2.1. Plan and sections, all strata.

5

m

14

RINA AVNER Tserae s rae

782 00

Whi e-plaster layer ite plaster layer serae

serae Yellowish layer lowish plasplaster er la er e p aste laye hite p haster yer Gray mo tar layer ay mo tar al er er lowi plas lay 781 50

lowish la lae er splaster morta layer bbles and-mo ar aPebbl mort rand layer ay tarsa ayeill Ter a ro ra rossa blemo nd mo

L356A L385

L900

bbl Earth fsall t slland ra-ro

L901 781 00

1-1

782 00

L80A L81 L8 L80 L81 L88

L902

781 50

L902 L903 781 00

2-2

782 00

L236 L236 320A L320B L320A

L904 L321

L906

L905

781 50

Pillar 5

781 00

3-3

782 00

L69A 781 50

L69B

L907

L105

Pillar 3

781 00

4-4

Plan 2.1 (cont.).

78

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

782 00

L59 L95 L109

L110

781 50

781 00

5-5

782 00 L63A

L111A

L63B

L111B 1A L L111A C L

L63B L908

L 11 L 112

781 50

781 00

6-6

782 782 00 00 L245A L245A L245B L245B

L260A L260A L260B L260B

L261 L261

L260C L260C L909 L909

781 781 50 50

L910 L910 781 781 00 00

7-7

782 00 L316–L316A L316B

L317 L318A L318B L318C

L319A

781 50

L319B L911

L912 781 00

8-8

Plan 2.1 (cont.).

15

16

RINA AVNER 782 00

L379 781 50 L380

781 00

L380A 780 50

L381

780 00

9-9

L52A L52B

782 00

L913

781 50

10-10

L56A L339A L341

L340

782 00

L339B

L914 781 50

11-11

L56A L56B

782 00

L96 L97

12-12

Plan 2.1 (cont.).

781 50

7

50

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY 12-12 782 00 L256 L256A L256 L256B L256A L256C

L915

L278A L278B

781 50

L916

781 00

13-13

L265A L917

L282

781 50

L918

781 00

14-14

L265A L282 L265

L917

781 50

L918 781 00

15-15

L265A L279

781 50

781 00

16-16

Plan 2.1 (cont.).

17

18

RINA AVNER

L10 L10A L10B L10C

L919

781 50

L155

L920 781 00

17-17 L121 L 2 L121A L 22 B L121B L 2 B L134A L134B L 34 L134B L 34B

L921 L92

781 50 781 5

781 00 781

L922 L922

780 50

18-18

L70A

L923

L70B 70A L70C L70B

782 00

L120 L7

L924

781 50

781 00

19-19

L70A

781 50

L70B L70C L923 L925

L156 781 00 780 75

20-20

Plan 2.1 (cont.).

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND 782 00STRATIGRAPHY 782 00

L70A L70B 7 C L70B L70C L70C L 54 L923

781 50

L154

781 00

21-21

L87 L87 L87A L87B L87 8 A L87C L87B L87A L115

782 50

782 00

22-22

783 00 L91 L9 L91A L91B

782 50

L929

782 00

23-23

783 00

L65

782 50

L65A L65B L107 782 00

24-24

Plan 2.1 (cont.).

19

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RINA AVNER

Five strata were distinguished in the church. The earliest stratum (Stratum I) predated the construction of the octagonal church. Only the remains of W140 were preserved from this stratum, near the center of the church and sealed by the construction of the early church of Stratum II. As no finds that predate the Byzantine period were found in a secure archaeological context, apart from a single jar sherd dating to the first century CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.2:21), found under the floor in the northwestern chapel, Stratum I should be dated to the first half of the fifth century CE based on historical and architectural considerations (see Chapter 1; Avner and Puni 2012). In Stratum II, the octagonal church was built (Plan 2.2). Attributed to this stratum is the early system of pillars that supported the roof over the central part of the church, and the earliest floors, of which only the beddings of mortar and pebbles survived. Corinthian capitals dated by stylistic comparisons to the third quarter of the fifth century CE are attributed to Stratum II (see Chapter 6). Four coins dating to the fourth–fifth centuries CE and three coins dating to the fifth–sixth centuries CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 12, 13, 24, 25, 33, 51, 64) were found beneath Stratum II floors. One of them (Cat. No. 51), from the reign of Justinian I (527–565 CE), was discovered under the early floor of the passage room in the northeastern corner of the outermost octagon, and may have fallen in when the wall and threshold were raised during Stratum III. Two other coins, one from the reign of Anastasius I (491–518 CE) and one from the sixth century CE (Cat. Nos. 33, 64) were found during the cleaning of a section made by a tractor before excavation (Probe 2). Three potsherds (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.1:2–4) found under a Stratum II floor in Probe 7 in the southwestern part of the ambulatory, are dated to the sixth–early eighth centuries CE and are apparently intrusive. A single potsherd from a similar context in Probe 3 in the innermost octagon is dated to the third–fifth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.1:1). Stratum II is dated to the mid-fifth century CE based on historical, architectural and numismatic evidence. In Stratum III (Plan 2.3), the system of pillars that supported the roof above the center of the church was replaced, as the roof had apparently collapsed; new pillars were erected over the previous ones, and columns on stylobates extended between the pillars. In the eastern part of the church, the bema was extended westward, into the area of the ambulatory. A staircase (W108) that ascended to the bema was bordered by two walls (W105, W109) into which architectural elements were incorporated in secondary use (see below). Above the Stratum II floors, new mosaic floors were laid; in some cases only the bedding was preserved. Coins that date no later than the mid-sixth century CE were found below Stratum III floors of the innermost octagon, the bema and the northeastern passage room (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 19, 20, 31, 32, 34, 42, 54–57, 65). Below floors in the ambulatory, the bema and the northwestern chapel, the latest potsherds are attributed to the mid-sixth–mid-eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.2). Stratum III can therefore be dated to the second half of the sixth century CE. In Stratum IV, a rounded niche was installed in W122 in the southern part of the ambulatory, open to the north and closed to the south. This niche is interpreted as a miḥrab. In the bedding of the floor that abutted W122 from the south was an Umayyad coin with

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

21

an Arabic inscription that dates the niche to the eighth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 85). The style and motifs of the mosaic floor that abutted the niche (see Chapters 4, 10), which were inspired by the wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock, support this date. In the mortar of the western W125 to the south of the niche, which was also abutted by the same mosaic floor, an Umayyad coin with an Arabic inscription dating to the first half of the eighth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 73) was embedded. The building erected to the east of the church, which canceled its apse, is also attributed to this stratum. Here, too, in the mortar of one of the walls, was an Umayyad coin with an Arabic inscription dating to the first half of the eighth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 82). New floors were laid in the innermost octagon, in the ambulatory, and in some of the rooms in the outermost octagon. The ceramic vessels under the uppermost mosaic floors in the ambulatory, in the two western passage rooms and in the southwestern chapel, date to the mid-sixth–early eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.4:33–45). The architectural changes that occurred in Stratum IV testify to functional changes in the church, with the southern and eastern areas of the church confiscated by the Muslims for religious purposes, while the Christians were relegated to the northern and western sides (see discussion in Chapter 10). Of Stratum V, sporadic remains of walls were found in the center of the church (W138, W139) and adjoining the Stratum IV building (W100, W101A, W103A) that had obliterated the main apse (see Plan 2.4). There were no small finds that could date these remains, and Stratum V is dated by the latest coins at the site to the second half of the eighth–ninth centuries CE. The church was probably abandoned in the tenth century, and most of the stones were looted before or during the early twelfth century, when Abbot Daniel observed its ruins (see Chapter 1). State of Preservation Only the foundations remained of most of the church walls, and reconstruction of the walls’ outlines (or the robber trenches) was enabled by the preserved edges of the mosaic floors and beddings. Thresholds that remained in situ indicated the locations of the openings between the various church rooms (Fig. 2.3). Most of the floors preserved in the church were mosaic floors of Stratum IV. Of the Stratum III floors, only five were preserved and from Stratum II, only the floor beddings survived. The preservation of the mosaics improved the farther they were from the center of the church. In the innermost octagon, only beddings survived. In the ambulatory, segments of mosaics were preserved, mainly in the north, and isolated fragments in the west and south. In the rooms of the outermost octagon, the mosaics were patchy, and floors that survived in their entirety were exposed mainly in the chapels. A few remnants of colored-stone and marble paving were discovered in the western part of the outermost octagon, in the western and eastern parts of the ambulatory, and in the staircase ascending to the bema.

22

RINA AVNER

Fig. 2.3. The western and northwestern areas of the outermost octagon and the ambulatory; looking south. In left foreground, a fragment of a pillar base in secondary deposition in the northern part of the church (arrow).

Construction Techniques The beddings of mosaic floors in all strata were composed of three layers: first, a base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar was laid, above this a layer of gray mortar, and over this a thin layer of white plaster into which the mosaic tesserae were inlaid. The tesserae were laid according to a sketch or a stencil that was traced onto the upper white-plaster layer, traces of which are preserved in the bema and the northeastern passage room The wall foundations were made of a conglomerate of mortar and stones; a few foundations incorporated the bedrock, or were hewn from the bedrock. All the walls that survived in the church were constructed of local limestone, including finely dressed ashlars and more simply dressed stones. It is possible to differentiate between a number of wallconstruction methods, and also to distinguish between the various strata to some degree.

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

23

Stratum I. The only wall of this stratum, W140, was partly constructed of two rows of dressed, medium-sized stones with earth between them, and partly of a single row of larger stones. This wall incorporated in its foundation the natural bedrock. Stratum II. In this stratum, the church walls were built of carefully hewn ashlars, most of them now robbed. Two main wall-construction techniques were distinguished. One was typical of the wider walls (1.2–2.0 m), mostly the external walls of the church, the walls of the apses of the chapels and the main apse (Fig. 2.4), which probably supported domes and half-domes. They were constructed of two faces of large and medium-sized ashlars with a cast core of mortar and small stones. Occasionally, a plastered drainage channel with a round section (c. 0.2 m wide) was installed inside the core (e.g., W130; Fig. 2.5), part of the system to drain rainwater from the church’s roofing. The external face of the walls was plastered with gray hydraulic plaster mixed with slivers of pottery that lend the plaster a pinkish hue; for example, the walls of the main apse (W104, W114, W119), the southern wall of the bema that was also the wall of the southeastern chapel (W110), and the external walls of the church (W103, W124, W128, W130, W164). The inside face of the walls was coated with two layers of plaster: a layer of gray plaster with an incised herringbone pattern, topped by a layer of white plaster; for example, the two longitudinal walls of the southeastern chapel (W111, W124). Although no fragments of painted plaster were found, the existence of these plaster layers raises the possibility that the church may have been decorated, at least partially, with wall paintings.

L75

W164

Fig. 2.4. The apse wall (W164) of the northeastern chapel; looking east. Note the plaster layer on the outer face (arrow).

24

RINA AVNER

Upper Channel

Lower Channel

Fig. 2.5. Drainage channels in the core of the external northeastern wall of the church (W130); looking east.

The second wall-construction technique, apparently used for the internal walls in the church, was characterized by large ashlars arranged in one header to two stretchers. Remains of only two walls built in this technique (W25, W28) were identified in the western part of the church. The walls of the apses of the southern chapels (W110, W127) and the southern wall between the ambulatory and the outermost octagon (W122), were hewn of bedrock. Stratum III. Two walls in the eastern part of the church, which extended the bema westward into the ambulatory (W105, W109) to the staircase ascending to the bema (W108), were added in this stratum. They were built of large or medium-sized ashlars consolidated with gray mortar, and architectural elements such as capitals and column bases were incorporated in them and in the staircase (Figs. 2.6, 2.7). Apparently, the architectural elements originated in Stratum II.

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

Fig. 2.6. A column base and a capital incorporated in secondary use in W109, the northern wall of the steps to the bema; looking south.

W105

Fig. 2.7. Two capitals incorporated in secondary use in W108, the staircase that led up to the bema; looking south.

25

26

RINA AVNER

Strata IV and V. In these strata, the walls were constructed of two rows of dressed stones with a core of earth mixed with small stones (0.8–1.2 m wide). Occasionally, fragments of stone columns were incorporated into the walls, as for example, in W138 and W139 of Stratum V erected in the center of the innermost octagon. This technique was also used to construct the Umayyad building erected over the main apse of the church. An exception is a southern wall of the outermost octagon (W125) built of a single row of ashlars with gray mortar between them.

The Church The remains of the church are described from the center outward, according to the architectural units, and stratigraphically from earliest to latest (Plans 2.1–2.4). The innermost octagon and the ambulatory were contiguous, while the outermost octagon was divided into rooms that are described clockwise from the east. The Umayyad building that canceled the main apse of the church is described last. The Innermost Octagon Architectural remains attributed to the five strata (Strata I–V) were identified in the innermost octagon. The bedrock protrusion at the center of the octagon, around which the church was built, rose above the archaeological remains surrounding it (max. dimensions 2.5 × 3.0 m; upper level 781.49–781.57 m asl), and it was visible throughout the periods in which the building served as a church (see Figs. 2.1, 2.2). It sloped westward, and quarrying marks were discerned on its western and northern sides. There was a natural cupmark in its northeastern corner (diam. 0.15 m, depth 0.60 m). Due to the poor preservation of the floor beddings in the innermost octagon, it was often difficult to ascertain their stratigraphic attribution. The beddings comprised layers of white plaster, gray mortar and pebbles in mortar, attesting to mosaic floors that originally decorated the octagon. Some of the floor beddings were exposed in Probes 1–4 (Plan 2.1: Sections 1-1–4-4; Table 2.1). When pre-excavation damage in the northern part of the octagon was cleaned, some mixture of small finds occurred (Probe 2). Stratum I (Plan 2.2) Wall 140 was built to the west of the protruding rock (preserved length 2.50 m, width 0.65 m), and only one foundation course survived (0.12 m high). Its southern part was built directly on the bedrock, and its northern part incorporated the bedrock, where the rock was higher. The wall was sealed below a floor bedding of Stratum II (see below). As mentioned above, no small finds can be attributed to Stratum I; however, it should be dated to the Byzantine period, as no earlier finds from dated contexts were found in the building.

27

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

11 W

W 11 9

W104

4

L52

782 08

P10

P11

W

1 11

L154

P9

L110

P2 1

781 50

P5

P6

L112 781 48

L134A

781 28 L134B 781 27

1

781 42

2

781 52

W 11 2

P2 0

0 13 W P1 9

P1 8

4

P12

6

10

W

781 18

12

L341

781 79

L156

781 28

L120

W

L76

W 30 1

L52A L52B

W 11 0

W164

W308 W141 W103

781 46

781 40

P2

L385

L88

P1

781 39

781 39

4

L930

5

W

781 39

781 50

W140 L321

781 48

6

W127 5

38

P7

P3

781 46

W128

W302

W2

3 L105

P4

W122

L129

781 50

W

L261

781 47

W

781 44 L319A 781 43 L319B

L155

P8

W25

781 31

L282 W28

W25

1

15

P15

P1 7

3

W 4

W

781 42

P14

P16

W32

1

P13

W 15 2

P = Probe

W

= Pillar-base

foundation Stratum II Stratum I

W26

W26

Plan 2.2. Strata I, II (for sections, see Plan 2.1).

0

5

m

28

RINA AVNER

Stratum II (Plan 2.2) The System of Pillars Supporting the Innermost-Octagon Roof. In Stratum II, when the church was built, a system of supporting pillars was built around the central area of the church, comprising eight corner pillars that defined the innermost octagon. Six foundations of pillar bases were found in situ, sealed under floor beddings or stylobates of Stratum III (Figs. 2.8, 2.9). The two base foundations that delineated the octagon on the north were destroyed by tractors prior to the excavations. The foundations of the pillar bases consisted of two carefully dressed, trapezoidal stones set side by side to form an obtuse angle of 135° (the angle of a regular octagon). The length of the stones was 1.2 m, and the width of each stone was 0.7 m toward the center of the church and 1.1. m toward the ambulatory. The only remnant of the pillars was a pillar base uncovered by a tractor in the northern part of the church (see Fig. 2.3; Chapter 6: Fig. 6.5). The six surviving pillar-base foundations were numbered clockwise from the northeastern corner (Pillar 1) to the northwestern corner (Pillar 6). Mosaic-Floor Beddings (L88, L105, L321, L385, L930). Floor beddings were identified in four probes in the innermost octagon, three of white plaster. The white-plaster layers were laid over terra-rossa fills that separated them from the bedrock (Table 2.1). Bedding 385 abutted the rock at the center of the church (Probe 1). Bedding 321 abutted the foundation of Pillar 5 (Probe 3). A sherd of a lantern or incense burner dated to the third–fifth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.1:1) was found in this bedding, and a coin dating to the fourth– fifth centuries CE in Fill 906 below it (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 25). In Bedding 88, two coins dated to the sixth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 33, 64) were intrusive, probably introduced when the bedding was damaged by a tractor prior to excavation (Probe 2). In

3

Fig. 2.8. The foundation of Pillar 3, part of the original Stratum II system of supporting pillars, and above it, the stylobate of Stratum III. On the left, two floor beddings in the ambulatory abut the stylobate and preserve its outline; looking southwest.

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

29

3 L9 1 1 L3 6

5

Fig. 2.9. The foundation of Pillar 5, part of the original Stratum II system of supporting pillars. On the right, remains of two mosaic floors (L316 above L931) preserve the outline of the Stratum III stylobate W350; looking southwest.

the southeastern part of the octagon, a floor bedding of yellowish mortar (L105) above the bedrock, abutted the foundation of Pillar 3 (Probe 4). In addition to the floor beddings exposed in the probes, a bedding of white plaster (L930) was exposed in the western part of the octagon, sealing W140 of Stratum I below it. Its level (781.39 m asl) is the same as that of Bedding 385, and it is therefore attributed to Stratum II. Stratum III (Plan 2.3) Architectural Elements Supporting the Innermost-Octagon Roof. In this stratum, the system of pillars that delineated the octagon was replaced by a set of narrower pillars with a stylobate extending between them, upon which columns were erected. The outline of the roof-support system was extended to the south, east and west, and some of the pillar bases were not in the same positions as the previous, Stratum II pillars; thus, the innermost octagon in Stratum III was no longer symmetrical. Only a segment of the foundation course of the stylobate survived (W113), built of stones embedded in gray mortar, which partially covered the base foundations of the earlier Pillars 3 and 4 (see Plan 2.2; Figs. 2.8, 2.10); their outlines were preserved by the edges of the floor beddings in the innermost octagon and the ambulatory. Bedding 387, which abutted stylobate W113, was also laid on the foundation of Pillar 3. The mortar of the stylobate retained the imprint of the foundation of a smaller pillar base, also built of two trapezoidal stones (length 0.6 m, width 0.6 m facing

30

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11 W

W 11 9

W104

4

L52

782 08

W164

L339A 782 06 L339B 782 04

781 42

L76

W105 781 70

P L111A 6

W354

781 73

3

35

W

781 48

W302

W2

781 47

L69A L69B

L81

781 61

W352

L388

L387

781 36

P2

L361

1

L229

781 57 781 55

781 56

P3

L381A 781 58 L381B 781 58 L381C 781 56

W

1

W

3

P15

W26

6

W

W127

38

W

P7

L931

781 60

L346

781 54

P8

L265

781 57

P14

1

15

P16

L265A 781 57

W28 L10A 781 56 L10B 781 55 L10C 781 52

L260B 781 59 L260C 781 56

W25

W 4

L10

781 57

350

W25

7 P1

781 61

781 64

L320A L320B

W32

35

L260A

781 45

L356A

W

W141

781 58

P4

781 34

781 43

W

781 71 781 68

5

781 52 781 50

P1

5

L111B L111C

35

W103

W308

W

W128

781 53

W122

8

781 60

781 78

W 11 2

9

P1

W120

L59

L95

781 60

W103

0

1

W108

W113

0 13 W

P2

P2

P5

L343

P1

L121

4

P9

W109

1 11

1

P12

W

781 52

L96

782 00

06

W

L70

W 30 1

P11

W102

L380

12

L70

781 42

W

L70A 781.42 L70B 781.41 L70C 782.35 L121A 781 52 L121B 781 47

P10

L75

W 11 0

L70A 781.52 L70B 781.51 L70C 782.45

L278A L278B P13

W W 15 2

781 51 781 50

P = Probe 0

W26

Plan 2.3. Stratum III (for sections, see Plan 2.1).

5

m

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

31

the center of the church, 0.8 m facing the ambulatory). Between Pillars 4 and 5, on the path of stylobate W6, a square column base (0.6 × 0.6 m) was preserved in situ (Fig. 2.11). At the northern end of stylobate W350, a square plastered installation (L229; c. 0.4 × 0.4 m, preserved to a height of c. 5 cm; Fig. 2.12) was installed over the base foundation of the earlier Pillar 6, of which only the northern half was preserved. Installation 229 was sealed under the bedding of a Stratum IV floor (L236, see below). Approximately 1 m west of the installation, a segment of a lead pipe (length 0.45 m, diam. 9 cm) was uncovered in an east– west orientation (Fig. 2.13). The pipe lay under three marble slabs that were apparently part of the ambulatory floor in Stratum III (see below). Installation 229 and the lead pipe were part of the drainage system for the church roofing.

13 W1

Fig. 2.10. Imprints of stones in the mortar of the Stratum III stylobate (W113) above the foundation of Stratum II Pillar 4; looking south.

W6

Fig. 2.11. Pillar base and robber trench of stylobate W6 of Stratum III, which separated the innermost octagon from the ambulatory; looking southeast.

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W3 50

L229

Fig. 2.12. Installation 229 of Stratum III, built next to stylobate W350 and over the foundation of Pillar 6 of Stratum II; looking south.

Fig. 2.13. Lead pipe of Stratum III covered by marble slabs in the ambulatory, to the west of Installation 229; looking southeast.

Mosaic-Floor Beddings (L69A–B, L81, L320A–B, L356A, L361, L387, L388). The earlier, Stratum II floor of the innermost octagon was replaced by a new floor, from which beddings of gray mortar were preserved, mostly laid over a base layer of pebbles in mortar; for example, Bedding 387 that abutted the rock at the center of the church. Underneath this bedding, two coins were found: one dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE, the other to the reign of Anastasius I (491–518 CE; see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 20, 31). Another floor bedding consisting of a layer of pebbles and mortar (L361), uncovered in the south by the conservation team, was at a similar level to that of Bedding 387, and therefore is attributed to the same stratum. Below it, a coin from the fourth–fifth centuries CE was found (see

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

33

Chapter 7: Cat. No. 19). Another bedding at the same level (L388) abutted the central rock from the north, and under it was a Vandal coin dating to the mid-sixth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 57). Beddings of mosaic floors attributed to Stratum III were found in all four probes (L69A–B, L81, L320A-B, L356A), laid over terra-rossa fills that separated them from the earlier floors. Another Vandal coin, also from the mid-sixth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 54), was found in Probe 3, on the plaster layer of Stratum II Bedding 321, under a terra-rossa fill (L905) and Beddings 320A–B of Stratum III (Table 2.1). The two Vandal coins date Stratum III to the mid-sixth century CE. Ceramic Pipe. During conservation work, a ceramic pipe crossing the northeastern part of the innermost octagon was found when Bedding 388 was dismantled. It sloped downward to the southwest, passing close to Pillar 1, until it reached the cupmark in the rock at the center of the church (Figs. 2.14, 2.15). The pipe was 3.45 m long and made of round clay segments with a diameter of 5 cm and an average length of 0.53 m. Comparison of the levels at each end of the pipe indicated that it carried water to the rock, apparently from Cistern 76 (see below).

L388

Fig. 2.15. Close-up of the clay pipe where it reaches the cupmark in the rock; looking west.

1

◄ Fig. 2.14. Clay pipe, sealed under Bedding 388 of Stratum III, passing Pillar 1 and crossing the innermost octagon to drain water into the cupmark in the rock at the center of the church; looking southwest. The pebbles are a modern reconstruction (arrow).

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Stratum IV (Plan 2.4) Mosaic-Floor Beddings (L78, L80A, L236, L366, L452A). Remains of mortar beddings or base layers of pebbles and mortar (L78, L80A, L236) found at a high level or above floor beddings of Stratum III (Probes 2, 3; Table 2.1), indicate that the floor of the innermost octagon was replaced again during Stratum IV, and this floor did not survive either. In Bedding 236, three coins were found: one from the reign of Anastasius I (498–507 CE; Cat. No. 30) and two from the reign of Justinian, the later of these dated to 555/56–565/66 CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 45, 46). Although the date of the coins is more appropriate for Stratum III than Stratum IV, this floor bedding was found in a probe above two earlier beddings of Strata II and III, and therefore is attributed to Stratum IV. Floor beddings consisting of pebbles and mortar in the western (L366) and eastern (L452A) parts of the octagon were dismantled by the conservation team. A coin from the reign of Anastasius I (498–518 CE) was found in Bedding 452A (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 37). In and under Bedding 366 were bowl fragments including a Fine Byzantine Ware (FBW) bowl dating to the late seventh–tenth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.4:30–33). Thus, this pebble and mortar layer can be assigned to Stratum IV or V. Stratum V (Plan 2.4) Walls 138 and 139. To the south and north of the rock at the center of the church, remains of two parallel, west–east-oriented walls were exposed (W138, W139), which cut Beddings 387 and 388 of Stratum III. They were founded on bedrock, 0.5 m wide and preserved to a height of one course. A 4.95 m long segment remained of W139, and two segments, 1.5 m apart, remained of W138: the western one 0.8 m long and the eastern one 0.5 m long. Fragments of columns that were apparently removed from the church were incorporated into them. The function of these walls is unclear. They are assigned to Stratum V due to their careless construction. The Ambulatory (Middle Octagon) Architectural remains of three archaeological strata (Strata II–IV) were identified in the middle octagon, which is a contiguous space surrounding the innermost octagon that functioned as an ambulatory (see Plan 2.1). From its eastern part, the bema and main apse were accessed, and in its outer walls were openings to the rooms of the outermost octagon. The original width of the ambulatory in Stratum II was 4.3 m. Due to the changes undertaken during Stratum III, the width of the ambulatory was no longer uniform, and it varied from 2.0 m in the east to 4.3 m in the south. In Strata III and IV, changes were made to the eastern and southern parts, including the installation of a miḥrab (prayer niche) in Stratum IV. Most of the ambulatory was decorated with mosaic floors, fragments of which were preserved from Strata III and IV. In the eastern and the western parts, fragments of marble and colored-stone floors were preserved from Stratum III. Mosaic-floor beddings from the various strata were also exposed in Probes 5–9 (Plan 2.1: Sections 5-5–9-9; Table 2.1).

35

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

L91A 782 62 L91B 782 61

L87A 782 42 L87B 782 41 L87C 782 39

2

L91

1

10

W

782 63

W

L65A 782 41 L65B 782 40

2 7 11 W

L65 3

1

W104 L52

0

782 43

4

10

L87

4

P2

11 W

782 08

W164

P5

35

P2 P1

781 64

L236

W

781 67

L366

35

1

781 69

L27

781 63

L206

P8

781 63

W

3

W25

W

L244

L316

781 67

L330A 781.63 L330B 781.61 L330C 781.56 L209

781 64

7 P1

L215

L256

781 80

78 86

W28

W32

L10

781 57

P14

781 76

51

1

P16

P15

P13

W W 15 2

P = Probe Stratum V Stratum IV

L32

781 74

781 78

L240

W25

W 4

781 57

1

781 66

38

P7

W

L316A 781 67 L316B 781 66

L245B

6

W

P3

W350

L16

W127

L245A

781 55

781 73

9

5

W

L98

W125

W 16

L7

781 65

L73

781 73

781 65

W129

L236

W138

W352

L114

781 82

W113

781 63

781 63

W141

W103

P4

L80

L4

5 781 58

W139

W2

781 48

781 60

W

781 66 781 47

W126

3

35

W W302

L63A 781 79 L63B 781 77

781 66

L452A

L54

781 73

P6

W354 L78

781 75

W308

W105

781 70

L58

781 53

L63

781 79

L59

W 11 2

W120

0 13 W P1 8

L121

4

781 63

P1 9

12

W109 L379

L56

782 08

W108

1 11

1

P12

P9

781 76

W

10

P2

L56A

782 08

6

781 52

L66

W

L380

L70

W 30 1

102

W

781 73

P11

L76

0

L89

W

L56A 782 08 L56B 782 05

W128

L75

11 0

P10

781 42

P2

1

13

W

W122

3A W

W 11 9

782 38

10

4

P2

3

5 11 W

L46

W

W

12

1A

10

W

3 P2 16 1

782 42

781 61

W26

W26

L256A 781 80 L256B 781 77 L256C 781 72

Plan 2.4. Strata IV, V (for sections, see Plan 2.1).

0

5

m

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Stratum II (Plans 2.1, 2.2) Mosaic-Floor Beddings (L110, L112, L261, L319A–B). In three of the five probes, whiteplaster beddings were identified. Bedding 112 was laid directly over the bedrock (Probe 6); Beddings 261 and 319A–B included mosaic-production debris mixed in the plaster and overlay terra-rossa fills that separated them from the bedrock (Probes 7, 8). On Bedding 261, pottery sherds were found (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.1:2–4), the latest of them a fragment of an FBW jug dated to the mid-sixth–beginning of the eighth centuries CE. Above Bedding 261, two additional layers were uncovered (Table 2.1), and as the finds associated with these beddings date them to Strata III and IV (see below), Bedding L261 is assigned to Stratum II, and presumably the sherds found on it were intrusive. In the eastern part of the ambulatory, a bedding of yellowish mortar (L110; Probe 5) was found, similar to Bedding 105 of Stratum II in the innermost octagon (see above). The probe did not reach bedrock, but the bedding above L110 belongs to the stage of the extension of the bema in Stratum III (see below, L59). Stratum III (Plan 2.3) The Expansion of the Bema (W105, W108, W109). On the eastern side of the ambulatory, two steps (W108) ascended to the bema of the church (Fig. 2.16). The steps were built of ashlars and dressed stones bonded with mortar and incorporated column bases and capitals in secondary use that were positioned so as to expose the underside of the base or the upper side of the capital (see Fig. 2.7; Chapter 6: Fig. 6.4:14, 15, 19). The steps had a cladding of colored-stone slabs (black, red, white), of which only a few were preserved in situ (Fig. 2.17). Two similarly built ashlar walls with architectural elements incorporated in secondary use (W105, W109), flanked the steps on the south and north respectively (see Fig. 2.6; Chapter 6: Fig. 6.4:16, 18, 20). In the eastern part of W109, small fieldstones were used to seal the gap between W109 and a small north–south wall (W102) that was constructed of two large ashlars, which may also be upside-down column bases. Wall 102 was added when the bema was expanded and connected W109 with W106 of the northeastern chapel. The bema’s lower step was abutted by a floor bedding of gray mortar (L59) that retained imprints of tiles (0.17 × 0.20 m) of unclear orientation (Fig. 2.18), perhaps marble or colored stones like the cladding of the steps. In the southern part of the bedding were imprints of larger rectangular tiles (0.40 × 0.60 m) laid in a row in an east–west direction. An earth fill underneath this bedding (L95; Probe 5) contained a few pottery sherds, including a Late Roman C bowl (LRC) and a rouletted bowl, both types dated to the sixth– first half of the seventh centuries CE, and two large candlestick lamps and a lid, which can be dated to the sixth–eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.2:5–9). Thus, Bedding 59 dates to Stratum III, and Bedding 110, which was found below Fill 95 of Bedding 59, is assigned to Stratum II. Bedding 59 is bordered on the north by a plastered channel (W120) that apparently connected the clay pipe installed in the innermost octagon with W109 (see above). It seems that the channel passed through W109 and through the northern wall of the bema (W164), and reached the outlet of a cistern (L76; see below).

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

37

Fig. 2.17. Detail of the staircase (W108) clad with colored-stone slabs; looking east. ◄ Fig. 2.16. The staircase (W108) that ascended to the bema in Stratum III; looking south. Note the ashlar on the steps (arrow), a remnant of the wall that blocked access to the bema in the Umayyad period, and a segment of Mosaic Floor 56 of Stratum IV in the upper left (arrow).

W108

L59

Fig. 2.18. Imprints of tiles in the mortar of Floor Bedding 59, which abuts the staircase of the bema; looking east.

38

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Mosaic Floors and Mosaic-Floor Beddings (L111A–C, L260A–C, L318A–C, L343, L931). The ambulatory was paved with mosaics in Stratum III, with the exception of the stone paving in the eastern part of the ambulatory and three marble slabs that covered a lead pipe in the western ambulatory (see above; Fig. 2.13). A mosaic fragment (L343) was preserved in the northeastern part of the ambulatory, and a small fragment (L931) in the western part. Floor beddings of white plaster and gray mortar over a base layer of pebbles and mortar (L111, L260, L318) were exposed in Probes 6–8 (Table 2.1). Mosaic 343 (max. dimensions 1.10 × 1.75 m) was exposed during conservation work near stylobate W353, and below a mosaic fragment from Stratum IV (L58, see below). The mosaic carpet was decorated with a net pattern of diamonds made of flower buds with flower buds in the center of each diamond. The carpet frame was decorated with a twostrand guilloche pattern (Fig. 2.19). Only a narrow strip remained of Mosaic 931 (0.35 × 0.06 m), made of white, black and red stones. It abutted the northern end of the route of stylobate W350, and above it was a fragment of a Stratum IV mosaic (L316, see below; Figs. 2.9, 2.20). Beddings L318A–C and the terra-rossa fill below, L911 (Probe 8), can be associated with this mosaic floor. In Fill 911, a sherd of a FBW bowl dated to the mid-sixth–beginning of the eighth centuries CE was found (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.2:16). Another floor bedding (L111A–C; Probe 6) abutted W111, the southeastern wall of the ambulatory. The white-plaster layer (L111A) retained imprints of tesserae that were inlaid in it, and two parallel lines in red (width c. 5 cm) and black (width c. 4 cm)–– guidelines for laying the tesserae. In the base layer of pebbles and mortar (L111C) was a fragment of an LRC bowl dated to the second half of the fifth–beginning of the sixth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.2:10). In the southwestern part of the ambulatory,

L343 L58

Fig. 2.19. Mosaic 343 of Stratum III below Mosaic 58 of Stratum IV in the northeastern part of the ambulatory; looking south.

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

39

L931

L316

Fig. 2.20. Mosaic floors in the western part of the ambulatory—Mosaic 931 of Stratum III below Mosaic 316 of Stratum IV; they preserve the western outline of stylobate W350; looking east.

another floor bedding (L260A–C; Probe 7) retained tesserae imprints in the white-plaster layer (L260A), and pottery sherds were found in the base layer (L260C) and the fill under it (L909), the latest comprising jars dated to the end of the sixth–eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.2:14, 15). Stratum IV (Plan 2.4) Wall 122. The southern wall of the ambulatory (W122), built of ashlars, was preserved to a maximum height of two courses on its eastern side, while only the outline of the western side survived (Fig. 2.21). It was coated with white plaster, preserved near the eastern end, which bore incised herringbone patterns. Approximately 3.5 m from the eastern end of the wall, a semicircular niche (diam. 1.6 m) facing north was exposed, of which only the bottom course survived, built over the threshold of an earlier opening in the wall that led to the outermost octagon (Fig. 2.22). A section of a mosaic (L114), preserved in the ambulatory, abutted W122 and the niche from the north (see below). From the south, W122 was abutted by the mosaic floor that decorated the room in the outermost octagon (L73; see below). This floor was dated to the eighth century CE, therefore the construction of the niche can be attributed to Stratum IV, when it functioned as a miḥrab (prayer niche) during the Umayyad period. Mosaic Floors (L4, L7, L27, L58A–B, L63, L114, L206, L209, L245A–B, L316, L379). Fragments of mosaics were discovered throughout the ambulatory, enabling schematic reconstruction of the rectangular mosaic carpets along the sides of the octagon, and the triangular carpets in the spaces between. The marble and stone paving in the eastern part of the ambulatory remained in use in Stratum IV.

5 12

W

4 W1

L73

L98

1

L54

W122 L114

L66

1 11 W

L114A

W113

35

5

3

W

L63A

Fig. 2.21. The southeastern area of the church; looking south. Note rounded niche (miḥrab) in W122 (arrow).

L73

W122

Fig. 2.22. In the foreground, the earlier threshold in W122, and above it, the rounded wall of the miḥrab. Mosaic Floor 73 of Stratum IV abuts the niche from the south; looking south.

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

41

In the southeastern part of the ambulatory were the remains of a mosaic floor (L63) on a bedding (63A–B) that preserved the outline of W111. The upper plaster layer (L63A) retained imprints of tesserae. A small section (5 × 7 cm) of Mosaic 63, decorated in a wave-crest pattern, was found near the southeastern corner and was apparently part of the mosaic’s frame. Along the edges of W111, one to three rows of tesserae were preserved. An additional fragment (0.7 × 0.9 m), comprising a white edge and part of the black outline of the frame, was preserved next to the stylobate. In this part of the ambulatory, the mosaic floor was laid directly above the white-plaster layer of the Stratum III floor bedding (L111A; Probe 6; Fig. 2.23). As mentioned above, in the southern part of the ambulatory, a section of Mosaic 114 (max. dimensions 0.5 × 1.8 m) was preserved, its edge abutting the ashlar course and the niche in W122. The mosaic carpet was decorated with a multi-colored pattern of interlacing ribbons creating medallions populated with vegetal motifs. The frame of the carpet had two bands, the outer one decorated with a row of stylized flowers, the inner one with a guilloche pattern (see Chapter 4: Figs. 4.3, 4.4). The bedding of Mosaic 114 extended over the whole southern side of the ambulatory and joined Bedding 63A–B to the east (see Fig. 2.21) and Bedding 245A–B to the west. Bedding 245A–B preserved the outline of the northern wall (W38) and the opposite stylobate W6 (Fig. 2.24). The white-plaster layer (L245A) retained tesserae imprints, and below it was a layer of gray mortar containing mosaic-production debris (L245B; Probe 7; Fig. 2.25) and a Vandal coin dated to the second half of the fifth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 27). It is possible that this coin was residual from the previous stratum.

L63A

L111A

Fig. 2.23. The white-plaster layer of Stratum IV (L63A) above the white-plaster layer of Stratum III (L111A), looking northeast; in the center, Probe 6; to the right, the threshold in W111.

42

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L247

L240 L114A

3

W11

L346

L245A

W6

4

5

L3

16

A

Fig. 2.24. The southwestern area of the church; looking south.

1 L26

L26

L245

0C

B

L909

L910

L245A L260A

L260B

Fig. 2.25. Probe 7 in the southwestern area of the ambulatory; looking northeast.

From the mosaic floor (L209) in the southwestern part, eight colored tesserae were preserved on the column base on stylobate W6 (Fig. 2.26). A narrow segment of the edge of the mosaic in the southwestern corner of the ambulatory preserved the outline of W38 for 0.85 m, and the outline of the adjoining W25 for 1.5 m (Fig. 2.27). It was decorated with vine scrolls and a bunch of grapes, similar to the edge of the mosaic (L27) exposed in the northwestern part of the ambulatory, also attributed to Stratum IV (see below).

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

43

Fig. 2.26. Tesserae from Stratum IV Mosaic Floor 209 on a column base on stylobate W6 of Stratum III (arrow) ; looking northwest.

L240

2

L254

W

15

L256

L346

W32

25

W

09

L2

L316A

L3 16

L265A

Fig. 2.27. The southwestern corner of the ambulatory and the outermost octagon; looking southwest.

During conservation work, a floor bedding that consisted of a white-plaster layer, a gray-mortar layer and a base layer of pebbles and mortar (L330A–C) over a terra-rossa fill (L937) was exposed beneath the mosaic segment L209. In the sealed fill under Mosaic 209 was a jar sherd dated to the third–fourth centuries, a sherd of an LRC bowl, dated to the end of the sixth–beginning of the seventh centuries CE, and a sherd of a large candlestick lamp dated to the mid-sixth–beginning of the eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.4:33–35).

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In the western part of the ambulatory, south of the threshold in W25, was a segment of a mosaic carpet (L316; 0.37 × 0.57 m) with a net pattern of diamonds with smaller diamonds in the center. The frame of the carpet had a red background decorated with interlacing ribbons forming ovals and circles (Fig. 2.27). Another small section (0.15 × 0.23 m) of the frame was exposed near the southern end of the stylobate W350, above a remnant of a Stratum III floor (see above; Fig. 2.20). In the probe next to the threshold, layers of the floor bedding (L316A–B) were uncovered over a fill (L317) above Stratum III Bedding 318A–C (Probe 8). Along the northern part of W25 were three small segments of a mosaic (L206) that belonged to the frame of a triangular-shaped mosaic carpet that did not survive. Two of them abutted W25, one (0.2 × 0.9 m) c. 0.6 m north of the threshold in the wall (Fig. 2.28), the other (0.4 × 0.5 m) at the corner with W1 (Fig. 2.29); the third segment (0.3 × 0.4) was uncovered at the northern end of stylobate W350 (Fig. 2.30). The frame was decorated with a pattern of a branch with V-shaped leaves. The decoration of the frame in the corner between W25 and W1 was not aligned with the corner, but deviated about 10 cm to the north.

W25

L206

Fig. 2.28. The frame of Mosaic 206 of Stratum IV, which abuts W25 in the western part of the ambulatory.

L206

Fig. 2.29. The frame of Mosaic 206 at the corner formed by W25 and W1; looking northwest.

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L206

Fig. 2.30. Detail of Mosaic 206 of Stratum IV in the western part of the ambulatory; looking east.

In the northwestern part of the ambulatory were six mosaic segments from which a rectangular carpet can be reconstructed (L27; 3.5 × 7.0 m; Figs. 2.31, 2.32). The largest fragment (2.8 × 5.4 m) abutted the foundation course and the threshold of W1, the other fragments were preserved in the northern corner of the mosaic, along the northern end of stylobate W351, and in the center of the carpet. The carpet was decorated with a pattern of interlacing ribbons forming clover leaves containing vegetal motifs, and it was surrounded by a frame of two bands––the outer band decorated with a wave-crest pattern, the inner one with guilloches (see Chapter 4: Figs. 4.10–4.12). The edge of the mosaic along W1 was decorated with vine scrolls that became progressively smaller toward the northeast. Between the southern foundation trench of W1 and Mosaic 27, the edges of an earlier mosaic-floor bedding were exposed by the conservation team during reconstruction work, but not documented. Adjacent to Mosaic 27 on the north, a triangular mosaic carpet (L7) was fully uncovered. Its edges preserved the course of W1 for 2 m, and the course of the northern wall (W2) for 1.2 m. The mosaic was exposed during the first excavation season, and when it was uncovered again during the third season, the end that points to the center of the church was found to have collapsed and disintegrated. The carpet was decorated with a pattern of scales, with a flower bud in the center of each scale; the frame had a two-strand guilloche pattern. Around the edge of the mosaic were rows of flower buds (Fig. 2.32). In the northern part of the ambulatory, two segments of a rectangular mosaic carpet (L4) were preserved: one (1.80 × 2.20 m) adjacent to Mosaic 7, the other (1.12 × 3.00 m) c. 2 m to the east. The carpet was decorated with interlacing ribbons that form oval loops; the frame was decorated with ribbons forming oval loops on a red background (Fig. 2.32). During conservation work along the edges of Mosaics 4 and 7, earlier mosaics were uncovered, but the decorative designs could not be discerned due to mud, weather and budgetary constraints; these mosaics were not cleaned or documented.

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L316 L4

L265

L2 0

6

L7

W

25

L4

L27 W1

W

28

W5

W4

L10

L16

L32

Fig. 2.31. The northwestern area of the church; looking southeast.

L4

L27

L7

Fig. 2.32. The northwestern corner of the ambulatory in Stratum IV; looking southeast. The point of triangular Mosaic 7 that faced toward the center of the church collapsed between 1992 and 1999.

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In the northeastern part of the ambulatory, remains of two mosaic carpets (both labeled L58) were uncovered: one was a rectangular carpet along W106, the other (from which only a small piece was exposed) decorated the northeastern corner of the ambulatory and was apparently triangular (Fig. 2.33); their level was c. 0.12 m higher than that of the mosaics in the northern and western parts of the ambulatory. During conservation work, the beddings of these mosaics were exposed, consisting of a layer of white plaster (L58A) over gray mortar (L58B). Two sections of the northeastern corner of the rectangular mosaic survived, the larger one (1.17 × 3.50 m) abutted the northern W106 and a threshold in the center of the wall. This threshold was set over an earlier threshold that was abutted by floor beddings of Strata II and III in the northeastern chapel (L70A–C, L154; see below). This carpet was decorated with interlacing ribbons that form medallions with vegetal motifs (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.17), and a frame with a guilloche pattern. Along the edge of the mosaic was a row of flower buds. The southeastern corner of the same carpet (0.40–0.60 × 0.65 m) was preserved near stylobate W353, above Mosaic 343 of Stratum III (see Fig. 2.19). Immediately to the east of the rectangular mosaic, a small segment (0.25 × 0.50 m) from the frame of another mosaic was preserved, decorated with a guilloche pattern (Fig. 2.33). Despite the difference in levels between these floors and others in the ambulatory, the style of the mosaics attributes them all to the same stratum. East of the mosaic segments, a remnant of a gray-mortar floor bedding (L379) abutted W102, W106 and W109. It could not be determined if this bedding belonged to Mosaic

W106

L58

Fig. 2.33. Mosaic 58 of Stratum IV abuts the upper threshold in W106 in the northeastern part of the ambulatory, looking north. Note the remnant of another mosaic carpet in the upper right (arrow).

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343 of Stratum III, or to a floor of Stratum IV. A probe below the bedding uncovered an underground space (L380) that contained pottery sherds dated to the mid-sixth–eighth centuries CE (see below). Underground Space (L380). In the corner between W102, W106 and W109, under Bedding 379, Probe 9 revealed an underground repository (favissa) for architectural elements (Fig. 2.34). An ashlar wall that was not documented closed it on the west. The floor (L380A) was paved with stone slabs (7 cm thick) laid over a terra-rossa fill (L381) on bedrock. The repository contained many fragments of limestone Corinthian capitals and columns, marble liturgical furnishings and a basin (see Chapter 6: Figs. 6.1:3, 4; 6.2; 6.3; 6.6:24–28; 6.7; 6.8; 6.9:34; 6.10:39). Among the pottery sherds were FBW bowls (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.3:24–26), the latest type dated to the seventh–eighth centuries CE, and large candlestick lamps dated to the mid-sixth–early eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.3:28, 29). The architectural elements in the repository apparently originated from the renovations undertaken in Stratum III, although the late date of the FBW bowl allows for the possibility that the underground space is later, or continued to function after the renovation.

Fig. 2.34 The repository (L380) north of the staircase to the bema; looking north.

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The Outermost Octagon Architectural remains of three archaeological strata (Strata II–IV) were revealed in the outermost octagon, which comprised entrance rooms that gave access to the church from outside, chapels that gave access to the ambulatory, and passage rooms that connected between the different parts of the octagon; on the eastern side were the bema and the main apse (sanctuary), which were entered from the ambulatory (Probes 10–21; Plan 2.1: Sections 10-10–21-21). The earliest floor beddings, from Stratum II, were uncovered in most of the probes in the outermost octagon (Probes 10, 11, 14, 15, 17–21; Table 2.1). The rooms of the octagon were decorated with mosaic floors, except for the western entrance room in Stratum III that was paved with marble. In the northwestern chapel, the mosaic floor of Stratum III was preserved in its entirety and segments from this stratum were also found in the southwestern and northeastern chapels, and in the passage rooms next to them. Most of the preserved floors were from Stratum IV, as in the southern chapels and the rooms between them, and in the western passage rooms. In Stratum IV, architectural changes were made that included canceling the bema and main apse in the east and the southern entrance room, which was transformed into two rooms. Stratum II (Plan 2.2) The Bema and Main Apse The bema and main apse were higher by approximately 0.5 m than the level of the floors in the rest of the church (Fig. 2.35). Only the wall foundations remained, constructed of a conglomerate of mortar and small stones. The bema opened east to the apse, which already protruded beyond the octagonal outline of the church in the original building phase. A probe in the supposed line of the external eastern side of the large octagon found no evidence of a wall, but only a floor bedding of Stratum II (L52A–B; see below) that was laid on terra rossa soil (L913) over the bedrock (Probe 10). The bema was delineated by ashlar walls: W110 on the south and W164 on the north. The line of the inner face of these walls was preserved by the floor bedding of Stratum IV (see below). To the west, the bema apparently reached up to the eastern ends of W105 and W109 that were added when it was expanded in Stratum III (see above); therefore, the original dimensions of the Stratum II bema can be reconstructed as 6.0 × 7.2 m. To the east of the bema, the main apse was 7.2 m wide, like the bema, and 3.2 m deep from east to west. The inner face of the apse wall was rounded, while on the outside, three walls created a polygonal outline (W104, W114, W119). The northern W119 and the southern W114 were of equal length (c. 5 m), while the eastern W104 was shorter (4.35 m). The width of the apse walls varied, averaging 1.2 m in the narrow parts and 2 m where the walls met. A segment of hydraulic plaster that originally covered the outer face of the walls (0.4 × 0.4 m) was preserved at the corner of W104 and W119.

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L73

L54

L114

L66 L63A

L89

L56A

L59

L58

L75 P21 1 L70

P20

P19 9 P18 L121A

Fig. 2.35. The eastern area of the church before the main apse was exposed; looking south.

Mosaic-Floor Beddings (L52, L341). The Stratum II mosaic floor of the bema was not preserved, apart from a white-plaster layer (L341) laid over a terra-rossa fill (L914; Probe 11). Above Bedding 341 lay Bedding 339A–B, which was dated according to the finds in the fill below it (L340) to Stratum III (see below); therefore, L341 can be attributed to Stratum II. In the apse, only a very small fragment (5 × 7 cm) of the edge of the mosaic floor (L52), made of white tesserae, was preserved near the center of W104. The gray-mortar layer (L52A) above the base layer of pebbles (L52B) abutted the apse wall and preserved its outline (Fig. 2.36). The bedding was laid over a terra-rossa fill (L913) on an uneven bedrock surface (Probe 10). In the gray-mortar bedding, a coin dating to the fourth century CE was retrieved (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 12), which placed the bedding within Stratum II.

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L65

W104

Fig. 2.36. Bedding 52A in the main apse; looking east. Note the remnant of Mosaic 52 on the right (arrow), and in the background, Mosaic 65 in Room 3 of the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse in Stratum IV.

This was the only bedding uncovered in the apse, and its level (782.08 m asl) was the highest of all the floors in the church, 0.29 m higher than Bedding 341 in the bema. Thus, access from the bema to the apse was probably by a step, and the original apse floor presumably remained in use in later strata. The Southeastern Chapel This chapel had a rectangular hall (L66; 4.6 × 9.5 m) and an apse facing northeast (max. dimensions 2.8 × 4.0 m; see Fig. 2.35). A doorway in the center of W111 led to the ambulatory, and another in the center of W112 led to the adjacent passage room. Only parts of the wall foundations survived, and their outlines were preserved by a mosaic floor from Stratum IV that was uncovered in its entirety (Fig. 2.37). The northern part of W111 was hewn from the bedrock. Two coats of plaster were discerned on its inner face: the upper of white plaster (1 cm thick), the lower of gray plaster (3–5 cm thick); both were incised with herringbone patterns. In the center of the wall was a stepped threshold (0.9 × 2.0 m), built of three stones of different sizes. Two rectangular depressions in the center of the threshold were sockets for the bolt of a double-leafed door. The raised margin of the threshold along the side that faced the ambulatory indicates that the door was opened from the chapel (see Fig. 2.23). Wall 112 was not preserved, with the exception of a stepped threshold constructed of a single stone (0.6 × 1.2 m) with a socket (diam. 6 cm, depth 2.5 cm), and in its center two small, rectangular depressions (2 × 4 cm, depth 1.5 cm) to accommodate the bolt of a double-leafed door. The raised margin of the threshold, 0.18 m wide on the northeastern side and 0.14 m on the southeastern side, indicated that the door was opened from the passage room (Fig. 2.38). A segment of the northern part of W124 (7.5 m long), the external wall of the church, was preserved to a maximum height of 0.57 m. It was constructed of a core of mortar and small stones, the

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Fig. 2.37. The southeastern chapel in Stratum IV; looking southeast.

outer face coated with a smooth layer of hydraulic plaster (c. 7 cm thick), the inner face with two layers of plaster: a layer of white plaster (4 cm thick) over gray plaster (8 cm thick) bearing incised herringbone patterns, similar to W111. The apse wall, W110, which was also the wall of the bema, was poorly preserved and its outer line could not be fully reconstructed. Traces of hydraulic plaster were discerned on its outer face. No probes were excavated in this chapel below the late mosaic floor. Nevertheless, the probes in the northern chapels revealed floor beddings from Stratum II (Probes 17, 19–21; Table 2.1; and see below), and it can be assumed that this chapel was first built in Stratum II. The Southeastern Passage Room This room, like all the passage rooms, was trapezoidal in shape (L54; max. dimensions 4.10 × 5.05 m) and had a semicircular wall on the inside (Fig. 2.38). The walls did not survive, except for two courses of the southwestern wall (W103) comprising two faces of ashlars with a core of mortar and small stones between them. The outer face had a layer of hydraulic plaster. The preserved mosaic floor of Stratum IV (see below) enabled reconstruction of the other walls of the room: W112, W124, W141 and the meeting point of W111 and W122 (see Fig. 2.21). The room had a doorway into the chapel to the east, and judging by the two western passage rooms (see below), it also had a doorway into the adjacent entrance room. In the northeastern passage room, which is identical to it, Probe 18 uncovered a floor bedding from Stratum II (Table 2.1), thus it can be presumed that his room was first built in Stratum II.

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L66

L54

Fig. 2.38. The southeastern corner of the outermost octagon in Stratum IV; looking northeast. In the foreground, the southeastern passage room decorated with the palm-tree mosaic (L54), and behind it, the hall of the southeastern chapel.

The Southern Entrance Room The original plan of the southern entrance room did not survive, as it was transformed into two rooms (L73, L98) in Stratum IV (see Plan 2.4). Only W122, with a threshold into the ambulatory, was preserved (see Fig. 2.22). On the west, it seems that the entrance room was delineated by W127, the wall of the southwestern chapel apse of which only part of the foundation was preserved, constructed of mortar and small stones and partially integrating the bedrock. The wall was plastered with hydraulic plaster. The room was delineated by W103 and W141 on the south and east, and its reconstructed dimensions (4.2 × 7.8 m) are identical to those of the western entrance room (see below).

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In the reconstructed line of W103, three hewn steps descended to the church’s entrance in Stratum II (Fig. 2.39). The bottom step was 1.8 m wide, the middle step was 1 m wide, and the top step was 1.4 m wide. The tread of the steps was c. 0.8 m deep and the average rise was 0.25 m. These steps went out of use when the southern wall (W126) of Room 98 and Channel 129 were built in Stratum IV (see below). West of the steps was an ashlar wall (W128) with a core of mortar and small stones, of which a single course (1 m wide) was preserved for a length of 3.5 m. Wall 128 was apparently the western continuation of W103. Within the core, a plastered channel (0.18 m wide) was preserved for 1.70 m, to a height of 6 cm. The wall was coated with hydraulic plaster (8 cm thick). At its eastern end, next to the steps, the first course of a doorpost built of ashlars was preserved. The Southwestern Chapel This chapel had a rectangular hall (L240; 4.6 × 9.2 m) and an apse facing southeast (max. dimensions 2.4 × 4.0 m). Only the foundations of mortar and small stones survived from most walls. The internal lines of the walls were preserved by the Stratum IV mosaic floors that decorated the room (see Figs. 2.24, 2.40). It seems that the chapel had two doorways, one of which was indicated in the west by a stepped threshold (0.38 × 0.80 m) in the center of W152 that did not survive. The threshold was constructed of two stones, and in its northern corner was a rectangular socket for a door hinge (5 × 8 cm, depth 4 cm). The margins of the threshold (0.12 m wide, 3 cm high) indicate that the door was opened from the side of the chapel. A second doorway in the center of W38, giving access to the

W128

Fig. 2.39. The hewn steps that descend to the southern entrance room; looking south. On the right, the first course of a doorpost at the eastern end of W128 (arrow).

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ambulatory, is surmised on the basis of such doorways in the other chapels in the church. Only a segment of the foundation of W38 was preserved, 0.9 m wide and 4.8 m long. The foundation of the eastern part of W151, the external church wall, was preserved. On its outer face, traces of hydraulic plaster remained; on its inner face was a layer of mortar with large jar sherds incorporated in it, covered by a layer of gray mortar. This is the only wall covered with this type of mortar. The apse was delineated by W127, of which medium-sized, dressed stones were preserved on the inner face. The wall was polygonal on the outside and rounded on the inside, as were all the apse walls in the chapels. No probes were excavated below the mosaic floor, but it can be assumed that this chapel, like the northeastern chapel, existed in Stratum II. The Southwestern Passage Room This room was identical in plan to the southeastern passage room (L256; c. 3 × 4 m; see Figs. 2.27, 2.41). The walls were not preserved, except for two thresholds, one in W152 (see above) leading into the southwestern chapel, and a stepped threshold in the northern wall (W32) leading into the western entrance room, of which a single stone was preserved (0.46 × 0.87 m). In this threshold stone was a socket (diam. 8 cm, depth 1 cm) and rectangular depressions for a bolt. The northern margin (width 0.2 m, height 3 cm) indicated that the door was opened from the side of the passage room. The external walls of this room were W151, the continuation of the external wall of the southwestern chapel, and W26, the continuation of the wall of the western entrance room. The outlines of the walls were

L244

L240

L346

Fig. 2.40. The southwestern chapel in Stratum IV; looking south. Mosaic 240 of Stratum IV was installed in the hall over Mosaic 346 of Stratum III.

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preserved by the edges of the Stratum IV mosaic floor in the southwestern corner of the room (see below), and by Mosaic 209 in the ambulatory and Mosaics 247 and 254 west of the church (see Chapter 3: Plan 3.2). No floor bedding could be attributed to Stratum II in the probe in the center of the room (Probe 13). Nevertheless, W26 and W32 were shared with the western entrance room in which a floor bedding from this stratum was uncovered in Probes 14 and 15 (Table 2.1). In addition, the plan of the room mirrors that of the northeastern passage room, where a Stratum II floor bedding was revealed in Probe 18 (Table 2.1); therefore, it can be assumed that this room also existed in Stratum II. The Western Entrance Room The walls of this rectangular room (4.2 × 7.8 m) were built of ashlars arranged in headers and stretchers upon a foundation of mortar and small stones. There were doorways installed in all four walls (see Figs. 2.3, 2.42) Wall 25 was preserved for a length of 4 m in its northern half, up to one course high (see Fig. 2.31). A probe next to the wall uncovered a foundation course 0.4 m wider than the ashlar course. In the center of the wall was a stepped threshold (0.6 × 2.0 m) leading to the ambulatory, built of three stones with two rectangular sockets for doorposts (each socket 7 × 10 cm, 4 cm deep) and two depressions for bolts: one square (6.0 × 6.0 cm, 2.5 cm deep), the other circular (diam. 9 cm, 3 cm deep). The doubled-leafed door opened from the ambulatory into the entrance room.

L209

L256

L268

L265A

L254

Fig. 2.41. The southwestern passage room; looking southeast.

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L254

W26

L265A

8 W2

W25

Fig. 2.42. The western entrance room where a mortar floor bedding is preserved with imprints of tiles (L265A); looking west. Note the column base above the northern pedestal in W26, and the late threshold above the southern pedestal (arrow). In the background is Mosaic 254 of the peristyle atrium through which the church was entered.

Opposite the opening in W25 was an opening in W26 with square pedestals on either side, 1.8 m apart. On the northern pedestal, a column base was found in situ (0.80 × 0.80 m, height 0.43 m).1 North of it, two ashlars were preserved of the wall, 0.2 m narrower than the foundation course. On the southern pedestal, a threshold stone was placed at a later stage of unknown date, which covered half of it. In the threshold was a socket (diam. 0.22 m, 0.13 m deep), and a square depression for a bolt (3.5 × 5.0 cm; Fig. 2.42). The location of the bolt indicates that the doorway was opened from inside the entrance room. The eastern part of W28 was preserved (1.50 m long, 0.75 m wide) and in its center was a doorway into the northwestern passage room, with a stepped threshold of which one stone survived (0.6 × 2.0 m). The margin along the southern face of the stone was 0.18 m wide, and that along the western face 0.13 m wide, and their location indicates that the door opened from the passage room. As noted above, a stone threshold in W32 opened from the southeastern passage room into the entrance room. In Stratum II, the western entrance room was probably open on the west with two free-standing columns forming a tribelon. At a later phase (probably Stratum IV or V), the

Not included in the catalogue in Chapter 6.

1

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gaps between the columns were blocked, and the entrance to the church was moved to the south. The ashlars in the northern part of the wall are a later addition to the construction. Mosaic-Floor Bedding (L282). In two of the three probes in the entrance-room floor, a bedding of white plaster (L282) over a terra-rossa fill (L918) was identified lying on bedrock and sloping to the east (Probes 14, 15; Table 2.1), and therefore attributed to Stratum II. In Probe 14 in the northwestern corner of the room, the bedding abutted the foundation of W26 and W28. The Northwestern Passage Room The plan of this room was identical to that of the southern passage rooms (Fig. 2.43). It was possible to reconstruct its internal outline based on the Stratum IV mosaic floor (max. dimensions 4.2 × 4.8 m). The room was delineated by W28 on the south and W25 on the east. A single course of W1, built of two ashlars with a mortar core between them, abutted W25 from the north forming the northwestern corner of the ambulatory. The northern wall of this room (W4) did not survive, but Probe 17 alongside it uncovered a threshold in the center of the wall. The other side of the threshold, inside the northwestern chapel, was abutted by a bedding of white plaster (L155) attributed to Stratum II (Table 2.1). The external walls of the room could be reconstructed according to the plan of the external walls of the church: on the west, the northern continuation of W26 and on the northwest, the southern continuation of W3. Considering that Stratum II floor beddings were revealed in the rooms on both sides of the passage room (L155, L282), it can be assumed that this room also existed in that stratum.

Fig. 2.43. The northwestern passage room in Stratum IV; looking southwest.

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The Northwestern Chapel This chapel had a rectangular hall (L10; 4.6 × 8.8 m) and an apse facing northeast (max. width 4 m, depth 2.2 m). It was smaller than the southern chapels, and a mosaic-floor bedding from Stratum III preserved the outline of the walls, of which mostly foundations remained (see Figs. 2.3, 2.31). The chapel had two doorways with stepped thresholds. The one in W4 (0.8 × 1.8 m), partially uncovered in Probe 17, had a margin (0.18 m wide) indicating that the double-leaf doors were opened from the passage room. The second threshold (0.9 × 2.0 m), in the center of W1, gave access to the ambulatory. The threshold was constructed of three stones and had two sockets (diam. 9 cm, 3 cm deep). From the margins of this threshold, a double-leaf door can be reconstructed that opened from the chapel. On the northwest, a 5 m segment of the northern part of the foundation of W3 (0.9 m wide), the external church wall, was preserved, still retaining traces of hydraulic plaster. In the apse wall (W5), six ashlars were preserved on the inner face, and one to two courses of ashlars for 4.5 m along the outer face, and between them was a core of mortar with small stones. Wall 5 continued westward as part of the Stratum III portico to the north of the church (see Chapter 3). Mosaic-Floor Bedding (L155). A white-plaster bedding (L155) abutting the threshold in W4, which was laid over a terra-rossa fill (L920) on bedrock (see Probe 17), can be attributed to Stratum II. The Northern Entrance Room The northern side of the large octagon was destroyed, as noted above, by mechanical equipment prior to the excavations. The floor bedding that was uncovered in the passage room to the east (see below) enabled partial reconstruction of the line of W2 to the south and of W308 to the east. On the west, the northern entrance room was delineated by the northwestern chapel’s apse wall (W5). In the ruins in the northeastern corner of the room (L129), a fragment of a Corinthian capital and a pillar base were found, not in situ (see Fig. 2.3; Chapter 6: Figs. 6.1:1; 6.5). The northern entrance room can therefore be reconstructed with similar dimensions as the western entrance room (c. 4 × 8 m). The Northeastern Passage Room A mosaic-floor bedding and poor remains of tesserae in the northeastern corner of the outermost octagon (Stratum III, see below) enabled reconstruction of this room (L121; max. dimensions 3.8 × 4.0 m), similar to the other corner passage rooms (Figs. 2.44, 2.45). Of the eastern wall (W301), two stones of a stepped threshold installed in the doorway that led to the adjacent chapel were preserved, c. 1.4 m long and 0.55 m wide. In the threshold was a socket (diam. 6.0 cm, depth 2.5 cm), and in its center were two small rectangular depressions for two bolts (2.0 × 4.0 cm, depth 1.5 cm). Along the eastern face was a margin (height 3.5 cm, width 12 cm) indicating that the door opened from this room into the chapel. On the north, the mortar-and-stone foundations of the external walls of the church, W302 and W130, met. The other walls of the room (W308 to the west, W2 and W106 to the south) did not survive.

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Mosaic-Floor Bedding (L134A–B). A bedding comprising white plaster (L134A) over a base layer of pebbles (L134B) was exposed in Probe 18 alongside W301, 0.29 m below the level of the threshold (781.57 m asl) and lying upon a terra-rossa fill (L922) on bedrock. Three coins were found in the pebble layer: one dated to 383–395 CE, one to the fourth–

L121A

W301

W302

Fig. 2.44. The northeastern passage room; looking southwest. Floor Bedding 121A of Stratum III abuts the threshold of W301; in the center, Probe 18; on the right, the preexcavation damage in the northern part of the outermost octagon.

L75 L70

L121A

L119

L1

L138

Fig. 2.45. The northeastern chapel and the northeastern passage room; looking southeast. Remains of Rooms 6 (L1) and 7 (L119) of the monastery adjoin them from the north.

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fifth centuries CE, and one to the reign of Justinian I (538–542 CE; see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 13, 24, 51). In Fill 921 and Bedding 121A above L134A (Table 2.1), three additional coins were found: one from the reign of Justinian I, and two from the sixth century CE. On the other side of the threshold, in the northeastern chapel (see Fig. 2.35), Probe 19 also revealed beddings of two floors, one above the other, the earlier one also 0.29 m below the threshold (see below). The threshold in W301 was eventually elevated in Stratum III, and this activity possibly caused the intrusion of the Justinian coin (Cat. No. 51). The earlier bedding should be attributed to the church’s initial construction in Stratum II. The Northeastern Chapel This chapel had a rectangular hall (L70; 4.65 × 9.50 m) and an apse facing northeast (width 4 m wide, depth 2.2 m). The walls were partially preserved, and their internal line was delineated by the remains of a Stratum III mosaic floor and its bedding (see Figs. 2.35, 2.45). The chapel had two doorways, one in W301 from the passage room and the other in W106 from the ambulatory. Only the thresholds in these walls survived. In the center of W106, two stepped thresholds were set one above the other (Fig. 2.46). From the earlier threshold (1.8 m long), two stones remained with a socket for the door on the east (diam. 9 cm, depth 3 cm). The raised margin (0.18 m wide) indicated that the door opened from the chapel into the ambulatory.

L58

W106

L70

Fig. 2.46. Two thresholds in W106, between the ambulatory and the northeastern chapel; looking south. Mosaic Floor 58 of Stratum IV in the ambulatory abuts the upper threshold, and Mosaic Floor 70 of Stratum III in the chapel hall abuts the lower threshold.

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The northeastern external wall of the chapel, W130, constructed of a core of mortar and small stones, survived to a length of 5.7 m (reconstructed width 1.2 m), and was plastered with hydraulic plaster (8 cm thick). Within the core, a segment of a round plastered channel was discovered (diam. 0.2 m, length 3.2 m). This channel ended in the center of the wall, and another channel continued at a lower level (diam. 0.2 m, length 1.2 m). The upper channel was clearly a repair of the earlier one, and they formed part of the church’s roof-drainage system (see Fig. 2.5). From the apse wall (W164), two rows of ashlars with a core of mortar and small stones between them were preserved: a single ashlar course on the inner face and two (length 2 m) on the outer face, the latter coated with plaster (see Fig. 2.4). The width of the wall ranged from c. 1.2 m on the northeast to c. 1.8 m where it met W119, the wall of the main apse. On the southern side of the apse in W164, which also was the northern wall of the bema, the square opening of a cistern (L76; 0.7 × 0.7 m) was partially excavated to a depth of 1.6 m. The walls of the cistern were plastered, and in its northwestern corner was the outlet of a clay pipe (diam. 7 cm). Mosaic-Floor Beddings (L120, L154, L156). Early floor beddings of white plaster were found in the three probes in this chapel (Probes 19–21; Table 2.1). Beddings L120 and L156 laid over terra-rossa fills on bedrock included mosaic-production debris in the plaster (Probes 19, 20). The edges of these floor beddings were parallel to the lines of W301 and W130. Bedding 120 was 0.29 m lower than the threshold in W301, and correlated with Bedding 134A–B on the other side of the threshold (see above). Bedding 156 was 10 cm lower than Bedding 120. A similar difference in height was seem in the mosaic floor from Stratum III (Table 2.1) and it apparently stems from ground movement that caused the northeastern part of the chapel to sink. Bedding 154 in Probe 21 abutted the early threshold in W106 and was at the same level as Bedding 120. Excavations did not reach below Bedding 154, but it is plausible that it too was laid over a fill on bedrock. Above these three beddings of Stratum II, a mosaic floor was laid in Stratum III (L70; see below), and therefore the earlier floor beddings can be assigned to Stratum II. Stratum III (Plan 2.3) The Bema and the Main Apse In this stratum, the bema was expanded westward by c. 2 m, bordered by W105 and W109 on either side and by a staircase on the west (W108) with colored-stone cladding leading up to it. In Probe 12, in the northwestern corner next to the staircase, an earth fill over a collapse (L97) is testimony to destruction that may have led to the renovation of the bema and other parts of the church. Mosaic-Floor Beddings (L96, L399A–B). The surface of the bema was raised and a new floor was installed from which a gray-mortar bedding (L96, L339A) above a base layer of pebbles in mortar (L339B) survived (Probes 11, 12). Under the layer of pebbles was a terra-rossa fill (L340), in which a coin from the reign of Anastasius (491–518 CE; see

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Chapter 7: Cat. No. 32), was found. Among the pottery sherds in Bedding 96 (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.2:17–20), the latest was a jar fragment dated to the end of the sixth/beginning of the seventh–eighth centuries CE. The Southwestern Chapel Mosaic Floor (L346). Two mosaic floors, one above the other, were uncovered in this chapel. The upper mosaic of Stratum IV was almost completely preserved (L240, see below), while the lower mosaic of Stratum III (L346) was exposed only in areas where the upper carpet was destroyed (see Figs. 2.24, 2.40). Two well-preserved segments of Mosaic 346 were revealed, one (0.1–0.7 × 2.5 m) next to W151, the other (0.2–1.1 × 2.3 m) in the northwestern corner of the hall, abutting the threshold in W152. The small section of the mosaic carpet showed an interlacing decoration with a frame consisting of a guilloche band flanked on either side by a wave-crest pattern; along the edge was a row of flower buds (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.18). At the end of the excavation, the conservation team exposed the entire western half of the Stratum III mosaic, but unfortunately there is no documentation of this. In the fill between the two floors (L373), the conservators retrieved two coins, one dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE and the second to the reign of Baduila in the mid-sixth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 17, 53). They also retrieved pottery sherds, including fragments of bowls (one FBW) dated to the mid-sixth–beginning of eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.4:36, 37) and a lamp fragment of the early channel-nozzle type, dated to the seventh–beginning of the eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.4:38). These finds provided a terminus post quem for Mosaic Floor 240. The level of Floor 346 (781.54 m asl) correlated with the mosaic floor in the northwestern chapel (781.57 m asl; L10), which is dated to Stratum III (see below); therefore, Floor 346 can also be assigned to Stratum III. The Southwestern Passage Room Mosaic-Floor Bedding (L278A–B). A bedding of white plaster (L278A) on a base layer of pebbles in mortar (L278B) laid over a terra-rossa fill (L916) on bedrock, was revealed in Probe 13 (Table 2.1) in the center of the room. The level of the bedding correlated with the levels of the floors in the western chapels of Stratum III (L10, L346). During conservation work, segments of the Stratum IV mosaic in the northern part of the room were removed (L256, see below), as well as the fill beneath it, until a white mosaic floor was exposed, and in it a depression that was also paved with mosaic. This mosaic floor abutted the threshold in W32. In the fill between the floors (L941) were pottery sherds covering a time span from the sixth to the eighth centuries (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.4:39–43). Presumably, the white mosaic floor discovered by the conservators was in use during Stratum III, although it may have been laid as early as Stratum II, as Probe 13 revealed floor beddings for two floors above the bedrock (Table 2.1). The Western Entrance Room Marble Floor (L265). The western entrance room was paved with marble tiles (L265), of which two white-marble slabs remained in situ next to W25. Elsewhere, only the gray-

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mortar bedding (L265A) that abutted W25 and W28 in the northeastern corner of the room was preserved. The bedding retained the imprints of the floor tiles (0.17 × 0.20 m each), with no clear indication of the direction in which they were laid (see Fig. 2.42). Among the tiles, there may also have been colored stones, as in the eastern part of the ambulatory. The mortar bedding was laid over a terra-rossa fill (L917) that separated it from Bedding 282 of Stratum II (Probes 14, 15; Table 2.1). Two coins were found in the fill, one from the reign of Anastasius at the end of the fifth–beginning of the sixth centuries, and the second a Vandal coin from the mid-sixth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 34, 56). Probe 16 in the southeastern corner of the room, below Bedding 265A, uncovered a layer of earth mixed with crushed gray mortar and ash (L279) over the bedrock (Table 2.1). The Northwestern Passage Room Mosaic-Floor Bedding.2 During conservation work to consolidate the edges of the mosaic from Stratum IV (L32, see below), a layer of pebbles in mortar was revealed below a terrarossa fill (L32C). This layer followed the line of W28, but it was unclear if it abutted the threshold. In the fill between the layer of pebbles and the mosaic, fragments of a jar and a large candlestick lamp dated to the mid-sixth–early eighth centuries CE were found (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.4:44, 45). The level of the pebble layer (781.51 m asl) correlated with the levels of the Stratum III floors in the western chapels and in the northeastern chapel, as well as in the southwestern and northeastern passage rooms. The pebble layer can presumably be attributed to Stratum III. The Northwestern Chapel Mosaic Floor (L10). The mosaic floor (L10) in this chapel survived in its entirety (see Fig. 2.31). Its level (781.57 m asl) was c. 6–8 cm lower than Stratum IV Mosaics 7 and 27 that abutted the southeastern wall (W1) from the ambulatory (see Plan 2.4), and 16–19 cm lower than the Stratum IV floors of the chapels and rooms in the southern part of the octagon (781.76, 781.73 m asl respectively). The mosaic carpet of the hall was decorated with a net of diamonds made of flower buds, with flower buds in the center of each diamond. The frame was decorated with a wave-crest pattern, and along the edge was a row of flower buds. Minor repairs in the carpet, mostly in the southwestern part of the hall, were attested by slightly larger, yellowish-white and red tesserae. In the fill below the mosaic bedding (L919; Probe 17; Table 2.1), a single fragment of a jar from the first century CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.2:21) was found. Floor 10 remained in use during Stratum IV. Along the edges of the mosaic carpet in the apse (L16, see below), a repair indicated that the apse mosaic was replaced at a later stage, assigned to Stratum IV.

2

The bedding was exposed during conservation work, and no locus number was assigned.

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The Northeastern Passage Room Mosaic-Floor Bedding (L121A–B). A gray-mortar bedding (L121A) over a base layer of pebbles and mortar (L121B) was uncovered in this room (Probe 18; Table 2.1). Only a few tesserae survived from the mosaic, and they were eroded shortly after their exposure. The floor bedding abutted the threshold in W301 (see Fig. 2.44). Three coins from the sixth century CE found in Probe 18 date Mosaic 121 to Stratum III. A coin of Justinian I in Bedding 121A dates to 527–538 CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 42), and two Vandal coins from the fill (L921) under the pebble layer (L121B) date to the second half of the sixth century and the sixth century CE, respectively (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 55, 65). It seems that Mosaic Floor 121 continued in use in Stratum IV. The Northeastern Chapel Mosaic Floors (L70, L75). Only isolated segments survived of the mosaic floor in this chapel. In the hall, four segments were preserved of the mosaic carpet (L70), the largest of which (0.25 × 1.20 m) abutted the early threshold in W106 (Figs. 2.46, 2.47). The carpet was decorated with a design of interlacing ribbons that form medallions, and the frame had a guilloche pattern flanked on either side by bands of wave-crest pattern. Another segment of the frame (0.92 × 1.10 m) remained between the hall and the apse (Fig. 2.48). Three segments of the apse carpet (L75) were preserved, abutting W164. Here, the carpet was decorated with flower buds, and in its center was a square design of interlacing ribbons. Along the mosaic edge was a row of flower buds. On the southeastern edge was a repair of large, yellowish-white tesserae.

L75

L70

Fig. 2.47. The northeastern chapel and remains of Mosaic Floors 70 and 75 of Stratum III; looking southeast.

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Fig. 2.48. A segment of Stratum III Mosaic Floor 75 in the apse of the northeastern chapel, and in the foreground, the frame of the hall’s mosaic carpet (L70); looking east.

The surface level of the chapel floor, as noted above, sloped to the northeast (Probe 20), probably a result of the ground sinking in this area. Another example of the instability of the ground in this area can be seen in the collapse of the mosaic in the northwestern part of the ambulatory (L7; see Fig. 2.32). This sloping was also noted in the floor bedding uncovered in the probes. Layers of white plaster (L70A), gray mortar (L70B) and pebbles in mortar (L70C) laid over Fill 923 were revealed above earlier Stratum II floor beddings (Probes 19–21; Table 2.1). The bedding abutted the threshold in W301 and the earlier threshold in W106 (see above). Its level (781.52 m asl) correlated with that of Bedding 121 in the adjoining passage room, which also abutted the threshold in W301 and was dated to the second half of the sixth century CE (see above). The mosaic floor apparently remained in use in Stratum IV. Stratum IV (Plan 2.4) The Bema and the Main Apse The Umayyad-period building (see below) was constructed around the main apse, damaging its walls and canceling it. The floor of the bema was replaced by a new floor (L56). A row of ashlars was placed over almost the entire width of the second step (dismantled during excavation), blocking ascent to the bema and allowing access only through the northwestern corner (see Fig. 2.16). It is impossible to determine with certainty if the bema was blocked in Stratum IV or later.

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Mosaic Floor (L56). In the southeastern corner of the bema, near the stairs, a segment of the mosaic frame (max. dimensions 2.4 × 3.1 m), decorated with a wave-crest pattern and acanthus scrolls that formed medallions (see Fig. 2.16; Chapter 4: Fig. 4.22) was preserved. In the rest of the bema, only the gray-mortar layer (L56A) was found. This layer was laid over the base layer of pebbles in mortar (L56B), as observed in Probe 12 in the northwestern corner of the bema (Table 2.1). The layer of mortar preserved the outline of the bema’s walls, and its level (782.08 m asl) correlated with that of the bedding in the apse (L52) of Stratum II (see above), which apparently remained in use into Stratum IV. The Southeastern Chapel Mosaic Floors (L66, L89). The mosaic floor in the chapel hall (L66) was completely preserved (see Fig. 2.37), with the exception of a few tesserae that were either lost or sank in the southern part of the hall. The carpet was decorated with a net of medallions with flower buds in the center of each. The frame comprised a band of two-strand guilloche between two bands of stepped triangles. Along the edge of the mosaic ran a black line with flower buds. The apse carpet (L89), only partially preserved, was decorated with a pattern of small diamonds, and along the edges was a black line with flower buds. The level of the mosaic floor in the chapel (781.73–781.76 m asl) correlated with the floor levels in the adjacent southeastern passage room and in the southern rooms (L73, L98) (see below); therefore, the floor in this chapel can also be assigned to Stratum IV. The Southeastern Passage Room Mosaic Floor (L54). The mosaic floor in this room was almost completely preserved, apart from some damage to the frame in the west and the northeast. The floor enabled reconstruction of the trapezoidal plan of the room. The mosaic carpet was decorated with a large date palm bearing two bunches of dates, and two smaller date palms also bearing fruit. Red tesserae were used in the background of the carpet (see Fig. 2.38; Chapter 4: Fig. 4.24), which was also seen in the mosaic carpet in Room 73 (see below). The carpet was surrounded by a frame of three bands: two with a two-strand guilloche pattern flanking a band of medallions and half-medallions, each enclosing a lily. The carpet in this room showed the influence of the wall mosaics in the Dome of the Rock (see Chapter 4: Group 4). Southern Rooms 73 and 98 In Stratum IV, the southern entrance room was divided into two rooms by an ashlar wall (W125) preserved to a height of one course (length 4.0 m, width 0.3 m; see Fig. 2.21): Room 73 on the east was square (5.2 × 5.2 m) and Room 98 on the west was rectangular (2.1 × 3.0 m). Wall 122 delineated these rooms on the north, and the doorway in W122 that gave access to the ambulatory was canceled, and in its stead a miḥrab (prayer niche) was installed facing the ambulatory (see Fig. 2.22). It may have been possible to enter Room 73 from the east, through a doorway in W141 that did not survive (see above). In Room 98, the mosaic floor delineated the outline of the walls (Fig. 2.49): W127 on the west and W126 on the south, of which only the line of ashlars on the southern face was preserved, laid upon a foundation of mortar and medium-sized stones. Construction of W126 upon

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W125 L98

L73 W126

Fig. 2.49. The mosaic carpet in Room 98 on the southern side of the outermost octagon; to the right is the mosaic in Room 73, and between them W125, in which an Umayyad coin was found; looking northwest.

the hewn stairs that accessed the church blocked the southern entrance to the church, and the poor preservation of the walls did not allow identification of any other entrance to the room. About 5 m south of this wall, a plastered channel was installed on the hewn stairs (W129; width 0.2 m, preserved length 5.3 m), which replaced the earlier channel in W128, and put the hewn steps out of use. Mosaic Floor (L73). Room 73 was decorated with a colorful mosaic whose edges reach W125 and the stone course of W122 in which the miḥrab was installed. During conservation work, it was revealed that the mosaic was laid on bedrock, and it can be assumed that any earlier floors had been removed. In the center of the carpet was a partially preserved harmonic-shield motif decorated with colored squares. Around it intertwined a vine growing from acanthus calyxes emerging from four cornucopias in the corners of the room. The carpet had a frame with a guilloche pattern (Fig. 2.50). Two Umayyad-period coins were found during conservation work, one in the mortar of W125 and the other in the mosaic bedding (L73A), which date the mosaic to the eighth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 73, 85). The style of the cornucopias, the acanthus calyxes and the vine scrolls testify to an influence from the wall mosaics in the Dome of the Rock (see Chapters 4, 10). Mosaic Floor (L98). The floor of Room 98 was mostly preserved, except for the southern part, and it abutted W122 and the line of W127. The mosaic carpet was decorated with a net of diamonds with small diamonds in their center, and was surrounded by a frame with

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Fig. 2.50. Mosaic carpet from Stratum IV decorated with the harmonic-shield motif in Room 73 on the southern side of the outermost octagon; looking south.

an inner band decorated with a two-strand guilloche, and an outer band of stepped triangles (see Fig. 2.49). The Southwestern Chapel Mosaic Floors (L240, L244). A new mosaic floor was installed in this chapel above Mosaic Floor 346 of Stratum III. In the hall, the mosaic (L240) was almost completely preserved (see Fig. 2.40), the carpet decorated with octagons formed by a square surrounded by squat hexagons, and at the center of each square and hexagon was a diamond. The frame was decorated with a four-strand guilloche, and along the edge of the mosaic was a black line with flower buds. The fully preserved apse carpet (L244) was decorated with a pattern of scales, each with a flower bud in the center, and the surrounding frame was decorated with a three-strand guilloche. As noted above, in Fill 373 between Floors 346 and 240, an early channel-nozzle oil lamp from the seventh–beginning of the eighth centuries CE dated Floor 240 to Stratum IV. The Southwestern Passage Room Mosaic Floor (L256). A new mosaic floor was installed in this room, of which seven segments survived. The largest segment (1.4 × 1.7 m), in the southwestern corner, preserved the outlines of the walls (see Fig. 2.41). The mosaic carpet was decorated with a pattern of scales, each with a flower bud in its center, and the frame comprised a band with a twostrand guilloche flanked by bands with a wave-crest pattern. The floor bedding (L256A–C)

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was laid over a terra-rossa fill (L915) that separated it from the floor bedding of Stratum III (see Probe 13; Table 2.1). During conservation work, a coin from the reign of Anastasius (498–507 CE; see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 29) was found in the floor bedding (L941), and in the fill under the bedding were ceramic vessels spanning the sixth to eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.4:39–43). The fill, as mentioned above, sealed the white mosaic floor of Stratum III, and we can therefore assume that the coin was residual. The Western Entrance Room Mosaic Floor (L215). Five white tesserae abutting the threshold in W28 were apparently the only remnants of a mosaic floor that was laid over the marble floor of Stratum III (L265; see above). It is possible that the ashlar construction between the columns in W26 and the installation of the doorway in the southwestern end of the wall should be attributed to this stratum. Above the remains of the marble floor and the mosaic, a layer of earth and black ash (L215; thickness 7 cm) was possibly the remains of a wooden ceiling that had burned and collapsed. It is unclear to which stratum the burnt layer should be attributed. Fragments of columns found here may have been part of a clerestory that apparently existed above the rooms of the outermost octagon (see Fig. 2.42; Chapter 6: Fig. 6.6:23). A column of similar size, probably also part of the clerestory, was found outside the church, next to Room 21 (see Chapter 3). The Northwestern Passage Room Mosaic Floor (L32). The mosaic floor (L32) uncovered in this room, which enabled reconstruction of its irregular plan, was almost complete apart from a hole (diam. 0.5 m) in the southern part of the room caused by the root of an olive tree. The carpet was decorated with a pattern of scales, each with a flower bud in its center, and a frame with a band of two-strand guilloche flanked by bands of wave-crest pattern (see Fig. 2.43). The design was identical to that of Floor 256 in the southwestern passage room (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.29). The level of the mosaic floor (781.74 m asl) was also in accord with the levels of the other Stratum IV mosaic floors in the southern part of the octagon. As noted above, during conservation work to consolidate the edges of the mosaic, ceramic sherds from the midsixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE were found below the mosaic floor and above the Stratum III floor bedding (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.4:44, 45). The Northwestern Chapel Mosaic Floor (L16). The mosaic carpet in the apse (L16) of this chapel was replaced in Stratum IV, while the hall carpet (L10) remained in use (see Fig. 2.31). Between the two carpets, repairs were made with large white tesserae (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.31). The apse carpet was decorated with a pattern of scales, each with a flower bud in its center, and was surrounded by two parallel black lines. The edge of the mosaic was decorated with flowers. The design of this mosaic was identical to that in the apse of the southwestern chapel (L244), and it is possible that the need to create symmetry between the chapels led to the replacement of the carpet.

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The Umayyad Building (Plan 2.4) A rectangular building (12.5 × 14.5 m), oriented northeast–southwest, was erected east of the main apse of the church and canceled it (Plan 2.4). The building had four rooms, Rooms 1–3 built in Stratum IV (L65, L87, L91) and Room 4 (L46) added later, apparently in Stratum V (Fig. 2.51). In most cases, only the wall foundations remained, constructed of small and medium-sized stones in mortar. In some of the external walls, a course of the upper wall survived, constructed of two rows of dressed stones with earth and fieldstones between them. Due to the poor preservation of the walls, it was impossible to determine where the entrance to the building was. The fact that the stairs to the main bema had been blocked except in the northwestern corner, implies that the building had an entrance from

L46

L65

L91

Fig. 2.51. The row of rooms in the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse; looking northwest. In the center, Rooms 2 (L91) and 3 (L65) of Stratum IV; in the background, Room 4 (L46) that was added in Stratum V.

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the west, through the church. Support for this supposition is found in the orientation of the motifs in the mosaic carpet in Room 1 (see below). Probes 22–24 were excavated below the mosaic floors (Plan 2.1: Sections 22-22–24-24; Table 2.1). Stratum IV (Plan 2.4) The Umayyad building was erected partially on the foundations of the apse walls (W104, W114). Wall 114 was apparently incorporated into the Umayyad building as the northwestern wall of Room 1, the largest room in the building. The building was delineated by W101 on the northeast, W123 on the southeast and W131 on the southwest. The width of these three walls was 1.2 m. Wall 101 was preserved to a length of 9 m, and a maximum height of one course above the foundation course. Wall 123 was partially preserved, with two surviving segments 3 m apart: one 7 m long, the other, farther to the south, 2 m long; this wall also survived to a maximum height of one course above the foundation, of which only the outer face was preserved, built of a row of dressed stones into which fragments of columns and a threshold in secondary use were incorporated. Of W131, only the foundation remained in a 3.4 m segment that abutted W123 and formed the southern corner of the building. In the northwest of the building, a small segment of W115 (0.8 × 0.8 m) survived, forming a corner with W101. It was built of a row of dressed stones and a row of medium-sized fieldstones and earth, and seems to have continued south to form a corner with an internal wall (W116) over the foundations of W104 of the main apse, and delineated the building from the northwest. Two coins were found in W115, one dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE, the other an Umayyad coin from the first half of the eighth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 22, 82). The building consisted of a large square room in the south (Room 1; 5.5 × 5.5 m) and two smaller rooms of equal size (Rooms 2, 3; 3.2 × 4.0 m) to its north. The rooms were paved with mosaic. Room 1 The southern room was delineated by external W123 and W131, and on the northeast by internal W116, of which only the foundation (width 1 m) remained, abutting W123 from the east. The outline of the southeastern part of W116 was preserved by the mosaic floor beddings in this room and in the rooms to its north (see below). The northwestern end did not survive, but it was clearly built on the foundation of W104 of the main apse. In the northern end of the room, Mosaic Floor 87 adjoined the foundation of W114, which presumably was incorporated into the Umayyad building as the northwestern wall. The orientation of the motifs that decorate the floor indicate that the entrance to the room was from the west. Mosaic Floor (L87). Two segments of a multi-colored mosaic survived, the larger (2.00 × 2.65 m) comprised the southwestern corner of the mosaic carpet (Fig. 2.52), the other (0.45 × 0.90 m), which abutted W123, preserved the mosaic frame and edges (Fig. 2.53). The carpet was decorated with a pattern of pearl medallions, each medallion containing

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a unique, fantastic vegetal motif, and similar vegetal motifs also appeared between the medallions (see Chapter 4: Figs. 4.33–4.36). The background of the carpet was red. The frame consisted of two bands: the inner band decorated with a two-strand guilloche pattern, the outer one with stepped triangles. Along the outside frame was a decorative motif that imitated carpet tassels, and along the edge was a row of flower buds. The unique motifs in this mosaic carpet testify to the influence of Sassanian art and of the wall mosaics in the Dome of the Rock (see Chapters 4, 10). The use of a red background in the carpet was characteristic of the mosaic carpets of the Umayyad period.

Fig. 2.52. The mosaic floor in Room 1 (L87) of the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse; looking southeast.

W123

Fig. 2.53. Detail of the frame of the mosaic carpet (L87) that abuts W123 in Room 1 of the Umayyad building; looking southeast.

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The bedding of the mosaic uncovered in Probe 22 in the northeastern corner of the room, consisted of layers of white plaster (L87A), gray mortar (L87B) and a base layer of pebbles in mortar and ash (L87C) laid over a terra-rossa fill (L115) on bedrock (Table 2.1). Within the fill was a fragment of a lantern or incense burner, dated to the mid-third–fifth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.6:57). Room 2 This room was delineated by external W123 and W101, internal W116 and another internal wall, W117, on the northwest that divided it from Room 3. The foundation of W117 survived and its outline could be traced by the edges of the mosaics in the two rooms. It was 4 m long, 0.8 m wide, and extended perpendicularly between W116 in the south and W101 in the north. Mosaic Floor (L91). The mosaic in this room was partially preserved, and retained the outlines of the room’s corners, except for the southwestern one. The floor level (782.63 m asl) was higher by c. 0.2 m than the floor levels of L87 and L65 on either side. The reason for this is unknown. The carpet was decorated with a simple design of a net of diamonds, each with a small diamond at its center. The frame was a band of a two-strand guilloche flanked on either side by bands with stepped triangles (see Fig. 2.51). The edges of the mosaic were decorated with a line of flower buds. The mosaic-floor bedding uncovered in Probe 23 in the southwestern corner of the room consisted of a layer of white plaster (L91A) and a base layer of pebbles in mortar and ash (L91B) laid over a terra-rossa fill (L929; Table 2.1). A fragment of a FBW bowl, dated to the mid-sixth–late seventh/beginning of eighth centuries (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.6:55), was found in the fill. Excavation of the probe was not completed, and the level of the bedrock remains unknown. Room 3 This room was delineated by external W101 and W115, and internal W116 and W117. The southern corner of the room did not survive, but it was clearly located on the foundations of W104 of the main apse. The mosaic in the room (782.42 m asl) was 0.32 m higher than the level of the foundation of W104 (782.10 m asl). Mosaic Floor (L65). The remains of the mosaic floor in this room included part of the carpet with a pattern of scales with flower buds in the center of each, and the frame decorated with a wave-crest pattern. At the edge of the mosaic was a line of flower buds. The mosaic-floor bedding, which consisted of a layer of white plaster (L65A) and a base layer of pebbles in mortar and ash (L65B) over a terra-rossa fill (L107), was revealed in Probe 24 in the southwestern corner of the room. A lid of a cooking pot ranging in date from the end of the third to the tenth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.6:56), was found in the fill. Excavation of the probe was not completed and the level of the bedrock is unknown.

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Stratum V (Plan 2.4) Room 4 A new room was added in this stratum to the north of Room 3. Wall 115 delineated this room on the southeast. On the northeast, one course of W101A was preserved (length 4.8 m, width 0.9 m), which was attached to the southeastern end of W101, and formed a corner with W100 (length 3.5 m, width 0.9 m) at its northwestern end. Both walls were constructed of two rows of large and medium-sized dressed stones with earth and small fieldstones between them. A line of four stones (W103A) abutted the southwestern end of W100 from the west, its easternmost stone integrated into W100. This line of stones, which is contemporary with W100, leaned on the northern face of W119 of the main apse, and it seems that its function was to strengthen the corner between the wall of the apse of the northeastern chapel and the later building. The southwestern wall of the room did not survive, but it was apparently built on the foundation of W119 of the main apse. A floor bedding of white plaster (L46) was preserved in this room.

Summary Remains of a large octagonal church were excavated in Areas A and B. The architectural plan was based on three concentric octagons built around a bedrock outcrop at the center. The inner and middle octagons were separated by eight pillars and an array of columns between the pillars to support the roof (probably domed) above the inner octagon. The middle octagon (ambulatory) served to circumambulate the inner octagon and provided a view of the central ‘holy’ rock. The outer octagon was divided into rooms: entrance rooms on the northern, western and southern sides, four chapels on the northeastern, northwestern, southwestern and southeastern sides, four small corner passage rooms between the entrance rooms and the adjacent chapels, and a bema on the eastern side that opened eastward to an apse that protruded beyond the line of the outer octagon. Five strata were identified: Stratum I (first half of the fifth century CE) predates the octagonal church and comprises a single wall sealed below a Stratum II floor bedding. The octagonal church with a protruding apse was built in Stratum II, which is dated to the mid-fifth century based on historical sources, coins and the style of the Corinthian capitals. In Stratum III, extensive renovations were carried out. The bema was expanded westward into the space of the ambulatory, the array of pillars and columns was replaced by narrower pillars and columns and shifted slightly to the southeast, distorting the perfect octagonal shape. The replacement of the supporting pillars and columns suggests largescale damage had occurred to the roofing and probably to other parts of the church. New floors, almost all of them mosaics, were laid on top of the Stratum II floors (probably also mosaic floors). A ceramic pipe below a floor bedding led water from a cistern to a cupmark in the central rock, which we identify as an installation to produce ‘blessed’ holy water (eulogia) for pilgrims. Based on coin finds, Stratum III is dated to the second half, probably even third quarter of the sixth century CE.

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In Stratum IV, the apse went out of use, and a new building was constructed to the east––around it and on top of it. The new building comprised two rooms in the north and a larger southern room decorated with a lavish mosaic. In the church, most of the mosaic floors were replaced by new ones, except those in the northern chapels. On the southern side of the ambulatory, a niche constructed into a wall was open toward the north and closed on the south. This niche is interpreted as a miḥrab. Two rooms of unequal size replaced the southern entrance room, the larger room decorated with a sumptuous mosaic, and adjoining it, the southeastern passage room was also adorned with a lavish mosaic floor. Stratum IV is dated to the Umayyad period by coins with inscriptions in Arabic, the earliest dated to 705/706 CE. Thus, the niche in the southern area of the ambulatory and the lavish mosaics testify that the southern and eastern areas of the Kathisma church were confiscated by Muslims for religious purposes, while the Christians retained the northern and western sides. In Stratum V, a room was added to the northwestern side of the Umayyad building around the apse, and it is possible that two poorly constructed walls to the north and south of the central rock of the octagonal church also belong to Stratum V, which is dated by the latest coins at the site to the second half of the eighth–ninth centuries CE. The church was probably abandoned in the tenth century, and most of its stones were looted by the early twelfth century, when Abbot Daniel observed its ruins (see Chapter 1).

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Table 2.1. Probes Under the Floors of the Church and the Umayyad Building (see Plan 2.1) Probe No.

1

2

3

4

5

Location and Dimensions

Innermost octagon, west of rock; 0.3 × 1.3 m

Northern part of innermost octagon, cleaning section following pre-excavation damage by tractor; 1.5 × 1.5 m

Innermost octagon, next to Pillar 5; 1.3 × 1.3 m

Innermost octagon, next to Pillar 3; 0.7 × 0.7 m

Eastern part of ambulatory; 0.5 × 1.0 m

Description of Loci

Elevations (m. asl)

Stratum

Coins (see Chapter 7)

L356A: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.43–781.41

III

 

L900 terra-rossa fill

781.41–781.39

III

 

L385: white-plaster floor bedding, abutting the rock at the center of the church

781.39–781.37

II

 

L901: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.37–781.20

II

 

L80A: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.63–781.61

IV

 

L81: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.61–781.59

III

 

L902: terra-rossa fill

781.59–781.39

III

 

L88: white-plaster floor bedding

781.39–781.37

II

Cat. No. 33 (491– 518 CE); Cat. No. 64 (sixth c. CE)

L903: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.37–781.20

II

 

L236: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.67–781.63

IV

Cat. No. 30 (498– 507 CE); Cat. No. 45 (527–565 CE); Cat. No. 46 (555/56–565/56 CE)

L904: terra-rossa fill

781.63–781.57

IV

 

L320A: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.57–781.55

III

 

L320B: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar

781.55–781.50

III

 

L905: terra-rossa fill

781.50–781.48

III

 

L321: white-plaster floor bedding, abutting Pillar 5

781.48–781.46

II

Cat. No. 54 (midsixth c. CE), above the plaster bedding

L906: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.46–781.33

II

Cat. No. 25 (fourth–fifth c. CE)

L69A: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.52–781.50

III

 

L69B: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar

781.50–781.45

III

 

L907: terra-rossa fill

781.45–781.40

III

 

L105: yellowish-mortar floor bedding above bedrock, abutting Pillar 3

781.40–781.38

II

 

L59: gray-mortar floor bedding with marble-slab imprints

781.70–781.68

III

 

L95: earth fill

781.68–781.60

III

 

L109: red-earth fill

781.60–781.50

III

 

L110: yellowish-mortar floor bedding

781.50–781.40

II

 

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Table 2.1 (cont.) Probe No.

6

7

8

9

Location and Dimensions

Southeastern part of ambulatory, parallel to threshold in W111; 0.5 × 1.0 m 

Southwestern part of ambulatory, perpendicular to W38; 1.25 × 2.50 m

Western part of ambulatory, parallel to threshold in W25; 0.9 × 1.6 m

Northeastern part of the ambulatory between W106 and W109; 0.5 × 0.5 m

Description of Loci

Elevations (m. asl)

Stratum

Coins (see Chapter 7)

L63A: white-plaster floor bedding with tesserae imprints, abutting W111

781.79–781.77

IV

 

L63B: gray-mortar floor bedding, abutting W111

781.77–781.73

IV

 

L111A: white-plaster floor bedding with tesserae imprints and paint marks, abutting W111

781.73–781.71

III

 

L111B: gray-mortar floor bedding, abutting W111

781.71–781.68

III

 

L111C: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar, abuttimg W111

781.68–781.62

III

 

L908: terra-rossa fill with mosaicproduction debris

781.62–781.52

III

 

L112: white-plaster floor bedding on bedrock

781.52–781.48

II

 

L245A: white-plaster floor bedding with tesserae imprints

781.69–781.66

IV

 

L245B: gray-mortar floor bedding with mosaic-production debris

781.66–781.61

IV

Cat. No. 27 (477– 484 CE)

L260A: white-plaster floor bedding with tesserae imprints

781.61–781.59

III

 

L260B: gray-mortar floor bedding with grains of charcoal

781.59–781.56

III

 

L260C: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar

781.56–781.52

III

 

L909: terra-rossa fill

781.52–781.47

III

L261: white-plaster floor bedding with mosaic-production debris

781.47–781.45

II

L910: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.45–781.38

II

 

L316: tesserae on white plaster

781.70–781.67

IV

 

L316A: white-plaster floor bedding

781.67–781.66

IV

 

L316B: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.66–781.64

IV

 

L317: terra-rossa fill

781.64–781.58

IV

 

L318A: white-plaster floor bedding

781.58

III

 

L318B: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.58–781.56

III

 

L318C: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar

781.56–781.50

III

 

L911: terra-rossa fill

781.50–781.44

III

 

L319A: white-plaster floor bedding

781.44–781.43

II

 

L319B: earth with mosaicproduction debris

781.43–781.40

II

 

L912: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.40–781.33

II

 

L379: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.63–781.60

III–IV(?)

 

L380: terra-rossa fill with architectural elements

781.60–780.73

III–IV(?)

 

L380A: stone-slab floor

780.73–780.66

III–IV(?)

 

L381: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

780.66–780.24

III–IV(?)

 

CHAPTER 2: THE OCTAGONAL CHURCH—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY

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Table 2.1 (cont.) Probe No.

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Location and Dimensions

Main apse; 0.5 × 0.5 m

Bema; 1×2m

Bema, in northwestern corner; 1.0 × 2.2 m

Southwestern passage room; 0.5 × 0.5 m

Western entrance room, parallel to W26; 0.55 × 1.20 m

Western entrance room, northeastern corner, parallel to W25; 1.2 × 1.2 m

Western entrance room, southeastern corner, parallel to W25; 0.8 × 0.8 m

Description of Loci

Elevations (m. asl)

Stratum

Coins (see Chapter 7)

L52A: gray-mortar floor bedding

782.08–782.07

II

Cat. No. 12 (fourth c. CE)

L52B: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and gray mortar

782.07–782.00

II

 

L913: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

782.00–781.70

II

 

L56A: gray-mortar floor bedding

782.08–782.06

IV

 

L339A: gray-mortar floor bedding

782.06–782.04

III

 

L339B: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar

782.04–781.98

III

 

L340: terra-rossa fill

781.98–781.79

III

Cat. No. 32 (491– 518 CE)

L341: white-plaster floor bedding

781.79–781.77

II

 

L914: terra-rossa fill

781.77–781.62

II

 

L56A: gray-mortar floor bedding

782.08–782.05

IV

 

L56B: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles

782.05–782.00

IV

 

L96: gray-mortar floor bedding

782.00–781.97

III

 

L97: earth fill on top of collapse

781.97–781.89

III

 

L256: mosaic floor

781.80

IV

 

L256A: white-plaster floor bedding

781.80–781.77

IV

 

L256B: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.77–781.72

IV

 

L256C: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and gray mortar

781.72–781.65

IV

 

L915: terra-rossa fill

781.65–781.51

IV

 

L278A: white-plaster floor bedding inlaid with white tesserae

781.51–781.50

II–III(?)

 

L278B: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and gray mortar

781.50–781.44

II–III(?)

 

L916: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.44–781.24

II–III(?)

 

L265A: bedding of marble-slab floor, abutting the wall

781.57–781.51

III

 

L917: terra-rossa fill

781.51–781.43

III

Cat. No. 34 (491– 518 CE); Cat. No. 56 (mid-sixth c. CE)

L282: white-plaster floor bedding, abutting foundation course of W26 and W28

781.43–781.42

II

 

L918: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.42–781.35

II

 

L265A: gray-mortar bedding of marble-slab floor

781.57–781.51

III

 

L917: terra-rossa fill

781.51–781.43

III

 

L282: white-plaster floor bedding

781.43–781.42

II

 

L918: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.42–781.31

II

 

L265A: gray-mortar bedding of marble-slab floor abutting the wall

781.57–781.51

III

 

L279: earth, gray mortar and ash on bedrock

781.51–781.45

II–III(?)

 

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Table 2.1 (cont.) Probe No.

17

18

19

20

Location and Dimensions

Northwestern chapel, adjoining threshold in W4; 0.15 × 1.80 m

Northeastern passage room, parallel to threshold in W301; 0.6 × 1.8 m

Northeastern chapel, parallel to threshold in W301; 0.5 × 0.5 m

Northwestern chapel, parallel to W130; 0.5 × 1.8 m

Description of Loci

Elevations (m. asl)

Stratum

Coins (see Chapter 7)

L10: mosaic floor

781.57–781.56

III

 

L10A: white-plaster floor bedding

781.56–781.55

III

 

L10B: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.55–781.52

III

 

L10C: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar

781.52–781.47

III

 

L919: terra-rossa fill

781.47–781.31

III

 

L155: white-plaster floor bedding abutting the wall

781.31–781.29

II

 

L920: terra-rossa on bedrock

781.29–781.20

II

 

L121: mosaic floor abutting the threshold

781.53–781.52

III

 

L121A: gray-mortar floor bedding with mosaic-production debris, abutting the threshold

781.52–781.47

III

Cat. No. 42 (527– 538 CE)

L121B: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar with charcoal grains, abutting the threshold

781.47–781.41

III

 

L921: terra-rossa fill

781.41–781.28

III

Cat. No. 55 (midsixth c. CE); Cat. No. 65 (sixth c. CE)

L134A: white-plaster floor bedding

781.28–781.27

II

 

L134B: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and gray mortar

781.27–781.22

II

Cat. No. 13 (383– 395 CE); Cat. No. 24 (fourth–fifth c. CE); Cat. No. 51 (538–542 CE)

L922: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.22–780.72

II

 

L70A: white-plaster floor bedding, abutting the threshold

781.52–781.51

III

 

L70B: gray-mortar floor bedding, abutting the threshold

781.51–781.45

III

 

L70C: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar abutting the threshold

781.45–781.39

III

 

L923: terra-rossa fill

781.39–781.28

III

 

L120: white-plaster floor bedding with mosaic-production debris

781.28–781.22

II

 

L924: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.22–780.85

II

 

L70A: white-plaster floor bedding

781.42–781.41

III

 

L70B: gray-mortar floor bedding

781.41–781.35

III

 

L70C: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar

781.35–781.29

III

 

L923: terra-rossa fill

781.29–781.18

III

 

L156: white-plaster floor bedding with mosaic-production debris

781.18–781.14

II

 

L925: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

781.14–781.04

II

 

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Table 2.1 (cont.) Probe No.

21

22

23

24

Location and Dimensions

Northeastern chapel, adjoining the early and late thresholds in W106; 0.5 × 0.5 m

The Umayyad building, Room 1, parallel to W116; 0.5 × 0.5 m

The Umayyad building, Room 2, parallel to W116; 0.5 × 0.5 m

The Umayyad building, Room 3, parallel to W116; 0.5 × 0.5 m

Description of Loci

Elevations (m. asl)

Stratum

Coins (see Chapter 7)

L70A: white-plaster floor bedding, abutting the early threshold

781.52–781.51

III

 

L70B: gray-mortar floor bedding, abutting the early threshold

781.51–781.45

III

 

L70C: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles and mortar abutting the early threshold

781.45–781.39

III

 

L923: terra-rossa fill

781.39–781.28

III

 

L154: white-plaster floor bedding abutting the early threshold

781.28–781.27

II

 

L87: mosaic floor

782.43–782.42

IV

 

L87A: white-plaster floor bedding

782.42–782.41

IV

 

L87B: gray-mortar floor bedding

782.41–782.39

IV

 

L87C: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles in mortar and ash

782.39–782.32

IV

 

L115: terra-rossa fill on bedrock

782.32–782.27

IV

 

L91: mosaic floor

782.63–782.62

IV

 

L91A: white-plaster floor bedding

782.62–782.61

IV

 

L91B: floor bedding, base layer of pebbles in mortar and ash

782.61–782.54

IV

 

L929: terra-rossa fill

782.54–782.20

IV

 

L65: mosaic floor

782.42–782.41

IV

 

L65A: white-plaster floor bedding

782.41–782.40

IV

 

L65B: base layer of pebbles in mortar and ash

782.40–782.32

IV

 

L107: terra-rossa fill

782.32–782.12

IV

 

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 3

The Entrance Atria and the Monastery— Architecture and Stratigraphy Rina Avner Introduction Architectural remains from the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods uncovered in all the excavation areas around the octagonal church (A–E; Plans 3.1–3.5) are attributed to the entrance atria in front of the northern, western and southern entrances to the church, and to the Kathisma monastery (see Chapter 1). The remains of the monastery were poorly preserved, and it is not possible to reconstruct its plan. Most of the area east of the church was not excavated, but remnants of an ashlar wall oriented north–south were discovered during the replanting of uprooted olive trees, and it probably delineated the monastery on the east (see Chapter 1: Plan 1.1). The area north of the church, although damaged prior to excavation by mechanical equipment and earthworks associated with paving the modern road, could be partially reconstructed. The western side of the site was also cut by the road, and here too, reconstruction was partial. To the south and southwest of the church, the bedrock was higher and the preservation was very poor. In Areas C and D, the remains that could be attributed to the monastery were meager, and provide little information as to the plan or the boundaries of the monastery on this side. This is also the situation in Area E, northwest of the church, now below the modern road. On the northern, western and southern sides of the church, the architectural remains of the porticos and the monastery were contiguous, and associated with the walls of the church. Nevertheless, the poor preservation and the meager assemblage of small finds prevented a clear stratigraphic correlation with the strata in the church (see Chapter 2), except in a few cases. There was no continuity in the excavation between Areas A–C and Areas D and E, and no datable small finds were discovered in the latter. Nevertheless, the construction methods in Areas D and E are comparable to those in Areas A–C. Area D included the water reservoir Bir Qadismu, which preserves the name of the site and the monastery (see Chapter 1), and in Area E the orientation of the walls accorded with that of the adjacent church. The remains of the entrance atria and the monastery in Areas A–C are presented counter-clockwise from north to south, then Areas D and E, with reference to relative stratigraphy within and between the different areas.

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State of Preservation As noted above, the archaeological remains outside the church were poorly preserved. Most of the walls survived no higher than a single course, with only the foundations remaining, in a few cases incorporating bedrock. As in the church, the outlines of some walls could be reconstructed by the preserved edges of the mosaic floors or their beddings. In the porticos surrounding the courtyards, only the mosaic floors to the west of the church survived. No floors of the courtyards from the original construction phase survived, apart from a small mosaic west of the church (L267). Most of the monastery rooms were paved with mosaics. The only plaster floors were exposed north (Room 5) and southwest of the church (Rooms 17, 18), and they apparently postdate the Byzantine period. Stone floors were uncovered south of the church, most of them paving open spaces that were also apparently later than the Byzantine construction (see Plans 3.1, 3.2). Construction Techniques A number of wall-construction techniques were identified in the monastery (see Plans 3.1–3.5), some of which correspond to those used in the church or in the Umayyad building erected over the main apse (see Chapter 2). As the construction techniques could not be associated with specific strata in the monastery, only in isolated cases could the remains be attributed to the Byzantine or Early Islamic period. One of the few parameters was the use of hydraulic plaster containing slivers of pottery sherds that lent it a pinkish hue––a characteristic of the Byzantine period. Ashlar Construction. Four different construction techniques employed ashlars, usually in walls of c. 0.8 m wide. In one technique, walls were built of two rows of large ashlars with a cast core of mortar and small stones between them, as seen in the church (see Chapter 2). Two walls were built in this technique: W315 that abuts the northern portico, and W506 of the southern portico––both walls apparently built in the Byzantine period. In another technique, also seen in the church, large ashlars were arranged in one header and two stretchers, as in W304 and W317 that delineated a room attributed to the Umayyad period to the north of the church. In yet another technique, walls were constructed of one row of ashlars and one of small stones and mortar, such as W318 of the portico to the north of the church, dated to the Byzantine period, and two walls to the south of the church, W507 and W510, one of them also a portico wall (W507). Walls 156, 157 and 160, uncovered in rooms that adjoined one of the porticos to the west of the church, were constructed with a single row of large ashlars and seem to date to the Byzantine period. Dressed-Stone Construction. Most of the monastery walls were constructed of dressed stones. Several construction techniques identified in the Byzantine-period buildings continued into the Early Islamic period. In one technique, the walls consisted of two rows of dressed stones with a core of earth and small stones, as in W158, W159 and W170 of rooms to the southwest of the church, and W611 to the south of the church (Area D).

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A similar technique consisted of two rows of dressed stones with a core of mortar, as in portico W311 north of the church dated to the Byzantine period, in W168 of a room to the southwest of the church, W610 and W615 to the south of the church (Area D), and W84 and W85 northwest of the church (Area E). Another technique is characterized by a row of large and medium-sized stones with mortar and small stones between them, found in W42 and W43 of rooms to the southwest of the church, in W135 of the portico to the south of the church, and W60 farther south (Area D). Fieldstone Construction. Only three walls were built entirely of unworked, small and medium-sized fieldstones laid in three rows with mortar between them (W500, W501, W502), east of the southern courtyard.

The Entrance Atria and the Monastery (Areas A–C) The entrance atria, comprising a courtyard surrounded by porticos, and the monastery are described counter-clockwise from north to south. The description of each side begins with the peristyle atrium adjoining the church, which led to the entrance room of the church, and then the adjoining rooms, most of them attributed to the monastery. North of the Church (Plan 3.1) Mechanical equipment had covered this area with modern fills prior to the excavation. In this part of the monastery, three strata were discerned, two of which can be correlated with Byzantine Strata II and III in the church, and the latest one probably dates to Umayyad Stratum IV. Most of the architectural remains can be attributed to the monastery of Stratum III, which apparently continued in use, with some modifications, during Stratum IV. Courtyard Surrounded by Porticos Porticos Adjacent to the church on its north was a courtyard (I) surrounded by three porticos (Fig. 3.1). The courtyard was not excavated, apart from the northeastern corner (see below). The southern portico (L131), through which the church was entered, was preserved for c. 19 m (width 2.8 m); its western end was cut by the modern road. On the side that faces the courtyard was a stylobate (W309), preserved for a length of 5.4 m (width 0.6 m), built of stone slabs and incorporating three column bases still in situ (0.6 × 0.6 m). The distance between the columns was not equal: on the east 2.1 m, on the west 3.9 m. The foundation course of the stylobate continued farther to the east for 3.3 m. The floor of the portico was not exposed. At the western end of the portico, next to the stylobate, a probe was excavated (0.5 × 0.5 m) to below the foundations of the stylobate. At a level c. 0.12 m below the stylobate foundations (780.79 m asl), a floor bedding of white plaster (L932) was revealed that continued under the stylobate. Below the bedding (L397), a coin dating to the fourth–

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Area A

W

30

L121

781.52

W306

W318

780.26

781.52

W307

W311

L934

L70

0

7

13

L119

781.67

W362

W361

780.81

4

W

W 31

L1 781.67 L138 780.90

L143

L147

30

7

W315 A

W303

W328

L148

780.26

W

W315

5

6

L933

L149

1

W308

780.90

L129

I

W2

W302

780.84 780.26

W309

L131

780.78

Rooms

L16

L932 780.79 L397 780.77 W5

781.57

W329 L10

781.57

L139A L139B L935 L141

0

20 m

0

781.52 781.50 781.43 781.39

5

W 3

m

Plan 3.1. North of the church.

fifth centuries CE was retrieved (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 23), which dates the bedding to Stratum II—the phase in which the church was built—and the stylobate to Stratum III. Sometime toward the end of Stratum III or later, changes were made to the western end of the portico, where a north–south wall (W329) was built over the portico and the stylobate, of which only the foundation course remains. Two stones preserved on the stylobate to the west of the western column base indicate that at some point the intercolumn space was at least partially blocked (Fig. 3.2).

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Fig. 3.1. General view of the remains of the monastery to the north of the church; looking east.

Fig. 3.2. A blockage at the western end of stylobate W309, north of the church; looking north.

At the eastern end of the portico, a plastered installation (L933) with a square outline and rounded corners (2.0 × 2.2 m) was uncovered. The walls of the installation (W306, W307, W362) were constructed of a row of medium-sized ashlars and preserved to a maximum height of 0.17 m. The southern wall adjoined the external wall of the church (W302). At the bottom of the installation, next to the northern wall (W362), was a round depression (diam. 0.45 m, depth 0.29 m; Fig. 3.3). As no pipe or channel to carry water to the installation was discerned, it may have functioned as a baptismal font. Its location in the

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passage between the southern and eastern porticos, suggests that it was built in a late phase of Stratum III. Installation 933 was sealed by a mosaic floor (L1), apparently of Stratum IV (see below). The eastern portico was preserved to its full length (20.0 × 2.8 m; Fig. 3.4). The portico walls, W303 and W311 (width 0.85 m), survived to a height of a single course. Wall 303 (length 21 m), which delineated the portico on the east, was constructed of two rows of stones, one of large and medium-sized dressed stones and the other of small stones, and between them a mortar core. Wall 311 (length 16.30 m), which delineated the portico on the west, was constructed of a row of large dressed stones on the eastern face and small stones in mortar on the western face. Wall 311 formed a corner with the eastern end of the stylobate W309, and therefore the two are contemporary. The foundation course was preserved in this corner, and a square outline of small stones suggests that in the corner was an engaged column. In the portico, a floor bedding (L143) of white plaster was uncovered, and on the bedding were many white tesserae and fragments of a white mosaic floor, evidence of an upper floor that did not survive. The northern portico (L934) was cut by the modern road and most if it did not survive. It was delineated on the north by W361, of which a 3.4 m segment was preserved (width 0.83 m) that abuts W303 to form a corner constructed of dressed stones. Of the continuation of W361 toward the west, only the foundation course remains. Of the parallel southern wall (W318), a 1.5 m segment (width 1.2 m) was preserved, forming a corner with W311. Wall 318 was constructed of a row of large ashlars and a row of small and mediumsized stones in mortar. The floor of the portico was not uncovered.

L1

L933

W362 W328

W307 L119

Fig. 3.3 Installation 933 of Stratum III and above it, Mosaic Floor 1 of Stratum IV; looking west.

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W30

Courtyard I W311

L143

5A

W318

W303

5

W31 W31

89

L148 Room 5

Fig. 3.4. The remains to the north of the church; looking southwest. In the center, Courtyard I and the eastern portico (L143).

Courtyard I In the northeastern corner of the courtyard, the corner of a cistern coated with pinkish hydraulic plaster (c. 0.1 m thick) was uncovered. A short segment of the northern wall (0.7 m) adjoined W318, and the eastern wall (length 0.5 m) adjoined W311; the space between the cistern walls and the portico walls was filled with small stones and earth. A channel (L147) cut across W318 to drain water into the cistern from the north (Fig. 3.5). The channel, also plastered with pinkish hydraulic plaster, was exposed for a length of 3.3 m. It was 0.58 m deep and in the north it was 0.33 m wide, and in the south, 0.25 m wide. Its southern end, where it entered the cistern, was blocked with a stone slab, probably in Stratum III. Fig. 3.5. Channel 147 that conveyed water to a cistern (not excavated) in the northeastern corner of Courtyard I, to the north of the church; looking south.

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Rooms Three architectural spaces that apparently functioned as rooms in the Umayyad period were uncovered to the east of Courtyard I (Rooms 5–7), and it is possible that there was another room to the northwest of the church, of which only the floor beddings survived. Room 5 adjoins the eastern portico, apparently first built during the Byzantine period. Rooms 6 and 7 were built adjacent to the northeastern corner of the church. The walls were built of ashlars, with some dressed stones incorporated into the construction of Room 6. Room 5 Wall 315, which abutted portico W303 from the east, was constructed of two rows of ashlars with a core of mortar and small stones (width 0.77 m) and was preserved to a height of a single course (see Fig. 3.4). In a later phase, this wall was thickened on its southern face (W315A) by small stones and earth, and coated with pink hydraulic plaster. The length of the wall in this phase was 4 m, and its width 1.1 m. Walls 315 and 303 form an obtuse angle of 120° and this corner was abutted by a white-plaster floor (L148) that is 0.5 m lower than Floor 143 in the adjoining portico. On Floor 148 were fragments of pottery vessels and several intact large candlestick lamps, the latest dated to the mid-sixth–beginning of the eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.8). It is possible that this architectural space is the southwestern corner of a polygonal (hexagonal?) room. The final use of the room dates to the Umayyad period (Stratum IV), although it may have been originally built in the Byzantine period to function as a cistern, as can be surmised from the hydraulic plaster on W315A. Room 6 At the eastern end of the southern portico, a mosaic-paved room (L1) was built that blocked the passage between the southern and eastern porticos (Figs. 3.3, 3.6). The room, only partially preserved, adjoined the church W302 on the south. On the east it was delineated by W307 (length 2.80 m, width 0.25 m), preserved to a height of two courses, which delineated Installation 933 of Stratum III (see above), and on the north by W328 (length 2.5 m, width 1.0 m), preserved to a height of a single course and constructed of a row of large dressed stones. The space between W328 and W362 of Installation 933 was filled with small stones in mortar. The western wall was not preserved. Although no finds provide a date for the floor, the location of the room in the passage between the porticos, and its cancellation of Installation 933 of Stratum III, assign it to the Umayyad period (Stratum IV). Mosaic Floor (L1). A segment of mosaic (1.0 × 2.2 m) preserved in the southeastern corner of this room, was laid above Installation 933 of Stratum III and canceled it. This mosaic was uncovered following damage to the site that triggered the initial salvage excavation. It abutted W307 and preserved the outline of W302 (Fig. 3.6). The mosaic carpet was decorated with a net of diamonds surrounded by a frame with a band of stepped triangles. In the south, the mosaic was repaired by inlaying fragments of marble slabs (see Chapter 4:

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L121

L1

L119 W304

W307

L933

2

W36 W317

W328

Fig. 3.6. Rooms 6 (L1) and 7 (L119) that adjoined the church from the north; looking south.

Fig. 4.37). In the terra-rossa fill below the floor (L138; 0.72 m thick), many nondiagnostic body fragments of jars were found. Room 7 Alongside Room 6 to the east was another room with a mosaic floor that adjoined the church W130 on the south (Fig. 3.6). This room has an irregular plan (max. dimension 3.0 × 3.8 m), delineated on the west by W307, on the northeast by W317 and on the southeast by W304. These walls were built of one row of ashlars arranged in headers and stretchers with small stones and mortar in between, and preserved to a height of one course. Wall 317 survived in its entirety (length 4.6 m, width 0.6 m); its northern end was built over W303 of the eastern portico and abutted W328 of Room 6. Of W304, mainly the eastern face was preserved (length 3.50 m, width 0.75 m). The orientation of W304 and W317 accords with that of the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse in Stratum IV (see Chapter 2); therefore, this room was presumably built in Stratum IV. Mosaic Floor (L119). Almost the entire mosaic floor was preserved in this room. The floor abutted the walls, and in the south it preserved the external outline of W130. The mosaic carpet was decorated with a pattern of scales surrounded by a frame with a band of stepped triangles. Mosaic-Floor Beddings to the Northwest of the Church (L139A–B, L141) The beddings of two floors, one above the other, abutted the northwestern church wall (W3) from the northwest. They were exposed close to the boundary of the excavation, in a strip

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c. 0.3 m wide, and continued westward below the modern road. The upper bedding was made of gray mortar (L139A) over a base layer of pebbles in mortar (L139B). The earlier bedding (L141) was also of gray mortar. Between the beddings as a fill of terra rossa (L935). The mosaic floors did not survive. The level of the upper bedding (781.52 m asl) is close to that of Mosaic Floor 10 (781.57 m asl) of Stratum III in the northwestern chapel (see Chapter 2), and it is possible that the upper bedding was installed in this stratum, and the earlier one in Stratum II. West and Southwest of the Church (Plan 3.2) The rooms on this side of the church were the best-preserved parts of the monastery. Three strata were discerned, mainly Strata IV and V of the Early Islamic period, while Byzantine construction was attested by the pinkish hydraulic plaster that covered the southern face of W157 in Rooms 9 and 10. Courtyard Surrounded by Porticos Porticos A mosaic-paved courtyard (II) surrounded by three porticos adjoined the church from the west (Fig. 3.7). The eastern portico, through which the church was entered, was preserved to its full length (length 13.8 m, width 3.0 m), and its mosaic (L254) was also fully preserved. On the east, the portico adjoins the church W26, and on the north it is delineated by a 2 m long segment of ashlars (W34; 0.4 m wide) preserved to a height of one course. The outlines of the walls (probably stylobates) on the west (W27) and south (W33) were preserved by Mosaic Floor 254 and the floor of Courtyard II (see below). Mosaic Floor 254 was decorated with a net of diamonds surrounded by a simple white frame (Figs. 3.7, 3.8). A probe (0.5 × 0.5 m) in the northwestern corner next to W27 exposed the bedding of the mosaic (L254A–C) that was laid over a terra-rossa fill. In the southwestern corner of the carpet frame is a patch (0.3 × 0.7 m) of white tesserae located above a Stratum IV channel (L314; see below). This patch was apparently a repair to the floor after the channel was built; thus, Mosaic 254 is earlier than the channel, and may have been laid in Stratum III, at the same time as the southern portico of Courtyard I north of the church. The southern portico was paved with a mosaic floor (L268) preserved to a length of 10.5 m (2.9 m wide) that continued to the west and is now under the modern road (see Fig. 3.7). This floor preserved the outlines of the portico walls, W33 on the north and W156 on the south, of which one ashlar remains. The level of the floor (781.98 m asl) is 0.2 m higher than Floor 254 in the eastern portico. The carpet of Floor 268 was decorated with two patterns: a net of diamonds with a small diamond in the center of each, and three rows of squares each with a small diamond inside it. The carpet was surrounded by a frame with a wave-crest design (Fig. 3.8). In the eastern part of the floor is a patch of white tesserae, probably the consequence of a repair made to Channel 314 that passed under it. A small segment of this mosaic was removed to conduct an exploration with a metal detector, which

L32

L29

W 4

781.84

781.74

781.96 781.65

L812

L10

W34

781.90 781.14

W28 W88

W87

Area E

L254A–C

1

L810

781.77

L267A

II

W27

L254

781.78

L267B L936 L333A L333B

W26

781.57

L265

781.73 781.69 781.63 781.62

0

781.77

L267

W

781.82 781.66

L314

W 15 2

781 80

L240

W

W162

781.10

8 L247

781.84

782.70 L292A–C 782.27 782.22 L939 782.14 L299

782.37

10 L292

W160

L940

782.56

L273

L314

9 L269B 781.15 L938 781.11

781.16

W

9

16

L269A

1

15

11

L344

W158

W170

782.35

W168

782.75

14

L296 12

782.81

L272

Area A-B

Plan 3.2. West and southwest of the church.

20 m

781.98

W33 L268

781 80

L256

W25

W32

781.57

38

W156 W156

W

W86

W157

3 0

L296A

W46 782.30

L411

783.40

13

W326

W174

15

L275

783.13

W159

W

W157

1

W159

W16

W159

7 Rooms

W41

16

17 W44

5

m

L505

781.89

783.38 783.22

L409

W48

L503

W320

W45

16

L410

783.19

W43

W50

W

W42

781.76

L507

18 781.77

W324

Area C

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W325

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Room 12 Room 10 Room 9 Room 8

L268 L267 L240

L256

L254

L346

Courtyard II

L265

L32

Fig. 3.7. The southwestern area of the church and the rooms adjoining it from the west and the southwest; looking southwest.

L268

L254

L314

L267

Fig. 3.8. The southeastern corner of Courtyard II: the southern portico (L268) and a section of the eastern portico (L254); looking south. Note Channel 314 that damaged the southwestern corner of Mosaic 254 and continued underneath Mosaic 268.

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revealed two coins in the pebble base layer (L268B): one dated to 518–538 CE, the other an Arab-Byzantine coin from the beginning of the seventh century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 40, 68)––these coins date the floor to Stratum IV. Channel 314 was installed under Floor 268 and stylobate W33. It had a rectangular section (width 0.12 m, height 0.16 m) and was coated with gray plaster (Fig. 3.8). The channel slopes in a curve from west to east (preserved length 10 m) and then continued L247 southward outside the portico (length 7.6 m), partly on the eastern face of W162 that had been dismantled (see below). In its southern part on W162, the channel’s cover stones were preserved for 2.8 m. Among the stone slabs were fragments of marble chancel screens, one of them bearing the carved arm Fig. 3.9. Fragment of a chancel screen in of a cross (Fig. 3.9; see also Chapter 6: Fig. secondary use in Channel 314; looking south. 6.9:32, 33). As noted above, the channel is later than Floor 254 in the eastern portico and W162, and should be assigned to the phase in Stratum IV when Mosaic 268 was laid in the southern portico. It is possible that the channel was repaired in Stratum IV, which would explain the curve of the channel and the damage to both Floor 254 and W162, and also the repair of Floor 268. The use of chancel-screen fragments to cover the channel attests to a repair at some point in the Islamic period. Of the northern portico of Courtyard II, which continued west under the modern road, two segments of the mosaic floor (L29) were uncovered. The larger (length 1.1 m, width 0.6 m) preserved the outlines of the southeastern corner of the portico where it abutted church W26 on the north and W34 on the south, which is also the northern wall of the eastern portico. The mosaic carpet was decorated with a scale pattern and surrounded by a frame of concentric circles (Fig. 3.10). The floor level (781.84 m asl) is 6 cm above the level of Floor 254.

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L29

Fig. 3.10. Remains of Mosaic 29 in the northern portico of Courtyard II; looking north.

Courtyard II This courtyard was mostly destroyed. A segment of the mosaic (L267; max. dimensions 2.0 × 3.2 m) survived in the southeastern corner over a gray-mortar bedding (L267A) that preserved the line of W27 farther north. A probe to the north of L267 (0.8 × 1.0 m) exposed the mosaic’s gray-mortar bedding (L267A) over a base layer of pebbles (L267B) that was laid on a terra-rossa fill (L963). Under the fill, a layer of white plaster (L333A) was exposed over a layer of gray mortar (L333B), presumably the bedding of a floor earlier than Mosaic 267. The mosaic edge preserved part of the line of stylobate W33 (11 m) on the south (see Figs. 3.7, 3.8). The mosaic carpet was decorated with a net of diamonds, each with a small diamond in its center (Fig. 3.11), and was made of large tesserae (average 5 × 5 cm), which supports the supposition that this was an open space. The level of the mosaic (781.77 m asl) is identical to that of Mosaic Floor 254 in the eastern portico, and the two were apparently contemporary The excavation did not provide evidence that Courtyard II was surrounded by three porticos in the original construction phase, although it can be assumed that it was built at the same time as Courtyard I and its porticos to the north in Stratum III. Rooms To the south and southeast of Courtyard II, a complex of rooms (8–18) was uncovered, built in several phases and using different construction techniques. Rooms 9 and 10, constructed of ashlars, adjoined the southern portico with which they were apparently contemporary. They were earlier than Rooms 11–13 adjoining them on the south, which were built of dressed stones with a mortar core, or a core of small fieldstones and earth. On the east are

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L3

14

L267

Fig. 3.11. Segment of Mosaic 267 in Courtyard II; looking southeast.

architectural spaces that probably functioned as rooms (8, 14–16), in which the mosaic floors were preserved and enable reconstruction of some of the walls. Room 8 is associated with Stratum IV, but the stratigraphic context of Rooms 14–16 is unclear. On the southwest, Rooms 17 and 18 can be assigned to Stratum V. Room 8 To the southeast of the southern portico, alongside church W151, remains of a mosaic floor (L247) and walls of a trapezoidal room (estimated area 15.6 sq m) were uncovered. The eastern wall (W169), of which one course of small stones in mortar survived, adjoined the western face of W151, and its purpose is unclear. Of the southern wall (W167), a segment of the foundation course remained, comprising a few dressed stones and incorporating the bedrock. The outlines of W161 and W162 on the north and west were preserved by the mosaic floor. The eastern face of W162 was destroyed by Channel 314, dated to the Umayyad period (see above). In the center of the room was a collapsed heap of ashlars that damaged the floor (Fig. 3.12). As the edge of the mosaic abutted Channel 314, the floor is contemporary with, or later than the channel, and the room can be dated to the Early Islamic period. Mosaic Floor (L247). A segment of this mosaic floor (1.9 × 2.0 m) preserved the northwestern corner of the room. The carpet was decorated with a pattern of scales with flower buds inside them, while the frame was decorated with a rare pattern of medallions enclosing a lily (fleur-de-lis) flanked by two bands of stepped triangles (Fig. 3.12).

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L314

98

Fig. 3.12. Collapsed ashlars on Mosaic 247 in Room 8; looking south.

Room 9 This rectangular room (5.0 × 6.5 m) west of Room 8 was delineated by W162 on the east, W157 on the south, W160 on the west and W156 on the north, which did not survive. Due to the poor preservation of the walls, no entrance to the room was discerned. As noted above, the eastern face of W162 was destroyed by Channel 314 and only a single stone of the western face survived. Wall 157 (width 1.1 m), with a foundation of mortar and small stones and three upper courses of ashlars, formed a corner with W160 (width 0.7 m), of which two ashlar courses were preserved at its southern end. The southern face of W157 was coated with pinkish hydraulic plaster (5 cm thick), which indicates that this room dates to the Byzantine period and that W157 was originally an external wall. The fact that Channel 314 was installed upon the eastern face of W162 attests that the room was constructed before the channel. Floor Bedding (L269A–B). Only the mosaic-floor bedding survived in this room, comprising a layer of white plaster with imprints of tesserae (L269A). A probe (1.6 × 2.0 m) in the center of the room exposed the lower bedding layer of gray mortar containing mosaicproduction debris (L269B), which was laid over a terra-rossa fill (L938) on the bedrock. Room 10 To the west of Room 9, a large room was uncovered that continued under the modern road on its western side. The width of the room was 6.8 m north–south, and its length was over 7.3 m. It was paved with a white mosaic floor (L292) incorporating a Greek inscription (see Chapter 5). At least two construction phases were identified in this room.

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The room was delineated by W160 in the east, shared by Room 9, and by W157 in the south and W156 in the north, both of which continued from Room 9. In W157 were three engaged pillars that were abutted by Mosaic Floor 292, dated to Stratum IV (see below). The pillar in the southeastern corner of the room (0.60 × 0.97 m, preserved height 0.61 m) was founded on bedrock. About 2.8 m to its west stood another pillar, of which a single stone (0.45 × 0.80 m, height 0.20 m) was preserved. In a later phase, this pillar was thickened toward the west and integrated into a staircase of two steps that was built over the mosaic floor and ascended to a doorway (width c. 1 m) in W157. The length of the staircase with the incorporated pillar was c. 2 m, each tread was 0.81 m deep and each step 0.33 m high. About 1.8 m west of the steps, the eastern part of a third pillar was exposed (length 0.9 m, height 0.4 m), its western part covered by the modern road. These engaged pillars were probably constructed to support the vault of a large room or hall. Mosaic Floor and Beddings (L292, L299). The room was paved with a white mosaic (L292) that was installed before the later doorway. The mosaic incorporated a Greek dedicatory inscription framed by a medallion of small red flowers. Above the inscription is a monogram in black stones, flanked by green palm fronds and surmounted by a red cross (Fig. 3.13; see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.1). The inscription is dated to the Early Islamic period, no earlier than the seventh century, probably the eighth century CE. It was impossible to determine if the staircase and later doorway were installed in a later phase of Stratum IV or in Stratum V. To the west of the inscription, a probe (0.9 × 1.3 m) in the floor uncovered Bedding 292A–C. In the white-plaster layer (L292A) were pottery sherds that date to the mid-sixth– beginning of the eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.7:58–61). Below the pebble base

Fig. 3.13. Dedicatory inscription in Mosaic Floor 292 in Room 10, southwest of the church; looking east.

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layer (L292C) was a terra-rossa fill (L939), and under it, an earlier floor bedding (L299) of white plaster that contained a large quantity of mosaic-production debris. This bedding was laid over a terra-rossa fill (L940) on the bedrock. While it cannot be determined to which stratum the early Floor 299 belonged, the fact that it was laid directly on the bedrock, and that the southern wall of the room was plastered with pinkish hydraulic plaster typical of the Byzantine period, leads to the conclusion that the construction of the room and the floor are associated with this period. Room 11 The doorway that was breached in W157 in Stratum IV or V (see above) led south to Room 11 (4.5 × 6.0 m). The walls of this room: W170 in the east, W159 in the south and W158 in the west, preserved to a height of a single course (width 0.8 m), were constructed of two rows of dressed stones with a core of small fieldstones and earth between them. Wall 170 was preserved in a 3 m long segment that abutted W159 from the south. In its center is a doorway (width c. 1 m) of which a single stone of a stepped threshold remained. Along the eastern face of the threshold was a margin (width 0.18 m), indicating that the door was opened from the direction of the room. Wall 159 was preserved in two segments 3.5 m apart: the western segment c. 1 m long, the eastern one c. 1.5 m long. The wall continued eastward and also delineated Room 12 (see below). Wall 158 (length 8.5 m), founded on bedrock, was preserved in two segments: one segment abutted W157 to the north, the other, at a distance of 2.7 m to the south, formed a corner with W159 and continued southward, delineating Room 13 (see below). No floors were found in this room. The layer of hydraulic plaster on W157, which was initially meant to waterproof the room against rain when it was an external wall, indicates that Room 11 is later than Room 10. Room 12 This rectangular room adjoined Room 11 to the east and was identical in size (4.5 × 6.0 m; Fig. 3.14). Room 12 was delineated by W326 on the east, W159 on the south and W170 on the west. Part of the western face of W326 survived, built of large dressed stones. Doorways were set in the center of these three walls. Thresholds were found in the eastern doorway (0.80 × 1.15 m) and the western doorway that led from Room 11 (see above), while no threshold was discerned in the southern doorway (0.80 × 1.15 m), which was blocked at some point. Stone Floor and Bedding (L296, L296A). Room 12 was paved with stone slabs (L296) that were partially preserved. An upside-down column base and the top of an earlier wall (W168) were incorporated into the paving. Wall 168 (length 4.5 m, width 0.9 m) was constructed of two rows of medium-sized stones with a core of mortar and small stones. It abutted the hydraulic plaster layer of W157 and is therefore later than it. A probe (1 × 1 m) in the southeastern corner of the room exposed a layer of white plaster (L296A), probably the bedding of the stone floor.

CHAPTER 3: ENTRANCE ATRIA AND MONASTERY—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY 101

L273

W326

W168 W157

W159 L296

W170

Fig. 3.14. Stone-paved Room 12 (L296) southwest of the church; looking east. Note the upside-down column base near the blocked southern doorway (arrow) and the top of an earlier wall (W168), both incorporated into the stone paving.

Room 13 This architectural space to the south of Room 11 is delineated by W50 on the south, which forms a corner with W158 on the west, and by W159 on the north. Only a 1.2 m segment of the northern face of W50 was preserved, but its continuation to the east can be reconstructed for a length of 5.8 m by the white mosaic floor (L411; 2.4 × 7.0 m) that abutted W50 and W158. The eastern and northern edges of the mosaic did not survive, and it is unclear what the boundary of the room was on the east. The width of the space (1.4 m) suggests that it may have been a corridor. Room 14 This architectural space uncovered to the east of Room 12 had a mosaic floor (L273) that abutted W174 (width 0.73 m). Wall 174 did not survive apart from a layer of gray plaster with an incised fishbone pattern (2 cm thick) along c. 5.5 m of the western face, and a plastered, rectangular engaged pillar (0.30 × 0.63 m) preserved to a height of 0.5 m. The western continuation of the room is unclear due to the construction of Room 12 to the west. Nevertheless, given that an engaged pillar was incorporated in W174, it can be assumed that pillars were required to support the roofing over a large architectural space, and thus the room and mosaic floor probably continued to the west, under W326, and predated Room 12. This would also explain the fact that the doorway in W326 was c. 0.5 m above the level of Floor 273.

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The outline of the southern end of the eastern face of W174 was preserved by the floor in Room 15 (see below). At some stage, a stone paving (L272), of which a small segment (2.0 × 2.3 m) survived, was laid along the northern end of the wall, which may belong to the stone paving of the final phase of Courtyard III to the south of the church (see below). Mosaic Floor (L273). Three segments of this floor survive, the largest (0.63 × 2.30 m) from the southern part of the mosaic. The mosaic was made of rare triangular tesserae in black and white that were laid in alternating rows, and a frame of stepped triangles (Fig. 3.15; see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.41). The floor probably continued below W326.

W174

Fig. 3.15. Segment of Mosaic Floor 273, the carpet made of triangular, black and white tesserae; looking west.

Room 15 Mosaic Floor (L275). To the east of Room 12, a segment of a mosaic floor (L275) preserved the southwestern corner of a room whose walls did not survive (783.13 m asl; Fig. 3.16). The edges of the floor outlined the eastern face of W174 along a segment of 1.4 m, and the northern face of W46 along a segment of 1.2 m. The frame of the mosaic was composed of two rows of black tesserae interspersed with white ones, and the edges were decorated with flower buds.

CHAPTER 3: ENTRANCE ATRIA AND MONASTERY—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY 103

Fig. 3.16. Segment of Mosaic 275 that preserved the southwestern corner of Room 15; looking west.

Room 16 Mosaic Floor (L410). A segment of a mosaic floor (L410; 3.3 × 3.5 m) to the south of Room 15 preserved the northwestern part of another room whose walls did not survive. The edges of the floor outlined three walls: W46 on the north, W45 on the west and W48 on the south. It seems that W45 was the southern continuation of W174. The mosaic was decorated with rows of flower buds on a white background, with a frame of two rows of black tesserae. It continued to the east beyond the excavation area. The floor level (783.19 m asl) correlates with that in Room 15, and the two were probably contemporary. An oval installation (L409; length c. 1 m) was constructed of medium-sized stones over the mosaic and over the line of W48. Near the northern and western sides of the installation were traces of burning and fragments of marble slabs, suggesting that this installation was a limekiln in which marble was burned to prepare lime. The decoration of the mosaic floor in this room is identical to that in Rooms 22 and 23 adjacent to the southern portico of Courtyard III (see Plan 3.3). The level of the floor in this room and Room 15 also correlates with the floors in Rooms 22 and 23 (see below), and it is possible that these rooms adjoined the portico that delineated Courtyard III on the west, which was not excavated. Rooms 17 and 18 The remains of at least two their rooms, Rooms 17 and 18, were uncovered to the southwest of Room 13. Despite the poor preservation, it is possible to distinguish two phases of construction dating to the Early Islamic period, the later of them apparently from Stratum V.

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Room 17. This room was rectangular (1.8 × 5.6 m) and paved with gray mortar (L503). It was delineated on the east by a 2.3 m long segment of W43 (width 0.7 m) that formed a corner with W41. Only the foundations of W43 were preserved, as well as one course of the western face constructed of large and medium-sized stones with a mortar core. On the south, two segments of W42 were preserved 0.5 m apart: the western segment is 3.4 m long, the eastern one is 1.1 m long. The remains include the foundations and one course constructed of two stone rows with a mortar core between them; the northern face was made of large dressed stones, and the southern face of small and a few medium-sized stones. The construction technique of W42 was similar to that of W43, and the two were presumably contemporary. On the west, W44 was destroyed by a later wall (W320), of which only the foundations remain; the outline of W44 was preserved by the floor. Wall 44 abutted W41 on its western end, of which only the foundation course (length 3.20 m, width 0.65 m) was preserved. Wall 41 continued eastward beyond the boundaries of the room until 0.5 m from Room 13. It was not possible to determine if Rooms 13 and 17 were contemporary. Floor (L503). In the southwestern corner of the room, a probe (0.5 × 0.5 m) next to W42 exposed a gray-mortar floor over a terra-rossa fill (L505) on the bedrock. The fill contained pottery sherds dated to the mid-sixth–beginning of the eighth centuries CE (see Chapter 8: Fig. 8.7:62–65) and two coins from the ninth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 88, 90). It cannot be determined with certainty if the floor was laid in the ninth century, or if it was earlier, and the coins had filtered down below the floor when W320 was erected. Room 18. This room was square (5 × 5 m) with a gray-mortar floor (L507), and postdates Room 17. Wall 324, of which three dressed stones of the western face were preserved (length 1.1 m), delineated it on the east and formed a corner with W42. Wall 325 on the south (width 0.8 m) was preserved for 3 m along its northern face, and integrates the bedrock into its foundation course at the western end, where it formed a corner with W320. Wall 320 delineated the room on the west and continued southward beyond the boundaries of the excavation, apparently delineating another room that was not excavated. South of the Church (Plan 3.3) On this side of the church, two strata were discerned. There is no definite evidence of construction during the Byzantine period, and most of the architectural finds apparently belong to the Early Islamic period, although it cannot be determined to which stratum (IV or V) the remains should be assigned. Courtyard Surrounded by Porticos Adjoining the southern side of the church was a courtyard (III) and at least two porticos, one on the east, the other on the south. There may have been a third portico on the western side of the courtyard that was not excavated. Unlike the parallel architectural complexes to the north and west of the church (Courtyards I, II), in a later phase the porticos of this complex were canceled, and a stone pavement extended the area of the courtyard westward (see below).

L314

W174

W45

W4

5

m

23 W510

W508

L454

W507

783.19

L453

L455

783.23 22

L496

783.51 783.05

783.37

L399

783.35

782.24

L93

W135

W136

W

134

783.07

L390

20

783.07

L376

W501

Plan 3.3. South of the church..

W502

19

25

24

44

W1

W

4

12

L94

782.33

W511

21

W504

W505

0

W W506

783.37

III

2

11

W

W135

L409

L374

38

783.19

L393

W127

L410

W46

L275

W141

783.13

W125 W129

W103

L73

781.73

W122

32

16

1

782.81

W128

W126

781.54

L54

781.73

W1

15

15

L272

L244

781.78

781.73

L98

W122A

L66

781.76

33

783.38 783.22

8

7

Area B-C

W1

Rooms

781.10

1

L247

W

69

16

W

W

61 W1

L240

781.76

1

13

W

W

3 12

0

20 m

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W500

W509

8

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Porticos Two parallel walls remained of the eastern portico, W135 on the east and W136 on the west. Both walls were preserved to a height of one course, constructed of large dressed stones with mortar and small stones between them. Wall 135 survived on its northern end to a length of 4 m (width 0.7 m), and its outline to the south was partially preserved by the floor (L376) of Room 19, which adjoined the portico from the east (see below), and by the stone slabs of the late phase of the courtyard. Wall 136 was preserved for 1 m (width 0.8 m) on its northern end. The portico apparently extended southward for over 13 m (width 2.1 m), until it reached the estimated meeting point with W506 that delineated the southern portico (see below). The floor of the eastern portico did not survive. Two parallel ashlar walls remained of the southern portico, W506 on the north and W507 on the south. The walls were preserved in the western part of the portico to a height of one course (width 0.8 m). Two segments of W506 were preserved for 5.3 m, constructed of two rows of ashlars with a core of mortar and small stones between them. Wall 507 was preserved for 4.9 m, constructed of two stone rows, the northern face of ashlars and the southern face of small stones and mortar. The threshold of a doorway in W507 that led to Room 23 was preserved (see below). The width of the southern portico (2.1 m) was identical to that of the eastern portico, its reconstructed length c. 18 m from its western end to the meeting with the walls of the eastern portico. The floor of the southern portico did not survive. Courtyard III The courtyard did not survive in its original plan and its western boundary is unknown, but it appears to have extended along the southern side of the church, not beyond it, similar to Courtyards I and II. However, in Courtyard III no evidence was found of a portico along the church wall, and it is possible that if one had existed, it was destroyed when the courtyard was expanded. In addition, the latest surface level of the courtyard was c. 1.5 m higher than the church entrance, which was accessed by hewn steps (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.39). In a late phase, the courtyard was paved with stone slabs of different sizes in secondary use (L399) arranged in various orientations. In this phase, the walls of the porticos were canceled and stone paving was laid over them, which continued eastward (L390) up to W500 (see below, Room 20). In the pavement that was laid over the area of the southern portico, a round clay oven (L496; diam. 0.6 m) was incorporated, preserved to a height of 0.46 m. The extent of the courtyard to the west is also unclear in the late phase, and it is possible that the stone paving (L272) exposed near Rooms 14 and 15 (see Plan 3.2) may offer a clue as to its western boundary. No finds were discovered in a probe (L393) below the pavement of the courtyard. Rooms East of the eastern portico of Courtyard III, the walls of two rooms, Room 19 and 20, were uncovered, and farther to the east, the meager remains of perhaps another room, Room 21. South of the southern portico, Rooms 22 and 23 were paved with colorful mosaics of identical design. Adjacent to the southeastern wall of the church, remains of walls and

CHAPTER 3: ENTRANCE ATRIA AND MONASTERY—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY 107

mosaic floors of two architectural spaces, probably rooms (Rooms 24, 25) were exposed, built on terra rossa soil. Room 24 paralleled Room 7 to the north of the church (see Plan 3.1), and also had a similar orientation to that of the Umayyad building that canceled the church’s main apse (see Chapter 2). The area that was excavated to the east of Rooms 24 and 25, up to the Umayyad building, was devoid of architectural finds. Room 19 This room was rectangular (5.1 × 5.5 m) with a white mosaic floor (L376). Its walls (W500, W501, W502), preserved to a height of one course and a width of 1 m, were constructed of three rows of small and medium-sized fieldstones with gray mortar between them. Wall 500 delineated the room on the east. Its western face was preserved for 3.2 m, and farther south its outline was defined by Floor 376. The wall apparently formed a corner with W501 to the north (length 5.1 m), which abutted W135 of the eastern portico. On the inner face of the wall was an engaged pillar. The southern part of W502, which also abutted W135, was preserved for 2.2 m. The continuation of W502 did not survive, and it is unknown if it also had an engaged pillar, or if the room was originally larger and also encompassed Room 20. Room 20 Stone Floor (L390). This room was only partially exposed, as its continuation to the south was outside the excavation boundaries. It shared walls with Room 19, from which it was separated by W502 on the north. It had a floor of stone slabs of different sizes (L390) laid in various orientations, resembling the late-phase floor of Courtyard III (see above). Although the level of the floor (783.07 m asl) was identical to that of the floor in Room 19, it was not the original paving of the room and perhaps should be assigned to the phase in which the porticos were canceled. Room 21 The poorly preserved remains of three walls (W504, W505, W511), surviving to a height of one course and constructed of small fieldstones and mortar, may preserve the western corners of another room that continued to the east beyond the boundaries of the excavation. A segment of W504, 1.8 m long (width 0.8 m), the northern wall of the room, formed a corner with W505, of which the eastern face was preserved for 1.6 m. At a distance of 5.8 m to the south, the continuation of W505 was uncovered for 2.2 m and formed a corner with W511 (length 1.00 m, width 0.85 m), the southern wall of the room. To the north of W504, a fragment of a column shaft (length 1.10 m, diam. 0.43 m) was found in secondary deposition. Another column with an identical diameter was found in the western entrance room of the church (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.42). Room 22 The eastern of the two rooms uncovered next to the southern portico was delineated on the north by W507 and on the west by W510, both constructed of a row of ashlars and a row of small stones and mortar. These walls were abutted by a mosaic floor (L455) that preserved part of the outline of the southern wall (W508).

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Mosaic Floor (L455). The mosaic carpet (0.5 × 4.0 m) was decorated with rows of flower buds on a white background, with a frame of two lines of black tesserae. The floor continued eastward beyond the excavation area. Room 23 This rectangular room (3.8 × 4.0 m) had an entrance from the north, through W507. The mosaic floor of this room (L454) abutted W507 and W510 and preserved the internal line of W508 on the south and W509 on the west. In the southwestern corner of the room, against the inner face of W509, was an engaged pillar (0.55 × 0.85 m) preserved to a height of 0.8 m. No other pillar was found in the room and, as in Room 19, it is unclear if the room was originally larger and also encompassed the room next to it. Mosaic Floor (L454). The carpet of Floor 454 was identical to that of Floor 455 in Room 22. Room 24 This square room (2.9 × 2.9 m) was paved with a mosaic floor (L94) that preserved the internal line of the walls of the room. Wall 133 on the northeast, preserved to a height of one course for 2.3 m (width 0.5 m), was constructed of large dressed stones with earth and small stones between them, on a foundation course that incorporated the bedrock. On the southeast, the floor abutted a 2 m long segment of the northern face of W134 comprising a row of stones. A few small stones are left of the northwestern wall (W144) and the foundation course of the southwestern wall (W132), which also incorporated the bedrock. It was not possible to determine the location of the entrance to the room. Room 24 should probably be assigned to the Umayyad period (Stratum IV), like its counterpart, Room 7, to the north. Mosaic Floor (L94). The mosaic carpet was decorated with a net of diamonds within a frame of two lines of black tesserae (Fig. 3.17). Room 25 Mosaic Floor (L93). To the west of Room 24, Mosaic Floor 93 (max. width 1 m) partially preserved the internal outline of this irregularly shaped room. The southern edge of the floor was concave, and the northwestern edge was partly parallel to the church W124 and partly rounded. The mosaic carpet was decorated with a pattern of scales and the frame with a band of stepped triangles (Fig. 3.17; see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.42). After the excavation was completed, the conservation team exposed steps (not documented) that descended into the southeastern passage room. It can be assumed that Room 25 was built at the same time as Room 24, in the Umayyad period, and the steps were added at that time (see Chapter 10).

CHAPTER 3: ENTRANCE ATRIA AND MONASTERY—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY 109

4

12

W

L66

L94

Room 24

Room 25

L93

Fig. 3.17. Rooms 24 and 25, southeast of the church; looking northeast. Note the concave edge of Mosaic 93 on the south.

The Bir Qadismu Reservoir and the Remains to the West (Area D) (Plan 3.4) In Area D, three strata were identified near the reservoir and to its west, the earliest apparently from the Byzantine period, the latest postdating the abandonment of the church. No clear architectural plan can be discerned in this area. The Bir Qadismu Reservoir The excavations exposed the western corner of the reservoir that protruded above the surface. The southwestern side (W613), constructed of two rows of large ashlars with a mortar core between them, was uncovered along a segment of 1.3 m (width 2.2 m). The four upper courses of the wall are visible when looking into the reservoir. The northwestern side (W612), also constructed of large ashlars, was exposed for a length of 5.6 m (width 2 m) and preserved to a height of one course. The northern and western corners of an installation (L632) adjoined the western corner of the reservoir. The installation continued to the southeast beyond the boundaries of the excavation. It was apparently square (width 1.4 m) and was plastered with pinkish hydraulic plaster typical of the Byzantine period. The walls of the installation were preserved to a maximum height of 0.35 m, and its function is unclear. To the north of the reservoir, a small segment (1.0 × 1.5 m) of paving made of stones in secondary use (L631) abutted W612.

Area D

0

20 m

W6

3

12

61

W

L631

784.54

L632 784.14 783.79

784.69 784.45

W618

L628

W619

L605

L629

W61

786.33

L629A

785.85

L603

L628

W60

L627

L625

785.65

W610

785.79

W615

785.61

L637 785.64

W621

785.70

L635

L626

W616

W617

W611

785.05

Plan 3.4. Bir Qadismu and remains to its west.

0

5

m

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West of the Reservoir To the west of the reservoir, segments of three terrace walls (W617, W618, W619) were preserved to a height of three to four courses, constructed of dressed stones of various sizes with earth and small stones between them. They were built after the site had been abandoned, on earlier remains that should be attributed to the monastery. Terrace Walls 618 and 619 were built on either side of an ancient road that passed to the south of Bir Qadismu and continued east to the monasteries of the Judean Desert (see Chapter 1). Terrace Wall 618, which incorporated two fragments of limestone Corinthian capitals (not documented) that may have belonged to columns that decorated the church, formed a corner with Terrace Wall 617 to the west. Below Terrace Walls 618 and 619 were the remains of W610 and W615, constructed of two rows of dressed stones with a core of mortar and small stones, preserved to a height of one course. Wall 610 was exposed for 15.7 m (width 0.7 m) and contained a doorway with a threshold, of which a single stone (0.20 × 0.63 m) with a socket (diam. 7 cm, depth 4 cm) was preserved. The threshold had a raised margin on the southern side (width 18 cm, height 7 cm), indicating that the door was closed from the north. To the north of the doorway, a step (length 0.60 m, tread 0.30 m, height 0.18 m) was installed upon a stoneslab pavement (L625; 2.0 × 2.1 m) that abutted W610. To the south of W610, an east– west water channel (L628) with a rectangular section and plastered with pinkish hydraulic plaster, was uncovered along the wall for 11.2 m (width 0.22 m). Its stone-slab covering was preserved for 6 m in the western part of the channel. The channel branches to the north (L627) and passes under the threshold in W610. These channels apparently drained water from the north into the reservoir. The surface of the ancient road between the two walls (L629), made of crushed lime, abutted the line of the channel. Below this surface, an earlier one, also made of crushed lime (L629A), was revealed. To the south of the ancient road, W615 was exposed for 4.25 m (width 0.66 m), founded on a step over 1.5 m high, hewn into the bedrock, which seems to have been part of an earlier quarry. The hewn step continued southward for 13 m. Terrace W617, oriented north–south, was built over a stone paving (L626) and the remains of W611, W616 and W621 that predated the paving. Two segments of Pavement 626 were uncovered below the eastern face of the terrace wall: the northern one was c. 3 m long, the southern one 3.7 m long. The pavement was constructed of stone slabs of various sizes in secondary use, and incorporated at its southern end the top of an earlier wall (W611). Wall 611 was constructed of two rows of dressed stones with earth and small stones between them. Parallel to it on the north is W621 (length 2.5 m, width 0.6 m), built of small fieldstones and earth. Its northern face was coated with pinkish hydraulic plaster, while the southern face had been dismantled in a later phase, when Floor 637 was laid (see below). Wall 621 was perpendicular to W616 (length 1.2 m, width 0.6 m), which was built with an identical construction technique and was also coated with hydraulic plaster on its eastern face. Apparently, W616 formed a corner with W621 below the terrace. Mosaic Floor 635, of which a small segment (0.23 × 0.43 m) was preserved abutting W621, was made of white tesserae (average size 1.7 × 2.0 cm). It is possible that Floor 635 and plastered Walls 616 and 621 were part of an installation (winepress?).

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Some 3 m to the south of W621, remains of a circular installation were found on a floor of crushed lime (L637). The installation was composed of a rectangular stone (0.32 × 0.48 m) with small fieldstones around it that were preserved on the south and northwest. In the center of the rectangular stone was a square depression (0.12 × 0.14 m, depth 6 cm) containing a short iron rod. The function of the installation is unknown. The level of Floor 637 (785.70 m asl) is higher than the level of the Pavement 626 to its south by c. 0.65 m, and therefore was probably later. About 6 m east of Pavement 626 and c. 11 m north of W610, two walls (W60, W61) formed a corner. The western face of W60 was exposed for 2.3 m, and apparently continued north and south beyond the boundaries of the excavation. Two segments of W61 (width 0.9 m), 5 m apart, were preserved: the western segment c. 4 m long, the eastern segment 1.2 m. long. No floor abutting these walls was discerned in a probe from the top of W61 down to bedrock (L603). To the north of the eastern segment of W61 was an oval installation (L605; 1.1 × 1.3 m, height 0.24 m) built of small fieldstones and plastered with pinkish hydraulic plaster; its function is unknown.

Northwest of the Church (Area E) (Plan 3.5) In Area E, four squares were excavated in a northeast–southwest line: the distance between the northernmost and southernmost squares was about 40 m, with two adjoining squares in between. The architectural remains included plastered walls, probably of rooms, and a small reservoir that was plastered with pinkish hydraulic plaster typical of the Byzantine period. The wall remains cannot be dated with certainty. The architectural finds are described from north to south. Remains of Walls In the northern square, two walls (W84, W85), constructed of two rows of mediumsized dressed stones with a core of mortar and small stones and preserved to a height of one course, meet perpendicularly, to form two right angles. A 5 m segment of W84 was uncovered (width 0.7 m), which continued eastward beyond the excavation area. The northern and southern faces of this wall were coated with two layers of white plaster (each 2 cm thick). Wall 85 was uncovered for 3.2 m (width 0.7–1.0 m) and continued to the south beyond the excavation area. At its northern end was a large stone––apparently a doorpost. The eastern face of this wall was also coated with two layers of white plaster. No floor or floor bedding abutting W84 and W85 was discerned; however, the white plaster indicates that the architectural spaces (L825, L826) to the south and north of W84 were rooms. The orientation of these walls is similar to that of the northern and eastern porticos of Courtyard I (see Plan 3.1), and were probably contemporary (Stratum III). About 15 m to the southwest, three additional walls (W80, W81, W82), constructed of one row of large dressed stones and a row of small stones and earth, were preserved to a height of one course. A 1.5 m segment (width 0.6 m) of W80 was exposed, oriented

CHAPTER 3: ENTRANCE ATRIA AND MONASTERY—ARCHITECTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY 113

W85

781.27 780.72

L823 W81 L815

781.45 781.23

L824

781.25 780.80 780.18 780.15

L822

L810

781.44

W88

W86

779.14 778.83

Area E

L826

W80

L825

779.23 778.85

W82

W84

east–west; its northern face was coated with a layer of white plaster (2 cm thick). This wall formed a corner with W81, uncovered for c. 3 m (width 0.65 m) and coated with white plaster on its eastern and western faces; its southern part incorporated the bedrock into its foundation course. From the west, W81 was abutted by W82, preserved for 2.5 m (width 0.55 m). Its northern face was coated with white plaster; little survived of the southern face. In this square as well, no floors abutted the walls, but the white plaster indicates that the walls delineated at least two rooms (L815, L823). The orientation of the walls (W80, W81, W82) accorded with W84 and W85 to the north, and they can also be attributed to Stratum III.

781.90 781.14

781.96 781.65

W87

L812

0

20 m

0

Plan 3.5. Northwest of the church.

5

m

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Water Reservoir South of W82, a channel (L822) hewn into the rock apparently carried water to a small reservoir (L810) exposed in the southern square. In its northern part, the channel curved and sloped to the southwest. The preserved length of the channel was c. 4.6 m, its maximum width 1 m and its depth 0.33 m. About 15 m southwest of the exposed end of Channel 822, a segment of another hewn channel (L812; preserved length 6.8 m, width 0.4 m, depth 0.3 m) sloped from north to south, passing to the west of Reservoir 810. It may have carried water to the reservoir, perhaps as the continuation of Channel 822. The two northern corners of Reservoir 810 were uncovered (width 1.6 m, depth 2.3 m; Fig. 3.18), which continued to the south beyond the excavation area. It was partly stone built and partly hewn into the bedrock; its walls (W86, W87, W88) were preserved to a height of one course. The walls were plastered with pinkish hydraulic plaster (6 cm thick), typical of the Byzantine period.

W87

6

W8

W88

Fig. 3.18. Reservoir 810 in Area E; looking west.

Summary Excavations outside the octagonal church revealed monumental entrances on the northern, western and southern sides of the octagonal church that included an atrium surrounded by porticos; the porticos adjoining the octagonal church served as exo-narthexes. They were probably built in the second half of the sixth century CE (Stratum III). Thus, it can be assumed that in the Byzantine period, the atria, together with the main apse of the church protruding to the east, lent the church an outline of a cross with an octagon at its center. The southern atrium and its porticos went out of use, probably during Stratum IV, and their remains were incorporated in a crudely built, stone-slab floor of a courtyard.

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Little was preserved of the monastery, and its plan could not be reconstructed. A mosaic Greek inscription discovered in Room 10 of the monastery, dated to the seventh– eighth centuries CE (Stratum IV), indicates a continued Christian presence at that time. Building activity continued in the monastery into the ninth century CE. The excavations revealed a reservoir (L822) and a cistern (L148) in the area of the monastery, and together with the large Bir Qadismu reservoir south of the church, they comprised a water system that served the local community of monks who resided in the Kathisma monastery, and the visitors to the Kathisma church. These reservoirs and cisterns were an integral feature of such a large and important site, situated on a main road and pilgrimage route from the Byzantine period until today, and provided water for all those who passed along this main road.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 4

The Mosaic Floors Rina Avner

Introduction The majority of the mosaics preserved inside and outside of the church are dated to Stratum IV, the Umayyad period (eighth century CE). Five mosaics of Stratum III (second half of the sixth century CE) continued in use into Stratum IV. From Stratum II (fifth century CE), only floor beddings survived. Inside the church, mosaics were preserved in parts of the ambulatory and in rooms of the outermost octagon. In the innermost octagon, only beddings remained. The ambulatory was completely paved with mosaic carpets in Strata II–IV, except for the eastern side opposite the bema, which was paved with marble and stone slabs. In the southern and western parts of the ambulatory, only a few segments of the floors were preserved, and in most cases only the beddings remained––often retaining imprints of tesserae. In the northern part, the mosaic preservation is better, and enables a schematic reconstruction of the layout of the carpets in Strata III–IV throughout the ambulatory: rectangular carpets along the sides of the octagon, and triangular carpets in the octagon corners with one of the vertices pointing toward the center of the church. In the outermost octagon, the architectural division of the space into rooms determined the layout of the carpets, which were largely preserved. The chapels contained two mosaic carpets, one in the hall and one in the apse. The bema and the main apse were also mosaic paved, but only isolated segments remained. In the rooms, the carpets conformed to the internal shapes of the rooms: square carpets in the southern rooms, and trapezoidal carpets in the passage rooms, with the narrowest side pointing toward the center of the church. The western entrance room was paved with marble in Stratum III, which was probably replaced by a mosaic floor in Stratum IV (see Chapter 2). The northern and southern entrance rooms were not preserved. In the monastery, the mosaic floors were poorly preserved. Mosaics were uncovered in Courtyard II to the west of the church, and in the porticos surrounding it. Most of the monastery rooms were paved with mosaics, but in some cases, only beddings survived. The mosaics were preserved mainly in the rooms adjacent to the church and the entrance atria. To the north of the church, mosaics were revealed in Rooms 6 and 7, and evidence of a white mosaic floor of an upper story was found on the surface of the eastern portico of Courtyard I. To the southwest of the church, mosaics were found in Rooms 8, 10, 14–16, and to the south and southeast of the church, in Rooms 22–25. Rooms 13 and 19 were apparently paved with simple white mosaic. To the east of the church, in the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse of the church, Rooms 1–3 were paved with mosaic carpets that were partially preserved.

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The mosaics are described from the center of the building outward, according to strata. As no mosaic floors were preserved in the innermost octagon, the description begins with the ambulatory, followed by the outermost octagon, the Umayyad building, and finally, the mosaics in the entrance atria and various parts of the monastery. Reference is made to the comprehensive catalogues of mosaic motifs by Avi-Yonah (1933), Blanchard et al. (1973) and Balmelle et al. (1985, 2002). This description is followed by the presentation of five typological groups defined according to the colors of the tesserae or their shape, and a discussion of the relationship between the typological groups, their quality and complexity, and the layout of the mosaics in the church during the Umayyad period and its functional implications. The relationship between the iconography of the most splendid mosaics from the Umayyad period and the function of the rooms that they decorated, is discussed in Chapter 10.

The Mosaics in the Church The Ambulatory (Middle Octagon) Stratum III (see Chapter 2: Plan 2.3) Mosaic Floor 931 (Fig. 4.1). In the western part of the ambulatory, a narrow strip (0.06 × 0.35 m) of a mosaic abutting stylobate W350 was apparently part of the frame of the carpet. It was too small for the pattern to be identified, except that it was based on two interlacing ribbons, one red and one gray, forming loops. The gray ribbon entwines around itself, creating a gray loop with four white tesserae in the center. Presumably, the red ribbon formed similar loops. Each ribbon was made of five lines of tesserae: the gray ribbon of two gray lines and one white line, and the red ribbon of one red line, one red-orange line and one white line, and both are outlined by black lines.

L931 L316

Fig. 4.1. Fragments of the frames of Mosaics 931 (Stratum III) and 316 (Stratum IV), in the western part of the ambulatory.

Mosaic Floor 343 (Fig. 4.2). In the northeastern part of the ambulatory, underneath Mosaic 58 of Stratum IV (see below), a small segment of the mosaic carpet (max. dimensions 1.10 × 1.75 m) was revealed during conservation work. Wide edges made of white tesserae, placed

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L58

L343

Fig. 4.2. Mosaic 343 (Stratum III) and above it a segment of the frame of Mosaic 58 (Stratum IV), in the northeastern part of the ambulatory.

diagonally to the walls, surround the carpet. The frame is decorated with a two-strand guilloche pattern (Avi-Yonah 1933: B2; Blanchard et al. 1973: Fig. 194; Balmelle et al. 1985: Pl. 70h), each strand made of three lines: one strand of a red line, a pink line and a white line, the other of two gray-blue lines and a white line, and both strands are outlined by black lines. The carpet is decorated with a net of diamonds (Avi-Yonah 1933: H7) composed of red and black flower buds, each diamond populated with a cruciform flower made of four buds that point in four directions (Avi-Yonah 1933: F23). The tesserae are well-worn, and most of the red ones are broken and sunken into the background. The density of the tesserae is 56/sq dm in the frame, 60/sq dm in the carpet and 90/sq dm in the edges. Stratum IV (see Chapter 2: Plan 2.4) Mosaic Floor 63. In the southeastern part of the ambulatory, two mosaic segments were preserved, probably part of the frame of a mosaic carpet. One segment (5 × 7 cm) includes one to three white lines of the edge along W111 and is decorated with a white and red wavecrest pattern (Avi-Yonah 1933: B7, B8; Balmelle et al. 1985: Pl. 101b). The other segment (0.7 × 0.9 m), uncovered next to the line of stylobate W113 (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.10), includes four white lines of the edge and a remnant of the outline of the carpet frame made of two white lines flanked by black lines. Mosaic Floor 114 (Figs. 4.3, 4.4). In the southern part of the ambulatory, a small segment (max. dimensions 0.5 × 1.8 m) of a colorful mosaic abuts the miḥrab (see Chapter 2). The frame of the carpet is made of two bands (Fig. 4.3). The outer band is decorated with a row of stylized flowers (roses?) rounded at the bottom with three pointed petals, similar to the pattern that Blanchard et al. termed ‘goblets arranged in tête-bêche’ (Blanchard et al. 1973:56, No. 286). At Kathisma, the pattern is schematic––stylized into

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Fig. 4.3. Detail of the frame of Mosaic 114 in the southern part of the ambulatory: composite guilloche and stylized flowers.

Fig. 4.4. Detail of the frame and carpet of Mosaic 114: composite guilloche (left), medallions interlaced with two-strand guilloche patterns (right).

geometric shapes. The petals and the lower part of the sepals are white, the calyxes that face north are red, formed of four red lines surmounted by two pink lines, while the calyxes that face south are formed of three green lines surmounted by two yellow lines. Between each petal is a single white tessera on a black background. The inner band of the frame is decorated with a composite guilloche pattern (Avi-Yonah 1933: B12) with a black outline (Blanchard et al. 1973: No. 196). The loops of the guilloche are composed of colorful strands alternating between a strand in red, pink and white, a strand in green, yellow and white, and a strand in mustard-yellow, yellow and white.

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From the small segment of the carpet, it is evident that it was decorated with interlacing ribbons, including a two-strand guilloche: one strand formed by a pink line flanked by a white line on one side and a red line on the other, the second strand formed by a mustard-yellow line, a yellowish-brown line and a white line. In the gaps created by the interlacing pattern are medallions outlined in black and containing vegetal motifs (Fig. 4.4). Partially preserved motifs include: a small bunch of grapes made up of black, reddishorange, pink and white lines, and a flower with yellow petals and a stalk with small green leaves at its base. In the spaces between the ribbons and the frame are red triangles with a black outline. The density of the tesserae is 72/sq dm in the interlacing pattern of the carpet and the external band decorated with flowers, 85/sq dm in the medallions and 90/sq dm in the guilloche. Mosaic Floor 209 (Figs. 4.5, 4.6). In the southwestern corner of the ambulatory, between W38 and W25, a narrow segment (max. width 0.3 m) was preserved of the edge of the triangular corner mosaic decorated with small vine scrolls gradually becoming smaller toward the north (Fig. 4.5). Two bunches of grapes are made of a red line surrounding a

Fig. 4.5. Mosaic 209 in the southwestern corner of the ambulatory.

Fig. 4.6. Detail of Mosaic 209: a bunch of grapes and a vine leaf; on the right, a partially preserved branch with needle-like leaves (arrow).

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white tessera with a black outline, along with green vine leaves. At the southern end of the segment, a black line separates the vine scrolls from another design of which a branch with needle-like, V-shaped leaves in black, red and yellow survived (Fig. 4.6; variant of AviYonah 1933: A18). The same design appears in the northwestern corner of the ambulatory (see below; L206). The density of the tesserae is 64/sq dm. Mosaic Floor 316 (Fig. 4.7). In the western part of the ambulatory, next to the threshold of the western entrance room, is a segment of a mosaic (0.37 × 0.57 m). The frame is decorated with interlacing ribbons that form a row of ovals and circles (Avi-Yonah 1993: B14) in red and yellow on a red background. The ribbons are made of a green line, a mustard-yellow line and a white line between black outlines. The carpet is decorated with a net of diamonds (Avi-Yonah 1933: H1), each with a small diamond inside. The net is made of two red lines with a white line between them, and bordered by black lines. Another segment (0.15 × 0.23 m) of the carpet frame was uncovered along the route of stylobate W350, above the remnant of Floor 931 (see above; Fig. 4.1). The density of the tesserae is 64/sq dm in the frame and 72/sq dm in the carpet.

Fig. 4.7. Mosaic 316 in the western part of the ambulatory: a frame of interlacing ribbons forming oval and circles, and a carpet decorated with a net of diamonds.

Mosaic Floor 206 (Fig. 4.8). Near the northwestern corner of the ambulatory, formed by W25 and W1, three segments (0.3 × 0.4 m; 0.4 × 0.5 m; 0.2 × 0.9 m) of the frame of a triangular carpet survived. The corner of the triangular mosaic is c. 5 cm west of the actual corner of W1 with W25. The frame is decorated with a branch of needle-like leaves in black, red and yellow. The branch is depicted as if it grows out of ribbons made of colorful tesserae laid in diagonal lines with black outlines: one ribbon of light yellow, green and mustard-yellow lines (Fig. 4.8a), another of orange and mustard-yellow lines (Fig. 4.8b). One of the small segments of the carpet is made mostly of red and white tesserae bordered by a black line (Fig. 4.8c). The density of the tesserae is 64/sq dm.

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a

123

b

c

Fig. 4.8. Three segments of Mosaic 206 in the northwestern corner of the ambulatory: the frame containing branches with needle-like leaves emerging from ribbons (a, b) and a segment of the carpet (c).

Mosaic Floor 27 (Figs. 4.9–4.12). In the northwestern part of the ambulatory, the rectangular carpet can be reconstructed with dimensions of 3.5 × 7.0 m. A segment of the edge of the carpet (length 5.4 m) is decorated with vine scrolls that become progressively smaller toward the northeast (Fig. 4.9). Each scroll contains a bunch of red grapes with a white center and outlined in black, similar to those in L209 (see above). The carpet frame has an external band of wave crests in red and white and an internal band with a composite guilloche pattern (a variant of Avi-Yonah 1933: B12) composed of two interlacing strands that emerge out of each other to form loops. The strands have a black outline; one is made of two bluish-gray lines and one white line, the other of two yellow lines in different hues and one white line. Each loop emerges from a red flower with three denticulated petals. A white

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Fig. 4.9. Mosaic 27 in the northwestern part of the ambulatory, looking southeast: the edges of the mosaic decorated with vine scrolls.

Fig. 4.10. Detail of Mosaic 27: the composite-guilloche frame.

circle rests on each end of the petals. The flowers stand out against the black background created by the outlines of the loops (Fig. 4.10). The carpet is decorated with an interlace of colored ribbons––one of red-orange, pink and white, the other of two hues of yellow and white––that divides the carpet into medallions in the shape of four-leaf clovers connected by loops. Each clover is populated by a colorful, schematic vegetal motif, including lilies (fleurs-de-lis) in a variety of shapes and colors (Fig. 4.11a, b), a lily with two flowers (Fig. 4.11c), a lily with two round fruits (Fig. 4.11d), three elongated leaflets on a common stalk (Fig. 4.12a–c) and a three-leaf clover (Fig. 4.12d). In the gaps that the interlaced clovers create are stylized green leaves resembling a fig leaf. The colors of the carpet are red, orange, pink, green, yellow, bluish-gray, black and white. The density of the tesserae is 49/sq dm in the external frame, 64/sq dm in the background and the interlace, 132/sq dm in the internal frame and 169/sq dm in the vegetal motifs.

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a a

b

b

c

c

d

Fig. 4.12. Vegetal motifs in the carpet of Mosaic 27: three leaflets on a common stalk (a–c) and a clover leaf (d).

d

Fig. 4.11. Motifs of lilies in the carpet of Mosaic 27: a green lily (a), a colorful lily (b), a lily with flowers (c) and a lily with fruit (d).

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Mosaic Floor 7 (Fig. 4.13). In the northwestern corner of the ambulatory, between W1 and W2, a triangular mosaic carpet (2.8 × 3.5 m) was uncovered. The part of the carpet that points inward collapsed during the excavation. This carpet is located between two rectangular carpets (L4, L27) and separated from them by a white band with a red line in the center interspersed at regular intervals with red and black flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F6). Identical flower buds, arranged in parallel lines, decorate the triangular space between the carpet and the corner created by the meeting of W1 and W2. A patch of repair made of tesserae slightly larger than the original ones is visible along the edge. The frame of the carpet is decorated with a two-strand guilloche (Balmelle et al. 1985:120, Pl. 70j) with a black outline: one strand of two red lines and a white line, the other of a green line, a yellow line and a white line. Between the frame and the carpet are two white lines flanked by black lines. The carpet is decorated with a pattern of scales (AviYonah 1933: J3), each with a flower bud in it (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3). The scales are formed by a black outline that borders a white line between two red lines. This design characterizes all the scale patterns at the site, except for the floor of the northern portico of Courtyard II (L29; see below). The density of the tesserae is 30/sq dm in the carpet, 49/sq dm in the frame, 72/sq dm in the repaired patch and 80/sq dm along the edges.

Fig. 4.13. Mosaic 17 in the northwestern corner of the ambulatory: pattern of scales.

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Mosaic Floor 4 (Figs. 4.14–4.16). On the northern side of the ambulatory, two segments of a mosaic were preserved, one adjacent to Mosaic 7 (1.8 × 2.2 m; Figs. 4.14, 4.15), the other at the center of the floor (1.12 × 3.00 m). This carpet was probably rectangular, extending along the entire side, like Mosaic 27 (see above). The frame of the carpet is decorated with a pattern of interlacing ribbons of yellow, green, black and white that create a row of ovals and circles on a red background. This pattern is similar to that in the frame of Mosaic 316 (see Fig. 4.7), but in this mosaic the sizes of the ovals and circles are not uniform, indicating that the tesserae were laid according to a freehand sketch on the white plaster, rather than a template. The central carpet is decorated with interlacing ribbons forming linked, elongated lozenges with concave sides that in turn create additional geometric shapes, such as ovals and circles (Fig. 4.15). The ribbons are outlined in black and made up of different colors: one of a red line, a pink line and a white line; one of a green line, a yellow line and a white line; and another of two lines of mustard-yellow and one white line. Within the lozenges and geometric shapes and between them are diamonds and double flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F10) that extend in opposite directions from a central point (Fig. 4.16). The density of the tesserae is 49/sq dm in the frame and 56/sq dm in the carpet.

Fig. 4.14. Segment of Mosaic 4 in the northern part of the ambulatory (left) and the adjacent Mosaic 7 (right).

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Fig. 4.15. Mosaic 4 carpet decorated with interlaced pattern.

Fig. 4.16. Detail of Mosaic 4: an oval shape decorated with flower buds and diamonds.

Mosaic Floor 58 (Figs. 4.2, 4.17). In the northeastern part of the ambulatory, remains of two mosaics were found. One is rectangular, extending along the entire length of the northeastern side of the ambulatory, while the second, apparently triangular, decorated the northeastern corner. Two segments were uncovered of the rectangular mosaic: the larger (1.17 × 3.50 m), along W106, preserved its northeastern corner (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.33), while the smaller (0.40–0.60 × 0.65 m) preserved its southeastern corner. This mosaic was laid over Mosaic 343 of Stratum III (see Fig. 4.2). A white edge that separates the mosaic from W106 becomes

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a

b

e

f

c g

h d

Fig. 4.17. Vegetal motifs in Mosaic 58 in the northeastern part of the ambulatory: from the top row (a–d), from the middle row (e–g), and from the bottom row (h).

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progressively narrower toward the north, with a red line along the center that is interspersed with flower buds at regular intervals (Avi-Yonah 1933: F9). The frame consists of a band of composite guilloche identical in shape and colors to the guilloche in the internal frame of Mosaic 27 (see above). The central carpet is decorated with interlacing ribbons forming linked triangles with concave sides that create medallions and lozenges. The ribbons are bordered by black outlines and made of different colors: one of a red line, a red-orange line and a white line; one of a green line, a yellow line and a white line; and another of two mustard-yellow lines and a white line. Three rows of medallions populated with various vegetal motifs were preserved from the carpet. The vegetal motifs are repetitive (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.33). In the top row are (right to left): three pomegranate buds on a common stalk (Fig. 4.17a); three elongated leaflets (Fig. 4.17b); a stylized fig leaf (Fig. 4.17c); acanthus leaves stylized as an open wreath (Fig. 4.17d); an unidentified vegetal motif; and another stylized fig leaf. In the middle row are: a stylized fig leaf; acanthus leaves stylized as an open wreath (Fig. 4.17e); two elongated leaves with pomegranate or poppy buds between them (Fig. 4.17f); a tulip between two wide leaves on a common stalk; and three pomegranate buds on a common stalk (Fig. 4.17g). In the bottom row is a medallion with acanthus leaves stylized as an open wreath with a tulip (Fig. 4.17h). Two of these motifs (stylized fig leaf and three elongated leaflets) also appear in Mosaic 27 (see above, Figs. 4.9; 4.12a–c). The density of the tesserae is 64/sq dm in the frame, 72/sq dm along the edge, 90/sq dm in the carpet and 168/sq dm in the vegetal motifs. A small segment (0.25 × 0.50 m) was uncovered of the frame of the triangular(?) carpet adjacent to the rectangular carpet and next to W106 (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.33). It is separated from Mosaic 58 by a white edge with a red line in the center. The frame is decorated with a two-strand guilloche outlined in black: one strand of two red lines and a white line, the another of a green line, a yellow line and a white line. The density of the tesserae in the frame is 64/sq dm.

The Outermost Octagon Stratum III (see Chapter 2: Plan 2.3) Mosaic Floor 346 (Fig. 4.18). In the southwestern chapel, two mosaic floors were preserved, one above the other, the earlier (L346) revealed where the later floor (L240) was damaged. Two segments of Mosaic 346 were revealed: one (0.2–1.1 × 2.3 m) of the northwestern corner of the carpet, the other along the edge of the carpet, next to W151 (0.1–0.7 × 2.5 m). The carpet has a white edge decorated with a line of red and black flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F17) and a cruciform flower is preserved in the corner. The frame has three bands: a middle band of composite guilloche flanked by two red and white wave-crest bands. The guilloche is identical in shape and colors to that in the inner frame of Mosaics 27 and 58 of Stratum IV (see Fig. 4.10). Only a small segment of the carpet is visible, showing a colorful pattern of interlacing ribbons that creates small spaces, with a red flower bud in one of them (Avi-Yonah 1933: F9). The density of the mosaic tesserae is 81/sq dm along the edge, 90/ sq dm in the carpet and the wave-crest band, and 100/sq dm in the guilloche.

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L240

L346

Fig. 4.18. Mosaics 240 (Stratum IV) and L346 (Stratum III) in the southwestern chapel hall.

Mosaic Floor 10 (Fig. 4.19). In the northwestern chapel, the Stratum III hall floor (L10) was entirely preserved, while the apse floor was replaced in Stratum IV with a new mosaic floor (L16; see below). Along the edge of the carpet is a line of flower buds in red and black (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3) and cruciform flowers in the corners. The frame is decorated with a band of wave crests in red and white. The mosaic carpet is decorated with a net of diamonds made of flower buds, each diamond populated with cruciform flowers, identical to Stratum III Mosaic 343 in the northeastern part of the ambulatory (see above). Repairs were made to the carpet, mostly in the southwest, using slightly larger, yellowish-white and red tesserae, although no discrete patch of repair could be discerned. The density of the tesserae is 81/ sq dm in the carpet and the frame, and 90/sq dm along the edge.

Fig. 4.19. Mosaic 10 of Stratum III in the northwestern chapel hall, which remained in use in Stratum IV, and Mosaic 16 of Stratum IV in the apse.

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Mosaic Floor 121. In the northeastern passage room, a few black, red and white tesserae remained (each 1.2 × 1.2 cm): seven in the northern part of the room, 13 in the west, and seven in the south. In spite of the poor preservation, it is possible to recognize a scale pattern, and presumably this floor was decorated in a similar style to Mosaics 256 and 32 of the western passage rooms (see below). Mosaic Floors 70 and 75 (Figs. 4.20, 4.21). In the northeastern chapel, a number of segments were preserved of the Stratum III mosaic floor that apparently remained in use in Stratum IV: four in the hall (L70) and three in the apse (L75). The frame of the hall mosaic

a

b

Fig. 4.20. Two segments of Mosaic 70 in the northeastern chapel hall: the frame comprising a band of four-strand guilloche between two wave-crest bands (a), and the carpet of interlacing ribbons (b).

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comprises three bands: the middle band with a four-strand guilloche (Avi-Yonah 1933: B4; Balmelle et al. 1985: Pl. 73c) flanked by wave-crest bands in red and white. The fourstrand guilloche has one strand made of two mustard-yellow lines and a white line; one of a red line, a pink line and a white line; one of two gray lines and a white; and another of two bluish-gray lines and a white line (Fig. 4.20a). The largest segment (0.25 × 1.20 m) of the carpet has interlacing ribbons creating round medallions and triangles with concave sides (Fig. 4.20b), and perhaps also lozenges similar to the ones in Mosaic 58 of Stratum IV (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.33). The ribbons have gray outlines: one is made of a red line, a pink line and a white line; one of two mustard-yellow lines and a white line; and another of two gray lines and a white line. Flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F7) populated some of the spaces between the geometrical forms. The density of the tesserae is 76.5/sq dm in the wave crest of the frame and 100/sq dm in the guilloche of the frame and the carpet. In the apse, the edges of Mosaic 75 have red flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3) set at regular intervals, and the frame comprises two white lines bordered by black lines. The carpet has an identical design of flower buds arranged at regular intervals. Near the center of the mosaic is a square-shaped motif formed by a ribbon in red, white and black with loops at each corner (Fig. 4.21; Blanchard et al. 1973: No. 61). In the southeastern area of the edge, a repair was made with large, yellowish-white tesserae. The density of the tesserae is 90/sq dm in the carpet and the repaired patch and 100/sq dm along the edge.

Fig. 4.21. Segment of Mosaic 75 in the northeastern chapel apse.

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Stratum IV (see Chapter 2: Plan 2.4) Mosaic Floor 56 (Fig. 4.22). The floors of the bema and main apse were not preserved, except for a segment (max. dimensions 2.4 × 3.1 m) of the mosaic frame (L56) in the southwestern part of the bema next to the steps. The frame was decorated with wave crests in red and white and acanthus scrolls that seem to create medallions. The black background highlights the yellow and green tesserae of the leaves. Alongside the acanthus leaves are vegetal(?) motifs in red, orange, yellow and pink. The density of the tesserae is 110/sq dm. In the apse (L52), a few white lines of the mosaic remain, which originated in Stratum II and remained in use into Strata III and IV (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.36).

Fig. 4.22. Segment of the frame of Mosaic 56 in the bema: a wave-crest band above an acanthus scroll.

Mosaic Floors 66 and 89 (Fig. 4.23). The floor of the hall in the southeastern chapel (L66) was fully preserved, and the apse floor (L89) was partially preserved (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.37). Along the edges of the hall and apse mosaics is a row of red and black flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F9). The hall mosaic has a frame of three bands: a two-strand guilloche (Balmelle et al. 1985:120, Pl. 70h) flanked by bands of red stepped triangles (Avi-Yonah 1933: A5, A6). Between the frame and the carpet and the frame and the edges, are two white lines flanked by black lines. The hall carpet is decorated with interlacing ribbons that create medallions (Avi-Yonah 1933: J1) and lozenges with concave sides (Fig. 4.23), and between the medallions are small lozenges (Avi-Yonah 1933: E, right). The medallions are populated with cruciform flowers. The ribbons are made of three colored strands: one has a red line, a red-orange line and a white line; one has two mustard-yellow strands and a white line; and the third has two gray lines and a white line. The density of the tesserae is 64/sq dm along the edges and in the stepped triangles and 72/sq dm in the guilloche and the carpet. The mosaic in the apse (L89) has a simple frame of two white lines flanked by black lines, and the carpet is decorated with small diamonds (Avi-Yonah 1933: E, left) at regular intervals. The diamonds are made of a white tessera in the center surrounded by four red tesserae, with nine black ones around them. The density of the tesserae is 64/sq dm.

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Fig. 4.23. Segment of Mosaic 66 in the southeastern chapel hall: interlacing ribbons and medallions.

Mosaic Floor 54 (Fig. 4.24). In the southeastern passage room, a trapezoidal mosaic floor was fully preserved. Its wide side (length 5 m), against the inner face of the external wall of the church, is rounded, and its short side (length 1.2 m) points to the center of the church. The floor is slightly damaged in the west and the northeast. Along the edges of the carpet are two white lines flanked by black lines. The frame is made of three bands: a band of medallions flanked by bands of two-strand guilloche. The medallions are populated with yellow lilies and arranged in a central row; on either side are rows of half medallions cut by the frame, and the yellow lilies inside them are also sliced in half. The guilloche strands are bordered by black lines: one strand has two red lines and a white line, and the other has two mustard-yellow lines and a white line. The carpet has a red background decorated with a large palm tree with denticulated fronds and two small palm trees standing on either side. All the trees have bunches of dates and symmetrical palm fronds. They grow from a ground made of seven yellow lines, surmounted by five light green lines, three dark green lines and a black line at the top with slightly upcurving ends. The trees and fruit are outlined with a single black line. The trunk of the large palm tree is decorated with arches of yellow, light green, gray, blue, white and dark green lines, which are repeated in the same order six times with varying thicknesses. The color transition is gradual, so that the upper part of each arch incorporates a few tesserae of the color of the arch directly above it. The fronds are arranged along two sides of a central ridge, with a lulav (unopened frond) at the top. The ridge, the inner part of the palm fronds and the lulav are composed of a central, light yellow ‘vein’ that becomes progressively darker toward the ends of the fronds through the use of light and dark green tesserae. The bunches of dates are attached to the large tree by three stalks made of a yellow line between two dark gray lines. The bunches comprise five rows of dates, with one date

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Fig. 4.24. The palm-tree Mosaic 54 in the southeastern passage room.

less in each row, so that the top line has five dates, and the bottom only one. The dates are oval and made up of four columns of colored tesserae, with smaller tesserae at both ends of the fruit, some of them even triangular. There are two types of dates that differ in color: one has columns of red, mustard-yellow, bluish-gray and white, and the other has three columns of dark green and one of yellow. The arrangement of the columns creates the illusion that they are lit from the right. At the base of the trunk of each small palm is a yellow arch, and a ridge runs up the length of each tree comprising a yellow line flanked by two light green lines interspersed at irregular intervals with yellow tesserae. The denticulated fronds of the small palms are shaped with a yellow line at the bottom, followed by a light green line and a dark green line. At the top of each tree is a lulav. The bunches of dates, attached to the trees by a single stalk, are made of three rows, the first of three dates, then two dates and then one. The ends of the fruit are made of smaller or triangular tesserae. The dates are formed of three columns of yellow, red and green to create the illusion that the small palm on the right is lit from the right, while the tree on the left seems to be lit from the left. In this mosaic, the gradual transitions in color and the use of different hues of the same color create an impression of depth, and a play of light and shadow. This was enhanced by interspersing monochromatic lines with tesserae of a different color at irregular intervals. For example: yellow tesserae in a light green line, light green tesserae in a dark green line, etc. The density of the tesserae is 49/sq dm in the red background, 64/sq dm along the edges and the frame, 68/sq dm in the yellow and green arches of the large tree trunk, 90/ sq dm in the gray arches, the palm fronds and the lulav in the large tree, 110/sq dm in the small palms and 120/sq dm in the lines of white tesserae.

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Mosaic Floor 73 (Figs. 4.25–4.27). In Room 73 (5.2 × 5.2 m), on the southern side of the octagon, a polychrome mosaic with a red background was preserved. Along the edges, red tesserae were laid diagonally. The edges are decorated with a black line interspersed with flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F22) at regular intervals. The flower buds have black sepals, a white tessera that represents the stamen(?) and petals made of two yellow tesserae surmounted by a line of four green tesserae. The frame is separated from the edges and the carpet by two white lines bounded by black lines. It is decorated with a composite guilloche pattern similar to those in the mosaics of the ambulatory (L27, L58) and the southwestern chapel (L346; see above). The composite guilloche is made of a strand comprising a green line, a yellow line and a white line, and another of two mustard-yellow lines and a white line. The carpet is ornamented with four acanthus calyxes emerging from four cornucopias in the corners. Vines growing from the calyxes surround a harmonic shield (Balmelle et. al. 2002:135–148, Fig. 335d) at the center of the carpet (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.50). The cornucopias are stylized, made of a wide range of colors: two hues of yellow, green, red, blue, gray, black and white. White tesserae interspersed in the cornucopias simulate inlaid gems and pearls. In the cornucopia in the northeastern corner, the pearls appear on the rim of the vessel and comprise round white tesserae between two square orange tesserae (Fig. 4.25). In contrast, the pearls in the other cornucopias decorate the center of the vessel, and are separated from each other by a square red tessera (Fig. 4.26). Of the cornucopia in the southwestern corner, only the base was preserved. Three leaves are visible in each acanthus calyx, two in profile and one in frontal view between them. Each leaf has a central vein made of a yellow line, a mustard-yellow line and a green line and outlined by black lines. Two hues of green and three of yellow make up the leaves to create a three-dimensional illusion and a play of light and shadow. Vine scrolls growing from the calyxes form two rows of medallions, one along the frame, the other around the harmonic shield. The vine branches are designed of a black line, a yellow line and a green line, while the tendrils are similarly designed but without the black line. The vine leaves are stylized, half yellow and half green. From the branches hang bunches of grapes of different sizes. The grapes are outlined with a black line and designed in a number of ways (Fig. 4.25): round grapes made of round white tesserae surrounded by green or yellow tesserae; oval grapes made of three columns of yellow, green and white, with triangular tesserae at their ends; and oval grapes made of two columns of four tesserae: two yellow lines and two green lines, or a white line, two yellow lines and a green line, also with triangular tesserae at their ends. The harmonic shield, which covers most of the carpet, was partially preserved (Fig. 4.27). It is composed of polychrome squares: red, white, black, green and yellow, which get progressively smaller toward the center of the shield, as does the number of tesserae in each square. The density of the tesserae is 81/sq dm along the edges, in the shield and in the grapes of the vine scrolls, 85/sq dm in the frame, 81–110/sq dm in the cornucopias and up to 137/sq dm in the northeastern corner where the tesserae density is highest.

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Fig. 4.25. The northeastern corner of Mosaic 73 in the southern part of the outermost octagon: a cornucopia and an acanthus calyx from which a vine grows.

Fig. 4.26. The northwestern corner of Mosaic 73: a cornucopia.

Fig. 4.27. Detail of Mosaic 73: the harmonic shield.

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Mosaic Floor 98. In Room 98, on the southern side of the octagon, the mosaic carpet (2.1 × 3.0 m) was partially preserved; its southern part did not survive (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.49). The narrow edges of the carpet are of white tesserae laid parallel to the walls. The frame has two bands, the outer one decorated with stepped triangles in red and white, the inner one a two-strand guilloche pattern, one strand of a pink line between red and white lines, the other of a green line between yellow and a white lines. The carpet is decorated with a net of diamonds, each diamond populated with small red and black diamonds. The density of the tesserae is 25/sq dm in the carpet and 36/sq dm in the frame. Mosaic Floors 240 and 244 (Figs. 4.18, 4.28). In the hall of the southwestern chapel, two consecutive mosaic floors were preserved: Mosaic 240 (4.6 × 9.2 m) laid over Stratum III Mosaic 346 (see above). In the apse, the floor was preserved in its entirety (L244; max. width 4.0 m, depth 2.4 m). Around the mosaic carpets in the hall and the apse are narrow white edges. The edges in the hall are decorated with a black line in the middle interspersed with red flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3) at regular intervals. The tesserae were laid diagonally to the walls, so that the black line between the buds creates an impression of a string of small black diamonds. The frame of the hall carpet (L240) is decorated with a four-strand guilloche, each strand outlined in black: one strand of two red lines and a white line; one of two yellow lines and a white line; one of two light green lines and a white line; and another of two bluishgray lines and a white line. The frame is separated from the edges and the carpet by two white lines flanked by black lines. The carpet is decorated with a geometric pattern that creates an optical illusion. It is made up of intersecting octagons, each octagon fashioned from a square surrounded by four squat hexagons (Avi-Yonah 1933: H3). In the center of each square is a diamond made of a black tessera surrounded by four white ones, in turn surrounded by eight red tesserae and around these a dozen black ones. Within each hexagon is a lozenge constructed in the same way as the diamonds in the squares, but for each colored tessera in the diamonds, two are used in the lozenges. The density of the tesserae is 36/sq dm in the frame, 42/sq dm in the carpet and 49/sq dm along the edges. The apse carpet (L244) has a frame decorated with a three-strand guilloche (AviYonah 1933: B3; Balmelle et al. 1985: Pl. 72c), each strand comprising a white line and two red, yellow or bluish-gray lines, and outlined in black. Between the strands is a single white line. Here too, the frame is flanked by two white lines between black lines. The carpet is decorated with a pattern of scales populated with flower buds. The density of the tesserae is 36/sq dm in the carpet and 46/sq dm in the frame.

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Fig. 4.28. The southwestern chapel in Stratum IV: Mosaic 240 in the hall and Mosaic 244 in the apse.

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Mosaic Floor 256 (Fig. 4.29). In the southwestern passage room, seven segments of the floor remained, the largest (1.4 × 1.7 m) preserving the southwestern corner. The frame of the carpet comprises three bands: a two-strand guilloche flanked by bands of wave crests in red and white and separated by two white lines between black lines. The guilloche strands are made of two red lines and one white line, and a green line, a yellow line and a white line. The mosaic carpet is decorated with a pattern of scales populated with flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F6). The density of the tesserae is 49/sq dm in the wave-crest bands, 56/sq dm in the carpet and 64/sq dm in the guilloche band.

Fig. 4.29. Segment of Mosaic 256 in the southwestern passage room.

Mosaic Floor 32 (Fig. 4.30). The floor in the northwestern passage room was almost completely preserved (max. width 4.2 m, length 4.8 m), except for a hole created by the root of an olive tree. The floor is decorated with patterns identical to those in the southwestern passage room (L256; see above). The density of the tesserae is 49/sq dm in the wave-crest bands, 56/sq dm in the carpet and 64/sq dm in the guilloche band.

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Fig. 4.30. Mosaic 32 in the northwestern passage room.

Mosaic Floor 16 (Figs. 4.19, 4.31). In the northwestern chapel, the apse floor was replaced by a new floor (L16) in Stratum IV, as attested by a repair of large white tesserae between the apse carpet and the Stratum III hall carpet (L10), which remained in use in Stratum IV (see Fig. 4.19, and above). Mosaic 16 has white edges decorated with flower buds (AviYonah 1933: F3). The frame is simple, made of two white lines bounded by black lines. The mosaic carpet has a pattern of scales populated with flower buds (Fig. 4.31). The density of the tesserae is 36/sq dm in the carpet and 49/sq dm along the edges.

Fig. 4.31. Mosaic 16 in the northwestern chapel apse, looking northwest; on the right, signs of repair and replacement of the carpet (arrow).

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The Mosaics in the Umayyad Building Mosaic Floor 87 (Figs. 4.32–4.36). The most splendid mosaic floor at the site was uncovered in Room 1, the largest room in the Umayyad building. Two segments survived of this floor: a small part of the frame and edge (0.45 × 0.90 m) on the eastern side of the room, and a larger segment of the carpet (2.00 × 2.65 m) in the southwestern corner (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.52). The mosaic has a unique composition and rare motifs, and the high quality of the workmanship is evident in the wide range of colors and hues, the extensive use of greens and yellows, and the large number of tesserae/sq dm. The edges of the mosaic along the walls of the room are decorated with a row of flower buds, of which two (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3) survived. Between the edges and the frame is a decorative pattern imitating the knotted tassels along the edges of fabrics and carpets. The knots are shaped as black triangles terminating in a single tessera to create small black diamonds (Fig. 4.32). The frame of the mosaic consists of two bands: the outer band of stepped triangles in white and red, bounded on both sides by two white lines between black lines; the inner band of a two-strand guilloche: one strand of a green line, a yellow line and a white line, the other of two bluish-gray lines, one lighter than the other, and a white line. In the center of the remaining segment, another strand can be discerned made of a yellowish-brown line, a mustard-yellow line and a white line, which is partially incorporated into the two-strand design. As the mosaic was not fully preserved, it cannot be determined if the brownish strand is an artist error, or part of a pattern that was not preserved (Fig. 4.32). The mosaic carpet has a red background decorated with yellow medallions, uniform in size and arranged in parallel rows at regular intervals. The medallions emulate crowns inlaid with pearls (Fig. 4.33). The contour of each medallion consists of five black lines incorporating round white tesserae (average diam. 2.4 mm), about 3.6 mm apart. In the spaces between the medallions are rosettes and fantastic hybrid vegetal motifs. The fantastic motifs are also within the medallions. The dominant color of these motifs is green, which contrasts strongly with the yellow medallion and the red background. Each vegetal motif is different, stylized and not realistic, including lotus leaves, acanthus leaves or palmettes (Figs. 4.34–4.36). In one of the medallions, a plant with three stalks has a winged motif emerging from the central stalk that resembles a palmette (RosenAyalon 1989:54–55) with a lotus flower at its center, a design that emulates a Sassanian crown (Fig. 4.34b; see Gautier-van Berchem 1969:277–280). A motif in another medallion looks like a tree with a platter above it bearing five fruits, perhaps figs, or a red crown studded with pearls (tesserae diam. c. 8 mm; Fig. 4.35). Each branch, leaf and sepal in these plant motifs is made of three or four lines of tesserae, each line a different color, laid from dark to light; for example: red, pink and white; blue, gray and white; gray, blue, green and white; blue, green, yellow and white. The order of the colors attests to the artist’s attempt to create an illusion of light and depth. The design was oriented to the southeast. The density of tesserae is 64/sq dm in the carpet, 110/sq dm in the vegetal motifs and the ‘crowns’ (excluding the round white tesserae) and 132/sq dm in the red background.

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Mosaic Floor 91. In Room 2 is the edge of a partially preserved mosaic floor (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.51), the edge decorated with flower buds of alternating red and yellow (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3). The carpet frame has a band of two-strand guilloche between two bands of stepped triangles. The guilloche is formed by one strand made up of a pink line between a red line and a white line, the other of two gray lines and a white line. In between the bands, and between the bands and the carpet, are two white lines flanked by black lines. The carpet is decorated with a net of diamonds populated with small black and red diamonds. The density of the tesserae is 25/sq dm in the carpet, 36/sq dm in the frame and 46/sq dm along the edge.

Fig. 4.32. The frame of Mosaic 87 in Room 1 of the Umayyad building; note the third, brownishcolored strand in the guilloche that is partially integrated between the two other strands (arrow).

Fig. 4.33. Detail of Mosaic 87: pearl medallions populated with hybrid vegetal motifs.

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b

c

Fig. 4.34. Details of Mosaic 87: hybrid vegetal motifs in pearl medallions; note the winged motif at the top of the plant resembling a Sassanian crown (b).

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Fig. 4.35. Detail of Mosaic 87: a tree bearing a pearl-studded crown or a platter of fruit.

a

b

Fig. 4.36. Details of Mosaic 87: hybrid vegetal motifs between the pearl medallions.

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Mosaic Floor 65. In Room 3, the frame of the mosaic and segments of the carpet survived (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.51). The edges are wide and white, decorated with flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1993: F3) at regular intervals. The frame contains a band of wave crests in red and white, bounded on both sides by two white lines between black lines. The carpet is decorated with a pattern of scales, each populated with a flower bud (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3). The density of tesserae is 30/sq dm in the carpet and 33/sq dm in the frame and along the edges.

The Mosaics in the Atria and the Monastery In contrast to the mosaics in the church and the Umayyad building to its east, not all the mosaic floors that were uncovered in the atria and the monastery could be assigned an absolute date. The mosaics are described in the same order as the architecture in Chapter 3: counter-clockwise, from north to southeast. Mosaic Floor 1 (Fig. 4.37; see Chapter 3: Plan 3.1). Room 6, which adjoins the church from the north, was decorated in Stratum IV with a mosaic floor of which one segment (1.0 × 2.2 m) was preserved in the southeastern corner of the room. The southern edge of the mosaic was repaired using a fragment of a marble slab. Along the edges are black and red flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3) at regular intervals. The frame comprises a band of stepped triangles in red and white flanked by two white lines bounded by black lines. The carpet is decorated with a net of diamonds, each diamond populated with a small diamond. The density of the tesserae is 25/sq dm along the edge and 36/sq dm in the carpet and frame.

Fig. 4.37. Mosaic 1 in Room 6; note the marble fragment used to repair the mosaic.

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Mosaic Floor 119. Room 7, which adjoins the church from the north, was decorated in Stratum IV with a simple mosaic floor that was almost completely preserved (max. dimensions 3.0 × 3.8 m.; see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.6). It was damaged along the edges and in patches along the frame in the north and the west. The edges of the mosaic are narrow and white. The frame has a band of stepped triangles in red and white, flanked by two white lines bounded by black lines. The carpet is decorated with a pattern of scales, each populated with a red and black flower bud (Avi-Yonah 1993: F3). The density of the tesserae is 33/ sq dm in the carpet and frame and 38/sq dm along the edges. Mosaic Floor 267 (Fig. 4.38; see Chapter 3: Plan 3.2). In Courtyard II, to the west of the church, a segment of the mosaic floor (max. dimensions 2.0 × 3.2 m) was uncovered in the southeast. The edges of the floor are decorated with diamonds at regular intervals. The frame comprises a white line between two orange lines. The carpet is decorated with a simple net pattern of diamonds populated with small diamonds, each diamond made of an orange tessera surrounded by four white ones, and around these, eight orange tesserae. Large tesserae (c. 4 × 4 cm) were used, typical of mosaic floors in open spaces, and the density of the tesserae is 6/sq dm.

Fig. 4.38. Mosaic 267 in Courtyard II.

Mosaic Floor 254. In the eastern portico of Courtyard II, the mosaic floor was almost completely preserved (3.0 × 13.8 m). In the southwestern corner, a patch of floor had been repaired (0.3 × 0.7 m) with white tesserae following installment of Channel 314 (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.8, bottom left). The edges of the floor are narrow, made of white tesserae laid in straight lines, and the frame has a pattern of stepped triangles in red and white. The carpet pattern is a simple net of diamonds populated with small diamonds in black and red. The density of the tesserae is 30 /sq dm throughout, including the repaired patch.

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Mosaic Floor 268 (Fig. 4.39). In the southern portico of Courtyard II, the mosaic floor of Stratum IV was preserved for 10.5 m (width 2.9 m); its western part was not exposed. Its northern edge and parts of the frame and the carpet in the east were damaged. In the northeastern corner is a repaired patch of white tesserae, apparently following a repair to Channel 314 that passed underneath it. The frame comprises an outer band of stepped triangles, and an inner band of wave crests, both in red and white. Between the frame and the carpet are two white lines between black lines. The carpet consists of a net of diamonds populated with small diamonds and three east–west rows of squares also populated with diamonds. The northern row is bisected by the frame. The combination of the net of diamonds and rows of squares creates additional geometric shapes, such as triangles, rectangles and irregular octagons. The colors of the carpet are red, black and white, and the density of the tesserae is 30/sq dm.

Fig. 4.39. Mosaic 268 in the southern portico of Courtyard II.

Mosaic Floor 29. In the northern portico of Courtyard II, two segments of the mosaic floor were uncovered, the larger (0.6 × 1.1 m) in the southeastern corner (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.10). The edges are simple and white, and the frame is decorated with a pattern of concentric circles formed by a black tessera in the center, around it a red line surrounded by two white lines, a black line, two red lines, a white line and a black line. The frame is separated from the edges and from the carpet by two white lines flanked by black lines. The carpet is decorated with a pattern of scales, each scale formed by a black outline delineating two red lines and populated with a flower bud (Avi-Yonah 1933: F11). The density of the tesserae is 25/sq dm in the carpet and 39/sq dm in the frame. Mosaic Floor 247 (Fig. 4.40). In trapezoidal Room 8, which adjoins the church at its southwestern corner, a segment of the mosaic floor (1.9 × 2.0 m) was preserved in the northwestern corner. The frame comprises three bands separated from each other by two white lines between black lines. The two outer bands are decorated with stepped triangles in red and white. The middle band is unique, decorated with a row of diamonds formed

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Fig. 4.40. Mosaic 247 in Room 8.

by lines of white tesserae laid diagonally on a red background. In the center of each is a medallion of green tesserae outlined in white and populated with a white lily. Along the edges of the middle band are half medallions populated with bisected lilies. The mosaic carpet has a simple pattern of scales populated with flower buds. The density of the tesserae is 36/sq dm in the two outer bands of the frame and 42/sq dm in the carpet; the density in the middle band is not uniform, averaging c. 90/sq dm; the green tesserae of the medallions and the white tesserae of the lilies are the smallest in the mosaic. Mosaic Floor 292. In Room 10, southwest of the church, a white mosaic floor of Stratum IV has a Greek dedicatory inscription of which two lines were partially preserved (see Chapter 5) within a wreath of red flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F32). Above the inscription is a red line, and a red line separates the two lines of the inscription. Above this is a black monogram flanked by green palm fronds, and above these a small red cross. The density of the tesserae is 72/sq dm in the wreath and 81/sq dm in the letters of the inscription. Mosaic Floor 273 (Fig. 4.41). In Room 14, southwest of the church, three segments of the mosaic floor were preserved, the largest 2.30 m long (width 0.63 m). Two to four white lines, a black line and a red line remain of the edge, and the frame is a simple band of stepped triangles in red and white. The mosaic carpet, however, is unique and extraordinary, made of black and white triangular tesserae arranged in alternating diagonal lines with the bases of the black tesserae oriented toward the south, and the bases of the white tesserae toward the north. Unfortunately, it could not be determined if the carpet contained additional decorations. The density of the tesserae is 144/sq dm.

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Fig. 4.41. Mosaic 273 in Room 14: the mosaic carpet made of triangular tesserae.

Mosaic Floor 275. In Room 15, southwest of the church, the southwestern corner of the mosaic floor was preserved (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.16). The edges of the mosaic are decorated with diamonds at regular intervals, each diamond composed of a white tessera surrounded by four red ones and delineated by eight black ones. The frame comprises two lines of white tesserae between black lines. A small segment of the white background of the mosaic carpet remains. The density of the tesserae is 72/sq dm. Mosaic Floors 410, 454, 455. To the south and southwest of the church, identical mosaic floors were revealed in Rooms 16 (L410), 22 (L455) and 23 (L454; see Chapter 3: Plan 3.3). In Room 23, Mosaic 454 was uncovered almost in its entirety (3.8 × 4.0 m), while Mosaics 410 (3.3 × 3.5 m) and 455 (0.5 × 4.0 m) were only partly revealed. The mosaics have simple white edges, a simple frame of two white lines between black lines, and the carpet is decorated with rows of red flower buds at regular intervals on a white background, the white tesserae laid diagonally to the walls. The density of the tesserae is 30/sq dm in all three rooms. Mosaic Floor 94. In Room 24, which adjoins the church from the southeast, the southeastern corner of the mosaic floor (2.9 × 2.9 m) was damaged (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.17). The edges of the mosaic are white, the tesserae laid diagonally to the walls. The frame is composed of two white lines between black lines, and the carpet is decorated with a net of diamonds populated with small diamonds. The colors of the mosaic are red, black and white, and the density of the tesserae is 30/sq dm. Mosaic Floor 93 (Fig. 4.42). In Room 25, an irregularly shaped room southeast of Room 24 and the southeastern chapel, a segment of the mosaic floor was uncovered. The edge that faces south is concave, and the edge that faces northwest is partly straight and partly

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Fig. 4.42. Mosaic 93 in Room 25.

rounded. The frame is a band of stepped triangles in red and white, separated from the edge by two white lines between black lines. The carpet has a pattern of scales identical to those of Mosaic 247, each scale populated with a flower bud. The density of the tesserae is 30/ sq dm in the carpet and 36/sq dm in the frame.

Typology The 42 mosaics revealed in the excavations were divided into five groups, four on the basis of the tesserae colors, and the fifth according to the shape of the tesserae: (1) mosaics in red, black and white; (2) mosaics comprising a carpet in red, black and white, and a polychrome frame with more than three colors; (3) mosaics with more than three colors in both the carpet and the frame; (4) mosaics with more than three colors and a red background; (5) a single mosaic with a carpet of triangular tesserae. The mosaics in the first three groups are the most common and are attributed to Strata III and IV. Mosaics of Groups 1 and 2 are found in the church and outside it, while Group 3 mosaics appeared only inside the church. Group 4 comprises three mosaics, two in the church and one in the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse of the church, and are dated to Stratum IV. The unique mosaic of Group 5, found in Room 14 southwest of the church, could not be dated.

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Group 1 The is the most common group (17 mosaics), characterized by simple mosaics of red and black on a white background. Mosaics of this group were uncovered in the church (L10, L16, L75, L89, L121), in the Umayyad building (L65) and in the monastery (L1, L29, L93, L94, L119, L254, L268, L275, L410, L454, L455). Most of the mosaics are attributed to Stratum IV, except for three from Stratum III (L10, L75, L121) and five of unknown date (L29, L254, L410, L454, L455). The mosaics of Group 1 usually have a plain frame consisting of two white lines bounded by black lines, as in the northern apses (L16, L75) of the church, and in the rooms to its south (L94, L275, L410, L454, L455). Other frames are decorated with bands of wave crests (Avi-Yonah 1933: B7, B8; Balmelle et al. 1985: Pl. 101b) or stepped triangles (Avi-Yonah 1933: A5, A6). Wave-crest patterns appear in Stratum III in the hall of the northwestern chapel (L10), and in Stratum IV in the Umayyad building (L65; Room 3). Stepped-triangle patterns appear in Stratum IV north of the church (L1, L119; Rooms 6, 7), southeast of the church (L93; Room 25) and in the western portico of Courtyard II (L254). In the southern portico of Courtyard II, the frame of the carpet has bands of both patterns. A pattern of concentric circles decorates the frame of Mosaic 29 in the northern portico of Courtyard II. The wave-crest pattern was also used in Groups 2 and 3, while frames with stepped triangles are found in all five groups (see below). Six patterns decorate the mosaic carpets of Group 1: scales (Avi-Yonah 1933: J3) populated with flower buds; a net of diamonds (Avi-Yonah 1933: H1) populated with small diamonds (Avi-Yonah 1933: E); a net of diamonds formed of flower buds, each diamond populated with a cruciform flower (Avi-Yonah 1933: H7); a net of diamonds and rows of squares (variant of Avi-Yonah 1933: H2) populated with diamonds (Avi-Yonah 1933: E, right); flower buds (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3) set at regular intervals; and diamonds (AviYonah 1933: E, left) set at regular intervals. These patterns are very common in Jerusalem and its surroundings during the fifth to eighth centuries CE (Avner 2004a:308, nn. 29–34). Some of these patterns also appear in Group 2 (see below). Scales (see Figs. 4.19, 4.31, 4.42). In this pattern, the surface of the floor is divided into small scale-like units. The scales are formed by a black outline that delineates a white line between two red lines, except for Mosaic 29 in the northern portico of Courtyard II, in which the scales are formed of two red lines bounded by black lines. At the center of each scale is a flower bud. The flower buds are identically shaped in most of the mosaics (Avi-Yonah 1933: F3). This is the most common pattern at the site. In mosaics of Group 1, it appears in the church in the Stratum IV apse carpet in the northwestern chapel (L16), and apparently also in the northeastern passage room (L121) dated to Stratum III. Outside the church, the pattern appears in Room 3 (L65) of the Umayyad building, in rooms adjoining the church from the north (L119; Room 7) and the southeast (L93; Room 25), and in the northern portico (L29) of Courtyard II to the west of the church. It also appears in Group 2. This pattern is common in mosaics in the vicinity of Jerusalem and throughout Israel and Jordan (e.g., Shepherds’ Field [Beit Sahur]—Tzaferis 1975: Pl. 1:3; the northern church in Lower Herodion—Netzer, Birger-Calderon and Feller 1993: Pl. XVI; Magen and Kagan 2012b: Fig. 245.11; Khirbat

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Zur—Batz and Sharukh 2012: Figs. 15, 20; Khirbat Samara—Henderson 1990: Ill. 19; the Basilica of Moses on Mount Nebo—Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 193; Bostra, the Church of St. George—Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 606; Pella—Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 703). A Net of Diamonds, Each Diamond Populated with a Small Diamond (see Fig. 4.37). This pattern is common at the site, and in mosaics of Group 1 it is found in rooms adjacent to the church on the north (L1; Room 6) and the southeast (L94; Room 24), and in Mosaic 254 in the western portico of Courtyard II, which may have been installed in Stratum III. It also appears in Group 2. This pattern is common in mosaics in the vicinity of Jerusalem and throughout Israel and Jordan (e.g., ‘Ein Karim—Saller 1946: Pls. 7; 8, top; 13:2; 14:1, 2; Khirbat Siyar El-Ghanam—Corbo 1955: Pl. 12, Photo 29; Shepherds’ Field [Beit Sahur]— Tzaferis 1975: Pl. 3:4; the Central Church at Herodion—Magen and Kagan 2012b: Fig. 245.3; ez-Zakhaliq—Hirschfeld 1990:62, Fig. 70; Beit ‘Anun—Magen 2012a: Figs. 59, 60; 2012b: Fig. 8; Khirbat Ḥamad—Aronshtam 2012: Figs. 2, 10; Khirbat el-Maḥma—HarEven 2012: Fig. 6; Madaba—Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 60; the bathhouse at Ma‘in—Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 317). A Net of Diamonds Formed of Flower Buds, Each Diamond Populated with a Cruciform Flower (see Fig. 4.19). In this pattern, the flowers in the diamonds comprise four buds pointing in four directions. One carpet of this pattern in the northwestern chapel (L10), dated to Stratum III, belongs to Group 1. It also appears in Group 2. This pattern is common in mosaics in the vicinity of Jerusalem and throughout Israel (e.g., Khirbat Juhzum—Corbo 1955: Pl. 47, Photos 150, 152; Khirbat ed-Deir—Hirschfeld 1992: Fig. 50; Talgam 1999: Figs. 1, 2; Khirbat el-Beiyudat—Hizmi 1990: Fig. 2; Magen—Tzaferis 1993:284; Umm al-Rasas––Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 331). A Net of Diamonds and Rows of Squares Populated with Diamonds (see Fig. 4.39). This pattern appears in Mosaic 268 of Stratum IV, in the southern portico of Courtyard II. It is a variant of the pattern that Avi-Yonah (1933) defined as H2. He depicted the diamonds and squares as overlapping, but at Kathisma the squares appear as three distinct rows. No parallels were found for this pattern. Flower Buds Set at Regular Intervals (see Fig. 4.21). This pattern appears in the apse (L75) of the northeastern chapel in Stratum III. In the monastery, it was found in Rooms 16 (L410), 22 (L455) and 23 (L454) to the south and southwest of the church adjacent to Courtyard III. The flower buds in the carpets are of Avi-Yonah’s Type F3. Decorations of flower buds at regular intervals also appear along the edges of mosaics of the various groups. This pattern is common in mosaics in the vicinity of Jerusalem and throughout Israel and Jordan (e.g., the northern and central churches in Herodion—Magen and Kagan 2012b: Figs. 245.1, 245.3; ‘Ein el-Fawwar—Magen and Kagan 2012a: Figs. 154.2, 154.3; Khirbat Bureikut—Magen and Kagan 2012b: Fig. 247.1; Khirbat Beit Sila—Batz 2012: Figs. 4, 5, 20).

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Diamonds Set at Regular Intervals. This pattern appears in the apse of the southeastern chapel (L89) in Stratum IV, and is very common along the edges of Group 1 mosaics. The same pattern appears in a carpet in the northern church of Shiloh (Magen and Aharonovich 2012: Figs. 16, 18). Group 2 This group includes 10 simple mosaic carpets in red and black on a white background; however, they differ from Group 1 in the colorful frames that incorporated additional colors such as pink, yellow, mustard-yellow, green, gray and bluish-gray. Eight mosaics of this group were uncovered in the church (L7, L32, L98, L240, L244, L256, L316, L343), one in the Umayyad building (L91) and one in Room 8 (L247) southwest of the church. All of these mosaics are of Stratum IV, except for Mosaic 343 of Stratum III. Most of the patterns in this group are common throughout Israel. The frames of Group 2 mosaics are decorated with seven patterns, six of them common ones: two-strand guilloche (Avi-Yonah 1993: B2; Balmelle et al. 1985:120, Pl. 70h, j); three- and four-strand guilloche (Avi-Yonah 1933: B3, B4; Balmelle et al. 1985:123, Pls. 72c, 73c); interlacing ribbons creating ovals and circles (Avi-Yonah 1933: B14; Balmelle et al. 1985:132–133, Pl. 82c); and wave crests and stepped triangles, both of which appear also in Group 1. A rare pattern comprises a row of diamonds (Avi-Yonah 1933: E) each containing a medallion populated with a lily in the center; the spaces between the diamonds contain half-medallions populated by bisected lilies. All the frames have a white background, apart from the interlace that has a red and yellow background (see Fig. 4.7), and the pattern of medallions containing lilies that has a red background (see Fig. 4.40). The frames of Group 2 sometimes combined several patterns. In the ambulatory, frames with a two-strand guilloche were found on the northeastern side (L343), and in the triangular mosaic (L7) in the northwestern corner (see Figs. 4.2, 4.13). A frame with an interlaced pattern was found in the western part of the ambulatory (L316); and a small segment of a frame in red, gray, black and white, too small for identification (L931), was uncovered in the western part of the ambulatory. In the outermost octagon, frames with a two-strand guilloche pattern between two bands of wave crests were uncovered in the southwestern passage room (L256) and in the northwestern passage room (L32; Figs. 4.29, 4.30); a frame with a band of two-strand guilloche and a band of stepped triangles was found in Room 98 in the southern part of the church; frames decorated with a three-strand guilloche appear in the apse (L244) of the southwestern chapel and a four-strand guilloche in the hall (L240; Figs. 4.18, 4.28). A frame with a two-strand guilloche between two bands of stepped triangles (L91) was revealed in Room 2 of the Umayyad building. In Room 8, southwest of the church, the frame of Mosaic 247 is decorated with a band of lilies between two bands of stepped triangles (see Fig. 4.40). Four patterns decorate the mosaic carpets of Group 2, three of which also appear in Group 1.

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Scales (see Figs. 4.13, 4.28–4.30, 4.40). In mosaics of Group 2, this pattern appears in the church in a triangular carpet in the northwestern corner of the ambulatory (L7), in the apse of the southwestern chapel (L244), in the southwestern passage room (L32) and the northwestern passage room (L256). Outside the church, it appears in Room 8 (L247) next to the southwestern passage room. A Net of Diamonds, Each Diamond Populated with a Small Diamond (see Fig. 4.7). In mosaics of Group 2, this pattern is found in the western part of the ambulatory (L316), in Room 98 in the southern part of the church and in the Umayyad building (L91; Room 2). A Net of Diamonds Formed of Flower Buds, Each Diamond Populated with a Cruciform Flower (see Fig. 4.2, right). This pattern appears in a Group 2 mosaic (L343) of Stratum III in the northeastern part of the ambulatory. A Net of Intersecting Octagons Formed by Squares Surrounded by Hexagons, Each Populated with a Diamond (see Fig. 4.28; Avi-Yonah 1933: H3). This pattern decorates the hall of the southwestern chapel (L240). It is common in the vicinity of Jerusalem and throughout Israel (e.g., Ramat Raḥel—Bagatti 1971: Fig. 163; Khirbat Umm Leisun— Seligman 2000: Fig. 143; Ma‘ale Adummim [The Good Samaritan]—Magen and Kagan 2012a: Figs. 164.1, 164.2; Khirbat Fa‘ush—Har-Even and Shapira 2012: Fig. 15; Susya— Peleg 2012: Fig. 8; Deir Qal‘a (Magen and Aizik 2012: Fig. 30). Group 3 This group includes 10 mosaics characterized by polychrome carpets and frames, six in the ambulatory (L4, L27, L58, L114, L206, L209), two in the southern chapels (L66, L346), one in the northeastern chapel (L70) and one in the bema (L56). Most of the mosaics were installed in Stratum IV, with two exceptions (L70, L346) from Stratum III; Mosaic 70 continued in use in Stratum IV. The edges of Mosaics 27 and L209 are decorated with a pattern of vine scrolls. The frames include ten patterns: two- three- and four-strand guilloches, and a composite guilloche of intertwining loops (Avi-Yonah 1933: B12); stylized flowers (Blanchard et al. 1973: No. 286); branches of needle-like leaves (variant of Avi-Yonah 1933: A18); acanthus scrolls; wave crests; stepped triangles; and interlaced ovals and circles. Five of these patterns also appear in Groups 1 and 2 (see above). As in Group 2, the background is usually white and the frames sometimes combined a number of patterns, for example, a band of two-strand guilloche flanked by bands of stepped triangles in Mosaic 66 in the hall of the southeastern chapel (Fig. 4.23), and a four-strand guilloche flanked by bands of wave crests in Mosaic 70 in the northeastern chapel (see Fig. 4.20). Frames Composite Guilloche (see Figs. 4.3, 4.10, 4.18, 4.25). The guilloche is a common pattern in mosaic floors, with no chronological or geographic boundaries. The two-strand guilloche

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and the composite guilloche appear in the southern part of the ambulatory (L114), together with a band of stylized flowers (see Fig. 4.3). Another variant of the composite-guilloche pattern, which appears in the frames of Mosaics 27 and 58 in the north and northwest of the ambulatory, and in Mosaic 346 of Stratum III in the southwestern chapel, includes a red flower motif with three denticulated petals from which the strands seem to emerge (see Figs. 4.10, 4.18). In this variant, the artist apparently did not use a template, but inlaid the tesserae of the flower freehand, following a sketch on the plaster bedding. In the frames of Mosaics 27 and 346, a band of wave crests appears next to the band of guilloche. The composite guilloche is a common pattern in mosaic floors, but the motif of the flower from which the ribbons emerge seems to be a local variant. It is seen in churches in Jerusalem and the Judean desert: three mosaics attributed to the fifth century CE north of Damascus Gate (Sukenik and Meyer 1930: Fig. 31) and in Phase IIB of the refectory and hospice chapel in the Monastery of Martyrius, dated to the second half of the sixth century (Magen 1993b:32, 56; 2015: Figs. 186, 187, 190, 191, 246–248). Presumably, the artists who worked at Kathisma in the Umayyad period used two different sketch books for this pattern; one followed the local variant that was applied in L346 of Stratum III and L27 and L58 of Stratum IV, while the other introduced the variant that was applied in L114, but nowhere else in Kathisma; it is also possible that two different workshops were employed at the site during the Umayyad period (Stratum IV). Stylized Flowers (see Fig. 4.3). This pattern of schematic flowers arranged tête-bêche appears once in Mosaic 114 in the ambulatory. It is common in frames around mosaic carpets in churches and synagogues of the fifth–eighth centuries, as in the eastern church at Herodion (Netzer, Birger-Calderon and Feller 1993: Fig. 10), the church at Khirbat ed-Deir (Hirschfeld 1993: Pl. XVII) and the synagogue at Ma‘on (Talgam 2014: Fig. 405). Branches of Needle-Like Leaves (see Fig. 4.8). This pattern of a branch of V-shaped leaves emerging from a vessel or a ribbon appears in the northwestern and southwestern corners (L206, L209) of the ambulatory (see Fig. 4.6). It is seen in the church at Khirbat Beit Sila as a wreath surrounding a medallion (Amir 2012: Fig. 27; Batz 2012: Fig. 22). Acanthus Scrolls (see Fig. 4.22). This pattern, in which acanthus leaves create medallions surrounded by vegetal motifs and emphasized by a black background, appears in the bema (L56) alongside a band of wave crests. It has parallels in mosaics in Israel that date between the third and sixth centuries CE. Examples from the third century CE include the Dionysus mosaic in Sepphoris (Talgam 2014: Figs. 50–53) and mosaics in the villa in Nablus (Talgam 2014: Figs. 79–86); from the fourth century CE, the Samaritan synagogue at Khirbat Samara (Talgam 2014: Fig. 169); from the fourth–fifth centuries CE, in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (Talgam 2014: Figs. 83, 247, 249); and from the sixth century CE at Khirbat Beit Loya (Talgam 2014: Fig. 127), Wadi el-Ḥamam (Talgam 2014: Fig. 232) and Khirbat Waziya (Talgam 2014: Figs. 172, 173). The pattern of acanthus scrolls on a black background continues into the Umayyad period, as attested in two churches in Transjordan:

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the Acropolis Church at Ma‘in, dated by an inscription to 719/720 CE (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 305), and the church of St. Stephen at Umm al-Rasas, dated by an inscription to 756 CE (Piccirillo 1993: Figs. 345, 358, 385). Interlaced Ovals and Circles (see Fig. 4.14). This simple frame on a red and yellow background appears in Mosaic 4 in the northern part of the ambulatory. Carpets The carpets of Group 3 employ four different interlaced patterns based on colored ribbons: medallions (Avi-Yonah 1933: J1), four-leaf clovers, triangles with concave sides forming medallions and lozenges with concave sides forming chains of ovals. Interlaced Medallions (see Fig. 4.23). In the design of Mosaic 66 in the southeastern chapel hall, ribbons divide the carpet into medallions populated with flower buds arranged in the shape of a cross. In the spaces between the medallions are small diamonds. Similar interlaced patterns, but not populated with additional motifs, are seen in the Basilica Church at Shiloh (Dadon 2012: Fig. 4, right) and in the church at Khirbat ‘Ein Dab in the Judean Shephelah (Amir 2012: Fig. 22). Interlaced Four-Leaf Clovers (see Fig. 4.9). In this design of Mosaic 27 in the northwestern part of the ambulatory, the carpet is divided by ribbons into medallions in the shape of four-leaf clovers populated with various vegetal motifs, such as lilies (see Fig. 4.11), three elongated leaflets on a common stalk (see Fig. 4.12a–c) and a three-leaf clover (see Fig. 4.12d). There is a wide variety not only in the types of lilies, but also in the color combinations in each type. For example, among the lilies it is possible to discern a green lily, a colorful lily, a lily with flowers and round fruit (see Figs. 4.11a–d). In the spaces between the clovers are motifs of a leaf with rounded lobes resembling a stylized fig leaf. The motifs are arranged so that they grow outward from the corner between W25 and W38 and along these walls. No exact parallels to this interlace pattern are known, the closest examples seen in churches dating to the Umayyad period in Jordan, as in the aisles of the church of St. Stephen in Umm al-Rasas (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 345). Interlaced Triangles with Concave Sides Forming Medallions Populated with Vegetal Motifs (see Fig. 4.20; Chapter 2: Fig. 2.33). In this design of Mosaic 70 in the hall of the northeastern chapel (laid in Stratum III, continued in Stratum IV) and Mosaic 58 on the northeastern side of the ambulatory (Stratum IV), interlaced triangles form medallions populated with vegetal motifs, and between the medallions and triangles, additional geometric spaces are formed. Only a small segment of Mosaic 70 was preserved with no vegetal motifs, but the two mosaics apparently had carpets with identical patterns, differing in colors and frames. In Mosaic 70, the interlaced ribbons have gray outlines and the frame is a four-strand guilloche between two wave-crest bands, while in Mosaic 58 the outline of the ribbons is black, and the frame is a band of composite guilloche.

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Two vegetal motifs seen in Mosaic 58 also appear in Mosaic 27 on the parallel side of the ambulatory to the west: three elongated leaflets (Figs. 4.12a–c; 4.17b) and a green leaf resembling a stylized fig leaf (see Figs. 4.9, 4.17c). Two additional motifs are seen only in Mosaic 58: a double acanthus leaf (see Fig. 4.17d, e) and a tulip (Fig. 4.17h). Interlaced Lozenges with Concave Sides Forming Circles and Ovals Populated with Flower Buds and Diamonds (see Fig. 4.15). In this design of Mosaic 4 along the northern side of the ambulatory, polychrome ribbons interlace to create lozenges with concave sides and circles and ovals, all populated with flower buds and diamonds. No parallels are known for this interlaced pattern. A few segments of three additional polychrome carpets (L114, L206, L346) are attributed to Group 3, although their patterns could not be identified. Mosaic 114, in the southern part of the ambulatory, comprises bands of two-strand guilloche enclosing medallions populated with vegetal motifs (see Fig. 4.4). Only a very small segment survived of Mosaic 206 in the northwestern corner of the ambulatory (see Fig. 4.8c). Mosaic 346 in the southwestern chapel is decorated with interlaced polychrome ribbons that divide the carpet into small spaces (see Fig. 4.18). It is probably similar to the interlaced patterns in Mosaics 4, 58 and 70 (see above), as well as that of the carpet in the main hall of the central church in Lower Herodion, dated to the second quarter of the sixth century CE (Netzer, Birger-Calderon and Feller 1993: Pl. XVI:B). Group 4 Three mosaics of this group, characterized by the use of red tesserae in the same hue as the background color, appear in two places in the southern part of the outermost octagon (L54, L73), and in the Umayyad building (L87). They are assigned to Stratum IV, when the Umayyad building canceled the main apse on the eastern side of the church, and the southern part of the ambulatory served as a mosque (see Chapter 2). In contrast to the mosaics in Groups 1–3, each carpet in this group is unique. The Palm-Tree Mosaic (L54; see Fig. 4.24). The central motif in this carpet is a palm tree, a motif that appears in mosaic floors from the Roman and Byzantine periods in the Levant. Examples are found in Israel, for example, in a mosaic at Caesarea (presently on display in the Ben-Gurion International Airport; see Talgam 2014: Fig. 429), and in Jordan in the Church of the Apostles at Madaba (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 142), in the Hippolytus Hall next to the Theotokos Church in Madaba (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 25), and in the church itself where two panels flank the entrance with a palm tree depicted in each (Metaxis 1905: Fig. XXI; Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 23). In the Church of St. Georgios on Mount Nebo, the palm tree stands between two deer (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 250); at Umm al-Rasas, in the Palm Tree Church, the tree grows from an amphora together with a vine scroll (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 393); and in Jerash, in the Elias, Maria and Soreg Church, a vine scroll sprouts from a palm tree (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 572). In Syria, the motif appears in a church at Deir ‘Adas (Balty 1977: Fig. 70). On an ivory plaque from the Stroganoff Collection, dated to the fifth

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or sixth century CE, Mary’s journey to Bethlehem to register in the census before the birth of Jesus is depicted: on the right is an angel leading the she-ass on which Mary sits, behind them walks Joseph, and behind him is a palm tree. The plaque was manufactured in CoeleSyria, very likely within the area of Israel (Volbach 1976: Pl. 27, No. 128). However, the composition of the mosaic in the southern passage room, of a large palm tree flanked by two small ones, is rare, and so far, the closest parallel is found in the palm trees that decorate the internal face of the pillars in the intermediate octagon in the Dome of the Rock (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996: Figs. 42–44). The trunks of the palm trees are depicted as if they are studded with jewels and gems, except for the southern one, which is depicted naturalistically (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996: Fig. 43). The fact that at the Dome of the Rock, the realistic palm trees are in the southeastern corner, and at Kathisma in the southeastern passage room, is probably not accidental, but associated with the iconography of Mary (see Chapter 10). The Harmonic-Shield Mosaic (L73; see Fig. 4.25–4.27). In this carpet, the central motif is a harmonic shield (variant of Avi-Yonah 1933: I10; Balmelle et al. 2002: Pl. 335d). In the Kathisma mosaic, the shield is divided into polychrome squares rather than the triangles that are common in mosaics of the Byzantine and Umayyad periods (see below). It is emphasized by four cornucopias and by acanthus calyxes located in the corners of the carpet that point toward the shield in the center. All the motifs in the mosaic, except for the harmonic shield, have parallels in the wall mosaics of the arcades in the intermediate octagon of the Dome of the Rock, and on the rounded arcades that surround the Foundation Stone at the center of the building. The cornucopias in Kathisma and in the Dome of the Rock are depicted as if they are studded with gems and pearls. In Kathisma, the pearls are made of round, white tesserae, while in the Dome of the Rock they are made of motherof-pearl. In the Dome of the Rock, the cornucopias on the pillars of the arcades in the intermediate octagon and the arcades that surround the Foundation Stone stand upright from the acanthus calyxes (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996:120–121, 124–125, 128, 133), in contrast to the carpet in Kathisma, where the acanthus calyxes emerge from the cornucopias. In the Dome of the Rock, on the wall above the arcades, the cornucopias seem to be suspended from above (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996:86–87, 90–93, 99, 101–105, 133). In the soffits, in the middle of the southern, southeastern and western sides of the intermediate octagon, an acanthus calyx is supported by a motif resembling a cornucopia or a trumpet. On the southern and southwestern sides of the inner octagon, a kind of upright cornucopia, widening toward the top with a widely flaring, out-folded rim, resembles a mushroom (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996:90–91, 97–99). In the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, the wall mosaics depict cornucopias without jewels (Gautier-van Berchem 1969: Pls. 52:b; 58:c–e; see pp. 253–254 for the Hellenistic–Roman origin of this motif). The motif of acanthus calyxes from which vine scrolls sprout are found in the wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock on the inside face of the intermediate octagon, on the pillars (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996: Figs. 42–45, 47–49), and on the soffits of the arcades surrounding the Foundation Stone (on the northwest and southwest; Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996: Figs. 33, 34). Small, round, white tesserae were used to depict some of the grapes in

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the Kathisma mosaic, and they seem to imitate, like the ‘pearls’ inlaid in the cornucopia, the round, inlaid mother-of-pearl pieces in the wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock. The central motif in the mosaic is the harmonic shield, which appears in Israel and Jordan during the Roman–Byzantine period, and around the Mediterranean basin in Syria, Turkey, Greece, Italy, France, Spain and North Africa (Balmelle et al. 2002:135–148). In Israel, the motif is also seen in two villas of the late Roman period, one at Afeq (Ovadiah and Ovadiah 1987: Pl. CLXXI:2, No. 233), the other at Bet Guvrin (Talgam 2014: Fig. 432), and in the Samaritan synagogue at El-Khirbe, in the carpet that leads to the panel depicting the holy vessels and in the facade of the Holy of Holies (Magen 2008b: Fig. 28). In the Byzantine period, the motif is found in the synagogue at Ḥorbat Merot in the Galilee, in the carpet that precedes the depiction of the warrior (Mucznik, Ovadiah and Gomez de Silva 1996: Figs. 4, 5), and in Christian churches, as at Gan Yavne (Habas 2014), the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (Ovadiah and Ovadiah 1987: Pl. XV:2, No. 19), Tell Ḥassān in Jericho (Ovadiah and Ovadiah 1987: Pl. XC:1, No. 107), the Church of St. Bacchus near Ḥorbat Tinshemet, where a Greek inscription in the center of the harmonic shield states: “This place is sacred to the Lord” (Dahari 2012: Fig. 10), at Khirbat Ḥuriya near Modi‘in (Har-Even and Greenfeld 2012: Figs. 16, 17), and in Nahariyya (Dauphin and Edelstein 1993:50, 51), as well as at the ecclesiastical farm in Shelomi (Dauphin 1993:44– 45). At Bet She’an, in a public building, the harmonic shield surrounds the portrait of the city’s goddess Tyche (Talgam 2014: Fig. 456). The harmonic shield is more common in churches in Jordan, where examples are found at Jerash (Ettinghausen 1972:40, n. 1) and at Umm al-Rasas, where the apse is decorated with half a harmonic shield with a Greek inscription in its center that states: “[together] with Mary” (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 346). At Zay in Perea, the harmonic shield appears in a composition similar to that of Kathisma (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 680) with a grapevine entwined around the harmonic shield, although it sprouts out of two amphoras in the western corners of the mosaic, and in the southwestern corner is an image of a man holding a peacock and identified by an inscription as Georgios. According to Piccirillo, the name was very common and may refer to a local patron (Piccirillo 1982:271, esp. p. 365, n. 13; Figs. 21–23). In the Umayyad period, it appears in the church at Yattir (Besonen 2001:40–41) and in the Umayyad palace at Khirbat el-Minya (Creswell 1969: Pl. 69b). Hamilton suggested that the harmonic-shield motif reflects the domed ceiling above it, which he based on the large hall of the bathhouse in the Umayyad palace at Khirbat el-Mefjer (Hamilton 1959:336). However, his proposal is not supported by other examples of Umayyad architecture in the geographic region of Israel and neighboring countries, as at the Dome of the Rock, or underneath the dome of the divan in the Hisham Palace or the dome of the bathhouse of the palace at Qusayr Amra. The Pearl-Medallions Mosaic (L87; see Figs. 4.33–4.36). The mosaic carpet in Room 1 of the Umayyad building is decorated with pearl medallions that imitate crowns. As in Mosaic 73 (see above), round white tesserae represent pearls that stand out on the black background of the medallions. In the wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock, on the internal

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face of the intermediate octagon, similar crown-like medallions are depicted hanging from vine scrolls, and they also appear on the pillars above the acanthus calyxes (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996:95–96, Figs. 42, 47–49). However, the crowns in the Dome of the Rock are depicted as studded with colorful gems rather than pearls, and from some of them hang pendants also inlaid with colorful gems. In the carpet at Kathisma, the pearl medallions are populated with vegetal motifs, while in the Dome of the Rock, they are part of a scene. The red background of this mosaic was influenced by royal silk fabrics that originated in the court of the Sassanian kings (Avner 2004b). The composition of the pearl medallions is common in Sassanian and Coptic fabrics (the latter influenced by Sassanian fabrics), where the crown-like pearl medallions contain floral and faunal motifs (e.g., griffin, winged horse [Pegasus] crowned with a crescent/crown of pearls; see Pope 1938: Figs. 197, 198, 200, 202B, 210). Pearl medallions containing portraits of saints or eagles decorate a bronze platter found at Kafr Miṣr and dated by artistic comparison to the eleventh century CE (Lutan-Hassner 2011: Fig. 1), although the platter was found in an archaeological context that was no later than the ninth century CE (see Chapter 10; Syon 2006). The vegetal motifs in Mosaic 87, within the medallions and outside them, are fantastic, influenced by motifs of lotus flowers, acanthus leaves, rosettes, palmettes and half palmettes. These motifs appear in Sassanian art in a stone relief from Taq-I-Bustan, in which a king is shown wearing a garment decorated with garlands populated by griffins, and between the garlands are rosettes that are reminiscent of the ones in the Kathisma mosaic (Fukai et al. 1984:86–87). The same rosette motif also appears in Sassanian art in other materials such as stucco and vessels of silver and glass (Pope 1938: for stucco: Figs. 167, 168A, 168C, 172D; glass: Fig. 179; textiles: Figs. 197, 198B, 200, 201, 202B, 202C; silverware: Figs. 215A, 215B, 216C, 222A, 222B, 224, 230, 237). The vegetal motifs in Mosaic 87 also have parallels at the Dome of the Rock, in the bronze plaques that decorate the wooden beams (Creswell 1969: Pls. 16:a, b; 25:a–e; 27:a, b, e), in the wall mosaics on the internal face of the intermediate octagon, and on the drum that supports the dome (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996:84–87, 92–93, 102–105, 121). As noted above, among the various motifs in Mosaic 87, it is possible to recognize a Sassanian crown in one of the pearl medallions, combined with a motif of a flower (see Fig. 4.34b). In a wall painting from the Umayyad palace at Qusayr Amra that depicts the rulers of the world, the Sassanian king wears this same crown (Creswell 1969: Pl. 71:e). A stylized Sassanian crown incorporated into a vegetal motif decorates architectural elements found in collapsed debris in the apse of the church of St. Polyeuktos in Constantinople, built in 524 CE (Harrison 1989:33–35, 46, 71, 122–123, 144–147; Fig. 134). No western influences can be detected in Mosaic 87, and only the fruit platter may be a western, Roman–Byzantine motif. In contrast, the designs of the other two mosaics of Group 4 are rooted in the western Roman–Byzantine artistic repertoire and show no Sassanian influence. Group 5 The single outstanding mosaic (L273; Room 14) in this group is made predominantly of triangular tesserae (see Fig. 4.41). Only the frame consists of square tesserae, arranged in

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a design of stepped triangles. The carpet is made of triangular, black and white tesserae to create an abstract pattern reminiscent of small scales, which glitter due to the contrasting colors. While the colors of the mosaic and the frame are in accord with Group 1, the use of unique triangular tesserae in the carpet sets it apart, and no parallel is known.

Discussion and Summary Most of the mosaics, inside and outside the church, are decorated with geometric and vegetal designs that are common to mosaic floors in Israel and Jordan in both the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods. The three mosaics of Group 4 are exceptional, comprising the most splendid mosaics preserved at the site, characterized by unique compositions. The single mosaic of Group 5, made of triangular tesserae, is also unique. Typology The mosaics of Group 1–4 have edges decorated with red and black flower buds of different types, apart from Mosaic 73, in which yellow and green were used on the red background. In three mosaics, the edges were decorated with additional patterns: vine scrolls in the two western corners of the ambulatory, and a row of diamonds at regular intervals in Room 15 of the monastery. Groups 1 and 2 Groups 1 and 2 include the mosaics with the simplest decorative patterns in carpet and frame. The designs are schematic and isotropic––based on a module that is endlessly repeated. The floor surface is divided into small geometric units, and within each unit is a small motif, usually a flower or a diamond. In Group 1, the mosaics are bichrome, red and black on a white background, while in Group 2 the carpets are bichrome, but the frames are polychrome and usually combine a number of patterns. In both groups, the patterns are mostly two-dimensional and flat. Most of the mosaics of Group 1 are crude and of low quality, the usual tesserae density 30–40/sq dm; four floors are of medium quality (60–90 tesserae/sq dm): two in the apses of the southeastern (L89) and northeastern (L75) chapels, one in the northeastern chapel (L10), and the fourth in Room 15 (L275), southwest of the church. The mosaics of Group 2 are also of low quality, 25–64 tesserae/sq dm, but the density in the carpets and frames is not uniform. Outstanding is the middle band of the frame in Mosaic 247 (Room 8), with c. 90 tesserae/sq dm for the lilies. Group 3 The mosaics of Group 3 are also isotropic patterns, formed of interlacing polychrome ribbons that divide the floor into geometric shapes populated with vegetal or geometric motifs. The interlacing patterns create an optical illusion that obscures the individual geometric components. A similarly sophisticated composition appears in the Monastery of Martyrius, in the mosaic floors of the Chapel of the Three Priests, the hospice chapel

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(Magen 2015: Fig. 32), and in the refectory (Talgam 2014: Fig. 177). In the Monastery of Martyrius, the spaces formed by the interlace are in the shape of crosses, while at Kathisma they are triangular (L58, L70) or diamond shaped (L4). In the ribbons of the interlacing patterns and in all four guilloche patterns (two strand, three strand, four strand and composite), the lines of tesserae are usually laid according to a gradation of hue to create an illusion of light and shadow and give the impression of more colors than actually used. The ribbons are composed of a dark line, a line of the same color in a lighter hue and a white line. In some ribbons, the illusion is achieved by using shades of different colors, for example, light green, yellow and white. In all cases, the white line represents the most well-lit side. The motifs that populate the shapes created by the ribbons fill most of the area within the frames, reflecting a horror vacui. The number of vegetal motifs is limited, and they are represented in a simple, flat, schematic manner. In one case (L114), the flowers are depicted as geometric shapes. A restricted number of colors are used, two to four colors for each motif, mostly red, green, yellow and white. The colors in identical motifs are arranged in a different order to achieve more colorful results (see Figs. 4.8a, b; 4.12a–c). The colors are usually not laid in gradation, for example, the grapes in the edges of Mosaics 209 and 27 are composed of a central white tessera surrounded by dark tesserae of uniform hue (see Figs. 4.6, 4.9). In Mosaic 114, an attempt was made to create an illusion of light and shadow, with the grapes depicted in a gradation of three colors: red, pink and white (see Fig. 4.4). The grapes are elongated and of different sizes, in contrast to the grapes in Mosaics 27 and 209, which are round and of equal size. All the mosaics of Group 3 are inside the church. They are of medium quality (64– 110 tesserae/sq dm), with the exception of Mosaic 4 (49–56 tesserae/sq dm). Mosaics 27 and 58 are of higher quality and smaller tesserae were used for the vegetal motifs (c. 168/ sq dm). Group 4 The mosaics of Group 4, like Group 3, demonstrate horror vacui: the compositions are dense and the motifs fill the area of the mosaic. In Mosaic 54, the palm fronds and the fruits of the central tree fill almost the entire space. The frame of the carpet is very close to the treetop and the palm fronds, and seems to constrict the space in which the tree grows. The small date palms are also close to the frame, and their tops are next to the bunches of grapes of the central tree. In Mosaic 73, the harmonic shield is completely decorated with polychrome squares of different sizes. The corners of the carpet are populated with cornucopias and acanthus calyxes, the vine scrolls and bunches of grapes fill the spaces between the shield and the carpet frame, and in the narrow spaces the scrolls turn into tendrils. Also in Mosaic 87, the vegetal motifs fill most of the space in the medallions and between them. In this group, in addition to the vegetal motifs, are inanimate motifs (cornucopias, a harmonic shield, crowns), all depicted in a flat and schematic manner as in Group 3, although a number of methods were employed to make them appear more variable. In Mosaic 73, the grapes in the vine scroll are of different sizes, some round, others oval (see

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Fig. 4.25); in the round grapes the center is a round tessera, in the oval grapes triangular tesserae were used at the ends of each grape. The variability is also manifest in the use of patches of color that stand out against the red background of the mosaic and create a dazzling effect and an illusion of movement. A dense and diverse depiction is also typical of the vine scrolls in the wall mosaic of the Dome of the Rock (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996: Figs. 42–45, 47–49), and is a characteristic of Early Islamic art that Ettinghausen defined as ‘continuous variety’ (Ettinghausen 1972:34). In Mosaic 87, the vegetal motifs inside the pearl medallions that emulate crowns include various fantastic hybrid plants and rosettes that appear in Sassanian art as minor decorative elements in figurative scenes within the pearl crowns. The conversion of minor motifs into primary ones is another of Ettinghausen’s characteristics of Umayyad art that show affinity with Sassanian art (Ettinghausen 1972:38). The rosette motif appears in Byzantine, Umayyad and Sassanian artistic contexts, and Ettinghausen referred to the iconographic significance of this motif as a heraldic symbol with a royal association in the context of the rosettes from Khirbat al-Mafjar (Ettinghausen 1972:38–41), which are parallel to those from Kathisma. Stylistically, movement and vitality are evident in the vegetal motifs in Mosaic 87, as compared with their parallels in Sassanian art. The tips of the leaflets in this mosaic are rounded and freer than the rigid design of the same motifs in Sassanian art. On the other hand, the palm trees in Mosaic 54 are static, a feature that stands out when compared with the palm trees in the wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock, where the tops of the small trees are depicted as moving in the wind (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996: Figs. 42–44). The extensive use of yellow, green and bluish-gray on the red background of the mosaics in Group 4 creates considerable contrast and vitality, and the motifs appear lit up and closer to the observer. In the vegetal motifs, the colors were laid gradually from dark to light to create a play of light and shadow. In Groups 3 and 4 there is the use of colorful patches that cause the colors to glitter, for an illusion of movement, as in the multi-colored arches on the trunks of the palm trees; a similar effect of glitter and movement is achieved in the wall mosaic with the gold background in the Dome of the Rock. The mosaics of this group are of medium to high quality, with Mosaic 87 in the Umayyad building of the highest quality, with a density of tesserae in the motifs of 110–132/sq dm. The two mosaics in the rooms in the southern part of the church (L54, L73) also have some motifs with small tesserae, for example, in Mosaic 54 the palm fronds, the lulav and the gray arches on the central tree have a density of 90 tesserae/ sq dm, and the density of the white tesserae in the tree is 120/sq dm. This is evidence of an attempt to adhere to the high quality of the mosaic by incorporating small tesserae of a common material (white tesserae) in addition to the yellow and green ones. In Mosaic 73, the density is 81–110 tesserae/sq dm, except for the cornucopia in the northeastern corner (137/sq dm). Group 5 Mosaic 273 of Group 5 is an abstract design, the carpet apparently covered with homogenous rows of alternating triangular black and white tesserae. Nevertheless, the

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small black and white tesserae side by side create the illusion of a glittering surface and a play of light and shadow. Layout The fact that most of the preserved mosaics at the site, especially in the church, date to the Umayyad period (Stratum IV), restricts the scope of the discussion of the layout of the mosaic floors to that period, and requires reference not only to the architectural division of the church, but also the functional division during that period, when it served both Christians and Muslims at the same time. Layout of the Church As noted above, no mosaics were preserved in the innermost octagon of the church. In the contiguous space of the ambulatory, the artist could have chosen a single continuous mosaic with a concentric composition, as was customary in other concentric churches, such as the mosaic around the center of the Church of John the Baptist at Jerash (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 535), in the ambulatory of the Church of the Virgin Mary Theotokos at Madaba (Piccirillo 1993: Fig. 2), in the church at Seleucia in Perea, Syria (Donceel-Voûte 1988: Figs. 272– 278), and in the baptistery in Butrint, Albania (Mitchell 2004: Fig. 11.1). However, the surviving remains at Kathisma reveal that the composition did not reflect the continuous space of the ambulatory, but along each side of the octagon a single rectangular carpet was laid. In the east, opposite the bema and main apse, a plaster floor bedding with imprints of stone slabs attests to a paving of marble slabs or colored stones in the eastern part of the ambulatory that led to the most holy area of the church––a paving that was more expensive than mosaic. The carpets were preserved mainly in the northern part of the ambulatory. They are decorated with interlacing patterns (Group 3). On the southern side of the ambulatory, where the miḥrab was installed, the decoration of the carpet (L114; Group 3) is outstanding in its composition and the singular motifs such as stylized flowers arranged tête-bêche and a guilloche pattern without the flower motif that appears in all the other frames that have this pattern. On the western side of the ambulatory, a rectangular carpet with a simple design (L316; Group 2) was installed. It is possible that the choice of a simple design, not an interlace, was intended to distinguish between the southern area of the octagon, which served the Muslims for prayers, and the northern and western parts of the church that apparently continued to serve the Christians, as was the case with the mosaics of the outermost octagon (see below). In the corners of the octagon, between the rectangular carpets, triangular carpets were placed with vertices pointing toward the center of the church. Of these, Mosaic 7 was nearly completely preserved in the northwestern part of the ambulatory, and to its south are segments of another carpet (L206). The rectangular and triangular carpets were not laid in accordance with the octagon’s walls, a fact that denotes a certain lack of planning, and the triangular gaps of different sizes left between the walls and the carpets in the northern and northwestern parts of the ambulatory were filled with mosaics with flower-bud patterns

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(L58, L7), and in the western part with a design of a grapevine with varying sized branches and grape bunches (L27, L209). The poor planning is also manifest in the frame of the triangular Mosaic 206 in the northwestern corner of the ambulatory, where the frame does not correspond to the meeting point of W1 and W25 but is c. 10 cm north of it. In the northeastern part of the ambulatory, a small segment of Mosaic 343 of Stratum III was uncovered, and above it, in Stratum IV, the mosaic (L58) was placed farther to the west than the frame of the earlier mosaic (see Fig. 4.2). Thus, it can be assumed that the layout of the mosaics in Stratum IV was somewhat different than that of Stratum III. The layout of the mosaic carpets in the ambulatory in Stratum IV is similar to that in the octagon of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (Harvey 1935: Fig. 102), where rectangular mosaics were also laid along the sides of the octagon, with triangular mosaics in the corners. There too, this arrangement left triangular spaces of various sizes between the walls and the mosaic carpets, which were also decorated. It is possible that the choice of the Church of the Nativity as inspiration for the layout of the mosaics at the Kathisma church in the Umayyad period stemmed from the competition in that period for the identification of the place of birth of Jesus and the rock on which Mary sat to rest before his birth (see Chapter 10; Avner 2007). In the outermost octagon, the division into rooms following the architectural plan determined the layout: in each room is a single mosaic carpet, and in each chapel, a hall mosaic and an apse mosaic. In Stratum IV, a tendency for symmetry can be observed. In the two eastern chapels, the halls were decorated with interlaced medallions (Group 3), and the apses with simple flower-bud or diamond patterns (Group 1). Thus, the southeastern chapel hall (L66) was decorated in Stratum IV to correspond with the earlier (Stratum III) mosaic in the northeastern chapel hall, which remained in use during the Umayyad period. In the western chapels, the halls were decorated with carpets of simple designs: octagons in the southwest (L240; Group 2) and a net of diamonds in the northwest (L10; Group 1), and the apses were decorated with scale patterns (Groups 1, 2). In this case, the earlier Stratum III carpet in the southwestern chapel hall (L346; Group 3) was replaced with a simpler design (L240) to correspond with that in the northwestern chapel hall, which also continued in use from Stratum III. The apse carpet (L16) in the northwestern chapel was also replaced with a new carpet, as can be seen from the ‘seam line’ made of large tesserae along the entire edge of the carpet. This tendency to symmetry is also manifest in Mosaics 256 and 32 that survived in the two passage rooms in the western part of the octagon, which are both decorated in an identical pattern of scales. The interlaced pattern of the mosaic carpet in the northeastern part of the ambulatory (L58), laid in Stratum IV, is identical to the interlaced pattern of the northeastern chapel of Stratum III, although the ribbons in the ambulatory are outlined in black, while in the chapel they are outlined in gray. It seems clear, therefore, that here the mosaic artists of the Umayyad period adapted the mosaic to the older one. Similarly, the decorative designs of the mosaics that were laid in Stratum IV in the western passage rooms (L32, L256) were designed to correlate with the Stratum III mosaic carpet that decorated the northeastern passage room (L121).

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The most splendid mosaic carpets in the church were laid in the southeastern passage room and in the room to its south (L54, L73; Group 4). These rooms are in close proximity to the miḥrab niche in the ambulatory, and apparently served the Muslims. As in the ambulatory, where an exceptional mosaic was laid in the area of the miḥrab (L114, see above), so in the outermost octagon the Muslim area was splendidly decorated. The tendency to aggrandize the Muslim area in the south over the Christian area in the north, can also be seen in the choice of a simple design for the hall of the southwestern chapel hall (L240), which was installed over Stratum III Mosaic 346 that had an interlaced pattern. Layout of the Umayyad Building Each of the Umayyad building’s rooms is decorated with a mosaic, the most magnificent laid in Room 1 on the southeastern side (L87; see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.52). The orientation of the motifs in this beautiful carpet is toward the southeast, the same direction as the palmtree mosaic (L54) in the southeastern passage room (see above). The significance of this direction in the Early Islamic period and the functional implications for these two rooms, is discussed in Chapter 10. Layout of the Atria and the Monastery The porticoes of Courtyard II to the west of the church and some rooms of the monastery were decorated with simple mosaics (Group 1). Courtyard II was decorated with a simple but colorful mosaic (L267), and Room 8, which adjoined the church from the southwest, was decorated in a simple pattern with a colorful frame adorned with motifs of lilies (L247; Group 2), similar to those in the frame of the palm-tree mosaic (L54). Thus, it is possible that Room 8 served the Muslims, although its location next to the southwestern chapel is curious.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 5

The I nscriptions Leah Di Segni

Two Greek inscriptions were found in the Kathisma ecclesiastical complex, one set in a white mosaic floor in Room 10 (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.13), southwest of the church, the other engraved on a marble fragment from Room 25, southeast of the church. The Mosaic Inscription (Fig. 5.1) The inscription was framed by a round medallion. The bottom half of the medallion and part of the left side have disappeared. The maximum inner diameter of the medallion is c. 1 m. Three lines of script are preserved, the third only partially, and at least three more lines are lost. The characters are formed of black tesserae on a white background, and rows of red tesserae separate the lines of script. The letters are well spaced and squat, with notable serifs; round letters have a flattened base and a pointed top. The sigma is lunate and the diphthong ΟΥ is in ligature; a small stigma marks an abbreviation in the second line. The letters in the first line form a monogram flanked by two sprigs and surmounted by a small cross. The central element of the monogram is a large mu surmounting an alpha, topped by a ligature of ΟΥ on the left, with a beta attached to its left leg and a square sigma and a kappa to its right leg. In addition, an iota and a lambda can be supplied by the upright and diagonal components of the mu and kappa. The monogram can therefore be tentatively read as: ΑΜΒΑ ΒΑϹΙΛΙϹΚΟ͜Υ, ‘Of Abba Basiliskos’. This, however, is not the first or the only solution suggested for the monogram. Formerly it was read as ΒΑϹΙΛΙΟ͜Υ (Di Segni 2003), but this interpretation was soon abandoned, as it overlooked the central element of the monogram. Other readings are summarized in SEG 53:1855, all based on the mistaken assumption (due to an error in the drawing in Di Segni 2003:187, Fig. 1) that the monogram included a rho. Moreover, readings such as Ἰουβ(ενάλιος) ἀρχ(ιεπί)σκ(οπος) or Ἰουβ(εναλίου) ἀρχ(ιεπι)σκ(όπου), referring to Juvenal, the patriarch of Jerusalem between 422 and 458 CE, or Μαυρικίου, the emperor in 582–602, failed to consider the evidence of the Early Islamic pottery found under the mosaic pavement that bears the inscription. The inscription thus reads: Ἀμβα Βασιλίσκου [π]ρονοίᾳ κ(αὶ) σπο͜υδῇ [Ἰω]ά ̣ννο͜υ έ�ν�[κλειστοῦ] --Of Abba Basiliskos(?), by the provision and effort of John the recluse (?) - - -

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The spelling ἀμβας for ἀββας is common in Byzantine Greek, when the labial /b/ had come to be pronounced as a fricative /v/, and the combination μβ began to be used in writing to represent the labial /b/ of Hebrew and Aramaic (‫)בית דגושה‬, formerly rendered by repeating the beta (e.g., σάββατον, shabbath, became σάμβατον). The Hellenized form of the

Fig. 5.1. Greek inscription in Room 10 of the monastery.

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Aramaic word for ‘father’, ἀββας, was used as a title of respect for monks, and sometimes also for priests. In time, it generated the terms designating the head of a monastery in European languages (abbot, abbé, abt, abad, abate, in English, French, German, Spanish, Italian); but in Byzantine Palestine any monk could be addressed as Abba. In this case, however, the prominent position of Abba Basiliskos’ name (if this is the correct reading of the monogram) makes it likely that he was the head of the monastery attached to the Kathisma Church when the mosaic pavement with the inscription was laid. When works carried out in a monastery were commemorated with an inscription, the name of the abbot was usually mentioned, alone or followed by the name or names of the monks in charge of the work. The position of the abbot’s name at the head of the inscription attests to his status as the supreme authority in the monastery, responsible for all activity therein, and served as a dating device for the members of the community. In the present inscription, John the recluse is presented as the initiator of the work, but not as the head of the monastery; had he held that role, the title ἡγούμενος (or any other clerical title) would have preceded that of ἐνκλειστός: see, for instance, πρεσβ(υτέρου) κ(αὶ) ἐνκλειστοῦ in SEG 7:1197 (Melaḥ eṣ-Ṣarrar in Hauran, 606/7 CE) and SEG 8:38 (Bet She’an, Monastery of Kyra Maria). The reading ἐν[κλειστοῦ] can be maintained, in spite of the alternative restoration ἐν ̣[δόξου] or ἐν ̣[δοξοτ(άιου) followed by a designation of office, as suggested by Rolf Tybout in SEG 53:1855. The title ἐνδοξότατος, gloriosissimus, could never apply to a member of the clergy and would therefore define John as a layman. Laymen, especially high-ranking ones, appear in ecclesiastical contexts as benefactors, in formulas befitting that role, but προνοίᾳ καὶ σπουδῇ implies a different type of involvement. A stronger objection, however, is that this title was acquired ex officio by holders of the highest posts of the imperial government or, in some cases, was granted by the emperor to a member of the aristocracy who received an honorary rather than an effective appointment. Under Islamic rule, it is most unlikely that a dux or a prefect of the Byzantine Empire, even an honorary one, would be found in Jerusalem. This suggested reading, therefore, does not take into account the late date of the inscription, established on archaeological grounds. Also, how could a recluse, that is, a monk who never left his cell and was often even locked in, initiate works (προνοίᾳ) and cause them to be carried out (σπουδῇ)? Three inscriptions of the priest and recluse Elias in the Monastery of Kyra Maria at Bet She’an show that it could be done: he made burial arrangements in the church for his sister and for the benefactress’s family and had what was perhaps a reception room paved with a splendid mosaic floor (FitzGerald 1931:65–67, Pls. II, IV; 1939:14–16, Nos. 4–6, Pl. XXI; SEG 8:38–40). In the editio princeps (Di Segni 2003), the monogram was read ΒΑϹΙΛΙΟ͜Υ, ‘Of Basilius’, and it was suggested that Basilius was the patriarch who held the see of Jerusalem between 821 and 839 CE. This reading and the date it implied must now be abandoned (as already in Di Segni 2012), but the shape of the letters and the use of a monogram point to a date no earlier than the seventh century and possibly in the eighth, consistent with the pottery found under the pavement.

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The Marble Fragment (Fig. 5.2) A small triangular marble fragment (16.5 cm wide, 15.0 cm high, 3.5 cm thick) bears the remains of two lines of script, of which only a few letters are preserved: - - ṬΗΑΓΙ - - - ϹΚ - The first line suggests the reading τῇ ἁγί[ᾳ ἐκκλησίᾳ, ‘to the holy [church]’. Perhaps the inscription commemorated a donation to the Kathisma Church. The shape of the letters fits a date in the fifth–sixth centuries CE.

0

6

Fig. 5.2. Greek inscription on a marble fragment.

R eferences Di Segni L. 2003. A Greek Inscription in the Kathisma Church. In G.C. Bottini, L. Di Segni and L.D. Chrupcala eds. One Land—Many Cultures: Archaeological Studies in Honour of Stanislao Loffreda OFM (SBF Collectio Maior 41). Jerusalem. Pp. 187–188. Di Segni L. 2012. Greek Building Inscription on Mosaic Floor of the Kathisma Church, 8 c. (?). In H. Cotton, L. Di Segni, W. Eck, B. Isaac, A. Kushnir-Stein, H. Misgav, J. Price and A. Yardeni eds. Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae Palaestinae I/2: Jerusalem. Berlin–Boston. Pp. 531–532, App. 11*. FitzGerald G.M. 1931. Beth-Shan Excavations 1921–1923 III: The Arab and Byzantine Levels (Publications of the Palestine Section of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania III). Philadelphia. FitzGerald G.M. 1939. A Sixth Century Monastery at Beth-Shan (Scythopolis) (Publications of the Palestine Section of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania IV). Philadelphia.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 6

Architectural Elements and Liturgical Furniture Rina Avner

Architectural elements made of local limestone and liturgical artifacts of marble were found at the site in small numbers, most of them broken and not in situ. These objects were probably robbed in later periods, after the church and the monastery had been abandoned (see the observations of Abbot Daniel, Chapter 1). A representative sample of the finds is presented here. The architectural elements comprise various types of capitals, bases and column shafts, while the marble artifacts, most of white-gray marble, include a facing slab of a wall or engaged pillar, parts of an altar table, fragments of chancel-screen panels, a fragment of a basin and an unidentified object. The objects are presented in catalogue form, providing their archaeological context, material and dimensions; when possible, the assumed original location is noted. The objects are dated according to their archaeological context and parallels.

Architectural Elements Corinthian Capitals (Cat. Nos. 1–13) Fifteen fragments of Corinthian capitals made of hard limestone were found at the site, two of them in secondary use as part of a terrace wall (W618) to the west of the Bir Qadismu reservoir (see Chapter 3), and not documented. Most of the fragments are small (up to 0.15 m), depicting acanthus leaves. The bulk of the fragments (Cat. Nos. 3–13) were recovered from the underground favissa in the ambulatory (L380) used to store architectural elements apparently from Stratum II (see Chapter 2). Dating of the Corinthian capitals according to their style is based on the comprehensive study of Kautzsch (1936), who described the changes that occurred in Corinthian capitals during the Byzantine period throughout the empire. At Kathisma, the acanthus leaves were fashioned in a dense, schematic manner, and the meeting of adjacent leaves formed geometric shapes. The schematic design is also manifest in the abacus and in the helix (volute) motif. The style of the capitals from Kathisma attributes them to Kautzsch’s fourth group of early Jerusalem capitals, which he dated to the fifth century (425–485 CE; Kautzsch 1936:108–111, Pl. 21). The Kathisma capitals more closely resemble the early capitals of this group, in particular the capitals found in the church of St. Stephen in Jerusalem, built by Empress Eudocia in 443–460 CE (Kautzsch 1936:111), which is in accord with the date of Stratum II (mid-fifth century CE), when Kathisma was built. The discovery of a Corinthian capital (Cat. No. 2) on a Stratum III floor bedding raises the possibility that some of the capitals remained in use during the later phases of the church.

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No. 1. Capital fragment (surface find; Fig. 6.1:1) Width: 0.55 m, height: 0.76 m, thickness: 0.28 m, max. relief depth: 1.9 mm. Found in the northern part of the church prior to excavation. The lower part of the fragment is decorated with acanthus leaves designed with three denticulated leaflets at their base, like a lily. This motif has parallels in the church of St. Stephen (Kautzsch 1936:108–109, Pl. 21:327). No. 2. Capital fragment (L59, B295; Fig. 6.1:2) Width: 0.37 m, height: 0.20 m, thickness: 0.22 m, max. relief depth: 2.2 mm. Discovered in the eastern part of the ambulatory, on a Stratum III floor bedding that remained in use during Stratum IV. The upper part of the capital and the abacus are preserved. At the meeting point of the helices is an oval boss. An identical element is seen in the capitals of the church of St. Stephen (Kautzsch 1936: Pl. 21:321). No. 3. Capital fragment (L380, B7522; Fig. 6.1:3) Width: 11.5 cm, height: 6.0 cm, thickness: 6.0 cm, max relief depth: 2.4 mm. Discovered in the favissa. Three denticulated leaflets are partially preserved, as in No. 1 (above). No. 4. Capital fragment (L380, B7522/5; Fig. 6.1:4) Width: 0.20 m, height: 0.26 m, thickness: 0.21 m, max. relief depth: 1.2 mm. Discovered in the favissa. Part of the acanthus leaves remain: where the tips of the top leaves meet, a diamond is formed, and where the tips of leaves below them meet, a triangle. Similar geometric shapes are seen in the capitals of the church of St. Stephen (Kautzsch 1936: Pl. 21:321, 323). No. 5. Leaf fragment (L380, B7622/1; Fig. 6.2:5) Width: 5.5 cm, height: 9.5 cm, thickness: 4.0 cm, max. relief depth: 2.2 mm. Discovered in the favissa. No. 6. Leaf fragment (L380, B7622/2; Fig. 6.2:6) Width: 9.0 cm, height: 10.5 cm, thickness: 6.5 cm, max relief depth: 1.5 mm. Discovered in the favissa. No. 7. Leaf fragment (L380, B7622/4; Fig. 6.2:7) Width: 7.5 cm, height: 8.0 cm, thickness: 5.0 cm, max. relief depth: 2.0 mm. Discovered in the favissa. No. 8. Leaf fragment (L380, B7622/3; Fig. 6.2:8) Width: 5.0 cm, height: 8.0 cm, thickness: 4.0 cm, max. relief depth: 2.0 mm. Discovered in the favissa. No. 9. Leaf fragment (L380, B7616; Fig. 6.2:9) Width: 10.0 cm, height: 10.5 cm, thickness: 4.6 cm, max. relief depth: 2.1 mm. Discovered in the favissa. An acanthus leaf from the lower part of a capital.

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1

175

2

0

20

3

4 0

5

Fig. 6.1. Fragments of Corinthian capitals.

No. 10. Leaf fragment (L380, B7622/5; Fig. 6.2:10) Width: 6.5 cm, height: 6.0 cm, thickness: 4.0 cm, max. relief depth: 5.0 mm. Discovered in the favissa. Catalogue Nos. 5–10 are stylistically similar, apparently the products of a single workshop.

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6

5

7

8

10 9 0

5

Fig. 6.2. Fragments of acanthus leaves from Corinthian capitals.

No. 11. Abacus fragment (L380, B7614; Fig. 6.3:11) Width: 14 cm, height: 15 cm, thickness: 12 cm, max. relief depth: 5 mm. Discovered in the favissa. The top corner of a capital that includes the tips of the leaves in the top row and the abacus. The abacus is decorated with a rectangular band similar to Nos. 12 and 13 (below). No. 12. Abacus fragment (L380, B7621; Fig. 6.3:12) Width: 12.5 cm, height: 7.0 cm, thickness: 10.0 cm, max. relief depth: 4.0 mm. Discovered in the favissa. The abacus in the upper corner of a capital, decorated with a long, narrow, rectangular strip in relief. No. 13. Abacus fragment (L380, B7321/2; Fig. 6.3:13) Width: 16.0 cm, height: 9.8 cm, thickness: 12.0 cm, max. relief depth: 5.0 mm. Discovered in the favissa. The abacus in the upper corner of a capital, decorated with a long, narrow rectangular strip in relief.

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11

12

13 0

5

Fig. 6.3. Abacus fragments from Corinthian capitals.

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Capitals (Nos. 14–17) Three complete, plain capitals made of hard limestone (Cat. Nos. 14–16) were incorporated in the staircase (W108) and the northern bema wall (W109), which were part of the expansion of the bema in Stratum III (see Chapter 2). They are of similar design, and two are identical in size (Nos. 14, 15). Their archaeological context assigns them to Stratum II. A decorated capital (No. 17), found in the innermost octagon, is attributed to the Byzantine period. No. 14. Capital (W108; Fig. 6.4:14) Length (top): 0.56 m, width (top): 0.55 m, diam. (bottom): 0.40 m, height: 0.44 m. Capital with no decoration. The body widens upward toward the abacus. No. 15. Capital (W108; Fig. 6.4:15) As No. 14 (above). No. 16. Capital (W109; Fig. 6.4:16) Length (top): 0.60 m, width (top): 0.60 m, diam. (bottom): 0.40 m, height: 0.40 m. Capital with no decoration. Similar in shape to Nos. 14 and 15, but wider and shorter, with an identical diameter at the bottom. No. 17. Capital (L236; Fig. 6.4:17) Length (top): 0.45 m, width (top): 0.45 m, diam. (bottom): 0.30 m, height: 0.27 m. The body of the capital widens toward the abacus. Decorated with high relief in the shape of a basket, without the interlacing pattern of a basket. Column and Pillar Bases (Nos. 18–21) Nine complete column bases and a single broken pillar base, all made of hard limestone, were discovered at the site. Three bases (Nos. 18–20) were found in secondary use in walls (W105, W109) and in the staircase of the bema (W108), and consequently assigned to Stratum II. Another column base, found on a pedestal in the western entrance room of the church (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.42), should also be assigned to Stratum II. Four column bases are attributed to Stratum III, one found on stylobate W6 in the ambulatory (see Chapter 2: Figs. 2.11, 2.26), and three on stylobate W309 to the north of the church (see Chapter 3: Figs. 3.1, 3.2). They are similar in dimensions and shape to the Stratum II bases (Nos. 18, 19), but it cannot be determined if they originated in that stratum. Another column base was discovered in secondary use in a stone floor (L296) in Room 12 in the monastery, and was not documented (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.14). The single fragment of a pillar base (No. 21), discovered prior to excavation (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.3), should also be assigned to Stratum II. It is identical in size and design to the pillar-base foundations discovered in situ around the innermost octagon, and sealed by the floor bedding and stylobate of Stratum III (see Chapter 2: Figs. 2.8, 2.9).

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17 14

15

W109

16

18

19

20 0

20

Fig. 6.4. Capitals (Nos. 14–17) and column bases (Nos. 18–20); Nos. 16 and 18 drawn from above, in situ in W109 (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.6).

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No. 18. Column base (W109; Fig. 6.4:18) Length: 0.60 m, width: 0.60 m, height: 0.37 m, diam. (top): 0.44 m. The lower part of the base is square, the upper part is round and fashioned from two tori with a scotia between them. It is similar in profile to the column bases on stylobate W309 (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.2). No. 19. Column base (W108; Fig. 6.4:19) Length: 0.56 m, width: 0.56 m, height: 0.41 m, diam. (top): 0.42 m. The lower part of the base is square, the upper part is round. The upper torus is taller than the lower one, and is grooved along its full width. It is similar in profile to the column base that stands on stylobate W6 (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.26). It is unclear if the difference in size between Nos. 18 and 19 is due to a lack of precision by the craftsman, or because the two originated in different locations in the church. No. 20. Column base (W105; Fig. 6.4:20) Length: 0.85 m, width: 0.82 m, height: 0.31 m, diam. (top): 0.85 m. The lower part of the base is square, the upper part is round. Unlike Nos. 18 and 19, the lower part of this column base is taller than its upper part, which consists of a single torus. No. 21. Pillar-base fragment (surface find; Fig. 6.5) Width: 1.40 m, height: 0.60 m, diam. (top): 1.15 m. Discovered in the northern part of the church prior to excavation (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.3). The lower part is an irregular hexagon

21 0

20

Fig. 6.5. Fragment of a pillar base.

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of which the two short sides (length: 0.62 m each) that point towards the center of the church are completely preserved, and the two sides that flank them are partially preserved. Remains of mortar on the sides testify that the pillar base had marble facing. On the upper part of the base is the raised outline of two joined shafts, and the pillar was apparently not heart-shaped. Column Shafts and Bases (Nos. 22–28) A few fragments of plain, monolithic, hard-limestone columns were found, some incorporated in secondary use in W138 and W139 in the innermost octagon assigned to Stratum V (the ninth century CE; see Chapter 2). The smallest fragments were found in the favissa (Cat. Nos. 24–28). No. 22. Column-shaft fragment (L256; Fig. 6.6:22) Diam.: 0.63 m, height: 0.39 m. Discovered in the southwestern passage room. No. 23. Column-shaft fragment (L265; Fig. 6.6:23) Diam.: 0.40 m., height: 0.35 m. Found above the Stratum III floor bedding in the western entrance room; the bedding remained in use in Stratum IV. Another column fragment with a similar diameter was found in this room (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.42). They correspond in size to capital Nos. 14–16 and base Nos. 18 and 19, and it is possible that all these fragments belonged to a clerestory above the western entrance room. No. 24. Column and pedestal fragment (L380, B7623; Fig. 6.6:24) Width: 14.0 cm, height: 19.0 cm, thickness: 8.5 cm. Discovered in the favissa. A round column with a square pedestal. No. 25. Column and base fragment (L380, B7614; Fig. 6.6:25) Width: 16 cm, height: 9 cm, thickness: 6 cm. Discovered in the favissa. No. 26. Column and base fragment (L380, B7627; Fig. 6.6:26). Width: 16.5 cm, height: 17.0 cm, thickness: 7.5 cm. Discovered in the favissa. No. 27. Column and base fragment (L380, B7617; Fig. 6.6:27) Width: 10.0 cm, height: 12.0 cm, thickness: 9.5 cm. Discovered in the favissa. No. 28. Column and base fragment (L380, B7615; Fig. 6.6:28) Width: 17 cm, height: 10 cm, thickness: 6 cm. Discovered in the favissa. Catalogue Nos. 25–28 are fragments of the lower parts of monolithic columns, in which the column is recessed c. 7 cm from the base.

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22

24

23 0

20

0

20

0

25

26

27

28 0

5

Fig. 6.6. Fragments of column shafts and bases.

5

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Marble artifacts Facing Slab No. 29. Facing of a pillar or wall (L380, B7146/2; Fig. 6.7:29) Width: 0.25 m, height: 0.27 m, thickness: 4.5 cm, max. relief depth: 3 mm. Discovered in the favissa. Gray-white marble slab decorated with acanthus leaves, surmounted by a row of ‘tongues’. The tips of adjacent acanthus leaves form geometric shapes of alternating diamonds and rectangles, a design that imitates the Corinthian capitals of the fifth century CE (see above); therefore, this slab may have decorated an engaged pillar in Stratum II.

29 0

5

Fig. 6.7. Marble facing slab of a pillar or wall, imitating a Corinthian capital.

Altar Tables (Nos. 30, 31) No. 30. Altar table-leg fragment (L380, B7619; Fig. 6.8:30) Width: 26 cm, height: 16 cm, thickness: 9 cm. Discovered in the favissa. Angular fragment of white-gray marble, of which one complete side is preserved (length: 16 cm). Its polygonal shape raises the possibility that this was the leg of a table on which a reliquary was placed, as, for example, in the octagonal church at Gadara, Jordan (HolmNielsen et. al. 1989:601). The fact that it was found in the favissa apparently dates it to the fifth century CE.

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No. 31. Altar table-top fragment (L380, B7146/2; Fig. 6.8:31) Length: 25.8 cm, width: 28.5 cm, thickness: 7.0 cm. Discovered in the favissa. Corner of a rectangular altar table made of white-gray marble with a wide (5 cm) outer border and a number of narrow frames within. Similar tables are frequently found in the fifth–sixth centuries CE in the Byzantine world, for example, in the monastery at Khirbat ed-Deir in the Judean Desert (Habas 1999:119–123, Pl. 1:1–3, 9–11).

30

31 0

5

Fig. 6.8. Fragments of marble altar tables.

Chancel-Screen Panels (Nos. 32–38)1 Seven fragments of chancel-screen panels made of various types of marble were found: two (Nos. 32, 33) in secondary use as roofing for a Stratum IV channel (L314), to the southwest of the church (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.9); one (No. 34) in the favissa; and one (No. 35) above a Stratum III floor bedding in the western entrance room that remained in use in Stratum IV. The rest (Nos. 36–38) were found in fills.

1

I am grateful to Lihi Habas for her help on the subject of chancel-screen panels, their parallels and dates.

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No. 32. Chancel-screen panel fragment (L314; Fig. 6.9:32) Length: 30.00 cm, width: 22.50 cm, thickness: 3.75 cm. White-gray marble panel with sunken relief showing the arm of a cross. No. 33. Chancel-screen panel fragment (L314; Fig. 6.9:33). Length: 32.5 cm, width: 30.0 cm, thickness: 4.0 cm. Panel of gray marble with bluish veins, both sides carefully smoothed and decorated in high relief. On one side is a cross inside a shield. This motif, defined by Habas as Type 4a and dated to the fifth–seventh centuries CE (Habas 1994:53–54), has parallels in the church at Ostracina, dated to the sixth century CE (Habas 1994: Cat. No. 82), and in the church at Tell Ḥassān near Jericho, where Habas dated the chancel screen to the seventh century based on stylistic criteria, and on the fact that it was made of local stone (Habas 1994: Cat. Nos. 84, 85). On the other side of the panel is a cross within a lozenge, fashioned of two ridges with a groove between them; the ridges become gradually lower toward the center. No parallels are known. No. 34. Chancel-screen panel fragment (L380, B7146/1; Fig. 6.9:34) Length: 16.5 cm, width: 14.0 cm, thickness: 4.5 cm. Discovered in the favissa. Panel of white marble, the reverse side dressed but not smoothed, the front decorated in high relief with a garland fashioned from links of three leaves growing out of each other. The leaves, stylized and shaped in a uniform, monotonous manner, comprise four ridges with grooves between them. The low relief of the leaves creates moderate contrast of light and shade. Meticulous smoothing and polishing (perhaps using marble powder) is visible over the entire surface. This chancel screen belongs to Habas’ Type 5, dated to the fifth–sixth centuries CE (Habas 1994:58–59); a parallel from the sixth century CE is seen in the Church of Our Lady Mary at Bet She’an (Habas 1994:60, Cat. No. 57; 2000:124–125, Fig. 67). This type is also known in synagogues (Habas 2000:125–127, and see further references therein). No. 35. Chancel-screen panel fragment (L265, B7489; Fig. 6.9:35) Length: 12.5 cm, width: 9.0 cm, thickness: 2.7 cm. Found on the floor bedding of the western entrance room of the church. Panel of white marble, the reverse side dressed but not smoothed, the front decorated in relief. The fragment preserves the arm of a cross within a wreath composed of schematic branches of V-shaped leaves. Above the meeting point of the arm and the wreath is a diamond, from which the leaves in the wreath extend in opposite directions to encircle the cross. This chancel screen is probably a local product imitating screens of Habas’ Type 5 (see No. 34). The diamond at the meeting point in the wreath replaces an oval motif that is typical of chancel screens of Type 5, and the threedimensional decoration of the Type 5 wreath is here schematic and flat. The fact that this chancel screen was found above the floor bedding of the entrance room attests that it is later than No. 34 discovered in the favissa. Parallels for the schematic wreath motif are seen in the chancel screens at Caesarea, dated to the sixth century CE (Habas 1994:71–72, Nos. 116, 117); in the church on Mt. Berenici in Tiberias (Habas and Amir 2004:196–197, Fig. 12.1:6, 7), where the chancel screen is dated to the end of the sixth–beginning of the seventh centuries CE; and in the synagogue at Reḥov, dated to the sixth century CE (Habas 2000:121–122, Fig. 69, and see further references therein).

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33 0

10

35 34

37 36

38

0

5

Fig. 6.9. Fragments of marble chancel-screen panels.

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No. 36. Chancel-screen panel fragment (L814, B7613; Fig. 6.9:36) Length: 14.0 cm, width: 8.5 cm, thickness: 3.2 cm. Discovered to the northwest of the church. Panel of gray marble with bluish veins, meticulously dressed on both sides, decorated with a rounded frame made of three grooves with ridges between them, higher near the outer edge and becoming gradually lower toward the center. No. 37. Chancel-screen panel fragment (L133, B7146; Fig. 6.9:37) Length: 16.0 cm, width: 11.5 cm, thickness: 2.7 cm. Discovered in a modern pit to the north of the church. Panel of gray marble with bluish veins, the reverse side dressed but not smoothed, the front corner with a rounded frame in high relief, fashioned of two ridges with a groove between them. At the broken edge of the panel, it is possible to discern a relief motif, perhaps the tip of an ivy leaf. No. 38. Chancel-screen panel fragment (L133, B7146/2; Fig. 6.9:38) Length: 8.5 cm, width: 8.0 cm, thickness: 4.7 cm. Discovered in a modern pit to the north of the church. Panel of white marble, the reverse dressed but not smoothed, the front decorated with a wreath in high relief, composed of two branches with pointed leaves growing in different directions. Miscellaneous (Nos. 39, 40) No. 39. Basin fragment (L380, B7520/2; Fig. 6.10:39). Diam.: 35 cm, height: 15 cm. Discovered in the favissa. Shallow, white-marble basin (c. 4 cm deep) with a wide rim (c. 7 cm), its sides dressed and smoothed. No. 40. Unidentified (L380, B7611; Fig. 6.10:40) Height: 9.00 cm, width: 8.25 cm, thickness: 4.50 cm. Discovered in the favissa. Object of white-gray marble, shaped like a truncated pyramid with straight sides.

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39

40

0

5

Fig. 6.10. Fragment of a marble basin (No. 39) and an unidentified marble object (No. 40).

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 7

The Coins Donald T. Ariel and Ariel Berman1

The excavations in the Kathisma church and monastery yielded 156 coins, of which 60 unidentifiable coins and two modern ones (a ten lepta coin of King George I, Greece, 1882, and a 10 fils coin, Jordan, 1962) are not included in the catalogue. All but three coins are bronze (Cat. Nos. 85, 93 are lead, Cat. No. 94 is billon). Table 7.1 presents a summary of the coins and their dates, according to locus.

T he H ellenistic and Early Roman Periods There is no stratigraphic evidence of the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods at the site, and the six coins from these periods may have derived from nearby Ramat Rahel (Khirbat Salih), uphill from the Kathisma Church, where coins of these periods are plentiful (Rahmani 1964:116). The coins of Antiochus III from Ramat Rahel (Rahmani 1960:116, No. 1; 1964:107, No. 2) have since been attributed to the mint of ‘Akko-Ptolemais (Houghton and Lorber 2000–2002:50; SC I/I:417), and it is likely that the coin from Kathisma (Cat. No. 1) may be similarly attributed. Several pottery sherds from these periods were also found at Kathisma (e.g., Appendix 1, albeit a century later than the reign of Antiochus III), probably also derived from Ramat Raḥel or another nearby site.

The Byzantine and Umayyad Periods Stratified Coin Finds Only some 25 identified coins were retrieved from well-stratified contexts. Four identified coins (Cat. Nos. 12, 13, 24, 25) were found in contexts of Stratum II (second half of the fifth century CE; see Chapter 2), when the church was constructed. They are poorly preserved, and can only be dated generally to the fourth–fifth centuries CE. A fifth coin (Cat. No. 51) is understood by the excavator to have been intrusive (see Chapter 2), which seems likely due to its small size––eight millimeters in diameter.

The coins were cleaned in the IAA laboratories by Ella Altmark and Marie Levin, and photographed by Sandu Mendrea and Clara Amit in the IAA photography studio. Gabriela Bijovsky and Nitzan Amitai-Preiss identified some of the Islamic coins from the first seasons. Ariel Berman completed these identifications, and identified the remainder of the Islamic coins. Donald T. Ariel identified the non-Islamic material, and prepared this report. 1

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Table 7.1. List of Coins According to Loci (Coins Bearing an Asterisk Appear in Fig. 7.1) Locus

Quantity

Date (CE)

W2

1

Unidentified

1

222–187 BCE

1

1

493–526

41*

1

1962

4 6

Cat. No.

Total

Locus

Quantity

Date (CE)

1

120C (= 924)

1

Unidentified

1

mid-6th c.

55

1

6th c.

65

121A

1

527–538

42

1

122

1

2 2

121D (= 921)

1

Unidentified

8

1

425–450

9

1

Unidentified

13

1

Unidentified

15

1

697–750

23

1

Unidentified

27

1

Unidentified

1

697–750

86

1

8th–9th c.

87*

2

Unidentified

33

1

Unidentified

39

1

c. 532–537

44

1

42

1

527–538

47

1

134C (= 922)

48

1

Unidentified

1

140

1

4th c.

1

Unidentified

1

697–750

84

1

402–408

14

1

1882

1

Unidentified

1

Unidentified

1

518–527

38*

1

c. 708–717

75

63

1

c.700–710

79

69

1

Unidentified

73

1

17/8–24/5

4

73A

1

697–750

73

83

1

Unidentified

1

491–518

33

1

6th c.

64

1

Unidentified

93

1

Unidentified

98

1

4th–5th c.

18

1

101

1

383

10*

1

104

1

Unidentified

1

4th–5th c.

22

1

697–750

82

1

538–542

49*

1

Unidentified

31

52A 54 56 58 59

88

W115 118

15

1

4th c.

11

1

308–324

7*

1

1

c. 538–542

52

1

539/40–594/95

62

1

1

567/68

66

1

1

697–750

83

W125

1

697–750

85

131

1

Unidentified

134A

1

Unidentified

1

383–395

13

1

4th–5th c.

24

1

538–542

51

2

Unidentified

1

Arab-Byzantine

69

1

42/43

6

1

355–361

9 61

1 4 1

12

124

134B

2

143

1

150

1

6th c.

156

1

Unidentified

200

1

c. 708–717

3

Total 1

1 1

72

Cat. No.

2

5

1 1 1 3 2 1 2 1 1

77*

1

206

1

Unidentified

1

209

1

491–518

36

2

211

1

104–76 BCE

3

1

Unidentified

1

212

1

Unidentified

1

219

1

42/43

5*

1

1

232

1

12th c.

92*

1

1

1

5th–6th c.

28

1

1

538–542

50

1

697–750

71

1

Unidentified

1

4th–5th c.

1

Unidentified

1

Unidentified

1

498–507

30

1

527–565

45*

1

555/56–565/66

46*

1

Unidentified

238

1

Unidentified

245B

1

477–484

233

3 1

1

234 235

236

2 2

1 1 2 1

21

4

2 1

4

1 27

1

191

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

Table 7.1 (cont.) Locus

Quantity

Date (CE)

Cat. No.

Total

256B–C (= 941)

1

498–507

29

1

261B (= 910)

1

Unidentified

265

1

425–455(?)

267

1

Unidentified

1

518–538

40

1

Arab-Byzantine

68

1

Arab-Byzantine

70

1

307–346

8

1

c. 533–539

48*

1

9th c.(?)

89

1

Unidentified

292

1

Unidentified

296

1

527–538

43

1

310

1

6th c.

60

1

397

319A

1

Unidentified

1

319C (= 912)

1

Unidentified

1

320C (= 905)

1

Unidentified

1

321

1

mid-6th c.

54*

1

321A (= 906)

1

4th–5th c.

25

1

322

2

Unidentified

1

Undated tessera?

268B 269

272

326

1 16

1 1 2 1

4

1

2 93* 3

2

Unidentified

1

c.735–750

78

1

491–518

34

1

Mid-6th c.

56

1

Unidentified

330D (= 937)

1

Unidentified

1

335

1

Unidentified

1

340

1

491–518

32

1

349

1

4th–5th c.

26

1

361

1

4th–5th c.

19

1

328 329 (= 917)

1

Locus

Quantity

Date (CE)

Cat. No.

1

4th–5th c.

17

1

541–549

53*

1

Unidentified

376

1

491–518

385

1

Unidentified

1

4th–5th c.

20

1

491–518

31

1

Mid-6th c.

57

1

Unidentified

389

1

9th c.(?)

91

392

1

518–527

39

393

1

Unidentified

1

396

2

Unidentified

2

1

4th–5th c.

1

Unidentified

410

1

Unidentified

412

1

c. 738

80*

1

452A

1

491–518

37

1

454

1

Unidentified

1

9th c.

88

1

9th c.(?)

90

506

1

Unidentified

637

1

c. 708–717

74*

1

809

1

c. 708–717

76

1

1

6th c.

58*

1

Unidentified

1

104–76 BCE

2

2

6th c.

59, 63

1

697–750

81*

1

7th c.

67

1

14th–15th c.

94

2

Unidentified

373

387 388

505

817 3

Surface

Total

35

Total

3 1 1

23

2 2 1 1

2 1

1 2 1

2

8

156

192

DONALD T. ARIEL AND ARIEL BERMAN

Eleven coins were sealed by Stratum III floors (second half of the sixth century CE), the second architectural stratum of the church (Cat. Nos. 19, 20, 31, 32, 34, 42, 54–57, 65), most of them nummi of Anastasius I or Vandalic coins. Of these, the latest well-dated coin was a large follis dating to 527–538 CE (Cat. No. 42), found in a mortar bedding sealed by a mosaic floor. Eight coins (Cat. Nos. 29, 30, 37, 45, 46, 73, 82, 85) come from Stratum IV contexts (first half of the eighth century CE). Cat. No. 29 (498–507 CE) was found in a fill below the bedding of a mosaic floor together with ceramics of the sixth–eighth centuries, and is therefore considered residual, while Nos. 30, 37, 45, 46 were also found in the bedding of a mosaic floor tentatively ascribed to Stratum IV, and are also considered residual. Of the remaining three coins, Cat. Nos. 73 and 85 were found in Room 73 in the south of the church––No. 73 in the mosaic bedding and No. 85 in W125. Coin No. 82 was found in W115 of the Umayyad building built above the main apse of the church. From Stratum V (ninth century CE), two coins (Cat. Nos. 88, 90) were sealed below a gray-mortar floor in a room southwest of the church. Coin Currency Almost two-thirds of the coins from the Kathisma church and monastery are dated to the Byzantine period, the earliest from the first quarter of the fourth century CE (Cat. No. 7). There are five coins well-dated to the fourth century CE (Cat. Nos. 7–10, 13), while two (Cat. Nos. 11, 12) are more generally dated. This is a small quantity considering the usually high numbers of fourth-century coins found at sites occupied at that time. Therefore, it is likely that most of these coins arrived at the site in the fifth century CE. It seems certain that in this region, many fourth-century coins were still circulating in the fifth century. Coin Nos. 10 and 13 are dated at the end of the fourth century, and are of a type that certainly circulated well into the fifth century (Bijovsky 2012:75–77). As the Kathisma church was founded only in the second half of the fifth century, based on archaeological and historical analyses (see Chapters 1, 2), the Kathisma site actually provides additional support for the idea that fourth-century coins are not residual finds in fifth-century contexts (Bijovsky 2012:78–79), and that even coins of the first and second quarters of the fourth century were still circulating during the second half of the fifth century. It is noteworthy that the earliest Byzantine coin from the site, Cat. No. 7, had been cut down in antiquity to approximate the size of coins circulating in the fifth century CE (c. 10 mm). Only one edge of the coin (8–11 o’clock, alongside the preserved inscription) retains the original circumference of the coin, which was probably a follis at least six times the weight (no less than 3 grams) and almost twice the diameter (19–20 mm). I know of no other examples of such a phenomenon. Almost half of the Byzantine coins can be securely dated to the sixth century CE (Cat. Nos. 38–66). While many of these have dates that span most or all of the sixth century (e.g., Cat. Nos. 58–65), the majority of the well-dated sixth-century coins belong to the first half of the century. In fact, only one coin definitely dates to the second half of the century (Justin II, 567/68 CE; Cat. No. 66). When one considers that some Byzantine coins may derive from the uphill site of Ramat Rahel (where nine coins of the second half of

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

193

the sixth century were found; Farhi 2016:602–603, Nos. 112–120), it would appear that the near absence at Kathisma of coins of the second half of the sixth century is significant. This phenomenon has also been noted at other sites in Palestine; for example, Nessana lacked coins of Justinian I dating after 539/40 CE (Casey 1996:220), and at a number of published and unpublished rural sites the Byzantine coin finds do not exceed that date (Ariel 2002:300 and n. 19). Two possible explanations for the near absence of coins from the second half of the sixth century CE at the Kathisma site present themselves: (1) on July 9, 551, an earthquake caused destruction along the Phoenician coast and areas on both sides of the Jordan River (Amiran, Arieh and Turcotte 1994:266); and (2) the Kathisma church and monastery were affected by a general economic decline in the region (see below). In the excavator’s opinion, the site continued to flourish in that period, but she does raise the possibility that the Stratum III renovations were necessitated by an earthquake. The presence of at least two coins securely dated after 551 (Cat. Nos. 46, 66), does not necessarily rule out either of the two possibilities.2 The supposed economic decline can be attributed to two causes. The first is related to a statement by Procopius implying that Emperor Justinian I abolished the limitanei, and Casey (1996:221) concluded this was likely to be true, specifically the limitanei of southern Palestine, based primarily on numismatic evidence, including hoards. However, in our opinion, the elimination of the Palestinian limitanei would not have resulted in the particular pattern of coin finds noted by Casey. A second possible reason for an economic decline at that time was the so-called Justinianic pandemic, a notorious recurring wave of plagues that first struck the region in mid-542 CE (Conrad 1986:146) and which is viewed by some historians as the defining event of the second half of the sixth century in the eastern Mediterranean (Allen 1979; Conrad 1986:143). The pandemic had long-term effects of depopulation, and there is no doubt in my mind3 that it severely affected the economy of the region. I previously associated the Justinianic pandemic with the deposition of a small hoard near the Dead Sea (Ariel 2002). I noted how difficult it is to gauge the effects of a pandemic in the numismatic record of large towns where, due the long period of currency circulation, large assemblages of isolated-coin finds would tend to conceal disruptions in the coin profile. Additional factors may also have come into play.4 Nevertheless, an economic decline in

In the Gush Ḥalav hoard of 1953 minute coins, the latest coin dates between 549 and 552 CE (Bijovsky 1998:83). It was found in a collapsed building, justifying an association with the July 9, 551 earthquake (Meyers 1998). 2

Controversy concerning the historical importance of the plague arose in 2017 (Fuks et al. 2017) and has not abated since (see Mordechai et al. 2019; Meier 2020a, 2020b). 3

An example of a multi-factor scenario is seen at Scythopolis (Bet She’an), where one quarter of the city was not rebuilt after destruction by a devastating fire (Agady et al. 2002:445). In the destruction layer were coins of 534–539 CE. The excavators proposed that the fire resulted from the famous Samaritan revolt of 529 CE, but that the 542 CE plague could explain why that area of the city was not rebuilt (Agady et al. 2002:446; see also Ma‘oz 2010). 4

194

DONALD T. ARIEL AND ARIEL BERMAN

Syria-Palestine during the second half of the sixth century CE seems certain,5 and it appears to me that the scope and severity of the pandemic makes that event the most compelling explanation for such a decline. While the effects of the economic decline in the second half of the sixth century CE were not originally identified in the coin finds from Jerusalem (Ariel 1982:298), they are nevertheless discernible.6 As the Kathisma church and monastery were located in proximity to the city, life there was most certainly influenced, at least indirectly. The decrease in coin finds suggests a corresponding decline in pilgrim visitations beginning soon after 542 CE, although the church was visited in c. 570 CE by the Piacenza Pilgrim (see Chapter 1), so it had apparently not fallen into disrepair. Four coins were minted roughly in the second and third quarters of the seventh century CE (Cat. Nos. 67–70), which provide numismatic evidence for revived activity at the site at that time, or toward the end of the seventh–beginning of the eighth centuries CE, and Cat. Nos. 87–91 suggest that this phase continued until sometime in the ninth century CE. As we know that by the twelfth century the site was abandoned (see Chapters 1, 11), the two well-dated coins of the twelfth and fourteenth–fifteen centuries (Cat. Nos. 92, 94) were apparently isolated losses from passers-by along the adjacent ancient road.

It should be noted, however, that one scholar has argued that larger numbers of coin finds in urban excavations in the eastern empire, as compared with the quantities from sites in the western empire, point to the overall prosperity of the Byzantine east (Whittow 1990:13–19). 5

Reexamination of the data indicates that less than a third of the well-dated coins from the reign of Justinian I were minted after 541/42 CE. At the nearby site of Ramat Rahel, none of the five coins of Justinian I (Rahmani 1964:116) were minted after 538 CE. At the ‘fortress’ at the ‘Ascent of the Romans’, an analogous isolated site just west of Jerusalem (Tzaferis 1974), the numismatic finds suggest an abandonment(?) around 540 CE. Of over 200 coins from the excavations, only 140 were registered in the IAA, and of these, only 20 were identifiable. The latest of the 15 Byzantine coins was a follis of Justinian I dating to 527–538 CE (IAA 29264; Tzaferis 1974:93). 6

195

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

7

5

10

41 38

45

46

49

53

48

54

58 74

80 77

81

87

92 0

93 2

Fig. 7.1.

Locus

4

–

211

73

219

143

124

Cat. No.

1

2

3

4

5*

6

7*

4052

4175

1150

500

1081

7400

4172

Basket

0.57

2.71

1.60

1.36

0.67

0.92

0.94

Weight (g)

10

18

26

15

12 × 14

12 × 14

9

Diam. (mm)

-

-

0

Axis

Palm branch; in fields: [I]OV–[LIA] [L–۰]

[D]N LICIṆ[- - -] Head or bust r.

Illegible

Byzantine Licinius I or II (308–324 CE), Follis

Same; in fields: L–V

Three ears of grain; in fields: [L –ς]

Herodian Agrippa I

[BA]CIΛΕWC–AΓ[ΡΙΠΑ] Canopy

[- - -] Canopy

Illegible

Star

Roman Procurators in Judaea under Tiberius: Valerius Gratus

Anchor within circle(?)

Illegible

Figure stg.(?)

Seleucid Antiochus III (222–187 BCE)

Reverse

Hasmonaean Alexander Jannaeus (104–76 BCE) Obliterated

Head r.(?)

Obverse

Same

42/43

17/8–24/5

Date (CE)

Same

Same

Same

Same

Jerusalem

‘AkkoPtolemais(?)

Mint

Same

TJC:231, No. 120

Cf. TJC:358, No. 327

Same

TJC:210, Subgroups L7–14

Cf. SNG Israel I:92, No. 645, Pl. 41

Reference

Fragment

Identification unclear

Notes

95414

95421

61373

81967

61372

95449

95405

IAA No.

All the coins are bronze, except Nos. 85 and 93 (lead) and No. 94 (billon). The coins are arranged chronologically, according to coin types. Coins bearing an asterisk are illustrated in Fig. 7.1.

Catalogue

196 DONALD T. ARIEL AND ARIEL BERMAN

Locus

272

143

101

122

52A

134B

56

8

265

373

98

Cat. No.

8

9

10*

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

468

7497

7395

53

426

4151

363

4023

48

4174

7244

Basket

0.63

0.50

1.12

1.16

1.16

0.89

0.55

1.16

1.34

0.69

1.78

Weight (g)

12

11

12

10

14

12

7 × 15

13

13

15

16

Diam. (mm)

0(?)

1

0

6

0

0

-

-

6

Axis

[- - -]VS PF A[VG] Bust r.

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Same

VOT/X/MVLT/XX within wreath

Illegible

[- - -] Figure stg.(?)

Cross(?) within wreath

Cross within wreath

[GLORI]A ROMA– [NORVM] Three emperors stg. facing, holding scepters

[- - -] Victory advancing l., dragging captive and holding trophy

Inscription within wreath

[- - -] Figure stg.

Fourth–Fifth c. CE

[- - -] Pearl-diademed draped bust r.; behind, star(?)

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Virtus spearing falling horseman

Arcadius (383–408 CE) DN ARCADIVS PF AVG Pearl-diademed draped bust r.

[- - -] Same

Figure stg. l.

355–361 CE [- - -] Pearl-diademed draped bust r.

[- - -] Bust r.

Reverse House of Constantine

[- - -]CONSTANTINVS[- -] Head or bust r.

Obverse

425–455 (?)

425–450

402–408

383–395

Same

4th c.

383

307–346

Date (CE)

Antioch

Mint

81970

95630

95432

61369

Cf. LRBC II:90, No. 2234 Same

81964

Cf. LRBC II:90, No. 2214

81962

95410

81971

95420

95438

IAA No.

95416

Date uncertain

Notes

LRBC II:89, No. 2183

LRBC II:101, No. 2735

Reference

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

197

Locus

361

387

234

W115

397

134B

321A (=906)

349

245B

233

256B–C (=941)

Cat. No.

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

7502

213

7385

7446

7342

4154

7607

478

222

7566

7470

Basket

3.02

0.24

0.45

0.64

0.59

0.41

0.61

0.86

0.28

0.57

1.16

Weight (g)

19

10

9

8

10

9

10

8

6×8

9 × 11

12

Diam. (mm)

0

0

Axis

N/IIII within wreath

Huneric (477–484 CE)

[- - -] Figure stg.(?)

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Reverse

[- - -] Bust r.(?)

[- - -] Maltese cross within circle

K

To l., cross

Anastasius I (491–518 CE), Half Follis

[- - -] Bust r. within circle(?)

Imitation of Coin of Ezana or One of his Successors, Axum Fifth–Sixth c. CE

Bust r.

Illegible

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Bust r.(?)

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Same

Obverse

498–507

Date (CE)

Egypt

Carthage

Mint

Cf. MIBE:87, No. 31

Bijovsky 1998:98, Nos. 368, 369

BMCV:7, Nos. 12–14

Reference

Cast; pierced

Notes

95625

81977

95431

95626

95442

95417

95635

81973

81979

95633

95627

IAA No.

198 DONALD T. ARIEL AND ARIEL BERMAN

Locus

236

387

340

88

329 (=917)

376

209

452A

59

392

Cat. No.

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38*

39

7343

391

7605

7378

8073

7371

417

7414

7565

7384

Basket

15.11

15.79

0.76

0.79

0.72

0.59

0.57

0.75

0.71

2.48

Weight (g)

29

30

10

9

9

7

8

10

9

16

Diam. (mm)

6

6

9

0

6

0

6

0

Axis

Reverse

DN IVSTI–NVS PP AVC Diademed, cuirassed bust r., with paludamentum

and r., stars; in ex.: [- - -]; beneath: A

M Above, cross; to l.

crosses; in ex.: NIKM; beneath: A

M Above, to l. and r.,

Justin I (518–527 CE), Follis

Unclear monogram

within wreath

Unclear monogram

Same

Same

(?)

Anastasius I (491–518 CE), Nummus

Around: CON–CORD; in l. and r. fields, pellet

I

Anastasius I (491–518 CE), Decanummium

[DN IVSTI]–ṆṾS PP AVC Diademed, cuirassed bust r., with paludamentum

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Bust r.

Illegible

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Bust r.

Illegible

[- - -] Bust r.

Obverse

498–507

Date (CE)

Nicomedia

Antioch(?)

Antioch

Constantinople

Mint

MIBE:96, No. 11

MIBE:100, No. 38a

95447

84287

95636

Uncertain identification

Cf. MIBE:93, No. 64

95632

95446

81968

95423

95629

95430

IAA No.

95425

Uncertain identification

Same

Imitation

Blundered monogram

Notes

MIBE:93, No. 64

Same

Same

Same

Cf. MIBE:90, No. 40

MIBE:88, No. 34a

Reference

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

199

Locus

268B

4

121A

296

39

236

Cat. No.

40

41*

42

43

44

45*

7382

362

7197

7451

4173

2688

Basket

4.85

13.34

15.46

15.29

1.06

16.07

Weight (g)

18

23

30

33

9

28 × 32

Diam. (mm)

0

6

6

6

6

Axis

Reverse

star; in ex.: +THẸ[UP]+

M Above, cross; to˚ l.,

star; to r., cross; in ex.: NIḲṂ; beneath: A

M Above, cross; to l.,

DN IVSTINI–ANVṢ [PP AVC] Diademed bust r.

IB In ex.: AΛΕΞ

Justinian I (527–565 CE), Dodecanummium

DN IVSTINI–ANVṢ [PP AVC] Same

DN ḷ[VSTINI–ANS PP AVC (sic) Same

cross; to r., star; in ex.: [C]Ọ[N]; beneath: g

M Above, cross; to l.,

Justinian I (527–565 CE), Follis

V within wreath

Theodoric (493–526 CE)

[CO]N; beneath: Γ

M To r., cross; in ex.:

518–538 CE, Follis

[DN IVSTINI–AN]VS PP AVC Diademed, cuirassed bust r., with paludamentum

Bust r.

Illegible

Obverse

c. 532–537

Same

527–538

Date (CE)

Alexandria

Antioch

Nicomedia

Constantinople

Ravenna

Constantinople

Mint

MIBE:152, No. 165; Bijovsky 2012:219 (this coin)

MIBE:143, No. 126

MIBE:134, No. 104

Cf. MIBE:127, No. N84

BMCV:53, No. 51; Bijovsky 2012:324, Table 62 (this coin)

Cf. MIBE:96, No. 12

Reference

Uncertain identification

Notes

95429

81961

95439

95638

95406

95433

IAA No.

200 DONALD T. ARIEL AND ARIEL BERMAN

Locus

236

42

272

118

233

134B

124

Cat. No.

46*

47

48*

49*

50

51

52

4049

4155

218

4055

7153

216

7381

Basket

0.71

0.42

0.58

0.63

0.57

0.96

3.23

Weight (g)

10

8

10

10

10

11

17

Diam. (mm)

0

0(?)

4

9

4

6

Axis

# To l.: Ạ; to r.: Ẹ

c. 538–542

N Above or below: S

Same

538–542

Same

Within double circle

c. 533–539

527–538

555/56– 565/66

Date (CE)

#

#

#

a

Justinian I (527–565 CE), Nummus

Diademed, cuirassed bust r., with paludamentum

Illegible

Bust r.

[- - -] Same

NIK

I To l.: ANNO; in ex.:

Justinian I (527–565 CE), Pentanummium

[- - -]UЧ P Diademed, cuirassed bust r., with paludamentum

[- - -] Bust r.

Reverse Justinian I (527–565 CE), Decanummium

[DN IVST]INI–AN[VS PP AVC] Diademed bust r.

Obverse

Constantinople (?)

Same

Same

Same

Carthage

Constantinople

Nicomedia

Mint

Cf. Hahn 1979: No. 2, n. 19

Same; Bijovsky 2012:238, Table 36 (this coin, misnumbered as IAA 81984)

Same; Bijovsky 2012:238, Table 36 (this coin)

Not in MIBE

95413

95418

81978

95407

Cf. MIBE:162, No. 206a; Bijovsky 2012:238, Table 36 (this coin)

81975

95428

IAA No.

95437

Uncertain identification

Imitation

Notes

MIBE:159, No. 192; Bijovsky 2012:234, Table 33 (this coin)

Cf. MIBE:129, No. 93

Cf. MIBE:138, No. 118a

Reference

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

201

Locus

373

321

121D (=921)

329 (=917)

388

817

Surf.

310

150

Cat. No.

53*

54*

55

56

57

58*

59

60

61

4139

7277

6087

7557

7351

4148

7334

7496

Basket

1.50

1.74

2.25

1.39

0.30

0.57

0.54

0.54

0.54

Weight (g)

17

14

16

15

7

8

9

10

8

Diam. (mm)

4

6

6

0

4

0

Axis

[- - -] Diademed bust r.

[- - -] Same

[- - -] Same

Same

Same

Same

IB In ex.: AΛΕΞ IB In ex.: [- - -] IB Same IB In ex.: AΛΕ[Ξ]

Sixth c. CE, Dodecanummium [- - -]–NVS[- - -] Diademed bust r.

Same

Same

Within wreath

Baduila (541–549 CE)

Reverse

Vandals, Anonymous (Mid-Sixth c. CE)

Illegible

Bust r.

Bust r.

Obverse

Date (CE)

Same

Same

Same

Alexandria

Same

Same

Same

Carthage

Ticinum

Mint

Same

Same

Same

Cf. MIBE:152, No. 165

Same; Bijovsky 2012:320, Table 61 (this coin)

Same; Bijovsky 2012:320, Table 61 (this coin)

Same; Bijovsky 2012:320, Table 61 (this coin)

BMCV:26, No. 68; Bijovsky 2012:320, Table 61 (this coin)

BMCV:89, No. 24; Bijovsky 2012:325, Table 62 (this coin)

Reference

Notes

95422

95440

95454

61376

95634

95445

95409

95441

95628

IAA No.

202 DONALD T. ARIEL AND ARIEL BERMAN

Locus

124

Surf.

88

121D (=921)

124

–

268B

140

269

Cat. No.

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

7390

4176

7393

7125

4048

4165

425

7226

4036

Basket

3.39

5.58

2.73

3.45

7.86

0.05

1.06

1.93

1.84

Weight (g)

22

17

18 × 20

18 × 26

23 × 25

7

12 × 16

15

14

Diam. (mm)

0

1

3

8

6

1

7

Axis

a (?) ANNO; in ex.: NI; beneath: A; to r.: II I

K Above, cross; to l.:

Three imperial figures stg. facing

‫جائز‬

margin:

‫)?( طبرية‬

M Beneath: A; in

‫دمشق‬

Above, cross; to r.:

Above, cross

beneath C; in ex.:

m

m

Arab-Byzantine, Fals

m

Seventh c. CE, Follis

Imperial figure stg. facing, holding long cross and globus cruciger Same

I I

Justin II (565–578 CE), Half Follis

[- - -] Emperor stg. facing

[·]× III

I To l.: ANN[O]; to r..: +

Sixth c. CE, Nummus

[- - -] Justin and Sophia facing, enthroned

Illegible

Illegible

Reverse Sixth c. CE, Decanummium

[- - -]VS PP A[- - -] Diademed bust r.

[- - -] Bust r.

Obverse

567/68

539/40– 594/95

Date (CE)

Tabariyah

Dimashq

Nicomedia

Mint

Cf. Walker 1956:16, Nos. 45–52

Walker 1956:7, No. 20

DOC 1:232, No. 105

Cf. DOC 1:226, No. 90

Reference

Uncertain identification

Notes

95435

95419

95434

95453

95412

95408

81969

95448

95411

IAA No.

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

203

Locus

233

15

73A

637

59

809

200

328

63

412

Cat. No.

71

72

73

74*

75

76

77*

78

79

80*

3197

444

7344

1053

6057

356

8070

482

108

7016

Basket

4.16

2.12

1.41

3.03

2.90

2.58

4.03

3.42

3.03

3.75

Weight (g)

15

22

17

23 × 26

24 × 26

27

25 × 34

15

14

17

Diam. (mm)

Axis

‫الاله \ االهللا \ بعلبك‬

Five-branched candelabrum

‫الاله االهللا وحده‬

Within triple circle

‫الاله \ االهللا \ وحده‬

Within circle: palm tree

‫الاله االهللا وحده‬

Same

Same

Same

Within double circle with striations

‫الاله \ االهللا \ وحده‬

Illegible

Reverse

‫محمد \رسول \ هللا‬

In center:

‫بسم هللا ضرب هذا‬ ]‫الفلس [بايليا‬

in margin:

‫محمد \رسول \ هللا‬

In center:

Within circle: crescent and star

‫ضرب هذا الفلس‬ ]‫[بالرملة‬

Same

Same

Same

‫بسم هللا ضرب‬ ‫هذا الفلس بالرملة‬

and palm branch; in margin:

‫محمد \ رسول \ هللا‬

In center:

Illegible

Illegible

pellet

\ ‫\ ضب‬Star ‫\دمشق‬Crescent and

Umayyad, Fals

‫الاله \ االهللا \ وحده‬

Obverse

c. 120s AH (c. 738)

c. 80s AH (c. 700/10)

c. 120s AH (c. 735/50)

Same

Same

Same

Beg. 90s AH (c. 708/17)

Date (CE)

[Īliyā]

Īliyā

Same

Same

Same

Same

al-Ramla

Same

Ba‛labakk

Same

Mint

SNAT 1993:10, No. 30; Barag 1988–1989:43, Type 3a

SNAT 1993:10, No. 11

SNAT 1993:14, No. 64

Same

Same

Same

SNAT 1993:12, No. 45

Cf. Walker 1956:238, No. 775

Walker 1956:238, No. 774

Cf. Walker 1956:249, No. 819

Reference

Notes

61374

81976

95444

61371

61375

81965

95637

81974

61370

95427

IAA No.

204 DONALD T. ARIEL AND ARIEL BERMAN

Locus

Surf.

W115

124

54

W125

31

31

505

272

505

389

232

326

Surf.

Cat. No.

81*

82

83

84

85

86

87*

88

89

90

91

92*

93*

94

4044

7387

7010

7598

5007

7105

5006

170

162

492

495

4056

475

4146

Basket

4.24

1.21

0.96

0.95

0.68

1.99

0.94

1.03

1.37

2.35

1.23

2.91

2.94

4.39

Weight (g)

17 × 19

12

19

14

9 × 13

15

12 × 14

10

12

14 ×16

13

14

20

18 × 20

Diam. (mm)

0

Axis

[- - -]‫ضرب‬

\‫] كم‬- - -[‫هل‬ ]- - -[ \ ‫بمو س‬ [- - -]‫[ هللا‬- - -]

Same

Same

Illegible

Illegible

Illegible

[VP] BS VALENTIΛI Winged angel or eagle stg. facing

Illegible

Mamlūk, Fals

Illegible

Tessera (?)

+S lPOLLINARS Cross pommée, with annulet in fourth quarter

France: Anonymous Bishop of Valence, Denier

Same

Same

Illegible

‫محمد \رسول \ هللا‬

‫الاله \ االهللا \ وحده‬

Within circle

‫[ الاله‬- - -]

‫االمير\ عزيز‬

Uncertain ‛Abbasid Governor: Al-‛Aziz, Fals

‫[ هللا‬- - -]

‫محمد \رسول \ هللا‬

Illegible

Same

in margin: [- - -]

‫محمد \رسول \ هللا‬

In center:

Reverse

‫الاله \ االهللا \ وحده‬

Illegible

Same

‫الاله \ االهللا \ وحده‬

Obverse

14th–15th c.

12th c.

Same

Same

9th c.(?)

9th c.

8th–9th c.

Date (CE)

Valens

‫هل‬

Mint

Cf. Metcalf 1995: Pl. 2:21

Cf. Walker 1956:212, No. 659

Reference

Lead

Group B(?)

Cast

Lead

Notes

95452

95443

95426

95631

95451

95436

95450

61405

61406

81966

81963

95415

81972

95424

IAA No.

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

205

206

DONALD T. ARIEL AND ARIEL BERMAN

R eferences Agady S., Arazi M., Arubas B., Hadad S., Khamis E. and Tsafrir Y. 2002. Byzantine Shops in the Street of the Monuments at Bet Shean (Scythopolis). In L.V. Rutgers ed. What Athens Has To Do with Jerusalem: Essays on Classical, Jewish, and Early Christian Art and Archaeology in Honor of Gideon Foerster (Interdisciplinary Studies in Ancient Culture and Religion 1). Leuven. Pp. 423–506. Allen P. 1979. The ‘Justinianic’ Plague. Byzantion 49:5–20. Amiran D.H.K., Arieh E. and Turcotte T. 1994. Earthquakes in Israel and Adjacent Areas: Macroseismic Observations since 100 B.C.E. IEJ 44:260–305. Ariel D.T. 1982. A Survey of Coin Finds in Jerusalem (until the End of Byzantine Period). LA 32:273–326. Ariel D.T. 2002. The Coins from the Surveys and Excavations of Caves in the Northern Judean Desert. ‘Atiqot 41/2:281–304. Barag D. 1988–1989. The Islamic Candlestick Coins of Jerusalem. INJ 10:40–48. Bijovsky G. 1998. The Gush Ḥalav Hoard Reconsidered. ‘Atiqot 35:77–106. Bijovsky G.I. 2012. Gold Coin and Small Change: Monetary Circulation in Fifth–Seventh Century Byzantine Palestine (Polymnia. Numismatica antica e medievale. Studi 2). Trieste. BMCV: W.W. Wroth. Catalogue of the Coins of the Vandals, Ostrogoths and Lombards and the Empires of Thessalonica, Nicaea and Trebizond in the British Museum. London 1911. Casey P.J. 1996. Justinian, the Limitanei, and Arab–Byzantine Relations in the 6th c. JRA 9:214–222. Conrad L.I. 1986. The Plague in Bilād al-Shām in Pre-Islamic Times. In M.A. Bakhit and M. Asfour eds. Proceedings of the Symposium on Bilād al-Shām during the Byzantine Period, November 15–19 1983 II. Amman. Pp. 143–163. DOC 1: A.R. Bellinger. Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection 1: Anastasius I to Maurice (491–602). Washington, D.C. 1966. Farhi Y. 2016. The Coins. In O. Lipschits, Y. Gadot and L. Freud. Ramat-Raḥel III: Final Publication of Yohanan Aharoni’s Excavations (1954, 1959–1962) II (Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology Monograph Series 35). Tel Aviv–Winona Lake. Pp. 588–623. Fuks D., Ackermann O., Ayalon A., Bar-Matthews M., Bar-Oz G., Levi Y., Maeir A.M., Weiss E., Zilberman T. and Safrai Z. 2017. Dust Clouds, Climate Change and Coins: Consiliences of Palaeoclimate and Economy in the Late Antique Southern Levant. Levant 49:205–223. Hahn W.R.O. 1979. Italian Small Change of Justinian I. The Numismatic Circular 87:282–284. Houghton A. and Lorber C. 2000–2002. Antiochus III in Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. INJ 14:44–58. LRBC II: R.A.G. Carson and J.P.C. Kent. Bronze Roman Imperial Coinage of the Later Empire, A.D. 346–498. In Late Roman Bronze Coinage A.D. 324–498. London 1965. Pp. 41–114. Ma‘oz Z.U. 2010. The Galilean Bowl: A Revised Chronology. Tel Aviv 37:254–257. Meier M. 2020a. The ‘Justinianic Plague’: An “Inconsequential Pandemic”? A Reply. Medizinhistorisches Journal 55:172–199. Meier M. 2020b. What Historians Are Doing—A Final Reply to Mordechai et al. Medizinhistorisches Journal 55:294–296.

CHAPTER 7: THE COINS

207

Metcalf D.M. 1995. Coinage of the Crusades and the Latin East in the Ashmolean Museum Oxford (2nd ed.). London. Meyers E.M. 1998. Postscript to the Gush Ḥalav Hoard. ‘Atiqot 35:107–108. MIBE: W. Hahn. Money of the Incipient Byzantine Empire (Anastasius I–Justinian I, 491–565) (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte der Universität Wien 6). Vienna 2000. Mordechai L., Eisenberg M., Newfield T.P., Adam Izdebski A., Kay J.E. and Poinar H. 2019. The Justinianic Plague: An Inconsequential Pandemic? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116/51:25546–25554. Rahmani L.Y. 1960. Coins from Ramat Rahel. In Y. Aharoni. Excavations at Ramat Raḥel (Second Season, 1959). BIES 24:116–119 (Hebrew). Rahmani L.Y. 1964. Description of the Coins. In Y. Aharoni. Excavations at Ramat Raḥel II: Seasons 1961 and 1962 (Centro di studi semitici, serie archeologica 6). Rome. Pp. 107–117. SC I/I: A. Houghton and C. Lorber. Seleucid Coins. A Comprehensive Catalogue; Seleucus I through Antiochus III I, I: Introduction, Maps and Catalogue. New York–Lancaster, Pa.–London 2002. SNAT 1993: L. Ilisch. Sylloge Numorum Arabicorum Tübingen: Palästina IVa Bilād aš-Šām I. Tübingen 1993. SNG Israel I: A. Houghton and A. Spaer. Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum; Israel I: The Arnold Spaer Collection of Seleucid Coins. London 1998. TJC: Y. Meshorer. A Treasury of Jewish Coins from the Persian Period to Bar Kokhba. Jerusalem– Nyack, N.Y. 2001. Tzaferis V. 1974. A Tower and Fortress near Jerusalem. IEJ 24:84–94. Walker J. 1956. A Catalogue of the Arab-Byzantine and Post-reform Umaiyad Coins (A Catalogue of the Muḥammadan Coins in the British Museum II). London. Whittow M. 1990. Ruling the Late Roman and Early Byzantine City: A Continuous History. Past and Present 129:3–29.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 8

The Pottery Rina Avner

Introduction The small pottery assemblages presented here, from the church and the monastery, originated mainly in datable archaeological contexts and include all the diagnostic sherds that were found below the floors of the various strata––in beddings and fills––and on the floors.1 Most of the sherds were retrieved from the 24 small probes excavated in the various parts of the church and in the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse of the church (see Chapter 2: Table 2.1; Plan 2.1), and in the monastery rooms (see Chapter 3: Plans 3.1–3.3). Pottery that was found under floors of Stratum IV by the conservation team that treated the mosaics following the excavations (see Chapter 1) is also included. This pottery repertoire is complemented by an imported African Red Slip (ARS) bowl, a lantern and oil lamps that originated in unsealed contexts. Also presented here are terracotta pipes from inside the church or along its external walls, which were part of the system for draining rain water from the church roof. The pottery assemblages of the various strata are identical and of no chronological value. The dating is based on the typological parallels and the chronological frameworks established by Hayes (1972) and Magness (1993), and on the pottery report of Khirbat Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Rapuano 1999). Most of the vessels are assigned to the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods (sixth–eighth centuries), and a few to the Roman period. The range of shapes is limited, and includes bowls, jars, jugs, lids and oil lamps, most of them common, well-known types of the Byzantine period in the area of Jerusalem. The dating of specific vessels is only noted in the text when significant, and these are further discussed in the summary. Ninety-two selected items are illustrated and numbered sequentially in Figs. 8.1–8.11. The forms, dates and selected parallels are presented in the figure tables. The assemblages from the church are presented according to stratum, from the center of the building outward. No pottery was found in Stratum I. While no sherds were found in contexts of Stratum V, the wide chronological range of the pottery from the innermost octagon does not exclude the possibility of assigning its uppermost floor to this stratum.

The ceramic report of the Kathisma assemblage was written between 1992 and 2001, and has since undergone many changes and corrections. The initial draft was read by Jodi Magness, a later draft was re-read by Anna de Vincenz, and the final proofreading of the tables was done by Shulamit Term. I am grateful to all three; however, any inaccuracies are my responsibility. 1

210

RINA AVNER

The Pottery from the Church and the Umayyad Building (Figs. 8.1–8.6) Stratum II Floor Beddings (Fig. 8.1) Pottery was found in two floor beddings (L261, L321) assigned stratigraphically to Stratum II (mid-fifth century CE), the period in which the church was constructed. Probe 3. In the western part of the innermost octagon (Fig. 8.1:1). A single sherd of a lantern or incense burner. Probe 7. In the southwestern part of the ambulatory (Fig. 8.1:2–4). ARS bowl Form C99 (Fig. 8.1:2); cooking pot Form 3B (Fig. 8.1:3); jug (Fig. 8.1:4) similar to Fine Byzantine Ware (FBW) jugs Form 2B. These sherds are later than the foundation phase of the church and are probably intrusive (see Discussion below).

1 0

2

3 4

2 0

10

Fig. 8.1. Stratum II floor beddings in the church. No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

1

Lantern or incense burner

A–B

321

7224

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/6; few black and white inclusions; surface pink 7.5YR 8/3–7/4

Magness 1993:128–129 146, Fig. 3:3; third–fifth centuries CE

2

Bowl ARS Form C99

B

261

7328/1

Light red clay 10R 6/6; small and medium black and white inclusions

Hayes 1972:152–155; end of sixth–beginning of seventh centuries CE

3

Cooking pot Form 3B

B

261

7347/2

Light red clay 10R 5/4; few black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:218; sixth– seventh centuries CE

4

Jug

B

261

7347/1

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/6; few black and white inclusions; surface: light brown 7.5YR 6/4

Magness 1993:239–241; Rapuano 1999:182, Fig. 9:122; mid-sixth–beginning of eighth centuries CE

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

211

Stratum III Floor Beddings and Fills (Fig. 8.2) Pottery assigned stratigraphically to Stratum III (second half of sixth century CE) was found in three floor beddings (L96, L111C, L260C) and four fills (L10D, L95, L260D, L318D). It ranges in date from the mid-sixth to the end of the seventh–beginning of the eighth centuries CE. Probe 5. In the eastern part of the ambulatory (Fig. 8.2:5–9). Two bowls, one Late Roman C Ware (LRC) Form 3F (Fig. 8.2.5), the other related to rouletted bowls Form 4 (Fig. 8.2:6); cup-shaped lid Form 1 (Fig. 8.2:7); two large candlestick lamps, one of Form 3A or 3B (Fig. 8.2:8), the other of Form 3A (Fig. 8.2:9). Probe 6. In the southeastern part of the ambulatory (Fig. 8.2:10). LRC bowl Form 3C. Probe 7. In the southeastern part of the ambulatory (Fig. 8.2:11–15). Two bowls, one LRC Form 3C (Fig. 8.2:11), the other rouletted bowl Form 1 (Fig. 8.2:12); jug related to FBW jugs (Fig. 8.2:13), for which no parallel was found; two storage jars, one of Form 5A (8.2:14), the other of Form 6A (Fig. 8.2:15). Probe 8. In the western part of the ambulatory (Fig. 8.2:16). FBW bowl Form 1A. Probe 12. In the bema (Fig. 8.2:17–20). Bowl related to rouletted bowls Form 4 (Fig. 8.2:17); jug (Fig. 8.2:18), similar to FBW jugs; jug (Fig. 8.2:19), for which no parallel was found; storage jar Form 6B (Fig. 8.2:20). Probe 17. Southwestern chapel (Fig. 8.2:21). Jar (first century CE; Vincenz 2010: Pl. 8.15:19), apparently residual. The Favissa under Stratum III or IV Floor Bedding (Fig. 8.3) The favissa (L380), in the northeastern part of the ambulatory, was sealed by a Stratum III or IV floor bedding (L379). It was used as a cache for architectural elements when the church was renovated in Stratum III (see Chapter 2). The late date of a FBW bowl fragment (end of seventh–mid-eighth centuries CE; Fig. 8.3:26) raises the possibility that this underground space is later than Stratum III, or remained in use in Stratum IV, after the renovations. Probe 9 (Fig. 8.3:22–29). Carinated bowl (Fig. 8.3:22), for which no parallel was found; jar (first century CE; Fig. 8.3:23); two FBW bowls of Form 1A (Fig. 8.3:24, 25); FBW bowl Form 1C (Fig. 8.3:26); LRC bowl Form 10A (Fig. 8.3:27); two large candlestick lamps, one of Form 3A (Fig. 8.3:28), the other of Form 3A or 3B (Fig. 8.3:29).

212

RINA AVNER

Fig. 8.2 ► No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

5

Bowl LRC Form 3F

A

95

474/6

Orange clay 10R 5/8; many small and medium white inclusions and small black inclusions

Hayes 1972:329–338; sixth century CE

6

Bowl related to rouletted Form 4

A

95

474/2

Light red–brown clay 2.5YR 6/4; thick gray core 10R 6/1; few white inclusions

Magness 1993:191–192; Rapuano 1999:174, Fig. 3:48; sixth–first half of seventh centuries CE or later

7

Lid Form 1

A

95

474/1

Orange clay 10R5/8; thick gray core 10R 6/1; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:247–248, No. 5; sixth–mid-eighth centuries CE

8

Large candlestick lamp Form 3A or 3B

A

95

489/2

Gray clay 2.5YR6/2; many small and medium white inclusions and small black inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

9

Large candlestick lamp Form 3A

A

95

489/1

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth century CE

10

Bowl LRC Form 3C

B

111C

503/1

Orange clay 10R 5/8; many small and medium white inclusions and small black inclusions

Hayes 1972:329–338; second half of fifth–beginning of sixth centuries CE

11

Bowl LRC Form 3C

B

260C

7314/1

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; red surface 10R 5/6

Hayes 1972:329–338; second half of fifth–beginning of sixth centuries CE

12

Bowl rouletted Form 1

B

260C

7314

Light red clay 10R 6/8; few small white inclusions; surface red-brown slip 5YR 5/3

Magness 1993:185–186; end of third/beginning of fourth–fifth centuries CE

13

Jug

B

260D (= 909)

7091/1

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/6; few small white inclusions; surface light redbrown 2.5YR 6/4; metallic fabric

No parallels; seventh century CE(?)

14

Storage jar Form 5A

B

260C (= 909)

7292

Yellowish-red clay 5YR 7/6; many small white inclusions; surface pink 5YR 7/4

Magness 1993:226; end of sixth– beginning of eighth centuries CE

15

Storage jar Form 6A

B

260D (= 909)

7091/5

Yellow-brown clay 7.5Y 6/3; many small and medium white inclusions, and medium black inclusions

Magness 1993:227–229; end of sixth/seventh–eighth centuries CE

16

Bowl FBW Form 1A

A–B

318D (= 911)

7294

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; very small black and white inclusions; surface light red 2.5YR 7/6, yellowish red 5YR7/6 and pink 7.5YR 8/4; burnished

Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

17

Bowl related to rouletted Form 4

A

96

473/1

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; thick gray core 10R 6/1; few small black inclusions; surface yellowish red 5YR 7/6, reddish yellow 7.5YR 7/6 and light red 2.5R 7/8; burnished

Magness 1993:191–192; sixth–first half of seventh centuries CE or later

18

Jug

A

96

464/2

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; many small white inclusions visible on surface

Rapuano 1999: Fig. 9:122; midsixth–beginning of eighth centuries CE

19

Jug

A

96

473/2

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; many small black and white inclusions

No parallels

20

Storage jar Form 6B

A

96

464/1

Outside surface and core gray 7.5YR 5/1; between them orange clay 5YR 6/4; many small white inclusions

Magness 1993:230–231; end of sixth/beginning of seventh–eighth centuries CE

21

Jar

A

10D (= 919)

1

Reddish-yellow clay 5YR 7/8; small black inclusions

Vincenz 2010: Pl. 8.15:19; first century CE

213

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

5 6

7

8

9 2

0

10

12

11

13

14

15

16

18

17

19

20

21 0

10

Fig. 8.2. Stratum III floor beddings and fills in the church.

214

RINA AVNER

23

22

25

24

27

26

0

28

10

0

2

29

Fig. 8.3. Stratum III or IV favissa in the church. No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

22

Bowl

A

380

7509/16

Orange clay 2.5Y 7/8; small black inclusions and few small white inclusions

No parallels; Roman?

23

Jar

A

380

7509/19

Pink-orange clay 2.5YR 7/8; small and medium white inclusions and black inclusions

Bar-Nathan and Gitler-Kamil 2002: Pl. 24:410–411; first century CE

24

Bowl FBW Form 1A

A

380

7509/10

Orange clay 2.5YR 7/8; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

25

Bowl FBW Form 1A

A

380

7509/11

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; surface shows burnishing stripes, orange 5YR 7/8 and gray 5YR 5/3; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

26

Bowl FBW Form 1C

A

380

7509/20

Orange clay 5YR 7/8; gray core 5YR 5/3; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:193–195; end of seventh–mid-eighth centuries CE

27

Bowl LRC Form 10A

A

380

7509/17

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/6; few small white inclusions; light red slip 2.5YR6/6

Hayes 1972:343–346; end of sixth– beginning of seventh centuries CE

28

Large candlestick lamp Form 3A

A

380

7509/15

Pink-orange clay 2.5YR 7/8; small and medium white inclusions and black inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

29

Large candlestick lamp Form 3A or 3B

A

380

7509/2

Pink-orange clay 2.5YR 7/8; small and medium white inclusions and black inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

215

Stratum IV Floor Beddings and Fills Below Floors (Fig. 8.4) Pottery attributed stratigraphically to Stratum IV (eighth century CE) was found in a floor bedding (L366), between floors (L373, L941) and in sealed fills below floor beddings (L32C, L330D). All these loci were discovered during conservation work (see Chapter 2). As in Stratum III, these sherds range in date from the mid-sixth to the end of the seventh– beginning of the eighth centuries CE, except in the innermost octagon, where two sherds date from the middle of the seventh to the ninth–tenth centuries CE (L366; see Discussion). Innermost Octagon, in Floor Bedding 366 (Fig. 8.4:30–32). Bowl related to rouletted bowls Form 4 (Fig. 8.4:30); bowl related to FBW bowls Form 2B (Fig. 8.4:31); FWB bowl Form 1D (Fig. 8.4:32). Ambulatory, under Floor 209 (Fig. 8.4:33–35). LRC bowl Form 10A (Fig. 8.4:33); jar (Fig. 8.4:34) similar to FBW jar found at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf and assigned to an early stage of Form 4 (Rapuano 1999:179, Fig. 7:98); large candlestick lamp Form 3 (Fig. 8.4:35). Southwestern Chapel, between Floors 346 and 240 (Fig. 8.4:36–38). FBW bowl Form 1B (Fig. 8.4:36); bowl similar to FBW bowl Form 1B (Fig. 8.4:37); early channel-nozzle lamp Form 4C (Fig. 8.4:38). Southwestern Passage Room between Two Floors (Fig. 8.4:39–43). FBW bowl Form 1B (Fig. 8.4:39); bowl (Fig. 8.4:40), for which no parallel was found; ARS bowl Form 104B (Fig. 8.4:41); bowl related to LRC bowl Form 3 (Fig. 8.4:42); jar Form 6A (Fig. 8.4:43). Northwestern Passage Room, below Floor 32 (Fig. 8.4:44, 45). Jar Form 6A (Fig. 8.4:44); large candlestick lamp Form 3A (Fig. 8.4:45). Stratum IV Floors (Fig. 8.5) Pottery was found on Stratum IV floors in various areas of the church that remained in use until the church was abandoned in the tenth century CE. The latest sherd is a FBW bowl (Fig. 8.5:54) dated to the mid-seventh–ninth/tenth centuries CE. Ambulatory, on Floor 27 (Fig. 8.5:46–49). Three LRC bowls of Form 3C (Fig. 8.5:46–48), one with rouletted decoration on the rim (Fig. 8.5:46); jug (Fig. 8.5:49), for which no parallel was found. Southwestern Passage Room, on Floor 256 (Fig. 8.5:50–52). FBW bowl Form 1B (Fig. 8.5:50); bowl (Fig. 8.5:51), for which no parallel was found; large candlestick lamp Form 3A (Fig. 8.5:52). Northwestern Chapel Apse, Floor 16 (Fig. 8.5:53, 54). Two FBW bowls, one of Form 1A (Fig. 8.5:53), the other of Form 2C (Fig. 8.5:54).

216

RINA AVNER

Fig. 8.4 ► No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

30

Bowl related to rouletted Form 4

A–B

366

7480

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:191–192; sixth–first half of seventh centuries CE or later

31

Bowl FBW Form 2B

A–B

366

7493/1

Light brown clay 7.5YR 6/3; gray core and white inclusions

Magness 1993:198–199; mid-seventh– ninth/tenth centuries CE

32

Bowl FWB Form 1D

A–B

366

7493/2

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/6; thick gray core; surface reddish brown 5YR 6/4 and light brown 7.5YR 6/4; burnished

Magness 1993:194–196; end of seventh/ beginning of eighth–ninth/tenth centuries CE

33

Bowl LRC Form 10A

B

L330D (= 937)

7365/2

Pink-gray clay 10R 6/4; many black and white inclusions

Hayes 1972:343–346; end of sixth– beginning of seventh centuries CE

34

Jar

B

L330D (= 937)

7365/1

Light red clay 2.5YR 7/6; many small white inclusions; surface pink 7.5YR 8/4

Rapuano 1999: Fig. 7:98; third–fourth centuries CE

35

Large candlestick lamp Form 3

B

L330D (= 937)

7365/3

Pink-gray clay 10R 6/4; small black inclusions and medium and small white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

36

Bowl FBW Form 1B

B

373

7062/3

Reddish-yellow clay 7.5YR 6/6; few small black inclusions

Similar to Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth–seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

37

Bowl

B

373

7062/2

Light red clay 2.5YR 7/6; few white inclusions

Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth– seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

38

Early channel nozzle lamp Form 4C

B

373

8071

Pink-gray clay 10R 6/3; small and medium white inclusions and small black inclusions

Magness 1993:255, 257; seventh– beginning of eighth centuries CE

39

Bowl FBW Form 1B

B

941

7503/7

Reddish-yellow clay 7.5YR 6/6; few small white inclusions; burnished

Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

40

Bowl

B

941

7503/4

Light red clay 2.5YR 7/8; few white inclusions; surface light red 2.5YR 7/8; upper part has no color, as in LRC vessel

No parallels; sixth–seventh centuries CE(?)

41

Bowl ARS Form 104B

B

941

7503/3

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; few small black and white inclusions; lustrous light red slip 2.5YR 6/6

Hayes 1972:160–166; second half of sixth–first quarter of seventh centuries CE

42

Bowl LRC Form 3

B

941

7503/6

Reddish-yellow clay 5YR 6/6; many medium inclusions; burnished

Hayes 1972:329–338; possibly related to Hayes LRC Form 3, but different ware: burnished but not slipped; seventh century CE(?)

43

Storage jar Form 6A

B

941

7503/2

Light red clay 2.5YR 7/6; gray core; many medium black and small white inclusions

Magness 1993:227–229; mid-sixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

44

Storage jar Form 6A

A

32C

7019/4

Brown clay 7.5YR 6/3; many small and medium white inclusions and medium black inclusions

Magness 1993:227–229; mid-sixth century–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

45

Large candlestick lamp Form 3A

A

32C

7019/5

Pink clay 10R 6/6; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

217

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

31

32

30

35

34

33

0

36

37

38 2

0

39

41

40

42 43

44 45 0 0

2

10

Fig. 8.4. Stratum IV floor beddings and sealed fills in the church.

2

218

RINA AVNER

46

47

48

49

50

51 52 0

2

54 53

0

10

Fig. 8.5. Stratum IV floors in the church. No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

46

Bowl LRC Form 3C

A

27

149/4

Brown-red clay 5YR4/3; well levigated, few white inclusions; dark red slip; rouletted decoration on the rim

Hayes 1972:329–338; second half of fifth–beginning of sixth centuries CE

47

Bowl LRC Form 3C

A

27

149/2

Dark red clay 2.5YR 7/6; well levigated; red slip, dark red slip on rim

Hayes 1972:329–338; second half of fifth–beginning of sixth centuries CE

48

Bowl LRC Form 3C

A

27

149/6

Red-brown clay 2.5YR 5/4; well levigated; dark red slip in and out; dark red slip on rim

Hayes 1972:329–338; second half of fifth–beginning of sixth centuries CE

49

Jug(?)

A

27

7116/1

Dark reddish clay 2.5YR 3/4; few black and white inclusions

No parallels

50

Bowl FBW Form 1B

B

256

7125/2

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/6; surface reddish yellow 5YR 6/6 and pink 7.5YR 7/4; burnished

Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

51

Bowl

B

256

7125/1

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; thick gray core; many small white inclusions; reddish-brown slip 5YR 6/4

No parallels; sixth–seventh centuries CE(?)

52

Large candlestick lamp Form 3A

B

256

7322

Pink-gray clay 2.5YR 7/4; small and medium black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

53

Bowl FBW Form 1A

A

16

1315

Reddish-yellow clay 5YR 6/6; few small white inclusions; surface light brown 7.5YR 6/3–6/4

Magness 1993:193–194; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

54

Bowl FBW Form 2C

A

16

99/6

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/6; small white inclusions; surface light red 2.5YR 7/6

Magness 1993:200; mid-seventh– ninth/tenth centuries CE

219

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

Below Floors of the Stratum IV Umayyad Building (Fig. 8.6). Three probes were excavated below the mosaic floors of the Umayyad building (Fills 91, 107, 115), and in each probe only a single diagnostic sherd was found. The latest sherd, from Probe 23 in the northeastern room, dates to the mid-sixth–end of the seventh/beginning of the eighth centuries CE. Probe 23 (Fig. 8.6:55). FBW bowl Form 1A. Probe 24 (Fig. 8.6:56). Cooking-pot lid. Probe 22 (Fig 8.6:57). Lantern or incense burner manufactured in ‘chip carving’ technique (Rahmani 1980).

55

57

56

0

0

2

10

Fig. 8.6. Fills below floors in Stratum IV Umayyad building. No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

55

Bowl FBW Form 1A

A

91C (= 929)

498

Pink-gray clay 2.5YR 6/4; medium white inclusions and small black inclusions

Magness 1993:193–194; midsixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

56

Cooking-pot lid

A

107

501

Red-brown clay 2.5YR 5/4; coarse fabric; many small black inclusions

Magness 1993:215; end of third/beginning of fourth–ninth/ tenth centuries CE

57

Lantern or incense burner

A

115

496

Pink-gray clay 2.5YR 6/4; small black inclusions

Magness 1993:128–129, 146, Figs. 3:1–3; third–fifth centuries CE

The Pottery from the Monastery (Figs. 8.7, 8.8) Below the Floors in Rooms 10 and 17 (Fig. 8.7) The pottery was recovered from two probes below the floors of Rooms 10 and 17 and ranges in date, like the pottery from below the church floors, from the mid-sixth to the end of the seventh–beginning of the eighth centuries CE. The pottery from Room 10 originated in the floor bedding of Mosaic 292, which incorporated a Greek inscription dated paleographically to the Early Islamic period (see Chapter 5).

220

RINA AVNER

Fig. 8.7 ► No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

58

Bowl FBW Form 1B

B

292A

7318/1

Red clay 2.5YR 5/6; thick brown core; many small white and black inclusions; pink surface 10R 6/6

Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

59

Jug

B

292A

7318/2

Brown clay 7.5YR 5/4; few small black and white inclusions; brown surface 7.5YR 5/4 with brown inclusions

Rapuano 1999: Fig. 9:124, similar to FBW jug; mid-sixth–beginning of eighth centuries CE

60

Large candlestick lamp Form 3

B

292A

7274

Yellowish-red clay 5YR 7/6; medium white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

61

Large candlestick lamp Form 3A

B

292A

7275

Yellowish-red clay 5YR 7/6; medium white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

62

Bowl related to rouletted Form 4

C

505

5002

Orange clay 5YR 6/4; large white inclusions and small black inclusions

Magness 1993:191–192; similar to Rapuano 1999: Fig. 3:53; mid-sixth– seventh centuries CE

63

Bowl FBW Form 1B

C

505

5019

Reddish-yellow clay 7.5YR 6/6; few very small white inclusions; surface reddish yellow 5YR 7/8

Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

64

Jug FBW Form 1B

C

505

5002/2

Reddish-yellow clay 5YR 6/6; gray core; few black and white inclusions; surface yellowish red 5YR 7/6; burnished

Magness 1993:237–238; mid-sixth– beginning of eighth centuries CE

65

Large candlestick lamp Form 3

C

505

5009

Yellowish-red clay 5YR 7/6; small and medium white inclusions and small black inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

Room 10, below Floor 292 (Fig. 8.7:58–61). FBW bowl Form 1B (Fig. 8.7:58); jug (Fig. 8.7:59), similar to a FBW jug found at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Rapuano 1999:182, Fig. 9:124); two large candlestick lamps, one decorated with a cross, which is typical of Form 2, but due to its size is assigned to Form 3 (Fig. 8.7:60), the other is of Form 3A (Fig. 8.7:61). Room 17, below Floor 503 (Fig. 8.7:62–65). Bowl related to rouletted bowls Form 4 (Fig. 8.7:62); FBW bowl Form 1B (Fig. 8.7:63); FBW jug Form 1B (Fig. 8.7:64); large candlestick lamp Form 3 (Fig. 8.7:65). Room 5 (Fig. 8.8) This polygonal room adjoins the eastern portico to the north of the church. The pottery dates to the final phase of the room during the Umayyad period (see Chapter 3).

221

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

59

58

60

61 0

2

0

2

62 63

64

0

10

65

0

2

Fig. 8.7. Floors in Rooms 10 and 17.

Floor 148 (Fig. 8.8:66–73). Two bowls, one FBW Form 1B (Fig. 8.8:66), the other (Fig. 8.8:67) a bowl for which no parallel was found; cup-shaped lid Form 1 (Fig. 8.8:68); FBW jug Form 2A with a pinched rim (Fig. 8.8:69); FBW juglet Form 2A (Fig. 8.8:70); roof tile stamped with a design of four arches arranged in a circle (Fig. 8.8:71); four complete, large candlestick lamps of two forms: Form 3A (Fig. 8.8:72) and Form 3B (Fig. 8.8:73).

222

RINA AVNER

68

66

67

70

69

71 0

10

72

73 0

2

Fig. 8.8. Floor of Room 5. No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

66

Bowl FBW Form 1B

A

148

4128/1

Gray clay 2.5YR 6/2; few large white inclusions; surface reddish brown 5YR 6/4 and light brown 7.5YR 6/3–6/4; burnished

Magness 1993:193–195; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

67

Bowl

A

148

4128/2

Yellowish-red coarse clay 5YR 5/6; thick gray core; few small white inclusions; surface reddish brown 5YR 6/4

No parallels; seventh–eighth centuries CE(?)

68

Lid Form 1

A

148

4128/3

Dark gray clay 5YR 5/1; few small white inclusions; surface gray and smooth (burnt, or burnished?

Magness 1993:247–248; sixth–mideighth centuries CE

69

Jug FBW Form 2A

A

148

4128/4

Reddish-yellow clay 5YR 6/8; gray core; many small white inclusions; surface yellowish red 5YR 7/6

Magness 1993:242–243; Rapuano 1999: Fig. 8:115–117 (similar rim); second–fifth centuries CE

70

Juglet FBW Form 2A

A

148

4128/5

Pink-orange clay 2.5YR 7/4; well levigated; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:239–240; mid-sixth– beginning of eighth centuries CE

71

Roof tile

A

148

4128/6

Orange clay 2.5YR 7/8; small and medium black and white inclusions

Cf. Pele 2003: Pl. I.20:3; fifth– seventh centuries CE

72

Large candlestick lamp Form 3A

A

148

4129/1

Yellowish-red clay 5YR 7/6; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

73

Large candlestick lamp Form 3B

A

148

4129/2

Yellowish-red clay 5YR 7/6; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–252; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

223

Undated Archaeological Contexts (Figs. 8.9–8.11) In accumulations on floors and above the tops of church and monastery walls, two nearly complete vessels, fragments of oil lamps and many terracotta pipes were recovered. Imported Egyptian Bowl and a Lantern (Figs. 8.9:74, 75). African Red Slip (ARS) Form A bowl (Fig. 8.9:74); lantern with an opening on its side and small perforations (Fig. 8.9:75).

74

75 0

10

Fig. 8.9. Undated accumulations. No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

74

Bowl ARS

A

25

141/1

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/8; few small white, black and red inclusions; surface light red 2.5YR 7/6; reddish-yellow slip 5YR 6/6

Hayes 1972:387–389, 391, Fig. 86: A or B; sixth century CE

75

Lantern(?)

C

404

3099/7

Orange-red clay 5YR 7/8; well levigated; small black inclusions and few small white inclusions

Cf. Magness 1993:128–129, 146, Figs. 3:1–3; third–fifth centuries CE

Fragments of Oil Lamps and a Mold (Fig. 8.10:76–84). This collection includes large candlestick lamps (Fig. 8.10:76–80), among them a lamp of Form 3B (Fig. 8.10:76), a lamp of Form 3C bearing an inscription of which only a few letters survive (Fig. 8.10:77), and three handles of lamp Form 3D (Fig. 8.10:78–80). Two handles were decorated with crosses in two different techniques: one is plastic decoration (Fig. 8.10:79), the other has a molded disc stamped with a cross within a circle divided into squares (Fig. 8.10:80). Early channel-nozzle lamps were also found, two of Form 4A decorated with vegetal motifs

224

RINA AVNER

(Fig. 8.10:81, 82) and one of Form 4C with geometric motifs (Fig. 8.10:83). Form 4A lamps have characteristics reminiscent of Byzantine-period candlestick lamps, while Form 4C channel-nozzle lamps have characteristics of the Early Islamic period (Magness 1993:255). A fragment of a mold that correlates with candlestick lamps of Form 3A (Fig. 8.10:84) was also recovered. Terracotta Pipes (Fig. 8.11:85–92). Fragments of terracotta pipes were found mainly along the lines of the walls. The pipes comprise segments with a tapering profile (Fig. 8:11:86, 88, 91, 92) that were inserted into segments with a profile that widens at the end (Fig. 8.10:87, 89, 90).

Fig. 8.10 ► No.

Vessel

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

Selected Parallels and Date

76

Large candlestick lamp Form 3B

E

806

6018

Orange clay 2.5YR 7/4; small black inclusions and medium white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–253; midsixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

77

Large candlestick lamp Form 3C

A

137

3092/2

Light red clay 2.5YR 6/6; small and medium black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–253; midsixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

78

Large candlestick lamp Form 3D

C

500

5016

Pink-gray clay 2.5YR 6/4; small and medium, black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–254; midsixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

79

Cross-shaped lamp handle Form 3D

A–B

288

7176/1

Pink-gray clay 2.5YR 7/4; small black inclusions

Magness 1993:251–254; midsixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

80

Lamp handle with cross Form 3D

A–B

288

7176/11

Pink-gray clay 2.5YR 7/4; small black inclusions

Magness 1993:251–254; midsixth–end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

81

Early channelnozzle lamp Form 4A

C

411

3252

Pink-gray clay 2.5YR 7/4; small and medium, black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:255–256; seventh–beginning of eighth centuries CE

82

Early channelnozzle lamp Form 4A

C

403

3072

Pink-gray clay 10R 6/4; small and medium, black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:255–256; seventh–beginning of eighth centuries CE

83

Early channelnozzle lamp Form 4C

C

403

3072/3

Pink-gray clay 10R 6/3; small and medium white inclusions and small black inclusions

Magness 1993:255–257; seventh–beginning of eighth centuries CE

84

Lamp mold Form 3A

A

133

4080

Orange-pink clay 2.5YR 7/4; small black and white inclusions

Magness 1993:251–254; Geva 2003:448, Pl. 20:7; mid-sixth– end of seventh/beginning of eighth centuries CE

225

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

76

77 78

79

81

80

82

83

84 0

2

Fig. 8.10. Undated accumulations.

226

RINA AVNER

85 87 86

90

89

92

91

88

0

10

Fig. 8.11. Terracotta pipes. No.

Area

Locus

Basket

Description

85

A

133

7397/1

Gray clay 2.5YR 6/2; medium white and small black inclusions

86

A

133

7412/1

Gray clay 2.5YR 6/2; many small and medium white inclusions

87

A

133

7412/2

Gray clay 2.5YR 6/2; many small and medium white inclusions

88

B

253

7064/5

Gray clay 2.5YR 6/2; many small and medium white inclusions

89

B

253

7051

Orange-pink clay 2.5YR 7/4; small black and white inclusions

90

B

253

7064/9

Orange-pink clay 2.5YR 6/4; small black and white inclusions

91

E

809

6036/1

Orange-pink clay 2.5YR 6/4; inside surface 2.5YR 7/4; small black and white inclusions

92

E

809

6038

Orange-pink clay 2.5YR 7/4; small black and white inclusions

Discussion and Summary Based on stratigraphic, architectural and artistic considerations, Stratum II is dated to the fifth century, Stratum III to the sixth century and Stratum IV to the eighth century CE (see Chapter 2). The pottery evidence for dating Stratum II is meager, based on two probes that yielded four sherds. The pottery dating to Strata III and IV comprises the same types, and therefore does not aid us in determining more precisely when the mosque was installed in the octagonal church, or when the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse was constructed (see Chapter 2). Of the four pottery sherds found below the church floors of Stratum II (built c. 456 CE according to historical sources; see Chapter 1), one sherd (Fig. 8.1:1) dates to the third–fifth centuries CE, while three others (Fig. 8.1:2–4) date to the sixth–seventh/eighth

CHAPTER 8: THE POTTERY

227

centuries CE, several decades later than the construction of the church. The latter probably infiltrated below the floors during extensive renovations in Stratum III (see Chapters 1, 2). During the renovations of Stratum III, the bema was extended to the west into the area of the ambulatory. The pottery found in probes in the ambulatory and the bema, below the Stratum III floors (Fig. 8.2:5–20) dates from the second half of the sixth to the end of the seventh–beginning of the eighth centuries CE. In the eastern part of the ambulatory, the latest finds are fragments of large candlestick lamps of Form 3 (mid-sixth–end of seventh/early eighth centuries CE; Fig. 8.2:8, 9), while in the bema, the latest is a jar sherd of Form 6B (end of sixth/beginning of seventh–eighth centuries CE; Fig. 8.2:20). In the southwestern part of the ambulatory, the latest finds are jars of Forms 5A and 6A (end of sixth/beginning of seventh–eighth centuries CE; Fig. 8.2:14, 15). In the southeastern part of the ambulatory, a single sherd (second half of fifth–beginning of sixth centuries CE; Fig. 8.2:10) is residual. A probe in the northeastern chapel hall uncovered another residual sherd dating to the first century CE (Fig. 8.2:21). Most of the pottery from the favissa (Fig. 8.3) dates from the second half of the sixth century to the end of the seventh–beginning of the eighth centuries CE, while a single FBW bowl of Form 1C (Fig. 8.3:26) dates to the end of the seventh–mid-eighth centuries CE. Thus, it is possible that the favissa remained in use into Stratum IV, or the late bowl is intrusive. The pottery under the Stratum IV floors of the church (Fig. 8.4) dates this stratum to the end of the seventh–beginning of the eighth centuries CE. The pottery found under Floor 209 in the ambulatory (Fig. 8.4:33–35), Floor 256 in the southwestern passage room (Fig. 8.4:39–43), and Floor 32 in the northeastern passage room (Fig. 8.4:44, 45) has a chronological range from the mid-sixth century to the end of the seventh–beginning of the eighth centuries CE, which is in accord with the pottery that dates the church floors of Stratum III (see above), and overlaps with the date of Stratum IV. Between two mosaic floors in the southwestern chapel, the latest sherd was of an early channel-nozzle lamp of Form 4C (Fig. 8.4:38; seventh–beginning of eighth centuries CE). This is the only sherd from a Stratum IV context with a more restricted chronological range. Two bowls discovered in the base layer of pebbles of Bedding 366 have a wider chronological range that extends into the ninth–tenth centuries CE (Fig. 8.4:31, 32). As they were found during the second excavation season, after the floor bedding had been exposed for five years, later sherds of Stratum V may have filtered into the bedding. These two bowls were found with a bowl (Fig. 8.4:30) that dates from the sixth–seventh centuries, maybe later. The pottery found above the church floors would presumably reflect the end of the occupation at the site, but in fact, its chronological range spans all the strata of the church. The earliest sherds date to the second half of the fifth–beginning of the sixth centuries CE (Fig. 8.5:46–48)––the time of the construction of the church (see above); later sherds date to the mid-sixth–end of the seventh/beginning of the eighth centuries CE (Fig. 8.5:49–53), correlating with Strata III and IV, while the latest pottery sherd (Fig. 8.5:54) is dated to the end of the seventh–ninth/tenth centuries CE and correlates with Strata IV and V.

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In the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse of the church, the latest sherd (Fig. 8.6:55) dates to the mid-sixth–end of the seventh/beginning of the eighth centuries CE, contemporary with Stratum IV, and correlates with a coin found in the wall of the building dating to the first half of the eighth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 82). In the probes in the monastery, diagnostic pottery under the floors of Rooms 10 and 17 dates to the mid-sixth–end of the seventh/beginning of the eighth centuries CE, and correlates with Strata III and IV. Nevertheless, the pottery from the plaster bedding of the mosaic with the inscription in Room 10 (Fig. 8.7:58–61) can be assigned to Stratum IV, as the inscription is dated to the Early Islamic period (see Chapter 5). The pottery from Room 17 (Fig. 8.7:62–65) was found together with coins from the ninth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 88, 90) and can probably be assigned to Stratum V (see Chapter 3). The finds on the floor of Room 5 (Fig. 8.8), like those on the Stratum IV church floors (see above), have a wide chronological range, from a jug dating to the second–fifth centuries CE (Fig. 8.8:69), to vessels dating to the mid-sixth–end of the seventh/beginning of the eighth centuries CE (Fig. 8.8:66, 68, 70, 72, 73). In summary, the bulk of the pottery assemblage retrieved from Kathisma, both from the church and the monastery, reflects the main period of occupation at the site between the second half of the sixth century and the seventh–early eighth centuries CE.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 9

The Glass Finds Yael Gorin-Rosen and Tamar Winter

Introduction This study presents 69 representative, diagnostic glass finds from the Kathisma ecclesiastical complex, including vessels, windowpanes, a bracelet and a bead.1 The largest group of glass vessels dates from the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods; very few specimens are attributed to the late Hellenistic–Early Roman periods, and one to the Abbasid period. The glass finds are presented according to their chronology and typology, and illustrated in Figs. 9.1–9.8. The discussion of each type is followed by a detailed catalogue of the illustrated pieces, numbered consecutively, which provides the area, locus and basket numbers, description, dimensions (when applicable), color and weathering. The identifiable vessels include mostly bowls, wineglasses, bottles and oil lamps. All the vessels, except for three cast bowls (Fig. 9.1), were free blown. They were made of translucent glass, mostly light blue and light green; a few pieces are olive-green, yellowish green, dark blue or colorless. Many pieces were decorated in various methods, such as applying thin trails of a different color, generally darker than the vessel (Nos. 14, 21, 22, 30, 46, 47), a thick wavy trail (Nos. 44, 45, 52), pinching (Nos. 48–50) or mold-blowing (Nos. 53–55). The glass is generally of mediocre quality; some pieces contain black impurities and bubbles of various sizes, and the majority bear iridescence and sand deposits. Most of the vessel types from Kathisma are known from glass assemblages dated to the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods from sites in and around Jerusalem, as attested in a recently published synthesis (Winter 2019). The nearest sites with comparative assemblages are Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Giv‘at Hamaṭos; Gorin-Rosen 2000b), Ramat Raḥel (Jackson-Tal 2016; Katsnelson 2016), Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam (Corbo 1955) and Umm Ṭuba (Winter 2014). Other assemblages from the Jerusalem vicinity originated in (counterclockwise from the south): the Kidron Valley (Pancrace 1965; Winter 2017), the Dominus Flevit compound on the Mount of Olives (Bagatti and Milik 1958), graves outside St. Stephen’s Gate (Hamilton 1938), Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a), Deir Ghazali (Gorin-Rosen 2000a), Khirbat ‘Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a), a monastic compound north of Damascus Gate (Winter 2013; 2019:109–119), the grounds of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Binyene Ha-Umma; Gorin-Rosen 2005), the Old City’s Jewish Quarter (Gorin-

This paper was written in 2004 and updated in 2010; recent publications were added in 2020. We wish to thank Rina Avner for the opportunity to study the finds. The glass finds were mended by Olga Shorr, and drawn by Michael Miles and Carmen Hersch. 1

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Rosen 2003, 2006c), the City of David spur (Ariel 1990; Gutreich 2013), the Church of the Visitation at ‘En Kerem (Bagatti 1948), the ‘Ir Gannim neighborhood (Katsnelson 2009), a burial cave at Ḥorbat Gores in the Gonen neighborhood (Solimany, Winter and Vincenz 2006), and others.

The Late Hellenistic–Early Roman Periods The earliest glass finds from Kathisma are three cast bowls discovered in accumulations west and south of the church. These finds correlate with several coins from the Hellenistic– Early Roman periods (Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 1–6) and a small amount of pottery dated to the Roman period (Chapter 8: Figs. 8.2:21; 8.3:23). These meager fragments of cast bowls are part of a glass assemblage that is largely dated to the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods, a phenomenon that is repeated at several sites excavated in Jerusalem and its vicinity, such as nearby Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000b), as well as Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a) and Khirbat ‘Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a). Conical Bowl with Internal Grooves (Fig. 9.1:1) This cast bowl is classified under Grose’s Group A, attributed mainly to the second–first centuries BCE (Grose 1979:55–59); yet in Judea and Jerusalem, these bowls continued in use longer, but no later than 70 CE (for a detailed discussion of cast conical bowls, see Gorin-Rosen 2003:375–376). A similar bowl with two wide internal grooves was excavated in the Old City’s Jewish Quarter, in a context dated to the last quarter of the first century BCE (Gorin-Rosen 2006c:240–241, 256–257, Pl. 10.1:G1). No. 1. Area B, L257, B7078 (Fig. 9.1:1) Small fragment of a cast bowl, probably conical, with a rounded, polished rim (D c. 140 mm) and thick walls with three closely-spaced, thin, shallow, horizontal grooves on the interior below the rim. Colorless with a purple tinge. Iridescence; severe pitting. Ribbed Bowls of the ‘Pillar-Molded’ Type (Fig. 9.1:2, 3) Two small, thick-walled fragments with exterior vertical ribbing belonged to a type of cast bowl known as ‘pillar molded’. These bowls are distinct from earlier types of ribbed bowls by their fine execution and even ribs, and attributed to the first century CE (Isings 1957:17–20, Form 3). They are classified as Group 5 in the typology of glass ribbed bowls from Delos (Nenna 1999:109–111). ‘Pillar-molded’ bowls, mostly with internal horizontal grooves, were unearthed in the Jewish Quarter (Gorin-Rosen 2003:379–380, Pls. 15.5:G57; 15.6:G58, G59; 15.7:G76– G78; 15.8:G86, G87, and see discussion therein; Gorin-Rosen 2006c:248, Pl. 10.3:G40), as well as in a first-century CE context from the City of David (Ariel 1990:150, 161–162, Fig. 33:GL80, GL81). No. 2. Area C, L402, B3090 (Fig. 9.1:2) Small, thick wall fragment of a cast, ribbed bowl with spaced, vertical ribs, two partly intact. Light greenish blue. Sand deposit.

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No. 3. Area C, L402, B3090 (Fig. 9.1:3) Small, thick wall fragment of a cast, ribbed bowl with spaced, vertical ribs, two partly intact. Light green. Sand deposit.

1

2

3 0

4

Fig. 9.1. Glass vessels from the late Hellenistic–Early Roman periods.

The Late Byzantine –Umayyad Periods This group of vessels, making up the bulk of the glass finds from Kathisma, comprises a glass assemblage characteristic of the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods in Syria-Palestine. As this corpus does not contain vessels or artifacts that bear features distinctive of the Abbasid period, it is dated from the late sixth century to the mid-eighth century CE, corresponding to Strata III–IV (see Chapter 1). Bowls and Beakers Bowl with a Flaring, Hollow, Outfolded Rim (Fig. 9.2:4) Bowls with similar rims were widespread from the Roman through the Early Islamic periods. They generally had a base resembling Nos. 5 and 6 (see below). The fabric, color and fashioning of the rim of this bowl associate it with the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods. A bowl with a similar rim and a base resembling Nos. 5 and 6 was discovered in an Umayyad-period context south of the White Mosque at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2008b:46, top left). A somewhat larger bowl rim of this type was unearthed in an Umayyad-period context at Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:21, Pl. 3:68, and see reference therein to an example from Palmyra). No. 4. Area A; L57, B292 (Fig. 9.2:4) Flaring, hollow, outfolded rim (D c. 120 mm) and small part of the wall. Bluish green; small bubbles; black impurities. Lime crust.

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Hollow Ring Bases (Fig. 9.2:5–7) These three bases represent various subtypes, differing in their diameter and height, in the treatment of the base floor and possibly in the vessel they supported. Base No. 5 has a concave underside and belonged to a bowl or jug. Base No. 6 is low and thick, characteristic of bowls. Bases of these subtypes appeared from the Roman period onward; however, the quality, hue and preservation of the glass of Nos. 5 and 6 suggest a date in the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods. As noted above, a bowl with a rim resembling No. 4 and a base similar to Nos. 5 and 6 was discovered in an Umayyad-period context at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2008b:46, top left). Base No. 7 may have supported a beaker or jug, and can be dated to the Byzantine period based on its fabric, fashioning and comparanda, for example, from Ḥorbat Ḥermeshit (Winter 1998:174, Fig. 2:8). No. 5. Area C, L420, B3265 (Fig. 9.2:5) Pointed, pushed-in, off-centered, hollow ring base (D 75 mm) with a thick floor and a pontil scar on its underside. Greenish blue; small and medium-sized, round bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit. No. 6. Area B, L213, B1127 (Fig. 9.2:6) Low, pushed-in, hollow ring base (D 70 mm) with a thick floor. On the underside are olivegreen glass traces from the pontil. Greenish blue. Sand deposit. No. 7. Area A, L44, B198 (Fig. 9.2:7) Tiny fragment of a low, pushed-in, hollow ring base (D 50 mm) with a thick floor. Bluish green. Sand deposit. Bowls/Beakers with a Rounded Rim (Fig. 9.2:8–15) These deep bowls or beakers with an upright or slightly incurved, rounded rim occurred in many variations, several of them represented at the site. Their bases probably resembled No. 13. These bowls/beakers are characteristic of the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods (Gorin-Rosen 2010:215–218, Pls. 10.1:1–4; 10.2:1, 2, and see discussion therein, as well as examples from Ramla, Caesarea Maritima, Ashdod, Khirbat el-Kerak, Gerasa and Busra). The fragments from Kathisma were unearthed in various loci: on a mosaic floor in the ambulatory (No. 10), attributed by the excavator to the Umayyad period (Stratum IV; see Chapter 2); on a floor bedding in the ambulatory (No. 15), attributed by the excavator to Stratum III (see Chapter 2); in accumulations on a mosaic floor (Nos. 8, 14) and in topsoil accumulations in the monastery (Nos. 9, 11–13). Bowl No. 8 has rather thin walls and an incurved rim. Vessels with a similar rim and a bottom resembling No. 13 were discovered at the nearby site of Siyar el-Ghanam, in an assemblage dated to the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods (Corbo 1955:75–76, Fig. 25:4), and in an Umayyad-period context north of the White Mosque at Ramla (GorinRosen 2010:215–218, Pl. 10.1:1). Bowl No. 9 has a thickened, incurved rim, resembling a fragment from Ḥorbat Ḥermeshit (Winter 1998:176, Fig. 1:2). Bowl No. 10 has an incurved,

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infolded rim, similar to a piece from Khirbat ‘Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:124–125, Fig. 2:1) and to a bowl from Bet She’an (FitzGerald 1931: Pl. 39:32). The rim, wall and bottom fragments, Nos. 11–13, are probably parts of a single vessel with an internal, hollow fold on the wall, resembling a vessel uncovered in a context dated to the late Byzantine period at Ashdod (Barag 1967b:37, 72, Fig. 16:14). A piece resembling No. 11 was discovered at Khirbat Ṭabaliya together with other finds dated to the Byzantine–early Umayyad periods (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:84*, Fig. 2:10). Fragment No. 14 has a trail of a different color than the vessel, applied vertically from the rim downward. A complete beaker of this type, adorned with a vertical, wavy trail, was discovered in Marcus Street, Ramla, together with pottery dated to the eighth– ninth centuries CE (Pollak 2007:110, 112–113, Fig. 6:32). Wall fragment No. 15 has an interior horizontal ridge, as does an Umayyad-period example from Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:219–220, Pl. 10.2:3a). No. 8. Area C, L404, B3087 (Fig. 9.2:8) Incurved, rounded rim (D 90 mm). Greenish blue. Slight iridescence. No. 9. Area C, L420, B3283 (Fig. 9.2:9) Thickened, incurved, rounded rim (D 90 mm). Bluish green with yellowish-green streaks. Small and medium-sized bubbles. Slight iridescence. No. 10. Area A, L58, B378 (Fig. 9.2:10) Thickened, rounded, infolded rim (D 100 mm) with thin, in-slanting walls. Greenish blue. Sand deposit. No. 11. Area C, L408, B3234 (Fig. 9.2:11) Slightly slanted, thickened, rounded rim (D 100 mm). Greenish blue; small and mediumsized, round and oval bubbles. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. No. 12. Area C, L408, B3234 (Fig. 9.2:12) Thin-walled fragment with an irregular, internal hollow fold (D 100 mm); mended from two fragments. Greenish blue; small and medium-sized, round and oval bubbles. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. No. 13. Area C, L408, B3234 (Fig. 9.2:13) Bottom, slightly concave at the center, a coarse pontil scar (D 9–12 mm) on its underside; mended from two fragments. Greenish blue; small and medium-sized, round and oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit. No. 14. Area C, L404, B3117 (Fig. 9.2:14) Slightly incurved, thickened, rounded rim (D 70 mm) with an applied, yellowish-brown trail. Greenish blue; small bubbles; black impurity. Slight iridescence.

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No. 15. Area A, L59, B293 (Fig. 9.2:15) Small wall fragment (D 100 mm) with an interior horizontal ridge. Greenish blue. Iridescence; sand deposit. Handles Two types of handles characteristic of the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods were collected at Kathisma: a large loop handle (No. 16) and small loop handles (Nos. 17, 18); No. 18 is exceptionally small and could have belonged to one of the bowls/beakers (Nos. 8–13). Handle No. 16 was discovered in topsoil accumulation in the monastery; No. 17 in an accumulation on a Stratum IV mosaic floor in the southern part of the outermost octagon; and No. 18 in topsoil accumulation in the monastery together with glass vessels characteristic of the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods (Nos. 11–13, 31, 35, 53). Massive handles, such as No. 16, are distinguished by the small size of the loop hole in comparison with the large dimensions of the handle. They served large, globular oil lamps with a cut-off rim and a rounded bottom, and a rope or metal wire strung through them to suspend the lamp from the ceiling (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:173–174). A large complete oil lamp of this type was discovered in Tomb 231 at the Dominus Flevit compound (Bagatti and Milik 1958:148, Fig. 35:12).2 Handles of this type were also recovered at Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:89*, Fig. 3:27, 28, one of them with a tooled extension), and at the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005:202, 205, Fig. 2:33). Handle Nos. 17 and 18 may have served oil lamps as well (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:174). A lamp with small loop handles attached to its lower part was excavated in Marcus Street, Ramla, together with many glass vessels dated to the eighth–mid-ninth centuries CE (Pollak 2007:101, 115–116, Fig. 7:43). Another handle of this type from Ramla was unearthed north of the White Mosque (Gorin-Rosen 2010:253, Pl. 10.11:4, and see reference therein to an example from Fustat). Similar handles were discovered at Bet She’an, in Byzantine-period contexts (Agady et al. 2002:490, Figs. 34, 35), in Umayyadperiod contexts (Hadad 2005:28, Pl. 21:389) and in Abbasid–Fatimid-period contexts (Hadad 2005:46, Pl. 44:936, 937). No. 16. Area E, L817, B6088 (Fig. 9.2:16) Complete, massive, thick loop handle attached to a thin wall. The handle was drawn downward, and its edge was then folded upward. Deep green. Slight iridescence; weathering cracks; sand deposit.

Barag (1970:29–30) noted that it is a very early example of this type and dated it no later than the mid-fourth century CE. However, in the past decades, many specimens, mostly from the fifth–seventh centuries CE, have been recovered from sites in Israel. 2

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No. 17. Area A, L98, B469 (Fig. 9.2:17) Small loop handle attached to a thin wall. The handle was drawn downward, and its edge was then folded upward. Greenish blue. Silvery weathering; iridescence; sand deposit. No. 18. Area C, L408, B3234 (Fig. 9.2:18) Small loop handle attached to a thin wall. Greenish blue. Slight iridescence; sand deposit.

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8 11

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Fig. 9.2. Glass bowls, beakers and handles from the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods.

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Wineglasses Wineglasses were widespread during the sixth–seventh centuries CE, and may have continued to appear later (Winter 2019:32–37). The typical wineglass had a rounded or infolded rim, convex or flaring walls (Nos. 19, 20), a single-bead stem (Nos. 23–25) or a cylindrical stem (No. 27), and a hollow ring base (Nos. 24–26) or a solid base (No. 27). A subtype widespread in Jerusalem and its vicinity was adorned with wound blue trails (Nos. 21, 22). Wineglasses with a Rounded Rim (Fig. 9.3:19, 20) These thin-walled fragments are classified as wineglasses rather than bottles due to their fashioning and delicate walls. A complete, thin-walled wineglass resembling No. 19, with a narrow stem and a hollow base, was discovered in a sixth–seventh-century CE monastery north of Damascus Gate in Jerusalem (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010: Fig. 2:1). A similarly dated, slightly incurved wineglass rim resembling No. 20 was found at the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005:202–203, Fig. 2:19). Wineglasses with a flaring, rounded rim were also unearthed in Umayyad-period contexts at Gerasa in Jordan (Meyer 1988:211–212, Fig. 11:X, Y3) and Busra in southern Syria (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:75, Figs. 553–555). No. 19. Area C, L406, B3107 (Fig. 9.3:19) Flaring, rounded rim (D 80 mm). Greenish blue; small bubbles; blowing spirals; black impurities. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit. No. 20. Area A, L53, B257 (Fig. 9.3:20) Slightly incurved, rounded rim (D 80 mm) and very thin walls displaying polishing marks. Light green; small bubbles; black impurities. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit. Wineglasses Adorned with a Trail Wound on and below the Rim (Fig. 9.3:21, 22) These two trail-decorated rim fragments were found in accumulations on floors in the area of the monastery. Wineglasses adorned with a fused-in trail of a darker color than the vessel, wound on and below the rim, generally had a rounded, slightly incurved rim, a single-bead stem and a hollow ring base, like Nos. 23–25. The distinct shape, decoration, workmanship and fabric suggest a regional fashion, and these wineglasses were probably produced contemporaneously in several local workshops (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:167–169, Fig. 3; Winter 2019:34–35, Type WGtd, and see further references therein). Wineglasses of this type were widespread throughout Syria-Palestine during the sixth–seventh centuries CE, and may have continued to appear up to the mid-eighth century CE. They were discovered in contexts dated to the sixth–seventh centuries CE, for example, at the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005:202–203, Fig. 2:20,

3

Fig. 11 is erroneously labeled Fig. 10.

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21), at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:210–212, Fig. 2:23, 24), and in a monastery north of Damascus Gate (Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:168–169, Fig. 3). No. 21. Area B, L296, B7196, B7210 (Fig. 9.3:21) Rounded, slightly incurved rim (D 60 mm) and thin walls; mended from two fragments. A blue trail (with black impurities) is horizontally wound and fused-in seven times on and below the rim; the two extreme windings are thicker. Colorless. Slight iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit. No. 22. Area A, L143, B4122 (Fig. 9.3:22) Rounded, slightly incurved rim (D 70 mm) and thin walls; mended from two fragments. A blue trail (with black impurities) is horizontally wound and fused-in ten times on and below the rim; the two extreme windings are thicker. Light green. Slight iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit. Wineglass Stems and Bases (Fig. 9.3:23–27) These wineglass bases may be classified into two types, hollow (Nos. 24–26) and solid (No. 27). Base Nos. 24 and 26 were unearthed in a fill beneath a Stratum III chapel floor, Nos. 23 and 27 in accumulations in the monastery, and No. 25 in an accumulation on a floor in the area of the monastery. The hollow ring base was the most widespread wineglass base in Syria-Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean in the sixth–seventh centuries CE, while the solid base was more customary in the Umayyad period. However, both types coexisted in Byzantineperiod complexes, such as the church at Shave Ẓiyyon (Barag 1967a:67–68, 70, Fig. 16:15–17), as well as in Umayyad-period assemblages, like that from a sealed Umayyadperiod compound at Busra (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:147, Figs. 556–560). Hollow wineglass bases with a single-bead stem appear in glass assemblages of the sixth–seventh centuries CE, as at nearby Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:84*–86*, Fig. 2:15) and Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam (Corbo 1955:75–76, Fig. 25:15), as well as in the City of David (Ariel 1990:161, Fig. 32:71G, 72G), at the northwestern corner of the Old City wall (Gorin-Rosen 2006a:116*–117*, Fig. 14:4), at the Jerusalem International Convention Center (GorinRosen 2005:202–204, Fig. 2:25) and at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:210–212). Although solid wineglass bases, like No. 27, are rare in Jerusalem and its environs, they are widespread throughout Palestine, as at Shave Ẓiyyon (Barag 1967a: Fig. 16:16), Khirbat esh-Shubeika (Gorin-Rosen 2002:315–316, Fig. 7:36), Tiberias (Amitai-Preiss 2004:179, Fig. 11.1:9, 10; Lester 2004:173–174. Fig. 7.2) and Bet She’an (Hadad 2005:28, Pl. 21:401–410; Winter 2011:346–348, Fig. 12.1:7–9; Katsnelson 2014:33*, Fig. 6:3), as well as in neighboring regions, for example, at Gerasa (Meyer 1988:199, Figs. 8:Y–cc; 9:A–D) and Busra (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984: Figs. 556, 557, 559, 560). No. 23. Area E, L822, B6123 (Fig. 9.3:23) Broken, hollow, single-bead stem with a pontil scar (D 7 mm) on its underside. Green. Silvery weathering; iridescence; sand deposit.

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No. 24. Area A, L923, B4124 (Fig. 9.3:24) Complete, hollow ring base (D 60 mm) with a pontil scar (D 7 mm) on its underside and a hollow, single-bead stem. Bluish green; small round bubbles; black impurities. Silvery weathering; iridescence; sand deposit. No. 25. Area B, L296, B7196 (Fig. 9.3:25) Complete, irregular, off-centered, hollow ring base (D 45 mm) with a pontil scar (D 7 mm) on its underside and a hollow, single-bead stem. Greenish blue. Iridescence; sand deposit. No. 26. Area A, L923, B4124 (Fig. 9.3:26) Broken, irregular, hollow ring base (D 48 mm) with a pontil scar (D 5 mm) on its underside and a hollow, single-bead stem. Bluish green; small round bubbles. Silvery weathering; iridescence; sand deposit. No. 27. Area E, L809, B6039 (Fig. 9.3:27) Lower part of an irregular wineglass with a thick, convex floor, a short, cylindrical stem, and a solid base with tooling marks and a pontil scar (D 10 mm) on the underside. Greenish blue; black impurities. Iridescence; sand deposit.

20

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22

23

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27 0

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Fig. 9.3. Glass wineglasses from the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods.

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Bottles and Jugs The fragments presented here represent types of bottles and jugs that were widespread throughout Syria-Palestine in the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods. Some are decorated with various applied trails (Nos. 30, 44–47, 51), generally of a darker color than the vessel, or pinches on the walls (Nos. 48–50). Bottle with an Upright, Rounded Rim (Fig. 9.4:28) This fragment represents a small or medium-sized bottle with an upright rim, a cylindrical neck and a globular body, and it may have been adorned with trails wound around its neck. This piece was recovered from the pebble bedding of a Stratum IV mosaic floor in the innermost octagon. Many complete bottles of this type, with wider rims than that of No. 28, were discovered in glass assemblages associated mostly with the fifth–seventh centuries CE. Complete bottles were recorded, for example, in Tombs 97, 215 and 311 at the Dominus Flevit compound, dated to the fifth–sixth centuries CE (Bagatti and Milik 1958:144, Fig. 34:1–4; Barag 1970:32), and in the Kidron Valley necropolis opposite the Church of the Agony (Pancrace 1965:64, Figs. 56:4; 59:6). No. 28. Area A, L78, B392 (Fig. 9.4:28) Upright, rounded rim (D 25 mm) and a nearly cylindrical neck. Light bluish green. Iridescence; pitting; sand deposit. Bottle with an Upright, Infolded Rim (Fig. 9.4:29) This fragment represents a large or medium-sized bottle with an upright, infolded rim, occasionally a funnel-shaped mouth, a cylindrical neck and a globular or barrel-shaped body. This piece was discovered on a mosaic floor in a chapel in the outermost octagon. Bottles with an upright, infolded rim were widespread in the region mostly during the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods, as in Tomb 215 at the Dominus Flevit compound (Bagatti and Milik 1958:144, Fig. 34:5; Barag 1970:32), at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:208, Fig. 1:11), and in a burial cave at Ḥorbat Gores (Solimany, Winter and Vincenz 2006:91*, Fig. 4:3). No. 29. Area A, L75, B370 (Fig. 9.4:29) Upright, unevenly infolded rim (D 50 mm) and a cylindrical neck. Light green. Iridescence; sand deposit. Bottle with a Funnel-Shaped Mouth Adorned with a Wound Trail (Fig. 9.4:30) This piece, made of rather good-quality glass, represents a group of bottles characterized by their decoration: an applied, generally dark-colored trail, wound horizontally around the mouth or neck. These bottles were extremely widespread in the Jerusalem area during the Byzantine–Umayyad periods (e.g., Hamilton 1938:155, Pl. XLII: top row, second from left; Pancrace 1965:66, Fig. 58:4; Ariel 1990:160–161, Fig. 32:GL67; Gorin-Rosen 1999a:208–209, Fig. 1:12; Katsnelson 2009: Fig. 11:1).

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Nevertheless, bottles with trail decoration applied on a convex, funnel-shaped mouth, as No. 30, were quite rare. Analogous examples from Jerusalem were unearthed at Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:87*, Fig. 2:18) and the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005:204, Fig. 2:30), and a similar piece was also found at Ḥorbat Ḥermeshit (Winter 1998:176, Fig. 2:7). No. 30. Area C, L413, B3185 (Fig. 9.4:30) Rounded rim (D 60 mm) and convex, funnel-shaped mouth; four non-joining fragments. A turquoise-colored trail is wound around the mouth: two thick windings on the top and bottom flanking two very thin windings. Light greenish blue with some medium-sized, oval bubbles. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. Bottle with a Funnel-Shaped Mouth (Fig. 9.4:31) This fragment belonged to a type of bottle that appeared in the Roman period and continued into the Byzantine–Umayyad periods. It was discovered in an accumulation in the monastery, together with other glass vessels dated to the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods (Nos. 11–13, 18, 35, 53). A similar bottle from Ras Abu Ma‘aruf was dated, based on comparanda, to the fourth or early fifth century CE (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:209, Fig. 1:14), and several examples were uncovered in Tombs 97, 215 and 311 at the Dominus Flevit compound, dated to the fifth–sixth centuries CE (Bagatti and Milik 1958:144, Fig. 33:16–18; Barag 1970:32). A bottle from a sealed Umayyad-period context was unearthed at Busra (Wilson and Sa‘d 1984:75, 146–147, Fig. 568). No. 31. Area C, L408, B3234 (Fig. 9.4:31) Short, funnel mouth with a rounded rim (D 40 mm). Greenish blue; medium-sized, oval bubbles. Iridescence; slight pitting. Squat Bottles with an Infolded, Flattened Rim (Fig. 9.4:32–35) Four rim and neck fragments represent this type of bottle, which was widespread in the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods. The rim is infolded and flattened, which diminishes its inner diameter. These bottles have a short, cylindrical neck, thick walls and a squat body. Most of them are green and their fabric is severely weathered, creating a thick, enamel-like crust that is characteristic of globular bottles and jars of the Umayyad period. Bottle No. 35 differs from the others in its light bluish-green color, which is typical of most of the other glass vessels recovered from the site. It also differs in its low-quality fabric and its rim with a hollow fold. These fragments were discovered in various loci: on a Stratum III floor bedding in the ambulatory (No. 32); in an accumulation in the monastery (No. 33); on the bedding of a Stratum IV mosaic floor (No. 34); and in an accumulation along with other glass vessels dated to the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods. Analogous examples from the Jerusalem area were discovered in contexts of the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods, as at nearby Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen

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2000b:88*, not illustrated), in the Jewish Quarter (Gorin-Rosen 2003:384, Pl. 15.9:G92), at Khirbat ‘Adasa (Gorin-Rosen 2008a:126, Fig. 2:11) and in a burial cave at Ḥorbat Gores (Solimany, Winter and Vincenz 2006:91*, Fig. 4:5, and see examples therein from Ḥorbat Ḥermeshit). The hollow, infolded rim of No. 35 resembles examples from the monastery at Deir Ghazali north of Jerusalem (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:47*–48*, Fig. 26:2), from Ḥorbat Ḥermeshit (Winter 1998:176, Figs. 1:3; 2:14, and see additional references therein) and from Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:223–224, Pl. 10.1:13, and see additional references therein). No. 32. Area A, L59, B293 (Fig. 9.4:32) Unevenly infolded, flattened rim (D 20–22 mm) and short, cylindrical neck. Probably green. Severely corroded; golden, enamel-like crust. No. 33. Area C, L422, B3387 (Fig. 9.4:33) Complete rim and part of the neck. Infolded, flattened rim (D 28 mm) and a cylindrical neck. Green. Severe weathering; thick, golden, enamel-like crust; iridescence. No. 34. Area B, L220, B1186 (Fig. 9.4:34) Complete rim and part of the neck. Thick, unevenly infolded, flattened rim (D 30 mm) and a thick, cylindrical neck. Green. Severe weathering; thick, golden, enamel-like crust; iridescence; sand deposit. No. 35. Area C, L408, B3228 (Fig. 9.4:35) Complete rim and neck. Unevenly infolded, flattened rim (D 25 mm) and a cylindrical neck. Light bluish green; small and medium-sized, round and vertical oval bubbles; black impurities. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. Bottle/Jar with a Wide, Funnel-Shaped Mouth (Fig. 9.4:36) This fragment may have belonged to a bottle or a jar. It was discovered on a Stratum III floor bedding in the ambulatory. No analogous examples have been located, yet the fabric and fashioning of the vessel attribute it to the late Byzantine period. No. 36. Area B, L59, B1127 (Fig. 9.4:36) Thin-walled fragment with a flaring, rounded rim (D 60 mm), a wide mouth and a wide neck. Light greenish blue; blowing spirals. Slight iridescence. Bottles with a Ridged Neck (Fig. 9.4:37–39) Bottles of this type were blown and tooled, and vary in fabric and workmanship, the thickness of the neck wall and the width of the opening, as well as in the number, thickness and density of the ridges. They are characteristic particularly of the eighth–ninth centuries CE. These three fragments represent different subtypes: No. 37 has a cylindrical neck and

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its horizontal ridges are uneven; No. 38 is very small and displays a single ridge; and No. 39 was carelessly made of low-quality glass, and its ridges are uneven.4 A ridged bottle neck was unearthed at nearby Ramat Raḥel (Jackson-Tal 2016:583, Fig. 37.5:5), and a specimen with pronounced ridges at Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:209, Fig. 1:21). Many such bottles with ridged necks of various types were unearthed at Bet She’an, in Abbasid–Fatimid contexts (mid-eighth–eleventh centuries CE; Hadad 2005:40–41, Pl. 38:762–779), and they are documented in contexts of the seventh–ninth centuries CE throughout Syria-Palestine and neighboring regions (Gorin-Rosen 2010:233– 235, Pl. 10.6:7–10). No. 37. Area B, L276, B7150 (Fig. 9.4:37) Complete rim and neck, and part of the shoulder. Infolded, thickened, rounded rim (D 20 mm) and a thick-walled neck with uneven, horizontal ridges. Greenish blue; small round and oval bubbles; black impurities. Iridescence; sand deposit. No. 38. Area B, L216, B1111 (Fig. 9.4:38) Complete rim and neck, and part of the shoulder. Infolded, rounded rim (D 10 mm) and a cylindrical neck with a horizontal ridge. Light greenish blue; small and medium-sized, oval bubbles; black impurities. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. No. 39. Area C, L403, B3065 (Fig. 9.4:39) Complete rim and neck, and part of the shoulder. Infolded, rounded, flattened rim (D 17 mm) and an uneven, thick-walled, funnel-shaped neck with three indistinct horizontal ridges. Olive green; large bubbles; black impurities. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. Various Bottle Bottoms (Fig. 9.4:40–43) Several bottoms in the assemblage are of types dated to the Byzantine–Umayyad periods: No. 40 is flat and may have supported a globular bottle with a neck such as No. 37; Nos. 41 and 43 are slightly concave and probably belonged to bottles, although No. 41 may have also belonged to a jar; No. 42 is thick, flat and very stable, and may have supported a small globular bottle with a neck such as No. 39––of matching size and color and from the same locus. Many bottles with bottoms resembling Nos. 40, 41 and 43 were discovered in and around Jerusalem, mostly at sites associated with the fifth–seventh centuries CE. Complete bottles were recorded, for example, in Tombs 97, 215 and 311 at the Dominus Flevit compound, dated to the fifth–sixth centuries CE (Bagatti and Milik 1958:144, Fig. 34:1–4; Barag 1970:32), in a tomb chamber in the monastery at Bethany (Saller 1957:329, Pl. 57:d, e) and in a Byzantine-period burial cave in the Naḥalat Aḥim neighborhood (Kogan-Zehavi

As No. 39 was found together with No. 42, and they match in size and color, they may have belonged to the same vessel. 4

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2006: Figs. 3:8; 8:38; 17:93–96; 18:99–101; 19:103). Bottoms resembling No. 42 were discovered in an Umayyad-period context at Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 1999b:11, Fig. 1:13, 14). No. 40. Area B, L276, B7150 (Fig. 9.4:40) Thin-walled, flat bottom with a crude pontil scar (D 9 mm) on its underside, and thin vessel walls. Greenish blue. Iridescence; sand deposit. No. 41. Area A, L59, B293 (Fig. 9.4:41) Thin-walled, pushed-in, concave bottom (D 40 mm) with no pontil scar. Greenish blue. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. No. 42. Area C, L403, B3083 (Fig. 9.4:42) Complete, thick, flat, disc-like bottom (D 45 mm) with an uneven pontil scar (D 13–17 mm) on its underside, small part of thick wall, probably globular body. Green with an olivegreen tinge. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit. No. 43. Area C, L406, B3107 (Fig. 9.4:43) Pushed-in bottom (D 65–70 mm), flat at the center, no pontil scar. Light green. Iridescence; pitting; sand deposit. Bottles Adorned with a Thick, Horizontal, Wavy Trail (Fig. 9.4:44, 45) These two fragments, recovered from accumulations in the monastery, represent bottles adorned with a thick, horizontal, wavy trail on the mouth or neck, customary in the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods. Examples from Jerusalem include a nearly complete bottle with a thick, wavy trail wound on a funnel-shaped neck, from a monastery in the Kidron Valley (Winter 2017:103, Fig. 1:5), and a bottle neck from Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:210, Fig. 1:20). Narrower necks, resembling No. 44, were unearthed, together with Byzantine and Umayyad coins, in the Jewish Quarter (Gorin-Rosen 2003:384, Pl. 15.9:G93) and in a burial cave at ‘En Lavan in Naḥal Refa’im (Winter 2020:125–127, Fig. 2:2, 3). No. 44. Area C, L411, B3359 (Fig. 9.4:44) Short, cylindrical neck with a thick, wavy trail unevenly wound at approximately midheight. Light green with yellowish-green streaks; large and medium-sized, vertical oval bubbles. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. No. 45. Area C, L404, B3117 (Fig. 9.4:45) Double, thick, wavy trail applied to a thin-walled fragment. Greenish blue. Slight iridescence; sand deposit.

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Vessels Adorned with Applied, Pinched-Trail Decoration (Fig. 9.4:46, 47) These small wall fragments belonged to vessels decorated with applied horizontal trails, generally of a darker hue than that of the vessel, and pinched together to create a bifurcated pattern. The decorations of the two pieces differ in design, density and thickness of the trails: the decoration on No. 46 is coarser and more spacious than that on No. 47. Applied, pinched-trail decoration was widespread in Syria-Palestine, mostly on bottles, during the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods (Gorin-Rosen 2010:225–226, Pls. 10.1:18; 10.2:13–15). A complete bottle adorned with a pinched-trail decoration on the body and a thin trail wound on the neck, was unearthed in a tomb at Bethany and dated to the fifth or sixth century CE (Harden 1965:52–53, Fig. 11, top left). Small wall fragments with pinchedtrail decoration were discovered in contexts of the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods, as at Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:87*–88*, Fig. 2:22, and see reference therein to two complete bottles from a burial cave at El-Jish [Gush Ḥalav]) and Khirbat ‘Adasa (GorinRosen 2008a:126–127, Fig. 2:14). No. 46. Area C, L426, B3364 (Fig. 9.4:46) Small body fragment with two thin, horizontal, turquoise-colored trails between two thick trails of the same color (the top one thicker than the bottom one), deeply pinched to create a bifurcated pattern. Light greenish blue. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. No. 47. Area C, L407, B3156 (Fig. 9.4:47) Small, thin-walled body fragment with nine very thin, horizontal, turquoise-colored trails, deeply pinched to create a bifurcated pattern. Colorless. Small oval bubbles. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. Vessels Adorned with Pinches (Fig. 9.4:48–50) These small wall fragments belonged to vessels decorated with rows of horizontal or vertical pinches. Fragments 48 and 49 were unearthed in accumulations in the church and monastery, while No. 50 was found in the accumulation on a Stratum IV mosaic floor in the northwestern chapel. Vessels adorned with this type of decoration included bowls, beakers, jars, wineglasses, bottles and jugs, all associated with the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods (Gorin-Rosen 2010:219, Pl. 10.1:6, and see references to additional examples therein). Pinched decoration was also customary on squat bottles with an infolded, flattened rim, such

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as Nos. 32–35 (e.g., Delougaz and Haines 1960: Pl. 50:9). Vessels with pinched decoration from Byzantine–Umayyad-period contexts in Jerusalem and its environs include a beaker/wineglass and a beaker/bottle at nearby Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:86*, Fig. 2:12, 13), a bottle and a jar in a burial cave at ‘En Lavan (Winter 2020:127–128, Fig. 2:3, 4), and body fragments in a burial cave at Ḥorbat Gores (Solimany, Winter and Vincenz 2006:91*, Fig. 4:6) and in the monastery at Deir Ghazali (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:48*, Fig. 26:3). No. 48. Area B, L216, B1111 (Fig. 9.4:48) Thin-walled fragment with a single intact, small, delicate pinch (the fragment is too small to determine if the pinch was horizontal or vertical). Light bluish green. Sand deposit. No. 49. Area C, L420, B3283 (Fig. 9.4:49) Thin-walled fragment with two horizontal pinches: one complete and one partially intact. Greenish blue. Iridescence; slight pitting. No. 50. Area A, L16, B126 (Fig. 9.4:50) Small body fragment (either the shoulder or the wall close to the bottom) with two horizontal pinches: one complete and one partially intact. Light bluish green; small and medium-sized, round and oval bubbles; black impurities. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. Vessel Adorned with Vertically Applied, Wavy Trail (Fig. 9.4:51) This tiny wall fragment of good-quality glass, from an accumulation on a floor in the monastery, is decorated with a vertically applied, wavy trail; it may have belonged to a bottle, but was more likely part of a bowl or beaker. This type of decoration appeared in the Umayyad period, as on an example from Ramla (Gorin-Rosen 2010:219, Pls. 10.2:2), and continued into the Abbasid period, as attested by a complete beaker from Ramla discovered alongside pottery dated to the eighth–ninth centuries CE (Pollak 2007:110, 112–113, Fig. 6:32). No. 51. Area C, L404, B3067 (Fig. 9.4:51) Small, thin-walled body fragment with a thin, vertically applied, wavy trail of the same color as the vessel, of which two folds survived. Light greenish blue. Slight sand deposit.

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28

31 30 29

33 34

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35

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39

37

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40

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41

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46

47

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Fig. 9.4. Glass bottles and jugs from the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods.

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Jug with a Trefoil Mouth (Fig. 9.5:52) This upper part belonged to a plain jug or to an eulogia jug of the same group as No. 53, which often had a trefoil mouth. It was found in the accumulation on a mosaic floor in the monastery. Vessels with a trefoil mouth were customary during the Roman period, and also occurred in the Byzantine period. The thick, horizontal, wavy trail wound on the neck places this vessel in the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods (see Nos. 44, 45). Jugs with a trefoil mouth adorned with a horizontal, wavy trail were found, for example, at Ḥammat Gader (Cohen 1997:415–416, Pl. V:1, 2), and a five-sided eulogia jug with a trefoil mouth adorned with a horizontal, wavy trail is kept in the Shlomo Moussaieff collection (Newby 2008:308–309, Cat. No. 104). No. 52. Area C, L455, B7599 (Fig. 9.5:52) Upper part of a jug with an infolded rim and traces of a handle, a trefoil mouth (L 60 mm; W 50 mm), and a cylindrical neck adorned with a thick, wavy trail wound twice at about mid-height. Greenish blue; round and oval bubbles; black impurities. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. Vessels Adorned with Mold-Blown Decoration Mold-blown patterns decorated various types of vessels in the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, and continued to appear later as well. Three examples from Kathisma are presented here (Fig. 9.5:53–55). Jug with a Hexagonal-Sectioned Body (Fig. 9.5:53) This jug has a six-sided body adorned with mold-blown patterns, each pattern recurring twice. It was discovered in topsoil accumulation together with other glass vessels dated to the late Byzantine–early Umayyad periods (L408). The jug belonged to a group of moldblown eulogia jugs displaying geometric and floral motifs on the walls, generally three motifs recurring twice in the same order (Israeli 2003:277–280). Its bottom may have been decorated, as most specimens of this group bear a rosette or other design on the bottom underside. Eulogia jugs probably served pilgrims as containers for ‘blessings’––oil or water from the Holy Land––and are most likely contemporaneous with, or slightly earlier than, the hexagonal-sectioned vessels depicting Jewish and Christian symbols that were probably made in Palestine in the late sixth–mid-seventh centuries CE for the same purpose (Barag 1971; Israeli 2003:270–271; Winter 2019:77–81, Type EXMSV). Fragments of mold-blown eulogia jugs with similar designs were discovered, for example, in a Byzantine-period glass assemblage at Ḥorbat Roẓeẓ (Winter 2010:152–153, Fig. 3:12–14). The excavations at Samaria-Sebaste yielded the lower part of a hexagonal mold-blown jug, each side decorated with a different design: palm fronds, discs, lozenges and grillwork (Crowfoot 1957:416, Fig. 96:8); a similar bronze vessel from the same site was probably a mold for the production of such glass vessels (Kenyon 1957:451, Fig. 109:9). Two hexagonal mold-blown jugs with the same designs, in the collection of the Israel

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Museum in Jerusalem, are assigned to the sixth–seventh centuries CE (Israeli 2003:277, Cat. Nos. 371, 372). A bottle and a jug in the Ernesto Wolf Collection both depict similar patterns to those from Kathisma; their provenance is noted as ‘probably Syrian’, and they are attributed to the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Stern 2001:274–275, 324–326, Cat. Nos. 185, 186). No. 53. Area C, L408, B3234 (Fig. 9.5:53) Shoulder, wall and bottom fragments, and an additional shoulder fragment (not illustrated); the lower part of the jug was reconstructed from several fragments. Thin-walled, hexagonalsectioned jug with an irregular, concave bottom (max. L 50 mm). The underside of the bottom has a pontil scar (D 10 mm) and may have depicted an unsuccessfully executed pattern. The high-quality, mold-blown patterns on the six sides protrude equally on the interior and exterior. They comprise lozenges framing circles, diagonal grillwork and a stylized palm frond, each pattern recurring twice. Light greenish blue; small round bubbles; black impurities on bottom. Iridescence; sand deposit. Vessel Adorned with Dotted Decoration (Fig. 9.5:54) This small fragment of a closed vessel is adorned with an ‘optic blown’ pattern of scattered dots, which was produced by blowing the vessel into a pattern mold, and then into a plain mold that pressed the protruding pattern. A complete jug with the same decoration was found in a tomb in the ecclesiastical complex of St. Stephen at Umm al-Rasas in Jordan (Alliata 1991:377, Fig. 7:3; Piccirillo 1991:331–332). No. 54. Area C, L407, B3202 (Fig. 9.5:54) Small wall fragment with a mold-blown dotted pattern, of which seven dots survived. Colorless with a bluish-green tinge. Small round bubbles. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. Vessel Adorned with Grid Decoration (Fig. 9.5:55) This small, thick-walled fragment was decorated with a protruding, mold-blown grid. This pattern is quite rare, although the fabric resembles that of other vessels from Stratum IV, and therefore this vessel is associated with the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods. A vessel depicting a mold-blown grid pattern was unearthed in a context probably of the seventh century CE, in the small monastery at Khirbat Umm Leisun, some 4 km southeast of Jerusalem (Katsnelson 2015:199–201, Fig. 1:1, 2). No. 55. Area C, L402, B3057 (Fig. 9.5:55) Wall fragment adorned with a mold-blown grid pattern, comprising a protruding ridge and thin perpendicular lines. Light bluish green; small round bubbles. No weathering.

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53

54

55

0

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Fig. 9.5. Glass jug with a trefoil mouth, glass vessels adorned with mold-blown decoration from the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods.

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Oil Lamps Glass oil lamps were used in public buildings such as churches and synagogues, as well as in private dwellings. The specimens excavated at Kathisma (except No. 56) represent the most widespread lamp types during the Byzantine–Umayyad periods. Bowl-Shaped Oil Lamp with an Upright, Hollow, Infolded Rim (Fig. 9.6:56) The hollow, infolded rim is unusual, yet the shape and fabric associate it with bowl-shaped oil lamps of the Byzantine–Umayyad periods. No. 56. Area A, L60, B296 (Fig. 9.6:56) Hollow, infolded rim (D c. 80 mm) and vertical walls. Light green. Patches of golden weathering; iridescence; sand deposit. Bowl-Shaped Oil Lamps (Fig. 9.6:57–59) The hollow, outfolded rim fragment (No. 57) and the trail handle (No. 58) were made of the same fabric and found in the same basket, although no joining point survived. Both pieces probably belonged to a bowl-shaped oil lamp with three trail handles.5 They were found in the Stratum III mosaic bedding of the bema. Some of these bowl-shaped lamps had a wick tube installed in the floor center (No. 59). From Jerusalem and its vicinity, complete handled specimens installed with a wick tube were recorded in the Church of the Visitation at ‘En Kerem (Bagatti 1948:77–78, Fig. 34:1) and in Tomb 217 at the Dominus Flevit compound (Bagatti and Milik 1958:148, Fig. 35:11), and fragments were found at Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:88*–92*, Fig. 3:30–33, and see references therein to examples from Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam), the monastery at Deir Ghazali (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:49*, Fig. 26:8), and in the northwestern corner of the Old City wall (Gorin-Rosen 2006a:116*, Fig. 14:6, 7). Complete, handled, bowl-shaped oil lamps with a wick tube were also discovered, for example, in the Church of St. John the Baptist at Samaria-Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:418–419, Fig. 99:2, 3). No. 57. Area A, L96, B465 (Fig. 9.6:57) Hollow, wide, unevenly outfolded rim (D 130 mm) and very thin walls. Light yellowish green; oval bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

5

As no traces of handles were detected on the rim fragment (No. 57), it may have served as a plain bowl.

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No. 58. Area A, L96, B465 (Fig. 9.6:58) Trail handle drawn from the walls upward to the edge of an outfolded rim. Yellowish green; small bubbles; black impurities. Iridescence; sand deposit. No. 59. Area E, L809, B6039 (Fig. 9.6:59) Tall, narrow, cylindrical, greenish-blue wick tube (D 13 mm), set unevenly at the center of a pushed-in bottom with a pontil scar (D 12 mm) on its underside. Light green. Small round bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit. Stemmed Oil Lamps (Fig. 9.6:60, 61) Stemmed oil lamps consisted of a small bowl- or beaker-shaped receptacle with a plain rounded rim. The stems were set into suspended metal polycandela, and appeared in several variations, of which the hollow one is represented here. Stemmed lamps were widespread in the Byzantine period and continued into the Umayyad period (Barag 1970:182–183, Types 13:3–9, Pl. 40:3–9; Peleg and Reich 1992:155, 158–159, 165, Fig. 20). Complete stemmed oil lamps, with stems somewhat different than Nos. 60 and 61, were discovered, for example, in the Church of the Visitation at ‘En Kerem (Bagatti 1948:77–78, Fig. 34:3, 4). Similar stems from the Jerusalem area include examples from Khirbat Ṭabaliya (GorinRosen 2000b:91*–92*, Fig. 3:35), Khirbat Siyar el-Ghanam (Corbo 1955:75–76, Fig. 25:8), the ‘House of the Menorot’, southwest of the Temple Mount (Hadad 2003:193–194, Pl. II.5:6–15, Photo II.35), the Dominus Flevit compound (Bagatti and Milik 1958:148, Fig. 35:14), a cave on the Mount of Olives (Winter 2000), Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Gorin-Rosen 1999a:212, Fig. 2:28, 29) and the monastery at Deir Ghazali (Gorin-Rosen 2000a:49*, Fig. 26:9). No. 60. Area A, L136, B4093 (Fig. 9.6:60) Irregular, hollow, conical stem with a thick, cut-off bottom (D 8 mm). Greenish blue; small, round and oval bubbles. Iridescence; slight pitting; sand deposit. No. 61. Area B, L218, B1178 (Fig. 9.6:61) Hollow, cylindrical stem (D c. 13 mm), thick and diagonally cut-off at the bottom, with a tiny trace of glass from the pontil. Light green; small round bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

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57 56

58 59

60

61 0

4

Fig. 9.6. Glass oil lamps from the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods.

Windowpanes Many windowpane fragments originate mostly in topsoil accumulations in the northeastern part of the church (Area A). The glass panes are classified into two types––circular (Nos. 62–64) and quadrangular (Nos. 65, 66)––both of which were in use in public and private buildings during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods (Winter 2019:85–88, 101–106). In Jerusalem, most of the circular and quadrangular windowpanes were found in complexes dated to the sixth–seventh centuries CE, as at nearby Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:92*–93*, Fig. 3:38–40), and in most cases the two types appeared contemporaneously (Winter 2019:85, Table 3.5).

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Circular Windowpanes (Fig. 9.7:62–64) Circular windowpanes, known as the ‘bull’s-eye’ type, were thick and generally had a thickened center and a hollow folded edge. They were made in the same manner as bowls, but without the base. The specimens from Kathisma are small, with estimated diameters of 170–190 mm. Circular windowpane fragments were discovered, for example, at nearby Khirbat Ṭabaliya (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:92*, Fig. 3:40), at the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005:207–208, Fig. 3:43), and at the northwestern corner of the Old City wall, within a floor dated to the late Byzantine period (Gorin-Rosen 2006a:116*–117*, Fig. 14:8). No. 62. Area A, L48, B235 (Fig. 9.7:62) Very small fragment of a thin-walled, circular windowpane with a rounded, hollow, outfolded rim. Bluish green. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. No. 63. Area A, L48, B215 (Fig. 9.7:63) Very small fragment of a circular windowpane with a flattened, rounded, hollow, outfolded rim. Light bluish green. Iridescence; sand deposit. No. 64. Area A, L57, B292 (Fig. 9.7:64) Very small fragment of a circular windowpane with a thick, rounded, hollow, outfolded rim. Light bluish green. Iridescence; sand deposit. Quadrangular Windowpanes (Fig. 9.7:65, 66) The quadrangular windowpanes from Kathisma were cylinder blown; they are rather thin, and their edges are fire rounded. At nearby Khirbat Ṭabaliya, a thin quadrangular windowpane fragment was found together with a coarser, thicker variant (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:92*, Fig. 3:38, 39). Quadrangular windowpanes were also unearthed, for example, in a monastery in the Kidron Valley (Winter 2017:105, Fig. 1:10, 11) and at the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Gorin-Rosen 2005:207–208, Fig. 3:44). No. 65. Area A, L53, B257 (Fig. 9.7:65) Thin quadrangular windowpane (W 1 mm) with a rounded edge. Light bluish green; small bubbles; black impurities. Slight iridescence; sand deposit. No. 66. Area B, B1157 (Fig. 9.7:66) Thick quadrangular windowpane (W 2.5–3.0 mm) with an uneven, rounded edge. Light blue; small round bubbles. Iridescence; sand deposit.

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62

63

64

65

66

0

4

Fig. 9.7. Glass windowpanes from the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods.

The Abbasid Period Only a single glass find from Kathisma may be attributed to the Abbasid period. It was discovered in topsoil accumulation in the innermost octagon. Bichromatic Vessel (Fig. 9.8:67) Early Islamic bichromatic vessels were made of two different blobs of glass, one of which was generally colorless. They were usually decorated, on one or both parts, with impressed geometric patterns; however, the fragment from Kathisma is tiny and a pattern cannot be discerned. Several fragments of bichromatic vessels were discovered at Bet She’an: a

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purple and colorless tonged bowl (Katsnelson 2014:41*–42*, Fig. 9:1), and two bottles in contexts dated from the mid-eighth to the eleventh centuries CE, and assumed to have been imported from Iran (Hadad 2005:42–43, Pls. 40:850; 41:851). Another specimen, from Ḥorbat Hermas near Reḥovot, was dated to the Abbasid–Fatimid periods (Gorin-Rosen 2006b:34*, Fig. 1:4), and three similar pieces, unearthed at Al-Mina in northern Syria, were attributed to local manufacture of the ninth–tenth centuries CE (Lane 1938:70, Fig. 11:H, I, N). Bichromatic vessels from collections include one in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, ascribed to the eastern Mediterranean basin (Jenkins 1986:21, 56, No. 19), and another in the Benaki Museum in Athens (Clairmont 1977:69–71, Pl. XIV:231, and see discussion therein). The provenances of the accumulating excavated vessels suggest that they may have been made in several central glass workshops in Bilad al-Sham, in Egypt, and perhaps in Iran as well (Gorin-Rosen 2006b:34*). No. 67. Area B, L232, B7172 (Fig. 9.8:67) Body fragment made of two separate glass blobs: one thin and light blue, the other thick and colorless with a horizontal bulge on the interior where it was joined to the light blue part. Brown weathering; iridescence; pitting.

Miscellanea Bracelet (Fig. 9.8:68) This elaborate multicolored bracelet was recovered from topsoil. Most multicolored bracelets are attributed to the Mamluk through Ottoman periods, and some are still being made today, for example in India. Multicolored bracelets adorned with trails, some of which are intertwined, bichromatic trails, are generally dated to the Mamluk period (Spaer 1992:53–55, Type D4, Cross-Section 5, Pattern f.3; Fig. 20). No. 68. Area A, L55, B259 (Fig. 9.8:68) Small fragment of a triangular sectioned, multicolored bracelet. The hoop was made of translucent green glass and adorned with applied, fused-in, yellow and orange trails, as well as two intertwined, twisted bichromatic trails: one black and white, the other green and yellow. Silvery weathering; sand deposit. Bead (Fig. 9.8:69) A worn, broken, ovoid bead was found in topsoil in the area of the monastery. No. 69. Area E, L806, B6027 (Fig. 9.8:69) Ovoid bead with a perforation along its length. The bead was found full of sand and broken at the top. Blue. Iridescence.

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67

69 68 0

4

Fig. 9.8. Glass vessel from the Abbasid period and miscellanea.

Summary and Discussion Most of the glass finds from Kathisma that were worthy of publication originated in insecure loci or topsoil accumulations, and only a few items from well-dated loci can be assigned to Strata III–IV. Thus, the glass finds are dated mainly on the basis of analogous examples from secure contexts at other excavated sites. The earliest glass remains from Kathisma date to the late Hellenistic–Early Roman periods, and the latest is a fragment of a bracelet from the Mamluk–Ottoman periods, while the bulk of the glass finds are characteristic of the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods. This glass corpus represents a typical local assemblage of that era, displaying trends of continuity in the glass fabrics, technologies, typologies and styles, during and after the Arab conquest of the region. The only glass vessel dated later than the eighth century CE is a single bichromatic luxury vessel characteristic of the ninth–tenth centuries CE, discovered in topsoil. It was most likely brought to the site by a merchant or a pilgrim.

R eferences Agady S., Arazi M., Arubas B., Hadad S., Khamis E. and Tsafrir Y. 2002. Byzantine Shops in the Street of the Monuments at Bet Shean (Scythopolis). In L.V. Rutgers ed. What Athens Has To Do with Jerusalem: Essays on Classical, Jewish, and Early Christian Art and Archaeology in Honor of Gideon Foerster (Interdisciplinary Studies in Ancient Culture and Religion 1). Leuven. Pp. 423–506. Alliata E. 1991. Ceramica dal complesso di S. Stefano a Umm al-Rasas. LA 41:365–422. Amitai-Preiss N. 2004. Glass and Metal Finds. In Y. Hirschfeld. Excavations at Tiberias, 1989–1994 (IAA Reports 22). Jerusalem. Pp. 177–190. Ariel D.T. 1990. Glass. In D.T. Ariel. Excavations at the City of David 1978−1985, Directed by Yigal Shiloh II: Imported Stamped Amphora Handles, Coins, Worked Bone and Ivory, and Glass (Qedem 30). Jerusalem. Pp. 149−166. Bagatti B. 1948. Il Santuario della Visitazione ad ‘Ain Karim (Montana Judaeae) (SBF Collectio Maior 5). Jerusalem. Bagatti B. and Milik J.T. 1958. Gli scavi del ‘Dominus Flevit’ (Monte Oliveto-Gerusalemme) I: La necropoli del periodo romano (SBF Collectio Maior 13). Jerusalem.

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Barag D. 1967a. The Glass. In M.W. Prausnitz. Excavations at Shavei Zion: The Early Christian Church (Centro per le antichità e la storia dell’arte del Vicino Oriente, Monografie di archeologia et d’arte II). Rome. Pp. 65–70. Barag D. 1967b. The Glass Vessels. In M. Dothan and D.N. Freedman. Ashdod I: The First Season of Excavations 1962 (‘Atiqot [ES] 7). Jerusalem. Pp. 36–37, 72–73. Barag D. 1970. Glass Vessels of the Roman and Byzantine Periods in Palestine. Ph.D. diss. The Hebrew University. Jerusalem (Hebrew; English summary, pp. I–VIII). Barag D. 1971. Glass Pilgrim Vessels from Jerusalem II–III. JGS 13:45–63. Clairmont C.W. 1977. Benaki Museum: Catalogue of Ancient and Islamic Glass, Based on the Notes of C.J. Lamm. Athens. Cohen E. 1997. Roman, Byzantine and Umayyad Glass. In Y. Hirschfeld. The Roman Baths of Hammat Gader: Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 396–431. Corbo V.C. 1955. Gli scavi di Kh. Siyar el-Ghanam (Campo dei Pastori) e i monasteri dei dintorni (SBF Collectio Maior 11). Jerusalem. Crowfoot G.M. 1957. Glass. In J.W. Crowfoot, G.M. Crowfoot and K.M. Kenyon. Samaria-Sebastia III: The Objects from Samaria. London. Pp. 403–422. Delougaz P. and Haines R.C. 1960. A Byzantine Church at Khirbat al-Karak (OIP LXXXV). Chicago. FitzGerald G.M. 1931. Beth-Shan Excavations1923–1921 III: The Arab and Byzantine Levels (Publications of the Palestine Section of the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania 3). Philadelphia. Gorin-Rosen Y. 1999a. Glass Vessels from Ras Abu Ma‘aruf (Pisgat Ze’ev East A). ‘Atiqot 38:205– 214. Gorin-Rosen Y. 1999b. Glass Vessels from Recent Excavations in Ramla: A Preliminary Presentation. In S. Gibson and F. Vitto eds. Ramla: The Development of a Town from the Early Islamic to Ottoman Periods (One-Day Conference, 25th March 1999( (IAA, Department of Excavations and Surveys Booklet IV). Jerusalem. Pp. 10–15. Gorin-Rosen Y. 2000a. Glass Vessels. In R. Avner. Deir Ghazali: A Byzantine Monastery Northeast of Jerusalem. ‘Atiqot 40:47*–49* (Hebrew, English summary, pp. 160–161). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2000b. The Glass Vessels from Khirbet Ṭabaliya (Giv‘at Hamaṭos). ‘Atiqot 40:81*– 95* (Hebrew, English summary, pp. 165–166). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2002. The Glass Vessels. In Excavations at Khirbet el-Shubeika 1991, 1993. In Z. Gal ed. Eretz Zafon: Studies in Galilean Archaeology. Jerusalem. Pp. 288−322 (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 186*–187*). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2003. Glass Vessels from Area A. In H. Geva. The Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem Conducted by Nahman Avigad, 1969–1982 II: The Finds from Areas A, W and X-2; Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 364–400. Gorin-Rosen Y. 2005. The Glass. In B. Arubas and H. Goldfus eds. Excavations on the Site of the Jerusalem International Convention Center (Binyanei Ha’uma): A Settlement of the Late First to Second Temple Period, The Tenth Legion’s Kilnworks, and a Byzantine Monastic Complex; The Pottery and Other Small Finds (JRA Suppl. 60). Portsmouth, R.I. Pp. 195–210.

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Gorin-Rosen Y. 2006a. The Glass Finds. In S. Weksler-Bdolah. The Old City Wall of Jerusalem: The Northwestern Corner. ‘Atiqot 54:115*−117* (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 163−164). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2006b. The Glass Finds from Ḥorbat Hermas. ‘Atiqot 51:33*−35* (Hebrew; English summary, p. 236). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2006c. Glass Vessels. In H. Geva ed. Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem Conducted by Nahman Avigad, 1969−1982 III: Area E and Other Studies; Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 239−265. Gorin-Rosen Y. 2008a. The Glass Finds from Khirbat ‘Adasa. ‘Atiqot 58:123–134 (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 72*−73*). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2008b. Glass Vessels from the Ramla Excavations. Qadmoniot 135:45–50 (Hebrew). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2010. The Islamic Glass Vessels. In O. Gutfeld. Ramla: Final Report on the Excavations North of the White Mosque (Qedem 51). Jerusalem. Pp. 213–264. Gorin-Rosen Y. and Winter T. 2010. Selected Insights into Byzantine Glass in the Holy Land. In J. Drauschke and D. Keller eds. Glass in Byzantium: Production, Usage, Analyses (International Workshop Organised by the Byzantine Archaeology Mainz, 17th–18th of January 2008) (Römisch-germanisches Zentralmuseum Tagungen 8). Mainz. Pp. 165–181. Grose D.F. 1979. The Syro-Palestinian Glass Industry in the Later Hellenistic Period. Muse 13:54– 67. Gutreich D. 2013. The Glass Finds. In D. Ben-Ami. Jerusalem: Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv‘ati Parking Lot) (IAA Reports 52). Jerusalem. Pp. 265–289. Hadad S. 2003. Glass Lamps from the “House of the Menorot” in Area VI. In E. Mazar. The Temple Mount Excavations in Jerusalem 1968–1978 Directed by Benjamin Mazar. Final Reports II: The Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods (Qedem 43). Jerusalem. Pp. 191–195. Hadad S. 2005. Islamic Glass Vessels from the Hebrew University Excavations at Bet Shean (Qedem Reports 8). Jerusalem. Hamilton R.W. 1938. Note on Recent Discoveries outside St. Stephen’s Gate, Jerusalem. QDAP 6:153−156. Harden D.B. 1965. Some Tomb Groups of Late Roman Date in the Amman Museum. In Annales du 3e congrès des “journées internationales du verre” (Damas, 14–23 novembre 1964). Liège. Pp. 48–55. Isings C. 1957. Roman Glass from Dated Finds (Archaeologica Traiectina II). Groningen–Djakarta. Israeli Y. 2003. Ancient Glass in the Israel Museum: The Eliahu Dobkin Collection and Other Gifts (Israel Museum Catalogue 486). Jerusalem. Jackson-Tal R.E. 2016. Glass Finds. In O. Lipschits, Y. Gadot and L. Freud. Ramat Raḥel III: Final Publication of Yohanan Aharoni’s Excavations (1954, 1959–1962) II (Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology Monograph Series 35). Tel Aviv–Winona Lake. Pp. 567–587. Jenkins M. 1986. Islamic Glass: A Brief History (The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 44/2). New York. Katsnelson N. 2009. Glass Artifacts. In G. Sulimani. Jerusalem, ‘Ir Gannim. HA−ESI 121 (December 18). http://www hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=988&mag_id=115 (accessed May 30, 2010).

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Katsnelson N. 2014. The Glass Finds from Bet She’an (Youth Hostel). ‘Atiqot 77:23*−57*. Katsnelson N. 2015. Glass Vessels from the Monastery at Khirbat Umm Leisun, Jerusalem. ‘Atiqot 83:199−204. Katsnelson N. 2016. Glass Vessels. In O. Lipschits, Y. Gadot and L. Freud. Ramat Raḥel III: Final Publication of Yohanan Aharoni’s Excavations (1954, 1959–1962) II (Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology Monograph Series 35). Tel Aviv–Winona Lake, Pp. 707–711. Kenyon K.M. 1957. Miscellaneous Objects in Metal, Bone and Stone. In J.W. Crowfoot, G.M. Crowfoot and K.M. Kenyon. Samaria-Sebastia III: The Objects from Samaria. London. Pp. 439–468. Kogan-Zehavi E. 2006. A Burial Cave of the Byzantine Period in the Naḥalat Aḥim Quarter, Jerusalem. ‘Atiqot 54:61*–86* (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 160–161). Lane A. 1938. Medieval Finds at al-Mina in North Syria. Archaeologia 87:19–78. Lester A. 2004. The Glass. In D. Stacey. Excavations at Tiberias, 1973–1974: The Early Islamic Periods (IAA Reports 21). Jerusalem. Pp. 167–220. Meyer C. 1988. Glass from the North Theater Byzantine Church, and Soundings at Jerash, Jordan, 1982–1983. In W.E. Rast ed. Preliminary Reports of ASOR-Sponsored Excavations 1982–85 (BASOR Suppl. 25). Baltimore. Pp. 175–222. Nenna M.-D. 1999. Les verres (Exploration archéologique de Délos 37). Athens–Paris. Newby M.S. 2008. Byzantine Mould-Blown Glass from the Holy Land with Jewish and Christian Symbols: Shlomo Moussaieff Collection. London. Pancrace Fr. 1965. Necropoli verso la valle del Cedron, nella zona antistante la Basilica dell’Agonia. In V.C. Corbo. Ricerche archeologiche al Monte degli Ulivi (SBF Collectio Maior 16). Jerusalem. Pp. 58–74. Peleg M. and Reich R. 1992. Excavations of a Segment of the Byzantine City Wall of Caesarea Maritima. ‘Atiqot 21:137–170. Piccirillo M. 1991. Il complesso di Santo Stefano a Umm al-Rasas-Kastron Mefaa in Giordania (1986–1991). LA 41:327–364. Pollak R. 2007. Excavation in Marcus Street, Ramla: The Glass Vessels. Contract Archaeology Reports 2:100–133. Saller S.J. 1957. Excavations at Bethany (1949–1953) (SBF Collectio Maior 12). Jerusalem. Solimany G., Winter T. and Vincenz A. de. 2006. A Burial Cave from the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods in Ḥorbat Gores, the Gonen Quarter, Jerusalem. ‘Atiqot 54:87*–94* (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 161–163). Spaer M. 1992. The Islamic Glass Bracelets of Palestine: Preliminary Findings. JGS 34:44−62. Stern E.M. 2001. Roman, Byzantine, and Early Medieval Glass (10BCE–700CE): Ernesto Wolf Collection. Ostfildern-Ruit. Wilson J. and Sa‘d M. 1984. The Domestic Material Culture of Nabataean to Umayyad Period Busrā. Berytus 32:35–147. Winter T. 1998. The Glass Vessels from Ḥorvat Ḥermeshit (1988–1990). ‘Atiqot 34:173–177 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 10*).

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Winter T. 2000. The Glass Vessels. In J. Seligman and R. Abu Raya. Dwelling Caves on the Mount of Olives (Eṭ-Ṭur). ‘Atiqot 40:132–133. Winter T. 2010. The Byzantine-Period Glass Vessels from Ḥorbat Roẓeẓ. ‛Atiqot 62:145–155. Winter T. 2011. The Glass Finds. In R. Bar-Nathan and W. Atrash. Bet She’an II: Baysān; The Theater Pottery Workshop (IAA Reports 48). Jerusalem. Pp. 345–362. Winter T. 2013. The Glass Finds. In D. Ein Mor. Jerusalem, Ha-Nevi’im (Prophets) Street. HA−ESI 125 (November 7). http://www hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=4364&mag_ id=120 (accessed January 30, 2014). Winter T. 2014. The Glass Finds. In Z. ‘Adawi. Jerusalem, Umm Ṭuba. HA−ESI 126 (December 12). http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=12659&mag_id=121 (accessed June 15, 2016). Winter T. 2017. The Glass Finds from the Byzantine Monastery in Naḥal Qidron, Jerusalem. ‘Atiqot 89:101–106. Winter T. 2019. Lucid Transformations: The Byzantine–Islamic Transition as Reflected in Glass Assemblages from Jerusalem and Its Environs, 450–800 CE (BAR Int. S. 2946). Oxford. Winter T. 2020. Glass Vessels, Metal Artifacts and Beads from the Burial Cave at ‘En Lavan, Naḥal Refa’im. ‘Atiqot 98:123–133.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 10

The K athisma Church in Its Historical Context in the Early Islamic Period Rina Avner Introduction There is a long chronological gap in the available written sources regarding the site of Kathisma, between the visit of the Piacenza Pilgrim to the Holy Land around 570 CE and the visit of the Russian Abbot Daniel in 1107/1108 CE (see Chapter 1). Thus, the archeological evidence unearthed in the Kathisma excavations of continuous occupation throughout the Early Islamic period, with numismatic finds providing dates in the eighth– ninth centuries CE for Strata IV–V (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 73, 82, 85, 87–91), is of the utmost importance. In Stratum IV, the southern doorway in the church connecting the outermost octagon to the ambulatory was blocked by a niche that was built on its threshold. The niche opened to the north and was closed on the south. It is dated to the eighth century CE by numismatic finds (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 85), which allows its identification as a miḥrāb––an Islamic prayer niche. To the south of the miḥrāb were two rooms, and together with the southeastern passage room, they were converted for the use of Muslims. Another significant architectural change in this stratum was the construction, on the eastern side of the church, of a building that canceled the main apse (see Chapter 2: Plans 2.1, 2.4). This Umayyad building was dated by a coin retrieved from the core of one of its walls, to the eighth century CE (see Chapter 7: Cat. No. 82). This change attests to the cessation of Christian worship in the holiest part of the church (except for the central rock). The fact that the entrances to the chapels from the ambulatory were not canceled, and that an inscription possibly dating to the eighth century CE decorated with a cross (see Chapter 5) was found at the site, demonstrates that Christian religious activity did not cease with the Muslim conquest. From the eighth century CE onward, the southeastern and southern areas of the church served the Muslims for prayers, while Christian activity continued in the rest of the church. Stratum IV contains the three most splendid mosaic floors found at the site: in the southeastern passage room of the church (Mosaic 54) and in the room next to it (Mosaic 73), and in the southern room (Room 1) of the Umayyad building that canceled the main apse (Mosaic 87; see Chapter 4: Group 4). The closest parallels to the two mosaics from the church are found in the wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock, while the mosaic in the Umayyad building finds parallels in Sassanian art (see Chapter 4; Avner 2004b). My research assumption is that these three sumptuous mosaics were not installed simply as

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ornamentation, but decorated the rooms with the most important religious functions and thus had exceptional iconographic significance. This chapter discusses the presence of Muslim worship in Christian churches and the directions of prayer in early Islam, the iconography of the three magnificent mosaics within the historical context of Kathisma and the beliefs regarding Mary and her labor, and specifically, the identification of Jesus’ birthplace in the early Islamic traditions, including the Qurʼān, and their manifestation at Kathisma.1 An Active Mosque in a Church A group of documents called the ‘Covenants of ‘Umar’ comprise treaties of surrender negotiated by the Umayyad Caliph ‘Umar with a number of cities in Israel, Syria, Egypt and Iraq (Tritton 1930; Hill 1971; Levy-Rubin 2011). In some of these treaties, the Christians committed themselves to reserve one quarter to one half of the area within the important churches to Muslim worshippers, usually the southern or southeastern parts of the churches––the parts closest to Mecca. In return, the Muslims pledged to spare the lives and property of the Christians. The cities include: Tiberias (Tritton 1930: 39, n. 3), Damascus (Tritton 1930:6–7, 40–42, esp. n. 2), Homs in Syria (Tritton 1930:39, n. 1), Tāna in Egypt (Tritton 1930:39, 46–47, esp. n. 1) and Hīt in Iraq (Tritton 1930:39, No. 2; see also Hill 1971:66–70, Nos. 139, 160, 165: Ṭabariyya [Tiberias], Baysān, Sūsiya, Afiq, Jarash, Bayt Rās, Qadas, al-Jawlān [Golan], Ḥalab [Aleppo], Dimashq [Damascus]). Eventually, Ramla also joined their number (Bashear 1991:267). Tritton dated these documents to the reign of ‘Umar b. ‘Abd al-‘Azīz (‘Umar II; 712–717 CE), and this is generally accepted in scholarship. In Tritton’s opinion, these treaties were not fulfilled, but reflect the reality of the time following the Muslim conquest, when the status quo stabilized in the cities and Christian holy places (Tritton 1930:10). On the other hand, Levy-Rubin claimed that they were historical documents that refer to actual events (Levy-Rubin 2005; 2011:8–58), while Cohen suggested that these were pseudoepigraphic inventions (1999:129). In the Church of John the Baptist in Damascus, the Muslim takeover proceeded gradually, until eventually, in the days of al-Walīd (705–715 CE), the church was totally confiscated and a mosque was built over it. The dating of the covenants to the reign of ‘Umar II (712–717 CE), or to the reign of Marwān II (744–749 CE), in whose time part of the church in Tāna, Egypt, was converted into a mosque (Elad 1999:93, n. 74), accords with the date of Stratum IV at Kathisma. The historical sources claiming that in the first two centuries of the hijra (seventh– eighth centuries CE) Muslims prayed in churches, were surveyed by Tor (1926) and Bashear (1991). According to them, Muslims initially faced east while praying, but eventually, in order to distinguish themselves from the Christians, they turned to the southeast. For example, the mosque built by ‘Amr b. al-‘Ᾱṣ al-Sahmī in Mecca faced eastward (Tor

I am grateful to Amikam Elad for the translation of the Arabic sources and his comments regarding this chapter. 1

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1926:4; Bashear 1991:281–282, n. 25), and a mosque from the second half of the seventh century CE with a miḥrāb facing east was uncovered in an excavation at Be’er Ora (Sharon, Avner and Nahlieli 1996:112–113; but see Avni 2007:133, who disputed this interpretation). However, Hoyland (1997:560–573) claimed that there were no fixed directions to which Muslims directed their prayers in the early stages of the formation of Islam. The excavations at Kathisma provide evidence that in the eighth century CE there was a special meaning to the southern and southeastern directions, and apparently both were directions for Muslim prayer at Kathisma: the niche in the ambulatory was oriented toward the south, while in Room 54 and in the southern Room 1 of the Umayyad building––the latter apparently of primary importance (see below)––the orientation of the mosaic carpets suggests that prayer was directed to the southeast. Although no miḥrāb was discerned in the excavated walls of Room 1, it is possible that the direction of prayer was marked by a stela or painted miḥrāb, as in the early mosques at Fusṭāṭ and Wāsiṭ (Fehérvári 1993:8), since miḥrāb niches only came into use in the eighth century CE, in the days of al-Walīd (Elad 2020:362–365, 380–484). Early examples of miḥrāb niches (miḥrāb mujawwaf; Elad 2020:344), include that in the mosque built by ‘Umar II in Medina, dated to 706/707 CE, and in the mosque built by al-Walīd b. ‘Abd al-Malik in Damascus, dated to 706–715 CE (Kennedy 2001).2 As the Kathisma church was originally dedicated to Mary (Maryam in the Qurʼān), it is possible that the orientation of Muslim worship here in this early period faced toward the southeast, symbolic of the location of Miḥrāb Maryam in the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount (Elad 1999:xvi, Map 1: Site 10; 2020:342–343), which, in the Qurʼān, was Maryʼs chamber during her childhood (Sūrat Ᾱl ‘Imrān [Sūra 3]:37). Various traditions also associate Miḥrāb Maryam with the ‘Cradle of Jesus’ (Kaplony 2002:418– 419, 600–603, 664–647; and see below); thus, at some point, her childhood chamber and the place of her seclusion during her pregnancy were amalgamated and both referred to as her miḥrāb. Iconographic Analysis of the Mosaics The composition and motifs in two of the most splendid Early Islamic mosaics, one in the southeastern passage room of the church (L54) and the other in the southern room of the Umayyad building (L87), are oriented to the southeast, while the composition of the third mosaic, in the southern room of the church (L73), is concentric with a possible northeastern orientation (see below). The Palm-Tree Mosaic (L54) The mosaic floor in the southeastern passage room, oriented to the southeast, depicts three fruit-bearing palm trees (Fig. 10.1; see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.24), the largest in the center and

It should be noted that the miḥrāb of Suleiman in the cave under the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, formerly assigned to the period following the reform of ‘Abd al-Malik b. Marwān in 698–707 CE (Foss 2008:111), is convincingly dated by Baer to the tenth or eleventh century CE (Baer 1985:18). 2

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Fig. 10.1. The palm-tree mosaic (L54).

smaller ones on either side. In Christian traditions of the sixth century CE, the palm tree was associated with Mary, the birth of Jesus and the Kathisma church. This local Christian tradition is illustrated on an ivory plaque depicting the journey of Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem, alongside a palm tree. The ivory plaque is dated to the sixth century CE and was apparently manufactured in Coele-Syria; it belongs to a genre of artworks related to pilgrimage and holy places (Volbach 1976:88–89, No. 128, Pl. 27:128). Also from that time, the Piacenza Pilgrim included in his travel itinerary a number of different traditions related to the location of Kathisma and the flight of the holy family to Egypt (Wilkinson 1977:85), and probably confused a number of traditions and places that he visited close to Kathisma (Wilkinson 1977:6).3 In Pseudo-Matthew 20, dated to the sixth century CE, it is told that Mary, Joseph and Jesus rested and were nourished by a palm tree on the third day of their flight to Egypt to escape the soldiers of King Herod (Gijsel and Beyers 1997:50, n. 4, 466–469). A branch of that palm tree was planted in paradise (Pseudo-Matthew 21).

A Muslim tradition that locates the birthplace of Jesus and the miraculous palm tree in Egypt amalgamated two Christian traditions: that in Pseudo-Matthew 20 and another mentioned in the Protoevangelium of James 17:2–3 (Elad 1999:93, n. 74). 3

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These traditions were adopted by the Qurʼān, which recognizes Jesus (‘Īsā) as one of God’s prophets, and relates that after she conceived, Mary (Maryam) left the Temple Mount, where she was residing, to go to the east, to a remote place (makānan sharqiyyan; Sūrat Maryam [Sūra 19]:16, 22; Bashear 1991:270; Kaplony 2002:418–423, 664–665). The ‘east’ is often interpreted by scholars as southeast, that is, a room to the southeast (Bashear 1991:274, nn. 51, 53; on the various interpretations, see also Qur’ān [Maulvi trans.:612; Rivlin trans.:313; Ben-Shemesh trans.:183; Rubin trans.:246]). Therefore, the east or southeast in early Islam were apparently connected to Mary and the birthplace of Jesus, as also attested by the later tradition of the location of Jesus’ birthplace in Miḥrāb Maryam in the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount (Elad 1999:50, 70–71, 93–97, 118–119, 126–128, 173; 2020:342–343; Kaplony 2002:264–267, 421–422, 665, 668–669). In the Qurʼānic version of Jesus’ birth, the human side of Mary’s labor is emphasized, as is the greatness of Allah whose intervention saved Mary and her son by providing her with fruit from a palm tree during the hardships of labor (Sūra 19:22–26). As there was a prohibition in early Islamic religious art against figurative images, it is possible that at Kathisma, the artists chose to depict Jesus and Mary as little palm trees next to the large palm tree that Allah provided to save their lives. In the Qurʼān, at the time of Jesus’ birth, Mary is instructed to shake the palm tree toward her so the fruit will fall (Sūra 19:25). The motif of the life-giving palm tree is reminiscent of the ‘bending down and standing up palm tree’ (ξύλον κλιθῇ καὶ 'αναστῇ) that appears in Jewish apocryphal literature (Apocryphon of Ezekiel) in the Qumran scrolls, where it symbolizes the resurrection and is a portent of the approaching eschatological era (Kister 1990). In Kister’s opinion, the Christians adopted this motif of a bending down and standing up tree from Judaism and added to it an unequivocal Christian meaning, according to which the tree represents the cross of the resurrection, or the cross of Jesus (Kister 1990:64, 66, esp. p. 76, n. 13; Kister relied on the Epistula Barnabas 1, 12 and the Testamonia adversus Ioudaios by Pseudo-Gregory of Nissa [PG 46, cols. 214–215]). In Greek, which was the common language in the Holy Land during the Byzantine period, the holy cross is known as ξύλον, which means ‘tree’ (Liddell and Scott 1995:540). The palm trees in the wall mosaics of the octagonal building in the courtyard of the Umayyad mosque in Damascus were attributed a similar eschatological interpretation as the cross of resurrection by Ettinghausen and Grabar (1987:37, 41, Fig. 13 on left). The composition of the Kathisma palm-tree mosaic can also be associated with the scene of Jesus’ crucifixion. If the three trees are replaced with crosses, the result is a common aniconic scene of the crucifixion, with Jesus in the center between the two thieves, as described in the four gospels (Matthew 27:36; Mark 15:27; Luke 23:33; John 19:18). This scene has a number of variations in early Byzantine art. Sometimes the two crosses on the sides are replaced by palm trees, as in the facade of the church dedicated to Mary Theotokos, built by Justinian I at the foot of Mount Sinai (Forsyth and Weitzmann 1965: Pls. XXV; XXVII:A, B); sometimes the large cross in the middle is replaced by a palm tree or a palm frond. Nozzles of Byzantine terracotta lamps common in the area of Jerusalem are decorated with palm-frond motifs, sometimes replaced by crosses. Some nozzles show two crosses flanking a large palm frond, and a Greek inscription surrounding the body of

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the lamp: ΦWC Χ(ριστο)Υ Φ(αί)ΝΕΙ ΠΑCΙΝ (‘light of Jesus’; Loffreda 1989:39, Group A, Type A1.1). In the mosaic floor opposite the main entrance of an eighth-century CE church at Yattir, seven palm trees in the register to the east of a large cross can apparently be interpreted as symbols of the cross (Besonen 2001:40–41). Although the palm tree is an ancient symbol common to diverse and widespread cultures, the composition of a large tree between two small ones is rare. The closest artistic parallel to the Kathisma mosaic is seen in the Dome of the Rock, on the wall mosaic of the internal face of the southeastern pillar in the intermediate octagon (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996:105). These palm trees are the only ones represented in a naturalistic style, in contrast to the other palm trees in the mosaics that are studded with jewels and gems. It is possible, therefore, that the palm trees in the Kathisma mosaic had a similar symbolic meaning as those in the Dome of the Rock. Rosen-Ayalon (1989:62–64) interpreted the wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock as a depiction of paradise (see also Elad 1999:57, 167) and the palm trees as life-giving trees of paradise, under the assumption that their meaning in the Muslim context is similar to that in Christian art––the cross of resurrection. She also relied on an early tradition transmitted by the eleventh-century CE Jerusalemite scholar Muḥammad b. Aḥmad Abū Bakr al-Wāsiṭī, that the temple, whose location is identified with the Dome of the Rock and the Foundation Stone, stands on a palm tree that grows beside one of the rivers of paradise (Rosen-Ayalon 1989:61). Under this tree sit Pharaoh’s daughter and Maryam daughter of ‘Imrān (‘Amram), threading strings of pearls for the righteous until the resurrection day (Rosen-Ayalon 1989:61, n. 48). According to the Qurʼān (Sūra 3:34– 35; Maulvi trans.:150, esp. p. 1094, n. 412; Rivlin trans.:52), Maryam is also identified here as Mary the mother of Jesus. In early Islam, the Foundation Stone was considered to be the meeting point between the heavenly, transcendental, divine world and the earthly, material world––a place of transition that allows passage between the two worlds. This was based on Jewish traditions that also considered the Foundation Stone to be associated with paradise (Hirschberg 1951–1952; Hasson 1976:52, 58 n. 8, 60, 61, 64; Sivan 1976:36–38; Gil 1983:79, n. 107; Livne-Kafri 1985:187–277; 1993:80, n. 7, 86, n. 36, 92–93, nn. 61–68, 96–99, nn. 87– 88, 94–95, 102 nn. 130–132, 104–105, nn. 149–150). On the final judgement day, which will be announced by the angel Isrāfīl blowing the horn (Hebrew shofar; Arabic ṣūr), the Foundation Stone will be the place of gathering (Elad 1999:52–53, 81–82; see also Sivan 1976:38–39). At the beginning of the eighth century CE, the northern gate of the Temple Mount may have been called ‘The Gate of Paradise’ (Elad 1999:55). The rare juxtaposition of three palm trees in a room that served Muslims at the Kathisma church supports the suggestion that it is an artistic citation of the wall mosaics in the Dome of the Rock. In this respect, another interpretation of the palm trees in the Dome of the Rock wall mosaics is noteworthy. Grabar viewed them, along with other motifs, as symbols of military and political victory, and by association, of theological victory (Grabar 1959b). This interpretation accords with the reality of the period in which Christianity lost its dominance, particularly in Jerusalem, as the rehabilitation of the Temple Mount testified to the falsehood of Jesus’ prophecy regarding the desolation of the Temple Mount (Matthew 24:2; Luke 21:5–6, 20–24; John 4:21; Avner 2010:44, n. 127). Thus, the Dome

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of the Rock is a monument that epitomizes the dominance of Islam over other religions, particularly in Jerusalem. The mosaic at Kathisma may also express a similar message. The Harmonic-Shield Mosaic (L73) In the room to the south of the miḥrāb and southwest of the room decorated with the palm-tree mosaic, the floor is adorned with a large circular motif containing polychrome squares that become progressively smaller toward the center, a design called a harmonic shield (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.50; Chapter 4: Figs. 4.25–4.27). Its origin is in Hellenistic and Roman art (Talgam 2014:22–23, and see references therein), and it appears in mosaics in Israel and Jordan. In the Kathisma mosaic, vine scrolls sprout from four cornucopias in the four corners of the room, each cornucopia apparently emerging from a calix of acanthus leaves. All the motifs in this mosaic, apart from the harmonic shield, can be found in the wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock and have eschatological meanings associated with paradise, as Rosen-Ayalon and Elad claimed, or symbolize victory, according to Grabar’s interpretation (Grabar 1959b). The closest Christian parallel to the composition at Kathisma is the harmonic shield in the mosaic floor of the church at Zay in Perea (see Chapter 4). Similar motifs appear in the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem, and in the churches at Jerash (Ettinghausen 1972:40, n. 1), and are interpreted by Ettinghausen as representing the dome of heaven (see below). The harmonic shield in the mosaic floor in the Byzantine synagogue of Ḥorbat Merot is interpreted as symbolizing the end-of-days (Mucznik, Ovadiah and Gomez de Silva 1996). The motif of the harmonic shield is common in mosaic floors of synagogues from the Roman and Byzantine periods, in which personifications of the four seasons in the corners support the zodiac that surrounds the chariot of Helios. In the convent of Our Lady Mary in Bet She’en, Helios is joined by his sister Selene.4 Central domes decorated with heavenly Christian subjects, such as Christ Pantocrator, Mary sitting with the baby Jesus, the crucifixion with the sky as the background, are often found in Byzantine churches. Chronologically, the closest parallel to the harmonic shield at Kathisma is found in the Umayyad palace at Khirbat al-Mafjar, a secular building, where it appears in a mosaic floor under the central dome in the bathhouse hall, and is supported at the four corners by four human figures (Ettinghausen 1972: Pl. XVIII:61). A similar composition is seen in the dome of the dīwān of the same palace, supported by four winged horses (Ettinghausen 1972:41– 42, n. 42, Fig. 32). In Umayyad secular art, anthropomorphic and zoological images were not banned. Ettinghausen suggested that the harmonic shield at Khirbat al-Mafjar should be interpreted as symbolizing the dome of heaven and the highest divine sphere, as in Byzantine churches (Ettinghausen 1972:39–40, 46–47; Ettinghausen and Grabar 1987:60–61, Figs. 34, 35). If we accept Ettinghausen’s interpretation of the harmonic shield at Khirbat al-Mafjar, then it is possible to view the example at Kathisma also as a symbol of the celestial dome

The zodiac scene was adopted from pagan art (Foerster 1985:381–384; Jacoby 2001: esp. 228, nn.

4

7, 8).

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and the divine cosmic sphere supported by four cornucopias that replace figurative images found in Christian, Jewish and secular Umayyad art. The motif of the cornucopias is also related to early traditions of the Dome of the Rock and Jerusalem, especially the one in the northeastern corner, which is made of particularly small tesserae and inlaid with two rows of round white stones around the rim to give the impression that it contains many pearls; the other cornucopias are decorated with a single row of round white stones at their center (Fig. 10.2; see Chapter 4: Figs. 4.25, 4.26). A Jerusalemite tradition from the Umayyad period tells us that during the reign of ‘Abd al-Malik, a chain hung from the center of the dome above the rock, and tied to the chain were a pearl without equal, the two horns of the ram from Ismael’s sacrifice and the crown of Khosrow King of Persia. In Jewish tradition, the Temple Mount is considered to be the place of Isaac’s sacrifice; in Muslim tradition, Isaac is replaced by Isma‘il and the location moved to Mecca. Thus, it is possible that the target audience at Kathisma knew the tradition that associated the horns of Isaac’s (Isma‘il’s) sacrifice with the Dome of the Rock. The horn can also symbolize that which will be blown by the angel Isrāfīl to announce the gathering of mankind for judgment day on the Temple Mount. When the Caliphate was passed to the Abbasid dynasty, the chain was transferred to the Ka‘ba (Hasson 1976:59–60; Livne-Kafri 1985:296, n. 251; Elad 1999:52, nn. 6, 7). The migration of the tradition of Isma‘il’s sacrifice to Mecca can be seen in the context of the claim by Elad that ‘Abd al-Malik wished to substitute Jerusalem for Mecca, or at least equate Jerusalemʼs status with that of the Ka‘ba by promoting the holiness of the Foundation Stone (Elad 1992; 1999:80, 147–150, 153, 157–159, 163). Other traditions connecting cornucopias with eschatological commentaries that hark back to Judaism include, for example, the story that Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, was asked by ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb “how do you find me in the book”, and Sophronius answered: “I find you a horn, a strong, loyal iron horn” (Gil 1983:53). Sophronius’ answer relates to the biblical Book of Micha 4:13: “Arise and Thresh, O daughter of Zion: for I will make thine horn iron.” One of the transmitters of this tradition was ‘Abdulla bin ‘Alam,

Fig. 10.2. The northeastern corner of the harmonic-shield mosaic (L73).

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a Jew from Medina who converted to Islam (Gil 1983:53, n. 79). In Qaraite sources, the period of the Umayyad dynasty in the hijrah calendar is known as ‘the days of the little horn’, based on an interpretation of the Book of Daniel 7:8 as a prophecy that was fulfilled by the Arab conquest (Gil 1983:58). In a hymn written in the ninth century CE by Daniel al-Qūmisī the Qaraite, the people of Israel will gather at the end-of-days in Jerusalem from the four corners of the world (Gil 1983:58). This accords with Rabyʼs interpretation of the decoration of squares on glass flasks used by Christian and Muslims pilgrims as the four cardinal directions of the compass, or the four corners of the world, which are supposed to meet in Jerusalem at the end-of-days (Raby1999:189–190, esp. nn. 30, 31). Thus, the four cornucopias in the Kathisma mosaic may also symbolize the four cardinal directions of the compass that will meet in Jerusalem at the end-of-days. It is possible, therefore, to assume that this room––closer to Mecca than the miḥrāb and adorned with a harmonic shield that is associated with the heavenly world, God’s throne and paradise—was of central importance to the Muslims, and its function should therefore be sought in an Islamic religious context. Perhaps the more elaborate cornucopia in the northeastern corner of the room hints at an orientation towards Jerusalem. As noted above, in early Islam there was uncertainty regarding the direction of prayer, and one of the mooted directions was toward Jerusalem, due to the tradition that Muhammad prayed for the first ‘sixteen or seventeen months’ toward Jerusalem before he changed the direction toward Mecca (Hasson 1976:45, 53, 64–65), and so did his early followers, as attested by the early tradition:5 “I asked Sa‘īd b. al-Musayyab what is the difference between the early immigrants and the last immigrants? He answered: ‘Those who prayed towards the two Qiblasʼ” (Hasson 1976:65). If prayers in this room were conducted facing the miḥrāb at a slight angle to the northeast, then they were directed toward the Dome of the Rock, while turning the back on Mecca. If so, this would support the opinion of some scholars who claim that the construction of the Dome of the Rock around the Foundation Stone was intended to supplant, or at least to equate its sanctity to that of the Ka‘ba in Mecca (Elad 1999:158–163). Pearl-Medallion Mosaic (L87) The most splendid mosaic at the site of Kathisma was uncovered in the southern room of the Umayyad building constructed in Stratum IV over the eastern end of the church (Room 1; see Chapter 2: Plan 2.1). Access to the room may have been from inside the octagonal building, through the bema that was now converted into a passageway. Such a progression required whoever ascended the stairs to the bema, to then turn to the southeast, the direction

The early date of this tradition is attested to by the line of transmission: ‘Īsā< ‘Alī< Abū ‘l-Ḥasan al-Qāsim b. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Janadī in Makka < al-Ḥusayn b. al-Ḥasan al-Marwazī < al-Haytham b. Jamīl < Abū Hilāl < Qatāda (Hasson 1976:65). 5

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to which the motifs in the mosaic are oriented. The mosaic carpet has a red background upon which are black medallions inlaid with round white stones representing pearls (Fig. 10.3; see Chapter 4: Figs. 4.33–4.36). The medallions are arranged in columns and each medallion is populated with a different fantastic vegetal motif, as are the spaces between the medallions. This composition was particularly common in Sassanian silk fabrics (ṭirāz), although it also appeared in other materials and in various techniques, and was adopted by other cultures, including the Umayyads (see Chapter 4). The word ṭirāz in Persian means ‘embroidery’ or ‘an embroidered artifact’, and it signified both the products and the workshops that manufactured luxurious silk fabrics embroidered with gold and pearls under the patronage of the ruler and exclusively for the court. Garments made of these fabrics were royal or ceremonial apparel that the ruler bestowed on dignitaries who gained his favor. This system allowed full control by the state over the raw material, the price of the product, the production rate and the distribution. According to a late source that preserved an Abbasid-period source, ṭirāz fabrics were sent to the Ka‘ba in Mecca (Grohman 1934; Kühnel and Bellinger 1952:1–3; Marzouk 1955:65–76). It is generally accepted that these fabrics and their manufacturing technique originated in the court of the Sassanian kings, although Marzouk noted that the method may have been practiced as early as Pharaonic times (Marzouk 1955:71–74). On the other hand, Kühnel and Bellinger (1952:1) believed that ṭirāz fabrics originated in Byzantine workshops known as gynaeceum, after the wing in the palace at Constantinople where women wove silk fabrics for the court of the Byzantine emperor. The trade in Sassanian fabrics influenced the local silk-weaving industries in Byzantium for a long time (Volbach 1969:124, Fig. 57; Evans and Wixom 1997:224, 414, Cat. Nos. 148, 271), as seen in the pearl-medallion composition that decorated for centuries the royal garments of Byzantine emperors and the rulers of various countries and cultures

Fig. 10.3. The pearl-medallion mosaic (L87).

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(Avner 2004b). In the Umayyad wall painting at Quṣayr ‘Amra in Jordan, which depicts the rulers of the world, the Byzantine emperor is portrayed wearing a garment decorated with medallions (Ettinghausen 1962: Fig. 2; Ettinghausen and Grabar 1987:59, Fig. 33), a type that continued to be worn by rulers until the fourteenth century CE.6 Pearl medallions populated with rosettes decorate an Umayyad-period ṭirāz silk fabric with an inscription in Arabic that mentions the name of Caliph Marwān and the place of production in North Africa (Day 1952:40). It is attributed by scholars to Marwān II, who ruled in 744–749 CE (Day 1952:59–61; Ettinghausen 1972:37–38), which accords with the date of construction of the Umayyad building at Kathisma, dated by a coin of 697–750 CE (see Chapter 7: Table 7.1; Cat. No. 82). According to Day, this fabric was manufactured in the workshop at Qābis, near the city of Qayrawān in Tunisia (Day 1952:60–61, n. 83). A segment of a ṭirāz fabric from the same workshop, which also bears the name of Marwān, was decorated with a pearl medallion populated by a rooster (Kühnel and Bellinger 1952:1, Pl. 1). Kühnel and Bellinger attributed six additional fabrics in the collection of the Arabic Museum in Cairo to the same workshop. All these fabrics are slightly earlier than, or contemporary with Kathisma Mosaic 87, and they all have a red background like Mosaic 87, which supports my assumption that this mosaic reproduces a common pattern of ṭirāz silk fabrics. Another indication that the mosaic imitates a fabric is the design along the edge of the mosaic, where a small remaining segment of the frame shows black tesserae in a fringe pattern simulating the knotting of weft and warp threads in fabrics and carpets (Fig. 10.4; see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.32). It was common in Umayyad art to transfer motifs and patterns from one technique to another, often to imitate expensive materials in cheaper products (Grabar 1959a:299, 326). The Sassanian silk fabrics influenced cheaper fabrics, such as a wool curtain discovered in Fig. 10.4. Detail of Antinoe in Egypt, dated to the fifth–sixth centuries CE, decorated with the pearl-medallion medallions populated with winged horses that belong to the Sassanian mosaic showing fringe pattern pantheon (Volbach 1969:56, Fig. 27). Fragments of painted wall stucco along the edge. at Khirbat al-Mafjar were reconstructed as emulating a Sassanian silk curtain (Grabar 1959a:298, Fig. 253; Ettinghausen 1972:37–38, Fig. 1) with a composition of pearl medallions similar to Mosaic 87 at Kathisma but populated with rosettes and monsters from Sassanian mythology. Ettinghausen suggested, based on Sassanian iconography, that the symbols in this wall painting should be interpreted as relating to royalty (Ettinghausen 1972:36). In general, the composition of pearl medallions is considered to lend divine protection (Volbach 1969:56; Evans and Wixom 1997:414, n. 4). The Sassanian influence on Mosaic 87 is not only apparent in the pearl-medallion composition, but also in the fantastic vegetal motifs that populate the medallions and

For examples of royal garments decorated with medallions in the art of later periods, see Athens 1964:345– 346, No. 368; Der Nersessian 1978:103, Fig. 75; Ettinghause and Grabar 1987:382–383, Fig. 401; Muthesius 1997:311–314; Evans and Wixom 1997:353–354; Avner 2004b: Fig. 175. 6

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fill the spaces between them, which cannot be defined botanically (see Chapter 4: Figs. 4.33–4.36). Similar fantastic vegetal motifs arranged in an identical composition of pearl medallions, are seen on a bronze Sassanian bowl in the collection of the Hermitage Museum (Pope 1938: Pl. IV:235) decorated with repoussé patterns interpreted as an orchard with associations to paradise (paridaeza; Ringbom 1967:3032–3033, Fig. 1094). A bowl of the same group in the Berlin State Museums has vegetal motifs somewhat similar to those of Mosaic 87, under arches instead of in medallions (Ringbom 1967:3033, Fig. 1095, rows C’ and C”). The vegetal motifs of these two bowls are similar to those in a marble relief at the Dome of the Rock. Such bowls were probably the inspiration for a bronze tray found in an archaeological context of the seventh–ninth centuries CE at Kafr Miṣr in the Galilee (Syon 2006), decorated with pearl medallions populated alternately with Christian saints and eagles and vegetal motifs in the local artistic tradition of mosaics and wall paintings in Israel and Jordan in the Byzantine and Umayyad periods.7 Among the fantastic vegetal motifs in Mosaic 87, it is possible to identify a palmette whose upper part is a winged-crown motif (see Fig. 10.3, upper left; Chapter 4: Fig. 4.34b). This motif is characteristic of Sassanian art and also appears in the marble reliefs and wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock (Gautier-van Berchem 1969:266, 277, Figs. 189, 190, 285, 290; Rosen-Ayalon 1989:15–16, 22, 53–55). It may have developed from the motif of a palmette bisected lengthwise (Gautier-van Berchem 1969:280, Fig. 291). It is also reminiscent of the crown that the Sassanian king wears in the wall painting from Quṣayr ‘Amra, which depicts the rulers of the world (Ettinghausen 1962:194; 1972:37–38, n. 40; Avner 2004a: Fig. 167). Rosen-Ayalon interpreted the winged motifs, including the winged Sassanian crown at the Dome of the Rock, as symbolizing angels (due to the prohibition on figurative images), which are part of the eschatological depiction in the Dome of the Rock associated with paradise (Rosen-Ayalon 1989:54; see also Ettinghausen and Grabar 1987:44, esp. n. 51). Another motif seen in this mosaic is a crown, or tray, inlaid with pearls and loaded with fruit (Fig. 10.5; see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.35), which also appears in the wall mosaics at the Dome of the Rock (Gautier-van Berchem 1969:275, Figs. 271, 272). Gautier van-Berchem compared this motif to the tray loaded with fruit that appears in Byzantine art, for example, in the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, which she considered to be a symbol of offerings and gifts dedicated to God in holy places (Gautier-van Berchem 1969:275, Figs. 269, 271, 272). Rosen-Ayalon interpreted the trays and baskets on which fruits and flowers are laid as symbolizing deeds of righteous people (Rosen-Ayalon 1989:53–54). The motif of the basket of fruit also appears in Sassanian art, but according to Volbach, it is not a Sassanian motif, but rather of foreign influence, perhaps Syrian (Volbach 1969:60). In contrast, Grabar viewed the inlaid crown and tray motifs as representing looted artifacts, and therefore symbolizing the victory of Islam (Grabar 1959b:51–52).

Lutan-Hassner found artistic parallels to the decoration of this tray outside the boundaries of the Land of Israel, most of them from the eleventh century CE and later than Kafr Miṣr (Lutan-Hassner 2011). However, there are many local parallels to the motifs decorating the bowl dated to the same period as the other finds recovered with the bowl, i.e., to the seventh–ninth centuries CE (Syon 2006). 7

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While the meaning of this motif in the Kathisma mosaic is uncertain, it can be speculated that according to a tradition in the ḥadīth, while Mary was living in her chamber in Jerusalem, she was visited by Zachariah, her guardian, who noticed winter fruit in the room during the summer, and summer fruit during the winter, apparently delivered by divine intervention (Livne-Kafri 1985:299, n. 295; Elad 1999:93–95). In the area of the apse in the Church of St. Polyeuktos in Constantinople, relief decorations of fantastic vegetal motifs that show Sassanian influence were carved in the marble column capitals and wall revetment slabs (Harrison 1989:108, Fig. 134). In spite of their stylized and abstract design, Fig. 10.5. Motif of a pearl-studded crown or a tray of fruit. they can be compared to the motifs in Mosaic 87 at Kathisma. The Church of St. Polyeuktos was built in 524–527 CE, and according to a dedicatory inscription, the church was built as an imitation of King Solomon’s temple (Harrison 1989:33–34, n. 9, 35, 46, 71, 137–144, Fig. 34). Harrison (1989:138) suggested that the fantastic vegetal motifs in the apse and the palm trees on the column capitals should be identified with the cherubs and palmettes decorating the Holy of Holies, relying on biblical descriptions (I King 6:22 ff., in particular 31–32; Ezekiel 41:18–19). In spite of the geographical, chronological and cultural differences between the churches of St. Polyeuktos and Kathisma, the fact that the holiest part of St. Polyeuktos was decorated with fantastic vegetal motifs inspired by Sassanian art (Harrison 1989:122–123) reflects the significance of the room in which the pearl-medallion mosaic was installed at Kathisma; thus, Room 1 in the Umayyad building had acquired the highest sanctity previously belonging to the main apse in the Byzantine period (Strata II–III). Accordingly, it can be assumed that this room was the holiest location for the Muslims. The artists were apparently aware of the significance of the fantastic vegetal motifs in both the Sassanian and Christian cultures, and imitated them not merely as decorative elements, but mainly due to their symbolism. The round white mosaic stones that imitate pearls can perhaps be interpreted as symbols of Mary. The earliest sermon for the Feast of the Theotokos at Kathisma, written by Hesychius of Jerusalem in the fifth century CE, compares Mary to mother-of-pearl (Hesychius, Homilia V, De Maria Deipara 1.12; 3.20; see Aubineau 1978:158–159, 164–165; Constas 2003:290–294, and see further references therein). In the mosaics in the Euphrasian Basilica dedicated to Mary in Poreč, Croatia, mother-of-pearl was used in the depictions of shells, which Maguire interpreted as a symbol of Mary (Maguire 2011:48– 49). In a legend from the second century CE (Protoevangelium of James 10:6), Mary drew the lot cast by the priests in the temple to weave the curtain for the Holy of Holies of red and purple silk (Elliott 1993:96). Thus, the red background of Mosaic 87, the composition of pearl medallions and the design of the edges as a knotted fringe, all support the conclusion that the mosaic imitates

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a red-silk ṭirāz fabric, and the fantastic motifs represent the cherubs and palmettes in the Holy of Holies. Discussion The installation of the miḥrāb in the southern part of the ambulatory, the splendid mosaics that were laid in the rooms to the south and southeast of the miḥrāb, and most particularly, in the Umayyad building constructed over the eastern part of the church that canceled the area of the bema and the main apse, all testify to the gradual expulsion of the Christians from the octagonal Kathisma church during the eighth century CE. This archaeological evidence can be associated with the historical process that many cities in Coele-Syria, Egypt and Iraq underwent in the eighth–ninth centuries CE, as documented by the surrender treaties known as the ‘Covenants of ‘Umar’. As part of these treaties, the Christians relinquished areas within their principal churches to the Muslims for prayers, mainly in the southern and southeastern parts of the churches, and in return, the Muslims spared the Christians and their property. Like the churches that are mentioned in the ‘Covenants of ‘Umar’, the Kathisma church also served both Muslim and Christian worshippers at the same time. It seems that the Muslims established a place of worship in Kathisma not only as a manifestation of their conquest, but also out of genuine religious sentiment. The Qurʼān, which drew on folk traditions that were common to the Old and New Testaments and to Christian Apocrypha, adopted the Christian tradition that identified the Kathisma church as the place where Mary rested before the birth of Jesus, while adapting it to the Islamic version of the birth of Jesus. The motifs that decorate the three most splendid mosaics in the church can be seen as symbolizing the Islamic identification of the site with the place where Mary went into seclusion during her pregnancy and where Jesus was born, ‘in the east’ as related in the Qurʼān, or in the southeast as interpreted by Tor and Bashear (see above). Iconographic analysis of two of these mosaics suggests a southeastern orientation, and thus accords with the claims of Tor and Bashear that at the beginning of Islam, Muslims prayed toward the east, and later toward the southeast. In their southeastern orientation, these mosaics relate to the traditions of Mary as they appear in the Qurʼān. Mosaic Floor 54 in the southeastern passage room, decorated with palm trees, suggests that the room was related to the Qurʼānic tradition of Mary’s labor and the palm tree that nourished her and her son. It may be that a tree, or remains of a tree, were identified and worshipped in Room 25, just outside the octagonal church, which was accessed by stairs from the room decorated with the palm-tree mosaic (see Chapter 3). The walls of Room 25 were not preserved, but the southern edge of its floor was abnormally concave (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.42), suggesting that a tree, perhaps identified as the miraculous palm tree, stood there. As noted above, Mary went into seclusion in her late pregnancy in a place in the east or southeast that was located ‘at the end, in a remote place’. These conditions are met by the southern Room 1 of the Umayyad building that is decorated with the pearl-medallion mosaic (L87). This was the largest room in the building, and apparently also the most important. It supplanted in significance, and apparently also in sanctity, the now-canceled

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main apse. Access may have been from inside the octagonal building, through the bema on the eastern side of the church that was now converted into a passageway, which invalidated its sanctity. Such a progression required whoever ascended the stairs to the bema, to then turn to the southeast, thus turning his back to the east. The mosaic in this room (L87) imitates fabric, perhaps an expensive curtain made of red or purple silk that is associated with royalty—a motif also associated with Mary in both Christian and Muslim traditions. As some of the fantastic vegetal motifs can be interpreted as cherubs and palmettes associated with eschatological themes, and possibly with the Holy of Holies in the temple, the Muslims—some of whom may have been converted Christians—probably identified this room as the holiest room in the Kathisma church, where Mary went into seclusion after she left the Temple Mount. On another level of symbolism, the fabric, which is reminiscent of the curtain of the Holy of Holies, may also be the curtain or veil behind which Mary hid from her people (Sūra 19:17). The motifs in the mosaic are oriented to the southeast, and to look upon them, one faced in that direction. This room was apparently a prayer space for one or a limited number of worshippers in special times. The relationship of the harmonic-shield mosaic (L73), in the southern room, to the traditions of Mary and the birth of Jesus is less clear. Nevertheless, it can be assumed that the pearl-decorated cornucopias, the fruit motif, and the motif of the harmonic shield that appears in Christian heavenly scenes, also symbolized eternity and salvation through Mary and Jesus. As this room is located south of the miḥrāb, it may also have been used for prayer, although it is unclear if the worshippers faced to the south or to the northeast—the direction of the Dome of the Rock—as implied by the cornucopia in the northeastern corner of the room. As Christian and Jewish beliefs clearly had a considerable influence on the Muslims, they may also have had an impact on the pilgrimage ceremonies of Muslims as well (Ashtor 1981:189; Livne-Kafri 1985:281, n. 46; Elad 1999:173; 2020:302–303). We know from the Armenian Lectionary and the Georgian Calendar that the story of the birth of Jesus was read from the gospels during the Feast of the Theotokos (see Chapter 1) at Kathisma, and it is possible that during the eighth century the Muslims also read there their own version of the same story from the Qurʼān. If so, it can be assumed that theological arguments between Christians and Muslims took place there (Avner 2010). At the beginning of the Islamic period, the birthplace of Jesus was identified at several different sites: in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, or next to it, outside the city of Bethlehem, in Jerusalem (Livne-Kafri 1985) and even in Egypt.8 For example, early traditions transmitted by Abū l-Ma‘ālī al-Musharraf b. al-Murajjā, who lived in the eleventh century CE (Livne-Kafri 1985:1; Elad 1999:16, n. 47), placed the ‘Cradle of Jesus’ in several locations: Bethlehem, the Valley of Bethlehem and Jerusalem (Kaplony 2002:670, n.1, 671, n. 2).

See n. 3.

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In the earliest treatise that belongs to the genre of ‘In Praise of Jerusalem’ by Muḥammad b. Aḥmad Abū Bakr al-Wāsiṭī, who also lived in the eleventh century CE (Livne-Kafri 2000:1, n. 1), appears the early tradition of the Night Journey, known as early as the ninth century, that names Bethlehem as the location of Miḥrāb Maryam and the ‘Cradle of Jesus’ (Hasson 1976:51, 57–59, 61; Gil 1983:80; Bashear 1991:273, 275, 285; Livne-Kafri 1993:98, 100, n. 93). An early source written by Ibn ‘Abd Rabbihi (860–940 CE) explicitly states the birthplace of Jesus to be ‘three miles from the mosque [in Jerusalem]’ (Kaplony 2002:671, n. 9), the same distance that appears in all the Christian sources referring to Kathisma. Thus, we can now add Kathisma, located mid-way between Jerusalem and Bethlehem, to the places that Muslims identified as the secluded place where Mary gave birth to Jesus. A tradition dated to the end of the Umayyad dynasty and preserved by the Egyptian Scholar al-Suyūṭī (1445–1505 CE; Goldziher 1952:36, 130), locates Miḥrāb Maryam and the ‘Cradle of Jesus’ on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem (Bashear 1991:275, n. 61). Livne-Kafri suggested that this tradition, although contradicting the Qurʼān, was intended to prevent Muslims from visiting churches, where they may fall under Christian influence (Livne-Kafri 1985:298–299). One Jerusalemite tradition, probably also from the Umayyad period, locates the palm tree that nourished Mary when she went into labor, in Jerusalem (Elad 1999:93, n. 73). Between the tenth and early twelfth centuries CE, the Kathisma church fell into ruin, as related by the Russian Abbot Daniel, and the traditions relating to Kathisma and of Mary resting before giving birth to Jesus, and of their lives being saved by the fruits of a palm tree, were relocated to Bethlehem, close to the Church of the Nativity. It is unclear if this shift in the tradition from Kathisma to Bethlehem was instigated by the Christians themselves, as Bethlehem was a bastion of Christianity, or was a result of the counter influence of the Muslim traditions on the Christian ones at the time of the Abbot Daniel in the twelfth century. The Abbot Daniel referred to two contemporary traditions that identified different locations for Bethlehem, where Mary gave birth to Jesus: one in the Grotto of the Nativity (Abbot Daniel:38–39; see also Raba 1986:48–49), the other, which he notes is an ancient city of Bethlehem, is situated on a desert mountain outside Bethlehem––perhaps the hill east of Kathisma, where the kibbutz of Ramat Raḥel and the adjacent biblical site are found today (see Chapter 1). The strategy employed by the Muslims to take over the places holy to the Christians (and to the Jews as well) was to adopt the traditions that sanctified these places, while adjusting them to Islam. Thus, in the mid-eighth century CE, the sites of Bethlehem, Hebron and Mount Sinai were identified as stations in the Night Journey of Muhammad (Busse 1993:78, n. 24; Livne-Kafri 2000:103, n. 177), and it seems that in the same period, the story of the journey of ‘Umar I to the most important churches of Jerusalem came into being. In the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, ‘Umar allegedly refused the offer of Patriarch Sophronius to pray inside the church and restricted himself to praying in the church courtyard. In the Church of the Nativity, ‘Umar prayed in the southern apse inside the church. This tradition affected the provisions for the Muslims to pray in Christian

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holy places (Busse 1987:288; Bashear 1991:273–276, nn. 55, 59, 63, 65; Elad 1999:138, 141–146), and possibly created the basis for the legitimacy of the Muslims’ claim to take possession of certain special areas within these churches. It is possible that the tradition of ‘Umar praying in the courtyard of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher attests to the failure of the Muslims to get a foothold inside the church, and their having to accept a partial presence in the holy enclosure that belonged to the church. On the other hand, Busse claimed that the tradition of ‘Umar journeying to the churches was an anachronism that came about to explain an existing reality, only after the Muslims had begun to pray in the churches and the Christians were trying to prevent further expansion (Busse 1993:79–80). The infiltration of Islam into the Christian holy places was gradual, occurring over an extended period, during which the Christian congregations tried to protect their religious properties. It is within this context that we should understand the complaints of Patriarch Eutychius of Alexandria in the tenth century CE, that the Muslims dare conduct public prayers—not prayers by individuals—on the stairs of the atrium courtyard in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Eutychius, Annales 18:7; see Breydy 1985, 471:139–140; 472:118–119; Busse 1993; Schick 1997:329), and in the southern niche of the Church of the Nativity, which they decorated with inscriptions in Arabic (Eutychius, Annals 18:7–8; see Breydy 1985, 471:140–141; 472:119–120; Schick 1997:267). The traditions of ‘Umar’s journey are an echo that remains of the Muslims’ attempts to infiltrate and take hold of the most significant churches in the area of Jerusalem. In most cases, their success was only partial and confined to limited areas within these churches, and the results of the archaeological excavations at the site of the Kathisma church are a clear illustration of this reality.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Chapter 11

Summary and Discussion Rina Avner

History and Construction of the Church The Byzantine Period The unique finds revealed in the excavations at the site of Kathisma, comprising a large octagonal church with peristyle atria and an adjoining monastery, constitute one of the most important discoveries of Early Christian architecture in the Holy Land in recent decades. The excavations focused primarily on the church, where five strata were distinguished: from the Byzantine period (Strata I–III) and the Early Islamic period (Strata IV–V). The earliest finds in the excavation, dated to the Hellenistic and Roman periods (see Chapters 7–9; Appendix 1), originated mostly in fills and accumulations close to the surface, and probably washed down from the nearby tell of Ramat Raḥel. The plan of the church was based on three concentric octagons. The outermost octagon was divided into four chapels connected by passage rooms to three entrance rooms on the north, west and south (see Chapter 2). On the eastern side was a bema and a protruding polygonal apse. In front of each entrance to the church was a peristyle atrium. The adjoining monastery was poorly preserved and it was not possible to reconstruct a complete plan (see Chapter 3). However, the remains support the identification of the site as the church and monastery of Kathisma, known from the written sources (see Chapter 1). As first noted by Riess (1889), the Arabic name of the nearby reservoir, ‘Bir Qadismu, preserves the Greek name of the church, Kathisma, meaning ‘seat’, which was built at the place where Mary stopped to rest on her journey to Bethlehem to register in the census shortly before giving birth to Jesus (Protoevangelium of James 17:2–3). The archaeological evidence attests to a rock around which the church was built, which can be identified as that self-same resting place. Two hagiographies on the Life of Theodosius the Cenobiarch record that the widow Ikelia built the church and monastery and dedicated them to Mary Theotokos (God Bearer) in the time of the emperor Marcian (c. 456 CE). The mention of Kathisma in the Armenian Lectionary (417–439 CE) indicates that the place functioned as a cult site for Mary Theotokos even before the church and monastery were built. To this period we assign Stratum I, in which a segment of a wall was uncovered just west of the central rock around which the octagonal church was built (Stratum II); the wall was sealed below the church floor. While no datable finds were associated with the wall, its close proximity to the rock testifies to early activity in the vicinity of the rock, representing the archaeological manifestation of the Armenian Lectionary, which preserves the Jerusalemite liturgy of the first half of the fifth century CE.

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The octagonal church was constructed in Stratum II. While the main apse and the bema seem to disturb the symmetry of the plan, the excavations demonstrated that they were an integral part of the original church plan, not later additions. The architectural plan and the size of the church attest to it being designed as a pilgrimage church, intended to contain large audiences (see below). Archaeological evidence of its construction in the fifth century CE is provided by numismatic finds of the fourth–fifth centuries CE that originated in fills and floor beddings of Stratum II––coins that were in circulation in the first half of the fifth century CE (see Chapter 7). The Corinthian capitals recovered in the favissa and dated to the fifth century according to their style (425–485 CE; see Chapter 6), are further support for a construction date in this century. Unfortunately, the pottery finds from Stratum II are extremely meager and apparently intrusive (four sherds; see Chapter 8) and, like the sherds recovered from all the strata, have a chronological range from the second half of the sixth century to the mid-eighth century CE. Therefore, the pottery repertoires cannot be used for chronological determination (see Chapter 8). Extensive renovations took place in the church during the second half of the sixth century CE (Stratum III), as attested by finds below the floors (see below). The bema was extended westward into the ambulatory, and floors and the supporting pillar system that separated the ambulatory from the innermost octagon were replaced. These changes were apparently necessitated by the collapse of the roofing over the innermost octagon, perhaps caused by the earthquake of 551 CE (Amiran 1996:125), an assumption supported by the sunken mosaic floors in the northeastern chapel (see Chapter 2). It is possible that this was the reason for the raising of the wall between this chapel and the passage room next to it, construction work that introduced an intrusive coin that was found under a Stratum II floor (see Chapter 2: Table 2.1; Chapter 7: Cat. No. 51). In this stratum, a pipe was installed that directed water to a cupmark in the central rock, probably to produce holy water that acquired medicinal properties (eulogia) once it touched the holy rock. It is possible that this installation was referred to by the Piacenza Pilgrim, who visited the site around 570 CE, when he noted the stone from which Mary allegedly drank (see Chapter 1; Wilkinson 1977:85; Avner 2007:548–549, 555, Fig. 4). The numismatic finds that were discovered under the Stratum III floors are dated to the sixth century CE, most of them no later than the first half of the sixth century CE, apart from four Vandal coins from the mid-sixth century CE and additional coins whose preservation only allows a general dating to that century. Only two coins from the second half of the sixth century were identified (see Chapter 7: Cat. Nos. 46, 66). The phenomenon of an absence of coins that were minted in the second half of this century is known at other Byzantine sites, and may be a result of the 551 CE earthquake. Ariel related this to a downturn in the economy as a consequence of a plague, or possibly the poor state of security in the Holy Land and Coele-Syria at that time (see Chapter 7). Despite the absence of such coins under the floors of Stratum III, the two coins dated to the second half of this century, together with the testimony of the Piacenza Pilgrim, attest to the existence of the church at that time.

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The Umayyad Period In the Umayyad period (Stratum IV), a miḥrab was installed in the southern part of the church, and in the east, a building canceled the main apse. These constructions are dated to the first half of the eighth century CE, based on numismatic finds (see Chapters 2, 7). An inscription decorated with a cross in the mosaic floor of one of the monastery rooms, dated to the seventh or eighth century CE (see Chapter 5), together with the continued existence of the chapels, attests to an ongoing Christian presence at the site. Thus, in this period, the octagonal building served as a church with a mosque in it, and believers of both religions prayed here. The structural changes that took place during the time span of Stratum IV should be understood within this context. These include a wall constructed on the stairs ascending to the bema, thus narrowing the access to the bema and apse, which were confiscated from the Christians. In their place, the area of the bema apparently functioned as a corridor for Muslim worshippers to enter the southern room (Room 1) of the Umayyad building, where the most splendid and highest-quality mosaic was laid, a mosaic that imitates royal silk fabrics embroidered with pearls. This southern room apparently served the Muslims for worship (see Chapter 10). Entrance to the Christian part of the church building seems to have been limited to the west, where the magnificent open tribelon entrance of the Byzantine period was converted to an entrance room with a doorway on the side (see Chapter 2). The mosaic floors were replaced throughout the church, except in the northern outermost octagon. The northern chapels apparently continued to serve the Christians, and in the southwestern chapel the mosaic floor was replaced with a floor of a simpler geometric decoration, presumably also remaining in possession of the Christians. In the two southern rooms and in the southeastern passage room, sumptuous mosaics were laid, which testify to artistic and iconographic influences of the wall mosaics of the Dome of the Rock (see Chapters 4, 10). It seems that there was no complete separation between the Muslim and Christian areas in the church. Entry to the Muslim rooms in the southern part of the church was possible only from outside the octagonal building on the south, but entry to the mosque in the southern part of the ambulatory was through the western entrance room. Entrance to the southern chapels was also possible through the ambulatory. The fact that the ascent to the bema was blocked except in the northwestern corner suggests that there was an entrance into Room 1 of the Umayyad building through the church and the bema. Evidence for this is seen in the mosaic carpet in Room 1, where the motifs are oriented to the southeast. On the other hand, blocking the stairs to the bema may have canceled access to the bema and apse entirely, and this space was not used at all. In that case, the new building was detached from the church, and entrance to it, as to the Muslim rooms in the south of the church, was from outside the church building. The evidence regarding the existence of a mosque within the Kathisma church, and the partial dispossession of the Christians from the areas most important to them (the bema and main apse), and from areas that were important to the Muslims (the southern part of the church that faced Mecca and the southeastern part—another direction of prayer in early Islam), constitutes the only archaeological evidence for the ‘Covenants of ‘Umar’ that I (and other researchers of Early Islam whom I consulted) am aware of. These covenants

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(or treaties; see Chapter 10) obliged the Christians to relinquish areas within their churches to the Muslims for prayer, in return for the Muslims’ pledge to preserve the Christians’ lives and property. Evidence of limited activity in the church and monastery during the ninth century CE (Stratum V) is provided by late assemblages of coins, pottery and glass (see Chapters 7–9), and the site was apparently abandoned in the tenth century CE. According to the description of the Abbott Daniel (see Chapter 1), and considering the poor state of preservation of the site, the stones of the church and the monastery were robbed between the tenth and early twelfth centuries, and were used as construction material in the nearby villages (Abbot Daniel:38–39; Raba 1986:48–49).

Architecture, Liturgy and Theology The Byzantine Period The concentric plan of the Kathisma church is typical of the earliest and most important martyria––commemorative buildings that were erected in places that bear witness to Christian events in the Holy Land. They were built in the holiest places associated with epic events in the life of Jesus (e.g., the octagonal martyrium above the Cave of the Nativity in Bethlehem, the rotunda above the Tomb of Jesus in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher and the Church of the Ascension at the place from which Jesus ascended to heaven, on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem). The Kathisma church is the earliest Marian martyrium to have been built and dedicated to Mary Theotokos, which immortalizes the seminal event in her life, the birth of Jesus. The external octagonal outline of the Kathisma church was influenced by the Constantine martyrium built above the Cave of the Nativity. Its dimensions, the division of space inside the building into three concentric units, and the integration of the chapels in the outermost octagon, bear witness to the particular influence of the late phase of the Church of the Ascension. During this late phase, Melania the Younger erected the Martyrium of Stephanus in the outer portico of the Church of the Ascension around 438 CE (Avner 2010:36–37), some 18 years before the Kathisma church (c. 456 CE). The plan of the Kathisma church also bears considerable similarity to the Church of Mary Theotokos built by the emperor Zeno in 484 CE on Mount Gerizim. This supports the assumption by Krautheimer (1965:116–117) that the church on Mount Gerizim was built under the influence of a ‘post-Constantine martyrium’ in the Holy Land that was standing before construction of the church on Mount Gerizim. However, the church on Mount Gerizim has an irregular outline, and each segment of the octagonal wall separating the ambulatory from the outermost octagon is one Roman foot (29.45 cm) shorter than those at Kathisma (Avner and Puni 2012). It is clear, therefore, that Zeno designed a smaller replica of the oldest church that was dedicated to Mary Theotokos. It appears that the cult of Mary began to develop in the Holy Land in the fifth century CE, after the ecumenical synod in Chalcedon (451 CE) had confirmed the epithet ‘Theotokos’ for Mary, and excommunicated whoever objected to it (Norris 1997). This was

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the impetus behind the building of the church at the site of Kathisma, and the establishment of the earliest feast associated with Mary. The calendar date of August 15th marks Mary’s ascension to heaven, and is celebrated still today in the Eastern Orthodox as well as the Catholic and Protestant churches in the west. In the fifth and sixth centuries CE, pilgrimage to the Holy Land flourished, and the demand for holy places was on the rise. Pilgrimage sites usually developed in proximity to main roads, along pilgrim routes and near main sites connected with the life of Jesus. The location of the Kathisma church on the road from Jerusalem to Bethlehem must have attracted much pilgrimage activity. The size of the church (36 m north–south axis, 41.5 m west–east axis) and its architectural plan indicate that it was intended to serve a large congregation. The monks of the Kathisma monastery would have been well versed in providing religious services to the visitors, and could attend to all ongoing activities and maintenance. The plan of the church made it possible to direct the large crowds to different areas inside, thereby easing congestion and enabling a number of separate ceremonies to be conducted in various areas of the church at the same time. For example, private ceremonies could be performed in the chapels, as described by the fourth-century pilgrim Egeria, who traveled the Holy Land and Egypt (Limor 1998:47–48). Ceremonies in chapels could take place without hampering the flow of pilgrims in the ambulatory or the innermost octagon, while activities in the main area of the bema and apse would not disturb activities in the chapels. The chapels probably housed icons or holy relics (in reliquaries) attributed to Mary, and may also have functioned as ‘stations’ in religious processions conducted in the church, such as the candle procession for Mary that was established in Kathisma by Ikelia (see Chapter 1), and still takes place today in the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic and Protestant churches. It is possible that these processions incorporated circling the holy rock at the center of the church, while the principal ceremonies were proceeding in the area opposite the bema and the apse in the east. The massive system of supporting pillars, particularly the early one from Stratum II, reinforces the assumption that above the outermost octagon was a gallery that extended to a considerable extent over the floor area of the church. From the gallery it was possible to view the ceremonies in the lower level, around the rock and in the area of the bema and main apse. There may have been windows in the upper story that lit the inside of the church, and probably also in the drum that carried the dome above the innermost octagon. It is unknown if the exterior outline of the dome was circular or polygonal, as both possibilities are seen in depictions of churches in the mosaic floor of the Church of the Holy Martyrs at Ṭaybat al-Imam near Ḥama in Syria (Zaqzuk and Piccirillo 1999: Pls. I, IV, VI, VII), dated by an inscription to 446 CE and therefore contemporary with Kathisma (c. 456 CE). The Early Islamic Period At the time of the Muslim conquest, the only octagonal church that was still standing in the vicinity of Jerusalem was Kathisma, which supports the possibility that it was an architectural inspiration for the Dome of the Rock. The similarity between the plans of the two buildings is manifested in the internal division of the space into two concentric

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octagons surrounding an inner space with a holy rock at the center. The Muslims were likely aware that Kathisma was a Christian stronghold, and the oldest church in Jerusalem (and in the entire eastern Mediterranean region) that was dedicated to the Mother of God. This epithet contradicts the Muslim doctrine, as expressed in an inscription in the wall mosaic in the Dome of the Rock, that it is impossible for God to have a son, and therefore Mary could not be ‘the God Bearer’: “The Messiah Jesus, son of Mary, is indeed a messenger of God... So believe in God and all the messengers, and stop talking about a Trinity. Cease in your own interests! Verily God is the God of unity. Lord Almighty! that God would beget a child? either in the Heaven or on Earth? God alone is the best protector...” (Nuseibeh and Grabar 1996:107).

The choice to adopt the plan of the two most important commemorative buildings (martyria) that immortalize the divine nature of Jesus and the Theotokos (the rotunda above the Tomb of Jesus and Kathisma) for the Dome of the Rock, which was built on the Temple Mount, at the same location as the temple—a common metaphor in Christianity for Mary (see Chapter 10)—was intended to glorify Islam and appropriate the idea of commemoration but with a different meaning. The choice of the Temple Mount thus contradicts Jesus’ prophecy about its destruction (Matthew 24:2; Luke 21:5–6, 20–24; John 4:21), and blatantly presents Christianity within the urban landscape of Jerusalem as a false religion (Avner 2010). The Christian tradition that sanctified Kathisma was adopted by the Muslims, but adjusted to the Qur’anic version of the narrative, as is manifested in the mosaics that were laid in the southeastern passage room in the outermost octagon, and in the southern room of the Umayyad building (see Chapter 10). The palm-tree mosaic in the southeastern passage room can be interpreted as representing the essence of the story of the birth of Jesus in the Qur’an, which tells that when Mary suffered severe labor pains and pleaded for death, Allah heard her and provided a miraculous palm tree that bore fruit and brought forth water from its roots to revive her and her son (Surah 19:22–26). It is possible that stairs led the believers from this room to another one (Room 25) paved with a mosaic with a concave edge that may have housed a palm tree, or the remnants of one, which the Muslims identified as the miraculous tree. The artistic parallels and the southeastern orientation of the pearl-medallion mosaic in the southern room of the Umayyad building, suggest that the Muslims identified this room as the place where Mary secluded herself during her pregnancy, after she left the Temple Mount to a remote place ‘to the east’ (Surah 19:17–29). It is possible that the Christian liturgy performed at the Kathisma, which included reading verses from the gospels relating to the birth of Jesus (as is written in the Armenian Lectionary and the Georgian Calendar in the ‘Feast of the Theotokos at Kathisma’), influenced the Muslim worshippers at Kathisma to read the verses from the Qur’an about the birth of Jesus. It is also possible that the custom of Muslim pilgrims to read the Qur’anic version of the birth of Jesus and the miracle of the palm tree in the southern part of the Temple Mount (Elad 1999:93–95), a location identified with Mary’s chambers (Miḥrab Maryam; see Chapter 10), as it crystalized in the course of the eighth century CE, originated at Kathisma.

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In the eighth century CE there were several Muslim traditions locating the birthplace of Jesus at Kathisma or in Bethlehem, and later also in Jerusalem. Ibn ‘Abd Rabbihi (860–940 CE) preserves an early Muslim tradition that locates the birth of Jesus at the geographical location of Kathisma—the third mile between Jerusalem and Bethlehem— which is specified in the Christian sources (see Chapter 10). The church was abandoned in the tenth century CE, and by the beginning of the twelfth century, the tradition of Kathisma as Mary’s resting place before her labor had shifted to the rock next to the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, which was accepted by Christians.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

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Monastery

at

Har Ḥoma,

Between

Jerusalem

and

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Appendix 1

A R hodian Stamped Amphora Handle from K athisma Gerald Finkielsztejn

The stamped handle presented here is a surface find. Coins and glass fragments of the Hellenistic period discovered at the site were also found out of context (see Chapters 7, 9). Reg. No. 211.1096. Surface. Rectangular stamp.

Καλλιξ(ε)ίνου Of/by Kallixeinos The fabric of the handle is Rhodian and its angular, slightly raised profile is dated by Virginia Grace to her Period VI (date range 107–88/86 BCE; Grace 1985:42; Finkielsztejn 2001:197). Rhodian stamps bearing this name alone are already known from Rhodes (Nilsson 1909:442, Nos. 266, 1–4) from different dies. A homonym eponym Καλλίξεινος, also of Grace’s Period VI, is clearly attested by the preposition ἐπί, with the epsilon systematically present, and often the addition of the month (Nilsson 1909:442–443, Nos. 267, 268; Ariel and Finkielsztejn 1994:208–209, SAH 60–62; Cankardeş-Şenol 2015:346– 349). The stamp type from Kathisma was commonly used to name fabricants, i.e., not introduced by the preposition ἐπί. The fact that there exist different dies with this name alone would suggest that they indeed name a fabricant. However, our example is listed under the eponym name in the Lexicon of Eponym Dies on Rhodian Amphora Stamps (Cankardeş-Şenol 2015:350, under RE-ΚΑΛΛΙΞΕΙΝΟΣ-005), and the possibility that the eponym is named here without the preposition ἐπί cannot be ruled out, since the stamping in Period VI was sometimes unorthodox. Further evidence in the future may solve the

300

GERALD FINKIELSZTEJN

problem, i.e., the appearance of this stamp on a fragment of the neck of an amphora with its two handles, associated with either the name of a fabricant, or the name of an eponym with the preposition borne on the other handle. In any event, the date remains the same: c. 107–88/86 BCE. The eponym date range can be reduced to c. the first decade of the first century BCE, since the name is attested on stamps inscribed in a ‘cursive’ script, according to Grace’s archive cards at the American School of Classical Studies (the name is not listed in Finkielsztejn 2001:152–154, end of Period V–beginning of Period VI).

R eferences Ariel D.T. and Finkielsztejn G. 1994. Stamped Amphora Handles. In S.C. Herbert. Tel Anafa I, i: Final Report on Ten Years of Excavation at a Hellenistic and Roman Settlement in Northern Israel (JRA Suppl. S. 10). Ann Arbor. Pp. 183–240. Cankardeş-Şenol G. 2015. Lexicon of Eponym Dies on Rhodian Amphora Stamps 2: Eponyms Β to Κ (Études alexandrines 35; AmphorAlex 4; Corpus international des timbres amphoriques 22). Alexandria. Finkielsztejn G. 2001. Chronologie détaillée et révisée des éponymes amphoriques rhodiens de 270 à 108 av. J.-C. environ: Premier bilan (BAR Int. S. 990). Oxford. Grace V.R. 1985. The Middle Stoa Dated by Amphora Stamps. Hesperia 54:1–54. Nilsson M.P. 1909. Timbres amphoriques de Lindos publiés avec une étude sur les timbres amphoriques rhodiens (Exploration archéologique de Rhodes, Fondation Carlsberg V; Extrait du Bulletin de l’Académie royale des sciences et des lettres de Danemark 1:37–180; 4:349– 539). Copenhagen.

R. Avner, 2022, Kathisma (IAA Reports 69)

Appendix 2

List of Selected Loci and Walls

Loci Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

1

-

A

Room 6

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor that was damaged before the excavation

782.85

781.67

-

3

-

A

Northeastern chapel

Topsoil accumulation

781.85

781.59

-

4

-

A

Northern part of ambulatory

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

781.75

781.63

IV

5

-

A

Northwestern chapel hall

Topsoil accumulation

781.89

781.60

-

6

-

A

Northeastern chapel hall

Topsoil accumulation

782.32

781.60

-

7

-

A

Northwestern part of ambulatory

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

781.78

781.65

-

8

-

A

Northern and northeastern part of ambulatory

Topsoil accumulation

781.70

781.63

-

9

-

A

Northern part of ambulatory

Topsoil accumulation

781.78

781.65

-

10

5

A

Northwestern chapel hall

On mosaic floor

781.60

781.56

III

10A

10

A

Northwestern chapel, Probe 17

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.56

781.55

III

10B

10A

A

Northwestern chapel, Probe 17

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar middle layer

781.55

781.52

III

10C

10B

A

Northwestern chapel, Probe 17

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.52

781.47

III

10D

10C

A

Northwestern chapel, Probe 17

United with L919

781.47

781.31

III

13

-

A

North of church

United with L129

782.38

781.94

-

15

-

A

Portico south of Courtyard I

Topsoil accumulation

782.30

781.67

-

16

-

A

Northwestern chapel apse

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

781.89

781.57

IV

23

7

A

Northwestern part of ambulatory, next to stylobate

United with L27

781.85

781.63

IV

25

7

A

Northwestern part of ambulatory

United with L27

781.63

781.15

IV

27

7

A

Northwestern part of ambulatory

On mosaic floor

781.70

781.63

IV

28

-

A

West of church

Topsoil accumulation

782.09

781.84

-

29

-

A–B

Portico north of Courtyard II

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

782.63

781.84

III(?)

302

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

31

-

A

West of church

United with L254

781.92

781.78

III(?)

32

-

A

Northwestern passage room

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

781.84

781.74

IV

32A

32

A

Northwestern passage room

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar top layer, uncovered during conservation work

781.73

781.71

IV

32B

32A

A

Northwestern passage room

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar, uncovered during conservation work

781.71

781.66

IV

32C

32B

A

Northwestern passage room

Terra-rossa fill down to base layer of pebbles, uncovered during conservation work

781.66

781.51

IV

33

32

A

North of western entrance room

Robber trench of W28

781.84

781.74

-

39

-

A

Northeastern chapel and part to its north

Topsoil accumulation

782.15

781.54

-

42

-

A

Eastern part of ambulatory and innermost octagon

Topsoil accumulation

782.20

781.75

-

44

-

A

Southeastern chapel

Topsoil accumulation

783.29

782.19

-

45

-

B

Southeast of church

United with L399

783.85

783.35

IV–V(?)

46

-

A

Room 4 in Umayyad building

Accumulation from topsoil to white-plaster floor bedding

782.63

782.38

V

48

-

A

North of W101

Accumulation from topsoil to bedrock

782.86

780.65

-

52

-

A

Main apse

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic-floor bedding

781.22

781.08

II

52A

52

A

Main apse, Probe 10

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar top layer

782.08

782.07

II

52B

52A

A

Main apse, Probe 10

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

782.07

782.00

II

53

-

A–B

Southern part of bema

Topsoil accumulation

782.77

782.67

-

54

238

B

Southeastern passage room

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

782.40 

781.73

IV

55

-

A

Northern part of ambulatory

United with L8

781.70

781.63

-

56

53

A–B

Northwestern corner of bema

On mosaic floor and floor bedding

782.67

782.08

IV

56A

56

A–B

Northwestern corner of bema, Probes 11, 12

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar top layer

782.08

781.06

IV

56B

56A

A–B

Northwestern corner of bema, Probe 12

Floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

782.05

782.00

IV

57

-

A–B

Northern part of bema

United with L53

782.77

782.67

-

303

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

58

8

A

Northeastern part of ambulatory

On mosaic floor and floor bedding

782.38

781.75

IV

58A

58

A

Northeastern part of ambulatory

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

782.85

781.73

IV

58B

58A

A

Northeastern part of ambulatory

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar bottom layer

782.83

781.78

IV

59

42

A

Eastern part of ambulatory, Probe 5

Gray-mortar bedding with marble-slab imprints

781.70

781.68

III

60

-

A

Southeastern part of ambulatory

Topsoil accumulation

783.29

782.19

-

63

42

B

Southeastern part of ambulatory

Mosaic floor

781.80

781.79

IV

63A

42, 63

B

Southeastern part of ambulatory, Probe 6

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer with tesserae imprints

781.79

781.77

IV

63B

63A

B

Southeastern part of ambulatory, Probe 6

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar bottom layer

781.77

781.73

IV

65

-

A

Room 3 in Umayyad building

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

782.52

782.42

IV

65A

65

A

Room 3 in Umayyad building, Probe 24

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

782.41

782.40

IV

65B

65A

A

Room 3 in Umayyad building, Probe 24

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar and ash

782.40

782.32

IV

66

44

B

Southeastern chapel hall

On mosaic floor

782.19

781.76

IV

69

42

A

Southeastern part of innermost octagon

On mosaic floor and floor bedding, adjacent to stylobate

781.68

781.52

III

69A

69

A

Southeastern part of innermost octagon, Probe 4

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar top layer

781.52

781.50

III

69B

69A

A

Southeastern part of innermost octagon, Probe 4

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in mortar

781.50

781.45

III

70

3

A

Northeastern chapel

On mosaic floor and floor bedding

North: 781.59 South: 781.49

North: 781.52 South: 781.42

III

70A

70

A

Northeastern chapel, Probes 19–21

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

Probes 19, 21: 781.52  Probe 20: 781.42 

Probes 19, 21: 781.51  Probe 20: 781.41 

III

70B

70A

A

Northeastern chapel, Probes 19–21

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar middle layer

Probes 19, 21: 781.51 Probe 20: 781.41 

Probes 19, 21: 781.45 Probe 20: 781.35 

III

70C

70B

A

Northeastern chapel, Probes19–21

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

Probes 19, 21: 781.45  Probe 20: 781.35

Probes 19, 21: 781.39 Probe 20: 781.29

III

304

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

73

238

B

Room in southern part of church

On mosaic floor

781.85

781.73

IV

73A

73

B

Room in southern part of church

Mosaic-floor bedding

781.73

781.65

IV

75

3

A

Northeastern chapel apse

On mosaic floor

781.59

781.42

III

76

53

A

North of bema, between bema wall and southern side of apse in northeastern chapel

Cistern

782.10

781.28

II–III(?)

78

42

A

Innermost octagon

On the base layer of pebbles of a mosaic floor

781.66

781.58

IV(?)

80

-

A

Northern part of innermost octagon, Probe 2

Section cleaning after damage to antiquities prior to excavation

781.77

781.63

-

80A

80

A

Northern part of innermost octagon, Probe 2

Gray-mortar mosaic-floor bedding

781.63

781.61

IV

81

80A

A

Northern part of innermost octagon, Probe 2

Gray-mortar mosaic-floor bedding

781.61

781.59

III

83

-

A

Above W119, W130, W164

Topsoil accumulation

782.50

781.65

-

87

-

A

Room 1 in Umayyad building

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

782.91

782.42

IV

87A

87

A

Room 1 in Umayyad building, Probe 22

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

782.42

782.41

IV

87B

87A

A

Room 1 in Umayyad building, Probe 22

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar middle layer

782.41

782.39

IV

87C

87B

A

Room 1 in Umayyad building, Probe 22

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar and ash

782.39

782.32

IV

88

902

A

Northern part of innermost octagon, Probe 2

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

781.39

781.37

II

89

-

B

Southeastern chapel apse

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

782.10

781.73

IV

91

-

A

Room 2 in Umayyad building

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

783.04

782.62

IV

91A

91

A

Room 2 in Umayyad building, Probe 23

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

782.62

782.61

IV

91B

91A

A

Room 2 in Umayyad building, Probe 23

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar and ash

782.61

782.54

IV

91C

91B

A

Room 2 in Umayyad building, Probe 23

United with L929

782.54

782.20

IV

93

-

B

Room 25

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

782.54

782.24

IV(?)

94

-

B

Room 24

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

782.83

782.33

IV(?)

95

59

A

Eastern part of ambulatory, Probe 5

Earth fill

781.68

781.60

III

305

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

96

56B

B

Northwestern corner of bema, Probe 12

Gray-mortar floor bedding

782.00

781.97

III

97

96

B

Northwestern corner of bema, Probe 12

Earth fill at top of collapse, not excavated

781.97

781.89

III

98

238

B

Room in southern part of church

On mosaic floor

781.95

781.73

IV

101

-

A

Northern part of outermost octagon

Area disturbed by preexcavation damage

781.77

781.00

- 

104

-

B

Southern part of church

Accumulation from topsoil to hewn steps

782.90

781.76

-

105

907

A

Southeastern part of innermost octagon, Probe 4

Yellowish-mortar floor bedding abutting Pillar 3

- 

- 

II

107

65B

A

Room 3 in Umayyad building, Probe 24

Terra-rossa fill

782.32

782.12

IV

109

95

A

Eastern part of ambulatory, Probe 5

Reddish-earth fill

781.60

781.50

III

110

109

A

Eastern part of ambulatory, Probe 5

Yellowish-plaster floor bedding

781.50

781.40

II

111A

63B

B

Southeastern part of ambulatory, Probe 6

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.73

781.71

III

111B

111A

B

Southeastern part of the ambulatory, Probe 6

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar middle layer

781.71

781.68

III

111C

111B

B

Southeastern part of ambulatory, Probe 6

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in mortar

781.68

781.62

III

112

908

B

Southeastern part of ambulatory, Probe 6

White-plaster floor bedding on bedrock

781.52

781.48

II

114

216

B

Southern part of ambulatory

On floor and floor bedding of mosaic abutting the miḥrab

781.92

781.82

IV

115

87C

A

Room 1 in Umayyad building, Probe 22

Terra-rossa fill

782.32

782.27

IV

118

-

A

Area northeast of church

Topsoil accumulation

-

-

-

119

-

A

Room 7

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic-floor bedding

781.78

781.67

IV(?)

120

923

A

Northeastern chapel, Probe 19

Floor bedding, white plaster with mosaicproduction debris

781.28

781.22

II

121

-

A

Northeastern passage room

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic-floor bedding

781.66

781.52

III

121A

121

A

Northeastern passage room, Probe 18

Floor bedding, top layer of gray-mortar with mosaic-production debris

781.52

781.47

III

121B

121A

A

Northeastern passage room, Probe 18

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.47

781.41

III

121C–D

121B

A

Northeastern passage room, Probe 18

United with L921

781.41

781.28

II

306

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

122

-

A

Room 6

Removing conservationwork cover

782.07

781.67

-

124

-

A

North of Room 7

Accumulation from topsoil to bedrock

781.21

780.85

-

129

101

A

North of church

Area disturbed by preexcavation damage

781.00

780.75

-

130

129

A

North of church

Area disturbed by preexcavation damage

781.75

780.80

-

131

-

A

Portico south of Courtyard I

Topsoil accumulation

781.33

780.78

III

132

-

A

Courtyard I

Topsoil accumulation

781.33

780.91

-

133

-

A

Portico south of Courtyard I

Accumulation from topsoil to top of stylobate W309

781.37

780.79

-

134A

921

A

Northeastern passage room, Probe 18

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.28

781.27

II

134B

134A

A

Northeastern passage room, Probe 18

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray-mortar

781.27

781.22

II

134C

134B

A

Northeastern passage room, Probe 18

United with L922

781.22

780.72

II

136

-

A

North of church

Topsoil accumulation

781.42

780.82

-

137

-

A

West of the portico south of Courtyard I

Topsoil accumulation

781.53

781.33

-

138

1

A

North of church

Fill above plastered installation with hollow to collect liquid

781.62

780.90

IV(?)

139

-

A

Northwest of W3

Accumulation from topsoil to gray-mortar floor bedding

781.73

781.52

III(?)

139A

139

A

Northwest of W3

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar top layer

781.52

781.50

III(?)

139B

139A

A

Northwest of W3

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.50

781.43

III(?)

140

132

A

Southwestern part of the portico south of Courtyard I

Fill under foundations of stylobate W309 down to white-plaster floor bedding

780.91

780.79

III(?)

141

935

A

Northwest of W3

Gray-mortar floor bedding

781.39

781.38

II(?)

143

132

A

Portico east of Courtyard I

Accumulation from top of W311 to white-plaster floor bedding

780.91

780.81

III

144

-

A

Northeastern part of Courtyard I

Accumulation from topsoil to top of Channel 147

780.95

780.84

-

147

144

A

Northeastern part of Courtyard I

Plastered channel

780.84

780.26

II–IV(?)

148

-

A

Room 5

Accumulation on whiteplaster floor

780.34

780.26

III(?)

307

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

149

148

A

Northeastern part of Courtyard I

Plastered cistern

780.26

780.08

III(?)

150

-

A

South of Room 5

Accumulation from topsoil to bedrock

780.45

780.40

-

154

923

A

Northeastern chapel, Probe 21

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

781.28

781.27

II

155

919

A

Northwestern chapel, Probe 17

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

781.31

781.29

II

156

923

A

Northeastern chapel, Probe 20

Mosaic-floor bedding, white plaster with mosaic-production debris

781.18

781.14

II

200

-

B

Southern part of innermost octagon

Accumulation from topsoil to top of column base in stylobate W6

782.66

781.70

-

201

-

A–B

Northwestern corner of ambulatory

Topsoil accumulation

782.56

781.83

-

206

201

A–B

Northwestern corner of ambulatory

On floor-bedding and mosaic floor

781.83

781.63

IV

209

200

B

Southwestern corner of ambulatory

On mosaic floor

781.65

781.63

IV

211

-

A–B

Western entrance room

Accumulation from topsoil to burnt layer

782.51

781.90

-

212

-

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory

Topsoil accumulation

782.67

781.79

-

213

-

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory

Topsoil accumulation

782.98

782.75

-

215

211

A–B

Western entrance room

Layer of burning and remnants of mosaic floor

781.90

781.86

IV

216

-

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory

United with L213

783.22

782.98

-

218

-

B

Southern part of church

Topsoil accumulation, above W127, W128, W129

782.70

781.93

-

219

-

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory

United with L245

782.13

781.63

IV

220

213

B

Southern part of ambulatory

Accumulation above mosaic-floor bedding

781.92

781.82

IV

229

236

A

Northwestern part of innermost octagon

Plastered installation

781.63

781.56

III

232

-

A

Southeast of rock in center of church

Topsoil accumulation

781.83

781.55

-

233

-

A–B

West of church

United with L267

781.96

781.75

III(?)

234

-

B

Southwestern chapel

Topsoil accumulation

782.16

781.83

-

235

-

B

Room 8

Topsoil accumulation

781.75

781.30

-

236

232

A–B

Southern and western parts of innermost octagon, Probe 3

Gray-mortar mosaic-floor bedding

781.67

781.63

IV

238

234

B

Southwestern chapel apse and rooms to its east

Accumulation above W127 and adjacent rooms

782.20

781.76

-

308

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

240

233– 235

B

Southwestern chapel

On mosaic floor

781.83

781.76

IV

244

89

B

Southwestern chapel apse

On mosaic floor

782.42

781.78

IV

245

233, 234

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

On mosaic-floor bedding

781.75

781.69

IV

245A

245

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.69

781.66

IV

245B

245A

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar middle layer

781.66

781.61

IV

247

235, 255

B

Room 8

On mosaic floor

781.30

781.10

IV–V(?)

250

-

B

South of southwestern passage room

Topsoil accumulation

782.15

782.05

-

253

250

B

South of southwestern passage room

Robber trench on the outline of W152

782.05

781.50

-

254

-

A–B

Portico east of Courtyard II

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

782.63

781.78

III(?)

254A

254

A–B

Portico east of Courtyard II

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.78

781.77

III(?)

254B

254A

A–B

Portico east of Courtyard II

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar middle layer

781.77

781.74

III(?)

254C

254B

A–B

Portico east of Courtyard II

Mosaic-floor bedding, pebble base layer embedded in gray mortar

781.74

781.67

III(?)

255

-

B

Southwest of church

Topsoil accumulation

781.67

781.30

-

256

250

B

Southwestern passage room

Accumulation on mosaic floor

782.05

781.80

IV

256A

256

B

Southwestern passage room, Probe 13

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.80

781.77

IV

256B

256A

B

Southwestern passage room, Probe 13

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar middle layer

781.77

781.72

IV

256C

256B

B

Southwestern passage room, Probe 13

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.72

781.65

IV

257

-

B

West of church

United with L28

782.09

781.84

-

260A

245B

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.61

781.59

III

260B

260A

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar middle layer

781.59

781.56

III

260C

260B

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.56

781.52

III

260D

260C

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

United with L909

781.47

781.36

III

261

909

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

Mosaic-floor bedding, white plaster with mosaic-production debris

781.47

781.45

II

265

211

A–B

Western entrance room

On floor bedding and floor of marble slabs

781.86

781.57

III

265A

265

A–B

Western entrance room, Probes 14-16

Gray-mortar floor bedding with imprints of slabs

781.57

781.51

III

309

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

267

28

A–B

Courtyard II

On mosaic floor

781.84

781.77

III(?)

267A

267

A–B

Courtyard II

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar top layer

781.77

781.73

III(?)

267B

267A

A–B

Courtyard II

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.73

781.69

III(?)

268

-

A–B

Portico south of Courtyard II

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

782.19

781.98

IV

268A

268

A–B

Portico south of Courtyard II

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar top layer

781.98

781.95

IV

268B

268A

A–B

Portico south of Courtyard II

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.95

781.88

IV

269

-

B

Room 9

Accumulation from topsoil to white-plaster mosaic-floor bedding

782.51

781.16

III–IV(?)

269A

269

B

Room 9

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.16

781.15

III–IV(?)

269B

269A

B

Room 9

Mosaic-floor bedding, bottom layer of gray mortar with mosaicproduction debris

781.15

781.11

III–IV(?)

272

-

B

South of Room 8

Accumulation from topsoil to stone paving

783.14

782.81

-

273

294

C

Room 14

On mosaic floor

782.67

782.56

II–IV(?)

275

-

C

Room 15

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

783.25

783.13

III–IV

276

-

B

Southwest of church

Topsoil accumulation

783.30

783.17

-

278A

915

B

Southwestern passage room, Probe 13

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.51

781.50

II–III(?)

278B

278A

B

Southwestern passage room, Probe 13

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.50

781.44

II–III(?)

279

265A

A–B

Western entrance room, Probe 16

Earth, gray mortar and ash on bedrock

781.51

781.45

II–III(?)

282

917

A–B

Western entrance room, Probes 14, 15

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

781.43

781.42

II

288

-

A–B

Portico south of Courtyard II

United with L268

782.19

781.98

IV

292

-

B

Room 10

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor with inscription

782.89

782.37

IV

292A

292

B

Room 10

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

782.37

782.36

IV

292B

292A

B

Room 10

Mosaic-floor bedding, middle layer of gray mortar and

782.36

782.32

IV

292C

292B

B

Room 10

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

782.32

782.27

IV

294

-

C

Room 14

Topsoil accumulation

782.77

782.67

-

296

-

C

Room 12

Accumulation from topsoil to stone-slab floor

783.10

782.35

IV–V(?)

310

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

296A

296

C

Room 12

Stone-slab floor bedding, white plaster

782.35

782.30

IV–V(?)

299

939

B

Room 10

Floor bedding, white plaster with mosaicproduction debris

782.22

782.14

III

309

-

A–B

Western part of ambulatory

Topsoil accumulation

782.66

781.70

-

310

-

B

Room 8

Topsoil accumulation

782.03

781.82

-

313

-

A–B

Southwest of church

Topsoil accumulation

782.07

781.83

-

314

313

A–B

Southwest of church

Plastered channel

781.82

781.66

IV(?)

316

309

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

On mosaic floor and floor bedding, next to threshold in W25

781.70

781.67

IV

316A

316

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Floor bedding, whiteplaster top layer

781.67

781.66

IV

316B

316A

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Floor bedding, graymortar bottom layer

781.66

781.64

IV

317

316B

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Terra-rossa fill

781.64

781.58

IV

318A

317

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Floor bedding, whiteplaster top layer

781.58

318B

318A

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Floor bedding, graymortar middle layer

781.58

781.56

III

318C

318B

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.56

781.50

III

318D

318C

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

United with L911

781.50

781.44

III

319A

911

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Floor bedding, whiteplaster top layer

781.44

781.43

II

319B

319A

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Earth with mosaicproduction debris

781.43

781.40

II

319C

319B

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

United with L912

781.40

781.33

II

320A

904

A–B

Western part of innermost octagon, Probe 3

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar top layer

781.57

781.55

III

320B

320A

A–B

Western part of innermost octagon, Probe 3

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

781.55

781.50

III

320C

320B

A–B

Western part of innermost octagon, Probe 3

United with L905

781.50

781.48

III

321

905

A–B

Western part of innermost octagon, Probe 3

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

781.48

781.46

II

321A

321

A–B

Western part of innermost octagon, Probe 3

United with L906

781.46

781.33

II

322

265

A–B

Western entrance room

Fill

781.60

781.56

III

326

247

B

Room 8

Fill

781.08

780.99

IV(?)

III

311

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

328

-

A

Northwest of church

Topsoil accumulation above the corner formed by W3 and W26

781.96

781.74

-

329

265

A–B

Western entrance room

United with L917

781.51

781.31

III

330A

209

B

Southwestern corner of ambulatory

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer, uncovered during conservation works

781.63

781.61

IV

330B

330A

B

Southwestern corner of ambulatory

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar middle layerr, uncovered during conservation works

781.61

781.56

IV

330C

330B

B

Southwestern corner of ambulatory

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortarr, uncovered during conservation works

781.56

781.51

IV

330D

330C

B

Southwestern corner of ambulatory

United with L937

781.51

781.44

IV

333A

936

A–B

Courtyard II

Mosaic-floor bedding, white-plaster top layer

781.63

781.62

II(?)

333B

333A

A–B

Courtyard II

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar bottom layer

781.62

781.60

II(?)

335

7

A

Northwestern part of ambulatory

Pit formed by collapse of Mosaic 7

781.65

780.00

-

337

-

B

Southern part of ambulatory

Topsoil accumulation

782.98

782.75

-

339A

56A

A

Bema, Probe 11

Mosaic-floor bedding, gray-mortar top layer

782.06

782.04

III

339B

339A

A

Bema, Probe 11

Mosaic-floor bedding, base layer of pebbles embedded in gray mortar

782.04

781.98

III

340

339B

A

Bema, Probe 11

Terra-rossa fill

781.98

781.79

III

341

340

A

Bema, Probe 11

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

781.79

781.77

II

343

58B

A

Northeast part of ambulatory

Mosaic floor

781.78

-

III

344

-

C

Room 11

Accumulation from topsoil to bedrock

783.13

782.75

IV–V(?)

346

373

B

Southwestern chapel

Mosaic floor

781.76

781.54

III

349

-

A

Northeastern part of church above W130

Removal of conservation work cover

781.72

781.10

-

356

-

A

West of rock at center of church

Accumulation from topsoil to the mosaicfloor bedding

781.96

781.43

-

356A

356

A

West of rock at center of church, Probe 1

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

781.43

781.41

III

361

-

B

Southern part of innermost octagon

Base layer of pebbles on the surface; removal of bedding during conservation work

781.50

781.45

III(?)

312

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

366

-

A–B

Western part of innermost octagon

Base layer of pebbles on the surface; removal of bedding during conservation work

781.55

781.50

IV(?)

373

240

B

Southwestern chapel

Fill between floors; removal of bedding during conservation work

781.74

781.54

III–IV

374

-

B

Courtyard III

United with L399

783.81

783.39

IV–V(?)

375

-

B

Room 19

Topsoil accumulation

783.53

783.33

-

376

375

B

Room 19

Accumulation on mosaic floor

783.33

783.07

II–III(?)

377

-

A

Northeastern corner in ambulatory

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic-floor bedding

781.75

781.63

-

379

377

A

Northeastern corner in ambulatory

Gray-mortar mosaic-floor bedding

781.63

781.60

III–IV(?)

380

379

A

Northeastern corner in ambulatory, Probe 9

Accumulation down to stone paving; underground favisssa

781.60

780.73

III–IV(?)

380A

380

A

Northeastern corner in ambulatory, Probe 9

Stone paving; underground favisssa

780.73

780.66

III–IV(?)

381

380

A

Northeastern corner in ambulatory, Probe 9

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

780.66

780.24

III–IV(?)

382

-

A

North of church

Topsoil accumulation disturbed by preexcavation damage

781.75

781.25

-

385

900

A

West of rock at center of church, Probe 1

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

781.39

781.37

II

387

232

A

South of rock at center of church

Gray-mortar floor bedding on base layer of pebbles embedded in mortar

781.45

781.34

III

388

232

A

North of rock at center of church

Gray-mortar floor bedding on base layer of pebbles embedded in mortar

781.44

781.36

III

389

-

B

Courtyard III

Topsoil accumulation above stone paving

783.53

783.35

IV–V(?)

390

-

B

Courtyard III

United with L399

783.53

783.07

IV–V(?)

392

389

B

Courtyard III

United with L399

783.21

782.82

IV–V(?)

393

374

B

Courtyard III

Fill under stone paving

783.39

782.78

IV–V(?)

396

382

A

North of church

Modern pit

781.25

780.89

-

397

932

A

Probe in portico south of Courtyard I

Fill

780.77

780.56

II

399

-

B

Courtyard III

Accumulation from topsoil to stone paving

783.64

783.34

IV–V(?)

400

-

C

West of W45

Topsoil accumulation

783.80

783.71

-

401

-

C

Room 16

Topsoil accumulation

783.85

783.50

-

402

-

C

South of Room 16

Topsoil accumulation

783.88

783.40

-

403

400

C

West of W45

Accumulation

783.71

783.59

-

313

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

404

401

C

Room 16

Accumulation above mosaic floor and installation

783.50

783.30

-

406

-

C

South of L403

Topsoil accumulation

783.72

783.33

-

407

-

C

South of L404

Topsoil accumulation

783.75

783.41

-

408

-

C

East of L407

Topsoil accumulation

783.72

783.38

-

409

404

C

Room 16

Installation on mosaic

783.38

783.22

V(?)

410

404, 409

C

Room 16

On mosaic floor

783.22

783.19

III–IV(?)

411

-

C

Room 13

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

783.88

783.40

IV–V(?)

412

-

C

South of Installation 409

Topsoil accumulation

783.77

783.38

-

413

-

C

East of Room 13

Topsoil accumulation

 -

 -

-

420

-

C

East of L413

Topsoil accumulation

783.14

782.85

-

422

-

C

East of L420

Topsoil accumulation

783.64

783.45

-

426

-

C

South of Room 13

Topsoil accumulation

783.80

783.40

-

451

-

C

Room 22

Topsoil accumulation

783.66

783.51

-

452A

78

A–B

Eastern part of innermost octagon

Dismantling the base layer of pebbles during conservation work

781.66

781.58

IV(?)

453

-

C

South of Courtyard III

Accumulation from topsoil down to W506 and W507

783.56

783.19

-

454

-

C

Room 23

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

783.56

783.19

III–IV(?)

455

451

C

Room 22

Accumulation on mosaic floor

783.51

783.23

III–IV(?)

496

-

B

South of Courtyard III

Accumulation from topsoil to an oven incorporated in stone paving

783.51

783.05

IV–V(?)

499

-

B

Courtyard III

United with L399

783.85

783.37

IV–V(?)

500

-

C

West of Room 17

Topsoil accumulation

782.78

782.08

-

501

-

C

Room 17

Topsoil accumulation

782.68

782.08

-

503

500, 501

C

Room 17

Accumulation from the tops of walls to graymortar floor

782.08

781.89

V

505

503

C

Room 17

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.89

781.60

V

506

-

C

Southeast of Room 17

Topsoil accumulation

782.42

781.95

-

507

500, 501

C

Room 18

Accumulation from the tops of walls to graymortar floor

782.08

781.77

V(?)

603

-

D

-

Accumulation from top of W60 down to bedrock

785.12

784.67

-

605

-

D

-

Plastered installation

784.69

784.45

-

625

-

D

-

Accumulation from topsoil to stone paving

786.05

785.79

-

626

-

D

-

Accumulation from topsoil to stone paving

785.32

785.05

-

314

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

627

-

D

Below threshold in W610

Plastered channel

786.75

786.65

-

628

-

D

Continuation of Channel 627, south of W618

Plastered channel

786.70

786.61

-

629

-

D

South of Channel 628

Accumulation from topsoil to crushed limestone floor

786.50

786.33

-

629A

629

D

South of Channel 628

Fill down to crushedlimestone floor

786.33

785.85

-

630

-

D

North of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Topsoil accumulation

784.76

784.64

-

631

630

D

North of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Accumulation on stone paving

784.64

784.54

-

632

-

D

Adjoins southwestern wall of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Accumulation from topsoil to plastered installation

784.54

783.79

-

635

-

D

North of W621

Accumulation from topsoil to mosaic floor

785.75

785.64

III(?)

637

-

D

East of W617

Accumulation from topsoil to plastered installation and crushedlimestone floor

785.86

785.79

-

804

-

E

South of L806

Topsoil accumulation

781.74

781.45

-

806

-

E

Northern square

Topsoil accumulation

780.17

779.23

-

808

-

E

Southern square

Topsoil accumulation

782.15

781.96

-

809

804

E

Between W80 and W81

Accumulation

781.45

780.23

-

810

-

E

Southern square

Accumulation in reservoir

781.91

781.44

III(?)

812

808

E

West of Reservoir 810

Accumulation in channel

781.96

781.65

III(?)

814

806

E

South of W85

Accumulation.

779.23

778.73

-

815

809

E

-

Accumulation from tops of W81 and W82

781.25

780.72

-

816

-

E

Above W82 and L822

Topsoil accumulation

780.87

780.24

-

817

-

E

South of W82

Topsoil accumulation

780.48

779.23

-

822

816

E

South of W82

Accumulation in hewn channel

780.24

780.15

III(?)

823

-

E

Above W80, W81

Accumulation from tops of walls

781.27

780.72

-

824

809

E

Above W80, W81

Accumulation from tops of walls

781.45

781.23

-

825

806

E

Above W84, W85

Accumulation from tops of walls

779.14

778.83

-

826

806

E

Above W84, W85

Accumulation from tops of walls

779.25

778.85

-

900

356A

A

West of rock at center of church, Probe 1

Terra-rossa fill

781.41

781.39

III

901

385

A

West of rock at center of church, Probe 1

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.37

781.20

II

902

81

A

Northern part of innermost octagon, Probe 2

Terra-rossa fill

781.59

781.39

III

315

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

903

88

A

Northern part of innermost octagon, Probe 2

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.37

781.20

II

904

236

A–B

Western part of innermost octagon, Probe 3

Terra-rossa fill

781.63

781.57

IV

905

320B

A–B

Western part of innermost octagon, Probe 3

Terra-rossa fill

781.50

781.48

III

906

321

A–B

Western part of innermost octagon, Probe 3

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.46

781.33

II

907

69B

A

Southeastern part of octagon, Probe 4

Terra-rossa fill

781.45

781.40

III

908

111C

B

Southeastern part of ambulatory, Probe 6

Terra-rossa fill with mosaic-production debris

781.62

781.52

III

909

260C

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

Terra-rossa fill

781.52

781.47

III

910

261

B

Southwestern part of ambulatory, Probe 7

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.45

781.38

II

911

318C

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Terra-rossa fill

781.50

781.44

III

912

319B

A–B

Western part of ambulatory, Probe 8

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.40

781.33

II

913

52B

A

Main apse, Probe 10

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

782.00

781.70

II

914

341

A

Bema, Probe 11

Terra-rossa fill

781.77

781.62

II

915

256C

B

Southwestern passage room, Probe 13

Terra-rossa fill

781.65

781.51

IV

916

278B

B

Southwestern passage room, Probe 13

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.44

781.24

II–III(?)

917

265A

A–B

Western entrance room, Probes 14, 15

Terra-rossa fill

781.51

781.43

III

918

282

A–B

Western entrance room, Probes 14, 15

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.42

781.31

II

919

10C

A

Northwestern chapel, Probe 17

Terra-rossa fill

781.47

781.31

III

920

155

A

Northwestern chapel, Probe 17

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.29

781.20

II

921

121B

A

Northeastern passage room, Probe 18

Terra-rossa fill

781.41

781.28

III

922

134B

A

Northeastern passage room, Probe 18

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.22

780.72

II

923

70C

A

Northeastern chapel, Probes 19 to 21

Terra-rossa fill

Probes 19–21: 781.39 Probe 20:781.29

Probes 19–21: 781.28 Probe 20:781.18 

III

924

120

A

Northeastern chapel, Probe 19

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.22

780.85

II

925

156

A

Northeastern chapel, Probe 20

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.14

781.04

II

316

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Loci (cont.) Locus No.

Locus Above

Area

Location

Description

Top Level

Bottom Level

Stratum

929

91B

A

Room 2 in Umayyad building, Probe 23

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

782.54

782.20

IV

930

356A

A

West of rock at center of church

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

781.41

781.39

II

931

316

A–B

Western part of ambulatory

Mosaic floor

781.60

781.58

III(?)

932

140

A

Probe at western end of portico south of Courtyard I

White-plaster mosaicfloor bedding

780.79

780.77

II

933

138

A

North of church

Plastered installation

780.90

-

III(?)

934

132

A

Portico north of Courtyard I

Accumulation from top of W311

780.91

780.26

III

935

139B

A

Northwest of church

Terra-rossa fill

781.43

781.39

III(?)

936

267B

A–B

Courtyard II

Terra-rossa fill

781.69

781.63

III(?)

937

330C

B

Southwestern corner of ambulatory

Terra-rossa fill, uncovered during conservation works

781.51

781.44

IV

938

269B

B

Room 9

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

781.11

780.81

IV(?)

939

292C

B

Room 10

Terra-rossa fill

782.27

782.22

IV

940

299

B

Room 10

Terra-rossa fill down to bedrock

782.14

781.84

III(?)

941 (= L256B– C)

256

B

Southwestern passage room

Mosaic-floor bedding and fill, uncovered during conservation works

781.80

781.51

IV(?)

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

317

Walls Wall No.

Area

Location

Description

Stratum

1

A

Internal wall shared by northwestern chapel and ambulatory, corner with W25

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; ashlar wall; core of small fieldstones and mortar; threshold in center of wall

II–V

2

A

Internal wall shared by outermost octagon and ambulatory

Reconstructed wall; destroyed during pre-excavation damage

II–V

3

A

External wall of church in northwest

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; hydraulic plaster on outer face

II–V

4

A

Internal wall shared by northwestern chapel and adjacent passage room

Robber trench and stone threshold

II–V

5

A

Apse wall in northwestern chapel

Ashlar wall, core of small fieldstones and mortar

II–V

6

A–B

Southwestern stylobate in church

Robber trench and column base

III–V

25

A–B

Internal wall shared by western entrance room and ambulatory

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; ashlar wall in headers and stretchers; stone threshold

II–V

26

A–B

Western external wall of church

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; wall incorporates two pedestals, the passage between them blocked with ashlars in a later phase

II–V

27

A–B

Wall of portico east of Courtyard II

Robber trench

III(?)–V

28

A–B

Internal wall shared by western entrance room and northwestern passage room

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; ashlar wall, stones arranged in headers and stretchers; stone threshold

II–V

32

A–B

Internal wall shared by western entrance room and southwestern passage room

Robber trench and stone threshold

II–V

33

A–B

Portico wall south of Courtyard II

Robber trench

III(?)–V

34

A–B

Portico wall north of Courtyard II

Ashlars

III(?)–V

38

A–B

Internal wall shared by southwestern chapel and ambulatory

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; gray mortar on side facing ambulatory, hydraulic plaster on side facing chapel

II–V

41

C

Northern wall of Room 17

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar

IV(?)–V

42

C

Internal wall shared by Rooms 17 and 18

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; northern face of large dressed stones, southern face of small and medium-sized fieldstones

IV(?)–V

43

C

Eastern wall of Room 17

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; western face of large dressed stones, eastern face of small fieldstones

IV(?)–V

44

C

Early wall in Room 17(?)

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar

IV(?)

45

C

Western wall of Room 16

Robber trench

III–IV(?)

46

C

Internal wall shared by Rooms 15 and 16

Robber trench

III–IV(?)

48

C

Southern wall of Room 16

Robber trench

III–IV(?)

50

C

Southern wall of Room 13

Northern face of dressed stones

IV–V(?)

60

D

Northwest of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Eastern face of large dressed stones, western face of medium-sized fieldstones and mortar

61

D

Northwest of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Northern face of large dressed stones, southern face of small fieldstones and mortar

80

E

Northwestern part of the site

Northern face of large dressed stones and plastered, southern face of small fieldstones and earth

III(?)

81

E

Northwestern part of the site

Bedrock incorporated in foundation; western face of large dressed stones, eastern face of small fieldstones and earth; white plaster on both faces

III(?)

82

E

Northwestern part of the site

Northern face of large dressed stones and plastered, southern face of small fieldstones and earth

III(?)

318

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Walls (cont.) Wall No.

Area

Location

Description

Stratum

84

E

Northwestern part of the site

Medium-sized dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and mortar; white plaster on northern and southern faces

III(?)

85

E

Northwestern part of the site

Medium-sized dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and mortar; doorpost(?) at northern end; white plaster on eastern face

III(?)

86

E

Northern wall of Reservoir 810

Partly hewn in bedrock, partly built of fieldstones and earth

III(?)

87

E

Western wall of Reservoir 810

Partly hewn in bedrock, partly built of medium-sized dressed stones and earth

III(?)

88

E

Eastern wall of Reservoir 810

Partly hewn in bedrock, partly built of fieldstones

III(?)

100

A

External northwestern wall of Umayyad building

Large and medium-sized dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and earth

V

101

A

External northeastern wall of Umayyad building

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; wall of dressed stones; core of medium-sized and small fieldstones and earth

IV–V

101A

A

External northeastern wall of Umayyad building

Large and medium-sized dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and earth

V

102

A

Eastern corner of ambulatory between W106 and W109

Ashlars

III–V

103

A

External wall of church on south

Ashlar wall; core of small fieldstones and mortar; hydraulic plaster on outer face

II–V

103A

A

External wall between Umayyad building and apse of northeastern chapel

Dressed stones

V

104

A

Eastern wall of main apse

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; hydraulic plaster on outer face

II–III

105

A–B

Southern wall of bema staircase

Ashlar stones in headers and stretchers; column base incorporated in western end

III–V

106

A

Internal wall shared by northeastern chapel and ambulatory

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; two thresholds one on top of other

II(?)–V

108

A–B

Bema staircase

Two ashlar steps of dressed stones, capitals and column bases incorporated; mortar core; side facing ambulatory clad in black, red and white stone slabs

III–IV(?)

109

A–B

Northern wall of bema staircase

Medium-sized ashlars, capital and column bases incorporated; mortar core

III–V

110

B

Apse wall of southeastern chapel, partly shared with bema

Bedrock incorporated at meeting point with W111; core of small fieldstones and mortar; hydraulic plaster on external face

II–V

111

B

Internal wall shared by southeastern chapel and ambulatory

Northern part of foundation hewn in bedrock, robber trench in southern part; white plaster on gray mortar on side facing ambulatory

II–V

112

B

Internal wall shared by southeastern chapel and adjacent passage room

Robber trench and stone threshold

II–V

113

A–B

Southern stylobate in the church

Foundation of medium-sized fieldstones and mortar

III–V

114

A

Southeastern side of main apse wall

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; hydraulic plaster on outer face

II–V(?)

115

A

Internal wall shared by Rooms 3 and 4 in Umayyad building

Western face of medium-sized dressed stones, eastern face of small fieldstones and earth

IV–V

116

A

Internal wall shared by Rooms 1–3 in Umayyad building

Foundation of medium-sized dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and earth

IV–V

117

A

Internal wall shared by Rooms 2 and 3 in Umayyad building

Foundation of medium-sized and small fieldstones and earth

IV–V

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

319

Walls (cont.) Wall No.

Area

Location

Description

Stratum

119

A

Northeastern side of main apse wall

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; hydraulic plaster on outer face of wall

II–III

120

A

Between eastern and northeastern sides of ambulatory

Plastered channel

III(?)

122

B

Internal wall shared by ambulatory and southern rooms of church

Foundation hewn in the rock; ashlar wall from Strata IV–V; stone threshold from Strata II–III

II–V

123

A

External southeastern wall of Umayyad building

Foundation of mortar with medium-sized and small fieldstones; outer face of wall made of dressed stones, column bases and a threshold in secondary use, inner face of small fieldstones and earth

IV–V

124

B

External southeastern wall of church

Foundation of medium-sized and small fieldstones and mortar; hydraulic plaster on outer face, white plaster over gray mortar on side facing chapel

II–V

125

B

Internal wall shared by the two southern rooms of church

Ashlar and mortar wall

IV–V

126

B

Southern wall of Room 98

Robber trench

IV–V

127

B

Apse wall of southwestern chapel

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar, incorporating bedrock; wall of dressed stones; hydraulic plaster on side facing apse

II–V

128

B

Wall to west of hewn steps in southern part of church

Ashlars on northern face, hydraulic plaster on southern face; doorpost at eastern end; core of very small fieldstones and mortar; channel inside wall

II(?)–III

129

B

Wall on hewn steps adjacent to southern external wall of church

Plastered channel

IV(?)–V

130

A

Northeastern external wall of church

Foundation of medium-sized and small fieldstones and mortar; wall of medium-sized stones and mortar; hydraulic plaster on outer face; channel inside wall

II–V

131

A

Northwestern external wall of Umayyad building

Medium-sized and small fieldstones and mortar

IV–V

132

B

Southwestern wall of Room 24

Robber trench

IV–V(?)

133

B

Northeastern wall of Room 24

Bedrock incorporated in foundation; wall of large dressed stones with small fieldstones and earth between them

IV–V(?)

134

B

Southeastern wall of Room 24

Outer face of medium-sized dressed stones

IV–V(?)

135

B

Eastern wall of Rooms 19 and 20, shared by portico(?) east of Courtyard III

Western face of large dressed stones, eastern face of small fieldstones and mortar

III–IV(?)

136

B

Wall of portico(?) east of Courtyard III

Large dressed stones with small fieldstones and mortar between them

III–IV(?)

138

A–B

South of rock at center of church

Medium-sized fieldstones and fragments of columns; core of small fieldstones and earth

V

139

A–B

North of rock at center of church

Medium-sized fieldstones and fragments of columns; core of small fieldstones and earth

V

140

A–B

West of rock at center of church

Large and medium-sized dressed stones and earth

I

141

A–B

Internal wall shared by southeastern passage room and room to its east

Robber trench

II–V

144

B

Northwestern wall of Room 24

Northern face of small fieldstones

IV–V(?)

151

A–B

Southwestern external wall of church

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; hydraulic plaster on outer face, gray mortar and body sherds of jars on side facing chapel

II–V

152

A–B

Internal wall shared by southwestern chapel and adjacent passage room

Robber trench and stone threshold

II–V

320

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

Walls (cont.) Wall No.

Area

Location

Description

Stratum

156

B

Northern wall of Rooms 9 and 10

Robber trench and a single ashlar

III(?)–V

157

B

Southern wall of Rooms 9 and 10

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; ashlar wall; on the northern face three engaged pillars; hydraulic plaster on southern face

III(?)–V

158

C

Western wall of Rooms 11 and 13

Dressed stones and core of small fieldstones and earth

IV(?)–V(?)

159

C

Wall shared by Rooms 11 and 13

Dressed stones and core of small fieldstones and earth

IV–V(?)

160

B

Internal wall shared by Rooms 9 and 10

Ashlars

III(?)–V

161

B

Northern wall of Room 8

Robber trench

IV–V(?)

162

B

Internal wall shared by Rooms 8 and 9

Robber trench and a single large dressed stone

III(?)–V

164

A

Wall of apse of northeastern chapel, partly shared with bema

Ashlar wall; core of medium-sized and small fieldstones and mortar

II–V

167

C

Southeastern wall of Room 8

Bedrock incorporated in foundation; wall of dressed stones

IV–V(?)

168

C

Internal wall in Room 12

Medium-sized dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and mortar

III(?)

169

B

Northeastern wall of Room 8

Small fieldstones and mortar

IV(?)–V(?)

170

C

Internal wall shared by Rooms 11 and 12

Dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and earth; stone threshold

IV(?)–V(?)

174

C

Wall of Rooms 14 and 15

Robber trench and engaged pillar; gray plaster on eastern face

II(?)–V(?)

301

A

Internal wall shared by northeastern chapel and adjacent passage room

Robber trench and stone threshold

II–V

302

A

External northern church wall

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; destroyed during pre-excavation damage

II–V

303

A

Wall of portico to east of Courtyard I

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; eastern face of large dressed stones, western face of small fieldstones; mortar core

III–V

304

A

Southeastern wall of Room 7

Ashlar wall, stones arranged in headers and stretchers; core of small fieldstones and mortar

IV(?)–V

306

A

Western side of Installation 933 in portico south of Courtyard I

Ashlar wall, medium-sized stones

III(?)

307

A

Internal wall shared by Rooms 6 and 7

Ashlar wall, medium-sized stones

III(?)–V

308

A

Western wall of northeastern passage room

Reconstructed wall; destroyed during pre-excavation damage

II–V

309

A

Wall of portico south of Courtyard I

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; stylobate of stone slabs and three column bases

III–V

311

A

Wall of portico east of Courtyard I

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; eastern face of large dressed stones, western face of small fieldstones and mortar

III–V

315

A

Southern wall of Room 5

Ashlar wall; core of small fieldstones and mortar

III(?)–V

315A

A

Southern wall of Room 5

Small fieldstones and earth; hydraulic plaster on southern face

III(?)–V

317

A

Northeastern wall of Room 7

Ashlars arranged in headers and stretchers; core of small fieldstones and mortar

IV(?)–V

318

A

Wall of portico north of Courtyard I

Northern face of ashlars, southern face of very small fieldstones and mortar

III(?)–V

320

C

Western wall of Rooms 17 and 18

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar

V

324

C

Eastern wall of Room 18

Western face of large dressed stones

IV(?)–V

325

C

Southern wall of Room 18

Bedrock incorporated into foundations; northern face of dressed stones

V

APPENDIX 2: LIST OF SELECTED LOCI AND WALLS

321

Walls (cont.) Wall No.

Area

Location

Description

Stratum

326

B–C

Eastern wall of Room 12

Western face of medium-sized dressed stones; stone threshold

IV–V(?)

328

A

Northern wall of Room 6

Large dressed stones; between this wall and W362 small fieldstones

IV(?)–V

329

A

Wall in western part of portico to south of Courtyard I

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar

IV–V(?)

350

A–B

Western stylobate in church

Robber trench

III–V

351

A

Northwestern stylobate in church

Robber trench

III–V

352

A

Northern stylobate in church

Robber trench

III–V

353

A

Northeastern stylobate in church

Robber trench

III–V

354

A–B

Eastern stylobate in church

Robber trench

III–V

355

A–B

Southeastern stylobate in church

Robber trench

III–V

361

A

Portico wall north of Courtyard I

Foundation of small fieldstones and mortar; wall of large dressed stones

III(?)–V

362

A

Northern wall of Installation 933 in portico to south of Courtyard I

Ashlar wall of medium-sized stones

III(?)

500

B

Eastern wall of Rooms 19 and 20

Medium-sized and small fieldstones and mortar

III(?)–V

501

B

Northern wall of Room 19

Medium-sized and small fieldstones and mortar

III(?)–V

502

B

Internal wall shared by Rooms 19 and 20

Medium-sized and small fieldstones and mortar

III(?)–V

504

B

Northern wall of Room 21

Small fieldstones; mortar core

–

505

B

Western wall of Room 21

Small fieldstones; mortar core

–

506

C

Wall of portico(?) to south of Courtyard III

Ashlar wall; core of small fieldstones and mortar

III(?)–V

507

C

Northern wall of Rooms 22 and 23, shared by portico(?) south of Courtyard III

Northern face of ashlars, southern face of very small fieldstones and mortar; stone threshold

III(?)–V

508

C

Southern wall of Rooms 22 and 23

Robber trench

III(?)–V

509

C

Western wall of Room 22

Robber trench

III(?)–V

510

C

Internal wall shared by Rooms 22 and 23

Western face of ashlars, eastern face of very small fieldstones and mortar; stone threshold

III(?)–V

511

B

Southern wall of Room 21

Small fieldstones; mortar core

–

610

D

West of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Medium-sized dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and mortar; stone threshold

611

D

West of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Medium-sized dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and mortar

612

D

Northwestern wall of Bir Qadismu water reservoir

Ashlar wall; mortar core

II(?)–V

613

D

Southwestern wall of Bir Qadismu water reservoir

Ashlar wall; mortar core

II(?)–V

615

D

West of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Medium-sized dressed stones; core of small fieldstones and mortar

616

D

Northwest of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Small fieldstones and earth; hydraulic plaster on eastern face

617

D

Northwest of Bir Qadismu reservoir, terrace wall

Dressed stones of various sizes, small fieldstones and earth

618

D

West of Bir Qadismu reservoir, terrace wall

Dressed stones of various sizes, small fieldstones, fragments of Corinthian capitals and earth

619

D

West and south of Bir Qadismu reservoir, terrace wall

Dressed stones of various sizes, small fieldstones and earth

621

D

Northwest of Bir Qadismu reservoir

Small fieldstones and earth; hydraulic plaster on northern face.

IAA R eports

No. 1 G. Avni and Z. Greenhut, The Akeldama Tombs Three Burial Caves in the Kidron Valley, Jerusalem, 1996, 129 pp. No. 2 E. Braun, Yiftaḥ’el Salvage and Rescue Excavations at a Prehistoric Village in Lower Galilee, Israel, 1997, 249 pp. No. 3 G. Edelstein, I. Milevski and S. Aurant, Villages, Terraces and Stone Mounds Excavations at Manaḥat, Jerusalem, 1987–1989, 1998, 149 pp. No. 4 C. Epstein, The Chalcolithic Culture of the Golan, 1998, 352 pp. + plans. Hardcover. No. 5 T. Schick, The Cave of the Warrior A Fourth Millennium Burial in the Judean Desert, 1998, 137 pp. No. 6 R. Cohen, Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev I: The Chalcolithic Period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I (Hebrew, English Summary), 1999, 396 pp. No. 7 R. Hachlili and A. Killebrew, Jericho The Jewish Cemetery of the Second Temple Period, 1999, 202 pp. No. 8 Z. Gal and Y. Alexandre, Ḥorbat Rosh Zayit An Iron Age Storage Fort and Village, 2000, 247 pp. No. 9 U. Dahari, Monastic Settlements in South Sinai in the Byzantine Period The Archaeological Remains, 2000, 250 pp. No. 10 Z. Yeivin, The Synagogue at Korazim The 1962–1964, 1980–1987 Excavations (Hebrew, English Summary), 2000, 216 pp. No. 11 M. Hartal, The al-Ṣubayba (Nimrod) Fortress Towers 11 and 9, 2001, 129 pp. No. 12 R. Gonen, Excavations at Efrata A Burial Ground from the Intermediate and Middle Bronze Ages, 2001, 153 pp. No. 13 E. Eisenberg, A. Gopher and R. Greenberg, Tel Te’o A Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Site in the Ḥula Valley, 2001, 227 pp. No. 14 R. Frankel, N. Getzov, M. Aviam and A. Degani, Settlement Dynamics and Regional Diversity in Ancient Upper Galilee Archaeological Survey of Upper Galilee, 2001, 175 pp. No. 15 M. Dayagi-Mendels, The Akhziv Cemeteries The Ben-Dor Excavations, 1941–1944, 2002, 176 pp. No. 16 Y. Goren and P. Fabian, Kissufim Road A Chalcolithic Mortuary Site, 2002, 97 pp. No. 17 A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Report I: Subterranean Complexes 21, 44, 70, 2003, 183 pp. No. 18 A. Golani, Salvage Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site of Qiryat Ata, 2003, 261 pp. No. 19 H. Khalaily and O. Marder, The Neolithic Site of Abu Ghosh The 1995 Excavations, 2003, 146 pp. No. 20 R. Cohen and R. Cohen-Amin, Ancient Settlement of the Negev Highlands II: The Iron Age and Persian Period (Hebrew, English Summary), 2004, 258 pp. No. 21 D. Stacey, Exavations at Tiberias, 1973–1974: The Early Islamic Periods, 2004, 259 pp. No. 22 Y. Hirschfeld, Excavations at Tiberias, 1989–1994, 2004, 234 pp.

No. 23 S. Ben-Arieh, Bronze and Iron Age Tombs at Tell Beit Mirsim, 2004, 212 pp. No. 24 M. Dothan and D. Ben-Shlomo, Ashdod VI: The Excavations of Areas H and K (1968–1969), 2005, 320 pp. No. 25 M. Avissar, Tel Yoqne am Excavations on the Acropolis, 2005, 142 pp. No. 26 M. Avissar and E.J. Stern, Pottery of the Crusader, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Periods in Israel, 2005, 187 pp. No. 27 E.C.M. van den Brink and Ram Gophna, Shoham (North), Late Chalcolithic Burial Caves in the Lod Valley, Israel, 2005, 214 pp. No. 28 N. Getzov, The Tel Bet Yeraḥ Excavations, 1994–1995, 2006, 204 pp. No. 29 A.M. Berlin, Gamla I: The Pottery of the Second Temple Period, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2006, 181 pp. No. 30 R. Greenberg, E. Eisenberg, S. Paz and Y. Paz, Bet Yeraḥ: The Early Bronze Age Mound I: Excavation Reports, 1933–1986, 2006, 500 pp. No. 31 E. Yannai, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) I: Excavations at a Protohistoric Site in the Coastal Plain of Israel, 2006, 308 pp. No. 32 T.J. Barako, Tel Mor The Moshe Dothan Excavations, 1959–1960, 2007, 276 pp. No. 33 G. Mazor and A. Najjar, Bet She’an I: Nysa-Scythopolis The Caesareum and the Odeum, 2007, 316 pp. No. 34 R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg, Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976–1982, 2007. In 2 parts. Part 1: Text, 410 pp.; Part 2: Plates, Plans and Sections, 332 pp. No. 35 A. Erlich and A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Report II: Hellenistic Terracotta Figurines from the 1989–1996 Seasons, 2008, 208 pp. No. 36 G. Avni, U. Dahari and A. Kloner, The Necropolis of Bet Guvrin—Eleutheropolis, 2008, 238 pp. No. 37 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas I: The Roman to Early Islamic Periods Excavations in Areas A, B, E, F, G and H, 2008, 196 pp. No. 38 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas II: Small Finds and Other Studies, 2008, 256 pp. No. 39 Z. Greenhut and A. De Groot, Salvage Excavations at Tel Moẓa The Bronze and Iron Age Settlements and Later Occupations, 2009, 363 pp. No. 40 M. Hartal, Paneas IV: The Aqueduct and the Northern Suburbs, 2009, 212 pp. No. 41 N. Getzov, R. Lieberman-Wander, H. Smithline and D. Syon, Ḥorbat Uẓa, the 1991 Excavations I: The Early Periods, 2009, 168 pp. No. 42 N. Getzov, D. Avshalom-Gorni, Y. Gorin-Rosen, E.J. Stern, D. Syon and A. Tatcher, Ḥorbat Uẓa, the 1991 Excavations II: The Late Periods, 2009, 232 pp. No. 43 J. Seligman, Naḥal Ḥaggit A Roman and Mamluk Farmstead in the Southern Carmel, 2010, 277 pp. No. 44 D. Syon and Z. Yavor, Gamla II: The Architecture, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2010, 216 pp. No. 45 A. Kloner, E. Eshel, H.B. Korzakova and G. Finkielsztejn, Maresha Excavations Final Report III: Epigraphic Finds from the 1989–2000 Seasons, 2010, 247 pp. No. 46 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project The Gazetteer, 2010, 360 pp. No. 47 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project Landscape of Settlement From the Paleolithic to the Ottoman Periods, 2011, 356 pp. No. 48 R. Bar-Nathan and W. Atrash, Bet She’an II: Baysān The Theater Pottery Workshop, 2011, 411 pp. No. 49 Y. Alexandre, Mary’s Well, Nazareth The Late Hellenistic to the Ottoman Periods, 2012, 180 pp.

No. 50 D. Ben-Shlomo, The Azor Cemetery Moshe Dothan’s Excavations, 1958 and 1960, 2012, 238 pp. No. 51/1 E.J. Stern, Akko I: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Crusader-Period Pottery, Part 1: Text, 2012, 192 pp. No. 51/2 E.J. Stern, Akko I: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Crusader-Period Pottery, Part 2: Plates, 2012, 172 pp. No. 52 D. Ben-Ami, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv ati Parking Lot) I, 2013, 396 pp. No. 53 Y. Porath, Caesarea Maritima Volume I: Herod’s Circus and Related Buildings Part I: Architecture and Stratigraphy, 2013, 244 pp. No. 54 R. Greenberg, Bet Yerah, The Early Bronze Age Mound II: Urban Structure and Material Culture, 1933–1986 Excavations, 2014, 316 pp. No. 55 E. Yannai and Y. Nagar, Bet Dagan, Intermediate Bronze Age and Mamluk-Period Cemeteries, 2004–2005 Excavations, 2014, 260 pp. No. 56 D. Syon, Gamla III: The Shmarya Gutmann Excavations 1976–1989, Finds and Studies, Part 1, 2014, 260 pp. No. 57 Y. Porath, Caesarea Maritima I: Herod’s Circus and Related Buildings Part 2: The Finds, 2015, 224 pp. No. 58/1 G. Mazor and W. Atrash, Bet She’an III: Nysa-Scythopolis The Southern and Severan Theaters, Part 1: The Stratigraphy and Finds, 2015, 288 pp. No. 58/2 G. Mazor and W. Atrash, Bet She’an III: Nysa-Scythopolis The Southern and Severan Theaters, Part 2: The Architecture, 2015, 382 pp. No. 59 D. Syon, Gamla III: The Shmarya Gutmann Excavations 1976–1989, Finds and Studies, Part 2, 2016, 380 pp. No. 60 M. Hartal, D. Syon., E. Stern and A. Tatcher, Akko II: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Early Periods, 2016, 242 pp. No. 61 R. Greenberg, O. Tal and T. Da‘adli, Bet Yeraḥ III: Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Ṣinnabra, the 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, 2017, 230 pp. No. 62 G. Mazor, W. Atrash and G. Finkielsztejn, Bet She’an IV: Hellenistic Nysa-Scythopolis The Amphora Stamps and Sealings from Tel Iẓṭabba, 2018, 196 pp. No. 63 S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations I: The Roman and Byzantine Remains Architecture and Stratigraphy, 2019, pp. 276. No. 64. R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations II: The Pottery from the Eastern Cardo, 2019, 337 pp. No. 65 A. Golani, Ashqelon Barne a, The Early Bronze Age Site I: The Excavations, 2019, 353 pp. No. 66/1 D. Ben-Ami and Y. Tchekhanovets, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv ati Parking Lot) II, Part 1: Stratum V The Byzantine Period, 2020, 271 pp. No. 66/2 D. Ben-Ami and Y. Tchekhanovets, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv ati Parking Lot) II, Part 2: Strata IV–I The Early Islamic Period, 2020, 439 pp. No. 66/3 D. Ben-Ami and Y. Tchekhanovets, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv ati Parking Lot) II, Part 3: Complementary Studies of Various Finds, 2020, 282 pp. No. 67 S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations III: Quarry Remains and Small Finds from the Iron Age, Roman and Byzantine Periods, 2021, 230 pp. No. 68 Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III: Excavations in the Bronze Age Cemetery, 2021, 300 pp. No. 69 R. Avner, The Kathisma Church and Monastery of Mary Theotokos on the Jerusalem–Bethlehem Road, Final Report of the 1992, 1997, 1999 and 2000 Excavation Seasons, 2022, 331 pp.